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THE
MEDICAL  STUDENT'S
VA1E   MECUM,
C6NTAINING EXAMINATIONS UP6N
AMATOolY, chemistry,  materia  mebica,
    surgery, *ractice »f mebicine,
       •bstetrics, an» prisons.
Adapted  tf  the  use- of Medical  Students  generally.
  IY GEGRGE MENDENHALL,  M. D.
H»n«rary member of the Philadelphia Medical  Society,
     Physician to the Cincinnati Dispensary, &c.
            CINCINNATI:
    PUBLISHED BY JAC«» ERNST, 2SS MAIN STREET.
            PHILADELPHIA:
LINDSAY & BLAKISTON, CORNER FOURTH AND CHESTNUT STS.
                   1811. 
Ay
A?'  t*
(** *' ■
•"' ' Sty
■t k-»
  Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1844,
by George Mendenhall, M. D., in tho Clerk's Office of the
District Court of the United States, for the State'of Ohio 
PREFACE.
  The object of this  little volume is to  provide the
Student of Medicine  with a short and  succinct view
of the most important facts and principles which en-
gage  his attention during his  Academic studies,  in
order that he may refresh, ami fix more firmly upon
his mniidry, what ho h»s read anal heard; as weil  as
(• enablo him properly to arrange* his knowledge, so  as
to make aright use of it.  With such a Va»e Mecvm,
every leisure  moment,  whether in  the class-room  or
elsewhere, may be profitably employed.
  The anther was fully aware that  many works of a
similar kind have  keen  published; but he had reason,
when a student. to be  dissatisfied  with  all of them.
To  supply what  he  considered their  deficiencies,
were the reasons for undertaking this work.  Whether
he  has accomplished  his object,  he loaves to the
student ta decide.
  The sources  to which he has been mostly indebted
in forming this compilation, are Horner's and Paxton's
Anatomy; Turner's and Hare's Chemistry; Gibson's
and  Cooper's Surgery; Mussoy's  Lectures;  United
States' Dispensatory;-Wood's Syllabus; Dowees' and
Righy's Midwifery; Ebcrle's Practice, of Medicine;
Gerhard's Clinical Guide; Locke's Lecture on Toxi-
cology; Orfila on Poisons, &c. &c.
  Cincinnati, November, 1844. 

<2-
 
CONTENTS
                     PART  1
                      ANATiMY
Divisions of Anattmy.
Skeleton,
  Trunk,
  Head,
  Sutures.
  Superior Extremities,
  Inferior Extremities,,
Cartilage.
Ligaments,
Integuments,
Muscles,
©rgans of Digestion,  -
  Abdomen,  -
  Chvlopoietic Viscera,
      ti  Assistant Chylopoictic
     If      viscera,
     12 Urinary •rgans,
     14!Male Organs of Gcncra-
     18;      tion,   -
     19 Female #>rgans of Genc-
     20      ration, -
     2l!#rgans  of Respiration,
      i&:©r&ans  of Circulation, -
     24JAl»sorbent System,
     25;Norvous System,  -
     32,Senses,
     35'Sympathetic Nerve,
     37|Spinal Nerves,   -." "   -

PART  II.
CHEMISTRY.
CaUric,
Light,
Electricity,   -
Specific Gravity,
Nomenclature,
Affinity,
•xygen*
Hydrogen,
Nitrogen,
Carton,
Sulphur,     -
Phosphorus,
feoron,   -
Silicon,
Selenium,
Chlorine,
Iodine,  ■
Bromine,  -
Fluorine,
 Ammonia,
' ompounds of  Hydrogen
     " and Carbon,
89 Compounds of Hydrogen
73j      and Sulphur,  -
74'    "         Hydrogen
75       and Phosphorus, -
 ib     ''         Nitrogen
77       and Carbon,  -
78 Motals,
79|  Potassium,
SO   Sodium,   -
83   Lithium,
14   Barium,
ft   Strontium,
87   Calcium,  -
88i  Magnesium,  •
89'  Aluminum,
PO!  Manganese  or Manga-
•*?'      ncsium,
 f»8:  lion,
 r>9;  Zinc,   •
101   Tin,  .--.
     Cobalt, -
]0|.  Nickel,
39
41

42

44
45
48
56
57
63
85
87
103

  ti

1*4
  ih
106
187
108
  1*
1011
lit
  ib
111

-  ib
\1A
 ib
116 
CONTENTS.
  Arsenic,
  Antimony,
  Copper,
  Load,     -    i
  Mercury,
  Silver,
  Gold,   -    -
  Platinum,  -
  Alloys and Amalgams,
  Salts,
Organic Chemistry, -
Vegotablo  Chemistry,  -
  Vegetable Acids, -
  Vegotablo Alkalies, -
  Neutral  Substances, the
      ®xygen and  Hy-
      drogen of  which

                  PART III.
       MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY.
11G;
119
119
120|
121
124
125
 ib
120!
 ib\
128!
 ib\
129:
131
are in the same ra-	
tio as in water, -	133
Oils,	133
Resins,	ib
Bituminous Substances	134
Alcohol,	ib
Ether, -	ib
Coloring Matters,	ib
Other Vegetable Prin-	
ciples,	135
Fermentation, -	ib
Germination,	136
Animal Chemistry,	ib
Analytical Chemistry,	137
Table of Symbols and	
Equivalents, -	138
Definitions, Sec, -	139	Altorativo,		170
Classification, -	141 Expectorants,		-	17!
Astringents,	143j Emmenagogues,		-	17*2
Vegetable,	143	Epispastics, -		173
Mineral,	146	Rubefacients, -	-	174
Tonics,	147	Escharotics,	-	175
Puro Bittors, -	148 Demulcents,		.	ib
Bitters of peculiar or		Emollients,	.	ib
modified properties	149	Diluents,	-	ib
Aromatics,	151	Medicines, unclassified,		ib
Mineral tonics,	153	Ergot,	-	176
Arterial Stimulants, -	155	Nux Vomica,	.	ib
Nervous Stimulants or		Arsenic,	-	ib
Antispasmodics, ■	ib	Morcury,	-	ib
Cereb. Stim. or Narcotics	156	Iodine,	.	111
Arterial Sedatives,	158 Antacids,		-	178
Nervous Sedatives, -	159.Antholmintics, -		-	ib
Emetics,	160	Table of Signs and	Ab-	
Cathartics,	161	brcviations,	.	179
Vegetable,	162	Extcmpor. Prescriptions,		180
Mineral,	165	Powders,	.	ib
Salinov	ib	Pills,		181
Diuretics,	166	Mixtures,		182
Diaphoretics,	169	Solutions,		185
Nauseating,	il	In.usons,		ih
Refrigerant,	170	\Yeights and Measures,		I'Jti
 
CONTEXTS.
Inflammation,
  Suppuration,
  Ulceration,  -
  Mortification,
  Erysipelas,
  Furunculus,
  Anthrax,
  Pernio,
  Frost-bite,
  Burns,
Wounds,  -
Abeccscs,
Ulcers,
  Simple,
  Irritable,
Scrofula,
Cancer,
Gonorrhoea,  -
Syphilis,  -
Pelvis,    -
Deformity of tho Pelvis,
Child's Head,
Genital Organs,   -
Menstruation,
P A K T   1 V.
  Sl'KGERY-
    t87|Fractures,
  -  188|Luxations,
200
203
205
209
210
211
214

221
222
224
228
229

230
Derangement of the func-
     ib Diseases of Bones and
 -  189    Joints,  -
    190p'seascs of Arteries,
     it Diseases of  Veins,
    191 Injuries of tho Head,
     ib Diseases of  the Eye,   -
     ib Diseases of the Nose and
  -  192|    Antrum,
    192 Diseases of tho Mouth,
    195 Hernia,
    l96|Artificial Anus,  -
     ib Diseases of tho Rectum,
     ii'Disaases of the Testicle
  -  19?|    and Penis,
    198Diseasos of the  Urethra
     ib\     and Bladder,   -    231
     ii[Amj)uta*ion,      -    -   232

PART   V.
OBSTETRICS.
    234 Obliquities of the Uterus, 251
    237,Term oi Qtero-Gcstation 251
    238 Labor,     -     -    -   252
    239   Natural  Labor,   and
            Presentations,  -    355
          Mechanism of Labor in
            Head Presentations,
          Breech Presentations,
          Feet Presentations,
          Knee Presentations,
          Labor in  which  the
            I' resentations aremt-
            ural  but  rendered
            preternatural,
241
242
243,
256
258
  ib
259
    tion,
Frognaney,
The Membranes,
Placenta,
Foetal Circulation,    -    ib
Changes of the Uterus from
    Impregnation    -  247
Development of the Foetus 247
Extra-Utorino Pregnancy 248 Tho Forceps,
Signs of Pregnancy,  -  248 Lockod or Impacted head 265
Action of the Uterus,     250 Uterine Hemorrhage,      ib
Rotrover, of  tho Uterus, 250   Accidental,       -    266
Antevcr. of the  Uterus,  25ll  Unavoidable,       -  209
259
263 
k
viii                   CONTENTS.
Puerperal Convulsions,  270iProlapsus of tho Cord,    274
Inversion of tho Uterus,  271 Rupture of tho Uterus,   275
Twins,     -    -    -  273 Deliveries where there is
Arm and Shoulder pre-         Deformity of Moth-
    sentations,        -  273     er or Child.    -    275
                  PART  VI.
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
Of Disease,	278 Endocarditis,		- 309
Semeiology and Diagno-		Rheumatism,	ib
sis,	280	Gout,	- 310
Fever,	284	Variola, • -♦ -	311
" Intermittent,	286	Varicella,	- ib
" Remittent,	287	Rubeola,	312
" Yellow,	288	Scarlatina,	- ib
" Continued,	289	Hemorrhages,	313
" Typhoid, -	289	Phlegmasia Dolens,	ib
44 Typhus, Inflammations of the Al-	291	Apoplexy, Paralysis,	ib - 314
imentary Canal, and Accessary Organs,	292	Epilepsy, Chorea,	315 ib
Inflammations of the		Convulsive Affections	of
Nervous System,	296	Infants,	316
Inflammations of the		Tetanus,	ib
Respiratory Orgalis, Phthisis, Pulmonalis,	298:Mental Dorangomonts, 305 Dolirium Tremens,		ib 317
Nephritis, Cystitis,	308)Asphyxia, ib. Diarrhoea,		313 - 3f9
Pericarditis,	ib	Colic,	320
PART   VII.
POISONS.
  322|Zinc,                    ib
  323 Narcotics,      -    -     ib
   ib Opium,                   ib
   i&.Hydrocyanic Acid,  -     327
  324Buckeye,                 ib
   iiChlorine,      -    -      ib
  325: Digitalis,                 ib
   i&Ipecacuanha,  -    -     328
   ib Jalap,       -    -        ib
   ib Strammonium, -    -      ib
  326 Nux Vomica,    -    -    ih
   ib Phosphorus,   '-    -      ib
   listings of Insocts, &c.     ib
Acids,
Alkalies,
Antimony,
Arsenic,
Barytes,
Copper,
Gold,
Load,
Mercury,
Nitre,
Oxalic Acid,
Silver,
Tin, 
MEDICAL  STUDENT'S  VA1E MECUM.
PART  I.—ANATOMY.
  fft. What is Anatomy?  A. The science of organization.
  How is it divided?  Into Vegetable and Animal.
  How is  Animal Anatomy divided?   Into Human and
Comparative.
  What is Human Anatomy?  The Anatomy of man.
  What is Comparative  Anatomy?   Tho anatomy of all
Other animals except man.
  How is  human anatomy divided?   Into descriptive or
Special, Genoral, and Pathological.
  What is Bescriptivo or Special Anatomy?  That which
describes tho form, size, position, and connexions of organs.
  What is Genoral Anatomy?  That which treats of the
structure of tho simple tissues of the body.
  What is Pathological Anatomy?  That which relates to
the diseased structure of the organs.
  What aro tho simplo tissues of the human body? The
Cellular,  Adipose,  Vascular,  Nervous, Osseous,  Fibrous,
Cartilaginous, Fibro-Cartilaginous, Muscular, Erectile, Mu-
cous, Serous, Dermoid, and Glanduiar, fourteen  in number.
  Under what divisions is human anatomy  studied?  Os-
teology, or a description of tho^nes.  Symlesmology, of the
ligaments.  Myology, ff the muscles. Splanchnology, of the
viscera. Adcnology,  of tho glands.   Angiology,  of the
vessels. Neurology, of tho nerves.  Dormology, of the skin.
  What aro the inorganic elements of the body?   Carbon,
nitrogon, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, cal-
cium, sodium, potassium,  fcc.
  What are the organic  eloments?   Gelatin, fibrin, albu-
men, mucous, fat, fcc.
       2 
10                   ANATOMY.
                        Skeleton.

   What is the bony frame w«rk of the human body called 1
 Skeleton.
   What is a natural  skeleton?  When the bones are  held
 together  by their natural connexions  of  ligaments, carti-
 lages, fcc.
   What is an artificial skeleton?  When tho bones aro held
 together by artificial means.
   Suppose a line, called tho median, drawn from the top of
 the head  downward through the  middle of tho skeleton,
 will these two sides be similar?  Yes, the bones of tho two
 sides willbo perfectly alike: and where bones are divided,
 tho two halves will be symmetrical.
   What are tho regional divisions of the skeleton?  Head,
 Trunk, Superior, and Inferior extremities.
   What is tho number of bones in persons of middle age?
 For the trunk—twenty-four true vertebrae,  one sacrum, four
 coccygeal, two innominata, twelve ribs on each side, and
 one sternum.  For the head—eight in tho cranium, fourteen
 for the face, and one hyoid.  For  the upper extremities—
 thirty-four to each side.  For tho inferior extremities—thirty-
 two to each side.  In all, two hundred and eleven, not in-
 cluding tho bones of the tympanum and teeth. lo early lifo
 the  number is greater,  and in old  age  diminished, by tho
 growing together of bones originally distinct.
   Hew are  bones divided  in regard to their shape?  Into
 ossa longa or long bones; ossa lata or broad bones; and ossa
 crassa or thick bones.
   What is an  eminence on a bono called?  Apophysis or
 process  when united,, and epiphysis when separated  by
.cartilage.
   What other names are applied to eminences of bono
 depending upon  their shape,  situation,  and use? Heads,
 when  convex, roundish, and smooth.  Necks, when smaller
 at the middle and increase towards tho extremity.  Condyles,
 when  the head is large and unequally rounded.  Tubercles,
 or tuberosities, when unoven, rough, and irregular. Spines
 or spinous processes, when sharp or pointed  Cristae, when
 there are  long and sharp elevations.  Coronoid,  if the  ter-
 mination is in a sharp edge.  Mastoid, styloid, coracoid, &c.
 from their resemblance to  certain other things.  Oblique, 
                                      i
ANATOMY.                   U
transverse, &c, from  situation.   Trochanters, when they
serve to turn a bone.
  What names are given to depressions?   Cotoloyd, when
tiecp and cup-like.  Alveoli,  or sockets, as the sockets for
the teeth; and glenoid,*$whon superficial.
  How are bones divided in regard to  density?  Into com-
pact and cellular; the former is situated external, and the
latter internal.
  What is  the composition of bones?  Animal and earthy
matter.   The minute  analysis of which is gelgtin, 32 parts,
phosphate  of lime, 51 parts; carbonate of lime, 11 parts;
fluate of lime, 2 parts; phosphate of magnesia, 1 part, and
muriate of soda, 1 part.  The bones also contain a little iron
manganese, silcx, alumine, and phosphate of ammonia.
  Upon which of these primary constituents does the hard-
ness of bone depend ?   The earthy, and may be obtained by
calcination.
  How may the animal part he demonstrated?  By immer-
sion for some time in  dilute muriatic  acid, the earthy parts
will be dissolved, leaving the animal.
  What is the  structure of bones?  It is  fibrous and lami-
nated, supplied with blood vessels, nerves,  and absorbents.
  What is  meant  by  periosteum ?  It  is the  fibrous mem-
brane which surrounds bones except at their  articular car-
tilages,  and receives  the insertion of tendons,  ligaments,
aponeuroses, &c.  Its use is also to conduct the blood vessels
to the bones, and give protection and shape to them.
  What is  meant by the medullary membrane? It is a veTy
delicate membrane lining  the internal structure of bone
which secretes the medulla, and serves the purpose of an
internal periosteum.
  Are bones perfectly ossified at birth?  No: the ends of
the long bones are cartilaginous; the corpus and tarsus are
nearly in the same state, and the processes  generally are
\ ery imperfectly developed.
  What are the stages of ossification?   There are  three.
The first is the mucous or pulpy, which exists during the
first  month; second,  cartilaginous, commencing  with the
second month;  and third, osseous, which commences at the
end of the second month in some of the bones: when ossifi-
cation commences, the color of the cartilage becomes deeper
and in the middle of a yellow color; the vessels dilate, carry 
12
ANATOMY.
red blood, and a red  point is perceived in  the centre of the
cartilage, which is called punctum ossificationis, from which
the deposit increases on its surface.   The long bones com-
mence by a small ring which extends itself.  Tho flat bones
commence  by one or more points and radiate to the peri-
phery.  The thick bones may have a single point or several,
and they  all grow  by successive depositions on the outer
surface or at the ends.
  At  what  age are  bones most dense?   At the middle
period of life; and as age advances they grow lighter, more
cellular and brittle, and the proportion of animal matter is
diminished.
  What is the process of the formation of callus?  When a
fracture takes place  there is effusion of blood into it; the
soft parts swell; the blood is absorbed, and while this  is
going  on, there is an effusion of coagulating lymph; an
osseous ring is then formed around tho seat of fracture, with
a pin in its centre.  Next, the extremities of bone begin  to
fuse themselves  together; which  when complete, the bony
ring and pin being superfluous, aro absorbed, and tho cavity,
cellular structure, membrano,  &c. aro re-established.   Tho
process is entirely similar in other respects to the formation
of  new bone.   In compound fractures,  granulations fre-
quently spring up from tho surface of the bone in the same
order  as in the formation of new bone.

                        Tittwic.

  What constitutes the Trunk ?  The Spine,  Thorax, and
Pelvis.
  Where is the spine situated?  At the posterior part of the
trunk and extends from the head to the inferior opening  of
the pelvis.
  What composes it?  It consists of twenty eight or twenty
nine distinct pieces of which the upper twenty-four are true
or moveable vertebra?, the twenty-fifth is the sacrum or pelvic
vertebra, and the remainder aro the caudal vertebrae.
  What are the curvatures of the spine ?  The cervical por-
tion is convex anteriorly  and concave posteriorly: thoracic
portion concave in front and convex behind; lumbar portion
convex in  front and concave behind; pelvic  and  caudal
concave in front and  convex behind; and depend upon the
different degrees of thickness of the bodies of the  vertebras
and tho intervening cartilages. 
ANATOMY
13
  How are the true vertebrae divided?   Into seven cervical,
twelve dorsal, and five lumbar.
  What does a vertebra consist of?   A  body, seven proces-
ses (two transverse, one spinous, and four oblique), and a
hollow for lodging the spinal marrow which is formed  by
the body anteriorly and the processes posteriorly and laterly.
  What characterizes a cervical vertebra ?   Smaller than the
others; longest latterly; spinal  foramen large;  spinous pro-
cess forked;  transverse processes short, double, and perfo-
rated for the passage  of the vertebral artery and  vein.  There
are also differences between these vertebrae themselves.
  What is the peculiarity of the first cervical vertebra and
what is its name?  It has no body or spinous process, being
a simple ring and is called atlas.
  What is there peculiar to the  second cervical  vertebra and
what is its name?  It has upon its upper part a  process call-
ed odontoides or dens and the vertebra itself is called verte-
bra dentata.
  What characterizes a dorsal vertebra?  Body longer  an-
toro-postoriorly and more cylindrical than the cervical, upper
and lower margin marked  with a small articular face for ar-
ticulating with the  ribs, spinal foramen small and round,
diminishing in size from first to third, and these increase to
the last.
  What  characterizes  a lumbar vertebra?^ Body  larger;
long  diameter  transverse; spinal  foramon triangular and
largorthan the dorsal; transverse processes long and stand
out at right angles, spinous process thick, horizontal, and
terminated in an oblong tubercle.
  Where is the sacrum situated and what characterizes it?
It is at the posterior part of the polvis, forms part of its su-
perior boundary, and is the pedestal of the spine. It is trian-
gular, concave before, and irregularly convex behind, where
it is divided by spinous processes; articulates laterally with
the ossa innominata,  and originally consisted of five pieces.
It has four anterior and four posterior foramina; and its canal
is triangular.
  What  are  the characteristics of the  coccyx?  It resem-
bles the sacrum, only much smaller,  consists of four  pieces
united by fibro-cartilage,  corresponds with the  tails of ani-
mals, and is articulated superiorly to the sacrum.
  What  are the uses of the vertebral column?   It gives  a  "
2* 
u
ANATOMY.
secure lodgement to the spinal marrow, is a line of support
to the trunk, and the centre of its movements.
   Where are the ossa innominata situated?  They are two
in number and situated on either side of the sacrum, form
the lateral and anterior parts of the pelvis, and articulate with
the os femoris on each side by the acetabula.
   What are the original divisions of each os innominatum ?
Ilium, ischium, and pubis.
   What characterizes the ilium?   It is  the  largest of the
the three, forms the upper and rounded part of the innomi-
natum, articulates with  the sacrum, and forms two-fifths
of the acetabulum.
   What characterizes the pubis?  It is the anterior part of
the innominatum and is the smallest of the three; it is com-
posed of a body and two large branches, one running down-
wards to join the ischium and the other backwards and up-
wards to the ilium; it articulates with its  fellow by a flat
surface called the symphysis, it forms one fifth of the acetab-
bulum, and contributes to the  formation of the obturator
foramen.
   What characterizes the ischium ?  It forms the posterior
inferior part of the os innominatum, is next in size to the
ilium,  triangular in form,  its anterior extremity bends up-
wards to join the pubis which is the crus and the remainder
is  the body, the lower part of which is  the  tuberosity;  it
forms two fifths of the acetabulum.
   What is meant by the Thorax ?  It is the upper part of the
trunk, and is formed by the dorsal vertebrae behind, sternum
in front, and by the ribs and their cartilages intermediate.
  How are the ribs  divided ?   Into seven  true  and  five
false.
  What characterizes the ribs?   They are paraboloid, have
an internal and external surface, an upper and lower margin,
a sternal  and vertebral extremity, an angle, head, tubercle,
and neck.
  Where is the sternum situated?   In the middle front part
of the thorax, and is  divided  into three portions, the lower
of which is sometimes called xyphoid cartilage.

                         Head.

  How are the bones of the head divided ?  Into those of the
cranium and face.
   What bones constitute the cranium ?   The os frontis, os 
ANATOMY.
15
occipitis, two ossa parietaHa, two ossa temporum, os ethmoi-
des and the os sphenoides.  These form  the  cavity for the
brain, which has three diameters; the antero-posterior; from
the lower part of the os frontis to  the protuberance on the
middle of the inferior surface of os occipitis, six and a half
inches; the lateral includes the space between the superior
margins of the ossa tempora,  four  and three-fourth inches;
and the vortical which is taken from tho centre of the occipi-
tal foramen to the centre of the suture between the parietal
bones, four and a half inches.
  What are the characteristics of the os frontis?   It forms
the anterior, a portion of the superior, lateral, and inferior pa-
rietes of tho cranium; external face convex, internal concave,
symmetrical, and  forms the upper and anterior part of  the
orbit.  It has two internal and two external angular proces-
ses, a nasal process, two superciliary ridges, a temporal ridge,
two orbitar plates  or processes, two elevations of the frontal
sinuses, and it articulates with the parietal, ethmoidal, and
sphonoidal bones of the cranium, and several  of the face.
  What aro the characteristics of the ossa parietalia? They.
form  the superior and lateral parts of the middle of tho crani-
um, they are quadrilateral,  convex externally, and concave
internally.  They  articulate together,  with the frontal, the
sphenoid, tho temporal, and the occipital bones. They have
each a  deep groove commencing  at their anterior  inferior
angle internally, for the middle meningeal artery.
  What  are the  characteristics  of the os occipitis?  It is
quadrilateral, resembling a trapezium, convex external!}', and
concave internally, both surfaces are modified by ridges and
processes.   It forms a large portion of the posterior and in-
ferior parictes of the cranium, and has a large foramen called
foramen magnum, which transmits  tho medulla spinalis, nor-
vi acccssorii, and tho vertobral artories and veins, the anteri-
or  condyloid  foramen, which  transmits  the  ninth pair of
nerves, and the posterior condyloid, which transmits a cer-
vical vein to the lateral sinus.   It articulates with tho parie-
tal, temporal, and .sphenoid bones.
  What are the characteristics of the ossa temporum ? They
form portions of the inferior lateral parietes, and of the base
of tho cranium, have an irregular figure, and are divided in-
to tho anterior portion called  squamous;  posterior, called
mastoid, and the middle, or petrous portion.   The  mastoid
portion has cells  or sinuses which communicate with  the 
16    •                  ANATOMY.
tympanum.  The elevations on  each side are the mastoid,
the  zygomatic,  the  ^ivlo'd, and tho  vaginal  processes,
the ridge internally, and the petrous portion.  The depres-
sions are'the glenoid cavity,  the  fissura glassori, a fossa be-
hind the mastoid process, and the temporal.  Tho foramina
are the meatus auditorius internus and externus, the carotid,
the stylo-mastoid, the eustachian canal, and the openings of
the aqueduct of the cochlea  and  vestibule.   They are con-
nected to the sphenoid, parietal, and occipital,  bones by
suture.;.  •
   What are the characteristics of the" os sphenoides?   It is
symmetrical, but very irregular, and placed across the middle
of the base of the cranium.  It consists of a body and large pro-
cesses called tho greater and lesser wings, the latter of which
are the apophyses of Ingrasshs.   There are also the ptery-
goid, internal and external, anterior and posterior clinoid,
sphenoidal or azygos, and olivary processes.  The foramina
are opticum, lacerum superius or sphenoidale, ovale, rotun-
dum, spinalo, and pterygoideum.   It articulates  above and
in front with the vomer, frontal, ethmoidal, malar, and parie-
tal bones; laterally with the temporal; behind with the occi-
pital, and with the palate bones by the pterygoid  processes.
   What do these  foramina severally transmit?   The  opti-
cum transmits the optic nerve and  ophthalmic artery; the
lacerum superius transmits the third, fourth, first branch of
the fifth, and the sixth pair of nerves; the rotundum trans-
mits the second branch of the fiftii pair of nerves;  the ovale
the third branch of the fifth pair;  the spinalo the  middle ar-
tery of the dura mater; and tho pterygoideum the pterygoid
nerve which is a recurrent  of the second branch of" the fifth
pair.  '
   What arc the characteristics  of the os othmoidos?  It is
situated between the orbitar processes of the os frontis; it is
cuboidal, very light, and cellular.   The part betwoen the or-
bitar processes superiorly is called the cribriform plate with
the crista galli in the centre.
   What is meant by the pyramids of Wistar?  They are tri-
angular hollow pyramids on the posterior part of each cellu-
lar portion of the  ethmoid bone consisting of a single cell;
aud the azygos process of the sphenoid bone is received be-
tween them.  They are found in children from three to eight
years of age.   The pyramid towards puberty becomes a part 
ANATOMY.
17
of the sphenoid bone and detaches itself from the ethmoid
by a suture.
  What composes the face?  Fourteen bones;  thirteen of
which are in tho upper jaw.  They are the ossa maxillaria
supcriora, ossa malarum, ossa nasi, ossa turbinata inferiora,
ossa palati, and the vomer.  The fourteenth is the os maxil-
laro  inferius.
  What are the characteristics of  the  ossa maxillaria supe-
riora?   Thay aro distinguished by thoir  superior size and
composing nearly the whole front  of the upper jaw.  They
also form a portion of the orbit of  tho eyes and  have  alveo-
lar, malar, nasal,  and palatine processes.  They have also a
large cavity in each palled the antrum highmorianum  which
communicates with tho nose. They articulate with the fron-
tal, nasal, unguiform, malar, and ethmoidal bones superior-
ly; behind to the palate bones; in the middle to the  vomer
and to each other; and by the nasal surface to the inferior
spongy.
  What aro the characteristics  of the  ossa  palati?  They
are placed posteriorly to  the  superior maxillary bones, be-
tween them and  the pterygoid processes of the  sphenoid.—
They aro each divided into three portions; the horizontal or
palate plate, the vertical or nasal plate, and the orbitar or
oblique plate.  They have six articulations; viz:—with the
maxillary bones,  sphenoid, ethmoid, inferior spongy, vomer,
and with each other.
  What are the characteristics of the ossa  nasi?  They are
two in number and fill up the vacancy between tho nasal pro-
cesses of the superior maxillary bones, and form what is term-
ed the bridge of  the nose.  They articulate with each other
anteriorly, os frontis superiorly, upper  maxillary posteriorly,
and with tho septum narium where they  unite together in
front.
   What are the characteristics of the ossa unguis?  They
are small and aro placed at the internal side of the  orbit be-
tween the nasal  processes of the upper maxillary bone and
the planar plate of the ethmoid; assist in forming the  ductus
ad nasum, articulate loosely with the os frontis, upper maxil-
lary, planar plate of the othmoid, and inferior spongy bone of
the  nose.
   What arc the characteristics of the ossa malarum?  They
are situated at the external orbit  of the eye and form the 
18
ANATOMY.
middle and external parts of the face.   They  aro quadran-
gular, with irregular margins, have superior and  inferior
orbitar, zygomatic,  and maxillary processes.   They articu-
late on each side  with tho maxillary,  frontal, sphenoidal,
and temporal bones.
  What are the characteristics of the ossa spongiosa inferiof
ra?  They  are situated at the inferior  and lateral parts o^
the nose  below the  opening into the antrum highmorianum'
they have a concave and convex surface with the concavity
looking towards the maxillary bones.
  What are the characteristics of the vomer?  It is placed
between the nostrils, and forms a part of tho septum.  It ar-
ticulates  below with the nasal spine of the superior maxilla-
ry and palate bones, and above to the nasal lamella of the
ethmoid  and azygos processes of the sphenoid.
  What are the characteristics of the os maxillare inferius?
It forms the lower  boundary of the face and is capable of
motion.  It is  composed of a body and two extremities or
rami, has alveolar processes, two angles, condyles, and coro-
noid processes.
  How are the bones of the cranium united?  By sutures;
they are  the coronal, the sagital, tho lambdoidal, and the,
two squamous.  In the lambdoidal are frequently found small
bones called ossa wormiana, or triquetra, and occasionally
these are found in the other sutures.  The  uses of the  su-
tures  are not  fully settled among  anatomists and physi-
ologists.
  What is the structure of the bones of the cranium ?   They
are composed of two tables united by cellular substance call-
ed diploe which begins to show itself at two or throe years
of age. The internal table is  thin and brittle  and is called
vitreous.
  How many bones enter into the composition of the orbit?
Seven; the frontal,  the  malar,  the superior maxillary, the
planar plate of the ethmoid, the unguiform, sphenoid, and
palate.
  Where is the os hyoides situated?  At the root of the
tongue within the circle of the lower jaw and insulated,
having no connection with any other bone except by mus-
cles and ligaments. 
ANATOMY.
19
                 Superior Extremities.

  How  aro  the  superior extremities divided?   They are
divided on either side into shoulder, arm, fore-arm and hand.
  What composes the shoulder?  The clavicle and scapula,
which occupy the superior, lateral, and  posterior  parts of
the thorax.
  What are the characteristics of the scapula?  It is on the
posterior part of the thorax and extends from the second to
seventh rib inclusive; it is triangular,  has an anterior face
or venter and a posterior face or dorsum,  a superior  edge or
costa, an external  edge or inferior costa, and a posterior
or  internal edge termed the base ;  has  three  angles —
one superior, one  inferior, and the other anterior or ex-
ternal;  a spine running from  tho  posterior edge obliquely
towards the anterior angle, rapidly increasing until  it rises
and is elongated forwards  and upwards  and overhangs the
shoulder joint, and is called the acromion process.; a cervix,
coracoid process, and a glenoid cavity, for articulating with
the humerus.
  What are the characteristics of the clavicle?   It is a long
bono situated transversely at the superior and anterior parts
of  the chest, extending from the sternum to the acromion
process of the scapula; it is compared in shape to tho letter/
and is divided into body, sternal,  and scapular extremities.
  What are the characteristics of tho humerus?   It is cyl-
indrical, both  extremities  enlarged; the  superior is called
its head which is hemispherical, and attached to tho body of
the bono by the neck; it has two tuberosities,  external and
internal;  two sigmoid cavities; ono receives the coronoid
and the other the olecranon process of the ulna; and two con-
dyles.   Tb,e part between the extremities is termed body.
  What are the bones of tho fore-arm ?  The ulna and radius.
  What are the characteristics of the ulna?  It is  situated
on  tho inside of tho  fore-arm with the little finger; nearly
straight, much larger at the upper than at the lower extremi-
ty; tho upper or humeral extremity has an olecranon and a
coronoid  process, with the greater sigmoid cavity between
thorn for articulating with the humerus,  and tho lesser on
tho radial surface of the coronoid for articulating with the
head of the radius;  the lower extremity has a styloid pro-
cess and  an articular surface for articulating with  the car-
pus, and one for articulating with thp radius. 
20
ANATOMY.
  What are the characteristics of the radius?  It  is shorter
than the ulna, situated exteriorly to it and extends from tho
os humeri to the wrist; it is smaller at tho uppor than at the
lower extremity.
  What composes the hand?  The carpus, metacarpus and
phalanges.
  What are the bones of the caipus?  There are two rows :
in the first are the scaphoides, lunare  cuneiforme, and pisi-
forme;  in the second are the trapezium,  trapozoides  mag-
num and unciforme.
  Where  are tho metacarpus situated?  Between the car-
pus and phalanges of the fingers and thumb, and are five in
number.
  How  many phalanges aro  there?   Fourteen;  three  for
each finger and two for the thumb; the bono adjoining the
metacarpus is the first, tho middle is the second,  and the
other the third.

                 Inferior Extremities.

  What are the bones of each inferior extremity? The os fe-
moris, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges.
  What are the characteristics of the os femoris?   It is the
largest bone in the human body; at its  superior extremity it
has three well marked eminences, the head, and groater
and lesser  trochanters;  the head is supported by the neck
which projects from the body of the bono between the troch-
anters;  the line between the trochanters is called the linea
quadrata.   Its inferior extremity is larger and divided into
two parts, the internal and external condyle.  The linea as-
pera begins broad, rough, and flat, on a level with the troch-
anter minor; as it  descends it becomes more elevated, and its
lower extremity divides into two superficial ridg*es, one run-
ning to each condyle.
  What are the bones of the leg?  The tibia, fibula,  and
patella.
  What are the characteristics of the  tibia?  It is on  the
internal side of the leg,  and extends from the thigh to the
foot; it  is the longest and largest bono in the body, except
the femoris; the superior extremity is much larger than the
inferior; its inferior internal part is called the internal mal-
leolus.
  What are the characteristics of the fibula?  It  is at the 
ANATOMY.
21
external  side of the tibia and extends from its head to the
foot;  its  inferior and external part  is called tho external
malleolus.  The tibia and fibula articulate below with the
astragalus.
  What are the characteristics of the patella?  It is small,
intermediate to the thigh and leg, and placed on the front of
the knee joint;  its anterior face convex  and rough, and its
circumference is nearly oval with tho long diameter trans-
verso.
  How is tho foot divided? Into tarsus, metatarsus, and toes
or phalanges.
  What composes the tarsus?  Seven bones, viz;  os calcis,
the astragalus, the navicularc, the cuboidcs, tho cunoiforme
externum, cuneiforme medium, andcuneiforme internum.

                      Cartilage.

  What  aro the characteristics of cartilage?  It is a sub-
stance of a white or pearly color, hard, very elastic, found in
various parts of the body, especially on the articular surfaces
of bones, the end of tho nose, tho edges of the eyelids, the
car, wind pipo, end of ribs, &c.
  How are tho cartilages divided?   Into articular or those
which cover the surface of bones in moveable joints; the in-
iisrarticular or thoae which arc interposed between the ends
of bones to form a moveable socket; the connecting or those
which unite the articular surfaces of bones by an immovea-
ble union,  as tho sutures of tho skull, the connexions  be-
tween the bones of the polvis &c.; and the cartilages of cav-
ities or thoso which form  the larynx, trachea, part of the
nose, &c.
  What is the mombranesurrounding cartilage called?
Perichondrium, and it is similar to tho periosteum.

                     Of  Ligaments.

  What  are  tho characteristics of the ligamentous or des-
moid tissue, called also fibrous tissue? It may bo known by
its whiteness,  firmness, tho unyielding nature of its materi-
als, and its fibrous arrangement.  It is very generally diffus-
ed in the human body and has a very close connection with
tho cellular texture; it also serves the purpose of connecting
the bones  in their articulations.   The  sensibility of  this
system  is  extremely obscure; the  usual  mechanical  and
        o 
22
ANATOMY.
chemical irritants do not affect it;  it may, however, be pro-
duced by a twisting motion, or when under a state of inflam-
mation, as in gout, rheumatism, &c.
  What is meant  by ligaments?  They  are those organs
which tie the bones together, and in the moveable joints are
divided into the capsular, and the funicular.  The first are
open at the end and envelope the ends of the bones, extend-
ing from one to the other;  the second are mere cords, ex-
tending from  one bone to  the other,  and may be flattened,
round or oval; they may be  either internal or  external to
the capsular ligament.
  What is meant by a synovial membrane?  It is a  mem
brane lining each  moveable articulation, reflected over the
internal face of the capsular ligament and the articular car-
tilages; it is a perfect sac, and differs from the capsular liga-
ment in having no  opening in  it; it is white, thin,  semi-
transparent  and soft, belongs to the class of serous  mem-
branes, and the fluid secreted by  it is called synovia, the use
of which is to diminish  friction,  and  facilitate motion.
  What enters into the  articulation of the lower jaw?   Be-
sides the bones tiped with their  cartilages there is a capsu-
lar ligament, an internal, external, and stylo-maxillary liga-
ment, and a small triangular ligament discovered by Caldani,
two synovial membranes, an  interarticular cartilage and an
erectile tissue.
  What are the ligaments of the vertebrae ?  The interver-
tebral, anterior and posterior  vertebral, a capsular at the ar-
ticulations of the oblique processes,  interosseous, ligamen-
tum nuchas, ligamentum flava (23 pairs) ; between the occi-
put and atlas is the anterior and  posterior, between the sec-
ond and first vertebra and tho occiput are the lacerti liga-
mentosi, transverse,  oblique,  or  moderator,  and  middle or
straight ligaments.
   What are the ligaments of the pelvis?  The  anterior and
posterior coccygeal, ilio-lumbar, sacro-spinous, sacro-iliac,
posterior sacro-sciatic,  anterior sacro-sciatic, obturator, an-
terior pubic and the sub or inter-pubic ligaments.
   What are the ligaments at the posterior articulation of
the ribs?  The anterior or radiating, interarticular, two cap-
sular for the head  of each,  and one whore they aro articulat-
ed with? the transvorse processes of the vertebrae, the inter-
nal transverse, the  external transverse, and middlo  costo-
transverse ligaments. 
ANATOMY.
23
  What are the ligaments of the anterior articulation of the
ribs?   There are two, an anterior, a posterior, and tho costo-
xiphoid ligaments; also a synovial membrane imperfectly
developed.
  What is meant by the articulation of the shoulder?  It is
the junction of the clavicle to the upper part of the sternum
and first rib; of the scapula to the clavicle; and of the hume-
rus to the scapula.
  What are the ligaments and parts concerned in the articu-
lations of  the  anterior end of the clavicle?  The  capsular
and interclavicular ligaments;  an  interarticular cartilage;
two synovial membranes; and the  rhomboid ligament con-
necting the first rib with the clavicle.
  What ligaments are concerned in  the scapuloclavicular
articulations?  Tho capsular, the coraco-clavicular which is
divided into tho conoid and trapezoid, bifid, coracoid,  and
the triangular ligaments or coraco-acromialis.
  What ligamonts are concerned in tho scapulo-humeral ar-
ticulation?  The capsular, the long head of the biceps, co-
raco-humcral  or ligamentum adscititum, and the. glenoid
ligament, which surrounds the glenoid cavity.
  What  are  the ligaments of the elbow joint?   Tho cap-
sular, annular, external  and internal lateral ligaments.
  What ligaments  are  situated betwoon the  radius  and
ulna?   Tho  interosseous,  the round ligaments  and  the
capsular or sacciform at their lower extremities.
  What are the ligaments of the wrist joint?  The internal
and external lateral, capsular, dorsal, and palmar ligaments.
  What are the ligaments ef the ilio-femoral or hip articula-
tion?  The cotoloyd, which tips the margin of the acetabu-
lum, the inter-articular or round, and the capsular ligaments.
  What are the ligaments of the  knee joint?  The capsu-
lar ligament, or  involucrum genorale, the ligament of the
patella, a posterior, internal and external lateral, and  two
crucial ligaments.   This joint has  also two semi-lunar
cartilages.
  How are the tibia and fibula united together?   They are
united superiorly by an anterior and posterior ligament,  and
a synovial membrane.  Inferiorly also by an anterior  and
posterior ligament; and  the bodies of these bones are united
by an interosseous ligament.
  What aro the ligaments of the ankle joint?  An imper-
fect capsular,  an internal and an external lateral  ligament, 
24
ANATOMY.
  What  ligaments  connect the os astragalus and os cal-
cis?  The interosseous, posterior, and deltoid ligaments.
  What connects the astragalus with the scaplioides?   It is
connected above by abroad thin ligament; below by two
ligamonts, internal and external calcaneo-scaphoid.
  What  connects the  calcis with the cuboides?  Tho su-
perior and inferior calcaneo-cuboid ligaments.

                  Of the Integuments.

  What  is meant by the integuments of the body?  The
cellular and adipose substances, and the dermoid covering.
  What are some of the properties of  cellular tissue?  It ia
an elementary tissue, generally disseminated over the whole
body; found beneath the skin; between muscles;  connect-
ing membranes and other parts; entering into their compo-
sition; indispensible to their texture; and precedes them in
the development ol~Ahe foetus.  It is composed of cells which
communicate freely with each other and may be distended
either with air  or  other fluids,  and from  its elasticity
when the distension is removed it will return to  its original
shap°.
  Where  is the  adipose structure found?   Between the
skin and the fascia, in the layers of condensed cellular sub-
stance, next to the muscles, as  the face, neck, trunk of the
body, buttocks, limbs, palms of the hands, soles of  the feet,
&c.   In chemical composition it differs from all  other parts
of the body in containing no  nitrogen.   It is enclosed by
cellular substance.
  What is meant by the dermoid covering?  The skin; its
sebaceous organs; the nails; and the hair.
  How many lamina does the skin consist of ?   Three; tho
cutis vera, the retemucosum, and the cuticula.
  What is understood by the sebaceous organs?  The folli-
cles and glands which furnish the oily exhalation that lubri-
cates  the surface of the  skin.
  What are the nails?  They may be considered  as a con-
tinuation of the cuticle, supply its place on the extremities
of the fingers and toes,  and correspond with the talons and
hoofs of animals.   They are devoid of organization.
  What  are  the  hairs?  They  are  cylindrical filaments
found on  most parts of the  skin  excepting  the  palms and
sol ©3. 
                        ANATOMY.                   IS

                        Of Muscles.

    What aro the properties of musclos ?   They arc the organs
  of motion, and aro characterized by redness,  softness, irri-
  tability, contractility, and  by being formed  of long, par-
  allol  fibres, which are arranged  into fasciculi;  each fibre
  extending the whole length of the muscle, considering  tha
  length as represented by the tendinous beginning on ono
  hand, and the tendinous termination on the other.
    How  aro thoy divided?  Into voluntary and involuntary.
    What is meant by tho myotility of muscles?   It is their
  power of contraction, elongation, and remaining fixed.
    What does a muscle consist of?  A_belly and two extre-
  mities; the one that is fixed is called theJieadoii_OTJgiri, and
  tho oihor is the tail or inserlinn-   The belly oTbody is tho
  fleshy part, and tho extremities aro tendinous.  In the most
  simple musclos, tho fibres run in the direction of their longth.
  Those which run obliquely from a tendon or bone are called
(  somi^annaiL   Those which converge obliquely  to a tendon
; in tho contre are called pennati.    Othors again are  formod
£ of a congorios of smaller muscles, the  fibres  of which run
' in different directions and intermixed with tendinous mat-
^ tcr, as the deltoid and subscapular.
~f   Upon what docs the strength of a muscle depend? Upon
- the number of its fibres; so that those whose  fibres run ob-
  liquely  are stronger than those which run longitudinally.
    How  aro tendons  distinguished?  By thoir  white and
  shining appearance;  they  have no elasticity or  power of
  elongation or  contraction; they  haye two  general  shapes
  funicular or like cords;  and membraneous or resembling
  an aponourQsigii_—.*-
                           Trunk.
                          Abdomen.
    What is the origin, insortion,  and use of  tho following
  muscles?    /,_'<>,„/i   ...        ■•'        '/
    Obliquus externus. f Origin, eight or  nine  inferior ribs.
  Insertion* ensiform cartilage, linea alba^gubis,  Poupart's
  ligament, and anterior twe»thirds ofihe  crest*of the ilium.
  Use, to compress the abdomen*, }  \£> <     ' '"' ' ::^Lt '■'<=■  -.  ■■'  //L/
    Obliquus internus.   Origin, fascia Iumborum,  crest of il-
  ium, and oxternal  third of Poupart's ligament.  Insertion, in
  the cartilages of tho seven inferior  ribs, ensiform cartilage,
          3* 
226                   ANATOMY.
linea alba, symphysis, and upper edge of the pubis.  Use, to
bend the body and compress the abdomen.
  Cremaster.  Origin, Poupart's ligament and obliquus in-
tenuis.   Insertion, tunica vaginalis, testis,  and scrotum.
  Transversalis.  Origin, fascia lumborum, crest of ilium,
Poupart's ligament, and seven  lower  ribs.  Insertion with
the obliquus internus.  Use, to compress the abdomen.
  Rectus.  Origin, pubis. Insertion, ensiform cartilage, and
to the cartilages of the  fifth and sixth ribs.  Use, to bend
the trunk, and compress  the abdomen.
  Pyrimidalis.   Origin, pubis.  Insertion, linea alba.
  Diaphragm.   The greater muscle  .Origin, xiphoid  carti-
lage, the  cartilages of the last true and all the  false ribs.
Insertion, cordiform tendon.—The lesser muscle.  Origin,
the  bodies of the four first lumbar vertebrae.   Insertion,
cordiform tendon.
   Quadratus lumborum.  Origin, spine of ilium.   Insertion.
transverse processes  of lumbar  vertebrae, and last dorsal,
Use, to bend the trunk to one side and forwards.
   Psoas muscles. Origin, the lumbar, and dorsal  vertebrae.
Insertion, cavity of the pelvis, and lesser trochanter.
   Iliacus internus.  Origin, transverse process of last lumbar
vertebra, crest of ilium, and iliac fossa.  Insertion with the
psoas muscles into the  femur.  Use,  to bend  the  thigh
and body.
   What are the muscles of the male perineum?
   Sphincter ani, externus and internus,  erector penis,  accel-
erator urinae or ejaculator seminis, transversus perinei, leva-
tor ani, compressor urethrae, and coccygous.
                          Back.
   What is the origin, insertion, and use, of the following
 muscles?
   Trapezius.  Origin, occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae,
 last cervical, and the dorsal vertebrae.  Insertion, clavicle,
 acromion process,  spine of the scapula.  Use, to draw the
 parts in the several directions  of its fibres.
   Latissimus dorsi.  Origin, dorsal spines, fascia lumborum,
 sacrum, ilium, and three or four last ribs.  Insertion, hume-
 rus.  Use,  to draw the os humeri  downwards, and back-
 wards.
   Rhomboideus major and minor.  Origin, ligamentum nu-
 chae, and  dorsal spines.  Insertion, base  of the scapula.
 Use, to draw the scapula up and back. 
ANATOMY.                    2,1
  What other muscles are situated  on the back ?   Levator
anguli scapulae, splenius capitis, and colli, sacrolumbalis,
longissimus dorsi, spinalis dorsi, musculi accessorii, cervi-
calis descendens, transversalis cervicis, trachelo mastoideus,
complexus, semi-spinalis colli and dorsi, multifidus spinae,
rectus capitus posticus major and minor, obliquus  superior
and  inferior, interspinales, intertransversarii, and levatores
costarum.
                         Thorax.
  What is tho origin, insertion, and use  of the following
muscles ?
  Pectoralis major.   Origin, sternal half of clavicle, anterior
surface of stornum,  cartilages of tho third, fourth, fifth, and
sixth true ribs.  Insertion, humerus, anterior edge of bicipi-
tal groove.  Use, to draw the arm inwards, forwards, and
to depress it.
   Pectoralis minor.   Origin, upper edge of fourth, fifth, and
sixth ribs.  Insertion, coracoid process  of scapula.  Use, to
 draw it in, and down.
   Subclavius.  Origin, first rib.  Insertion, clavicle.
   Serratus magnus.  Origin, eight or  nine superior  ribs.
 Insertion, base of scapula.  Use, to draw it forwards.
   Intercostales  external.  Origin, eleven  inferior  ribs at
 their external, inferior edges.   Insertion, superior edge of
 ribs beneath.
   Internal.  Origin, eleven ribs internally, from  the lower
 edge of each.  Insertion, inner  lip of the rib boneath.  Use,
 to draw tho ribs togother.
   Triangularis  sterni.   Origin, lowor  part  of  sternum.
 Insertion, cartilages of fourth,  fifth and sixth ribs.  Use, to
 diminish the cavity of the thorax.
                           Neck.
    What is tho  origin,  insertion, and  use of the platisma
 myoidos?  Origin, cellular membrane  over deltoid and pec-
 toral muscles, and  from the clavicle.   Insertion, chin and
 fascia of tho lateral  and inferior parts  of the face.  Use, to
 elevate tho skin of the neck.
    Sterno-cloido mastoidous.  Origin, sternum  and clavicle.
 Insertion mastoid process and transvorse ridge of the occipi-
 tal bone.  Use, to  draw  tho chin towards tho sternum.
    What other muscles are thero of the neck, the  names of
 which mostly indicate their attachment ?  Sterno-hyoideus, 
28                     ANATOMY.

sterno-thyroideus, thyreo-hyoideus,  omo-hyoideus, mylo-hy-
oideus, stylo-hyoideus, stylo-glossus,  stylo-pharyngeus, ge-
nio-hyoideus, longus colli, rectus capitis anticus major, mi-
nor, and lateralis, scalenius anticus, medius and posticus.
                          Head.
                          Face.
  What is the origin, insertion and use of the occipito-fron-
talis?   Origin,  superior transverse ridge of  the occipital
bone and mastoid process. Insertion, integuments, and mus-
cles of eyobrows.   Use, to  corrugate  the forehead and ele-
vate the supercilia.
  Corrugator supercilii.  Origin, intornal angular process of
os frontis.  Insertion, middle of eyebrow.  Use, to draw tha
lower part of the forehead into vertical wrinkles.
  What aro the other muscles  of the face?  Comprossor
naris, orbicularis palpebrarum, levator labii superioris et alae
nasi, levator anguli oris, zygomaticus major and minor, de-
pressor labii superioris et alae nasi, depressor anguli oris, de-
pressor labii inferior's,  levator monti et labii inferioris, buc-
cinator, orbicularis oris.
                       Loiser Jaic.
  Temporalis.  Origin, semicircular ridge, on parietal bone,
temporal fossa, and fascia.  Insertion, coronoid  process of
lower jaw.   Use, to pull it directly up.
  Masseter.   Origin, superior maxillary  bone.   Insertion,
outer surface of  angle of lower jaw.
  Pterygoideus internus.  Origin, intornal side of external
pterygoid plate.  Insertion, inner  side of angle of lower jaw.
Use, to close the jaw and produce a grinding motion.
  Pterygoideus  oxternus.  Origin,  outer side of external
pterygoid^plate.   Insertion, internal part of neck of lowor
jaw.  Use, same as former.
  Digastricus.  Origin,  groove  at base of mastoid process.
Insertion, inner side of baso of jaw. Use, to open the mouth.
                    Upter Extremity.
                        Shoulder.
  What is  tho  origin,  insertion, and use of the following
muscles.?
—-Deltoides.  Origin, lower edge of spine of scapula, aero-
mion and outer third of clavicle.  Insertion, humerus, near
its middle.   Use, to raise tho arm.
  Supra spinatus.  Origin, scapula  above its spine.  Inser- 
ANATOMY.
t$
   tion, great  tuberooity of humerus.  Use, to raise the arm
   and turn it out.
     Infra spinatus.  Origin, scapula, below the spine.  Inser-
   tion, groat tuberosity of humerus.  Use, to roll the arm.
     Teres minor.   Origin,  inferior costa.  Insertion,  great
   tuberosity of the humerus. Use, to rotate and draw the arm
   down and back.
 /_  Teres major.  Origin,  inferior angle of scapula.  Inser-
_  tion, inner edge of bicipital groove.  Use, to rotate the arm
^  inwards, and draw it back.
     Subscapularis.  Origin, subscapular fossa. Insertion, small
   tubercle of humerus.  Use, to draw tho arm down and roll
   it in.
                            Arm.
     Biceps. Origin, coracoid process and edge of glenoid cavi-
   ty.  Insertion, tubercle of radius.  Use, to flex the forearm.
   / Coraco Brachialis. Origin, coracoid process. Insertion, in-
   ternal side of  humerus near the middle.  Use  to draw the
   arm up and forward.
  y/ Brachialis internus.  Origin,  centre  of humerus.   Inser-
  tion, coranoid process of ulna.  Use to flex  the fore arm.
 A   Triceps extensor cubiti.  Origin, neck of scapula,  outer
 I side of humerus, ridgo leading to internal condyle of hume-
   rus. Insertion, olecranon process.  Use to extend the forearm.

                          Fore Arm.
     What class  of muscles take origin from the internal con-
   dyle and anterior part of ulna?  The flexors and pronators,
     What are the flexors and pronators? Pronator radii teres.
   flexor carpi radialis, palmarus longus, flexor carpi ulnaris.
     Flexor digitorum sublimus perforatus. Origin inner con.
   dylo and radius.  Insertion, second phalanx,  Use, to bend
   the second phalanx.
     Flexor digitorum profundus  perforans.   Origin, ulna, ra-
   dius, and interosseous ligament. Insertion, last phalanx.
     Flexor longus policis.  Origin, radius. Insertion, last pha-
   lanx of thumb.
     Pronator radii quadratus^.  Origin, anterior surface of ul-
   na.  Insertion, anterior part of radius.
     What class  of muscles take origin from the external con-
   dyle and posterior part of ulna?   Tho supinators and ex-
   tensors.
     What aro the supinators and extensors?   Supinator radii 
30                    ANATOMY.

longus, extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior, extensor
carpi ulnaris, extensor digitorum communis, supinator radii
brevis, extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis manus, extensor mi-
nor pollicis  manus, major pollicis manus, and indicator.

                  Inferior Extremity.
                         Thigh.
  What is  the origin, insertion,_and use of the following
muscles?
  Tensor vaginae femoris. Origin, ilium.  Insertion, fascia
lata.
  Sartorius.  Origin, anterior superior spinous process of
ilium.   Insertion, upper end of tibia.  Use, to bend  the leg
and draw it obliquely in.
  Rectus femoris.  Origin, anterior inferior spinous  process
and margin of acetabulum.  Insertion, patella.
  Vastus externus.  Origin,  below  trochanter  major  and
outer edge of linea  aspira.   Insertion,  unites with  rectus.
  Vastus internus.  Origin, on a level with trochanter minor
and from inner edge  of linea aspira. Insertion, unites with
rectus.
  Cruraeus. Origin, anterior and external part of femoris.
Insertion, unites with rectus.   Use of these four to  extend
the leg.
  Gracilis.   Origin, symphysis and  descending ramus of
the pubis.  Insertion, internal surface of tibia.  Use, to flex
the leg.
  Pectineus.   Origin, horizontal  portion  of pubis.   Inser-
tion, upper  part of linea aspera.  Use, to draw the thigh in-
wards and forwards.
  Adductor longus.  Origin, anterior surface of pubis.  In-
sertion, middle third of linea aspera.
  Adductor brevis.  Origin,  anterior inferior surface of pu-
bis.  Insertion, superior third of linea aspera.
  Adductor magnus.  Origin, descending ramus of pubis,
ramus  and  tuberosity of the ischium.  Insertion,  internal
condyle and ridge leading to linea aspera.  Use, these three
muscles draw the thigh inwards.
  Gluteus maximus.  Origin, posterior third of spine of ili-
um, sacrum, os coccygis,  and sacro sciatic ligament. Inser-
 tion, between trochanter  and linea aspera, linea aspera and
 fascia lata.  Use, to draw  the thigh back and keep the taunk
erect. 
ANATOMY.
31
  Gluteus- medius.  Origin, spine of ilium and dorsum.  In-
sertion, great trochanter.  Use, to draw the thigh back and
out.
  Gluteus minimus.   Origin, dorsum of ilium.   Insertion,
groat trochanter.  Use,  to abduct tho thigh and rotate the
limb inwards.
  Pyriformis.  Origin, sacrum, sciatic ligament, and ilium.
Insertion, root  of trochanter major.   Use,  to rotate the
limb in.
  Gemini.  Origin, one from root of the spine of ischium,
the other from tuberosity. Insertion, root of trochanter ma-
jor.  Use, to rotate the  limb  in.
  Obturator internus. Origin, pelvic margin of foramen thy-
roideum, its membrane  and plane of the ischium.  Inser-
tion, fossa of trochanter.  Use, to rotate the limb out.
  Quadratus femoris. Origin, tuber ischii.  Insertion, great
trochanter and line leading to the lesser.  Use to rotate the
limb out.
  Obturator  externus.  Origin, obturator ligament.  Inser-
tion, fossa at root of trochanter. Use, to rotate the thigh out.
  Biceps flexor  cruris. Origin, long head, tuber ischii; short
head,  linea aspera low down.   Insertion, head of fibula.
Use, to flex the  leg.
  Semi-tondinosus.   Origin,  tuber ischii.  Insertion,  tibia.
Use, to flex the  leg.
  Semi-menibranosus.  Origin, tuber ischii. Insertion, ex-
ternal condyle of femur, and heads of tibia and fibula.  Use,
to flex the leg.
                          Leg.
  Tibialis anticus. Origin, head and spine of tibia, interosse-
ous ligament. Insertion,  great cuneiform bone and first me-
tatarsal.  Use to present the  sole obliquely in.
   Extensor longus digitorum pedis.  Origin, heads of tibia
fibula, and interosseous ligament. Insertion, last phalanx of
the four external toes.  Use,  to extend the toes.
  Peroneus tertius.   Origin, fibula.  Insertion, metatarsal
bone of little toe. Use, to bend the foot.
  Extensor proprius  pollicis  pedis.  Origin,  middle  third
of fibula and tibia. Insertion, second phalanx of great toe.
Use, to extend it.
  Peroneus longus.  Origin, head of fibula and tibia,  in-
sertion,  metatarsal bone of great toe and internal cuneiform.
Use, to extend the foot and incline the sole outwards. 
33
ANATOMY.
   Peroneus brevis.  Origin, lower half of fibula.  Insertion,
 base of metatarsal bone of little toe and  cuboid bone.
   Gastrocnemius. Origin, upper and back part of condyle
 of femur and ridge  above it.   Insertion,  os calcis.
   Soleus.  Origin, external head from superior third of fibu-
 la; internal head, middle third of tibia, unites with the above
 and  forms the  tendo-Achillis.  Insertion, os  calcis  Use,
 to extend the foot.
   Plantaris.  Origin, back part  of femur. Insertion, os calcis.
   Popliteus.  Origin,  depression on outer condyle.  Inser-
 tion, upper part of tibia.
   Flexor longus digitorum pedis perforans.  Origin, flat sur-
 face of tibia, fascia, &c. Insertion, last phalanx of four les-
 ser toes.
   Flexor longus pollicis pedis.  Origin, inferior part of fibu-
 la.  Insertion, last phalanx of great toe.
   Tibialis posticus.  Origin, tibia, fibula, and ligament. In-
 sertion, os naviculare.   Use, to extend the foot, and present
 tho sole  inwards.

                  Organs of Digestion.

   What  are the organs of digestion?  Tho organs of diges-
 tion consist in  an uninterrupted canal extending from the
 lips to the anus, and of numerous  glandular bodies placed
 along its course.  This canal, called  alimentary, is divided
 into three portions, the superior, middle and inferior.   The
 superior  is composed of the mouth, pharynx, and eesophagus;
 the middle of the stomach and small intestine;  the inferior
 of the large intestine.  The glandular bodie^are tho salivary
 glands, pancreas, liver, spleen,  and a large number of muci:
 parous glands extending along the whole course of the canal.
                         Teeth.
   What  are the characteristics of the teeth?   They aro tho
 hardest portions of the body, bear an analogy to bone. The
 greater part of  their length is  implanted  into  the alveolar
processes of the jaws;  this part is called  the root; beyond
this is a portion  embraced by the gum called tho neck; and
the free or projecting part is the body or corona.
 _  What  is the number of teeth in tho adult?   Thirty-two;
sixteen in each jaw,  and are classified from their shape into
eight incisors, four cuspated,  eight  bi-cuspatod, and twelve
 rni'-ir. 
ANAToMY.                   33
  Of what arc teeth composod? They arc composed of twg
substances, ono, of which, is ivory, or bono like, and the oth-
er onamol.   Tho enamel forms tho periphery of the body of
a tooth, as is known by its whiteness, brittleness, semi-trans-
parency and hardness.   It is fibrous and the fibres are plac-
ed so as to pas3 from the surface towards the  centre of tho
tooth, so that tho  friction is applied against  their extremi-
ties.  Its composition is principally phosphate of lime with
a small portion of gelatin.   Tho osseous portion is the most
abundant;  it forms the root, nock, and  body, except tho
crust of enamel on its poriphcry.  Internally there is a cavi-
ty filled with a soft pulpy matter  which receives an artery,
a vein, and a nerve.
  The arteries of tho teeth of tho upper jaw come from the
alveolar and  infra orbitar; and the nerves from the  second
branch of  the filth pair;  the arteries of  tho lower teoth
come from intern A maxillary, and tho nerves from tho third
branch of tho fifth pair.
   What is undorstood by deciduous teeth?  They are teeth
poculiar to infants, ami aro twenty  in number, ton hi  each
jaw;  on citiier sido  aro two incisors, ono  cuspld.itus, and
two molares.  Some  of them fall out about  the seventh vcar
and all of them by tho iourtoonth.  The  order of their ap-
pearance is as follows:—
  Two contral incisors, from tho sixth to  the eighth month.
   Two lateral incisors, from tho seventh to  tho tenth month.
  Tho first molar on each sido, from tho twelfth to the four-
teenth month.
  Tho cuspated, from tho fifteenth to tho twentieth month.
  Tho socond molar, from tho twentieth  to the thirtieth
month.
   At birth  there aro the rudiments of fifty-two teeth in tho
two jaws; twonty deciduous and thirty-two permanent.
  How aro  tho deciduous  tooth removed J  By  tho absorp-
tion of tho  roots.

                        Tongue.

  Whero is tho tongue  ^aiatod?   It  extends from tho os
hyoides posteriorly to tho incisor  teeth anteriorly.  It is di-
vided into base, bod}', and tip.
  What muscles compose tho  tongue?  Tho  stylo-glossus,
hvo-gloHsus, genio-hyo-j/los.sus, and lingualis  form the prin-
cipal bulk;  besides  these thoro aro tho superficial llnn-ual
         4 
34
ANATOMY.
mnscle, transverse lingual muscles, and the vertical liugnal
muscles, which are email fibres running in different direc-
tions as their names indicate.
  How are thepapilte of tho tongue divided?  Into papillae
tnaximae or capitate, media?,  villosa?,  and filiformes;  and
occupy the anterior two thirds of this organ.
  The tongue is supplied with arteries principally from the
lingual branch of the carotid;  and with nerves from the hy-
po-glossal, the fifth pair, and the glossopharyngeal.

                        Palate.

  What composes tho palato?   It is composed  anteriorly by
tho palatine processes of the superior maxillary and pala-
tine bones, covered by the lining membrane of the mouth
below, and pituitary membrane abovo; posteriorly is a mem-
branous portion called tho soft palate, which has an oblong
shape and continued from tho hard palate posteriorly; in its
centre i9 the uvula from which proceeds tho two crescentric
doublings called the lateral half arches which are divided
into antorior and posterior.  In tho depressions between
these is the tonsil gland.   The spaco boundod  in front,  and
behind, by those lateral half arches is the fauces; and the an-
terior opening into it is the isthmus of the fauces.
  The muscles of the palate aro the constrictor isthmi fau-
cium, palato-pharyngeus, circumflexue, or tensor palati, le-
vator palati, and azygos uvula.

                        Glands.

  How are the glands of tho mouth divided ?   Into mucipa-
rous and salivary.
  What are tho muciparous glands?  Thoy  are  the labial,
buccal, lingual, palatine, and the tonsils.
  What are the salivary glands?  The parotid, its excreto-
ry duct is called tho duct of Stcno; it is tho size of a crow
quill, and opens opposite  to the second large molar tooth of
tho upper jaw; the submaxillary, its duct  is called the duct
of Wharton; and  the sublingual,  its duct is called ductus
Riviniani.
                       Pharynx.

  What are tho characteristics of tho pharynx 1   It is a large
membranous cavity, situated between tho cervical vertebrae
and posterior part of tho noso and mouth, and  extends from 
ANATOMY.
33
the base of the cranium to the lowor part of tho cricoid car-
tilago, and fifth corvlcal vortobra. vyhero it is continued into
tho oesophagus.   It consists of throo coats; tho external or
muscular, is composed of three musclos on each side, ono
above tho other,—a cellular, intermediate; and an internal,
or mucous coat.  Tho musclos forming tho muscular coat
are the constrictors inferior, medius, and superior.  Tho ar-
teries which supply it, are tho superior, and inferior pharyn-
geal on each side.
  What are the characteristics of the oesophagus 1  It is a
tube continuous with tho pharynx, in front of tho spine, bo-
hind tho trachea, ton or  twelve lines in diameter, and in-
creases in size from abovo downwards.  In  tho thorax it
passes down  in the  posterior mediastinum, with the aorta
on  tho left, and tho  vena azygos on the right.   It has three
coats, tho muscular, cellular, and mucous, and Is unitod to
adjacent parts  by loose cellular substance.  The muscular
oat consists of two lamina, tho longitudinal and tho circular.
Its arteries aro derived from the inferior thyroid, .the thoracic
aorta, and the ga3tric.

                        Abdomen.
  How is tho abdomen bounded?  Inferiorly by tho lliaci
interni, tho psoae, and levator ani muscles; on the front and
sides by tho five pairs of abdominal musclos,  posteriorly by
tho lesser muscle of the diaphragm, quadrati lumborum, the
lumbar vertebrae, and the sacrum.
  How many kinds of viscera are contained in the cavity of
the abdomen?  Throo: ono is engaged in digestion and as-
similation, another in tho secretion and excretion of urino,
and the third in generation.
  How is  the  abdomen  divided?   Into arbitrary regions:
considor a line or plane  as extending across  the abdomon
about two inchos  bolow the umbilicus from the superior
part of tho crista  of one ilium to the corresponding point of
tho other sido.  Draw on each side a line perpendicular to
tho first by commencing  at the anterior inferior spinous pro-
cess of the ilium, and carry it up to the diaphragm : then ex-
tend a fourth line across the abdomen parallel with tho first
and intcrsocting the two last where they strike the cartilages
of the ribs. It is  seen that theso four lines or planes, with
tho assistance of tho parieties of tho abdomen, furnish  nine
legions.   The  central one above is called the epigastric, 
36
ANATOMY.
 and tho lateral the right am! left hypochondriac.   Tho cen-
 tral in the middle is the umbilical, and tho lateral, tho right
 and left lumbar.   The central below is the hypogastric, and
 the lateral the right and left iliac.  The serobieulus cordis,
 or pit of the stomach, is the hollow in tho epigastric region.
 The rogio pubis is the region for two inches around the sym-
 phisis pubis.  Theso two last are  termed subordinate divi-
 sions.
  What position relativo to these regions does the liver oc-
 cupy?  Nearly  the whole  of tho right hypochondriac; tho
 upper half of  the epigastric-; and trio light superior part of
 tho left hypochondriac.
  Where is tho spleen situated? In tho postcriorpart of tho
 loft hypochondriac region.
  Whcro is tho stomach si tun ted?  Moderately  distended
 i: occupies, the lower half  of the epigastric region and tho
 right inferior portion of the left hypochondrias-.
  Whcro  is the  small intestine situated?   Moderately dis-
 tended by flatus, it occupies the umbilical region, tho hypo-
 gastric, portions of tho iliac on each side, and also the upper
 part of the cavity of tho pels-is, when its viscera are empty.
 _ Where  is the  largo intestine situated?  It  begins in the
 right iliac region, ascends through tho right lumbar and
 right hypochondriac, passes into the lower part of the epi-
 gastric, or upper part of the umbilical, according to the state
 of distension of tho stomach, thonce into the left hypochon-
 driac, loft lumbar, and' loft  iliac, passes into the pelvis, and
 descending in front of tho sacrum, terminates  in the anus.
  Where  is the pancreas situated?   Transversely in the
lower back part of tho epigastric region,  extending from the
left hypochondriac to  the  right side of  the  spine, and is
 placed behind the stomach  which covers it.
  Where  are the kidneys, and capsulae renales situated?  In
tho posterior part of the lumbar regions  on each side of the
spine.
  Whore are tho urinary bladder, and roctum  situated?  In
 the cavity of the pelvis, and between them in  the female is
the uterus, ovaries, and vagiaa.
  What is understood  by the peritoneum?   It is a serous
mombrano lining tho abdomen and reflected  over tho peri-
phery of nearly all tho viscera.  It is a complete sac, with
no opening into it, except in the female through the fallopian
tubes. 
ANATOMY.
37
  What are the prucossos of tho peritoneum?  There are
four, and aro known by tho gonoral name of omentum, epi-
ploon, or caul.  They aro called omentum minus or hepati-
co gastricum, omentum majus or gastro colicum, omentum
colicum, and the omentum gastro-splenicum.
  What aro tho characteristics of sorous membranes ?  They
arc thin, transparent, and white, resemble  compressed cel-
lular membrane, invariably assume tho form of perfoct sacs;
are distinct ono from another, and  secreto a serous fluid for
the lubrication of thoir internal surfaces.

                 CiiLYroiETic Viscera.

                        Stotnach.
  What  aro the characteristics of the stomach?   It  is a
hollow viscus, situated in the epigastric region, of a conoidal
shapo, curved  upwards, and presents two faces, two orifices,
two curvatures, and two  extremities.  Tho  faces are called
anterior and posterior. Tho  orifices aro named cardiac and
pyloric.  The curvaturos are the great and small, or upper
and lower.  It has four coats or laminae,  viz: peritoneal,
muscular, cellular,  and  mucous.  Its  muscular coat is col-
lected into fasciculi,  and pass in throe directions, longitu-
dinal, circular, and oblique   Tho glands of Brunner are
situated  near tho cardiac and  pyloric  orifices.   It  is  very
vascular; its arteries  being  branchos of  the coelic, are the
gastric, right and loft gastro epiploic,  and  the vasa brevia.
Tho first to the lesser curvaturo; the second and third along
tho great curvaturo; and the last, from four to six in number,
to its  great cul-de-sac.   Tho  voins torminato in the vona
portarum.  Its norves como  from tho  par  vagum, and tho
somilunar ganglion of the sympathetic.

                       Intestines.
  What is  tho length of the intestinal canal  from tho pylorus
to the anus?   From thirty to thirty-five feet;  and is divided
by anatomists  into the small, and largo intestine.
  What arc the characteristics of tho  small  intestine? It
commences at  the  pylorus and  terminates in  the right  iliac
region by  a lateral aperturo  in the large  intestine.   It is
four-fifths  of tho length of tho whole  canal being from
twenty-four to twenty-eight foot, cylindrical; tho upper end
is  larger than  the  lower, decreasing gradually as  you pro-
ceed  downwards.   If ha? four coats like the stomach, which 
38
ANATOMY'.
have the same names. The course of its nniPi-ular fibrer, are
longitudinal and circular.   Its mucous  coat is thrown into
folds or duplicatures, called valvule conniventos, in the di-
rection of'the circumference, and aro segments of circles.
  On this coat aro numerous small projections, called villi,
hence it is sometimes termed villous coat. Each villus is com-
posed of an artery, vein, and lymphatic.  Its mucous glands
are situated in tho cellular coat,  between the muscular and
mucous, and their ducts open on  the surfaco of the latter.
They aro solitary and aggregated; the former aro glandular
solitaries or Brunneri, and aro found principally in tho duo-
denum, and upper portion of the small intestine; tho  latter
arc called glanduleo agminatae or Peyeri, and exist in tho
lower part of the small intestine.
  How is the small intestine divided?  Into duodenum,  je-
junum, and ileum;  the latter two have no mark  of distinc-
tion, and are sometimes called the mesenteric portion.  Tho
duodenum  is about twelve inches long,  and  is  the  com-
mencement of this canal.   The  upper two-fifths below tho
duodenum, is called tho jejunum, and tho lower three-fifths
the ileum.
  What  is the mesentery ?  It is  a process of peritonoum
which serves to connect the small intestines to the posterior
parietes of the abdomen,  and extends from the left side of
tho second lumbar vertebra to the right  iliac fossa;  this at-
tachment is called the root, and is about six inches long.  Its
lamina contains the superior mesenteric artery and  vein,
lvrnphatic or lacteal glands and vessels,  ramifications,  from
the solar plexus of the sympathetic  nerves, and cellular,
and adiposo tissue.
  What  aro the characteristics  of the large intestine.?   It
exceeds in diameter the small, and receives the effete matter
therefrom.  It  is not so regularly cylindrical, the surface is
arranged into three series  or longitudinal rows of projec-
tions, separated by transverse depressions. It commences at
the inferior end of the small intestine, and terminates  at the
anus.   It is divided into three parts; the commencement,
below the insertion of tho ileum,  about two inches in length,
is called the ccncur.i, or caput coli; the  remaining portion,
until it reaches tho pelvis, is called the colon, when it takes
the name of rectum.
  What it meant by mesocolon?   A  duplication  of pcrlto- 
ANATOMY.
39
nouni, which fixes tho large intostino to tho posterior parie-
ties of the abdomen.
  How many coats has tho largo intestine? Four; bearing
the same namo as those of tho small intestine.   Tho perito-
neal coat ha3 small duplicatures containing fat, and called
appondices cpiploicae; the muscular coat  has two layers of
fibres, tho longitudinal, and transverse or circular; the mu-
cous coat has but few villi,  but  its muciparous glands and
folliclos aro very numerous.
  Where is tho ileo-colic valvo?  At  the junction of tho
iloum and caput coli or coecum.
   What is meant by mosorectum?  It is that duplicaturo of
pcritonoum which attaches the rectum to tho sacrum.
  From what is tho large intestine supplied with blood?
A part of the superior mesenteric, tho whole of tho inferior
mesenteric, and tho internal pudic arteries; tho veins empty
into the vena portarum; the nerves arc derived from the so-
lar and hypogastric plexus of tho sympathetic.
   What aro the characteristics of mucous membranes?
They line  tho internal surfaces  of tho hollow viscera, and
form  an intornal  tegument to  tho body, analagous to tho
skin.   They aro  of a soft, spongy consistence; easily yield
to mechanical violence, and are dependent  upon  the sur-
rounding cellular coat for thoir strength.

             Assistant Chyloi*oietic Viscera.

   What are the characteristics of tho liver?  It secretes the
bile, and is tho largest gland in tho human body.  Its whole
superior face is in contact with the diaphragm, on  the left
is tho spleen, below aro tho stomach and transverso colon,
and behind aro tho vertebrae and ascending cava. It is about
ton inches in length, six or seven wide, and weighs in tho
adult four  to five  pounds.   It is divided into  lobes, called
right and  loft.   The  former is the  larger,  and  has ele-
vations  on its surface,  called lobulus spigclii,  and  lobulus
quni tus.
   What arc tho ligaments ef the liver?  The  falciform or
suspensory, tho ligamentum teres,  the right lateral,  the loft
lateral, and some anatomists give the name of coronary to
that duplicaturo of peritoneum, at the junction of tho sus-
pensory and lateral ligaments.  Tho liver has  also a proper
coat connecting it with the peritoneum. 
40
ANATOMY.
  What  arc the blooi yessela?   Thoy are of throo kinds:
the vena portarum, *the hepatic artery,  and the hepatic
veins.
  What  composes  it?   Acini,  or  granulations,  eacli of
which is complete in itself, having  the above named blood
vessels, the origin of a branch of the hepatic duct, called
porus biliarius, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
  What is the capsule of Glisson?  It is a condensed cellu-
lar fibrous tissue, at tho bottom of the transverse fissure of
the liver, which invests the vena portarum, hepatic artery,
and  biliary ducts, and  follows them throughout the sub-
stance of the liver.
  What  are the characteristics of tho gall bladder?   It is a
reservoir for the bile, fixed on the under surface of tho great
lobe of the liver,  to the right of the umbilical fissure;  its
shape is an oblong pyriform sac.   It has three coats, a peri-
toneal, a cellular,  and  a  mucous.   Its artery, is a branch
of the hepatic; its veins empty into the vena portarum, and
its nerves come from the sympathetic.  Its duct, called cys-
tic, unites at an acute  angle  with the hepatic  duct,  and
forms tho ductus communus cholodochus; these ducts have
two coats, an  external, fibrous lamellated and oxtonsible,
and a mucous.
  What aro the characteristics of the splcon? It is in the pos-
terior part of the left hypochondriac region, bounded above
by the diaphragm, bolow by the colon, on tho right by tho
great end of the stomach, and the pancreas. Its color varies
from deep blue to dark brown;  it is usually about four and
a half inches long by two and a half wide.  Its artery call-
ed splenic, is a branch of tho cculic, its voin empties into
the vena portarum, and its nerves are derived from tho  so-
lar plexus.  It has no oxcrotory duct, and its use is not as-
certained.
  What are the characteristics of the pancreas?  It is fixed
in the lower and back part of the epigastric region; bound-
ed in front by tho stomach which conceals it, and is be-
tween the two laminae of the mesocolon, about six or seven
inches long,  two wide, and flattened bofore and behind;  its
right extremity is enlarged into a head or tuber, sometimes
called the lesser pancreas.  It is of a light grey, or pink co-
lor, and consists of lobules.   Tho  arteries which supply it,
come principally from the splenic; the veins empty into tho
splenic;  and the nerves como  from tho  solar plexus.  It 
ANATOMY.
41
eocretos a salivary fluid  and is tho  h-.rgost of this class of
glands.  Its excretory duct is called ductus Wirsungii, which
oithor pcnptrates the ductus communus choledochus, or tho
duodenum, very close to  it.

                    Urinary Organs.

  What arc the urinary organs?   Tho  kidneys,  renal  cap-
buIcs, bladder, and urethra.
  What arc the characteristics of the kidneys?   They are
two glandular bodies  for the secretion of urine, situated on
either side  of  tho spine,  extending  from the upper margin
of the  eleventh dorsal to tho lower margin of the second
lumbar vertebra; the right in ton or twelve lines  lower than
tho left, they aro hard, solid, of  a brown color, a compress-
ed ovoidal shape, excavated on the margin,  which  is ap-
plied to the spino, and resemble tho  common kidney bean;
they aro about four inches long, and two wide,  and weigh
each throo  or four ouncos, have no peritoneal coat, but have
a well marked capsule;  the arteries  are called the renal or
omulgent and arc branches of the aorta;  the veins take the
same name as the arteries, and are  equal to them in num-
ber,   Tho  substance of the kidnoys  is  dividod into cortical,
and medullary, or tubular.
  Tho cortical, or sccrotory substance  forms tho circumfer-
once, and is on an average about two lines in thickness.
  Tho tubular portion consists  in from twelve to eighteen
conoidal fasciculi callod tho pyramids of Malpighi, with their
bases towards tho cortical portion; their apices converge to-
wards the centre, aro  free, and project so as to form tho pa-
pillm renales.   Each fasciculi or cone,  is composed of a col-
lection  of  tubos, callod tubuli urinifcri.
  What composes the excretory duct of tho kidnoy?   The
ureter, which commences in tho contre of the kidney,  by an
enlargement called pelvis; this branches off superiorly, into
three or four portions called calicos,  one above,  one below,
and ono or two intermediate.  Each of these calicos is divi-
dod  at its  free extremity into three or four  short funnel
shaped  terminations,  called infundibula.   These termina-
tions embrace each by its expanded orifice, the base of a pa-
pilla, so as  to permit the latter to project into  it,  and distil
its urino there. Tho pelvis of the kidney  as it emerges from
tho fissuro  bocomes reduced to a cylindrical canal, which is
properly  the urotor; it  is about the size of a goose  quill, 
42
ANATOMY.
descends into the peiris, and penetrates obliquely tho coats
of the bladdor,  ton  or  twelvo lines behind  it* nock, and 1*
composed of two coats  or lamina.
  What aro the renal capsules? They are two small bodies,
one on either sido, placed upon the  upper end of  the kid-
ney, of a yellowish brown color tinged with red, have no
excretory ducts, and are the most distinctly developed in
the foetus.
  What  are the characteristics of the bladder?  It is  tho
reservoir for the urine,  placed  in the pelvis just behind the
symphysis of the pubes.   Tho superior end is  called  the
upper fundus; the lower end the  inferior fundus;  and be-
tween the two is the body; tho neck is its place of junction
with the urethra.  It consists of four coats; the peritoneal,
muscular, cellular, and mucous.   Tho internal  face of  tho
mucous coat presents at its inferior part tho vesical triangle,
behind and below tho nock, occupying the space between
it and the orifices of the ureters. The uvula vesica is at tho
anterior angle of the triangle, which sometimes presents an
obstruction to the introduction of the catheter.

           Organs of  Generation in  the Male.
  What  does the male organs of gonoration consist of?  The
testicles, and the ponis, with their appendages.
  How is tho penis formed?  By common integuments, eel
lular tissue, the corpora cavernosa, and the corpus spongio-
sum urethrae.
  What aro tho characteristics of the urethra?  It is a canal
whose length varies, and extends from the nock of the blad.
der to the extremity of the glans ponis.  The first part pen-
etrates the prostate gland, and is callod tho prostatic portion,
on its inferior surface  is a doubling,  which constitutes the
verumontanum or caput gallinaginis.  Betwoon tho prostate
and tho bulb is the membranous portion, about  eight or ton
lines long; this canal  varies in its dimensions in  different
parts.
  What  are  the  characteristics  of tho vesicula seminalis?
They are two convoluted tubes, ono on each sido, two inches
in length, placed on the lower fundus of the bladder between
it and the rectum, and  behind the prostate gland;  they are
composed of two coats.  Tho excretory duct of each vesicle
is about a lino and  a half long, when it joins with the vas
deferens of the  same side; a common canal  is formed called 
ANATOMY.
43
ductus ejaculatorius, which is eight or ten lines long, runs
parallel with its follow, and opens at  tho lateral  anterior
face of the caput gallinaginis.
  What are the characteristics of the prostate gland?  It is
a body about tho sizo of a horse-chestnut, fixed on the neck
of tho bladder, and penetrated by the urethra.
  What is the situation of Cowper's glands?  They are two
in number, one on each side, situated in advance of tho pros-
tate, between tho laminae of the triangular ligament.
  What are the characteristics or the testicles?  They are
two in numbor, one on each  side of tho scrotum, of an ob-
long form, compressed laterally, an inch and a half long,
ono inch in breadth, eight or  ten lines in thickness, and en-
voloped by tho scrotum, dartos, tunica vaginalis, and tunics
albuginea.
  The scrotum is a continuation of tho common skin, com-
mon to both testicles, symmetrical, and divided by a middle
line, called raphe.
  The dartos is within the scrotum,and forms two sacs, one
 for each testicle.
  Tho  tunica vaginalis is rigidly comparable to a  doublo
 flight-cap, ono portion  adhering firmly to the tunica albu-
 ginca beneath, and tho other loosely reflected over tho tes-
 ticle.
  The tunica albuginea is tho proper coat  of the testicle,
 end is in immediate contact with  it; it is denso,  strong,
 white, and fibrous.
  Tho glandular portion of tho testicles consist of a congo-
 rics of convoluted tubes called tubuli sominiferi, amounting
 to three  hundred in number, and each nearly seventeen  and
 a half feet in longth, forming hanks held together by cellular
 substance.
   The vasa recta are terminations of the tubuli sominiferi,
 which unito near tho centre  of tho testicle in a complicated
 arrangemont, called reto vasculosum testis
   The vasa effercntia, (from  twelve to eighteen ducts,)  pro-
 coed from the rote vasculosum testis, and penetrato the  cor-
 pus highmorianum and tunica albuginea.  Each one is then
 convoluted upon itself into a conical body, the conus vascu-
 losus.  Each cone, at its base, has its tube entering  succes-
 sively into tho tube of which the epididymis is formed.
   The epididymis is formed  of  n single convoluted  tube of
 tke (oorth of aline in diameter; n! tho lower esvl it becomes 
4-1
ANATOMY.
loss convoluted, turns upwards, and obtains tho namo of vas
deferens.
  What forms the spermatic cord?  It is a fasciculus of
about half an inch in diameter, and may  be felt passing from
the upper end of the testicle to the abdominal ring.  It is
formed by tho vas deferens, spermatic artery, and  veins,
lymphatics of the testicle, and the nerves; covered by a eel-
lular substance  called tunica vaginalis  communis,  and the
cremaster muscle.
  The cremaster muscle is derived from tho intornal oblique
and transversalis, completely envelopes the chord and draws
the testicle upwards.   The vas deferens is the proper excre-
tory duct of the testicle, it is a white tube, about a line and
a half in diameter, and has a cartilaginous  foci;  from tho
internal abdominal ring, it dips down  into the pelvis by the
side of the bladder, and terminates in  the urethra, after uni-
ting with the duct from the vesicula seminalis; this common
duct is called the ductus ejaculatorius.
  What aro the  fascia? and muscles of the  perineum?  Pe-
rineal fascia, the triangular ligament of the urethra, and tho
pelvic  fascia.  The muscles are tho eroctor penis, accelera-
tor urinae, transversus perinoi, sphincter ani, coccygous, and
levator ani.
             Female  Organs of Generation.

