WJ
B553k
1843
u
*-Y


:f^W
■;&></" 
'**'-
:i£%.yCA.-j|^ ||p r@  ■(
       Surgeon General's  Office


       Altos:
     ■^./ee/fci'j..............

^^9^o/;yojOQ^Oj&a(jQoaa'ao:^Q9^^t
i) 
^  v  •
/ r-

DUE T^SrM2^^M LAST DATE
DEC 2  1963 
 
KIDNEYS
URINE.
BY
/
J.  J. BERZELIUS.
TRANSLATED FROM  THE  GERMAN
                  BY



M. H. BOYE AND F. LEAMING  M. D.
       PHILADELPHIA:
LEA  &  BLANCHARD.
1843. 
\a'J
  Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year one thousand
eight hundred and forty-three, by

              LEA  AND  BLANCHARD,

in the  Clerk's  Office of the District Court  of the Eastern  District of
Pennsylvania. 
        PREFACE

              BY THE

TRANSLATORS.
  Being engaged in the study of urine in. various diseases, we
have thought that a translation  of the following article by Ber-
zelius, extracted from his recently completed work on Animal
Chemistry, would be  acceptable to those of the medical profes-
sion who are engaged in similar investigations.
  The study of the chemical nature of the urine in disease has
only lately cofinmenced.  For a  long time past physicians have
examined it in diseases of the kidneys, but it is only within a few
years that its importance has been understood in diseases of the
system or of other organs  than the kidneys.  It has been well
ascertained that the  urine  contains the effete matters resulting
from the nutrition and waste of the different tissues; it will there-
fore indicate any derangement in either of these processes; and
as it is a secretion easily obtained it claims much greater atten-
tion than it has hitherto received.  In order to give a fuller view
of the importance of the kidneys to the economy we will  state
that the urine is the only  true excretion  properly so called;
for  the perspiration may be  supposed as intended rather to sup-
ply moisture to the surface, the respiration  heat  to the animal,
and the faeces contain only the refuse or superfluous parts of the
food. 
IV
PREFACE.
   The blood contains all the elements sufficient  for the growth
 and preservation of the different organs.   These organs differ
 not only in their functions but in their structure and composition,
 and hence will appropriate very different  materials  from the
 mass furnished in the  blood.  For instance the  brain and ner-
 vous system will require its phosphorus and albumen,  the mus-
 cular tissue its fibrin, the skin its gelatin, the membranes of the
 eye, the mucous and serous tissues  its aqueous portions.  It is
 obvious that the blood  returning from  the brain must be quite
 different from that returning from the  muscles or skin.  In the
 higher classes of animals the venous  blood containing the effete
 matters of all the organs is passed through the lungs before it
 reaches the kidneys.  This  is not the case, however, with birds
 and amphibia, and it is worthy of remark, in passing, that their
 urine, secreted as it  is from venous blood, contains large quanti-
 ties of lithic acid with little or no urea, being the reverse of what
 exists in the healthy excretion  of those animals whose kidneys
 are furnished  with arterial blood. In man, then, the urine will
 contain the effete matters of the tissues, not  as they have just
 come from them, but modified to a greater or less extent by re-
 spiration.   The products of respiration  are known to consist of
 carbonic acid and water; therefore the only alteration -that can
 be produced in the effete matters is by their oxidation.   Hence,
even if the urine should not contain  the original effete  matters,
its importance as a  subject for pathological observation  is not
impaired in any material degree, for we still find the  slightest
derangements of health accompanied or preceded by a corres-
ponding change in its general appearance.
  We have stated that the blood must be different as it flowed
from the different organs because these organs are differently
constructed, and appropriate very different parts  of it  for their
nutrition or secretions.   If  any of these organs are altered by
disease so that they will require different materials of the blood
from what  they required in health, it is evident the venous blood
returning from them  will contain different elements from what it
contained in the healthy state of the organ.  The venous blood
returning from n healthy brain  must be very different from that 
PREFACE.
returning from a  brain softened by disease;  the venous  blood
returning from a healthy skin must contain different effete mat-
ters from that returning from a skin covered  with small-pox or
erysipelas; the effete matters from a  healthy condition of the
whole system must be very different from those  coming from a
scrofulous, or syphilitic, or  cancerous constitution.  As far as
the urine has been accurately and chemically investigated it has
shown striking differences in these different diseases.   Even  its
general appearance has been so much altered by different con-
ditions of the system as to attract the attention  of all observers
from the earliest periods ; but its chemical examination bids fair
to become of high importance to physicians not only as a means
of forming a more accurate  diagnosis, but of indicating the most
proper remedial treatment.
   Prout has very fully described a condition of the  system in
which oxalic acid  is developed  in small quantities,  probably
much in the same way that sugar is formed in diabetes mellitus.
This condition  he  has named the oxalic  acid diathesis;  it is
sometimes accompanied by the formation of an  oxalate of lime
calculus, though this is by no means always the  case, and some-
times by certain  diseases of the skin which resist all treatment
whatsoever until measures are taken to prevent the development
of this  acid in the system.  Now the  appearance  and chemical
qualities of the urine are points on which he mainly relies for his
 diagnosis of this diathesis.  This, however, is only one instance
of the importance of attending to this subject; there is no doubt
 when it has been  fully investigated it will be found teeming with
 facts of the highest value to medical science.   Of course the che-
 mical examination of the urine can never take  the place of the
 means  at present employed for obtaining a  knowledge of dis-
 ease, but we cannot for a moment  doubt that it  may assist very
 materially in throwing light upon some obscure  and  fatal dis-
 orders  of the general system,  while in diseases  of the  kidneys it
 may be found hereafter to be as useful as the stethoscope in dis-
 eases of the chest.
   The present treatise embraces every thing that is known in a
 chemical point of view in regard to the urine  and all the sub- 
VI
PREFACE.
stances found in it, and also the easiest and most approved modes
of detecting them.  The detailed accounts of all the ingredients
will enable the physician, with only such general knowledge  of
.chemistry as is given in  a course of medical instruction, to sepa-
rate them from the urine and study them.  No difficulty what-
ever will be found in the application of the tests as prescribed  in
the part treating particularly of the examination of the urine.  It is
true there  may be some difficulty  in its quantitative analysis,
which  requires some apparatus and  a knowledge of the first
rudiments  of analytical chemistry, but the  present  state  of
science is such that no one can hope to study Physiology or Pa-
thology with success  who has not first obtained this knowledge;
those who  have it we are confident will find the prescriptions
sufficiently detailed to enable them to understand them thoroughly
and to  perform them. 
CONTENTS.
The Kidneys
The Urine  ....
    Its ordinary ingredients
       Mucus
       Lithic or Uric acid
       Purification of Lithic acid   .
  -    Composition of Lithic acid
  •   Lithateff
       Lithic acid as it exists in the Urine
       Lactic acid ••
       Other organic acids
       Hippuric acid
       Composition of Hippuric acid   .
       Hippurates .
       Inorganic ackteand bases
       Carbonic acid
       Silicic acid
       Salt bases in  the urine
       Urea   ....
       Purification of urea
       Composition of urea
       Combinations of urea with acids
       Combinations of urea with bases
       Formation of urea in the body
       Undetermined animal matters in the
       Urinary odour
       Extractive matters in the Urine
       Albumen
       Kyestein
    Composition of the  urine
    Urine of animals   . 
VIII
CONTENTS.
 Accidental ingredients of the urine
            Substances which will appear in the urine after
              being taken either as food or medicine
 Urine in fever     ....
          dropsy
 Fibrinous, bloody and milky urine  .
 Urine during vomiting.
         in rheumatism
         in jaundice
         in cholera morbus.
         in colic
         in-spasmodic or hysterical complaints
 Blue urine      ....
 Black urine       ....
 Urine in diabetes mellitus
      Tests for  sugar
      Composition of diabetic urine
      Cause of diabetes
 Urine in diabetes insipidus
 Urinary concretions or calculi and gravel .
         Formation of calculi  .
         Pulverulent sediments
         Crystalline sediments or gravel
         Calculi     ....
         Lithic acid calculi
         Lithate of soda
                of ammonia
                of magnesia
         Lithous acid or xanthic oxide .
                composition
         Cystin or cystic oxide .
                 composition
        Phosphate  of lime
        Double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia
        Basic  phosphate of lime, &c, or  fusible calcul
        Carbonate of lime .
                  of magnesia.
        Oxalate of lime
        Organic matters
        Silica     ....
Relative frequency of calculi  .
Calculi found in  the lower classes of animals
Means for preventing the formation of calculi.
Methods of dissolving calculi
Directions to physicians for examining the urine
          Tests for lithic acid, urea, &c. .
Some general  rules for the quantitative analysis of the
      urine        ....
Examination of urinary concretions
Employment of urine for technical purposes
PAOB
104 
THE KIDNEYS.
  The kidneys are  the organs which secrete the
urine.   They rest against the spine nearly in the
middle  of the abdomen.   In man they are oval
bodies about the size of  the  fist, and loosely
covered in front by  the peritoneum.  By a trans-
verse section they may be seen  to be formed
by  two  layers of  different  appearance.  The
substantia corticalis, or outer layer, seems  to be
composed of fine radiating fibres lying closely
together; it consists in fact of  infinitely fine
interwoven  tubes.  Underneath this  there is a
layer having the appearance of a perfectly uniform
mass, but consisting of microscopic tubes, which
combine like radii into fewer and larger tubes, and
hence has been called substantia tubularis.  This
layer terminates  in mamillary prominences, pa-
pillae, from  which  the  urine  exudes  through
numerous openings.  Each of these papillae  is
surrounded by a small sack, calyx, and these open
into a larger sack, pelvis, which at a little distance
       3 
18
THE kidneys.
 from the  kidney contracts into a tube or narrow-
 canal called the ureter,  which  empties  into the
 bladder.  The urine gradually collects in the latter
 as it exudes drop by drop from the papillse, so that
 a large quantity can afterwards be evacuated at
 once.  As extremes of the different forms of the
 kidney amongst mammalia it may be stated that
 in the whale {cetacea) each kidney is divided into
 about two hundred smaller ones, each of which
 has its papilla and calyx, while in beasts of prey
 and rodentia the kidney terminates in one papilla,
 the calyx of which forms the whole renal pelvis.
  According to Jacobson  the  urine  is secreted
 chiefly from venous blood in birds, amphibia, and
 fish; in web-footed birds the kidneys are larger in
 proportion to the size of the body, than in wading-
 birds, but larger in the latter than in birds of prey.
 In amphibia they generally consist of many small-
 er kidneys connected only by the common ureter.
 In fish they are larger  in proportion to the rest of
 the body than in the foregoing classes of animals;
 they pass along the spine from  the lowest part of
 the abdomen to the cranium; and are generally
 connected  through their  whole  length.   They
 evacuate the urine through the  ureters  from a
 common  opening behind the anus.   The ureter
 is often enlarged at a little distance above the
opening.   Jacobson has shown  that the purple
sack in snails must be  an organ for  the secretion
of urine.
  The examination of the parenchyma of the
 kidneys gives a better idea of the nature of such 
THE kidneys.
19
structures than can be obtained from an examina-
tion  of any other  secreting organ.  When we
see broiled kidneys on our tables converted into a
mass so hard that it may be cut with a knife, and
feels firm to  the  teeth, we would easily suppose
them to consist  of a solid mass in which the
secreting   vessels  were distributed.   But  this
would be as  erroneous  as if we were to suppose
the blood  to be a solid body because  it had been
coagulated into a firm lump by heat; in fact the
kidneys first  acquire this firmness by cooking,
whereby  the  albumen  is  coagulated,  which in
a  soluble  form, as in the brain, constitutes the
chief  ingredient of  secreting organs.   The se-
creting canals are here, as every where, surrounded
by a capillary tissue in which we cannot discover
any openings into the canals.   In order to obtain
a  correct  knowledge of the  composition  of the
parenchyma of the kidneys it would be necessary
to commence by expelling the fluids remaining in
the  arteries and capillary tissue.
   I have  attempted to replace the liquid contained
in this tissue in  the kidney of a horse, with dis-
tilled  water, employing  for this purpose hydrau-
lic  pressure on  the  artery, but  without success,
because when the  vitality of  these vessels ceases
 their  capillarity presents  an extremely  great
 resistance;  perhaps also  certain  manipulations
 were  required which were unknown  to me.   I
 then stripped ofT the serous coat, cut the kidneys
 into thin  slices, and  suspended them in ice cold 
20
THE KIDNEYS.
water, which was renewed as often as it became
discoloured.  This emptied the larger blood-ves-
sels.  The kidneys were  then bruised in a por-
celain mortar with a  wooden pestle, when the
slices, to my great astonishment, were converted
almost entirely  into a liquid.   Straining this
through  a linen cloth it  did not pass through
perfectly  clear,  and  a fibrous mass remained
on  the  cloth, which was tied up in linen and
kneaded in pure water as long as it  rendered  it
turbid.   The soft solid animal matter which now
remained formed only an extremely small portion
of the volume of the kidney.   It is true a certain
portion  of it had passed through the linen in a
finely divided state, but even this was inconside-
rable.  Hence it is evident that the kidneys con-
sisted of but a small mass  of solid  substance,
which, as has been before represented, enclosed a
large quantity  of liquid.   We have  now  to ex-
amine  the properties of the solid matter, and of
the liquid contained in it.
  a. The residue  on  the  cloth was  colourless,
fibrous,  and could  not be distinguished  by  its
appearance from the fibrin of the blood.   It be-
came yellow and transparent  by drying.   Ether
extracted a quantity of elain  and  stearin, with
scarcely a trace of fatty acids.  It easily softened
in water and resumed its former appearance.   It
behaved chemically as follows:
   It shrivelled a little and became  hard by long
boiling; the water  had scarcely dissolved  any of 
THE KIDNEYS.
21
it.  It was not soluble in concentrated sulphuric
acid, nor was it decomposed, or gelatinized like
fibrin.  Nitric acid of 1-12 specific gravity dis-
solved it after moderate  digestion, without de-
composition of the acid; a few colourless flocctili
only  remaining undissolved.   The solution was
light yellow, becoming darker by saturation with
caustic ammonia but without precipitation; neither
was it precipitated by ferro-prussiate of potassa,
nor by an infusion  of galls.   It was not attacked
at first by concentrated chlorohydric  acid,  but
it acquired gradually a dark violet colour, and
dissolved after a few days without  the assistance
of heat.   The solution  was not made turbid  by
ferro-prussiate of potassa.  Saturated with caustic
ammonia,  which  produced no  precipitate,  and
evaporated to dryness the animal matter dissolved
with the sal ammoniac both in water and alcohol.
It did not gelatinize with concentrated acetic acid,
but by digestion with the  dilute acid it separated
into two substances, one of which dissolved in the
acid, but the other retaining its form and appear-
ance remained completely insoluble.  The solu-
tion left a colourless, transparent residue when
evaporated  to dryness.    Treated  with a  little
cold  water it dissolved, but became a jelly after
48 hours; this dissolved  in a larger quantity of
water, leaving a mucilaginous matter which like-
wise dissolved  by  gentle  heat  but precipitated
again on cooling.   The  solution had no acid reac-
tion, and was without  colour, taste, or smell; it 
22
THE KIDNEYS.
was not precipitated by ferro-prussiate of potassa,
by neutral, or basic acetate of lead, nor by bichlo-
ride of mercury;  but on the other hand, it was
precipitated by an infusion of galls in  large, dis-
tinct flocculi, which did  not agglutinate by heat.
Caustic ammonia decomposed it in the same man-
ner as acetic acid.  What dissolved in ammonia
remained colourless  after evaporation, and con-
tained a greater  quantity of the  matter soluble
only in warm water, than the acetic acid solution,
and also another matter insoluble in boiling water.
The watery solution of the dry mass was without
taste,  and had  neither acid nor alkaline reaction.
Ferro-prussiate of potassa did not precipitate  it
even  after the addition  of an acid; but it was
precipitated by neutral acetate of lead,  bichloride
of mercury, and  tannin.   The part insoluble in
ammonia remained   unchanged  in  appearance.
It was almost insoluble in cold  dilute caustic
potassa, but by gentle digestion it dissolved slowly
without colour and without residue.  The  addi-
tion of acetic acid in excess  precipitated  the por-
tion insoluble in  it, but retained  the soluble por-
tion.  The precipitate remained  insoluble in any
excess of hot or cold acetic acid.
  Hence it follows that  the solid matter which
constitutes the tissue of the  kidneys is not fibrin,
neither does it contain this substance, since it does
not gelatinize with acids, and is not precipitated by
ferro-prussiate  of  potassa.  It  is not composed of
cellular  tissue since  it does not dissolve to glue. 
THE  KIDNEYS.
23
It resembles  very closely  the substance  com-
posing the fibrous coat of the  arteries; and this
circumstance  seems to confirm the  supposition
that  it  is  nothing  else  than  a tissue of  fine
vessels.
  b.  The solution from the former solid matter was
turbid, mucilaginous, and milky.  Heated nearly
to boiling, it  coagulated almost to a solid mass,
which required to be mixed wTith more water and
to be boiled again before a complete separation of
the coagulum  from the liquid could be effected.
  The coagulum was then well  washed.  When I
attempted to extract fat from the moistened mass
by ether, the albumen absorbed it and swelled up
exactly  as happens with  albumen from eggs.  It
had  therefore to be  perfectly dried before it could
be treated with ether.  This then extracted a great
deal  of  fat, consisting chiefly of fatty acids.  On
moistening the remainder with water, it resumed
its former appearance.  When dissolved in caustic
potassa, and acetic acid added in great excess, part
of the solid substance of  the kidneys was precipi-
tated, which had passed with the solution through
the linen, and was insoluble in this  acid.   The
coagulum  was  therefore composed  of fat  and
albumen which  mechanically enclosed  the finely
divided and suspended parts of the capillary tissue
of the kidneys.
  The solution from the coagulum was acid.  By
evaporation it afforded a yellow extract mixed with
crystals.  Alcohol of 0-833  extracted from it an 
24
THE KIDNEYS.
acid yellowish extractive matter with a content of
chloride of sodium, and left by evaporation a resi-
due which behaved  exactly  like a similarly ob-
tained extract of flesh, which will be treated  of
hereafter.   No trace of urea could be detected by
nitric acid.  The portion  undissolved by alcohol
was  nearly all dissolved  by water which, after
evaporation, left a light yellow, transparent, hard
mass, containing phosphates, and  which gave a
strong precipitate with lime water,  and corres-
ponded in every other respect  with  a similarly
obtained solution of flesh.   The part  undissolved
by water was  soft, white,  and slimy,  it dissolved
in warm water, and gave a precipitate with tannin.
  These  experiments  show that  the capillary
vessels of the kidneys contain a highly albuminous
liquid which is faintly  acid from the  presence  of
lactic acid.  No fibrin seemed to be contained  in
this  liquid, for if it had been present and coagu-
lated after death in the vessels, it would have been
dissolved in acetic acid and precipitated by ferro-
prussiate of potassa.  As for the rest this solution
contained the same  dissolved substances  as the
solution from flesh, which were probably on their
way to be evacuated with  the urine.
  I had expected to find urea in  the solution from
the kidneys, especially as Prevost and Dumas have
endeavoured to prove that it is not formed in the
kidneys,   but  merely  evacuated by  them; but
nitric acid discovered no trace of it.  Prevost and
Dumas extracted  the  kidneys from  living dogs, 
THE KIDNEYS.
25
cats, and rabbits, tied up the arteries and carefully
healed  the  wound.   The  animals lived  several
days after this operation, eat as usual, but drank
very little;  they became sleepy and feverish on
the sixth or ninth day, and finally died from the
effects of the fever.  Urea was found in the blood
in sufficient quantity to be obtained in crystals
and to be compared by analysis with that from the
urine.   The blood contained at the same time far
more lactates and flesh-extract than usual.   These
experiments were afterwards repeated and  con-
firmed  by  other  physiologists.   It  appears to
follow from them that urea  as  well as flesh-
extract is formed  in the body and only evacu-
ated through the kidneys.   But in this case  it is
difficult to conceive why it should not be present
in the liquid from  the kidneys, since  the lactates
and  flesh-extract, which also  occur in the urine,
were both  found  in it; and  it cannot easily be
imagined that one ingredient would be evacuated
sooner than another.   I must  here observe  that
Lecanu found urea  in the liquid obtained by
pressure, from the kidneys of a woman who had
died suddenly after a fall.  The liquid was filtered,
evaporated  to  a syrup, treated with anhydrous
alcohol, the  solution evaporated, and  the residue
dissolved in three times its volume of nitric acid,
previously deprived  of  nitrous acid, after which
the agitated mass, at a temperature  of 32° F.,
yielded granular crystals, which dissolved in water
       4 
26
TBE KIDNEYS.
and deposited by spontaneous evaporation a small
quantity of nitrate of urea in plates.
  The structure of the urinary passages resembles
that of  the  intestines.  The canals which lead
from the kidneys to the bladder consist of a mucous
membrane  surrounded  by  cellular tissue, and
covered  exteriorly  by  the peritoneum.   The
bladder  has a layer of  muscular tissue  between
the mucous membrane and  peritoneum which is
attached to both  membranes by  cellular tissue.
These muscular fibres are absent in some of the
lower animals, in which  the  bladder  consists
merely of a dilatation of the ureters. 
THE UEINE.
  All the waste matters which cannot be employ-
ed any farther in the system, together with those
substances unfit for use which have been taken up
by the absorbents of the skin and alimentary canal,
are evacuated chiefly by the kidneys;  the urine
therefore may often contain, besides  its ordinary
ingredients,  the  accidental substances which are
to be evacuated  with it.   Hence it is  a very
compound solution, and its nature is proportionally
difficult to understand.  It has been the object of
research of many chemists.  The first examination
of it was by Van Helmont, whose  results are
to be found  in his essay on calculous affections.
Twenty-five years later, Brandt  and  Kunkle dis-
covered phosphorus in the urine, which they ob-
tained from its salts.   Boyle afterwards made an
analysis  of  it according  to  the time  in  which
he lived.  He also succeeded in obtaining phos-
phorus; he kept the preparation of it secret, and
gave it to an apothecary in London for sale.
The urine was  examined about the same time 
28
THE URINE.
 by Bellini, who  found  water, earths, and salts
 in  it;  and then  by  Boerhaave  whose  analysis
 is a masterpiece for his time.  Marggraf showed
 that  the   phosphorus  derives  from  the  phos-
 phates contained in  the  urine,  and all efforts
 were  then  concentrated  on these  salts.  Pott,
 Haupt,  Schlosser,  Schockwitz,  Beyman,  Kla-
 proth, and  others published essays on this subject.
 At last Rouelle Jr. directed  his  attention to the
 organic ingredients of the urine, and studied them
 particularly.  He called  them in general, soapy
 extract of the urine, but he could not effect their
 separation.  He investigated the salts contained
 in the urine, compared human urine with that of
 herbivorous animals,  and  showed that the latter
 contained no phosphates but carbonate of lime and
 a substance resembling flowers of benzoin.  Some
 years afterwards Scheele discovered that the urine
 contained phosphate of lime dissolved in excess of
 acid, and  also  lithic  acid which was unknown
 before his time.   The assertion that urine of very
 young  children contained benzoic  acid, has also
 been ascribed  to him.*  While the English che-

  * This assertion of Scheele has been mentioned by Fourcroy in his
 treatise on benzoic acid in the urine of herbivorous animals.  The
 truth is that Scheele asserted in his essay, on the acid of urinary cal-
 culi, that he also had found it in the urine of young children. But in
 his essay on the acids of fruits and berries, he mentions that in order to
obtain oxalic acid, he treated concentrated urine (not mentioning that
 it was human,)  with nitric acid; instead  of oxalic acid he obtained an
acid salt, resembling benzoe-salt.  Was this nitrate of urea, or was
the urine employed obtained from cattle?  These are questions which
cannot now be answered. 
THE URINE.                29
mist, Cruikshank, was engaged in the examination
of diabetic urine, he instituted a comparison of it
with urine in a healthy state and in different dis-
eases.  He thereby discovered crystallizable urea,
and its precipitation by nitric acid; and he also gave
a tolerably good method of ascertaining the rela-
tive quantity of certain ingredients in  the  urine.
He showed that the  composition of  urine  was
altered in fever, dropsy, and dyspepsia; in fact our
knowledge of the nature of urine  may be dated
from his work.  His experiments were published
in the year  1797,  in  Rollo's book on Diabetes
Mellitus.   Three years afterwards Fourcroy and
Vauquelin described a detailed analysis  of the
urine; it is a very meritorious work, but in order
to prevent the appearance of having appropriated
any  thing from  Cruikshank's  work,  Fourcroy
declares, in his Systeme des Connoissances  Chimi-
ques, that he  and Vauquelin had  known  many
years before the English  chemist, the facts which
form the most important part of the work of the
latter.   No one, however, can reproach Fourcroy
for reserving for so long a time any other discovery
which he could have published in his own name.
Fourcroy and  Vauquelin farther  described  the
phenomena occasioned by  putrefaction of  the
urine.   Thenard  afterwards showed that the free
acid of the urine  consists not only of phosphoric
acid, but also of a combustible acid which he sup-
posed to be acetic  acid, but which shortly after-
wards I ascertained to  be  lactic acid: and  I also 
30
THE URINE.
showed that the urine contains an extractive mat-
ter, having  a great resemblance to that in the
liquids contained in flesh.
  Urine considered in its average  state, (for its
proportion of water continually varies by increase
or diminution of the perspiration,) has the follow-
ing properties:—it is transparent, of an amber yel-
low colour, and a peculiar aromatic odour, which
disappears by cooling, but reappears by heating
it.  It has an unpleasant, saline and bitter taste.
It often becomes turbid on cooling, and deposits a
gray or pale red precipitate, which  is redissolved
by heating it to  98° F.  It has a distinct and
strong acid reaction.  Its specific  gravity varies
from  1-005 to 1-030.   Prout considers 1-0125  as
the average.   In diseases it sometimes reaches a
specific gravity as high as 1-050, but this is always
an unfavourable sign.
   When allowed to stand for a few daj^s the urine
becomes  paler and exhales a weak ammoniacal
odour, which is still urinous; it has an  alkaline re-
action, and  becomes covered  with  a white slimy
pellicle, in which, as well as on the inner side of
the vessel,  small white  crystals  are deposited.
These consist of double phosphate of ammonia and
magnesia.  After some time the urine  becomes so
alkaline that it effervesces with acids,  and is then
applied for  technical purposes as a weak solution
of carbonate of ammonia.  In the mean  time it is
concentrated  by spontaneous  evaporation and de-
posits at first yellow cubic crystals of sal ammo- 
THE URINE.
31
 niac, and afterwards yellow octahoedral crystals of
 chloride of sodium, and at last the microcosmic or
 fusible salt of the urine, which consists of double
 phosphate of ammonia  and  soda.   The  mother
 water is then an offensive brown syrup.
   Urine does not coagulate by boiling; it yields by
 distillation an extremely offensive, colourless solu-
 tion of carbonate of ammonia, which is formed du-
 ring the ebullition.  If distilled to dryness and the
 mass still further heated, it yields chloride of am-
 monium and empyreumatic oil with the carbonate
 and acetate of ammonia, and by strong heat a little
 phosphorus at last passes over.
   Acids precipitate nothing from the urine at first,
 except oxalic acid which precipitates oxalate of
 lime; but when they are added in  considerable
 quantity they develope a peculiar,  sharp  odour,
 resembling that of the fresh urine of a horse, and
 after some time  they give it a darker colour.   Al-
 kalies produce cloudiness in the urine and preci-
 pitate earthy phosphate.   Chloride of barium and
 nitrate of silver likewise  produce a precipitate in
 the urine from the presence of sulphates and chlo-
 rides.   Salts of lead  precipitate sulphate and phos-
 phate of lead.  When the urine is neutralized by
 an alkali it is precipitated by the  salts of zinc, tin,
 and  mercury.  The precipitate by the nitrate of
 mercury often assumes the same red  colour which
 this  salt  produces on the epidermis, and derives
 from an animal matter which this precipitate, like
the others, contains.   With tannin it gives rather 
32
THE URINE.
a strong  precipitate, when, as  is  sometimes the
case, it contains albumen ; but this is no ordinary
ingredient of the urine, and therefore tannin gene-
rally renders the urine but slightly turbid  and
does not  deposit a precipitate  till several hours
have elapsed.
  Fresh blood  added to warm urine is at first co-
agulated, and then the colouring matter of the co-
agulum is dissolved in the free acids of the urine,
which thereby  becomes red.
  The substances found in the urine are :—
  a. The ordinary ingredients of the urine (in con-
tra-distinction  to the accidental which will be
spoken of hereafter.)
  1. Mucus.  The mucus from the mucous mem-
brane  of the bladder mixes with the  urine  and
passes off with it; part of it is probably dissolved
and imparts to it the property of forming a thick
froth when shaken in its fresh state.   The mucus
passed off  with the urine is seldom  visible, be-
cause  the refracting power of the two substances
is nearly the same.  If a person  sits quietly  for a
few hours and  then evacuates his urine into three
glasses, so that it is divided into  three equal  por-
tions,  the first  will contain the largest quantity of
mucus, the second but little, and the third almost
none,  because  the mucus has collected in the bot-
tom of the bladder from which  the urine is first
evacuated.   If the mucous portion be filtered while
still warm, the mucus remains on the filter in  se-
parate,  transparent,  colourless  lumps;  it  then 
THE URINE.
33
shrinks on the paper, and at last forms a shining
coat, like varnish.  It does not resume its former
appearance when moistened with water.  It is not
dissolved by sulphuric acid, but acetic and chlo-
rohydric acids take up much of it, and their solu-
tions are precipitated by ferro-prussiate of potassa.
Caustic potassa dissolves it entirely.   If a preci-
pitate exists in the urine before evacuation, it mixes
with the mucus, which loses its transparency on
drying, and generally becomes milk-white.  It can
be freed from the admixture of the insoluble earthy
salts  by dissolving it in  caustic potassa.  If the
mucus be not strained from the urine before it is
cool, a quantity of small granular crystals may be
seen  in  it when dry, which consist of lithate  of
ammonia, and which  form even when the urine
remains clear on cooling.   They are not observed
before drying.   If two successively passed portions
of urine are allowed to stand a few days these crys-
tals will be observed to form in and on the mucus
of the first portion, while there  will be no  deposi-
tion whatever in the  second  portion which con-
tains no mucus.
   2.  Lithic or Uric acid.   This ingredient of the
urine  was discovered by Scheele, who  found that
it formed the chief ingredient  of several  calculi
analyzed by him, and he was thereby induced to
search for it in  the healthy urine  of both adults
and children.  It exists in the urine of man and
carnivorous animals, but not in that of herbivorous
mammalia.   It is of  constant occurrence in other
       5 
34
THE URINE.
orders of animals, even in the  lowest.  In some
islands of the South Sea, it is found as a kind of
half mineralized  substance forming a superficial
layer, and is  called Guano, from the Indian word
Huanu, which  signifies  dung.  This layer  has
often a considerable thickness;  it is formed from
the dung of sea birds which are  the sole in-
habitants of these islands.   The other ingredients
of these excrements are  gradually destroyed  and
the lithic acid remains in the form of a very im-
pure lithate of ammonia.
  Lithic acid may be procured  in different ways.
For instance by  collecting the sediment formed
in the urine  by cooling, or by adding nitric or
chlorohydric  acid to the urine and collecting  and
washing the  lithic  acid gradually deposited; or
from  calculi  consisting of this substance.  But
the easiest and  most convenient way of obtaining
it is from the white mass of lithic acid and lithates
which are evacuated with the excrements of large
serpents, and may  be  easily procured from  the
people who exhibit such  animals.   It may also
be obtained from guano, and from the excrements
of birds in general, especially the carnivorous, as
the  corvis monedula,  which may  be procured
without much  trouble  from the  high steeples
where these birds roost in great numbers.
  In all these substances lithic acid is more or
less  impure  from admixture of foreign animal
matters.   They are to be first boiled with alcohol
and afterwards treated with cold water till this 
THE URINE.
35
latter is  no longer discoloured.  The lithic acid
from serpents may also be macerated  with dilute
chlorohydric acid, which extracts  a considerable
portion of phosphate  of lime, and  then washed
with water, after which the  impure lithic acid is
dissolved in a dilute warm lye of caustic potassa,
filtered from  the insoluble residue, mixed  with
more caustic or carbonated potassa, and evaporated
to a certain point, at which the lithate of potassa
becomes insoluble in the alkaline solution, though
this latter retains  the animal matters dissolved.
The whole  becomes  a  thick paste on cooling.
According to Braconnot, who is the author of this
method, the cooled mass should then  be trans-
ferred to a clean piece of linen cloth, the alkaline
solution  allowed to drain, the mass gently pressed,
and then washed with ice-cold water or a solution
of carbonate of potassa.  Thus a moderately pure
lithate of potassa is obtained.
   The same may be effected  by mixing the  mass
from which the lithic  acid is to be extracted, after
treatment with alcohol  and  water, with  boiling
hot water, to  which, whilst  constantly stirred, a
lye of caustic potassa is added in quantity exactly
sufficient to dissolve the lithic acid, after which
the boiling hot solution is to be filtered and cooled.
A tolerably pure  lithate of  potassa then  preci-
pitates,  which is to be  washed on a filter  with
cold water and  pressed.  The mother and wash-
waters yield  by evaporation more, but impurer 
36
THE URINE.
salt, which after subsequent  solution in boiling
water precipitates pure.
  According to Wohler an impure lithic acid may
be rendered pure by dissolving it in caustic potassa
and mixing the solution with a solution of sal am-
moniac as long as a precipitate is formed.   All the
lithic acid precipitates as lithate of ammonia in the
form of an almost transparent jelly which  gradu-
ally subsides to a perfectly white powder.   Very
dilute solutions should be employed, because other-
wise the whole coagulates to a stiff jelly. If the sal
ammoniac has been employed in excess and both
the solutions  mixed while hot, no lithic acid re-
mains in the solution, especially when it has been
heated to expel all the  ammonia that was  libe-
rated.
  The lithic acid is obtained from the  purified
lithate of potassa by decomposition with chloro-
hydric acid.   This can be effected best by pour-
ing the boiling solution of the salt of potassa into
the chlorohydric acid, for otherwise the lithic acid
is apt to retain some potassa.   The  precipitate is
at first gelatinous but is gradually converted into
small, white, shining scales  which should be well
washed with cold water.
  Henry prescribes the purification of lithic acid
by  digestion with  carbonate  of ammonia, which
he  thinks dissolves all the animal  matters; but
this  is a very uncertain method, not  to mention
that the residue is lithate of ammonia which must 
THE URINE.
37
be freed  from ammonia by digestion with chloro-
hydric acid,  a circumstance which Henry does
not mention.
  Fritzsche recommends the following method of
purification.   Excrements of  serpents or lithic
acid calculi are to be dissolved in warm concen-
trated sulphuric acid, the clear, generally brown
coloured, solution  is to be decanted while still hot
and mixed while agitated with small portions of
water as long as it effects  a precipitate.   The
lithic acid then  precipitates in dazzling white
crystals  and quickly subsides  so  that the  acid
solution  may be  decanted.   The precipitate is
then filtered and  washed at first with sulphuric
acid of about the same dilution as the decanted
liquid and afterwards with water.   This is neces-
sary, because if the remaining mother liquid wTere
removed from the lithic  acid by  washing with
water, the brown decanted liquor which does not
separate any lithic acid  by water will,  by still
greater  dilution,  yield  a  precipitate of dissolved
animal matters and  would cause an admixture of
these in  the lithic acid  precipitated by the wash-
water.
   Lithic acid obtained  in the above way has the
following properties: it forms white  crystalline
scales which are soft to the touch; it has neither
taste nor odour, reddens moistened litmus paper
when laid on it, and requires according  to Prout
more than 10,000  times its  weight of cold water,
but rather less of boiling water for its solution. 
38
THE URINE.
Henry states that  it requires 1720 parts of cold,
and 1400 parts of boiling water to dissolve it; but
his lithic  acid seems  to  have been  bilithate  of
ammonia.   According to  Mitscherlich it requires
10,000 parts of cold water for solution.   Its solu-
tion in boiling water reddens litmus paper.  It is
insoluble in alcohol and ether.   It is decomposed
by dry distillation; it first sublimes carbonate of
ammonia  in  solid form, then yields a large por-
tion of cyanhydric acid and brown empyreumatic
oil, and at last a crystalline mass which Scheele
had observed and  compared  to benzoic acid, and
which forms seven-fifteenths  of the weight of the
lithic acid.  Chevallier and Lassaigne afterwards
described  it as a peculiar  acid and called it pyro-
lithic acid; at last Wohler  showed  that  it was
cyanuric acid.  According to him the sublimate
from the distillation of lithic acid  contains a con-
siderable quantity of urea combined with cyanuric
acid,  as was afterwards proved  by  Kodweiss.
According to Henry carbon remains in the retort
to the amount of one-sixth of the acid.   Lithic
acid chars without fusion when heated in an open
vessel.  The carbon afterwards burns with diffi-
culty and  leaves  no residue.  When heated  in
the open  air  lithic acid  is characterized by the
strong odour of prussic acid which it generates,
and at last, also, by the acid odour of cyanic acid.
   Moistened lithic  acid  swells  up in chlorine,
generates,  according to Liebig, carbonic acid and
cyanic acid, and is converted into oxalic acid and 
THE URINE.                39
sal-ammoniac.  It does not change in dry chlorine
at ordinary temperatures.  But  if  the perfectly
dry acid be heated in perfectly dry gas it yields
according  to Liebig, a large quantity of cyanic
and chlorohydric acid, and, according to Kodweiss,
also  solid  chloride of cyanogen.  It thereby dis-
appears  except  a small  carbonaceous  residue.
Chlorine-water  and nitric acid form  oxalic acid
by long continued digestion with  it.  Nitric acid
produces by its action a  long series of important
compounds which will be mentioned in another
place.  I will here only mention  that lithic acid
dissolves with effervescence even  in a very dilute
warm nitric acid, and that when this solution is
evaporated to dryness by a gentle  heat a red re-
sidue remains which is soluble in  water without
colour.  This reaction is used as a test for  lithic
acid.  It is  soluble in small quantity in concen-
trated sulphuric acid, but if the latter be hot  a
larger quantity  is dissolved without decomposi-
 tion if the temperature be not raised too high.   It
 again precipitates by the addition of water.  We
 have seen that Fritzche's method of purification
 consisted  in this.  But he has also discovered  a
 chemical combination of lithic acid with sulphuric
 acid, which is obtained by dissolving it in warm
 concentrated sulphuric  acid and  decanting  the
 clear warm  solution from which the sulphate of
 the lithic acid  separates in large well  defined
 colourless crystals.   Purified  lithic acid is  not
 necessary for this  purpose;  that  which separates 
40
THE URINE.
from the brown acid  solution of an impure lithic
acid is pure and colourless.  These crystals melt
at 158° F., and solidify again to a crystalline mass
when  the  temperature is  reduced.  At  302° F.
they begin to be decomposed.   The combination
attracts moisture from  the air and is  converted
into a mixture of dilute sulphuric acid and pre-
cipitated lithic acid.   Water decomposes it in a
similar manner.  According to Fritzsche's  analysis
the crystals  consist of one atom  of lithic acid,
four atoms of sulphuric acid, and four atoms of
water.
   Lithic acid has been analyzed by Berard, Prout,
Dobereiner,  Gobell, Kodweiss, Mitscherlich,  and
Liebig.  The results of the latter two agree,  and
are near to that of Prout.   I will here give the
results of the analysis by Mitscherlich and Liebig:

             Liebig.   Mitscherlich.  Atoms. By Calculation.
  Carbon.......36 083......35-82......5......3600
  Hydrogen.....  2 441......  2-38......2......  2-36
  Nitrogen......33-361......34-60......2......33-37
  Oxygen.......28126......2720......3......2827

   Its  atomic weight is 1061-216.  It is the oxide
of a radical  whose composition is expressed  by
C5 H2 N2; and of which we will find a substance
in urinary calculi with a lower degree of oxidation.
Lithic acid is then Cs H2 N2 + 30, and the lower
oxide Cs H3 N2 + 20.
   Several  chemists double the numbers of atoms
of  its elements, and  therefore, also  its  atomic
weight;  for the  reason that lithic  acid is a weak 
THE URINE.
41
acid,  and like boracic acid and  the fatty acids,
principally  forms acid  salts,  while the  neutral
salts are decomposed  by water when the base is
soluble in it, leaving an  insoluble bilithate.
  Lithic acid expels carbonic  acid with difficulty
from  the alkaline  carbonates, forming  a bicar-
bonate and a bilithate.  According to Wetzlar if
a solution of carbonate of potassa or scda contains
one-twelfth of its  weight  of  the carbonate,  the
acid precipitates with a portion of the alkali and
thereby converts another  part into bicarbonate
which  remains in the solution.  But if the con-
tent of the carbonate  is only a half per cent,  the
lithic acid dissolves rather easily, because an ex-
cess of alkali in the solution diminishes the solu-
bility of the lithate in proportion as the solution
becomes concentrated.  For the same reason lithic
acid dissolves in a  solution of borax, but the bi-
borate which is formed  prevents the solubility of
the lithate less than the carbonates.  Hence lithic
acid is far  more soluble in borax.  Most of the
neutral lithates  dissolve with difficulty in  cold
water and  form white, earthy, tasteless  powders.
By dry distillation  they char  without fusion  and
yield  carbonate of ammonia,  cyanide  of   am-
monium, empyreumatic oil, many  of them  also
yield  cyanic acid, and  those  with  fixed alkaline
bases leave a soluble cyanide.
   Lithate of potassa is obtained  by dissolving
lithic acid in a warm  lye of caustic potassa till it
is perfectly saturated.   The salt is deposited on
        6 
42
THE URINE.
cooling in small crystalline grains.   When cooled
very slowly it  crystallizes in fine  scales.   It re-
quires 480  parts of cold water for solution but
much less of hot water.  A slight excess of potassa
renders it still much more soluble in boiling water,
but a neutral salt  then deposites on cooling.  A
greater excess  of caustic potassa in the solution
considerably increases  the  solubility  of the salt
even at ordinary temperatures, but a still greater
excess diminishes it again; hence the salt is depo-
sited by concentration of the solution.   From the
solution in caustic potassa carbonic acid  precipi-
tates probably a neutral salt in the form of a very
voluminous jelly.  Carbonate of ammonia also pre-
cipitates it; the carbonic acid combines with the po-
tassa  which thereby loses its  power of dissolving
the salt; this precipitate contains also lithate of am-
monia.  The dry distillation of lithate of potassa
yields much cyanide of potassium.   According to
Gay-Lussac lithic acid when fused with caustic po-
tassa is converted  into oxalic acid, with develop-
ment of ammonia.
   Lithate of soda behaves like the salt of potassa.
It is contained in small quantity in the urine, and
also forms the  earthy concretions which occur in
gout.
   Lithate  of ammonia  resembles  the foregoing
salts  and has about the same solubility in water.
It may be distinguished from them by its burning
without  residue, and generating ammonia with
potassa.   The bases of these alkaline lithates are
recognised by  extracting them with chlorohydric 
THE URINE.
43
acid, evaporating the solution, and examining whe-
ther the chloride of sodium, potassium, or ammo-
nium is obtained.  According to Coindet's experi-
ments, lithic acid is contained in the urine of birds,
as bilithate of ammonia, which likewise forms a
white earthy powder.  The urine of serpents seems
to consist of the same salt, at least their  excre-
ments generate with potassa a considerable quan-
tity of ammonia.  Lithate  of ammonia may be ob-
tained either by direct combination or by precipi-
tation  of  lithate  of potassa  by  sal-ammoniac.
When freshly precipitated it forms a transparent,
stiff jelly,  which  soon  collects to  a light, white
powder.
   Nothing more  is known of the other  lithates
than that the combinations of this acid with the al-
kaline earths have  about  the  same solubility in
cold water as  the foregoing salts, so that,  for  in-
stance, when  lime water is saturated with lithic
acid the  salt formed with the lime remains in so-
lution.  If a warm saturated solution  of lithate of
potassa be mixed with a solution of any of these
earthy salts they are thereby precipitated, but the
salt of magnesia less so than the others, because its
lithate is more soluble.   Henry was the first to ob-
serve this, and was led to the fortunate experiment
of using magnesia for preventing lithic acid sedi-
ments in the urine.  A solution of lithate of po-
tassa is  precipitated by the salts of all the earths
proper and metallic oxides.  The chloride of gold
only forms an  exception;  after some time it  ac- 
44
THE URINE.
quires a violet colour.   Lithate of mercury is ob-
tained, accaiding to Wohler, by mixing a solution
of chloride of mercury with a solution of  neutral
lithate of potassa.  It forms a white powder, but
has a pale yellow colour when completely dry.
It does not seem to be decomposed by boiling with
potassa.  By heat it assumes a transient lemon
colour.  By stronger heat it blackens and yields,
besides  mercury, much cyanic and  cyanohydric
acid,  but neither empyreumatic  oil nor water.
Carbon  remains in the  retort.  Urea also is pro-
bably formed.  The gases burn  with a violet
colour.
  Lithic acid in the urine.   Warm urine contains
far more lithic acid  in  solution than can be dis-
solved in an equal volume of boiling water.   From
this fact Prout was induced to suppose that lithic
acid was dissolved in the urine as lithate of ammo-
nia,  which was decomposed on  cooling  by  the
other free  acids.  It is not easy  to  say  how a
liquid of such complicated composition as the urine
may retain the insoluble matters in solution.   It
may be possible that the lithic acid at the tempe-
rature of the body counteracts the phosphoric and
lactic acids in their acid salts, but this is probably
not the case.   We know also that,  for instance,
iodine will dissolve  in  larger quantity in water
containing chloride of sodium or ammonium in so-
lution, than in pure  water, although no combina-
tion of these salts with iodine is known.   Be this
as it may, the lithic acid precipitating from urine 
THE URINE.
45
on cooling, is  in a free state, with so small traces
of ammonia and soda, that they are not worth no-
tice, especially when the mucus  has been sepa-
rated by filtration before cooling.   The precipitate
is at first pulverulent and gray like clay, but as it
gradually collects becomes of a pale pink colour,
and crystalline and scaly when dried.  The finer
the  scales are the purer is the acid, and on the
contrary, the  more distinctly the crystals can be
seen in it the  more impure it is from a content of
bases.   The  fine scaly  precipitate  dissolves in
caustic potassa without any odour of ammonia; a
trace of it may, however, be discovered by holding
over it a glass rod moistened with muriatic acid,
and a  trace of carbonate of soda remains when it
is burned on platinum foil.  If on the other hand
such sediment be crystalline and consist of small
red angular crystals, it  then generates ammonia
with caustic potassa in a perceptible quantity, and
the solution which was red at first becomes yellow
afterwards.   It also leaves  after ignition  on plati-
num foil a large quantity of ashes.  Lithate of am-
monia rarely  precipitates from the urine on cool-
ing.   When  this happens it subsides but slowly,
and dissolves again when it is washed with water.
It generally either crystallizes after twenty-four or
thirty-six hours from urine depositing no sediment,
or  the scaly acid already precipitated alters, by re-
maining in urine becoming alkaline, into  large
reddish granular crystals of bilithate of ammonia.
The mucus wherein the lithic  acid is deposited
takes so considerable a part in this formation of an 
46
THE URINE.
ammoniacal salt, that if urine be filtered after com-
mencing cloudiness, the precipitate on the filter
washed, and then left under water, the crystalli-
zation will often take place in a few hours.  The
sediment from  urine filtered while still warm, re-
tains, after washing and drying, its glittering, fine,
scaly appearance; while on the contrary, the sedi-
ment from unfiltered urine is distinctly crystalline
and  ammoniacal after it  has  been washed  and
dried.
  All the lithic acid does not precipitate from the
urine on cooling, but a considerable portion of it
remains in solution.  Nor  does every  healthy
urine deposit a sediment on cooling, at least not at
the warmer temperatures  of the air.   If filtered
urine is evaporated, it deposits  a gray sediment
consisting of a mixture of lithic acid and phosphate
of lime.  The lithic acid may also be precipitated,
as already stated, by a large addition of nitric or
chlorohydric acid to the urine.   It then deposits,
generally after some time, either as powder or as
crystals according  to  the  rapidity with which it
precipitates.
  The  lithic  acid precipitated  from  urine  fre-
quently acquires  after washing,  a  pink or brick
colour, although it appeared gray while it remain-
ed in the urine.  This colour  is derived from a
foreign  colouring matter combined with the acid.
In intermittent fever the intensity  of this red colour
considerably increases; the urine  deposits  after
every paroxysm a strong  lateritious, or pink, or
bright carmine precipitate.   This  colouring matter 
THE URINE.
47
was first examined by Prevost, who considered it
a peculiar acid which  he called rosacic acid, but
he afterwards  observed that it was nothing  else
than a combination of lithic acid with a peculiar
extractive red colouring matter.   This colouring
matter is dissolved when the red precipitate from
the urine of a fever-patient is treated with boiling
water or boiling  alcohol.   After  evaporation the
alcoholic solution leaves a scarlet  powder without
taste or smell.  Vogel states the following par-
ticulars.  The colouring matter extracted by alco-
hol still  retains a  portion of lithic acid.  It does
not exhale the odour  of burnt horn by ignition.
It is soluble with a pink colour in sulphuric acid,
which soon becomes dark red; water precipitates
lithic acid unaltered.  Sulphuric acid diluted with
three parts of water  extracts the colour and be-
comes  red,  but  leaves  the  lithic  acid  behind.
Liquid sulphurous acid turns it carmine.   Nitric
acid  and chlorine produce the same change  with
it as with  pure  lithic acid.  Chlorohydric  acid
oradually destroys the red, and converts it into  a
yellow colour.  It is  dissolved by alkalies.   The
solution soon becomes yellow and behaves exactly
as a solution of lithic acid in an alkali.  Duvernoy
 states that the red sediment in fever may be pro-
 duced from ordinary urine by evaporating it to one-
 third or one-fourth, and then mixing it with a little
 nitric acid and permitting it to stand for 12 or 16
 hours, whereby  it gradually becomes dark-red.
 If then a lithate be added lithic acid precipitates of 
48
THE URINE.
a red colour, and alcohol extracts from it the ordi-
nary red precipitate.  When a solution of the red
matter in water is mixed with a solution of acetate
of lead, a pale  pink precipitate is formed.  By
nitrate of silver  it becomes green in a few hours.
Fromherz and  Gugert  who  examined the red
coloured sediment  from  the  urine  of a person
affected with a liver complaint obtained the same
results.  By  long  digestion in  water or boiling
with alcohol, a red extractive colouring matter was
obtained, which  was coloured  yellow by alkalies.
Its property of reddening litmus was due only  to
its colour.
   On the other hand Prout ascribes the red colour
in the sediment  of the urine to an admixture  of
purpurate of ammonia, because the purpuric acid
may be  artificially  produced by treating lithic
acid with nitric acid; and he  found nitric acid
in unknown combination in the precipitate from
urine in fever.    He digested  the  precipitate
with hydrate of baryta and  water,  filtered the
solution, precipitated it exactly with  sulphate
of potassa,  evaporated  it, and obtained  after
sufficient  concentration, crystals  of nitrate   of
potassa.   Nitric acid however  occurs  so very
rarely that Wurzer found it but once in eleven
cases examined  by  him with  this view.   The
solubility of this  colouring matter in alcohol, which
is not coloured by purpurate of ammonia, is against
the assumption that the colour derives from pur-
purate of ammonia.   It is certain that when lithate 
THE URINE.
49
of ammonia is mixed with a solution of purpurate
of ammonia in acetic acid, which does not destroy
its colour, the lithic acid precipitates with a pale
pink colour, exactly like the precipitate from the
urine.   But boiling alcohol extracts no trace of a
colouring matter.   I tried the experiment of mix-
ing urine with the above mentioned acid solution
of a purpurate, while I left another portion of the
same urine  unmixed.  Both deposited a  sediment
perfectly alike as regards the colour, and by both,
boiling alcohol became yellow, without the  ad-
dition  of the purpurate at all increasing the colour
of the precipitate, or seeming to impart to it any
of its colouring matter, since both became yellow
after boiling.
  The ordinary pink precipitate which frequently
deposits even from healthy urine does not appear
to agree perfectly with that in fever, since water
extracts nothing from it, and  alcohol, when long
boiled with it,  becomes yellow and leaves after
evaporation  a dark orange  coloured extractive
residue which dissolves with  difficulty  in water,
leaving  the red pulverulent colouring matter be-
hind, and consists  of lithate of soda with a little
lithate of ammonia.  A small portion of alcohol
extracts the red colouring matter from the  red
powder soluble in much  water, and leaves a yellow
pulverulent lithic  acid.  The acid boiled  with
alcohol  does  not become colourless but  yellow,
and acetic acid  extracts  part of the yellow colour.
   3. Lactic acid.   This acid is a common product
        7 
50
THE URINE.
of the spontaneous decomposition of animal matters
within the body; it is therefore contained in all its
liquids.  It forms most abundantly in the muscu-
lar tissues, is saturated  in  the blood by its alkali,
and again separated from it with acid urine by the
kidneys.  This is the principal of the free acids
of the urine;  and  although the  urine contains
biphosphates of ammonia and lime, they are only
formed by the lactic acid dividing the bases with
the phosphoric acid.
  By an examination of the urine performed  by
me in the year 1507, I discovered  the presence of
this acid,*  which had not until then been conside-
red an ingredient of this  secretion, and as  many
chemists presumed, without good  reasons, that
this  acid was acetic acid, I  instituted  a new ex-
amination of it, the result of which was that lactic
acid could not be considered acetic acid.f
  The great number of substances contained in
the urine render  the separation of the lactic acid
in its pure state very difficult, but it is not difficult
to obtain it sufficiently pure to  be  recognised.
By my first experiments on this subject the residue
from the evaporated urine was extracted by alcohol
of 0-833, the alcohol distilled in a  water bath, the
extract dissolved in water,  mixed with a  large
quantity of hydrate of lime and boiled as long as
ammoniacal odour indicated the existence of unde-

  * Fdrelasninger i Djurkemien.  Stockholm, 1808, II. p. 287.
  t Ibid. p. 430. 
THE URINE.
51
composed  urea.   The lime  became brownish-
yellow from the destruction  of animal  matter.
The almost colourless solution was filtered, evapo-
rated to dryness, dissolved in spirits of 0.845, and
mixed  drop by drop with sulphuric  acid diluted
with but little water,  as long as any sulphate pre-
cipitated.   The acid solution which now contained
the  added excess of sulphuric acid  and chloro-
hydric acid, was digested with newly  precipitated
carbonate  of lead until it was impregnated with
lead, then filtered and  evaporated till all the alcohol
was volatilized.   The residue was then  digested
with oxide of lead and water,  whereby the lactate
of lead was converted into an insoluble basic salt,
which was separated  from the supernatant liquid,
washed with  a  little water, and decomposed by
sulphuretted hydrogen, whereby  the lactic  acid
was set free and remained after evaporation in the
form of a  yellow acid  syrup which did not become
dry by heat, but became more dilute  by standing
in the  open air.   But after saturation with a base
it always showed  distinctly an admixture of the
extractive ingredients of the urine.
  Alcohol does not extract all the lactic acid from
the residue of the urine; a small portion of it re-
mains  undissolved, probably retained by  the ani-
mal matters; but if the free acid contained in the
insoluble  residue be saturated with ammonia, al-
cohol will then extract lactate of ammonia from it.
  The  lactic acid contained  in the urine is the
principal  solvent for  the  phosphate of lime con- 
52
THE  URINE.
tained  in it also, which may be easily shown by
extracting  the free lactic acid with alcohol from
inspissated urine and adding water to the residue,
when it will be found that the greatest part of the
phosphate of lime remains undissolved.
  4. Other organic acids.   Many  chemists,  espe-
cially  Proust  and  Thenard, assume a content of
acetic  acid in the urine.  The former stated that
when  urine was  mixed with  so much sulphuric
acid as to decompose all its salts, and then distilled,
a water  passed over containing a great deal  of
acetic  acid.  This  he gave as  the most important
proof of the presence of this acid in the urine.   I
have repeated this experiment, but with different
results from what  I expected  after Proust's state-
ment.   By mixing  urine with  sulphuric acid  it
acquires a very  disagreeable,  though  peculiar
and characteristic odour.   A  colourless  liquid
then passed over  by distillation, which had  a
very offensive odour of  putrid urine.  I conti-
nued the distillation until about one-tenth of the
original volume of the urine remained.  The dis-
tillate reddened litmus paper, but had no observa-
ble acid taste, and made hardly  any other impres-
sion than by its smell. It was strongly precipitated
by acetate of lead, lime water, barytic water, and
nitrate of silver;  the latter precipitate was not so-
luble in nitric acid.  It was saturated with so much
hydrate of baryta  as  to become alkaline; which
produced a voluminous precipitate, proving  on
examination to be  carbonate of baryta.  The car- 
THE  URINE.
53
bonic acid derived from the decomposition of urea
into carbonate of ammonia, the ammonia of which
was retained by sulphuric acid.   By evaporating
the filtered barytic solution it  long retained the
odour of the volatile substance produced  by the
distillation, and there at last remained a  small
syrupy residue which solidified, in a dry and warm
place, into an irregularly crystalline saline mass,
with a barytic  taste.  In order to test it for acetic
acid it was mixed with some sulphuric acid, where-
by butyric acid was generated in considerable quan-
tity ;  by the addition of more sulphuric acid the
odour became pungent and might have been mis-
taken for that of acetic acid concealed by butyric
acid, if the precipitate by nitrate of silver had not
indicated that it  came from chlorohydric acid.
This experiment therefore shows that by distilla-
tion of urine with sulphuric  acid, no observable
quantity of acetic acid is  produced, and therefore
it cannot be contained in  urine either in a free or
combined state.  But on the contrary it proves the
presence of a certain quantity of butyric acid.  But
since this acid has only been found in the urine of
a single individual it remains  undetermined at
present whether it exists as a constant or merely
as an accidental ingredient in the urine.
   It has also been stated by chemists that benzoic
acid  exists in  the urine  of young children  and
herbivorous animals.  Rouelle found that chloro-
hydric acid precipitated an acid salt from the con-
centrated urine of a cow, which he compared to 
54                THE URINE.
benzoic acid.  This result was afterwards con-
firmed by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, and for this
reason benzoic acid has generally been assumed
to be an ingredient in the urine of cows and horses.
Liebig afterwards found that the acid obtained from
the urine by Fourcroy's prescription in fact resem-
bled benzoic acid, and under certain circumstances
could be converted into it, but that it had a different
composition and other properties than benzoic acid;
hence he named it hippuric acid.   Still later ex-
periments have shown that the urine of these
animals sometimes contain benzoic acid, though
much less frequently than hippuric acid.  This
has  in fact been  found by Dumas, Liebig, and
Erdmann.  Liebig considered it  probable that
benzoic acid was the product of the evaporation
by boiling, and that it derived from  the decom-
position of hippuric acid.  Erdmann on the con-
trary, found  that the  urine of horses by similar
evaporation  yielded sometimes benzoic acid,  and
sometimes hippuric acid; and mentions as a proof
that the presence of benzoic acid does not depend
on  such  an accidental circumstance,  that  both
acids never occur together, but either only benzoic
or only hippuric acid.   Both of these acids may
therefore be considered as ingredients in the urine
of herbivorous  animals.  Since benzoic acid has
already been described  in the vegetable chemistry
I will here only treat of hippuric acid.
  Hippuric acid.   This acid occurs  in the urine
partly combined with  urea and partly with soda. 
THE URINE.
55
After evaporating  the urine to one-eighth or less,
it is mixed with chlorohydric acid, which after some
time forms a yellow brown crystalline precipitate.
This sliould be dissolved, according to Liebig, in
a mixture of hydrate of potassa and water,  the
solution heated to boiling, and a solution of hypo-
chlorite of lime added by drops until the urinary
odour disappears; it is afterwards digested with
animal charcoal until it becomes colourless, filtered
while hot, mixed  with  chlorohydric acid until it
acquires  an acid taste  and  then  slowly cooled,
whereby  the acid separates in long  colourless
needle shaped crystals.   Dumas rejects the use of
hypochlorite of lime for purifying the acid, stating
that it decomposes the hippuric acid;  but experi-
ments both by Erdmann and Fehling have shown
that this is not the case when the  hypochlorite is
not added in great excess.
   When larger quantities of hippuric acid are pre-
pared it is obtained in transparent,  four-sided
prisms two  or three inches in length, which are
 terminated by two oblique surfaces. It has almost
no taste or is only feebly bitter, but  it strongly
reddens moistened litmus paper.   By gentle  heat
it melts to a colourless liquid and congeals again
by cooling into a crystalline mass.  By this fusion
it soon enters into decomposition, the upper surface
 becoming brownish-yellow,  which  colour   soon
 spreads through  the whole  mass.  Exposed in a
 retort to a gradually increasing heat, a portion of
 it  sublimes colourless  and  crystalline, and this
 sublimate consists of benzoic acid and benzoate of 
56
THE URINE.
ammonia.  A  liquid  matter afterwards  passes
over in red drops which solidify and retain their
transparency.  The mass thereby acquires a plea-
sant odour like that of tonka bean.   The red sub-
stance is resinous, insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol and ammonia, after the evaporation of which
it remains as an uncrystalline mass.  The residue
in the retort is black, generates cyanhydric acid
by ignition and leaves a porous coal.   This gene-
ration of  cyanhydric  acid had already  been
observed  by Vogel.   In vacuo the products  of
distillation are the  same, except that towards the
end of the operation gaseous matters are generated
which cause the guage of the air pump to rise.
  Hippuric acid has nearly the same solubility in
cold water as benzoic acid.  A warm saturated
solution  cooled  to 50° F. and allowed to deposit
what it will, contains in one thousand parts  of
water only 2-66 parts of hippuric  acid.  It is far
more soluble in  boiling water.   On  cooling  it
separates in distinct crystals without forming like
benzoic acid an aggregation of microscopic crystals
in which the water  is included.  It is much more
soluble in alcohol than in water.  It is sparingly
soluble in ether, and  equally in cold and warm
ether.  The  acid remains crystalline  from both
solvents after evaporation.   The crystals  of  hip-
puric acid contain no water of crystallization, and
give no trace of it either by fusion or by destructive
distillation.  It is dissolved by sulphuric acid at
248° F. without becoming  black;  it is again pre- 
THE URINE.
57
cipitated by the addition of water.   By stronger
heat the  solution  is  decomposed and  sublimes
benzoic acid.   Concentrated nitric acid dissolves
it by boiling, without effervescence.  Liebig found
that it  was hereby converted into benzoic acid.
By experiments performed by me on this subject,
and in which the excess of nitric acid was evapo-
rated by boiling until a small  quantity of the
solution remained, hippuric acid could be precipi-
tated from this solution by water, which  did not
seem to be altered ;  but the nitric acid employed
by me  had originally only a specific gravity of
1-26.  Chlorohydric acid  dissolves hippuric acid
by heat without alteration,  and  deposits  it  in
crystals on cooling.  It is decomposed by continued
boiling with a great excess of hypochlorite of lime.
   Crystallized  hippuric acid has been analyzed by
Liebig, Dumas, and Mitscherlich with the follow-
ing results: —

        Liebig.   Dumas. Mitscherlich.   Atoms. By Calculation.
Carbon  . 60-742 .  . 60-5  . . . 60-63.....18 ... . 60-76
Hydrogen 4959 .  . 4-9  .. . 4-98.....  9 . . . .  4-92
Nitrogen. 7-816 .  . 77 . . .  7*90.....  1 . . . .  7-82
Oxygen  . 26-483 .  . 26-9 . . . 26-49..... 6 . . . . 26-50

   Although so far as I know no experiments have
been made to prove that it contains one atom of wa-
ter, yet this has been reasonably assumed to be the
case.  The acid consists  then of  C18 H18 N1 O5 +
HO.   The atomic weight of the  anhydrous acid
is  2152-755, and its capacity 4-645 or one fifth of
        H 
58
THE URINE.
its content of oxygen.  In its anhydrous  state it
consists of
                  Atoms.       By Calculation.
          Carbon  ... 18.........63913
          Hydrogen . .  8.........  4-638
          Nitrogen .  .  1.........  8-224
          Oxygen ...  5.........23*225
  The facility with which this acid can  be con-
verted into benzoic acid  by dry distillation, gave
rise to the supposition that it is a combination of
benzoic  acid with  an azotic organic oxide, and
therefore analogous to indigo-sulphuric acid in so
far as it combines with bases without separation
of the oxide.  Considered with this  view it might
consist of one atom of benzoic acid C14 H5  O3, and
one atom of an  organic oxide C4 H4 N1 + 20.   I
therefore proposed  to alter the name of hippuric
acid,  (from «<*■*■««,  a  horse)  which  did not seem
proper to me since it is also contained in the urine
of other herbivorous animals, into  urine-benzoic
acid.   But since  experiments  to  be  mentioned
presently seem to prove that it contains  no  benzoic
acid,  I have again abandoned this name.
   Starting with a similar view, Pelouze afterwards
endeavoured to render it probable that this acid
contains formic acid in chemical combination with
the cyanohydrate of the oil of bitter almonds, which
does not separate by saturation with bases.  The
following diagram represents Pelouze's view:—
  1 atom of bitter almond oil......14C -f 6H     +20
  1 "    cyanohydric acid......2C + 1H + IN
  1 "    formic acid.........2C + 1H     +30
  1 atom of anhydrous hippuric acid . . 18C + 8H + IN + 50 
THE URINE.
59
  In support of this view Pelouze states that if
hippuric acid be digested with dilute sulphuric
acid and hyperoxide of manganese, it generates
carbonic acid gas, and  if the solution be filtered
while hot,  benzoic acid separates  in such large
quantities that Pelouze considers this the cheapest
method of preparing this acid.  The solution con-
tains besides the sulphate of manganese a portion
of the sulphate of ammonia.   According to  Pe-
louze's view formic and cyanohydric acids were
decomposed with the formation of carbonic acid
and ammonia,  while the bitter  almond oil  is
oxidized to benzoic acid.
  If this view were correct, the same products
should be obtained by the influence of other oxi-
dizing reagents.   But  Fehling has shown that
when sulphuric acid is boiled with water  and
hyperoxide of lead, part of the acid is destroyed,
while another portion is saturated by the resulting
protoxide  of lead.   Carbonic acid  is  generated
during the ebullition, hippurate of lead crystallizes
on cooling, and the filtered solution yields benza-
mid by evaporation, which Fehling found to be
identical both in appearance and composition with
benzamid obtained  in  the ordinary way.  The
hippuric acid in the obtained salt of lead  yielded
after separation from the oxide of lead, the same
products when treated in  the  same manner.
Fehling concluded from these experiments that
the acid in  hippuric acid was one of the acids
which consist  of  C4 H1 0s (for instance malic, 
60
THE URINE.
pyromalic,  fumaric or aconitic  acid)  combined
with benzamid in such manner that it cannot be
separated by saturation with bases.  If then

   from one atom of hippuric acid = 18C + 8H + IN + 50
   be deducted one atom benzamid = 14C + 7H + 1N+ 20
             the acid remains = 4C + 1H     +30

