U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service National Institutes of Health NLM 0013fift57 2 U.S. NATIONAL ■{$ UERAKYPt OF MEDICINE NLM001388572 HIGHLIGHTS in MEDICOLEGAL RELATIONS Revised and Enlarged Edition Compiled by Jaroslav Nemec, Jiir.D. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service National Institutes of Health National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, Maryland 20014 October 1976 DHEW Publication No. (NIH) 76-1109 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402—Price $5.30 Stock Number 017-052-00170-1 i WZ Nemec, Jaroslav 30 Highlights in medicolegal relations / N433h compiled by Jaroslav Nemec.--Rev. and 1976 enl. ed.--Bethesda, Md. : U. S. Dept. £,J of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of (< f— Health, National Library of Medicine ; Washington : for sale by the Supt. of Docs. U. S0 Govt. Print. Off., 1976. viii, 166 p. (DHEW publication ; no. (NIH) 76-1109) 1. Chronology 2. Forensic Medicine - history 3. Jurisprudence - history I. Title II. Series: DHEW publication no. (NIH) 76-1109 ® All or portions of this publication are protected against copying or other reproduction outside of the United States in accordance with the provisions of Article II of the Universal Copyright Convention. n CONTENTS Preface___________________________________________________________________________ v Introduction ______________________________________________________________________ vii Highlights in Medicolegal Relations _________________________________________________ 1 Name Index ______________________________________________________________________ 113 Subject Index ____________________________________________________________________ 125 Bibliography______________________________________________________________________ 131 in PREFACE Knowledge of the historical background of a subject brings to it a sounder foundation and a broader perspective. For those in law and medicine it cannot fail to enhance their erudition and increase the enjoyment they derive from their work. Unfortunately the busy medicolegal practitioner has no time for historical research and the delving which is part of it, and must perforce rely on the effort and the writing of others. Yet books on the history of legal medicine are relatively few. Dr. Nemec is therefore owed a special debt for his study of the medicolegal literature and for the time he has spent in compiling Highlights in Medicolegal Relations. Within the covers of this book are the important events and publications in the medicolegal calendar extending chronologically from ancient times to the present day. The entries form a valuable source of reference, briefly but accurately detailed, and they have a remarkably readable quality. Let the reader go methodically through a few pages and as he skips by the milestones he will absorb in a short space of time the medicolegal climate of the age, be it a concern for legal codes or witchcraft and insanity or the teaching of forensic medicine. Dr. Nemec is not new to this field; in particular, his International Bibliography of the History of Legal Medicine and his International Bibliography of Medicolegal Serials are already well known. The present work was, in fact, published in abbreviated form some years ago and its favourable reception prompted him to write this revised and expanded work. It will obviously be a much more useful tool for the historian and for those who teach forensic medicine in medical and law schools. Yet, I hope it will not be neglected by the work-a-day practitioner who will discover in a few minutes of his leisure a renewed interest in the past. Highlights will become an essential handbook for all who are concerned with the history of legal medicine. May it also find a place in the book shelves of many other forensic practitioners whose passing interest in history might generate a deeper knowledge. T. K. Marshall State Pathologist, Northern Ireland Professor of Forensic Medicine Queen's University, Belfast Past President, International Association of Forensic Sciences V INTRODUCTION The author's intention in this revised and expanded edition of the Highlights is to record the most important events in the field of medicolegal relations. In contrast with the previous Highlights, which was prepared in connection with an exhibit at the National Library of Medicine, this edition aims to satisfy more scholarly needs. Medical, legal, and medicolegal literature were the main sources for information, but other sources were used as well. Selecting important events in any field is always difficult and a matter of subjective judgment. This is especially true of the medicolegal field, since it has no well-defined frontier. Some will find events which they consider of primary importance to have been omitted and, on the other hand, will find listed those which in their judgment are of minor value. Quot capita tot sententiae! Entries are arranged chronologically and each is documented with the sources for the information contained. Although source designations are in abbreviated form, full citations are listed in the appended Bibliography, which is arranged alphabetically by author or title. Journal title abbreviations are based on the rules for Index Medicus journal title abbrevia- tions. In such cases, the full journal title is not included in the Bibliography. Invaluable help in detecting and rectifying errors in entries and citations was obtained through use of the Index Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General's Office as well as other catalogs and indexes of the National Library of Medicine, the Union List of Serials, national union catalogs, British, French, Russian, Latin American and other national bibliographies, etc. Though used to supplement the data in most of the entries, these sources usually are not cited. Many of the monographs mentioned in the text were examined by the author, but their contents are usually described or evaluated on the basis of published opinions or reviews. Included in the Highlights are some events which have no importance in present-day legal medicine but which were considered part of the medicolegal field during a particular period, e.g., witchcraft, caesarean section, pulmonary docimasia. On the other hand, the present expansion of the field into many related disciplines was difficult to cover as comprehensively as desired. This applies, for example, to the legal aspects of human experimentation and the transplantation of human organs, and to forensic psychiatry. In order to keep this publication to a reasonable size, the subject of medical legislation was excluded except in a few instances of unusual importance. Similarly, events in medical jurisprudence (decisions of the courts) are only occasionally recorded. vii The author received much encouragement in his work from authorities in the field, and wishes especially to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. William J. Curran, Professor of Legal Medicine at Harvard and Dr. William G. Eckert, editor of INFORM, Wichita, Kansas. Many thanks also go to the author's colleagues at the National Library of Medicine for editing and typing assistance. The Highlights are offered in the hope that they will.be a useful overview of the history of legal medicine. Jaroslav Nemec, Jur.D. Reference Services Division National Library of Medicine viii HIGHLIGHTS IN MEDICOLEGAL RELATIONS 1. Ca. 4000 B.C. —Ancient Sumerians knew the poppy plant (papaver somniferum) and apparently were aware of its psychological effects, since they called it the "joy plant." Their successors in the area, the Assyri- ans, mention opium on their cuneiform tablets under the name "lion fat." Homer in his Odyssey (ca. 13th—8th cent. B.C.) speaks about the mixing of opium in drinks. The first detailed description of this important drug that is known, however, is only as early as the 1st cent. A. D. 1/Jaffe. 247. 2/Encycl. Brit. 11: 643; 16: 814. 2. 30th cent. B.C. — Imhotep (ca. 2980-2900 B. C), personal physician to Pharaoh Zoser, as well as his chief justice, personifies medicolegal relations in ancient Egypt. His medical fame was so great that he was later worshipped as a god. [Recently Imhotep's position in medicine has been challenged. Some authors are of the opinion that there is no evidence substan- tiating his activity in the medical field.] 1/Lacorte. 2/Smith. 3. 3. Ca. 2838-2698 —Beginnings of toxicology in China during the reign of Emperor Shen-Nung, The Divine Husbandman. Legend says that he com- piled the first herbal in which more than 100 remedies were mentioned and the poisonous effects of the plants described. The herbal also includes cannabis (marihuana), prepared from the flowering tops of hemp plants. 1/Hsii, Ying-han. 1-2. 2/Castiglioni. 99. 3/Jaffe. 299. 4. Ca. 2050 B.C. —The Ur-Nammu Code, promulgated by the Sumerian king, Ur- Nammu, is the oldest known code of laws. It stipulates monetary compensation for bodily injury and is therefore more progressive than many later codes, which still permitted talio (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth). 1/Kramer. 48-^51. 1 5. Ca. 1700 B.C. —The Hammurabi Code of Laws (The Judgments of Righteousness which Hammurabi, the great King, set up), the first known Semitic code, was patterned after similar collections of old Sumerian laws. Intended to regulate all economic relations in Babylonia, it in- cludes in its articles 215-225 the tables of fees for medical services, as well as cruel penalties to be inflicted on the physician whose treatment is unsuccessful. 1/Handerson. 2/F6rtsch. 3/Dalmases. 4/Sigerist. A history of medi- cine. 1: 386-7 6. 14th or 13th cent. B.C. —The Hittite Code sets financial compensation (in silver) for murder, and sets fees for most bodily injuries. Penalties vary according to the social rank of the dead or injured person. In case of resulting disability, the offender must furnish a man to work for the injured and must pay the doctor's bill, as well as provide compensation when the patient recovers. Murder of a free man must also be compensated by four slaves, manslaughter by two. The death penalty is applied only in case of bestiality. 1/Gurney. 88, 95, 100. 2/Sigerist. A history of medicine. 1: 430. 7. 1300-400 B.C. —The earliest part of the Old Testament which probably originated during this period (some authors, however, date it to the llth-5th century B.C., or even to the years 1000-100 B.C.) mentions that murder, parricide, cursing of the father or mother, kidnaping, bestiality, necromancy, blasphemy, adultery, incest and homosex- uality were punished by death. Some references to medicolegal problems, in connection with injuries, virginity, rape, etc., are also given. 1/Cameron. 2/Mende. 36 (and elsewhere). 8. 900-600 B.C. —The Dahrma-shastra, the science of law or the Code of Manu, India, forbade the corporal punishment of pregnant women. The same code ordered punishment for adultery by amputation of the nose. This apparently led to the practice of rhinoplasty in India, which had already been described in Sushruta Samhita (2nd cent. A.D.?) 1/Greval. 32. 2/Castiglioni. 93. 9. 715-673 B.C. —The Lex regia of Numa Pompilius ordered Caesarean section after the death of a pregnant woman [Negat lex regia, mulierem quae praegnans mortua sit humari antequam partus excidatur] 1/Friedreich. 2/Garrison. 809 (dates it to the year 600 B.C.). 2 10. 6th cent. B.C. —Solon (ca. 638-ca. 558 B.C.), Athenian statesman, legislator and poet, rescinded in 594 severe Draconian code (621 B.C.) and left in force only the law on homicide. In the new civil code he included the provision that the last wills of insane persons are invalid. 1/Sarton. 2/Biographie universale. 3/Encycl. Brit. 20: 954-£. 11. Ca. 500 B.C. —Alcmaeon of Crotona (a Dorian colony in southern Italy), Greek natural philosopher and physiologist, is the first known person to have practiced dissection for scientific purposes. He was trying to discover "the seat of intelligence" and reached the conclusion that it is the brain. He also studied the functional disturbances caused by lesions of the brain, distinguished veins from arteries, etc. He is frequently considered the founder of physiology and also of what was later called experimental psychology. 1/Castiglioni. 135-6. 2/Ackerknecht. 56-7. 3/Sigerist. A history of medicine. 2: 101-4. States that Alcmaeon lived probably in the first half of the 5th century. 12. Ca. 450 B.C. —Deuteronomy, the fifth book of the Bible which recapitulates the law already recorded in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, contains some indications that Jewish physicians participated as expert witnesses in the execution of Mosaic law. The date of its origin (as that of other books) is still disputed. 1/Encycl. Brit. 7:321-3. 2/Oesterlen. 166. 3/Placzek. 730. 13. 449 B.C. —The Leges duodecim tabularum in Rome contained several provi- sions of medicolegal importance, namely: a) The time of gestation cannot exceed 300 days. b) The fetus in utero has the same rights to the estate of its father as the child already born. c) Insane persons and their estates are the responsibility of their clansmen. d) For personal injuries, either talio or fixed monetary compensa- tion is permitted. e) Paterfamilias (the chief of a clan) has ius vitae necisque, i.e., he may decide about the need to kill a severely deformed child. Of interest to the history of dentistry is the provision that the placing of gold in tombs is forbidden, except when it is in the teeth of deceased. 1/Brittain. Origins of legal medicine. Roman law: Lex duodecim tabularum. 2/Garrison. 809. 3/Castiglioni. 192-3. 4/Brakel. 1. 3 14. 5th-4th cent. B.C. —Hippocrates (ca. 460-ca. 377 B.C.), Greek physician of Cos and considered to be the "father of medicine", about 415 B.C. wrote an aphorism, De vulneribus lethalibus, one of the earliest works of medicolegal importance. He is also credited with the first known description of epilepsy {De sacro morbo) which stresses its natural (and not supernatural) origin. Of medicolegal interest are also his writings on quackery, fractures, dislocations and wounds of the head. Hippocrates' alleged contributions to medical ethics are of everlasting value. This is especially true of his Oath, the basis of medical ethics, even at present. This same subject is treated in his following publications: Law; Decorum; Precepts; The physician. 1/Kopp. 179. 2/Glaister. The history of medical jurisprudence. 318. 3/ Castiglioni. 156. 4/Sigerist. A history of medicine. 1: 287. 5/Barns. 15. 4th cent. B.C. —Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), in his Politics, wrote regarding the fetus that "... in the case of male children the first movement usually occurs ... about the fortieth day, but if the child be a female, then ... about the ninetieth day." He approved of abortion up to this point and recommended it as a means of controlling the growth of the population. His theory about the movement of the fetus has influenced lately the teaching of the Church, especially the teach- ing of Thomas Aquinas, and has led to the distinction between fetus "animatum" and "unanimatum". As to the duration of pregnancy, he stated in his De historia animalium that it is uncertain and varies with circumstances. Under this pronouncement it was thought that gestation could last as long as 11 months. 1/Engelhardt. 2/Oesterlen. 608-10. Mende. 51-4. 3/Kopp. 78. 4/ Sigerist. A history of medicine. 1: 230-1. 16. 4th cent. B.C. —In Rome, Lex Aquilia provided for the supervision of physicians and stated that a physician who has been negligent in his operation on a slave, is responsible for the slave's death. 1/Castiglioni. 196, 226. 17. 4th cent. B.C. —Diodes (ca. 375-300 B.C.), famous physician of Athens, wrote in his treatise on embryology that a child born in the seventh month of pregnancy may be able to survive, an opinion that was accepted only after several centuries. He made extensive studies of anat- omy but considered the heart the central organ of the body and the seat of mental disease. 1/Mende. 51^. 2/Kopp. 3/Ackerknecht. 67. 4 18. 4th or 3rd cent. B.C. —Arthashastra [Indian Wisdom of Practical Life] contains some material of medicolegal interest. 1/Reddy. 19. 2nd-lst cent. B.C. —Mithradates VI, Eupator (ca. 130-63 B.C.), King of Pontus, ac- quired considerable experimental knowledge of poisons and their antidotes. The most famous of these antidotes (Mithridaticum), which supposedly contained 36 ingredients, preserved his name for centuries. Mithradates poisoned some members of his family as well as several of his enemies. His experiments were conducted mostly on condemned criminals. His court physician, Crataeus (ca. 100-60 B.C.) wrote important works, especially on the use of poisons and antidotes. 1/Castiglioni. 187. 2/Encycl. Brit. 15: 621-2. 3/Med Leg Crim Rev (Lond) 13:120, 1945. 20. 81 B.C. —The Lex Cornelia de siccariis et veneficiis, one of the series of Leges Corneliae promulgated by dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 B.C.), ordered punishment of healers for malpractice and poisoning. Professional poisoning had already been a serious menace to Rome for a long time. The Roman praetor C. Maennius, in the 3rd century B.C., presented in person to the members of the Senate 3,000 prisoners condemned for poisoning. 1/Schwarzacher. 1703. 2/Placzek. 742. (Gives 83 B.C.) 3/Janovsky. 12. 21. 1st cent. B.C. —Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, who travelled in Egypt during 60-57 B.C. and who later published Bibliotheca historica (40 books, most of them lost), states in his work (i, 82, 3) that Egyptian physicians were bound to follow the treatment laid down by ancient physicians in sacred books, and were condemned to death for departing from it. Three hundred years before him, however, Aristotle stated that they were allowed to alter the treatment after the fourth day (Pol. iii, 1286 A 13). 1/Encycl. Brit. 7: 462. 2/Mende. 37-9. 22. Ca. 45-44 B.C. —Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 B.C.) described in Tusculanae dispu- tationes four degrees of excitement which, if exaggerated, can lead to "sickness of the soul". They are: aegritudo (discomfort), metus 5 (fear), voluptas (pleasure) and libido (strong desire). The result could be irrational behavior. 1/Cicero. 23. 44 B.C. —According to the Roman historian, Caius Suetonius Tranquillus, the dead body of Caius Julius Caesar was examined by the physician Antistius. He found and described 23 wounds, the second of which was fatal. This was apparently a private examination, since no obduction was required at that time. 1/Mende. 59 24. 1st cent. A.D. —Students of the Rabbi Ishmael boiled the body of an executed prostitute and counted the bones, finding a total of 252. From the same period we have Ishmael's report that the Ptolomaic Queen Cleopatra sent her executed female slaves to the king for anatomi- cal examination. He opened the bodies in order to study fetal development. 1/Jakobovits. The dissection of the dead. 219-8. 25. 1st cent. —Pedanius Discorides of Anazarbos near Tarsis in Cilicia, assembled all the pharmacological ideas of his time in a work entitled, De universa medicina. It was considered for centuries a leading text of pharmacology, mentioning about 600 plants as well as a number of animal products and minerals. Its sixth book, De venenis, contains descriptions of poisons and antidotes. The work also includes a description of opium. 1/Castiglioni. 215-7. 2/Encycl. Brit. 16: 814. 3/Skinner. 142. 26. 25-35 —Aulus Cornelius Celsus (1st cent. A.D.), encyclopedist and the greatest medical writer of Rome, completed his De re medicina libri octo. Only a brief treatise on the lethality of wounds, and partly a chapter on melancholy and mania, are of medicolegal importance. Celsus considered it necessary for students of medi- cine to open dead bodies and apparently attended some autopsies himself. His work was not properly appreciated in his lifetime, and later fell into total oblivion. It was rediscovered in 1443 by Tomaso Parentucelli of Sarzana (later Pope Nicholas V) and printed in 1478 in Florence. Widely known during the Renaissance, it had a great impact on the further development of medicine. 1/Castiglioni. 204-13. 2/Skinner. 98. 6 27. 54-68 -During the rule of Emperor Nero a personal physician to the Emperor, under the title archiater, was appointed. This position was given to Andromachus the Elder. Archiatri were then also appointed as civil servants to take care of the health of the people of Rome and of other cities. Later they all formed Collegium medicum which consisted of two groups: archia- tri palatini (physicians at the imperial court) and archiatri popu- lares (physicians elected by city magistrates and citizens). 1/Kopp. 181. 2/Mende. 62. 28. lst-5th cent. Medicolegal expertise was practiced in Egypt at that time. 1/Cattabeni. 29. 2nd cent.* 30. 2nd cent. -Rules for the training and ethical conduct of physicians in India are described in Susruta Samhita. Susruta also advocated the dissection of dead bodies as indispensable for the successful sur- geon. 1/Chakravorty. 2/Castiglioni. 95. *Historians greatly differ about the time of Susruta's origin. Some of them say (e.g. Muthu) that it was written about 1,000 years B.C. Others date it about 500 A.D. (e.g. Ackerknecht). -Soranus of Ephesus (ca. 98-138), learned Graeco-Roman gynecolo- gist in Alexandria and later in Rome, in his book, Gynecology, describes contraceptives and abortifacients, advises on how to destroy the embryo and gives the following three reasons for abortion: adultery, maintaining feminine beauty, and avoiding danger to the mother when the uterus is too small. He approves of it only in the last case. In his works on acute and chronic diseases he recommends treatment for phrenitis, mania and melancholy. 1/Noonan. 3-^. 2/Castiglioni. 202-3. 31. 130 -Testimony of a physician of a Greek village, Gajus Manicius Valerianus, before the court concerning the origin and degree of a wound. The oldest known written medical opinion (in Greek). 1/Simili. Sulle origini. 753^. 2/Bloch. 32. 146-211 -In this period in Rome under Severus Septimus, a license was required from a municipal council for a physician to practice medicine. 1/Jakobovits, I. The physician in Jewish law. 180. 7 33. 2nd cent. —Claudius Galen of Pergamon (ca. 138-201), Greek physician and founder of experimental physiology, wrote Quomodo morbum si- mulantes sint deprehensi, the first known treatise to be entirely concerned with a medicolegal topic. He wrote it in order to show that medical knowledge is needed to detect malingering and, therefore, that the cooperation of a physician with administrator or court of justice is indispensable. For this reason O. Oesterlen calls him "Begriinder der gerichtlichen Medicin." Other of Galen's works of medicolegal interest are: De formatione foetus and De partu septimestri. He also mentions in his work the fact that fetal lungs will float on water if respiration has taken place—the statement which led to experiments with pulmonary docimasia in the 2nd half of the 17th century. He laments the prejudice which prevents dissection of the human body. 1/Oesterlen. 167. 2/Ann Med Leg 6:8, Jan 1926. 3/Pagel. 4/Castig- lioni. 223. 34. 2nd cent. —Caelius Aurelianus, physician of Sicca, Numidia, probably the contemporary of Galen (some historians, however, put him into the 4th cent.) and best known for his translations of works of Soranus of Ephesus into Latin, wrote a book On acute and chronic diseases. In a chapter concerning mental illness (De furore sive insania, quam Graeci maniam vocant) he gives the definition of mania and then his opinion about its treatment which sounds quite modern. According to him, patients should be kept unchained, active (both physically and mentally), not treated by starvation, bleeding, application of cold, etc. His ideas were forgotten, but rediscovered and acknowledged in the 16th century. 1/Ullersperger. 25. 2/G6rriz. 3/Cumston. 134-52. 4/Caelius Aureli- anus. 534-59. 35. 2nd-6th cent. —Babylonian Talmud contains one of the earliest known regulations concerning criminal responsibility of the mentally ill: "A deaf- mute, an idiot, and a minor are awkward to deal with, as he who injures them is liable, whereas, if they injure others they are exempt". Moreover, it (esp. Mishna and Gemara) contains several provisions on medicolegal expertise of different kinds. 1/Quen. 43. 2/Laval. 36. 3rd cent. —Chinese annals from the 3rd century record the delivery of a child by means of an abdominal incision, and the survival of both mother and child. During the middle-ages this operation was labeled "caesarean section" in a wrong assumption that Caius 8 Julius Caesar was born by the application of this surgical interven- tion. 1/M., L.C. 37. 3rd cent. —In China, a physician named Wu P'u was able to settle legal cases by means of his knowledge of medicine. This is the first known mention of any relation between the law and medicine in China. 1/Lee, T. Achievements of Chinese medicine in the Ch'in (221-207 B.C.) and Han (206 B.C-219 A.D.) dynasties. 38. 3rd-7th cent. —Hebrew manuscript, ascribed to Asaph Judaeus (or Asaph ben Besachiach) includes the deontologic sermon that he imposed on his pupils. It is similar to that of the Hippocratic Oath. 1/Rosner. 39. 3rd-7th cent. —Vendidad (Antidemonic Law), the priestly code of Parsees and part of Zend-Avesta, sacred text of Zoroastrism, mentions three cate- gories of physician: knife doctors, herb doctors and conjuring doctors (psychiatrists). It states that they must be examined before starting their practice; fixes fees for their services, and penalties for malpractice. The examination consisted of the treat- ment of three heretics. If the candidate failed to cure even one, he was rejected. 1/Ibanez. 489. 2/Sigerist. History of medical licensure. —Arthaschastra, written by Kautilya, Chancellor to the Indian Prince Tschandragupta, contains some medicolegal provisions con- cerning postmortem examination of human bodies in cases of sudden death. 1/Muller, R. F. G. —The Provincial Church Council in Elvira (Spain) decreed that the woman who committed adultery, must be excluded from the Christian community for her whole life. 1/Ver Deutsch Zschr Staats-Arzneikd (Freiburg) N.F. 3: 109, 1848. —The first known reference to anesthesia is in the treatise De Trinitate, by St. Hilary of Poliers. He says: "The soul can be lulled 40. Ca. 300 41. 305 42. Ca. 350 9 to sleep by drugs, which overcome the pain and produce in the mind a deathlike forgetfulness of its power of sense." 1/Cohen. 43. 43. 438 —Theodosius II (401^50), East Roman Emperor, promulgated a collection of imperial constitutions for the benefit of public offi- cials, called Codex Theodosianus. It includes the provision that a pregnant woman may not be executed. Her pregnancy had to be ascertained by the midwives. 1/Mende. 69, 73. 2/Encycl. Brit. 22: 60. 44. Ca. 475 —Lex Visigothorum, also called Codex Euricianus was promulgated by King Euric for Western Goths in Spain. The status of physi- cians and of contemporary medicine in the country is delineated in Titulus I. Liber XI: De medicis et egrotis. The medical profession was organized, recognized and regulated. Excessive phlebotomy could lead to punishment for malpractice. Induced abortion and any kind of infanticide were punished. The code distinguishes between "foetus formatum et informem". It is the oldest among the so-called Leges barbarorum of interest to the history of medicine. 1/Amundsen. 2/Mende. 86-7. 3/Janovsky. 18-9. 45. 486-511 —The Lex Salica, a code of penal laws, one of the oldest among the Leges barbarorum, was promulgated for Salic Franks by King Clovis, the founder of the Merovingian dynasty in France. The code speaks about injuries caused by poisoned arrows, head injuries, injuries of bones, injuries in pregnancy and rape. It admits physicians as expert witnesses before the courts, sets monetary compensation (Wergeld) for injuries and mentions the costs of treatment. 1/Oesterlen. 169. 2/Mende. 83^. 3/Encycl. Brit. 19: 877-8. 46. 5th or 6th cent. —The manuscript, De adventu medici ad aegrotum, is one of the earliest deontological texts. Originated apparently in Salerno. 1/Stroppiana. 47. 6th cent. —Theodoric (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths and conqueror of Italy, renewed the ancient Roman institution of comes archiatrorum and 10 prescribed the wording of the oath which persons appointed to that position were supposed to take. The oath, called then For- mula comitis archiatrorum, was inspired apparently by Theo- doric's "magister officiorum," Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodo- rus, and it is considered the earliest known code of medical ethics from the beginnings of Christianity. 1/Castiglioni. 292. 48. 528-534 —Justinian I (482-565), Byzantine Emperor, decided to put proper order into the confused juridical system of his empire and in 528 ordered the famous lawyer Tribonianus (d. 545) to head a commis- sion of lawyers to achieve this enormous task. The commission first had to assemble the imperial constitutions. It revised the texts of old codices (e.g. Codex Gregorianus, Hermogen- ianus and Theodosianus), included other imperial legislation and presented the work, called Codex Justinianeus, in 529. It was promulgated but soon revised and its final text announced in 534. A new commission, formed in 530, again under Tribonianus, submitted in 533 Digesta or the Pandectae, 20 books of imperial legislation and of opinions of authorities excerpted from about 2,000 law books. In the same time Tribonianus worked with two other teachers of law on a textbook of law and submitted, also in 533, four books of Institutiones. The last compilation, intended to bring the codification up-to-date, was called Novellae. It consisted of 12 books of 174 new provisions (mostly the decisions of imperial courts) and was proclaimed in 534. The Justinian codification in its entirety originally did not have any specific name. From the beginning of the 13th century on, however, the term Corpus iuris civilis was used for it to distin- guish it from the canon law. The Corpus iuris civilis is of great importance to the history of medicine in general and the history of legal medicine specifically. Its provisions concern pregnancy, abortion, caesarean section, rape, pederasty, incest, simulation, insanity, castration, witchcraft and other medicolegal topics. 1/Janovsky. 13-16. 2/Placzek. 732. 3/Cath. Encycl. 9: 66-8; 29: 670 ff. 4/New Cath. Encycl. 8: 99. 5/Pfordten. 49. 6th cent. —Chinese tradition holds that a famous doctor, Hsu Chich-Ts'si, wrote the Ming Yuan Shih Lu, the world's first treatise on forensic medicine in this century. Unfortunately, it is lost. 1/Lee, T. Achievements of Chinese medicine in the Sui (589-618 A.D.) and T'ang (618-907) dynasties. 11 . 6th cent. —Saint Gregory of Tours (538-594), whose real name was Gregorius Florentinus, priest (bishop) and historian, says in his Historia Francorum that physicians in France were sometimes summoned as expert witnesses by the courts. This is in accord with the provisions of Lex Salica. 1/Mende. 84-7. 2/Encycl. Brit. 10: 907-8. 51. 613-623 —Pactus Alamanorum, a code of laws, was compiled by King Clotaire II and promulgated by a Frankish assembly. About 100 years later a Lex Alamanorum, patterned after Pactus, was issued by Duke Lantfrid (?) and became Frankish law. In its Tit. XIX on injuries it classifies wounds and regulates compensation accordingly. Partici- pation of physicians in the treatment is mentioned, as well as their expertise. 1/Mende. 84-5. 2/Placzek. 733. 3/Encycl. Brit. 10: 240. 4/Oesterlen. 169. 52. 643 —Rothari, King of Lombardy, promulgated a code of laws, called Edictus Rotari. It contains the provision that a fixed fine of silver should be paid for blows and injuries to servants, whether of officials or peasants; the fine includes also payment to the physi- cian. If an insane person committed a murder, no compensation was required from his relatives; similarly, no compensation was paid by a person who killed an insane one. 1/Castiglioni. 292. 2/Encycl. Brit. 10: 240. 3/Oesterlen. 171. 53. Ca. 650 —The Koran states, that "the human body may not be opened, even if a person swallowed a pearl of great value which did not belong to him." This was interpreted by Mahomedans as forbidding dissection under any circumstances. 1/Jakobovits. The dissection. 213. 54. 8th cent. —Gabir Ibn Hayyan, outstanding Arabic physician in Kuffa and expert in Greek medical literature, wrote a treatise on poisons. The strongest poison, according to him, is gold in various forms and combinations. 1/Rentsch. 55. 9th cent. —At the start of the century, Charlemagne (742-814) issued his Capitularia, a code of laws which ordered judges to use medical 12 expertise in cases of injury, murder, infanticide, suicide, rape, impotence, and bestiality. All judicial cases had to be decided on the basis of reliable evidence; ordeals were not permitted. 1/Brittain. The history of legal medicine: Charlemagne. 56. 9th cent. —Ishaq ibn 'Ali al-Ruhawi wrote Adab altabib [Practical ethics of the physician] It is based mainly on Hippocrates and Galen. 1/Levey. 57. Ca. 900-950 —Celtic law in Wales was codified by King Hywel Dda. The Code placed a fixed monetary value on everything that could be the subject of a lawsuit. There was a fixed price for every part of the body (galanas). Most valuable was the tongue, because "it defends the rest." Physicians were called by the courts as expert witnesses. Their professional status was recognized. 1/Jones. 2/Cule. 58. 999 —Persian poet Firdausi (Abu al Kasim ibn Sharaf Shah) in his work, Shah Nameh, describes two cases of caesarean section for ob- structed labor. Women in both cases were intoxicated with wine before the operation. 1/Castiglioni. 84. 59. 10th-13th cent. —During the reign of the Sun Dynasty in China, two works of medicolegal interest appeared: Nei Su Lu (Notes on pardons) and Pin Yuen Lu (Ascertainment of innocence). Both of them were used by Sung Tz'u in his Hsi Yuan Lu (Correction of injustice) in 1247. 1/Myronov. 45. —Laws of Canute, Danish King of England, contain provisions concerning injuries and compensation for them. Of special interest is the hand and its digits. 1/Bertelson. 2/Encycl. Brit. 4: 810. — Uiokjip (Collection of works on criminal suspects), a book on forensic medicine, was published in Korea. It probably came from India via China. 60. 1017-1035 61. 1059 1/Miki. 317-24. 13 —The Assizes et bon usages du royaume de Jerusalem, a code of laws framed for the Kingdom of Jerusalem at the instance of Godfrey de Bouillon, stipulates that the court, in cases of alleged illness of a vassal who was summoned to appear to plead his case, can order an examination of him by a physician, an apothecary and a surgeon. If they do not find any illness or any reason why he must refrain from appearing, he must come before the justice. The code also orders that the body of a murdered man at the request of his representative must be inspected by three men appointed by the Justice and their findings reported. 