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EXPLAINED ACCORDING TO  THE  LAWS OF

     ACOUSTICS AND PHYSIOLOGY,
     EMILIO  BELARI,




Ex-TENOR OF THE PARIS ITALIAN OPERA, PROFESSOR

   OF SINGING AND PERFECTING THE VOICE.
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       SINGING,

EXPLAINED ACCORDING TO THE  LAWS OF
     ACOUSTICS AND PHYSIOLOGY,
            — BY —

    EMILIO BELARI,
Ex-TENOR OF THE PARIS ITALIAN OPERA, PROFESSOR
   OF SINGING AND PERFECTING THE  VOICE.
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J. K. Lees, Book and Job Printer, 169 & 170 Fulton St.
             1883. 
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        Entered according to Act of Congress, by
                   Emilio Belari,
in the year 1883, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress,
                 at Washington,  D. C.
) 
                 TO




    Mr. WALTER  MONTAGU  KERR,



                 AS A



PROOF OF THE AFFECTION OF HIS TEACHER AND FRIEND,




            EMILIO  BELARI.
392127 
 
PREFACE.
   I  applied  myself to the study  of vocal
physiology desirous of knowing the cause of
the difficulties met with at each step in  the
study of singing, seeing that neither methods
nor the most renowned professors of Europe
could efface  my doubts on this subject.   I
wished to comprehend exactly the phenomena
of the voice, and I sought in nature the causes
which produce  them, as  the  most  positive
way of arriving at the desired end.   I have
studied them as profoundly as the manners of
investigation  that science  possesses  to  day
permit, and  guided  by  the observations of
eminent physiologists I obtained what I desired;
that is to say, I became able not only to ex-
plain to myself  that which professors told me
were vocal mysteries, but  I was also able to
know perfectly what the  voice is and how  it is
formed, in order to educate it properly.  I  had 
ii
written a long work on this difficult and com-
plicated matter, so little known to professors
and  artists who have written on the voice
(Manuel Garcia, M. Bataille and Madame Sei-
ler are exceptions) but animated by the desire
of contributing  with all my might to the pro-
gress of the art of singing, and  encouraged
by the warm reception of  my little pamphlet
The Way to Study Singing with Profit, I decid-
ed to publish this extract, in which I have united
as succinctly as possible the fruit of my obser-
vations, and the necessary knowledge to eradi-
cate the erroneous ideas that cause so much
harm to teaching and consequently to the art
itself.
   I have not pretended to write a book which
can of itself teach  how to sing;  that  is not
possible, and I should never have  imagined a
parallel absurdity.  I  have  confined  myself
exclusively to the explanation of  the  pheno-
mena of the voice without occupying myself
with what  belongs to  its education, or the art
of singing, for these will be the objects of my 
iii
later publications.  For the moment I think I
have thrown sufficient light on certain points
to enable those to see clearly who have given
themselves up to teaching.
    I might have still more enlarged in certain
chapters had I wished to enter into small de-
tails, but I have been better pleased to withdraw
from my work all that could tire the intelligence
of persons lacking certain scientific knowledge,
wishing  to make myself understood  even by
professors  and  pupils who have  no  other in-
struction than solfdge.
    I have a strong hope that the points I have
enlightened in this  work will be well  received
by learned professors, and I am persuaded that
they can greatly profit by it if they will take
the trouble to meditate upon all that  I have
consigned here, for if my work has no other
worth, it has at least the merit of being based
on the practical  observation of several years
of study, and of also being an exact narration
of the process employed by nature in  the pro-
duction of the voice. 
 
CHAPTER I.
               THE VOICE.
BRIEF  HISTORY OF  THE  VOCAL  PROBLEM.--DEFINITION
      OF THE VOICE.--THE TRUE DEFINITION.
   The study of vocal mechanism has occupied
men from time immemorial, as much from the
standpoint of art as of science.   From the
time of Hippocrates, 460  years  B.C., up to
our time different theories have been advanced,
more or less well founded, to explain the pro-
duction of this phenomenon, and the knowledge
of it  followed step  by step the progress of
physics, anatomy and physiology  in such  a
way that at the time of Hippocrates, and  even
Aristotle, when the sciences were in an embryo
state, there  existed but a faint  and imperfect
idea of the formation of the voice.  * The pro-
gress of science was so slow that it required
more than three centuries to advance one step
in this  complicated  matter, as  is proved by 
                     4
writings containing nothing new or important
until  the  appearance of  a special  treatise On
the Voice, written by Gallienus about one hun-
dred  years B. C, in which he already shows
more  profound,  although  very  incomplete,
knowledge of the functions of the vocal organs.
    The knowledge of anatomy advanced and
increased  up to the XVI century, from which
time began the true  progress.  Anatomy and
vocal physiology, enriched by remarkable dis-
coveries entered the  road  of progress, and
their  advancement  would  have  been  much
more rapid  had physics, in its relations  to
acoustics, arrived at the same height.
    F. d' Acuapendente, who lived  in  the last
half of the XVI century,  already knew all the
parts  which compose the vocal apparatus, and
was the first to present  the glottis fulfilling
the important functions belonging  to it in the
production of the voice.
    From this time forward progress was much
more  rapid, although not as  much so as may
have been desired.   At the  beofinnino- of the
XVII  century,  physics and  anatomy having
advanced   extraordinarily,   favored — little
though it was—the resolution of  the problem
of the voice which for so long a time was the 
                     5
theme of predilection among naturalists, phy-
sicians and artists, and each one tried to give
a satisfactory solution, which  if not the true
one  at least gave  new  light  for  subsequent
discoveries.
   From the time of F. d' Acuapendente until
1741 when Ferrein  made his  experiments  for
the first time with the  larynx  of a dead body,
other celebrities  such as Mersenne,  Perault,
Dodar, etc., wrote  on  the same  subject  and
their theories differed, although more or less
well  founded.
   The investigations of Ferrein were followed
by those of  Dutrochet,  who,  having made a
conscientious study of the anatomy of the vocal
organ, and thoroughly understanding the laws
of the production of sound, exposed a theory
which  differed from all the opinions advanced
up to that time and which contained some true
points.
   Geoffroy Saint  Hiliare, Malgaigne, Felix
Savart, Magendie,  Bichat, Biot,  Despinay,
Gerdi,  Bennati,  C.  de Latour,  Colombat,
Richerand,  Berard, Miiller, Longet, Donizetti
the  immortal composer, Manuel  Garcia the
celebrated  professor of  singing, Bataille pro-
fessor of  the  Paris  conservatory,   Doctor 
                     0
Edouard Fournie, and several others we could
also name, tried with  more or less satisfactory
results, to resolve the vocal problem, but not
one among them had the good fortune to bring
forward an acceptable theory on the phonic
organ, except Manuel Garcia in 1855.
    In  order  to  render  their  theories more
comprehensible, authors have compared the
vocal  organ to musical instruments, and those
which merit the greatest acceptation are those
which compare it to reed instruments.
    Gallienus was the  first  to compare the
voice  to these instruments, but  by examining
with care the marvellous manner in which the
phonic organ performs its functions (as simple
in its composition as it is infinite in its results),
we coincide wite the opinion  of Gerdi, who
says, that  up to  the present time there exists
no mechanical  instrument which can compare
with it, for hot one is susceptible of the infinite
modulations to which the  vocal organ lends
itself.  It is, says  an illustrious  writer, the
instrument/^ excellence and the most precious
way that music possesses for its execution.
    In fact, of  all sonorous bodies existing  in
nature, of all instruments produced by art, not
one, we repeat, is susceptible of the marvellous 
effects produced by the voice.   The  singing
of birds,  and  the  sounds of  most  perfect
instruments appeal  only to the  imagination,
but the human voice, possessing the faculty
of imitating all sounds with  their  infinite
inflections, touches  the heart, appeals to the
passions,  and  by  an  inexplicable effect  we
identify ourselves  with the person who  sings
and participate with him in his sentiments  of
grief,  joy, hate, or tenderness.
   What  then  is the voice ?
   This is apparently a very simple question,
but one  that science  has not  been  able  to
answer for twenty-three centuries.
   In order to justify what we have just said
we will cite the definitions which seem  to  us
the most  worthy  to be given, although few
give any idea of what the voice really is.
   Platon says :   The  voice is  a concussion
in the air  which penetrates the soul by means
of the ears.
   Piorry :  The voice consists of a particular
sound ordinarily produced by the passage of
air exhaled in the respiratory canals.
   Malgaigne:  The  voice  is  a particular
sound ordinarily produced by  the passage of
the air exhaled in the air canals. 
                     8
    Richerand and Berard :   The voice is an
appreciable sound resulting from the vibration
experienced by the air sent out from the lungs
when crossing the glottis.
    Magendie :   We understand by voice, that
it is the sound produced  in the  larynx at the
moment that air passes that organ on entering
or passing out of the trachea.
    Adelon:  Voice, sound produced  in  the
larynx at  the  moment  that the air exhaled
passes that organ, the intrinsic muscles of the
glottis being in a contracted state.
    Nysten : The voice is an appreciable sound
produced  by the air expelled from the  lungs
when crossing the  glottis;  some  of all  the
sounds a man or an animal can  produce with
his larynx in speaking, singing or crying.
    Gerdi:   Voice  consists  in  producing  a
sound in the larynx.
    Longet:  The voice  is a sound produced
by man and certain animals by expelling  the
air from the lungs across the glottis.
    Fournie :   The voice is a sound produced
by  a particular  reed, formed  by modifiable
walls, under the influence of  muscular action,
the  vibrating   part being  formed by  the
mucous filling  which limits the  edges  of  the 
                      9
 glottis.   The vibrations are provoked by the
 passage of air across the glottis.
    Of  the definitions  just given the last  is
 without doubt the most exact,  as  it gives a
 true idea of what the voice is, and of the man-
 ner of its formation.
    If   after these  definitions, more or  less
 exact, more or less complicated, due to very
 respectable scientific authorities, we  are  per-
 mitted  to add our own, we would say that the
 voice is the product of the vibrations of vocal
 bands, occasioned  by the air  contained in the
 lungs being expelled across the glottis.
    This  definition,  based  on  the  laws of
 acoustics applied to the  constitution of the
 vocal organs,  is  the simplest,  clearest  and
 most concrete that we could offer to all minds.
    There is no doubt but that the voice is the
 product of vibrations of the vocal bands, and
 not of vibrations of air, although we have seen
 it so stated even in some works  recently pub-
 lished.
    The celebrated anatomist Ferrein  thus
demonstrated  it  during the  middle of  last
century by saying, when speaking  of his ex-
periences,  that  in touching the  vocal bands
with pincers the  sound ceases, and that the 
                     10
sound strikes or ceases  to  strike the ear the
moment the vibrations are seen to  commence
or cease.   Later Magendie and others con-
firmed  the assertion of Ferrein  by their ex-
periments, and to  further  it  still more the
laryngoscope aids us to observe more clearly. 
11
CHAPTER  II.
       REGISTERS  OF  THE  VOICE.

IMPROPER DENOMINATIONS THAT THEY HAVE RECEIVED,
  AND ORIGIN OF THE FALSE CLASSIFICATION.—BASIS
     OF THE TRUE  CLASSIFICATION.—NATURAL,
        MIDDLE AND UPPER REGISTERS, AND
          PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS BY
            WHICH THEY ARE DISTIN-
              GUISHED FROM EACH
                   OTHER.

