f m hSt. A/VWW rfA NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Bethesda, V ro \* 0 P u a"h ..fifl. \r M. \-\w EXAMINATIONS IN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, SURGERY, CHEMISTRY, OBSTETRICS, MATERIA MEDICA, AND PHARMACY ; For the Use of Students. BY ROBERT HOOPER, M.D, FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION, WITH ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY-FIVE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS, AND AN ENTIRE NEW CHAPTER ON POISONS. NEW-YORK; PUBLISHED BY COLLINS AND CO. 1830. ■ w Southern District of New-York, St. BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the eleventh day of Sep- tember, A. D. 1830, and in the fifty-fifth year of the Independence of the United Slates of America, COLLINS and Co. of the said district, have deposited io this office the tille of a book, the right whereof Ihey claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " Examinations in Anatomy, Physioloay, Practice of Physic, Sur- gery, Chemistry, Obstetrics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy; for the use of Students. By Robert Hooper, M.D. From the last London Edition, with One Hundred and Forty-tive Additional Ques- tions, and an entire new Chapter on Poisons." In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, en- titled " An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the ^copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentiohed;" and also to an act, entitled " An act, supplementary to an act, entitled, an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, eDgmving, and etching historical and other prints." FRED. J. UETTS. Clerk of the Southern District of J\~ev>- York. W. E. DEAN. POINTER. EXAMINATIONS ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, SURGERY, MATERIA MEDICA, CHEMISTRY, AND PHARMACY For the Instruction of Students. ANATOMY'. 1. Question. What are the divisions of tire sci- ence of Anatomy ? Answer. The science of Anatomy is divided into Osteology, Syndesmology, Myology, Bursalogy, An- giology, Neurology, Adenology, Splanchnology, and Hygrology. 2. GL. What are the solids of the body ? A. The solids of the body are the bones, cartiliges, ligaments, muscles, cellular substance, membranes, vessels, nerves, glands, viscera, and adipose substance. 3. Q,. How do anatomists divide the skeleton 1 A. The human skeleton is divided into head, trunk, and extremities. The head is subdivided int:> crani- um, or skullT and face. The upper extremities into brachium, antibrachium, carpus, metacarpus, and pha- langes. The lower extremities into femur, crus, tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges. The trunk is subdivided into spine, thorax, and pelvis. 4. Q,. How many bones compose the cranium? A. Eight: namely, one os frontis, two ossa parieta- lia, one os occipitis, two ossa temporalia, one os eth- moides, and the os sphenoides. 5. Q. What are the sutures of the cranium ? A. The sutures of the cranium are five in number, viz. the coronal, the sagittal, the lambdoidal, and thp npo squamous: ANATOMY. 6. Q,. What are the peculiarities of the frontal bont in the foetus ? A. The frontal bone in the foetus is divided down the middle ; it contains no sinus.-s; and neither the orbitar plates nor superciliary ridges are completely formed. 7. Q,. Where is the os frontis situated ? A. The os frontis is situated in the anterior part of the cranium, and superior part of the face. 8. Q,. Where is the lachrynal depression situated? A. The lachrymal depression is situated on the or- bitar plate, and behind the external angular process. 9. Q,. Describe the parietal bones. A. The parietal bones are of a quadrangular shape, are externally convex, internally concave, and mark- ed with grooves for the meningeal arteries. They form the lateral and superior part of the cranium. 10. Q. Describe the situation of the sphenoidal bone. A. The sphenoidal bone is'situated in the middle of the basis of the cranium, extending underneath, from one temple across to (he other. 11. Q.. Into how many portions is the temporal bone distinguished ? A. Generally into two portions, viz. a squamous portion and a petrous portion. 12. Q,. In what bone is the organ of hearing situat ed? A. In the petrous portion of the temporal bone. 13. Q,. How many tables, have the bones of the cranium 1 A. Two : an external and an internal. 14. Q,. What is the name of the substance which unites the two tables of the cranium ? A. It is called dploe\ and medilullium. 15. Q. What is attached to the internal angular pro- Cess of the frontai bone ? * A. There are two muscles attached to the internal angular process : viz. the corrugator supercilii and t'^ trochlearis, or obliquus superior ANATOMY. 3 16. Q,. What is the union of the hones of the skull termed ? A. Suture. 17. Q,. What is the name of the suture which con- nects the frontal with the parietal bones ? A. The coronal suture, 18. Q,. By what suture is the occipital bone United to the parietal bones ? A. By the lambdoidal suture. 19 Q,. What name is given to the suture which con- nects the parietal bones ? A It is called the sagittal suture. 20. Q,. Describe,4he occipital bone. A. The occipital bone forms the posterior and infe- rior part of the skull, is of an irregular figure, exter- nally convex, internally concave. It has many de- pressions and elevations, and is connected, at its in- ferior part, by means of a projection,, called the basil- ary process, to the sphenoid bone. 21. Q,. Describe the sphenoid bone. A. The sphenoid bone is divided into a body and wings. It has many processes, depressions, and fora- mina, and is connected to all the bones of the cra- nium. 22. Q,. What are the processes of the sphenoid bone ? A. The principal processes of this bone are, the two pterygoid processes, the styliforrn process, the spi- nous processes, the orbitar processes, the temporal pro- cesses, the ethmoidal process, the olivary process, and the anterior and posterior clinoid processes. 23. Q.. What bones are united by the false sutures ? A. The temporal bones are united to the parietal bones by the false or squamous suture. 24. Q- Through what foramina do the olfactory nerves pass out of the cranium ? A. Through the foramina cribrosa, which are in the upper part of the ethmoid bone. 25. Q,. Where is the foramen magnum occipitale situated ? a2 4 A.VATOMi.. A. In the occipital bone, at the inferior paiibe.twctr. the condyles and behind tire basilary process. 26. Q,. To what bone does the crista galli belong ? A. To the ethmoid bone: it forms the projecting process within the cranium, to which the falciform process of the dura mater is attached. 27. Q. To what bone u&es the sella Uirc'rea belong ? ' A. ^To the sphenoid bone : it is placed in the mid- dle, and projects into the cavity of the cranium. ■ 28. Q. What does the foramenrotunduin of the sphe- noid bone.transmit / A. The foramen rotundum transmits the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 29. Q. Describe the frontal bone. A. The frontal bone has some resemblance to a coc- kleshell : it is placed in the anterior part of the skull, and forms the forehead and upper part of the orbits. It re? ceives the anterior lobus cerebri, forms a notch for the ethmoid bone, is externally convex, internally con- cave, and has several elevations and depressions. 30. Q. Where is itiQ os etlimoides situated ? A. The os etbmoides is situated at the root of the nose, in a notch between the orbitar plates of the fron- tal bone. 31. Q. What bone separates the ethmoid from the occipital bone ? • A. The os sphenoidcum. *f?i ^V.r!l!'-gl1 wnalfo,'am?n does the third branch oi the tilth pair of nerves pass ? A. The third branch of the fifth pair of nerves jroes through the foramen ovale. 33. Q At what angle of the parietal bone is the groove for the spinous artery ? , A' T'ie spinous artery of the dura mater runs in a groove at the anterior inferior angle of the parietal bone 34. Q. What rests on the internal surface of the cu- neiform process of the occipital bone ? A. The medulla oblongata rests Hpon the inner sur- face ot the cuneiform or basilary process. 35. Q. Whatis attached to the lateral partsofthp;,, tenia! crucial spine of the occipital bone ? A:\ATOMi". ' -, »' A. The tentorium, -which separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum. 36- Q. In what bone is the foramen opticum ? A. The foramen opticum is in the sphenoid bone. 37. Q. Where is the foramen opticum found in the skull ? A- In the orbit, at the very.bottom. 3«. tj. What is the use of the foramen opticum ? A. It transmits the'optic nerve to tbe eye. 39. Q,. What are the eminences of the temporal bone? A. The principal eminences are the mastoid process, the zygomatic process, the styloid process, vaginal pro- cess, and the ridge on. the petrous portion. 40. Q. What is the use of the. meatus auditorius in- lernus ? . A. The meatus auditorius internus transmits the por- tio dura and portio mollis. . . 41. CI. To what nerve does the fissure Glasseri give exit ? ■ A The chorda tympanl 42. Q. .What isthe name of the suture that connects the bones of the face to those of the cranium ? A. Theboncsof the cranium are connected to those df the face by means of the transverse suture. 43. Q. How many bones compose the face ? A. The face is formed by fourteen bones; two supe- rior maxillary, two nasal, two palatine, two jugcl, two inferior spongy, two lachrymal, the vomer, and tbe inte- rior maxillary bone. 44. Q. What is attached to the styloid process of (lie temporal bone 1 A. Three muscles, viz. the sfylo-pharyngeus,the stv - io-g!o?sus, and the ftylo-hyoideus; also the ligament of the oshyoides,aud the lateral ligament of the lower jaw. 45. Q. Enumerate the principal elevatipnsof the oc- cipital bone. A. The principal elevations of the occipital boneare, its condyles, a longitudinal ridge, a superior and an in- ferior transverse ridge, a tuberosity in the centre of the superior transverse ridge: these are on the external tS A3.AIO.UY. surface. On the internal surface .is seen the crucial spine. , 46. Q. To what bone does the mastoid process be- long ? A. It is a part of the temporal b^ne. 47. Q. How many bones compose the orbit ? A. Seven: viz. os frontis, os ethmoides, os sphenoi- des, os lachrymale, os jugale, ospalati, and the osmaxil- lare superius. 48. Q. What "passes through the foramen lacerum orbitale superius .' A. The third, the fourth, the first branch of the fifth and sixth pair of nerves. 49. Q. How many bones compose the lower jaw ? A, One, in the adult, the inferior maxillary bone. 50. Q,.' What bones form the septum narium ? A". The azygos process of the ethmoid bone, and the vomer. 51. Q. To what bone do the superior turbinated bones, as they are, called, belong ? A. To the ethmoid bone, of which they are a part. 52. Q. In what bone is the antrum of Highmore si- tuated ? - A. In the superior maxillary bone, behind the cheeks. 53. Q. Is the body of the sphenoid bone hollow or solid ? A. Hollow: it containsthe sphenoidal sinuses, which communicate with the nose. 54. Q. What separates the antrum of Highmore from the orbit ? A. The orbitar plate of tbe superior maxillary bone. 55. Q. Is there any communication between tlie-or- bit and the nostril ? A. Yes : by the ductus ad nasum, to convey the tears into the nose. 56. Q. How many bones are there in the tympanum 'I A. Four: the incus* stapes, malleus, and osorbiculare. 57. Q. To whatbone of the cranium does the styloid process belong ? A. To the temporal bone. 58. Q. What are the foramina of the superior maxil- lary bone ■? AAA'iU-¥i. *t A. The foramina of this bone are, the intra-orbitav foramen, the foramen isieisiyum, the spbeno-maxillary fissure, nnd the foramen of the antrum maxillare. 59 Q. What bones form the foramen lacerum in basl cranii ? . A. The temporal and occipital bones. 60. Q. What passes through the c'nnalis carotideus ? A. The canalis carotideus transmits the carotid artery and the intercostal nerve. 61. Q. What are the processes of the sphenoid bone called, which form the sides of the posterior nostril ? A. The pterygoid processes. 69. Q. What passes through the foramen laoerdm in basi cranii ? A. The jugular vein, par vagum, glossopharyngeal nerve, andnervnsaccessorins. 63. Q. Do the ossa palati form any part of the or- bit? A. Yes: a portion of the palate bone rises into tbe inferior part of it. 64. Q. Where is the vomer situated? A. In the centre of the, nostrils, having the sph«noid and ethmoid bones at its upper part, the superior max- illary and palatine bones at its lower part, and the car- tilaginous septum oi the nose on the anterior part. (>5. Q. Where is the Eustachian tube situated? A. It passes from the tympanum of the ear oblique- ly forwards and inwards, and opens in the fauces, near the posterior nostril: Go. Q.. ILiw many foramina has the inferior maxil- lary bone? A. It has only two. which belong to the canalis mentalis: one placed cKternally and anteriorly, the other placed posteriorly and internally. 67. Q. Point out the situation of tho zygomatic pro- cess on the nice. ' A. It forms the lateral and superior part of the cheek, extending anteriorly from the extremity of the tar. 68. Q.. Where is the os unguis situated ? ■V The o> unrf'iic i= situated in the orbit. «tf the in- s A-XATO-UT. terrtal angle immediately underneath the meeting of the eye-lashes. 69. Q,. What is the name of the portions ot the os efhmoides which hang down into the nostrils ? A. The superior turbinated bones and azygos pro- cess. ■ 70. Q,. What siduses communicate with the cavity of the nostrils ? A. There are five sinuses which enter the cavity of the nostrils; viz. the frontal, ethmoidal, and sphenoi- dal sinuses at the upper part, and the two antral sinuses on the sides. 71. Q,. What is the shape of the os mala? ? A. It is of a quadrangular shape. 72. Q. Enumerate the foramina of the sphenoid bone ? A. The foramina of the sphenoid bone are, the fora- mina optica, foramina lacei a, foramina rotunda, fora- mina ovalia, foramina spinOsa, and the foramina Vidua- na. 73. Q. What bones of the cranium are called ossa plana ? A. The orbitar plates of the ethmoid bone. 74. Q,. What are the elevations of the superior max- illary bone? A. The elevations of the superior maxillary bone are, tbe alveolar process, the spinous process, the pa- latine process, the nasal process, the orbitar process, tbe.rmiiar p.ocess, and the bulbous process. 75. Q,. What are the projections of the inferior maxillary bone? A. The principal projections of the inferior maxil- lary bone are, the cororioid and condyloid processes: the angles; a ridge passing externally, and another internally, from the/base of the coronoid process to the commencement of the chin ; a projection on the inner and outer side of each angle ; a projection be- hind the symphysis, and another on each side the base of the^chin. I 76. Q,. What is the division of the internal ear? A The internal ear i« divided into the tympanum INATUJ1V. 9 aud labyrinth ; and the labyrinth is divided into cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibulum. 77. Q. How many teeth are there in the adult, and how are they divided .' A. In the adult there arc sixteen teeth in each jaw : and they are divided into three classes on each side ot the jaw: two incisores, one cuspidatus, two bicuspi- des, and three molares. 78. Q,. On what vertebra is rotation of the head performed ? A. Tbe head rotates upon the second cervical verte- bra, by the intervention of the atlas. 79. Q. What are the bones called which compose the spine ? A. Vertebrae, of which there are twenty-four. 80. Q. Describe the spine. A. The spine is a long, hony, and cartilaginous, hol- low column, consisting of twenty-four bones, called vertebra?, which extend from the occipital bone to the os sacrum, and have many processes and foramina. 81. Q. What is there peculiar to the second verte- bra ? A. It has an odontoid process at the upper part of its body. 82. Q. What is there peculiar to the atlas ? A. The atlas has no body nor spinous process: its transverse processes are longer than those of the rest, and terminate in an obtuse point. The superior arti- cular processes are very large, and are hollowed out for the condyles of the occipital bone. There are two tuberosities within its large arch, for the attach- ment of the transverse ligament; it has a groove be- hind each superior articular process, and there is a surface for the odontoid process to move on. 83. Q,. How would you distinguish a dorsal verte- bra from the rest ? A. The bodies of the dorsal vertebrae are larger than the cervical, and less than the lumbar; they are more flattened at the sides, more convex before, and more concave behind, than any of the other vertebrae; the spinous process terminates in a round tubercle; the JO M'ATOJJi'. transverse processes are very thick; they have iu» foramen, as in the cervical; there is an articulating surface on the side of the body, and a superficial one in the points of the transverse processes.! 84. Q. Where is the os sacrum situated ? A. 1 he os sacrum is situated at the posterior and lower part of the trunk, below the lumbar-vertebra?, and "between the ossa innominate. 85. Q. How many foramina open upon the surfaces of the sacrum ? A. There are foar pairs of holes on the anterior part ©f the sacrum, and the same number on its posterior part. 86. Q. How are the ribs divided ? A. They are divided into seven true ribs, situated superiorly, and five false, which are placed inferiorly. 87. Q,. Into what parts is.each rib distinguished ? A. Each, rib'is divided into middle part or body, an anterior and posterior extremity, an external and in- ternal surface, and a superior and inferior edge. 88. Q. Do the anterior bony extremities of all the ribs reach the sternum.? A. No; only those of the true ribs. 89. Q,. Where is the os hyoides situated ? A. It is situated at the root of the tongue, between it and the larynx. 90. Q. How is the os hyoides divided ? A. The os hyoides is divided into body, two cornua jnajora, and two cornua minora. 91. Gfc. Describe-the scapula. A. The scapula is a triangular bone, situatedat the late- ral and upper part of the back. It has three margins, a spine, the acromion and coraooid process, and an articu- lar cavity for the head of the os humeri. 92. Q. What bone is fixed to the acromion scapulae ? A. The clavicle, or collar-bone. 93. Q. How many bones has the fore-arm ? A. Two ; the ulna and radius. 94. Q. Where is the ulna-situated ? A. When the hand is supine, it is situated a* the unde, and inner part of the fore-arm, between the humeri and carpus. \NAiU.UV. , 11 95. Q. What is situated in the groove at the lower in- ternal edge of each rib ? A. The intercostal artery, vein, and nerve. 96. Q. How many portions of bone does the sternum consist of ? . A. In theadultthe sternum consistof three portions; a superior portion, which nearly resembles the ace of hearts; a middle portion, which is lint on each side, and larger below than above ; and an inferior portion, which has attached to it the ensiforra cartilage. 97. Q. How is tbe clavicle divided ? A. The clavicle is divided into a body, and an inter- nal, or sternal, and an external, or scapular, extremity 98. Q. On what bone do we lean when on our el- bow ? A. The ulna. 99. Q, What is the process called on which we lean ? A. Theolccrution. 100. Q,. How many bones compose the shoulder joint? A. Two : the scapula and the os brachu. 101. Q,. What bone unites the arm to the thorax • A. The clavicle, or collar-bone. 102. Q. How many bones compose the carpus ? A. Eiffht; viz. os scaphoides, os lunare, os cunci forme, os orbiculare, os trapezium, os magnum, and os unciforme. . 103. Q. What receives the head of the os femons ? A. The acetabulum, or cup-like cavity of the os in- nominatum. ,,*.,. 104. Q. What ligamentis attached to the bottom ot tire acetabulum? A. The ligamentum teres of the thigh-bone,, which confines the head in its soefcet. 105. Q. What bone supports the leg ? A. The astragal us, on which the tibia rests. 106. Q. How many bones compose the tarsus; A. Seven ; viz. astragalus, os calcis, os naviculars os cuboides, and the three cuneiform bones. 107. Q What is the situation of the os calcis 1 B 12 AAATOAl*. A. The os calcis is placed at the posterior pat-tot the tarsus, and forms the heel. 108. Q. Where is the os scaphoides situated f A. The os scaphoides is placed immediately before the astragalus. ., 109. Q,. What is the situation of the three cuneitoim bones of the tarsus ? A. The cuneiform bones are situated before the os scaphoides, and internal to the os cuboides. 110. Q. Where is the trochanter major situated? A. It forms the great projection at the superior and external part of the thigh-bone. 111. Q,. On what bone is the linea aspera situated ? A. On the back part of the os femoris. 112. Q,. What are the processes on the lower end ot the os femoris called ? A. They are called condyles. .113. Q,. What is there particular to be noticed on the os humeri'. A In noticing the os humeri, we may observe its cylindrical shape, its body and two extremities, the bead, neck, great and little tuberosity, the bicipital groove, the two condyles, and trocbea. 114. Q. Enumerate the principal parts of the ulna. A. The principal parts of the ulna are, its body and extremities, the olecranon and coronoid process, the great and little sigmoid cavity, the lesser head, and styloid process. 115. Q,. What are the principal parts of the radius ? A". The principal parts of the radius are, its body and two extremities ; its round head, which rolls on the ulna ; the sigmoid cavity, at its lower extremity ; and the styloid process. 116. Q.. What are the principal parts of the os fe- moris ? A. The principal parts of the os femoris are, its bo- dy and extremities, the head, neck, the great and lit- tle trochanters, the linea aspera, the external and in- ternal condyle, the notch between the condyles, and fossa for the patella. 117, Q. How many bones compose the knee-joint? IXATOaiV. 13 A. Three ;-viz. the patella, the os femoris, and the tibia. 118. Q. What are the bones of the leg called ? A. Tibia and fibula. 119. Q. What i* the shape of the tibia ? A It is long and triangular ; larger above than be- low. 120. Q,. What bone forms the inner ankle? A. The inner ankle is formed of a projection from the lower part of the tibia. 121. Q,. What bone forms the outer ankle 1 A. The lower end of the fibula forms it. 122. Q,. What are the names of the bones of the pelvis ? A. They are fo;>" in number; viz. the two ossa in- nominata, one os sacrum, and one os coccygis. 123. Q. How would you distinguish a male from a female pelvis? A. In the female pelvis, the .os sacrum is shorter and broader than that of the male, the ossa ilia are more expanded, the brim of the pelvis is nearly of an oval shape, it is wider from side to side than from the symphysis pubis to the os sacrum ; whereas, in man, itis rounder, and every where of less diameter; the os sacrum is uarrower, and the os coccygis more firm- ly connected. 124. Q. Into how many portions is the os innomina- tum distinguished ? A. Into three; viz. the iliac, the pubic, and ischiatic portions, which, inthf frptus, are three distinct bones, and become one in thendult. 125. Q,. What separates the ossa innominata from each other behind ? A. The samim. 126. Q, What are the terminations of the crista of the ilium called? A. The terminations of the crista of the ilium are called, the anterior superior, and posterior superior, spinous processes of the ilium. 127. Q. What is attached to'the crista of the ilium? A. The aponenrosi . 18 A. They are six in number; viz. trapezius, levator scapulae, pcctoralis minor, rhomboideus, serratus mag- nas, and subclavius. 169. Q. Do the external condyles of the humerus give origin to the extensor or flexor muscles of the fore- arm ? A. To the extensors. 170. Q. What forms the linea alba? A. The meeting of the flat tendons of the abdominal muscles, along the centre of the abdomen, forms the ensiform cartilage to the symphysis pubis. 171. Q. What muscles afe divided in amputation of the thigh ? A. The muscles divided in amputation of the thigh are the biceps flexor cruris, ecmi-tedinpsus, semi-meni- branosus, gracilis, sartorious, vastus externus, vastus internus, rectus femoris, and the long tendon of the abductor magnus. 172. Q What muscles are inserted into the patella ? A. The rectus femoris, the vastus externus, the vas- tus internus, and crurffius. 173. Q. What are the names of the muscles which are inserted into the os calcis? A. Gastrocnemius externus, gastrocnemius internus, and plantaris. 174. Q. What is the name of the tendon formed by the gastrocnemius externus, and soleus? Ai The tendo Acliillis. 175. Q. Wbat muscle crosses the carotid artery and internal jugular Vein ? A. These two vessels have the omo-hyoides crossing them, to insert itself into the os hyoides. 176. Q. How many muscles are there on the anteri- or part of the neck ? A- The muscles on tlie anterior part of the neck are sixteen in number; viz. plalysma mynides, sterno-clei- do-mastoidcus, omo-hyoidfiiis. sterno-hyoideus, sterno- thyroideus, thyro-hyoideus, crico-thyroideus, digastri- cus, stylo-hyoideus, stylo-glossus, stylo-pharyngeus, myo-hoideus, genio-hyotdens, genio-hyo-glossu*. myo- glossti?. and linguali=. w AAATOMV. 177. Q. What forms tbe lineae transversa; of the ab domcn ? A. The linea? trahsversae are formed by the tendi- nous adhesions of the recti muscles, Which produce three or four white lines that shine through the fascia covering each muscle. 178. Q. What forms the linea semilunaris ? A. Tbe linea semilunaris is a semicircular white line which runs obliquely from the os pubis over the side of the abdomen, at the distance of about four inches from the linea alba; it is formed by the tendons of the two oblique and transverse muscles uniting at the rec- tum. 179. Q. Is there any muscle which arisps from one Of the abdominal muscles and is inserted into the tes- ticle ? A. Yes; the cremaster muscle arises from the inter- nal oblique, passes through the abdominal ring, and descending upon the spermatic cord, is inserted into the tunica vaginalis of the testis. 180. Q. What are the most important fasciae of the body ? A. The fascia covering the temporal muscle :—that given off from the biceps covering the fore-arm:—that covering the abdominal muscles and back:—the fascia of the lower extremities:—and the plantar and palmar fascia. 181. Q. From whence does the palmar aponeurosis arise ? A. The palmar aponeurosis arises from the tendon of the palmatis, and from the annular ligament of the wrist. 182. Q. What are bursas mucosa*, and their use ? A. The bursas mucosas are small bags placed under muscles and tendons that are frequently brought into action ; they contain a fluid similar to synovia, the use of which is to lubricate the muscles and tendons. 183. Q. Where are bursas mucosae to be found ? A. The bursa; mucosa? are chiefly situated in the extremities, between tendons which rub against each other, or where thr-y play on the surfaces of hone« or ANAIOJHV. 21 joints, and between the integuments and certain pro- minent points of bone,^ts at the knee, elbow, and knuckles. 184. Q. From which side of the tendon of the biceps is an aponeurosis sent off? A. An aponeurosis is sent off from its inside, which assists in forming the fascia of the fore-arm. 185- Q Describe the fascia covering tbe fore-arm- A. The fascia covering the fore-arm is continued from the intermuscular ligaments which pass down to the condyles, covering the os humeri. It is attached to the condyles, and adheres firmly to the olecranon. On the posterior part of the arm it receives a great addition of fibres from lha triceps extensor, and on the fore part of the arm it appears to be a continua- tion of the aponeurosis of the biceps flexor cubiti. 186. Q. What is (he use of aponeuroses .' A. The use of aponeuroses is to brace tire muscles, by keeping them in their proper place while in action, and "to gjve origin to many muscular fibres of the mus- cles which lie imine iiately under. 187- Q. How many arteries are there ? A. Two; viz. the aorta and pulmonary artery : all the other arterie? are branches of these two. 188. Q. What is the name of the vessels which nou- rish the heart ? x A. Coronary arteries. 189. Q. What arteries are given off from the arch Of the aorta ? A. Three branches; viz. the arteria innominata, the left carotid, and the left subclavian. 190. Q- What parts do the external and internal ca- rotid artery supply ? A. The external carotid artery supplies the face and external parts of the head ; the internal carotid artery supplies the brain. 191. Q. What branches does the external carotid ar. tery give off ? A. The external carotid artery gives off eight branches ; viz. 1. tbyroidea superior; 2. lingualis; 3- facialis; 4. pharyngea inferior; 5, occipitalis; 6. au- l.VVroMJ*. ricH.aris posterior; 7. temporalis ; and, 8. nmiiJlaria interna. 192. Q. What are the branches of the internal ca- rotid artery ? ■ A. The internal carotid artery sends off the ophthal- mic, the com'municans, the anterior cerebri and the media cerebri. 193. Q. What is the situation of the common caro- tid artery in the neck ? A. The common carotid artery lies on the side of the trachea, between it and the internal jugular vein. 194. Q. What are the arteries of the dura mater ? A. The arteries of tbe dura mater are the anterior, middle, and posterior meningeal. 195. Q. How many arteries has the thyroid gland ? A. The thyroid gland has four arteries, namely, the two superior thyroideal and the two inferior thyro- ideal. 196. Q. Through what foramen does the ophthalmic artery enter the orbit? A. The ophthalmic artery enters the orbit by the foramen opticum; it sends its branches to the fore- head, lachrymal gland, fat, muscles, and globe of the eye. 197. Q. What is the course of the arteria transver- salis faciei ? A. The transversalis faciei, which is a branch of the temporal, proceeds transversely under, the zygoma, over the masseter, and near the parotid duct. 198. Q. Describe the course of the internal carotid as it enters the cranium. A. The internal carotid, at the base of the cranium, makes a sudden turn forwards, and enters the carotid canal of the temporal bone ; it then passes upwards and forwards ; after leaving the canal, it again bends upwards and forwards by the side of the sella turcica, and perforates the dura mater at the root of the an- terior clinoid process » it is suddenly reflected oblique- ly backwards and upwards j after which it divides in- to branches. 199. Q. Where does the anterior meningeal arttrv srbe 1 AAAl'OJll. 23 A. The anterior meningeal artery arises from the carotid. 200. Q. Where does the posterior meningeal artery arise ? A. The posterior meningeal artery arises from (he vertebral. 201. Q. From whence does the middle meningeal artery arise ? A. The middle meningeal artery arises from the in- ternal carotid artery. 202. Q. What is the course of the external maxilla- ry artery over the jaw-bone ? A. The external maxillary artery passes before the edge of the masseter over the middle and lateral part of the jaw-bone. 203. Q. What are the branches which the subclavi- an artery gives off? A. They are six in number ; viz. arteria mammalia interna, thyroidea inferior, intercostalis, vertebralis, cervicalis profunda, and cervjcalis superficialis. 