1/Brittain. The history of legal medicine: The Assizes of Jerusalem. 2/Ortolan. 174. (Gives different compiler.) 63. 1117-1118 —Grdgas (or Graugans), an Icelandic private collection of laws, contains provisions concerning wounds and injuries and compen- sation for them. It defines the "wound" and gives a detailed classification of wounds and injuries. The code considers insane persons as irresponsible for their criminal acts. 1/Placzek. 733^. 2/0esterlen. 170-1. 3/Cieslak. 4/Brockhaus 7: 549- 50. 64. 1131 —The Council of Rheims forbade clerics to practice medicine. The same stricture was imposed on the clerics of Byzantium in 1157. 1/Garrison. 812. 65. Ca. 1140 —A Camaldolese monk, Gratian of Chiusi, Italy, completed, in Bologna, his work, Concordia discordantium canonum, a private collection of Church laws (about 3,800 texts) from the earliest times, with his own commentary and attempts to reconcile contra- dictions. It formed the solid basis of canon law, became famous under the name Decretum Gratianum and was widely interpreted by scholars. It remained the first part of the Corpus iuris canonici until 1917, though never adopted by the papal authority as an "authentic" source of canon law. Of special medicolegal interest are some provisions concerning marriage ("causae" 27-36) and witchcraft. 1/New Cath. Encycl 6: 706-9; 3: 41-3. 2/Encycl. Brit. 10: 707. 3/ Oesterlen. 169-70. 66. 1140 —Roger II, King of Apulia and Sicily, proclaimed the law which, in its art. 36, De probabili experientia medicorum, orders that anyone wishing to practice medicine must submit to examination of his 14 medical knowledge. If he does not comply with this provision, he will be punished by imprisonment and confiscation of his goods. The puipose of this provision was to protect his subjects against unqualified practitioners. 1/Garrison. 812. 2/Buchheim. 3/Becher. 1002. 67. 1163 —The Council of Tours decided that, "the Church detests blood" (Ecclesia abhorret a sanguine), which especially delayed the devel- opment of surgery. On the other hand, however, it did free medicine from ecclesiastical influence. 1/Garrison. 812. 68. Ca. 1176 —Statuta ducis Conradi, one of the oldest preserved Slavic codes, was promulgated by Duke Conrad Otto in Moravia. It orders that in a case of water-ordeal only a priest with his cooperator can put the defendant into the water. The priest apparently participated in the ordeal not only as a representative of God but also as a physician (to revive the defendant). Participation of priests in obduction of murdered persons had already been mentioned in Charlemagne's Capitularia. 1/Codex diplomaticus et epistolaris Moraviae. 5: 224-6. 69. 1194 —Office of coroner is mentioned for the first time in the Articles of Eyre. Some historians, however, date it in the year 925. Originally, the coroner in England was called Custos placitorum (keeper of pleas) and had administrative as well as judiciary powers in a county. The first known inquest ordered by a coroner in England in a case of accidental death was in 1265. The Statute of Westminster, promulgated by King Edward I in 1275, contains a section, De officio coronatoris, with the first known provisions concerning that office. After many changes in rights and duties throughout the centuries, the predominant duty of the coroner at present is to inquire, with the help of a jury, into the cause of any death that appears to be due to unnatural causes (coroner inquest). 1/Heddy. 2/Mant. 3/Black's Law Diet. 407-8. 4/Encycl. Brit. 6: 523. 5/ Havard. 70. Before 1200 —The first known indication of the existence of ius cruentationis (Baarrecht; bier-right; jus feretri sive Sandapilae) among the Germanic nations appears in a poem "Iwein", written by a Ger- man poet, Hartmann von Aue (fl. 1180-1210). He mentions in it 15 that the wounds of a corpse started bleeding again. This phenome- non is described also in the famous Nibelungenlied (ca. 1200). Ius cruentationis was originally an ancient custom of Germanic tribes, often invoked by the German courts and based on the firm belief that a cadaver would start to bleed when touched by the mur- derer. It was applied in the courts of Germany until 1750 but was known and practiced also in other countries (e.g. Bohemia, Poland, Scotland and even the North American Continent). 1/Volk. 107-8. 2/Brockhaus 8: 201; 13: 400. 3/Brittain. Cruentation. 4/Blumenstock. 5/Chaille. 401. 71. Ca. 1200 —Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (1135-1204), in Arabic, Abu Imram Musa ibn Maimun, of Cordoba, one of the greatest physicians of the Arabic world, philosopher and Talmudist. Among his numerous works of medicolegal interest are his Treatise on Poisons (1199), prepared at the request of the Sultan and devoted to snake venoms and other poisons and their antidotes, and the treatise on sexual intercourse Ars coeundi, which of all his treatises attained the greatest reputation in his lifetime. Also of great importance is his contribution to Jewish medical ethics. 1/Castiglioni. 277-8. 2/Jakobovits. Jewish medical ethics. 3/Glick. 72. 1207-1245 —The customary law of Normandy in that period mentions expert testimony in cases of illness, rape, pregnancy and obduction of the body of a murdered person. 1/Ortolan. 361-2. 2/Oesterlen. 174. 73. 1209 —Pope Innocent III accepted the expert testimony of physicians in an ecclesiastical court for a case concerning the lethality of a wound. [... peritorum iudicio medicorum talis percussio asseretur non fuisse letalis ...] This decision established a precedent which was often cited and followed by other popes as well as in all European legal orders. 1/Kratter. 666. 2/Oesterlen. 173. (gives the full text). 3/Mende. 91 ff. 74. Ca. 1210 —The College de Saint Come was organized in Paris. It consisted of surgeons of "long robes" and "short robes" (barber-surgeons and barbers). Surgeons of "short robes" were permitted to practice surgery only after taking a special examination. 1/Castiglioni. 403. 16 75. Ca. 1230 —Eicke von Repkow compiled Sachsenspiegel, a collection of custom- ary laws of Saxony. It contains some traces of medicolegal rela- tions. Dissection of the human body was not permitted. The body of a murdered person, however, could be buried only with the permission of the judge; this suggests some kind of inspection of it. 1/Graff. 2/Oesterlen. 170. 76. 1233 —Inquisition, a Church effort to suppress heresy, was organized by a letter from Pope Gregory IX to the bishops in southern France. It lasted for about 400 years. The Pope's decision, however, was only the culmination of efforts which could be traced back to the 4th cent. A.D. The criminal procedure established for trials by inquisitions was applied later in witch trials. 1/Encycl. Brit. 12: 378: 77. 1234 —A code of ecclesiastical law, consisting of decisions of all the popes and of church councils from the earliest times, called Decretales Gregorii IX (5 books), was promulgated by the Pope. It contains several provisions of medicolegal importance. Medical experts were admitted in cases of nullity of marriage, of impotence, pregnancy, caesarean section, delivery, abortion, concealment of pregnancy, infanticide, legitimacy of children, virginity, crimes against persons, witchcraft, torture, etc. The code also contained the so called "proof of congress" provision—attempted intercourse in the presence of witnesses in the case of ecclesiastical divorce for impotentia coeundi. 1/Brittain. The "proof of congress". 2/Ascanelli. 3/Brittain. The origin of legal medicine in Italy. 78. 1238 —Emperor Frederick II ordered that a corpse be dissected every five years to provide material for study at the medical school of Salerno. This is the first known authorization of dissection. 1/Jakobovits. The dissection. 216. 79. Ca. 1240 —Emperor Frederick II, King of Sicily, extended the provisions of Roger II (1140) concerning medical practice. He ordered that the candidates complete three years of study of logic, five years of medicine (including surgery) and then successfully pass an exami- nation. Only then did they receive a letter which enabled them to practice medicine. 17 1/Becher. 1002. 2/Oesterlen. 173. (Gives 1241). 3/Castiglioni. 321. 4/Jakobovits. The dissection. 216. 5/Brittain. The origin of legal medicine in Italy. 168. 80. 1241 —Jutisches Low, promulgated by Danish King Valdemar II, was in force in Denmark until 1683. Contains provision for compensation for murder and injuries. 1/Placzek. 733. 2/Brockhaus 5: 580. 81. 1247 —Sung Tz'u (1186-1249), the President of the Chinese Supreme Court, published Hsi Yuan Lu [A treatise on correction of injustice], the earliest extant textbook of legal medicine. It served Chinese physicians and lawyers up to this century, although it was unknown in Europe until the end of the 18th century. It describes medical and legal examination of injuries, murderous assaults, death by strangling, drowning, burning, exposure and from sick- ness. It is very detailed in discussing poisons, poisoning and antidotes; contains some traces of forensic dentistry; and outlines inquest procedure. It also contains a statement that the cause of death in drowning is due, first of all, to the penetration of water into the organs of respiration, a fact which was mentioned in Europe for the first time in 1630 and confirmed 130 years later by Morgagni. 1/Douglas. 2/Breitenstein. 3/Giles. 4/Kiel. 5/Lee, T. Achievements ... in the Southern Sung dynasty. 6/ Bergeman. 7/Placzek. 762. 82. 1249 —Ugo Borgognoni de Lucca (Ca. 1160-1252), famous surgeon, took his oath as medicolegal expert of the city of Bologna and gave evidence in a case of abortion before the ecclesiastical court. The following year he was the only surgeon willing to treat an injured nobleman but only after he extracted an oath from the nobleman's relatives and friends that if death occurred, he would not be punished. 1/Brittain. The origin of legal medicine in Italy. 168-9. 2/Kratter. 666. 3/Oesterlen. 174. 4/Castiglioni. 335. 83. 1252 —Statutory provisions of the city of Bologna were among the first in Europe to order expert medical examination in all cases of aggres- sion against the integrity of the human body. They were updated several times (e.g. 1262, 1265, 1292). The city physicians were required to examine the wounds and blows, the cases of suspected poisoning and, if necessary, to do the postmortem. They had to distinguish between ante-mortem and post-mortem wounds and to 18 see the body before its burial. They received daily remuneration for their services. 1/Simili. The beginnings of forensic medicine in Bologna. 91, 94-5. 84. Between 1255 and—The statute De praerogative regis was enacted in England. It 1290 divided mentally disabled persons into two categories: the idiots ("who had no understanding from their nativity") and lunatics ("who had had understanding, but .. . had lost the use of their reason"). The custody of the land of idiots belonged to the king who after providing the idiot with "necessaries", could retain the profit. In the case of lunatics, however, all profits from the land should be spent for the maintenance of the lunatic or returned to him if he came to his "right mind." 1/Brakel. 2. 85. 1260 —Coutume de Paris ou Etablissement de Saint Louis (1215-1270), a book of French common law, mentions the use of surgeons' expertise. It also suppressed the judicial duel and ordeals and replaced them by the testimony of witnesses. 1/Brittain. Origins of legal medicine. The Origin of legal medicine in France. 168. 86. 1272 —Statuta civitatis Ragusii (Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia) mention bodily injuries caused by weapons. No doubt, physicians were called for their opinion but the earliest preserved records of medical exper- tise in the city date only to 1312. 1/Mijovic. 178-9. 87. 1278 —In a royal "rescript" of May of that year are mentioned the surgeons assigned to cases requiring medical expertise in France. 1/Placzek. 735. 88. 1286 —Fra Salimbene da Parma, according to the statement in his diary, performed a post mortem examination to establish the cause of death. This, therefore, preceded the post mortem examination of Bartolo- meo da Varignana (1302) and Mondino dei Luzzi (1315). 1/Fra Salimbene da Parma. 2/Artelt. 19 1295 —The Jus vetus Uplandicum of Sweden required that, in a case of bodily injury, the defendant had to provide the injured person with the necessary medical care and, to this end, offer him three experienced surgeons from whom he could select one. Only then was the defendant absolved from paying Wergeld (blood money). The law describes the qualified surgeon as follows: "Ille est legitimus peritus chirurgus, qui curavit et sanavit ferro inflictum vulnus, ostifragium in vulnere, vulnus in cute, abscissum mem- brum, duplex vulnus, per pectus et tergum inflectum." An opinion of a physician was required in the case of injury of a bone. 1/Mende. 93. 2/Oesterlen. 170. 90. 1300 —In the bull, De sepulturis, Pope Boniface VIII forbade the practice of boiling dead bodies (evisceratio cadaverum eorumque in aqua decoctio). This practice became widespread during the time of the crusades in order to bring the bones of dead warriors for burial in their native countries. The same bull forbade also the dissection of the human body which was practiced, e.g. in Sicily, every five years from 1238. 1/Mende. 89. 2/Dejiny ceskoslovenskeho lekafstvi. 57. 91. 1300 —Statuto Albertino in Verona, Italy, and its annotation (interpreta- tion) of 1302, required registered physicians to report all cases of injury to the "podesta" or to the judge. 1/Pellegrini. 92. 1302 —Bartolomeo da Varignana (d. 1308) was ordered by the Bologna court to perform a postmortem (suspicion of poisoning). The theory of poisoning was rejected. From the same year his signed expert opinion on a case of pregnancy is preserved. 1/Kratter. 666. 2/Simili, A. Un referto medico-legale inedito. 93. 1308 —Wu Yuan Lu [Record of Injustice], the second book on forensic medicine was printed in China. In 1348 it appeared in Korea under the title Sinchung muwonrok and in 1735 in Japan. 1/Kim. 226-34. 94. 1311 —Philip the Fair, King of France, ordered the examination of surgeons, government control of the surgical profession, and the reporting of deaths and injuries by sworn physicians, surgeons, 20 and midwives. He speaks about his "bien aimes chirurgiens, jures en Chastelet de Paris". 1/Kratter. 666. 2/Oesterlen. 174. 3/Placzek. 735. 95. 1312 —From this date on, medical expertise before the courts of Free City of Dubrovnik (Yugoslavia) is often mentioned. 1/Mijovic. 96. Ca. 1316 —Mondino de' Luzzi (12707-1326), an anatomist and statesman of Bologna and lecturer at its university from 1314 to 1324, finished the manuscript of his Anathomia. It was first printed in 1478 in Pa via by Antonio de Carcano, went through forty or more editions and several translations and was used up to the end of the 16th century. Mondino describes in it the postmortem examination of two female cadavers which he dissected publicly in Bologna in 1315. He did not touch their brain for fear he would commit a mortal sin by opening the "seat of soul." 1/Kratter. 666. 2/Kopp. 183. 3/Castiglioni. 341-5. 97. 1319 —The first known criminal prosecution for "body snatching" was initiated in Bologna. Those involved were four local students and their master, one Albert. 1/Osler. 106. 98. Ca. 1320 —The Book of Rosenberg (Kniha Rozmberskd), the oldest preserved Bohemian collection of Provincial Law, classifies wounds in con- formity with contemporary medical knowledge as bruises, greater bruises, open wounds and bleeding wounds. Special attention was paid to chromota (injury resulting in complete or partial paralysis). No participation of physicians in the court is mentioned but no doubt they were consulted, since the estimation of degree of injury was necessary for the decision concerning compensation. 1/Brandl. 51-2, 80-1, 87. 99. 1326 —Pope John XXII (1316-1334) in Avignon issued the bull, Super illius specula, against the practice of magic. It authorized the full use of inquisitorial procedure by the Church against witches. The main effort of the inquisitors for the following one century and a 21 half, however, had been directed mostly against the witches of the Alps and Pyrenees. 1/Trevor-Roper. 26-7. —John of Luxemburg, King of Bohemia, hired a French physician in Breslau to treat his eye. When the physician's treatment failed, the king ordered that he be drowned in the River Oder. Back in Prague, the king hired an Arabian physician who accepted that position only when a guarantee was given to him that he would not be held responsible for the outcome of the treatment. 1/Matousek. M. Le royaume de Boheme. 39. 2/Hasner. 10. —Gentile da Foligno (d. 1348), professor at the University of Padua and known especially for his work on plague, performed a public dissection in Padua. 1/Castiglioni. 332, 357. 2/Brittain. The origin of legal medicine in Italy. 169. —A Polish code of laws, Statuta Wislica, states that the mentally ill and subnormal are not criminally responsible. 1/Wollen. 103. Before 1348 —Gentile da Foligno (d. 1348) wrote a treatise on the permissibility of induced abortion. It was not printed until 1520. 1/Amerio. 104. 1348 —Sinchung muwonrok [Newly revised edition of record of no wrong doing], a book of medicolegal contents was published in Korea. 1/Kim. 226-34. 105. Ca. 1360 —Magister Gallus (Mistr Havel), a Canon of Strahov Monastery in Prague, lectured on medicine and astronomy at the University of Prague. A prolific writer, he was author of the famous Missum imperatori (report to the Emperor Charles IV on the plague around 1371) and of "Regimen sanitatis" for the Emperor, and issued several expert testimonies in cases of diseases (e.g. leprosy) and injuries. 1/Dejiny ceskoslovenskeho lekafstvi. 81. 2/Hasner. 13-14. 3/Zapletal. 22 100. 1337 101. 1341 102. 1347 1363 —The first book of Guy de Chauliac's (d. 1368) famous Chirurgia magna was devoted to anatomy. He was one of the first to point out the error of medieval medicine in separating itself from surgery. 1/Kopp. 183. 2/Ibaiiez. 523. 107. 1368 —Anatomical dissections were authorized by the Great Council of Venice. 1/Kopp. 183. 108. 1374 —The Medical Faculty at Montpellier obtained from the Pope permission to open human cadavers. A. Castiglioni, without giving any source of his information, states that "The dissection of human bodies, only one or two a year and usually of executed criminals, was carried on (at the Medical Faculty) after 1340." 1/Derobert. 2/Kopp. 183. 3/Castiglioni. 338. 4/Brittain. Origins of legal medicine. The origin of legal medicine in France. 172. 109. 1404 —Public dissection of the body of a man in Heiligen-Geist Hospital in Vienna was performed by Professor Galeazzo de Santa Sophia, which lasted one week. lAVolkart. 110. 1409 —The first insane asylum was established in Valencia, Spain. 1/Bassoe.—F. H. Garrison and some other authors erroneously give credit to Seville. 111. 1411 —A letter from that year, preserved in the archives of Frankfurt, a.M., pleads for the release of a midwife from imprisonment and motivates the plea by statement of the midwife's expertise, namely, that she delivered by caesarean section seven children. All of the children and their mothers, remained alive and well. 1/Feis. 112. 1426 —The Emperor Sigismund of Germany ordered that "all the cities of his empire must appoint a chief physician, who will be paid 100 florins per year, will be generous in the distribution of medica- 23 ments without charge and will prove the dignity of his office by the industriousness and fidelity shown in executing his duties." 1/Sand, R. 302. 113. 1447 —Vaclav of Prachatice, doctor of medicine, sued Pavel Zidek (Ca. 1413-1471), professor of the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Prague, on behalf of the Faculty of Medicine of the same Univer- sity. Zidek had publicly declared that "all physicians are killers of the human race" and he was ordered to apologize for that offense. 1/Perinka. 766. 2/Vinaf. 65. 114. 1449 —Wundschauordnung of the city of Basel ordered inspection of injuries by physicians. Its promulgation marked the beginning of legal medicine in the city. 1/Guggenbuhl. 115. Ca. 1450 —Church inquisitor, John Nider, wrote Formicarius, probably the first popular essay on witches. It was based principally on confes- sions of Swiss witches collected by a Swiss magistrate, Peter of Berne. It was the predecessor of Malleus maleficarum (1487). 1/Trevor-Roper. 27. 116. 1452 —Hebammenordnung (Ordinance for Midwives) was promulgated in the City of Regensburg, Germany. It is the oldest preserved ordinance of that kind, and was revised and extended in 1477 and in 1555. The last revision mentions that midwives were supposed to take a written examination before their admission to practice and were required to pay a fee. They were ordered to call for the help of a doctor of medicine in difficult cases. 1/Wegscheider. 881. 117. 1460 — Pfolspeundt, a former wound surgeon in the wars of Teutonic Order with Poland, included in his manuscript the first known reference to gunshot wounds. It consists of brief instructions for the use of sonde in the extraction of bullets and bone splinters. 1/Yale J Biol Med 4: 19, Oct 1931. (Footnote). 24 118. 1468 —A physician of Zurich, Hans von Toggenburg, succeeded in remov- ing the point of an arrow from the body of Mathias Corvinus, King of Hungary. The point was in the King's body for four years. There was an agreement before the operation that the physician, if he succeeded, would be richly compensated; if he failed, it would cost his head. 1/Cas Lek Cesk 75: 737, 1936. 2/Billroth. 22 (cites Sprengel who calls him Hans von Dockenburg, a wound-surgeon of Alsace). 119. 1471 —The postmortem examination of the body of George of Podebrady, King of Bohemia, revealed the liver half-destroyed, and a stone the size of a pigeon egg in the gallbladder. The names of the physicians who conducted this examination are unknown. 1/Denis. 115. 120. 1477 —The first known case of identification of a dead body by the teeth. Charles the Bold was found naked and disfigured after the battle of Nancy; he was identified on 6 points, the most important of which was the absence of a lower'tooth lost in a previous fall. 1/Harwey. 335. 121. 1481 —Pope Innocent VIII issued the bull Summis desiderantes in which he denounced the spread of witchcraft in Germany and authorized two Dominican monks, Jacob Sprenger and Heinrich Kraemer (Institoris), the Chief of Inquisitors for Germany, to eradicate it, i.e., to "detect and punish those persons who had abandoned themselves to the devils, the 'incubi' and 'succubi', who had slain infants ..." The bull was interpreted as a general mandate for witch hunting and considered official recognition of the demonol- ogy. The encyclopedia of the Church's demonology, Malleus malefi- carum [Hammer of Witches] was authored by the two monks and appeared three years later. It became the bible of witch hunters for about 300 years and was republished many times. It created a monstrous theory with Satan the central figure, "incubi" and "succubi", pacts of men with the devil, witches and their crimes, their "sabbats" (assemblies to worship the Devil), intercourse with the devil, etc. At first there was some aversion to the bull as well as to the book but the opposition succumbed slowly to the pressure of fanatics and to the inimical attitude of society toward witchcraft. During the 300 years of witch hunting, physicians became involved in witch trials and, from the start of medicolegal literature until the close of 18th century, witchcraft became one of the important subjects of legal medicine. 1/Trevor-Roper. 24 ff. 2/ Ellinger. 25 122. 1492 —A book, De venenis. Ed. Dominicus de Canali (Venetiis, Bernardi- nus Rizus Novariensis) was published. Its author, Sante Arduino (fl. 1400-1450) of Pessary, Italy, a physician and philosopher in Venice, wrote it between 1424 and 1426 and was apparently dead at the time of its printing. The book consists of two parts. The first, since Arduino speaks about forensic sections in cases of suspected poisoning, is devoted to the history of legal medicine (and toxicol- ogy). 1/Biogr. Lex. 5: 18. 2/Dict. encyclop. sci. med., 1868, v. 6: 39^0. 123. 1494 —In the city of Trutnov, Bohemia, a man suspected of the murder of his wife was found guilty because the dead body bled in his presence. This is the first known case of the application of ius cruentationis in the Kingdom of Bohemia. Its use, however, was limited to the domain of city laws. Two cases are reported from Prague, one in 1591 and another six years later. 1/Hajek. Vyvoj a stav soudniho lekafstvi. 146. 124. 1495 —Gabriele de Zerbis (1445-1505), professor of anatomy at the Univer- sity of Padua, published Opus perutile de cautelis medicorum (Venice), which was then republished several times. It was the best work of its time on medical ethics. In it the author was trying to elevate the moral standards of the medical profession. He stressed that the physician must have good character, dignity, politeness, discretion and modesty. 1/Miinster. 125. 1497 —Nicolo da Lonigo, called Leonicenus (1428-1524), great clinician and founder of the school in Ferrara, published Libellus de epide- mia quam vulgo morbum gallicum vocant (Venetiis, in domo Aldi Manutii). It describes a great pandemic of syphilis and mentions that some autopsies on syphilitics were conducted. 1/Castiglioni. 373-5. 126. Ca. 1500 —Symphorien Champier (1471/2-ca. 1539), distinguished and enlight- ened French physician and philosopher, published Dialogus in magicarum actium destructionem (Lugduni). He believed in witch- craft but stated that witches confessed more falsehood than truth and, therefore, asked the judges to "diligently investigate the causes of these things and whether the witches are deluded." He urged that skilled physicians be called in to determine whether 26 disordered fancy leads to falsehoods, and if so, that witches be cured with medicine ... and helped with exorcism. 1/Lea. 1: 354. —Jacob Nufer, a pig-gelder in Switzerland, performed a successful Caesarean section on his own wife. The case was mentioned in 1586 by Caspar Bauhin (1560-1624) as the first known operation of this kind performed on a living woman. We know, however, that Bauhin was wrong because caesarean section was already prac- ticed on living women before the Christian era by the Romans and the Hebrews, and very early by the Chinese. . 1/Bazala. 293. 2/M., L.C. 3/Wegscheider. 890. 4/Skinner. 84. 128. 1502 —Medizinahrdnung was promulgated by Bishop Laurenz of Bibra for the Diocese of Wiirzburg. It was published in Latin and German and is probably the first ordinance concerning medicine and the status of physicians in the territory of Germany. 1/Mende. 112. 129. 1507 —Johann (Stark) von Schwarzenberg (1463-1528) drafted the Bam- bergische Halsgerichtsordnung (Constitutio Bambergensis, later also called Mater Carolinae), which was promulgated by George, Bishop of Bamberg. It ordered judges to summon physicians in certain criminal cases (e.g. infanticide, head injuries) and in cases of malpractice. Its sources were Germanic national laws (especially those of South Germany), but other laws also contributed. The Code was revised several times, adopted in other German states (e.g. 1516 in Brandenburg) and became the basis of the famous Constitutio criminalis Carolina. 1/Kopp. 184. 2/Oesterlen. 175. 3/Polsky. 4/Nearly all publications on the history of legal medicine mention the role of von Schwarzen- berg, and his draft. 130. 1507 —Antonio Benivieni (ca. 1440-1502), outstanding physician of Flor- ence and pioneer of reforms in medicine, wrote De abditis nonnul- lis ac mirandis morborum et sanationum causis which was pub- lished posthumously (Florentiae, opera et impensa Philippi Giun- tae Florentini, 1507). This important book also contains notes on twenty autopsies conducted in an effort to find the internal causes of diseases. Benivieni is, therefore, called by some historians of 27 medicine the father of pathological anatomy and is justly regarded as precursor of Morgagni. 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 459-60. 2/Castiglioni. 370. 131. 1509 —In Freiburg i. Br., Germany, a permanent institution for forensic expertise was established. "Four sworn masters" (Geschworenen Vier Meister, or chirurgi iurati) were elected annually. Their opinion in cases of injuries was required and it was binding upon the court. 1/Volk. 110. 132. 1513 — Eucharius Roeslin (d. 1526), originally a physician in Worms and then city physician in Frankfurt a.M., published Der swangem Frauwen und Hebammen Rosegarten (Argentine, Martinus Flach Jr.), the first textbook of obstetrics since the time of Soranus of Ephesus. A compilation from older texts, it was published in many editions, translated several times into English and Dutch and even pirated. Roeslin's book was an important tool for medical expertise of the 16th century. It also contributed to the later emancipation of obstetrics. 1/Wegscheider. 885. 133. 1518 —The Royal College of Physicians of London was established by physician and humanist Thomas Linacre (1461-1524) and ethical principles for the profession laid down. 1/Forbes. Medical ethics. 2/Ibariez. 524. 134. Ca. 1519 —Juan de Morales, surgeon on the "Trinidad", the flagship of Magellan, performed a postmortem examination of the body of an explorer to find out whether the epidemic on board was caused by worms. Only one helminth was found. 1/Moll. 159. 135. 1525 —The Great Court of Naples ordered the determination of materia, i.e. corpora delicti, before courts of justice by means of scientific expertise. 1/Ortolan. 359 (footnote 1). 28 136. 1525 or 1526 —Phillipus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus (1493- 1541), physician, alchemist, and prolific writer, finished De morbis amentium [On diseases which lead to a loss of reason]. This early psychiatric work was published in Basel only in 1567. Paracelsus attributed "witchcraft" to mental illness and stated that "mental diseases have nothing to do with evil spirits or devils ... one should not study how to exorcise the devil, but how to cure the insane." In a later work he reversed himself and stated his belief in the existence of witches but indicated that he preferred to save rather than burn them. 1/Parrinder. 115. 2/Zilboorg. 92 ff. 137. 1528 —Albrecht Diirer (1471-1528), German painter and engraver, pub- lished Vier Bilcher von menschlicher Proportion, the first example of anthropometry in art. It contains excellent sketches of bodies but nothing on dissections. 1/Osler. 160. 138. 1531 —Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1535), German physician, writer and scholar, published De incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum et artium ... (Antwerp) in which he attacked the belief in witchcraft. His views in his university lectures had already evoked the wrath of the Church. It was further aroused when, as a "public orator and advocate" in Metz between 1518 and 1520, he publicly de- fended an accused witch. 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 47-9. 2/Trevor-Roper. 57, 59, 61, 73, 108. 139. 1532 —Emperor Charles V promulgated the Constitutio criminalis Caro- lina (Peinliche Halsgerichtsordnung), a code of criminal law for the whole Roman Empire. It was based mostly on Constitutio Bamber- gensis (1507) but it had also other German and Italian predeces- sors, and the influence of Roman and Canon Law was notable. The code, however, was more advanced than all of them and became a landmark in criminal law as well as in legal medicine. Of importance to legal medicine are especially its articles 35, 36, 131 (infanticide); 37 (poisoning); 59 (ascertainment of condition for the application of torture); 134 (errors of physicians); 147-9 (homi- cide and injury); 135 (suicide); and 164, 179, 219 (insanity). Expert opinion of physicians and midwives was required expressis verbis in art. 35, 36, 147 and 149. No doubt it was applied in other cases as well, but not mentioned because it had been common practice among German judges for a considerable time. Although the Constitutio criminalis Carolina cannot be considered the foundation of legal medicine, it cannot be denied that it 29 recognized medicine as an essential tool for the administration of justice and opened the way for legal medicine to develop as an independent discipline. In this fact lies its great importance for the field. 1/Mende. 94-8, 103, 112. 2/Kratter. 666. 3/Brittain. Constitutio criminalis Carolina. 124-5. 4/Alberti. 140. 1533 —Local authorities on the island of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) ordered a necropsy of Siamese twins to determine whether they possessed one or two souls. The body was opened by a surgeon in the presence of two physicians. 1/Moll. 159. 141. 1537 —The first recorded medicolegal examination by a physician in Russia was made by Feofil, who examined the physical status of Prince Andrei". Andrei" had been called to the Muscovite court but announced that he was unable to comply with the order because of illness. 1/Shershavkin. 22. 2/Garrison. 703 (calls the physician "Maghel"). 142. 1541 —Jean Milles de Souvigny (Joannes Millaeus), French lawyer, "quaestor magnus aquarum sylvarumque omnium Francicarum" and "subprefectus" of the Paris Court of Laws, published his Praxis criminis persequendi (Parisiis, apud S. Colinaeum, Ar- noldum et Carolum Les Angeliers) which also describes acceptable medical reports in cases of murder and bodily injuries. Activities of experts are mentioned on p. 11: "Itaque eiusmodi conquerentes postulant defunctorum corpora ... visitari, ac cir- cumspici, eorumque vulnera a chirurgis pertentari, atque inspici, superque aliusmodi plagis, ac morte secuta inquiri, ac ius sibi reddi." 1/Ortolan. 374. 143. 1542 —The first law against witchcraft in England was promulgated by King Henry VIII, but it chiefly concerned witchcraft used in the search for treasure. There is a record of only one conviction under that law and even in that case the offender was pardoned. The law was repealed in 1547. 1/Rosen, Barbara. 22. 2/Robbins. 243. 30 1543 —Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), a Fleming of German origin, physi- cian, professor of anatomy in Padua and then physician at the Emperor's court, laid the foundation of modern anatomy with his De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (Basel, J. Oporinus). It is one of the greatest medical books ever written. It corrected Galen's errors and under its influence, progress in the study of anatomy continued without interruption. It is the cornerstone of anatomy, as well as of legal medicine. 1/Castiglioni. 418-25. 145. 