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aJ A' TEMPORAL- 
xORBICULARIS 
PALPEBRARUM 
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^TRACHEA 
TRAPEZIUS , THE 
AMERICAN CYCLOP EDIA 
OF 
Domestic Medicine 
AND 
HOUSEHOLD SURGERY. 
A RELIABLE GUIDE FOR EVERY FAMILY. 
CONTAINING FULL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF THE HUMAN BODY J ACCOUNTS OF THE NUMEROUS 
DISEASES TO WHICH MAN IS SUBJECT-THEIR CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, TREATMENT AND PREVENTION- 
WITH PLAIN DIRECTIONS HOW TO ACT IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES OF 
EVERY KIND; ALSO, FULL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT ARTICLES 
USED IN MEDICINE, AND EXPLANATIONS OF MEDICAL AND 
SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 
WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
EDITED BY 
SAMUEL PAYNE FORD, M. D., 
GRADUATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO, ONT., CANADA, AND OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BUFFALO N. Y. • 
MEMBER OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS, ONT., AND 
LATE ACTING ASSISTANT SURGEON, U. S. ARMY. 
WITH AN APPENDIX BY 
PAAREN, M.D., V. S. 
■Cdl nplete in One Vol. (Three Parts). 
} PART I. A-COCOA. 
E. P. KINGSLEY & CO., CHICAGO, ILL. 
J. HUGILL, Cincinnati, 0. J. R. SEVERNS, Atlanta, Ga. 
1880. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1880, by E. P. KINGSLEY, in the office of the Librarian 
of Congress, at Washington. 
ALL BIGHTS BESEBVED. 
SKEEN & STUART, 
PRINTERS, 
CHICAGO. 
BLOMGREN BROS. & OO^ 
ELECTROTYPERS, 
CHICAGO. PREFACE. 
Although very great progress has been made during the last two 
decades in disseminating knowledge among the people of this conti- 
nent, it is beyond dispute that the most lamentable ignorance still 
prevails in many quarters in regard to the laws which regulate health, 
and the science which treats of the prevention and cure of disease. 
Much of the sickness and misery which almost continually linger around 
so many of our American homes, might be avoided by a little more sen- 
sible attention to sanitary requirements. Many valuable lives are lost 
to the community every year by want of cleanliness, insufficient ventila- 
tion, deficient water supply, impure or improperly-cooked food, and the 
total neglect of those general principles which lie at the very foundation 
of human life and health. The idea which once prevailed, that a knowl- 
edge of these subjects should be monopolized by the medical profession 
and dealt out to the people as it was paid for, or as an act of charity, is one 
not worthy of a moment's consideration. There are a thousand reasons 
why a fair acquaintance with the science of Medicine and the philosophy 
of cure and prevention should be acquired by all, and it is a gratifying 
fact that already in our common schools, as W'ell as in our higher institu- 
tions of learning, physiology and hygiene are being taught as an indispen- 
sable branch of the education of every child in the land. The spreading 
abroad of knowledge of this kind, instead of engendering presumption 
in the treatment of serious forms of illness, and endangering life, will 
enable people more intelligently to state their case to their physicians, 
and will be the best safeguard against the unblushing quackery which 
to-day disgraces our country. 
It is not intended, in any way, by the publication of this work to 
supersede the regular physician. Cases, however, are constantly occur- 
ring, in which a little intelligent nursing, and the application of some IV 
PREFACE. 
simple remedy in the outset, will serve to ward off a serious attack of 
illness, and in which a knowledge of those symptoms which indicate 
danger, will result in professional assistance being sought and secured 
before it is too late. Alarming and dangerous accidents frequently 
occur at such a distance from proper medical or surgical aid, that unless 
some one happens to be present with presence of mind to act, and 
knowledge how to act in cases of emergency, valuable life is forfeited 
which might have been saved. To meet these every-day requirements 
of our people, and to furnish them at as cheap a rate as possible, con- 
sistent with usefulness, with a clear, concise and readable account of 
popular sanitary science, domestic practice and household surgery, is the 
object of the publishers in the production of this work. In its prepara- 
tion the standard works and medical and surgical journals of both 
Great Britain and America have been freely consulted, and in many 
cases, new ideas and much excellent matter have been drawn from 
them. 
The articles have all been arranged alphabetically, in order that the 
unprofessional reader may the sooner meet with the information desired, 
while numerous cross-references will enable him to peruse connectedly 
all the different articles relative to any particular subject. 
In describing diseases, topical headings have been made use of, so 
that each subject may be presented in the clearest and most intelligent 
manner. 
In the treatment of diseases, the doses given in all cases, where not 
otherwise stated, are those for an adult, and they may be diminished 
to suit the age by consulting the table found under the article Dose. 
The weights and measures used are those prescribed by the United 
States Pharmacopoeia, and described under the article Weights and 
Measures, but an account will also be found under the heading Metric 
System of the French method, which is now coming into vogue among 
many prominent physicians and druggists, and will doubtless before 
many years be the standard method of weights and measures on this 
continent. 
The articles of the materia medica have, in most instances, been 
inserted under their scientific and botanical names, with references from 
their simpler and more commonly used appellations. This has been PREFACE. 
V 
done for the purpose of educating the reader, and accustoming him to 
the use of the scientific terms which are now very frequently met with 
in newspaper and magazine articles. 
In the pronunciations throughout this work, we have only used 
marked letters where the sounds of the vowels could not be made 
apparent without the use of characters; and this has rarely occurred 
excepting with the letter a. 
The long sound of each of the vowels marked thus, a, e, i, d, it, is 
termed its alphabetic or name sound, from the fact that it is the sound 
that is heard in naming the letter. We have rarely had occasion to 
mark this sound. 
The Italian or grave sound of a is marked thus, a-as in the pro- 
nunciation of almond. (See Almond Emulsion.) 
The slight, indistinct, or obscure sound of the vowel is marked thus, 
a-as in the pronunciation of mental. (See Mental Exercise.) 
The letter a at the end of a w'ord, marked with a dot under it, 
approaches the Italian sound of a in father, for example, the pronuncia- 
tion of Cinchona, which see. 
All vowels marked with the dot underneath, occur only in unaccented 
syllables. 
All vowels occurring in the pronunciations contained in this work, 
that are not marked, have distinct sounds, which are apparent inde- 
pendently of characters. THE AMERICAN CYCLOPEDIA 
OF 
DOMESTIC MEDICINE 
AND 
HOUSEHOLD SURGERY. 
A. 1. [Gr. a, privative], is a prefix of numerous medical terms, de- 
noting the absence or privation of anything; as aphonia, loss of voice; 
anodyne, without pain; asphyxia, loss of pulse. When the word to 
which it is prefixed commences with a vowel, v or n is inserted: thus, 
anorexia, want of appetite. 
2. a. I a, [ava, ana, of each], used in prescriptions after two or 
more ingredients have been mentioned, denotes that the specified quan- 
tity of each ingredient should be taken. 
3. a a.A, a contraction of amalgama, an amalgam, a mixture of 
mercury with another metal. 
ABBREVIATION, ab-bre-^e-d-shun [abbreviatio, onis, /I], certain 
abbreviations, consisting of signs, letters or parts of words; are used in 
medical formulae and prescriptions, for the sake of expedition: thus, 
b signifies recipe, take. (See Prescription.) 
ABDOMEN, ab-dd-men [Lat. abdo, I hide], the abdomen or belly, 
which is the largest cavity of the body, is separated from the chest or 
upper part by the diaphragm, and is bounded below by the pelvic bones. 
The pelvic bones also form a cavity, called the pelvis. Posteriorly the 
abdomen is supported and protected by the spine, and is enclosed by the 
short ribs and abdominal muscles. To facilitate description, medically, 
the abdomen may be divided by imaginary, horizontal and vertical lines. 
The horizontal lines drawn round the abdomen, separate it into three 
zones, which, by means of the vertical lines, are divided into nine anterior 
regions, namely : 1, Epigastric ; 2, umbilical; 3, hypogastric ; 4 and 5, 8 
ABDOMEN. 
right and left hypochondriac ; 6 and 7, right and left iliac; 8 and 9, 
right and left inguinal. In the upper zone lies the liver, reaching from 
under the right ribs across to the left; the small end of the stomach is 
located in the epigastric, and the large end in the left hypochondriac 
region, and in contact with the spleen or milt. The pancreas, or sweet 
bread, lies behind the stomach. The middle zone contains the large 
bowel, the omentum, or caul, a part of the small intestines, and posteri- 
orly, close to the spine, the kidneys. The inferior zone also contains, 
centrally, a portion of the small intestines ; laterally, the extremities of 
the large intestines or colon, and 
when it is distended, the superior 
portion of the bladder. All these 
parts, or viscera, are supported and 
covered by a smooth, glistening, moist 
membrane, the peritoneum, which is 
continued over the parts within the 
cavity, bounded by the pelvic bones. 
These are, more particularly the blad- 
der and terminal extremity of the 
bowels, named the rectum, and in 
the female, the womb and its append- 
ages. The bladder and the womb, 
when distended, rise from their own 
proper cavity into the cavity of the 
abdomen. The viscera of the abdo- 
men are divided into solid and hol- 
low ; the liver is an example of the 
solid; the intestines and bladder 
of the hollow. These give different 
sounds, when the covering of the 
abdomen, under which they lie, is 
slightly struck with the finger. This 
is a fact of much importance to the 
physician in his examination of this cavity. The contents of the 
abdomen change their position considerably according to posture. One 
of the most important accidents to which this cavity is liable, is protru- 
sion of a part of its contents through its walls, constituting rupture, or 
hernia. Accidental wounds penetrating the cavity of the belly, are 
generally fatal, and if they penetrate any of the viscera, are almost 
necessarily so. The diseases to which the contents of the abdomen are 
subject will be noticed under their respective heads. (See Stomach, 
Liver, Diaphragm, Peritoneum, Pelvis, Rupture.) 
In this view of the abdomen, d is the gall- 
bladder, lying on the under side of the liver, the 
dark mass to which it is attached; h is the coron- 
ary artery, which supplies the stomach, a, b, C, 
with blood. The curve of the stomach is well 
shown, e e, the arteries which supply the caul, 
marked i i, which falls down from the front of the 
stomach, over the intestines, like an apron; g, a 
vessel of the liver. The pancreas is behind the 
stomach. ABDUCTOR MUSCLES-ABLUTION 
9 
ABDUCTOR MUSCLES, ab-duk-tor, those muscles which draw 
one part of the body from another. They are the antagonists of the 
adductor. (See Adductor Muscles.) 
ABERRATION, ab-er-rd-skun [Lat. aberro^ to wander from]. 1. 
The passage of a fluid in the living body into vessels not destined to 
receive it, as of red blood into the capillaries. 2. The determination of 
a fluid to a part different from that to which it is ordinarily directed, as 
in vicarious hemorrhage. 3. Alienation of the mind, which is its most 
usual acceptation. 
ABLEPSY, ab'-lep-se [Lat. ablepsia\ want of sight; blindness. 
ABLUENT MEDICINES, ad-lu-ent, a term formerly applied to 
those medicines used for purifying the blood. It has now fallen into 
disuse. 
ABLUTION, abdu'-skun [Lat. abluo, I wash away]. The term ablu- 
tion usually denotes the removal of foreign matter from any substance 
by washing. It is more particularly applied to the washing of the body, 
or any portion of it, with water or other fluids. Washing the body 
regularly, is, happily in this country at least, becoming more common; 
but it is far from being a general habit as it should, particularly among 
the laboring classes, who stand the most in need of it. It is undoubt- 
edly true that many go from January to December without thinking it 
necessary to bathe more than the face or hands. The body is constantly 
giving out through the skin, gaseous, saline, and greasy matters, which is 
essential for the health of the body. These, if not frequently removed 
by washing, accumulate on the surface of the skin, shut up the pores, 
and prevent them from performing their proper functions. Of course, 
if the skin is caked over with perspiration and dirt, either its own, or 
the dust to which many are exposed in the performance of their employ- 
ments, it cannot possibly perform its functions properly. The result of 
neglect is, that much is retained in the system which ought not to be 
there; an additional load of duty is thrown upon other excreting organs, 
as the liver and kidneys, and if they have not the power to compensate 
for man's own carelessness, languor, low spirits, headaches, local accu- 
mulations of blood, gout, gravel, and many other diseases are the result. 
Fortunately, complete neglect cannot entirely stop the skin's functions, 
otherwise death itself must result. For the purpose of cleansing the 
skin, soft water ought to be used, if possible, with soap, good brown 
soap being the most effectual. A thorough purification of the entire 
surface of the body is necessary, at least once a week, for the proper 
preservation of the health. Along with this, washing over the surface 
with simple water, every night or morning, using the bare hands, or a 
sponge, followed by vigorous rubbing with a very rough towel, and if 10 
ABL UT10N-ABORTION 
convenient, with a flesh brush also, will preserve a healthy state of the 
skin. The robust, if they wash in the morning, should do so with cold 
water, immediately on rising, while heat is abundant; but the depression 
and subtraction of animal heat which this occasions, cannot be sustained 
by delicate persons, as it leaves them chilled, languid, and with impaired 
digestion and heartburn. Such persons ought to try the water slightly 
warmed, or content themselves with washing only a portion of the skin 
each morning. If even this cannot be borne, dry friction with a rough 
towel, hair-glove, or flesh brush, may be substituted. After bathing or 
washing, it is always important to rub the surface thoroughly with a 
towel, till a warm glow is produced. The towel may be followed by 
hair-glove or flesh brush to advantage. Water slightly warmed is always 
preferable for washing at night. The feet require to be washed very 
frequently. It is to be wondered at, how otherwise respectable people, 
are so insensible on this point. A large proportion of our people cannot 
command the use of baths for the purposes of ablution, but any person 
who can command water and a towel, need not dispense with the luxury. 
Frequent and thorough ablution is most requisite for the aged, and is 
often shamefully neglected by those who have the care of old people, 
and is visited upon them in querulousness, and troublesome bodily ail- 
ments, which attention to the duty would have prevented. It should be 
added, that in persons of a gouty habit, the use of the cold bath in the 
morning is injurious, unless followed by active exercise, which effectually 
restores the excretory functions of the skin. Such persons should use 
water slightly warmed if they bathe in the morning, or bathe later in the 
day with cold water. (See Baths, Skin, Children.) 
ABNORMAL, ab-nor'-mql [Lat. ab^ from, norma, a rule], irregular; 
not symmetrical, or according to rule. 
ABORTION, arbor'-shun [Lat. abortid}, expulsion of the foetus 
from the womb previous to the sixth month of pregnancy, is called 
abortion. A birth after the sixth, and before the ninth month, is known 
as a premature labor. It is more liable to occur at the time of each 
month corresponding to the menstrual period than during the interval. 
It is always an untoward event, and likely to exercise an unfavorable 
influence on the patient's health. The expulsive action of the womb may 
be excited at any time, but is more likely to take place before the third 
month, owing to the slight connection between the womb and the ovum. 
Causes.-These may be either maternal or foetal. Among the former 
may be mentioned, a debilitated condition of the system, uterine weak- 
ness, the presence of certain diseases, as leucorrhoea or the whites, 
typhus fever, scarlatina, small-pox, measles, etc. The action of certain 
irritating medicines, as aloes, ergot, etc., suckling the child too long, AB OPTION-AB OPT IVES. 
11 
blows, falls, straining, severe coughing, excessive exertion and mental 
emotion caused by anger, sorrow, joy, good or bad news suddenly told, 
etc. In reference to the foetal causes, it may be stated, that anything 
that compromises the life of the child will produce abortion. Disease 
of the placenta or after-birth, loss of blood, contagion communicated 
from the mother to the child, insufficient nutrition of the foetus, are all 
liable to produce miscarriage. 
Symptoms.-General uneasiness, languor, and weariness, pain in the 
back and limbs, succeeded after the lapse of time, by labor pains of more 
or less intensity, and a discharge of blood or mucus from the vagina. 
The stomach often becomes irritable, the skin hot, and the pulse 
increased in frequency. The tumor in the lower part of the abdomen 
will be found to be tense, and larger than the period of pregnancy would 
warrant. These symptoms, unless the trouble is arrested by proper 
treatment, continue to increase in intensity until the ovum is discharged. 
Treatment.-The first indication is to avert, if possible, the disaster. 
If the hemorrhage be very slight, and the pains be trifling, this may 
often be successfully accomplished. The patient should recline on a 
hard bed, lightly covered with clothes, in a cool room ; stimulants of 
every kind must be avoided, and all causes of both mental and physical 
irritation must be removed. An attempt must be made to suspend the 
pain by the administration of opium, in full doses, 25 drops of laudanum 
repeated in two hours if necessary. Cold cloths may be applied to the 
external organs, and cold water be injected into the rectum. The follow- 
ing mixture will frequently arrest the flowing : Tincture of Indian hemp, 
4 drops every two or three hours in water. If these efforts fail to arrest 
the action of the womb, the case must be treated a « a regular confine- 
ment, and proper medical aid be solicited at once. 
Preventive Treatment.-The state of the stomach and bowels should 
be carefully regulated, the diet be light and nutritious, and gentle 
exercise be taken in the open air, but not so as to occasion fatigue. Cold 
sponging has proved highly beneficial, applied gently, so as not to pro- 
duce too great a shock. Rest, more or less absolute, is one of the most 
powerful preventive measures we possess. If the female has been in 
the habit of miscarrying, as the same period approaches again, the 
utmost caution must be exercised, all causes of irritation be avoided, and 
complete relaxation from labor indulged in until the time passes by. 
Both during the time, and after miscarriage, the general health must be 
supported by strong animal broths, fresh eggs, and meat, and if there 
be great debility, wine or malt liquor may be requisite. 
ABORTIVES, medicines supposed to have the power of exciting 
abortion. 12 
ABRASION-ABSCESS. 
ABRASION, ab-rd-zhv/n, [Lat. abrado, to scrape off], a superficial 
lesion of the skin ; a trifling but often painful accident, and where the 
part is subject to the action of poisonous or irritating substances, it may- 
be a dangerous one. The cuticle is soon restored, but in the meantime 
it is necessary to provide a substitute. Common adhesive plaster, so 
frequently employed for this purpose, is much too irritating, and some- 
times causes ulceration. Court plaster is much better, but is not suit- 
able for large surfaces. Collodion is another excellent application for 
this form of injury. A mixture of one part of collodion with two parts 
of castor-oil, applied with a camel's hair brush, forms a very smooth, 
elastic covering. It produces some smarting, which in a few minutes 
passes off. The principle in the treatment of an abrasion, is to protect 
the sensitive true skin with a light, dry, unirritating application, until 
nature restores the proper covering. 
ABSCESS, ab'-sess [Lat. abscedo, to separate from], a circumscribed 
cavity in any of the tissues of the body, of abnormal formation, con- 
taining pus. (See Pus.) An abscess may be either superficial or deep, 
acute or chronic, common or specific. It is said to be superficial when 
it is immediately beneath the integument, or among the superficial 
muscles, and deep, when it is in some internal organ, in the substance 
of a bone, or bound down among the deep muscles by a large quantity 
of tissue. The terms, acute and chronic, have reference to the time 
occupied in the formation of an abscess ; a common abscess is the result 
of ordinary inflammation, while a specific abscess is the result of some 
specific poison, as syphilis, glanders, or small-pox. For purposes of 
treatment, abscesses may be divided into phlegmonous, scrofulous, and 
metastatic or multiple: The first being incident to all persons; the 
second only to those of a strumous taint; while the third term is used 
to designate those collections of purulent matter, which are consequent 
upon injuries, operations and diseases. 
1. Phlegmonous Abscess.-Buns its course with unusual rapidity. 
May be found in any part of the body, and at any time of life, and may 
exist simultaneously in different parts of the body. 
Causes.-Its immediate cause is obstructed circulation of the blood 
and consequent pressure upon the nerves of the affected structures. It 
is sometimes dependent upon some external injury, at other times upon 
constitutional cause, as derangement of the digestive organs, or the sup- 
pression of some important secretion, as that of the liver, kidney or 
womb. 
Symptoms.-When open to inspection, the part is found to be red, 
hot, tender, and throbbing in unison with the heart. In the majority of 
cases the system sympathizes with the local trouble, and, even when the ABSCESS. 
13 
abscess is of trivial size, the patient will be seized with chills, alternating 
with flushes of heat, and followed by copious sweats. When the case is 
severe, there will be high constitutional excitement. The countenance 
will be flushed, the eye suffused. The pulse will be full and frequent, 
the skin hot and dry, the urine scanty and high-colored, and great thirst 
and restlessness. Delirium may be present, and last until the part is 
relieved. When pus is fully formed, both local and constitutional symp- 
toms usually abate, and the patient enjoys tranquil sleep. Pointing is a 
symptom of importance in any abscessf It is most conspicuous where 
there is most discoloration of the skin ; looks livid and dusky, and feels 
thin, as if it were ready to give way. Fluctuation is another symptom 
of great importance. It is discovered by alternate pressure with the 
hands or fingers resting upon opposite sides of the abscess. As the one 
hand or finger sinks in, the other is elevated, and when this takes place, 
there is no doubt about the presence of some kind of fluid. The nature 
of the fluid may always be determined by inserting an exploring needle. 
The affections most likely to be confounded with abscess are aneurism 
and hernia. 
Treatment.-As soon as suspected, frequent fomentation with hot 
water, and the prompt administration of a cooling laxative, as epsom or 
rochelle salts, may succeed in preventing its formation. When the 
symptoms indicate with tolerable certainty the presence of matter, 
warm, soft poultices-linseed or bread and water-must be continually 
applied, having as much regard to ease as possible. The practice so 
common, of applying irritating applications, such as soap and sugar, 
shoemakers' wax, honey, etc., for the purpose of breaking the abscess, 
should never be indulged in. If the matter is not discharged naturally, 
when pointing and fluctuation indicate that the abscess is fully formed, 
resort must be had to the lancet, but as this can only be safely done by 
one possessed of anatomical knowfledge, the unprofessional should con- 
tent themselves with simply palliative measures, and at the proper time 
seek the aid of a physician. 
2. Scrofulous Abscess.-It is often called a chronic abscess on 
account of its tardy development, and the term cold is frequently used 
to designate it on account of the absence of inflammatory symptoms. It 
is never met with except in the scrofulous constitution. Weeks and 
months sometimes elapse before it acquires any considerable bidk. There 
is neither heat nor redness of skin, the surface being cold and blanched, 
and feeling and looking as if there were great deficiency in the circula- 
tion. Pain is almost entirely absent. The general health slowly and 
almost imperceptibly declines, the countenance becomes pale and sallow, 
and there is an entire absence of those inflammatory symptoms which 14 
ABSCESS. 
mark the former variety. On account of its passive character, its pres- 
ence is frequently overlooked until great mischief has been done. The 
matter of the scrofulous abscess is generally of a whitish or yellowish 
cast, slightly inclining to greenish ; of the consistence of thin syrup, 
and intermixed with particles very much like pieces of soft boiled rice. 
Treatment.-The treatment is essentially different from that of the 
former variety. The system does not tolerate energetic interference. 
When the quantity of matter is small, its removal is frequently effected 
by absorption, aided by internal and external remedies. The following 
prescription may advantageously be used under such circumstances : 
Take of Iodide of potassium One dram. 
Infusion of Colombo One pint.-Mix. 
A tablespoonful to be taken four times during the twenty-four hours. 
When general debility exists, use the following combination : 
Take of Sulphate of quinine Twenty grains. 
Tincture of iron Half an ounce. 
Pure water Half a pint.-Mix. 
A large tablespoonful before each meal and at bed-time. Or the fol- 
lowing : 
Take of Citrate of iron and quinine. One dram. 
Pure water Half a pint.-Mix. 
A large tablespoonful before each meal. At the same time the following 
may be applied locally, with a feather or a camel's hair brush, twice a 
day: 
Tincture of iodine. 
Rectified spirits. 
Of each one ounce.-Mix. 
The evacuation of the purulent matter at the proper time, is of great 
importance, but caution is necessary, lest air be introduced into the 
cavity, a circumstance likely to be followed by the most disastrous con- 
sequences. After the abscess has been opened, the best local applica- 
tions are emollient poultices, and when the matter has thoroughly drained 
out, tincture of iodine, gum ammonia, soap, compound galbanum, or 
iodine plaster, care being taken always to leave an opening for the dis- 
charge of matter. Whatever mode of treatment is adopted, care mus 
be taken to sustain the system by tonics, and to allay pain by anodynes. 
3. Multiple Abscess. (See Pyemia). 
Causes.-The causes are numerous and diversified. Loss of blood, 
depression of the vital powers, and all such as are productive of great 
shock to the system. It supervenes upon severe injuries, especially of 
the head, compound fractures of the larger limbs, gunshot wounds and 
capital operations. It frequently follows severe cases of erysipelas, car- ABSCESS. 
15 
buncle, small-pox, typhus fever and scarlatina. Lying-in females are 
particularly obnoxious to attacks of this form of abscess. No period of 
life is exempt from it. It has been known to attack infants a few weeks 
old. Wounds of the large veins, or operations involving this class of 
blood-vessels, are very apt to be followed by abscess of this form. Im- 
pure air, unwholesome food and imperfect drainage are fruitful causes of 
this disorder. 
Symptoms.-1The patient is restless and ill at ease, face pale and 
sallow, impaired appetite, deranged secretions, cheek flushed, pulse irri- 
table and frequent, violent chills, lasting from fifteen minutes to two 
hours, and followed first by violent reaction and then by profuse sweats. 
The tongue is dry and clammy, thirst urgent, bowels irregular, stomach 
very irritable, urine high-colored and scanty, extremities cold, and as 
the disease advances the symptoms all assume more or less of a typhoid 
character, death frequently supervening at the expiration of a week or 
ten days. As many as one hundred of these multiple abscesses have 
been found in one individual after death. The matter found in them is 
generally of a dirty grayish or drab color, in old cases mixed with dark 
blood and flakes of fibrin. 
Treatment.-The first indication is, as far as possible, to remove the 
exciting cause; the second, to support the system so as to enable it to 
throw off the poisonous influence. The first indication may be fulfilled, 
in part, by paying great attention to the dressing and the position of the 
part, the former being changed almost incessantly, and the latter 
arranged so as to favor the escape of the secretions. Lotions containing 
chlorinate of lime and carbolic acid, diluted so as not to irritate, are ser- 
viceable, and the dressings should be sprinkled with chloride of lime in 
quantities sufficient to allay fetor, while the air in the apartment should be 
frequently renewed by opening the doors and windows. The second indica- 
tion may be accomplished by the use of tonics and stimulants: wine, 
brandy, ammonia, quinine and iron, with concentrated animal broths per- 
sistently administered at short intervals. Pain must be allayed and sleep 
induced by strong opiates; morphia in full doses being the best form for 
administration in these cases. The recurrence of the chills may be best 
combated by strong doses of quinine. The following may be advan- 
tageously given: 
Take of Sulphate of quinine Two drams. 
Dilute sulphuric acid Two drams. 
Pure water Half a pint.-Mix. 
A large tablespoonful to be given every four hours. The irritability of 
the stomach may be controlled by mustard blisters externally, and the 
internal administration of ice and aromatic spirit of ammonia in dram 16 
ABSCESS- ABSORBENTS. 
doses every two or three hours. Throughout the whole case the utmost 
attention must be paid to cleanliness; the bed-clothes and the patient's 
garments should be frequently changed, his body sponged with salt and 
water, and the apartment be kept thoroughly ventilated. Under the 
most favorable circumstances the complete recovery will be exceedingly 
tardy, and the greatest care must be exercised in regard to subsequent 
exposure of irregularity of diet for a long period of time. 
ABSCISSION, ab-sizK-un [Lat. abscindo., to cut off], the cutting 
away of some superfluous part. The premature termination of a disease. 
ABSINTHE, ab-sin-the [Gr. a, without, wa^psinthos^ pleasure], the 
name given to an intoxicating drink much used in France, Algiers, etc. 
It is made by infusing in concentrated alcohol the ends of wormwood 
(somnutes d' absinthe)-from which the liquor takes its name-angelica 
root, aniseed, calamus, dittany seeds, and common marjoram. The 
color is improved by the addition of indigo, turmeric, juice of hyssop 
and nettles. The consumption of this pernicious, pale-green liquid, has 
increased to an enormous extent in France of late years. (See Absin- 
thism. ) 
ABSINTHINE, ab-sin-thene [Gr. a, without, and psinthos, pleasure], 
the bitter principle of wormwood, which, when pure, occurs as a yellowish 
powder, slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, and less so in 
ether. It is used sometimes as a stomachic in dyspepsia, and as a 
remedy against worms. 
ABSINTHISM, ad-simthizm^ this name is given to the effect pro- 
duced by the continued use of absinthe. The first effect is a species of 
cerebral excitement, which is said to be rather agreeable. The intoxi- 
cation comes on rapidly; the head swims, .and the experience is much 
the same as by poisoning with a narcotic. The excitement the liquor 
produces diminishes daily in intensity, and each day an augmentation of 
the dose is necessary. (See Absinthe.) 
ABSINTHIUM. (See Artemisia, Santonine.) 
ABSORBENTS, ab-sorb'-ents [Lat. absorbeo^ I suck up], a term used 
in Anatomy to designate small vessels which imbibe fluids that come in 
contact with them, and carry them into the blood. They are called 
lacteals, or lymphatics, according to the nature of the fluid they convey. 
The lacteal absorbents take up the nutritive portion of the food named 
chyle, and uniting in one common trunk which ascends in front of the 
spine, pour it into the large veins going directly to the heart. The 
chyle, before being taken up by the lacteals, has to pass through a set of 
vessels called mesenteric glands, and as the health and vigor of the body 
depends upon the purity of the blood, it is of the utmost importance 
that these organs be maintained in a state of perfect health. These ABSORBENTS. 
17 
glands are the seat of frequent disorders in children. (See Tabes.) The 
lymphatic absorbents are distributed throughout the whole body, and 
take up and convey into the general circulation, whatever nutrient matter 
is fit to re-enter the blood. They also pass through glands, many of 
which are observable on the sides of the neck, in the armpits, and on 
the inside of the thighs. The enlargement of these glands is what is 
popularly known as "waxen kernels." The lymphatic glands are very 
apt to become inflamed, and sometimes suppurate, especially in persons 
of a weak constitution, or when there happens to be a sore on a part of 
the body more distant from the heart than the gland. When any irrita- 
tion is visible in any of these glands, a thorough search should be made 
over the whole body, for any scratch or small sore which may be the 
cause of the trouble, for it would be 
evidently useless to be treating the 
effect while the cause remained un- 
touched. When found, if the exist- 
ing sore be treated with rest, fo- 
mentations, soft poultices, and some 
simple, laxative medicine be given, 
a seidlitz powder, or a dose of ep- 
som salts, the irritated gland will 
generally resume its healthy con- 
dition. If the gland continue in- 
flamed, it must be soothed by the 
same means. Suppuration in the 
neck ought, if possible, to be 
avoided, as it is likely to leave an 
unsightly eschar. When matter, 
however, has formed there, the 
after-traces will be much less visi- 
ble, if the abscess be opened at the 
proper time by a surgeon. The lymphatics are apt to assume a state of 
chronic enlargement and slow suppuration, and as the root of this 
trouble is found in a debilitated constitution, every effort must be made 
to invigorate the system. This can best be accomplished by nourishing 
animal diet, by early hours, regular exercise, and change of air. Cod- 
liver oil is useful in these cases, and may be rubbed over the enlarged 
glands as well as taken internally. The syrup of the iodide of iron in 
doses of 20 drops, gradually increased to 40, three times a day before 
meals, is an excellent preparation, while tonic medicines generally are all 
indicated. 
In Medicine, substances used to absorb or neutralize the acids 
The Absorbents. 
A, Small Intestine. B, Lacteal, 
C, Thoracic Duct, D, Absorbents. 
E, Blood-vessel. 18 
ABSORBENTS-ABSTINENCE. 
formed in the stomach; chalk and magnesia, for example, are called 
absorbents, and in Surgery, the same term is used to designate certain 
spongy substances used in dressing wounds, such as lint and amadou. 
(See Amadou.) 
ABSORPTION, ab-sorj^shun, a term used in Physiology to denote 
the natural function of the body, which is exercised by the absorbent 
vessels. Absorption is not performed by the lacteals and lymphatics 
alone-the blood-vessels take up a large quantity, particularly in the 
case of liquids. It may also take place through the skin; and in this 
way, persons unable through disease or accident to swallow liquids, may 
have their distress partly relieved by tepid baths. 
In Chemistry, the disappearance of a gaseous body on entering into 
combination with a fluid or a solid is called absorption. For example, 
when ammoniacal gas is put into water, absorption takes place, and the 
result is liquid hartshorn. 
ABSTINENCE aU-ste-nense [Lat. abstineo, I abstain]. Abstinence is 
the act or habit of abstaining from something to which we have a pro- 
pensity, or in which we obtain pleasure; but it is more particularly 
applied to the privation, or sparing use of food. It has been enjoined 
and practiced for various objects, namely: sanitary, moral and religious. 
Physicians relate remarkable cures effected by abstinence. The Pytha- 
goreans, Stoics and others, recommended it as a means of bringing the 
animal part of our nature into greater subservience to the spiritual. 
Abstinence is likewise enjoined by various religious sects. Abstinence 
may be a great good, or on the other hand it may be a great evil. With 
those who live freely, eat much animal food, and drink wine and malt 
liquors, the remedy is excellent, either in their peculiar ailments, or in 
general sickness. If the constitution be tolerably sound, nature will set 
herself right if unopposed. A dose of medicine may very often be 
omitted when such patients can be persuaded to starve. More persons 
hurt themselves by excess than by the opposite, but not a few sustain 
much injury by too much abstinence. The latter are generally persons 
of weak digestive powers who, finding the less they give the stomach to 
do the better they feel, run into extreme, and consume barely enough 
aliment to support health, and the general system suffers; the stomach, 
liver, bowels, blood and circulating system are not sufficiently supplied 
with stimulus, and consequently act and react on one another; the 
general tone is generally lowered, and organic disease may be origin- 
ated. This error has been fostered by medical authorities, and the case 
of Cornaro and others held up as examples of the health and longevity 
to be attained by extreme abstinence. Undoubtedly some men will retain 
health and strength on much less nutriment than others, but still, for ABSTINENCE-A C CIDENTS. 
19 
most men, a tolerably liberal supply of varied food is essential, and they 
cannot materially lower the standard permanently without injury. Liv- 
ing moderately, instead of stinting the whole body to favor the stomach, 
they ought, by exercise, relaxation and other means-by medicine if 
requisite-so to strengthen the organ that it may comfortably digest 
sufficient for the wants and support of the wdiole body. By acting on 
the reverse, nothing is gained eventually, for the stomach, participating 
in the general debility, becomes daily more unfit to perform its func- 
tions. The effect of abstinence on those ■who practice it on religious 
grounds is too often most injurious, and lays the foundation of organic 
disease of the stomach. 
In the event of persons having suffered from long abstinence, nourish- 
ment should be administered cautiously, and in very small quantities at 
a time, but frequently. At first it should be mild and farinaceous, with 
soups, and the heat of the body should be promoted at the same time by 
friction and other means. In the beginning of febrile and inflammatory 
diseases, abstinence from solid or very nutritious food is absolutely neces- 
sary. (See Corpulence, Debility, Digestion, Food, Regimen.) 
ACACIA, a-kd-she-g, in Bot., a genus of plants belonging to the 
natural order Leguminosce, sub-order ACmosece. The Acacia vera yields 
gum arabic; and the inner wood of the A. Catechu, an Indian shrub, 
affords a kind of catechu, or cutch, rich in tannin, which is used for 
tanning, and, in medicine, as an astringent. (See Gum Arabic, Catechu.) 
ACARUS, aK-Os-rus [Gr. akari, a mite], the tick or louse, a genus of 
insects of the order Aptera or wingless. It contains various species, as 
the domestic mite, the itch mite {Acarus Scabiei), the harvest bug, the 
sugar mite, the red spider, etc. The bite of the harvest bug produces 
considerable inflammation and swelling of the part, with much itching. 
It may show itself upon the head or body during sickness, notwithstand- 
ing the most scrupulous care, and some kinds of cutaneous eruptions and 
sores are with great difficulty freed from it. Washing and cleanliness 
are the great counter agents; after washing, equal parts of sal-volatile 
and water may be used to the part, or a solution of the aromatic spirit 
of ammonia will afford relief. The itch insect is an acarus, also the 
harvest bug. (See Itch.) 
ACCIDENTS, alc-se-dents. What are commonly called accidents, such 
as drowning, suffocation, poisoning, fractures, dislocations, wounds, cuts, 
falls, burns, etc., are all described under their respective heads, and here 
it is only necessary to give certain general directions, which in all cases 
it is well to be acquainted with. An accident almost invariably attracts 
a crowd. The first thing to be done is to disperse it. A half a dozen 
persons are generally sufficient for the relief of the injured individual, 20 
ACCIDENTS. 
and the kindest thing the crowd can do, is to remove at least fifteen or 
twenty feet away. If any more assistance is required, it can easily be 
secured from the bystanders. It is well for others to be within call, to 
run messages, summon friends, and procure means for conveying the 
patient home or to the hospital. If, in consequence of the accident, 
the nervous shock should be so great as to occasion fainting, the person 
should be immediately placed on his back with the limbs extended, and 
the head and shoulders slightly raised. The collar or cravat, or anything 
else that is tight around the patient, and interferes with the circulation 
of the blood or the respiratory movements of the chest, should be at 
once loosened or removed. If the accident be only slight, a draught of' 
cold water, a teaspoonful of brandy and water, or twenty or thirty drops 
of aromatic spirit of ammonia in a tablespoonful of cold water, given 
every two or three minutes, will generally suffice to bring about reaction. 
The proper disposal of the sick-room for the reception of accidents, 
as soon as possible after their occurrence, is of great consequence, so 
that the patient may at once be placed under circumstances the best 
adapted for his recovery, and the least likely to cause him pain or incon- 
venience. 
Let us suppose the case of a shattered or fractured limb. The acci- 
dent will probably have occurred at some distance from the house, and 
the patient will have been brought along on a litter, or in some convey- 
ance, in such a position as to rest as much as possible the wounded part. 
If the hand be shattered, or the arm, it is generally best to bend the 
elbow at right angles, so as to relax the muscles, to support it in a broad 
sling and lay it across the chest. If the leg be the part injured, it should 
be bent or flexed at the knee joint, also to relax the muscles, and laid 
upon its outer side (if this position be not incompatible with the state 
and condition of the injured parts). It may be laid upon a board, or a 
tray, or a pillow, or anything that will support it and can be easily moved 
along with the limb ; as, for instance, in removing a patient by means of 
a carriage, or by railway, from the scene of accident. Bleeding seldom 
occurs in shattered or fractured limbs to such an extent as to endanger 
life, simply from the fact, that the blood-vessels are torn instead of cut 
through, so that the application of cold, or the mere exposure of the 
wound to the air, will generally suffice to arrest the hemorrhage. Fail- 
ing this a tourniquet must be applied over the main blood-vessel, or a 
handkerchief, or bandage may be passed round the limb, and tightened 
by means of a stick twisted into it. The effect of this will be greatly 
increased by placing firmly a pad under the bandage over the situation 
of the leading blood-vessel, if that is known or can be felt beating by 
the fingers. A bleeding limb should always be held as high as possible. ACCIDENTS. 