   The theory of registers is a question  of
great  importance, as it  directly affects the
education of the voice and the art of singing
well.   There has  been so much raving on this
subject that we  should be obliged to write
immense  volumes did we propose to combat
all the false doctrines that have been advanced
on this subject.   The disorder, confusion and
disunion that exist between professors of sing-
in^ and physiologists on  the classification  of
registers,  undoubtedly arise from—ist, That 
                     12
the professors lack physiological knowlege to
explain the vocal mechanism during  singing,
and  in  that  case their affirmations have no
importance whatever.  2d.  That the physio-
logists were not singers.   3d. That they have
made experiments on animals or on mechanical
instruments,  or observations on singers edu-
cated in a determined school, and by a method
that was  not based  on the true  mechanism
employed by  nature for the production of  the
voice.   Starting from a false basis they neces-
sarily erred.
   In  order  to discover  the truth, we have
followed another path, confident that  being  a
singer and physiologist we had abetter chance
of solving this problem, and  we were  not
deceived.  We made our observations on all
kinds of uncultivated voices  of both sexes, we
compared these observations with those ob-
tained  from   singers  educated  in different
schools and  by different  processes, we edu-
cated several  individuals by the means that we
saw indicated by nature, and the results were
so rapid and successful that we were  able to
form excellent voices in persons who had been
told by other professors that they were inca-
pable of singing. " After these repeated proofs 
                     13
we became convinced that our theory on regis-
ters- is the one distinctly indicated by nature;
for laryngoscopic observations, practice, our
own experience and the experience  of  others
have clearly demonstrated  it.    We are the
more convinced as the laws of acoustics and
physiology give weight to our theory, and this
proves that we have not been deceived either
by our sense of sight or the  laryngoscopic
mirror.  We have invented nothing, for nothing
can be invented on this subject without  falling
into  error,  consequently  in  exposing  the
theory of the registers, we have merely related
a fact that exists in  nature  and which  nature
herself revealed to us.
   We here renounce giving the different opin-
ions on this subject, and the divers theories to
which  physiologists  have  had  recourse to
demonstrate  them,  for this would confuse a
question that, having great  importance in the
education of the voice, we repeat, ought to be
clearly  presented in order to avoid  errors,
which from ignorance or routine descend from
master  to pupil.   Fortunately physiological
knowledge is to-day very much advanced, and
has  made all  desirable progress in  whatever
relates to the  organ of the voice, to  expel all 
                     14
false  doctrines  propagated,  even  by  some
celebrities, in the art of singing.
    In order that we may be better understood,
and to give an exact idea of what is meant by
registers, we should say before going further,
that if we examine the voice of an individual
by  having him run  the entire length of the
vocal  scale, we shall observe  that  when  he
arrives at a certain degree of elevation  there
is a movement of the larynx and the qualities
of sound vary sensibly.
    It is these changes of voice that have been
denominated registers, called chest, half-chest,
head, mixed, falsetto, etc.;  but these denomi-
nations are improper because  in naming the
first register, chest, it was given to be under-
stood that the tones comprised in this register
were formed in the chest, that those comprised
in the second called half-chest, head or mixed
participated in their formation, of the chest and
head, and lastly that the tones of the third regis-
ter  had a different origin from the others which
is a grave error, as we shall demonstrate in the
following.  All tones have the same origin, all
are  formed in  the vocal bands, the  lowest the
same as the highest.   It is the place of reson-
ance and the direction of the sound that changes. 
                     15
    The  error existing  in the classification of
registers  arises principally from the  fact that
the vocal mechanism has not been taken into
consideration, and  instead of  starting from a
principle founded on the physiological functions
of the organs, the theory is based only on the
effect produced by the voice  on the ear, and it
was natural  to err greatly in taking only the
qualities of timbre for a foundation.
    To establish then the true classification of
registers, it is necessary to start from the pro-
cess employed  by nature for  the production of
the voice, and completely put  aside the qualities
of timbre, for they depend on the parts of the
vocal  instrument  which  contribute  to  the
modification  of the sound, by giving it a par-
ticular character in relation  with the senti-
ment or passion that one wishes  to express
in singing.
    In this way we arrived at the discovery of
truth, and took into strict account not only the
phenomena which we observed with admiration
in some voices, but also the  difficulties which
presented themselves in singing, and we learned
at the same  time the way to overcome them
without being  obliged to leave  this work  to
time as is done by ignorant professors. 
                     16
    Man, as well as woman,  employs  or can
employ three different processes for the emis-
sion of the voice.   These three processes are
the true registers of the  voice, and to distin-
guish them we will call them the first or nat-
ural register, second or medium  and third or
upper.
    Now let us pass to the explanation of the
mechanism employed by nature for the forma-
tion of the voice in each  one of its registers.

         FIRST OR NATURAL  REGISTER.

    The first register is common to all  voices,
either educated, or in their  natural or unculti-
vated state.  The characters which distinguish
the voice in the natural register consists in its
greater volume and  fullness,  and  that  it is
produced without effort  or fatigue.   During
the emission of tones comprised in this register,
the larynx  is found placed at the lower part of
the neck, the  glottis presents a longitude of
from  fifteen  to twenty-five  millimetres, the
vocal bands take  a horizontal direction, and
show their entire  thickness, and their edges
become  more  or less thin  according  to  the
tension of  the muscles that  act on them." 
IT
    When  we wish  to  emit a low  tone, the
arytenoid cartilages approach each other, mak-
ing by their movements the vocal bands also
approach each other, but they leave a  small
interval  or opening  towards the anterior part.
This  opening—which extends longitudinally
towards  the posterior part—marks, under the
impulsion of air, the part of the vocal membrane
in vibration ; this membrane being very thick
and lightly stretched, ought naturally to  pro-
duce low, voluminous tones.
    As the  tone  raises, the larynx undergoes
an  ascensional movement,  increasing at the
same time the antero-posterior diameter  of its
cavity ; the vocal bands take an oblique position
from high to low and from back to front, in-
creasing in tension and elasticity. The opening
diminishes  and the  glottis  becomes shorter;
consequently the  voice in the first or natural
register is formed by  the longitudinal tension of
the vocal bands, by the tension of the same in
the sense of thickness, and by the longitudinal
modification of the glottis.
   These three actions augment their intensity
in proportion as  the sound  advances toward
the upper tones of the register, but the move-
ment is so insignificant, that it  is necessary to 
                     18
ascend a fourth or a fifth to be able  to appre-
ciate the phenomenon of which we have  just
given a succinet explanation.
   The number  of notes comprised  in  the
natural register vary according to  the  indi-
vidual, being more  extended in man than in
woman for reasons that we shall see later.
   Once arrived at the limit of this register it
is impossible to produce  new  sounds, for the
muscular forces  are  no  longer sufficient to
engender  new modifications  capable of  pro-
voking new sounds, that is to  say, that  the
muscles which extend and the muscles which
contract the vocal bands exercise an equal force,
and " as two equal contrary forces destroy each
other" there results an immobility in the vocal
bands, which, being excessively stretched,  can-
not yield to the action that seeks to unite them.
   To be able to continue ascending the scale,
it is necessary to change the state of the parts
mentioned, so that the organ will be disposed to
emit a succession of sounds of qualities different
from those produced in the natural register.

        SECOND OR  MIDDLE REGISTER.