1543 —Andrea Alciati (1492-1550), Italian lawyer, professor of law in France and Italy and world-wide legal authority, published Parer- gon juris (Basileae). Speaking of witchcraft in it, he says that the powers which are claimed by witches, or which are ascribed to them, are mostly illusions. Witches should be purged with "helle- bore" (an ancient remedy for mental derangements), rather than burned at the stake. He does not believe in the existence of witchcraft and argues against it with the support of the old theological opinions. 1/Trevor-Roper. 57, 61, 127. 2/Lea. 1: 374. 3/Brockhaus 1: 298. 146. 1544 —First known exhumation of a cadaver in Peru for medicolegal purposes. 1/Avendano Hubner. 85-6. 147. 1545 —Marco Antonio Bianchi (1498-1548) published under the name Antonius Blancus his Tractatus de indiciis homicidii (Venetiis, apud Cominum De Tridino Montisferrati). In it he raised the question of the reliability of ius cruentationis in cases of homicide. He was probably the first person who openly voiced such doubts. 1/Brittain. Cruentation. 2/Blumenstok. 148. 1545 —Ambroise Pare (1510-1590), adviser and first surgeon to the King of France, published La methode de traicter les playes faictes par hacquebutes et aultres bastons a feu (Paris, V. Gaulterot)—the most successful treatise on the treatment of gunshot wounds up to that time, widely used and cited. In it he discarded as harmful to patients the treatment of gunshot wounds by the application of hot oil. 1/Helfreich. 4-5. 31 149. 1546 —The first known dissection of a human body at the University of Coimbra, Portugal. 1/Rocha Brito. 150. Ca. 1550-1560 —Cosimo I. de Medici (1519-1574), who restored the university of Pisa, handed over to the anatomists of Pisa (where at that time Fallopius, disciple of Vesalius, worked) 13 criminals condemned to death, for anatomical studies. Apparently vivisection was per- formed on them. 1/Mares. 7. 151. 1554 —Joost de Damhouder (1507-1581), famous lawyer of Bruggs, who held the highest judicial position in Holland during the reign of Charles V and Philippe II, published Enchiridion rerum crimina- lium (Lovanii, ex officina typ. Stephani Gualtheri et Ioannis Bathenii), a textbook of criminal procedure. The same year it was also printed by other publishers under the title, Practica [Praxis] rerum criminalium; it reached several editions and was trans- lated into German, French, and Flemish. In Chapter 77 (De invasions) it describes the form of medical and surgical reports in cases of murder and injury according to the law of Flandres. 1/Mende. 237-238. 2/Ortolan. 374-5 (gives 1551 as the year of publishing). 3/Gaz Med Beige 1: 55, 87, 1843. 152. 1554 —Russian Tsar, Ivan the Terrible, in a letter to a monastery, recorded several instances when autopsies were mandatory to establish the cause of death. 1/Shershavkin. 20-1. 153. 1556 —Henry II, King of France, promulgated the law that any woman who had concealed her pregnancy and destroyed the child, would be condemned to death. She could escape this penalty only if a surgeon testified that the child was not at term or was stillborn. 1/Brittain. Origins of legal medicine. The origin of legal medicine in France. 173. 154. 1556 —Emperor Charles V asked the University of Salamanca "An salva conscientia cadaver humanum ad perspiciendam atque adiscen- dam illius structuram secari possit" and was advised that the 32 dissection of human cadavers serves a useful purpose and is, therefore, permissible to Christians. 1/Mende. 110. 155. 1556 —The first known exhumation in Bohemia was conducted in Melnik on a dead body buried for about one week. 1/Hajek. Soudni lekarstvi. 10-15. 156. 1558 —Guillaume Rondelet (1507-1566), professor of medicine and later also chancellor of the University of Montpellier, founder of its anatomic theatre (1556), published his famous L'histoire entiere des poisons (Lyon), summarizing the achievements of toxicology to his time. This work contributed substantially not only to medicine but also to two as yet unborn disciplines—chemistry and toxicology. Rondelet published extensively on medicine and botany and allied fields. 1/Biogr. Lex. 4: 871. 157. 1559 —English physician, Dr. Heynes, was summoned for trial before the College of Physicians in London for having cast doubt on Galen's infallibility. He was readmitted to the College only after he retracted his "error" in writing. This is one of the last known cases of such defense of Galen. It also shows that the criticism of Galen by professor Nicolo da Lonigo, called Leonicenus (1428-1524) of Ferrara, as well as that of Para- celsus (1493-1541), was not tolerated in England at that time. 1/Ibanez. 494. 158. Ca. 1560 —Jakub Kamenicky, a Protestant minister and physician of Prague, conducted the first pathologo-anatomical dissection in Bohemia, and found gallbladder calculi in the dead body. [This information was published by P. A. Matthioli in Epistolarum Medicinalium Libri Quinque in 1561. Matouskova says that the date of this dissection was around 1550 and that thus Kamenicky actually discovered calculi of the gallbladder before Fernel.] 1/Matouskova, B. 2/Matousek. The influence of Vesalius in Bo- hemia. 159. 1561 —Geronimo (or Girolamo) Cardano (1501-1576), Italian physician to popes and kings, philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer of 33 world fame, published De utilitate ex adversis capienda libri quatuor (Basileae, per Henrichum Petri), in which he included the defense of his son, Giovanni Battista, who was executed in 1560 as a poisoner. Cardano tried to clear his memory by reasoning that there are some persistent states of mind in which human beings are not responsible for any wrongs they cause. 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 829. 2/Encycl. Brit. 4: 889-90. 160. 1561 —Gabriele Fallopio (1523-1562) professor of anatomy and surgery in Padua, published his famous Observationes anatomicae (Venice). He was an outstanding anatomist, equal to Vesalius whom he corrected in some instances. His importance to the field of legal medicine is the same as that of Vesalius. His adversaries accused him of having performed human vivisection. 1/Castiglioni. 425-7. 2/Talbot. 67-8. 161. 1562 —The first known judicial postmortem in France was conducted by Ambroise Pare (1510-1590). 1/Gonzales. 5. 2/Siebenhaar. 1: xx. 162. 1562 —Witchcraft became a capital crime in England by an act of the Parliament. [Some sources have 1563 as the date of its promulgation.] 1/Trevor-Roper. 65. 2/Castiglioni. 498. 163. 1563 —Johann Weyer (ca. 1516-1588), pupil of Erasmus, a physician of the Duke of Cleves, published De prestigiis daemonum et incantationi- bus ac veneficiis libri quinque (Basileae, J. Oporinus). He tried to prove that magicians and "demoniacs" were actually suffering from hysteria and hypochondriasis. He believed, however, in the existence of witches and sorcery, but considered them rare. The reaction of the public was violent. The book was listed in the Index librorum prohibitorum. Weyer was lucky to escape being burned at the stake, and about 1581 was dismissed from his position by the Duke. His second book, De lamiis liber: item de commenticiis ieiuniis (Basileae, ex officina Oporiana, 1577), which supplemented the first and summed his conclusions, compounded the case against him. In it he describes the power of imagination and his own observations and experiences in unmasking cheaters and charlatans. Weyer submitted some witches to clinical examination, observed them from the viewpoint of a pathologist, and concluded 34 that they were not responsible for their behavior. Therefore, he asked for acquittal in such cases, because "the accused is punished enough by his disease." He especially opposed the use of torture in witch trials. Also in this book he stresses his beliefs in the existence of the Devil and—apparently to placate his enemies— even prepared an elaborate scheme of diabolical hierarchy, but witchcraft, he believed, is very rare. Weyer was a leader in the forces against the belief in witchcraft and was the first to succeed in divorcing medical psychology from theology. 1/Overholser. 4. 2/Kornfeld. 606. 3/References to Weyer and his work are in nearly all publications on witchcraft and the history of psychiatry. 164. 1563 —In England, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, an "Act agaynst Conjuracions, Inchantments and Witchecraftes" was passed. It declared invocation and conjuration of evil spirits a felony, and punished witchcraft, enchantment, charms, and sorcery either by prison and pillory or, in certain cases, by death. It was repealed in 1604 and replaced by even more severe provisions. Also in 1563 Mary, Queen of Scots, promulgated a similar act against witchcraft, sorcery, and fortune-telling. 1/Macfarlane. 14. 2/Rosen, B. 23. 3/Robbins. 341. 165. 1564 —Giulio Cesare Aranzio (1530-1589), professor of anatomy in Bo- logna, published De humano foetu libellus (Lugd. Batavorum, F. Lopes de Haro), an important contribution to the advancement of anatomy of the fetus as well as to embryology in general. It reached several editions. 1/Castiglioni. 427-8. 166. Ca. 1565 —Leonardo Fioravanti (1517-1588), physician, medical writer and professor of medicine in Bologna, indicated in his publication that he had performed living dissection on an "infidel" Saracen. 1/Castiglioni. 427. 2/Biogr. Lex. 2: 523. 167. 1565 —An experiment with a poison and its antidote was conducted in Prague on a murderer sentenced to death. He survived and received amnesty, as promised. At about the same time, a similar experiment was performed in Clermont, France, by order of King Henry II. A condemned cook took the poison and the antidote 35 (famous bezoar), but died in the presence of Ambroise Pare who performed the autopsy. As a result of this failure the bezoar was, at the order of the King, thrown into the fire. 1/Wondrak. Lekaf sky pokus na cloveku. 2/Mende. 108-9. 168. 1567 —Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1500-1577) in his Commentarii in sex libros ... Discoridis (1574?) mentions that in 1567 Ferdinand of Austria let his physicians in Prague test the effects of a famed antidote. The subjects of this trial were two persons sentenced to death. The antidote was composed of aconitum and arsenic. This was the second such experiment recorded in Prague. 1/Svagr. 1474. 169. 1575 —Ambroise Pare (1510-1590), the first surgeon to the King of France, published Traicte des rapports, et du moyen d'embaumer les corps morts (Paris, G. Buon). It instructs young surgeons in how to prepare a report to the court in case of death by injury, or in case of impotence or acquired disability. The largest section is devoted to poisoning and the instruction ends with a description of embalming. It is one of the earliest treatises of medicolegal importance in Europe. 1/Pare. 2/Muller, M. H. 170. 1576 —The first recorded necropsy in Mexico, conducted by Juan de la Fuente during an epidemic of typhus. 1/Rev Med Leg Colombia 17 (89/90): 91, Jan/Dec 1962. 171. 1577 —Pathologo-anatomical dissection of a dead woman conducted by three midwives in Litomefice, Bohemia, to find the cause of complications leading to death in childbirth. It was requested by local housewives and permission was granted by the city's govern- ment. 1/Wondrak. O jedne pathologicko-anatomicke pitve. 2/Matousek. The influence of Vesalius in Bohemia. 164. 172. 1578 —Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia (1510-1580), Italian clinician, osteolo- gist, and epidemiologist, published in Venice Methodus dandi relationes pro mutilatis torquendis, aut a tortura excusandis. No copy has survived but the manuscript was preserved in 36 Palermo and published in 1938. The purpose of the work was to inform judges and lawyers about medical problems they face, namely: torture, deformities, poisoning, elephantiasis, length of pregnancy, frigidity and impotence, and multiple birth. It was the largest work of its time, useful especially to Fortunato Fedele (1602). Ingrassia, who taught medicine at the University of Naples and, after 1563, in Palermo, published in Palermo Constitutiones et capitula necnon jurisdictions regii protomedicatus officii cum pandectis eiusdem reformatis (the date is given as 1564 but the earliest known copy is dated 1584), containing predominantly the ordinances of "protomedicus" of Sicily, many of them of medicole- gal interest. 1/Ingrassia. 2/Castiglioni. 429-30. 173. 1580 —German law forbade shepherds and herdsmen to practice obstet- rics on human subjects. 1/Brittain. Constitutio criminalis Carolina. 126. 174. 1580 —Nicolas Lepois (1527-1590) of Nancy, physician to Duke Charles III of Lotharingia, published a book, De cognoscendis et curandis pracipue internis humani corporis morbis libri tres (Francofurti ad Moenum, apud A. Wechelum) in which he stated that "diabolic possession" could be largely accounted for by natural causes, not Satanic influence. He wrote under the pen name Piso. 1/Zilboorg. 100-2. 2/Biogr. Lex. 3: 746. 175. 1580 —Pope Gregory XIII approved as authentic the text of Corpus iuris canonici, a code of ecclesiastical law. It consisted of Decretum Gratianum (ca. 1140); Decretales Gregorii IX (1234); Liber Sextus of Boniface VIII (1298); Clementinae (1317); Extravagantes Ioan- nis XXII (1325) and Extravagantes communes (1500, 1503). This code was in force until 1917. It exerted great influence on secular legislation, especially in Catholic countries, and strengthened the position of medical ex- perts by a maxim, "Medico accreditur in sua medicina". 1/New Cath. Encycl. 4: 348. 2/Brittain. The origin of legal medicine in Italy. (He gives 1582 as the date of approval.) 176. 1581 —Francois Rousset (1535-ca. 1600), surgeon and gynecologist in Paris and one of the first French physicians seriously interested in caesarean operations, published his famous Traite nouveau de 37 I'hysterotomotokie, ou Efantement cesarien ... (Paris, D. Du Val) which reached numerous editions and was translated into Latin and German. In the controversy which followed, Rousset defended his findings and stated that "the operation is not as dangerous as generally believed." 1/Kossmann. 959. 2/Biogr. Lex. 4: 899. 3/Dict. encyclop. sci. med., 3rd ser., 5: 899, 1877. 177. 1583 —A 16-year-old girl near Vienna suffered cramps and was pro- nounced to be possessed by devils. She was brought to Vienna and exorcised by Jesuits, who claimed to have expelled from her 12,652 living demons. 1/Lea. 3: 1050. 178. 1584 —Francesco Casoni (d. 1564) wrote Tractatus malefacii praemeditati secundum oratores, jus divinum et civile. It was published posthu- mously in a collection of legal works, Tractatus, universi juris... (Venetiis, Franciscus Zilettus, 1584-6), v. 11, pt. 1. In it the author speaks about medical expertise "viso et reperto faciendo per peritos." It is the first known use of the term "visum repertum" (report on findings). 1/Mende. 239. 179. 1584-88 —Giuseppe Mascardi (d. 1588), Italian lawyer of fame, published Conclusiones omnium probationum ac quaestionum quae in ut- roque foro quotidie versantur . .. (Venetiis). It reached several editions. The author strongly supports the position of the physi- cian as an expert in a court of law. The physician, as any other professional, knows his art. Only he can diagnose an illness or give an opinion about the health or sickness of a person before the court. Only he—not the judge—can answer a question about the lethality of a wound. His opinion should be respected even in doubtful questions. He knows whether someone died by poison, whether after an injury (esp. of the face) there will be a permanent scar, whether someone is mentally fit to draw his last will. What he finds in his examination is visum et repertum and his reports are called testimonia and relationes. This is probably the most favorable statement of that time by a lawyer on medical expertise and the first work which tries to coin a term for legal medicine. 1/Mende. 492. 2/Placzek. 740. 38 180. 1589 —Dr. Dietrich Flade, Rector of the University of Trier and Chief Judge of the Electoral Court, was lenient in witchcraft trials because he did not believe in confessions gained by torture. By order of the Archbishop of Trier, Johann von Schoneburg, Flade was arrested, accused of witchcraft and participation in witches' sabbaths, tortured till he confessed, then strangled and burned at the stake. 1/Trevor-Roper. 76-7. 181. 1591 —Johann Georg Godelmann (1559-1611), Lutheran jurist and profes- sor at the "Accademia Rostochiana," published Tractatus de magis, veneficiis et lamis (Francofurti, N. Bassaeus). Well docu- mented, it recommends unmerciful treatment of magicians, poi- soners, and witches. Godelman challenged progressive and human- itarian ideas in that field, especially those of Paracelsus and Weyer. His book, very medieval in spirit, became famous and reached several editions. 1/Godelmann. 182. 1592. —The first known trial in England with the defense based on insanity. 1/Bus. 183. 1592 —Interesting document concerning the attitude of society toward suicide is preserved from this year. It is "plaidoyer" by the King's Advocate General before the French Parliament at Tours in a case of suicide (preceded by impotence, murder of wife, and insanity). The speech refers often to the Scripture, cites other theological as well as philosophical literature, and also the opinions of medical authorities. 1/Stone. 184. 1594 —Andreas Libavius (1546-1616), physician and chemist of Halle, published De cruentatione cadaverum et de unguento armario (Francofurti, imp. Petri Kopfii) which greatly strengthened the position of ius cruentationis. One year later he published a text- book, Alchymia, considered the first treatise on chemistry. It reached several editions. 1/Blumenstok. 2/Skinner. 250. 39 —Medical and philosophical faculty of Leyden handed down a decision that water ordeal was no proof of witchcraft since the ability of witches to swim during their immersion was frequently the result of the fact that their hands and feet were bound together, thus serving as a sort of boat and keeping them afloat. Swimming during the water ordeal was considered proof of guilt (i.e., witchcraft). 1/Lea. 2: 893. 186. 1594 —Geronimo Fabrizio d'Aquapendente (ca. 1533-1619), Italian sur- geon, anatomist and physiologist, professor at Padua, built a new anatomical amphitheater in that city. It replaced former provi- sional quarters and survives to the present time. 1/Talbott. 69-71. 2/Castiglioni. 427. 187. 1597 —Severin Pineau (ca. 1550-1619), surgeon of Paris and pupil of Ambroise Pare, published Opusculum physiohgum et anatomicum in duos libelhs distinctum. In quibus primum de integritatis et corruptionis virginum notis, deinde, de graviditate et partu natura- li mulierum ,.. tractatur (Parisiis). It became a textbook on virginity, still cited as an authoritative source in the 19th century. Originally, it was used mostly by midwives and usually (at least in part) included in publications for them. It appeared in numerous editions. 1/Kossmann. 956. 2/Biogr. Lex. 4: 608-9. 188. 1597 —James VI of Scotland (1566-1625), later King of England and Ireland, poet and writer of mediocre quality, and conservative Calvinist, published Daemonologie, in forme of a dialogue (Edin- burgh, R. Walde-grave). It introduced into the country the conti- nental teaching of witch-hunters. The work also contains the information that the ius cruentationis was practiced in Scotland in that time. 1/Brittain. Cruentation. 83. 2/Trevor-Roper. 17, 59, 69-70, 74-5, 78, 82, 90-1, 107, 118. 189. 1597 —Pieter Paaw (1564-1617) of Amsterdam, anatomist, medical writer, and professor in Leyden, founded the first Dutch anatomical theatre at Leyden. 1/Castiglioni. 429-30, 531. 40 —Giovanni Battista Codronchi (1547-1628), physician of Imola, Italy, published his Methodus testificandi (Francofurti), a guide to physi- cians on the preparation and presentation of medical expertise. He wrote on simulated diseases, on certification of wounds, signs of wounds caused by poisonous arrows, poisoning, puberty, impo- tence, virginity, pregnancy, premature birth, abortifacients, dan- gers of pregnancy, and age limits to conception. Enclosed are forms for medical expertise. Two years before, his De morbis veneficis ac veneficiis libri quatuor was printed in Venice. It described illnesses caused by poisons, witchcraft, and sorcery. 1/Filippi. 2/Placzek. 738. —Joannes Jessenius de Magna Jessen (1566-1621) conducted the public dissection of the body of an executed criminal in Prague. The dissection, with about 1000 spectators, lasted five days, was accompanied by a lecture, and the results were published in 1601 in Wittenberg. The book is based mostly on Vesalius, but it also contains some original contributions by Jessenius himself. Public opinion, however, was strongly against dissection. Citizens, especially women, cursed Jessenius, saying he should be hanged. Strangely, he was executed in 1621, but as a result of being a rebel against Hapsburg rule. 1/Klein. 192. 1601 —The Court of the City of Melnik, Bohemia, dismissed the charges against a pregnant woman for stealing. The reason: "Pregnant women do many strange things." It is one of the earliest known decisions involving kleptomania—obsessive stealing—believed at that time to stem from pregnancy. 1/Hajek. Vyvoj a stav soudniho lekaf stvi v Ceskoslovensku. 193. 1602 — Fortunato Fedele (1550-1630), of San Filippo di Agirona, Sicily, a physician and professor in Palermo, published De relationibus medicorum libri quatuor (Palermo). It is the first relatively com- prehensive and well-organized treatment of forensic medicine and physicians' activities in the field of public hygiene. It is properly considered a classic work in the field. In cases of suspicion of poisoning the author recommends the opening of dead bodies. 1/Castiglioni. 557. 2/Mende. 117. The exact date of publication is still open to discussion: J. Kratter (Wien Klin Wschr 5(46): 666, 1892) gives 1598 and refers to L. Blumenstock of Cracow as his source. Other sources mention also 1595, 1600, or 1601. 41 194. 1602-1608 —Felix Platter (1536-1614), famous physician and professor at the University of Basel, in 1570 had first urged psychiatric treatment for the insane. In his book, Praxeos medicae (Basileae, typis C. Waldkirchii, 1602-8), he classified psychoses and divided them into four groups (one of them called "mentis alienatio"—the first known use of that term). He was against the use of forced restraint in treatment; however, he still considered melancholia of diabolic origin. His book reached several editions. 1/Castiglioni. 452. 2/Komfeld. 605. 3/Talbott. 72^. 4/Skinner, 16. 195. 1603 —Jean de la Riviere, first physician to Henry IV, King of France, was ordered to appoint in every city under royal jurisdiction, two persons "de l'art de medecine et de chirurgie," to examine and report on cases of sudden death and injuries. This arrangement lasted until 1692, when the right of appointment was transferred to the municipal authorities. 1/O'Dea. 452. 2/Derobert. Petite historique. 196. Ca. 1603 —In the Beverley case, Lord Coke interpreted the law of insanity as it had developed in England. He stated that the non compos mentis was unable to form felonious intent and, therefore, could not be guilty of murder or felony, although he was subject to conviction for high treason if the circumstances warranted. The non compos mentis were: (1) the idiot or natural fool; (2) he who had been of good and sound memory, but by the visitation of God had lost it; (3) lunatics, those who are sometimes lucid and sometimes non compos mentis; and (4) those who by their own acts deprive themselves of reason, as the drunkard. 1/Brakel. 2-3. 197. 1604 —The Elizabethan law of 1563 against witchcraft in England was repealed and replaced by a new one with more stringent penalties. It also included new provisions against keeping familiar spirits, exhumation of dead bodies, use of bones for purposes of witchcraft, etc. It was in force until 1736. 1/Rosen, B. 23. 198. Ca. 1608 —French explorer, Samuel de Champlain (ca. 1567-1635), mentions in the account of his travels through North America (Canada) that his surgeon, "maistre Estienne," had opened some dead bodies to discover the cause of death. This is the earliest known record of post-mortem examination in North America. 42 1/Leary, T. The Massachusetts medicolegal system. 300.2/Encycl. Brit. 5: 259. 199. 1610 —The first carefully described Caesarean section in Germany was performed by surgeon Trautmann in Wittenberg. The account of the operation was given by Daniel Sennert (1572-1637) in a pamphlet, Historia admiranda herniae uterinae partusque cae- sarei. Sennert was present during the operation. 1/Wegscheider. 739. 200. 1611 —Vincent Tagereau, lawyer of Parliament in Paris, published Dis- cours de I'impuissance de I'homme et de la femme (Paris, A. du Brueil). In this work he questions (apparently for the first time) the decency and validity of the "proof of congress," the examina- tion established in 1234 by the Decretales Gregorii IX and not abolished in France until 1677. 1/Chaumeton. 274-5. 201. 1612 —On January 20 of that year the Emperor Rudolph II died in Prague and an autopsy was performed on his body. It was probably conducted by Joannes Jessenius de Magna Jessen. 1/Tichy. 202. 1612 —Dr. John Cotta (15757-1650?), physician in Northampton, England, published A short discoverie of the unobserved dangers of several sorts of ignorant and unconsiderate practisers of physicke in England ... (London, William Jones, etc.). In it he warned physi- cians to be cautious in distinguishing between the true work of the devil and the power of imagination in evaluating a disease. According to him, not everything apparently beyond reasonable explanation is a miracle. He believed in the existence of witchcraft, but recommended care in proving it during trials. 1/Ewen. 133^. 203. 1613 —Before 1613, the reports of Pierre Pigray (1532-1613), a French surgeon, saved fourteen persons accused as witches and sorcerers. 1/Mahier. 4. 204. 1614 —Rodericus a Castro (1541-1627), physician and philosopher of Ham- burg, published Medicus politicus: sive De officiis medico-politicis tractatus. It is devoted mostly to medical ethics and problems related to the practice of medicine, but there are also chapters on 43 forensic medicine (e.g., the examination of injuries, signs of poison- ing, virginity, impotence, examination of slaves). 1/Landau. 2/Placzek. 739. 205. —This number not used. 206. 1617 —Doctor Mathias Borbonius of Borbenheim (1566-1629), and Doctor Ernest Friedrich Schmiedlein, both physicians of Prague, submit- ted to the court their opinion in the case of one Magdalena Bejr, who tried to poison her husband, Samuel Kolin of Elbink. Schmied- lein even conducted an experiment to detect the presence of arsenic by putting a grain of the suspected substance on burning coal. 1/Gellner. 5, 105-7, 176. 207. 1621 —Paolo Zacchia (1584-1659), personal physician to the Pope, Proto- medicus to the Church State, and adviser to the Sacra Rota Romana, published the first part of his Quaestiones medico-legales. In eleven books, he assembled problems concerned with the application of medicine to canon, civil, and criminal law and to public hygiene. In the last two books, he included decisions of the Sacra Rota Romana. His work is the first systematic compilation of medical expert opinions and forms the cornerstone of forensic medicine. The index to Quaestiones is actually the first dictionary of legal medicine. Zacchia knows the duration of pregnancy, believes that the fetus is "animated" in the 60th day, and does not accept the ius cruentationis. 1/Kerschensteiner. 2/Ortolan. 380 ff. 3/Fossel. 46-110. 4/Mahier. 5/ Placzek. 738. 208. 1622 —A 13-year-old girl in Middlesex, England, suffered a long series of convulsions and was supposed to have been bewitched by one Margaret Russel, alias Countess. No indictment was introduced against Russel. Dr. Napier, who was consulted afterwards, diag- nosed the "bewitchment" as the "morbus matricis and epileptica matricis." This was one of the earliest diagnoses of hysteria, called at that time the "disease of mother"; it was very often unrecognized as natural and, therefore, bewitchment was suspected. 1/Ewen. 134, 240. 209. 1625 —The first known malpractice suit in colonial America was that of Dr. John Pott (died before 1642), who was accused of precipitating 44 miscarriage in a woman by failing to satisfy her craving for hog meat. Pott was absolved of charges. In 1629 he was elected temporary Governor of Virginia, serving a little over one year. 1/Blanton. Medicine in Virginia in the seventeenth century. 18-24. 210. 1628 —William Harvey (1578-1657), royal physician and professor of anat- omy in London, published his revolutionary Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus (Francofurti, sumpt. G. Fitzeri). In his anatomical work he discovered the difference between lungs which had respired and lungs of a newborn which had not. This is mentioned in his Exercitationes de generations animalium (Londini, O. Pulleyn, 1651). His observation was ex- panded by Thomas Bartholin in 1663. As to witchcraft, which was of great contemporary interest and figured prominently as a subject in both law and medicine, he held very progressive views—that it existed only in the imagination. A story is told that once, being in Newmarket, he called on a reputed witch and persuaded her to introduce her familiar (a toad). After sending the witch away on some pretext he dissected the toad (which was supposed to be an evil spirit) and found, of course, that it was nothing but a toad. Despite the anger of the witch, the dissection saved her from arrest. Harvey reported the case to the King. 1/Biogr. Lex. 3: 77-8. 2/Fishman. 24-8. 3/Ewen. 134-5. 4/Mende. 175- 6. 211. 1628 —One of the earliest examples of psychiatric expertise in Europe concerned a case in Poland, where physicians examined a seeress, Krystyna Potocka, to determine her sanity. Their opinion was that Potocka was insane and that all her visions and prophecies were the products of her illness. Her prophetic powers were credited for some time by such celebrities as Comenius. 1/Popielski. La medecine legale en Pologne. 17. Some Polish au- thors call the woman "Poniatowska" and give the year of examina- tion as 1629. 2/Cieslak. 583. 212. 1629 —Aptekarskif Prikaz [Office for Pharmacists] was organized in Russia. It was in charge of all matters concerning pharmacists and physicians until 1702. 1/Mater'ialy dlia istorii meditsiny v Rossii. 213. 1629 —Bernhard Suevus (fl. 1617-1629) published his Tractatus de inspec- tione vulnerum lethalium (Marpurgi, sumt. et typ. C. Chemlini), 45 one of the earliest German treatises of medicolegaf importance on lethal wounds. It was a guide for lawyers as well as physicians. 1/Placzek. 738-9. —The Burghermaster of Nove Mesto Prazske (part of Prague) was directed by Provincial Ordinance to have a condemned prisoner throttled and to give the body to the physicians and barber- surgeons ad studium anatomicum. 1/Weigner. 4. 215. 1633-1709 —Three women poisoners of similar name are mentioned during this period in Italy: 1633—Teofania was preparing and selling a famous poison, Aqua Tofana, in Palermo and vicinity and was executed; 1640—Giulia Tofana was selling poisonous water in Rome; 1709—a woman of Palermo, named Tofana (Toffania), was executed as a poisoner in Naples. Aqua Tofana was often used as a poison during that time and was frequently mentioned in contemporary medicolegal literature. Al- though its composition is now unknown, it probably contained arsenic. 1/Placzek. 742. 2/Kraus. 109. 3/Wain. 23. 216. 1638 —Benedikt Carpzov (1595-1666), famous lawyer and judge in Sax- ony, professor in Leipzig (1645), prolific writer (esp. in the field of penal law), and recognized legal authority, published Practica nova Imperialis Saxonica rerum criminalium which reached nu- merous editions. Several statements in his book concern legal medicine. Of special interest is his pronouncement that in case of murder a "sectio vulnerum" should be conducted by a surgeon so that the judge can decide what degree of punishment should be imposed. A complete dissection of the dead body was not required. He approved torture even if the defendant seemed to be innocent and recommended the persecution of witches. 1/Mende. 240. 2/Brockhaus 3: 620. 3/Trevor-Roper. 86. 4/Robbins. 78-9. 217. 1639 —Because of excessive charges of physicians and surgeons for medications, the General Assembly of Virginia passed an act on October 21 which compelled physicians and surgeons, at the request of a patient, to declare on oath the value of the drugs and 46 medicines they dispensed in treatment. This law was revised and amended in 1645-46 and, again, in 1657-58. 1/Garrison. 824. 2/AMA Trans. 25: 76, 1874. 3/Packard. 1: 163^. 218. 1640 —Torture was abolished in England. Prisoners accused of capital crimes, however, were not permitted witnesses in their defense until 1702. 1/Chaille. 403. 219. 1641 —Massachusetts declared witchcraft a capital offense. Connecticut followed in 1642. 1/Parrinder. 31. 220. 1642 —Giovanni Benedetto Sinabaldi (1594-1658), physician and professor in Rome, published Geneanthropeia; sive De hominis generations decateuchon .. . (Romae, ex typogr. Francisci Caballi). It is a scholarly and progressive work on generation which clearly sum- marizes contemporary knowledge on the subject. Several parts are of medicolegal importance, especially the section on the signs of virginity. 1/Mende. 132. 221. 1642 —Earliest known inquest in Maryland, U.S.A. 1/Quinan. 51-2. 222. 1642 —Daniel de Luna, a Polish military surgeon, published his Quaes- tiones legales in Prague. Its title points to Zacchias' work but the contents are unknown since no copy has been located. 1/Tesar. 9. 223. 1646 —Vasile Lupu, Duke of Moldavia (now part of Rumania), promul- gated his Pravila, a code of canon and civil laws which also contained some provisions of medicolegal interest. In 1652 his adversary, Matei Basarab, Duke of Walachia (also now part of Rumania), ordered a similar code to be printed as a result of legislative reforms which he introduced. The latter code, contain- ing more medicolegal provisions than Lupu's, remained in force up to the middle of the 19th century. 47 1/Kernbach. Medicina judiciara. 24-33. 2/Encycl. Brit. 19: 639, 654. 224. 1647 —Firmin Giles, a Massachusetts clergyman and practitioner of medicine with many apprentices, conducted an "anatomy" (dissec- tion). 1/Mac Dermot. 225. 1649 —An act of that year passed in Massachusetts concerned the regulation of health personnel. It was applicable to surgeons, midwives, and physicians. 1/AMA Trans. 25: 76, 1874. 226. 1650 —Johann Michaelis (1607-1667), professor of pathology and therapy at the University of Leipzig, lectured on forensic medicine. 1/Chaille. 399. 2/O'Dea. 452. 227. 