204. Q. What are the muscles the subclavian artery passes between, in going over the first rib ? A. The subclavian artery, as it passes over the first rib, goes between the anterior and middle scalenus muscles. 205. Q. Where does the subclavian artery termi- nate? A. The subclavian artery terminates in the axillary artery at the first rib, between the insertion of the sca- leni muscles. 206. Q. What are the branches of the internal max- illary artery ? A. The internal maxillary artery gives off the arte- ria raeningea media, which goes to the dura mater through the foramen spinosum ; the inferior maxillary, which enters the canal of the lower jaw ; the alveolar, to the back teeth of the upper jaw; the infra-orbitar, which gets upon the cheek, through the infra-orbitar canal; the palato-maxillary, which ramifies on the palate ; and the spheno-palatine, to the cavity of the nose. f •n ANA'l'uAlV. 207. Q. At what part is the brachial artery consider- ed to begin ? A. The brachial artery begins immediately below the tendon of the latissimus dorsi. 208. Q. From what artery does the inferior thyroid arise ? . A. The inferior thyroid artery arises from the sub- clavian. 209. Q. How many branches does the axillary arte- ry send off? A. The axillary artery generally gives off four ar- teries, viz. thoracica longior, thoracica superior, tho- racica humeraria, and thoracica alaris. 210. Q. What is the course of the brachial artery ? A. The brachial artery descends behind the inner edge of the biceps, over the coraco-braohialis, cover- ed by the tendinous aponeurosis of the arm, and hav- ing the triceps extensor cubiti on the back part of it; when it gets to the bend of the arm it divides into two principal branches. 211. Q. Between what tendons does the radial arte- ry lie at the wrist ? A. The radial artery lies at the wrist, between the tendons of the flexor carpi radialis and supinator radii longus. 212. Q. What is the course of the ulnar artery ? A- The ulnar artery, having passed under the flex- ors of the hand and fingers to the inner part of the fore-arm, along the outer side of the flexor carpi ulna- ris, near the wrist, runs between the tendons of the flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor digitorum profundus; it then passes over the annular ligament and under the palmar fascia, to form the superficial palmar arch. 213. Q. What is the course of the radial artery ? A. The radial artery passes over the pronator teres, and takes the direction of the radius ; when it gets to the wrist it gives off several branches, and then forms the arcus profundi!^. 214. Q. At what distance from the elbow does the brachial artery divide ? A. At about an inch below the elbow the brachial artery generally divides into radial and ulnar. AiVATOiKV. '£& •J.\"> Q. What artery forms the superficial palmar arch ? A. The superficial palmar arch is chiefly farmed by the.ulnar artery. 2l6. Q. What forms the profundal palmar arch ? A. The profundal palmar arch is chiefly formed by the radial artery. 217. Q. What are the arteries given off from the thoracic aorta? A. The thoracic aorta gives off the bronchial, the u3sophageal, and the inferior intercostal arteries. ;ilB. Q. What vessels does the right pulmonary ar- tery pass before it reaches the lungs ? A. The right pulmonary artery passes behind the aorta and superior cava. 219. Q. What course docs the abdominal aorta take ? A. The aorta passes from the thorax into the abdo- men between the crura of the diaphragm ; as it fle- scends on the fore part of the spine, it inclines a little to the left: it gives off branches in its way downwards, and bifurcates on the fourth lumbar.vertebra. 220. Q,. What is the course of the coronaria ventri- culi ? A. The coronaria vcntriculi passes from the eceliac artery towards the left side;, it first attaches itself to the stomach near its left extremity, and sends a branch round the cardia, named ramus coronaria) dexter. The trunk is then continued along the lesser curvature, to inosculate with the pylorica' or coronaria sinister. 221. Q. .What are thebranches of the abdominal aorta ? A- The abdominal aorta gives off the phrenic, the creliac, the superior mesenteric, the renal, the sper- matic, the lumbar, and the sacral arteries. 222. Q- What is the course of the arteria splenica ? A. The artcria splenica, after having left the coeliac artery, passes under the stomach and along the upper border of the pancreas, and enters the concave sur- face of the spleen. •22:! Q What doc* fhe.rodiac artery supply? iti AAATOMV. A. The cceliac artery supplies the stomach, liver, and spleen. 224 Q. What are the arteries of the stomach called? A. Coronary: they are four in number; viz. the aj- teria coronaria, gastnca dextra, gastrica sinistra, and pylorica. The veins are called gastric. 225. Q. Where is the ductus arteriosus situated in the foetus ? A. It passes obliquely from the ascending aorta to the pulmonary artery. 226. Q. What are the branches of the.superior me- senteric artery ? A. The superior mesenteric artery gives off, on the right side, three branches : the ilio-colica, the branch- es of which go to the caecum, and to a portion of the ileum ; the colica dextra, which supplies the right side of the colon ; and the colica media, which divides on the mesocolon, and sends one branch to the right side and another to the left, that inosculates with the branch from the inferior mesenteric artery. 227. Q. What is the course of the hepatic artery 1 A. It runs from the cceliac artery in a direction op- posite to the splenic, towards the right side: after giv- ing off several branches, it divides into the right and left hepatic. The right is distributed to the right lobe of the liver, and to the gall-bladder. The left supplies the whole of the left lobe, the lobulus Spigelii, and part of the right lobe. 228 Q. What are the branches of the pancreatic artery ?. A. The pancreaticae parva\ which go to the pan- creas ; the vasa brevia, which go to the great-curva- ture of the stomach; the gastro-epiploica sinistra, which runs along the great curvature of the stomach, inosculating with the gastro-epiploica dextra. 229. Q. What are the branches of the hepatic arte- ry ? A. The hepatic artery gives off the pylorica or co- ronaria dextra, which ramifies on the pylorus and les- ser curvature of the stomach; the* gastro-epiploica dextra, which pn^e* under the pyloru? to reach tin A^ATOJli'.^ •11 great curvature of the stomach : the pancreatico-duo- denalis, which is often a branch of the gastro-epiploi- ca, goes to the pancreas and duodenum. 230. Q. What are the arteries called which supply the kidneys ? A. The renal or emulgent arteries. 231. Q. What is the course and distribution of the epigastric artery ? A. It arises from the femoral artery, just as it is about to pass under Poupart's ligament; it passes up- wards.and inwards at the upper and outer part of the abdominal ring, behind the spermatic cord, running along the edge of the transversa in an oblique man- ner to the pyramidalis} it then ascends under the middle of the rectus, furnishing branches to the abdo- minal parletes, and terminates above the umbilicus, anastomosing with the mammary. 232. Ci. What is the course of the femoral artery ? A. The femoral artery passes over the head of the os femoris down into a hollow at the upper and inner part of the thigh, with the recfus and sartorius mus- cles upon the outside, and the adductor on the inner side ; it descends along the inside of the thigh be- tween the vastus internus and triceps, it then gradual- ly bends backwards till it reaches the ham to become the popliteal. 233. Q. What are the names of the valves at the origin of the aorta ? • A. They are called the semilunar valves, and are three in number. 234. Q,. What are the branches of the inferior me- senteric artery ? A. The inferior mesenteric passes in the mesentery to the left side of the abdomen, and gives'off—1. The colica sinistra, which ascends along tbe left side of the colon, to inosculate with the Golica media} 2. branches which pass to the sigmoid flexure of the co- lon ; 3. the arteria haemorrhoidalis interna, which runs down behind the rectum, on which it ramifies. 235. Q. How far distant from the aorta and Pou- part's ligament does the common iliac divide? c2 '■ib •V^ATO.HV. A. The common iliac artery divides at ratlier more than half way between the aorta and Poupart'a liga- ment. ' 236. Q. Which is the largest branch of the inter- nal iliac ? A. The arteria glutea; or iliaca posterior, which passes out of the pelvis at the upper part of the sciatic notch. 237. Q,. What is the distribution of the spermatic arteries ? A. The spermatic arteries in men pass through the abdominal-ring to be distributed to the testes ; while in women they remain vvilhin the abdomen, and are dispersed upon the ovaria and uterus. 238. Q. What are the branches of the internal iliac rtrtery - A. The internal iliac gives off the obturator, the gluteal, the ischiatic, and pudical. 239. Q. How are the trunks of arteries nourished? A. The arterial trunks are nourished by the vasa vasorum, which arise from the nearest small branch- es, and are very where dispersed on their surface. 240. Q. What are the terminations of the arteries ? A. One termination is in veins—another in secret- ing extremities—a third in glands—a fourth in cells. as in the penis—and a fifth termination is in anastomo- ses. 241. Q. What change do the collateral arteries un- dergo when a large arterial trunk is tied ? A. They dilate, their coats become stronger, and acquire additional capacity; they are also found to be- come tortnous. 242. Q. How are arteries distinguished from veins ? A. By their coats being whiter and more dense, and also more elastic. Their apertures gape, in the living body, and they pulsate. The arteries and vein9 of the lower extremity are very similar, in regard to the thickness of their coats; the popliteal artery, and vein both gape. 243. Q,. What is the course, of the external jugular vein on the neck' AXAT031V. ;HJ A. The external jugular vein being formed by- branches from the temple, side of the face, and throat. crosses obliquely over tile sterno-mastoideus musclej passes behind its outer edge, and goes beneath the cla- vicle to enter the subclavian vein. 244. Q. On which side of the carotid artery does the internal jugular vein run ? A. The internal jugular vein runs on the outer side of the carotid artery. 245. ■•!• How is the vena cava abdominalis formed, and what is its course ? A. The vena cava abdominalis is formed by the junction of the two common iliac veins : it passes up through the abdomen on the lumbar vertebrae, and on the right side of the aorta. 246. Q,. Do the superficial veins of the fore-arm lie above the fascia or below it ? A. The principal veins of the fore-arm lie above the fascia. 247. Q. What are the veins at the flexure of the arm ? A. The cephalic, the median-cephalic, the basilic. and the median-basilic. - A. The phrenic or diaphragmatic nerves 26LQ. Where does the great sciatic nerve arise ? - %'J.ZT u pl6XUS °^ nerves formed by ^e fourth thirdla) 7 barnerves'J°'ne«by the first, second, and V\ATO.U¥. 31 202. y What is the name of the ganglion in the ab- domen which supplies most .of the abdominal viscera ' A. The semilunar ganglion. 263. Q. What does the foramen magnum occipitalo transmit ? A. The spinal marrow with its membranes, the ver- tebral arteries, and the accessory nerves of Willi?. 264. Q, What nerves form the great sympathetic ? A. A branch of the sixth pair of nerves with a recur- rent twig of the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 265. Q. Do the olfactory nerves supply the nose with the sense of feeling ? A. No, but branches from the fifth pair do. 266. Q. From what part of the brain do the optic nerves arise ? A They arise from the thalami nervorum opticorum. 267. O.. From what part of the brain do the olfac- tory nerves arise ? A. The olfactory nerves arise from the corpora striata. 263 Q. What part of the brain gives origin to the third and fourth pair of nerves ? A. The third pair of nerves arise from the crura ce- rebri, and the fourth pair from near the corpora quad- rigemina. 269. O.. Whence do the fifth and sixth pair of nerves arise ? A. The fifth pair of nerves arise from the sides of the pons Varolii, and the sixth from between the pous Va- rolii and corpora olivaria. 270. Q.. What do the seventh, eighth, and ninth pair of nerves arise from ? A. The seventh pair of nerves arise from the poste- rior and lateral part of the pons Varolii ; the eighth pair arise from the corpora olivaria, and the ninth from the corpora pyramidalia. 271. Q. What nerves pass through the foramen la- cerum orbitale superius ? A. The third, the fourth, the first branch of the fifth and sixth pair of nerves. 272. Q. Through what foramina do the fifth pair of w.rves p»se out of the cranium ? ll\l ANAXOMV. A. Through the foramen lacerum orbitale supern^. foramen rotundum, and foramen ovale, in separate branches. 273. Q. Does the arm receive nerves from the brain, or from the spinal marrow ? A. From the spinal marrow. 274. Q. What are the branches of the fifth pair of nerves ? * A. The branches of the fifth pair of nerves are the ophthalmic, the superior maxillary, and the inferior maxillary. 275 Q. What nerve supplies the nose with the sense Of smelling ? A. The olfactory, or first pair. 276. Q. What is the first ganglion formed by the in- tercostal nerve called ? A. The cervical ganglion. 277. Q. What forms the chorda tympani ? A. The chorda tympani is formed by the portio du- ra ; it is a reflected twig of that nerve which passes between the long processes of the malleus and incus, and over the membraua tympani. 278. Q. What are the nerves that form the lenticu- lar ganglion of the eye ? A. The lenticular ganglion is formed by a branch from the third and fifth pair of nerves. 279. Q. What nerve supplies the tongue for the or- gan of taste ? A. A branch of the fifth pair, which is termed tjie gustatory nerve. 280. Q,. What nerve perforates the sterno-cleido- mastoideus muscle ? A. The sterno-cleido-mastoideus is pierced about its middle, by the nervus accessorius. 281. Q. How is tbe axillary plexus formed ? A. The axillary plexus is formed of the four inferi- or cervical and first dorsal nerves. 282. Q. Which is the largest nerve of the human body? A. The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve of the body 283. Q. What plexus of nerves surrounds the axil- lary art fry ? AN ATOMl. 33 A. The brachial plexus. 284. Q. Describe the course of the great sciatic nerve out of the pelvis. A. This nerve is formed from the fourth and fifth lumbar, and thiee first sacral nerves ; it passes be- twixt the pyriformis and gemini muscles, and escapes from the back part of the pelvis by the sciatic notch. 285. Q. Describe the course of the anterior crural nerve while in the pelvis. A. The anterior crural nerve at its origin lies under (he psoas magnus muscle, &c. and, as it descends pass- es betwixt the psons magnus and ibacus internus, till, having passed under Poupnrt's ligament, it emerges from betwixt those muscles, and appears on the out- side of the inguinal artery. 286. Q. What forms the anterior crural nerve ? A. The three or four superior lumbar nerves. 287. Q. Describe the course of the obturator nerve and its origin. A. The obturator nerve is formed by branches of the second, third, and fourth lumbar nerves: it lies under the inner border of the psoas magnus, descends into the pelvis, and goes obliquely downwards, accom- panying the obturator artery through the thyroid hole. 288. Q. What forms the phrenic nerve ? A. The phrenic nerve is formed by the third and fourth cervical; it also receives a filament from the second. 289 Q. Where is the external cutaneous nerve situ- ated at the bend of the arm ? A. The external cutaneorfs nerve is situated at the bend of the arm, under the cephalic and the median cephalic veins. 290. Q. What is the situation of the internal cuta- neous nerve at the bend of the arm ? A. The internal cutaneous nerve is situated under the median basilic nerve; it frequently sends a small twig over the vein. 291. Q. What is a gland ? A. A gland is an organic body composed of blood- vessels, nerves, and absorbents, and destined for the t ecretion of some peouliar fluid 34 A.VAlu'Jl.. '.■92. Q. How are glands distinguished ' A. They are distinguished into four classes:—simple glands—compounds of simple glands—conglobate glands—conglomerate glands. 593. Q. Where are the. mesenteric glands situated ? A. In the fat between the layers of the mesentery, near the branches of the blood-vessels. 294. Q- What is the name given to the absorbents entering a gland? A. They are called vasa inferentia. 29"). Q. Absorbent vessels go out from the opposite side of the grands, in the manner they entered them : what name is givan to those vessels ? A. They are called va?.a efferentia. 296. Q. Where is the pituitary gland situated ? A. In the sella turcica, a cavity iu the sphenoid Lone. 237. Q. Where is the lachrymal gland situated ? A. In a depression of the orbitar process of the frontal bone within the orbit. • 293. Q What are the salivary glands called ? A. They are the parotid gland, the sublingual glands. the submaxillary glands, the glands of the cheek, the labial glands, and molar glands. 299. i}. Where does the excretory duct of the pa-. rotid gland open ? A. The excretory duct of the parotid gland, or Ste- no's duct, passes obliquely over the outside of the masseter muscle, and perforates the cheek, opening near the second molaris. 300. Q. V. hat is the name of the excretory duct of the submaxillary gland, and where does it open ' A. The excretory duct of the submaxillary gland is called ductus Wartonii; it passes between the gerio- glossus and mylo-hyoideus muscles, and opens on the side of the fra-nura linguae. 301. Q,. Where is tbe thyroid gland situated? A. Upon the larynx and trachea, lying upon the cricoid cartilage, and horns of the thyroid cartilage. 302. Q. What are the glands called situated at the n»ot of the lungs ? aAATOJIV. v5 A. Bronchial glands ; they are of a dark colour. 303. Q.. How are the absorbents divided? A. The absorbents are divided into lymphatic and lacteal vessels. 304. Q. Do absorbents exist in every part of. the body? A. Yes: it is supposed that absorbents exist in every part of the body; but they have not yet been observ- ed in the cavity of the cranium, nor in the placenta. 305. Q. Where is the prostate gland situated? A. It lies directly under the symphysis pubis; item- braces the neck of the bladder, and rests upon the rec- tum. 306. &.-Where are Cowper's glands to be found? A. Cowper's glands are situated near the bulb of the urethra, before the prostate gland. 307. O.. What is the line called that runs along the centre of the corpus callosum ? A. The line in the centre of the corpus callosum is caBed raphe. 308. Q. Where is the fornix situated ? A. The fornix is situated immediately under the^Ep- tum lucidum. 309. Q,. How do the posterior crura of the fornix ter- minate ? A. The posterior crura of the fornix terminate by- forming the corpora fimbriata. 310. O.. What forms the lyra? A. The lyra is formed by the medullary lines of the inferior surface of the fornix. 311. Q.. Where is the hippocampus minor situated? A. The hippocampus minor is situated in the poste- rior horn of the lateral ventricle. 312. Q.. Where is the hippocampus major situated ? A. The hippocampus mnjor is situated iu the inferior horn of the lateral ven'ridc. 313. Q, Wtierr is the third ventricle situated? A. The thir1 . r^. mollis is a's'.: -' :ci"!o* softs.'-. D 60 lA.vrujii - stance, situated at the middle and anterior part, on rht inner sides of the thalami nervorum opticorum. 316 Q. Has the cerebellum convolutions ? A. No: there are on its surface deep sulci or grooves. 316. Q. At what part of the cerebellum are the ap- pendices vermiformes to be found ? A. The appendices vermiformes are to be found at the anterior superior part, and the inferior, part of the cerebellum. 317 Q,. How many membranes has the brain ? A. Three : viz. the dura mater, the pia mater, and the tunica arachnoides. 318. Q. What* vessel runs in the falciform process of the dura mater ? A. The superior longitudinal sinus is the principal vessel. 319. Q,. Where is the tentorium situated? A. Between the cerebrum and cerebellum. 320. Q. How many lobes has the brain ? A. Six; viz. two anterior, two posterior, and two middle or inferior lobes. 321. Q. How many hemispheres has the cerebrum ' A. Two ; viz. the right and the left. 322. Q. What are the cavities in the brain called? A. They are called ventricles. 323. Q. What separates the lateral ventricles from each other ? A. The septum lucidum. 324. Q. From what part of the brain does the pineal gland arise? A. From the thalamus nervi optici on each side by peduncles. 325. Q. What separates the thalamus nervi optici from the corpus striatum ? A. A white prominentl ine, called teania semicircu- laris. 326. Q. What are the processes of the dura mater called ? A. They are three in number, and are called the falciform process, the tentorium, and the septum cere belli. ANAXO.UY. «# o-'. U. How many laminae has the dura mater ? A. The dura mater has two laminae. 328. Q. What parts of the brain does the falx sepa- rate ? A. The falx separates the two hemispheres. 329. Q,. What does the tentorium separate ? A. The tentorium separates the cerebrum from tbe cerebellum. 33(1. Q. How are the sinuses of the dura mater formed ? A. The sinuses of the dura mater are formed by the separation of the two layers of that membrane. 331. Q. Does the pia mater dip between the convo- lutions of the brain, or pass over them ? A. the pia mater dips between the convolutions; but the tunica arachnoidea passes over them. 332. Q. What membrane nourishes the internal ta- ble'of the skull? A. The external lamina of the dura mater nourishes the internal table of the skull. 333. Q What are the contents of the cranium ? A. The cranium contains the cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata;—the dura mater, tbe pia ma- ter, and tunica arachnoides;—nine pair of nerves, and the accessory nerves of Willis;—several sinuses,—the arteries that nourish the brain and its membranes, and the veins that return tbe blood into the sinuses : and also absorbent vessels. 334. Q,. How is the pia mater nourished ? A. The pia mater is nourished by arteries from the brain. 335. 0«.«Where are the tubercula quadrigcmina si- tuated ? A Tbe tubercula quadrigemina are situated behind the thalami nervorum opticorum, and under the pineal gland. 336. Q. What canal passes under the tubercula quadrigemina ? A. The canal is called iter a tertio ad quartum ven- triculum; it forms the communication between the third and fourth ventricle. 3& aSatomv'. 337. Q. What is situated at the anterior part oi the third ventricle ? A. At the anterior part of'third ventricle are situated the anterior crura of the fornix, the commissura ante- rior cerebri, and infundibultim. 33S. CI. What forms the floor of the third ventricle ? A. The commissura inferior. 339. Q. Where is the valvuJa magna cerebri situat- ed ? A. The valvula magna cerebri is situated over the iter a tertio ad quartnm ventriculum, and the rtpper pari of the foi.ith ventricle. 340. Q. What farms the arbor vitae? A. It is formed by the medullary and cineritious sub- stance of the brain, which are distributed in suc&* manner as to give the appearance of the branches of a shrub. 341. Q,. What are the medullary tracts at the sides of the valvula magna cerebri called ? A. These lines are called processus ad testes, or co- lumnae valvulae Vieussenii. 342. Q,. Where is the calamus scriptorius situated? A. The calamus scriptorius is situated in the fourth ventricle, 343. Q. What is to be .observed on the medulla ob- longata ? A. Qn the medulla oblongata are seen the pons Varolii, the corpora olivaria, and corpora pyramidalia. 344. Q,. Describe the eye. A. Tiic eye is divided into external and internal parts. The external parts are the supercilia, the pal- pebra, the cilia, lachrymal gland, lachrymal caruncle, nasal duct and muscles of the bulb, Mid (he tunica conjunctiva. The internal pacts are the sclerotic coat, the cornea, the choroid coat, iris, uvea, retina, hyaloid membrane, capsule of the lens and vitreous humours three humours and two chambers. 345. Q,. How many coats has the eye ? A. Three; viz. the tunica sclerotica, (he tunica choroides, and tbe retina:—the anterior portion of the self rorira is transparent, and called the cornea (ran5? V^ ATOMY. 39 . iareiis: the anterior part of the choroid membrane forms the iris and the uvea; and there is, also, the membrane of the lens and of the vitreous humour: so that many anatomists make eight coats. 346. Q. What is the tunica conjunctiva? A. The tunica conjunctiva is a reflexion of the inner membrane of the eyelid, over the surface of the eye; it prevents extraneous bodies passing deep into the socket. 347. Q. Which is the most dense coat of the eye? A. The tunica sclerotica. 348. Q,. What is the structure of the cornea ? A. The cornea is divisible into several lamellae be- tween which a transparent fluid is noticed. 349. Q,. Which is the most vascular coat of the eye ? A. The tunica choroides is the most vascular coat of the eye: the ciliary arteries ramify copiously on it, and the veins are numerous and contorted.' 350. Q. What separates the anterior from the pos- terior chamber? A. The curtain formed by the iris and uvea. 351. Q. What is contained in the capsule of the crystalline lens?1 A. The crystalline lens and a little water. 352. Q,. What artery nourishes the crystalline lens ? A. The arteria centralis retinae. 353. Q,. Where is the pigmentum nigrum of the eye situated ? A. Upon the uvea, behind the iris, and upon the stir face of the tunica choroidea. 354. Q,. Where is the lachrymal sac situated V A. In the -aperior part of the lachrymal groove, or the commencement of the ductus ad nasum behind the tendon of the orbicularis. 355- Q- What part of the eye is the true organ of vision ? A. The retina. 356. Q. What secretes the pigmentum nigrum of the choroid membrane? A. The pigmentum nigrum of the choroid membrane is secreted bv the arteries of that membrane. d2 10 \:vvxouv. 357. Q. How many chambers has the eye ? A. Two : an anterior and a posterior chamber. 358. Q. What ejves the whitish blue colour to the bulb of the eye ? A. The v. hkisb blue colour of the bulb of the eye is occasioned by the expanding tendons of the musclca shining through the transparent tunica conjunctiva. 359. Q,. Where are the va?a vi.-rticosu situated? A. The vasa vorticosa are' situated on the choroid coat of the eye ; they are formed by a contortion of the veins of that membrane. 360. Q. What bones form the lachrymal groove or ductus ad nasum, and where does it terminate ? A. The lachrymal bone the superior maxillary bone, and the inferior spongy bone. It terminates at (he lower and lateral parts of thjj nose, at the inner and fore part of the antrum maxillare, under the os spon- giosum inferius, in a straight line with the second dens molaris- 361. Q,. What is the division of the external ear? A. The external ear i9 divided into the pinna, lobus, and meatus auditorius. 362. Q. What are (he eminences of the external ear ? A. There are four eminences on the external ear; viz. helix, antihelix, tragus, and antitragus. 363. O. Have the depressions on the external ear any names ? . A. Yes; they are distinguished into the fossa na- vicularis, the fossa innominata, and the concha. 364. Q.. What is the general division of the internal ear? A. The internal ear is divided into the tympanum and labyrinth, which consist- of the cochlea, vesti- buluni, and semicircular canals. 365. Ci. Where does the lL.stachian tube begin ? A. The i. ustachian tube begin* at the upper andfoiti part of the tympanum. 366. Q What membrane lines the meatus auditorium externus? A^ATU.UV. 41 A The meatus is lined by a continuation of .the skin. 367. Q. If a probe were passed to the bottom of the meatus auditorius, what would it rest on ? A. The membrana tympani. 368. Q,. Where is the fenestra ovalis situated? A. The fenestra ovalis Is situated in the tympanum, above the promontory. 369. Q. Where do the cells of the mastoid process open ? A. They open at the upper and back part of the tympanum. 370. Q. Where does the fenestra rotunda lead to? A. The fenestra rotunda leads to the cochlea. 371. Q«. How many openings are there in the vesti- bulum ? A, Five foramina, which communicate with the se- micircular canals;—the fenestra ovalis, and a round hole which communicates with one of the canals of the cochlea. 372. O.. What are the principal parts of the cochlea? A. The principal parts of the cochlea are, the gyri, the modiolus, the infundibutum, the scala vestibuli, and the scala tympani. 373. Q. How are the semicircular canals distinguish- ed? A. The semicircular canals are three in number: they are distinguished into the superior or vertical, the posterior or oblique, and tbe exterior or horizontal. 374. O.. How is the palate divided? A. It is divided into palatum durum and palatum molle. 375. Q- What forms the first arch of the palate ? A. The constrictor isthmi faucium, covered by the skin of the mouth. 376. O.. What are the papillae minimae and papillae mediae of the tongue formed by ? A. The papillae minimae and mediae are formed by the extremities of nerves surrounded by a lace-work of blood-vessels. 377. Q. What forms the second arch of the palate ■ 1J AN ATOMV. A. The levator palati, covered by the skin of the mouth. 378. Q. What lies between the two arches of (he palate ? A. The tonsil gland. 379. O.. What does the uvula consist of? A. The uvula consists of the azygos uvulae, enve- loped in the membrane of (be palate. 380. Q.. Where is the pharynx, and what is it ? A. The pharynx is a large muscular bag in form of an irregular funnel, at the back of the mouth, which terminates in the oesophagus. 380. Q. What forms the inner membrane of the pharynx? A. The inner membrane of the pharynx is formed by the continuation of the membrane of the mouth. 381. Q,. What are the principal glands which se- crete the saliva? A. The saliva is secreted chiefly by the parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublingual glands. 382. Q, How is the tongue divided ? A. The tongue is divided into a basis and apex, a superior and inferior surface, and two edges. 383. Q,. How many cartilages has the larynx ? A. The larynx has five cartilages ; viz. the thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytenoid, and the cartilage of the epiglottis. 384. &. What are the viscera of the thorax ? A. The pleura, the lungs, the thymus gland (in child- ren), the oesophagus, the ductus thoracicus the arch of the aorta, branches of the venae ca\ae, the vena azygos, the pericardium, the heart, the phienic nerve, the par vagum, and t!te great intercostal nerves. 385. Q. How many lobes has the left lung? A. It has two lobes. 