ELECTRICITY; 
ITS NATURE AND FORMS, 
WITH A STUDY ON 
ELECTRO-THERAPEUTICS. 
BY 
C. W. BOYCE, M.D, 
CHICAGO: 
W. A. CHATTERTON, PUBLISHER, 
Nos. 83 & 85 Fifth Avenue, 
1880. PREFECE. 
Why a second edition? Before trying to answer 
this I will answer another question, viz.: Why a 
first edition? Over forty years ago, whilst a student 
at school, electricity had a peculiar charm for me. 
The chemistry, then in use, gave a good description, 
illustrated by plates, of the machinery in use, and 
as a text-book was all that was necessary to teach 
the elementary part of this subject. In particular 
it illustrated electrical induction. Later, when a 
student of medicine, I learned what was then known 
of the electro-magnetic machine, and of the mag- 
neto-electric machine. These machines gave only 
the induced current. At this time I only learned 
that there was an induced current in use; this is 
what is now called "the secondary induced current." 
Of this information I was quite proud and rather 
set myself up as a critic or a teacher. Some years 
ago an artisan, near my office, made a machine for 
winding silk or cotton around a wire for the purpose 
of insulating it and in order to show how well this 
work was done he made from this wire so insulated 
the necessary coils for an electro-magnetic machine. 4 
PREFACE. 
This he kept to recommend his insulated wire. 
One day he took the electro-magnetic machine to a 
physician, a near neighbor of mine, for some ex- 
planation of its working. Whilst thus engaged I 
entered the office and seeing what was wanted vol- 
unteered the required information. When I got 
through with this, the doctor, either from malice or 
from desiring information, turned to his machine 
(which was a No. 4 Galvano-Faradic machine) and 
asked me to explain the two currents which it was 
claimed that the machine would give. "Here is a 
primary and also a secondary current, wherein con- 
sists the difference ?" I took it up and looked at 
it and said nothing. The doctor kindly took it in 
pieces, and handed me the coils, showing me the 
connection, saying, "here the wires of the primary 
current go directly to the battery." I looked wise 
and replied that the primary was of course the bat- 
tery current. "Well," said he, "how docs it get 
off from the wire ?" I had sense enough to reply, 
" I don't know." But when I got away I said to 
myself, I will know'. I then commenced what 
proved to be a long study which involved a careful 
review of all the works on electricity at my com- 
mand. Still the why of this primary or extra cur- 
rent eluded me. Whilst thus engaged a local PREFACE. 
5 
society asked me to prepare an essay for its next 
meeting, three months hence. Electricity being 
uppermost in my mind, I chose it for my subject. 
At the end of two months I was no nearer the why 
than at the start. One day I was at the telegraph 
office talking with the superintendent, who, in the 
course of the conversation, remarked that at the 
principal offices there was in use a machine called 
quadruplex with which two messages could be sent, 
over the same wire at the same time. This involved 
the attendance of dour instead of two operators-two 
at either end of the wire. These two messages 
could be sent in the same or in different directions; 
in other words, two currents of electricity could be 
made to pass over the same wire without interfering 
with each other. Here was a revelation. Perhaps 
there were two currents passing over the primary 
wire and one could be taken off and made to pass 
through the poles held by the patient, whilst the 
other went through the battery. This proved to be 
the fact although these currents did not pass over 
the wire at the same moment; the battery current 
passed only through the battery but this passage in- 
duced another current on the same wire which passed, 
not through the battery, but through the electrodes 
held by the patient. 6 
PREFACE. 
My reward was when, at the end of the reading 
of the essay, an earnest listener remarked, "That is 
the first intelligent idea which I have ever had as 
to the working of this machine." 
At this meeting, the request was made that I con- 
tinue the subject and give at the next meeting 
more of the physiological effects of this powerful 
agent. As a fulfilment of this request the second 
essay was prepared and read. Now the answer to 
the first question, why a second edition ? So many 
asked for the loan of the essay that I found it less 
trouble to me to have two hundred and fifty copies 
printed for distribution than to lend the MSS. 
These two hundred and fifty being exhausted the 
publisher thinks best to issue a second edition. 
C. W. Boyce. 
Auburn, N. Y., Sept., 1880. ELECTRICITY. 
ITS NATURE. 
This term is applied to an all-pervading influence 
which has been studied and investigated, carefully, 
for many years by learned men and philosophers, 
and as yet we are not certain that we know anything 
more of its real nature than was known earlier in 
the investigation. 
Three theories have been propounded as to its 
nature, each of which seems to have about an equal 
number of adherents. 
The first we shall consider is called the two-fluid 
theory. It claims that there are two electricities, a 
positive and a negative, and that these two are in a 
state of equilibrium, or that there is just as much 
of one as of the other when in its normal condition, 
and when so, there are no manifestations. When 
there is any manifestation of electricity this equi- 
librium is disturbed, and there is a superabundance 
of either the positive or negative kind. That one 8 
ELECTRICITY. 
kind always attracts the other and repels like elec- 
tricity. The effort of each is to attract just enough 
of the other to keep up the equilibrium. That 
electricity of high tension travels great distances to 
become thus neutralized. It is claimed that in the 
galvanic circuit both electricities travel on the same 
conductor in different directions and are thus neu- 
tralized; that this neutralization takes place equally 
on the whole circuit, since no neutral point has ever 
been found. As absolute proof of the truth of 
there being two electricities, it is claimed that the 
Leyden jar, or a battery of Leyden jars, has been 
so highly charged that not only the positive but also 
the negative discharge has pierced a plate of glass, 
and that, on inspection, the perforation made by the 
passage of either electricity shows plainly the direc- 
tion the electricity took. 
Probably the first idea of electricity came from a 
discovery made by Thales, of Miletus, (an Ionian 
philosopher,) that if a piece of amber was rubbed 
in a dry atmosphere it acquired the property of 
attracting light bodies, such as small pieces of paper 
or pith-balls. Later it was found that glass pos- 
sessed this same property, but on comparing these 
attractions it was found that a light body which 
had been attracted by the amber was then repelled ITS NATURE. 
9 
by it, and afterward it was in turn more powerfully 
attracted by glass which had been rubbed. After 
having been in contact with the glass for a short 
time the light body was again attracted by the 
amber. These alternate attractions and repulsions 
continued until, as was afterward claimed, an 
equilibrium was obtained between the electricities 
of the amber and the glass. According to the two- 
fluid theory, the amber possessed negative and the 
glass positive electricities. 
Althaus indicates that natural electricity is some- 
thing more than a simple mixture of positive and 
negative electricities, and says, " we suppose these 
fluids to consist of an infinite number of smallest 
particles or molecules, each of which possesses 
attractive and repulsive powers, the molecules of 
one attracting those of the other, whilst molecules 
of the same fluid repel each other. While bodies 
are at rest, these fluids exist in such proportion 
that, although they do not destroy each other, their 
effect is counterbalanced; since at the same dis- 
tance the attractive power of one of the fluids is 
equal to the repulsive power of the other. Natural 
electricity must therefore be decomposed in order 
that an action may be perceptible." In regard to 
the two-fluid theory, although he accepts it, he says, 10 
ELECTRICITY. 
"This theory of the electric fluid is not to be con- 
sidered final, but only provisional. Indications are 
not wanting that it may at some future time have 
to undergo considerable modification, yet it enables 
us to classify our facts, and is more in accordance 
with the present state of our knowledge than any 
other view." 
The second theory (Dr. Franklin's) claims that 
there is but one electricity, and that what are con- 
sidered positive and negative are simply a plus and 
a minus condition ; that is, when a body is posi- 
tively charged it contains more electricity than 
belongs to it naturally, and when negative it con- 
tains less. Two bodies which are positive repel 
each other because they have too much electricity 
already, and two bodies one of which has too much 
and the other too little electricity, attract each 
■other because they can, when together, give and 
take and thus become equalized. In the galvanic 
battery there is a constant current of electricity 
going from the zinc to the copper in the liquid, and 
from the copper to the zinc out of the liquid. The 
one-fluid theory claims that a light body is attracted 
by the amber because it has too little electricity, 
and that as they come together some portion of 
electricity passes to the amber. The light body ITS NATURE. 
11 
having given up some of its electricity is attracted by 
the glass from which it receives a portion of elec- 
tricity, and this it carries over to the amber. The 
light body is simply a carrier to equalize the 
electricity between the amber and the glass. 
Of these two theories this last seems to me to be 
the most simple, and so far as the literature of 
electricity is concerned it assumes that this is cor- 
rect. All the terms used comply with it, and what- 
ever theory, the description is of the current pas- 
sing from the positive to the negative. 
The third theory is that electricity is a force 
correlative with the other great forces of Nature, 
viz., light and heat; that its manifestations are by 
vibrations, or a change in the molecules of matter. 
As an illustration we may imagine a tube of equal 
calibre containing an indefinite number of balls of 
equal size and these nearly equal to the calibre of 
the tube, so that no friction need be caused when 
the balls are turned one way or another. Let us 
assume that this tube is perpendicular, when, as 
will be seen, the only friction will be between the 
balls themselves. If now the lowermost ball be 
turned in the least all the other balls must turn at 
the same instant and just the same distance, and 
this should the balls reach to infinity. 12 
ELECTRICITY. 
The advocates of this theory have framed no 
form of language to represent its workings but 
adopt the terms used by others who adopt the fluid 
theories. All suppose that there is a universal 
ether in which is manifested -the phenomena of 
electricity. "Sir Janies Murray, M.D., who adopts 
Dr. Franklin's theory of electricity, publishes a 
series of extensive investigations and experiments 
made by himself, or under his auspices, some years 
since, from which we make the following extract: 
' Electricity can produce thousands of effects; it is 
light, heat, galvanism, magnetism, and chemical 
action, or it is convertible into them. Its modifi- 
cations constitute, in my opinion, that universal 
ether film which encircles all particles of matter and 
preserves by its powers of attraction and repulsion, 
the ultimate molecules of all organized beings in 
their natural relative connection and condition.' " 
(Garratt.) 
Beard and Rockwell, who adopt the third theory, 
use the following language, viz.: "All modern 
research tends toward the conclusion that the dif- 
ferent forms of electricity, which are variously dis- 
tinguished as 'magnetism, Franklinism, galvanism, 
electro-magnetism, are but expressions of one force, 
which force is. as we have seen, but a mode of ITS NATURE. 
13 
motion of the universal ether." (page 27.) "Elec- 
tricity is a disturbance propagated in the molecules 
of a body and at the same time in the ether, pervad- 
ing that body." (page 33.) 
M. De la Rive says, "We may for the present 
say it is very probable that electricity instead of 
consisting of one or of two special fluids, sui genesis, 
is nothing more than the result of a particular mod- 
ification in the state of bodies, which modification 
probably depends on the mutual action exercised 
on each other by the ponderable particles of matter 
and the subtle fluid that surrounds them on every 
side."-(Garratt.) 
When we realize, if we ever do, how swiftly the 
electric influence travels or is exerted, we cannot 
comprehend that anything, either fluid or solid, can 
by any possibility pass through space at the rate of 
288,000 miles in a second of time-about ten times 
around the earth. 