1657 —Gottfried Welsch (1618-1690), professor of anatomy and surgery at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Leipzig, signed a report concerning a post-mortem. It was not a full autopsy how- ever, and, in the lawsuit which followed, the lawyer indicated that the inspection (conducted apparently by Welsch's aides) was not enough, because the body was not properly opened, "viscera interiora" were not washed by water to be seen, etc. He asked, therefore, for an autopsy—an early demand of that kind. In 1660 Welsch published Rationale vulnerum lethalium judicium ... (Lip- siae, Sumptibus ac literis Ritzschianis) in which he stresses the need for autopsy in all medicolegal cases. 1/Mende. 264-5. 2/Biogr. Lex. 5: 894-5. 3/Placzek. 738-9. 228. 1658 —Johann Jacob Wepfer (1620-1695), physician of Schaffhausen, Switzerland, published Observationes anatomicae, ex cadaveribus eorum, quos sustulit apoplexia, cum exercitatione de ejus loco affecto (Schaffhusii, typ. J. C. Suteri). In it he claims that apoplexy is caused by hemorrhage in the brain. 1/Biogr. Lex. 5: 903. 229. 1658 —Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680), physician of Amsterdam, was the first to recognize and describe red blood corpuscles. He was also 48 among those who were later experimenting with pulmonary doci- masia (see 1667), and he introduced a method of injection in the preparation of anatomical specimens. 1/Talbott. 149-50. 2/Ann Med Leg 6: 8, Jan 1926. 3/Skinner. 393. 230. 1661 —Johann Philibert Lang published De quaestionibus seu torturis reorum (Basileae), one of the earliest dissertations of medicolegal importance on torture. He was followed by G. N. Ittigius (1683), H. Bodin (1697), J. F. Kraus (1729) and many others. The subject disappeared from the literature in the last quarter of the 18th century when torture was eliminated from law codes. 1/Schweickhard. 9, no. 32. 231. 1661 —Ordinance of the City Council of Danzig (now Gdansk, Poland) ordered city physicians to perform autopsies. The extant Latin records contain about 200 reports of dissections from the period 1691 to 1769, some of them ordered by the courts. Autopsies were performed by two physicians in the presence of three representa- tives of the judiciary. 1/Schmidt, O. 232. 1662 —The first treatise on physiology, De homine (Lugduni Batavorum, apud Franciscum Moyardum et Petrum Leffers), written by the French philosopher, Rene Descartes (1596-1650), was posthu- mously published. It greatly influenced medicine of the 17th century. Two years later a French translation was published together with another important medical work of Descartes, Traite de la formation du foetus. 1/Dict. encyclop. sci. med., 1st ser. 1883, v. 28: 278-85. 233. 1663 —Thomas Bartholin (1616-1680), Danish physician and professor of anatomy in Copenhagen, wrote in De pulmonum substantia et motu (Hafniae) about his observation that fetal lungs will float after respiration has taken place; if there had been no respiration, they sank (pulmonary docimasia). He does not mention, however, the possible application of his observation in cases of suspected infanticide. 1/Kopp. 190. 2/Placzek. 754. 49 234. 1666 —Coroners were appointed for each county in Maryland. 1/Garrison. 826. 235. 1667 —Jan Swammerdam (1637-1680), Dutch physician in Amsterdam published Tractatus physico-anatomico-medicus de respiratione pulmonum (Lugduni Batavorum, D. Alcaham et A. a Gaasbeeck) in which he reported that the lungs of newborn infants will float on water if respiration had taken place. This was four years after Bartholin's description of this phenomenon. Like Bartholin, Swammerdam apparently did not recognize the importance of this fact for criminal law. 1/Castiglioni. 558. 236. 1668 —On April 17 of that year "Lieutenant-Criminel du Chatelet" in Paris prohibited blood transfusions without the permission of the Faculty of Medicine. This stemmed from the controversy sur- rounding blood transfusions made by Denis, professor of mathe- matics and philosophy in Paris in 1667. Because of this decision no more blood transfusions were made in France for many years. 1/Dierkens. 157-8. 237. 1669 —Theodor Kirchmaier (fl. 1669-72), professor in Wittenberg(?), pub- lished De cruentatione cadaverum fallaci praesentis homicidae indicio (Vitebergae), one of the first publications to refute the validity of ius cruentationis. It followed by more than 100 years the doubts expressed by Antonius Blancus (Bianchi). 1/Haeser. 1082. 238. 1670 —In France, l'Ordonance criminelle confirmed the requirement of medical reports as ordered by King Henry IV in 1603. It added, however, that an injured person could ask another physician or surgeon to examine him to confirm the official report. Moreover, the judge could order another examination by "official" physicians or surgeons. No court proceedings could start without such report. At the end of the 17th century, King Louis XIV transferred the right to appoint medical and surgical experts from the King's first physician to the municipal authorities. 1/Locard. 67, 71-2. 50 —The Faculty of Medicine of the University of Prague decreed that the expert opinion of the Faculty concerning any head injury could be pronounced only after a session of the Dean, professors, three barber-surgeons, and two barbers. Later it became the common practice to ask for a medical expert opinion from only one member of the Faculty. By the "Hofdekret" of December 2, 1812, no. 18, 397, however, this practice was stopped and subsequently an opinion was supposed to be issued only by the whole Faculty. 1/Spott. 2/Loyka. 13. —Paul Ammann (1634-1691), professor of botanies and later of physiology in Leipzig, published Medicina critica, sive decisoria (Erffurti, J. G. Hertzl)—a collection of expert opinions issued by the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Leipzig, as well as some medicolegal decisions of other universities. It was repub- lished in 1677 and 1693. 1/Haeser. 1082. 241. 1672 —Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683), French statesman and minister of finance to Louis XIV, abolished the charge of "sorcellerie sabbatique" and ordered that no magistrate be allowed to accept a charge of witchcraft. He was, however, not fully successful, since a witch was burned at the stake in Bordeau in 1718. 1/Trevor-Roper. 110. 2/Collier's Encycl. 23: 551. 242. 1673 —Gerard Blaes (Blasius) (1626?-1692?), Dutch anatomist and profes- sor of medicine in Amsterdam, published Miscellanea anatomica, hominis brutorumque variorum ... (Amstelodami, C. Commelinus), the first comprehensive treatise on comparative anatomy. In 1676 it appeared under the title Zootomia seu anatomes variarum animalium ... and in 1681 as Anatome animalium, terrestrium variorum ..., both in Amsterdam. Blaes is considered one of the founders of comparative anatomy. 1/Dict. encyclop. sci. med. v. 9, p. 558, 1868. 2/Biogr. Lex. 1: 559. 243. 1676 —Karel Rayger (1641-1707), anatomist of Bratislava, was the first to suggest that the so-called hydrostatic test of the lungs of the newborn be used in the courts as proof of infanticide. He reported on his dissection of a child in Miscellanea curiosa medicophysica Academiae naturae curiosorum, 1675/6, concluding: "Argumentum credo indubitatum ad convincendas infanticidas ... an infans in 51 utero mortuus, vel demum post partum quocunque modo strangu- latus vel occisus." 1/Cas Lek Cesk 96(9): 288. 1957. 2/Placzek. 753. 3/Chaille. 404. 244. 1677 —The so-called "proof of congress," established in 1234 under the Decretales Gregorii IX to determine impotence, was abolished in France. The chief reason was the scandal concerning Rene de Cordouan, Marquis de Langeais, whose marriage was annulled on the grounds of impotence in 1659 and who then produced seven children in a second marriage. Its abolition in France was has- tened by a speech of the famous General Lawyer, Lamoignon, before the French Parliament. It is worth mentioning that the leading personalities in medicine were opposed to the "proof of congress" from its beginning. 1/Chaumeton. 274-5. 2/Brittain. The "proof of congress." 245. 1679 —Theophil Bonet (1620-1689), physician of Geneva, published Sepul- chretum sive anatomia practica (Geneva, L. Chouet). It contains a large amount of pathological material from about 3,000 anatomical cases. Bonet contributed to it with a few cases of his own, but the bulk of material was derived from the works of others. It is nevertheless an invaluable document in the history of pathology. Bonet's work is rightly considered to be the forerunner of G. B. Morgagni's De sedibus morborum (1761). 1/Castiglioni. 533-4. 2/Kopp. 192. 246. 1681 —Antonio Filippo Ciucci (fl. 1679-81), professor of anatomy at Macer- ata, published Filo d'Arianna ... (Macerata, G. Piccini), a book of anatomy devoted to finding the cause of disease and death. It is the first publication of medicolegal importance in the Italian language. 1/Gelmetti. 247. 1682 —The first effort to apply the hydrostatic test of lungs in criminal law. It was brought to the attention of the court by the physician Johann Schreyer of Zeitz, Saxony, but the court refused to accept the test. Schreyer defended the test and his expert opinion in a pamphlet of 1690 "zu Rettung seine Ehre." In 1683 and 1684, several medical faculties accepted the hydrostatic test as reliable. 1/Schreyer. 2/Mende. 178. 52 248. 1684 —Nicolas de Blegny (1652-1722), personal physician to the Duke of Orleans, published La doctrine des rapports de chirurgie (Lyon, T. Amaulry), on the obligation of surgeons to report any suspicion of crime, and how to prepare expert opinion for presentation before the court. De Blegny was editor (1679) of the first medical periodi- cal in Paris, Nouvelles decouvertes sur toutes les parties de la medecine. Three volumes appeared. 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 568-9. 249. 1685 —By an Edikt, promulgated in Brandenburg-Prussia, the right to admit persons to the practice of medicine was reserved to the state. All physicians or candidates submitted to the Collegium medicum proof of their qualifications. The practice of medicine without the Collegium's approval and state permission was illegal and, therefore, punishable. 1/Becher. 1003. 250. 1685 —The first legislation concerning the qualification of dentists in Germany. 1/Walcher. 251. 1689 —Johannes Bohn (1640-1718), professor of anatomy and surgery at the University of Leipzig, published De renunciatione vulnerum, seu vulnerum letalim examen (Lipsiae, sumtibus J. F. Gledisch), the best work on fatal injuries, with frequent references of medico- legal importance. Like G. Welsch in 1660, Bohn stresses the necessity of autopsy in cases of murder or suspicious death. In 1690 the first volume of his Specimen medicinae forensis (Lipsiae) appeared. It is the first known work which uses the term medicina forensis for the field. The author speaks of "scientia med- ico forensis." 1/Mende. 495. 2/Placzek. 740 ff. 3/Biogr. Lex. 1: 606-7. 252. 1691 —Thorough autopsy was performed on New York Governor Henry Sloughter because of suspected poisoning. It was ordered by the Provincial Council and conducted by Dr. Johannes Kerfbyle and five other physicians. The verdict: natural death. 1/Leary, T. The Massachusetts medicolegal system. 306. 53 253. 1692 —The last, and most famous, witch trial in America started in Salem, Mass. It began with a group of children called together by a minister to listen to his woman-slave talk about West Indian lore. The two youngest girls went into uncontrollable fits and others became greatly disturbed. Local ministers believed that these manifestations were caused by witchcraft, the local physi- cian also blamed witchcraft, and the judges started to look for the responsible witch. Subsequently, numerous people were indicted for practicing magic and the final result, before the trials were stopped by the Governor in 1693, was the sentencing to death of 31 persons on so-called "spectral evidence" (confession or evidence of confessed witches about their pact with the devil). Of these 19 were hanged. The trial stirred great controversy throughout the country. In 1696 the jurors confessed their errors in public, as had the judge before them. 1/Scott. 340-1. 254. 1693 —General Assembly of the Province of Massachusetts Bay passed "An Act for the relief of Ideots, and distracted persons." It ordered the appointment of "select-men or overseers of the poor to make the necessary provision for the relief of Ideots and distracted persons." 1/Guerra. 32. 255. 1695 —Lectures on legal medicine started in Amsterdam. They were conducted by Frederik Ruysch (1638-1731), professor of anatomy and botany, who also held (1672)the chair of midwifery. Ruysch (or Ruijsch) was an outstanding anatomist of his time and a prolific writer on his anatomical and surgical experience. 1/Talbott. 148-9. 2/Hallema. 3/Skinner. 360. 256. 1701 —Michael Bernhard Valentini (1657-1729), professor at the Univer- sity of Giessen, Germany, published Pandectae medico legales, a collection of expert opinions on medicolegal questions. In 1711 his Novellae medico-legales, of similar content, appeared. In 1722 he published Corpus juris medico legale (Francofurti a. M., sumpt. Johannis Adami Jungii), which consists of the two previous publi- cations with the addition of Authentica jatro-forensia. The whole work is mostly medicolegal casuistry from different periods. In- cluded are also some medicolegal dissertations. He inserted deci- sions concerning witchcraft (without any comment). 1/Ortolan. 372-3. 2/Biogr. Lex. 5: 693^1. 54 • 1703 —Jean Devaux (1649-1729), French surgeon, chairman of the Society of Master-Surgeons of Paris, medical writer and translator of medical works, published L'art de faire des rapports en chirurgie ... (Paris, L. D'Houry), a detailed instruction to surgeons on how to prepare reports in cases of injuries or death. Over 250 case reports were included. The book reached four editions. 1/Biogr. Lex. 2: 251. 258. 1703 —Physicians Gomez de Muna and Diaz de Perez certified that the Governor of Venezuela, Ponte-Hoyo, was insane. 1/Moll. 322. 259. 1706 —Johann Friedrich Zittman (1671-1757), personal physician to the King of Poland and then to the Kurfiirst of Saxony, published Medicina forensis, hoc est responsa facultatis medicae Lipsiensis ad quaestiones et casus medicinales ab anno 1650 usque 1700 (Frankfurt am Mayn). It was a supplementation and extension of Paul Ammann's work of 1670 (Medicina critica). 1/Biogr. Lex. 5: 1047-8. 260. 1712 —Jane Wenham of Hertford was the last person convicted (though later pardoned) of witchcraft in England. 1/Peel. 139. 261. 1714 —Emperor of Russia, Peter I, issued Instruktsii i artikuly voennye [Military Instructions and Articles] which ordered that physicians be summoned by the courts in all cases requiring a special knowledge of medicine. Two years later Voinskii ustav [Military Statute] ordered physicians to conduct autopsies in all cases in which there was suspicion of violent death. Written reports then had to be submitted to the courts. 1/Grigor'eva. 262. 1715 —Physicians of Prague participated as medical experts in the inqui- ries preceding the canonization of John of Nepomuk (drowned at the end of the 14th century). On opening his grave, they found his tongue still well preserved. John of Nepomuk was finally canon- ized in 1729. [For some historians, however, the identity of the canonized person as well as the reasons for canonization are questionable.] 55 1/Nemec. Forensic medicine. 1612. 2/Hajek. Pozustatky Jana Ne- pomuckeho. 263. 1719 —A law for regulating "Midwifes" within the city of New York ordered that no woman could practice midwifery until she takes an oath before the Mayor. 1/Guerra. 45. 264. 1723 —Andreas Ottomar Goelicke (1670?-1744?), professor of medicine in Frankfurt a/0, published Introductio in historiam litterariam scriptorum qui medicinam forensem commentariis suis illustra- runt (Francofurti ad Viadrum). The work was not available for examination but, judging from its title, it is one of the earliest bibliographies of forensic medicine. Goelicke also published in Frankfurt a/O. Specimina medicinae forensis (1719 and 1721). 1/Biogr. Lex. 2: 783-4. 265. 1723 —Hermann Friedrich Teichmeyer (1685-1746), a professor of Jena, published the Institutiones medicinae legalis vel forensis (Jena). It was used as a standard textbook for many years and republished several times. He tried to limit the scope of the field by inserting into his work only those parts of medicine which were related to law. Historical references were added to each chapter. 1/Mende. 497. 2/Biogr. Lex. 5: 529-30. 266. 1723 —Polycarp Leyser (1690-1728), famous doctor of law, medicine, and philosophy and "professor ordinarius" of "poeseos" in Helmstadt, Germany, published Dissertatio juridica de frustranea cadaveris inspectione in homicidio (Helmstadt). In it he denies the need of "inspectio vulnerum" in cases of homicide. His opinion led to several publications by physicians who strongly opposed his views (e.g., Prof. Detharding of Copenhagen). 1/Mende. 277. 2/Placzek. 759. 267. 1724 —In England, in the famous case Rex v. Arnold, Judge Robert Tracy stated the general principle that a defense may be based on insanity. He said that in order to be excused from criminal responsibility as insane, the accused must not know what he is 56 doing, "no more than an infant, a brute, or a wild beast." Proof of insanity, therefore, established lack of intent. 1/Dreher. 53. 268. 1724. —Irregular lectures on legal medicine began at the Collegium medico-chirurgicum in Berlin. They were conducted regularly beginning in 1786. 1/Lexis. 1: 120. 269. 1725 —The practice of medicine was regulated in Prussia by the Medizi- naledikt, which extended and revised an edict of 1685. It admits to medical practice those who passed an examination, took required courses in anatomy, and were approved by the higher Collegium Medicum. The edict divides the profession into two categories— physicians (medici) for internal medicine, and surgeons—and enumerates their rights and duties and defines the limits of their competence. 1/Becher. 1003. 270. 1725 —Michael Alberti (1682-1757), professor of medicine and natural sciences in Berlin, started publishing his Sytema jurisprudentiae medicae (Halae). The last volume (6th) appeared in 1736. Alberti's work is a mixture of backwardness and progress. He was in favor of torture and cruentation, and believed in magic and demons. On the other hand, he considered sorcery a mental disease and had an enlightened attitude toward other medical problems. The book, designed for both physicians and lawyers, was considered a cornerstone of legal medicine for many years. Alberti was the first to use the term jurisprudentia medica. He, however, admits that he received the idea for that term from Rodericus a Castro, Medicus politicus (1614). 2/Vamosi, M. Michael Albertis Beitrag. 2/Mende. 495-6. 271. 1725 —Johann Franz Low von Erlsfeld (1648-1725), professor of anatomy and surgery at the University of Prague, published Theatrum medico-juridicum (Norimbergae), the great scholarly work of his life, surpassing everything on the subject that had yet been written at that time in Central Europe. 1/Weitenweber. 2/Vinar. 159-62. 57 272. 1730 —Dr. Thomas Cadwalader (1707/8-1779) of Philadelphia conducted dissections and anatomical demonstrations for some of his col- leagues who had not been to Europe. He was probably the first teacher of practical anatomy in the United States. 1/Mac Dermot. 273. 1736 —"An act for regulating the fees and accounts of the Practicers of Physic" was passed in August 1736 in Virginia. It permitted the courts to make a distinction between the amounts charged by physicians regularly educated in medicine, and those who have been merely apprenticed. It is probably the earliest bill of that kind in the Colonies and was amended in Virginia several times. 1/Blanton. Medicine in Virginia in the 18th century. 399-400 (full text). 274. 1736 —A serial, Selecta medica Francofurtensia .. ., started in Frankfurt a/O. Forensic medicine is given equal status with other subjects both in the title and the contents. It is the first known serial of its kind. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 70, no. 299. 275. 1736 —In England, King George II repealed the Statute of 1604 against witchcraft. From that time on there was only a penalty of a year imprisonment for anyone pretending to be a witch. 1/Robbins. 214. 276. 1737 —Physicians in all principal Russian cities were ordered to partici- pate in medicolegal investigations. Sixty years later this obligation was extended also to physicians in district towns (gubernskie goroda). 1/Nemec. Legal medicine in the Soviet Union. 137. 277. 1740 —The first lecture on forensic medicine was delivered at Copen- hagen University by Professor Georg G. Detharding (1671-1747). His interest in the field dates from 1726, when he published Disputatio de necessaria vulnerum inspectione in crimine homici- dii (Rostochiae, 1726), a refutation of Polycarp Leyser's pamphlet of 1723. Detharding wrote also on medical ethics (1719, 1740). 1/Gormsen. 2/Placzek. 769. 58 • 1743 —Louis XV, King of France, forbade barbers to practice surgery- 1/Castiglioni. 658. 279. 1746 —Christian Ehrenfried Eschenbach (1712-1788), physician and pro- fessor of surgery in Rostock, wrote Medicina legalis, brevissimis comprehensa thesibus in usum auditorii conscripta (Rostock), in which he treated forensic medicine quite apart from public hy- giene. 1/A. Henke's Zschr Staatsarzneikd, 71: 247-8, 1856. 2/Biog. Lex. 2: 431. 280. 1747 —Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777) of Bern, physician, professor of anatomy, botany and surgery from 1735 on in Gottingen, prolific writer and bibliographer, published the first textbook of physiol- ogy, Primae lineae physiologiae in usum praelectionum academica- rum auctae (Gottingae, A. Vandenhoeck) which marked the begin- nings of modern physiology. It reached four Latin editions and was translated into several languages. During the summer session of 1751 he lectured in Gottingen on legal medicine. His Latin manuscript was posthumously translated into German and pub- lished under the title Vorlesungen uber die gerichtliche Arzneiwis- senschaft (Bern, neue typographische Gesellschaft, 1782^4) in two volumes. It has a rich bibliography of medicolegal works. 1/Talbott. 229-31. 281. 1750 —Royal mandate in Saxony decreed that no physician will be hired for public services until he submits proof that he took academic courses in anatomy, surgery, forensic medicine, chemistry, physics, and pharmacology. 1/Hebenstreit. 282. 1751 —Johann Ernst Hebenstreit (1703-1757), city physician in Leipzig, professor of therapy and the Dean of the Medical Faculty, Univer- sity of Leipzig, published Anihropologia forensis (Lipsiae, sumpt. haered. Lankisianorum). His intention was to eliminate existing terminological confusion in law-medicine relations by using the term "anthropologia forensis" (there were three terms in use: legal medicine, medical jurisprudence, and forensic medicine). His book was favorably accepted (valued esp. by lawyers), reached several editions, and was translated into German and Swedish. He failed, 59 however, in his efforts to solve the terminological confusion; his meaning of the term was not accepted and was soon forgotten. 1/Mende. 496. 2/Biogr. Lex. 3: 101. 3/Chaille. 432. 283. 1754-1756 —Public lectures in anatomy to medical students—probably the first in America—were given by William Hunter (1729?-1777) of New- port, R.I. Hunter was born in Scotland and studied in Edinburgh and Leyden. 1/Mac Dermot. 2/Kelly. 2: 24. 284. 1755 —The earliest serial devoted wholly to forensic medicine, Der medi- cinische Richter oder Acta physico-medico-forensia Collegii Onol- dini, was started by Johann Georg Hasenest (1688-1771) in Onolz- bach [Ansbach], Germany. It contains expert opinions of the Collegium medicum in medicolegal cases and visa reperta; it ceased publishing in 1759. An unusual feature for that period is the addition of a dictionary of medical terms. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 48, no. 182. 285. 1759 —The first public dissection was conducted in the American colonies by John Bard (1716-1799) and Peter Middleton (d. 1781), physicians of New York. 1/Amer Med Phil Reg 1: 61-7, 1811; 4: 105-6, 1814. 2/Thacher. 1: 52 (gives the year 1750). 3/Guerra. 181 (gives 1750). 286. 1760 —Regulation of the practice of medicine in New York City. 1/Garrison. 834. 287. 1761 —Appiano Buonafede (1716-1793), Celestine monk, theologian, phi- losopher, and prolific writer, published under the pseudonym Agatopisto Cromaziano his famous Istoria critica e filosofica del suicidio ragionato (Lucca, Stamperia di V. Giuntini)—a historical and philosophical study of suicide which was never surpassed. It reached several editions and was translated into French. 1/Encicl. ital. 8: 114-5. The National Union Catalog also lists an edition in 1738 (Naples)—apparently an error. 60 288. 1761 —Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771), Italian anatomist and pathologist, professor of anatomy at Padua, published De sedibus et causis morborum (Venetiis, ex typographia Remondiniana) which describes and evaluates 640 dissections and forms the basis of pathological anatomy. It was republished several times and translated into German, Italian, and English. Morgagni was often asked for his opinion in cases of medicolegal importance. Some of his responsa medicolegalia were published in 1763 in Naples in his Opuscula miscellanea. 1/Garrison. 353^. 2/Kratter. 666. 3/Chaille. 402. 289. 1763 —Antoine Louis (1723-1791) of Metz, French surgeon and pioneer of legal medicine in his country in the time when Pare's medicolegal work was nearly forgotten, published Memoire sur une question anatomique relative a la jurisprudence ... (Paris, P. G. Cavelier) in which he discussed the differential signs of murder and suicide in cases of hanging. Louis became famous as the Royal Professor of Surgery and the Secretary of the Royal Academy of Surgery in Paris. A prolific writer, he also held public courses in legal medicine at the College of Surgery in Paris and worked in vain for their recognition by the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Paris. 1/Biogr. Lex. 3: 847-8. 2/Morton. 209. 290. 1763 —Carl von Linne (1707-1778), Swedish physician and world-re- nowned naturalist, after whom the world's system of classification of plants and animals is named, published Genera morborum in auditorum usum (Upsaliae, Steinert), the first scientifically valua- ble classification of diseases, with Swedish nomenclature. 1/Dict. encyclop. sci. med. 1869, 2nd ser. v. 2: 619-24. 2/Biogr. Lex. 3: 796-7. 291. 1765 —The first recorded instance of mob violence in protest against human dissection in the United States took place in Philadelphia, when the carriage and house of Dr. William Shippen, Jr., were attacked by an angry mob. In 1788 the anatomical school of Dr. Charles Wiesenthal in Baltimore was invaded, and in 1807 the "Anatomy Hall" of the Medical Department of the University of Maryland was demolished. 1/Edwards. 61 292. 1766 —The Austrian Provincial Ordinance halted further witch trials. 1/Bernt. 293. 1766 —Physicians of New Jersey formed the Medical Society of New Jersey, the first organization of its kind in the U.S. The Society also established fee bills—lists of minimum charges for medical work. 1/Konold. 2. 294. 1768 —Constitutio criminalis Theresiana ordered that medical expertise in some criminal cases was obligatory in the Austrian Empire (e.g., in the application of torture and in examination of mental health). l/Dobisvek. 2/Dotzauer. 1-10. 295. 1769 —The House of Burgesses of Virginia requested Mr. Patrick Henry and Mr. Richard Henry Lee to prepare a bill to regulate the practice of physicians and surgeons, but the bill was apparently never brought in. 1/Blanton. Medicine in Virginia in the eighteenth century. 398. 296. 1770 —An ordinance was issued in Sweden that all future obductions must be executed by experts. This formed a solid background for legal medicine in Sweden. 1/A. Henke's Zschr Staatsarzneikd. (Erlangen), 70: 389, 1855. 297. 1772 — Donatien Alphonse Frangois, Marquis de Sade (1740-1814), French writer, was sentenced to death in Paris for his numerous sexual crimes and cruelties. Before execution, however, he escaped from prison, was caught and escaped again. Finally, after another arrest, he was sent to a lunatic asylum, where he stayed, with a brief interruption, until his death. Because of the unusual cruel- ties associated with his crimes, by about 1880 the term "sadism" was generally accepted for a form of sexual perversion which was associated with love of cruelty. 1/Eulenberg. 2/Encycl. Brit. 19: 806. 3/Skinner. 361. 62 298. 1772 —A state medical examination was introduced in New Jersey. It was the first step toward limiting the flood of poorly trained physi- cians. 1/Hill. 299. 1772-1777 —Claude Thomas Guillaume Guilbert de Preval (fl. 1751-1777), French physician specializing in venereal diseases and a member of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Paris, dispensed to his patients medications not approved by the Faculty. In the lawsuit which followed, he lost his case against the Faculty. 1/Bonnet. 300. 1773 —The first insane asylum in the United States was opened in Williamsburg, Virginia. 1/Gordon. 14. 301. 1775 —The last witch trial in Germany took place at Kempten. 1/New Cath. Encycl. 14: 979. 302. 1775-1776 —Franz (or Friedrich) Anton Mesmer (1734-1815), physician in Vienna, who in his doctoral dissertation had expressed the opinion that the stars have magnetic influence on humans, pronounced in his three published "letters" a doctrine that the heavenly bodies diffuse through the universe a fluid which influences the nervous system of living animals. In 1779 he published his widely known Memoire sur la decouverte du magnetisme animal (Genf & Paris), the bible of so-called "mesmerism." He believed that he had a mysterious control over this force and acquired great fame by treating the sick in Paris. In 1784, at the request of the French government, the French Academy of Sciences investigated his seances and declared him to be an impostor. His "animal magnet- ism" (the name was selected on the assumption that the condition is related to ordinary magnetism), however, survived under the name "mesmerism" until 1843, when it was modified and named "hypnotism." 1/Biogr. Lex. 4: 179-80. 2/Wain. 167. 3/Skinner. 272. 303. 1776 —Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840), German naturalist and an original thinker, published his doctoral dissertation De generis humani varietate nativa (Gottingen) in which, using craniometry, 63 he described 60 representative human crania and divided men into five races. This work qualifies him as one of the founders of anthropology. The same year he was appointed professor "extraordinarius" and two years later full professor of medicine at the University of Gottingen. He subsequently wrote mainly on comparative anat- omy, anthropology, mineralogy, botany, and zoology. 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 576-7. 2/Brockhaus 3: 18. 3/Skinner. 72. 304. 1776 —Jonas Kiernander (1721-1778), Swedish physician, published Ut- kast til medicinal Lagfarenheten (Stockholm, A. J. Nordstrom), the first Swedish book on medical legislation. It contains and discusses legal provisions concerning the medical profession and midwifery. 1/Kiernander. 305. 1778-1793 —Johann Daniel Metzger (1739-1805), German physician and prolific medical writer, professor at the medical school in Konigsberg, where he lectured mainly on forensic medicine, published several books of medicolegal importance: 1778-80, Gerichtlich-medizinische Beobachtungen (Konigsberg, J. J. Kanter); 1793, Kurzgefasstes System der gerichtlichen Arzneiwissenschaft (Konigsberg & Leip- zig, Hartung); and 1794, Systema medicinae forensis (Stendaliae, Sumptibus Franzen eiusque socii Grosse). They were the leading publications in the field for many years. 1/Nippe. 306. 1778-1827 —Johann Peter Frank (1745-1821) began publishing his System einer vollstdndigen medicinischen Polizey, the first well-organized and comprehensive work on the "science of prevention." The last (9th) volume appeared in 1827. It had a great impact on the develop- ment of medicine (incl. medical legislation and legal medicine) until the middle of the 19th century. 1/Rosen, G. 307. 1781 —Joseph Jacob Plenck (1739-1807), professor of surgery at Hungar- ian University, later in Vienna, published his famous Elementa medicinae et chirurgiae forensis (Viennae, R. Graffer). Especially noteworthy in this work is the author's recommendation of medi- cal fee schedules and compensation for injuries. He also stated that the only proof of poisoning is the chemical identification of the poison in the organs of the body. This opinion was not generally accepted until Orfila's work on poisons had appeared. 64 In this scholarly and progressive work Plenck included witchcraft and magic but, having some doubts, left the final word to the theologians. Elementa became a textbook in Russian universities, and the basis of G. E. Male's work in 1816 in England. 1/Gettler. 4. 2/Ortolan. 373. 308. 1781 —Massachusetts Medical Society was chartered and permitted by the Legislature to grant medical licenses after examination of candidates. 1/Konold. 3. 309. 1781 —Jean Louis Baudelocque (1745?-1810), French obstetrician, medical writer and educator, published his classic L'art des accouchements (Paris, Mequignon l'aine), "in which he brought obstetrics to a practical art . . ." The book reached several editions and was translated into English and German. It exerted some influence on legal medicine since that subject was usually taught together with obstetrics. 1/Skinner. 63. 310. 1782 —The first medicolegal journal, the Magazin fur die gerichtliche Arzeneikunde und medicinische Polizei, was started in Stendal, Germany, by Konrad Friedrich Uden (17197-1798). 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 6, 7, 45, no. 163. 2/Kopp. 202. 311. 1783 —Benjamin Waterhouse (1754-1846), Professor of the Theory and Practice of Physicks at Harvard University, pleaded in his inaugu- ral address for the scientific study of mental diseases which were then untaught in the United States. 1/Brim. 312. 1784 —Christian Friedrich Daniel (1753-1798), physician of Halle and medical writer, published Entwurf einer Bibliothek der Staatsarz- neikunde oder der gerichtlichen Arzneikunde und medicinischen Polizei von ihrem Anfangen bis aufdas Jahr 178U (Halle, Hemmer- desch Buchhandlung). It is one of the earliest bibliographies of legal medicine and "medical police" with about 2,500 entries, mostly in Latin, German, and French. The earliest entries are 65 from the close of the 16th century. It was replaced in 1819 by C. F. L. Wildberg's Bibliotheca medicinae publicae. 1/Biogr. Lex. 2: 177. 313. 1784 —At Ingolstadt, Prof. Franz Anton Ferdinand Stebler (1705-1789) began lecturing on forensic medicine in the German language instead of Latin. 