which acid he supposes to be converted by the
excess of oxygen in the hyperoxide of lead into
carbonic acid  and water, whereby the benzamid
is set free.   These  interesting metamorphoses
show that the  elements of hippuric  acid  have  a
great tendency to form combinations of the radical
of benzoic  acid=C14 H5, and  the  re-action with
hyperoxide of lead shows  also that the benzoic
acid  is not contained  in it already formed, since
it is  difficult to conceive that  the already  formed
benzoic acid C14 Hs 0® should  be  reduced by the
hyperoxide of lead to C14 H5 Oa, which substance
is supposed to be  combined  in benzamid with
N H2.  However well these metamorphoses agree
with the supposed composition of  hippuric acid,
yet they afford no certain proof that this acid has
in reality such a complex composition.  In  the
meanwhile it may  be more correct to consider
hippuric acid as consisting simply  of C18 H8 N +
50 or of one atom  of  an organic ternary radical
and  five atoms of oxygen, and this so much the
more because the compound organic acids, which
consist of  an organic acid  combined  in  such  a
manner with an organic oxide that this latter can- 
THE URINE.
61
not be separated from the acid by bases, generally
contain a large number of atoms of oxygen.  The
hippurates have a bitter taste almost like the salts
of magnesia.  By dry distillation they yield an
empyreumatic oil which has the smell of hay, and
a  small  quantity of alkaline water.   Even the
empyreumatic oil restores the blue colour of red-
dened litmus paper.  I  will not decide whether
this is due to a content of ammonia, or whether
this oil belongs  to the same class of bases as the
substances  found  in  other  empyreumatic  oils,
which may possibly be the case.
   Hippurate of potassa  dissolves very easily  in
water and crystallizes from  a syrupy solution in
lamina like acetate of  potassa.   The soda salt
crystallizes from a less concentrated solution.  The
hippurate of ammonia crystallizes like the hip-
purate of potassa, but the crystallized salt reddens
litmus paper.  According to Liebig they become
pink by fusion and  leave a red acid, which after
solution yields  red crystals, which otherwise be-
have like hippuric acid.  The hippurates of baryta
and  strontia  crystallize  in white  transparent
lamina.   With an  excess of base they form  a
rather insoluble salt which when concentrated  by
boiling gelatinizes and  on cooling deposits as a
porcelain-like mass.  Evaporated  in  vacuo and
fused it remains  transparent after solidification.
The hippurate of lime crystallizes during evapo-
ration in broad  plates and  on cooling in rhom-
bohedrons.  It contains no water of crystallization 
62
THE URINE.
and is soluble in 18 parts of cold and 6 parts of
boiling  water.  The  hippurate of magnesia is
easily soluble,  and crystallizes with  difficulty.
The  hippurate  of  alumina is soluble  in water.
The hippurate of lead has about the same solubility
in water as the acid itself, and can therefore be
best obtained by mixing hot solutions of hippurate
of potassa and acetate of lead.  It crystallizes in
broad, laminated, soft crystals of pearly lustre.  A
boiling  saturated solution is converted by cooling
into an aggregation of crystals from which the
water may be removed by pressure.  According
to Liebig the crystals become opaque and white
in the air; they contain water of crystallization.
It is also soluble in alcohol.   By digestion it dis-
solves more oxide of lead.   The basic salt is rather
insoluble.  By evaporation of its boiling saturated
solution it becomes covered by a coherent shining
pellicle, and  afterwards the whole solidifies to a
white mass.   The oxide of lead  digested with the
hippurate of lead  forms a coherent mass, which
while yet  under the water, is apt to blacken and
become scorched.   The hippurate of cobalt crys-
tallizes  in pink needles, which  contain water of
crystallization.  The hippurate  of copper forms
also deep blue, needle shaped crystals, containing
water of  crystallization.   Hippuric  acid forms
soluble  salts with the oxides of nickel, manganese,
and mercury.
   It is believed that hippuric acid has also  been
found in  the urine of man.  I have  already 
THE URINE.
63
mentioned that Scheele states that he had obtained
it by treating inspissated urine with nitric acid.
According to Proust's statement if urine be evap-
orated to the consistence of syrup and treated with
sulphuric  acid,  hippuric  acid  is  precipitated
amongst other substances in  fine needle shaped
crystals.  By repeating this experiment I obtain-
ed  needle-shaped crystals  of sulphate of lime.
Wurzer states the case  of a man who  after ex-
posure to cold had at first a swelling of  the paps
and after  the  disappearance of  this he  passed a
milky urine which contained only traces  of the
ordinary organic ingredients of  the  urine and no
sulphates whatever, but on  the  other hand chlo-
rohydric  acid  precipitated  from the evaporated
urine the above acid of which it cannot be decided,
since hippuric  acid  was not then  discovered,
whether it was hippuric  or benzoic acid though
it was taken for the  latter  of them at the time.
Its quantity amounted to  one nine-hundredth of
the original  weight of the  urine.
  5. Inorganic acids  and bases.   Both sulphates
and phosphates occur in human urine.  The acids
of these salts seem to  be formed by the chemical
operation of the kidneys, since only traces of sul-
phates and very small quantities of the phosphates
are to be found  in the other fluids  of the body,
while on the other hand the urine contains a large
quantity of each.  The sulphur contained in fibrin,
albumen, &c, seems  to be  converted in the kid-
neys into sulphuric acid, while the other elements 
64
THE URINE.
combine to form  ammonia, urea, &c.  The same
applies to phosphorus which  is found in several
of the solid tissues of the body.  In the urine of
herbivorous animals the phosphates are generally
wanting while the carbonates  are found in their
place.   Carbonic acid has also been sought for in
human urine.  Since it is acid it can only be con-
tained  as  dissolved carbonic  acid  gas;  but in
diseases, and after the use of certain salts the urine
may contain the carbonates of the alkalies.  Proust
concluded that it contained carbonic acid from the
fact that urine yields a carbonated water by dis-
tillation;  but this  water contains carbonate  of
ammonia formed by the very process of distillation.
Alexander Marcet, and afterwards Vogel placed
a bottle containing urine  and connected by a tube
with one containing lime water,  under the re-
ceiver  of an air-pump.  By  exhausting  the air
carbonic acid was given off by the urine and
rendered the lime water  turbid.  An experiment
performed by  myself  did  not afford  the same
results.  The urine  at first foamed, and particles
of the foam passed through the tube into the lime
water  which  thereby became turbid.  But this
did not take place after I  had poured a stratum of
olive oil as thick as my finger on the surface of
the urine.  Transferred whilst still warm to the
receiver the urine yielded no gas bubbles through
the oil  until the pressure had been reduced to one
inch of mercury.   It then gradually yielded like
common aerated  water a small quantity of gas 
THE URINE.
65
until the pressure was reduced to one eighth of an
inch, but this  gas did not produce the slightest
cloudiness  in  lime water.  Wohler repeated the
same experiment after the free use  of carbonated
drinks without finding carbonic acid in the urine.
These experiments  prove that though carbonic
acid may be found in the urine as  dissolved  car-
bonic  acid  gas it is by  no  means a constant but
merely an accidental ingredient.
   A very small quantity of silicic  acid is  also to
be mentioned  amongst the inorganic acids  of the
urine.  It is separated by evaporating  the urine
to dryness  and dissolving  the residue in water,
whereby a pulverulent mass remains from which
the phosphate of lime is extracted by chlorohydric
acid; the residue consisting of mucus, lithic acid,
and silica, should  be burned in the open air, when
the silica  will  remain.   All the water that we
drink and with which our food is prepared contains
dissolved silicic acid, which  does not separate
from it except by evaporation.  This portion con-
tained in  the water passes with it through  the
liquids of the  body and is separated with it by the
kidneys.
   The bases  contained in the urine are, potassa,
soda, ammonia, lime, and magnesia, a very small
quantity of sesquioxide  of iron, and sometimes a
trace of the protoxide of manganese, all of which
are divided amongst the acids according  to their
own  as well  as the acids' relative quantity and
affinities, so that every acid takes hold of a  certain
       9 
66                THE URINE.
portion  of every base, and vice versa every base
combines with a certain quantity of each acid, and
it  is only  by evaporation and other analytical
operations that certain salts separate in preference.
  Chloride of potassium, sodium, and ammonium,
and a small quantity of fluoride of calcium, apper-
tain also to the salts of the urine ; the latter exists
generally in so inconsiderable a quantity that it can
only be obtained by  precipitating large quantities
of urine with an ammoniacal solution of chloride
of calcium and testing  the  washed  and ignited
precipitate for the presence of fluohydric acid in
the usual way.   The presence of  this substance
in the urine could be inferred  a priori since it is
contained in the bones  and  teeth.   It must also
be introduced in the body with the other earthy
phosphates and again removed  from it.
  6. Urea.   This is undoubtedly in every respect
the most important  ingredient of the  urine; it
imparts  to it some of its peculiar characters.  In
regard to its composition and  its crystallizable pro-
perties it stands on the borders between organic
and inorganic substances.  It combines with acids
to form peculiar salts, in which respect it resembles
the vegetable salt-bases.   It is  contained not only
in the urine but, as we have  already  seen, in  the
blood also, when the secretion of urine is impeded,
as for instance in cholera.  It has even been found in
the evacuations of the stomach during a retention
of the urine.  Several chemists, as Marchand and
Barruel, have found it in the liquid, which collects 
THE URINE.
67
in different parts of the body in dropsy.  It is also
formed  in  several ways by the metamorphosis of
other animal matters, both by processes within the
living body and by chemical re-action without the
body, of which I will state several instances.  Urea
is in urine combined with acids, in man with lactic
acid, in cattle with hippuric acid, and in birds and
reptiles with lithic acid.  For this reason it can-
not be obtained in crystals from concentrated urine,
on account of which it remained undiscovered for
a long time, and its combinations with acids have
only recently been  extracted from the  urine by
Cap and Henry.
   Although  it was first observed by Cruikshank,
who discovered its  property of crystallizing with
nitric acid, yet it is to the excellent work of Four-
croy and Vauquelin on  the urine that we owe our
first certain knowledge  of it.  The name  of urea
was given  to it by them.   It was at  first very
difficult to obtain it in its pure state, and their first
description of it shows  that at that time they had
not obtained it perfectly pure.
   Urea may be obtained perfectly pure in the fol-
lowing manner.   The urine should be evaporated
in a water-bath as far as possible, and the residue
extracted by anhydrous alcohol.   The  alcohol is
then distilled in a water-bath, the yellow residue
dissolved in a little water and digested with animal
charcoal, which renders it almost colourless.  The
solution is then to be filtered and warmed to 122°
F., and as much oxalic  acid added as will dissolve 
68
THE URINE.
in it at this temperature.   On cooling it deposits
colourless crystals of oxalate of urea.  If the tem-
perature be raised to 212° F. when the oxalic acid
is dissolved in it, the solution becomes dark brown
and acquires a disagreeable smell.  The oxalate of
urea which then crystallizes has a beautiful red or
sometimes brown colour.  This colour can again
be taken away by a little animal charcoal.  When
the acid mother-water is evaporated by a gentle heat
it yields more crystals.   Should it become charred
and lose its strong acid taste, more oxalate of urea
may be obtained by warming it and again adding
oxalic acid.   The crystals are collected and  freed
from the mother liquid by washing them with ice-
cold water.    They are then dissolved in warm
water and a very small quantity of animal charcoal
added and the solution filtered,  which now yields
snow-white crystals of oxalate of urea.  The mo-
ther-liquid by evaporation yields a small portion of
colourless crystals and crystallizes to the last drop.
The crystals are dissolved in  boiling water and
mixed with  extremely fine pulverized  carbonate
of lime which decomposes it with  effervescence.
When the solution  ceases to redden litmus paper
it is filtered from the deposited oxalate of lime and
evaporated to dryness in a water-bath.  A white
saline  mass is thus obtained,  which consists of
urea, but  still impure from the presence of oxalate
of potassa. This may derive either from a content
of oxalate of potassa in the oxalic  acid, which is
sometimes the case, or from the urine when the 
THE  URINE.
69
alcohol has not been perfectly  anhydrous, and
therefore dissolved chloride of potassium and so-
dium; finally the urea also contains some binoxa-
late of ammonia, which derives from the ammonia-
cal salts extracted by the alcohol.   The urea is
purified from all these substances by dissolving it
in alcohol, the  more anhydrous the better, which
leaves undissolved a small quantity of a chemical
combination of oxalate of potassa  with urea.
   There is still another method less circumstantial
and which requires less expensive materials, but
which does not with the same certainty give a pure
urea.  The urine is evaporated to the consistence
of a thin syrup, the mass mixed with at least three
times its volume of nitric acid of 1*22 to  1-3 spe-
cific gravity, which has been previously deprived
by boiling of all nitrous acid.  The mass is here-
by converted into  a thick paste of nitrate of urea
which separates in  a solid form.  The vessel is
then cooled in ice and transferred after four or five
hours to a filter to drain.  The filter is then placed
on a dry brick and  afterwards  pressed between
folds of bibulous paper.   It is then dissolved in a
very little  boiling water and the combination once
more  crystallized,  drained  and   pressed.   The
brownish salt  now obtained  is dissolved in warm
water, digested with animal charcoal, and the un-
coloured filtered solution saturated with carbonate
of baryta or lead, and the solution evaporated in a
water-bath to dryness.  It  generally resumes its
yellow colour.   The dry mass is then treated with 
70
THE URINE.
five times its weight of cold alcohol  of 0-82 or
stronger, which extracts the urea from the lead or
barytic salt.  The mixture should not be warmed
lest a notable quantity of the salt be dissolved.
The alcoholic solution is mixed with animal char-
coal, four-fifths of the alcohol distilled off and the
residue  filtered while boiling hot.   The  urea
crystallizes on cooling, and by farther evaporation
still  more is obtained, but the last portions are
impure  from  an uncrystallizable combination of
urea with the salt of lead or baryta, which combi-
nation is  not insoluble in alcohol.   Tha salt re-
maining after the treatment with alcohol likewise
retains a portion of urea, which is lost unless it is
again precipitated by nitric acid.
  Cap and Henry prescribe  that  the  inspissated
urine be mixed while still warm with  a sufficient
quantity  of lukewarm nitric  acid,  deprived of
nitrous acid, without previous cooling of the syrup.
A stronger reaction is hereby effected with strong
effervescence which is principally caused by the
decomposition of such matters as usually colour the
nitrate brown, and on cooling the solution nitrate
of urea is obtained in almost  colourless crystals,
which after draining, dissolving and crystallizing
again are obtained  quite pure.  Cap and Henry
state that little or no urea is lost by this treatment,
but even  should a little be  lost it would be suffi-
cient gain to dispense with the long method other-
wise  required  for  its  discolouration.   Cap  and
Henry dissolve the nitrate of urea in alcohol and 
THE URINE.
71
decompose it with carbonate of potassa.   But in
this way it is difficult to obtain it free from nitrate
of potassa.
   Urea has  the  following  properties:  by rapid
cooling it crystallizes  from its solution in  fine
needles of silky lustre, but by spontaneous evapo-
ration in  long thin four-sided prisms.   In small
quantities it only forms an  efflorescence on the
sides of the vessel.  The best way of obtaining it
in crystals is by slowly cooling a boiling saturated
solution in alcohol.  According  to  Prout  it  is
always contaminated with  a base when it  crys-
tallizes only in thin plates.   It leaves a sensation
of coldness on the tongue like that  of nitrate  of
potassa, and is inodorous.   It has neither acid nor
alkaline  reaction,  and does not alter in the air
except it be very moist and warm, when the urea
deliquesces.  According to Prout its specific gra-
vity is 1-35.  It fuses at 248° F.  without decom-
 position,  but at a few degrees above this it begins
 to boil; it then generates a large  quantity of am-
 monia and  sublimes some  cyanate  of  ammonia
 without admixture of cyanide of ammonium.  The
 fused  mass  becomes  gradually  pasty,  and by
 cautious  management of the heat a gray powder
 at last remains  which is  cyanuric  acid, or the
 same acid which is formed by the dry distillation
 of lithic  acid.   By increased heat this is also de-
 composed with products peculiar to its decompo-
 sition. This behaviour was discovered by Wohler.
 At 65° F. urea requires less than its weight of water 
72
THE URINE.
for solution; it is  soluble in boiling water in all
proportions.   Its solution is accompanied by a
great reduction of temperature.  Its concentrated
solution in water may be boiled without decompo-
sition  and preserved unaltered;  but a dilute so-
lution of it is decomposed both by boiling and by
long keeping.  The composition of urea is such
that by decomposing  one atom of water it forms
one atom of carbonate of ammonia.  This is the
cause why urine both by ebullition and putrefac-
tion yields so much carbonate of ammonia.  Alco-
hol of 0-816 dissolves at 65° F. about one-eighth of
its weight and about an equal weight of urea at
the boiling point.   On cooling, the urea deposits
in very regular crystals.  Ether and volatile oils
dissolve only an inconsiderable trace of urea.
   Urea like many other organic substances forms
combinations both with acids and bases in fixed
proportions, although it does not possess the power
of neutralizing them.
   Concentrated acids  mixed with urea immedi-
ately produce  its  decomposition, the acid combi-
ning with ammonia, and carbonic acid passing off
with effervescence.  The same effect is produced
by boiling urea with dilute acids.  Nitrous acid
seems to decompose it with especial facility.
  Urea has been  analyzed with  corresponding
results by Prout, and by Liebig and Wohler:— 
THE URINE.
73
	Prout.	Liebig and Wohler.	Atoms.	By Calculation
Carbon	19-99 .	. . . 2002 . . .	. 2 .	. . 20-198
Hydrogen .	6-65 .	. . . 6-71 . . .	. 4 .	. . 6-595
Nitrogen .	46-65 .	. . . 46-73 . . .	. 2 .	. . 46-782
Oxygen .	26-63 .	. . . 26-54 . . .	. 2 .	. . 26-425
  Its atomic weight is 756 866; which is con-
firmed by the proportion in which it combines with
nitric and oxalic acids.
  In regard to its theoretical composition it has
been  considered under different  points of view.
Wohler showed that it had the same composition
as the cyanate of the oxide of ammonium = NH4
0+ C2 NO, and that this latter salt may be  dis-
solved in water without alteration, so that cyanate
of lead and cyanate of silver may be precipitated
by salts of lead and silver, but that by evaporation
of the solution it is gradually wholly converted into
urea which remains after the evaporation.
  Dumas and other French chemists consider urea
as an amide of carbonic oxide in which the car-
bonic oxide is combined with double the quantity
of NH2, as in oxamide after the following diagram:
     2 atoms of carbonic oxide = 2C             + 20
     2  "   amide      =     4H + 2N
     1 Atom urea         = 2C + 4H + 2N + 20

  This view of its composition has, however, only
in its favour the fact of  its not being contradicted
by the number of its elementary atoms, but the
property of urea of combining with a base is evi-
dently against it.
       10 
74
THE  URINE.
  Urea, however, is hardly to be considered as the
oxide of a compound radical since it contains two
atoms of oxygen for every atom of acid with which
it combines when it acts  as  a base, which does
not agree with the behaviour  of oxydized bases.
Besides experiments by Regnault  have proved
that one atom of water enters into its combina-
tions  with oxacids, which cannot be  separated
from it without at the same time decomposing the
urea, in which respect it resembles the vegetable
salt bases, and which gives rise to the supposi-
tion that, as in the latter, the basic  substance in
urea is ammonia.   The correctness of this view
has yet  to be proved by forming and  analyzing
combinations of urea with  hydracids, whereby it
might prove to be the case that, for instance, one
atom of chlorohydric acid combines with one atom
of urea without water.  Regarded in this point
of view urea will present  the  following composi-
tion :—

      1 atom of ammonia     =     3H + IN
      1 atom of a ternary oxide = 2C + 1H + IN + 20
      1 atom of urea        =  2C + 4tl + 2N + 20

  The metamorphosis of cyanate of the oxide of
ammonium into urea, observed by Wohler, would
then  merely consist in a  metamorphosis  of  the
cyanic acid into a substance of the same percentic
composition as cyanuric acid, but only with two-
thirds of its atomic weight.  We know that cyanic 
THE URINE.
75
acid in its hydrous state passes at a few degrees
above 32°  F. into such  a body, which is  not
cyanuric acid.
  This view of the theoretical composition of urea,
besides  being more probable than  that given by
Dumas, coincides both with the formation of urea
by evaporation of  a solution of cyanate of ammo-
nium, and with the behaviour of urea towards acids.
  The combinations of urea with acids have been
discovered by different chemists at different times.
Cruikshank discovered the combination with nitric
acid, Prout with oxalic acid,  and Kodweiss  that
with cyanuric acid.  He concluded from this that
urea might be combined with most of the acids,
but this was not practically accomplished until the
investigations of Cap and Henry at the end of the
year 1838, occasioned  by finding  a cystallized
substance in the urine which was decomposed by
hydrate of lime into urea and  lactate of lime, in-
duced them to endeavour to obtain combinations
with some other acids; but as yet the number of
known  combinations with other  acids  is very
limited.  They may be produced in several ways.
The easiest is by decomposing oxalate  of urea
with a salt of lime containing the acid with which
urea is to be combined.  Perhaps also it might be
accomplished  by mixing nitrate of urea and  the
salts of  baryta, or oxide of lead, or an alkali with
the acid in  atomic proportions, and  evaporating
the solution in a water-bath to dryness, and  ex-
tracting the salt of urea thereby formed, by anhy- 
76
THE URINE.
drous alcohol.  Cap and Henry also mix the acid
with pure urea in atomic proportions and  evapo-
rate.
   Sulphate  of urea  is obtained when the oxalate
of urea is dissolved  in twice its weight of water,
the solution precipitated by newly  precipitated
and washed  sulphate of lime,  till all  the oxalic
acid is combined with  the  lime,  then  decanting
the solution, precipitating the  dissolved sulphate
of lime  by alcohol,  and evaporating the filtered
solution, which yields sulphate of urea  in granu-
lar or needle-shaped crystals.
   Nitrate of urea crystallizes from its solution on
cooling in large shining plates.  By spontaneous
evaporation it effloresces more than any other salt
on the sides of the vessel; but at the  same time
firm, transparent, prismatic crystals are formed in
the liquid.   It has a pure acid taste, is easily solu-
ble in water and alcohol, and  remains unchanged
in the open air.   According  to Prout it at first
yields by dry distillation a combustible  gas and is
converted into nitrate of ammonia, which is after-
wards  decomposed in  the usual manner without
any residue of carbon.  It swells up when heated
quickly on  a platinum dish.   A considerable re-
duction of temperature is produced by its solution
in water.   From the saturated solution the greater
part is precipitated in small scales by the addition
of a sufficient quantity of nitric acid.  Oxalic acid
precipitates oxalate of urea.   By boiling its watery
solution  carbonic acid is generated with effer- 
THE URINE.
77
vescence and the salt converted into nitrate and
carbonate  of ammonia.   According to  Prout's
analysis nitrate  of urea consists of 47-37 nitric
acid and 52-63 urea.   Regnault has analyzed this
salt  by combustion with oxide of copper  and ob-
tained the  following results:—

   By Experiments.           Atoms.     By Calculation.
     Carbon  .  10 04.....2.....9-886
     Hydrogen   4-09.....5.....4-035
     Nitrogen  34-29.....3.....34-344
     Oxygen  .  51-58.....8.....51-735

Which proves that it consists of one atom of urea,
one  atom of nitric acid, and one atom of water.
Without this content of water the salt ought to
have yielded 10-67  per cent,  of carbon, 3-48 of
hydrogen,  and 37 03 of nitrogen.
   Oxalate  of urea crystallizes in thin, long, lami-
nated crystals, which become broader, the slower
it crystallizes.  It has a pure acid taste.   By heat
it fuses and  boils, whereby carbonate of ammo-
nia is generated and  cyanuric acid formed exactly
as from urea alone.  The  oxalic acid is  thereby
converted  into carbonic acid  and carbonic oxide.
If the salt  contain oxalate of potassa a little cyan-
ide of ammonium is formed, and a carbonaceous
residue remains which contains the alkali.  It dis-
solves in large quantity in boiling water and crys-
tallizes by cooling.   At 60° F. one hundred parts
of the solution contain only 4-16 parts of  the salt,
or one hundred parts of water dissolve 4-37 parts
of the salt.  A portion of it is again  precipitated 
78
THE URINE.
 by  an excess of oxalic acid.   It  dissolves with
 more difficulty in alcohol than in water, and the
 difference between its solubility in boiling and
 cold alcohol is much less than with water.  One
 hundred parts of alcohol of 0833  dissolve at 60°
 F. only 1-6 parts of oxalate of urea.  According
 to my analysis it  consists  of 37-436  oxalic acid
 and 62 564 urea, the oxygen of which is in pro-
 portion to that of the acid as 2: 3.   But Regnault
 has shown  that the salt even after drying at the
 highest temperature it can bear without decompo-
 sition, that  is at 230° F., contains one atom  of
 water, which is  proved by the elementary ana-
 lysis.  It yields no more than 2311 per cent, of
 carbon,  when without the  content of water it
 ought to have yielded  25-26 per  cent.   On the
 other hand it yields 4-79 per cent, of hydrogen,
 which corresponds exactly with its containing one
 atom of water, without which the hydrogen would
 only have amounted  to 4-13 per cent.  Oxalate
 of urea seems to combine with  neutral  oxalate of
 potassa to a double salt, which  is soluble in alco-
 hol,  and which is decomposed  by lime, so that
 oxalate of lime precipitates, and urea remains in
 the solution  with the  oxalate of potassa.   This
 combination is neither dissolved nor decomposed
by alcohol,—and when dissolved  in water and
evaporated it yields a thick  syrup, which gradu-
ally hardens to a colourless saline mass.
   Cyanurate of urea is obtained by boiling the
acid  with  a concentrated  solution of urea;  it 
THE URINE.                79
should be filtered while  hot and allowed to cool,
when the  salt will crystallize  in  prisms.   It  is
also obtained as already observed  above by*the
dry distillation of urea.   It is soluble in alcohol.
It is decomposed by nitric acid forming nitrate of
urea and separating cyanuric acid.   It is best to
employ a very dilute solution.
   Lactate of urea is obtained, according to Cap
and Henry, by evaporating the urine in a water-
bath to a syrupy consistence, and treating  the
residue with alcohol.  This dissolves the  lactate
of urea, free lactic acid, and other matters soluble
in alcohol.   The alcoholic solution is then distilled
until there is but a small residue, the free acid of
which is saturated by oxide of zinc.   The solution
is then filtered, evaporated in a water-bath to dry-
ness, the residue treated with anhydrous alcohol,
 and left to spontaneous evaporation, whereby the
lactate of urea crystallizes.  It is  obtained artifi-
 cially  by precipitating a solution of oxalate of
 urea exactly by a solution of lactate of lime.  The
 filtered solution is evaporated in vacuo over sul-
 phuric  acid, which causes  the crystallization of
 the salt in  long, colourless  six-sided prisms.  It
 gives a sensation of coldness  to the  tongue like
 that occasioned by nitrate of  potassa, it  absorbs
 moisture from the air and deliquesces.   It is easily
 soluble in water and  alcohol, but  sparingly so in
 ether.   It fuses by heat.   Cap and Henry also
 mention that it chars by a strong  and rapid heat,
 and is decomposed; but that by a certain tempe- 
80
THE  URINE.
rature it may be sublimed unaltered.  This state-
ment seems to prove that the lactate of urea yields
a crystalline  sublimate,  but  Cap and Henry do
not mention any experiments to prove the unal-
tered nature of the salt.  It  is scarcely probable
that it should be unaltered since neither the acid,
nor the  urea,  nor even the lactate of ammonia is
volatile.  Their supposition  of the volatility  of
the lactate of urea carries them even so far as to
contend that more than half of it is volatilized
during the evaporation of the urine.  This they
suppose on the ground that they were not able to
separate more than about one-third of the urea in the
urine as lactate of urea.   But this evidently arises
from imperfection in the experiment, for if such vo-
latilization took place it would not have been possi-
ble to find the content of urea from which they
calculated  the  loss,  since every analysis of the
urine must be commenced by evaporation.
  Lithate of urea exists, according to  the same
chemists, in the excrements  of birds and reptiles
which are known to evacuate the urine  with the
excrements.  By treatment with hydrate of baryta
the urea separates, and may be extracted from the
residue  after  evaporation in  a water-bath, by an-
hydrous alcohol.   The combination of lithic acid
with urea has not  been described,  nor its proper-
ties made known.
  Hippurate  of urea was obtained  by them from
the urine of horses and cattle by inspissation and
extraction by alcohol.   The alcoholic solution was 
THE  URINE.
81
evaporated by a gentle  heat  to the consistence of
paste, well pressed, and the solid part dissolved in
boiling anhydrous alcohol.   This solution yielded
by evaporation fine needle-shaped crystals of hip-
purate of urea.  It is most  easily obtained by
double decomposition of the oxalate of urea and
hippurate of lime.
  Urea also combines  with bases.  The stronger
bases decompose it  when heated, and  combine
with carbonic acid during the generation of am-
monia.   But the  weaker bases,  especially such
metallic  oxides as combine in preference with
animal matters, form with it insoluble compounds.
They are best  obtained by mixing a solution  of
metallic  salt with a solution of urea in excess, and
afterwards adding the alkali  to saturate the acid
of the metallic salt.  The oxide then precipitates
in combination  with the urea.   Prout, who dis-
covered  this circumstance, states that the com-
bination  of oxide of silver with urea is gray, and
deflagrates by  heat, leaving  metallic  silver.   It
also combines with oxide of lead, even by diges-
tion of  a concentrated solution with  the oxide.
The combination is easiest obtained when nitrate
of urea is decomposed by carbonate of lead in ex-
cess.  The  mass is evaporated to dryness, and
treated  with alcohol, which dissolves  the  com-
bination  and deposites it after evaporation as a
tenacious syrup.   It deliquesces in moist air and
becomes  more  liquid.   It is easily dissolved by
water.   Urea is considered to be the cause of the
      11 
S'J
THE  URINE.
crystallization of chloride of sodium and ammo-
nium in the less usual form of octohedrons.   It is
said to produce the alteration with chloride of so-
dium, even when present in so small quantity as
to be separated with difficulty, wherefore it has
been proposed as a test for the presence of urea to
dissolve a little chloride of sodium in the solution
and leave it to spontaneous  evaporation.   The
form of the chloride of scdium will then indicate
the presence of urea.   This test  may, however,
be considered rather uncertain.  Urea combines
with  many salts  whose solubility and form of
crystallization is thereby altered, without the pos-
sibility  of  extracting  it  by alcohol from  these
combinations.  No salt of the  metals is precipi-
tated  by a solution of urea, neither is an infusion
of galls.
  The formation of urea in the body seems to be
produced by the vital  processes which gradually
metamorphose  a part of the living  solid tissues
and convert them  into urea.  It is not a product
of excessive or indigestible food, and its secretion
with the urine continues uninterruptedly in dis-
eases when no food is taken, during long continued
fasting, and  even  when  animals are fed on  sub-
stances  which  contain no  nitrogen, for instance,
on starch or  sugar, though they at last emaciate
and die  from  weakness.  Marchand  performed
some experiments  on a lean dog which he fed at
first freely with milk.  At the expiration of five
days the urine contained 2-6 per cent,  of  urea, 
THE  URINE.
83
which in the following five days  increased  to
3 per cent.   Its diet was now changed to water
and  ten ounces of sugar candy per diem.   The
dog  at first was  perfectly satiated with this.  At
the end of  six days the content of urea in its
urine decreased only to 2-8 per cent.; in the
following five days to  2-4 per cent.; and in the
following  five days to  1-8 per cent.   After the
expiration of twenty days the dog was  extremely
emaciated and feeble.  The diet was  now changed
to soup and  milk, whereby its strength and  flesh
were soon restored, and after fourteen days the
urine contained 3-5 per cent, of urea.
   Urea has been used and recommended by some
French physicians as  a diuretic; but its action
should be farther ascertained before  it is relied on
for this purpose.
   7.  Undetermined animal matters  of the urine.
Besides the foregoing the urine contains several,
perhaps many organic  matters in mixed solution.
They form the yet uncertain part  of our know-
ledge of the urine, and it is very difficult, not to
say  impossible, to give an exact account of them.
One does not know what to look for.  There is no
known test which  has  a peculiar and characteris-
tic reaction with each ingredient.  The examina-
tions must therefore be  made at random, and it is
impossible to say  that  the substance found and
considered peculiar is not composed of several. In
the mean  time I will here give the  examinations
which I have made and their results. 
84
THE  URINE.
  The odorous matter of the  urine is first to be
considered.   Warm urine  exhales an aromatic
odour by no means unpleasant, which increases,
though it is altered slightly, by evaporation; and
when the urine has been concentrated to the con-
sistence of a syrup, and kept for some time at a
temperature between 160° F. and 176° F. for far-
ther concentration, it assumes the same odour as a
solution of reduced indigo at the moment it is pre-
cipitated by an acid.  It is very probable that a
part of this odour derives from the evaporation of
a volatile odorous  matter, but the  odour towards
the end of the operation is  probably,  like that of
musk and castor, a consequence of the generation
of ammonia which carries with it small particles
of substances otherwise not volatile.
  If urine be concentrated to the consistence of a
thick syrup, and mixed  in  a  well corked  bottle
with ether, and the mixture  heated  to 97°  F.,
which renders the  syrup so liquid that it may be
shaken up with the ether,  the latter is thereby
rendered distinctly yellow.   The  mass  should
then be permitted to cool, the ether decanted from
the congealed syrup, and the treatment with ether
repeated as long as it extracts any thing, when the
collected ether should be mixed with some water
and distilled.   If  the distillation be interrupted
before all the ether has been distilled, the ether
will be found to be much more coloured than the
subnatant water.    The two solutions are to  be
separated and each evaporated alone.   The water 
THE  URINE.
85
leaves an extractive matter which tastes bitter,
reddens  litmus  paper,  and generates ammonia
with lime and hydrated oxide of lead.  By the
latter a soluble salt of lead is formed, from which
after  decomposition  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen
and  subsequent evaporation, a yellow extractive
bitter  mass is obtained, in which  crystals are
formed.  It seems to be a mixture of free lactic
acid, lactate of lime, and lactate of ammonia, per-
haps also urea and one of the extractive matters of
the urine.   Their quantity is  very  small.  The
crystals  are too soluble in water to  be hippuric
acid.
   On evaporation of the ethereal solution, a yel-
low, transparent, viscid mass remains with a pep-
pery and pleasant odour,  a sharp and aromatic
taste, which like fat is not moistened by water,
though by heating the water it becomes white and
dissolves into  a pale yellow liquid, leaving a very
small  quantity of a  brown fatty oil  undissolved,
which strongly reddens  moistened litmus paper.
The watery solution has an empyreumatic  taste,
reddens  litmus paper, exhales  by evaporation an
aromatic, rather peppery odour, and at last leaves
the same yellow viscid transparent water which
it dissolved.   Alcohol dissolves  it easily.  The
hydrated oxide of lead decomposes it into two mat-
ters, of which the one combines with the oxide of
lead to a soft, pasty mass, but the other dissolves
in water although with difficulty, and after de-
composition by sulphuretted hydrogen and eva- 
86
THE  URINE.
poration  it yields a  transparent  yellow matter,
which reddens litmus paper, has a bitter, after-
wards sweet taste, and shows no trace of crystal-
lization.   The pasty mass after decomposition by
chloro-hydric acid, gentle drying  and extraction
by alcohol, leaves a reddish brown matter with a
sharp pungent taste, which  reddens litmus paper
strongly, feels viscid like fat, is not moistened by
water but after a while dissolves in it sparingly,
leavino- a red fat oil.   Water dissolves the above-
mentioned substance and  by heating the solution
it smells  like fresh urine.  These  matters are not
identical with any others in the body, and I do
not know whether they occur in every urine.
  If the residue from the treatment of inspissated
urine with ether be extracted by alcohol of 0-833
as long as any thing is dissolved, the alcohol dis-
tilled off, the residue dried in a water-bath  as
much as possible, and afterwards treated with an-
hydrous  alcohol the greater  part of it is dissolved.
Urea crystallizes after distillation of the anhydrous
alcohol, and when no  more will  crystallize the
thick mass should be laid  on folds of  bibulous
paper and pressed gently at first,  but  afterwards
more strongly, till the paper has absorbed the un-
crystallized portion.   After  removal of the urea,
the paper should be well extracted with water, and
the filtered solution evaporated in  a water-bath.
A thick yellow syrup is hereby obtained  in which
only traces  of crystals are  observed, and which
consists of a yellow extractive matter impure from 
THE  URINE.
87
the presence of urea, lactates  and sal-ammoniac.
The yellow colour is not characteristic of it, for
when treated with animal charcoal, and heated, it
becomes colourless, yielding by evaporation a co-
lourless extract of the same properties.  It easily
becomes yellow by heat.  This matter is also ob-
tained after the precipitation of the urea by oxalic
acid, by precipitating the excess of  the latter by
lime,  filtering the solution, and evaporating it in
a water-bath.  It is then free from oxalic acid, but
contains a soluble salt of lime.  Where concen-
trated it remains soft while warm,  but becomes
tough on cooling without hardening, its taste is
bitter and at the same time saltish from an admix-
ture of lactate of ammonia and sal-ammoniac, it is
inodorous until it is dissolved in sufficient water
to form a dilute  syrup, when  it exhales an offen-
sive urinous odour.  I thought that  this odour,
derived from an  admixture of urea and a slight
generation of ammonia from it, because the odour
is immediately exhaled, when ammonia is added.
It becomes moist in the air, and is very soluble in
alcohol.  Heated  to decomposition,  it at first ex-
hales a  urinous  smell, afterwards one of broiled
herring, it then  puffs up, chars, smells like burnt
horn, and yields  by dry distillation oil of Dippel,
water, sal-ammoniac, and carbonate  of ammonia,
and leaves a porous, rather incombustible carbon,
which, however, leaves but a slight trace of ashes.
The watery solution of this matter has the  follow-
ing reactions.  It is not precipitated, or but slightly 
88
THE  URINE.
 so, by bichloride of mercury in  excess, and  not
 more so by neutral acetate of lead or an infusion
 of galls.  A slight turbidness sometimes occurs
 from the presence of other matters.   On the other
 hand, the solution is precipitated by subacetate of
 lead, protochloride of tin, and nitrate of silver; all
 of these precipitates contain animal matter in com-
 bination with the precipitated salt.  The precipi-
 tate by oxide of lead  is  a combination  of basic
 chloride of  lead with basic lactate of lead.  The
 precipitate by tin, is basic lactate of  tin, and that
 by silver is  chloride  of silver, all combined with
 animal  matter.  The latter is decomposed by heat,
 yielding the smell  of burnt horn, and leaving a
 carbonaceous mass.  By decomposition of the pre-
 cipitate by the oxide of lead, by sulphuretted hy-
 drogen  a yellow acid solution is  obtained which
 contains lactic and chlorohydric acids.  If these
 be saturated with carbonate of barytes and the so-
 lution evaporated, an extractive mass is again ob-
 tained like  the  original solution, which was de-
 composed.   In  like manner  very little of it  is
 dissolved by anhydrous alcohol, because the  ex-
 tractive matter  is merely freed from urea and
 transferred  to other  salts insoluble  in  alcohol.
 Heated  to the decomposition of  the  animal mat-
 ters, it  leaves a  mixture of carbon, chloride  of
barium, and carbonate  of baryta.  Dissolved  in
water, and  mixed with a solution of carbonate of
ammonia, but in insufficient quantity to decom-
 pose all the  barytic salt, a brownish-yellow carbo- 
THE URINE.
89
nate of baryta is precipitated which, when collect-
ed on a filter, washed with cold water and after-
wards digested with  caustic ammonia, yields the
animal matter to ammonia and is left after evapo-
ration as a yellow extract without urinous odour,
but which in other  respects resembles the extract
from flesh, soluble in anhydrous alcohol.   A solu-
tion exactly resembling this, is obtained when the
animal charcoal employed for the discolouration of
the extractive matter in question is digested with
dilute caustic ammonia and the filtered solution
evaporated.  If carbonate of  ammonia be added
to the combination of the extract with chloride of
barium, in such excess as to  decompose all the
chloride of barium  and also be present in excess,
the animal  matter  combines with the sal-ammo-
niac and a mass mixed with crystals is obtained,
which is likewise insoluble  in anhydrous alcohol,
and which, when moistened with a little caustic
ammonia has an odour of spoiled urine.
  In order to ascertain whether the  solution re-
tains any thing after  precipitation by acetate  of
lead, it was precipitated by sulphuretted  hydro-
gen and evaporated, whereby an extractive matter
was obtained having the smell of acetic  acid, but
by the addition of chloride of  barium and evapo-
ration, I obtained exactly  the  same combination
as that precipitated  by the subacetate of lead,  so
that the precipitate was only  caused  by the pre-
sence of chloride of ammonium and lactate of am-
monia  in  the solution.   I afterwards found that
       12 
90                THE URINE.
when urea is  mixed with the extract which com-
bines with the chloride of barium, the urea is also
taken up  by the  salts, and I endeavoured in vain
to combine the extract in this manner, and to dis-
solve the  urea alone in alcohol.  The conclusion
of all these experiments is that the portion of in-
spissated urine, which dissolves in anhydrous alco-
hol,  contains besides urea,  lactic acid, lactate of
ammonia  and chloride  of ammonium, an extrac-
tive  matter which,  after complete isolation, has
great similarity to the corresponding extractive
matter from a solution of flesh, and the decompo-
sition of  which when in combination with urea
produces  the offensive urinous odour which is ob-
served during putrefaction of urine.  One of the
distinguishing characteristics of this matter is, that
it combines with great [eagerness with salts, and
thereby alters their solubility in alcohol, according
to the different nature of these salts.  As  it is  a
great convenience to have separate names for pe-
culiar matters I might name this matter halophile,
but in consideration of the evil which arises from
the introduction of peculiar names for substances
which perhaps are  only mixtures, of which  the
manifold  use of the name osmazome affords an
instance,  I have  preferred to call this substance
extractive matter of  the urine soluble in anhydrous
alcohol.
   What anhydrous alcohol leaves undissolved from
the substances extracted from inspissated urine by
alcohol of 0-833, is  also an extractive matter.  If 
THE URINE.
91
it again be treated with a small quantity of alco-
hol of 0-833 an animal matter is dissolved, leaving
chloride of sodium, not containing a great deal of
the former.   If this solution in alcohol be evapo-
rated by itself, a clear, transparent, yellowish ex-
tract is  obtained, free  from all crystalline admix-
tures.  It behaves as follows: it tastes exactly like
the corresponding extract from flesh, does not at
all smell urinous,, reddens litmus paper, puffs up
when heated, like tartrate of potassa, and leaves a
porous alkaline coal.   It therefore contains lactate
of potassa.   By dry distillation it yields  ammo-
niacal water, and an empyreumatic oil.  Its watery
solution is not precipitated by bichloride of mer-
cury, by neutral or basic acetate of lead, nor even
by tannic acid.  When an inconsiderable pre-
cipitate appears as is sometimes the case, the
alcohol employed has  been weaker than 0-833 so
as to have taken up some of the substances solu-
ble only in water.  It is not made turbid by acids
nor alkalies, nor by passing chlorine gas through
it.   I will name it extract of the urine, soluble in
alcoholof '0-833.   It is possible that it may be the
same as the previous extractive matter, but merely
rendered  insoluble  in anhydrous alcohol by its
combination with the  alkaline lactates.
   We have seen that alcohol of 0-833  leaves a
portion of the inspissated urine undissolved, which
likewise is  an extract, reddens litmus paper, and
contains  an admixture of a great portion  of the
sulphates and phosphates.   It derives its acid re- 
92
THE URINE.
action from lactic acid.  If this latter be saturated
with carbonate of ammonia and evaporated, alco-
hol of 0-833 will dissolve a little lactate of ammonia
mixed with extractive matter.   If the free acid be
saturated with  ammonia at the  beginning of  the
examination, all lactic acid will be  extracted by
alcohol from  the residue.   In  order to  extract the
animal matter from the residue, insoluble in alco-
hol, the following method is to be pursued.   It is
dissolved in water, which leaves phosphate of lime,
lithic acid, silica and  mucus  undissolved.  The
solution is then precipitated by acetate of baryta
as long as any precipitate forms.   This  is sul-
phate of baryta,  but combined with  an animal
matter,  which  chars and smells ammoniacal by
ignition after it has been washed and dried.   I do
not know the nature of this substance.   After the
precipitation of all the sulphuric acid the solution
is made alkaline by caustic ammonia, and precipi-
tated by acetate of baryta; this precipitate is basic
phosphate of baryta, likewise in combination with
a large quantity of animal matter.  In my attempt
to isolate the latter  it always followed the phos-
phoric acid, so that it could  be transferred from
one phosphate to  another, but  not from a phos-
phate to any other salt.  I do not know the nature
of this substance either; perhaps it is analogous
to that which I shall mention when  on  flesh.   By
ignition the  phosphate of baryta smells like burnt
horn and chars.  The alkaline  solution is evapo-
rated to expel the excess of ammonia, or still better, 
THE URINE.
93
is saturated as exactly as possible with acetic acid.
It  is then  precipitated by  a  solution of neutral
acetate of lead, which does not, however, produce
a copious precipitate.   After washing, decompo-
sition by sulphuretted  hydrogen, and evaporation
of the solution, a grayish brown, transparent, ex-
tractive matter  is obtained, which keeps  dry in
the air, has no taste, scarcely reddens moistened
litmus paper, and  the  watery solution of which
is but sparingly precipitated by bichloride of mer-
cury, rather  more  copiously by chloride  of  tin,
and is completely precipitated by acetate of lead.
An infusion of galls produces a dark gray coloured
precipitate.
  The solution with  neutral  acetate of lead is
strongly precipitated by the addition of basic ace-
tate of lead.   When the white precipitate is  col-
lected together it becomes yellowish.  It generally
contains an admixture  of a  portion of basic chlo-
ride of lead derived from the chloride of sodium,
which the alcohol  has not effectually separated
from the inspissated urine.  By decomposing the
well washed precipitate by sulphuretted hydrogen,
a yellow acid solution is obtained containing chlo-
rohydric acid.   The acid is saturated with car-
bonate of ammonia, the solution evaporated almost
to dryness, after which  it is  mixed with  alcohol
of  0-833,  which dissolves  the sal-ammoniac  and
leaves an  animal  matter, which  should be well
washed with alcohol and dried.   It has a yellow
brown colour, is opaque in  mass, has a feeble  bit- 
94
THE URINE.
ter taste, keeps dry in the air, and dissolves in
water with  a dark yellow colour.  It is not pre-
cipitated  by bichloride of mercury, but perfectly
so, and with a dark brown colour, by protochloride
of tin, basic acetate of lead, aad nitrate of silver.
It is only slightly precipitated by an infusion of
galls, even after the lapse of several hours.
   After the above solution from the residue of the
urine, insoluble in alcohol, has been precipitated
by basic acetate of lead,  it still contains animal
matters.  If the oxide of lead be precipitated by
sulphuretted hydrogen a  colourless  solution is ob-
tained, which becomes yellow after evaporation in
a water-bath.  After it has become perfectly dry
it is treated with  very little  anhydrous alcohol,
which dissolves it all; the solution is then diluted
with more  alcohol as long as any  precipitate is
formed.   White flocculi  hereby separate, which,
when  transferred  to  a filter  and  washed with
alcohol, form, when  dry, a shining, transparent,
yellowish brown  mass.  Dissolved in water, fil-
tered, and evaporated, it leaves  a  pale  yellow,
cracked, transparent  mass, resembling gum  ara-
ble.   It has no taste, puffs up by heat, smells like
burnt horn, and leaves a  very porous coal, which
yields phosphate of lime when reduced to ashes.
It is soluble in water with  a pale yellow or no
colour; and the solution is precipitated by bichlo-
ride of mercury, protochloride of tin, and nitrate
of silver.   The last-mentioned precipitate has a
dirty orange colour.   An infusion  of galls  pro- 
THE URINE.
95
duces merely a slight precipitate, probably only
in consequence of an  admixture of other sub-
stances.
  The solution from which the foregoing sub-   .
stances  have been precipitated  by  anhydrous
alcohol, still  contains  an  animal matter  which
colours the spirituous solution yellow.
  Albumen is sometimes enumerated amongst the
ingredients of the urine.   It is in fact very often
found in urine, but it must always be considered
as the consequence of a sickly or, at least, a feeble
state of health.   It is recognised when the urine
yields a strong precipitate  with  infusion of galls,
nitric acid,  and bichloride of mercury, and by
becoming more or less turbid by heat.   By  dis-
solving the residue from the evaporation of healthy
urine,  in water, a portion remains undissolved,
which can for the greater part be dissolved by
concentrated acetic acid.  This solution  is pre-
cipitated  by ferro-prussiate of potassa, but in its
outer appearances it does not resemble a solution
of albumen  in acetic acid; it is a solution of the
mucus of the bladder, and is precipitated in com-
bination with cyanide of iron.
   It is stated by Nauche,  that another substance
always occurs in the urine of  pregnant women.
It has been called Kyestein (from *w<v, to be preg-
nant, and «8-*w, pellicle) because it forms a cover-
ing about a line in thickness on the surface of the
urine of pregnant women,  which has been allowed 
96
THE URINE.
to stand for a few days.   This consists of a tissue
of flocculi  and long filaments.   A  portion of it
subsides and  forms  a white  layer  at  the  bot-
tom of  the vessel.   The  pellicle at the surface
is coherent, and  adheres  closely  to  the  sides of
the  vessel.   The chemical nature  of  this  sub-
stance has not yet  been  examined.   Rousseau
found  it  in  the urine  of  pregnant   monkeys.
Nauche states,  that  the  occurrence of Kyestein
in the urine affords a true means of ascertaining
the state of pregnancy, especially when it  is two
or three months advanced.*
   After this general enumeration of  the ordinary
ingredients of the urine,  I will give the results of
an analysis of it performed  by me in  the  year
1809.   But at  that  time several facts  mentioned
in a former part of  this treatise  in  regard to the

