WBA F263e 1885 NLM D51bM3T7 D NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE | SURGEON GENERAL'S OFFICE % % % JV'0' NLM051643970 DUE -TWF»ea»rWOM LAST DATE OCT 6 1958 THE ■ 3> JL ..i .^L . re * (» ^4^-—-5s —-*^—ji iLJz -gg=^ ■ 'VK PROVEN FACTS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE AND FAMILY EXPERIENCE. MOST APPROVED METHODS OF TREATMENT -----IN ALL----- Medical and Surgical Emergencies of the Household. How To Retalnt Health, Eradicate Disease and Lengthen Life, ----by . ■••' THOMAS FAULKNER, A. M., Ph. D., M. D., nt Author of "The Doctor at Home," "Faulkner's Family Physician," and President of the Royal Medical Council, London. J. H. CARMICHAEL, A. M., M. D., Member of the American Institute of Homoeopathy, the Mass. Homoeopathic Medical Society and President of the Gynecological Club of Boston. NEARLY 200 ILLUSTRATIONS. W. C. KING & CO., PUBLISHER Springfield, Mass., Des Moines, Iowa, Lewiston, Me., Nashville, Tenn., London, Eng. 1885. / Anv\£X WbA ____ms Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year i835, by Will. C King, In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. All Rights Reserved. Iff HE COTTAGE PHYSICIAN has been prepared expressly for the *?-i people, and will prove a never failing guide in all the medical and j- surgical emergencies of the household. Its aim is to give plain, practical information regarding the ailments of mankind, with the most approved methods of promoting health and treating disease, in language so simple and comprehensive that a child can understand its meaning. Scientific terms and doctors' phrases have been carefully interpreted and the work stripped of that cloud of mystery which has characterized so many kindred publications. The work embraces much useful knowledge of medical science never before brought together in one volume. It tells all that medical science and experience have developed for generations. However, eternal health is not promised to all who read these pages, neither do we expect the book to take the place of the physician, but rather to aid him, and if its teachings are carefully followed, his visits will be less frequent and health more abundant. THE AUTHOR. m rt fill TTAgE PHY mmm r?,. <.h CONTENTS. Anatomy of the Human Body, Conditions of Health, . Indications of Disease, Diseases and Their Remedies, Diseases of Women, Children and Their Diseases, (nfectious and Contagious Diseases of Children, Domestic Surgery, (Accidents and Emergencies) General Observations Regarding Youth, Man and Wife, . The Toilet, . Miscellaneous Information, Old Age ; Its Care and its Diseases, . Approaching Disease Foreshadowed, Homoeopathic Treatment, Homoeopathic Remedies, Materia Medica (Homoeopathic), Materia Medica (General), Medicines, How to Prepare, Recipes, Dose, etc.: Food for Infants, Cookery for the Sick-Room, Scientific and Common Names of Remedies, Medical Dictionary or Glossary, Vegetable Domestic Practice, Care and Preservation of the Teeth, . Phrenology Illustrated and Defined, The Clinical Thermometer, . EXTERNAL LOCATION OF THE ORGANS. INTERNAL LOCATION OF THE ORGANS. a. External Jug- ular Vein. b. Deltoid Mus- cle. c. Pectoral Mus- cle— Suratus Magnus. d. Latissunus M u s c 1 e, or Diaphragm. e. Transversaiis Muscle. f. Crest of Ilium s-. Sartorius Mus- cle. h. ThyroidGland i. Trachea, o r Wind-pipe. k. Right Ventri- cle of Heart. /. Right Auricle of Heart. m. Left Auricle. ».Outline of Per- icardium, or Sac of Heart. o. Left Lung. /. Right Lung. /-.Cardiac Orifice of Stomach. s. Kidneys. t. Uretus. u. Bladder. y. First Ribs. z. SubclavianAr- tery, (right and left J i. Apex of Heart. 2. Lumbar Glands 3. Left Ventricle of Heart. 4. Coronary Ar- teries. S.Superior Vena Cava. (Vein.) 6. Arch of Aorta. 7. Left Pulmona- ry Artery. 8. Right — Vena Cava, or In- nomenata. Left — Vena Cava, or In- nomenata. 10. Subclavian Vein. 11. Interna! Jug- ular Vein. 12. Left Common CartoidArtery. 13. Brachial Ar- tery. 14. Pulmonary Veins. 15. Descending Aorta. 16. Infer,or Vena Cava. 17. Renal Vein. 18. Right—Com- mon Iliac Vein. 19. Left,Common Iliac Artery. 20. Femoral Ar- tery and Vein. 21. HepaticVeins —-s» ^ ^ PREVEM8N#ANE)#CrjREr ^ ^ ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. The Head,—The head is the upper or crowning part oi the human frame. It consists of the skull, or cranium, and the face—the former being, as it were, a case for the brain. It is composed of eight bones, connected together by sutures, or joinings, some having toothed or serrated margins, which fit into each other—some overlapping and others interlacing—a structure marvelous at once for its strength and lightness. Between the interior and exterior wall of the frontal or fore- head bone are what are called the frontal sinuses, two hollow chambers, which cause those bulgings above the upper edges of the orbits; and in the hollows beneath them lie, sheltered and protected, the eyes. Behind each ear there is also a bony prominence to which the powerful muscles are affixed, which are distinctly seen in the neck, whose lower ends are fixed to the top of the breast bones. These are intended to guard the entrance to the internal ear, which is placed wholly within the hollow of the temporal bones. At the base of the skull is a round hole of considerable size, through which the spinal cord, or marrow, passes from the vertebras to the brain. On either side of this hole are two smooth prominences, called condyles, which rest upon the tops of the uppermost vertebras, and allow of a nodding motion to the head. Owing to the frequent modification by confluence, or joining together, of the human bones, it is difficult at all times to specify the exact number in any given part, and this is more especially the case in that part which we are now considering. 10 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. PIG. 2. FRONT VIEW OF THE HE \D, AS SHOWN IN THE HUMAN SKELETON. 1, the frontal portion of the frontal bone; 2, the position of the nasal prominence, the hollow within which is shown, the cartilage which supports and forms the nose being mostly removed; 3, over the orbit refers to the supra-orbital ridge; 4, the optic foramen; .> and 6, the sphe- noidal and the spheno-maxillary fissures; 7, lachrymal fossa in the lachrymal bone, where the nasal duct commences; 4, 5, 6, and 7 refer to parts within the orbit; 8. the upeningof the anterior nares, divide 1 into two paris by the vomer, on which the cypher is placet; 9, the infra-orbital foramen; 10, malar bone; 11, symphosis of lower jaw; 12, mental foramen; 13, ramus of lower jaw; 14, parietal bone; 15, coronal suture: 16, tem r oral bone; 17, squamous suture; 18, upper part of the great ala of the sphenoid bone; 19, commencement of the temporal ridge; 20, zvgoma of the temporal bone, assisting to form the zygomatic arch: i.1. niasund orocess. FIG. 3. TIIE LOWER SURFACE OR BASE OF THE BRAIN. a is the cerebrum or brain proper, occupying the upper part of the cranium, and divided into two hemispheres, each of which is sub- divided into an anterior, middle, and posterior lobe; l> c, between these lobes, are fissures or boundaries termed clefts or sole', which pene- tra;e to the depth of about an inch. The two hemispheres of the cerebellum or little brain, which occupies the lower or back part of the cranium,' are marked d. They differ in form and arrangement from the superior portion, being composed of flattened lamirut or layers; e is the m ■ilnlut oblongata, very much the smallest portion of the mass, which passes out of the cavity of the cranium into that of the vt-rtebral canal, being a continuation of the spinal cord, of which the whole brain may be considered as an expansion; g, I, f, o, mark the shape and position of certain cerebral nerves; It, olfactory nerves. THE BRAIN, The Brain.—The human brain, the average weight of which is three pounds in the male, and four or five ounces less in the female, is divided into three distinct parts, called the cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata. Of the mem- braneous coverings which enclose that soft, pulpy, organic mass, two have been called mater (mother), from the old notion that they gave rise to all the other membranes of the body; these are the pia mater and dura mater—the former is a very delicate tissue, covered in every part with minute blood- vessels, which are, in fact, the nutrient arteries of the brain, before entering which they divide and subdivide upon the external surface to an extreme degree of minuteness, so as to prevent the blood entering upon the tender cerebral substance in too forcible a manner. The dura mater is a much stronger and coarser membrane, which lines the inner portion of the skull, and forms an external covering for the brain and its appendages. It gives off several elongations, which are called processes, and which descend between certain portions of the brain; that termed the superior longitudinal process is the most remarkable, on account of its size—it extends from the fore to the back part of the skull, between the latter halves of the cerebellum, and, on account of its shape, is called falx cerebri, meaning scythe-like. Under the microscope, the cerebral substance \3 found to be composed of pulp containing both cells and tubes; the outer portion of it is termed cineritious, on account of its brownish-grey color; by some it is termed cortical, from cortex—bark— because it forms, as it were, the first coat of the mass; by others, glandular or secretory, on the supposition that it is of the nature of a gland whose office is that of secretion. It consists of fine cellular membrane, sustaining and connecting a complete net-work of small blood-vessels. Larger in quantity, and firmer in consistence, is the inner substance termed white or medullary; it is said to consist of minute fibres, woven together like plaited straw. In man the brain is much larger than in that of the inferior animals—that of an ox scarcely 12 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 5. weighs a pound. It is in the human brain chiefly that those great inequalities of surface exist—those " developments on which phrenologists build their theories; they are not found in the hare or rabbit, nor in the Rodentia generally; they are neither so bold nor so deep in the ox as in the horse, nor so much so in the horse as in the dog, seem- ing to increase or diminish very much with the ratio of in- telligence, as does also the bulk of the brain; in fishes it is very small, and in the invertebrate animals diminishing to mere nervous ganglions. It is curious to observe that while in the chaffinch, or robin, among birds, it ap- proaches to the pro- portionate size of that of the human being; in the goose it bears a very much smaller proportion to the bulk of the body. The Nose is the organ of smell in vertebrated animals; and, in the three highest classes, is connected with the respira- tory function. In man, the nose, anatomically considered, consists of two large cavities, called nostrils, a right an'd a left, formed by the bones of the face, and separated from each other by a perpendicular flat partition, called the septum narium. Each nostril is divided by the spongy bone into chambers, termed the superior, middle, and inferior meatus. The upper wall of the nose is pierced by numerous foramina, through which enter the filaments of the olfactory, or nerve of smell. Besides smell, the nose has ordinary sensation, like other parts of the face, depending on filaments of the trifacial or fifth pair of cerebral nerves. The external prominent part of the nose, which gives character to the feature, is composed of several cartilages connected to the bones and to each other by strong fibrous tissue, sufficiently firm to preserve the shape of VERTICAL SECTION OF THE BRAIN. a, b, c, the cerebrum; rf, the cerebellum or little brain; c, /, spinal marrow; a, pons varolii; h, , cranial bones; k, optio thalamus; m, frontal sinus; p, hard palate; g, the larynx; z, mouth of Eustachian tube. THE NERVES. 13 the organ, and so elastic and flexible as to permit the expansion and contraction of the nostrils in respiration. The nose is not only the organ of smelling, but serves also as the chief passage of the air into the lungs, and has a considerable influence upon the voice. FIG. 6. FIG. 7. FIG. 8. FRAMEWORK OF THE NOSE. MUSCLES OF THE NOSE. 1, part of upper jaw-bone: 2, nose bone; 3, 1, pyramidal muscle of the nose; 2, mus- upper side cartilage; 4, lower do.; 5, cellular cle to lift the side cartilages; 3, corn- tissue, pressor of the nose; 4. front dilator of the nostril; 5, small compressor of the nostril; 7, muscle to pull down the side cartilages. The Nerves.—These are cord-like substances arising from the brain or spinal marrow, and distributed to every part of the system. They are of two kinds—one white and opaque in appearance, and presenting, under the microscope, a tubular or fibrous struc- ture, and the other of a reddish-grey color, semi-transparent, and consist- ing of cells or vesicles filled with granular matter; these latter kind of nerves are but sparingly distributed in proportion to the former, and ap- pear to form the apparatus by which the nervous force or energy is gene- rated, to be conducted through the tubular substance to the points of action; we may shortly state' then, of these two kinds of nerves, that one gives feeling and the other motion; and of the whole nervous system of the human body, that it is composed of the brain and cranial THECEREBELLUM.OR SMALL BRAIN, AS SEEN FROM THE BACK. 14 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 9. SEPTUM OF THE NOSE AND ITS NERVES. 1, nerve of the lobe of the nose; 2, olfactory lobe; 3, nerves of the septum; 4, nerve of the palate. FIG. 10. MESIAL 8TJRFACE OF THE BRAIN. Fig. 10 represents the mesial surface of a longitudinal section of the brain. 1. Inner surface of left hemisphere. 2. Divided centre of the cerebellum, showing the arbor vita?. 3. Medulla oblongata. 4. Corpus callosum. 5. Fornix. 6. One of the crura of the fornix. 7. One of the corpora aibicantia, pea-shaped bodies between the crura cerebri. 8. Septum lucieum. 9. Velum interpositum. 10. Section of the middle commissure in the third ventri- cle. 11. Section of the anterior commissure. 12. Section of the posterior commissure. 13. Corpora quadrlgemina. 14. Pineal gland. 15. Aqueduct of Sylvius. 16. Fourth ventricle. 17. Pons varolii, through which are seen pass- ing the diverging fibres of the corpora pyramidalia. 18. Crus cerebri of the left side; the third nerve arising from it. 19. Tuber cinereum, from which projects the infundibulum, having the pituitary gland appended to Its extremity. 20. One of the optic nerves. 21. The left olfactory nerve terminating r nteriorly in a rounded bulb. nerves; the spi- nal cord, and spi- nal nerves, and the sympathetic nerves. Of the structure of the brain we have already spoken; of the spinal cord or marrow we may briefly say, that it is com- posed of a whitish substance simi- lar to that of the brain, and is cov- ered with a sheath or mem- brane, which ex- tends from the former organ through the whole length of the spinal column. In Fig. 12 we have a representation of the spinal cord, surround- ed by its sheath, marked by the letters E E, the cord itself being represented by A; B is a spinal nerve, formed by the union of the motor root (C) and the sensitive root (D) where the knot or ganglion is seen. The sympathetic nerve consists of a series of these ganglia or knots, which extend down each side of the spinal column, forming a kind of chain through- out its whole length, THE NERVES. 15 FIG. 11. communicating to both the cranial and spinal nerves, and dis- tributing branches to all the internal organs. These nerves, then, are un- doubtedly the organs of feeling and sensation of every kind— through them the mind operates upon the body. The intelligent mind, whose seat is in the brain, ivills that a certain action shall be performed, and instantly through the main channel of communication, the spinal cord, the message flies, branching off here or there, according to the direction in which the work is to be done, and setting in motion the muscles which perform it. Fig. 15 will give a good idea of the way in which the nerves spread and ramify throughout the body; it represents a back view of the brain and spinal cord. The spine is the great main channel of nervous sensation, and the principal support to the bony frame; this is one of the most important parts of the human structure; it is sometimes. called the vertebral column, be- ing composed of a number of v-prtpbrSP Or short, single bones, one called the an terioror motor root, and veueuice, ui diiwi. u, & , the other the posterior or sensitive root. so named from their peculiar con- struction, the term coming from the Latin verto, to turn—these bones turning upon each other in such a manner as to give flexi- bility to the spine, which is the first developed portion of the skeleton in man, and the centre around which all the other parts are produced. "In its earliest formation/7 says Wilson, "it is a simple cartilaginous cylinder, surrounding and protecting the primitive trace of the nervous system; but as it advances in growth and organization SECTION OF THE BR VIN AND SPINAL CORD, SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE CRANIAL NERVES TO THESE ORGANS, AND TO THOSE OF THE SENSES TO WHICH THEY BELONG. 