  What aro the  organs of  generation  in tho female?  The
vulva, vagina, uterus, and  the ovaria.
  What constitutes the vulva?  The vulva  consists in tho
mons veneris, the labia externa, the labia interna, tho clito-
ris,  tho vestibulum, tho orificum urethraD,  tho fourchette,
and the fossa navicularis.
  What aro the  characteristics of tho  vagina?  It is a thin
membranous canal, leading from the vulva to tho  uterus,
from four to six inches in length, between the bladder in
front and the rectum behind, flattened, so a;3 to bring its an
terior and posterior surfaces in contact, has two tunics, a fi-
brous,  and a mucous.   At its  anterior end is tho corpus
spongiosum vaginae, or plexus retiformis. The sphincter va-.
gina muscle surrounds  its  anterior orifice.
  The hymen is placed at the anterior orifice, for the pur-
pose of closing it more  or less peifcctly.
  What are tho characteristics of tho uterus?  It  is a com-
presocd pyriform body, tw? and a half inches long, r.nd one 
ANATOMY.                    4*
rtnd a half in diameter at its widest part.   Its posterior face
convex, anterior nearly flat,  about one  inch  in  thick-
ness, and divided into fundus, body, and neck.  The fundus
is the part botween the fallopian tubes at the superior extre-
mity, the neck  is the lower cylindrical portion, and  the
body is tho part  intermediate to the two.  Its cavity is  tri-
angular, with the sides convex, and the inferior angle pre-
sents towards the opening into  the vagina, called os tinea?.
Tho mucous glands or lacunae,  in the neck,  arc called ovu-
la Nabothi.  Its structure is composed of longitudinal,  cir-
cular, and oblique fibres.
  What are the ligaments of  the uterus?   The broad or
lateral,  the anterior, the posterior, and round ligaments.
  What are tho Fallopian tubes?  They are two membra-
nous canals, ono on each side,  in tho superior part of  tho
broad ligaments of the uterus, four inches long, extend from
the upper angle  of the uterino cavity  to the side of the  pel-
vis, whore their extremities  are loose and expanded into a
trumpet shaped  mouth.
  What are the characteristics of tho ovaries?  They  are
two in  number,  one on each  side, situated on  the posterior
face of the broad ligament,  of a compressed ovoid shape,
about half the size of the male  testicle.  They  have  two
coats, a peritoneal,  and tho  tunica albuginea, which cor-
responds with the same coat of the testicle.
  From whence do the female organs of generation derive
their blood vossols and nerves ?  Principally from the internal
pudic and other branches of the hypogastric arteries; their
veins run into tho hypogastric; and their nerves come from
the sacral, and hypogastric plexuses.
                 Organs of Respiration.
  What are the organs of respiration?  The larynx,  tra-
chea, and lungs.
                        Larynx.
  What arc the  characteristics  of the larynx?  It is  an ir-
regular cartilaginous tube,  forming  the upper part of  the
wind pipe ; it is  below the 6s hyoides and root of the tongue,
hounded behind by tho pharynx, and  laterally by the primi-
tive carotid  arteries and internal jugular vcius, and  contri-
butes essentially to the'formation of the voice.
  Five distinct cartilages enter  into its structure; they  are
ono thyroid, one cricoid, one epiglottis, and two arytenoid. 
4(3
ANATOMY.
  The thyroid is the largest, and forma the prominence in
the upper part of the neck, called  pomum Adami.  It haa
two processes on each side; one called cornu majus and the
other cornu minus.
  The cricoid is below the thyroid, forms  the  base  of the
larynx, and articulates with the trachea.
  The arytenoid  cartilages  resemble triangular  pyramids
curved backwards, are about six lines long, and are placed
on the upper margin of the cricoid cartilage behind.
  The epiglottis is situated on the posterior face of the base
of the oshyoides; its general shape is that of an oval  disk.
  The ligaments of the  larynx are  the crico-thyroid, the
middle thyreo-hyoid, the  lateral thyreo-hyoid, and the tliy-
reo-arytenoid two in number on each  side of the larynx, one
above the other, three lines apart.   These ligaments also
have the  name of ligamentum vocale, and the portion of the
larynx which is formod by them, and the pouches between
them  which are called the ventricles of Galen,  is the struc-
ture essential to the formation of voice.   The  opening be-
tween the two lower ligaments  is called the rima  glottidij;
and the space between tho upper ligaments and the duplica-
ture passing from the arytenoid to  the  epiglottis,  is called
glottis.
  The muscles of the larynx are tho thyroo-hyoideus, crico-
thyroideus, crico-arytenoideus posticus, and  lateralis,  thy-
reo-arytenoideus,  arytenoideus-obliquus,  and  transversus,
thyreo-epiglottidous, and  aryteno-epiglottideus.
  The nerves of the larynx come principally from  the supe-
rior and inferior laryngeal branches of tho par vagum.
                        Trachea.
  What are the characteristics of the trachea?   It is a cy-
lindrical  canal four or five inches long, and nine lines in di-
ameter; it opens into the larynx above,  and terminates in
the  thorax opposite to tho third dorsal vertebra, by  two bran-
ches called bronchise.  The structures which enter into the
composition of the trachea are cartilage, ligamentous fibre,
muscle, and mucous membrane.
  The cartilage  preserves the shape, and consists of  from
sixteen to twenty distinct rings, which are deficient at their
posterior third.
  The ligamentous structure exists between the proximate
margins of the rings, and fills up the intervals between  them
so M  to render the tube perfect. Tho  deficiency in the  rings 
ANATOMY.
47
posteriorly, is supplied in part by condensed collular sub-
stance.
  The muscular structure exists at the cartilaginous defi-
ciency in the posterior third; tho fibres pass in a transversa
direction between the interrupted extremities of the rings;
it is between the condensed cellular substance and  tho mu-
cous membrane of the trachea.
  The mucous membrane lines the whole internal portion,
from the larynx to the bronchiae, throughout all their rami-
fications.
  Where is the thyroid gland situated?  It is placed on the
first and second rings of the trachea, and on the sides  of the
larynx united in the centre by its isthmus.
  Where  is the thymus gland situated ?  Between the tra-
chea and upper extremity of the sternum.
                        Lungs.
  What are the characteristics of the lungs?  They are es-
sentially the seat of the  process of respiration, and. occupy
nearly the whole cavity of the thorax.  They are two bodies
of a greyish pink color,  separated by the heart and its great
vessels, and each forms an irregular cone with the apex above.
  The right lung is divided into three lobes,  and the left in-
to two.  Each lobe is divided into distinct lobules, united
by cellular tissue.  The lobules are subdivided into fine air
cells; these cells communicate laterally in the individual
lobules, but not with the cells of  different lobules.  Each
lobule has a ramification of the bronchial tube sent to it.
  The blood vessels are of two kinds; the pulmonary, and
bronchial.   The former is for the aeration of the blood, and
the other for the nourishment of the lungs.
  The nerves come from the par vagum and sympathetic.
  What composes the root of the lungs?  The root of each
lung is formed by tho pulmonary artery, and two veins, the
nerves, bronchiae, lymphatic vessels, and glands, covered by
tho pleura, where it extends from the lungs to the pericardium
                        Pleura.
  What is the arrangement of the pleura?  They are two
In number, afford a  perfect covering  for each lung, and
are reflected over the adjacent sides of the pericardium, and
tho interior periphery of the thorax.
  That portion of the pleura which covers the lung, is call-
ed pleura pulmonalis,  and that which linea the thorax is tha
pleura costalia.  They receive blood from the bronchial and
intercostal arteries, and  ncrvos from theintorcostals. 
40
ANATOMY.
   The pleurae divido the thorax vertically, into  two parts;
 this septum  is called mediastinum, and contains the heart,
 with its coverings, and great vessels.   Tho mediastinum is
 divided into three portions.   The anterior  passes from tho
 front of the pericardium to the posterior face of the middle
 line of the sternum.  The posterior passes from the posterior
 face of the pericardium to the dorsal vertobrae.   The supe-
 rior is  within the circuit of the first ribs.
   What  is contained in the posterior mediastinum?  The
 thoracic aorta, the oesophagus, the vena azygos, the thoracic
 duct, and tho par vagum nerve of both sides.
   What is contained in the superior mediastinum?   A part
 of the  remains of the thymus gland, descending vena cava,
 transverse vein, or vena innominata, the top of the arch of the
 aorta,  arteria innominata, left  carotid, left subclavian, tra>
 chea, oesophagus, phrenic nerve, and par vagum.
                  Circulating System.
   What is the apparatus by which the circulation is effected?
 The heart, which in man consists of four cavities, the arte-
 ries, veins, and capillaries.
   What is the course  and description of  the circulation?
 The blood, after getting to  the right auricle, is emptied by
 its contraction  into the right  ventricle, from which  it is
 forced through  the branches of the pulmonary artery into
 the lungs.  It is returned through the four pulmonary veins
 tp the Ipft auricle of the heart, which  contracts and throws
 the blood  into the left ventricle, from which it is propelled
 by its contraction, into the aerta; it is then distributed to the
 whole body by its small branches, from which it is collected
 by corresponding veins, into tho ascending, and descending
 cava, that empty into the right auricle.  It will, therefore, be
 seen that there are two circulations, the greater or systemic,
 the arteries of which contain red blood, and the veins dark
 or venous  blood;  and the lesser or pulmonic, the arteries of
which contain dark blood, and the veins red or vivified blood.
  What is meant by tho capillaries ?  Thoy are the extreme
vascular ramifications which form the connexion between
the arteries and veins.
  Of how  many  coats are  the arteries composed?   Three:
 an externa], a middle, and an internal  coat.
  Tho  external or cellular coat  is condensed cellular  sub-
stance, formed into a cylinder,  tho fibres of which  run in
 every direction.
   Tho  middle coat, called -lso muscular, proper, or tendi- 
ANATOMY.
49
nous, is of a light yellow tinge, tho fibres of which aro  cir-
cular, and possess elasticity.
  The internal euat is sometimes cdlcd nervous and arach-
noid.
  Cellular substance, vessels, and nerves, alsoonter into the
structure of arteries.  The blood vessels which nourish the
arteries are called vasaarteriarum.
  Of how many coats arc the veins composed?  Thioe : an
external, a middle, and an  internal coat, analagous  to  ths
corresponding  coats  of tho arteries,  but  more  delicate in
their texture.
  What are the different parts of the blood called?  Scrum,
crassamontum, and red globules.

                         Heart.

  Where is the heart situated?  In the thorax botwoen tho
sternum and spine, having the lungs on either side, and the
tendinous centre of tho diaphragm below.
  It is surrounded by its proper membrane, the pericardium;
its  weight is about  six ounces, greatest length about  five
and a half inches, and its base about three and a half inches
in diameter.   It is divided into four cavities; two of which
are called auricles, and two ventricles; the auricles form the
base of tho heart, and the ventricles its body.  The right
auriclo and ventricle form the right  side of the heart,  and
tho left auricle and ventricle forms the left side.
  What are the characteristics of the right auricle?  It is
an oblong  cuboidal  cavity, joined at its posterior superior
angle by the descending vena cava, and at its posterior infe-
rior angle by tho ascending cava.  In front it is dilated into
a pouch called sinus, the upper extremity of which is elon
gated into a process with indented edges, called auricle, or
auricular portion.  On tho septum between the auricles is
tho fossa oval is, which is surrounded  by its annulus, or the
isthmus of Vieussens; below the fossa ovalis is the Eustachi-
on valve. At tho orifice of the large coronary voin is tho val-
vular Tlicbesii.  The opening into tho right ventricle is the
ostium venosum.   In this auricle are fasciculi of muscular
fibres called musculi pectinati.
  What aro the characteristics of the  right ventricle?  It Is
of tho form of a triangular pyramid, forms the greater part
of tho anterior surface of the heart, and is about three linos
in thickness.   Its  internal surfaco is covered by muscular
        5* 
50
ANATOMY.
fasciculi called coiuinnac carneae;  from .some of ihe.se, small
tendinous chords aro sent to tho valves, called chordae ten-
dineao.  The valves between this  ventricle and  auricle are
called tricuspid.  The opening for the pulmonary artery  is
above, and furnished with three valves called semi-lunar, or
.sigmoid, which have in the centre of their edges, a small
cartilaginous body, called corpusculum aurantii.   Between
tho outer face of each valvo, and the artery is a pouch called
the sinus of Valsalva.
.  What are the characteristics of the left auricle ?  Its figure
is more regularly quadrangular than the right.  Its tip  or
 ear-like portion is situated at the  left of the pulmonary ar-
tery, and it is  longer, narrower, more crooked, and more
notched than tho right.  The opening between tho left au-
ricle and ventricle is also called ostium venosum.
  What are the characteristics  of  the  left ventricle?  The
shape of its cavity resembles a longovoidal or conical body,
with its pariotes about eight lines in thickness.  Its internal
surface has the same arrangement as  the right ventricle  in
having the fleshy columns called columnae carneae. The os-
tium  venosum. on this side is furnished by valves callod the
mitral, the margins of which aro also furnished with chordae
tondineac. The orifice of tho aorta is furnishod with three se-
milunar valves corresponding exactly  with those at the ori-
gin of tho pulmonary artery, except that they aro thicker and
stronger.
  The sinuses  of Valsalva also exist  in tho same mannor.
  What are tho blood  vossols of the  heart?  Thoy arc the
right and left coronary arteries, and great and lossor corona-
ry veins.
  Where are the nerves of the heart derived from?  Princi-
pally from the cervical ganglions of the sympathetic;  they
follow the coronary arteries in their distribution.

                       Arteries.

  What is  tho groat trunk of tho arterial systom called?
Aorta.
  What are tho branches of the aorta? The right and left
coronary arteries which go to the substance of the heart,
  From tho arch; the artoria innominata, tho  left primitive
carotid, and tho left subclavian arterios.
  From tho thoracic  portion, the bronchial, one for  each
Jung and sometimes two or more;  the ce.sophegal, which  are 
ANATOMY.
51
fivr or six «inall twigs;  the posterior ai t.-ric-s of the medias-
tinum ; and the inferior intercostals on each side", which sup.-
ply.tho ten lawer intercostal spaces.
  From the abdominal portion;  tho phrcnics,  two in num-
ber, the coeliac, the superior mesenteric, the capsular, one or
more on oach side, the  emulgents, and spermatics,  one on
each side, the inferior mesenteric, the lumbar, five on each
Bide, and tho middle sacral arteries.  It then  terminates in
the primitivo iliacs.
  How is the arteria innominata divided?  Into  right sub-
clavian and right primitive carotid.
  How arc tho carotids on each side divided?  Into inter-
nal and external carotids, opposite to the os hyoides.
  What  aro  the arteries given off by the internal  carotid?
The opthalmic, the  communicating artery of Willis, the
choroid, the  anterior and the middle cerebral.
  What are tho branches given  off by tho external carotid
 artery? Tho superior thyroid, the lingual, the facial (which
 gives  off the submental,  tho  inferior labial, the inferior
 coronary, and tho suporior  coronary), the  inferior pharyn-
 geal, the occipital, and the posterior auricular, when it di-
 vides into two large trunks,  the internal  maxillary, and tho
 temporal.
   The temporal gives off the transverse facial,  the middle
 temporal, and the anterior and posterior temporal.
   The internal maxillary sends off the following branches:
 tho arteria-tympan'ca,  the arteria meningea parva, the mc-
 ningea magna  or media,  the maxillaris  or inferior dental,
 the temporalis profunda,  two in number, ptorygoldcai, buc-
 calis,  maxillaris superior, infra orbitalis,  palatina superior,
 p!iar\ noea superior, and  the sphcno-palatina, which is the
 terminating trunk.
   What arc  tho branches  given off by tho subclavian arte-
 ries on each sido?  The vertobral, the inferior thyroid,  su-
 perior intercostal, internal mammary, and posterior cervical;
 after passing the subclavian muscle,  it is callod axillary ar-
 tery to tho lower margin of the arm pit; and from this place
 to the elbow joint; it is called brachial.
   What are  the branches of tho axillary artery?  Tho supe-
 rior scapular,  four  external  mamillary,  inforior  scapular,
 and tho  anterior and posterior circumfiox.
   What aro  the branches of tho brachial artery?   The pro-
 found, th.c sviir.li  profound,  nutritious, and ar.astamotic:  '* 
52
ANATOMY.
then bifurcates into the radial and ulnar in front of the bra-
chialis internus muscle.
  What are tho branches of tho radial artory?   The  recur-
rens radialis, superficialis volae,  dorsalis carpi,  magna polli-
cis, radialis indicis, and the palmaris profunda, which forma
the arcus profundus.
  What are the branches of the ulnar artery?   The  recur-
rens ulnaris, the interossea anterior and postorior,  and dor-
salis manus.  It then forms the  arcus sublimus (from which
branches are  sent  that supply the fingers, called  digital),
and terminates by a branch which joins  the arteria magna
pollicis.
  What are the branches of the coeliac artery?  It divides
into three trunks; the gastric, hepatic, and splenic.   This
division is  sometimes called tripus Hallcri.
  The gastric artery passes  along the lesser  curvatute of
the stomach.
  The hepatic artery gives  off the right gastric or  gas-
troepiploic, which is distributed 1o the right half of tho
great curvature of the stomach,  the main branch goes to the
transverse fissure of the liver, and divides into the right and
left branches.
  The splenic artery gives off the pancreatic,  the  left gas-
tric, which is distributed to the left half of the great curva-
ture of the  stomach, and the vasa brevia, which are given
off just before this artery enters  the spleen; they aro five or
six  in number, and distributed upon the great  extremity of
tho  stomach, between the cardia, and left gastric artery.
  What are the branches of the  superior mesenteric artery?
There are three colic arteries, callod ileo-colica, colica-dox-
tra, and colica-media,  besides the principal distribution  to
the small intestines.
  What are the branches of the inferior mesenteric artery?
  The superior, middle, and the inferior colic arteries; and
the superior ha3morhoidal.
  How are the primitive iliacs divided?  Into two trunks,
called internal and external.
  What are the branches of the internal iliac artery?   The
ilio-lumbar, lateral sacral,  obturator,  middle haemorhoidal,
vesical, uterine, gluteal, and  the  ischiatic.  The  ischiatic
gives off tho internal pudic, which again gives off the lower
haemorhoidal, perineal urethro-bulbar, ramus  superficialis
dorsi penis, and the cavernous artery of tne penis. 
ANATOMY.
53
  What arc the branches of tho external  iliac?  Tho epi-
gastric, and circumflex of the ilium.
  What.is the extent of the femoral artery  and what are its
branches?  It extends from the  crural arch to its perfora-
tion of the abductus magnus; and gives off the superficial ar-
tery of  tho abdomen,  external pudics,  profunda femoris
(which divides into external and  internal circumflex) ; the-
first, socond,  third, and fourth  perforating, and the anasto-
mosing arteries.       »
  What is the extent  of the popliteal artery  and its bran-
ches?  It is a continuation of  the femoral  after its passage
through  the  tendinous insertion of  the  adductor mag-
nus; extends to the opening in the  interosseous ligament,
and gives off the superior internal, superior external,  mid-
dle, inferior internal, and inferior external articular arteries,
and tho  gastrocnemial; it then divides into the anterior,
and posterior tibial arteries.
  What are the branches of the anterior tibial artery ?  The
recurrent tibial, intornal and external malleolar, tarsal, me-
tatarsal, dorsal artery of the great toe, and joins with the
external plantar in the sole of the foot.
  What are the branches of the posterior tibial?  The pero-
neal, the intornal and external plantar; this last unites with
the  anterior tibial artery,  and forms the  arcus  plantaris,
which gives  off the digital, and the perforating arteries.

                    Venous System.

  What is the office of tho veins?   To colloct the blood
from the arteries  in all parts of the body,  and  return it to
the heart.
  What is thoir general arrangement?  There are two ac-
companying  each artery wherever the part is intended for
locomotion;  besides which there  is an abundant class of su-
perficial,  or subcutaneous veins which  form a vascular net
work over the whole body.  Those accompanying the arte-
ries are termed venae comitcs, and take the names of the ar-
.teries which  they accompany.  In some  other cases  two ar-
teries empty  into ono vein.
  What is their structure?  Thoir coats are  much  thinner
than tho arteries, but similar to thorn in structure.  The in-
ternal coat is thrown into duplicatures or valves, which aro
more abundant in the superficial than in the deep seated
veins.                             * 
54
ANATOMY.
   What is the great trunk of the venous system called?
Vena cava ascendens, and descendens.
   What veins form tho  vena cava descendens?  Tho two
venae innominate.
 _ What forms the vena innominata?  It is formed on either
side by the junction of the subclavian with  the internal ju-
gular.
   What venous trunks discharge into  the vena innominata,
or descending cava?  Inferior thyroidal, vertebral, superior
intercostal, internal mammary, vena azygos, and some others
of smaller size.
   What veins form tho vena azygos?  The  ten inferior im
tercostals of the right side, and four or six of the left; it an-
astimoses inferiorly with some of the veins of the abdomen.
   What forms the internal jugular vein?   It extends from
the base of the cranium, where it communicates with the
lateral sinus on each sido, to the internal  margin of the first
rib.   Its commencement is enlarged into what is called its
gulf, or sinus.
   What forms the external jugular, and where does it ter-
minate ?  It is a continuation of the temporal, receives tho
facial and lingual; and sometimes superior thyroid, and oc-
cipital.  It usually terminates in the subclavian.
   Where is the subclavian situated?  It  extends  from the
axillary to the vena innominata, and goes  under the subcla-
vian muscle, in front of the subclavian artery; and where it
passes over the first rib, the scalonius anticus muscle is be-
tween them, the vein  being in front of it.
   What forms the axillary vein, and where is it situated?
The union of the basilic  with the brachial vein.  It is in
front of the axillary artery, included in the same sheath, and
involved with the axillary plexus of nerves.  At  the  under
surface of the clavicle it takes the name of subclavian.
   Ho\y are the veins of the superior extremities arranged?
Into doep seated and superficial. The former take the names
of the arterjes which they accompany, and are two to each
artery,  The  latter are divided into two  principal trunks j
the cephalic and basilic.
   What is the  situation  of  the cephalic  vein?  It is the
trunk coming from the thumb and fore-finger, reclves sever-
al  small branches on its course, and terminates in tho axil-
lary vein.
  What is the situation of the basilic vein?   It begins by 
ANATOMY.
55
the trunk from tne ulnar side of the hand, receives branches
in its course, and by its union with the brachial, forms the
axillary vein.
  What is the situation of the median vein?  It is in the
middle and front of the fore-arm; its trunk ascends, and be-
low the bend of the arm divides into two; one  branch go-
ing to the cephalic vein,  and called median  cephalic, and
the other going to the basilic vein,  is called median basilic.
  Where  is the vena cava ascondens situated, and  what
branches does it roceive?   In front of the spinal column  to
its right, and extends from the junction of the primitive ili-
ac veins (which unite to form it opposite the fourth lumbar
vertobra)  to the right auricle of the heart whero it empties.
It receives the middle sacral, lumbar,  spermatic, emulgent,
capsular, hepatic, and phrenic veins.
  What forms tho primitive iliac vein  on each side?   The
junction of the external and internal iliacs, opposite the sa-
cro-iliac symphysis.
   What forms the internal iliac or hypogastric vein?  It
arises by venous branches corresponding with the distribu-
tion of the  hypogastric artery, some of which  are termed
plexus; and aro the homorhoidal, vesical, sacral, pudendal,
uterine,  and vaginal plexuses; and the gluteal, obturator,
and ileo-lumbar veins.
   What forms the external iliac vein?  It is a continuation
of the femoral, and receives the epigastric, and circumflex
iliac veins, which correspond with arteries of the same name.
   What is the arrangement of tho veins of the inferior ex-
tremities?   Into  deep seated and  superficial.   The former
follow the course of the arteries, take  tho same  name, and
are two for every artery as far up  as tho ham, and also for
the muscular arteries of the thigh.
   What aro tho superficial veins?  Tho saphena minor, and
major.
   What is tho situation of the saphena minor?  It com-
mences near the external side  of the top of the foot and ex-
ternal ankle; the trunk ascends along the  back of tho leg
superficially, and terminates in the popliteal vein.
   What is the situation of tho saphena major?  It  com-
mences at the internal part of tho foot; its  trunk passes up-
wards in front of tho internal ankle, internal face of the leg
on a line with the posterior margin of the tibia, and is continu-
ed on a line with the postorior margin of the sartorius muscle; 
56
ANATOMY.
 it then terminates- in the femoral  vein  about "twelve  0*
 eighteen lines below Poupart's ligament.
   From whence.is the vona portarum derived?  The visce-
 ra of the abdomen, and corresponds with the superior and
 inferior mesenteric arteries, and the coeliac, with tho excep-
 tion of the hepatic branch.
   What is meant by the sinus portarum ?   The vena porta-
 turn when it reaches  the transverse  fissure of the liver di-
 vides into a right and left  branch,  at right angles with the
 main trunk, but in a lino with one another; these constitute
 the sinus  portarum.
   Whore do the terminating branches empty?  Into tho ve-
 nae hepaticae.

            Absorbent or Lymphatic System.

   What are the absorbents?  They  are  small, pellucid,
 transparent, cylindrical tubes, whose office is for interstitial
 absorption,  and also  to take up the nutritious part of our
 food.
   How are the absorbent vessels  divided?  Into  lacteals,
 and  lymphatics.  The former are  those which absorb the
 chyle, and the latter are found in other parts of the system;
 their structure is similar, and  differ only in the fluid with
 which they are occupied.   They are also divided  into su-
 perficial and deep seated
  What aro lymphatic glands?  They  are flattened, ovoid-
 al bodies, of a reddish ash color, indurated, and of variablo
 volume, through which, the lymphatic  vessels have to] pass
 on their way to the thoracic duct.  The vessels  that enter
 them are called vasa inferontia, and  those that depart vasa
 efferentia.
  Where are they found?   In clusters, below the occiput,
 under the ears and jaw, along the  side of the neck,  in the
axilla, root of the lungs, mesentery, loins,  pelvis, &c.
  What are the main trunks called?   Thoracic ducts.
  What  is  the course and  arrangement  of the  thoracic
 ducts?  The left thoracic duct is the main trunk of the ab-
sorbent system.  It begins about the second or third lumbar
vertebra.  Shortly after its commencement it is dilated, and
this  dilatation is called the reservoir of Pecquet, or rccepta-
culum chyli. The thoracic duct enters the thorax between
the crura of  the diaphragm,  ascends to the  fourth  dorsal
vertebra, when  it inclines  to the left side,  ascends  into tho 
                     ANATOMY.                    67

nock noar tho hoad of tho first rib; it  then turns downwards
und forwards,  over the loft subclavian artery,  and dischar-
ges into the point of junction of tho left subclavian, and in-
tornal jugular veins.   It is  commonly about tho  sizo of a
crow quill.
  Tho right thoracic duct, or as it is  somotimes called, the
right brachio-cephalic, is about one inch long, and descends
to empty itself into tho junction of tho right internal jugu-
lar with the right subclavian veins. It is formed by tho lym-
phatic trunks of the right sido of the head  and neck, from
tho right upper extremity, and tho superficial lymphatics of
tho right side of tho thorax, and parts adjacent to  it.

                    Nervous System.

  How is the nervous systom divided?  Into tho  contral or
internal  part,  composed of tho brain and  spinal  marrow;
and tho external, or poriphoral portion, which consists in the
nerves of tho brain and spinal marrow.
   Tho contral portion  is  composed of two kinds of sub-
stance.; ono callod medullary, and tho other cineritious.
   Tho peripheral portion,  or tho nerves, aro formed by par-
allel fasciculi,  tho finest filamonts of which, are  composed
of a tube filled with nervous mattor.  Tho sheaths  of  tho
nerves is callod neurilemma; it cnvolops tho nervos, and also
forms an envelope for each particular fibre, and fasciculi.
   There  aro three modos  by which thoso fasciculi unite
with each other, by anastomosis, plexus,  and ganglion.

                    Spinal Marrow.
   What are the characteristics of tho spinal marrow?  It is
uuhin the vortobral cavity, and extends from tho first ver-
tebra  of the neck to the first or second of  the loins, inclu-
sive.  It has throo membranes; dura mater, pia mater, and
 tunica arachnoidca; its general form is cylindrical, flattoned
slightly before and behind; its substance  is of two kinds;
cineritious, and medullary.
   Tho spinal marrow gives off from its sidos thirty pairs of
norves; eight of them are called cervical, twelve dorsal, five
lumbar, and five sacral. Tho spinal norves  aro formod from
two roots; anantorior, and a postorior, which aro soparatod
by the ligamentum dcnticulatum.
   Tho artorios of the spinal marrow arc dcrivod from  the
vortobrals, intorcostals,  lumbar, and sacral.
         0 
58
ANATOMY
                       Brain.

   What is understood by the encephalon, or brain?  It is
 that part of tho central portion of the nervous system con-
 tained within the bones of the cranium;  of an  oval shape,
 surrounded by three membranes, the dura mater, tunica ar-
 achnoidea, and pia mater.  Its substance is divided into ci-
 neritious and medullary.
   The brain is divided into medulla oblongata,  protuberan-
 tia annulare, or pons  Varollii; cerebrum, and cerebellum,
 each of which are symmetrical, and consist in right and left
 halves, perfectly  alike.
   What are tho processes of the dura mater?  Falx cerebri,
 tentorium cerebelli, and  falx cerebelli.
   What are the sinuses of tho dura mater?  Superior Ion
 gitudinal, lateral, one on each side, inforior longitudinal,
 sinus quartus  or" rectus, petrous two on each sido, tho su-
 perior and inferior,  cavernous one on  each side, circular,
 and  tho occipital.
   What is the torcular Hierophili?   It is tho union between
 the longitudinal,  tho fourth, and the lateral sinuses.
   What aro tho  characteristics of the medulla  oblongata?
 It extends from the superior margin of tho first cervical vor-
 tobra to tho middle of tho basilar process of the os occipitis.
 On its undersurface, on each side, is  the corpus pyramidale.
   The eminentia  olivaria are  two bodies, ono on  oithcr side,
 at the external margin of the pyramidal bodies.
   The corpora restiforme, one on either side, arc placed at
 the lateral  margins of the  medulla  oblongata, posterior  to
 the olivaria, and is a continuation of tho postorior portion of
 the medulla spinalis.  Between the corpora restiforme on
the superior face of the medulla oblongata is  an  excava-
tion, named from its shape calamus scriptorius, which forms
a part of the floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain.
  What are the characteristics of the pons varolii?  It is a
large projecting  body, placed at tho top of the  medulla
oblongata upon the junction  of the  body of the sphonoid
bono with  tho  basilar process of tho os  occipitis,  convex,
 and about one inch in diameter.
   What aro tho characteristics of the cerebellum?   It is in
the posterior fossa of the cranium, separated from  tho pos-
terior lobes of the cerebrum by tho tentorium, and connected
with tho pons  varolii, by the crus of the cerebellum.  It 
ANATOMY.
59
measures four and a half inches in the transverse diameter,
two  and a half  in thickness,  and about  the same from
before  backwards.  It has  on its superior  face  the  sulcus
superior cerebelli; another on tho inferior surface, called the
sulcus inferior cerebelli.
  Tho  superior middlo  ridge is called vermis superior, the
anterior extremity of which is from its elevation  called
monticulus cerebelli.   The vermis inferior is a ridge occu-
pying the deep sulcus which  divides the cerebellum on its
inferior surface into hemispheres.  The central part  of tho
cerebellum is formed by the vermis superior, and inferior,
and is the fundamental portion.
  Tho valvo of Vieussens arises from tho cerebellum under
tho anterior part of the base of the monticulus.
  The corpus rhomboideum, or dentatum, is in the middle
of tho trunk of the arbor vitae.
  What are the characteristics of the corebrum?   It weighs
about three pounds, it is ovoidal, measures about six  inches
in its antero posterior diameter, five inches in  breadth, and
four or five deep.   It is separated by the longitudinal  fissure
into hemispheres, tho right and left.   At the bottom of this
fissure is tho corpus collosum, which connects the two hem-
ispheres together.  The hemispheres aro each  divided on
thoir under surface into three lobes, anterior, middle, and
posterior.   Tho anterior is anterior to tho fissure  of Sylvius;
tho posterior rests on the tentorium, and the middle is  be-
twocn these two.  The periphery ia  formed  into  convolu-
tions, called  gyri, and these are separated by  fissures called
sulci.
  Tho crura cerebri  are about eight lines long, mutually
diverge, and are  separated by a fissure, which is  the third
ventricle of the brain.
  The eminentia mammilares, or corpora albicantia, are two
small  bodies, one on oach side, situated near the anterior
extremities of the crura cerebri.
  The infundibulum  is placed immediately before the eml-
nentia mammilares.   It is flattened, conoidal,  half an inch
long, base  upward, and its apex going downwards and for-
wards.  Its base  is hollow, and opens  into the third ven-
tricle, but tho point is closod.
  Tho pituitary gland]is situated in the sella  turcica.
  Tho  tuber cinerum, or pons tarini, is  a portion  of  the
under surface of  the crura  cerebri. 
GO
ANATOMY.
   Tho thalami optici, two In numbor, callod also ganglia
 postica, are situated on the superior face of the crus cerebri,
 about an inch and a half in length, and eight lines broad
 and deep.  Tho thalami aro medullary externally, cortical,
 and medullary internally, and united to each othor by the
 commissura mollis.
   The corpora striata, or ganglia cerebri antica, arc  two
 pyriform bodies, situated  before the thalami, at the bottom
 of the  lateral ventricles.  They are  two and a half inches
 long, convex in their upper surface, eight lines broad at the
 front, and taper backward to a point.  The septum lucidum
 is between them in front, but posteriorly they diverge so as
 to admit the thalami between them.  The taonia striata is
 placed  in the  anglo  formed between the internal  margin
 of the  corpus striatum, and the external one of the thala-
 mus opticus.   It is  a small medullary band commencing
 near the anterior crura  of tho fornix, and observing  the
 course of the  curved fissure in which it is placed; it goes
 to tho  posterior end of the corpus striatum.
   The  corpus callosum is  placed  at  the  bottom of  the
 fissure  which separates the two  hemispheres, and  may bo
 brought into view by slicing them off to a level with it.  It
 is then seen to be a medullary layer uniting the mass of tho
 two hemispheres, for two-fifths of the long diameter of tho
 brain, about eight linos in breadth, marked by a middle  line
 called  raphe, and forms the roof of the lateral ventricles.
  The  fornix  or trigone  cerebral is placed immediately
 below  the corpus callosum.  It is triangular, the base of
 which is behind, and the apex in front,  about an inch and a
 half long in its body, and one inch wide at the base, which
 is beneath the corpus callosum, continuous with it, and gives
 the fornix the  appearance of being a part of the same struc-
 ture doubled on itself.
  The septum lucidum is a partition placed vertically in tho
 middle  of the  brain, and  extends from the corpus callosum
 above,  to tho fornix  bolow; between its lamina is situated
 the fifth ventricle, or ventriculus sopti.
  Tho pineal gland is beneath the posterior margin of  the
 fornix upon the suporior part of the tubercular quadrigom-
ini.                                               b
  Tho velum interpositum is a reflection of pia mater, sepa-
rating tho pineal gland from the fornix, and the fornix from
the thalami nervorum opticorum. 
ANATOMY.
61
  The tubercula  quadrigomini are situated  on tho supe-
rior face of tho crura corobri, and just behind the thalami.
  How many ventricles of the brain are there?  Four; two
lateral, placed ono in  either hemisphere  of tho cerebrum,
tho  third, botwoen the two thalami,  and  the  fourth under
the  cerebellum.
  Tiie lateral ventriclos  each consist of a body and threo
proccssos, callod cornua.  Tho cornua aro named from their
position anterior, posterior, and lateral, or inferior.
  In the posterior cornu  aro seen  the hippocampus minor.
In tho inferior, or lateral cornu is found the cornu ammonis,
or hippocampus major, torminated  by the  pes hippocampi.
  The third ventriclo is bounded below by the pons tarini,
crura cerebri, and the eminentiae mammillares; and above
by  the volum interpositum, and fornix.
  Tho fourth ventricle is bounded in front by  the tuber an-
nulare, and medulla oblongata; behind by tho fundamental
portion of tho cerebellum; above by the valve of the brain
and tuborculi quadrigemini;  laterally by the  medullary
prolongations, from tho cerebellum to the tubercula quadri-
gemini, and is open below when the pia mater is removed,
                        Nerves.
  Tho following norvos are in pairs and the description of
one sido applies equally to the other:
  Where does tho  olfactory nerve arise  from?  By three
fasciculi or roots from tho basis of  the brain,  at the corpus
striatum, in the fissure of Sylvius.  They unite,  and at the
anterior extremity this nerve is enlarged into what is term-
cd  the bulb, which sends from its under surface filaments to
the Schneiderian membrane through the cribriform plate of
the ethmoid  bono.
  Where does the  optic nerve arise from?  It arises by a
broad flattened root, a portion from the  thalamus opticus,
and another part from the testis, it also adheres to the crus
cerebri, and passes under it.  The optic nerves of  the two
sides are fused together,  and form  what is called their chi-
asm, or crossing; after this they separate, and each one pas-
ses  through tho optic foramen of its respective side.
  Where does the third pair of nerves arise  from?  From
the internal face of tho crus cerebri, two lines in advance of
tho anterior margin  of the tuber annulare.  It penetrates the
orbit, through the sphenoidal fissure, and it is  distributed t<~\
most of the muscles of the eye ball.
        6* 
62
ANATOMY.
  Where  does tho fourth pair  of  nerves  arise from?   It
arises by two filaments from the uppor anterior face of tho
valve of the brain. It goes to tho orbit through the sphenoi-
dal fissure, and is distributed to tho superior oblique muscle.
  Where does the fifth pair of nerves arise from ?  By seve-
ral distinct filaments from the pons Varolii, or tuber annu-
lare.  They unite, and form the semilunar ganglion, or gan-
glion of Gasser, which  sends  off threo branches, viz: the
first, or ophthalmic,  through the sphenoidal fissure; the se-
cond, or superior maxillary through tho foramen rotundum;
and tho third, or inferior maxillary,  through  the  foramen
ovale.  Their genoral distribution  is  to the orbit, the face,
and the tongue.
  Where  docs tho sixth pair of norves arise from ?  From
tho base, or upper extremity of the corpus py rami dale.  It
Easses into the orbit by the  sphenoidal fissure, and is distri-
 uted upon tho abductor occuli muscle.
  Where does tho seventh pair of nerves arise from ?  That
portion of the seventh pair, called  the facial,  or portia du;
ra, arises by two branches from tho medulla oblongata.  It
emerges through tho stylo-mastoid  foramen-, and is distribu-
ted to the muscles, and skin of tho  head.
  That portion called the auditory, or portia  mollis,  arises
from the  medullary striae  on the  surface of the calamus
scriptorius, and from the corpus restiforme.  It penetrates tho
meatus auditorius internus,  and is  distributed to tho laby-
rinth of the ear.
  Where does the eighth pair arise from ?  That portion of
the eighth pair,  called glosso-pharyngoal,  arises from the
posterior cord of the medulla oblongata. It emerges through
tho foramen lacerum posterius, and is distributed to tho
tongue, and pharynx.
  That portion called  pnoumogastric, arises  from the cor-
pus restiforme of the  medulla oblongata.   It passes out
through the foramen lacerum posterius, and  is distributed
to  the organs of respiration, and to  the stomach.
  That portion called the accessory norve,  arises from tho
posterior fasciculus of the  medulla oblongata, and spinal
marrow.   It  is formed by the union of six or seven roots
from the spinal marrow, and throe or four from the medulla
oblongata, and passes into the cavity of tho cranium through
the foramen magnum, passes out again through the foramen
lacorum posterius, and is  distributed to the muscles, and in-
teguments of tho nock. 
ANATOMY.
63
  Whore does the ninth pair of nerves arise from?  By se-
veral fasciculi, from the fissure which separates the corpus
pyrimidalo from the corpus olivare,  on  the medulla oblon-
gata.   It gets out of the cranium through the anterior con-
dyloid foramen, and  is distributed  to the muscles of the
tongue.
  From whence are the arteries of the brain derived?   From
tho internal carotids, and vertebrals.
  Tho internal carotid passes  into the cranium through tho
carotid canal; when it reaches the anterior clinoid process,
it  sonds off the ophthalmic artery to the orbit.  It  is  then
distributed to tho brain by tho arteria choroidoa, arteria cal-
losa, or anterior cerebri, arteria communicans anterior, and
tho arteria corebri media.
  Tho vertebral artery is a  branch of tho subclavian, and
passos through tho transverso  processes of tho six superior
vortobrae of tho nock, enters tho cranium through the occipi-
tal foramen, and continues till it reaches the posterior mar-
gin of the tubor annulare, when the  two coalesce, and form
a single trunk called the basilar. Before this union, it sends
off tho spinalis postorior and anterior, and the inferior cere-
bolli.  The basilar gives off the arteria superior cerebelli;
it then divides into the postorior artery of the cerebrum, one
on oach side.  Those last arteries are joined by the arteria
communicans  posterior,  which  completes  the circle  of
Willis.
   How is the circle of Willis formed?  Anteriorly, and lat-
erally by tho internal carotids, and their branches:  the pos-
terior part by tho basilar, and its  bifurcation;  and forms a
froo communication betweon tho vessols of the two sides of
tho brain.
                         Senses. -
   From  what source is tho  pituitary membrano supplied
with norves?  From  the olfactory, or first pair, and from the
fifth pair.
   From  what source is the blood vessels of the nose de-
rivod?  From tho  intornal maxillary, and the ophthalmic
arterios.
                          Eye.
   What  constitutes tho organ of vision?  The ball of tho
eye, and its auxiliary parts.
   What aro the auxiliary parts of the eye?   The eye lids,
or palpcbrao, suporcilia, ligamentum palpobrale  externum, 
G4
ANATOMY
  conjunctiva, glands of Meibomiue, cilia, muscles, lachry-
  mal aparatus, consisting of the lachrymal glands, lachrymal
  duct, lachrymal sac, lachrymal caruncle,-semilunar valve,
  or fold, and puncta lachrymalia.
    The muscles are tho levator palpebrao superiorus, tho four
  recti, and two oblique.
   What nerves supply the orbit of  tho  eyo?  They are
  derived from the motor oculi, or third pair, the trochloaris,
  or  ourth pair, tho first branch of the trigeminus, or fifth pair
  and tho motor oculi extcmus, or sixth pair.
   What arteries supply the orbit of tho eyo?  Tho ophthal-
  mic, which has numerous branches.
   What forms the  ball of the eyo?  It is formed by con-
  centric  tunics, and humours contained in them.  The tunics
  are the  sclerotica, and cornea externally; the choroidea, and
  the ins  next in order; and the retina internally.
   The  humours are the  vitreous,  which  constitutes  the
  principal part of the eye ball; the crystalline which is in
  tront of the vitreous, and the aqueous, between the crys-
  talline, and tho cornea.
   The choroid coat  is united at its anterior  margin to  the
 sclerotica by the ciliary ligament.
   The pigmentum nigrum is spread over the whole internal
 surface of the choroid, between it and tho retina.
   The vitreous humour is composed of the tunica hyaloidea.
 and a thin fluid.
                          Ear.
   How  is the ear divided?   Into  the external  ear, the
 tympanum,  and the labyrinth.
   Of what is  the external ear composod?  It is formed of
 tho  exterior portion  commonly called tho ear, and  by a
 canal which leads internally to the tympanum.  Tho outer
 portion is divided  into  pinna, and lobue, tho former is tho
 cartilaginous portion, and tho latter is soft, and pendulous
 attached to its inferior portion.
   Tho different parts of the external  oar .are, the concha,
 meatus auditonus   externus,  tho  helix,   antihelix, fossa
 innominata,  tragus, and antitrao-us.
  The muscles of the  external ear are  very feebly  de-
velopcd,  and  are helicis major, and minor, tragicus ami
tragicus,  transversa auriculae,, attolons auriculae, retrahens
auriculae, and  the anterior auriculae.
  What is the  situation of the tympanum ?  It is interposed 
ANATOMY.
65
between  tho meatus auditorius, and the labyrinth.  It is
three linos in depth,  six in  the  antero posterior diameter,
and tho vertical measurement about the same.
  Tho mombrana tympani is situated botween  the meatus
cxtcrnus, and tympanum, and is  composed of four lamina.
  Tho floor of the tympanum is  marked by a rising, called
the promontory, and openings called the foramen ovale, and
foramen rotundum; the latter in  the dried bone is the open-
ing to the cochlea.
  Tho cminentia pyramidalis is  a small eminence, project-
ing from the posterior part of the tympanum; it is hollow,
and communicates at the other end with the canal of Fal-
lopius.
  Tho oustachian tube is at tho  fore part of the tympanum,
and communicates at the other extremity with the pharynx.
  Tho bones  in  tho tympanum  are  the malleus, incus,
orbicularo, and stapes, which are  successively  articulated,
so as  to  form  a chain.  The musclos which  movo  these
bones aro the  laxator tympani,  tensor tympani, stapedius,
and the laxator tympani minor.
  What is tho situation of tho labyrinth?  It is placed on
tho inner sido of ihe tympanum, and is divided into three
portions, tho  vestibulum,  semicircular  canals,  and  the
cochlea.
  Tho norvos  which arc spent  in part or wholly upon  the
organ  of hoaring,  are  the  auditory,  portio  dura, and  tri-
geminus, or fifth pair.

              The Great Sympathetic Nerve.

  What is meant by the sympathetic nerve?   It consists in
a series of ganglions, extending  from tho base of the cra-
nium to tho lower extremity of the sacrum. Theso ganglions
are united together by an intermediate nervous cord; and
send off filaments to adjacent organs; there is one of them
for each intervertebral  space, except those of the  neck.
Bosides thoso there are several others, situated  around  the
trunks of some of the large vessels.
  What  nerves form the commencement of the sympa-
thetic?   It is  formed  by a branch of the  nervus motor
oxtornus  oculi, and one from the  vidian nerve.   These send
each a twig  downwards, through  tho  carotid canal  when
they unite into a single  chord that runs into the superior
part of tho superior cervical ganglion. 
66
ANATOMY.
  How many cervical ganglions are there?   Throe, a supe-
rior, middle, and inferior.
  The first  is opposite to the transvorso  procoss of  the
second cervical vertebra, and  behind the internal carotid
artery.  The middle is opposite to the spaco  between the
fifth and sixth cervical vertebra.  The inferior is formed in
the intorval  between the  head of  the  first  rib, and  the
transverse process of tho last cervical vertebra.
  Where is tho cardiac ploxus situated?  Between the arch
of tho aorta  and the lower part of tho trachea, and bron-
chiae. It is  formed  principally from the  branches sent by
the three  cervical ganglions  of the sympathetic of each
side;  there are filaments also from the recurrent and the
par vagum.   This plexus is distinguished by the softness of
its texture, and its branches  may be divided into anterior,
posterior, and inferior.
   How many thoracie ganglions of the sympathetic  are
there?  Twelve; they are placed on or near the heads of
the ribs, are connected together by tho main  chord of the
sympathetic, and receive filaments from the dorsal nerves.
  What are the  branches of the thoracie ganglions?  The
great  splanchnic nerve arises  by small branches  from  the
sixth, to the ninth, or tenth thoracie ganglions, inclusive.
  The small splanchnic nerve is  derived  from the tenth
and eleventh thoracie ganglions.
  Where is the semilunar ganglion situated?  On  each side
of tho aorta, and is formed  by an assemblage of several
smaller ones, which  receive their fasciculi from  the great
splanchnic nerves.   These several  ganglia are united  to-
gether, and  form tho root of the solar  ploxus, from which
proceed branches to the viscera: viz. the cceliac, or stomachic
plexus, to the liver duodenum and pancreas, the splenic to
the spleen, &c, each following the arteries as  they proceed
to their respective destinations.
  How many lumbar ganglions of the sympathetic arc there ?
Five on either side,  placed anteriorly  on the  sides of the
bodies of the lumbar vertebrae.
   How many aro there of the sacral ganglions?  General-
ly three, sometimes four, or five, on the anterior face of the
sacrum, near the corresponding foramina for  the transmis-
sion of tho sacral nerves.  The last of tho sacral  ganglions
detaches downwards one or more  filaments, which anasti-
mose with the corresponding onos of the opposite side, and 
ANATOMY.
67
forms a sort of arch, which is the termination of the sympa-
thetic nerve.
                    Spinal Nerves.

  How aro tho norvos of the medulla spinalis arranged 1
Into cervical, thoracic, and abdominal.
  What is the origin of the phrenic nerve?  It arises from
tho anterior fasciculus of the second and third cervical,  and
gonerally by two or three filaments from the upper part of
tho brachial ploxus.
  What nerves contribute to form the brachial plexus?
Tho anterior branches of the four  inferior cervical nerves,
and tho first  dorsal or thoracic.  It extends from tho  scalo-
nii  muscles to the axilla on a level with tho neck of  tho os
humeri, and surrounds tho axillary artery, like the braids of
a whip chord, from tho clavicle to tho os humeri,  below its
head.
  What norves proceed from tho axillary or brachial plex-
us?  Tho scapular, thoracic,  axillary, two cutaneous, ra-
dial, ulnar, and median.
   What is tho number of thoracic, or dorsal spinal nerves?
They consist of twelve pairs.
   What is tho number of tho abdominal spinal nerves?
Thoro aro fivo lumbar, and  five,  somotimes six sacral, on
each side.
  Tho anterior fasciculi form a plexus from the upper part
of the loins to tho lower part of the sacrum, called the plex-
us cruralis, which has been divided by anatomists into plex-
us lumbalis,  formed by tho four superior lumbar nerves, and
tho ploxus ischiadicus, formed by  tho last lumbar, and the
sacral.
   What aro tho norves given off by the lumbar plexus?
Tho cruralis antorior, nervus obturatorius, a branch running
to join tho sciatic  ploxus, tho abdomino crural  branches,
spcrmaticus  cxtcrnus, cutaneous extomus,  cutaneous modi-
us, cutanoous antorior, and cutaneous internus.
   What aro tho branches which are given off by the sciatic
plexus or plexus ischiadicus?  Tho ncrvi glutei, nervus pu-
dendals longus inforior, ramus fomoralis cutaneous posteri-
or, norvus pudendalis longus superior, and tho nervus ischi-
adicus, or groat sciatic.
   What  is tho division of  tho  groat sciatic  nerve?  Tho
poplitoul  or  posterior tibial, end  the peroneal; and  in its 
68
ANATOMY.
course glvos off tho cutanous intornus superior, the enumc.
ous  internus inferior, and a large trunk  or  three distinct
branches, which go to the adductor magnus, Bemi-membra-
nosus, biceps, and  semi-tendinosus.
  The peroneal nerve divides into two branches, the pero-
neus externus, and the tibialis anterior.
  The posterior tibial, or popliteal nerve, gives off the exter-
nal saphenus, and  several small branches to the  muscles of
the leg, when it divides in the hollow of the os  calcis into
the internal and external plantar nerves. 
I'AUT  JJ    CUE MI ST III  .
  What  is Chemistry?  It  is the ecienco which makes
known tho composition of bodies, and the manner which
they comport with each other.—Berzelius.

                       Caloric

  What is understood by tho term caloric?  It is the causo
or agent  producing the sensation and phenomena of heat.
  What  are some of the properties of caloric, or heat? It
has  boon supposed to be  a subtle  fluid, the particles of
which repel each other, and aro attracted  by  all other sub-
stances ; it is imponderable; present in all bodies; transferable
from one body to another, tending to  an equilibrium in two
ways, by direct  contact,  or conduction, and  by radiation.
  How arc  bodies divided in regard to  their powor of con-
ducting  caloric?  Into conductors,  and  non-conductors;
among the  former aro the  metals, and among tho latter, or
those which  conduct  very  imperfectly,  aro  glass, wood,
charcoal, and porous substances generally.  Tho best con-
ductors of tho metals are, first*, silvor;  then gold, copper, and
tin; then platinum, iron, and load.
  Are liquids good conductors?  Liquids aro good conduc-
tors only from the mobility of thoir particles, by  which they
change  their  places,  and  thus carry  heat though  them
rapidly, if it is applied at tho  bottom.  But if it is  applied
at the top the conducting power is very feeblo.
  What is understood  by tho radiation of caloric ?  When
heat passes from ono body to another, independent of a
medium,  therefore in vacuo, it is termed radiation; and the
heat so distributed is called radiant or radiated heat.
  Suppose a hcatod body suspended in tho air is reduced to 
70
CHEMISTRY.
an equilibrium, what are the modes by which it is accom-
plished?  It is done in three ways;  first, by tho conducting
power of  the air, which is very  trifling; secondly, by tho
mobility of the air in  contact with it; and thirdly, by ra-
diation.
  How is  heat distributed in radiation?   It is  emitted from
the surface of a hot body equally in all directions, in right
lines, like radii from the center to the circumference of a
sphere; and when they fall upon another body  aro dis-
tributed in three  ways;  reflected, absorbed, or transmitted.
In tho first and third cases the temperature of tho  body on
which the rays fall are  not affected, in  the  other it is in-
creased.
  In what proportion does heat decrease as we recede from
a body?  It diminishes in the ratio of tho squares of the
distances  from the radiating body.
  Is the radiating power of" a body influenced  by tho naturo
of the radiating surface? It is; a polished plate of metal,
radiates very imperfectly, if roughened its radiating power
is increased; and if covered  with a thin layer of paper,
isinglass,  wax, or resin, it is greatly increased.
  The color of surfaces  also has a great  effect on the  radi-
ating power; black radiating the most rapidly, red less, and
white still less.
  Can heat be  refloctod  when  unaccompanied with light?
It can,  and is subject  to tho samo laws in this respect that
light is.
  Will a good radiating surface mako a good reflector ?  No:
neither will a good reflector  make  a good radiator, these
properties being inversely to each other.
  When heat strikes an opaque body, and it is not reflected,
what becomes of it?  It is invariably absorbed; and these
rays aro supplimental to the rays which may  bo reflected if
any aro reflected.
  What relation  exists between the absorptive, and the re-
flective powers of bodies?  They aro in an inverso propor-
tion to  each other.  So  that the more rays of heat that are
 absorbed by a body the fewer aro reflected, and vice versa.
  What relation exists between the radiant, and absorptive
power  of bodies?  Those surfaces of bodies which  navo
the  absorptive  powor, havo  tho radiating power directly
proportional.
   So that one class of surfaces are good  absorbors, and ra- 
CHEMISTRY.
71
diators, while  anothor  aro  good reflectors, and retainers;
thcso  qualities being in various proportions  in  diflorcnt
surfacos.
  What is meant by transmission of heat?  It is its passage
unchanged,  or nearly  so,  through transparent media, or
through a vacuum.
  By what means do bodies attain and keep up an equality
of temperature?  According to the theory  of Prevost all
bodies are constantly radiating heat, or  calorific  rays, and
that the temperature of a body falls whon it  radiates more
than it absorbs; on  tho contrary, the cooler  body becomes
warmer  when it absorbs more than it  radiates; and  the
temperature is stationary when the quantities  emitted and
received are equal.
  An instance of the  first case is exhibited when  a  hot
body is surrounded  by colder ones; of the second, when a
colder one is surrounded by warmer, and of the latter, when
the temperature of the bodies near each other is equal.
   According to another theory, bodies of equal temperature
do not radiate at all, and when the temperature is unequal
 the hotter bodies alone radiate.
   What aro some of tho effects of heat on  matter?  It  is
essential  to vital actions, both animal, and vegetable.   It
influences the form of bodies, as regards  their condition
of  solidity,  fluidity, or vapour.   It  also powerfully influ-
ences chemical action  and  combination.
   Does heat invariably expand all bodies?  It  does with
tho exception of some  fluids, which are expanded also  at
high tomperaturos,  and are contracted  as tho  temperature
falls, until  at a certain temperature they  again expand,
 forming an  exception to tho general law.
   Upon what principlo is  a thermometer  founded?  Tho
 expansibility  of fluids, and  mercury is  the one  generally
 used.
   Upon what principlo is tho  pyrometer of  Wedgewood
 formed ?  If we heat  a mixture of aluminous  earth  and
 water or clay, it contracts from the expulsion of the  water,
 and this contraction is an indication of the amount of heat
 to  which it  has been subjected.
   What is understood  by specific heat?  It  is the quantity
 of heat which ono body  contains compared with other
 bodios.  This difference in bodies is sometimes  termed ca-
 pacity for heat. 
72
CHEMISTRY.
  What is understood by sensible, and insensible heat?
Sensiblo heat is that heat of which we can tako cognizanco
by our senses; and insensible heat is that  which is proven
to exist in a body, but does not affect our sensations, or our
means of measuring temperature.
  Has every substance a specific heat peculiar to itself?  It
has; and a change of composition will produce a chango of
capacity for heat.
  When has a substance the greatest capacity for heat, in a
solid, or liquid state?   In a liquid condition.
  Does the specific  heat of a gas vary with the  density and
elasticity ?   It does. A diminution of density increases the
capacity, and vice versa.
  Is tho specific heat of solids and liquids the same at all
temperatures, when there is no chango of composition?
As the temperature increases, the capacity increases, but it
is owing to their dilatation, as in the case of gases.
  Does a chango in specific heat produce  a change in tem-
perature?   Always; an increase  of  capacity, therefore of
the specific heat, dimishes the temperature;  and a decrcaso
of capacity, is attended with an increase of  temperature.
  What determines the condition of bodies as to their con-
dition of solidity, liquidity, or gaseous state?  The relative
intensity of cohesion and repulsion.
  To what is the property of repulsion  owing?  To heat;
and the form of bodies may be made to vary as this is  in-
creased or diminished.  Every solid may  be converted into a
fluid, and  every fluid into a vapor, provided our means  for
the production of heat are sufficiently powerful.
  Is heat absorbed and rendered insensible when bodies as-
sume the liquid  form ?   It is; and of course there is an in-
crease of specific heat.  This increase  of specific heat is
sometimes called the heat of fluidity, and seems necossary
to the change.
  Is heat evolved, or made sensible during the passage of a
liquid into a solid?  It is; and a familiar instance  exists in
the  formation of ice, which never  gets below 32° while
changing from a liquid to a solid state, let the surrounding
temperature be what it may.
  How arc  aeriform substances divided?  Into vapors and
gases, and the differences between these, is the relative for-
ces with which thoy resist condensation.
  What is meant by a fixwd body?  It is a body which  ro- 
CHEMISTRY.
73
sists tho strongest heat wo aro capable of producing with-
out vaporizing.
  What is meant by a volatilo  body?  It is a body which
is converted into vapor by our means of  producing heat.
   What is ebullition?  It  is  where  vapor  is  formed
rapidly, giving rise to a  commotion in the liquid;  and
tho temperature at which this takes place is called the boil-
ing point.
  What  is meant  by evaporation?  It is  where  vapor is
formed quietly and insonsibly, and occurs at common tem-
peratures.
  Is the boiling point of all liquids the same at the common
pressure of the atmosphere?   No; sulphuric ether  boils at
96o F., alcohol at 176°, and pure water at 212Q,oil of turpen-
tine 316°,and mercury 662°.
   What circumstances modify the boiling point of liquids?
Variations in the pressure of the atmosphere is tho principal
one.  Tho material of which  the vessel containing the li-
quid is composed, has an influence; also the presence of for-
oign particles.  Liquids boil in vacuo at  140° lower than in
the open air, and if subjected to sufficient pressure, may be
heated to any extent without boiling.
   What circumstances influence the process of evaporation?
Extont of surfaco,  and the state of the air.
   What arc the sources of  heat?   The sun,  combustion,
electricity, the bodies of animals during life, chemical,  and
mechanical action.

                         Light.

   What is meant by the scienco of  optics?  It is  that sci-
ence which treats of light and vision.
   What is tho nature of light?  According to Newton,  it is
an omanation of inconceivably minute particles from lumi-
nous bodies; very subtle, and travels in straight lines  with
immenso velocity. According to the other theory it is simp-
ly vibrations, or undulations, of a subtle ethereal medium,
and gives rise to vision in a manner similar to what the un-
dulations of the air impresses the nerves of hearing.
   What is meant by a ray of light?  It is tho smallest  por-
tion which can be separated  from contiguous portions.
   In what proportion docs light decrease as wo proceed  from
a luminous object?  As the square of the distance  from the
luminous object increases.
        7* 
74
CHEMISTRY.
  When light falls on a body in what mannor is it disposed
of?  It is either reflected, refractod, or absorbed.
  Is solar light simple, or compound?  It  is a compound of
seven simple, or primary colors,  viz: red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, and violet.  There are also rays of tho
spectrum termed calorific, and chemical, and to which somo
have added the magnetizing.
  What is understood by terrestrial light?   It is artificial
light; and  tho common  method of obtaining it is by com-
bustion.

                      Electricity.

  What is understood by electricity?  It is a principle call-
ed into action by rubbing substances called electrics, such
as amber,  glass,  &c, with dry  silk or cloth, and  which
causes contiguous  light bodies to movo towards them or be
attracted,  and the  substance possessing this property of at-
traction is  said to be electrified.
  What is this attraction called?  Electric attraction.
  What takes place when these light substances come  in
contact with an electrified body?  They recede  or aro re-
pelled,  and this property is called electric  repulsion.
  Can  this property or electricity be conducted  from one
body to another?  It  can by  somo substances, but  not by
.Others, hence bodies are divided into conductors, and  non-
conductors.
  What are the conductors?  Metals, charcoal,  plumbago,
water, and substances  which  contain water in  its liquid
state.
  Are electrics  conductors?   No; they may bo handled
without loosing their electricity except at the parts touched;
on the other hand  conductors are non-clectrics, because tho
electricity  is at once carried off.
  Can a conductor be electrified or excited?   It can by be-
ing insulated or cut off from contact with tho earth, either
directly or indirectly by means  of a non-conductor.
  Why do electric experiments usually  fail in damp weath-
er?  Because the atmosphere then acts as a conductor, and
conducts tho electricity off.
  What are the  different conditions of electricity?  There
js one called vitreous  because developed on glass, and  ano-
ther called resinous becauso developed on resinous substan-
ces. They are also termed positive,  and  negative, the terms 
CHEMISTRY.
vitreous and positivo being used synonymously,  as are resi-
nous and negative.
  What relation do substances bear to each other, similarly
electrified?  They repel each other.
  When dissimilarly electrified?  They attract each other.
  How is electricity excited ?  By chemical and mechanical
means; when excited  by chemical means, it is called gal-
vanism.
  What is a simple galvanic circle?   It is  a  plate of zinc,
and a plate of copper placed in a vessel of water, and tho two
metals aro mado to touch each other directly or by tho inter-
vention of a wire, and galvanism is excited.
  What arc compound galvanic circles?  Series of  simplo
circles.
  For moro full explanations soo works devoted particularly
to those subjects.
                     Specific Gravity.
  What is specific  gravity? It is the relative weight of
equal bulks of different bodies.
  How  is it ascertained?  By dividing tho  weight of  tho
body, by the weight of tho same bulk of water, which is as-
sumed as unity.
  How is  the woight of a like bulk of  water found?  By
weighing tho substanco out of water, and in  water,  tho dif-
ference will bo the weight of tho Mater displaced.
  Supposo the body is lighter than water?   Then add  tho
weight necessary to sink it  to tho weight of  tho body,  and
you have the weight of an equal bulk of water, which will
enablo you to find the specific gravity in tho  usual manner.
  What are the instruments  used to ascertain tho  specific
gravity of liquids?  Hydrometers.
  What is assumed as unity in ascertaining tho specific gra-
vity of gasos?   The atmospheric  air; and their specific
gravity is  ascertained on tho same principlo  as liquids  and
solids.
                    Nomenclature.

What are tho compounds of oxygon called, that  do not pos"
scss acidity?  Oxides.
  What aro they called whon they possess acidity?   Acids;
and aro named from the substance acidified by tho addition
ofic.  For instance,  sulphuric and carbonic  acids are acid
compounds of sulphur, and caibDn with  oxygon. 
76
CHEMISTY.
  Suppose a base should form two acids with oxygen, what
is.tho one called containing tho least quantity of oxygon?
It takes the name of the  base  with the addition  of ous,
as sulphurous acid.
  By what name do we denote the simple non-metalic com-
bustibles when united with one  another, with a metal, or a
metalic oxide?  They are  known by tho addition of uret,
as sulphuret, carburet,  and phosphuret of iron, which de-
notes compounds of sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus with
iron.
  How are the oxides distinguished from each other?  Pro-
toxide is the first degree of oxidation; binoxide the second;
teroxide the third; and tho term peroxide is often applied to
the  highest degree of oxidation.   Sesqui, ono and a half, is
used to an oxide the oxygen in which is to that in the first
oxide, as one and a half to one, or as three to two.
  What  is usually understood by the term salt?  A com-
pound resulting  from the union of an acid with a base. The
definition of a salt, as given by  Dr. Hare, is that it  is a
soluable  compound, containing one  or more  acids, or cor-
rosive ingredients,  the qualities of  the ingredients  being
either neutralized, or modified;  the  name is  indicative of
the composition.
  If the acidified substance contains  a maximum of oxygen,
the name of tho  salt terminates in ate; if a mininum in ito.
Thus the  sulphate, carbonate, arseniate of potassa are salts
of sulphuric, carbonic, and arsenic acids, with potassa. The
term's sulphite, and arsenito of  potassa, denote combinations
of sulphurous, and arsenous acids with potassa.
  What  is  understood  by neutral,  super, and  sub salts?
Salts aro termed neutral, if the acid and alkali neutralize
each other; super, if  tho acid  is in excess; and sub if the
alkali is in excess.
  Another manner of expressing the  relation between acids,
and bases relates to the atomic constitution of tho salt.  If
there is an equivalent of the  acid, and alkali, tho gonoric
name of the salt is employed without any other addition.
  If two or more  equivalents of the acid  are attached to
one of the base,  a numeral is prefixed indicating its compo-
sition,  as the  sulphato, and  bisulphate of  potassa; the
oxalate, binoxalato,  and quadroxolato of potassa.   When
the base is in excess,  or the acid deficient, it is proposed to
use the  Greek numerals, dis, tris, tetrakis, to indicate th" 
CHEMISTRY.
77
oquivalont of an alkali in a subsalt.  In other compounds
where two or more equivalents of a negative element enters,
they are distinguished by the Latin numeral, and the Greek
numerals aro applied to that element regarded  as positive.
For instance, a bichloride  contains two equivalents of the
nogativo  element chlorine; on the other hand, a dichloride
signifies that  one equivalent of chlorine is combined with
two of a positive body.
                      Affinity.
  What is understood by  chemical  affinity, or attraction?
It is that affinity, or attraction which is  exerted betweon
tho minutest particles of different kinds of matter, causing
them to combine, and form new bodies, with now properties.
  Does it act at sensible  or insensible distances?  It acts
only at insensible distances, or when in apparent contact.
  What is an instanco of chemical attraction?  When we
mix water and  alcohol,  or  water  and sulphuric  acid, a
union takes place, which is an example in question.
   What  is understood by single elective  affinity?  Sup-
pose we have a compound formed by the union of ammo-
nia and oil, and to this we add sulphuric acid, tho greater
attraction of  tho  ammonia  for the sulphuric acid  than
exists botween it and tho  oil, will cause it to loave the oil,
and unite with the acid; this is an instance of single elec-
tive  affinity; so termed,  because there appears to be an
olection, or choice exercised.
  What is meant by double elective  affinity?  Supposo two
salts having  different acids  and bases;  say  carbonate of
ammonia, and hydrochlorato of lime bo mixed together, the
carbonic acid will quit tho ammonia, and unite with tho
lime; tho hydrochloric acid  will also leave tho lime, and
unito with tho ammonia;  so that both original salts will bo
decomposed, and two new ones formed; this is an instance
of double clcctivo affinity.   The affinity which tends to
resist a change is called  quiescent affinity, and tho one
which tends to produce it is called divellent affinity.
  What leading circumstances characterize chemical action ?
Tho loss of properties of the combining substances, and
the acquisition of new ones in the now compound; changes
of density, temperature, form, and color.
  What circumstances modify the  operation  of  affinity?
Cohesion, elasticity, quantity of matter, gravity, pressure of
tho atmosphere, and the agency of the imponderables. 
78
CHEMISTRY.
   Do bodies unite in definito or indefinite  proportions!
 Most bodies in forming  chemical combinations  unite in
 definite proportions.   Some unite indefinitely, but with a
 feeble affinity.
   What is  understood by  chemical equivalent?   It  is a
 number representing the  loast combining proportions  of a
 body, which is equivalent to anothor body, and may be  sub-
 stituted for it in combinations.  These combining propor-
 tions may be expressed by numbers, in  which hydrdgen is
 represented as 1, and they represent relative, and not abso-
 lute weights.
   What is meant  by isomeric  bodies?  Bodies are termed
 isomeric which contain the same chemical elements, and in
 the same ratio, and yet have chemical properties different
 from each other.
   How may tho equivalent  of compounds bo determined i
 By adding together the numbers representing the equiva-
 lents entering into the combination. These numbers are
 sometimes termed  atomic weights.
                       Oxygen.
   How is oxygen  obtained?  It may be obtained from the
 peroxides of  manganese, lead, and  mercury, nitre,  and
 chlorate of potash, by exposure to a red heat.   It  may be
 obtained from the former  by heating it to redness in a  gun
 barref, or heating it in a flask with an equal weight of con-
 centrated sulphuric acid, by means of a lamp.
   What is  the  rationale of those two last processes?  On
 applying a  red heat to  tho  peroxido of  manganese it parts
 with half an equivalent of oxygen, and is converted  into tho
 sesquioxide.
   When mixed  with sulphuric acid the peroxide  looses a
 who o equivalent of oxygen, and is converted into  tho pro-
 toxide which unites with the acid, leaving a sulphate of tho
 protoxide in the retort.
  What is the rationale when procured from the chlorate of
potash ?  A retort of glass containing no load in its compo-
 sition should bo used.  The chlorate  first  becomes  liquid,
 and  on an increase of heat is wholly  resolved into pure
 oxygen gas, which escapes, and into a white compound
 which is the chloride of  potassium, and  remains  in  the
 retort.  The  oxygen is therefore derived  partly from  the
potassa, and partly  from the chloric acid.  Procured  in this
way it is very pure. 
CHEMISTRY.
79
  What aro tho properties of oxygen gas?  It  Is colorless,
insipid, inodorous, refracts light feebly, a non-conductor of
electricity, tho most perfect electro-negative substance we
possess, heavier than atmospheric air, unites with some sub-
stances which aro said to be oxidized, and are  divided into
oxidos and acids, supports combustion in a high degree,
and necessary in a diluted state to the respiration of animals;
pure it is deleterious.  Its  specific  gravity is 1.102; equiv-
alent 8; and  symbol O.
  What is understood by combustion?  In its  common ac-
ceptation it means the rapid union  of oxygen  with a com
bustiblo material, attended with the  omission of light and
heat.  But tho union of many other substances are also
characterized by similar phenomena.

                     Hydrogen.
  How is hydrogen procured?   It may be procured tolera-
bly pure by passing tho vapor  of  water over metalic iron,
 boated to rodness, and by putting pieces of iron or zinc into
 dilute sulphuric acid.
   What is the rationalo of those processes?  In  the former
 case the oxygen of the water unites  with the red hot iron and
 iho  hydrogen is set at liberty.   In the latter, the oxygen of
 the wator unites with tho metal, and forms an oxide, which
 unites with tho acid,  and forms a sulphato while the hydro-
 gen of the water is set at liberty.
   What aro  the properties of hydrogen gas ?  It is colorless,
 neither odor or taste, a powerful refractor of light, the light-
 est body known, will not support respiration, a non-support-
 rr of combustion, highly inflammable, but like  other com-
 bustibles requires tho aid of a supporter of combustion, and
 produces  a   remarkable  alteration  in tho  voice when
 breathed.  If a jet be thrown upon  spongy platinum, it is
 ignited.  Its equivalent is 1; symbol  II.
   What is the product in tho combustion of hydrogen?
 Wator; which will bo exactly equal in weight to tho gases
 disappearing.
   What is tho proportion existing between the oxygen  and
 hydrogen in the formation of  water?  By measure there is
 two volumes of hydrogen to one of  oxygen:  by weight 88.9
 oxygen to 11.1 hydrogen, or nearly  as 8 parts oxygen to  1 of
 hydrogen.   Its symbol is II. 0.
   How many combinations are there of oxygen,  and hydro 
80
CHEMISTRY.
gen?  Two; ono in tho proportion to form wator, and anoth-
er which is the peroxide of hydrogen, and contains twice as
much oxygen as is contained in water.

                  Nitrogen or Azote.
  How is nitrogen procured?  By  burning a piece of phos-
phorus in a jar full of air, invorted over wator;  tho  oxygen
of the atmosphere unites with the phosphorus  forming me-
ta-phosphoric acid which is absorbed by tho water.  Nitro-
gen remains in the jar in combination with a small quantity
of carbonic acid, which may be removed by agitating it
with a solution of pure potassa.  Or it may be  procured by
any other substance which will take the oxygen from the
atmosphere, and leave the nitrogen.
  What are the properties of nitrogen?  It  is colorless, de-
void of taste or smell, more distinguised by negative charac-
ters than by any striking properties; non-supporter of com-
bustion and respiration, and  not combustible.  Its  equiva-
lent is 14; sp. gr.  0.689; symbol N.
  How many compounds does nitrogen form with oxygen?
Five, besides its combination in the atmosphere, which  is
considered as a mechanical mixture.  They are the nitrous
oxide, nitric oxide, hyponitrous acid, nitrous acid, and nitric
acid.  The first is one atom of oxygen to one of nitrogen;
the second, two of oxygen; the third, three; &c.
  What is understood by the air or atmosphere  ?  It is that
mass of gaseous matter  by which tho  earth is surrounded
on all sides, and adheres to it by the force of gravity.  Its
pressure on the surface of the earth is equal  to about IS
pounds  to  the  square inch  of surface, which renders it
capable of supporting a  column of  water 34 feet  high, and
one of mercury 30 inches.
  Is  the pressure of tho atmosphere invariably the same?
No, it varies at different times, and according to the eleva-
tion above the level of the sea, as indicated  by  the barome-
ter.
  What are the component parts of the atmosphere?  It  ia
composed of oxygen 20 or 21 parts; and nitrogen 79 or 80 by
volume; it also contains a little carbonic acid.   The princi-
pal chemical  properties  are owing to the presence of oxy-
gen.
  How is the  protoxido of nitrogen or nitrous oxide procur-
ed?   By  subjecting tho nitrate of ammonia to  hoat, which 
                     CHEMISTRY.                   81

in decomposed, and tho products are protoxide of nitrogen,
and water.
  What is tho rationale  of this process?   Tho  nitrate of
ammonia is composed of nitric acid, and ammonia.  The
nitric acid is composed of one  equivalent of nitrogen,  and
fivo of oxviron, and tho ammonia, of ono  of nitrogen,  and
three of hydrogen, making in all two equivalents of nitre-
■re.n, fivo of oxygon, and three of hydrogen.  By the addi-
tion of heat thctr relations are  changed, so that  the three
equivalents of hydrogen unito  with throe of  tho oxygen,
and form water, leaving two equivalents of oxygen, and two
of nitrogon, which unito, and form tho nitrous oxide.
  What aro the properties of nitrous oxide?  It  is a color-
loss gas, absorbable by pure water, a supporter of combus-
tion, produces oxhilcralion when breathed, without being fol-
lowed by depletion or languor.                      t _
  How is the binoxldo procured?   By  tho action of nitric
acid on motalic copper; the gas escapes,  and  may  be  col-
lected over water, or mercury.
   What is the rationale of this process?  Ono portion of ni-
tric acid is decomposed; partof its oxygen oxidizes tho  cop-
per, whilo another part is retained by the nitrogen, forming
tlm binoxido or nitric oxide.
   What aro the properties of tho binoxido of nitrogen?  It
is a colorless gas; when mixed with any  gaseous mixture
containing oxygen donso  suffocating acid vapors of  a red or
orango color are  produced,  which are  nitrous  acid,  and are
copiously absorbable by  nv atcr.  This peculiarity is  a distin-
guishing tost for nitric "oxide, and is also a tesUor the pres-
ence oH'reo oxygen.  It is not pos3ossod of acid properties,
and is irrespirablo.                         .,.,..,
   How is hvponitroiw acid produced?   Bv adding binoxido
of nitrogen'to oxygen in excess, pure potash being  present,
 100 measures of oxv^en combino with 400 of  the binoxide,
 and hyponitrous  acid is formed, which unites  with  the pot-
 ash.
   What are its properties?  At 0° F., anhydrous liquid hy-
ponitrous acid is colorless, and  green at common tempora-
turos, very volatilo, passing off in tho form of  an orange va-
por; on admixture with water it is converted into nitric  acid,
and binoxido of nitrogen.
   How is nitrous  acid  obtained?   By  introducing 200
inoasures of binoxido of nitrogon into a dry exhausted  glass
         8 
82
CHEMISTRY.
vessel, with 100 of  oxygon;  also by subjecting tho nitrate
of lead, carefully dried, to a red heat.
  What are its properties?  Its vapor is of an orange red
color, irrespirable, has acid properties, is absorbed by water,
the binoxide of nitrogen being disongagod, and nitric acid
remains in the water.   Its vapor  may bo condensed by a
freezing mixture, into  a liquid, in whieh state, it is anhy-
drous acid, and pungent to the taste, gives a yellow stain to
the skin, aud is very corrosive.  At 0° it is nearly colorless,
and at 32° it is yellow.  When  mixed with  a considerable
quantity of water, it is instantly resolved into  binoxide of ni-
trogen, which  escapes  with  offorvesconce, and into nitric
acid which unites with  the water.
  How may nitric acid  be procured?   By adding binoxide
of nitrogen slowly over  water,  to an excess of oxygen gas.
It is composed of 100 measures of nitrogen, and 2,30 of oxy-
gen.  For commerce it is procured by decomposing some
salt of nitric acid with oil of vitriol; and common nitre or
saltpetre is generally employed.
  Can nitric acid exist in an  insulated state?   No; it exists
only in combination with water, which,  in its concontratod
form is the nitric acid of the shops.   In commorco it is gen-
erally known by tho name of aqua fortis.
  What aro  its properties?  It  is highly  acid, largely dilut-
ed it reddens litmus paper permanently, unites with alkalies
forming salts, which are callod nitrates.   In  its purest con-
centrated form it is colorless, and has a  specific gravity of
1.5 or 1.51.  At  1.5 it  contains 20 per  cent, of water, for
which it has a great affinity, acts powerfully on substances
disposed to unite with oxygen, decomposes vegetables, the
oxygen of the  ackl uniting  with  their hydrogen, forming
water, and also with tho carbon, forming carbonic acid. All
the salts of nitric acid are solublo in wator.
  What are the tests for nitric acid, and  tho nitrates?
When uncombined, it is readily detected l»y its strong ac-
tion on copper  and morcury, emitting ruddy fumes of ni-
trous acid.
  Another,  is to mix the  supposed nitric acid, or nitrate,
with dilute sulphuric acid, add to this some pure  zinc, and
set fire to tho hydrogen  as it is evolved; if nitiic acid is pre-
sent the flame will have a greenish whito  tint, which is ow-
ing to the presenco  of tho binoxide of nitrogen.
   Another, is to add to tho supposed  nitrate a drop  of 
CHEMISTRY.
83
sulphuric acid heated in a test tube, and then add a chrystal of
morphia, which, if nitric acid bo present, will become of an
orango-rod followed by a yellow color.  The sulphuric acid
in this case, should also bo tested previously.

                        Carbon.
  In what form is carbon usually presented to us?  In the
form of charcoal.
  How is it procured?   By  heating wood to redness in a
closo vessel. Tho volatile parts are expelled, and the carbo-
naceous part remains, which is called charcoal.  Ifbonesare
usod instead of wood, we have animal charcoal, or ivory black.
   What aro tho properties of  charcoal ?   It is highly  com-
bustible, hard, and brittle, conducts heat slowly, a  good con-
ductor of electricity, very refractory in the fire if  the air is
excludod, absorbs air,  or other gases largely,  and yields
them again on the application of heat; the proportion,  how-
ever, varying in different gases, and absorbs the odoriferous
and coloring particles of animal and vogetable substances.
   Animal charcoal is mostly used when we wish to decolor-
ize fluids, by boing finoly pulverized, and having the  fluid
filtered through it.  The equivalent of carbon is  6.12 sym. C
   What aro tho compounds of carbon and oxygen? There
aro two; carbonic oxide, which is one equivalent of each;
and carbonic acid, which is two equivalents of oxygen, and
ono of carbon.
   How is carbonic acid or fixed  air procured?  It may be
expelled from common  limestone, or magnesia, (which are
carbonates), by the action of heat, or acids.  It is  also  form-
ed during rospiration, formontation, and combustion.
   What aro the properties of carbonic acid? It is colorless,
inodorous, elastic, condensiblointo a liquid under  a pressure
of 36 atmospheres, may be frozen into a white solid,  will
not support respiration, or combustion, incombustible,  ren-
ders lime wator turbid by the formation of carbonate of lime,
absorbable by water, tho quantity absorbed boing very much
increased by pressure; and  when the pressure is removed it
cscapos with an effervescence.  Tho agreable lively taste of
beer,  portor, alo, &c, is owing to its presence. It unites with
alkaline substances, and the salts so formed, are termed car-
bonates. It is easily displaced fiom all its combinations by
tho hydro-chloric and  the stronger acids, when  it escapes
with effervescence. 
84                   CHEMISTRY.

  How is carbonic oxide procured?   By exposing two parts
of well dried chalk and one of pure iron filings to a red heat,
and washing the gas evolved with  limo water,  or an alka-
line solution, which absorbs the carbonic  acid,  and  leaves
the carbonic oxide.
    Another modo is to mix binoxalate of potash with fivo
or six times its weight of sulphuric  acid, and heat it in a re-
tort; an effervescenco soon ensues,  which is  a mixture of
carbonic acid and carbonic  oxide, and may be soparatcd in
the same manner as in tho preceding process.
  What is the  rationale of this last process?  Oxalic acid is
a compound of equal parts of the elements of carbonic acid
and carbonic oxide, and they cannot exist in tho form of ox-
alic acid, unless in combination with water, or some othor
substance.   The sulphuric acid thon unites with both tho
potassa and water of the binoxalate, and tho oxalic acid  be-
insr thus set free, is decomposed.
  What are tho properties of carbonic oxido?  It  is color-
loss,  insipid, has no acid properties, inflammable, burning
with a lambent blue flame, and irrespirable.
                       SfLPHI'R.