1/Prokop. 2. 314. 1785 —Eduard Vincent Guldener von Lobes (1763-1827), physician of Plzen, Bohemia, was appointed to the chair of forensic medi- cine and "medical police" at the Medical School of the University of Prague. His lectures were to be collegium privatum (paid for directly by the students). There is, however, no record that he ever started these lectures. 1/Nemec. Forensic medicine. 1615-6. 315. 1786 —Giuseppe Ramponi, Professor of the Institutes of Medicine at the University of Pavia, was appointed Professor of Special Pathology, Medicine, and Forensic Surgery at the same institution and lectured on these subjects until 1790. He is the first person in Italy known to have delivered systematic lectures on forensic medicine. In 1789 professor Salvatore Maria Ronchi (1763-1841) started similar lectures at the University of Naples. 1/Pazzini. 2/Cenni. 316. 1786 —Johann Gottlieb Kuhn (fl. 1750-1796) published a small pamphlet, 1st die Wasser-Lungen-Probe richtigl (Breslau, J. F. Korn). In it he weighs the arguments for and against the validity of pulmonary docimasia and reaches the conclusion that the test offers only the probability and not the full proof of the truth. Between 1791 and 1796 Kuhn edited Sammlung medicinischer Gutachten (Breszlau & Hirschberg, J. F. Korn der Aelter), a collection of medical expert opinions and obductions. 1/Placzek. 754. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 66, no. 282. 317. 1787 —Antoine Francois de Fourcroy (1755-1809), French chemist and politician, observed that some bodies, buried for a long time, were transformed into a fatty matter. He called this phenomenon 66 adipocere. In 1789 he read a paper on that subject before the French Academy of Sciences. Adipocere (consisting principally of margarate of ammonia) was often detected in cases of exhumations. 1/Skinner. 9. 2/Encicl. ital. 15: 822. 318. 1788 —Samuel Farr (1741-1795) published Elements of Medical Jurisprud- ence (London, T. Becket), the first book on forensic medicine in the English language. It is actually an abridged translation of J. F. Faselius' Elementa medicinae forensis (1767), to which a chapter "Upon Madness" was added by Farr. Chapters of no interest in England, such as those on torture, were omitted. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 7-8. 319. 1789 —The French physician, Ignace Joseph Guillotin (1738-1814), friend of Danton, Robespierre, and Marat, as a member of the French Constituent Assembly, was instrumental in introducing the law requiring all death sentences to be carried out by "means of machine" for reasons of humanity. From 1792 on, the machine designed but not invented by him (it existed already in antiquity) was referred to as the "guillotine." In 1790 he proposed the creation of the "Commite de Sante" and the establishment of four national schools with hospitals. He was promotor of vaccination in France, and he refuted mesmerism. Despite his undeniable qualities as physician and researcher, his life was "poisoned" by his invention and he lost his clientele as well as his friends. l/"Ce bon docteur Guillotin ..." 2/Skinner. 198. 320. Ca. 1790 —Francois Chaussier (1746-1828), one of the leading French physi- cians of the 18th century and, after 1780, professor of anatomy at the Academy of Dijon, beginning 1785 published several medicole- gal publications and delivered expert opinions. It is said that in 1790 (or 1789) he became the first lecturer on legal medicine in France. After 1794 he was called to Paris as professor of anatomy and physiology at VEcole de sante. 1/Dict. encyclop. sci. med., 1874, v. 15: 573-5. 2/Biogr. Lex. 1: 896-7. 3/Chaille. 4/Arch Gen Med (Paris) 17: 472-7, 1828. 321. 1790 —John Hunter (1728-1793), the greatest Scottish experimental sur- geon of his time, speculated on the possibility of fertilization by 67 artificial insemination. It is said that he recommended it to a patient. Artificial insemination is believed to have been used for the first time on a human female in 1799. Hunter reported successful insemination in 1810. 1/Wain. 166-7. 2/Talbot. 258-61. 3/Skinner. 227. 4/Licurzi. 6. 322. 1790-1798 —Johannes Dionysius John (1764-1814), physician of Teplice Spa, Bohemia, and for a brief period also lecturer on forensic medicine at the University of Prague, published his six-volume work, Lexi- kon der k. k. Medicinalgesetze (Prag) on health legislation in the Habsburg monarchy. Between 1795 and 1798 his Medicinische Polizey und gerichtliche Arzneykunde in den k. k. Erblanden (Prag) appeared in 2 volumes. During this period, John was the best and most productive writer on "medical police" and legal medicine in Bohemia. 1/Biogr. Lex. 3: 443. 2/Nemec. Forensic medicine at the University of Prague. 1617-8. 323. 1791 —Andrew Duncan, Sr. (1744-1828), professor of the Institutes of Medicine at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Edinburgh, introduced forensic medicine into his lectures. In 1792 he pub- lished his Heads of Lectures on Medical Jurisprudence, or the Institutiones medicinae legalis (Edinburgh, Neill). 1/Littlejohn. Department of Forensic Medicine. 187. 324. 1791 —The Staatsarzneikunde (State medicine) was taught for the first time in Hungary at the Faculty of Medicine in Nagyszombat. 1/Budvari. 325. 1792 —Joseph Daquin (1733-1815) of Chambery, French physician, pub- lished La philosophic de la folie (Paris, Nee de la Rochelle), in which he recommended the abolition of chains and confinement in cells of the mentally ill. He regarded imprisonment as extremely harmful to them. In that respect he was the predecessor of Philippe Pinel. The second edition of his book appeared in 1804. 1/Castiglioni. 634. [Date corrected from French bibl. source.] 326. 1792 —In France the Law of "14 frimaire an III" (December 14, 1792) created chairs of legal medicine at all French medical schools. The 68 first lectures, however, had already been held at the Medical Academy of Dijon in 1789 or 1790. 1/Chaille. 399. 2/Derobert. Petite historique. 327. 1793 —Europe's last burning of a witch at the stake took place in Poland. The act itself was illegal because witch-trials in that country had already been abolished (1776 and 1787). 1/Trevor-Roper. 98. 328. 1793 —The first recorded malpractice suit in the U.S. against Dr. Samuel Guthery of Stafford, Conn, for incompetent and cruel amputation of the breast which resulted in the death of the woman. Dr. Guthery paid about 40 pounds and, later, 20 more pounds, but it is not clear whether payment was made as a result of his malpractice or for settling some mutual debts. Some authors give 1794 as the year of the first malpractice suit. 1/A malpractice case in the eighteenth century. 329. 1794 —Thomas Percival (1740-1804), English physician and philosopher of Manchester, published privately Medical Jurisprudence; or A Code of Ethics and Institutes, Adapted to the Profession of Physics and Surgery (Manchester). It was circulated, criticized, and amended and in 1803 printed for general distribution under the title, Medical Ethics (Manchester, Russell). It reached numerous edi- tions, became the cornerstone of medical ethics in England as well as in the United States, and acquired world-wide fame. 1/Forbes. Medical ethics. 2/Talbott. 271-4. 330. 1794 —In Paris a Chaire de medecine legale et d'histoire de l'art de guerir was established at the University. Its first occupant was Pierre Lassus (1741-1807), a surgeon. He resigned after six months and was succeeded by his assistant, Paul Augustin Olivier de Mahon (1752-1801). 1/Corlieu. 337^0. 2/Derobert. La catedra de medicina legal. 331. 1795 —Chair of Legal Medicine was established in Strasbourg. Its first occupant was Professor Joseph Noel (1753-1808), who wrote a textbook of legal medicine. 1/Chaumont. 69 332. 1795/96 —Lectures on forensic medicine were offered at the University of Moscow by Prof. Frants F. Keresturi (1735-1811), who combined them in one unit with anatomy, histology, and physiology. Keres- turi's speech, Oratio de politia medica ejusque in Rossia usu, was translated into Russian and published in 1795. 1/Chervakov, V. F. et al. 4-5. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 7. 333. 1798 —Andrew Duncan (1744-1828), professor of the Institutes of Medi- cine at the University of Edinburgh, who also lectured and published on medical jurisprudence, presented to the Patrons of the University a memorial on the necessity of teaching medical jurisprudence. In 1806, it was recommended by the Lord Advocate for Scotland to the attention of His Majesty's Ministers, and it led to the establishment of the Chair of Legal Medicine at the University in 1807. 1/Duncan. 2/Huie. 334. 1799 —Francois-Emmanuel Fodere (1764-1835), physician in Marseille, published in three volumes Les lois eclairees par les sciences physiques: ou Traite de medecine legale et d'hygiene publique (Paris, Croullebois). This book marked a new era of legal medicine in France and the advancement of the whole field. It became widely known outside of France and established Fodere as an international authority. 1/Mottard. 2/Biogr. Lex. 2: 552-3. 335. 1799 —One of the first medicolegal textbooks used in Russia was Joseph Jakob Plenk's Elementa medicinae et chirurgiae forensis (Viennae, R. Graffer, 1781), translated into Russian that year by Ivan Kashinskii. In 1808 its use at the University of Moscow was re- placed by the lectures of Prof. I. F. Vensovich and it was eventually replaced everywhere by new Russian publications. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 7. 2/Avdeev. 25. 336. 1800 —The trial of James Hadfield in England resulted in an unusual decision for that time concerning criminal responsibility in cases of mental disorders. The jury found the prisoner not guilty because he was "under the influence of insanity at the time the act was com- mitted." He was, however, detained for the rest of his forty years under the Insanity Bill of 1800. 1/Slovenko. 89. 70 337. 1800 —Lectures on legal medicine started at the University of Erlangen. 1/Reichel. [Not available for examination. Information from its title.] 338- 1801 —Philippe Pinel (1745-1826), from 1792 physician of Bicetre Hospital and from 1794 of Salpetriere Hospital in Paris, professor at the University of Paris, and a pioneer in mental health, published his famous Traite medico-philosophique sur Valienation mentale, ou La manie (Paris, Caille et Ravier) which subsequently appeared in many editions and was translated into several languages. It is a cornerstone of French psychiatry which acquired world fame. In 1796 Pinel obtained permission from the National Assembly to release from chains 49 insane patients in Bicetre. His example was followed first in France, and then in England. 1/Castiglioni. 635. 2/Biogr. Lex. 4: 609. 3/Kornfeld. 644-6. 339. 1801 —The Chair of Legal Medicine and Institute of Legal Medicine were established in Dorpat (Tartu), Estonia. Beginning 1802, lectures and examinations in legal medicine were held at the University. Later, however, the lectures on legal medicine were united with other subjects and the independent Chair of Legal Medicine did not appear again until 1895, under the chairmanship of Professor Afanasii Sergeevich Ignatovskii (1858-1935). 1/Wagner. 221, 226. 2/Bol'sh. medits. entsiklop. 11: 30. 340. 1801 —Professor Giuseppe Tortosa (1743-1811), physician of Vicenza, be- gan publication of his two-volume work, Instituzioni di medicina forense (Vicenza), one of the first Italian publications with progres- sive and critical views, though still not completely free of old superstitions. He was the first in Italy to coin the term "medicina forense". His work was considered the "best book to its date" and reached several editions. 1/Chaille. 432. 341. 1803 —Joh. Bartoloma Trommsdorff (1770-1837), Swedish chemist, devel- oped a chemical test for arsenic. The test was modified in 1836 by Marsh and then accepted as a proof of the presence of arsenic in the human body. It was applied for the first time by Orfila in 1840. 1/Skinner. 43. 342. 1803 —Friedrich Wilhelm Sertiirner (1783-1841), a young German phar- macist, isolated an opium alkaloid and named it morphine. He published his discovery in 1806, thus becoming the founder of the chemistry of alkaloids. 71 To this day morphine remains the standard against which new analgesics are measured. 1/Wain. 208. 2/Brockhaus 17: 332. 343. 1804 —James Sackett Stringham (1775-1817), physician and professor of chemistry, started a course of lectures on legal medicine at Columbia College, New York. 1/Francis. 2/Chaille. 410. 344. 1804 —The first Chair of Legal Medicine and Medical Police was founded by the Austrian government in Cracow (now Poland). It became the Institute of Legal Medicine in 1834. The first teacher was Prof. Georg Knobloch. 1/Wachholz. 117-23. 2/Wagner. 222. 345. 1804 —A Chair for Staatsarzneikunde was established at the University of Vienna as the result of a new plan of medical studies prepared by Johann Peter Frank. The first professor of this discipline was Ferdinand Bernhard Vietz (1772-1815), who was appointed to the Chair in 1805. Vietz had earlier lectured on the subject at the University, though on a non-official basis. The Chair was usually referred to as Lehramt fur gerichtliche Arzneikunde und medizin- ische Polizeiwissenschaft. 1/Schwarzacher. 1073. 2/Breitenecker. 21. 3/Haberda. 346. 1804 —A Chair of Anatomy, Physiology, and Medico-Legal Science was established at the University of Moscow. Its first Chairman was Prof. Ivan Fedorovich Vensovich (1769-1811), who in 1808 began to lecture in Russian on the relations of legal medicine to national legislation. 1/Avdeev. 25. 2/Biogr. Lex. 5: 900. 3/Chervakov, F. A. et al. 4-9. 347. 1806 —The Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Edinburgh. 1/Littlejohn. The teaching of forensic medicine. 2/Huie. (Gives 1807). 72 348. 1807 —A Chair of Staatsarzneikunde was established as a salaried posi- tion at the Medical School of the University of Prague (Hofdekret of April 20, 1807). Its first occupant was Prof. Joseph Bernt (1770-1842). 1/Med Jahrb oester Staates 1(2): 40-1, 1811; 2(4): 5-6, 1814. 2/ Nemec. Forensic medicine. 1618-9. 349. 1808 —Boston physicians prepared and published Boston Medical Police, a set of rules on medical ethics, one of the first in the U.S. 1/Konold. 2. 350. 1808 —Code d'Instructions criminelles was introduced in France. It marked the end of the so-called Process by Inquisition and was imitated through Europe. Its medicolegal significance was that it made medical expertise obligatory under certain conditions, thus helping in the development of forensic medicine. It was abolished in 1958. 1/Schwarzacher. 1073. 351. 1809 —Adolph Christian Heinrich Henke (1775-1843), professor at the University of Erlangen, started lectures on legal medicine for both physicians and lawyers. In 1812 he published Lehrbuch der gericht- lichen Medizin (Berlin, J. E. Hitzig) which became the standard textbook and reached twelve editions. Henke was the leading personality in legal medicine of his time. An outstanding expert, his opinions were appreciated for the quality as well as the clarity of his reasoning. 1/Prokop. 3. 2/Biogr. Lex. 3: 159-61. 3/Dict. encycl. sci. med., 1888, v. 13: 528-9. 352. 1810 —Chair of Forensic Medicine was established at the School of Medicine and Surgery in Genova, Italy. Professor Antonio Giov- anni Mongiardini became its first Chairman. 1/L'Istituto di Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni della Univer- sita di Genova. 3. 353. 1810 —Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) and Johann Caspar Spurzheim (1776-1832) started the publication of Anatomie et physiohgie du systeme nerveux (Paris, Schoell), a five-volume work on cerebral 73 functions which stimulated further research into the brain, but also led to the creation of a pseudo-science, phrenology. 1/Biogr. Lex. 2: 669-71; 5: 377-9. 354. 1810 —Benjamin Rush (1745-1813), American physician, "father of Ameri- can medical literature," and professor at the University of Penn- sylvania, introduced medical jurisprudence into his lectures on institutes of medicine. The contents of this course, chiefly con- cerned with forensic psychiatry, were published in 1811 in his Sixteen Introductory Lectures (Philadelphia, Bradford & Inns- keep). He was the first person in the U. S. to publish original work in the field of medical jurisprudence. 1/Shastid. 2/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 16: 227-31, 1935. 355. 1811 —James S. Stringham (1775-1817) was appointed professor of medi- cal jurisprudence at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York. In 1814 the syllabus of his lectures was published in the American Medical and Philosophical Register, New York. 1/New York Med Phil J Rev 3: 112, 1811. 2/Chaille. 410. (Gives 1813.) 3/Amer Med Phil Reg 4: 614-5, 1814. 356. 1813 —Thomas Sutton (1767-1835), English physician, introduced into medical literature the term delirium tremens, and described it as different from other deliria in his book, Tracts on Delirium Tremens ... (London, T. Underwood). 1/Wain. 88. 357. 1814 —Professor Michael Skjelderup (1769-1852) started lectures on legal medicine at the University of Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. The Chair of Legal Medicine, however, was not established at the University until 1938. 1/Lundewall. 2/Placzek. 779. [Sjelderup, 1813.] 358. 1815 —Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787-1853), physician of Spanish origin, published two volumes of his Traite des poisons (Paris, Crochard). It marked the beginning of modern experimen- tal and forensic toxicology and reached five editions during his lifetime. Orfila also developed numerous methods of ascertaining poisons in the human body. In 1818 he became professor at the University of Paris, taught legal medicine and, later, chemistry. In 74 1821 he published Lecons faisant partie du cours de medecine legale (Paris, Bechet jeune), a modern textbook with new chapters on putrefaction and post-mortal wounds. It was extended, revised, and republished several times. One of the founders of modern legal medicine and toxicology, he achieved world fame both as a medical expert and as an unsur- passed toxicologist. 1/Perez de Petinto y Bertomeu. 2/Brittain. Bibliographic des tra- vaux francais de medecine legale. 116-8. 3/Myers. 359. 1815 —A law of August 2, 1815 ordered that forensic medicine should be taught at all universities in Holland. However, at the universities of Groningen, Leiden, and Gent, the subject was combined with other lectures. 1/Placzek. 777-79. 360. 1817 —Nicolas Gabriel Antoine Joseph Ansiaux (1780-1834), physician instrumental in founding the University of Liege (1816), was appointed professor of surgery, surgical clinics, and legal medicine at that institution. A prolific writer, especially in the field of surgery, he also wrote at least five books on legal medicine. His interest in legal medicine is evidenced in a small pamphlet, Oratio de medicinae forensis historia eiusque dignitate, ... (Leodii, 1822). 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 150. 2/Placzek. 779. 361. 1817 —Starting in about 1798, John Haslam (1764-1844), physician of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, published a number of works in England on insanity. The best known was his Medical Jurispru- dence As it Relates to Insanity According to the Law of England (London, printed for C. Hunter, etc., 1817). It includes observations on insanity with practical remarks on the disease, and an account of morbid appearances. Of importance also was his Considerations on the Moral Management of Insanity, published the same year (and also for C. Hunter). 1/Biogr. Lex. 3: 82. 2/Kornfeld. 668. 362. 1818 —Joseph Bernt (1770-1842), professor of legal medicine at the Uni- versity of Vienna, established in Vienna the Institut fur Staatsarz- neikunde and started the first Austrian medicolegal serial, the Beytrdge zur gerichtlichen Arzneykunde. 1/Reuter. Alte und neue Wege. 24. 2/Nemec. International bibliog- raphy of medicolegal serials. 31, no. 82. 75 • 1818 —Giacomo Barzellotti (1758-1839), professor of medicine at the Uni- versity of Pisa and medical writer, published a two-volume work, Medicina legale secondo h spirito delle leggi civili e penali veglianti nei governi d'ltalia (Pisa), which describes the application of medicine in Italian law, both criminal and civil. In 1822 he was called to the Chair of Legal Medicine at the University of Sienna, and in 1823 he started lectures on legal medicine in his course of "Medicina pratica" in Pisa. 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 367. 2/Biondi. 97. 3/Vitolo. 364. 1819 —Ludwig Julius Gaspar Mende (1779-1832), professor at the Univer- sity of Greifswald, published the first volume of his Ausfiihrliches Handbuch der gerichtlichen Medizin fur Gesetzgeber, Rechtsge- lehrte, Aerzte und Wundarzte (Leipzig, Dyksch). The volume is devoted to the history of forensic medicine and is still unsurpassed in its wealth of information and broad coverage. 1/Biogr. Lex. 4: 160-1. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of the history of legal medicine. 110, no. 907. 365. 1819 — Christian Friedrich Ludwig Wildberg (1765-1850), physician in Ber- lin, and from 1820 professor of medicine and city physician in Ros- tock, published Bibliotheca medicinae publicae, in qua scripta ad medicinam forensem et politicam facientia ab iUarum scientiarum initiis ad nostra usque tempora digesta sunt (Berolini, Flittner). The first volume of this bibliography covers forensic medicine and con- tains 2,980 references. The work supersedes C. F. Daniel's bibliog- raphy of 1784. Wildberg was a prolific medical writer and was one of the most industrious workers and editors in legal medicine in Germany. 1/Biogr. Lex. 5: 933^. 366. 1819 —Professor Giovanni Battista Mazzoni (d. 1870) started lectures on legal medicine at the University of Florence. 1/Chiodi. Saluto ai maestri. 2/Minerva Med 37: 50, 1946. 367. 1820 —Teaching of legal medicine started at the University of Berlin. The first teacher was Prof. Karl Wilhelm Ulrich Wagner (1793-1846). In 1826 he was appointed "ordinarius" of Staatsarzneikunde at the University. 1/Strassmann. 2/Wagner. 222. 76 368. 1821 —Adolph Christian Heinrich Henke, at the University of Erlangen, started the Zeitschrift fiir die Staatsarzneikunde, a leading periodi- cal in Germany on public health and forensic medicine. In 1844 the journal added Henke's name to its title and continued publishing until 1864. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 15, no. 4. 369. 1821 —John Gordon Smith (1792-1833), professor at the University of London, published The Principles of Forensic Medicine (London, T. & G. Underwood), the earliest English work on medicolegal prob- lems of bodily injuries, both mortal and non-mortal. It reached three editions. 1/Chaille. 413. 370. 1823 —Theodoric Romeyn Beck (1791-1855), American physician, medical writer, and educator, published the Elements of Medical Jurisprud- ence (Albany, Webster & Skinner), the first authoritative book on the subject in the United States and one of the best in the English language. It was republished several times in England and trans- lated into German and Swedish. With this publication, American medical jurisprudence became known and respected throughout the world. 1/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 2: 116-7, 1929. 2/Med Leg J 1: 648-50, 1884. 3/ Chaille. 413-4. 371. 1823 —Because of fear of premature burial, so-called "waiting mortu- aries" were established in Germany. Here bodies were kept under supervision until evidence of putrefaction was apparent. 1/Icard. 2/JAMA 206: 1953, 25 Nov 68. 372. 1823 —Jan Evangelista Purkyne (1787-1869), a Czech physician and at that time professor of physiology and pathology in Breslau, pub- lished Commentatio de examine physiohgico organi visus et syste- matis cutaneis (Vratislaviae, typis Universitatis), in which he described his investigation of peculiarities of the skin on the palmar surface of the terminal phalanges of the fingers. He found nine important varieties of "rugae" and "sulci," and devised their first classification. His work became the basis for the development of dactyloscopy. 1/Biogr. Lex. 4: 688-9. 2/Wain. 261. 3/Talbott. 464. 4/Gutekunst. 77 373. 1826 —A Chair of Forensic Medicine was organized at Josefinum, the Military-Surgical Academy in Vienna. The Academy was estab- lished in 1785 by the Emperor Joseph II at the recommendation of his personal physician, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla (1728- 1800). Forensic medicine had been taught at this institution from the start by the famous surgeon Jan Nepomuk Hunczowsky (1752- 1798) and then by others (e.g., Prof. Wagner,) but not as an independent subject prior to 1876. 1/Biogr. Lex. 3: 340-1. 2/Pizzighelli. 1, 10, 29. 374. 1826 —The first teacher of legal medicine in Canada was Dr. William Dunlop (1791-1848), physician in York, Ont. (called also "Tiger" Dunlop). He had worked between 1813 and 1815 as a military surgeon in the Canadian army during the war with the United States. After the war he visited India and then stayed in Scotland for some time. Dunlop published T. R. Beck's Elements of Medical Jurisprudence in Canada and wrote numerous journal articles. 1/Heagerty. 1: 246-8. 2/Forensic medicine. 375. 1826 —Charles Auguste van Coetsem (1788-1865), professor "extraordi- narius" at the University of Ghent (at that time part of Holland), started lectures on legal medicine. He continued teaching even after 1830, when Ghent became part of Belgium. Thereafter, legal medicine was, with few interruptions, part of the curriculum at the medical school. 1/Placzek. 778-9. 376. 1826 —Teaching of legal medicine started at the Faculty of Medical Sciences of Buenos Aires. The first professor was Francisco Javier Muriiz (1795-1871). 1/Ferrer Zanchi. 377. 1829 —Thomas Addison (1793-1860), famous physician (Addison's disease) of Guy's Hospital in London, wrote, with John Morgan (1797-1847), the first book in English on the action of poisons in the human body, An Essay on the Operation of Poisonous Agents Upon the Living Body (London, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, & Green). 1/Biogr. Lex. 1:30. 78 378. 1829 —The first French medicolegal journal, Annales d'hygiene publique et de, medecine legale, began publication in Paris. Among its first editors were such celebrities as Orfila, Marc, and Devergie. The journal had a profound influence on the development of legal medicine in France as well as abroad. 1/Marc. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 19, no. 22. 379. 1829 —Robert Christison (1797-1882), Scottish toxicologist, physician and professor of materia medica and medical jurisprudence (1822-1832) at the University of Edinburgh, published A Treatise on Poisons, in Relation to Medical Jurisprudence, Physiology, and the Practice of Physics (Edinburgh, A. & C. Black), a cornerstone of forensic toxicology. It reached four editions in England and was reprinted also in the United States. Christison, the leading authority of his time, was called several times as an expert in famous trials, and put legal medicine on a scientific basis in his country. 1/Encycl. Brit. 5: 705. 2/Castiglioni. 743. 380. 1831 —Chloroform was discovered simultaneously by three chemists: Samuel Guthrie (1782-1848) of the U. S., Eugene Soubeiran (1797- 1858) of France, and Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) of Germany. As an anesthetic it was not used for the first time until 1847, by Sir James Young Simpson (1811-1870), an eminent physician of Edin- burgh. 1/Talbott. 657. 2/Wain. 66. 3/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 8: 62. 4/Brockhaus 11: 452. 381. 1832 —Chair of Legal Medicine, the first one in Brazil, was established in Rio de Janeiro. It was occupied from 1833 to 1854 by Professor Conselheiro Jose Martins da Cruz Jobim (1802-1878). 1/Ribeiro. 382. 1832 —Sergei Alekseevich Gromov (1774-1856), from 1806 professor of forensic medicine at the Military Medical Academy in St. Peter- burg, published Kratkoe, izlozhenie sudebnoi meditsiny ... (S. Peterburg), the first book on forensic medicine in the Russian language. In 1837, it was translated into Polish and, in 1838, appeared in its second Russian edition. It served as the textbook of legal medicine at Russian universities for many years. 1/Zmeev. 78-9. 2/Avdeev. 26, 31, 44-5. 79 383. 1832 —Warburton's Anatomy Act of that year legalized the sale of dead bodies for dissection and marked the end of body snatching in England. 1/Castiglioni. 676. 2/Mitchell. 384. 1832 or 1833 —An institute entitled Praktische Unterrichts-Anstalt fur die Staats- arzneikunde was established by Professor Karl Wilhelm Ulrich Wagner at the Friedrich-Wilhelms Universitat in Berlin. The lectures covered the examination of living persons, dead bodies, food and drugs, and instruction in public health legislation. The institute, however, existed only on paper since no financial means or facilities for it were available. The lectures, therefore, continued at the University facilities. 1/Reimann. 2/Wagner. 222-3. 3/Med Ztg (Berlin) 16: 21, 1847. 385. 1833 —A non-salaried chair of legal medicine was established by Profes- sor Jose Feliz Merizalde at the University of Bogota, Colombia. The same year a similar chair was founded at the University of Mexico and Professor Augustin Arellano became its first chair- man. 1/Moll. 322. (The second statement seems to be incorrect, since Arellano was born in 1819.) 386. 1833 —University of Zurich was founded and legal medicine was taught from the beginning. The Chair of Legal Medicine, however, was not established until 1906, and the Institute of Legal Medicine not until 1912. 1/Dtsch Zschr Ges Gerichtl Med 46: 354, Jul 1957. 2/Zangger. 387. 1834 —Marie Guillaume Alphonse Devergie (1798-1879), physician of Paris, second only to Orfila in French legal medicine, started practical lectures in legal medicine in the morgue of Paris for students. In 1836 he published a two-volume work, Medecine legale theoretique et pratique (Paris, G. Bailliere) which reached three editions and was translated into Italian. Devergie was an out- standing medical expert and belongs among the founders of modern legal medicine in France. 1/Latour. 2/Biogr. Lex. 2: 253. 80 388. 1835-1846 —Research in blood stains begins in Italy. 1/Chiodi, V. Ricordi di antica ematologia forense. 389- 1836 —Alfred Swaine Taylor (1806-1880), lecturer on medical jurisprud- ence at Guy's Hospital in London, published Elements of Medical Jurisprudence (London), which was completed eight years later as A Manual of Medical Jurisprudence (London, Churchill, 1844). It is a cornerstone of English medical jurisprudence of the 19th cen- tury. It reached 12 editions in England and the same number in America. It was translated into French and it brought Taylor recognition throughout the world as a leader in legal medicine and toxicology. In 1865 he published Principles and Practice of Medical Jurisprud- ence (London, Churchill), which was similarly successful (transl. into German and Hungarian); its 12th edition appeared in 1965, edited by Professor C. K. Simpson. 1/Biogr. Lex. 5: 525. 2/Med Led J 3: 140, 1885. 3/Brittain. Bibliog- raphy of medicolegal works in English. 184-7. 390. 1836 —James Marsh (1794-1846), English chemist at the arsenal of Wool- wich, suggested a new test for the detection of arsenic in the human body and constructed a special apparatus for that purpose. His idea was accepted and his apparatus and method were widely used. 1/Campbell. 2/Biogr. Lex. 4: 87. 391. 1836 —A Chair of Legal Medicine, Public Hygiene, and Sanitary Police was established at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Portugal. 1/Azevedo Neves. Das Institut fur gerichtliche Medizin in Lissa- bon. 161. 392. 1838 —Sir Robert Carswell (1793-1857), professor of pathological anatomy at the University College of London, published Pathological Anat- omy. Illustrations of the Elementary Forms of Disease (London, Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman)—the best atlas of the discipline at that time. 1/Biogr. Lex. 1: 843-4. 393. 1838 —Jean Etienne Dominique Esquirol (1772-1840), French psychia- trist, published his work, Des maladies mentales considerees sous 81 les rapports medicale, hygienique et medicolegal (Paris, J. B. Bail- liere), one of first modern textbooks of psychiatry. His work was the first in which the statistical method was applied to the study of mental disorders. 1/Overholser. 7. 2/Kornfeld. 661^. 394. 1838 —August Timoleon Wistrand (1807-1866), Swedish military physi- cian, published the first Swedish textbook on forensic medicine, Handbok i forensiska medicinen (Stockholm, Z. Haeggstrom). 1/Svenskt. biograf. handlex. 2: 741-2. 395. 1838 —Isaac Ray (1807-1881), American psychiatrist, published his Trea- tise on Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity, (Boston, C. C. Little and J. Brown), the best work of that time in English and still a recognized authority in courts of law today. Several editions, the latest in 1962. 1/Dict. Amer. Biogr 15: 404-5, 1935. 2/Med Leg J 5: 1-21, 1887. 396. 1839 —Chair of Medical Jurisprudence and Forensic Medicine was estab- lished at the University of Glasgow. Dr. Robert Cowan became the first occupant of the new chair. 1/Glaister. Forensic Medicine Department, University of Glasgow. 201. 397. 1840 —Trial of Marie Lafarge (France), who poisoned her husband. M. J. B. Orfila's expert testimony about the presence of arsenic in the body was the decisive factor in the verdict of life imprisonment for Lafarge. This trial is often cited as the first occasion on which scientific toxicology was introduced to the courts of justice. 1/Proces de Madamme Lafarge. 2/Skinner. 43. 398. 1841 —Chair of legal medicine was established in Caracas, Venezuela. 1/Moll. 322. 399. 1842 —Carl Rokitansky (1804-1878), pathologist and professor of pathol- ogy at the University of Vienna from 1844 to 1874, published the first volume of his famous work, Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie (Wien, Braumiiller & Seidel, 1842-^6). Students from 82 many countries came to Vienna to study under him. Legal medi- cine profited greatly from his works. It is said that Rokitansky performed over 30,000 post-mortem examinations. 1/Becher. 1004-5. 2/Skinner. 358-9. —Chair of Legal Medicine, Toxicology, Public Hygiene, Medical Police, Medical History, Biography and Bibliography was estab- lished at the University of Havana. The first teacher was Profes- sor Jose Lletor de Castroverde. 1/Herrera Blanco. 401. 1842 —Legal provision, called Ustav sudebnoi meditsiny (Svod zakonov T. XIII.), organized medicolegal service in Russia. The service was conducted by District Physicians in their districts, by City Physi- cians in the cities, and also by other appointed physicians (military or civilian). This was supervised by Meditsinskaia uprava (after 1869 called Vrachebnoe otdelenie) and the highest authority was the Meditsinskii sovet of the Ministry of Interior. This organization existed until 1917. 