  * The July Number of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences
for 1842, contains an Essay by Dr.  Elisha K. Kane, in which he deter-
mines the value of Kyestein as a proof of pregnancy.  Dr. Kane examined
the urine of nearly one hundred pregnant and nursing women, and ar-
rived at the following general conclusions :—
  1. "That the Kiesteine is not peculiar to pregnancy,  but may occur
whenever the lacteal elements are secreted without a free discharge at
the mammae.
  2. That though sometimes obscurely developed, and occasionally simu-
lated by other pellicles, it is  generally distinguishable from all others.
  3. That where pregnancy is possible, the exhibition of a clearly de-
fined Kiesteinic pellicle, is one of the least equivocal proofs of that condi-
tion ; and,
  4. That when this pellicle is not found in the more advanced stages of
supposed pregnancy, the probabilities, if the female be otherwise healthy,
are as 20 to 1 (81 to 4) that the prognosis is incorrect."— Translators. 
THE URINE.
97
organic ingredients of the urine were unknown.
The analysis gave the following results :—


   Water    ....
   Urea   .....
   Free lactic acid
   Lactate of ammonia
   Extract (of flesh) soluble in alcohol
   Extractive matter soluble only in water
   Lithic acid   ....
   Mucus of the bladder
   Sulphate of potassa
   Sulphate of soda
   Phosphate of soda    .
   Diphosphate of ammonia .
   Chloride of sodium
   Chloride of ammonium
   Phosphate of lime and magnesia
   Silica    ....

                                         1000-00


   Urine of Animals.—As yet the urine of  but
very few animals has been examined.  Urea  has
generally been found occur in the urine of  the
higher classes of animals.   The urine of carnivo-
rous animals is  acid, but  soon becomes alkaline
from  the formation of ammonia, which is  partly
the cause of its peculiarly offensive odour.   Vau-
quelin who was  the first to examine the urine of
lions and tigers found it alkaline, but Hieronymus
has shown that when fresh it reddens litmus  pa-
per.  Vauquelin found  it to contain  much urea,
and that this could be easily obtained colourless.
But on the other  hand  he found  no lithic acid.
Hieronymus  confirmed  the  former,  but  found
       13
933-00
 3010
1714
100
0 32
3-71
316
2-94
1-65
4-45
1-50
1-00
003 
98
THE URINE.
lithic acid in determinable quantity.  It is, there-
fore, erroneous to suppose, that this acid  occurs
amongst mammalia only in human urine, and the
statement of Coindet that it is wanting  in the
urine of monkeys is still doubtful.   On the other
hand lithic acid occurs in the urine of  birds, am-
phibia, and fish; and Jacobsen has shown that it
is  also formed in  the kidneys of the  mollusca.
Earthy phosphates are only found  in acid urine,
and  alkaline phosphates in  that of carnivorous
animals, but are wanting  in  that of herbivorous
animals.
   Urine of lions, tigers, and leopards has been ex-
amined in its fresh state  by Hieronymus, and
seems  to  be all alike.  It is clear, light yellow,
with a strong, unpleasant odour,  and an  acid,
nauseous  and bitter  taste.  At a temperature of
50° F. to 55° F. the specific gravity of urine  from
the same animal varies between 1-059 and 1-076.
Soon after evacuation it becomes alkaline from the
formation of carbonate of ammonia.   This  may,
however, be expelled by heat when the urine be-
comes acid again.   White coagulated flocculi  sepa-
rate by evaporation,  and after sufficient concen-
tration the greater part of the urea is deposited in
crystals.  The analysis of the urine of these  three
animals gave:— 
THE  URINE.
99
 Urea, animal matter soluble in alcohol (osmazome) and free
     lactic acid    ......   13-220
 Lithic acid .......       0-022
 Mucus ........    0-510
 Sulphate of potassa .     .....       0-122
 Sal-ammoniac with some chloride of sodium  .    .     .    0-116
 Phosphates of lime and magnesia with a little carbonate of
     lime .......       0-176
 Phosphates of potassa and soda     ....    0-802
 Phosphate of ammonia    .     .     .     .     .       0-102
 Lactate of potassa   ......    0-330
 Water    .......      84600

                                            100-000

   I have  here altered acetic  into lactic acid for
 reasons already made known.  An attentive reader
 may also,  perhaps, be struck by the enumeration
 of carbonate of lime amongst the ingredients of an
 acid solution.  This incorrectness arises from the
 circumstance that the amount of some of the in-
 gredients  has been  ascertained  by  incineration,
 which  decomposes the lactate of lime and con-
 verts it into a carbonate.   Hieronymus found the
 same ingredients in the urine of the  hyena and
 panther.   The urine  of the former had a specific
 gravity of 1-061 at 50° F., and the latter 1045 at
 a temperature of 48° F.
  The urine of the rhinoceros  has been examined
 by Vogel.   It is turbid and yellow, and looks like
 clay-water mixed with ochre.   It has a peculiar
 odour, not unlike that of mashed ants; in the air
it becomes darker from the surface  downwards,
and is  covered by a  pellicle  of small crystals of 
100
THE URINE.
carbonate of lime.  It effervesces with acids and
becomes clear.  If allowed to clarify spontane-
ously, it deposites a yellow powder which amounts
to 2| per  cent, of  the  urine, and consists of the
carbonates of  lime and magnesia combined with
an azotic  animal matter, and  mixed with sesqui-
oxide of iron  and silica.  The clarified  urine  is
dark yellow, and forms by evaporation a new de-
posit of carbonate of lime and magnesia, which
were dissolved in the urine as bicarbonates.   If
the urine be evaporated to one-third of its volume,
filtered  and mixed when  cool with chloro-hydric
acid, a precipitate of hippuric acid is formed which
consists of 0 45 per cent, of the urine, and which
was combined  in the urine with potassa. Urea and
the ordinary salts are also contained in it.
  The urine of elephants has also been examined
by Vogel.   It  is turbid from  carbonate  of lime
and magnesia  floating  though it, and it  clarifies
with difficulty.  It contains no trace of hippurate
of potassa, but on the other hand  urea  is more
abundant  than in that of the rhinoceros.   It does
not contain the brown oil  which, according to
Fourcroy  and  Vauquelin,  may be obtained from
the urine  of  cows and horses.   Brandes,  who
afterwards examined the urine of elephants, found
hippuric acid  in it combined both with an alkali
and urea.   After inspissation of the urine, ether
extracted a small quantity of a pasty fat, and alco-
hol extracted an animal matter which was preci-
pitated by an infusion of galls. 
THE  URINE.
101
  The urine of horses was examined by Fourcroy
and  Vauquelin, and by Chevreul.   It is yellow,
not unfrequently turbid, has a peculiar unpleasant
odour, and  a saline, bitter,  afterwards  sweetish
taste.   It deposites on standing  a mixture  of
carbonate of lime  and magnesia, which blacken
by ignition.  Its specific gravity is between 1*030
and  1#050.  It has an alkaline reaction, and effer-
vesces with acids.   It becomes darker by exposure
to the air, and by evaporation deposites still more
of the carbonates combined with  an animal matter.
After evaporation  it leaves  about 0 05 residue,
four-fifths of which is dissolved  by alcohol.   The
insoluble part consists principally of  carbonate of
soda.  Chloride of sodium first crystallizes from
the alcoholic solution, and afterwards hippurate of
soda in brown lamina.  If the  alcohol be  evapo-
rated and the residue dissolved  in a little water,
chlorohydric acid will  precipitate hippuric acid
from it.   When urea was precipitated  by  nitric
acid from the  concentrated  urine, and  the acid
solution  pressed out and  saturated  with alkali,
Fourcroy and Vauquelin obtained  a small mass of
reddish solid fat, with a sharp  taste, which vola-
tilized easily with  the vapours of water, dissolved
easily in alcohol, and combined with acids.  They
also  state that this fat was obtained by distillation
from the urine of herbivorous animals, and that it
is the cause of its odour and colour.   They found
in the urine of horses: urea 07,  hippurate of soda
2-4,  carbonate of  soda  0-9,  chloride of potassa
0-9,  carbonate of  lime, from 0-2 to  11,  water, 
102
THE URINE.
 (with some mucus and  strong fat) 94 0.  Chev-
 reul also found sulphate  of lime dissolved in the
 urine of horses.
   The  urine of  camels  has been  examined by
 Chevreul.   It yielded, by distillation, carbonate of
 ammonia and a  volatile oil, on which  its odour
 depends.   By the  addition of nitric, sulphuric,
 and chlorohydric acids, it acquires a pink colour;
 this property is  peculiar to the volatile oil.   It
 deposites by boiling a mixture of carbonate of lime
 and magnesia in  combination with animal matter
 and silica.   From the inspissated urine nitric acid
 precipitates a large quantity of nitrate  of  urea.
 Besides these it contains  chloride of sodium, hip-
 purate of soda, carbonate of soda, sulphate of  po-
 tassa in larger quantity, some sulphate of soda
 and carbonate of ammonia, and a trace of the ses-
 quioxide of iron.   Phosphates  and lithates  are
 altogether absent.
   The  urine of horned cattle  has not been exa-
 mined since the time of Rouelle.  It is known to
 contain  urea in larger quantity than the urine of
 men, and also hippurate of soda.  Exposed to the
 air, it deposites small crystals of carbonate of lime
 and magnesia.
   The urine of swine has been examined by Las-
saigne.  It is pale yellow, clear and transparent.
It contains  urea, sulphates  of  potassa and  soda,
chlorides of potassium, sodium, and ammonium,
and traces of carbonate and sulphate of lime.
   The urine of beavers contains, according to the 
THE URINE.
103
examination by Vauquelin, dissolved carbonate of
lime and  magnesia, which precipitate by evapo-
ration, urea, hippurate of soda and the other ordi-
nary ingredients of the urine of herbivorous ani-
mals, but no phosphates nor lithic acid.   It also
contains an unaltered vegetable substance derived
from  willow-bark, which is the principal food of
this animal, and which may be detected by placing
a piece of cloth soaked in alum in the urine of the
beaver, when it will become coloured exactly as
if it had been placed in an infusion of willow bark.
   The urine of rabbits  and guinea pigs was also
examined  by Vauquelin;  it has an alkaline reac-
tion,  effervesces with acids, precipitates carbonate
of lime by exposure to  the  air, and contains, be-
sides urea, the ordinary  salts of the urine of her-
bivorous animals.
   The urine of birds is peculiar from its large con-
tent of lithic acid, existing ordinarily as bilithate
of ammonia.  The urine of carnivorous birds con-
tains urea, according to  Coindet, though this sub-
stance is wanting  in that of gramnivorous birds,
which contains lithate of ammonia.  The urine of
vultures also contains a green colouring  matter.
Fourcroy  and Vauquelin found in the urine of the
ostrich: lithic acid to the amount of eV of its weight,
 an animal matter, sulphate of potassa, sulphate of
 lime, sal-ammoniac, an oleaginous substance and
 acetic acid, though the  existence  of  this last is
 doubtful.
    The urine of serpents is a  small coloured liquid, 
104
THE  URINE.
which, soon after evacuation, hardens to a white,
earthy mass, consisting of lithic acid, bilithates of
potassa, soda, and ammonia, and some phosphate
of lime.   When boiled with alcohol a small yel-
lowish extractive mass is obtained which contains
no crystals of urea.   I again refer to the statement
of Cap and Henry, that urea may be obtained from
it by saturating the lithic acid with hydrate of
baryta.
  The urine of frogs is altogether of a different
nature.  According to J. Davy, that of the Rana
taurina is a liquid of I 003 specific quantity, con-
taining chloride of sodium, urea, and a little phos-
phate of lime dissolved.   That of the Bufo fuscus
has  a specific gravity  of  1-008, contains more
urea, chloride  of sodium, and phosphate of lime,
than the  former.  Magnus found in the urine of
the Testudo nigra, a great deal of lithic acid, no
hippuric acid, and very little but a determinable
quantity of urea.


  b.  Accidental  Ingredients of the Urine.

  The urine sometimes contains ingredients which
are  accidentally present, and derive either from the
use of uncommon  substances as food, or are the
consequences  of disease by which the nature of
the urine is altered.
  Accidental ingredients from foreign matters in-
troduced into the body.—Substances introduced by 
                  the urine.               105

the mouth or absorbed by the skin without being
afterwards altered by the vital processes, are eva-
cuated with the  urine  soon  after they have been
dissolved in the liquids of the body.   In  this man-
ner certain ingredients of the food impart peculiar
substances  to the  urine, as for instance aspara-
gus, which  communicates  a very  disagreeable
smell to the urine of those who use it for food.
Also the greater part of most medicines is eva-
cuated from the system in this way.  Oil of tur-
pentine and the natural balsams  impart to the
urine a smell of violets.  Cantu has shown that
the urine contains mercury and becomes alkaline
after the rather free use  of  mercurial  ointment.
Such urine, when  cool, forms  a sediment which
after drying and distillation with powdered char-
coal, yields amongst other  products, globules [of
metallic mercury.   After the internal use of nitre,
ferro-prussiate of  potassa,  and other  salts, the
urine is found to contain them, and it  has some-
times been observed that  the urine of those who
employ large quantities  of  preparations  of iron
becomes bluish or  greenish from the presence of
a small quantity of prussian blue, recognised by
its yielding oxide of iron after ignition.   Wohler
has performed some interesting examinations on
the matters which may  again be found  in the
urine of men and dogs.   After swallowing oxalic
or tartaric  acid  the urine deposites, when  cool, a
white crystalline  powder which consists  of the
       14 
106
THE URINE.
salts of lime with these acids, and of which  still
more is deposited when the urine is mixed with a
solution of chloride  of calcium.   Tartaric acid,
moreover, seemed to render the urine considerably
acid.  It was known before  that citric and malic
acids have the same properties.  After the use of
infusion  of galls, the  urine  gave  dark-coloured
precipitates with the salts of iron.  Benzoic acid*
and succinic  acid also reappeared in the urine.
Iodide  of sodium and iodide  of  ammonium were
found after the use of iodine.   The alkaline carbo-
nates, borates, silicates, chlorates, and nitrates were
always found in the urine, so that either the salt
itself or the acid could be recovered.   Ferro-prus-
siate of potassa and  sulpho-cyanide of potassium
were easily discovered by their reaction with the
salts of the sesquioxide  of iron.  The  red ferro-
prussiate  passed over into the urine as ordinary
ferro-prussiate.   Even sulph-hydrate of potassa
was partially found  unaltered; the greater part,
however, was converted  into  sulphate of potassa.
On  the other hand, Wohler  found  that both in
dogs and men the neutral salts  of the vegetable

  * It is possible the benzoic acid is hereby converted into hippuric
acid.  At least the beautiful prismatic crystals of the acid which I
obtained from the urine of a dog which had taken benzoic acid resem-
bled more hippuric than benzoic acid in their external appearance.
This would easily explain the occurrence of hippuric acid in the urine
of herbivorous animals, since it might be supposed that the benzoic
acid in their food was converted during digestion into hippuric acid.
                                         Wohler. 
THE URINE.
107
acids with potassa and soda were decomposed by
the vital processes, so that the alkali passed off
with the urine as a carbonate, and after the abun-
dant use of them the urine became so alkaline that
it effervesced with  acids.  It happens, therefore,
very frequently, that after  the free use of certain
fruits, for instance, apples, cherries, strawberries,
raspberries, &c, the urine becomes alkaline, be-
cause these fruits  contain malate and citrate of
potassa which  are  decomposed by the vital pro-
cesses.   This circumstance  explains the  known
fact that the continued use of such fruit has been
found efficacious in lithic acid gravel affections.
   For the rest experience  has shown that most of
the colouring matters of plants pass over into the
urine, as for instance, the red  colour of berries,
particularly of cherries, mulberries, the fruit of
the cactus opuntia, &c, (from the use of which
the urine will  become red by acids and green by
alkalies,) hematoxylin,  alizarin  or  madder-red,
(whereby the precipitate of lime from the urine
by  ammonia  becomes  pink,) indigo,  rhubarb,
several  varieties  of tannic  acid, (whereby  the
urine  is coloured  green or  black by the  salts of
the sesquioxide  of iron,)  several  aromatic  ve-
getable  substances,  as  oil of turpentine,  oil of
juniper,  volatile  oil of valerian, oil of  onions,
the aromatic substance  of castor, the narcotic of
opium, &c.
   On the other hand the matters which  do not 
108
THE URINE.
pass into the  urine  are:—mineral acids, which
never make the urine more acid than it is, alcohol,
ether, camphor, empyreumatic animal oil, musk,
the colouring  matter of cochineal,  litmus, sap-
green (from the fruit of rhamnus cathartica,) and
alkanna.  So  also iron in  its oxidized combina-
tions, and the  preparations of lead and bismuth.


  Accidental Ingredients of  the Urine in
                  Diseases.

