ISSUE REPORT Ready or Not? PROTECTING THE PUBLIC’S HEALTH FROM 2006 DISEASES, DISASTERS, AND BIOTERRORISM DECEMBER 2006 PREVENTING EPIDEMICS. PROTECTING PEOPLE. TRUST FOR AMERICA’S HEALTH IS A NON-PROFIT, NON-PARTISAN ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: ORGANIZATION DEDICATED TO SAVING LIVES BY PROTECTING THE This report is supported by grants from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) and the Bauman Foundation. HEALTH OF EVERY COMMUNITY AND WORKING TO MAKE DISEASE The opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors and PREVENTION A NATIONAL PRIORITY. do not necessarily reflect the views of the foundations. TFAH BOARD OF DIRECTORS REPORT AUTHORS PEER REVIEWERS TFAH thanks the reviewers for their time, Governor Lowell Weicker, Jr., Jeffrey Levi, PhD expertise, and insights. The opinions Board President Executive Director expressed in this report do not necessarily Trust for America’s Health Patricia Bauman, MS, JD, represent the views of these individuals or Board Treasurer Laura M. Segal, MA their organizations. President and Co-Director Director of Public Affairs Scott J. Becker, MS Bauman Foundation Trust for America’s Health Executive Director John Everets Emily Gadola, MPP Association of Public Health Board Finance and Audit Public Affairs Research Associate Laboratories Committee Chair Trust for America’s Health James S. Blumenstock Margaret A. Hamburg, MD, Chrissie Juliano, MPP Senior Principal Director Board Secretary Public Affairs Research Associate Public Health Protection and Senior Scientist Trust for America’s Health Preparedness Policy NTI Association of State and Territorial Nicole M. Speulda, MA Health Officials Cynthia Harris, PhD, DABT, Public Affairs Associate Board Vice President Trust for America’s Health Jonathan Fielding, MD, MPH Director, Institute of Public Health Director, Public Health Programs Florida A&M University Los Angeles County Department of CONTRIBUTORS Public Health Alonzo Plough, MA, MPH, PhD Vice President of Program, Planning Jeremy Sharp Margaret A. Hamburg, MD and Evaluation Manager of Government Relations Senior Scientist The California Endowment Trust for America’s Health NTI Theo Spencer Paul Smolarcik Robert P. Kadlec M.D. Senior Project Manager Consultant Director Natural Resources Defense Council Tim Stephens PRTM; and President former Staff Director Rescobie Associates, Inc. U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Bioterrorism and Public Health Matt Crim Preparedness; and Intern former Director Trust for America’s Health Health and Biodefense, Homeland Security Council, The White House Jennifer B. Nuzzo, SM Center for Biosecurity University of Pittsburgh Medical Center Irwin Redlener, MD Associate Dean for Public Health Advocacy and Disaster Preparedness Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health Kathleen E. Toomey, MD, MPH TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 SECTION A: State-By-State Health Preparedness Indicators and Scores . . . . . . . . . .9 Indicator 1: Strategic National Stockpile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Indicator 2: Laboratories - Biological Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Indicator 3: Laboratories - Workforce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Indicator 4: Laboratories - Seasonal Flu Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Indicator 5: Hospital Bed Surge Capacity and Pandemic Flu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Indicator 6: Seasonal Flu Vaccination Rates for Seniors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Indicator 7: Pneumonia Vaccination Rates for Seniors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Indicator 8: Disease Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 Indicator 9: Registered Nurses - Workforce Shortage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Indicator 10: State Public Health Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 SECTION B: Strengthening Funding and Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 1. Strengthening Preparedness Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37 2. Strengthening Accountability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 SECTION C: Additional Issues and Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 1. Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 2. Agroterrorism and Food-borne Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 3. 5th Anniversary of the Anthrax Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 4. Private Sector and Community Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 5. Risk Communications and Public Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 6. Caring for Children During Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 7. Vulnerable Populations and Emergency Preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 8. World Trade Center Health Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 9. Hurricane Katrina Analysis of Health Response Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 SECTION D: Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 Appendix A: CDC and HRSA Preparedness Grants By State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 Appendix B: Grant Guidance Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Appendix C: Methodology for State Public Health Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 Appendix D: Methodology for Flu Vaccination Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Appendix E: Methodology for Nursing Shortage Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 Appendix F: Methodology for Hospital Beds and Pandemic Flu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Introduction: 5 YEARS AFTER 9/11 2006 marks the fifth anniversary of the September 11, 2001 and anthrax tragedies. Since 2001, the nation has experienced many additional threats to the public’s health, ranging from Hurricane Katrina to a life-threatening E. coli outbreak to rising concerns about a potential flu pandemic.1 America’s public health system and the health- Intentional acts of terror and naturally occur- care delivery system are among the most impor- ring crises have the potential to cause serious tant components of the nation’s preparedness harm to large portions of the American pub- against terrorism and natural disasters. They lic. Decisions and actions taken by the public are charged with the unique responsibility of health system can greatly mitigate the nega- protecting the health of all citizens. Public tive impact of these threats and help protect health and healthcare professionals act as first the health and lives of the American people. responders, investigators, strategists, medical Many health emergencies can also have seri- care providers, and advisors to public officials ous global consequences, particularly infec- and decision makers. They must diagnose and tious threats. Germs know no boundaries, so contain the spread of disease, and treat individ- the U.S. must also remain vigilant and sup- uals who are injured or may have been exposed port the prevention and control of health to infectious or harmful materials. threats around the world. The U.S. “public health system” is not a single entity, but rather a loosely affiliated network of more than 3,000 federal, state, and local health agencies, often working closely with private sector voluntary and professional health associations. ASSESSING AMERICA’S READINESS In order to evaluate public health emergency policymakers about how prepared their preparedness in the states, Trust for America’s communities are to respond to health threats. Health (TFAH) has issued an annual Ready or TFAH issues this report to: Not? report, beginning in 2003. Each report assesses the level of preparedness in the states, I Inform the public and policymakers about evaluates the federal government’s role and where the nation’s public health system is performance, and offers recommendations making progress and where vulnerabilities for improving emergency preparedness. remain; Ready or Not? 2006 is the fourth in the series. I Foster greater transparency for public health preparedness programs; In 2002, Congress passed the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Act, allocating near- I Encourage greater accountability for the ly $1 billion annually to states to bolster public spending of preparedness funds; and health emergency preparedness. Even after I Help the nation move toward a strategic, this investment of almost $4 billion, the gov- “all-hazards” system capable of respond- ernment health agencies have yet to release ing effectively to health threats posed by state-by-state information to Americans or diseases, disasters, and bioterrorism. 1 READY OR NOT? 2006: MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Ready or Not? 2006 finds that five years after September 11, public health emergency preparedness is still not at an acceptable level. Limited progress continues to be made, but the big-picture goals of adequate preparedness remain unmet. As a result, Americans continue to face unnecessary and unacceptably high levels of risk. Ready or Not 2006: Key Findings Indicator Finding 1. Strategic National Only 15 states and two cities are rated at the highest Stockpile preparedness level required to provide emergency vaccines, antidotes, and medical supplies from the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS). 2. Bio-Threat Testing Eleven states and D.C. lack sufficient capabilities to test for biological threats. 3. Trained Lab Scientists Four states lack sufficient laboratory experts trained to test for a suspected outbreak of anthrax or the plague. 4. Pandemic Surveillance: Four states do not test for flu on a year-round basis, Year-Round Flu Testing which is necessary to monitor for a pandemic flu outbreak. 5. Hospital Bed Surge Half of states would run out of hospital beds within Capacity for Pandemic Flu two weeks of a moderately severe pandemic flu outbreak. 6. Seasonal Flu Vaccinations Flu vaccination rates for seniors decreased in 13 states. 7. Pneumonia Vaccinations The national median for vaccinating seniors for pneumonia is 65.7 percent, the national goal is to vaccinate 90 percent by 2010. 8. National Electronic Twelve states and D.C. are not fully compatible with the Disease Surveillance Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC’s) National Electronic Disease Surveillance System (NEDSS) to track disease outbreak information. 9. Nursing Shortage Forty states and D.C. have a shortage of registered nurses. 10. Public Health Budgets Six states cut their public health budgets between FY 2004-05 and FY 2005-06. As of FY 2005-06, the median state funding for public health is only $31 per person per year. CONTENTS I Section A examines state-by-state pub- Biomedical Advanced Research and lic health preparedness. States are eval- Development Authority (BARDA); food uated on 10 preparedness indicators, safety; a review of the fifth anniversary of based on input and review from public the anthrax attacks; private sector and health experts. community involvement in public health; risk communications; caring for children I Section B examines the growing con- during public health emergencies; vul- cerns about public health preparedness nerable populations and emergency pre- funding and accountability for the use of paredness; World Trade Center health these funds, and the public’s ability to effects; and Hurricane Katrina. measure progress and vulnerabilities. I Section D offers recommendations for I Section C examines a range of additional improving all-hazards emergency health subjects related to federal, state, and local preparedness. preparedness including: creation of a 2 Five Years After 9/11: Summary of Key Preparedness Improvements and Concerns Important Federal Legislation Progress: and Funding; Cuts to Funds ▲ The Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Act of 2002 was passed, providing nearly Jeopardize Progress $1 billion a year in increased funds for federal and state preparedness for mass health hazards. ▲ Approximately $5 billion was appropriated for pandemic flu preparedness in FY 2006. Concerns: ▲ The new preparedness funds have already experienced cuts over the past 3 years, before many basic improvements could be achieved, and threatening the sustainability of progress that has been made. Limited Accountability; Progress: “Silos” Remain ▲ Federal agencies continue to progress in the development of preparedness measures. ▲ The federal pandemic preparedness guidance focused on many specific, achievable tasks. Concerns: ▲ CDC and HRSA “performance measures” for states’ use of preparedness funds are widely criticized for, among other things, focusing too heavily on self-reported, non-objectively verifiable data and on planning and process versus implementation and outcomes. The measures are also criticized for not adequately measuring the capabilities that are needed during surge events requiring mass response. ▲ The federal agencies have yet to disclose any information on a state-by-state basis based on these performance measures. ▲ One year after the announcement of the national pandemic preparedness plans, publicly available information needed to assess federal progress and actions remains limited. ▲ There is insufficient coordination between public health and healthcare providers and among levels of government, often exacerbated by silo-ed government program funding streams. ▲ Food safety policies and procedures are poorly coordinated. Progress for Progress: “Plans on Paper” ▲ All states have a basic plan on paper to respond to bioterrorism. ▲ All states have at least a draft pandemic flu response plan; in 2003, only 13 states had pandemic plans. Concerns: ▲ Planning for chemical and radiological threats is lagging. Gaps in “Plans on Paper” Concerns: Versus Reality of ▲ There is limited, non-systematic testing and exercising of emergency health plans, and Preparedness inconsistent mechanisms for incorporating lessons learned into future planning. ▲ Plans are often limited to only the public health response, are not well coordinated with other emergency responders, and do not usually include how to involve the private sector and surrounding community. ▲ Lingering questions remain about the gaps in the public health and healthcare system response to Hurricane Katrina. Dramatic Lab Improvements; Progress: Reagent Shortage Remains ▲ Thirty-nine states reported sufficient bio-testing capabilities in 2006; an increase from six a Problem in 2003. ▲ Forty-six states report sufficient numbers of trained scientists to test for possible anthrax and plague outbreaks; an increase from 10 in 2004. Concerns: ▲ CDC is unable to keep up with state demands for reagents, the materials needed to test for biological threats. 3 Five Years After 9/11: Summary of Key Preparedness Improvements and Concerns More States with National Progress: Electronic Disease ▲ Thirty-eight states are compatible with the CDC’s National Disease Surveillance System Surveillance System (NEDSS), allowing for more integrated, accurate, and timely national disease reporting; (NEDSS); But Public Health an increase from 18 in 2004. Information Technology is Not Up-to-Date ▲ At least seven additional states plan to meet NEDSS compatibility criteria in 2007. Concerns: ▲ Independent evaluations of public health IT systems find non-integrated, uncoordinated sys- tems that are often duplicative and problems with consistency of data. State Public Health Funding Progress: Rebounds, But Remains ▲ Only six states cut their funding for public health from FY 2004-05 to FY 2005-06; a Inadequate dramatic improvement from 33 states cutting funds in 2003. Concerns: ▲ However, the median state spending for public health is only $31 per person per year. Approximately $2.6 billion more would be needed just to equalize spending across states. Problems with Management Concerns: and Contents of the ▲ Only 15 states and two cities are rated at the highest preparedness level for distributing and Strategic National Stockpile administering vaccines and antiviral medications from the SNS. (SNS) ▲ States have not received clear information about what types and quantities of medications and supplies are in the SNS and how effective the federal government would be in delivering supplies to states during a multi-state crisis. Fragile Vaccine Industry Progress: and Limited Public Health ▲ Congress appropriated approximately $5 billion for pandemic flu preparedness activities, Research and Development including vaccine research and development Concerns: ▲ The U.S. vaccine industry is broken, and there is limited incentive for companies to pursue research and development into new vaccines. Extremely Limited Surge Concerns: Capacity for Emergencies ▲ There is a growing public health professional and nursing workforce shortage. ▲ Volunteer medical workforce efforts are limited. ▲ Ongoing concerns exist about policies to encourage healthcare workers to continue coming to work in the event of a major infectious outbreak. ▲ Shortfalls exist in facilities, beds, medical supplies, and equipment to respond to major outbreaks. Outdated Risk Progress: Communication and ▲ All 50 states have held a summit on pandemic flu. Insufficient Inclusion of ▲ The federal government launched www.pandemicflu.gov as a resource for both the public the Public in Planning and health community. Concerns: ▲ Risk communication strategies are out out-of-date. Limited efforts exist to inform and prepare the public for future health emergencies and to modernize strategies for information dissemi- nation during emergencies. ▲ No systematic effort has been made to include the public in emergency planning or to address public concerns. ▲ Concerns for responding to “special needs” communities remain largely unaddressed. 4 ALL-HAZARDS APPROACH TO EMERGENCY PUBLIC HEALTH THREATS The public health system is responsible for protecting the public from a range of potential health threats. An all-hazards public health system is one that is able to respond to and protect citizens from the full spectrum of possible public health emergencies, including bioterrorism and naturally occurring health threats. An all-hazards system recognizes that preparing for one threat can have benefits that will help prepare the system for all potential threats. According to a summer 2006 analysis of a Community Tracking Survey (CTS) in Health Affairs, the “federal government’s ‘all-hazards approach’ has facilitated investments that benefit the public health system as a whole. Most communities reported using bioterrorism funding to create multiple-use systems that can respond to a range of events including terror- ism. By investing in such areas as communications, epidemiology, and lab capacity, health departments have strengthened core functions that contribute to the success of various public health activities.”2 Under an all-hazards approach, the public health system prepares for and is able to respond to unique concerns posed by differ- ent threats. For instance, threats may be: I Isolated regionally or be national or global in scope; I For a limited duration or occur in prolonged waves; and I Preventable and treatable through vaccines and medications, or there may be no pharmaceutical interventions available. EXAMPLES OF MAJOR EMERGENCY PUBLIC HEALTH THREATS I Agroterrorism: The “deliberate introduction of an animal I Pandemic flu: A novel, potentially lethal strain of or plant disease with the goal of generating fear, causing eco- the flu against which humans have no natural immunity. nomic losses, and/or undermining stability.”3 Agroterrosim According to estimates from the U.S. Department of can be considered a sub-category of “bioterrorism” and Health and Human Services (HHS), a severe pandemic food-borne diseases. could result in 1.9 million deaths and 9.9 million hospital- izations in the U.S. I Bioterrorism: The intentional or deliberate use of germs, bio-toxins, or other biological agents that cause disease or I Radiological threats: Intentional or accidentally-caused death in people, animals, or plants. Examples include exposure to radiological material. A terrorist attack could anthrax, smallpox, botulism, salmonella, and E. coli. involve the scattering of radioactive materials through the use of explosives (“dirty bomb”), the destruction of a I Chemical terrorism: The deliberate use of chemical agents, nuclear facility, the introduction of radioactive material such as poisonous gases, arsenic, or pesticides, which have into a food or water supply, and the explosion of a toxic effects on people, animals, or plants in order to cause illness nuclear device near a population center. or death. Examples include ricin, sarin, and mustard gas. I Vector-borne diseases: Diseases spread by vectors, such I Chemical incidents and accidents: The non-deliberate as insects. Examples include: West Nile virus, Rocky exposure of humans to harmful chemical agents, with simi- Mountain spotted fever, and malaria. lar outcomes to chemical terrorism. I Waterborne diseases: According to the CDC, over 1,000 I Food-borne diseases: Animal or plant diseases, which cause persons become ill from contaminated drinking water and harm to humans. The CDC estimates that there are approxi- over 2,500 persons become ill from recreational water dis- mately 75 million reported cases of food-borne diseases each ease outbreaks annually in the U.S.4 year in the United States, causing approximately 325,000 hos- pitalizations and 5,000 deaths. Examples include botulism, I Waterborne terrorism: The deliberate contamination of salmonella, E.coli 0157:H7, shigella, and norovirus. the nation’s water supply. I Natural disasters: Harm can be inflicted during and after I Zoonotic/Animal-borne diseases: Animal diseases that natural disasters, which can lead to the disruption of regu- can spread to humans, and in some cases can become con- lar healthcare and leave portions of the population with tagious from human to human. Examples include: Avian ongoing care needs. Examples include hurricanes (such flu, rabies, and SARS. as Hurricane Katrina), earthquakes, tornados, mud- slides, fires, and tsunamis. 5 WHAT DOES ALL-HAZARDS PREPAREDNESS LOOK LIKE? The goals of 24/7 public health emergency response include: I Rapid detection of emergency disease threats, including those caused by bioterrorism. I Intensive investigative capabilities to quickly diagnose a rising disease threat or identify the biological or chemical agent used in an attack. I Surge capacity for mass events, including adequate facilities, equipment, supplies, and trained health professionals. I Mass containment strategies, including pharmaceuticals needed for wide-scale vaccination, antibiotic, or antidote administration and isolation and quarantining when necessary. I Streamlined and effective communication channels so health workers can swiftly and accurately communicate with each other, other front line workers, and the public about 1) the nature of an emergency or attack, 2) the risk of exposure and how to seek treatment when needed, and 3) any actions that they or their families should take to protect them- selves. Communications must also be able to reach and take into consideration vulnerable, disadvantaged, and other special needs populations. What it will take to achieve basic levels of preparedness: I Leadership, planning, and coordination: An established chain-of-command and well- defined roles and responsibilities for seamless operation across different medical and logisti- cal functions and among federal, state, and local authorities during crisis situations, including police, public safety officials, and other first responders. I An expert and fully-staffed workforce: Highly trained and adequate numbers of public health professionals, including healthcare providers, epidemiologists, lab scientists, and other experts, in addition to backup workers for surge capacity conditions. I Modernized technology: State-of-the-art laboratory equipment, information collection, and health tracking systems. I Pre-planned, safety-first rapid emergency response capabilities and precautions: Tested plans and safety precautions to mitigate potential harm to communities, public health professionals, and first responders. I Immediate, streamlined communications capabilities: Coordinated, integrated com- munications among all parts of the public health system, all frontline responders, and with the public. Must include back-up systems in the event of power loss or overloaded wire- less channels. 6 FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL PUBLIC HEALTH JURISDICTIONS The federal role: Includes policymaking, the financing of activities, overseeing national disease prevention efforts, collecting and disseminating health information, building capacity, and directly managing some services.5 Some public health capabilities, such as the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS), are “federal assets” managed by federal agencies that are available for use by states and communities in the event of emergencies. Public health functions are widely diffused across eight federal agencies and two offices. State and local roles: Under U.S. law, state governments have primary responsibility for the health of their citizens. Constitutional “police powers” give states the ability to enact laws and issue regulations to protect, preserve, and promote the health, safety, and welfare of their residents. In most states, state laws charge local governments with responsibility for the health of their citizens. Some of the ongoing problems resulting from this structure include: 1. Lack of clear roles for the various state, local, and federal agencies. 2. Limited coordination among the levels of government, including determination of how federal assets would be deployed to states and localities, and across jurisdictions, such as sharing assets and resources among states. 3. No minimum standards, guidelines, or recommendations for capacity levels or services required of state and local health departments. This results in major differences in services and competencies across state and local agencies. 4. Problems arising from federal funding that is largely based on categorical or program grants, which are often restrictive and lack a system of accountability. 