1, the cerebrum ; 2, the cerebellum, with its foliated portion, sometimes termed arbor vita?; 3 is the medulla oblongata (oblong marrow), which forms the top of the spinal cord, which is represented by 4 and 5; the first pair, or nerves of smell, are marked by 6; the second pair, or nerves of sight, by 7 and 8; the third, fourth, and sixth pairs, which pass to the muscles of the eye, 9, 10,12; the fifth pair, nerves of taste, which are also the sensitive nerves of the teeth, 11; the seventh pair, passing to the muscles of the face, 13; the eighth pair, nerves of hearing, 14; the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth pairs, which pass to the tongue, larynx, and neck, 15, 16,18,19; and 20 indicates two of the spinal nerves, which latter are arranged in thirty- two pairs, each arising by two roots, the FIG. 12. it 16 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. Incomes divided into distinct pieces, which constitute verte- 1 By the aid of Fig. 16 the peculiarities of construction will be best understood. The upper vertebra of the cervical region —termed the athiti, because it is the immediate support of the head—differs somewhat from this in shape; so also does the second, called the axis, and the seventh or last, termed prominens. In the lumbar vertebrae are the largest pieces of the whole column; here the body is large and broad, and thicker before than be- hind ; the pedicles very strong, and the lamina) short, thick, and broad, as is also the spinous process. Fig. 19 represents the cocc}rx (Greek for | if f cuckoo), so-called from its fancied resemblance iii;j|ij|||l| to a cuckoo's beak; it forms the caudal termi- ganolion of a svmpa- nation or tail of the vertebral column. thetic nerve. j)lfi the bodies of the vertebras rest immedi- ately upon each other, there would be a rigid column which could not be bent in any direction without displacement of the bones; but, to provide against this, they are separated from each other by very elastic "intervertebral cartilages," which yield to every motion of the body, and prevent that shock to the brain which must occur at every step taken, were not some such provision made. Then, again, the vertebras thus beauti- fully fitted into each other, and resting upon soft, yielding cushions, are braced together by a series of ligaments of dif- ferent kinds, which, while they allow of all necessary motions, yet restrain it from going too far. By means of these and the muscles, which are mostly attached in a longitudinal direction, and chiefly to the posterior portions of the vertebras, the equili- brium of the spine, and the motions of the body generally, are effected. Each vertebra having a triangular opening corresponding in position with the rest, there runs through the whole of the column a canal, which is filled with the nerve substance and membranes, composing what is called the spinal cord, that communicates with the brain through an opening in the base of the skull. It is scarcely necessary for us here to go more deeply into the structure of the nervous fibres and cells, else might we state many curious and interesting facts concerning this part THE NERVES. 17 of the animal economy. Some idea of their nature and the beauty of their arrangement may be seen by the accompanying diagrams. Like the veins and arteries, they spring from great main channels, which may be compared to the stem and arms FIG. 14. Fig. 14 represents the micro- scopic elements of the nervous structure. 1, Mode of termina- tion of white nerve-fibres in loops; three of these loops are simple, the fourth is convoluted. The latter is found in situations where a high degree of sensation exists. 2, A white nerve-fibre from the brain, showing the varicose or knotty appearance produced by traction or pres- sure. 3, A white nerve-fibre en- larged to show its structure, a tubular envelope and a con- tained substance—neurilemma and neurine. 4, A nerve-cell showing its capsule and granu- lar contents. 5, Its nucleus con- taining a nucleolus. 6, A nerve- cell, from which several proces- ses are given off; it contains also a nucleated nucleus. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 1, the cerebrum. 2, cerebellum. 3, spinal cord. 4, nerves of the face. 5, the brachial plexus or union of nerves. 6, 7, 8, 9, nerves of the arm. 10, those that pass under the ribs. 11, lumbar plexus. 12, sacral plexus. 13, 14, 15, 16, nerves of the lower limbs. of a tree, and branch out from thence in every direction, divid- ing and subdividing into the most minute ramifications—so that you cannot so much as prick any part of the surface of the body but pain is felt, a sure evidence that a nerve has been touched; nay, so much as a breeze cannot blow upon the body, nor the wing of an insect touch it, but the nerves give information thereof to the brain, and the mind is made aware of the cause, and takes its measures accordingly. Deli- I 18 ANATOMY OP THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 16. cate strings are these nerves of an instrument of exquisite sensibilitv—so delicate as to be sometimes invisible to the un- assisted vision, that in many parts we are only made aware of their presence by the effects which they produce. They take cognizance of the slightest sound, the faintest ray of light, the least change in the constitution of the air we breathe, and of the food we eat; they are the vigilant sentinels ever watching to guard the body from danger; the constant ministers to its pleasure and \ delight; often they are attacked and \ abused, their fine sensibilities deadened .•j) and perverted, so that they become ."- ' subject to disease, and avenge the in- I jury done them by a train of the direst ^m.-.S' sufferings to which humanity is liable. FIG. 17. THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. A CENTRAL CERVICAL VERTEBRA, SEEN IN THE UPPER SURFACE. 1 is the body, concave in the middle, and rising on each side into a sharp ridge. 2, the lamina of which there is one on each side, commencing at posterior part of the body by a pedicle (3), and expanding and arching back- ward to meet the other, the two enclosing a foramen or opening through which the spinal cord passes. 4 is the bifid spinous process; and 5 the bifid transverse process: these are both intended for the attachment of muscles; It is the succession of the former projecting along the middle line of the back, which has given rise to the com- mon name of the vertebral column—the spine. 6 marks a vertebral foramen—there is a corresponding one on tho other side, and through these pass the vertebral artery and vein, and plexus of nerves. 7 and 8 are the superior and inferior articular processes, the first looking upward and backward, the last downward and forward; of these there are four in each vertebra; they are designed to articulate with the vertebra 8bove and below. THE NERVES. 19 FIG 18. FIG. 19. S. LATERAL OR SIDE VIEW OF A DORSAL VERTEBRA. 1, the body. 2 2, articular facets for the heads of the ribs. 3, pedicle. 4 and 5, superior and inferior intervertebral notch. 6, the spinous process. 7 is the extremity of the transverse process, marked by an articular surface, for the extremity of a rib. 8 and 9, the two superior and two inferior verticular processes. THE COCCYX. 1, 2, 3, and 4 are the four pieces of bone composing it. 5 5, the transverse processes of the front pieces. 6, arti- cular surface for the extremity of the sacrum, which is the triangular bone composed of five false vertebra, form- ing the base of the column. 7 7, the cornua or horns which articulate with the sacral cornua. NERVES OF THE PAPILL2E OF THE SKIN. * verv highly magnified view of the terminal loops of the sensitive nerves as they rise ■a the rows of papilla, giving sensibility to all parts of the body. ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 21. I. Frontal branch of the fifth nerve of the brain which bestows sensation alone. II. Su- perior maxillary, or that branch of the fifth nerve which supplies the upper jaw, and which, like the last, arising from the sensitive root, bestows sensation alone. III. Mental or in- ferior maxillary branch of the fifth nerve. This also comes from the sensitive root. It is called mental, because it is involved in that expression which indicates the emotions of the mind. IV. Temporal branches of the same fifth nerve. They are distributed on the temples, and are for sensation. V. The only branch of the fifth nerve which arises from the smaller or motor root, and assists in the motion of those muscles which are employed in mastication or chewing. VI, VII, VIII, IX. These are spinal nerves—the first of the series which come out between the vertebra, in the whole length of the spine, to supply the body generally with motion and sensation. A. The facial nerve. It is situated In the front of the ear, and i» the motor nerve of the features. It sends branches (a) to the muscles of the forehead and eyebrows. Branches (6) to the eyelids. Branches (c) to the muscles which move the noB'rils and upper lip. Branches (d) to the lower lip. Branches (e) going down to the side of tho neck. Conaectlons (/) with the spinal nerves of the neck. A nerve (g) to a portion of tho muscle that is in the back of the head, and to m uscles of the ear. B. The nervus vagus, or the wander- ing nerve, so named from its extensive distribution. This is the grand respiratory nerve. C. The spinal accessory nerve. D. the ninth nerve, which is the motor nerve of the tongue. E. The nerve which supplies the diaphragm. F. Branch of the sympathetic nerve. G. A branch of the nervus vagus, which goes to the superior portion of the larynx or windpipe. H. Another branch of the vagus, which goes to the inferior portion of tho larynx. I. Tho nerve which goes to the tongue and upper part of the gullet called the pharynx. THE THROAT. 21 The Throat, as popularly understood, is of somewhat in- definite meaning; for few can tell where the throat begins and ends, or what organs it includes. It is generally understood to mean that part of the human frame in which are the FIG. 22. VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD, SHOWING THE RELATION OF AIR AND FOOD PASSAGES. 1, upper turbinated bone; 2, middle turbinated bone; 3, lower turbinated bone; 4, hole leading to the canal which drains the eye; 5, Eustachian hole; 6, palate; 7, uvula; 8, epi- glottis; 9, pharynx; 10, larynx; 11, cricoid cartilage; 12, thyroid cartilage; 13, cavity of tho mouth. oo ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. natures for food and breath, namely, the gullet and windpipe, or all that hollow cavity which may be looked into when the mouth is wide open. The Trachea is the cartilaginous and membranous cana through which the air passes into the lungs, commonly known FIG. 23. a, tongue; b, palate: d, e, front and back of the palate; /, walls of the pharynx; g, pos- terior nares, separated by the vomer; h, epiglottis; i, head of windpipe; k, oasophagus; I, windpipe; m, under jaw. as the windpipe. Its upper part is called the larynx, the uppermost and smallest part of which is called the epiglottis, being placed over the glottis, or mouth of the larynx, and serving to close the passage to the lungs in the act of swallow- ing. From the lower end of the larynx the canal takes the name of trachea, and extends as far down as the fourth or fifth vertebra of the back, where it divides into two branches, which are the right and left bronchial tubes. Like the larynx, it is formed of cartilages, united to each other by means of very THE THROAT. 23 FIG. 24. elastic ligamentous fibres. It is also furnished with fleshy or muscular fibres, some of which pass through its whole xtent longitudinally, while others are carried round it in a circular direction; and hence it may shorten or lengthen itself, or contract or dilate its passage. Larynx is the name given to the organ of the voice, situated at the upper and fore part of the neck, where it forms a con- siderable projection. It extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea; is narrow and cylindrical below, but broad above, where it presents the form of a triangular box, being flattened behind and at the sides, whilst in front it is bounded by a prominent vertical ridge. It is composed of cartilages connected together by ligaments, moved by numerous muscles, is lined by the mucous membrane, and supplied with vessels and nerves. The cartilages of the larynx are nine in number, three single and three in pairs, namely, the thyroid, cricoid, FIG. 25. FIG. 26. INTERIOR OF THE MOUTH. BACK VIEW OF THE CARTILAGES AND LIGA- MENTS OF THE LARYNX. a, ligament of the tongue; &, epiglottis; c, the lateral ligaments connecting the os hyoides and the thyroid cartilage; d, cricoid cartilage; «, arytenoid cartilages; g, the windpipe. SIDE VIEW OF THE LARYNX. a, ligaments of the tongue, with the epiglottis at the back; 6, thyroid carti- lage ; c, cricoid cartilage; /, g, the vocal cords. epiglottis, the two arytenoid, the two cornicula laryngis, and the two cuneiform. ' The upper opening of the larynx is 24 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. termed tho glottis. The vocal ligaments are two narrow bands of dense fibrous and highly elastic tissue, stretched between the anterior angle of the thyroid and the anterior surface of the arytenoid cartilages. FIG. ■:!. FIG- »• BACK VIF.W OF THE HF.AD OF THE PHARYNX, CESOl'HAGLS, AND TUACHEA. a, the skull; 6, cerebellum; c, cephalic artery; d, nasal organs; e, vomer;/, uvula; g, tongue; k, parotid glands; i. epiglottis; k, larynx; I, head of the pharynx; m, oesophagus; n, trachea; j>, left branch; q, right branch of the trachea: r, large artery; *, the heart; u, lower vena cava; v, the lungs. The (Esophagus is the leading from the pharynx MOUTH OF THE WIN'PriPK. o, glottis; b, c, d, the vocal cords. FIG. 29. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NECK. 1, vertebrae, or Joints of the great spinal column; 2, the oesophagus, or gullet, somewhat flattened, as In a state of rest; 3, the windpipe; 4, 4, the carotid arte- ries; 5, 5, the internal jugular veins. These, with the nerves, glands, the ex- ternal jugular veins, and muscles of the neck, are enclosed within the skin marked by the double line and ligures 6, 6; in front of the windpipe lies the thy- roid gland, 7. gullet, or the membranous tube to the stomach, and forming the % THE THROAT. 25 passage through which the food descends into the latter organ. It commences at the cricoid cartilage, opposite the fifth cervical vertebra, and, descending along the front of the spine, passes through the diaphragm opposite the ninth dorsal vertebra, and there ends by opening into the cardiac orifice of the stomach. Its length is about nine inches, and its direction nearly straight, having only two or three slight curvatures. In the neck, the oesophagus lies immediately behind the trachea. The Pharynx is the muscular funnel-shaped bag at the back part of the mouth, which receives the masticated food, and conveys it to the oesophagus. It is broadest about the middle, being constricted at either end, more particularly below, where it terminates in the oesophagus. The Tonsils are the round or oval-shaped glands situated between the arches of the palate. In their natural state they can easily be discerned slightly projecting on each side of the fauces; but when swollen and inflamed, as they often are in weakly and scrofulous persons, they are very noticeable, being bright red, and often hanging down so as nearly to close the passage of the gullet, and render swallowing very difficult. FIG. 30. FRONT VIEW OF THE CAVITY OF THE CHEST. a, b, e, tipper, lower, and middle lobe of the right lung ; d, e, upper and lower lobe of the left lung; /, heart; g. pulmonary artery,—this artery rises from the right ventricle of the liea rt, and divides into two branches, one going to each lung; i, the aorta, or large artery of the heart; k, vena cava; I, diaphragm; m, chest bone; n, windpipe; o, p, right and left lobe of the liver; g, stomach. 26 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. The Lungs are two vesicular organs situated in the thorax or chest, the cavitv of which, together with the heart and larger blood-vessels, thev nearly fill up; so that when the walls of this cavitv are compressed, the air is forced out of the minute air-colls'of which the lungs are composed, into the several elastic membranes (the bronchi) connected with them. These bronchial passages afterwards unite, and form one tube, the trachea or windpipe, through which the air passes upwards and downwards in the act of inspiration and expiration, or breathing, as it is popularly called. A reference to Fig. 30 will show this more clearly. Here it will be seen how each division of the lungs occupies its own side of the chest; tho left is the smallest of the two, because the heart, whose place is between the lungs, takes up more room on that side than the other. The windpipe, or trachea, at tho top has the larynx, or organ of voice; while the lower extremity divides into two branches or bronchi, one for each lung, on entering which it divides > and subdivides into ex- \ tremely minute tubes, .\ which terminate in the air- \ cells, small membranous cavities, on the walls of which the blood circulates in a network of veins, in such a way that it is brought into immediate connection with the atmos- pheric air, which is "drawn in by each inspiration, and so obtains its due supply of oxygen; that, and other gases of which the air is composed, making its way through the ex- tremely thin membrane which forms the air-cells: thus noxious, as well as healthful vapors, or gases, are introduced into the circulation, and men are poisoned by breathing, as well as by eating and drinking, deleterious substances. If we examine the structure of the lungs, Ave find that it is porous like a sponge; when, by the action of certain muscles, the capacity of the chest is increased, the air rushes in to fill the vacuum, and expansion of the lungs takes place; then, the muscular move- o, the larynx; b. the windpipe; e, d. right and left branches of the windpipe ; e, e, the bronchial tubes; /,/, pulmonary vesicles. THE LUNGS. 