   The change of which we have just spoken
takes place in fact, by a  general and rapid 
                      19
movement having for object the approaching
of the sides of the thyroid cartilage, the dimin-
ishing of the transversal diameter of the larynx,
and the lessening of the longitudinal  tension.
All  this makes  the  longitudinal lessening of
the glottis possible, and the glottis is reduced
to from  ten to  fifteen millimetres in length,
and this favors the production of ascending
tones which in  the  limit of the first register
became impossible.
    In proportion as  the  voice  ascends,  the
the cavity of the mouth gradually increases by
the lowering of the tongue, by the  outward
and upward projection of the lips, and by the
elevation of the veil of the palate.   The pos-
terior pillars tend to approach each other when
the  upper notes  of this register  are sung;
consequently the voice in the second register is
formed by the longitudinal  diminishing of the
glottis, and by the diminishing of the lo?igitudi-
nal tension of the vocal bands.
    The movement of the  muscles is barely
perceptible in the second register, on account
of the small dimensions to which  the glottis
is reduced.
    The  passage  from  the natural  to  the
medium  register  is not generally  easy  for 
20
 either contralti or bassi.   The latter acquire
 the  second register  with difficulty, and  can
 only make use of it in the two or three upper
 tones of the voice.
    The difficulty  of the passage  depends, as
 we have  said,  on the  change  that  takes
 place in the larynx, and  education ought to
 procure ease  of transition, in  order that  the
 sound of the second  register may  differ as
 little  as  possible  from those of  the natural
 register.
    The  difficulty found  in this register in
 pronouncing certain syllables  consists in  the
 fact that  the  tongue,  especially  its  base,
 directs itself backward in  order to  diminish
 the diameter of the vocal tube and push  the
 epiglottis towards the  orifice of the  pharynx.
   This position of the tongue  prevents its
 articulating with  freedom, because of the  im-
 mobility  maintained by the muscular action
 at its base, and is a great  obstacle in  passing
 to  the  natural register  without a sensible
 transition in  the  sonorous qualities of  the
two registers.   This is the reason that when
the change  is  brusque, we observe  in some
singers a rapid movement of the lower part
of the face, in  order to leave the muscles of 
                     21
the neck  and larynx  in a  condition  to take
instantaneously  the proper  position for the
note that  they wish to emit.
   Study ought to correct this movement,
or at least render, it but slightly perceptible.
   The middle register is the most proper for
execution or agility, for the glottis, being re-
duced to small dimensions, as we have seen, the
muscular  movement is hardly perceptible and
this  facilitates  rapidity of   vocalization,  and
renders execution in an ascending sense less
difficult.
   Again, this is the register the most suscep-
tible of being extended, and for this  reason
many professors admit of  but two  registers ;
but  if it  is  true that many singers use this
register to  the  limit of the vocal scale, there
are others  in exchange who cannot do  this,
and are only able to  here  produce from two
to four tones.   And as exceptions, numerous
though they may be, do not make a rule, and
as there exists physiologically a third register
which contralti,  soprani and tenori  make  use
of, we are going to make it known.
          THIRD OR  UPPER REGISTER.
   The third or upper register  has a  proper
character that distinguishes  it from the other 
                     22
two, and its  compass  varies extraordinarily
according to the individual.
   These physiological characters  have such
great analogy  with those of the natural  reg-
ister, and there can  be obtained by study so
much resemblance in the sonorous  characters
of the two, that an ear of little experience can
easily confound them, especially in the upper
tones.
    From this springs the general belief that
the highest tones of the vocal scale  can be
produced  with the  natural register,   (some
physiologists have also committed this error)
and this has given  rise to the celebrated  C
chest (do de poitrine) a farce  that has been
a rich mine of gold for its  inventor  and for
those who have  since  known  how to profit
by it.
    To demonstrate  the error,  it is sufficient
to give the physiological characters which dis-
tinguish the third register, since it is produced
by  a  mechanism  different  from that  of the
other two, and its  sonorous qualities are  also
dissimilar.
    In proportion as one reaches the limit  of
the second register, greater difficulty is found
in the emission, so much so  as to become im- 
                     23
possible for some individuals to produce  new
sounds on account of the antagonism estab-
lished between the intrinsic muscles of the
larynx, as we have already  said in speaking
of the natural register.   It is necessary, then,
to make a new movement  that will permit a
change in the general state of the instrument,
and to place  it in proper  conditions for the
production  of  new  tones   in an  ascending
sense.  This  change  takes  place  in fact, and
the result is to dispose the  organ so that it
can augment  the longitudinal tension of the
vocal bands, diminish the tension in the sense
of  thickness,  and  increase  the  longitudinal
dimensions  of the glottis, which takes place
by means of lessening the contraction of the
thyro-arytenoid muscles, and by increasing the
the tension  of the posterior arytenoid muscles.
    All the parts aid this end in an energetic
manner, as can be seen externally  by the
ascensional  movement that the larynx under-
goes.  However, this movement is not alto-
gether indispensable, either for the production
of the voice in the  third register, or in the
middle register, for when one sings with the
sombre timbre, of which we  shall speak later,
the larynx rests almost  always in the inferior 
                      24
 part of the neck in order to give more volume
 to  the sounds.   Therefore the voice in the
 third  register is produced by  the  increase of
 the longitudinal tension of the vocal bands, by
 lessening the tension in the sense of thickness,
 and by the longitudinal increase of the glottis.
 Thus,  then, the falsely called do depoitrinc, so
 celebrated in Duprezwas but a do in the third
 register, produced with  a clear  timbre, and
 the do sharp of Tamberlick, no less celebrated,
 is equally a do sharp of the third  register of
 sombre timbre.
   To give to these tones the qualities  of
 fullness, volume  and sonority found in  the
 natural register, it is necessary  to considerably
 augment the cavity of the mouth  by forming
 an oval with the lips, and sending the column
 of air outward  towards the nasal cavities, and
 as the  vocal bands will be found to be very
 much extended longitudinally,  leaving a large
 space between  them, it requires a large quan-
 tity of air energetically sent  out to produce a
voluminous and intense sound.
   This is  the  only mechanism that need be
employed by those wishing to obtain the same
result as these  celebrated tenors just named.
We obtained  it without  great difficulty, and 
                     25
we are persuaded that with a well constituted
organ, which supposes a powerful,  energetic
voice, one will easily obtain this, although his
voice may be but slightly posed in the  normal
conditions of the phonation.  However, we do
not advise too much this way of producing an
effect on the public with only one tone, for the
extreme tones of the voice  cannot be  abused
without detriment to those to which sonority
is indispensable  and which are  most used in
singing.-  If among  those who have never
exercised their  vocal organ, there still exists
doubt as to  the  impossibility of producing the
superior tones  of  the vocal scale with the
natural register, it will be  sufficient for  them
to remember the  difference existing  in the
physiological characters of the extreme regis-
ters.
   Let us end then by repeating, that the C
chest so celebrated everywhere,  exists only in
the imagination, for vocal  physiology  demon-
strates  the  impossibility  of  producing the
superior tones  of  the vocal scale with the
proper position  of the first or natural register,
no matter  what the nature,  conditions and
qualities of the voice may be.   Already the
importance  of this tone (C chest) has  greatly 
                     26
diminished,  for with  the  adoption   of  the
French pitch (the most rational and  most in
accordance with nature) the tenor is rare, who
can not reach this note.  Imagination does a
great deal, and the public must know that it is
do in order to applaud and appreciate it, other-
wise it has the same effect as A or B  flat. 
27
CHAPTER III.
                 TIMBRE.
A  LITTLE HISTORICAL SKETCH.—WHAT  TIMBRE  IS.—
   FAULTS, GUTTURAL, NASAL, ETC., IMPROPERLY
      CALLED TIMBRE.--CAUSES THAT PRODUCE
        THEM AND THE WAY TO CORRECT
         THEM.--GENERAL TIMBRES CLEAR
           AND SOMBRE.--OPINIONS ON
              THEIR FORMATION.
   The most remarkable men of science, from
Pythagoras  down to Helmholtz, have worked
seeking the resolution  of the acoustic phe-
nomenon  known  to  us  under  the  name of
timbre.
   Kepler, Laplace, Poisson, Euler, d'Alem-
ber and several others, understood  (guessed
rather) this mysterious phenomenon but could
not explain  it.  Galilee,  Newton,  Euler  and
Bernouille in their researches on movements of
vibration  gave  the  elements  necessary to
understand  the  tonality  and  intensity  of 
                     28
sounds ; but all their efforts  miscarried when
they wished to explain the  other particular
quality of sound which permits the ear to dis-
tinguish the same note in different instruments,
Rameau had already taken a long step towards
the resolution  of this problem ; he knew that
sound was composed of other simple sounds,
as is light of  different rays,  but  lacking  me-
chanical  means  that would   permit him to
analyze it, he left his work incomplete.  Biot
went still  further ;  he discovered the mystery
and although he was also destitute of material
means to demonstrate it,  he announced the
truth (demonstrated later by Helmholtz)  as a
probability.
    In fact Helmholtz in his acoustic researches
discovered this mystery by  satisfactorily ex-
plaining   this  particular   property of  sound
called  timbre,  demonstrating why we  distin-
guish the same note in different  instruments.
    Here  is the phenomenon explained  in a
few words.
    Suppose some note of the piano which we
will call the fundamental  sound.   If we press
down the key representing this note we set the
corresponding string in motion and it vibrates
its entire length, and if we  listen attentively 
                     29
we shall hear different notes lower and higher
but weaker than  the fundamental  note,  as
though this one, in its vibratory movement,
struck divers strings which in  their turn pro-
duced the sounds  two, three, or four times
higher like  distant echoes becoming  extinct
little  by  little.   This phenomenon,  perfectly
appreciable to a trained ear takes place because
the vibrating string set in motion subdivides
spontaneously into  two, three, four and even
more parts after having produced the funda-
mental sound.
   We see, then, that sound  is composed of
partial tones called harmonics  and conse-
quently it can divide itself.
   Helmholtz was able  to decompose it  by
means of  a very ingenious apparatus that  he
named a  risonnateur, thus not only proving
that the  fundamental sound is composed of
partial notes of different  intensity, but also
that all sounds  are not  equally  rich  in har-
monics, that it is to the co-existence of these
partial sounds reaching the ear blended with
the fundamental sound that we owe  the audi-
tory sensation known as timbre ; therefore the
difference observed in sounds depends upon
the number of harmonics. 
30
   The law of the series of harmonics, as Biot
says,  varies according  to the form  of the
sonorous body, and in fact it is demonstrated
that  stringed  instruments are  richer  in har-
monics than wind instruments.
   The appreciation of  harmonics becomes
more difficult in the vocal instrument; however
Rameau already  knew  in  1750  that  there
responds to the  fundamental sound of  man's
voice two higher harmonics represented by the
fifth  of  the octave  and  the major third of the
double octave.
   Having once demonstrated that the differ-
ence between two sounds  depends  on the
number of harmonics,  and  the resonance  of
these on the nature of  the form of the instru-
ment, we can easily  explain the  diversity  of
timbres that man's voice produces known under
the name of vowels.
   Only in  the  vocal instrument is it  found
possible to produce the same tone with  differ-
ent sonorous qualities and this constitutes one
of its  greatest  advantages  over  mechanical
instruments, for this reason we rightly say that
the latter speak  uniquely to the imagination,
while the voice, thanks to its divers  timbres, 
                     31
harmonizes  perfectly with the  passions  one
wishes to express in singing.
   There are but two timbres distinguished in
singing, the clear and the sombre, also known
as voce bianca (white voice)  and voce rotonda
(round voice) and  these  are, as their names
indicate,  the colors that the singer takes ad-
vantage of to form  a contrast and produce the
desired effect.
   Manuel  Garcia  and  others make  mention
of divers timbres, such as  the hoarse, guttural,
nasal, etc., but we believe that on the ground
of art they ought not to be considered as  true
timbres but  as faults of emission that should
be corrected,  or as the  consequences of the
pathological state of the vocal organ or some
of its  parts.  For  instance, the  hoarse timbre
is often found  even in  pure voices when  (for
some cause as may be observed by the aid of
the laryngoscope) the vocal membrane becomes
thicker and more moist  than usual, its vibra-
tions being  disturbed by the  liquid with which
it is  impregnated, are unequal, and as a result
the sounds are low and hoarse. If the humidity
existing  in  the  vocal membrane is abundant
the  sounds  will  als'o  appear muffled.  When
the cause has disappeared and  the voice has 
                     32
acquired its usual limpidity, the vocal mem-
brane will be found to be transparent, very
thin and very elastic, and the vibrations will be
uniformly produced, striking the ear agreeably.
    The  guttural  timbre  is produced by a
shrinking of the vocal tube at the posterior
part of the throat;  this  disposition may be
congenital by the effect of great  enlargement
of the tonsils, or artificially produced by the
desire or tendency that many individuals have
to emit the tones with more volume than they
possess naturally.
    In the first case  it is  very  difficult, not to
say impossible, to completely efface this defect.
It can however be corrected to a  great  extent
by  the way we shall indicate in another work
on  the education of  the voice, which will soon
follow this one.
    The nasal timbre, as the name indicates, is
caused  by sending the tone through the nose
instead of by the mouth.   This fault is easily
corrected, for sometimes it is sufficient to show
the difference of sonority existing  between  a
nasal  tone and one that  resounds  in  the
mouth,  and the pupil  will easily learn to do
the second by reason of  its sonority, volume,
and intensity. 
                     33
   We see then that the timbres hoarse, gut-
tural, nasal, etc., should be considered as faults
of emission  and never as true timbre.
   Our dear friend Signor  Antonio Cordero,
a professor of great talent and a great student,
although  but little known, has made known
some timbres in his Escuela completa de canto,
as vices that voices can acquire, although after
having considered the  clear and  sombre as
principal timbres he says : that "the voice can
produce many  timbres because we naturally
express all our sensations by a different sound
adapting itself when  we experience the sensa-
tions in reality ;" but if this is really what we
understand scientifically by timbre, each one of
these sounds  ought not to be artistically con-
sidered as a different timbre, but as a modifica-
tion  of the principal timbres, they being the ex-
tremes between which all others are comprised.
   For this  reason  in  speaking of  general
timbres we do not  speak of chiaro bianco (clear
white)  nor  of chiaro rotondo (clear round)
names of  which we make use in our practical
lessons on the education of the voice to distin-
guish and make better known  to our pupils
the  principal  phases that  the  clear  timbre
presents in singing. 
                     34
    The  chiaro rotondo  timbre  is  merely  a
 modification of the  chiaro  bianco or  simple
 clear timbre  resembling the  sombre  timbre
 and serves  as  a bond  of union  between  the
 two,  rendering the  change  from one  to  the
 other insensible.
    To produce it, it  is only necessary to round
 the cavity of the  mouth  by  slightly  lowering
 the tongue  and directing the column  of air
 towards the palate.  The sound thus modified
 acquires a certain roundness that renders it
 agreeable and  of great effect, and  facilitates
piano singing of the tones uniting the registers.

             GENERAL  TIMBRES.
    The formation of timbres of  the voice, as
 well as the theory of registers, caused discus-
 sions by the diverse  opinions of physiologists :
 one party sustaining that the clear timbre was
 the natural timbre of the voice,  and that the
 sombre  was produced  by a particular voice
 exacting a special mechanism, others sustaining
 that an indistinct usage could be made  of one
 or the other without the necessity of  a new
 mechanism.
   Such is the opinion of modern  physiologists
 and  in  our opinion  it  is exact,  for without 
                     35
altering  the conditions of the glottis we can
emit  the same tone  with different ti?nbres,
changing only the dimensions of the vocal tube,
as we shall see in the following.
    It has been said that  the  clear timbre is
the natural timbre of the voice, and there will
be no reason for not admitting this opinion if
we remark that it is proper to the first register,
because  it is favored by  the disposition  in
which  all parts of the organ in this register
are found.
    The clear timbre, as an eminent physiologist
remarks, is  more general in  northern than
southern countries, and he believes that lang-
uage can greatly influence this and also the less
musical organization of men of the north.  We
believe the conditions of the climate have a
great deal to do with this  question and have
a direct influence on the gravity  of  the voice,
since the clear timbre belongs to cold countries
in which low voices abound, and the sombre
timbre to warm  countries  producing  high
voices.   At all  events it  is certain that all
voices, however opposed they may be in char-
acter, find the faculty of making indistinct use
of one timbre or the other. 
                     36
    In order to have a just idea of the clear
timbre it suffices to pronounce the  vowel A
(ah) aloud and we shall observe the following
disposition : ist, augmentation of the isthmus
of the throat;  2nd, diminishing of the opening
of the pharynx; 3d, diminishing of the cavity
of the mouth ; 4th, enlargement of the orifice
of the mouth.
    If we wish to  pass from  clear to sombre
timbre while holding the same note, it is suffi-
cient to enlarge the pharynx and cavity of the
mouth as though the orifice of the mouth was
rounded and contracted forming a sort of oval
as in pronouncing the vowel O.  In this dis-
position of the vocal tube  the column of air
that it contains resounds in the cavity of  the
mouth giving  to A a  more obscure  sound,
making  it resemble O.
   Such is the sombre timbre depending only on
a modification of the vocal tube, the characters
of which are reduced to four; ist, decreasing
the isthmus of the  throat;  2nd, enlarging  the
pharynxian canal or openingof thepharynx; 3d,
increasing the vocal cavity; 4th,  diminishing
the orifice of the mouth.  All this tends to aug-
ment the sonority of the column of air givino-
a greater roundness and charm to the sound. 
                     37
   To favor the conditions of timbre, the larynx
ordinarily  undergoes  a  descending  move-
ment although it is not a necessary condition.
The object of  this movement is to lengthen
the vocal tube and  augment  the  quantity of
air that it contains ; all  this added  to the large
opening presented by  the  pharynx exacts a
more energetic expiratory  impulsion.  This
explains the fatigue  experienced  by  always
making use of  the sombre timbre, and it  can
speedily produce complete ruin of the organ.
To obviate part of this difficulty it is necessa-
ry to keep the  larynx in the position it has in
the natural voice, trying not to exaggerate the
sombre timbre in the higher notes,  but to part-
ly employ it when the character of the music
demands it.   The augmentation of the dimen-
sions of the mouth-cavity, and  the low position
occupied by the tongue, principally at its base
forming a canal, explains the difficulty experi-
enced  in pronouncing certain  syllables, as we
have already said, especially in  the upper tones
of the  second  register, above  all when  the
vowels A and E enter into their composition.
In this case Ah takes somewhat the sound of
O, the  A  of Ah, E  of U, (French) and  the
consonants are less accented from which results 
                     38
a confused and defective pronunciation princi-
pally in words containing TV that singers badly
taught change  to R to facilitate the emission.
For this  reason we have amarti or amanati
instead of amanti, and tarto or tanato instead
of tan to.
 -■ Correct pronunciation is an essential con-
dition in  a singer, and this is another reason
why exaggeration of the sombre timbre should
be avoided.
   To unite all means to produce a bel ensem-
ble is the principal and most difficult work of
the singer. 
39
CHAPTER IV.
        INTENSITY  OF  SOUNDS.
THEORIES ON  INTENSITY.—CAUSES ON  WHICH IT DE-
  PENDS.--THE WAY TO SWELL A TONE.--VOLUME.--
    CAUSES ON  WHICH IT DEPENDS.—HOW TO IN-.
       CREASE THE VOLUME OF THE  VOICE.