   Urine in fever.—In the first stage of fever, or-
dinarily beginning with a  chill, the perspiration
is interrupted  and the urine contains more than
its  usual quantity of water, because that which
otherwise would have been given off by the skin,
is now  removed by the kidneys; on the farther
development of the fever,  accompanied by heat
and increased pulse,  the urine  becomes darker
than usual, but  still  deposits  no sediment.  Its
free acid is diminished in proportion as the colour
deepens, and it now begins to react with chloride
of mercury, which produces no precipitate as long
as the urine is sufficiently acid.   The urine be-
comes more concentrated as the fever increases; it
now begins to yield a precipitate with alum and
at last with nitric acid.   Both  these  re-agents
show  an  increased quantity of  albumen in the 
the urine.
109
urine.   When the fever passes away  after the
lapse of a certain number of days, say after the
seventh, the free acid reappears at once,  its colour
becomes lighter and it appears cloudy on cooling.
Physicans call this the  crisis by the urine; the
sediment contains nothing peculiar from the dis-
ease, but only a little more red  colouring matter
than usual, and sometimes a little nitric acid  in an
unknown  combination.  In every  paroxysm of
intermittent fever the urine passes through  these
three conditions, and the colouring matter has the
hue of carmine.  Fromherz and Gugert observed
that in lenta nervosa,  a  copious, reddish yellow
precipitate of lithic acid, with but little  colouring
matter  of the  urine was continually deposited;
there was but little urea present, though  there
was much phosphate  of magnesia and  the  other
ingredients in usual quantity.
   Without  doubt much might be learned  from
examination of urine in fevers, of great importance
to the physician in diagnosis and treatment, espe-
cially if the examination could  be reduced to the
use of tests easily applicable.  But this is scarcely
to be  hoped so long as we know so little of the
organic constituents of  the urine in its healthy
state.
   In anasarca arising from general debility, the
serous fluid is also separated  by the kidneys and
the urine becomes albuminous.   It will then give
a precipitate with chloride of mercury even  when 
110
the  urine.
it has an acid reaction.  In the farther progress
of the disease the kidneys secrete an albuminous
solution;  it can  then be  precipitated  by alum,
and, in the still farther progress of the disease, by
nitric acid, and at last it coagulates by heat.   As
the albuminous matter increases, so the ordinary
ingredients of the urine diminish, and, finally, alto-
gether disappear.  Albuminous urine also occurs
with deficiency  of urea in chronic affections  of
the liver, complicated  with dyspepsia; also  to-
wards  the termination of all emaciating diseases
that are accompanied with  hectic fever.
  In a peculiar affection of the kidneys  described
by Bright, a portion of the serum of the blood  is
secreted with the urine, which gradually increases,
though it ceases again before the sickness termi-
nates  in death.  The  urine  contains  so  much
albumen that it congeals  by  a  temperature  of
150° F.
  Fibrin  has sometimes  been found in urine,
which  then coagulates  or  deposites a coagulum
shortly after its  evacuation.   The  urine  some-
times contains globules of blood in solution; it is
then called bloody urine, from its appearance.
  Urine, containing milk, has been observed seve-
ral  times.   Such urine separated cream, coagu-
lated by heat, and the coagulum  had the proper-
ties of  casein; ether extracted fat from  it.  This
kind of urine has been secreted by both men and
women, in consequence of  unknown  causes, and 
THE URINE.
Ill
even sometimes without any manifest indisposi-
tion.
  From severe vomiting (occasioned  by headach,
schirrus of the stomach, &c.) the urine is some-
times turbid, looks milky, and  deposites a white
sediment.  On the filter it becomes slimy, and on
drying it is first yellowish and  transparent, after-
wards white and  pulverulent.   The addition of
water renders it again slimy; caustic potassa dis-
solves the mucus from it and leaves the phosphate
of lime; chlorohydric acid dissolves the phosphate,
rendering the mucus at first transparent, and then
dissolving it.   Fromherz and Gugert found in the
urine of a person  with black vomit,  who suffered
from schirrus of the pylorus,  perfectly  similar
mucus mixed with phosphate of lime;  the urine
was alkaline  from the  presence of  carbonate of
soda and ammonia;  it contained much urea, but
no lithic acid.
   In rheumatism the urine is  generally acid, de-
positing sediment oftener than in health; but in
the fever accompanying the paroxysms the  acid
of the urine decreases and disappears as it does in
 other fevers.   The quantity of lithic acid is also
 considerably   increased in  rheumatism, which
 might be anticipated from  the  fact of the earthy
 concretions, found  in  the  joints,  consisting  of
 lithate of soda with  some lithate of ammonia.
   In jaundice the  urine  has  a yellow colour,
 from admixture of the ingredients  of the  bile; 
112
THE  URINE.
it  has also been  seen decidedly green from dis-
solved  biliverdin.   It is easily recognised from
the changes it undergoes  when mixed with an
equal volume of  nitric acid.   With  chlorohy-
dric acid, it becomes green or brown according
to  the  modification in which the colouring mat-
ter of  the  bile exists  in  the urine.  In  dis-
eases of the liver  the urine leaves a yellow stain
on linen when dried.  Sometimes it is turbid and
leaves  yellow flocculi on  the filter,  chiefly com-
posed of the colouring  matter of the bile, the so-
lution of which in potassa  gives the ordinary re-
action with  nitric  acid.  Gmelin  and Tiedmann
found that such urine  gave a  green  precipitate
with sulphate of  copper, while with sulphate of
protoxide of iron, chloride of tin,  chloride of iron,
acetate of lead, nitrate of the protoxide of mercury
and chloride of mercury, the precipitate was yel-
low.
  Tn cholera morbus the  urine is very variable.
Vogel has published some examinations of it.  In
the first twenty-four hours he found the colouring
matter of  the  bile, which  first  turned green and
then red, on the addition of nitric  acid.  He after-
wards found that  the salts of lime and of magne-
sia were absent, that there was very little chloride
of potassium or sodium, more  than the ordinary
quantity of sulphates, and  phosphoric and lactic
acids in abundance.   It coagulated slightly when
boiled, and  deposited a little  albumen.  With 
THE  URINE.
113
nitrate of protoxide of mercury it yielded a light
gray precipitate, which soon became black from
the presence of albumen with its sulphur.  A day
or two afterwards the albumen and the  colouring
matter of the bile disappeared, but the salts of
lime,  chloride  of sodium, &c, were again  pre-
sent.
   The urine is often altered after colic.  L. Gmelin
found it clear but browner than usual.   It con-
tained the  brown  colouring matter of the bile,
which could be precipitated by a small portion of
chlorohydric acid.  By the addition of  more acid
it was again dissolved  without yielding  any far-
ther precipitate.  The precipitate was recognised
as colouring matter of the bile  from its property
of dissolving in caustic potassa, with a  brown co-
lour,  which turned bright red on the addition of
nitric acid.  It did not exhibit the ordinary change
of colours, from green to blue and red, but Gmelin
observes, that he has  often noticed this in the co-
louring matter of the bile after it had been passed
with  the urine.   On  the  addition of much nitric
acid  to  this urine it assumed a red  colour; a
smaller quantity of the acid precipitated  the brown
matter which being dissolved in  potassa  and nitric
acid added,  the solution did not become so bright
red as when it was precipitated first  by chloro-
hydric acid.  This urine also deposited the ordi-
nary red sediment after  some hours rest.
   In spasmodic or hysterical complaints  the urine
       15 
114
THE URINE.
sometimes becomes  altogether colourless and  as
clear  as  water.   According to Rollo, the urea
and  organic ingredients are  entirely wanting,
and only the usual salts are found in it.
  The secretion  of  blue urine has  been several
times observed ;  the  colouring  matter  suspended
in it was not the ferro-prussiate of iron.  Gamier
and  Delens found it slightly  soluble in water;
neither acids nor alkalies altered the  colour, but
nitric acid destroyed it.  Braconnot found the blue
matter tasteless, inodorous, darker than ferro-prus-
siate, and in extremely minute  division.    By
heat it gave carbonate of ammonia and empyreu-
matic oil.   It was slightly soluble in water and
boiling alcohol;  the latter solution assumed  a
greenish  colour  and deposited  on cooling a little
dark blue, almost crystalline powder.  By evapo-
rating the alcohol the blue matter remained solu-
ble in acids, which left some fatty matter undis-
solved.   This colouring matter is soluble in acids,
and even in certain vegetable acids such as oxalic
and tannic acids, which also  redden it.  When a
saturated solution of it in dilute  sulphuric acid was
evaporated,  it had the colour  of carmine.  The
solution in water was brown, but it became red by
evaporation. Acetic acid dissolved  very little of
it;  the solution was yellowish brown, but after
evaporating the  acid the colouring  matter  re-
mained of an unchanged blue.  By saturating the
red solutions in the acids with  an alkali, they re-
sume their red colour, while the colouring matter 
THE  URINE.
115
is  again precipitated.   Caustic potassa  dissolved
but little of it, and carbonic acid  almost none.
The urine from which this  blue colouring mat-
ter was  separated by  filtration, deposited, when
warmed, a  new portion of  colouring matter, so
dark that it seemed almost black, but otherwise
having the same properties.*  According to Span-
genberg the blue colouring matter, deposited from
a specimen  of urine in combination with the ordi-
nary sediments from which it could be  extracted
by boiling alcohol, amounted to  about one-fourth
of the  weight of the sediment.  The solution was
blue and by evaporation the colouring matter re-
mained without the least appearance of crystalli-
zation.  It  was  also  soluble  in  boiling  ether.
Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolved  it with a
blue colour, but chlorohydric acid produced no
effect on it even by ebullition.  By nitric acid it
became  yellow, lost its peculiar properties  and
was converted into  picrin-nitric-acid.   It was in-
soluble  in caustic alkalies and their  carbonates.
By incineration it left a small quantity of a white
ash consisting of phosphate of lime.   This exami-
tion shows that the matters which colour the urine
blue are not always of the same kind.
   A black colouring matter  has also been  found
in the  urine.   Marcet  has  described the urine of
a  child, which contained neither lithic acid nor
urea, but with  a colour occasionally as black as
 * Braconnot considers this colouring matter to be a peculiar base and
calls the one cyanourinc, and the other melanourine. 
116
THE  URINE.
ink, or becoming so on the addition  of an  alkali.
By acids it was first  apparently unaltered, but
after a while it deposited dark flocculi and became
clearer.   The dark precipitate was insoluble in
water and alcohol, but soluble in sulphuric and
nitric acids with a black  colour, and could again
be precipitated from them unaltered by the addi-
tion of water.  On the other hand it dissolved in
caustic alkalies and their  carbonates with  a dark
colour, and was again precipitated by acids.  The
solution in ammonia left, by evaporation, a shining,
dark brown, cracked mass, which again dissolved
in water, retained ammonia in combination and
gave it off on  the addition of potassa.  With me-
tallic salts it gave brown precipitates.  Prout, who
examined it   chemically,  considered the  black
colouring matter as a weak acid, and called it rae-
lanic acid. It has great resemblance to the black,
pulverulent substance, insoluble in alcohol, which,
according to  Proust, is produced by the reaction
of concentrated acids  on  the extractive matter of
the urine.
   In the sediment of the urine a black substance
has sometimes been found, which is  called  Hema-
tin;  after treating the sediment with chlorohydric
acid, which extracts the  phosphate of lime, and
then dissolving it in alcohol, mixed with sulphuric
or chlorohydric acid,  it  may  be precipitated by
the alkaline carbonates, added in quantity exactly
sufficient to saturate the solution.   Hematin can
easily  be recognised  from these properties.   It 
THE  URINE.
117
may also be extracted from the sediment by alco-
hol mixed with a few drops of caustic ammonia;
after evaporation of the alcohol it is recognisable
by the quantity of oxide of iron which it affords
by incineration.
  In diabetes the urine contains sugar instead of
urea, from whence it has a sweet taste.  In the
beginning of this disease no other symptoms are
observed than that the urine  is secreted in larger
quantity than usual, and that the appetite propor-
tionally increases;  however, an alteration soon
occurs, from which all water taken with the food
passes into the urine.   The  perspiration is inter-
rupted, and the skin becomes dry and rough. The
more the urine  increases in  quantity and  sweet-
ness the  more concentrated it  becomes, and its
specific gravity has been found  as high as 1-050,
and even  higher; Bouchardat found it as high as
1*074.   In  proportion as the sugar increases, the
quantity  of urea diminishes, but it always  re-
appears when the sugar decreases.
   Diabetic urine is of a pale straw colour; it has
a sweet taste, and  a smell like whey.  The inor-
ganic salts are found  in it, in their ordinary rela-
tive proportion, but in more dilute solution.  To-
wards the end of the disease, when  hectic fever
supervenes, the  urine becomes  albuminous, and,
therefore,  easily passes into  vinous fermentation.
It may, however-, always be  easily fermented by
yeast,  after which it will give  much alcohol by
distillation. 
118
THE  URINE.
   The quantity of urine sometimes increases to
so great an  extent, that instances occur in which
eleven or twelve quarts of water have been passed
in twenty-four  hours, and this has continued for
months.   It is accompanied with an unquench-
able thirst; but as the drink soon finds  its way
through the kidneys, taking up a new quantity
of the substance of the body, it happens  in this
disease that for a long time more passes away by
the urine than  corresponds to  the daily  food  of
the patient, until  he finally succumbs.   Henry
has calculated from experiments that an English
wine-pint of diabetic urine of sp. gr. 1 -020, evapo-
rated to dryness, yields a residue of 382*4 grains,
which increases 19-2  grains for every unit  by
which the specific gravity is increased  until it
has reached 1 050;  so that when it has a  specific
gravity of 1*021,  it  leaves  a  residue of 382-4
+ 19*2 = 401-6 grains; and when 1-050  sp. gr.,
the residue is  958*4 grains, which corresponds to
43-559 grammes of solid  matters to one  litre of
urine of 1-020 sp. gr.;  and for every unit the spe-
cific gravity increases 2-1871 grammes.
   When the urine is evaporated and treated with
alcohol, the  sugar  and extractive matter,  soluble
in alcohol, are dissolved.   After  sufficient evapo-
ration, the sugar crystallizes from this solution in
small granular  crystals, like  sugar of  grapes.
Sometimes,  however, merely a sweet syrup is ob-
tained, which does not yield crystals.  It  has not
yet been ascertained whether there exists an un- 
THE  URINE.
119
crystallizable variety of diabetic sugar, or whether
it is caused by containing so much deliquescent
extractive matter that its water prevents the crys-
tallization of the  sugar.  At all events it may be
easily determined by destroying the sugar by fer-
mentation, and evaporating the fermented liquid,
whereby the extractive matter is  separately ob-
tained.   The opinion  at one time prevailed that
this sugar constituted a distinct species, but Prout
has placed it beyond all doubt that it is the same
sugar  which in vegetable  chemistry is called
grape sugar; with which it  agrees in all its che-
mical  properties, and  also, according to  Prout's
analysis, in its composition.  Its properties  and
composition  have also been  since examined  by
other chemists, lately by  Peligot, and by Erd-
mann;  and all  examinations  prove  its  identity
with grape sugar, and that its formula is C1* H13
O13, or simply C6 H6 O6.
   It is no easy matter  to separate the sugar in its
pure state.   The urine is evaporated in a water-
bath to  the  consistence of honey, the  remainder
treated with alcohol of 0-833 as long as any sub-
stances are dissolved by it.  The alcoholic solution
is then evaporated to the consistence of a syrup,
which is to be put in a cool  place for  crystalliza-
tion, where,  generally in a few  days, sometimes
not before a week or ten days, it is converted into
a granular mass.   This mass is put in a cool place
after it has been  laid on folds of bibulous paper,
and covered  by a glass receiver, in which  a moist- 
120
THE URINE.
ened sponge is suspended.   The  extractive mat-
ters deliquesce  and are absorbed by the paper,
which, with exception of the sheet on which the
sugar  is  lying, may  be occasionally  changed.
When the paper absorbs no more, the mass is to
be  crumbled,  pressed  between  fresh bibulous
paper, and  left for  a few days in  a warm  place
under  the receiver with  the moistened  sponge.
Finally, the sugar should be powdered and washed
with  anhydrous alcohol.  It is then  to  be dis-
solved in water and crystallized.
  Another method is to precipitate  the solution in
alcohol of 0-833, with subacetate of lead added in
small portions as long as any separation  occurs.
The liquid  should be well  shaken after every
addition of the subacetate.   The mixture is then
filtered, the  precipitate washed with a little al-
cohol, the  spirituous solution  treated with  sul-
phuretted hydrogen, filtered from  the  precipi-
tated sulphuret of lead, and  is then evaporated to
the consistence of honey.   When the sugar has
been separated by crystallization, the urea, acetic
acid, and  other  substances which  it retains are
extracted  by anhydrous alcohol.   By this opera-
tion the sugar is obtained both more speedily and
more colourless.
  It is very important to the physician to have an
easy way of detecting sugar in urine supposed to
be diabetic.  The ordinary  test is very easy;  it
consists in adding two tea-spoonsful of ferment to
three or four ounces of urine, and placing the mix- 
THE  URINE.
121
ture in a temperature of about 70° F.  In urine
containing  sugar fermentation soon takes place,
while none occurs when no sugar is present.
  Runge  gives another  equally  easy and  still
quicker test.   A few drops of the suspected liquid
are placed on a saucer and held over the mouth of
a tea-kettle containing boiling water;  as  soon as
the urine is dried a few drops of dilute sulphuric
acid are added, consisting of one part  of concen-
trated  acid to  six or eight  parts of water,  and
then  heated  gently for a few moments.   If the
urine contains sugar the spot soon turns black,
otherwise it has an orange colour.  This reaction
is so  delicate that when one part of sugar is dis-
solved in one thousand parts of healthy urine the
spot is blackened; and with one part of sugar to
two thousand of urine it becomes sufficiently dark
to yield a distinct proof of the presence of sugar.
   Hiinefeld gives  another  less  applicable  test.
One ounce of the urine is mixed with a few drops
of a solution  of chromic acid and placed in the
light.   It  soon changes  its colour, passing from
brown to green.  This reaction does not occur in
any other  than  diabetic urine.    Neither is it
caused by the sugar in the urine, since when
grape sugar is dissolved in healthy urine  and
mixed with chromic acid, the mixture does  not
turn green.
   Hiinefeld has also attempted to prove that dia-
betic urine contains an extractive matter peculiar
to this disease, and which  he obtained from the
       16 
122
THE  URINE.
precipitate by subacetate of lead, by treating it
with water and sulphuretted hydrogen.  But this
extractive matter is mixed with several other sub-
stances as we have seen before, and  its reactions
do not essentially differ from those  obtained  by
the extractive matter from healthy urine.   This
substance, therefore, must be subjected to a new
examination  for the purpose of comparing it di-
rectly with the extractive matter of healthy urine.
  Lehmann has also discovered hippuric acid in
diabetic urine.   He extracted it by ether from the
concentrated urine.  After partial distillation, and
spontaneous evaporation of the remainder,  he ob-
tained a mixture of extractive matter with crystals
of hippuric  acid.   Experiments performed with
these crystals seemed to leave no doubt that they
were hippuric acid.  They do not seem, however,
to be a constant, but only an accidental ingredient
of diabetic urine.
  I  will here quote an analysis  by  Meisner to
show the composition of urine in diabetes.  The
different portions were obtained at different times
from the same individual.

Matter soluble in ether; urea, lactic acid, lac-
     tate of lime and extractive matter    .    034 0-33 065
Matter soluble in alcohol; sugar, extractive
     matter and salts     .     .      .    7-06 3*46 5-78
Matter soluble in water; extractive matters
     and salts    ....    1-37 344 099
Mucus with phosphate of lime and a trace of
     oxide of iron ....    0-34 0-31 046
Water.....9119 9246 9210 
THE URINE.
123
  A still  more concentrated diabetic  urine  was
analyzed by Bouchardat, and gave :
Sugar
Urea .
Alcoholic extract .
Extract soluble in water
Salts
Mucus
Oxide of iron (?) .
Water
 13-442
  0-827
  0-638
  0-527
  0-869
  0024
  0014
 83-758

100000
  An analysis still more detailed, has been pub-
lished by Muller;  he found
Sugar
Urea .
Alcoholic extract.
Watery extract
Albumen .
Mucus
Sulphate of potassa
Chloride of sodium
Chloride of potassium
Phosphate of soda
Chloride of ammonium
Phosphate of lime
Silica
Water
  4-900
  0006
  1-420
  0-360
  0029
  0021
  0021
  0054
  0015
  0110
  0-033
  0-028
  0004
 93 766

100000
  These analyses can never be made with  suffi-
cient accuracy to be considered any thing  more
than approximations; it  may, however,  be seen
from them that  as sugar increases in the  urine, 
124
THE URINE.
the latter becomes more concentrated and contains
less water.
  The disease seems to consist in a mal-assimila-
tion of protein substances, from which in healthy
conditions of the body urea is formed, but which in
diabetes are converted from  unknown causes into
sugar, ammonia, and perhaps an azotic extractive
matter.  We see that protein substances, notwith-
standing their nitrogen, may cause the  formation
of sugar from their reaction with nitric and chloro-
hydric acids. Chlorohydric  acid, for instance, con-
verts  protein into ammonia and humin  or humic
acid, which is the same black substance capable
of combining with an alkali, that the  acid  pro-
duces with  sugar.  Nitric acid yields with  pro-
tein both  xantho-proteic acid, and saccharic and
oxalic acids in  abundance.   Before the disease
has made  much progress, sugar cannot be found
in the blood, any more than urea, wherefore its
formation was ascribed altogether to disease of the
kidneys.   But later experiments on the blood of
diabetic patients have proved that when the for-
mation of sugar is abundant, it is also found in
the blood.   It is said to have been found even to
the amount  of one per cent.; in most cases, how-
ever, it exists in much less quantity.  Bouchardat
asserts that  the quantity of  sugar in the blood is
greatest a few hours after eating, and  that it is
entirely absent in the morning, because  the sugar
has been  separated  from  the blood durino- the
night.  In order  to  detect it  the fresh blood is 
THE URINE.
125
coagulated by admixture with strong alcohol, the
solution filtered and the coagulum washed.   The
alcoholic solution  is to be evaporated to dryness,
the residue treated  with  alcohol  of 0-833,  the
solution decanted and left to spontaneous evapora-
tion.  A syrup is now obtained which, after stand-
ing a few  days in a cool place,  gives  granular
crystals of grape-sugar.  It may more  easily be
tested for sugar by the method of Runge; accord-
ing to which  it is only necessary to evaporate a
few drops, and treat  the remainder  with a few
drops of dilute sulphuric acid, in  the manner be-
fore mentioned.
  This disease is  considered incurable, and  it is
in fact very seldom  cured.   The  best treatment
seems to consist in placing the patient on  a strictly
animal  diet, so as to deprive the kidneys of all
such  matter  as they  could easily  convert  into
sugar.   According to Henard the urine becomes
albuminous before the  sugar  diminishes,  and,
therefore, before the urea  reappears; but after-
wards it ceases to  be  albuminous.  The progress
of convalescence is easily ascertained by observing
whether the quantity of urea increases.
  There is another kind of diabetes called diabetes
insipidus, in which the urine does not taste sweet,
but its quantity is  unnaturally increased.   In this
complaint urea ceases to be  formed, and the urine
leaves  on evaporation a brownish yellow syrup
with a faint acid reaction, without any disposition
to crystallize.   Alcohol of  0-833 dissolves  the 
126
THE URINE.
greater part of it, and leaves on evaporation a yel-
low deliquescent extract, which apparently exactly
resembles the substance which alcohol of the same
strength extracts from  a concentrated solution of
flesh.  Even the part insoluble in alcohol is an
extractive matter.  Bouchardat has published an
analysis of urine in this disease.   He found:
Extractive matter soluble in alcohol	1-321	1-837
Extractive matter soluble in water .	0-427	0-548
Urea		1-431 0036
Mucus and phosphate of lime .	0012	
Salts soluble in water	0-524	0-927
	0024	0064
	97-692	95-157
  It is  to be  observed  that in this disease also,
urea is sometimes present and sometimes absent.
   Urinary concretions,  or  calculi  and  gravel.—
When insoluble substances are deposited from the
urine while yet in the body, they form concretions
in the urinary passages which, from  the earliest
times, have been the subject of speculation as well
as of examination.   From Galen to Parcelsus the
formation of these concretions was  referred to su-
pernatural  causes.  Van Helmont very correctly
compared their formation to the crystallization of
tartar from wine.   Since his time they have been
treated  of with very different views by  many
authors, amongst whom may be mentioned Hales,
Boyle, Boerhaave,  and Slare.  The  first correct
view of their nature was given by  the analysis of 
THE URINE.
127
some  calculi by Scheele in  the  year  1776; by
which he discovered lithic acid, which he after-
wards found in the urine.   But Scheele meeting
with no other than lithic acid calculi, concluded that
they were all composed of this substance.  Berg-
mann then found a calculus  consisting of earthy
phosphates, whence it appeared that the composi-
tion of these concretions might be very different.
In the year 1797, Wollaston described the follow-
ing five  different kinds:—lithic acid;  phosphate
of lime;  a mixture of the latter with double phos-
phate of magnesia and ammonia (fusible calculi;)
pure  double phosphate of ammonia and  magnesia;
and oxalate of lime (mulberry calculi.)  Fourcroy
and Vauquelin a short time afterwards invited
physicians to send them specimens of  calculi for
examination.   They  collected in this  way 600
specimens, which enabled  them to  examine  a
great variety.  They found the same  substances
as Wollaston, and moreover lithate of ammonia,
 and  in  two specimens they found  silica.  The
 author of their common treatise has been properly
 censured for affecting ignorance of the results of
 Wollaston, which were published almost  three
 years before in the transactions of a learned society,
 which the French Academy of  Sciences, beyond
 all others, could not be ignorant of.   Proust after-
 wards found human calculi  containing carbonate
 of lime.  His accuracy was at first doubted, be-
 cause Fourcroy and Vauquelin had not found this
 substance, but later experience  has substantiated 
128
THE URINE,
it.  Wollaston then discovered in the year 1810
anew ingredient in calculi, which he named cystic
oxide.   A. Marcet  discovered another substance
which  he named xanthic oxide;  and afterwards,
also, a calculus of fibrin of the blood.  Lindeberg-
son discovered lithate of soda and carbonate of
magnesia as ingredients in a calculus.
  The formation of urinary concretions is caused
by the secretion of insoluble matters in the urine,
in greater proportion than can be kept in solution
by it; or by the quantity of free acid in the urine
becoming too little to retain the earthy phosphates
in solution; or by a sickly disposition of the body
giving rise to the secretion of uncommon and in-
soluble  substances  which deposite immediately,
such as oxalate of lime, &c.  The manner in which
they deposite is various.  Sometimes they  pre-
cipitate in the state  of powder and pass out with
the urine which is rendered milky and turbid; or
they are formed immediately in the pelvis of the
kidneys, adhering to the inner surfaces, at first,
but afterwards becoming loose, they  pass with
more or less colic-like pains along the ureters into
the bladder, from which  they are evacuated with
the urine in  the form of gravel.   But if unfor-
tunately a grain or  small calculus should remain
in the bladder it becomes a nucleus for the slow
deposition of the insoluble ingredients of the urine,
of which it now causes the precipitation even
should the urine contain them in no greater quan-
tity than it would, under ordinary circumstances, 
THE URINE.
129
retain in solution.   Now by variation in the diet
at different times, the quantity of one or other of
the insoluble matters is increased; this is deposited
on the calculus which is thus formed of layers of
different substances; and by continually increasing
in size at last gives rise to inflammation and  dis-
organization of the bladder, which causes the death
of the patient.   This is a brief history of calculus
disease.   They are called renal  calculi  as long as
the disease merely deposites gravel in the kidneys,
and vesical calculi when  they are  formed in  the
bladder by deposition on a nucleus.   These nuclei
ordinarily consist of small concretions derived from
the kidneys; instances, however, occur  where the
nucleus consists of foreign substances introduced
from without the body.
   We will  now briefly give  a more detailed de-
scription of these concretions.   They may be
divided into three classes,  a. Pulverulent preci-
pitates,   b. Deposites of  small  crystals,   c.  Cal-
 culi of larger size.
   a. Pulverulent sediments, passing with the urine
and rendering it turbid.—These  may  consist of,
 1st. Lithic acid; it is then either yellow or lateri-
tious like the ordinary sediment from cooling urine.
2.  Phosphate of lime mixed with double phosphate
of ammonia and magnesia together with  much
 mucus.   On the filter it looks like mucus, but it
 becomes earthy and pulverulent when dry,  and
 then feels soft to the touch.   Dilute acids extract
 the earthy salts, but leave the mucus.   The urine
        17 
130              THE URINE.
depositing  this sediment is always alkaline, and
contains carbonate of soda and ammonia.  I once
had  an opportunity of observing a  case  of this
kind: phosphoric acid was administered  to the
patient in increasing doses, without rendering the
urine more acid;  but at last the medicine caused
dysentery; the urine then.became acid, and clear,
and deposited lithic  acid.   This condition ceased
with  the dysentery; but  the  formation of sedi-
ment and the alkaline reaction of the urine could
not be prevented afterwards by the continued use
either of phosphoric or acetic acid.   This patient
gradually emaciated, and finally died.  3. Mucus
unnaturally increased by catarrh of the bladder.
In appearance this resembles the former, but dif-
fers  from mucus containing the  earthy salts, by
becoming greenish yellow and transparent when
dry, and by the acidity of the urine.
  b.  Crystalline sediments  or  gravel.—The sub-
stances which are deposited more easily than all
others from the urine in small crystals without
agglutination to larger  masses are, 1st. Bilithate
of ammonia which occurs in small, shining, red-
dish, or  sometimes  yellow, well defined crystals.
2d.  Oxalate of lime in small, light yellow, green,
or brownish-gray, granular crystals.   3d. Double
phosphate  of ammonia and magnesia in small
white and  soft crystals.   More rarely gravel has
been found composed of other substances, for in-
stance of cystin and xanthic oxide;  perhaps these
are not so  rare as is generally believed, but eva- 
THE URINE.
131
cuated gravel is seldom examined, and these mat-
ters often may have existed without  being recog-
nised.   To those concerned it is of importance to
be able to distinguish between gravel which is
formed before evacuation  and such  as  forms by
cooling.   This is easily  done by  draining the
urine through  linen, as this retains the gravel
which passes from the bladder.
  c.  Calculi.—Their  colour  varies according to
their ingredients.  They are  white, gray, yellow,
or brown.  Their surface is either earthy, smooth
and polished, occupied by mamillary excrescences,
or covered with  small projecting crystals.  As
long as they are  moist they retain the smell of
urine.   According to Marcet their specific gravity
varies between  1-2 and 1*9.   Their form is some-
times determined by the part on which  they were
lying, and when there are several present, their
surfaces  generally become  smooth and flattened
by trituration against each  other; they are, how-
ever, for the most part oval, and their size varies
from that of a  hazelnut to that of a hen's  egg.
Calculi have been found in the bladder weighing
more  than three pounds.   Their  transverse sec-
tion gives the most interesting view of their gene-
ral characters.   Their  inner structure is made
apparent by cutting through their centre with a
fine,  broad,  and  sharp saw, and  grinding and
polishing the new surfaces with  water and  the
powder formed  by the saw.  Ordinarily, there is
a nucleus in the  centre,  which  has been  sur- 
132
l'HE URINE.
rounded by other substances in alternating layers
of different thickness, so  that  calculi have been
found consisting of layers of all the ordinary in-
gredients  of  urinary calculi.   Many,  however,
consist entirely of the same substance which has
been deposited in  layers of different thickness,
and which often scale off from each other.  I will
now treat  separately of the different substances
which compose the calculi.
  1. Lithic acid is  the most common ingredient
of urinary calculi.  They have a reddish brown,
or brownish  yellow colour; sometimes they are
pea-yellow, less often white.   Their surface is
partially smooth and partially covered with small
mammilke.   The transverse section exhibits thin,
concentric layers, and the fracture is either imper-
fectly crystalline or earthy.  Lithic acid never
exists in its pure state in urinary concretions, but
is always  united with the same colouring matter
which accompanies it in the sediment of the urine,
and from  whence they derive a yellow or maho-
ghany colour.  Ether nearly always extracts from
these, as it does from all kinds of calculi, a portion
of the same kind of fat that ordinarily occurs in
animal fluids.  Part of the yellow colouring mat-
ter may be extracted by acetic acid, which then
becomes yellow.   Besides this they always con-
tain either albumen or mucus, and it is difficult
to say which  of the two it is in  any particular case-
If a calculus of this kind be dissolved in caustic
potassa, and  the  lithic acid precipitated by the 
THE URINE.
133
addition  of  chlorohydric  acid  in excess, and
washed on a filter, the wash-water, as  soon as the
excess of chlorohydric  acid is removed, dissolves
a substance which again precipitates by  mixing
with the previously filtered acid solution.   If this
water  be  collected  separately and mixed with
chlorohydric acid the precipitate behaves  exactly
like the neutral combination  of  this  acid with
fibrin or albumen, and its solution in water is pre-
cipitated by  ferro-prussiate of potassa.  This re-
action also belongs to  the mucus of the bladder,
and it therefore seems to follow that this substance
unites with lithic acid in a combination analogous
to that in which it  is  taken up by chlorohydric
acid.   All calculi of lithic acid contain a small
quantity of lithate of potassa, soda, ammonia, and
sometimes lime; they, therefore, leave  a little ash,
after incineration, consisting of the alkaline car-
bonates and carbonate of lime.  Sometimes they
also contain a  greater or less admixture of the
earthy phosphates.  The chemical characters by
which calculi of lithic acid are recognised,  are the
following: they are soluble in caustic potassa, yield-
ing only a slight ammoniacal odour; but a residue
of gelatinous phosphate of lime  is often  left,  which,
when its quantity is small, dissolves in an excess
of potassa.  This solution yields with acids a ge-
latinous precipitate which soon collects into a gra-
nular powder.  These  calculi dissolve  in nitric
acid very easily.  The solution is yellowish, and
becomes red by evaporation at a moderate heat, 
134
THE URINE.
 The residue is again soluble in water, giving a
 colourless solution which turns red by evapora-
 tion.  This test is easily made on a watch-glass or
 piece of porcelain with a small piece of the calcu-
 lus  not larger than a mustard  seed.   When the
 acid is added  in excess, or  too great heat is em-
 ployed in the  evaporation, the red colour is de-
 stroyed and changed to yellow; on  this account
 Jacobson prescribes the  evaporation of the  solu-
 tion in nitric acid nearly, but not perfectly, to dry-
 ness over a lamp;  the watch-glass is then  to  be
 inverted over another containing a few drops of
 caustic ammonia and gently heated.  The ammo-
 niacal fumes saturate the nitric acid, and the red
 colour immediately appears in the upper glass.
 The easiest way of discovering foreign admixtures
 in calculi of this kind, is to calcine a small portion
 of it on platinum foil before  the blow-pipe.   At
 first the outer flame is applied which produces the
 smell of burnt horn and strong prussic acid odours,
 while the calculus continually diminishes in  size.
 The residue at last takes fire and burns sponta-
 neously with much splendour, even after the ces-
 sation  of  the blast.   Calculi  of pure lithic  acid
 leave only a small trace  of  ash.  If they  give
 much ash which  is not alkaline they were mixed
 with earthy phosphates.   If, on the contrary, the
ash  is strongly alkaline, but insoluble  in water,
they either contained lithate of magnesia or  oxa-
late of lime which has been burnt caustic.
  2. Lithate of  soda, with  traces of  lithate  of 
THE URINE.
135
potassa, has never yet been found as  the sole in-
gredient of urinary concretions.   Lindbergson
found it to be an ingredient of a calculus, of which
the composition will be given hereafter.
  3. Lithate of ammonia occurs, though rarely as
the sole ingredient of urinary calculi, and more
frequently  in children than in adults.  They are
generally small in size, of a white or  gray colour
like clay, with a smooth,  sometimes tuberculated
surface, consisting of concentric layers and having
an  earthy  fracture.   Some time after Fourcroy
and Vauquelin had proved the  existence of this
kind of calculus, W. Brande declared it to be  an
error, asserting that lithate of  ammonia never oc-
curred  in  urinary concretions.   The  ammonia
generated  by caustic potassa from calculi, accord-
ing to him, derives sometimes from an admixture
of  double  phosphate  of ammonia and magnesia,
but chiefly from the ammoniacal salts and urea of
the urine with which the  calculi are always satu-
rated when first extracted, and of which a certain
quantity always remains after  drying.   Prout,
however, soon proved the error of Brande's asser-
tion,  and  was confirmed afterwards by several
others.   The calculus is  reduced to  powder and
washed with cool water to extract the remaining
urine;  it is then boiled  in a large  quantity of
water which dissolves the lithate of ammonia and
again deposites  the greater part  of it in crystals.
The  residue  obtained by the evaporation of this
solution is treated, when cool, with chlorohydric 
136
THE URINE.
acid, whereby the lithic acid is separated, and by
evaporation of it, sal-ammoniac  remains behind.
Should the stone consist altogether of lithate of
ammonia much water will be required for its solu-
tion, and it is, therefore, preferable to treat it at
once with chlorohydric acid.   A few drops of this
solution is tested with caustic ammonia to discover
the presence of double phosphate of ammonia and
magnesia.  The  rest forms by evaporation a saline
mass, in which the presence both of ammonia and
soda may be shown by subliming a portion of the dry
mass in a test tube: sal-ammoniac, impure from de-
stroyed animal matters sublimes, and a portion of
chloride  of sodium mixed with carbon generally
remains at the bottom of the tube.   Lithate of am-
monia may likewise be easily recognised by its
yielding ammonia when treated with a solution of
caustic potassa.  But this  test is liable to error
because the same  will occur with double  phos-
phate  of ammonia and  magnesia. The  doubt,
however, may soon be removed by the addition of
a little water, which in the  case of lithate of am-
monia dissolves the whole, while in the latter case
the magnesia  remains undissolved.  The  beha-
viour of these calculi towards nitric acid and heat,
is the same as those of lithic acid.
  4. Lithate of magnesia forms the rarest kind of
calculi, both because the magnesia constitutes so
small a portion of the ingredients of the urine, and
because its salt with lithic  acid is rather soluble.
Sharling found  it  to form  the prevailing  ingre- 
THE  URINE.
137
dients  of two calculi, in which  it was associated
with lithate  of ammonia.   The presence of this
salt in a calculus is easily discovered by boiling
the powder in water, which dissolves the salts both
of magnesia and ammonia.  The solution is treated
with  chlorohydric acid, which  precipitates  the
lithic acid, and the remaining  solution is  to be
evaporated to dryness in a  water-bath.  The resi-
due  is then  moistened with a little concentrated
chlorohydric acid and  the  greater part again eva-
porated from it.  Anhydrous alcohol then dissolves
the chloride of magnesium, leaving the chloride of
ammonium,  of which  the weight may be esti-
mated.  The magnesia is obtained from the alco-
holic solution by admixture of a  little carbonate of
potassa, evaporation to dryness in a platinum cru-
cible, ignition of the  remainder to commencing
redness, and extracting the excess of potassa by
water.  If it is only desired to test it, a little  of the
calculus is boiled with water, and  the boiling so-
lution mixed with a few drops of caustic potassa,
which precipitates the magnesia.
  Lithate of lime is found only in small quantities
in calculi consisting chiefly of lithic acid.
  5. Lithous acid, A. Marcet's xanthic oxide.—It
forms  a rare variety of calculus.  The first was
discovered by Marcet, it weighed eight grains and
had  a brown colour.   When a  portion of it was
dissolved in nitric acid and  the solution evaporated
to dryness, the residue  was not  red as from lithic
acid, but yellow, whence Marcet derived the name
       18 
138
THE URINE.
from the Greek word $*»*•«*, yellow.   Stromeyer
afterwards found  a larger calculus of this kind
which  Langenbeck had  extracted from a young
farmer's boy in the hospital at  Gottingen.   Al-
though Marcet had given a description of this new
substance, we owe our knowledge of it principally
to an examination which Liebig and Wohler made
of a portion  of the above-mentioned calculus ex-
tracted  by  Langenbeck.   The  changed name,
under which it  is here treated of,  is founded on an
elementary analysis of it performed by them.
  The surface of a lithous acid calculus is partly
light brown,  smooth and shining, partly whitish,
dull and earthy.  Its fracture has a brown flesh-
colour.   It consists of  concentric scaly layers
having  neither a crystalline nor fibrous appear-
ance ; it assumes a waxy lustre by rubbing,  and
has nearly the  same hardness as a calculus con-
sisting of lithic  acid.  The nucleus consists of the
same substance.   It dissolves in nitric acid by
heat without the slightest effervescence, and the
solution leaves  by evaporation in a water-bath  a
yellow residue, which does not become red either
by stronger heat or by the fumes  of ammonia.  It
does not fuse by heat; it is destroyed by dry-dis-
tillaton, yielding first the odour of prussic acid and
then of burnt horn, exactly like  the odour of the
fumes of lithic  acid, and a carbonate of ammonia
sublimes which contains no cyanate of ammonia
nor urea.   Caustic potassa  dissolves  it when di-
gested with it in  a state of fine powder.  The so- 
THE URINE.
139
lution has a dark brownish yellow colour with a
tendency  to green.   By passing  carbonic  acid
through the solution till the potassa is saturated,
the lithous acid is  precipitated in the form  of a
white  powder, free  from potassa;  which when
washed and dried, agglutinates to lumps of a pale
yellow colour, which  take  a waxy lustre when
rubbed.
   Lithous acid has  the following properties.  It
is without odour  and taste;  it is decomposed by
heat without fusion, and burns  away without re-
sidue ; it is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether,
and soluble in nitric acid without effervescence,
though less so than lithic acid;  the residue,  after
evaporating the solution, is lemon yellow and so-
luble in water with a light yellow colour; it  con-
sists of the altered products from lithous acid.
The solution in nitric acid acquires an orange co-
lour, when super-saturated with  potassa, and sal-
ammoniac precipitates a yellow substance from it.
Hypochlorite  of  soda  generates a little  nitrogen
from the solution in potassa,  while the colour dis-
appears passing  first through blue, brown,  and
yellow.  It is soluble in sulphuric acid; water
causes no precipitate from this solution.  Chloro-
hydric and oxalic acids do  not dissolve it.   To-
wards bases it behaves as an acid, but is weaker
than carbonic acid,  which  separates it  from its
combinations with them.  Its combinations with
potassa and ammonia  are very easily soluble in
water.   Its combination with ammonia leaves by 
140
THE URINE.
evaporation a laminated  mass, which is bilithite
of ammonia.  According to Liebig and Wohler,
lithous acid consists of:

             By experiment.    Atoms.    By calculation.
   Carbon .  .  .   39-28  ...   5  ...   39-86
   Hydrogen .  .   2-95  ...   2  ...    260
   Nitrogen  .  .  36-35  ...   2  ...   3672
   Oxygen  .  .   2142  ...   2  ...   2082

   It therefore differs from lithic acid by contain-
ing one atom less of oxygen, being C5 H2 N2 + O3;
from hence  the  name lithous acid.   It should,
however, be observed that so long as its saturating
power has not  been ascertained by experiment,
and it  is  not  known whether it contains water
chemically combined, which may be the case, it
cannot  be considered  certain  that it is a lower
oxide of the  radical of lithic acid, however pro-
bable  this may  otherwise be.  Considered  as
lithous acid its atomic weight is 962-216, and its
capacity 10-41.
   It differs from  lithic acid (1) by its greater in-
solubility  in  nitric acid and the  yellow residue
 which it leaves after evaporation of this solution,
 and which does not become red but dark yellow
 by ammoniacal fumes;  (2) by not  being precipi-
 tated by water from its solution in sulphuric acid,
 while lithic acid only requires a little water for its
 precipitation; (3) by a greater solubility in caustic
 potassa and ammonia.  The solution in potassa is
 not precipitated by the addition of sal-ammoniac, 
THE URINE.
141
but by continued  evaporation it deposites a pow-
der of bilithite of ammonia.  Lithic acid on the
contrary is precipitated by  sal-ammoniac.  Car-
bonic acid precipitates both from a concentrated
solution  in potassa, but  the precipitate of lithic
acid is soluble in luke-warm water, although with
difficulty;  while the precipitate of lithous acid is
altogether  insoluble.  Lithic acid is dissolved by
a  dilute solution of  carbonate of  potassa,  but
lithous acid is insoluble in it; hence they may be
separated when they occur together.
   On several occasions, when solicited by physi-
cians to examine gravel evacuated with the urine,
I found  that  the  gravel  which in every external
appearance resembled lithic acid, dissolved with
difficulty in nitric acid, and that this solution after
evaporation left a yellow residue which  did not
become  red either  by heating or by ammoniacal
fumes.  This gravel  was also  soluble in caustic
potassa; but I always had too little of it to be able
to  determine with  certainty that it was lithous
 acid.  In  the meanwhile it is certain that lithous
 acid must sometimes occur as gravel.
   Jackson has  stated that he found lithous  acid
 dissolved  in  the  urine of a person affected with
 diabetes after an injury to the back.   The  sub-
 stance which he considered lithous acid deposited
 from the urine on cooling, with a gray colour; it
 reddened  litmus paper, was  slightly soluble  in
 warm water,  completely so in nitric acid, from
 which it  was again  precipitated by carbonate of 
142
THE  URINE.
potassa.   These reactions, however, do not justify
the assumption that it was lithous acid.
  6. Cystin.—This ingredient of calculi was dis-
covered by Wollaston, who called it cystic  oxide,
because it was soluble both in acids and alkalies,
and resembled in this respect some metallic oxides.
But the name oxide does  not distinguish it as an
organic body, since most organic bodies are oxides;
nor can the reason  assigned for this name be con-
disered admissible.  I  have, therefore, taken the
liberty  of differing from its  distinguished  dis-
coverer in regard to its name.
  Cystin, as it occurs in calculi, is a dirty-yellow,
transparent, irregularly crystalline  mass; but  it
may be obtained in  pure  crystals by dissolving it
in caustic potassa, and precipitating the boiling
hot solution by acetic acid in excess; from this,
when it is slowly cooled, cystin crystallizes in six-
sided, colourless, transparent plates.  It may also
be obtained in crystals by the spontaneous evapo-
ration of its solution in ammonia; the plates then
have  greater  thickness, and  may  be considered
as short,  regular,  six-sided  prisms.   Cystin  has
neither acid nor alkaline reaction.  It does not
melt by heat, but ignites  with a  bluish  green
flame and exhales  a sharp acid odour, remotely
resembling  that of cyanogen, but  otherwise  so
characteristic that cystin  can be recognised by it
alone.   It yields by dry  distillation an offensive
oil, ammoniacal water, and  a porous voluminous
coal.   It is  insoluble in alcohol, and almost inso- 
THE  URINE.
143
luble in water.  It is soluble  in dilute sulphuric,
nitric, phosphoric, oxalic, and  chlorohydric acids ;
by saturating  one of  these acids and evaporating
the solution at a moderate heat, it yields a saline
combination of cystin with  the acid in diverging
needle-shaped  crystals,  with  an acid taste, and
little stability, since, for instance,  chlorohydric
acid evaporates from  its combination with it at a
temperature  of 212° F., and leaves the cystin
blackened.  When boiled with nitric acid  in ex-
cess, cystin is decomposed and converted into a
dark brown (not red) mass, which remains after
evaporation of the acid.  Cystin does not combine
with acetic, tartaric, or citric  acid.  It is soluble
in  caustic potassa and soda, and their carbonates
and bicarbonates.   It  is also soluble in caustic
ammonia, but not in  its carbonate.  Its combina-
tion with potassa and soda may be obtained  in
granular crystals  by evaporation, while  the com-
bination with ammonia is decomposed and leaves
the cystin pure.  From its combination with acids
it is best precipitated by carbonate  of ammonia,
and by acetic acid from its combination with alka-
lies.
   Cystin has  an uncommon composition.   It con-
tains 251 per cent, of sulphur.  It was first ana-
lyzed by Prout, who determined its composition
rightly in regard  to  carbon, hydrogen, and nitro-
gen, but overlooked the sulphur and considered the
whole loss as  oxygen, in which, therefore, the sul-
phur is contained.   Baudrimont then discovered 
144
THE  URINE.
and determined its content of sulphur.  This gave
rise to a new analysis by Thaulow, under the di-
rection  of Liebig, whose result I here give with
that of Prout:
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur }
Oxygen \
Prout.
29-88
 5 12
11-85
5315
Thaulow.
 30 01
  510
 11-60
 25 51
 28-38
Atoms.	By	Calculation.
6		. 30-31
6		4 94
1		. 1170
2		. 26-58
4		. 26-47
   Marchand found exactly the same quantity of
sulphur  as  Thaulow,  and the same quantity of
nitrogen as both chemists.   The calculated result
however differs from the obtained in regard to sul-
phur by more than one per cent.   As long as its
capacity of saturation has not been determined by
experiments, nothing can be conjectured in regard
to the management of its elements.
   Lassaigne has described a substance which he
found in the calculus of a dog and which he sup-
posed to be cystin, but its composition, as he found
it, is so different, that it can scarcely be assumed
to be cystin.   He states that its solution in  am-
monia yielded transparent plates  by evaporation,
and  its  solution in lime water yielded granular
crystals.    It formed  syrupy  combinations with
sulphuric and phosphoric acids, but compounds
crystallizing  in needles with  nitric, oxalic,  and
chlorohydric acids.  The sulphate contained 0-896
of its weight of the substance in question; the ni-
trate 0.969; the oxalate 0-78; and the muriate 0-947. 
THE URINE.
145
These quantities do not agree within themselves
with the capacities of the acids.  Lassaigne found
its composition to be as follows: carbon, 36-2; hydro-
gen, 12-8; nitrogen, 34*0; and oxygen, 17-0.  This
analysis differs so considerably from the foregoing
results,  that it cannot be  supposed that the sub-
stance analyzed by Lassaigne was cystin.
  Calculi of cystin contain no other ingredients,
at least  it has  been found  so with those extracted
from man.  Their colour is yellowish, their sur-
face smooth and  apparently crystalline, the frac-
ture exhibits an aggregation of small crystals of
resinous lustre, with  rounded edges.  They  are
recognised by the behaviour peculiar  to cystin
before the blow-pipe on platinum foil, also by their
solubility in  caustic ammonia and  chlorohydric
acid, and by the form of the crystals of the com-
bination remaining from  the slow evaporation of
the ammoniacal solution.   Since Wollaston's  ac-
count of it, cystin has been found by Marcet,
Stromeyer, Buchner, Robert, Walchner, and Tay-
lor.  The latter found amongst 129 calculi in the
collection of Bartholomew's hospital, at London,
two very  large calculi  of cystin, the  greater of
which weighed 720 grains.
  7. Phosphate of lime very seldom occurs alone,
and in  neutral combination.   Wollaston is the
only one who  has discovered calculi of this kind.
According to  his account their surface is  light
brown and polished.   The transverse section ex-
hibits lamina  lying  regularly  over each other,
       19 
146
THE  URINE.
which can easily be separated, and  the  calculus
divided into concentric shells.  The fracture of
each  layer is striated,  and seems to consist of
parallel fibres  extending from the convex to the
concave side, and indicating a tendency to crys-
tallization.  The phosphate is combined with an
animal  matter, which is probably the same as that
which deposites with the phosphate of lime in the
urine evacuated from the body.   It chars by heat
giving an odour of burnt horn; it burns white, and
at last fuses.   This  latter circumstance distin-
guishes the neutral phosphate of lime from the
basic or common earthy phosphate, but it must be
ascertained that the fusibility is not caused by an
admixture of phosphate of magnesia.  Its powder
dissolves  much  easier in nitric and chlorohydric
acids than that of calculi of earthy phosphates.
   8.  The double phosphate  of ammonia  and mag-
nesia never forms the sole  ingredient of calculi,
but is not infrequently  found as their chief ingre-
dient.  Such calculi are almost always white, with
an uneven surface covered with small shining
crystals.  Their structure is not laminated.  They
feel rough to the touch, and are easily broken and
pulverized.  In a few cases these concretions have
been found  hard,  semi-transparent  and with  a
crystalline fracture.  They dissolve easily in acids
and precipitate again by alkali with  the ordinary
characters of  this salt.  Caustic potassa liberates
ammonia, extracts phosphoric acid, and leaves the
 magnesia undissolved.  Heated on  platinum foil 
THE URINE.
147
they exhale ammonia, blacken on account of their
animal matter, then become gray and at last fuse
to an enamel, which  has a red colour, if mixed
before fusion, with a little nitrate of cobalt.
  9. Basic phosphate of lime (earthy phosphate of
lime,) with a mixture of double phosphate of am-
monia and magnesia forms, next to lithic acid, the
most ordinary material of calculi.  Their forma-
tion occurs when the urine is  alkaline, or at least
neutral.   They are white, chalky, and earthy,
often very large, and  sometimes  exhibit in their
small cavities shining crystals of double phosphate
of ammonia  and magnesia.   They rarely have a
laminated structure.   They are easily recognised
by  their  great  fusibility before the  blow-pipe,
which induced Wollaston to call them fusible cal-
culi.  They blacken by heat, and exhale ammonia
before fusion.  Dilute acetic acid extracts the mag-
nesian salt, leaving the greater part of the salt of
lime.  They are easily soluble  in  chlorohydric
acid; when this solution is exactl}*- neutralized
oxalate  of ammonia  precipitates the lime,  and
subsequent addition of ammonia precipitates the
double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia.  The
relative proportion of the two salts varies in these
concretions.  As the  salt of  lime predominates
their fusibility diminishes to perfect  infusibility.
If the salt of magnesia predominate they fuse with
difficulty but are  never infusible.   They some-
times contain lithate of lime, which may be ex-
tracted  by caustic potassa, filtering the solution 
148
THE URINE.
and  supersaturating it with  chlorohydric  acid
which precipitates the lithic acid.
  The above  mentioned ingredients  of  urinary
calculi are also the common ingredients of urine;
others will now be considered which do not occur
in it when the body is in a healthy condition.
  10. Carbonate of lime is  a  rare ingredient of
human calculi, but, as we will see presently, the
more common ingredient of the calculi of her-
bivorous animals.  Human concretions composed
of this  salt  are  white  or gray, and  sometimes
yellow, brown, or red.   The carbonate of lime is
always combined with an animal matter, to which
their colour is due, and which  chars by heat with
the odour of burnt bone.  The formation of these
concretions requires the urine  to be alkaline, and
the ordinary phosphates to  be  absent.   They are
easily recognised by their solubility in chlorohy-
dric acid with effervescence, and by leaving caus-
tic lime when ignited by a sufficiently strong heat.
  Proust found a calculus consisting only of car-
bonate of  lime with a  trace of lithate of lime.
Another, weighing seven ounces consisted, accord-
ing to him, of 0-8 carbonate of lime, and 0*2 basic
phosphate of lime without a trace of lithic acid.
Afterwards,  concretions of this kind were found
by Cooper, Prout, Smith, and Fromherz.   The
latter found  by analysis 0-91 carbonate of lime;
003 phosphate ;  0*04 albumen and brown colour-
ing matter with a trace of oxide of iron.  The nu-
cleus of the calculus consisted of a piece of quartz. 
THE  URINE.
149
  11. .Carbonate of magnesia very probably al-
ways occurs in  calculi of carbonate of lime, as it
is easily overlooked when not particularly sought
for.  Lindbergsen examined a calculus consisting
of:  lithate of soda, 9-77; basic phosphate of lime,
34-74; double phosphate of ammonia and magne-
sia, 38-35;  carbonate  of lime, 3-14; carbonate of
magnesia, 2*55; albumen, 687; water and loss,
4-58.
  12.  Oxalate of lime is a frequent ingredient of
calculi, especially of those obtained from children.
They generally present an unequal surface  like a
mulberry, and have hence been called mulberry-cal-
culi.   They have a dark, blackish-green, or brown
colour, which Marcet  ascribed to blood effused on
them from time to time in consequence of the irri-
tation  which their sharp,  angular  tubercles pro-
duce in the  urinary passages.   I  have  also had
occasion to observe that the urine became bloody
when  calculi of this kind were  descending from
the kidneys.   Sometimes they have a light colour
and are very small,  resembling  hemp-seed.  I
have also seen them white and light-yellow, form-
ing  a  firm aggregation of sharp-edged  crystals.
The dark colour does not seem to be owing  to
blood,  but rather to the same animal matter which
deposites from the urine with other insoluble salts
of lime.  The quantity of this substance is  by no
means small; I do not know that it has ever been
determined, though it might easily be done by
calculating the quantity of lime remaining after 
150
THE  URINE.
ignition.  If a dark coloured  calculus of oxalate
of lime be heated before the blow-pipe on platinum
foil, it swells up, chars, smells of burnt horn, and
after  perfect ignition  of the  carbonaceous  mass
leaves caustic lime, which slakes by the addition
of a drop of water, exhibiting a strong alkaline re-
action without dissolving.  These calculi when
powdered are dissolved by digestion with chloro-
hydric acid, and the salt again deposited in small
crystals by evaporation.  Caustic potassa extracts
part of the animal matter without acting on the salt,
but carbonate of potassa decomposes it, leaving a
residue of carbonate of lime.   The animal matter
follows  the acid, combining with the oxalate of
potassa.
   It is not known how oxalic acid enters the urine
although it would be of importance to know and
avoid the circumstances  which favour its forma-
tion.  It is known, however, that the frequent or
daily use of acid vegetables, such as oxalis aceto-
cella or rumex acetosa, which  contain free oxalic
acid or its acid salt, causes the  formation of gravel
of oxalate of lime, which ceases as soon as the use
of the vegetables is discontinued.  But there are
other unknown circumstances which  seem to as-
sist their formation without causing any apparent
disturbance of the health.
   13. Organic matters.—Besides the  occurrence
of fibrin, albumen,  casein, and mucus as ingre-
dients of most calculi, (without the possibility of
determining by chemical analysis which of them 
THE  URINE.
151
originally existed in a calculus,) Marcet has found
one which seemed  to  consist nearly altogether of
one of these substances.  It had the appearance
and  consistence of  yellow wax.   Its surface was
uneven without roughness, and its structure was
formed of radiating fibres somewhat elastic.  It
burned with the smell of horn and left a porous
coal.   It  was  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol, and
chlorohydric acid,  but soluble in  caustic potassa,
from which it  could be precipitated by chlorohy-
dric acid.  Nitric acid dissolved it, but with  more
difficulty than lithic acid or cystin.   With acetic
acid  it swelled at  first, and afterwards  dissolved
by ebullition;  the solution gave a precipitate with
ferro-prussiate of potassa like fibrin.   Marcet con-
cluded from this,  that this  calculus consisted of
fibrin,  but its solubility in nitric  acid belongs
neither to fibrin nor albumen.
   Morin  found by  analysis of a calculus extracted
from a man sixty-one years of age, an organic mat-
ter in combination  with phosphate of lime. In the
 nucleus of the calculus  it amounted only to ten
 per cent.; in the second layer to eighteen; and in
 the third, it amounted to seventy per cent, of the
 weight of the calculus.  Alcohol extracted  some
 fatty  matter.  It  was slightly soluble in acetic
 acid, but more so  in  nitric acid.  In caustic po-
 tassa it swelled up, became slimy, and part of it
 dissolved.  In this case  as in  that of Marcet, the
 animal matters had all the properties of hardened
 mucus.  From what  I have said in another part 
152
THE URINE.
of this work, it may be seen that it has  the che-
mical properties of protein substances with the
characteristic  difference of dissolving in  nitric
acid.   Scharling  has examined a calculus from
the museum  at Copenhagen, which weighed 255
grains, and was extracted from the bladder of a
man after death.  It had a fibrous texture which
it  retained by moistening with water when rub-
bed in a mortar, although it was brittle and easily
pulverized when dry.   Ether  and alcohol ex-
tracted fat; potassa dissolved a protein substance
insoluble in nitric acid.  It seemed to be composed
of 55-36 per cent, of fibrin or albumen, and 44-64
per cent, of earthy phosphate of lime.
   Several chemists have also found that by treat-
ing the powder of dry calculi with ether or alco-
hol,  small quantities  of  fat were extracted from
human concretion, and both fat and resinous mat-
ter from calculi of other animals; these substances
were probably altered vegetable matters  derived
from the food  and on their way to be evacuated
with the urine.
   14. Silica.—-This substance must be mentioned
as the rarest ingredient of calculi, since Fourcroy
and Vauquelin found it in only two specimens out
of six hundred.  In one of them they found only
a small quantity of silica; the other had a nucleus
resembling a mulberry calculus, and consisted of
0-66 silica, and 0-34 animal matter.   By  burning
away the latter, the silica remained, recognisable
by its  chemical properties.  A third  instance is 
THE  URINE.
153
recorded by Venables, who found silica in the
gravel of a woman.
   Calculi have been divided into different classes
and orders according to their formation from one
ingredient,  or from several intimately mixed, or
from several alternating layers of different compo-
sition.  But since such mixtures or alternating
layers do not depend on permanent causes, but are
varied in numerous ways according to incidental
circumstances, such as the general state of health
of the individual, his manner of living, diet, and
use of medicine, I pass  over  such divisions and
merely remark that mixtures of several substances
and alternations of differently  composed layers in
one and the same calculus very often occur.
   English physicians who have  had the opportu-
nity of seeing many large  collections of urinary
concretions, have endeavoured to ascertain  their
relative frequency of occurrence.  It appears that
calculi composed of lithic acid are the most com-
mon in England.   Then the fusible calculi,  espe-
cially if those cases are added in  wThich one of the
earthy salts occurs alone or in prevailing quanti-
ty ; then such as  consist of alternating layers of
lithic acid, phosphate and oxalate of lime.  They
found, for example, amongst a thousand calculi,
   372  composed of lithic  acid  alone, or with  a
       small admixture of lithate of ammonia, and
       oxalate, or phosphate of lime;
   253  composed of earthy phosphates  (fusible
       calculi;)
        20 
154
THE  URINE.
  233  composed  of alternating layers of lithic
       acid, oxalate of lime,  and  earthy phos-
       phates ;
  142  composed of oxalate of lime.
  The more rarely  occurring calculi of carbo-
nate of lime, cystin, and silica, cannot enter into
such a calculation.   The  relative proportions,
however, vary in different countries according to
differences in climate, food, occupations, and cus-
toms.  Rapp, for instance, found in Wirtemberg,
amongst eighty-one calculi, twenty-two composed
of oxalate of lime alone, and thirty-four in which
this salt was mixed with other  substances,  (i. e.
fifty-six containing oxalate of lime;) only seven of
lithic  acid alone, and nine  of lithic acid mixed
with earthy phosphates; seven fusible calculi, one
of lithate  of ammonia, and  one of earthy phos-
phates with 13 per cent, of carbonate of lime.
  Not only man, but the lower classes of animals
also suffer from calculi.   The ingredients which
are not ordinarily found in their urine, or only in
small  quantities, are often the cause of their cal-
culi, as, for instance, lithic acid in the carnivorous
and earthy phosphates in the herbivorous animals;
though carbonate of lime is the most common ma-
terial in the concretions of the latter.
  Lithic  acid, phosphate of lime,  double phos-
phate of  ammonia and magnesia, oxalate of lime,
cystin, and mucus constitute the chief ingredients
of the  calculi of  dogs.  Lassaigne analyzed a cal-
culus  composed according to him of cystin; the 
THE  URINE.
155
 specific gravity was 1-577, and it contained 97-5
 per cent, of cystin, and 2-5 per cent, of phosphate
 and oxalate of lime.   I refer to what has already
 been said under  cystin to  the doubt  expressed
 whether this substance was in reality cystin.
   Calculi from horses consist of carbonate of lime
 and magnesia,  phosphate of lime, double  phos-
 phate of ammonia and magnesia, and fat; Bucholz
 found in such  a calculus from a horse, 0 94 of a
 resinous,  brownish green matter, soluble in six
 times its weight of alcohol, but insoluble in ether,
 water, and chlorohydric  acid.   Treated with a
 concentrated lye of potash, it combined with it, and
 was increased by 0-4 of its weight.   The resinate
 of potassa thus formed was insoluble in the lye of
 potash, but perfectly soluble in pure  water.  It
 was easily dissolved  by dilute caustic ammonia,
 and precipitated by chlorohydric acid.  The so-
 lution in alcohol became turbid by water, of a dark
 green colour by chloride of iron, and precipitated
 in large flocculi by a solution of glue.
   Calculi from oxen, sheep, swine, and rabbits,
 consist of carbonates and phosphate of lime and
 magnesia, and  of  double  phosphate of ammonia
 and magnesia.   Wurzer analyzed a calculus from
 the urinary organs of an ox that had died in con-
 sequence  of it.  It contained carbonate  of  lime,
 36-8; phosphate of lime, 6-2; oxide of iron, 1-8;
 silica, 38-2; animal matter, 13-8; water and loss,
 3-2;  whence it may be seen that calculi of silica
occur also in animals. 
156
THE URINE.
  According to Angelini a calculus  from a pig
gave a garnet red colour to alcohol.   After evapo-
ration, and washing the residue with water, ether
extracted  a red matter, leaving a greasy mass
which was not saponified by caustic potassa, or at
least with difficulty, but which melted in boiling
water.  The red matter extracted by ether re-
sembled a rezin, and was soluble in alcohol, fixed
and volatile oils.  It dissolved in caustic potassa
with a yellow colour, and in its  carbonate with a
green  colour.  Great excess of alkali prevented
the solution of the combination.   From the alka-
line solution it was precipitated by sulphuric and
nitric acids, which restored the red colour, and
redissolved the  precipitate when added in excess.
The precipitate  combined with chlorohydric  acid
forming a  scaly mass,  from which the acid could
be washed by water, which also restored the red
colour.  By heat it generated red fumes and ex-
ploded (?)
  According to Morand, rats are so frequently af-
fected with calculi that it is rare to meet with one
whose kidneys  do not  contain them.   Their  cal-
culi consist of oxalate, phosphate, and carbonate of
lime.
  Fish also are  not exempt from calculi.  They
occur not unfrequently in the Huso, (Acipenser
Huso)  and  the  Sturio (A. Sturio,) especially  in
the oldest  and largest, in  whose urinary organs
calculi of considerable  size and from | to \ lb.
weight, have been  found.  They are most  fre- 
THE URINE.
157
quently found in the  Huso  taken at fisheries on
the Caspian sea, and more particularly near Astra-
chan.  They are  generally flattened,  with une-
qual depressions; exteriorly they are  of a dirty
yellowish colour, and they have considerable hard-
ness and weight.   According  to  Klaproth their
specific gravity varies from 2-243 to 2-265.  They
are very firm and brittle, and  their fracture exhi-
bits a concentric, radiating, crystalline  structure,
strongly resembling the broken surface of a stalac-
tite of lime.  Transverse scales are also observed.
In their interior they are almost colourless.  Klap-
roth examined one of more than seven  ounces in
weight.   Before the blow-pipe it first burned gray
and then white, with the smell of burning animal
matter, and then  fused into a white enamel.   It
dissolved without effervescence in nitric acid.
The analysis gave: phosphate of lime,  71-5; sul-
phate of lime, 0-5; albumen, 20; and water, 24-0.
  As the formation of calculi in the urinary organs
is, in general, a consequence of an abnormal che-
mical composition  of the urine, and as this may
be altered by the use of substances which become
accidental ingredients of the  urine, the cure for-
merly attempted consisted in an endeavour to re-
move the cause of their formation.   This succeeds
when the calculi consist of lithic acid, since the
use of alkaline carbonates or of the neutral salts of
potassa and soda with vegetable acids, renders the
urine alkaline and retains the  lithic acid in solu-
tion.  By this treatment calculi and gravel formed 
158
THE URINE.
 in  the kidneys are detached and  removed  even
 when they are composed of oxalate of lime and
 earthy phosphates.  But when  the urine is alka-
 line and deposites these last mentioned substances
 nothing can be effected by the use of mineral acids
 since  they do not make the urine  acid.   Oxalic,
 citric, and tartaric  acids  are certainly capable of
 producing this effect, but on the other hand  they
 easily produce concretions from their salts with
 lime.
   The case, however, is altered  when  a  calculus
 has been already formed.  The  urine of  such pa-
 tients, even in its healthy state, deposites a portion
 of its sediment on the calculus in the bladder, and
 the remedies  employed  often produce no other
 effect than an alternation of differently composed
 layers and an increase in the size of the calculus,
 although perhaps its growth may occasionally be
 retarded.   If renal concretions may sometimes be
 cured by remedies selected on chemical principles,
 vesical calculi can only be remedied by removal,
 and the sooner this is done the better it is for the
 patient.  It has been proposed to dissolve it, but
 this would make it necessary to ascertain the com-
 position of the calculus while it is still in the blad-
 der.  This can only be  done approximately, by
 presuming it to consist of lithic  acid or oxalate of
 lime when the urine is acid, and of earthy phos-
 phates when  it is alkaline or neutral.  The best
 injection is a tepid solution of one part of carbonate
of potassa  with from 90 to 100 parts of water 
THE URINE.
159
mixed with a little mucilage, as it acts on all kinds
of calculi.   Caustic potassa acts too severely on
the bladder and urethra.  A solution of borax may
also be used for calculi of lithic acid.   The solu-
tion should be retained in the  bladder  as long as
possible, and examined after evacuation, to ascer-
tain whether any thing  has  been  dissolved, but
the ingredients of the urine which  has been se-
creted in the mean time, should be taken into the
account.   It is very probable that chlorohydric
acid  diluted with a large quantity of mucilage
would dissolve calculi of earthy phosphate of lime
and cystine.  Experiments made  for  dissolving
calculi have not  proved so successful as was ex-
pected ;  but I am fully convinced that  they have
not been repeated sufficiently often to ascertain
and avoid such accidental circumstances as cannot
be foreseen and which might impede their success.
Dumas and Prevost have made successful experi-
ments on dogs of decomposing calculi of earthy
phosphates  by introducing  the  insulated  con-
ductors  of a voltaic column into the bladder,
placing  them  in  contact with the  calculus, and
passing  an electric  current  through  it.  When
the conductors were combined with the poles of a
powerful voltaic series, the ingredients of the cal-
culi were  separated, but combined again in the
urine and were evacuated as precipitate.
   The surest way however of getting rid of cal-
 culi is by resorting to mechanical means, such as 
160
THE URINE.
lithotomy, or lithotrity.   These are not to be con-
sidered here.

           Examination of the  Urine.