21 
The bleeding part rather exposed to the air than covered with a number 
of cloths, as is the popular custom. If cold is applied, it should be by 
means of a single cloth, which may be either frequently renewed, or a 
gentle stream of cold water may be kept playing upon the wound. These 
precautions, as to bleeding, will be much more necessary in the case of 
incised wounds where the cut ends of the blood-vessels bleed with great 
activity. It is to be remembered as a golden rule, that almost all bleed- 
ing, even of the most urgent kind, can be checked for a time, or, at all 
events, till the arrival of the medical man, by direct pressure applied to 
the part, either by the fingers, or by a pad of lint, or a dry sponge. 
Another rule is always to keep a limb which is broken, in a natural, 
easy, or relaxed position, otherwise, from the action of the muscles, the 
ends of fractured bones may be forced with violence through the skin, 
or may injure blood-vessels, and may convert what was a tolerably simple 
into a very severe injury. Should severe shock and depression of the 
system supervene after an accident, wine and water, or brandy and water, 
may be freely given at once, and if there are any symptoms of coldness 
of the extremities and shivering, warm bottles, heated blankets, hot 
bricks, or bags of hot salt, should be applied. 
Let us suppose, now, that the patient has been carried from the scene 
of accident to his own house, or to the room where he is to be laid up. 
The first thing to be done is to choose a good room, according to the 
principles laid down in the beginning of this article; a well-ventilated, 
and well-managed sick-room being quite as essential to the healing of a 
wound as to recovery from sickness. In case an operation should be 
required, a room should be chosen with a good light, or if artificial light 
is required, several good lights should be provided, and the bed so dis- 
posed that it can be easily got at and easily lighted up. The next thing 
to be done is to arrange the bed properly, and in doing this, reference 
should be had as to whether it is the right or left limb that is injured and 
that requires to be treated. If the patient is suffering much from the 
shock, or from cold, the bed should be warmed. A macintosh, or piece 
of water-proof material should be arranged under the wound, so as to pro- 
tect the bedding from blood and discharge, and when it is desired to 
irrigate a wound, the macintosh should be large, and so disposed as to 
allow the current of water to escape over the bed into a vessel placed for 
the purpose of receiving it. Everything now being in readiness, the 
patient is to be got into bed, and in getting him in it will be necessary 
to remove his clothes, an operation giving great pain to the patient unless 
properly conducted. They should be slit up the seams and cut off where 
necessary, so that the wound may not in any way be dragged upon, and 
in this manner they may be removed, as it were, in one piece, even when 22 
A CCIDENTS-A CCLIMATIZATION. 
there are the most painful and extensive injuries, without any pain or 
inconvenience. While all this is being done, it should be the duty of 
one person to attend to and hold the injured part, and to support it in a 
relaxed position, which is one of ease to the patient. When all the 
clothes are removed, a night-shirt may be put on; and if it be the arm 
that is injured, the corresponding arm and shoulder-piece of the night- 
shirt may be slit open. The patient is then to be placed in bed, and the 
limb, being still held by the person in charge, deposited safely on a 
pillow, or otherwise, in the required position. Some loose tow or cotton 
wool may be placed around it, to absorb the blood if there be any, and 
care must be taken to prevent the weight of the bed-clothes from pres- 
sing upon it, either by means of a "cradle," by pillows, or by supporting 
the bed-clothes in any other way. The wound must be looked at every 
now and then till the arrival of the medical man, in order to ascertain if 
there is any bleeding; and if there is much shock or faintness from pre- 
vious loss of blood, stimulants must be freely administered. 
In cases of injury to the head, or of suspected fracture of the cranium, 
the patient may be quite insensible, and consequently such patients are 
often much tumbled about by those who remove them and who put them 
to bed ; but the most serious accidents have resulted from want of care in 
this respect, and it has happened that bleeding inside of the skull, which 
had been temporarily arrested, has been made to burst out afresh, with 
a fatal result, owing to nothing more than rough handling. Wounded 
parts which are very painful and uncomfortable in any position, may be 
placed upon a water pillow, the yielding and undulating surface of which 
readily accommodates itself to them, and does away with the effects of 
pressure. (See Artery, Bites and Stings, Burns and Scalds, Bruises 
and Contusions, Cut-Throat, Concussion, Concussion of the Brain, 
Choking, Dislocations, Drowning, Falls, Frost Bites, Foreign Bodies 
in Air-Passages, Fractures, Hanging, Hemorrhage or Bleeding, 
Poisons and their Antidotes, Sunstroke, Suffocation, Wounds, etc.) 
ACCLIMATIZATION, ak-ldi-'inat-e-zd-shun. Acclimatization con- 
sists in a change in the physical organism, produced by a prolonged 
sojourn in a place whose climate is widely different from that to which 
one is accustomed, and which has the effect of rendering the individual 
who has been subjected to it similar in many respects to the natives of 
the country which he has adopted. The process takes place to a certain 
extent so far as some individuals are concerned, but the ability to be- 
come acclimated is not possessed to the same extent by all nations. 
Every race of mankind appears to have its prescribed salubrious limits, 
and whenever they emigrate many lines above or below these, they 
begin to deteriorate. The white race appear to reach their highest A CCLIMATIZATION. 
23 
physical and intellectual vigor above 40° in the western, and 45° in the 
eastern hemisphere. There is a certain pliancy of constitution which 
enables all races to endure more or less changes of temperature with 
impunity; and it is a fact that those races which are indigenous to warm 
climates, support best the extremes of other latitudes. The Esquimaux can- 
not well bear transplanting to equatorial regions nor the negro or Malay to 
the latitude of Greenland or Kamtschatka. The Englishman placed in 
Bengal or Jamaica, though he may suffer from no acute disease, and may 
live to a good old age, ceases to be the plump, plethoric, healthy indi- 
vidual he once was, and his descendants are certain to degenerate. The 
European in the Antilles becomes prematurely old; he is constantly a 
prey to fever and dysentery, and after a continual struggle for existence 
he perishes. Statistics show beyond doubt that certain races cannot 
become acclimated in certain realms, though they may in others, at 
equal distance from their original homes. Climatic influences are com- 
bated most successfully by individuals adapting themselves to new con- 
ditions, carefully regulating their mode of life, manners and customs, so 
as to suit the climate in which they live. Food, clothing and habits are 
particularly to be attended to. 
The air and its temperature are largely concerned in the process of 
acclimation; the former is so much more rarefied in hot than in cold 
climates, that in the vital process of respiration, a comparatively much 
smaller quantity is habitually consumed; less oxygen is taken in, and 
the process of oxidation or combustion, which is continually going on 
within the body, is slow'er; we reasonably conclude, that by this process 
of combustion, the animal heat, in part at least, is maintained, but, of 
course, in a hot climate, a less active condition is sufficient to keep up 
the average temperature. The process of oxidation or combustion 
effected on /the one hand by the oxygen inspired, is supported on the 
other by some of the elements-carbon and hydrogen - of the food. It 
is evident, therefore, that if an individual who has become resident in a 
hot climate, makes a practice of consuming as much nutriment as he 
used to do, without injury to health in a cold one, he must take more 
than is requisite, consequently the blood becomes overcharged with a 
load of noxious matter, which the rarefied air and inactive habits of 
warm countries do not tend to remove; and if the course be continued, 
an attack of illness, probably of a biliary nature, is the consequence. 
Even in temperate climates, the difference between the consumption of 
oxygen in winter and summer is considerable. In Germany it has been 
calculated at one-eighth less in the latter. How great must be the 
difference to those who permanently settle in tropical heats! certainly, 
sufficient to require much alteration in habits of living. The abundant 24 
A CCLIMATIZAT10N-A COO U CHEER. 
animal diet, the fats and alcoholic drinks of the colder climes, all of 
which contain carbon and hydrogen in abundance, and assist materially 
to sustain temperature, must give place to the farinaceous and watery 
fruits of warmer regions, vice versa, on going from a warm or temperate 
country to a colder-as the experience of all arctic travelers testifies-a 
larger proportion of animal diet, and that of a more fat or oily character, 
is requisite to maintain health and strength, and those only who are 
capable of consuming and digesting this full allowance, are fit for 
encountering the cold of the north. From what has been said, it is 
evident, how important due regulation of the food is to safe and 
speedy acclimation; it is the main element, and the one most under 
man's control. Modern science and discovery will render him much 
assistance, but study of the natural products of the soil, and of native 
habits, is essential. 
The great increase of the functions of the skin, which takes place on 
removal to a warm climate, requires attention; it renders the constitu- 
tion more susceptible to the influences of a damp or chill air, such as 
frequently occurs in evening. The above remarks apply to our own 
climate in summer. The best preservative is woollen clothing of some 
kind, be it ever so thin, worn next the skin. Persons who from a warm 
climate, of which they are either natives, or to which they have become 
accustomed, come to reside in a variable or cold country, are peculiarly 
liable to affections of the chest or lungs, and not unfrequently become 
the subjects of consumption. The gipsies are a remarkable example of 
a race capable of enduring almost all varieties of climate, and the China- 
man also appears to be highly favored in this respect. The principal 
difficulty to be met with in all attempts at acclimatization is the persist- 
ent, pernicious influence of marsh malaria. This chronic and enduring 
influence of marsh malaria finds abundant illustration among the people 
who inhabit certain insalubrious localities in Italy. " We do not live," 
said a miserable inhabitant of the Pontine Marshes to a stranger, aston- 
ished that existence could go on in so unhealthy a region, "we do not 
live-we die!" The study of climatology is of the greatest import- 
ance to the physician, as well as to the invalid seeking to restore 
an exhausted system by change of air. There can be no acclimatization 
to causes of disease, and it is an admitted fact that climate has often 
been made the scape-goat for the neglect of sanitary precautions. (See 
Air, Respiration, Diet, Climate.) 
ACCOUCHEMENT. (See Parturition. ) 
ACCOUCHEUR, ak-lco-shur', the French term for midwife; the 
physician who attends and assists during the process of childbirth. A CEPHAL O US-A GET IC A CID. 
25 
ACEPHALOUS, a-sef'-arlus, a term applied to a monster born 
without a head. 
ACETABULUM, as-e-taW^lum, in Anatomy, is the term applied 
to that deep, cup-like cavity of the os innominatum, which receives the 
head of the femur, or thigh bone, thus forming the hip joint. (See 
Pelvis. ) 
ACETATE, as-e-tate [Lat. acetum, vinegar.] A salt of the acetic 
acid. Acetates are characterized by the pungent smell of vinegar, 
which they exhale on the addition of sulphuric acid; by yielding, on 
distillation, in a moderate red heat, a very light, odorous and combus- 
tible liquor, called pyroacetic spirit, or acetone; by being all soluble in 
water, many of them so much so, as to be uncrystallizable. The acet- 
ates commonly employed in the cure of diseases are the acetates of 
Potash, Ammonia, Soda, Lew, Zinc, Mercury, Morphia. 
ACETATE OF LEAD is a powerful astringent, useful in severe 
diarrhoea and dysentery, as the lead or opium pills, of which one or two 
may be given two or three times daily: useful also in spitting of blood, 
mid in loss of blood from other parts. Dose, 2 to 4 grains twice or 
thrice daily. 
ACETATE OF POTASH is a diuretic and laxative, specially 
useful in acute rheumatism. Dose, from 20 to 60 grains for adults; 10 
to 15 for children; may be given repeatedly at intervals of some hours. 
ACETATE OF ZINC. It is astringent, and is chiefly used in injec- 
tions and collyria. It is not often used as an internal remedy, though 
sometimes recommended in typhoid fevers, conjoined with stimulants, 
tonics or antispasmodics, as the case may demand. When astringents 
are necessary to restore the mucous secretions to their normal state, 
particularly in gonorrhoea and ophthalmia, the acetate of zinc is an 
important agent. One or two grains dissolved in an ounce of rose 
water, or an ounce of the mucilage of sassafras made with rose water, 
makes a very good collyrium or wash for the eyes. Dose, as a tonic or 
antispasmodic, 1 to 2 grains; as an emetic, 10 to 20 grains. 
ACETIC ACID, arsef-ik, in Chemistry, is produced by the oxida- 
tion or destructive distillation of organic bodies containing its elements, 
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. When pure, it is a colorless liquid of 
specific gravity 1,065, which crystallizes at a temperature below 60F. 
It has a pungent smell, and is highly corrosive. Vinegar and pyrolig- 
neous acid are impure varieties of acetic acid. All liquids susceptible 
of the vinous fermentation are capable of yielding vinegar. Of 
these, the most important is wine, which becomes vinegar by spon- 
taneous acidification. The chemical composition of acetic acid is repre- 26 
A CETIC A Clb-A CIDITY OF THE ST O ALA CH. 
sented by the symbol C4II3O3 + HO. In Medicine it is used externally 
as a local irritant, and when diluted with water it forms an excellent 
cooling lotion. It is also useful as a gargle; and the vapor, when 
inhaled, is beneficial in various affections of the throat. Diluted acetic 
acid is formed by mixing one part of the acid with seven parts of dis- 
tilled water. It is used internally as a cooling acidulous drink in cases 
of fever. Dose, from 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls in this diluted form. It is 
sometimes taken to reduce corpulence, but this is not to be recom- 
mended, as it tends to injure the stomach, and may be productive of 
very serious results. 
ACETOSELLA. (See Oxalic Acid.) 
ACETUM. (See Vinegar.) 
ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM. (See Yarrow.) 
ACHILLES, TENDON, Orkil'-lees tert don [Lat. tendo Achillis^ in 
Anatomy, a tendon which connects the soleus and gastrocnemius 
muscles of the calf of the leg with the bone of the heel. It takes its 
name from the fable of the mother of Achilles dipping him in the river 
Styx to render him invulnerable. During this operation she held him by 
the heel, and here he subsequently received his death-wound. 
ACIDITY OF THE STOMACH, a-sid'-e-te. This is not, strictly 
speaking, a disease, but simply one of the numerous symptoms of that 
hydra-headed monster, dyspepsia. It is characterized by a disagreeable 
sensation in the stomach, and the discharge of sour gas or liquids 
upwards. 
Causes.-Improper diet, more especially pickles, pastry, butter, fish 
and certain kinds of vegetables, particularly cabbage. Constipation is 
also a frequent cause of this unpleasant symptom. 
Treatment.-Those medicines known as absorbents are to be used, 
which, acting chemically on the excess of acid in the stomach, form 
harmless salts. The following prescriptions will be found very useful: 
Take of Carbonate of ammonia Five grains. 
Peppermint water One ounce.-Mix. 
Take every three or four hours until relieved. 
Take of Aromatic spirit of ammonia Thirty drops. 
Simple syrup A teaspoonful.-Mix. 
Repeat every two or three hours if necessary. 
Take of Calcined magnesia One dram. 
Water of ammonia One dram. 
Spirit of cinnamon Three drams. 
Pure water Five and a half ounces.-Mix. 
Two or three tablespoonfuls after each meal, or when required. 
Lime water, in doses of one or two ounces after each meal, will be 
found very beneficial. These means, however, are only temporary. ACIDITY OF THE STOMACH-ACNE. 
27 
Prevention must be sought by carefully abstaining from those 
articles which tend to produce this condition, ancl by strengthening the 
stomach by tonics, and regulating the bowels by gentle aperients. 
When the stomach is weak and the appetite poor, the following may be 
used with much benefit: 
Take of Solution of potash Twenty or thirty drops. 
Infusion of calumba One ounce.-Mix. 
Take half an hour before each meal. (See Digestion, Dyspepsia, Bili- 
ary Disorders, Biliousness, Flatulence.) 
ACIDS, as'-idz [Lat. acidus, sour], a numerous and important class 
of chemical bodies, which are distinguished by the property of combin- 
ing with bases to form salts. They are generally sour to the taste; in 
most instances they have a great affinity for water, and are soluble in it; 
they redden nearly all the vegetable blues; they unite with metals or 
their oxides, alkalies and earths. It was long held that oxygen was 
contained in all the acids. This element does indeed enter into the 
composition of the greatest number; but it has been ascertained that in 
very many cases the acidifying principle is hydrogen. It has conse- 
quently been considered necessary to divide acids into oxyacids, formed 
by oxygen, and hydracids, formed by hydrogen. These, again, are 
subdivided into anhydrous acids, or acids without water, and hydrated 
acids, or acids containing water. According, however, to the latest 
researches of chemists, all acids are bydracids. The acids furnished by 
the mineral kingdom are termed mineral acids. Metallic acids are 
formed by the combination of oxygen and a metal; and organic acids 
are those which contain carbon, or are formed with organic substances. 
The two syllables ous and ic affixed to the names of acid compounds, 
indicate two different modifications; ic always denoting an acid which 
contains more oxygen than the acid whose name terminates in ous: for 
example, sulphur^ acid has for its acidifying principle more oxygen 
than sulphurous acid. The most important of these chemical bodies 
are-among the mineral acids, sulphuric, sulphurous, nitric, phos- 
phoric, arsenic, chromic, hydro-chloric, chloric, carbonic, boracic; 
among the organic acids, hydrocyanic, oxalic, acetic, malic, tartaric, 
benzoic, citric, carbolic, salicylic, etc. (See Each of these Words.) 
ACIDS, POISONOUS. (See Poisons.) 
ACNE, ahi-ne, a disease of the follicles of the skin. It appears on 
the face, neck, back and shoulders, first as small, hard collections of 
matter, which open on the skin by blackish points. These black points 
are vulgarly called "grubs" or "worms in the skin." They continue 
to appear and disappear in successive crops until mature age, unless 
removed by a course of treatment. 28 
ACNE-ACONITINE, OR ACONITIA. 
Causes.-Irregularity in the matter of diet, intemperance, impure 
blood, want of cleanliness, etc. 
Treatment.-The frequent bathing of the parts affected with water, 
of the temperature of 88° or 90°, is of the very greatest importance. 
The patient should take plenty of exercise, avoid all kinds of stimulants, 
such as wine, spirit and coffee, restrict himself almost entirely to a milk 
diet, and in washing or bathing avoid all rubbing, using only a very soft 
towel for such purposes. Emollient applications, such as emulsion of 
bitter almonds, bran water or tepid milk, are very useful. As a general 
rule, all cathartic medicines are to be avoided. When the eruption is 
not removed by attention to these general rules, resort must be had to 
more active treatment. The following is an excellent mixture for inter- 
nal use: 
Take of Tincture of muriate of iron Two drams. 
Sulphate of quinine One dram. 
Pure water Eight ounces.-Mix. 
Take a tablespoonful three times a day, half an hour before eating. 
As a local application either of the following will be found effectual: 
Take of Milk sulphur One dram. 
Spirits of wine One ounce.-Mix. 
Apply with a piece of soft flannel night and morning. 
Take of Corrosive sublimate Twelve grains. 
Sal ammoniac Thirty grains. 
Cochineal One grain. 
Rose water1 .Six ounces.-Mix. 
Use in the same way with a piece of soft flannel. (See Acne Rosacea.) 
ACNE ROSACEA, or that form of the disease most frequently met 
with in those who have indulged too freely in the pleasures of the table, 
is said to be quickly cured by the following draught, taken night and 
morning: 
Take of Compound infusion of horse-radish. .Two ounces. 
Compound spirit of ammonia Ten minims. 
Syrup of ginger One dram.-Mix. 
A milky infusion of the fresh root to be used frequently to the parts 
affected. The use of vinegar by some individuals is invariably followed 
by an accession or increase of the eruption. (See Acne.) 
ACONITE. (See Aconitum Napellus.) 
ACONITINE, OR ACONITIA, arkori-e-tin, in Chemistry, a power- 
ful vegetable alkaloid, prepared from the root of the Aconitum Napellus. 
It is one of the most virulent of poisons, but, at the same time, a very 
valuable medicine. Externally applied, it produces on the skin a prick- 
ling sensation, which is followed by a peculiar numbness. An ointment 
containing aconitine is often used in cases of neuralgia. (See Aconitum 
Napellus.) A CO NIT UM NAPELL US. 
29 
ACONITUM NAPELLUS, ak-o-ni'-tum^ or aconite, commonly known 
as monkshood and wolfsbane, is a perennial plant, belonging to the Nat. 
order Ranunculacece. It is a native of Europe, but is cultivated in this 
country as a garden plant for the sake of its handsome purple flowers. 
The leaves and the roots are the parts used in medicine. It is a virulent 
poison, but in proper hands is a very valuable remedy. The most prom- 
inent symptoms of poisoning by aconite, following irritation of the 
mouth and stomach, are general paralysis and loss of sensation. In such 
a case, medical assistance should at once be sought. In the interval, 
place the patient in a recumbent posture, applying friction over the 
heart, and chafing the limbs. Vomiting must, if possible, be produced 
by the readiest emetic ; such as mustard, salt, or a feather down the 
throat. When vomiting has been induced, it should be encouraged by 
copious draughts of thin gruel or warm water, a little wine or aromatic 
spirit of ammonia being added, if the depression be extreme. The 
extremities in hot mustard and water, and large mustard plasters down 
the spine, will greatly assist in rousing the nervous system. In this, 
and in other cases in which the natural sensibility of the skin is impaired, 
care should be taken that the water used is not too hot, as the patients' 
feelings afford no guide in the matter. As aconite grows in almost every 
garden, it is advisable not to use any root about which there is any 
doubt, and so avoid a repetition of those tragedies which have been so 
frequent of late years. It should also be borne in mind that the tincture 
of the root, known as Fleming's tincture, is many times stronger than 
that made from the leaves. In every prescription it should be distinctly 
stated which preparation is intended. Aconite is used medicinally in the 
treatment of acute rheumatism, neuralgia, sciatica, and as a sedative of 
the heart's action in pneumonia and other diseases of an inflammatory 
nature. It should never be used internally, except by direction of a 
physician. Aconite proves fatal by producing a powerful sedative im- 
pression on the nervous system, by suspending the functions of the 
respiratory organs, or by syncope, consequently it should never be 
administered to patients suffering from any of the following affections: 
Chlorosis, anaemia, paralysis, great depression of the brain and vital 
powers, feebleness of the circulation with a tendency to hemorrhage, and 
when any mechanical impediment to the passage of the blood exists, 
particularly through the heart or lungs. The principal preparations are: 
Fluid extract leaves Dose, two to four drops. 
„ root „ one to three drops. 
Tincture of the leaves „ twenty to thirty drops. 
„ „ root „ one to three drops, 
Solid extract quarter to one grain. 30 
A CO NIT UM NAPELL US-A CQ UIRED DISEASES. 
Aconite Liniment.-Made by macerating 20 ounces of the powder 
and 1 ounce of gum camphor in 30 ounces of rectified spirit for seven 
days. 
Another.-1 dram of tincture of aconite and 1 dram of chloroform, 
and 10 drams of soap and opium liniment-or, Linimentum Opii of 
British Pharmacopoeia. These form effectual and safe liniments, as an 
external application only, in severe pain, sprains and bruises. 
Although very unsafe as an internal remedy, in unprofessional 
hands, the tincture of aconite is perhaps the most powerful medicinal 
agent one possesses for immediately allaying neuralgic pain, for which 
use the above liniments to apply on the parts affected. We would 
repeat, that as aconite is a deadly poison, none of its preparations 
should be taken internally, except under the special directions of a 
physician. 
ACORUS CALAMUS aM-o-rus [Gr. a, without, and kore, pupil of 
the eye], the sweet flag, a member of the natural order Orontiaceoe. 
This plant grows in watery places, and abounds in the margins of the 
rivers and small streams of Europe and America. It blossoms during 
the months of May and June. The thick creeping stem or rhizome, 
commonly called the root, is the valuable part of the plant; it is some- 
what spongy, and powerfully aromatic, and has a bitterish taste. It is 
used by the rectifiers to improve the flavor of gin, and is also employed 
to give a peculiar taste and fragrance to certain kinds of beer. 
In medicine, the sweet flag is sometimes used as an aromatic stimu- 
lant and a mild tonic. In ague or intermittent fevers it succeeds some- 
times when quinine fails. Dose of powdered root, 10 to 20 grains. 
Dose of infusion-made by infusing 1 ounce of root in 12 ounces boiling 
water-1 to 2 ounces. 
ACQUIRED DISEASES, ak-kwird diz-eed-es, strictly speaking, all 
diseases which are not hereditary or born with the individual are acquired. 
The term, however, has come to be used in connection with those affec- 
tions which result from the carelessness or improper exposure of the 
patient. A long trail! of disastrous consequences follow as the result of 
the improper use of alcoholic stimulants. Insanity, consumption, 
dyspepsia, cirrhosis, etc., are frequently acquired in this way. Syphilis 
and gonorrhoea, with all their terrible consequences, are acquired as the 
result of violating the seventh commandment. Phthisis is frequently 
acquired by rash exposure to cold while the pores of the skin are all 
open and the body bathed with perspiration. Many cutaneous and 
other diseases are acquired by carelessness in regard to the selection of 
a proper bed-fellow. The young should never be compelled or allowed 
to sleep with those very much advanced in years, neither should the ACQUIRED DISEASES-ACUTE. 
31 
physically strong be permitted to sleep with the debilitated or diseased. 
Dyspepsia is almost invariably the result of indiscretions in eating or 
drinking. All those affections which might be avoided by a proper 
regard for the common-sense rules of every-day life, might fairly be 
classed under this head. 
ACTE A RACEMOSA. (See Black Cohosh.) 
ACTIVE, att-tir^ acting with energy; opposite to passive, as active 
hemorrhage, active aneurism, etc. 
ACTUAL CAUTERY, akt'-yu-al kaw-te-re, a term now restricted 
to the red-hot iron as a means of destroying morbid growths, arresting 
hemorrhage, and setting up counter-irritation. (See Moxa.) 
ACUPRESSURE, akpu-presh'-ur. In Surgery, is a method of arrest- 
ing hemorrhage from cut arteries, recently introduced. It was first 
suggested by Sir J. Y. Simpson, and described by him in a communica- 
tion to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1859. Since that time it has 
come into extensive use; and while there are many who speak of it in 
the highest terms, there are not a few who are still opposed to it. It 
consists simply in substituting for the old system of tying the arteries, 
the compressing of them by means of pins or needles and iron wire. 
ACUPUNCTURE, akpupungkt'pur\jL&k. acus, a needle, andpunc- 
tura, a puncture], a surgical operation practiced very extensively in the 
East, where it is performed by puncturing the part affected with a 
gold or silver needle. It has been practiced both in Paris and Eng- 
land with satisfactory results in different kinds of disease, principally 
neuralgic pains and chronic rheumatism. It has also been practiced in 
this country to some extent, and in some cases with marked success, 
especially in acute rheumatism. The needle, which is usually of steel, 
and from one to four or five inches long, with round or annular heads, 
is passed by a slight rotatory motion to the required depth, and allowed 
to remain from a few minutes to several hours. The needles are some- 
times used as conductors of the galvanic currents to the deep-seated 
parts, and are sometimes made hollow in order to convey some sedative 
solution. From one to twenty may be inserted at a time, and allowed 
to remain from a few minutes to several hours. The distance to which 
they should penetrate should depend upon the nature and seat of the 
disease. The pain of the operation is very trifling, and such as none 
need shrink from. 
ACUTE, Orkut^ is opposed to chronic, and is applied to diseases 
which are attended with violent symptoms, whose course is short, and 
usually terminate in a few days in relief, cure or death. For example, 
inflammation of the lungs and erysipelas are acute diseases ; consumption 
and ringworm are chronic. 32 
A CUTE BR ON CHIT IS-ADHESIVE PLASTER. 
ACUTE BRONCHITIS. (See Bronchitis.) 
ACUTE RHEUMATISM. (See Rheumatism.) 
ADDER BITES. (See Bites and Stings.) 
ADDISON'S DISEASE, ad-dls-onz^ Bronzed Skin or Disease of 
the Supra Renal Capsules, called after Dr. Thomas Addison, of 
London, who made it subject of special investigation several years ago. 
There is still a good deal of doubt .as to the real causes of this disease. 
Symptoms.-Great debility from the very outset; anemia, a peculiar 
pearly appearance of the white of the eye, and sooner or later a 
peculiar dusky bronzing of the skin, which appears most marked about 
the face and neck, the armpit, the genital organs and the navel. 
The discoloration presents itself in all degrees of intensity, from the 
slightest darkening to the swarthy hue of the mulatto. 
Treatment.-This disease is almost always fatal, therefore the 
treatment is for the most part palliative. Absolute rest is of prime 
importance as well as nutritive diet and the constant avoidance of all 
causes of depression. When the stomach will not bear meats and 
soups, oysters, eggs and jellies should be given. Cod-liver oil is of' 
decided advantage when the stomach will tolerate it. Constipation is. 
habitual, but great care has to be exercised, as fatal collapse often 
follows a dose of cathartic medicine. Temporary improvement fre- 
quently takes place under the use of the following mixture: 
Take of Pure glycerine Two drams. 
Tincture of iron and spirit of chloroform. .Twenty drops of each.-Mix. 
Take three times a day. 
ADDUCTOR MUSCLES, ad-duS-tur [Lat. adduco^ I draw towards],, 
are those muscles which draw the parts to which they are attached 
together. They are opposed to the abductor muscles. (See Abductor 
Muscles. ) 
ADEPS. (See Lard.) 
ADHESION, ad-he-zhun^ is the process by which parts, naturally 
separate, or separated by artificial means, become united. It is caused 
by the efiusion of a lymph, or sticky fluid, produced by inflammation; 
and hence it is sometimes necessary to produce inflammation, by 
scraping or paring, in surfaces which it is desirable to unite. This 
tendency of inflamed surfaces to adhere when in contact is some- 
times troublesome, as in inflammations of serous membranes. A 
common cut unites by adhesion, and when it does so at once, with- 
out the formation of matter, it is said to unite "by the first inten- 
tion." 
ADHESIVE PLASTER, ad-he-siv plad-tur, commonly called strap- 
ping-plaster, is used to protect raw surfaces, and for dressing cutsy ADHESIVE PLASTER-AD ALTERATION OF FOOD. 
33 
wounds, and ulcers. It is a gentle external stimulant, and assists the 
healing process. It is composed of lead-plaster (a mixture of oxide 
of lead and olive-oil) melted over a slow fire, with powdered resin 
and hard soap mixed with it in the proportion of sixteen parts of 
lead-plaster to two parts of powdered resin and one part of hard soap. 
Another.-Three-fourths pound of diachylon, half an ounce of 
pounded yellow resin. Put these in a jar, and melt them by the 
side of the fire, or on the stove, stirring them continually. The plas- 
ter should be spread on narrow strips of new cotton cloth or washed 
leather, and one end of the strip, after being properly warmed, is 
pressed upon one side of the cut, sore, or wound, and after having 
brought the divided skin and flesh together, the other end or part of 
the strip is pressed hard upon the other side. In the same manner 
one, two, or more strips are laid on, with a little space between them, 
to allow the matter to escape, if any is formed. In most cases, it 
saves the pain and disfiguration of taking stitches, or sewing up cuts 
and wounds. (See Wounds, Plasters.) 
ADIPOSE TISSUE, ad'-e-pose [Lat. adeps, soft fat], is a peculiar 
tissue or membrane composed of an aggregation of minute cells filled 
with fat, which they appropriate from the blood. This tissue serves 
several important purposes in the animal body; filling up interstices, 
forming a pad or cushion for the support of the movable parts, and 
assisting in the retention of heat. 
ADOLESCENCE, ad-o-les-sense [Lat. adolesco, to grow], youth; 
the period of life between puberty and the full development of the 
frame; extending, in man, from the age of 14 to 25, and in woman, 
from 12 to 21. (See Age.) 
ADULT AGE, a-duli, manhood or womanhood. The period be- 
tween youth and old age. In Medicine, a person is considered an adult 
who has fully arrived at maturity. 
ADULTERATION OF FOOD, a-dul-tur-d-shun. Some adultera- 
tions are positively dangerous and poisonous, as, for instance, the color- 
ing of sweetmeats with arsenic or lead; others are merely and simply 
fraudulent, as the adulteration of flour with potato starch, of butter with 
salt and water, etc.; but we do not stop here, for even the articles used 
to adulterate are themselves in their turn adulterated, so that, when the 
knave, who has lent himself to the dishonest custom, trusts to escape 
detection by using a substance which is at all events, as he supposes, 
harmless, he finds to his surprise that he again has been duped, and that, 
perhaps, a poisonous substance has been used to drug the very article he 
had used as a counterfeit. In this way chicory, which was itself so much 
used as an adulteration of coffee, is adulterated with carrots, red earth 34 
ADULTERATION OF FOOD. 
and molasses; and anatto, used to dye cheese of a rich color, has been 
adulterated with red lead, so as to cause fatal poisoning. 
It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the public mind that to 
adulterate at all is in every way wrong, and that, willingly and knowingly, 
to add substances of a poisonous or deleterious nature for the sake of 
gain, is a crime of the deepest dye, for which all those guilty of it will 
have one day to answer! 
It is manifestly of the greatest importance that the public should 
know and guard against adulterations of all kinds which are to be met 
with in the articles of our daily consumption, and that they should, to 
some extent, at all events, be acquainted with the nature of the substance 
used, whether it is injurious or not to life and health. Even our bread, 
" the staff of life," is adulterated to an enormous extent, sometimes with 
alum and carbonate of magnesia, which are added to improve its appear- 
ance when made from coarse or inferior flour, and sometimes with the 
meals or flours of other grains or vegetables, such as oats, barley, Indian 
corn, potatoes, beans, peas, rice, etc. 
It is sad to think that the poor man, who buys his loaf of bread with 
the wages of a hard day's toil, is not only unable to get the worth of his 
money in the shape of pure, wholesome, nourishing food, but that he 
actually is forced, through these abominable ' ' tricks of trade, ' ' to eat a 
substance containing deleterious or poisonous ingredients, such as by 
daily enfeebling his health, positively unfits him for the proper dis- 
charge of his daily duties. 
There is little doubt that the bakers themselves are mainly to blame 
for the excessive adulteration of bread, flour being tampered with by the 
flour merchants only to the extent of mixing it with flours of inferior 
quality, or those which, having been exposed to damp, etc., are in a state 
of decomposition. Potato starch, alum, bone dust, and an Egyptian 
grain called Dari, have all been used as adulterations, and several kinds 
of alkalies have been found in flours, added no doubt to overcome the 
tendency to grow acid existing in flour which has been exposed to damp 
and moisture. 
A great deal has been said about the adulteration of milk in large 
towns, and the pale, sky-blue mixture sold in cities has been said to con- 
sist of chalk and water, sheep's brains, and various other disgusting 
compounds. It may be said, for the comfort of those who are ever ready 
to believe in anything marvellous, that it is not the practice anywhere to 
put the brains of any animal whatever into milk, and that after all, 
almost the only adulteration we have to fear is plain water, which, 
unfortunately, can be added in large quantity without much marring its 
appearance. ADULTERATION OF FOOD. 
35 
This is without doubt the only serious adulteration, and a very serious 
one it is, because the importance of good milk as an article of diet for 
all, and specially for certain cases of disease, can scarcely be exaggerated, 
and even now medical men are becoming every day more alive to the 
advantages of a substance which, being of easy digestion, can so readily 
take the place, both of animal, and vegetable food, and has in itself, 
unlike any other substance whatever, all the elements requisite for the 
support of life. Our national scourges of scrofula and consumption, as 
well as all other debilitating diseases, would not be so common if we 
could obtain for the young children of the poor in our large towns an 
adequate supply of good and pure milk. 
Of course, chalk is never used to adulterate milk or cream, because 
it would fall at once to the bottom of the vessel and be detected. Next 
to water, perhaps the most important adulteration is arrowroot, which is 
often mixed with milk or cream, to give it a thick or rich appearance. It 
is surprising what a small quantity of arrowroot will produce the effect, if 
skilfully mixed with it. 
The adulteration of sugar may be disposed of in one word. The fact 
is, thataZmas^ all l>rown sugars are, as a rule, unfit for human consump- 
tion, and contain all manner of animal and vegetable impurities in 
greater or less quantity. The grand and simple test for sugar, then, is 
its color and appearance; and the only fraud practiced by the venders of 
it, is to mix up inferior with the better qualities. Lump sugar is the best 
and cheapest; and a good sugar must be of bright color, crystalline, and 
dry. The inferior brown sugars are mixed up to a great extent with 
water, mould-insects of several kinds, and dirt. 
A very objectionable adulteration or fraud, inasmuch as it is practised 
upon an article often specially ordered for sick people or young children, 
consists in the substitution of potato starch for arrowroot. Dr. Hassall 
found twenty-two, out of fifty samples of arrowroot, to be adulterated ; 
and ten of the twenty-two had scarcely a trace of genuine arrowroot in 
their composition. The prevailing, and almost the only adulteration, was 
potato starch. 
One scarcely knows how to approach the subject of the adulteration 
of meat. We have heard with horror, in childhood days, of cats, kittens, 
and even articles still more objectionable, which have found their way, 
by some means or other, into the so-called mutton and beef-steak pie. A 
humorous writer, lately describing his experiences of the latter compound 
on a given occasion, says:-" Mean and degraded indeed must have been 
the spirit of the bullock that would confess to any share in such a pro- 
duction; in fact, I am convinced that the bovine element entered no 
more into its composition at all than the flesh of the unicorn into pease 36 
ADULTERATION of food. 
porridge." A most pernicious custom exists of coloring potted meats- 
with red earths-with one, in particular, called "bole Armenian;" so. 
that it may be laid down as a general rule that potted meats, other than 
ham and tongue, having a red color, cannot be good. This bole Armenian 
is also largely used in the preparation or manufacture of counterfeit 
Anchovies (for real Anchovies are now almost unknown), and, like 
chicory, though itself an adulteration, does not escape being tampered 
with in its turn and is often mixed with red lead, an active and fatal 
poison. 
' Good, fresh, or sweet butter, is certainly one of the most important 
nutrient articles of diet we possess, and it is matter of regret that so 
much pains should be taken, to spoil and adulterate it by adding water 
and salt, to increase the weight. The buttetr is half melted, and then 
the salt and water are stirred up with it to about one-fifth of the whole' 
weight. The most inferior qualities of butter, that are good for nothing 
else, are mixed up in this way, and are sold to the poor at a compara- 
tively low price; but it may safely be said that it is the reverse of 
economy to purchase what is called salt butter, seeing that it is always 
inferior to fresh, and, in the worst cases at all events, it is simply a 
rancid butter, with perhaps 50 per cent, of salt and water. 
Coffee, as is well known, is still, and was to an enormous extent 
adulterated with chicory, which is a much cheaper substance than the 
cheapest coffee. Other adulterations are unimportant, and are not often 
met with, though Dr. Hassall mentions roasted grains of all kinds-• 
peas, beans, roasted carrots, and acorns, and even mahogany sawdust. 
The difference between coffee and chicory is very marked. A little of 
the former when put into a cup of water floats on the top, and imparts 
no color to the water, while the latter sinks to the bottom, and gives a 
deep red tint to the water. This is a very ready and convenient test 
which may be tried by any one at home. 
Tea is most extensively adulterated, both in this country and in 
China, where they give it the appropriate name of "lie tea." Both 
black and green tea are liable to be tampered with; and an infinite 
number of substances are used as counterfeits, and also to give color-and 
increased weight. Again, powders are made up and advertised (such as 
"The Chinese botanical powder," and "Veno bono " "possessing four 
times the strength of the best tea") which are utterly worthless, and 
consist for the most part of wheat flour mixed up with catechu or with 
some earthy or coloring matter. The absurdity of coloring teas for the 
market is very great, and is only kept up by the ill-informed on such 
subjects giving a preference to teas that have a fine bloom. The Chinese 
do not themselves drink colored teas. The principal matters used for ADULTERATION OF FOOD-AERATED WATERS. 