    The  question taken up  in  the  present
chapter is the most  important  point  in the
education of the voice, and the great obstacle
that singers must overcome in order to attain
perfection in their art.   It exacts great precau-
tion on the part of the professor, and no less
prudence on the part of the pupil, on account
of the numerous difficulties it presents,  and
the great confusion it can produce in the vocal
organ.
    The  mechanism  on  which  intensity  of
sounds is based is extremely simple, and it is
perhaps on account of  this same  simplicity
that so much perplexity arises ; for this reason 
                     40
we blame the teachers—when  we speak of
errors that exist  in  teaching singing—who,
without  the necessary knowledge of the art
they  profess,  commence education by having
the pupil swell the tone without having first
posed his voice in the normal conditions of
phonation; for in order to purely diminish a
sound, it is necessary to first reach the summit
of perfection  and facility in the  use of  the
general mechanism.
   Several theories have been invented to ex-
plain  this vocal phenomenon, placing the ques-
tion in different ways, as could not  be  avoided
when  each one was obliged to present a theory
on the intensity of sounds that was en rapport
with the one he invented to explain the mech-
anism of  the voice; but all these theories  are
in reality reduced to  one system, although
differently interpreted by those  who  favored
the theory of languets, and those who defended
the theory having for  principle the vibrations
of air. Among the first we find  Miiller as the
representative, and among the latter Dodar,
and Longet whose system of compensation is
somewhat unlike that  invented by Dodar.
   Muller, not considering the  phenomena
observed in languet instruments,  in which low 
                     41
tones can be produced by very strong impulsion
and high tones with a less energetic impulsion,
invented his system of  compensation, neglect-
ing other peculiarities  that  ought not to be
slighted, and which the celebrated physiologist
probably did not ignore.
    To-day ther6 are instruments constructed
with metallic tongues by which the forte and
piano are produced without in the least altering
the sound, and even those with rubber  blades
have been so perfected that  the sound hardly
varies from the fifth to the sixth part of a tone
in passing horn piano to fortissimo.
    The progress of industry, then, has entirely
overturned the complicated system of compen-
sation.
    Besides, when Muller made his experiments
with the larynx of a corpse and observed that
sound ascended or descended according as the
impulsion of air  was more or less  energetic,
(because the bands extended more or less) he
did not consider the influence of lifeon themem-
braneous tissues nor the principle which says:
" that intensity  of sounds in bodies rigid by ten-
sion, increases or diminishes according as the ten-
sion is more or less strong," independent of the
energy of the moving agent of the vibrations. 
                     42
   According to this principle, the height of
the sound produced by the vocal bands depends
upon  the increase of tension, and  the tone
descends as  the tension decreases,  which is
contrary to the theory of  Muller, who pretends
that in order to produce a. forte with the same
elevation of sound the tension ought to diminish
in a greater proportion than the pressure of air
increases.
   This system of compensation, as we have
just seen, is  contrary to  the  laws  of physics,
for every one knows that  a guitar  or violin
string, or cord of a piano produces a sound as
much higher as the tension is strong and  vice
versa.
   Dodar, the celebrated physician  of Louis
XIV, otherwise explained the formation of
tones, and made the intensity of sounds  depend
on the  degree of the opening of  the  glottis.
   This is an error, for it has been  demon-
strated  that the glottis can  produce different
tones with the same opening by simply changing
the tension of the vocal  bands.  He explains
the forte and piano  of  each  tone by saying
that  the  glottis enlarges  to  let  more air
escape,  and closes that less may escape; that
it enlarges  as much as  is necessary  for the 
                     43
degree  of  force that  one wishes to give, and
that it closes as much as is necessary to pass
from forte to piano without altering the tone,
and that the quantity of air is of but little im-
portance provided it has the required velocity.
   The explanation is truly ingenious, and that
it may  lack nothing, he considers the trans-
versal diameter of the glottis divided into 9632
parts : but as it is demonstrated that the mouth
of a tube cannot enlarge or diminish without
variation of  tone, Dodar's  system falls by its
base, as well as  Longet's, who also explains
the foundation of tones by the degree of the
opening of the glottis and  the rapidity of air,
by supposing that the opening of the glottis can
vary sufficiently between each  tone to produce
the forte and piano without altering the tone.
   If this was true, we should have as a result
that the glottis of a bass could produce a greater
number of tones than that of a soprano, as it
is longer; but it is the contrary.
   All theories and systems (ingenious though
they may be) invented to explain the phenom-
enon of which  we speak, will necessarily end
in error if they have not  for  their  base the
fixed principles  of acoustics  agreeing with
anatomy and vocal physiology. 
                     44
    If we take for a base the principle demon-
strated by science which says ; that " the inten-
sity of sounds depends on the qitantity of matter
put in motion, and ^lpon the energy with which
the sonorous vibrations strike the ear" and,
if besides, we consider the  impossibility  of
changing the mouth of an instrument, or the
tension of a cord without altering the sound,
notwithstanding  the energy of the agent pro-
ducing the vibrations, we shall see that to emit
the same tone forte or piano, the  tension  of
the vocal bands and  the opening of the glottis
ought always to be the  same.   The impulsion
of air only varies, if  it is feeble it will produce
a feeble  vibration of the bands, and  a piano
tone will be the result, if on the  contrary it is
strong, the vocal bands will vibrate with energy
and produce a strong tone.   Consequently, we
are bound to say:  that the  intensity of the
sounds of the voice depends upon the energy with
which air is sent out across  the glottis, and on
the tension  of the vocal  membrane  made  to
vibrate.
    The  muscular powers mark the degree  of
the tensions of the bands, proper to  each  tone :
this added to the influence that life exerts on
them, prevents the increase of tension under 
                     45
a strong impulsion of air as happens to rubber
blade instruments which have served to experi-
ment with.
    When we began our studies on the  physi-
ology  of the voice,  we were misled by  an
observation—without doubt not very conscien-
tious—that made us for some time a  partisan
of the ideas of Longet, and  to prevent any
one who may have  the  curiosity to repeat
our  observations from experiencing the same
doubts, we will  not pass in silence a fact that
can  give rise to confusion  and doubt if the
observation is not carefully made.
    Our error began, when at  the  commence-
ment of  a swell we  observed a small opening
in the centre  of  the vocal bands, that enlarged
as the sound increased in force.   This  made
us believe that contrary to all laws  of physics,
and  by one of those mysterious phenomena
of life that science has not penetrated, Longet's
system  of compensation  was exact,  as the
laryngoscope seemed to  demonstrate.  The
confusion of our ideas became  still greater,
when it showed us that during the emission  of
tones in  the  third register the contrary phe-
nomenon was observed.   That is to say, that
in the forte the transversal  opening  of the 
                     46
glottis was  small, and that it enlarged in pro-
portion as the sound diminished.   However,
it  is very easy to explain  this phenomenon
which is not in any way opposed to the physical
theory we have just spoken  of.
    In the first case, the impulsion of  air is not
sufficient to  separate the vocal bands their en-
tire length, and make them  vibrate when sep-
arated, and it is only the  centre that obeys the
feeble impulsion of air, but if they are regard-
ed attentively with a magnifying glass,  it will
be seen that they vibrate their entire length,
although it is imperceptible  to the naked eye.
If the  energy of the impulsion of  air is  in-
creased, they  will acquire sufficient force to
separate the bands their entire length without
increasing their tension,  consequently  as the
number of molecules put in motion  is  always
the same, the sounds will not change.
   In the second case, as the vocal bands are
naturally separated, and an energetic  impul-
sion of air  cannot take place without  some
resistance at the orifice  in  passing  out, it  is
evident that  they ought to approach each other
to allow the air to strike them with the  force
necessary to produce an intense sound, and
that they will separate to allowr a certain quan- 
                     47
tity of air to escape without striking them, and
thus weaken the impulsion until it is lowered
to the degree necessary to produce weak tones.
   The  anatomical dispositions of the upper
register exact this special modification in the
transversal  diameter  of the glottis:  which,
like the preceding case,  does not in the least
alter the tension of  the  vocal bands.  This  is
the explanation of the phenomenon that could
give rise to doubts in a person not attentively
observing.
   The  intensity of tones  comprised  in the
first or natural register, can easily increase or
diminish, even in  voices that are not educated,
for the disposition of the glottis in this register
makes it easily obey the greatest or least pres-
sure of air to produce the desired effect.
   The result of  all we have said then is, that
the intensity of the sounds of the voice de-
pends on three inseparable circumstances, viz :
upon the energy with which air is sent across
the glottis, upon the greater or less resistance
that the lips of the glottis oppose  to the passage
of air, and lastly, upon the tension of the vibrat-
27ig membrane.
   These three circumstances explain why it
is easier  to increase sounds than to diminish 
                    48
them, when we swell the upper tones of the
natural  register  or those already  above this
register; for the  increasing impulsion of ex-
piration favors vibrations, while  diminishing
is prejudicial, consequently it  is necessary to
lessen  the expiratory force very  slowly and
always in the same degree, in order that the
lips of the glottis do not  cease to vibrate their
entire length, otherwise the sound vaccilates,
and the moment  arrives  when  it  ceases alto-
gether and air  continues to  escape without
causing vibration.
   As we  have  seen, the mechanism used to
swell  a tone could not  be more  simple.  It
offers, however, an immense difficulty in prac-
tice, and its cause we have not seen explained
in any singing method nor in any physiological
treatise.   The principal professors of Europe,
and the few singers who can swell a tone of
whom we have demanded an explanation, have
not satisfied us either; but our constant ob-
servation and proper experience,  have led us
to discover  that the stumbling block consists
of the difficulty in regulating the action of the
diaphragm during expiration, to facilitate the
separation of the vocal bands that takes place
during the  diminuendo of the sound file", by 
                     49
combining the two actions with the direction
given to the column of air exhaled to produce
the resonance  in  the proper  place.    This
operation is  difficult to execute,  and exacts
great care not to change  the  nature of the
conditions of the  sound, until all the means
are combined and one can  pass from forte to
piano without a brusque transition.
    We believe we should say that the separa-
tion of the vocal bands does not alter the tone,
since they always retain the same  degree of
tension, the  object of their  separation being
to diminish the resistance they oppose to the
escape of air, all of which  results in the pro-
duction of a tone of little intensity.
    It is a general fault among  beginners and
artists who do not know how to swell a tone,
to strongly contract the muscles of the larynx
and abdomen to insensibly lessen the sound ;
and if it is true that they succeed, it is at the
sacrifice of the beauty and duration of the
tone ;  it is forced, does not produce the  desir-
ed effect, and  causes great fatigue, while on
the  contrary the duration  of  a  piano tone
should serve as a repose for the singer.  This
repose  is not  obtained  suddenly without a
brusque change, and  this, as we have  already 
                     50
said,  destroys the effect and homogenity of
the tones file's. ■
    In order then to avoid this brusque transi-
tion, we must commence the tone as piano as
possible, increase it slowly and insensibly, and
decrease it in the same way before  attaining
the last degree of force, ceasing the tone when
it is seen that a change will take place, or by
sustaining it as long as possible in this degree
of intensity without effort.
    The duration of expiration will  be short
at the commencement, but it will increase little
by  little until the highest degree is attained ;
and until  then it is necessary to avoid effort
on the part of the pupil to sustain the tone a
longer time,  and effort reveals  itself  by the
color of the  face and  the  sanguine  injection
of the eyes  and veins  of the neck.   Such
efforts oppose the results sought, and can pro-
duce grave consequences in the organ, such as
congestion of the vocal membrane which will
lead to aphony.
    This exercise  is simple of itself,  but diffi-
cult and dangerous to execute ; for this reason
it exacts prudence and ability on the part of
the teacher, and patience and perseverance on
the part of the pupil, as has been said, for it 
51
is  not possible to accomplish in  an hour the
work of long  days without being exposed to
the loss of all.
            VOLUME OF SOUNDS.