27 FIG ment ceasing, the ribs, by their weight and elasticity, contract and force out the air, and this alternate expansion and contrac- tion constitutes breathing, in the act of which Ave see the chest rise and fall. The tubes, air-cells, and blood-vessels of the lungs, are held together by what is called cellular tissue, and the whole are enveloped in a membrane Avhich covers their surface and also the under surface of the ribs, for Avhich latter purpose it is reflected back. This membrane is called the pleura. The action of the lungs may be forced or increased by an exercise of the will. From fifteen to twenty-two is the average number of respirations in a minute, under common circum- stances; but this number may, and often is, very greatly in- creased by excitement, exercise or disease. The average weight of the lungs in a healthy condition is about forty ounces. They are, as Ave have seen, of a conical shape, embracing the heart betAveen them, being internally concave to receive this organ, and externally convex to suit the concavity of the chest. In their narrow part up- ward they extend a little above the fifth rib, their broad and slightly concave bases resting upon the diaphragm, and extending further down behind than before. Their color is a pinkish gray, mottled with black,—7their shape we have already explained. They hang free in the chest, except AVhere they are attached to the spine, or rather to the mediasti- num, by the pulmonary arteries and veins, and by the bronchial tubes on either side. The areola, or cellular tissue, which connects together the arteries, veins, or cells, &c., is called the parenchyma of the lungs, and. constitutes the second distinct tissue, of Avhich they are composed,—the first, or outer, being the pleura, and the third, or inner, the mucous lining of MAGNIFIED VIEW OF A SECTION OF TnE LUNG. Showing the arrangement of some of the lolmles, the communication of" the air-cells in one lobule, and their separation from those of the adjoining lobule. The ramifications of the blood-vessels in the texture of the lung, and their course through the air-cells are also seen. 1.1, branches of the pulmonary veins; 2, 2, branches of the pulmonary artery. 2S ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. the air passages, or cells into which the air enters when Ave breathe. So great is their number that they have been calcu- lated to amount to 170,000,000, forming a surface thirty times greater than the human body. Every one of these cells is pro- vided with a network of blood-vessels, by means of which the blood is brought into immediate contact with the air over every portion of their surface. The lungs of an infant before birth are dark red, and con- tracted into a small space, Avithin the cavity of the chest. They are firm, and specifically heavier than water, in which therefore they sink, Avhether entire or cut into pieces. They also give out little or no blood, and no air-bubbles arise from them. This, therefore, is considered a good test whether a newly-born infant found dead, under suspicious circumstances, Avas really born so. If it has ever breathed the lungs Avill have become inflated, so as to float on water; they will then be of a pale- red color, and appear of a loose spongy texture; having ex- panded, too, so as to fill tho cavity of the chest, and cover tho heart, as avo see them in the diagram of that organ above referred to. The diseases to which the lungs are mostly liable, are all, in their first stages, of an inflammatory character; and it is im- portant to ascertain, as soon as they are attacked, in which of the A-arious tissues, or other structures, the mischief resides. The state of the lungs can generally be ascertained Avith tolerable certainty by means of auscultation: the passage of air into, and through them, giving rise to certain definite sounds Avell understood by the practised ear, applied closely to the outside of the chest, either Avith or without a stetho- scope. When the lungs are not affected, these sounds vary but slightly in different individuals; so that any deviation from their ordinary and natural tone, or compass, is easily detected as an indication of disease, Avhich sometimes renders the lung so solid that the air cannot penetrate its tissues, and sometimes fills the cavity Avhich contains it Avith Avater. In either case, percussion Avill but make a dull, heavy sound. Then the power of conducting sound varies according to the condition of the structure, so that an application from Avithout is suro .0 produce such a response from within as gives the skilled paysi- cian all the information which he requires. The Heart is the great central organ of circulation. Aa form is that of an irregular cone, having its base dire ted backAvard toAvards the spine, and its point forward and down- ward toAvards the left side; so that at each contraction it may THE HEART. 29 be felt striking between the fifth and sixth ribs, about four inches from the median line. In this position it rests upon the diaphragm, having the surface on Avhich it lies much flattened. On its right side, it is firmly attached to the diaphragm, which, it should be remembered, is the muscular partition betAveen the chest and abdomen; and behind, by the vena cava, or trunk vein which passes through the diaphragm. FIG. 33. FRONT VIEW OF THE HEART, WITH THE WALLS OF THE RIGHT AND LEFT VENTRICLES REMOVED. a, b, right and left walls of the ventricles ; c, septum ventriculorum ; d, cavity of the right ventricle; e, cavity of the left ventricle; /, valves of the right ventricle; g, valves of the left ventricle; h, entrance of the pulmonary artery; i, entrance of the aorta; I, m, upper and lower vena cava, n, pulmonary artery; o, aorta; q, heart-case, or peri- cardium. Behind and above, the heart is also attached, although some- Avhat loosely, to the upper and back part of the chest, by the vessels Avhich there pass out of the pericardium, or membra- nous bag in which the heart is perfectly enclosed, although it is sufficiently loose to alloAV of free motion. In a healthy state, the pericardium is lined Avith what is called the serous mem- 30 AN'ATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. brane which is smooth and moist, and constitutes its inner co"t oV laver, the outer one being fibrous. This membrane is also reflected so as to give the heart two coverings, whi h, at every motion of the organ, glide smoothly over each other, and thus prevent friction. ... , The heart mav be popularly described as a hollow muscle having four cavities, two on each side. Its action is that of a kind of double pump, intended to carry on the twofold circu- lation, namely, through the body and through the lungs. Tho FIG. 34. FRONT VIEW OF THE HEART, WITH THE PERICARDIUM DRAWN ASIDE. auricle and ventricle, on the left side, being devoted to the former, and those on the right to the latter. BetAveen the cavities on one side, and those on the other, there is no natural communication, but each auricle is connected with its corre- sponding ventricle, by a valve Avhich only opens by pressure on one side, so that the blood cannot pass except in the right direction,—any attempt to return being instantly resisted by the closing of the bag-like valves. Should these become dis- eased, so that they perform their office imperfectly, there will be regurgitation, or passing back of the blood, and that oc- casions serious derangement of the balance of circulation, re eulting in organic disease. These valves, Avhich are also placed THE FACE. 31 FIG. 35. where the blood-vessels enter the different cavities of the heart, consist of membranous folds, and are, according to their form, either sigmoid or semilunar. The regurgitation of blood into the lungs or other parts of the body, is not an unfrequent cause of hemorrhage or dropsy. It Avill, perhaps, conduce to the better understanding of all this if Ave enter a little more fully into explanation, and refer back to Fig. 30, Avhich exhibits the heart more in its relations to the surrounding parts. Let it be under- stood that the tAvo large lobes on either side are the lungs: / is the heart itself, receiAring into its right auricle the blood from the vena cava (k); this is the venous circulation, av h i c h has gone through the system, and is on its way back to the lungs to be reoxygenized. Opposite to this, or on the left side, is the left auricle, into which the purified blood passes through the ventricle, and is pumped out into the aorta (i), and pulmonary artery (g). These are the main channels of the arterial circulation. The contraction of the auricle to force out the blood is called systole, and that of the ventricle diastole. At the root of each of the above-named arteries are three valves, Avhich are like mem- branous bags, so arranged that when there is any regurgitation they assume the appearance represented by Fig. 36. The heart not only by its contraction propels the blood, but in its expansion it acts as a sucker to draAv it up, so that it is at once both a suck- ing and a forcing pump; and such is the poAver of its action that the Avhole mass of the circulation, about tAventy-eight pounds, goes through the system in the space of three heart valve. minutes. The Face, Lips, Mouth, Jaws, Teeth, and Gums — The Face is the lower and front portion of the head. It con- sists of fourteen bones firmly joined together, except in the instance of the lower jawbone. The principal cavities are the orbits of the eyes, the opening for the passage of the tears into the nose, and" the opening for the optic nerves. The nasal IDEAL SECTION OF MAMMALIAN HEART. 1, superior vena cava; 2, in- ferior vena cava; 3, left auricle ; 4, left ventricle; 5, mitral valve; 6, septum ventriculorum; 7, aorta; 8, pulmonary arteries; 9,pulmon- ary veins; 10, right auricle; 11, right ventricle; 14, descending aorta; 15, tricuspid valves. FIG. 36. 32 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. cavitv in the skull is large,-the nose b/inS.comP°nS^vCph;ei1!}h of caftilao-e divided by thin vertical plates, pierced above with numerous^holes for the passage of the olfactory nerves. The muscles of the face are numerous; and FIG37- to these we are indebted for that infinite variety of expression that characterizes the human countenance, and gives manifestation to the Avorkings of the human mind. The Lips are the edge or border of the mouth. In man, and some other animals, the lips are two fleshy muscular parts, com- posing the exterior of the mouth. In man they cover the teeth, and form part of the organs of speech, being essential to the utter- ance of certain sounds, called labiates in conse- quence. These parts OAve their red color to their extremely vascular structure, and the thinness of the covering membrane ; and their sensitiveness, to their abundant supply of minute nerves. By the color and general appearance of the lips, Ave may often judge Avith tolerable accuracy of the health of the individual: if they be pale, and thin, and shrunken, there is a deficiency of the red globules in the blood, and a want of vigor in the circulation. This we find to be the case in ansemia and some other forms of disease. When the lips are full, and have more or less purple in their tint, Ave know that the blood does not undergo its proper changes, and that there is danger of congestion towards the brain. The Mouth is the cavity in Avhich the tongue and teeth are contained, Avhich serves as a receptacle for the food which is to be conveyed to the stomach, and by means of Avhich articulate sounds are rendered possible. The parts Avhich are immedi- ately connected with it are the lips, the upper and loAver jaws, the palate and tonsils, and the fauces generally. It is lined by the mucous membrane, which stretches from the tongue to the loAver jaAv, and is surrounded by the salivary glands, which open into ducts in various parts of the cavity, and supply it Avith moisture. The Upper Jaw, or, as they are generally called, the Superior maxillary bones, are the largest bones in the face, with the exception of the inferior maxillary or lower jaAV- IDEAL VIEW OF THE COURSE OF CIRCULATION. a, incloses the four chambers of the heart; b. veins bringing dark blood to c. right auricle; d, right ventricle; e, pul- monary artery ; /, begin- ning of pulmonary vein conveying t he arterialized blood to g. left auricle; h, left ventricle; i. arteries. The arrows show the di- rection of the current. THE TEETH. 33 bone. They form, by their union, the Avhole of the upper jaw, and assist in the construction of the nose, orbit, cheek, and palate. FIG FIG. 39. THE BIGHT SIDE OF THE SUPERIOR MAXIL- LABY, AS SEEN IN ITS LATEBAL, ASPECT, THE LOWER JAW, OB INFERIOR MAXILLAEY. The muscles of the jaws, as might be supposed from the work they have to do, are strong and numerous. The action of the loAver jaw is effected by the attachment of fourteen pairs, and of the upper by that of ten muscles. Many nerA^es, arteries, and veins, are also connected with them. The Teeth.—True bony teeth are found only in the higher or vertebrated animals, and of these only the highest class,—the fig. 40. mammalia, at the head of which is man, have them in single roAvs in each jaAv. The human adult has these roAvs arched, and sixteen teeth in each toav. They are of three kinds, as represented in the annexed diagram. First Ave have the large teeth behind, Avith broad flat surfaces, Avhich, on account of their func- tions, are called Grinders (a); they are sometimes termed Molar Teeth or Molares. Alto- gether they are tAvelve in num- ber, being three on each side of both upper and lower jaw: the last of them are called Wisdom Teeth in man, from the fact that they do not appear until he is supposed to have attained years of discretion, namely, from the THE TEETH AND THEIB NEBVES. 34 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. eighteenth to the thirtieth years of his age. Next to these, on each side of both jaws, are tAvo teeth whose surfaces are less broad, and which, having tAvo sharp projections on each, are termed Bicuspids (two-pointed) (b). The sixth tooth on each fig. 41. side is the Eye Tooth (c); it has but one F^ jiwt.....m— point or projection, hence these teeth P.I Gnm-9 nave Deen called Cuspidata (pointed). From its large development in dogs, this has been called the Canine Tooth. Be- tween these last on each side, coming in front of the mouth, we have four teeth Avhich have neither the broad surface of the grinders, nor the point of the cuspidata; but they are flat, having a sharp edge like a knife; hence they have been called Incisors, or Cutting Teeth (d). The above illustration (Fig. 41) exhibits more clearly than the foregoing, the peculiar form of the Molares, Bicuspids, and Cuspids, with their fangs or roots. The above three sorts of teeth, which Ave may call grinders, tearers, and cutters, represent three classes of teeth among the lower animals; that man has them all we may take as an evi- dence that he is intended to be an omnivorous feeder. Although the teeth form so prominent and distinguishing a feature of all the full-grown individuals of the higher forms of animals, yet most of these animals, including man, are born with- out any teeth at all. When the child is born, the jaAv is covered Avith gums, but underneath the gums are little cavities in which the teeth are formed; and, as they go on groAving, they at last press upon the gum, and causing it to absorb, finally break through it. This process is called dentition. It is frequently a source of disordered health to children, especially if anything occurs to prevent the absorption and ready yielding of the gum to the pressure of the tooth beloAv. The absence of teeth dur- ing the period of human infancy evidently indicates that the food required at that period does not need their employment It is a well-known fact that the food of the infant is its mother's milk; but it is too often forgotten that, till teeth are developed, Nature does not intend the child to take food that requires preparation by teeth in order to its digestion. The practice of feeding young children Avith solid food is the cause of great destruction of life; and even sops should only be spannelv administered, in cases of necessity, till the first teeth have ap- In the adult man there are thirty-two teeth; but if we THE TEETH. 35 examine the jaw of a child after it has " cut" all its teeth, and before it is six years old, we shall find that it has but twenty. Nor are these teeth increased in number by the addition of others; but whilst this first set of teeth are performing their duties, an entirely new set is growing underneath them, in pre- cisely the same way as they did at first. Gradually the fangs of the first set of teeth are absorbed, in consequence of the pressure of those beneath, and they fall out, or are easily re- moved, and make way for the others. The order in Avhich the teeth appear, as Avell as the time, is subject to considerable deviations, but the following periods Avill be found to be about the time:— FIRST, OK MILK TEETH. 2 lower middle incisors............................... 4th to 8th month. 2 upper middle incisors.............................. 4th to 8th month. 4 lateral incisors...................................... 4th to 11th month. 4 anterior, or first molars............................. 