"The velocity with which electricity is propa- 
gated is greater than that of any other agent with 
which we are acquainted, light not excepted; for 
while light moves at the rate of 192,000 miles in a 
second, electricity travels, according to Professor 
Wheatstone, over a distance of 288,000 miles in a 
second. This velocity, which is sufficient to make 14 
ELECTRICITY. 
the circuit of the earth ten times in a second, is so 
great that any artificial motion that can be pro- 
duced appears to be rest itself when compared with 
it. The light of the electric discharge lasts, accord- 
ing to the same observer, hardly the millionth part 
of a second. If a wheel, which is made to revolve 
so rapidly that its spokes become invisible, be 
illuminated by a flash of electric light, all the 
spokes are for an instant seen perfectly distinct, as 
if it were in a state of rest. Insects on the wing 
appear fixed in the air; a cannon ball illuminated 
by a lightning flash seems to stand still, and an 
apparently continuous stream of water is seen as a 
succession of drops. The cause of these phenomena 
being that, however rapid the motion of bodies may 
be, the electric light has come and passed away 
before the motion has gone over a perceptible por- 
tion of space."-(Althaus.) 
ITS FORMS. 
It is generally understood that electricity is mani- 
fested in three different forms, viz., as magnetism, 
as static electricity, and as dynamic electricity. 
Magnetism is that property which is manifested 
in the lodestone. This is a species of iron-ore 1T3 FORMS. 
15 
which has been rendered magnetic and retains this 
property permanently. It attracts soft iron and 
renders it magnetic so long as they are in contact. 
Steel is also rendered magnetic by contact with the 
lodestone, and it retains its magnetism permanently. 
This is a very broad practical difference: the soft 
iron becomes more powerfully magnetic than steel 
while the influence lasts, but it loses its magnetism 
as soon as contact is broken with the lodestone; 
the steel retains it. 
If an insulated wire be coiled around a rod of 
steel or soft iron, and a current of galvanism be 
passed through or along this wire, the steel or soft 
iron within the coil takes on magnetism or becomes 
a magnet. This artificial magnet has the same 
power to impart the magnetic property that the 
lodestone has. The steel rod will retain its magnet- 
ism after the current of galvanism ceases to flow 
along the insulated wire, but the iron rod does not 
retain it. 
Another property the rod. has acquired, viz., a 
tendency, when free to move, to place itself in a 
position pointing north and south-the same end 
invariably pointing north, and the other south. If 
the coil of wire containing the rod of soft iron or 
steel be placed on a float in water, and the current 16 
ELECTRICITY. 
of galvanism be passed through the coil, the rod 
immediately, by its acquired magnetic power, begins 
to move the float so as to point toward the north 
and south, thus obeying the law of polarity. 
The steel rod retains this property of polarity, 
and thus becomes of the greatest use, scientifically. 
It then becomes the magnetic needle. 
There are three great sources whereby electricity 
is made manifest: by the effect of heat, by friction 
and by chemical action. Any body or substance 
(especially those which are composed of iron,) 
which is being heated at any given point, from 
which the heat radiates to the other parts of that 
body, manifests a current of electricity, and this 
current is from the heated to the cooler parts. 
This is a law of electricity. When the sun, that 
great source of heat, warms the earth, which in its 
revolutions presents constantly a new surface to the 
direct rays of that body, it follows from the law 
that there is a constant current of electricity flow- 
ing from east to west-from the heated to the cooler 
part. In its revolution the earth has not had time 
to cool toward the east, consequently the current is 
always toward the west. 
On comparing this condition of the earth, with 
its constant current of electricity passing around it, ITS FORMS. 
17 
with the rod in the wire coil, where the galvanism 
is constantly passing around it, we cannot fail to 
recognize the similarity. The earth is rendered 
magnetic. The rod is rendered a magnet. All 
substances which have thus taken on the magnetic 
condition permanently, from the influence of the 
earth current, are called natural magnets. 
It is found by experiment that any magnet when 
free to move at will, will always place itself at right 
angles to any current of electricity passing in its 
immediate vicinity. The constant current from 
east to west explains why the magnetic needle must 
place itself at right angles with this electric current. 
From the above considerations we might reason- 
ably infer, contrary to the general understanding, 
that magnetism, instead of being a form of elec- 
tricity is only an effect. However, it is cpiite prob- 
able that magnetism is only one manifestation of 
electricity, since each, under proper conditions, as 
we shall see, induces the other. 
These two conditions-the permanent and the 
temporary magnets-answer, in their own way, to 
fulfil two very important purposes. The one point- 
ing with unvarying constancy to the north pole, 
guiding the mariner unerringly over the trackless 
ocean, and the other rendering it easy to telegraph 18 
ELECTRICITY. 
through all space where a conductor may be placed. 
The needle must be a permanent magnet. For 
telegraphing, no other form can take the place of 
the temporary magnet. The value of these mag- 
nets is entirely relative-the permanent magnet 
depends upon the fineness and the hardness of the 
steel for its strength, and the temporary magnet 
upon the softness and purity of the iron. The one 
should change as little as possible and the other as 
readily as possible. The firmer and harder the steel, 
the slower it takes on the magnetic state and retains 
it with the greater tenacity; the softer and purer 
the iron the more readily it takes on and gives up 
the magnetic condition. 
By the use of the soft-iron magnet telegraphing 
is easy. It seems altogether probable that some 
other process would be invented whereby telegraph- 
ing could be done should the magnet disappear, but 
as yet this is only being experimented with, and no 
satisfactory result has been reached. As it is, tele- 
graphing has become so simple an affair that any 
one who chooses can study its workings, and a 
description of the apparatus and its workings will 
convey most readily an idea of the temporary or 
electro-magnet. It requires that two places, sepa- 
rated from each other, shall be connected by a con- ITS FORMS. 
19 
ductor. A galvanic battery is necessary at one end 
of the conductor. Generally there is one at each 
end. These batteries must be connected with the 
earth, or a second wire must connect the batteries, 
in order to complete the circuit. At each place 
there must be an instrument to receive the message. 
The Morse instrument is the only one with which I 
am acquainted. This consists essentially of a piece 
of soft iron bent in the shape of an horse-shoe, 
around whose ends is coiled an insulated wire, so 
arranged that the battery current can be made to 
flow along it, and when the current thus flows 
through this wire the soft iron become a magnet, 
and so continues as long as the current continues 
to flow. In addition to the bent soft iron, there is 
a lever on which is a piece of soft iron so placed 
that it acts as an armature to the bent soft iron. 
The lever terminates in a point which is in close 
proximity to a moving strip of paper. In order to 
a clear understanding we will suppose that there is 
a battery at each end of the conductor. At each 
end also is an apparatus by which the operator can 
make or break the connection. This is called a 
key. When a message is to be sent the operator 
closes the circuit and a current of electricity flows 
along the conductor and around the bent soft iron, 20 
ELECTRICITY. 
thus rendering it magnetic. This being magnetic, 
attracts the armature and this brings down or up 
the lever which moves the point toward the moving 
paper, and by the point pressing in the paper a 
mark is made. When the operator opens the 
circuit the soft iron is demagnetized, and this allows 
the armature to withdraw and then no mark is 
made. It is thus in the power of the operator to 
make long or short marks, or even dots, at pleasure. 
A system of marks and dots correspond to the 
alphabet. The instantaneous making and unmak- 
ing of the magnet is a necessity. A permanent 
magnet has been used but it was found greatly in- 
ferior to the electro-magnet. This instrument was 
generally in use for many years, but lately it has 
been superceded, and now the sounds of the instru- 
ment are listened to and the message written out. 
The electro-magnet is used in the construction of 
one class of machines for medical purposes, and 
gives them their names, viz., electro-magnetic 
machines. There are others constructed with per- 
manent magnets and these are called magneto- 
electric machines. 
"Magnetism produces two remarkable effects- 
sound and elongation. When a good ear is placed 
near an iron core, just as the current is being STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
21 
established around it, a click is heard. The same 
sound is heard when the current is broken. Place 
a rod of soft iron in an electro-magnetic helix, with 
its ends resting in two trays, and musical sounds 
may be produced. Elongation of a bar, when mag- 
netized, is thus explained. The bar may be sup- 
posed to be made up of particles united by cohesion 
but capable of removal. 
" When the bar is magnetized these particles put 
their largest diameters lengthwise to the bar, or 
tend in that direction. That sound was an effect 
of magnetization was discoveaed by Page. The 
elongation of a bar by magnetization was discov- 
ered by Joule, of Manchester, one of the pioneers 
of the doctrines of the correlation and conservation 
of forces. Grove has also shown that iron filings, 
suspended in a cylinder, around which the current 
runs, attach themselves end to end."-(Beard and 
Rockwell, page 10.) 
Static electricity is electricity at rest. This does 
not mean electrical equilibrium. It is in distinction 
to dynamic electricity which is in motion. Static 
electricity is an accumulation of electricity in 
or about bodies which are insulated. An insulated 
body is one from which electricity cannot escape. 
STATIC ELECTRICITY. 22 
STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
To understand this, necessitates a knowledge of 
conductors and non-conductors. A conductor is 
any substance over or through which electricity can 
pass. Copper, silver, most of the metals, and water 
are good conductors. Copper wire, from its qual- 
ities as a conductor and its cheapness, is most com- 
monly used. Glass is a non-conductor, and from 
its being so common and cheap is generally used as 
an insulator. Hard rubber is equally good and less 
destructible. Dry atmosphere is a non-conductor 
but moist air is not. Electricity can be collected 
upon any non-conducting substance, provided there 
is no conductor near enough to carry the electricity 
away. Such an accumulation is static electricity. 
When it is allowed to escape it becomes dynamic. 
Static electricity has its type in that of the machine 
and of the cloud. The electricity-charged cloud 
may be driven about by the wind, or be attracted 
by another cloud which has less or more electricity, 
and be in motion through space, yet if the electricity 
does not pass from the cloud to which it is attached 
it'remains static. Let this cloud come near enough 
to any other cloud which is in a different electrical 
condition or near enough to the earth if differently 
electrified, and the electricity of the cloud will be 
discharged. Whilst the electricity is being dis- STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
23 
charged it is dynamic. Static is often called fric- 
tional electricity, because friction, under favorable 
circumstances, always produces it. The electricity 
of the cloud is often the result of the friction to 
which it is subjected when driven through the 
atmosphere against different currents and against 
the higher portions of the earth, by the wind. (The 
greatest source of atmospheric electricity is un- 
doubtedly evaporation. Each particle of vapor is 
charged with positive electricity.) Static electricity 
is not necessarily frictional. It may accumulate at 
the poles of a galvanic battery when the circuit is 
open. 
Electricity does not pervade the substance of 
those bodies which manifest electrical conditions. 
It is on the surface. The substance may show a 
negative condition. Systematic and prolonged ob- 
servation have shown that the earth is predomi- 
nately negative in relation to the atmosphere about 
it, and the further from the earth these observa- 
tions have been taken, the greater the degree of 
positive electricity has been found. The atmos- 
phere is a great reservoir of electricity, varying 
from time to time at the earth's surface, where at 
times the electric condition is decidedly positive, 
and at others it is decidedly negative. Quite 24 
STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
recently Professor Loomis has been experimenting 
with this atmospheric electricity in telegraphing. 
He has been able with its aid to send messages to 
stations fifteen miles distant without connecting 
wires. This extract has just come to hand and I 
append it: 
"There is really no end to the wonders of tele- 
graphy. While the telephone is astonishing us, we 
learn that scientists are actually telegraphing 
through the air without the aid of wires. Professor 
Loomis flies a kite, using a copper wire instead of a 
kite string, and at a distance of ten miles he causes 
another kite to be raised in the same way, and he 
finds himself able to transmit signal between these 
kites. Since the days when Franklin flew his 
scientific kite, we have heard of nothing more 
wonderful." 
The varying conditions of the atmospheric elec- 
tricity at the surface of the earth from positive to 
negative and from negative to positive, are marked 
by different effects, both general and physiological. 
The interest to us is principally with the latter. 