37 
'"facing" the teas, as it is termed, are Prussian blue, graphite or black 
lead, gypsum, and turmeric. Various leaves are used to counterfeit the 
genuine tea, amongst which may be mentioned those of the sloe, the 
hawthorn, the beech, the plane, the horse-chestnut, the willow, and the 
elm. Sloe leaves are used whole, but the others are for the most part 
broken up and mixed with gum and some substance such as catechu, and 
rolled up into small masses. Coloring matters are added in the most 
reckless way, and a black or green tea readily produced at will. Some 
of these coloring matters are of a poisonous nature, but, for the most 
part, they are either innocent, or of such powerful coloring property, that 
only a very small quantity requires to be added. It is lamentable to 
think that there should be a distinct and separate trade in selling articles 
solely for the adulteration of tea, and there can be little room for doubt 
that until government can be induced to take measures to confiscate and 
destroy adulterated or "lie tea," the practice, which is a very lucrative 
one, will increase, till it is impossible to obtain a pure tea at a reason- 
able price from the retail dealers. Numbers of persons are employed to 
collect the used-up tea leaves from hotels throughout the country, these 
are redried, mixed with a little gum, recurled, recolored and sold as 
green or as black tea. 
The practical lesson to be derived from all this is, to deal only with 
respectable dealers, and to make such inquiries as are possible into the 
purity of all articles which are to be consumed in the household. Also, 
to beware, especially, of articles which are sold by second-rate dealers, at 
a cheaper rate than they can be bought pure in the market. Refer to 
various articles of food. (See Food, Confectionery, Wine.) 
ADVICE, MEDICAL. (See Medical Advice.) 
tEGLE MARMELOS, e'-geL mar'-me-los, Bael or Bengal quince,. 
The fruit of a tree belonging to the natural order Aurantiacece, found in 
the East Indies. It is said to possess valuable properties in arresting 
diarrhoea, * and acting as a mild aperient when constipation exists. A 
liquid extract of the half-dried fruit is the preparation used, in doses 
ranging from a teaspoonful to two tablespoonfuls. It is sometimes used 
as a marmalade prepared in the same way as orange marmalade. 
yEGOPIIONY, e-gof'-o-ne, a peculiar sound observed in using the 
stethoscope, resembling the sound made by the goat. 
AERATED BREAD. (See Bread.) 
AERATED WATERS, a-e-ra-ted [Gr. aer, air]. This term is 
applied to drinks in which water is impregnated with gases by pressure. 
The best known of these is the so-called soda-water, which generally 
consists of plain water charged with carbonic acid gas. This is effected 
by submitting the water to carbonic acid under a pressure of 30 or 40 38 
AERATED WATERS-jETHIO PS MINERAL. 
lbs. to the square inch, and bottling it off without any diminution of the 
pressure. On uncorking the bottle, the imprisoned gas is released, and 
taken into the stomach in the form of bubbles. Various mineral con- 
stituents, such as soda, potash, lithia, the salts of iron, and magnesia, 
are often introduced into the water with excellent medicinal effects. 
Aerated drinks, such as effervescing lemonade, are often impregnated 
with air only; but this is easily detected by the taste of the gas. 
AERATION, a-e-rd-shiLn. Blood, during its circulation through 
the body, becomes impure in quality, dark in color, and unfit for the 
support of the vital functions; being passed through the lungs by the 
powers of the heart, it undergoes purification, and the dark color of the 
venous is exchanged for the bright, red hue of the arterial fluid; it has 
undergone " aeration"-it has robbed the air drawn into the lungs of a 
portion of its oxygen, and given off carbonic acid. This aeration of the 
blood is essential to the maintenance of life; if stopped entirely, but for 
a few minutes, death is the result. This fact is obvious, and known to 
all; not so the injurious, ultimately fatal effects of the imperfect aeration 
of the blood, to which thousands of our town and city populations are 
daily and nightly exposed; living in a contaminated atmosphere, the 
vital fluid never fully purified, disease and shortened lives must be the 
result. (See Respiration, Blood, Air, Ventilation, Oxygen, Carbonic 
Acid.) 
2ESCULUS, ees'-ku-lus^ in Botany, the horse-chestnut, a genus of the 
soapwart order, or Sapindacew. zEsculus Hippocastanum, the common 
horse-chestnut, is the typical species. Its bark, which contains a peculiar 
principle called ^Esculin^ is febrifugal, and is occasionally used in 
medicine, while its young leaves are somewhat aromatic, and have been 
substituted for hops. In France, large quantities of starch are obtained 
from the seeds, which in England are considered worthless. The bark 
is tonic, astringent, febrifuge, narcotic, and antiseptic. In intermittent 
fever, or fever and ague, cures are said to have been effected by the bark 
in doses of a teaspoonful, four or six times a day. The oil of horse- 
chestnuts has been considered a valuable local application in neuralgic 
and rheumatic affections. 
jETHER. (See Ether.) 
tETHER, CHLORIC. (See Chloric Ether.) 
jETHIOPS MINERAL, e'-the-ops min-er-al. zEthiops mineral is a 
powder formed of sulphur and quicksilver ground together in a mortar. 
It is used in diseases of the skin, such as affect children in early infancy. 
It is also used in glandular disorders, such as scrofula and indurations 
of the glands. It is sometimes administered for worms. The dose for 
a child one or two years old, is 2 grains; for an adult, 8 to 10 grains. It sETHlOPS MINERAL-AFTERBIRTH. 
39 
is less likely to salivate than any other mercurial preparation. It is 
black, and looks very much like powdered charcoal, and is often given 
mixed with syrup or molasses. 
JETHUSA, e-thu'-sa, in Botany, a genus of umbelliferous plants. 
^Ethusa Cynapluwi, fool's parsley, is a common indigenous plant, highly 
poisonous, which has been frequently mistaken for parsley. 
AFFINITY, OR CHEMICAL ATTRACTION, af-firt-e-te [Lat. 
affinitas bordering upon]. Affinity, or chemical attraction, is the 
force which causes the particles of dissimilar kinds of matter to combine 
together, so as to form new matter. This definition indicates the differ- 
ences between affinity and cohesion, which is another modification of 
molecular attraction. Cohesion merely binds similar particles into a 
mass; affinity brings about the combination of heterogeneous particles, 
and causes them to lose their individual properties, and assume new 
forms. Chemical combinations do not take place indifferently, but in 
accordance with certain strict rules or laws. One substance will unite 
with another in preference to a third, or in some cases in preference to 
any other. This preference is denoted by the term elective affinity. By 
means of this discriminating action of affinity, some combinations may 
be decomposed. The attraction of one body for another is greatly modi- 
fied by the circumstances under which the two bodies are brought 
together. Alteration of temperature is one of the causes which influence 
the force of chemical attraction. The discoveries of Faraday and others 
have established the fact, that whenever two substances unite to form a 
compound, they are in opposite electrical conditions; one being electro- 
negative, and the other electro-positive. This and other facts go to 
prove that chemical affinity is a particular modification of electrical 
attraction. 
AFFUSION, af-fii-zhuny the act of pouring water, or other fluids 
upon the surface of the body. It is employed in febrile diseases, more 
especially in typhus and scarlet fevers. Where it does not cure the dis- 
ease, it makes the patient more comfortable. The patient may be placed 
in a tub or other convenient situation, and cold water poured upon him; 
after which he should be wiped dry with a coarse towel and put into bed. 
The cold affusion should be employed in the hot stage of the fever, and 
never when there is any chillness or depression of strength. Neither 
should it be employed when the body is under a profuse perspiration, 
nor when the fever is complicated with any visceral inflammation. 
Sponging the body in fevers is in most cases preferable to affusion, 
although it fail to produce the same impression on the system. (See 
Sponging, Scarlet Fever, Typhus Fever, Baths, etc.) 
AFTER-BIRTII, af -tur-berth, in medical language, the placenta. It 40 
AFTER-BIRTH. 
is usually discharged at a period varying from five to forty minutes after 
the birth of the child. There is always some little anxiety, both on the 
part of the patient, and of the medical attendant, until this concluding 
part of childbirth has been accomplished. Within the above time, in 
most cases, sometimes immediately after the child is born, the patient 
complains of an accession of labor pain, caused by the contraction of the 
womb, which casts off the after-birth; at times, expelling it entirely from 
the body, but generally propelling it so far towards the external orifice 
as to make its withdrawal perfectly easy. When all is as it should be, 
the business is concluded by the ordinary midwife without the least diffi- 
culty, at the same time, it must be remembered, that some of the most 
formidable accidents of the lying-in chamber are connected with the 
management of this part of its duties; and if a female only be in 
attendance, should the slightest embarrassment occur, not one moment 
is to be lost in summoning proper medical aid; above all things, let the 
attendants beware of any attempt to force matters by pulling strongly at 
the navel cord-they can only do mischief. The chief danger to be 
dreaded when the after-birth is retained, is loss of blood or flooding; if 
this comes on to any extent, the patient must be kept as quiet and cool 
as possible, gentle but firm pressure must be maintained over the bowels 
generally, and especially over their lower portion by the bandage, and 
by the hand-cloths dipped in cold water are to be applied over the 
external parts and frequently changed; should extreme faintness occur, 
a little wine, or brandy, or sal-volatile may be given in water, but stimu- 
lants must not be too readily resorted to. The retention of the after- 
birth is at times the result of irregular contraction, but often of adhesion 
to the womb ; the possibility of such an occurrence should make those 
who are advanced in pregnancy careful to avoid anything which may 
press upon any portion of the distended womb, as for instance, the stays, 
and guard against habitually leaning, even gently, against any hard 
body. A careful attendant wTill always examine the after-birth : it ought 
to be nearly circular, about the size of a dinner plate, and should not 
exhibit any signs of tearing on the surface which is next the womb. The 
membranes which line the interior of the womb during pregnancy are 
for the most part discharged along with the after-birth, and are more 
readily and neatly brought away, by giving the latter body a slightly 
twisting motion as it is withdrawn. If they are very tender, a portion 
may remain and pass off with the discharge; it is well to be aware of 
the fact, as persons are often needlessly much alarmed at this occurring 
a few hours or more after delivery. Occasionally, the after-birth is so 
placed over the mouth of the womb, that it must necessarily be detached 
in the first stages of labor; the case is always attended with danger, AFTERBIRTH-A GAR I OUS. 
41 
and cannot be too soon put under medical superintendence; it may 
generally be suspected, if simultaneous with the occurrence of labor 
pains, a free discharge of blood takes place, which is increased every 
time the pain recurs. In the event, as in the country, of any delay in 
procuring medical assistance, the measures recommended in the treat- 
ment of hemorrhage in "Abortion" may be resorted to. (See Child- 
bed. 
AFTER-PAINS, af -turpanez. After-pains are the regularly recur- 
ring pains which women experience for a day or two after childbirth. 
They are rarely troublesome after a first confinement, but are apt to 
increase in severity at each succeeding one. After-pains are, in modera- 
tion, salutary, and are caused by the efforts of the womb to attain that 
properly contracted condition on which the woman's safety depends. If 
they are very severe, it is generally owing to the presence of clotted 
blood, which must be expelled before they moderate. A constant, 
unintermitting after-pain, coming on very soon after the termination of 
labor, is often symptomatic of internal flooding, and should be attended 
to accordingly. If after-pains are very severe, they are advantageously 
relieved by the administration of 20 drops of laudanum, which may be 
repeated, but if the amount of pains be moderate, this is unnecessary. 
If the discharge is not profuse, a hot flannel to the lower part of the 
abdomen affords comfort. After-pains are often kept up after the first 
four-and-twenty or six-and-thirty hours, by the bowels being loaded ; a 
tablespoonful of castor-oil is at once a safe and effectual remedy. Tod 
tight bandaging may aggravate after-pains. (See Childbed.) 
AGARICUS, apar-e-kus [Lat. agaricum}, the generic name of 
mushrooms. A genus of fungi, with a cap, and gills underneath of a 
different substance from the cap. The genus comprehends an immense 
number of species, many of which are edible. They grow in wet and 
shady places in fields and woods, and on hotbeds prepared for their 
cultivation. The species of Agaricus commonly eaten in this country 
are Agaricus compestris, the common mushroom; A. arvensis, A. 
Georgii, and A. oreades. The last is the Champignon, which is highly 
esteemed for its savory qualities. Many genera of fungi allied to the 
one under consideration include edible species, which are used for food 
in this and other parts of the world. Dr. Badham enumerates no less 
than thirty fungi, natives of Britain, which are eaten by himself and his 
friends, and complains of the prejudice existing against several species 
which might form dainty and nutritious articles of food. However this 
may be, fatal cases of poisoning by fungi are not uncommon, and great 
care should be taken to ascertain whether a fungus is or is not poisonous, 
before introducing it into the market as a wholesome vegetable. There 42 
AGARIC US-AGAVE VIRGINICA. 
are no certain characters by which the edible and poisonous species may 
always be distinguished; but there are some general characters which 
help us to separate the two groups. Professor Bentley has tabulated 
these general characters as follows : 
Edible Mushrooms. 
1. Grow solitary, in dry airy places. 
2. Generally white or brownish. 
3. Have a compact brittle flesh. 
4. Do not change color, when cut, by the action of the air. 
5. Juice watery. 
6. Odor agreeable. 
7. Taste not bitter, acrid, salt, or astringent. 
Poisonous Mushrooms. 
1. Grow in clusters, in woods and dark damp places. 
2. Usually with bright colors. 
3. Flesh tough, soft, and watery. 
4. Acquire a brown, green, or blue tint, when cut and exposed to 
the air. 
5. Juice often milky. 
6. Odor commonly powerful and disagreeable. 
7. Have an acrid, astringent, acid, salt, or bitter taste. 
Professor Bentley suggests that we should avoid all fungi which 
insects will not touch, and those which have scales or spots on their sur- 
face ; and, further, that whatever may be the apparent qualities of the 
fungi, we should use with caution all which have arrived at their full 
development, or when they exhibit any signs of change. By soaking 
doubtful fungi, cut into slices, for about an hour in vinegar, and after- 
wards washing them in boiling water, we get rid of any poisonous prin- 
ciples they may possess, and the process will not spoil them for the 
table. The purging agaricus is found growing on the larch tree in Asia, 
and in Russia, in Europe. The agaric found growing on the oak tree, 
has been used as a styptic. The Boletus Fomentarius^ found growing 
on similar trees with the latter, when cut in slices, beaten, and soaked 
in a solution of nitre, and dried, forms an inflammable substance, known 
as German tinder or amadou. (See Poisons and theib Antidotes, 
Amadou. ) 
AGAVE AMERICANA, cu-gd-ve a-mer-e-kd-nq, American aloe or 
century plant. The fresh juice is said to act upon the kidneys and 
bowels, and to promote menstruation. Some medical men prefer it to 
lime juice as a remedy in scurvy, giving it in doses as high as 2 ounces- 
three times a day. 
AGAVE VIRGINICA, a-gd-ve ver-gid-e-ka^ false aloe, Nat. order, 
Amaryllidaceoe^ a perennial, herbaceous plant with a tuberous root. AGAVE VIRGINICA-AGE, OLD. 
43 
found growing on dry or rocky banks in Pennsylvania and the Southern 
States. False aloe is reputed laxative and carminative, and has been 
beneficially employed in obstinate diarrhoea, flatulence and spasm of the 
intestines. 
AGE, aj (Fr. age). In Physiology during the progress of life from 
infancy to manhood, and from manhood to old age, the body undergoes 
certain marked changes, which distinguish the different periods or stages 
of life. These are usually denominated ages, and are properly seven in 
number, though some make them fewer. They are-1. Infancy. 2. 
Childhood. 3. Boyhood or Girlhood. 4. Adolescence. 5. Manhood, 
Womanhood. 6. Age. 7. Old Age. The first age commences at birth, 
and extends to the end of the second year, by which time the first denti- 
tion is generally completed; the second extends to the end of the seventh 
or eighth year, when the second dentition is commonly over; the third 
extends to the age of puberty, which varies in different countries, but 
with us is from twelve to fourteen in the female, and from fourteen to 
sixteen in the male; the fourth extends to about the twentieth year in 
the female, and the twenty-fourth in the male; the fifth period extends 
in the female to about the forty-fifth, or fiftieth year, when the power of 
procreation usually ceases, and in the male to about the forty-ninth or 
fiftieth year; the sixth period extends to about the sixty-third year, 
when the seventh and last period of life commences. (See Age, Old.) 
AGE, OLD. Although the powers of life may have shown 
symptoms of decline, the period of incipient old age is usually fixed, in 
women, about the fifty-third, and in men, about the sixtieth to sixty- 
third year. After this, it generally becomes evident that the vigor of 
prime is giving way, and that the powers of the constitution are no 
longer able to recruit themselves, or to sustain exertion with the same 
ease as formerly; diseases, too, peculiar to this stage of life, begin to 
show their symptoms of approach, symptoms which can scarcely be too 
soon detected, or too carefully watched. As time goes on, the individual 
becomes more dependent upon the affectionate care-and equally import- 
ant-the intelligent supervision of those around. The subject of the 
treatment of the aged has been a neglected one. A valuable English 
work, by Dr. Day, has lately supplied the-want of a special treatise upon 
it. With old age. increases the liability to such hereditary diseases as 
gout, gravel, rheumatism, apoplexy, and, in women especially, to cancer. 
Now, the effects of excesses and of dissipation in early life, which may 
have been unfelt during the vigor of manhood, too often add to the 
natural infirmities. Whatever may have been the previous modes of 
living, it is always a dangerous experiment to make any material or 
sudden change in them after age has begun to tell upon the constitution, 44 
AGE, OLD. 
it should not be done but for important reasons, and under direct medi- 
cal control. The natural sensations will gradually guide the individual 
to those modifications of previous habits which accord with the altered 
structures and diminished powers; and this, more particularly in the case 
•of active or violent exertions, which the hardening and ossification of 
the various tissues, but more particularly of the various coats of the 
arteries, render hazardous. The weakened digestion of advanced life 
(should be considered in the food, which, while it is nutritious, ought at 
the same time to be lightly cooked, and everything like hardening 
(avoided. Where the teeth are deficient, meat should be well divided, 
either by mincing before cooking, or by the knife after. The meals light, 
not at too long intervals. If the dinner be early, as it ought to be for 
the aged, who are not obliged to hurry off to business, supper, but a 
light one, should always be taken. The skin of old people is often most 
shamefully and disgustingly neglected, and no point in their management 
is more closely connected with their comfort and health; it should fre- 
quently be sponged with tepid water, and well rubbed afterwards with a 
rough towel to promote reaction. It ought at the same time to be care- 
full v protected by woollen clothing; old people are most injuriously 
■susceptible of the changes of external temperature, particularly cold; 
indeed, a few degrees fall in the thermometer may be the immediate 
■cause of death in very advanced life, and the average number of old 
people affected by apoplectic or paralytic seizures is apt to be notably 
increased at the setting in of frost. Exercise by the old should be con- 
tinued as long as they are able to take it, but should never extend to 
fatigue. Sleeplessness, so frequently and loudly complained of by aged 
people, is, in some respects, natural; as life advances, nature would 
seem to require less of the soft restorer. It is not well to endeavor to 
overcome it by narcotic medicines. If possible, the time of sleep should, 
by habit, be kept to the early hours of night, and in summer especially, 
the tedium of the early morning may be relieved by reading, knitting, 
sewing, or some other light employment, even in bed. 
In advanced life, the urinary organs require the greatest care, the 
call to relieve them should never on any account be delayed; on the 
slightest symptoms of derangement proper medical advice ought to be 
taken at once, it may prevent evils which too often render the latter 
years miserable. It is most important for old people to give themselves 
time to empty the bladder thoroughly; they do this with more difficulty 
than the young. The medicines prescribed for the aged should be, 
whenever it is possible, of a warm character, to counteract the tendency 
to flatulent distension: large doses of mercurials, neutral salts, and strong 
purgatives are all to be avoided. Alkalies, even when given to conn- AGE, OLD-AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER. 
45 
teract a tendency to the acid of gout or gravel, must be carefully 
watched, and not too long continued; they may produce the opposite 
state from that which they are intended to correct, a much greater evil. 
Pills, especially if at all hard, are apt to pass through the bowels un- 
changed. When an aperient is required by an old person, none is more 
suitable than a moderate dose of infusion of senna, to which a little 
ginger, or a teaspoonful of bark or of gentian is added. Six to eight 
drams of the compound decoction of aloes answers well, if there is no 
great tendency to piles. When the bowels are habitually constipated, a 
clyster, of a pint to a pint and a half of warm soap-water, must be given 
occasionally as required, this counteracts the great tendency to faecal 
accumulation. The doses of medicine ought always to be diminished 
after the period of incipient old age. (See Sanitary Science, Climac- 
teric Disease, Health, Diet, Exercise, Climate, Air, Clothing,. 
Longevity, Decay, Houses, Sleep, Stimulants, Tobacco, Life; Eye, 
Diseases of; Ear, Diseases of; Health Resorts, Mineral Waters, 
Rheumatism, Gout, Gravel, Apoplexy, Paralysis, Baths, Ablution, 
Sick-Room, Cookery for the Sick. ) 
AGENT, a'-jent^ in Medicine, anything which acts or produces an 
effect upon the body. In Pathology, the extraneous causes of disease 
are called morbific agents ; and in Therapeutics, medicines, and all. 
things used in the treatment of the disease, are called therapeutical 
agents. 
AGRIMONY, ag'-re-mo-ne [Lat. Agrimonid}, also called cockleburr 
and stickwort. The Agrimony, a genus of dicotyledonous plants, belong- 
ing to the Rose order, or Rosacea. The species A. Eupatoria is one 
of our common roadside plants, and is found in flower about June. The 
leaves are very handsome, being large and deeply cut at the edge, and 
divided even down to the main stalk; the flowers are yellow, arranged 
on a long simple spike, with a little leaf at the base of each, and the 
fruit is beset with bristles. Agrimony is a mild tonic, alterative, vermi- 
fuge, and astringent.' Is highly recommended in bowel complaints, 
gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, chronic mucous diseases, and chronic affections 
of the digestive organs. A strong decoction, if persisted in, is reputed 
very successful in scrofula; it is also useful as a gargle in ulcerations of 
the mouth and throat. Dose of the powdered leaves 20 to 60 grains ; of 
the decoction, 2 or 3 ounces three times a day. (See Decoction.) 
AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER, a'-gu, in-ter-mit'tent [Fr. 
aigue, sharp], sometimes called chill fever. This is a febrile disease, 
occurring in paroxysms, and observing a certain regular succession, char- 
acterized by unnatural coldness, unnatural heat, and unnatural perspira- 
tion. These phenomena are developed in a succession, more or less- 46 
AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER. 
regular, which pass into each other by insensible steps. It prevails 
chiefly in marshy districts; the production of that condition of the 
atmosphere which originates it being generally associated with the pres- 
ence of decaying vegetable and animal matter. To this peculiar atmos- 
pheric state, the terms marsh miasma, and malaria, have been applied. 
A certain degree of heat appears necessary for the origination of malaria; 
ague is unknown in cold regions, and becomes more virulent the nearer 
the tropics are approached. The malarious poison does not seem to 
extend to any great height above the surface of the marsh, and persons 
who are compelled by circumstances to sleep in a locality where ague 
prevails, are more likely to escape the effects, by occupying rooms in the 
upper stories of the house. Moreover, marsh poison may be carried a 
considerable distance by the wTind; the leeward side of a malarious dis- 
trict is always the most dangerous. High and thickly grown trees have 
the power of attracting and retaining marsh miasmata; their vicinity, 
therefore, in malarious districts, at night, and especially as sleeping 
stations, is to be avoided; at the same time, the fact is taken advantage 
of by the residents in such districts, for if they can place their dwellings 
so that a belt of trees intervenes between them and the marsh, they are 
safe. Strangers are more likely to become the subjects of ague than 
those who are regularly resident in the district; the latter, however, if 
the district be a decidedly malarious one, even if they do not suffer from 
regular ague, are scarcely ever healthy. An individual, whether in this 
country or abroad, should consider w'ell before placing himself within the 
influence of a malarious atmosphere; no worldly advantage can be set 
off against the miserable condition of a man subject to periodic ague. 
The emigrant, in choosing the scene of his future labors, ought to make 
himself very certain upon this head, and when he is assured, should be 
very careful not to expose himself, even for a night, to the influence of 
an ague district if he possibly can avoid it. One of the most remarkable 
features of intermittent fever, is its tendency to return upon those who 
have once suffered from it. An east wind, indiscretion in diet, anything 
which lowers the tone of the general health, may bring back the enemy. 
A paroxysm of ague is divided by scientific winters into three consecu- 
tive stages, called respectively the cold, hot, and sweating stages. 
Symptoms.-A sensation of uneasiness and distress of the pit of the 
stomach; the patient is languid, tired, debilitated, and incapable of 
exerting himself; he occasionally stretches his limbs and is continually 
yawning; he soon begins to feel cold chills running down the back, and 
gradually extending over his whole frame; the skin turns blue, and is 
cold to the touch, the surface being raised into little roughened promin- 
ences, giving rise to the characteristic appearance called in popular AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER. 
47 
language ' ' goose skin, ' ' and in technical terms cutis anserina; the 
features shrink and turn pale, the lips and nails assume a blue color, and 
the fingers are much drawn up, so that rings which previously fitted 
tightly, now fall off; the urine is scanty, the tongue white and furred, 
the respiration is hurried, and the teeth chatter. By degrees this state 
of things passes into the hot stage: flushes of heat begin to wander over 
various parts of the body; the skin, previously rough and pale, regains 
its natural smoothness and color, the face becomes hot and plethoric- 
looking, the features regain their ordinary condition, the countenance 
assumes its natural expression, and the pulse returns to its normal 
frequency and fulness. After the skin has remained in this hot and dry 
state for a short space of time, perspiration begins to break out in various 
parts of the surface, especially upon the face and forehead, the thirst is 
allayed, the breathing becomes natural, and the urine secreted in its 
healthy proportion. 
The disease does not always run so regular a course as described 
above ; but one or more of the stages may be left out, and rare instances 
have been known in which the order of the stages has been reversed. 
The aguish paroxysm returns with great regularity, and this is one of 
the most interesting points in the history of the disease, and one very 
difficult to account for, and so has been thought, as is usual in such cases, 
to be due to many different chains of circumstances. By the time of 
the regular return of the paroxysm, ague has been divided into three 
different species, called quotidian, tertian, and quartan ague; and wo 
shall now proceed to say a few words about each of them. 
The time elapsing between the end of one paroxysm and the begin 
nine of another is called an intermission, and that between the com 
mencement of one fit and the beginning of another an interval. In the 
quotidian form of ague, fits occur every day, and usually in the morning, 
lasting from ten to twelve hours, and, of course, having the shortest 
interval. Its cold stage is short; but the whole paroxysm lasts longer 
than those of the other two species. The quotidian form most frequently 
occurs in the spring, and is easy of cure. In tertian ague, the attacks 
recur every second day: thus, a person being attacked on Monday, will 
have a return of the disease on the following Wednesday. It commences 
about noon, and is the form most commonly met with. Quartan ague 
occurs in paroxysms which return every third day: a person who has a 
fit on Monday, will have another on Thursday. It is the most severe 
form of the disorder, and the most difficult to cure. It occurs late in 
the afternoon, and as it has the longest cold stage, so it has the longest 
interval. It prefers the autumnal months for its attacks, and often 
proves fatal to life. 48 
AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER. 
There are various modifications of these three forms described by 
scientific writers, and occasionally met with in. actual practice, but which 
need no remarks in a work of the present kind, the three detailed above 
being those commonly occurring, and are types of the disease. Some- 
times intermittent fever occurs in an erratic form, accompanied by no 
well-marked symptoms; but by its capricious behaviour is easily dis- 
tinguished, and readily cured by the experienced medical practitioner. 
Treatment.-When an individual is attacked with the cold stage of 
the fever, the application of external warmth is at once the most natural 
and beneficial remedy; this may be done either by means of bags of 
heated bran, salt, or any other convenient method; or if a vapor-bath 
be at hand, it may be used, or an extempore one made, by seating the 
patient, wrapped in a blanket, on a chair over a bucket containing hot 
wTater, which is kept steaming by means of heated stones thrown into it 
from time to time, Warm, diluent drinks may be freely allowed, weak 
tea, barley-water, and such like; only in a very few debilitated cases 
may a little wine be added. Emetics have been given at this stage, but 
are not advisable; a brisk purgative is, however, required at the com- 
mencement ; none is more convenient than a pill containing one grain of 
calomel, and three grains of the compound rhubarb pill. Of these, two 
may be given to an adult, or 
Take of Sulphate of magnesia Twelve drams. 
Carbonate of magnesia Three drams. 
Peppermint water Six ounces.-Mix. 
Take two tablespoonfuls when required. 
When the hot stage has fairly set in, cooling drinks may be allowed, 
and the surface of the body sponged with tepid water, and when sweat 
begins to moisten the surface, the trunk and limbs must be rubbed dry with 
towels, and the sweating encouraged by tepid drinks, until the feverish 
symptoms are quite gone. The individual paroxysm being over, the 
object is to cure the disease and prevent its recurrence. For this pur- 
pose numberless remedies have been proposed, tried, and the vast 
majority of them rejected as little less than worthless. The sheet-anchor 
still is to be found in the cinchona bark, or its chief alkaloid, quinine. 
Whatever remedy may be selected, it is essentially necessary to preface 
its use by thoroughly clearing out the whole passage of tlie alimentary 
canal by some active purgative; and there is none that will more fre- 
quently meet the desired indication than the calomel and rhubarb, 3 
grains of the former to 5 of the latter, followed in four hours by a dose 
of castor-oil. If, however, the patient be ansemic, and the fever of a 
low type, the calomel must be omitted. Various methods of adminis- 
tering quinine in ague have been proposed, each having a numerous body 
of advocates. One proposes to give it in large doses, not only during AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER. 
49 
the intermissions, but also during the hot stages. Another says it should 
be given in one large dose immediately after the paroxysm of the fever. 
Another, that it should be given in one large dose immediately before 
the expected paroxysm. Yet another, that it should be given in one 10 
grain dose on a day free from fever. While the celebrated Prof. Graves, 
who objects to the continued use of quinine, proposes to give it at long 
intervals, administering it for four successive days, then intermitting it 
for the following six, thus embracing the interval comprehended in three 
fits. By this means, he says the system is kept sufficiently under the 
curative influence of the remedy without being rendered too familiar with 
it. The weight of the testimony from all quarters, however, appears to 
be in favor of its administration in comparatively small doses during the 
intermission of the fever. A very safe plan is the following: After 
having given a brisk purgative, and when the stomach is loaded, an 
emetic composed of 10 grains of powdered ipecac, also, 
Take of Sulphate of quinine Eighteen grains. 
Dilute sulphuric acid One dram. 
Compound tincture of lavender Two drams. 
Pure water Six ounces.-Mix. 
Let two tablespoonfuls be given every four hours. 
Very large doses of quinine have been taken, apparently without 
injury, but the practice is not, by any means, without danger. In the con- 
gestive variety of ague, the chief reliance must be placed upon the 
immediate administration of full doses of quinine, from 10 to 20 grains 
repeated every hour or two until there is reaction. If the patient cannot 
swallow, or if there be persistent vomiting, it should be administered by 
enema in a larger dose. At the same time mustard should be applied 
over the chest, abdomen, and to the extremities, or along the spine, or 
flannels steeped in hot water to which mustard has been added, or friction 
with the hands or a woollen cloth. 
When quinine fails, as it sometimes will, arsenic may be safely, and 
generally, successfully given as follows: 
Take of Fowler's solution of arsenic Twenty drops. 
Infusion of gentian Eight ounces.-Mix 
Take an eighth part three times a day. 
If any unpleasant symptoms arise, such as nausea, vomiting, purging, 
watering of the eyes, itching of the eyelids, and headache, the arsenic 
must be promptly stopped. 
Salicine is another remedy which has been much used in this disease, 
but it is inferior in its effects to quinine. It may be taken thus: 
Take of Salicine Half a dram. 
Pure water Six ounces. 
Tincture of cardamoms Two drams.-Mix. 
Give two tablespoonfuls three times a day. 50 
AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER. 
Nitric acid has also been very highly recommended in the treatment 
of ague. Twenty-five drops of the dilute acid of the pharmacopoeia may 
be given every six hours in a wine-glassful of water, or some bitter 
infusion, as chamomile, which is itself said to have some influence over 
ague. 
Among the other substitutes for quinine, may be mentioned piperine, 
the active principle of the piper nigrum, or black pepper, in doses of 6 
or 8 grains three times a day; berberine, ferrocyanuret of iron; common 
salt, given in half dram doses in some mucilaginous vehicle, such as 
slippery-elm water, every two or three hours; sal-ammoniac, and the 
Cornus Florida or American dogwood. The latter used in the form of 
decoction made by boiling a handful of the bark in a quart of water, and 
given in wine-glassful doses every three or four hours, will certainly 
exercise a very marked influence over even severe attacks of this disease. 
Preventive Treatment.-Persons who are compelled to go into, or 
reside in malarious districts, should always take certain precautions 
which are more or less effective in warding off an attack of this unwel- 
come visitor. The clothing should be suited to the temperature of the 
particular region, the night air should be carefully avoided, the bed-room 
occupied should be in the upper part of the house, the windows should 
be closed at night, and a fire lit in the neighborhood, as it is an 
undeniable fact that fire has a tendency to destroy malaria. Care should 
be taken not to drink the water from ponds, creeks or superficial springs, 
and if this cannot be avoided, the water should first be well boiled. 
Bathing in these streams, especially after sundown, should not be 
indulged in. Persons going into such a district, should never go with- 
out a supply of quinine. Two or three grains in a glass of infusion of 
chamomile, or calamus root, before breakfast, will often suffice to carry 
one through a temporary residence with comparative safety. It is also 
of very great importance that the stomach and bowels should be main- 
tained in a healthy condition. Constipation must be carefully obviated 
by proper regard to regimen, and an occasional dose of aperient medi- 
cine. "Early to bed" in these situations, is good advice, but not 
"early to rise." Before going out from the house, the stomach should 
be replenished with a good supply of food, and care should be taken not 
to sleep by the way. Parties erecting dwelling-houses in malarious 
localities, will be wise to see that a belt of trees is left standing between 
them and the marshy ground. They should be built also on high ground, 
and on the windward side of any swamp or suspicious ground. On 
account of this remarkable property of marsh poison to cling to the 
foliage of trees, it is very dangerous in malarious places, to go under 
large thick trees, and more dangerous still to sleep under them. There AGUE, INTERMITTENT FEVER-AIR. 
51 
is very high authority for stating that the common sunflower is a very 
powerful corrective of the miasmatic poison. Large quantities of them 
planted around the dwelling are said to effectually ward off* the disease. 
Dr. Cartwright, of Natchez, asserts that the jussioea grandiflora, or 
floating plant of the bayous and lakes of lower Louisiana, possesses the 
power of preventing the development of malaria in regions particularly 
adapted for its generation. Of course, removal of the person from the 
malarious locality is of prime importance, but where this cannot be 
done, attention to the above suggestions will very much ameliorate the 
situation. (See Quinine, Coknus Florida, Climate, Malaria.) 
AGUE CAKE, the enlarged spleen, which is frequently the result 
of repeated attacks of ague. It forms a perceptible tumor in the left 
hypochondriac region of the abdomen. (See Abdomen, Spleen.) 
AILANTHUS GLANDULOSA, adan'-thus. The bark is said to be 
antispasmodic and a muscular depressant. It is used in epilepsy, palpita- 
tion of the heart, asthma, hiccough, and dysentery. Dose of the fluid 
extract, 10 to 30 drops three times a day. 
AIR, are [Gr. aer, air], a term commonly applied to the atmosphere; 
the fluid which we breathe, and with which our globe is surrounded. It 
is believed to extend to the height of about forty-five miles. The weight 
of our atmosphere, amounting to fifteen pounds upon every square inch 
of surface exposed to it at ordinary levels, exerts a pressure of nearly 
fourteen tons distributed over the surface of every grown man. We do 
not feel this, because it is counteracted by the aeriform elasticity of the 
fluids contained within our bodies ; but when the pressure of the atmos- 
phere is taken off any portion of the surface, as by an exhausted cup- 
ping-glass, it is the elastic counteracting force within the body which 
pushes up the covered portion of the skin. Air is not a simple body, 
but it is a mechanical mixture of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, with 
small quantities of water and carbonic acid, as follows: 
By Measure. 
By Weight. 
Nitrogen 
77.5 
75.55 
Oxygen 
21 
23.32 
Water 
1.42 
1.03 
Carbonic acid 
08 
10 
These proportions, however, are not always the same, and sometimes 
minute quantities of ammonia, ozone, and certain other substances are 
detected. That air, in common with all other bodies, is possessed of 
weight, is proved by weighing a flask before, and after it has been 
exhausted of air. According to Biot, 100 cubic inches weigh 31 grains. 
Heat causes air to expand; cold to contract. Thus, if a bladder is half 
filled with air and held near a fire, it will expand until the bladder is 52 
Alli. 
quite full, and on being taken away it will gradually contract to its 
former bulk. Air being elastic and compressible, it follows that the 
higher we go the lighter the air becomes. The air analyzed at the foot 
of Chimborazo has the same composition as that analyzed at its summit, 
though it differs materially in density. The nitrogen of the atmosphere 
is believed to serve the purpose, chiefly, of diluting the oxygen, and 
moderating its action. It is to the oxygen contained in the atmosphere 
that its chemical actions are mainly due. It is this that supports com- 
bustion, and sustains the respiration of animals. In the process of 
respiration the air is being constantly rendered impure by a portion of its 
oxygen being converted into carbonic acid. The average quantity of 
carbonic acid given out by the lungs constitutes about 4.48 per cent, of 
the expired air, and the quantity exhaled by a healthy man in 24 hours 
is estimated at 8 or 9 ounces. It is remarkable, however, that the more 
impure the air, or the greater the quantity of carbonic acid it already 
contains, the less is the amount exhaled. Knowing then the importance 
of a free excretion of carbonic acid, we see the necessity of breathing a 
pure air, and consequently the importance of ventilation, or of keeping 
up a constant supply of fresh air, particularly in rooms where a number 
of persons are breathing together. 
The headaches and uneasy sensations caused by close, crowded rooms, 
are familiar to all; the tragedy of the black hole of Calcutta, and that of 
the Irish steamer a few summers ago, are notorious. In the latter, sixty 
persons fastened down in a close, small cabin, perished in less than six 
hours. These individuals were actually poisoned by the carbonic acid 
gas they had themselves expired. Such effects are too obvious to require 
comment. It is the gradual undermining of health, the slow poisoning 
of those who habitually breathe a vitiated air to which attention requires 
to be drawn, and more particularly in the case of sleeping apartments. 
When it is considered that one per cent, of carbonic acid in the air will 
cause uneasiness ; that ten per cent, is the probable limit where imme- 
diate danger to life commences, and that every adult man vitiates at 
least two hundred and sixteen cubic feet per hour of the pure element, it 
is needless to say more upon the necessity for proper ventilation; more- 
over, exhalations from the surface of the bodies, even of the healthy, is 
constantly adding a considerable proportion to the other sources of atmos- 
pheric impurity. Notwithstanding facts like the above, people lie 
singly, or in numbers, for six or eight hours every night, breathing over 
and over again the same contaminated atmosphere. They sleep heavily, 
and rise in the morning, wondering perhaps that they feel even more 
languid than when they lay down at night. 
The notorious cases of low lodging-hohses, and other such resorts, are AIR. 