12th to 18th month. 4 eye, or canine teeth................................. 16th to 22d month. 4 back molars......................................... 19th to 38th month. 20 In some children the whole of the teeth may be cut by the end of the third year, whilst in others, the process of dentition may be prolonged to the fifth year. OKDER OF APPEARANCE OF THE PERMANENT TEETH. 4 first molars, one on each of the two sides of the two jaws............................................... 6th to 7th year. 4 middle incisors, two in each jaw...................... 7th to 8th year. 4 lateral incisors, a little later than the last............ 7th to 8th year. 4 first bicuspids........'................................. 8th to 9th year. 4 last bicuspids......................................... 10th to 12th year. 4 eye, or canine teeth................................... 11th to 13th year. 4 second molars......................................... 12th to 14th year. 4 back molars, or wisdom teeth........................18th to 30th year. 32 The internal structure of the teeth is very complicated. If Ave make a vertical section of a tooth with a fine saw, and after having polished it on a hard and smooth whetstone, submit it to an examination under the microscope, we shall easily make out the parts indicated in the cut. We shall discover that there are three very distinct portions. First, the enamel (in cut a), which covers the whole of the external part of the tooth; second, the dentine (6),—this substance, which is so largely developed in the tusks of the elephant and other pachydermatous animals, constitutes ivory; third, the cement (c) or bone, forming the external covering or facing of the tooth. In the middle of the tooth (d) is the pulp cavity. Into this cavity the nerves and blood-vessels of the tooth penetrate, and thus serve to main- tain the living connection between the tooth and the rest of the body. 36 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 42. Each hard part of the tooth is differently formed. The enamel is by far the hardest of these structures, and is com- posed of dense semi-transparent fibres, placed side by side, and so small that they do not measure more than the five-thousandth part of an inch in diameter. These little fibres penetrate the dentine be- neath. This substance is composed of two parts, namely, a number of very minute tubes anastomosing Avith each other, and an inter- tubular tissue. The tubes commence in the pulp-cavity, and pass on to the outside of the tooth. The intertubular substance is com- posed of very minute Avhite granules or globules. The cement Avhich covers the out- side of the fang has a structure precisely like that of ordinary bone. The teeth are inserted in—or rather, de- veloped out of—the upper and lower jaws. The upper jaw is fixed, but the loAver jaAv has tAvo round projections, which are inserted into cavities in the skull, in which they move Avith great facility. This movement is different in different animals. In those creatures which feed upon vegetable fibre, as it exists in the leaves and branches of plants, the jaw admits of a lateral motion, and the trituration and re- duction of this kind of food is thus insured. On the other hand, in animals Avhich partake of food that requires no bruising before it is carried into the stomach, this lateral movement would be of no use; hence, in the carnivora we find this action of the jaw confined to a simple up-and-doAvn movement, by which the food is merely divided or cut into smaller pieces. When Ave examine the jaw of the human being, Ave find that it has a combination of these two movements,—that it combines the rotatory action of the ruminant with the up-and-down move- ment of the carnivora. The Tongue.—The tongue is composed of muscular fibres, Avhich are distributed in layers arranged in various directions. Between these fibres is a considerable quantity of adipose sub- stance, and in the middle is a vertical septum of fibrous tissue. The tongue is connected behind with the os hyoides by mus- cular attachment, and to the epiglottis by the mucous mem- brane, Avhich forms the three glosso-epiglottis folds called Fraena Epiglottidis. At either side it is held in connection VEBTICAL SECTION OF A TOOTH. THE TONGUE. 37 Avith the lower jaw by the mucous membrane; and in front a fold of that membrane, Avhich is named Frsenum Linguaj, is formed beneath its under surface. The tongue is covered by a dense layer, analogous to the corium of the skin, Avhich gives support to the Papillas. A Raphe marks the middle line of the tongue, and divides it into sym- metrical halves. The tongue, like the Avhole of the in- ternal passages of the body, is covered Avith mucous membrane. This membrane, Avhen examined, is found to be a continua- tion of the skin Avhich covers the external surface of the body, and, like it, is com- posed of two principal parts,—a layer of fibres and vessels, covered above Avith cells. It is the condition of these superficial cells that constitutes the difference between the skin and mucous membrane. The first are always dry and hard, whilst the latter are soft, and covered with a fluid secretion, called mucus. This membrane covers the Avhole surface of the tongue, and is pro- longed beloAv, passing on either side of a mass of tissue under the tongue, Avhich is called the Frsenum, or string of the tongue. It is this part of the tongue Avhich, being prolonged to an unusual extent along the floor of the mouth, constitutes the condi- tion which is called "tongue-tied." It is very seldom indeed that this affection exists to an extent to require interference ; but it is very often imagined to be present by officious nurses and anxious mothers, when the structure of the tongue is per- fectly natural. It should, however, be known that occasionally so large a blood- vessel may be Avounded in this proceeding as to produce alarm- ing consequences on the system of a neAv-born babe. Under the mucous membrane, and causing projections on its surface, lie the Papillae of the tongue. These papillae vary in size, but are very obvious to the naked eye when the tongue is put out. On examining them AA'ith the microscope, they are found to consist of blood-vessels and nerves. The nerves which » FIG. 43. THE TONGUE. 1, the raphe, which some- times divides in two branches as in the figure; 2, 2, the lobes, the rounded eminences here and near the top being the papilla: fungiform.es,—the smaller ones among which they are dispersed being the papillce conicece and filiformis; 3, tip of the tongue; 4,4, its sides, on which are seen the lamellated and fringed papillae; 5, 5, the A-shaped row of papillae circumvallata; 6, the foramen cxcum.; 7, mu- cous glands at the root of the tongue; 8, epiglottis with its frcena (9, 9); 10, 10, the greater cornua of the os hyaides. 38 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. are sent to these little papillas are not supplied from the same nerves Avhich are furnished to the muscles in order to give them the power of movement, but from a special source; and the branch of the nerve which is thus supplied is called the gusta- tory, on account of its being the part of the nervous system Avhich gives the special sense of taste. Through this organiza- tion, then, the tongue is not only enabled to assist in mastica- tion, but it becomes the principal source of enjoyment in the taking of food that is agreeable to the taste. The mucous membrane, as well as the form of the tongue, are liable to considerable changes in appearance, indicative of disordered states of the system. It is on this account that the tongue is so constantly examined by the medical man in dis- eases of the body. Its form and movements will often indicate the general state of the nervous and muscular systems; whilst the appearance of the surface is an index to the condition of the mucous membranes throughout the whole body. The (rums are the cellular and mucous membranes which cover the alveolar processes of the jaw before the groAvth of the teeth, the fangs of Avhich they afterwards envelope. The Eye.—The Eyeball, is a hollow globe, or small spheri- cal chamber, about one inch in diameter, having the segment of a smaller sphere engrafted on its front surface. This is what we see projecting like a bow AvindoAv, as it Avere, when we take a side view of the face. It is, in fact, the window of the chamber, and through it pass the rays of light which paint pictures on the retina within, of outward scenes and objects. In Fig. 44 this projection is very distinctly marked, giving to the sphere a frontal elongation. This globe is composed of in- vesting tunics, three in number, and of refracting media, called humors, of Avhich there are also three. The lines encircling this globe represent the tunics by which the humors are kept in their proper place. Fig. 45 represents the Eyeball divested of its first tunic, so as to exhibit the second, with the beautiful distribution of the veins of the choroid, called venas vorticosae, from the pe- culiar manner of their arrangement. This is the external layer of the choroid, which is connected with the ciliary ligament. Next to it comes the middle or arterial layer, composed chiefly of the ramifications of minute arteries. It is called the tunica Ruyschiana, and is reflected towards its junction with the ciliary ligament, where it forms Avhat are called the ciliary processes already spoken of. The internal layer of this tunic is called the membrano pigmenti, Avhich is composed of several laminaa THE EYE. 39 of minute six-sided cells, which are arranged like a tessellated pavement, and contain granules of pigmentum nigra, or black paint; this is not, however, quite black, but of a deep choco- late color. In Fig. 44 we see it in the dark line which en- circles the globe, and thickens considerably toAvards the front. FIG. 44. FIG. 45. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE GLOBE OF THE EYE. 1 marks the course of the outer tunic, called the sclerotic, which invests four- fifths of the globe, and gives it its peculiar form. It is a dense fibrous membrane, thicker behind than in front, where it pre- sents a bevelled edge, into which fits like a watch-glass the cornea (2), which invests the projecting portion of the globe, and is com- posed of four layers, viz., the conjunctiva, or cornea propria, consisting of thin lamella, or scales, connected by an extremely fine areolar tissue; the cornea elastica—an elastic and excessively transparent membrane, which lines the inner surface of the last; and the lining membrane of this front vesti- bule of the Eyeball, whose second tunic is formed by the choroid (3), represented by the dark line; the ciliary ligament (4), which developes from its inner surface the ciliary processes, and the iris (6), of which the open- ing at 7 represents the pupil. The third tunic, is the retina (8), which is carried for- ward to the lens (12), by the zonula ciliaris, a prolongation of its vascular layers passing along the front of the Canal of Petit (9), which en- tirely surrounds the lens. In the space marked 10, is contained the aqueous humor; 11 is the posterior chamber; 12, the lens, more convex behind than before, and enclosed in its proper capsule ; 13 marks the inner area of the globe, filled with a thin membrane called the hyaloid, and containing the vitreous humor; 14 is the tubular sheath of the membrane, through which passes an artery connected with the capsule of the lens, and, at the back of the eye, with the optic nerve, as represented at 16. Of this nerve, 15 marks the neurUeuma, or sheath. Our next diagram (Fig. 46) represents a front segment of a transverse section of the Globe of the Eye, and again exhibits that beautiful arrangement of parts for which this organ is so remarkable. THE EYEBALL DIVESTED OF ITS FIRST TUNIC. 1, part of the outer tunic, the sclerotic; 2, the optic nerve, communicating with the ball at the back; 3, 3, distinguish the out- line of the choroid coat; 4, the ciliary liga- ment, a dense white structure which sur- rounds, like a broad ring, the circumfer- ence of the iris (5). This ligament serves as a bond of union between the external and middle tunics of the Eyeball, and serves to connect the cornea and sclerotica at their lines of junction with the iris and external layer of the choroid; 6, 6, mark the vena vorticosm; and 7, 7, the trunks of these veins at the point where they have pierced the sclerotica; 8, 8, the posterior ciliary veins, which enter the Eyeball in company with the posterior ciliary arteries, by piercing the sclerotica at 9. The course of one of the long ciliary nerves, accom- panied by a vein, is marked by 10. 66 40 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. We have hitherto been looking upon this Avondrous little globe from without. Let us noAv take a vieAV of it from within, as represented in Fig. 47. This is a posterior segment of a FIG. 46. FIG. 47. TBANSVEKSE SECTION OF THE GLOBE OF THE EYE. POSTERIOR SEGMENT OF A TBANSVEESE SECTION OF THE EYE. 1, the three outer tunics; 2, the entrance of the optic nerve, with the vein known as the anteria centralis retinae piercing its centre; 4 is the foramen of Soemmering, situated in the middle of the axis of the eye. This is a circular spot, surrounded by a yellow halo, called the Hmbus luteus. This halo ia commonly obscured by a fold of the retina (5). 1, the divided edges of the three tissues, the sclerotic (outer), choroid (middle and dark), and retina (inner), which last is com- posed of three membranous layers, the ex- ternal being serous, the middle nervous, and the internal vascular; 2, the pupil, that central spot, which enlarges or contracts, according as more or less light is required to be admitted; 3, the iris, so called from iris, a rainbow, on account of its variety of color in different individuals. It is com- posed of an anterior muscular layer, con- sisting of radiating fibres, which, converging from the centre toward the circumference, have the power of dilating the pupil; and also of circular fibres, which, surrounding the pupil like a sphincter performs the duty of contracting its area. The posterior, or hinder layer, is of a deep purple tint, and is hence named uvea, from its resemblance to a ripe grape. This is the surface of the iris presented to view in the above section. 4, ciliary processes; 5, scalloped anterior border of the retina. transverse section of the ball. Here again we see, of course, only the divided edges of the tunics on the three outer rings from Avhich extends the membrane covering the whole internal surface of the retina. The foramen, Avhich signifies an opening, has been found to exist only in animals which have the axes of the eyeballs parallel Avith each other, as man, the quadrumania, and some saurian reptiles. The Lens, or crystalline humor, marked 12 in Fig. 44, is situated immediately behind the pupils, and surrounded by the ciliary processes Avhich overlap its margin. It is less convex on the front than on the hinder surface, and is invested by a peculiarly transparent and elastic membrane called the Capsule which contains a small quantity of fluid called the Liquor Morgani, and is retained in its place by its attachment to the THE EYE. 41 zonula ciliaris, already described as a prolongation of the vascu- lar layer of the retina. The lens consists of concentric layers formed upon a hard, firm nucleus, and becoming softer as they tend to the outer sur- face. These concentric lamellae are composed of minute parallel FIG. 49. EYE-APPENDAGES. MEIBOMIAN GLANDS. 1, 2, the inner sides of the eyelids; 3, 3, the Conjunctiva; 4, the apertures of the glands, along each corner of the lids; 6, 5, 6, 6, the Papillce lachrymales and the Puncta lachrymalia; 7, the apertures of the ducts of the Lachrymal gland. 