    There is but little to say on the volume of
the voice in relation to education, but as volume
is  often confounded with intensity, it seems to
us  opportune to signal the difference existing
between  the two.
    Volume of sound  is—so to  speak—inde-
pendent  of its intensity, for although this de-
pends above all on the energy of the moving
agent of the vibrations, and the resistance of
the vibrating body, volume has for first  cause
the  force of  impulsion  and the  quantity of
matter set in motion.
    If, for instance, the force of impulsion is
strong, and the resistance weak, we shall have
an intense sound without volume.  If the force
of  impulsion is strong and a small quantity of
matter is made to vibrate, the sound will again
be intense but without volume.   If,  on the
contrary, the impulsion is weak and there is a
great quantity of  vibrating matter, the sound
will have volume and little  intensity from all
of  which we  see, that volume of sound de- 
                     52
pends above all on the force of impulsion, and
the quantity of molecules put in motion.
   This is for sonorous bodies in general, but
the vocal  organ possesses the  faculty of in-
creasing or diminishing the volume of sounds
without changing the quantity of vibrating
matter, by enlarging only the  vocal  tube so
that the column of air here contained resounds
in the cavity of the mouth, as happens  when
one sings  with the sombre timbre. 
53
CHAPTER V.
    THE VOICE ACCORDING TO SEX.
THE DIFFERENCES EXISTING  BETWEEN VOICES OF  THE
  TWO SEXES, AND CAUSES  WHICH PRODUCE THEM.
   We said, in the second chapter, that man
and woman employ the same process in emit-
ing sounds.
   There exists, however, a great difference
in the two voices, depending  principally upon
the dimensions of the organ, which also ren-
ders different the  conditions of timbre, inten-
sity, volume and compass.   Both  possess the
same registers,  but  while  man   makes  use
principally of the first or natural—and  the
most  beautiful—woman can only  make use of
it to emit a small number of tones, although
her larynx possesses the conditions exacted by
this register.
   This phenomenon—having  no importance
whatever for the greater number of professors 
                     54
 by whom it is unperceived—cannot escape the
 attention of an observing man, and  exacts an
 explanation.
    We have  seen,  while  occupied with  the
 registers, that the  physiological conditions
 characterizing the natural  register are repre-
 sented  by  the  simultaneous tension of  the
 vocal bands in their length and thickness, and
 by the progressive closing of the glottis from
 the back forward.  We know, besides, that the
 fullness and volume of sounds depend princi-
 pally on the longitudinal dimensions of  the
 glottis.   If we consider, then, that the glottis
 of woman is from the eight to ten-thousandth
 part of a metre smaller than that of man, and
 that to  fulfill  the  second  condition  of  the
 register she is obliged to diminish in  length,
 we shall have for result  that the dimensions
 will be so much diminished  that they become
 insufficient to produce  sounds in the condi-
 tions belonging  to  the   natural  register,
 besides, the  antagonism  of  the  two tensions
 in length and  thickness exacts a stronger im-
pulse than is permitted by the constitution of
the feminine larynx.
    The anatomical disposition and  constitu-
tion of the  feminine larynx favor the longi- 
                     55
tudinal tension of the bands, and as the voice
in the third register is produced by  tension
exclusively  in  a longitudinal  sense, this ex-
plains the greatest  facility for execution and
change  of  timbre in  this  register;   for  the
longitudinal tension provokes obliquity of the
bands, and obliquity  in  its turn,  change of
timbre.   During the emission of tones in the
natural register, for instance, the bands vibrate
perpendicularly to the axis of the trachea, and
these vibrations  communicate themselves  to
the column of air contained in  the trachea,
but at the moment the  change takes  place
vibrations are produced  on a plan oblique to
the axis, and the sound then resounds in the
vocal tube only, that  is to  say  in the  space
comprised between the glottis and lips.
   This  difference  of timbre  has led  many
professors to believe that woman passes direct-
ly from the first to the third register, which is
not so.   Woman sings in the second register,
and in the same way that man does, although
there is but little difference in the two regis-
ters, for the disposition  of the vocal tube and
the place of resonance are almost the  same in
one register as in the other. 
                     56
    The facility that the feminine larynx pos-
 sesses of practicing the  longitudinal tension
 to the most extreme limits, gives it the power
 of augmenting the number of  upper tones as
 high as E and F above the G clef.
    The differance of timbre in the two  sexes
 depends on  the quantity and quality  of the
 elements constituting the vocal bands.
    The muscular mass is less  in  the feminine
 sex, the vocal membrane thinner and  more
 transparent,  the mucous  more  delicate, and
 the consistency  and dimensions  of the  parts
 constituting the vocal tube are also  different.
 Thus,  then,  if we remember  what we have
 said elsewhere  on the  subject of timbre, it
 will be easy to understand this difference, for if
 the nature and form of the instrument change,
 the timbre—that is to say the number of har-
 monics—will also change.
   There is less intensity and  volume in the
 voice of woman, for these two qualities of
 sound depend upon the  energy of the  vibra-
 tions and upon the quantity of matter put in
 motion, and as with her the muscles producino-
 the impulsion of air are more  feeble and the
vocal bands  smaller,  it  is evident that they 
                     57
ought to produce a sound less  intense and of
Jess volume.
   The pitch and compass of the voice differ
also   in  the two sexes.   Woman sings an
octave higher than  man, that  is to say that
while A in the  second space of the G clef
produces in a tenor  870 vibrations  according
to French  pitch, the same tone in a  soprano
produces double or 1740, although the differ-
ence in the size of the two larynx is hardly a
fourth part, but as  the vocal  membrane  of
woman is thinner than  that  of man,  for this
reason she can produce  higher tones.
   There is less difference in the compass;  if
man  can  easily  produce more low tones,
woman on  her side can  augment the compass
of the vocal scale and execute difficult pas-
sages on the highest tones, for without doubt
the smaller the instrument the greater facility
it offers for the execution of different move-
ments necessary for the  production of elevated
tones.
   The difference existing in  the voices of the
two sexes depends principally, as we have seen,
on the dimensions of the vocal instrument.
   The voice of woman, considered from the
standpoint  of  art,  offers fewer advantages 
                    58
than that of man on account if its possessing
fewer variations of timbre adaptable to all the
passions, that will express them with the truth
that art exacts.
    In  another sense "woman," says Gerdy,
" has  a weaker voice than man :  the timbre
is sweeter,  more harmonious and suave ; it is
a charm given her by nature to move us, soften
us, bewitch us,  vanquish and subdue us.   It
seems that  the fibres of our hearts are always
in unison with it." 
59
CHAPTER VI.
THE VOICE IN ITS DIFFERENT STAGES.
THE VOICE DURING INFANCY.--THE VOICE DURING PU-
   BERTY OR CHANGE  OF  VOICE.--ITS MANIFEST-
     ATIONS,  CAUSES, AND PRECAUTIONS  THAT
      SHOULD BE TAKEN.--PHENOMENA.--VOICE
       OF ADULTS.--DECADENCE OF THE VOICE.

   The means possessed to day for the study
of natures phenomena open a wide field to the
student and observer, and permit him to pen-
etrate even  the most  fathomless mysteries.
It is not many years ago that the mechanism
of the voice seemed to some an impenetrable
mystery;  but  the discovery of  the  laryngo-
scope has lent its aid to science and explained
the mystery in an entirely satisfactory manner.
It is, then, to  the laryngoscope that  we  owe
the explanation  of the  phenomena of   the
voice.
   The disagreeable cry of an infant, as soon
as it opens its  eyes  to light, is the expression 
                     60
of a sentiment, a need  that the maternal ins-
tinct readily comprehends.  The constitution
of the vocal  organs does not yet permit it to
make its wants known  in any other way, as
the organs do not yet possess any of the con-
ditions  necessary for the production of the
voice,  but in  proportion as it enters into
relations with exterior life, its organs develope
and  acquire  the conditions proper to phona-
tion.
  Until the age of puberty—which varies with
the climate, the constitution of the individual
and  his  manner  of living—there  exists but
little difference in the voices of the two sexes,
but when this moment arrives, a great revolu-
tion  takes  place in  the  organization,  and the
differences become  noticeable.   The  voice of
the boy  begins to  take the character of the
voice of a man, and that of the tender young
girl the character of the voice of a woman.

             CHANGE OF VOICE.
   Change of  voice—the supreme  moment
that the great revolution which  completely
transforms life  physical  and  moral—takes
place sooner  in woman than in man, and in
warm countries sooner than in cold regions. 
                     61
   In the former it takes  place at the age of
eight or ten years, in the latter about the
fifteenth year, and in temperate  climates at
an intermediate age.
   Without further considering the modifica-
tions that certain  organs so closely connect-
ed with those  of  the  voice undergo, we will
simply  say that the signs of  puberty reflect
themselves in a more pronounced  manner on
the  moral side of woman than  man.  The
little innocent girl, whose childish joys did not
before permit her to think of other things than
her toys, the  greatest charm of which was to
make a noise and to be always in motion, now
hides herself in solitude sad and dejected, to
secretly indulge in the dreams and fancies that
interior  sensations hitherto unknown  to her
have awakened in  her imagination.
   The modifications are less sensible in her
voice than in a masculine voice, and sometimes
imperceptible, especially if she is not studying
singing and does not use  her voice too much
in speaking.  The diapason of the voice lowers
from one to two tones, and acquires more force
and vigor.
   The change is always anticipated in woman
notwithstanding the conditions of the climate 
                     62
in which she lives, and among the middle class
it sometimes takes place earlier than among
the poor, which,  according  to Hippocrates,
is on account of the manner of living.  " The
theatre, balls, and reading novels," says Doctor
Fournie, "are also causes, which, by exalting
the sensibilities, provoke precipitancy  in  the
movements of nature."
   With man  the change is less difficult than
with woman, it takes place in a less sensible
manner, but the  modifications undergone by
the voice are  more perceptible, especially in
the timbre and diapason.
   These alterations are caused by the organic
modifications  that the vocal bands and their
moving agents undergo.  The vocal membrane
which was before thin, elastic and transparent,
acquires more consistency, and we now see it
less diaphanous, less elastic and thicker, which
necessarily affects the state of the voice.  This
modification of the integrant parts  of the vocal
organ  is ordinarily accompanied by consider-
able inflammation, in which case  the voice
becomes completely extinct until  the physiol-
ogical  work is ended, when it reappears  with
characters more or less good according to the
degree of perfection that the organ has acquired. 
                     63
    The modifications experienced by the mov-
ing agents  of  the vocal bands in their form
and dimensions are not less considerable ;  for
during the  period of the change all the con-
stituent parts of the larynx acquire double  the
dimensions  they had before.   This augmenta-
tion perfectly explains the modification under-
gone by the timbre and diapason, the latter in
man descending  an octave.   When children
do  not sing, the transition is sometimes less
sensible, but if  on the contrary they do sing, it
often takes exaggerated proportions ; the voice
becomes hoarse and also uneven, until it pro-
duces a high instead of a low  tone and vice
versa;  at other times one wishes to sustain a
tone that has been well taken  when suddenly
it jumps a  third or fifth  higher or lower, at
other times  still it produces complete aphony.
    The period of the  change  can  continue,
according to some physiologists,  from  six
months to three years.  During this time it is
much better to suspend all vocal studies,  at
least during  the first year and the rest of the
time continue them with great precaution,  for
the physiological  work that is  operating in the
larynx can occasion throat difficulties and some-
times complete loss of voice.  This may hap- 
                     64
pen even when one does not practice singing,
and on the contrary it sometimes happens that
some individuals find themselves possessors of
beautiful voices after puberty, who before had
not the slightest indication.
    The phenomena that take place during the
change do not always follow in the same order,
we see them under different forms, sometimes
the voice becomes veiled, at other times hoarse,
etc., etc., and it  does not acquire stable, sono-
rous conditions  until the development of the
larynx is entirely completed, and  this takes
place at seventeen or eighteen years  of age in
woman, and from eighteen to twenty in  man.
    We would willingly give here the curious
opinions of several physiologists as to the
causes of the change and the care that should
be taken by young people during this period,
but we are prevented by the fear of causing
prejudice while seeking to avoid it, not know-
ing into whose hands our book may fall.