53 
not now alluded to, but the less suspected nurseries, and well-furnished 
apartments, even of the higher classes, many of which, with door, 
window, and chimney closed, and heavy curtains drawn round heavy 
sleepers, are perfect hot-beds of disease. It is time such ignorant, culp- 
able disregard of all the principles of health should cease. We spend on 
an average, one-third of our lives in our bed-rooms for the purpose of 
refreshing the body, how important then to have them as airy as possible, 
with free entrance for the good air, free exit for the deteriorated. If the 
door of a room must be fastened at night, let it be by a chain-bolt, or if 
it must be locked let the upper panels be perforated, or the window 
fitted with a pane of perforated glass or zinc-at all events let air in 
somehow. Keep the chimney open that it may carry oft' the impure air; 
this it will do, particularly if fitted with a good ventilator. Breathing 
the air in crowded assemblies of people is only occasional, and generally 
for a short time; it can do comparatively slight mischief, but the air we 
breathe for one-third of our lives cannot be vitiated without the most 
serious injury to health, and curtailment of life. Many a mother has 
mourned over the untimely grave of a child, little suspecting how the 
close, hot nursery had undermined the young constitution, before the 
fatal cold, or epidemic snatched her treasure away. 
Diet, clothing, exercise, all claim serious attention, still more, for old 
or young, the purity and ventilation of the sleeping apartment. 
Burning candles or lamps vitiate air in the same manner as the 
respiratory process of animals, they consume oxygen and form carbonic 
acid, consequently, they are undesirable in close rooms at night, or 
indeed at any time, if there is insufficient renewal of the air. A fire in 
the bed-room is recommended as a means of ventilation, and undoubtedly 
is so as long as it is burning briskly, if kept well replenished, and if the 
chimney draws well, but when, during the hours of sleep, the fire gets 
low, and the draught up the chimney is diminished, the air vitiated by 
the burning embers is very apt to become diffused through the apart- 
ment, and with it, sulphurous and other fumes. This point is one fre- 
quently overlooked, and from the very injurious consequences which may 
result, requires strict attention. Plants or flowers kept in a sleeping 
apartment are another not unfrequent source of impure air. for although 
living vegetation under the influence of sunlight has the power of 
abstracting carbonic acid from the atmosphere, which in fact it continu- 
ally purifies from the effects of animal respiration, in darkness, the case 
is reversed; not only do leaves cease to absorb carbonic acid, but they 
give it out. When it is remembered, that in a school in which pupils 
had been taking lessons for three hours, with doors and windows closed, 
the amount of carbonic acid has been found to be eight times the 54 
AIR 
average; that much less than this causes uneasiness, that a little more 
may cause death, enough has been said, to prove the necessity for pre- 
serving the air we breathe in a state of the highest possible purity, and 
of avoiding every known source of deterioration. In the room of sick- 
ness, the necessity is increased tenfold; both for the sake of the patient 
and of those around,-the air must be kept pure. In the few cases in 
which ventilation cannot be had recourse to, Liebig recommends the use 
of slacked lime spread on a board; this quickly absorbs the carbonic acid 
of any closed space in which it may be placed, and fresh air must rush 
in through the crevices to supply the place of the former gas. It scarcely 
requires mention, that all decomposing substances in whatever situation, 
cannot fail to render the air impure-moist vegetable matter particularly; 
damp decaying wood, sawdust, straw, etc., all exhale carbonic acid, and 
in clpse places may also originate serious disease. It is worthy of note, 
that whilst decomposing dead animal matter does not seem so materially to 
affect health, the morbid exhalations from living animal bodies poison the 
atmosphere to such an extent as to occasion the most malignant fevers. 
Locality, it is well known, exerts much influence over the purity of the 
atmosphere; the air of towns must, of course, be less pure, principally 
from admixture of sulphurous vapor, the product of combustion. The 
air of the coast is stimulating and strengthening, probably in some 
measure owing to its containing minute portions of the sea constituents. 
The air of all damp, low situations is particularly unhealthy; doubly so 
if the situation is surrounded by elevations which prevent atmospheric 
changes. Intermittent fevers, and diseases of a neuralgic character pre- 
vail in these places; the noxious influence is generally more potent near 
the ground, and those who are compelled to reside in such localities, may 
escape much evil by occupying rooms as elevated above the soil as pos- 
sible. 
Dry air is generally good, but it may be too dry, and produce dis- 
agreeable effects upon the skin; chapped hands, etc. Moist air, when 
combined with cold, is worst of all. The state of the atmosphere varies 
much in the twenty-four hours. The fresh air of early morning, salu- 
brious to the strong and healthy, requires to be dried and warmed by the 
sun before it is suitable for the invalid; even in summer, in this climate, 
this is scarcely the case before eight o'clock. Exposure to the damp air 
of evening and night must always be shunned by the weak in health; 
so noxious is it in some tropical or marshy regions, that one night's sleep 
within its influence is certain to be followed by an attack of illness. That 
a uniform temperature and unchanging climate is not so well adapted to 
maintain health as a variable one, is admitted on the authority and 
experience of Sir James Clark, Dr. Combe, and others. AIR. 
55 
It has become a question of the greatest moment to determine the 
quantity of air that is necessary to be supplied to human beings to main- 
tain them in a state of health under varying circumstances ; to determine 
whether the air they breathe, though sufficient in quantity, may not be 
altogether hurtful on account of certain impurities; to determine what 
these impurities are, and how to destroy them, or render them innocuous; 
and how, by the help of apparatus or otherwise, a sufficient quantity of 
air may be admitted to, and circulated through buildings in which large 
numbers of people are congregated. It is also one of the most interest- 
ing inquiries of modern times to ascertain what, and how many diseases 
may be due to deficient quantity of air for respiration, or, on the other 
hand, to the presence of impurities in the air that is breathed. It is 
almost needless to say that these are points upon which medical science 
is throwing more and more light every day; and it will be the object of 
this article to give a mere sketch of what is being done to advance our 
knowledge of the subject, in the hope that all may lend a helping hand 
to put an end to the prejudice and ignorance which still exists on these 
vital points, but which, nevertheless, are points concerning the every- 
day life and health, not only of ourselves, but of generations yet to 
come. 
As to the requisite quantity of air, it may be well to say, once for 
all, that although it is desirable to know the least quantity that is com- 
patible with health, still, wherever practicable, the quantity should not 
be restricted to anything like this amount, but a full and large supply 
should be ungrudgingly given, with the assurance that benefit will 
accrue. 
In all calculations as to the proper amount of air to be supplied to 
buildings, an ample allowance must be made for the consumption of air 
by artificial lights. In his excellent work upon Practical Hygiene, Dr. 
Parker, an English writer, says:-"A common gas burner will burn 
nearly 3 feet per hour, and will consume 10, or probably 12 cubic feet in 
an evening (four hours), and therefore, from 18,000 to 21,600 cubic feet 
of air must be introduced in the four hours, in order properly to dilute 
the products of combustion, unless they are removed by a special chan- 
nel." It consists with the experience of medical men that in cases of 
typhus, cholera, small-pox, and perhaps, more particularly of hospital- 
gangrene and erysipelas, nothing is so effectual as an unlimited 
supply of air, and that if they must name a figure which will satisfy 
them, their demand should be for not less than five or six thousand cubic 
feet per head per hour, in order properly to dilute and remove the poisons 
with which the air is loaded. 
Those who have charge of the ventilation, either of public buildings, or 56 
AIR. 
private houses, should not forget that they cannot at all trust to their own 
senses to inform them as to the purity or impurity of the air, for, after a 
time, the nerves of smell and taste lose their delicacy of perception ; and 
it is familiar to every one that a person maybe in a very close room, and 
be quite unconscious of the fact, although a stranger coming in from the 
fresh air at once perceives the disagreeable odor. Again, people living 
near certain manufactories which emit odors very prejudicial to health, 
become so accustomed to them after a time, that they fail to notice them, 
and are often lulled into a dangerous tranquillity on the subject, ascribing 
the eifects of these effluvia entirely to other causes ; and it must never 
be forgotten that although the natural means for the removal of noxious 
vapors are very wonderful and very effectual, such as the diffusion of 
gases, their dispersion by winds, their decomposition into innocuous com- 
pounds, etc., still, there are in existence in this country, many neighbor- 
hoods where the atmosphere is polluted to a degree quite incompatible 
with the life or health either, of animals, or vegetables. In considering 
this subject, every one would do well to reflect that the atmosphere comes 
into direct contact with the surface of the air cells of our lungs, which, 
if spread out, would cover an area of from ten to twenty square feet. 
Over this surface our blood is circulating with immense rapidity, ready 
at once to absorb all the contents which the air, pure or impure, may 
offer to it, and in addition to this, the impurities contained in atmos- 
pheric air are swallowed directly as well as respired, and are absorbed 
by the digestive system also. It is even now matter of interesting 
inquiry how much the evil effects of poisonous emanations in the atmos- 
phere are to be ascribed to their being swallowed or respired. In the 
disease familiarly known to medical men as " Miner's lung," the atmos- 
pheric impurities to which the miners are exposed, are found after death 
in their lungs, in the shape of pieces of carbon or charcoal, which have 
become covered by part of the investing structure of the lung, which has 
so to speak grown over them, and it may be fancied what an amount of 
irritation the presence of such substances will give rise to ill so delicate 
an organ as the human lung. 
By the aid of the microscope., we are enabled to demonstrate the 
presence of numerous substances in the air which we breathe, and 
especially in the atmosphere where certain trades and industries are 
carried on. It would be quite impossible, in an article like this, to 
attempt to give an account, or even an enumeration of the investigations 
on this subject. Let it suffice to mention a few of those trades which are 
most detrimental to health in this way; and it is a melancholy instance 
of the perversity of human nature, that some of the most ordinary pre- 
cautions, against the injurious effects of certain trades, afforded by AIR. 
57 
liberal employers, have met with such a cool reception from the men, 
and, in not a few instances, have been deliberately refused, although the 
reduction of mortality from their use has been proved over and over 
again. Employers, on the other hand, must take care that the means 
they offer are good and sensible, and must not, for instance, expect their 
''hands," perhaps already enfeebled in health from long hours and bad 
air, to adopt all at once a faulty system of ventilation, the only effect of 
which is to add to their sufferings, by causing them to take cold, or by 
making them the prey of some inflammatory disease to which they are 
predisposed, owing to the circumstances above named. 
Amongst the trades and occupations which are most injurious, on 
account of the impurities in the air which those employed are forced to 
breathe, we might mention mining, grinding (wet and dry), button-mak- 
ing, brassfounding, glass-making, water-gilding, electro-plating, painting, 
and many others; besides all those trades which, though perhaps not 
positively injurious in themselves, are made so on account of the way in 
which they are carried on, by bad management, bad ventilation, etc. 
It has been proved that the colliers where the mines are well ven- 
tilated, do not suffer from diseases of the lungs to anything like 
the same extent as those working in mines where the ventilation is 
deficient. "Potter's asthma" is the popular name for disease of the 
lungs induced in that class of workmen by the irritating dust to which 
they are exposed, especially those called " flat pressers." Brassfounders 
are very subject to bronchitis, owing to irritation caused by the fumes of 
oxide of zinc which escape in the process known as brass-mixing. 
Makers of pearl buttons, especially those who grind the material, are 
liable to consumption, owing to the minute particles which are inhaled. 
Many other instances might be noted; but the above are probably suffi- 
cient. It is indeed a dreadful thing to think that many of our trades 
and industries are the direct means of destroying the flower of our popu- 
lation, and that this is owing generally to two causes-to the trade being 
in itself unhealthy, and to its being carried on in such a w'ay as to make 
the preservation of health, under the circumstances, almost an impossi- 
bility. It is well known that, during the last ten or twenty years, many 
cases o/ poisoning by arsenic occurred, owing to the inhalation of the 
dust of rooms papered with green paper, into the composition of the 
green coloring matter of which, arsenic largely enters. 
If any further proof were wanted to establish how, in certain circum- 
stances, it may be truly said that- 
" The all-surrounding heaven, the vital air, 
Is big with death," 
we may mention that, by the aid of the microscope, suspended matters 58 
AIR. 
have been discovered in the air of hospitals, barracks, and other public 
places, of such a nature that even' the most ignorant may conceive how 
the poisons of various diseases maybe transmitted through the air. Not 
only are the products and parts of the structure of our own bodies so 
discovered, but also the lower forms of animal and vegetable life. It 
should be remembered that, in the air of sick-rooms and such situations, 
these accumulations are much more liable to occur than in places not 
subject to emanations from the body or from its excretions, sores, or 
wounds; and hence a more effectual system of ventilation ought to be 
maintained. 
In manufacturing towns people should take care, before fixing on a 
residence, that it is not too near any of these well-known "works," 
which so pollute the air as to render it unhealthy, and unfit for respira- 
tion. Such are the various glue and bone works, as well as slaughter- 
houses, which emit peculiar animal or organic odors of the most abom- 
inable kind ; alkali works, which give off hydro-chloric acid gas ; chemi- 
cal, bleaching, India rubber works, etc. 
In order to ascertain how foul air may be deprived of its impurities, 
the reader is referred to article Disinfectants. 
In conclusion, one word of warning to those who work in, and spend 
the greater part of their time in bad, foul air, such as tailors, dress- 
makers, printers, boot and shoe makers, and those who work in many 
manufactories. A large series of the most extended observations, prove 
incontestably the sad state of those who work in many large establish- 
ments of the above kind; and though there are many honorable excep- 
tions, where everything that money, science, and care suggest, is will- 
ingly done to promote the health of the employed, yet, in a large pro- 
portion, the state of matters is indeed lamentable. Irregular work, long 
hours, insufficient time for meals, but, above all, deficient ventilation, 
are too often found combining to sap the foundations of constitutions 
once healthy, and to lay the seeds of irreparable disease, which sooner 
or later (generally wofully soon) brings the victim to a premature grave. 
It is quite true that, occasionally, instances of this find their way into 
the public prints, and excite momentary surprise and indignation; but 
"to mend the world's a vast design," and years roll on without any radical 
cure being applied to a system which threatens greatly to weaken the 
physique of the country at large. It will scarcely be believed that there 
are to be found numerous tailors' workshops in the country where the 
men are huddled together in dens, the atmosphere of which is rendered 
intolerable by the gas, the stoves, and their accumulated breaths and 
emanations, and where the amount of air supplied is not one-tenth part 
of what we are deliberately told is necessary for health. The same AIR 
59 
state of matters obtains as to dressmakers and printers, and many heart- 
rending instances might be given of blasted health and hopes; but while 
dealing with a subject of such grave importance, it is better to avoid 
any attempt at dramatic effect, and rather trust that the bare statement 
of general truth may induce all who have any influence in such matters 
to aid in remedying what is well known to be such a crying evil. 
Iblany diseases are produced by changes from heat to cold, and from 
cold to heat. Most inflammatory diseases are produced, in a greater or 
less degree, by changes in the temperature of the air. To avoid these 
changes, proper attention should be paid to our clothing, our houses, 
and the degree of heat and cold we are capable of supporting with com- 
fort. Living long in a very hot air drains the body of its moisture, and 
disposes it to fevers, diseases of the liver, cholera morbus, etc.; and 
living long in an extremely cold air exhausts the heat and weakens 
all the vital functions. Sudden changes in the temperature should be 
particularly guarded against. Changes in the weight of the atmosphere 
affect our health very materially, being sometimes much heavier than 
at others. When we consider that the difference in the pressure of the 
air upon the body of a medium-sized man at different times is equal to a 
ton weight, we do not wonder that such changes affect the health. 
When it is heavy, the fluids and flesh of the body are rendered denser 
and firmer; and, on the contrary, when it is light, the flesh, the vessels 
and the fluids expand, and the whole body is rendered tumid. In very 
windy weather the air is always light, and this accounts for most people 
feeling so uneasy under such circumstances. The nerves are particularly 
affected by the weight of the atmosphere. Hysterics, hypochondria, 
and all nervous affections are very much aggravated by changes which 
are indicated by the barometer. The human body contains a large 
quantity of air incorporated in every tissue, and when the pressure of the 
external air is diminished, the air within expands, and forces asunder 
every fibre in the system. It cannot be doubted that disease is often 
caused by this alone; and though there is no known remedy for this 
evil, still a knowledge of the fact may explain many symptoms other- 
wise mysterious, and it may be owing to this cause that many sick 
people and invalids become bloated, and appear more fleshy than they 
really are. 
Damp air is very injurious to health; hence people who occupy 
cellars and other low, damp places, are necessarily and invariably un- 
healthy. The occupants are sooner or later overtaken by inflammations, 
dysenteries and putrid fevers. There should be legal enactments pro- 
hibiting people from living under the ground, or in damp, wet cellars. 
The sea air is the most pure, healthy and invigorating; not only 60 
AIR 
being a promoter of good health, but of good spirits and a cheerful 
mind. It is the freest of foreign gases and vapors, and therefore con- 
tains the most vital air in the same bulk. Fevers are milder, and sores, 
ulcers and diseases heal quicker at sea than upon the land, if the same 
kind of nourishment is afforded. Sea air has an instantaneous and 
remarkable effect upon the digestive organs. It stimulates the appetite, 
and quickens the conversion of food into blood. The sea air is much 
more favorable than the inland air to those suffering from dyspepsia, 
nervous diseases, liver complaints, ulcers, sores, abscesses, diarrhoea, 
dysentery, the bowel complaint of children, dropsy, and all chronic 
diseases excepting consumption, and during the summer the sea-shore 
air of New England is better than that of the Southern States, being 
cooler. But the States bordering on the Atlantic, north of Florida, are 
the least favorable for consumptives and rheumatic persons, of any 
in the Union, being so subject to variations. This is especially true in 
the winter season. 
The inland air is charged with a variety of gases, vapors and odors, 
arising from the earth in the decomposition of vegetable and animal 
substances. The decay of these substances is so rapid and extensive in 
some seasons that a malignant state of the air is produced; consequently, 
fevers are much more prevalent in inland towns, particularly where 
vegetation is abundant and rapid in growth, than upon the sea-shore or 
islands. 
Marshes, ponds, lakes, and large rivers which overflow extensive 
intervals or meadows, are much the sickliest locations upon the land. 
A miasma or putrid air arises from such places which generates malig- 
nant dysentery, bilious fever, and fever and ague. In such locations 
the houses should be set high, either upon piles, or the highest and 
driest soil; and the night air should be carefully avoided; the body 
should be well defended from sudden chills, and the diet wholesome 
and abundant. 
Dry, sandy places, though not so fertile and prolific, are much 
healthier than moist, alluvial, clayey soils. But, though the country 
air is not so pure as the sea air, it is vastly more healthy than that of 
the city. A much larger proportion of children is raised in the country 
than in the city. The city air confined and still, and mixed with a thou- 
sand noxious vapors, odors, gases and smokes-the smoke of chimneys 
alone occupies a large space in the air of cities-and the perspiration and 
effluvia arising from a dense population of men and animals also con- 
tribute largely to the contamination. Besides these, the decay and 
putrefaction of large stores of fish, grains, meats, vegetables and fruits, 
and the natural accumulations of filth and dirt in the streets and sewers, AIR-ALBINO. 
61 
are all agents in contributing to the impurity of the atmosphere. From 
these and many other sources, innumerable deadly gases constantly arise 
into the air, to be breathed by the inhabitants. Cities located upon 
high, dry land, upon the sea-shore, upon the lake, or upon the prairie, 
where the air can be changed by daily breezes, or fanned away upon the 
open sea or lake, are comparatively healthy. Ventilation should be the 
study of all, but especially of those who live in the city. Every hour 
that can be spared from business should be spent in the parks, or if pos- 
sible in the country. Having your business in the city and your resi- 
dence in the country, is the most preferable practice both for enjoyment 
and health. Even in cities it is much better to allow your children to 
romp in the open air, than to be shut up in the house, deprived of light 
and breezes, as well as exercise. Exercise quickens the circulation of 
the blood, and thereby makes up to a certain extent for the want of a 
pure atmosphere. Those who live a great deal in the open air uniformly 
sleep better, have better appetites, fewer diseases, more strength, and 
live longer than those of sedentary habits. (See Climate, Respiration, 
Lungs, Aeration, Ventilation, Oxygen, Carbonic Acid, Disinfect- 
ants, Nitrogen, Houses.) 
AIR-BEDS. An air-bed consists of a sack, in the shape of a mat- 
tress, divided into a number of air-tight compartments, a projection at 
one end forming the bolster. Each compartment is provided with a 
valve, and can be inflated with air by means of a bellows. Air-beds 
were known at the commencement of the 18th century; but, being 
manufactured of leather, were of considerable cost. They are now made 
of macintosh cloth and vulcanized india-rubber. Their advantages are 
coolness, elasticity, and portability, and they are especially valuable to 
invalids. They are especially useful for invalids, as they maintain a 
uniformly soft surface, and do not, like feather-beds, take an unyielding 
impression from the weight of the body lying upon them. They require 
no "making," as it is termed, and an invalid can without difficulty 
change his position upon them. They are made of some air-tight 
material. When in use they require to be filled with air; but when 
not in use, the air may be let off by means of the valve, and the bed 
folded up. Great care should be taken that the valve is in proper 
order, or the bed may collapse, and cause much annoyance to the 
patient. (See Bed, Bed-room.) 
AIR PASSAGES, FOREIGN BODIES IN. (See Foreign Bodies 
in Air Passages.) 
AIR SWELLINGS. (See Tympany.) 
ALBINO, al-bi'-no [Lat. albus, white], an individual in whom the 
usual coloring matter of the body is absent. The complexion is tin- 62 
ALBINO-AL COIIOL. 
naturally white, the hair white in every part of the body, the iris is of a 
pale rose color, causing the eye to appear pink; the constitution is 
feeble. White rabbits with red eyes are albino rabbits. Albino is a 
Spanish term for the white progeny of negro parents. 
ALBUGO, al-bu'-go [Lat. albugo, whiteness; a white spot], a white 
speck in the eye; a disease in the eye by which the cornea contracts a 
whiteness; leucoma. 
ALBUMEN, al-bu'-men [Lat. albas, white], in Chemistry, a whitish 
viscous matter, which forms an important element in vegetable and 
animal organic substances. It is distinguished by its peculiar property 
of becoming coagulated or insoluble at a high temperature. White of 
egg and serum of blood consist almost entirely of albumen. The hair 
and nails contain large quantities of it in its coagulated state. Pure 
albumen is insoluble in water. White of egg and serum contain a cer- 
tain amount of free alkali, in which it is dissolved; hence its precipita- 
tion when acids are added. It is also precipitated when salts of mer- 
cury, copper, silver, lead, etc., are added to its solution, forming with, 
them definite insoluble compounds. This property renders it valuable 
as an antidote to metallic poisons. Tannin, gallic acid, and extractive 
matter behave with it in a similar manner; for which reason it is used 
much in the arts as a clarifying agent. Its composition is given below, 
the presence of sulphur being rendered familiar to all by the effects of 
cooked eggs upon silver spoons. 
Carbon 53.5 
Hydrogen 7.0 
Nitrogen 15.5 
Oxygen 22.0 
Phosphorus 0.4 
Sulphur 1.6 
100.0 
Heat first coagulates and then hardens albumen, thus impairing its 
digestibility; a reason for avoiding over-cooked meats as well as eggs. 
ALBUMINURIA. (See Bright's Disease.) 
ALCOHOL, al-ko-hol [Arab, al, the, koohl, any volatile substance.] 
Alcohol is the intoxicating principle of all spirituous liquors, or the 
principle upon which the characteristic properties of fermented and dis- 
tilled liquids depend. It is highly rectified or pure spirit; sometimes 
called spirits of wine, from the fact that it was at first obtained by the 
distillation of wine. A mixture of equal weights of absolute alcohol and 
water, is called proof-spirit. If a solution of sugar be exposed to the 
air for any length of time, no change will take place; but if vegetable 
or animal organic matter be present, fermentation commences, and a ALCOHOL. 
63 
fresh principle is formed, which may be separated by distillation. The 
first distillate is comparatively weak; but by the use of caustic potash, 
which has a powerful affinity for water, absolute alcohol is obtained. 
Pure alcohol is colorless and limpid, pungent to the taste and smell. Its 
specific gravity at 60° is .7938. It boils at 173°, and has been rendered 
gelatinous by cold, but has never been frozen. It is very inflammable, 
and burns without smoke. It mixes with water in all proportions, and 
has a great attraction for it. Its solvent powers are great, especially 
with respect to resins and resinous gums. The strength of alcohol is in 
exact proportion to its density, which is estimated by means of a hydrom- 
eter. Proof-spirit has a specific gravity of .918, and contains 49| per 
cent, of absolute alcohol. Wine, beer, and spirits owe their intoxicating 
properties to alcohol. The chemical composition of alcohol is C4II6O2, 
and it is regarded by chemists as a hydrated oxide of the organic base 
ethyl; i.e. C4H54-HO. The alcohols are very numerous, their numbers 
being increased daily. Alcohol of different strengths is much used in 
the arts, as a solvent for varnishes, resins, and essential oils; as a fuel 
in spirit-lamps; as an antiseptic, and as a stimulant in medicine. The 
following tables give the amount by measure of alcohol in various liquids 
contained in one hundred parts: 
Spirits. 
Hollands 57.60 
Whiskey 48-56.00 
Rum 53.68 
Brandy 53.39 
Wines. 
Raisin 25.12 
Marsala 25.09 
Sherry (Brown) 23.01 
Port 22.96 
Madeira 22.27 
Gooseberry 11.84 
Grape 18.11 
Currant 20.55 
Elder 9.87 
Orange 11.26 
Sherry (Amontillado) 20.05 
Claret 15.10 
Burgundy 14.57 
Champagne 12 61 
Hock 12.08 
Tokay 9.88 
Mead 7.32 
Perry 7.26 
Cider (highest average) 9.87 
" (lowest average) 5.21 
Lager Beer (New York) 5.86 
" " (Munich) 4.70 
Ale (Burton) 8 88 
" (Edinburgh) 6.20 
Stout 6.80 
Porter 4.20 
Small Beer 1.28 
In Medicine, alcohol is used to hold in solution certain vegetable, and in 
a few cases mineral substances, which are most conveniently administered 
in this form. Some of these, such as camphor, will dissolve to the 
extent required, only in strong alcohol or rectified spirit; for others a 
more diluted alcohol or proof-spirit is sufficient. 
In addition to its solvent properties, alcohol is likewise valuable from 
its power of preserving the infusions or solutions to which it is added. 64 
AL COHOL-ALDEHYDE. 
One ounce by measure of alcohol, mixed with a pint of water, forms 
a good evaporating lotion to be used when it is desirable to reduce the 
external heat of any portion of the body. As a topical application in 
cases of inflammation, cramps, pains, fevers, bed-sores, alcohol is a most 
valuable remedy. It is an excellent lotion in bruises or sprains. A 
black eye produced by a blow may often be avoided by persistently 
bathing the part with alcohol or some other spirit. It is not taken 
internally in its pure state. In rheumatic inflammations, both acute and 
chronic, hot spirits of wine, or hot alcohol, applied to the part is an 
excellent remedy. In inflammation of the uterus, breasts, and bowels, 
hot applications of alcohol are among the best means of cure. It is the 
alcohol contained in wine, that makes it useful as a lotion for fresh 
wounds. Scratches, burns, cuts, and bites are relieved by bathing with 
alcohol, or some kind of liquor. 
Alcohol, as a counter-irritant, is very effectual in deep-seated pains 
generally, as well as in sore throat, pleurisy, etc. It may be applied as 
a counter-irritant in the following way, namely: rub the part affected 
thoroughly with the alcohol, then wring a cloth out well in it, with which 
cover the part, after which wrap the whole with a dry cloth ; the effect is 
similar to that of a mustard plaster. It will thus be seen that externally 
applied, alcohol produces two opposite effects-when used as an evaporat- 
ing lotion it is cooling, and when used as a counter-irritant it is heating. 
Alcoholic liquors are sometimes useful, and in fact, necessary, to be 
taken internally. In cases of great prostration and exhaustion, following 
a wound or severe accident, wine, brandy, or whiskey should be admin- 
istered in large doses, at once. Poisoning from the bites of venomous 
serpents may generally be effectually treated by immediately administer- 
ing large doses of spirituous liquor, which must be continued till signs 
of intoxication appear. In low fevers it is sometimes necessary to use 
alcoholic drinks. The custom of some people of using spirituous liquors 
for "all the ills and ailments of life," cannot be too much discouraged. 
This practice often becomes a curse, resulting unconsciously in fixed 
habits, which lead to intemperance and woe. (See Spirits, Whiskey, 
Brandy, Ale, Wine, Stimulants; Stimulants, Alcoholic; Tinc- 
tures, ETC.) 
ALDEHYDE, al'-de-hide. When alcohol is submitted to any pro- 
cess by which hydrogen is extracted from it (deoxidation, for instance), 
it becomes an aldehyde, every alcohol having its corresponding alde- 
hyde. Ethylic, or vinous aldehyde, is limpid and colorless, with a 
peculiar and characteristic odor. Its density is .790; it boils at 72°, 
and is neutral to test-paper. On exposure to the air, it absorbs oxygen, 
and resolves into acetic acid. ALDER-ALE. 
65 
ALDER. (See Alnus Bubka.) 
ALE, ail [Saxon eala, eale, or alotK\, a fermented malt liquor. 
The name was formerly given to unhopped malt liquor, but now applied 
to very strong and comparatively light-colored beer. The hop was 
brought into England from the Netherlands in the reign of Henry VIII., 
and the word beer, from the German bier, was then employed to dis- 
tinguish the hopped liquor from the more ancient beverage. The con- 
nection between hops and the word beer is indicated by the old couplet: 
" Hops, reformation, bays, and beer, 
Came into England all in one year." 
Ale made from malt alone was a favorite beverage of the ancient Ger- 
mans, and was esteemed by the Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Isidorus and 
Orosius state that the ancient Britons and other Celtic nations drank 
ale, which they made by a process very similar to our modern brewing. 
They inform us that the grain was first steeped in water and made to 
germinate; it was then dried and ground, after which it was infused in 
a certain quantity of water, and the whole fermented. Ale was formerly 
regarded in England as a necessary of life, and various ordinances or 
assizes have been passed for regulating its price and quality. Thus, in 
1251, during the reign of Henry HI., an assize of bread and ale was 
struck, which settled the price of the latter article as follows: "A 
brewer may sell two gallons of ale for a penny in cities, and three or 
four gallons for the same price in the country." The penny of that 
time was worth about six cents of our currency. Ale, as now dis- 
tinguished from porter and small beer, is prepared from pale malt, and, 
except in the case of bitter ale, a comparatively small proportion of 
hops. Strong ale is made from the best malt and tlie finest kind of 
hops. The fermentation is allowed to proceed slowly, until the yeast is 
exhausted and perfectly separated. The Scotch ales are remarkable for the 
very small quantity of hops which they contain. Strong ales contain from 
5^ to 10 per cent., by weight, of alcohol. They also contain, besides the 
saccharine matter, alcohol, and a bitter principle-a proportion of lactic 
acid, especially when old and hard. Lager beer contains from 4 to 6 per 
cent, of alcohol. There are debilitated conditions of the system, ner- 
vous prostration, dyspepsia, etc., in which good table beer, small beer, 
or lager beer taken in moderation, and with discretion, may be useful, 
providing malt liquor agrees with the patient. The beer is a gentle 
stimulant and tonic, and the bitter principle assists to maintain the tone 
of the stomach. All malt liquors are much healthier kept in bottled 
form, unless they can always be drawn from a cask just opened. Lager 
beer becomes stale or hard in a few hours after the cask is tapped, and 
ale in a few days, and hard or stale ale or beer is always injurious. 66 
ALE-AL 
Some people on this account habitually add a small portion of carbonate 
of soda to their malt liquor, but the practice is most hurtful, and rapidly 
debilitates the stomach, and deteriorates the blood. 
Though ale and beer are often prescribed for the delicate, and in con- 
valescence, with good results, it is not usually a healthy beverage for the 
robust, but for those who will use stimulant in some form, the malt 
liquors and lighter wines are undoubtedly the best; though the constant 
use of them by the healthy or robust-for whom a stimulant or tonic is 
unnecessary-is pernicious. 
India bitter beer agrees with some, and the great amount of bitter it 
contains, acts as a powerful tonic to weak stomachs, but for this very 
reason, its use ought not to be persevered in long at a time. The 
amount of spirit it contains is not large, but the narcotic properties of 
the hop are apt to affect the head. It is lighter than the more saccha- 
rine ales. Malt liquors or ale and beer never agree with those who are 
liable to gout or gravel, and if their use be continued, they are almost 
certain to induce a paroxysm of either of the diseases; the slightest 
degree of acidity or hardness aggravates their bad effects, tenfold. A 
single glass of hard ale is sufficient to induce an attack of gravel in the 
predisposed. Those who suffer from plethora, and consequent head 
symptoms, from chronic cough, or oppression of breathing, from gout, 
gravel, or habitual acidity of the stomach, should never touch either ale 
or beer. 
It should be remembered there is a limit to the use of tonics of any 
kind, and bitter tonics, if taken regularly for a length of time, may tend 
rather to weaken than to strengthen the digestive powers, On this 
account it is to be feared that the now fashionable "bitter beer," and 
lager beer, although good tonics in some states of the system, will, if 
taken too continuously, tend rather to mischief than to benefit. 
Ale or beer is usually most beneficial, taken before or with meals, 
and before retiring, when it induces sleep. Lager beer is preferable to 
ale, as it contains a smaller per cent, of alcohol (See Alcohol, Stimu- 
lants ; Stimulants, Alcoholic ; Tonics, Porter. ) 
ALETRIS, a-le-tris^ Unicorn root, belongs to Nat. order Liliacew. 
Known as star grass, colic root, ague root, crow corn, etc. Indigenous 
to North America. When dried is used as a bitter tonic; useful in 
dyspepsia, hysteria, flatulence, and also as a uterine tonic. The resin- 
ous extract is called Aldrin. Dose of extract, 1 to 2 grains every four 
or six hours; powdered root, 5 to 10 grains three times a day; tincture, 
5 to 15 drops in water every four or six hours. 
ALGJE, ali-jee [Lat. sea-weeds], inBot., comprehends the sea-weeds 
and the multifarious green vegetable forms of simple cellular structure AL G NE-ALIMENT. 
67 
met with in fresh water and in permanently damp situations. The hum- 
blest members of the vegetable kingdom belong to this class. Algae 
are flowerless, and consequently seedless. They are propagated in vari- 
ous ways by reproductive particles, called spores or sporules. The class 
comprehends a vast variety of plants, exhibiting a wonderful multi- 
plicity of forms, colors, sizes, and degrees of complexity in structure. 
Prefessor Bentley roughly estimates the number of species of algae at 
2,500. Many are used for food in different parts of the world, their 
nutritious properties being due to the presence of starch, mannite, 
mucilage, albumen, and glucose. The ashes of several kinds of sea- 
weeds form kelp, formerly extensively used for the preparation of 
carbonate of soda. Iodine is also obtained from sea-weeds. None of 
the plants in this great class are known to be poisonous. 
ALIMENT, al'-e-ment [Lat. alimentum, from alo, I nourish]. Any 
substance that is capable of nourishing the body may be termed aliment. 
Every aliment must be derived from either the animal or vegetable king- 
dom, as the capacity of affording nourishment to the animal system 
would appear to belong exclusively to organized matter, or that which 
has possessed life. Nevertheless, certain substances appertaining to the 
inorganic kingdom, although incapable of themselves to form an aliment, 
have yet the power, when taken in conjunction with aliments, of assist- 
ing in the process of nutrition. These inorganic substances are prin- 
cipally water, salt, lime, etc. Aliments have been distinguished into 
nine classes. The first, or Farinaceous class, includes barley, wheat, 
oats, rice, maize, potatoes, haricots, lentils, peas, etc. The second, or 
Mucilaginous class, comprehends melons, cabbages, turnips, beet-root, 
carrots, asparagus, etc. The third, or Sweet class of aliments, includes 
dates, apricots, dried grapes, figs, the various sorts of sugars, etc. In 
the fourth, or Acidulous class, are grapes, strawberries, raspberries, 
mulberries, pears, prunes, apples, cherries, oranges, gooseberries, etc. 
In the fifth, or Fatty class, there are animal fats, oils, butter, cocoa, 
nuts, walnuts, olives, sweet almonds, etc. The sixth, or Caseous class, 
includes the various sorts of milk, cheese, etc. In the seventh, or 
Gelatinous class, there are several kinds of fish, the flesh of young 
animals, calf's-foot, etc. In the eighth, or Albuminous class, there are 
included brain, eggs, etc. The ninth, or Fibrinous class, comprehends 
the flesh and the blood of various animals. To these nine divisions a 
tenth may be added, comprehending the Condiments, as pepper, salt, 
mustard, vinegar, horseradish, etc. Certain liquids, or Drinks, should 
also be reckoned among the aliments, as water of various kinds (spring- 
water, well-water, river-water), the infusions of tea and coffee, the 
various kinds of fermented liquors, as cider, perry, beer, wine, etc.; the 68 
ALIMENT-ALLMENTARY CANAL. 
alcoholic liquors, as gin, whiskey, brandy, etc. As a rule, aliments 
require to be prepared by cooking, so as to be made more agreeable to 
the palate, or more easy of digestion, but few aliments being used in an 
undressed or natural condition. Amid the great variety of nutrient 
materials with which man has been furnished by his Creator, it is by no 
means a matter of indifference which he selects. The first point is to be 
certain that the aliment used contains all the principles required to sup- 
port health and strength. In a mixed diet, this is tolerably sure to be 
the case ; but not so when the food is restricted to one or two articles; 
and most grievous mistakes have occurred on this point. 
Some alimentary substances contain within themselves whatever is 
required for the nourishment of the animal body; of these, albumen, 
milk, bread, are examples. Others, such as jelly, arrow-root, sugar, 
contain only parts of the elements required for proper nourishment, and 
could not of themselves support life. Children have actually been 
partially starved to death on arrowroot mucilage, made with water and 
sugar alone, whilst those around considered them to be receiving full 
nourishment. At the same time, even in the case of a single nutrient 
compound, such as albumen, containing all requisite principles, experi- 
ence has shown that it alone is unfit to preserve health and strength. 
The whole alimentary system requires the stimulus of change. Aliment, 
before it can actually enter the system, must all be reduced to the state 
of liquid. Some persons err in diluting their food too sparingly, but 
more err in the opposite direction. Aliment may be very nutritious, but 
difficult of digestion. This question, however, falls more fitly under the 
head of diet. (See Food, Drinks, Diet, Bread.) 
ALIMENTARY CANAL, al-e-ment'-a-re ka-naV [Lat. alimentum, 
nourishment, food]. Alimentary canal is the name given to that great 
canal or conduit in animal bodies through which the food passes from the 
mouth to the anus. It distinguishes animal from vegetable life, plants 
having no common receptacle for their food, nor canal for carrying off the 
excrements. In the human subject, it comprises the pharynx, oesophagus 
or gullet, stomach, and large and small intestines, being, in a full-grown 
individual, nearly forty feet in length. The oesophagus extends from the 
throat to the stomach, which it enters towards its larger extremity, pass- 
ing down the posterior part of the chest. From the smaller extremity of 
the stomach proceeds the first portion of the small intestines, named the 
duodenum, divided, however, from the stomach by the pyloric valve. The 
small intestines, divided normally into two more portions, jejunum and 
ileum, extend in a continuous coil to the length of about twenty-five feet, 
and then enter the large intestine in the right iliac region. The open- 
ing of the small intestine into the large, is slit-like, and is protected by ALIMENTARY CANAL. 