1, the superior or upper tarsal cartilage, along the lower border of which (2) are seen the openings of the Meibomian glands; 3, the inferior, or lower, tarsal cartilage, along the upper edges of which are also openings of the above-named glands; 4, the superior or orbital portion of the Lachrymal gland, from which come tears; 5, its inferior or palpebral portion; 6, the Lachrymal ducts, or channels through which the tears pass to the outer surface of the eye; 7, the Plica semilunaris, containing a small plate of cartilage, which appears to be the rudiment of a third lid, such as is developed in some animals; 8, the Caruncula lachrymalis, the source of the whitish secre- tion which so constantly collects in the corner of the eye ; it is covered with minute hairs, which can sometimes be seen without the aid of a microscope; 9, the Puncta lachrymalis, the point, or external commencement of the ducts, which terminate at the lachrymal sac, the position of which is marked by 12; as are the superior and inferior lachrymal canals by 10 and 11. The nasal duct, marked by 15, and 14 is its dilation with the lower meatus of the nose. fibres united Avith each other by means of scalloped borders, the convexity of one body fitting into the concavity of the other. Before leaving this part of our subject, Ave Avill give a brief summary of the uses of the several parts Avhich Ave have been endeavoring to describe. The first tissue, the sclerotic, is simply one of protection; the cornea is a medium for the transmission of light; the choroid supports the vessels, such as veins and arteries, by which the eye receives nutriment; and also, by its inner layer of pigmentum nigrum, absorbs all scat- tered rays, by Avhich an image impressed on the retina might be confused. The iris, by its poAver of expansion and contrac- tion, regulates the quantity of light admitted through the pupil. If it be thin, and the ra}rs pass through its substance they are absorbed by the uvea; and if the poAver of that layer be insuffi' 42 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. cient, they are taken up by the black pigment of the ciliary processes. ' . . , •„_, When the bodv of the refracting medium is too great, oAving to over-convexity 6f the cornea and lens, the image falls short FIG. 50. of the retina, unless the object be brought very close—this is near-sight. When there is an opposite condition of things, so that the image is thrown beyond the nervous membrane, we have Avhat is called far-sight. Of the various nerves, veins, and arteries, Avhich traverse the eye, we need not attempt a de- scription. To some of the princi- pal of them allusion has already been made; but to the appen- dages we must devote a little space. These are, first, the Bye- broAvs (supercilia), two promi- nent arches of integument, cov- ered more or less with thick short hairs, and forming the upper boundary of the orbits. Their obvious utility is to shade the eyes from too vivid a light, and to protect them from parti- cles of dust and moisture from the forehead. Second, the Eye- lids (palpebro?), Avhich have been well called the Curtains of the Eyes; when drawn open, they leave an elliptical space suffi- ciently large for the purposes of sight, and Avhen closed, as in sleep, they effectually defend the delicate organs which they cover from injury. If we in- quire into the structure of these two valvular Eye-curtains, we find that they consist of integuments, muscles, cartilages, glands, and the mucous membrane called conjunctiva, which covers the whole of the anterior surface of the eye, and is reflected back so as to form the internal layer of the lids. On examining the inner aspect of the Eyelids, the Meibo- mian Glands can be distinctly seen, arranged like strings of MUSCLES OF THE EYE. 1, Sphenoid Bone; 2, the Optic Nerve; 3, the Globe of the Eye; 4, the Upper Muscle, called the Levator Palpebrce, the Lifter of the Eyelids: 5, the Superior Oblique, so called from the direction in which it draws the Eyeball; we see its cartilaginous pulley (6), and the reflected portion passing down- ward to its point of connection with the ball, beyond which the Inferior Oblique has its bony origin,—the point of which is marked by the little square knob. The other four muscles are called .RecW.straight; the Superior Rectus, sometimes called the Levator Oculi, erector of the eyes, and some- times Superbus, because its action gives an expression of pride; its opposite, 13, the Inferior Rectus, sometimes called Deprimus oculi, depressor of the eye, and Humulis, as giving an expression of humility; 10, the Rectus Internus, sometimes called Adductor Oculi, from its drawing the Eyeball toward the nose, and Bibitorious, a sort of punning name, in allusion to the cup, or orbit, to- wards which it directs the glance; 11 and 12, Rectus Eztemus, the one showing its two heads of origin, and the other its termina- tion; the intervening portion of muscle [having been removed] has the name of Abductor Oculi, because it turns the ball outwards; Indignabundus is another name for it, as giving an expression of scorn. In our diagram, the internal rectus passes behind the optic nerve, which partly con- ceals it; 14, the tunica albigania, or white tunic, formed by the expansion of the tendons of the four Recti muscles. THE EAR. 43 pearls, about thirty, on the cartilage of the upper lid, and some- what feAver in the loAver, where also they are shorter than those above, as they correspond in length with the breadth of the cartilage. Each of these glands consists of a single lengthened follicle, or tube, into Avhich a great number of small clustered glandular vesicles open; and from these tubes the secretion is poured out upon the margins of the lids, which, being thus kept constantly moist inside, are in a condition to lubricate and wash the surface of the cornea, which they do in the motion of winking. The Eyelashes (cilia) are important organs of defence for the delicate surface of the eye, for whose curtains they form, as it were, a silken fringe. FIG. 51. 1 pinna; 2, lobule; 3, tube; 4, tympanic membrane; 5, incus, or anvil; 6, malleus, or hammer; 7, Eustachian tube; 8, semicircular canals; 9, vestibule; 10, cochlea. The Ear.—The Ear, the organ of hearing, consists of three parts,—the external ear, the middle ear or tympanum, and the internal ear or labyrinth. The external ear consists of an ex- panded trumpet-shaped cartilaginous structure, called the pinna, or auricle, which collects the sounds, and a tube which conveys these sounds to the internal ear. The pinna, or auricle, consists of an uneven piece of yellow cartilage, covered with mtegu- 44 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. raent, and fixed to the margin of the auditory canal. This canal or tube by Avhich sound is conveyed from the pinna to the internal ear, or tympanum, is about one and a quarter inches in length, and is formed partly by bone and partly by cartilage and membrane. Its direction is obliquely forwards and imvards, and is somewhat bent downwards towards the middle, so that it is rather higher there than at either ex- tremity. The skin lining the auditory canal is very thin, and closely adherent to the cartilaginous and osseous portions of the tube. It is continued over the membrane of the tympanum in the form of a thin pellicle, forming its outer covering. Around the entrance of the meatus are some fine hairs; and there are also ceruminous glands, which secrete the ear-wax, and open on the surface bv separate orifices. The middle ear, tympanum, or drum of the ear, is an irregular cavity situated within the petrous bone, and interposed between the meatus auditorius and the labyrinth, or inner ear. It is filled Avith air, and communicates with the pharynx by the Eustachian tube. It is traversed by a chain of small movable bones, Avhich connect the membrana tympani Avith the labyrinth, and serve to convey the vibrations communicated to the mem- brana tympani across the cavity of the tympanum to the in- ternal ear. The outer boundary of the cavity is formed by the membrana tympani, and by a small portion of the surround- ing bone. This membrane is a thin, semi-transparent substance, nearly oval in form, separating the cavity of the tympanum from the bottom of the auditory canal. The Eustachian Tube is the channel through which air is conveyed from the pharynx to the tympanum. The small bones, or ossicles, of the tympanum are three in number,—the malleus, incus, and stapes. These small bones are connected FIG. 52. FIG. CH. FIG. 54. THE INCUS. THE STAPES. THE MALLEUS. together, and Avith the tympanum, by ligaments, and moved small muscles. The inner and fundamental portion of the organ of hearing is called, from its complexity, the labyrinth, and consists of THE EAR. 45 three parts,—the vestibule, the semicircular canals, and the cochlea. It consists of a series of cavities channelled out of the substance of the petrous bone, communicating externally Avith the cavity of the tympanum, and internally with the meatus audi- torius internus, which contains the auditory nerve. Within the osseous labyrinth is contained the membranous labyrinth, upon Avhich the ramifications of the auditory nerve are distributed. The Vestibule is the common central cavity of the osseous labyrinth, and is placed behind the cochlea, but in front of the semicircular canals. These are three bony canals, situated above and behind the vestibule, measuring about one-tAventieth of an inch in diameter, and opening at both ends into the vestibule. FIG. 55. SECTION SHOWING THE HOLLOW OF THE COCHLEA. The Cochlea, so called from its resemblance to a snail's shell, is conical in form, and placed almost horizontally in front of the vestibule. Its length is about a quarter of an inch, and its Avidth at the base about the same. It consists of an axis, or centre; of a canal Avinding spirally round it for tAvo turns and a half from the base to the apex; and of a delicate lamina con- tained Avithin the canal, Avhich folloAvs its windings, and sub- divides it into two passages. The Avhole inner surface of the labyrinth, including the semicircular canals and the passages of the cochlea, is lined Avith a thin fibrous membrane, the outer surface of which adheres closely to the bone, Avhile the inner is covered with a single layer of epithelium, like that on serous membranes, and secretes a thin serous fluid. The auditory nerve, Avhich is distributed over the different parts of the laby- rinth, enters by the meatus auditorius internus, and divides into two branches, viz., an anterior for the cochlea and a posterior for the membranous labyrinth. 46 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. THE ABDOMEN. 1, the epigastric region; 2, the umbili- cal; 3, the hypogastric; 4, 5, the hypo- chondriac ; 6,7, the iliac; 8,9, the inguinal. The Abdomen—The Abdomen is the lower venter, or belly, containing the stomach, intestines, liver spleen, pancreas, Ji kidneys, Ac. It is lined within by a membrane called the peri- toneum, defended on either side by the short ribs, and covered with the abdominal muscles, which, by their relaxations and contractions, in the act of breath- ing, assist digestion, and give the necessary secretive and ex- pulsive motions to the surround- ing parts. The abdomen is bounded above by the midriff, or dia- phragm; and below by the pelvic bones, forming the pelvic cavity, with which it communi- cates ; at the front and sides are the abdominal muscles, which also extend backward to the vertebral column,or spine. This is the largest cavity of the human body, and, for convenience of description, it has been mapped out into three zones,—upper, middle, and lower,—and several parts, or regions. The contents of the abdomen —or, as they would be more properly called, the abdominal viscera, this word being the plural of viscus, which means a boAvel or any internal organ which has a specific use—are situated as shown in Fig. 57. Below the chest (1), and next to the diaphragm (2), is the liver (3), extending from beneath the right ribs across to the left, and having the largest development on the former side. Next to this is the stomach (4, the smaller THE a»»ominal visceba. end of Avhich is situated in the epigastric, and the larger in the left hypochondriac region, where it comes in contact with the FIG. 57. THE STOMACH. 47 spleen, or melt. Behind the stomach lies the pancreas, or SAveetbread. In the middle zone lies the large bowel (5), the omentum or caul, with a portion of the small intestines (6); and behind these, close to the spine, are the kidneys. The small in- testines also pass down the centre part of the inferior zone, as do laterally the ends of the large intestines, or colon; and there also we find, Avhen it is distended, the upper portion of the bladder (7). Over all these viscera, covering and support- ing them, extends the moist glistening membrane called the peritoneum, which extends also into what is called, in the male, the rectum, in the female the womb. The Stomach.—The stomach is the large membranous re- ceptacle which receives the food from the oesophagus, and within which it is acted upon by the gastric juice and converted into chyme. It is situated in the left hypochondriac and epigastric regions, and when dis- tended it has the shape of an irregular cone, having a rounded base and being curved upon itself. The left extremity is the larger, and is called the greater or splenic end of the stomach, —the right or small end being called the pyloric. The oeso- phagus terminates in the stomach tAvo or three inches from the great extremity by the cardiac orifice; while by the pyloric orifice at the other end, the digested matter enters the duode- num. When moderately filled, the stomach is about ten or tAvelve inches in length, and its diameter at the widest part about four inches. The walls of the stomach consist of four dis- tinct coats, held together by fine areolar tissue, and named, in order from without inwards—the serous, muscular, areolar, and mucous coats. The first of these is a thin, smooth, transparent, elastic membrane, derived from the peritoneum. The muscular coat is very thick, and composed of three sets of fibres—the longitudinal, circular, and oblique, which form three layers. The areolar and fibrous coat is a tolerably distinct layer, placed between the muscular and mucous coats, and connected with both. The last is a smooth, soft, rather thick and pulpy mem- THE STOMACH AND SUBEOUNDING OBGANS. I, the under-surface of the liver; g, the gall-bladder; /, the common bile duct; o, the cardiac end of the stomach; s, under surface of the stomach; p, pylorus; d, duodenum; h, i, the pancreas, cut across to exhibit the structure of the pancreatic duct, and its branches; r, the spleen; c, portion of the diaphragm; a, aorta. 48 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 59. brane, loosely connected with the muscular coat and covered wS exhaling and inhaling vessels At the pyloric orifice lead- ing from the stomach into the duodenum, there is a sphincter muscle Avhich contracts the aper- ture and prevents the passage of any matter into the intestines until properly digested. The food is propelled along the oeso- phagus, and enters the stomach in successive waves through its cardiac orifice. It is then sub- jected to a peculiar peristaltic motion, having for its object to produce a thorough intermixture of the gastric fluid Avith the ali- mentary mass, and to separate that portion which has been suffi- ciently reduced from the re- mainder. This motion causes not only a constant agitation or churn- ing of the contents, but also moves them sloAvly along from one ex- tremity to the other. These revo- lutions are completed in from one to three minutes, being slower at first than after chymification has more advanced. The passage of the chyme or product of the gastric digestion through the pyloric orifice into the commencement of the intestinal tube is at first slow; but Avhen the digestive process is nearly completed, it is trans- mitted in much larger quanti- ties. The Liver.—The liver is the secreting organ or gland by which the bile is formed. It is situated in the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions beloAV the dia- phragm, and is of a reddish-brown color. Its form is irregular, being convex on the upper surface, irregularly concave below, very thick behind, and very thin DIAGRAM OF THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS ENGAGED IN THE PREPARATION OF FOOD. a, muscles of the cheek; 6, parotid gland; c, muscles of the gullet; d, larynx; e, trachea; /, gullet; g, left ventricle of the heart; h, right auricle of the heart;»', left auricle; k, stomach; I, pancreatic duct; m, gall-bladder; n, commonduct; o, duodenum ^.mesen- teric glands; q, thoracic duct. in THE LIVER. 49 front; and in the adult it generally Aveighs from three to four fiounds. It is divided into two principal lobes—the right and eft, the former of which is by far the larger. They are divided on the upper side by a broad ligament, and beloAv by a con- siderable depression, or fossa. BetAveen and below these two FIG. 60. ORGANS OF DIGESTION. a, oesophagus; b, diaphragm; c, stomach; g, duodenum; h, i, right and left lobe of the liver; k, gall-bladder; I, biliary duct; m, mesentery; q, ascending colon; r, s, t, transverse colon; v, rectum; w, bladder; y, spleen; z, left lung. lobes is a smaller lobe, called lobulus Spigelii, Avhich is bounded on the left by the fissure for the lodgment of the ductus venosus; on the right by the fissure for the vena cava. The lobulus 50 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. caudatus is a tail-like process of the liver, stretchmg fowm ward, from the middle of the right lobe to the lobulus Spigelii. The liver like the other viscera of the abdomen, receives an in vestment from the lining membrane of that cavity—the peri- FIG. 61. LOBUS OF THE LIVER SHOWING LOBULE SHOWING THE HEPATIC AND PORTAL VEINS. HEPATIC DUCTS. p, branches of portal vein; I, capillaries d, d, the hepatic ducts; b, b, minute rami- eonnecting hepatic and portal veins; h, fications. hepatic veins. toneum, Avhich, being reflected from it at different points, forms broad bands, connecting it with the surrounding parts. An in- A^estment of areolar tissue is also spread over the organ, extend- ing into the interior, and forming thin but dense sheaths to the vessels and canals, called the capsule of Glisson. The proper tissue of the liver is composed of a great number of granular bodies, of the size of millet, and called lobules, of a foliated ap- pearance. The blood-vessels of the liver are the hepatic artery and veins and the vena porta3. The liver receives two kinds of blood: arterial, for the nourishment of the gland; and venous, from Avhich the bile is principally formed. The secretion of bile, though the chief and most obvious of the functions of the liver, is not the only one which it has to perform; for recent discoveries have shown that important changes are effected in certain constituents of the blood, in its transit through this gland, whereby they are rendered more fit for their subsequent purposes in the animal economy. The excretory apparatus of the liver consists of the hepatic, common, and cystic ducts, and the gall-bladder. The biliary ducts commence by small twigs in each lobule, and join, forming, Avhere they emerge from the gland, the he- patic duct. This duct, after passing down for a short distance, is joined at an angle by the cystic duct from the gall-bladder. The common duct thus formed empties itself into the duodenum. The retention of the materials of the bile in the blood acts THE GALL-BLADDER.