5. Ineffective and random capacity to coordinate with nongovernmental organizations, com- munity groups, and the private sector. Issues of Accreditation: In response to a 2002 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report that “called on the public health community to consider how accreditation ultimately could prompt improvements in the nation’s health,” the Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO) and the National Association of County and City Health Officials (NACCHO), with funding from the CDC and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, cre- ated the Exploring Accreditation project. In the fall of 2006, the project’s 25-member steering committee released a new model for a voluntary national public health accredita- tion program. Key recommendations included the development of accreditation standards to promote continuous quality improvement and accountability for public health, including performance measures.6 Some states have taken the lead in public health accreditation. For instance, in 2002, the North Carolina Division of Public Health and the North Carolina Association of Local Health Directors “undertook an initiative to develop a mandatory, standards-based system for accrediting local public health departments throughout the state.”7 The program consists of “an agency self[-]assessment, which includes 41 benchmarks and 145 activities; a three day site visit by a multidisciplinary team of peer volunteers; and determination of accreditation status by the North Carolina Local Health Department Accreditation Board.”8 Additionally, the Multi-State Learning Collaborative for Performance and Capacity Assessment or Accreditation of Public Health Departments (MLC) convened five “states to study key compo- nents of the state-based assessment/accreditation programs. The project is funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and managed by the National Network of Public Health Institutes and the Public Health Leadership Society.”9 Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, North Carolina, and Washington were the five states chosen from 18 that applied to participate in the collaboration. The goal of the MLC is to develop and disseminate best practices to their peers in other states to ultimately “strengthen the effectiveness of governmental public health agencies.”10 7 State-By-State Health Preparedness Indicators And Scores a SECTION WHY STUDY STATES’ PREPAREDNESS? Each of the 50 states has primary legal jurisdiction and responsibility for the health of its citi- zens under the U.S. Constitution. The states differ in how they structure and deliver public health services. In some states, the public health system is centralized, and the state has direct control and supervision over local health agencies. In other states, local public health agencies developed separately from the state and are run by counties, cities, or townships, and usually report to one or more elected officials.11 Each state has different strengths, weaknesses, and unique challenges that impact its ability to prepare for and respond to public health emergencies. Citing weaknesses and challenges in this report is not done for punitive purposes, but rather to help identify where and how to make improvements or overcome obstacles. Additionally, providing information about which states have particular strengths allows other states to know which states to turn to for best practices and models to guide their preparedness efforts. All Americans have the right to expect fundamental health protections during public health emergencies no matter where they live. Members of the public also deserve to know how prepared their states and communities are for different types of health threats, particularly when their taxpayer dollars are being spent to support preparedness efforts. Currently, Americans are not receiving the information they need to make decisions about how to pro- tect themselves and their families in the event of public health emergencies. Also, they are not equipped with enough information to monitor and hold public officials accountable for whether or not their communities are adequately prepared. Two examples of public health protections that Americans in every community should expect include: emergency response to disasters, such as a hurricane or earthquake, and the containment of infectious diseases with the potential for mass-contagion. State Scores To help assess health emergency preparedness able data. The indicators focus on key areas of capabilities, each state received a score based preparedness using the limited data currently on 10 key indicators. States received one available for all 50 states and D.C. TFAH has point for achieving an indicator or zero points called for the government to develop national if they did not achieve the indicator. Zero was performance standards and to publicly release the lowest possible overall score and 10 the information on a routine basis about the states’ highest. Taken collectively, these indicators performance in meeting these standards. The offer a composite snapshot of preparedness, indicators were selected based on: including strengths and vulnerabilities. ■ If they reflect a fundamental, systemic Very limited data are available to measure pub- public health need; lic health preparedness. Many key components ■ Consultation with key experts about areas of preparedness are not sufficiently measured important to serving basic public health or the data are not made available. TFAH com- emergency needs; and piles these indicators based on the best avail- 9 ■ The availability of state level data, which in other areas of preparedness or may be in were verifiable through independent the process of increasing certain capabilities means or consultation with states. that are not reflected in this report. Scores are not based on an absolute scale of More than half of states scored six or less. success, but indicate relative achievements Twelve states and D.C. scored five or less. in areas of preparedness, and highlight Oklahoma scored the highest, with a score areas where increased prioritization and of ten.. California, Iowa, Maryland, and investment must be made to address prob- New Jersey scored the lowest, achieving a lems. Additional measures have been pro- score of four. No state scored below a four. posed or may be used for other purposes. States with stronger surge capacity capabili- However, the data for the outcomes of these ties and immunization programs scored measures are not made available on a state- higher this year, with four measures focused by-state basis. Many states have taken action on these capabilities. WA MT ND MN VT ME SD WI OR ID NH WY MI NY IA MA NE PA RI IL IN OH CT NV UT NJ CO KS MO WV DE KY VA MD CA DC OK TN NC NM AR AZ SC Number of Indicators Color MS AL GA 4 TX LA 5 6 FL 7 AK 8 HI 9 10 SCORES BY STATE 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 (1 state) (1 state) (12 states) (11 states) (13 states) (8 states & D.C.) (4 states) Oklahoma Kansas Alabama Delaware Colorado Alaska California Kentucky Florida Indiana Arizona Iowa Michigan Georgia Louisiana Arkansas Maryland Missouri Hawaii Massachusetts Connecticut New Jersey Montana Idaho Mississippi D.C. Nebraska Illinois Nevada Maine South Dakota Minnesota New Mexico Ohio Texas New North Carolina Pennsylvania Virginia Hampshire Oregon South Washington New York Rhode Island Carolina West Virginia North Dakota Utah Wyoming Tennessee Vermont Wisconsin 10 STATE PREPAREDNESS SCORES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Achieved Has sufficient Has enough Has year Has two Increased or At or above Compatible Does NOT Increased or “green” BSL-3 labs lab scientists round lab weeks maintained nat’l median with CDC have a maintained status for to test for based hospital seasonal flu for # of National nursing level of Strategic anthrax or influenza bed surge vaccination adults over Electronic workforce funding for States National plague surveillance capacity in rate for age 65 who Disease shortage public health Stockpile moderate adults over have ever Surveillance services from Delivery pandemic age 65 received a System FY 2005 to 2006 pneumonia FY 2006 Total vaccination Score Alabama ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Alaska ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Arizona ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Arkansas ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 California ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 Colorado ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Connecticut ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Delaware ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 District of Columbia ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Florida ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Georgia ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Hawaii ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Idaho ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Illinois ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Indiana ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Iowa ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 Kansas ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 9 Kentucky ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Louisiana ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Maine ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Maryland ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 Massachusetts ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Michigan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Minnesota ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Mississippi ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Missouri ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Montana ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Nebraska ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Nevada ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 New Hampshire ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 New Jersey ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 New Mexico ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 New York ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 North Carolina ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 North Dakota ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Ohio ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Oklahoma ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 10 Oregon ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Pennsylvania ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Rhode Island ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 South Carolina ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 South Dakota ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Tennessee ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Texas ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Utah ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Vermont ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Virginia ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Washington ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 West Virginia ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Wisconsin ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Wyoming ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Total 15 39 46+D.C. 46+D.C. 25+D.C. 37+D.C. 26 38 10 44+D.C. 11 Indicators reflect states’ use of funds Angeles, also receive funds directly from received through CDC and HRSA bioterror- public health preparedness grants, but were ism and public health “cooperative agree- not included in the study due to limited ment” grants, other health capacity readi- data availability. ness programs, and state public health Data for these indicators were drawn from a funds for health emergency preparedness. range of publicly available sources, the (See Appendix A for more information on CDC, a survey conducted by the Association the CDC and HRSA preparedness funds to of Public Health Laboratories (APHL), pub- states and Indicator 10 for state public lic announcements from states, and inter- health budget information.) Three addi- views with government officials. tional cities, New York, Chicago, and Los Indicators What the indicators measure 1. Did the state meet the CDC’s highest rating for preparedness This indicator demonstrates states’ abilities to quickly vaccinate or to distribute emergency vaccines, antidotes, and medical sup- provide medications to communities during emergencies. plies from the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS)? 2. Does the state lab director report having sufficient laboratory This indicator demonstrates states’ abilities to quickly identify a capabilities to test for biological threats? bioterror attack, substances that may be used in an attack, or a major infectious disease outbreak. Identification of an outbreak and individ- uals who have been exposed or are symptomatic drive decisions about treatment and containment. The need for bio-lab capabilities was evident during the anthrax attacks of 2001. 3. Does the state lab director report having a sufficient number of This indicator reflects whether states have enough professionals laboratory experts trained to test for a suspected outbreak trained to perform the tests needed for a biological threat, including of anthrax or the plague? the extra staff required to manage the additional testing needed dur- ing a major scare. 4. Does the state test for the flu on a year-round basis? This indicator is important since a pandemic could strike at any time of the year, not just during regular flu season. 5. Does the state have enough hospital bed capacity to This indicator helps evaluate states’ abilities to care for additional accommodate the estimated number of people who would patients during major emergencies, when extra hospital bed capacity need to be hospitalized within the first two weeks of a would be critical. moderate pandemic flu outbreak? 6. Did the state increase its rates for immunizing adults aged Immunizing seniors against the seasonal flu is a public health priority, 65 and older for the seasonal flu? since seniors are at high risk for developing serious health complica- tions as a result of contracting the flu. Seasonal flu vaccination efforts are also viewed as a way to help communities better prepare for larger public health emergencies, such as a pandemic flu outbreak, that would require mass or targeted vaccinations or distribution of medications. This indicator helps measure both public health con- cerns. It examines a state’s progress over time. 7. Did the state reach the national median for vaccinating adults This indicator helps measure states’ abilities to vaccinate at-risk popu- aged 65 and older for pneumonia? lations on a cumulative basis compared to other states. HHS has set a national goal of immunizing 90 percent of seniors for pneumonia by the year 2010. Pneumonia is one of the serious complications that can arise for seniors who contract the flu, and can prove to be lethal. 8. Does the state use a disease surveillance system that is This indicator demonstrates information about which states track health compatible with CDC’s national system, including integrating threats in a way that is compatible with the standards of the CDC’s data from multiple sources, using electronic lab reporting, and National Electronic Disease Surveillance System (NEDSS). This system using an Internet browser system? makes it possible to quickly identify and track outbreaks and to share the information in a consistent way across health agencies and states. 9. Does the state have a sufficient number of registered nurses? This indicator helps measure each state’s healthcare workforce capacity. A nursing shortage would be especially problematic during a public health emergency when an influx of additional patients would need care. 10. Did the state maintain or increase funding for public health This indicator demonstrates states’ commitment to funding public programs from FY 2004-05 to FY 2005-06? health programs, which support the infrastructure needed to ade- quately respond to emergencies. 12 INADEQUATE TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY FOR PUBLIC HEALTH PREPAREDNESS While the Ready or Not? reports in 2003, 2004, and 2005 also contained 10 indicators, these indicators are adapted annually to reflect changing expectations for preparedness and changes in the state preparedness data that are made publicly available each year. TFAH has repeatedly called for greater availability of data from federal and state governments to better inform the American people about how prepared the country and their states and local communities are to meet health threats and hold public officials accountable. In the absence of government-supported and publicly available data, this report concentrates on 10 measurable performance indicators from a variety of public sources to help supply policymakers and the public with information about the nation’s preparedness for health emergencies. Indicator 1: STRATEGIC NATIONAL STOCKPILE FINDING: Only 15 states and two cities are rated at the highest preparedness level required to provide emergency vaccines, antidotes, and medical supplies from the Strategic National Stockpile. 15 states and 2 cities have achieved 35 states and D.C. have NOT achieved “green” or “green minus” status for “green” or “green minus” status for Strategic National Stockpile delivery and Strategic National Stockpile delivery administration capabilities (1 point)** and administration capabilities (0 points) Alabama Alaska Montana Chicago* Arizona Nebraska Delaware Arkansas Nevada Florida California New Hampshire Illinois Colorado New Jersey Louisiana Connecticut New Mexico Michigan D.C. North Carolina Mississippi Georgia North Dakota Missouri Hawaii Ohio** New York Idaho Oregon New York City* Indiana Pennsylvania Oklahoma Iowa South Carolina Rhode Island Kansas South Dakota Tennessee Kentucky Utah Texas Maine Vermont Virginia Maryland West Virginia Washington Massachusetts Wisconsin Minnesota Wyoming Sources: CDC and state health officials. ** Ohio has also achieved green status, but TFAH received the information after the report was released. * Chicago and New York City have achieved “green” status as cities separately from their states. 13 The CDC measures states’ preparedness to CDC’s Aggregate Tallies of States’ distribute the Strategic National Stockpile Strategic National Stockpile Readiness (SNS) based on a “stop-light” color model. Status, As of October 2006 Green represents the highest level of pre- Green 7 paredness, amber represents the middle, Green Minus 9 and red is the lowest. The CDC has not released the specific criteria for achieving Amber Plus 9 different SNS status levels, but notes the Amber 12 assessment includes a review of a state’s pub- Amber Minus 6 lic health emergency cooperative agree- Red Plus 7 ment plans and an evaluation of critical Red 4 response functions including: “Command Note: The tallies above include all 50 states, plus New and Control; Receipt, Stor[age] and York City, Los Angeles County, D.C., and Chicago. The Stag[ing]; Inventory Control; Distribution; CDC measurement system also gives states “plus” or Dispensing; Repackaging; Communications “minus” designations within their color categories. This chart includes the “plus” and “minus” scores with and Security.”12 The agency releases an the “green,” “amber,” and “red” designees. aggregate tally of the number of states and cities that reach the different color levels. TFAH receives information on the SNS sta- changed to use two new assessment tools tus of states by reviewing public announce- developed in partnership with the RAND ments issued by states and through inter- Corporation, one focusing on states and views with state officials. one on localities. The rating system is now CDC officials report that as of September going to be measured on a 100 point scale 2006, the SNS rating system has been instead of the color system.13 STATE CONCERNS WITH THE SNS PROGRAM In 2005, TFAH surveyed state emergency health officials in eight states to identify progress and concerns with the SNS program. The survey was based on a hypothetical model using smallpox, a model which would be relevant across “all hazards” that call for mass vaccination of the population. The state officials’ key concerns included: ■ Lack of clear information from federal officials about quantities of vaccines or equipment that would arrive for a mass vaccination event. For instance, there is concern that the sup- plies are limited in scope and might leave states unprepared for different types of threats. ■ States are often unclear about what criteria they are being evaluated on, including what constitutes green, amber, or red status. ■ Questions about how the SNS could be deployed to all 50 states simultaneously, which would be necessary for some threats such as a pandemic flu. Most officials interviewed indicated their planning assumed that states would receive supplies at different times. ■ Shortages of healthcare workers during a major crisis. ■ Differences among state policies could confuse the public and healthcare workers, such as decisions about timing for administering vaccinations. 14 THE STRATEGIC NATIONAL STOCKPILE (SNS) The SNS is a national repository of antibiotics, chemical antidotes, antitoxins, various pharma- ceuticals, and other medical supplies and equipment to be used in the event of a terrorist attack or major natural disaster. The stockpile is kept in 12 undisclosed locations throughout the United States which contain a “12-hour push package” of materials which are supposed to be able to be delivered anywhere in the United States within 12 hours of the decision to deploy. There is a “vendor-managed inventory” component to the SNS, where some manufacturers maintain control of the SNS supplies.14 Some of the contents of the stockpile include:15 ■ Smallpox vaccine for the entire U.S. population. ■ “Millions” of doses of countermeasures against anthrax, plague, and tularemia. ■ Botulinum antitoxin (which the Department of Defense started stockpiling in the early 1990s). ■ Countermeasures to address radiation exposure (including diethylenetriaminepentaacetate [DTPA] and Prussian Blue). ■ Potassium iodide, which protects the thyroid from radioactive iodide. ■ Over one million doses of the licensed anthrax vaccine (with more ordered).16 On ongoing criticism is the lack of an “end-to-end” strategy that encompasses the development of the products through decisions about how and by whom countermeasures would be administered. Little information is available about quantities of supplies in the SNS. There is also limited information about the availability of medications in the SNS to manage chronic diseases, which is often an issue that arises during emergencies when regular supply chains for medications are unavailable. The stockpile, which is considered a federal asset, is managed by HHS out of the CDC, in coordination with the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Governors, the president, and, in some cases, state health officers can request deployment of the SNS. The federal government is responsible for delivering the medical supplies to states, which then are responsible for distributing the materials to their citizens. A handful of federal technical advisors help advise local authorities, but otherwise the distribution and administra- tion of the SNS becomes the responsibility of the states and localities. Special concerns about pandemic flu countermeasures - storage and shelf-life The federal cache of antiviral medication to counter a pandemic flu is contained in the SNS. As of November 2006, according to CDC officials, the SNS contains approximately 20.6 mil- lion regimens of Tamiflu capsules (oseltamivir) and has an additional 8.9 million on order, that are expected to arrive by March 2007.17 In addition, the SNS contains approximately 8.4 mil- lion regimens of Relenza (zanamivir) with an additional 6 million regimens on order. The federal government has plans to purchase 50 million courses of antiviral medications to be stored in the SNS. The states have been given the option of purchasing 31 million of these courses, using a 25 percent subsidy from HHS. If all of the states choose to purchase their optional allotments, it would cover 25 percent of the U.S. population. Additionally, the state stockpiles of antivirals are not contained in the SNS, and “no decisions have been made on whether states will be allowed to contract with SNS for storage of their antivirals.”18 States must individually determine how to store and distribute their stockpiles of medication sepa- rately. And since the state-purchased antivirals are not part of the SNS, it is not eligible for the federal “shelf-life extension program,” which means the states will have to pay to replace their stockpile of antivirals when the drugs expire.19 Questions also remain about the stockpiling and distribution of syringes and needles. 15 CHEMPACK CHEMPACK is a sub-unit of the SNS program, created to build repositories of nerve agent antidotes for response to a chemical or nerve agent attack. The response time to treat nerve agent and chemical exposure is much shorter than the 12 hours required to deploy the SNS, so CHEMPACK is maintained separately and is housed in local jurisdictions throughout the country in order to be available for faster use. There are issues with the CHEMPACK program. According to CDC officials, as of November 2006, only 1,262 of the approximate goal of 2,000 CHEMPACK containers have been set up in states across the country. The containers are stored in designated sites, such as in hospitals, which best support states’ emergency response plans.20 Also, CHEMPACK only includes nerve agent antidotes. It does not include antidotes for some chemical blood or blister agents, such as hydrogen cyanide (which is commercially used in 41 states) and lewisite (a blister agent used in World War I). It is unclear what support would be available for chemical attacks or accidents where there is no antidote available (such as with chlorine or mustard gas). There are also “shelf-life” concerns for the materials in CHEMPACK, which need to be systematically replaced based on expiration dates. The antidote contents reported to be available in CHEMPACKs include atropine, which “alle- viates symptoms such as excess salivation, urination, defecation, vomiting, and excess secre- tions;” pralidoxime, which “helps reactivate the enzyme that is compromised by the nerve agent and alleviates symptoms such as muscle weakness, rapid heart rate, high blood pres- sure, and muscle twitching;” and diazepam, which “stops seizures that may occur.”21 There is limited information available on the quantities of antidotes available in the CHEMPACKs. Indicator 2: PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORIES – BIOLOGICAL TESTING CAPABILITIES FINDING: Eleven states and D.C. report that they do not have adequate bio-threat response laboratory capabilities (facilities, technology, and/or equipment). 39 states report they do have adequate 11 states and D.C. report they do NOT bio-safety level 3 (BSL-3) laboratories have adequate bio-safety level 3 (BSL-3) to meet anticipated preparedness laboratories to meet anticipated prepared- needs as outlined in their state’s bioter- ness needs as outlined in their state’s rorism preparedness plan (1 point) bioterrorism preparedness plan (0 points) Alabama Nevada Alaska Arizona New Hampshire Colorado Arkansas New Jersey Connecticut California New Mexico D.C. Delaware New York* Idaho Florida North Carolina Iowa Georgia North Dakota Louisiana Hawaii Oklahoma Maryland Illinois Pennsylvania Ohio Indiana South Carolina Oregon Kansas South Dakota Rhode Island Kentucky Tennessee Vermont Maine Texas Massachusetts Utah Michigan Virginia Minnesota Washington Mississippi West Virginia Missouri Wisconsin Montana Wyoming Nebraska Source: APHL September-October 2006 survey. *New York did not respond to the survey, but had indicated sufficient capabilities in the past. Puerto Rico responded that it did NOT have sufficient BSL-3 capabilities. 16 Public health laboratories are responsible exposure” via inhalation.22 Labs with this for identifying naturally occurring and man- capacity are designated with a bio-safety made health threats. Their identification level 3 (BSL-3) rating. and diagnosis process is crucial for develop- The nation’s public health laboratories encom- ing strategies to contain the spread and pass a “loose network of federal, state, and local facilitate the rapid treatment of diseases. laboratories that work in undefined collabora- Eleven states report they do not have suffi- tion with private clinical laboratories.”23 The cient capacity to conduct laboratory tests 2001 anthrax attacks demonstrated the need during a bioterrorism emergency. In 2003, to upgrade and continue to maintain public 44 states did not have sufficient bioterror- health labs. The labs were quickly over- ism laboratory capacity, indicating a major whelmed with samples from around the coun- increase in capacity in the last three years. try, and were often left to conduct tests with inadequate equipment, facilities, and expert Bioterrorism lab capacity includes having staff, leaving the nation more vulnerable and enough equipment and staff to safely han- slower to respond. Response time would have dle “infectious agents that may cause serious been faster if lab capacity had been upgraded.24 or potentially lethal disease as a result of LABORATORY RESPONSE NETWORK Instead of bolstering lab capacity in each state, a Laboratory Response Network (LRN) was established in 1999 to provide “surge capacity” support to states. Overseen by the CDC, the LRN is an integrated network of approximately 150 labs encompassing federal, state, local, veterinary, military, environmental, food testing, and international labs.25 The LRN provides emergency assistance and support though the pooling of resources and personnel based on cooperative agreements. During the anthrax attacks of 2001, a Florida LRN lab conducted over one million separate anthrax tests. Some experts note that police, military, and Federal Bureau of Investigation lab facilities would also be used during a crisis. Laboratory Response Network (LRN) Faces Critical Shortage of Reagents -- Delays from CDC a Problem26 The laboratories that comprise the national Laboratory Response Network (LRN) are wholly dependent upon the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for the supply of the diagnostic materials that are required to analyze suspect samples for biological agents. These materials, called reagents, are currently only produced at CDC and the level of production has been unable to keep up with the demand for reagents that has occurred as additional laboratories have become part of the LRN. The Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL) has regularly called on Congress and the Administration to address this shortage by providing additional funding to CDC that would allow them to both increase their in-house production of reagents and to consider out-sourcing some reagent production to viable contractors. The CDC has dedicated $3 million to reagent production in fiscal year 2006, and that amount is scheduled to continue in fiscal year 2007. While certainly a step in the right direction, a much more concerted effort is required before the LRN will be able to be considered fully operational. During the fall of 2005, 83 of the 98 state and local public health LRN labs responded to a survey about delays in receipt of reagents from the CDC. Key findings from the survey included: ■ Fifty-one labs experienced delays in receipt of reagents between August 2004 and October 2005; ■ Delays of one to two weeks were seen for seven of the nine reagents in question, while a delay of more than one month was seen for one specific reagent; and ■ Thirty-eight labs reported that the delay did not adversely affect their testing, largely because no urgent testing was need- ed during that time. However, if an emergency or a hoax had occurred, the delay would have been problematic. Based on these findings, APHL recommended: ■ Creation of an adequate national reagent supply and stockpile similar to the SNS of various pharmaceuticals; ■ Congressional appropriation to CDC for such a stockpile; ■ Sustained and dedicated federal funding for ongoing demand for LRN reagents; and ■ Mandatory maintenance of an accurate and updated inventory of reagents by LRN Reference Level laboratories. 17 PUBLIC HEALTH LABS - CHEMICAL TESTING As of October 2006, 10 states have the capacity (facilities, technology, equipment, and/or staffing) to adequately test for chemical threats. This capability to test human samples, includ- ing blood, saliva, and urine for chemical exposure, is called “biomonitoring.” The states are California, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Mexico, New York, South Carolina, Virginia, and Wisconsin.27 The number has not changed since 2005, but is an increase from zero in 2003 and five in 2004. The CDC only provides enough funds to cover grants for 10 states to have the equipment and resources for biomonitoring. The number of state labs with chemical testing capabilities is unlikely to rise without increased federal investment in biomonitoring capabilities. No state has independently provided funds to its public health labs to establish biomonitoring capabilities. Yet, these tests could help identify the substance used in an attack, driving decisions about containment and treatment, and the individuals who have been exposed and their level of harm. According to the CDC, there are over 60 toxic substances that could be used as chemical weapons by terrorists.28 Many of these are regularly used commercial and industrial chemicals that could be “weaponized.” Biomonitoring can also be used to test communities for exposure to toxins not resulting from ter- rorist attacks, such as toxins found in polluted air or water, and to help identify the level of harm that these exposures might cause. In this capacity, biomonitoring can be used as a helpful tool to identify or rule out potential causes or contributing factors to a number of health problems. Chemical Laboratory Response Network29 States have begun to collaborate on chemical terrorism testing on a regional basis given the lack of federal funding for each state to establish its own capabilities. ■ Sixty-two state, territorial, and metropolitan public health labs participate in a “chemi- cal laboratory response network.” ■ Thirty-seven of these labs have “Level 2” status, where personnel are trained to test human exposure to a limited number of toxic chemicals. ■ Ten of these labs have “Level 1” status, where personnel are trained to test human exposure to a wide range of chemicals, including mustard agents, nerve agents, and other toxic chemicals. ■ In an emergency, it is likely that in addition to the network of public health labs, other resources, such as Hazardous Material response teams (HAZMAT), Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI), police, military, and private labs, would be used for surge capacity or special needs. 