69 
a valve. The large intestine or colon, five feet long, ascends from where 
it is entered by the smaller gut, as high as the under surface of the liver, 
it then passes across the abdomen, and descending, after making a 
peculiar turn, ends in the rectum or vent-gut. The calibre of the colon 
is much greater than that of the small 'intestine, and it is thrown into 
succuli or folds by three longitudinal muscular bands. As soon as food 
reaches the back of the throat, it passes from the power of the voluntary 
to that of the involuntary muscles, and 
is conveyed into the stomach by a regu- 
lar wave-like action of the muscular 
gullet or oesophagus. When persons 
eat too fast, and one morsel is passed 
into the throat too quickly after the 
other, this regular muscular action 
becomes spasmodic, producing a very 
painful sensation. The mass of food 
from a meal, being collected at the 
larger end of the stomach, is there 
mixed with gastric juice, and converted 
into a pulpy gray-looking mass, the 
chyme, which, as it is formed, is pro- 
pelled towards the pyloric or smaller 
extremity, by successive wave-like mo- 
tions of the organ. At the pyloric 
valve, all well-digested food is allowed 
to pass, but in the healthy stomach, any 
portions which are not thoroughly 
softened, are stopped, and passed back 
into the organ. The food, having 
passed through the pylorus into the 
upper part of the small intestine, quickly becomes mixed with the 
bile, which flows into the duodenum from the liver by its proper 
duct, and also with the pancreatic juice. The mass of chyme is now 
propelled forward by a worm-like motion of the small intestines, the nutri- 
ent portions being absorbed from it as it passes onward, by the lacteal 
vessels. The lining membrane of the intestines is thrown into folds 
to increase the surface to which the chyme is exposed. Having traversed 
the small, the chyme is discharged into the large intestine, or colon, 
through the slit-like valve, and here the contents of the bowels 
thought by some to undergo a kind of second digestion, assume the fecu- 
lent character. After yielding up in the colon the remains of nutrient 
matter, the mass is discharged through the rectum and anus. The 
The Organs of Digestion. 
O, (Esophagus. 
S, Stomach. 
L, Liver. 
M, Pylorus. 
I, Small Intestines. 
C, Large Intestines. 
P, Pancreas. 
N. Spleen. 
G, Gall-Bladder. 70 
ALIMENTARY CANAL-ALKALI. 
whole of these movements are effected by the muscular powers of the 
alimentary canal itself. The main object of the alimentary canal is, 
most undoubtedly, the digestion of food, but this is not its only office, it 
is one of the great and important drains and sewers of the body, and 
into it is cast a large proportion of the used-up material of our frames, 
which would be hurtful if retained, particularly so in illness, such as 
fever. The fact is a cogent one, why at all times the bowels should be 
kept clear, and will explain to people, wherefore, during illness, even 
when food is not taken, and when they often think and say, ''there can 
be nothing in a patient," the medical attendant is so careful to keep this 
great drain, the alimentary canal, clear of its noxious contents. (See 
Abdomen, Absorption, Digestion, Stomach, Intestines, Cathartics, 
etc.) 
ALISMA PLANTAGO, Oriis-ma plan'-ta-go^ water plantain. 
Sometimes called mad-dog weed. Belongs to the Nat. order Allsmacece. 
It inhabits North America and Europe. The root was formerly con- 
sidered efficacious in hydrophobia. An infusion of the dried leaves has 
been used with good effect in urinary diseases. Dose of the infusion, 
4 to 6 ounces three times a day (See Infusion) ; of the powdered leaves, 
1 or 2 drams. The fresh powdered leaves produce vesication. 
ALKALI, al'-kcb-li [Arab, al-kali, soda], a name applied to a class 
of bodies which neutralizes acids, more or less perfectly, and thus form- 
ing by the combination a salt that differs from either of its components. 
They are characterized also by their acridity and caustic property, and 
by their action on vegetable colors. Nitrate of potash or saltpetre is a 
compound of potash and nitric acid. The ancient chemists included only 
three substances under this name-vegetable alkali, or soda; mineral 
alkali, or potash; and volatile alkali, or ammonia. To these, modern 
chemists add three alkalis proper-lithia, csesia, and rubidia, and the 
alkaline earths-lime, strontia, baryta, magnesia, and a number of 
others too rare to need mention. With the exception of ammonia, these 
alkalies are all oxides of metals, called alkaline and alkaline-earth 
metals. The pure form of these oxides is called the caustic state, from 
the burning properties possessed by them all when not combined with 
any acid. When they are in combination with carbonic acid, which is a 
very weak acid, they are said to be in their mild form, and still preserve, 
in a minor degree, many of their characteristics as alkalies. Many 
vegetable substances-such as bark, opium, nightshade, and others- 
possess crystalline principles which, from behaving like alkalies, have 
been named alkaloids. Quinine, morphine, and atropine, are examples 
of these. Most of these form salts with acids; for instance, we have 
disulphate of quinine, acetate morphine, and so on. In Medicine, ALKALI ALKALOIDS, VEGETABLE. 
71 
alkalies and their carbonates, when taken internally, act chemically in 
counteracting or neutralizing acidity in the stomach or bowels. When 
absorbed into the system, they serve to diminish acidity of the secre- 
tions. They tend, also, to allay irritation, and are thus useful in certain 
kinds of cutaneous eruptions; but their frequent use is injurious. (See 
Potash, Soda, Ammonia, etc.) 
ALKALIES, POISONING PL, al'-kadize. The alkalies are: 
Potash, soda, and ammonia, or common smelling-salts, with their princi- 
pal preparations-pearlash, soap lees, liquor potassae, nitre, sal prunella, 
hartshorn, and sal-volatile. Alkalies are seldom taken or given with the 
view of destroying life. They may, however, be swallowed by mistake. 
Symptoms produced in those who have swallowed them : There is at 
first a burning, acrid taste in, and a sensation of tightness round the 
throat, like that of strangling; the skin touched is destroyed ; retching, 
mostly followed by actual vomiting, then sets in ; the vomited matters 
often containing blood of a dark brown color, with little shreds of flesh 
here and there, and always changing vegetable blue colors green. There 
is now great tenderness over the whole of the belly. After a little while, 
great weakness, with cold, clammy sweats, a quick weak pulse, and 
purging of bloody matters, takes place. The brain, too, mostly becomes 
affected. 
Treatment.-Give two tablespoonfuls of vinegar or lemon-juice in a 
glassful of water every few minutes until the burning sensation is 
relieved. Any kind of oil or milk may also be given, and will form soap 
when mixed with the poison in the stomach. Barley-water, gruel, arrow- 
root, linseed-tea, etc., are also very useful, and should be taken con- 
stantly, and in large quantities. If inflammation should take place, it is 
to be treated by applying leeches and warm poppy fomentations to the 
part where the pain is most felt, and giving two tablespoonfuls of the 
following fever-mixture every few hours: Mix a dram of powdered 
nitre, 2 drams of carbonate of potash, 2 teaspoonfuls of antimonial 
wine, and a tablespoonful of sweet spirits of nitre, in half a pint of 
water. The diet in all these cases should only consist of arrow-root or 
gruel for the first few days, and then of weak broth or beef-tea for 
some time after. When very strong fumes of smelling-salts have in any 
way been inhaled, there is great difficulty of breathing, and alarming 
pain in the mouth and nostrils. In this case let the patient inhale the 
steam of warm vinegar, and treat the feverish symptoms as before. 
See Poisons and their Antidotes.) 
ALKALINE BATHS. (See Baths.) 
ALKALOIDS, VEGETABLE, al'-kadodh [Arab, alkali, Gr. eidosi, 
likeness]. The discovery of these substances is one of the most remarkable 72 
ALKALOIDS, VEGETABLE-ALL I UAL 
of modern chemistry. They are all salifiable bases, found in various 
vegetable substances, and are similar in their actions to the mineral 
alkalies mentioned above, uniting with acids to form salts. They are 
violent poisons, highly nitrogenous, sparingly soluble in water, but more 
so in alcohol and dilute acids. They are prepared by boiling the sub- 
stance containing them in dilute hydrochloric acid, neutralizing by a 
mineral alkali when the alkaloid is precipitated in an insoluble form. 
The following is a list of the principal vegetable alkaloids, and the sub- 
stances from which they are derived. They are of the greatest value in 
Medicine, the exhibition of the fraction of a grain being attended with 
the most marked curative results. They are often found in books with 
the termination ine instead of ia. 
Morphia, from opium. 
Quinia 
Cinchonia 
from Peruvian bark. 
Strychnia, from nux vomica. 
Veratria, from hellebore. 
Atropia, from belladonna. 
Nicotia, from tobacco. 
Aconitia, from aconite. 
ALLIUM, al'-le-um [Lat. garlic], in Botany, a genus of plants belong- 
ing to the Nat. order Liliacece, the lily tribe. Many species are very 
familiar plants, being largely cultivated for the sake of their nutritious 
and piquant bulbs; such are Allium Cepa, the onion; A. sativum, the 
garlic; A. Porrum, the leek ; and A. ascalonicum, the shalot. All the 
species are characterized by a strong, and, to most people, an extremely 
disagreeable odor. The substance which gives the garlic and onion their 
pungent smell and flavor is a compound oil, called by chemists sulphide 
of allyle. In America and England the onion is used much more fre- 
quently than any other species. In France the garlic is held in great 
esteem, and employed to flavor almost every savory dish. In Spain and 
Portugal the two bulbs are employed rather as every-day articles of food 
than as mere condiments ; while the Arab, Moorish, and Ethiopian tribes 
are even greater devourers of garlic and onions than the inhabitants of 
the Peninsula. The different species of allium, wdien cultivated in warm 
climates, lose much of their pungency; hence the mild flavor of the 
Spanish onion. The bulb of the common garlic, Allium sativum, though 
rarely used by the medical practitioner, is known to have properties which 
might render it a valuable agent in the treatment of some diseases. 
When taken internally, it is tonic, stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic. 
Externally it acts as a local irritant and resolvent, and is employed as an 
antispasmodic liniment for infantile convulsions. (See Onion.) Alnus Rubba. (Tag Alder.) ALL OPA THY-AL OE. 
73 
ALLOPATHY, al-lop'-a-the [Gr. alios, other, or different, and 
pathos, disease], is a term used to denote the method of curing disease 
by means of remedies which are believed to act contrary to the nature of 
the disease sought to be cured. It is applied to the ordinary system to 
distinguish it from Homoeopathy. 
ALLSPICE, awl'-spice, the dried unripe fruit of the Eugenia 
Pimenta, a plant of the myrtle order. It is much used as a spice, and 
is thought to combine the flavors of cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs; 
hence its common name. It is sometimes called Jamaica pepper, from 
the island in which it is chiefly cultivated, and sometimes pimento. It 
is an aromatic stimulant and tonic, and is used in dyspepsia, flatulence, 
•etc. The tincture of allspice has been recommended as a local remedy 
in chilblains. Dose of powder, 10 to 30 grains; dose of tincture, 1 to 2 
•drams; dose of the oil, 2 to 5 drops. 
ALMOND. (See Amygdalus. ) 
ALMOND EMULSION, a '-mund e-mul'-shun, useful for removing 
sunburns. Ingredients: 
Half ounce of blanched bitter almonds. 
Half pint soft water. 
Pound the almonds in a mortar, and beat them well into the water with 
a silver fork. When thoroughly beaten strain off the liquid and bottle 
it for use. Use it as a lotion. 
ALMOND PASTE, used to remove freckles, and make the skin soft 
and delicate. Ingredients: 
One ounce of bitter almonds. 
One ounce of barley flour. 
A little honey. 
Blanch the almonds, and reduce them in a mortar to a fine powder; add 
in the barley flour, and mix all into a smooth paste by adding the proper 
amount of honey. Use as a salve. 
ALNUS BUBBA, al'nus ru'-bra, tag alder, smooth alder, Nat. 
order Betulaceae, well-known shrub, growing on the borders of ponds 
and rivers, and in swamps. The bark is the part used in Medicine. It 
is alterative, emetic, and astringent. It is useful in scrofula, secondary 
syphilis, and some forms of cutaneous disease. The inner bark of the 
root is emetic. The decoction of the bark of the shrub may be used in 
■doses of 2 or 3 ounces, three times a day. (See Decoction.) 
ALOE, al'-o [Lat.], in Botany, a genus of monocotyledonous plants, 
belonging to the Nat. order Liliaceoe, the lily tribe. There are several 
species, all natives of warm climates, but capable of being cultivated in 
colder regions as ornamental garden plants. The leaves are succulent, 
and edged with spines ; they yield the juice which, when inspissated, 74 
ALOE-ALOES. 
constitutes the bitter drug called aloes. The flowers are usually red, 
growing in a bunch at the top of the stem. 
ALOES, al'-oze. Aloes, a drug used medicinally in small doses as a 
tonic, and in larger doses as a purgative and an emmenagogue. It is 
the inspissated juice of the leaves of various species of aloe. There are 
several commercial species imported, but the origin of some is not 
accuratelv determined. Barbadoes aloes is obtained from the species 
Aloe vulgaris. Both socotrine and hepatic aloes are probably prepared 
from A. socotrina and A. purpurascens ; for the difference between the 
two kinds may be accounted for by a difference in the mode of treating 
the juice. Thus, when the juice from the species A. socotrina is inspis- 
sated by artificial heat, the product resembles socotrine aloes; but when 
it is allowed to dry up without the aid of artificial heat, it resembles 
hepatic aloes. Cape aloes is chiefly obtained from A. plscata ; Indian 
aloes from A. indica ; but the varieties known as horse or caballine 
aloes, Mocha aloes, and Curacoa aloes, have not been traced to their 
respective sources. Aloes acts chiefly on the lower bowels, where 
costiveness is the oftenest situated. It is employed in a variety of forms, 
as extract, decoction, tincture, wine, powder, pills, simple or in composi- 
tion with iron, myrrh, or assafoetida. It is also used in the form of 
enema for dislodging small worms from the rectum. The action of aloes 
is certain, and except in peculiar cases, easy and safe. Three or four 
pills will generally cure common headache. Aloes is one of the most 
potent remedies in female obstructions. In pregnancy, and where any 
tendency to piles exists, the use of aloes is better avoided. The action 
of the medicine upon the stomach is, in small doses, tonic; but, as said 
before, the principal effect of aloes is upon the lower bowels, the move- 
ments of which it appears to excite, without increasing the discharges ; 
it seems to act similarly to the bile, and when that is deficient, as a sub- 
stitute for it. The preparations into which aloes enters are generally 
better provided ready made. Of the pills, the simple aloetic, the com- 
pound rhubarb, and the compound colocynth are the best; the last is the 
most active. Of any of these, one or two pills, three grains each, may 
be taken at bed-time as an average dose. The compound decoction of 
aloes is a most excellent form, and may safely be given when quick 
action is required, in 1 to 2 ounce doses. For old people, it often 
answers well, and is preferable to pills. It is made as follows : take of 
aloes, saffron, and myrrh, bruised, of each one dram and a half; extract 
of liquorice, 7 drams; carbonate of potash, 3 scruples; water, 30 fluid 
ounces. Mix the whole together, and boil down to 20 fluid ounces. 
Filter, and add compound tincture of cinnamon, 7 fluid ounces. Aloetic 
purgatives may be taken habitually for a long time without an increase AL OES-ALTHAEA. 
75 
of the dose being required; the continued use, however, may induce 
piles. Dose of fluid extract, 10 to 20 drops; dose of tincture, 1 to 2 
teaspoonfuls. (See Aloin.) 
ALOIN, al'-oin. Aloin is the active principle of aloes. It operates 
invariably as a cathartic, in the dose of 1 or 2 grains, and occasionally in 
half grain doses. (See Aloes.) 
ALOPECIA. (See Baldness.) 
ALTERATIVES, al'-ter-Ortivz [Lat. altero, I change]. Alteratives 
are medicines which gradually change the varied disordered actions 
of the body, and restore-it to its healthy or normal state, without 
producing any sensible effect when taken. There are not many medi- 
cines which may be regarded as solely alterative, but there is scarcely a 
single drug, however violent in its operation in large doses, which may 
not, by the proper regulation of the dose, or by its mode of preparation, 
be converted into an alterative. Mercury, arsenic, and antimony, may 
be taken as examples of this fact. 
Alteratives are especially applicable to chronic diseases and passive 
derangements; those of an acute character requiring a more active class 
of remedies. In all chronic diseases, it may be laid down as a general 
rule, that nothing is to be gained, and that much permanent mischief 
may result, from the employment of violent remedies. When medicines 
are given with a view to their operating as alteratives, they generally 
require to be administered in small doses, and to be persevered in for a 
lengthened period, namely, for weeks, and perhaps months; the practi- 
tioner being satisfied with witnessing, at considerable intervals, an 
improvement, however small, in the state of the patient. A careful 
regulation of the diet, and a strict attention to the laws of health are 
indispensable auxiliaries to an alterative course of medicine. Without 
these, remedies can be of little avail; and though medicinal alteratives 
are often indispensable, still, temperance in eating and drinking, exercise, 
attention to the state of the skin, and to the ventilation of sleeping 
rooms especially, are alteratives which every one may employ. A course 
of medicinal alteratives should generally be left to medical direction. 
(See Mercury, Iodide of Potassium, Berberis Aquifolium ; Calcium, 
Compound Elixir Iodo-Bromide of, etc.) 
ALTHAEA, al-the'-a [Gr. altheo, I heal], the marshmallow, a genus 
of plants belonging to the Nat. order Malvaceae. The species A. offi- 
cinalis, the common marshmallow or wymote, is an indigenous perennial, 
growing in salt marshes near the sea, and on the banks of rivers, blos- 
soming during August and September. Its flowers, which are rather 
large and rose-colored, are arranged, three or four together, on axillary 
stalks. The leaves are hoary, green, odorless, soft, and downy, having 76 
ALTHAEA-AL UM. 
a mucilaginous taste. The whole plant abounds in mucilage, particularly 
the root, which is used in medicine. In France, marshmallow is a 
favorite demulcent. The famous pate de Guimauve is composed of the 
substances obtained from the root, with gum-arabic, sugar, and white of 
egg. Buchner states that the chief constituents of the marshmallow root 
are a fatty oil, starch, glutinous matter, uncrystallizable sugar, altheine, 
and mucilage. Its chief principle, altheine^ is identical with asparagine. 
It is crystallizable, odorless, and almost tasteless. In Medicine, this 
plant is used as a demulcent in visceral inflammations and affections of 
the mucous membrane, as bronchitis, diarrhoea, etc. It is also some- 
times used as an emollient in the form of a poultice or a fomentation for 
external sores. 
ALUM, al'-um [Lat. alumeri], a salt, consisting of sulphate of 
alumina in combination with sulphate of potash, soda, or ammonia. 
Alum is obtained by submitting alum-shale, which consists of alumina, 
iron pyrites, and coaly matter, to the action of fire in enormous heaps 
for one or two years. During the combustion, the sulphur of the iron 
pyrites (sulphide of iron) combines with the oxygen and alumina, form- 
ing sulphate of alumina, which is dissolved out of the cooled mass by 
water. This solution is then converted into alum, by the addition of 
either sulphate of potash or sulphate of ammonia, the latter being most 
generally used on account of its cheapness. The principal sources of 
alum-shale are at Ilurlet and Campsie, near Glasgow, and at Whitby, in 
Yorkshire. Alum is also manufactured in great quantities by Spence's 
process from various materials derived from coal and from the coal strata. 
Ammonia alum is more valuable than potash alum, from containing 
11.90 per cent, of alumina, which is the active ingredient, while potash 
alum contains but 10.82 per cent. It has taken the place of the other 
in the last edition of the British Pharmacopoeia. Alum acts chemically 
as an astringent on the animal fluids and tissues. It is used externally 
or internally, and serves to check hemorrhage, diminish secretions, etc. ; 
hence it is frequently given in diarrhoea. When taken internally in large 
doses it produces nausea, vomiting, purging, etc. Usual dose, from 10 
to 20 grains. It produces contraction or corrugation of the tissues, and 
hence is useful as a gargle, a wash, or an injection. It is one of the 
most successful remedies that have been employed in lead colic. Alum 
is soluble in about 18 parts of water at 60°. In the form of powder it 
is slightly caustic. When pure it is without odor, colorless, of a sweetish, 
acidulous, and powerfully astringent taste. Muslin dipped in a solution 
of alum is rendered incombustible. 
In bleeding, especially from the nose, lint dipped in a strong solution 
of alum, and applied to the part as a plug, will often stop the flow, or in AL UM-AMAL GAM. 
77 
the case of leech bites, the powder of burnt alum may be sprinkled upon 
the puncture. In case of wounds-where no large blood-vessel has been 
cut-the bleeding may be stopped by thoroughly rinsing the wound with 
a solution of powdered alum in half a pint of water. In the event of an 
individual being attacked, either with coughing up, or vomiting of dark 
blood, in the absence of medical assistance, alum may be given in doses 
of from 5 to 20 grains every two or three hours. In case of painters' 
colic, alum has recently been found of much advantage in doses of 10 to 
20 grains every three or four hours. 
A few grains of alum, agitated with the white of an egg form a 
coagulum, which put between two folds of muslin, is used with benefit 
to the bed sores of the sick. Powdered alum is a speedy emetic in 
tablespoonful doses, and is one of the best medicines for croup in tea- 
spoonful doses (mixed in syrup), for a child a year old. Repeat till 
vomiting is produced. The best form of giving it internally is that of 
alum whey, made by adding 2 drams of the powder in a pint of hot milk, 
after which strain to separate the curd. Alum whey is an excellent 
remedy for chronic diarrhoea. Bathing the feet, armpits, etc., with alum 
water, prevents offensive sweating. 
ALUM, COMPOUND SOLUTION OF; OR BATES' ALUM- 
WATER, is a powerful astringent lotion, composed of one ounce each of 
alum and sulphate of zinc, dissolved in one pint of boiling water and 
afterwards strained. It is used as a wash to old sores, and, diluted with 
rose-water, as an eye-wash and injection. 
ALUM ROOT. (See Heuchera Americana.) 
ALUM WHEY. (See Alum.) 
ALVEOLAR, (d-ve'-odar, belonging to the sockets of the teeth. 
ALVEOLUS, al-ve'-odus, the socket of a tooth. 
AL VINE, aX-vin [Lat. alvus, the belly], appertaining to the belly or 
bowels-as alvine discharges, concretions, etc. 
AMADOU, am'-a-doo [Lat. ad manum dulce, soft to the touch], a 
spongy substance, generally known as German tinder, which can be 
ignited by a spark from a flint and steel. It is prepared by soaking thin 
slices of the fungi Polyporus igniarius and fomentarius in a solution of 
nitrate of potash (saltpetre), after they have been softened by beating 
with a mallet. Similar slices, not treated with the salt, are sometimes 
used in Surgery to give support to affected parts, and also to restrain 
hemorrhage. When impregnated with gunpowder, the prepared fungus 
forms black amadou. 
AMALGAM, a-uial'-gam [Gr. malagma, that which is made soft], 
mercury mixed with any metal with which it will combine forms a pasty 
or fluid mass called an amalgam, and is, in fact, an alloy of mercury. 78 
A KAL GAK-AKA UR 08IS. 
Amalgam for electrical machines is made by adding tinfoil in small 
pieces to mercury, until they form a paste. 
AMARANTH, am' -a-rantk, Prince's feather, red cockscomb, Nat. 
order Amarantliacea^ an annual herb, growing from three to four feet 
high. It is a native of the Middle States. It is an astringent. The 
decoction is highly recommended in menorrhagia, diarrhoea, dysentery, 
and hemorrhage from the bowels. It is also used as a local application 
to foul, indolent ulcers. The decoction may be drunk freely. (See 
Decoction. ) 
AMAUROSIS, am-aw-ro'-sis [Gr. amauros, obscure], is a blindness 
or obscurity of vision, proceeding from a diseased state of the optic 
nerve, or of that part of the brain in connection with it. It generally 
comes on gradually, with dimness or confusion of sight, variations of 
color, or the presence of floating objects called spectra. It is commonly 
occasioned by long-continued over-excitement of the organs of vision, or 
by sudden exposure to a bright light, or it may proceed from a disordered 
state of the stomach. It is also sometimes hereditary. It may be per- 
manent, or only temporary. It is owing to congestion or chronic inflam- 
mation of the nerves connected with sight. The appearance of the eye 
is unaltered beyond the dilatation of the pupil, which gives it a peculiar 
dark, deep look, but the expression is unmeaning. A person threatened 
with amaurosis, first observes in the daytime, dark moats or specks float- 
ing, as it were, before the sight, at first distinct from one another, but 
gradually becoming connected, and forming as it were, a thicker and 
thicker veil, as the sight becomes obscured. In the dark, the motes or 
specks frequently appear luminous. Sudden flashes of light appearing, 
is a symptom not unfrequent; there is usually pain in the eye and head. 
It must not be supposed, however, that every one who sees motes or 
specks, is becoming amaurotic, some persons have this peculiarity of 
vision, either habitually or whenever the stomach is disordered. 
In addition to the causes above stated, amaurotic blindness may be 
the result of overfulness of blood, or of the contrary condition ; of indi- 
gestion ; sexual excess; hysteria; gout; over-nursing, etc. 
Treatment.-Amaurosis is to be treated by depletion, by blood-letting 
or cupping in the back of the neck, behind the ears, or on the temples, 
by counter-irritants, as blisters or setons, by purgatives, and by mercury 
administered in frequent doses to the extent of affecting the gums. The 
eye is at the same time to be kept in a state of perfect repose. All 
stimulants should be avoided, unless there is evidence of extreme weak- 
ness. If the patient is a nursing female, the child must be weaned at 
once. A person threatened with amaurosis, should immediately submit 
himself to skilled advice. AMAUROSIS- AMMONIA, ETC. 
79 
Amaurosis or blindness coining on without obvious cause in a person 
of full habit of body, is always a grave symptom, and, as in such a case, 
every minute may be valuable, if medical aid cannot at once be got, six 
or eight leeches may safely be applied to the temples, an active purga- 
tive of 20 grains of jalap, and 4 or 5 of calomel is to be given at once, 
and after the leeches, cold applied to the head; perfect quiet being 
observed, and professional advice procured at the earliest moment 
possible. 
AMBER. (See Succinum.) 
AMBROSIA, am-bro'-zhe-a, horseweed, bitter weed, ragweed, etc., 
Nat. order, Asteraceoe. Grows in low grounds and along streams, from 
Canada to the Gulf States. It is used among farmers for the ' ' slabbers ' ' 
in horses. It is stimulant, astringent, antiseptic; and useful as an injec- 
tion in leucorrhcea and gleet. It is an excellent application for mercurial 
sore mouth. Dose of decoction, 1 to 2 ounces three or four times a day. 
(See Decoction.) 
AMBULANCE, am'-bu-lanse [Lat. ambulo^ I walk], a term derived 
from the French, and applied to those moving hospitals which accom- 
pany every army, or division of an army, in the field, furnished with all 
the requisites for the succor of the sick or wounded. It is also applied 
to the wagons or carts provided for conveying the wounded from the 
field of battle. The latter are termed by the French ambulances 
volantes, and were first introduced in 1793, by Larrey, the celebrated 
French military surgeon. 
AMENORRIICEA. (See Menstruation.) 
AMERICAN HELLEBORE. (See Veratrum Viride.) 
AMMONIA, VOLATILE ALKALI, ALKALINE AIR, AMMO- 
NIACAL GAS, SPIRITS OF HARTSHORN, am-md -ne-a, is a gaseous 
compound, possessing the properties of the alkalies proper-potash and 
soda. It was known in a liquid form long before the gas itself was dis- 
covered. This was first done by Priestley, in the year 1774, who named 
it alkaline air. He procured it from sal-ammoniac; whence its name. 
Ammonia is composed of three parts of hydrogen to one of nitrogen, 
but it cannot be formed by the direct combination of these elements. 
When, however, nascent hydrogen and nitrogen are eliminated by any 
chemical action, a portion of ammonia is always found in the resulting 
compound. It is also formed during the distillation of coal in gasworks, 
the ammoniacal liquor produced in this way being the great source of 
ammonia for commercial purposes. Ammonia is easily liquefied by the 
combined action of a pressure of atmospheres and a temperature of 
32°. By submitting this liquid to the action of solid carbonic acid, solid 
ammonia is produced. Ammonia, when pure, is a transparent colorless 80 
AMMONIA, ETC. 
gas, with a strong alkaline taste, and a pungent, suffocating odor. It 
does not support either combustion or life, and inflames with difficulty. 
It is readily absorbed by water, which takes up 670 times its own volume 
of the gas, forming the liquor ammoniae of the chemist, or liquid 
ammonia, as it is generally improperly called. Ammonia is found in 
very small quantities in the air, being evolved during the decomposition 
of most animal substances, more especially excrements and urine. 
Ammonia, diluted, and in proper doses, acts upon the system as an alkali 
and stimulant. It is also used by inhalation through the nostrils in cases 
of fainting, hysteria, epilepsy, cephalalgia, etc. Externally it is irritant 
and caustic; internally, in large doses, it produces irritation of the 
stomach, nausea, vomiting, and death. It is also fatal if inhaled alone. 
In the case of poisoning by the vapor of ammonia, the vapor of hot 
vinegar should be inhaled. Ammonia forms an infinite number of salts 
with the different acids, most of them similar in their properties to the 
corresponding salts of potash and soda. 
Ammonia, Solution of Acetate of, or Spirit of Mindererus, is com- 
posed of 10 fluid ounces of acetic acid, 3^ ounces of carbonate of' 
ammonia, and 2| pints of distilled water. In doses of from 2 to 6 tea- 
spoonfuls it is given as a refrigerant in fevers and inflammatory diseases. 
As a diaphoretic, its operations should be promoted by the use of tepid 
diluents and external warmth. Diluted with water, it is also sometimes 
used as a lotion to inflamed or bruised parts. 
Ammonia, Benzoate of, is composed of 3 fluid ounces of solution of 
ammonia, 2 ounces of Benzoic acid, and 4 fluid ounces of distilled water. 
It is used as a diuretic, and in inflammation of the bladder, to counteract 
an alkaline state of the urine. Dose, from 10 to 20 grains. 
Ammonia (Carbonate of), Sal-Volatile, or Smelling Salts.-The 
sesqui-carbonate of ammonia is a volatile and pungent ammoniacal salt, 
produced by submitting a mixture of sulphate of ammonia or chloride 
of ammonium and carbonate of lime to sublimation. A solution of' 
carbonate of ammonia, consisting of £ ounce, dissolved in 10 fluid 
ounces of distilled water, is used as an antacid, stimulant and diaphoretic, 
and in large doses as an emetic. Dose, 5 to 15 grains; as an emetic, 
30 grains. 
Ammonite Aqua, Ammonia (Liquid), Ammonite Liquor, Ammonia. 
(Solution of).-The solution of gaseous ammonia in water is called by 
all the above names. It is a colorless transparent liquid, having a char- 
acteristic pungent smell, a burning caustic taste, and a strong alkaline 
reaction. At its greatest strength, its specific gravity is . 850, and it can 
only be kept in closely stoppered bottles. It is made by passing the 
gas through distilled w'ater kept near freezing-point by means of ice. It AMMONIA-AMMONIUM. 
81 
is of great use in the laboratory as a reagent, dissolving many oxides 
and salts insoluble in water. It is employed in Medicine as a stimulant. 
There are two degrees of strength used-the liquor ammoniae fortior of 
.850. and the ordinary liquor ammoniae, or spirits of hartshorn, of .960. 
Mixed with oil, with which it forms a soap, it is used as a rubefacient, 
under the name of soap-liniment. Dose, 10 to 20 drops, diluted with 
water. 
Ammonia, Solution of Citrate of, is composed of 3 ounces of citric 
acid, 2f fluid ounces of strong solution of ammonia, and 1 pint of dis- 
tilled water. Its properties and uses are similar to those of solution of 
acetate of ammonia, but it is more pleasant to the taste. Dose, 2 to 6 
teaspoonfuls. 
Ammonia, IIydrociilorate, or Muriate of, Chloride of Ammonium, 
or Sal Ammoniac, is a compound of hydrochloric acid and ammonia, 
NII4C1. It is used as a diaphoretic, diuretic, purgative, and emetic. 
Externally, when dissolved along with an equal quantity of nitre, it 
forms an excellent refrigerant lotion. It is also used as a discutient for 
dispelling tumors. 
Spirits of Ammonia are stimulant and antispasmodic. Ammonia Is 
adapted for speedily rousing the action of the vascular and respiratory 
systems, and for the prompt alleviation of spasms. As an internal and 
external remedy to obviate the sequelae of the bite of rabid animals, 
venomous insects and reptiles, its power is well known. By way of 
inhalation, it is administered when it is desired to make a strong impres- 
sion on the nervous system, in cephalalgia, hemicrania, and faintness or 
collapse. Dose, 30 to 60 drops, diluted with water. 
Ammonia, Aromatic Spirits of, stimulant and alexipharmic. Medi- 
cinal properties bear a close resemblance to those of the simple spirits. 
It is a weaker preparation, and has the preference with physicians on 
account of its grateful taste and smell. In languor, syncope, hysteria, 
and nervous debility, it proves very serviceable. In the flatulent colic 
of children, 2 to 5 drops in milk, it affords more speedy relief than any 
other remedy. In sick headache, heartburn and acidity of the primae 
viae, it proves speedily effectual. Dose, 30 to 60 drops, diluted with 
water. 
AMMONIACUM, am-mo-ni -a-kum, a fetid gum resin, which exudes 
from the stem of an umbelliferous plant known to botanists as Dorema 
ammoniacum, growing in Persia and the adjacent parts of Asia. It is 
occasionally prescribed as an expectorant, and is applied externally to 
promote the absorption of tumors and chronic swellings of the joints. 
Dose, from 10 to 20 grains. 
AMMONIUM, am.-mo'-ne-um. The existence of a hypothetic com- 82 
AMMONIUM-AMOMUM. 
pound metal called ammonium, and having the constitution NH4, has 
been assumed as the only method of explaining the perfect analogy that 
exists between the salts of ammonia and those of the various metals. 
An equivalent of ammonia united to an equivalent of water, is supposed 
to form the oxide of this metal, NII3><IIO-(NH4)O, corresponding to 
potassa, the oxide of potassium, KO. (See Ammonium, Iodide of.) 
AMMONIUM, IODIDE OF, alterative, tonic, anti-syphilitic, and 
sometimes acting as a diuretic. It closely resembles the iodide of potas- 
sium, but is more powerful. 
Dr. Dunglison observes: " It was introduced into medical practice 
by M. Biett, of Paris, as a valuable therapeutical agent in certain 
diseases of the skin. Several successful cases of its employment in lepra 
and psoriasis, by M. Biett, are given by Dr. Pennock. ' ' 
Dr. Waring remarks: "It appears especially adapted to syphilitic 
affections of the skin. In syphilitic affections it was first employed by 
Dr. B. W. Richardson, who reported favorably of its operation. More 
recently it has been systematically tried by Dr. Gamberini, who con- 
siders : 1. That it is suitable for all cases in which the iodides of potas- 
sium and sodium are employed. 2. That it leads to a rapid cure. 
3. That there is great tolerance of the remedy. 4. That employed in 
friction with olive oil (3 grains to 2 ounces of the oil), it causes the dis- 
appearance of nocturnal syphilitic pains. 5. That under its internal use 
indurations consecutive of chancre, disappear, as do also indurated 
glands of the groin. 6. That arthralgia, rheumatoid affections, 
periositis, enlarged glands, and papulo-vesicular eruptions, are forms of 
syphilis most readily cured by this salt. 7. The signs of intolerance 
are a sense of burning in the throat, and heat of the stomach, but these 
rapidly disappear on the suspension of the medicine for a couple of 
days. It seems well worthy of a more extended use. In scrofula, 
attended with glandular enlargement, in incipient consumption and in 
chronic rheumatism, Dr. Richardson used the iodide with advantage. 
In enlarged tonsils, he found a solution of iodide of ammonium half a 
dram, in glycerine one fluid ounce, very efficacious. It was applied at 
night with a camel's hair brush." Dose, 1 to 3 grains. 
AMOMUM, a-mo'-mum, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the Nat. order Zingiberacew., the Ginger family. Several species have 
aromatic seeds, which are used medicinally and as spices in many parts 
of the world. A. meleguela is a native of Western Africa, and yields 
the so-called grains of Paradise, or Guinea pepper, used in this country 
in veterinary medicine, and for giving pungency to beer, wine, spirits, 
and vinegar. Most of the fruits called cardamoms, so largely employed 
in medicine as stimulants, are produced by plants included in this genus ; AALO AL LAI-AMPUTATION. 
83 
thus A. cardamomum yields the round cardamoms ; A. marl mam, th e 
Java; A. Korarima, the korarima; and A. globosum, both the large 
and small round China cardamoms. 
AMPELOPSIS, am-pedop'-sis, American ivy, Virginia creeper, 
Nat. order Nitacew. Grows throughout the United States. The bark 
and twigs are the parts used. It is alterative, tonic, astringent, and 
expectorant. It is used in the form of syrup in bronchitis and other 
pulmonary complaints. Dose of syrup or decoction, 2 ounces three or 
four times a day. 
AMPUTATION, am-pu-ta'-shun [Lat. amputo, I prune or lop off], in 
Surgery, is a term employed to denote the operation of cutting off a 
limb or some part of the body. The human frame is so constituted 
that if one member be diseased, the whole body suffers with it; and 
frequently the life of an individual may depend upon the removal of an 
injured or diseased member. The ancients, while they saw the necessity 
of cutting off a limb, shrank from the operation with dismay, for they 
knew of no means of stopping the hemorrhage but red-hot irons and 
boiling oil of resin ; and hence, besides the* suffering entailed upon the 
patient, their operations were seldom successful. The advance of modern 
surgery is here very marked, not only in the improved methods and 
appliances for operating, but, from their increased knowledge of the 
human body, surgeons are now able to determine with far greater 
accuracy when an operation is necessary, or, by a minor operation, are 
able frequently to save a limb, little or at all impaired, which, even half 
a century ago, would have been ruthlessly sacrificed; while the recent 
introduction of anaesthetics has been of inestimable value to the patient. 
The term is usually confined to operations on the limbs or extremities, 
for operations on other parts the term "excision" is more commonly 
used. An amputation may be performed by what is termed the circular, 
the double-flap, or the single-flap operation. In proceeding to amputate, 
the patient is first placed in a convenient position, and the main artery 
is compressed by the tourniquet (see Tourniquet) or by the hand of a 
skilled assistant. The circular operation is performed by first detaching 
the skin a short distance below where the amputation is to be made. It 
is then drawn upwards, and the muscles divided down to the bone, which 
is then sawn through. The arteries are then seized with a small forceps, 
drawn slightly out, and secured by a thread torsion, or acupressure (q. v.), 
after which the skin is brought over the wound, and either stitched or 
held together by strips of adhesive plaster. The double-flap operation 
differs from the above, in that the skin and muscles are cut down in a 
slanting manner, on opposite sides, so as to form two flaps, which are 
then drawn up, and the knife carried round the bone, dividing any flesh 84 
AMPUTATION-AMYL. 
that may still be adhering to it; after which the surgeon saws the bone. 
It is objected to this method, that it makes a greater wound, and that the 
arteries, from being cut obliquely, will be less securely tied ; but it is in 
favor with many, who maintain that there is little force in these objec- 
tions, and that they are more than compensated for by the greater pro- 
tection afforded by the flaps to the bone. The single-flap operation is 
seldom resorted to, unless where a portion of the limb is destroyed on one 
side, and it becomes necessary to take the flap from the opposite side. 
AMUSEMENT. (See Exercise, Pleasure, Recreation, etc.) 