Ordinarily these changes follow each other so closely 
that no continued physiological state is noted, but 
when one condition, either positive or negative, con- 
tinues, as it often does, for-days or 6ven weeks, we STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
25 
observe effects in proportion to this continuance. 
In a general way with a positive state of the atmos- 
phere, if long continued, what diseases prevail are 
predominately sthenic, but usually the postive state 
is a healthy one. During a negative condition, 
neuralgias and allied diseases prevail. Under this 
state of the atmosphere diseases are prone to linger, 
and we administer our remedies almost in vain. 
Day after day as these conditions continue we wait 
and hope. One day follows another and no change 
for the better. By and by there comes on a change, 
the mercury falls, the winds arise and a storm en- 
sues ; the next day when we visit our patients there 
is a marked change for the better, we find that we 
are indeed in a different atmosphere as soon as we 
enter the house. The faces of the attendants are 
more pleasant and even smiling. The patients look 
more hopeful. Many cases yield and convalesce 
rapidly, and we are apt to credit to the last remedy 
given, what ought to be credited to the electric 
change and to the storm. This has been my expe- 
rience for more than thirty years. 
After the conclusion of the reading of this paper 
a friend called my attention to a series of articles 
in the thirteenth volume of Harper's Monthly, en- 
titled " The Great Epidemics," in which occurs the 26 
STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
following paragraph, and being so appropriate to 
our present subject that I append it: 
" Still the pestilence raged with unabated violence. 
The stagnant air teemed with deadly vapors. 
Scarcely a breeze ruffled the unbroken calm. The 
light of the sun, shining steadily in the sky, became 
hateful to those who were sickening under its beams. 
In vain they looked up to the unmerciful heavens 
for the shadow of a cloud. The blue arch bent 
over them, hot and stifling, like the dome of a 
furnace. Anxiously did they look for the change 
of the moon, in the hope of an alteration in the 
state of the atmosphere; but no change came, no 
breeze blew, no rain fell. Occasionally a haze 
would overspread the sky, light clouds would form, 
and supplicating eyes would gaze upon the mocking 
promise only to sec it fade away into the general 
vapor that had no healing in its misty wings. So 
the hot September wore away and October, usually 
so balmy, arrived, but only brought increased 
mortality. 
"The springs and wells began to fail, pastures 
were burned up, the dust extended two feet below 
the surface of the soil. To add to the universal 
distress, medical aid began to fail the people. Some 
of the physicians had fled, many were deal, more STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
27 
were sick, and all were worn down with extreme 
fatigue. In one day it was estimated that six 
thousand persons lay burning with fever, and that 
only three medical men were able to be out of their 
houses. The stoutest hearts now began to fail and 
despair reigned supreme over the city, (Philadel- 
phia). At this moment, as if to verify the adage, 
'Man's extremity is God's opportunity,' a change 
took place. Dark clouds gathered over the sky, 
and on the 15th of October the long-desired, the 
prayed-for, the benevolent rain came pouring upon 
the parching city. The pestilence had received its 
death blow. The number of the sick immediately 
diminished, and by the 9th of November the plague 
was over."-(Harper's Monthly, vol. xiii., p. 789. 
Yellow fever.) 
Our principle source of static electricity is the 
electrical machine. Commonly this machine con- 
sists of a cylindrical plate of glass, which can be 
made to revolve on its axis. A rubber of silk 
presses upon this plate whilst revolving. The fric- 
tion between the glass and the silk develops the 
electricity in the glass, which is conveyed along 
what is called a prime-conductor and deposited 
upon any non-conductor in the near vicinity, or it 
may be discharged into the atmosphere. Any con- 28 
STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
siderable friction in a dry, heated atmosphere de- 
velops this electricity. High pressure steam also 
develops it in large quantities. In paper mills we 
have nearly all the requirements for making elec- 
tricity manifest. Let me call attention at this 
point to a similarity between the effect produced on 
the substances used to produce frictional electricity, 
and the effect upon the metals used in a battery 
where galvanism is made manifest. In the battery 
one metal is more acted upon than the other, and 
the greater this difference between the metals in 
this respect the greater the amount of galvanism 
produced, and the one Zeas/ acted upon collects the 
positive or is the collecting plate. 
" It was observed by Callomb that the general 
deductions in regard to frictional electricity are that 
when two bodies are rubbed together the one whose 
particles are least disturbed is most disposed to col- 
lect positive electricity." 
With the electrical machine, in dry, warm air, 
electricity may be made manifest at pleasure, and 
by means of the Leyden jar it may be collected and 
retained temporarily for use. Temporarily, since 
the air is not a perfect non-conductor and gradually 
the electricity escapes. The Leyden jar may be any 
glass jar which has been coated with tinfoil extern- STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
29 
ally and internally to within two or three inches of 
the top. A varnished cover secures the open mouth 
of the jar. Through this cover passes a metal rod 
which is in connection with the inner coat of tinfoil. 
The rod terminates externally in a knob. When 
this knob is in contact with the prime-conductor of 
the machine, a few turns of the plate will fill or 
charge the jar with positive electricity. This elec- 
tricity has great tension. Tension is a property 
whereby electricity leaps longer or shorter distances 
in order to reach objects in a negative condition, 
where it may be neutralized, and this is the reason 
why it can never be collected in any great quantity. 
In certain conditions of the atmosphere there is 
such a minus condition that very little or no elec- 
tricity can be produced by the machine, and during 
the continuance of such a condition serious diseases 
have often prevailed. During several weeks in 
Paris where observations were made, some years ago, 
when there was an epidemic of cholera, no electric- 
ity could be produced. At last the machine gave 
a few sparks, and the next morning's bulletin 
annouced a decrease in the number of cases of 
cholera. The decrease of the disease kept pace 
with the increased manifestations of electicity on 
the machine. 30 
STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
At this stage of the reading the question was 
asked, "Does the presence and absence of positive 
electricity account for epidemics?" I here present 
an extract from Dr. Garratt's Medical Electricity, 
page 75: " We know that Andreaud made daily 
observations and experiments in and about Paris 
during the cholera there, which show a striking co- 
incidence between the amount of electricity and the 
virulence of the epidemic. In a letter to the presi- 
dent of the French academy, he says: 
'The machine I have used for my daily observa- 
tions is rather powerful. In ordinary weather it 
gives, after two or three turns of the wheel, brilliant 
sparks of five or six centimetres. 1 have noticed 
that since the invasion of the epidemic I have not 
been able to produce on any one occasion the same 
effect. During the months of April and May the 
sparks, obtained with great trouble, have never ex- 
ceeded two or three centimetres, and their variations 
accorded very nearly with the statistic variations of 
the cholera. This was already for me a strong pre- 
sumption that I was on track of the important fact 
I was endeavoring to find. Nevertheless I was not 
yet convinced, because we might attribute the fact 
to the moisture of the air, or to the irregularities 
of the electric machine. Thus I waited with im- STA1TC ELECTRICITY. 
31 
patience the arrival of fine weather with heat, to 
continue my observations with more certainty. At 
last fine weather came and, to my astonishment, 
the machine though often consulted, was far from 
showing as it ought, an augmentation of electricity, 
but gave signs less and less sensible to such a degree, 
that during the days of the 4th, 5th, and 6th of 
June, it was impossible to obtain anything but 
slight cracklings without sparks. On the 7th the 
machine remained quite dumb. This new decrease 
of the electric fluid had perfectly accorded, as is too 
well known, with the renewed action of the cholera; 
for my part, I was not more alarmed than aston- 
ished; my conviction was complete. I saw only the 
consequence of the fact already supposed. It may 
be imagined with what anxiety, in the moments of 
the crisis, I consulted the machine, the sad and 
faithful interpreter of a great calamity. At last, 
on the morning of the 8th, some feeble sparks 
reappeared, and from hour to hour electric intensity 
increased. I felt with joy that the vivifying fluid 
was returning in the atmosphere. Toward evening 
a storm announced at Paris that the electricity had 
re-entered its domain ; to my eyes it was the cholera 
disappearing with the cause that produced it. The 
next day, (Sunday, the 9th,) I continued my observ- 32 
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
ations; the machine then, at the least touch, ren- 
dered with facility most lively sparks. Now, it is 
stated that in the six days following the 8th of 
June, the mortality in Paris fell regularly from 667 
to 335."' 
As long as this electricity remains in the Leyden 
jar it is static, whether we carry it about or leave it' 
stationary, but the instant we touch the knob with 
a conductor, which is in connection with the ex- 
ternal tinfoil, or with the earth, a discharge takes 
place and it becomes dynamic. Owing principally 
to the difficulty in managing this form of electricity,' 
it is less used than the other forms, which are more- 
under control. Yet in many cases it is used with* 
undoubted benefit. 
Dynamic electricity is, particularly, electricity in- 
motion. Its type is that which results from chem- 
ical action. The induced current is also of this1 
variety. Electricity from chemical action is as 
universal as chemical action itself. No chemical' 
action ever takes place without electricity being set 
free. It is with this electricity that we have to do, 
principally, in physiology, in medicine, in science 
and in art. 
Physiologically, the every where-present vitality' 
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
33 
and the everywhere-present electricity; so universal 
that they have been thought to be one and the 
same. The innermost processes of nutrition pre- 
sided over by vitality are always accompanied by 
manifestations of electricity, and here, where the 
effete matter is thrown off and replaced by new, is 
the everywhere-present chemical action-carbonic 
acid formed and removed, nutritious atoms and 
oxygen taking its place. No thought nor muscular 
action, no secretion nor assimilation but is presided 
over by vitality accompanied by chemical action 
and manifestation of electricity. No atom of .the 
animal system but is undergoing constant change 
accompanied by electrical phenomena. Whilst 
vitality remains, organic chemistry presides and 
preserves; when vitality departs, inorganic chem- 
istry destroys. 
The galvanic battery is the principal source of 
dynamic electricity, and with the construction and 
workings of this apparatus we must be familiar in 
order to use electricity with pleasure to ourselves 
and profit to our patients. In order to this under- 
standing it is necessary for us to begin at the 
beginning. Not at the discovery of galvanism, but 
where it began to be understood that although 
chemical action always developed a current, this 34 
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
current was liable to be interrupted and so inter- 
fered with that it became unreliable and finally 
ceased to flow. 
Volta's pile when first set in action, gives a good 
current of electricity, but begins to diminish from 
the first, and gradually ceases to work. The con- 
struction of this pile is a series of zinc and copper 
plates, and pieces of cloth of nearly the same size 
as the plates. First, a zinc plate; second, a piece 
of cloth, and this saturated with acidulated water; 
third, a copper plate; again another series of zinc, 
cloth and copper, and so on ad libitum. The term- 
inal plates are connected by a copper wire. The 
chemical action in this apparatus is, that the acidu- 
lated water attacks the zinc and a combination 
takes place between the acid and the zinc, forming 
a salt of zinc. The water is decomposed and its 
component parts separate and go in different direc- 
tions. The oxygen goes to the zinc, and the hydro- 
gen to the copper. The result of this is that 
after the plates become covered by these gases there 
commences another current, generated by the 
oxygen and hydrogen, which flows in a contrary 
direction to the zinc-copper current, and as it ac- 
cumulates in strength finally overcomes the original 
current and the apparatus ceases to work. DYNAMIC E LECTRIC1TY. 