18 Indicator 3: PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORIES – WORKFORCE FINDING: Only four states report that they do not have adequate numbers of lab scientists to man- age tests for anthrax or the plague if there were to be a suspected outbreak. 46 states and D.C. report that they 4 states report that they would NOT would have sufficient, trained labora- have sufficient, trained laboratory sci- tory scientists to manage tests for entists to manage tests for anthrax or anthrax or the plague if there were the plague if there were to be a sus- to be a suspected outbreak (1 point) pected outbreak (0 points) Alabama Nebraska Iowa Alaska Nevada Louisiana Arizona New Hampshire Montana Arkansas New Jersey North Dakota California New Mexico Colorado New York* Connecticut North Carolina Delaware Ohio D.C. Oklahoma Florida Oregon Georgia Pennsylvania Hawaii Rhode Island Idaho South Carolina Illinois South Dakota Indiana Tennessee Kansas Texas Kentucky Utah Maine Vermont Maryland Virginia Massachusetts Washington Michigan West Virginia Minnesota Wisconsin Mississippi Wyoming Missouri Source: APHL September-October 2006 survey. * New York did not respond to the survey, but indicated they had sufficient lab scientists to test for a potential outbreak of anthrax or the plague in the past. Puerto Rico reported that it did NOT have sufficient lab scientists. Only 21 states reported having an adequate than to increases in the total number of staff number of lab scientists to test for a poten- in labs.30 tial anthrax or plague threat in 2004, and 41 Public health laboratories face critical staff states and D.C. reported having sufficient shortages, along with the rest of the public levels in 2005. So the current total number health system. A wider-scale emergency of 46 states and D. C. represents an improve- requiring surge capacity in which labs would ment in the public health lab workforce’s be inundated with large numbers of samples capabilities for biological threats. But there would compound and exacerbate the work- is a caveat: the increase can largely be attrib- force shortage. uted to cross-training of the scientists rather 19 Indicator 4: PUBLIC HEALTH LABORATORIES — SEASONAL FLU TESTING FINDING: Four states do not test year round for the flu. 46 states and D.C. report they conduct 4 states report they do NOT conduct year-round testing for flu (1 point) year-round testing for flu (0 points) Alabama Montana Iowa Alaska Nebraska Louisiana Arizona Nevada New Jersey Arkansas New Hampshire Ohio California New Mexico Colorado New York Connecticut North Carolina Delaware North Dakota D.C. Oklahoma Florida Oregon Georgia Pennsylvania Hawaii Rhode Island Idaho South Carolina Illinois South Dakota Indiana Tennessee Kansas Texas Kentucky Utah Maine Vermont Maryland Virginia Massachusetts Washington Michigan West Virginia Minnesota Wisconsin Mississippi Wyoming Missouri Source: APHL September-October 2006 survey. Note: Puerto Rico reported it did NOT test for flu year-round. The federal pandemic flu preparedness State-based epidemiologists are expected to guidance requires states to be capable of test- report “influenza activity as no activity, spo- ing for influenza on a year-round basis, how- radic, local, regional, or widespread” on a ever, the pandemic flu preparedness funds weekly basis to the CDC.33 The guidance also were not expressly designated to increase lab suggests that the results of testing should be capabilities.31 Year-round testing is viewed as linked to an electronic reporting system (see a critical component of monitoring for a Indicator 8) for more efficient tracking. potential pandemic outbreak.32 20 Indicator 5: HOSPITAL BED SURGE CAPACITY AND PANDEMIC FLU FINDING: Half of the states would run out of hospital beds within two weeks of a moderately severe pandemic flu outbreak. 25 states and D.C. have the surge 25 states do NOT have the surge capacity capacity to meet the number of hospital to meet the number of hospital beds that beds that would be needed within two would be needed within two weeks of an weeks of an outbreak of a moderately outbreak of a moderately severe severe pandemic flu (1 point) pandemic flu (0 points) State Percent of bed capacity that State Percent of bed capacity that would be reached within would be reached within two weeks of a moderate two weeks of a moderate flu pandemic* flu pandemic* Alabama 76% Arizona 158% Alaska 82% California 149% Arkansas 68% Colorado 132% D.C. 61% Connecticut 197% Georgia 99% Delaware 219% Idaho 85% Florida 105% Illinois 99% Hawaii 143% Indiana 76% Maryland 181% Iowa 68% Massachusetts 160% Kansas 59% Michigan 109% Kentucky 70% Nevada 163% Louisiana 63% New Hampshire 118% Maine 96% New Jersey 151% Minnesota 98% New Mexico 120% Mississippi 50% New York 136% Missouri 79% North Carolina 119% Montana 64% Oregon 134% Nebraska 56% Pennsylvania 104% North Dakota 45% Rhode Island 184% Ohio 90% South Carolina 134% Oklahoma 78% Utah 105% South Dakota 44% Vermont 111% Tennessee 72% Virginia 134% Texas 94% Washington 137% West Virginia 68% Wisconsin 100% Wyoming 52% *Based on the CDC’s FluSurge model program. Estimates rely on FluSurge 2.0 Beta Test Software, created by the CDC. More information about the model is available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/flusurge.htm. This scenario examines what would happen during a moderate pandemic outbreak. The severity for this type of outbreak is based on taking a halfway point between the 1968 and 1918 flu pandemics, with the 1968 pan- demic considered relatively mild and the 1918 pandemic considered severe. The other factors in the FluSurge model are set to assumptions based on the 1968 pandemic. These default settings assume an outbreak would be 8 weeks in duration and 25 percent of the population would become ill. The data for the age demographics are from the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey, 2005, available at http://dataferrett.census.gov/. The bed statistics are based on the total number of licensed 2004 hospital beds (which is available through Kaiser Family Foundation’s State Health Facts, available at http://www.statehealthfacts.org/cgi-bin/healthfacts.cgi), minus the typical hospital bed occupancy rates, (available for 2003 from CDC data and are available in the chart book, Health, United States, 2005) to determine the usual number of available bed capacity. 21 One of the most tangible and immediate was based on the halfway point between the impacts of an influenza pandemic would be on known severity of the 1968 and 1918 pandem- the health and healthcare delivery sectors. ic outbreaks. The 1968 pandemic was consid- Patients would rapidly fill existing hospital beds ered relatively mild, while the 1918 pandemic and cause a surge in demand for critical medi- was considered severe. Under a moderate cines and equipment, such as antivirals, ventila- model, two million Americans would need to tors, and protective masks. It is estimated that be hospitalized with pandemic-related illness- there would be between one million and four es, and 25 states would have shortfalls in the million hospital admissions in minor pandemic number of available licensed hospital beds and major pandemic scenarios, respectively.34 within two weeks. These estimates do not take into account Army mobile hospitals or other Beds are only one indicator of surge capacity. emergency mobile hospital bed capacity. Few Others include adequately trained staff, sup- states have invested in this capacity on their plies, and equipment. Currently, no meas- own, or have only to a very limited degree. urement exists that assesses these in totality. North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota Under HHS guidelines and the DHS National would have the highest amount of available Response Plan, “all hospitals are required to bed capacity within the two week time have a certain amount of ‘surge capacity,’” frame.36 Delaware, Connecticut, and Rhode which is defined as the “ability to rapidly Island would have the highest overload rates. expand beyond normal services to meet the increased demand for qualified personnel, ■ If there were to be a 1968-like mild out- medical care and public health in the event of break, Delaware is the only state that bioterrorism or other large-scale public would run out of hospital bed capacity health emergencies or disasters.”35 However, within two weeks of an outbreak. existing surge capacity would be quickly over- ■ If there were to be a 1918-like severe out- whelmed during a pandemic. break, 47 states and D.C. would run out of A pandemic outbreak is anticipated to last hospital bed capacity within two weeks. The for at least eight weeks, peaking at five weeks. three states that would still have capacity at This measure shows how quickly states would the two-week point would be near capacity, reach their existing licensed bed capacity, with Mississippi filling 99 percent of its bed with half of states exceeding this capacity capacity, North Dakota at 90 percent capac- within the first two weeks of an outbreak. ity, and South Dakota at 88 percent capaci- ty. (See Appendix F for more information This scenario examines a moderate pandemic on 1968- and 1918-based scenarios). outbreak. Based on the FluSurge model, this SURGE CAPACITY Among the major issues confronting the healthcare sector during an emergency situation is the question of surge capacity or the ability to rapidly mobilize to meet an increased demand.37 HRSA’s critical benchmarks related to surge capacity include: ■ Beds (including beds for trauma and burn care patients). ■ Isolation capacity. ■ Healthcare personnel/Emergency System for Advance Registration of Volunteer Health Professionals (ESAR-VHP). ■ Pharmaceutical caches. ■ Personal protective equipment (PPE) such as masks, respirators, gloves, and gowns. ■ Decontamination. ■ Behavioral (psychosocial) health considerations. ■ Communications and information technology.38 22 HRSA Guidance Requirements HRSA guidance requires grantees to establish systems that, at a minimum, can provide triage treatment and initial stabilization above the current daily staffed bed capacity for the following classes of adult and pediatric patients requiring hospitalization within three hours of a terrorist incident or other public health emergency: ■ 500 cases per million population for patients with symptoms of acute infectious dis- ease, especially smallpox, anthrax, plague, tularemia, and influenza. ■ 50 cases per million population for patients with symptoms of acute botulinum intoxi- cation or other acute chemical poisoning, especially those cases resulting from nerve agent exposure. ■ 50 cases per million population for patients suffering burn or trauma. ■ 50 cases per million population for patients manifesting the symptoms of radiation- induced injury, especially bone marrow suppression. HRSA has not released information about states’ progress on a state-by-state basis. Also, the limited nature of these requirements would be insufficient for pandemic flu response. For more on the HRSA guidance, see Section b: Strengthening Accountability in this report and the 2005 edition of Ready or Not? Potential Strategies for Increasing Hospital Surge Capacity ■ Discharge patients early; establish discharge holding area. ■ Convert outpatient procedure beds into inpatient beds. ■ Use hallways or create alternate treatment areas (e.g., the cafeteria). ■ Partner with local health department and emergency management agency to create emergency treatment capacity outside the hospital. ■ Initiate mutual agreements with other healthcare facilities. ■ Include acute, long-term care, and rehabilitation facilities. ■ Implement communications systems to allow rapid dissemination of information to key players and planners in a mass-casualty event.39 —From a presentation by a HRSA official to the HHS Council on Public Health Preparedness, 2004. Of course, these strategies do not address how to ensure there would be an adequate number of healthcare workers or other surge capacity requirements. MOBILE HOSPITALS “Mobile hospitals are one solution to improve medical surge capacity. Health agencies in Connecticut, Nevada and other states have developed mobile hospital facilities that can be used for response to a variety of emergencies. North Carolina’s MED-1 portable hospital deployed to Mississippi following Katrina along with the State Medical Assistance Team trailers filled with supplies. Set up in a Kmart parking lot, the 120 bed hospital was the only one operating in the county. More than 500 personnel from North Carolina provided care to nearly 7,500 patients during seven weeks following Katrina’s landfall. Funding from HRSA, CDC, and DHS helped the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services purchase the hospital and supplies and hire staff to support it.” — Association of State and Territorial Health Officials States of Preparedness: Health Agency Progress 2006 report40 23 Indicator 6: SEASONAL FLU VACCINATION RATES FOR SENIORS FINDING: Flu vaccination rates for seniors decreased in 13 states. 37 states and D.C. increased or maintained 13 states DECREASED rates for vaccinating rates for vaccinating adults aged 65 and older adults aged 65 and older for seasonal flu for seasonal flu (comparing 2002-2004 to (comparing 2002-2004 to 2003-2005) 2003-2005) (1 point) (0 points) State 2002-2004 2003-2005 Increased State 2002-2004 2003-2005 Decreased rates rates (statistically rates rates (statistically significant) or significant) maintained (where decreases are noted, they are not considered statistically significant) Alabama 67.11% 65.73% -1.38% Arizona 68.23% 65.86% -2.37% Alaska 66.60% 64.07% -2.53% California 71.65% 69.32% -1.90% Arkansas 68.59% 68.32% -1.27% Delaware 70.22% 68.31% -1.91% Colorado 75.43% 75.67% 0.24% Illinois 62.94% 61.11% -1.83% Connecticut 72.96% 72.84% -0.12% Maine 73.59% 71.56% -1.03% D.C. 58.93% 57.62% -1.31% Maryland 66.30% 63.91% -2.39% Florida 62.75% 62.20% -0.55% Nevada 60.49% 57.60% -2.89% Georgia 63.70% 62.10% 0.40% New Jersey 67.95% 66.07% -1.88% Hawaii 75.04% 74.13% -0.91% Pennsylvania 67.76% 63.97% -3.79% Idaho 67.24% 66.76% -0.48% Rhode Island 74.29% 72.14% -2.15% Indiana 65.62% 64.80% -0.82 South Carolina 68.23% 65.37% -2.86% Iowa 75.04% 74.44% -0.60% Tennessee 68.97% 65.50% -3.47% Kansas 69.20% 68.31% -0.89% Vermont 71.42% 69.01% -2.41% Kentucky 66.21% 65.18% -1.03% Louisiana* 64.73% 66.62% 1.89% Massachusetts 70.70% 71.80% -0.90% Michigan 67.38% 67.16% -0.22% Minnesota 78.44% 78.92% 0.48% Mississippi 66.35% 65.78% -0.57% Missouri 69.24% 66.96% -2.28% Montana 70.95% 71.49% 0.54% Nebraska* 72.63% 74.03% 1.40% New Hampshire 72.33% 71.61% -0.72% New Mexico 70.56% 70.88% 0.32% New York 66.18% 65.25% -0.93% North Carolina 67.97% 67.07% -0.90% North Dakota 73.74% 72.47% -1.27% Ohio 67.40% 66.80% -0.60% Oklahoma 74.45% 74.62% 0.17% Oregon 69.88% 70.14% 0.26% South Dakota 76.37% 77.04% 0.67% Texas 65.30% 65.45% 0.15% Utah 73.77% 73.19% -0.58% Virginia 67.88% 68.34% 0.46% Washington 68.86% 69.71% 0.85% West Virginia 67.60% 66.85% -0.75% Wisconsin 73.46% 72.72% -0.74% Wyoming 72.38% 73.09% 0.71% Source: BRFSS. Data include three year comparisons. Note that each state has a different sample size so * Louisiana and Nebraska were the only two states with the rates of increase and decrease are not comparable statistically significant increases in vaccination rates. across states – each state has a different range to reach statistically significant changes. 24 Vaccines are often cited as one of the top The CDC provides information from BRFSS public health accomplishments of the 20th to policymakers, including Congress and century.41 Immunizations have helped pre- state officials, and to the public. BRFSS data vent countless illnesses and deaths, and are are then used to inform decisions about extremely cost-effective, sparing the health- health policies, funding, and activities. care system the costs of caring for those who TFAH contracted with Daniel Eisenberg, might otherwise become ill. Ph.D., Assistant Professor, and Edward N. According to the CDC, five to 20 percent of Okeke, MBBS, Health Service Organization Americans contract the seasonal flu, more and Policy Doctoral Student, at the than 200,000 people are hospitalized from Department of Health Management and flu complications, and approximately 36,000 Policy of the University of Michigan School of people die from the flu each year.42 Public Health to analyze the BRFSS data on flu vaccination rates for adults aged 65 and People in certain at-risk groups are more vul- over comparing vaccination rates for the peri- nerable to complications from the seasonal od of 2002, 2003, and 2004 to the period of flu, including children six months to five 2003, 2004, and 2005. These three-year peri- years old and individuals with “chronic health ods are compared instead of single year-to- problems, including asthma, and other prob- year changes since there are annual variations lems of the lungs, immune suppression, in the data. Based on advice received from chronic kidney disease, heart disease, CDC policy officials, TFAH “stabilizes” the HIV/AIDS, diabetes, sickle cell anemia or data by combining three years, allowing for long-term aspirin therapy and/or any other comparisons over time. A standard threshold condition that can compromise respiratory of statistical significance of five percent was function,” and adults 65 years and older.43 used to determine increases or decreases in The CDC recommends that these high-risk vaccination rates. (For more information on populations and their caretakers receive a vac- the methodology, see Appendix D.) cine at the beginning of the flu season. Vaccination rates for seniors only increased The data for this indicator are from the in two states (Louisiana and Nebraska), but CDC’s Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance they were statistically maintained in 35 addi- System (BRFSS), an annual cross-sectional tional states. States with increases or main- telephone survey of more than 350,000 tained rates received a point for this indica- adults over 18 years old and older (averaging tor. Flu vaccination rates for seniors more than 4,000 interviews by state) con- decreased in 13 states. Minnesota (78.92 ducted by the health departments of all states percent) and Colorado (75.67 percent) had and D.C. BRFSS is the primary source of the highest vaccination rates for the 2003- health information for states. According to 2005 period. Nevada (57.60 percent) and the CDC, it is the largest telephone survey in D.C. (57.62 percent) had the lowest vacci- the world and generates confidence intervals nation rates for the period. of less than plus or minus three percent.44 25 POSSIBLE IMPACT OF 2004 FLU VACCINE SHORTAGE In 2004, there was a nationwide shortage of flu vaccine, which may have impacted vaccination rates that year. The 2004 rates are included in both three-year comparisons for this indicator. Even though it is recommended to combine three years of data in order to make compar- isons, in order to gauge how the shortage may have impacted vaccination rates, TFAH exam- ined the year-to-year totals. Comparing 2003 to 2004 rates, 10 states still increased their vaccination rates despite the shortage, and an additional 12 states maintained their vaccination rates within a one percentage point drop; six states were within two percentage points; eight states were within three percentage points; four states were within four percentage points. The biggest drops were Vermont, with a 7.5 percent decline and Washington, D.C. with an 8.1 percent decline. From 2004 to 2005, when there was no shortage, only one state (Michigan) increased its vaccination rate. (For more information, see Appendix D). In 2005, just under two-thirds (65.7 percent) of Americans aged 65 and over had a flu shot compared to 68.0 percent in 2004, the year of the vaccine shortage, and 70.3 percent in 2003.45 Also during the year of the major shortage in the 2004-2005 season, “especially virulent strains were in circulation,” and only 35.7 percent of “health care workers who had contact with patients” received their shots.46 Seasonal flu vaccinations are viewed as a key 2. Seasonal vaccination drills help prepare part of planning for pandemic prepared- the health system to rapidly distribute and ness and other emergency responses that administer vaccines. Practicing mass vacci- would require mass vaccination or distribu- nations gives communities “the opportuni- tion of medications.47 ty to practice the rapid dissemination of 1. Getting vaccinated for seasonal flu helps important infection control information, people prepare for emergency vaccina- such as the necessity of annual vaccination, tions. When people get accustomed to hand hygiene, respiratory etiquette, and receiving vaccines regularly, they become other personal protective actions.”48 more prepared for what to expect during 3. Improving seasonal vaccination rates emergencies, helping to curb levels of chaos encourages the private sector to invest in during times when it will be critical to vacci- the vaccine industry. Creating an ongo- nate the population quickly. Improving sea- ing demand for flu vaccine will encourage sonal vaccination rates also protects mem- more investment in the infrastructure bers of the public from getting needlessly needed to develop a pandemic flu vaccine sick and spreading the disease to others. and to produce it in larger numbers. EXAMPLES OF SEASONAL FLU VACCINATIONS TO BOLSTER PANDEMIC PREPAREDNESS ■ Billings, Montana held a drill in fall 2006 to determine how quickly residents could be vaccinated in the event of an emergency. Officials found, on average, “time from entrance to exit was nine minutes,” and by the day’s end (12 hours), “6,347 people had been inocu- lated, an average of 529 people an hour.”49 ■ The New York State Department of Health held a drill called “ProtEX NY” in November of 2005 in which it vaccinated 1,862 people in four hours.50 In a follow-up sur- vey, all of the nurses who participated in the drill “felt competent to respond to a public health emergency.”51 ■ Belmont, Massachusetts held a flu vaccination drill, rather than a more traditional clinic, in the fall of 2006 in order to get “residents accustomed to the Belmont Hill School facility that has been designated as one of the emergency dispensing sites in the [t]own.”52 26 Indicator 7: PNEUMONIA VACCINATION RATES FOR SENIORS FINDING: In 2005, half of the states have achieved a 65.7 percent pneumococcal vaccination rate for adults aged 65 and older. This is nearly 25 percentage points away from the national goal of achieving vaccination rates of 90 percent by 2010. 26 states are at or above the national 24 states and D.C. have NOT reached median (65.7 percent) for the number the national median (65.7 percent) of adults aged 65 and older who have for the number of adults aged 65 and ever received a pneumococcal vacci- older who have ever received a pneu- nation (1point) monoccal vaccination (0 points) Colorado (70.2%) Alabama (61.9%) Connecticut (69.3%) Alaska (61.1%) Delaware (65.9%) Arizona (65.4%) Hawaii (65.9%) Arkansas (57.4%) Iowa (69.1%) California (61.3%) Kansas (66.8%) D.C. (51.6%) Louisiana (71.4%) Florida (62.4%) Michigan (66.2%) Georgia (62.5%) Minnesota (71.1%) Idaho (61.6%) Montana (69.9%) Illinois (57.0%) Nebraska (67.9%) Indiana (65.3%) Nevada (69.8%) Kentucky (62.9%) New Hampshire (69.8%) Maine (64.4%) North Carolina (66.2%) Maryland (62.0%) North Dakota (71.7%) Massachusetts (64.8%) Oklahoma (71.1%) Mississippi (65.7%) Oregon (71.4%) Missouri (64.8%) Pennsylvania (67.2%) New Jersey (64.0%) Rhode Island (71.5%) New Mexico (64.7%) South Dakota (66.3%) New York (62.0%) Utah (66.4%) Ohio (61.5%) Vermont (66.7%) South Carolina (65.6%) Virginia (66.5%) Tennessee (63.8%) Washington (66.9%) Texas (62.2%) West Virginia (68.2%) Wisconsin (65.7%) Wyoming (71.2%) Source: BRFSS Note: Rates for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands are 28.3 percent and 29.1 percent, respectively. HHS has set a national goal of immunizing therapy, etc.) should get the pneumococcal 90 percent of adults aged 65 and older polysaccharide vaccine (PPV).55 This shot is against pneumococcal disease by the year only required one time, and is not required 2010. 53, 54 The CDC also recommends that on an annual basis like the flu vaccine. children over two years of age who have a PPV protects against 23 types of pneumococcal long-term health problem (e.g., heart dis- bacteria, which can attack different parts of the ease, lung disease, sickle cell disease, dia- body, such as the brain (meningitis), the lungs betes, alcoholism, cirrhosis, leaks of cere- (pneumonia), and the blood (bacteraemia).56 brospinal fluid, etc.), who have a disease or According to the CDC, approximately “[one] condition that lowers the body’s resistance to out of every 20 people who get pneumococcal infection (e.g., Hodgkin’s, leukemia, HIV, pneumonia dies from it, as do about [two] etc.), or who are taking any drug or treat- people out of 10 who get bacteraemia, and ment that lowers the body’s resistance to three people out of 10 who get meningitis.”57 infection (e.g., long term steroids, radiation 27 People with the flu, particularly seniors, are States that have met the cumulative median at risk for developing pneumonia as a com- rate of 65.7 percent for vaccinating seniors plication. Pneumonia can be lethal, particu- for pneumonia received 1 point for this indi- larly in older adults. Together with influen- cator, since states have four more years to za, pneumonia is currently the eighth lead- meet the HHS national goal. The data are ing cause of death in the United States. In from the CDC’s 2005 BRFSS, which looks at 2004, 60,207 people died from pneumonia. the cumulative rates for vaccinating adults There were over one million hospitaliza- 65 and over in each state.60 (See Indicator 6 tions associated with pneumonia, with indi- and Appendix D for more on the BRFSS). viduals 65 and over accounting for 60 per- cent (800,000) of these cases.58, 59 Indicator 8: DISEASE TRACKING FINDING: Twelve states and D.C. do not have an electronic disease surveillance system that includes an integrated data, electronic lab reporting, and Internet-browser system that is compatible with CDC’s system. 38 states have electronic disease track- 12 states and D.C. do NOT have electronic ing systems that are compatible with disease tracking systems that are compati- CDC’s National Electronic Disease ble with CDC’s National Electronic Disease Surveillance System (NEDSS) (1 point) Surveillance System (NEDSS) (0 points) Alabama Nevada Alaska Arizona New Hampshire Arkansas Colorado New Jersey California Delaware New Mexico Connecticut Florida New York D.C. Georgia North Dakota Indiana Hawaii Ohio Iowa Idaho Oklahoma Minnesota Illinois Oregon Mississippi Kansas Pennsylvania North Carolina Kentucky Rhode Island Utah Louisiana South Carolina West Virginia Maine South Dakota Wisconsin Maryland Tennessee Massachusetts Texas Michigan Vermont Missouri Virginia Montana Montana* Washington Nebraska Wyoming Source: CDC The National Electronic Disease Surveillance ■ Disease data entry directly on the Web System (NEDSS) was developed to integrate through an Internet browser-based system, and standardize the tracking of infectious dis- creating a database accessible by health inves- ease. It promotes standards-based, electronic tigators and public health professionals; reporting for more rapid, accurate, and inte- ■ Electronic Laboratory Results (ELR) grated information. It is one component of reporting, which allows labs to report an overarching Public Health Information information about communicable dis- Network (PHIN) at CDC. The system eases to health departments; includes four components: 28 ■ Integration of multiple health information Health departments cannot protect people databases creating a single repository; and from existing or emerging health threats, such as a new disease outbreak or bioterror attack, ■ Electronic messaging capabilities, allow- without the right information. The lack of ing sates to share information efficiently timely and comprehensive data can cause with CDC and other health agencies. delays in identifying and responding to serious According to the CDC’s definition, to be con- and mass emergency health problems. sidered NEDSS-compatible, states must have Additionally, federal, state, and local health systems that meet requirements for 1) an departments and private healthcare providers Internet browser-based system; 2) Electronic must all work together to effectively track infor- Laboratory Results (ELR) reporting; and 3) mation about and respond to health threats. an integrated data repository. An upgrade to While the CDC preparedness guidance does the messaging component is under develop- not require NEDSS compatibility, NEDSS pro- ment system-wide, and is, therefore, not vides a basis for national consistency and com- included as part of the criteria. patibility and is the predominant system that Thirty-eight states have met the require- the CDC uses. It is currently one of the few ments for NEDSS-compatibility, based on data points about state preparedness activities CDC standards. A number of states plan to that is collected and made publicly available be NEDSS-compatible in 2007, including by the CDC. A number of states that are not Arkansas, Iowa, Mississippi, North Carolina, currently compatible with NEDSS have Wisconsin, and West Virginia. requested the resources they would need to accomplish this, but have not received them. The number of NEDSS-compatible states The current trend toward increased use of has increased from 18 in 2004 to 27 in 2005 electronic health records (EHR) raises new to 36 in 2006. issues for health tracking, including questions Delivering effective public health services about how to modernize systems to take depends on timely and reliable information. advantage of the most recent technologies. NEED TO MODERNIZE DISEASE TRACKING TECHNIQUES Before 2000, “state health departments received most case-report forms by mail and then entered the data into computer systems, sometimes weeks after the cases of notifiable dis- ease had occurred, including cases that warranted immediate public health investigation or intervention. In addition, depending on the disease, only 10 percent to 85 percent of [disease] cases were reported, and more than 100 different systems were used to transmit these reports from the states to [the] CDC.”61 Electronic Health Records: A Future Tool for Public Health? Public health concerns need to be a central part of discussions about how electronic health records (EHRs) can modernize aspects of the healthcare industry. Strategic decisions about integration and interoperability could benefit public health research and could help vastly improve the nation’s ability to strategically investigate health problems ranging from chronic diseases to bioterrorism, identify factors contributing to diseases, and develop ways to better control or cure illnesses. 