AMYGDALIN, amiig'-darlin, a white crystalline solid, found in 
bitter almonds, peach-kernels, and laurel-leaves. By the action of the 
alkalies, amygdalic acid may be formed. Sweet almonds contain no 
amygdalin. (See Amygdalus.) 
AMYGDALES, ob-mig'-da-lus [Gr. amygdale, almond], a genus of 
plants belonging to the Nat. order Rosacece. The typical species is 
Amygdalus communis, the almond-tree, of which there are two varieties ; 
namely, A. communis var. dulcis, yielding sweet almonds, and A. com- 
munis, var. amara, which'produces bitter ahnonds. The almond-tree 
grows wild in Syria and other parts of Asia, also in northern Africa, and 
is extensively cultivated in the southern parts of Europe. In England 
it is grown more for the sake of its early spring blossoms than for its 
fruit, which seldom comes to perfection. A fixed oil, commonly known 
as oil of almonds, is obtained by expression from sweet almonds, and the 
residue, which contains gum, vegetable albumen, and emulsion, is sold 
under the name of almond-powder. Bitter almonds yield a similar oil. 
They also contain emulsion, and, in addition to this and the other con- 
stituents of sweet almonds, a nitrogenous substance, called amygdalin. 
When bitter almonds are moistened with water, the emulsion and 
amygdalin mutually react upon each other, and form a poisonous volatile 
oil, which is known as the essential oil of bitter almonds, and which is 
used, in small quantities, for flavoring custards and pastry, also for scent- 
ing soaps. AmygdaVas persica is the peach-tree of our gardens, and a 
variety of the same species produces the nectarine. Peach-blossoms 
have been employed in Medicine as a vermifuge, and the kernel of the 
fruit may be used for the same purposes as the bitter almond. (See 
Amygdalin. ) 
AMYL, am'-il [C1OHU], a compound radical, discovered by Frank- 
land, by acting on iodide of amyl with zinc. It is an oily liquid, boiling 
at 311Q, and homologous with methyl, ethyl, etc. Like them, it forms 
an oxide or ether, and a hydrated oxide, or alcohol. 
Amylic alcohol, C10H12O2, is formed during the distillation of com- 
mon alcohol from grain or potatoes by the decomposition of the starch AMYL-ANESTHETICS. 
85 
contained in them; hence its name. The fusel, or fousel oil of potato- 
spirit, consists almost entirely of amylic alcohol. It is this substance 
that gives to many spirits their noxious properties. It may be easily 
recognized by rubbing a few drops of the spirit on the hands; the vinous 
alcohol and water evaporate first, leaving the amylic alcohol behind, 
which is easily recognized by its characteristic odor. It gives to spirits 
a fiery acrid taste, and is most commonly found in inferior rum and 
whiskey. When distilled with dilute sulphuric acid and bichromate of pot- 
ash, it yields valeric acid, the salts of which are much used in Medicine. 
Heated with dry phosphoric acid, a hydrocarbon, called amylene, is 
formed, which has been much used as an anaesthetic. 
AMYLUM, am'-e-lum, starch of wheat. (See St a non.) 
ANA. (See a.) 
ANACYCLUS, anrOrSv-klus [Gr. ana, in the form of, and kyklos, a 
circle], in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Conv- 
positece. The root of A. pyrethrum, pellitory of Spain, is employed in 
Medicine as an energetic local irritant and sialagogue, its properties 
depending on the presence of a volatile oil. (See Sialagogues. ) 
ANAEMIA. (See Chlorosis.) 
ANAESTHESIA, ames-the-ze^a [Gr. a, not, alsthesis, perception], 
loss of the sense of touch. Diminished or lost sense of feeling. When 
numbness occurs without obvious pressure, it shows a tendency to a 
paralytic state, and should be watched. There is sometimes a total loss 
of the sense of touch, mostly partial, but sometimes general, over the 
whole surface of the body. (See Anaesthetics). 
ANAESTHETICS, amres-thet'-iks [Gr. a, privative, and aisthanomai, 
I feel]. Anaesthetics are those agents which produce insensibility to 
pain in the whole or part of the human body, usually by acting on the 
nervous system. The most familiar instance of anaesthesia is that pro- 
duced by an overdose of alcohol, in the case of drunken people, who 
become utterly insensible to pain. Nitrous oxide, or laughing-gas, was 
the first anaesthetic which was used for the production of insensibility to 
pain under surgical operations, having been first suggested by Sir H. 
Davy, and first employed by Dr. Wells, an American, in 1844. In 1846 
Dr. Morton, of Boston, a former pupil and partner of Dr. Wells, intro- 
duced sulphuric ether as an anaesthetic, and it came rapidly into use. In 
November, 1847, the anaesthetic effects of chloroform were discovered 
by Sir James Y. Simpson, and it at once came into general use. 
Chloroform.-The injurious effects attributed to it are so few and far 
between as to be as nothing compared with the benefits which it has 
conferred. Countless lives have been saved by it, and operations have 
been performed under its influence, that surgeons would not have dreamt 86 
ANESTHETICS. 
of attempting before its introduction. Various other agents have been 
used as anaesthetics. Indeed there is reason to believe that they were 
not unknown to the ancients, and that mandragora was used for this end. 
In China, a preparation of hemp or ma-yo is said to have been used 
1,500 years ago to annul pain in surgical operations. The effects of cold 
to produce insensibility to pain are well known, and hence local anaes- 
thesia is frequently brought about by some freezing mixture, as pounded 
ice and salt. Ether spray is also used for the same purpose. A new 
anaesthetic, chloral, has of late years been introduced. 
Chloroform should never be given but by a duly qualified person, and 
certainly should never be administered by any one to himself. There 
are a great number of chloroform "inhalers " used at present, but the 
fact is that none of them are to be recommended, and that the simplest 
method is the best. The patient ought to lie down, to keep his eyes 
shut, and breathe freely; any tight article of dress round the throat or 
chest should be loosened; about 2 drams of chloroform should be 
sprinkled over a folded towel, which is to be lightly applied over the 
patient's face, and afterwards, when this is partially evaporated, 1 dram 
should be added from time to time, till insensibility is produced. How 
much chloroform should be given can only be determined by an experi- 
enced person, who tests the sensibility of his patient by opening the eye 
and touching it, by raising the arms and letting them fall again; thus 
judging if the muscles are relaxed ; or by otherwise testing his patient's 
power. Many patients, before getting quite under the influence of 
chloroform, struggle violently, and require to be restrained by one or two 
assistants, but the administration should be continued till this is over- 
come, which it speedily will be, the patient then generally passing into 
complete insensibility. The uninitiated ought to know that patients often 
shout, and even appear to suffer great pain, when they are quite uncon- 
scious, and that there are great differences exhibited by different people 
in the way in which they are affected by the drug. When it is desired 
to relax the muscles entirely, as, for instance, to allow of the reduction 
of a dislocation, it will be necessary to produce even a more decided 
effect than is required for a painful operation, as the amputation of a 
limb, the removal of a tumor, etc. On such occasions, the administrator 
of the chloroform most attentively and momentarily watches the condi- 
tion of his patient. It cannot be too emphatically repeated that care and 
experience are the two great requisites in the giving of chloroform. 
Another mode, which deserves notice on account of its simplicity, and 
which is in great favor, though, in the writer's opinion, inferior to the 
above-mentioned method, is to protect the nose of the patient by smear- 
ing a little glycerine or cold cream over it, then to spread a handkerchief ANESTHETICS. 
87 
over the face, and drop the chloroform, drop by drop, over the part just 
below the nostrils. Bottles are to be had with stoppers adapted for this 
dropping process. This has certainly the advantage of being a more 
economical method, but it is not so safe, nor so convenient as the other. 
Should it unfortunately happen that a person has inhaled too much, or 
at all events does not appear to rally from the stupor, or should he, dur- 
ing the administration cease to breathe, with a low or absent pulse, livid 
lips, and all the symptoms of suspended animation, then no time is to be 
lost, for on the energy and promptitude displayed within - the next few 
seconds or minutes will depend, in all probability, the issue of the case. 
The head must be kept low, the face should be slapped smartly with a 
towel dipped in cold water, ammonia at once applied to the nostrils, and 
artificial respiration commenced, by pressing upon the chest, so as to 
expel the air, and then allow it to expand again of itself. This should be 
repeated at the rate of about thirty to forty times per minute (nearly 
double the ordinary rate of respiration), the surface of the body over the 
region of the heart being rubbed with a brush, or with the hand, warm 
blankets, or bottles, or hot bricks applied to the hands and feet, and the 
galvanic battery (which ought always to be in readiness where chloro- 
form is frequently given) should be applied, to promote artificial respira- 
tion, in conjunction with the means mentioned above. The restoration 
of the pulse, the re-appearance of the healthy color of the lips and 
countenance, and, above all, the breathing of the patient, or his showing 
any sign of returning consciousness, will be hailed with joy, and if there 
still remains great prostration, a little brandy and water, or wine, may 
be given at intervals. 
As a rule, it may be said that no patient with disease of the brain, or 
with organic heart disease, or with much obstruction to the breathing, 
from disease of the lungs, ought to have chloroform. It should also be 
given with extreme caution to young infants (in whom insensibility is 
very quickly produced by using a very small quantity) to persons 
advanced in life, and to persons of feeble vital power. 
It need scarcely be said that many operations which formerly were 
very troublesome of performance, especially upon children, are now 
rendered comparatively easy, by the use of chloroform, many operations 
also requiring great nicety of manipulation, and almost impossible, with- 
out the co-operation of the patient-a co-operation never to be obtained 
in the case of children, and even of some grown-up people-can be per- 
formed with the greatest ease, and without any trouble on the part of the 
surgeon. 
Finally, it would be impossible to omit mention of the great value 
derived from the use of chloroform in childbed, and more especially in 88 
ANESTHETICS-ANAL YSIS. 
those cases of great difficulty and urgency occurring every now and then 
in the experience of all practitioners. For its introduction and use in 
this, as well as in all other departments of Medicine, the world is 
indebted to the distinguished professor of midwifery in Edinburgh, Dr. 
Simpson, whose genius has devised, and whose indefatigable energy has 
brought into general use this, which must rank first among the many 
improvements he has brought to bear upon the practice of Medicine and 
Surgery. 
Although in England chloroform has been exclusively used as an 
anaesthetic, in America, sulphuric ether, which was first used as an 
anaesthetic in 1846, and was superseded by chloroform, is still much 
employed, being by some medical men considered safer. Many other 
modes of producing anaesthesia have been proposed from time to time, 
such as the inhalation of carbonic acid, of the vapor of turpentine, and 
of the fumes produced by the burning of some species of fungi. None, 
however, have been able in every respect to rival chloroform. For the 
internal use of chloroform, see articles throughout this work. (See 
Chloroform; Ether, Sulphuric; Nitrous Oxide, Chloral, etc.) 
ANALYSIS, arnal'-e-sis [Gr. analuo, I loosen, or untie], the resolu- 
tion of any substance into its constituent elements, or in other words, the 
art of separating and distinguishing the various constituents of a com- 
pound body, either as regards quality or quantity. Analysis is proximate, 
when the various compound parts are separated as a sulphate into the 
acid and base, and ultimate when the elementary parts are separated. 
We may speak generally of chemical analysis, or refer particularly to the 
analysis of a certain salt. Analysis, being the separation of the com- 
ponent parts of a substance, is directly opposed to synthesis, which may 
be defined as the putting together of elements so as to form a compound. 
In most analytical operations, however, the chemist works by synthesis, 
as he usually separates two bodies by means of a third, which unites 
with one of them, and sets the other free. (See Affinity.) It is not 
always necessary to actually separate the component parts in order to 
ascertain their nature, as occasionally changes of color, or other results, 
on the addition of the proper tests, indicate the constituents. If the 
analyst merely seeks a knowledge of the general nature of the substance 
under examination, he is satisfied when, by the application of certain 
tests, and by the performance of certain operations, he has obtained 
evidence of the presence of those elements of which the compound is 
made up, and the analysis he performs is called a qualitative one; but if 
he desires to ascertain not only the nature but the actual amount of the 
elements present, he must separate the constituents of the compound 
completely from each other, and obtain them either pure, or in some ANAL YSLS-ANATOMY. 
89 
well-known form of combination; lie then appeals to the balance or 
measure, and the analysis he performs is called a quantitative one. The 
balance was formerly employed whenever great accuracy was required; 
but of late, methods of volumetric analysis have been brought to great 
perfection. By volumetric analysis is understood the measured bulk of 
test-liquids, containing known quantities by weight of certain substances 
capable of producing, with a solution of the assay, sufficiently marked 
effects to show with precision the complete conversion of the body sought 
to be estimated, into a compound, the nature of which is perfectly known. 
When the constituents of a body can be so reunited as to reproduce the 
substance which has been analyzed, this process is called chemical 
synthesis, and is the best proof of the correctness of an analysis. 
ANASARCA. (See Dropsy.) 
ANASTOMOSIS, an-as-to-mo'-sis [Gr. ana, through, and stoma, a 
mouth], a term used to denote the communication of the blood-vessels 
with each other. The necessity of a constant supply of blood to every 
part of the human body has led to a wise provision, by which, though 
even one of the larger arteries become obstructed, there are numerous 
smaller ones communicating with the same part, which, by the increased 
pressure upon them, become enlarged, and supply its place. 
ANATOMY, cunat'-o-me [Gr. anatemno, I cut up.]. Anatomy is the 
art or act of dissecting organized bodies, with the object of elucidating 
their structure and functions ; it is also the science which deals with the 
knowledge thus obtained, and deduces general principles from it. All 
material substances either are or have been, or are not and have not 
been, possessed or endowed with life. The former have an organized 
structure, in which, in the living state, changes take place, and processes 
are carried on necessary to their existence. The latter are composed of 
homogeneous particles, and are subject only to mechanical or chemical 
changes. In the former are comprehended all plants and animals, in the 
latter all mineral and inorganic substances. It is to the former of these 
two great divisions that the term anatomy is applied. As organized 
bodies naturally form themselves into two distinct classes-plants and 
animals, so we have vegetable anatomy, or the anatomy of plants, and 
animal anatomy, or the anatomy of animals. Animal anatomy, again, 
is subdivided into comparative anatomy, which treats of the structure of 
all animals except man, and human anatomy, which deals with the 
structure of man only. It is to this last that the general term of anatomy 
is usually applied. Human anatomy, or anatomy proper, then, treats of 
the several parts and organs of the human body, in respect to their form, 
structure, and relation to each other. It is usually divided into general, 
descriptive, and pathological. General anatomy treats of the nature 90 
ANATOMY. 
THE SKELETON. ANATOMY. 
91 
and general properties of the separate substances of which the body is 
composed, not as these exist combined in special organs, but as they 
form distinct and peculiar substances. Descriptive anatomy compre- 
hends a description of the several parts and organs of the body, with an 
account of their situation, connections, and relations, as existing in the 
natural and healthy state. Pathological^ or morbid anatomy^ traces and 
describes the changes produced by disease upon healthy structures, 
whether existing in individual organs, or in the primitive or common 
substances of which these organs are composed. As an account of the 
various parts and organs of the human body, as well as of the diseases 
to which they are subject, will be found under their several names, in 
other parts of this work, it is unnecessary to do more here than give a 
short summary of the subject, referring to these articles for more particu- 
lar information. 
General Anatomy.-The human body consists of fluid and solid sub- 
stances, the fluid bearing to the solid parts a general ratio of from 7 to 
1 to 9 to 1. The fluids of the body are various, but may be divided into 
three classes: the circulating nutritious fluid called the blood; the fluids 
which are incessantly poured into it for its renewal, viz., the chyle and 
lymph ; and the fluids which are separated from it by secretion, as saliva, 
bile, gastric juice, etc. The blood is that well-known red fluid which, 
by means of the heart, arteries, and veins, circulates through all parts of 
the system, and supplies the waste that is constantly going on. The 
chyle is a milky fluid, separated from the chyme or digested food after it 
has passed from the stomach into the small intestines, and become mixed 
with the bile and pancreatic juice. It is absorbed by the lacteals, and 
conveyed by ducts or canals to the receptaculum chyli, where it is taken 
up by the lymphatic vessels, which pervade almost every part of the 
body. It seems to differ little from chyle, except that the latter con- 
tains a greater preponderance of fatty matter. The greater portion of 
the lymph is poured into the receptaculum chyli, where it becomes mixed 
with the chyle, and is carried with it into the blood; that, however, col- 
lected from the right side of the head and chest, and right upper limb, 
is conducted into the right subclavian vein, by the right lymphatic or 
right thoracic duct. The secretions are those fluids secreted or separated 
from the blood. The term is sometimes used to include the excretions 
which are thrown off from the body as useless or noxious, as urine from 
the bladder, perspiration from the skin ; but it is properly applied only 
to such products as are secreted from the blood, but still retained in the 
system for the performance of certain subordinate actions. These are: 
1. Saliva, secreted by the salival glands of the mouth. 2. Gastric juice, 
by the stomach. 3. Pancreatic juice, by the pancreas. 4. Bile, by the 92 
ANATOMY. 
liver. 5. Tears, by the lachrymal glands. 7. Semen, by the testes. 
8. Oil, by the vessels of the adipose tissue. 9. Synovia, by the synovial 
glands of the joints. 10. Mucus, by the mucous glands. 
The organized solids of the human body are usually divided into the 
following seventeen elementary tissues:-1. Bone, or osseous tissue, 
which forms the framework of the body, to which the other structures 
are attached, or in which they are contained. 2. Muscular tissue, con- 
sisting of fine fibres, which are for the most part collected into distinct 
organs called muscles, by means of which the active movements of the 
body are performed. 3. Adipose tissues, which constitute the fat of the 
body as well as the marrow of the bones. 4. Areolar, cellular, or con- 
nective tissue, a soft filamentous substance of considerable tenacity and 
elasticity, which is extensively distributed over the body, and forms the 
connective medium of all the other tissues. 5. Fibrous tissue, formed 
of a number of minute fibres running chiefly parallel to each other, and 
sparingly supplied with blood-vessels or nerves, and used for connecting, 
enveloping, or binding together, various parts of the body, as tendons, 
ligaments, fasciae, periosteum, perichondrium, dura mater. 6. Elastic, 
or yellow tissue, characterized by possessing a high degree of elasticity, 
and employed wherever that quality is required, as in forming the spinal 
ligamenta subclava. 7. Cartilage, an opaque substance, usually of a 
pearly or bluish-white color, but sometimes yellow, covering the artic- 
ular extremities of the bones, connecting the surfaces or margins of 
immovable bones, or lining the walls of certain cavities, also found in 
the ear, nose, larynx, etc. Fibro-cartilage is, as its name indicates, a 
structure intermediate between fibrous tissue and cartilage, partaking, in 
some measure, of the firmness of the one with the elasticity of the other. 
8. Nervous tissue, which goes to form the nervous system. 9. Blood- 
vessels, comprising the arteries by which the blood is conducted from 
the heart to all parts of the body; the veins, by which it is brought 
back again to the heart; and the capillaries, minute vessels by which it 
is carried from the extremities of the one to those of the other. 10. 
Absorbent vessels and glands comprising the lacteals and lymphatics, 
together with the glands in connection with them. 11. Serous and 
synovial membranes, which resemble each other in general form and 
structure, but are distinguished by the nature of their secretions, the 
former lining the cavities of the body which have no outlet, as the peri- 
toneum in the abdomen, the pleura and pericardium in the chest, and 
secreting a transparent and nearly colorless fluid, which moistens the 
surface, the latter lining the cavities of the joints, and secreting a viscid 
fluid which lubricates their surface. 12. Mucous membrane, which lines 
those internal passages of the body exposed directly or indirectly to con- ANATOMY. 
93 
tact with the atmosphere, and secretes a viscid fluid of a more consistent 
and tenacious character than the serous membranes. 13. Secreting 
glands, a class of organs widely differing from each other in their nature 
and form, but all devoted to the function of secretion. 14. Vascular or 
ductless glands, so called from their general resemblance to secreting 
glands, but differing from them in having no duct for the conveyance of 
their secretions, which are re-absorbed or filtered through the tissues, or 
find an outlet by bursting. 15. Skin,-cutis vera, derma, or corium, the 
innermost of the three structures that go to make up what is commonly 
termed the skin, and which covers the whole body. 16. Pigment, a 
black, or dark-colored substance, occurring in various parts of the body, 
and giving color to the skin of* the negro and other dark races. 17. 
Epithelium, a thin, transparent structure, covering the whole surface of 
the body, as well as the walls of the different cavities, and named differ- 
ently, according to the parts which it covers; as, epidermis, covering 
the skin, the epithelium of mucous membranes, etc. 
Descriptive or Special Anatomy is commonly divided into several 
branches, according as it regards (1) the bones {Osteology')', (2) the 
articulations; (3) the muscles {Myology); (4) the blood-vessels and 
absorbents {Angiology); (5) the nervous system {Neurology)', (6) the 
organs of sensation, respiration, digestion, etc. {Splanchnology). 
Osteology.-The number of bones in the human body is variable; 
but in the adult they are reckoned at about 244. They are usually 
divided into long, flat, and irregular: long, as in the thigh and leg; 
flat, as in the skull and pelvis; irregular, as in the hands and feet. 
Bones are covered with a peculiar membrane, called the periosteum, 
which serves to conduct the blood-vessels and nerves. The osseous 
skeleton is divided into head, trunk, upper and lower extremities. The 
head comprises the bones of the cranium and those of the face, including 
three common to both. The bones of the cranium are eight in number 
-the frontal, in the fore part of the skull; the two parietal, forming a 
portion of its sides and all its superior part; the occipital, forming its 
lower and back part; the two temporal, forming the lower part of the 
sides and part of the base ; the sphenoid, in the middle of the base; 
and the ethmoid, in the middle of the fore part of the base. The hopes 
of the face are fourteen in number :-the ossa nasi, which form the arch 
of the nose; the ossa lacrymalia, at the fore part of the inner edge 
of the ocular orbits; the malar bones, forming the prominences of the 
cheeks; the upper maxillary bones, forming the upper jaw, and con- 
taining the upper teeth; the ossa palati, situated at the posterior part 
of the palate, the nose, and the orbits; the vomer, a flat bone, forming 
part of the septum of the nose; the ossa turbinata inferiora; and the 94 
ANATOMY. 
lower maxillary bones, forming the lower jaw, and containing the under 
teeth. There are thirty-two teeth; sixteen in each jaw; viz., four 
incisors, or front teeth ; two cuspidati, or canine ; four bicuspidati; and 
six molars. The last molar on each side is called the dens sapientioe^ or 
wisdom-tooth, from not appearing till about the age of twenty-one. The 
os hyoides, or hyoid bone, is placed in the anterior and upper part of 
the neck, and has no osseous connection with any other bone. The 
trunk is divided into the spine, thorax, and pelvis. The spine is a 
pyramidal column extending from the head to the pelvis, and is com- 
posed of twenty-four bones, termed vertebrae. Each vertebra consists 
of a body and seven processes, and has a foramen, or ring, through 
which the spinal cord passes. They are divided into three classes-the 
cervical, including the first seven; the dorsal, consisting of twelve, 
which are larger than the cervical, and are distinguished by having their 
sides and transverse processes depressed for connection with the ribs; 
and the lumbar, consisting of five, which are larger than any other. 
The first two cervical vertebrae differ from the others, and are known as 
the atlas and the axis, or vertebra dentata. There are likewise five 
so-called vertebrae, on account of their being separate in early life, but 
afterwards uniting to form the os sacrum, which constitutes the posterior 
part of the pelvis. The thorax, which contains the principal organs of 
circulation and respiration, is the largest of the three great cavities con- 
nected with the spine, and is formed by the sternum and costal 
cartilages in front, the twelve ribs on each side, and the dorsal vertebrae 
behind. The sternum is a flat, narrow bone, situated in the anterior 
part of the thorax, and connected with the ribs by means of the costal 
cartilages. The ribs are twenty-four in number, twelve on each side, of 
which the first seven are termed vertebro-sternal, or true ribs, and are 
attached to the sternum; three are attached to the costal cartilages, and 
are called vertebro-costal; and two are termed vertebral or floating ribs, 
from their anterior extremities being free. The pelvis, or lower cavity 
of the trunk, consists of four bones; the os sacrum and os coccygis 
behind, and the two ossa innominata on either side. The coccygis, 
which forms the terminal bone of the spine, is sometimes regarded, like 
the os sacrum, as composed of four false vertebrae, which are at first 
distinct, but afterwards become united. The ossa innominata are two 
irregularly-shaped bones, situated on each side of the pelvis, and con- 
sisting of three parts, the ilium, ischium, and pubis, firmly united in 
the adult, but distinct in the young subject. Each of the two upper 
extremities is composed of the bones of the arm, the forearm, and the 
hand, and is united to the trunk by means of the scapula and clavicle, 
which form the shoulder. The scapula is a flat triangularly-shaped ANATOMY. 
95 
bone, placed upon the upper part and back of the thorax. The clavicle, 
or collar-bone, is a long bone, something in the form of the italic letter 
y, and situated between the top of the sternum and the acromion pro- 
cess of the scapula. The arm has only one bone, the os humeri, which 
extends from the scapula to the bones of the forearm. The forearm 
consists of two bones, the radius and ulna, which are parallel, and play 
upon each other; thus admitting of freer motion in that part. The 
radius, so called from its resemblance to the spoke of a wheel, is situate 
on the outer side of the forearm. Its upper end is small, and forms 
only a small part of the elbow-joint, while its lower extremity is large, 
and forms the chief part of the wrist-joint. The ulna is placed at the 
inner side of the forearm, and differs from the radius in being larger at 
the upper than at the lower extremity. The bones of the hand are 
divided into the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges. The bones of the 
carpus, or wrist, are eight small bones, arranged in two rows, the upper 
row comprising the scaphoid, semi-lunar, cuneiform, and pisiform; the 
lower, the trapezium, trapezoid, os magnum, and unciform. The meta- 
carpal bones, or bones of the palm, are five in number, and correspond 
to the fingers. The phalanges, or bones of the fingers, are fourteen in 
number, each finger, with the exception of the thumb (which has only 
two), having three of them. The upper and lower extremities bear a 
great resemblance to each other in the nature and form of their bones. 
Like the upper, each of the lower extremities consists of three distinct 
parts-the thigh, leg, and foot. The thigh is composed of a single bone, 
the os femur, which is the longest and largest in the body. The upper 
part forms a round head, which is inserted into a deep cup-like cavity 
of the os innominatuin, called the acetabulum: the lower terminates in 
two protuberances, known as the inner and outer condyles, separated 
posteriorly by a deep fossa, called the inter-condyloid. The leg con- 
sists of three bones; the patella, tibia, and fibula. The patella, or knee- 
pan, is a small, fiat, triangular bone, of a spongy texture, situated at the 
anterior part of the knee-joint, between the femur and the tibia. The 
tibia and fibula in the leg resemble the radius and ulna in the forearm; 
the tibia is, after the femur, the largest bone in the body. It is situate 
at the anterior and inner, side of the leg, articulating with the femur 
above and the astragalus below. The fibula is considerably smaller than 
the tibia. Its upper extremity is small, and placed below the level of 
the knee-joint, but the lower extremity projects below the tibia, and 
forms the outer ankle. The foot, like the hand, is composed of three 
classes of bones-the tarsus, the metatarsus, and the phalanges. The 
tarsus is composed of seven bones-the os calcis, astragalus, cuboid, 
scaphoid, and three cuneiform. The metatarsal bones are long small 96 
ANATOMY. 
bones, five in number, connected at the one extremity with the tarsal, at 
the other with the phalangeal bones; these last go to form the toes, each 
of which has three, except the great toe, which has only two. 
Articulations.-The different bones of the skeleton are connected 
together in various ways, and such connections are termed articulations. 
They are of various kinds, but are usually divided into immovable, 
movable, and mixed. Immovable articulations exist where flat and broad 
bones are united to inclose important organs, as in the cranium and 
pelvis. In some parts the edges indent or interlock each other; in 
others they are brought into close contact, or are united together by a 
thin layer of cartilage. The movable articulations are of various kinds, 
according to the kind of motion required. In such cases, the bony sur- 
faces brought into contact are covered with cartilage, bound together by 
ligaments, and lined by synovial membrane. Mixed articulation pre- 
vails where only a slight degree of motion is required, combined with 
great strength, as in the vertebrae. The bones of the head and face are 
connected together by immovable articulation, except the inferior maxil- 
lary, the condyle of which articulates with the anterior part of the 
glenoid cavity of the temporal bone and the anterior root of the zygoma. 
The different vertebrae of the spine are connected together by ligaments 
and the inter-vertebral substance; the latter a fibro-cartilaginous, 
slightly elastic substance,- interposed between the adjacent surfaces of the 
different vertebrae, from the axis to the sacrum, and forming the chief 
bond of connection between these bones. It varies in shape, size, and 
thickness, in different parts of the spine. The articulations of the first 
and second vertebrae are different, and much more complicated than the 
others, in order to admit of the various movements of the head. In the 
articulations of the ribs to the vertebrae, the heads of the ribs are con- 
nected with the bodies of the vertebrae by one set of ligaments, and the 
necks and tubercles of the former with the processes of the latter by 
another set, admitting of a limited upward and downward motion, and a 
very slight motion backwards and forwards The cartilaginous articula- 
tion of the ribs with the sternum admits only of a very slight motion 
upwards and downwards. In the pelvis, the articulation of the sacrum 
with the last of the true vertebrae, and of the coccyx with the sacrum, 
are similar to that of the vertebrae with each other. The lateral surfaces 
of the sacrum and ilium articulate with each other by means of an 
irregular lamella of cartilaginous structure and several sets of ligaments. 
The sacrum is also connected with the ischium by two ligaments, known 
as the great sacro-sciatic and lesser sacro-sciatic. The two pubic portions 
of the ossa innominata articulate in front by means of an elongated piece 
of cartilage interposed between the osseous surfaces, and connected with ANATOMY 
97 
each; the union being strengthened by ligaments. In the upper 
extremity, the sterno-clavicular articulation is formed by the sternal end 
of the clavicle, the upper and lateral part of the head of the sternum, 
and the cartilage of the first rib. The motion here is in almost every 
direction-upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards as well as circum- 
ductive. The scapula-clavicular articulation is formed between the outer 
extremity of the clavicle and the upper edge of the acromion process of 
the scapula, and the movements are gliding and rotary. At the shoulder 
is what is called a ball-and-socket joint, the large globular head of the 
humerus being inserted into the glenoid cavity of the scapula, and 
admitting extensive motion in almost every direction. The hinge-joint at 
the elbow is formed by the lower extremity of the humerus and the 
upper extremities of the radius and ulna, and allows extensive flexion 
and extension movements. The rotatory movements of the forearm arise 
from the connection ot the radius and ulna; at the upper extremity the 
inner side of th'e head of the radius rotates within the lesser sigmoid 
cavity of the ulna; at the lower, the head of the ulna rotates upon the 
sigmoid cavity at the inner side of the radius; while the middle portions 
of the two bones are connected by two ligaments, forming what is termed 
the middle radio-ulnar articulation. The wrist-joint is formed by the 
radius and the inner-articular fibro-cartilage, which separates it from the 
ulna and the three first bones of the carpus, and admits of flexion, 
extension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction. The bones of the 
carpus are united by special ligaments so as to form two rows, and the 
rows are connected together by ligaments so as to form a joint. The 
articulations of the carpal with the metacarpal bones admit only of a 
slight gliding motion of the different surfaces upon each other, except in 
the case of the thumb, where it is much more varied. The carpal 
extremities of the last four metacarpal bones articulate with one another 
at each side, and are bound together by ligaments to form the palm of 
the hand. The articulations of the metacarpal bones with the phalanges, 
and of the phalanges with each other, form hinge-joints. In the lower 
extremity, the head of the femur is received into the acetabulum, or cup- 
shaped cavity of the os innominatum, and connected by strong ligaments 
to form the hip-joint. The knee-joint is formed by the lower extremity 
of the femur articulating with the head • of the tibia and the patella, and 
give flexion and extension with a slight rotary motion. The tibia and 
fibula are connected together, like the radius and ulna, by various liga- 
ments, and their upper and lower extremities brought into contact; and 
have a slight gliding motion upon each other. The ankle-joint is formed 
by the inferior extremities of the tibia and the fibula, united so as to form 
an arch, into which the superior convex surface of the astragalus is 98 
ANAT O ALY. 
received, and allows of flexion and extension. The articulations of the 
tarsal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones do not differ materially from 
those of the hand, except that their ligaments are generally stronger, 
and admit of less motion. 
Muscles.-The muscles, with their appendages, the fasciae and 
tendons, constitute the active organs of motion. They serve also t<> 
protect the walls of large cavities, and to give form and symmetry to the 
whole body. Muscular tissue is of two kinds, distinguished by structural 
peculiarities and mode of action. The one class comprises the muscles 
of voluntary or animal life ; the other of involuntary or organic life. 
The muscles of animal life, or striped muscles, are all those that are 
capable of being exerted or controlled by the will, and include not only 
the voluntary muscles, but all the muscles of the ear, those of the 
larynx, pharynx, tongue, and upper half of the oesophagus, the heart, 
and the walls of the large veins, at the point where they open into it. 
The muscles of organic life, or unstriped muscles, form the muscular 
coat of the digestive canal from the middle of the oesophagus to the 
internal sphincter ani, of the urinary bladder, the trachea and bronchi, 
the ducts of glands, the gall-bladder, arteries, etc. • The muscles are 
named from their situation, direction, use, shape, or points of attach- 
ment ; as, tibialis, obliqui capitis, adductor longus, deltoid, sterno-hyoid. 
In the human body there are sixty-six muscles at each side of the head 
and neck: ninety at each side of the trunk, and two single ones; fifty- 
three in each of the upper extremities; and fifty-six in each of the lower. 
The limits of the present article preclude our attempting to give details 
of the situation, relations, etc., of this numerous class of organs, which, 
besides, would have little interest for the general reader. 
Angiology.-The blood-vessels of the human body are the heart, 
arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart is a conical muscular organ, 
lying obliquely beneath and behind the sternum, with its tip pointing 
downwards, forwards, and towards the left. It is divided by a longitud- 
inal septum into a right and left half, the former containing venous, the 
latter arterial blood ; and each half is again subdivided into two portions 
communicating with each other, the upper being termed the auricle, the 
lower the ventricle. From the right ventricle, the blood is sent, by 
means of the pulmonary arteries, to the lungs, whence it is returned by 
the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, passes into the left ventricle, 
and is thence conveyed by the aorta to every part of the body. The 
aorta, commencing at the left ventricle, ascends for a short distance, 
then arches over the root of the left lung, descends along the vertebral 
column within the thorax, passes through the diaphragm into the abdo- 
men, and divides, opposite the fourth lumbar vertebra, into the right and ANATOMY 
99 
left common iliac arteries. These last subsequently divide into two 
branches, named the internal and external iliac arteries ; the former 
being distributed to the walls and viscera of the pelvis, the latter pro- 
ceeding to the lower limbs, after sending two important branches to the 
walls of the abdomen The branches sent off from the arch of the 
aorta are live in number-the two coronary arteries which supply the 
heart; the innominate artery, dividing afterwards into the right carotid 
and subclavian arteries; the left carotid and the left subclavian. Each 
of the carotids afterwards separates into the external and internal 
carotid; the former being distributed to the external parts of the head 
and face, the latter to the internal parts of the cranium. The subclavian 
artery supplies the upper extremity, giving off, as branches, the vertebral, 
the internal mammary, thyroid axis, and the superior intercostal arteries. 
From the thoracic portion of the aorta, numerous branches are given off, 
chiefly of small size, and known as the pericardiac, bronchial, oesopha- 
geal, posterior mediastinal, and intercostal arteries. The abdominal 
aorta gives off numerous branches, which may be divided into two sets 
-those which supply the viscera, and those which are distributed to the 
walls of the abdomen ; the former comprising the coeliac artery (which 
shortly divides into the gastric, hepatic, and splenic arteries), the 
superior mesenteric, the inferior mesenteric, the capsular, the renal, and 
the spermatic arteries ; the latter, the phrenic, lumbar, and middle 
sacral arteries. The veins which return the blood from the capillaries 
to the heart are of two kinds-the pulmonary, conveying arterial blood 
from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart, and the systemic, carry- 
ing venous blood from all parts of the system back to the right auricle 
of the heart. The pulmonary veins are four in number, two for each 
lung, and differ from other veins in being destitute of valves. The 
systemic veins are usually arranged into three groups, according to their 
mode of termination in the heart:-1. Those of the head, neck, thorax, 
and upper extremities, which terminate in the superior vena cava. 
2. Those of the abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities, which terminate 
in the inferior vena cava. 3. The cardiac veins, returning the blood 
from the substance of the heart, and opening directly into the right 
auricle. The veins, in their general form and distribution, correspond 
to the arteries. The vena cava superior is a short trunk formed by the 
junction of the two venae innominatae, and terminating in the upper part 
of the right auricle. The vena cava inferior is formed by the junction 
of the two common iliac veins between the fourth and fifth lumbar verte- 
brae, and terminates in the lower and back part of the right auricle. 
The capillaries [from capillus, a hair], are minute vessels pervading 
every part of the body, and uniting the extreme points of the arteries 100 
ANATOMY. 
with those of the veins. Their diameter varies in different parts, but is 
usually about -^-th part of an inch. For an account of the absorbent 
system, see Absorbents. 
The nervously stem consists of two parts, known as the cerebro-spinal 
and the sympathetic or ganglionic systems. The former includes the 
brain and spinal cord, with the nerves proceeding from them, and is 
regarded as the nervous system of animal life; the latter consists of a 
double chain of ganglia, running along the spinal column, whose func- 
tions seem to be less directly connected with the mind, and chiefly bear- 
ing upon the animal life. The cerebro-spinal system is divided into the 
encephalon, or portion contained within the cranium, and the spinal 
cord, inclosed within the vertebral canal. The encephalon comprises 
the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the medulla oblon- 
gata, and is covered with three membranes, called the dura mater (or 
outermost), the arachnoid membrane, and the pia mater. The sub- 
stance of the encephalon is of two kinds-a cineritious or grayish sub- 
stance, called also corticle, from forming the outer part of the cerebrum 
and cerebellum; and a white or medullary matter, forming the inner 
substance of the cerebrum and cerebellum, but the outer of the medulla 
oblongata and pons Varolii. The cerebrum, or brain proper, forms by 
far the largest portion of the encephalic mass. Its upper surface is 
divided into a right and left hemisphere, by a longitudinal fissure lodg- 
ing the falx cerebri. The under surface of each hemisphere is marked 
off into three lobes, called the anterior, middle and posterior. The 
entire surface of each hemisphere presents a number of convoluted emi- 
nences, separated from each other by depressions of various depths. 
The cerebellum, or little brain, is situate beneath the hinder part of the 
cerebrum, from which it is separated by the tentorium cerebelli. It is 
likewise divided into two lateral hemispheres; but the surface is not con- 
voluted, but laminated. It is connected with the rest of the encephalic 
masses by means of connecting bands, called crura or peduncles, two of 
which ascend to the cerebrum, two descend to the medulla oblongata, 
and two unite in front to form the pons Varolii. This last occupies a 
central position on the under surface of the encephalon, and constitutes 
the bond of union between the other parts, being connected above by 
crura from the cerebrum, at each side by crura from the cerebellum, and 
being in contact below with the medulla oblongata. This last extends 
from the lower border of the pons Varolii to the upper part of the 
spinal cord. It is pyramidal in form, with its broad extremity 
directed upwards, and measures about an inch and a quarter in length. 