386. Q How many lobes has the right lung ? A. The right lung has three lobes. 387. Q. What do the bronchia terminate in ? A. The bronchia become membranous tubes which terminate in the air-cells. 3«H. Q. What separates the chest into two cavitie=n ..-VATOJiV. 43 \. 1'ne mediastinum, which is formed by the pleura. 389. Q. What are contained in the posterior medi- astinum '.' A. The oesophagus, the bronchia, the large vessels of the heart, tbe par vagum, great intercostals, and the thoracic duct. 390. Q,. What is there in the anterior mediastinum that disappears towards adult age ? A. The thymus gland. 391. Q. How many membranes has the pericar- dium ? A. The pericardium has two membranes ; an exter- nal and an internal. 392. Q. What part of the thorax does the pericar- dium adhere most to? A. The pericardium adheres most firmly to the ten- dinous part of the diaphragm. 3.93. Q. What arteries nourish the pleura? A. The arteries that nourish the pleura are branch- es from the intercostal, mammary, diaphragmatic, bronchial, and oesophageal arteries. 394. Q. Whatis the heart? A. The heart is a hollow muscular viscus, situated in the pericardium, in the cavity of the thorax, resting upon the diaphragm. 395. Q. Has the external surface of the heart any membranous covering ? A. Yes: it has a membranous coat, which is a re- flexion of the inner layer of the pericardium.. 396. Q. Where are the musSuli pectinati situated ? A. In the right auricle of the heart. 397. Q. Where is the tricuspid valve situated ? A. The tricuspid valve is situated between the right auricle and right ventricle, hanging from the opening between them. 393. Q. Where does the pulmonary artery originate? A. The pulmonary artery arises from the right ven- tricle. 393. (J. Do the auricles of the heart communicate before birth ! A. Yes: by the foramen ovale. tl ANATOMV. 400. Q. Where is the Eustachian valve situated? A. At the entrance of tbe inferior cava, within the right auricle of the heart. 401. Q. How many openings has the right auricle of the heart ? A. Four; viz. the opening of the vena cava supe- rior, that of the vena cava inferior, that of the coro- nary vein, and the ostium venosum. 402. Q. What is the valve of Fustachius formed by .' A. The Eustachian valve is formed by a fold of the inner membrane of the right auricle. 403. Q. How many openings has the left auricle of the h*art ? A. Five; viz. those of the four pulmonary vessels and the ostium venosum. 404. Q. What are the differences between the foetal and adult heart ? A. In the foetal heart, an opening exists between the auricles in the septum auricularum, called the foramen ovale ; this is closed in the adult heart. An artery al- so passes from the pulmonary artery obliquely to the ascending aorta in the foetus, which is called canalis arteriosus: this becomes a ligament in the adult. 405. Q. What are the regions of the abdomen ? A. The abdomen is divided into three regions, each of which is subdivided:—1. The epigastric region, which is the superior: its sides are termed hypochon- driac regions.—2. The umbilical region, situated in the centre of the abdomen, the sides of which are termed iliac or epicolic regions.—3. The hypogastric region, which is subdivided into three regions, one middle, termed regio pubis, and two lateral, named in- guinal regions. 406. Q. What viscera are contained in the abdomen? A. The omentum, the stomach, the large and small intestines, the liver and gall bladder, the mesentery, the lacteal vessels, the thoracic duct, the spleen, the pancreas, the kidneys and suprarenal capsules, part of the aorta descendens, and vena cava ascendens, and the abdominal nerves. 407. Q. What is the membrane called, that lines the cavity and covers the viscera of the abdomen ° A.NAIU.Ui -4;; A. the peritonaeum. 408. Q. What are the four ligamentary cords seen upon the outside of the peritonaeum at its anterior and inferior part ? A. They are the remains of parts peculiar to the foetus; viz. the two umbilical arteries, the umbilical vein, and the urachus 409. Q. What forms the mesentery ? A. The mesentery is formed by a doubling of the peritonaeum 410. Q. Where does the mesentery begin ? A. The mesentery begins at the termination of the duodenum- 411. Q. How is the colon fixed to the,spine ? A. The colon is fixed to the spine by a continuation of the mesentery, which is called mesocolon. 412. Q- Which is the largest viscus of the abdomen ' A. The liver. 413. Q. Describe the liver ? A. The liver is the largest abdominal viscus, placed in the right hypochondiiac region, and partly in the epigastric region. It is distinguished into three lobes, is suspended by five ligaments, and fs composed of ar- teries, veins, nerves, absorbents excretory ducts, and cellular membrane,and is covered by the peritonaeum. 414. Q. Are the kidneys completely enveloped in the peritonaeum ? A No : only their anterior surfaces. 415. Q. Where is the great lobe of the liver situat- ed? A. The great lobe of the liver is situated in the right hypochondriac region, and rests upon the pylorus, co- lon, and top of the right kidney. 416. Q,. Where is the small lobe of the line situat- ed ? A. The small lobe of the liver is situated in the epigastric region, only a small portion of it lying in the left hypochondriac region. 417. Q. What are the vessels surrounded by the cap- sale of Glysson ? A. The vessels surrounded by the capsule of Give- 40 \.\.u'ion. eon are the venae.portae, the hepatic artery, the hepatic veins, the excretory ducts, and some absorbents. 418. Q. What forms tbe capsule of Glysson ? A. A reflexion . of the peritonaeum, which, with a quantity of cellular substance, surrounds the vessels and nerves of the liver just before they enter that vis« cus. 419. Q. What are the ligaments of the liver? A. The ligaments of the liver are, the broad liga- ment, the round ligament, the right and left lateral li- gaments, and the coronary ligament. 420. Q. What artery nourishes the liver? A. The hepatic artery, which is a branch of the cce- liac. 421. Q, What are the depressions of the liver ? A. The depressions are:— ■]. The great fissure:—2, a fissure for the vena portae:—3. one for the venae ca- vae:—4. afurrow between the left lobe and lobulusSpi- gelii for tbe venal canal in tbe foetus:—5. a depression for the gall-bladder:—6. a superficial cavity caused by the stomach:—and 7. a great ginus for the spine and oesophagus at the posterior part of the left lobe. 422. Q. What is the use of the liver ? A. To secrete bile. 423. Q. What are the excretory ducts of the liver called ? A. Pori biliarii. 424. Q. Where is the gall-bladder situated ? A. The gall-bladder is situated in the right hypo- • hondrium, attached to a depression in the right lobe of the liver. 425. Q. How many coats has the gall-bladder? A. The gall-bladder has three coats; viz. an exter- nal or peritonae'al, a middle or muscular coat, and an internal or villous coat. 426. Q,. What is the appearance'of the internal sui- face of the gall-bladder ? A. The internal surface of the gall-bladder is smooth and of a green colour, a..d appears every where por- foratedby the ducts of small follicles, which afford a '3»ictf- to deiend !ho inner coa*. ANAT0MV. 47 427. Q. Of what kind of structure is the outer sur- face of the peritonaeum ? A. The outer surface of the peritonaeum is cellular, 428. Q. What is the extent of the peritonaeum co- vering the bladder ? A. The peritonaeal coat extends over the fundus, sides, and back part, to near the termination of the ureters. 429. Q. Where is the spleen situated ? A. It is situated in the left hypochondrium, near the fundus of the stomach, under the ribs. 430. Q. What nerves supply the spleen ? A. The nerves of the spleen, are branches of the great sympathetic and eighth pair, 431. Q. Where is the pancreas situated? A. The pancreas extends from the fissure of the spleen across the spine, under the posterior surface of the stomach, and terminates at the duodenum. 432. Q. What arteries nourish the pancreas ? A. The arteries which nourish the pancreas are de- rived from the pylorica, duodenalis, and splenica. 433. Q. What is the elongation of process sent down from the right extremity of the pancreas called ? A. This process was called by Winslow, pancreas tainus: it is also called head of the pancreas. 434. Q. Where is the pancreatic duct situated ? A. The prancreatic duct begins near the left extre- mity of the pancreas; it runs in the substance of the gland, and terminates obliquely in the duodenum, along with the ductus communis choledochus. 435. Q,. What are the supra-renal capsules ? A. The supra-renal capsules are flat bodies, of a dark yellow colour ; they rest upon the kidneys; they con- lain a dark-coloured fluid, and are larger in the foetus than in the adult. 436. Q. What difference in situation is there between the right and left kidney ? A. The right kidney is much lower than the left, oc- casioned by the liver occupying so much space. 437. Q. What is the excretory duct of the kidney ' »Uerl" It* A.VVTOMV. A. The ureter. 438. ,Q. How many coats compose the ureter / A. Three : an external, consisting of a compact fila- mentary substance ; the middle one of several fibres; and the internal one, of the mucous kind. 439. Q. What does the substance of the kidney con- sist of ? A. The substance of the kidney consists of an outer part called cortical, and.an inner, termed medullary. 440. Q. What viscera are in contact with the right kidney ? A. The right kidney lies under the liver, and is very near to the duodenum. 441. Q. Is the cortical substance endowed with any peculiar function ? A Yes : that of secreting the urine. 442. Q. What forms the papillae of the kidney ? A. The terminations of the medullary substance with the uriniferous"tubes. 443. Q,. What is the name of the duct leading from the pelvis of the kidney to the bladder '! A. 'he ureter. 444. Q, Describe the stomach. A. The stomach is » membranous receptacle, placed in the left hypochondriac region, composed of three membranes. It has a superior orifice called cardia, and an inferior orifice call: d pylorus: a lesser and greater curvature, and two surfaces distinguished into anterior and posterior. 445. Q. Where do the veins of the stomach go.? A. The gastric veins empty themselves into the vena portae. 446. Q. What are the arteries of the stomach ? A. Tbe arteries of the stomach are derived from the cceliac ; they consist of the coronaria, (he gastrica "si- nistra, the gastrica dextra and th pylorica. '447. Q. What viscera are attached to the great cur- vature of the stomach ? A The large omentum, the spleen, and transverse arch of the colon. 448. Q, What is the proper juice of the stomach called ? A NATO .11 V. 4« V. The gastric juice. 449. Q. What is the beginning of the colon called ? A. The commencement of the colon is called caput coli. 450 Q. How would you distinguish the small from the large intestines ? A. The large intestines have three longitudinal bands, running on their surface ; they are lobulated, and have the portions of fat adhering to them, called appendicu- Iae epiploicae ; which ciicumstanccs are not noticed in the small intestines There are-the valvulae conni- ventes in the small intestines, which do riot exist in the large. 451. Q. Which is the broadest of the small intes- tines ? A. The duodenum is the broadest of the small intes- tines. 452. Q. How are the mucous glands of the intestines distinguished? A The mucous glands of the intestines are distin- guished into solitary and congregate, and form theirdes- cribers glandulae Peyeri and glandulae Bruneri. 453. Q. What are the ducts that enter the duodenum? A. The ductus communis choledochus, and the duc- tus pancreaticus. 454. Q,. By what means does thecavity of the omen- tum communicate with that of the abdomen? A. A communication is formed under the capsule of Glysson by means of the foramen of Winslow. 455. d. In what intestiues are the valvulae conniven- tes found ? , A In the small, chiefly in the duodenum and jeju- num. 456. Q- Describe the situation andcourseofthecolon. A. The colon ascend; on the right side to the liver; passes under the liver and stomach to the left ;side. where it descends, by a sigmoid flexure, into the pelvis, and ends in the rectum 457. Q,. Where do the mouths of the lactrals open ? A. Upon the internal surface of the small intestines 458 Q, Where does the mesentery begin ? 50 ANA10MA. A. Near the termination of the duodenum. 459. Q,. How does the rectum differ from the colon ? A. The rectum differs from the colon in being cover- ed only anteriorly and laterally by the peritonaeum ; its muscular fibres are stronger and thicker, and spread Uniformly over the intestine. 460. Q,. Describe the utei us. A. The uterus is a spongy hollow receptacle, of a Eear shape, placed in tne pelvis between the urinary ladder and rectum, divided into fundus, cervix, ami ori- fice or os tincae : it has four ligaments, two Fallopian tubes, two ovaria, and the vagina hanging from Its cer- vix. 460. Q. Of what do the Iigamenta lata uteri consist ? A. The Iigamenta lata consist of two membranous productions or doublings of the peritonaeum, which go from the sides of the uterus and vagina, to be affixed to the sides of the pelvis. 461. Q. What are the Iigamenta rotunda uteri ? A. They are cords composed of vessels and ligamen- tous fibi es, arising from the corners of the uterus. 462- Q,. Through what tube does the ovum pass from tbe ovarium into the uterus ? A. Through the Fallopian tube. 463 Q. Where is the os tincae situated ? A. The os tincae, or mouth of the womb, is situated at the top of the vagina and inferior part of the uterus. 464. Q. What part of the vagina is covered by the peritonaeum ? A. The upper and posterior part. 465. QL. What is the length of the urethra in fe- males ? A. The urethra in females is about an inch in length. 466. Q,. Where is the female urethra situated ? A. The female urethra is situated under the sym- physis of the pubis, between the nymphae and below the clitoris, just above the entrance of the vagina. 467. Q,. Where is the bladder situated ? A. The bladder is situated within the pelvis, immedi- ately behind the ossa pubis: in males before (he rectum and in females between the uterus and pubes. AltA'fOMi. b) 46o. Q. On which side of the vesiculae seminales ■ io the ureters enter into the bladder ? - A. The ureters perforate the bladder on the outside of the vesiculae seminales. 469. Q,. What muscle does the ureter pass in 2oin» to the bladder ? ' 8 - - A. Tbe ureter descends from the kidney over the psoas muscle. 470. Q,. Where is the epididymis situated ? A. The epididymis is situated at the outer and back part of the testicle. 471. Q,. How many dilatations are there in the urethra ? A. There are generally three dilatations to be found in the urethra of men ; one at the point of the glans penis, another at the bulb "of the urethra, and a third in the prostate gland. 472. Q. To what do the openings, of the verumon- tanum belong ? A. The orifices found on the verumontanum belong to the vesiculae seminales. 473. Q. Where is the urethra most dilated? A. The urethra is most dilated at that part which is surrounded by the prostate gland. 474. Q. What forms the corpus pampiniforme ?- A. The corpus pampiniforme is formed by a plexus of veins that have a distant resemblance to the shoots of the vine. 475. Q. What forms the coni vasculosl ? A. The coni vasculosi are for ned by the vasa effe- rentia becoming convoluted into conical bundles. 476. Q.. What does the corpus spongiosum urethrae consist of? A. The corpus spongiosum urethrae consists of a plexus of veins; it is expanded at its anterior part to form the glans penis. 477. Q. Describe the situation and course of the corpora-cavernosa penis. A. The corpora cavernosa arise by what are called the crura from the tubera ischii; they ascend along the ischium and pubes, and are united immediately b'2 ANATOMY. before the cartilaginous arch of the pubes: they «rt covered by a ligamento-tendinous substance, which it very elastic: internally they are cavernous, and are separated from each other by the septum pectiaiforme, so called from its numerous perforations. 478. Q. Where are the testicles situated in the foe- tus? A. The testicles in the foetus before the sixth month are in the abdomen j they receive a covering of pe- ritonaeum, and are placed at the lower part of the kid- neys. 479. Q. How many coats has the testicle ? A. It has two coats; viz. the tunica vaginalis and the tun.ca albuginea. 480. Q. Is there any difference in the manner in which the two coats surround the testicle ? A. Yes : the tunica vaginalis invests the testicle as the pericardium does the heart, adhering only at its posterior and superior part; while the tunica albugi- nea surrounds and is firmly attached to the testicle on every part. 481. Q. What is the excretory duct of the testicle called ? ' A. The excretory duct of the testicle is called vas deferensi 482. Q. Where do the corpora cavernosa penis arise ? A. The corpora cavernosa penis arise from the edge of the ramus of the ischium and os pubis. 483. Q. What forms the scrotum ? A. The scrotum is formed by a continuation of tha common integuments 484. Q,. What forms the cottimon integuments? A. The common integuments are formed by the Cuticle, rete mUcOsum, cutis, and adipose substance. 485. d. What is the use of the cartilages of the surfaces of joints ? A. The uses of the articular cartilages are to give the bones a smoothness for easy motion, to assist mo- tion by their elasticity, and to guard against the effects ot concussion. AXATO-UY-. 5U 486. Q. What is the most elastic substance in the body? A. The most elastic substance in the body is carti- lage. 487. Q. Are tendons elastic ? A. Tendons are not elastic; for, if they were, the power of muscles would be greatly diminished. 488. U- What is the" use of the adeps ? A. The adeps guards against the effects of pressure J it lessens the specific gravity of the body, fills up the interstices of muscles, and is a reservoir for nourish- ment to the body. M vrtvsioLot.N PHYSIOLOGY. 1. Q. What is the course of the circulation 1 A. The blood is received from tin arteries by the vein-, and is return-d by the superior and inferior ca- va to the right auricle of the heart, v> hich. becoming distend d, contracts and empties its blood into the right ventricle. The right ventricle then contracts and prop'Is-ihe blood through'(he pu'mohary artery into the ungs, there to undergo a p: culiar change, and to be conveyed by the four pulmonary veins into the left auricle. The left auricle being distended, eva- cuates its blood into the left \erttricle. The left ven- tricle propels the blood through the aorta, to be circu- lated by the arteries, and again to be returned by the vein- to the heart. 2. Q. What is the use of the tuberculum Loweri ? A. The use of the tuberculum Low eri is supposed *o be that of preventing the blood of the one cava from rushing upon that of the other, and to direct it into thi- auricle. 3. U,. How is the blood prevented from returning back into the right auricle after it has got into the right ventricle ? A It is prevented from returning by a valve called tricuspid, which is placed within the ventricle. 4. Q. What prevents the reflux of blood into the left auricle of the heart ? A. The blood is prevented from going back into the auricle from the left ventricle, by the valvula mi- tralis. 5. Q. How do you distinguish venal from arterial blood ? A. Venal blood is of a dark colour (excepting that which is in the venal system of the lungs). Arterial blood is of a florid red vermilion hue (excepting the blood of the pulmonary artery, which is dark). 6 Q. What is the contraction of the heart called? 1'ilYSlOLOGV. 55 A. Systole. 1. Q. In what viscus does the change from arterial to venal blood lake place ? A. In the lungs. 8. Q. What is the colour of the blood in the pulmon- ary artery ? A. It is of a dark colour, like venous blood. 9. Q. What is meant by digestion ? A. A function by which the food introduced into the stomach of animals, is subjected to a peculiar action, and a new compound formed, fitted to their nourish- ment and growth. 10. Q. What are the effects of protracted absti- nence? A. A wasting and diminution of weight of the body from the loss of fat; discoloration of the fluids, parti- cularly the blood; excessive sensibility, sleeplessness, with painful sensations in the epigastric region. 11. Q,. What is the chief agent in digestion ? A. The gastric juice. 12. Q. What Is the use of the sphincter pylori ? A. The spincter pylori, by contracting, prevents the grosser indigested parts of the aliment from escaping, and, by dilating, allows the digested pulp to pass into the duodenum. 13. Q,. What is the use of the mesentery 1 A. The use of the mesentery is to suspend and re- tain the intestines in their places, to furnish them with an external coat, and to form a bed for their glands, vesstds, and nerves. 14. Q,. What is the cause of the bile regurgitating into the jjall-bladder ? A. When digestion is not going on, the opening of the ductus communis choledocbus is shut; the bile therefore, not finding an access to the duodenum, re- gurgitates into the gall-bladder. 15. Q. What is the use of the urinary bladder? A. To receive, to retain for a certain time, and to expel, the urine. 16. Q. What is the use of the gastric juice ? A. To digest the food- 50 l>lI\r-IOLOG\ . 17. O.. What is the theory of ossification .' A. First, the formation of a jelly; this becoming cartilage, the absorbents remove a portion of the car- tilage, forming a cnvity, and the arteries next deposit the osseous mutter in the cavity: it is, however, not alwavs cartila-e thnt the bony matter is deposited in; for, i"i most of the flat bones, the deposition takes place between membranes. 18 Q. How is inspiration performed? A. The intercostal muscles contract, assisted by other muscles, and nc ease the trtmsverse breadth of the cavity of the che-t, whilst ihe diaphragm contracts and iucieas- s the length of the cavity of the chest; the air then rushes down the trHchea, and inspiration is performed. 19. Q. When the chest of an adult dilates, what quantity of atmospherical air does he take in ? A. The quantity of air inspired by an adult at each period, is between thirty and forty cubic inches of atmospherical air. 20 Q, What changes has the air undergone which has been expired from the lungs? A. It differs from the air previous to inspiration in being diminKhed in quantity, in having its carbonic acid considerably increased and by being loaded with aqueous vapour, besides at times containing hydrogen. 21. Q. What is meant by secretion ? A. The formation of a solid fluid different from the blood, from the minute ends of the arteries 22. 'i- What change is produced on the blood in the lungs.' A. The blood is changed from a dark colour to a florid red.; it is deprived of hydrogen and carbon, and absorbs oxygen, caloric, and a portion of nitrogen. 23., Q.. What is the use of the palatum molle? A. The palatum molle acts like a valve, in prevent- ing what we swallow from passing into the nose, and conducts the fluids of the nose into the mouth. 24. Q. What prevents the faeces from returning from (he large Intestines into the small ? A The valvuli coli, placed at the beginning of the FTlVSlOLOGi . .')'( colon, allows tbe contents ot the ileum to pass into the large intestines, but completely prevents their return. 25. Q. What causes the bile to pass from the gall- bladder into the duodenum ? A The bile is discharged from the gall-bladder, when the stomach is full, chieflv by ttie pressure of the surrounding viscera, and by the contractile power of the gall bladder. 26. tt. What is the use of the l>ile? A. The use of the bile is to excite the peristaltic motion of tbe intestines, to correct too great a disposi- tion to acidity and to assi-t in chylihcation. 27. Q. What is the use of the pancreatic juice ? A. The pancreatic juice is said to incorporate the hile with the alimentary mass, and to answer the same purposes. 28. Q. How is the urine expelled? A. The urine is expelled partly by the contraction of the bladder itself, and partly by the action of 'he abdominal muscles and diaphragm, vvhicii press the intestines against the bladder. 29. Q What is the use of the tunica vaginalis testis ? A. the use of the tunica vaginalis is to enclose the testicle.and to assist the cremaster in supporting the testicle* it also exhales a fluid,, which lubricates the surface of the testicle. 30. i. What are the powers engaged in expelling the faeces ? A. The powers engaged in expelling the faeces are, the muscular coat of the reotum, the levator ani, as- sisted by the action of the diaphragmatic and abdomi- nal muscles. 31- Q. How is expiration performed? A. By the relaxation of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm, and the thorax assuming its relaxed state. 32. Q What is meant by animal heat? A. The natural heat of an animal, which, in the hu- man being, raises the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermo- meter to about 95°. 33. Q,. Why does not the fluid exhaled to lubricate the different cavities ot the body accumulate ? A. Because in a healthy state the inhalants or ab- 5b .'HYblOLUi; V . sorbents counterbalance the exhalants or secreting ar- teries. 34. Q. How is nutrition effected ? A. By the lacteals, the mouths of which open upon the internal surface of the small intestines, selecting the chyle from the excrementitious part of the food, and conveying it into the thoracic duct, which empties {(self into the angle of the jugular and subclavian vein, thereby repairing the losses the blood continually sus- tains in nourishing the body. 35. Q. What membrane moderates the effect of light on the retina ? A.' The iris, which diminishes or enlarges the pupil, according to the intensity of the light. 36. Q. What is the use of the tears ? A. They prevent the effects of friction, and snve the organ of sight from being dried, at the part which is exposed to the air. 37. Q,. What is the use of the fluid which fills the labyrinth of the ear ? A. It preserves the nervous fibrils soft, and mode- rates the tremors of sound. 38. Q,. Why does not tbe fat gravitate to the lower extremities after long standing, like tbe fluid of an anasarcous person ? A- Because the fat is contained in vesicles which do not communicate like the cells of the cellular mem- brane. 39. Q,- What is the use of the omentum ? A. The use of the omentum is supposed to be that of lubricating the viscera, and to prevent them from being injured by friction. 40. Q. How does the ovum get from the ovarium in- to the uterus ? A. The ovum, when impregnated, escapes from the ovarium through the Fallopian tube, which is grasp- ing the ovarium at the time. 41. Q. What is the use of the prostate gland ? A. The use of the prostate gland is not well known ; it affords a fluidT which is supposed to be of vie in ge- neration. IMtlSIOLoul. 59 42. U. Why does not the urine excite inflammation of the bladder ? A. Because the bladder is accustomed to its stimu- lus, and a great quantity of mucus is secreted by the internal membrane to defend it from the acrimony of the urine. 43. Q. Why do enlarged mesenteric glands cause an atrophy ? A. Because they obstruct the passage of the chyle through the lacteals to the thoracic duct. 44. Q,. In what ages and sex is the pulse the most frequent ? A. In children and women the pulse is most fre- quent. 45. Q,. What is the use of the anastomoses of ar- teries ? A. The use of arteries anastomosing is to allow of blood being conveyed to parts where its passage is prevented in the principal branch or branches that sup- ply those parts with blood: another use is that of fa- cilitating the passage of blood from one part to ano- ther, and prevent the distention of parts. 46. Q,. Is the fat solid or fluid in the living body ? A. The fat in a living body is found in some parts in a state of semifluidity, and in other parts it is found absolutely fluid. 47. (X- What is the cause of the fainting that some- times takes place under the operation of tapping ? A. Fainting takes place in tapping in consequence of the sudden removal of the pressure of fluid from the diaphragm and viscera. 48. Q,. How does a compression of the thoracic duct, either by an aneurism of the heart or aorta, oc- casion so frequently a dropsy ? A. The compression of the thoracic duct prevents the lymph from the absorbent vessels being returned into the blood ; the absorbents are therefore prevent- ed performing their office) and an accumulation takes place. !9 Q. Why does a person troubled with calculus tit) l'll\s>IoLui, i . find great difficulty in passing the urine when he lean- forward ' A. Because the calculus falling against the orifice of the urethra, thereby prevents the regular flow of urine. 50 Q,. Why does not the urine flow back from the bladder to the kidney ? A. The urine is prevented flowing back to the pel- vis of the kidney by the valve formed by the inner coat of the bladder over the orifice of the ureter, pro- duced by the ureter's piercing the bladder obliquely. 51. Q. Why is the spine composed of so many small bones ? A. I he reason why the spine is composed of so many bones is to allow of great strength, with a suffi- cient degree of mobility. 52. U. Is there any alteration in the muscles of a paralytic limb ? A. Yes: the muscles of a paralytic limb are paler and more flaccid. 53. Q,. How is the voice performed ? A. The voice results from the vibration the air suf- fers during its passage through the glottis, when expell- ed from the lungs. 54. Q,. Which of the two has the greatest power in preventing luxations of the joint, the muscles (hat surround the joint, or its own ligaments ? A. The muscles that surround joints defend them better and give tbem greater strength than their sur- rounding ligaments. SUHGERV. 01 SURGERY. i. Q. What are the symptoms of compressed brain .' A. The person is mostly insensible ; an apoplectic stertor of the breathings'-on comes on ; loss of volun- tary motion, tremors, and convulsions. The pupil is contracted, or dilated ; and, if the person can be rous- ed from his stertorous sleep, he complains of giddi- ness and dimness of sight. Often there is haemorrhage from the nose, eyes, and ears; and the faeces and urine are discharged involuntarily ; and as the compression is generally produced by fractured skull, the finding a portion of skull depressed from the blow is sufficient. The pulse is irregular and slow. 2. Q. What are the symptoms of concussion of the brain ? A. The patient is first in a state of insensibility, and the extremities usuallybecome cold ; there is a great tendency to sleep, butthe sleep is unatiendedby stertor. If the compression be not very great, the patient soon becomes more sensible, but vomiting takes place ; he is at times delirious : the pulse irregular and quick; and phrenitis often succeeds the concussion. Should, however, the concussion be very great, the insensibility of the patient increases 3. Q. How would you distinguish a fissure of the cranium from a suture ? A. By the course of the fissure, by its appearance not being zigzag, and by the pericranium not adhering to it in ihe way it does to a suture. 