35 
We select as the next step in our investigations 
a description of a simple battery, composed of two 
metals and one liquid; one which has been and 
still is used to a considerable extent. One of these 
metals must be more easily acted upon, chemically, 
than the other; and those metals which are most 
unlike in this respect make the best battery. It is 
not imperative that there should be two metals to 
form a galvanic battery, for the galvanic current 
may be started whenever two substances holding 
the above relation to each other are properly con- 
nected. The gases, oxygen and hydrogen, hold the 
proper relations to each other to form a battery, a 
description of which will be given in due time. Of 
the metals, zinc is used almost universally owing to 
its cheapness and its property of being easily acted 
upon chemically. Copper is the next metal in most 
common use, and is very little acted upon chemic- 
ally. Silver, platinum, and gold, are better than 
copper, since they are more nearly indestructible, 
but owing to their cost they are not commonly 
used. Carbon is both indestructible and cheap, and 
is coming into use quite extensively. 
The fundamental principle of a good battery is 
that one of the substances must be easily acted upon 
chemically, and the other as little as possible, the 36 
I)YNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
greater the difference the greater the current of 
galvanism made manifest. 
Let us now take as our illustration, the simple 
battery, composed of a zinc plate, a copper plate, 
and dilute sulphuric acid. As soon as the zinc and 
copper are immersed in the acid solution and a con- 
nection made between the metals outside of the 
solution, chemical action takes place between the 
acid-water and the zinc and a current of galvanism 
begins to flow, in the solution, from the zinc to the 
copper and out of the solution, through the con- 
ductor, from the copper back to the zinc, thus 
forming a circuit. This battery, when new, works 
well and gives a good current of galvanism, but soon 
begins to lose its activity and finally gives little or 
no current. For general and medical purposes it 
cannot be relied upon. If we examine the chemis- 
try of this battery we may see why it so soon loses its 
power. It is quite important that we should under- 
stand this process, since it explains just where nearly 
all trouble arises in the use of galvanic electricity. 
The zinc and the sulphuric acid having a great 
affinity for each other, and being in immediate con- 
tact, they unite by the aid of the water and form a 
sulphate of zinc. In doing this, an atom of zinc 
first unites with an atom of oxygen, thus forming DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
37 
an atom of oxide of zinc. This atom of oxide of 
zinc then unites with an atom of sulphuric acid 
and forms an atom of sulphate of zinc. This salt 
remains in solution. The atom of oxygen which 
unites with the zinc is obtained by the decompo- 
sition of an atom of water which is in immediate 
juxtaposition with the zinc plate in the solution. 
This sets free an atom of hydrogen. This action is 
constantly going on. Sulphate of zinc being 
formed and remaining in solution, and hydrogen 
being set free. A part of the hydrogen thus set 
free rises immediately to the air and is diffused 
therein. A part, however, is not thus disposed of, 
and it is with this part that we are now interested. 
There is a decomposition of not only that atom of 
water which is in contact with the zinc plate, but of 
all the atoms of water between the zinc and copper 
plates, and immediately a recomposition of new atoms 
of water, so that the atom of hydrogen set free at 
the zinc plate unites with the atom of oxygen of its 
nearest neighbor atom of water thus forming a new 
atom of water, and this atvin of hydrogen thus set 
free takes the oxygen of its nearest neighbor atom 
of water, and so on until the copper plate is reached 
each atom of oxygen moving at each change one 
step toward .the copper. Thus there is a constant 38 
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
supply of oxygen arriving at the zinc plate, and a 
constant supply of hydrogen arriving at the copper 
plate. This hydrogen adheres to the copper and 
soon, unless dispersed, entirely covers the surface of 
the copper. When this point is reached, the copper 
is separated from the liquid by a layer of hydrogen, 
and this layer of hydrogen does not allow the gal- 
vanic current to pass, but interrupts its passage. 
This is called polarization of the plates. To avoid 
this polarization is what we wish in the construction 
of the battery. (In Smee's battery, silver, on which 
has been precipitated finely-divided particles of 
platinum, is substituted for the copper, and this has 
been found to work well; the hydrogen not being 
able to adhere to the rough platinized-silver, but 
rises to be dissipated in the air.) 
In the zinc-copper battery, above described, any 
process which will dislodge the hydrogen restores 
the conditions necessary to a battery. Stirring the 
liquid washes off the hydrogen. Lifting the copper 
plates out of the liquid also dissipates it. This, 
however, requires too much attention, consequently 
other batteries have been invented which prevent 
the accumulation of hydrogen on the copper plate, 
one of which does its work so well that, so far as I 
am informed, it is being used quite generally in DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
39 
telegraphing and also in medical electricity. Tin's 
is a modification of Daniels' battery, and is called 
the gravity battery. In this battery the copper 
plate is immersed in a saturated solution of sulphate 
of copper, which is placed at the bottom of an 
appropriate jar. The zinc plate is suspended above 
the sulphate of copper solution in dilute sulphuric 
acid. The sulphate of copper solution being heavier 
than the dilute sulphuric acid retains its position in 
contact with the copper plate, whilst the sulphuric 
acid solution being lighter remains in contact with 
the zinc. A surplus of sulphate of copper is neces- 
sary in order that it may be dissolved as fast as 
decomposition takes place by,the chemical action, 
so as to keep the liquid about the copper plate in a 
state of saturation. 
The chemistry of this battery is, that as the dilute 
sulphuric acid acts upon the zinc forming sulphate 
of zinc, the liberated hydrogen, which does not im- 
mediately escape, travels by electrolysis toward the 
copper plates, where, instead of adhering to the 
copper, it decomposes an atom of the sulphate of 
copper solution, precipitating the metallic copper 
upon the copper plate, thus increasing its bulk, and 
then uniting with the atom of oxygen set free, 
forming an atom of water. The sulphuric acid set 40 
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
free remains in the solution replacing to some ex- 
tent the acid used up in forming sulphate of zinc. 
Two things are necessary in order to keep this 
battery in constant action, viz., to add from time to 
time sulphate of copper as this salt is used up, and 
to add what water is lost by evaporation. Practic- 
ally this battery is found to act constantly for a 
long time if proper care is used not to stir the 
liquid so as to bring the sulphate of copper solution 
in contact with the zinc.. This accident soon de- 
stroys the action of the battery, in this way: when 
the zinc is in contact with a sulphate of copper 
solution the hydrogen set free on its surface imme- 
diately decomposes ay atom of sulphate of copper 
solution, precipitating the copper on the zinc plate 
in the form of an oxide, which soon covers the zinc 
and destroys the conditions necessary to a battery, 
by opposing copper to copper. Those of us who 
formerly used the electro-magnetic machine, where 
the battery was composed of a copper cup contain- 
ing sulphate of copper solution in which was sus- 
pended the zinc plate, will remember how difficult 
it was to keep the zinc clean. We were obliged to 
scrape off the oxide of copper with a knife almost 
every time the machine was used. With perfectly 
pure zinc this deposit is slight, but it is difficult to DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
41 
obtain perfectly pure zinc. Ordinary zinc contains 
some proportion of other metals, or other impuri- 
ties, which, in the acid solution, form independent 
local currents (or independent local batteries), and 
these currents also cause the oxide of copper to be 
deposited. To some extent, amalgamating the zinc 
plates remedies this tendency, since the amalgam- 
ated zinc closely approximates to pure zinc for 
battery purposes. In the zinc-carbon batteries what 
hydrogen arrives at the carbon plates is absorbed by 
the carbon and does not interfere with the galvanic 
current, unless the carbon becomes completely satu- 
rated and the surplus separates the carbon from the 
liquid. In this case immersing the carbon plates in 
boiling water removes the hydrogen and restores its 
efficacy. The substances used in the solution in 
these batteries unite chemically with the liberated 
hydrogen and thus prevent almost entirely this 
deposit. 
By the use of the gravity battery we have suc- 
ceeded in obtaining a constant current of excellent 
quality and fair quantity, and we have got rid of 
the difficulty of the polarization of the plates only 
to encounter it out of the battery at the electrodes. 
A current of galvanism always produces electrolysis 
of any liquid through which it passes, whether in 42 
DY NA MIC ELECTRICITY. 
or out of the battery. (The process of decompo- 
sition of the water above described, is called electrol- 
ysis.) If we place the poles of a galvanic battery, 
whilst in action, in water, the water completes the 
circuit and the current passes through the water. 
Bubbles of gas appear at either pole, oxygen at the 
positive and hydrogen at the negative pole. The 
same result follows when the current is passed 
through animal tissue. AU liquids through which 
the current passes are decomposed and again im- 
mediately recomposed, the same as we have seen 
takes place in the battery whose chemistry has been 
above described, and if sufficiently prolonged suf- 
ficient polarization is produced at the electrodes (or 
poles) to arrest the galvanic current. 
If we take a series of pairs of platinum plates 
and pieces of cloth and connect the terminals with 
the poles of a galvanic battery, in action, we may 
illustrate this polarization. Arrange the series so 
that we have first a platinum plate and next a piece 
of cloth wet with water, or acidulated water, and 
next another platinum plate; next another piece of 
wet cloth, and so on as far as we choose. If now 
we allow the current to flow through the series the 
water will be decomposed, the oxygen going to the 
positive pole and the hydrogen toward the negative. DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
43 
Since these gases cannot permeate the platinum 
plates they will accumulate upon the opposite sides 
and we shall have between each pair of plates a de- 
posit of oxygen and a deposit of hydrogen, separated 
by the wet cloth. Each deposit of oxygen and 
hydrogen, separated by the wet cloth, acts as inde- 
pendent electrodes and serves well to illustrate what 
takes place at the ordinary electrodes where a gal- 
vanic battery is in action. Always as soo i as the 
circuit is closed by introducing any moist substance 
between the electrodes this moisture begins to be 
decomposed the same as the water in the battery, 
and the oxygen, step by step, atom by atom, moves 
toward the positive pole, whilst just as steadily does 
the hydrogen approach the negative. The result of 
this electrolysis is, that in time, as the gases ac- 
cumulate, both the platinum plates, as well as the 
ordinary electrodes, will oppose a new current to 
the galvanic current and either diminish or inter- 
rupt it. Un polarizable electrodes have been in- 
vented and when used are much pleasanter for the 
patient. They also prevent the accumulation of 
gases. 1 am not familiar enough with their con- 
struction to undertake their description. 
These galvanic currents are called direct, since 
they flow directly from the batteries, in distinction 44 
INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
from the induced currents. They are also called 
continuous currents, because there is no interrup- 
tion. The induced current is called the interrupted 
current, because it is only of momentary continu- 
ance, viz., at the instant of making and breaking 
the inducing current. This will next claim our 
attention. 
INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
If we place any conductor, in whose circuit is a 
galvanometer, near another conductor through or 
along which a current of galvanism is made to pass, 
at the instant when the galvanic circuit is closed, 
the needle of the galvanometer will be deflected ; 
also, when the circuit is opened. During the con- 
tinuous flow of the current the needle will remain 
at rest, the same as when no current is passing. 
This deflection of the needle shows that at the com- 
mencement and at the cessation of the current in 
the one conductor there is a momentary current of 
electricity induced in the other conductor. We 
must understand distinctly that these induced cur- 
rents are only of momentary duration and that 
during the continuous flow of the galvanic current 
there is no induced current. The momentary in- 
duced current taking place when the galvanic cur- 
rent commences to flow is in a direction contrary to INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
45 
the inducing current and the induced current at 
the cessation of the galvanic current flows in a 
direction the same as the inducing current. Again, 
if a conductor which includes a galvanometer is in 
the vicinity of a piece of soft iron which is being 
magnetized and demagnetized, at the instant these 
changes in the soft iron take place the needle will 
be deflected, thus showing that momentary currents 
of electricity are being induced in the conductor. 
The currents induced at the changes in the soft iron 
are in different directions. A thorough knowledge 
and appreciation of these points are necessary in 
order to understand the electro-magnetic machines. 