           THE  VOICE OF ADULTS.
    When once the first period of the change of
voice is passed, all the parts constituting the
vocal organ continue to develope slowly, and
the voice little by little acquires force and com- 
                     65
pass to the age of twenty-three years in woman,
and twenty-five in man, a time when physiolog-
ical work ceases altogether.   It is then that
the pupil makes the most  of  his voice, for the
organ being in the fullness of its faculties more
easily obeys the will andconsequently executes
with more precision.  It is not until the ages
respectively indicated that ossification of the
cartilages of  the  larynx commences.  This
operation has sufficient  duration to allow the
pupil to possess the theoretical and practical
knowledge exacted by the art of singing.  This
destroys the  general belief existing among
ignorant professors that it is impossible for a
young man to become  a  singer, who  has not
exercised his voice before he attained  twenty-
five years of age, because the  rigidity of the
organs will not permit it.
   The ages of twenty-three in woman and
twenty-five  in man are  certainly not the best
to commence vocal study, but neither do they
offer all the difficulties believed in the educa-
tion of the organ if it is done with intelligence,
for the voice at this age has the advantage of
not being exposed to  other modifications than
those imposed by study 
                     66
    Voices whose education  was begun after
the entire development of the organ, are more
solid and last longer, for they can be preserved
to an advanced age if  they have  been well
educated.
    A  man's voice  lasts longer  because his
nature  does not undergo the  alterations  to
which woman is subject, but it is impossible
to determine the period  of its  existence, as it
varies according to the vigor of the person
and his mode of life.   The abuse  of tobacco,
spirituous liquors  and other abuses that  en-
feeble certain organs so intimately  related to
those of the voice,  are also causes that power-
fully contribute to the extinction of the vocal
faculties.   The  first symptoms of decadence
are the extinction of the mezza-voce,  the  trem-
bling of high tones, and difficulty in  produc-
ing the upper  tones of the natural  register
(called  chest.)  The  disappearance  of  the
mezza voce is the result  of loss  of the trans-
parency of  the  vocal  membrane,  it becomes
thicker and attaches itself to the contiguous
ligaments from which  it cannot detach  itself
but by a great impulsion of air;  the  trembling
of the high tones results from lack of energy
in the contracting  muscles  to  maintain  the 
                     G7
necessary rigidity in  the  vocal bands, and
finally, difficulty in producing the upper tones
of the natural register is caused by the fact of
the muscles having become too weak to make
the effort necessary to produce these tones.
   These symptoms,  that appear slowly and
progressively  in  man,  present themselves
sometimes  suddenly   in  woman,   revealing
themselves by  a hoarseness  that lowers  the
diapason of the voice  and alters the qualities
of timbre.
  ■ Man preserves certain faculties longer and
loses  them  slowly while they  disappear sud-
denly in  woman and at a less advanced age.
The suppression at a  certain  age of a certain
phenomenon in woman produces an organic
modification  in  the larynx, it becomes con-
gested, the mucous that  recovers  it  is of a
reddish color, the circulation more active, and
the mucous  secretions more  abundant,  the
cartilages acquire more consistency,  the vocal
membrane is thicker and loses its diaphanous
quality.  All these symptoms explain the sud-
den change in the feminine voice. 
68
CHAPTER VII.
      CLASSIFICATION  OF  VOICES.
BASS.— BARITONE.— TENOR.--CONTRALTO.--MEZZO-SO-
  PRANO.—SOPRANO.--INTERMEDIATE VOICES.--WHAT
    SHOULD BE THE BASIS OF A GOOD CLASSIFICA-
      TION.— CONSEQUENCES OF AN ERROR IN
       CLASSIFYING  A VOICE.--INDICATIONS
        BY WHICH THEY MAY BE RECOGNIZED.
    If the classification of voices according to
the individual is of great importance to art in
general,  it is  not less so  in the education of
voices.   But in order that the classification
may respond to the needs of art, it should be
based on the qualities by which  sounds are
distinguished, and  which are,  the  compass,
timbre, intensity and volume.   If the compass
only  is considered  in  the classification, it is
evident that there will be serious  errors com-
mitted, for it frequently happens that we notice
in uncultivated voices, and even in voices bad-
ly educated, baritones with the compass of a 
                     69
tenor,  and tenors finding difficulty in singing
higher than a baritone.   This exceptional cir-
cumstance is not sufficient to qualify the first
a tenor and the second a baritone.   The same
note in both differs  in timbre, volume and in-
tensity :  if for example we take E fourth space
G clef-—a tone  belonging to both  voices—we
shall find  that the tenor easily emits  it with
good quality of  timbre, as intense  and with as
much volume as  is permitted  by the vocal
membrane set  in  motion  without effort, for
the glottis preserves almost its  entire length.
The baritone produces the same  tone,  but  it
is necessary for him to make a great effort, for
his vocal  bands being  longer  must have  a
stronger tension, and this greater  tension will
necessarily modify, as we have already said,
the qualities of  timbre, intensity and volume
which  cannot be the same as  in the  tenor.
The same difference will be found by compar-
ing the contralto with the soprano.   In view
then of the conditions of the compass, timbre,
intensity and volume, we divide the voice into
six classes, three for each sex, viz : bass, bari-
tone, and  tenor, belonging to the masculine
sex ; contralto,  mezzo-soprano  and soprano,
belonging to the feminine. 
                     70
   The bass voice is the lowest, and its sonor-
ous qualities  depend upon  the considerable
thickness  of  the vocal membrane,  the great
length of the vocal bands, and the resonnance
of sounds in trachea.  The first and  second
conditions alone suffice to produce low sounds,
and thus  influence, as we  know, timbre and
intensity.  As to the resonnance in the trachea,
we have already said that it takes place while
the vocal bands vibrate on a plane perpendi-
cular to the axis of  the trachea, and also that
the excessive tension of the bands give them
an oblique direction from the front backward,
and, as the length of the vocal bands in a bass
is sufficient to run the full  compass  of the
voice by combining the  two tensions in the
sense of length and  thickness, besides the clos-
ing of the glottis at the back without  hardly
rendering the obliquity of the bands percept-
ible, we find why sounds resound in the trachea.
This also explains why it is so difficult for them
to pass to the second register.  Those who
become able to make use of this register extend
their voices to F.
    The baritone voice is distinguished  from
the preceding by its higher diapason, its timbre
and less volume and intensity, for the vocal 
                     71
bands of a baritone are shorter  and the vocal
membrane thinner.
    The same note given by the bass and bar-
itone will  have less volume in the latter, be-
cause  the bands are shorter  and thinner, and
should be more extended ; and this tension
diminishes the resistance that the passage of
air should  meet.   Thus,  then,  as  we have
seen that the volume of  a sound depends upon
the resistance that air finds in passing out and
the  energy of  impulsion  in  relation  to  the
quantity of matter set  in  motion,  the result
will  be that  the  note  given by a baritone
should have less volume than the bass.
   The upper tones  of the natural register
are easier and more intense in  the  baritone,
because the circumstances that we have just in-
dicated are favorable  in a  baritone to a more
facile production of these.tones.
   All that we  have  said  when comparing a
baritone with  a bass can be applied to a tenor
compared with a baritone.
   The larynx of a tenor is smaller, the glottis
shorter, the vocal bands thinner, and the vocal
membrane thinner and more transparent, which
explains the possibility of producing higher
sounds and at the  same time of  less  volume. 
                     72
    The  longitudinal difference  existing be-
tween the vocal bands of  a bass and those of
a tenor, explains why the tenor finds greater
ease in the  passage of the registers, and why
there is but very little difference  in  the  qual-
ities of timbre'of the three registers.
    The contralto  voice is the lowest of the
feminine sex, for contralti possess a larynx of
more volume, their vocal bands are longer, and
the vocal membrane somewhat thicker.  Their
organ is more visible from the exterior than
in the soprano  on account of the predomin-
ance of the antero-posterior dimensions  of the
thyroid cartilage,  the sides of which project
at a very pronounced angle.   The vestibule of
the glottis is also more prolonged.
    What we have said on the subject of the
change of registers  in a bass can be applied
to the contralto, for this reason so much dif-
ficulty is found  in passing from the first to the
second register,  and the timbre is so different.
    The intermediate voice between the con-
tralto and soprano is the mezzo-soprano, higher
than the first and lower than the second.  It
corresponds to the baritone voice in man.
    The soprano marks the limit of the vocal
scale in the upper tones  on  account  of the
smallness of the larynx. 
                     73
   The sides  of the thyroid cartilage of the
soprano form an angle sufficiently obtuse, the
vestibule of the glottis has a rounded form,
the vocal bands are very short, and the vocal
membrane  very thin,  of great  transparency
and very elastic.  The compass'of the soprano
is  generally the same as the tenor, although
she sings an  octave higher for we have seen
that a soprano tone produces double the num-
ber of vibrations that the same tone given by
a  tenor produces.  The  condition of  her
organ, so favorable to the production of  high
tones, permits some soprano to extend their
voices  a third  or a  fourth  higher than the
tenor, but  generally she runs the two octaves
of do.
   Besides the voices that we have classified,
there are intermediate voices that take differ-
ent names  according as they partake more or
less of the  principal voice.  Thus, there is the
basso cantante, between the bass  and baritone,
that is to  say, a voice higher than the first
and lower  than  the second.  For this reason
we hear of mezzo-contralto or contralto-mezzo-
soprano according as the voice partakes more
of the contralto or soprano.  There is also
between the baritone and tenor a voice called 
                     74
to day high baritone, and it is the same as the
ancient tenor basso.
   Art cannot  strictly  admit this  denomina-
tion of voices that in reality signifies nothing,
and as  the difference  separating them from
the principal voice  is  so  slight, and  one by
study can easily acquire one or two high or low
tones, and  as the  extreme  notes are  seldom
executed in singing, we believe the professor
should try  to perfectly  characterize the inter-
mediate voices by  making  them  enter into
the general classification ;  and to  do  this he
should extend the scale towards the lower or
higher  sounds  according to the leaning and
adaptability of  each voice.
   The classification of voices in  an unculti-
vated state presents some  difficulties, and the
professor who  acts lightly  in  this  matter
exposes himself to the commission of grave
errors.  There are those who believe entirely
the contrary, and  who  even dare to pretend
that  it  suffices to simply  examine the  parts
constituting the vocal organ, to decide whether
an individual possesses  a voice in such or such
conditions.   Such a belief cannot be seriously
entertained, and reveals a stupid charlatanism
on the part of the proclaimed 
                     75
    But let us put these digressions aside and
return to the principal subject.
    We said that the classification of voices in
an uncultivated state is very  difficult.  It is
true, for the numerous  faults that they ordi-
narily  possess can  easily  deceive  the  inex-
perienced  master, and   for  this reason it is
necessary to observe carefully the pupil, if  the
characters that distinguish  each voice accord-
ing to  the  class to which it belongs, are  not
sufficiently  manifest, as to  leave no possible
doubt.  "While  there  are  men effeminate in
their physiognomy or their manners but who
in reality  are not," says Senor Antonio Cor-
dero in his Escuela completa de canto "there
are also voices that are thin and too white, that
in reality are  not, because  the conditions do
not always  proceed  from natural sound,  but
from  a wrong emission, and in  this case  the
true sound,  which  is  ordinarily strong  and
manly, often remains hidden."