4. Q. What practice would you adopt to relieve con- cession of the brain ? A. The most approved practice is to bleed accord- ing to circumstances ; to administer saline purges ; to put the patient on the antiphlogistic regimen. Should symptoms of phrenitis come on, large and repeated blood-letting is to be had recourse to, and blisters are to be applied to the head, or neck, in order to reduce tbe inflammation of the brain o2 SUKUlnKA. 5. Q. When a portion of the cranium is depressed, what would you do to elevate it f A. Apply the trephine. 6. Q. When a portion of the cranium is depressed, where would you apply the trephine to raise it ? A. On a part of the skull which would includea por- tion of the depressed bone, that the elevator may be introduced so as to raise the depressed portion. 7. Q,. In wounds of the scalp are sutures to be used ? A. The use of sutures is always to be avoided as much as possible. Most surgeons prefer sticking-plaster. 8. Q. When the scalp is much contused or torn, Liit advisable to cut off the injured portion ? A. No ; it is better to attempt to preserve the torn portion. 9. Q. What is the general treatment of a contused and lacerated scalp ? A. The treatment is to clean the injured portion of the scalp, as much as possible, from extraneous bodies ; to retain it in its natural position, and apply cooling lo- tions or other applications to keep down inflammation. 10. Q. What are the consequences that sometimes (ake place from punctured wounds of the scalp ? A. In punctured wounds of the scalp an erysipelas frequently takes place ; the inflammation aud tumour often affect the whole head and face, the skin of which wears a yellowish cast, receives the impression of (he finger; and a symptomatic fever is produced. If tlie wound be small, and have passed beneath the aponeu- rosis, worse symptoms than these even accrue. 11. Q. What is to be done when (he scalp (after be- ing injured) becomes tense, the pain great, and the symptomatic fever very high ? A. It is recommended to make an incision over tbe wounded part down to the bone, which in general re- moves all.the bad symptoms. 12. Q. If there be doubt as to a fracture of the cra- nium, aud it is thought not necessary to trepan, what plan of treatment should the patient be put on I A. The antiphlogistic plan is the best under such circumstances. ■sLJU.KKY. m i;'i. Q. What are the symptoms that attend an in ilamed state of the membranes of the brain brought on by injury' A. The symptoms are pain in the head, restlessness, want of sleep, frequent and hard pulse, hot and dry skin, flushed countenance, inflamed eyes, nausea, vo- miting, rigor, and towards the end convulsion and de- lirium. 14. Q. What is meant by the term hernia ? A. By hernia is generally meant a preternatural tu- mour occasioned by some of the viscera of the abdo- men being displaced out of that cavity. 15. Q. In what parts of the body do herniae most frequently appear ? A. Herniae most commonly make their appearance at the groin, the navel, the lahia pudendi, and the up- per and fore part of the thigh, 16. Q,. What names have been adopted to distin guish herniae by their contents? A. When intestine alone is contained in the hernia, it is termed.-aii enterocele; when omentum alone, epi- plocele; and when both • re included in the tumour, an entero-epiplocele. Sometimes the hernia contains a part of the stomach, liver, bladder, &c.; then it is named accordingly, gastrocele, hepatocele, and cys- tocele : •." 17. Q,. What do you mean by aif.exiwnphalos ? A. An umbilical hernia, or protiusioh of the intes- tines or omentum, through the umbilical ring. IS. Q.. What is a bubonocele ? A. It is an inguinal hernia, formed by a protrusion of intestine or omentum through the abdominal ring. 19. Q. What is meant by a reducible hernia ? A. A reducible hernia is one that has its contents ly- ing quietly in the sac, and admits of being readily put back into the abdomen. 20. Q. What is meant by an irreducible hernia? A- An irreducible hernia is one which, from adhe- sions of the intestine to the sac, or thickened omen- mm, cannot be returned into the abdonien. f 2 64 SUKGERY. 21. Q. How does incarcerated hernia differ from ir- reducible hernia ? A. An incarcerated or strangulated hernia not only cannot be reduced, but circulation is stopped, and the contents of the bowel are prevented passing onwards to tbe anus. 22. Q. In incarcerated herniae, whether'are those most easily reduced that contain small or large intes- lestine T A. An incarcerated small intestine is more easily re- duced than an incarcerated large intestine. 23. Q. Which is the most dangerous, an intestinal or an omental hernia ? A. An intestinal hernia is the most dangerous, and especially if it is small and recent. 24. Q. How is a femoral hernia distinguished from an enlarged lymphatic gland ? A. The swelling of a femoral hernia comes on in a sudden manner; it is elastic, and may be reduced in size by pressure ; whilst a gland, when inflamed, is in- elastic, it cannot be reduced in size by pressure, and the swelling comes on gradually. 25. Q. What forms the sac in hernia congenita ? A. The sac in hernia congenita is formed by the tu- nica vaginalis. 26. Q. What are the symptoms of strangulated in- testine ? A. The patient is seized with sickness; obstinate costiveness comes on; synochal fever takes place, and a vomiting of faecal matter. The rupture remains sta- tionary, and no'effort can return it; the tumour of the part becomes very painful, and the pain extends to the abdomen, attended with a general tension. 27. Q. Describe the operation for strangulated in- guinal hernia. A. Having shaved off the hair from the tumour, and the patient being placed in a suitable situation for tbe operation, an incision should be made about an inch above the ring, which, if the tumour be not very large, should extend to the most depending part of the swell- ing, so that the skin and cellular membrane covering sl/BGBKY. 05 the sac will thus be cut through. Perhaps the exter- nal pudica) artery, that crosses the sac near the abdo- minal ring, will also be cut through ; if so, it will be necessary to secure this artery before we proceed, to prevent further bleeding. Then, with a pair of for- ceps, a part of the fascia must be raised and divided, to allow the introduction of a director, on which in- strument the fascia is to be divided upwards, to with- in an inch of the abdominal ring, and downwards, to the bottom of the tumour. The next thing to be at- tended to is the division of the stricture : with this view, the finger is to be passed into the sac, as far as the stricture, which will be found either at the abdo- minal ring, or about an inch and a half from this aper- ture, inclining upwards and outwards, or in the mouth of the sac. If the stricture be at the ring, the finger is to be passed as far as the stricture, and then a probe- pointed bistoury must be conveyed over the front part of the sac into the ring, which is next to be divided in a direction upwards, opposite the middle of the sac, and to extend just sufficient to allow the protruded parts to be returned into the abdomen. By this divi- sion of the ring, the epigastric artery is not wounded, nor are the transverse tendinous fibreseut through that cross the upper part of the ring, by Wpjch the aperture of the ring is not so much weakened! The stricture ■ being thus removed, the protruded parts are to be re- turned into the cavity of the abdomen. Should the intestine be gangrenous, it is not to be returned. ' The intestine may, however, have dark dist:oiouralions, and may be returned without harm: these states should be carefully distinguished. If tbe omentum be gan- grenous, the dead part should be cut off, and the other part returned, if haemorrhage is not likely to occur from its surface. When the omentum is indurated, the indurated portion may be cut off. The parts are now to be dressed in the usual way. 29. Q,. Describe the operation for femoral or crural hernia. A- An incision is to be made from the point where the hernia protrudes, just above Poupart's ligament, a little nearer to (he symphysis pubis than (he femoral fit) -IROKIfV. \cssels are, and be continued the whole length of the tumour. Any glands which may lie over the hernia should be avoided. The aponeurotic fibres which pro ceed from the femoral fascia and ascend obliquely over the front of the thigh are to be divided very cau- tiously. The hernial sac is to be opened by means of a pair of dissecting forceps and bistoury, tbe operator raisins th part by taking hold of the cellular mem- brane attached to it, and is then to make a very small aperture bv an horizontal cut; through this opening a director may be introduced, and the sac is to be divid- ed nearly as high as Poupart's ligament, and quite to the bottom of the tumour. The sac being laid open, a direct.r should next be iirroduced within (he crural ring, on the side of the intestine which is nearest the symphysis pubis, and an incision should be made di- rectly upwards, for the purpose of cutting the femoral ligament. The protruded parts are then to be returned. 30. Q. How would you treat a violent ophthalmia? A. Bleed locally, and gen- rally, according to the age of tbe patient. It there be great inflammation of the tunica conjunctiva, carefully scarify it . apply soft emollient poultices to the eyes, renewing them of(en ; give saline purges and diaphoretics; keep the eyes shaded: and, as (he chronic stage succeeds, alter the remedies in some decree, acenrdingto circumstances; apply astringent sedative lotions to the eyes, lenving off the poultices; make use of tbe tincture of opium. dropping in two 01 three drop- twice or thrice a-day, between the eyelid and ball. 31. Q. How would you treat gangrene in general? A. With tones, stimulants and a generous diet. 32. Q When a locked jaw arises from an injury, how would you endeavour to relieve it? A. By making a free division of the injured part: and if this did not su ceed, by amputating, if possible Antispasmodics, as opium and ether, must be given in- ternally. 33. Q. When a ball is lodged in the calf of the leg, and it is necessary to make an incision upon it, in (vhat direction would you make that incision * SURGERY. 67 A. In a perpendicular direction. 34. Q. How does the complete division of a punc- tured artery (as the temporal) stop the haemorrhage ? A. By the retraction of the extremities of the artery. 35. Q. What is the cause of the cold sensation and numbness of the leg and foot, generally felt from an aneurism of the popliteal artery ? A. Pressure upon the popliteal nerve, which sup- plies the leg and foot with nervous influence ; it is also caused by obstructed circulation, the popliteal ar- tery losing part of its power, and containing a quantity of coagulum. 36. Q. If necessary to take up the brachial artery, near the flexure of the arm, how will the circulation of the blood be carried on ? A. By the two profundals chiefly, which inosculate with the recurrents of the ulnar and radial arteries. 37. Q,. How is amputation of the shoulder-joint per- formed? A. As there is no room for the application of tbe tourniquet in this operation, the axillary artery is to be compressed by an assistant, by means of a pad, just where it passes over the first rib; or, to render the operation more safe, it is preferred to take up the axil- lary artery at once; then, with a large common bistoury, a semicircular incision is to be made with its convexity downwards, to across the integuments covering (he deltoid muscle, about four inches below the acromion. The skin should not be detached, but the muscle is to be cleared from the bone quite up to the joint; then tbe tendons passing over the joint are to be cut through, also the capsular ligament, so as to allow the bone to be dislocated from the joint. Having done tins, the skin and other parts, underneath the joint, are to be divided with one stroke of the knife ; after this, the circumflex, or any small vessel that may bleed, should be secured and tied. The flap of the deltoid muscle is next to be laid down, so that its edge will meet the margin of the wound below. The operation is then finished by dressing. :'.$ Q. What do you mean by hydrocele ? IS"* SfRlKUA . \. A collection of serous fluid in the tunica vagi oalis testis. 39. Q. How many methods are there employed for the radical cure of hydrocele? A. There are six different methods employed in the radical cure of hydrocele ; viz. the incision, the ex- cision. Hie application of caustic, the introduction of a tent, the employment of a seton, anii injecting some stimulating fluid into the caviiy of the tunica vagi- nalis. 40. Q. How many ways can the lower jaw be dis- located ? A. The lower jaw can only be luxated forwards on the zys;om;itic arches. 41. Q. How many species of white swelling are there ? A. Two: the scrofulous and the rheumatic species. 42. Q. What muscles are cut through in the opera- tion of lithotomy on the male ? A. The transversalis perinaei, and generally a part of the accelerator urinae, and sometimes a part of the levator ani. 43. Q. What are the pecularities of a gun-shot wound? A. Great contusion and laceration, which produce a deadened state of fibres immediately surrounding the wound, that require to be thrown off In the form of slough, before the wound can heal; they also fre- quently contain pieces of cloth or bullets. 44. Q. How is an aneurismal tumour distinguished from other tumours ? A. By its pulsating, and its receding, upon pressure. and soon returning again to its usual bulk. 45. Q. What is the substance generally found in aneurismal sacs ? A. The coagulable part of the blood, which is usual ly found in layers. 46. Q. How is amputation below the knee perform- ed ? A. Having placed the patient in a proper position and applied the tourniquet to compress the artery, one suKt.um. 139 assistant is to support the leg, while the other pulls up the integuments; a circular incision is then to made round tbe leg, to divide the integuments; when these are divided, a portion of them is to be dissected back from the muscles, by means of a scalpel, sufficient to cover the stump; these being kept back, another cir- cular incision is to be made by the knife, some way higher up than the first incision ; by this incision, the soft parts are divided quite to the bone The inter- osseous ligament is then t> be thoroughly divided by the scalpel, or the catalenc ; the soft parts should be pro- perly retracted, and the saw should next be applied, to divide the bones. After which, the spiculae left by the saw, are to be removed by the pincers. The vessels are next to be secured by ligatures, slackening the tourniquet from time to time, Test any vessel should not be secured. To discover this, it is always neces- sary to sponge away the clotted blood from the wound. After these precautions are taken, the edges of the wound are to be brought together, by drawing the in- teguments over the surface of the wound ;tne ligatures are to be left out, and the wound covered with lint and cloth. . 47. Q. What are the consequences that generally arise from lacerated or wounded nerves ' A. Inflammation of the lacerated or wounded part, locked jaw, and convulsions. 48. Q. What joint of the body is most subject to dislocation ? . A. The shoulder-joint is most subject to dislocation. 49. Q. How many ways may the head of the thigh- bone be dislocated 1 A. The head of the thigh-bone may be dislocated upwards and outwards on the dorsum of the ileum ; upwards and forwards on the body of the os pubis ; downwards and inwards on the foramen ovale ; and downwards and outwards on the os ischium. SO. Q. What are the symptoms of lumbar abscess ? A. This kind of abscess generally forms in a very insidious manner: in the incipient stage of the dis- ease the person cannot walk so well as usual, and feels ;o su.Gi.rn. a degree of uneasiness about the lumbar region ; but in general there is no acute pain, even when the ab- scess has acquired such a size as to form a large tu- mour protruding externally. 61. Q. What is meant by a compound fracture t A. It is a fracture of the bone, attended with an ex- ternal wound of the soft parts. 52. Q. What takes place when a bone is denuded of its periosteum > A. Generally exfoliation, to a certain degree. 53. Q. What bone is perforated in operating for fis- tula lachryraalis ? A. The os unguis. 54. Q. Why are luxations of the shoulder-joint more frequent than luxations of the hip-joint ? A. Because the glenoid cavity is very superficial, to allow of extensive motion to the head of the os bra- chii, which is very large. The joint is also more ex- posed to unguarded blows, or accidents, than any other joint. The hip-joint, on the contrary, is confin- ed as to motion ; the acetabulum is also very deep in the fresh subject, so as almost to cover the head of the os femoris : and thus this joint is rendered very strong. 55. Q. What are the general causes of mortifica- tion ? A. The general causes of mortification are—an im- peded flow of blood from a part; the stoppage of the flow of blood into the same ; and a disturbed state of this fluid, and of the nerves. 56. Q. How many kinds of fever attend mortifica- tion ? A. There are three kinds of fever which may ac- company mortification : 1. sympathetic inflammatory fever; 2. one attended with extreme debility, of a typhoid nature ; and, 3. one depending upon derange- ment of the chylopoietic organs. 57. Q. Under what circumstances is amputation of an extremity necessary ? A. Wherethebone becomes much diseased; where great laceration from gun-shot wound? has been pro- -LBCiEKV. 71 duced ; where great destruction Of parts has taken place in compound fracture ; and where, from other causes, the operation is required. 53. Q. What forms the sac in femoral hernia ? A. The fascia of the thigh, and the peritonaeum. 59. Q. In what direction is Poupart's ligament to be divided, if necessary, to liberate strangulated femoral hernia ? A. That recommended by Mr- Hay, is to introduce a director within the crural ring on that side of the intestine, oromentum, which is nearest to the symphy- sis of the pubes, and to make the incision directly up- wards. Gimbernat recommends the incision to be carried directly towards the symphysis pubis. 60. Q. How many ways are there of puncturing the bladder, to relieve suppression of urine ? A First, from the perinaeum : secondly, above the os pubis; thirdly, through the rectum in themale, and vagina in the female-, fourthly, by dilating tbe meatus urinarius in the female. % 60. Q. On what part of the arm is pressure to be made before amputation of the fore-arm ? A As high up as convenient; placing the pad at the inner edge of the biceps, so as to compress the ar- tery against the hope. Gl- Q- At what part of the aorta do aneurisms most frequently occur ? . A. At the arch of the aorta, just as it is about to de- S°62 O What are the unfavourable circumstances in compound fracture, that require the extremity to be aT"when the wound of the soft parts is large and lacerated, and (he bone or bones very much splinter- ed together with a violent degree of contus.on of the ..eUbouring muscles, amputation is necessary ; but a n?ompt decision, in many cases ot compound frac- ture requires great discernment on the part of the sur- eeon, whether to amputate or not. 63 Q What are the signs of a fractured cranium ? \ ' A dep*e«sion of a part of the skull, and the synip- 72 sv/Ki.kuv. toms of pressure on the brain, as coma, .-irrturou* breathing, loss of voluntary motion, convulsions, tu- mours, involuntary discharge of the urine and faece-, dilatation of the pupil, irregular pnlse, aud sometimes haemorrhage from the nose, eyes, and cars. 64. Q. What is the cause of stupor, or coma, in fracture of the cranium ? A. Pressure upon the brain. 65. Q.. What is the medical treatment in fractures of the skull ? "A. To bleed repeatedly, give saline purges, and or- der a low diet: the patient should be kept on the an - tiphlogistic regimen for near a month, to guard against subsequent inflammation of the brain. G6. O,. How many kinds of abscesses are there 1 A. There are two kinds : the acute or phlegmonous, and the chronic abscess. 67. Q- What are the symptoms of suppuration ? A. When matter is formed in a tumour, there is a remission of all the symptoms, the throbbing pain ;;m-a off, and there is present a more dull heavy pain ; a co- nical eminence is observed, which soon has a whitish or yellowish appearance , instead of a deep red : and a fluctuation is often felt by-an examination with the fingers. Rigors are present in extensive suppuration?, and accompany suppurations which take place iu the viscera. 68. Q,. How are fistulae in pcrinaeo produced ? A. Fistulae in perinaeo are generally produced by strictures in the urethra. The urine being impeded in its passage along the urethra, an ulceration takes place on the inside of that part of the urethra which is en- larged and within the stricture ; the internal mem- brane having ulcerated, the urine readily gets into the loose cellular membrane and substance of the urethra; an abscess is the consequence, which bursts externally, and forms a fistulous opening. 69. d. Why are fistulae generally dilated ? A. To produce a new action in those ulcers, by which granulations take place from their bottom. 70. Q. How is the radical cure of hydrocele per- formed ? V SURGERY. 73 A. By evacuating the fluid, and afterwards exciting such a degree of inflammation of the tunica vaginalis and testicle as will cause adhesion to take place, and consequently an obliteration of the cavity: this is either done by caustic, scton, incision, or by injection. 71. O.. What is meant by epiphora? A. By an epiphora is meant an accumulation of tears on the anterior part of the eye. 72. Q,. What are the causes of epiphora ? A. An epiphora may be caused by a more copious secretion of tears than the puncta lachrymalia can absorb ; and by an obstruction in the lachrymal canal. 73. 4- What are the symptoms of empyema ? ^ A. The most pathognomonic symptom is hearing the fluid rattle upon shaking the person'echest; there is also a difficulty of lying on the Opposite side, diffi- culty of breathing, aud sometimes an enlargement oi (he side of the chest which contains the fluid, # 74. Q. Where does a psoas abscess generally P°,nt* A. In the groin, at the internal part of the thigh, and the loins. , , 75 Q, What are the signs of a wounded artery f A. Effusions of florid blood, and its being thrown out by jerks from the vessel. 76. 4. What are the terminations of inflammation • A. Resolution, suppuration, and mortification. 77. Q,. What method is to be taken after a cannon- ball has torn off the limb ? A To amputate the stump: sometimes it is ne- cessary to perform the amputation above the nearest J°7fi Q. What are the circumstances that prevent (he dilatation of gun-shot wounds to extract the extraneous S"At8WhVn it is likely to create a great irritation of the wound without gaining any advantage; wMnthe ball enters far into (he substance of a bone ; where it enters any of the large cavities ; where the ball can- not be discovered; Jd where the foreign bodies are less likely to create inflammation than their extrac lion. 71 *L"RUJ£R\ • •79. Q. What is the treatment of gun-shot wounds A. First, when the wound is in any extremity to de- termine for or against amputation, which id many cases requires great judgment, the amputation should be performed before inflammation ari.-es, or a disposi- tion to gangrene takes place in the limbs: should, how- ever, amputation be defeired for a day or two, and the wound be highly inflamed, it is to be brought to a state of suppuration, at which period amputation, if needful, should be performed, weighing in mind the constitution of the patient, and other circumstances. Extraneous substances are generally to be extracted, particularly when they press upon an important viscus or a considerable nerve. If haemorrhage take place from a large artery, it is to be exposed and tied. The external wound often requires dilating, but sometimes dilatation is improper. Counter-Openings are in some instances to be made, as when the ball lodges under contused skin that will probably slough ; but if the skin remain uninjured, and the ball is scarcely perceptible to the feel, this opera- tion is improper, as the wound heals better when it is left alone. When sloughing takes place on the surface of a wound, its removal is favoured by a plentiful sup- puration. The rest of the treatment is similar to that for con- tused wornds. 80. Q. How ischordeeaccounted for? A. In chordee, the inflammation having affected the corpus spongiosum hs well as the urethra, it produces in it an extravasation ofd airulable lymph, as in the adhesive inflammation, which, uniting the cells toge- ther, destroys the power of distention of the corpus spongiosum, and makes it unequal, in this respect, (o the corpora cavernosa penis, and therefore a curvature takes place. 81. Q. What is the treatment of contused wounds .' A. To prevent a high degree of inflammation, which often terminates in gangrene; this is to be effected by a strict antiphlogistic regimen, topical bleeding by leeches. Ac The formation of pus i- to be promote-! SURGERY. 75 by emollient poultices. Should gangrene succeed the inflammation, warm stimulating applications are to be used, and the patient is to take bark, wine, and a nou- rishing diet. 82. Q. What are the terminations of erysipelas? A. Resolution, gangrene, and suppuration. 83. (I Qoes erysipelas generally terminate in sup- puration ? A. No ; true erysipelas seldom suppurates, it gene- rally ends in resolution or gangrene. fc'4. Q. In what part is erysipelas attended with the greatest degree of constitutional disturbance ? A. The face and head. 85. Q. Under what circumstances is an artificial anus to be formed ? A. Where absolute gangrene of an incarcerated in- testine has taken place. 86. U,. How is gastroraphe performed ? A. Gastroraphe is employed to unite wounds of the abdomen in the following way:—two needles are placed on the same ligature, and introduced through both lips of the wound from within outwards., includ- ing peritonaeum, muscles, and integuments. 87. Q. What is the general treatment of the hip- joint disease ? A. In the early part of the disease of the hip-joint, entire rest, the application of fomentations, and the employment of topical bleeding, particularly cupping, are highly proper: this plan of treatment is to be adopted to reduce inflammation ; when no inflamma- tion is present, recourse should he had to blisters, or caustic issues. 88. Q. Where do surgeons generally recommend the application of a caustic issue to relieve an affection of the hip ? A. In the depression just behind and below the trochanter major. 89. Q. How is emphysema produced from a wound of the thorax ? A. By the lungs being wounded, and the consequent escape of air into the cellular membrane. g2 ;o >URui;nv. 90. Q. What js the treatment of wounds 01 tiie ioints ? A. The admission of air into their cavities is to be obviated, as this causes a high degree of inflammation to take place. If the capsular ligament is much torn, amputation becomes necessary ; in other respects the joint is to be considered as under a high degree of in- flammation, and the antiphlogistic regimen is to be adopted. If suppuration take place in the cavity of the joints, the pus should be carefully evacuated, so as not to allow the air to enter. 91. Q. What is meant by spina ventosa ? A. A disease affecting a bone, in which it becomes spongy and suppurates; aud the pus escapes by seve- ral openings. 92. Q. What is the prognosis in wounds of the ab dominai viscera ? A. Generally bad. 93. Q,. How may an abscess of the liver rupture 7 A. First, externally, by the liver forming an adhe- sion to the parictes of the abdomen, and the abscess pointing oii its external surface. Secondly, by adhe- sive inflammation taking place between the liver, dia- phragm, and lungs, and the abscess evacuating itsell into the lungs. Thirdly, by adhesion taking place be- tween the liver and alimentary canal, and the abscess making its way into the stomach or intestines. Fourth- ly, into the cavity of the abdomen. 94. Q.. What symptoms accompany wounds of the abdominal viscera ? A. Profuse haemorrhage from the external wound : the escape of the contents of particular viscera, at- tended with a small, feeble, and contracted pulse pallid countenance, coldness of the extremities, great debility, hiccough, vomiting, spasm, and tension of the abdomen. 95. Q. How many kinds of wounds are there? A. Wounds are distinguished by the terms of in cised, lacerated, punctured, contused, and poisoned. 96. Q.- How is the prognosis to be formed in wound" of the lungs ? sLU('i.KV. V. If the lungs are wounded near the root, it is . ommonly fatal, from the haemorrhage that will en- sue : should the lower and anterior part be wounded, and that superficially, the prognosis may be more fa- vourable. 97. Q What symptoms will enable you to distin- guish an enlarged prostate gland from stone irt the bladder ? A. The symptoms attending a diseased prostate gland resemble those of stone in the bladder; but with this difference, that the motion of a coach or a horse does not increase the grievance when the prostate ts affected, while it does so in an intolerable degree in cases of stone. 98. d. Are the symptoms of calculus complained of by the person sufficient to convince a surgeon that there is a stone in the bladder ? A. No : the operation of sounding must be bad re- course to, before a calculus can be ascertained to ex- 99. QL. How is the hip-disease distinguished from an affection of the knee-joint, as the forerunning symptoms of the hip-disease are generally pains about the knee, and no evident affection of the hip ? A. By a diminution of the circumference of the leg and thigh of the affected side, an elongation of the limb, and pressure upon the acetabulum exciting pain. 100. Q,. In taking-up the brachial artery, what nerve are you to avoid Including in the ligature ? A- The median nerve, which accompanies the bra- chial artery. 101. Q,. What are granulations ? A. They are exudations of coagulable lymph from the vessels of the exposed surface, which soon be*- come organized, possessing vessels, nerves, and ab- sorbents. 102. Q. What forms the boundaries or cyst of an abscess ? A. A deposit of coagulable lymph, which becomes organized so as to form a cyst. 103. QL. How many modes are (here of opening an abscess ? 73 SURGERY. A. There are three principal ways of opening an abscess : 1. by lancet; 2. by caustic; 3. by seton. Most surgeons prefer the opening to be made by the lancet. 104. Q. What is meant by a furunculus ? A. A circumscribed inflammatory tumour, which usually attains the size of a small walnut; it imper- fectly suppurates, and the matter is contained in a cyst. 105. Q,. In operating for encysted tumour, is it necessary to remove the sac ? A. Yes; and, during the operation, care should be taken not to wound the sac during the extirpation of the tumour. 