In medicine we now use the two currents, viz., 
the galvanic current (which has been sufficiently 
described) and the induced current which we are 
now investigating. In the induction apparatus or 
the electro-magnetic machine there are several parts 
with which we should be thoroughly acquainted in 
order to clearly understand its workings. These 
are, first, the battery; second, the inner coil; third, 
the core of soft-iron wires, and fourth, the outer 
coil. This apparatus gives three distinct currents 
of electricity, viz., the battery current, the primary 
induced or extra current, and the secondary or 
ordinary induced current. The battery may be any 46 
INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
good constant-working element. This battery cur- 
rent simply works the machine, is the inducing 
current and only flows through the inner coil and 
around the electro-magnet which works the vibrator. 
Tliis current never passes through the electrodes (or 
poles). The inner coil may be made independent 
of the soft-iron core, which can be introduced after- 
ward, or it may be coiled around the core and 
remain permanently around it. This inner coil is 
formed of insulated wire of sufficient size that the 
galvanic current may pass along it without resist- 
ance. Its length depends upon one condition, viz., 
the longer the wire, in the inner coil, without offer- 
ing serious resistance to the passage of the galvanic 
current, the greater will be its inducing power. 
Ordinarily this wire is from three to five or even 
ten yards in length. The ends of this wire termin- 
ate at the different metals of the battery. Some 
mechanism is introduced into the circuit of this 
wire in order to make and break the connection or 
to open and close the galvanic circuit, for on this 
depends the induced current. This wire must be 
completely insulated by winding it with thread or 
silk and then varnishing it. 
The core, which may be either a soft-iron rod or 
■a bundle of soft-iron wires, the latter of which is INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
47 
best, is placed in the helix formed by the inner coil. 
We now have enough of the apparatus to illus- 
trate how the extra current is induced. In order 
to a clear understanding of this electro-magnetic 
machine let us use as an illustration what we see in 
the every-day business of telegraphy. In all the 
principal officers are instruments called quadruplex, 
whereby at least two currents of electricity are 
made to pass over the same wire, either in the same 
direction, or in contrary directions, or perhaps, 
putting it more correctly, we may say that two 
messages may be sent over the same wire at the 
same time without interfering with each other. 
Here, in your city (Syracuse), you may see at any 
time this phenomena by visiting the telegraph office. 
Whether at the intervening offices other instruments 
may be attached to this same wire and messages 
sent I am not informed, but this even need excite 
no astonishment. It is no more difficult to believe 
that several currents can be made to traverse the 
wire and carry intelligence than that two can. 
With a clear understanding of this fact, which any 
of you can verify, all difficulty in understanding the 
working of this machine vanishes. In action, two 
or more currents of electricity are always passing 
over the inner coil and they never interfere with 48 
INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
each other. When the connection is made with the 
battery, or the circuit is closed whereby the current 
is allowed to flow through or along the inner coil 
and back to the battery, and when this circuit is 
opened arresting the flow of the battery current ac- 
cording to the principles enumerated heretofore, we 
have two sources of induction. At the instant 
when the galvanic current starts, the soft-iron core 
being in the vicinity of a conductor through which 
a galvanic current is made to flow, becomes mag- 
netized and this change in the soft-iron core induces 
a momentary current in the inner coil around it, 
but in a direction contrary to the current which in- 
duces the magnetism. Remember that this induced 
current is on the same wire on which the inducing 
current is flowing. At the same instant that the 
galvanic current starts in the inner coil each spiral 
of this coil being in the vicinity of each other spiral 
of this same coil has a momentary current of elec- 
tricity induced in it by this proximity to each other, 
for each spiral holds this relation that it is a conductor 
which is near another conductor through which a cur- 
rent of galvanism is flowing. In this same manner 
each turning of each spiral induces a current in 
each neighbor turning for this same reason, and all 
these bits of induced currents flow in the same INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
49 
direction, and that is contrary to the inducing cur- 
rent. The sum of these induced currents is in- 
finitely greater than the current which is induced 
in a wire of the same length which is simply placed 
on a straight line parallel with another wire carry- 
ing a current of galvanism, for by experimenting 
with this straight wire it is found to give little or 
no shock, whilst the shock from the coil can 
hardly be endured. 
We now have three distinct currents of electricity 
on this inner coil at the same instant, viz., the bat- 
tery or inducing current, the magnetically-induced 
current, and the galvanically-induced current. Since 
at the time that these three currents are passing 
along the inner coil the circuit is closed these cur- 
rents flow7 into and through the battery and but a 
small part, if any, passes through conductors con- 
nected with the electrodes. Beard and Rockwell 
estimate that copper conducts several thousand 
million times better than the human body, conse- 
quently whatever part of the electricity that would 
be diverted to the electrodes would be so very infin- 
itesimal that in a close description of the workings 
of this apparatus we may safely say, that no percep- 
tible effect is ever produced. Indeed, in this case, 
if any electricity passes through the electrodes it 50 
INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
would be a derived current. A derived current is 
one which is taken from a circuit and it follows 
fixed laws in its strength. We will suppose a cur- 
rent established through a conductor. If we now 
connect another conductor to the original one, 
which is of the same size and length as that put be- 
tween the connections, the current will be divided 
equally between the old and the new route. If the 
new conductor is longer and smaller, the amount of 
electricity diverted is in equal inverse proportion to 
the increased length and smallness of the new con- 
ductor. If of twice the length and still of the same 
size, then the derived current will be one-half the 
strength of what is left on the original circuit, or 
one-third of the original current. In the electro- 
magnetic machine according to the estimated con- 
ductivity of the copper compared with animal tissue, 
what electricity, if any, is diverted through a person 
holding the electrodes would be several thousand 
million times less than what would pass through the 
battery, allowing for the difference in size between 
the wires and the person's wrists through which the 
electricity passes. 
Now when the galvanic circuit is opened accord- 
ing to the foregoing principles the soft-iron core is 
demagnetized, and this change induces a momentary INDUCED ELECTKICITY. 
51 
current in the coil surrounding it in a direction the 
same as the departed galvanic current. At the 
same instant a current is induced in each spiral of 
the coil by the cessation of the galvanic current in 
these spirals, and this current is also in the same 
direction as the departed galvanic current. We 
now have two induced currents on the same coil at 
the same time and in the same direction, or we may 
say two sources of induction for what becomes the 
same current. The connection with the battery 
being at this time broken these currents cannot pass 
through the battery, and in consequence, if there is 
any connection between the coil and some electrode 
these currents must pass along this connection. 
Such a provision is made by soldering two wires 
upon the coil-wire near its ends and these wires 
connect with electrodes which may be held in the 
hands or be applied to any part of the system, and 
thus whoever holds these electrodes receives through 
his system these two currents. These currents 
compose the "extra" or primary induced current. 
Thus we have a one-way current which is more 
or less continuous as the connection is more or less 
rapidly made and broken. This current closely 
resembles the galvanic current. It produces elec- 
trolysis and heat, and decomposes compound sub- 52 
J NDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
stances. As a remedial agent when the galvanic 
current cannot be procured, we very often use this 
extra current to good purpose. We must not forget 
that the induced current is of only momentary 
duration and is made up of little bits of currents. 
The galvanic current, as long as the circuit is un- 
broken, Hows constantly, and this constitutes the 
broad difference between it and the induced current. 
The external coil is simply a much longer and 
finer insulated wire wound either immediately upon 
the inner coil or else upon a shield so as to be easily 
withdrawn, partly or wholly as circumstances may 
require. The longer and smaller this wire is, the 
greater the amount of induced electricity, provided 
that it is perfectly insulated. The least break in 
the insulation destroys its efficacy. The current in 
this coil is induced by the passage of the galvanic 
current in the inner coil, and lias no connection 
with the battery. This current is not a one-way 
current but goes in a direction contrary to the 
inducing current when it starts, and in the same 
direction as the inducing current when it stops. 
This electricity closely resembles frictional elec- 
tricity, being of great tension and small quantity. 
It cannot be used for electrolysis since whatever the 
one-way current decomposes the other one-way cur- INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
53 
rent immediately recomposes, and thus there is no 
deposit at either electrode. As yet no apparatus 
has been invented whereby these two currents have 
been made to pass through a conductor in the same 
direction. 
Althaus says, "It would therefore appear errone- 
ous to speak of a permanent positive and negative 
pole in an induction apparatus for physiological or 
therapeutical purposes. Such is, indeed, the opinion 
of M. De la Rive, who explains the difference in the 
physiological and therapeutical action of the extra 
current and of the current induced in the second 
wire, partly by the circumstance that the extra cur- 
rent always moves in the same direction, whilst the 
current induced in the second wire alternately runs 
in contrary directions. But this author has evi- 
dently disregarded the fact that the current induced 
in the second wire has scarcely any effect at all on 
closing the circuit, while it has a powerful physio- 
logical action on opening the circuit. We may, 
therefore, when employing induction currents in 
physiology or therapeutics, only consider the current 
induced on opening the circuit which has a direc- 
tion equal to that of the battery current." In com- 
paring the different electricities Althaus says, "the 
chemical action of frictional electricity is verv 54 
INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
feeble, since the quantity of matter decomposed is 
not proportionate to the tension, but to the quan- 
tity of electricity employed, and the quantity of 
frictional electricity is small. The Voltaic pile, on 
the other hand, yields a very large quantity of elec- 
tricity, and therefore produces chemical decompo- 
sition with the greatest facility. Faraday has 
calculated that the great Leyden battery of the 
Royal Institution would require to be charged by 
800,000 turns of a powerful plate-machine of fifty 
inches in diameter, to supply electricity sufficient to 
decompose a grain of water. If this charge of the 
battery were concentrated in a single spark, it 
would resemble a great flash of lightning; yet its 
quantity would only be equivalent to that which is 
produced in about five seconds by a single pair of 
Grove's battery. Faraday has also estimated that 
the quantity of electricity in action, during a severe 
thunder-storm would correspond to the quantity of 
electricity set free by the chemical action of one 
grain of water on four grains of zinc." 
We see from the workings of the electro-magnetic 
machine that when an insulated wire is coiled 
around a rod of soft iron and a current of galvan- 
ism is passed through this wire the soft iron 
becomes a magnet, and, reciprocally, when this soft- INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
55 
iron rod thus becomes a magnet and when it is 
demagnetized, currents of electricity are induced in 
the insulated wire surrounding it. The first is 
called electro-magnetism, and the second magneto- 
electricity. On this principle of magnetizing and 
demagnetizing a piece of soft iron is constructed the 
magneto-electric machines. 
When a piece of soft iron is placed in contact 
with a magnet, it becomes magnetized. Absolute 
contact is not imperative to induce magnetism in 
the soft iron. Placing it in the immediate vicinity 
of a magnet renders the soft iron magnetic. If 
this piece of soft iron be wound with an insulated 
wire and then brought near a magnet, at the 
moment of approach there is induced a momentary 
current of electricity in this coil by the soft iron 
becoming magnetic, in a certain direction. As long 
as the soft iron remains in the near vicinity of the 
magnet it remains magnetic and no current is in- 
duced after the momentary one, but when the soft 
iron is removed it is demagnetized or loses its mag- 
netism, and there is a momentary induced current 
in a contrary direction to the first. On this prin- 
ciple are constructed the magneto-electric machines 
used in medicine and in the arts. By using one or 
more horse-shoe magnets a magneto-electric machine 56 
INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
can be constructed which will give a current of in- 
duced electricity far superior to the electro-magnetic 
machine just described. A description of a machine 
with a single magnet will suffice to illustrate this 
principle : 
A good horse-shoe magnet is fixed upon a sub- 
stantial frame in such a position that the ends of a 
soft-iron rod, bent in the shape of a horse-shoe, 
may be made to revolve in the vicinity of the poles 
of the permanent magnet. This soft-iron rod 
must be so fixed that the ends shall be in close 
proximity to the poles of the magnet at one instant 
of its revolution and at another instant removed 
from the poles. An insulated wire must be wound 
around the ends of the soft-iron rod. At each revo- 
lution of the soft-iron rod, at the instant when each 
end of the rod approaches its respective pole of the 
magnet, the iron becomes magnetic and this change 
induces a current of electricity in the insulated 
wire in a certain direction, and when the arms have 
passed the poles of the magnet the soft iron is de- 
magnetized and another momentary current of 
electricity is induced in the insulated wire, this time 
in an opposite direction. These currents are made 
to pass over a conductor in one direction and thus 
form a one-way current by connecting the ends of INDUCED ELECTRICITY. 