  In what form do we generally find  sulphur?   It is found
in the region  of volcanoes, generally in a massive state,
sometimes  cryatalizod; it is also found combinod with  tho
metals, such  as  silver, copper, antimony, lead, and iron.
From its combination with iron, which is called iron pyritos,
it may be procured in large quantities by exposure to a rod
heat in a close vessel, when  it is sublimed.
  What aro the properties of sulphur?  It  is solid, brittle,
of a greenish yellow color, has a peculiar odor when rubbed,
tasteless,  crystallizable, a  non  conductor of  electricity,
negatively electrified by friction, fused at 216"3 F.;  if  the
temperature is raised  to 320° it thickens  and acquires a
reddish tint, at 428,? to 482° it is  so tenacious that tho ves-
sel may be inverted without causing it to change its placo,
if raised still  higher to its boiling point it  again becomes
liquid; at tho temperature  of 428° if poured  into  water
it  becomes  ductile.   It is volatile at  550° to 600°, and is
condensed  unchangod at lower  temperatures.   Its equiva-
lent is 16.1; symbol S; specific gravity 1.99.
  What are  the compounds of sulphur and oxygen.   There
are four: sulphurous  acid, which is 1 eq, of sulphur, and 2 
CIIEMfSTRY.
oq. of oxygon: sulphuric acid, which is 1 oq. of sulphur,
and 3 eq. of oxyircn: hyposulphurous  acid, which  is 2 oq.
of sulphur, and 2 cq. of oxygen: and  the hyposulphuric
acid, which is 2 eq. of Bulphur to 5 eq. of oxygen.
  What are tho properties of sulphurous  acid?  It is gas-
eous, colorless, transparent, has a pungent suffocating odor,
an acid tasto, and bleaching  properties; it reddens  litmus,
at first,  and then bleaches  it.  It has a strong  affinity
for  oxygen, and will  precipitato  metals which  have  a
weak  affinity for oxygen from their solutions.  It com-
bines with metalic oxides, and forms  salts called sulphites.
  How is it procured?  It is  formed  by the combustion of
sulphur  in tho atmosphere or dry oxygen gas; it is also
ovolvcd  mixed with carbonic  acid when combustible sub-
stances containing carbon are heated  with  strong sulphuric
acid; and by heating  sulphuric  acid  with  most  of the
metals;  with  copper and  mercury particularly,  it yields
 a very pure gas.   It may bo obtained liquid, by transmitting
 dry puro gas through a glass  tubo surrounded by a freezing
 mixture.  When exposed to  cold in  a moist  state a crys-
 talline solid is formed.
   How is sulphuric acid procured?  One  method is to sub-
 ject to a strong  heat the sulphate of iron, (copperas or green
 vitriol;)  tho sulphuric acid of tho salt passes over  in com-
 bination  with tho water which it contains.
   f'roeured in this way it is  called  the  fuming sulphuric
 acid of Nordhauson, on account of the white  vapors which
 it emits  on exposure to  tho air, and from the  place in Ger-
 many where it is manufactured.
   Anhydrous sulphuric acid  may bo procured from this by
 hoating  it gently in a retori, and  surrounding the  receiver
 adapted  to it with a mixturo of snow and salt, in  which  it
 is condensed into a whito crystalline  solid.
   Tho most common process for  procuring sulphuric acid
 is  to burn sulphur mixed with t its weight of nitrate  of
 potash, in a furnaco arranged so that the current of air, sup-
 porting  combustion will conduct the products into a leaden
 chamber containing water, which becomes saturated with
 the sulphuric acid fonnod in the process.
   What is tho rationale of this process?  The nitric acid
 of the nitro yields oxygen to a portion of sulphur, and con-
 verts it into sulphuric acid, which combines with the potassa
 of tho nitro;  at the same time tho greater part of the sul-
          S* 
  86                   CHEMISTRY.

  phur forms sulphurous acid by uniting with the oxygen of
  the air.
   The nitric  acid by yielding a portion of its oxygen to the
  sulphur, i.s convortod into "binoxide  of  nitrogen;  which
  coming in contact with the air at the moment of its separa-
 tion is  converted into red  nitrous acid vapors.  Tho gase-
  ous product in the leaden chamber therefore is sulphurous,
 and nitrous acids, atmospjioric air and v\'atery vapor.  From
 those elements a crystalline compound is  formed consist-
 ing of  sulphuric acid, hyponitrous acid  and water;  and
 when this  solid comes  in contact  with tho wator of tho
 chamber it is decomposed, tho sulphuric  acid i.s absorbod
 by the water, and  nitrous acid, and binoxide of nitrogen
 escape, the latter of which coming in contact with the air,
 is converted into  nitrous  acid.  This nitrous acid is again
 intermixed with  sulphurous acid  and  aqueous vapor, and
 gives rise to a second portion of the crystalline  compound
 which undergoes the same changes as the first.
   What aro tho properties of sulphuric  acid? As usually
 obtained it is a dense, colorless, oily fluid; boils at 620°;
 specific  gravity 1.847; very corrosive; sour, reddens litmus,
 and separates all other acids from their union with the alka-
 lies. Chloride  of barium is a test for  it,  and will form a
 white precipitate,  the sulphate of baryta.

                      PnospnoRt's.
  How is phosphorus procured?  By igniting bones in an
 open fire until all tho animal matter is  destroyed, leaving
 only a white substance, which is principally the phosphate of
 lime; reduce this  to a fine powder, and digest with  strong
 sulphuric acid and water, sufficient to give the consistenco
 of a thin paste.  The phospahto of lime is decomposed; a
 sulphato, and a soluble super-phosphate  of limo is formed.
 The  super-phosphato of lime is to be dissolved in warm
 water, and separated from tho sulphato by  filtration, and
 evaporated to  the  consistenco of syrup, then mixed with \
 its weight of powdered charcoal, and heated in an oarthen
 retort, with the boak of the retort put into  water, in which
 the vapor of tho  phosphorus  is  condensed,  of a reddish
 brown color, owing to tho presenco of the phosphuret of
 carbon.   It may be purified by a second distillation.
  What is the  rationale of this process ?  When the super-
phosphate of lime and charcoal arc mixed, and heat applied 
                    CHEMISTRY.                   S<

the oxygen of that part of tho phosphoric acid which con-
stitutes  tho superphosphato  unites with tho charcoal and
forms carbonic acid, and carbonic oxide gases; phosphorus
is distilled over, and phosphato of lime with redundant char-
coal remains in tho retort.
  What are the proportics of phosphorus?  It is colorless,
and transparent when pure; a soft solid at ordinary temper-
atures, has a waxy lustre when cut with a knife, distills at
550°, very inflammable, undprgoes slow combustion at com-
mon temperatures when exposed to the air, and emits a white
vapor of an alliacoous odor.  Its cquivalont is 15.7;  symbol
P; and  sp. gr. 1.77.
  What are tho compounds of phosphorus and oxygen? Tho
oxide of phosphorus, consisting of threo equivalents of phos-
phorus,  and one  of oxygen; tho hypophosphorus  acid,  2
cq. of phosphorus to 1 "of oxygen; tho phosphorus  acid, 2
oq. of phosphorus to 3 of oxygen;  and  the phosphoric, pyro-
phosphoric, or motaphosphoric acid, which is 2 eq. of phos-
phorus and 5 cq. of oxygen.
   How  is phosphoric acid procured?  By decomposing phos-
phate of baryta with sulphuric acid.
   What aro its properties ?   It is viscid, inodorous, colorless,
liquid, reddens vegetable blues, and when heated to redness
corrodes glass or porcelain.
   What is paraphosphoric or motaphosphoric acid?  It  is
formod  when phosphoric acid is heated  to redness and  al-
lowod to cool  Paraphosphoric, motaphosphoric and pyro-
phosphoric acid aro isomeric bodies because  they consist of
the same proportions of the same elements but differ in pro-
perties.
                        Boron.

   How is boron procured?  It was first obtained by subject-
ing boracic acid to the  action of a powerful galvanic battery.
But it  may  bo procured in larger quantities by heating
boracic acid  with potassium, by which.tho  boracic  acid is
deprived of its oxygen, and  the boron  liberated.
   What arc the properties  of boron?  It is  of a dark olive
color, has neither taste nor smell, and  is a nonconductor of
electricity.  It is not soluble in water, alcohol, ether, or oils,
docs not decompose water, bears a strong heat in close ves-
sels without fusing, or being changed, except that its density
is  increased.   If heated to C00° it takes fire, oxygen disap- 
88
CHEMISTRY.
pears, and boracic acid is  formed.   Its equivalent is 10.0;
symbol B; sp. gr. about 2.
  What are the compounds of boron and oxygen?  Boracic
acid is the only compound  of boron and oxygen.
  Where is  it found  and how is it  procured?  It is found
as a natural product in some of the hot springs, and is a con-
stituent of datolite, boracite, and borax, which is a compound
of boracic acid and soda.  It is procured by adding sulphuric
acid to a solution of purified borax in four times its weight
of boiling water.  Tho sulphuric acid unites with the soda
and tho  boracic acid  is deposited  on  cooling in crystals
which may bo purified by washing, dissolving thom in boil-
ing water and by recrystalization.
  What are the properties of boracic acid?  In  crystals it is
a hydrate, slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol,
and the solution when set  on fire burns with a  groeh flamo
which is a sure test for the presence of boracic  acid; sp. gr.
1.479. inodorous, bitter taste, reddens litmus, and with al-
kaline carbonates produces  eft'ervesence.  In  its hydrous
state if gradually exposed to a high heat its water of crys-
talization is expelled and a fused mass remains, which will
bear a white heat without sublimation, and on cooling forms
a hard transparent glass which  is  anhydrous boracic acid.
It absorbs water, and  looses its  transparency if exposed to
the air.   It is sometimes used as a flux from its being very
fusible and communicating this property to other substances.

                        Silicon.
   How is silicon procured?  It was first procured by Ber-
■zolius, by the action of potassium on fluo-silicic acid gas; but
a more convenient process is from the double fluorido of sili-
con, and potassium,  or sodium, previously dried, and placed
in a glass tubo with potassium, to which a spirit lamp is
applied.   The potassium  uniting with tho fluorine and tho
silicon is set at liberty. To render it perfectly pure it should
thon bo  heated to .redness, and digested in diluto  hydro-
fluoric acid.
   What  aro the properties of silicon?  It is of a dark nut
brown color, without metalic lustre non-conductor of elec-
tricity, incombustible, not dissolved or  oxydized  by sul-
phuric, nitric, hydrochloric or hydrofluoric acids; but nitric
and hydrofluoric acids mixed dissolve it roadily.  Its equiv-
alent is 22.5; svmbol Si. 
chemistry;.
89
  What Is the composition of silicic acids?  In 100 path
there aro 48.4 of silicon, and 51.6 oxygen, by weight.
  Where is the silicic acid found, and how is it procured ?
It exists in great profusion in nature, under  the names ot
s lica  and silfcious earths.  It forms a part of many miner-
as, and under  the  name of qnar te . forms  mount'uno™
masses.  It is the principal ingredient m sand stone6^
calccdonv, &c, &c.  It may be procured by  igniting pure
I X drrystal' throwing it while rod hot into water, and ro-
durin-Ait to a fine powder.   r  ...  .    .,,  .   „vfw,lirnr*
   Wl.u aro  the properties of silicic acid1?  As  mocurod
 above  it is a light white powder, fc els rough  and dry when
 rubbed between tho fingers,  ip-pul and inodorous, sp.gr.
 Q <;*'   It is very fixed  in the  fue, but may be fused by the
 h'ydro-oxygcn blow pipe, insoluble  in water, does not affect
 tests  for  acids, but in its chemical combinations acts the
 part of an acid, and displaces carbonic acid from the alka-
 lies bvthe  aid of heat.  Tho nature  of  its combinations
 with  the alkalies depends upon  the proportions m which
 they aro  united.  Ono of these combinations which is ono
 part silicic acid, and throe of carbonate potassa, is deliques-
 cent and easily dissolved in  wator, in this condition it has
 boon called the liquor of flints or liquor sihcum.
   Bv  reversing the proportions the  result is the well known
 articlo <dass.   Every kind of glass is a compound of silicic
 acid with a base, or bases; therefore a silicate.  The  qual-
 ity generally depending upon tho  purity of tho  materials,
 and in flint glass, besides the pure silicic acid and alkali,
 there  is added some of the oxidos  of load; it is thereiorc a
 doublo salt, composed of bisilicate of potassa,  and bisili-
 cato of oxidos of lead.  It equivalent is 46.5.
                        Selenium.

   How is sclotiium formed, and  how is it procured?  It
 n-cnorally occurs in  combination  with iron pyrites, also in
 some volcanic products, as a sulphuret, and  it  is  sometimes
 iow.7 combined with several of  tho metals.  It may be  ob-
 tained from tho sulphuret by mixing it with eight times its
 weight of  peroxide of manganese, and  exposing the  mix-
 tunfto a lo,v  rod boat in a  glass retort, tho beak of winch
 extends  into wator.  Tho sulphur is oxidized  by tho  oxido
 of manganese, and tho solenium is sublimed.
   What arc it? properties?  It  is ft brittle  opaque  solid, 
90
CHEMISTRY.
having neither tasto or  odor, of a motalic  lustre when in
mass, and when in powder of  a doop red color.  It softens
at 212°, and may be drawn into fine  threads; conducts heat
and electricity imperfectly, and is insoluble in water.   Ex-
 fiosed to*the flame of a blow  pipo it colors the flame of a
 ight blue color, and exhales a strong odor of decayed horse
radish; which  may be considered as characteristic of the
presence of selenium, whether alono or in combination. Its
equivalent is 39.6; symbol So.
  What are the compounds of  selenium and oxygen?
There aro three;  the  oxide of selenium,  which  is 2 eq. of
selenium to 1 of oxygen;  selenious  acid, 1  eq. selenium to
2 of oxygen; and  solenic  acid, 1 eq. selenium to 3 of oxy-
gen.  The solenic acid is analagous in composition, and
many of  its properties, to sulphuric acid, and that similarity
extends also to their compounds with alkaline substances.

                       Chlorine.
  How is chlorine gas obtained?  By tho action of hydro-
chloric or muriatic acid, and tho peroxide of manganese in
the proportion of two parts of the former to ono of the lat-
ter; the  chlorine  escapes  with effervescence, without  the
application of  heat; but much more rapidly when hoat is
applied.
  What is the rationale of  this process?  The hydrochloric
acid consists of chlorine 2  cq.,  and hydrogen 2 eq.; the
oxide of  manganese consists of manganese 1 cq., and ox-
ygen 2 eq.  In the reaction which takes place 1 eq. of chlo-
rine unites with the 1 eq. of manganese, forms the chloride
of manganese, and 1 eq, of chlorine is set  at liberty;  and
the 2 eq. of oxygen and 2 eq. of hydrogen unite and form
water,  So that the result is chlorido of manganese, water,
and clilorine, which is set at liberty.
  What  aro tho properties of clilorine  gas?  It has a yel-
lowish green color, astringent taste,  and disagreeable smell.
It is irrespirable even if largely diluted with air,  and emits
heat and light when strongly compressed.  By the applica-
tion  of about  four atmospheres of pressure,  it bocomes a
limpid liquid of a bright yellow color.  It is absorbable by
water, which yields it when heated.  It presents the phe-
nomena of combustion when brought in contact with somo
substances, and the result is a chloride, or an  acid contain-
ing chlorine.  It has a very strong affinity for hydrogen, is 
CHEMISTRY.
01
negatively electric, has no acid properties, has a great affin-
ity for  metals, and a poworful bloaching  property.  In its
application to bleaching tho presence of water is necessary,
and hydrochloric acid is generated during the process; from
which we infer that the water is decomposod, tho hydrogen
uniting with tlio'clilorinc, and the oxygen is liberated, which
occasions  the   bleaching.   The  compounds of  chlorine
which  aro  not acid are termed chlorides.   The  test  for
chlorine is nitrate of tho oxide of silver, which produces a
white precipitate.  Its equivalent is 35.42; symbol CI; sp.
gr. 2.47.
  What compound does clilorine form with hydrogen?  It
forms the hydrochloric or  muriatic acid, which is 1 eq. of
chlorine to 1 of hydrogen.
  How may this  acid be prepared?  In a gaseous state it
may be procured  by putting a strong liquid  solution of the
acid into a glass, and  heating it until it  boils, when the gas
is evolved, and may bo collected over mercury.   Another
method is to mix  equal weights of liquid sulphuric acid and
sea salt, and apply heat.
   What is tho  rationale of these processes?  In  the formor
tho acid dissolved in water  is simply expelled by  heat.
  In tho latter  tho water is decomposed, its oxygen unites
with tho sodium of the chloride of  sodium or sea salt, and
forms soda; the hydrogen unites with tho chlorine and forms
the hydrochloric acid  which escapes, and the sulphuric acid
unites  with tho soda.  Tho water  in  this  process is sup-
plied by tho sulphuric acid.  Tho result therefore is sul-
phato and bisulphatc of soda, and hydrochloric acid.
  Under what  circumstances  will  tho  cloments of hydro-
chloric acid when brought  into contact unite?  When an
eloctric spark  is passed through tho mixture, by the  pres-
ence of flame, a  red  hot body, or spongy platinum.  By
exposure to diffused light they unito slowly, but the direct
solar rays  like electricity, flame, &c, produco a sudden
inflammation accompanied  with an explosion.
  In what manner is  the acid procured in a liquid  state ?
Hv passing a current of gas into water as long as any  of it will
he absorbed, we procure a concentrated aqueous solution.
  What are the properties of hydrochloric acid?  In a gaso-
ous stato it  is colorless, has a pungent  odor, and  an acid
taste.  In atemporature of  ;!>0°, and under a pressure of 40
atmosphere;, it is.  liquid.  It i.  irrespirable, incombustible, 
>J.i
U1EMISTUY.
and & non supporter of combustion.  Hoat will not alter it
chemically, but galvanism w;ll decompoao it;hydrogen will
be found at the negative pole, and chlorino at  tho  positive
It has a powerful attraction for water, which causes a white
cloud to appoar, where it is liberated into tho atmosphere,
owing to its combination with the aqueous vapor;  ice, also
liquifies instantly, if introduced into a jar containing it, and
tho gas  is rapidly absorbed.  On introducing ajar contain-
ing the  gas into water, the absorption takes place so rapidly,
that the wator is forced up with the same rapidity as if it
were a vacuum.  During  the absorption, heat is given out.
  How  can we determine the quantity of this  acid < oinain-
cdinits solutions!-  By  ascertaining tho quantity  of pure
marble dissolved by a given weight of each.  Every 50.6 grs.
of marblo correspond to 36.42 of real acid.
  What are the properties of tho hydrochloric acid of com-
merce?   It has  a yellow color,  and contains impurities,
which arc usually nitric and sulphuric  acid, and the  ox-
ide of iron.  If pure, it is a colorless, liquid, emits whi to  va-
pors if exposed  to the  air, very sour, reddens litmus,  and
neutralizes alkalies.  It freeze,?, at  60°, and boils at 110° giv-
ing off tho pure hydrochloric acid gas freely.
  It is decomposed by substances yielding oxygon easily.
  What combination of hydrochloric aAd is used in dissolv-
ing gold, and platinum ?   It is a mixture of two parts of  tho
hydrochloric, and one of  the nitric acids, and  is commonly
termed aqua regia.
  What chemical action  takes placo in  forming a solution
of gold by this mixture?   Th: nitric and hydrochloric acids
decompose each other,  and produce water, nitrous acid, and
chlorino;  the solvent power is dependent on the chlorine,
which is liberated.
  What are the compounds of chlorine, and oxygon? They
arc; the hypochlorous acid, 1 oq. by weight  of  each,  tho
chlorous acid; 1 cq. chlorine to 4  oxygen; tho  chloric  acid,
1 eq. chlorino too oxygen; and  the  porchloric acid,  1  cq.
chlorino to 7 oxygen.
  How is hypochlorous acid procured? Hypochlorous acid,
or cuchlorine, may be best procured by pouring peroxide of
mercury in fine powder, and mixed with twice its  weight of
distilled wator, into bottles tilled with chlorino gas*.  By agi-
tation, tho chlorino is completely absorbed.  Tho  oxide of
mercury ij  decomposed,  both its constituents combining 
CHEMISTRY.
93
with chlorine, tho mercury forming corrosive sublimate, and
tho oxygen hypochlorous acid.  The acid may then be sep-
arated by distillation, which should be done at a tempera-
ture below 212°, as it is decomposed at that heat;  or it may
bo bost pcrformod under reduced pressure.   The acid thus
procured, may be concentrated by a second  distillation.
  What are the properties of hypochlorous  acid?   It is a
transparent liquid of a slightly yellow color when concen-
trated; has a 3trong penetrating odor, an exceedingly active
action on tho skin, similar, but greater than that of nitric
acid; high bleaching properties, when concentrated very lia-
ble to bo decomposed, chlorine boing evolved, and chloric
acid produced; this effect is promoted by light, and  produc-
ed instantly by tho direct rays of the sun;  also, by agitation
with angular bodies;  a  portion of pounded glass produces
brisk decomposition, when thrown into  this acid.   It  is a
powerful oxidizing agent, particularly of the  non  metalic
oloments which arc readily brought to their highest degree
of oxidation.
  How  is chlorous acid  procured?   By  making 50 or 60
grains of chlorate of potassa into a paste with strong sul-
phuric  acid, putting it into a glass retort, and applying heat
by moans of warm water kept below 212°, when a gas of a
bright yollowish green color is disengaged, which has an
aromatic odor without the smell of chlorine, and is rapidly
absorbed by wator, to which it imparts its tint.   This gas is
tho chlorous acid.
  What is tho rationalo of this process? The sulphuric acid
decomposes a part of tho chlorate of potassa, and liberates
chloric acid,  which  at tho moment  of separation resolves
itself into chlorous acid, and oxygen; the last of which pas-
ses over to tho acid of the undocomposcd  chlorate of potas-
sa, and  is converted into porchloric acid.   Tho  resulting
compounds are bisulphate, and perchloratc of potassa, and
chlorous acid.
  What aro the properties of chlorous acid?  It unites with
alkalies, and alkaline earths, forming salts soluble in water,
and  having bleaching properties.   Phosphorus takes fire
with an explosion when introduced into this gas.   A tem-
poraturo of 212° causes a violont oxplosion.
  How  is chloric acid procured?  To a  dilute solution of
chlorato of baryta add weak sulphuric acid precisely suffi-
cient for combining with the barvta; an insoluble  sulphate
     9 
>i                   CHEMISTRY.

of baryta Is formed, and precipitated; and puro chloric acid
remains in the liquid.
  What are the properties of chloric acid?  It reddens veg-
etable blue colors, has a sour taste,  and forms neutral salts
with alkalino bases called chlorates.  It has  no  bleaching
properties, a  circumstance which distinguishes it from chlo-
rine, hypochlorous acids, and chlorous acids.  It does not
give a precipitate with a solution of the nitrate of silver.  It
may be concentratod by a gentle heat to an oily consistenco.
In this highly concentrated state it has a yellowish tint, an
odor of nitric acid, sets firo to dry organic matter, and con-
verts  alcohol into acetic acid.
  It is easily decomposed by deoxidizing agonts.
  It  may be distinguished by forming a salt  with potassa,
which crystalizes in tables,  has  a  pearly lustre, deflagrates
liko nitre, whon thrown on burning  charcoal, and yields
chloric acid by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid.
  How is  perchloric acid procured?  By adding dilute sul-
phuric acid to  perchlorato of potassa, and applying heat to
tho mixture; white vapours arise that condense as a color-
less liquid in the receiver which is a solution of porchloric
acid.   It may bo  obtained in a solid form by mixing it with
strong sulphuric acid and distilling.  It hisses when thrown
into water, similar to  red hot iron; forms a compound with
potassa very  slightly solublo in water, which is tho perchlo-
rato of potassa, and may bo distinguished from the chlorate
by  not becoming yellowish on tho application of  hydro-
chloric acid.   The  primary form of its chrystal is a right
rhomboidal prism.
  How is  tho quadro-chlorido of nitrogen procured?  Dis-
solve  an ounco of hydrochlorate  of ammonia in  12 or 16
ounces of hot wator; when it has cooled to  90o invort a
wido  mouthed  glass bottlo  full  of  chlorino  into  it.  The
chlorine is absorbed, it acquires a yellow color, and in a few
minutes globules  of a yellow fluid float liko oil upon its sur-
face;  when they  acquire the sizo of a small  pea they sink
to tho bottom of tho  liquid, and  should bo collected in a
leaden saucer placed under tho mouth of tho  bottle.
  What is the rationale of this process ?  Tho ammonia is
decomposed by tho chlorine, hydrochloric acid is goneratod
by tho hydrogon of tho ammonia uniting with a part of tho
chlorine, while the nitrogen of  the ammonia unites with
another part of  the chlorine. 
CHEMISTRY.
95
  What arc tho properties of tho quadro-chloridc of nitro
gen?  It is ono of tho most explosive compounds known.'
It is not congoalcd by a mixturo of snow and salt, may bo
distilled at 160°, explodes between 210° and 212°, contact
with some combustibles causes detonation at common tem-
peratures, particularly oils, both volatile, and  fixed.  The
products of tho oxplosion arc chlorino and nitrogen.   This
compound is 4 cq. of chlorino to 1 of nitrogon,  or  as stated
by Bcrzolius 3 eq. chlorino to 1 of nitrogen.
   What are the compounds of chlorine with carbon?  Tho
porchlorido of carbon which consists of 2 oq. of carbon and
3 of chlorine; the protochlorido of 1 oq. of chlorine, and 1 of
carbon, and the dichlorido of 2 eq. of carbon, and  1 of chlo-
rino.
  How is perchlorido of  carbon procured?  By  exposing
olefiant gas to chlorino; a combination takes place between
them, and an oily liquid is generated, which is a compound
of carbon, hydrogon, and chlorine.  Put this into a vessel
containing chlorine gas, and expose it to tho direct rays of
tho sun; the chlorino decomposes tho liquid, hydrochloric
acid is liberated, and the carbon unites with tho chlorino at
the momont of separation.
  What are tho properties of tho porchlorido of carbon? It
is solid at common temperatures, has an aromatic odor, a
nonconductor of  electricity,  and a powerful refractor of
light;  sp.gr. 2; fuses at 320°; it  may bo  distilled without
change, and assumes a crystalline form  whon it condonscs,
  How is the proto-chloridc of carbon procured?   By pass-
ing the vapor of perchloride through  a  red hot glass tube
filled with pieces of rock crystal it is partially decomposed;
chlorino, and protochlorido of carbon being the result.
  What aro the properties of proto-chloride of carbon? It
Is a limpid colorless liquid, has a density of 1.55, does  not
congeal at 0°, and is converted into vapor at 160S or  170°.
It may be distilled,  but oxposurc "to a red heat resolves it
into its olemonts.
  What are tho characteristics of the dichlorido of carbon?
It is of a white color, in tho shape of small, soft, adhesive fi-
bres, and  has a peculiar odor resembling spermaceti.
  What are tho compounds of chlorino and sulphur?   ^ Tho
dichlorido which  contains 2 cq. of sulphur, and  1 of "chlo-
rino ; and tho proto-chlorido  which is 1 cq. of chlorino and
1 of sulphur. 
96
CHEMISTRY.
  What are the compounds of chlorino  and phosphorus?
The perchlorido of phosphorus which is 5 oq. of chlorino
and 2 of phosporus, and tho sesqui-chlorido of phosphorus,
which is 3 eq. of clilorine, and 2 of phosphorus.
'•  How isgthe "perchloride of phosphorus procured.  By in-
flaming phosphorus in dry chlorine the perchloride collocts
inside of the vessel.   It is white and very volatile.  By
heating it under pressure and  cooling, it yields transparent
prismatic crystals.
  How is the sesqui chloride of phosphorus procured?  By
heating the perchloride  with  phosphorus;  also bypassing
the vapor of phosphorus over corrosive sublimate contained
in a glass tube.
  What are the  properties of the sesqu-ichloride of phos-
phorus?  It is a clear liquid,  like water,  of sp. gr. 1.45,
emits acid  fumes  when exposed to tho air owing to the do-
composition of aqueous  vapor.  On  mixing with water a
mutual  decomposition  takes place, heat is evolved, and a
solution of hydrochloric and phosphorous acids is obtained.
  How is chloro-carbonic acid or  phosgene gas procured?
By exposing equal  parts by measure of chlorine,  and car-
bonic oxide gases to sunshine,  a combination ensues,  and a
contraction to half  the volume takes place.
  What are the properties of chloro-carbonic acid gas ?   It
is colorless, has a  strong odor, and reddens dry litmus paper,
combines with gaseous ammonia, and forms a whito solid
salt, therefore has  acid properties.  Water decomposes  it,
and tho result is hydrochloric and  carbonic acids.
  What compound does chlorine form  with boron?   It
forms the ter-chloride;  and it is procured by putting recent-
ly prepared boron into chlorine, when it takes fire sponta-
neously, and a colorless gas, the chlorido of boron is formed,
which is absorbable by water, and undergoes double  de-
composition at the same momont, the result of which is
hj'drochloric and boracic acids.
  What compound does  chlorine  form with silicon ?   The
tor-chloride, which  may be procured  by heating silicon in a
current  of chlorine  gas.  The product is condensed into a
colorless liquid, which by the addition of water is converted
into hydrochloric and silicic acids.
  Is chlorino a simple or  compound substance?  It is gen-
erally believed to be a simple body because it  cannot bo
decomposed by any known means. 
CHEMISTRY.
97
                        Iodine.

  Whoro is iodine found?   It is found in many  mineral
qiring.;in combination with  sodium and  potassium; it is
also found in tho water of  tho  Mediterranean, in  the oys-
tor, and some other marino  molluscous animals, in sponges,
and in most kinds of soa-woed.   It has also been found in
the mineral kingdom in combination with silver.
  How is it procured?  It is procured from kelp, an impure
carbonato  of soda,  obtained by incinerating sea weeds.
Carbonate  of soda  is  prepared  from the  kelp; and  the
residual liquor contains iodino in combination with  potas-
sium or sodium, which may be separated by the addition of
sulphuric acid; by the  application of heat the iodino is then
sublimed, and may be collected in cool glass receivers.
  What  aro tho properties of iodino?   It is a soft, friablo,
,ol A. has a bluish color,  metallic lustre, and crystalline ap-
poaranco, resembling _micaccous iron ore.  It is fused at
225° and  ebullition "takes place at 347°.   If moisture is
present it is sublimed rapidly at a temperature below boil-
ing wator.   Its vapor is of  a rich violet color, from which
it derives its name.
  It  is a non-conductor of  oloctricity, and  negatively elec-
tric.   It is  very sparingly soluble in water, but very solublo
in alcohol and ether.   It has  a strong affinity for the metals
and most of the  non-metalic combustibles, producing com
pounds termed iodides.
  Tho test for iodine is starch;  but  tho iodine must bo in a
free  condition, and  tho  solution cold.  Its  equivalent is
126.3; symbol I; sp. gr.  3.
  What compound  does iodino form with hydrogen? It
forms tho hydriodic acid  which is 1  eq. of iodine to 1 eq. of
hydrogon.
  How is hydriodic acid procured?  It may be  formed by
the direct union of hydrogen with the vapor of iodine trans-
mitted through a porcelain  tube at a red heat.  It may also
be procured by the action of water  on the  periodide of
phosphorus, which gives  the phosphoric and hydriodic acids,
tho latter of which passes over as a  colorless gas.
  What are tho properties of hydriodic acid gas?  It has  a
sourjtasto,  reddens vegetable bluo colors, and produces white
fumes whon mixed with  tho air.
   Its salts  aro called hvdriodatcs. 
98
CHEMISTRY.
  What are the compounds of iodine with oxygon?  The
oxide of iodino, iodous acid, iodic, and periodic acid.
  How is the oxide of iodine and iodous acid procured.
  By mixing the vapor of iodine and oxygen gas considera-
bly heated, a yellow matter of the consistence of solid oil is
produced, which is regarded as tho  oxide of iodino;  and if
the supply of oxygen be  continued it is converted into
a yellow liquid which is the iodous acid.
  How is the iodic acid procured ?   By bringing iodino in
contact with euchlorine, the chlorine unites with a portion
of iodine, and the oxygen  with another-portion, and chlo-
ride of iodine and iodic acid is the result.
  They maybe separated by applying  heat; tho  chlorido
passes over and tho acid remains. Or dissolve perchloido of
iodine in water, and add a large quantity of  strong sul-
phuric acid, keep it cool, and iodic acid will be precipitated.
  What  are  tho properties of  iodic  acid?  It is a white,
semi-transparent solid, has a strong  astringent sour  taste,
inodorous,  and is anhydrous.  Its  compounds aro  called
iodates.
                       Bromine.

  How is Bromino procured?  From bittern, which contains
hydrobromic acid, decomposable by chlorine,  tho chlorino
unites with the  hydrogen, and liberates the  bromino into
the liquid, which may bo  expelled by heat and condensed
in a tube surrounded with ice.
  What are the properties of bromino?   At common tem-
peratures it is a blackish red liquid.  Its odor  is very disa-
greeablo, and resembles chlprine. It is congealed at 4° and
is brittle.  It emits at common temperatures red colorod va-
 Cors, resembling nitrous acid, and boils at 116.5°.  Itresem-
 les oxygen, chlorino and iodine, in being negatively electric.
It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether, supports combus-
tion under some circumstances, and is  very destructive to
life.  It has not been decomposed, and is very analagous in
its chemical relations to iodino and chlorine.   It can gener-
ally be detected by means of chlorine, which displaces bro-
mine from its compounds.  Its equivalent is 78.4; sp.gr. 2.9;
symbol Br.
  What compound does bromine form with hydrogen?
The hydrobromic acid, and may be produced by mixing the
vapor of bromine with hydriodic acid, hydrosulphuric acid, 
'.KLMISTkY.
09
or phosphurotted hydrogen gas, when decomposition takes
place, and hydrobromic acid is formed.
  What aro tho properties of hydrobromic  acid?  It  is n
colorless gas  of an acid taste, and  pungent odor, irritates
tho glottis, and whon mixed with moist air yields white va-
pors.  It is decomposed by chlorine, hydrochloric acid gas
is producod, and bromino is deposited.  The salts of hydro-
bromic acid aro called hydrobromatos.
  What compounds are formed with bromine and oxygen?
The bromic acid is tho only known compound.
  How is  it procured?  By decomposing a dilute solution of
tho bromato of baryta with sulphuric acid.  The  sulphate
of baryta is  precipitated, tho  bromic acid remains  in solu-
tion,  and  may bo concentrated by slow evaporation,  but
cannot bo entirely deprived of water without being decom-
posed.
  What aro the properties of bromic acid ?   It has an acid
taste, but not corrosive, very little odor, reddens litmus at
first, and then destroys its  color. It is analagous to iodic,
chloric and nitric acids.  Its composition is 1 cq.  of bromino
to 5 oq. of oxygon.
  How is  tho chloride of bromino procured?  By passing a
current  of chlorino through bromine, and condensing the
resulting vapors by a freezing mixture
  What aro tho properties of  chlorido of bromino?  It is a
volatile  fluid of a reddish yellow color, disagreeable taste,
penetrating odor, and causes  a dischargo of tears  from tho
eyes.  Metals burn in its vapor, and chloridos, and bromides
are formod.
  What other compounds  docs  bromino form?  It forms
two compounds with iodine, two with phosphorus, ono with
carbon, and ono with silicon.

                       Fluorine.

  How is fluorine procured?  By passing fluoride  of boron
over minium  heated to redness, and collecting tho gas in a
dry vessel; another modo is to mix fluoride of calcium and
peroxide of manganeso with sulphuric acid.
  What aro the properties of fluorine?  It  is a yellowish
brown gas, rcsombles chlorino in odor,  bloachcs, is nega
lively electric, and has a powerful  aliinity for  tho metals
and hydrogen.  Its equivalent is 18.68;  specific gravity 1.2;
symbol F. 
100                  CHEMISTRY

  What compound does fluorine form with liydrogon? The
hydrofluoric acid, which  is 1 cquivalont of fluorine to 1 of
hydrogen.
  How is it procured?  By adding  conccntratod  sulphuric
acid to fluor spar, (which is a fluoride of calcium,) reduced
to a fine powder.   Tho acid distils ovor on  applying boat,
and must be collected in a leaden recoiver surrounded with
ice. The result is hydrofluoric acid which comos ovor, and
the sulphate of lime remaining in the retort.
   What  are the properties of hydrofluoric  acid?  It is a
colorless liquid at 32°; if exposed to tho air it flics offin donso
white fumes produced by its combination with tho  atmos-
phere ; has a powerful affinity for wator, and  a very pun-
gent vapor.  It is  tho most destructive to  animal  matter of
all known  substances, its application  being followed by a
malignant ulcer; it corrodes glass, and fluosilicic acid gas is
produced.
   When diluted with three or four times it  weight of wa-
ter it is suitable for etching on glass.  It  has tho properties
of a powerful  acid, reddens litmus, has  a  strong  sour
taste,  neutralizes  alkalies,  forming salts callod  hydroflu-
atos, or unites with metals  forming compounds called flu-
orides.
   How is fluoboric acid gas obtained?  By  heating a mix-
ture of 12 parts of sulphuric acid, with 2 of fluor spar,  and 1
of vitrified  boracic  acid, in a flask.   It  may  also be ob-
tained by heating hydrofluoric, and boracic acids in a me-
talic retort.
   What are the properties of fluorboric acid gas?  It is col-
orless, has apenotrating  pungent odor, reddens litmus, and
forms salts with alkalies, called fluoborates.  It has n very
strong affinity for water, which  it will tako from any gas
containing aquoous vapor, thus affording a dolicato test for
it in gases,.   Water absorbs it, and forms a stong caustic so-
lution.
   How is fluo-silicic acid procured?  By mixing 2 parts
of strong sulphuric acid,  1 of fluor spar, and  1 of sand, or
pounded glass;  on the application of heat  it  is  disengaged,
and may be  collected ovor mercury.
   What arc  the properties of fluo-silicic  acid?  It is a co-
lorless gas, docs not support combustion, destroys animal
life, and unites  with the watr-ry vapor of the  atmonphrm,
forming a vhi:.  cloud. 
CHEMISTRY.
101
                       Ammonia.
  What is the composition of ammoniacal gas?  It is a com-
pound of nitrogen; ono equivalent to three of hydrogen.
  How is it procured?  It  may  be procured from any salt
of ammonia by the action of a puro alkali, or alkaline earth.
E'qual parts of the hydrochlorate of ammonia, and caustic
lime aro generally employed; heat is applied,  the ammonia
is given off, and the residue is chloride of calcium and lime,
the lime being added in excess.  A highly concentrated so-
lution of ammonia is obtained  by transmitting a current of
the gas into water, as long as it will absorb it.   To exhibit
tho gas puro, it must be collected over mercury.
  What are the properties  of ammonia?  In a gaseous form
it is colorless,  powerfully pungent, irritates the eyes, and
nose, irrospirable whon pure, a non supporter of combustion,
Blightly combustible in oxygen gas, and  a mixture with
onygcn dotonatos by the electric spark, water being formed,
and  nitrogen  sot free.   The gas may be liquified at a tem-
perature of 50 °, and under  a pressure of  6.5 atmospheros,
forming a transparent colorless liquid. It is highly alkaline,
forms salts decomposable  by boing heated with the fixed
alkalies, or alkaline oarths, or by a red heat.   If combined
with a  volatile  acid, the compound may be sublimed  un-
changed.  It  has a powerful affinity for wator, which ab-
sorbs 780 times its bulk, the sp. gr. of which, is diminished
to 0.936.  The liquid solution is clear, colorless, and posses-
ses the peculiarities of the  gas itself.
  How may free ammonia  bo detected?   By  tho  odor,  its
temporary action on turmeric paper, which it stains brown,
and tho color soon reappears owing to its volatility; and by
its forming dense fumes when a  glass rod moistened with
hydrocloric acid, is brought noar it; these  white fumes aro
tho hydrochlorate of ammonia.
          Compounds of Hydrogen-and Carbon.
  What arc the known compounds of hydrogen and carbon?
Light carburetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, ethcrine, parafline,
eupione, rose oil stearine, wax  oil, benzin,  naphtha, oil of
turpentine, citrine,  camphinc, oil of copaiva,  juniper oil,
lemon oil, savin treo oil, black popper oil, naphthaline, para-
naphthalinc, and idrialinc.
  What is  the proper chemical namo for light carburcttod
hydro-rii ?   The dicarburot of hydrogen.  Other names fre- 
102
CHEMISTRY,
qnently used, arc heavy Inflammable air,  tho inflammable
air of marshes, and hydrocarburet.
  Whore is it found, and how is it obtained?  It is formed
in stagnant pools, from tho decomposition of vegetable mat-
tor, and may be procured by stirring the mud at tho bottom,
and collecting it in inverted  vessels as it  rises.   Obtained
in this way it contains a small quantity of carbonic acid gas.
  What are its properties? It is colorless, tastcloss, has very
little smell, gaseous, a non supporter of combustion, or res-
piration, inflammablo, and burns with a yellow flame. With
a sufficient portion of atmospheric air, or oxygen, it forms a
detonating compound, wator and carbonic acid being form-
ed when it is detonated.
  Tho fire damp, so destructive in coal mines when ignited,
is composed of this gas.
  Upon what principle is  Sir Humphrey Davy's safety lamp
constructed to prevent the explosion of this gas? It is found
that the flame cannot pass through a narrow tube,  howovor
short, provided its diameter is sufficiently reduced.  Now  a
piece of wire gauze may  be  regarded  as  an assomblago of
these tubes, and flame  will not penotrate  it; therefore, if a
common oil lamp is surrounded with a pioco of this gauze,
it will burn in the explosive  mixture, without communicat-
ing combustion to the gas cxtornally.
  What is the composition of olefiant gas, and why is it so
callod?  It is composod of 2 cq. of carbon, and 2  oq. of by
drogen, united to form  1 eq.  of tho gas; and is  called olefi-
ant gas because it forms an oil-liko liquid with chlorine.
  How is it procured?  By heating a mixture of alcohol and
sulphuric acid, in the proportion of ono part of tho former,
to four of the latter; effervoscenco ensues, and olefiant gas
passes over.
  What aro the properties of olefiant gas?  It is  colorless,
tasteless, and inodorous,  a non supporter of combustion, and
respiration, inflammable, burning with a donso whito light,
and forms an explosive mixture with oxygon, or atmospho-
ic air.  It is decomposod  by  a succession  of  cloctric sparks,
and by being transmitted through  red hot porcelain tubos.
A mixture of 2 parts chlorine, and 1 of olefiant gas, takos
fire on  the application  of flamo, the result of which, is hy-
drochloric acid, and the deposition of charcoal; but if thoy
aro allowed to remain  at  rest,  they enter  into direct combi-
 nation, and a yellowish oil is produced. 
CHEMISTRY
103
  Upon what dooa tho flame of" candles, lamps,  gas lights,
culinary fires, &c, dopond?  Tho compounds of carbon,
and hydrogen.
  How may thoy be procured for the purpose of gas lights?
  By tho destructive distillation of bituminous coal, wood,
oil, tar, or other inflammable substances.
  Upon what does tho illuminating power of these  com-
pounds principally dopend? This power is in proportion to
tho quantity of carbon condensed into a volume, provided
there is a sufficient supply of oxygen  to consume it; other-
wise tho oxcess of carbon renders the flame smoky.
                Hydrogen and Sulphur.
   What aro  the compounds formed by hydrogen and sul-
phur?  There aro two; hydrosulphuric acid, which is 1 oq.
of hydrogon,  and  1 cq. of sulphur; and  the persulphurot of
hydrogon, whioh is 1 oq.  of hydrogon, and 2 eq. of sulphur.
   How is hydrosulphuric acid, or sulphuretted hydrogen as
it is gonorally called, procured?  By heating sosquisulphurct
of antimony with four or  five times its weight of hydrochlo-
ric acid.
   What is the rationale of this  process?   Tho chlorine of
tho hydrochloric acid unites with the antimony  of  tho sos-
quisulphurct  forming a sosquichloride, and tho hydrogen of
the hydrochloric acid unites with tho sulphur of tho scsqui-
sulphurot, and forms hydro-sulphuric acid.
   What are tho properties of hydrosulphuric acid?   It is a
 colorless gas, reddens moist litmus, has  a very ofl'ensivo
 tasto and odor, similar to putrid oggs, a  non supporter of
 respiration,  and combustion, combuatiblo, wator and  sul-
 phuric acid being the products, and sulphur is deposited. It
 may bo readily distinguished by its odor, tarnishing  silvor,
 and tho character of its procipitato with solutions of arsoni-
 ous acid, tartar ometic, or salts of lead.  Its  salts aro  callod
 hydrosulphatei.
                Hydrogen and Phosphorus.
   llow is phosphurcttod  hydrogen procured? By tho action
 of strong hydrochloric acid on phosphuret of calcium.
   What  aro its proportios?  It is a transparent,  colorless
 gas of an offensivo odor, and bitter tasto, it is a  non suppor-
-for of combustion and animal lifo. It dctonau s with oxygon
 rrflu at tho tomporaturo ui'30UQ, by the electric epark, and
 l>v dimim-hed picsfaurc. 
104
CHEMISTRY.
  If tho beak of a retort from which this gas issues is plung-
od under water so that bubbles of it may rise  through tho
liquid, each one on reaching the surface will burst into  a
flame, and forma ring of dense white smoke, which onlarges
as it ascends, prosonting a beautiful appearance characteris-
tic of this gas.
                 Nitrogen and Carbon.

   What compound is formed betwoen nitrogen and carbon?
Cyanogen or bicarburct of nitrogen.
   How is  cyanogen procured?  By heating bicyanidc of
mercury in a  porcelain retort,  and collecting tho  product
ovor mercury.                             .
   What are the properties of cyanogen?  It is a colorless,
transparent, irrespirable gas.  It is limpid, liquid  at tho tem-
 perature of 45°, and under a pressure of 3.6 atmospheres.  It
 will not support combustion,  but burns with a boautiful
 flame.  It is carbon 2 eq, and nitrogen 1 eq.  It has a strong
 tendency to unite with elementary substances.
   What compound is formed by cyanogen, and hydrogen .*
 Hydrocyanic, or prussic acid.           „   T  ,  ,       r
   In what does this acid exist in nature?   In the leaves of
 laurel, and peach trees, and in  the kernels of sevoraf fruits.
   How is it obtained, and what are its properties?  By the
action of hydrochloric  acid upon bicyanido of  mercury,  it
is colorless, liquid, has an  odor resembling peach loaves,
very volatile,  highly poisonous, and  possesses  slight acid
properties.
                       METALS.

   What are tho characteristics of motals?  They are con-
 ductors of electricity, and heat, electro-positive, opaque, ge-
 nerally good reflectors of light, and possess a peculiar lustre
 called metalic.                    n
   What is the number of the metals?   forty-one.
   What metals possess the property of malleability?  Gold,
silver, copper, tin, platinum, cadmium, lead, zinc, iron, nick-
 el, potassium, sodium, and frozen  mercury.
   What arc the metals which  possess tho property of duc-
 tility?  Gold, silver, iron, and coppor are tho only ones capa-
 ble of  being drawn into vrires  with facility.
   What is  meant by tho  term calx?  It is tho  product of
 tho oxidation of a metal when heated in the air. 
C11IAMISTRV.
IOj
  What is meant  by tho  reduction of a metal?  It is the
process by which metalic  compounds are changed  to thoir
metalic stale.
  What arc tho means used in reducing metals?  Heat, the
united agency  of heat  and combustible matter, the gal-
vanic battory, and by tho  action of deoxidizing  agents  on
their solutions.
  What arc the  oxides of  motals called which are capable
of uniting with acids and forming salts?  They are callod
alkaline or salifiable bases and are generally the protoxide.
  Have motals an affinity for  clilorine?  They have a pow-
erful affinity, and in many instances unito so as to present
the phenomena of combustion; and will frequently displace
oxygen from its union with the metals.
   AV'liat  aro the genoral characteristics  of  the  metalic
chlorides?  Most of them aro  solid at common tempera
Hires, fusible by heat, and crystalize  on cooling.  Some of
them may be sublimed without change, thoy arc  for tho
most part colorless, have  no  metalic  lustre, and  have the
uppoaranco of salts.
  flavo tho  metals  an  affinity  for iodine?  They  have a
strong affinity, and most  of these  compounds aro  not de-
composihlc by a red heat in closo vessels.
  Have tho metals an  affinity for sulphur?  They have a
strong tondoncy  to  unito with it, and  tho  union may  be
accomplished by heating  the metal  with sulphur, by igni-
ting a mixture  of a motallic oxido and sulphur,  and  by
several othor  processes.
  How arc the metals divided?  Into two classos.
  Class 1st.  Those which yield  alkalies and earths by oxi-
dation.  Class 2nd. Those the oxides of which arc neither
alkalies or earths.
  The 1st class  comprises twelve  motals which  have been
arranged into throe orders.
  Order Is:.  The metalic  bases of tho alkalies.   Thoy arc
potassium, sodium and lithium.
  Order 2nd. Tho metalic bases of the alkaline earths.—
Those aro barium, strontium,  calcium and magnesium.
  Order 3d.  Tho metalic  bases of tho earths.  Thoy arc
aluminum, glucinum, yttrium, thorinum and zirconium.
  Tho 2nd class comprises tss cnty-nine metals, and may be
arranged into throe orders.
  Order  1st. The metals  which decompose water  at a red
           10 
100                 CHEMISTRY.
 heat.   They arc manganese, iron, zinc,  cadmium, tin, co-
 balt and nickel.
   Order 2nd. The motals which do not decompose water at
 any temperature, and tho oxidos of which are not reducible
 to a metalic  stato by heat alone.  Thoy aro  arsenic, chro-
 mium, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, columbium, anti-
 mony, uranium, corium, bismuth, titanium, tellurium, cop-
 por, and lead.
   Order 2d. The metals the oxides of which are roducod to
 tho metalic stato by a red heat.   Thoy are mercury, silver,
 gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, osmium, and iridium.

                       Potassium.

   How is potassium  procured?   It may bo procured  by
 subjecting moistenod  hydrate of potassa to a galvanic bat-
 tery, and tho potassium will  be found at the  negative pole.
 A  more  abundant supply  may  bo obtained by  bringing
 fused hydrate  of potassa in  contact  with turnings of iron
 heated to whiteness in a gun barrel.  Another method is to
 mix iron  filings and charcoal with potassa, in an iron bottle;
 in both cases  the potassium is sublimed, and may be col-
 lected.  The rationale is that the iron and charcoal abstract
 oxygen from the potassa, and tho potassium is liberated.
   What  are tho propertios  of  potassium?   It is solid at
 common temperatures, perfectly fluid at 150°,  soft and  mal-
 leable at  50°, and brittlo at 32°; undergoes  sublimation at
 a low red heat  without change, provided there is no oxygen
 present, and is  similar in  lustre to mercury.  Its  prominent
 chemical  property is its  affinity for oxygen, which it com-
 bines with rapidly in tho air, and by contact with ico or fluids
 containing oxygen, so that to  prosorvo it it must bo kept in
 tubes hermetically  scalod, or under tho  surfaco of liquids
 which contain no oxygen, such as naphtha, oil copaiba, &c.
 Its equivalent  is 39.15; specific  gravity  0.86; symbol Po,
 or K.
  What are the compounds of potassium and oxygen?  Thry
 are the protoxido, which consists of I equivalent of potassium
 and 1 equivalent of oxygen; and the  toroxido which is 1
 equivalont of potassium, and 3 equivalents of  oxyron.
  What aro tho  properties of the protoxido of potassium,
potash, or potassa?   Anhydrous  potassa  is a white  solid,
highly caustic,  fuses at a temperature a little above redness,
and is net decomposcd'or volatnlizod by a very h<<jh heat. 
                     CHEMISTRY.                  10"

II  has a great affinity  for water,  and forms  three  com-
pounds .with it with  tho 'disengagement of  heat during
the combination.  It may bo  further  distinguished by ad-
ding tartaric acid in excess to a salt of potassa dissolved in
cold water, and a white^ precipitate, the  bi-tartrate of pot-
ass is formod.  It may also  be precipitated  by perchloric
acid, the pcrchlorate being nearly insolublo;  and a solution
of the chloride of platinum  produces a yellow  precipitate.
There is also a light gelatinous precipitate by silicated hydro-
fluoric acid.
   How is tho toroxido of potassium formed?   By burning
potassium in the  open air, or in oxygen gas an  orange col-
ored  substance  is formed, which  is  tho tcroxide of po-
tassium.
  Jfow  is  tho iodido of potassium procured?  It may  be
formed  by heating potassium in  contact with  iodine; the
union of which takes place with the evolution of light and
heat.   But for procuring it in quantity the preferable mode
i.s to add iodine to a hot solution of pure potassa, until the
alkali  is neutralized; by this  process iodide of potassium
and iodatc of potassa  aro goncratod;  evaporate this to dry-
ness, and oxposo in a platinum crucible to a red heat, which
will decompose the iodatc, leaving tho iodide of potassium.
  What aro the properties of the iodido of potassium?  It
is easily fusible, rises in vapor at a heat below redness, vory
solublo  in water and alcohol, and doliquoscent in a moist
atmosphorc.

                        Sodium.
  How is  6odium procured?  By tho  samo processes that
wo  obtain potassium, substituting soda for tho potassa.
  What arc tho properties of sodium?  It has a strong me-
talic lustre, in color  similar to silver, is soft  at common
temporaluros, fusos at 200°, and is vaporized at a red  heat.
It ia oxidized  by  water  liko potassium.  Its  equivalent is
.'3.3; specific gravity 0.972; symbol So or Na.
  What aro the compounds of'sodium and oxygen?  They
aro  the protoxido, which is  1  eq. of  sodium, and 1 eq. of
oxygen; and scsquioxido which is 2 equivalents of sodium
and 3 of oxygon.
 How is tho  protoxide of sodium, or soda obtained, and
what nro its properties?   It may be obtained by tho oxida-
tion of sodium in air or water, from tho ashes of soa weeds, 
108
CHEMISTRY.
or common salt.  Anhydrous it  is a grey solid, difficult  oi
fusion, and very similar to potassa in both its sensible and
chemical properties, but may bo distinguished from it by its
forming with  sulphuric  acid  a salt easily  recognized  as
Glauber's salt, or sulphate of soda.   Its salts aro all solublo
in water, cannot bo precipitated, and on exposing them by
means of a platinum wire to the blow  pipe a  rich  yellow-
color is imparted to tho flame.
  How tho sesquioxide of sodium obtained?  By heating
sodium to redness in oxygen gas.  It is of an orango color,
with neither acid or alkaline properties, and  is decomposed
by water into soda and oxygen.
  How is the chloride of sodium  procured?   It may  be
formed by burning sodium in  chlorine, by heating sodium
in hydrochloric  acid, and  also by neutralizing soda with
hydrochloric acid.  It is found in nature under the name of
rock salt, and  in sea water, of which it forms a large part,
also in many saline spring';.
  What are tho properties of  tho chloride of sodium?  It
has an agreeably saline taste, fuses at a red heat, forms a
transparent brittle  mass on cooling, deliquesces in a moist
atmosphere, but not in  a dry one, and  is decomposed  by-
sulphuric  acid, hydrochloric acid being set  at  liberty, and
sulphate of soda formed  It possesses tho property in a very
high  degree of preserving  meat from putrefaction, and is
used extensively in the arts.
                       Lithium.
  How is lithium  procured?  By decomposing lithia  by
means of  galvanism.  It is a  white colored metal, resem-
bling sodium, and  its oq.  according to Berzelius is 6.44;
Bymbol L.
   What  compound does lithium form  with oxygen?   It
forms  but ono compound, which is 1 eq. of each, and  is
called lithia.
   What are tho properties of  lithia?  It closely rcsombles
soda and potassa in its chemical relations.  Its salts whon
heated on a platina wiro before a blowpipe tinges tho flame
of a red color.
                        Barium.
  How is barium procured ?  By decomposing the carbonate
of baryta by means of galvanism, and forming an amalgam
with  mercury, which  amalgam may be  decomposed" by 
CHEMISTRY.                 109
heat in a vessel froo from nir.  Tho morcury being volatal-
izod leaving tho barium in its purity.
  What aro tho properties  of barium?  It is a dark grey
colored motal, attracts oxygen from tho air, and yields  a
white powder, which is baryta, and decomposes water,  hy-
drogon  escaping, and baryta is formed.   Its eq. is 68.7;
symbol Ba.
  What are tho compounds of barium and oxygen?  There
aro two; tho  protoxido which is 1 eq. of barium, and 1  eq.
of oxygon; and the peroxide which  is 1 eq. of barium and
2 oq. of oxygen.
  How is tho protoxido of barium, barytes or baryta pre-
pared? It is produced by the oxidation of barium in air or
wator, and may  bo prepared by decomposing tho nitrato of
baryta at a red heat, or  by  subjecting the carbonate to an
intonsc white boat with charcoal.
  What aro the  properties of protoxido of barium?  It  is a
groy powder, sp, gr. 4., difficult to fuse, has caustic alkaline
properties,  convorts vegetable  blues  to green, and neutral-
izes acids, has a strong affinity for water,  and an intense
heat is  produced by tho union.  It is distinguished by its
alkalino solution, by all  its  soluble salts forming white pre-
cipitates, tho carbonate of baryta, by tho  addition of alka-
line carbonates; and the sulphato of baryta  by tho addi-
tion of a solublo sulphato  or sulphuric  acid;  and  by  the
characteristics of chloride of barium, formed by the action
of  the  hydrochloric  acid  on baryta.  Tho carbonate of
baryta is soluble in diluto acid, and is poisonous in a solu-
ble stato, whether  tho solution is  formed from acid in  the
stomach or out of it.
  How  is  tho peroxide of  barium procured?   By passing
dry oxygon gas  over  puro  baryta at  a low red heat. This
oxido is usod in  forming the peroxide of hydrogen.

                       Strontium.

  How is strontium  obtained? By a process  arialagous to
that employed in procuring barium.
  What aro  tho properties of strontium?  It  is a heavy
motal similar in properties to barium.  Its equivalent  is
43.8; symbol Sr.
  What aro tho oxides of strontium?  They  arc the  pro-
toxido, which  is 1  eq. of strontium  and  1 eq. of oxygen;
        10* 
HO                  CHEMISTRY.
and the peroxide which is 1 eq. of strontium and 2 oq. of
oxygen.
  How is the protoxido of strontium or strontia prepared?
From tho nitrate and carbonate of strontia,  in the  same
manner as baryta, which it resemblos  in  most particulars.
Its salts are not poisonous; when heatod on a platinum wire
boforo a blow pipe it communicates a rod tint to the flame.
  How is the peroxide procured?   In  tho  same way as per-
oxide of barium, and it is  possossed of similar properties.

                       Calcium.

  How is calcium procured?  Its existence may be shown
in the same manner as barium.  It is of a whiter color than
cither barium, or strontium, and union with oxygon converts
it into lime.  Its equivalent is 20.5, symbol Ca.
  How many compounds are there of calcium,'andjoxygen?
Two; the protoxido, which is 1 cq., of calcium, and 1  cq. of
of oxygen; and tho  peroxide, which is 1 oq. of calcium, and
2 cq. of oxygen.
  How is the protoxido of calcium, limo, or quicklime, pro-
cured?  By subjecting carbonate of lime to heat, sufficient-
ly strong to cxpol its carbonic acid.
  What are its properties? It is a brittle, white, earthy sub-
stance, somewhat alkaline, phosphoresccnt_whcn heated to
redness, fusible with great difficulty,  has  a strong affinity
for water, which produces an increase of temperature by tho
union, and the result is slacked lime; it parts with  its water
at a red heat.
  Tho most delicate test for its presence is oxalalo of ammo-
nia or potassa, tho  oxalate  being insoluble.  Tho nitrate
yields prismatic crystals, is very deliquescent and soluble in
alcohol, which properties distinguish  it from baryta, and
ptronti.i, the nitrates  of which crystallze in  nrtohodrons,
and are not  deliquescent,  or soluble in  alcohol.
  How is the peroxide of calcium procured?   In tho  same
way as tho  peroxido of barium, and possesses  similar  prop-
erties.

                      Magnesium.

  How is magnesium  procured?  By tho  action of o-alvan-
ism.   It may also be obtained by tlm action of potassium on
the chloride of magnesium. 
CHEMISTRY.
Ill
  What aro its propertios?  It has a brilliant metalic lustre,
a white color, is vory malloable, and fuses at a red heat.  It
burns in oxygen gas when heated to redness,  and magnesia
is formed.  Its equivalent is 12.7, symbol Mg.
  What compound does magnosium form with oxygen?
Tho protoxide, known as magnesia, which is  1 cq. of mag-
nesium, and 1 eq of oxygen.  It may be procured by expos-
ing the carbonate of magnesia to a high red heat.
  What aro the properties of magnesia?  It has feeble al-
kaline propertios, except in forming neutral salts with acids.
Its sulphato is very  soluble, which serves to  distinguish it
from  the other alkaline  earths.   It is prccipitatod from its
salts as a hydrato by pure alkalies,  and may bo distinguish-
ed and soparatod from lime by tho oxalate of ammonia.

                       Aluminum.
  How is aluminum procured? By the decomposition of the
chloride of aluminum by potassium.
  What are tho proporlios of aluminum?  It is a grey pow-
dor, resembling platinum, or in small scales,  or spangles of
a metalic lustre; a conductor of electricity when fusod, but
not in powder, and fusiblo at a tomperature above the fusing
point  of cast iron.  Burns in the open air when hoated to
redness, and forms a white aluminous earth.   Its equivalent
is 13.7, Symbol Al.
  What is the composition of alumina or aluminous earth?
It is a sesqnioxidc of aluminum.
  (low is alumina procured?  By dissolving purified alum,
adding an  exeoss of carbonato  of  potassa,  tho alumina is
precipitated, and may be collected on a filter.
  What aro the properties of alumina?  It is tastoless, ino-
dorous, insoluble  in wator, very infusible, and has a powor-
ful affinity for water.
  It may be distinguished by boing separated from the acids
as a hydrato, by tho alkaline carbonates, and ammonia; by
being precipitated by pure soda, or potassa, and tho precipi-
tate rodissolvcd by an excess of tho alkali.

              Manganese or Maxganesium.

  How is manganese procured?  It is procured from tho ox-
ido, by heating it in contact with oil, and charcoal.
  What aro the properties of mangancso?  It is of a  grey-
ish while color, granular texture, difficult of fusion, tarnish- 
112
CHEMISTRY.
 os by exposure to the air, and burns if heated  to redness in
 open vessels.  Its cqivalcnt is 27.7; symbol  Mn; spocific
 gravity 8.
  What are tho  compounds of manganese, and oxygon?
 Tho protoxide, 1 eq. of each; the scsquioxido. 2eq. of man-
 ganese, and 3 eq. of oxygon; the rod oxide, 3 eq. of manga-
 nese, and 4 eq. of oxygen; varvacite, which is 4 eq. of man-
 ganese, and 7 eq. of oxygen; manganic acid, 1 eq. of man-
 ganese, and 3 oq. of oxygen; and permanganic^acid, which
 is 2 eq of manganese, and 7 eq. of oxygon.
  How is the protoxide of manganese procured?   By expos-
 ing tho peroxide, sesquioxide, or red oxide of  manganese to
 charcoal, and heat combined,  or to  heat, and a current of
 hydrogon.
   What are the  properties of the protoxido of manganese?
 It is of a light green color, attracts oxygen from the air, and
 unites readily with acids.
  How is the sesquioxide of manganese procured?  It is
 found in nature, and may bo turned by exposing tho perox-
 ide for somo time to a moderate led heat.
  How is tho peroxide or black o tide of manganese procu-
 red?   It is found in natui 3 mix< d with silicious, or alumin-
 ous earths, oxide of iron, and caibonato of lime. It may also
 be  formed artificially, by  subjecting tho nitrate of the pro-
 toxide of manganese to a 1 )w red heat, until tho nitric acid
 is expelled.
  What are its proportics?  It i < unchangeable by  exposure
 to the air, insoluble in wat >r, docs not unito with  acids, or
 alkalies, and yields oxygon gas when boiled with sulphuric
 acid; or if hydrochloric acid is iiscd,  chlorino is ovolvcd.
  It is much used in tho arts, for manufacturing  glass,  and
 in preparing chlorine for bleaching puiposes.
  How is the red oxide  procured?   It is found in nature,
 and may bo  artificially formed by exposing the peroxido, or
 sesquioxide  to a  white heat.  Of the samo degree of fino-
 nessit is brownish-red when cold, and black when warm.
  How is the varvacite procured?  It is only procured as a
 natural production  among some of tho ores of manganosc.

                         Irc n.

 _ How is iron generally found  in nature?   In  largo quanti-
ties in combination with  oxygen and eulphur, called ores of 
                    CHEMISTRY.                  '  ^

iron; but it is diffused almost universally in greater or smal-
ler quantities.                                         ,
  How is iron procured?  By subjecting tho ores roasted,
nnd reduced to coarse po,wdcr, to tho action of charcoal,  or
coke and lime at a high  heat.
  What is the rationale  of tins process?  The carbon dc-
nrivrs tho ore of its oxygen, and the lime  acts as a flux by
S-ombining with the impurities and forms a compound_ fusi-
ble mass, called slag, which allows the melted particles  of
iron to descend through it, and collect at the bottom.
   What are the  properties of iron?  It has  a  grey color,
stromr motalic lustre, susceptible of polish, is ductile, mal-
leable,  and  very tenacious.  It is  attracted by  the magnet,
nnd may bo rendered magnetic,  a property possessed by  no
othor motal oxcept nickel.  It has a strong affinity  for oxy-
gon, but does not tako it from a dry atmosphere, but if mois-
ture bo present it oxidizes, or rusts; if heated to redness in
the open air it absorbs oxygen rapidly, and is converted into
black scales, which are the bla-^x  oxido of iron; and it  in
oxygen it is attended with vivid scintillations.   Its equiva-
lents 28, symbol Fo, sp. gr. 7.788.
   What aro the compoun.'.: of iron and oxygen f   1 lie pro-
 toxide,  which is  1 eq. of  each;  the sesquioxido, which is
'2 eq. of iron, and 3 eq. of oxygen; and the black oxide, 1  eq.
 of tho protoxido,  and I  eq. of tho sesquioxido combined.
   Whcro is  tho protoxide  of iron found, and what aro its pro-
 perties?  It is tho base  of the native carbonate  of iron.  It
 is formed whon  metalic iron is placed in dilute sulphuric
 acid; and is precipitated as a white hydrate, from  its  salts
 bv pure alkalies.  Its salts when in solution absorb oxygen
 from tho air. A solution of galls does notproduco a change
 of color, but alkaline hydro-sulphates cause a black precipi-
 tate, tho proto-sulphuret  of iron.                     #
   How is tho red or sesquioxido of iron procured ?  It is a
 natural product,  known as red hamiatite,  and is found mas-
 sive, fibrous, and in rhomboidal crystals.  It may bo formed
 by dissolving iron in nitro-hydrochloric acid, and precipitat-
 ing with an alkali.  In this  state it is a hydrate.
   What are tho propertios of the rod or sesquioxide?   It
 eombinos with most of the acids,  forming salts,  which  aro
 •Generally rod; and it  may  bo precipitated from  them by
 puro alkalies as  a hydrato.  Prussian  blue is form od by the
 addition of ferrocyanurct of potassium to this oxido, and a 
114
CHEMISTRY.
blood red color is produced by sulphoeyanurot of potassium,
and a black color by tho infusion of  galls.   Thoso last re-
agents may bo considered as unerring tests for the minutest
quantity of the sesquioxide, and any other  oxido may  bo
converted into this by nitric acid,  it is not attracted by tho
magnet.
  Where is the black or magnetic oxide of iron found, and
what is its composition?   It is found native, often crystaliz-
od in regular octohedron and  dodecahedron form; it is  at-
tracted  by  the magnot, and may become magnetic.  It  is
also formed when iron is heated to redness in the open air,
or in contact with aqueous vapor. It  is composed of the
protoxide, and the red or sesquioxide combined.
   What are the compounds of sulphur, and  iron?  Tho  te-
trasulphurot,  disulphuret, proto-sulphuret, sesquisulphurct,
bisulphurot, and magnetic pyrites, which is a compound  of
bisulphuret and protosulphuret.
  What are the compounds of carbon and iron?   There are
three distinct compounds; graphite, cast or pig iron, and
steel.
   Whore is graphite (called also plumbago and black load)
obtained?   It is found as  a natural production, and  maybe
formed artificially by exposing iron with  an excess of char-
coal to a violent and long continued  heat. It contains about
5 per cent of iron when pure.
                          Zinc.

   How is zinc found in nature, and how is it procured ?   ft
 is  found native as a carbonate  called calamine, and as a
sulphuret,  called zinc blende.  It is procured by oxposure
to heat and carbon  from the calamine, and from the blcndo
by the same  process after roasting  or exposure  to air at a
low rod heat.  The motal is distilled by a process termed
distillation by descent, and may bo purified by being again
distilled.
   What aro  tho properties of zinc?  It  has a metalic lus-
tre, bluish  white color, a laminated texture, is  hard and
brittle, and by exposure in close vessels to a whito heat it is
sublimed unchanged.  It absorbs oxygen;  and  forms  the
white oxide  or flowers of zinc, if heated to fusion  in open
vessels, or  if  heated to redness  in a closed  vessol, and  the
cover removed combustion takes place with a  white li<dit.
Its equivalent is 32.3;  sp.  gr. 7;  symbol Zn. 
CHFM1STKY.                  11.'i
  What aro  tho'".impounds  of zinc  and oxygon?   There
are two, tho  protoxide which is 1 cq of each, and tho pcrox-
ido llm composition of which is uncertain.
  How is the protoxide of zinc procured .'   By tho addition
of diluto  sulphuric  acid  to  zinc, and by collecting the
llakos which nriso during the combustion of zinc.
  What are tho properties of'the  protoxide of zinc?  It is
soluble in water,  forms regular salts with acids,  and com-
bines with some of the alkalies. It is precipitated from its
aolutions as a white  hydrato by pure potassa or ammonia;
as u carbonate, by the carbonate of ammonia; and is rcdis-
solved by tho addition of an excess of the precipitant.  Al-
kaline carbonates precipitate  it as a whito carbonate, and
hydni.Milphalc of ammonia precipitates it as a hydrated sul-
phuret.
                         Tin.
  How is tin generally found  in nature and how is  it pro-
cured?   It occurs native as an oxide; from  which it may
ho procured by boat and charcoal.
  What aro tho propertios of tin?  Itrcsombles silver in its
appoaraneo;  its brilliancy is lost slowly by contact with the
atmosphere,it is malleable, inferior in ductility and tenacity,
goli, inelastic, and whon bent  backwards and forwards pro-
duces a peculiar  crackling noise.  Its equivalent is 58.9;
sp. gr. 7.291  ; symbol Sn.
  What arc  the compounds of tin and oxygen ?  Tho pro-
toxido 1 eq.  of  each; sesquioxide 2 cq. of tin and 3 cq. of
oxygen, and tho binoxide 1 cq., tin and 2 cq. of oxygen.
  What is tho  purple of  Cassius?  It is a combination ol
tli"  liinoxido of tin and protoxide of gold, produced by the
action of the protoxido of tin on a solution of gold. This
property of  forming a purple precipitate with a solution of
gold is considered as a test for tho protoxide of tin.
  Wfiat is understood byslannates?  They aro combina
lions of h;noxide of tin which possesses  fee bio acid proper
lAs,  with the alkalies.
  What i.s the composition of the fuming liquorof Libavius?
U is tho bichloride of tin,  and  the  dense  white  fumes
emitted when it is exposed to tho air are caused by its union
with moisture.
                        Cobalt.
  Ih.w is eobii'n found in  nature?  It  is generally found  in 
I1C                 CHEMISTRY
 combination  with arsenic.  Its equivalent is 29.o; sp.  jji.
 7.834; symbol Co.
   What are the compounds of oxygen and  cobalt?  Tho
 protoxide, which is 1 eq. of oach; tho 4-3 oxide, 3 cq. of co-
 balt  and 4  eq.  of oxygen; Uio sesquioxide  2 oq. of  co-
 balt and 3 eq. of oxygon.

                         Nickel.

   How is  nickel  found in nature?   Generally as a copper
 colored  mineral, which is the  arsonuret of nickel, contain-
 ing small portions of sulphur, copper, cobalt and iron.  The
 process for procuring it is somewhat complicated.
   What are  the properties of nickel?   It is whitish, inter-
 mediate between tin and silver, has a strong metalic lustre,
 and  is ductile and malleable.   It is attracted by the mag-
 net, and may be rendered magnotic, but its oxides arc not.
 Its eq. is 29. 5; sp. gr. 8.279; symbol Ni.

                         Arsenic

   How is  arsenic found in nature?   Sometimes native,  but
 genorally in combination with other metals.
   How is it procured ?   By roasting the ores it is volatalized,
 combines  with oxygen, and is  condensed in cakes, which
 are the white oxide. From this the metal may bo procured by
 heat and charcoal, tho puro metal being sublimed, and may
 be collected  in a. proper vessel.
   What  are  tho properties of arsonic?  It i.s  brittle, has a
 metalic lustre, a whitish grey color, and  crystalline.  Itssp.
 gr. is 5.8843;.eq. 37.7;  symbol As.
   What are the compound of arsenic and oxygen?  There
 are two; the arscnious acid which is 2 cq. of arsenic and 3
 oq. of oxygen; and tho  arsenic  acid, u" cq. of arsenic and 5
 cq. of oxygen.
   J low is arscnious acid prepared?  It is generated when
 arsenic is heated in open vessels, and it may ho prepared by
 digesting it with diluto  nitric acid, or tho white arsonic of
 commerce (generated by roasting the ores of arsonic and
 cobalt,) may be purified by a socond sublimation,
  What are the properties of arscnious acid?   It is  mostly
sold in tho state of fine white powder, but whon first sub-
limed it is  in brittlo masses of a vitreous lustre.  It is sub-
limed at  380°, nnd may bo condensed on cold surf'acos.  It
is  susceptible of  two  different  crysuillinv  forms,  and is 
CHEMISTRY.
117
therefore termed dimorphous.  It reddens vegetable blue
colors feebly, combines with  salifiable bases, forming salts
termed arsenitos, and is a virulent poison.
  What are the  important tests for arsenious acid?  Tho
ammoniacal nitrate of silver, ammoniacal sulphate of copper,
hydro-sulphuric acid, and hydrogen gas.
  Tho first of those produces a yellow precipitate, the  arsen-
ito of oxide of silver.   This test is liable to some objection
when sea salt or animal and vogotable infusions are present,
from tho arsonites of siver not subsiding at all, or in such an
impure stato that it cannot be recognized properly.
   The second, tho ammoniacal sulphate of copper produces
a green precipitate, known as Scheele's green; yet there are
circumstances under which a greenish precipitato may be
formed  with ammoniacal  sulphate of copper, that may be
mistaken for Schecle's green  where no arsenic is present,
and under othor circumstances it may be present in minute
quantity, and no precipitate be  formed.  It may therefore,
be considered a fallacious test when applied to mixed fluids,
however sure it may be when tho arsenious acid is dissolved
in puro water.
   Tho third, tho hydrosulphuric acid  produces a yellowish
color in tho liquid when this gas  is passed through it, from
tho formation of orpiment, or  the sesquisulphuret of arse-
nic.   When this test is used the liquid should not contain a
froo alkali, and to avoid it a little acetic acid should be  added.
   Thus far this  test may be considered  fallacious,  as the
same colored precipitate may bo  produced with selenium,
cadmium, tin, and antimony.  But tho precipitate, the ses-
quisulphuret of arsenic formed by this  process, may  be dis-
tinguished from all other substances by being dried,  mixed
with black flux, and heated in a glass  tube to redness;  de-
composition takes place, and the metalic arsenic is deposit-
ed of an iron grey color externally, and crystalline internal-
ly, on tho cool part of the tube.  Additional  evidence may
be had  by  converting  tho metal into arsenious  acid,  which
may bo dono by holding that part of the  tube in which tho
metal is deposited, over a spirit lamp in such a manner that
the metal may bo sublimed slowly, and as it is vaporized it
combines with oxygen, and is deposited in another  portion
of tho tubo in boautiful octahedral crystals, that may easily
ho detected by a practiced oye. In this experiment the tube.
should bo clean and drv.
        11 
118                 CHEMISTRY.
  The fourth, tho application of hydrogen.   An arscnuret
ted hydrogen is formed, which is a gaseous compound  that
yields metalic arsenic or  arsenious acid, and water in com
bustion; tho metalic arsenic or arscnious acid being deposi-
ted, according as the supply of oxygon is moroor less abun-
dant, each with their peculiarities.
  For the mode of conducting this process see Turner's, or
some recent work on chemistry.
  What are the compounds of sulphur and arsenic ?  Thoro
are three.  Tho proto-sulphurot,  or roalgar  is found in the
mineral kingdom, and may bo formed artificially by heating
arsenious acid with about half its weight  of sulphur until it
fuses.  lis eq. is 53.8.
  The sesquisulphuret or orpiment is also found in nature,
and may be prepared by  fusing together equal parts of arsc-
nious acid and sulphur. This is tho coloring principlo of the
paint called King's yellow.
  The persulphuret,  which may  be prepared by  passing
hydrosulphuric acid gas through a solution of arsenic acid.
It resembles orpiment in color.

                      Antimony.

  How is antimony found in nature?  It  is generally found
as a sulphuret, and called crude antimony; although it some-
times occurs native.
  How is it procured?  By  hoatingtho sulphuret in a cover-
ed  crucible with half its weight of iron filings,  or by mix-
ing with it two thirds its weight of cream  of tartar,  and one
third nitre; and throwing the mixture in small portions suc-
cessively into a red hot crucible.
  What are tho properties of antimony?   It is brittlo, white,
running into bluish grey, has  considerable  metalic lustre,
fuses  at 810°, and is volatilized at a very high temperature.
Its  cq. is 64.6; sp. gr. 6.702; synib. Sb.
  What are the compounds of antimony, and oxygen?
Tho sesquioxido, which is  2 eq. of antimony, and 3 eq. of
oxygen:  the antimonious acid, 2 eq. of antimony, and 4 oq.
of oxygen;  and  tho antimonic acid,  2  eq.  antimony,  and
5 cq. oxygen.
  How is the sesquioxide of antimony procured?   By subli-
mation during tho combustion of antimony; and by adding
carbonate of potassa,  or soda to a solution of tartar emetic.
  What arc the properties of tho  sesquioxide of amimonv? 
CHEMISTRY.
119
it is a white powder of a somowhat dirty nppenrr.nco, when
heated it acquires a yellow tint, and if protected from the
atmosphere it may be sublimod without change.  Heated in
contact with the air, it absorbs oxygen, and if heated sud-
denly, it takes fire  and burns; in both cases antimonious
acid is generated.  It is tho only combination of oxygen and
antimony which form salts with  acids, and  is tho  base of
tartar emetic, or the tartrate of antimony and potassa.   Its
salts aro insolublo in, or decomposed by water, except tartar
ometic.  Tho insoluble salts of antimony are  rendored solu-
bio by excess of tartaric, or hydrochloric acids.  The pres-
ence of antimony in solution may easily be detected by hy-
droeulphuric  acid, which produces an orange colored precipi.
tatc, hydratod sesquisulphuret of antimony, called Kcrme's
mineral.
  What are the combinations of chlorine, and antimony?
Thoy arc sesquichlorido or butter of antimony, the bichlo-
ride, aud tho  perchloride.
  What aro compounds  of sulphur and  antimony?  They
aro  tho sesquisulphuret, tho bisulphuret, and the persul-
phurct.

                        CorPEH.
   How is coppor found in  nature?   It is often found
nativo, but gonerally in combination with sulphur, as the
native sulphuret, which is sometimes combined with sul-
phuret of iron.
  What are tho properties of copper?  It is of a red color,
which distinguishes it from all other metals,  except titani-
um, ductile, malleable, tonacious, hard,  elastic,  and sonor-
ous.  It doos not change in a dry atmosphere, but rusts in
a damp ono, and is converted into a green carbonate of tho
black oxide of copper.  Its equivalent is 31.6; sp. gr. 8. 895.
symbol  Cu.
  What aro tho compounds of copper and oxygen?  They
nro the red or dioxide, which is 2 eq. of copper, and 1 eq. of
oxygen; tho black or protoxide, 1 eq, of copper, and 1 cq. of
oxygen; tho superoxide, 1 eq. of copper,  and 2  eq. of oxy-
gon.
  Which of these oxides unites with acids and  form salts?
Tho protoxide.
  What is bluo vitriol?  It is tho sulphate of copper, form-
ed by boiling sulphuric acid upon coppor. 
130
CHEMISTRY.
   How aro the salts of copper distinguished?  Thoy have a
  reen or blue tint, hydrosulphurio acid precipitates n  dark
  rown  sulphuret; and forrocyanurot of potassium procipl
 fates a reddish brown ferrrocyanurot;  and it is precipitated
 in tho metakc state by a rod of iron, or zinc.
   What is crudo verdigris?  It is a mixture of neutral ace-
 tate or sub-acetate of copper with impurities.
   What are tho crystals of Venus?  It is a crystalizcd neu-
 tral acetate.

                         Lead.
   How is lead found in nature?  As a sulphuret, tho gale-
 na of mineralogists;  as an oxide; and as a salt.
   How is it procured ?  From the galena, by heating it in a
 reverberatory furnace, which oxidizes a portion of the lead,
 and drives off the sulphur,  yielding the protoxide of  lead,
 and the puro motal; and it may be obtained  from any of its
 oxides by heat, and charcoal.
   What are the properties  of lead?   It has a bluish grey
 color, a strong metalic lustre, tarnishes by exposure to tho
 air, and acquires a thin coat of the carbonate of tho protox-
 ide.  It fuses at 612°, and is  ductile  in largo masses.  Its
 equivalent is 103,6; sp. gr.  11.352; symbol Pb.
   What are the compounds of lead, and oxygen?  Thoy aro
 the dinoxide, which is 2 eq. of lead, and 1 eq. of oxygen;
 the protoxide or massicot, 1 eq. of lead, and 1 eq. of oxygen;
 the peroxide, 1 eq. of lead, and 2 eq. of oxygen; and the red
 oxide or minium, 3 oq. of load, and 4 oq of oxygen.
   What are the characteristics of the dinoxide?   It is gen-
 erally known as drosp; it is of a dark grey color, and is un-
 important in its chemical relations.
   How is the protoxido procured?  By collecting tho grey
 film which forms on the surface of meltod load, and expos-
 ing it to heat and air  until it becomes yollow.
   In tho state of powder it is called massicot; but when
partially fused, by which it is vitrified, it is called litharge,
and contains a slight mixture of red oxide.
  What are its  properties?   It lias a lemon yellow color, It
is insoluble in water,  fused at a  bright red  heat, and un-
changeable in the fire, but may be reduced by heat,  and
combustible matters-   It is tho baso of all the salts of lead,
and they are generally of a  white color.  It acts in somo
cases as an acid by uniting with alkalies. 
CUFMISTRY.
121
  Which stilt of lead is  the most poisonous?  The carbo-
noto or white load, so that any salt of load, as the acetate,
which is easily changed  into the carbonate may also bo poi-
sonous by conversion into tho carbonato in the stomach.
This may be obviated by administering an excess of vine-
gar, or acetic acid with the acetate.             #
  What are tho tests for lead?  Tho hydrosulphuric acid.  It
is also separated from its salts in tho metalic form by iron, or
zinc.  The lead is deposited forming the arbor Saturni.
  How is peroxide of lead procured?  By the action of ni-
tric acid on minium, which dissolves tho protoxido and
loaves tho poroxide; and by passing a  current of chlorino
through a solution of acetate of lead. This oxide is of a pure
brown color, insoluble  in water, does not unito with acids,
and is resolved into a salt of  tho protoxide, and  oxygen
gas by strong ox-acids.
  How is the red oxide  or minium procured?  By heating
tho protoxido  noarly to redness, and suffering  it to cool
slowly.
  What aro tho properties of the red  oxide?  It does not
unito with  acids, gives off oxygen when heated to redness,
and is converted into the protoxido; it is resolved into pro-
toxide and  peroxide by nitric acid.
  What other  compounds  aro formed with lead?   The
chlorido, iodide, bromide,  fluoride, sulphuret,  phosphuret
and carburet of lead.