106. Q. What is the cause of piles ? A. Pressure upon the vessels of the anus, which prevents the return of blood to the heart: as that from a gravid uterus, costiveness, tumours, and from long sitting; which last allows the abdominal viscera to press upon the blood-vessels. 107. Q,. What is meant by meliceris ? A. Meliceris is a tumour of the encysted kind, the contents of which resemble wax or honey. 108. Q. What is meant by condyloma ? A. Tumours or excrescences about the anus are call- ed condylomata. 109. Q- What is meant by couching ? A. Couching consists in removing the opaque lens out of the axis of vision by means of a peculiar-torm- ed needle. 110. Q. How is the operation for fistula lachryma- lis performed ? A. First an opening is to be made at the most de- pending part of the tumour, by means of a lancet, which will discharge the sac of its contents; a probe is then to be passed forward in the natural passage with moderate force ; should this be impracticable, an ar- tificial opening is to be cautiously drilled on the ante- rior part of the os unguis by a trocar, or any other sharp instrument, in an oblique direction. When this has penetrated a sufficient depth, which may be as- certained by the want of resistance, and the discharge niii.iaii. .i. oi inood by the nose, the perforator is to be removed. and u silver tube introduced into the opening, where it should remain till the edges of the wound become callous. After this is effected, the tube is to be with- drawn, and the external wound heals readily. 111. and raising the sym- physis of the jaw at the same time by gentle pressure ; the jaw immediately springs back into its natural situa- tion by the action of the muscles. 199. CI. What is a fungus ? A- A fungus isa soft fleshy excrescence rising out of an old wound or ill-conditioned ulcer, and preventing its healing. sl/RfcfERY. 93 200. Q. How are dislocations of tbe os femoris re- duced ? A. In dislocations of the thigh-bone, when the bead is in the foramen ova\e, the muscles of the thigh are first to be relaxed as much as possible, the limb is then to be extended to displace the end of tbe bone from its ca- vity i when this is effected, the bone is to be drawn up- wards and inwards into its socket; this generally ef- fects tire reduction: but should the bone be above the acetabulum, a slight extension will effect its reduction. It happens occasionally that the head of the bone is not reduced, owing to the projection of the acetabulum preventing the necessary extension ; the bone must then be elevated a little over this projection, and the reduction will be effected. 201. Q,' In mortification of a limb, what slate are (he arteries in near the diseased part ? A. When mortification takes place at tbe lower part of an extremity, the diameter of the arteries is dimi- nished near the diseased part, and they become stopped up with coagulated blood. 202. Q,. When an artery is tied by ligature, how i^ a permanent obliteration of its channel effected ? A. After an artery is stopped by ligature, coagulable lymph is separated near the fractured part ; this be- comes organized, and unites the sides of the arteries together, and thus obliterates the artery. 203. Q. In injuries of the gall-bladder or liver, what prognosis is to be given ? A. In wounds of the liver the prognosis is bad, by reason of the great quantity of blood flowing through that viscus and the soft texture of the liver itself, which renders it very apt to pour out a great quantity of blood from a small wound. Injuries of the gall-bladder are still worse ; as, in such cases, the bile is evacuated into the cavity of the abdomen, where its tendency to pu- trefaction soon.produr.es the most fatal effects. 204. Q,. What are the properties of pus ? A. Pus is a fluid of a lightish colour, of the consist- ence of cream ; it has little smell, is void of acrimony, and consists of globules swimming in a transparent, «M sLUGKRV. colourless fluid. Its specific gravity is greater than that of water. 205. Q. What are the differences between pus and mucus ? A. Pus is distinguished from mucus by the follow- ing circumstances:—Pus sinks in water, mucus floats : Eus gives to water an uniform white colour; mucus as a ropy appearance in water. If pus and mucus arc mixed with sulphuric acid, on the addition of wa- ter the pus is precipitated to the bottom, and the mucus forms swimming flakes. A solution of caustic alkali dissolves both pus and mucus; but, on the addition of water, the pus is separated, and not the mucus. 206. Q. What are the symptoms which announce the formation of pus in inflammation of the hip-joint? A. The symptoms which point out the formation of pus in inflammation of the hip-joint are various, as the disease mny be acute or chronic. When the former takes place, the parts surrounding the joint become tense and painful, the skin red, and inflammatory fever takes place : as the pain abates, rigors succeed, and u swelling is observed about the joint. When the ab- scess is the consequence of chronic inflammation, an increase of pain takes place previous to the occurrence of suppuration : startings and catchings during sleep are noticed: the pus in the chronic species is a long while before it arrives at tbe surface; at length a fluc- tuating tumour forms, but it does not immediately point. 207. Q. What is meant by hydrops articuli ? A. By hydrops articuli is meant a collection of se- rous fluid in the capsular ligament of a joint. 208. (J. How is a fracture of the neck of the hume- rus distinguished from a luxation ? A. When the neck of the humerus is fractured, a de- pression is observed at the superior extremity and ex- ternal side of the arm: in luxation, downwards and inwards, of the head of the bone under the projection of the acromion, a. deep depression is found in the part which tbe head of the humerus before occupied; whereas, in fracture of the neck of that bone, tfvs SURGERY. 95 iioulder retains its original form: the acromion does not project, and the depression is found below the point of the shoulder: besides, the unequal and frac- tured extremity of the bone will be easily felt; a cre- pitus may also be heard, by moving the arm in differ- ent directions. 209. Q,. What is the character of cancerous ulcer ? A. Cancerous ulcer is irregular in its figure, and un- equal on its surface; the edges are thick, serrated, and extremely painful; there are large chasms in its sub- stance, produced partly by sloughing, and partly by an ulcerating process. The ulcer affords a very fetid sanious matter, it spreads with great rapidity, and in its progress produces frequent haemorrhages. 210. Q. What prognosis is to be given of wounds of the oesophagus? A. Wounds of the oesophagus generally are mortal. 211. Q. How is the removal of a tumour from the breast performed ? A. In removing a tumour from the breast, the ope- ration is generally performed as the patient is in a sit- ting position. The pectoral muscle is to be made tense by keeping the arm back, and if none of the integu- ments are to be removed, a straight incision is to be made through them ; the tumour is to be regularly dissected all round from the circumjacent parts, and its base is to be detached from its connexions from above downwards, till the whole is separated. If the tumour is of a malignant nature, and adhering to the skin and pectoral muscle beneath, an inch or two of the fat should be removed on every side of the diseas- ed part; and after the removal of the tumour, the sur- face of the pectoral muscle, wherever it is adhering to the tumour, should be removed. 212. Q,. What is a node ? A. A node is a swelling of a bone, the periosteum, or a tendon, mostly arising from a venereal cause. 213. Q. What parts of the scapula are most com- monly fractured ? A. The parts of the scapula most liable to fracture are the acromion, inferior angle, neck, and coracoid process I i>6 SURGERY. 214. Q,. What bad consequences may be appre- hended from a fractured rib? A* The bad consequences of a fractured rib may be, that a spicula may be driven inwards, it may lace- rate the pleura, wound the lungs, and cause the dan- gerous train of symptoms attendant on emphysema. 215. Q,. What is the character of a venereal ulcer in the throat ? A. A venereal ulcer affecting the throat is very deep; it has a defined or thick edge, and is generally very foul, having a lardaceous slough adhering to it that cannot be detached. 216. Q. How is the vena saphena to bo tied when in a varicose state ? A, The vena saphena is to be tied by passing a liga- ture under (Jie vessel; the integuments are to be pinched .up into a transverse fold, and the ligature is to be con- veyed under the vessel by means of a blunt silver nee- dle. 217. Q,.. Ts there any danger in tying a vein for the cure of varix ? A. Yes: sometimes inflammation and suppuration of the vein takes place, accompanied with considera- ble fever, which bus been known to prove fatal. 218. Q. Where is the fluid in hydrocele situated ? A. The fluid in hydrocele is situated between the tunica vaginalis and the tunica albuginea of the tes- ticle. 219. Q,. What is the object in the radical cure of hydrocele ? A. The object to be effected in the cure of hydro- cele is to excite such a degree of inflammation in the tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea, forming the ca- vity, as shall end in a mutual and general concretion of those membranes with each other, so as to obliterate any cavity for the reception of fluid. 220^ Q- How is hydrocele distinguished from other tumours ? . " A. Hydrocele is distinguished from hernia by the tumour iu hernia being somewhat elastic, and becom- ing more distended when the person coughs. The SURGERY. 97 swelling in hernia always begins at top, and extends gradually downwards. Hydrocele is distinguished from encysted dropsy of the chord by the swell- ing lying at the superior part of th« scrotum, whilst in hydrocele it is at the inferior part. It may be dis- tinguished from scirrhous testicle, being firm, hard, and not yet yielding upon pressure, and from the great weight in proportion to its bulk. In hydrocele, a lighted candle, placed at the opposite side of the tu- mour, will make the contents of the sac seem trans- parent. 221. Q. What are the favourable symptoms that point out success from trepanning ? A. The favourable symptoms which point out suc- cess from trepanning are, the patient becoming less sttlpid, his breathing less oppressed, and the pupils con- tracting upon exposure to strong light. 222. Q. If, after trepanning, a collection of fluid should be found between the dura and pia mater, how is it to be removed ? A. Under such circumstances, a small incision may be cautiously made through the dura mater, to evacu- ate it. 223. Q. What is meant by a fissure of the cranium ? A. It is a partial fracture, in which the bone is, as it were, cracked only. 224. Q. How many kinds of dislocations of the patella are there ? A. The patella may be luxated outwards or inwards. The luxation outwards is most common, because the bone more easily slips in this direction off the outer condyle of the femur than inwardly. 225. Q. How may the tibia be luxated ? A. The tibia may be luxated forward, backward, or to either side. 2*26. Q,. When the parotid duct is wounded, what is the consequence ? A. The consequence of wounding the parotid duct is a fistulous opening which discharges saliva, particu- larly during meals. 227- Q. What is ecchyuiosis ' ,*> stRi.E-UY. A. Ecchymosis is an extravasation of blood in tht cellular membrane, occasioned by a rupture of the small vessels of (he part- 228. Q. What is meant by exfoliation ? A. Exfoliation is a separation of a dead portion of bone from the living. 229. Q. What method is to be taken to prevent ex- foliation that is likely to occur from a wound ? A. In attempting to prevent exfoliation that may take place from a wound, all that is to be done is, to cover the exposed bone as soon as possible with the flesh that has been detached. 230. Q. How are fistulae in perinaeo to be dressed after they have been laid open ? A. Fistulae in perinaeo, after being laid open, are to be dressed quite down to the end, to allow of gra- nulations shooting up from the bottpm before re-union of the parts takes place. 231. Q,. What is meant by simple fracture ? A. By simple fracture is meant a breach of conti- nuity of bone without an external wound. 232. Q. How is a luxation of the tibia reduced ? A. A luxation of the tibia is most easily reduced by making gentle extension, and pushing the head into its proper place. 233. Q. What is meant by extravasation ? A. Extravasation is a term applied by surgeons to fluids which are out of their proper vessels or recep faciei. 234. Q. What is meant by fistula lacbrymalis 7 A. Fistula lachrymalis is a disease arising from an obstruction in the ductus nasalis, and preventing the (ears and mucus of the lachrymal parts of the eye from descending into the nose. 235. Q. What regimen do gun-shot wounds require ' A. Gun-shot wounds generally require the antiphlo- gistic regimen. 236. Q- How is the operation for phymosis perform- ed 7 A. This operation is performed by introducing a directory under the prepuce, then passing a curve pointed bistourv, and «littin? open the prepti-e SURGE1U 90 237. chyme ; 3d, by its stimulus it excites the ac- tion of the intestines; 3d, it imparts a yellow colour to the faeces ; 4th, it prevents the abundance of mu- cus, a d ac.H.ty in the p. mae viae. 68. H- Does bile ever gti into the blood ? A. Yes: bile>gets into the blood when its regular course is interrupted, as in jaundice, diseased liver. &c. 69 Q- How does it get into it ' PKACTICE Of l»HYs>f<\ 118 A. Bile'gets into the blood through the medium of the absorbents, which remove it from the bile-ducts that are preternaturally distended, and convey it into the blood by means of the thoracic duct. 70. Q What is the most common, way in which the : bile is prevented passing, as it ought to do, out of its ducts into the duodenum ? A. The most common way in which bile is prevent- ed passing through its ducts into the duodenum, is from an obstruction in the ductus communis choledo- chus. 71. Q. In what way may the ductus communis cbo- ledochus be obstructed? A. Tbe ductus communis may be obstructed by spasm, by a calculus, by mucus from the duodenum. and by the pressure of adjacent tumours. 72. Q,. How do you know when the bile is vitiated or unhealthy? A. The stomach does not perform its function pro- perly, the intestines are irritated, an,d the faeces are not of their healthy colour. 73. Q Does a vitiated bile influence the formation of the blood ? A. Yes:—vitiated bile impairs disgestion : the chyle is not properly separated from the chyme, or that which is separated "is of a diseased qunlity ; and when formed into blood, the blood is of an unhealthy nature, and im- proper for nutrition. 74. Q. What are the unhealthy appearances of the blood that you are acquainted with ? A. The unhealthy appearances of the blood that are usually met with are, an excess of crassamentum, an excess of coagulable lymph in the crassamentum, which shows itself by the \\ hite coriaceous crust on the sur- face ; a loose flabby cruor; an excess of serum; a yel- low serum. 75. Ci. When too much coagulable lymph exists in the cruor, bow does it affect the solids ? A. When there is too much coagulable lymph in the cruor, the solids are firmer than they should be, and there is a predisposition in the system to inflammatory 'lisoa^* ill 1'KA.CTll.I. OP PH.fH • 76. Q. When Uie crassamentum >« loose, and the serum in excess, how are the solids influenced 7 A The solids are loose and flabby, and there is a ten- dency (o dropsy. 77. Q. What do you understand by excitement ? A. Excitement is the property by which animals may be affected by external agents, as well as by certain powers peculiar to themselves, in such a manner, that the phenomena peculiar to the living state can be produced. 78. Q,. In the commencement of fevers, when there is no diminution of vital energy, what means are the most likely to stop their progress ? A. The means most likely to stop their progress, un ■ der such circumstances, are, an emetic, combined with a cathartic and blood-letting. 79. Q What are the most proper remedies to check febrile action at the very commencement, w.hen then- is an evident diminution of vital power ? A. When there, is an evident diminution of vital power at the commencement of febrile action, a cor dial diaphoretic, as the compound powder of ipeca cuanha, spirit of sulphuric and nitric ether, are found the most successful- 80. Q. What do you mean by tetanus ? A. It is a rigid spasm of several muscles"of the body 81. Q. How would you treat inflammation of the bowels ? A. By general and topical blood-letting, by the warm bath and fomentations, by the frequent exhibitions of purges, and by giving saline diaphoretics with mtoci- laginous drinks. 82 Q. What is a dysentery. A. It is a spasmodic constriction of the colon, with a retention of the natural faeces, and the frequent ex- pulsion of mucous or sanguineous motions- 83. Q. What are the symptoms of enteritis / A. Fever, costiveness, a twisting around the umbili- cus, tension and acute pain of the abdomen, increased pain upon pressure, tenesmus or vomiting, according ■"o the seat of the inflammation : rpiick. or slow, and Pit At TICK OF PHYSIi . llo hard, contracted pulse; great prostration of strength. and high-coloured urine. 84. Q. What are the symptoms of volvulus ? A. Violent pain and distention of the" abdomen. attended with a peculiar twisting around the navel. Obstinate costiveness, slight febrile symptoms, and a frequent vomiting of a stercoraceous matter. . 85. Q. What are the symptoms of nephritis 7 A. Pyrexia, pain in the region of the kidney, extend- ing along the course of the ureter, accompanied with numbness of the legand thigh of the affected side, nau- sea and vomiting, retraction of the testicle, high-co- loured urine, sometimes mucous or bloody, frequent micturition, dysuria. 80. Q. How would you distinguish hepatitis from gastritis 7 A. From gastritis by the seat of tbe pain, by the sym- pathetic pains of the clavicle and shoulder, by the less prostration of strength, and greater fulness of the pulse, by the colour of the stools and urine. 87. Q.. What purges would you give in nephritis ? A. Oleaginouspurgesand frequent emollient clysters. 88. Q. What are the symptoms of pneumonia ? A. Obtuse pain and sense of weight and oppression in the chest; anxious breathing, and tbe pain is increas- ed during inspiration; hard, contracted, and frequent pulse; the face is usually flushed, and of a purple hue ; the tongue is white, the urine is high-coloured, and there are other symptoms of synocha. 89. Q. How would you distinguish cystitis from en- teritis ? A From enteritis by the seat of the pain ; the ten-' sion and tumour, which is above the pubes in cystitis ; by the micturition,andby the painful discharge of uriqe in small quantities, or the complete obstruction to its passage. 90. Q. When gangrene takes place in internal parts, what are the symptoms ? A. A peculiar appearance of the countenance; cold perspirations, coldness of the extremities; sudden ces- sation of pain ; hiccup : snb*ultu« tendinum•;. supnre* f lti PRAGTU - J; 0 V 1111 > 11 . sion of urine ; convulsions, and the pulse scu.cels pi ceptible. 91. Q. What are the symptoms of hydrocephalus .' A. Languor, inactivity, loss of appetite, nausea, vo- miting, parched tongue, dry sjrin, flushing of the face, and other symptoms of pyrexia ; pain over the eyes ; the pain in the head becomes extremely acute, and in- termits, occasioning the patient to scream violently : disturbed sleep, extreme restlessness, flushed counte- nance, costiveness, vomiting, stupor, convulsions, di- lated pupils. 92. Q, What i6 a typhus fever ? A. A very infectious fever, characterized by great debility, disturbed animal functions, languid circula- tion, furred tongue, aching pains in different parts ofthe body, particularly the head and small of the back, and the evacuated fluids of the body undergoing speedy pu- I refaction. 93. Q. What are the indications of cure in a typhu« fever? A, To excite a new action in the system, by rousing that of the brain and arteries ; to support the strength of the patient; and to obviate tbe putrid tendency in the fluids. 94. Q,. What is the best way of destroying the fetid smell of sick wards ? A. By extricating nitrous fumes from a mixture of nitre and sulphuric acid placed in hot sand. 95. Q,. What is meant.by scrofula 7 A. A peculiar disease affecting people of a particu- lar habit of body, and usually the glandular parts, caus- ing them to swell. 96. Q. What is the best way of relieving inflamma- tory affections ? A. By bleeding either locally or generally, by blis- ters, exhibiting cathartics, diaphoretics, and a low diet. 97. Q. How is the colic distinguished from enteri lis! A. The colic is distinguished from enteritis by the peculiar twisting and occasional pain ; by the absence ■ f fever in the early part of thp disense : by the pain in PKACT1CE ul PHASIC 117 cuieritis being increased, in colic alleviated, by pres- 'ure; by the irregufar contraction of the abdominal muscles. 98. Ci. How is a diarrhoea distinguished from dy- sentery ? . A. Diarrhoea is distinguished from dysentery by being unattended either with fever, inflammation, con- tagion, or tenesmus ; by the appearance of the matter evacuated, which in one disease is feculent or mixed With alimentary matter, in the other mucal, sanguine- ous, or putrid. 99. Q,. How many species of diabetes are there ? A. There two species of diabetes, viz. diabetes met litus, and the diabetes insipidus. 100. Q. How is mania distinguished from phrenitis1 A. Mania is distinguished from phrenitis by tbe for- mer being without fever, which the latter never is. 101. Q. What is meant by anasarca ? A. Anasarca is a preternatural collection of serum or watery fluid in the cellular membrane of the whole or part of the body. 102. Q. What are the indications in the cure of scur- vy ? A. The indications in the cure of scurvy are; 1st, to correct the septic tendency of the fluids; 2d, to palli- ate urgent symptoms; 3d, to restore the tone of the solids. ' - 103. Q. What are the species of tympanites ? A. There are two species of tympanites, viz. tympani- tes abdominalis, or collection of air in the cavity of the peritonaeum ; and tympanites intestinalis, or collec- tion of air in the cavity of the intestines. 104. Ci. What are Dr. Cullen's species of paralysis? A. His species of paralysis are, 1st, paralysis parti- alis, or palsy of a certain muscle or set of muscles ; 2d, paralysis hemiplegia, or a total palsy of one side of the body; 3d, paralysis paraplegica, or a palsy of one half the body taken transversely; 4th, paralysis venenata, or palsy from poisons. 105. Q. How many species of catarrh are tlTere ? A. Two, viz. catarrhus a frigore, or common cold, -and catarrhus contagiosus, or the influenza. 11* I'RACllCl, UP PHY.-H 106. Q. What are the species of apoplexy 1. A. There are several; but the most useful distinc- tion iis into the sanguineous and the serous. 107. Q,. What are the indications of cure in dropsy ' A. To evacuate the fluid, and to prevent a second accumulation. 108. Q,. How many species of cholera are there ? A. Two, viz. cholera spontanea and cholera ac- cidentals. 109. Q,. What are the species of syncope 7 A. Three, viz. syncope accidentalis, syncope cardia- ''a, and syncope anginosa. 110. Q.. What are the indications of cure in catarrh ? A. To reduce the febrile action of the system, and to allay the irritation of the affected parts. 111. Q. How is synocha distinguished from typhus ? A. From typhus by the more sudden accession of the disease; by its arising from common causes, as sudden alterations of temperature; the application ot cold to a heated body; violent exercise, intemperance, &e, and not from contagion ; by the strength of the body not being diminished ; the hardness of tbe pulse ; the whiteness of the tongue ; and by the high colour of the urine. 112. Q. How is cynanche tonsillaris distinguished from cynanche maligna? A. By the fever, which in the former is inflamma- tory, in the latter typhoid, and by the absence of ul- ceration in cynanche tonsillaris. 113. Q,. How is rheumatism distinguished from po- dagra? A. By it generally attacking the larger joints; by ' the pain shifting its seat, and following the course of the muscles in its translation to other parts ; by the disease not having been preceded by symptoms of dyspepsia; by its occurring at any period of life, whereas gout is usually confined to the adult age. 114. Q. How is tympanites distinguished from as- cites ? A. .By the absence of fluctuation and of those symp- toms which characterize the hydropic diatheris- PRACTICE OF PilVSIC, 119 115. Q. What are the indications of treatment in intermittent fever ? A. In the first place, to evacuate thoroughly the stomach and bowels with a view of removing the' cause of disease ; secondly, to shorten the duration of the paroxysm ; and thirdly, to prevent its recurrence. 116. Q. How is the first indication to be accom- plished 7 A. By emetics and purgatives. 117. Q. In what stage of the disease are emetics most proper to be given ? A. A short time before the accession of the pa- roxysm. 118. Q,. What is the best emetic to be used .' A. Tartarized antimony and ipecacuanha combin- ed. 119. Q. How is the second indication of cure to be accomplished? A. In the cold stage, by the external application of heat and warm diluent drinks' and in the hot stage, by general antiphlogistic treatment. 120. Q. How is the third indication to be accom- plished ? A. By tonics. 121. Q. What tonics are best suited to this pur- pose ? A. Peruvian bark; sulphate ot quinine; Fowler's solution ; and the vegetable bitters generally. 122. Gl. What is the dose of sulphate of quinine? A. From one to two grains. 123- Q,. What is Fowler's solution 7 A. It is a solution of arsenic with sub-carbonate of potash. 124. Q,. What is the dose in which it is given 7 A. From five to ten drops. 125. Ci. Is opium ever-used in intermittent fever ? A. Given a short time before the paroxysm is ex- pected to come on, it frequently prevents its access. 126. Q, What are the symptoms of yellow fever? A. A slight rigorj succeeded by great heat, paiu in the forehead and over the eye-balls; in the back and I'M I'RACTtCL ui l'HVsit. the calves of the legs: oppression and heat about the praecordia, nau-ea and retching. The pulse is full and qnick, and soinctiuies natural; tongue moist with red edges; the eyes of a peculiar reddish tinge, and countenance looks depressed. After thirty-six or forty-eight hours these symptoms subside, and are soon followed by great prostration, increased nausea, vomiting of a dark flocculent matter with slate-colour- ed sediment, great pain in cpigastico, intolerable thirst, dark yellow suffusion over the face, neck, and breast: death. 127. Q. What is the usual duration of yellow fever? A. From three to seven days. 126. Q. What is black vomit? A. A haemorrhage from the villous coat of the stomach. > . 129. Q,. At what season of the year does yellow fever occur ? A. During the summer and autumn. 130. Q,. What effeot has frost upon the spread of yel low fever ? A It puts a stopt to it immediately. 131. C-i. How is yellow fever to be treated 7 A. During the first two days of the disease, if the pulse be full and hard, bleeding may be resorted to; after this purgatives; sudorifics; and blisters to the re- gion of the stomach. 132. Q. What are the effects of emetics in yellow fever > A. They always increase the irritability of the sto- mach, and thus invariably prove injurious 133. Q,. What are the symptoms of bilious remitting fever ? A. The symptoms resemble those of ordinary remit- tents, with the addition of great discharges of bile both upward and downward; and they are more apt to prove speedily fatal. 134. Q. What is the mode of treating it 7 A. If the pulse requires it, venesection; after this emetics, succeeded by purgatives and the antiphlogis- tic regimen. If the fever still continue, blisters, and calomel, so as to produce ptyalism. rilACTlCE OPPllAsK . 12) 135. Ci. In what seasons of the year, does typluis (ever occur ? A. At all seasons, but more especially during the autumn and winter. 136. Q. How is ophthalmia to be treated? A. By blood-letting, general and local; active purg ing; blisters to the neck, and sedative lotions to the eye. 137. Q,. What are the symptoms of phrenitis? A. Acute pain in the head; eyes red and painful; face flushed; great intolerance of light and sound; general inflammatory fever, delirium, coma and death. 138. Q. .What are the causes of phren tis 7 A. Injury to the brain from external violence; in- toxication ; great beat or cold; intense study; tbe sup- pression of habitual discharges. 139. Q. How is phrenitis to be treated? A. Copious venesection; purging; blisters, with strictest antiphlogistic regimen. 140. Q. How does phrenitis differ from mania? A. Mania is of longer duration, and unaccompanied by general fever. 141. Q. What are the different species of cynanche '! A. Cynanche tonsillaris—cynanche maligna—cy- nanche laryngaea—cynanche trachealis—cynanche parotidaea. 142. Ci. What are the symptoms of cynanche ma- ligna? A. Tumor and redness of the fauces, ending in ulce- ration and sloughing of 'he parts. The fever accom- panying it is of the typhoid character. 143. Q,. Is cynanche maligna contagious 7 A. It is generally believed to be so. 144. Q. How is cynanche maligna to be treated? A. By emetics; calomel blisters to the throat; and stimulating wild detergent gurgles. 145. Ci. What are the symptoms of cynanche laryn- gaea ? A. Pain about the larynx, hoarseness and slight red ness about the fauces, the epiglotfis frequently erected and swollen, the breathing difficult, great mental agi- ♦Ation. and the circulation much hurried I'J2 PRACTICE (U PJIYMl. 146. Q. What arc the causes of cynanche laryn- gaea 7 A. Cold is the principal exciting cause. 147. Q. How is cynanche laryngaea to be treated? A. By general antiphlogistic means. 148. Ci. In what patients does cynanche laryngaea generally occur? A- In adults. 149. Ci. At what period of life does cynanche tra- chealis or croup occur ? A. In infants, and youi.g persons under twelve years of age. 150. Q. What are the symptoms of croup? A. Difficulty of breathing, pain or uneasiness in (he region of the trachea; shrillness of voice, and a dry cough resembling the barking of a dog ; accompanied with general febrile symptoms. 151. Q,. What are the appearances on dissection in croup ? A- A preternatural membrane lining the whole of the trachea, and extending frequently into the bran- chiae. 162. Q. What are the causes of croup ? A. Cold and a variable atmosphere. 153. Q. How is croup to be treated ? A. By emetics; repeated venesection; blisters, and other antiphlogistic remedies. 154. Q,. How does Dr. Cullen define pneumonia ? A Pyrexia, pain in some part of the thorax, dysp- noea and cough. 155. Q. Into how many species is it divided ? A. Two—peripneumony and pleurisy. 