   " Virgin voices are sometimes heard of great
compass,  and from  this fact  only they  are
given  names  that  their quality rejects,  and
mistakes are also made   in a contrary sense if
they have small compass.   I would say then, 
                     76
that when  a voice is tried,  the following
should  decide the professor in classifying it :
the kind of sound, his particular physiognomy
and special  character" or as we have said he
should  consider  the  diapason,  volume  and
intensity, three conditions by  which we  dis-
tinguish one sound from another.
    'An uncultivated bass voice" continues the
intelligent professor, " can belong to this class
though he easily attacks upper G and can only
go to B natural second line of the F clef.  A
baritone will not  cease to be a baritone if he
easily sings B flat of the tenor and even lower
G of the bass, and a tenor can give but high G
without being for that  reason a baritone, etc."
    " The errors committed by professors de-
ceived by the  special  compass,  either  too
great or  too small, of uncultivated voices,
have produced very  grave  consequences with
those who have a passion  for the excercise of
singing, and have  prevented some from follow-
ing a career that  could  have gained, perhaps,
both fame and  fortune, and who would have
honored their country and their director."
   The gift  of  divining,  so to  speak,  the
excellencies  that  a voice  can hide under so
great a number  of faults  that it does  not 
77
 appear serviceable,  does not belong to every
 one.
    The celebrated contralto  and professor of
 singing Eugenia  Garcia owed the discovery
 of  her voice  to the intelligence of our  res-
 pected friend  and  eminent  critic  M. de  la
 Madelaine, who having heard her sing with a
 little sympathetic  soprano voice, and divining
 a  treasure  under such  slight  faculties  pre-
 sented her to  Manuel  Garcia, who in  few
 lessons transformed  her to a contralto,  and
 rendered  her one of the most distinguished
 singers of our time.
    In our professional practice we have often
 had similar  transformations.  They are  not
 miracles, for as soon  as  the voice commences
 to enter the normal conditions of phonation,
 it clearly shows to which  class it belongs,  and
 the professor must be very ignorant not to see
 that which is as clear as  light.
    A thousand similar examples could be cited,
 but it seems to us  useless, and we will end  this
 chapter by giving a simple sketch of certain
 signs that can guide in the classification of
 uneducated voices.
    That of a soprano shows some flexibility,
and some  disposition for execution, and its 
                     78
force  is principally in the upper tones which
are given without great effort.
   A  mezzo-soprano voice appears sometimes
rigid, the lower tones sufficiently full, and there
is  difficulty  in the  upper tones, but little ex-
ecution, sufficient force in the  medium tones
and a certain dramatic character.
   The contralto, with rare exceptions, has not
much facility in the  upper  tones, which are
generally of a character  and quality different
from  the  rest of the voice,  while  the  lower
tones are facile, round and of a male timbre;
it  rarely reveals a tendency to execute.
   The tenor shows facility in the tones F and
G, and he attacks them with force  and  ease,
but the lower tones C and D are very feeble.
   It is sometimes  very difficult to recognize
baritones for it is very easy to confound  them
with tenors if they are high, and with bassos if
they are low.   They are distinguished  how-
ever from the tenor by their great ease in tak-
ing the low tones which have more volume,
and they show difficulty in  continuing  to as-
cend higher than upper E.  The force of their
voice  rests principally in the tones from low C
to upper E which have more timbre and vol-
ume than the tenor. 
                     79
   The bass and low baritone  are also some-
times confounded, and the first distinction  is
that the bass has more facility, more force and
more volume than the baritone in the inferior
octave, and that it is difficult for him to attack
the higher tones, and on the contrary has ease
and volume in the lower tones.
   If, in spite of all, the bass easily takes up-
per C, D and E, and one sees  the possibility
of his continuing higher,  there is  reason  to
think he may be a baritone.
   All these signs may vary infinitely and are
not at all  infallible.  For  this reason before
classifying a voice, it is better to dispose it  to
enter into  the normal way of phonation, and
observe the principal characters that it presents
and to which side the preference leans.
    In this  way one is less exposed to errors,
and the credit of a professor will not find itself
compromised. 
80
CHAPTER VIII.
          SPECIAL  VOICES.
 THE VOICE OF EUNUCHS.--THE VOICE OF MR.  DUPRAT.
             —THE FEMALE TENOR.

   The origin of eunuchs is attributed to dif-
 ferent causes by different writers.  Some be-
 lieve  them to be the object of a cruel  venge-
 ance,  others believe  that jealousy was  the
 instigator of the idea of creating eunuchs, in
 order to have faithful guardians for women.
 Marcellin  attributes this  diabolical invention
 to Semiramide carried away by a blind passion,
 but this idea is  contradicted by several, who
 prove that before Semiramide there were al-
 ready eunuchs among the Egyptians.
   Nebuchadnezzar   made  eunuchs  of  his
prisoners,  and in Greece the priests of  Diana
 made themselves eunuchs before taking  the
priestly investiture.  The salutary influence of
Christianity  on customs  diminished this bar- 
                     81
barity, but did not succeed in stamping it out
until  after  several  centuries.   The role of
eunuchs began to change and the castrati, spa-
dones and thlibice—names that were given them
according to the form of the operation—were
utilized in public  festivals, and ended by being
an important  element in the catholic  temples
of Spain, Italy and France, where this bar-
barous  habit  reigned down  to  a  period not
very remote.
   The voices of  spadones and thlibice—known
lately under the  general name of castrati—
were used  later  in  theatrical representations,
and some of them attained, such perfection in
the art of singing, that they were spoken of as
models by celebrated professors.  Their rare
aptitude for the  divine art opened the  doors
of palaces to them, andjoaded them with rich-
es and honors to such a  degree, that several—
Farinelli among them—obtained such prestige
at court as to  possess great influence over the
destines of countries.
   Doctor Fournie  says that during the Cri-
mean war he had occasion to examine eunuchs
at Constantinople, externally only,  as the  la-
ryngoscope had not then been invented.  He
says that their diapason is  never as high as 
                     82
that of children, that  it is more or less elevat-
ed depending upon whether the operation was
performed before or after puberty.  The vocal
sound has  more volume than in children but
has never the  force, energy or  power of the
voice of man.   As to its timbre, it  does not
resemble the voice of  man,  woman or child.
   The larynx of eunuchs,  he adds, is smaller
than that of man, the cartilages are softer, less
developed  and  can be easily depressed with
the finger.   There is  an evident delay in the
ossification of the  cartilages.
   If we think  of  the differences existing  in
voices according to  the constitution of the
larynx, as  we have already seen, we shall un-
derstand the characteristic qualities  of the
voices of these  unhappy beings, and we shall
also understand  their great aptitude for van-
quishing the difficulties of  singing,

         THE VOICE OF MR. DUPRAT.
   The contralto or soprano voices that have
been  heard in catholic  temples of  Europe,
were voices of eunuchs, or of men who, by
force of art, had become able  to imitate the
voice of woman in  its full compass by means of
the falsetto.  It is  the voice of falsetti, purely 
                     83
artificial, that sometimes  issues from the lar-
ynx  of  a robust bearded  man.  The  annals
of art have no record of the phenomenon of
natural  soprano  voices among the masculine
sex.   A singular case, which is  perhaps the
only one of  this kind, is  Mr.  Duprat so well
known  in Paris, who, without any artificial
means whatever, and without having received
other vocal  education than that belonging to
the feminine sex, naturally sang with a very
beautiful, clear, fresh, flexible soprano voice of
great compass.  On account of its being nat-
ural, this vocal rarity astonished physiologists,
and  has been a  constant object of study and
observation,  and Mr. Duprat himself has al-
ways been ready and willing to  aid them, in
spite of the annoyances  caused him  by the
desires  of some  to study, and the mere curios-
ity of others.
   The examination of certain exterior organs
showed nothing in particular that could indi-
cate a small development of the larynx, nor
did his  anatomical conformation.
   Mr.  Duprat was married when very young,
and  soon  became  the  father of a  family.
When we  became  acquainted with him,  he
was  about thirty-four or thirty-five years of 
                     84
age, and he himself told us that his voice had
not altered in the least during twelve or four-
teen years, except as it improved by study by
gaining force and volume, but  always in the
conditions of a soprano.
    The dimensions  of his larynx are very
small, the glottis much reduced, and the vocal
bands very thin in their anterior part and some-
what larger in their posterior part.  This great
difference makes  the  bands join at their larg-
est extremity when they  emit a sound, and
this so  reduces, the dimensions of the glottis
that it can only produce elevated tones.   The
sides of the thyroid cartilages are very small,
flexible, and without any sign of ossification.
    The small interior extension of the larynx,
and the fear of  abusing Mr. Duprat's amiabil-
ity prevented  our  making as  thorough an
examination as  we could have desired, we ob-
served,  however, that the  conformation  of
certain  parts of the  larynx was not exactly
similar to the larynx of woman.
    It is without doubt on account of this dif-
ference, that the voice presents a certain qual-
ity that leads one to  guess something of the
masculine sex.  Perhaps it is the prejudice re-
sulting from the idea that  it is a man  singing, 
                     85
 but this is not a reason for not comprehending
 that after what we have said of the conforma-
 tion of this exceptional larynx, it ought natu-
 rally to produce sounds corresponding to the
 feminine voice.

             THE FEMALE TENOR.
   A phenomenon no less rare than the one
 just  spoken of, was the apparition on the oper-
 atic  stage of a female tenor in  whom all the
 papers were interested a few years ago.   The
 success obtained by  this woman in playing
 tenor roles was not very satisfactory, for if her
 voice possessed all the  qualities of a tenor,
 her  vocal  and stage education added to her
 feminine manners,  which did  not disappear
 under  her masculine costume, could not charm
 the attention of the public.
   A  few  days, after  her appearance in  the
 theatre she was engaged for a cafd chantant
 in the  Latin quarter of  Paris, where she was
 the delight  of students and  grisettes.  It was
there that  we were  led  by  curiosity to hear
her, and we also appreciated the  vocal condi-
tions of the female tenor.
   The voice of  this young lady was strong,
extended, somewhat  flexible, of clear  timbre 
                     86
and sometimes quite sympathetic.  The natu-
ral register,  from B natural below the  G clef,
had as much volume as the generality of real
tenors up to E fourth space, she  attacked
each tone naturally and without effort, some-
times sung F and even F sharp, but with dif-
ficulty and by excessively opening the mouth.
These tones were disagreeable. She used the
sombre timbre but little, she either did not know
how to use  it or it was not necessary for the
kind of songs sung  in certain cafe's chantants.
She made the change of register from middle
D to E when she sang a serious piece, the tim-
bre  was then more agreeable,  and she easily
sang G, A andi? flat which had the qualities of
a tenor, although the tones, still higher, often
resembled a feminine voice.
   She completely ignored the art  of using
her voice well.  The features of her face, and
even  her manners  were  feminine.   Causes
independent of our will prevented our making
an interior examination of the vocal organs,
which externally showed no peculiarity to the
naked eye. 
87
CHAPTER IX.
            VOCAL ILLUSIONS.
               VENTRILOQUISTS.