29 Indicator 9: REGISTERED NURSES – WORKFORCE SHORTAGE FINDING: 80 percent of the states have a shortage of registered nurses. 10 states do not have a nursing work- 40 states and D.C. have a nursing work- force shortage [as of 2005] (1 point) force SHORTAGE [as of 2005] (0 points) Idaho (0)* Alabama (-200)* Kansas (+100) Alaska (-1,100) Kentucky (+1,100) Arizona (-8,600) Michigan (+1,100) Arkansas (-2,100) Montana (+200) California (-22,500) Oklahoma (+600) Colorado (-5,700) South Dakota (+100) Connecticut (-6,400) Vermont (0) D.C. (-2,000) West Virginia (+1,000) Delaware (-700) Wisconsin (+3,100) Florida (-18,200) Georgia (-8,900) Hawaii (-3,400) Iowa (-2,300) Illinois (-1,600) Indiana (-4,800) Louisiana (-100) Maine (-1,500) Maryland (-2,900) Massachusetts (-9,000) Minnesota (-1,600) Mississippi (-500) Missouri (-9,300) Nebraska (-1,800) New Hampshire (-2,000) New Jersey (-11,500) New Mexico (-2,000) New York (-13,400) Nevada (-2,800) North Carolina (-3,900) North Dakota (-500) Ohio (-6,400) Oregon (-2,200) Pennsylvania (-9,100) Rhode Island (-2,100) South Carolina (-3,200) Tennessee (-13,100) Texas (-28,500) Utah (-900) Virginia (-6,000) Washington (-2,700) Wyoming (-700) Source: National Center for Health Workforce Analysis, Bureau of Health Professions, HRSA *The figures in parentheses represent the number above or below the needed number of registered nurses in that state. 30 Nurses are one of many sets of priority According to two recent studies, the short- providers who are needed during health age of public health nurses is even more emergencies. extreme than for registered nurses overall.63 According to the Quad Council of Public A study by the National Center for Health Health Nursing Organizations: Workforce Analysis (NCHWA) in the Bureau of Health Professions of HRSA found that “The current shortage is complex, the result there is a shortage of registered nurses. If cur- of multiple and varied factors. Contributing rent trends continue, NCHWA estimates the factors include an overall shortage of regis- national nursing shortage will reach more tered nurses as well as factors specific to pub- than one million full-time RNs by 2020.62 (For lic health: an aging population of nurses; a more on the methodology of the NCHWA poorly funded public health system on the study, see Appendix E.) Forty states and D.C. national, state and local levels that results in were found to have nursing shortages and did inadequate salaries; reduced and/or elimi- not receive a point for this indicator. nated public health nursing positions; bureaucratic hiring practices; inadequate The nursing shortage makes it challenging numbers of baccalaureate nursing gradu- for the healthcare sector to meet current ates; limited public health advocacy; a grow- service needs. This problem would be com- ing shortage of nursing faculty, adequately pounded during emergencies, when there prepared to teach public health nursing; would be an influx of additional patients. If and invisibility of public health nursing in healthcare staff levels are insufficient on a media and marketing campaigns.”64 day-to-day basis, they will be exponentially overtaxed during a mass emergency. Nursing Shortage Growth from 2000-2005 Total supply Total demand Shortfall (supply minus demand) 2000 1,890,700 2,001,500 -110,800 2005 1,942,500 2,161,399 -218,899 NURSING WORKFORCE AND SURGE CAPACITY Following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, nurses from around the nation traveled to the Gulf Coast region to provide medical care to hurricane victims. For example: ■ The California Nurses Association (CNA) sent more than 300 nurses to 25 hospitals, clin- ics, and mobile units in Louisiana, Texas, and Mississippi and “provided half of the RN staff at the Earl K. Long Memorial Hospital in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, for two months after Katrina, when patient rolls doubled overnight.”65, 66 ■ The Texas Nurses Association (TNA) provided disaster relief to storm victims through Ready Texas Nurses, an initiative which TNA created with the Texas Nurses Foundation (TNF) after 9/11. Through Ready Texas Nurses, TNA and TNF “were able to call up some 1,200 credentialed nurses and process more than 1,000 nurses who wanted to volunteer.”67 Not all public health emergencies are contained within a specific area of the country, as was the case with Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Emergencies like pandemic flu or other major dis- ease outbreaks can impact the entire nation. It is therefore crucial that all areas of the country have an adequate supply of RNs to meet local patient demand in times of a public health crisis. 31 IMMINENT PUBLIC HEALTH WORKFORCE BRAIN DRAIN In nearly half of the states, 25 percent or more of the state public health workforce will be eligible for retirement within the next five years, according to a 2003 survey conducted by the Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO) and the Council of State Governments (CSG). Eight states face potential retiree levels of 40 percent or higher.68 This will likely lead to severe staffing shortages. Baby boomers are retiring and the recruitment of the next generation of public health professionals is falling short of the need. The ASTHO/CSG survey has not been updated, and, therefore, was not used as an indicator in this Ready or Not? report. ASTHO is planning to update the survey in 2007. According to a recent article in Health Affairs, “there is not a robust pipeline of trained per- sonnel to work in public health agencies, and salaries for public health nurses, epidemiologists, laboratory professionals, and physicians are often not competitive with those of their private- sector counterparts.”69 In 2004 and 2005, U.S. Senators Charles Hagel (R-NE) and Richard Durbin (D-IL) introduced “The Public Health Workforce Act” to help address the workforce crisis, but no action was taken. SURGE WORKFORCE FOR EMERGENCIES? The Surgeon General’s Office and HRSA have been working to establish strong volunteer net- works of medical professionals to help with emergencies. Both efforts are in early stages of development. The Surgeon General’s Office manages the Medical Reserve Corps (MRC) as part of a national network of volunteers called the Citizen Corps to help with expert medical care surge capacity during times of emergency.70 The mission of the MRC “is to establish teams of local volunteer medical and public health professionals who can contribute their skills and expertise throughout the year and during times of need.”71 It is comprised of community- based units that include physicians, nurses, pharmacists, dentists, veterinarians, and epidemiol- ogists, and it also has a wealth of support staff positions such as interpreters, chaplains, and legal advisors.72 Across the country there are 499 units of the MRC as of November 2006.73 The units are funded by the federal government, as well as state and local governments, and in some cases through private funds, such as foundations. The MRC has recently entered into a cooperative agreement with the National Association of County and City Health Officials (NACCHO) in an attempt to strengthen the relationship between the Corps and state and local health departments.74 Additionally, HRSA manages a state-based program designed to secure a volunteer healthcare delivery workforce in the event of an emergency.75 The National Emergency Systems for Advance Registration of Volunteer Health Professionals (ESAR-VHP) program helps states develop standardized programs for registering volunteer health professionals in advance of emergencies. Each state program collects verified information on the identity, licensure status, clinical privileges, and professional credentials of volunteers. State ESAR-VHP systems are intended to serve as the mechanism for recording the registration and credential informa- tion of all potential health volunteers in a state. They will provide a single, centralized volun- teer information database to facilitate intra-state, state-to-state, and state-to-federal transfer of volunteers. These systems should include information about volunteers involved in organ- ized volunteer efforts at the local level (such as MRC units) and the state level. The systems will also serve a critical statewide role recruiting, registering, verifying credentials, and classify- ing health professionals who are willing to serve in emergencies, but are not interested in being part of a trained, organized volunteer structure. HRSA is actively working with states to accelerate implementation and operation of these state systems. 32 COMPLICATIONS WITH A VOLUNTARY SURGE WORKFORCE: MEDICAL WORKERS’ EXPERIENCE IN HURRICANE KATRINA RELIEF EFFORTS According to a report in Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, many medical professionals who tried to volunteer during the Hurricane Katrina relief effort encountered complications in the credentialing system, which ultimately led many of them to abandon attempts to help or forced them to go outside the system, forming ad hoc medical teams.76 According to the report, “HHS launched its own website for medical and support volunteers both to rally volunteer support and to verify professional credentialing. However, many MRC volunteers were already registered and credentialed through the HRSA Emergency System for Advanced Registration of Volunteer Health Professionals (ESAR-VHP) program. Because HHS was operating more than one credentialing system, it was unclear to some MRC volunteers which system they were supposed to use.”77 Indicator 10: STATE PUBLIC HEALTH BUDGETS FINDING: Six states cut funding for public health from FY 2004-05 to FY 2005-06. 44 states and D.C. increased or main- 6 states DECREASED funding for tained level funding for public health public health services from FY 2004- services from FY 2004-05 to FY 2005-06 05 to FY 2005-06 (0 points) (1 point) State and percent increase State and percent decrease Alabama (6.4%) Nebraska (10.3%) 4 Arkansas (-1.8%) Alaska2 (11.7%) Nevada2,4 (2.6%) Maine2,4 (-6.9%) Arizona (8.4%) New Hampshire (3.4%) Michigan4 (-3.6%) California (1.3%) New Jersey (9.2%) Mississippi2,4 (-7.2%) Colorado (18.4%) New Mexico (8.2%) Pennsylvania6 (-4.2%) Connecticut2 (4.1%) New York (3.7%) South Dakota (-2.3%) Delaware2 (6.5%) North Carolina2 (2.8%) D.C.2 (25.7%) North Dakota2,4 (1.8%) Florida (4.8%) Ohio4 (15.2%) Georgia (14.0%) Oklahoma1 (18.2%) Hawaii2 (10.1%) Oregon (22.0%) Idaho (4.6%) Rhode Island (11.8%) Illinois (2.5%) South Carolina* (0.0%) Indiana (7.6%) Tennessee (21.8%) Iowa2 (4.9%) Texas (21.7%) Kansas (14.2%) Utah (6.4%) Kentucky (8.6%) Vermont3 (5.2%) Louisiana3 (1.8%) Virginia3,4 (5.9%) Maryland2 (0.9%) Washington4 (12.5%) Massachusetts4 (9.4%) West Virginia (5.4%) Minnesota4 (7.2%) Wisconsin4 (4.7%) Missouri5 (0.2%) Wyoming (17.8%) Montana (57.7%) Source: Research by TFAH of publicly available state 4 Budget data taken from appropriations legislation. budget documents and interviews with health and 5 Missouri’s percent change based on FY 2004-05 and FY budget officials in the states. 2005-06 actual expenditures. NOTES: 6 Pennsylvania’s decrease in funding from FY 2004-05 to FY *South Carolina’s budget remained the same. 2005-06 is due to a decrease in appropriations funded Biennium budgets are bolded. through Tobacco Settlement Funds and the redirection of 1 May contain some social service programs, but not funds from tobacco prevention and cessation programs to long-term care services for seniors and persons with disabili- Medicaid or CHIP. ties. According to the State of Pennsylvania, if Tobacco 2 General funds only. Settlement Funds were excluded from the calculation, the 3 Includes mental health, and/or developmental disabilities, and/ result would be an increase in funding of $1,042,000 or .4% or addiction treatment in funding to local health departments. from FY 2004-05 to FY 2005-06. 33 Every state allocates and reports its budget in some states report their budgets, for instance different ways. States also vary widely in the by including federal funding in the totals or level of specific detail they provide. This makes including public health dollars within health- comparisons across states difficult. For this care spending totals, makes it difficult to analysis, TFAH examined state budgets and determine “public health” as a separate item. appropriations bills for the agency, depart- Few states allocate funds directly for bioter- ment, or division in charge of public health rorism and public health preparedness as services for FY 2004-05 to FY 2005-06, using a part of their public health budget. Instead, definition that is as consistent as possible across most rely on federal funds to support these the two years, based on how each state reports activities. However, the infrastructure of data. TFAH defined “public health services” other public health programs also supports broadly, including most state-level health fund- their underlying preparedness capabilities. ing. Based on this analysis, six states experi- enced cuts in their public health budgets. (For While this indicator examines whether state additional information on the methodology of budgets increased or decreased, it does not the budget analysis, please see Appendix C). assess if the funding is adequate to cover public health needs in the states. This also Several states that received points for this indi- does not take into account ongoing hospital cator may not have actually increased their needs and funding. spending on public health programs. The way 34 PUBLIC HEALTH IS UNDERFUNDED; LACKS CONSISTENCY AND TRANSPARENCY Financial support for public health programs comes from a combination of federal, state, and local funds; the majority of funding comes from state and local governments. In 2000, state and local spending was 2.5 times the federal level, accounting for 70 percent of public health spending.78 According to an analysis in Health Affairs, the federal bioterrorism funding provid- ed by Congress in FY 2002 and FY 2003 represented a 25 percent increase in the federal contribution to public health spending, which is expected to marginally raise the total federal share of funding from 29 to 34 percent.79 More than 95 percent of the new federal funds for public health preparedness are devoted to systems that were already broken and antiquated. Despite flat or increased funding in most states during the most recent budget cycle, the fund- ing falls far short of the estimated levels needed to reach an acceptable level of preparedness, according to most public health experts. For instance, the Public Health Foundation estimates an additional $10 billion is needed to reach the minimum preparedness requirements.80 States do not report their public health budgets in consistent ways, and in many cases, there is little definition on a line basis for what the funds are used for. It is difficult to compare fund- ing across states and to determine which public health needs are adequately funded or not within each state. Additionally, in some cases, the public health budget is not reported on separately from the total healthcare spending budget in the state. TFAH’s 2006 report, Shortchanging America’s Health: A State-By-State Look at How Federal Public Health Dollars Are Spent, estimated that it would take an additional investment of about $2.6 billion to bring public health spending to a level that would address disparities across the states, bringing states that spend below the national average up to the average. The median state spending on public health is currently only $31 per person per year. In comparison, median state spending is $689.93 per person annually for K-12 education; $215.34 for higher education; and $96.18 for corrections.81 The IOM has urged HHS to collect information about public health budgets and programs at the state, local, and federal levels to better assess the nation’s ability to provide critical public health services to every community.82 TFAH recommends that all levels of government provide full, more consistent, and trans- parent information to the public about the funding of health programs and services. “ NEW (FEDERAL BT [BIOTERRORISM]) FUNDS, HOWEVER, ALONG WITH THE PUBLICITY AROUND TERRORIST THREATS AND THEIR PREVENTION, HAVE ‘RAISED EXPECTATIONS ABOUT PREPAREDNESS AND OUR ABILITY TO RESPOND BY THE PROGRAMS AND INITIATIVES WE’VE PUT IN PLACE,’ SAID ONE LOCAL HEALTH OFFICIAL.PUBLIC HEALTH LEADERS ... VOICED CONCERN ABOUT THEIR ABILITY TO MEET THESE EXPECTATIONS OVER TIME, GIVEN QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUSTAINABILITY OF FEDERAL FUNDING. ” 83 — FINDINGS FROM THE COMMUNITY TRACKING SURVEY, HEALTH AFFAIRS, JULY/AUGUST 2006 35 Strengthening Funding and Accountability b SECTION “W hen public health works best, it is invisible -- it’s the disease you didn’t get, the accident you didn’t have, the disaster that didn’t happen” is an adage within the public health community.84 After September 11 and the anthrax attacks, it became clear that the nation’s public health system was antiquated, unprepared, and under-funded to respond to modern health threats.85 Public health practitioners have not always been considered “front line” responders, but with increased threats of bioterrorism and pandemic flu, they have been recognized as a central component in emergency threat response. There are few existing structures or historical In 2006, Congress has considered reautho- examples to build upon. Much of bioterror- rization of the bill, currently called the ism and public health preparedness has Pandemic and All-Hazards Act. As of early necessitated creating systems, technologies, December, the bill had not been enacted. and measures from scratch. To help meet this Reauthorization of this legislation provides need, in 2002, Congress passed the Public an opportunity to address ongoing pre- Health Security and Bioterrorism Act, appro- paredness concerns. priating approximately $1 billion per year to help bolster federal and state preparedness. 1. Strengthening Preparedness Funds After the initial rounds of funds to support rorism activities, including $27 million in FY public health preparedness, the programs 2004 and $52 million in FY 2005 shifted to have already experienced cuts, even before the Cities Readiness Initiative (CRI). many basic preparedness goals could be All of these reprogrammed funds are impor- met. These cuts threaten to halt or even tant for preparedness, but funding for new reverse progress that has been achieved. programs should not come at the expense of Since FY 2004, over $90 million has been cut vital ongoing preparedness activities. Taking from CDC preparedness funds allocated to funds away from existing state and local pre- states, and over $23 million has been cut paredness efforts jeopardizes the progress from HRSA funds allocated to states for hos- that has been made. (For more information pital preparedness. Additionally, some funds on CDC and HRSA guidance on the use of originally designated for state preparedness preparedness funds, see Appendix B.) have been “reprogrammed” to other bioter- 37 Federal Bioterrorism Preparedness Funding, Post-September 11, 2001* Fiscal Year Centers for Health Resources Total Difference Disease Control and Services from last FY and Prevention Administration (CDC) (HRSA) FY 2002 $918,000,000 $124,500,000 $1,039,500,000 NA FY 2003 $870,000,000 $498,000,000 $1,368,000,000 + $328,500,000 FY 2004 $849,596,000** $498,000,000 $1,347,596,000 - $20,404,000 FY 2005 $862,777,000** $470,755,000 $1,333,532,000 - $14,064,000 FY 2006 $823,099,000 $460,216,752 $1,283,315,752 - $50,216,248 *Prior to September 11, funding for bioterrorism preparedness was $67 million in FY 2001. ** This includes $27 million in FY 2004 and $52 million in FY 2005 “reprogrammed” from state funds and chan- neled to the Cities Readiness Initiative (CRI). 2. Strengthening Accountability Another public health adage is that “pre- Congress to know where it should strategi- paredness is a process.” While that is clear- cally invest limited federal funds to address ly true, and it is impossible to be 100 per- vulnerabilities and to hold states account- cent prepared for every possibility, there are able for their use of these funds. basic protections that should be in place in The CDC and HRSA have gone through a every state and community across the coun- number of iterations toward establishing try. Americans rely on their government to clear, objective “performance measures” for protect them from threats that are bigger states. Each year, they have been updated to than any individual or single community reflect more of an emphasis on demonstrat- can respond to on their own. Other sectors ing capabilities versus developing plans. involved in emergency response on a day-to- However, the most recent measures are still day basis, including law enforcement, public viewed as inadequate and have received crit- safety, firefighters, Emergency Medical icism for focusing on: Services (EMS), hospitals, and the military, have determined “optimally achievable” ■ Self-reported information from states that measures for preparedness.86 The public cannot be verified objectively or by exter- health preparedness system does not cur- nal evaluators; rently have a comparable set of baseline ■ Releasing data only in aggregate form, objectives. rather than on a state-by-state basis, which Five years after September 11, there is still denies the public and policymakers infor- little information publicly available to evalu- mation about how prepared their com- ate how states’ preparedness capabilities munities are and how well the funds are have improved and what vulnerabilities being used; remain. The lack of concrete data has ■ Process versus outcomes, such as evaluating raised concerns among Members of time frames for activities rather than the Congress, the GAO, and HHS, as well as quality and impact of the information; and independent analysts and watchdog groups. This means Americans do not have infor- ■ Basic capabilities instead of how a state mation about how well their communities would be able to cope with a mass emer- and states are prepared, and do not know gency when the regular functions would whether their tax dollars are being spent be quickly overwhelmed. efficiently. It also makes it difficult for 38 Useful performance standards must include: ■ An emphasis on meeting mass emergency surge needs; and ■ Baseline, “optimally achievable” stan- dards that every jurisdiction should be ■ Public reporting of the information to cit- required to meet; izens and policymakers in every state. ■ Externally or objectively verifiable achievements; EXAMPLE OF REAL WORLD OUTCOMES VERSUS PROCESS Questions remain about whether the performance measures capture an accurate reflection of the capabilities that would be needed to respond to real world events. For instance, the measures for lab capabilities generally perform well on the CDC’s FY 2006 criteria: whether labs pass proficiency tests, time for shipment of clinical biological specimens, time from presumptive identification to confirmatory identification of select agents, time it takes reference laboratorians to respond to a call during non-business hours, and time it takes a reference lab to generate confirmatory results for an agent of urgent public health conse- quence to notification of appropriate officials.87 However, a November 2006 investigation by the Scripps Howard News Service found that in 2004, labs listed the causes of nearly two-thirds of 6,374 food-related disease outbreaks as “unknown.”88 It is unclear if the current performance measures are too selective to capture these types of performance issues, which would be further amplified during a major public health crisis. POST 9/11 CHALLENGES OF DEFINING AND IMPLEMENTING PERFORMANCE MEASURES An August 2006 report by the National Network of Public Health Institutes, Illinois Public Health Institute, Kansas Health Institute, and Michigan Public Health Institute outlines the challenges that an “absence of performance standards” has created for states and localities receiving preparedness funds. The report further notes that the states have “received little guidance on how to set goals for their programs and how to monitor their progress.”89 The report concludes that the use of a “structured assessment instrument combined with a structured scoring system [is] very helpful. The use of standardized tools and scoring meth- ods allows for the comparison of results across jurisdictions or for the same jurisdiction at multiple points in time, as well as comparisons of results against benchmarks and national standards, if those exist. Using common assessment tools also allows for the pooling of data from multiple jurisdictions to perform analyses on larger samples. The project’s results sug- gest a great need for the quick adoption of national performance standards, assessment instruments, and scoring methods that can be used productively and immediately and improved based on experience and evidence acquired over time.”90 39 CURRENT CONGRESSIONAL INQUIRIES INTO THE USE OF PREPAREDNESS FUNDS ■ Earlier this year, U.S. Senator Charles Grassley (R-IA) questioned the CDC’s oversight of state public health funds for bioterrorism. Grassley called upon the CDC to demonstrate that grants for bioterrorism are being used appropriately and are having a positive impact, and asked the CDC to provide information about how it measures improvements in preparedness levels. ■ The GAO is currently conducting a review at the request of Representative Bennie Thompson (D-MS), ranking member of the House Committee on Homeland Security, and Representative Edward Markey (D-MA), also a member of the committee, to look at CDC’s Public Health Preparedness and Response for Bioterrorism Program and HRSA’s National Bioterrorism Hospital Preparedness Program. Senator Grassley, chairman of the Senate Committee on Finance, and Senator Judd Gregg (R-NH), chairman of the Senate Committee on the Budget, have also signed on to the request. The GAO’s first assignment is to examine how the CDC and HRSA develop performance measures, monitor perform- ance, and measure the level of preparedness of states, localities, and hospitals that receive cooperative agreement funds, and how this information is communicated back to the states and communities in order to improve preparedness. ■ On October 30, 2006 the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Government Affairs requested that the GAO conduct a “survey and analysis of the research, develop- ment, testing, and evaluation and deployment programs for biological detection technolo- gies across the government, academia and private industry.”91 The committee is looking into detection technologies and response capabilities for bioterror attacks, and how best to coordinate government and nongovernmental efforts. Such transparency is an important part of making sure that funds are being allocated where they can do the most good. EXAMPLES OF PRIOR INVESTIGATIONS AND STUDIES ABOUT USE OF PREPAREDNESS FUNDS AND PUBLIC HEALTH CAPABILITIES ■ HHS Office of the Inspector General (OIG): Since 2003, the HHS OIG has issued a series of audits questioning how several states have used their CDC funds. Questions regarding unspent funds and possible misuse of funding have surfaced due to lack of formal accountability practices.92, 93, 94, 95, 96 ▲ A 2006 report reviewing 12 state and 36 local health departments concluded that “states and localities were underprepared, and that planning documents tended to overstate preparedness,” and “general readiness of state and local governments to detect and respond to bioterrorist attacks is below acceptable levels.”97 ■ Congressional Research Service (CRS): A 2005 CRS report found that HRSA’s hospital preparedness program had “been charged over the years with lacking sufficient focus to adequately direct funds in meaningful directions, or with failing to assure that emergency healthcare services will be available consistently across jurisdictions.”98 ■ Government Accountability Office (GAO): A February 2004 GAO evaluation of the cooperative agreement program goals for 2002 found that, “states are more prepared now than they were prior to these [CDC and HRSA cooperative agreement] programs, but much remains to be accomplished.”99 A 2005 GAO report on public health information technology found unresolved issues including: integration of systems into a nationwide infrastructure without duplication of efforts; developing and implementing standards; and improving coordination.100 40 EXAMPLES OF CDC AND HRSA PREPAREDNESS PERFORMANCE MEASURES CDC States must meet specific “critical benchmarks” or “performance measures” in order to receive cooperative agreement funding for preparedness from the CDC. The CDC has been updating its measures each year. The CDC provided TFAH with the aggregate state data measuring the 2004 “critical benchmarks” as the most recent data set. As an example of the type of data col- lected, a portion of these benchmarks required states to self-report about the development of their plans for different threats. The states were also asked to report whether or not they test- ed their plans and if so, whether outcomes of these tests were incorporated into their plans. However, the states were not required to report on the outcomes themselves. Most states reported developing plans for a range of bio-threats, but many had not tested their plans. Also, less than half the states had developed plans for chemical threats such as nerve agents that dis- rupt the mechanism through which nerves transfer messages to organs (e.g., sarin), blood agents that limit the body from using oxygen (e.g., cyanogens chloride and hydrogen cyanide), and blis- ter agents that cause severe skin, eye, and mucosal pain and irritation (e.g., mustard gas). State Data to CDC: Development of Plans and Testing of Plans Threat Has Detailed Jurisdiction- Has Tested Jurisdiction-Wide Wide Response Plan to Response Plan to Respond to Respond to the Listed Listed Specific Threats in the Specific Threats: Last 12 Months: Anthrax 85% 61% Botulism 79% 25% Plague 80% 37% Smallpox 98% 33% Tularemia 79% 32% Nerve agents 44% 18% Blood agents 41% 7% Blister agents 41% 5% Radiation/Nuclear 62% 40% Pandemic flu 95% 56% Source: CDC As another example, 97 percent of states self-report as having a crisis and emergency risk communications plan, but there is no accompanying measurement system that evaluates the quality of the plans. Instead, current measures only focus on whether public health depart- ments simply have the capability to share data with external “partners.” HRSA HRSA lists preparedness program accomplishments on its Web page in aggregate form. One accomplishment measured via self-reporting by states is whether “jurisdictions have the capacity to maintain, in negative pressure isolation, at least one suspected case of a highly infectious disease or any febrile patient with a suspect rash or other symptoms of concern who might possibly be developing a potentially highly communicable disease.”101 The usefulness of this measure is clearly limited, given most suspected bioterrorism or infectious disease outbreaks will involve more than one suspected case. Under fall 2006 avian flu guidelines from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) at the U.S. Department of Labor, isolation is suggested for all suspected patients, so clearly the capacity to isolate a single patient would be insufficient.102 Other “accomplishments” include difficult to measure objectives, such as whether jurisdictions “have been enhancing” or are “working to establish” networking capabilities, training, or effective communications systems.103 Further “measures” report on whether jurisdictions have medical equipment, access to pharmaceuticals for healthcare workers, or have decontamination systems, but do not ask about quantities or specific resources. 