156. Q,. What is the difference- between peripneu- mony and pleurisy ? A. Peripneumony is an inflammation of the paren- chematous substance of the lungs, characterized by deep-seated pain, cough, expectoration of mucous and bloody matter; general fever. Pleurisy is an inflam- mation of the membrane investing the lungs ; pain in 'he side ; pulse hard and frequent; cough dry. )'u Ci What are the causes of Pneumonia " I'RAtTtcE op piii»a. 12B A. Cold and moist-weather; violent exercise; vio- lent coughing; acrid vapours received into the lung3 ; certain other diseases of the lungs, and even of the abdomen 158. Q,. What is the treatment proper in pneumo nia? A. Blood-letting, free and repeated according to the circumstances of the case; nauseating medicines, as tartar emetic; blisters, and other antiphlogistic means. 159. Q. What is a stethoscope ? A. It is an instrument by which the chest can be examined to ascertain the existence of disease in it- It is cylindrical in form, composed of wood of a light loose texture, twelve inches in length, and four and a half in circumference. It is perforated through its mid- dle by a canal, lined with a brass tube, through which the sound is conveyed, and at the pectoral extremity it has a funnel-like excavation, which can be filled up By applying one end of this instrument to the thorax of a patient, and the other to the ear, so that its canal will be opposite to the meatus, and causing tbe patient to speak, the vibration of peculiar sounds, characteris- tic of morbid conditions of the lungs, is rendered an dible. 160. Q. What is tbe treatment proper in dysentery .' A. If the pulse is full and hard, and pain very ur- gent, blood should be drawn from the arm and leeches applied to the abdomen. Calomel should then be giv- en, combined with rhubarb, ipecacuanha or opium, and alternated with the use of castor oil or sulphate of magnesia, according to the symptoms which prevail. Barley water should be drank freely throughout the disease. 161. Q,. How would you ascertain whether dropsy is attended by an inflammatory state of the system or not? A. By subjecting the urine of a dropsical patient to the action of beat: if a coagulum appears in the urine, it is considered a test of inflammation, and de oletorv means are indicated, and vice versa 12 i'-il PKACXll i; OP rilVfjR. 162. Ci. What treatment has been found most sue cessful in hydrocephalus internus ? A. Before water is actually effused to any extent, the disease has been removed by large and repeated venesection, cathartics, blisters, and mercury given to the extent of inducing salivation. 163. Ci. How would you treat a case of cholera morbus ? A. Diluents to be freely given at first to assist in clearing out the stomach ; after this opiates and as- tringents, &c. 164. Q. What is the treatment proper in cholera infantum 7 A. Calomel alone, or in combination with ipecacu- anha, in small doses, so as to produce an alterative ef- fect ; where the bowels are too loose, opium must be interposed. In the latter stages, mild astringents and tonics may become necessary-. The warm batb, toge- ther with flannel next the skin, are proper. 165. Q,. To what diseases is the spleen subject ? A. To acute and chronic inflammation, and to schir- rus. 166. Q. How is diabetes to be treated? A. By the use of animal food and by tonics- 167. Q. What are the symptoms of angina pec- toris 7 A. An acute pain or stricture at the lower part of the sternum, great anxiety, violent palpitation of the heart, difficulty of breathing, and a sense of suffoca- tion. 168. Q,. What is the treatment of angina pectoris 7 A. Venesection, blisters, anodynes, a recumbent posture, and perfect quiet of mind and body. 169. Q,. How is scurvy to be treated 7 A. By the use of fresh vegetable diet, the free use of lemon juice, cleanliness and free ventilation, and tonics- nO. Q. How are cutaneous diseases divided bv Dr. Willan? y A. Into eight orders, viz. 1. papulae, (pimples); -' snttamae, (scales); 3. rxanthemata. (rashes); 4. PRACTICE OF PHVSIt. 12,. bullae; 6. pustulac, (pustules) ; 6. vesiculae, (vesi cles); 7. tubercula, (tubercles) ; 8. maculae, (spots). 171. Ci. How is the first order, papulae, described ? A. Papulae or pimples originate in an inflammation of the papillae of the skin, by which they are enlarg- ed, elevated, and indurated, and made to assume more or less ot a red colour. Sometimes even a slight ef- fusion of lymph takes place, which gives a vesicular appearance to several of the papulae ;, but the fluid is absorbed without breaking the cuticle, and they ter- minate for the most part in scurf. 17-2. U,. How many genera are included under this order ? A. Three, viz. 1. strophulus, (red gum, white gum of children); 2. lichen,—affects adults, and embraces tetters, ringworms, prickly hent, &c.; 3. prurigo. 173. Q,. How is the second order, squamae, defin- ed? A. Opaque or thickened laminae of the cuticle. called scales; commonly produced by some degree of inflammation of the true skin, over which they are formed; occasionally the cuticle alone, or with the rete mucosum, appears in a morbid state. 174. Q.. What are the genera under this order? A. 1. Lepra; 2. psoriasis; 3. pityriasis; 4. ichthy- osis. , , 175. Q, How is the third order, the exanthemata. defined ? . A. Patches of superficial redness of the skin, of va- rious extent and intensity, occasioned by an unusual determination of blood into the cutaneous vessels, sometimes with partial extravasation. Some are con- tagious, others not; some are always febrile, others not manifestly attended with fever; some continue for a definite time, others are of an uncertain dura- tion. 176. Q. What are the genera of this order ? A. 1 • Rubeola, (measles.); 2. scarlatina, (scarlet fe- ver) ; 3. urticaria, (nettle-rash) ; 4. roseola; 5. pur- ■pura; 6. erythema. 177. Q- How is the fourth order, bullae, descnb en"' 20 PilALXlCE OP Pill alt. A. Large and often irregular vesications, which dis charge a watery fluid when they break ; the excoriat- ed surface is sometimes covered with a flat yellowish or blackish scab, which remains till a new cuticle is formed underneath ; sometimes it is converted into an obstinate ulcer. 178. Q. What are tbi genera of this order ? A. 1. Erysipelas; i. pern Mgus ; 3. pompholyx. 179.. Q. How is the fifth order, pustulae defined 7 A. Pust iles, originating f om an i. flam mat ion of the skin, and the consequent (>a,iial effusion of puru- lent matter under the cuiicle, by which the latter is elevated into small circumscribed tumours; often ter- minatingin a scabby incrusialion. varying in hardness according to the various tenacity ot the contained flu- id ; and sometimes superficial ulceration : some con tagious, others not; some acute, others chronic. 180. Q. What are the genera of this order 7 A. 1. Impetigo; 2. porr,go; 3. ecthyma; 4. variolii (small pox) ; 6. scttbic , itch) 181. Q. How is the sixth order, vesiculae. defined .' A. They arc characterized by a small orbicular ele- vation of the cuticle, containing lymph, which is sometimes clear and colourless, but .,ften opaque and whitish or pearl-coloured. It is succeeded cither bv scurf, or by a laminated scab. 182. Ci. What are the genera of this order? A. 1. varicella, (chicken pox) ; 2. vacc:ma. (cow- pox) ; 3. Iwrpcs; 4. rupi ; o.'miliaria, 6. eczema- 7. aphtha. 183. Q. How is the seventh order, tubercula, de- fined 7 A. Tubercles, small, hard, superficial tumours .'ircimscribed and permanent, or suppurating par- 184. Q. What are the genera of this order 7 A. 1. Phisma; 2. verruca; 3. molli,si. What are the causes of haemorrhage, or flooding during labor? A. Flooding during labor may be owing to a partial separation of the placenta; to the attachment of the placenta to the cervix uteri; or to its retention after the birth of the child. Q,. How would you treat a case of labor complicat- ed with convulsions ? A. The treatment must depend upon circumstances: —It is generally necessary to bleed freely; to admi- nister cathartics, with enemata ; to shave the head and make cold applications to it. If the labor is progress- ing rapidly, trust to nature ; but if the pains are unfre- quenf. or inefficient,'" so soon as the head is within reach, deliver with the forceps. But if the danger to the mother should be increasing, and she appear to be sinking, the perforator must be resorted to. Q. Describe the method of applying the forceps and vectis. A. The forceps should never be applied unless the ear of the child can be felt. Then, having placed the patient on her left side, with the nates near the edge of the bed, pass the fore finger of the right hand to the child's ear, then with the left hand introduce one blade of the forceps, making the finger of the right the guide, and carry it forward over the ear; retaining the blade in this situation, in like manner introduce the other in the opposite side, bring the claws together and lock them. The extracting force should be gentle, and continued during the pains, until the object desired be attained. The vectis is applied in the same manner as a single blade of the forceps. Q. Describe the manner of using the perforator. A. The os tincae being fully dilated, the operator should place his finger over the point of the perfora- tor, and carry it forward until it reaches the head. Af- ter he has made an incision through the scalp, he must guard the instrument, to prevent it from slipping until he has drilled through the cranium, then enlarge the opening by drawing apart the handles. 128 MATERIA MEDICA. MATERIA MEDICA. 1. Q. Whence does ammoniacum come? A. Ammoniacum comes from the East Indies ; the plant which affords this substance is also said to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the interior of Egypt. 2. Ci. What are the virtues of ammoniacum ? A. The virtues of ammoniacum are stimulant, an- tispasmodic, and expectorant; its dose is from ten to thirty grains. Externally applied, it is supposed to soften and ripen hard tumours. 3. Q,. How many species of cinchona or Peruvian barks are there ? A. There are several species, but only three in ge- neral use, viz. cortex cinchonae cordifoliae, or yel- low bark;—cortex cinchonae lancifoliae, or common quilled bark ;—cortex cinchonae oblongifoliae, or red bark. 4. Q,. What are the virtues of cinchona bark? A. Tonic, antiseptic, and stomachic. 5. Q. What are the virtues of opium ? A. Narcotic, antispasmodic, and stimulant, or seda- tive, according to the dose which is administered. 6. Q,. What is the dose of digitalis ? A. From one to three grains in the form of powder 7. Ci. What are the virtues of aloes ? A. Cathartic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic. 8. Q,. What do you mean by cathartics ? A. Those medicines, which, when taken internally, increase the alvine evacuations. 9. Q,. What do you mean by emmenagogues ? A. Medicines which have the power of determin- ing blood to the uterus, either by their local irritation, or by their exciting the action of the system generally. 10. Q. What are diaphoretics? A. They are medicines which augment the insensi- ble perspiration. 11. Q. What are diuretics? MATERIA MEOIc.v. 124^ A. Those medicines which increase the secretion of urine. 12. Ci. What quantity of confectio opii of tbe Lon- don Pharmacopoeia contains one grain of opium ? A About Six-aud thirty grains. 13. U. What is meant by antispasmodics? A. Medicines which have the power of allaying or removing inordinate motion in the muscular sy.-tem. 14. vj. What medicines come under the class of an- tispasmodics? A. Moscluisl castoreum, oleum animale, petroleum ammonia, assafcetida, sagrtpeiium. galbanum, Valeria- na, oleum cajeputa, opium camphor, aether. 15. vi- What are tiie diseases in which arnica flow- ers have been eitUioited? A. Arnica flowers are given on the Continent, but seldom in this country, in para!) tic diseases, retention of the urine, amaurosis; m putrid diseases, in typhoid inflammations; in dysentery and diarrhoea, and to pro- mote the uterine discharge. 16. Ci. What are the virtues of acetum or vinegar ' A. Taken internally it acts as a refrigerant, pro motes diaphoresis, and is a pow'erful anti-narcotic ; it acts externally as a discutient, and is moderately sti- mulant and astringent. 17. Q- What are the virtues of sulphuric acid ? A. Sulphuric acid is a tonic, astrigent, and antisep tic. 18. Q,- What are the virtues ot arum? A. Arum is given as a stimulant, in cachectic cases supposed to arise from an accumulation «>f phlegm, and in some rtieumatic affections, in the dose ot ten or fifteen ^r.-.ins three times a day, in the tbi m of bolus. 19. Q. Wbatisineaiitbysialogogu.es? A. Those medicines which promote a discharge of saliva from the salivary glands. 20. Q. What are tonics? A. Medicines which give tone to the system or mus- cular fibre. 21. Q,. What medicines come under the class of tonics? 13U MATERIA MEUIC A . A. Peruvian bark; quassia; camomile; gentian, oak bark ; caltimba ; lesser centaury ; pomegranate ; cascarilla; wormwood ; southernwood ; tausy ; buck- bean ; elm bark; agrimony; ferrugineous prepara- tions; sulphat of copper; oxide of zinc : sulphat of zinc ; alum ; and most of the mineral acids. 22. Q What is the dose of confectio opii ? A. From five grains to half a drachm. 23. Q. In a fluid ounce of tbe liqlior antimonii tar- tarisati how muchantlmonium tartarisatum is contain- ed? A. Two grains. 24. Q. What quantity of mercury is contained in three grains of the pilula hydrargyri ? A. One grain. 25. Q,. How many kinds of aloes arc now used in medicine 7 A. Two; viz the extract of the aloes spicala, called Socotrine aloes, and the extract of the aloes vulgaris, called Barbadoes aloes. 26. Q. What is the dose of the nitras argenti .' A. From gr. fs. to gr. iij: it has been given in a much larger dose. 27- Q. What are expectorants ? A. Such medicines as promote the secretion from the lungs. 28. Q. What are stimulants ? A. Those medicines which increase the action of the nervous and vascular system. 29. Q. How much mercury is contained in two drachms of the unguentum hydrargyri fortius ? A. One drachm. 30. Q. What is musk 7 A. Musk appears to be a peculiar secretion, having certain properties, which is deposited in a small sac, situated near the umbilicus of the male mosch animal. 31. Q. In ten grains of the pulvis ipecacuanha: coni- positus how much opium is contained ? A. One grain. 32. Q. What is the dose of the oxidura hydrargyri rubrum » HA'i'EKlA MEOICA. 131" A. From half a grain to two grains. 33. Q,. What is the dose of the submurias hydrar syrf* . - , . A. From one to twelve grains, to act as a purga tive ; and from one eighth of a grain to one grain, tc act as an alterative. 34. Q,. What is meant by antiseptics ? A. Those medicines which are capable of resisting a tendency to putreiaction. 35. Q,. What are the substances that come under the class of antiseptics ? A. All the acids ; Peruvian bark: quassia : calumba ; wormwood; southernwood; alkohol ; aether; wine; seneka root; opium ; camphor. 36. Q. What is meant by anthelmintics ? A. Such substartces-as have the power of destroying worms. 37. Q- Enumerate the principal anthelmintics. A. Worm-seed ; tin-filings ; assafcetida ^ tansy ; In- dian pink ; male fern : tobacco ; cowitch : cabbage- tree bark ; savine ; aloes: camboge; hedge-hyssop ; ja- lap; castor oil; almond oil ; and most of the cathartics, 38. Q. In what part of the root of. the polygala sene- ga does the active part reside 7 A. The active part of the root of the polygala senega resides in the bark. 39. Q,. From what part of the world do we obtain the polygala senega ? A.'The polygala senega grows wild in North Ame- rica. 40. Q,. What is the name of the plant that affords the radix bistorta ? A. Polygonum bistorta. 41. Q. What do you mean by alteratives 7 A. Alteratives are those medicines which so change the state of the solids and fluids as to effect the cure of a disease without producing any evacuation, or sud- denly influencing the animal functions. 42. Q. What are astringents ? A. They are medicines which have the power of ronstringing the animal fibre. I3-J AlATERIA MEHICA. 43. (i. What are {he substances that come under this class? A. Alum ; superacetate of lead; preparations of iron; Opium; logwood; oak-bar*; pomegranate ; galls; tor- mentil; siinarouba, red roses; balaustine flowers; rhu- barb in small doses; catechu; oxide of zinc; acetate of zinc; sulphat of copper; sulphuric acid; the cat careous earths; and bistort. 44. Q,. What are the virtues of thenitras argenti I A. It is used externally as an escbaroiic ; internally it is given as an antispasmodic in epilepsy and chorea Sancti Viti. 45 Ci. What are the virtues of the antimonium tar tarisatum 7 A. It acts as a diaphoretic in the dose of one eighth of a grain to one grain, and as an emetic from one grain to six. 46. Q,. In cases where poison has been taken, what emetic would you select ? A. The sulphat of zinc, as it is more speedy in u> operation than most of the other emetics. 47. Q What are the virtues and dose of the pulvi- ipecacuanhae compositus ? A. It is given as a diaphoretic from four grains to a scruple. 48. Q. What are the virtues of myrrh 1 A. Myrrh is given internally as a stimulant; it occa- sions a mild diaphoresis, and promotes the fluid secre- tions in general: it proves serviceable in cachectic dis- eases, arising from innctivity of the system; it acts al- so on the uterine system, and resists putrefaction. 49. Q,. What is the systematic name of the tree that affords the chian turpentine ? A. It is called Pistacbia terebinthus, and it grow: abundantly in the islands of Chios and Cyprus. 60. Q. What are the virtues of the sulphuretum hy- drargyri rubrum ? A. It is given as an alterative from two grains to a scruple; and it is also used to fumigate venereal ulcers of the throat and other parts. 51. Q. What are the virtues of the acetas potass* <• MATERIA MEDICA. 133 A. It is given as a diuretic and purgative from ten grains to three drachms 52. Q,. What are the virtues of the f artras potassae ? A. It is given as a purgative from a.scruple to three drachms. 53. Q. What are the virtues of the pulvis antimo- nialis? A. It is given as an alterative and diaphoretic from three grains to fifteen. 54. Q. What is the dose of the oxy-murias hydrar- gyri ? , A. From the sixteenth part of a grain to half a grain. 55- Q What are styptics ? A. They are medicines which possess a power of stopping haemorrhages. 56 Q. What is meant by errhines 7 A Those medicines which, when applied to the membrane of the nose, excite sneezing, and increase the secretion therefrom. 57 Q,. What do ydu mean by epispastics ? A. Substances which blister the skin, that is, which increase the action of the .vessels of those parts of the body to which they are applied, producing an afflux of fluid there, and a collection of serum between the cu- ticle and cutis. 58. Q. What is catechu ? A. A reddish-brown substance of an astringent taste, prepared in India by boiling the wood of the acacia catechu, and evaporating the decoction by the heat of the sun. • 59. Q. What are the virtues of juniper oil ? A. Juniper oil is ^.iven internally as a stimulant, car- .ninative, diaphoretic, and diuretic. 60. Q What are the virtues of gum acacia ? A. Gum acacia is exhibited internally as a muci- laginous demulcent and astringent; and is employed in diarrhoea, dysentery, chincough, hoarseness, stran- gury, &c It is also used to give form to some remet lies, and correct the acrimony of others. 61. Q, What is the medical use of elaterium ? \. Flaterium. in a few grains, operates as a drastic 134 MATERIA MKDK \. ctithartin, and emetic, and is extremely useful in droji -y of the chest and belly. 62. What is scammony ? A. A. concrete gummi-resinous juice, of a light gray colour, and rather an unpleasant sintll and bit- terish sub-acid taste, brought from Aleppo and Smyr- na. L exudes from the cut root of the Convolvulus scammonia. 63 Q: What ismvrrh? A. A substance of a"black-red colour, solid and hea- vy, of a peculiar smell and bitter taste, brought from Arabia. 64. Q. What is ipecacuanha? A- A small root wrinkled aud contorted, of a grayish or ash colour, of a bitter sub-acid taste, and very little smell, the produce of the Callicocca ipecacuanha. growing in South America. 65. Q. What is camphor ? A. A substance which is white and pellucid, some- what unctuous to the touch, of a bitterish, aromatic. acrid taste ; of a fragrant smell, TesembLng that of rosemary : it is found in concrete lumps between the bark in the interstices of the wood and pith of the Laurus camphora, which grows in Japan; it undergoes two sublimations before we receive it in England. 66. Q. Is camphor the produce of one tree only ? A. No : camphor is obtained from the Laurus cam- phora, but it is contained ip many plants, especially those of the aromatic kind : besides which it is often deposited from some essential oils that have been long kept. 67. Q, From whence do wTe obtain opium, and what is the name of the plant that affords it ? A- It is obtained from Persia, Arabia, and Turkey, where incisions are made into the capsule or head of the Papaversomniferum; the jdice flows, and becomes concrete by the heat of the sun. 68. Q. What is the character of bad opium? A. Opium is regarded as bad when it is either very soft or friable, of an intensely black colour, or mixed with anv impurities MATERIA MEDICA. • 1 .{,"* 69, Ci. Are you obliged to give a larger quantity oi Turkey than Indian opium to produce the same narco- ric effect? A. The Turkey opium is the best, consequently a smaller dose will be sufficient to produce the same ef- fect as a larger dose of the other 70. Q,. Does the~ Papaver somniferum afford any other officinal preparations besides opium ? A. There are two preparations made from the cap- sules of the white poppy, besides opium, viz. the sy- rupus papaveri's, and the extractuai papaveris. 71. Q. What are the officinal preparations of opium ? A. The preparations of opium are, the pilula sapo- nis-cum opio, pulvis opiatiis, tinctiira opii, tiiictura camphorae composita, pulvis ipecacuanhae composi- tits, confectio opii, and the pulvis cretae compositus. 72. Q. What is considered to be the narcotic prin- ciple of opium ? A. According to Stcrtuerncr an alkaline salt, which he has ca led morphia 73. Q. What animal affords castor, and what part of the animal does it form ? A. The animal that affords this substance is the cas- tor fiber, which inhabits the northern countries of Europe and America: the substance so called is found in two bags, situated in the inguinal regions of the male beaver, distinct from tbe testes. 74. Q. What is quassia ? A. A wood afforded by the Quassia excelsa, which grows abundantly at Surinam 76. Q. What plant affords the jalap root? A. The Convolvulus jalapa, which grows in Soutii America. 76. Q. From whence do we obtain cetaceum? A. From the head of the Physeter macrocephalus, a species of whale that inhabits the northern seas. 77. Q. What are the virtues of linseed, and#what plant affords it ? A. The virtues of linseed are emollient and demul- cent ; it is used in cataplasms. The infusion is much given ns a pectoral drink, in ardor urinae and nephri- m2 ISO • MAlElilA MEDICA. lie pains. The plant that affords linseed is called L. num usitatissimum. 78. Q. What are the virtues of willow bark ? A. Tonic and astringent: it has been given as a sub- stitute for cinchona 79. Q. What are the virtues of soap ? A. Soap is considered as a purgative and lithontrip- tic ; it is given in habitual costivetiess. jaundice, cal- culous cases ; and is also regarded as an antidote in decomposing some metallic poisons when taken into the stomach. 80. Q.' What are the virtues of the different kinds of tiirpei.tines? A They are all of them stimulant, cathartic, diure- tic, and anthelmintic, and externally they are rubefa- cient. . ' 81. Q. What preparation does the Pinus sylveslri^ afford ? A. Common turpentine, oil of turpentine, resin, black pitch, and tar. 82. Q,. What is the name of the tree that afford^ the Venice turpentine ? A. The larch or Pinus larix. 83. Q. What turpentine does the Pinus balsamea afford ? A. The Canada turpentine. 84 Q. What does the Pinus abies afford ? A. Thus, or abietis resina; and Burgundy pitch. 85. Q,. What are the virtues of carbonic acid ? A. It has been used with success in the cure of ty- phus, and is of great service.in irritability and weak- ness of the stomach producing vomiting: it is also used externally, as an antiseptic. 86. Q. What is the dose of sulphate of quinine ? A. From one to two grains. 87. Q,. What is the black drop, and what its dose ? A. \f. is-a combination of a vegetable acid (the citric or acetic) with opium, by which a salt of morphium, an alkali contained in opium, is obtained. It - medium dose is ten drops. 88. Q. What are the virtues of the croton tiglium? MATERIA MEDICA. - 137 A. Purgative even in the small quantity of a single ,lrop 89. Ci. What is ergot ? - A. It is the diseased seed of tbe rye, called spurred rye; of a black colour externally, light and brittle in -textur.-, a;id long a,id cylindrical in its form, and gene- rallv curved. ,_ 90. ti, What is its most remarkable effect on the sy6tem 7 _. A- To increase the force of the uterine contractions, and hasten the delivery of the child. 91. Ci- VVliat are the circumstances which should re- gulate its use " '. A. The oslincae should be diluted; the soft parts somewhat relaxed, and there should be no malforma- tion. 92. Q,. In what doses is it administered ? A. From ten grains to half a drachm in decoction, to be repeated if necessary 138 CHEMISTRY .WO MIARMAi \ CHEMISTRY AND PHARSfACY. 1. Q. What is meant by effervescence ? A. Effervescence is the escape of a,gas which is se- parated during the action of bodies on each other. 2. Q, How is distillation performed 7 A. Distillation is performed in three ways : 1st, per ascensum ; 2d, per descensum ; 3d, per lattis. 3..Q. Explain the three methods, and the apparatus made use of. A. The distillation per ascensum is performed gene- rally with (he common still, which has affixed to it a head and refrigeratory. The still is for the purpose of containing the materials to he distilled; the head for the vapour to a-cend. From the head a tube i$ con- tinued in a circular manner through a tub of cold wa- ter : this last constitutes the refrigeratory ; the use of which is to condense the vapour into a fluid^by ab- stracting heat.—Distillation per descensum is perform- ed in the following way: a perforated tinned iron plate is fixed within any convenient vessel, so as to leave a space beneath it; on this the substance to be distilled is laid, and over it is placed another plate, accurately closing the mouth of the vessel, and strong enough to bear the fuel. The heat is thus a, plied at top. and the vapour is forced to descend into the inferior cavity. wheie it is condensed.—Distillation per latus is per- formed in a letortwith a receiver , the fluid to be dis- tilled is introduced into the body of the retort, the re- ceiver is then adjusted, Hud heat is applied to the re- tort ; the fluid is thus raised to a state of vapour, that becomes condensed into a fluid, which runs down the side of'the neck into (he receiver. 4. Q. What is the composition of the vinegar of commerce 7 . A. The vinegar of commerce contains, besides the pore acetic acid, a quantity of water, tartaric acid, tar- CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY. 139 "rate of potash, mucilaginous matters, and sometimes phosphoric.acidi 5. Q. How do we get alkohol ? A Alkohol is produced by distillation from wine and vegetable infusions that.have undergone the spiri- tuous fermentation. 6 Q. What is meant, by solution? A. Solution is the diminution of the aggregation of a solid So as to cnuse it to lose the solid form, and to enter into chemical Combination with a fluid. 7. Q,. What is the difference between infusion and decoction ? ■ , A. Infusion consists in pouring upon any substance a cold or hot menstruum, and suffering it to stand a certain time, and then straining it off. Decoction con- sists in boiling the substance with the menstruum, and then strainingoff. - • 8. Q What is meant by precipitation ? A. That process by which a solid is obtained from a solution. 9. Q. What substances are generally used to de- prive rectified spirit of its water? A. The sub-carbonate of potash has been used; but muriate of lime is thought preferable, because its af- finity for Water is not only very great, but, by being soluble in alkohol, it comes in contact wjth every par- ticle of the fluid. 10. Ci- In what respects does crystallization differ from precipitation ? A. Only that the particles in the solvend, on sepa- rating from the solution, assume Certain determinate arrangements- 11. Q,. To what is the transparency of crystals ow- ing? '...'.■ A. To a quantity of water that they hold, which is called water of crystallization. 12. Q. When crystals part with their water of cry? Tnllization, what are they said to do ? A. To effloresce. 13. Q.. What is meant by deliquescence ? * It is a term given to express a property in some 140 CHEMISIKV ASB *HABMAC\. =alts by which they absorb the moisture of the attnos pbere, and become -fluid. 14 Q. What is meant by attraction ? A. A term given to denote the power by which bodies unite with each other, or remain in contact with each other until ;• superior force is> exerted to se- parate them. 15. Q. What sthe difference between attraction of aggregation or cohesion, and chemical attraction or affinity A. Attraction of aggregation denotes that power which is exerted between particles of a similar nature, as those of mercury, glass, wood, &c. On the con- trary, chemical attraction denotes the power exerted between particles of a dissimilar nature, as salt and water, -muriatic acid and sodq, nitric acid and potash. &c. 16. Q. How many kinds of affinity are there 7 A Affinity is divided into : 1. affinity of aggrega- tion ; 2. compound affinity; 3. simple affinity; 4. double affinity; 5- divellent affinity; 6. quiescen; affinity; 7- intermediate affinity; and 8. reciprocal affinity. 17. Q What is meant by repulsion ? A. It is a peculiar property, inherent in the particles of matter, by which they have a constant tendency to recede from each other. 18. Q,. What is the result of a chemical combina- tion ? A A new substance is formed, in which the par- ticles combined have assumed new properties. 19. Q. What do you mean by the term salt 7 A. By salt is meant a combination of an acid with an alkali, an earth, or a metallic oxide. 20. Ci. What is understood by neutral salts .' A. Where there is no «x"cpss either of acid or base. the salt formed is called a neutral salt. • 21. Q When a compound is resolved into its consti tuent parts, what process is it said to have tinder gone? V The process of analysis. LHEMJSTRY AiVU PHARMACY. 141 J.-Z. Q. How is the analysis of compounds effected P A. Either by the power of heat, or by the power pf a superior affinity. 23. Q. Which is heaviest, platinum or gold ? A. Platinum is the heaviest. 24. Q. What gives the peculiar character to mineral Waters? A. Mineral waters derive their peculiarity of cha- racter in general, either from containing carbonic acid or soda not neutralized, sulphuretted hydrogen, purg- ing salts, earthy salts, or iron, or from the temperature exceeding in a greater or less degree that of the atmos- phere. . 