    However insignificant certain facts may
appear at first thought, they should not pass
unperceived by the student, especially when
the object of his special study is knowledge of
vocal mechanism.   Be the  importance of an
object great or small, science  does  not stop
before it,  but studies  all  phenomena however
common they may appear to those lacking the
necessary instruction  to appreciate the trans-
cendency, usefulness  or  necessity of  under-
standing  these phenomena.  Those that we
are about to explain  have  no  importance
whatever, it is true,  in the education  of the
voice, but the man who consecrates himself to
this  difficult study ought to ignore nothing
relating to it, in order to be able to explain, if 
                     88
asked, certain phenomena which appear incom-
prehensible.  How many times vocal illusions
deceive the inexperienced professor and make
him lead the voice by a way not intended  by
nature ! This results in faults of emission, and
accounts for there  being so few voices well
educated which responds to the exigencies of
art.
   For the  singer  and conscientious artist
there is nothing  trivial in anything  relating
directly or indirectly to the voice.   For this
reason we have not been willing to pass certain
phenomena in silence to which no physiologist,
before Mr. Lachapelle, gave the attention they
merited, as  much by their mechanism as  by
the influence they  have exerted at  certain
times on certain beliefs, and even on the des-
tinies of some ancient people.
   We, who live in the century of positivism,
in a century having no faith either in  predic-
tions or witchcraft, in a century agreeing with
nothing but  truth over which the torches of
science have shed their light, ought to make
known a  phenomenon already explained  by
modern physiology, and which has given rise
to so much mystification. 
                     89
   Ancient authors, who were interested  in
ventriloquists, have spoken of them only in a
mysterious manner or told amazing stories.
   The  eastern  astrologers  and  conjurers
abounding among the Jews, were merely clever
ventriloquists, who  took advantage  of the
candor and ignorance of  the superstitious for
their own profit.
   Such was  the abuse and  abundance  of
necromancers among the  people of Israel, that
those following the profession of conjurer  or
magician were punished by death,
   Christianity came to overthrow these false
prophets, and  the  enlightenment of our cen-
tury admits of neither conjurers nor enchanters.
   The phenomenon  of which we speak is
attributed  by  some  to the invention  of the
devil, by others less credulous to a particular
voice, the mechanism of which they completely
ignore.
   Before Mr. Lachapelle, no other author, as
we  have already said,  had interested himself
in this phenomenon that  perhaps our readers
have been able to appreciate  at  the  theatre,
circus, or spiritualist reunions,  and they have
also observed how complete is the illusion.  In
fact ventriloquism  is not superhuman  and is 
                     90
not an individual speaking with the abdomen,
as the etymology of the word would  seem  to
indicate and as  is generally believed, since it
is impossible to  speak with the abdomen.
   Authors, who later  interested themselves
in this  study, were  more careful, but  their
opinions are extremely  varied.   Some sustain
that ventriloquists  produce  the voice at the
moment of  aspiration, and others, for instance
Miiller,  that the voice forms  during aspira-
tion.  The latter seems the most natural, for
otherwise it would be necessary to admit the
existence of a second larynx under the natural
larynx, placed in such a way as to be able  to
produce articulated sounds at the moment  of
aspiration.    As  this  special organ  does not
exist, and as the larynx of ventriloquists do
not present  any  extraordinary peculiarity, it is
impossible to admit  the opinions of Amman,
Nollet, Haller, Masson  and others.
   For  us, without a doubt, the voice of the
ventriloquist is  produced  at the moment  of
aspiration, for a few  years ago we possessed
the faculty of imitating, with great exactitude,
the sounds of several instruments, and by force
of exercise  we could., also  pronounce several
words like a ventrilo  'st merely for pleasure. 
                     91
to the great amusement of our college  com-
rades.  At that time we had no idea whatever
of what a ventriloquist  was, but after having
heard at the theatre a clever conjurer, who
perfectly imitated the singing of  some birds
and the voices of certain animals approaching
or receding, according to the farce played  by
the conjurer, we were  so  surprised  and our
young imagination so vividly impressed, thatwe
should have thought ourselves perfectly happy
had we been able to do what that man did.
   The sound of the clarinet, hautbois, violon-
cello,  horn,  guitar, harmonium, the  noise of
certain mechanical instruments, and the voices
of persons speaking or singing in the distance,
etc., etc., all were in a short time  easy for us
to imitate, and more than once  our grand
orchestre concerts were the charm of family
reunions, and enraged our aged professor of
philosophy,  who  could not   imagine  from
whence came that infernal concert of dogs,
cats, chickens, canaries, etc., that raised a tem-
pest  with the pupils, and ended  by  the pro-
fessor becoming angry and  dismissing  the
class before the  time, which was our object.
   The articulation  <  words, imitating the
voice  of a person at    i.stance was less easy, 
                     92
and for this reason the illusion was less perfect
when we spoke, and after reaching  the age of
reason and beginning serious study, we became
unable through lack of practice.
   All the noises, voices, and sounds that we
once  imitated were produced by contractions
of the larynx aided by the special disposition
of the tongue exacted by each  sound.  The
lips remained immobile, sometimes completely
closed, sometimes naturally parted, the column
of air resounding  in the trachea, or the nasal
cavities according to the  necessity.
   It  is  utterly  impossible to  explain in
detail the particular mechanism  of this phe-
nomenon, as  we  cannot make  use  of  the
laryngoscope.
   The eminent physiologist, Doctor Fournie,
to whom we  owe the  greater  part  of  our
physiological knowledge, explained by a very
exact reasoning, the process used by ventrilo-
quists to render the illusion complete.  The
following is  his  explanation :  " In ventrilo-
quism we must consider two things,  ist, how
ventriloquists  contrive in a general  manner to
produce the illusion of a sound at a distance,
2nd, search in the organism for the parts which
produce this illusion." 
                      93
    " In a picture representing a landscape, the
 objects placed in the foreground are drawn in
 proportions  relatively larger than  the objects
 placed in the background;  at the same time
 the form of  the latter is less distinct,  they are
 as if  plunged in a cloudy space in which all the
 details melt, and it is by these characters that
 our eyes distinguish objects at a distance from
 those near.  That which the painter  does for
 the eyes should  be  done by the ventriloquist
 for the ears.  Distant sounds seem higher to
 to us, they are weaker and  the words  less dis-
 tinctly articulated, consequently he is  obliged
 to force himself to  produce with his glottis
 these elevated, weak, thin  sounds like those
 coming from a distance."
   " This is the way done by operatic choruses
 placed in the wings,  they  imitate the singing
 of persons at a distance, but this  only is not
 sufficient to produce the illusion."
   "  Our  organs of  sensation mutually  aid
 each  other in giving us  a complete notion of
 objects.  The  ear, for instance, can judge of
 a sound loud or weak,  simple  or  composite,
 low or high; but when it is a question of ap-
preciating the distance or direction of a sound,
the hearing becomes insufficient, as it can only 
                     94
judge of distances by the intensity of sounds,
and this sign is evidently deceiving.  In order
to fully appreciate distance we need the help
of sight, for it is by seeng the  sonorous  body
itself that we can determine whether a body is
near or distant."
   "When hearing  has not  the  aid of sight,
the judgment remains  uncertain, and it suf-
fices to fix our mind on a certain point  to be
persuaded that the sound really proceeds from
that  point.   It is on this imperfection of the
sense of hearing unable by itself to appreciate
distances, that the second condition necessary
to complete  this illusion is based.  The ven-
triloquist  must not  only produce elevated
sounds, but he must also hide their  origin by
the immobility of the  parts aiding in  their
emission ; in this way  the ears of the specta-
tors, not  being guided by the sense of  sight
easily accept the direction indicated by the in-
telligent mimicry of the ventriloquist."
   " To satisfy the first condition, the ventri-
loquist generally takes the octave of sounds
employed when in ordinary conversation, and
as the sounds he produces should not be too
intense nor  too voluminous,  he  gives very
small dimensions to his glottis.  The oblique 
                     95
and  vertical  fasces of the thyro-arytenoidian
muscles approach by there contraction, the vo-
cal bands at the back on a great extension, in
such a way that the passage they circumscribe
forward  may  be very small.   This is for the
production of sounds."
   " To disguise the origin of the sound and
give it a muffled timbre, the ventriloquist cedes
but very  little air ; he exhales while holding
his respiration, this retained exhalation de-
mands a certain effort.   In this way the air is
not  violently thrown out, and the sonorous
vibrations are,  so  to  speak, imprisoned in
the interior of the air canals.  For the same
reason the base of the tongue is carried back-
ward, the epiglottis is applied to the orifice of
the larynx ; the mouth is almost entirely clos-
ed, and the lips leave a small opening for the
passage of air and the possible articulation of
words.   These are formed by the anterior part
of the tongue, the base  of  this organ  being
strongly contracted below and at the back.  As
a result, articulation is not as perfect as in or-
dinary speaking, but this  imperfection  contri-
butes to the illusion."
   " The ability to speak as a ventriloquist is
not the result of a particular conformation of 
                     96
our organs : man can by  practice succeed in
easily producing this illusion."
   This  is also our opinion based on results
obtained by us at another epoch.

            The  Marionettes.
   The mechanism of the voice of the mario-
nette has no importance or application, as we
have already said,  in vocal education, it is uni-
quely an object of amusement, but since phy-
siologists as eminent as Abbe Lachapelle have
given attention to it,  we ought not to pass it
in silence.
   This vocal phenomenon—the  invention of
which  is attributed  to  the Austrian  colo-nel
Baron Mengen—is merely the production of
a particular voice  resembling that of  a small
child attributed to a doll, that the  illusion  may
be more  complete.
   Our readers have without doubt, witnessed
this innocent  spectacle, very  much in vogue
among conjurers and circus  clowns  to  give
gayety to  their  representations, and  which
consists of conversation between a man and
a doll, throwing in here and  there bons  mots
which excite  more or less  laughter according
to the wit of the executor. 
                     97
    This special ability, perfectly possessed by
 two of our friends, once charmed us, and to
 day procures us an object of study.
    The mechanism made use of by our friends
 is exactly like  that described in several trea-
 tises on vocal physiology, and does not in the
 least resemble that employed by ventriloquists
 as Mr. Lachapelle, as well as others, seem to
 suppose, who  have not taken into considera-
 tion certain  peculiarities that  can be  appre-
 ciated by simple sight; such as  the enlarging
 of one side of the face, the turning  and out-
 ward projection of the lips, and a more pro-
 nounced  movement  for  articulation.   But
 those adopting this  as  a  speculation under-
 stand perfectly how to hide these peculiarities,
 by fixing  the attention  of the spectators  on
 the doll  by means of  movements that they
 make it execute.
   The man's  larynx takes no part whatever
 in the production of the marionette's voice.
 The ability consists in being able to  form an
 artificial glottis with  the aid of the  tongue,
 the inside of the cheek and the  teeth  of the
 same side of the upper jaw.
   The characters of  the sound produced by
this imperfect glottis, are not exactly  those of 
                     98
a child's voice,  and articulation is not  quite
perfect, but all the special peculiarities distin-
guishing them from the human voice are pre-
cisely  those which  contribute most to render
the illusion more  perfect.   It is an analogous
process employed by those  who  imitate the
singing  of birds, the  sounds  of  musical in-
struments, etc.,  etc. 
I HIS  Work  may be  found at  the principal Music  Stores,
                   AND AT THE
         RESIDENCE  OF THE  AUTHOR,
    118  WEST 23d STREET,  NEW  YORK. 
WORKS  OF  EMILIO BELARI.
The Secrets of the Voice in Singing.
    THE WAY TO STU^Y SINGING WITH PROFIT.
          IN PREPARATION.

      DIDACTIC.

ABRIDGED ART OF LEARNING AND TEACHING SINGING.
      PRACTICAL LESSONS IN VOCAL STYLE.
 CRITICAL STUDIES ON PROMINENT SINGERS.
    THE ART OF MIMIC APPLIED TO SINGING.
MUSICAL  LITERATURE.
      LETTERS OF A TENOR. 
 
 
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