1/Gromov. 13. 402. 1843 —James Braid (1795-1860), physician of Manchester, England, pub- lished his book, Neurypnology ... (London, Churchill), in which he stated that Mesmer's "animal magnetism" had nothing to do with magnetic influences and coined a new term "hypnotism" (some- times also called "braidism"). According to him hypnosis "repre- sents bodily consequences of suggestion under conditions of trance." There were several later studies of hypnosis and efforts to apply it in medicine, e.g., by French psychiatrist Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893); another Frenchman A. A. Liebeault (1823- 1904) who established the so-called Nancy school of hypnotism; by the Director of the Zurich Lunatic Asylum, August Forel (1848- 1931); and even in Russia by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) and Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927). Hypnotism was of concern to legal medicine and criminology because it was believed that a hypnotized person could be forced by the hypnotist into criminal activity. Very little attention is paid to it in medicolegal circles at present. 1/Winn. 13-15, 18-9, 41, 66-7, 84. 403. 1843 —A Chair of Legal Medicine was founded at the University of Madrid. Its first Chairman was Prof. Pedro Mata y Fontanet 83 (1811-1877). He encouraged the idea of a professional organization of forensic physicians and succeeded in 1862, when Cuerpo Medico Forense was established in Spain. His textbook on legal medicine and toxicology reached several editions. He was not only a physi- cian, but a philosopher, politician, and poet. 1/Alumno Med (Madrid) 1: 73, 1880/81. 2/Corbella Corbella. 10-1. 404. 1843 —Daniel M'Naghten fatally shot Edward Drummond, Secretary to the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, in London. The trial and the sentence which followed became famous in the history of Anglo- American jurisprudence of insanity. M'Naghten had been acquit- ted on grounds of insanity and following an appeal, 15 British judges redefined the common law of insanity. Their verdict is known as M'Naghten Rule. For the effective pleading of insanity it required that the accused "was labouring under such a defect of reason, from the disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or if he did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong." 1/Quen. 2/Diamond. 405. 1844 —Trial of Abner Rogers, Jr. in Boston, Mass., for murder, was famous for the successful introduction of the plea of insanity in the U.S. The defense submitted a wealth of information concerning cases of insanity and extensively cited medicolegal literature on the sub- ject. Among the witnesses for the defense was Issac Ray. Rogers was found "not guilty by reason of insanity," but ordered confined to the State Lunatic Hospital. Some weeks after the trial he committed suicide. 1/Bigelow. 406. 1844 —The first known ordinance in Prussia for the regulation of autop- sies was issued by the judiciary. 1/Thoinot. L'autopsie medico-legale. 431-2. 407. 1845 — Maximilien Isidore Amand Simon (fl. 1832-1865), French physician and medical writer, published Deontohgie medicale; ou Des devoirs et des droits des medecins ... (Paris, J. B. Bailliere). In it he introduced for the first time the term "medical deontology." 1/Koelbing. 84 408. 1845 —By decree of September 17,1845, legal medicine was taught in the 6th year of medical studies at the Spanish universities of Madrid, Cadiz, Valencia, Barcelona, and San Jago. 1/Centralarch Ges Staatsarzneikd (Ansbach) 4(4): 380,1847. 409- !846 —William T. Green Morton (1819-1868), dental practitioner and student at Harvard Medical School, experimented with ether as an anesthetic in his dental practice and introduced it successfully during surgical operation at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. In 1847 he published his experience in a pamphlet, Remarks On the Proper Mode of Administering Sulphuric Ether by Inhalation (Boston, Dutton and Wentworth). His discovery was quickly accepted. 1/Cohen. 44-5. 2/Biogr. Lex. 4: 271. 410. 1847 —Joseph Gerlach (1820-1896), German anatomist, discovered a method of coloring the cells in tissue, forming the basis for staining techniques. 1/Skinner. 190, 382-3. 411. 1847 —The first Code of Ethics of the American Medical Association was adopted in May in Philadelphia. It is based chiefly on Thomas Percival's Code of Medical Ethics (1803), but a few sections were taken from Benjamin Rush's works. It was revised in 1903; the latest revision is that of 1952. 1/Konold. 2/Kolaja. 412. 1848 —According to a petition of the Academic Senate of the University of Prague, the Austrian Ministry of Education (by an ordinance dated March 31, 1848) permitted University lectures not only in German but also in the Czech language. Thus, beginning with the academic year 1848/49 legal medicine was taught in Czech. Some Czech authors mention that private courses on legal medi- cine in that language were being offered at the University in 1795- 1796 by Professor Franz Karl Fiedler (1770-1808) and from 1832 on by Professor Mathias Popel (1798-1865). 1/Koerting. 258. 2/Hajek. Soudni lekarstvi. 1: 14. 3/Pech. 9. 413. 1849 —The House of Delegates of the American Medical Association, at 85 its session in May, approved the appointment of a Committee on Forensic Medicine. 1/American Medical Association. Digest of official actions. 443. 414. 1849-1851 —Magnus Huss (1807-1890), Swedish physician, published Alcoholis- mus chronicus (Stockholm, Beckman). It is a profound study and definition of alcoholism, originally published in Swedish, but in 1852 also in German translation under the title, Alkoholskrankheit oder Alcoholismus chronicus. In the preface the author says that he "assigned to this illness the term 'alcoholismus chronicus'." 1/Bynum. 2/Skinner. 15. 415. 1850 —Jean Servais Stass (1813-1891), professor of chemistry of Brussels, developed a method of extracting alkaloids from cadavers [Famous "Affaire Bocarme"]. This had been considered impossible, even by outstanding toxicologists such as Orfila. His success encouraged similar studies by others. His method (with some modifications) is still used at present. 1/Kind. 14 ff. 2/Thomas. 416. 1850 —Horace Nelson (1821- ?) and F. J. d'Avignon started in Pitts- burgh, N. Y., the first medicolegal journal in the United States, The Northern Lancet and Gazette of Legal Medicine. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 52, no. 205. 417. 1851 —Chair of legal medicine established in Santiago, Chile. 1/Moll. 322. 418. 1853 —Repertorio de higiene publica y medicina legal, the first Spanish journal devoted to legal medicine, appeared in Madrid. It was edited by the physician Manual Alvarez Chamorro (1828- ?), but only 20 issues of its first volume were published. 1/Nieto Nieto. 419. 1854 —Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Psychiatrie und gerichtliche Psychologie in Gottingen started publishing a bi-weekly, Correspondenz-Blatt, and also the Verhandlungen. Both publications were edited by 86 Adolf Albrecht Erlenmeyer (1822-1877) of Wiesbaden, physician and director of a private asylum in Bendorf, Germany. 1/Cor-Bl Dtsch Gesell Psych (Neuwied) 23: 145-8, 1877. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials, no. 107, 317. 420. 1854 —Ambroise Auguste Tardieu (1818-1879), a great French toxicolo- gist, pupil of Orfila, started publishing uEtudes," monographs on various problems in forensic medicine. Tardieu was a casuist, an outstanding medical expert, and, therefore, a "star" in many civil and criminal proceedings. One of the most productive writers in legal medicine and toxicol- ogy. 1/Biogr. Lex. 5: 515-6. 421. 1855 —Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Lima, Peru. Lectures, however, had already begun in 1809. 1/Avendano Hubner. 422. 1855 —Frank Hastings Hamilton (1813-1886), professor of surgery in New York, published Deformities After Fractures (Philadelphia, T. K. & P. G. Collins), which greatly influenced the outcome of malpractice suits in the U. S. It appeared in several editions. 1/Chaille. 416. 2/Brittain. Bibliography of medicolegal works in English. 423. 1855 —Francis Wharton (1820-1889), a lawyer, clergyman, and legal writer of Philadelphia, and Moreton Stille (1822-1855), a physician, published A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence (Philadelphia, Kay and brother), an outstanding treatise, accepted by both the legal and medical professions in the U.S. as a standard authority. It reached 5 editions. 1/Chaille. 415. 2/Brittain. Bibliography of medicolegal works in English. 3/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 20: 27-9. 424. 1857-1858 —Johann Ludwig Casper (1796-1864), physician, professor in Berlin, medical writer and editor, published his Praktisches Handbuch der gerichtlichen Medicin (Berlin, Hirschwald), which contained a great wealth of facts and was unsurpassed for a long time. Reprinted several times, it was also translated into English, French, Italian, Russian, and Dutch. Casper reformed German 87 forensic medicine and freed it from previous judicial formalism and dependence on other sciences. 1/Castiglioni. 743. 2/Biogr. Lex. 1: 848-9. 424a. 1858 —Medical Act was passed in England on August 2, 1858. It set up a General Council on Medical Education and Registration and gave the first statutory definition of medical practitioner. It united the many different kinds of practitioners into one legally recognized body of qualified medical men. There was, however, no provison prohibiting the practice by unqualified persons. 1/Bullock. 102-11. 425. 1860 —Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Kiev and Prof. Fedor Fedorovich Ergardt (1828-1895?) was appointed the first chairman. Ergardt had taught a course in legal medicine at the University from 1857 on and he retired around 1889. He published 56 works on legal medicine, psychiatry and related fields and also taught pharmacology. 1/Tr sudebnomed eksp Ukrainy, 1962, pp. 288-91. 426. 1860 —John Johnson Elwell (1820-1900), physician and lawyer, professor of medical jurisprudence at the schools of law and medicine in Ohio, published A Medico-Legal Treatise on Malpractice and Medi- cal Evidence, Comprising the Elements of Medical Jurisprudence (New York, Baker, Voorhis, etc.), the first treatise on malpractice in the U. S. It went through four editions and became a standard work in the U.S., Canada, and Great Britain. 1/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 6: 122. 427. 1861 —Lectures on legal medicine started in Zagreb, Croatia, at that time part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Yugoslavia). They were held at the Academy of Law by Prof. Mavro Sachs (1819- 1888). 1/Grmek. 428. 1862 —Sir Samuel Wilks (1824-1911), English physician associated with Guy's Hospital in London, editor of its Reports and lecturer on 88 pathology, described dissecting-room warts (verrucae necrogeni- cae). 1/Guy's Hosp Rep 8: 263-5,1862. 2/Talbot. 415-7. 429. 1863 —Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum (1828-1899), German physician and direc- tor of a private sanatorium in Gbrlitz, described schizophrenia in young persons, later named hebephrenia. In 1874 he introduced the term catatonia for a form of schizophrenia. Kahlbaum was very active in the classification of various forms of insanity and defined, for example, Kraepelin's term paraphrenia. 1/Kornfeld. 718, 720, 721. 2/Wain. 60, 145. 3/Skinner. 236. 430. 1863 —The Chair of State Medicine (Staatsarzneikunde), consisting of public hygiene and legal medicine, was established at the Univer- sity of Graz. Prof. Adolf von Schauenstein (1827-1891) was ap- pointed first chairman. 1/Reuter. Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Graz. 8. 431. 1864 —At the first Red Cross convention in Geneva, delegates of 12 governments approved rules for the protection of the war wounded, whether friend or enemy, as well as the personnel caring for them and the medical supplies for their use. This was the first international treaty of its kind. 1/Encycl. Brit. 19: 19. 432. 1864 —Adolph von Baeyer (1835-1917), outstanding German chemist, and teacher at Gewerbeinstitut in Berlin, discovered barbituric acid, the first of the barbiturates. In 1869 chloral hydrate was intro- duced as a hypnotic drug and it was followed by others (sulphonal, barbitone or veronal, etc.) 1/Sharples. 105. 2/Willstatter. 3/Brockhaus 2: 410. 433. 1865 —Acim Medovic, physician, "magister" of obstetrics, and professor of legal medicine at the Academy of Belgrade, Faculty of Law, published his lectures in lithographic form. This was apparently the first publication of that kind in the Serbian language. The second edition appeared in 1871. Medovic based his teachings on Karl Bergmann's Lehrbuch der Medicina forensis fur Juristen (Braunschweig, F. Vieweg, 1846). 1/Grujic. 89 —The Arkhiv sudebnoi meditsiny i obshchestvennoi gigieny, the first medicolegal journal in Russia, started publication, with Sergei Pavlovich Lovtsov (1823-1876) as its editor. It ceased publication in 1871. 1/Lotova. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal seri- als. 27, no. 61. 435. 1867 —The Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Kiel. The first appointee was Prof. Johann Adolf Ludwig Bocken- dahl (1826-1902). He taught legal medicine and history of medicine at the University until his death. 1/Hallermann. 2/Biogr. Lex. 1: 585. 436. 1867 —Theodore George Wormley (1826-1897), American physician and toxicologist, published Micro-chemistry of Poisons (New York, Bailliere Bros.), an important contribution to the identification of poisons and the first American book devoted entirely to toxicology. It was highly praised, especially because of the author's original research. 1/Chaille. 416. 2/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 20: 535-6. 437. 1867 —The Medico-Legal Society of New York—the first society of its kind in the world—was founded; its legal organization was perfected on June 20, 1868. The Society sponsored regular lectures, and pub- lished bulletins, papers read at the meetings, and, from 1883, The Medico-Legal Journal. It also organized three American Interna- tional Medicolegal Congresses (1889, 1893, and 1895). 1/Nemec, International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 9, 33, no. 96-7 and 54, no. 215. 2/Chaille. 424-5. —Georg Johann Noel Dragendorff (1836-1898) of Rostock, Ph.D. and M.D., professor of pharmacy at the University of Dorpat (Russia), published his Die gerichtlich-chemische Ermittelung von Giften in Nahrungsmitteln, Luftgemischen, Speiseresten, Korpertheilen ... (St. Petersburg, H. Schmitzdorff), an important contribution to forensic chemistry, in which he introduced several methods for the detection of poisons in the human body. He later wrote other works on this subject. 1/Biogr. Lex. 2: 305-6. 2/Morton. 210. 90 439. 1868 —The Societe de Medecine Legale de Paris was founded by the pioneer of French legal medicine, Dr. Alphonse Devergie (1798- 1879) and others. Its foundation had been proposed the previous year by Dr. Jean Theofile Gallard (1828-1887), who became its first Secretary General and held that position until his death. In 1873 the society's name was changed to Societe de Medecine Legale de France. It achieved official recognition in 1874 and, in 1955, it changed its name again to Societe de Medecine Legale et de Criminologie de France. 1/Derobert. Historique de la Societe de Medecine Legale et de Criminologie de France. 2/Chaille. 425. 440. 1869 —Chair of legal medicine was established in Guatemala. It was probably a part of the University of San Carlos, founded in Antigua in 1676. 1/Moll. 322. 441. 1869 —The Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Innsbruck. Professor Eduard Hofmann became its first chairman. 1/Holzer. 442. 1869 —John Ordronaux (1830-1908), American physician, lawyer, and writer, professor of medical jurisprudence in various schools of law and medicine, published Jurisprudence of Medicine in Its Relation to the Law of Contracts, Torts, and Evidence, with a Supplement on the Liabilities of Vendors of Drugs (Philadelphia, T. & J. W. Johnson), one of the best books of its time in the U.S. Most of Ordronaux's publications in medicine concerned mental diseases. 1/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 14: 50-1. 443. 1870 —The first American National Prison Congress was held in Cincin- nati, Ohio. It issued its "Declaration of Principles" which stated that the purpose of prisons should be to reform rather than punish, and it recommended that the duration of imprisonment should be determined on the basis of the conduct of the convict. The opposition to this reform was so strong that it was applied only to young criminals, and even in their institutions, it subse- quently fell into disuse. The idea was, however, revived in the second quarter of the 20th century in New Jersey and became the cornerstone of the modern prison system. 1/Encycl. Brit. 18: 518. 91 444. 1871-1877 —Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880), French surgeon and physical an- thropologist, founder of craniometry for which he designed meth- ods and technics, published in five volumes his Memoires d'anthropologie (Paris, C. Reinwald). Broca founded in 1859 the Societe d'anthropologie which published a Bulletin. His name is associated especially with the localization of the center of speech in the brain. 1/Talbott. 826-30. 2/Enc. Brit. 4: 259. 445. 1874-1876 —Gaspare Virgilio (1830-1908), Italian surgeon, prison physician in the service of "Ufficio Sanitario," and professor of psychiatry at the University of Naples, published Saggio di ricerce sulla natura morbosa de delitto e delle sue analogie con le malattie mentali (Roma, 1874), and Passante e la natura morbosa del delitto (Roma, E. Loescher, 1876), the cornerstones of criminal psychopathology. His first work appeared two years before Lombroso's Uuomo delinquente. Virgilio also organized in his native city, Aversa, "Manicomio Giudiziario" (Judiciary Asylum), the first in Italy. 1/Arcieri. 446. 1876 — Camille Dareste (1822-1899), French physician, who studied abnor- mal development and congenital malformation, published his book, Recherches sur la production artificielle des monstrosites ou Es- saies de teratogenic experimentale (Paris, Reinwald). He is usually considered the founder of experimental teratology and published several works on that discipline. 1/Biogr. Lex. 2: 184. 447. 1876 —Caesare Lombroso (1836-1909), Italian physician, psychiatrist and anthropologist, Professor of Legal Medicine and Public Health and later of Criminal Anthropology at the University of Turin, pub- lished a book on criminal personality, Uuomo delinquente (Milano, Hoepli), the basis of his criminal anthropology. He studied the relations between mental and physical disorders, introduced the theory of "criminally born" and maintained that criminals can be identified by some physical characteristics. Most of his theories were later refuted but his teaching influenced the development of legal medicine, criminology and the law. 1/Biogr. Lex. 3: 832. 2/Enciclopedia ital. 19: 442. 448. 1877 —In Massachusetts, the office of Coroner was abolished and re- placed by the office of Medical Examiner. Several other states followed suit. 92 In July of the same year, the Massachusetts Medico-Legal Society was organized in Boston. Beginning in 1878 it published its Transactions. 1/Helpern. 2/Leary. The Massachusetts Medicolegal Society. 3/ Gonzales. 5. 4/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 72, no. 313. 449. 1877-1878 — Eduard Hofmann (1837-1897) of Prague, professor of legal medi- cine at the University of Vienna, published his Lehrbuch der gerichtlichen Medizin (Wien, Urban & Schwarzenberg), which was translated into several foreign languages (e.g., French, Russian, Italian and Spanish). It appeared in eight editions during his lifetime, and helped to reform legal medicine and revive interest in it. Hofmann was recognized both at home and abroad as the greatest living practitioner and teacher of legal medicine. He was a prolific writer: "Scarcely a segment of forensic medicine was not enriched by his industry," according to his biographer. 1/Myers. Famous forensic scientists. 7—Eduard Ritter von Hof- mann. 2/Nemec. Forensic medicine. 1624-5. 450. 1878 —George Hayem (1841-1933), French physician and professor of therapeutics and clinical medicine in Paris, devised and described for the first time a method for the accurate count of blood platelets in his Recherches sur Vanatomie normale et pathologique du sang (Paris, Masson). He is considered the founder of modern hematol- ogy. 1/Wain. 145. 2/Schmidt, J. E. 60. 451. 1878 —The Dentist Act of 1878 in England, designed especially to govern the conduct of the profession and protect the public, established the Dentists Register, gave the right to those already practicing dentistry to be registered, and admitted to registration in the future only those who possessed the appropriate qualifications to practice. 1/Samson. 1, 3. 452. 1878 —In 1875 the Section on "Medecine publique" of the 4th Interna- tional Congress of Medicine, assembled in Brussels, recommended that the Societe de Medecine Legale de France organize an independent congress of legal medicine. This recommendation was carried out by the Society and the International Congress of Legal 93 Medicine, the first of its kind, was held on August 12-14, 1878 in Paris (Tuilleries) under the presidency of Dr. Alphonse Guillaume Devergie, pioneer of legal medicine in France. 1/Congres International de Medecine Legale. Paris, 1878. 453. 1879 —Louis Adolphe Bertillon (1853-1914), Chief of the Bureau of Inves- tigation at the Prefecture of Police in Paris, anthropometrist, invented the first scientific system for physical identification of individuals (eleven bodily measurements were suggested). It was put in use in 1885, the same year Bertillon's book, Identification anthropometrique (Melun, Typographie-lithographie administra- tive) appeared and, up to the time of the introduction of finger- printing, was the most successful means of identification. It was called "bertillonage" after its inventor. 1/Encycl. Brit. 3: 535. 2/Brockhaus 2: 594-5. 454. 1880 —A Chair of Forensic Medicine was established at the University of Jassy, Rumania. Professor loan Alexandre Ciurea (1840-1891) became its first Chairman. 1/Kernbach, M. Evolutia. 455. 1882 —Universitas Carolo-Ferdinandea in Prague was divided into two administratively independent units: German and Czech. Forensic medicine at the German University was taught by Joseph Maschka (1820-1899). Courses in forensic medicine at the Czech University, School of Law, were given from 1883 by Vaclav Belohradsky (1844-1896); at the School of Medicine, from 1884, by Josef Reinsberg (1844-1930). 1/Nemec. Forensic medicine. 1626-8. 456. 1883 — Emil Krapelin (1856-1926), German psychiatrist, published his famous Compendium der Psychiatrie (Leipzig, Abel), which reached nine editions, was translated into several foreign lan- guages, and changed the system of psychiatry throughout the world. He classified mental diseases, developed the concept of dementia precox and manic-depressive psychosis. A prolific writer, he became professor of psychiatry in Dorpat (1886), Heidelberg (1891), and Munich (1903). He gave prominence to German psychia- try and was interested also in criminology. 1/Dumesnil. 293-5. 2/Alexander. 162^. 3/Wain. 177. 94 457. 1883 —The Medico-Legal Society of New York began publishing its Medico-Legal Journal. Its first editor was Clark Bell (1832-1918), a New York lawyer and leading expert in legal medicine in the country. The journal continued for fifty years. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 48, no. 186. 2/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 2: 153-4. 458. 1888 —The Medical Defence Union for the support and protection of medical practitioners was founded in London. Its main purpose was "to mitigate the hardships of the law as it then pertained to medical practice." From its beginning, the organization published annual reports. In 1892 the Medical Protection Society was estab- lished for the same purpose. 1/Forbes. Sixty years of Medical Defence. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 21, no. 33. 459. 1888 — Emil Ungar (1849-1934), "docent" of pediatrics and legal medicine at the University of Bonn, delivered his famous speech, Die Bedeutung der gerichtlichen Medizin und deren Stellen auf deutschen Hochschulen at the sektion fur gerichtliche Medicin der Naturforscher-Versammlung in Cologne. In it he pointed out the low status of legal medicine and its teaching in Germany. His speech was later used by all who sought higher status for the discipline in that country. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of the history of legal medi- cine. 182, no. 1484. 460. 1888 —Professor Kunika Katayama (1855-1931), who had lectured since 1883 at the University of Tokyo on legal medicine, established at the University the first Institute of Legal Medicine in Japan. 1/Kuwashima. 461. 1889 —Jean Alexandre Eugene Lacassagne (1843-1924), professor of for- ensic medicine at the University of Lyon, brought forensic medi- cine to the attention of the whole world by his expertise in "affaire Gouffe." He was able to identify a human body by studying remnants of bones and hair. 1/Thorwald. 151-63. 462. 1892 —At the 21st Congress of German Surgeons held in Berlin, Paul Bruns (1846-?) of Tubingen reported his observations on the effects 95 of dum-dum bullets and recommended an international ban on their usage. 1/Bruns. 463. 1892 —Francis Galton (1822-1911), English scientist, explorer, and anthro- pometrist, introduced identification by fingerprints (dactyloscopy) in his book, Finger Prints (London, MacMillan). He stressed the importance of dactyloscopy, especially in criminology. He is partic- ularly known for his use of statistics in genetics and for his studies on heredity. 1/Castiglioni. 776. 2/Talbott. 718-9. 3/Skinner. 185. 464. 1892 —Prof. Dr. Mina Minovici (1857-1933) established the Institute of Legal Medicine in Bucharest. There had been lectures on legal medicine at the University of Bucharest since 1869. After Minov- ici's death the Institute was named after him. 1/Kernbach, M. Evolutia. 2/Schiffmann. 40, no. 182. 465. 1893 —Hans Gustav Adolf Gross (1847-1915), professor at the German University of Prague and after 1905 at the University of Linz, published Handbuch fur Untersuchungsrichter, Polizeibeamte, Gendarmen u. s. w. (Graz, Leuschner) which was republished and translated several times and earned for him the name "founder of scientific criminology." Its fourth edition, entitled Handbuch fur Untersuchgsrichter als System der Kriminalistik, was translated in 1906 into English under the title Criminal Investigation. 1/Brockhaus 7: 669. 466. 1894 —Pierre Megnin (1828-1905), French veterinarian and researcher in veterinary pathology, dermatology, and parasitology, published at the request of Prof. P. C. H. Brouardel his La faune des cadavres; application de Ventomologie a medecine legale (Paris, Masson). He concludes in it that by examining the insects which inhabit a dead body it is possible to determine the time of death. 1/Bull Acad Med (Paris) 55: 7-12,1906. 467. 1894-1896 —A four-volume work of encyclopedic features, Medical Jurispru- dence, Forensic Medicine and Toxicology (New York, W. Wood) was published. Edited by Rudolph August Witthaus (1846-1915), physi- cian and professor of chemistry and physics in New York, and 96 Tracy Chatfield Becker (1855-1910?), a lawyer and later professor of criminal law in Buffalo, N. Y., it had many contributors and became a standard comprehensive source of information for many years. Its second edition appeared between 1906-11. Witthaus acquired world-wide eminence in legal medicine and testified in some of the most notable murder trials in the U.S. 1/Dict. Amer. Biogr. 20: 439. 2/Who's who in America, 1903-1909. 3/ Med Sci Law 2: 69-72,1961. 468. 1895 —The Viennese physicians, Josef Breuer (1842-1925) and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) published Studien uber Hysterie (Wien, Deu- ticke), in which they described the "cathartic" method of treat- ment of hysteria. It marked the foundation of the doctrine of "psychoanalysis", the discipline which investigates the interaction of conscious and unconscious processes and has as its aim the discovery and formulation of laws involving the function of the mental system. The term "psychoanalysis" was used by Freud for the first time in 1896 and Breuer was credited by Freud with bringing psychoanalysis into being during his student days (1880- 82). Although Breuer broke off their cooperation, Freud continued his work and brought new and revolutionary ideas into the field of psychopathology. Among his numerous publications special men- tion should be made of The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Totem and Taboo (1913), and The Unconscious (1915). Freud created considerable controversy by his emphasis on the repression of sex influences in mental processes. His main principles, however, have been generally accepted as the basis of abnormal psychology. Freud greatly influenced medical psychology throughout the world. 1/Alexander. 188-210. 2/Eidelberg. 152-66, 340-3. 3/Skinner. 181-2. 469. 1895 —Vladimir Petrovich Serbskii (1858-1917), at the time a "docent" at the Psychiatric Clinic of the University of Moscow and later the Chairman of the Department of Psychiatry, published the first volume of his Sudebnaia psikhopatologiia (Moscow). The second volume was published five years later. The work is the first Russian methodical textbook on forensic psychopathology. 1/Bolsh. med. entsiklop 29: 802-3. 2/Sudebnomed Ekspert 2(1): 42-7, Jan-Mar 1959. 469a. 1895-1902 —Paul Camille Hippolyte Brouardel (1837-1906), professor of legal medicine at the University of Paris, published Cours de medecine legale de la Faculte de medecine de Paris (Paris, J. B. Bailliere), a series of eleven monographs on the most important subjects of the 97 discipline. Brouardel was a prolific writer on legal medicine and public health and was an outstanding expert and teacher. "Ponti- fex Maximus of French medicine, always consulted by the Govern- ment in medical matters," concludes his obituary. 1/Ann Hyg Publ Med Leg 6: 193-245, 1906; Med-Leg J 24: 353-5, 1906/7. 2/Brittain. Bibliographic des travaux francais ... 25-8. 470. 1896 —The Instituto de Medicina Legal y la Morgue was established by Law 3379 in Buenos Aires. 1/Bonnet, E. F. P. 2/Rojas. 471. 1896 —One year after the epoch-making discovery of German physicist, Wilhelm Konrad von Roentgen (1845-1923), X-ray pictures were admitted as evidence in English courts (London) and in the United States (Wichita, Kansas, and Denver, Colorado). F. Bordas (Ann Hyg Publ Med Leg., 3rd ser. 35: 389-90, 1896) says that they were used for the first time in legal medicine, as far as he knows, in the case of Gladys Frolliot, a young dancer in a theater in Nottingham (England). Her lawyer submitted an X-ray picture of her broken leg to the jury as evidence and won the indemnity for her. Bordas does not give the date of the trial but it was apparently 1896. 1/Collins, V. P. 2/Sweet. 3/Skinner. 358. 472. 1898 —Oscar Amoedo (1863-1945), professor at "l'Ecole odonto-technique" in Paris, published his Uart dentaire en medecine legale (Paris, Masson), a cornerstone of forensic odontology. A chapter called "Observations" describes 52 cases of dental identification. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of the history of legal medi- cine. 4, no. 26. 473. 1899 —Reforms in medicolegal service in Portugal started with the founding of new morgues in Lisbon, Porto, and Coimbra. In the same year the Institute of Legal Medicine in Lisbon was organ- ized and the Medico-Legal Council was established. 1/Azevedo Neves. Os servigos ... 259. 474. 1899 —The Medicolegal Society of Belgium was established in Brussels for the promotion of legal medicine. Its Annales, published quart- erly, appeared the same year. 98 1/Societe de Medecine Legale de Belgique. 1: 61-3. 2/Nemec. Inter- national bibliography of medicolegal serials. 19, no. 25. 475. 1900 —Dr. Robert Fletcher (1823-1912), Principal Assistant Librarian of the Army Surgeon-General's Library, Washington, D.C., started a course of lectures on forensic medicine at the Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, in January. In February a column called "Medicolegal" appeared as a regular feature of the Journal of the American Medical Association. 1/JAMA 34: 52, Jan 6, 1900. 476. 1900 —Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943), pathologist of Vienna, discovered isoagglutinins in human blood cells and blood serum and estab- lished the existence of three main blood groups. In 1901 he published his findings in Wiener klinische Wochenschrift and pre- dicted that further study of blood groups would bring important results in forensic medicine. 1/Wain. 180. 2/Schmidt, J. E. 60. 477. 1901 —Paul Theodor Uhlenhuth (1870-1957), German bacteriologist, at that time an assistant at the Hygienic Institute of the University of Greifswald, Germany, succeeded in his experiments to distin- guish between human and animal blood and published his discov- ery in Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift 27: 82-3, 260-1, 7 Feb 1901. His discovery laid the basis for forensic serology. The first court test of his discovery was in Berlin in 1904; the jury accepted the results of the experiment. 1/Thorwald. 174. 2/Wain. 322. 3/Morton. 211. 478. 1901 —The Medico-Legal Society was founded in London in December 1901. The first general meeting was held on April 10, 1902. (An earlier effort of the same kind in 1887 had failed.) In 1902 the Society started publishing its Transactions. 1/Collins, W. J. 2/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 72, no. 314. 479. 1901 —Legal medicine became a compulsory subject in the curriculum of medical schools in all Prussian universities. 1/Lochte. 99 —The development of modern legal medicine began in Chile with the appointment of Dr. Carlos Ibar de la Sierra (?-1930) to the Chair of Legal Medicine at the University of Chile in Santiago. Ibar worked diligently for the recognition and practical use of legal medicine in his country. Under his influence in 1915 La Morgue de Santiago became the responsibility of the Professor of Legal Medicine, medicolegal services were organized, and in 1917 construction of the Institute of Legal Medicine started. The Institute was recog- nized by law in 1925 and named after Ibar in 1934. 1/Uribe Cualla. Legal medicine. 44-5. 481. 