25. Q,. What is meant by synthesis I A The formation of a compound (possessing new properties) by the combination of two or more simple substances. 26. Q. What is caloric ? _ A. A substance, the evolutian of which produce? the sensation of heat 7 27 Q. How many sources of caloric are there ? A There are six sources which afford caloric;—1 the rays of the sun ;-2. combustion v-3. percussion; —4. friction;—5. the mixture of difterent substances : and 6. electricity and galvanism. - 28. Q. What-is the difference betweeu latent and sensible caloric ? . . , . . A Latent calorio i> that which exists in bodies, and makes no sensible addition to their temperature. Sen sible caloric is the matter of heat disengaged, and is denoted by an increase of temperature. , 29. Q, What are the general effects of caloric upon A 1st, Substances are expanded, and thus increase in bulk bv their combination with caloric (excepting abirnina, which is contracted), 2d, It is the cause ot fluidity. 3d, It produces vaporization. 4th, It eflects ignition; and its combination with some substances is said to be the cause of their elasticity. 30. Q. What is oxygen '. '«.„i0nr A. The acidifying principle ; a peculiar M™™*' cs<=. invisible, and clastic: it supports life and flame 142 CHEMISTRY A.NJtl Jr"HAl. >1AC 1 31. Q.. When oxygen enters into combination, wli-i are the classes of compounds that it forms ? A. .Two classes ; viz. oxides and acids. 3,>. .&. What is an oxide? A A metal, or a combustible, combined with oxy- gen, that does not possess acid properties* . 33, y. What are the properties of In drogen'7 - A. It is an invisible elastic gas, which.has a peculiar smell, extinguishes flame, burirsin contact witli oxy- gen, explodes when mixed wjth oxygen, and is about twelve times lighter than common air. . 34. Q.- What'are the compounds fof hydrogen f> A. Sulphurated, phosphorated/and carbonated hy- drogen gas. ^ 35. Q,. What are the purging Falls usually contain- ed in mineral waters? - A. The purging salts usually/oiind in mineral wa- ters are, muriate of magnesia, of soda, of lime-, and ' the sulphates of soda and magnesia. .36. Q. To what is the sparkling 6f mineral waters owing? A. ft is owing to the carbonic acid which they con- tain. 37. Q. What is the composition of water"?' A. Oxygen and hydrogen in chemical combination. 38. Q. What is meant by a hydrate I A. A combination of water with a salt or other sub- stance ; the crystals are. hydrates, and the sulphur praecipitatym is an hydrate of sulphur. ■/„" ' 39. Q. What is nitrogen ? - A. An elastic, invisible gas, exceedingly irrespira- ble, and which extinguishes flame." 40. Q. What are the compounds of,-nitrogen ? A. In a state of mechapical combination with oxy- gen, it forms atmospheric air; and when chemically combined with different proportions of oxygen, it forms two oxides and one acid, viz. nitrons ooiide, or gaseous oxide of azot; nitric oxide, which possesses a greater proportion of oxygen than the preceding; and nitric acid, which is fully saturated with oxygen. 41. Q. How is it that nitrogen, which Is injurious OlfEMlSTRV AiVD JPHAKMACV. 14b" to animal life, should be present in such large quanti lies in the atmosphere ? A. Nitrogen gas has the effect of neutralizing, in -ome degree, the properties of oxygen gas, and ren- dering it fit for respiration and combustion. 42. Q. What are the component parts of atmosphe- ric air 7 A. Atmospheric air is chiefly composed of oxygen; nitrogen, and carbonic ficid ? , 43. Q. How is a combination of a combustible with a me at or an earth designated ? A. The combustible is terminated by the syllable ttrel, but the metal or earth retains its original name : for example, if sulphur and lime were combined, it would be called sulphur^ of lime; phosphorus and and iron, phosphi/reiof iron; and so forth. 44. Q,. What is phosphorus ? A. A very inflammable substance, of a white semi transparent colour, and of the consistency of wax. 45. Q,. What are the compounds <>f phosphorus? A. It combines with certain combustibles, earths, and metals, formins: phosphurets ; it forms an oxide, and two acids, viz. the phosphorous acid andthephos phoiic acid. 46. (i- In what does pure carbon exist ? .' A. The diamond is pure carbon. 47. Q,. What is charcoal. . A. An oxide of carbon. 48. Q.. What are the other compounds of carbon ? A. Gaseous carbonic oxide, carbonic gas, and the • carburetted hydrogen gas. 49. d. How would you exhibit carbonic acid gas internally ? A. Either by the saline draught in the state of effer- vescence, or by giving yeast mixed up in a convenient vehicle, or by the double soda water. 50. Q. What is sulphur? A. A simple inflammable substance. 51. Q. From what kingdom of nature do we obtain sulphur ? \. From the mineral kingdom. It is found in va- I 11 CHEM1:>1 IS. V A.M1 I'M ARM Ac v rious forms; in a native state, mixed with gypsum aim limestone ; it is also thrown out from volcanoes, arid it is found combined with several metals : sulphur like wise exists both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms 52. Q. What are the preparations of sulphur direct- ed by the London Pharmacopoeia ? A. Sulphur lotum, sulphur praecipitatum, oleum sul phuratum, and sulphuretum potassae. 53. Q. How is the sulphur praecipitatum made ? A. By boiling quick lime, sulphur, and water, toge ther for a certain time ; filtering the solution, and add- ing muriatic acid in order to throw down the sulphur which is separated and washed. 54. Ci. What takes place during this operation ? A. During the boiling the sulphur combines with h portion of hydrogen from the water; it afterwards unites itself to the lime, forming an hydroguretted sul phuret of lime ; this is held in solution by the water. and passes through the filter: upon the addition of mu- riatic acid, the muriatic acid combines with the lime the hydrogen is evolved from the sulphur, and the sul phur is precipitated. 55. Q. To what is the pale colour of sulphur praeci pilatum owing ? 'A The pale colour of the sulphur praecipitatum is said by ?ome to be owing.to its more minute division : but by Dr. Thomson it is suppi-sed to be caused by its containing a little water. 56 Q,. When sub carbonate of potash is made to unite with sulphur by means of fusion, what takes place ? A. When the combination takes place, the carbonic acid is expelled. 57. Q. In what respects do the sulphur lotum and the sulphur praecipitatum differ from the sulphur subli- matum ? A. The sulphur sublimatum contains a small portion of sulphuric acid ; the other preparations are free from this acid, and are considered to hold a portion of wa- ter in a state of chemical combination: they are there fore hydrates of sulphur. i HEMlSTRY AND PHARMACY'. 145 .m. Ci. What combinations does sulphur form with oxygen ' A. It forms an oxide, the sulphureous acid, and the sulphuric acid. - 59. Q. Are there any other compounds of sulphur ? A. Yes ; it combines with hydrogen, phosphorus, 'he metals, the earths, and alkalis. 60. Q When sulphur is dissolved in hydrogen gas, what does it form 7 A. A fetid elastic gas is formed somewhat heavier than atmospheric air, called sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which is soluble in water. 61. Q. What are the properties of sulphuretted hy- drogen ? A. Sulphuretted hydrogen has many of the charac- ters of an acid : it combines with earths, alkalis, and several metallic oxides, and forms compounds which are Called hydro-sulphurets. 62. Q. Is sulphuretted hydrogen used in medicine ? A. Yes; in ihe form of medicinal waters : those of Harrowgate, Aix-la-Chapelle, arid others of a similar nature, owe their virtues to sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 63. Q,. If sulphur is burnt in oxygen gas, what acid will be formed ? A. Sulphuric acid. 64. Q. What are the properties of sulphuric acid ?• A. It is very ponderous and corrosive, is destitute of colour and smell, and has a very acid taste; it has a great attraction for water, and combines with earths alkalis, and metallic oxides, 65. Q. What are acids ? . A. They are substances of a sour taste, possessing a power of changing vegetable blues to red, and of com- bining with earths, metals, and alkalis. 66. Q. What does an acid consist of ? A. An acid consists of a base or bases Combined with oxygen ; the base is called the acidifiable principle, and the oxygen the acidifying principle. 67. Q,. How do chemist's distinguish the acids ac- cording to the proportion of oxygen with which they n'p combine !' i4tf CHEMISTRY YZVD l'HARMAi \ . A. If an acid basisisperfectly saturated with ox>^t_i the acid produced is said to be perfect, and is distin guished in Ehglish by the syllable ic, as, sulphurinacid ; but if the base predominates, the acid is considered as imperfect, and is distinguished by the English ous, as. sulphurous acidV When an acid has an excess of oxy gen, it is called oxygenated, and hyper-oxygenated. 68. Q. What are the acids employed medicinally ? A. The acetic, tartaric, citric, benzoic, carbonic, bo- racic, muriatic, nitric, sulphuric, phosphoric, succinic. 69 Q.. How is benzoic acid made .' A. A quantity of gum benzoin and lime is rubbed together and boiled with a quantity of Water/or half an hour ; it is then filtered, and to the solution muria- tic acid is added, as long as any precipitate is formed ; the precipitate is then collected and dried, to undergo the process of sublimation. 70. Q,. What is tbe theory of the formation of ben zoic acid in this way ? A. The lime during the boiling takesthe benzoic acid from the gum benzoin ; the benzoate of lime, thus form- ed is held in solution by the water; upon tbe addition of muriatic acid, the lime abandons the benzoic acid to combine with tie muriatic acid; the benzoic acid, from its insolubility, is precipitated, and the muriate of lime remains in the solution. 71. Ci. How is citric acid made ? A A quantity of le.nvin-juice is made boiling hot. and a sufficient'quantity of prepared, chalk is added until it is saturated : the powder that forms is to be washed and dried] dilute sulpl.u-ic acid is then to be boiled upon the powder; the fluid is next filtered off anu>v::p<>rated with a entle heat, so thaf crystals may form as it cools. The crystals are further purified by repeatcd,cystalliziition. 72. Ql .How is the formation of citric acid effectci! as directed by the" London College ? A. When the lemon-juice and prepared chalk an mixed together, the citric acid and lime combine, while the carbonic acid escapes in effervescence : the citrate •f lime is decompo-ed by the sulphuric acid which i« i IIK311- II{ V AMI PHARMACY. 14* nided, for it takes to.the lime, and sets the citric acid ot liberty. - 73. (i. How is the strength of muriatic acid ascer tained? A. Half an ounce of limestone should.be dissolved. in a fluid ounce of muriatic acid. 74. Q. What salt is taken into the stomach when the Common saline draught is given ? A. The citrate of potash. ~5. Q In.what respects do the nitric and nitrous acids differ ? A. The nitrous acid holds in solution a quantity of nitric oxide, which is continually escaping; this gas s;ives the acid an orange colour, and is the cause of its fuming : the nitric acid is colourless, and does not evolve nitric oxide. 7(3. Q. I low is muriatic acid made ? A. A quantity of sulphuric acid diluted with water is put into a glass retort: to this is added a quantity of muriate of soda ; one third of the water directed to be used is put into the receiver, to absorb a quantity of gas that may be suddenly evolved ; the receiver is then uted to the retort, anil the muriatic acid is distilled over by the heat of a sand-bath. 77. Q. What is the new name given to oxy-muriatic ncid ? A. Sir Humphry Davy has given it the name of chlorine, from its yellowish green colour. 78. Q. What are the discoveries that Sir H. Davy has made with respect to muriatic acid and oxy-muriatic acid ? A. He asserts that the muriatic acid consists of hy- drogen and chlorine, and that chlorine or oxy-muriatic acid is a simple undecomposable substance. 79. Q,. If this be true, what becomes of the oxygen which the black oxide of manganese appears to give to 1 lie muriatic acid in making of chlorine ? A. The oxygen decomposes the muriatic acid, ab- -orbs its hydrogen, and forms water. 80. Q. In the formation of muriatic acid, what arc ho decompositions and combinations ? n2 14?* < Hfc.Mlft'RY AM) PHARMACY. A. The muriate of soda is decomposed by the &ul phurlc acid, which combines with the soda: the mgriu tic acid, thus let loose in the state of gas, is dissolved by the water. 81 Ci- What salt remains after the distillation of mu riatic acid ' A. Tbe residuum in the retort consists principally of s.ilpi.atc of soda. 82. U.. In what state does muriatic acid exist when deprived of its water 7 A. When muriatic acid is deprived of water, it exists in the state of gas. .83. Q Does .nitric acid absorb humidity, or not? A. Nitric acid has a great affinity for humidity, for i' attracts the water from the atmosphere. 84. U What vapour is used by the French chemists to destroy contagion ? A. The vapour of the oxy-muriatic acid. 85. Q,. How is nitric acid made? A. Kqual parts of dried nitrate of potash and sul phuric acid are put into a glass retort; distillation is then Jo be carried on in a sand-bath until a red va- pour arises: the nitric acid that'is distilled over is to be re-distilled from a fresh portion of dried nitrate of potash. 86. Q,. In making nitric acid, what tabes place ? A. Tbe sulphuric acid combines with the potash of the nitrate of potass, forming sulphat ot potash, and the nitric acid is distilled over. 87. Q. How is boracic acid obtained .' A. By ad.ling sulphuric acid to a hot solution of borax: 'his combines >\ith the soda of the borax forming sulpbai of soda, and th ■ boracic acid is crys- tallized upon the solution cooling. 88. C^. How is the oxy-muriatic acid obtained? A. It is obtained ro.u a mixture of muriate of soda, black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric acid. 89 Q. Why is the oxy-muriatic acid required to be kept in the dark ? A. Because it decomposes the water by the agencv •.flight; that is it is resolved into muriatic acid HKMISTRY All) PHARMACY. 149 JO. Ci. Has this acid the property of changing vege- table blues to a red 7 A. No: if deprives vegetable subsfances of colour hence its utility in bleaching 91. Q.. What i- the composition of nitric acid ? A. Oxygen and nitrogen. 92. Ci. What are the properties of phosphorous acid ? A. Phosphorous acid is a white fluid of an oily ap- pearauce: it has a fetid odour ami disagreeable taste ; it gives out a thick white smoke and vivid flame, when strongly heated ; and it is decomposed by ignited char- coal. 93. Q WhP.t compound of- phosphoric acid is used in medicine ? A. The officinal preparation of phosphoric acid is phosphate of soda, or the combination of phosphoric acid and soda. 94. Q. What is the composition of pbospborie acid ' A. Phosphorus and Oxygen. 95. Ci. In what state do we obtain hyper-oxymuria- tic acid ? A. Combined with an alkaline base ; as forming the hyper-oxymuriate of potash. This is the only state in which it exists. 96 Q,. What is the composition of carbonic acid ? A. Carbon and oxygen. By heating potassium or the metal of potash in carbonic acid, the potassium combines with the oxygen of the carbonic acid, and charcoal, or oxide of carbon, is deposited. 97. Q,. What are the acids that have not hitherto been decomposed 7 A. The fluoric acid, and the boracic acid. 98. Q.. What is the composition of the vegetable acids ? A. Varied proportions of carbon and hydrogen aci- dified by oxygen. 99. Q. What are alkalis 7 A. They are substances that possess an acrid taste, * and a urinous smell; they convert most vegetable blues to a green, and they render oils miscible with water \.'>0 i HbMlst'lH A.M» t'H.VKMM V. 100. Q. What is the composition of the alkalis ' A. A metal and oxygen. 101. Ci. What is the general distinction of alkalis A. Into fixed and volatile: they arc also distinguished into vegetable alkali, or potash ; mineral nlkali.orsoda ; and volatile alkali, or ammonia. Potash and soda arc considered as fixed alkalis, because they are not volatiliz- ed but by a very intense heat; whereas ammonia, which is the volatile alkali, requires only the temperature of the atmosphere to change its state of aggregation. 102. Q.. How is the potash of commerce obtained? A. From the lixivium of wood ashes:—the ashes of all wood afford this alkali, but the harder woods most abundantly. Another method of obtaining potash is by burning the impure tartar of commerce, and lixivi- ating it. 103. Q. How are salts distinguished according (o the quantity of acid they contain '. A- If the salt should contain an excess of acid, the preposition super is prefixed to its name ; and when the acid contained is not sufficient to saturate the base. the preposition sub is added: thus we have super-sul phat and sub-sulphat of mercury. 104. Q. How is the sub carbonas" potnssae obtain- ed? A. By mixing a quantity of impure potash of com- merce with a stated quantity of "water; by boiling these for a certain time, filtering tbe solution, and finally evaporating the water from the suit, while stir ing it. 105. Q,. How are the extraneous or more crystalliz able salts of the impure potash -got rid of? A: Sub-carbonate of pot; sh being very soluble in water in comparison to the extraneous salts contained in impure potash, an"advantage is taken of this, for only a sufficient quantity of water is added to dissolve the sub carbonates; the extraneous salts therefore, not being dissolved, remain upon the filter. They * consist chiefly of sulphat of potash, muriate of potash, with a quantity of earthy impurities. 106. Q. What is the difference between sal tartari, sal absinthii. and sub-carbonas potassae ' CHKMISTRY AND PHARMACY. Li)\ A. Very little difference, excepting in the proportion of carbonic acid with which they are combined: they are all sub-carbonates of potash, but are differently ob- tained. . 107. Q. What are the preparations of potash direct- ed to be used by the London College ? A. Acetas potassae, sulphas potassae, super-sulphas potassae, tartras potassae, sub-carbonas potassae, car- bonas potassae, liquor sub-carbonatis potassae, liquor potassae, potassa fusa, potassa cum calce. 108. Ci. What nitrates are used in medicine 7 A. The nitrates used in medicine are the nitrate of potash and the nitrate of silver. 109. Q. How are the nitrates known ? A. The nitrates yield oxygen, they give out a white vapour when acted on by sulphuric acid, and when mixed with combustible substances, produce, at a red heat, detonation or inflammation,. 110. Q. How would you know the muriates ? A. The muriates, when acted upon by concentrated sulphuric acid, yield muriatic acid in the form of va- pour. 111. Q. How are the carbonates known ? A. They are decomposed by all the acids, produc- ing an effervescence : and they preserve their alkaline properties in some degree. 112. Q,. What carbonates are used in medicine ? A. Tlic carbonates used in medicine nre, carbonate of barytes, carbonate of lime, of magcesia, of potash, of soda, of ammonia, of zinc, a.id of iron. 113. Q. H >w is the potassa fusa obtained? A. By evaporating the water from the liquor potas- sae, melting the salt, and casting it into propermoulds. Ill Q. How1 is tlie liquor potassae made-? A. By putting together sub-carbonate of potash quick lime, and hot water, suffering them to remain a length of time, then filtering. 115- Ci. Why is the lime added ? A. To abstract the carbonic acid from the sub-car- bonate of potash. llrt. Q What is the composition of rremor tartari? l.'lX! i lir.MIM'HV A\l> 1M1ARMAI \- A. It is a super-tart rate of potash ; that i.-, p'.tn- combined with an excess of tartaric acid. 117. Ci. How is the tartras potassae made ? A. It is made by adding a quantity of sub-carbonati of potash to a quantity of super-tartrate of potash dis- solved in water, evaporating to a certain extent, anil crystallizing the salt. 118. Q. What effect has the sub-carbonate of potash in this preparation ? A. It parts with its carbonic acid to combine with the excess of tartaric, acid in the super-tartras potassae, to form a neutral salt. 119- Q. How is the perfect carbonate of potash formed 7 A. By adding carbonate of ammonia to sub-carbon- ate of potash dissolved in water. This solution is ex- posed to a certain degree of heat until all the ammo- nia is expelled, and the sub-carbonate of potash be- comes a perfect carbonate by taking carbonic acid from the carbonate of anamonia. 120. Q,. Why is the carbonate of potash preferred to the sub-carbonate for a saline draught, to be taken in the stale of effervescence ? A. Because it affords most carbonic acid. 121. Q. What remains in the retort after the distil- lation of nitric acid ? A. A super-sulphat of potash. 122. Q. What is the character of the acetates 1 A. Acetates are very soluble in water, are decom posed by heat, by exposure to air, and by the strongci acids. ; 123. Q.. What acetates are used in medicine ? A. There are four acetates used in medicine ; viz acetate of potass, of lead, of zinc, and of mercury. 124. Q. What is the composition of nitre crystals ' A. Nitric acid, potash, and water. 125. Q. Why is the nitras potassae made use of in forming sulphuric acid ? A. To supply the sulphur when burning with a great er quantity of oxygen 126. Q. What are the states of combination th»tpi.< aah enters into with tartaric acid (,m..UlsTRY AAO PJIARMAOl. . lo'S A. Two states, so as to form an acidulous salt and a neutral salt. 127. Q. How is the tartras potassae made ? A. By adding a sufficient quantity of sub-carbonate of potash to neutralize the super-tartrate of potash, which is previously to be dissolved in hot water: it is afterwards to be evaporated, filtered, and then put by in order to crystallize. 128. (i How is impure soda obtained ? A It is generally obtained by lixiviating the ashes of burnt plants, that have grown on the sea-shore, par- ticularly the herb called Salsola kali. 129. Q. How is the sub:carbonas sodae obtained ? A. By boiling a stated quantity of impure soda of commerce in a quantity of distilled water, filtering the solution, evaporating it, and crystallizing the salt. 130. Q. How is the carbonas sodae obtained ? A. By adding sub-carbonate of ammonia to sub-car- bonate of soda, dissolved in a quantity of distilled wa- ter; exposing this solution to heat for a certain time, in order lo expel the ammonia; then crystallizing the carbonate of soda. 131. Q. What salt remains after the distillation of muriatic acid ? . A. Sulphat of soda, which is directed to be reserv- ed and prepared for use. 132- Q. What is the composition of common table salt ? A. It consists principally of muriatic acid and soda. 133. Q. Why does it deliquesce ? A. Because it contains a little muriate of magnesia 134. Q. How are salts crystallized 7 A. A certain portion of the water of solution is eva- porated, and the remainder left in a proper tempera- ture at rest; the salts will after a time be found dis- persed through the mother water at the bottom and sides of the vessel. 135. Q. How is ammonia obtained 7 A. In a variety of ways: it is abundantly formed by animal decomposition; it exists in soot in combi- nation with an acid; it is obtained by distilling harts- 1i>4 .CHKMKS1 KY AAi) I'llARMACl. born, or Bones ; but it is generally obtained from the sal ammoniac of commerce. 136. Q. What is the composition of ammonia? A. Hydrogen and nitrogen: but Sir Humphry Da- vy has made it appear to be a compound of a metal. which he has named ammonium. 137. HEMinTK V JtXV I HAil JI.IC Y . 15?) V. They arc four in number; viz. magnesia, lime, argil or alumina, and barytes; which last isnot admit- ted into the London Pharmacopoeia. 145. Q. What substances afford argil' A. It exists in many fossils, and forms the basis ot common clay. 146. Q. Wh«t is there peculiar to this earth? • A. It contracts when exposed to licit, and becomes so hard as to bo capable" of striking fire with steel. 147. Q. Is argil ever found pure in nature,or used in medicine in its pure state ? A. No. 148. Ci. What substances'afford gallic acid 7 ..£ A. Gallic acid is afforded by nut-galls and most as- tringent substances. 149. Q,. What compounds'of argil are directed to b© kept in the shops, by the-London College ? A. The alumen eXf-iocatum, and the liquor aluminis compositus. 150. Q. What is the composition of alumen ? A. Sulphuric acid in excess, alumina, a small portion of potash, and often ammonia. , 161. Q,- Why is potash always put in to form alum '.' A. To facilitate crystallization. The sulphat, or'su- per-sulphat of argil alone, crystallizes in very small quantities, and that with great difficulty. »; 152. Q,. In alum ever found in nature ? A. Yes : it is often found in a speeies of Mate deno- minated alum slate, which is mixed with the layers of coal. 153. Q. From whence do we obtain magnesia ? A. It is never found in the pure state, but in com- bination in many, fossils ; It. is also found combined with acids in many springs, and in sea-water: from these several sources the earth is obtained. 154. Q. What preparations ot magnesia does the Col- lege direct to be used 7 A. The carbonas tnaguesiae and^the sulphas mag- nesiae, and magnesia. 156. Q,. How is the carbonas magnesiae made ? A- By mixing together a solution of sub-carbonate- 16t) tllJKMlbilt. A.\l> -pl.AU.n V« "»■ of potash and of sulphat of magnesia, boiling for a cer- tain lime, and filtering. The carbonate of magnesia remains upon the filter, and is to be well washed with hot water, to deprive it entirely of the sulphat of po- tash ; it is afterYvarda dried. 156. Q. What takes place in this process 7 A. A double decomposition-takes pUcc ; the potash loses its carbonic acid to-combine with the sulphuric acid, while the magnesia loses its sulphuric acid to'com- bine with the carbonic acid ; and thus a carbonate of magnesia is obtained, and a sulphat of potash remains in solution. 157. Q- When the carbonate of. magnesia is exposed to an intense heat for some time, n hat fal.es place / A. It loses its carbonic acid, and pure magnesia is obtained. ■ \ . 168. t-i. Which is lightest, the carbonas magnosiac, or magnesia? A. Mag icsia. 159. Q. How would you keep pure magnesia .' A. In a bottle well stopt to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid: it however attracts carbonic acid but slowly. 160. (J How is sulphat of magnesia obtained ? A. It used to be made by evaporating the water of the mineral springs at Epsom : but it is now gene- rally obtained by evaporating the bittern, or the fluid that remains after the crystallization of salt from sea- water. 161. Q. What are the sources of lime ? A. It is a constituent of "chalk-stone, lime-stone, marl, shells, bones ; it is found combined with many acids, as carbonic, fluoric, boracic, and sulphuric acid ; it exists in small portions in sea-water, in spring and river water, and it is found in vegetables. 162. Q,. What preparations of lime do the London College direct to be Kept 7 A. Calx, liquor calcis, creta praeparata. 163. Q. How is calx, or lime, to be obtained 1 A. By burning chalk-stone with a white heat, until it ceases t« effervesce, or give off carbonic acid, when thrown into acetic acid. CKfcMl?rKi AMI i'llAK.MACY. l."»" 164. Q.. Is this pure lime which remains ! A. Sufficiently pure for medicul purposes, but not tor chemical. 165. Q. What takes place, if lime-water is exposed to the air for any length of time ? A. The lime that is held, in solution soon combines with carbonic acid, aud precipitates, leaving the water pure. 166. Q,-. What takes place in the slacking of lime? A. The .vater is absorbed with a hissing noise, the lime cracks and falls int.- powder, a great quantity of caloric is evolved, so as to convert one portion of wa- ter into a vapour, while the other portion of"the water enters into combination with the lime, and becomes solidified. 167. li. Which of the earths used in medicine is a poison ? A. Barytes is a violent poison : in an overdose it produces nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, vertigo, and death. 168. Q. What preparation of barytes is used in me- dicine ? A. The muriate of barytes is admitted into the F.dinburgh Pharmacopoeia ; and has been given in scro- fula, and to remove tumours, worms, and cutaneous diseases. 169. Q. What is a metal ? A. (t is a simple .substance, possessed of great tena- city and hardness, Opacity, the property of reflecting light, a certain specific gravi'y, and of combustibility, when raised to a certain temperature, in contact with oxygen. 170. Q. Are all the metals opaque ? A. Ves all except gold-leaf, which, when beat ex- tremely thin, transmits given light. 171. Ci VVluit is the difference between ductility, malleability, and tenacity. A. Malleability is that property by which a metal may be pressed or beat into thin leaves, or plates ; duc- tility, the property by which a metal mav be drawn 'Hto wires of certain diameters : and tenacity, the pow- i.),"* Clll.MlbTRY AMI PllAHMAC... cr of cohesion of the particles of metals, by -which they allow* of ductility and malleability. 172. Ci. What i» the cause of expansion in metals f A. Caloric, which is supposed to cause the metallic particles to.assume greater distances. 173. Q. Do metals conduct caloric ? A- Yes: they are the best conductors of that prin- ciple. 174. Q. Do metals differ much in fusibility ? A. Yes. Rfeicury melts at a very low temperature, even the coldest atmosphere ;.on the contrary, plati- num requires the most intense heat for its fusion. 175. Q. Are these the chief properties of metals ? A. Yes, excepting that they are the best electrical conductors, and generate galvanism by contact. 176. Q. When a metal combines with oxygen, what change has it undergone 7 A. It has become.oxydized, and tbe compound form- ed is called an oxide. 177. Q. When a metal combines with an acid, io as to form a sail, what change does the metal first un- dergo 7 A. It becomes oxydized either by decomposing the water, or part of the apid, and is then dissolved by the remaining acid. 178. Q. When two metals are combined, what i.s the compound called ? A. An alloy ; excepting the combination of a metal with mercury, which is termed an amalgam. 179. Q,. What is the number of metals at present known ? A. They amount to twenty-one, if the new metals of the alkalis, &c. are excluded. 180. Ci. Enumerate the metals. A. Gold, platinum,-silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin, lead, nickel, zinc bismuth, antimony, tellur.um, arse- nic, cobalt, manganese, tungsten, molybdenum, ura- nium, titanium, chromium. 181. Ci. What are the metals that are used in medi <-ine ? A. Silv-er, mercury,.copper, iron, fin lead zinc bis- muth. fr=enic. antfmonv. ■ Hi.Ml--lRY A-MJ PHARMACY. l.)1< \&i. H- In what state is silver found in nature '! A. Native and mineralized. 