57 
the wire in such a way that at each revolution the 
point of contact with the conductor changes. With 
such a current everything may be done that can 
be with a continuous galvanic current. It is of 
high tension and of great quantity. Such a 
machine, constructed with several magnets and 
driven by steam, is in use at the prison at Auburn 
where electro-plating requires a steady one-way cur- 
rent. Any change in the direction of the current 
dissolves the plating as soon as it is deposited, and 
as a consequence there is no plating done. This 
machine at the prison will heat a wire almost at 
once to a white heat, which is from to 3 feet in 
length, and it will be consumed almost like a cotton 
string in the flames of a lamp. The effect of the 
electricity from this machine is simply immense 
and no animal tissue can bear it for an instant. 
The attendants are obliged to use the greatest care 
in order to avoid accidents. 
One magneto-electric instrument yet claims our 
attention, viz., the telephone. This is constructed 
with a permanent magnet, an insulated copper wire 
and a thin piece of soft iron which acts as an arm- 
ature to the magnet. It also acts as a drum. The 
insulated wire is coiled around one end of the mag- 
net and the ends of this wire are continuous with 58 
INDUCED ELECTKIICTY. 
wires reaching to the station with which we wish to 
communicate, or one with the station and the other 
with the earth. The whole is enclosed in a hard- 
wood or hard-rubber case which acts as a resonantor. 
The soft-iron armature is placed at the end of the 
magnet and immediately across an opening in the 
case where the mouth is applied when speaking. 
At the other station is another instrument to receive 
the communication. In this instrument we have a 
new experience in induction. In the immediate 
vicinity of a magnet there is what is called a mag- 
netic field which under ordinary circumstances is 
not manifest, and until a short time was not known 
to exist. When the field is disturbed it produces 
electric effects. In the telephone any wave of sound 
striking the drum causes a vibration and this dis- 
turbs the magnetic field. This disturbance induces 
a current of electricity iu the insulated wire which 
is transmitted through the conductor to the other 
telephone. The current arriving at the other tele- 
phone produces a disturbance in its magnetic field 
which vibrates the armature and reproduces the 
sounds transmitted. We suppose that the armature 
vibrates exactly as the first armature does and thus 
reproduces the exact sounds. The tones of the 
human voice are transmitted so nearly as they were ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
59 
uttered that anyone acquainted with the speaker 
can recognize the voice. 
E LEOTRO-PH YSIOLOG Y. 
A STUDY. 
Electricity lias two very prominent effects upon 
living animal tissues. First, a destructive effect 
upon both healthy and diseased tissue, and, second, 
a restorative effect upon deranged or diseased tissue. 
Its destructive effect is made use of by the surgeon 
in the removal of morbid growths by electrolysis 
and the galvano-cautery. Its restorative effect is 
made use of by the physician to a great extent, and 
perhaps principally, in strengthening and bringing- 
back function when weakened or lost. 
All moist substances through which electricity 
passes are decomposed by this passage and except 
near the electrodes are immediately recomposed. 
In this decomposition and recomposition no two 
equivalents which have been separated from each 
other are ever again reunited, but with military pre- 
cision one set of like equivalents march one step 60 
E L ECTRO-PH YSIO LOGY. 
toward one pole whilst the other set march one step 
toward the other pole. Where these two opposite 
equivalents come together they unite and form a 
new atom, only to be again decomposed, and taking 
up their line of march the next opposite equivalents 
are reunited, and so on as long as the current con- 
tinues to flow. In this onward march of equivalents 
at each step at either pole is liberated one equiva- 
lent, and thus there is an accumulation of like 
equivalents at either pole. 
For instance, in the decomposition of water, oxy- 
gen accumulates at the positive pole or unites with 
the substance of which the electrode is composed, 
which if of metal becomes an oxide; whilst the 
hydrogen accumulates at the negative pole, and 
since it does not unite with this electrode it con- 
stantly increases in quantity. 
When the electric current traverses animal tissue 
there is a double decomposition. All animal tissue 
is pervaded by a solution of chloride of sodium, and 
this as well as the water which holds it in solution 
is decomposed, the chlorine arriving with the oxy- 
gen at the positive pole, whilst the soda and the 
hydrogen arrive at the negative pole. 
Other decompositions take place wherever other 
salts are traversed by the electric current, and as a ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
61 
rule acids appear at the positive whilst the bases 
appear at the negative poles. 
With this explanation of electrolysis we are pre- 
pared to understand Althaus' description of the 
results of experiments made by him during the 
years 1866 and 1867, where the changes produced 
by the electric current were observed by the aid of 
the microscope. 
He says: " I have studied the action of the cur- 
rent upon the intimate structure of the skin and 
cellular tissue, muscular fibres and tendons, car- 
tilages and bones, liver and pancreas, spleen and 
thyroid body, kidneys and suprarenal capsules, tes- 
ticles, breasts and ovaries. The general result of 
these investigations has been that no animal tissue 
whatsoever can withstand the disintegrating effect of 
the negative pole, and that the force and rapidity with 
which this disintegration is brought about are per- 
fectly proportional to the motive force which is em- 
ployed, and to the softness and vascularity of the 
structure acted upon. Thus ten cells of a battery 
have a more thorough and rapid effect than five, 
fifteen more than ten, and so on; while, as regards 
the tissues, those containing most water, such as 
the muscles, the cellular tissue, the spleen, etc., are 
more rapidly disintegrated than those which con- 62 
ELECTUO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
tain less fluid. Bones and teeth withstand the 
action of the current for a considerable time. 
"A curious and novel circumstance forced itself 
■early on my attention, and this was, that the elec- 
trolytic effect of the negative pole on animal tissues 
was mainly composed of two different elements, viz., 
of the mechanical action of the nascent hydrogen, 
which was, under the microscope, seen to rise in 
innumerable bubbles as soon as the circuit was 
closed, and to force itself, as it were, between the 
structural elements of the tissues, driving their 
fibres mechanically asunder; and, secondly, of the 
chemical action of the alkalies, soda, potash, and 
lime, which, together with hydrogen, are developed 
at the negative pole of the battery."-Pages 39, 40. 
"It was then observed that needles connected 
with the negative pole of the battery could be in- 
serted into, and removed from, the body without 
causing any loss of blood; that the current used 
did not appear to give much pain to the animal 
beyond what was due to the introduction of the 
needles to the skin; and that the parts operated 
upon shrank sensibly after the operation, but that 
there was neither inflammation, suppuration, nor 
sloughing. If the current was made to act upon 
bloodvessels, it was found that they were filled with ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
63 
a foreign body, due to disintegration of the blood, 
and around which afterward a slow deposition of 
lamellated fibrin took place; they were thus 
changed into solid strings wherever the current had 
been made to act. It appeared fair to conclude 
from these observations, that the current could be 
safely and successfully applied to such parts of the 
body where shrinking and disintegration of tissue 
and obliterations of bloodvessels might be required 
for surgical purposes. 
" The sores which are produced in the skin by 
the negative pole resemble those caused by caustic 
potash ; and the same may be said of the cicatrices, 
for these latter have no tendency to contract, but are 
soft and become gradually similar to the surrounding 
skin, so that after some time no scar is perceptible, 
unless the action was originally very prolonged and 
very powerful."-Pages 41, 42. 
In producing electrolysis, it is not necessary to 
introduce into the tissue to be destroyed any needles 
except those in connection with the negative pole, 
for, as is seen by the above experiments, no tissue 
can withstand the destructive effect of the negative 
pole. The positive pole may be a moist sponge ap- 
plied to any indifferent part of the body; generally 
in the near vicinity. By the negative pole no 64 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
foreign substance is introduced into the tissues, and 
we need fear no medication therefrom, since the 
electrode is not acted upon chemically. But, "the 
immediate effect of the electrolytic decomposition 
of any animal liquid is, that the anode (or positive 
pole) is oxidized and chlorinated, and from a metal 
changed into a metallic salt, since no metal can 
resist the effects of oxygen and chlorine in their 
nascent condition." By introducing needles in 
connection with the positive pole into anima] tissues 
"we may introduce into them salts of iron, copper, 
silver, gold, or any other metals used as directors, 
and which combine witli the albumen to form albu- 
minates."-Pages 42, 43. 
In this description the effect of the negative pole 
is given where there is an independent battery in 
the circuit and the galvanic current is caused by 
chemical decomposition in this battery. The effect 
as described is at the electrodes. Our attention is 
called at this point to the difference between the 
direction of the current in and out of the battery. 
In the battery the current is from the zinc to the 
copper, and the oxygen goes from the copper to the 
zinc (by electrolysis), whilst the hydrogen travels 
toward the copper. Out of the battery the current 
goes from the copper to the zinc, and the oxygen of ELECTBO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
65 
any electrolyzed fluid goes to the pole in connection 
with the copper, whilst the hydrogen goes to that 
in connection with the zinc; as we see, the action is 
reversed. Now suppose, as is often the case, that 
we have an apparatus whereby animal tissue takes 
the place of the liquid in the battery. For instance, 
we take a plate of copper and a plate of zinc, and 
unite them by a copper wire. This we apply, per- 
haps, to the skin of a living person. We have in 
this arrangement a new battery, wherein the animal 
body with its fluids takes the place of the liquid in 
the ordinary battery. As soon as the application is 
made, chemical action takes place, and the solution 
of the chloride of sodium in the animal tissues is 
decomposed, the chlorine and oxygen going to the 
zinc plate, where composition immediately takes 
place, and we have formed the chloride of zinc. 
This is a violent escharotic and will destroy any 
moist animal tissue. Even so simple an apparatus 
as Garrett's disk will invariably create sores when 
left on the skin for a sufficient time. 
In the electrolytic destruction of tissue the vol- 
ume of electeicity is necessarily considerable, and to 
be successful it ought to flow through the con- 
ductors as freely as practicable. In electrolysis the 
action takes place between the electrodes, and not 66 
ELECT110-PHYSI0L0GY. 
on the conducting wires. In galvano-cautery the 
action takes place on or outside of a continuous 
conductor. In the one the effect is from the pas- 
sage of the current through the tissue itself; in the 
other the effect is produced by the passage of the 
current through the conductor, and this by produc- 
ing an elevation of temperature. When a large 
quantity of electricity is made to flow through a 
fine platinum wire it is soon heated even to 
whiteness. 
A battery which is adapted to produce electroly- 
sis would be of no use for a galvanic cautery, and 
vice versa. A battery adapted to produce the large 
quantity with small intensity required for galvano- 
cautery would be of no use in electrolysis. 