               Mercury or Quicksilver,

  How is  morcury found in nature?  It is  found native,
combined with sulphur as cinnibar, which is its most abun-
dant form;  amalgamated with silver; and as a chloride.
  How is  it procured, and from  where?  By heating the
sulphuret  with lime, or iron filings, by which  means the
mercury is  volatalizod, and  the sulphur retained.  To pu-
rify it it may be digested with sulphuric acid. It is brought
principally from Spain, Hungary, Asia, and South America.
  What are its properties?  It is fluid at common tempera-
tures, of a tin white color, and  has a strong metalic lustre.
It froozes at 39 or 40° below zero; boils at about 662°, and
does not tarnish by exposure to the air if perfectly pure.  It
i9 acted upon by nitric and hot sulphuric  acids.  Its eq. is
202; sp. gr. fluid 13.568; frozen 15.612;  symbol Hg.
  What are the compounds of morcury and oxygen? There
       11* 
122
Cllf'.MISTRY.
are two,  tho protoxide, which is 1 eq. of morcury and 1 oq-
of oxygen; and the peroxide, which Is 1 oq. of mercury.
and 2 cq. of oxygen.
  How is the  protoxide of mercury procured?  By mixing
calomel,  or protochloride briskly, with an oxcoss of potnssn,
the oxygon and chlorine exchange placos, and chloride of
potassium* and the protoxide of mercury aro formed.   It
may also be procured by adding an alkaline solution to tho
nitrate of the protoxide of mercury.
  What  aro the properties  of  the  protoxide  of mercury?
It is a black powder, easily decomposed, unites with acids,
but is a weak base.  The nitrate is decomposed by alkalies,
which throw down the protoxide; by  alkaline carbonates
throwing down the white carbonate; by hydrochloric acid,
or any soluble  chloride, and tho potochloride, or calomel in
formed;  and by hydrosulphuric  acid, and the black proto-
sulphuret isproducod.
   How is the  peroxide procured?  By the action of heat
and air  combined; by dissolving morcury in nitric  acid;
and by  exposing tho nitrate to a heat sufficient to expel
the nitric acid.  It is the red  precipitate of popular lan-
guage.
  What are the properties of the peroxide ?  It is in shining
crystalline scales, when hot it is nearly black,  and red whon
cold; finely powdered it is of an orange color; whon heated
to rodness it is resolvod into metalic mercury and oxygon.
It is separated  from acids by ammonia and its carbonate, as
a white precipitate.
  What are the compounds of chlorine and mercury?  They
aro tho protochlorido or calomel, which is  I oq. of morcury
and 1 eq. of chlorine; and the  bichloride or corrosive sub-'
limate, which is 1 eq. of morcury, and 2 eq. of chlorine.
  How is the protochloride or calomel procured?  It is gen-
erated when mercury and chlorine come in contact at com-
mon temperatures, by the union of morcury and  tho bichlo-
ride, which should be sublimed, and by mixing  the nitrate
of  the protoxide  with  hydrochloric  acid,  or a solublo
chloride.
  What  are its properties?  It is white, crystalline,  com-
pact, tasteless, inodorous, and not altered  by exposure to the
atmosphere if light is excluded; but by this it is rendered
black and partially reduced to  tho  metalic stato;  alkaline
solutions render it black by  the formation of  tho protoxide. 
CHEMISTRY.
123
  How is tho bichloride procured?  By heating morcury In
chlorine oas, and  by subliming a mixture of 298.2 parts of
the bisulphato of the peroxide of mercury with 117.44 parts
of iho  chlorido of sodium.  Tho  products of this last pro-
cess aro 1 oq. of tho bichloride  of morcury, and 2 eq. of the
sulphato of soda.
  What arc its properties?  It is white, semi-transparent,
crystalline and  poisonous; has an acid, burning  taste, and
loaves  a nausoous,  metalic  one.  It is slightly soluble in
cold water, and highly soluble in hot water and alcohol.
I!y tho addition of ammonia to its solution, tho white pre-
cipitate is formed.
   What are  the  tests  for corrosive  sublimate?   Hydrosul-
phuric  acid  precipitates  tho  black  sulphuret of mercury;
limo water and the puro fixod  alkalies a yellow peroxide of
morcury; hydriodato of potassa precipitates the deutoiodido
of morcury, which is of a pale scarlet color and resembles
no other iodide; another is to place a drop of the suspected
liquid  on polished  gold, and  touch it through the liquid
with a pioco of iron wire or point of a knife, when the part
touched instantly becomes white, which is  caused by an
amalgam of gold.  Albumen  or  white of eggs  produces  a
whito  floculent precipitate, which is a compound of calo-
mel and albumon, and is inert; therefore white of eggs is
an antidoto for poisoning by corrosive sublimate.
   What aro tho iodides of mercury?  They are the protoi-
odido,  which is mercury  1 eq , and  iodine 1  eq.; and is ob-
tained  by  mixing the nitrate  of tho protoxide of mercury
with the iodido of potassium.   It is a greenish powder  in-
soluble in wator.
   Tho sosnui-iodido, which is  2 eq. of morcury to 3 eq. of
iodino, ana is obtained by adding the iodide of potassium
in solution to a mixture of tho nitrates of the protoxide and
tho peroxides of mercury.
   Tho biniodido which  is  1  cq. of mercury, and 2 eq. of
iodine; and is obtained by adding%e iodide of potassium
in solution to the nitrato of tho peroxide, or to the bichloride
of mercury.   It is  prccipitatod as a rich  rod colored pow-
der vieing  in beauty with tho vormillion.
   What aro tho compounds of mercury and sulphur?  The
protosulphuret, which  is  f oq. of mercury to 1 eq. of sul-
phur;  and may bo formed by  passing hydrosulphuric  acid
gas through a solution of the nitrate of the protoxide of
mercury, or through water with calomel  suspended in it, 
124                 CHEMISTRY.
   The bisulphurot, which is  1  cq. of mercury, to 2 eq. of
 sulphur; and is formed by fusing sulphur with six times its
 weight of mercury, and subliming in closo vessels.  This is
 fictitious cinnibar, and whon powdered it forms the beau-
 tiful pigment vermillion.
   What is ethiops mineral?  It is a mixture of sulphur, and
 the bisulphuret of mercury, and is formod by triturating to-
 gether equal parts of mercury and sulphur.
   What compound docs mercury form with cyanogen?  A
 bicyanido, obtained by boiling tho red oxide of mercury
 with Prussian blue.

                         Silver.

   How is silver found  in nature, and where?  It is found
 native, and in combination with sulphur in galena, also com-
 bined with gold, antimony, copper, &c.  Nearly all the lead
 of commerce contains traces of silvor.  It is found in Mex-
 ico, Peru, and Hungary.
   How is it procured?  By amalgamation, and cupollation,
 depending upon the form of ore used.  It may be obtained
 pure from coin by dissolving it in nitric acicl, and decom-
 posing tho nitrate.
   What aro its properties?   It is the clearest  white of tho
 motals, receives a  beautiful  polish, is very malleable, duc-
 tile,  quite tenacious, soft when pure, and  when fused in
 open vessels it absorbs oxygen.  It is blackoned by sulphur
 and  chlorine. Its  equivalent 108; specific gravity 10.51;
 symbol Ag.
   What are the compounds of silver and oxygon?  They
 are the protoxide, which is 1  cq. of silvor, and 1 eq. of oxy-
 gen; and is obtained by decomposing tho nitrate by potash
 or soda.   It is of a  deep olive color, soluble slightly in wa-
 ter, and forms a fulminating compound with ammonia.  It
 is precipitated in the metalic state by most of tho motals;
 when mercury is employed it assumes an arboresent appear-
 ance called arbor Dianae.   And the peroxide, which is un-
 important in its chemical relations.
  How is tho nitrate of silvor  procured?  By the action of
nitric acid on silver; when it has been fused it is  called lu-
nar caustic.
  What is tho  best test for silver?  Chlorine, and  tho muri-
ates, which form an insoluble chloride.
  How is tho chloride of  silver prepared?  It sometimes 
CHEMISTRY
136
occurs native, and is callod horn silver; it is generated whon
silver is heated in chlorino gas, and  may be precipitated by
udding hydrochloric acid, or a 6olublo chloride to the nitrate
of silvor.
  What aro its properties?  It is whito, insoluble in  water,
slightly solublo in acids, but very soluble in ammonia, and
is decomposed by hydrogen.
  How is tho  iodido of silver procured?  By adding the
iodide of potassium to a solution of  the  nitrate of  silver.
It is groonish yellow, and is soluble in wator and ammonia.
   How is tho sulphuret of silvor procured?  Silver  unites
 with Bulphur  on exposure to hydrosulphuric acid, and by
 transmitting this gas  through a solution of  the nitrate,
 when it subsides as a dark brown precipitate, the sulphuret
of silvor.
                         Gold.

  How is gold  found in nature, and  whore?  It is  found
puro and in combination with other motalsin North and South
America, Hungary, and Liberia.
  How is gold obtained pure?   By amalgamation with mer-
cury, and thon distilling off the mercury; by making  a solu-
tion in nitro-hydrocliloric acid, and precipitating it  by the
sulphate of iron.
  What aro tho properties of gold?  It has a yellow color
which distinguishes it from  all other simple metals,  is very
malloable and ductile, but inferior  to several in brilliancy
and tenacity.  It has  but little affinity for oxygen or sul-
phur.  Its  equivalent is 190.2; sp.  gr. 19.257; symbol  Au.
Its solvont is chlorino to which the nitro-hydrochloric acid
owes its solvent powers.
  What  are tho oxides of  gold?  The protoxide, 1 eq. of
each;  tho  binoxide, 1 cq. of gold to  2 eq. of oxygen; and
tho  teroxide, 1 cq. of gold, to 3 eq.  of oxygen.
   What is tho tost for gold in  solution.  The protochlorido
of tin, which throws down tho purple of Cassius.

                       Platinum.

  How Is platinum found in nature, and where? In the me-
talic stato,  ossociated or combined with other metals.  It is
found in South Amorica, and in tho Uralian mountains.
  How is it obtained?  By  dissolving tho native grains  of
platinum in aqua regia, or nitro-hydrochloric acid, and ad- 
126                  CHEMISTRY

ding to it a solution of sal ammoniac, which  affords nn or
ftnge yollow precipitate.  This  is  to bo washed, driod and
exposed to a red heat, which isolates tho metal in a poroin
state, called platina sponge; which may bo consolidated by
mechanical pressure, heat, and hammering.
  What are the properties of platinum ?  It lias a white color,
with a lustre inferior to silver, is malleable, ductile, may bo
welded at high temperatures, and is difficult of oxidation, or
fusion.   Chlorine, or solutions  which afford  it is its proper
solvent.   It  is the heaviest of known  motals, sp.gr. 21.5,
eq. 98.8, symb. PI.
  What  are the compounds of platinum?  There aro  three
oxides, two chlorides, two iodides, and two sulphurots.
  What is  the test for platinum?  Proto-chloridc of tin,
which throws down a claret colored precipitate.
                 Alloys and Amalgams.
  _ What  is meant by alloys, and amalgams? Alloys  are com-
binations of the metals with each othor, and when  mercury
is a constituent they are called amalgams.
  Under what circumstances do metals combine with each
other?   It is necessary that at least one of them should bo
liquid, when they will unite if the attraction is energetic.
  Do they combine in definite proportions only ? Thoy unito
in  all  proportions; yet there appears to bo a tendency to
unite in definite proportions, as  somo  compounds of this
kind occur native.
  What are the general properties of alloys?   Thoy resem-
ble the metals, are opaque, possess metalic lustre,  and aro
good conductors of heat, and  electricity.  The color is some-
times changed from that of its constituents; tho hardness is
generally increased, consequently the sonorousness is in ge-
neral increased, the  malleability, and ductility aro usual-
ly impaired; the density is sometimes  greater, somotimos
less; the fusibility is greatly increased, and the tendency to
unite with oxygen augmentod.
                         Salts.
  How is the class of  salts divided ?   Into four orders:
  Order 1st. Tho oxy-salts; or thoso salts the acids or  bases
bases of which are oxidized bodios.
  Order 2d.  The hydro-salts; or those salts tho acids or ba-
ses  of which contain hydrogon.
  Order. 3d. Tho sulphur-salts; or those salts tho eloctro-posi-
tive or negative ingrodieni? of which are snlphurots. 
CHEMISTRY.
127
  Older 4th. The haloid salts; or those 6alts the electro-posi-
tive, or nogativo ingredients of which are haloidal.
  What is°meant by deliquescent salt?  It is where a salt
uttracts moisture, and becomes liquid.
  What by an efflorescent salt?  It is where a salt loses its
water of crystalization,and falls down into a white powdor.
  What is tho water of cryslalization?  It is water which
unitos with a salt in crystalization, and forms a part of the
crystal, but is not an essential ingredient to the existence of
tho Hlllt.
  What aro tho characteristics of the sulphates?  In solu-
 tion a white precipitate ("the sulphate of baryta), is  thrown
 down by the chloride of barium,  which is a test for sulphu-
 ric acid, free, or comhinod.
  Thoy aro solublo  with  tho oxception of the sulphates of
baryta, of the oxides of tin,  antimony, bismuth, lead, and-
morcury. Those sparingly soluble, aro the sulphates of stron-
tia, Hino, zirconia, yttria,  and of  the oxides of cerium, and
silver.  Tho other sulphates aro quite soluble in water.
  What aro the characteristics of the  sulphites?  The sul-
phuric, hydrochloric, phosphoric,  and  arsonic acids decom-
 pose tho sulphites with effervescence,  owing  to the libera-
 tion of sulphurous acid gas; they are converted  by nitric
 acid into sulphates.
  What is the prominent characteristic of the nitrates?
 They aro decomposed invariably at a high temperature.
   What is  the prominent characteristic of the nitrites?  By
 the addition of a strong acid tho  red fumes of nitrous acid
 aro disengaged.
   What is the characteristic of the chlorates?  Thoy are de-
 composed at a red heat, oxygon gas is evolved,  and a  chlo-
 ride is formod.
   What charactorizos the chlorites?   They aro soluble  in
 water, and possess high bleaching, and oxidizing properties.
   What characterizes tho iodates?  They are similar to the
 chlorates, iodides being formed of course, instead of chlorides
 whon heated.
   What characterises the arseniates?  Whon heated to rod-
 ihss with charcoal thoy aro decomposed, and metalic arsen-
 ic is sot at liberty.
   What charactorizos tho chromatcs?  Thoy are generally
 either of a red or yellow  color, aro decomposed Jjy heat, and
 tho acid is r..solved  into green oxide of chromium, and oxy-
 gen gas. 
128
CHEMISTRY,
  What characterizes tho carbonatos? Their decomposition
with effervesconcc by nearly all tho acids, and most of them
are decomposed by heat.
  How  may  the salts  of  ammonia bo distinguished?  By
the addition  of puro potassa, whon the odor of ammonia is
given off.
  How may the hydrosulphatos bo  distinguished?  By by.
drosulphuric acid being expelled with effervesconco by oth-
er acids.

               ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

  What is understood  by organic  chemistry?   It compre-
hends the history of those  compounds which are of animal,
or vegetable origin.
  What are the simple  elements coming under notico in or-
ganic chemistry?   They are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen, with traces of phosphorus, sulphur, iron, silicic
acid, potassa, lime, &c.
  Are organic  substances liable to decomposition?   Yes;
they are very prone to decomposition, tho tendency of car-
bon, and hydrogen being to  appropriate  to themselves as
much exygon as will form carbonic  acid and  water; and
when the oxygen is insufficient, carbonic oxido,  and carbu-
retted hydrogen are formed.  When tho organic substance
contains nitrogen  it is very prone  to decomposition, and
water, carbonic acid, hydrocyanic  acid,  and ammonia are
formed.  They are all decomposed  at a red heat,"find nearly
all below this temporature.
  What are the particular characteristics of organic pro-
ducts?  They are composod of the same elements,  undergo
spontaneous decomposition with facility, cannot bo  formod
by the direct union of their elements, and are decomposed
at a red heat.

                 Vegetable Chemistry.

  What are the simple  elements of  vegetable substancos?
Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and a few contain nitrogen.
  What is meant by the proximate,  or immediate principlo
of vegetables?  They are compounds which exist ready for-
mod in plants, such as sugar, starch, and gum.
  What is meant by the proximate  analysis  of  vegetables?
It is the procees of separating tho proximate principles from 
CHEMISTRY.
129
tach other, and tho  reduction  of tho proximate principles
into thoir simplest parts constitutes thoir ultimate  analysis,
  How may vegetablo substances be arranged?   Into tho
vegetable acids, tho vegetable alkalies;  neutral substances,
the oxygen and hydrogen of which aro in the ratio to form
water; tho oleaginous, resinous, and bituminous principles;
tho spirituous, and ethereal principles; coloring  matter; and
compounds which cannot bo classed under the preceding
heads.
                    Vegetable Acids.
   What aro the vogetable acids?  They are compounds pos-
soHsing acid properties, which  are  tho  products of vegeta-
tion.
   What are tho gonoral proportios of vegetable acids?
Thoy arc decomposed at a red heat,  less liable  to spontane-
ous decomposition than other vegotablo substances, decom-
posed by hot nitric acid, by which thoy are  converted into
carbonic acid and wator.
   Is oxygen always in a proportion abovo  that for forming
water, in vegotablo acids?  Generally, but not always;some-
times it is (iveil in a less proportion as in benzoic acid; but
whon thoro is  more oxygen than suffices to form water with
hydrogen, tho vogetable substances arc always  acid.
   Where is Oxalic  acid found? In several  plants ready for-
med as in tho  rumox acetosa or common sorrel; the oxalis
acotosolla or wood sorrel; and it may be prepared by digest-
ing sugar with nitric acid.
   What are tho properties of oxalic acid?  It crystalizes in
slender flattoned four and six  sided  prisms, terminated  by
six sided summits, but the primary form is an oblique rhom-
bic prism; it has a sour tast", reddens litmus, and forms neu-
tral suits with alkalies, and is very soluble in wator.
   It is powerfully poisonous, and is frequently taken by mis-
take for epsom salts, which it resembles.  Chalk is its anti-
dote with which it forms an insolublo oxalate of limo.
   It is distinguished from all other acids by the form of its
crystals, and by its solution giving with  lime water a white
insoluble precipitate.
   Where is Acetic  acid found? It exists in the sap of many
plants, either free, or combined;  it is generated by tho  de-
structive distillation of vegotablo  matter, and is produced by
tho acetous  fermentation.  It is best  obtained  pure  and
         \'i 
130
CHEMISTRY.
concentrated by  decomposing  the acetates  by sulphuric
acid.  For chemical purposes it is obtained by the destruc-
tive distillation of wood, and sold under tho name of pyro-
ligneous acid.
  How  is acetic  acid  distinguished?  By its flavor, odor,
and volatility.  Its salts are called acetates, and are all solu-
ble in hot and most of thorn in cold water.
  Where is  Lactic acid found?   In sour milk, and in tho
beet root.
  Where is Kinic acid found?  In cinchona bark in combi-
nation with  limo, quinia, and cinchona.
  Where is Malic acid found?  In the acidulous fruits, such
as grapes, oranges, currants, applos, &c.
  Where is  Citric acid found?  In the  juice of tho lime,
and lemon.
  From yvhat  is Tartaric acid procured?  It exists in tho
juice of some of the acidulous fruits, but generally in com-
bination with lime or potassa.
  It is prepared by mixing  chalk with  cromor tartar  from
whiichtho tartrate of lime is thrown down, and the  tartrate
of potassa remains in solution;  to  tho tartrate of lime sul-
phuric acid is added, and the tartaric acid is sot at  liberty.
  What are the properties of tartaric acid ? It has an agreea-
ble sour tasts, reddens litmus, and forms  with alkalies  neu-
tral  salts called tartrates   It is distinguished by forming a
white precipitate, the bitartrate of potassa when mixed with
any  of the salts of potassa; it  therefore  separates  potassa
from the other acids, and produces  a precipitate with lime,
whichds soluble in an excess of the acid.  It i.s remarkable
in forming double salts, the most  important of which, arc
those of potassa and soda, or tho Rochollc salt, and of ox-
ide of antimony and potassa, or tartar emetic.
  What is the cream of tartar of the shops?   It is  tho  hi-
tartrate of potassa; in  an impure state known by tho  name
of tartar.it is found  encrusted  on tho sides and bottom of
wine casks; being insoluble in alcohol,, it is  deposited as
alcohol  is formed during the vinous fcrmontation.
  Where is  Benzoic acid found?  In gum benzoin,  storax,
balsam  of Peru,  Tolu, &c; also in the urine of tho cow,
and  of children. It is generally procured  from gum benzoin.
  Whore is Meconic acid found? It is found only in opium
combined with morphia.  It is known by forming with the
sesqui-saltsof  iron a  purple-red color,  which renders it
valuable as a tost for opium. 
CHEMISTRY.                  J 31
  Whore is Tannic acid or Tannin found ? In the excrescen-
ces of tho oak called gall nuts, in the bark of most trees, in
kino, catechu, the tea plant, sumach, uva ursi, and in astrin-
gent plants generally; it is the principal cause of astringen-
cy in vegetables.
  What are tho properties of tannic acid?
  It is colorless, inodorous, has an astringent taste, no bit-
torness, and may be kept in the solid state.   It is  soluble,
roddens litmus, and  decomposes tho carbonates.  It strikes
a deep blue precipitate with the scsqui-salts of iron,jbut not
with  tho proto-salts, which distinguishes it  from  all other
substances except gallic  acid, and from this.it maybe dis-
tinguished  by yielding with a solution of gelatin, a* white
(laky prccipitato soluble in a solution of gelatin, but insolu-
ble in water and gallic  acid.  This compound of tannic
acid and golatin called tanno-gclatin, is the basis of leather.
  Whcro is Gallic acid  found?  In  most substances which
contain tannic acid, and is  probably developed  by the oxi-
dation of that acid.   It does not precipitate  gelatin or tho
salts of tho vegetable alkalies.
  How is tho succinic acid obtained?  By heating powdered
ambor in a retort.
                  Vegetable  Alkalies.
  What  is  understood by vegetable  alkalies ?  They are
those  proximato vegetable principles which possess alkaline
properties.   They all contain nitrogen, are  decomposed by
a moderate heat, and aro but slightly soluble  in water.
   What is their  composition?   Carbon,  hydrogen  (in
greater proportion than to form water,) nitrogen, and oxy-
gen ; and thoy always exist in combination with an acid.
  How aro  they generally procured?  The substance con-
taining the alkaline  principle is  digested  or macerated in a
large  quantity of water to dissolve  the salt, of which the
alkali  is the base.  Then  add a powerful  salifiable baso
which unites with the acid, tho alkaline  base is set at lib-
erty, may bo collected on a filter,  purified  by solution in
boiling alcohol, and evaporated to dryness.
  What are some of the most prominent vegetable alkalies?
Morphia, narcotina,  codeia, rmrc.oin, cinchonia, qutnia, art.
cinn, strychnia, brucia, veratria, emetia, and delphia.
  Where is Morphia found in nature?  It is  the medicinal
agent of  opium, in which it is combined with iv»cconic and
uujphuric acids, nnd  other foreign mnttors. 
132
CHEMISTRY.
  What are the properties of morphia?  Colorless crystals
of a brilliant lustre, and in irregular six  sided  prisms, may
be obtained from the alcoholic  solution.   It is  insoluble in
eold, and slightly in  hot  water, tastolcss whon pure, but
very bitter when dissolved in  alcohol, or rendered soluble
by means of an acid.   Strong  nitric acid converts  it into
oxalic acid, and  with a sesquisalt of iron it strikes a blue
tint.  It is almost inert when puro from  its insolubility, but
when in  solution it acts  with  groat energy.  By decompo-
sing a salt of morphia when taken into the stomach, by am-
monia,  the  effects of an  over  dose  may be  prevented.  It
decomposes  iodic acid, and sets iodine,  free which may bo
recognized by starch its appropriate test; one grain of puro
morphia in 7000 grains of water may be recognized  by this
test.
   Where "aro Cinchonia,  and  Quinia found?   In the  cin-
chona bark,  in union with kinic acid.
   How are they procured?  By taking up the  soluble parts
of the bark by hot wator acidulated with hydrochloric acid;
concentrate  the solution, and digest with successively added
portions of slaked  lime until  the liquid becomes alkaline-
The precipitate is  carefully collected,  and the  vegetable
alkali separated by boiling alcohol.
   What  are the properties of cinchonia?   When  pure it
crystallizes  in  colorless  quadrilateral prisms, insoluble  in
cold, slightly soluble in hot  wator, and very soluble in boil-
ing alcohol.  It has a very bitter taste  when dissolved by
alcohol, or an acid; and farms salts with acids.
   What are tho properties of  quinia or  quinine?  It is pre-
cipitated  from  its  solutions  by alkalies in  white  flocks,
which do not crystallize;  very soluble in alcohol, and ether,
but very slightly so in water.  Its  medicinal virtues are
moro powerful than those of cinchonia.   It forms salts with
acids, tho most important of which is the disulphate and is
propared in  large  quantities  for medical purposes, orystal-
lizing in delicate white needle shaped crystals.
   The sulphate of quina is  frequently adulterated; and the
substances generally  employed are  water,  sugar,  starch,
gum, ammoniacal  and earthy salts.   Whon pure it should
only loose 8 or  10 per cent of water of crystallization by
heat.  Tho other impurities may be  detected by the appro-
priate means.
   Where is Strychina found?  In the  fruit of  the strychnos 
CHEMISTRY.
133
ignatia, and tho strychnos nux  vomica, and has also been
extracted from tho Upas.
  What are tho properties of strychnia?  It is  solublo  in
boiling alcdiol, and by evaporation it is procured  in  four
sided prisms.   It is a virulent poison, producing  death  in a
very short time if taken in sufficient quantity.  Its action is
accompaniod by tetanic symptoms.

   Neutral Substances, the Oxygen and Hydrogen of which
             are in the same ratio as in Water.
   What  substances are included  in  this  class?   Sugar,
 Mmnitc, Wheat Starch, Potato Starch,  Gum Arabic, and
 Lignin.
     Oleaginous, Resinous, and Bituminous Substances.
   What is remarkable in this class  of bodies?  Their com-
 bustibility, besides other properties common to each.  They
 generally contain hydrogen in a larger proportion  than is
 nocossary to  form water with their oxygen, and they exert
 a fei bio affinity for other bodies.
   What are tho characteristics of oils? They are inflamma-
 ble, havo a peculiar unctious feel, and aro insoluble in wa-
 ter.  They aro divided  into fixed  and volatilo;  the former
 gives a permanent greasy stain  to paper;  and the latter pro-
 duces ono which disappears by a gentle heat.
   Whcro  are fixed oils usually found?  In  the  seeds of
 plants, but olive oil is  procured from  the  pulp  which sur-
 rounds tho stono.  These  oils aro obtained  by burning the
 seeds, and subjecting the  pulpy matter  to  pressure and a
 gentle heat.
   Thoy absorb oxygen, and become rancid when exposed
 to the atmosphorc, or to oxygen  gas; they also unite with
 alkalies and  form soap.
   What are thoir component parts?  Margarine  or the hard
 portion;  and elaino or oloino.
   Whore  are volatile or essential oils found ?   In aromatic
 plants, from which it is obtained  by distillation.
   What oil is procured  from bitter almonds?  When bruis-
 ed and subjected to compression it yields a pure fixed oil;
 but  when distilled with  water  a poisonous  volatilo  oil
 passo* over which contains hydrocyanic acid.
                  Remnovs Substances.
    What  are rosins?   Tho  inspissated juices of  plant!
         1*2* 
134                  CHEMISTRY

cither pure or in combination with  essential  oils.  Thoy
are solid, brittle, inodorous, insipid,  and generally of a yel-
low color; semi-transparont, non-conductors of electricity,
and negatively electric when rubbed.
  The most important of the resins are common resin, co-
pal, lac, sandrach, mastich, elemi, and dragons blood.
  What are balsams? They are compounds  of resin and
benzoic acid.
  What are gum-resins?   They  aro the concrote juice of
•plants which contain  resin, essential  oil, gum, and extrac-
tive matter.   Their  proper solvent is proof spirit.  Undor
this head are aloes, ammoniacum, assafoetida, ouphorbium,
galbanum, gamboge,  myrrh, scammony, and guiacum.

                 Bituminous Substances.

  How- are bituminous substances divided ?  Into bitumen
and pit coal; undor the first head are  naphtha,  petroleum,
mineral tar, asphaltum, mineral pitch, and retina-sphaltum;
and under the latter head are brown coal, common or black
eoal, and glance coal or anthracite.
          Spirituous and ethereal Substances.

                         Alcohol.
  Is alcohol the intoxicating ingredient in all spirituous and
vinous liquors?  It is; and is always a product of the vinous
fermentation; therefore  does not  exist  ready  formed  in
plants.
  How is  the alcohol procured  pure?  By the  addition of
heated carbonate of potash, (or any other substance having
a strong affinity  for water,) to spirit of wine ;  the potash
unites with the water subsides, and tho alcohol  may bo de-
canted pure.
                          Ether.
  How is ether  procured?  By heating the stronger  acids
with alcohol; the different kinds are distinguished  by tho
name of the acids used in  thoir preparation.
                  Coloring Matters.

  What arc tho prevailing colors of vegetables?   Red, yel-
low, blue, and green,  or their mixtures.   ,
  Does vegetable coloring  matter  occur in   an insulated
state?  No; it is always  attached to some proximate prin- 
CHEMISTRY.
135
ciple, such  as mucilaginous, extractive, or  resinous sub-
stances, by which its properties aro influenced.            ■
  It is generally decomposed by the combined  agency ol
tho sun's rays, and a moist atmosphere;  and all of  them
aro destroyod by chlorine.                             ,
  What is meant by lakes?  They are insoluble compounds
formed by coloring matter with some of the metalic oxides.
  What  is meant by tho term mordant or  basis?   It is a
Hubstancc having an affinity both  for the coloring matter,
and tho article to bo colored; which  by combining with
 each at tho same time causes the dye to bo permanent.
   Those coloring  substances which  adhere to the cloth
 without a basis, aro called substantive colors, and those
 which require  a basis, adjectivo colors.
   What substances produeo the blue dyes?   Indigo.
   What the  red ?   Cochincfll, lac, archil,  madder,  brazil
 wood, logwood, and saffiower.
   The yellow !•  CAimrcitron bark,  turmeric,  wild American
 hickory, fustic, and saffron; all of which are adjectivo colors.
   The' black ?   Tho samo ingrodients as writing ink, and is
 therefore essentially oxide of iron with gallic acid and tan-
 nin.
 Substances which do not belong  to either of the preced.
                      ing sections.
   What are tho articles  belonging to thisclas<?   Vegeta-
 ble albumen, gluten, yoast, asparagin,  bassorin, caffein, ca-
 thnrtin,  funirin, suberin, ulmin, lupulin,  inulin, mediillin,
 piperin, olivile, sarcocoll, rhcubarbarin,  rhaponticin, colo-
 rvntin, bcrherin, bryonin, gentianin, zanthopicrin,  scillitin,
 senogin,  saponin,  arthanatin,   plumbagin,  chlorophylo,
 amygdalin, salicin, populin, meconin, columbin, elatin, sina-
 pisin, &c.
        Src.NTWF.ors changes of Vegetable matter.
   What is Fermentation? It is certain spontaneous changes
 which vegetable substances undergo when the vital princi-
 ple h  extinct.  It is dividod into four distinct kinds, viz: tho
 saccharine, vinous, acetous and putrefactive.
   What substances undergo the saccharine  fermentation?
 Starch is tho only one known to be subject to this fermenta-
 tion, which takes place  when it is kept in a moist state for
 como  tima; and sugar equal to half tho weight of the starch
 employed is formed. 
13G
CHEMISTRY.
  What circumstances are necessaiy to tho vinous fermen-
tation?  The presence of sugar, water, yeast, or some fer-
ment, and a certain temperature.   The changes which tako
place are the  disappearance of sugar, tho formation of alco-
hol, and the escape of carbonic acid gas.
  Under what circumstances does the acetous fermentation
take place?   When a liquid which has  undorgone tho vi-
nous fermentation is mixed with yeast,  and exposed to the
open air.  In this process oxygen  is absorbed, and carbonic
acid gas is disengaged.
  What circumstances are necessary to the putrefactive fer-
mentation?  The accompanying circumstances which ena-
ble this process to take place, are moisture, air,  and a cer-
tain temperature; the most favorable temperature is betwoen
60 and 100 degrees.
  The principal products are water, light carburetted hydro-
gen, carbonic acid, and when nitrogen, is present, ammonia.
The solid remains are charcoal combinod with oxygen, and
hydrogen.
                     Germination.

  What conditions are necessary to germination? Moisture,
a certain temperature, and oxygen gas.   Light, which is fa-
vorable to the subsequent stages of vegetation, is injurious
to germination.

                   Animal Chemistry.

  What is meant by proximate animal  principle??  They
are distinct compounds derived from tho bodies ol animals.
  How are they distinguished from vegetable matter?  By
the presence of nitrogen, their strong tendency to putrefy,
and tho offensive products of putrefaction.  Some vegetable!
principles contain nitrogen, but they not putrefy readily.
  What are the essential constituents of animal compounds?
Carbon oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogi n; besides, some of
them contain phosphoru.s,  sulphur,_iron, earthy  and saline
matters.                                       .
  What effect has heat upon  them when appliod in a closo
vessel?  They yield wator, carbonic oxide, carburetted hy-
droo-en, carbonate and hydrocyanate of ammonia,  a  fmtid,
thick oil, and carbonaceous matter, which is a powerful de-
colorizing agent.
  What is tho principle  of the modo of analyzing animal 
                    CHEMISTRY.                  137

nnd vegetable substances.  It is to convert the whole of tho
i-arbon~containcd, into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into

  I low are animal products divided ?  1st.  Into those which
nre  neither acid nor oleaginous; 2d. the acids; and 3d. the
oils, and fats.                               ...      v.
  What substances aro included in the first division .'  *i-
brine, albumen, gelatin, urea, sugar of milk, and sugar of
diabetes. ■<■                                          .   .
  In what does Fibrin exist?  In muscle, chyle, and blood.
 It is solid, while, insipid, and inodorous.
   Where is Albumon found?  In the white of eggs, and in
 the sorum of tho blood.                          _  .
   What are tho properties of albumen?  It is precipitated
 liy corrosive sublimate, which is its best t:st; and it  is co-
 ugulatod by heat, alcohol, and tho  stiongcr acids.
  ''Where is Gelatin found?   In the  skin, cartilages, mem-
 branes, and bones.
   What aro its properties?  It  is readily  soluble in water,
 nnd forms a jilly when cool; it is  known in commeice by
 iho name of gluo; tannic acid is its appropriate test.
   Whcro is Urea found?  It is procured from fresh urine.
   What aro the proximato principles of animal oils?    Stca-
 rinr, margarine, and oleinc.
   What circumstances  are necessary to the putrefaction of
 nnimal substances?  Water, air, and a certain temperature.
   What are tho products  of putrefaction?  Water, ammo-
 nia, carbonic and acetic acids, carburetted and sulphuretted
 hvdrogon, and phosphurotted hydrogen in some cases.

             ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY.
   By what process do you analyze a gaseous mixture con-
 taining oxygen?  Introduce into tho mixture a quantity of
 hydrogen, more than sufficient to saturate the oxygen pres-
 ent,  carefully measure the  whole,  pass  an electric  spark
 through it, or introduce into it a piece of spongy platinum,
 and note tho diminution; divido  the diminution by  3, and
 you have the quantity of oxygen originally in the mixture.
    What is tho process  whon the quantity of nitrogen is to
 be determined?  The method is to withdraw all other gaso-
 ous substances with which it is mixed.
   What is tho mode of determining  tli^s quantity of carbon-
  ic acid in gasoous mixtures! 
138                 CHEMISTRY.
By agitating tho mixture with limo wator, or a solution of
caustic potassa, and noting the deficiency.
  What is the mode of determining tho quantity of hydro-
gen?  By causing it to combine with oxygen by  tho  elec-
tric spark, or platinum.   The piinciple is tho samo for tho
inflammable gasses, chlorino being used for  somo of  thorn
instead of oxygen.

    TABLE OF SYMBOLS,  AND CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS OF
                ELEMENTARY substances.
                             Ele.
                           [Mercury
                           | (Hydrargyrum)
                           Molybdenum
                           Nickel  v
                           Nitrogen
                           Osmium
                           Oxygen
                           Palladium
                           Phosphorus
                           Platinum
                           Potassium
                              (Kalium)
                           Rhodium
                           Selenium
                           Silver
                              (Argcntum)
                           Sihcium
                           Sodium
                              (Natrium)
                           Strontium
                           Sulphur
                           Tollurium
                           Thorium
                           Tin
                              (Stannum)
                           Titanium
                           Tungsten
                              (Wolfram)
                           Uranium
                           jVanadium
                           [Yttrium
                           IZinc
                        Mn Zirconium
Ele.	Eq.	Sy.
Alumiunim	13.7 l	Al
Antimony	64.6	Sb
(Stibium)		
Arsenic	37.7	As
Barium	C8.7	Ba
Bismuth	71	Bi
Boron	10.9	B
Bromino	78.4	Br
Cadmium	55.8	Cd
Calcium	20.5	Ca
Carbon	6.12	C
Cerium	46	Co
Clilorine	35.42	CI
Chromium	28	Cr
Cobalt	- 29.5	Co
Columbium	J 85	
(Tantalum)		Ta
Copper	31.6	
(Cuprum)		Cu
Fluorino	18-.68	
Glucinium	17.7	F
Gold	199.2	G
(Aurum)		.Au
Hydrogen	1	
Iodine	126.3	H
Iridium	98.8	I
Iron	28	Ir
(Ferrum)		Fe
Lead	103.6	
(Plumbum)		Pb
Lithium	6.44	L
Magnesium	12.7	Mg
Manganese	27.7	Mn
7?V.	■S'!/
202 |	llg
) 47.7	Mr
29.r,	Ni
14.15	N
99.7	Os
8	O
53.3	Pd
15.7	P
98.8	PI
39 15	K
52.2	R
39.6	So
108'	A
7.5	Si
23.3	N
43.8	Sr
16.1	S
64.2	T
59.6	T
58.9	Si
24.3	T
94.8	W
217	U
fJii.5	V
32.2	Y
32.3	Z
33.7	z
 
                   PART  III.     S


MATERIA   MEDICA  AND  PHARMACY"■
  What is Materia Medica? It is that scionco which treats
of medicines.
  What is Pharmacy?  It is the art of preparing them for
use.
  What nro  medicines?  They arc substances  capable  of
producing as an ordinary result, ani by their own inherent
power  certain  modifications of  the vita,l functions, which
render the in applicable to the cure of  disease.— Wood
  How may  their operation bo divided?  Into their primary
and socondary operation.
  In what way may the primary influence of medicines be
exerted ?
  1st.  By nervous communication.
  2d. By ontcr'mg  the blood vessels, and acting throngh
tho medium of the circulation.
  3d.  By acting oxclusivoly in the neighborhood of their
application.
  Have  medicines in thoir operation an affinity for one part
more than another]   Thoy have. Some substances acton
the circulatory, nervous, or the absorbent system, and from
the general distribution of these systems their action appears
 to ho genoral.  Others act upon  the stomach, bowels, skin,
 kidneys, lungs, &.c.; the primary action of which  arc con-
 sidered to bo local.  This difference in thoir mode of action
 furnishes a basis for their  division.
   What influences affecting the system may m»dify the ac-
 tion of medicinos?  Thoy are  disease, climate,  modo of 
140
MATERIA  .MEDICA.
 life, habit, age, sex, temperament, idiosyncrasies, and men-
 tal operations, which should all bo attended to in making
 prescriptions.
   What general rulo is applicable in tho doses of modicinos
 according to age?  For children under twelve years of ago
 the doses of most medicines should bo  diminished in tho
 proportion of the age to the age increased  by 12.   Thus at
 2 years to 1-7; viz:     ~
     4              cz  x 12 = 1-™: at 4 years, to  1-4, viz:
  4 x 12= 1-4. A full dose to bo  givon at 21 years of age.
                                Paris'1 s Pharmacologia.
   Some medicines such as castor oil, calomel, &c. may re-
 quire larger proportional doses.
   What is meant by the secondary effects of modicinos?
 Thoy are changes which take place, not from tho immedi-
 ate operation of medicines, but depend upon certain laws of
 the system which modify the primary actions, and condi-
 tions; and are very important in the treatmont of disease.
   In what forms are medicines  used?  In powders,  pille,
 troches, electuaries, confections,  mixtures, solutions, decoc-
 tions infusions, wines,  tinctures, vinegars, syrups, honeys,
 oxymels, linaments, cerates, ointmonts, plastors, cataplasms,
 and in the state of vapor.
   To what parts of the  body are medicines applied? To tho
 stomach, rectum, skin,  bronchial tubes and  pulmonary air
 cells, nostrils, inside of  the  mouth, and by injections into
 the bloodvessels.
   What aro the objects  in tho application  of modicinos to
 the rectum?   1st. To produce alvine evacuations.  2d. To
 obtain their peculiar effects on tho systom.
*  In the latter caso it should be given in small bulk, so that
 it may remain in the bowels.  The relativo dose administer-
 ed in this way should be three times the ordinary quantity
as a general rule.  Medicines applied to tho rectum are cal-
 led suppositories when  solid; and when liquid, clysters, in-
 fections, or encmata.
  What are the modes of application to tho skin?  They aro
various.   The skin may  be retained, or  removed;  tho
medicine may bo used  in the form of vapor, liquid, or  a
soft solid, and may bo applied to  the whole surface of tho
body, or apart.
  How  are  modicinos applied to  the bronchial tubes, &c ?
In tho state of vapor. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
HI
  What objects are to be ga'inod  by their application to tho
nostrils?   A powerful excitement of the brain, and a strong
revulsion from neighboring parts.


                    Classification.

  Upon what principlo is the preferable modo of classifica-
tion foundod?  On the relations which modicines bear to
the human system in a healthy state.
   What is the first grand division  in  classification?   Into
 medicines which act on the living  body, and thoso which
 act upon foreign mattors contained  in the body.
   How  is the first  grand division divided?  Into  those
substances which act generally, and those which act locally.
   How are tho general remedies divided?  Into stimulants
or oxcitants, and sedatives.
   How aro stimulants divided?  Into permanent, and diffu-
sible.
   How aro tho permanent stimulants divided?  Into astrin-
gonts, and tonics.
   How aro the diffusible stimulants divided?  Into arterial
stimulants, and corcbro-nervous stimulants.
   Tho  latter may  bo again divided into cerebral stimulants
or stimulant narcotics, and into nervous stimulants or anti-
 spasmodics.
   How aro scdativos divided?  Into arterial sedatives or re-
 frigorants, and nervous sedatives or sedative narcotics.
   flow aro tho local remedies divided?  Into those which
 nflect the functions, those which affect tho organization, and
 thoso which aro mechanical in thoir action.
   Thoso affecting the function of  apart, are 1st Emetics;
 2d. Cathartics; 3d. Diuretics; 4th. Diaphoretics;  5th. Ex-
 pectorants;  6th.  Emmenagogues;  7th.  Sialagogucs; and
 8th. Errhines.
   Those affecting tho organization of a part, are  1st. Rube-
 facients; 2d. Epispastics; and 3d. Escharotics.
   Thoso operating mechanically, are 1st. Demulcents; 2d.
 Emollients; and 3d. Diluents.  Then there are morcury, io-
 dine, arsenic, nux vomica, and ergot, which  cannot be con-
 veniently classified.
   How is thn socond grand division divided? Into, 1st Ant-
 acids; and 2d. Anthelmintics.
         13 
142
MATERIA MEDICA.
     TABULAR VIEW OF THE CLASSIFICATION
 As adopted by Prof. Wood of the University of Pennsylvania.

   Substances which act on the living body.
     General  remedies.
       Stimulants.
         Permanent stimulants.
             Astringents.
             Tonics.
         Diffusible stimulants.
             Arterial stimulants.
             Cerebro-nervous stimulants.
     Cerebral stimulants, or stimulant narcotics.
     Nervous stimulants commonly callod antispasmodics.
       Sedatives.
         Arterial sedatives or refrigerents.
         Nervous sedatives or sedative narcotics.
     Local remedies.
       Affecting the functions.
         Emetics-
         Cathartics.
         Diuretics.
         Diaphoretics.
         Expectorants.
         Emmenagogues-
         Sialngogaes.
       Affecting the organization.
         Rubefacients.
         Epispastics.
         Escharotics.
       Operating mechanically.
         Demulcents.
         Emollients.
         Diluents.
     Medicines insusceptible of accurate classification.
       Ergot.
       Nux vomica.
       Arsenic.
       Mercury.
       Iodine.
  Substances which act on foreign mattors contained with-
in the body.
     Antacids* Anthelmintics. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
143
                     AsTRlNOENTS,

  What is an  astringent?  A medicine  which produces
contraction of tho living fibre.
  What aro the goneral effects of astringents? They produce
greater  firmnoss of  muscle,  diminished  calibre, greater
rigidity of the blood vessels and absorbents, and a diminu-
tion or closure of secreting orifices and secretions generally.
They produce moderate and  permanent excitement of the
organic life, but do not influenco the nervous system much,
or tho functions of animal life.
  Whon arc astringents indicated? In unhealthy discharges
 from tho blood vessels, and in cases generally which de-
pend upon relaxation of the tissues.
  Whvn are they contra-indicated?  By the existence of
any  morbid  condition of which the discharge  is  a mere
nffoct, and which it is calculated to relieve; and  by the ex-
istence of any considerable local or general  excitement.—
In cases of excitement if it be  desirable to suppress a dis-
charge thoy should be preceded by bleeding, or other de-
pleting  measures.   Their external use is governed  with
some modification by the same rules, but may be admissible
locally, when their internal use would not be justifiable.
  Under what circumstances may  astringents be used lo-
cally  in cases of inflammation?  In the commencement of
inflammation beforo the excitability is much increased; or
in tho latter stages after it has become in some measure ex-
hausted.
  How are astringents divided?  Into the vegetable, and
mineral.
  The former have an identity of character depending upon
similarity  of composition, the  latter agreeing only  in the
property of astringoncy.

                 Vegetable Astringents.

  Upon what proximato principle do vegetable astringents
owe their peculiar property?  Tannin or tannic  acidf and
they  differ only in the proportion of this principle, and in
the character of the other ingredients associated with it.
  What aro  tho sensible properties of tannin?   It is solid,
uncrystallizablo, whito or slightly yellowish, strongly astrin-
gont  without bittorncss, and it precipitates many of tho mo-
y 
144
Materia medic a
talio  salts, with  Iron forms  a black compound,  and  ia
^compatible with gelatin, with which it forms a precipitate
  What is its dose ?  From 2 to 5 grs. every 3 or 4 hours.
  What are the officinal species of Quorcus in  the  United
States, from which  oak bark  is derived?   Tho Quorcus
alba or white oak; and the Quercus tinctoria or blact oak,
are the  only ones officinal in the United States;  but this
genus contains about eighty species, thirty or forty of which
are found in the United States.
  How is the oak bark used?   In powder, decoction, and
extract.
 _ What is the dose?  Of the powder 30 grains; the dococ-
tion fjij; extract, 20 grains.
  What are Galls, and where are they procured?  Excres-
cences on the young branches of tho  Quercus  infectoria
and other species, produced by the puncture of the Cynips
quercusfolii; the best are  gathered  early  and  are callod
blue, green, or black  galls;  the  inferior aro gathered  later
and aro called the white galls.
   They are brought  from Asia Minor and neighboring
countiies.
  How are galls generally used?  As a local application ex-
ternally, but may be used in powder, infusion, or decoction,
and tincture.  Dose of tho powder 10 to 20 grains; of the
infusion  (made gss, to Oj) gij; of the tincture f*5ss to  f*3iij.
  What are incompatibles?  Sulphuric and  muriatic acids,
gelatin, preparations irons, &c.
  What are the varieties of  Kino?  They are the African,
Jamaica, Botany  Bay, and  East India or Amboyna  kino.
The East India is tho kind most used.
  What are its general  characteristics?  As found  in tho
shops it is in small irregular, angular, shining fragments of
a dark reddish brown, or black color, and easily pulveriza-
ble; contains tannin, and extractive matter.
  What are its medical propertios and uses? It is powerful-
ly astringent, and is much used where  astringonts are indi-
cated. It may be given in powder, infusion, or dissolved in
diluted alcohol.  Dose of powder from 10  to 30 grains; of
infusion (made by 3'j extract, and boiling water fbi)  f£j ;
the amount of alcohol in the tincture renders it  objectiona-
ble.   Incompatibles same as galls.
  From what is the Catechu procured?  It  is an extract of
the wood of the Acacia Catechu, and comes from Hindostan. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
145
   What aro tho goneral characters  of catechu?  It comes
 to us in masses of different shapes, of a rusty brown, varying
 from a reddish or yellowish brown to a dark  liver color;
 contains tannin, extractive, and mucilage.
   What are its medicinal properties, and uses?  It is tonic,
 powerfully astringent, and may be given where astringents
 are indicated.  Dose from  10 grains to  3SS> and repeated
 fiequontly.  Incompatibles same as galls.
   Irom what is Rhatany obtained?   From the  root  of the
 Krameria triandria.  It is a native of Peru.
   What are tho general characters of rhatany?  It comes to
 us in pieces of various shapes,  and dimensions, often cylin
 drical, and two or three feet in length.   The mineral acids,
 nnd most of tho mineral salts are incompatible.  Cold water
 by displacement extracts all the astringency from it.
   What are its medicinal properties, and uses?   It is a  gen-
 tle tonic, powerful astringent, and may be given where as-
 tringents are indicated.   Doso  of powder from 20 to 30 grs.
 of infusion,  or docoction (made gj of bruised root to Oj  of
 water), fjj; of extract 15 or 20grains; tincture f3j to f3iij;
 nnd syrup fjss.
   From what is the Logwood procured?   From  the Haema-
 toxylon Campoachianum, and is brought from Campeachy,
 tho shores of  Honduras Bay,  and  other parts of tropical
 America.
   What aro the general characteristics of logwood?  It is
 hard, compact, heavy, of a deep red color, becomes dark by
 exposure, and has a sweetish astringent taste.   Its peculiar
 principle is hematine.
  What are its medical  properties  and uses?  It is a mild
 astringent, well adapted to relaxed, and enfeebled conditions
 of tho bowels.
  It is given in docoction, and extract, both of which are of-
 ficinal.  Dose  of tho decoction fjij; of the extract 10 to 20
 grains.
  From what is the  Cranosbill derived?   From  the Gerani-
um maculatum, an indiginous, perennial, herbaceous plant,
growing in woods.   The  root is tho  part used, and should
 be collocted in autumn; active principle, tannin.
  What arc its  medical pioperties, and uses? It is a power-
ful nstnngont, and may be employed  where they are indica-
fed; it is very free from unpleasant qualities, which renders
u serviceable for infants,  and may be given in substance, 
146
MATERIA MEDICA,
decoction, tincture, or extract. Doso of powder 20 or 30 grs;
decoction (made Jj to Ojss boiled to Oj),  from  fjj to fj'j.
  It is frequently given to children, boiled in milk.
  What  is the officinal name of tho plant furnishing the
Blackberry root, and the Dewberry root?  The Rubus Vil-
losus, and Rubus Trivialus, the virtues of which resido in
the bark of the root.
  What are their medicinal properties and  uses?   Tonic,
and strongly astringent. Tho decoction is prepared the samo
as the preceding article, and given in the  same doso.  Dose
of powder, 20 to 30 grains.
  What ig the plant furnishing the Uva Ursi? Tho Arbutus
Uva Ursi, a small trailing evergreen shrub,  growing plenti-
fully in the U.S. as far south as  Now  Jorsey.  Tho  loaves
are the part used.
   What are the  general properties of the leaves?  They
aro  inodorous when fresh, smell  liko  hay when  dried,
have  a bitterish taste,  strongly astringent, and afterwards
sweetish.  The active ingredients aro tannin, bitter extrac-
tive, resin, gum, and gallic acid.
   What are its medical properties and uses? It is astringont,
tonic, and thought by some to  have  a  specific direction to
the urinary organs. Dose of powder is from 9j to 3j; Dococ-
tion gj to gij, 3 or 4 times a day.
   What portion of the Pipsissewa or Chimaphila umbellata
is used in medicine?  The leaves and stem.   It is a small
 indigenous evergreen plant growingin tho north of Europe,
Asia, and America; inhabiting the woods.
   What are their general properties? The taste is pleasant-
ly bitter, astringent, and sweetish.  Boiling water and alco-
hol extract the active proporties of the plant, which aro tan
nin,  and bitter extractive.
   What are its medical properties and uses?  Diuretic, ton-
ic  and astringent.   It is generally used in decoction, Jj to
Ojss  of wator boiled to Oj and taken in 24 hours.
                   Mineral Astringents.
   What is the chemical composition of Alum ?  It is a sul-
phate of alumina, and potassa.
   What are the incompatibles?   The  alkalies, lime, mag-
nesia, and their carbonates; tartrato of potassa, and acetate

°  What are its medical proporties and uses?   Astringent, 
MATERIA MEDICA.
147
in ordinary medicinal doses,  but purgative in large dosos.
It is used internally, and locally. Tho ordinary dose is from
10 to ,'M grains repoated every two  or three hours.
  What aro the preparations of Lead used medicinally?
They are, tho Lithargo or Plumbi Oxidum Semivitrium, the
Carbonate, tho Acotate, and Sub-acetate.
  What are the effocts of the  combinations of lead?  They
are sodative, and astringent, and produce poisonous effocts,
if taken in largo doses, or long repeated. The sulphate, and
probably the acetate aro exceptions to this.  Sulphuric acid,
sulphato of soda, and sulphate of magnesia are antidotes.
   What arc the general properties of tho Acetate of Lead?
 It is a white salt crystalized in brilliant needles.  Its  taste
 is sweet, and astringent.  It  is liable to bo decomposed  by
 water containing carbonic acid, but is rodissolved by acetic
 ncid.
   What aro its incompatibles ? It is decomposed  by all acids,
 soluble suits tho acids  of which produce insoluble or spa-
 ringly soluble compounds with tho  protoxide of lead, lime
 water, ammonia, potassa, and soda.  Sulphuretted hydrogen
 givos a black precipitate, and iodide of potassium a yellow
 ono.
   What are its medical properties and uses?  In medicinal
 doses it is powerfully astringont, sedative, and in large ones
 un irritant poison.
   It is administered in hemorrhages of tho lungs, intestines,
 nnd uterus.  By giving acetic acid combined with it the for-
 mation of  a carbonate is prevented  upon  which its poison-
 ous qualities aro supposed to depend.
   Doso is from 1 to 3 grains, ropoatod as required.
   What is the white load?   It is the carbonate; and is only
 employed externally, being used as an application to ulcers,
 and oxcoriated surfaces.  It is  the most poisonous of  the
 preparations of lead, producing the disease called colicapic-
 tonum.
   What is  Goulard's extract of lead?  It is a solution of tho
 subacotato of load, formed by the acetate of lead gxvj, semi-
 vitrifiod oxide of lead 3'xss> distillod water four pints, boil-
 ed, filtered, and diluted in the proportion of 3ij to a pint.

                         Tonics.
   What is meant by Tonics?  They aro medicines which pro"
  duce geutlo, and pormanent excitement of tho vital actions- 
148              MATERIA MEDICA.
  4
   When are tonics injurious?  In tho healthy stato, and in
 diseases of excitement.
   They may diminish excitability, or natural healthy power;
 or, produce an irritation which may  be  followed by inflam-
 mation.
   Under what circumstances are tonics indicated.  In casea
 in which the vital actions are depressed below the standard
 of health.  Thoy invigorate  the  system in a two-fold  man-
 ner; 1st. by increasing the energy of the stomach; and 2d.
 by a direct influence  over  tho  whole frame, producing an
 elevation of all the vital actions.
   How may tonics bo divided?  Into the pure bitters; bit-
 ters  peculiar  in  their properties; aromatics; and mineral
 tonics.
   What are the effects of the Pure Bitters?  They increase
 tho appetite, invigorate digestion, have little influence over
 the circulation, unless in large doses, and exhibit but  little
 evidence of action on the nervous system.
   What are tho effects of Bitters peculiar in their properties?
 They are generally more stimulating than  the pure bitters,
   What  are tho effects of the Aromatics?  Thoy depond
 upon the presence of volatilo  oil, are  more stimulating than
 the bitters, and approach nearer to tho diffusiblo stimulants.
   What aro the peculiarities of tho Mineral Tonics?  Thoy
 have no common peculiarity except the tonic property, each
 having peculiarities which  servo to distinguish it from tho
 others.
                      Pure Bitters.

   From what is Quassia  derived?  It is tho wood of tho
 Quassia excelsa, and Quassia  amara,  trees of the West In-
 dies.
   What are the general characteristics of  quassia?   Tho
 wood is whitish, and yellowish by exposure; has a purely
 bitter taste; tho active principle is quassin.
   What are its medical properties, and  uses?  It has tho
properties of the simple bitters in their highest  dogree.  It
is  particularly useful in dyspepsia from debility of tho stom-
ach.  It is given in infusion in the proportion of 3'j  to Oj
cold water.  Doso f3'j 3 or 4  times a day; of extract,  from
2 to 5 grains; of tincture f3j to f3ij.
  From what is the Gold Thread procured?   It is tho root
of the Coptis trifolia. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
149
  What arc its medical  properties, and uses?   It is a sirn-^
plo tonic bitter, closely analagous to quassia.   Dose of pow-
dor 10 to 30 grains; tincture f'3j.
  From what is Gentian procured? It is tho root of the Gen-
tiana lutoa, which grows on the Alps, and other mountains;
the activo principle of which is gentianin.
  What are the goneral properties of the  root?  The taste is
slightly sweetish, and intensely bitter.  Water, and alcohol
extract the taste, and medical virtues from It.
   What are its modical properties, and uses? It  possesses
in a high degreo the tonic power of the  simple bitters, ex-
cites the appetite, invigorates the power of digestion,  in-
creases tho tomperaUre of the body, and the,force of the
circulation.                                  ,   .    .
   It is  given in powder, dose 10  to 40 grains; in infusion,
(3ss to ()j), f3i to f3ij; of tincture, f3j to f3'ij ; of extract, 5
to 30 grains.
   What portion of the Sabbatia angularis or American Cen-
taury is used?  Tho whole plant.  It grows in the middle, and
southern states in low meadows, and  should be  collected
whon in flower.
   What arc its medical properties, and uses?  It has the ton-
ic proporties of the simplo bitters.  Dose of tho infusion (3j
toOj),  f3;J-
   What plant is tho Columbo derived  from? The Coculus
palmatus.   Tho  root is the part used, and  is brought from
Africa.
   What are its general properties?  As it comes to us it is in
 flat, circular, or oval pieces, of a bitter  taste, and slightly
 aromatic odor.   Active principlo columbin.
   What are its medical properties, and uses? It is a useful
 mild tonic, no ^stringency, and but slightly stimulant. Used
 in powdor, infusion, and tincture.  Dose of the  powder 10
 to 30 grains; of infusion  (made in tho  proportion of 3ss to
Oj)  from f'3j to f3ij ; of tincture f3ss to f3j.

         Bitters of peculiar, or modified  properties.
   From what is the Peruvian Bark obtained? Different spe-
 cies of the Cinchona,  brought  from the western coast of
 South Amorica.
   There aro three officinal varieties: 1. pale bark; 2.yellow
 bark; and 3. red bark.
   The pale embraces tho varieties called Loxa, and Lima; 
150
MATERIA MEDICA.
I
the yellow is called  in commerce Callisaya bark, and of
which there are two varieties, the quillod, and flat.
  The red is divided into  the quilled, and tho  flat also.
  What  are  the  active principles of bark?  Quinia,  and
Cinchonia combined with  kinic acid.
  What  preparation of bark is  generally used?  Tho sul-
phate  of quinia.
  What are the medical propertios and uses of cinchona?
It is one  of the most valuable tonics we possess; as woll as
anti-intermittent.   The best mode of giving tho bark is in
substance; dose of the powder 3j.
  What is tho comparativo power of sulphate of quinine
compared with the  bark?  10 to 14 grains is equivalent to
3j  °f good  bark.  It is  given  in intermittents in doses
of 12 to  18 grains,  in the interval of the  paroxysm.  As a
mere tonic \  to £  a grain 3 or 4 limes a day.
  From what  do  wo  procure tho Dog wood bark?  From
the  Cornus Florida,  an  indigenous  tree.  The dose and
mode of  using similar to the peruvian bark.
  What is the  officinal  name of tho  tree  from  which tho
Wild  Cherry bark is procured?   Prunus Virginiana—indi-
genous to this country.
  What aro the active principles? Hydro-cyanic acid, tannin
and bitter extractive.
  What are its medical propertios and uses?  It is tonic,
and sedative; lessens the action of the heart and arteries;
and is useful in the hectic fever of scrofula and consump-
tion.   Doso of powder 3ss.  to 3j; of tho infusion f3 ij
3 or 4 times a day.
  What is the officinal name of the Chamomilo ? Anthomis
nobilis; the flowots are tho parts used, although all parts of
the plant are active.  The active principle is bitter extrac-
tive, and volatile  oil.                            .
  In small doses it is  tonic, and in large ones emetic.  Tho
cold infusion is best whon used as a tonic in doses of f3lJ i
dose of the powder 3ss. to 3j.
  What are the medical proparties and  uaos of tho Eupa-
torium  perfoliatum or  Thoroughwort?   It is tonic, dia-
phoretic,  and taken  in large doses it  acts as an emetic, and
aperient.  As a tOnic it should bo administered in substance
or cold infusion.  Dose of the powder 20 or 30 grains; and
of the infusion 3i  frequently repeated.  As a  diaphoretic
it should be given warm.   As an emetic  and cathartic'  n
doses of one or two  gills of the strong decoction. 
MATERIA  MEDICA.
151
  What are  tho  medical proporties  and uses of the Aris-
tolchia Scrpentaria or Virginia Snake Root?   It is indigin-
ous; tho root is tho part used, and its activo ingredients are
a bitter principle, and  volatile oil.   It is a stimulant tonic
acting also as a diaphoretic, or  diuretic according as it is
administered.
  Doso of the powder  10 to 30 grains; infusion f3j to f3ij
every 2 or 3 hours;  officinal tincture f3i to f3ij.
  From what is Myrrh procured? It is an exudation from the
Amyris Myrrha. There are two varieties;  the  India  and
Turkey.
   What are  its medical properties  and  uses?   Its  active
 principlo is a resin and volatile  oil.   It is a stimulant tonic,
 with a tendency to the lungs, and also to  the uterus.  Em-
ployed in diseases of these organs where there is no febrile
excitement  or acute inflammation.   Used  in powder and
pill in dose  of 10 to 30 grains; of the tincture f3ss. to f3j
  What arc tho modical propertios and uses of the bark of
thojGallipoa officinalis, or Angustura? Its active parts are bit-
ter extractive, and volatilo oil.   It is a stimulant tonic, but
little omployod  in the United States.  Dose of the powder
 10  to 20 grains, infusion f3ij; tincture f3j to f3ij.
  Falso Angustura bark has poisonous propertios; its active
 ingredient is brucia.
   What aro tho medical properties and uses of tho bark of
tho Croton Elutheria, or Cascarilla?   Its activo ingredients
uro extractive and volatilo oil.   It is an aromatic tonic, and
is now only employed where a gentle  stimulant tonic is de-
Hired.   Dose of the  powder 20 to 30 grains; of the  infu-
sion f3 i j.
                       Aromatics.

   What are  tho  general  properties  of  aromatic  tonics?
 They owe  their characteristics to  volatilo  oils, aro more
stimulant than tonics generally; and more local in their ac-
tion than diffusible stimulants,  relievo pains in the stomach
ond bowels, expel flatulence, &c.  Decoctions and extracts
objectionable.
   What are the medical properties and uses of Orange Peel,
 or  rind of tho fruit of  tho Citrus Aurantium?  It is a mild
 tonic, stomachic, and carminativo; given in infusion.
  What aro the properties of tho prepared bark of the Lau-
 rus Cinnamomum or Cinnamon?   There are two varieties, 
152
MATERIA MEDICA.
the Ceylon cinnamon, and  China cinnamon, or cassia.  Its
active principles are volatilo oil and tannin; hsmodical uso
the same as aromatics in  general, applicable  in oases re-
quiring astringents.
   Doso of powder 10 to 20 grains; tincture f3j.
   What are the properties of the bark of the Canolla alba!
Its active ingredients are volatile oil, and bitter extractive-
used  generally combined with other articles.   It is an in-
gredient in the powder of Aloes and Canella or hiora pieru.
   From what are Cloves derived?  Thoy aro the unoxpand-
ed flower buds of the  Eugenia  Caryophyllata or Caryophy-
lus Aromaticus; brought from the West Indies and tho Eu-
ropean colonies of Guiana.
   What are their  medical  properties?  Their  activo princi-
ple is a volatile oil.  They are used where a stimulant am-
 niotic is indicated  Doso of the  powder 5 to 10 grains;
infusion  made with (3'j to Oj,  3ij;) oil 2 to  5  drops; usod
 in several officinal preparations.
   From what is the Nutmeg procured?   It is  tho kernel of
the  fruit of the  Myristica Moschata growing  in tho Mo-
 luccas.
   What are its medical properties and uses?  The activo
principle is a volatilo oil; it also yields a fixed  oil called tho
Oil of Mace.   It combines narcotic  with  aromatic proper-
ties.  Dose of powder 5 to  10 grains of volatilo 2 or 3 drops.
   From what is jhe Black Pepper obtained ?  It is tho dried
berries of the Piper Nigrum.
   What are its properties and uses?  It contains a volatilo
oil, an acid concrete oil, and piperin.  Its  activity depends
upon its oils, and not the piperin, which is  inert whon pure.
It is a warm  carminative  stimulant, and used  where such
properties are indicated.
   From what aro Cubebs obtained?  It is  tho dried fruit of
the Piper Cubeba a vino growing in the East Indies.
   What aro its properties  and uses?  Its  activo ingredient
is a volatile oil.
   It is aromatic, and diuretic.  Dose of tho powder 3ss. to
3iss 3 or 4 times a day;  of the volatile oil  10 to 20 drops. -
  From what is the Pimento obtained?   The  Myrtus  Pi-
mento.  The active properties reside in  a volatilo, and fixed
oil; doso of the oil 3 to 6 drops.
  What are the properties  and  uses of Cardamom, or  the
fruit of the Alpinia Cardamomum?  It  is a warm aromatic. 
                MATERIA  MEDICA.              153

loss hoatin" and stimulating than somo others.  It enters
into a number of officinal  preparations.  Dose of the com-
pound tincture f3j*       ,         ,  .     ,.  •   ,  t^, ,
  What other aromatic snedH arc used  in medicine.*  fen-
nel', Caraway, Coriander, Anise.
  What is the doso of tho compound spirit of Lavender;
The doso is l'3ss. to f3j.                    .
  What is  the officinal name of the Peppermint?   Mentha
Piperita.  Dose of the oil 1 to  3 drops; of the essence 10 to
20 drops.                               -,•»■»«■   i
  What is tho officinal name of tho Spear Mint?  Mentha
\ iridis and possesses propertios similar to the last.
   What other herbaceous aromatics aro used in medicine?
The Hedeoma pulegioides, or Pennyroyal. Melissa officinalis
or Balm.                                         .
  Origanum vulgare, or Origanum, and tho  Gaulthena pro-
cuiiiIhiiip, or Partridge berry.
  From  what is  Ginger procured?  It is  the  root of the
Zingiber officinale, an herbaceous  plant, native of the East
IndioH, and cultivated in  the West Indies.
  What aro  its properties and uses?   It is aromatic, spicy,
pungent, hot, and  biting.  Its virtues aro extracted by water
and alcohol.
  It is a  grateful stimulant, and carminative; and  maybe
given in  powdor, in  doses of  10  to 30 grains; in infusion
f'3'ij; in tincture f3j or f3"j.
  In what dos \s is the Acorus  Calamus orsweot flag used?
Its  usos, modes of administration, and doses arc  similar to
thoso of the ginger.

                     Mineral  Tonics.

  What  aro  tho  proporties of the  preparations  of Iron?
Thoy are highly tonic, raise the pulse, promote the secre-
tions, and increase tho coloring matter of the blood.  Tho
disease  in which thoy are most used are chlorosis hysteria,
flour albus, gleet, scrofula, rickets, &c.
  What are the doses of  tho different preparations of Iron?
The Filings—Ramenta  ferri—in   doses of 5 to 10  grains.
Scales—Squamae ferri—5 to 20grains.  Prepared Carbonate
—Ferri  Cariionas  Praeparatus;  Precipitated  Carbonate—
Ferri Carbonas Praocipitatus.  Dose of the two last 5 to 20;
grains; in nouralgic cases  from 333 to 3j 3 timos a day, and
mcroaso 
154
MATERIA MEDICA.
   Sulphato—Ferri  sulphas—Green  vitriol—Copporas—in
 doses of from 1 to 5 grains; of the dried from i to 3 grains,
 3 or 4 times a day.
  What aro the incompatibles of tho sulphato?   Tho alka-
 lies, and  alkaline carbonates, muriate of lime and baryta;
 nitrate of silvor; acotato of load, tannin, &c.
  Tincture of  the Muriate—Tinctura Forri Muriatus—doso
 10 to 30 minums 3 or 4 timos a day.   Tartrate of Iron and
 Potassa—Ferri ot  Potassae  Tartras—doso  10 to  30 grains.
 Phosphate 5 to 10 grains.
  What is the effect of the preparations of  Copper on  tho
 system?  In its puro  stato it is inert, but  in combination
 highly  poisonous; in small  quantities  but little sonsiblo
 effect is produced, except a slightly tonic influence.
   When taken in poisonous  doses they produce a coppery
 taste in the mouth, nausea, vomiting, violent  pain in  the
 stomach  and  bowels, black  and bloody  stools,  irregular
 pulso, faintings, thirst, difficulty of breathing, cramps, con-
 vulsions, and death.   The best treatment in these casos is to
 administer white of  eggs in water in largo quantities.
  What are the doses of the different officinal preparations
 of Copper?  Sulphate—Cupri Sulphas—Blue Vitriol. Doso
 i of a grain 2, 3 or 4 times a day, given in pill, and omitted
 if the stomach becomes irritated.  Ammoniatod Coppor—
 Cuprum Ammoniatum.—Dose i a grain twice a day.
  What are the preparations of Zinc used medicinally? The
 Sulphate, Oxide, impure Oxide, and Carbonate.
  What are the medical propertios and uses of tho Sulphate
 of Zinc ?  It is tonic, astringent, and in large doses a prompt
 emetic.  Dose  as a tonic i grain to 2 grains; as  an emetic
 10 to 30 grains.
  What are the incompatibles?  Alkalios and their carbo-
 nates, hydro-sulphatos, lime wator, and astringent vegotablo
 infusions.
   What  preparations of  Bismuth  are  usod medicinally?
 Tho Subnitrate, or White Oxide;  it is tonic, and antispas-
 modic.  Doso 3 to 10 grains in powder or pill.
  What preparations of Silver are used medicinally?  Tho
Nitrate, Oxide, and Chloride.
  What are the medical properties of tho Nitrate of Silver?
As  an internal remedy it is tonic, and  antispasmodic.   It
has been employed in epilepsy, chorea, angina pectoris,  &c.
Externally it is a vesicant, stimulant, and escharotic. Doss 
MATERIA MEDICA.
155
i of a grain increasod to -I or 5, three times a day in pills-
The proper antidote for a large dose is common salt.
  What are its incompatibles?  Its incompatibles are com-
mon salt, alkalies and their carbonates, lime water, mineral
acids, astringent vogetable infusions, &c.
  What preparation of Sulphuric acid is used medicinally'
The Diluted, and the Aromatic.  Dose of each 10 to 30
drops   They increase the appetite, and promote  digestion.
  Wliat are its incompatibles?  Its  incompatibles are the
 alkalies, alkaline earths, iheir carbonates,  &c.
   What aro the effects and doso of Nitric acid?  It is tonic,
 and refrigerant when diluted; concentrated, it is a corrosive
 poison.  Doso, 2 to 5 drops in wator.
   What are its  incompatibles?  Its incompatibles  are  the
 alkulics, alkaline oarths, their carbonates, sulphate of iron,
 tho salts of load, &c.
   What is tho dose of the Nitro-Muriatic acid?  From 2 to
 10 drops 3 or 4 times a day.

                 Arterial Stimulants.

   What are the medical proporties and ustsof the Cayenne
 Pepper or Capsicum Annuum?  It is a powerful  stimulant,
 without being  narcotic; useful in  enfeebled,  and  languid
 stomachs; active principle capsicin.  Dose of  powder 5 to
 10 grs; ol infusion f 3IJ  to Oss.] f3ss; of tincture f3j to f3ij;
 used  also as a gargle.
   What are the medical proporties and  uses of Spirits of
 Turpontino or Oil of Turpentine?   It is stimulant, diuretic,
 anthelmintic, and in large  doses  cathartic.  Doso,  5 to £0
 drops repeated.
   What is tho  dose of Phosphorus?  It is 1-12  of a grain in
 oleaginous, or  ethorial solution.
   What are tho properties, and diso  of Carbonate of Am-
 monia?  It is stimulant^ diaphoretic, and  antispasmodic.
   Tho  doso 'as a stimulant is from 5 to 10 grs., in pills, or
 emulsion, and repeated.  It is one of our best stimulants in
 low fevers, &,c.

         Nervous Stimulants or Antispasmodics.

   From what is Musk obtained?  It is  obtained from the
 Moschus Moechiforus an animal resembling tho deer, found
 in Asia. 
156
MATERIA MEDICA.
  What aro its medical properties, and uses?  It is stimu-
lant, and antispasmodic, and used in cases where these quali-
ties aro indicated, particularly in  low statos of  tho systom.
Given in pill, and omulsion.   Dose 10 grains.
  How is artificial musk prepared?  By the action of nitric
acid on amber.
  From what is Castor obtained?  It is  a  peculiar product
of the Castor fibor or Beaver.  It  is not much used.  Doso
in substance 10 to 20 grains; in tincture f3j to f3ij.
  From what is Assafcetida procured?   It is the inspissated
juice of the Ferula Assafcetida.
   What are its medical propertios and  uses? Its active part
is a rosin, and volatilo oil.  It is a moderate stimulant, pow-
erful  antispasmodic, an expectorant, and  feebly laxative.
Dose 5 to 20 grains in pill, or omulsion; of tho tincture f3j.
   From what is Valerian obtained? It is the root of tho Va-
leriana officinalis, a native of Europe.
   What aro  its medical properties and uses?  It is a gentle
stimulant, with a narcotic effect.  It is used in hysteria, hy-
pochondriasis, &,c.  Active principles a volatile oil, and vol-
atile acid called valerianic.
   Dose of the powder 30 to 90 grains; of the infusion (3j to
 qj), f3ij; of the tincture f3j to  f3iv; of the oil 4 to 6 drops.
   What aro the properties and uses of tho Oil of Amber?
It is stimulant, and antispasmodic, and used as a linamont.
Dose 5 to 10 drops in emulsion.
   What other nervous stimulants do wo possess?  Garlic,
Tea, and Coffee, Skunk Cabbage, &c.

  Cerebral Stimulants called also Narcotics from the
stupor which they produce in largo doses.
  How is Alcohol produced?  By tho vinous fermentation.
  What are  its medical properties and uses?  It is a power-
ful stimulant, and is the intoxicating ingredient in all spir-
ituous and vinous liquors.   It is not used in medicine in a
pure state;  diluted it is extensively used as a menstruum.
  What Wines are used medicinally?  Madeira, Tenoriffe,
Sherry; and Port when an astringent is indicated.
  How is Sulphuric Ether procured?  By the distillation of
alcohol and  sulphuric acid.
  What are its medical proporties  and  uses?  It is a  tran-
sient, powerful, diffusible, stimulant; and given where such
medicines aro indicated.   Dose f3ssto f3j. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
157
  From what is Opium obtained?   It is the concrete juice
of the Papaver somniferum
  Of what is it composed? Morphia, narcotina, codeia, me-
conic acid, gum, extractive, resin, &c.
  What  are  its incompatibles?   All  vegetable infusions
containing tannin, and the alkalies.
  What aro its medical properties and uses?  It is a stimu-
lant narcotic. It diminishes tho  peristaltic action of the
bowels, and  all  the secretions except of the skin; allays
inordinate muscular contractions, and  general nervous irri-
tation.   Medium dose in substance is 1  grain; of the tinc-
ture 25  drops;  of  the camphorated tincture  f3i, f3j  Qf
 which contains 2 grains of opium; of the acetated tincture
20 drops  which is  equal to 1 grain of opium; of  the sul-
phate,  acetate and muriate of morphia 1-6 of a grain is equal
to 1 grain of  opium.
  From what is Lactucarium procured? It is the inspissated
milky juice of tho Lactuca sativa.  Dose  % to 3 grains.
  From what is Henbane procured?  From the Hyosciamus
Niger.   Leaves and seeds, officinal.
  What are its proporties and uses?  Its active principle is
hyosciamin or hyosciamia.  It is narcotic in] large  doses;  in
small ones it gently  accelerates tho circulation, and increases
the genoral warmth; it does not constipate.
  Dose of leaves 5 to 10 grains; of extract which is mostly
used 2 or 3 grains;  of tincture  f3j.
  From what are Hops procured?  They are the strobiles of
tho Humulus Lupulus.
  The  active principles are a volatile oil, and a peculiar bit-
tor principle.
  What  is Lupulin?  It is  a yellowish powder  obtained
separate  by rubbing and sifting the  strobiles.   Its bitter
principle is  called lupulite or lupuline.
  Wliat  are  their  modical properties and uses?   Tonic,
moderately narcotic, and used in diseases of debility where
morbid vigilance exists.
  Dose of the infusion of  hops (made with 3SS t0 Oj of
water) is/f^ij; of the tincture f3i to f3ss, of the lupulin
6 to 12 grs in piil; of the tincture f3j  to f'3ij.
  From what is Camphor derived?  From the Laurus Cam-
phora, an evergreon growing in China and Japan.  It is pro-
cured by sublimation from the roots and smaller branches^
   Whet  are its properties and uses?   It is very volatile, g.nd; 
158
MATERIA MEDICA.
may be sublimed unchanged.   The medium dose is 5 to 10
grs. in emulsion.  It  enters into tho composition of sovoral
linaments.
  What is  the  active principle of Atropa Belladonna or
Deadly Nightshade?  An alkaline principle called  atropia.
  The leaves of tho plant are the part used.  Doso of the
powdered leaves 1 gr. night and morning;  of tho infusion
(9j to 3X of water) fgj to fgij; of tho extract, which is tho
inspissated juice \ to £ a grain twice a day,  and increased if
necessary.  It is used in the form of plaster,  and as an appli-
cation to the eye, and the os uteri.
   What part of the  Datura Stramonium or  Thorn Apple is
used medicinally?  The leaves, and the seeds.  The activo
alkaline principle is  daturia.
   What are its medical properties and  usos?  It is a power-
ful narcotic, and sometimes used in epilepsy.  Dose  of tho
seeds 1 gr; of extract from seeds j to £ a grain; of the pow-
dered leaves 2 to 3 grs;  of tho extract of the leaves 1 gr.
Used also as an ointment.
   What is the dose of the Dulcamara or Bittersweet?  Of
the officinal decoction f3'j> 4 times a day; of extract 5 to tO
grs.  Active principle solania.
   What is the dose of the Conium maculatum or Hemlock?
Of the powdered leaves 3 or 4 grs; of the extract or inspissa-
ted juico of the leaves 3 grs.

                  Arterial Sedatives.
   What preparations of Antimony  are employed  medici-
nally?   The tartar emetic, precipitated sulphuret, and anti-
monial powder.
   What are the properties and usos of Tartar Emetic or the
Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa?   It is the most impor-
tant of tho antimonials.  Its general  action is sedative on
the circulation, while it excites many of the secretions.  It
may produce  an alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic,  expecto-
rant, purgative, and emetic effect, according as it is admin-
istered.  Applied externally it acts as  a counter irritant.
  Its dose as an alterative is from 1 -32 to 1-12 of a grain; as
a diaphoretic,  or expectorant from 1-12 to 1-6 of a grain; as
a nauseating sudorific from i to 4 gr. repeated as occasion
requires; as a puigative 1-6 of a grain combined with Epsom
salts 3j, and repeated every two or three hours; as an  emet-
ic from 2 to  4 grains given in divided portions at intervals of
10 or 15 minutes. 
MATERIA  MEDICA.
159
  Tho antimonial wine contains 2 grs.  of tartar emetic to
f3.i-
  What aro its incompatibles?   Mineral acids, the alkalies
and their carbonates, sulphurets, lime water, and vsgetable
astringents.
  What is the dose of  the Precipitated Sulphuret?  As an
alterative 1 to2 grs; as an emeto-cathartic 5 to 20 giain,.
  What is the dose of the Antimonial Powder  used in imi-
tation of Jamos" powdor?  From 3 to 8 grains.
  What othei modicinos are used as arterial sedatives?
Nearly.all the neutral alkaline salts, and those in which the
acid predominates; they are usually called refrigerants, the
most prominent of which is nitrate  of potassa.  Doso 5 to 10
grains every hour or two, in powder or solution.  It is  fre-
quently combined with tartar emetic.
  The Vegetable acids are also refrigerant or arterial seda-
tives.
                  Nervous Sedatives.

  To what class of  diseases are nervous sedatives  applica-
ble ?  To  complaints attended with nervous disorder,  and
unhealthy excitoment  of the heart and arteries.
  What are tho medicinal properties and uses of the leaves
of the Digitalis purpurea or Foxglove?  It is narcotic, seda-
tive, and diuretic.    '-^'   <-•■-•■ ..
  Jt is best given in substance. Dose 1 grain twice or three
times a day; of tho officinal infusion  f3ss;  of the  tincture
10 drops, which is equivalent to 1 gr. of  the substaaoe.  It
requires caution in its exhibition.
  In what preparations is tho Hydrocyanic  or Prussic acid
found?  In the Cherry La'urel water, and in the Oil of  Bit-
ter Almonds.
  What aro its properties and uses?   Tt is a deadly poison;
one  or two drops of the pure acid is sufficient to prove fatal.
The medicinal article is diluted, and may be given in doses
of from f to 6, or 8 drops in distilled water, gum water, or
syrup.  It should be administered with caution, commenc-
ing with the smallest dose. The antidotes are chlorine,  am-
monia, cold affusion, and artificial respiration.
  What is the active principle of the Nicotiana tabacum or
Tobacco?   Nicotia.
  What is the quantity given  as an injection?  Infusion,
made of 3ss to Oss at a timo. 
160
MATERIA MEDICA.
                      Emetics.
  What  are  emetics?  Medicines capable  of producing
vomiting in certain doses, and as an ordinary  result.
  What are the therapeutical effects of emetics?  Evacua-
tion of the stomach, mechanical pressure on the abdominal
viscera, reduction of arterial action  during  the  period of
nausea, muscular relaxation, promotion  of  the  secretory
functions of the skin, liver, and lungs, powerful agitation of
the whole frame, purgation frequently, revulsion to the sto-
mach, depletion, and irritation of tho stomach.
  What are the circumstances contra-indicating the use of
emetics?  Acute inflammation of  the  stomach, bowels, or
neighboring viscera;  strong  sanguineous  determination to
the brain; and pregnancy in the advanced stages.  Caution
should also be observed in cases of hernia.
  From what is Ipecacuanha obtained?  It is the root of tho
Cephaelis Ipecacuanha, growing in South America.
  What  are its properties and  uses?   In  large doses it is
emetic; in smaller,  diaphoretic, alid  expectorant;  in still
smaller, stimulant to tho stomach  promoting  its healthy ac-
tions.  Its active principle  is emetia.   It  is mild, and cer-
tain in its operation   Dose as an emetic 15 to 30  grains; as
a nauseant 2 to 3 grains; as a diaphoretic,  J to 2 grains; as
an alterative, J gr. repeated 2, 3, or 4 times a  day.
  The Wine of Ipecacuanha is emetic in doses of f3j to an
adult, and f3j to an  infant.
  What is the dose of the root of tho  Gillenia trifoliata In-
dian physic  or American Ipecacuanha? From 20 to 30 grs.
  What are the properties and uses of the Lobelia inflataor
Indian Tobacco?  Besides emetic, diaphoretic, and expec-
torant properties it has narcotic properties. The wholo plant
is active.  It bears a close resemblance in its effocts to to-
bacco.  It is too powerful and distressing as  well as hazar-
dous in its operation for ordinary use.   Dose of the powder
from 5 to20 grs. as an emetic; of  the  tincture  f3j  to f3ij
every two or three hours until it acts.
  What other vegetable substances possess the property of
producing vomiting,  and  are  occasionally ustd for that
purpose ?    The root of  the  Euphorbia Ipecacuanha in
doses of from  10 to 15 grains.
  The root of the Sanguinaria  Canadensis; activo ingredi-
ent sanguinarina.  Dose of the powder from 10 to 20 grains;
of the tincture  f3'iij to Js?.             ,  _ 
                 MATERIA MEDICA.  ^ ,-,.       161

  The Squill; in dose of 6 or-C grains.
  Tobacco; doso of the powder 5 or 6 grains.
  Mustard  in powder; dose 3j  ''
  What is the character of Tartar Emetic as an emetic?  It
is  characterized by  certainty,  strength, and permanency,
of operation.  It remains  in  the stomach longer than ipe-
cacuanha, and  exerts a more powerful impression on the
Bystem generally.    .   > I                '
  Dose 2 to4 grainB given in divided portions; 1 grain with
10  of ipecac repeated if necessary,  makes a good emetic;
of tho wine l'3*y to f'3i repeated if  necessary; for a child
1 or 2 years old, 20 to •]<) drops.
  What arc the characteristics of the Sulphato of Zinc  as
on  (luetic?  It is characterized ' by promptness and com-
paratively little nausea.   Used chiefly as a more evacuant
of the. stomach in cases requiring a prompt and energetic
emotic; as  in narcotic poisons, when it should bo combined
with ipecacuanha. Doso 10 grains to 3ss.
  What are tho characteristics of the Sulphate of Copper  as
an  emotic'  It is characterized by promptness, and slight
nausea more prompt and powerful than the last article. Sel-
dom used except in narcotic  poisoning whore it is given  in
doses of 5 to 15 grains,            '

                       Cathartics.