1902 —Emerich Ullmann (1861-1937), Hungarian surgeon and medical writer, was probably the first physician to attempt to combat acute uremia by renal transplantation. He failed for technical reasons. His example was followed, but positive results were not achieved until 1950 (Lawler, 1950; Hume, 1953; Michon, 1953; Murray, 1954, etc.) and especially after proper attention was paid to immunosuppression (Murray, 1961; Starzl, 1963, etc.). Renal transplantation naturally raises ethical, medicolegal and legal questions. 1/Groth. 482. 1902 —John Glaister (1856-1932), Regius Professor of Legal Medicine and Public Health at the University of Glasgow, published A Text-book of Medical Jurisprudence, Toxicology and Public Health (Edin- burgh, Livingstone). An outstanding work, it reached five editions during his lifetime. Revised by his son John Glaister (1892-1971) and later by others, it reached its 13th edition in 1973. 1/Brit Med J 2: 1215-6, 31 Dec 1932. 483. 1904 —Juan Vucetich (1858-1925), a police employee in Buenos Aires, Argentina, influenced by Sir Francis Galton's writings on finger- print identification, devised a new system for the classification of fingerprints (all fingers) in 1891. He published his method in 1904 under the title Dactiloscopia comparada. It was used especially in Latin-American countries, but influenced dactyloscopy in other countries as well. 1/Ann Med Leg 19: 576, 1939. 2/Encycl. Brit. 9: 278. 484. 1904 —Fritz Strassmann (1858-1940), professor of legal medicine at the University of Berlin and director of its Unterrichtsanstalt fur 100 Staatsarzneikunde, founded the Society of Legal Medicine in Berlin. In the same year, a similar national society was planned at the congress of Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher un Aerzte in Breslau and established by the initiative of professors Puppe, Ipsen, Kratter, Lesser, Ungar and Strassmann under the name Deutsche Gesellschaft filr die Gerichtliche Medizin. 1/Castiglioni. 890. 2/Vrtljschr Gerichtl Med 31: 205ff., 1906. 485. 1904 —James Fairchild Baldwin (1850-1936), American surgeon, professor of gynecology, and medical writer, published a paper on the first successful colpopoiesis. From the legal point of view the successful formation of a vagina by plastic surgery enabled the patient to conclude a legally valid marriage. 1/JAMA 106(10): 870, Mar 7, 1936. 2/Rabinovitch. 486. 1905 —The Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Copenhagen and Professor Knud B0rge Pontoppidan (1853-1916) became its first chairman. Legal medicine had been taught at the University beginning in 1819, but not as an independent subject. 1/Sand, K. A. B. 354. 487. 1906 —The Congres pour la repression de Vexercice illegal de la medecine, the first congress concerned with the suppression of medical quackery, took place in Paris. 1/Congres pour la repression de l'exercice illegal de la medecine. 488. 1906 —Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Zurich, with Professor Heinrich Zangger (1874-1957) as the chair- man. In 1912 he organized the Institute of Legal Medicine. 1/Hartmann. 489. 1907 —Jan Jansky (1873-1921), physician of Prague, classified human blood into four groups. They correspond with K. Landsteiner's groups O, A, B, and AB respectively (1900) and with V. L. Moss's groups IV, II, III, and I (1910). Jansky's classification was pub- lished in Klinicky sbornik (Prague) 8: 94ff, 1907. 1/Wain. 172. 2/Schmidt, J. E. 3/Skinner 72 (erroneously indicates that the classification took place "in Norway"). 101 490. 1907 —Laboratory of Criminal Anthropology established in Brussels. It studied mentally disturbed prisoners and the conditions in Belgian prisons and led to the reform of prisons in that country after World War I. Its first Director was Dr. L. Vervaeck. 1/Heger-Gilbert. 491. 1908 —Department of Legal Medicine was established at the University of Istanbul. 1/Adnan. 492. 1908 —Professor Rudolf Archibald Reiss (1875-1929) recommended the foundation of Ulnstitut de Police Scientifique de Lausanne. It was approved on November 1, 1909 and was attached to the Univer- sity's School of Law. The Institute was allowed to issue diplomas in "police scientifique." It was the first institute of criminology in the world. 1/Martin. 2/Ann Med Leg 1: 133, 1921. 493. 1910 —The Laboratoire de police technique was established in Lyon by prof. Edmond Locard (1877-1966). It was a center of research and identification service for the "prefecture du Rhone" and the first laboratory of that kind of anywhere. 1/Ann Med Leg 1: 135, 1921. 2/Martin. 494. 1910 —The University of Copenhagen Institute of Forensic Medicine was established by Professor Knud B0rge Pontoppidan (1853-1916). 1/Fog. 495. 1911 —Eugene Bleuler (1857-1939), psychiatrist and professor in Zurich, replaced Krapelin's concept of dementia precox (1883) with a new term, schizophrenia. Its four main types described were: hebe- phrenia, catatonia, paranoia, and dementia simplex. 1/Eidelberg. 389. 2/Brockhaus 2: 809; 16: 678-9. 496. 1912 —Opium Convention in the Hague. It was preceded by a report of the British Royal Commission of 1893^4 and the Shanghai Opium Commission of 1909 which pointed out the danger of opium trade. 102 At present the United Nations, World Health Organization and INTERPOL are involved in the control. 1/Lowes. 497. 1914 —Erik Matteo Prochet Widmark (1889-1945), Swedish chemist and professor of medical biochemistry at the University of Lund, developed a special test for medicolegal detection of alcoholic intoxication (alcohol in the blood). It is called "Widmark's test." 1/Widmark. 498. 1914 —The Servicio de Medicina Legal was organized in Colombia (Law 53/1914). Oficina Central de Medicina Legal was established in Bogota. 1/Anal Clin Med For (Madr) 2: 8, Jun 53. 2/Uribe Cualla, G. Celebracion. 499. 1916 —Dr. Robert E. House (1876-?) of Ferris, Texas, observed in his midwifery practice that a drug, scopolamine (hyoscine), induced in women "twilight sleep," during which they answered questions correctly and spoke of matters of which they would ordinarily not speak. He continued experimentation with this substance, then called "truth drug." It was tried for the first time on a larger scale on prisoners in 1922 and its application for criminal investigation stirred a controversy in both the legal and medical professions. The hypodermic injections of scopolamine and morphine to induce "twilight sleep" in obstetrical delivery had been used from about 1900 by two German physicians. 1/Meares. 138. 2/Med Leg J 15: 158-9, 1947. 3/Skinner. 413. 500. 1917 —After thirteen years of work by a commission of cardinals, Pope Benedict XV promulgated Codex juris canonici, a code of laws by which the Catholic Church is governed. It became effective on May 19, 1918. The code, consisting of five books, replaced previous provisions of canon law amassed over seven centuries. Codex juris canonici contains several provisions of medicolegal importance which are of interest especially to scholars in predomi- nantly Catholic countries. 1/New Cath. Encycl. 3: 973-4. 2/Palmieri. 103 501. 1918 —The Office of Coroner was abolished in New York and replaced by the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner of the City of New York. In New York City, at that time, there were about 6,000 violent deaths a year. The first Chief Medical Examiner appointed was Dr. Charles Norris (1867-1934) who studied with Virchow, Hofmann, and Ko- lisko. The enabling legislation had been passed by the State legislature in 1915. 1/Thorwald. 249-50. 2/Gonzalez. 5. 502. 1918 —The first ordinance concerning medicolegal expertise in the Soviet 9 Union was issued by Narodnyi komissariat zdravookhraneniia RSFSR in July of that year. 1/Prozorovskii. Razvitie sudebnomeditsinskoi ekspertizy v SSSR. 503. 1918 —The Chair of Legal Medicine was established at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Its organizer and first chairman was Prof. Oscar Freire de Carvalho (1882-1923). It became the Institute of Legal Medicine, which bears Freire's name. 1/Favero, F. 2/Schiffmann. 19, no. 87. 504. 1918 —After the creation of independent Poland the Institute of Legal Medicine at the Russian University of Warsaw was abolished and a new Institute was established in 1920 at the Polish University of Warsaw. The next year construction of a new building started. 1/Grzywo-D^browski. 505. 1920 —The Belgian Ministry of Justice established U^lcole de Criminolo- gie et de Police Scientifique in Brussels. It was designed for the officers of law enforcement agencies. The courses included forensic medicine and toxicology. Dr. De Rechter became the first director of this school. 1/Heger-Gilbert. 81-2. 506. 1920 —The first nationwide congress of Soviet medicolegal experts was held in Moscow. It was attended by 115 delegates and its agenda was predominantly organizational. 1/Prozorovskif. Sudebnaia meditsina. 7. 104 507. 1921 —Annales de medecine legale, de criminologie et de police scientifique started in Paris. They were edited by Victor Balthazard (1872- 1950), professor of legal medicine at the University of Paris and Etiene Martin (1871-1949), professor of legal medicine at the University of Lyon. The journal took over medicolegal material from the old Annales d'hygiene publique et de medecine legale and played a leading role in French legal medicine. It continued publication until December 1967. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 19, no. 22; 20 no. 26. 508. 1921 —Reuben Ottenberg (1882-1959), Columbia University professor and physician at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, developed meth- ods for typing blood. He wrote on the medicolegal application of blood grouping to the problems of paternity. His work was one of the earliest on the subject and was of great importance to legal medicine. 1/Schmidt, J. E. 60. 2/JAMA 170(12): 1441, Jul 18, 1959. 3/Morton. 211. 509. 1921 —The Scientific Research Institute of Forensic Pyschiatry was founded in Moscow and named after the Russian pioneer in this discipline, Professor Vladimir Petrovich Serbskii (1858-1917). The organizational work was done by Evgenif Konstantinovich Kras- nushkin (1885-1951), at that time professor and chairman of the Department of Forensic Psychiatry at the 1st State University in Moscow. 1/Feinberg. 2/Schiffmann. 61, no. 254. 510. 1921 —The so-called Briggs Law of Massachusetts was enacted. It was the first statute in the United States establishing an automatic pre-trial psychiatric examination of certain classes of criminal defendants. 1/Curran. 275. 511. 1923 —Nikolai" Sergeevich Bokarius (1869-1931), Russian physician and professor of legal medicine at the University of Kharkov, initiated the establishment of a Cabinet of Scientific Forensic Expertise which in 1925 became the Institute and was later named after him. Bokarius was a prolific writer in the field, interested also in 105 criminology. He influenced substantially the development of legal medicine in his country. In 1926 he founded and edited a journal, Arkhiv kriminologii i sudebnoi meditsiny, in Kharkov. 1/Vopr Sudebnomed Ekspert 2: 8-10, 1955. 2/Avdeev. 37. 512. 1924(?) —The Bureau of Forensic Ballistics, the first institute of its kind, was established in New York by Charles E. Waite and his collabo- rators. Its purpose was to study firearms and identify the weapons used in crime. 1/Thorwald. 509-10. 513. 1924 —The Central Medicolegal Laboratory was organized in Moscow, and similar regional medicolegal laboratories were established in Sverdlovsk, Omsk, Irkutsk, Leningrad, and Rostov na Donu. In the same year medicolegal service was established in the cities, districts, and regions of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. 1/Nemec. Legal medicine in the Soviet Union. 140-1. 514. 1927 —The Commissar for Soviet Justice admitted blood tests in paternity suits. They were regarded as furnishing absolutely conclusive evi- dence for proof of filiation. 1/Lattes. 252. 515. 1928 —The Conferencia Latino-Americana de Neurologia, Psiquiatria y Medicina Legal took place in Buenos Aires, November 14-18, 1928. It was the first congress of this kind in Argentina. 1/Conferencia Latino-Americana. 516. 1928 —The first Polish medicolegal journal, Czasopismo sadowolekarskie, was founded in Warsaw by Prof. Wiktor Grzywo-Dabrowski. It was edited by him until 1939 when it ceased publication because of the war. 1/Nemec. International Bibliography of Medicolegal Serials. 36, no. 110. 517. 1928 —The Legislative Assembly of the Swiss Canton Vaud permitted the 106 compulsory sterilization of mentally retarded persons, if a special Health Council agreed. This was the first European legislation of its kind. 1/Dtsch Zschr Ges Gerichtl Med 25: 318-9, 1935/36. 1932 —The Scientific Research Institute of Forensic Medicine [Nauch- noissledovatel'skif institut sudebnoi meditsiny] was organized in Moscow. It became the highest authority in legal medicine in the country. Its primary objective is research, but it functions also in organizational, pedagogic, advisory, and supervisory capacities throughout the Soviet Union. Prof. Nikolai" Vladimirovich Popov (1894-1949) became its first director. 1/Prozorovskii". Razvitie sudebnomeditsinskoi" ekspertizy v SSSR. 8. 2/Gli studi di medicina legale in Russia. 1934 —The Home Office Forensic Science Laboratory was established in London. 1/Firth. 1935 —The Poisons Board in England submitted its report on the toxicity of barbiturates to Parliament. The drugs were then placed on Schedule 4 of the Pharmacy and Poisons Act of 1933 and prescrip- tions by physicians were required for their use. This decision signalled the success of Sir William Wilcox (1870-1941) in the cam- paign he had waged since 1913 against the free distribution of these drugs. 1/Willcox. 274. 1935 —Statutes of New York State which went into effect on March 22, 1935, empowered the courts to order blood tests in cases where parentage was an issue. This was the result of pioneer work in the legal application of blood tests which was carried on in New York State. 1/Curran. 242. 1937 —The Polish Society of Legal Medicine and Criminology was founded. After World War II branches of this Society appeared in several Polish cities. 1/Popielski, B. Rys historyczny. 107 • 1^38 —The first Congres international de medecine legale et de medecine sociale was held in Bonn, Germany. On that occasion the Interna- tional Academy of Legal and Social Medicine was founded to foster international cooperation in the various branches of legal and social medicine, to organize an international congress every three years, and to publish a journal. The Academy stopped functioning during World War II but was revived in 1946, held its second congress in Brussels (1947), and began its official publication, Acta medicinae legalis et socialis (Brussels), in 1948. 1/Pietrusky. 2/Moureau. 524. 1939 —The Institute of Legal Medicine was organized in Bogota, Colom- bia. It replaced the former Oficina Central de Medicina Legal. 1/Uribe Cualla. Die Organisierung. 525. 1939 —On July 4 of that year Sovet Narodnykh Komissarov SSSR issued an ordinance entitled, "On Measures for Strengthening and Devel- oping Medicolegal Expertise" [O merakh ukrepleniia i razvitiia sudebnomeditsinskoi ekspertizy v SSSR] This ordinance envisaged better organization of medicolegal service and better education of personnel. Its importance, however, lay much more in its underlin- ing of the need of legal medicine for the administration of justice in the so-called "socialist conformance to the law." It influenced greatly the practice of legal medicine in the USSR. 1/Litvak. 13. 526. —This number not used. 527. 1946 —During the Niirnberg trial of war criminals, the judge described ten ethical and legal points which are required in order to make experimentation on human beings permissible. These points are known as the Niirnberg Code (of medical ethics). 1/Science 117(3035): 205-15, 1953. 2/Curran. 887-9. 528. 1946 —The Pan-American Congress of Legal Medicine, Forensic Odontol- ogy and Criminology took place in Havana, September 2-8, 1946 under the presidency of Prof. Dr. Jorge Alfredo de Castroverde. 1/Congreso Panamericano de Medicina Legal. 108 529. 1946 —In the USSR, the Vsesoiuznoe nauchnoe obshchestvo sudebnykh medikov i kriminalistov [All-Union Society of forensic physicians and criminologists] was organized, with thirty-five branches. In 1967 it had about 2,200 members in 56 branches in 14 republics and it became instrumental in the organization of numerous medicole- gal congresses. 1/Prozorovskif. Razvitie sudebnomeditsinskof ekspertizy v SSSR. 7-8. 2/Prozorovskif, and Panfilenko. 10. 530. 1948 —The International Digest of Health Legislation, the only periodical covering nearly all the countries of the world, appeared in Geneva, published by the World Health Organization. It superseded the first section of the Bulletin mensuel de VOffice International d'Hygiene Publique, which was published in Geneva between 1909 and 1946. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 41, no. 140. 531. 1949 —On August 12 the provision of four Geneva Conventions for the protection of war victims were declared. They are: 1/Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field; 2/Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Ship- wrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea; 3/Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War; 4/Geneva Conven- tion Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. They prohibit especially mutilation, cruel treatment, torture, and biological experiments on human beings in time of war. At present they are accepted by practically all countries of the world. 1/Draper. 2/Toman. 532. 1950. —The American Academy of Forensic Sciences, planned since 1948, held its first formal meeting. It was established by Rutherford Richard Hayes Gradwohl (1877-1959), Director of the Police Crime Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo. and others. Dr. Gradwohl became its first President. 1/Gerber. 533. 1950 —Medical Faculties in Poland became Medical Academies, separated from the universities. At each of them was organized an Institute of Legal Medicine for teaching and research. 1/Olbrycht. 109 Courses in international medical law started at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of the University of Bordeaux. 1/Dervillee. Forensic Science Laboratory was opened in Oshodi, near Lagos, Nigeria. It is the only one in the country. 1/Roche. Court decision in the case of Durham v. U.S. stated that the M'Naghten Rule and irresistible impulse test were not compatible with modern psychiatric thought and ruled that an accused "is not criminally responsible if the unlawful act was the product of mental disease or mental defect." 1/Platkin. The French Conseil National de VOrdre des Medecins organized the first Congres international de Morale medicale (deontohgie) in Paris. It was held from September 30 to October 3, 1955 under the chairmanship of Dr. Rene V. P. Piedelievre, professor of legal medicine at the University of Paris. A substantial part of the lectures and discussions was devoted to experimentation on hu- man beings. 1/Congres international de Morale medicale. 538. 1956 —The American Academy of Forensic Sciences started publishing its Journal of Forensic Sciences in Chicago. Its first editor was Samuel Azor Levinson (1895- ), professor of pathology at the College of Medicine, University of Illinois, Chicago, 111. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 42-3, no. 151. 539. 1958 —The House of Delegates of the American Medical Association adopted the National Interprofessional Code for Physicians and Attorneys, a guide of suggested rules of conduct for both profes- sions in their interrelated practice. 1/American Medical Association. 444-5. 540. 1958 —A quarterly, Sudebnomeditsinskaia ekspertiza, published by the Ministry of Public Health of the USSR and edited by Viktor Il'ich 534. 1951 535. 1953 536. 1954 537. 1955 110 Prozorovskii" (1901- ), director of the Scientific Research Insti- tute of Legal Medicine, started in Moscow. It is the only medicole- gal journal in the USSR published regularly. 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 71, no. 306. 541. 1959 —The British Academy of Forensic Sciences was founded. It held its first congress in 1960. The Academy has three sections: medical, technico-scientific, and legal, and publishes the journal Medicine, Science and the Law, edited by Francis Edward Camps (1905-1972), professor of legal medicine at London Hospital Medical College, University of Lon- don. Present editor of the journal is James Malcolm Cameron, Reader in Forensic Medicine, London Hospital Medical College. 1/Knight. 542. 1962 —The first Inter-American Conference on Legal Medicine and Fo- rensic Science was held at Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, from Novem- ber 29 to December 1. Its proceedings were published in 1964. 1/Bear. 543. 1964 —The Declaration of Helsinki, the code of ethics of the World Medical Association concerning human experimentation, was is- sued. 1/Declaration of Helsinki. 2/Curran. 893-5 544. 1966 —INFORM, the International Reference Organization in the Foren- sic Sciences, was formed during the International Meeting in Forensic Medicine in Copenhagen. From 1967 on, it published INFORM (Letter); editor: Dr. William G. Eckert (1926- ). 1/Nemec. International bibliography of medicolegal serials. 41, no. 139a. 545. 1967 —On December 3, 1967 Dr. Christiaan Neethling Barnard (1923- ), surgeon and professor at the Faculty of Medicine, Univer- sity of Cape Town, South Africa, performed the first successful human heart transplantation. The patient, Louis Washkansky, survived for 18 days and then died of bilateral pneumonia. 1/Malan. Ill — Statute of the State of Oklahoma regulates artificial insemination by ordering that it must be performed with the written consent of husband and wife by a person licensed to practice medicine. The child or children born as a result shall be considered at law in all respects the same as those naturally conceived. 1/Curran. 821. 547. 1968 —The Ad Hoc Committee to Examine the Definition of Brain Death, formed at the Harvard Medical School, published its report, A Definition of Irreversible Coma. Its primary purpose was to define irreversible coma as a new criterion for death and thus replace obsolete criteria. It was widely (but not universally) accepted. In the same year the World Medical Association issued its Decla- ration of Sydney on the Definition of Death in a similar effort to correct the use of modern technology in futile efforts to prolong life and to remove legal obstacles for possible organ transplanta- tions. 1/Curran. 938^5. 548. 1973 —The Association for Medicine and Law in Israel was established, the first organization of its kind in the country. 1/Communication of this organization. 549. 1973 —The International Journal of Forensic Dentistry began quarterly publication in London under the editorship of Nigel Morland. 112 INDEXES Name and subject indexes have been included to add to the usefulness of this chronology. The name index includes only the names of persons directly involved with the recorded facts of medicolegal importance. Thus, with a few exceptions, names of legislators, patients, defend- ants in court trials, etc., are omitted. Place names are not listed. The subject index contains only subject headings related to legal medicine. Those of special importance have been provided with geographic subheadings. Each index item is followed by a number which corresponds with the number of the pertinent entry. NAME INDEX A Addison, Thomas (1793-1860), fa- mous physician of Guy's Hospital, London ______________________ Agrippa, Heinrich Cornelius (1486- 1535), German physician, writer and scholar __________________ Alberti, Michael (1682-1757), profes- sor of medicine and natural sci- ences in Berlin ______________ Alciati, Andrea (1492-1550), Italian lawyer and professor of law --- Alcmaeon of Crotona (ca 500 B.C.), Greek philosopher and physiolo- gist -------------------------- Al-Ruhawl, Ishaq ibn 'All (9th c), famous Arabic physician------- Alvarez Chamorro, Manuel (1828-?), physician of Madrid ----------- Ammann, Paul (1634-1691), profes- sor of botany and physiology in Leipzig ______________________ Amoedo, Oscar (1863-1945), profes- sor of dentistry in Paris ------- Andromachus the Elder (1st c. A.D.), physician to Emperor Nero and the first "archiater" of Rome--- Ansiaux, Nicolas Gabriel Antoine (1780-1834), professor at the Uni- 377 versity of Liege ______________ 360 Antistius (1st c. B.C.), Roman physi- cian _________________________ 23 138 Aranzio, Giulio Cesare (1530-1589), professor of anatomy in Bologna 165 Arduino, Sante (fl. 1400-1450), physi- 270 cian and philosopher of Venice __ 122 Arellano, Augustin (fl. 1833), teacher 145 of legal medicine at the Univer- sity of Mexico ________________ 385 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), outstanding 11 Greek philosopher and author __ 15 Asaph Judaeus or Asaph ben Besa- 56 chiach (3rd-7th c), Hebrew physi- cian _________________________ 38 418 Avignon, F. J. d' (fl. 1850) of Pitts- burgh, N.Y., editor of the first American medicolegal journal __ 416 240 472 B Baeyer, Adolph von (1835-1917), 27 German chemist______________ 432 113 Baldwin, James Fairchild (1850- 1936), American surgeon and gynecologist__________________ 485 Balthazard, Victor (1872-1950), pro- fessor of legal medicine and au- thor, University of Paris _______ 507 Bard, John (1716-1799), physician of New York____________________ 285 Barnard, Christiaan Neethling (1923- ), surgeon and professor at the University of Cape Town__ 545 Bartholin, Thomas (1616-1680), phy- sician and professor in Copen- hagen _______________________ 233 Barzellotti, Giacomo (1758-1839), professor of medicine in Pisa___ 363 Baudelocque, Jean Louis (1745?- 1810), French obstetrician and writer_______________________ 309 Bauhin, Caspar (1560-1624), physi- cian, anatomist and botanist of Basel _______________________ 127 Beck, Theodoric Romeyn (1791- 1855), American physician, educa- tor and writer________________ 370 Becker, Tracy Chatfield (1855- 1910?), lawyer and author, profes- sor of criminal law in Buffalo, N.Y. _______________________ 467 Bekhterev, Vladimir Mikhailovich (1857-1927), Russian neuropathol- ogist and psychiatrist _________ 402 Bell, Clark (1832-1918), lawyer in New York, leading expert in legal medicine in the USA___________ 457 B evlohradsky, Vaclav (1844-1896), professor of legal medicine at the Czech School of Law, University of Prague ____________________ 455 Benivieni, Antonio (ca. 1440-1502), physician of Florence and pioneer in pathological anatomy _______ 130 Bernt, Joseph (1770-1842), physi- cian, professor of "Staatsarznei- kunde" in Prague and then in Vi- enna _______________________ 348,362 Bertillon, Louis Adolphe (1853- 1914), French police officer and anthropometrist______________ 453 Bianchi, Marco Antonio (1498-1548), Italian physician and author___147, 237 Blaes (or Blasius), Gerard (1626?- 1692?), anatomist and professor in Amsterdam __________________ 242 Blancus, Antonius see: Bianchi, Marco Antonio ______________ Blegny, Nicolas de (1652-1722), phy- sician to the Duke of Orleans and author _____________________ 248 Bleuler, Eugene (1857-1939), psychi- atrist and professor in Zurich __ 495 Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich (1752-1840), German naturalist and one of the founders of anthro- pology _____________________ 303 Bockendahl, Adolf Ludwig (1826- 1902), professor of legal medicine in Kiel ______________________ 435 Bohn, Johannes (1640-1718), profes- sor of anatomy and surgery in Leipzig ______________________ 251 Bokarius, Nikolai" Sergeevich (1869- 1931), professor of legal medicine at the University of Kharkov___ 511 Bonet, Theophil (1620-1689), physi- cian and pathologist of Geneva __ 245 Borbonius of Borbenheim, Mathias (1566-1629), physician of Prague 206 Borgognoni de Lucca, Ugo (ca 1160- 1252), surgeon in Bologna _____ 82 Braid, James (1795-1860), physician of Manchester, England and foun- der of hypnosis ______________ 402 Brambilla, Giovanni Alessandro (1728-1800), personal physician and medical adviser to the Em- peror Joseph II ______________ 373 Breuer, Josef (1842-1925), Viennese physician and author _________ 468 Broca, Pierre Paul (1824-1880), French surgeon and anthropolo- gist _________________________ 444 Brouardel, Paul Camille Hippolyte (1837-1906), professor of legal medicine at the University of Paris and author______________466,469a Bruns, Paul (1846-?), German physi- cian of Tubingen _____________ 462 114 Buonafede, Appiano (1716-1793), Italian theologian, philosopher and writer __________________ 287 C Cadwalader, Thomas (1708-1779), anatomist of Philadelphia _____ 272 Caelius Aurelianus (2nd c. A.D.?), physician of Sicca, Numidia ___ 34 Caesar, Gaius Julius (100-44 B.C.), Roman general and stateman __ 23 Camps Francis Edward (1905-1972), professor of legal medicine, Lon- don Hospital Medical College, Uni- versity of London _____________ 541 Cardano, Geronimo (1501-1576), Ital- ian physician, philosopher, mathe- matician and astronomer _____ 159 Carpzov, Benedikt (1595-1666), law- yer, judge and author in Leipzig 216 Carswell, Sir Robert (1793-1857), professor of pathological anatomy in London____________________ 392 Casoni, Francesco (d. 1564), Italian lawyer and author_____________ 178 Casper, John Ludwig (1796-1864), professor of legal medicine in Ber- lin _________________________ 424 Castro, Rodericus a (1541-1627), physician, philosopher and author in Hamburg__________________ 204 Castroverde, Jorge Alfredo de (fl. 1946-1968), professor at the Uni- versity of Havana, Cuba _______ 528 Castroverde, Jose Lletor de (fl. 1842), first professor of legal medicine in Havana, Cuba________________ 400 Celsus, Aulus Cornelius (1st c. A.D.), encyclopedist and greatest medi- cal writer of Rome _____________ 26 Champier, Symphorien (1471/2-ca 1539), French physician and phi- losopher ______________________ 126 Champlain, Samuel de (ca 1567- 1635), French explorer _________ 198 Charcot, Jean Martin (1825-1893), French psychiatrist ----------- 402 Chauliac, Guy de (d. 1368), French surgeon, author and personal phy- sician to the popes in Avignon __ 106 Chaussier, Frangois (1746-1828), French physician and professor of anatomy ____________________ 320 Christison, Robert (1797-1882), fa- mous Scottish physician and toxi- cologist in Edinburgh _________ 379 Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106-43 B.C.), Roman statesman, orator and writer_______________________ 22 Ciucci, Antonio Filippo (fl. 1679- 1681), professor of anatomy at Ma- cerata, Italy__________________ 246 Ciurea, Alexandre (1840-1891), pro- fessor of legal medicine at the University of Jassy, Rumania __ 454 Codronchi, Giovanni Battista (1547- 1628), physician and writer of Im- ola, Italy ____________________ 190 Coetsem, Charles Auguste van (1788-1865), professor at the Uni- versity of Ghent ______________ 375 Cotta, John (1575?-1650?), physician of Northampton, England _____ 202 Covan, Robert (fl. 1839), professor of legal medicine in Glasgow _____ 396 Crataeus (ca 100-60 B.C.), physician of the King of Pontus and toxicolo- gist ------------------------- 19 Cromaziano, Agatapisto see: Buon- afede, Appiano________________ D Damhouder, Joost de (1507-1581), Dutch lawyer and author _____ 151 Daniel, Christian Friedrich (1753- 1798), physician of Halle and bib- liographer ____________________ 312 Daquin, Joseph (1733-1815), French physician interested in mental diseases______________________ 325 Dareste, Camille (1822-1899), French physician and author _________ 446 Denis (17th c), professor of mathe- matics and philosophy in Paris __ 236 Descartes, Rene (1596-1650), famous French philosopher ___________ 232 115 Detharding, Georg G. (1671-1747), professor at the University of Co- penhagen ____________________ 277 Devaux, Jean (1649-1729), French surgeon and author ___________ 257 Devergie, Marie Guillaume Al- phonse (1798-1879), physician of Paris, one of the founders of mod- ern legal medicine in France__387, 439, 452 Diodes (ca 375-300 B.C.), physician of Athens ____________________ 17 Diodorus Siculus (1st c. B.C.), Greek historian ____________________ 21 Discorides, Pedanius (1st c. A.D.) of Anazarbos in Cilicia, author of pharmacological text___________ 25 Dockenburg, Hans von see: Toggen- burg, Hans von ______________ Draggendorf, Georg Johann Noel (1836-1898), professor of pharmacy in Dorpat ____________________ 438 Durer, Albrecht (1471-1528), Ger- man painter and engraver _____ 137 Duncan, Andrew, Sr. (1744-1828), physician, professor at the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, lecturer on legal medicine ________________323, 333 Dunlop, William (1791-1848), physi- cian in York, Ont., first teacher of legal medicine in Canada _____ 374 E Eckert, William G. (1926- ), pa- thologist, St. Francis Hospital, Wichita, Kansas ______________ 544 Eicke von Repkov (Repgau) (13th c), German knight and author of Sachsenspiegel________________ 75 Elwell, John Johnson (1820-1900), American physician and lawyer, professor of legal medicine _____ 426 Ergardt, Fedor Fedorovich (1828- 1895?), professor of legal medicine in Kiev _____________________ 425 Erlenmeyer, Adolf Albrecht (1822- 1877), German psychiatrist and editor of a journal ____________ 419 Eschenbach, Christian Ehrenfried (1712-1788), professor of surgery in Rostock____________________ 279 Esquirol, Jean Etienne Dominique (1777-1840), outstanding French psychiatrist __________ ___ 393 F Fabricio d'Aquapendente, Geronimo (ca 1533-1619), surgeon, anatomist and physiologist, professor in Padua_______________________ 186 Fallopio, Gabriele (1523-1562), pro- fessor of anatomy and surgery in Pavia _______________________ 160 Farr, Samuel (1741-1795), physician, author of the first English book on legal medicine _____________ 318 Fedele, Fortunato (1550-1630), phy- sician, professor in Palermo, au- thor of a classic work on legal medicine and public hygiene ___ 193 Feofil (16th c), Russian physician __ 141 Fiedler, Franz Karl (1770-1808), physician, taught legal medicine in Prague ____________________ 412 Fioravanti, Leonardo (1517-1588), physician, professor of medicine in Bologna______________________ 166 Firdausi (ca 999) or Abu al Kasim ibn Sharaf Shah, Persian poet __ 58 Flade, Dietrich (d. 1589), lawyer and Rector of the University of Trier 180 Fletcher, Robert (1823-1912), physi- cian, Assistant Librarian of the Surgeon-General's Library, Wash- ington, D.C. __________________ 475 Fodere, Frangois Emmanuel (1764- 1835), physician and author of Marseille, world wide authority in legal medicine ________________ 334 Forel, August (1848-1931), Director of Zurich Lunatic Asylum, physi- cian and author ______________ 402 Fourcroy, Antoine Frangois de (1755-1809), French chemist and politician ____________________ 317 Frank, Johann Peter (1745-1821), German physician, professor, au- 116 thor and founder of the "science of prevention" _________________306, 345 Freire de Carvalho, Oscar (1882- 1923), professor of legal medicine, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil __ 503 Freud, Sigmund (1856-1939), Vien- nese physician, researcher, author and founder of the school of psy- choanalysis __________________ 468 Fuente, Juan de la (16th c), physi- cian in Mexico________________ 170 G Gabir Ibn Hayyan (8th c), Arabic physician in Kuffa____________ 54 Galeazzo de Santa Sophia (14th- 15th c), Italian surgeon and pro- fessor _______________________ 109 Galen, Claudius (ca 138-201) of Per- gamo, Greek physician and fa- mous medical writer___________ 33, 157 Gall, Franz Joseph (1758-1828), Vi- ennese physician, founder of pseu- doscience, phrenology _________ 353 Gallard, Jean Theofile (1828-1887), French physician ____________ 439 Gallus, [Havel] (14th c), Canon of Strahov Monastery, physician and professor at the University of Pra- gue _________________________ 105 Galton, Francis (1822-1911), English scientist, explorer and anthropo- metrist, introduced dactyloscopy 463 Gentile da Foligno (d. 1348), physi- cian and professor at the Univer- sity of Padua ________________101,103 Gerlach, Joseph (1820-1896), German anatomist ____________________ 410 Giles, Firmin (17th c), clergyman and physician in Massachusetts 224 Glaister, John (1856-1932), physi- cian, professor of legal medicine in Glasgow and author ___________ 482 Godelmann, Johann Georg (1559- 1611), lawyer, professor in Rostock and author __________________ 181 Goelicke, Andreas Ottomar (1670?