41 Additional Issues and Concerns 1. BIOMEDICAL ADVANCED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT c SECTION AUTHORITY (BARDA) During the Cold War, America was at risk of falling behind in military technology and the “Space Race.” Recognizing the need to stay competitive, DARPA, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, was born. The agency, responsible for research and development of new technology for the military, has led to scientific breakthroughs including the Internet, microchips, tactical robots and airborne radar mapping systems. These breakthrough technologies continue to give the United States tactical and competitive advantages. Today, the country faces a range of new threats, from bioterrorism to the pandemic flu, using outdated technology and equipment. In December 2006, Congress passed legislation to create the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority of 2006, known as BARDA, which is intended to serve as a modern, public health version of DARPA, helping to jump-start a new cycle of innovation in vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics to combat health threats. BARDA supports research and development of new health technologies that could save thousands, if not millions, of lives. BARDA establishes a new agency within HHS to provide incentives and guidance for research and development of products to counter bioterrorism and pandemic flu. It will: ■ Encourage advanced research and development of those products. ■ Facilitate collaboration among government, private industry, and academia. ■ Promote scientific innovation to reduce the time and cost of development. In addition, a National Biodefense Science Board advisory group would be established to provide scientific guidance to HHS on issues involving chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear agents. BARDA would not impose new costs on local or state governments. Funds for BARDA have already been appropriated as part of the FY 2006 pandemic preparedness funds. 43 2. E. COLI, MAD COW, AND BOTULISM SCARES IN 2006 RAISE CONCERNS OVER FOOD SAFETY AND AGROTERRORISM: PROTECTING AMERICA’S FOOD FROM FARM TO FORK The E. coli contamination of spinach and lettuce, new mad cow disease scares, and naturally occurring botulism heightened concerns in 2006 about the vulnerability of the nation’s food supply and the agricultural sector. Agroterrorism and naturally occurring food-borne illnesses are threats to both homeland and economic security. ■ At more than a trillion dollars a year, agriculture represents one-sixth of the Gross Domestic Product and accounts for over $50 billion in exports annually, the largest positive contribution to the national trade balance.104 ■ Agriculture and the food sector employ one out of every seven U.S. workers, more than any other single industry. ■ Over 13 percent of all jobs in metropolitan areas are tied to agriculture and the food sector. ■ Plant diseases alone currently cost the U.S. economy an estimated $33 billion a year.105 “FOR THE LIFE OF ME, I CANNOT UNDERSTAND WHY THE TERRORISTS HAVE NOT ATTACKED OUR FOOD SUPPLY, BECAUSE IT IS SO EASY TO DO.” -TOMMY THOMPSON, FORMER SECRETARY OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES106 Recent trends have complicated the nation’s ability to protect the agricultural industry, making it possible for naturally occurring outbreaks in or terrorist attacks on the food supply to have a quick, widespread impact. ■ Agriculture today is, for the most part, based on a mega-farm agribusiness model. As con- solidation (shifting away from the single-family farm) has taken place, certain livestock or crops are increasingly centralized in specific regions and even certain farms. For example in 1990, 74 percent of all wet corn (a popular livestock feed) was milled by the top four processing firms in only 15 facilities.107 Five million head of cattle were fattened by the top 30 feedlots in 1998.108 And 83 percent of all beef in the U.S. was processed by the largest five beef packers in 32 plants.109 This centralization facilitates the spread of disease by max- imizing the contact between livestock or crops and enables a single infected animal or con- taminated product to cause widespread damage. ■ As specialized centers of activity have developed throughout the nation, livestock rearing has changed from a localized process to a geographically dispersed effort. An animal is most likely born on a breeding farm, at which point it is shuttled to a different farm for fat- tening, and then transported again for slaughter and processing. The carcass may even be sent to another state for disposal.110 In addition, animals are frequently shown or displayed at regional shows or auctions. This mingling of animals from various regions of the country, as well as the highly mobile character of the industry, can accelerate the spread of disease. The fact that there is a period of time between the infection of crops or livestock by pathogens and the development of symptoms makes it difficult to determine if a disease out- break is naturally occurring or an act of terrorism. And if the infection does prove to be an act of terrorism, this elapse of time makes it more difficult to capture the perpetrators. 44 Veterinary Vaccine and Medical Countermeasures Stockpile Homeland Security Presidential Directive Nine, “Defense of United States Agriculture and Food,” calls for a coordinated national approach to countering threats to the food supply, including the formation of a National Plant Disease Recovery System and a National Veterinary Stockpile (NVS) of vaccines and countermeasures to protect livestock. The VNS must be capable of deployment within 24 hours because rapid response is nec- essary to combat an outbreak.111 The directive was issued in January 2004; however, a report from the GAO released in March 2005 reveals that the U.S. Department of Agriculture had not yet developed this capability, and formation of the NVS is moving slowly.112 “USDA would not be able to deploy animal vaccines within 24 hours of an out- break as called for in a presidential directive, in part because the only vaccines currently stored in the United States are for strains of foot and mouth disease, and these vaccines need to be sent to the United Kingdom (U.K.) to be activated for use.”113 Food-Borne Threats E. coli 0157:H7 In the late summer and early fall of 2006, nearly 200 people became sick and at least three died due to E. coli contamination in spinach. It is possible that even more illnesses or deaths were related to the outbreak as “officials believe that for every E. coli case reported, 20 go unreported.”114 E. coli often also goes undiagnosed.115, 116 “Escherichia coli O157:H7 (E. coli) is a leading cause of foodborne illness.”117 E. Coli is mostly contracted through “eating undercooked, contaminated ground beef... (or) eating contami- nated bean sprouts or fresh leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach. Person-to-person contact in families and child care centers is also a known mode of transmission.”118 The deaths and illnesses from the spinach have led to a renewed call for increased regula- tion. The FDA does not inspect produce on a similar scale as the USDA’s inspection of beef, and it has fewer inspectors and more facilities to inspect than it did in 2003.119 Additionally, “more outbreaks of the disease are now traced to produce than to meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and milk combined.”120 Just prior to the outbreaks, the FDA in August had launched a “Lettuce Safety Initiative” to respond to “recurring outbreaks of E. coli” in lettuce.121 The initiative will focus first on California regions, where a large portion of past outbreaks have occurred (including the most recent spinach outbreak), and will concentrate on the following objectives: ■ Assessing industry approaches and actions. ■ Early detection and rapid response. ■ Observing and identifying practices that might lead to contamination. ■ Consideration of regulatory action.122 “IN THE LAST 20 YEARS, THE INCIDENCE OF PRODUCE-RELATED FOOD-BORNE ILLNESS HAS INCREASED TWO AND A HALF TO THREE TIMES.” —RICHARD H. LINTON, DIRECTOR OF THE CENTER FOR FOOD SAFETY ENGINEERING AT PURDUE UNIVERSITY123 45 Botulism There were also naturally occurring breakouts of botulism in the past year. At least four people became sick in the Southeast after drinking bottled carrot juice; officials believe the illnesses were due to botulism-causing bacteria in the drink.124 Botulism is a “paralytic illness caused by a nerve toxin that is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum.”125 There are primarily three types of botulism: food-borne, wound, and infant. Food-borne is often the most deadly since it can affect a great deal of people with little effort.126 In addition to the toxin occurring naturally, there are also concerns that botulism could be used as a weapon. A July 2005 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences outlined a relatively easy and potentially devastating method using botulism to kill thousands of people and disrupt the U.S. economy. The study, conducted by Stanford Graduate School of Business Professor Lawrence M. Wein, determined that “a mere four grams of botulinum toxin dropped into a milk production facility could cause serious ill- ness and even death for 400,000 people in the United States.”127 The report recommended that the FDA make current volunteer safety guidelines manda- tory, “such as requiring that milk tanks and trucks be locked and that two people be pres- ent when milk is transferred from one stage of the supply chain to the next. Before releasing milk into silos, milk-tank truck drivers should be required to employ a new 15- minute test that can detect the four types of toxins associated with human botulism.”128 In addition, the report became “one of the first test cases of how to balance scientific freedom and national security in the post-September 11 era.”129 Federal officials ques- tioned the value of the publication due to security concerns over misuse of its contents. As a result, the report’s release was delayed from May until July 2005. Disease Threats to Agriculture Mad Cow Disease In March 2006, the USDA announced that a cow in Alabama tested positive for bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), better known as mad cow disease. The Alabama cow was the third such case in the United States, with the first case occurring in Washington state in December 2003.130, 131 Mad cow is a fatal illness that strikes the central nervous system of cattle. Humans can contract a related illness called variant Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (vCJD) by eating infected beef. Also in 2003, a single cow in Canada was diagnosed with mad cow disease, leading many nations (including the United States) to place a ban on Canadian cattle and beef imports. Economic losses due to the import bans have been massive, with estimates ranging from $1.6 to $3.2 billion.132 If a significant outbreak of mad cow disease in the United States occurred, the FDA esti- mates that there would be a loss of $15 billion, resulting from a 24 percent decline in domestic beef sales and an 80 percent decline in beef and live cattle exports.133 Slaughter and disposal costs of at-risk cattle could add up to an additional $12 billion.134 Experts point out that generally concerns about mad cow are related to animal health rather than human health in the U.S. 46 Foot-and-Mouth Disease In 2001, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was detected in sheep in England. Within seven months, four million animals had been destroyed, and the British economy was reeling from losses ranging from $10-$18 billion, at least $5 billion of which came from a decline in tourism.135 Foot-and-mouth disease afflicts a variety of cloven-hoofed livestock, including cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. The disease is not typically fatal, and generally resolves within eight to 15 days. FMD is extremely infectious, and while animals may exhibit symptoms for only two weeks, the virus persists in the host and remains infectious for a number of months -- up to more than two years in cattle. FMD is not a risk to human health. There has not been an outbreak of FMD in the United States since 1929. The ease with which it spreads, however, makes it a prime area of concern, and a number of exercises and estimates have been conducted recently to examine the capacity to respond to the disease and estimate the costs it could impose. In 2002, the USDA simulated the inten- tional introduction of FMD by a terrorist group. The simulation found that after initially introducing the disease at two farms, FMD spread to 12 states within 10 days, while the introduction of the disease at five farms lead to FMD infection in 35 states within 10 days.136 The estimated costs of the eradication effort approached $24 billion, in part due to the overwhelming number of animals that needed to be destroyed.137 In fact, the leaders of the exercise questioned whether there would even be enough bullets to kill the 34-50 million animals needed to be euthanized.138 The United States maintains vaccine stockpiles against several strains of FMD only, but the vaccine is not readily available. Because vaccines have a limited shelf-life, the FMD vaccine stockpiles are stored as concentrates that must be activated before they can be used. In the event of an outbreak of FMD on U.S. soil, the vaccine would have to be shipped to England for activation, bottling, and testing. This process could take up to three weeks, not including the shipping time.139 Rural America Expresses Concern About Being Left out of City-Based Strategies While some experts in homeland security believe that urban areas are the most likely targets for terrorism, others point out that rural preparedness issues deserve serious consideration as well. In September 2004, a group of experts convened the conference, “Preparing for Public Health Emergencies: Meeting the Challenges in Rural America.”140 The conference reported on the limited resources in rural communities, particularly related to surge capacity which would be quickly overwhelmed in most rural communities in a major emergency. Additionally, the conference highlighted concerns related to animal livestock and other forms of agriculture, and water, air, and transportation issues.141 47 Policy Recommendations TFAH’s recommendations for agroterrorism and naturally-occurring toxins are part of the all-hazards approach to public health preparedness, and include: 1. Leadership. There are multiple agencies that are responsible for different aspects of food safety regulation and oversight, but no single entity or person in the government is designated as being “in charge.” 2. Creating a unified system. The GAO, Institute of Medicine (IOM), National Academies of Science (NAS), and consumer groups have all called for changes from the current frag- mented federal food safety system to a single, independent food safety agency.142 3. Surveillance and disease tracking. Tracking animal-borne diseases should be better integrated and coordinated with human health surveillance. Additionally, increased labora- tory facilities and better trained personnel, particularly greater training to detect animal- diseases and a network of responders, are important to improving detection of outbreaks. 4. Education and communication. Veterinarians and farm workers must be educated about terrorist threats (including learning about intelligence sharing and security measures) and naturally occurring disease (including symptoms, treatments, and reporting practices). 5. Coordination and planning. Clear leadership structure and catastrophic planning, including scenario drills, are needed at every level of government and across sectors. All planning should involve government (federal, state, and local), academia, industry, and healthcare and veterinary representatives. Crisis management and contingency planning are integral to surviving an outbreak of food-borne or animal-borne disease, whether nat- urally occurring or as a result of a terrorist attack. 3. FIVE YEARS AFTER THE ANTHRAX ATTACKS, PROGRESS IS SLOW This fall marked the five-year anniversary of the 2001 anthrax attacks. Five people were killed, 17 people made sick, and another 10,000 persons were potentially exposed to anthrax in four states and the District of Columbia. To date no one has been charged with the attacks,143 which severely disrupted business and government and led to the closure of some Congressional offices for days. The economic losses from the events, along with the cost of additional screening protections for the mail, totaled hundreds of millions of dollars. While there currently is no good way of estimating the probability of an anthrax attack, steps can be taken to reduce the risk, as well as to mitigate losses. Recent experiences with anthrax illustrate how many lives and dollars can be saved through public health protection. Based on clinical history with anthrax, medical professionals and economists have been able to forecast the potential impact of preparedness programs. The speed with which those exposed to anthrax receive antibiotics is the single most important means of reducing loss- es.144 For example, medical professionals estimate greater than 50 percent increases in post- attack mortality rates from anthrax exposure when either the distribution of antibiotics is delayed or prophylactic adherent to antibiotics is substantially diminished.145 Anthrax has a short incubation period. As the graph below illustrates, the epidemic hits hard- est two to four days after exposure. The number of lives lost and the economic losses to society increase exponentially for every day without public health intervention. Economic losses include hospitalization costs, the loss of expected future earnings, and the costs of post- hospitalization outpatient visits, outpatient visits of non-hospitalized patients, and interventions (such as pharmaceuticals). 48 Exposed Who Become Ill Source: CDC report The CDC considered a hypothetical anthrax attack on a city where 100,000 persons are exposed when a bioterrorist group releases an aerosol of anthrax along a line in the direction of the prevailing wind.146 The aerosol cloud passes over the target area within two hours, and it is assumed that, when inhaled, the infectious dose is 20,000 spores. The CDC estimates that if public health officials took six days to identify the attack under this scenario, an estimated 33,000 people would die, and economic losses would reach $26.2 bil- lion.147 On the other hand, if public health officials responded within 24 hours, the number of lives lost would be roughly 5,000 and economic losses would reach $128 million. In sum, according to the CDC, basic improvements to public health protection in the face of a plausi- ble emergency could save 28,000 lives and $26 billion. Anthrax Preparedness Since 2001 A recent report by the Center for Biosecurity at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Anthrax Appraisal 5 Years Later: Top 10 Accomplishments and Remaining Challenges, examined progress in preparing for the threat of anthrax since the 2001 tragedies.148 The report’s findings included: ■ Key accomplishments: The stockpiling and/or ordering of antibiotics, vaccine, and other alternative medications to treat anthrax; improved diagnostics; legislation, awareness, and funding regarding bioterrorism; and greater research and communications. ■ Key needs to be accomplished: Improving distribution of the SNS and doctrine for using the countermeasures included in it, as well as assuring vaccine delivery capacity; updating prophylaxis strategies and treatment guidelines, which have not been changed since the attacks in 2001 despite clinical knowledge learned in those attacks; general increase in healthcare system capacity to deal with emergencies; and the need for clinical education so that healthcare workers know how to treat anthrax victims properly. The Center concludes that “while the federal government is responsible for some of the steps that remain to be taken, much of what remains to be done is the responsibility of state and local governments, hospitals, health departments, and medical schools.”149 49 Moving Targets: Government Testing for Anthrax and Vaccinations Issues In May 2006, GAO officials testified on anthrax testing and vaccines before the Subcommittee on National Security, Emerging Threats, and International Relations of the U.S. House of Representatives.150 They reported that “the anthrax incidents in 2001 highlighted major gaps in civilian preparedness to detect and respond to anthrax attacks, leading the federal govern- ment to focus on developing new drugs, vaccines, and therapeutics to protect U.S. citizens.”151 The GAO has also raised concerns over the status of the development of a new anthrax vac- cine, concluding that, “despite the many recommendations GAO has made over the past few years regarding problems related to the anthrax vaccine’s safety and effectiveness... deficien- cies remain.”152 The GAO is particularly critical of HHS’s contracting practices in that there is no risk protection for the contractor, and thus no incentive to go out on a limb and manufac- ture the vaccine. It also suggests that since this was the first contract awarded under BioShield legislation, it sets a precedent for all future contracts. The GAO also points out that issues surrounding the new anthrax vaccine protocol “have not been studied. Data on the prevalence and duration of short-term reactions to the vaccines are limited...”153 The GAO praised HHS for its progress regarding a “second-generation” anthrax vaccine and its aggressiveness in contracting to get the vaccine made and purchased.154 Since the outset of Project BioShield, concerns have been raised about the anthrax vaccine contract to VaxGen, which has never successfully brought a drug to market, but was awarded a $887 million contract to produce 75 million doses.155 No vaccine is currently publicly available. As VaxGen was about to undertake human testing on the vaccine in November, the FDA stopped it, citing “stability” issues and raising questions about how well the vaccine would hold up over time (i.e., during stock- piling), and if enough time had passed to be “clinically meaningful” in determining the vaccine’s effi- cacy.156 HHS has given Vaxgen at least until mid-December 2006 to work out its issues with the FDA.157 According to a letter sent to VaxGen in November 2006, HHS “plans to issue a contract modification to re-establish the due date for VaxGen to initiate its next clinical trial.”158 4. GAPS IN PRIVATE SECTOR AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN PUBLIC HEALTH During major emergencies, the resources of the regular public health system will be quickly overtaxed. Improving the nation’s health even in times of non-emergency requires the involvement of a wide range of sectors, including community and faith-based groups, busi- nesses, and the media. These other sectors have important expertise and capabilities that help extend the reach of the public health goals and the goals of controlling and preventing health threats to the health of Americans. Efforts to engage community, faith-based, business, and media groups in emergency health response planning is challenging and has lagged in most places in the country. Better incorpo- ration of other sectors into public health emergency planning could greatly improve response efforts, and better prepare the public in advance for emergencies. Community Groups: Community and faith-based groups routinely provide direct services to the public, and often have much greater capabilities to reach people with special needs. These non-governmental organizations demonstrated their ability to compliment and extend the abilities of government response in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. (For more discus- sion, please see number nine of this section). Businesses: The business sector plays a vital role in public health concerns. Sickness and health problems among working-age Americans and their families carry an estimated price tag of $260 billion in lost productivity each year, roughly 2.4 percent of gross domestic product.159 The business community’s personnel health policies and plans to protect both its workforce and its continuity of operations in the face of an atypical and large-scale health emergency will have a major impact in any emergency response effort. 