By means of two fissures it is divided into two lateral and symmetrical 
halves. The spinal cord is situate within the vertebral canal, and ex- ANATOMY 
101 
tends from the foramen magnum of the occipital bone to the first or 
second lumbar vertebra, where it terminates in the cauda equina, an 
aggregation of nervous cords occupying the remainder of the canal. 
The spinal cord, like the encephalon, is inclosed by the three mem- 
branes-the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater. It is composed of 
white and gray matter, the former external, the latter internal. The 
gray substance is found, on making a section, to be arranged in a cres- 
cental shape in each hemisphere of the cord, the posterior cornua being 
much longer than the anterior. From the spinal cord spring thirty-one 
pairs of spinal nerves, corresponding to the number of true and false 
vertebrae, between which they issue, except that there are eight pairs of 
cervical nerves and one coccygeal. Each spinal nerve arises by two 
roots-an anterior or motor, and a posterior or sensitive. These ap- 
proach one another, and, with few exceptions, unite in the correspond- 
ing inter-vertebral foramen into a single cord, which almost immediately 
divides into two branches, one of which proceeds to the muscles, etc., 
of the back, the other to the anterior parts of the body. Besides the 
spinal nerves, there are nine pairs of nerves that issue from the enceph- 
alon to different parts of the head and face. They are connected with 
the organs of seeing, hearing, taste, smell, etc., and are hence named 
optic, auditory, olfactory, etc. They are also distinguished numerically, 
as first, second, third, etc., according to the part of the brain from which 
they spring. The sympathetic or ganglionic nervous system is com- 
posed of a series of ganglia, or nervous centers, extending along the 
spinal column from the base of the skull to the coccyx, connected with 
each other by filaments, and also communicating in various parts with 
the cerebro-spinal system. They are regarded as the nerves of organic 
life, and principally supply the various viscera and blood-vessels. (See 
Nervous System.) 
Splanchnology.-Regarding the anatomy of the various organs of 
sensation, respiration, digestion, etc., we must refer to the accounts 
given under their proper names, in other parts of this work. 
History.-Some knowledge of the internal structure of the human 
body was doubtless obtained at a very early period. The ancient 
Egyptians are said to have acquired great anatomical skill from their 
practice of embalming, and Homer displays a considerable amount of 
knowledge of the human body in his description of wounds, in the 
"Iliad." Hippocrates, who flourished about 400 years b. c., is 
regarded as the first author who treated anatomy as a science. Erasis- 
tratus, and Herophilus of Alexandria, are considered as the first who 
dissected and described the human body, nearly 300 years b. c. Galen, 
however (born 131 a. d.), is the author of antiquity that displays the 102 
ANATOMY-AN C11YL OSTS. 
most intimate knowledge of the human body; and even he evidently 
obtained a great part of his knowledge from dissections of apes and 
other animals, there being a law in Rome which forbade the use of dead 
bodies. During the dark ages, anatomy, like other sciences, made little 
progress. The interest of anatomy began to revive about the 13th cen- 
tury, and in the beginning of the 14th, Mundinus dissected and 
demonstrated the different parts of the human body at the University of 
Bologna, and published a work which formed the text-book in Italy for 
nearly 200 years. During the next 200 years the interest in anatomy 
continued to increase, and within that period, there are several respect- 
able names in connection with it, as Gabriel de Zerbio, Achillini, 
Berenger, and Massa. The errors of Galen, however, still pre- 
vailed till the time of Vesalius, who flourished about the middle of 
the 16th century, and boldly, by dissections of the human body, pointed 
out the errors into which he had fallen. Ue is regarded as the father of 
modern anatomy. Uis great work, De Corporis Humani Fabrica, was 
published before he was twenty-eight years of age. He gave a great 
impulse to human dissection; and, among his contemporaries, or 
immediate successors, were - Fallopius, Eustachius, Varoli, and 
Fabricius. In the 17th century the progress of anatomy was rapid. 
In 1619 Harvey's great discovery of the circulation of the blood was 
announced. Asellius, in 1627, gave out his discovery of the lacteals; 
and in 1651 Rudbeck discovered the lymphatics. Among the other dis- 
tinguished anatomists of this century were, Bartholin, Pecquet, Jolyffe, 
Wharton, Swammerdam, Willis, Malpighi, and Ruysch. In the 18th 
century we have many eminent names. In Italy, which still retained a 
first place, were Vasalva, Santorini, and Morgagni; in France, Winslow, 
Vicq d'Azyr, and Bichat (the founder of General Anatomy); in Ger- 
many, Haller, Meckel, Zinn, and Soemmerring; in Holland, Boerhaave, 
Albinus, Camper, and Bonn; in England, Cheselden, the two Hunters, 
Charles Bell; and in Scotland, the Monroes, of Edinburgh. The present 
century has been specially characterized by the great advance made in a 
minute or microscopic anatomy. Among the names of this period may 
be mentioned Cloquet, Magendie, Muller, Quain, Goodsir, Bowman, 
Todd, Sharpey, Ellis, Wilson, Gray, and Holden.-See Quain's 
"Anatomy," Gray's "Anatomy," Holden's "Human Osteology," 
Wilson's "Anatomist's Vade-Mecum." (See Heart, Lungs, Liver, 
Stomach, Alimentary Canal, Kidney, Bone, Muscle, Eye, Ear, Foot, 
Hand, etc.) 
ANCT17 LOSIS, (Gr. agkuloo, I bend], the name given 
to an affection which causes stiffness of a joint: so called on account of 
the limb in which it occurs being usually bent. It is sometimes written ANCHYL 0SIS-ANETH CAL. 
103 
ankylosis. Anchylosis is divided into true, or complete, and false, or 
incomplete. These conditions may attack any joint of the body, and 
instances have been known of the whole body becoming aflchylosed. 
In complete, or true anchylosis, no motion whatever takes place, the 
heads of the bones being connected together by osseous or bony matter. 
In incomplete, or false anchylosis, the immobility arises from adhesion 
of the synovial membrane, or a thickening of the parts about the joint, 
and usually admits of some degree of motion. Anchylosis frequently 
occurs after sprains, dislocations, or fractures near a joint, and, indeed, 
may be occasioned by anything that keeps a joint long motionless. In 
order to prevent anchylosis, the joint is to be exercised as much as the 
state of the surrounding parts will admit; if it cannot be prevented, the 
joint is to be kept in the most convenient and natural position. Anchy- 
losis is sometimes very desirable as a termination of diseases of the 
joints. False anchylosis may be treated.by gradual extension, frictions 
with liniments, and fomentations. The true, bony anchylosis has been 
remedied by making a false joint, sawing through the parts, but this is 
a desperate expedient. 
ANDIRA, an-di'-rq, in Botany, a genus of plants, belonging to the 
Nat. order Legximdnosw, suborder Papilionace^ characterized by a 
one-celled one-seeded pod, almost orbicular. The species A. inermis is 
a native of the West Indies, and is commonly known as the cabbage- 
bark tree. The bark, called either cabbage-bark or worm-bark in com- 
merce, W'as formerly much used medicinally as an anthelmintic. (See 
Anthelmintics.) It possesses cathartic, emetic, and narcotic properties. 
In large doses it is poisonous. The species, A. retusa, a native of Surinam, 
yields a bark with similar properties, which is commonly known as 
Surinam bark. The dose of the powder is, 1 scruple to dram; of the 
extract, 3 grains two to four times a day. The dose of this medicine is 
to be gradually increased till it induces a degree of nausea, the occur- 
rence of which limits the dose; for if it be carried further, it occasions 
vomiting, fever and delirium. The seeds of this plant possess the same 
virtues as the bark. 
ANDROMEDA, a^drom'-e-dq. A genus of plants, family Eri- 
caceae. Broad-leaved moor-wort. A decoction of the leaves is said to 
be useful in ground-itch, or toe-itch. 
ANEMONE, a-nem'-o-ne. A genus of perennial herbs of the 
family Ranunculaceae. So named because the flower was thought to 
open only while the wind blows. From the anemone pulsatilla, comes 
the pulsatilla so much used by homoeopaths. (See Pulsatilla.) 
ANETHUM, Ornedhum [Lat. anetham^ dill, anise], a genus of plants 
belonging to the Nat. order UmbeUiferce. The species A. graveolen* 104 
ANETITUM-ANEURISM. 
is commonly known as the Dill. The fruits, improperly termed seeds, 
of this plant are imported into this country from the south of France. 
They have carminative properties, due to the presence of an essential 
oil, contained chiefly in the dittos, of the pericarp. They are used in 
medicine, and, it is said, in the manufacture of London gin. The plant 
is also cultivated in this country. Dose of the oil, 2 to 5 drops; of the 
seeds bruised, 10 to 40tgrains. 
ANEURISM, an'-u-rism [Gr. aneuruno, I widen or dilate.] A 
tumor formed by the morbid dilatation of an artery. In Surgery, it is 
usually defined to be a pulsating tumor, containing blood, and communi- 
cating with the interior of an artery. It is a tumor formed by a preter- 
natural dilation of a part of an artery, or by the extravasation of arterial 
blood in the cellular membrane, in consequence of a rupture or wound 
of the coats of an artery. The former is termed true, the latter false or 
spurious aneurism. If the tw$ inner coats of an artery are ruptured, 
and a sac is formed by the outer, it is called a mixed aneurism. 
Aneurisms arise partly from too violent motion of the blood, partly from 
preternatural weakness in the membranes of the artery. They are most 
frequent in the adult, between the ages of thirty and fifty, and occur 
oftener in the male than in the female; but no age is wholly exempt 
from them. They may be met with in any part of the body, and are 
usually divided into external and internal; the former occurring on the 
limbs, neck, or external part of the head; the latter forming in any of 
the cavities of the body, as the thorax or abdomen, and generally affect- 
ing the aorta or some of its principal branches. In the early stage of 
aneurism, if external, a small pulsating tumor is observed, which entirely 
disappears when compressed, but returns as soon as the pressure is 
removed. It continues to grow larger, and as it increases in size its 
pulsations become weaker, partly on account of its greater distance from 
the course of the blood, and sometimes also from the accumulation of 
tibrine within in the cyst. Sometimes this librine consolidates, and 
becomes connected with the walls of the cavity, which it at length fills 
up, occasionally bulging into and choking up the artery. This, however, 
is a termination of aneurism that is unfortunately rare. In most cases, 
the dilation of the sac goes on until, if not arrested, the inclosing mem- 
branes give way, and the patient expires from loss of blood; or death 
may be produced by pressure upon important parts, as the trachea, 
oesophagus, nerves, etc. 
Treatment.- The cure of aneurism consists in applying a ligature 
to the artery above the tumor: the ingress of blood into the sac is thus 
prevented, and its contents are gradually absorbed. The blood, being 
interrupted in its course through the artery, passes with greater force ANEURISM- ANGINA PECTORIS. 
105 
into the collateral branches, permanently enlarging them; and thus the 
necessary circulation to the parts beyond the obstruction is carried on. 
In internal aneurisms not admitting of such treatment, recourse must be 
had to such means as moderate the action of the heart, and depress the 
general circulation, thus inducing the formation of fibrine within the sac, 
which may gradually till it up. These consist of repeated bleedings, 
low diet, perfect rest, and the administration of gentle laxatives and 
medicines which moderate the action of the heart, as digitalis, etc. (See 
Digitalis.) 
ANGELICA. (See Aechangelica.). 
ANGINA PECTORIS, an-ji'-na pek'-to-ris [from the Gr. agko^ 
to strangle, and Lat. pectus, the breast], literally signifies a con- 
traction or tightening of the chest, and in Medicine is the name of a 
disease of the chest, characterized by a feeling of painful constriction at 
the lower part of the sternum, or breastbone, inclining to the left side, 
and extending to the left arm. The pain is very acute, accompanied 
with a difficulty of breathing, irregular action of the heart, and a feeling 
of approaching dissolution. The paroxysms last from a few nynutes to 
half an hour or more, and come on suddenly, at irregular intervals. 
Causes.-They are often excited by violent exercise, strong mental 
emotion, or a derangement of the digestive organs ; but frequently make 
their appearance without any manifest exciting cause. It is met with 
chiefly in the-middle-aged or old, and is more frequent in males than 
females. Physicians^ are by no means agreed as to the seat and nature 
of this disease, and dissection has shown almost every disease of the 
thoracic viscera in connection with it. The general opinion, however, 
seems to be that it is owing to some important organic disease of the 
heart, which impairs its functional activity, such as fatty degeneration 
of its muscular fibres, which in very many cases has been found to be 
present. It is the nature of this disease to proceed from bad to worse. 
Treatment.-Where the patient is young, or of good constitution, 
and where there are no symptoms of organic affection, success frequently 
attends early, active, and judicious treatment. Violent exercise and 
strong mental emotions are to be avoided, as well as long fasting or too 
full meals, and sudden exposure to great heat or cold. In fact, the 
patient "must lead a sober, quiet, and temperate life, in which neither 
the emotions of the soul are to disturb the functions of the body, nor 
corporeal affections are allowed to disturb the serenity of the mind." 
An attack of angina pectoris is an emergency affecting life, to which 
there are few equal; full, instant, stimulation is demanded, and the first 
agent of the kind at hand must be used, till other remedies and proper 
assistance can be procured. A glass of spirits and water as hot and 106 
ANGINA PECTORIS-ANHYDROUS. 
strong as it can be swallowed, and with it, if procurable instantly, sixty 
drops of laudanum must at once be given. A strong mustard-poultice is 
at once to be applied to the front of the chest, and the same between 
the shoulders-hot applications to the feet. If the paroxysm be not 
subdued in a quarter of an hour, the stimulant is to be repeated with 
half the quantity of laudanum, and this again, after the same interval, if 
requisite. Spirits have been mentioned as being the most readily pro- 
curable, but when ether and sal-volatile, either one or other, or both, are 
at hand, they are preferable, and must be given in just so much water 
as will permit of their being swallowed ; a teaspoonful of each with sixty 
drops of laudanum. A person who has once suffered an attack of angina 
should never be without these three requisites, laudanum, or better, 
Battley's solution of opium-ether-sal-volatile. It is needless perhaps 
to say, that all these measures of an emergency in which not a moment 
is to be lost, are whilst waiting the arrival of the medical attendant, and 
that to him must be entrusted the direction of that regulated mode of 
life, which must ever be adopted after an attack of this disease. The 
general health is to be improved by means of tonics, attention to diet, 
and the state of the bowels. 
ANGINA TONSILLARIS, an-ji'-na ton-sil-la/ris, inflammatory 
sore throat, inflammation of the tonsils. (See Sore Throat.) 
ANGLE, FACIAL, ang'gl fa'-shat, a straight line drawn from the 
most prominent part of the forehead to the alveolar edge of the upper 
jaw, opposite to the incisor teeth, and another, from the external 
auditory foramen to the same point, form an angle called the facial 
angle. The facial angle does not afford a very correct criterion of the 
development of the cranium, or the sagacity of the animal; neverthe- 
less, there appears to be some general truth in the indications derived 
from it, especially in relation to the human species, for in the European 
race, the facial angle is seldom less than 80c, while in the negro it is 
seldom more than 70°. 
ANGUSTURA BARK, OR CUSPARIA BARK, anpus-tu'-ra, a 
valuable drug, imported directly or indirectly from South America. In 
small doses it acts as a stimulant, tonic, and febrifuge ; while in large 
doses it is somewhat emetic and purgative. This bark is the produce 
of different species of Galipea, and its characteristic properties depend 
on the presence of an active principle, to which the name Cusparin has 
been given. The powder is given in doses of 10 to 30 grains. 
ANHYDROUS, an-hi'-drus. Oxides and salts containing no water 
are said to be anhydrous. Water possesses the property of forming 
compounds called hydrates, with different salts and oxides. Thus we 
have hydrate of potassa, of lime, of oxide of chromium, etc. The ANHYDROUS-ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
107 
affinity possessed by many metallic oxides for water is so strong that, 
when once the hydrate is formed, the water cannot be separated but by 
the addition of an acid. Caustic potassa, for instance, contains one 
atom of water which is not separated even by a red heat. 
ANILINE, an-il-een, a volatile oily alkaloid, obtainable from indigo 
and from other sources, but principally from coal tar, from which it is 
extensively prepared for the purpose of forming certain dyes. Medicinal 
properties and actions: It is sedative and antispasmodic, acting appar- 
ently in a direct manner upon the nervous system, according to the 
researches of Dr. J. Turnbull, who first proposed it as a therapeutic 
agent. The sulphate of aniline, which appears to be destitute of the 
local irritating properties of the aniline itself, is the form in which it has 
been chiefly employed. One peculiarity of its action is the presence of 
a remarkable blue color of the lips, tongue, and nails, together with a 
more or less dusky appearance of the complexion, which, however, dis- 
appears in a few hours after the medicine has been discontinued. In 
some cases it produces depression of the nervous system and headache, 
which are also only of a temporary nature. In large doses it is poison- 
ous. The blue discoloration above described is attributed to the forma- 
tion of a coloring matter or dye produced by the oxidation of the aniline 
in the blood. 
The dose of the sulphate of aniline is 1 grain twice daily, gradually 
increased to 1| to 2 grains in solution, either with or without a few 
drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Its use should be intermitted for a 
few days on the appearance of blueness of the lips or depression of the 
nervous system. 
ANIMAL, an-e-mql, a symmetrical organization, provided with an 
internal stomach, and possessing the power of voluntary motion. The 
nervous system is peculiar to animals. The term animal embraces 
energy, variety of form, and degree of development. Chemically con- 
sidered, animals are compounded of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and 
nitrogen chiefly. Phosphorus and sulphur exist in all to a limited 
extent; the earthy bodies are peculiar to some only. Animals differ 
from plants in their power of digestion. While plants convert gases, 
water, and inorganic substances into starch, fibrin, etc., animals are not 
capable of producing extensive changes in the food they receive, and 
require that which is highly organized for their nutrition. (See Animal 
Chemistry.) 
ANIMAL ACIDS, those acids produced by the metamorphoses 
occurring within animals, such as the cholic, uric, cystic, lactic, cerebric, 
margaric, stearic, etc. 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY, that branch of science which treats of the 108 
ANIMAL CHEMISTRY-ANIMAL HEAT. 
different changes going on in the living animal; such as the change of 
the egg, consisting of white, yolk, and shell, into the flesh, blood, bones, 
and feathers of the young bird. The processes of respiration, digestion, 
and assimilation of food, are purely chemical operations. The principal 
chemical substances necessary for the support of the different functions 
of the animal system are oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, 
phosphorus, and chlorine, and the metals iron, sodium, potassium, lime, 
and magnesia. These are all received into the system in the form of 
food, and become distributed to the different parts of the body during the 
process of digestion and assimilation; as, for example, the iron to the 
blood and hair, the lime and phosphorus to the nails and bones. If any 
of these substances are wanting, the system suffers, and they must 
be restored to the patient. For instance, rachitis, or rickets, in children, 
is caused by the bone containing too little lime; and the best remedy, 
therefore, in its earliest stage, is plenty of lime-water, or some other 
substance containing lime. The following analysis of different parts of 
the human system will be interesting, as showing the destination of these 
different substances: 
Bone. 
Animal matter 31 
Phosphate of lime 59 
Fluoride of calcium 2 
Carbonate of lime 7 
Phosphate of magnesia 1 
Blood. 
Water 779 
Fibrine 2 
Fatty matter 2 
Albumen 69 
Iron and salts 7 
Blood corpuscles 141 
Hair. 
Carbon 51 
Hydrogen 7 
Nitrogen 17 
Sulphur 3 
Oxygen 22 
Flesh. 
Coagulated fibre. 
Water, three-fourths. 
Albumen. 
Phosphoric acid. 
Phosphates. 
Chlorides. 
The modern discoveries of animal chemistry have thrown great light 
upon the vital functions, and the laws governing them, and have purged 
medical science of much of the rubbish in which it was previously 
involved. (See Blood, Bone, Hair, Flesh, Respiration, Digestion, 
etc. ) 
ANIMAL FLUIDS, the blood, bile, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, 
mucous and serous exhalations, chyle, lymphatic fluid, semen, etc. 
ANIMAL FOOD. (See Food.) 
ANIMAL HEAT. Animal heat may be defined to be the temper- 
ature which results from vital operations occurring in the bodies of the 
higher animals, and which maintains them, at a nearly uniform heat, 
independent of that of the atmosphere, or other media by which they 
are surrounded. In healthy men, the average temperature of the body ANIMAL HEAT. 
109 
is 98° or 99°. Heat is one of the conditions necessary to life, and, 
when that is reduced below a certain point, all vital activity ceases. 
The sun is the great source of heat, and on it vegetables and the greater 
number of tribes of animals principally depend. There are certain tribes 
of animals, however, especially birds and mammals, which possess the 
power of generating heat within themselves to such a degree as to ren- 
der their vital functions almost entirely independent of external influ- 
ences ; and there is probably no species that can exercise this power 
effectually and through a greater range of conditions than man. Judg- 
ing merely from our sensations, we should be led to conclude that our 
bodies undergo very considerable changes of temperature. Such, how- 
ever, has been proved not to be the case. From a series of 114 observa- 
tions made by Dr. John Davy on persons of different ages and sexes, 
and in various latitudes, it was found that the mean temperature of the 
body was 100° in a mean atmospheric temperature of 74°; the highest 
temperature of the body being 102°, while the highest atmospheric tem- 
perature was 82°, and the lowest temperature of the body 96.5°, while the 
lowest temperature of the air was 60°. The mean age of all the individuals 
was 27. In favorable circumstances, the temperature of infants is some- 
what higher than that of adults; but, in their power of resisting the 
depressing influence of external cold, the former are much inferior to the 
latter. External cold reduces the temperature of the body considerably, 
especially if at rest. Thus Dr. Davy found the temperature of his own 
body reduced, on an average of four observations, to 96.7°, with the 
average temperature of the surrounding air at 37°. An increase of 
temperature takes place after exercise, as well as after a meal. The 
usual temperature of the body occasionally undergoes considerable 
change in disease, from 106° in fever to 67° in cholera. The mean 
temperature of birds is rather higher than that of mammals, averaging 
about 108°, while mammals average about 101°. Animal heat arises 
from the various changes that are constantly going on within the bodies 
of the animals. Every change that takes place in the condition of the 
organic components of the body, in which their elements enter into new 
combinations with oxygen, is necessarily a source of the development 
of heat. By the union of the oxygen of the atmosphere with the 
carbon and hydrogen of the body, a species of combustion takes 
place, and heat is evolved. Hence we find that the more rapidly this 
combustion is carried on, the greater the amount of heat produced; and 
hence exercise increases the heat of the body. Some have held that 
combustion was not sufficient to account for the total amount of heat 
generated in a living body; but the most reqpnt authorities are now 
generally agreed that such is the case, especially when we take into 110 
ANIMAL HEAT. 
account the small quantities of sulphur and phosphorus which also 
undergo oxidation within the system. One great fulfilment, therefore, of 
the food we digest, is to keep us warm, by the continual combustion of 
elements going on within us; consequently, persons who can consume 
and digest large quantities of food have much greater power of resist- 
ing cold than those who cannot, and chilliness is one very constant 
symptom of impaired digestion; the stomach is unable to keep the 
system supplied with fuel. The point is one of considerable importance 
in the selection of crews for arctic expeditions, and ought to have some 
influence with intending emigrants in their choice of a future home. An 
individual who suffers from habitual weakness of digestion ought to 
choose a warm or genial climate in preference to a cold one. Fats and 
oils especially, which contain much carbon and hydrogen, afford great 
protection against severe cold; accordingly all northern people, like the 
Esquimaux, consume them in large quantity, and Europeans traveling 
in northern latitudes have always copied the natives in this respect. 
Alcoholic fluids, like fat and oil, contain much carbon and hydrogen, 
but their stimulant properties, and more evanescent influence, render 
them unfit for ordinary consumption to sustain animal heat, although 
on extraordinary occasions they are invaluable. When from illness or 
any other cause, sufficient food cannot be taken to keep up a due 
temperature, fuel is supplied at the expense of the bodily tissues, more 
especially of the fat-as the case is in hybernating animals-and if ill- 
ness, such as fever continues, even the supply within the body threatens 
to fail, and the person is actually in danger of dying of cold. It then 
becomes imperative to get into the circulation as much "respiratory 
food," as much nourishment as possible, simply, as fuel. Much may 
be done by strong animal broths, but alcohol is the great resource, in 
whatever form is most advisable; it passes readily into and mingles 
with the blood, and affords an immediately available supply of carbon 
and hydrogen to keep the animal temperature going. The regular, 
steady supply of wine when required in fever, must be kept up, and this 
cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the attendant. Half 
an hour's nap on the part of the nurse may lose a life. 
But internal heat cannot do all in our cold clime, and with artificial 
modes of living, it is of the utmost importance, especially in the 
young and delicate, to maintain the full temperature of the surface by 
proper clothing. The subject is one, respecting which much careless- 
ness and ignorance prevails in all classes of society in this country, and 
children, half-clothed for the sake of appearance, with bare chests and 
limbs, and exercise not sufficiently active to counteract the effects of the 
chill, are exposed to all the evils resulting from internal congestions of ANIMAL HEAT-ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 
111 
the blood repelled from the surface. Warm clothing is, in some respects 
a substitute for food, and either man or animal requires less nourishment 
when protected from cold. It is well known to agriculturists, that sheep 
or cattle will fatten more quickly under cover in winter, than if exposed 
to the weather. The reason is obvious, they are able to store up in their 
bodies that which otherwise must have gone to keep them warm. 
When it is considered that abstraction of animal heat, by cold and 
wTet, is one of the most fertile sources of fatal disease, the importance 
of maintaining the full temperature of the body is manifest. It is well 
known that exercise is the best antagonist to cold, it is so, by quicken- 
ing the respiration, and thus increasing the supply of oxygen taken in 
by the blood, which is also circulated more rapidly. In fact, to use the 
simile which compares the body to a stove, exercise gives a free draught 
for the process of combustion. Continued exposure to an extreme 
degree of cold, which carries off the animal heat more quickly than it 
can be generated, it is well known, gives rise to overpowering drowsi- 
ness, which, once yielded to, is death. It must be resisted, and when 
one of a party thus exposed is inclined to yield, the others must resort 
to every means calculated to rouse, even-as has been done-by thrash- 
ing him along; the temper which is excited is a most excellent resistant 
of cold. It should be remembered that if active exertion continue too 
long, it will cease to promote warmth, in consequence of the available 
heat producing agents-in the body-being comparatively exhausted. 
(See Aeration, Blood, Lungs, Circulation, Food, Heat, Cold, etc.) 
ANIMAL KINGDOM, the entire collection of animated objects. 
There are four primary divisions, or sub-kingdoms: 1. Vertebrata, or 
animals furnished with a regular backbone. 2. Articulata, animals 
which contain no skeleton, but are covered with a crust or shell, made 
of distinct parts, or articulations, as the lobster. 3. Mollusca, animals 
destitute of skeleton or articulations, but usually inhabiting shells. 
4. Radiata, animals of the lowest organization, destitute of an internal 
respiratory organ, and having a nervous system composed of mere lines, 
which are often radiated from a center. Each of these sub-kingdoms 
contains several classes. 
ANIMAL MAGNETISM, the mysterious influence which one man 
appears, by an effort of the will, to exercise upon the body of another 
man, and which, undoubtedly, gives rise to many very remarkable 
phenomena, has been rashly ascribed to a peculiar modification of 
magnetic force. Those few who have studied mesmeric manifestations 
in a scientific spirit have, however, very wisely discarded the term 
animal magnetism, as it pretends to define an agent that we have no 
evidence to exist. (See Mesmerism.) 112 
ANIMATION, SUSPENDED-ANKLE. 
ANIMATION, SUSPENDED, an-e-ma'-shun. Suspended animation 
is the term applied to that condition in which the life of the body is 
threatened, in consequence of respiration having been stopped or 
impeded, but in which there still exists a possibility of life being pre- 
served. The chief causes of suspended animation are drowning, hanging, 
immersion in choke-damp or irrespirable gas, and intense cold. (See 
Drowning, Hanging, Cold, Choke-Damp, Carbonic Acid, etc.) 
ANISE, an'-es, [Gr. anison, Lat. anisum]. Anise is an umbelli- 
ferous plant cultivated in Egypt, Malta, Spain, and Germany, for the 
sake of its fruit, called aniseed, which is extensively used for flavoring 
liquors and confections, and medicinally as a carminative. The botanical 
name of the plant is Plmpinella Anisum. Star or Chinese aniseed is 
the fruit of the Illicium anisatum, a small tree in the Nat. order 
Magnoliacew. It has a starlike form-hence its name, and a flavor 
similar to that of the common aniseed. Oil of aniseed is obtained by 
distilling the fruit, and even the stems and leaves of the common anise. 
For this, a similar product, yielded by the star aniseed, is frequently 
substituted. The true oil and its substitute have the aromatic properties 
of the fruits, and are employed for the same purposes. Dose of the oil 
from 5 to 20 drops on sugar; of the powdered seeds, from 10 to 30 
grains ; and of the infusion, a wine-glassful. (See Infusion.) 
ANKLE, ang'-ld. The ankle is the joint connecting the foot with 
the leg. It belongs to the class of hinge-joints. It is formed by the lower 
ends of the tibia and fibula united so as to form an arch into which the 
superior convex surface of the astragalus is received. From its position, 
this joint is very liable to be sprained or dislocated. (See Dislocations, 
Sprain. ) Children have often distorted ankles from feebleness of constitu- 
tion, or from being allowed to walk too soon. In such cases, the general 
health is to be improved by means of nourishing diet and tonics, as iron; 
and the child is not to be allowed to stand or run about too much. Stout 
elastic stockings should be worn, and even, if necessary, leg-irons; and the 
boots should be made thicker in the sole on that side to which the ankle is 
inclined. The ankles should also be bathed twice a day in cold salt 
water, and vigorously rubbed with a rough towel. (See Children.) 
Whenever the least suspicion exists that violence to the ankle has 
caused more than a sprain, no time should be lost in submitting it to 
the examination of a surgeon. Such injuries are often obscure, and 
there is much difficulty in making out their exact nature after swelling 
has come on. A simple sprain of the ankle is to be treated in the mode 
directed to be followed in similar cases generally. In case of disloca- 
tion occurring at a great distance from medical aid, and when from the 
extreme distortion of the foot the accident is distinctly apparent, some ANKLE-ANTA CID. 
113 
attempt ought to be made by those near to replace the parts, while some 
one in the meantime is procuring medical aid. The sufferer being laid 
down, one individual should grasp the leg firmly just below the calf, 
whilst another, grasping the heel with his left hand, and the lower part 
of the instep with his right, endeavors by extension in the first place, 
and slight turning of the foot towards its proper position, to reduce the 
dislocation. Children are sometimes born with ankles distorted. (See 
Club-Foot, Dislocations, Joints, Sprain, Deformity.) 
ANODYNE, an'-o-dine [Gr. a, without, odune, pain], a medicine 
which allays pain. The term is usually applied only to a medicine which 
acts upon the nervous system so as to decrease sensibility and induce 
sleep, or a state of partial unconsciousness. The most important 
anodynes are preparations of opium, belladonna, aconite, conium, 
hyoscyamus, lettuce, hop, camphor. Anodyne must be regarded as con- 
stituting one of the most benevolent provisions of the Creator for the 
relief of his creatures. The removal of pain by an anodyne is like a 
breath of heaven. (See Opium, Atropa Belladonna, Aconite, Conium, 
Hyoscyamus Niger, Lactuca, Humulus Lupulus, Camphor, etc.) 
ANODYNE NECKLACES. Anodyne necklaces are made of the 
roots of henbane, bryony, etc. They are believed by the credulous to 
facilitate dentition, procure sleep, etc. 
ANODYNE PLASTER. Useful in any acute local pain, especially 
of a nervous kind. Ingredients 
One dram of powder of opium. 
One dram of camphor. 
Olive oil. 
One ounce of adhesive plaster. 
Mode: Dissolve the opium and camphor with a little olive oil; melt one 
ounce of adhesive plaster, and work the other ingredients well and 
evenly into it. Lay the plaster on the part affected. 
ANOMALY, Ornom-arte, a deviation from ordinary laws. Mon- 
strosities are called anomalies of organization. 
ANOREXIA, an'-o-reks-e-a [Gr. a, not, and orexis, appetite], loss of 
appetite. 
ANTACID, ant-as'-id [Gr. anti, against, and acid}, a term applied 
to such medicines as possess the quality of correcting acidity or sourness 
in the stomach. The principal antacids are potash, soda, ammonia, 
magnesia, lime, and their carbonates. The carbonate is the form in 
which they are usually administered. Where acidity is conjoined with 
nausea and faintness, ammonia acts as a grateful stimulant, as well as an 
antacid. 
The use of antacids can only be palliative, and their continued regular 114 
A NT A CID-ANTHEMIS. 
use is productive of serious mischief, for they inevitably destroy the tone 
of the stomach, and aggravate permanently the evil they may tempor- 
arily relieve. Whenever antacids are frequently required, it is a sign 
that there is some other disorder, though perhaps less prominent, which 
must be looked for and corrected. (See Acidity of the Stomach, Dys- 
pepsia, Digestion, etc.) 
ANTAGONIST MUSCLES, an-tag'-o-nist [Gr. anti, against, agon- 
istes, a combatant], in Anatomy, are those muscles which act in oppo- 
sition to each other ; as flexors and extensors, abductors and adductors. 
ANT ALKALI, ant-al'-ka-li [Gr. anti, against, and alkali], a name 
applied to such medicines as tend to counteract the presence of alkalies 
in the system. The antalkalies in most common use are muriatic, nitric, 
and citric acid. 
ANT APHRODISIAC, ant-af-ro-dizK-e-ak, applied first, to medicines 
which quell amorous desires, or diminish the venereal appetite; applied 
second, to medicines used against syphilis. 
ANTHELMINTICS, ant-kel-min-tiks [Gr. anti, against, and elmins, 
a worm], a term applied to such medicines as have the effect of destroy- 
ing worms in the stomach and intestines. They are of various kinds, 
but may be divided into three classes-those which, by increasing the 
peristaltic motion of the intestines, tend to displace the worms, and may 
thus occasion their expulsion-as purgatives of various kinds; those 
which tend to strengthen the stomach and intestines, and the system 
generally-as tonics or analeptics; and those which act specially upon 
the worms, dislodging, weakening, or killing them. These last are 
anthelmintics, properly so called. The principal medicines of this class 
are tin and iron filings, cowhage, kamala, cusso or brayera anthelmintica, 
oil of turpentine, male fern, calomel, gamboge, jalap, aloes, quassia, 
tansy, santonine, scammony and iron. (See Worms.) 
ANTHEMIS, an'-tlie-mis [Gr.], the chamomile plant. In Botany, a 
genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Composites, sub-order 
Tubulifloroe, and distinguished by having the scales surrounding the 
flower, heads membranous at the borders, like those of a chrysanthemum, 
from which genus it, in fact, differs chiefly in the receptacle of the flower 
being furnished with little chaffy projections. The most important 
plant of the genus is A. nobilis, the common chamomile, which is exten- 
sively cultivated for the sake of its flowers. It is an indigenous perennial, 
flowering from June to September, and growing on open gravelly pastures 
and commons. The capitula, which are commonly termed flowers, are 
each composed of a number of tubular yellow florets, arranged on a 
receptacle, and surrounded by a circle of ligulate white florets. The 
double variety is produced at the expense of the tubular florets, which ANTIIEMIS-ANTED OTE. 
115 
become converted into ligulate florets. The single flowers are to be 
preferred for medical purposes, as the central yellow florets contain much 
more volatile oil than the white ones. Both leaves and flowers possess 
a strong but not unpleasant aromatic odor, and a nauseous bitter taste. 
The principal constituents of the flowers are volatile oil, tannin, and 
bitter resinous matter. The oil, which is procured by distillation, is 
stimulant, tonic, and antispasmodic, alterative and emetic, and is fre- 
quently used in the preparation of tonic and cathartic pills, and to relieve 
flatulence, griping, and eructation. The extract and infusion of the 
dried flowers have the same properties as the oil, and are used for the 
same purposes. The infusion is formed by half an ounce of the flowers 
to ten fluid ounces of boiling distilled water, infused in a covered vessel 
for fifteen minutes, and then strained. It is also employed externally 
for fomentation. The infusion taken internally is an aromatic bitter of 
undoubted tonic properties, and without nauseousness. In simple 
debility of the stomach and loss of appetite, chamomile tea, if not used 
too frequently and for too long a time at once, is a safe and good remedy. 
From 5 to 10 drops of the essential oil of chamomile dropped on sugar, 
is a useful and not unpleasant carminative. (See Carminatives.) The 
preparations of chamomile are used in dyspepsia, intermittent and 
typhus fevers, in flatulence, colic, spasms of the stomach, hysteria, 
nervous diseases, and in painful dysmenorrhoea. It is also recommended 
in every case in which it is desired to prevent too abundant or too long 
continued suppurations. 
PRINCIPAL PREPARATIONS. 
Fluid extract Dose, half to one teaspoonful. 
Solid " " four to twenty grains. 
Pills, two grains " one to four pills. 
Infusion " one to four fluid ounces. 
ANTHRAX. (See Carbuncle. ) 
A NTT, an'-ti, a Greek word signifying against, and frequently used 
in compound medical terms, as anti-bilious, anti-spasmodic, medicines 
that tend to counteract biliousness, spasms. (See Biliousness, Spasm, 
etc.) 
ANTIDOTE, an'-te-dote [Gr. anti, against, and dotos, given], in 
Medicine, a term applied to remedies or preservatives against sickness; 
but more particularly to substances which counteract the effects of 
poison. Antidotes are of two kinds (1), such as act chemically, and by 
decomposing the poison render it inert; and (2), such as act mechan- 
ically by simply covering the mucous surface of the intestines, and thus 
protecting them from the action of the poison, and preventing its absorp- 
tion into the system. Of this last are oleaginous, albuminous, gelatin- 116 
ANT ID OTE-ANTIMONY. 
ous substances. It has lately been discovered that certain poisons act 
antagonistic to other poisons. In 1869, Dr. T. R. Fraser read a paper 
before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, ' ' On the antagonism between 
the actions of Physostigma (calebar beans) and Belladonna," describing 
a number of experiments which went to show that fatal doses of one of 
these poisons are counteracted by the administration of the other. (See 
Poisons and their Antidotes.) 
ANTI-EMETICS, an-ti-e-met'-iks, medicines which prevent or stop 
vomiting. The most effectual anti-emetics are, opium in some of its 
forms, camphor, peppermint, essence of cinnamon, essence of tansy, and 
the carminatives in general. (See Carminatives.) 
ANTI-FAT REMEDIES. (See Fucus Vesiculosus, Corpulence.) 
ANTIMONIAL POWDER, an-te-mo'-ne-al^ fever powder. This 
material is supposed to be the same thing as the James' powder. The 
powder, when good, is white, and without smell or taste. The gray 
powder is an inferior article. The chemist obtains antimonial powder 
by heating the sulphuret of antimony and the shavings of hartshorn, 
first to a red, then to a white heat, in an earthen crucible. It is com- 
posed of the rust or oxide of antimony, and the phosphate of lime. 
The sulphuret of antimony is a native ore, of a bluish color, and metal- 
lic lustre. The phosphate of lime is the material of which bones are 
chiefly composed, as well as horn. The antimonial powder has the 
property of raising a sweat in a very high degree. In large doses it is 
emetic and cathartic. It has a tendency to increase all the secretions. 
In fevers it is a very important medicine. In low, malignant fevers it 
is not so appropriate as in those of an inflammatory nature. Dose: 
for an adult, 6 grains; for a child one year old, 1 grain; two to four 
years old, 2 grains; and from four to twelve years old, 4 grains. 