—THE SPLEEN.—THE INTESTINES. 51 like a poison upon the nervous system, and if the suspension of secretion is complete, death soon takes place. The (fall-Bladder.—The gall-bladder is an oblong mem- branous receptacle, situated on the concave side of the liver, under the right lobe. It is about the size of a small hen's egg, and resembles a pear in shape. It serves as a reservoir for the bile, Avhich, Avhen digestion is not going on, regurgitates through the cystic duct, and is retained for future use. The Spleen.—The spleen is a spongy viscus, of a livid color, oval in figure, and situated in the left hypochondriac region, betAveen the eleventh and twelfth false ribs. It is con- vex externally and concave internally, and its weight in the healthy adult is from four to ten ounces. The Intestines.—The intestines are that part of the ali- FIG. 63. THE CMCVM, WITH ITS APPENDIX, AND ENTRANCE OF THE ILEUM, AND ILEO-OfflCAL VALVE. 1, caecum; 2, commencement of colon; 3, ileum; 4, aperture of entrance of the ileum into the large intestine; 5, 5, ileo-caecal valve; 6, aperture of appendix vermiformis casci; 7, appendix; 8,8, sacculi of the colon, separated by valvular septa; 9, falciform fraenum of the appendix. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A PORTION OF THE SMALL INTESTINE. mentary canal which extends from the stomach to the anus, and is formed by a peritoneal, muscular, and mucous or vis- cous coat, united by cellular membrane. It is divided into small and large intestines,—the first of Avhich has three divisions, severally distinguished as the f Duodenum, or twelve-inch intestine, the membrane of whose inner surface presents a number of folds called valvulge conni- ventes. This begins at the pylorus or lower surface of the 52 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 65. VIEW OF THE FOLLICLES OF THE COLON, MAGNIFIED ABOUT 115 TIMES. stomach- it bends first backwards, then downwards, and then across tie body, being partially covered by the peritoneum It then takes the name of Jejunum, so called from its being usually empty at this part. It then runs into the remaining por- tion called the Ileum, Avhich takes its name from its mazy folds or convolutions. The small intes- tines open by the ileo-colic valve into the large intestines, which have also three divisions: first, the cgecum, or head of the colon, to which is attached the appendix vermiformis, a little blind bag. The colon, Avhich constitutes al- most the entire length of the large intestine, is termed as it ascends into the right lumbar region, the ascending colon; as it crosses the abdomen, the trans- verse arch of the colon; and as it descends in the left lumbar region, the descending colon. The termination of the large intestine is the rectum, or end of the alimentary canal,—so called because it is nearly in a right line. Here the covering called the peritoneum ceases, and the intestine accomo- dates itself to the hollow of the pelvis, having its external opening in the anus, the sphincter of which, a strong circular muscle, guards it. The Avhole of the intes- tinal canal is a continuous tube about six times the length of the body, the first three-quarters of it comprising the small, and the last quarter the large intestines. In the mucous coat of the alimentary canal is to be found a cribriform texture of veins, almost without an artery. The fine venous trunks of a deeper layer have their originating FIG. 66. VIEW OF THE VILLI AND FOLLICLES OF THE ILEUM, HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. THE PANCREAS. 53 FIG. 67. MESENTERIC CIRCULATION. extremities directed vertically toward the cavity of the gut, and the meshes of the venous intertexture are exceedingly minute, producing in the colon an appearance re- sembling a plate of metal pierced with round holes closely bordering on each other. These holes are the follicles of Lieber- kuhn, are gaping orifices, the edges of Avhich are rounded off, and their depth is that of the thickness of the venous anastomosis. The aggre- gate number of these follicles in the colon, is estimated at nine millions six hundred and twenty thousand. The villi (shown in Fig. 66) are curved, with their edges bent in, or concave; but there is, in the Avhole canal, every variety of shape, from oblong, curved, and serpentine ridges, to the laterally flattened cone standing on its base. Fig. 67 shoAvs a distended in- testine, with its arteries, veins, and lymphatics, or lacteals, with three glands (5), through which the absorbed matter passes, and in which it is believed that it is vitalized. The Pancreas.—The pan- creas is a single glandular organ, situated transversely across the upper part of the abdomen. It is of an irregular elongated form, from six to eight inches in length, an inch and a half in breadth, and from half an inch to an inch thick. In structure, the pancreas closely resembles the salivary glands, but it is looser and softer in texture; and the fluid secreted is almost identical with saliva. Jts object is believed to be to reduce fatty matters to the state PAROTID GLAND OF A SHEEP, EXHIBITING THE BRANCHED AND LOBULATED CHARAC- TER OF THE GLANDS OF THE HUMAN STOMACH, AND OTHER PARTS. 54 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 69. of an emulsion, and thereby promote their absorption by the lacteals. The amount daily secreted by man is from five to seven ounces, and it is most abundant at the commencement of The Kidneys.—These are two glandular bodies situated in the lumbar region, Avhose office is to secrete the urine from the blood. Their exact position is on either side of the spine, in Avhat is usually called the small of the back, where they lie imbedded in fat; each of them is supplied with blood by vessels which issue di- rectly from the aorta, and from each of them issues a duct called the ureter, Avhich conveys the urine to the bladder. The kidneys are composed of tAvo very different structural arrangements — the outer, or cortical portion being, as it were, granulated, and the inner being fibrous, arranged in pyramids or cones, Avith their bases resting upon the cortical substance, and their apices or points opening into a central cavity—the pelvis, or, as it has been called, the brain of the kidney, Avhich may be re- garded as an expansion of the upper portion of the ureter, which is about the diameter of a goose quill, and eighteen inches long, passing behind the bladder, and entering that organ at its loAver part. Each kidney together forms a firm, fleshy mass, Avhich is enclosed in a fibrous capsule, the outer and tougher membrane being lined Avith a soft and smooth mucous membrane which forms a continuation of that which lines the ureter and the bladder; the shape is about that of a French bean. The Urine is a highly complex fluid, secreted from the blood by the kidneys. In a healthy person, Avhen recently voided, it is a clear, limpid fluid, of a pale yellow or amber color, Avith a peculiar faint aromatic odor, Avhich becomes pungent and ammoniacal when decomposition takes place. Often, however, as it cools, it becomes opaque and turbid, from the deposition of part of its constituents previously held in solution; and this maybe consistent Avith health. The quan- tity secreted in tAventy-four hours depends upon the amount of SECTION OF A KIDNEY. THE BLADDER.—THE GENERATIVE "ORGANS. 55 FIG. 70. fluid drank and the quantity secreted by the skin; but generally it is about from thirty to forty fluid ounces. In 1000 parts of ordinary urine there are 933 parts of water and 67 parts of solid matter. The Bladder is a thin membranous bag which serves as a receptacle for the urine secreted by the kidneys, until it is voided through the urethra. It is situ- ated in the pelvis, and is kept in its place by ligaments, Avhich are usually divided into true and "false, the latter being formed of folds of the peritoneum. It is composed of three coats, or membranes,— the external, or fibrous membrane; the middle, or muscular membrane; and the internal, or mucous membrane. On each side, rather beloAv its middle, it receives the tA\ro ducts called ureters, Avhich convey the urine from the kidneys into the bladder. Generative Organs.—In the human race, as throughout the greater part of the animal kingdom, generation is accom- plished by fecundation, or the effect of the vivifying fluid provided by one class of organs upon the germ contained in the seed or ovum formed by another class, in the opposite sex. This germ, Avhen fecundated, is termed the embryo. The process consists of impregnation in the male female. The organs of generation in the male are—1. The testes and their envelopes, namely, the scrotum or cutaneous envelope; the dartos, Avhich corrugates or ridges the scrotum; and the fibrous or vaginal tunics; we must also here include the epi- dermis, above the testes; the vas deferens, or excretory duct, and the spermatic chord. 2. Vesiculas seminales, forming a canal situated beneath the bladder. 3. The prostate gland, surrounding the neck of the bladder and the commencement of the urethra. 4. Cowper's glands, a pair situated beloAv ,the prostate. 5. The ejaculatory ducts. 6. The penis, Avhich con- sists of the corpus cavernosum, the urethra, the corpus spon- giosum, Avhich terminates in the glans penis; then there are the vessels, nerves, and a cutaneous investment, Avhich by its pro- longation forms the prepuce. THE URINARY BLADDER, SHOWING ITS MUSCULAR FIBRES 8, Left Ureter; 9, Left por. tion of Seminal Vesicles; 11, 11, Lateral Lobes of the Pros- tate Gland; 14, Urethra, tied with a cord. -conception in the 56 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. The female organs are: 1. The vulva or pubendum, the external parts, comprehending the labia pubendi (lip), the clitoris, situated at the middle and superior part of the puben- dum; the nympha) or alaa niinores; the urethra, which termi- nates in the meatus urinarius, opening into the vagina, which is occupied by the hymen, a semilunar fold, or the caruncula3 myrti- formis, its lacerated remains after the first act of copulation; and the entrance into the vagina, termed the os externum, so called to distinguish it from the os internum, or orifice of—2. The uterus, Avhose appendages are—the ligamenta lata (the broad ligaments), sometimes called ahc vespertilionum, and the round ligaments commencing immediately before and below the Fallopian tubes, which extend to the ovaria. The Perinaeum.—The space betAveen the anus and the external parts of the generative organs, so called from being frequently moist. The operation of cutting for stone in males is usually performed here, and here it is that serious injury sometimes occurs, Avhen persons fall Avith their legs astride of any object, or get a bruise Avhile in that position, as on horse- back; bloody urine, or complete stoppage may be the conse- quence, arising from inflammation of the bladder, or urethra. Rest and warm fomentations, Avith leeches, and the use of the catheter, if necessary, must in this case be resorted to; Avith Ioav diet, aperients, and cooling medicines, to keep down any ten- dency to fever there may be. We abstain from giving cuts of these several parts and organs for sufficiently obvious reasons; in a book intended for family use they Avould be altogether objectionable. With re- gard to the diseases Avhich more immediately affect them, a few simple remarks will be made under their several heads; but we would here impress upon our readers the necessity of at once seeking medical advice for all affections of the genital organs. It is in the treatment of this peculiar class of diseases that ad- vertising empirics reap their richest harvest, entailing the greatest present sufferings, and most fearful after-consequences upon their too credulous dupes. ^ The Bones.—The number of bones in the human body is variable; but in the adult they are reckoned at about two hundred and forty-four. They are equally divided into long, flat, and irregular—long, as in the thigh and leg; flat, as in the skull and pelvis; irregular, as in the hands and feet. Bones are covered with a peculiar membrane, called the periosteum which serves to conduct the blood vessels and nerves. The osseous skeleton is divided into head, trunk, upper and lower extremi- THE BONES. 57 FIG. 71. ties. The trunk is divided into the spine, thorax, and pelvis. The thorax contains the principal organs of circulation and respiration, and is the largest of the three great caA'ities con- nected with the spine, and is formed by the sternum and costal cartilages in front, the twelve ribs on each side, and the dorsal vertebras behind. The sternum is a flat, narroAv bone, situated in the anterior part of the thorax, and connected with the ribs by means of the costal cartilages. The ribs are tAventy-four in number, tAvelve on each side. The pelvis, or loAver cavity of the trunk, consists of four bones. The os coccygis, Avhich forms the terminal bone of the spine, is sometimes regarded, like the os sacrum, as composed of four false vertebras, which are at first distinct, but afterAvard become united. The ossa innominata are tAvo irregularly-shaped bones, situ- ated one on each side of the pelvis, and consisting of three parts—the ilium, ischium, and pubis, firmly united in the adult, but distinct in the young subject. Each of the tAvo upper extremities is composed of the bones of the arm, the forearm, and the hand, and is united to the trunk by means of the scapula and clavicle, Avhich form the shoulder. The scapula is a flat, triangularly- shaped bone, placed upon the upper and back part of the thorax. The clavicle, or collar bone, is a long bone, something in the form of the italic letter /. The arm has only one bone, the os humeri, Avhich ex- tends from the scapula to the bones of the forearm. The forearm con- sists of two bones, the radius and ulna, Avhich are parallel, and play upon each other, thus admitting of freer motion in that part. The radius is situate on the outer side of the forearm. Its upper end is small, and forms only a small part of the elbow joint, Avhile its loAver extremity is large, and forms the chief part of the Avrist joint. The ulna is placed at the inner side of THE HUMAN SKELETON. 58 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. THE THORAX. t hP forearm and differs from the radius in being larger at the uppert^ at the lower extremity. The bones of the hand are divided into the carpus, the metacarpus, and phalanges. The bones of the carpus, or Avrist, are eight small bones, arranged in tAvo rows, the upper row comprising the scaphoid, semilunar, cuneiform, and pisiform; the loAver toav com- prising the trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform. The metacarpal bones, or bones of the palm, are five in number, and corre- spond to the fingers. The pha- langes, or bones of the fingers, are fourteen in number, each finger, Avith the exception of the thumb (Avhich has only tAvo), having three of them. The upper and loAver ex- tremities bear a great resemblance to each other in the nature and form of their bones. Like the upper, each of the lower extremi- ties consists of three distinct parts—the thigh, leg, and foot. The thigh is composed of a single bone—the os femur,—which is the longest and largest in the body. The leg consists of three bones—the patella, tibia, and fibula. The patella, or knee- , pan, is a small, flat, triangular bone, of a spongy texture, situ- ated at the anterior part of the knee-joint, betAveen the femur and the tibia. The tibia and fibula in the leg resemble the radius and the ulna in the fore- arm : the tibia is, after the femur, the largest bone in the body. It is situate at the anterior and inner side of the leg, articu- lating Avith the femur above and the astragalus beloAv. The fibula is considerably smaller than the tibia. Its upper extremity is small, and placed below the level of the knee-joint, but the loAver extremity projects below the tibia, and forms the outer ankle. The foot, like the hand, is FIG. 73. THE PELVIS. a, os sacrum; b, the iliac; c, fossae, form- ing the lateral boundaries of the false pelvis; g, the acetabulum; d, os pubis; e, ischium; /, tuberosity of the ischium. THE BONES. 