In heating the fine platinum wire for the removal 
of tissue or growths, care must be taken not to pro- 
duce too intense a heat, for a white heat cuts 
through so quickly that the bloodvessels are apt to 
be left open, and haemorrhage is liable to be the 
consequence. Where the heat is too little, the 
operation cannot be performed. When the heat is 
properly adjusted, any tissue is quickly removed 
without liability to haemorrhage, and the surface is 
not left painful, because the exposed ends of the 
nerves are for a certain distance destroyed, thus ELE< 'TRO-PHYSIO LOG Y. 
67 
preserving the sensitive parts from the irritating 
effects of the atmosphere. 
No animal tissue can withstand the destructive 
effect of the galvano-cautery any more than that of 
the negative pole in electrolysis; yet the process is 
different. The tissue is destroyed by the galvano- 
cautery through the intense heat, and by electrolysis 
through chemical destruction. 
Leaving this short sketch of the destructive ef- 
fects of electricity, we pass to an investigation of 
the restorative effects of this wonderful agent. 
"One great effect of electricity is its power to 
evoke function in all living tissue." (Poore.) 
Function is the normal action of an organ or 
tissue. The function of an organ or tissue is active 
in proportion to the number of nerves distributed 
to this organ or tissue. A tissue to which few or 
no nerves are distributed has no independent func- 
tion. For instance, the bones have no function 
proper; they are simply the framework which sup- 
ports the other tissues that make up the completed 
organisms. Without the muscular system the 
bones would be an inert mass, with no power of 
locomotion. The function of the muscles is to con- 
tract, and if we combine the bones and muscles 
properly we have an approach to an organism. 68 
ELECTRO-PHYSIO LOGY. 
Yet it is incomplete. If we add the nervous sys- 
tem, we then have all the parts necessary to com- 
plete locomotion. All the other organs are only 
necessary to give to the organism continued exist- 
ence. The nervous system constitutes the individual. 
It is by and through the nervous system that all the 
functions of the different parts of the organism are 
evoked; and in order to realize how electricity has 
the power to evoke these functions, we must under- 
stand what the nervous system is (anatomy) and 
what it does (physiology). 
The nervous system is composed of two 'kinds of 
matter, and these have entirely different functions. 
One kind is composed of cells, and these generate 
a force peculiar to itself. This force is the moving 
power of the whole system. The other kind of 
matter is composed of fibres, and these convey the 
force to its destination. 
In order to impress the mind with the peculiar- 
ities of the nervous system we can do no better than 
to compare it with the batteries and wires of a tel- 
egraph company. Indeed, the cells are simply the 
nervous batteries, and the fibres are conductors. 
Familiarity with telegraphing makes it easy to 
study the nervous system by the help of this com- 
parison. In telegraphing there is a head office E LECTRO-PHYSIOLOG Y. 
69 
from which all orders are issued, and to which all 
intelligence is returned. In the nervous system 
the hemispheres generate the will-power, and from 
them are sent intelligent orders, and intelligence of 
what is going on is telegraphed back to these 
ganglia. In telegraphing there are as many differ- 
ent stations as there are places of doing business, 
and at each station are a greater or less number of 
batteries, according as the necessary business re- 
quires. In the nervous system are collections of 
cells whenever necessity requires to generate inde- 
pendent force for special purposes, and these 
collections are called ganglia. They correspond to 
different stations in telegraphy. Each station is 
connected with the other stations and with the 
head office by conductors. All the ganglia are con- 
nected with each other by connecting fibres. In 
the telegraphic head office are the president, 
directors, and secretary. The hemispheres preside 
over the ganglia, and here are the records kept. 
The second office of importance in telegraphy is 
that of the superintendent. It is here that all 
messages of a general character relating to the 
business of the company are received. All orders 
from the head office are here re-telegraphed. Cor- 
responding to the superintendent's office is the 70 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY 
ganglion or ganglia of the pons varolii or tuber 
annulare, and it is here that all messages of sensa- 
tion are received, and from these ganglia all motor 
messages are sent. The function of these ganglia 
is to superintend the business of the nervous system. 
All along the spine are important ganglia where 
nervous force is generated, and conductors take 
their origin in them. 
There is one difference between the conductors 
of nervous force and those of the telegraph com- 
pany. Nervous fibres conduct only one way. Tele- 
graphic conductors conduct both ways. In all 
spinal nerves there are two sets of these fibres. One 
set conveying messages from the exterior to the 
centres, and the other conveying messages out from 
the centres. These are the sensory and the motor 
fibres. These two sets of fibres, although gathered 
together in the same nerve, are completely insulated 
from each other, and no outward-bound message 
ever interferes with an inward-bound one. But 
this fact of the two sets of conductors, the centri- 
fugal and the centripetal, being always found 
together' in the spinal nerves, must be taken into 
account where electricity is used in living animal 
tissue. The functions of each set of fibres is to 
convey messages in its own particular direction, and ELECTKO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
71 
since a current of electricity evokes function, it fol- 
lows that a current sent toward the periphery will 
evoke muscular contraction; while a current sent 
toward the centre will give the impression of pain. 
We should endeavor to understand what is meant 
by "reflex action" as applied to the nervous system. 
This is, perhaps, best taught by an illustration; 
for instance, the secretion by the submaxillary 
gland. It requires three sets of nerve fibres in 
order that this gland shall perform its function and 
saliva be secreted. First, the chorda tympani, or 
gustatory portion of the trifacial, which is a branch 
from the seventh cranial nerve, is centripetal, and 
conveys messages to the central ganglia. But we 
find, on further examination, that it is not purely 
centripetal, for we find, on section of this nerve, 
that irritation applied to either end will cause allow 
of saliva from the submaxillary gland. It would 
be very easy to understand the action of this nerve, 
provided that irritation of only one cut end of the 
nerve produced function; for if merely the end, 
in connection with the gland, produced function, 
we should infer that this nerve was simply a mixed 
nerve, and that it transmitted both ways; and, 
further, that all the centrifugal fibres of the sub- 
maxillary gland were in this nerve. But, since 72 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
irritation of both cut ends produce function, we see 
that there must be some other nerve containing 
centrifugal fibres distributed to the submaxillary 
gland. The origin of the seventh nerve is in the 
floor of the fourth ventricle, and it is to this vicinity 
that information is sent that saliva is needed. 
Somewhere in this vicinity is the origin or the situ- 
ation of the ganglia from which arises the vasomotor 
nerves. Filaments of these nerves are distributed 
over the entire organism, and principally follow the 
arteries. The function of the vasomotor is to keep 
the arteries in a constant state of partial contrac- 
tion, greater or lesser, according to the needs of the 
part; while dilatation of the arteries is effected by 
cerebro-spinal nerves, which act upon the vaso-motor 
centres to cause them to relax the contraction of 
the arteries. When, for instance, saliva is needed, 
the gustatory nerve telegraphs to the centre this 
necessity of secretion; this intelligence is reflected 
upon the vasomotor centre, and more or less para- 
lyzing impulse is sent through its fibres to the 
arteries of the submaxillary gland, i. e., the function 
of the vasomotor (which belongs to the sympar 
thetic*), is lessened, and the arteries enlarge. 
More blood goes to the gland, and more saliva is 
*Bernard, Kuss, Legros. E LECTRO-PH YSIOLOG Y. 
73 
therefore secreted. When the excitation (presence 
of food) of the centripetal nerves ceases, the sym- 
pathetic resumes its function, and the arteries con- 
tract and shut off the extra flow of blood to the 
gland; but irritation of the peripheral end of the 
cut nerve also produces an increase of saliva; this 
is probably to be explained by the paralyzing action 
of the fibres which go to the submaxillary sympa- 
thetic ganglion, for this ganglion has an intimate 
connection with the submaxillary gland. The im- 
pulse probably paralyzes the vasomotors going from 
the ganglia to the gland. All the functions of the 
organism are regulated in this same way. The 
nervous system is more or less directly a system of 
checks and balances. Each nerve has its antago- 
nist, and in health these are evenly balanced, and 
the action of each checks that of the other. 
The study of the all-pervading function of reflex 
action forms a large part of electro-physiology. 
Seguin defines a reflex action as a transformation 
by nerve-cells of a sensitive impression (with or 
without consciousness) into motion, chemical action, 
or ideas. The parts essential to the performance 
of a reflex action consist of a centrifugal (sensory) 
nerve to transmit the excitation, ganglionic cell to 
transform the impulse, and a centripetal nerve to 74 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
carry this impulse to the muscle, gland, or cerebral 
convolutions. The results of the activity of such 
an apparatus are, motion (common, muscular, or 
vascular), secretion, ideation. From this definition 
one can readily imagine that reflex actions occur in 
nearly every part of the body, in small segments of 
it as well as in large portions. A heart excised 
from certain animals will continue to beat for some 
time in response to irritation. Contraction may be 
obtained by irritating a small portion of intestine 
removed from the body; and a small segment of 
the spinal cord will suffice to give reflex movements 
to the muscles supplied by that piece of cord. 
Reflex action takes place in all parts of the nervous 
system (spinal axis, cerebrum, sympthetic system,) 
and at all times; and it is through this kind of 
action that the most importent bodily functions 
(including cerebration, in part, certainly,) are pro- 
duced. There is a tendency to consider all active 
nervous phenomena of a reflex nature, denying the 
existence of spontaneity in the animal frame; and 
we must admit that a good deal can be said in sup- 
port of this extreme view. 
A full understanding of reflex action seems neces- 
sary to a complete appreciation of electro-physiology. 
Function is evoked in the submaxillary gland by ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
75 
passing a current of electricity through the tongue, 
or if we experiment on animals and expose the 
chorda tympani, we pass a current through this 
nerve. By this means a sense of gustation is con- 
veyed to the centre, and from this centre through 
the vasomotor nerves is transmitted paralyzing or 
dilating impulse to the arteries supplying the sub- 
maxillary gland. This is the most certain way to 
start secretion in the gland by electricity. 
The direct antagonism of certain nerves to each 
other, is clearly illustrated by the action of the 
nerves distributed to the heart. Experiments have 
been so often made, and by so many different ob- 
servers, with the same result, that there can be no 
doubt of the truth of the conclusion arrived at. 
The heart is supplied with nerves from two sources, 
viz., the sympathetic and the pneumogastric. Elec- 
trization of the sympathetic increases the pulsations 
of this organ, whilst electrical irritation of the pneu- 
mogastric slows and finally arrests these pulsations. 
Thus we find that the sympathetic nerve is the 
motor nerve* of the heart, and the pneumogastric 
*The brothers Cyon, of St. Petersburg, proved that the 
branches of the inferior cervical ganglion terminate in the 
ganglion of the heart, that they are accelerators of the heart's 
action, and therefore antagonist to the pneumogastric. Journal 
of Horn. Clinics, vol. i, page 11. 76 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
the inhibitory nerve. At its origin the vagus is 
purely a centripetal nerve, and conveys messages by 
its own proper fibres only toward the centre. The 
spinal accessory, whose origin is in the immediate 
vicinity of the pneumogas trie, is purely a centri- 
fugal nerve, and conveys messages only from the 
centres. Near the origin of this nerve a branch 
joins the pneumogastric and follows it as far as the 
heart, to which it is distributed. It is this cen- 
trifugal branch which constitutes the inhibitory 
nerve of this important organ. 
As we have seen, the motor nerve of the heart is 
the sympathetic, and when the action of this nerve 
is not antagonized by the inhibitory nerve, as when 
the vagus is paralyzed, we have rapidly increased 
pulsations, which are proportioned to the degree of 
paralysis. When there is loss of power in the sym- 
pathetic we find the number and force of the pulsa- 
tions lessened. 
The superior laryngeal or second branch of the 
pneumogastric is a sensory nerve. Of very great 
importance is a branch from this nerve which joins 
a branch coming directly from the pneumogastric. 