  What aro Cathartics?   They are  medicines  which  pro
duco  evacuations  from  the bowels.   They operate; 1. by
irritating tho mucous membrano of the bowels; 2.  by stim-
ulating tho exhalent vessels and mucous follicles; and 3. by
stimulating tho liver.  Some act ono way, and some another,
and somo by a combined action.
  Do they operate  on all parts of tho alimentary canal alike?
No: some operate  on one portion, and some on another, and
others on the whole.
  What is  meant by a hydragoguo cathartic?   A cathartic
w inch produces largo watery evacuations.
  How are  cathartics divided?  Into laxatives,purges, and
drastics or  drastic  purges.
  In  what  way are cathartics useful  in disease?  They
evacuate the bowels and relieve constipation; they directly
deplete from tho blood vessels; promote absorption; act as
revulsives;  and some by increasing the  secretions from tho
liver, and thereby  rclioving congestion,
■W: 
162             MATERIA  MEDICA.
  Is tho action of cathartics  modified by combination?  It
is;  by mixing several  drastics together thoy become milder
without loss of purgative power.  Small  doses of emetic
Bubstances promote their  operation; the same effect is also
produced by bitters.   Their  tendency to gripe may be less-
ened by aromatics.
                  Vegetable  Cathartics.
  From what is Manna procured!   It is the concrote juice
of  the Fraxinus  Ornis growing in  the-south  of Europe.
There are throe varieties: flake, common, and fat manna.
   What are its medical properties and uses?  It is a gentle
laxative.  Dose 3j to 3^j - Active principle mannite.
   What are tho properties and usos of the Cassia Fistula or
Purging Cassia?  The pulp of the pods is the medicinal
portion. It is gently laxative, and given  in casos of habitual
costiveness. It is an  ingredient in the confection of sonna.
  Dose 3ss to 3j-
   What plant produces the Castor Oil?   The Ricinus Com-
munis, a native of Africa but  cultivated in Europe and in
this  country.  The  oil is obtained  from the seeds by ex-
pression.
   What aro its medical  properties and  usos?   It is a mild
cathartic,  speody in its  action, and  good to  remove ac-
cumulation of  feces in the boweb.
  Dose for an adult f3J; children require more in proportion
than adults.
  From what is Rhubarb  obtained?   It is the root of differ-
ent species of Rheum; of which we got three varieties, the
Russian, Chinese, and European.  The Chineso is the  most
used, but the Russian is the best.  The aptive principles are
rhubarbarin and tannin.         ,
  What are its  medical properties and uses?   It combines
a cathartic  and  astringent power; it is tonic  and stomachic
in small doses;  roasting increases its astringent, and de-
creases its purgative effects.  Dose as a stomachic  and lax-
ative 5 to 10 grains ; of the European variety the  dose should
be  double.  There aro numerous  officinal preparations of
rhubarb.         -.-';'■.
  From  what is Senna obtained?  It is the leaves sf sev-
eral  species of  Cassia.  There  are  three commercial varie-
ties—Alexandria, Tripoli  and India Senna.
  What are its properties and uses?  It is a prompt efficient
and safe purgative. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
163
  Its active'principlo is cathartin.   Dose of the powdor 3j;
goncrally given in infusion, which is officinal  and given in
doses f3ii  every 4 or 5 hours.  The elixir salutis is a tinc-
ture of Senna and Jalap.  Dose f3ij to f3ss.
  Dose of Confoction oi Senna 3j to 3ss.
  What is  tho properties and dose of the Cassia Marylan-
dica or American Senna?  It is  similar in  propertios  to
senna, but woakor ;  dose i greater.
  What are  tho  propertios and uses of the  extract of the
Juglans cinorea?  It is a mild cathartic, operating without
pain, and  evacuating the  alimentary canal without  debili-
tating.
  Doso 20 to 30 grains as a purgative, and 10 or 12 grains as
a laxative
  From what is Aloes  procured?   It is the inspissated juice
of difloront species of  Aloe.  .
  There are  three commercial varieties, Capo, Socotorinc,
and Hepatic Aloes.
  What aro its propertios and uses?  It is cathartic, opera
ting slowly, but certainly, and has a poculiar affinity for the
largo intestines.
  It also has a tendency to  the uterine system.  Doso as a
laxative from 2 to 6 grains; as a purgative 10 to 15 grains.
It is usually given in pill.   There is a largo number of offi-
cinal preparations of aloes.             '   '
  From what is Jalap  obtainod ?  It is the root 6f the Ipo-
mca Jalapa, a vine, nativo of Moxico.
  What are its proporties and uses?   It is  an  active cathar-
tic, operating briskly, and- sometimos with pain, producing
copious watory stools.
  Doso of the powdor  15 to 30 grains; of the  resin of jalap
8 to 10 grains; of tho  extract 10 to 20 grains.
  What  are  the properties and uses of the  Podophyllum
pcltatum?    It  is an   active, certain  cathartic,  produces
copious liquid discharges  without much  griping, or  other
unploasant effect.  It resembles jalap in its operation, and
is applicable whenever a brisk cathartic is required.  The
doso of the powdered root is about 20 grains.
  From what is Scammony obtained?  It  is the inspissated
juice of  the Convolvulus Scammonia,  growing in Siberia
and Asia Minor.  There are two varieties in commerce, tho
Aleppo nnd Smyrna Scammony.
  What aro the medical properties  and usos of scammony? 
164
MATERIA  MEDICA.
  It is an energetic cathartic, apt to occasion griping, and may
  be used in cases where a powerful impression is dosired.  It
  is seldom given alone.   Doso 5 to 10 grains.
    What are the properties and usos of tho root of the Hollc-
  borus niger or Black Hellebore ?   It is a drastic hydragogue
  cathartic with emmenagogue powers; the fresh root applied
  to the skin will inflame and vesicate.   Dose 10 to 20 grains.
    It is seldom given alone.
    What is Colocynth procured from?   It is the fruit of tho
  Cucumus Colocynthus deprived of its rind.  It is an annual
  plant bearing considerable resemblance to  the common cu-
  cumber; and is  a native of Turkey.
    What are its  medical properties and uses?  Tho pulp is a
  powerful, drastic, hydragogue cathartic, producing all the
  effects of cathartics  of this class.  The dose is 5 to 10 grains.
  The active principle is colocynth in. It is seldom given alone.
  The most common form of its exhibition is the compound
  extract, which is officinal. Dose 10 to 15 grains. /    -  ,
    What is Gamboge?  It is tho inspissated juice of a tree
  supposed to bo Stalagmatis Cambogioides or GarcineaCam-
  bogia, natives of Asia.
    What are its proporties and uses?  It is a powerful, dras-
  tic, hydragogue cathartic; apt to nauseate,  and vomit, and
 used in cases  where such properties are indicated.   Dose 3
 to_t3_grains in  pill or emulsion.  It  is a constituent  in tho
 compound cathartic pill, the doso of which is 3  pills
   What is Elatorium produced from? The Momordica Ela-
 terium or  squirting  cucumber, a native  of Europo.  Tho
 fruit has the shape  of a  small  oval  cucumber, about  1 i
 inches long, covered with stiff hair, or prickles.  The elatc-
 rium is the substance spontaneously deposited by the juice
 of the fruit, resides in that part which surrounds the seeds,
 and may be obtained without expression.
   What are its properties and uses?  It is a powerful hydra-
 gogue cathartic, and in largo  doses will excite  vomiting.
  Tho dose of ordinary commercial olaterium is  from 1 to 2
 grains given in ■% grain portions, repeated every half hour, or
 hour until it operates. Of tho purest 1-8 of a grain is a dose.
 Tho active principle is elaterin. Doso 1-16 ol a grain. >
  What is the Croton Oil procured from .' It is the oil of tho
seeds of  the  Crot m Tiglium, a native of  the East  Indies;
obtained by expression of the seeds after  having been de-
prived of their sholl. 
                  MATERIA MEDICA.              1C6

  What are its properties and uses?   It  Is a  powerful, hy-
dragogue purgative, producing violent eflects if given in an
over dose.    ■   . i    ,'.'..
Dose I or 2 drops, administered in pill  with a  crumb of
bread.   Applied oxtornally it inflames  the  skin,  and pro-
duces a pustular eruption.
                  Mineral Cathartics.
  What are tho properties and uses of Flowors of Sulphur?
It is laxative,  diaphoretic,  and alterative,  is evidently ab-
sorbed, and passes off by the skin. Doso as a laxative 3j to
3ij.  It is  used externally  as an ointment, and in vapor.
  How is Lac Sulphuris prepared?  By boiling sulphur and
lime in water, filtering, precipitating by  muriatic acid, and
washing tho precipitate.
  What are tho proporties and usos of tho  Carbonate of
Magnesia? It is  antacid, and  by combining with acid in
the stomach bocomes cathartic.   Doso 3ss to  3ij.
  What  arc  tho  properties of  Calcined  Magnesia,  or
Magnesia  usta?   'It is  antacid, and laxative; used  very
much among children.  Dose for an adult 3j, for a child 2
years oil from 10  to 20 grains.

                    Saline Cathartics.
  What is  tho genoral  character of salino cathartics?  They
aro  intermediate in power  between  laxatives, and purges,
produce watory evacuations; operate as artorial  scdativos,
and do not  act harshly.  Thoso propertios adapt them to in-
flammatory and active fobrilo complaints.   They closoly
resemble each other in properties.
  What are thoir  doses?  Sulphato of  Soda or Glauber's
salt; of the crystalizod salt 3j to 3'ij; effloresced, half tho
quantity.
  Sulphato of Magnesia or Epsom salts; doso 3j  to 3jss.  --=5
  Sulphato of Potassa; doso 3SS to 3JSS-
  Supcrtartrato of Pouissa, called also cream of tartar;  dose
3«s to 3j-  It is frequently combined with jalap as a hydra-
gogue.
  Tartrate  of Potassa or eolublo tartar.   Dose Jss to 3J-
  Tartrate  of Potassa and Soda or Rochollo salt. Dose 3j to
3jss. It enters into the composition of the Soidlitz Powders,
which tiro tartratoof potasssa and soda 3*j, and bi-carbonnto
of soda >J\]  in n white papor; and tartaric acid grs. xxxv in a
blur paper.
        IT) 
                 t
166              MATERIA  MEDICA.

  Phosphate of Soda.   Doso 3j to 3ij.
  What is tho officinal name  of Calomel?   Mild Chloride
of Morcury—Hydrargyrum Chloridum Mite, sometimes im-
properly callod Submuriato of  Mercury.
  What aro the tests of purity?  It sublimes  freely on the
application of heat, and strikes a black color free from rod-
dish tinge, by the action of fixed alkalies. The presoncc of
corrosive sublimate may be tested by ammonia.
  What are its incompatibles? The alkalies, alkaline earths
and their carbonates, hydrosulphates, &c.
  Howard's calomel is prepared by  bringing stoam in con-
tact with it while in a  state of vapor, which converts it into
an  impalpable  powder, and washes it from corrosive subli-
mate
  What are the medical properties and uses of calomel ?
In addition to the general properties of mercurials, it unites
those of a purgative, and anthelmintic.
  It is employed to a great extent,  and is the most valuable
of the mercurial preparations.
  As a cathartic its tendency to increase the secretory func-
tions of the liver  is its  chief value.
  As an alterative the dose is J a gr. every other night, or
every night,  keeping the   bowels at the  same time gently
open; to produce  salivation the dose is i to I gr. 3 or4timos
a day increasod if necessary; if it purges it should be com-
bined with opium; as  a'purgative the dose is'5 to 15  ori*2<i -^
grs.  Larger  doses are required in proportion for children
than adults.
  X^alomel is frequently combined with other purgatives.

                       Diuretics.
  What are Diuretics? Thoy are medicinos which increase
the secretion of urine.
  How do they operate?  In ono or more of three ways:—
by entering the circulation; by a sympathetic impression; or
by promoting absorption.
  From what is tho Squill  obtained?  It  is tho bulb of tho
Scilla maratima, growing on the bordors of the Moditerrano-
an.  Its active principlo is called scillitin.
  What are its medical properties and uses?  It is diuretic,
expectorant, and  in large doses emotic, and purgative.  As
a diuretic it is generally combined  with calomel, and used
when there is not much inflammatory action existing. Dose 
                 MATERIA MEDICA.              167

as a diuretic, or expectorant 1 to 2  grains repoated 2 or 3
times a day, and increased  in quantity until its action is
ovinced.   As an emetic from 6 to 12 grains.
  What arc tho properties and uses of tho bulb and seeds of
tho Colchicum autumnale or Meadow Saffron?  Thoy pro-
duco sedative effects upon  the nervous system as  well as
stimulate the secretions.  Given in sufficient doses they pro-
duce disorder of the stomach and bowels, vomiting and pur-
ging severely.  When not carried off by the bowels,.diuresis
and diaphoresis are produced. They are used in rheumatism,
and gout.  Dose of tho bulb, or seeds,  from 2 to 8 grains;
but it is usually administered in the form of wine.
   Thore are two officinal vinous tinctures.
   The Vinum  Colchici Radicis, the dose of  which is from
10 drops to f3j.
   The Vinum Colchici Seminis.  Dose f3ss to f3j-
   What are the properties and uses of the root of the Apo-
cynum Cannabinum or Indian Hemp?  It  is diuretic, pow-
erfully ometic, and cathartic.
   Usod in decoction, made  with  3SS t0 0jss  °f water, and
boiled to Oj; dose of which is f3j to f3ij 2 or 3 times a day.
   What are the properties and uses of the Leontodon Tar-
axicum or Dandelion?  It is slightly diuretic,  tonic, and ape-
rient; and is thought to have a specific action on the liver.
Its properties adapt it to  diseases of the  digestive organs,
and dropsical affections  depending upon them.  An irrita-
ble condition of the stomach, and bowels, and acute inflam-
mation contra-indicate its use.  Doso of tho officinal decoc-
tion f 3 ij 2 or 3 times a day; of the extract 20 or 30 grs.
   What are tho properties and uses of the fruit of tho Juni-
porus communis or Juniper berrios?  The activo ingredient
is a volatile oil.
   Tho berries are stimulant, and diuretic, and in large doses
produco irritation of tho urinary passages; they aro general-
ly usod as an adjuvant to more powerful diuretics.  It  is a
native of Europe.  Doso of the infusion, (3J to Oj) one pint
during the day, often combined with cream of tartar. Dose
of the oil 5 to 15 drops. .
   What aro the properties and uses of the seeds of theDau-
cus Carota or Wild  Carrot? They  are  gently stimulant,
and diuretic, and may be usod in nephritic affections where
tho stomach is enfeebled.   The active ingredient is a vola-
tile oil.   Doso 3ss to 3j of the bruised seeds, or one pint of
tho infusion, made with 3 jss to Oj of water, in the 24 hours. 
168
MATERIA Alt.DKA.
     What are tho proporties and uses of tho root of tho A plum
   Petroselinum or Parsley ?  It is diuretic, and aperient; usod
   in stranguary. Doso of tho infusion indefinite.
     From what is turpentine obtained?  It is the juice of dif-
   ferent species of the genera Pinus, Abies, and Larix, and
   consists of a resin, and volatile oil.
     There  are  two  kinds used in the  Unitod  States.  Tho
   common  white turpentine, derivod principally  from tho
   Pinus palustris; and the  Canada turpentine, derived from the
   Abios balsamifera or Balsam of fir.  Their virtues reside in
   the volatile oil.
     What are their medical  propertios and uses?   They aro
   stimulant, diuretic,  anthelmintic, and laxative.   If long
   continued they produce irritation of the mucous membrane of
   the urinary organs.  Dose lOgrainsto 3j, in pill or emulsion.
     The volatilo oil or spirit of turpentine is generally used;
;=~the dose of which is 10 to 20 drops, and repeated.  It is also
   used externally as a rubefacient.
     What is the Balsam of Copaiva  derived from?   It is the
   the juice of the Copaifera  officinalis, and other  specios of
   the Copaifera, growing in Brazil and Guiana.
     What are its properties and uses?  Its  constituents are a
   resin  and a  volatile oil?   It is gently  stimulant, diuretic
   and laxative.
     It is used in gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, gleet, chronic dys-
   entery, and in chronic bronchitis.
    Dose 10 to 30 drops 3 times a day; of the volatilo oil 5 to
   15 drops.
    What  are  the  medical propertios and  uses of Cantharis
  vesicatoria, Cantharides, or  Spanish Flies?  Administered
   nternally they are powerfully stimulant, and exercise a pe-
  culiar influence over the urinary organs.  In moderate doses
  diuretic.  Externally applied they inflame and vesicate.—
  Dose 1 or 2 grains of the powder 2 or 3 rime  daily; of tho
  tincture 10 drops as often.
    What are the doses of tho Carbonates of Potassa? Tho car-
  bonate is used in doses of 10 to 30 grains 3 or 4 times a day.
    The bicarbonate is used in doses  from 3ss to 3j-
    What are the medical  propertios and uses of the Acetalo
  of Potassa, or sal diureticus. It is diuretic in doses of from
  9j to 3j, overy 2 or 3 hours.  In large dosos it is  cathartic.
    What aro the propertios of Bitartratc of Potassa, or Cream
  of Tarter.  It  is diuretic, cathartic, and  refrigerant.   In 
MATERIA MEDICA."
ICQ
small dosos it is a cooling aperient;  in  largo  ones It is a
hydragogue cathartic, which ronders it useful in dropsies,
as well as on account of its diuretic properties.
  The doso is from 3j to 3'ij as an aperient; and from 3-ss
to 3J as a hydragogue cathartic.
  What are tho medical properties and uses of the Nitrato
of Potassa or Saltpetre?  It is diuretic, refrigerant, and dia-
phoretic.
  Doso as a diuretic from 10 to 20 grains repeated.
  What  are  tho  medical properties  and uses of Spirit  of
Nitric Ether, or Sweet Spirit of Nitre?   It is  diuretic, dia-
phoretic, and anti-spasmodic.
  Dose in fobrilo diseases as a diaphoretic about ono tea-':
spoonful.
  When givon as a diuretic it Bhould be given in larger
doses.

                     Diaphoretics.

  What aro Diaphoretics?  They aro medicines which pro-
moto perspiration.
  How do thoy exort a beneficial offbet in diseaso?  By re-
moving constriction  of tho cutanoous capillaries; by deple-
ting from tho blood vessels; by revulsion to the surface;  by
promoting absorption, and by elcminating noxious  matter
from tho blood.
  What  circumstancos  should a patient  be  subjected to if
free por.spiration  bo required?  Ho  should  bo confined
hod, well covered, clothed with flannel next the skin, and
warm diluont drinks freely givon.  If there is high inflam-
matory excitement tho lancet or  othor depleting remodies
should bo promised.
  How are diaphoretics divided?  Into nauseating, rcfrig
ant, nnd alterativo diaphoretics.

                Nniise,!ting  Diaphoretics.      • -

   What aro some of the nauseating diaphoretics.
caouanha,  and Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa.
  With  what is ipecacuanha usually "combined?   With
opium in tho form of Dover's Powders, which consists of
ipecacuanha 1 grain, opium  1 grain, and sulphate of potassa
" grains.  Dose 10 grains repeated every 4 or G hours.
  What is the doso of tartar emetic as a diaphoretic? From
1-12 to ^ of a grain.
        ir.v 
170
MATERIA  MEDICA
               Refrigerant Diaphoretics.

  What are  some of the refrigorant diaphoretics?  Citrate
of Potassa, Acetate of Ammonia, Nitrate of Potassa, and
Spirit of Nitric Ether.
  How is the Citrate of Potassa used?   In  two forms; tho
neutral  mixture  or saline  draught and the  effervescing
draught.  Dose of the  former f3ss every hour or two.  01
the latter f3ss of the  alkaline solution with  f3ss of  tho
lemon juice or the acid solution.
  They are sometimes combined  with  tartar  emetic; and
also with spirits of nitre.
  How  is the Acetate of Ammonia used ?   In the form of
tho officinal solution  called liquor ammonia acotatis,  01
spiritus Mindereri.  Dose  f3ss to f3j repeated every 2 or 3
hours.
   How is Nitrate  of Potassa used?  It  is usually com-
bined with tartar emotic, 1-6 gr. to 10 or  15 grains of  tho
nitrate.
  How  is the  Spirit of Nitre used?  It is  used  in  fovors
where thcro is nervous derangements, or a typhoid tendency
and in children.
  Doso 20 drops to f3j repeated.

                 Alterative Diaphoretics.

   What aro some of the alterative diaphoretics?   The pro-
ducts of the Guaiacum officinale,  Mezoroon, Sassafras, and
Sarsaparilla                                 .
  What are the products of the Guaiacum  officinale.   The
Guaiacum  wood, and  the Guaiac a concrete juice.   The
medicinal properties of tho wood  are owing to the guaiac
which it contains.  It grows in the West Indies and  South
America.                              .           .
  What are the properties and use of guaiac.  It is stimu-
lant, alterative, and promotes the  secretions particularly of
the skin.  Dose of powder 10 to 30 grains with sweetened
water or mucilage.  There are  two officinal tinctures.  Doso
of either f3j.   The  wood is used in  decoction, and is  an
ingredient in the compound decoction of sarsaparilla.
  From what is Mezereon obtained?  It is tho bark of tho
root of different species ot Daphne; a nativo of Europe.
  What are its properties and uses?  Tho recent bark ap-
plied  to tho  skin inflames and vesicates.  Given intornally 
MATERIA  MEDICA.
171
it is stimulant, which may bo directed to tho skin or kidneys.
Doso of the bark in substance 10 grains.  Generally given
in docoction with licorico root, which  is officinal.  Doso a
tea cup-full four times a day.
  What aro tho officinal portions of the Laurus Sassafras?
Tho  bark of the root, (Sassafras Radicis Cortex) and the
pith of tho twigs (Sassafras Medulla).
  What are tho medical proporties and uses of the bark?  It
is stimulant, and diaphoretic.  Its active principlo is a vola-
tile oil, doso from 2 to 10 drops.  Tho infusion may be given
ad libitum.
  What aro tho properties and uses of Sarsaparilla?   It is
the root of different species of tho smilax growing in Mex-
ico, West Indies, and South America.  Its active principle is
sarsaparillin.   It acts upon tho socretions, and  thereby pro-
duces alterative effects.   There arc  numerous officinal pro
parations.  Doso of tho powdor 3ss. 3j.; of the compound
decoction f'3  iv.—of  the syrup  3SS"—0I"  t^10 alcoholic
extract  10 to 20 grains; of the fluid extract f3j.
                     Expectorants.
  What  aro  Expectorants?  They arc medicines which in-
croaso  tho secretion from the  mucous  mombrane of the air
cells, and  air passages of the lungs; or facilitato its discharge.
  What circumstances should a patient be subjected to while
using expectorants?   Tho surfaco should bo kept warm, and
llannel worn next to tho skin.
  Aro emetic substances usually expectorant in  small doses?
Yes, ipecacuanha in dosos of 1 to  2 grains;  a tartar emotic
in dosos of i  of a grain;  and  their preparations also in this
proportion.
  What aro tho properties and uses of Squill as an oxpocto-
rant?   It  stimulates tho vessels of tho lungs;  and where
thoro is much inflammation it should be preceded by blood-
lotting.   Tho officinal preparations aro the vinegar, syrup,
oxymel, nnd  tincture.
  Doso of vinegar f3ss. to f3j, of syrup and oxymel  from
f3) to f3ij. of tincture from 20 to 40 drops.
  What are tho proporties and uses of the bulb of the Alli-
um  Sativum or Garlic?  It is a goneral stimulant and pro-
motes expectoration in dobilitatod  states of the lungs.   Tho
oxprcssod juico is often given to children with sugar.  Doso
f3s8. to 3j.
  What are tho properties and uses of  tho root  of tho Poly-
gala Senega or Scnoka?   Its activo principle is  senrgin. 
172              MATERIA  MEDICA.

  It is a stimulating expoctorant, and  diuretic;  it also acts
more or less on all the secretions.
  Doso of powder from 10 to  JO grains; of docoction made
by boiling 3j of tho root with 3j of liquorice root in ()jss of
water to Oj; given in doses of f3j to f3jj 3 or 4 times a day.
It is an ingredient in Coxe's hive syrup.
  What aro the propertios and uses of  tho root of the Cimi-
cifuga racernosa or black snake  root?  It stimulates tho se-
cretions and particularly those of tho skin,  kidneys,  and
bronchial mucous membrane.
  Dose of powder 10 to 30 grains;  decoction fgj to f3ij, re-
peated frequently.
  From what is Ammoniac obtainod?   It is the inspissated
juice of the Dorema Ammoniacum, an umbelliforous plant
growing in Persia.  It comes in tears and masses.
  What are its propertios and uses?   It is a stimulant, and
expectorant gum rosin; mostly used in chronic  catarrh, asth-
ma, and other pectoral diseases.  Doso  10  to 30 grains in
emulsion  or pill.
  What is the character of Assafcetida as an  expoctorant?
It is an efficient expectorant, and moderate stimulant. Doso
5 to 15 or 20 grains, in pill or emulsion.
  From what is  tho Balsam of Tolu  obtained?  The My-
roxolon Toluiferum a tree growing in  Tropical America.—
Its essential  constituents are a resin, volatile  oil, and ben-
zoic acid.  It is procured by incising the trunk of the tree,
and collecting '.-e juico.
  What aro its medical properties and  uses?   It is a gently
stimulating expectorant.
  Dose 10 to  30 grains in  omulsion;  of the  tincture  f3j
to f3ij.
  What are the properties and  uses of  tho balsam of  tho
Myroxylon Peruiferum, or Peruvian balsam?  Its constitu-
ents are a rosin, volatile oil, and benzoic acid.  It is a warm,
stimulating tonic, and expectorant.  Doso f3ss.

                    Emmenagogues.

  What are Emmenagogues?   Thoy are modicinos which
promote the menstrual secretion.
  How do emmenagogues act?   They may  act oithor
through the medium of the circulation; or by an impression
boing made elsewhere, and extended sympathetically to  the
uterine vessels. 
MATERIA MEDICA.              173
   How nhould they bo given so as  to produco their  full
offoct'   A short timo before tho regular period of menstru-
ation.   Tho stato of the systom  should bo  carefully con-
sidered; if tho systom is plethoric they should be preceded
by depletion, and the  milder  ones  of the  class should be
used.   If debility exist those of a tonic or stimulant  char-
ncter should  bo usod; and if  constipation  attend, tho  ca-
thartic emmenagogues are indicated.  .
   What are tho properties of the calybeates as regards their
emmonagoguo power?  They arc considered to  be inferior
to no  othor  remedies in this respect, and aro applicable
whoro there is no local inflammation or general excitement.
They aro ofton combined with aloes.
   What aro  tho properties  of Aloes  as an emmonagoguo?
It is very effective, and believed to exort a specific influence
on tho uteririo vessels independent of  its cathartic property.
Dose 1 or 2 grains 2 or 3 times a day.   It may also be given
in enema about the  period when menstruation should como
on.
   What is the doso of Black Hellebore  as an emmenagoguo?
From f'3ss to f3i of tho tincture, 2 or  3 times a day.
   What are tho properties of Guaiac  as an emmenagoguo?
It is applicable in cases associated with rheumatism, partic-
ularly in its neuralgic forms.  Usod in dysmenorrhooa either
in tho simple or ammoniated tincture.  Dose f3j  3 or 4 times
a day.
   What are tho properties of  the loaves of tho Juniperus
Sabina or Sav'ino?   They aro highly stimulant, increaso
most of tho secretions,  and particularly thoso  of tho uterus.
  Tho activo principlo is a volatile oil called oil of Savine.
It  should bo  avoided in pregnancy.  Doso of tho powder
from 5  to 20 grains,  2 or 3 times a day; of the oil from 2 to
5 drops.  The plant is a native of Europe.
   What  aro the properties of  Cantharides as an emmena-
goguo?   They exert a powerful  stimulant  effect over tho
urinary and genital  organs.
  Doso of tho tincture 10 to 30 drops three timos a day.

                      Epispastics.
  What aro Epispastics?   Medicines that produce a blister
whon applied to the skin.  Thoy aro  callod also vesicatorics.
  How do they exert a remedial influence?  By  acting indi-
rectly as genoral stimulants; by thoir  revulsive  action;  by 
174
MATERIA MEDICA.
 substituting their own action for a diseased ono fin the pnrt
 to which they are applied; by their local stimulus; by pru-
 ducing local depletion;  by the  pain  they occasion which
 may be useful  in hypochrondrical cases; and they aro em-
 ployed to separate tho cuticle for the purpose of applying
 medicines.
   What aro the officinal  preparations of  tho Cantharis vesi-
 catoria or Spanish  Fly  as an epispastic?  The Cerate  of
 Spanish flies commonly called blistering plaster.  Used for
 blistering.
   The Ointment used for maintaining a discharge.
   The Plaster  of Pitch with Spanish flies.  Used as a rube-
 facient plaster.
   The Linamcnt of Spanish flies  generally called  decoc-
 tion of flies in oil of turpentine.  Used as an extornal stim-
 ulant.
   What are the remedies for stranguary produced by can-
 tharides?  The  milder  diuretics  such as uva  ursi, sweet
 spirit of nitre,  mucilages, &c.
   Where aro thoy procured?  In Spain and Italy.  Activo
 principle cantharadin.
   What are the properties of the indigenous insect the Can-
 tharis Vittata or Pottato fly?   They are"similar to the Span-
 ish flies; the chemical composition and uses the same.

                     Rubefacients.

   What are Rubefacients?  They are medicines which in
 flame the skin, and  producing redness  without  ordinarily
 vesicating.
   What are the indications for tho use of this class in pre-
 ference to blisters?  In cases where a sudden and powerful
 action is necessary;  and  in  cases whero a slight but long
 continued  action is desired;  in which  case the milder arti-
 cles should be employed.
  Will you enumerate the  rubefacients commonly employ.
 ed?  The  seeds  of  the  Sinapis alba and  S.  nigra, distin-
 guished as white and black mustaid; Cayenne Pepper; Oil
of Turpentine;  Burgundy Pitch which is the product of tho
Abies  Communis, growing in tho north of Europo; Hem-
lock Pitch  or Pix  Canadensis, very analagous to the Bur.
gundy pitch; and Aqua Ammonia which is much used  in
combination with sweet oil as volatile liniment. 
                 MATERIA  MEDICA.              17j

                     EsCHAROTICS.

  What aro Escharotice?  They are substances  which de-
stroy tho life of tho part to which they are applied, and pro-
duce sloughing.   They operate by chomical agency, or by
influencing the vitality of the part directly.
  What substances aro used for this purpose?  Tho Actual
cautery; Moxa; Potassa or common caustic; Nitrate of Sil-
ver; or Lunar caustic; Arsenious acid Jor the white oxide;
Sulphato of Copper; Bichloride of Mercury or Corrosive sub-
limato; Burnt  Alum, and the Mineral acids.

                      Demulcents.

  What aro Demulcents? They are bland substances which
form a viscid solution with water.
  What modicinos aro used  as demulcents?   Gum Arabic,
tho  product of several species  of the Acacia,  Tragacanth.
Slippery Elm  bark or the inner bark of the Ulmus fulva.
Flax seed or tho soeds of the Linum usitatissimum.
  Licorice root or tho root of the Glycyrrhiza glabra.  Ice-
land moss or Lichon Islandicus.   Irish moss or Carrageen.
Sago, tho product of the Sagus Rumphii. Tapioca,  tho pro-
duct of the Jatropa Manihot of Tropical America.  Arrow
root, tho product of tho Maranta arundinacea of the West
Indies.  And tho Barley, callod  commonly pearl barley or
hordoum perlatum.

                      Emollients.

  What  aro Emollients?  They are  substances which re-
tain moisture,  and form a soft  mass without irritating prop-
erties.

                       Diluents.

  What aro Diluents? They  aro liquids which dilute the
contents of tho stomach, and  bowels, fill the  bloodvessels,
and increaso  and dilute the  secretions.  Wator is the groat
diluent, to which additions are made to give it flavor.

                 Medicines  Unclassified.

  From what is Ergot obtained?   It is a product of the Se
cale cereale or common rye.
  What aro its propertios and  uses?  It yiolds its virtues to
water, and alcohol.  Its active  principle is ergolin.   It cxhi- 
176
MATERIA MEDICA.
 bits a strong tendency to tho uterus, and operates with ener-
 gy upon its contractile property; and reduces tho frequency
 of tho pulse.  Broad  made  from rye contaminated with it,
 and long usod will produce  dry gangrene, typhus fever, dis-
 eases of the nervous system, &c.
   It is adapted to lingering  cases of labor where the os uto-
 ri is dilated, the external parts relaxed, and no mechanical
 impediment exists; the  delay  being ascribablo  solely to a
 want of energy in  the uterus.
   Dose of  the  powder 10 to 20 grains; of  tho infusion 3j>
 made with 3j of the  ergot to f3iv of water, to be repoatod '
 overy 20 minutes until its peculiar effects aro produced.
   From what is the Nux Vomica obtained?  It is tho seed
 of tho Strychnos  Nux Vomica, a treo growing in the East
 Indies.  The active ingredients are strychnia and brucia.
   What are its properties and  usos?  In very small doses
 it is tonic, and operates upon the secretions. In larger dosos
 so as to produce a  decided effect, its action is chiefly direct-
 ed to the norves of motion producing  a tendency to perma-
 nent, involuntary,  muscular contraction.   It is sometimes
 used in paralytic affections,  and its action appears to be par-
 ticularly directed to the parts affected. Doso of tho powder
 5 grains; of the alcoholic extract from 1-2 to 2 grains; of
 strychnia from 1-12 to 1-6 of a grain.
   What are the properties and use3 of Arscnious acid?  In-
 ternally it is altorativo, febrifuge, and peculiarly applicablo
 in diseases of a periodical character.  The effocts should be
 carefully noted, and when there is any disposition  to edamia
 produced, especially of the face, and eyelids, or a feeling of
 stiffness, tenderness of tho mou('i, &c, it  should be discon-
 tinued immediately.   It has  been  used in scirrhus, anomal-
 ous ulcers, intermittent fover, discasos of  the bones, and in
 cutaneous diseases. It is an ingredient in nearly all empiri-
 cal, external remodios for cancer.
  Doso 1-12 of a gr. in pill, and taken 3 times a day. Of the
 Fowler's solution 10 drops 2 or 3 times a day.
  What aro tho preparations  of Mercury that are used me-
 dicinally, and their doses as alteratives, or sialagoguos?
 Mercurial ointment or Unguontum  Hydrargyri; Mercurial
Plaster or EmplastrurrvHydrargyri—Mercurial Pills or Pilu-
le Hydrargyri commonly called  hluo pills.   Dose 1 pill 3
times a day as a slalegogue;  1 every night  or every other
night us altoralivc.  Tho officinal pill weighs 3 grainy,  and 
                 MATERIA MEDICA.              177

contains I gr. of mercury: Mercury with chalk or Hydrar-
gyrum cum Creta, doso 5 to 20 grains twice daily.
  Black oxido of mercury or Hydrargyri Oxidum Nigrum—
done 1 to 3 grains 2 or 3 times a day—Rod oxide of mercury
or Hydrargyri Oxidum Rubrum, commonly callod red preci-
pitate; used externally as an oscharotic, and stimulant—the
officinal ointment called  Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Ru-
bri— Mild chloride of mercury or Hydrargyri Chloridum mi-
to commonly called Calomel; dose from 1-2 a gr. to 1 grain
3 timos daily—Corrosive chloride of mercury or Hydrargyri
Chloridum "Corrosivum  commonly called  corrosive  subli-
 mate; doso from 1-8 to 1-4 of  a  grain 3 or 4 times a day—
 Yellow sulphate of mercury or Hydrargyri  Sulphas Flavus,
 commonly callod Turpoth mineral, dose  as  an alterative
 from 1-2 grain to 1 grain, and from 2 to 5 grs. as an emetic;
seldom used; somotimes as an errhine, diluted with 5 parts
of starch—A mnioniated mercury or Hydrargyrum Ammoni-
atum, commonly called white precipitate; used externally
Nitrate of mercury,  used only as  an ointment,  called the
ointment of nitrate of morcury or Unguontum Hydrargyrum
Nitratis commonly callod citrine ointment—Red  Sulphuret
of morcury, or Hydrargyri Sulphurctum Rubrum commonly
callod cinnabar, usod only for fumigation—Black sulphuret
of mercury  or Hydrargyri Sulphuretum  Nigrum,  formerly
callod Ethiops mineral, scarcely  ever used at present.
   What are tho properties and uses of Iodine?  It operates
 as a goneral excitant, but particularly of the glandular, and
 absorbent systems.
•   If long continued or given  in very large doses it gives
 riso to derangement  of the nervous system,  restlessness, pal-
pitation, a sense of  burning along the  gullet, excessive
 thirst, acute pain in the  stomach, violent cramps, rapid and
grout emaciation, and frequent pulse.  The condition of the
systom in which any of those poisonous effects are exhibit-
ed are called iodis/n.  It is usod in glandular enlargements
 and morbid growths.  Dose i to * of a grain 3 times a day.
 It is never used in powder but dissolved in alcohol or a wa-
 tery solution of the  iodide of potassium.   Dose of the offi-
 cinal tincture 10 to 20 drops.
   Tho Iodide of Potassium is officinal.  Dose 1 to 2 grains;
 Lugols solution  is iodino Bj, iodide of potassium  9ij and
 wator 3vii. Dose 6 drops repeated.  Iodine ointment,  Jj of
 lard and 9j of iodine.
         10 
178
MATERIA MEDICA.
                       Antacides.

   What are Antacids?  Substances capable of combining
 with and neutralizing acids.
   What substances are used as antacids?   The carbonates
 of potassa and soda, ammonia, lime, and magnesia.

                    Anthelmintics.

   What are Anthelmintics?  Substances which operate on
 worms  in the alimentary canal, and render  them easy of
 expulsion.
   From what is  Pink root  obtained?  It is the root of tho
 Spigelia Marylandica, and is the only part of the plant which
 is officinal.
   What are its properties and uses? It is considered to be
 one of  the  most powerful of the  anthelmintics.  In  over
 doses it determines to the brain giving rise to vertigo,  dim-
 ness of vision, spasms, &c.   Dose of tho powder for a child
 from 2 to 4 years old, 10 to 20 grains, repeated twice a day,
 and followed by a cathartic; sometimes it is combined with
 calomel.  Dose of  the  infusion for a child f3ss to f3j, 3 or
 4 times a day, made with  3SS °f  tne  root to Oj. of water;
 often given with 3ss of senna added, in tho samo dose.
   What are  the properties of the bark of the root of tho
 Melia Azodarach, or Prido of China?  Used  in docoction
 made by boiling Oji of  water with  giv of  tho fresh root to
 Oj. Dose for a child 3SS every 2 or 3 hours, and followed by
 a cathartic.
  From what is Worm seed obtained?  They aro  the sced3
 of the Chenepodium anthelminticum.
  What is the dose?  In substance bruised 9j to 9ij  for a
 child; of tho volatile oil from 4 to 8 drops for a  child, re-
 peated  twice a day.
  What are tho properties and uses of Cowhage?  The spi-
 culao are vermifuge, and act mechanically on the worm.
 Dose of the  electuary for an adult  3ss**f°r a child 3  or 4
 years old 3j-
  What is the dose of  the oil of turpentine  as an anthol
 mintic?  For an adult  from f3ss to f3ij or even  more fol-
 lowed with castor oil.   Doso for children in proportion.
  What is the dose  of Stamium or Tin  as an anthelmintic?
From  3J to 3j. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
179
TABLE OF SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.
R
a a
lf3
5
3
6
o
f3

 f3

 "I
 Chart.
 Coch.
 Collyr.
 Cong.
Dococ.
Ft.
Oarg.
 T.r.
 Gtt.
Haust.
 Infus.
 M.
 Mass.
 Mist.
 Pil.
 Pulv.
 U.S.
 S.
 S3.
Recipe.
Ana.
Libra vel libra. ■
Uncia vel uncise.
Drachma vel drachmae.
Scrupulus vel scrupuli.
Octarius vel octarii.
Fluiduncia vol fluidunciiE

Fluidrachmavel fluidrach-
  maj.
Minimum vel minima.
Chartula vol chartulse.
Cochloar vel cochlearia.
CoIIyrium.
Congius vol Congii.
Dococtum.
Fiat.
Gargarysma.
Granum vel grana.
Gutta vel guttae.
Ilaustus.
Infusum.
Miscc.
Massa.
Mistura.
Pilula vel pilulsc.
Pulvis vol pulveres.
Quantum sufficit.
Sisjna.
Semis,
Take.
Of each.
A pound or pounds.
An ounce or ounces.
A drachm or drachms.
A scruple or scruples.
A pint or pints.
A fluidounce or fluidoun-
  ces
A  fluidrachm  or  fluid
  drachms.
A minim or minims.
A small paper or papers.
A spoonful or spoonfulls.
An eye-water.
A'gallon or gallons.
A aocoction.
Make.
A gargle.
A grain or grains.
A drop or drops.
A draught.
An infusion.
Mix.
A mass.
A mixture.
A pill or pills.
jA powder or powders.
| A sufficient quantity.
i Write.
[A half. 
180
MATERIA MEDICA.
Examples of Common Extemporaneous Prescripliont.
         Powders,
R Antlmonii et PotasstB Tar-
     tratis gr. i.
   Pulveris Ipecacuanhae  9"i.
   Fiat pulvis.
S. To  be  taken in a  wine-
     glassful of  sweetened
     water.
   An  active emetic.
R Hydrargyri Chloridi  Mi
     tis,
    Pulveris Jalapae, aa gr. X.
   Misce.
S.  To  be taken in syrup, or
     molasses.
   An  excellent cathartic in
     the  commencement of
      bilious  fevers,  and
      hepatic congestion.
 R Pulveris  Jalapae gr. x.
    Potassae Bitartratis 3ii.
    Misce.
 S.  To be taken in syrup,  or
      molasses.
    A ^hydragogue cathartic
      used in dropsy and  scro-
      fulous inflammation  of
      the joints.
 R Sulphuris 3'i.
    PotassaeABitarlratis 311
    Misce.
 S. To be taken  in syrup, or
      molasses.
    A  laxative, used  in  piles
      and cutaneous diseases.
 B Pulveris Rhei gr. x.
     Magnesias 3ssk
     Fiat pulvis.
  S. To be taken in syrup, or
       molasses.
    A  laxxative and antacid,
     used in diarrhoea,  dys-
     pepsia, &c.
R Pulveris Scillac gr. xii.
   Potassae Nitratis 3i
   Fiat pulvis, in  chartulas
     box dividendus.
   One to be taken twice or
     three times a day in syr-
     up or molasses.
   A  diuretic, employed  in
     dropsy.
 R Potassa? Nitratis 31.
   Antimonii et Potassae Tar-
     tratis gr. i.
   Hydrargyri  Chlorid.  Mi-
     tis gr.  vi.
   Fiat pulvis, in chartulas
      sex dividendus.
 S. One to be taken every two
      hours in syrup or molas-
      Bes.
    A refrigerant, diaphoretic,
      and  alterative, used  in
      bilious  fevers;  usually
      called  nitrous powders.
 R Pulveris  Guaiaci Resinac,
    Potassae Nitratis, aa 3».
    Pulveris-Ipecac. gr.  hi.
    Opii gr.  ii.
    Fiat  pulvis,  in chartulas
 sex dividendus.
 S.  One  to  bo taken  every
       three  hours in syrup or
       molassos.
     A  stimulant diaphoretic,
       used in rheumatism and
       gout after sufficient de-
     pletion.
     Ferri Subcarbonatis.
     Pulveris Colombae,
 R  Pulveris Zingiberis, aa. 31 
MATERIA MEDICA.
181
   Fiat pulvis,  in  chartulas
     sex dividendus.
S. One to be taken three times R
     a day in syrup or molas
     scs.
   A tonic, used in dyspepsia
     and genoral dobility.
           Pills.
R Pulveris Aloes,           S.
   Pulveris Rhei, aa 3SS-
   Saponis Bi.
   Misco,  et cum aqua fiat
     massa in pilulas viginti
     dividenda.          f
S. Two or throo to bo taken R
     daily, at bed-time, or be-
     fore a meal.
   An  excellent laxative  in
     habitual costipation.
R Massac  Pilularum Hydrar
     fry".
   Pulveris Aloes,
   Pulveris Rhei, aa 9i.
   Misco,  et  cum  aqua  fiat
     massa in pilulas viginti
     dividenda.
S. Throo to bo taken at  bed-
     time.
   An  alterativoand laxativo, R
     useful  in  constipation
     with  deranged  or  defi-
     cient  hepatic secretion
R Pulveris Aloes,
   Extracti Quassiae, aa.  3i.
   Oloi Ansi Tf|_x.
   Syrupi,  q. s.
   Misce, et  fiat massa  in  S.
     pilulas triginta dividen-
     da.
S. Two to be  taken once,
     twice, or threo times  a
     day.                    |
   A laxative, tonic, and car ;R
           16*
   minative, useful  in dys-
  pepsia.
Pulv. Rhei.
Sapo Alba.
Myrrhae.
Assafaetida 3SS aa-
Misce, et fiat massa in pi-
  lulas triginta dividenda.
One or two to bo taken af-
  ter  each meal.
Useful in promoting diges-
   tion, and  relieving pain
   and uneasiness  of  the
   stomach.
Pulveris Scillae Qi.
Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis
  gr. x.
Pdlveris  Acaciae,
Syrupi, aa q. s.
Misce, et fiat massa in pil-
   ulas decern dividenda.
One to  be  taken  two  or
   three times a day.
A diuretic and  alterative,
  much used in dropsy, es-
  pecially when complica-
  ted with organic  viscer-
  al disease.
Pulveris Opii gr. iv.
Pulveris  Ipecacuanhas gr.
  xviii.
Pulvoris  Acaciae,
Syrupi, aa q. s.
Misce, et fiat massa in pi-
   lulas duodecim dividen-
  da.
One to be taken after each
  stool.
An anodyno diaphoretic,
  useful  in  dysentery and
  diarrhoea after the use of
  laxatives.
PulverisOpii, 
\m
MATERIA MEDICA.
   Pulveris Ipecacuanhae, aa
     gr. iii.
   Hydrargyri Caloridi Mitis
     gr. vi.
   Pulveris Acaciee,
   Syrupi, aa q. s.
   Misce,  et  fiat massa  in
     pilulas tres dividenda.
S. Ono or more  to be taken
     at bed-time, or accord
     ing to circumstances.
   An  anodyne, diaphoretic,
     and alterative, very use-
     ful in diarrhaea, dysen-
     tery, typhoid pneumonia
     and various other disea-
     ses.
"ft Plumbi Acetatis  in  pul-
     verem triti gr. xii.
   Pulveris Opii  gr. i.
   Pulv. Acaciae,
   Syrupi, aa q. s. ut fiat mas-
     sa in pilulas sex dividen
     da.
S. Ono evory two, three, or
     four hours.
   An  astringent much  em
     ployed   in  haemoptysis
     and uterine hemorrhage
         Mixtures.
R Magnesiae 3L
   Syrupi f3h
   Tere simul, et affunde
   Aquae Acidi Carbonici f3
     IV.
   Fiat haustus.
S. To be taken at a draught,
     the mixtute being well
     shaken.
   An agreeable mode of ad-
     ministering magnesia.
R Mannae Z'i.
   FcBniculi contusi 31.
  Aquae bulliontis fjlv-
  Fiat infusura ct cola; dein
    adjice
  Magnesiae Carbonatis 3'ii.
  Ft. Mist.
3. One third to.be taken evo-
     ry three  or four  hours
     till it operates, the mix-
     ture being shaken.
   An excellent carminative
     and mild laxative in flat-
     ulenco and pain in  tho
     bowels,
R Olei Ricini f^i.
   Pulveris  Acacia-,
   Sacchari, aa 3ii.
   Aquae  Menthae Pipcritao
    fgiii.
   Acaciam   ot  saccharum
     cum fluiduncia dimidia
      aquae menthae tore;  do-
     in oleum adjice, ot con-
     tero; denique aquam re-
     liquam paulatim  infun-
     de, et omnia misce.
S. To be taken at a draught,
     the mixture  being well
     shaken.
R Olei Ricini f3i.
   Vitellum ovi unius.
   Tere simul, et adde
   Syrupi f3ss.
  Aquae Menthae Pipertae fjii
   Ft. haust.
S. To be taken at a draught,
     the mixture  being well
     shaken.
   This  and  the  preceding
     formula  afford conveni
     ent modes of  adminis-
     tering castor  oil, when
     tho stomach  is irritable.
     Any other fixed oil may 
MATERIA MEDICA.
183
S
     be  given  in tho same
     way.
R Olei Ricini f^iss.
   Tincturac Opii Jxxx.
   Pulv. Acaciae,
   Sacchari, aa jii.
   Aquae Menthae Viridis f3iv
   Acaciam  et  saccharum
     cum paululo aquae men
     thae tere; dein oleum ad-
      iico.otiteTum tero; den- R
      lquo   aquam  reliquam
      paulatim infundo, et om-
      nia misce.
S. A  tablespoonful to bo ta-
      ken every hour or two
      hours till it operates, the
      mixture being each time
      woll shakon.
   Used as a gontle  laxative
      in dysentery  and diar-
      rhoea.    It is  usually
      known by the name ol
      oleaginous mixture
 R Elaterii gr.  i.
   Spiritus  iEtheris   Nitrici
      f3'i-
   Tincturae Scillae,
   Oxymcllis Colchici, aaf3ss
    Syrupi, f3i.
   Ft. mist.
    A teaspoonful to be taken
      three or four times a day
      in a little water.
    Diurectic, used in Forriar
      dropsy.
 R Copaibae,
    Spiritus Lavandulae Comp
      aa f3ii.
    Mucilaginis Acaciae  f3ss. S.
    Syrupi 13111.
    Simul tore; dein  paulatim
      affunde.
S
R
R
R
Aquae f3iv.
Misce.
A  tablespoonful to be ta-
  ken four times a day or
  more frequently.
Given in chronic catarrhs,
  and chronic nephritic af-
  fections. The dose must
  be larger in gonorrhea.
   Neutral M xture.
 Acidi Citric) 3'ii.
 Olei Limonis TTji.
 Simul tero et adde
 Aquae f3iv.
 Liqua, et adde
 Potassae   Carbonatis q. s.
  ad saturand.
 Misco et per lintcum cola.
          Or
 Succi  Limonis  recentis
   f3iv.
 Potassae  Carbonatis q. s.
   ad saturandum.
 Misco et cola.
 A tablespoonful to be giv-
   en with an equal quan-
   tity of water every hour
   or two hours.
 An  excellent  diaphoretic
   in  fever.
 Effervescing  Draught.
 Potassae Carbonatis 3U-
 Aqae i3iv.
 Liqua.
           Or
 Potassae Bicarbonatis 3i"-
 Aquae f3iv.
 Aquae f3iv.
 Liqua.
 Add a tablespoonful of tho
   solution to  the  same
   quantity  of lemon  or
   lime   juice, previously 
184             MATERIA  MEDICA.
      mixed with a tablespoon R
      ful  of water; and give
      the mixture, in  a state
      of effervescence, every
      hour or two hours.
    An excellent diaphoretic
      and anti-emetic in fevor
      with nausea or vomiting.
       Brown Mixture.
 R Pulv. Extract. Glycyrrhi-
      zae.
    Pulv. Acaciae 3ii.
    Aquae ferventis f3iv.      S.
    Liqua, et adde
    Vini antimonii f3ii.
    Tincturae Opii ?7[xx.
    Ft. Mist.
 S.  A  tablespoonful to be ta- R
      ken occasionally.
    Expectorant,  demulcent,
      and anodyne, useful in
      catarrhal affections.
 R Antimonii et Potassae Tar-
      tratis gr. ce,
    Syrupi Scillr,
    Liquoris Morphite Sulpha-
      tis, aa f3ss.
    Pulveris Acaciae 3"-
    Syrupi f3ss.
    Aquae fluvialis f3iv.
    Ft. Mist.
 S.  A tablespoonful  to be ta-
     ken occasionally.
    An expectorant and ano-
     dyne cough mixture.
R  Acidi Nitrosi f^i.
    Tincturae Opii gtt. xl.
    Aquae Camphorae f3viii.  j
    Misce.                   I
S.  Ono-fourth to be taken ev-
     ery threo or four hours,  f
   Hope's  mixture,  used  in R
     dysentery, diarrhoea, and)
     cholera.                I
Camphorae 3i.
Myrrhae 3ss.
Pulv. Acaciae,
Sacchari, aa 3"-
Aquae f3vi.
Camphoram cum alcoholia
   paululo in pulvorcm to-
   re;  dein cum  myrrha,
   acacia, et saccharo con-
   tore; donique cum aqua
   paulatim instillata  mi-
   sce.'
   A tablespoonful to be ta-
   ken for a doso, tho mix-
   ture being well shaken.
A convenient form for ad-
   ministering camphor.
Cretae preparata 9iv.
Massae Pil. Hydrarg.
   gr- viii.   .....
Tincturce Opii. gtt. vin.
Pulveris Acacoe,
Sacchari, aa 3'-
Aquae Cinnamomi,
Aquae, aa f3.
Solida simul tere,  dein li-
   quida paulatim inter to-
   rendum adjice, et omnia
   misco.
A teaspoonful to bo taken
   for a doso, tho mixture
   being well shaken.
An antacid and alterative
   mixture, well adapted to
   infantile diarrhoea with
   white stools.  The dose
   mentioned is for a child
   a year or two old,  and
  may be repeated four or
  six times in twenty-four
  hours.
Pulveris Kino 3ii.
Aquae bullientis f3vi. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
185
R
  Fiat infusum et cola; dein
    secundum   arlcm   ad-
    misco.
  Cri-tae praeparatae 3iii.
  Tincturae Opii f3ss.
  Spiritus Lavandulae com-
     positi fjs*.
   Pulveris Acachc,
   Sacchari, aa 3'ii.         I
S. A tablespoonful to be ta-
     ken for a dose, the mix- S.
     turo being WfiU shaken.]
    Astringent  and  antacid,
      useful  in diarrhoea.
         Solutions.
 R  Magnesia: Sulphatis oz. i.
    Syrupi Limonis fji.    _  iR
    Aquae  Acidi   Carbonici
      I3vi.
    Misce.                  |
 S.  To bo taken at a draught.
    An agreeablo mode of ad-
      ministering  sulphate of
      magnesia.
 R Potassae Nitratis 3i.
    Antimonii et Potassae Tar-
      tratis gr. i.
   Aquae fluvialis  f3iv.
    Liqua.
 S. A tablespoonful to be ta
      ken every two hours.
    A  refrigerant diaphoretic,
       used in  fevers.
  R Magnesia Sulphatis ozi
     Antimonii et FotassaB Tar- S.
       tratis gr. i.
     Succi  Limonis   recentis

     Aquae f3'*'.
     Misce.
  P.  A tablespoonful  to  be ta-
       ken every two hours till R
  it  operates  upon   the
  bow-els.
Useful in fevers.
Quiniae Sulphatis gr. xn.
Acidi Sulphurici Aromati-
  ci Titxx.
Syrupi fgss.           .
Aquae  Menthae  Pipentae
   *3i-
 Misco.
 A teaspoonful to bo taken
   every hour or two hours.
 A good mode of adminis-
   tering sulphato  of  qui-
   nia  in  solution.
       Infusions.
 Sonnae 3iii.
 Magnesia Sulphatis,
 Mannae, aa  gss.
 Fo-iiiculi  Si-
 Aquae bullientis Oss.
 Macera per horam in vase
    leviter clauso et cola.
 Give  a  tcacupful  every
    three or  four hours till
    it operates.
  An excellent purgative in
    febrilo  complaints.
  Colombo? contusae,
  Zingiberis contusi, aa gss.
  Sonnae 311.
  Aquae bullientis Oi.
  Macera per horam in vase
     leviter clauso et cola.
   A wineglassful to be taken
     morning, noon and even-
     ing, or less frequently if
     it  operate too much.
   An  excellent  remedy  in
     dyspepsia with  consti-
     pation and flatulence.
   Spigeliao 3*s.
   Sonnae  3'i.
R 
186            MATERIA MEDICA.
Mannae oz. i.
Fceniculi  3ii.
Aquae bullientis Oi.
Macera per horam in vase
  leviter clauso et cola.
A wineglassful to be giv
  en to a child from two
  to four years old, three
  or four times a day.
A powerful  anthelmintic
 Pulveris  Cinchonae  Ru
  brae oz. i.
Acidi Sulphurici Aromati-
  ci f3i.
Aquae Oi.
Macera  per horas duode-
  cim, subindo agitans.
A wineglassful  of  the
  clear liquid to bo takon
  for a dose.
A good  method of admin-
  istering Peruvian bark
  in cold infusion,
APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. U. S., Land., Ed,, Dub.
Pound.    Ounces.
 ft I  =   12   =
           51   =
Drachms.
  96
   8
 31
Scruples.    grains.
  288    ==  5760
   24    =   480
    3    =     60
  9 1    ^= gr. 20
APOTHECARIES' OR WINE MEASURE. U. S.,  Dub.
                        Fluidr'ms.  Minims. Cubic In.
                           1024 =  61440 = 231
                            128 m=  7680 =  28-875
Gall. Pints. Fluidounc's.
                128    =
                16   =
Congl= 8  =
     •  01  =
8  &
LL
V
   q _   480 =   D8047
f3 1 _  V[ 60 =    *2256
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9 
PART  IV.—SURGERY.
                    Inflammation.

   What are the symptoms of inflammation?  Unusual rod
noss, hnat, swelling and p.iin'-
  Jfiw has inflammation been dividod? Into acute, chronic, -  ,
healthy, and unhealthy.
  How many stages are there of inflammation?  Two; tho
cold and the hot.  In tho  first thero is coldness, languor,
nausea, and a small quick pulse.  In the second the skin is
hot, pulse full and hard, thero  is  thirst, and the part be-
comes swelled and painful.  It is not  however  always ac-
companiod  by constitutional symptoms.
  What are the terminations of inflammation?  There  are
eighty resolution, adha£ion, effusion, suppuration, ulceration,
granulation, cicataaation, and maftincation, which #o"nsti-
tute'a series of stages.
  What aro tho causes of inflammation?  They are chem-
ical, and mechanical. Among the former aro excessive heat,
cold, cold and moisture combined, atmospheric air, noxious
gassos, acids, alkalies, blisters, rubefacients, animal poisons,
contagious, and specific diseases. Among the latter are con-
tusions, lacorations, punctures, fractures, luxatious, pressure,
and numerous other agents.
  Is every part of tho body subject to  inflammation?  Yes;
but in an unequal degree;  tho liability is generally in pro-
portion to the sensibility of tho  part.
  How are the means of arresting inflammation divided?
Into constitutional and local. Among the former arc blood-
letting, purgatives, diaphoretics, and low diet;  among tho
latter arc topical  blood-letting, blistering,  cold, acetate of
load, tincture ot  iodino, nitrato of silver, rest, and position- 
188
SURGERY.
              Suppurative Inflammation.

  What  are  the symptoms of suppuration?  Tho redness
assumes a brighter hue,  the  swelling  increases, becomes
pointed, and softer, pain is incrcasod, and thero is a sensa-
tion of pulsation, and throbbing.  Rigors or shivering often
occurs, and are looked upon as a sure indication  that pus is
formed, or about to be.
   When the pus is once formed pain and redness diminish,
the swelling fluctuates, and a cavity  exists which encloses
the matter.
  What are the characteristics of healthy  pus?  It  is of a
light  yellow  or cream color; made up of small globules
which float in a watery fluid.
  Unhealthy  pus is called ichor when  it is thin  and acrid.
Sanies, when it is a foetid ichor mixed  with blood.  Sordos
when it is of a leaden color, thick, and offensive. Malignant,
when generated in pestilential diseases. Contagious, whon
it has the power  of producing a disease of  the same charac-
ter.
  What  is the treatment of  suppurative inflammation?  If
tho patient has been much  enfeebled  by evacuations, wo
substitute a better  regimen, employ tonics, mineral acids,
and opium.  As local  means we  use fomentations,  and
warm poultices.  Poultices should be  continued after the
discharge of matter unless it is kept up too profusely whon
other mild dressings should bo omployed.
  What rules should govern us  in regard to oponing abces-
sos?  Abcesses situated on the face, near  largo cavities, or
joints should  be opened early.  In  other cases they may bo
left longer. The best instrument for opening them is a nar-
row sharp pointed history; which should be passed in slow-
ly until you find by the feel that it is in the sack, thon cut
forward so as to make a free incision.

                 Ulcerative Inflammation.
  What is meant by ulcerativo inflammation or ulcerative
absorption?   It is that morbid process  by which the conti-
nuity  of the different textures of the body  is destroyed.
  What parts of the body are liable to ulceration?  Every
texture is liable; but the skin and mucous membranes suf-
fer more  readily than other parts.  Pain always attends thi*
process and it is generally lancinating. 
SURGERY.
180
                      Mortification.

   What is mollification? Gangrene is that condition which
 immediately precedes tho destruction of a part.   Sphacelus
 denotes tho complete death of apart; and the term mortifi-
 cation designates both stages of the complaint.
   What are the different kinds of gangrene?   Thoy are the
 wot and dry; and the idiopathic and traumatic.
   The idiopathic is constitutional, and the traumatic results
 from an injury.
   What are tho causes of mortification?  It is generally the
 result of inflammation.  It may be caused also by poisons, a
 deficient supply of arterial blood, any cause which will en-
 feoblo tho circulation,  doposites  in the  arteriss, Ergot, &c.
   What aro the symptoms?   The part loses its  sensibility,
 licit, and color.  These changes  seldom take place sudden
 ly, but arc preceded by an increase of pain; and swelling; the
 blood circulates only in the larger vessels; the skin become
 soft and of a dark red or purplo color, and vesicles contains
 ing a thin scrum aro formed under tho cuticle.   When it is
 complete, if you press upon  the part the blood will not re-
 turn. Along with these symptoms tho pulse becomes quick
 nnd tremulous, of a typhoid character, tonguo  dry  and
 brownish, skin hot,  tho patient  rostlese,  uneasy,  and  fre-
 quently with delirium, subsultus  nausea, nnd hiccup.
   What is the treatnruit?  When there is high inflamma-
 tion which is likoly to terminato  in gangrene, tho antiphlo-
 gistic treatment should be adopted; but if gangrene has ta-
 kon place a different practice must be pursued. The bowels
 Bhould be  gently  openod, and tonic3, and nutritious  food
 given.  Opium, carbonate of ammonia, camphor,  &c, will
 be found bonolielal.  Local remedies are of use only where
 tho mortification is incomplete; when scarifications, emoli-
 ont poultices, blisters, &c. have been recommended. In Se-
 nilo gangrene  opium is an important remedy. T.» prevent
sloughing or bed  sores, from long confinement, the  parts
when tiny are first discolored should be washed with a so-
lution of nitrate of silver 10 gr. to gj of water 3 or 4 times a
day, then cover with bland adhesive plaster.  The hydrosta.
tic bod i.s highly recommended by Dr. Muasoy as a prevon
titivo.   Where tho sores have formed, dross with adhc3ivo"
piaster, and chango tho position of tho patient.
  Amputation is soldom resorted to in cases of mortification
        17 
190
SURGERY.
before a line of separation Is formed,  although ft Is iomo-
times, in traumatic gangrene; but it should never be in tho
Idiopathic variety.
  What are the symptoms of dry mortification?  The toes
and feet lose their heat, and jboeome shrivelled, discolored
and converted into a hard, dry, insensiblo mass, of a dark blue
or black color, without previous swelling,  redneBS, pain, or
fetoi.
  What is the treatment? Amputation.

                       Erysipelas.

  What are tho  symptoms of erysipelas?  The  surface of
the part affected is elevated, varies from a bright scarlot to a
purplish color, has an abrupt termination,  and is accompa-
nied with a burning, or itching sensation. Thero is general-
ly more or less rigor, fever, nausea, &c. preceding tlie com-
plaint.  The symptoms are sometimes slight, and sometimes
very severe, particularly in the epidomic form, and when  it
attacks the head and face.
  What are the  causes of erysipelas1?  The  causes  aro not
always obvious; in other  cases it  may be traced 10  the ap-
plication of poisons, wounds, exposure, derangement of tho
digestive organs, &c.
  What is  the treatment?   In the commencement if indi-
cated by the general' symptoms, recourse should be had to
blood-letting, purgatives, diaphoretics and  low diet.  Some-
times a contrary plan becomes necessary during tho  course
of the disease, and opium, baik, camphor, &c, may bo in-
dicated. The local  remedies in use are tincture of iodine
nitrate  of  silver  and  acetate  of lead in solution, incis-
ions, mercural ointment, British oil, starch, flour, &c.  The
nitrate of silver applied with a pencil so as to surround tho
inflammation is frequently resorted to.

                  Furunculus or Boil.

  What are  the symptoms of furunculus?  It is  a hard'
painful, and highly inflammed tumor, conical, base  below'
and apex above thejlevel of  the skin; and  contains a disor-
ganized mass called a core.
  What is the  treatment?  Encourage suppuration  with
warm poultices, and as soon as the apex becomes soft make
on opening into it large enough to remove  the core. 
SURGERY
191
                 Anthrax or Carbuncle
  What are tho symptons of anthrax?  Ii is a deep seated
circumscribed, hard, and painful swelling, of a livid  hue,
attended with itching and a burning heat, and  terminates
by sloughing.  The constitutional symptons  are often very
Bovore, particularly loss ol  appetite,  fover, prostration, &c
When on the scalp they nearly always prove fatal.
  What is tho treatment?  Emmollient poultices in the first
stage until vesications, or a discharge of  bloody serum ap-
pears;  it should then be freely covered with  caustic vege-
table alkali, as recommended by Dr. Physick.  Other sur-
geons rccommond that it should be opened early by free in-
cisions, and stimulating applications used.  Opium should
be freely employed to assuage pain, and procure sleep

                  Pernio or Chilbla n.

  What are  tho  symptoms of perino?   It is the  resu of
cold, and is mot with in the extromo parts of  the body.  At
first  tho skin is palo and shrivelled, which is  succeeded by
redness, tumefaction, pain, pruritus, and oedema.  In severe
cases tho skin beeomos  purplish, tho itching very violent,
vosication takes place  and forms an  ill  conditioned sore.—
Tho mild form frequently disappears in summer, and returns
in the winter.
  What is the treatment?  Tho application of soap  lina-
mont, spirit of turpentine, sulphate of copper, and tincture
of cantharides is recommended.  Tho  best remedy is to smear
the part with the balsam of copaiva.

                      Frost Bite,
  What are the symptoms  of  frost bite?  The exposed part
bocomos benumod, stiff, and insensible; these symptons are
succeodod by heat, swelling, pain, lividity, and suppuration,
which occurs between tho sound and living parts.  When
tho cold is long continued so as to affect the internal organs,
drowsiness, shivering, rigidity of the limbs,  diminution of
tljo circulation, and profound sleep, terminating in death.
  What ih tho treatment?  Snow and ice  water should first
bo applied, and tho parts carefully handled;  whon the nat-
ural  temperature is restored it should be  treated according
to tho circumstances of the caso in regard to inflammation,
tendency to mortification, &c.  When tho patient it inson- 
192
SURGERY.
sible the indications aro to restore tho respiration, and circu-
lation, by sternutatories, volatiles, frictions, «Stc.

                         Burns.

  How aro burns divided and  what are thoir symptoms?—
They are divided into superficial, ulcerated and carbuncn-
lous.   In the first there is simple erythema; in the second
vesication; and the third is  whore the cutis and adjoining
parts  are disorganized, with  severe  constitutional distur-
bance in proportion to the extent of the injury.  In the sc-
eond  variety the constitutional  disturbance may be groat
also, in proportion to the extent of  surface involved.
  At what periods may burns prove dangerous?  Whon tho
shock is first received; from reaction or inflammation; and
at tne suppurative period.
  What is the treatment?  In superficial burnstho applica-
tion of carded cotton is highly extolled; also cooling appli-
cations,  either by tho direct application of cold, or6by evap-
orating lotions.  The  essenco of pepporiiunt before vesica-
tion takes  place is one of our best application to assaugo
pain,  and prevent the effusion  of serum.
  In  the second variety,  emollient applications should  bo
used, and a linamont  of lime water, and flaxseed  oil,  or
sweet oil spread on cotton batting is as good an  application
as we can  make.  In the third variety, the stimulant plan
internally and externally should  be adopted, until reaction
takes place, when the  anti-phlogistic system may become
necessary.   Opium  is generally necessary to relieve  pain
and constitutional disturbance.
  The after treatment of the ulcors should be governed by
the circumstances of the case, always bearing in mind tho
strong tendency to contraction of the cicatrices, which should
be  counteracted by splints, rollers, &o.   The treatme.it of
those cicatrices has been recently much improved^by means
of plastic operations.

                        Wo c:\ds.

  How are wounds divided?  Into incised, punctured, pen-
etrating, contused, lacerated, poisoned, and gun shot. Tlu-rto
maybe divided into wounds of the head, face, neck, chost,
belly, and extremities. 
SURGERY.
193
                   Incised  Wounds
  What aro  the dangers of Inclsod  wounds?  These are
tho least dangerous of the wounds except from hemorrhago,
which may be troublesome whon a sharp instrument is used
or largo blood vessels divided.
  What is the proper treatmont?  It is to suppress  the he-
morrhage, clear the wound of all foreign matter, and retain
the edges in contact.                              ..
  What aro the means of  suppressing hemorrhages? Liga-
tures, compression, and tho actual cautery. The tenaculum,
noedlo, and forceps, are the instruments employed to secure
blooding  vessels.  Ligatures aro made of  thread, silk, or
leather.0 Compression may bo performed by tho tourniquet,
ot by rollers and plodgets.
  Tha actual  cautory should nevor bo employed when the
blooding vessels can bo secured.
   What aro tho moans  usod for retaining tho edges of the
wound in contact?  Adhesive straps, bandages, and sutures;
tho object of which is to produce adhesion.
  Thero  are two sutures in uso; tho twisted, and the inter-
rupted.

                   Punctured  Wounds.

  How are punctured wounds produced?  By sharp narrow
instruments such as noodles,  pins, thorn*, splinters of wood,
nails, &.c.
  What are tho dangers from punctured wounds?  Tetanus,
and largo collections of matter under the fascia.
   What is tho tn atment?  A soft poultice is generally suffi-
riont; but if thoro are indications of tho formation of matter,
or nervous symptoms arise, tho wound should be freely dila-
ted,  and  kept open. The use of opiuui may become neces-
sary.

                  Penetrating Wounds.

   What are tho characteristics of penetrating wounds?
They are more extensive than punctures, and generally pro-
 duced by the small sword, bayonet, or dirk.
   What arc the dangers from ponetrating wounds?  Thoy
may bo  dangerous  from entering large cavities, injury to
important bloodvessels, norves, or viscera; or thoy may
rauso extensive collections of matter in deep seated parts.
         17* 
194
SURGERY
  What is tho treatment?  Tho first object  is to suppress
hemorrhage; which may require extensivo incisions. If the
bleeding vessel is in tho chest or abdomen deep seatod, tho
plan is to diminish tho general activity of tho circulation by
blood letting.  In  other respects they aro to be treated as
tho constitutional, and local symptoms may demand.

                   Contused  Woundr.

  Whai are the dangers from contused wounds?  Gangreno
is very liable to take place whon they arc extensive, and se-
vere.
  What is the treatment?  They should be treated on com-
mon antiphlogistic principles locally, and genorally.

                   Lacerated  Wouw/y.

  What are tho  dangers of lacerated wounds?   They  are
dangerous from thoir extent, and tiie parts involved. They
blood sparingly,  but aro liable to secondary hemorrhage,
and to gangrene.
  What is the treatment?  Bring  tho partn as near together
as possible,  and treat the constitutional effocts as  the condi-
tion of the patient may demand.

                   Poisoned  Wounds.

  How are  poisoned wounds produced?  Goncrally by in-
sects, serpents, rabid animals, &c.
  What is the treatment?  In  the sting of boos,  or wasps,
the local application of common salt, odd water,  aqua  am-
monia, &c, are useful.  In the bites of serpents, olive oil,
aqua ammonia, arsenic, &,c, have some reputation.  The ap-
plication of a cupping glass to the part has  provod useful.
When called early the part should bo removed entirely   In
dissecting wounds, apply lunar caustic, after washing clean,
and take a mercurial purge,

                   Gun Shot  Wounds.

  What is included under the head of gun shot wounds?
All injurios occurring from fire arms,  explosion of shells,
rockets, &c.
  What  circumstances render gunshot wounds dangerous?
The extent of the injury, the parts involved, from thnir in 
SURGERY.
195
deposition to heal by the first intention, their disposition to
slough, and secondary hemorrhage.
  \\ hat is tho general treatment?   It is to suppress hemor-
rhage, and  extract the foreign  body when it can  bo done
without loo much injury to surrounding parts. The  applica-
tions should be simple, such as water dressings, with sugar
of lead ond opium.

                      Abscesses.

  What is the treatment of Abscess of the Antrum1) It is to
remove ono or  more  tooth corresponding with  the floor of
tho antrum;  if  the matter is not then discharged pass a sti-
let  or small trocar into tho cavity  from where the tooth has
boon pulled and push it into tho antrum gradually.  Use as-
tringent injections four or five timos a day, and keep a bit of
bougie  or tent in the opening until tho discharge and inflam-
mation subside.
  What is the treatment of Mammanj Abscessl  The  first
step is to prevent them if possible by tho repeated  applica-
tions of warm vinegar, topical bloodletting, and a general
antiphlogistic course.
  If we find suppuration must take place, apply warm poul-
txcfl,  and open  in a  depending  part when  fluctuation is
perceived.
  What aro tho  symptoms of Lumbar Abscessl  Pain in tho
lumbar region, extending from the kidney down to  the out-
pido of tho thigh, testicle of the side drawn up, and pain in
the spermatic chord.   These arc followed by rigors, less of
appetite, nnd hectic.  It sometimes points below the groin,
Kometimcs it passes through the ischiatic notch,  and in oth-
er cases passes down near tho rectum. The discharge is gen-
erally thin and gloety, mixed with small tlocculi resembling
curds, or cheese.
  What is  tho  treatment?   Very  few recover. In the early
stages iho antiphlogistic course should bo adopted, but when
matter is formed an opposite course should be pursued.
  Whon tho abscess is oponcd it should be done by a small
valvular incision, then closed for a time, and again opened,
so as to draw off tho matter in a gradual manner.

                        Ulct.rs.

  If.iw are ulcers divided?  Into healthy, unhealthy, nnd 
196
SURGERY.
 specific.  Tho first comprehends but ono species, the simple
 ulcer.  The second contains two species, tho irritablo  and
 indolent ulcer.  The third contains soveral species tho prin-
 cipal of which are ulcers from scrofula, cancer, fungus hai-
 matodos, syphilis, and syphiloid, scorbutic, herpetic, lupus or
 noli me tangerc, &c.
                      Simple Ulcer.

   What are the causes of tho 4<implo ulcer?  Injunos done
 to a sound  part by wound, contusion, abeess, or burn.
   What are the characteristics of a simplo ulcer?  It ex-
 hibits a florid appearance, owing to  the small, pointed  and
 numerous bright red granulations, which  cover it.  Thero
 is a discharge of  healthy pus in small quantity, and  tho
 tendency is to heal.
   What is the trcatmont?  Simply keep tho part in a proper
 position, and cover the sore with some mild fresh ointment
 spread on lint, or  linen rag.   Dry lint is also a good appli-
 cation.
                      Irritable  U'-cer.
   What are tho characteristics of the irritable ulcer?  Tho
 edges of the sore  aro ragged, undermined, and sometimes
 almost serrated.   The  parts beyond  tho ulcer are red, and
 inflammed;  the bottom of the ulcer  exhibits irregular  hol-
 lows which contain a thin greenish, or rod acrid matter;  and
 in place of healthy granulations  may  be lound a dark rod
 spongy mass, painful, and bleoding on the slightest touch.
  What aro tho causes of the irritable  ulcer'1   It proceeds
 from local  causes  influenced  by the  state of the  constitu-
 tion, and  habits of the patient.   Tho  digestive organs in
 particular are generally disordered?
  What is  the treatment?  The constitutional condition
 should be attended to; and if the digestivo organs aro af-
 fected resort should be had to steady  purging and antimoni-
 als, if  not contra-indicated.
  The proper local applications are poultices, fomentations,
 cream, a weak  solution of the nitrate of silver, and  opium
 mixed  with  poultices or sprinkled over tho sore.   The limb
 should be elevated and pressure and bandaging avoided.

                     Indolent Ulcer.

  What are  the  symptoms of the indolent ulcer? The
granulating  surfaco haa a flat shining aspect, and  is partly 
SURGERY.
197
covered with a pellicle or crust of a whitish or dark grey
color.  Soi.mtimes the surface is dry but generally there is
a discharge of a viscous cohesive fluid.   Tho  edges are ele-
vatod,  c-nooth, and rounded;  beyond  the ulcer the parts
are swollen, and indurated.  The pain is trifling.
  What in the treatment of the indolent ulcer?  Where an
ulcer shows a disposition to become indolent, resort should
bo had without delay to escharotics, adhesive straps,  or the
roller.   If thesu  do not effect a cure the edges  should be
pared away, and the whole  surface pencilled with tho veg-
etable or lunar caustic.   The oak bark poultice followed in
a few  days by the adhosive strips or roller will sometimes
euro.  Those ulcers frequently require stimulating applica-
 tion.,, such as lunar caustic, savin powder, cantharides, cap-
sicum, corrosive sublimate, &c.  Dr. Physick considered a
combination of gj of simple corate, and  3ji of British oil
as the  bowl cicatrizor.  The dressings  should be changed
ropeatodly.
   Constitutional remodies also exert a powerful influence,
and such remedies as blue pill, and other mercurials  should
be resorted to.
   In healing chronic ulcers care should be taken to estab-
lish an issuo in some part of tho  body; otherwiso the slop-
page of  a long established  discharge, may give rise  to apo-
plexy, or other serious disturbance.
   Varicose  ulcers  will  usually heal with adhesive straps,
tho roller or laced stocking; but in many instances the en-
 larged veins can only be relieved by an operation.
                        Scrofula.
   What aro the premonitory signs of scrofula?   A dolicate
complexion of a lively red  color, mixed with a clear white,
 the  lips red, and  the  upper ono especially thick and protu-
 berant.  The pupils of the eyes  largo, and the conjunctiva
 free from vessels.  These are some  of the symptoms  which
 donote the scrofulous constitution.
   Children aro more subject to it than adults.
   What are the symptoms of scrofula?   A  scrofulous  tu-
 mour is  first a simple enlargement without pain, or unnatu-
 ral heat; in a short time it becomes tender on pressure, and
 the  heat is augmented; inflammation thon generally  sots in,
 nnd it terminates in abscess, and ulceration, but not  always.
  Tho matter discharged from abscesses of thi:<  kind is thin,
 gloety, and mixod with flocculi. 
198
SURGERY.
  What aro some of the most obvious causes of scrofula?
Cold and moisture, hereditary influence, irregularities of diet,
moagre and unwholesome provisions, an impure or tainted
atmosphere, deficient clothing, fevers, filth, fatigue, mental
anxiety, &c.
  What is the proper treatment for scrofula? Invigorato
the general system by  a light nourishing diet, tonics, and
such other means as tho general  state of the health may re-
quire.   Flannel should bo worn next  tho skin, and moder-
ate exercise persoverod in.  Iodine, and its compounds both
generally and locally,  are valuablo in the treatment of most
cases of scrofula.
   For the scrofulous ulcer,  dry lint, the iodine cataplasm,
astringent washes, and moderate  pressure, are recommended.

                         Cancer.

   What is understood  by tho term Scirrhus? It is tho fore-
runner of cancer; and characterized by a preternatural den-
 sity or induration of  the soft parts, difficult of resolution,
 and prono to ulceration.  It is  unequal in surface,  uncom-
 monly heavy,  and  the skin covering it puckered, and of a
 faint bluish or leaden  hue;  with a vehement peculiar,lanci-
 nating pain in the part.
   What is the treatment of cancer?   Extirpation is the re-
medy  most to bo depended upon, but from the constitutional
 naturo of the  affection this  does not always succeed.

                       Gonorrhoea,
   What aro the symptoms of gonorrhoea?  They arc a slight
titilation of the glans penis, tumidity of the lips of  the ure-
thra, and more or less inflammation of tho  glans, and pre-
puce.   These are followed  by a discharge from the urethra
of a thin whitish fluid, speodily  changing into a yellow pu-
rulent matter of  a peculiar smell, attended  with pain along
the course of the urethra in discharging the urine.
   What is tho  treatment?  Tho constitutional treatment in
severe cases is blood-lotting, purgatives, and low  diet.—
Stimulating diuretics,  especially balsam of copaiva, and cu-
bobs aro beneficial.   When  the ardor  urinae, and discharge
diminish wo may use astringent injections,

                        Sypilis.
   What is understood by the syphilitic vims*  It is a spe- 
SURGERY.
199
cifig morbid poison, whlcli applied under certain conditions
to any portion of tho human body will thero determine defi-
nite  and characteristic  local phenomona, and if absorbed
contaminato the system.
  How is syphilis divided?  Into primary or local, of which
chancre is the exponent. And consecutive, general, or con-
stitutional,  which is always the  consequence of chancre.
  What ib chancre?   It is a primary veneral sore, produced
by the direct action of tho syphilitic virus on the inoculated
part.
  What are the different ways that chancres may be devel-
oped?  By pustule, ulcoration, and small abscess.
  What are the stagos?  Thero  are two; ono of ulceration,
and the other of cicitrization.
  What is the difference in tho  properties of the matter in
thcso two stages?  In tho first it is inoculable, and in  the
second it is not.
  How are chancres divided  as to location?   Into external,
ond larvated or concealed.
  How are they divided in regard to  their characteristics?
Into follicular,  indurated, phagadenic, and furunculous.
  What is the index of constitutional  affection?   Indura-
tion of a chancre.
  Are buboes classed among the primary or secondary symp-
toms of syphilis?  The  primary; and may occur both from
sympathy and absorption.  If from absorption, they aro in-
oculable, and are included in  the term furunculous chancres
or chancreous buboes.
  What is the treatment of chancre? As it is at first purely
a local affection, the specific sore should be converted into a
simplo one by the  application of caustic. Nitrate of silver,
protonitrato of  mercury, sulphate of copper,  potassa cum-
calce, &c, aro  used for this  purposo somo  preferring  ono
and somo another.  After the soparation of the eschar sim-
plo dressings such as  weak solutions of sulphate of copper,
black and yellow washes, aromatic wine, &c, will be prop-
er dressings. Larvated urethral chancres may be cauterized
by Lallemand's instrument.
  How should buboes from absorption  be treated?  By an-
tiphlogistics generally;  blisters  succeeded by a solution of
corrosive sublimate, and other  antiphlogistic  applications
locally; after ulcoration  thoy should be treated liko chancres.
  What is the proper treatment for chancre when it becomes 
200
SURGERY.
 indurated?  Induration boing the index of absorption which
 is followed by constitutional  symptoms, constitutional rem-
 edies become necessary, and  morcury pushed to tho  extont
 of a very slight impression on the glands is tho best remedy.
   What are tho constitutional or secondary symptoms?  Cu-
 taneous eruptions; inflammation of the eye; inflammation
 and ulcerations of the palate and  fauces; induration and
 ulcerations of the glanas of  tho skin; inflammation of tho
 osseous and fibrous tissues, neuralgia, &c.
   Are these affections capable of horcditary transmission?
   They are; but tho  primary are propagated  from ono to
 another only by inoculation.
   What is the  treatment?   Ey alteratives; among which
 morcury stands first; iodide of potassium, sarsaparilla, arse-
 nic, &,c, are also useful.

                       Fbactuees.