59 bones: go to FIG. 74. VERTICAL SECTION OF THE ANKLE-JOINT AND FOOT OF THE RIGHT SIDE, showing the formation of joints, the synovial capsules, and ligaments. The references are not given, as difficult and needless to remember. composed of three classes of bones—the tarsus, the metatarsus, and the phalanges. The tarsus is composed of seven bones. The metatarsal bones are long small bones, five in number, con- nected at the one extremity Avith the tarsal, at the other with the phalangeal these last form the toes, each of which has three, except the great toe, which has only two. The different bones of the skele- ton are connected together in various ways, and such conections are termed articula- tions. They are of various kinds, but are usually divided into immovable, mova- ble, and mixed. Immovable articulations exist Avhere flat and broad bones are united to inclose important organs, as in the cranium and pelvis. In some parts the edges indent or inter- lock each other; in others they are brought into close contact, or are united together by a thin layer of cartilage. The mova- ble articulations are of various kinds, according to the kind of motion required. In such cases, the bony surfaces brought into contact are covered Avith cartilage, bound together by ligaments, and lined by synovial membrane. Mixed articulation prevails where only a slight degree of motion is required, combined Avith great strength, as in the vertebras. Bone is a highly organized and complex substance. It con- sists of animal and earthy, and saline materials, in the propor- tion of about one-third of the former to tAvo-thirds of the latter; or, to speak more strictly, according to chemical analysis, we may say that in lOO'OO parts there are 33'30 of cartilage and blood-vessels, 51*04 phosphate of lime, 11*30 carbonate of lime, 2*00 fluate of lime, and 2'36 magnesia and soda. In the human frame the bones are of various forms and de- grees of density, or hardness. Thus, in the limbs, ihey are holloAV cylinders, combining lightness Avith strength; in the body and head they are chiefly flattened and arched, forming cases for the internal viscera; in the spine and extremities, they 60 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. are in many pieces, to facilitate the bending of the numerous joints. Their connections with each other are accomplished and preserved in many FIG. 76. ways. In alf bones, Avhether hollow or solid, the outer portion is harder than the inner; many of them are spongy, or, as it is scien- tifically termed, cancellated, and most of them have minute irregu- lar cells scattered through their texture. At those extremities, Avhere a smooth and elastic sub- stance is required for the joints, most bones ha\Te a covering of cartilage. Bones are first de- veloped in a gelatinous form, which hardens into cartilage, and then receives the deposit of lime, by Avhich they are ren- dered firm; sometimes there is a deficiency of the earthy de- posit, and thus the bones are bent and yielding. When there is too much lime the bones are too brittle and easily broken. One of the principal diseases to whicti the bones are subject is Caries. It acts on the perios- teum like ulceration on the soft parts of the body. Another disease of the bones is Ne- crosis. It is, as its name implies, actual death of the osseous substance. Both these diseases are characterized &**l by a constant gnaAv- ing pain in the bone. Swelling and red- bones of the ness over the seat F00T- of the disease ensues; there is a formation of matter and a dis- charge of a foul, fcetid character, communicating a dark stain BONES OF THE ARM. BONES OF THE LEG. THE MUSCLES. 61 to the dressings. Several openings in the skin may occur along the course of the diseased bone, of which occasionally small pieces may come aAvay with the dis- FIG 78 charge. Many minute blood-vessels pass into and through the porous tissues of the bones, and hence they are liable to inflammation and congestion, both acute and chronic, resulting in softening, and ulceration or mortification, pass- ing thus into caries and necrosis. That Avhich is commonly called a White Swelling is a result of chronic inflam- mation. It ends in caries of the spongy texture of the ends of the bone, and destruction of their carti- laginous lining. Abscess of bone some- times results from inflammation, and especially after acute disease, such as small-pox. A prominent symptom is a fixed pain in one spot, in addition to inflammatory enlargement. Exfoliation is the death of the outer bony layer only. It is generally caused by some injury to the bone from a blow or a graze, or the ampu- tating-knife. In this case the shell dies, and is replaced by fresh osse- ous matter coming up from beneath by granulations pushing the dead bone from its place in thin flakes or exfoliations. The Muscles.—The muscles are the moving organs of the animal frame. They constitute, by their size and number, the great bulk of the body, upon Avhich they bestoAv form and symmetry. In the limbs, they are situated around the bone, which they invest and defend, while they form to some of the joints a DIAGRAM SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE BONES TO THE FLESH. a, The Skull; b, the Face; c, Cervi cal Vertebrae, or Neck-Bones; d, Breast Vertigo; e, Lumbar Verte- bra3, or Spine; /, Os Sacrum, or Rump-Bone; g, Coccyx; h, Ilium, or Haunch-Bone; ?', Sternum, or Breast Bone; k, Ribs; I, Clavicle, or Collar-Bone; to, Scapula, or Blade-Bone; n, Humerus, or Arm-Bone; o, Radius, or Circular- Bone of Forearm; p, Ulna, or large Bone of the Forearm; q, Carpus, or Hand-Bones; r. Phalanges, or Fingers; s, Femur, or Thigh-Bone; t, Patella, or Knee-bone; ?/, Tibia, or Shin- Bone; v, Fibula, or Small Bone of the Leg; u, u>, Tarsus, or Foot Bone; x, Calcium,or Heel- Bone ; z\ z, Phalanges, or Toes. 62 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. principal protection. In the trunk, they are spread out to em close cavities and constitute a defensive wall, capable of yield- ing to internal pressures and its original FIG. 79. again returning pi to position. Muscle is composed of a number of parallel fibres placed side by side, and supported and held to- gether by a delicate Aveb of areo- lar tissue; so that, if it were possi- ble to remove the muscular sub- stance, Ave should have remaining a beautiful reticular framework, possessing the exact form and size of the muscle, without its color and solidity. ToAvards the extremity of the organ the mus- cular fibre ceases, and the fibrous structure becomes aggregated and modified, so as to constitute those glistening fibres and cords by Avhich the muscle is tied to the surface of bone, and Avhich are called tendons. Almost every muscle of the body is connected Avith bone, either by tendinous fibres, or by an aggregation of these fibres constituting a tendon, and the union is so firm, that, under extreme violence, the bone itself breaks rather than permit the separation of the tendon from its attachment. It may be interesting, as well as useful, to enter a little more fully into the structure of muscle,which, as before stated, is composed of bundles of fibres enclosed in an investment or sheath of areolar membrane, Avhich is continuous with the framework of the mus- cular fibres, each bundle of which, termed a fasciculus, is com- Posea of a number of smaller bundles, and these of single fibres, which, from their minute size, and independent appearance, THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. a, Muprles of the Head; b, Visual Mus- cles; c, Cervical Muscles; d, Combination of the Cervical Muscles; e, Pectoral Mus- cles; /, Dorsal Muscles; g, Abdominal Muscles; h, Muscles of the Pelvis; i, Shoulder Muscles; I, Muscles of the Upper Arm; m, Anterior Muscles of the Forearm. THE MUSCLES. 63 have been called ultimate fibres; although microscopic exami- nation informs us that each one of these is itself a fasciculus, made up of ultimate fibrils enclosed in an extremely delicate sheath, called the myolemma or sarcolemma. The appearance of one of these bundles of fibrils, as magnified, is shown in Pig. 80. Of the ultimate muscular fibre there are ^ Fia 80- two sorts in the animal economy, viz., that of voluntary or animal life, called striated mus- cle, and that of involuntary or organic life, muscular fibbils. termed smooth muscle. The former is knoAvn by its size, its uniformity of calibre, and especially by its transverse markings, which occur at minute and regular distances. It also presents markings, or striae, in a longitudinal direction, which indicate the existence of fibrillae Avithin the sheath, or myolemma, Avhich is thin, transparent, and elastic. The ultimate fibres, or fasci- culi, are polyhedral, or many sided, in shape, this form being due to mutual pressure; and that the sizes differ in different classes, genera, and even sexes of animals. The ultimate fibrils of animal life are beaded filaments, presenting a regular suc- cession of segments and constrictions, the latter being narrower than the former, and the component substance probably less dense. The arrangement of a bundle of these fibrils in an ulti- mate fibre, is such that all the segments and constrictions corre- spond, and in this manner give rise to the alternate light and dark lines of the transverse striae. The beautiful regularity of this arrangement may be seen by Fig. 81, in Avhich B represents the ultimate fibril of animal life, and C the union of such in an ultimate fibre. We have mentioned that the ultimate fibril of animal life, fig. si. although cylindrical, becomes polyhedral from press- ure, Avhen forming part of an ultimate fibre, or fasci- culus. It measures in diameter l-2000th of an inch, and is composed of a succession of cells connected by thin flat surfaces. These cells are filled with a trans- parent substance which has been called myoline. It differs in density in different cells, and this circum- stance imparts a peculiarity of character to certain of them, and causes the structures which they form fibre, fihril. to assume, under the microscope, a very beautiful and remarkable appearance, such as is represented in Fig. 82. Yery different from all this in its form and arrangement, is the ultimate fibre of organic life, it being a simple homogeneous filament much smaller than the fibre of animal life,—flat, smooth, 64 ANATOMY'OF THE HUMAN BODY. FIG. 82. ABC i ■ i 1 ■ = ! i i S i i I 1 ! 0 ■ ! D \ji \ i HI FIBBILS and fibres. and Avithout transverse markings. It is of a fusiform shape, and various length, and consists of a thin external membrane, blended with a soft, homogenous, or finely granular contained substance. Fig. 83 represents muscular fibres of organic life—D from the urinary bladder, and E from the stomach, both magnified 600 times, linear measure; the diameter of these tAvo fibres midAvay betAveen the thick parts, or nuclei, being 14750th of an inch. This kind of muscle is distributed very abundantly in the animal frame, and is met with in all situations Avhere a distinct con- tractile poAver, independent of mere elasticity, is required. The Arteries are vessels Avhich convey the blood from the heart,—formerly sup- posed, from their being found empty after death to contain only air. The arterial system of the human frame is that Avhich performs one of the most important func- tions on Avhich vitality depends. Proceeding directly from the heart, and ramifying in every direction, through all the various tissues of the body, it conveys the blood, after it has received a supply of oxygen from the lungs, and been passed into the great organ Avith Avhich the arteries are connected, Avheresoever it is required for the purposes of life. These arteries are membra- nous cylindrical tubes, composed of three coats, and are so constructed as to be capable of considerable extension, and likewise of bearing a great amount of- strain and pressure, to Avhich they are occasionally subjected, and which results sometimes in a rupture. The Avhole of the arteries of Avhat is called the systemic circulation, proceed from a single trunk termed the aorta. This main trunk or channel pro- ceeds from the left ventricle of the heart, and con- tains the pure arterial blood, knoAvn by its bright red color, and issuing, Avhen it makes its escape at any accidental opening, in jets, in accordance with the pulsations. From these the smaller arteries are given off as branches, dividing and subdividing to their ultimate ramifications, constituting the great arterial tree, of some of the principal branches of AAmich, we here present our readers with a cut, Avhich represents the large vessels at the root of the heart and lungs. It is necessary FIG. 83. THE ARTERIES. 65 here to refer to the minute explanation of the figured points of figure 84. 1, The ascending aorta; 2, the transverse portion of the arch of the same; 3, its thoracic portion, passing through the chest; 4, the arteria innominata springing out of the arch, and divided into the com- mon carotid; 5, which again divides at 6, into the external and internal carotid, and 7 the right subclavian artery, which passes into the auxiliary artery 8, whose extent is indicated by the dotted lines; this again runs into the brachial artery, which forms the channel of supply to the right arm. The two lines "" are a pair of nerves called the right an - left pneumo- gastric; 11 is the left comon carotid, and 12 the left subclavian, becoming auxiliary and brachial in its course, like its fellow on the opposite side; all these belong to the greater systemic cir elation, as do also 21, intercostal arteries, and the branches from the front of the aorta above and below 3, Which are pericardine and asophagial, per- taining to the pericardium and the aeso- phagus, and abdomen. AVe now go back on the diagram to No. 3, the trunk of the pulmonary artery, which emanating from the right ventricle of the heart conveys the impure blood, returned there by the veins to the lungs for aera- tion. This is the main channel of the lesser or pulmonary circulation, it is con- nected with the concavity of the arch of the arterial system. the aorta by a fibrous cord, called the ductus arteriosus. 14, the left pulmonary artery, and 15 the right; 16 the trachea, or windpipe, the passage which communicates with the lungs, will serve to show the relative positions of these arteries; 17 and 18 are the right and left bronchus, and 19 are the pulmonary veins; the rest of the numbers indicate the roots of the lungs. The arteries do not, as Avas at one time supposed, run im- mediately into the veins, but are connected Avith them by what are called the capillaries, a hair-like network of vessels so minute that it requires a microscope to make them out; these are, it is said, about l-3000th of an inch in diameter, and they are distributed through every part of the body so thickly as to render it impossible to pass a small needle into the flesh without wounding several of them; hence the Aoav of blood from a prick; it is through this medium that all the phenomena of nutrition and secretion are performed; they are all small alike, and are joined on the one hand with the terminal ramifications of the arteries, and on the oth^r Avith the minute radicles of the Veins. The capillary vessels have but one coat, which is transparent 66 ANATOMY. OF THK HUMAN BODY. and fibreless; as they approach the arteries and veins this coat becomes thicker, and, in accordance with the substance thereof, they are distinguished as fine or coarse; the latter gradually FIG. 85. artekt from the brain. 1. Minute artery. 2. Transitional capillary. 3. Coarse capillary, the thick coat being represented by the double lines of contour, i. Fine capillary, the black marks indicate the position of certain nuclei dis- persed over the inner surfaces of capillaries, transitional vessels, ar- teries and veins constituting in the two latter the epithitial layer of the inner coat. the superior mesenteric artery. A, is the descending portion of the Duodenum; B, is a transverse section of the same; C, the Pancreas; D, Jejunum; E, Ilium; F, Coecum, and Appendix Vermiformis; G, Ascending Colon; H, Transverse Colon; I, Descending Colon; J, Su- perior Mesenteric Artery; if, Colica Media; L, the branch which Inosculates (or joins by little mouths) with the Colica Sinistra; M, Inferior Pancreatic Duodenum; N, Colica Dextra; O, Ilio Colica; P, Vasa Intestinl Tenous. augmenting in size and complexity of structure become Avhat are called transitional vessels. The capillaries are most abundant in the lungs, liver, kid- neys, and other secreting glands, also in the skin, and mucus membrane; and they are smallest and least abundant in the muscles, nerves, organs of sense, and those tissues where nu- trition only is to be accomplished; they are large in the bones, but not numerous, interweaving, as in many parts they do, into a minute network called a Plexus. The extreme beauty of arterial arrangement will be best exhibited by Fig. 86, showing the course and distribution of the Superior Mesenteric Artery. A particular description of all the several arteries could scarcely be looked for in a work like the present. It has THE VEINS. 67 FIG. 87. already been seen that they are very numerous, although we have alluded to but few of them comparatively; some of them lie deep amid the internal viscera; others, as the femoral, pass- ing down the thigh, the temporal, which traverses the forehead, the carotid, in the neck, and the bronchial, and other arteries of the arm, which are most likely to be wounded in the act of venesection, come very near to the surface, in some cases protected from injury only by the loose ariolo-fibrous investment which sepa- rates all arteries from the surrounding tissues. The Veins.—These are the vessels which return the blood to the auricles of the heart, after it has been circulated by the arteries through the various tissues of the body. They are much thinner in substance than the arteries, so that when emptied of their blood they are flattened and collapsed. Arteries are the channels through Avhich blood passes from the heart to the various parts of the body. Veins are the chan- nels by which it returns to that organ, and to the lungs, to be purified, and again rendered fit for its vital purposes. These two different channels of circulation do not communicate directly with each other, but are connected by the minute branches which they each throw out, and which are called capillaries. These ramify all through the extremities, and all over the surface of the body, conveying arterial and taking up venous blood, which is passed into the smaller veins, thence into the larger, and so proceeds upward to the great fountain from which it set out, con- stantly receiving fresh accessions from the tributary veins which pour into the main channels on every side. Veins admit of a threefold division—into superficial, deep, and sinuses. Superficial Veins return the blood from the integument and superficial structures, and take their course between the layers THE PRINCIPAL VEINS IN THE FOREARM AND BEND OF THE ELBOW. 