  The examination of the urine is highly impor-
tant to physicians.  It is made partly by the im-
mediate application of tests to the urine and partly
by  evaporation.  The former is of  more impor-
tance  to  physicians,  since  they frequently  lack
either  time or the special  chemical knowledge
necessary for the examination by evaporation.   It
is to be regretted that we know so few tests appli-
cable to this purpose,  and therefore the discovery
of others will be very valuable.
  Nitric acid is used  to discover the presence of
[a.) Lithic acid.  A few drachms of the test should
be added to  half  a pound  of  the urine, which
should then be allowed  to stand in a glass vessel
for twelve hours; on the removal of  the liquid, if
lithic acid be present, the inside of the vessel will
be found covered with a grayish white coating, or
with small reddish brown crystals,  (b.) Albumen
is known  to be present  when nitric acid  causes a
white  or grayish  white flocculent  precipitate,
which  when washed is  soluble in caustic potassa
and not precipitated from this  solution by acetic
acid,   (c.)  The colouring matter of the bile is pre-
sent when the urine, mixed with an equal volume
of nitric acid, becomes at first greenish, then dark
green,  then pink, and  afterwards brown.   But 
THE URINE.
161
these changes cannot be perceived when there is
only a very small quantity of the colouring matter
present.   In partial obstructions of the liver, when
the bile enters the blood through the absorbents
of the obstructed part, the bilious matter may be
detected in the urine even  before the disease is
indicated by  discolouration  of  the skin  or scle-
rotic.  But for this purpose it is  necessary to
evaporate the urine and treat it with anhydrous
alcohol; the extract obtained by evaporating the
alcohol is to  be mixed with nitric acid, when it
will show distinctly the reaction of bilious  matter,
since the greater part of the colouring matter of
the urine has been removed,  {d.) Urea is some-
times  in excess, sometimes  deficient, sometimes
entirely wanting in the urine.  It is  important to
physicians  to be able to distinguish these cases.
According  to  Prout,  the urine sometimes may
contain so much urea as to  afford crystals of the
nitrate,  without previous evaporation, after the
lapse of a few hours from the time of adding nitric
acid to it in excess; he states that this is the case
when the specific gravity is as  high  as 1*025 and
1-030, without the existence  of diabetes.   Accord-
ing to my own experiments, urine of 103 sp. gr.
evaporated at 175° F. to three-fourths of  its ori-
o-inal  volume, and  mixed with  equal portions of
nitric acid of 1-25 sp. gr. deposited at 60° F. no
nitrate of urea; evaporated  to  half its volume it
yielded  a few crystals only  at  the end of five or
six hours;  evaporated to one-third of its  volume
        21 
162
THE URINE.
the liquid became filled with  crystalline scales,
and when only one-fourth of the original volume
remained, it became a solid mass of crystals at the
end of a few hours.   The best method of perform-
ing this test is the following.  A  glass cylinder
with a height double the diameter, such as a tum-
bler, should be graduated on the outside in frac-
tions  of  its own volume.  The urine is  to be
evaporated in  this in a  water-bath;  at  certain
points of the evaporation a few drops are to be re-
moved and mixed with an equal number of drops
of nitric acid of  1 -25 sp. gr. in a test tube four
inches high, and  should then stand for six hours.
This test cannot  be  performed on a watch glass,
because the  evaporation  during the  experiment
will be very considerable, and  will cause  the de-
position of crystals.  It is also to be observed that
comparative tests are to be made at the same tem-
perature, as a  liquid will often give  crystals at
32° F. which would not deposite any at 60° F.
   Ammonia  precipitates  the earthy  phosphates
dissolved in  the  free  acids of the  urine; it  may
sometimes be important to ascertain their relative
quantity.   Ammonia is also used for determining
the relative  acidity of the urine.  For this  pur-
pose  a dilute  solution  is  employed  of  known
strength, ascertained by saturating it with chloro-
hydric acid and  weighing the sal-ammoniac ob-
tained by evaporation.   A certain volume of urine
is to be mixed with an infusion of litmus, in which
the excess of alkali has been saturated  with acetic 
THE URINE.
163
acid until it has become distinctly red;  the am-
monia is then added by drops from a graduated
measuring tube  until the blue colour is restored.
The liquid must be allowed to settle between the
last additions, on account of the precipitate which
is produced.  The quantity of ammonia employed
affords a measure of the acidity of the urine.
  Lime water will detect the presence of soluble
phosphates  by precipitating  phosphate  of  lime.
Human urine should be previously saturated with
ammonia free from carbonic acid, and filtered, in
order to  remove the earthy phosphates dissolved
in  the free  acids.   Urine of the lower animals
should first be saturated with chlorohydric acid,
and gently heated before the addition of lime wa-
ter, in order to remove the carbonic acid.
   Oxalate of ammonia precipitates the lime of the
urine, especially on the application of moderate
heat.  The subsequent addition of ammonia pre-
cipitates the double phosphate of  ammonia and
magnesia.   If ammonia produce no precipitate,
a  solution of phosphate  of soda  should be added
to  ascertain whether the  want of  precipitate  is
owing to the absence  of  magnesia  or  of  phos-
phoric acid.
   Chloride of barium, or better, Acetate of baryta
will discover the presence of sulphates.  When
the urine is neutral or alkaline it should be acidu-
lated with acetic acid before the test is added.
   Neutral acetate of lead, after the separation of
the previous precipitate by filtration, detects the 
164
THE URINE.
presence of phosphoric acid, which precipitates as
basic phosphate of lead.  For the effectual removal
of chloride of lead the precipitate must be washed
with boiling water  and fused before the  blow-
pipe.
  Solution of alum  will produce a cloudiness in
urine when it contains albumen or fibrin.
  Solution of perchloride of mercury produces no
change in urine containing a free acid if no albu-
men or casein be present;  but  it will detect even
small quantities  of  these  substances.   From  a
neutral urine it precipitates several of the common
ingredients  of urine.
  Nitrate of silver precipitates chloride  of silver
and  phosphate of silver.   The latter is dissolved
by nitric acid.
  Tannic acid, especially as an infusion of galls,
precipitates at least two of the ingredients of urine :
mucus in solution and the extractive matter which
is precipitated by  neutral acetate  of lead.   In
healthy urine the precipitate is very inconsidera-
ble,  at most from 0002 to  0-003  of the weight of
the urine; and it is seen distinctly only after some
time has elapsed from adding the test.  A copious
precipitate indicates the presence of albumen.
  Litmus paper.—The blue litmus paper is used
to detect acidity,  the red, alkalinity.   It must be
remembered that a  blue litmus  paper dipped in
urine,  without immediate  reaction, becomes  red
on drying from the ammoniacal salts of the urine.
  Ferment  is used  to  discover  the  presence of 
THE URINE.
165
sugar by  the  fermentation  it induces when the
latter substance exists in the urine.  The quan-
tity of carbonic acid generated and collected over
mercury, or if this cannot be done, the gas passed
through basic acetate of lead and precipitated as
carbonate of lead will afford, when compared with
the quantity of urine employed, a relative scale of
the quantity of sugar in the urine.
   Some general rules for the quantitive analysis of
the urine.—The quantitive  analysis of this liquid
is very difficult.  It is impossible to determine all
the ingredients from one portion, and the urine of
the  same individual never remains the same, at
least it is certainly variable in its amount of water.
It must therefore suffice, when  the  question  re-
gards the amount,  to find  the quantity of  sub-
stances in portions of the urine given at different
times; for this reason an accurate result can never
be obtained.  This  analytical examination, how-
ever, is seldom required except for the determina-
tion of certain ingredients without reference to the
 rest.
   a. The specific gravity of the urine is first as-
 certained, which gives an idea of its concentration.
 The spontaneous sediment is then separated by
 filtration on a weighed filter, and washed, dried,
 and weighed.   It is either mucus, in which case
 its weight is inconsiderable, or it consists of a red,
 ochrey or gray powder.  It  is to  be boiled with
 alcohol, which dissolves the red colouring matter
 and lithate of ammonia, which may afterwards be 
166
THE URINE.
separated,  although incompletely by  water.   If
the sediment be yellow it is extracted by acetic
acid, which dissolves the yellow colouring matter.
Caustic potassa then dissolves lithate  of potassa,
leaving phosphate of lime, or silica, or a mixture
of both.  The lithic acid is  obtained  by precipi-
tating  the alkaline  solution with acetic acid, and
the subsequent addition of ferro-prussiate of po-
tassa to the acid solution after it has been filtered,
precipitates the mucus  only slightly increased in
weight by  the cyanogen and  iron.
  b.  To the filtered  urine  caustic ammonia is to
be added in slight excess.   The precipitate should
be filtered, washed, and weighed.  The animal
matters are  to  be burned away, the  residuum
again weighed, and  the phosphates of lime and
magnesia separated from one another by the ordi-
nary methods.
  c. The filtered urine and  the wash water are
evaporated in a water-bath as far as  possible, and
the residue weighed, which  can best  be done in
the evaporating  capsule.   It is then treated with
alcohol of 0-833 as long as any of it is dissolved;
the remaider should be dried  in a water-bath  and
weighed, by which the weight of the soluble mat-
ter is obtained.  The alcohol should be distilled,
the remainder dried  in  a water-bath as long as it
gives  out moisture and then treated with anhy-
drous alcohol.  It is important to remove all the
water,  otherwise the alcohol solution will contain
salts of potassa and soda; it is also necessary that 
THE URINE.
167
the remainder  be  perfectly washed  with warm
anhydrous alcohol before it is dried and weighed.
The anhydrous alcohol should  not be removed
from the insoluble  matters until it has been cooled
down to 32° F.
   d. The anhydrous alcohol now contains urea,
sugar, the peculiar extractive matter, lactic acid,
lactate and chloride  of ammonium, together with
fat and the acid matter soluble in ether.   The al-
cohol is now to be  perfectly distilled away in a
water-bath and the  residue treated with warm
ether as long as fresh portions of it dissolve any
thing.  The etherial solution is to be distilled and
the residue weighed.  It may contain saponified
fat and small quantities of lactate of lime and am-
monia.   I refer here to what I have already said
on the organic constituents of the urine.
   The  mass treated with  ether is to be dissolved
in a small portion of water, warmed to 104° F., and
mixed with oxalic acid, free from potassa, as long as
a new addition of the acid is dissolved.   On cool-
ing the solution deposites brown crystals of oxa-
late of  urea, which are  to be drained in a funnel
and washed with a little water.   This water
should  be evaporated with the mother-water for a
new  crystallization.   Should  the  mother-water
have  lost the strong acid taste, it must be  warmed
and more oxalic acid dissolved  in it.  As soon as
it becomes viscid by evaporation and is still sour,
it is to  be drained from the crystals, which should
then be laid on folds of bibulous paper, and  pressed. 
168
THE URINE.
The crystals are to be dissolved in water, mixed
with carbonate of lime and the solution of urea
thus obtained, evaporated in a water-bath to dry-
ness, and weighed.   It should now be dissolved in
boiling anhydrous alcohol, and if any matter re-
main undissolved, its weight  must be deducted
from the weight of the urea.  It may be oxalate
of ammonia, and,  from some  inaccuracy in the
analysis, oxalate of potassa, both of which retain
some urea.
  The paper in which the crystals were pressed
is now to  be washed with water, which,  after
having been  somewhat concentrated by evapora-
tion, is to be  added to the mother-water.  This is
then saturated with carbonate of lime, the neutral
solution filtered, mixed with the wash-waters from
the oxalate of lime, evaporated in a water-bath to
dryness and the residue weighed.  This contains
the extract of urine soluble in anhydrous alcohol,
chloride of ammonium, lactate of ammonia with a
little lactate of lime.  The latter remains in  com-
bination  with a portion of extract insoluble in
anhydrous  alcohol; it is to be dried and weighed.
Afterwards it should be dissolved in water, pre-
cipitated by oxalate of ammonia, and the precipi-
tate, made  caustic by ignition, corresponds to an
equivalent  of ammonia which was in combination
with the oxalic acid.  The solution in  anhydrous
alcohol should  be evaporated, mixed with water,
and precipitated by nitrate of silver.   This pre-
cipitate is  now to be washed with  water which 
THE  URINE.
169
has been acidulated  with nitric acid;  and the
silver reduced from it by iron or zinc with addi-
tion of a little chlorohydric acid ; from the weight
of the reduced silver, the weight of the chloride
of ammonium is reckoned.  Nothing can be com-
puted from the weight of the dry chloride of silver,
since it  contains  much extractive  matter.  Be-
sides the separately obtained weights of the chlo-
ride of ammonium, urea,  and lactate of ammonia,
there is still wanting  that of  a mixture of extract
soluble in alcohol, and lactate of ammonia with a
small  quantity  of lime,  which  cannot be  any
farther separated, but wherein the  extract forms
the principal mass.
   If the urine contains sugar, it is separated in
the manner already mentioned, by mixing the ex-
tract obtained by alcohol of 0*833 with basic ace-
tate of lead as long as it yields  any precipitate.
This  is  to be filtered  and washed;  the liquid,
freed from lead by sulphuretted hydrogen, is to
be evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and  put in
a cool place for crystallization;  after which  it is
to be  dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid and the
residuum treated with anhydrous alcohol,  which
does not dissolve the sugar, or at least only a small
quantity of it.   Formerly it was proposed to esti-
mate the quantity of sugar, from the carbonic acid
generated by fermentation from a certain quantity
of urine; but  Liebig has shown that when the
urine also contains urea  it will be  decomposed,
and when the last portion of carbonic acid is ex-
       22 
170
THE  URINE.
pelled from the liquid, it is followed by carbonate
of ammonia;  on which account the result is much
less accurate  than the approximate result obtained
by the direct separation of the sugar.
  e.  The portion of extract, obtained  by alcohol
of 0-833, which is insoluble in anhydrous alcohol,
(c.) is to be incinerated.   The  residuum contains
chloride of potassium, chloride  of sodium, and
carbonate of  soda; the latter is derived from the
lactate of soda.  They are separated by ordinary
methods, and their weight, after the deduction of
that of carbonic acid, shows how much lactic acid
and extractive matter have been destroyed by the
incineration.
  f  We come now to the portion of urine which
was  altogether insoluble in alcohol of 0-833. (c.)
After its weight has been ascertained  it is  to be
dissolved in water, filtered from the insoluble mat-
ters, acidulated with acetic acid and precipitated
by acetate of baryta.   The  precipitate is to be
dried in a water-bath, completely calcined and
weighed.   The loss  by incineration shows the
quantity of animal matter combined with it.  The
residue  from the incineration is sulphate of baryta,
from which the quantity of sulphuric acid may be
computed.  After  the solution has been precipi-
tated by acetate of baryta, it should be mixed with
ammonia  until it  has an alkaline reaction, and
then precipitated by acetate of baryta.   The pre-
cipitate  is sub-sesquiphosphate of baryta.  It  is
to be washed, dried in a water-bath, and weighed. 
THE  URINE.
171
By calcination and weighing, the weight of ani-
mal  matter is obtained;  and the calcined phos-
phates are  then  converted into sulphates, from
which the quantity of phosphoric  acid is com-
puted.  The solution  precipitated by  acetate of
baryta is to be neutralized as accurately as pos-
sible by acetic acid, and  precipitated by neutral
acetate of lead.   The  precipitate is to  be treated
with sulphuretted hydrogen, and  this  solution
evaporated  to dryness and  weighed.   It gives
the  weight of the animal matter in the urine,
which is principally precipitated by an infusion
of galls.
   g. The remaining solution is precipitated by
basic acetate of lead.  The washed  precipitate is
to be treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, the ex-
cess of the latter expelled, the free acid of  the
solution  saturated with  carbonate  of  ammonia,
evaporated  to dryness, and the ammoniacal salt
extracted  by alcohol of 0*833.  The remainder
should be weighed.  The alcoholic solution is to
be evaporated, redissolved in water, and precipi-
tated by nitrate of silver.  The  precipitate is to
be fused, when it will correspond to an equivalent
of chloride of sodium, which the alcohol could not
extract from the remainder of the urine.
   h. The solution precipitated by basic acetate of
lead is to be treated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
the solution evaporated to perfect dryness and  the
acetates  extracted by  anhydrous alcohol.  That 
172
THE URINE.
which remains undissolved  is to be dried and
weighed, (see page 93.)
  i.  The solution in  alcohol is to be evaporated,
the salts  calcined, the remaining bases dissolved
in water, saturated with chlorohydric acid, weighed
and separated into potassa and soda by chloride of
platinum.  The extent of the insufficiency of these
to saturate the ascertained quantities of phosphoric
and sulphuric acid shows how much phosphoric
acid  was combined with ammonia, for the most
part  in the form of biphosphate.
  k.  The insoluble from f,  is lithic acid, mixed
with a small quantity of lithate of ammonia, mucus
of the bladder, and silica.  It is to be treated with
dilute  caustic potassa,  which dissolves the two
former, and which may be separated by the me-
thod already spoken of in the analysis of the sedi-
ments.  The remaining silica is gray, it exhales
an ammoniacal odour  in  burning,  and  should
therefore be  weighed  both before and after  the
calculation.  It must  be tested by chlorohydric
acid  for the presence of phosphate of lime.
  This should be the  way of proceeding with the
analysis  of the urine.   Perhaps the time may
come when it will seem to be very imperfect.
  Examination of urinary concretions.—The cal-
culus is  to be sawn in two, in order to separate
the strata differing in  appearance.  Tests by the
blow-pipe,  on charcoal or platinum foil, show, in
accordance with  the already mentioned reactions 
THE URINE.
173
of the ingredients of calculi, what is to be expected.
In order to save the reader who wishes to use the
blow-pipe for such examinations, the trouble of
collecting the reactions from the previous details,
I will state all that is known of the behaviour of
calculi before the blow-pipe.
   I.  Calculi of lithic acid.—Heated by themselves
on charcoal or platinum foil  they char and fume,
exhaling animal  odour; in the outer flame  they
continually diminish  in size.  After awhile  they
burn with increased lustre and when removed  from
the flame, continue ignited, leaving, finally, a  very
slight trace of a strongly alkaline white ash.
   Very often the calculi consist  of a mixture of
lithic acid with earthy phosphates; when this is
the case they are charred and burned, but leave a
considerable residue, which is not alkaline, nor
soluble in water.   Treated with nitric acid  and
afterwards with ammonia they  give the bright red
colour which indicates the presence of lithic  acid.
The remaining ash is either phosphate of lime or
phosphate of magnesia, or a  mixture of both.
   2. Calculi of lithate of soda.—This rare ingre-
dient of calculi is oftener found in the concretions
of the joints of gouty persons. When heated alone
on charcoal they blacken and exhale an empyreu-
matic animal odour, leaving  a gray, strongly  alka-
line  residue convertible  into glass by adding a
little silex.   If the calculus  contains earthy salts,
as it usually does, the glass becomes white or gray
and opaque. 
174
THE  URINE.
  3.  Calculi of  lithate  of ammonia before the
blow-pipe,  behave like those of lithic acid.  A
drop of caustic potassa will cause them to exhale
when gently heated,  a strong ammoniacal odour.
Care should be taken not to be misled by a slight
lye-like ammoniacal odour, which almost all ani-
mal  matters yield with  potassa.  These  calculi
often contain some lithate of soda.
  4. Calculi of phosphate of lime heated alone on
charcoal, blacken, exhale an empyreumatic animal
odour, and at  last burn  white, but do  not melt.
Otherwise  they behave like ordinary phosphate
of lime.
  The proof that they are  not silica is the fact of
their  swelling  up with soda without being con-
verted into glass, and moreover when they are
dissolved in boracic  acid and melted with iron
they give a regulus of phosphuret of iron.
  5. Calculi of phosphate of ammonia and mag-
nesia when heated alone on platinum  foil, smell
strongly of hartshorn,  blacken,  swell, and  after-
wards burn by increased heat to a grayish  white
mass.   They   easily fuse   to a grayish  white,
enamel-like globule.
  They dissolve into a transparent glass with bo-
rax and  salt of phosphorus, but when  much of
these substances is added, the glass becomes milk-
white on cooling.
  With soda they fuse into a white swollen slag,
which remains  infusible on  the  addition of more
soda. 
THE URINE.
175
  With boracic acid and iron they easily yield a
regulus of phosphate of iron.
  With  nitrate of cobalt  they give a dark red
glass.
  6. Calculi of a mixture  of phosphate  of lime
and magnesia, or fusible calculi.—These  may be
recognised by their  giving only a slight  ammo-
niacal  odour,  which is chiefly derived from de-
struction of animal matter.  They fuse more easily
than any other calculi  to an enamelled globule,
which does not become red, but of  a deep brown
colour, with nitrate of cobalt.
  7. Calculi of oxalate of lime or mulberry calculi.—
When they are heated alone  they  sometimes ex-
hale a  urinous or animal odour on the  first appli-
cation  of heat.   The  more  crystalline  become
duller and lighter in colour.   After gentle ignition
they effervesce with a drop of nitric acid, and after
a stronger ignition on charcoal they leave behind
caustic lime which gives an  alkaline reaction with
reddened litmus paper,  and  ordinarily slackens to
a powder when moistened with water.  The latter
does not occur when the calculus  contains  also
phosphate of lime.
  8. Calculi containing silica on burning  leave a
gray, infusible, sometimes  slaggish ash,  which,
mixed  with a little soda,  slowly dissolves  with
effervescence,  to a more or less transparent glass-
globule.
  9. Calculi of cystic  oxide  behave before the
blow-pipe almost  in  the same  wray as those of 
176
THE  URINE.
 lithic acid.   They readily take fire and burn with
 a bluish gray flame, exhaling at the same time a
 peculiar odour somewhat resembling that of cya-
 nogen.   They leave an ash, which is not alkaline,
 and which fuses to a  gray-white mass when ex-
 posed to a good fire.  They differ from lithic acid
 calculi as well by their peculiar odour when burned
 as by not giving a red colour with nitric acid.
   For special analysis the calculus is to be pow-
 dered, dried, and weighed.   It is then treated
 with ether, which extracts the fatty and resinous
 matters  for separate examination. The powder
 is then boiled with alcohol and examination made
 of the substances it has extracted.  If the calcu-
 lus is known to consist chiefly of lithic acid, it is
 to be repeatedly boiled with water.  The solution
 in water may  consist  of lithates of potassa, am-
 monia, lime,  and magnesia, with a small quantity
 of phosphates from the urine and animal matters.
 By  evaporation nearly  to dryness the lithates
 separate; they may be decomposed by chlorohy-
 dric acid and their bases determined. That which
 the water would not dissolve should be dissolved
 in dilute caustic potassa; and  what  this  leaves
 undissolved  should  be tested  for phosphate of
 lime, magnesia,  oxalate of lime, and silica.
  The solution in potassa is precipitated by acetic
 acid in great excess; the precipitate, when washed
 and dried, is  lithic acid.  The solution is evapo-
 rated in a water-bath till it loses the  smell of
acetic acid,  and then  dissolved in water,  which 
THE URINE.
177
leaves albumen,  mucus, &c, undissolved.  The
solution in water should be tested for animal mat-
ters  by infusion of galls, chloride of mercury,
chloride of tin, and other tests of this kind.
  If it has been ascertained that the calculus con-
tains chiefly phosphate of  lime, it is to be treated
with ether, alcohol, and boiling water, and after-
wards dissolved in chlorohydric acid; the solution
is mixed with ammonia till a precipitate begins to
appear, and then mixed with a solution of oxalate
of ammonia as long as oxalate of lime is precipi-
tated.  The  solution  is then  filtered and pre-
cipitated  by caustic ammonia;  the  precipitate  is
double phosphate of ammonia and magnesia.  The
remaining solution and the precipitate are both to
be tested for animal matters.
   If the  calculus  contains oxalate  of lime, it  is
treated, after previous extraction by  ether, alcohol,
and water, with  caustic potassa for the purpose of
dissolving the lithic acid and animal  matters which
are to be farther examined.  The powder is then
divided in two portions, one  of which is calcined,
the  residuum dissolved in chlorohydric acid, the
carbonic acid expelled by ebullition, and ammonia
added to  discover whether it  precipitates  any
earthy phosphates, which  are then  to  be ex-
amined.   The other portion of  the  powdered cal-
culus should  be digested with very dilute sul-
phuric acid, and the solution evaporated.   Should
it yield a sour syrup it contains either phosphoric,
tartaric or citric acid.  The two latter have not
       23 
17-*
THE URINE.
yet been discovered, but their presence is not im-
possible.*  It must be ascertained which of them
it is.
   Calculi of  double  phosphate  of ammonia  and
magnesia should be  treated as calculi of earthy
phosphates.
   Calculi of cystic oxide are dissolved  in caustic
ammonia after being treated with ether, alcohol,
and water.   If any of it remains undissolved in
the ammonia it is to be examined.   The solution
is evaporated and yields to the last  drop crystals
of cystic oxide.
   Of course no rules can  be prescribed for ana-
lysis in cases where  the calculi consist of very
uncommon substances.
   Urine  is employed  for  several  technical pur-
poses.   It is chiefly used after previous putrefac-
tion, whereby the urea is converted into carbonate
of ammonia, for the manufacture of sal-ammoniac,
for stamping  of  cloth, and for  preparing  or dis-
solving different colours in  dying.  Urine of cattle
is used to moisten saltpetre-earth in nitre manu-
factories; the  nitrogen is gradually converted into
nitric acid, which unites  with  the  bases in the

  * I once had an opportunity of observing that a diabetic urine
which passed spontaneously  into an active vinous fermentation, de-
posited a copious sediment consisting of shining, colourless crystals of
pure tartrate of lime.  The patient, who died shortly afterwards, is
not known to have taken any substance containing  tartaric acid; it is
therefore conjectured that in this case the  tartaric acid was formed
either in the kidneys or by the fermentation.—Wohler. 
THE URINE.
179
saltpetre-earth.  Finally, the urine is used as one
of the best manures for agriculture.  Several of
the wandering tribes  in America are said to eva-
porate the urine and burn it, for the purpose of
obtaining common salt, which  they cannot pro-
cure in any other way.
FINIS. 
 
WORKS  ON
MEDICINE,    SURGERY,
       ANATOMY,   MIDWIFERY,


   AND  THE  COLLATERAL  SCIENCES,

                    PUBLISHED  BY

         LEA  &  BLANCHARD,

                PHILADELPHIA,

AND FOR SALE  BY  ALL  BOOKSELLERS.
                  MIDWIFERY ILLUSTRATED.

  THE PRINCIPLES AND  PRACTICE  OF OBSTETRIC MEDICINE AND
SURGERY, IN REFERENCE  TO  THE  PROCESS OF  PARTURITION;
ILLUSTRATED BY  ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO FIGURES.  BY
FRANCIS H. RAMSBOTHAM, M.D., Physician to the Royal Maternity Charity,
and Lecturer on  Midwifery at the  London Hospital,  &c.  First American  edition,
revised, in one large octavo volume.
  " Among the many literary undertakings with which the Medical press at present teems, there are few
that deserve a warmer recommendation at our hands than the work—we might almost say the obstetrical
library, comprised in a single volume—which is now before us. Few works surpass Dr. Ramsbothum's in
beauty and elegance of getting up, and in the abundant and excellent Engravings with which it is illus-
trated.  We heartily wish the Volume the success which it merits, and we have no doubt that before
long it will occupy a place in every Medical Library in the kingdom. The Illustrations are admirable;
they are the joint production of Bagg and Adlard; and comprise, within the series, the best Obstetrical
Plates of our best obstetrical authors, ancient and modern.  Many of the Engravings are calculated to
fix the eye as much by their excellence of execution and their beauty as works of art, as by their fidelity
to nature and anatomical accuracy."—The Lancet.
  " It is a good and thoroughly Practical Treatise ; the different subjects are laid dawn in a clear and
perspicuous form, and whatever is of importance is illustrated by first-rate Engravings.  As a work
conveying good, sound, practical precepts, and clearly demonstrating the doctrines of Obstetrical Science,
we can confidently recommend it either to the Student or Practitioner. — Edinburgh Journal of Medical
Science.
           DUNGLISON'S  PRACTICE OF  MEDICINE.

  THE PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE;  OR  A  TREATISE ON SPECIAL
PATHOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS; BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D.,
Professor of the Institutes of Medicine, &c, in the Jefferson Medical College, Phila-
delphia; Lecturer on Clinical Medicine, and attending Physician at the Philadelphia
Hospital, &c.;  containing, the Diseases of the Alimentary Canal—the Diseases of the
Circulatory Apparatus—Diseases  of the Glandular Organs—Diseases of the Organs
of the Senses—Diseases of the Respiratory Organs—Diseases of the Glandiform Gan-
glions—Diseases of the Nervous System—Diseases of the Organs of Reproduction—
Diseases involving various Organs, &c, &c.  In two volumes, octavo.
  The object of this work is to place before the Practitioner and Student a Treatise on the various Dis-
eases of the Human Organism, which shall comprise the Symptom.*, Causes, Prognostics and Treatment,
in such form as to be easy of reference, and a trustworthy guide in practice. It contains not only the
Views of the Author, on all those points, derived from extensive opportunities for observation, but those
of the distinguished observers of the day in every part of the world ; and treats of a greater number of
Diseases than perhaps any other " Practice of Medicine."


            ANATOMY-SPECIAL AND  GENERAL.

  A TREATISE ON SPECIAL AND GENERAL ANATOMY, BY W. E. HOR-
NER, M. D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania, &c. &c.  Fifth
edition, revised and much improved.  In two volumes octavo.  This work is exten-
sively used as a text-book throughout the Union. 
LEA  &  BLANCHARD'S  PUBLICATIONS.
                      A  MEDICAL  LIBRARY                      j

       FOR  THE   PRACTITIONER  AND  STUDENT.

  A SYSTEM OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE, Comprised in a Series of Original
Dissertations,  arranged and edited by  ALEXANDER TWEEDIE, M.D., F.R.S.,
&c, &c.  The whole revised, with Notes and  Additions, by W.  W. GERHARD,
M.D.,  Lecturer on Clinical Medicine to the University of Pennsylvania.   The second
American Edition, now complete in Three large Volumes.

  The design of this work is to supply the want, generally admitted to exist in the Medical Literature
of Great Britain, of a comprehensive System of Medicine, embodying a condensed, yet ample view of the
Piesent State of the Science.  The desideratum is more  especially felt by the Medical Student, and by
many Members of the Profession, who, from their avocations and other circumstances, have not the
opportunity of keeping pace with the more recent improvements in the most interesting  and useful
branch of human  knowledge.  To supply this deficiency is the object of the LIBRARY OF MEDICINE ;
and the Editor expresses the hope, that with the assistance with which he has been favoured by  contri-
butors, (many of great eminence, and all favourably known to the Public), he has been able to produce a
work, which will form a Library of General Reference on Theoretical and Practical Medicine, as well as
a Series of Text-Books for the Medical Student.

     Advertisement of the American Publishers to their New Edition in Three Volumes.
  The matter embraced in the Three Volumes now presented, was published in London in Five separate
volumes, and at intervals republished in this country. The rapid  sale of these volumes, embracing as
they do, a History of Practical Medicine, is the best  evidence of the favour with which it has been re-
ceived by the Physicians of the United States.  Embodying as it does the most recent information on
nearly every Disease, and written by men who have specially devoted themselves to the study of the
Disorders which form the subject ef their Articles, the work is  the most valuable for Reference  within
the reach of a Practitioner.  The arrangement of the Library into Classes of Diseases, grouped accord-
ing to the cavities of the body, is  much more agreeable to the  reader than  the alphabetical order, and
nearly as convenient for reference.


                   DISEASES  OF  CHILDREN.

  A TREATISE ON THE  PHYSICAL AND  MEDICAL TREATMENT OF
CHILDREN,  BY  WILLIAM  P. DEWEES, M.D., late Professor of Midwifery in
the University of Pennsylvania, &c. &c.   The Eighth Edition, brought up  to  1843,
in 1 vol. 8vo.
  This edition embodies the notes and additions prepared by Dr. Dewees before his death, and  will be
found much improved.
  The objects of this work are, 1st, to teach those who have the charge of children, either as parent or
guardian, the most approved methods of securing and improving their physical powers.  This is attempted
by pointing out the duties which the parent or the guardian owes for this purpose, to this interesting but
helpless class of beings, and the manner by which their duties shall be fulfilled.  And 3d, to render avail-
able a long experience to those objects of our affection when they become diseased. In attempting this,
the author has avoided as much as possible, " technicality;" and has given, if he does not flatter himself
too much, to each disease of which he treats, its appropriate and designating characters, with a  fidelity
that will prevent any two being confounded together, with the best mode of treating them, that either
his own experience or that of others has suggested.  Physicians cannot too  strongly recommend  the use
of this  book in all families.


                   A  NEW WORK,—DUNGLISON'S

     THERAPEUTICS  AND  MATERIA MEDICA.

  GENERAL THERAPEUTICS AND MATERIA  MEDICA, ADAPTED  FOR
A MEDICAL TEXT-BOOK, BY ROBLEY  DUNGLISON,  M.D., Professor of
Institutes of Medicine, &c,  in 2 vols. 8vo.—Just ready.
  A second edition of the work on General Therapeutics, being called for by the publishers, the author
has deemed it advisable to incorporate with it an account of the different articles of the Materia Medica.
To this he has been led by the circumstance, that the departments of General Therapeutics and Materia
Medica are always associated in  the Medical Schools. The author's great object has been to prepare a
work which may aid the Medical  Student in acquiring the main results of modern observation and reflec-
tion ; and, at the same time, be to the Medical Practitioner a trustworthy book  of reference.
  Throughout, he has adopted the Nomenclature of the last edition of the Pharmacopoeia of the United
States, a work which ought to be in the hands of every practitioner as  a  guide in the  preparation of
medicines; and he has endeavoured to arrange the articles in each division,  as nearly as he could, in the
order of their efficacy as Therapeutical agents.
                    DEWEES'   MIDWIFERY.
  A COMPENDIOUS SYSTEM OF MIDWIFERY, chiefly designed to facilitate
the inquiries of those who may be pursuing this branch of study.   Illustrated by occa-
sional cases, with many plates.  The ninth edition, with additions and improvements,
by W. P. DEWEES, M. D., late Professor of Midwifery in the University of  Penn-
sylvania, in one volume 8vo.
<£%<!*»..•-.- .--- 
LEA  &  BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS.
                 A  NEW  WORK  ON ANATOMY,
       WITH ONE HUNDRED AND  SEVENTY  ILLUSTRATIONS.

  A  SYSTEM  OF HUMAN  ANATOMY, GENERAL  AND SPECIAL, BY
ERASMUS  WILSON, M.D., Lecturer on Anatomy, London.  The  American edi-
tion, edited by Paul B. Goddard, A.M., M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, &c.; with one hundred and seventy illustrations on wood, by
Gilbert, from designs prepared  expressly  for  this  work,  by  Bagg, printed from the
second London edition, in 1 vol. 8vo.—Just ready.
  " An elegant edition of one of the most useful and accurate Systems of Anatomical Science, which
has been issued from the press.  The illustrations are really beautiful, and their execution reflects the
highest credit on the able American artist who copied them for this edition of the work.  In its style the
work is extremely concise and intelligible. Dr.Goddard has added a number of valuable notes, and has
made  some judicious alterations of names.  No one can possibly take up this volume without being
struck with the great beauty of its mechanical execution, and the clearness of the descriptions which it
contains is equally evident.  Let Students,  by all means, examine the claims of this work on their
notice, before they purchase a text-book of the vitally important science which this volume so fully and
easily unfolds."—Lancet.
          HOPE ON  THE  HEART-WITH  PLATES.
  A  TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE HEART AND GREAT VES-
SELS, AND ON THE AFFECTIONS WHICH MAY  BE MISTAKEN FOR
THEM, COMPRISING  THE AUTHOR'S  VIEW OF  THE  PHYSIOLOGY
OF  THE HEART'S  ACTION AND  SOUNDS, AS DEMONSTRATED  BY
HIS  EXPERIMENTS ON  THE  MOTIONS AND SOUNDS IN 1830, AND
ON  THE  SOUNDS  IN 1834-5, BY J.  HOPE, M.D.f  F.R.S., of St. George's
Hospital; formerly Senior Physician  to the Marylebone Infirmary;  Extraordinary
Member, and formerly President, of the  Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, &c.
First American  from  the  Third London Edition, with Notes and a detail of recent
Experiments, by C. W. Pennock, M.D., Attending Physician to the Philadelphia
Hospital, Blockley.  In 1  vol. 8vo.
  " The addition of one-third of new matter to the present volume, and the care with which the whole
has been revised and corrected, will, I trust, sufficiently prove my respect  for the favourable opinion of
my professional brethren, as evinced, not in this country only, but also on the European and American
continents, by the sale of no less than six or seven editions and translations in as many years."—ex-
tract from Preface.

                    MEDICAL  REMEDIES.
  NEW REMEDIES.  THE  METHOD  OF PREPARING  AND  ADMINIS-
TERING THEM; THEIR EFFECTS UPON THE HEALTH AND DISEASED
ECONOMY, &c. Sue., BY PROFESSOR ROBLEY DUNGLISON.  Third  edi-
tion,  brought up to 1841.  In one volume octavo.
  This work contains articles that have been recently introduced into the Materia Medica; or old articles.
that have received  new applications, wine of these are in the general works on Materia Medica, but
their properties are only briefly  referred to. In this work, the experience of individuals is extensively
liven with reference to the original papers.  Under Iodine, for example, all the information—pharma-
ceutical and therapeutical—up to the time of the publication of the work, is afforded, with the prescrip-
tions  that have been proposed by various observers; each successive edition has incorporated with it the
result of recent experience, and is therefore " new."


         MIDWIFERY  WITH  CUTS,  A  LATE WORK.
  A SYSTEM  OF  MIDWIFERY,  WITH  NUMEROUS WOOD  CUTS, BY
EDWARD  RIGBY, M.D., Physician to the General Lying-in Hospital, Lecturer on
Midwifery at St. Bartholomew's Hospital,  &c, with notes and additional Illustrations,
by an American Practitioner.  In one volume.
  The late Professor Dewees, into whose hands this volume was placed a  few weeks before his death, in
returning it expressed the most favourable opinion of its merits. The judgment of such high authority
should commend it to general favour.

                  DISEASES  OF  FEMALES.

   A TREATISE ON  THE  DISEASES OF FEMALES, WITH  NUMEROUS
ENGRAVINGS, BY THE LATE PROFESSOR  W. P. DEWEES, in one volume
8vo— the Seventh Edition, revised and corrected.__________________________^___ 
          LEA  &  BLANCHARD'S  PUBLICATIONS.


DISEASES OF  FEMALES,  PREGNANCY  AND  CHILDBED.

  THE PRINCIPAL  DISEASES OF FEMALES, TOGETHER WITH THE
DISEASES INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY AND CHILDBED, CHIEFLY FOR
THE USE  OF STUDENTS, BY FLEETWOOD CHURCHILL, M.D., Lecturer
on Midwifery and Diseases of Women and Children, in the Richmond Hospital, School
of Medicine, &c. &c., with Notes and Additions by R. M. Huston, M.D., Professor, &c.
in the Jefferson Medical College. Second American Edition, in 1 vol. 8vo.—Just ready.
^\AAAAAAA/\
  DUNGLISON'S  PHYSIOLOGY-WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS.

  HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER TWO HUNDRED
ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD; BY PROFESSOR ROBLEY DUNGL1SON; the
fourth edition with numerous additions and modifications, in 2 vols. 8vo.

 This work is occupied with the functions executed by healthy man.  It embraces a general exposition
of the functions; the new views entertained in regard to the formation of the tissues ; but is especially
intended to give an accurate view of the actions of the different organs, as an introduction to the study
of pathology, hygiene and therapeutics. It treats moreover, of the anatomy of the organs so far as is
necessary for a full understanding of the functions ; and is largely illustrated by appropriate engravings.
The last edition contains several additional illustrations to elucidate either topics that have been already
touched upon in the work, or such as are new. Every effort has been made to place the work, in all
respects, on a level with the existing state of the science.



             THE  DISEASES  OF  THE  EYE.

  A  TREATISE ON  THE DISEASES OF THE EYE, BY W. LAWRENCE,
Surgeon Extraordinary to the Queen, &c, from the last London Edition, with numerous
additions, and 6ixty-seven Illustrations, many of which are from original drawings.
By Isaac Hats, M.D., Surgeon to the  Wills Hospital,  &c, &c., in 1  vol. 8vo__■
Just ready.