   How are  Fractures divided?  Into simple, compound
 and complicated, and again  into transverse, oblique, com-
 minutive,  and  longitudinal.   A simple fracture  is a more
 separation of tho bony fibres  unattendod with severe contu-
 sion or external  wound.  A  compound  fracture is accom-
 panied with an  external wound or  protruded  bone.   It is
 called complicated when the  bone is broken in  more than
one  place, combined with [luxation, laceration of  largo ves-
sels, or rupture of ligaments, tendons, &c., or  other exten-
sive injury.  Afracturoistransver.se  when  its direction is
perpendicular to  the axis of the bone, oblique  when  it  de-
viates from tho porpendicular  direction, comminuted  whon
the bone is broken in several places, and longitudinal when it
runs parallol with the axis of tho bone.
   What are the symptoms of  fracture?   Generally there is
crepitus, and when it  exists  can bo  relied on.   Thoro is
also usually deformity, pain, swelling, and  inability to use,
and  move the limb.
   What is the prognosis in fractures?  It will depend much
upon the extent  of tho injury, constitution, and ago of the
patient, the kind of  fracture, and the  bono broken.   Com-
plicated and compound  fractures aro  the most dangerous.
An oblique fracture is more difficult to manage than a  tran-
verse one, owing.to muscular contraction.
  What is the treatment for fractures? Tho general indica-
tions aro to prevent orsubduo inflammation, and to coaptato 
SURGERY.
.'01
mul retain the fragments in contact, until they aro restored
by call ub.
  The former is  best  accomplished by tho anti-phlogistic
courso and position; and the latter by extension, counter-ex-
tension, position, splints, compresses, and bandages.  It re-
quires from  two to eight weeks to  produce consolidation;
and  somo timo  longor boforo  complete restoration takes
place.
              Fracture of {the  Lower Jaw.
  What are the symptoms of fracture of  the lower jaw?—
Crepitation cart generally be dotceted, and the teeth will be
found irregular, and often loosened.
   What apparatus is necessary?  A compress, and  a ban-
dage united in tho centre and divided  at each end near to
tho middle, so that each loose end may bo tied to the ono of
the opposite side; one of them  ovor the top, and  the other
al the back part of the  head; the united portion of tho ban
dago  covoring the compress and  fracture.
  Tho patient must  be nourished with broth  or other thin
fluid  between the tooth.

              Fracture of the  Vertebrae.

  What is tho treatment for fractures of tho vertobrae?   If
tho patient should  survivo tho immediate effect of the inju-
rs •; the antiphlogistic course should be adopted, particularly
ono to relieve inflammation of tho spinal marrow; and tho
urino must bo drawn off frequently by the cathetor.
                 Fracture of the Ribs.

  What aro the symptoms of fracturo of the ribs?  Thoy aro
not always distinct unless crepitus oxist; there is generally
little  displacement; but usually pain  on respiration,  (espe-
cially in tho recumbont posture), at the soat of tho injury;
which is increased upon coughing.
  What  is tho treatment?  A   rollor 6  or 7  inches wido
should bo applied tightly round the chest so as to  cause the
patient  to breath by tho diaphragm.  Tho general  symp-
toms should be attended to at the same time.
               Fracture of the  Sternum.
  What are the symptoms?  An incessant grating  of tho
fragments upon each other during respiration.   The direc-
tion of the fracture is commonly transverse.
          18 
202                   SURGERY

  What is tho treatment?  The indications aro to prevent,
or subdue inflammation, and to appcuso tho incessant cough
and difficult respiration that usually attend. A rollor should
be applied also, as in fracture of tho ribs.
                                                       I
                Fracture of the Clavicle.                *

  What are the symptoms?   Crepitation, depression of tho
humeral beneath the sternal fragment,  tho  shoulder falling
below the level of tho opposite one, and the peculiar incli-
nation of the head and body  towards the affected side.
   What is the treatment?  The indications in fracture of
tho clavicle are  to carry the shouldor upwards, outwards,
and backwards;  and to retain it in this position  by appro-
 priate apparatus, of which  thero is a variety in  use, somo
surgeons preferring one, and  some another.  Tho plan of
Velpeau is  recommended by Prof. Mussoy in which  tho
 fore-arm is brought across tho chest with the hand resting
 on the shoulder of tho  sound  sido and secured in this posi-
 tion by proper bandages, and compresses.
   Fractures of the scapula can generally be treated by the
 same position as those of the clavicle.

                   Fracture of the Arm.

   What are  the  symptoms?   Crepitation, mobility of the
 fragments, and angular displacomont, or a tendency to it.  A
 fracture of the neck of the  humerus besides the ordinary
 symptoms of fracture, may be  distinguished from  disloca-
 tion by the  rotundity of tho  shoulder being preserved;
 while in dislocation there  is  a hollow  under the acromion,
 and a tumor in the axilla.
   What is the  apparatus  necessary for tho treatment?   A
 long roller, and four narrow splints.
   Whon the condyles are fractured a  roller, and two angu-
 lar splints are necessary.

                 Fracture of the Fore-arm.
   What are the symptoms?  Crepitation, deformity, and the
 mobility of tho fragments.
   What apparatus is necessary in the treatment? Two long
 compresses; two splints 2i inches wide, and long enough to
 extend from tho elbow to tho points of tho fingers; and a
 roller. 
SURGERY.
203
                Fracture of the Patella.
  What are tho symptoms ?  Tho transvorso fracture which
is tho most common, is known by tho upper half being mov-
ed upwards on tho thigh, and the patient is unable to rise,
or to walk.
  What is the treatment, and apparatus?  The limb should
bo placed in an extended position and flexed on the pelvis.
The apparatus is a splint two inches wide, long enough to
cxtond from tho tuberosity of the ischium to near the heel;
two rollers, each six yards long, and three inches wide; and
compresses.

                 Fracture of the Thigh.

  What are tho symptoms of the  fracture of the neck? The
limb is generally shortened, its length can be restored with-
out difficulty, and reasconds as soon as the extension is re-
moved. Upon rotating the thigh, and placing the  hand on
tho trochanter it will turn as it were upon a pivot;  whereas
in the sound bone it describes the arch of a circlo the radius
of which is formed by the neck.
  What part of the  thigh is most liable to fracture.  The
middle in young subjects.
  What are tho symptoms of fracture of the shaft? There
aro the general symptoms of fracture with shortening of the
limb, unless it is transverse, in  which case the ends are sup-
ported against each  other.
  What aro the indications  of treatment?  The  principal
indications are  to keep up  extension,  and counter-exten-
sion, for which there is a great  variety of apparatus in use.

                  Fracture of the Leg.

  What are tie most common varioties? Oblique and  trans-
vorso fractures of tho middle, but it is  liable to every  varie-
ty and in any part.  Sometimes one bono is broken, and at
others both.   A  variety of  apparatus is used in treatment.

                       Luxations.

  What is a luxation or dislocation?   It is the removal of
the head of a bono from its corresponding articulating cavity.
  How aro tho varioties  of dislocation designated?  By the
terms simple, and compound; primitive, and consecutive;
recont, and old; complete, and incomplete. 
204
SURGERY.
  Simple luxation is where thoro Is a mere removal of the
head of tho bone; compound, whon nn oxtornal wound com-
municates with the cavity of the joint; primitive, when tho
head of the bone continues in tho unnatural position it first
assumed; consocutive, when it is removed and becomes fix-
ed in another; recent, and old rolato to tho duration; com-
plete, and incomplete denote total and partial displacement.
  How may luxations be distinguished from fractures?  By
Want  of crepitation, by the peculiar distortion and rigidity
of the limb, and the shape of the joint.
  What are the moans generally employed? Constitutional,
and local means are both often necessary.   Among the for-
mer, are blood letting, warm bath, nauseating emetics, &c.
The latter are extension, and  countor-oxtension.
  In how many ways may the Lower Jaw be luxated, and
What  are  the  symptoms?  Only in  one;—anteriorly.   The
condyles are displaced, the mouth is thrown open  and can-
not bo shut, and the coronoid process projects under the
Cheek bone.
  What is the treatment?  Tho surgeon places his thumb
d( ep in the mouth, and rests them upon the posterior  molaT
teeth whilo the fingers aro  carried  beneath the chin and
base of the jaw.  Pressure should  be made downward by
the thumb, and the chin  elevated at the same moment; by
Which reduction may be effected.
  How many ways may the Clavicle bo luxated? It may bo
luxated at either end; and the sternal portion  in three di-
rections; forward, backwards, and  upwards.  They" aro all
easily distinguished by their peculiar deformity.
   What is the treatment?  Tho same as for fracture  of the
same bone.
  How many ways may the Arm be luxated?  Downwards,
forwards,  backwards, and  a consecutivo  dislocation  up-
wards.
  How may 'ho Fore-arm be luxated? Backwards, laterally,
and forwards by a previous fracture  of the olecranon.
  What are the different luxations of the Thigh'} Upwards,
and outwards,  on the dorsum of the ilium; downwards and
Inwards into the foramen ovale; upwards and  forwards on
the pubes; and backwards into the ischiatic notch.
  The first may bo known by a prominence near the supe-
rior spinous process of the ilium formed  by tho great tro-
chanter, together with a shortening  of the limb, nnd  an in-
  nation of the foot inwards 
SURGERY.                  205
  Tho second by the limb being lengthened two or throo
inches;  tho foot  is turned outwards,  and the hoad of the
bono in thin subjects may be folt in the foramen ovale.
  Tho third by a hard tumour abovePouparts ligament; tho
limb is shortened about an inch, tho foot is turned outwards,
and the trochantor major is in front of the antorior superior
spinous process of the ilium.
  The fourth by the limb being shortened half an inch, and
tho foot slightly inclined inwards.
  What is tho treatment?  Extension by pulleys, and coun-
tor oxtonsion by a band passing ovor the perineum and rest-
ing against tho tuber of tho ischium.
  How may tho Patella  be luxated?  Outwards,  inwards,
and upwards  when tho ligament of tho patella is ruptured.
  In what  direction may the Ankle be luxated?  Inwards,
outwards, forwards,  and backwards;  all of which may  be
oasily recognized.

           Diseases of  the Bones and Joints.

  To what diseases are the bones liable?  Caiies; necrosis;
exostosis; spina vontosa; osteo-sarcoma; mollites and fragi-
litas ossium; and rachitis.

                        Caries.

  What is caries? It is an ulceration of bone.
  Tho soft or spongy bones aro the most liable to caries.
  What aro tho symptoms?   The affected part swells, thero
is a softening of  tho bono, and it crumbles away;  there  is
also a dischargo of foetid blackish matter,  and a luxuriant
growth of pale fungous granulations.
  What is the treatmont?   When  it is  dependent upon a
syphilitic, scrofulous, scorbutic, or any constitutional disor-
dor, genoral remedies should be resorted to.  When it pro-
coeds from local  injury,  the indications  aro to combat in-
flammation, keep tho parts at rest, and remove diseased por-
tions of bono as they become loose. Mineral acids, and gas-
tric juico have also been applied with benefit.  Blisters, is-
sues, sotons, and  steady purging aro serviceable in constitu-
tional caries.

                  Caries of the Spine.

  What are tho svmptoms ? The patient complains of numb
         18* 
206
SURGERY.
ness or an uneasy sensStion in the loivor extremities, w lan-
guid, easily tired, and apt to trip or stumble in walking.
  There is often flatulence, sick stomach, and derangement
of the digestive organs. Paralysis of the lower extremities
occurs in the advanced stages of the disease.  There is moro
or less protuberance at some portion of the  spinal column;
the spinous processes of which project, and create consider-
able deformity. The most common seat is the dorsal vorte-
brae.
  What is tho treatment?  In the  commencement benefit
may bo derived from leeches, blisters,  and caustic issues;
the latter  of which it  is often necessary to  continue for a
long time. The condition of the bowels, and diet of the pa-
tient should be strictly attended to, the recumbent posture
enjoined,  and at  the same time  the benefit of fresh air
should be given.

                       Necrosis.

  What is necrosis?   It is where thore is destruction of the
vitality  of bone, and differs from caries as sphacelus differs
from ulceration.
  What is the treatment?  It is to removo the doad pieces
of bone when formed.
                       Exostosis.

  What is  exostosis?  It is  an  enlargement of the bony
Structure,  and is divided  into laminated,  circumscribed, tu-
berculated  and  spinous  exostosis.  Tho bones generally
affected are  those of the cranium, lower jaw,  sternum, ribs,
and extremities.
  What is the treatment?  When it becomes troublesome
it should bo attempted by general remedies,  and low diet.
It these fail it should be extirpated.

                     Spina  Ventosa.

  What aro  the symptoms of spina  ventosa?   It is a tumor
involving  the whole  circumference  of a bono, consisting  of
an osseous shell perforate 1 with numerous^holes, containing
sometimes a thin sanies mixed with portions  of lymph  or a
cheesj substance.
  What is me treatment?  A cure  may sometimes be  pro-
duced by  long continued pressure; another mode of treat-
ment is to make an opening  into the cavity,  and throw in 
SURGERY.                  307
stimulating injections, or by cutting Instruments excito such
a degrco of irritation as to  causo it to fill up with granula-
tions.  If this fail amputation must be resorted to.

                    Ostco Sarcoma.

  What is ostco sarcoma?  It is a malignant disease of the
bonos.  The tumor forming the  diseased part is  composed
of thin bony plates arranged so as  to form cells which con-
tain a choose-like or fleshy matter,  or a thin gelatinous fluid.
  What is tho treatmont? In tho early stages constitutional
remedies may avail something; of which the compound de-
coction of sarsapalla with corrosive sublimate is perhaps the
most efliciont.  Leeches ano blisters have also been applied
locally.  Amputation when practicable is the only remedy
likely to bo permanently beneficial, oven  this often fails,
and tho disease returns, and attacks some of the internal or-
gans, or anothor part of  tho osseous system.

                    Mollites Ossium.

  What are tho symptoms?  Tho bone looses its natural
firmness; both tho animal  and saline parts diminish until
more shells aro left whieh are very soft.   It is a very rare
disease.
  What is the treatment?  Treatment is of little use; and
all  that can  be  accomplished  is  to support  tho patient's
strength by tonics, and nutritious diet.

                  Rachitis or Rickets.

  What  aro tho symptoms?  Disorder of the digestive or-
gans, swelling of tho  abdomen, emaciatian, dryness or dis-
coloration of tho skin, and blackness of the teeth.  These
symptoms are followod by distortion of different parts of the
bodv, which in bad cases become very much deformed.
  What ie tho treatment?  To strengthen the system  by
tonics, and keep the stomach and bowels in proper condi-
tion. Good ^nutritious  diet consisting of animal food has
boon recommended, also frictions, and frequent bathing in
salt water.
                 Coxalgia or Hip Disease.

  What aro the torms usod to denote this disease?  Morbus
coxarius, ischias,  spontaneous luxation of tho os femoris,
 scrofulous caries of the hip, and abscess of the hip joint. 
208
SURGERY.
  What are the symptoms?   The first symptom is a slight
pain in the knee, and emaciation of the limb; thon pain is
felt about the trochanter and groin which varies in different
cases, and is increased by pressuro upon tho hip joint.  In
some cases  anchylosis is established apparently without tho
formation of pus; while in  others there is a large abscess
formed, which discharges itself by one or more openings.—
During this process  the patient is sometimes worn out by
hectic  and dies; at other times anchylosis takes place; the
openings heal up, and a cure is .accomplished  with consid-
erable deformity.
  What is  the treatment?   The habit of bending tho thigh
on  the pelvis, and the leg on the thigh, should be corrected
by  curved splints gradually changed  for straighter ones.—
Before the abscess forms, blisters, cupping and issues should
be  used, conjoined with steady purging, vegotablo diet, and
perfect rest.
  During the suppurative stage tho strength of the patient
should be supported, and such other constitutional remedies
employed as are indicated.

          Fungus Articuli,  or  White  Swelling.

  What is comprehended undor these  terms?  Inflamma-
tion of the synovial  membrane.
  Morbid  change of structure in  tho synovial membrano.
  Ulceration of the cartilages of joints.
  Scrofulous disease of the  joints having its origin in the
cancellous structure of the bones.
  What is the treatment of the first variety?  In the acute
form blood-letting, purgatives, low diet, &c.  The affectod
part should be kept  in a state of quietude, and elevated.—
As internal remedies mercury and sarsaparilla are often in-
dicated.
  What is the treatment for the second  variety?  Amputa-
tion is generally the  only remedy, and this  does  not always
succeed.
  What is the troatmont for the third variety ?  Caustic is-
sues, blisters, setons  and absoluto rest, anchylosis generally
:akes place, and may bo considored as tho safe guard of tho
patient.
  What is the treatment for tho fourth variety?   Tho rom-
edios for scrofula should be resorted to; also rest and adhc-
sivo strips.  In  all these varieties whon matter is formed in 
                      SURGERY.                   209

tho joint It should not bo let out but an  effort made to pro-
duce absorption.
           Hydrarthus  or  Dropsy of a Joint.

  What is tho treatment''  Blistorsand well regulated pres
sure will generally be appropriate treatment.

                  Moveable Cartilage.

  What is the treatment?  If a laced knee-cap, bandages,
&c., have been tried without relief recourse may be had to
an operation for its removal.
                      Anchylosis.
   How is it divided?  Into complete and incomplete.
   In the incomplete varioty tho ligaments, tendons and sur-
rounding cellular membrane are involved and there is partial
movement of the joint.
  In the complete form tho extremities of the bones often
become perfectly united and identified.
  What is tho treatment?  Friction with stimulating  arti-
cles and judicious movement of tho joint, in the incomplete
variety.
               Diseases  of the  Arteries.

  To what diseases are arteries subject?  To inflammation-
suppuration, ulceration, sphacelus, calcareous  concretions,
uniform dilation of the coats, and aneurism.

                       Aneurism.

  What is an anourism?  It has boon defined to bo a pulsa-
ting tumour formed of arterial blood?
  What aro the varieties of aneurism?  True, false, circum-
scribed, diffused, varicose aneurism, and aneurism by anas-
lamosis.
   By true aneurism is undorstood a simplo dilation of all the
coats of an  artery,  or  the  internal and middle  ruptured,
while the cellular coat remains  entire; by false aneurism a
rupture or  wound of the threo coats, so that the  blood is
oxtravasated  among the surrounding parts.
  Tho terms circumscribod and diffused relate to tho form
of swelling, or extent of extravasation.
   What are  tho  symptoms of  aneurism?  Tho tumour is
first small, free from pain, and  disappears easily by pron, 
210                   SURGERY.
sure, but returns when the pressure is removed.  As It en-
larges the pulsation is lessened, and whon much cnlargod
the integuments covering it  become painful, livid, crack,
ulcerate, and hemorrhage if not arrested sooner, or later de-
stroys the patient.
  What is the treatment?   Some benefit may accrue by fre-
quont and repeated bleeding; rigid abstinence; confinement
to a horizontal position; the internal use of digitalis, astrin-
gents, and refrigerants; these remedies cannot bo depended
on but should be pursued when the ligature from any cause
is ^impracticable.   The ligature may be  considered as the
only means upon  which reliance can be  placed, and even
this often fails, and secondary hemorrhage is the conse-
quence.
  What are the rules for the application of the ligature  in
aneurism?  The surgeon should cut for a sound part of tho
artery above the sac; penotrato cautiously until the pulsa-
tions of the artery are discovered; pass an anourismal noedle
round, armed with a ligature, detaching it as little as posslblo
from its connections; the ligatnre should be firmly tied, ono
end cut off, and the other loft hanging from  the  wound,
which should be brought together by adhesive straps.
               Aneurism  by Anastamosis.
  What are the symptoms?  It is a tumour  formed by a
congeries of small arteries  and veins with an intermediate
cellular structure; as it ^enlarges it acquires a thrilling pul-
satile or jarring motion.
  What is the treatment?
  Compression, and excision are the means proposed  for
curing this disease.
                    Varicose Aneurism.

  What is varicose aneurism? It is that form of tho disease
in which a communication is established  betwoen an artery
and a vein.   It may be  producod in any part of the  body
where a large artery and vein are near each other, and hap-
pen to bo punctured  at the same time.
  What is the treatment?  Compression, and  the  ligature
are the means recommended.
                 Diseases of the Veins.

  What are tho diseases of the veins?  Inflammation, and
varicose enlargement. 
SURGERY.
211
                    Varicose Veins.

  What aro tho symptoms?   Tho diseaso is almost entirely
confined to tho veins of the lower extremities.  In tho com-
mencement nu.iierous  small  circumscribed swellings  may
bo obsorved; at length the whole venous trunk and branch-
 s become enlarged, run in a serpentine course, and appear
'  .lotted. As they enlarge the support afforded by the valves
is diminished until they aro entirely lost.  The surrounding
cellular incmbrano becomes inflamed, and gives rise to pain-
ful ulcerations.
   What is tho troatment?  Compression with a roller, or
laced stocking;  astringent washes;  an  elevated position ot
tho limb; and obliteration of the diseased vein by an opera-
tion, of which thore have been several  kinds proposed  and
practised; viz: the ligature, tho section, and the excision of
tho vein; all of which are attended with more or less danger.

                Cirsocele and Varicocele.

   What are the symptoms?  Cirsocele is an enlargement or
varicose state  of tho veins of the spermatic cord.   Varicoce-
le is a varicose stato of the veins of the scrotum.  When ex-
aminod the whole cord appears like a bundle of knotted,
and tortuous veins; and foel liko a bunch of worms wrapped
round and twisted togcthor.  The tumour subsides on assu-
ming the horizontal position, and reappears on standing.
   What is the treatment? A bag truss should be  worn that
will suspond tho testicles, and  give them a firm support.—
Cold  astringent washes are also recommended.  There are
several oporations  proposed, and practiced  for this diseaso
 upon which the profession is not yet very well settled.

                  Injuries of the Head.

                  Fractures of the  Skull.

   What aro the varietios of fracture of tho skull?  There are
 several; fissure, counter fissure, depressed,  double depress-
 ed or camerated,  stollatod,  and punctured fracture.
   Fissure is a simple crack  or division; counter fiissure is a
 soparation produced at a point opposite to that  whore the
  forco was applied; depressed fracture is when tho bones are
  forced below their natural level; camerated when the sides
  dcclino towards tho centre; stellated when it radiates from 
:1U
SURGERY.
 a centre resembling a stai;  and punctured when producod
 by a pointed instrument.
   What is the treatment?   In simple fracture where tho
 brain, or membrane aro  uninjured littlo, or no treatmont is
 necessary.  Tho rule in all cases is not to interfere unless
 the contents of the skull are affected, and of this the symp-
 toms must bo our guide.  In  casos,  however, where sharp
 points, or ragged edges of bone exist, they may be removed
 by appropriate instruments to prevent them fiom irritating
 the dura mater, or  other adjacent soft parts.

                 Concussion of the Brain.

   What are the symptoms?  In slight cases thoro is vertigo,
 sickness of the stomach, trembling of the limbs, dimness of
 vision, Sec.  In severe cases there is insensibility, coldness
 of tho skin,  relaxation  of the limbs, feeble  and irregular
 pulse, difficulty of breathing, (not however generally sterto-
 rous), and dilated pupils.
   These symptoms may after a  time  subside  gradually,
 when a determination of blood to the brain follows,  of grea-
 ter, or less soverity.
   What is the treatment?   If called oarly,  be careful that
 the importunities of the bystanders do  not detormine you to
 bleed  before the pulse rises and reaction is established, when
 it may be proper.   Content  yourselves with  administering
 a littlo cold wator,  or if the  depression is very great, wine in
 small quantities, and with caution. Generally external stim-
 ulants, such as mustard plasters, will bo  sufficient  to rouse
 the system, and are free from the injurious effocts of alcohol
 upon the brain. If inflammatory symptoms come on, blood
 letting,purgatives, low diet, &,c, with cold to tho head, an
 elevated position of it, and blisters become highly necessary.

                Compression of the Brain.
  What are tho causes, and symptoms?  It may ariso from
 depressed fracture,  effused, or cxtravasated blood, and from
 suppuration within tho brain, or its membranes.
  When symptoms  of compression come 0:1 from extravasa-
 tion there is generally an interval  between tho  injury and
 the appearance of the symptoms; and when this occurs may
be considered  as characteristic of compression from extrav-
asated  blood.   Whon these symptoms are caused by matter 
SURGERY.
213
il is iho result of inflammation, and does not follow imme-
diately an injury of the skull.
  If compression arise from oither of tho  preceding causes
it may bo known by the pulse  becoming slow, and regular;
the pupils dilated, and insensible to the  strongest light;
breathing stortorous, slow, and difficult; the limbs loose, or
yioldingrporhaps paralytic; and insensibility. Those symp-
toms will bo sufficient to distinguish it  from concussion,
whore tho distinction is well marked;  but often  the symp-
toms aro intermixed so as to create confusion and doubt in
tho mind of tho surgeon.
   What is the treatment?  Blood lotting, purgatives,  &c.
will often alone  rcliovo symptoms of compression.
   When the  bones aro  depressed they should be elevated,
or if produced by extravasation tho trephine must be resort-
ed to and tho coagulum removed.
  What are tho  instruments required  for operations on tho
ftkull ?  Two or three trephines, tho largest about an inch in
diameter, and tho smallest half an inch; a Hoy's saw; a len-
ticular;  raspatory; trepan forceps; two elvovators, a small
brush, tooth pick, or probe;  tonacula;  sponges;  crooked
needles; ligatures and a scalpel.
   What aro tho objocts to bo attained  in tho application of
tho trephino?  To make an opening for the removal of co-
agulated blood, and for tho introduction of tho elevator bee
neath  a depressed bono.  For the former a large trephino
shonld be used,  and for tholattor a small ono. It is not how-
over always necessary to use the trephine in depressed bono,
as there is often  sufficient space to  pass the  elevator be-
twoen tho fragments and restore them to their proper posi-
tion.
  To what parts of tho skull may tho trephine be applied?
To all parts, oxcopt to the occipital bono.
   Whon  it is nocessary to trephine tho  inner table  of the
frontal sinus,  two trephines  should  bo employed;  a large
ono for tho  oxtemal portion, and  a small  ono for the inner.

                Iiiflammation of the Brain.

   What aro the  symptoms?  The face  becomes flushed, the
eyos red, and tender to light,  pupils contracted, skin hot,
 Iiulse hard and quick, and the tongue dry.  The  pain in the
 load is also severe, and the wound if there be one disehanr
         11) 
214
SURGERY.
es a sanious matter.  Rigors, follow, which nro dangerous
symptoms.  Delirium, hemiplegia, and convulsions may also
como on in  the latter stages of the diseaso.
  What is the treatment?  Tho most active antiphlogistic
course should be pursued;  blood letting, generally  and lo-
cally, purgatives, blisters, &c.  If suppuration takoplaco tho
trephine may be used but the chance of tho patients recove-
ry is very small.

            Fungus Cerebri or Encephalocele.

  What aro the symptoms?  It is a tumour having  the ap-
pearance of a vascular organized growth, which  sprouts
from tho brain after extensive fractures or  tho operation of
the  trephine; fills up the opening of the bone, and projects
beyond the scalp.
   What is  the treatment?   Light dressings  with moderate
pressure upon the tumour.
  This diseaso is generally fatal.

                  Diseases of the Eye.

                Conjunctival Ophthalmia.

   What are the symptoms? A sense of uneasiness or itch-
ing,  an impatience  of light, diffused redness of tho conj unc
tiva, pain, heat,  and swelling of tho globe  of the oyo; an
increased secretion of tears,  and a feeling as though thero
was  a lodgement of sand in the eye.  If tho inflammation
proceeds there is violent pain  in the eyeball, and forehead
accompanied  by fevor and other  general  indisposition..—
Sometimes the conjunctiva throws out a fungus beyond  the
margin of the cornea, and at others suppuration takes place,
followed by  destruction of tho cornea, and evacuation oi
the humours of  the eye.
  There are several varieties of conjunctival ophthalmia:—
Tho catarrhal, purulent, gonorrhoeal, and scrofulous.  Somo
authors however adopt different  divisions of tho disease
from this.
  What is  the troatmont?  In the oarly stage of simple in-
flammation it may be  easily removed by bloodletting, gene-
ral and local, purgatives, antimonials in  nauseating doses,
low  diet, blisters, lotions of tepid water, a solution of opium,
or acetate of load, or sulphate of zinc.   If  it runs  into  tho 
SURGERY.
215
chronic stage cold astringont washes, and stimulating oint-
ments may become necessary.
  For tho catarrhal  variety the proper remedies aro moder-
ato depletion at  first,  followed by highly  stimulating col-
Ivria, and ointments.
 " The purulent variety should bo treated upon common an-
tiphlogistic principles, and moderately  astringent washes,
of which tho liquor of the acetate of load is one of tho best.
  The gonorrhoeal  varioty  may  bo treated upon  general
principles but it is seldom cured.
  The scrofulous varioty does  not generally require much
nntiphlogistic treatment, but rather a tonic course will be
indicated. A blister on the nape of the neck kept open, and
weak solutions of tho nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, &c.
applied to the eyo will bo found beneficial.

                  Sclerotic  Ophthalmia.

  What  aro  the symptoms?  It is an inflammation of the
sclerotic coat sometimes  called rheumatic ophthalmia. The
pain in the commencement is  generally seated in the tem-
ple, and  extends to tho eyebrow and cheek of the side af-
fected, being most  severe at night.  There is no purulent
discharge or intoleranco of light; the sclerotic coat is of a
dingy brick-dust tinge; there is more or less fever and de-
rangement of the digestive organs.
   What  is tho treatment?  Tho indications  are to restore
tho  functions of the  stomach, biliary organs, and skin, by
ometics,  purgatives, and antimonial diaphoretics, after which
bark may bo employed to advantage. The best  local appli-
cations are a blistor behind the ear, and the vinous tincture
of opium as a collyrium.

               Iritic  Ophthalmia  or Iritis.
   What aro the symptoms? Severo lancinating pain, extend-
 ing from tho eyebrow to the orbit, and through the globe of
the  eyo to the optic nerve; extreme  impatience of light,
and  morbid  sonsibility.   The conjunctiva does not present
tho appnaranco of inflammation, but thoro are numerous red
 vessels on that part of the sclerotica connected with the cor-
 nea, also on the anterior part of tho iris, which  looses its
 brilliancy, and changes to a reddish or greenish hue.  The
pupil becomes contracted, irregular, and its edge is turned
 backward toward tho crystalline lens; lymph is deposited 
216                   SURGERY.
on the outer surface of tho iris in spots  and somo times so
copiously as to obliterate the pupil.
  What is the treatment?  The antiphlogistic course should
bo carried to its fullest extent.  Obliteration of tho  pupil
should be prevented by breaking up any bands of coagula-
ble lymph which may have formed, with tho extracts of bel-
ladonna or strammonium applied to the outer surface of the
eyelids, or over the eyebrows, two or throe times a day, and
kept on for half an hour at a time.  They should not how-
ever be applied during the  height of the inflammation.—
When it has a syphilitic origin mercury followed  up with
sarsaparilla should be used.

                    Psorophthalmia

  What is psoi ophthalmia?  It is an inflammation or ulcer-
ation of the eyelids; whethor caused by small pox, measles,
scrofula, erysipelas, or any other cause.
  What aro tho symptons?   Children of scrofulous  habit
are most  liable  to this disease.  The inflammation  com-
mences on the edges of the lids, and extends along  the con-
junctiva with pain and violent itching; suppuration and
ulceration sometimes occur,  and are very troublesome. The
meibomian glands are always involved, and pour out an ad-
hesive fluid.
  What is the treatment?  In the early stage purgatives
and low diet, with the local  application of solutions of ace-
tate of lead, sulphate of zinc,  or sulphate  of copper.  In
the chronic  stage the unguentum hydrargyri nitrati applied
to the edges of the lids will  relieve the itching, and dispose
the ulcerated surfaces to heal.  If the disease  resists every
remody for  a  long time,  blisters behind tho ears and  a
course of mercury may be tried.

                       Pterygium.

  What is pterygium?   It is a thin membranous expansion
situated on the conjunctiva;  generally occupying the inner
angle of the eye  in tho  shape  of a triangle, the  apox  of
which looks towards the cornea, and sometimes extends  to
its centre.  A pannus  is a pterygium  on each side which
meet in tho centre of tho cornoa.  There are  two varieties,
the membranous, and fleshy.
  What is the treatment?   When it becomes troublesome
it should be dissected off with a pair of curved scissors. 
SURGERY.
217
                      E nca nl his.

  What is cncanthis?   It is an enlargement of the lachry-
mal caruncle, and semilunar fold.  It is somotimes  malig-
nant but it is not a frequent disease. The caruncle presents
a granulated and livid appearance; if the disease continue
a long time, adjoining parts become involved.
  What is the treatment?  Excision of  the diseased parts.

                 Opacity  of the  Cornea.

  What are the varioties of opacity of the  cornea?   Nebu-
 la, albugo, and loucoma.            ^.
  Nebula is a superficial opacity produced  by chronic  oph-
 thalmia, and does not entirely interrupt vision.
  Albugo occupies the lamella or substance of the cornoa;
 it is of a white  or pearl color,  often  accompanied by  oph-
 thalmia, and is always tho result of an effusion of lymph.
  Leucoma is a denso callous speck of the cornea of  a  pure
 whito or chalk color, and has a polished appearance.  It is
 gonerally  produced by a wound or ulcer.
  What is the  treatmeat?  For the first variety astringent
 collyria, and such other remedies as  arc proper in chronic
 ophthalmia.  The treatment of albugo  is gonerally difficult
 and requires highly stimulating applications of which one
 of the best is the unguontum hydrargyri nitrati applied by
 a camel's  hair pencil to the surface of the speck, once or
 twice a day.  Washing  the eye  with diluted  vinegar has
 also been recommended.
  Loucoma  is perhaps seldom or never removed  by any
 treatment.

                  Ulcer of  the Cornea.

  What aro the symptoms?   It is commonly the result of
 the diflorcnt variotios of ophthalmia.  Sometimes it occu-
 pies tho whole cornea, and at others it is a simple cavity
 not larger than the head of a pin,  on somo particular part of
 tho cornea.
  What is the  treatment?   The sore should bo  gontly
 touched with nitrate of silver  until an eschar forms on its
 surface; and whon it  drops off the caustic should bo re-
 nowed.  When tho ulcer assumes a healthy appearance dis-
 continue tho caustic, and use mild collyria'or ointments. 
218
SURGERY.
                       Staphyloma.

   What is staphyloma?  It is a thickening  and opacity of
 the  layers of the cornea with a projection of its anterior
 surface.  It may bo produced by small pox, purulent oph-
 thalmia, wounds of the eye, &c.
   What is the treatment?  There is no remedy; except that
 an operation may be performed to evacuate the humours of
 the eye which will prevent the pain and inflammation caus-
 ed by dust and other extraneous bodies.  Blindness of course
 always exists whether the eye is operated on or not.

                        Hypopion.

   What is hypopion, and its symptoms?  It is a collection
 of purulent matter, formed within the  postorior or antorior
 chamber of the  aqueous humour.
   There is redness of the conjunctiva,  and a yellow spot
 may bo seen at  the bottom of the anterior chamber  which
 increases in size until the whole cavity is filled.
   Pain, intolerance of light, &c, are very severo,   In somo
 cases the inflammation subsides, and tho pus is absorbed.—
 In others ulceration and sloughing of  the cornea may take
 place, followed by a destruction of the eye.
   What is the treatment?   A prompt antiphlogistic  course
 is the proper treatment.

                    Hydroph thalm ia.

   What is hydrophthalmia?   It is a dropsy of the eye;  and
 consists of a gradual enlargement of the globe, without at
 first much pain  or injury to  vision;  but as the  disease ad-
 vances  there is  pain, impaired  vision, &c, which  may tei-
 minate in irritation, suppuration, and the loss of the eye.
   What is the treatment?  When it ia accompanied with
 general dropsy, digitalis, squill, volatile tincture of guiacum,
 and calomel, may bo proper.  If the accumulation is large
paracentesis should be  performed.
                    Obliterated  Pupil.

   What  are the symptoms?  Tho iris becomes wrinkled,
and the pupil either entirely effaced or contracted to a very
 small compass.
   What is the treatment?  An operation dividing a portion
of the iris is the onlypiopcr  course 
SURGERY.
219
                   Procidentia Iridis.

   What is procidentia iridis?  It  is a projection of the iris
 through an ulcer or wound of the  cornea.  Tho pain  and
 intolerance of light are excessive.
   What is the treatment?   When it follows a wound of tho
 cornea it may be replaced; but  when it proceeds from an
 ulcer it cannot be retained in its natural situation while tho
 ulcer exists.   The ulcer should  be touched with the nitrate
 of silvor, and healed as soon as practicable.

                        Cataract.

   What is cataract, and tho symptoms?  It is an opacity of
 tho crystaline lens, or its capsule.   They differ in color and
 consistence.   Some  aro fluid and called milky;  others aro
 called gelatinous, caseous, or hard, according to  their con-
 sistenco.  Whon the capsule is opaquo and the Ions remains
 transparent, or is absorbed, it is called capsular cataract.  If
 a cataract oxist from birth it is callod congenital. Most ca-
 taracts  are. of a bluish, or pearl color; some are grey, or
 green; otliors white; and in somo rare  instances black.
  Tho symptoms aro a diminution of sight;  objects appear
 as if onvolopod in mist, or smoke; and vision is very imper-
 fect when suddenly exposed to  a strong light.  In a dull
 light tho vision is improved;  and when the  lens is opaquo
 its color will gonorally indicate the nature of tho disease.
  What is tho treatment?   An operation is the only  treat-
 ment to bo depended upon.
  What aro tho oportions in use  for cataract?  Couching or
 depression; extraction; and tho absorbent practice.
  Tho first is done with a needle; and consists in removing
tho crystaline Ions downwards and backwards into the vit-
 reous humour.
  Extraction is performed  with a knife; and the opening is
 mado into tho cornea.
  Tho absorbent practice is founded upon tho solvent power
of tho aqueous hifmour; the operation is to break up the crys-
taline lens, and bring it in co"toct with the aqueous humor in
the antorior cham. er  It i  t done in two ways; one is to intro-
duce the needle anteiior ;and tho other posterior to the iris,
so that in one case tho cornea is penetratod, and in the oth-
er the sclerotica.  In all i..stances previous to tho perform-
ance of any  oporation  the system  should be  prepared by 
220
SURGERY.
purging, diet, &c; and stramonium, or belladonna should
be applied to the parts about tho eyo.

                  Congenital Cataract.

  What is the treatment?  An early operation.

                       Amaurosis.

  What is amaurosis, and what are the symptoms?   It is
an insensible state of the retina.
  The pupil is of a greenish black color, greatly expandod
and irregular in shape, has undulating edges, and the strong-
est light produces no perceptible contraction.
  Tho pupil is occasionally contracted, and in somo instan-
ces its motions are partially retained.  The natural lustre of
the eye becomes diminished, or lost.
  What is the treatment?  When it arises from any organ-
ic defect the probability of affording relief  is small.   If it
proceed from gastric derangement  emetics, and purgatives
will prove useful, followed by tonics. Errhines may also bo
found beneficial; beginning with the milder, and afterwards
using the Turpeth mineral  combined with powdered lico-
rice.
                       Hordeolum.
   What is hordeolum?  It  is a red, inflamed, painful  tu-
mour, involving  one,  or  more meibomian  glands  usually
seated on the lower eye lid, near the inner angle.
   What is the treatment? Purgativos, and attention to diet.
If it becomes indolent apply lunar caustic.

             Encysted tumours of the Eyelid.

   What is the treatment?   Extirpation.

                       Entropeon.
  What is entropeon?   It is an inversion of the tarsus or
its cilia.
  What is the treatment?  Whon there is simply an unna-
tural direction of the eye lashes  they  should bo removed
with a pair of forceps.
   When the tarsus is inverted and  the skin of  the eyo lid
relaxed there should bo an oval piece romovod,  and  tho 
                     SURGERY.                   221

sides of tho wound brought togothor.  Othor operations aro
also practiced.

                      Ectropeon.

  What is ectropeon?  It is the reverse of entropeon; the
eyo lid boing turnod outwards instead of inwards.
  What is tho treatment ?  A portion of the lid of the shape
of the letter V should bo removed from the outer angle; the
thickened conjunctiva should then bo dissected off, and the
edges of the wound brought together with a  fine suture.

           Diseases of the Nose, and Antrum.

                  Polypus of the Nose.

  Whore aro polypi of tho nose generally attached?  They
may arise from any portion of the Schneiderian membrane;
but are mostly attached to tho superior, or  inferior spongy
bones.
  What is the treatment?  They should be removod with
tho polypus forceps by a twisting motion rather than by pul-
ling in a  straight line.

                        Ozosna.

  What is ozoena?  It is an ulceration of the lining mem-
brane of  the nostrils, having a foetid discharge, and some-
times  followed by destruction of the cartilages and bones of
tho nose.
  What is the treatment?  Bark, iron, mineral acids, muri-
ate of lime, sarsaparilla, and antimony have been recommen-
ded.  If thero is a syphilitic taint connected with it mercu-
ry will bo proper.  Locally, a solution of opium and acetate
of load may be used with advantage,

           Fungus or Puliipus  of the Antrum.

  What  are the symptoms?  It  is  generally a formidable
affection.  The tumour sprouts from the lining membrane
of the antrum, and grows until it fills the whole cavity;
pain is thon experienced in the cheek and eye of tho affect-
od sido, and the face becomes enlarged.  Theso  symptoms
are followed by distortion of the nose projection of the eye,
enlargement  of  tho  gums, profuse discharges of sanious
matter, &c. 
222
SURGERY.
  What is the treatment?  As  soon  as tho nature of tho
disease is ascertained it should be complotely removod.

                Diseases of  the  Mouth.

             Labium Leporinum or Hare Lip.

  What are tho varieties of hare lip ?  Tho single and tho
double.
  What is the treatment?  An  operation.   Somo  surgeons
recommend that wo should  operate immediately after birth,
or within  a few weeks, others that we should wait until tho
child is two or three years old or after tho poriod of the first
dentition.  It is often  combined  with a deficiency  in the
palate  and maxillary bones; in  which case their closure is
more perfect with an early operation.  The principal dan-
ger of an early operation is a liability to convulsions.  Tho
operation  consists in paring the edges of tho fissure  in the
lip, and bringing them in contact by the interruptod suture,
or pins and figure of 8 bandage.

                        Ranula

  What is ranula?   It is an  obstruction of one or more of
tho ducts of  the sublingual glands;  and gives rise to a tu-
mour or cyst.
  What ia the  treatment?   Lay the  cyst  open freely, and
remove a portion of it with scissors.  Sometimes the ap-
plication of caustic becomes  necessary.

          Malformation  of the  Frcenum Lingua.

  What are the  malformations of tho  fraenum linguae? It is,
sometimes too short, so as to prevent  sucking*-.
  What  is  the  treatment?  A division  of tho  fraenum,
which should be done carefully, so as to avoid homorrhagn
and also not to allow tho tongue to fall backwards into the
pharynx.

                   Enlarged Tonsils.
  What aro tho  symptoms?   A hoarso hueky voice, snoring
during sloop, oxcossivo whoozing whon laboring undor cold ;
and upon inspoction thoy will bo found to  bo onlargod.
  What is tho treatment?  Romoval either with tho knifo,
or ligature.
   What instruments are usod for removing them? Fahnos. 
                     SURGERY.                   223

ock'n, Physick'u instrument modified by Gibson, and Cham-
bcrlin's oxcisor, tho latter of which is to bo preferred.
               Elongation  of the Uvula.
  What  aro tho symptoms?  Irritation  about  tho throat,
naus ea, vomiting, and heemoptysis in some cases.
  W hat is tho treatment?   Removal with a hook and com-
mon scissors, or othor suitable instrument.
            Epulis or Tubercle of the Gums.
  What are the symptoms?  It is often  a malignant form
of tumour  which sprouts from the sockets  of the incisor
tooth of tho upper jaw, or from the gum between tho  tooth.
   What is tho treatment? Extirpation in its vory incipiency
is tho only chance for a permanent cure.
                Diseases  of the Neck.

   What diseases aro included undor this head?  Lodgemont
of foreign  bodies in tho pharynx, larynx, trachea, and oeso-
phagus; stricture of tho oesophagus, ulcoration of tho glottis,
bronchocole, wry neck, &.c.

           Extraneous bodies in the (Esophagus.

   In what mannor may extraneous bodies in the oesophagus
 produce death?   By producing  spasmodic action of tho
muscles of tho glottis; from distension of the oesophagus so
 as to press upon tho trachea and close it; or by producing
 inflammation or gangrene from tho continued  pressure; or
 by violent attempts in removing them.
   What is tho treatment?  When the substance is largo it
 generally sticks in  tho pharynx, from which it may be re-
 moved by the finger, or a pair of forceps.   Articles that can
 be digested provided, thoy have no hard rough points  should
 be pushod into tho stomach by a probang, unless they can
 bo easily reached.   Coins, and sharp ragged bodies  should
 be  extracted by forceps, probang hook, or somo other con
 trivance.
   When it becomes necessary to push any of these  articles
  nto the  stomach  purgatives  and mucilaginous  draughts
  should bo taken.   Dr. Physic prescribed rice in large quan-
  tities, for tho purpose of defending tho coats of tho stomach.

                Stricture of the (Esophogus.

    How  arc they divided?  Into spasmodic, and permuntcn 
224
SURGERY.
which are sometimes combined.   Its most common seat ia
at tho commencement of the oesophagus.
  What are the symptoms?  Difficulty of swallowing, pain
in the stomach, nausea,  troublesome eructations, and pain
in the fauces.
  What is  the treatment?  Bougies, with or without lunar
caustic.  In tho  spasmodic variety, camphor, opium, and
ether are serviceable.

Re?noval of extraneous bodies from the Larynx and Trachea.

   What  operation is performed for this purpose?  Laryn-
gotomy, and tratheotomy.
   The former is the  one generally adopted.
   In performing this operation should the incision bo made
at once into the larynx?   No;  the integuments should first
bo divided, and the hemorrhage ontiroly stopped; thon tho
crico-thyroid membrane may be divided.
   In what  other cases are  laryngotomy and trachootomy ro-
sortod to?  Sometimes from substances lodged in tho oeso-
phagus, for croup, for enlargement  of the tonguo and ton-
sils, ulceration of the glottis, &e.

                  Bronchocele or Goitre.

   What is  bronchocele? It is an enlargement of tho whole,
or a part of tho thyroid gland.  Its causes aro not satisfacto-
rily understood.
  What is  tho treatment? Iodine, internally and externally.

                Torticollis  or Wry Neck.

  What are tho causos?   Contractions of the platysma my-
oides, or sterno-cleido-mDstoideus, cicatricos of burns, par-
alysis, &.C.
  What is  tho treatment?  When it proceeds  from morbid
contraction of the muscles they  should be divided and tho
head brought into a proper position.

                        Hernia.

  What is hernia? It is a  protrusion of any of the contents
of the abdomen,  covered by peritoneum, through tho parie-
tes of the abdomen.
  What are the divisions of hernia?  Hernia is dividod into
reducible,  irreduciblo, and  strangulated.  It  may also bo 
SURGERY.
225
rrmed  from its  contents  onterocele, opiplocele, and onte-
ro-epiplorele.     .  .    ,    .  .      ..     ,    ,
  Reducible hernia is when it is easily replaced.
  Irreducible hernia,  when there is permanent protrusion.
  Strangulated hernia,  when  the parts  are  confined by
stricture.                     .       .      .
  Hnterocclc,  whon tho protrusion consists ol  intestine.
  Kpiplocc'.c, when it cons'sts of omentum.
  Fmrero-epiploeele, when it con ists of intestino and omen-
tum together.                              .  .
  Thero arc also names givon  from th3  position they oc-
cipy.
  Huhonoc "le, or inguinal hern' .
  Oscheocele, or scrotal hernia.
  Metrocele, crural or femoral hern'a.
  Fxomphalos, or umbilical hernia.
  i 'ongi■nitnl, when it exists at  birth.
  Ventral, when  ihc  protrusion occurs in dife ent parts o
the abdomen without reference to natural openings.
  Ventro-inguinal, when there is a combination of the two
varieties.
  What is tho sic of a hernia?  It is the peritoneal invest-
ment  which surrounds the protruded viscera.  That portion
communicating  directly  with  the  abdomen   is cnMe,|  j.^
mouth; tint portion moat remote  s its  ttndus; an '  tho rart
surrounded  bv the aperture  in the tendinous  parielies, the
neck.
  What are tho causes of hornbi?  The exciting causes are
severe exercise, lilting ho  ivy weights,  playing on wind in-
Htrunients, votAting, eostiveiirss, cough ng, jumping, &c.
  Tho preAepnsing are hereditary conformation and preter-
natural lax  tv of the abdominal parioties.
  Wlni are the symptoms of reducible  hernia?   Tho  tu-
mour descends in the cr'ct position,  and retires by gentle
premure,  or a  recumbent posture.
  If tin- sic contains  intestino its reduction is accompanied
bv  gurgl'ng;  the tun our will also have a  teme,  elastic
I.  1.  Omentum  on the contrary, communicates a douthy
sensation, nnd is restored  to the abdomon with greater difl".
cultv.  Reducible hernia  is larger after a meal, and an in -
pulse is communicated 10 tin In g r wh'.n the patisnt is di-
rected lo COUljrh. 
226                   SURGERY.

  There ia genorally more, or less disorder of tho digestive
organs.
  What are the causes of a hernia becoming irreducible?
  It may arise from adhesion between the  sac  and its con-
t  nts; from membranous bands; and from extraordinary en-
largements of the omentum or increase in the volume of in-
testines.  Slow  inflammation is the most frequent cause  of
hornia being changed from the reducible to the irreducible
 condition.
  What are the symptoms of  strangulated hernia?   In ad-
 dition to  tho  other symptoms of hernia there is obstinate
 eostiveness, genoral soreness of tho  abdomen, pain  around
 tho navel; sickness of the stomach,  and sovero pain in the
 tumour.  These symptoms may bo  followed  by  bilious or
 stercoraccous  voniiting, hiccup, quick, hard  pulse, cold
 sweats, and great anxiety of countenance.  If relief is not
 obtained the  pulse becomes thready, tho  patient easy, tho
 tumour crackles when pressed upon, and  assumes a leaden
 color, enormous distention of  tho abdomon takes  place, the
 pulse becomes fluttering, and  death ensues.
    What is tho general treatment of  hernia?  For reducible
 hernia an appropriate truss is the proper treatment; and the
 patient should  never bo without one  capable of retaining
 the tumour.
    For irreducible hernia a suspension of the tumour by a
 bag truss, and strict attention to diet ia all that can  be done.
    For strangulated hernia the proper remedies are blood-let-
 tin?  purging, cold, and warm baths, opium, fomentations,
 poultices, cold, the taxis, tartarized antimony, tobacco in-
 jections, and an operation.
                     Inguinal Hernia.

    Through what openings do tho  contents of an inguinal
  hernia pass ? Through tho internal  abdominal ring, inguinal
  canal, and the external abdominal ring.
    Suppose a dissection is made of the coverings  and  con-
  tents of an inguinal hernia commencing at tho skin, what
  will we  find? The integuments, superficial fascia, cremaster
  muscle,  hernial sac,  omentum, or intestine, or both.
    How is inguinal hernia distinguished from hydrocle?  The
  tumor of hernia commences  above or at  tho external abdo-
  mina ring, and descends towards the scrotum; whereas hy-
  drocele  commences  below, and gradually ascends. 
SURGERY.
  How is it distinguished fcom cirsocele ?  Place the patient
in a  horizontal  position, press firmly on the upper part of
tho ring; then  direct him to  rise;  when if it bo cirsocele
the tumour will reappear, with an increase of size; on the
contrary hernia  will  not show itself until  the finger be  re
moved.
  What is  meant by concealed inguinal  hernia?  It is a
hernia contained within the canal leading from the internal
to tho extornal  ring.
  In operating  for inguinal hernia what parts are divided ?
Tho integumonts, superficial fascia, cremaster muscle, and
the sac.
   Where is the seat of stricture in inguinal hernia?  In
very old and largo ones the external  ring,  but in recent
casos the internal  ring; these strictures should  be divided
upwards in all  casos so as to avoid wounding the epigastric
artory.

                    Femoral Hernia.

   Through what opening are the contents of a femoral her-
nia  protruded?  Beneath Poupart's ligament  through tho
crural  ring.
  How is the ring bounded?  On tho outer or iliac sido by
the femoral vein; on the inner or pubic side by Gimbeinat's
ligament;  anteriorly by Poupart's ligament, and posteriorly
by the pubes.
   In dissecting a femoral hernia commencing at the bend
of the thigh  what  parts will be presented?  Tho integu-
ments, superficial fascia, fascia propria, which was origin-
ally loose cellular membrame occupying the  orifice of tho
crural ring, and the hernial sac.
   What is the treatment?   For reducible an  appropriate
truss.
   For strangulated the treatment must accord with the gen-
 eral principles proper in hernia.
   Where aro the points of stricture cf femoral hernia? At
 Hey's ligament, in the crural sheath, at Gimbernat's liga-
 ment, or at the mouth of tho sac.  In dividing these  stric-
 tures tho  knife should bo turned  upward, and slightly in-
 wards in making the  incision.  If turned outward the cru-
 ral vein and epigastric artery might bo injured, or if too far
 inwards the  obturator artory may be endangered. 
228
SURGERY.
                    Umbilical Hernia.

  Through what opening do tho contents of umbilical her-
nia protrude?  Tho umbilical  ring, either at  its centre or
edges.
   What  forms  the  outor covering  of congenital umbilical
hernia?  The cellular membrane that  connects tho vessels
of tho cord; the inner, or sac, is a portion of peritoneum.
  What  forms the  covering of the protruded viscera of
young subjects and adults in umbilical hernia?  The com-
mon integuments, superficial fascia, and peritoneal coat.
  What is  the  treatment?  The congenital variety  unless
there is  somo  considerable  deficiency of parts or morbid
complications may be often cured by a band-age; or by redu-
cing tho intestines,  and surrounding tho sac  with a firmly
drawn ligature so as to produco sloughing, and cause tho
edges of the ring to cicatrize.
   For umbilical hernia of young subjects and adults,  a
proporly contrived truss is the proper treatment; or a small
compress etained in its proper place by a bandage, or adhe-
sive straps
   For strangulated   umbilical hernia tho usual  remedies
should be  used, and if they fail an operation  must bo re-
sorted to.

               Congenital Inguinal Hernia.

   In what respect dons congen'tal hernia differ from com-
mon  inguinal?  It is destitute of a distinct poritoneal sac,
in being lodged in  the tunica vaginalis in contact with tho
testicle, and "the spermatic cord and artery lie behind tho
hernia.
   What is  the treatmont?   A woll  contrived truss,  and
when strangulated  an operation may be required  unless re-
lieved by the usual remedies.

                     Artificial Anus.

   From  what  does it proceed ?  A mortified  intestine  in
strangulated hernia; in which  case the sound portion ad-
heres to the nock of the sack, tho portion protruded sloughs,
is thrown off, and tho faeces are discharged externally.
   What is the  treatment?  Nature often  affects a cure; it
is not best theroforo  to bo  too officious in  tho early  stages,
but simply apply a  truss with a broad pad to tho opening 
SURGERY
223
which  will retain  tho  fareos.   In this disease tho upper
and lower portion of intestine lie side by side; and a very
ingenious operation was  suggested and practiced success-
fully by Dr. Physick; the principle of which is to produce
adhesion between those two portions, thon diyide the bar-
rier betwoen them, and by that  means establish a commu-
nication between the upper and lower portions, and  su«ej
tho external opening to close. This adhesion was produced
by passing a crooked noodle armed with a ligature within
tho orifioe'of  ono gut and bringing it out  at tho other, trav-
ersing in its passage tho coats of each, the onds of tho liga-
ture were then tie J in a.loose loop.

                D::j:ases of inE  Rectum.
                    Prolapsus Ani.
   What are tho causes of prolapsus ani or inversion of the
lining membrane  of the rectum?   Habitual  costiveness,
straining at stool, diarrhoea,  dysentery, hemorrhoids, stric-
tures, stone, drastic purgatives, &c.
   What is tho treatment?  The parts should be returned as
soon as possiblo by gentle  pressure.   If  there is much in-
flammation, bloodletting, general, and local, mild cathartics,
cold poultices,  astringent washes, &c, should first  be resor-
ted to.  Whore the parts become indurated, and incapable
of reduction it may become necessary to remove them, either
with the ligature, or knife.
                      Hemorrhoids.

   What aro hemorrhoids? They are tumours situated about
tho rectum, sometimes distinguished  as internal, and exter-.
nal, from thoir situation; blind, and bleeding, according  aa
thoy are attended or not with hemorrhage,
   They may consist of varicose enlargements of veins,  or
from blood poured into cysts formed  by cellular membrane,
or from a more organized growth.
   What is the  treatment?  To palliate  urgent,  or present
symptoms recourse may be had to leeches, cold astringent
 washes, astringent ointments, rest, &c.   They may by bo
 coming  largo, and  troublesome, or  irreducible, require an
 oporation, either by the knife, or ligature.  When they con-
sist of varicose enlargements tho ligature should always be.
 used; on tho contrary in the other kinds  tho knife may ba
 propor.
            20 * 
230                  SURGERY.

                       Fistula in Ano.

  What is fistula in ano?  It is an abscess about tho vergo
of tho anus  with ono  or more small openings.   If the opon-
ing communicates  with tho rectum and not with the intog-
unionts it is called  internal fistula; if it opons upon the sur-
face of the  integuments it is an external fistula; and if thoro
is an oponing both  internal and external it is called a com-
plete fistula.
   What is  the treatment?  Absolute rest, modorato  diet,
 and mild laxatives.
   Whon the disease is long established  an operation be-
 comes necessary, unless consumption exists, in which case
 the fistula ought not to be healed.

            Diseases of the Testicle and Penis.

                        Hydrocele.

   What is  hydrocele?  It is a collection of water in tho tu-
 nica vaginalis; and forms an elastic pyriform tumour winch
 at first occupies the lower part of the scrotum, and gradual-
 ly extends  upwards.                 ,     .
   What is  the treatment?   An  operation  is generally re-
 quired; and is either palliative, or radical.
   Tho palliative operation is simply the evacuation of tho
 fluid by a lancet, or small trocar.
   The operation for radical euro may bo performed by  lay-
 ino-open the tunica vaginalis; by passing a scion  through
 if°by applying caustic; by extirpating  a part  ot the tunica
 vaginalis;  by tho introduction of a tent; and  by  injection
 affer the water has been evacuated.
   The latter operation is the one usually performod, and ge-
 nerally with success when properly done.  There are sever-
 al different articles mado use of for the  purpose of injection.

                        Hamatocle.

    What is hsematocele?  It is a collection of  blood, either
 in the tunica vaginalis t-jstis, within the  tunica albuginoa,
 or in the cellu lar membrane of the scrotum. It may proceed
 from injurj of ono or more of tho blood vessels of tho scro-

  '"what is  the treatment?   If tho extravasation is  small  it 
SURGERY.
231
will probably be absorbod in a short time.   If it is not, an
incision should be made, and the blood evacuated.

                        Phymosis.

  What is phymosis ?  It is where tho prepuce is contracted
in front, and cannot be drawn over the glans penis.
  There  are two varieties;  the natural when  it exists at
birth; and the preternatural when it occurs at any other pe-
riod of lite.                               .         ...
   What is tho treatment?  An operation; either by slitting
 up the prepuce, or  removing a small portion by circumci-

   Iii preternatural, when attended  with high inflammation
 tho best remedies are local bleeding, emollient poultices,
 fomentations, <\c
                      F I'i'aphymosis.

   What is paraphymoms «  It is where the prepuce is firm-
 lv retracted behind tho corona, leaving the glans penis  un-
 covered, and  sometimes producing  great  constriction  and
 swellui"-.   It may be congenital or acquired.
   What"is tho troatmont?   Cold, the antiphlogistic course,
 and steady  pressure kt pt up  for several minutes.  In ex-
 treme circumstances the stricture must be divided.

         Diseases  of the  Crethra and  Bladder.

                Stricterc of the   Urethra.

   How are  tlmv divided !■  into permanent, spasmodic, and
 a combination of tho  two.
   What part  is the common seat of stricture?   Usually be-
 hind tho bulb about soven inches from tho extremitv of tho
 glans; also at tho  distanco of four  or five inches; and three
 and a half  inches; sometimes tho orifice itself is tho scat of
  stricture.
    What are tho  symptoms?  The  constitutional symptoms
  arc disorder of tho  digostivejunctions, general  irritability,
  severe chills, followed by high fever, and profuse perspira-
  tion; tho febrile paroxysm is not however an  invariable  at-
  tendant.
    The local symptoms are a slight discharge of matter from
  tho urethra, a frequent desire to urinato, tho urino issues in
  drops or in a forked, twisted, win-, or  thread  liko stroair^ 
•232
SURGERY.
nocturnal omissions, scalding of the urino, Sec.  Excoss in
eating, drinking, and cold, aggravate all thoso symptoms.
   What is tho  treatment?   Tho first object is to ascortain
the position and oxtont of tho stricture;  which may bo dono
by a bougie, cathotor, or  urethra sound.
   There aro three methods of euro.  Dilatation by bougies;
destruction by  caustics, and division by  a stilet.

                  Fistula in Perinaea.

   What is fistula  in porinaeo?  It is an abscess communi"
eating externally, and with tho urethra internally.  It may
procood from strictures  of the  urethra, or from blows or
other injuries.
   What is  tho treatment?  If it depond upon'stricture the
tfirst indication is to got rid of that;  if tho canal anterior to
 lie fistula becomes oblitorated it can only be accomplished
by an operation.  Whon  the fistula is porvious  it should bo
dilated with bougies, or such  other  moans as tho caso may
require.
           Retention  aud Incontinence  of  Urine.

   What aro tho causes of retontion  of urino?  Severe gon-
orrhoea, strictures of the urethra, enlarged prostate, spasm
of the  neck of the  bladder, stono,  hemorrhoids, fistula in
ano, stimulating diuretics, blisters, &c.
   What aro tho remedies  for retention  of urine?   Tho
warm  bath, blood-letting,  purgatives, opiate  enomata, tho
catheter,  forced injections  to ovorcomo obstructions, and
puncture of the bladder.  Whon it is  necessary to  punc-
ture the bladder it should bo dono  either through  tho peri-
neum, above tho pubos, or through  the rectum; tho opera-
tion of puncturing above tho pubos is the ono generally por-
formod.
   What is  the treatment for incontinence of urine?   Tho
nternal use of cantharides, muriatod tincture of iron, bark,
opium, cold bath, and blisters, either singly or conjoinod in
such mannor as may bo indicated.

                   Urinary Calculus.

  Where are urinary calculi found?  In the kidney, ureter,
bladder, prostate  gland,  or urethra, but they are mostly
found in the bladder.
  What are the symptoms of stono in  the bladder?   Fro- 
SURGERY.
233
ntient doslro to make wator, and severe pain on voiding tho
last drops of it; sudden stoppago of tho urine while passing,
and  flowing  again frequently  by change of  posture, and
tenesmus.  Sounding is however the only poeitive symptom,
and should always bo done before a course of treatment is
adopted.
  What is tho treatment for urinary calculus?  When there
is a cab-ulim passing the ureter decisive treatment should bo
adopted.  Blood  should  bo drawn freely if  tho patient is
robust, and a brisk  purge given, the warm bath and spirits
of turpentine, or spirits  of turpentino and opium may bo
uacd with benefit;  the tincture of tho poke berry juice has
also  been  reeoniinondod.  When the bladder  contains a
stono tho  operation of lithotomy, lithotrity, or lithotripsy
must bo performed.
                      Amputation.
  What are tho injuries for wlrch amputation  is resorted
to?   Gun shot wounds and fractures, mortification, tumors,
diseased joints, and ulcers.
  What circumstances influonco  us in regard to tho propri-
ety of amputation in gun shot wounds and fractures?  When
tho chiof arteries of a limb arc divided, the muscles  lacer-
ated, and the bones badly broken amputation should be per-
formed; also when complicatod  with severo injury of tho
joints.
  What tumours may ronder amputation necessary?   Osteo-
sarcoma, spina ventosa, exostosis, fungus haeinatodos, &e. 
PART V. —OBSTETRICS.
                      The Pelvis.

  Where is the pelvis situated, and of what is it composed?
It is between the last lumbar vertebra and the  superior ex-
tremities of the thigh bones.
  It is composed of four bones in tho adult; on its posterior
and inferior parts by  the sacrum and coccyx; and on its lat-
eral, inferior, and anterior parts by tho ossa innominata.
  What are the characteristics of the Sacrum ?  It was ori-
ginally composed  of five pieces—its figure is triangular,
with the base upwards; has four surfaces, an anterior, pos-
terior, and two lateral; and is pierced by four holes on each
side for the passage of the  sacral nerves.  Superiorly it is at-
tached to the last lumbar vertebra, and laterally to tho  ossa
innominata. Its length is from four to four and a half inches,
breadth about four inches, and tho depth of its concavity is
about three-fourths of an inch.
  What are tho characteristics of the Coccyx?  It is \$ inch-
es in  length,  pyramidal, has its base upwards, articulates
with the sacrum, and  is  composed of three or four bony
portions.
  What are the characteristics of tho Ossa Innominata?
Thoy are on each side,  divided  into three portions which
were originally distinct; tho ilium, ischium, and pubes.
  The ilium on each side  forms tho highest lateral portion
of the pelvis; the suporior edge is nearly  semicircular, tip-
ped with cartilage, and called tho spine;  the external sur-
face is convex, and called tho dorsum; tho internal is  con-
cave,  and called the fossa.  It has  two anterior, and  two
pi sterior spinous processes, forms  with  the os  pubis  the 
OBSTETRICS.
235
linea ileo-pectinca, and with the pubes and ischium tho ace-
tabulum.
  Tho ischium is tho lowost of the throe  bonos, on  each
sido; it terminates in a  tuber below  from which a process
runs upwards to join the pubis.
  Tho pubis is tho smallest of the throo; its longest portion
forms a part of tho acetabulum; it  thon diminishes in sizo,
Btri lobes ovor to  join its fellow of the opposito side, and
Bonds  a  branch  downwards to unite with a  portion of
tho ischium in such manner as to leave an opening, tho for-
 amm  ovale.
   Tho innominata aro joined posteriorly to the sacrum  by
 cartilages and appropriate ligaments: the anterior junction
 is called the symphysis of the pubcs.
   Where are the Sacro sciatic ligaments situated? The pos-
 terior  arises  from tho posterior  inferior spinous process of
 tho ilium, from the lowor margin of tho sacrum, and  from
 ihe first bono of  the coccyx; is inserted into the internal
 margin of the tuberosity of  the  ischium, and is extended
 along th:> internal face  of the crus.
   Tho anterior  is placed in front,  and arises from the mar-
 gin of the lower part of the sacrum, and the lateral margin
 of tho coccyx; the fibres converge and are inserted into the
 spinou s process of tho ischium.  This is the arrangement on
 oach sido of the pelvis.
   How is the pelvis divided?   Into  the  largo and small, or
 false and true;  or  tho pelvis above and bolow the brim.—
 The linqof  demarcation boing tho  linea  ileo-pectinea at
 tho sides, tho crista of tho pubis in front, and the promonto-
 ry of  the sacrum behind.
    What is the distinction between the male and female pel-
 vis?   Tho  male pelvis has a contracted  brim of a rounded
 form  or  triangular shape, with tho promontory of the sac-
 rum projecting.  Tho  female polvis is spacious, of an oval
 shopo,  with tho sacrum  slightly prominent,  and greater
 space is afforded for the passago  of tho child.  The cavity
 of tho malo polvis is deep, while in the female it is shallow.
    In  the male there is a contracted angular  arch of the pu-
 bes;  in  the  femalo there  is a  spacious and well rounded
 arch, and the  tuberosities of  tho  ischia are much  wider
  apart.  The length of tho sacro-sciatic ligament, and the
  mobility of the coccyx upon the sacrum serve also to distin-
  guish the female polvis. 
230
OBSTETRICS.
   "What are the parts of  the pelvis the diametors of which
 ara important?  The brim, cavity, and outlet.
   What are tho superior and  inferior openings sometime!
 called?  The superior, and inferior straits.
   What are tho diameters usually measured of the brim,
 cavity and outlet?
   The straight or antoro-posterior; tho transverse; and tho
 oblique.
   What aro the measurements of the brim or superior strait?
 The antoro-posterior from the  promontory of tho sacrum to
 the symphysis is 4.3 inches; the transvere  from the middle
 of the linea ilio-pectine of ono ilium to  tho  other is 5.4
 inches; and tho oblique from ono sacre-iliac  symphysis to
 tho acetabulum opposito is 4.8.
   What are the measurements of the  cavity?   The antero
 postorior  from the  centre of the hollow of tho sacrum to
 that of the symphysis is 4.8 inches;  tho tmnsverso from tho
 paint  corresponding to the lower margin of the acetabulum
 on one side to  that of tho other is 4.3 inches; and tho ob-
 lique  drawn from tho centre of the free spaco foimod by the
 8-tcro  sciatic notch and  ligaments on  one  sido to the for-
 amen  ovale of the other is 5.2 inches.
   What  aro the measurements of the outlet or inferior
 strait? The anteroposterior from tho point of tho coccyx
 to the lower edge of the  symphysis pubis is 3.8 inches but
 during labor tho  mobility of tho  coccyx  may allow  th's
 diameter  to bo increased ono inch, or to  4.8 inches; the
 transverse from one  tuberosity of the ischium to the other in
 4.3 inches; and the oblique from the middloof the lower edge
 of the  sacro-sciatic  ligament of ono  side to  the point of
 union  between the ischium  and  descending  ramus ot the
 pubos  on the othor is 4.8 inches.—Righy
  What is meant by the  axes ot the  pelvis? Thee are  lines
 drawn at right angles with the  planes of the straits through
 their centres.
  What relation does the ax's of ihe superior strait bear lo
 the horizon?  It forms an angle between 50° and 60°.  A
 lino  dfawn Iron the umbilicus to  the point of tho coccyx
 will  re;r sent tho axis of tho superior s'raif.
  What is meant  by the  inclination of i'io pelvis?    The
: ngle which the axis of the  superior srait forms with the
horizon wh n  a woman is in  the  upright  ro'Irion  ma'! s
what is called the mclActlo:-  -7 ':-':<-A-A. 
OBSTETRICS.
237
  What relation does tho axis of the inferior strait boar to
tho superior?  It forms with it nearly a right angle; and ia
represented  by a line drawn from the sacrum just below tho
promontory pcrpondicular to tho plane of  tho inferior strait.
The angle winch tho axis of one strait forms with the hori-
ro:i is inverse to that of the other.
   What is tho shape of a lino that will represent tho axis of
the, pelvis?  It will bo a curved line, tho shape of a malo
catheter passing through the centre of a series of planes ex-
tending Iroiu tho sacrum to  tho  pubes, from the linea ileo-
pectinea to tho coccyx and sub-pubic ligament.
   What is  iho  arrangement of  the  two lateral  inclined
planes within the pelvis on each side?  They are  divided
into anterior and posterior.
   The anterior commbnecs near  the  sacro-iliac symphysis,
extends to the symphysis pubis, passos downwards and for-
wards in  front of the spino of tho ischium, and ovor tho
obturator foramen, terminating on the antorior edgo of the
ramus of tho pubis  and ischium.
   Tho posterior commences at tho sacro-iliac  junction, ex-
tends to  the middle lino of tho sacrum,  passes downwards
and backwards behind tho spine of tho  ischium over the
sacro-sciatic foramen, and sacro-sciatic ligaments, tormina-
ting on tho posterior edge  of tho tuberosities of tho ischium,
tho lower edge of the s icro-sciatic ligament, and point of the
coccyx.  These planes influence tho  presenting part of the
fetus; when the occiput is brought in contact with the pel-
vis anterior  to the.  spine of the  ischium, it will pass  down
upon  the antorior inclined plane, and emerge undor the arch
of the pubes; but if it enter the  pelvis behind the spine of
tho ischium, it will pass down tho posterior inclined plane,
rotate into  the  hollow of tho sacrum, and  emerge at  the
posterior commissure of tho vulva.

               Of  Deformity if  the  Pelvis.

   What is meant by a deformity  of the polvis?   Any devi-
ations from its healthy dimensions, either by excess or di-
munition.
   What are the evils arising from an excess in size?  Pre.
pinitaiion of the uterus tvithin the pelvis during gestation,
with  iis consequences; and during parturition a too rapid
labor, which may causo alarming hemorrhage.
   What arc the remedies  for the difficulties arising fro.n an
           21 
m
OESTETRICS.
excess in  size?  For the first, a proper sized pessary, or a
Utero-abdominal supporter.
  For the second, forbidding the woman to boar down during
labour; opposing the too rapid  escape of tho child by pres-
sing on its head, or the perineum of the mother, and hemor-
rhage may be much diminished by brisk  frictions on tho
abdomen over the  uterus, and by ergot.
  What are the usual causes of distortions of the pelvis?
Rachitis in infancy, and melacosteon in old age.
  What portion is generally distorted?  The upper strait;
and this in its antero-postcrior diameter; when the inferior
strait is distorted it is  generally in its  transverse diameter,
by  the  approximation of the tubers of the  ischia.
  Thero is  not  however any portion but 'what is liable to
deviation from its  healthy measurements.
  What is the smallest antero-postcrior  diameter of tho su-
perior  strait that  will allow a labor to  bo terminated  suc-
cessfully?  Thr- e inches; if there is even throe and a half,
labor is rendered tedious, painful, and uncertain.
  In what position would you keep a  child affected with
rickets, to prevent deformity of tho polvis?   In a horizontal
one, and permit it to exercise its limbs freely upon a bed or
matrass.
  To what other deformities is the polvis liablo? Exostosos,
and tumors.
  What are the means proposed for measuring the p lvis?
The  pelvimeter, intro-pelvimetcr, caliper,  by the introduc-
tion of the finger  agains'. the  most projecting part of the
base of tho sacrum, and by the introduction of the hand, in
time  of labor, and placing the fingers edgewise  between
the posterior part of the symphysis and the projection of
iho sacrum.  Tho finger  and  tho hand  aro  most to  bo
depended upon.
                   Of the Chiles Head.

  What are tho principal diametors of the childs head?
The oblique, lrom the  symphysis of tho chin to the postori-
or ind superior extremities of the parietal bones, or tho pos-
terior extremity of tho sagittal  suture  measuring 5 inchos;
the longitudinal from tho centre of tho forehead  to tho top
of  the lambdoidal  suture measuring 4 inches;  tho  porpen-
dicular, from the summit of the head to tho baso of tho era
uium measuring from  3 to 3i inchos;  and tho transverse, 
OBSTETRICS.
239
from ono parietal protuberanco to the other measuring from
3 to 3i inches.
  Aro  thoso diamotcrs over altered during the progress of
labour?  Thoy are  liable to bo from tho s'upplonoss of tho
bonos of tho head of tho foetus; but all cannot bo diminish-
ed or increasod at tho same time;  if ono is diminished ano-
thor must be increased. Tho extent to which these changes
may tako placo varies in individual casos owing to the more
or loss porfect  ossification of the bonos.
  What aro tho sutures of the fcetal hoad?  The sagittal or
the lino of union from  tho occipital bono to the root of tho
nose, connecting tho parietal and  tho two sides of the fron-
tal bono with each other;  the  coronal which connects tho
antorior portions of the pariotal and tho posterior portions of
tho frontal  bono; tho lambdoidal which  connects the posto-
rior portion of tho pariotal  and tho anterioi portion of the
occipital'bonos.
  What forms the anterior fontanelle, and how is it distin-
guished?   It is formod at  tho points of  decussation of the
sagittal and coronal sutures.   It is distinguished  by four
bony anglos, the edges of which  aro tipped with cartilage,
and are smooth, soft, and yiolding.
  What forms tho posterior fontanollo, and how is it distin-
guished ?   It is formed at tho points of junction of  tho pos-
terior end of the sagittal  with  tho contre of the lambdoidal
suture, and  has throe bony anglos; two by the pariotal,and
ono by the occipital bones.
   What parts  of tho head are of most importance to under-
stand in order to detormino the presentations? The  sutures,
and fontanolles.
  To what oxtont may  "the head be  rotated on the trunk
with safoty to the child?  One quarter of  a circle,  and not
more.

                Of the Genital Organs.

  How are tho organs of generation, and parts concerned in
delivery divided?   Into  internal, and external.   The exter-
nal consists of tho mons veneris, labia, clitoris, nymphoc,
meatus uriuarius, hymen,  orifico ot  the vagina,  caruncula
myrtiforinos, fraanuin labiorum, fourchetio, fossa nayicularis,
and perineum.
   The internal aro the uterus, fallopian tube?,  ovaria,  YiSQ,.
monts, and vagina. 
S40
OBSTETRICS.
  Where is the mons veneris  and the othor external organs
situated?  The mons veneris is an accumulation of cellular
and adipose membrane covoring the pubes.
  Tho labia are two bodies of a similar tenure to the mons
veneris, running parallel from it in a downward and  back-
ward course.
  Tho clitoris is diroctly boncath tho superior union, or ori-
gin of tho labia; it consists of two crura which unito and form
its body, the external termination of which has been called
its glans.                  ■<
  The nympha? are two similar bodies  depending from the
clitoris, which separate and run downwards, towards tho os
externum.
  The orifice of the urethra is found between the inferior
portions of the nymphae.   The canaLofthe urethra is. about
H inches in length.               /.")l  ' *f
  The orifice of tho vagina is  below thfcr orifice of the ure-
thra, and immediately under the  symphysis pubis.
  The hymen is a membranous expansion at the orifice of
the vagina, and partially closing it.            '■ *
  The caruncula myrtiformes are small fleshy  vascular bo-
dies situated at  the  external orifice  of  tho  vagina  upon
which in tho virgin stato the hymen appears to spread itself.
  The fourchette is a seAiilunar fold in advance of the hy-
men.
  The  fossa navicularis is  between  the  hymen  and four-
chette.
  The perineum is the  space directly behind the inferior
termination of the labia and bofore tho anus, about an inch
and  a half in width.
  Where is the vagina situated?  It is a dense  elastic canal,
lined with mucous membrane which loads directly from the
external organs to the uterus; its course  is a little  down-
wards and  then upwards; and the length is from 4 to 6 in-
ches.  The mucous membrane is thrown into folds or rugae.
  Where is the Uterus situated, and w..at are  its character-
istics?  In the cavity of the  pelvis, at the uppor extremity
of the vagina with the bladder in front, and the rectum be-
hind.  It is 2k inches long of a  pear shape, a little flatten-
ed, with its small extremity hanging into the vagina.   It is
divided into fundus, body, and nock.
  The fundus is that portion above the origin of the fallopi-
an tubes; the body is the part extending from them  below 
OBSTETRICS.
241
to the commencement of the neck; and tho neck is that ac-
uminated portion  which dips into tho vagina, and termi-
nates in tho os tincae. Its structure is muscular, and tho in-
ternal cavity is  triangular, and lined by a fine membrane
which soerotos the menstrual fluid.
  Where are tho Fallopian tubes situated?  They are con-
nected with the uterus on each sido at a lino which would
divido the fundus from the body. They are tortuous hollow
bodies 4 or 5 inches lon<?, with the utorine extremity small,
and terminating at the "other extremity  in an opening  ot
some capacity,  which is surrounded by an uneven frill call-
 ed the fimbria.
   Where are  tho Ovaries situated?  They arc two  smaU,
 roundish bodies about tho sizo of a nutmeg, near to the ab-
 dominal extremitios  of  tho fdlopian tubes,  in the folds of
 the lateral or broad ligaments, one on oach side,  and are
 the seat of conception.
   What arc tho ligaments of tho uterus?  The broad; the
 anterior or round- and tho posterior  or  utoro-sacral liga-
 ments*
   Whore are they situated?  The broad ligaments are du-
 plicatures of tho peritoneum as it passes from  the uterus to
 tho lateral portions of the polvis, ono on each side.
   Tho anterior or round ligaments arise from the superior
 and lateral parts of tho uterus, run in tho doublings of  the
 broad ligamonts,  pass over the brim of tho pelvis, through
 tho abdominal  rings, and loose themselves in the gioins.
   Tho posterior  ligamonts ariso from tho posterior portion
 of the nock of  tho uterus  near its middle, diverge and as-
 cend towards the middle of the  lateral edges of the sacrum,
 and are lost in tho cellular membrane covering that bone.
   What arteries  supply the uterus with blood? The eper-
 matics, and hypogastrics.
   The nerves" are supplied  from  the intercostal, the renal
 ploxus, and the sacral.

                      Menstruation.                   I

    What is moant by menstruation?  It is that function in
 which tho uterus periodically secretes a sanguinolent fluid.
    What part gives origin to this secrotion?   The  internal
 coat of the uterus.
    What  aro  the characteristics  of this  secrotion?    It
          21* 
242                 OBSTETRICS.
 resembles blood, has a peculiar quality and odor, it  is not
 coagulable, nor does it putrify readily.
   At what period does menstruation take place?  It takes
 place at puberty, or that period at which the  animal is ca-
 pable of propagating its  species; the age varies undor the
 influences of climate, constitution, and modes  of life; earli-
 er in hot  than cold countries,  sooner in cities than  in the
 country, &,c.
   What are the symptoms which precede menstruation?
 The mammae increase in size, tho voice is changed,  the pu-
 bes are covered with hair, tho bost proportions are develop-
 ed, and  the mind is rapidly matured.
   Besides these  there is headache,  dullness  of the eyos,
 pains in the pelvic region,  lassitude, whimsical appetite,
 leucorrhea, dfcc, which gives place  to a discharge from the
 vagina.
   What is the menstruous period?   From four to six days;
 and during this time from four to six ounces  of fluid  aro
 discharged.
   What are general symptoms during the menstrual flow?
 The appetite becomes capricious, tho person is  languid, pale,
 or hectically florid, dark under  the eyes,  and  frequently
 there is  a dragging sensation about the hips and loins.
   At what age does it cease?  From forty-five to fifty.  In
 this climate at about forty-six or seven.
   Does the regular appearance of tho menses every twenty-
 eight days indicate a capability for procreation or reproduc-
 tion? It does.
   Is the uterus influenced by any of its appendages in this
 function?  Tho  ovaries appear indispensible  to it; as their
 absence  either natural, or by removal prevents the appear-
 ance of the menses
   Is  menstruation  a physiological or a pathological condi-
 tion?    It is strictly a physiological function.
   Is the  cause of menstruation well  understood?  It is not;
 there have been many theories formed to account for it, but
 they are  not satisfactory.

       Derangement of the function of Menstruation.
  To what derangements is this function liable?   To a too
tardy appearance  of the menses.
  To its interruption alter having been established.
  To excess of quantity. 
OBSTETRICS.
243
  To menorrhagia.
  To dysmenorrhoea or painful menstruation.
  And to irregularities towards the decline of life.
  At what  period of life  in this country does menstruation
take place?  From the fourteenth to the fifteenth year.
  Docs age of itself present an indication for interference in
regard to°this function?   No; there should be othereviden
ccs of womanhood; and when these are absent the girl should
never bo tortured by emmenagogues. These signs are enu-
merated undor  the head of menstruation.
  What should be done where these signs to  a greater, or
less extent exist, and menstruation does not appear, with
a  delicate state of health of the patient?  There  should
be a regular course of exercise instituted whon the patient
can  boar it; such as riding on horseback, walking, skipping
tho rope, &c. The dress should bo attended to; and the diet
should consist of oasily digestod food, both animal, and veg-
otablo; all stimulating drinks  should be avoided.   Tincture
of cantharidos particularly if leucorrhea attends may be giv-
on in dosos of thirty  drops three times a day.  Keeping the
bowols regularly open with aloetic pills with or without the
sulphato ot iron is beneficial.
  What is to be dono whon a chronic  disease  exists?  At-
tention should be givon to the disease when we have reason
to supposo the absence of the menses depends upon it.
  What is undorstood by suppression of the menses?  It is
tho want of return of this discharge  at the accustomed peri-
od aftor it has been established, whon not interrupted  by
pregnancy, or suckling.
  What aro tho causes?  Cold, applied either  in the inter-
val, or during tho flow.
  Win t aro the symptoms?   Paleness, emaciation, debility,
nervom symptoms,  palpitation of  tho heart,  difficulty  of
breathm», and  a disturbance of  tho circulation,  to which
may bo a J  ed fluor albus, and more or less pain in the loins
and  polvis.
  What is tho treatment?  It will depend  upon the state  of
tho circulation; if the pulse is disturbed we should prescribe
blood letting, purging, low diet, &c, until it is corrected;
and  thon we can safely give  emmenagogues; among  these
aloetic and ferruginous pills,  and the  ammoniated tincture
of sruiacum stand first.
  What is understood by dysmenorrhcea? It ia a monstruous 
244
OBSTETRICS.
discharge accompanied by pain of a forcing and  bearing
down kind, and a dischargo of a membranous substance or
coagula.
  What is the treatment?   During the paroxysms the pain
should be relieved by anodynes, and antispasmodics,  such
as camphor, and camphor and opium, with perfoct rest.  In
tho intervals use alteratives and tonics after  proper deplo-
tton.

                      Pregnancy.