183. Q. What are the preparations of silver used in medicine ? A. Only the nitras argenti, which is made with sil- ver, nitric acid, and distilled water. The nitric acid and water are mixed ; the silver is then added, which speedily becomes dissolved by the application of a gradual heat ; when this is effected, the solution is evaporated, in order lo obtain a dry nitrate of sil- ver. The nitrate of silver is then inelied in a cru- cible, with a gentle heat, and is cast into pioper moulds. " 184 Q. What takes place during the melting of the nitrate of silver ? A. It loses part of its nitric acid, and becomes re- duced to a sub-nitrate. 185. Ci. What are the sources of mercury ? A. It is. found native ; it is found in combination with muriatic acid ; and it is fouud in combination with sulphur, constituting an ore called native cinna- bar : from this ore the quicksilver of commerce is ge- nerally obtained. 186. Q. What are the properties of mercury ? A. Mercury is a fluid metal in the temperature of our atmosphere, aud has the appearance of melted sil- ver, in which state it is neither ductile nor mallea- ble, is very volatile when heated, and extremely di- visible ; it combines with other metals and forms amal- gams. 187. Q. What preparations of mercury are directed to be used by the London#Pharmacopceia ? A. Oxymurias hydrargyri, liquor oxymuriatis hy- drargyri, hydrargyrus cum creta, submunas hydrargyri, nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri, oxydum hydrargyri cine- reum, oxydum hydrargyri, rubrum, hydrargyrus prae- cipitatus albus, hydrargyrus purificatus, and sulphure- tum hydrargyri rubrum, kc. 188. Q,. How is the oxymurias hydrargyri formed? A- Mercury and sulphuric acid are first boiled to- gether, in a glass vessel, until a dry salt is obtained; o2 ttitl C.il.MlalKY AIvU J'HARMai \. by this process (lis mercury first becomes oxydizec and then dissolves in the remaining acid ; this iseva porated, until a dry salt is procured, which is an oxy- sulphat of mercliry ; this is mixed with a quantity of dried muriate of soda," and sublimed : the order of af- finities is now changed; the muriatic acid combines with the oxide of mercury, forming an oxy-muriate of mercury, which is sublimed, and tbe sulphuric acid combines with the soda, inrining sulphat of soda, which is not sublimed. 1^9. Q. In what state of oxidizement does the mer- cury exist in ihi.- preparation ? A. In the state of red oxide. 190. Q,. How is the hydrargyrus cum creta made 7 A. By rubbing creta and tnercu y together, until the globules of the mercury dis; ppear. 191. Q. What is the composition of this prepara- tion ? A. It is composed of nn oxide of mercury combin- ed with carbonate of lime. 192- Q,. In what state is the mercury that is present in the unguenlum hydrargyri fortius, cmplastrum hy- drargyri, and pilula hydrargyri ? A. It is in the state of protoride or gray oxide. 193. Q,. How is the submurias hydrargyri made'.' A. A quantity of oxy-muriate of mercury is rubbed with a quantity of purified mercury, until the globule; of the mercury are extinguished; it is then to be sub- limed, and the sublimation and rubbing are to be re- peated three times ; after which it is to be reduced to a very subtile powder. 194. Ci. What is the use of the purified mercury in this preparation 7 A. It abstracts from the oxy-muriate of mercury a portion of its oxvgen ; by which the oxide of mercu- ry that existed in tbe oxy-muriate is converted into an imperfect black oxide : this imperfect oxide re- quires less nuriatic acid to saturate it than the perfect oxide does: the compound formed is therefore a mu- riate, but the London College have thought proper tc call it a sub-muriate, to prevent mistakes l.Ul.nj-MRY AMI I'iiAIOiAt.l. itij IUo. Q.. Wiiai are llie characters of calomel? A- Calomel is inodorous, insipid, and has a light ycl low or ivory colour; which deepens by long exposure to the light. Lime-water and the alkalis, when tritu- rated with it, instantly render it black, which is one test of its purity; for, if it contains any oxy-muriate, a vellow lint is mingled with the black on the addition of lime-water. 196. Q,. Is there any other mode of obtaining ca- lomel besides that directed by the London College? A Yes: Mr. Howard has proposed the following improvement; instead of subliming the calomel in a concrete form, the vapour as it rises is thrown into a vessel containing water, where it instantly condenses into the form of a while impalpable powder. 197- Q. How is the nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri made? A. By boiling mercury, nitric acid, and water, to dryness, and then raising the beat gradually until the red vapour ceases to arise. 198. Q. What colour does the oxide of gold give to glass 7 A. Glass is coloured purple by the oxide of gold. ,199. Ci. What compound is formed with the oxide of gold and ammonia 7 A. This compound is called fulminating gold. 200. Q,. What takes place during the formation of nitric oxide of mercury ? A. The mercury decomposes a portion of the nitric acid by attracting oxygen ; it becomes converted into -\n oxide, and nitric oxide gas is evolved; the oxide of mercury thus formed, is then dissolved by the un- decomposed nitric acid, and a nitrate of mercury is formed. When the dried nitrate of mercury is expos- ed to heat, the greater part of the nitric acid is driven off, and a perfect oxide of mercury remains, holding a very small portiou of nitric acid. 201. Q. How is the red oxide of mercury made ? A. By exposing mercury in a glass vessel, with a broad bottom, a long neck, and a narrow mouth, to a heat of 600°- until the mercury is converted into red lli"» ci.i;mi>tky" and pharmai *. scales, which are to be reduced to a very fine po** . der. 202. Q,. What is the theory of this process? A. The mercury, when exposed to a heat of 600°, rises in vapour up the neck of the vessel; the vapour of the mercury eombines with a maximum of oxygen, by decomposing atmospheric nir, and fal/s back into the vessel in the state of dark red scales, which be- come of a deeper red as the process goes on. • 203. Q. Why does not the mercury escape when exposed to this temperature ? A. Because the vessel is provided with a long nar- row neck, that is drawn out into a capillary opening, which prevents the escape of the mercury, but allows a free admission of air. 204. Q. How is the gray oxide of mercury prepared ! A. It is prepared by boiling sub-muriate of mercury with lime-water, constantly stirring, until a gray oxide of mercury is separated ; it Is then to be washed with distilled water, and dried. During this preparation, the lime combines with the muriatic acid of the muri- ate-of mercury, and its oxide is separated. 205. Q. Why are iron filings directed to be used in purifying mercury? A. Because tbe iron has a greater attraction for the metals with which mercury is often amalgamated, than for the mercury. 206. Q. How is the sulphuretum hydrargyri made? A. It is made by mixing mercury with melted sul- phur over the fire ; when this is effected, the mass is cooled, reduced to powder, and sublimed. 207. Q. How is the hydrargyrus praecipifatus albus made ? A. By dissolving muriate of ammonia and oxy-mu- riate of mercury in water, and pouring into this solu- tion a quantity of liquid sub-carbonate of potash. The powder that is thrown down, is washed until it becomes insipid, and dried. * 208. Q. Where is iron found 7 A. It is found abundantly in the earth, under a vari- ety of forms, mineralized by sulphur, combined with °arths. alloyed with metals : it exists in the waters V i HJLMlisiRY A.vO l'UAKMACV. Itj3 uitiiiy springs; it is contained in vegetables ; it give coloqr to the blood, and lo many fossil substances. 209. Q. What preparations of iron are directed t be kept by the London College ? A. Ferritin animoniatum ; carbonas ferri ; sulphas ferri; ferruin turtarizatum ; liquor ferri alUalini; tiiic- tura ferri muriatis ; tiiictura fcrri ammoniati; vinum ferri. 210. Q. How many oxides of iron are there 7 A. Two: the black or protoxide, and the red or peroxide 211. Ci. Would you order the preparations of iron to be combined with astringent decoctions for medi- cal use ? A. No : because most of such decoctions contain gallic acid and tannin, which, combined with iron, form ink. 212. Q. If sulphate of iron is burnt in a white heat, what will remain after the process has been continued some time ? A. The peroxide or red oxide of iron. 213. Q. Whut is the composition of ferrum amnio- niatura ? A. It is composed of muriate of iron and muriate of ammonia. 214. Q,. How is it made? A. By subliming equal parts of carbonate of iron and muriate of ammonia. 215. Q. How is the carbonate of iron made 7 A. By dissolving sub-carbonate of soda and sulphat of iron in two separate portions of water, mixing the solutions, suffering the green powder to subside,- then washing and drying it. 216. Q,. What change of affinities is produced by min- ing these solutions? A The carbonic acid combines with the iron, leav- ing the soda to combine with the sulphuric acid ;.'. a sul- - phat of soda therefore remains in solution, aud a car- bonate of iron is precipitated. This new compound consists of the black oxide of iron, .combined with carbonic acid, but, upon exposure to the air, passes ve- rv soon to the state <»f red oxide. •t)4 «. ili.-UlsiHY AMI 1 UAKMAl V. 217. Q,. Ilow is theferrum tarturizatum made ! A. It is made by mixing iron filings, supertartrate ot potash, and water together ; they are exposed to the air in a broad glass vessel, for eight days; the com- pound is then dried in a sand-batn, and reduced to powder ; after this is done, it is to be mixed with ano- ther portion of water, and exposed for eight days long- er. 218. Q. What is the theory of the formation of this compound ? A. During the exposure to the air, the iron becomes oxydized by abstracting oxygen both from the air and the water with which it is mixed ; and the oxide of iron combines with the superabundant tartaric acid of the supertartrate of potash ; the compound formed is therefore a tartrate of potash and iron. 219. Q. When iron wire is burnt in oxygen gas, what compound is formed ? A. When iron is burnt in oxygen gas, the compound formed is the black oxide of iron. 220. Q. When iron is heated, in contact ivith air, what is formed ? A. In this process a black oxide of iron is formed. 221. Q,. When carbon is united to iron, what is formed 7 A. Steel. 222. Q. What is the composition of the liquor ferri alkalini f A. It is considered as composed of nitric acid, red oxide of iron, with potash, forming a triple compound. 223. Q,. How i, it made 7 A. It is made with iron, nitric acid, distilled water, and solution of sub-carbonate of potash The acid and water are firs to be mix"d, and poured on the iron ; wiien the effervescence has ceased, the acid so- lution is to be poured off, and added gradually to the solution of sub-carbonate of potash, occasionally shak- ing it until it has assumed a (Kp brown-red colour, and no further effervescence takes place ; it is then to be set bv for six hours, and its clear solution poured »ff ' ltKMiM'RV A-MD I'1/AKMACA. iGii ..24. Q. How ic the tinctiira ferri muriatis made ? A. Carbonate of iron is put with muriatic acid for three days -, during which time the carbonic acid is displaced from the red oxide of iron, and the red ox- ide combines with the muriatic acid, and forms an oxy-muriate of iron, which is afterwards combined with a quantity of rectified spirit. 225. Ci. What compound of iron exists in the vi- num ferri? A. A tartrate of iron and potash. 226. MIARMAC. . A. It Is made with sulphuret of iiHtimony, nitrate n: potash, super-tartrate of potash., sulphuric acid, ami distilled water. The acid is to bo mixed with the wa- 'cr, and heated in a sand-bath ; when this is moderate- ly warm the sulphuret of antimony and nitre, previous- ly mixed, are to be added ; they ate next to be s;rain- ed and boiled nntil all the moisture is consumed. Tin- residue is then to be washed with distilled water, until it becomes tastele>s, and while moist the super-tartrate of potash is to be added ; it is, lastly, to be put into distilled water, boiled, and set aside to crystallize. 264. Q. What takes place in the formation of this compound? A. It is considered, that during (he process (he ni- trate of potash is decomposed by the sulphuric acid, as is shown by the extrication of nitrous gas, and part of its oxygen being expended upon the oxide of the sulphuret. This la:-t is converted into protoxide of antimony, while perhaps, also, at the same time, the sulphur is partly converted into an acid. Subsulphat of antimony is then formed by the action of part of the acid on the protoxide; in this state the tartaric acid of the super-tartrate of potash acts upon it so as to form the triple compound of tartrate of antimony and potash. 265. Q. How is antimonial powder made ? A. By mixing one part of sulphuret of antimony and two parts of hartshorn shavings, throwing them into a broad iron pot, heated to a white heat, and stir- ring the mixture constantly until it acquires an ash co- lour ; having taken it out, it is to be reduced to pow- der, and put into a coated crucible, upon which ano- ther inverted crucible, having a small hole in its bot- tom, is to be luted; the fire is now to be raised to whiteness, and kept so for two hours. The masg is then to be reduced to a very fine powder. 26fi- Q. What does this compound consist of 7 A. It consists of oxide of antimony and phosphate of lime. 267. CL Describe the phenomena that take place .luring its preparation. \. When (lie sulphuret of antimony nnd hartshrci i MINISTRY \.l> J'UARMACN . A 71 •havings are exposed to a white beat, the sulphuret of antimony is.decomposed, its sulphur is driven off, and the antimony remains oxydized, while the gelatine of the hartshorn shavings is destroyed, and nothing is left but phosphate of lime, which becomes mixed with the oxide of antimony. 268. Q What is the active ingredient of the yeast cataplasm ? A. The carbonic acid gas which is evolved, and which is the product of fermentation. 269. Ci. What are the chemical compounds that ex- ist in the mislura ferri composita 7 A. Carbonate of iron and sulphat of potash. 27.'. Q,. What is meant by fermentation 7 A. The spontaneous change of vegetable substan- ces, by which their properties become altered. 271. Q,. What circumstances are required for fer- mentation to go on ? A. A certain degree of fluidity ; a degree of heat between 55° and 65° Fahrenheit, and the contact of air. 272. Q. What are the species of fermentations ? A Fermentation is divided into the spirituous, the acetous, and the putrefactive; besides which, Dr Thomson has added two others, viz. the panary and the saccharine fermentation. 273. Q. What ingredients are necessary for fermen tation ? A. Water, sugar, and mucilage. 274. Q. Can a fluid, after it has undergone the ace- tous fermentation, be made to undergo the vinous ? A. No: the fermentations will only take place in their regular succession ; first from the acetous to the vinous, and then from .the vinous to the putrefactive. 275. Q. What are the products of the spirituous fer- mentation ? A. Ardent spirits, wines, and beers. 276. Ci- What do the acetous and putrefactive fer- mentations produce ? A. The acetous fermentation produces vinegar, and ihe putrefactive fermentation produces ammonia P2 ~<2 < 1IUMIM i'.Il AM) I'll ARM AC Y . 277. Q. What gas escapes during fermentation A. Carbonic acid gas. 278. Q. In forming the medicated wines, wliatw'nu does the London College direct to be used 7 A. Sherry wine. 279. Q,. How is alkohol obtained ? A. Alkohol may be obtained by distilling any spi- rituous liquor. Brandy affords the greatest quantity, but in this country it is usually obtained from mall spi- rit, when it is termed rectified spirit. 280. Q, How does the London College direct alko- hol to be made from rectified spirit? A. A quantity of heated sub-carbonate of potash i" added to a quantity of rectified spirit; these are ma- cerated together for twenty-four hours; the alkohol is then distilled off by means of a water bath. 281. Q. What is the use of the sub-carbonate of potash? A. It abstracts the greater part of the water from the rectified spirit. Alkohol appears always to contain •a'portion of water. 282. Q,. How is the strength of alkohol ascertained A. The strength of alkohol is known by taking it- specific gravity, which, according to the London Col- lege, ought to be 815, water being 1000. 283. U". What is the solvent of a resin ? A. Alkohol; but rectified spirit is generally used. 284. Q,. In what menstruum is gum soluble 7 A. Water, and not in alkohol. 285. Q,. What menstruum should be used to dissolve a gum resin ? A. A mixture of spirit and water. 286. Q,. What use is made of rectified spirit in me- dicine 7 A. To make ethers, different'spirits, and tinctures? 287. Q,. When arsenic is exposed lo heat, what smell does it emit ? A. Arsenic, when exposed to heat, emits a smell like garlic. 288. Q. Of what are the different medicinal spirit- composed7 'ill.ALlM.KY \ N.i TJJ uor.\<:v. 17.1 A. A particular volatile oil, a quantity of alkohol md water 2-:». Q. What are the elements of alkohol? \ U>y^;cii, hydrogen, and carbon. 290. U- What is an ether I A. A compound formed by tlie action of an acid upon alkohol; it is the lightest fluid known ; it is high- ly volatile, pungent, odorous, and inflammable. 291. i&. How are ethers designated? A. The., ace named from the acid by' which they are obtained: th.U obtained by sulphuric.acid and al- Imhol, is called sulpiiuric ether; by acetic acid, acetic ether ; by nitric acid, nitn> other, and sq forth. til»2. Q, What is the composition,of ether ? A. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. 293. (£. How does ether differ from alkohol, as its constituents are the same 7 A. The proportions of its constituents are different: it is supposed lo contain more hydrogen and less car- lion than alkohol. 294. Ci. 1= the acid decomposed in the formation of .•therf A. In some degree; but its presence seems chiefly to predispose to an alteration of the affinities of the '"lemcnts of the alkohol. 295. Q. What will ether dissolve 1 A. Ether will dissolve phosphorus and sulphur in small portions ; it also dissolves muriate of gold and the oxy-muriate of mercury: likewise it readily dis- solves ammonia and nitrous gas, besides which it will dissolve the fixed and volatile oils and bitumen. 296. Q- Will ether combine in every proportion of water 7 A. No: ether combines only in a small proportion with water; ten parts of that liquid dissolve about one part of ether. 297. Q. What proportion of water does nitric ether require for its solution ? A. Nitric ether dissolves in about 48 parts of water. and gives to that liquid an odour like that of apples. 298. Q,. What ethereal compounds are directed to be kept in the shops by the London College ? 174 < HEMISTRT Y.M) I'll ARMAI l . A. The sulphuric ether, the rectified ether, ethercai oil, aromatic spirits of ether, rompound spirits of ether spirit of rtitric ether. 299. Q. How is the aether sulphuricus made ? A. By distillation from equal quanlhies of rectified spirit and sulphuric acid There are several precaution? necessary in the making of ether: it is to be distilled from a glass retort into a double receiver, or two re. ceivers iuted together ; they are to be kept cold by ice, or cold water: tbe distillation is to be carried on until a heavier fluid passes over, that sinks to the bottom of the ether. 300. Q. How is aether rectificatus made ? A. Sulphuric ether is distilled from a certnin quan- tity of fused potash and water; if fourteen fluid ounces are used, twelve ounces are (o be distilled over. 301. Q. Of what use is the potash in this preparation >. A. It combines with the suphurous acid and ethereal oil, Yvhich the sulphuric acid contained ; these remain behind in the retort. 302. Q. How is the oleum aethercum made ? A. After the distillation of sulphuric ether, the dis filiation is to he carried on until a black froth begin- to rise, when the fetort is to be immediately removed The oil is then to be separated from (he fluid in the receiver, and washed wilh lime-wa(er, to free i( of the adherent acid 303. &. What is the spiritus aetheris aromaticus made with ? A. It is made with cinnamon-bark, cardamom-seed long pepper, ginger-root, and spirits of sulphuric ether 304. Q. Of what is the spiritus aetheris composite formed ? A. It is formed of spirits of sulphuric ether and ethe- real oil. 305. Q,. How is the spiritus aetheris nitrici made 7 A. By distillation from a mixture of nitric acid and rectified spirit. 306. Q. How are essential oils obtained ? A. Essential oils are obtained either bv expression or distillation >"H£.YIlSTRlf AM) PHARMACY. . 175 M)7. Q. Why are not essential oils distilled with al- kohol iustead of Yvater '! A. Because the volatile oils are volatile at the tem- perature of boiling water: but there are many of them not volatile at the temperature at which alkohol boils, consequently the alkohol would pass over weakly im- piegna'ed with their odour and properties. 308. Q. How would you ascertain if a volatile oil was adulterated with a fixed oil ? A The; mav be ascertained by heating a small por- tion of the oil on a piece of clean paper; if there is present any fixed oil, a greasy spot will remain ; whereas, if the volatile oil be pure, the paper will be left cleac. 309 (i What takes place when volatile oils are ex- posed t-i ill air und light 7 A. '"hey become more viscid, alter their colour, lose par of their odour, redden the tincture of turn- sole, ani gradually assume the form of resins. 3l0. U. What are these changes owing to 7 A. These changes depend upon the absorption of oxygen; and hence the necessity of preserving vola- tile oils in small phials completely full and well corked. 311. Q, Are volatile oils soluble in any degree in water ? A. Yes : in the distillation of the aromatic herbs the water retains a small portion of the volatile oils in so- lution, which gives the taste and odour of the vegeta hie I 7»* I'OlM.N.*. POISONS. I. Ci. What is a poison? A. A poison is any substance capable of altering or destroying some or all of the functions necessary t" fife. 2. Q. What are the principal mineral poisons? A. Arsenic ; antimony; copper ; lead ; and mer- cury. 3. Q. What are the symptoms of poisoning by ar- senic ? A. An austere taste, constriction of the pharynx and oesophagus, hiccup, nausea, and vomiting of brown or bloody matter; great anxiety ; heat and severe pain at the pit of the stomach ; black and foetid stools; small frequent, and irregular pulse; palpitation, and diffi- cult breathing; great thirst; burning heat ; delirium. convulsions, and death. 4. Q,. How is a case of poisoning by arsenic to be treated ? A. Vomiting is to be immediately excited by an emetic, of zinc, or ipecacuanha, aided by the liberal use of diluents- If vomiting is not speedily induced by these means, the stomach should be washed out by Jukes's syringe. After the stomach has been tbns cleared of the poison, the next indication is to counter- act the secondary symptoms. This is to be accom- plished by venesection, fomentations, emollient glys- ters, as circumstances may require. . 6. Q. Is there any known antidote to the poison of arsenic 7 A. Sulphuret of potash, alkaline salts, charcoal, sulphur, &c, have all been recommended, but are of doubtful efficacy. Carbonate of magnesia is perhaps ••ntitled to the most credit as an antidote. 6. i.-»u.>- coat may not unfrequently be separated. 1 lie mte tines are also inflamed, but in a Ic^s degree. Tin. lungs are also usually affected—they are livid, or have livid spots on their surface. The other viscera arc generally in a healthy condition. 8. Q. What are the elfects of tartar emetic, when taken in a large dose ? A. Severe pain in the stomach ; excessive vomiting: profuse liquid stools; face pale; great prostration ot strength; pulse small and feeble; cramps in the ex tremities. 9. Q. What are the appearances on dissection ? A. Inflammation of stomach and intestines. The lungs are also frequently inflamed. lO. tL How is poisoning by tartar emetic to be treated ? A. Vomiting, if not already present, to be excited by tickling the throat with the finger or a feather, and diluting with large draughts of mild fluids. The in- flammatoy symptoms afterwards to be subdued by the usual antiphlogistic means. 11. Q. What are the best antidotes to tartar eme- tic? A. Decoction of bark is the best. If this cannot be Obtained, strong tea, or a decoction of nut galls, or any other astringent herb will answer. 12. Q. What are the tests of tartar emetic ? A. 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen and the hydro-sul- phurets, when used in small quantities, throw down an orange-yellow precipitate; when used in larger quantities, a deep brown red. 2. Sulphuric acid produces a white precipi- tate. 3. Lime water, water of barytes, and alkalis give a thick white precipitate. 4. Infusion of galls causes a copious white pre- cipitate, and is the most delicate test of all. 5. When heated red hot with the black flux, all the preparations of antimony are reduced to the metallic state. 13. Q. What is the preparation of copper which i« most usually poisonous ? luisuAb. 17U \. Verdegris, or the sub-acetate of copper. 14. Q,. What are the symptoms of poisoning by cop- per 7 A. An acrid, styptic, coppery taste in the mouth; parched and dry tongue; a sense of strangulation in the throat, coppery eructations, constaut spitting, nau sea, copious vomitings, or vain efforts to vomit, shoot- ing pains in the stomach, which are often very severe; horrible gripings; frequent alvine evacuations, some- times bloody and blackish, with tenesmus and debility ; the abdomen inflated and painful; the pulse small, ir-' regular, tight, and frequent; syncope, heat of skin, ar- dent thirst, difficulty of breathing, anxiety about the praecordia, cold sweats, scanty urine, violent headach, vertigo, faintness, weakness in the limbs, cramps of the legs, and convulsions. 15. Q,. What are the appearances on dissection ? A. The stomach and intestinal canal are found in- flamed, and sometimes gangrenous. 16. Q,. How is poisoning by copper to be treated ? A. For the purpose of expelling the poison, vomit- ing is to be excited by copious draughts of milk and water. After this inflammatory symptoms are to be subdued by the usual means, and nervous symptoms by opium and antispasmodics. 17- Q. What is the antidote to copper? A. Whites of eggs mixed up with water, which must be taken freely. 18. Q. What are the tests of verdegris? A. 1. Mix the verdegris with charcoal, and heat it lo redness in a crucible, and metallic copper will be formed. 2. Sulphuretted hydrogen precipitates a black sulphuret of copper. 3. Ammonia gives a blue precipitate, but if add- ed in excess, the precipitate re-dissolves, and the liquor is of a beautiful blue colour. 4. A clean plate of iron immersed in the solu- tion, becomes covered in a few hours with a por- tion of the copper, and the bide colour of the so- lution grows first green, and then turns to red a lsu 1'OISO.V-. 19. Q. What arc the symptoms of poiM.niiig bi lead 7 A. When taken in large quantities, a sweetish a-trin- gent, constriction of the throat, pain in the region of the stomach, obstinate, and often bloody vomitings, hiccup, convulsions, and death.—When taken in small quantities and long continued doses, it causes colica pictonum and paralysis. 20. Ci. What are the antidotes to lead? . A. Sulphate of soda and sulphate of magnesia. 21. Q. What is the treatment proper for cases ot poisoning by lead ? A. A weak solution of Glauber's or Epsom salts to be drank very freely for the purpose of vomiting and purging, as well as (o neutralize the poison.—In- flammatory symptoms to be afterwards subdued in the usual manner. '22. Q. What are the chemical tests of lead f A. 1 All the preparations of lead are easily reduced to the metallic state by calcination with charcoal. 2. The acetate of lead, dissolved in water, is pre cipitated white by sulphuric acid. 3 By chromate of potash and chromic acid, it is precipitated of a canary-yellow colour. 4. By sulphuretted hydrogen and the hydra- sulphurets, a black precipitate. 6. By sulphate of soda, a white precipitate. 6. Gallic acid gives a yellowi5h-white precipr tate. 23. Q. What preparation of mercury is generally used as a poison ? A. The muriate of mercury, or corrosive sublimate 24 Q,. What are the symptoms of poisoning by cor- rosive sublimate 7 A. An acrid, astringent, metallic taste in the mouth: stricture and burning in the throat ; anxiety and rend- ing pains in the stomach and intestines; nausea and vomiting, which i^ sometimes bloody ; diarrhoea. sometimes dy-en'ery ; pulse small, hard, and fre- qni'iit: faintinrr-; great prostration of strength; difli I UiSOAs. ifei culty of breathing- cold sweats; cramps in the limbs; insensibility ; convulsions, and death. 25. Ci. What are the appearances on dissection ? A- Inflammation of the stomach and intestines, sometimes ending in gangrene. 26. Q What is the antidote to corrosive sublimate ? A. Albumen or the whites of eggs.—Lately wheat flour has been recommended. 27. Q,. What is the treatment in cases of poisoning by corrosive sublimate ? A. The whites of eggs to be mixed with water, and one given every two or three minutes to promote vo- miting as Yvell as to decompose the poison. Milk, sugar and water, or water to be taken liberally at the same time. Symptoms of inflammation tobe overcome by venesection, &c. 28. Q.. What are the chemical tests of corrosive -•iblimatc ? A. 1. By mixing corrosive sublimate with char- coal and water, and subjecting it to heat in a close vessel, metallic mercury is obtained. 2. By exposing it to heat without any admixture in a glass tube, it will be sublimed, and found lining the top of the tube in the form of a Yvhite shining crust. 3. By ammonia, a white precipitate is produced. 4. Carbonate of potash causes a precipitate like brick dust. 6. Caustic potash produces a yellow precipi- tate. 6. Lime water produces an orange-eoloured precipitate 7. Nitrate of silver occasions a white curdy precipitate. 29.'Q, What are the symptoms of poisoning by opium ? A. Stupor, numbness, heaviness in the head, pupil of the eye dilated, sometimes furious delirium, pain, convulsions of different parts of the body, or palsy of the limbs. The pulse is variable, but at first generally strong and full: the breathing is quick, and there is s;reat anxiety, coma, death. La2 I'oissi.Aj-. 30. Q. What is the treatment in cases of poisoning by opium ? A. The stomach is first to be effectually evacuated, by emetics of tart, emetic or sulphate of zinc ; large injections to clear the bowels, and assist in getting rid of the poison. When as much of the poison as pos- sible has thus been expelled, the patient may drink, alternately, a tea-cup full of strong hot infusion of coffee and vinegar diluted Yvith Yvater. If the drowsiness and insensibility bordering on apoplexy be not re- medied by these means, blood may be taken from the jugular vein, blisters may be applied to the neck and legs, and the attention roused by every means possible. If the heat declines, warmth and frictions must be perseveringly used. Vegetable acids are on no ac count to be given before the poison is expelled. THE FTVI». ' *i! 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