50 Media: Most members of the public receive information about health crises through the media. The media play a vital role in communicating about risks and ways people can protect themselves and their families. For instance, the media would be the dissemination vehicle for information about mass vaccination or antiviral distribution efforts in states. The media in the U.S., of course, also play a unique and important role of holding public officials accountable for their performance. California Pandemic Preparedness Symposium of October 2006 In October 2006, TFAH hosted a California Pandemic Preparedness Symposium in Los Angeles with the support of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, The Pew Charitable T rusts, and The California Endowment. The event brought key decision-makers together, including state and local government, the private sector -- including Intel, the Disney Company, Chevron Corp., City National Bank, and Westfield Malls -- and faith- and community-based organizations, to share information, voice concerns, and expose inevitable gaps in preparedness. Participants in the exercise addressed a range of questions, including the following: ■ County public health, how are you going to prioritize your limited amount of antivi- ral medication; and how are you going to explain those decisions to the public? ■ Healthcare sector, will you be able to get your people to come to work? ■ Business community, have you thought about ways to enable your employees to work offsite? ■ County and state, what guidance will you give the public concerning non-pharmaceu- tical measures? ■ Community groups, what questions do you have and what do you need from health officials right now? ■ Education sector, how are you responding at this juncture? Source: Excerpt from a summary of the symposium, courtesy of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. The Business Force of the Business Executives for National Security (BENS) One example of public-private collaborations is the Business Force program at the Business Executives for National Security (BENS). The program fosters partnerships among business- es and state and local governments around the testing of vaccines and establishing points of distribution for medical supplies and vaccines in several communities across the country. When facing public health threats, BENS believes the business community can play an important role in business continuity planning, which includes developing emergency response capabilities to protect the business and the health and safety of all employees. In addition, Business Force works in concert with state and local governments to implement specific preparedness and response capabilities by utilizing the expertise and resources of the private sector. Specifically, Business Force identifies four initiatives of value: 1) Mobilizing business volunteers to assist in the dispensing of the National Strategic Stockpile; 2) Building Business Response Networks — Web-based registries of pledged business resources that can be called upon by public officials in response to a catastrophic event or public health crisis; 3) Launching the Workplace Sentinel program — enlisting large numbers of employers to report anomalous rates of employee absenteeism to provide public health officials early indicators of disease; and 4) Integrating business into state and local emergency operations and intelligence fusion centers.160 51 5. RISK COMMUNICATIONS AND AMERICAN PUBLIC OPINION Communicating with the public is a critically important part of any public health emergency. But public health communicators face numerous challenges. Many of the standard models for risk communications have not been updated to adjust to today’s 24-hour news cycles and the prolif- eration of Internet, telephonic, radio, cable, and television news outlets. Also, risk communica- tion strategies must do a better job of involving the public in planning for health emergencies. Another challenge is that planners have difficulty predicting how the public will behave during a cri- sis. Some public opinion research has been conducted to try to assess how the public is likely to respond to major health threats. A 2004 study by Dr. Roz Lasker of the New York Academy of Medicine found that during a “dirty bomb” or smallpox attack, many people would not follow planners’ protective instructions because “current plans have been developed without the direct involvement of the public...do not account for all the risks people would face...[and] make it very difficult for people to decide on the best course of action to protect themselves and their family.”161 The Harvard School of Public Health conducted a public opinion survey of 1,607 Americans to find out what would happen during a severe pandemic flu outbreak in the United States and “possibly” in the respondents’ own communities.162 The study found that: ■ Large majorities of Americans would follow public health recommendations for one month. These recommendations include avoiding air travel and public places and events, canceling routine medical appointments, and postponing family events. ■ More than half (57 percent) would stay at home rather than go to work even if their employer “said to come to work.”163 Nearly half (48 percent) would “lose pay and have money problems” if they had to stay home for seven to 10 days due to their own illness or that of a family member, while just more than a quarter (27 percent) said it was “likely they or a household member would lose their job or business” from doing so.164 ■ Thirty-five percent thought they would need “a lot” or “some” help with problems of hav- ing children at home.165 Despite the public opinion research, experts point out it is challenging to predict in advance how people will really respond during actual events versus how they may think they would respond when presented with hypothetical scenarios. 52 6. CARING FOR CHILDREN DURING DISASTERS In February 2006, the American Academy of Pediatrics’ (AAP) Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Committee on Medical Liability, and Task Force on Terrorism published a policy state- ment, “The Pediatrician and Disaster Preparedness,” giving pediatricians guidance on a variety of emergency preparedness issues.166 The statement suggests that children are often overlooked in disaster and emergency preparedness planning and that pediatricians need to play a unique role in making sure that children are included in such planning. The policy statement recommends that: 1. Pediatricians should advocate for the inclusion of children’s needs in all federal, state, and local disaster planning. 2. Pediatricians and pediatric trainees should become knowledgeable about issues related to pediatric disaster management, including chemical, biological, explosive, radiological, and nuclear events, and physician liability during disasters. 3. Pediatricians should participate in disaster planning by: ■ Taking part in local community and hospital disaster planning and drills. ■ Preparing and regularly updating and practicing an office disaster plan. ■ Working with schools and child care centers to develop disaster plans. ■ Providing anticipatory guidance to families on home disaster preparedness, with considera- tion given to the unique problems faced by children with special healthcare needs. ■ Participating with and providing guidance to medical volunteer programs such as disaster medical assistance teams, Medical Reserve Corps, and other response teams to ensure that they are equipped and trained for the care of children. ■ Pediatricians should educate themselves about liability issues during the acute and recovery phases of a disaster, including: ▲ Individual states’ Good Samaritan statutes and protections afforded while providing emergency care during a disaster and any limitations to those protections. ▲ Individual liability insurance coverage protections and limitations outside of the usual scope of practice and practice settings when providing urgent and routine care. ▲ The importance of working under the auspices of an official government or disaster agency so that volunteer liability protection can apply.167 “TERRORISM IS A REALITY IN THE UNITED STATES, AND BOMBS, GERMS, TOXIC GASES, AND THE FORCES OF NATURE DO NOT DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN CHILDREN AND ADULTS. DESPITE OUR BEST EFFORTS TO SHELTER AND PROTECT THEM, CHILDREN REMAIN AMONG THE MOST VULNERABLE VICTIMS OF TERRORISM AND NATURAL DISASTERS.” —AGENCY FOR HEALTHCARE RESEARCH AND QUALITY (AHRQ) REPORT, SEPTEMBER 2006.168 Children Are More Vulnerable to Certain Attacks Children are not simply “small adults.” Treating them during a public health emergency brings unique challenges. For example, children have “physiological differences...[that] may enhance susceptibility and worsen prognosis after a chemical agent exposure.”169 And “a number of characteristics render the pediatric patient uniquely sensitive to” radiation as well.170 53 Majority of Schools Have Emergency Plans, But Drilling and Specificity Are Lacking A December 2005 study published in Pediatrics sought to determine the extent to which schools across the country were adhering to preparedness guidelines put out by the AAP and the American Heart Association. To do so, researchers surveyed nearly 600 school nurses with the help of the National Association of School Nurses.171 While 86 percent of schools represented in the survey sample had a medical emergency- response plan (MERP), only a third (33 percent) exercised the plan in a given year, and fully 35 percent of schools had “never practiced” it.172 Communications and clear decision-making authority has been an issue across all sectors when dealing with emergency preparedness, and schools are no different. More than two-thirds (68 percent) of respondents’ schools did not have “an efficient and effective campus-wide communication system,” and in 13 percent of schools, there was no one person authorized “to make medical decisions when faced with a life-threatening emergency.”173 The research recommends that “...communities, including physicians, EMS staff, and school staff members, assess their current state of school prepared- ness several times during the school year and ensure compliance with... published guidelines to improve the care of children in school.”174 Pediatric Concerns and the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) States and experts have expressed concern that the SNS may not contain sufficient pediatric doses of medications and vaccines and other materials. In a 2005 survey TFAH conducted of emergency preparedness officials in eight states, the officials reported they had limited to no information about pediatric materials available in the SNS, and had not received guidance about pediatric dosing. 54 7. VULNERABLE POPULATIONS AND EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS There is universal concern about managing issues related to “vulnerable” or “special needs” populations during a public health emergency. A 2005 survey of experts conducted by TFAH based on a smallpox scenario found that while there is a belief that people in nursing homes and those who are regularly provided with social services can be reached in an emergency, there is great concern about those “outside the system” and those who have difficulty speak- ing English. There is also great concern about infectious disease outbreaks in special needs populations, such as people with limited access to Internet or cable news, limited English speakers, or people with some forms of disabilities; for instance, the reporting of such out- breaks might not occur in as timely a manner as they would in the mainstream population.175 A June 2006 “Nationwide Plan Review Phase 2 Report” by the DHS found that people living with special needs are “overlooked in all phases of emergency management.”176 “Special needs” populations can be defined as “people with disabilities, minority groups, people who do not speak English, children, and the elderly. In practice, the term also includes people who live in poverty or on public assistance; people without private trans- portation or who rely on public transportation; and people who rely on caregivers for assistance in daily living and would need similar assistance in an emergency...”177 The DHS report finds that while most emergency response plans mention such populations, “sorely lacking is any consistency of approach, depth of planning, or evidence of safeguards and effective implementation.”178 The government’s review of community plans for special needs populations “revealed major fragmentation, inconsistencies, and critical gaps.”179 Some of the report’s other important findings include: ■ In most cases, states delegate matters of special needs populations, but provide for little oversight or assurance that assistance to such populations “will be executed in a timely and effective manner.” ■ Few plans address the fact that traditional communications will often not reach special needs populations. ■ Sheltering is often carried out by the American Red Cross; however, there are no mecha- nisms in place to make sure that local Red Cross chapters have the means to carry out that function. “IN JULY 2004, PRESIDENT BUSH SIGNED EXECUTIVE ORDER 13347, “INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES IN EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS,” TO STRENGTHEN PREPAREDNESS EFFORTS FOR THE DISABLED. THE EXECUTIVE ORDER ALSO CREATED THE INTERAGENCY COORDINATING COUNCIL (ICC) ON EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES WITHIN DHS TO IMPLEMENT THIS COORDINATED EFFORT BY THE FEDERAL AGENCIES.”180 —THE DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND SECURITY’S “NATIONWIDE PLAN REVIEW PHASE 2 REPORT” 55 8. WORLD TRADE CENTER (WTC) HEALTH EFFECTS “When the WTC buildings collapsed on September 11, 2001, an estimated 250,000 to 400,000 people were immediately exposed to a noxious mixture of dust, debris, smoke, and potentially toxic contaminants in the air and on the ground, such as pulverized concrete, fibrous glass, particulate matter, and asbestos... Physical effects included injuries and respiratory conditions, such as sinusi- tis; asthma; and a new syndrome called WTC cough, which consists of persistent coughing accom- panied by severe respiratory syndromes. Almost all firefighters who responded to the attack experi- enced respiratory effects, including WTC cough, and hundreds had to end their firefighting careers because of WTC-related respiratory illnesses.”181 At least two studies published in the past year look at the health effects of 9/11 and the sub- sequent cleanup on emergency personnel and others who spent time at the WTC site. One study examined the health of more than 12,000 New York City emergency workers,182 while a second looked more broadly at nearly 10,000 first responders (those who helped with cleanup at any of the staging sites, those who worked in the medical examiner’s office, or others in similar roles).183 Both studies found severe respiratory problems related to amount of time spent among the rubble, as well as differences in severity of symptoms depending on where the bulk of time was spent. Further, those who responded on 9/11 and were caught in the WTC dust cloud upon collapse of the buildings exhibited markedly worse symptoms. Nearly a third (31 percent) of people in the broader sample “received medical care for WTC- related respiratory conditions,” and 17 percent missed work because of these conditions.184 A study of more than 8,000 WTC “adult survivors who were present between the time of the first airplane impact and noon on September 11 in any one of the 38 primarily nonresidential buildings or structures that were damaged or that collapsed” produced similar findings to the emergency worker health effects.185 More than half (56.6 percent) of the adult survivors stud- ied experienced respiratory problems (either new or worse than prior to 9/11), two percent were diagnosed with asthma after the attack, and more than a quarter (27 percent) had a “persistent cough.”186 Again, those who were “in the dust and debris cloud” were far more likely to have respiratory problems, and those problems were worse than those who were not in the cloud.187 A key lesson learned is that there is a need for post-incident monitoring and ongoing care. Additionally, mechanisms should be explored for how to conduct research even as a disaster is unfolding, including data collection and analysis that could benefit victims and inform the development of future prevention, containment, and response strategies. 56 9. HURRICANE KATRINA: AN ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONSE EFFORT “Before Hurricane Katrina, the only prior recent incident for which a federal public health emer- gency had been declared was the terror attack of September 11, 2001.”188 Hurricane Katrina delivered well-documented devastation to Louisiana, Mississippi, and other locations along the U.S. Gulf Coast. The confusion and human toll resulting from Katrina prompted numerous assessments of preparedness for national mass emergencies. Among several health-focused analyses, a recent report from the Congressional Research Service (CRS), Hurricane Katrina: the Public Health and Medical Response, examined the roles, responsibilities, and issues arising from the event. According to the CRS report, Hurricane Katrina “dealt some familiar blows in emergency response: the failure of communication systems and resultant difficulties in coordination chal- lenged response efforts in this disaster as with others before it. Hurricane Katrina also pushed some response elements, such as plans for surge capacity in the healthcare workforce, to their limits for the first time in recent memory. The public health and medical response to Hurricane Katrina has also called attention to the matter of disaster planning in healthcare facilities, and the potential role of health information technology in expediting the care of displaced persons.”189 Katrina also identified additional gaps in emergency preparedness, including: ■ Hospitals and medical providers overwhelmed, with doctors and nurses often working with few supplies, in unsanitary conditions, and without electricity. ■ Insufficient measures taken to care for the chronically ill, those in nursing homes, and the disabled in the event of a mass emergency or needed evacuation. ■ Stoppage in the chain of delivery of food, water, medicine, and other supplies due to the nation’s “just in time economy.” ■ Disruption of emergency communications systems. ■ Inconsistencies in infectious disease and public health hazard response. ■ Providing limited, slow, and inconsistent information to the public. The CRS study also catalogued six broad “Issues for Congress” with respect to improving future mass-emergency response: ■ All-hazards preparedness. ■ Coordinated needs assessments. ■ A national disaster medical system. ■ Continuity of operations and evacuation of healthcare facilities. ■ Volunteer health professionals. ■ Health information technology.190 57 Recommendations F ive years after 9/11, public health preparedness falls far short of what is required to protect the American people. The nation has made slow progress toward improving basic capabilities, but is nowhere near reaching d SECTION adequate, let alone “optimally achievable,” levels of preparedness across the 50 states and D.C. TFAH calls for accelerating public health To strengthen emergency preparedness, we preparedness efforts, and urges an “all-haz- must focus on five key areas: ards” approach to help protect against a 1. Accountability. range of possible threats, including bioter- 2. Leadership. rorism, natural disasters, and a major out- 3. Surge capacity and the workforce. break of a new, lethal strain of the flu. 4. Modernizing technology and equipment. 5. Partnering more with the public. 1. ACCOUNTABILITY Little concrete information is available to mally achievable” basic preparedness stan- the public or policymakers about public dards. These need to be baseline require- health preparedness and remaining vulner- ments that all states should be held account- abilities. While the CDC and HRSA have able for reaching. The measures should been working toward more clearly defining include objective assessments and be able to “performance measures,” there is still not gauge improvements on an ongoing basis. clear enough consensus about how to ■ The federal government has chosen to define and objectively determine standards take a “partnership” approach with states for public health preparedness. The cur- and localities for setting measures and rent measures focus too narrowly on process goals. While collaboration and different instead of outcomes or the ability to perspectives are important, the “leader- respond to wide-scale emergencies. Also, ship by consensus” approach has resulted the information collected is largely based in neither leadership nor consensus. At on self-reports and is only released in aggre- this point, most opinions and differences gate form, not on a state-by-state (or have been voiced, and it is up to the feder- grantee-by-grantee) basis. Americans are al government to break the deadlock and not receiving the information they deserve establish standards for the use of federal to know about the safety of their own com- funds. The federal government should munities — or what standards they should either determine standards or empower a hold the government accountable for. committee of experts to determine the HHS and its agencies should give the high- standards, but provide a clear, firm dead- est priority to defining measurable, “opti- line by when they must be completed. 59 Recommendations for Strengthening Accountability Establish concrete performance Concrete, measurable, achievable preparedness standards that take into account the standards must be better focused on meeting need to prepare for mass emergencies the needs of major emergencies. The measures should be objective, clear standards that all states are held to, ensuring that all states and localities have equal levels of protection. The results of states’ performance in achieving these measures should be assessed annually, and released publicly on a state-by-state basis. Require tabletop exercises that include Preparedness at the state level must be tested. outcome measures and incorporation of Reporting of test outcomes to the public should lessons learned into future planning be mandatory, along with what measures are being taken to correct identified deficiencies. There should be federally established mandatory guidelines and standardized baseline criteria for how tabletops should be approached. An independent mechanism should be established to evaluate exercises, including outcome measures from the tests. Additionally, lessons learned must be demonstrably incorporated into future preparedness planning. Limit carry-over funding The federal government should set a maximum for the percentage of a grant that can be carried over from one year to the next. In exceptional cases, governors should be able to request a waiver from this requirement from the secretary of HHS. Unspent money should be redistributed to states with demonstrated need and demonstrated capacity to spend it in the next year. Demonstrate progress by providing The federal government should require that each information on a state-by-state basis state or locality that receives funds be able to to the public and policymakers measurably demonstrate progress toward achieving the set objectives. HHS should make this information publicly available, on a state-by-state basis. States should be required to disclose their preparedness status and information about their use of federal funds (results of performance measures or “critical bench- marks”) in order to be eligible to continue to receive these funds. Information provided in aggregate is inadequate, and does not provide enough detail to communities or policymakers. Americans deserve to know how prepared their states and communities are, and what improvements are needed. HHS should begin this process immediately by releasing existing state-by-state information about use of preparedness funds. To start with, HHS, the CDC, and HRSA should make all of the aggregate information about the use of federal grants included in Section B of this report publicly available, and they should disaggregate it. Accountability rests on the ability of Congress, state policymakers, and taxpayers to know how their funds are being spent and with what results. 60 2. LEADERSHIP TFAH calls for increased leadership and over- management of multiple bioterror and pub- sight of U.S. bioterror and public health pre- lic health preparedness programs. paredness. HHS needs to integrate top-level Recommendations for Leadership Designate a single health official to be HHS should have a single senior official accountable in charge for all public health programs. With the current division of the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health (ASH) and the Office of Public Health Emergency Preparedness (OPHEP), no one official below the sec- retary has the authority to coordinate and synthesize a national preparedness strategy among agencies. All public health agencies should report to the single official named. This official should have the authority to coordinate programs, determine budgets, and make personnel decisions. This position could be a newly formulated ASH (merging with OPHEP), or a new undersecretary or deputy secretary for health. Require M.O.U. agreements with Performance measures should be articulated states in order to receive federal in a Memorandum of Understanding between preparedness funds the secretary and the state governors for all pre- paredness grants from any federal agency. Incorporate federal preparedness All federally funded programs must demonstrate that guidance more effectively across programs they are incorporating federal recommendations regarding preparedness into their operations, including continuity of operations and effective communication with constituents, as a condition of continuing to receive funds. 3. SURGE CAPACITY AND WORKFORCE Major health emergencies overtax the health tems, and private community hospitals, and systems of affected communities. Local, state, consider how to stockpile equipment and and federal emergency medical and public other resources. Additionally, there is a mas- health planning must integrate academic sive impending public health workforce health centers, large private healthcare sys- shortage that must be immediately addressed. Recommendations for Surge Capacity and Workforce Expand and fortify the volunteer Federal, state, and local governments should more medical workforce actively recruit and retain volunteer medical personnel into the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) and Medical Reserve Corps (MRC). Use of these resources should be built into all plans for and responses to public health emergencies. In a large-scale, national emergency, responders will be needed in their own communities and may not be able to move to others. Take action to recruit a new generation Congress should enact and fund programs to to the public health workforce increase the size of the public health workforce capable of responding to bioterror and other public health emergencies, such as those described in the Public Health Preparedness Workforce Development Act of 2005. 61 4. MODERNIZE TECHNOLOGY AND EQUIPMENT Basic technology and tools of public health must be modernized to adequately protect the American people. Recommendations for Modernizing Technology and Equipment Enhance research and development of The government must take measures to jump-start vaccines and public health technologies development of innovative vaccines and other phar- maceutical measures and technology for bio-threats, including pandemic flu, to 1) facilitate collaboration among government and the private sector, 2) enhance research and development, and 3) reduce the time and cost of research and development. Improve chemical and bio-hazard Public health laboratories should have state-of-the- laboratory testing capabilities art biological and chemical testing capabilities to better detect and contain outbreaks. Among other issues, the Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL) reports a shortage of lab reagents, which are chemical compounds needed to test for bioterrorist agents. Modernize surveillance systems for Every health department and health agency should operability between states/agencies be part of a 21st century surveillance system that meets national standards and is interoperable between jurisdictions and agencies to ensure rapid information sharing with health officials, which is critical during infectious disease outbreaks or other health emergencies, such as a bioterror attack. Integration of current systems and standards into a nationwide infrastructure without duplicating efforts remains a significant challenge, according to a June 2005 GAO report. The movement towards elec- tronic health records provides an opportunity to improve access to crucial mass population data. Bolster the Strategic National New ways must be found to bolster research, Stockpile (SNS) development, production, and acquisition of needed medicines and equipment for the stockpile. Additionally, ongoing concerns about the stockpile must be addressed, including 1) backup of routine medicines and equipment to care for those with chronic conditions, 2) promoting and finding ways to encourage best practices in states for improved deliv- ery and administration of the stockpile, and 3) over- hauling the federal SNS review process of states. 62 5. PARTNERING MORE WITH THE PUBLIC Planning efforts must do a better job of rec- will not always conform to procedures or ognizing that the media, general public, expectations. Plans must be revised to business community, and other audiences address these challenges and contingencies. Recommendations for Improving Working with the Public Establish a temporary “State of Even during emergencies, individuals who are Emergency” health benefit uninsured or underinsured may delay seeking diag- nosis and treatment because of concerns that they would have to pay for services out-of-pocket, serv- ices they might not be able to afford. Particularly with infectious diseases, delayed diagnosis and treat- ment can undermine the potential value of preven- tion efforts to protect the larger population. Also, treatments for some bio-threats, such as pandemic flu and anthrax, are only effective when given at early stages of the disease, so delaying treatments could prove to be unnecessarily fatal and potentially jeopardize the health of others. An emergency health benefit to cover the uninsured and underinsured should be created to guarantee providers some level of compensation for the services they provide during a mass health emergency and so that individuals recognize that cost should not delay their coming forward for diagnosis and/or treatment. The benefit should also cover extended sick leave needs related to the emergency to encourage work- ers to stay home when they could be infectious, particularly since the majority of U.S. workers do not currently have sick leave benefits. Do a better job of addressing vulnerable These populations will always prove to be a serious and “special needs” populations - and challenge in the delivery of public health services. maximize community resiliency There should be a concerted effort and strong lead- ership at the national level to define these needs, ranging from language translation services to ambula- tory care to reaching the disabled and homebound during mass vaccination or medication distribution efforts. This includes addressing ongoing social and economic realities, such as the challenge of following federal recommendations to stockpile medications for chronic conditions and policies for worker absen- teeism leniency during mass health emergencies. Modernize approaches to risk Currently, most public health risk communications communications plans focus on how to get accurate information about health threats to the public. Risk communica- tion strategies must go beyond planning for hourly press conferences to account for 24-hour news cycles and Internet communications, and recognize that the media now turn to a range of sources besides government for information and news. 63 FIVE THINGS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SHOULD DO TODAY TO IMPROVE PUBLIC HEALTH PREPAREDNESS 1. Designate a single senior official accountable for all public health programs.The current division of the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health (ASH), the Office of Public Health Emergency Preparedness (OPHEP), and the separate management of programs at the CDC and HRSA means no one official below the secretary is focused on a coordinated national preparedness strategy within HHS. All public health agencies should report to this official, who should have authority to coordinate programs, determine budgets, and make personnel decisions. This position could be a reformulated ASH (merging with OPHEP) or a new undersecretary or deputy secretary for health. 