By the union of these two is formed what is called 
the depressor nerve of the circulation; this is a 
centripetal or sensor nerve telegraphing from the ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
77 
heart to the centre. When this nerve is divided, 
electrical irritation applied to the end in connection 
with the heart produces no results; applied to the 
end in connection with the centre it reduces the 
pressure in the arteries, diminishes little by little 
until it may be but to one-half or two-thirds of the 
normal pressure. 
A peculiarity of all nerves is, that irritation applied 
anywhere in their length is manifested at their distri- 
bution. Irritation applied to a motor nerve produces 
contraction of the muscles. Irritation applied to a 
sensory nerve is manifested by sensation at its distri- 
bution. Electricity applied to the pulmonary branch 
of the pneumogastric (sensory) causes titillation in 
the bronchial mucous membrane, and by retlex this 
produces cough, sometimes of great violence. 
One very important lesson may be learned from 
the application of an electric current to that part 
of the pneumogastric nerve going to the heart, viz., 
that a current of sufficient strength to arrest the 
pulsations soon paralyzes the nerve, and when this 
is complete the heart commences its pulsations 
again. This paralyzed condition of the nerve is 
called an electrotonus, and this condition is always 
produced when a current of sufficient strength is 
passed through a nerve. 78 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
The effect of the electric current at the two poles 
is not the same. At the positive pole is produced 
a benumbing effect or a lessening of nerve irrita- 
bility. These conditions affect that portion of the 
nerve which is included between the poles as well as 
to a certain extent outside of them. A portion of 
the nerve in proximity to the positive pole partakes 
of the lessened irritability, and that part in prox- 
imity to the negative pole partakes of the increased 
irritability. A neutral point separates the two. 
This point is determined by the strength of the 
current. With a weak current there is very little 
or no benumbing or lessening of nerve irritability; 
the entire included portion is in a condition of ex- 
alted irritability and conducts more readily than in 
its natural state. This is called catelectrotonus. 
With a medium strength of current this neutral 
point may be midway between the points touched 
by the poles of the battery, and in this condition 
the nerve conductivity may be unchanged from its 
natural state, since what is lost by the lessening 
effect of the positive pole is made up by the in- 
creased activity of that portion in the vicinity of the 
negative pole. With a very strong current the be- 
numbing effect of the positive pole includes the 
whole portion of nerve between the poles of the ELECTRO-PHY SIOLOG Y. 
79 
battery. In this state the conductivity of the nerve 
is arrested or nearly so, and its function is sus- 
pended. 
In the therapeutical use of electricity this differ- 
ence of effect at the two poles decides us in our 
choice of strong or weak currents. With a strong 
current we lessen function, with a weak one we ex- 
alt function. This readily explains why the heart 
resumes its pulsations when its inhibitory nerve 
takes on the state of an electrotonus, since in this 
condition the nerve cannot convey the force from 
the centre even, and has lost the increased func- 
tional activity which it at first received from the 
application of electricity. The sympathetic nerve 
remains intact, and reproduces the pulsation. 
Although all kinds of electricity to some extent 
produce electrotonus, yet no reliable use can be 
made of any of the varieties for this purpose except 
the galvanic current. So unreliable are all other 
forms that we may assume that the galvanic cur- 
rent is the only one which will produce this effect, 
and do it always. 
The question naturally arises, How does electric- 
ity produce its effect? It is not easy to answer this 
question further than to say, by a process re- 
sembling catalysis. 80 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
In chemistry, catalysis is the production of a 
decomposition, and following this is a recomposi- 
tion of elements in some other form, by the presence 
of some other substance than those acting upon 
each other, and which substance does not enter into 
the chemical compound. This readily explains the 
effect of electrolysis, but not the manner in which 
the function is evoked. All the vital processes, 
viz., digestion, nutrition, absorption, secretion, etc., 
are carried on by the aid of catalysis, and in all 
probability electricity is the force by which they are 
to a great extent guided. 
The restorative effect of electricity ! How shall 
we describe it? 
"Remak's catalytic effects of the constant current 
are those which are produced by direct stimulation 
of the vasomotor nerves, which latter transmit the 
influence to the bloodvessels and lymphatics. In 
this way the process of nutrition throughout the 
system may be influenced by galvanization. It ap- 
pears to us that for catalysis we might substitute 
this more intelligible term, catelectrotonus. By cate- 
lectrotonus of the vasomotor nerves absorption is 
promoted, and effusions may be thus removed into 
the general circulation. Most probably the thera- 
peutical effects of the current in rheumatism and ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
81 
in rheumatic gout, in dropsy of the joints, etc., are 
owing to what may be called catalysis; or, better, 
catelectrotonus of the vaso-motor system of nerves." 
A current, not of sufficient strength to destroy 
living tissue, "starts a process that continues long 
after the current ceases to flow. The average ulti- 
mate effect is to increase the flow of blood, raise 
the temperature, and dilate the veins." (Beard and 
Rockwell.) 
A current of electricity flowing through any 
liquid causes motion in this liquid, and this motion 
is from the positive toward the negative. Through 
experiment it has been found that by the use of the 
constant current, liquids can be made to pass through 
a porous diaphragm, and by the same agent fluids are 
made to change place in living tissue. Solids may 
be broken up and moved in the same manner, and 
by the general circulation thus removed and ulti- 
mately discharged by the emunctories. 
It is the united testimony of electro-therapeutists 
that the weak current of galvanism is the curative 
one, and that when the harm comes from its use too 
strong a current has been used. I give a few ex- 
tracts showing the view held in this respect: 
"It may be laid down as a general principle that a 
feeble current used for a short time produces the 82 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
greatest therapeutical effects. A very powerful cur- 
rent almost always does harm instead of good, and 
more especially where it is applied for a considerable 
length of time." (Althaus, p. 329.) 
"Benedict has justly laid stress upon the neces- 
sity of short applications (never more than half a 
minute). Meyer recommends an application of 
two or three minutes' duration; but this is for 
most cases too long. I am in the habit of employ- 
ing the current from thirty to ninety seconds at a 
time. The result of the first or second application 
generally gives the clue as to what length of time 
the application should last; if the shortest time 
seems to answer it is not necessary to try a longer 
one, as sometimes the benefit already obtained is 
thereby counterbalanced." (Althaus, p. 331.) 
"We do not usually observe any sensible con- 
traction of muscles when under the steady running 
of a feeble current of galvanism. But this, as say 
Remak, De la Rive, and others, does not prove 
that there is not a certain effect being produced on 
the nerves by the steady and gentle inworkings of 
this current. Indeed, here, according to my expe- 
rience, is one of the most marvellous and valuable 
effects of all the medical uses of electricity." (Gar- 
ratt, p. 175.) ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
83 
In the foregoing description of the induced cur- 
rent and the apparatus it refers to the most simple 
and perhaps we may say, primitive machines. These 
were they with which we were obliged to do our 
work when we commenced twenty and thirty years 
ago. During a few years past great improvements 
have been made which enables us to do our work 
easier and with a great deal more satisfaction. 
From appearances I judge that all the modern in- 
struments are intended to work nearly alike. The 
induction machine which I use, and the only reli- 
able one I have, is from the factory of Mr. Otto 
Flemming. It is the most beautifully-finished in- 
strument I have seen. All the exposed metal is 
heavily nickle-plated and shines like a mirror. The 
conductors are kept in a drawer especially for them, 
and all that is necessary is to pull out the drawer 
and lift the conductors out and apply the poles 
where necessary. In order to accomplish this there 
is a most ingenious arrangement by which the extra 
current, the secondary current, and the negative 
pole can be commanded at pleasure. This is ac- 
complished by three switches which are easy of 
access on the top of the machine proper. It will 
be remembered that the coil which supplies the ex- 
tra or primary current is independent and perfectly 84 
ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
insulated from that which gives the secondary cur- 
rent. By the position of the switch either current 
is turned on the conductors. The letters P and S 
indicating the direction which the switch must take 
to accomplish this. Another switch regulates the 
strength of the current which it is necessary to use. 
There are four degrees of power to each current, 
and this is regulated by turning the switch so as to 
touch either of the four buttons with which it is 
connected. One switch is designated by P (primary) 
and the other by S (secondary). In addition to 
these the power may be increased by withdrawing 
the shield which separates the different coils. With 
these the power of the current may be regulated to 
a nicety. 
It will be recollected that the induced current is 
but slightly manifested at the positive pole and we 
rely only for remedial purposes on the negative. 
Another switch determines to which conductor the 
negative must apply. Another thing that is of prime 
importance, and I find almost indispensable, and 
that is the absolute safety with which the machine 
can be transported without injury from the fluid. 
This is so absolutely corked up that, in my instru- 
ment at least, not a drop of fluid escapes. Again, 
there is no chance for the fluid (which is very ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. 
85 
destructive) to get upon any metal. It is corked 
up as securely as though in a bottle. Any one who 
has been in the habit of carrying his battery about 
has encountered the difficulty of protecting the me- 
tallic connection and of keeping the fluid in place. 
The lever for slow interruptions does its work well, 
but when very lengthened interruptions are wanted 
the handle for this special purpose is best, for by it 
the interval can be made as long or short as seems 
necessary. This is a very important thing in test- 
ing the muscles either to ascertain their excitability 
or for applications for paralysis. What is said 
about Flemming's induced-current batteries, of 
which he offers several different sizes, must be 
equally acknowledged to be true in regard to his 
continuous galvanic current batteries; they are very 
effective, substantial and handsome in their con- 
struction. 
Errata.-On title page, for Electro- 7herapeutics read Electro- 
Physiology. ZMCEIDICyVL ELECTRICTY. 
Hemming's Electro-Medical Instrument Manufactory. 
Successor to FLEMMING & TALBOT, 
Improved Faradic Current Batteries of Different Sizes. 
Improved Portable Continuous Galvanic Current Batteries. 
Permanent Office Apparatus for both Faradic and Galvanic Currents. 
All Electrodes used in Electro-Therapeutics. 
In improve- z j- 
me nt of design. .i _..l i ■ ==g--■ Qi 
delicacy of ad- H 
jus tin ent, ele- ffiii M 
gance of finish, MmLx ' i "Wg; H 
and general a- |K>' ' FLEMMING *TALBOT H 
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critical examina- V WwF fiK 
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parison with /Lk»- „ ''Sttjf'j* (1T?-H £'>'Vz' / AUK & 0 A 
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tion of the large 
and portable Gal- V'• '■...'' '• '■>• 
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Apparatus, and for the elegance and excellen tworkmanship of the whole 
exhibit." 
After long experience with Batteries of other make, and after severe and 
practical testing of our Apparatus, the Medical Departments of the United 
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most perfect and the best adapted for their several requirements. 
Fur illustrated catalogue and price list send to 
OTTO FLEMMING, 729 ArOh Street, Philadelphia, Pa. NEW PUBLICATIONS. 
W. A. CHATTERTON, PUBLISHER, CHICAGO, ILL. 
Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 
By Chas. J. Hempel, M.D., and H. R. Arndt, M.D. Revised Third 
Edition. Complete in two volumes. Price, per volume, cloth, $5.50; 
sheep, $6.50; half morocco, $7.00. 
A delightful companion.-New England Medical Gazette. 
It will form a valuable addition to the library of the intelligent physician. 
Homoeopathic Times. 
We are quite sure Hempie and Arndt's Materia Medica will long hold a 
foremost rank.- Cincinnati Medical Advance. 
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-American Homoeopath. 
The Hempel now before us is one of the very best guides to an intimate 
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Professor Helmuth's valued contributions to this journal are evidences of 
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The Medical Counselor. 
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