  What changes  take place after  the  period of impregna-
tion?  The ovum increases in size and is prominent on the
ovarium, absorption of its peritoneal coat takes  place, it is
embraced by  the fimbriated extremity ot  tho fallopian tube,
and carried towards the cavity of the uterus.
  At what  time is the ovum found in  the uterus?  About
twenty  days after impregnation.
  What is tho appearance of tho ovarium after tho ovum is
removed?  First an effusion of blood into tho cavity from
whence the ovum was removed,  and this is  followed by a
corpus luteum.

                    The Membranes.

  What takes place during this time in the cavity of the
uterus?  The internal surface throws  out a vascular tissue
which is termed the membrana decidua;  it lines the cavity
of the uterus  down to tho internal os uteri,  remains next
to it during pregnancy, and forms the medium  of contact
between the uterus and the ovum.
  What are the membranes of the ovum?  There aro two;
the chorion externally, and the amnion  internally.  They
enclose the embryo and the water in which it floats.
  What takes place when tho ovum arrives at tho uterus?
The ovum adheres to the  decidua and  causes a growth of
that part with which it comes in contact, and is callod tho de-
cidua reflexa; so that tho decidua is thon divided into that
portion lining and in contact with the uterus called decidua
vera; and that portion in contact with the ovum,  and called
decidua refloxa; this arrangement corresponds  with that
of the pleura pulmonalis and costalis; they come in contact
about the fourth month.
  What are the uses of the amnion and chorion?   Tho am- 
OBSTETRICS.
245
nion furnishos a quantity of fluid for  the  protection of its
contents; the chorion furnishes a moans of communication
with the uterus, and is thought by some to form the basis of
tho placenta.
  What then does tha ovum  consist of after its  establish-
m<nt  within the  uterus?   The  decidua,  decidua  refloxa,
chorion, amnion, liquor amnii,  fcetus, and  umbilical cord,
with one extremity attached to  tho umbilicus of the child,
and tho other to the membranes, which for tho present an-
swors tho purpose of the placenta.
  What are tho uses of the liquor amnii?   Perhaps its  uses
are not ontiroly known; but it allows  space, and  facilities
for motion, development, &c, of tho fcetus.
   What  composes the umbilical cord?  It consists of two
artorics, a vein, a layer of amnion, and perhaps also of the
chorion; tho arterios aro a continuation  of  the  primitive
iliacs; tho vein passes undor  tho edge of the  liver, and en-
ters tho vena cava.
                      The Placenta.

  What is the placenta  and  its characteristics?  It is that
vascular mass  by which the circulation is maintained be-
tween mother and child, and the  latter  is nourished.  Its
diameter  is six or eight inches, and its thickness  is from a
few lines at its odge to ono inch or more at  its centre.  It
has two surfaces;  the uterine which is rough, spongy,  trav-
ersed by sulci, and it is boliovod by many that the decidua
linos its whole surface; and the foetal  which is  smooth, and
lined by the amnion.
   What kind of communication exists between the uterus
and placenta?  It is by capillary veins and arteries.
  Suppose an injection  passed into tho umbilical arteries
what becomes of  it?  It passes into the veins of tho pla-
centa, and the whole plexus may be  filled.   The arterios
may be filled in tho same manner by injecting tho umbilical
vein.
   What is meant by embryo?  It is the now being during
tho first three months of  gestation;  the balance of its intra-
uterine oxistonce it called foetus.

                 The Foetal Circulation.

   What aro tho peculiarties of the  circulatory apparatus of
the foetus?  There are fivo:  1st. Tho  vena umbilicalis. 2d. 
246
OBSTETRICS.
The ductus venosus.  3d. The foramen ovale.  4th. Tho
ductus aieriosus.   5th. The arteria; umbilicalcs.
  What is tho vena umbilicalis? Itariscs from the placenta,
enters the abdomen through tho naval, passos along tho an-
terior margin of the  suspensory ligament of tho liver,  is
connected with the sinus of the vona portarum, and a groat
portion of its blood is distributed to tho liver.
  What is tho ductus venosus?  It arisos from tho vona por-
tarum, and empties into the left hepatic vein near its junc-
tion with the vena cava; it  arises directly in face of tho
umbilical vein, so^that a probe may pass readily from ono to
the other.
   What is tho foramen  ovale?   It is  a largo aporturo  be-
tween the two auricles of tho heart, fiffnished with a valvo,
which closes when respiration begins.
   What is the ductus arteriosus? It is  a canal  loading from
the pulmonary artery into tho aorta, and discharges into tho
aorta at the lower part of the curvature.
   What are the arteria umbilicales?  Thoy are two in num-
ber, and are a continuation of the external iliacs; they pass
through the navol in company with the umbilical vein, twist
spirally around it, and are distributed to the placenta.
   What is tho course of the foetal  circulation?   It is from
tho placenta through the umbilical vein and ductus venosus
into the ascending cava, which  discharges the blood into tho
right auricle of the heart.  Tho eustachian valve turns tho
greater part of the blood into  the loft  auricle, through tho
foramen ovale. The left auricle may then bo said to be dis-
tonded with blood from the ascending cava, while the right
is distended with  the blood of the descending cava.  Tho
auricles contract together and fill the ventricles.   Tho ven-
tricles also contract together, and fill the pulmonary artery
and aorta.  The blood of the right ventricle having got into
tho pulmonary artery is  principally discharged by the due
tus arteriosus into tho  descending aorta.   That of tho  left
side by being driven into  tho aorta is  mostly sent through
the artoria innominata, the left  carotid, and the left subcla-
vian, to the head and upper extremities; what remains boing
mixed with the contents of the descending aorta, goes  to
the lower extremities; but by far tho greater portion of tho
blood of tho descending aorta passes through the umbilical
arteries to the placenta, whcro it is  rendered fit for the nu-
trition of tho fetus, taken up  by tho  umbilical  veins, and
repeats the same round until respiration is established. 
                    OBSTETRICS.                  2*7

      Changes  in  the  Uterus from Iv,<-(,;-cgmUo.i.

  What arc tho  changes which take place in the parietes of
tho uterus itself from impregnation?  There is an increas-
ed quantity of  blood sent to  it which  increases with ges-
tation; tho vessels from boing small and convoluted become
onlargod  and straighter.
  The fibres of the uterus become developed so as to be re-
cognized as muscular; the organ increases in size with per-
fect  rcgulariiv, and  its position and  distension give us a
pretty accurate knowledge of tho advancement of pregnan-
cy.   For tho first three or four months the utorus is  found
lower in  tho vagina than whon unitnpregnr.tcd; after  tho
fourth or fifth month the  fundus can be felt at the pubic re-
gion; at tho sixth  half way between it and tho umbilicus;
at tho Bovonth at tho umbilicus;  at tho eighth half way bc-
twocn tho umbilicus and tho scrobiculus cordis; at tho ninth
about tho samo owing to tho  more perfect development ol
the nock.  The neck of tho uterus undergoes  changes also
after the  sixth  month;  it becomes shorter and shorter, and
at tho ninth month it is entirely  obliterated; furnishing then
tho principal incrcaso  of spaco  for iho faitus.  Of the body
and lundur, tho posterior portions contribute the most space,
and hence tho  fallopian tubes at the latter part of pregnancy
 aro found in advance of  tho uterus.

             Of the deuclopcmcut of the Foetus.

   In what order is the product of conception developed?
   To the fifteenth  day  it is a  gelatinous, semitranaparent,
 fioeeulont, greyish mass; at thirty days it is  the sizo of a
 large ant, varying from thr o to fivo lines  in length;  at six
 weeks it is ten lines in length, about  tho size of a beo, and
 somo of tho rudimonts of organs aro visible; at two months it
 is about  two inches long, tho weight is two ounces, and os-
 sification has conimonced in some parts; at tho third month
 it is about three and a half inches long and weighs nearly
 throo ounces, the umbilical cord is formed, and the genital
 organs aro distinct; at tho fourth month it is from five  to six
 inches long, and  weighs from four to five ounces.
   During tho fiftii month motion  is perceptible  by the
 mother,  tho length i< from seven to nine inches, and the
 weight  nine or ten ounces; at the sixth month the parts aro 
148
OBSTETRICS.
 more perfectly dovelopod, it weighs from one to two pounds,
 and its length is from nine to twelve inches.
   At tho seventh month all parts aro more perfectly devel-
 oped; the eye lids which until now have boen  united by tho
 membrana pupillaris aro Separated; tho hair and nails grow,
 the weight is from two  to threo pounds, and  the  length is
 from twelve to fourteen inches. At eight months tho weight
 is from three to five pounds, the length sixteen inches  or
 more, and all  tho parts show a much more perfect condition
 of developement.  At  the  ninth  month  the head  has
 considerable firmness, ossification is  more complete, all tho
 organs are capable of  performing thoir appropriate func-
 tions in a more perfect  manner; the  length of the foetus itt
 about 20 inches and the average weight is about 7 pounds in
 this country.

               Extra-uterine. Pregnancy.

   What are the varieties of extra-uterine pregnancy?  Ova
 rian pregnancy, or whon tho embryo is developed in tho
 ovary.
   Ventral or  abdominal pregnancy,  wnen the ombryo be-
 comes deposited and developed in tho cavity of the abdo-
 men.
   Tubal pregnane}',  or when  the embryo becomes devel-
 oped in the  tube.
  Interstitial  pregnancy, or  whon the ovulo b-comes de-
 posited between the layers of the muscular fibros of tho ute-
 rus and is developed.
   What aro the consequences of cxtra-utorino  pregnancy?
 The consequences are usually serious; irritation, inflamma-
 tion,   suppuration,  ulceration, internal homorrhago,  and
 sloughing are all  liable  to happen,  and often  to tho extent
 of causing death to the mother.
  What is  tho proper  treatment?   Generally a  palliative
 treatment is the best.
  Gastrotomy  has been  recommended by some authors.

              Of the  signs of Pregnancy.
  How are  the signs of pregnancy divided?   Into the ra-
tional or sympathetic, and the positive  or physical signs.
  What are the rational signs of pregnancy? Suppression of
the menses;  the nipples and papilla become enlarged, tumid,
dark colored, and surrounded by an areola; morning  sick-
ness;  enlargement of the abdomen, Sec. 
OBSTETRICS.
243
  Aro these signs  positive?  No; they are all fallacious,
and may be produced by other causes than pregnancy.
  What is the mode of examination to  detect  tho physical
signs ?  The examination  of tho abdomen by the hand, by
auscultation, and ballottement.
  What do wo  dotoct by an examination of the  abdomen
with tho  hand?  The form of tho tumour, and tho  move-
intuit* of  tho foetus.
  What may bo detected by ausculation?  The pulsations
of ilio fetal heart,  and tho utorine soufilo, and to ihcso may
bo  added  the  movements of the fetus.
  Is tho  uterine souffle a sign to bo invariably relied upon?
No; it is valuable,  but not conclusive
  Are tho pulsations of the fetal heart to be relied upon?
  They aro conclusive whon heard;  which can almost in-
variably bo dono when pregnancy exists, aftor tho  fourth
month, although at this early period great care is required.
Tho point whore it  may often bo heard is about midway
between  the scrobiculus cordis and symphysis pubis, or per-
haps  more frequently a little to the left of the middle hue.
These pulsations may be  distinguished by their quickness,
which are from 130 to 150 in a miuuto.  In cases of  double
pr-gnmcy tho*  sound of  both  fetal hearts  may  mostly
bo  hoard in tho last weeks of pregnancy.
  What  is meant  by ballottement, and  what is its  impor-
tance as  a diagnostic of  pregnancy?   Tho process  of bal-
lottement is performed by passing tho finger to the mouth
of  iho uterus, or midway between it and the symphysis pu-
bis, while tho othor hand is applied upon the abdomen to
the fundus; tho finger should bo suddenly pushed up against
the uterus, while tho palm of the other han 1  is placed  on
i!ie abdomen to receive any impression which such a shock
may produce, the finger in tho vagina is to be kept applied to
the, uterus, so that it may determine whether  any  floating
 body descends upon it.   By these moans we can  determine
 \\ hethor the uterus contains a floating body, but it does not
 give  us  absolute  knowledge of  what that floating body
consists. Tho woman sho ild be in tho erect position.
  Are there any other symptoms of pregnancy?  Yes; tho
presenco of kiesteine  in the urine is looked upon as affording
a symptom of valuo, not always to be  depended upon how-
ever, as it may exist in certain  diseases; but taken in con- 
250
OBSTETRICS.
 nection with other symptoms it may bo valuablo in coming
 to a conclusion.

              Of the Action of the  Uterus.

   What are  the  actions of tho uterus?  It has two.  The
 first tends to reduce it to its original size aftor having been
 distended; this is called its tonic action.   It is accomplish-
 ed by all the fibres gathering themselves to a common cen-
 tre, but particularly by  the circular fibres.
   The second acts only when attempting to expel  some-
 thing, and is alternate  in its action; it has  been termed
 the spasmodic or painful contraction of tho uterus; and novor
 takes placo unless the tonic action is perfect or nearly so.

               Retroversion of the  Uterus.

   What ia meant by retroversion of the uterus? It is where
 the fundus is precipitated backwards, and places  itself be-
 tween tho rectum and bladder; while the neck is mounted
 up behind the symphysis pubis.
   At what time may this displacement take place?  Either
 in the unimpregnated or tho impregnated state; but usually
 in the latter.  It occurs mostly  between the second and
 fourth months of pregnancy.
   What  are  the  causes?  Whatever tends  to depress the
 fundus;  such as  blows, pressure, sudden exertion, violent
 efforts to vomit, coughing, an over distended bladder, and
 an accumulation of faeces in the rectum.
   What are the symptoms?  When suddonly produced tho
 symptoms may be severe; an immediate interruption  to tho
 flow of  urine,  or to  the passage of the faeces, alternate
 pains,  bearing down, disposition to faint, &c.  When slowly
 induced  tho  symptoms  are  the  same only less urgent and
 severe, but increase in intensity as the uterus is developed,
 until  relieved.  The  diagnosis should be verified by tho
 touch; and tho  disease may easily be distinguished by tho
 vagina interposing between the finger and the tumour, the
 neck being mounted  up behind  tho  symphysis, and  by its
 being obstinatoly  fixed in its position.
  What is  the treatment?  The catheter should boused,
and tho bowels emptied  daily; if this plan does not succeed
it should be replaced by  mechanical means.  The plan then
to  be pursued is to empty the bowels, either by injections or 
OBSTETRICS.                 251
a cathartic; draw off tho urine with an clastic catheter; and
bleed to fainting or nearly so.   The bed should be prepared
in such a manner that the  patient may lay upon her back,
with tho perineum free from the edge of the  bed, and the
parts should be well  lubricated with oil or lard.  Whon
faintness is induced by bleeding the woman should be placed
in tho above position;  the fingers should bo placed so as to
form a straight lino at their extremities; they must then be
gently pressed against the base of the tumour in tho vagina
so as to move it backwards and upwards, along the hollow
of tho sacrum, until it is placed abovo the projection of this
bono;  the hand should be  withdrawn, a pessary introduced,
and the woman kept quiet  in bed for some days.

               Antcversion of  the Uterus.

  What is antevorsion of the uterus?  It is where tho fun-
dus is thrown forward and  downward, so as to press against
tho pofltorior and inferior portion of the bladder, while tho
neck is  carried forwards towards the  projection of tho sa-
crum. Tho symptoms aro not as severe as in retroversion. It
may  generally be relieved by opening the bowels and draw-
ing off tho urine.

            Of the  Obliquities of the Uterus.

  How are they divided? Into right and left lateral, and the
anterior.
  What is tho treatment  for  these  displacements of the
utorus?  Before labor the.woman should  wear a bandage
or supporter.
  During labor the axes of tho  uterus and pelvis should be
mado to correspond, by placing the patient on tho side oppo-
site to tho obliquity, and bringing the fundus into its proper
place  If this docs not accomplish the objoct tho os uteri
should bo  hooked down by the  finger, and  brought to  cor-
respond with the axis of the polvis.

             Of the Term of Utero-gestation.

  What is tho average term of utero-gestation?  About nine
ealondor months or forty weeks.
  What is tho most favorable period for conception?  Im-
mediately  after the menstrual evacuation, 
OBSTETRICS.
                      Of Labour.

  What Is understood by tho term labour?   It is iho expul-
sive efforts of tho utorus and mothor in ovacuating tho con-
tents of the uterus.
  Is its causo well understood?  It cannot be explained in
tho present state of our knowledge.
  Has  tho mind any influence on labour?  Montal impres-
sions may excite labour in somo cases, and in  others sus-
pend, or prevent it.
  Is the fetus active,  or passive during labour?   It is  en-
tirely passivo;  being  acted upon by the uterus mainly,  as-
sisted by the voluntary powers of tho motlier.
  What are the symptoms of labour?  They are rigors, and
nervous symptoms, frequent inclination to mako water, or  n
suppression of  it, tenesmus, the subsidence of the abdomi-
nal tumour, secrotion of mucus,  dilatation of tho mouth ot
the uterus, and its alternato contractions.
  By what set of fibres is the os uteri opened?  By tho lon-
gitudinal, which aro opposed by the circular.
  Into  how many stages is labour  divided?  Three.  Tho
first is tho period of dilatation of the  os  uteri sufficient t>
permit the child to pass, and occupies about ton twelfths of
tho whole duration of  labor.
   The second is the period  of expulsion of the child from
the uterus, and occupies about ono ninth.
  The third stage includes tho complete expulsion  of  tho
membranes and placenta, and occupies about  one twenty-
fourth of tho whole duration of labor.
  Are  the active duties of  the accoucheur numorous  in a
natural labour? No; ho should  watch with care its  pro-
gress and attending symptoms, so as to bo able to render as-
sistance promptly in case of difficulty; but should not inter-
fere when the case  is a natural ono. To bo able to-discrimi-
nate where interforenco ia necessary roquiros  an accurate
knowledge of a healthy labor, and iho deviations to which
it may be liable.
  What should be the position of tho woman during labour?'
She should be placod on her left side at the foot of the bed
in such a manner that she  may fix her feot firmly against
the bed posts;  her hips within  ten or twelve inches of the
edge of the bed, with the lower extremities flexed, and the
head supported by pilfows. 
OBSTETRICS.
253
  The bed should bo properly protected by folded blankets
from tho discharge.
  What time would  you choose for making an examination
of tho progress of labour? The finger should  be introduced
into tho vagina during a pain; the examination of the pre-
senting part and of the condition of the os uteri should be
made both during pain, and in its absonco*
  Should the membranes be ruptured during labour?
When tho membranos remain entire, and the pains are effi-
cient, with tho os uteri dilated or dilatable, they should be
ruptured by proving the fingor against them, or by cutting
them with the nail.
  Whon the head is  emerging under the arch of tho pubes
what are  the duties of the accoucheur?  Ho should support
the porineal tumour  with the palm of tho left hand, and re-
tain it there until tho head is freed from the vulva. *
  When tho head is  in this position is it proper to act upon
it, and extract tho fetus?  No; the delivery should be trust-
ed to tho  action of the uterus, unless it should become sus-
pondod, and there is danger of the life of the child. By a too
sudden delivery alarming hemorrhage may result.
  What  is tho first great object as regards tho child after
delivory?  To establish respiration, which gonerally takes
place spontaneously; if it does not,  measures should be ta-
kon  to produce artificial respiration; and  boated  cloths
should bo applied to the child raihor than the warm bath.
  What are tho means employed in producing artificial res-
piration? The nostrils should bo closed, and air forced into
iho mouth either by  the hollows, or from the mouth of  the
accoucheur; and again oxpolled  by gently pressing upon the
thorax.
  To what period after birth may respiration bo suspended
and yet tho child live? For thirty, or even forty minutes in
Romo instances;  so  that our efforts should be continued so
long as 'here is any  chance of life.
  At what time is it proper to put a ligature on the cord,
and cut it?  When  tho child cries, or respires freely;  and
there is evidence of  a proper supply of arterial blood.
  How many ligatures are necessary?   Ono;  except there
be twins,  in which case two are  necessary.
  After tho child is  separated from tho mother and given to
the nurso what should  thon be attended to?  The condition
ol the uterus should  be ascertained by examining it through 
254
OBSTETRICS.
 the parieties of the abdomen; when it will either be found
 contracted or relaxed.
   If contracted the placenta may be in the vagina, and easi-
 ly hookod down  with the fingers and drown  by the cord;
 when  it has passed the os  externum it should  bo graspod
 and twisted soveral  times round,  so that tho membranes
 may be entirely withdrawn.
   If the uterus is relaxed frictions should bo made ovor tho
 abdomen so as to produce contraction.
   Tho condition of  tho uterus should bo watched until its
 permanent tonic contraction is well established.
   What is understood by putting the patient to bed? It con-
 sists in the removal of wet things and substituting dry ones;
 in being lifted whore sho is permanently to lio; and in tho
 application of a bandage over the abdomen.
   At what time should it be done?  If she is  not in a pro
 fuse perspiration, is not liablo to, or has no homorrhage, or
 not much exhausted,  it should be done immediately.
   Upon what does aftor pains depend and what is tho rem-
 edy?  After pains aro produced by  coagula in  the uterus,
 which are caused by  a deficiency of its tonic contraction.—
 The proper remedies are camphor,  opium and its prepara-
 tions,  and the extract of hyosciamus.
   What should be the diet of a woman after delivery?
 Gruel  of oatmeal, tapioca, sago, mush and milk,  rice, weak
 t«a, coffee, and chocolate.  Animal food, spirits,  wine, cor-
 dials,  and all stimulating articles should be strictly avoided.
 Aftei  the first woek  she may bo allowod somo oystors, eggs,
 beef tea,  &c.
   When should tho child be put to  tho breast?  If there is
 danger from hemorrhage it should be applied as soon as pos-
 sible;  and at any rate as soon as it can bo done convenient-
 ly without too much annoyance  to  the woman.
   If tho bowels should bo confined, at  what time would it
 be proper to give a cathartic? On  the third day; previous
 to this, unless  there  is  some particular indication to fulfil
 tho bow-els should not bo disturbed.
  The state of  tho bladder shou'd also always bo attondod

  What ia meant by  the lochia?   Tho discharges  which
take place  from tho uterus after  delivery.
  Is it  necessary to  administer  purgatives to  young chil-
dren *  It  is necessary that (ho bowols should bo  thorough- 
                      OBSTETRICS.                 255

 ly cloanse'd of tho meconium, either by their natural action,
 or by somo laxative as molasses or castor oil; but so soon as
 ihore is achango of color produced in tho evacuations they
 Bhould be discontinued.
  Tho condition of tho bladder of the child should also bo
 attended to, and relieved if urino should accumulate in it.
  Ih it proper to food very  young children?  Provided  tho
 mother docs not furnish a supply of milk sufficient, but not
 othorwiso; tho child may have a little fresh cows milk dilu-
 tod with ono third water, and sweetened with loaf sugar.

             Of Natural or Unassisted Labour.

  What is meant by a natural labour?  Every labour may
 be  considered natural, in which the woman might be de-
 livered without holp.
  What conditions should exit that natural  labour  may
 take place?  There should be regular  contractions of tho
 uterus, a favorable presentation, the pelvis of a proper size,
 a proportionate head, and the soft parts relaxed.
  What are considorod to be tho natural presentations?
 There are  four; 1st. of the  head—2d. of the feet—3d. of the
 knoos—and 4th. of the breech.
  Of these which is tho most frequent, and tho most favora-
 ble?  Tho presentations of the head.
  How  are presentations of tha head divided?   Thoro  are
 six.
  What  are  their positions, and how aro  thoy  distinguish-
 ed?   The first, which is known by tho posterior fontanelle
 being behind tho left acetabulum, and the antorior before
 the  right sacro-iliac symphysis.
  The second,  distinguished by tho postorior fontanelle be-
 ing behind the right acetabulum, and the antorior before tho
 loft sacro-iliac  symphysis.
  Tho third, distinguished by the posterior fontanelle being
 behind  tho symphysis pubis, and the anterior before tho
 projection of tho sacrum.
  Tho fourth, distinguished by the anterior fontanelle boing
 behind the loft  acetabulum, and  the  posterior  before  the  .
 right sacro-iliac symphysis.
  Tho fifth, distinguished by the anterior fontanelle being
behind tho right acetabulum, and tho posterior before  the
right sacro-iliac symphysis.
  And ihe sixth U the  reverse of the third. 
256
OBSTETRICS.
  To remember these presentations easily, notico  that tho
1st. 2d. and 3d. presentations are represented by tho posterior
fontanelle; and the 4th. 5th. and 6th. by the anterior fonta-
nelle; and that we constantly  follow thoir numerical order,
commencing with the left acetabulum, then with tho right,
nnd go to the symphysis pubis; each  fontanelle following
tho samo rout and order.
  What are the distinguishing marks of the presentation of
the head?  Its roundness, firmness, sutures, and fontanelles.
  The particular position of the head relatively to the pel-
vis is determined by the situation of the suturos, and fonta-
nelles.

                  Mechanism of Labour.
   What  is the mechanism of  tho first presentation?   The
head enters the superior strait  obliquely in the position do-
scribed in the first presentation.
   The head is flexed with the chin  on the breast, and de-
scends in this position  in the axis of the  superior strait.—
When it arrives at the sacro-sciatic ligaments  rotation  is
performed by the head of  1-6 of a circle, while the body re-
mains in the same position; the centre of tho occipital bono
will then be found to correspond with the  symphysis pubis,
and the sagittal  suture with the  antero-postcrior diameter of
the pelvis.  As the  head advances the chin departs from tire
breast, the vertex  advances,  separates tho  external parts,
rises up  towards the mons veneris, and  describes about a
quarter of a circle backwards; this motion is called exten-
sion, and may be considered perfect just as the face is clear-
ing the perineum.  As  soon as the head has escaped exter-
nally it takes a position at  right angles with the shoulders,
or its natural position in relation to them; this is called res-
titution.   In these motions it will be seen that the small di-
ameters of the head correspond  with the small diameters of
the pelvis; and that it executes four motions, that of flexion,
rotation, extension, and restitution.
  Which shoulder  presents at the symphysis pubis in this
presentation?  The right shoulder.
  What is the mechanism of the second presentation?  It
is the same as the first, if we place thb head  in the position
of the second presentation at the superior strait; and the left
shoulder passes out under the arch of the pubos.
  What is the mechanism  of tho third presentation?  In tho 
OBSTETRICS.
third position  tho  head is prcsontod at  the superior strait
with its longitudinal diameter corresponding vvilh tho ante-
ro-poBterior diameter of tho pelvin; it descends In this man-
lier and performs tho motions of flexion, and extension, but
not those of rotation, and restitution.
   Which shoulder presents to the symphysis in this presen-
tation f  There is no certainty whether it will bo the right
or loft.
  What is tho mechanism of the fourth position? The head
presenting  with tho anterior fontanelle at the loft acetabu-
lum descends until  a portion of the right parietal bono rests
upon the inferior part of the sacrum whon rotation takes
place, and tho forehead is placed under the arch of the pu-
bos; the antorior fontanelle will bo found in  the middle of
tho arch ; the  posterior above the point of  the sacrum ; tho
occiput continues to advance over the coccyx and perineum
until it is cleared from it; the occiput then  turns backwards
towards the anus  of the mother, and the face  disengages
itself from under the pubes.
  Which shoulder presents to the arch of the pubes?  Tho
loft.
  To what position may this be changed with advantage?
To the second; and the fifth may be reduced to the first.
  How is this accomplished?  The uterus  must be well di-
lated, tho membranes ruptured, the head occupying the low-
er strait, and the labor active.   Tho point of tho foro-finger
must bo placed against the ed_ge of the sagittal suture, be-
fore or behind tho  antorior fontanelle; in tho absence of
pain press tho  part  towards tho left sacro-iliac  symphysis,
maintain it thore during the next pain, and this must be re-
peated again and again until we succeed.
  What is tho mechanism of the fifth presentation?  Tho
relations of the childs hoad to tho pelvis are the s-imo as in
tho fourth, only  tho antorior fontanelle at the superior strait
Is placed at tho right acetabulum; and  tho right shouldor
presonts at the arch of the pubes.
  What is tho mechanism of the sixth  presentation?   This
presentation is the  reverse of the  third; and in addition to
the great diameter of the head being parallel with the small
diameter of tho upper strait, the forehead has to come under
tho arch of the  pubes so that the first part of  the labour re-
sembles casos of the third prosentation; and the  latter part
cases of tho fourth,  or fifth. 
250
OBSTETRICS.
              Presentation of the  Breech.

  What is the order of frequency of tho natural  presenta-
tions?  The breech is next in  frequency to tho head; then
tho feet and knees.
  What is the principal  danger in those cases where tho
body of the child is first delivered?   It arises from delay in
delivery of the head, and compression of the umbilical cord;
consequently breech presentations from the perfect manner
which the external parts are dilated, preparatory to tho pas-
sage  of the head, are less  dangerous than  tho  feet and
knee presentations, although it may be a little more tedious
to the mother.
  What  are  the symptoms of a breoch presentation?  It
may bo known byjthe soft tumour wanting the characteristics
of the head;  having neither its sutures, hardness,  or rough-
ness.  A deep grove is  observed loading to  tho  anus and
parts of generation, and after the rupture of the membranes
a discharge of meconium will corroborate, but not positively
confirm the diagnosis.
  What aro tho  varieties of breech presentations?  Thero
aro four.  In the first the lower part of the spine and sacrum
offer to the left acetabulum, and the abdomen  looks towards
the right sacro-iliac symphysis.
  In  the second  the back of the  child answers to  the right
acetabulum, and the belly to the left sacro-iliac junction.
  In the third  the spine is behind the symphysis pubis, and
the belly towards tho projectmn of the sacrum.
  The fourth is the reverse of this last.
  What is the proper management of cases of breech pre-
sentation?  It is not  to interfere unless complicated  with
somo circumstances which may render it necessary.

                Presentation  of  the  Feet.

  What are the characteristics of feet presentations? They
are easily told by the  projecting heels;  the short  toes, and
from  the hands to which alone they bear any analogy by
the absence of the thumb?
  What are the presentations of the feet?  There  are  four.
In the first the heels are anterior to the left acetabulum, and
the toes are directed towards the right sacro-iliac symphy-
sis.  In all these casos the  legs are  flexed upon tho thighs,
and the thighs on the pelvis. 
OBSTETRICS.                 259
  In tho second the heels are behind the right acetabulum,
and the toes look toward the left sacro-iliac symphysis;  in
all thoso cases the other parts of the body correspond to the
position of the feet.
  In tho third tho heels aro at the symphysis pubis, and the
toes to tho sacrum.
  In tho fourth the  position is reversed, tho heels arc to tho
Bacrum, and tho toes to the pubes.

                Presentation of the Knees,

  What  are the presentations  of  tho knees?   Thore are
four.   In tho first the legs are to the left sido of the mother
and tho thighs to the right.
  In tho socond the legs are to  the right, and the thighs  to
tho loft.
  In the third the legs are undor the arch of the  pubes, and
the thighs towards the sacrum.
.  The fourth is the roverso of the third.

Of Labors in which the]presentation is natural,  but rendered
                 difficult or preternatural.

  What  are tho causes which may render a natural labor
preternatural?   They are 1st. flooding: 2d. convulsions:
3d. syncope: 4th. hernia: 5th. obliquity of  the uterus:  6th.
partial contractions of the uterus:  7th. compound prog-
nancy :  8th. descent  of the cord : 9th. too short a cord:
IOth.  bad position of the head:  11th. exhaustion:  12th.
hemorrhages from the lungs, or other organs.

      Flooding  as  a complication of Natural Labor.

  Under what  conditions of the os uteri may hemorrhage
take place during labor?   It may be either  partially dilated
and rigid;  or it may be dilated,  or easily dilatable.
  What should be the treatment whon the os-uteri is rigid?
There should bo no hasty or rash interference, and it would
be theheight of imprudence to enter the uterus and attempt
turning.   The discharge should be controlled by  rest, a hor-
izontal posture, by blood-letting if  indicated, largo doses  of
acetate of lead, cold applications, and the tampon.  In some
cases when the above means fail, benefit  may be derived
from promoting the contractions of the uterus by rupturing
tho membranes. 
260
OBSTETRICS.
  What should be tho treatment whon the os-uteri is dilatod
or dilatable?  We should at oneo prjceod to turning, unless
rupturing the membranes should abate tho discharge, or tho
activity of  labor promise a speedy delivery.  If tho labor is
far advanced the  forceps may bo nocossaay.

                       Gonvulsio ir.

  What course should bo pursued in convulsions a3 regards
delivery?  If the os-utori is rigid dolivety should not bo at-
tempted, blood-letting, cathartics, and  such other means as
may bo called for should bo resorted to, until the uterus be-
comes relaxed; when  wo  may proceed to turn, unless tho
natural powers of the uterus are  s lfliciont to accomplish a
delivery.
  When the uterus is  dilated or easily dilatable we  should
at once  proceed  to turning, after a copious blood-letiing.—
In cases where the waters  have boon long drained off, and
the head low in tho pelvis,  wo should use  the forceps.

                        Syncope

  What course should be pursued in cases complicated with
Byncope?  The cause  should  at once bo sought out, and if
it depends  upon a peculiarity of tho nervous system  littlo
need be dono.  But if it proceed from internal or concealed
hemorrhage  we  should deliver  immediately,  unless the
state of the os uteri prevent.
                        Hernia.

  When a hornia is in danger of becoming strangulated
what course should be adopted?  Turning, if tho os uteri is
in a proper condition.

               Bad  Position of the Head.

  What may be considered bad positions of the head, par-
ticularly when the head is relatively large, or the pelvis rel-
atively small ?  When  the  head presents at the  superior
strait as in the third and sixth presentations.
  When the chin departs from the breast too early.
  When the faco  presents from excessive departure of tho
chin from the breast.
  And when  some part as the hand or arm  accompanies
tho head.
  What  is the remedy for tho first of thoso  difficulties? 
OBTSETRICS.                 2C1
  The head shall bo grasped so that tho thumb may lay on
ono  side, and  tho  fingers on  tho  other; it shall  then be
raisod, ami  in tho  third  presentation tho  vertex shall bo
lumed towards one of tho acotabula;  if the right hand be
used turn it towards tho right acetabulum, and if the left
towards  the  loft acetabulum; thon trust to nature.   The
sixth presentation should be changed cither to tho fourth or
the fifth, which will bo as much rotation as tho neck will
bear.
  What is tho  remedy for too early departure of tho  chin
from tho breast?  It is to restore it by  pushing up the  fore-
head  in  the  absence of pain, and  retain it there with tho
points of two or three fingers until a pain comes on,  and tho
vertex is found to descend; it may then bo trusted to nature.
  What are the varieties of face presentations?  Thero aro
(our;  in the 1st tho forehead offers to tho left, and the chin
lo tho  right  sido of tho pelvis;  the 2d. is  tho reverso of
this; in tho 3d. tho  forehead  answers  to tho symphysis cf
the pubes, and the chin  to the sacrum; the 1th. is the rcver.v.
of this.
  How  may face presentations  be  d'ulinguishcd?  By tin
presence ol  the eyes, in>so, mouth arid  chin.
  At what period, and how may they bo remedied?   When
iho  uterus is dilated or dilatable, and the head has not pars-
ed tho superior strait; with tho  waters recently expended.
Puss the hand which is  on ihe sido on which tho vertex and
forehead  aro  placed;   in tho  first  and second  presenta-
tions, put the the  back of  the fingers  to tho posterior
part of tho pelvis, and place them on  tho side of tho head,
while the thumb is placed against tho  opposite side; tho
head is then to be raised, the  fingers Carried ovor the ver-
tex, and the thumb to tho forehead; while  the fingers are
made to draw tho vertex downwards the thumb is  to press
the  forehead  upwards.  This is  to  bo dono  in tho absence
ot pain, and retained until a pain comes on, and the hoad
takes tho  proper direction.
  In tho third  and fourth presentations turning is the proper
remedy when  tho condition of the uterus will admit it.
  What is tho proper remedy whon  tho hand presents with
the head?  It should be prevented from descending by pla
eing the point of tho foro finger botwocn the  lingers of the
child, and supporting it during a pain, at tho samo  time di-
recting  it towards tho face;  as tho head descends thj hund
        23 
262                  OBSTETRICS.

may in this way be mado to retire within the cavity of the
uterus.
   What is the remedy in the other casos of complication of
a natural labor requiring interference '   Turning, whon the
condition of  the os uteri will admit of it; but in no caso is
tho uterus to be entered  unless the os uteri is either dilated
or  easily  dilatable  Tho forceps should bo  used when
the hoad is low in the pelvis.
   What is tho proper position of a woman for turning? The
back is tho beat; with tho lower extremities ovor the edge
of the bed, and the feet resting on chairs, so as to leavo tho
perineum and coccyx free.
   What time should  be chosen for the introduction of the
hand, and how should it be dona? It should be formed into
a  cone, with  the  thumb looking towards  the symphysis
pubis, and introduced  into the vagina during  a pain, and
into the uterus during its absence.
   Is it proper to turn a child after it has passed the os uteri '
No; it should be dono as soon as possible aftor the first stage
of labor is completed.
   When the hand.is in the uterus to what part should it be
passed?   The hand should grasp the head with tho fingers
on one side and the thumb on  the other, raise it.in tho axin
of tho supejior strait, and placo it in tho iliac fossa towards
which the palm of the  hand looks; whore it  must bo re-
tained by tho wrist and forearm, while tho fingers  trace tho
side of the child to the feet, which should be graspod firmly
and  both acted upon at  the same timo whon practicable.
  In what direction  should  the feet  be conducted  when
bringing them  down?  So that the toes sliould always look
towards tho abdomen of the child.
  Is it proper to attempt to u.:rn a child during  a pain? No;
the uterus might bo lacerated.
  Is it proper to complete the delivery in cases of turning,
or bring down tho  foot  and permit  the  natural powers  to
finish?  When commenced it sliould bo completed  slowly
and  steadily.
  When  the feet  are brought through the external parts
what should  bo their position?  The  toes should look to-
wards the anus of the moii.or;  and when it is delivorcd bo-
yond the  umbilicus it should  be made to pass  through the
arch of tho pubos with its spine looking towards, ot. pressing
against either tho  right or left log of the pubes, that the
head may enter tho superior strait obliquely. 
OBSTETRICS.
263
  When the axillae  appear at tho os externum  what should
be dono?  Tho one next tho sacrum should be first deliver-
ed,  by passing a finger or two upon  the point of tho shoulder
ami pressing  it downwards, tracing tho arm to tho elbow
which may bo pressed  upon  downwards and  forwards to-
wards tho face of tho child, where  it will almost always be
disengaged.   To dolivor the second arm, turn  the shoulder
of that arm to  (hat side of the pelvis to which tho face of
tho child  looks; and it will  instantly become disongaged
from the head at the small  diametor of tho superior strait,
and may bo brought down in  tho samo manner as tho first.
  When the  child is all delivered  except  the head what
should thon bo attendod to?  Tho position should  first bo
ascertained;  and if it does not already exist, a proper rela-
tion  should  bo established between tho diameters of the
polvis and the hoad of  tho child ; a little  forco should  now
bo applied in the diroction of the axis of tho superior strait.
When in tho inferior strait the proper relations should again
be established botwocn the  diamoters of tho hoad  and this
part of tho polvis.
  The mother should now be directed to assist by her vol-
untary powers, and  tho,child  may bo acted upon in the di-
rection  of tho  axis of  tho inferior strait, while  we press
against the occiput in such manner as will tend to disengage
it from behind the pubes.
  What are  tho  dangers arising  from  deliveries of thi*
kind?   Compression of the cord, compression  of the head
and chost, and  extension of the neck.  To  obviate the'last
difficulty we should co-operate with tho pains of the mother
whon they exist, and the whole should bo conducted coolly
and deliberately.
  Which hand sliould bo omployed in cases of turning?
Always  use  that hand which will look towards the face of
tho  child.  In the first  presentation it will be the left hand;
in the second tho  right; and for the third and  sixth either
hand  will be  proper,  or the one of which  we have  the
groatcst command.

                    Of the Forceps.

  What kind of forceps aro gonoi ally used ? There  are two;
the  shoit, and the long.
  The short are preferred when the head is very low in tho
pelvia, and tho long when high  up.  Tho long forceps are 
2G4
OBSTETRICS.
however better adapted to both conditions,  nnd should on
tho whole be preferred.
  What do the forceps resemble, and when aro thoy indica-
ted '  They may be compared to  a pair of artificial hands;
and are indicated when the powers of the uterus cannot ac-
complish delivery, when tho case is complicated requiring
immediate delivery, and the head passed tho  os uteri. They
aro, however, sometimes applied at the commencement of
the socond stogo of labour, but it should only bo attempted
when turning is practicable, by a person well skilled in their
use.
  What is the best position of  the  woman for tho  applica-
tion of tho forceps?   The one recommended for turning.
  Should the condition of the bladder and rectum be atten-
ded to?  They should both  be emptied before the forceps
aro used; the external parts,  and tho instrumets sliould also
be  coated with hogs lard.
  What sliould be the condition of the os uteri, and mem-
branes? Tho os  uteri and  external parts should bo relax-
ed, and the membranes ruptured.
   To what  parts  of  the head should the blades of  tho for-
ceps be applied?  To the sides of the hoad  ovor tho ears of
the child in the  direction of its obli'que diameter; and so
that their concavo edges will come under the arch of the
pubes at the last period of labour.
   In cases of difficulty in causing the handles of the instru-
ment to join should they be brought together by force?
No; the cause of their not locking must be ascertained, and
remedisd; force should never be used.
   What aro tho mudes of action of the forceps? They have
two modes  of action; that of compression, and that of trac-
tion and compression.
   May the  life of the  child be destroyed  by compression
from the use of tho forceps?  It may; care  should be taken
in  this respect, and  after each tractive effort the forceps
should be permitted to expand  themselves.
   In what manner should traction be made?  It should bo
 made from  blade to blade, so that each may act as a lever
 upon the hoad.
   The extent of this motion of tho handles must be govern-
 ed by the distance of the head  from tho external parts; tho
less the head is advanced the more circumscribed should be
 the motion, apd the reverse,   The general direction of th'n 
OBSTETRICS.
205
traction should correfipond with the axis of that part of the
pelvis through which tho child is passing.
  Should  a labor be completed by the forceps in  all cases
whore their application is necessary?  Thoy may bo remov-
ed whon tho head has  nearly  passed through  the external
parts, provided tho pains continue, but not otherwise

              Of Locked or Impacted Head.

  What are the varioties of locked head?  There  are two:
  1st. Where  the head  is jammed with its greatest length
between the pubes and sacrum.
  2d. Whore its thicknoss cannot pass owing to tho narrow-
noss of tho pelvis.
  in the first place the points of pressure aro the  forehead
and occiput, and in  tho second it is  tho  parietal protuber-
ances.
  What aro tho causes?  Long continued and vehement ac-
tion of tho uterus, and a disproportion between the diamo-
tors of tho pelvis and hoad; either from malposition of the
head, its sizo and solidity, or from deformity of the polvis.
  What are the attending symptoms of a loeked head ?  Im-
mobility,  accompanied by swelling of thejhairy scalp of the
child, thickening of tho os uteri, a swelling of tho vagina
and external parts.
  What arc the dangers? The mother m exposed to inflam-
mation,  sloughing, and gangrene, and  the child to almost
certain death.
  What are tho indications?   Tho delivery of the  child;
which should bo effected by the forceps if the child  is liv-
ing, and if dead tho crotchet may ho  employed.

                 Uterine Hemorrhage.

  How  is  uterine hemorrhage divided?  Into tho  acciden-
tal, and tho unavoidable.
  What is meant by  accidental hemorrhage?  It is that
which occurs at any period of pregnancy from a detachment
of tho placenta, when situatod at the  body, or fundus of tho
uterus.
  What is meant by unavoidable hemorrhago?  It is that
which  occurs  from  tho situation of  the placenta  over  the
mouth of tho uterus.
           23* 
SfiS
OBSTETRICS.
                 Accidental Hemorrhage.

  At what period of pregnancy may accidental hemorrhage
take place?  At any timo after the first month.
  What is the period of the greatest danger?  As  a gener-
al rule it is in proportion to the advancement of pregnancy.
  What is the division of accidental hemorrhage  for prac-
tical purposes?  Thero are four divisions.
  1st. Homorrhage which occurs at the  period when tho
ovum is entirely surrounded by  tho  decidua,  and  decidua
reflexa; comprehending tho first four  or four and a half
months of pregnancy.
  2d. That which occurs during tho  remaining period of
utoro-gostation.
  3d. That'which occurs between the birth of the child, and
the expulsion of tho placenta.
  4th.  That  which occurs subsoqucnt  to the expulsion of
tho placenta.
  What aro  the  attachments of  the ovum  during the first
poriod?  It is attached to  tho parieties  of tho uterus  at all
points of  its  surface;  and when separated entire resemble*?
an  ovular, spongy, fleshy  mass.  Hemorrhage miy occur
therefore  from its separation at any part.
  What is the condition of the nock of  the  utorus indicat-
ing abortion?  When it becomes distended so as to resem-
ble in feel tho extremity of an egg, abortion  will take place
most certainly.
  Tho cessation of morning sickness,  a diminution of the
abdominal tumour, tho  painful  distention of tho  mamma?
with milk followed by flaccid  breasts, also,  almost certain-
ly indicate that abortion will take place  Neither  pain, or
flooding are positive symptoms that abortion will foilow.
  What aro the indications in tho treatment during this pe-
riod?  To arrest the bleeding, subdue  pain if  present, and
prevent a  recurrence of the hemorrhage.
  By what means may these be accomplished?  By perfect
rest of body and mind;  tho bed should bo  a mat trass, or
sacking bottom. Fetther beds should be avoided. The room
should bo ventilated, the patient thinly coverod,  the drinks
cold, and every thing of a stimulating  nature  entirely pro-
hibited, either for food or drink.
  Bloodletting may be used or not,  according  as it may or
may not be indicated by tho torco of tho arterial Hys'om. 
OBSTETRICS.
267
  Acetate of lead should bo given in dosos of  two or three
grains guarded  with opium every half hour, or twenty  or
thirty grains with a drachm of laudanum dissolved in a gill
of water  or starch may bo usod as an enema, and  repeated
if indicated.
  If pain exist opium (should be given so as to create a de-
cided impression upon the uterus, or else proves itself una-
vailing.
  Ice water may bo applied to the pubes whon the dischargo
is profuse,  but our greatest reliance should be  on  the tam-
pon; the  best of which is a fine spongo of sufficient size to
fill the vagina.
  In all cases whcro tho  hemorrhage is alarming  whether
there is a certainty that abortion will take place or not, wo
should use the proper means for arresting it, and  tho tam-
pon will almost certainly do it.
  At what period may tho ovum bo pierced for tho purposo
of arresting hemorrhage?  Never before  the fifth month—
and  when it is ruptured boforc this period the  treatment of
tho  caso is more tedious from the retention of tho  placenta.
  When  tho ovum or placenta is partially expelled, and he-
morrhage is kept up by their presence what  course should
be adopted ?  It should bo removed  by the finger,  Dewoes'
hook, or by foreops invontod for this purposo.
  Sometimes ergot will act  efficiently  in removing them,
and may  be given when the hemorrhage  is not violent.
  What arc tho indications in  the treatment during the se-
cond poriod?   They are the same as for the first.
  The  samo rules and treatment should bo put in practice at
once, and the tampon usod early.
  Suppose these  means  fail  what should bo  dono?  Wo
should  rupture the membranes, and proceed to deliver if ne-
cessary,  provided  the os uteri is  in a  proper condition;
whon it is not we should rely upon tho tampon until it bo-
comes  so.
  In what other condition would it be  improper to effect
delivery?  Whon the woman is reducod to tho last extrem-
ity of weakness, and the discharge suspended;  but if it con-
tinue it is the only chance remaining.
  What are tho limits of tho beneficial application of cold?
When  it  has controlled arterial  action, and perhaps produc-
ed BOinc contractions of tho uterus; thoso being accomplish-
ed littlo benefit can  bo derived from  its continuance. 
2(7.
OBSTETRICS.
  What aro tho modes of delivery to bo resorted to?  Turn-
ing, and the use of the forceps under tho restrictions hereto-
fore mentioned.
  Can hemorrhage take place after delivery  without a se-
paration of a part or the whole of the placenta?   It cannot.
  What arc the immediate causes of this kind of hemor-
rhage?  A separation of the placenta, and atony or imper-
fect tonic contractions of tho uterus.
  What are the varieties?   It  may  be external, or intornal
and concealed.
  What are tho symptoms of concealed hemorrhage?
  There  is a flaccid  condition of the uterus, except of tho
neck  which is contracted; it becomes enlarged, and  may
even equal the size which  it had  before labor; the effects of
the loss of blood are  also soon  exhibited, unless tho hemor-
rhage is checked.
  What aro the means used for hemorrhage after delivery?
The contractions of tho  uterus should be excited,  and con-
tinued. Friction with the tips of the fingers over tho fundus
will generally produce it, but if  it swell wo sliould grasp it
with a sudden but moderate force.   Whilo those measures
are pursuing a dose of orgot should be  givon, which will not
only contribute to tho  expulsion of the placenta, but will
also ensure its contractions afterwards.
  If the hemorrhage still continue profuse, and the placen-
ta retained tho hand should be introduced, and tho placenta
removed;  the excitement of this process will havo a tenden-
cy to produce a permanent contraction.  Tho suddon appli-
cation of cold frequently repeated also has  a beneficial ef-
fect in this way, applied either by wet  cloths,  by a douche
on  tho abdomen, or as an  injection into the uterus.  Firm,
steady, pressure over tho uterus,  but abovo all  the applica-
tion of the child  to the breast will almost always  bring
about  permanont tonic  contraction;  upon which alono the
safety of the woman  doponds.
  What means may be adopted  before delivery to prevent
hemorrhage in women  subject to it.   By evacuating  tho
waters, and diminishing the force of the circulation by ma-
king tho woman preserve a horizontal position,  and by  the
interdiction of stimuli of ovory kind.
  What are  tho symptoms  of oncysted  placenta from hour-
glass contraction?  ft may be  known  by tho fundus of the
uterus reaching higher  than common,  by  boing smaller  in 
OBSTETRICS.
269
its transverse dinmotor; by an elastic feel of tho cord; by
tho absonco of pain, by the placenta not boing within reach
of tho  finger; whon the  hand is introducod  the cord  is
found to pass through a small aperture, and  tho placenta is
folt lying within tho cavity formed by this contraction.
  What is tho treatment?  As soon  as discovered tho wo-
man should bo placed in tho position for turning, tho hand
introduced into the vagina, and  then passed along the cord
until an entrance is gradually effected through the stricture;
tho mass should then bo separated if  adherent, and brought
away by a gentle, cautious, motion of tho hand.

                Unavoidable  Hemorrhage.

  At  what  period of utero-gestation may unavoidable he-
morrhage  occur?  ,It  generally  occurs  first between tho
sixth and seventh month, and gives us the  first knowledge
of the  situation of the  placenta over  the mouth of the
uterus.
  Why does it not occur  earlier?   Because the  neck of the
uterus is not unfolded before this period; therefore the pla-
centa is not disturbed, or separated.  It docs not necessarily
follow  at this time, or beforo labor commences,  but tho pa-
tient is unavoidably liablo from  the  mechanism of tho ex-
pansion of the  nock of tho uterus.
  What arc  the symptoms of unavoidable hemorrhage?
When  the full time arrivos hemorrhage comes on suddenly,
and ofton alarmingly without pain; or if attended with pain
it is incrcasod at every pain.  This should lead us to suspect
a placental presentation or placenta prcevia. The hand should
bo passed into the vagina, and tho finger into tho os uteri,
whore  the placenta may   be distinguished  by its firmness
and  fibrous  structure from a coagulum; to  which alone it
boars any resemblance.
  What is  tho treatment?  In slight cases at the early pe-
riods ot pregnancy  the  ordinary  treatment of  hemorrhage
may be sufficient; but when profuse,  and having ascertained
it to be a placental presentation, tho condition of tho mouth
of iho uterus should be ascertained  If it is rigid wo should
use those tomporizing  moans  adapted to the case, among
which  tho tampon  stands first; and if it is dilated or dilata-
ble recourse should bo had  to turning, subject to tho  rules
formerly mentioned.  The membranes should bo preserved
entire; tho bond should bo insinuated between the os uteri 
570                 OBSTETRICS.

nnd placenta, at the part  whcro tho sepaintioo  has  taken
place;  then passed up belweon the uterus  and membranes
bolore  rupturing  them.   Thoy  may thon  be  ruptured,
tho foot seized, and the child delivered; this operation should
however be porformed with the greatest care.
               Of Puerperal Convulsions.
   At  what period of utero-gestation may a  woman  bo  at-
tacked  with  puerperal  convulsions?   At any  poriod, but
more  particularly after the sixth month.
   How  aro puerperal convulsions  divided?  They are divi-
dod into the epileptic, the  apoplectic and the hysterical.
   Do  convulsions take place suddenly or aro they precodod
by premonitory symptoms.   Thoy are generally procoded
by premonitory symptoms.
   What are  the premonitory symptoms?  In tho epileptic
and apoploctic specios  they aro a strong  determination of
blood to the hoad,  producing headache, ringing  in the ears,
temporary loss of reason, giddinoss, Sec.
   What is the proper treatment for this stage? Blood-lotting,
brisk  purging, and low  diet; which will  gonorally provont
an attack.  Tho longer the premonitory symptoms exist the
milder will be  the attack; the case3 which are attacked
very suddenly are generally fatal.
   What are the symptoms of tho  epileptic variety?   After
a  longer or shorter  continuance oi tho premonitory symp-
toms °tho woman  may  be  seized  with  quickly ropeatod
spasms,  violent  agitation  of the faco, eyes,  and the whole
body.   Tho  face  bocornes flushed,  livid,  black, and tho
tongue is thrust between the teeth.  The  respiration is dis-
turbed or suspended, the  carotids  beat violontly, and froth
issues from the mouth.  The pulse in the  beginning is full,
frequent, and tense, but becomes  rapid,  small, and  imper-
ceptible, a cold, clammy sweat appears, and tho fit bogins
to decline.  When the spasm goes off  tho patient generally
remains comatose and insensible, wi'h stertorous breathing.
   These paroxysms  may follow each  other in  quick suc-
cession.
   There is also a variety of epileptic convulsions which aro
called anaemic,  proceeding from a very different condition
of tho system, and may bedistinguished from the abovo by
tho pale face, glazy eye, shrunken features, colorless  lip,
cold moist skin, and other symptom-- indicating a collapsed
condition of  the system. 
                    '■USTETRICS.                  'i\\

  Tho treatment in  thoso  cases should of course be of a
directly different kind.
  What aro tho  symptoms of tho apoplectic variety?  Tho
prcmonitoiy symptoms are of shorter duration than tho epi-
leptic, and thoso following are more violent.  It may be
considered as an exulted degree of the epileptic.
  What aro tho symptoms of tho  hysterical varioty?   Wo
have not tho same premonitory symptoms as we havo in tho
i piloptic; but we may have ringing in the  ears, palpitation
of the heart, globus  hystericus, Sec.   Tho  convulsions arc
not so violent, the face is less flushed, and the muscles on
the posterior pari of tho  body are generally violently con-
tracted. This last circumstance is considered by Dr. Dewees
as strongly characteristic of this variety of  convulsions.   It
c.lso attacks women of delicate and nervous habits.
  What is the propor treatment in the epileptic and apoplec-
tic varieties?  Blooding should at  once be  had recourse  to
from a large orifico, and repeated  as circumstances may in-
dicate  Cathartics and purgative enomata should be given,
cold applied to the head, and blisters  or sinapisms to the
extremities.  Whenever tho os uteri is in a  proper condition
wc may finish tho labor if it havo  commenced, by turning
or tho forceps;  our choice  dopending upon the stage of la-
bor, and  tho circumstances  regulating  the  application  of
oach.
   What is  tho treatment for tho hysterical  variety?  A
moderate bleeding in most instances, followed by tincture
of assafcetida and laudanum, cold  dash, Sec.

               Of Inversion of the Uterus.

   What is mount by inversion of  tho  uterus?  It is where
the  fundu ; is  forced  down into  the  cavity of tho uterus,
and through the os uteri into the vagina, or where iho whole
utorus is  turned insido outwards, and  tho fundus appearing
at the os  externum.  Tho former is termed partial  and tho
latter complete  inversion.
   Under  what  circumstances may inversion of the uterus
take  placo?   In certain  casos of polypus and immediately
after delivi ry.
   What  arc tho causes?   Any foice  applied to the fundus
 whether b\ tho  cord or externally, immediately after having
 been emptied, suddenly, violent straining, a'.tcmpte at cough- 
 -112                 OBSTETRICS.

 ing, sneezing, or by any sudden  action of tho abdominal
 muscles.
   How may an inversion be distinguished?  In the partial
 it may  bo  known by tho absence of the  hard spherical tu-
 mour of the  fundus above tho pubes, and by the presence of
 a globular fleshy body in the os uteri, which  is sensible to
 the touch.
   The  patient complains  of a  dragging sensation in tho
 groins and lumbar region, compelling her to strain violently;
 there is hemorrhage, an oppressive senso  of  sinking, with
 nausea or  vomiting, cold sweats, faintings, and olton con-
 vulsions.
   In the complete tho homorrhage and violent pain are ab-
 sent; although death may suddenly follow from the shock
 received by the nervous  systom, or from fainting.
   What is the treatment?   It should be returned  immedi-
 ately, and tho difficulty of doi'ig this will be  in proportion
 to tho timo elapsed from the accident.   When tho placenta
 is  adherent  there is a  difference of opinion  whether wc
 should  remove it or  return it with the  uterus,  and  allow it
 10 be thrown off afterwards by  tho contractions of this or-
 gan.  In casos of complete inversion the  better practice is
 to separate it, as  there is comparatively little  danger from
 hemorrhage
  In the partial perhaps it would be better to attompt to re-
 place the  uterus with tho placenta,  but if  it offer much re-
 sistance and  delay to tho reduction, it should bo at  once rc-
 movod.
  What is tho manner of reduction?  The tumour should
 be firmly grasped and pushed  up bodily in the direction of
the axis of the  os uteri; and  wo  sliould  endeavor first to
return that portion of the  uterus which was  expelled hist
from the os utori; when  it has  ascended so high  that wo
are no longer able to grasp tho tumour we should spread tho
fingers at equal distances round  it, and thus apply the pres-
sure over a large space-;  the direction of this  prissuro will
vary with the axis of tho  polvis;  when the fundus passes
the os utori it usually recedes suddenly.  If wo  find the
uterus contracted above tho pubos,  tho hand may be with-
drawn;  but if it is flaccid and  soft tho  hand should bo in-
troduced into the uterus so  as to  excite active  contractions,
and prevent a return  of  tho fundus. The patient sliould
then bo kept quiet, and  not allowed to make any sudden 
OBSTETRICS.
273
exertion.  When  the  uterus is partially inverted, and can-
not b t replaced, it is  preferable  that wc should make tho
inversion comploto, as recommended by Dr. Dowees.   In
somo cases of thoso chronic inversions  the utorus has been
removed by ligature.

                       Of Twins.

  What ia the  average proportion of twine in this country 1
About one in seventy-five.
  How are twins  situated in  regard to each other?  They
may be onclosed in  one common covering of membranes
and  float in the same  waters.  In other instances they may
each  have a separate amnion, while  tho chorion may be
common to both; or  each may have its own membranes,
waters, and placenta.—Dewees.
  How may a case of  twins be known after the birth  of the
first child?  Tho  abdominal  tumour does not subside as it
does in a case of a single child.  Tho child may bo  felt
through tho abdominal and  uterine parieties;  thero is gen-
erally  a renewal of the pains, and the child can  be felt per
vaginam.
  Alter the  birth  of the first child, and  it is ascorlaincd that
there is a .second, what  is to bo done?  Pain will  either
come on and deliver  tho child, (in  which case we sliould
conduct  the case  as  though  it was an original labor,) or
there will be a suspension of  pain.
  How  arc  we to  proceod when there is a suspension of
pain)  In this case  tho utorus will bo  either  contracted or
uucontractod.   If in  tho  first condition  thoro may be he-
morrhage; wo sliould treat it as any othor case of hemor-
rhage, and deliver if  necessary;  or  homorrhago may  be ab-
sent,  in  which case friction should bo  made  until  it
contracts.
  If contracted, and pains do not pretty soon follow, say in
half an hour, it will be bettt  r to  proceed to delivery; but
in no caso where hemorrhage is absent without this tonic
contraction being socured.

       Of the Presentation of the  Arm and Shoulder.

  What are the presentations  of the arm and shouldor?
Thoy may prosont  in four different  ways  at tho superior
strait.
  Tho position of  the shoulder will be difficult  to distin-
        24 
>A4                 OBSTETRICS.

guish unless the arm  is also down; in which ease it will
servo to indicate the position of tho shoulder.
  In tho first position the head and side of the neck of the
child is to the  loft sido of  the pelvis;  and tho  right arm
down, with the back of the hand anterior, and tho palm pos-
terior.
  In the second tho head and  sido of tho neck  will  bo to
the loft side of the pelv's, the palm of the hand will look
outwards and  the back to the postorior part of the pelvis.
  In the third the hoad and sido of the neck  will bo to the
right sido  of  the polvis; the  left arm down with its back
looking outwards, and the palm inwards.
  In the fourth tho right arm will be down, with tho palm
looking outwards, and the back inwards.
  Whon turning is resorted to which hand should bo used
in theso presentations?  In  the  first and fourth the  right
hand must be  used, and in the second and third the loft.
  What use should be made of the arm in shoulder presen-
tations? It offers  no indications except that it points out
the situation of the shoulder.  Thero can bo no manoeuvre
performed  upon it to advantage, so that traction, amputa-
tion, &.e, should be entirely avoided.
  What are the  indications in theso presentations?   They
are to bring down the feet, and deliver.
  T-ore are however three modes  pursued in these cases:
One is to turn; the second is to trust to tho powers of nature
to produce the "spontaneous evolution"  of tho  child; and
the othor is to use cutting instruments to the child.
   Tho  first should always be practiced when it  is possiblo
to do it, and the earlier (when the os uteri is in  a condition
to permit it), the better.
   When the  waters  have been long drained off and the os
uteri and other parts of the uterus are firmly contracted  so
as to opposo the introduction of tho hand, and the parts are
pushed down  low in the pelvis, turning cannot be permitted.
   This condition should be counteracted by tho free use of
the lancet and opium; as soon as relaxation  is induced wo
may turn,  unless the  shoulder is too firmly wedged to per-
 mit it to be raised.  When the child is dead and in this con-
 dition wo may deliver by tho use of instruments.

              Prolapsus of the Umbilical  Cord.

   What danger  is to bo apprehended from prolapsus of the 
OBSTETRICS.
cord?  It may bo compressed, and  the life of tho child de-
stroyed by the interruption to circulation.
  How may  it he distinguished?  Before tho rupture of tho
membranes  wc  may  possibly feel  a pulsating, projecting
in:itt. liko a fingor; whon tho membranes arc ruptured the
cord comes down, and may form a largo coil.
  What is the treatment?   When loft to ilself the  child is
generally destroyed, unless there is  a very quick labor.
  Tho remedies are generally turning, and delivery by the
forceps. It is also advised to make attempts at replacement,
but it does not always succeed.   When the labor advances
very rapidly sometimes tho cord may be protected by plac-
ing it in that relation  to tho head and pelvis where it will
be loaat pressed  upon.

                Of Rupture of the  Uterus.

  What aro  tho causes of  rupture  of the uterus?   Blow.",
vi"lent  pressure, ill  conducted  attempts to turn the child,
maJ-adroit use of instruments, the unequal surfaco  of the
child, a contracted pelvis, an unusual sharpness of the linea
ilio-pectinca, exostoses, tumours, scirrhi, and ulcers.
  Ii what portion does it usually happon?  It most common-
ly happens at or noar  its junction with tho vagina, but  may
occur at any part.  It may be  more or less extensive, and
may be complete, or partial. In the  first case the uterus and
peritoneum aro  both  ruptured;  in  the second tho uterus
alone is involved.
  What aro  the symptoms?  There is sudden acuto pain at
the point of the rupture, a dischargo of blood, acessation of
uterine contractions, groat conGternation, the presenting part
recedes, the face becomes pale and cold, the respiration hur-
ried, and vomiting takes place; loss of sight, faintness, con-
vulsions, and death follow.
  What is the treatment?  Delivery should bo effected as
Rpoodiiy, and gently as possible.
  ("astrotomy may ho performod when tho whole child haa
passed into the cavity  of  the  abdomen, and it is impossible
to seizo tho  foot.

Or  Deliveries  Performed by  Cutting  Instruments at--
          tlied either to the Mother oh Child.

  What  aro the cause?, which  may render ono or tho o:h"i 
tia
OBSTETRICS.
of these expedients necossary? Deformity of the pelvis, and
deformity of the child.
   What may bo  considered  as the resources of our art  in
cases of deformity of the pelvis?   Turning, forcops, cepha-
lotomy, Caesarian operation, premature  delivery, section of
the pubes, and regimen during pregnancy.
   Undor what circumstances may turning be adopted?
The rules already laid down should be  attended to, and it
should not be resorted to when the antoro-posterior diamo-
ter at the superior strait is less than 3J inches;  and thon it
may be considered as a remedy for the safety of the mother
rather than the child.
  What is the smallest diamoter of tho pelvis at tho superior
strait in which  the forceps  may  be  safely used?  Throe
inches; then (he hoad of tho child should be of  moderate
sizo, yielding, and the forceps skilfully used. They are pref-
erable to turning in most cases of deformity.
   Under what circumstances may cophalotomy be resorted
to?  We may resort to the perforator  and crotchet in cases
where the antero-posterior diameter is  24 inches or more,
and is so small that the head cannot be  delivered by the for-
ceps.
  If the child is living we should choose  between this, and
the Caesarian operation; the latter of which  in  many  re-
spects should be preferred.
  What are the  smallest  diameters admitting of delivery
per vias naturales by the crotchet?  Two inches in the an-
tero-posterior, and throe or three  and a half in tho trans-
verse.
  What is  understood by premature delivery?  It consists
in inducing labor artificially at a period of pregnancy  when
the child is  sufficiently  developed to exhu after birth, and
yet so small, and the bones of the head so  soft as to pass
through the contracted pelvis of the mother.
  What is the proper period for its performance?  The most
eligible  time is between tho thirty fourth and thirty sixth
week of utero-gestation ; or if the deformity  be very consid-
erable we  may commence operations as early as the thirty
second  week. The operation should be  dolayed in all  casos
as long as it can be dono safely, as by  so doing  the  labor
will more nearly resemble a natural one,  and  the chancea
of the child are increased.
  What is the mode by which it is accomplished?  Accor- 
L
                    OBSTETRICS.                 277

ding to the directions of Dr. Rigby wo  should first give a
full doso of calomel and colocynth, so as to effectually clear
out tho bowels; then a warm bath; ergot should thon bo ad-
ministered in scruple doses of  the powder, and rcpoatod ev-
ery half hour for fivo or six times.  Thoso means will gen-
erally bring on labor; if thoy fail a catheter sliould bo pass-
ed, and the^ membranes separated from tho  uterus for somo
distance;  if this fail then the membranos should be ruptur-
ed.  Others advise tho rupture of tho membranos, or their
separation from tho uterus to precede all other means.
   What are the benefits likely to result from a section of the
pubep ?   It is an operation that is now almost universally
condemned, and therefore not practiced.
21* 
                    PART  VI.

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
                      Of Disease.

   How may diseases bo  divided?  Into organic and func-
 tional.
   What is the character of tho first class? There is a change
 which  is appreciable  by our senses, in the structure of
 ono or more organs.
   What is the character  of the second class?  Tho disor-
 dered function is not attended by any appreciable lesion.
  Each of them may again be divided into acuto and chronic,
 and general and local affections.
   Which  of  the two classes are gonerally tho  most fatal?
 Organic diseases; but several of the functional are extreme-
 ly mortal, as tetanus and hydrophobia.
   What is meant by  local  organic  diseases?   Those in
 which the important  symptoms are local, and aro nearly in
 proportion to  the anatomical lesions found after death, whon
 it takes place.  They may be acuto or chronic.
   What are the general  organic diseases'}  They are often
 chronic, as the tuberculous and  cancerous diseases.  Tho
 acute are  certain epidemic dysenteries, fevers, scurvy, and
 gangrene.  Tubercles are, however, sometimes acute.
  Which are  the most manageable, the general or the local
 diseases?  The local.  The general can be rarely cut short
 by remedies;  the treatmont for these is more useful in obvi-
ating the secondary inflammations that so often accompany
them and prove the immediate cause of death, than in abso- 
              PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.           279

lutely terminating tho affection itself.  Treatment is, how-
cvor, important as it enablos us frequently to conduct diseaso
to a favorable termination which might otherwise prove
fatal.                                °             F
   May functional diseases be either acute or chronic? Yos;
and thoy constituto a large class of affections.  Sometimes
thoy are a symptom of an organic disease.
  Do  acute  functional disorders  evor simulate inflamma-
tions?  Thoy do;  and it roquiros care and experience to
discriminate thom.
  What aro instances where they  may be confounded?
Pleurodynia with  pleurisy; and  local pains occurring in
hysteria with the acuto phlegmasia^ of tho viscera.
  How are thoy distinguished7  Acute functional disorders
commonly assume tho form  of  neuralgias, in  which  the
character of tho  pain  contrasted  with  tho  slight vascular
disturbance is sufficient to point out its true  origin.
  Aro theso acuto affections always limited  to pain?  They
aro not; they assumo at times ovcry variety which the change
in the function of an organ can produco, and are often diffi-
cult of diagnosis and treatment.
  How is a diagnosis to be in ado in those doubtful casos?
By exclusion;  and by this moans  wo  can frequently affirm
that tho absonco of unequivocal signs ot  organic lesion, is
conclusive proof that tho disturbed function depends upon
a cause which is conncctod with  the nervous organization
of a part, and not  with a material change of tho structure.
  Aro the chronic functional disorders sometimes more symp-
toms of a distant local affection?   They  aro;  and at othor
times independent.
  What arc soino of tho chronic functional disorders? Most
casos  of mania,  hysterical affections, many cases of dys-
popsia, &c.
  Aro tho functional disorders numerous?  They are as nu-
merous  as tho organic lesions, and much more difficult to
manage
  Is classification  arbitrary?   It is; and tho nomenclature
also in many instances.
  What enhances  this difficulty?  The circumstance that
many lesions which are separated as  distinct  diseases from
others of a similar nature are in reality the effects, and not
the cause of disoased action.  Thus  the term hydrothorax
is now seldom used; the symptoms to which it was applied 
23C          PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

tiro still observed;  but  it is now known that they depend
Upon a  diseaso  of the heart, and the effusion of sonim into
tho cavity of tho chest is only a consequence.  It is neces-
sary however, for  convenience, to name, classify, and ar-
range the different forms of diseaso according to tho  facts
We now possess.

               Semeiology and Diaunosis.

   What is meant by semeiology?   Tho  symptoms of dis-
ease studied with  reference to tho internal changes  with
which they correspond.
   What is diagnosis?  It is tho art of  distinguishing ono
diseaso  from all others, and is based upon the comparison of
the symptoms We  observe  in  a particular individual  with
those known to exist in  other casos, in  connection with the
order of time which they appear.   A more refined  kind of
diagnosis consists in determining tho particular variety and
stage of the disease, which includes prognosis or tho art of
determining the result.
  What are the signs of disease?  They are  tho physical or
those dorived from  a  knowledge of tho physical condition
of the organs,  obtained by physical examination;  and the
functional, to which the term  symptom  is usually confined.
   What class of diseases admit of both these means of di-
agnosis?  The  organic; tho functional can  only bo distin-
guished by the  latter.
  To what part are the physical signs particularly applica-
ble?  To diseases of the thoracic cavity, but thoy aro by no
means entirely  confined to  it.
  From what are the physical signs derived?   From an in-
spection of tho  oxtorior,  from palpation or touch,  and  from
auscultation and percussion.
  What does inspection of the  exterior of the body indicate?
Distontion when a change of structure in tho organs is suf-
ficient to dilate  tho parieties.  As in dropsy,  tympanitis, ex-
tromo enlargements of the liver and  other  abdominal or-
gans, emphysema,  pericarditis and pleurisy with largo effu-
sion.  Pleurisy  aftor  adhesion  has occurred, and phthisis,
cause contraction.
  What are tho benefits  of  palpation?   It assists ocular in-
spection.  We  can bettor  estimate slight elevations, and
also tho  degree  of sonsibility of the surface and internal vis-
cera.  If the degree of sensibility of tho viscera is wished 
PRACTICE < »F MEDICINE.
281
for wc press gently and equally with tho whole hand; if ol
the surfaco wo pass the  tips of the fingers lightly over the
skin?
  How is percussion performed ?   By placing a plcximeter
(and the forefinger of the left hand makes a very good one)
on the surface,  and tapping quickly  but lightly  upon  it
with the extremities ana not with tho pulps of one or more
fingers of the right hand.
  What  kind of knowledge is derived  by porcussion?  It
enables us to distinguish the density of the part or  organs
beneath;  as botwoen a gai» which gives a clear resonant
sound and a liquid  or solid mass which yiolds a flat sound.
Wo arc therefore obliged to recollect what sound tho part
yiolds by percussion in a normal stato, to determine the de-
viations in disease.
  What is moant by auscultation?  It is the art of distin-
guishing by the ear sounds  produced in the particular parts
of tho body in health and disease.
  How is it performed?  By applying the oar directly to the
part, when it is immediate; or by using a tube called a ste-
thoscope to collect and conduct the sound, when it is callod
modiato.
  This method of exploration is  principally confined to dis-
eases of tho thorax.
  What  are tho points  to  bo observed in ausculting tho
chest?  Tho natural sound of respiration is heard principal-
ly during tho act of inspiration over tho groator part of the
chest, and is a soft regular murmur, with very littlo blow-
ing sound.  Botween the scapula;,  and at the summit of tho
right lung the inspiration is ot a more blowing character,
and tho expiration is  also  hoard at theso points, from the
noarnoss to the large bronchial tubes, and thefr preponder-
ance over the vesicular structure.   Theso blowing sounds
aro,  however, slightly minglod with tho natural respiratory
murmur.
  How arc these blowing or bronchial sounds, and the ve-
sicular murmur affocted by disease?   By enlargement of
tho tul-os, cavitios communicating  with them,  and harden-
ing of the tissuo of the lung.
  What names are given to the rude and blowing sounds of
respiration which correspond to different states of tho lung?
Rude or  rough respiration;  bronchial respiration; cavernous,
respiration;  and the amphoric respiration, 
•2b~2           PRACTICE OF MKDKTNIv

  What are the characteristics of the rudo or rough respira-
tion, and upon what condition of the lung does it depend .'
The vesicular murmur is usually moro fcoblo than natural,
but the blowing sound moro distinct in both inspiration and
cxpirat;on.  Sometimes the vesicular murmur is  oxagorat-
ed although the blowing sound is greatly increased.  In the
first kind there is equal hardening"around the tubes; in tho
second the hardened masses are scattered through tho tissue
of tho king which is permeable
  What are tho conditions upon which tho bronchial respi-
ration depends, and what aro tho symptoms? It occurs when
I he tubes aro dilated,  and in complete hardening of the tis-
suo around the larger  bronchi.  No murmur of vesicular ex-
pansion is heard,  tho  air  sounds as if  blown through a tube
in inspiration, and seems  to reverberate back  again  during
expiration.  When very strong it is  called tubal respiration,
which occurs in tho  socond stages ot pneumonia, phthi-
sis, &c.
  What aro characteristics of the cavernous respiration, and
upon what does it dopond?  It is  similar to the bronchial,
but mare concentrated, and depends  upon tho oxistonco of a
defined cavity.  It occurs in phthisis, and in gangrene of tho
lungs
  What are the characteristics of  the amphoric respiration,
and upon what does it depend? It is  a modification of tire
cavernous,  but  moro diffused and metalic in  its character;
it is caused by tho hardened walls of a very largo cavity, or
from the pleura in pneumo-thorax.
  Are these modifications of respiration attended with cor-
responding changes in the  resonanco  of the voice?  They
are; and it is hoard more strongly in proportion as the res-
piration becomes  moro decidedly bronchial, or cavernous.
  What is the corresponding modification of voice in the
cavernous  respiration?  Poctriloquy.   When bronchial,
bronchophony.
  How is  the stato of tho bronchial mucous membrane
known?  By tho rhonchi;  tho sonorous and sibilant ronchi
(giving riso respectively to a cooing and whistling sound),
indicate thickening.of the larger or smaller tubes,  and aro
called the  dry  rhonchi.
  What are tho moist rhonchi?  The mucous,  tho sub-cro-
pitating, and tho  crepitating.  In  tho  first tho sound resem-
bles that produced by irregular, but large bubbles of liquid; 
              PRACTICE OF ;V1EDIC1NE.          2'J3

when intense It is called gurgling.  The  other moist rhon-
chi aro caused by smaller bubbles in the vesicles and finer
tubos.
  In what diseases is the respiration feeble?   Catarrh, em-
physema, and the first stage of tubercular diseaso.
  What is the character of tho sounds of the heart in a  nat-
ural stato?   Regular;  tho  first sound is more dull and pro-
longed, and occurs during tho systole; the second is more
sharp and whort, and it is heard during tho diastole.  When
tho valves  are  disoascd, or the  blood is driven  with ex-
tromo rapidity through  tho hoart these  sounds become
rough.  According to the degree  of roughness they aro
ihcn called bellows or rasping  sounds.   The thickness of
tho walls of the hoart is ostimatod by the  force of the im-
pulsion against iho thoracic parieties.
   What is moant by tho functional signs of diseaso? They
aro partly thoso alterations in.the functions that wo observe
ourselves;  and partly  tho sensations experienced by the pa-
tient, and by him communicated to tho physician. By them
wo are assisted in determining tho condition of tho internal
organs.
   In what order should theso symptoms be examined?
 First, by observing tho decubitus or position of the patient;
 and whether it be equally easy  in all situations.  Tho  color
 and  appearance of tho skin and the expression of counte-
 nance often afford valuable  evidence.   The  cerebral  func-
 tions should be oxamincd.  Tho intelligence, memory, state
 of tho sonst-s, cutaneous  sensibility, functions of motility,
 and the strength, furnish signs  of disorder of this function,
 whether from  functional or organic defect.
   The deglutition may furnish valuable signs.  The various
 functional dorangements of tho thorax should bo closely
 examined if  thoy exist.
   Tho symptoms connectod witli tho  organs of digestion
 are very  numerous, important and require an examination
 of tho greater part of the alimentary tube. Under this head
 iho stato  of tho tongue and  adjacent membranes sliould be
 examined.
    Tho secretions of tho kidneys should be attended to, and
 chemical tests used if necessary.
    Chemical  tests may also be used in examining othor se-
  cretions. 
251         .PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

                        Fever.

  What  are considered  to  be tho ossontial symptoms of
fever?  A quick pulse, preternatural heat of the surface of
tho body, with a sense of dullness at the commencement;
are the most common symptoms of that condition we term
fever.
  How is fever divided by pathologists?  Into idiopathic
and symptomatic; or primary and secondary.
  What is understood by idiopathic fever?  It is where the
fever does not depend  upon a local fixed imflammation or
irritation, but is produced and sustainod by causes producing
a general morbid state of the systom.
  What is understood  by symptomatic fever?   It is whero
the fever is produced and kept up by a primary local inflam-
mation or irritation.
   What  are the causes of fevers?  Thoy are  divided into
the predisposing, and exciting.
  The former are those external, and intornal causes which
tond to lessen the powers of  the system  to resist morbific
agents, from tho oxistenc of some functional, or organic dc-
foct.
  Tho later are those which excite fiver by deleterious im-
pressions made on  the systom, and are checked perspira-
tion, worms, atmospheric temperature, miasmata,  noxious
gases, heat, cold, electricity, humidity, mechanical injuries,
and the various contagions.
iprWhat is understood by miasmata?  It is a morbific agent
which  acts through tho  medium of the  atmosphore, and
chides our most delicate chemical tests; but known from its
effects on the human system.
  What are  the conditions necessary for its production?
The p.-esence of vegetable,  or animal, matter  in a partial
stato of decomposition; moisture and  a  certain dcgreo  of
heat, say  80° or thereabouts.
  How is miasmata divided ?  Into koino- miasmata, and idio-
miasmata.
  What  is  koino-miasmata?  It is the product of the de-
composition  of marshes,  and  public filth of citios,  callod
com-i only marsh-miasmata, or malaria.
  What is idio-miasmata?  It is the product of  tho decom-
position of the exhalations  and secretions of  the human 
              PRACTICE  OF MEDICINE.          2C5

body [accumulated, and  confined in ill-ventilated  habita-
tions.
  What  is  understood  by contagion?  It is a deleterious
agent; tho  product of secretion  of  the  animal body in a
Btato of disease, which when applied to a healthy, individu-
al, cither by direct contact,  or through the medium of tho
atmosphere, produces a disease specifically similar  to the
ono from which it derives its origin.
  What  constitutes a course of f'over?  It is tho series of
phenomena which intervene  between its commencement
and termination in convalesconco.
  How is tho  course of fever  divided?  Into intermitting,
remitting, and continuod; according as its phenoinona in-
ternal, remit, or are continuous.
  What  aro stages  of a courso  of  fover?  They are the
forming, cold, hot, critical, doclining, and convalescing.
  What are the  symptoms of the forming stage?   Loss uf
appetite, disturbed sleep, yawning,  stretching,  wandering
pans, an unpleasant  sonsation at tho stomach, a  genoral
fooling of  malaise, nausea, Sec.
  What  aio the  symptoms of  the cold stago?   A sensation
of chilliness, a palo contracted and dry stato of the  surface,
tho  volume of tho body is diminished,  the  respiration is
confined, irrogular, anxious, and oppressed, frequently with
a short dry cough, dry tongue, thirst, pulse  small, frequent
and  feeble, with nausea and vomiting.
  What  aro tho  symptoms  of tho hot stage?   Augmented
boat, fullness, and rcdish color of the surface, flushed coun-
tenance, pulso full, quick, frequent and vigorous: or small,
tense, quick, and frequent; throbbing in the  head,  eyes
prominent, and sonsiblo to the light; skin dry and hot; urino
scanty high colored, &c.
   What is  meant by crisis?  It is that period at which tho
disease has arrivod at the highest point, and eithor a favora-
ble or fatal issuo takes place; it  is generally attended with
somo evacuation, as swoating, or increased flow of  urine.
   What is meant by tho  revolution of a fever?   It is the
space of timo occupied by one  paroxysm of fever and its
succeeding intermission; or tho  timo which intervenes bo-
twoon the regular periodical .exacerbations of  fevers not
 paroxysmal.
   What is the form  which  a fever assumes in respect to it*
 revolution, callod?  Its tvpe.
         •25 
<!'">$           PRACTICE OF MEDICiNE.

                  Intermittent Feces,

  What arc the types of intermittent fover?  Thoy are the
quotidian, when tho period of revolution is '24 hours; ter-
tian when it is 48  hours;  quartan when it is 72 hours;  and
quintan when  it is 06 hours.
  What  are the periods of a paroxysm of intermittent fo-
ver?  There are three;  the cold, hot, and sweating.
  What aro tho varieties of intermittent fever?  They tiro
the inflammatory,  the congestive, tho gastric, and  the ma-
lignant.
  What time of year does tho inflammatory variety occur?
Most  frequently during the winter and spring.
  What  is the most frequent typo?  The quotidian.
  What  are tho symptoms?   In  tho  hot stago the heat of
surface Is intense, and the pulse is peculiarly strong, hard,
and full.  The most characteristic mark of this varioty is
the want of a  complete  apyrexia  bctwocn  the paroxysms;
the febrile symptoms continuing.
  In what class of persons do congestivo intcrmittents oc-
cur?  In persons of exhausted or debilitated habits.
  What are the symptoms?  Tho cold stago is protracted,
thero is  deep seated pain in the head, vertigo, fainting,
senso of weight or oppression in the  breast, coma, a email
woak pulse, hot stago comes on slowly and imperlectly, tho
breathing is confined and anxious, with an intornal sensa-
tion of heat.
  What are the symptoms of gastric intermittonts?  Thero
are prominent symptoms of gastric and intestinal irritation,
redundancy of biliary secretion, and other saburral  matters
lodged  in the. intestinal canal.  Thoy  gonerally occur in
autumn, and  are  attended with  a foul  and bitter tongue,
much nausea, and bilious vomiting, an icteric hue of the
skin,  a sensation of weight in the right hypochondriuin, and
frequently with visceral disorders.
  What are iho  symptoms of malignant intermiUents?  A
copious and  foetid perspiration, colliquative hemorrhages,
petechia;, and othersympt onis of malignancy.
  What is understood by masked agues? It is whcro other
reflections, such as  neuralgia, sciatica, homicrania, dysentery,
cholera, Sec,  occur in a strictly periodical manner; liko in-
tcrmittents. 
              PRACTICE OF .MEDICINE.          Q*7

  What is tho most frequent Canto of inteimittonts ?  Koino-
iniasmata.
  What is  tho treatment?  It is divided  into  that proper
rluring the  paroxysm, and that which is  to be  employed
during tho  intermission.   Treatment is soldoni  nccessarv
during the  paroxysm in tho  rntermittcnts of our climate—
If the cold stago is protracted, or  thoro is much congestion,
it may bocomo  necessary to administer stimulants, and ap-
ply revulsives to iho extremities.  Bland warm  drinks may
also bo given to allay thirst.   During tho- hot  stage it may
bo necessary to modorato excitement, and hasten the sweat-
ing stago by bleeding, diaphoretics, &c.   Wo may antici-
pate the treatment proper during tho intermission  in th;s
niage,  by  combining  our  diaphoretics with  mercurials.
Where  tho determination to the brain is alleviated if  it ex-
ist, (Dover's powders,  and calomel answer remarkably well
tonding to  produce sleep, and promote tho  sweating stage.
In tho intermission, mercurial cathartics will bo proper, un-
less mercury has boon combined with the diaphoretics du-
ring tho hot and sweating stage; in which case jalap, castor
oil, Sec, will answer.   Emetics may also bo administered if
indicated.   Whomver the stomach  and bowels, and secre-
tions of tho liver indicate a more healthy action, and tho in-
termission is pretty well established by the reduction of in-
flammatory action, wc should administer cinchona or its ac-
tivo preparations, with or without  opium, which in manv
cases is a useful adjuvant, with a view  of breaking up tho
paroxysms.
   In  tho  congestivo form it may  be necessary to ad-
minister quinine, and other  fobrifugo tonics before we can
have timo to prepare  tho system  by cathartics, &c.  Other
remedies may also bo usod,  among which arsonic stands
prominont;  and it is  thought  by  some that whon tho par-
oxysms arc broken up by arsenic  that they aro less liablo to
recur.
  When visceral obstructions, and other scquelai occur, thev
should roccivo their appropriate treatment.