 The character of this work is too well established to require a word of commendation—it is iustlv
considered the best on the subject. The present is a reprint of the last London Edition which appeared
in 1841, completely revised and greatly enlarged by the author-and to it considerable additions have
been made by the editor.  Several subjects omitted in the original are treated of in this edition on which
occasion free use has been made of the work of Mackenzie, to which  is added the editor's own experi-
ence, derived from many years'attention to the subject.
              THE  URINARY  ORGANS, &c.

  LECTURES ON THE DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS, BY SIR
B. C. BRODIE, BART. F.R.S.  From the Third London Edition, with alterations
and additions, a small 8vo. volume.—Now ready.

  The work has throughout been entirely revised, some of the author's views have been modified and n
considerable proportion of new matter has been added, among which is a Lecture on the Operation of
Lithotomy.


                RICORD  ON  VENEREAL.

  A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON VENEREAL DISEASES; OR, CRITICAL
AND EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON INOCULATION, APPLIED  TO
THE STUDY  OF THESE AFFECTIONS; WITH  A THERAPEUTICAL
SUMMARY AND SPECIAL FORMULARY,  BY PH. RICORD, M.D.. Surgeon
of the Venereal Hospital  of  Paris, Clinical Professor of Special Pathology "&c
Translated  from the French, by Henry Pilkington Drummond, M.D., in one volume.
—Now ready.


              LAWRENCE ON  RUPTURES.

  A TREATISE  ON RUPTURES, BY  W. LAWRENCE, F.R.S., Author of a
Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye, &c. &c, from  the Fifth London Edition, consi-
derably  enlarged.  In 1 vol. 8vo.—Now ready.

  The peculiar advantage of the treatise of Mr. Lawrence is, that he explains his views on the anatomv
of hernia, and the different varieties of the disease, in a manner which renders his book peculiarly useful
 to the student. It must be superfluous to express our opinion of its value to the surgical practitioner
 As a treatise on hernia, presenting a complete view of the literature of the subject, it stands in the firu
 rank.—Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal.                          «auus hi me nrst 
LEA  &  BLANCHARD'S  PUBLICATIONS.
'1
         MEDICAL  LEXICON,  BROUGHT  UP  TO  1842.

  A NEW  DICTIONARY  OF  MEDICAL  SCIENCE;  Containing  a concise
account of the various Subjects and Terms, with the French anc1 other Synonymee, and
Formula? for various Officinal and Empirical Preparations, &c.  Tiiird Edition, brought
up to 1842.  BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D., Professor in the Jefferson Medical
College, &c.  In One Volume, royal 8vo.
  " The present undertaking was suggested by the frequent complaints, made by the author's pupils, that
they were unable to meet with information on numerous topics of Professional Inquiry,—especially of
recent introduction,—in the medical dictionaries accessible to them.
  " It may, indeed, be correctly affirmed, that we have no dictionary ofmedcal subjects and terms which
can be looked upon as adapted Vi the state of the science.  In proof of this the author need but to remark,
that he has found occasion to add several thousand Medical Terms, which are not to be met with  in the
only medical lexicon at this time in circulation in this country.
  " The present edition will be found to contain many hundred Terms more than the first, and to hare
experienced numerous Additions and Modifications.
  " The author's objeot has not been to  make the work a mere lexicon or dictionary of terms, but  to
afford, under each, a condensed view of its various medical relations, and  thus to render the work an
epitome of the existing condition of Medical Science."
  This New Edition includes, in the body of the work, the Index or Vocabulary of SynonymeB that was
in the former Editions printed aft the end of the Volume, and embraces many Corrections, with the addi-
tion of many New Words.



                    PEREIRA'S   MATERIA   MEDICA,

    EDITED BY DH. CARSON, WITH NEAR THREE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.

   ELEMENTS OF  MATERIA  MEDICA AND  THERAPEUTICS; COMPRE-
 HENDING THE  NATURAL HISTORY,  PREPARATION, PROPERTIES,
 COMPOSITION,  EFFECTS, AND USES OF MEDICINES,  BY JONATHAN
 PEREIRA, M.D., F.R.S., Assistant Physician to the London Hospital, &c.

   Part I  contains the General Action and Classification of Medicines, and the Mineral Materia Medica.
 Part II the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, and including diagrams explanatory of the Processes of
 the Pharmacopeias, a Tabular view of the History of the Materii Medica, from the earliest times to the
 present day and a very copious index.  From the Second London Edition, which has been thoroughly
 revised with the Introduction of the Processes of the New Edinburgh  Pharmacopoeia, and containing
 additional articles on Mental Remedies, Light, Heat, Cold, Elettricity, Magnetism, Exercise, Dietetics,
 and Climate, and  many additional Wood Cuts, illustrative  of Pharmaceutical Operations, Crystallogra-
 phy Shape and Organization of the Feculas of Commerce, and the Natural History of the Materia Medica.
   The object of the author has been to supply the Medical Student with a Class Book on Materia Medica,
 containing a faithful outline of this Department of Medicine, which should embrace a concise account
 of the most important modern discoveries in Natural History, Chemistry, Physiology, and Therapeutics,
 in so far as they pertain to Pharmacology, and treat the subjects in the order of their natural historical

 reTW™ereat  Library or Cyclopedia of Materia Medica is now passing rapidly through the press, and will
 be published  early in January.  The American edition  will ha»e  full references to the United States
 Pharmacopmia with a revision and numerous additions, by JOSEPH  CARSON, M.D., Professor of Materia
 Medica and Pharmacy in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, and one of the editors of the American
 journal of Pharmacy.  To form two handsome volumes at a moderate price.  JVoio  Published.



  PRINCIPLES AND  PRACTICE OF  SURGERY,  WITH CUTS.

    THE  PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MODERN SURGERY, BY RO-
  BERT DRUITT.  From the Second London Edition,  illustrated with  fifty wood en-
  gravings, with notes and comments by Joshua B. Flint, M.D., in one volume 8vo., at

  a low price.
                           EXTRACT FROM  THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
    " The arrangement of a work of this kind ought not, as I conceive, to be regarded as a matter of mere
  indifference o? at most of convenience, but  it ought to embody in it something of a principle; and I
  believe tn^i'the arrangement of this work may be useful to the student,  by showing him m what order
  hpmav best Drosecute his researches into the principles of his  profession.        ......      •,
    "Of thfnve part" into which it is divided, the first two are  more especially devoted to the principles,
    a .1  V^»» nthers to the nrartice of surgery.  The first part  treats of the disturbances of the constitu-
  ,?m,\nr^
  nr^n«n«e that follows a blow, and proceeding to consider the varieties of fever and tetanus.
    "^second par  del ibes what may be failed  the  elements of local disease; that is to say. those
   morbid changes of structure or function, which are produced either immediately by external causes, or


  ries; then feeding to the effects of chemical agents,  and lastly, considering the effects of animal

   PTrhe fourth part considers the various tissues, organs, and regions of the body in order, and describes

   ,hS ThefifthTanMblXh of'the'ojerations as were not included In the former parts, *c     .
    "tS the whole iVar^eTderacollectiorof formula:, the number of which is very much increased m
this edition 
LEA  &  BLANCHARD'S  PUBLICATIONS.
              FEVERS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.

  THE HISTORY, DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT  OF TYPHOID AND
TYPHUS FEVER, WITH AN ESSAY ON THE DIAGNOSIS OF BILIOUS
REMITTENT AND OF YELLOW FEVER, BY ELISHA BARTLETT, M.D.,
Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine in the Transylvania University.
In one volume 8vo;  a new work.

  Notice has already been given of the appearance of this work : we have become satisfied of its sterling
value, and, therefore, without hesitation, feel justified in again recommending it to the immediate no-
tice of practitioners.—Boston Medical and Surgical Journal.



                MtlLLER'S   PHYSIOLOGY.

  ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGY; BY J. MULLER, M.D., Professor of Ana-
tomy and Physiology in the University of Berlin, &c.   Translated from the German
by William Baly,  M.D.,  Graduate in  Medicine of the University of Berlin.  Ar-
ranged from the Second London Edition by John Bell, M.D., Lecturer on Materia
Medica and Therapeutics, &c, &c.  In One Volume, 8vo.—Just ready.
  In arranging the Volume now offered to American readers, from the materials furnished in Mdller's
Elements of Physiology, the Editor has endeavoured to procure reduction in size, of this latter, with-
out any abstraction of its vitality and mind. With this view he has omitted, for the  most part, mere
disquisitions, many details of experiments, matters of physics and natural philosophy, including mechan-
ics under the head of locomotion, acoustics and the theories of music under voice and  hearing, and of
optics under vision,—much of theminutite of comparative physiology, and metaphysics  or metaphysico-
physiology.  But, while  excluding (details on collateral topics, the Editor has been particularly careful to
preserve Physiology Proper, which, resting on the basis of Histogeny and General Anatomy, derives
important aid from Organic Chemistry and Microscopical Observations, and in its turn serves to illus-
trate Hygiene, Pathology and Therapeutics. Thus aided and thus applied, in the manner exhibited by
Mtiller himself, Physiology will invite the attention of the Student in these pages.
  It will soon be discovered that, although this volume is an abridgement of the large work of Miiller, it
may rightfully claim to  be considered  a complete system of Physiology, exceeding in  copiousness and
comprehensive details, any other work on the same subject which has yet emanated from the London
press.


       ELEMENTS OF  PHYSICS-WITH  WOOD-CUTS.

  ELEMENTS OF  PHYSICS,  OR  NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,  GENERAL
AND  MEDICAL.   A New Edition, complete in One Volume, written for universal
use, in plain and non-technical language, and containing New Disquisitions and Prac-
tical Suggestions; comprised in Five Parts:  1. Somatology, Statics and Dynamics.
2. Mechanics.   3.  Pneumatics, Hydraulics  and  Acoustics.   4. Heat and Light.
5. Animal and  Medical Physics.  By NEIL ARNOTT, M.D., of the Royal College
of Physicians.  A New Edition, revised and corrected from the last English Edition ;
with additions by Isaac Hays, M.D., and numerous Wood-cuts.
 PRACTICAL  MINERALOGY  AND GEOLOGY-WITH  CUTS.

  A TEXT-BOOK  OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, WITH INSTRUC-
TIONS  FOR  THE  QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS OF MINERALS.   BY
JOSHUA TRIMMER,  F.G.S., with Two Hundred and  Twelve Wood-cuts.   A
handsome Octavo Volume, bound in embossed cloth.
  This is a Systematic Introduction to Mineralogy and Geology, admirably calculated to instruct the
Student in those sciences.  The Organic Remains of the various Formations are well illustrated by
numerous Figures, which are drawn with great accuracy.


        ELLIS'S  MEDICAL  FORMULARY  IMPROVED.

  THE MEDICAL  FORMULARY OF DR. ELLIS; being a COLLECTION
OF PRESCRIPTIONS, derived from the Writings and Practice of many of the most
eminent Physicians in America and Europe.  To which is added an Appendix, con-
taining the usual Dietetic Preparations and Antidotes for Poisons ;  the whole accom-
panied with a few brief Pharmaceutic and Medical  Observations.   By BENJAMIN
ELLIS, M.D.  The Sixth  Edition,  completely revised,  with many Additions  and
Modifications, and brought up to the present improved state of the Science; by Samuel
George Morton, M.D., Professor in  the Pennsylvania College of Medicine, &c,  &c.
In One Octavo Volume. 
LEA  &  BLANCHARD'S  PUBLICATIONS.
             PRINCIPLES  OF  MEDICINE.
  THE  FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MEDICINE, BY ARCHIBALD BILLING,
M.D., A.M., Member of the Senate of the University of London, Fellow of the Royal
College of Physicians, &c, &c.  In One Volume, 8vo.  First American  from the
Fourth London Edition.
 " We know of no book which contains within the same space so much valuable information, the result
not of fanciful theory, nor of idle hypothesis, but of close, persevering Clinical Observation, accompanied
with much soundness of judgment, and extraordinary clinical tact."—Medico-Chirurgical Review.


  A  TREATISE ON FEVER.  By Southwood Smith, M.D., Physician to the Lon-
don Fever Hospital, fourth American edition.   In one volume octavo.
  COATES'S POPULAR MEDICINE, OR FAMILY  ADVISER, consisting of
Outlines of Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene,  with such Hints on  the Practice of
Physic, Surgery, and the Diseases of Women and Children, as may prove useful in
families when regular Physicians cannot be procured: being a Companion and Guide
for intelligent Principals of Manufactories, Plantations, and Boarding Schools; Heads
of Families, Masters of Vessels, Missionaries, or Travellers;  and a useful Sketch for
Young men about commencing the Study of Medicine.  By Reynell Coates, M.D.
  This work is designed to supply the place of Ewells' Medical Companion, which is
now entirely out of print.
  OUTLINES  OF A COURSE OF LECTURES ON MEDICAL JURISPRU-
DENCE.  By Thomas Stewart Traill, M.D., with notes and additions. A small volume.
  A  PRACTICAL TREATISE  ON  MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, with so
much of Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology, and the Practice of Medicine and Surgery,
as are Essential to be known by Members of the  Bar and Private Gentlemen; and all
the Laws relating to Medical Practitioners; with Explanatory Plates. By  J. Chitty,
Esq., second American edition, with notes and additions adapted to American Works
and Judicial Decisions.  In One Volume  Octavo.
  A  TREATISE ON PULMONARY  CONSUMPTION,  comprehending an In-
 Siuiry into the Nature, Causes, Prevention and Treatment of Tuberculous and Scro-
 ulous Diseases in General.  By James Clark, M.D., F.R.S.
  A  PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE HUMAN TEETH, showing the causes
of their destruction  and the means of their preservation, by William Robertson.  With
plates.  First American from the second London Edition.  In  one volume octavo.
  ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY, AND DISEASES OF  THE  TEETH.  By
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. Third American edition.   In one volume octavo,
with  numerous plates.
  DISSERTATIONS ON NERVOUS  DISEASES.  By Drs. James Hope, J. C.
Prichard, John Hughes Bennett, Robert H. Taylor and Theophilus Thomson. In one
volume octavo.
  DISSERTATIONS ON DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF  RESPIRATION.
By Drs. Williams, Theophilus Thomson, W.  B. Carpenter, and W. Bruce Joy.  In
one volume octavo.
  DISSERTATIONS ON FEVERS, GENERAL PATHOLOGY, INFLAMMA-
TION, AND DISEASES OF THE SKIN.  By Drs. Symonds, Allison, Christison,
&c. &c.  In one volume octavo.
  DISSERTATIONS ON DISEASES  OF THE  DIGESTIVE, URINARY  AND
UTERINE  ORGANS.  By Drs. Joy, Symonds, Thomson, Ferguson, &c. &c.  In
one volume octavo.
  DISSERTATIONS  ON  HAEMORRHAGES, DROPSY, RHEUMATISM,
GOUT, SCROFULA, &c. &c.  By  Drs. Burrows, Watson,  Shapter, Joy, &c. &c.
In one volume octavo.
  The above five volumes  are from the Library of Practical Medicine, edited by Dr.
Tweedie, with notes by Dr. Gerhard.   Each volume is complete within itself, and is
for Rfllp spDnrfltcIv
  THE MEDICAL STUDENT; OR AIDS  TO THE STUDY OF MEDICINE.
Including a Glossary of the Terms of the Science, and of the Mode of Prescribing;
Bibliographical Notices of Medical Works; the Regulations  of the different Medical
Colleges of the  Union, &c.  By Robley Dunglison, M.D., &c. &c. In one  vol. 8vo. 
           LEA & BLANCHARD'S  PUBLICATIONS.

   ESSAYS ON ASTHMA, APHTILE, ASPHYXIA, APOPLEXY, ARSENIC,
 ATROPA, AIR, ABORTION, ANGINA PECTORIS, and other subjects, embraced
 in the Articles from A to Azote, prepared  for the Cyclopedia of Practical  Medicine
 by Dr. Chapman  and others.  Each article is complete within itself, and embraces the
 practical experience of its author, and  as  they are only to  be had in this collection,
 will be found of great value to the profession.  The two volumes are now offered at
 a price so low, as to place  them within the reach of every practitioner and student.
   OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY ; with an Appendix on Phrenology.  By P. M.
! Roget, M.D., Professor  of Physiology  in  the  Royal  Institute  of Great Britain, &c.
 First American edition revised, with numerous Notes.  In one volume octavo.
   GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, considered with reference to Natural Theology.
 By the Rev. William Buckland, D.D., Canon of  Christ Church, and  Reader in Geo-
 logy and Mineralogy in the University of Oxford.  With nearly one hundred copper-
 plates  and large coloured  maps.  A new edition from the  late London edition, with
 supplementary notes and additional plates.
i   THE  BRIDGEWATER TREATISES, complete in seven volumes octavo, em-
 bracing:
   I.  The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man.  By the
! Rev. Thomas Chalmers.
   IT. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man.  By John Kidd, M.D.P.R.S.
   III. Astronomy and General Physics, considered with reference to Natural  Theology.  By the Rev.
 William Whewell.
   IV. The Hand; its Mechanism and vital Endowments as  evincing Design.  By Sir Charles Bell, K.H.,
 F.R.S.  With numerous wood-cuts.
   V. Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion.  By William Prout, M.D.F.R.S.
   VI. The History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals.  By  the Rev. William Kirby, M.A.F.R.S. Illus-
 trated by numerous engravings on copper.
   VII. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, considered with reference to Natural Theology. By Peter
 Mary. Roget, M.D. Illustrated with nearly five hundred wood-cuts.
   VIII. Geology and Mineralogy, considered with reference  to Natural Theology. By the Rev. William
 Buckland, D.D. With numerous: engravings on copper, and a large coloured map.
   The works of Buckland, Kirby and Roget, may be had separate.
   A POPULAR TREATISE ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, by W. P. Car-
 penter, Author of Principles of Human Physiology, &c, published under the auspices
 of the Society for the Promotion of Popular Instruction.  With numerous wood-cuts,
 in one volume 12mo.
   A POPULAR TREATISE  ON AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY; intended
 for  the use of the practical farmer, by Charles Squarry, Chemist.  In one vol. I2mo.
   ROGET'S ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, with  nearly five
 hundred wood-cuts, in  two volumes, second American edition.
   THE HISTORY, HABITS,  AND INSTINCTS OF  ANIMALS, by the Rev.
 William Kirby, M.A.F.R.S.  Illustrated by numerous copperplate engravings.
   The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise.  A FRAGMENT,  by Charles  Babbage, Esq.
 From the second London  edition.  In one volume octavo.
   A PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.   Comprising moat of the diseases not treated of in
 Diseases of Females and  Diseases of Children, second edition.   By W. P. Deweep,
  M.D., formerly Adjunct Professor in the University of Pennsylvania.  In one vol. 8vo.
   ELEMENTS OF HYGIENE;  on the Influence  of Atmosphere and Locality;
  Change of Air and Climate, Seasons, Food, Clothing, Bathing, Sleep, Corporeal and
  Intellectual Pursuits, &c, on Human Health, constituting Elements of  Hygiene.  By
  Robley Dunglison, M.D.   In one volume 8vo.
    ABERCROMBIE ON THE  STOMACH. Pathological and Practical Researches
  on  Diseases of the Stomach, the Intestinal Canal, the Liver, and other Viscera of the
  Abdomen.  By John Abercrombie, M.D.   Third American, from the second London
  edition, enlarged.   In one volume 8vo.


              DISEASES  OF^THE  SKIN.
                               A NEW WORK.
    A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL TREATISE  ON THE  DIAGNOSIS,
  PATHOLOGY, AND TREATMENT OF DISEASES  OF THE SKIN, arranged
  according to a Natural System  of Classification, and  preceded by an Outline of the
  Anatomy and Physiology of the  Skin. By Erasmus Wilson, M. D., author of a  System
  of Human Anatomy, &c, in 1 vol. 8vo. 
          LEA & BLANCHARD, Philadelphia, have just Published:
  A SYSTEM OF PRACTICAL SURGERY, by Professor William Ferguson, of
Kind's College, London, illustrated with 250  Illustrations, executed  by Gilbert, from
designs by  Bigg, with notes and additions  by George \V. Norris, M.D., one of the
Surgeons to the Pennsylvania Hospital, in one volume, 8vo.

        A SPECIMEN OF THE WORK IS HERE SUBMITTED.

              OPERATIONS OX THE NOSE AND NOSTRILS.
'-> '~-
.°->,
w °
£ 3~ a
small scalpel was introduced under the apex, and the alaewere sepa-
rated from the parts underneath; next the knife was carried on each
side between the skin and the bones,  as far as the infra-orbital fora-
men, taking care not to interfere with the nerves, when by passing
the point of  my finger below the nose, I caused the latter organ to
be as prominent as could be wished.  I now pushed  a couple of long
silver needles, which had been prepared for the purpose, with round
heads and steel points, across from  one cheek to the other, having
previously applied on each side a small piece of sole-leather perfo-
rated with holes at a proper distance; then I cut off the steel points,
and with tweezers so  twisted the end of each needle as to cause the
cheeks to come closer to each other, and thus render the nose pro-
minent.   Figure 213 further elucidates the proceeding.  Thus, by
bringing the  cheeks more into the mesial line, a new foundation, as
it were, was given to the organ.  Adhesion occurred in some parts,
granulation in others; in  the lapse  of ten  days the needles were
withdrawn, and, in  the course of a few weeks, when  cicatrization
was complete, the nose presented as favourable an appearance as
could reasonably have been desired.  Now a columna was formed
in the manner already described, and at last I had the satisfaction
of producing such  a result as that exhibited  in figure  214.   Here
s  •**
— ^^

£ - -
:s2
matters were still further improved by the addition of an artificial
eye, to make amends (in  some degree) for the loss  of the original
one, which had been destroyed by ophthalmia some years before.

  The publishers commend this Work to the attention of the Profession as one com-
bining cheapness and elegance, with a clear, sound, and practical treatment of every
subject in surgical science.  No pains or expense has been spared to present it in a style
equal, if not superior to the London  edition, and to match the edition  of W ilson's
Anatomy, lately published.
— 5 "
* >>3
-C _= 
  LEA & PJ> ANC HARD have jnst published, and beg leave to present a specimen page of
PEREIRA'S celebrated Work on MAKTRIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS, which
should be denominated a JA'irary or Cyclopedia on those subjects, so full and  complete  is it
tJiat it has been termed a mine.
GAMBOGE IIEBRADENDRON.
Fig. 238.
1 HEBRADEN'DROX CA?.lBOGIOI'DES,  Graham, E.—THE GAMBOGE HEBRA
                                DENDRON.
                 Cambogia Gutta, Linn.— Stalagmitis cambogioides, Moon.
                         Sex. Sy.it.1  Monoecia, Moiiadelphia.
                          (Gummy-resinous exudation, E.)
               (Gambogia, U. S. Gambnge. The product of an uncertain tree.)
  History.—The first notice of gamboge  is by Clusius {Fxot. lib. iv. cap. viii
p. 82) in 1605. He received  this gum-resin  in 1603
from  Peter Garet,  of Amsterdam.   It  had  been
brought  from China by Admiral van Neck and his
companions,  and its oriential name was  said to be
Ghittaiemou.
  Botany.  Gen. Char.—Flowers unisexual. Males:
sepals four, membranous, permanent.   Petals  four.
Stamens monadelphous, with a quadrangular column;
anthers terminal, with an umbilicated circumscissile
operculum.  Females unknown.  Berry many (four)
celled ; cells one-seeded ; surrounded by a few abor-
tive distinct stamens, and crowned  by  sessile-lobed
muricated  stigma.   Cotyledons thick, consolidated;
radicle central filiform.— Trees with entire  leaves.
(Graham,  Comp. to Bot. Mag. ii. 199.)
  Sp.  char.—Male flowers axillary, fascicled.  Sepals
when young nearly equal.  Leaves obovate-elliptical,
abruptly subacuminate (Graham).-A fr« of mode-  Hebradendroncamb  ioides,
rate size.  Leaves opposite, stalked.  Male flowers :                  s
sepals four, imbricated, concave, yellow on the in-a. Male flowering branch.
side,  yellowish-white on the outside.   Petals spathu-   £ ^^ °ofathfle7aTyx and
lato-elliptical, crenulate, yellowish-white, red on the      column of stamens.
inside.   Berry about the size of a cherry  round, b. F™>^^^ith its ^
with a firm reddish-brown external coat, and sweet      scuds.
pulp.   Seeds  large  in  proportion  to the berry, reni-
form  elliptical.  (Condensed from Graham.)
  (8.  On Man.—Taken in small doses,  gamboge promotes the secretions of the
alimentary canal and of the kidneys, and causes more frequent and liquid stools
than  natural.   In larger doses it occasions nausea, oftentimes vomiting, griping
pains of the bowels, watery stools, and increased discharge of urine.  When the
action is very violent, there  is great depression of the vascular system.  In
excessive doses it acts as an acrid poison.  A drachm  caused horrible vomiting
and  purging, followed  by syncope and  death.  (Paullini, Ep/i. Nat. Cur. Dec.
i. Ann. viii. p. 139.)  The deaths which  have occurred from the use of enormous
quantities of Morison's pills (see Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv.  612  and 759 ; xvii.
357,  415,  and 623;  xviii. 75 and 297 ;  and xix. 976) are mainly ascribable to
the gamboge contained in these medicines.   In  these cases the symptoms were,
violent vomiting and purging, abdominal pain and tenderness, cold extremities,
and sinking pulse.   On post-mortem examination, inflammation,  ulceration, and
mortification of the intestines, were  found.
  Gamboge belongs to the active hydragogues and drastic purgatives.  Its acti-
vity is inferior to elaterium and croton oil.  In acridity it exceeds jalap, scam-
mony, and even colocynth.  In its mode of operation it  is  allied to, though
scarcely so acrid as, euphorbium.   It is  exceedingly apt to irritate the stomach,
and to occasion nausea and  vomiting.   This arises from its ready solubility in
the gastric juices.   As this action on the stomach is exceedingly objectionable,
we sometimes endeavour to lessen it by conjoining aloes, or some other substance
which diminishes the solubility of gamboge in aqueous fluids, and by giving the
medicine in the form of pill.

  The Work forms Two Volumes, of about 1500 large and well-printed pages, with numerous
illustrations  on wood.  Great expense has been incurred in getting it up, and the editor has
been most careful in its revision, so that it may be relied on as a standard and permanent
work for the country.   ID" See next page. 
ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS,
                         NOW  READY.
                               ELEMENTS
                                         OF

MATERIA  MEDICA  AND  THERAPEUTICS;
                                   COMPREHENDING

      THE  NATURAL  HISTORY,  PREPARATION,  PROPERTIES,
               COMPOSITION, EFFECTS, AND USES OF MEDICINES,
                                         BY
                      JONATHAN  PEREIRA, M.D., F.R.S.,
                   ASSISTANT PHY8ICIAN TO THE LONDON HOSPITAL, ETC.
                          With numerous Illustrations.
                         FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.
           ENLARGED AND IMPROVKD, WITH NOTKS AND ADDITIONS.
                            BY JOSEPH CARSON, M.D.
       PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY IN THE PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OF
                                   PHARMACY, ETC.
  Part I., contains the General Action and Classification of Medicines, and the Mineral  Ma-
teria Medica.  Part II., the Vegetable and Animal  Kingdoms, and  including diagrams expla-
natory of the Processes of the Pharmacopoeias, a Tabular view of the History of the Materia
Medica, from the earliest times to the present day, and a very copious index.  From the
Second London Edition, which has been thoroughly revised, with the Introduction of the Pro-
cesses of the New  Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,  and containing additional articles on Mental
Remedies,  Light, Heat,  Cold, Electricity, Magnetism, Exercise, Dietetics, and Climate, and
many additional Wood Cuts, illustrative of Pharmaceutical Operations, Crystallography, Shape
and Organization of the Feculas of Commerce, and the Natural History of the Materia Medica.
  The object of  the author has been to supply the  Medical  Student with a Class Book on
Materia  Medica, containing a faithful outline of this  Department of Medicine, which should
embrace a  concise account  of the most  important modern discoveries  in Natural History,
Chemistry, Physiology, and Therapeutics, in so far as they pertain to Pharmacology, and treat
the subjects in the order of their natural historical relations.
                   PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
  The very great merit of Pereira's Elements  of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, having
attracted the attention of the  Profession in the United States, it is  believed that an important
service is performed in rendering it accessible, by the publication of an American edition.  It
is by far the most comprehensive treatise upon the subject in the English language.   Replete
with erudition and at the same  time most satisfactory with respect to references; it is admi-
rably suited to the wants of the advanced  student and the practitioner; while from the dis-
tinctness of the facts, their methodical arrangement, and the clear philosophical explanations
connected with them, it meets the wants of the student who is in search of the first lessons in
the science.  It may, therefore, with equal  benefit be employed as  a work of reference, or as
an elementary text book, in which two-fold character it  occupies an unusual position.
  More completely to adapt it to the demands of this country, such additions have been made
as are deemed to  be essential.  Thus, the portion devoted to pharmaceutical information,  is in
the original work too  strictly local, as it is confined almost exclusively to the  peculiarities of
the three British Colleges; to obviate this, the nomenclature of the last edition of the United
States' Pharmacopoeia has been introduced, by inserting the name of each  article adopted by
that standard, in connexion with those assumed by the  authorities  uniformly cited by the au-
thor, or by expressing a correspondence of name with  one or more of them by the symbols
 (U. S.) in union with similar symbols used by him to indicate the authority.  The formula of
the United  States' Pharmacopoeia have also been set forth with the formulte of the standards
 previously  mentioned, and where a formula  has been adopted, or a medicinal  preparation as-
 sumed by our own work, entirely differing from those found in the  text, it has been presented,
with all  the details necessary for its employment.
  Succinct histories of the most important indigenous medicines of the United States, of which
no account had been given, have been introduced in their appropriate places, as Cassia Mari-
landica, Cftenopodium, Cimicifuga, Cornus  Florida, Eupatorium,  Gillenia, Juglans, Pix Ca-
 nadensis,  Podophyllum, Prunus-Virginiana, San<jtiinaria  and  Veratrum viride; others of
 minor importance have also been noticed, and a sufficient exposition of their properties made,
 for their employment under circumstances that  may render them expedient
   The matter that has been added,  has been included within brackets, and distinguished by
the insertion of the initials of the editor.

   The  Chemist,  published in London,  for July, 1812, says of  this work, when  referring to
 Druggists  and Chemists:
   " They should turn to the work  before us;  they should carefully and diligently peruse it.
 They will  find it a most, valuable assistant in all cases of difficulty ; no compound  can be pre-
 scribed which is not fully treated  of in  it.  The physician, the surgeon, the  apothecary, the
 scientific chemist, and the man of science generally will derive the grntest advantage from it:
 as a work  of reference it is  unsurpassed, nay, unequalled, by any on the  subject in our lan-
 guage."
   Other rccommcnd.i(ions, equally strong, could be added. 
        LEA  ic BLANCHARD, HAVE JUST PUBLISHED,


                           A  TREATISE
                                      ON

       THE    DENTAL    ART,
                                    FOUNDED
                    ON  ACTUAL  EXPERIENCE.
   ILLUSTRATED BY TWO HUNDRED AND FORTY-ONE  FIGURES IN LITHOGRAPHY, AND
                             FIFTY-FOUR WOOD CUTS.

                               BY F. MAURY.
                     DENTIST OF THE ROYAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL.
                           Eranslatrtr from t&e jfxenct).
              WITH  NOTES  AND  ADDITIONS,
                              BY J. B.  SAVIER,
                           DOCTOR OF DENTAL SURGERY.
                                  One Vol. 8vo.
  This Work is designed  as a Text Book in the Baltimore College  of Dental Surgery, and
commends itself to the Profession from the great reputation of the Author, and as embracing
the latest information on the subject.
               DISEASES  OF   THE   SKIN.
A Practical and Theoretical Treatise on the Diagnosis, Pathology, and Treatment of Cuta-
  neous Diseases, arranged according to a Natural System of Classification, and preceded by
  an outline of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Skin.  By Erasmus Wilson, M.D., Author
  of a System of Anatomy, &c, in one volume.
                             Extract from Preface.
  ".....Such is a brief sketch of the scheme, which  I propose to designate a Natural
System of Classification of Diseases of the Skin, and I trust that its clearness and  sim-
plicity will be the means of rendering  a branch of medical science, which has hitherto  with
much reason been regarded as obscure  and confused, intelligible and precise. ... The basis of
the Natural System of classification rests upon Anatomy and Physiology, and herein lies its
strength, its easy application, and its truth.  The Dermis and  its dependencies,  its glands,
and its follicles, are the undoubted seat of all the changes which characterize cutaneous
pathology."
                        ALSO,
LAWRENCE   ON  RUPTURES,
                   In one Vol. 8vo.
                  LEA &  BLANCHARD WILL  PUBLISH,

              PRINCIPLES OF  HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY,
                          WITH THEIR CHIEF APPLICATIONS TO
 PATHOLOGY,  HYGIENE,  AND  FORENSIC  MEDICINE.
                 ESPECIALLY DESIGNED FOR THE USU OF STUDENTS.

                      With numerous Illustrations  on Wood.
                     BY  W.  B.  CARPENTER, M.D.
              LECTURER ON PHYSIOLOGY IN THE BRISTOL MEDICAL SCHOOL, ETC.
                                IN ONE VOLUME 8vO.
                            EDITED  WITH NOTES
                   BY  MEREDITH CLYMER,  M. D.
                      LECTURER ON THE INSTITUTES OF MEDICINE, ETC.
 THE ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY, including the application of the Science in the Arts.
   By Thomas Graham, Professor of Chemistry in the University College, London.  In one
   volume 8vo.
   In order to bring this work up to the day, it will undergo a full revision, and be illustrated
 with numerous cuts and diagrams, making it one of the most useful and valuable works on
 the subject.
 THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MIDWIFERY, by Fleetwood Churchill, M.D., &c.
   author of a Treatise on the Diseases of Females, &c.  illustrated by upwards of one hundred
   engravings on Wood, beautifully executed, to match the volume of Wilson's Anatomy, and
   Ferguson's Surgery, in 1 vol. 8vo., with notes and additions, by Professor Huston.
 THE PRINCIPLES  AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, by  Dr. Watson, now publishing
   in the Library portion of "The Medical News."
   EFPersons wishing to subscribe to The Medical News and Library should note, that for One
 Dollar a year they will get near four hundred pages  containing  as much  valuable matter as
was formerly extended to seven or eight hundred pages; and that for Five Dollars they get The
News and The American Journal of Medical Sciences,  the whole embracing matter equal, at
least, to two thousand of the ordinary sized Medical  pages.  The News pays postage as a
newspaper, 
 
Ktf
;-
-T.
•»&'::

£*»

*w*
Hi
#
St!
*,v

> h*. y jpa
?  -1
^Vffc
c

•tflrvr'^
m
J* r .■
■■**■•*,-*■£.■
%■,
\%}


£&
*fc

:h*~<

-w?
i j. »-^ ■*•>■• -V. - k -:
Mfci
^'S^Wi
m
ri
'*•*$?
■vx^. '< *'t4

#T-