1, the Radial Vein; 2, the Cephalic; 3, the Anterior Ulnar; 4, the Posterior Ulnar; 5,theTrunk, formed by their union; 6, the Basi- lic, which at 7 penetrates the deep fascia; 8, point of communication between the deep veins of the fore- arm and the upper part of the Median; 9, Median Cephalic; 10, Median Basi- lic; 11, a convexity of tho deep fascia, formed by the Brachial Artery; 12, Ex- ternal Cutaneous Nerve, which pierces the deep fascia, and dividing into two branches, passes be- hind the Median Cephalic Vein; 13, Internal Cutane- ous Nerve, dividing into branches, and passing in front of the Median Basilic; 14, Inter cos to Humeral Nerve; 15, Spiral Cutaneous Nerve. 68 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. of the upper fascia. They then pierce the deep fascia, in the most convenient and protected situation, and terminate in the Deep Veins, Avhich are situated among the deeper structures of the body, and generally in close proximity with arteries. In the limbs they are enclosed in the same sheath Avith these vessels: these return the blood from the capillaries of the deep tissues. Sinuses differ from these veins in their structure, and also in their mode of distribution, being confined to special organs, and situated Avithin their substances. One very remarkable feature of veins is their numerous valves, Avhich are composed of a thin stratum of nucleated areolar tissue mingled Avith fine elastic fibres, and coated on the two surfaces with fine elongated cells. The segments, or flaps, of these valves are semi-lunar in form, and arranged in pairs, one on either side of the vessel generally, but sometimes there is a single flap which has a spiral direction, and occasionally there are three. The free border of the valvular flaps is con- cave, and directly fonvards, so that while the current of blood is permitted to flow freely towards the heart, the valves are distended and the current intercepted, if the stream from full- ness of the veins above, or other causes, should turn back. When Ave consider that the course of the venous current is upAvard, and so opposed to the law of gravitation, Ave shall see at once the Avisdom of such an arrangement. On page 31 will be found a cut of a valve of the heart, which will give a good idea of the general conformation of those of the veins. In those of the extremities, particularly the deeper ones, they are most numerous. In the portal and cerebral, and very small veins, and those of the viscera, they are generally absent, and alto- gether so in the large trunks. The (Hands.—A gland is an organ of the body, in Avhich secretion is carried on, and Avhich consists of a congerie of blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents. There are tAvo primary divisions under which the glands are commonly placed. These are—First, those employed in secreting some particular fluid for the use of the body, such as the Liver, which secretes bile, and purifies the blood; the Kidneys, Avhich secrete urine; and the Salivary Glands, which secrete the saliva. Second, the Absorbent Glands, and vessels whose office is to carry off the Avaste materials of the machine. The Pancreas and the Spleen should also be placed in the first of these divisions, although their peculiar offices in the animal economy is someAvhat obscure. THE BLOOD. 69 The Blood.—The blood is a red fluid circulating through the heart, arteries, and veins of animal bodies, serving for the nourishment of all their parts, and the support of life. This nutritive fluid consists, firstly, of Avater, holding, in a dissolved condition, fibrine, albumen, potassium, and sodium, together Avith phosphoric acid and other substances; secondly, of corpuscles, or globules, Avhich float in the liquor sanguinis. When draAvn from the body, the blood undergoes a remarkable change. By degrees it gelatinizes, and forms spontaneously coagulum and serum. Coagulum con- sists of the fibrine and the corpuscles; serum, of Avater, albumen, and the various saline matters. The corpus- cles are of tAvo kinds—red and white, the red being the more numerous. Blood is termed arterial or venous, according to the vessel in Avhich it circulates. Arterial blood is a florid red, Avith a stronger odor and less specific gravity than the venous fluid. Venous blood is of a dark purple. The scarlet, or arterial blood, Avhich is one degree Avarmer than venous blood, OAves its color to its under- going contact Avith atmospheric air in the lungs. It circulates in the pulmonary veins, the left cavities of the heart, and the arteries, by Avhich it is distributed to the different organs throughout the body. The dark purple blood circulates in the veins, in the right cavities of the heart, the pulmonary artery, and the lungs. There is, again, a difference betAveen arterial and venous blood in respect to the gases Avhich they contain. The first holds a supply of oxygen; the second is rendered im- pure by the carbonic acid Avith Avhich it is loaded. Blood is the product of the elaboration of chyle, and ac- quires its nutritive and life-giving qualities in respiration. By means of the arterial vessels it penetrates to all the organs, dis- tributing nutrition to every organic tissue. It is, moreover, the principal source of animal heat; from it, also, the secretive organs derive their various products, such as saliva, bile, urine, &c. The average quantity of blood in an adult man has been calculated at twenty-eight pounds, or pints. It has been shoAvn that the composition of the blood undergoes a change in various diseases; and, after repeated bleedings, the number of corpuscles becomes permanently diminished. The color, as CORPUSCLES OF THE BLOOD. 1, 2,1, Blood Corpuscles, as seen on their flat surface and edge; 2, Congeries of Blood Corpuscles in columns. In coagulating, the Cor- puscles apply themselves to each other, so as to refemble piles of money. 1 (below), Blood Globules, or Cells, containing smaller cells, which are set free by the dissolu- tion of the containing, cell. 70 ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY. well as the composition of the blood, varies in different sections of the animal kingdom: red in the vertebrates and annelides; Avhite and transparent as water in insects and crustaceans; bluish-white in mollusca; yellowish in holothurians and some other invertebrates. This" difference in color arises from the corpuscles, Avhich are in some cases red, and in others white or straAv-colored, or bluish-Avhite. The chemical constituents of blood, Avhen in a healthy con- dition, are—albumen, fibrin, hamiatin or coloring matter, oleic, stearic, lactic, phosphoric, sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids, in combination Avith soda, potash, ammonia, lime, magnesia, and a small portion of phosphorized fat. The blood also contains oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid. In considering the chemi- cal constitution of the blood, it may be regarded as consisting of two parts—the liquor sanguinis and the blood corpuscles floating therein. The liquor sanguinis is composed of serum, holding a very small quantity of fibrin in solution. Taking the blood as a Avhole, Liebig gives its component parts as water, 80; solid matter, 20. The solid matter, on being icinerated, gives \\ to la Per cent, of ash, which consists of one-half sea-salt, one-tenth of peroxide of iron, and the rest of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, and carbonic acid. The Skin.—Although apparently very simple in its struc- ture, the skin is nevertheless a very compound organ; and when we consider the important functions it performs, and its re- lations to the rest of the body, Ave shall not be surprised at this. It is not only the seat of common sensation, but by means of the vapor it constantly, emits in the form of perspiration, it becomes the great regulator of the heat of the body. For these purposes it is supplied with nerves, blood-vessels, and glands. On examining a portion of skin from the palm of the hand, or sole of the foot, from Avithout imvards, Ave find that ex- ternally it presents a number of furroAvs, or lines, Avhich are tolerably constant in particular parts of the body. On the elevations between these lines are seen a number of minute openings (b b) Avhich are the terminations of the glands (d d d) that yield perspiration. These furrows and pores are in the upper layer of the skin, called epidermis (c c) or scarf skin. This membrane is in some parts very thin, not exceeding the one two-hundred-and-fortieth part of an inch in thickness, whilst in others, as in the sole of the foot and the palm of the hand, it is at least one-twelfth of an inch thick. It is this portion of THE SKIN. 71 the skin which is elevated when what are called blisters are formed. When examined with the microscope, it is found to consist of minute flat cells, which have been formed beloAv, and are gradually thrust upwards. Below this, but for the most part continuous with it, is another series of layers of cells (c c), FIG. 89. FIG. 90. DIAGRAM OF THE STRUCTURE OF PORES AND PAPILLiE OF THE SKIN. the SKIN. Qn the left ls aMagnified View of the Ridges of the a, Epidermis; 6 6, Pores; ce, Lay- Cuticle, as seen in the Palm of the Hand, with the ers of epidermis and rete mu- Openings of the Pores in their Furrows. On the cosum; /, Inhalent vessels; g g, right, the Cuticle has been removed, leaving corre- Papillae of the skin; h h, Corium or sponding rows of Papilla?. true skin; d d d, Bulbs of sudo- riferous glands opening in the glands b b. and which were called, at one time, by the name rete mucosum, as it Avas supposed to be a separate membrane. The real nature of these layers of cells is, that they are all secreted on the sur- face of a tough fibro-vascular membrane, called the corium or true skin (h It). The cells of the loAver layer, called the rete mucosum, are softer and much less compressed than those Avhich form the epidermis. It is amongst these cells that a certain set are found which are termed pigment cells. When separated they have a very distinct form, and are easily distinguished from all the other cells by their dark color. This dark color is dependent on the presence, in the cells, of a number of flat, rounded, or oval granules, not more than the one twenty- thousandth of an inch in diameter. Noav it is found that these cells are always present in the skin of the dark-colored races of mankind, and also in those parts of the skin of fair races Avhich are of a dark color. It is, then, to the presence or absence of these cells that the skin is indebted for its Avhite or black color. Where they are very abundant, the skin has a black color; and 72 ANATOMY OF THR HUMAN BODY. in proportion to their diminution are the various shades called red, yellow, broAvn, brunette, Avhich are observed amongst the various races of mankind. The skin is provided with two dis- tinct sets of glands. One is destined to free the blood of a large quantity of "fluid, and are named the perspiratory or sweat FIG. 91. fig. 92. A SWEAT GLAND. A vertical section of the sole of the foot—a, the Cuticle or Scarf Skin, the deeper layers of which, dark in color, being called the rete mucosum ,- 6, tho Papillae; c, the Cutis or True Skin; and d is the Sweat Gland in a cavity of oily globules. VERTICAL SECTION OF THE SKIN LARGELY MAGNIFIED. h, Sweat Gland; i, a Hair enclosed in its Folli- cles, and showing its pair of Sebaceous Glands; p, a Sebaceous Gland. glands; the other being designed to draw off a considerable amount of solid matter, and are styled sebaceous or oil glands. The watery vapor which is constantly passing off through the pores of the skin—when not, as is commonly the case, in such quantity as to be noticed—is termed insensible perspiration; Avhen so profuse as to collect in drops on the surface, it is sensi- ble perspiration or sweat. The fluid Avhich thus passes off from the system consists chiefly of Avater, with a small proportion of muriate of soda and free acetic acid; the quantity is at all times very considerable, but is greatly increased during violent exer- THE SKIN. 73 cise, or in hot weather. The SAveat gland possesses a twisted duct which passes upAvard to the surface, and through this tube ascends to the surface the perspiration, sensible and insensible. It is calculated that there are no less than twenty-eight miles of this tubing on the surface of the human body, and that, on an average, from tAvo to three pounds of water daily reach the surface through these channels, and is evaporated. It is sup- posed that at least one hundred grains of effete nitrogenous matter are daily throAvn off from the skin. If this excretion be checked or arrested, it throws additional labor on the kidneys; if it remains in the blood, it will prove fatal to life and health. Great attention, therefore, should be given to the functions of the skin, so as to keep the pores open and its action free; and for this purpose nothing is so efficacious as bathing in cold Avater, followed by friction and exercise. Beside this beautiful arrangement for the perspiration, the skin is provided Avith another set of special organs, named sebaceous glands, whose office it is to AvithdraAV a peculiar fatty matter from the system, while the secretion itself prevents the skin from being dried and cracked by the influence of the sun and air. These glands are distributed more or less closely over the Avhole surface of the body, but are most numerous in those parts which are largely supplied Avith hair, such as the scalp and face, and are thickly distributed about the entrances of the various passages into the body, as the anus, nose, lips, and ex- ternal ear. They are altogether absent in the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet; they appear to be made up of an aggregate of small vesicles, and these small vessels are filled with an opaque Avhite substance, something like soft ointment. These glands are OATerspread with minute capillaries or blood- vessels, and their ducts open either in the surface of the skin, or, Avhich is more usual, directly into the follicle of the hair. These hair-follicles, into Avhich the sebaceous glands open, are, in fact, among the secretory organs of the skin, since it is only at their root or loAvest part that the material produced from their walls is appropriated to the groAvth of hair. All the rest goes to anoint the hairs and the surface of the skin. Hence it is that this secretion is much more abundant in the inhabitants of tropical climates than in those which inhabit cold countries. But for this benevolent provision of the great Creator, the skin would become parched and dry; and even with this provision of nature, the natives of the warm countries are in the habit of lubricating their skin with vegetable oils of various kinds, to protect it from the scorching influence of the solar rays. 74 THE CONDITIONS OF HEALTH. THE CONDITIONS OP HEALTH. Before treating of disease and its remedies, we will give a brief summary of the rules of health, by the observance of which disease may in a vast number of cases be prevented. If it be asked Avhat is meant by the term " health," it would be apparently easy to answer ; but there is no one who will not find that it is as difficult a question as can be asked. This difficulty arises in a great measure from the term being a relative one. Such a state of body as would be considered health in one person might not be so in another, and in some cases it Avould be disease. Some men may consider them- selves healthy when the doctor knew they were in disease; whilst some may consider themselves in disease when the doc- tor kneAV they Avere in good health. The true idea of health is a perfectly sound mind in a perfectly sound body—mens sana in corpore sano, as is the well-knoAvn Latin saying. A man's body must be right, and his mind and soul must be right, or he is not a healthy man. One of the first conditions of health is to have suitable food. Our bodies are made up of certain sub- stances, which under their different functions are constantly Avorn out; so that being during our whole lives in a constant Avaste there must be a regular supply of food to replace this Avaste. Men do not eat simply to satisfy appetite. The object of taking food is to keep up the original size, &c, of the body, and to replace the waste. The animal body is a Avarm body, and is constantly emitting heat, and the heat so emitted must be replaced. The animal body has often been com- pared to a locomotive, in which by food, air, and Avater, heat is generated. Food may be considered as the fuel, but it does not serve to generate heat only, as in the locomotive, but to form new particles for the growth of the body, and to re- place those worn out. Whilst in the engine the machine is constantly Avearing out, the body, up to a certain time, by means of its fuel, is constantly replacing the Avaste, and even serving for the increase of the body. And here is seen the superiority of God's arrangements over those of men. All the different articles of food may be reduced to tAvo great groups; —1st, flesh-forming substances ; and 2d, heat-forming sub- stances. The flesh of men and animals showed a third class of nutritive substances, knoAvn as nutritive salts. These salts have only begun to be fully recognized during the last few THE CONDITIONS OF HEALTH, ETC. 75 years. These salts may be seen in the form of ashes Avhen any food is burned—such as salt, phosphoric acid, potash,