                    Remittent Fever.

   Is thero  any os^mtial or  radical difference  between ro-
miticnt and intermittent fevor? Thero is not; but from thoir
running a different course, a modification of treatment bo-
i'ltiutJ necessary. 
288          PRACTICE  OF MEDICINE.

  What are tho symptoms?  Languor, drowsiness, pains in
the head and back, slight chills, anorexia, tongtio covorod
with a brownish  fur, nausea,  skin dry and  hot, thirst, ami
the pulse is irritated.  The febrile excitement  abates but
not so as to amount to a state of apyrexiaj-this remission
lasts a short time; the febrile  oxcitemont again rises  until
it acquires its former "violence or excoods it; which after a
certain period again abates, and forms the remission.  The
grade of violence of these  oxacerbations_vary  much  in dif-
ferent cases, and  different latitudes.
  What are the indications to bo fulfilled in the treatment?
They are to modorate febrile reaction; to remove from the
alimentary canal vitiated and irritating secretions1; to re-
move gastro-intostinal  irritation, and restore the healthy
functions of tho liver and alimentary canal.
  How may these indications be fulfilled?  The first by
blood-letting in  many  instances,  cathartics,  diaphoretics,
cold applications, and revulsives.
  Cathartics to the  extent indicated may fulfil the second.
  And the  mercurial preparations, cupping,  blisters, Sec,
are of essential service in the third indication.  When tho
system is properly prepared,  quinine  given  during tho  re-
missions will often  break up the paroxysms, and it may fre-
quently bo  combined  with diaphoretics, particularly with
tho sweet spirits of nitre,, and  given when the  febrile symp-
toms would preclude its use alone.

                      Yellow Fever.

  How is yellow  fever divided?  Into inflammatory, adyn-
amic, and congestive  or malignant.
  What aro the symptoms ? As premonitory, generally thoro
is depressed mental energy, low spirits, slight chills, nausea,
pain in the loins and back,, gidiliness, Sec   In the regular
attack there  is occasionally  shivering, but gonerally  tho
premonitory symptoms are succeeded by great excitement,
severe pains, and  cramp.   The eyo is swelled, dejected,.
moistened with tears, and has a dulli,  heavy,,  drunken  ap-
pearance
  The skin is flushed, dry,  and hot; the  pulse is-accelera-
ted, and generally  full, soft,  and compressible;  the bowels
are variable; tho  respiration is hurried, usually nervous, and*
attended with sighing, 
              PRACTICE OF MFDKTN'C.          '289

  This stato of excitement  i* followed sooner or later by
i-ollaps-) and yellow huo of tho skin and conjunctiva; and
'thick vomit.
  Tho .symptom's Vary  very much in different  cases, how-
ever.
  What ate tho indications in the treatment?  To subdue
tho inflammatory and irritated condition of the system, both
local and general; to prevent tho state of collapse; and when
tho inflammatory state of the systom is subdued to sustain
the powers of tho system.
                   Continued Fever.

  What is  continued fevor?  It is a fever without intermis-
sion, nnd whon remission exist) it  is scarcely perceptible,
and of very short duration.
  How is  continued  fever dividod?  Into synocha, syno-
chus, and typhus.
   What is understood by synocha?   It embraces all those
fevers which aro violontly inflammatory.
   What are its symptoms !  Thero  is  hardness, quickness,
and tension of tho pulse.
   What is understood by synochus?  It is a grade of fever
between synocha and typhus; and  occurs  more frequently
than any other in tho  intcrmittents  and remittents of our
climate.   It indicates a grade of excitement, and not a dis-
tinct disease
   What is understood by typhus?   Thoro is a lower gradu
of fever and a proncnoss to sink.
   What aro its symptoms?  A small, weak, quick, and fre-
quent pulse; with great disturbance  of the sensorial powers,

                     Typhoid Fever.

   What other name is somotimos givon to typhoid fevor?
Dothincntoritis.
   What aro the symptoms?  In tho  first stago there is pros-
tration more than proportionate to the local symptoms, dul-
ness of intellect, cephalalgia, wandering pains in the back
and limbs, dizziness, somotimos cpistaxis, diarrhoea in about
half tho cases, anorexia, chilliness,  and irregular fever.
   In the second stago there is an incrcaso of the cerebral
symptoms, dullness of hearing, tinnitus, ofton  delirium; in-
crease of fevor, dryness of tho skin, diarrhoea, pains in the
abdomen  with  tenderness, especially  at epigastrium  and 
290
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
right  and loft  iliac  regions, tympanitis,  enlargement of
spleen, anorexia, eruption of rose colored papulae on tho ab-
domen and thorax, sudamina, cough, and sibilant rhonchus.
  Whenathe prognosis is favorable the third stage is char-
acterized by the symptoms of tho second stago with a grad-
ual diminution about the end of the second week and con-
valescence at the end of the third.   If unfavorable, thero is
Bordeson tho teeth, stupor, coma, muttering delirium, groat
prostration, diarrhoea, increased at times, with discharges of
blood, and rigors.
  What is the pathological anatomy of this diseaso? There
is a thickening and  secretion  of whitish  matter  into the
glands of Peyer and their  sub-mucous tissue.   Tho mesen-
teric glands aro enlarged, and the spleon softened slightly.
In  the  second stage  thero  is increased  alteration of tho
glands of Peyer, as well as injection and commencement of
ulcoration in tho adjoining mucous tissue; softening and
thickening of the mesenteric glands and spleon. Sometimes
there is an inflamed state of the bronchial mucous mem-
brane, gastritis, and softening of the mucous membrano of
the large  intestino.   There  is also usually injection of tho
mombranes of tho brain or effusion of serum, but never suf-
ficient to oxplain tho violence of the ccrobral symptoms. In
the third stago the glands of Peyer are ulcerated: tho ulcers
have irregular excavated edges; sometimes the ulcors aro
preceded by distinct yellow sloughs in tho  second and third
stages; the mucous membrane  around them is reddened but
not much altered in  consistence.  The mesenteric  glands
aro softened, reddened, and often infiltrated with  purulent
matter.   Pneumonia is often present.
  Can typhoid fever be cut short abruptly by treatment?
No; the main object of treatment  is to  prevent or remove
local inflammations,  which cause the greatest uneasiness to
the patient, and are often the immediate cause  of death.
  What is the treatment?   In  mild cases but  little should
bo done.  A small bleeding, with diluonts, acids, and neu-
tral and effervescing draughts are generally all that is re-
quired.
  When there arc symptoms of cerebral determinations,
cups", leeches, or cold applications  will bo useful;  if diar-
rhoea, opiate enemata will be proper.  If pneumonia attend
cupping and leeching the  chest will be proper.  In  the lat-
ter stages the sulphate of quinine and nutritious diet will 
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
291
lie propor if tho powers of tho system  fail.  If the secre-
tions from tho bowols ore much altered mild cathartics will
bo proper, with which  the  bowels should  be kept open if
necessary.
  What aro the complications?   Thero may be perforation
of tho intostino and  its consequences.  Undue determina-
tions to tho  various organs.   Tuberculous disease in tho
last stage.  Whon opidemicjtt is very violent, and appears
to bo somotimes  contagious.
  Theso various complications, and circumstances require
corresponding modifications of trcatmont.

                     Typhus Fever.

   In what prominent particulars does typhus differ from ty-
phoid fover? It is usually epidemic, manifestly contagious;
the pains in the head, back, and limbs moro severe; the le-
sions after death moro  variable; and no constant alterations
as in typhoid fever.
   What are the symptoms? In addition to the above symp-
toms thoro is occasionally cpistaxis; nervous symptoms with
 profound stupor ; dull suffusion of the eyes; petechial erup-
 tion (of a purplish tint in severe casos)  towards  the  ond of
 the first week, extending nearly over the whole body, neith-
 er so bright or prominent  as in dothinenteritis.  Sudamina
 uro sometimes present although not  so frequently  as in ty-
 phoid fever; pulso frequent, and commonly soft; cough  with
 mucus and sub-crepitant rhonchus in the lungs, with foeblo
 respiration; percussion often dull at the samo part from con-
 gestion; and a change is gonerally found in the appearance
 of the blood aftor death, with frequently a softened state of
 tho solids.
   What is tho treatment?   Thero is no specific treatment;
 tho symptoms should bo watched, and local congestions and
 determinations obviated by  appropriate treatment, and by
 this moans wo can  usually mitigate the severity of  the at-
 tack.   Sponging with chloride of soda in  solution, and tho
 use of cool acidulated drinks are beneficial.   When the fe-
 ver declines, tonics and wine aro proper or when there is
 groat prostration.   Gentle purgatives aro called for;  and tho
 saline diaphoretics are useful, especially the acotato of am-
  monia. 
.'■>2          PRACTICE (>F M EDIC1N E.

'ntlammation of tiil Alimentary  Canal and  Accessary
                       Organs.

                       Glossitis.

  VVhat is glossitis?   Inflammation  of tho tongue
  What are tho symptoms?  A burning and throbbing pain
in the tongue with a synochal grade of fever.   The tonguo
becomes hot, dry, red, swollen, and with a senso of impend ■
ing suffocation.  It terminates  sometimes  in suppuration,
and occasionally in mortification of  a portion of it.
  What is the treatment?   Bloodletting decisively practic-
ed, leeches to the lower jaw and tonguo, incisions into tho
substance of the tonguo along its middle, and blisters to tho
back of the  neck.  Tracheotomy may also become neces-
sary.

                Of Tonsillitis or Quinsy*
  What is tonsillitis, and what aro the symptoms?  It is on
inflammation of tho tonsils.  It  is known  by slight  chills
succeeded by a high grade of  fovcr, and more or less pain
in the faucos on swallowing.  In a  short timo the pain be-
comes fixed, deglutition nearly or quite impossible, and ono
or both tonsils much swollen.  The face is  tumid and rod,
the carotids beat violently, and the respiration is difficult.—
It generally terminates oither in resolution  or suppuration.
It is caused mostly by cold and damp air, or suddonly chock-
ed perspiration.
  What  is the  treatment?   Vigorous antiphlogistic  treat-
ment should be adopted by general  and local bloodlotting,
scarification of tho tonsils,  purgatives, and antiphlogistic
diaphoretics.
  When suppuration takes place it should be opened.

                  Parotitis or Mumps.

  What is parotitis, and its symptoms?  It  is an inflamma-
tion of the parotid gland known  by slight febrile symptoms,
a fooling of stiffness in tho jaws, and swolling and pain in
one or both parotids.
  What is tho treatment?   Keep tho bowels open, and use
mild diaphoretics.  The parts  should bo kept  warm, and
avoid taking cold.  If the  inflammatory symptoms aro vio-
Iont the  antiphlogistic courso should bo adopted.  Should 
             PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.           293

tho testicles become affected a blister should  be put on the
parotids.

                  Of Acute Gastritis.

  What is gastritis, and what aro the Symptoms?   It is  art
inflammation of tho mucous  membrane of tho stomach, at-
tended mostly with vomiting and a burning lancinating pain
in the stomach.  There is a desire for cool drinks* attd ait
aversion  to warm  which aggravate the complaint.  Tho
pulse is small, tense,  and quick; tho pain is constant except
lor a moment after taking a cold drink; tho patient gener-
ally lies on his back, and moves as little as possible.
   What  are tho causes?  Cold water  rapidly swallowed,
irritating and corrosive substances, fatigueing exercise, over
distention, improper food, metastasis of gout or rheumatism,
injurios,  and miasm of somo kinds.
   What  is tho  treatment?   Bleeding, general and loca',
blisters over tho  stomach, mild mucilaginous drinks, weak
lomonado or orangeade,  laxative enomata, and  after the
phlogistic state of the systom has been moderated, opium is
boncficial in allaying tho pain and vomiting.   In convales-
cence great care is required  in avoiding improper food.

                    Chronic Gastritis.

   What  are  tho symptoms?  Thoy are very similar to the
 ncute  form, only loss violent and long  continued, with dis-
ordered action of all the functions of the. stomach.
   What  is the  treatment?   It may be treated on tho same
general principles as tho acuto.

                    Acute  Enteritis.

   What  is it, and  what aro the symptoms?  It is an  acute
inflammation of tho  alimontary canal, affecting tho perito-
noal and muscular coats,  or mucous membrane.
   What  ore tho  symptoms  whon the peritoneal coat is in-
flamed ?   An aching or burning pain about the umbilicus,
obstinate constipation, unless tho inflammation extends to
tho mucous mombrano, in which case dysenteric discharges
take, placo; nausea and vomiting, dry tonguo, urgent thirst,
and hot skin.  Tho patient lios on his back with the  knees
drawn  up, and  shoulders elevated, with a tumid abdomen
from flatus.  Its course is rapid, and prone to torminato in 
294          PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

gangrene, in  which ovont tho pain subsides suddenly, tho
pulso sinks, tho countenanco becomes pale, the oxtremitioH
cold, slight delirium, and sometimes convulsions attond.—
It gonerally terminates either in resolution or death, by tho
eighth day.   It is distinguished from plouritis and hepatitis
by a contracted, corded, quick, tense, and  frequont pulse;
and by tho regular and strong action of the  thoracic respi-
ratory muscles; neither of which exist  in tho  other affec-
tions.  It may be regarded as a dangerous diseaso
  What are tho causes?  Indurated firees, spasm, injuries,
purgatives, hernia, cold, metastasis, ecc.
  What is the treatment?  Prompt blood-letting, looching,
mild purgatives, opium in the advanced stages, blisters, anil
mild mucilaginous diluents.
  What are the symptoms when tho mucous coat is inflam-
ed?  When the small intestines are affected thore is somo
pain in tho umbilical region, moro or less nausoa and vom-
iting, and the pulse is cordod;  tho  tonguo is white or of a
light brown;  the bowols are loose or oasily moved.
  What is it  called when the colon and rectum aro tho  seat
of tho inflammation ? Dysentery.

                       Dysentery.

  What are the symptoms?  It is often ushered in by the
ordinary symptoms of remittent fevor, pain  in tho bowels,
costiveness, or diarrhoea, followed by frequent mucous and
bloody stools, tormina, and  tenesmus, with a retention of
the natural feces.   Tenesmus is one of the most constant
and characteristic symptoms  of this disease.  Tho violence
of the symptoms is a pretty good criterion of tho danger of
the disease.
   What  aro the  causes?   Atmospheric  vicissitudos,  and
koino-miasmata.
  What is the prognosis when the discharges consist almost
entirely of blood at tho commencement?  More favorable
than when composed of mucous tinged  with blood.
  What is tho treatment?  The indications aro to moderate
tho excessive roaction of tho heart and artoiies, to restore
tho healthy action of the liver and skin,  and to suhduo tho
local inflammation of tho bowols.
  Whenever tho pulse is  firm and  quick, or tenso and fre-
quent, blood  may bo drawn.  Purgatives  judiciously man-
aged arc beneficial; castor oil, and  calomel_ are among tho 
             PRACTICE  OF MEDICINE.          295

best.  Diaphoretics, as Dover's powdor combinod with cal-
omel, and followed by a laxative, are beneficial.   Opium,
sugar of lead, blisters, and  anodyne enemeta are  all ben-
eficial.
                   Chronic  Enteritis.

  What aro tho  symptoms?  There is pain, and a sense of
soronosB felt on  coughing or sneezing, languor, and weak-
ness; the pulse  is small, weak, and sharp, or  corded;  the
hands and feet  cold, flushed cheeks, and a burning in  tho
palms and  solos; pain after eating, diarrhoea,  digestion ia
nnporfect, and there is tormina.  The discharges aro slimy
and bloody, or watery and profuso, and thero is emaciation.
   What are tho causes?   It may  be a consequonco of tho
acuto form, but it much more frequently results from crude
 indigestible food, and other irritants applied to the bowels,
 or from atmosphoric vicissitudes.
   What is tho treatment?   Regulation of the diot is impor-
 tant and indispensable  Farinaceous diot such as  arrow
 root, oat meal, barley, tapioca, rico and sago should be used,
 animal  food  and solids arc generally inadmissible  Mild
 laxatives aro to be used carefully.  Leeches applied to tho
 abdomen are also useful.   Emulsions of copaiva,  spirits of
 turpentine, and mucilaginous drinks may bo used.

                   Of  Acute  Peritonitis.

    What aro tho symptoms? It is ushered in by chills, pains
  in  the limbs, Sec.  There is pain in the abdomen, and in all
 casos oxternal  pressuro on tho  surface of the abdomen is
 very painful.   The  patient lies on the back  with his feet
  drawn up, and shoulders elevated.
    What aro the causes?   Mechanical injuries, violent ex-
  ertions, perforation of the  stomach and  ils consequences,
  parturition, metastasis, Sec.
    What is the treatment?   Tho most important measure is
  decisive blood lotting, general and local;  with tho applica-
  tion of poultices, and revulsives.
     Purgativen,  of which a  good one is  castor oil,  combined
  with  spirits of turpentine, are boneficial.  Largo doses of
  opium alono or combined  with  calomel arc also employed.

                    Of Acute Hepatitis.

     What  are  tho  symptoms?  Pain in  tire right  hvpochon- 
296           PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

drium, a sensation of tightness across tho abdomon, difficult
respiration, tho body inclined  forwards, tho pain extending
to tho clavicle  and  shoulder of the right  and left sido.—
Pressure  over tho liver, and an attempt to Ho on  the left
side produces pain.  There are general  febrile  symptoms,
costivoness, and a scalding in passing urine.
  What are the causes?   Miasm, atmospheric vicissitudes,
injuries, metastasis, &c.
  What is tho treatment?  Blood-leiting  general and local,
mercurial  cathartics,  antimonials,   diaphoretics, cupping,
blisters, and nitro-muriatic acid.

                   Chronic Hepatitis.

  What aro the symptoms? When it is not tho consequence
of an acuto attack it begins with disorders of the digestive
functions; there is  pain  and tenderness over tho region of
the liver, and a dry harsh constricted state of the skin.
  What is the  treatment?   Sometimes leeches are proper,
and mercury  is considorod indispensable.   Nilro-muriatic
acid, blisters or other revulsives, and low diot are beneficial.

      Of Inflammations  of the Nervous System.

                        Cephalitis.

  What are  its varieties?  They are  meningitis and cer-
obritis.
  How is  meningitis divided?   Into phrenitis whon there
is inflammation of tho  pia mater; and  arachnitis whon tho
arachnoid membrane is affected.

                  Phrenitis or Phrensy.

  What aro the symptoms of phrenitis?   A senso of full-
ness in the head, gonorally nausea or vomiting, pain and fe-
brile reaction increase, tho eyes become flushed and spark-
liug, and delirium  ensues.  The pulse is  firm and activo
with a disturbed respiration.
  What are the causes?   It is seldom  idiopathic, but com-
monly occurs during the  progresa of fevers.
  Its exciting causes may bo  violent  passions, insolation,
the influences of cold,  drunkonness, metastasis, &c.
  What is the prognosis?  It is attendod with  great dan-
ger, and this  is generally in proportion to the violence anrl
obstinacy of the symptoms. 
              PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.          297

  What is tho treatment?   A \igorous antiphlogistic coursa
is promptly demanded by blood Ioiting general and  local,
ico  to the head, purgatives, antimony, nitre, digitalis, &c.

                       Arachnits.

  What  is this  commonly callod ?  Acute  dropsy of the
brain, or  acuto hydrocephalus.
  At what period of life does it generally occur?   During
dentition.
  What  aro tho symptoms?  Wakefulness, irritability of
temper, repugnance to light, pain in the head, restlessness,
an  irritated, quick, tense and active  pulso, torpid  bowels,
retching  and vomiting, delirium, dry skin, dilated  or con-
tracted pupils, somnolency, coma, strabismus, and paralysis
or convulsions.
  What  aro the post  mortem appearances?  Injection or
thickening of  tho membranes, and an effusion of serum.
  What aro  tho causes?   Hereditary predisposition, blows,
falls, insolation, motastasis,  dentition,  intestinal irritation,
and w.-atever may produce a determination of blood to tho
brain.
  What aro  the indications of  treatment?   To moderate
artorial action, to remove tho  congested  and inflammatory
state of tho brain,  to remove the causes of irritation.  To
fulfil these, blood-letting general andl ocal, purgatives con-
taining calomel, ico to the head, and blisters, are  among tho
most useful  moans.   Tho diet should be simple and un-
irritating.
      Cerebritis or  Ramollissement of  the  Brain.

  What aro the symptoms?  It has .been divided into two
periods, with symptoms peculiar to each.   In the first thero
is fixed and violont pain in the hoad, which may continue a
long time, vertigo, obtusencss and  confusion of intellect,
loss of memory, and indifference to surrounding objects.—
Tho pulso is often full and hard.
  In the  second thero may be gradual or sudden paralysis
of one limb  or half the  body, and  difficulty of speech;
coma  sometimes occurs,  followed  by convulsions, which
leaves a contracted stato of the flexor musclos of the limbs,
or rigidity, which has been considered as peculiar.
  What is tho treatment?   Goneral and local blood-letting,
active cathartics, blisters, and mercury. 
298          PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE.

     Of Inflammation of  the  Respiratory Ok&a.n».
                      Pneumonia.

  What is understood by pnoumonia?   It is an inflamma-
tion of the substanco of tho lung.
  What are the characteristic symptoms? Pain in tho chest
with fever, accelorated and oppressed breathing, cough, with
a viscid and rust colored  expectoration.  Thero is the crep-
itant rhonchus  at first, followed by tho bronchial respira-
tion.
  How aro tho stages of  pneumonia divided?  Into four.
  What aro thoir anatomical characters?  In the first there
is sanguineous congestion or engorgement of a red appear-
ance, but still it will crepitate.
  In the second there is  rod hepatization, the lung sinks in
water, and the  color is not uniform, but when torn it exhi-
bits fine granular points of tho sizo of a pin head.
  In the third thero is suppuration  or yollow hepatization,
this suppuration is diffused in tho form of purulent infiltra-
tion, and rarely assumes the form of a distinct abscess.
  In the fourth there is gangrene in which the parenchyma
is softened down.
  What  aro tho physical  signs of these stages?  In the first
there is crepitant rhonchus; as it progresses thoro is dulness
on  percussion, some degree of bronchial respiration, and vo-
cal resonance.
  In the second crepitation an 1 vesicular respiration cease,
and the only sounds are  those produced by the air and voice
in the larger tubes, which  arc vory loud, and aro bronchial
respiration, and bronchophony.  There is  pretty  complete
flatness on percussion, and the lung docs not expand.
  In tho third  the  physical .sounds are the same,  until tho
effused matter begins to liquify, and then there is mucous
rhonchus.
In  the fourth thero is added to tho signs a putrid fetoi in
the matter expectorated  as well as  in  the  breath, togethor
with sub-crcpitant  and mucous rhonchus, passing into gui-
gling and poctriloquy.
  What arc theso signs  as tho inflammation abates?  Tho
crepitation and resonance return.
  What arc the varieties and complications of pneumonia?
 Typhoid pneumonia, pneumonia complicated with bronchitis,
and pleura-pneumonia. 
              PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.           MO

  What is understood by typhoid pneumonia?  Il is when
pneumonia  is uttondod by low  adynamic  fever  from  any
causo, and tho inflammation is rathor of a congestive than
of an inflammatory character.
  What is understood by pleuro-pneumonia?  It is  where
pneumonia  is complicated with pleurisy, and tho symptoms
aro modified by effusion.
  What is the prognosis of pneumonia?  It. is a serious dis-
oasc; more  dangerous, the further the diseaso advances, and
tho greater its extent and complications.
  At what  period does death usually occur?  About tho be-
gining of the third stage
  What aro the causes?  All causes which tend to produce'
asphyxia, violent exertion,  atmospheric  vicissitudes, and
exposure, diseases  of the  heart, bronchitis, wounds,  lu-
berclos, and foreign bodies.
  What is tho treatment?   In tho  first stago bloodletting,
general and local, repeated if necessary, tartar ometic, mer-
cury and opium, after bleeding.
   In  tho second stage, morcury and opium are appropriate
romodics; with oxtornal irritation by blistors; and expocto-
rants containing an alkali.
  According to tho grade of  action we may give digitalis,
squill, t&c, or senega, camphor, and carbonate of ammonia,
as indicated.  Hydriodate of potassa with senega or sarsa-
parilla will hasten absorption in convalescence.
   In the third stage antiphlogistics aro not to be used, and
if remedies are used at all they should  bo of a stimulating
kind, such  as carbonate of ammonia,  ether, camphor, sene-
ga, wine, &c.
  In the fourth stage unless  the genoral  symptoms contra-
indicate  its use,  wine, quinine, &e, must be administered.
   What is the treatment of tho typhoid pneumonia?  Gen-
eral bloodletting is  not admissible; but local may be.   Dry
tupping, blisters, sinapisms, calomel and  opium, with stim-
ulants.
   In  the other complications the treatment does  not differ
much from ordinary cases of pneumonia, and requires a cor-
responding treatment modified  by the state  of  the general
j-ystpm.
   What is tho disoase commonly termed bilious pneumonia]
 (t is simply pnoumoyiia  complicated  with  a deranged  con-
dition of the liver. 
300
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
  What kind of pneumonia usually attacks children?
Lobular pneumonia;  tho anatomical character of which is
diffusion of inflammation through several scattered points
at the same time, and  usually affects the posterior part of
the lung.
  What are the symptoms? Tho respiration is rough,there
is generally mucous and sub-crepitant rhonchus, tho respi-
ration only becomes bronchial at tho latter stages of the dis-
ease; there is also dullness on percussion.
  What is the treatment?   The position of the child should
be changod frequontly, and kept in a uniform temperature.
Local bleeding in the commencement, counter irritants, and
ipecacuanha  internally, are valuable;  or if tho child be
strong and robust, tartar emetic may be given.
  Remedies to bo of use should bo persevered in.

                 Pleurisy or Pleuritis.

  What is understood by pleurisy ?  It is  an inflammation
of the pleura.
  What are the characteristics of this disease? A sharp pain
in the side,  diminished resonanco of the side, a [friction
sound, with  segophony, followed by  enlargement,  and ab-
sence of respiration  and voice in  auscultation. There is
always effusion.
  How may wo classify tho products of pleurisy,  or the mat-
ter which is effused in  acute  and chronic pleurisy?  Into
two classes :—Those in which absorption predominates over
effusion, and the liquid is removed; and thoso in which the
effusion predominates, and the liquid can only be removed
through a perforation of the pleura.
  What  are the signs of absorption?  The  sido becomes
contracted, and from boing larger than tho  other sido be-
comes smaller.  In some cases after a time thero may bo a
weak respiratory murmur, slight resonance  on  percussion
and of the voice.
  What is generally the character of tho fluid  when effu-
sion predominates?   It is purulent; and constitutes the em-
pyema of authors.
  What are the signs?  Tho same as those characteristic of
liquid effusion modified by the length of time that effusion
continues. Rigors, hectic fever, &c. may exist; which when
they do, aro indicative of a purulent effusion. 
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.          301
  What is tho prognosis in pleurisy? It is dangerous when
noglectod ; but when simple, and remedies are promptly em-
ployed before the effusion is copious it gonorally yields rea-
dily.  But when it is complicated with tuborcles or it be'
comes chronic it may bo fatal.
  What are tho indications in tho treatment of pleurisy?
To subdue inflammation; to promoto the removal of its pro-
duct; and in chronic cases to improve the state of the gene-
ral health.
  What are tho means used for these objects?  In the first
Btago  full  gonoral bleeding to tho extent of removing all
pain on full respiration, or tho hardness of the pulse is sub-
duod; local bloodletting followed by a poultice, or hot, dry
napkins, a  repetition  of the bleeding if necessary, brisk
purgatives containing mercury and antimony; tartarized an-
timony alone, and blisters are useful.  Then morcury, digi-
talis, colchicum, alkalies,  &e, will be  useful to fulfil the
second indication, and to still further assist in reducing in-
fiamnntion.   The patient must use light diet, and remain in
bed while thero are acuto symptoms.
  To  fulfil the third indication when the pulse is weak, or
tho fever hectic, a nutritious and tonic plan  must be pur-
sued so far as thoy aro not contra-indicated by other  symp-
toms.  Counter irritation should be used now as well as pre-
viously, and tho preparations  of iodino internally and exter-
nally  aro very useful.   Diuretics are also often indicated.
  Is the operation  of paracentesis  thoracis advisable?   It
may bo in somo cases; foi instance  whore thore is a suddon
effusion threatening suffocation or where thore is an old ex-
tenxlvo offusion  increasing constantly,  and showing no dis-
position to bo absorbed; but tho propriety of the  operation
is questionable, oxcept in  a vory small proportion of cases.
   Where should the opening be made?  When the abscess
points, there is no choice, this  must be the part; in other
cases, the intercostal spaces between tho third and seventh
ribs.   The  fluid should be drawn  off at successive times,
tho orifico closed in tho intervals, and the admission of air
prevonted.
  What connection has pleurisy with tubercles?  It may
be  a  cause or a more  sign of their presence, and  should
therefore be closely watched until  conducted to a full con-
 valescence. 
302          PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

                      Laryngitis.

  What is laryngitis?   An inflammation of the sub-mucoui
cellular membrane of the larynx.
  How is it divided?  Into acute and chronic

                   Acute Laryngitis.

  What are the varioties? Sthenic and asthenic.
  What are the symptoms of the sthenic form?  Difficulty
of swallowing, with high fever, preceded by rigors, hoarse-
ness, husky convulsive cough, tenderness,  pain, and con-
striction in the larynx;  and difficult, prolonged, sonorous in-
spiration.  The fauces are generally red; by pressing tho
tongue downwards tho epiglottis may bo seen erect, thick-
ened, and of a bright red color.  As tho disease progresses
the countenance becomes anxious, the lips livid,  tho  eyes
staring and watory, tho voice reduced to a whisper, and tho
pulse is reduced and unequal.   The pationt then becomes
enfeebled, delirious, comatose, and dies.
  What are the symptoms of the asthenic?  It differs from
the sthenic in tho absence of  inflammatory  symptoms and
fever; and sometimes of pain and  difficulty of deglutition.
  What are the causeB of acuto  laryngitis?  Exposure to
cold and wet, tonsilitis, swallowing scalding or  corrosive
liquids, Sec
  What are  the anatomical  characters?  A  red injected
and thickened state of  the lining membrane.
  What ia the prognosis.  It is the most fatal of all  inflam-
mations.
  What is the  treatment?  In tho sthenic form a  most
prompt and energetic antiphlogistic course should be adop-
ted,  by bleeding, calomel, and antimony, before effusion
takes place.
  Salivation should be  attempted and  brought about as
soon as possible.  Bronchotomy must be resorted to, if our
other remedies fail, and the state of breathing requires it.
  In the asthenic form  mercury must also be used, but de-
pletion is not allowable, except locally; blisters and other
revulsives may  be used.   These  failing,  and other symp-
toms requiring it, bronchotomy should be resorted to.

                  Chronic Laryngitis.

  What are the symptoms? It is more  frequent than tho 
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
303
acute, exists in various degrees, and is known by hoarsoness,
a husky dry cough, with soreness or pain in tho  larynx on
pressure.
  What aro the anatomical characters? Redness and thick-
ening of the mucous membrane, contraction of the liga-
ments, fibrous degeneration,  wasting of the muscles, and
ulcoration.
  What is the prognosis?  Slight casos are often curable.
  What are tho indications of treatment? To subduo chro-
nic inflammation, and remove its effects; to relievo urgent
symptoms,  and improve the general health.
  Tho parts should be kept at rest, and protected from dust,
cold air, &e, leeching, blisters, a mild mercurial courso, hy-
driodate of potassa, and the application of nitrate of silvor,
sulphato of copper, &e, either  in solution or powder to the
larynx internally are recommended.
  It is often connected with phthisis, cither as  a cause or
complication.

        Cynanche Trachealis, Tracheitis, or Croup.
  What are  the  symptoms?  At first there  are catarrhal
symptoms,  hoarsoness, &c.;  then stridulous respiration,  a
peculiar rough barking and ringing cough, with high fever;
these symptoms are followed by general failure of the vital
powers, with an increaso of the unfavorable symptoms, livi-
dity, suffocation, &c.  It varies in  intensity in different
casos.
   What aro the anatomical characters? Redness of the mu-
cous membrane, continuous or in patches; tho sub-mucous
tissue  is swelled, and  in  advanced  stages when  thore  is
Bthenic action there is an effusion of a grey white albumin-
ous matter, forming a false membrane having tho shape of
the trachea.
   What are the causes?   Exposure to cold and damp; and
to  humid ill ventilated places.   It occurs from  one  to six
years of age.
   What is the prognosis?  It is a serious  disease; and  if
not quickly arrested by treatment soon terminates fatally.
   What is  the treatment?  The indications are to diminish
inflammatory action, and its consequences; to procure tho
discharge of such matters as  are produced in the trachea; to
■ubdue spasmodic action; and in the latter stages to support
the powers of life. 
304           PRACTICE OFAVIEDICIVE.
  At the first invasion an emotic of tartar-emetic or ipecac,
is the best remedy; and in slight  cases it will cut short tho
disease, particularly  if followed by a warm bath, calomel,
Jan es' powder, and castor oil.
  If the fever runs high, free  blood-letting, soon after the
administration of an emetic, which will  assist its  action;
cupping, calomel, tartar-emetic, blisters, «.yc, are indicated.
In the laststagos where collapse has supervonod, stimulants
and cordials must be usod, and anti-spasmodics in tho spas-
modic form.

                    Acute  Brojichitis.

  How  is  it distinguished?   By tho terms  sthonic  and
asthenic.
  What are the symptoms of tho sthonic form'' Marked in-
flammatory action, pain, constriction'across tho  sternum,
severe cough, with glutinous expectoration, high fever, and
hurried breathing. The rhonchi arc at first sibilant and so-
norous,  afterwards mucous and sub-mucous, with weakened
respiratory murmur,  and a clear sound on percussion, show-
ing tho vesicular structure free from disoase.  If not arrest-
ed it may become complicated with  inflammation  or con-
gestion of  the lungs, asphyxia, and death.
  What are tho symptoms in the asthenic form ?  The chief
difference  is  in tho symptoms of depression,  with gastric
derangement, great  oppression of breathing,  and  mucous
rhonchus in tho early stages.  It is almost peculiar to  old
people,  persons in delicate health  and young children.
  What are the  causes?  Cold and moisture, variable at-
mosphere,  and eruptive fevers.
  What are  tho anatomical  characters?  A red color  and
thickening of the mucous mombrano, with a frothy or pur-
ulent fluid in tho bronchiae.
  What is tho  prognosis?   It must be determined by tho
extent  and stage of the disease, and  the general condition
of the patient.
  What is the treatment?  When sthenic, bleeding goneral
and local, according to  tho  condition of tho patient, a pur-
gative of calomcd, small doses of tartar-emetic, tincturo of
digitalis, wine of colchicum, &e, will contribute to reduce
the inflammation, and hasljen  its  termination by expectora-
tion.  Revulsives to tho chest aro also useful.  When thero
is a free secrotion blisters and stimulating expectorants are 
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
305
proper; and if n state of collapse comes on we must stimu-
late actively with carbonate of ammonia, camphor, &c.  In
tho asthenic form  dcplotion cannot be carried to much ox-
tont.  Leeches,  dry cupping, and  blisters should be used,
with small doses of mercurials  and antimonials or ipicac,
with a decoction of senega, squills,  &.c.  In young children
ometics and mercurials aro useful in bronchitis.

                  Chronic Bronchitis.

  Are acute and chronic inflammations of the air passages
separated by a well defined lino? They aro not; tho chronic
aro distinguished however by the continued  presence of
opaquo mattors in tho expectoration, such as are classed un-
der the head of albuminous.
  What are tho symptoms of chronic bronchitis?  Expoc-
toration, varying in different  cases: whon  purulent, thore
may bo hectic and night sweats like  pulmonary consump-
tion, but the physical signs are wanting; the chest expands
well, and sounds well on  percussion, and thore  arc tho va-
rious rhonchi which are continually shifting and changing.
  What aro tho causes?   Repeated attacks of  tho acuto,
breathing impure air loaded with irritating particles, &c.
  What aro the anatomical characters?  Tho mucous mom-
brano is of a deep rod color generally, sometimes howevor
palor than natural, where  there has beon copious purulent
oxpectoration;  ulceration  is not a  common occurrence un-
less there has been an habitual inhalation of dust.
  What is tho troatmont. ?  Counter-irritants, expectorants,
and  anodynes, with a closo attention to tho general symp-
toms.  In  thoso  predisposed to  this  diseaso sponging the
body  with cold water, and vinegar  and salt, is useful.  Th '
body shoulJ also bo well  protected by a flannel or leather
jacket.
    Phthisis  Pulmonalis,  or  Pulmonary Consumption.

  What form of disoaso is includod under these terms?
All diseases of tho lungs dependant on tuberculous matter,
or depositions and indurations allied to it.
  What are its general characteristics? Cough, at first with
littlo  expectoration, sometimes haemoptysis, as the disease
progresses the oxpectoration becomes opaquo, purulent,  and
copious, fover, quick pulso, night sweats, dyspnoea, emacia-
tion aud debility.  Tho principal physical signs are irrogu 
306           PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

lar  expansion of the chest,  dullness on  percussion, with
moro  or  less  bronchial respiration, and bronchophony in
the upper parts of the chest, followod by cavernous rhon-
chus and respiration, and pectriloquv, which indicate moro
or less consolidation of tho lung, succeeded  by cavities
communicating with the bronchia;.
  What are the anatomical  characters?  Thoy may  be ar-
ranged under the following heads:—
  1st.  The  miliary granulations or tubercle?!,  which are n
number of little hard bodies of a semi-transparent, reddish
drab, or skin color, or sometimes of a grey or ash color, gon-
erally in  clusters.
  2nd. A consolidation diffused through the pulmonary tis-
suo without particular shapo, varying in consistenco, some-
times hard,  and somewhat semi-transparent, resembling the
miliary granulations, but generally darkor.
  3d. Opaque yellowish white masses; somo aro  nearly
solid, and others  have a cheesy consistence.  Tuberculous
matter is frequently  found diffusod  through the pulmonary
texture, which is the  infiltrated tubercle of Laennoc.   All
these conditions tend to pass into a softened fluid state, form
vomicae, and leave the next  form of lesion.
  4th. Cavities or excavations  various in number, form, and
sizo, containing moro or loss tuberculous matter, liquid  pus
alono or tinged with blood,  mucous, a mixture of all these,
or empty.   They communicate with the air tubes, and often
with each other; their sides are composed of consolidated
lung, rough and sometimes  sloughy, or of  an  irregular  coat
of lymph; in others thick, rigid,  and of a fibre-cartilagin-
ous charactor. Theso lesions affect the upper and posterior
more than the antorior lobes, and  are  often attended with
various complications, such  as  bronchitis, pneumonia, Sec
   How is the course of consumption divided?  Into throo
stages.  The first is that of tho formation of the indurations,
granular or diffusod; the second is  that of the conversion of
these into yellow tubercle, and the extension  of the lesion;
the third is that of thoir softening,  evacuation, and  the for-
mation of vomicae.
   What  are  the  symptoms of the first  stago?  Hacking
cough, either dry, or with thin and transparent expectora-
tion; sometimes pains in the chest, quickness of the pulse,
 with occasional flushes of fevor, terminating in perspiration ;
more or less dullness on percussion, increased bi'onchophonv,
and bronchial sound on expiration. 
PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE.
307
  What in tho second?   Tho symptoms of irritation con-
tinue, thero is languor, loss of flesh, increased pain, gonerally
chills,  lover, and sweating, more abundant expectoration,
thicker and sometimes tingod with blood.  The inucousand
submucous rhonchi are heard.  There aro signs of increased
density of the lungs, the dullness on percussion is increased,
iho respiration becomes more bronchial, and the vocal reso-
nance is increased.             «
  What aro the symptoms in tho third" stage?  Tho con-
sumptive symptoms of tho last are increased, a copious and
heterogeneous expectoration of pus, mucus, softened tuber-
ele, blood, shreds of lymph, and  somctimos portions of pul-
monary tissue;  cunfirnicd hectic,  occasionally diarrhcea,
increasing marasmus, Sec  Cavernous rhonchus or gurgling
is hoard, followod by cavernous respiration and pectriloquy
whon  the  cavity is empty; and when  it  is very large the
sound  is amphoric.  The walls of tho chest sink and  form a
hollow bolow one or both clavicles, and there is  a defect or
irregularity in  the movements of the chest.  Tho oxpecto-
ration  is often nummular or with a dofinod margin and flat-
toned  liko money, from which it derives its name.
   Is phthisis a constitutional or a local affection?  It is both
constitutional and local.
   What are the varieties of phthisis?  They are tho acute
 and chronic.
   What arc tho indications  in the treatment of phthisis?
 To diminish tho local irritations and congestions that lead
 to tho formation of  indurat'ons or tubercles;  to correct the
 condition of  the system which degrades tho  nutritive pro-
 cess and  disposes to tho formation of theso diseased pro-
 ducts; to promoto tho removal of  those already deposited;
 nnd to troat troublesome  symptoms and accidental compli-
 cations.
    In  tho first stage, antiphlogistic and counter-irritant reme-
 dies avail most; but ileplction should bo  limited to  casos in
 which thero  is plethora,  pulmonary inflammation,  conges-
 tion,  or hemorrhage.  Emetics, iodine, sarsaparilla, columbo,
 digitalis, carbonate of iron, pure air, change of climate, and
 exercise,  arc all usoful when properly adapted to tho partic-
 ular case, and will sometimes arrest the disease   'Phe diet
 should bo mild and nutritious.
    In  iho  second and third stages depletions aro less needed,
 r.uil n somewhat tonic plan, with or without counter-irritants 
308          PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

arc indicated, with a more  generous diet.  Mild expecto-
rants and anodynes aro often useful and necessary, and of
tho latter, hyosciamus answers hotter than opium or its pre-
parations.  Localities protocted on their northern and east-
ern limits, and facing the south, are  to be preferred as resi-
dences.
  What  means  may be made use of in tho prevention of
phthisis? Prevent or speedily remove those inflammations
and congestions which tend to tho development of tubercles,
and of that state of strumous cachexia or imporfoct nutrition
from which they arise   Horeditary predisposition is a prom-
inent cause,  and  may be in somo  measure  prevontod  by
care in forming  matrimonial alliances; intermarriage should
never  take  place with families  where  the predisposition
exists.
  Attention  to  residence, food, clothing, exorcise, Sec. is
necessary for persons predisposed.   The  powers  of  life
should bo  maintained in as perfect  a manner as possible,
both by hygienic and remedial moans.

                       Nephritis.

  What  aro the  symptoms?  Slight chills, fevor, pain in tho
loins' darting down to the ureters, testicle retracted, the urine
in small  quantity, tinged with blood, and frcquont desiro lo
pass it.   Cold is  a frequont cause, also blows, strains, Sec.
  What  is  the  treatment?   General  bleeding, cupping,
leeching, purgatives, mucilaginous diluonts, sinapisms, hot
applications,  Sec
                        Cystitis.

  What  are the  symptoms?   Violent burning, lancinating,
or throbbing  pain in the  region of the bladder,  perineum,
and sometimes tho testicles, with a sense of constriction in
the hypogastric  region, pain from pressure above the pubes,
and stranguary.
  What is the treatment?  The same general course as in
nephritis.
                      Pericarditis.

  What are the anatomical characters ?  Redness,  effusion
of coagulablo lymph, and a serous fluid in the pericardium.
  What are the symptoms?  Chills, fever, pain in the region
of the heart, irregularity of pulse, palpitation, dyspnoea,  <§^a 
             I RACTICE OF MEDICINE.           309

  The impulso of tho heart is ttt first augmented, tho sounds
aro increased in intensity, and when endo-cardnis exists, are
aicompaniod by a bellows murmur.   On tho socond or third
d tv a rubbing or rustling sound may often bo hoard, occa
Hioually changing to one similar to creaking of leather. The
impulso of iho  heart, as well as both  natural and morbid
sounds, decrease with the progress of tho  effusion.  Thero
is an  increase of fulness of tho left sido, and  dullness on
percussion is elicited over a larger space  than  natural, the
limits of which, defino the degroo of effusion.
  Chronic Pericarditis is generally only tho sequela of tho
acuto variety.
  What is the treatment? Vigorous antiphlogistic remedies
niusl l«t  used, such us bleeding, local and  general; calomel
and opium, or calomel  and Dover's powders,  given so as to
affect iho gums, are important  remedies.   Diluent drinks,
with nitralo of potash, tartrate of antimony, absolute repose,
and einolionl applications to tho chest are  useful.

                      Endocarditis.
  What aro the symptoms?   Besides the genoral symptoms
of inflammatory reaction, there is violent action of the heart,
augmentation of tho extent of dullness  on percussion, with
the bent of tho heart quilo superficial.  Tho most constant
and  characteristic of the phenomena of this  disease is tho
bellows  murmur.   Tho chronic form may produce indura-
tion of tho valves, and narrowing of  the orifices, indicated
by tho billows murmur, or the rasping, sawing, ur musical
sound.
                      Rheumatism.
  How is it divided ?   Into acute, and chronic.
  What  tissue and  parts aro affected?  The fibrous tissue,
joints, tendons, and shcaihs of muscles.
  What  are  the symptoms of tho acute."   Pain in the part
first a floe tod, then swelling and extension  to other parts,
with  lever,  sweating,  and a pungent  odor arises from  the
perspiration.  Tho fever is highest at night, tho pain  is in-
creased hy warmth; there is a tendency to effusion, and le-
sions of the hoart mostly occur, which are  indicated by thcii
own peculiar symptoms.
   At what pnriod docs convalescence occur ?   Rarely in "the
second week; most gonerally during the  fourth,  and  often
not mud tire rixih week; the pain,  fe\er, and  perspiration 
310           PRACTICE OF MEDICINE

thon lessen, tho  urino is moro abundant  and less charged
with deposit, the appctito returns, thirst diminishes, and th«
pulso becomes natural.
  What aro the causes?  Hereditary predisposition,  cold,
and it often occurs without any assignablo cause.
  What is  the treatment?  The  principal indication is to
moderate  the fover, bloodletting should bo practiced  ac-
cording to  tho extent of fover and tho plethoric stato of tho
individual.   Purgativos of calomol and senna, in tho early
Btago, followed by nitrate of potash and tartrate of antimony,
cooling drinks,  and  opiates at night, arc  useful.  As local
moans, leeches followod by poultices impregnated with lau-
danum or  decoction of poppy, arc useful.  After fever has
subsided blisters should be applied, and repeated when iho
joints are swollen.
  In chronic rheumatism local bleeding, blistering, tyc. are
useful.   Dover's powders, warm  bath, hydriodatc of potash,
tartarized antimony, tincture of  actea, colchicum, and flan-
nel bandages have reputation.

                         Gout.

   What are the symptoms ?   What is called acute gout gen-
 erally comes on suddenly, by acuto pain in the first joint of
 the  groat too, sometimes it is preceded by chill, lever, and
 restlessness:  these  symptoms are repeated every night for
 five  or ten paroxysms, and  subside.  The affectod part is
 swollen, has a shining appoarance, and on its subsidence tho
 cuticle peels off.  It may bo considered a constitutional af-
 fection, and depends upon a gouty diathesis,  either heredi-
 tary or  acquired  by rich  luxurious living and sedentary
 habits.
   What is relrocedcnt gout?  It is whoro gout is ropolled
 and  attacks  somo internal organ; and many becomo a very
 serious complication.
   What is tho treatment?  When the systom is plothoric,
 diminish repletion  by blood-lotting.  Purgatives are gene-
 rally proper,  and  colchicum  has a deservedly high reputa-
 tion. The diet should be mild and simple
   Retroccdent gout may be relieved often by hot stimulating
 pediluvia  or sinapisms, and tho suffering organ must bo re-
 lieved according as is indicated  by its condition. 
              PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.           311

                  Variola or Small Pox.

  What is tho most simple division of small pox ?  Into dis-
tinct and confluent; in the formor, the pustules aro distinct,
< lovatod, distended, and  scattered ovor the surface of the
body: in the latter thoy are numerous, depressed, and con-
lluont, or cohoront.
  What is the time between the reception of the variolous
virus and the appearance of its effects?  This is callod the
period of incubation, and varies from nine to fourteen days.
  What aro tho stages  of this disease ? The initiatory, the
eruptive, the maturative, and the declining.
  What aro tho  symptoms of the initiatory stage.  Rigors,
followod by fever,"pain in the limbs, back, and epigastrium,
w'th vomiting, very similar to gastritis.
  At  what period does tho eruptive stage appear?  About
tho end of  tho third or beginning of the  fourth day; somo
nay soonor.  It  commences on tho  face and extends ovor
the whole body in about  twenty-four hours.
  At what period  does the maturative stago occur?   It is
.rompletod about the  twelfth day, and preceded by exacer-
bations ol fcvcT,  swelling of tho face and other paits, for throo
or four  days.
  What is  tho poriod  of  deciino or  dossication?  It  com-
mences about the twelfth day, and in mild cases, by tho six-
teenth or sovontooth  day, the fever subsides.
   At what time is tho secondary fever high, in confluent ca-
ses?  At tho period  of complete maturation or suppuration,
and during tho first part of the declining stago.
   Is small pox apt to be a fatal disoase?   It is  when in tho
confluent form,  but not otherwise.
   What is the troatmont?  In tho initiatory stage tho pa-
 tient should bo  kept cool, and tho antiphlogistic course pur-
 sued.   Bleeding is  proper in somo cases; mild cathartics,
 saline draughts and James'  powder may generally bo used;
 but others require an opposito course
   In tho secondary fevor, the treatment should be governed
 by tho  condition of tho pationt, which varies much in dif-
 ferent casos.  In tho mild forms littlo clso is neoded except
 attention to tho bowels.

                Varicella or  Chicken Pox.

   What aro  tho symptoms?  Fover, mostly slight, continu- 
312
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
 ing from one to three days, terminating in a vosicular orup-
 tion which soon becomes shrivellod and falls in scaksabout
 the ninth or tenth day.
 i.W!jai.1S tIle troatmont,?  When treatmont is necessary it
 should be the same as that for mild cases of small pox.

                        Rubeola.

   What  are  the  symptoms?   Tho period of incubation  is
 generally from five to seven days. Tho first symptoniB are
 those of catarrhal fever, followed by an eruption on tho
 third or fifth day,  of small red spots on the faco, then on
 tho neck, body, and extremities.  They run into oach other
 and  form semi-lunar or croscentic patchos, and aro at thoir
 height of devolopemont during tho socond  day.  Diarrhoea
 is a very common attendant.
   What is the treatment?  In general all that is necessary
 is to keep the bowels open, and give tepid diluent drinks
 freely.  When  complicated the treatment must be modified
 according to the symptoms.
                       Scarlatina.

   What are the essential phenomena of tho diseaso? Fever,
 a peculiar eruption, and inflammation of the fauces, which
 sometimes terminates rapidly in sloughing and ulcoration.
   How is it divided?   Into s. simplex, b. anginosa, and s.
 maligna.
   What are the symptoms of  s. simplex'  Thoy  aro  fever,
 generally followed by a scarlot eruption within forty-eight
 hours, commencing on the face and extending to tho  neck,
 trunk, and extromitios, with a slight soreness of the throat.
Both usually  begin to decline about the  fifth day, the skin
 desquamating.
   What are the symptoms of tho anginose variety?   They
 aro more severe than in  the former, tho eruption doo.s not
 appear until the third day of  fever, and thon in irregular
 patches.  In some casos thero is sloughing,  but not always.
   What are the symptoms of the malignant?  It commences
 like the preceding, and  soon  bocornes violent and danger-
 ous.   The period of eruption varies from tho second to the
 fourth day.  Grey sloughs which bocomo dark are observa-
 ble in the throat; tho functions are all much disturbod, and
death frequently occurs early  in the disoaao  from cerebral
oppression. 
             PRACTICE (»F MEDICINE.           313

  The prognosis of scarlatina varies very much in different
cases, and according to the variety.
  What is the treatment?   There can be no general direc-
tions given applicable in all cases.  We must be guided by
general principles.

                     Hemorrhages.

  What is hemorrhage?  Tho escape of blood from vessela
in which it is contained in a healthy state of the system.
  What are tho indications in tho treatment of hemorrhage?
To lessen the momemlnm of the circulation  it necessary;
to diminish the determination  lo tho part from which it oc-
curs;  and to excite a contraction of the vessels of tho part.
  Tho first indication may be  fulfilled by blood letting, ni-
tre, digitalis, cold, <yc; tho second by counter  irritants and
the direct  application of cold; and  tho last by astringents
either local or general.

                   Phlegmasia Dolens.

  What ore tho symptoms?  Pain and stiffness in tho groin
of one sido,  rigors followed by  fevor, the limb becomes
swollen, painful,  tender, and of a knotted feel; the skin has
a pale, white, smooth, and glabrous  appearance.  It is pe-
culiar to tho  puerperal state, the breasts become flaccid, and
their secretion is suspended.
   What is the treatment?   Decidedly antiphlogistic; blood
letting, purgatives, antiinonials, &c.; after which opium, so
as to allay pain and irritation may be proper.   As local ap-
plications, looches,  fomentations, solution of  muriate of
ammonia,  and  stimulating liuaments may be useful accord-
ing to circumstances.

                        Apoplexy.

   What is apoplexy?   It  is a disoase characterized  by a
sudden suspension of the animal functions, a slow and full
 pulse, laborious or stertorous breathing, with  a continuance
of the vital functions.
   What aro  the premonitory symptoms?  Determination of
 blood to tho head, indicated by throbbing  and turgidity of
 the vessels, vertigo, ringing in tho ears, pain,  &c.
   What arc tho terminations of an attack of apoplexy?
 In death during  the paroxvsm.
         *J7V' 
314
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
  In perfect restoration of all tho suspondod functions.
  In paralysis of certain parts of tho body, with restoration
of tho functions in other respects.
  And in a genoral febrilo condition.
  How may it bo distinguished from syncope and asphyxia?
In these conditions the pulso and respiration are absent, oi
nearly imporceptiblo.
  What is tho prognosis?  Unless appropriate and enorget-
ic treatment  soon mako a favorablo impression  on  it,  tho
case is hopeless.
   The duration of the attack may vary from a few minutes
to several days.   It generally  occurs  between the fortioth
and sixtieth years of age.
  What are tho causes?  Besides tho predisposing from pe-
culiar conformation of the body, ago, plothora, and organic
affections of the hoart or large vessels, it may be oxcitod by
over distention, improper food, straining, intoxication, mental
excitement, tho repulsion of cutaneous eruptions, impeded
circulation, ^-c.
  What aro  tho anatomical appoarancos?  Vascular turge-
sconce of the brain, sanguineous extravasation, effusion of
serum, and occasionally little or no  traces of  disoaso are
discoverable.
  What is the treatment?  Tho grand indication is  tore-
move the  vascular engorgement of tho brain; which  is host
accomplished by bloodletting goneral and local, tho appli-
cation of revulsives to other parts of tho body, with cold to
the hoad.   Active purgatives, emetics  when the stomach is
overloaded, and blisters, are important moans.
  What is tho prophylactic management whon tho premon-
itory symptoms exist?  A simplo diet, exorcise in the open
air, avoidance of stimulating drinks  and mental oxcitoment,
gentlo cathartics if indicated, reduction of plethora, and an
activo courso of life.

                  Paralysis or Palsy.

  What is paralysis?  Impaired or abolished power of vol-
untary motion or  sonsation,  or both, in somo parts of tho
body without coma or loss of consciousness.
  What are tho  different kinds of paralysis?  Hemiplegia,
whon the  whole of one side of the body is affocted.
  Paraplegia, palsy of both inferior extromoties from the
hips downward. 
              PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.          315

  And partial, whon some ono particular part is affoctod.
  What is tho most common form of  it?  Hemiplegia, and
it depends upon a similar condition of tho brain to apoplexy.
  Upon what does paraplogia gonerally  occur? Affections
of the spinal marrow generally.
  What aro somo of the causes of partial paralysis?  Affec-
tions of tho brain or spinal marrow, injury of a nerve, and
the action of lead.
  What  is the treatment?   Tho  samo  as for apoplexy in
most cases.  The pulso must  bo our guide  in the employ-
ment of the lancot; electricity is often useful, particularly
in tho partial variety; nux vomica, rhus toxicodendron, oil
of turpentine, arnica flowors, and galvanism may also bo
tried, in chronic cases.

                       Epilepsy.

  What is epilepsy?  A disease of tho nervous system, man
ifested by convulsions  ot uncertain periods, in paroxysms,
with a temporary loss of consciousness and voluntary  mo-
tion, terminating in sloep.
  What part of the brain is usually found diseased  in post
mortom examinations?   The cercbollum.
  What is the treatment?  The  cause should be carefully
ascertained, and the treatment modified accordingly.
  What are  the remedies which  havo  bocn thought to pos-
ses? controlling power  in this disease?   Valerian, misletoe,
oil of turpentino, peony root, agaricus muscarius, artemoria
vulgaris,  belladonna, opium,  stramonium, musk,  castor, as-
safuetida, phosphorus, oxide of zinc, sulphate  of zinc, nitrate
of silver, ammoniated coppor, indigo, &.c.

               Chorea  or St. Vitus'1 Dance.
  What  are its characteristics?  Incomplote subserviency
of tho musclos of voluntary  motion to the will, rendering
thoir actions irregular,  tremulous, and  ridiculous.   It may
bo goneral, or confined to particular muscles.
  What aro tho causes?  Derangement of the bowels, men-
tal excitement, and all  causes of constitutional debility.
  What is tho treatment?  It  should dopond upon the con-
dition of system producing  or accompanying it;  to which
tho treatment should be adapted.  Among the remedies rc-
commondod aro purgatives,  tho vegotablo and metalic  ton-
ics, belladonna, cimicifngn, counter-irritants, galvanism, &c. 
316          PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

             Convulsive Affections of Infants.

  What are tho exciting causes?   Any  causes which pro-
duce turgescence of the brain; the most frequent of which
aro intestinal irritation, dentition, worms, repelled  cutane-
ous eruptions, plethora, and local injuries.
  What aro the indications in the treatment?  To  obviato
the influence of the exciting cause; to allay nervous or  cere-
bral irritation; and to protect tho brain from the determina-
tion to it.

                        Tetanus.

  What is tetanus?  It  consists in violent tonic  spasms of
the voluntary musclos,  with  the  power of sensation and
thought unimpaired.
  How is tetanus divided?  According to tho part which is
affected; when  confined  to  the muscles ol the  jaw it is
called trismus;  when the extensor muscles of the trunk and
extremities arc the seat  opisthotonos; emprosthotonos,  when
the body is  curved forwards,  and pleurothotonos  when in a
latoral direction.
  When it occurs in children it is callod trismus nascentium.
It has also been divided into  idiopathic  and  symptomatic;
tho former is produced  by direct  irritation of tho  nervous
system, and tho latter by indirect; that following wounds is
called traumatic, and belongs to the symptomatic variety.
  What are the  symptoms? Slight spasms about the larynx,
a feeling of  stiffness of the jaws, nock, and shoulders, with
spasms. When it terminates fatally it is usually by apoplexy.
  What is tho treatment?  In the  idiopathic,  particular at-
tention should be be given to the  condition of tho  system,
and tlretroatmont adapted to its condition accordingly.   In
thejsymptomatic, attention'both to the general condition, and
to the looal  causo  of irritation, is necessary.
  The remodies that havo boen used are blood-lotting, pur-
gatives, sedatives, particularly opium, tobacco, antimony, hy-
drocyanic acid,  cold  affusion, mercury, amputation, tonics,
wine, bark, Sec, all of which may bo proper  when rightly-
adapted.
                 Mental Derangement.

  What are tho causes?   They are hereditary and oxciting;
tho latter of which is divided into moral or those which ope- 
             PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.          3F?

rato through tho medium of tho mind, and physical, or those
which act directly on tho body.
  How  aro diseases  of the  mind  divided?  Into mania,
monomania, dementia and idiotism.
  What are the characteristics of Mania?   Genoral mental
derangoinent, characterized by a rapid  succession of inco-
herent ideas, and violent excitement of tho passions, ex-
pressed by groat agitation, loud  vociferation, singing, men-
aces, and fuTy.
  What aro tho characteristics of Monomania?  It is a state
of partial insanity, where the patient  is insane  on one sub-
ject only, with  a full and regular use of his intellectual fac-
ulties on all or  most other subjects.  It comprehends many
varieties  as nostalgia, fanaticism, hypochondriasis, melan-
cholia, misanthropy, Sfc
  What arc the characteristics of Dementia1}  There is an
association of unrelatod perceptions or ideas, from an ina-
bility of  the mind to judge and reason.
  What are the characteristics of Idiotism'}  It consists in
a defective development or impairment of all the intellectu-
al faculties, sometimes amounting to total absence of mind.
  What is tho  general  treatment of mental derangement?
The patient sliould be removed from his friends and  home,
placed in some  quiet  and secluded situation, have kind and
humane treatment, free exercise in the  open air,  such em-,
ploymcnt and amusements as are adapted to his condition
and appropriate remedies, adapted to tho  genoral state of
health and condition.
          Delirium  Tremens-—Mania  a  Potu.

  What aro the characteristics?   General inquietude, tre-
mors, continued watchfulness, cool skin, porspiration, deli-
rious loquacity, and sensorial  illusions; occurring in habit-
ual drunkards and opium caters, generally following the in-
termission of thoir accustomed stimulant.
  What  is  tho treatment?   Emetics, opium, anti-spasmo-
dics, and tho alcoholic  treatment, all  havo their advocates.
Tho  alcoholic treatment has boon found the mo t success-
ful in  the  Philadelphia Hospital; but  the  treatment with
opium is  perhaps more genorally practiced than any  othor,
oither alone, or in combination with camphor and assafcetida.
             Pertussis or Hooping  Cough.
  What is pertussis?  It is a contagious cough, which has 
318          PRACTICE  OF MEDICINE.

a regular rise, progress, and declension, and occurring but
once in tho samo individual.
  What are the Symptoms?  It commences as  an ordinary
catarrh with lassitude, snoozing, hcad-acbo, and hoarseness,
followod by a dry ringing cough, which at tho  end ol  two
or three woeks becomes convulsivo or spasmodic, and in
paroxysms.
  What is tho prognosis?  It rarely terminates fatally, ex-
cept  by the  supervention of  bronchitis, hydrocephalus,
pneumonia, apoplexy, or marasmus.  Tho younger tho pa-
tient the moro apt is the disease to terminate fatally. It of-
ten calls into action strumous and tuberculous affections.
  What is the treatment?  It is capable of boing mitigatod,
but not cut  short in its course.  When attended  with inflam-
matory symptoms, blood-letting general  and local, may be
serviceable, and when tho lungs  arc oppressed  by the bron-
chrial secretions, emetics are  indicated.   Assafcetida is an
excellent remedy with or  without nauseants.   Bolladonna,
lobelia, and counter-irritants, are also valuable remedies.
           Asphyxia  or  Suspended Animation.
   What are the causes which produce asphyxia?  Hanging,
drowning, or strangulation, and tho inhalation of some irre-
spirable gas; also lightning or electricity, and intense cold.
   What are the symptoms of  asphyxia from drowning?  A
tinged and livid  appearance of the face,  tho eyes arc open
and staring, limbs  stiff, tongue protruded, tho  epigastrium
tense and tumid,  and tho manifestations of life aro destroy-
ed.   According to Orfila  moro  or loss  water enters tho
stomach, by which he distinguishes botwoon cases of drown-
ing, and casos whcro lifo was destroyed beforo boing placed
in the wator.
   What is the treatment? The person should be well dried,
wrapt in  blankets,  and placed in a convenient  place for ar-
tificial inflation of tho lungs, bv a common bellows.  Gal-
vanism and electro-magnetism if at hand, stimulant injec-
 tions into the  rectum, and frictions may  bo very useful, in
 assisting  to establish respiration, and  revive the energies of
 the systom. Heat  should be  applied by warm  flannel, bot-
 tles of hot  water, bricks, &,e, in a gradual manner.  When
 the functions  aro.   partially  resumed  stimulus   carefully
adapted, may bo useful, and tho patient should  bo kept per-
 fectly at  rest in a dry warm bed.  Theso moans  should  be
 persevered in and not abandoned too hastily, 
PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.
310
  What are the symptoms of asphyxia from tho inhalations
of carbonic acid gas?  When  undiluted it will quickly de-
stroy life, but mixed with atmospheric air it is less sudden,
producing vertigo,  faintings, insensibility, and asphyxia; in
which caso tho face has a tumid and livid appearance; tho
blood vessels  aro turgid, and tho  tongue swollen.  It acts
both by excluding tho atmosphere, and as a poison.
  What is the treatment?  Whon the asphyxia  is incom-
plete, rocovory will soon  take placo by placing the patient
in tho open air, dashing a littlo cold  water upon  him, dry
 frictions, and wine and water.  When perfect,  the cold dash,
 or pouring water  on tho head will  often excite respiratory
movements, frictions with dry flannels or  stimulating sub-
stances, volatile applications to tho nose Sec, aropropor.—
 If these do not quickly excite respiration,  artificial respira-
 tion should bo resorted to.
   What is tho treatment of asphyxia from electricity ?  Tho
 samo as that for asphyxia from carbonic acid, and other nic-
 phitic gasses, cold effusions aro particularly valuable in such
 cases.
   What is the treatment  of asphyxia from cold?  Tho prin-
 cipal means is tho gradual communication of  warmih to  tho
 body; but it  has to be  done with  tho groatest caution, or it
 will  destroy  the  littlo remaining vitality, or produco gan-
 grene.  The  first applications  then should bo cold water or
 snow, thon dry blankets in a room without fire; gentle fric-
 tions, and artificial inflation of tho lungs, unloss respiration
 lakes place.   If.symptoms of life occur, the warmth may bo
 increased, and warm drinks  administered, of balm or sage
 tea, but stronger stimulants should bo avoided.

                         Diarrhoea.

   What  are  tho characteristic symptoms?   Frequent, and
 usually copious liquid  feculent stools, with griping.
   What is the morbid condition  upon which diarrhoea de-
 pends?  An irritated condition of tho mucous mombrano  of
 tho bowels, either from  the action of irritating  substances
 upon it, or from an increase in its irritability, in which  case
 the ordinary secretions  and contents of the canal will pro-
 duco excessive peristaltic action.
    What aro the indications of treatment ?  To romovo every
 source of intestinal irritation; to  allay the morbid irritability
  'I tho mucous membrane of ihc bowels; and to diminish the
  determination of the blood to the intestinal canal. 
320           PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.

                        Cholera.

  What are tho characteristic symptoms?  Frequent, violent
vomiting and  purging, with  severe tormina, and cramps in
the muscles.
  What  aro  tho indications of  treatment J   To  allay  as
quickly as possible the irritability of the stomach and bow-
els, to restore  the action of tho skin and liver, and to deter-
mine the circulation from tho internal to the oxtornal parts.
Energetic  means  should at  onco bo rosortod to  for theso
purposes,  and  opium, calomel, and activo revulsives will
gonerally  fulfil the  indications.

                    Flatulent Colic.

  What condition of tho digestive organs predisposes to this
disease?  A woak, and irritable  state  of them.  Ordinary
articles sometimes, but particularly  substances not easily
digesled, arc mostly the exciting  causes.
  What aro its characteristics?   Pain in tho  stomach and
bowels, sooner or later after eating, occurring in paroxysms,
with short remissions, eructations of wind, and torpid bow-
els.   It may  be distinguished by the relief obtained from
abdominal pressure, the  writhing motions of tho patient,
and the absence of fever.  From bilious  colic by the absonco
of bilious  vomiting; and from colica pictonum by tho hard-
ness and rotraction  of tho abdominal muscles, and tho grad-
ual accossion of tho colic produced by lead.
  What is  tho trcatmont?  When the symptoms are slight,
frictions with  a flannel or a brush, and tho milder carmina-
tives and antispasmodics are all that may bo required. When
more severe, camphor, other,  laudanum, &c. may be neces-
sary; but when the irritating substanco still remains, and
the pains do not abate,  proper evacuants  must be  resorted
to : onictics, if  the offending substanco is  still in the.stomach ;
and cathartics, or laxatives, if it have  passed into the intes-
tines.  Revulsives, such as sinapisms, heat, Sec applied to
tho abdomon aro useful. In convalescence great care should
be taken in regard to diet.
                                 r   ' I
                    Bilious  Colic.\  i    I

  What is bilious colic?  It is a varioty  of colic with manl-
iest derangement of the biliary organs.
  What are the causes?  It depends upon the same remoie
■T 
              PRACTICE OF MEDICINE.           321

causes which produco intermitting and oilier forms of mias-
matic  fcvors;  and generally occurs during the autumnal'
months.
  What are the symptoms?  In the first stages the symp-
toms resemble those in tho forming stages of miasmatic  fe-
vers.   Those are followed by acutepain in the stomach and
bowels, which is very sovere during the exacerbations.  As
tho diseaso  advances  the abdomen becomes  tender to the
touch.  Nausea  and bilious vomiting occur  often at tho
commencement of the disease, tho bowels are torpid, tho
pulse is not much disturbed at first, but bocornes increased
in  fullness, force, and  frequency, as the disease advances,
and there are symptoms of bilious derangement.
  What is the treatment?  The principal indications aro, to
froo the bowols of their irritating contents; to allay the mor-
bid irritability of tho stomach and intestinal tube, and to re-
Btore the healthy secretions of the livor. The first indication
can be accomplished by an emetic, if freo vomiting docs not
exist,  and by cathartics as soon as  the}- can be  brought to
act; but from  the usual irritable condition  of  the stomach,
this cannot at once  be done; calomel, in  small'doses re-
peated, then becomes the most important remedy conjoined
with revulsives, which will generally  allay tho irritability
of tho stomach, and bring the system under its peculiar in-
fluence; which  is favorable to tho operation ol cathartics,
and the restoration of the secretions.   As  a purgative, cas-
tor oil and spirits of turpentine, as soon as tho stomach will
bear them, will bo found  beneficial. Warm bath, fomenta-
 tion,  blood-letting, Se.c  may  be  found  useful during  the
course of treatment, according to the condition of the system.
W 
PART  VII —POISONS.
  What are poisons?   Substances which produco death or
serious injury whon applied in considerable quantities, cith-
er externally, or internally.
  Are poisons similar in thoir action?  No; each ono pro-
duces symptoms peculiar to itself.
  What is tho first great object in the troatment of poisons?
To administer an antidote.
  How many kinds of  antidotes are thore?   Two; one de-
stroys the deleterious qualities of tho poison before its inju-
rious action is developed; and the othor controls the poison-
ous action after it  has  been established.
  What other means are resorted to?  Evacuation  of tho
stomach either by an emotic, or stomach  pump,  when  ta-
ken  internally ; and by excision, or the application of a cup-
ping glass, if appliod externally.

                         Acids.

  What are the symptcms of poisoning by nitric, muriatic,
and sulphuric acids?  Burning  heat in tho mouth, cesopha-
gus,  and stomach, acuto pain, eructations, nausea, hickup,
vomiting, tenderness of abdomen, coldness of surfaco and
extremities, deprossed pulse,  horrible contortions, excessive
thirst, and generally a fatal termination.
  What is the treatment?  Repeated doses of magnesia,
alkalies or their carbonates, and alkaline earths, as antidotes;
mucilaginous drinks, olive, or almond oil in large quanti-
ties, emollient fomentations, and clysters. 
POISONS.
323
                       Alkalies.
  What are tho antidotes?   Vegetable acids, of which com-
mon vinegar is the best; also fixed oils in largo quantities.

                       Antimony.

  By what preparation of antimony is poisoning usually pro-
duced?  The emetic tartar.
  What are tho effects as a poison? A severe metallic taste,
nausea, copious vomiting, hickup, burning  pain in the sto-
mach,  colic, frequent stools and tenesmus, difficult respira-
tion, fainting, small quick pulse, cold skin, loss of sense,
cramps, prostration, and death.
  What is the treatment?   If emesis does not take place
it should be promoted by tickling  the throat,  and diluent
drinks; antidotes should be administered; among which aro
decoction of galls, Poruvian bark, common tea, &c. If the
vomiting  is excessive give laudanum,  and apply revulsives
freely; the consecutivo treatment should be adapted to  tho
condition of tho disease existing.

                        Arsenic.

  What preparation of arsonic is generally used in poison-
in<*?  The arsenious acid,  sometimes called white oxid"^.
  What are the symptoms?  It is a violent poison, whether
appliod internally or externally.  Its  symptoms are an aus-
tere taste, hawking, constriction of the throat, hiccup, nau-
 sea, anxiety, frequent sinkings, pain at the precordia, vomi-
 ting, black foetid stools, frequont irregular pulse, insatiable
 thirst, delirium,  convulsions, loss of fooling,  especially of
 the foot and hands, and death.
   What are tho usual morbid appearances after death?  In-
 flammation of tho mouth, stomach, and intestines; spots re-
 sombling e;chars on the stomach  and duodenum; perfora-
 tions  of their coats;  and the villous coat  of tho stomach  is
 reduced  to tho consistenco of a reddish brown pulp.
   What is the treatment?   Before the antidoto can usually
 bo procured the poison should bo dislodged by an emetic of
 sulphato of zinc or copper, tickling the throat, &c. or by the
 stomach  pump.   Demulcents  sliould  be  frooly given both
 before and after vomiting.   As an antidoto in all cases tor
 tho poisonous compounds  of arsenic, the  hydrated sesquiox-
 ide of iron in a moist or pulpy stato should bo given as soon 
324
POISONS.
as possible in doses of a tablespoonful to an adult, of a des-
ertspoonful to children, every five or ten minutes until ur-
gent symptoms are relieved.  The  after symptoms should
be combated on general principles.
  As the hydrated sesquioxide of iron is the only known
antidote to be relied on in cases of poisoning by arsenic, I
will here give tho formula for its preparation.  Every apoth-
ecary, and  country  physician should  keep  it always on
hand.

              Hydrated Peroxide of Iron.
  R.    Sulphuric acid (67° Baume,) 0 oz. 16 parts.
         Iron wire,                  8 oz. 16   "
         Nitric acid,  (49° Baume,) 5£ oz. 11   "
         Water of ammonia,           q. s.
         Water.                   H gal. 304   "
  Mix the sulphuric acid with the water in a glass vessel;
then  add the iron; and after the effervesconse has ceased,
filter.  Add the nitric acid in divided poitions, and apply
heat so long  as orange colored fumes aro given off.  To
the.heated solution pour  in the water of ammonia until  a
decided excess has been added;  then wash the procipitato
by decantation until tho washings give no precipitate with
nitrate of baryta.   The water  is then to be drawn off until
just enough remains to givo tho consistence of thick cream.
It should then be kept in bottles of convenient sizo for use,
and given as above whon required.
                       Barytes.
  What preparations of baryta are poisonous?   Tho carbo-
nate, muriate, and nitrate.
  What are the symptoms produced by largo doses?   Vio-
lent vomiting, purging, and other dangerous symptoms
  What is tho treatment?  Dilute sulphuric  acid, and the
soluble sulphates are antidotes, converting it into an insolu-
ble sulphate of baryta. Emetics should also be given.
                        CorrER.
  What are tho poisonous preparations of copper?  The ace-
tate and sulphate.  Poisoning, from coppor,  usually occurs
from the careless  use of culinary vessels, or mineral wator
fountains.
  What are the symptoms of poisoning by the salts of cop-
per?  A  coppery  taste, pain in tho head, nausea, vomiting,
catharsis, colic, cramp, convulsions, insensibility, and death. 
POISONS.
3?o
  What is tho treatment?  Albumen, in  the form of whito
of eggs, copious draughts of warm milk,  and  brown sugar,
or molasses aro tho host antidotes. Iron filings are also used.
                         Gold.
  What is tho poisonous preparation of gold ?   The nitro-
muriate.
  What is tho antidote?  Sulphato of iron which precipi-
tates tho  gold; mucilaginous drinks should  also be  freely
used.
                         Lead.
  What nro tho poisonous preparations of lead  in common
use?  Tho carbonate and acetate.
  What is tho most common form of tho effects of poisoning
by lead?  Colica pictonum.
  What is tho  best prophylactic?  Tho constant use of di-
lute sulphuric acid in some form or othor.
  What is  tho proper antidote for the preparations of lead?
Tho soluble sulphates, as magnesia or soda, and the phos-
phate of soda.  Einesis should also be produced  by sulphate
of zinc.
                       Mercury.
  What aro tho poisonous preparations?   Thoy are all, but
corrosivo sublimate in particular.
  What aro the symptoms of poisoning by corrosivo subli-
mato?  It  produces an intolerable  astringent  taste, con-
striction  ot the gullet, nausea, vomiting,  burning pain,
diarrhoea, and a flushed swollen face
  What is tho treatment?   Albumen of  eggs, or gluton in
iho form of unboiled wheat  flour pasto, should be copiously
swallowed as an antidoto and the stomach evacuated cither
by an emetic or tho stomach pump.   If neither albumen nor
gluton iB at  hand, milk should be drank freely.  .
  'Phe treatment for its eflects should bo  conducted on gen-
oral principles for tho reduction of inflammation, &-c.
                         Nitke.
  What are tho symptoms produced  by a poisonous""dose of
nitre? Heat and pain in tho stomach, vomiting  and purging
of blood, prostration, convulsions, and death.
  What i.s the treatment I  Its speedy removal by an emetic
or stomach  tube, tho administration of demulcent  drink.,
laudanum, cordials, Av.  Thero is no known antidote. 
?.2G                   POISONS

                     Oxalic  Acid.

  What aro tho symptoms  produced?  It produces  death
suddenly and certainly, in largo dosos.
  When  concentrated it  produces exquisite pain, followed
by violent efforts to vomit, then  sudden dullness, languor,
debility, and finally death, without a struggle.  When dilu-
ted largely it  is  neither corrosivo or very irritating, but
causes death by its action on tho brain, spinal  marrow and
heart.
  What  is  the  treatment?  Remedies should bo applied
promptly. Tho antidotes are, chalk or magnesia, mixed with
water and  administered  in  large quantities.  If the  anti-
dotes aro not at hand, tho stomach should  be speodily evac-
uated  by the  usual  means.  Avoid warm water and  tho
alkalies.
                        Silver.
  What preparation of silver is  most likely to bo usod as
a poison?  The nitrate.
  What aro tho  symptoms?   The usual  effects of  tho cor-
rosive poisons.
  What is the treatment?  Common salt is the proper anti-
dote.   Mucilaginous drinks  sliould  be freely given so as to
produce  vomiting.  Consecutive inflammations should  be
treated according  to the indications.
                         Tin.
  What aro tho proper antidotes for the salts of tin?  Eggs
or milk in large  quantities.
                         Zinc.
What is tho remedy for an over dose of the sulphato of zinc ?
Warm water, emolient drinks, milk, and albumen.
                      Narcotics.
  What is the genoral troatmont applicable where narco-
tics havo been swallowed?  Active emetics, of  which sul-
phate of  zinc in large doses stands first, the stomach pump
and tube should also bo  used  to wash out this organ, after
which coffee, vegetable acids, &e, are proper.  There  ore
no  antidotes to be  absolutely relied on.
                         Opium.
  What are tho  symptoms of poisoning by opium and its
proximates?  Tho pulse is reduced in frequency but not in 
                       POISi iN..'         '            327

force, muscular  strength  is  diminished, thero is languor,
drowsiness, apoplectic  sleep, stertor, suffusion of counte-
nance,  insensibility,  coma,  full, slow pulso,  followed by
cold clammy skin, cold extremities,  pallid  countenance,
thread liko pulse, interrupted gasping respiration, and death,
unloss relief is afforded.
  What is  tho treatment?   Evacuation of tho stomach by
iho pump, or an  active emetic, of which sulphate of zinc is
tho best, and its  action should  be  promoted  by the usual
moans.  After tho stomach has been evacuated, dilute vin-
egar, stimulants, sinapisms, and frictions, may be called for.
  The patient should  bo bled if necessary, kept roused aa
much  as possible by cold to the  head, and  by the action
of an electric or electro-magnetic machine, or flagellation;
and artificial respiration should  also be kept up, until tho
system can  rally.—An infusion of  galls has  been consid-
ered as an antidote, but there is no course to bo relied  on
excepting tho above.
                  Hydrocyanic Acin.
   What are the symptoms in poisoning by it? It is so rapid
in its action that it is seldom treated by a physician. Whon
it is not at once fatal,  the symptoms are suddon loss of sense,
trismus, difficult and  rattling respiration, coldness of tho ex-
tremities, a smell of  bitter almonds  proceeding  from the
mouth, small pulso, swelling of  the neck, immobility of the
pupils, somctimos contracted, and at othors dilated, convul-
sions, <SfC.
   What is tho treatment?  The antidotes are chlorine wator,
ammonia,  cold effusion, and  artificial respiration.
              Buckeye, (Esculus  Ohioensis.])
   What is its antidoto?  Chlorine, iodine, and bromine.
                  Chlorine, (gaseous.)
   What is tho antidoto?   Inhale ammonia cautiously.
                        Digitalis.
   What aro the. symptoms  of a poisonous dose?  Nausea
 and vomiting, stupor or delirium,  cold sweats, prostration,
 hiccup, convulsions,  and syncope.
   What is tho  treatment?   Evacuation of the stomach as
 speedily as  possible, and  counteract  its  effects  by stimu-
 lants, as brandy, ammonia, &c.   Infusion  of yellow bark is
 considered as its antidoto. 
328                   ruicsiUN^.
                    IPECACUANHA.
  What is tho proper treatment for an over dose ?  Chlorine,
iodino, and bromine,  aro  considered  as antidotes, but the
general treatment should be that which is indicated by the
general symptoms.
                        Jalap.
  What is  tho treatmont?  Antidotes, samo as preceding,
general treatment according to tho symptoms.
                    Strammonium.
  What aro tho symptoms when taken in a poisonous dose ?
Cardialgia, thirst, nausea and vomiting, sense of strangula-
tion, anxiety, and faintness, defect or loss of vision, dilata-
tion of the pupils, vertigo, delirium, tremors, palsy, stupor,
convulsions, and sometime death.
  What is the  propor treatmont?  Evacuation of tho stom-
ach.   Antidotes, same as tho preceding.
                     Nux  Vomica.
  What are its poisonous symptoms?  Difficult and  con-
fined breathing, retching to vomit, tremors, spasms, convul-
sions, and death, sometimes takes place
  What is tho  treatment?  Antidotes same as preceding.—
Evacuation of  tho stomach, and genoral treatment accord-
ing to symptoms.
                     Phosphorus.
  What are the symptoms of poisoning by phosphorus?
The  principal  one is violent  pain  and irritation  of  tho
stomach.
  What is tho  treatment?  The stomach should bo ovacua-
tcd, and magnesia  and wator freely givon as an  antidoto,
both before and after vomiting.
                  Stings of Insects.
  What is tho  prpper remedy?  Wash in water of ammonia.
        Bites of Serpents'and Rabid  Animals.
  What is the  remedy?  Cut out the part if  it can  bo  dono
early, apply a ligature, and cup tho wound.

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