2. Clearly define a limited number of achievable priorities and accompanying standardized performance measures for holding states and localities accountable, including requiring testing of plans, issuance of after-action reports (AAR), and identification of corrective actions to be taken. 3. Publicly release the existing public health preparedness data from the CDC and HRSA on a state-by-state basis (examples of these data, which are currently only released in aggre- gate, are contained in Section B of this report). 4. Fully-fund existing public health emergency programs — and establish new funds for new programs. Currently, many public health programs are not funded at a level that is suffi- cient for states to achieve basic preparedness goals. Additionally, the practice of “repro- gramming” funds away from state and local preparedness activities for new or existing ini- tiatives should be eliminated until basic preparedness objectives have been achieved or the states demonstrate they are not making full use of the funds. 5. Create a “state of emergency” health benefit to ensure that the uninsured and underin- sured will seek care during mass traumas. This measure is particularly important in the case of infectious disease outbreaks, such as a pandemic flu, where delays in seeking care could jeopardize containment strategies. 64 Appendix A: CDC AND HRSA PREPAREDNESS GRANTS BY STATE BIOTERRORISM FUNDING BY SOURCE AND YEAR FY 2005 FY 2006 % Change State CDC HRSA Total State CDC HRSA Total FY 05– FY 06 Alabama $12,809,991 $7,326,068 $20,136,059 Alabama $11,332,549 $7,154,927 $18,487,476 -8.2% Alaska $5,210,372 $1,484,009 $6,694,381 Alaska $5,176,673 $1,458,182 $6,634,855-0.9% Arizona $17,067,370 $8,964,023 $26,031,393 Arizona $15,468,991 $8,753,827 $24,222,818 -6.9% Arkansas $9,302,434 $4,633,962 $13,936,396 Arkansas $8,513,998 $4,531,309 $13,045,307 -6.4% California $61,339,288 $39,203,268 $100,542,556 California $54,396,954 $38,325,286 $92,722,240 -7.8% Colorado $13,937,566 $7,401,669 $21,339,235 Colorado $12,343,549 $7,221,888 $19,565,437 -8.3% Connecticut $10,801,849 $5,783,087 $16,584,936 Connecticut $9,872,607 $5,651,890 $15,524,497 -6.4% Delaware $5,596,144 $1,739,851 $7,335,995 Delaware $5,511,936 $1,709,476 $7,221,412-1.6% D.C. $11,931,316 $1,854,320 $13,785,636 D.C. $6,702,385 $1,823,510 $8,525,895-38.2% Florida $39,221,056 $26,311,287 $65,532,343 Florida $34,945,845 $25,638,227 $60,584,072 -7.6% Georgia $22,321,610 $13,671,367 $35,992,977 Georgia $19,557,241 $13,330,420 $32,887,661 -8.6% Hawaii $6,381,328 $2,407,137 $8,788,465 Hawaii $6,130,741 $2,345,600 $8,476,341-3.6% Idaho $6,629,932 $2,572,244 $9,202,176 Idaho $6,389,623 $2,521,506 $8,911,129-3.2% Illinois $24,044,099 $15,578,388 $39,622,487 Illinois $20,613,241 $14,951,481 $35,564,722 -10.2% Indiana $16,461,162 $9,896,622 $26,357,784 Indiana $14,502,083 $9,660,723 $24,162,806 -8.3% Iowa $9,725,489 $4,965,024 $14,690,513 Iowa $8,810,613 $4,846,845 $13,657,458 -7.0% Kansas $9,296,532 $4,630,597 $13,927,129 Kansas $8,724,480 $4,525,854 $13,250,334 -4.9% Kentucky $12,048,544 $6,745,252 $18,793,796 Kentucky $10,860,671 $6,585,429 $17,446,100 -7.2% Louisiana $12,790,121 $7,319,242 $20,109,363 Louisiana $11,478,386 $7,139,266 $18,617,652 -7.4% Maine $6,606,543 $2,480,391 $9,086,934 Maine $6,321,437 $2,434,432 $8,755,869-3.6% Maryland $15,290,917 $8,855,085 $24,146,002 Maryland $13,970,053 $8,645,984 $22,616,037 -6.3% Massachusetts $17,872,452 $10,256,868 $28,129,320 Massachusetts $15,512,606 $9,983,770 $25,496,376 -9.4% Michigan $27,105,748 $15,787,720 $42,893,468 Michigan $23,221,202 $15,395,465 $38,616,667 -10.0% Minnesota $15,003,826 $8,173,336 $23,177,162 Minnesota $13,134,147 $7,983,328 $21,117,475 -8.9% Mississippi $9,608,208 $4,869,883 $14,478,091 Mississippi $8,738,914 $4,759,591 $13,498,505 -6.8% Missouri $16,321,799 $9,151,953 $25,473,752 Missouri $14,402,196 $8,951,388 $23,353,584 -8.3% Montana $5,751,801 $1,891,709 $7,643,510 Montana $5,616,551 $1,856,928 $7,473,479-2.2% Nebraska $7,346,564 $3,137,831 $10,484,395 Nebraska $6,897,069 $3,067,393 $9,964,462-5.0% Nevada $9,267,629 $3,899,038 $13,166,667 Nevada $8,660,838 $3,818,014 $12,478,852 -5.2% New Hampshire $6,526,889 $2,452,975 $8,979,864 New Hampshire $6,252,371 $2,404,444 $8,656,815-3.6% New Jersey $21,953,336 $13,601,391 $35,554,727 New Jersey $18,894,214 $13,269,518 $32,163,732 -9.5% New Mexico $8,810,432 $3,343,195 $12,153,627 New Mexico $8,351,763 $3,276,757 $11,628,520 -4.3% New York $28,293,465 $17,747,875 $46,041,340 New York $24,409,091 $16,937,704 $41,346,795 -10.2% North Carolina $20,547,098 $13,251,044 $33,798,142 North Carolina $17,877,794 $12,948,887 $30,826,681 -8.8% North Dakota $5,193,519 $1,461,290 $6,654,809 North Dakota $5,147,111 $1,435,800 $6,582,911-1.1% Ohio $27,902,321 $17,843,984 $45,746,305 Ohio $24,190,050 $17,397,207 $41,587,257 -9.1% Oklahoma $10,840,379 $5,825,603 $16,665,982 Oklahoma $9,732,169 $5,681,308 $15,413,477 -7.5% Oregon $11,154,657 $5,898,716 $17,053,373 Oregon $10,251,502 $5,767,951 $16,019,453 -6.1% Pennsylvania $30,976,767 $19,254,011 $50,230,778 Pennsylvania $26,235,793 $18,776,677 $45,012,470 -10.4% Rhode Island $6,240,298 $2,132,147 $8,372,445 Rhode Island $5,981,291 $2,089,651 $8,070,942-3.6% South Carolina $12,108,891 $6,789,755 $18,898,646 South Carolina $10,852,835 $6,632,258 $17,485,093 -7.5% South Dakota $5,425,710 $1,659,192 $7,084,902 South Dakota $5,339,585 $1,630,322 $6,969,907-1.6% Tennessee $15,459,458 $9,359,882 $24,819,340 Tennessee $13,759,228 $9,138,647 $22,897,875 -7.7% Texas $53,589,709 $34,045,388 $87,635,097 Texas $46,595,417 $33,177,278 $79,772,695 -9.0% Utah $8,560,504 $4,066,334 $12,626,838 Utah $8,023,438 $3,978,558 $12,001,996 -4.9% Vermont $5,186,880 $1,438,965 $6,625,845 Vermont $5,144,876 $1,415,048 $6,559,924-1.0% Virginia $20,475,283 $11,701,905 $32,177,188 Virginia $18,466,632 $11,387,068 $29,853,700 -7.2% Washington $17,350,613 $9,799,166 $27,149,779 Washington $15,353,518 $9,562,647 $24,916,165 -8.2% West Virginia $7,498,508 $3,245,672 $10,744,180 West Virginia $6,994,949 $3,176,132 $10,171,081 -5.3% Wisconsin $14,975,480 $8,799,529 $23,775,009 Wisconsin $13,246,911 $8,588,953 $21,835,864 -8.2% Wyoming $4,906,684 $1,260,221 $6,166,905 Wyoming $4,917,055 $1,241,982 $6,159,037-0.1% CDC Total HRSA Total Grand Total CDC Total HRSA Total Grand Total Grand Total FY 05* FY 05* FY 05* FY 06* FY 06* FY 06* % Change FY 05–FY 06 $862,777,000 $470,755,000 $1,333,532,000 $766,440,000 $460,216,752 $1,226,656,752 -8.0% *Note that totals include U.S. Territories, such as Puerto Rico and Guam, and Freely Associated States of the Pacific, such as the Marshall Islands, as well as the 50 states and D.C. Source: HHS Announces $1.2 Billion in Funding To States For Bioterrorism Preparedness, June 7, 2006 News Release. <http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2006press/20060607.html> 65 CITIES READINESS INITIATIVES Cities Readiness Initiative (CRI) awards increased in FY 2006 from 36 to 72 metropolitan areas and included each of the 50 states. CRI seeks to “ensure (that) the selected cities are prepared to provide oral medications during a public health emergency to 100 percent of their affected populations. This entails enhancing each city’s dispensing plans with trained staff and developing and testing plans that include alternative means of delivery. Known as mass prophylaxis, this effort is considered the top public health priority identified in the National Preparedness Goal.”191 See the 2004 and 2005 versions of Ready or Not? for more discussion on CRI. The new cities include: Birmingham, AL; Anchorage, AK; Little Rock, AR; Fresno, CA; Hartford, CT; New Haven, CT; Dover, DE; Honolulu, HI; Boise, ID; Peoria, IL; Des Moines, IA; Wichita, KS; Louisville, KY; New Orleans, LA; Baton Rouge, LA; Portland, ME; Jackson, MS; Billings MT; Omaha, NE; Manchester, NH; Trenton, NJ; Albuquerque, NM; Buffalo, NY; Albany, NY; Charlotte, NC; Fargo, ND; Oklahoma City, OK; Columbia, SC; Sioux Falls, SD; Nashville, TN; Memphis, TN; Salt Lake City, UT; Burlington, VT; Richmond, VA; Charleston, WV; and Cheyenne, WY.192 Previous CRI cities have included: Phoenix, AZ; Los Angeles, CA; Riverside, CA; Sacramento, CA; San Diego, CA; San Francisco, CA; San Jose, CA; Chicago, IL; Denver, CO; Miami, FL; Orlando, FL; Tampa, FL; Atlanta, GA; Indianapolis, IN; Baltimore, MD; Boston, MA; Detroit, MI; Minneapolis, MN; St. Louis, MO; Kansas City, MO; Las Vegas, NV; New York City, NY; Cincinnati, OH; Cleveland, OH; Columbus, OH; Portland, OR; Philadelphia, PA; Pittsburgh, PA; Providence, RI; Dallas, TX; Houston, TX; San Antonio, TX; Virginia Beach, VA; Seatttle, WA; Washington, DC; and Milwaukee, WI. In many cases the CRI award is allocated to larger geographic or metropolitan areas; however, only the major city is listed here. 66 Appendix B: CDC AND HRSA “COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT” GRANT GUIDANCE SUMMARIES PUBLIC HEALTH PREPAREDNESS POST-SEPTEMBER 11 In June 2002, Congress passed the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, which included the authorization of additional funds to help revitalize public health emergency preparedness. The funds support federal bioterrorism programs as well as provide grants to states through the CDC and the HRSA. CDC funds to states are intended to support: ■ Preparedness planning, including planning for deployment of the Strategic National Stockpile. ■ Surveillance and epidemiology. ■ Laboratory capacity for biological and chemical agents. ■ Information technology, including the Health Alert Network. ■ Communications about health threats. ■ Education and workforce training.193 The federal grants are then apportioned among state and local jurisdictions. The states and localities are required to demonstrate a “consensus, approval, or concurrence between state and local public health” officials and departments concerning the use of the federal funds.194 The HRSA funds are intended to aid state hospital preparedness for mass emergency situa- tions such as bioterrorism. Congress authorized $520 million for this program in FY 2003, and “such sums as may be necessary through 2006.”195 The funds, awarded as cooperative agreements, are distributed “according to a formula of a base amount plus an amount according to population to the same awardees as the CDC grants (50 states, the District of Columbia, territories, the cities of New York and Chicago, and Los Angeles County), and are also administered by the state, territorial or municipal health officials.”196 The HRSA guidance also stipulates that “80 [percent] of the funding awarded to state health departments should be passed through to hospitals, emergency medical systems, and other healthcare entities,” specifically poison control centers and health centers.197 The HRSA funds are designed to “ensure that hospitals and other healthcare facilities have the capacity to respond to public health emergencies” and effectively collaborate with CDC grantees during a bioterror attack or other mass emergency event.198 These funds are intended to focus on priority areas, including: ■ Administration. ■ Surge capacity. ■ Emergency medical services. ■ Linkages to public health departments. ■ Education and preparedness training. ■ Terrorism preparedness exercises.199 Effective response to any large-scale emergency situation requires a coordinated effort between the public health and healthcare delivery sectors. To facilitate cooperation and com- petencies between CDC and HRSA grantees, the guidance to states also contains cross-cut- ting benchmarks relevant for both CDC and HRSA grantees. 67 Appendix C: METHODOLOGY FOR STATE PUBLIC HEALTH BUDGET INDICATOR TFAH conducted an analysis of state spend- residents. Mental health funds, addiction or ing on public health for the last two budget substance abuse-related funds, services relat- cycles, fiscal years 2004-2005 and 2005-2006. ed to developmental disabilities or severely For those states which only report their disabled persons, or state-sponsored phar- budgets in biennium cycles, the 2005-2007 maceutical programs also were not included. period (or the 2004-2006 and 2005-2006 In a few cases, state budget documents did period for Virginia and Wyoming respec- not allow these - or other similar human tively) was used, and the percent change was services - programs to be disaggregated; calculated from the last biennium, 2003- these exceptions will be noted. For most 2005 (or 2002-2004 and 2003-2004 for states, all state funding - regardless of gener- Virginia and Wyoming respectively). al revenue or other state funds (e.g., dedi- cated revenue, fee revenue, etc.) - was used. This analysis was conducted from July to In some cases, only general revenue funds October of 2006 using publicly available were used in order to separate out federal budget documents through state government funds; these exceptions will also be noted. Websites. Based on what was made publicly available, budget documents used included Since each state allocates and reports its either executive budget documents that listed budget in a unique way, comparisons across actual expenditures, estimated expenditures, states are obviously difficult. This method- or final appropriations; appropriations bills ology may include or not include programs enacted by the state’s legislature; or docu- in some cases that the state may consider a ments from legislative analysis offices. public health function, but the methodolo- gy used was selected to maximize the ability In response to feedback received from previ- to be consistent across states. Therefore, ous editions of TFAH’s Ready or Not report, there may be programs or items states may TFAH defined “public health” to broadly wish to be considered as “public health” that include all health spending with the excep- may not be included in order to maintain tion of Medicaid, CHIP, or comparable the comparative value of the data. health coverage programs for low-income 68 Appendix D: METHODOLOGY FOR FLU VACCINATION RATES Data for this analysis were obtained from the Management and Policy of the University of Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Michigan School of Public Health. dataset (publicly available on the Web at Data were weighted using sample weights cdc.gov/brfss). BRFSS is an annual cross-sec- provided by the CDC in the dataset, then tional survey designed to measure behav- they were merged with years 2002-2005 of ioral risk factors in the adult population (18 the FLUSHOT variable. The FLUSHOT years of age or older) living in households. variable is the question, “During the past 12 Data are collected from a random sample of months, have you had a flu shot?” adults (one per household) through a tele- Observations where respondents answered phone survey. The BRFSS currently includes “don’t know” or refused to answer were data from 50 states, D.C., Puerto Rico, dropped from the analysis, though this Guam, and the Virgin Islands. The 2005 sta- accounted for less than 0.3 percent of the tistics were the most recent data available. data. Three-year rolling averages were then To conduct the analyses, TFAH contracted calculated for individuals aged 65 and older, with Daniel Eisenberg, Ph.D., Assistant by state. Hypothesis testing, to determine if Professor, and Edward N. Okeke, MBBS, there were significant changes from Health Service Organization and Policy 2002/2004 to 2003/2005, was then carried Doctoral Student, at the Department of Health out. The sample size was 385,931 cases. BRFSS Data Collection in States According to information the CDC provid- the CDC. Data are submitted to the CDC on ed to TFAH, each state conducts its own sur- a monthly basis, where the data undergo rig- vey for BRFSS. States conduct interviews orous data quality checks. during each month in accordance with a While the system has existed since 1984, all standardized prescribed protocol, and enter states have participated since 1994. Data results into computer-assisted telephone are collected and analyzed using standard- interviewing (CATI) computer files. States ized methodology, and results are released edit and correct completed interviews each annually. month using an edit program provided by 69 Flu Vaccination Rates for 2003, 2004, and 2005 Not Combined Influenza Vaccination: Adults Aged 65 and Older Who Had a Flu Shot in the Past Year 2003 2004 2005 Alabama 70.2% 66.2% 60.8% Alaska 66.5% 64.1% 61.1% Arizona 68.9% 66.1% 62.5% Arkansas 71.0% 68.7% 65.2% California 72.5% 70.9% 65.9% Colorado 74.2% 78.8% 74.2% Connecticut 74.3% 73.1% 71.1% Delaware 70.0% 69.3% 65.7% District of Columbia 63.0% 54.9% 54.7% Florida 65.9% 65.1% 55.6% Georgia 67.0% 64.4% 60.8% Hawaii 76.4% NA 72.1% Idaho 70.3% 66.2% 63.9% Illinois 62.2% 65.4% 55.9% Indiana 66.1% 64.3% 64.0% Iowa 77.5% 74.1% 71.7% Kansas 70.8% 68.1% 65.9% Kentucky 69.1% 64.3% 62.4% Louisiana 68.3% 68.6% 62.4% Maine 74.8% 72.2% 67.7% Maryland 68.4% 64.6% 59.3% Massachusetts 74.9% 70.6% 69.8% Michigan 67.5% 66.9% 67.1% Minnesota 80.3% 78.3% 78.1% Mississippi 69.0% 66.9% 61.5% Missouri 69.9% 69.1% 61.7% Montana 72.8% 72.2% 69.5% Nebraska 73.6% 75.8% 72.6% Nevada 60.0% 59.0% 53.0% New Hampshire 73.9% 70.7% 70.2% New Jersey 67.2% 67.6% 63.4% New Mexico 72.4% 72.4% 68.0% New York 68.0% 65.9% 61.8% North Carolina 68.8% 67.0% 65.5% North Dakota 73.0% 74.3% 70.1% Ohio 68.0% 67.6% 64.7% Oklahoma 75.8% 75.0% 73.2% Oregon 70.5% 71.0% 68.9% Pennsylvania 69.1% 63.8% 59.3% Rhode Island 76.2% 73.0% 67.2% South Carolina 69.3% 66.0% 60.9% South Dakota 77.9% 76.9% 76.3% Tennessee 69.1% 66.4% 61.6% Texas 67.7% 67.1% 61.6% Utah 74.8% 75.5% 69.6% Vermont 74.1% 66.6% 66.3% Virginia 69.6% 68.6% 66.8% Washington 73.4% 67.9% 67.8% West Virginia 69.1% 67.9% 63.6% Wisconsin 72.1% 74.3% 71.8% Wyoming 72.6% 73.8% 72.9% Source: CDC’s BRFSS data Increases from 2003 to 2004 are notated in blue bolded font; increases from 2004 to 2005 are notated in green bolded font. States in orange bolded font were within one percentage point of the previous year’s percentage. Note that these are not necessarily statistically significant increases like those figures used for the indicator; these are simple comparisons of flu shot rates as reported by CDC. 70 Appendix E: METHODOLOGY FOR THE NURSING SHORTAGE STUDY The National Center for Health Workforce numbers reflect the likely demand and supply Analysis (NCHWA) projects nursing supply of nurses that will occur if trends continue. and demand in each state using the Nursing For example, under the baseline scenario, the Supply Model (NSM) and the Nursing NDM “assumes that per capita inpatient sur- Demand Model (NDM). Both nursing supply geries will decline by two percent annually and demand are measured in units of full-time from 2000 to 2020 and that these surgeries equivalent (FTE) RNs. Under the NSM, nurs- will instead be performed on an outpatient ing supply constitutes only the “active RN sup- basis” due to advances in medical technology ply” (i.e., those who are providing nursing and an increasing pressure on hospitals to services or seeking employment in nursing).200 stem rising healthcare costs.202 This current Those nurses who work full-time are each trend has the potential to decrease demand counted as one FTE, while those who work for RN services in the hospital setting since only part-time or for only part of the year are more patients will be receiving outpatient sur- each counted as one-half of an FTE. Under geries. While the NDM and NSM can be the NDM, nursing demand is “defined as the adjusted to reflect changes in trends, the number of FTE RNs whom employers are will- nursing workforce projections in the table ing to hire given population needs, economic above are based on current trends. considerations, the healthcare operating envi- A limitation of the NSM and the NDM is that ronment, and other factors.”201 they are independent models. The NDM To project nursing supply in each state, the “makes projections without considering the NSM factors in the number of new graduates potential supply of nurses and vice versa.”203 In from nursing programs, the location and reality, the size of a state’s nursing workforce is employment patterns of the current licensed dependent upon the interaction of supply and nurse population (e.g., RNs may tend to demand. For example, if demand for nursing migrate to certain states due to better wages services increases while supply remains stag- or career opportunities), and separations nant or decreases, this will place upward pres- from the nurse workforce (e.g., retirement, sure on nurse wages. Rising wages would death, etc.) The NDM projects nursing “increase the number of new graduates, demand in each state as a function of chang- increase employment participation rates, and ing demographics (e.g., the mean age of a delay retirement for some nurses,” thereby state population), patient acuity (i.e., the increasing overall nurse supply.204 level of care that patients require), economic Another limitation of the NSM and the factors, and various characteristics of the NDM is that not all of the complexities of healthcare operating environment (e.g., nurse supply and demand are captured by advances in medical technology). All of these the models. For example, the NDM has factors have the potential to impact patient “limited ability to model substitution demand for RN services. For example, if the between types of nurses and other health- average age of a state increases, demand for care workers.”205 Employee substitution has nursing services is expected to increase based the potential to increase or decrease the on the idea that the elderly have greater demand for nursing services. Using RNs to healthcare needs than non-elderly patients. fill physician roles leads to an increase in the It is important to note that the state-by-state demand for nurses, while using patient care RN supply and demand projections for 2005 technicians in place of RNs leads to a reflect baseline numbers. These baseline decrease in the demand for nurses. 71 Appendix F: PANDEMIC FLU AND HOSPITAL BEDS SCENARIO METHODOLOGY The estimates for hospitalizations and bed The number of hospitalizations depends on capacity rely on a program developed by the the severity of the strain and state age demo- CDC, “FluSurge2.0 Beta Test Software.”206 graphics. The CDC assumes that persons 65 Three factors primarily determine the likeli- and older are far more likely to require hospi- hood that a state exceeds surge capacity: (1) talizations from a flu pandemic than younger the number of hospitalizations; (2) the individuals. Thus, states with higher propor- number of hospital beds; and (3) the per- tional elderly populations (such as Florida and centage of unoccupied beds. Pennsylvania) have more relative hospitaliza- tions than states with a younger population mix (such as Alaska and Georgia).207 72 States Surge Capacity in a “Minor” Flu Pandemic Scenario, Based on the 1968 Pandemic Outbreak The chart below contains the hospital bed capacity that would be reached within two weeks of a mild flu pandemic, based on the FluSurge model program States that have surge capacity to meet the number of State that does NOT have surge capacity to meet hospital beds that would be needed within two weeks of the number of hospital beds that would be needed a mild pandemic flu outbreak. within two weeks of a mild pandemic flu outbreak. State % of capacity within two weeks State % of capacity within two weeks Alabama 38% Delaware 158% Alaska 41% Arizona 79% Arkansas 34% California 74% Colorado 66% Connecticut 98% D.C. 30% Florida 52% Georgia 49% Hawaii 72% Idaho 43% Illinois 49% Indiana 38% Iowa 34% Kansas 29% Kentucky 35% Louisiana 31% Maine 48% Maryland 91% Massachusetts 80% Michigan 55% Minnesota 49% Mississippi 25% Missouri 40% Montana 32% Nebraska 28% Nevada 81% New Hampshire 59% New Jersey 75% New Mexico 60% New York 68% North Carolina 60% North Dakota 23% Ohio 45% Oklahoma 39% Oregon 67% Pennsylvania 52% Rhode Island 92% South Carolina 67% South Dakota 22% Tennessee 36% Texas 47% Utah 53% Vermont 55% Virginia 67% Washington 69% West Virginia 34% Wisconsin 50% Wyoming 26% Wyoming 52% *Estimates rely on FluSurge2.0 Beta Test Software, created by the CDC and available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/flusurge.htm. The data above are based on a “mild” pandemic outbreak, with the severity similar to the experience in 1968, where the duration lasts eight weeks with an attack rate of 25 percent. The estimates above hold all FluSurge assumptions constant, other than the hospitalization rate, which doubles. Data for the age demographics are from the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey, 2005, available at http://dataferrett.census.gov/. 2004 total hospital bed data are from Kaiser Family Foundation’s State Health Facts, available at http://www.statehealthfacts.org/cgi-bin/healthfacts.cgi. 2003 Hospital bed occupancy rates are from the CDC. 73 States Surge Capacity in a “Severe” Flu Pandemic Scenario, Based on the 1918 Pandemic Outbreak The chart below contains the hospital bed capacity that would be reached within two weeks of a severe flu pandemic, based on the FluSurge model program States that have surge capacity to meet the number States that do NOT have surge capacity to meet of hospital beds that would be needed within two the number of hospital beds that would be needed weeks of a severe pandemic flu outbreak. within two weeks of a severe pandemic flu outbreak. State % of capacity within two weeks State % of capacity within two weeks Mississippi 99% Alabama 153% North Dakota 90% Alaska 164% South Dakota 88% Arizona 316% Arkansas 135% California 297% Colorado 264% Connecticut 393% Delaware 437% D.C. 121% Florida 209% Georgia 197% Hawaii 286% Idaho 170% Illinois 197% Indiana 152% Iowa 135% Kansas 117% Kentucky 140% Louisiana 125% Maine 192% Maryland 362% Massachusetts 320% Michigan 218% Minnesota 195% Missouri 158% Montana 127% Nebraska 111% Nevada 325% New Hampshire 235% New Jersey 301% New Mexico 239% New York 272% North Carolina 238% Ohio 179% Oklahoma 155% Oregon 268% Pennsylvania 208% Rhode Island 368% South Carolina 268% Tennessee 144% Texas 187% Utah 210% Vermont 221% Virginia 268% Washington 274% West Virginia 135% Wisconsin 200% Wyoming 104% *Estimates rely on FluSurge2.0 Beta Test Software, created by the CDC and available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/flusurge.htm. The data above are based on a “severe” pandemic outbreak, with the severity considered to be similar to the 1918 pandemic outbreak, which in this model, is considered to be four times the severity of the 1968 outbreak. The other default settings in this model assume a mild pan- demic, similar to the experience in 1968, where the duration lasts eight weeks with an attack rate of 25 percent. The estimates above hold all assumptions constant, other than the hospitalization rate, which doubles. A major pandemic like the 1918 strand would quadru- ple the estimated hospitalization rate. Data for the age demographics are from the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey, 2005, available at http://dataferrett.census.gov/. 2004 total hospital bed data are from Kaiser Family Foundation’s State Health Facts, avail- able at http://www.statehealthfacts.org/cgi-bin/healthfacts.cgi. 2003 Hospital bed occupancy rates are from the CDC. 74 Endnotes 20 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provid- ed information directly to TFAH. Additional infor- mation about CHEMPACK is available at: D. 1 The formal name for “flu” is “influenza.” Some pub- Knutson, “Responding to Potential Bioterror lic health officials, including some report reviewers, Attacks on U.S. Soil,” Transcript from a Presentation object to common use of the term “flu.” at the Defense Forum Foundation Defense and Foreign Policy Forum, 24 May 2005. 2 A. Katz et al., “Preparing for the Unknown, Responding to the Known: Communities and Public 21 Ibid. Health Preparedness,” Health Affairs 25, no. 4 22 J. R. Richmond, “The 1, 2, 3s of Biosafety Levels,” (July/August 2006): 946-957. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Last 3 J. Monke, “Agroterrorism: Threats and Preparedness,” modified 2 July 1998, http://www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/ Congressional Research Service, The Library of symp5/jyrtext.htm (8 November 2005). Congress, 13 August 2004, www.fas.org/irp/crs/ 23 M. Skeels, “Public Health Labs in a Changing RL32521.pdf (15 November 2006). Landscape,” American Society of Microbiology News 65 4 B. G. Blackburn, MD et. al., “Surveillance for Waterborne (2003): 479-483. Disease Outbreaks Associated with Drinking Water -- 24 E. Gursky, T. V. Inglesby, and T. O’Toole, “Anthrax United States, 2001-2002,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly 2001: Observations on the Medical and Public Health Report 53, no. SS08 (22 October 2004): 23-45. Response,” Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense 5 Institute of Medicine, The Future of the Public’s Health Strategy, Practice, and Science 1, no. 2 (2003): 97-110. in the 21st Century (Washington, D.C.: National 25 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Facts Academies Press for the Institute of Medicine, 2002). about the Laboratory Response Network,” 11 6 Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, “Public Health August 2004, http://www.bt.cdc.gov/lrn/fact- Leaders Recommend Voluntary National sheet.asp (14 September 2005). Accreditation Program,” Press Release, 21 September 26 Association of Public Health Laboratories, “Issue 2006, http://www.rwjf.org/newsroom/newsreleases- Brief: Critical Shortage of LRN Reagents for detail.jsp?id=10433 (6 November 2006). Analysis of Agents of Biological Terrorism,” 7 University of North Carolina School of Public Health, February 2006. “North Carolina Local Health Department 27 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Accreditation,” http://www2.sph.unc.edu/nciph/ “Laboratory Network for Chemical Terrorism,” Last accred/ (6 November 2006). modified December 2005, http://www.bt.cdc.gov/ 8 Ibid. lrn/chemical.asp (23 October 2006). CDC officials ver- ified that the number of state labs with Level 1 chemi- 9 National Network of Public Health Institutes, “Multi- cal capabilities had not increased as of October 2006. State Learning Collaborative for Performance and Capacity Assessment or Accreditation of Public Health 28 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Departments (MLC),” http://www.nnphi.org/ “Emergency Preparedness and Response: Chemical onepagers.pdf (20 November 2006). A g e n t s , ” h t t p : / / w w w. b t . c d c . g o v / a g e n t / agentlistchem.asp (15 November 2006). The number 10 Ibid. of toxins that could be “weaponized” was provided to 11 Institute of Medicine, The Future of the Public’s Health in TFAH by CDC officials for the report Public Health the 21st Century (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Laboratories: Unprepared and Overwhelmed (Washington, Press for the Institute of Medicine, 2002). D.C.: Trust for America’s Health, June 2003), 12 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention officials http://healthyamericans.org/reports/files/ provided this information to TFAH. LabReport.pdf (15 November 2006). 13 Ibid. 29 Association of Public Health Laboratories, “Laboratory Response Network,” http://www.aphl.org/programs/ 14 D. Knutson, “Responding to Potential Bioterror emergency_preparedness/lab_response_network.cfm Attacks on U.S. Soil,” Transcript from a Presentation (15 November 2006). at the Defense Forum Foundation Defense and Foreign Policy Forum, 24 May 2005. 30 According to officials at the Association of Public Health Laboratories. 15 S. Simonson, “The Role of HHS in Development and Acquisition of Medical Countermeasures 31 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Under Project BioShield,” Testimony Before the “Pandemic Influenza Guidance Supplement to the Committee on Government Reform, U.S. House of 2006 Public Health Emergency Preparedness Representatives, 14 July 2005, http://hhs.gov/asl/ Cooperative Agreement Phase II,” 10 July 2006, testimony/t050714b.html (8 September 2005). http://www.bt.cdc.gov/planning/coopagreement/p df/phase2-panflu-guidance.pdf (7 November 2006). 16 Trust for America’s Health, A Killer Flu? Scientific Experts Estimate that ‘Inevitable’ Major Epidemic of New 32 M. Crosse, Director, Health Care, Government Influenza Strain Could Result in Millions of Deaths if Accountability Office, “Influenza Pandemic: Preventive Actions Are Not Taken (Washington, D.C.: Challenges Remain in Preparedness,” Testimony Trust for America’s Health, June 2005), Before the Subcommittee on Health, Committee on http://healthyamericans.org/reports/flu/ (27 Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, September 2005). 26 May 2005, www.gao.gov/new.items/d05760t.pdf (7 November 2006). 17 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention officials provided information directly to TFAH. Additional 33 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Overview information is available at: U.S. Department of of Influenza Surveillance in the United States,” Fact Health and Human Services, “Antivirals - State Sheet, 26 June 2006, www.cdc.gov/flu/weekly/pdf/flu- Allocations,” PandemicFlu.gov, 10 October 2006, surveillance-overview.pdf (7 November 2006). http://pandemicflu.gov/plan/states/antivirals.htm 34 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, l (6 November 2006). FluSurge2.0 Beta Test Software, http://www.cdc.gov/ 18 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, flu/flusurge.htm (30 October 2006); and E. Toner et. “Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: al., “Hospital Preparedness for Pandemic Influenza,” Pandemic Flu Q&A,” March 2006. Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 4, no. 2 (2006). 19 J. Schmit, “States Scrape Up Bird Flu Drug Funds,” USA Today, 8 August 2006. 35 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “National Response Plan,” Last updated 25 May 2006, http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/NRP_FullText. pdf (15 November 2006). 75 36 Kaiser Family Foundation, “State Health Facts,” 55 American Lung Association, “Pneumonia Fact http://www.statehealthfacts.org/cgi-bin/healthfacts.cgi, Sheet,” http://www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c (30 October 2006); and National Center for Health =dvLUK9O0E&b=35692 (3 November 2006). Statistics, Health, United States, 2005, With Chartbook 56 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, on Trends in the Health of Americans (Hyattsville, MD: “Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine: What You National Center for Health Statistics, 2005). Need To Know,” 29 July 1997. 37 D. S. Shapiro, “Surge Capacity for Response to 57 Ibid. Bioterrorism in Hospital Clinical Microbiology Laboratories,” Journal of Clinical Microbiology 41, no. 58 A. M. Minino et al., “Deaths: Preliminary Data for 12 (December 2003): 5372-5376. 2004,” National Vital Statistics Report 54, no. 19 (28 June 2006), National Center for Health Statistics. 38 Health Resources and Services Administration, “National Bioterrorism Hospital Preparedness 59 C. J. DeFrances and M. N. Podgornik, “2004 Program: FY 2005 Continuation Guidance,” National Hospital Discharge Survey,” Advance Data https://grants.hrsa.gov/webexternal/FundingOppDe From Vital and Health Statistics no. 371 (4 May 2006), tails.asp?FundingCycleId=821DC9C4-10B2-487E- National Center for Health Statistics. 8C7B- CC25D18CBA0B&ViewMode=EU&GoBack 60 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, =&PrintMode=&OnlineAvailabilityFlag=True&pageN “Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, umber=1&Popup=#Purpose (15 November 2005). Prevalence Data, Immunization - 2005, Adults Aged 39 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 65+ Who Have Ever Had a Pneumonia Vaccination,” “Optimizing Surge Capacity: Hospital Assessment and http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/brfss/list.asp?cat=IM&yr Planning,” Bioterrorism and Health System =2005&qkey=4408&state=All (26 October 2006). Preparedness, Issue Brief No. 3 AHRQ Publication No. 61 “Progress in Improving State and Local Disease 04-P008, January 2004, http://www.ahrq.gov/news/ Surveillance — United States, 2000-2005,” Morbidity and ulp/btbriefs/btbrief3.htm (8 November 2005). Morality Weekly Report 54, no. 33 (26 April 2005): 822- 40 Association of State and Territorial Health Officials, 825. States of Preparedness: Health Agency Progress 2006 62 Health Resources and Services Administration, “What (Washington, D.C.: Association of State and Territorial Is Behind HRSA’s Projected Supply, Demand, and Health Officials, 2006). <http://www.astho.org/pubs/ Shortage of Registered Nurses?” September 2004. Statesof Preparedness2006.pdf> (20 November 2006). 63 The Quad Council of Public Health Nursing 41 “Ten Great Public Health Achievements - United Organizations, “The Public Health Nursing Shortage: States, 1900-1999,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly A Threat to the Public’s Health,” November 2006, Report 48, no. 12 (2 April 1999): 241-243. http://www.astdn.org/downloadablefiles/Quad%20 42 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Key Facts Council%20Final%20Shortage%20Paper.pdf (16 About the Flu: An Overview,” http://www.cdc.gov/ November 2006); and Association of State and flu/keyfacts.htm (30 October 2006). Territorial Health Officials, “Public Health Workforce Shortage: Public Health Nurses,” Issue Brief, April 43 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005, http://www.astho.org/pubs/PHNursesIssue “Children and the Flu Vaccine,” http://www.cdc.gov/ Brief121405.pdf (16 November 2006). flu/protect/children.htm (16 November 2006). 64 The Quad Council of Public Health Nursing 44 CDC officials supplied this information to TFAH. Organizations, “The Public Health Nursing 45 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Shortage: A Threat to the Public’s Health,” “Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, November 2006, http://www.astdn.org/download- Prevalence Data, Nationwide (States and DC) - 2005 vs ablefiles/Quad%20Council%20Final%20Shortage 2004, Immunization,” http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/ %20Paper.pdf (16 November 2006). brfss/display_c.asp?yr_c=2004&yr=2005&cat=IM&stat 65 Founded in 1903, CNA represents more than 65,000 e=UB&bkey=20059912&qkey=4407&qtype=C&grp=0 members in 165 facilities throughout California, and &SUBMIT2=Compare (30 October 2006). thousands more across the country through the 46 L. M. Matteson, “Using Seasonal Influenza Clinics for National Nurses Organizing Committee, which was Public Health Preparedness Exercises: Existing founded by CNA. http://www.calnurses.org/about-us/ Programs Can Provide an Opportunity to Practice 66 California Nurses Association, “Motivated by Katrina Emergency Response,” American Journal of Nursing - National RN Response Network Launches,” Press 106, no. 10 (October 2006). Release, 25 August 2006. 47 Ibid. 67 S. Trossman, RN, “Nurses come together to provide 48 Ibid. care for Gulf Coast population, colleagues,” The 49 D. Cochran, “Drill gives county shot in the arm: American Nurse (November/December 2005). Thousands quickly inoculated against flu Health offi- 68 Association of State and Territorial Health Officers, cials confident an even larger mass immunization “State Public Health Employee Worker Shortage possible,” The Billings Gazette, 28 October 2006. Report: A Civil Service Recruitment and Retention 50 L. M. Matteson, “Using Seasonal Influenza Clinics Crisis,” November/December 2003, for Public Health Preparedness Exercises: Existing http://www.astho.org/ ?template=2workforce_devel- Programs Can Provide an Opportunity to Practice opment.html (15 October 2005). Emergency Response,” American Journal of Nursing 69 N. Lurie et al., “Public Health Preparedness: 106, no. 10 (October 2006). Evolution or Revolution?” Health Affairs 25, no. 4 51 Ibid. (July/August 2006). 52 Health Department, Town of Belmont, Massachusetts, 70 Medical Reserve Corps, “About the Medical Reserve “Flu Vaccine Distribution Very Different This Year,” Corps,” http://www.medicalreservecorps.gov/About http://www.town.belmont.ma.us/Public_Documents/ (3 November 2006). BelmontMA_Health/index (30 October 2006). 71 Ibid. 53 US Department of Health and Human Services, 72 Ibid. Healthy People 2010. 2nd ed. With Understanding 73 Medical Reserve Corps, “Find MRC Units,” and Improving Health and Objectives for Improving http://www.medicalreservecorps.gov/FindMRC.asp Health. 2 vols. (Washington, DC: US Government (3 November 2006). Printing Office, November 2000). 74 Medical Reserve Corps, “NACCHO-MRC Capacity 54 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Building Cooperative Agreement,” September 2006, “Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine: What You http://www.medicalreservecorps.gov/File/MRC_Co Need To Know,” 29 July 1997. operative_Agreement_FAQ.pdf (3 November 2006). 76 75 S. A. Lister, “Hurricane Katrina: The Public Health 91 Letter sent to David M. Walker, Comptroller and Medical Response,” Congressional Research General of the Government Accountability Office Service 21 September 2005. from the Senate Committee on Homeland Security 76 C. Franco et al., “Systemic Collapse: Medical Care in and Governmental Affairs, 30 October 2006. the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina,” Biosecurity and 92 Office of Inspector General, US Department of Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 4, Health and Human Services, “Review of Arkansas no. 2 (2006). Department of Health’s Public Health Preparedness 77 Ibid. and Response for Bioterrorism Program Funds,” August 2005, http://oig.hhs.gov/oas/reports/ 78 The share of public health spending is from an analysis region6/60500025.pdf (8 November 2005). by Senator Bill Frist, MD which appeared in the November/December 2002 issue of Health Affairs. 93 Office of Inspector General, US Department of The spending data was compiled from the public Health and Human Services, “Audit of Costs and health services that are included in the National Health Reporting of Funds Under the Public Health Accounts (NHA) which is generated by the Centers for Preparedness and Response for Bioterrorism Medicare and Medicaid Services. The NHA does not Program District of Columbia,” 21 June 2005, include all programs that can be considered as related http://oig.hhs.gov/oas/reports/region3/30400353 to public health such as environmental health, sanita- .pdf (8 November 2005). tion and water programs, and the Women, Infants and 94 Office of Inspector General, US Department of Children Food Supplemental Program. Health and Human Services, “Audit of the State of 79 B. Frist, “Public Health and National Security: The Massachusetts’ Costs and Reporting of Funds Under Critical Role of Increased Federal Support,” Health the Public Health Preparedness and Response to Affairs 21, no. 6 (November/December 2002). Bioterrorism Program for the Period August 31, 1999 -- August 30, 2004,” 4 March 2005, 80 “Public Health: Costs of Complacency,” Governing http://oig.hhs.gov/oas/reports/region1/10401503 (February 2004). .pdf (8 November 2005). 81 National Conference of State Legislatures, State 95 Office of Inspector General, US Department of Budget Actions: FY 2005 and FY 2006 (Denver, Health and Human Services, “Audit of Costs and Colorado: National Conference of State Legislatures, Reporting of Funds Under the Public Health March 2006): and Population Division, U.S. Census Preparedness and Response to Bioterrorism Program Bureau, “Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Population by North Carolina Department of Health and Human for the United States and States, and for Puerto Rico: Services,” 27 July 2005, http://oig.hhs.gov/oas/ April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2005,” 22 December 2005. reports/region4/40401002.pdf (8 November 2005). 82 Institute of Medicine, The Future of the Public’s Health in 96 Office of Inspector General, US Department of the 21st Century (Washington, D.C.: National Health and Human Services, “Audit of Costs and Academies Press for the Institute of Medicine, 2002). Reporting of Funds Under the Public Health 83 A. Katz et al., “Preparing for the Unknown, Preparedness and Response to Bioterrorism Responding to the Known: Communities and Public Program, Ohio Department of Health,” 4 February Health Preparedness,” Health Affairs 25, no. 4 2005, http://oig.hhs.gov/oas/reports/region5/ (July/August 2006): 946-957. 50400051.htm (8 November 2005). 84 N. Clark, “Message from [School of Public Health] 97 US Department of Health and Human Services, Dean Noreen Clark,” Advancing Global Public “Budget in Brief, Fiscal Year 2006,” Health. University of Michigan. <http://www.polio. http://www.hhs.gov/budget/06budget/FY2006Bud umich.edu/clark/> (21 November 2006). getinBrief.pdf (17 November 2006). 85 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Public 98 S. Lister, “An Overview of the U.S. Public Health Health Infrastructure -- A Status Report (Atlanta, Georgia: System in the Context of Emergency Preparedness,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2001); Congressional Research Service (17 March 2005). Institute of Medicine, The Future of the Public’s Health in 99 Government Accountability Office, HHS Bioterrorism the 21st Century (Washington, D.C.: National Preparedness Programs: States Reported Progress But Fell Academies Press for the Institute of Medicine, 2002); Short of Program Goals in 2002, GAO-04-360R and Government Accountability Office, HHS (Washington, D.C.: Government Accountability Bioterrorism Preparedness Programs: States Reported Progress Office, 10 February 2004). But Fell Short of Program Goals in 2002, GAO-04-360R (Washington, D.C.: Government Accountability 100 Government Accountability Office, Information Office, 10 February 2004). Technology: Federal Agencies Face Challenges in Implementing Initiatives to Improve Public Health 86 Other sectors, such as hospitals and Emergency Infrastructure, GAO-05-308 (Washington, D.C.: Medical Services (EMS), have faced challenges in devel- Government Accountability Office, June 2005). oping measures for massive emergencies requiring major surge capacity, however, these sectors do have 101 Hospital Resources and Services Administration, baseline “optimally achievable” measures for ongoing “National Bioterrorism Hospital Preparedness service and many other forms of emergencies. Program,” http://www.hrsa.gov/bioterrorism/ (1 November 2006). 87 “Public Health Emergency Preparedness, Cooperative Agreement,” Centers for Disease 102 Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health “OSHA Guidance Update on Protecting and Human Services, 15 July 2006. Employees from Avian Flu (Avian Influenza) Viruses,” OSHA 3323-10N 2006. 88 T. Hargrove. “A Russian Roulette of Food Poisoning in American States,” Scripps Howard News Service, 103 Ibid. 21 November 2006. < http://www.knoxnews.com/ 104 H. Parker, “Agricultural Bioterrorism: A Federal kns/national/article/0,1406,KNS_350_5160343,00. Strategy to Meet the Threat,” McNair Paper 65 html> (21 November 2006). (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, 2002). 89 G. Pezzino, M.Z. Thompson, and M. Edgar, “A 105 D. Pimentel, L. Lach, R. Zuniga, and D. Morrison, Multi-State Comparison of Local Public Health “Environmental and Economic Costs Associated Preparedness Assessment Using a Common, with Non-indigenous Species in the United States,” Standardized Tool,” National Network of Public BioScience 50 (2000):53-65. Health Institutes, Illinois Public Health Institute, 106 W. Branigin et al., “Tommy Thompson Resigns Kansas Public Health Institute, and Michigan Public From HHS Bush Asks Defense Secretary Rumsfeld Health Institute, August 2006. to Stay,” The Washington Post, 3 December 2004. 90 Ibid. 107 W. Heffernan et al., “Consolidation in the Food and Agriculture System,” Report to the National Farmers Union 5 February 1999. 77 108 Ibid. 135 The Department for Environment, Food and Rural 109 Ibid. Affairs and The Department For Culture, Media and Sport, United Kingdom, “Economic Cost of Foot 110 B. Lautner, “Industry Concerns and Partnerships to and Mouth Disease in the UK.: A Joint Working Address Emerging Issues,” Annals of the New York Paper,” March 2002, http://www.defra.gov.uk/ Academy of Sciences 894 (December 1999): 76-79. corporate/ inquiries/lessons/fmdeconcost.pdf (17 111 J. Monke, “Agroterrorism: Threats and Preparedness,” November, 2006). Congressional Research Service 13 August 2005. 136 T. McGinn and J. Hoffman, “Crimson Sky FMD 112 General Accountability Office, Homeland Security: Terrorist Attack Outcome,” North Carolina Much is Being Done to Protect Agriculture From a Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Terrorist Attack, but Important Challenges Remain, Emergency Programs Division, September 2002. GAO-05-214 (Washington, D.C.: Government 137 Government Accountability Office, Foot and Mouth Accountability Office, March 2005). Disease: To Protect US Livestock, USDA Must Remain 113 Ibid. Vigilant and Resolve Outstanding Issues, GAO-02-0808 114 L. Sander, “Nebraska Woman’s Death Brings to 3 (Washington, D.C.: Government Accountability Those Attributed to Spinach,” The New York Times, 7 Office, July 2002). October 2006. 138 R. Larsen, “Homeland Security: A Strategic Perspect- 115 Ibid. ive,” Transcript, Foreign Policy Association, 31 October 2002, http://www.fpa.org/topics_info2414/topics_ 116 A. Shin, “E. Coli Detected Near Spinach,” The info_show.htm?doc_id=128505 (4 August 2005). Washington Post, 13 October 2006. 139 Government Accountability Office, Homeland 117 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Security: Much is Being Done to Protect Agriculture From “Escherichia coli O157:H7,” http://www.cdc.gov/ a Terrorist Attack, but Important Challenges Remain, NCIDOD/DBMD/diseaseinfo/escherichiacoli_g.h GAO-05-214 (Washington, D.C.: Government tm#What%20is%20Escherichia%20coli%20O157: Accountability Office, March 2005). H7 (17 October 2006). 140 Harvard School of Public Health Center for Public 118 Ibid. Health Preparedness et al., Preparing for Public Health 119 M. Burros, “Tainted Spinach Brings Demands for New Emergencies: Meeting the Challenges of Rural America, Rules,” The New York Times, 27 September 2006. Conference Proceedings and Recommendations, Saint Paul, Minnesota, 27-28 September 2004. 120 Ibid. 141 H. H. Tilson, “Rural Preparedness Challenges: 121 US Food and Drug Administration, “Lettuce Safety Framing the Issues,” Preparing for Public Health Initiative,” 23 August 2006, http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/ Emergencies: Meeting the Challenges of Rural America, ~dms/lettsafe.html (17 October 2006). Conference Proceedings and Recommendations, 122 Ibid. Saint Paul, Minnesota, 27-28 September 2004. 123 M. Burros, “Produce is Growing Source of Food 142 L. J. Dyckman, Food Safety: U.S. Needs a Single Agency to Illness,” The New York Times, 16 September 2006. Administer a Unified, Risk-Based Inspection System, 124 Associated Press, “Florida: Another Link to GAO/T-RCED-99-256 (Washington, D.C.: General Botulism,” The New York Times, 7 October 2006. Accountability Office, 4 August 1999); and Committee to Ensure Safe Food from Production to 125 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Consumption, Institute of Medicine, Ensuring Safe “Botulism,” http://www.cdc.gov/NCIDOD/DBMD/ Food: From Production to Consumption, 1998 diseaseinfo/botulism_g.htm#What%20is%20 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1998). botulism (17 October 2006). 143 A. Kaufmann, “Postal Anthrax, United States, 2001: 126 Ibid. Delivering Risk Communications in Times of Crisis,” 127 Stanford Graduate School of Business, “Caution Case Study, Managing Effective Risk Response: an About a Bioterror Attack on the U.S. Milk Supply,” Ecological Approach (MERREA), 2003. News Release, June 2005, http://www.gsb.stan- 144 A. Kaufmann and M. Meltzer, “The Economic Impact ford.edu/news/research/pubpolicy_wein_bioter- of a Bioterrorist Attack: Are Prevention and Postattack ror.shtml. Intervention Programs Justifiable?” Emerging Infectious 128 Ibid. Diseases 3, no. 2. (April-June 1997). 129 R. Weiss, “Report Warns of Threat to Milk Supply: 145 L. Wein et al., “Emergency Response to an Anthrax Release of Study Citing Vulnerability to Attack,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Bioterrorism Attack was Opposed by U.S. Sciences, 100, no. 7 (2003): 4346-4351. Officials,” The Washington Post, 29 June 2005. 146 A. Kaufmann and M. Meltzer, “The Economic Impact 130 B. Knickerbocker, “Third Mad Cow Case in US of a Bioterrorist Attack: Are Prevention and Postattack Raises Questions about Testing,” Christian Science Intervention Programs Justifiable?” Emerging Infectious Monitor, 15 March 2006. Diseases 3, no. 2. (April-June 1997). 131 “First Apparent U.S. Case of Mad Cow Disease 147 Ibid. Discovered,” CNN.com, 24 December 2003, 148 The Center for Biosecurity, “Anthrax Appraisal 5 http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/12/23/mad.cow/ Years Later: Top 10 Accomplishments and (16 October 2006). Remaining Challenges,” 22 September 2006. 132 W. Leiss, William, “Canadian Policy Options to 149 Ibid. Prevent Future Economic Madness from ‘Mad Cow’ Disease,” Working Paper, June 2004; and J. Gransbery, 150 Government Accountability Office, Federal Agencies “Beef import battle: U.S. cattle industry at odds over Have Taken Some Steps to Validate Sampling Methods mad cow disease,” Billings Gazette, 28 January 2005. and to Develop a Next-Generation Anthrax Vaccine, GAO-06-756T (Washington, D.C.: Government 133 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Accountability Office, 9 May 2006). Nations, The State of Food and Agriculture 151 Ibid. 2001 (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2001). 152 Ibid. 134 Ibid. 153 Ibid. 154 Ibid. 78 155 E. Lipton, “Bid to Stockpile Bioterror Drugs 181 Government Accountability Office, September 11: Stymied by Setbacks,” The New York Times, 18 Monitoring of World Trade Center Health Effects Has September 2006. Progressed, but Program for Federal Responders Lags Behind, 156 R. Merle, “Anthrax Vaccine Testing Called Off: GAO-06-481T (Washington, D.C.: Government VaxGen Contract in Doubt as FDA Raises Concerns,” Accountability Office, 28 February 2006). The Washington Post, 4 November 2006. 182 G. I. Banguch et al., “Pulmonary Function after 157 “Government Extends Deadline by Which VaxGen Exposure to the World Trade Center Collapse in is Required to Resolve Clinical Hold.” VaxGen the New York City Fire Department,” American Press Release, 16 November 2006. http://www.vax- Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 174 gen.com/zoo_prframe.html?load=www.b2i.us%2Ff (2006). rame.asp%3FBzID%3D923%26to%3Drl%26Nav% 183 R. Herbert et al., “The World Trade Center Disaster 3D0%26S%3D0%26L%3D1 (20 November 2006). and the Health of Workers: Five Year Assessment of 158 Ibid. a Unique Medical Screening Program,” Environmental Health Perspectives 114, no. 12 159 K. Davis, S. R. Collins, M. M. Doty, A. Ho, and A. L. (December 2006): 1853-1858. Holmgren, “Health and Productivity Among U.S. Workers,” Commonwealth Fund Issue Brief, (2005) 184 Ibid. http://www.cmwf.org/usr_doc/856_Davis_hlt_pro- 185 R. M. Brackbill et al., “Surveillance for World ductivity_USworkers.pdf (27 November 2006). Trade Center Disaster Health Effects Among 160 E. A. Blackwelder, “Protecting the Homeland: Survivors of Collapsed and Damaged Buildings,” Fighting Pandemic Flue from the Front Lines,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 55, no. SS02 (7 Testimony before the Subcommittee on April 2006): 1-18. Prevention of Nuclear and Biological Attack and 186 Ibid. the Subcommittee on Emergency Preparedness, 187 Ibid. Science, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, (8 February 2006). 188 S. A. Lister, “Hurricane Katrina: The Public Health and Medical Response,” Congressional Research 161 R. D. Lasker, MD, Testimony Before The Council of Service, 21 September 2005. the District of Columbia Committee on the Judiciary, 25 October 2004, http://www.cacsh.org/pdf/Lasker 189 Ibid. TestimonyOct252004.pdf (8 November 2005). 190 Ibid. 162 R. J. Blendon et al., “Pandemic Influenza and the 191 Department of Health and Human Services, “HHS Public: Survey Findings,” Harvard School of Public Announces $1.2 Billion in Funding To States For Health Project on the Public and Biological Security, Bioterrorism Preparedness,” News Release, 7 June Presented at the Institute of Medicine, 26 October 2006, http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2006press/ 2006, http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/panflu/IOM_ 20060607.html (30 October 2006). Avian_flu.ppt (1 November 2006). 192 Ibid. 163 Ibid. 193 Department of Health and Human Services, 164 Ibid. “Guidelines for Bioterrorism Funding Announced,” 165 Ibid. News Release, 9 May 2003, http://www.hhs.gov/news/ press/2003pres/ 20030509.html (8 November 2005). 166 American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine, American 194 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Medical “Program Announcement 99051: Continuation Liablity, and Task Force on Terrorism, “The Guidance for Cooperative Agreement on Public Pediatrician and Disaster Preparedness,” Pediatrics Health Preparedness and Response for 117, no. 2 (February 2006). Bioterrorism,” 14 June 2004, http://www.bt.cdc.gov/ planning/continuationguidance/pdf/guidance_int 167 Ibid. ro.pdf (12 September 2005). 168 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 195 S. Lister, “An Overview of the U.S. Public Health “Pediatric Terrorism and Disaster Preparedness: A System in the Context of Emergency Preparedness,” Resource for Pediatricians,” Publication no. 06(07)- Congressional Research Service, 17 March 2005, 0056-1, September 2006, www.ahrq.gov/research/ http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/RL31719.pd pedprep/pedtersum.htm (17 November 2006). f (8 November 2005). 169 Ibid. 196 Ibid. 170 Ibid. 197 Ibid. 171 R. P. Olympia et al., “The Preparedness of Schools to 198 Ibid. Respond to Emergencies in Children: A National Survey of School Nurses,” Pediatrics 116, no. 6 199 Health Resources and Services Administration, (December 2005). “National Bioterrorism Hospital Preparedness Program: FY 2005 Continuation Guidance,” 1 July 172 Ibid. 2005, http://www.gnyha.org/394/file.aspx (20 173 Ibid. November 2006). 174 Ibid. 200 Health Resources and Services Administration, 175 Trust for America’s Health, Ready or Not? Protecting “What Is Behind HRSA’s Projected Supply, the Public’s Health From Diseases, Disasters, and Demand, and Shortage of Registered Nurses?” Bioterrorism 2005 (Washington, D.C.: Trust for September 2004. America’s Health, December 2005). 201 Ibid. 176 US Department of Homeland Security in cooperation 202 Ibid. with the US Department of Transportation, 203 Ibid. “Nationwide Plan Review: Phase 2 Report,” 16 June 2006, www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/Prep_Nationwide 204 Ibid. PlanReview.pdf (3 November 2006). 205 Ibid. 177 Ibid. 206 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 178 Ibid. FluSurge2.0 Beta Test Software, http://www.cdc.gov/ flu/flusurge.htm (30 October 2006). 179 Ibid. 207 US Census Bureau, Current Population Survey 180 Ibid. Data 2005, http://dataferrett.census.gov/. 79 1707 H Street, NW, 7th Floor Washington, DC 20006 (t) 202-223-9870 (f) 202-223-9871