- 1744?), professor of medicine in Frankfurt a. m. ______________ 264 Gradwohl, Rutherford Richard Hayes (1877-1959), Director of Po- lice Crime Laboratory, St. Louis, Mo. _________________________ 532 Gratian (12th c), Camaldolese monk of Chiussi, Italy, compiler of Church laws__________________ 65 Gregory of Tours, St. (538-594), bishop and historian ___________ 50 Gromov, Sergei Alekseevich (1774-1856), professor of legal medicine in St. Petersburg and author of the first textbook on legal medicine in the Russian lan- guage _______________________ 382 Gross, Hans Gustav Adolf (1847- 1915), professor at University of Prague and then at Linz, father of scientific criminology _________ 465 Grzywo-Dabrowski, Wiktor (1885- ), professor of legal medicine at the University of Warsaw ___ 515 Guillotin, Ignace Joseph (1738-1814), French physician and politician, designer of "guillotine" _______ 319 Guldener von Lobes, Eduard Vin- cent (1763-1827), physician of Plzefi, Bohemia ______________ 314 Guthery, Samuel (fl. 1793), physician of Stafford, Conn. ____________ 328 Guthrie, Samuel (1782-1848), Ameri- can chemist __________________ 380 H Haller, Albrecht von (1708-1777), professor of anatomy, botany and surgery in Gottingen, author and bibliographer of medicine _____ 280 Hamilton, Frank Hastings (1813- 1886), professor of surgery in Nevjt York and author______________ 422 Hammurabi (ca 1700 B.C.) King of Babylon and legislator_________ 5 Hartmann von Aue (fl. 1180-1210), German poet ________________ 70 Harvey, William (1578-1657), royal physician, professor of anatomy in London, discovered the circulation of the blood __________________ 210 117 Hasenest, Johann Georg (1688-1771), physician of Onolzbach, Germany 284 Haslam, John (1764-1844), physician of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, writer on mental illness _______ 361 Hayem, George (1841-1933), physi- cian, professor and author in Paris, founder of modern hematol- ogy _________________________ 450 Hebenstreit, Johann Ernst (1703- 1757), physician and professor in Leipzig ______________________ 282 Henke, Adolph Christian Heinrich (1775-1843), professor in Erlangen, leading personality in legal medi- cine _________________________351,368 Heynes (16th c), English physician 157 Hipprocrates (ca 460-ca 377 B.C.), Greek physician, considered the "father of medicine" ___________ 14 Hofmann, Eduard (1837-1897), pro- fessor of legal medicine at the University of Innsbruck and then of Vienna, author and leading per- sonality in legal medicine _____441, 449 House, Robert E. (1876-?), physician of Ferris, Texas ______________ 499 Hsu Chich-Ts'si (6th c), Chinese physician and author _________ 49 Hunczowsky, Jan Nepomuk (1752- 1798), surgeon and professor in Vienna ______________________ 373 Hunter, John (1728-1793), famous Scottish surgeon______________ 321 Hunter, William (1729?-1777), physi- cian and anatomist of Newport, R.I. _________________________ 283 Huss, Magnus (1807-1890), Swedish physician, investigator of alcohol- ism _________________________ 414 I Ibar de la Sierra, Carlos (?-1930), professor of legal medicine at the University of Chile, Santiago___ 480 Ignatovskil, Afanasil Sergee- vich (1858-1935), professor of legal medicine at the University of Dor- pat (Tartu)____________________ 339 Imhotep (ca 2980-2900 B.C.), per- sonal physician to the Pharaoh Zoser, as well as his Chief Justice Ingrassia, Giovanni Filippo (1510- 1580), clinician, osteologist and ep- idemiologist in Venice _________ Institoris see: Kraemer, Heinrich __ Ishmael (1st c. A.D.), rabbi and phy- sician _______________________ 172 24 489 Jansky, Jan (1873-1921), physician of Prague, worked in the classifica- tion of blood groups ___________ Jessenius de Magna Jessen, Joannes (1566-1621), physician, anatomist and statesman in Prague _____191, 201 Jobim, Conselheiro Jose Martins da Cruz (1802-1878), professor of le- gal medicine in Rio de Janeiro __ John, Johannes Dionysius (1764- 1814), Bohemian physician, profes- sor and author ______________ Justinian I (482-565), Byzantine Emperor and legislator _______ 381 322 48 K Kahlbaum, Karl Ludwig (1828-1899), physician in Gorlitz, Germany, classified forms of insanity_____ Kamenicky, Jakub (fl. 1550-1560), priest and anatomist of Prague __ Katayama, Kunika (1855-1931), phy- sician, taught legal medicine at the University of Tokyo _______ Kautilya (ca 300 A.D.), Indian Chan- cellor and author _____________ Keresturi, Frants F. (1735-1811), professor at the University of Moscow ______________________ Kerfbyle, Johannes (fl. 1691), physi- cian of New York _____________ Kiernander, Jonas (1721-1778), Swedish physician _____________ Kirchmaier, Theodor (fl. 1669-1672), professor in Wittenberg _______ Knobloch, George (fl. 1804-40?), pro- fessor of legal medicine at the University of Cracow _________ 429 158 460 40 332 252 304 237 344 118 Kraemer, Heinrich (d. 1505) or Insti- toris, Church inquisitor and au- thor ------------------------- 121 Krapelin, Emil (1856-1926), famous German psychiatrist and author 456 Krasnushkin, Evgenii" Konstanti- novich (1885-1951), professor of psychiatry in Moscow _________ 509 Kuhn, Johann Gottlieb (fl. 1750- 1796), German physician _______ 316 L Lacassagne, Jean Alexander Eu- gene (1843-1924), professor of legal medicine at the University of Lyon ------------------------ 461 Landsteiner, Karl (1868-1943), pa- thologist of Vienna, established the existence of blood groups___476, 489 Lang, Johann Philibert (17th c), German university student_____ 230 Lassus, Pierre (1741-1807), French surgeon, first professor of legal medicine in Paris _____________ 330 Lepois, Nicolas (1527-1590) or Piso, French physician and author___ 174 Levinson, Samuel Azor (1895- ), professor of pathology, University of Illinois, Chicago _____________ 538 Leyser, Polycarp (1690-1728), doctor of law, medicine and philosophy in Helmstadt, Germany___________ 266 Libavius, Andreas (1546-1616), phy- sician and chemist of Halle_____ 184 Liebeault, A. A. (1823-1904), French psychiatrist in Nancy _________ 402 Liebig, Justus von (1803-1873), fa- mous German chemist _________ 380 Linacre, Thomas (1461-1524), Eng- lish physician and humanist ___ 133 Linne, Carl von (1707-1778), Swedish physician and famous naturalist 290 Locard, Edmond (1877-1966), physi- cian and criminologist in Lyon __ 493 Low von Erlsfeld, Johann Franz (1648-1725), professor of anatomy and surgery, University of Prague 271 Lombroso, Cesare (1836-1909), psy- chiatrist and anthropologist in Turin, founder of criminal anthro- pology ----------------------445,447 Lonigo, Nicolb da (1428-1524), called Leonicenus, great clinician and author in Ferrara ____________125, 157 Louis, Antoine (1723-1791), French surgeon and pioneer in legal medi- cine ------------------------- 289 Lovtsov, Sergei" Pavlovich (1823- 1876), physician and editor of the first journal of legal medicine in Russia ______________________ 434 Luna, Daniel de (fl. 1642), Polish military surgeon and author___ 222 M Mahon, Paul Augustin Olivier de (1752-1801), professor of legal medicine in Paris and author___ 330 Maimonides (1135-1204) or Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, of Cordoba, great physician of Arabic world, philosopher and Talmudist_____ 71 Marsh, James (1794-1846), English chemist ______________________ 390 Martin, Etienne (1871-1949), profes- sor of legal medicine, University of Lyon and author ___________ 507 Mascardi, Giuseppe (d. 1588), Italian lawyer and author____________ 179 Maschka, Joseph (1820-1899), physi- cian, professor of legal medicine at the University of Prague and au- thor ------------------------- 455 Mata y Fontanet, Pedro (1811-1877), professor of legal medicine in Madrid ______________________ 403 Mattioli, Pietro Andrea (1500-1577), Italian physician, botanist and prolific writer ________________ 168 Mazzoni, Giovanni Battista (d. 1870), lecturer on legal medicine at the University of Florence _________ 366 Medovic, Acim (fl. 1865), physician, taught legal medicine in Belgrade 433 Megnin, Pierre (1828-1905), French veterinarian__________________ 466 Mende, Ludwig Julius Caspar (1779- 1832), professor at the University 119 of Greifswald, leading personality and author in the field of legal medicine ____________________ 364 Merizalde, Jose Feliz (fl. 1833), lec- turer on legal medicine at the University of Bogota, Colombia __ 385 Mesmer, Franz (or Friedrich) Anton (1734-1815), physician of Vienna, founder of the theory of animal magnetism __________________ 302 Metzger, Johann Daniel (1739-1805), German physician, author and professor in Konigsberg ------- 305 Michaelis, Johann (1607-1667), pro- fessor of pathology and therapy, University of Leipzig, lectured on legal medicine ________________ 226 Middleton, Peter (d. 1781), physician of New York ________________ 285 Milles de Souvigny, Jean (fl. 1541- 1555), French lawyer and author 142 Minovici, Mina (1857-1933), profes- sor of legal medicine in Bucharest 464 Mithradates VI, Eupator (ca 130-63 B.C.), King of Pontus, experi- mented with poisons___________ 19 Mondino de' Luzzi (1270-1326), ana- tomist, lecturer and statesman of Bologna_____________________ 96 Mongiardini, Antonio Giovanni (fl. 1778-1825), professor of legal med- icine in Genova ______________ 352 Morales, Juan de (fl. 1519), Spanish naval surgeon ________________ 134 Morgagni, Giovanni Battista (1682- 1771), anatomist and pathologist in Padua and author of great fame _______________________ 288 Morton, William T. Green (1819- 1868), dentist of Boston, intro- duced ether as anesthetic _____ 409 Moss, William Lorenzo (1876- ?), American physician, classified blood groups ________________ 489 Muna, Gomez de (fl. 1703), physician in Venezuela ________________ 258 Muriiz, Francisco Javier (1795-1871), taught legal medicine in Buenos Aires _______________________ 376 N Napier (fl. 1622), English physician Nelson, Horace (1821- ?), physi- cian in Plattsburg, N.Y., editor of the first American medicolegal journal _____________________ Nider, John (fl. ca 1450), Church in- quisitor and author ___________ Noel, Joseph (1753-1808), first pro- fessor of legal medicine at the University of Strasbourg------- Norris, Charles (1867-1934), physi- cian, Chief Medical Examiner of the City of New York --------- Nufer, Jacob (fl. ca 1500), Swiss pig- gelder_______________________ 0 208 416 115 331 501 127 Ordronaux, John (1830-1908), Ameri- can physician, lawyer and author 442 Orfila, Mathieu Joseph Bonaven- ture (1787-1853), professor of legal medicine and later of chemistry at the University of Paris and fa- mous toxicologist ________358, 397, 415 Ottenberg, Reuben (1882-1959), phy- sician and professor in New York 508 Paaw, Pieter (1564-1617), professor in Leiden, anatomist and author 189 Paracelsus, Phillipus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus (1497- 1541), physician, alchemist and prolific writer ________________136, 157 Pare, Ambroise (1510-1590), out- standing French surgeon and writer_____________148, 161, 167, 169 Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich (1849-1936), Russian physiologist, professor in St. Petersburg, famous for re- search in higher nervous activity 402 Percival, Thomas (1740-1804), Eng- lish physician and philosopher of Manchester __________________329,411 Perez, Diaz de (fl. 1703), physician in Venezuela____________________ 258 120 Pfolspeundt (fl. 1460), German wound surgeon ______________ ^' Piedelievre, Rene Valentin Paul (1891- ), professor of legal med- icine at the University of Paris, author and editor _____________ 537 Pigray, Pierre (1532-1613), French surgeon ______________________ 203 Pineau, Severin (ca 1550-1619), sur- geon, gynecologist and author in Paris ________________________ 187 Pinel, Philippe (1745-1826), physi- cian and professor in Paris, pi- oneer in mental health_________ 338 Piso see: Lepois, Nicolas _________ Platter, Felix (1536-1614), physician, anatomist and professor in Basel 194 Plenck, Joseph Jacob (1739-1807), professor of surgery and author in Vienna ______________________307,335 Pontoppidan, Knud B0rge (1853- 1916), professor of legal medicine in Copenhagen _______________486, 494 Popel, Mathias (1798-1865), profes- sor of legal medicine at the Uni- versity of Prague _____________ 412 Popov, Nikolai" Vladimirovich (1894- 1949), professor and director of the Institute of Legal Medicine, Mos- cow __________________________ 518 Pott, John (fl. 1625-ca 1640), physi- cian in Virginia _______________ 209 Preval, Claude Thomas Guillaume Guibert de (fl, 1751-1777), French physician ____________________ 299 Prozorovskii, Viktor Il'ich (1901- ), Director, Scientific Re- search Institute of Legal Medi- cine, Moscow ________________ 540 Purkyne, Jan Evangelista (1787- 1869), professor of physiology and pathology in Breslau, later in Pra- gue __________________________ 372 R Ramponi, Giuseppe (fl. 1786-1790), Italian physician, lectured on le- gal medicine at the University of Pavia ________________________ 315 Ray, Isaac (1807-1881), American psychiatrist and well-known au- thor __________________________395,405 Rayger, Karel (1641-1707), anato- mist and author of Bratislava __ 243 Reinsberg, Josef (1844-1930), profes- sor of legal medicine at the Czech Faculty of Medicine, University of Prague ______________________ 455 Reiss, Rudolf Archibald (1875-1929), professor at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland, estab- lished Institute of Scientific Police 492 Riviere, Jean de la (fl. 1603), first physician to the King of France 195 Roentgen, Wilhelm Konrad von (1845-1923), German physicist, dis- coverer of X-rays _____________ 471 Roeslin, Eucharius (d. 1526), city physician in Worms and later in Frankfurt a. M., published a book on obstetrics ________________ 132 Rokitansky, Carl (1804-1878), profes- sor of pathology at the University of Vienna and author _________ 399 Rondelet, Guillaume (1507-1566), professor of medicine, University of Montpellier ________________ 156 Ronchi, Salvatore Maria (1763-1841), lectured on legal medicine in Na- ples _________________________ 315 Rousset, Frangois (1535-ca 1600), surgeon and gynecologist in Paris 176 Rush, Benjamin (1745-1813), profes- sor at the University of Pennsyl- vania and "father of American medical literature" ___________354, 411 Ruysch, Frederik (1638-1731), pro- fessor of anatomy and botany in Amsterdam __________________ 255 Sachs, Mavro (1819-1888), lectured on legal medicine in Zagreb ___ 427 Sade, Donatien Alphonse Frangois, Marquis de (1740-1814), French nobleman, criminally insane ___ 297 St. Hilary of Poliers (ca 350), theolo- gian and author ______________ 42 121 Salimbene da Parma (fl. 1286), Ital- ian monk and physician _______ 88 Schauenstein, Adolf von (1827-1891), professor of "Staatsarzneikunde" in Graz ______________________ 430 Schmiedlein, Ernest Friedrich (fl. 1617), physician of Prague _____ 206 Schreyer, Johann (fl. 1682-1690), physician of Zeitz, Saxony _____ 247 Schwarzenberg, Johann (Stark) von (1463-1528), lawyer, compiler of Constitutio Bambergensis _____ 129 Sennert, Daniel (1572-1637), German physician ____________________ 199 Serbskii, Vladimir Petrovich (1858- 1917), professor of psychiatry in Moscow _____________________469, 509 Sertiirner, Friedrich Wilhelm (1783- 1841), German pharmacist _____ 342 Shen-Nung (2838-2698 B.C.), Em- peror of China. According to a legend, compiled the first herbal which also indicated the poisonous effects of plants ______________ 3 Shippen, William Jr. (1736-1808), physician and pioneer of anatomy in Philadelphia ______________ 291 Simon, Maximilien Isidore Amand (fl. 1832-65), French physician and author _____________________ 407 Simpson, Sir James Young (1811- 1870), physician of Edinburgh __ 380 Sinabaldi, Giovanni Benedetto (1594-1658), physician and profes- sor of Rome __________________ 220 Skjelderup, Michael (1769-1852), lec- turer on legal medicine at the University of Kristiania, Norway 357 Smith, John Gordon (1792-1833), pro- fessor at the University of London 369 Solon (ca. 638-558 B.C.), Athenian statesman, legislator and poet __ 10 Soranus of Ephesus (ca 98-138 A.D.), Graeco-Roman gynecologist ___ 30 Soubeiran, Eugene (1797-1858), French chemist ______________ 380 Sprenger, Jacob (fl. 1484), Dominican monk and Chief Inquisitor for Germany, author ____________ 121 Spurzheim, Johann Caspar (1776- 1832), physician and propagator of pseudoscience, phrenology _____ 353 Stass, Jean Servais (1813-1891), pro- fessor of chemistry in Brussels __ 415 Stebler, Franz Anton (1705-1789), lecturer in legal medicine, Ingol- stadt, Germany ______________ 313 Stille, Moreton (1822-1855), Ameri- can physician and co-author of a textbook on legal medicine _____ 423 Strassmann, Fritz (1858-1940), pro- fessor of legal medicine in Berlin 484 Stringham, James Sackett (1775- 1817), physician and professor in New York, lectured on legal medi- cine _________________________343, 355 Suevus, Bernhard (fl. 1617-1629), German physician and author __ 213 Sung Tz'u (1186-1249), President of the Chinese Supreme Court and author of first preserved textbook of legal medicine______________ 59, 81 Sutton, Thomas (1767-1835), English physician ____________________ 356 Swammerdam, Jan (1637-1680), phy- sician in Amsterdam and author 229, 235 T Tagereau, Vincent (fl. 1611), French lawyer ______________________ 200 Tardieu, Ambroise Auguste (1818- 1879), great French toxicologist and author __________________ 420 Taylor, Alfred Swaine (1806-1880), lecturer on legal medicine in Lon- don and outstanding author on legal medicine________________ 389 Teichmeyer, Hermann Friedrich (1685-1746), physician and profes- sor in Jena __________________ 265 Thomas Aquinas, Saint (1224/25- 1274), Christian philosopher ___ 15 Toggenburg, Hans von (fl. 1468), sur- geon of Zurich ________________ 118 Tortosa, Giuseppe (1743-1811), phy- sician and professor in Vicenza __ 340 Trautmann (fl. 1610), surgeon of Wittenberg __________________ 199 122 Tribonianus (d. 545), famous lawyer and compiler of Byzantium --- Trommsorf, Joh. Bartoloma (1770- 1837), Swedish chemist--------- U Uhlenhut, Paul Theodor (1870-1957), German bacteriologist, discovered how to distinguish between hu- man and animal blood _________ Ullmann, Emerich (1861-1937), Hun- garian surgeon, pioneer in organ transplantation ______________ Ungar, Emil (1849-1934), physician and lecturer at the University of Bonn, ardent worker for academic status of legal medicine in Ger- many ________________________ V Vaclav of Prachatice (fl. 1447), doc- tor of medicine and professor at the University of Prague_______ Valentini, Michael Bernhard (1657- 1729), professor at the University of Giessen and writer on legal medicine ____________________ Valerianus, Gajus Manicius (fl. 130 A.D.), physician of a Greek village Varignana, Bartolomeo da (d. 1318), physician of Bologna___________ Vensovich, Ivan Fedorovich (1769- 1811), professor at the University of Moscow____________________ Vesalius, Andreas (1514-1564), phy- sician, professor and author, foun- der of modern anatomy _______ Vietz, Ferdinand Bernhard (1772- 1815), professor of "Staatsarznei- kunde" in Vienna _____________ Virgilio, Gaspare (1830-1908), sur- geon, psychiatrist and author in Naples ______________________ Vucetich, Juan (1858-1925), police employee in Buenos Aires, de- vised a new system of classifica- tion of fingerprints ___________ 48 341 477 481 459 113 256 31 92 346 144 345 445 483 W Wagner, Karl Wilhelm Ulrich (1793- 1846), professor of "Staatsarznei- kunde" at the University of Berlin 367, 384 Waterhouse, Benjamin (1754-1846), professor of "physick" at Harvard University __________________ 311 Welsch, Gottfried (1618-1690), pro- fessor of anatomy and therapy at the University of Leipzig _____ 227 Wepfer, Johann Jacob (1620-1695), physician of Schaffhausen, Switz- erland ______________________ 228 Weyer, Johann (ca. 1516-1588), phy- sician of the Duke of Cleves, leader of forces against persecu- tion of witches and author _____ 163 Wharton, Francis (1820-1889), law- yer and clergyman in Philadel- phia, author of outstanding text- book of legal medicine _________ 423 Widmark, Erik Matteo Prochet (1889-1945), professor of medical biochemistry at the University of Lund, Sweden ________________ 497 Wiesenthal, Charles (fl. 1807), anato- mist in Baltimore ____________ 291 Wildberg, Christian Friedrich Lud- wig (1765-1850), professor of medi- cine in Rostock and bibliographer of medicine __________________ 365 Wilks, Sir Samuel (1824-1911), Eng- lish physician and lecturer in Lon- don _________________________ 428 Willcox, Sir William (1870-1941), English forensic physician _____ 520 Wistrand, August Timoleon (1807- 1866), Swedish military physician, author of the first Swedish text- book on legal medicine_________ 394 Witthaus, Rudolph August (1846- 1915), physician, professor of chemistry and physics in New York, editor of encyclopedic work on legal medicine and toxicology 467 Wormley, Theodore George (1826- 1897), American physician, tox- icologist, and author ___________ 436 123 Wu P'u (3rd c. A.D.), Chinese physi- cian participating in legal cases 37 Z Zacchia, Paolo (1584-1659), personal physician to the Pope, Protomedi- cus of the Church State, author of Quaestiones medicolegals, the cornerstone of legal medicine___ 207 Zangger, Heinrich (1874-1957), pro- fessor of legal medicine in Zurich and prolific writer _____________ 488 Zerbi, Gabriele (1445-1505), profes- sor of anatomy at the University of Padua ____________________ 124 Zidek, Pavel (ca 1413-1471), profes- sor at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Prague _________ 113 Zittmann, Johann Friedrich (1671- 1757), physician to the King of Poland, then to the Kurfiirst of Saxony, author _______________ 259 124 SUBJECT INDEX ABORTIFACIENTS see ABORTION ABORTION 15, 30, 44, 48, 77, 103, 190 ADIPOCERE 262, 317 ADULTERY 7, 8, 30, 41 ALCOHOLISM 414, 497 ANATOMY, PATHOLOGICAL 96, 106, 130, 144, 156, 160, 165, 186, 189, 214, 228, 242, 245, 246, 272, 281, 283, 288, 383, 392, 399, 410, 428 ANESTHESIA 42, 380, 409 ANTHROPOLOGY 303, 444 ANTHROPOLOGY, CRIMINAL 445, 447, 490 ANTHROPOLOGY, FORENSIC 282 ANTHROPOMETRY 137, 453 AQUA TOFANA 215 ARCHIATRI 27,47 ARSENIC 168, 206, 215, 341, 390, 397 AUTOPSY (ca. 1650- ) See also: Postmortem Examination 227, 261, 266, 276, 285, 291, 296, 383, 406 BALLISTICS, FORENSIC 512 BARBITURATES 432, 520 BERTILLONAGE see: ANTHROPOMETRY BESTIALITY see: SEX, SEXUAL DEVIA- TIONS AND OFFENSES BLOOD GROUPS 476, 489, 508, 514, 521 BLOOD RESEARCH 450 BLOOD STAINS 388, 477 BLOOD TRANSFUSION 236 BLOODLETTING 44 BODY SNATCHING 97, 383 BOTANY 1,3 BURIALS 90, 371 CADAVER see: AUTOPSY (ca. 1650- ); DEATH; POSTMORTEM EXAMINA- TION CAESAREAN SECTION 9, 36, 48, 58, 77, 111, 127, 176, 199 CASTRATION 48 CHEMISTRY 156, 184, 281, 438 CODES AND COLLECTIONS OF LAWS Ur-Nammu Code (ca. 2050 B.C.) 4 Hammurabi Code (ca. 1700 B.C.) 5 Hittite Code (14th or 13th c. B.C.) 6 Darma-shastra or Code of Manu (900-600 B.C.) 8 Code of Solon (6th c. B.C.) 10 Leges duodecim tabularum (449 B.C.) 13 Vendidad (3rd-7th c.) 39 Codex Theodosianus (438) 43 Lex Visigothorum or Codex Euricianus (ca. 475) 44 Lex Salica (486-511) 45 Corpus iuris civilis (528-534) 48 Pactus Alamanorum (613-623) 51 Edictus Rotari (643) 52 Capitularia of Charlemagne (9th c.) 55, 68 Code of Hywel Dda (ca. 900-950) 57 Laws of Canute, King of England (1017- 1035) 60 Assizes et bon usages du royaume de Jeru- salem (1100) 62 125 Gragas or Graugans of Iceland (1117/18) 63 Decretum Gratianum (ca. 1140) 65, 175 Statuta ducis Conradi (ca. 1176) 68 Statute of Westminster (1275) 69 Sachsenspiegel (ca. 1230) 75 Decretales Gregorii IX (1234) 77 Jiitisches Low (1241) 80 Statutory provisions of Bologna (1252) 83 Statute de praerogativa regis (1255-1290) 84 Coutume de Paris (1260) 85 Statuta civitatis Ragusii (1272) 86 Jus vetus Uplandicum (1295) 89 Statuto Albertino of Verona (1300) 91 Book of Rosenberg (ca. 1320) 98 Statuta Wislica (1347) 102 Bambergische Halsgerichtsordnung (Con- stitutio Bambergensis) (1507) 129, 139 Constitutio criminalis Carolina (1532) 129, 139 Corpus iuris canonici (1580) 175 Pravila of Vasile Lupu (1646) 223 Constitutio criminalis Theresiana (1768) 294 Code d'Instructions criminelles (1808) 350 Codex juris canonici (1917) 500 CONTRACEPTIVES 30 CORONERS England 69 USA 234, 448, 501 CRANIOMETRY 444 CRIMINOLOGY 463, 465, 492, 493, 505, 510 CRUENTATION see: ORDEALS DEATH See also: Burials; Suicide 81, 94, 195, 319, 466, 547 DENTISTRY 13, 250, 451 DENTISTRY, FORENSIC 81, 120, 472, 549 DISABILITY EVALUATION see: WOUNDS, INJURIES AND COMPEN- SATION DISSECTION see: AUTOPSY (ca. 1650- ); POSTMORTEM EXAMINATION DROWNING see: DEATH EMBALMING 169 EMBRYOLOGY 17, 165 ENTOMOLOGY 466 EPILEPSY 14 ETHICS, MEDICAL 14, 29, 38, 46, 47, 56, 71, 124, 133, 204, 329, 349, 407, 411, 527, 537, 543 EXHUMATION 146, 155, 197 EXPERT OPINIONS—COLLECTIONS 240, 256, 259, 288, 316 EXPERTISE, MEDICAL 12, 28, 31, 35, 37, 45, 50, 51, 55, 57, 62, 72, 73, 77, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 89, 92, 95, 98, 105, 129, 131, 132, 135, 139, 141, 142, 151, 169, 175, 178, 179, 190, 203, 204, 207, 212, 238, 239, 248, 257, 258, 261, 262, 276, 288, 294, 350, 401, 420, 461, 502, 525 EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION see: PARAPSYCHOLOGY FINGERPRINTS 372, 463 FETUS IN UTERO See also: Abortion; Caesarean Section; Hy- drostatic Test of Lungs; Pregnancy 13, 15, 24, 33, 44, 165, 232 GUNSHOT WOUNDS 117, 148, 512 GYNECOLOGY see: OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY HEMATOLOGY 450 HOMICIDE See also: Infanticide; Poisons and Poison- ers (incl. Toxicology); War and War Crimes 6, 7, 52, 55, 80, 81, 94, 139, 142, 147, 151, 216 HOMOSEXUALITY 7,48 HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION 527, 531, 537, 543 HYDROSTATIC TEST OF LUNGS See also: Infanticide 33, 210, 229, 233, 235, 243, 247, 316 HYPNOTISM 402 126 HYSTERIA see: MENTAL ILLNESS IMPOTENCE See also: Marriage; Sex, Sexual Deviations and Offenses 55, 77, 169, 172, 190, 200, 204, 244 INCEST see: SEX, SEXUAL DEVIATIONS AND OFFENSES INFANTICIDE See also: Hydrostatic Tests of Lungs 13, 41, 44, 55, 77, 129, 139, 153 INQUEST See also: Coroners 69, 81, 221 INSANE ASYLUM See also: Mental Illness 110, 300, 402, 445 INSANITY see: MENTAL ILLNESS INSEMINATION, ARTIFICIAL 321, 546 INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL LAW 431, 462, 531, 534 KLEPTOMANIA 192 LEGAL MEDICINE—BIBLIOGRAPHIES 264, 312, 365 LEGAL MEDICINE—CHAIRS AND IN- STITUTES Argentina 470 Austria 345, 362, 373, 430, 441 Bohemia 348, 455 Brazil 381, 503 Chile 417, 480 Colombia 385, 524 Cuba 400 Denmark 486, 494 France 326, 330, 331 Germany 384, 435 Gt. Britain 333, 347, 396 Guatemala 440 Italy 352, 363 Japan 460 Mexico 385 Norway 357 Peru 421 Poland 344, 504 Portugal 391, 473 Rumania 454, 464 Russia 339, 346, 425 Spain 403 Switzerland 386, 488 Turkey 491 Venezuela 398 USSR 511, 528 LEGAL MEDICINE—CONGRESSES Argentina 515 Cuba 528 France 452, 487 Germany 523 Puerto Rico 542 USA 437 LEGAL MEDICINE—HISTORY 122, 364 LEGAL MEDICINE—LABORATORIES 513, 519, 539 LEGAL MEDICINE—SERIALS Austria 362 Belgium 474, 523 France 378, 507 Germany 274, 284, 310, 368 Gt. Britain 458, 478, 541, 549 Poland 516 Russia 434 Spain 418 Switzerland 530 USA 416, 437, 448, 457, 538, 544 USSR 511, 540 LEGAL MEDICINE—SERVICE Chile 480 Colombia 498 Portugal 473 Russia 401 USSR 513, 525 LEGAL MEDICINE—SOCIETIES International 523 National: Belgium 474 France 439, 453 Germany 484 Gt. Britain 478, 541 Israel 548 Poland 522 Spain 403 USA 437, 448, 457, 532, 538, 544 USSR 528 LEGAL MEDICINE—STUDY AND TEACHING See also: Legal Medicine—Chairs and In- stitutes General 281, 459, 479, 533 National: 127 (Legal Medicine—Study and Teaching, cont.) Argentina 376 Austria 345 Belgium 360, 375 Bohemia 322, 412 Canada 374 Chile 480 Denmark 277 Germany 226, 268, 313, 337, 367 Gt. Britain 323, 333 Holland 255, 359 Hungary 324 Italy 363, 366 Norway 357 Rumania 464 Russia 332, 339, 346 Spain 408 Switzerland 386 USA 343, 354, 475 Yugoslavia 426, 433 LEGAL MEDICINE—TEACHERS Argentina 376 Austria 345, 362, 373, 430, 441, 449 Belgium 375 Bohemia 314, 322, 348, 412, 455 Brazil 381, 503 Canada 374 Chile 480 Colombia 385 Cuba 400 Denmark 277, 486, 494 France 320, 330, 331, 358, 360, 387, 461, 507 Germany 226, 251, 265, 280, 305, 313, 351, 367, 368, 384, 424, 435, 459, 484 Gt. Britain 323, 389, 396, 482 Holland 255 Italy 315, 340, 352, 363, 366, 447 Japan 460 Mexico 385 Norway 357 Poland 344, 516 Rumania 454, 464 Russia 332, 335, 339, 346, 382, 425 Spain 403 Switzerland 488 USA 343, 354, 426, 442, 475 USSR 511, 518, 540 Yugoslavia 427, 433 LEGAL MEDICINE—TERMINOLOGY AND SCOPE 178, 179, 216, 251, 265, 270, 279, 282, 297, 340, 356, 407, 414 LEGAL MEDICINE—TREATISES AND TEXTBOOKS OF FUNDAMENTAL IM- PORTANCE Austria 307, 322, 449 Bohemia 271 China 49, 59, 81, 93 France 169, 334, 358, 387 Germany 265, 270, 279, 305, 351, 364, 424 Gt. Britain 318, 389, 482 Italy 172, 190, 193, 207, 340 Japan 93 Korea 61, 93, 104 Russia 382 Sweden 394 Switzerland 280 USA 370, 423, 442, 467 LEGISLATION, MEDICAL AND DENTAL See also: Codes and Collections of Laws General 64, 66, 67, 79, 304 Specific: Lex Aquilia (4th c. B.C.) 16 Lex Cornelia (81 B.C.) 20 Wundschauordnung, Basel (1449) 114 Hebammenordnung, Regensburg (1452) 116 Medizinalordnung, Wiirzburg (1502) 128 Warburton's Anatomy Act of England (1832) 383 Ustav sudebnoi" meditsiny in Russia (1842) 401 Medical Act in England (I8fc>8) 4Z4a Dentist Act in England (1878) 451 MALINGERING 33,48 MALPRACTICE See also: Ethics, Medical; Legislation, Med- ical and Dental 5, 16, 20, 21, 129, 139, 202, 209, 328, 422, 426, 458 MARRIAGE See also: Impotence; Sex, Sexual Devia- tions and Offenses 65, 77, 485 MEDICAL EXAMINERS 448, 501 128 MEDICINE AS A PROFESSION see: LEG- ISLATION, MEDICAL AND DENTAL MENTAL ILLNESS See also: Insane Asylum; Psychiatry; Witchcraft 10, 13, 22, 26, 30, 34, 35, 48, 52, 63, 84, 102, 126, 136, 139, 145, 159, 163, 179, 182, 194, 208, 211, 254, 258, 267, 270, 294, 311, 325, 336, 338, 354, 356, 361, 395, 404, 405, 429, 445, 490, 536 MENTAL RETARDATION 517 MESMERISM see: PARAPSYCHOLOGY MIDWIVES 116, 171, 187, 225, 263, 304 MONSTERS 140, 446 MURDER see: HOMICIDE NARCOTICS See also: Barbiturates 1, 3, 342, 496, 499 OBDUCTION see: POSTMORTEM EXAMI- NATION OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY 30, 132, 171, 173, 187, 309, 485 OPIUM see: NARCOTICS ORDEALS See also: Torture; Witchcraft 55, 68, 85, 123, 147, 184, 185, 188, 237, 270 PARAPSYCHOLOGY 302, 402 PATERNITY See also: Blood Groups 508, 514, 521 PEDERASTY see: HOMOSEXUALITY PHARMACOLOGY 25, 281, 438 PHRENOLOGY 353 PHYSICIANS See also: Archiatri; Ethics, Medical; Legis- lation, Medical and Dental; Malpractice; Surgeons and Surgery 21, 27, 39, 44, 47, 91, 94, 112, 113, 124, 151, 212, 225, 238, 249, 269, 276, 281, 286, 293, 295, 298, 299, 304, 458 PHYSICIANS AND ATTORNEYS 539 PHYSICIANS AND PATIENTS 82, 100, 118 PHYSICIANS—FEE FOR SERVICE 5, 52, 83, 217, 307 PHYSICIANS—LICENSING 32, 39, 66, 79, 94, 249, 308 POISONS AND POISONERS (INCLUD- ING TOXICOLOGY) See also: Aqua Tofana; Arsenic 3, 19, 20, 25, 54, 71, 81, 83, 92, 122, 139, 156, 167, 168, 172, 179, 181, 190, 193, 204, 206, 215, 252, 358, 377, 379, 415, 420, 436, 438, 520 POSTMORTEM EXAMINATION See also: Autopsy (ca 1650- ) 11, 23, 24, 26, 29, 33, 40, 53, 62, 72, 75, 78, 83, 88, 90, 92, 96, 101, 107, 108, 109, 119, 122, 125, 130, 134, 140, 150, 152, 154, 158, 161, 167, 170, 171, 191, 193, 198, 201, 214, 224, 227, 231, 252, 266 PREGNANCY See also: Abortion; Infanticide 8, 15, 43, 45, 48, 72, 77, 92, 172, 190, 192 PRISONS 443, 445, 491 PROOF OF CONGRESS See also: Impotence; Marriage 77, 244 PSYCHIATRY See also: Mental Illness 39, 211, 393, 395, 404, 405, 419, 429, 445, 447, 456, 468, 469, 495, 536 PSYCHIATRY, FORENSIC 354, 509, 510 PSYCHOANALYSIS 468 PSYCHOLOGY 468, 469 PULMONARY DOCIMASIA see: HYDRO- STATIC TEST OF LUNGS QUACKERY 14, 487 RAPE See also: Sex, Sexual Deviations and Offen- ses 7, 45, 48, 55, 72 RHINOPLASTY 8 SCIENTIFIC POLICE see: CRIMINOL- OGY SECTIO VULNERUM see: POSTMORTEM EXAMINATION 129 SEROLOGY, FORENSIC 477 SEX, SEXUAL DEVIATIONS AND OF- FENSES See also: Homosexuality; Impotence; Rape 7, 48, 55, 71 STERILIZATION 517 STRANGULATION see: DEATH SUICIDE 55, 139, 183, 287 SURGEONS AND SURGERY See also: Physicians 39, 67, 74, 85, 87, 89, 94, 106, 151, 225, 238, 248, 257, 278, 281 SYPHYLIS 125 TERATOLOGY see: MONSTERS TORTURE See also: Witchcraft 77, 139, 163, 172, 180, 216, 218, 230, 270, 294, 531 TOXICOLOGY see: POISONS AND POI- SONERS (INCLUDING TOXICOLOGY) TRANSPLANTATION OF ORGANS 481, 545, 547 TRIALS See also: Witchcraft 336, 397, 404, 405, 415, 461, 510 TRUTH DRUG see: NARCOTICS TWINS, CONJOINED see: MONSTERS VIRGINITY 7, 77, 187, 190, 204, 220 VIVISECTION 150, 160, 166 WAR AND WAR CRIMES See also: Ethics, Medical; Human Experi- mentation; International Medical Law 431, 462, 527, 531 WITCHCRAFT See also: Mental Illness; Psychiatry 48, 65, 76, 77, 99, 115, 121, 126, 138,143, 145, 162, 163, 164, 174, 177, 180, 181, 185, 188, 190, 194, 197, 202, 203, 208, 210, 216, 219, 241, 253, 260, 270, 275, 292, 301, 327 WOUNDS, INJURIES AND COMPENSA- TION See also: Gunshot Wounds 4, 6, 7, 13, 14, 26, 31, 45, 51, 52, 55, 57, 60, 63, 80, 81, 83, 86, 89, 94, 98, 105, 114, 129, 136, 139, 142, 150, 169, 179, 190, 195, 204, 213, 251, 307, 369, 422 X-RAY 471 130 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ackerknecht, Erwin H. 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