The powder may be administered in syrup, molasses, or thick 
gruel. 
ANTIMONIAL WINE is a solution of tartar emetic in wine, 2 
grains to the fluid ounce; in many cases, it is a convenient preparation, 
but of course liable to the same dangers as the W'atery solution; it is 
much-too much, used popularly, especially as an emetic. In inflam- 
matory diseases, the amount of wine which must be given with each 
dose is objectionable. It is most useful as a simple diaphoretic, given 
at bedtime, in doses of from 10 to 30 drops, and combined with half an 
ounce of spirit of mindererus. (See Antimony.) 
ANTIMONY, an'-te-mo-ne, is a brilliant bluish-white metal, symbol 
Sb, from the Latin 8tiblum ; atomic weight, 129; specific gravity, 6.7. 
It fuses at 850° F. It is so brittle that it may be reduced to powder by 
being pounded in a mortar. It volatilizes at a red heat. It is a bad ANTIMONY. 
117 
conductor of electricity and heat. When heated in air, it burns, and 
gives off copious white fumes, consisting of teroxide of antimony. It is 
also oxidized by nitric and sulphuric acid, and dissolved by aqua regia. 
In its chemical relations it is allied to nitrogen, phosphorus, and arsenic, 
and forms, with the last, one of the connecting links between the 
metallic and non-metallic elements. It forms three oxides, viz: 1. 
Terowide of antimony, SbO3, a grayish-white powder, which is procured 
by boiling the metal with sulphuric acid, and evaporating to dryness. 
2. Antimonic acid, SbO5, a pale yellow powder, tasteless and insoluble, 
made by adding nitric acid to the tersulphide, and driving off the excess 
of nitric acid by heat. 3. Antimonious acid. If antimonic acid be 
heated strongly, a compound is produced containing antimonic acid, 
combined with teroxide of antimony. This is erroneously called an 
acid, but is really either a teroxide of antimony or an antimoniate of 
antimony, i.e., either SbO4 or SbO3 SbO5. Terchloride of antimony, or 
butter of antimony, SbCl3, is formed by heating the tersulphide with 
hydrochloric acid. It is very deliquescent, and forms a buttery mass, 
whence its commercial name. Ter sulphide of antimony occurs native 
in gray lead-colored masses, and is the chief ore from which antimony 
is procured. The hydrated tersulphide, mixed with the teroxide, is an 
amorphous red powder, and was formerly used in medicine under the 
name of Kermes Mineral. The principal medicinal preparations of 
antimony are the teroxide or oxide of antimony, called also Flowers of 
Antimony, given in doses of 3 to 10 grains, in the form of powder or 
pill; antimonial or James'1 powder, formed of one part of oxide of 
antimony, and two parts of phosphate of lime, mixed and given in 
doses of 3 to 10 grains ; solution of chloride of antimony, composed of 
one pound of black antimony, or prepared sulphuret of antimony, and 
four pints of hydrochloric acid, sometimes used externally, as an active 
caustic, but never administered internally ; sulphureted antimony, com- 
posed of 10 ounces of black antimony, 4| pints of solution of soda, and 
of diluted sulphuric acid, and distilled water, a sufficient quantity of 
each-dose, 1 to 5 grains; tartrate of antimony, composed of 5 ounces 
of oxide of antimony, 6 ounces of acid tartrate of potash, and 2 pints of 
distilled water, given as a diaphoretic, in doses of one-sixteenth to one- 
sixth of a grain; as an emetic, 1 to 2 grains. Antimonial wine is com- 
posed of 40 grains of tartrated antimony to one pint of sherry; dose, 
10 to 30 drops. The effects of antimonial preparations are all 
similar in their nature. In small doses they are stimulating, dia- 
phoretic, and expectorant; in larger doses, emetic. They are frequently 
valuable in colds, catarrhal affections, by stimulating the secretion of 
fluids by the skin and mucous membranes. The most common and the 118 
ANTIMONY. 
safest forms in which antimony is used, are James' powder, and the 
tartrate, or antimonial wine. 
Tartar emetic, or tartarized antimony, the most powerful of all the 
preparations of antimony, is a preparation which stands without a rival as 
the controller of some forms of inflammation. A compound salt of anti- 
mony, potash, and tartaric acid, it is formed in crystals, but usually sold 
as a white powder. It is sufficiently soluble in water to be conveniently 
administered in that fluid, which should always be used soft or distilled ; a 
simple solution of the medicine is preferable in most cases. In large 
doses, tartar emetic acts as a powerful irritant poison, causing intense 
nausea, vomiting, severe pain in the bowels, purging, bloody stools, and 
extreme general depression; and even in comparatively small doses, 
these effects are sometimes liable to be developed in degree, especially 
in children. Great caution, therefore, is required. In case of a 
poisonous, or overdose of tartar emetic having been swallowed, the best 
remedy is some astringent infusion-Peruvian bark, nut galls, or strong 
tea. There is considerable variation in the strength of the dose of tartar 
emetic given by medical men; when, under necessity, it is dispensed 
by others, the sixth to the eighth of a grain only, should be given to an 
adult. A convenient form, is to dissolve 2 grains of the salt in £ a pint 
of soft water slightly wanned, and of this, to give a tablespoonful every 
three or four hours, so as to keep up continued nausea. Vomiting may 
follow the first dose or two, but after that, in most cases, the stomach 
becomes tolerant of the remedy. By giving tartarized antimony dis- 
solved in a moderately small quantity of water, its irritant effects are 
less liable to be exerted upon the bpwels, and should they come on, a 
few drops of laudanum, if otherwise admissible, must be given in some 
demulcent, barley or rice-water, and the demulcent alone continued as 
common drink. To children, tartarized antimony, must be administered 
with great caution, and is better avoided by the unprofessional, except 
in the extreme cases of croup, or severe inflammation of the lungs, 
plainly existing, and occurring at a distance from proper medical assist- 
ance. In the former alarming disease, tolerably full doses are required 
to make a quick impression upon the system, and to induce speedy 
vomiting. For a child of six or seven years, a single grain must be dis- 
solved in an ounce of water, and a teaspoonful of the solution, given 
either alone, or in a little water as drink, every quarter of an hour, till 
free vomiting is produced. In inflammation of the lungs, half the dose 
must be given; but this advice, let it be remembered, applies only to 
the severe diseases above mentioned, when occurring at a distance from 
medical aid. The practice of administering antimony to children, 
generally is not well, unless under medical sanction, and in those of ANTIMONY-ANTI8C0RB UTICS. 
119 
weak constitution may be productive of serious or fatal results. For a 
simple emetic, antimony is seldom well adapted, and should not be used 
when others are obtainable. 
ANTIMONY, ANTIDOTES FOR. (See Poisons and their Anti- 
dotes. ) 
ANTIPATHY, an-tip'-Orthe [Gr. a/nti, and pathos, feeling], in its 
widest sense, denotes the natural dislike or aversion which an animate 
being entertains for some particular object; as the antipathy of sheep 
to wolves, of a turkey-cock to the color red. In the human species we 
frequently meet with remarkable cases of antipathy by certain indi- 
viduals to objects which are grateful or indifferent to the generality of 
mankind. Thus, some have an antipathy to certain kinds of food, as 
butter or eggs; to certain animals, as toads, mice, spiders; to certain 
tastes, smells, sounds, etc. In some cases, the antipathy is so strong as 
to produce sickness or fainting. Doubtless, many of these feelings may 
be traced to early training, as when children are frightened with certain 
objects, or nauseated with certain kinds of food. But antipathy is not 
always a conscious caprice which may be removed by an effort of the 
will, or by habit, for it is sometimes found that the effects of the pres- 
ence of these objects are manifested on the individual, though their 
presence be unknown, and that substances for which he feels an antip- 
athy, when partaken of unconsciously, may produce in him exactly the 
same symptoms as if he had partaken of them knowingly. It is difficult 
to account for this, except on the principle that there lie, beyond the 
sphere of our consciousness, feelings and impressions which only become 
known to us by their effects. In order to overcome such antipathies, 
which may otherwise become the source of much pain or annoyance to 
the individual, it is necessary to accustom him gradually to the object of 
dislike from early years; and in this way, almost any antipathy may be 
overcome. Antipathy is sometimes also used to denote that mode of 
treating disease by means of opposites, or medicines that produce an 
opposite effect to the character of the disease; as purgatives to relieve 
constipation, narcotics to ease pain. 
ANTIPIILOGISTICS, an-ti-fo-jis'-tiks [Gr. anti, and phlogosis, 
inflammation], is a term applied to such remedies as tend to remove, 
lessen, or prevent inflammation; as blood-letting, purgatives, low diet, 
etc. The antiphlogistic mode of treatment is now much less resorted 
to than formerly, medical men having come to see the necessity rather 
of supporting than of lowering the vital powers. (See Inflammation.) 
ANTISCORBUTICS, an-ti-skor-bu'-tiks [from anti, against, and 
scorbutus, a barbarous Latin word for scurvy], a term applied to remedies 
against scurvy. (See Scurvy.) 120 
ANTISEPTICS-ANTRUM OF HIGHMORE. 
ANTISEPTICS, an-ti-sep'-tiks [Gr. anti, against, sepein, to putrefy], 
are the means or substances by which the decay or putrefaction of dead 
vegetable or animal substances is prevented or checked. There are 
three conditions which favor putrefaction-1, a certain degree of 
warmth; 2, air; 3, moisture; by the absence of one or more of which 
its progress is retarded or arrested. The preservative power of cold is 
observable in animal or vegetable substances imbedded in the ice ; and 
the packing of fish with ice is a common means adopted for preserving 
them. The exclusion of air is another means of checking putrefaction. 
In this way, meats are frequently preserved by being put into tin 
canisters, which, after the air is carefully extracted, are soldered down. 
Again, substances may be preserved by the abstraction of moisture; as 
in plants, dried fish, bacon, etc. The more important chemical anti- 
septics are alcohol, salt, nitre, alum, creosote, arsenic, corrosive sub- 
limate, sulphate of copper, chloride of zinc, chloride of lime, and carbolic 
acid. Cold acts as an antiseptic. (See Putrefaction.) 
ANTISPASMODICS, an-ti-spas-mod'-iks [Gr. anti, and spasmos, a 
spasm], in Medicine, are those remedies which are employed to allay or 
remove spasms. Spasms arise from various causes, and hence the 
remedies are different. They may be caused by irritation in the 
intestinal canal by worms, etc., and hence purgatives or anthelmintics 
are to be used. Anodynes or narcotics, as opium or belladonna, serve 
to deaden the nervous irritability to which spasms are frequently owing. 
Sometimes they arise from mere debility; and hence, strengthening 
diet, and tonics, as nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, nitrate of bismuth, 
quinine, etc. (See Spasm.) 
ANTRUM OF HIGHMORE, an'-trum. Antrum Maxillce, super- 
ioris, maxillary sinus, a large cavity in each superior maxillary bone 
between the eye and the roof of the mouth, lined by a mucous mem- 
brane. The maxillary sinuses are liable to several morbid affections. 
Sometimes their membranous lining inflames, and secretes a great 
quantity of mucus or pus. Various polypi, fungi, and other tumors are 
produced in them. Their bony parietes are occasionally affected 'with 
exostitis, or caries. The antrum is subject to abscess, which is accom- 
panied with great pain and swelling, ending in caries of the palate, 
nasal plate, etc., whereby the pus is evacuated. Inflammation in this 
cavity may arise from cold, or take place without any apparent cause, 
but is generally produced by the irritation of decayed teeth, or from 
blows upon the cheek. 
Treatment.-It may be remedied by extracting a molar tooth, and 
perforating with a strong, sharp-pointed instrument, through its socket, 
the cavity. After the pus is discharged, inject the cavity with tepid ANTRUM OF HIGHMORE-APERIENT MIXTURE. 
121 
water, soap and water, or a weak solution of chloride of soda. Should 
the discharge be profuse or fetid, there will be reason to suspect that 
there is some loose piece of bone, for which search should be made with 
a probe, and if found, removed at once, the aperture being enlarged if 
necessary. Abscesses in the antrum sometimes break through into the 
mouth or nostril, or they may point externally and discharge through 
the cheek; but generally, an artificial opening will be required, and 
surgical aid necessary. 
ANUS, a'-nus [Lat.], in Anatomy, is the lowest part of the ali- 
mentary canal, forming its outlet. It is surrounded by a muscle, called 
the sphincter ani, by which it is kept close, except when the bowels are 
being evacuated. When paralysis, or other disease, attacks this part so 
that it cannot perform its function, the evacuations become involuntary. 
The anus is not unfrequently the seat of troublesome disease, as fistula, 
piles, etc. (which see). Sometimes, particularly in delicate children, 
the lower part of the intestines are apt to protrude out of the body, 
which is called prolapsus ani. (See Prolapsus Ani, Rectum. ) 
ANXIETY, ang-zi'-e-te [Lat. ango, to vex, to trouble]. In medical 
language this term is applied to a painful restlessness and inquietude, 
usually accompanied with a sense of weight in the prsecordial region. 
AORTA. (See Anatomy. ) 
AORTITIS, a-or-ti-tis^ inflammation of the aorta. An extremely 
obscure disease, usually associated with disease of the heart, lungs, and 
pleura, and resulting in aneurism and other organic and fatal conse- 
quences. 
Symptoms.-Increased action of the heart, dyspnoea or difficult 
respiration, uneasiness in the course of the artery, and violent 
pulsations. 
Treatment.-Counter-irritation with tartar-emetic ointment (which 
see), issues, blood-letting, rest, antiphlogistic treatment. 
APERIENT, ape'-re-ent [Lat. aperio^ aperiens, to open], whatever 
opens the bowels gently-a laxative in contradistinction to purgatives 
and cathartics, which act strongly. (See Cathartics.) 
APERIENT AND CATHARTIC MEDICINES, ABUSE OF. 
(See Cathartics.) 
APERIENT MIXTURE. Dissolve 1 ounce of Epsom salts in | pint 
senna tea; take a quarter of the mixture as a dose, and repeat it in 
three or four hours if necessary. 
Another, suitable for spring. Ingredients: 2 ounces of Epsom salts, 
2 drams of calcined magnesia, 60 drops of essence of peppermint, | 
pint of peppermint water, and 1 quart of spring water. Mix well 
together. Dose, 1 wine-glassful every morning. 122 
APERIENT PILLS-APIUM. 
APERIENT PILLS. Ingredients: Compound extract of colocynth 
16 grains, submuriate of mercury (calomel) 4 grains. Mix these and 
divide them into five pills. Take two at bedtime and one the next 
morning, and repeat the dose if necessary. 
APERIENT POWDER, for a child. Scammony, 3 grains; jalap, 
3 grains: rhubarb, 3 grains ; ginger, 1 grain. 
APHONIA, a-fo'-ne-a [Gr. a, without, and^ww, voice], a depriva- 
tion or loss of voice. 
Causes.-It may arise from various causes, as from a shock or fright, 
or it may be a hysterical affection. Disease of the brain is also not an 
unfrequent cause of aphonia. It may also be owing to disease, inflam- 
mation, or ulceration of the vocal chords, or parts adjoining. The 
instrument called the laryngoscope now throws much light upon this 
form of the disease by revealing the condition of the throat. Many 
persons are peculiarly subject to loss of voice by exposure to cold. 
Treatment.-For its relief, confinement to the house, or to bed, if 
accompanied by feverish symptoms, is required. The inhalation of the 
steam of hot water, and the application of mustard over the throat, are 
useful remedies. In inflammation or ulceration about the vocal chords, 
a solution of from 40 to 80 grains of the crystals of the nitrate of silver 
to an ounce of pure water, is recommended to be applied by means of a 
curved camels' hair brush. If upon examination of the throat there be 
found no signs of inflammatory action, change of scene and air, with the 
internal administration of tonics, and the cold shower bath will be found 
very useful. 
Take of Sulphate of iron Sixteen grains. 
Sulphate of quinine Twelve grains. 
Dilute sulphuric acid One and a half drams. 
Compound tincture of lavender One dram. 
Pure water Eight ounces.-Mix. 
Dose, 2 tablespoonfuls to be taken three times a day. When the tonsils 
are inflamed, the following gargle may be used: 
Take of Dilute sulphuric acid Three drams. 
Compound tincture of lavender Two drams. 
Pure water Half a pint- Mix. 
To be used frequently. After using this application, the mouth should 
be always rinsed out with cold water, to prevent the acid exerting any 
injurious influence upon the teeth. (See Clergyman's Sore Throat.) 
APHTHA INFANTUM. (See Thrush.) 
APHTHA LACTEA. (See Nursing Sore Mouth.) 
APIUM, a'-pe-um^ the name of a genus of plants, family Umbel- 
iferw.-A. gravdolens. Apium Smallage. The roots, etc., are said to be APICAL-APOPLEXY. 
123 
aperient and carminative; the whole plant is acrid and poisonous. Celery 
is a variety produced by cultivation.-A. Hortense, common parsley: the 
seeds possess aromatic and carminative powers, but are seldom used. 
APNCEA, ap>-ne-a [Gr. a, and pneo, I breathe,] denotes, properly, 
deprivation of breath, or suffocation. (See Suffocation, Asphyxia, 
Drowning, etc.) 
APOCYNACEJE, a-pok-e-na'-se-e [Gr. apo,1 against, kuon, dog], in 
Botany, the dogbane order of dicotyledonous plants, included in the 
sub-class Corolllflorce-trees or shrubs generally having milky juices. 
The dogbanes are natives principally of tropical regions, a few only 
occurring in northern latitudes. Some of the plants of this order are 
intensely poisonous, and all are to be suspected, though a few yield 
edible fruit. Some are drastic purgatives, and in some the bark is tonic 
and febrifugal. They have usually large showy flowers, and are on that 
account cultivated in our hothouses. Caoutchouc, or india-rubber, is 
prepared from the milky juice of several species. The two principal 
varieties are Apocynum Androsmmlfolium, or bitter root, which is 
alterative, diuretic, diaphoretic, emetic, tonic and laxative. It is used 
in the treatment of chronic hepatic affections, scrofula, jaundice, 
amenorrhoea, dyspepsia, syphilitic affections, dropsy and rheumatism. 
Dose: Fluid extract, tonic, 10 to 20 drops; fluid extract, diaphoretic, 
15 to 25 drops; solid extract, 2 to 8 grains. 
A. cannabinum, or Indian hemp, a powerful tonic, diaphoretic and 
emeto-cathartic, inducing a tendency to sleep, independent of the 
exhaustion consequent upon vomiting. It has been successfully used 
in intermittent fever and ague, dysentery and enteritis, or inflammation 
of the bowels. Dose: Fluid extract, tonic, 5 to 20 drops; fluid extract, 
emetic, 20 to 30 drops. Dose of decoction, | a wine-glassful. (See 
Caoutchouc. ) 
APOCYNIN, Orpok'-e-nin. The active principle obtained from the 
A. Androsimoefolium, or bitter root, and used in chronic hepatic affec- 
tions, scrofula, jaundice, dropsy, amenorrhoea, and rheumatism. Dose, 
from | grain to 2 grains. 
APOPLEXY, apl-opleks-e [Gr. apoplexia, a sudden blow, a priva- 
tion of sense and motion.] This term is used to signify a peculiar form 
of nervous disease due to pressure upon the brain from various causes, 
marked by a sudden loss of thought and voluntary motion. 
Causes.-Apoplexy is due to pressure on the brain as previously 
stated, and this may be the result of the effusion of some of the fluid 
part of the blood, or of blood itself. The third form, in which there is 
no loss of consciousness, is due to softening of the brain from disease of 
the arteries or inflammation. 124 
APOPLEXY. 
Apoplexy is transmitted from parent to offspring-it occurs in men 
of a peculiar build, in those who are short, stout, and thickset, with 
large heads, florid faces, and short, thick necks. It rarely happens 
before the age of thirty, and is most frequent between the ages of fifty 
and sixty. It may be brought on by a diseased state of other vital 
organs of the body, as the heart, lungs and kidneys. Intemperance 
greatly favors its onset. Before the actual occurrence of an attack of 
apoplexy, people generally manifest premonitory symptoms of their 
liability to cerebral disease. They begin to suffer from headache, 
nausea, giddiness, retchings, eructations, their sense of sight and hear- 
ing becomes impaired, and there may be a slight attack of paralysis; 
there are complaints of numbness and drowsiness, and the disposition 
and habits are altered-the brave man becoming cowardly, and the wise 
man and the man of common sense foolish and hazardous. 
Anything which increases the activity of the circulation may be an 
exciting cause of apoplexy; all kinds of violent exercise, as running, 
rowing, and horseback exercise must be avoided; there must be no 
obstruction to the free descent of blood from the head, and a person 
by nature predisposed to this affection should not be allowed to strain or 
hold his breath, as in playing on wind instruments. The course of the 
blood in the capillaries of the lung, and in the brain also, is retarded, 
or actually prevented by vomiting, laughing, coughing, and sneezing, 
and in this way many forms of lung disease predispose to this nervous 
affection. Violent emotion and the excitement of drunkenness must be 
avoided. An attack of apoplexy is sometimes brought on by certain 
postures of the body hindering the downward current of blood from the 
head, such as stooping and twisting the neck. A few months since the 
writer had under his care and treatment a man of apoplectic build, who 
had arisen in the morning from sleep apparently quite well after a good 
night's rest, but in the course of dressing, when stooping to pull on his 
boots, he suddenly fell back, having lost all power of sensation and 
voluntary motion in the whole of the left side of the body. 
Apoplexy is more frequent in the colder than in the warmer seasons 
of the year, for the following reasons: in the first place, the cold atmos- 
phere of winter drives the blood from the surface of the body, and leads 
to internal congestion; and secondly, chest disease in all its forms, 
and with all its symptoms, cough, difficulty of breathing, leading to 
venous congestion of the cerebral vessels, is more prevalent during the 
colder months. 
Symptoms.-1There are three distinct forms of attack: in the first, 
the patient is suddenly stricken down, deprived of sense and motion, he 
has a slow but full pulse, his breathing is stertorous, and he is like a APOPLEXY. 
125 
person in a deep sleep; the second form of attack sets in with acute 
pain in the head, due to the giving way of a vessel in the brain, the 
patient is pale and faint, and troubled with nausea and vomiting; these 
symptoms are generally recovered from after a short space of time, but 
the headache does not cease, and in due time after blood has been 
poured out from the ruptured vessel upon or into the substance of 
the brain, the patient becomes heavy, stupid, drowsy, and forgetful, 
and sinks into a sleepy state, the apoplectic condition being fully 
arrived at, as in the previous form of this disease. When apoplexy 
commences in this way, the life of the patient is in great danger, for it 
usually proceeds to a fatal termination, a large quantity of blood being 
extravasated from the gaping vessel. In the third mode of attack there 
is a sudden loss of voluntary motion in the whole of one side, and the 
function of the nerves of sensation of that side become more or less 
impaired, varying in degree from mere tingling or numbness to perfect 
loss of feeling, but there is no loss of consciousness; the faculty of 
speech is impaired. This state of things may terminate in perfect 
recovery, in the limbs being permanently palsied, or may run into the 
apoplectic state described below. When the apoplectic state is fully 
formed, the patient is perfectly unconscious, he answers no questions, 
his pulse is slow and irregular, the act of inspiration is accompanied by 
snoring or stertor, and during expiration the cheeks are puffed out by 
the passage of air from the lungs ; his countenance is livid, the pupils 
contracted, and the limbs powerless. The bowels are confined, but the 
urine flows away involuntarily. 
Treatment.-Remove the patient into a cool and airy room, gently 
raise his head, and remove all articles of clothing preventing the free 
escape of blood from the head ; if the patient be strong, young, healthy, 
vigorous, of full habit, and the pulse be full and hard, and if there be 
at the same time signs of plethora within the head, blood may be taken 
from the arm. In many cases blood-letting is contra-indicated, the 
patient being already well advanced in years and in a reduced state of 
health. In such cases we must either content ourselves in cupping the 
nape of the neck or in applying a few leeches to the head, or give up 
altogether the idea of abstracting blood, and must apply a blister to the 
back of the neck. When the invalid is not much reduced, great 
advantage will be derived from the action of an active purgative, and 
this ought to be given at once, if possible, in all cases; 10 grains of 
calomel is a convenient form of medicine for this purpose, and may be 
readily placed upon the back of the tongue: or a drop of croton oil 
placed upon a small piece of loaf sugar may be sucked down by the 
patient. Should he be unable to swallow, strong, purgative, stimulating 126 
APOPLEXY. 
enemata may be thrown up the bowels. In those cases of loss of power 
over one side, with no loss of consciousness, which are due to softening 
of the brain, bleeding is unnecessary, but they require quietude and 
composure, a blister may be placed upon the back of the neck, the 
purgative treatment as previously described persevered in, and beef-tea, 
broth, toast, arrowroot, gruel, and tea given at short intervals. If the 
patient be faint and in a state of syncope, the following stimulating 
mixture may be given : 
Take of Carbonate of ammonia Eighteen grains. 
Pure water Six ounces.-Mix. 
Let two tablespoonfuls be taken every three or four hours. 
Apoplexy occurring in aged people and debilitated subjects, must be 
treated by stimulating medicine and nutritious food ; a blister or seton 
may be applied to the back of the neck, and the bowels freely acted upon 
by a brisk purgative. Cold lotions applied to the head will often give 
great comfort to the feelings of the patient, and alleviate his symptoms. 
In the more chronic form of apoplexy, after the more acute stage of the 
disease has passed away, and the muscles in various parts of the body 
remain in a weak and palsied state, iron and quinine will often be found 
of great service, thus : 
Take of Sulphate of iron Twelve grains. 
Sulphate of quinine Twenty grains. 
Dilute sulphuric acid One teaspoonful. 
Pure water Six ounces.-Mix. 
Give two tablespoonfuls three times a day. Or, 
Take of Sulphate of quinine Twenty grains. 
Tincture of muriate of iron One teaspoonful. 
Dilute hydrochloric acid Half teaspoonful. 
Pure water Six ounces.-Mix. 
Give two tablespoonfuls every six hours. 
Galvanism to the affected muscles, and the administration of 
strychnine internally, will assist the palsied limbs in regaining their 
power of motion. Strychnine may be safely given thus: 
Take of Strychnine One grain. 
Confection of roses One teaspoonful. 
Mix thoroughly and make 15 pills, and let one be taken every night and 
morning. Or thus: 
Take of Solution of strychnine Two teaspoonfuls. 
Pure water Eight ounces.-Mix. 
Take a tablespoonful night and morning. 
Preventive treatment.-All are more or less liable to an attack of APOPLEXY-APPETITE. 
127 
this terrible disorder, but those who inherit a predisposition to it from 
their ancestry, should constantly be on their guard. Especially is this 
the case when one or more of the premonitory symptoms are present. 
Absolute rest and quiet are, under such circumstances, imperatively 
demanded. Violent physical exercise of any kind, lifting heavy weights, 
leaping, striking hard blows, playing on wind instruments, singing, long 
and loud talking, are all to be carefully avoided. Straining at stool is a 
common exciting cause, and therefore, the importance of those predis- 
posed to apoplexy, by proper diet and regular habits, to guard against 
costiveness. Coughing may have the same effect, and consequently 
even a common cold, in such persons, should be immediately attended 
to. Large fires, crowded rooms, and even the direct heat of the sun 
favor the disease, and ought to be shunned. Even the warm bath can- 
not be safely indulged in. Exposure to cold is equally hazardous. All 
occupations or recreations which involve a great amount of stooping or 
twisting of the neck, occasioning giddiness or confusion of thought, 
should be carefully avoided. Excessive indulgence in alcoholic stimu- 
lants and venereal excitement, are frequent immediate causes also. 
When any of the premonitory symptoms referred to frequently recur, or 
do not speedily disappear, resort should be had to the best physician in 
the neighborhood for advice and treatment. 
APOTHECARIES'WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. (See Weights 
and Measures.) 
APPARATUS, ap-pa-ra'-tus [Lat. apparo, to prepare], the instru- 
ments used in the practice of any art, as chemical apparatus, surgical 
apparatus. In Surgery, to certain methods of performing operations, as 
apparatus major, and apparatus minor-particular methods of operating 
for the stone. In Physiology, to a catenation of organs all ministering 
to the same functions, as the respiratory apparatus, the digestive 
apparatus. 
APPETITE, ap'-pe-tite [Lat. appeto, I desire], in general denotes a 
desire of enjoying something that is believed or felt to be necessary to 
or conducive to our happiness; and is more particularly applied to that 
desire for food which, in a healthy state of the body, is felt at regular 
intervals; and which indicates the necessity of a fresh supply of food in 
order to compensate for the bodily waste that has taken place. In 
general, when not depraved, or perverted, or pampered, the appetite is 
a most valuable and faithful guide as to when, how, and to what extent 
nourishment is required. When disease comes on, the appetite usually 
flags, an indication from nature that the process of digestion cannot be 
carried on as before; and, therefore, in such cases, it is generally 
injudicious to press food upon one in these circumstances. Tn fevers, 128 
APPETITE-AQUA EEG I A. 
and many other disorders, loss of appetite is one of the most frequent 
features; but sometimes it occurs as the principal or only characteristic; 
and then it is owing to a disordered state of the digestive organs. 
The longings of appetite sometimes appear to be almost instinctive, 
especially in illness, particularly where there has been much or obstinate 
vomiting. The patient will express a strong desire for some article of 
food or drink which our preconceived ideas or theories would certainly 
forbid, but which being permitted, seems at once to agree. When the 
various morbid deviations from natural appetite are considered, such 
latitude requires of course great caution; but the fact should not be lost 
sight of: a variable appetite, at one time deficient, at another morbidly 
active, is scarcely consistent with health. In children, it is often indi- 
cative of worms. Depraved appetite consists in the longing for, or 
devouring substances not intended for food, such as chalk, slate pencils, 
cinders, earth, etc.; the symptom is not unfrequently a concomitant of 
the chlorotic diseases of young females. The " dirt eating" of tropical 
climates is another form of depraved appetite. (See Digestion, Dys- 
pepsia, Food, Drinks, Health, Diet.) 
APPLE. (See Fruits, Pyrus Malus.) 
APPLE TREE. (See Pyrus Malus.) 
APYREXIA, ap-e-reks '-e-q, the intermission of an ague. Also, free- 
dom or cessation of fever. 
AQUA, a'-kwa, is the name given in Latin to water. Water, owing 
to its great solvent powers, is never found naturally in a perfectly pure 
state, but always more or less impregnated with foreign substances, and 
hence, the necessity, in most chemical pharmaceutical operations, of using 
distilled water-Aqua Distillata. This is obtained by taking a certain 
quantity of spring or river water, and distilling it in a copper still with a 
block-tin worm, rejecting the first twentieth part, and preserving the first 
three-fourths of the remainder. This is to be preserved in well-corked 
bottles. Frequently, however, rain-water, filtered through alternate strata 
of well-washed sand and charcoal, will answer equally well with distilled 
water; for frequently, in prescriptions, distilled water is ordered when 
there is no necessity for its use. Frequently distillation is had recourse to 
to extract and preserve the volatile oil of plants. A certain quantity of 
the plant is taken with, perhaps, two gallons of water and one half dis- 
tilled. Thus, we have aqua anethia, or dill water; aqua anisi, or ani- 
seed water; aqua cinnamoni, or cinnamon water. These are seldom 
used as active remedies, but more frequently as elegant mediums for the 
exhibition of less agreeable medicines. (See Water.) 
AQUA FORTIS. (See Nitric Acid.) 
AQUA REGIA. (See Nitro-Muriatic Acid.) AQUED UCT-AEALIA. 
129 
AQUEDUCT, ale'-we-dukt [Lat. a^uceductus^ a water-course], this 
name lias been given by anatomists to several canals in different parts 
of the body, but not very correctly, as several of them contain no 
fluid. 
AQUEOUS HUMOR, a'-kwe-us, is the name given to that watery 
fluid of the eye which is situated between the back of the cornea and 
front of the lens. (See Eye.) 
ARABIC, GUM, ar'-a-bik. Gum Arabic, gum Senegal, common 
sweet gum, obtained from Barbary, Morocco, and India. It exudes 
spontaneously from several species of acacia, as the A. vera, Arabica, 
Senegal, etc. It is found in pale, yellowish, hard, brittle, and shining 
fragments, soluble in water, and insoluble in alcohol. The mucilage is 
prepared by dissolving one part of gum in two of hot water. It is 
demulcent, and an excellent vehicle for suspending oily medicines, 
which it renders miscible with water. 
ARACHNOID MEMBRANE, a-rak'-noid [Lat. arachnoldes^ a very 
thin and transparent membrane, investing the brain, medulla oblongata, 
and spinal cord. It is situated between the dura mater and pia mater. 
Over the whole surface of the brain the arachnoid membrane adheres so 
closely to the pia mater as to be scarcely separable from it; but in differ- 
ent parts of the base of the brain, especially about the tuber annulare, it is 
merely in contact with the pia mater, and can easily be raised by means 
of the blow-pipe. The arachnoid membrane does not insinuate itself 
between the convolutions of the brain. No blood-vessels or absorbents 
have hitherto been detected in it, although the phenomena of disease 
sufficiently evince that it is endowed with both. The inner surface of 
this membrane is constantly bedewed with a serous exhalation, and 
there is little doubt that, like other membranes of this class, it forms in 
its whole extent a closed sac. 
ARABIA, a-ra'de-a, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order 
Araliaceoe. It contains a considerable number of species-trees, 
shrubs and herbs, some of which yield useful products. 
A. Illspida, or dwarf elder. The bark of the root of the dwarf 
elder is used in dropsy, gravel, and suppression of urine. Dose of the 
fluid extract, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. Dose of decoction, from 2 to 4 fluid 
ounces, three times a day. 
A. Nudicaulis, or small spikenard, is a native of North America, 
and its roots are used popularly in the treatment of rheumatic affections. 
They are commonly known as false or American sarsaparilla. Dose of 
fluid extract, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. The decoction may be used freely. 
The A. Racemosa, or spikenard, is alterative and gently stimu- 
lant. Used in cutaneous, rheumatic and syphilitic affections, and in 130 
ARALIA-ARECA. 
pulmonary diseases. Recommended as having been administered with 
considerable success in dropsies. Michaux cites it as sudorific. Dr. 
Sarazzin makes mention of it as very useful as a poultice in inveterate 
ulcers. Dose of the fluid extract, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls; dose of the de- 
coction, 1 to 2 fluid ounces, three times a day. 
A. Spinosa, the angelica, or toothache tree, is a native of North 
America. The bark is used as a stimulant diaphoretic, and the berries 
are said to be useful in toothache, whence the name. Dose of the 
powder, 20 grains; of the tincture, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; of the infusion- 
made by infusing a teaspoonful of the powder in a pint of boiling water 
-a teaspoonful every hour till the desired effect is produced. (See 
Decoction. ) 
ARBOR VIT2E. (See Thuja Occidentalis. ) 
ARCHANGELICA, ark-an-jel'-e-ka, in Botany, the herb archangel, 
a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Umbellifer^. The species 
are mostly herbaceous and perennial, natives of the cold and temperate 
regions of the northern hemisphere. A. officinalis, the garden angelica, 
is an indigenous biennial, growing in watery places, but somewhat rare 
in this country. It flowers from June to September, the blossoms being 
greenish-white. Its root is large and fleshy, resinous, and pungently 
aromatic. The tender stems and mid-ribs of the leaves are boiled in 
syrup, and, when dried, constitute candied angelica, which, taken as a 
dessert, is a very agreeable stomachic. Large quantities of angelica are 
used in the preparation of London gin and the liquor known as "bit- 
ters." The root is aromatic, stimulant, carminative and diuretic. It 
is used in flatulent colic, heart-burn, and as a remedy to promote men- 
struation. Dose of fluid extract, to 1 teaspoonful; of the infusion, 2 
fluid ounces, three times a day. (See Infusion.) 
ARCTOSTAPHYLOS. (See Uva Ursi.) 
ARECA, a-re'-ka, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the 
Nat. order Palmaceoe-the palms, containing two species, each remark- 
able for the purposes to which it is applied. A. catechu, the betel-nut 
palm, has been described as the most beautiful palm in India. The 
stem is remarkably straight, and often from 40 to 50 feet high, and 
generally about 20 inches in circumference. It is cultivated throughout 
India for the sake of its seeds, which are known as betel, areca, and 
pinang nuts. The nut is one of the ingredients in the famed mastica- 
tory of the East called betel (which see). Charcoal prepared from the 
nuts, and termed areca-nut charcoal, is used in this country as a tooth 
powder; but it is doubtful whether it is in any way superior to ordinary 
charcoal. An extract is made from nuts in the south of India, and con- 
stitutes one of the commercial varieties of catechu (which see.) A. ARECA-ARISTOL O CHIA. 
131 
oleracece, the cabbage palm, is a native of Jamaica and other West 
India islands. The trunk, which is seldom more than six or seven 
inches in diameter, grows to a height of from 100 to 200 feet. The 
majestic palm is frequently cut down for the sake of the single terminal 
bud, called the cabbage, which is eaten either raw or boiled as a 
vegetable. 
AREOLA, a-re'-o-lq, a term applied medically to the inflamed circle 
which surrounds a vesicular or pustular elevation, such as that of the 
vaccine vesicle. Also applied to the colored circle surrounding the 
female nipple. Generally, not invariably, previous to pregnancy, this 
areola is light in color, but in the majority of cases, soon after concep- 
tion it begins to darken, and in some individuals, especially in those of 
dark complexion, it becomes of a deep brown. The change of color in 
the areola is, therefore, classed amid the more certain signs of preg- 
nancy, but as it has been known to exist in the virgin, and is not univer- 
sally developed in the pregnant female, it can never alone be taken as a 
decisive proof, but only as corroborative, along with other symptoms. 
(See Pregnancy.) 
ARGENTUM, ar-jeri -turn, Lat. for silver. (See Silver.) 
ARGOL, ar'-got, the crude tartar which is deposited by all wines as 
a crust upon the inside of the casks in which they are stored. Argol is 
the source from which are obtained tartaric acid and common cream of 
tartar, which is a tartrate of potash. Argol is dissolved in hot water, 
which, when cold, deposits the cream of tartar in small oblique rhombic 
prisms. (See Cream of Tartar.) 
ARIS2EMA, ar-i-se'-mq, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the Nat. order Aracece, the Arum family. The species A. atrorubeus, 
dragon-root, or Indian turnip, is a native of North America. From the 
tuber a nutritious fecula is obtained. In Medicine, the tuber is also 
occasionally used, being given internally as a stimulant in rheumatism 
and bronchial diseases, and being also employed as an application to 
aphthous affections in children. It is also recommended in flatulence, 
croup, whooping cough, asthma, bronchitis, colic, etc. Externally it 
has been used in scrofulous tumors, etc. Dose of powdered root, 10 
grains, increased to 20 or 30 grains if necessary, repeated every three 
or four hours. 
ARISTOLOCIIIA a-ris-to-lo'-ke-q, in Botany, birth wort, the typical 
genus of the Nat. order Aristolochiacece. Several species of this genus 
have been employed for centuries in Medicine, principally on account of 
their supposed emmenagogue properties; and hence the name birthwort. 
The rhizome and root-fibres of A. serpentaria, commonly called serpent- 
ary, or Virginian snake-root, are officinal, and have a warm, bitter cam- 132 
ARISTOL 0 CHIA-ARNICA. 
phoraceous taste, and a strong aromatic camplioraceous odor. Serpentary 
was originally introduced as an antidote to snake-bites, but it is now 
known that it has no efficacy in such cases. It is a valuable stimulant, 
tonic, and diaphoretic, and is especially useful in fevers of a low typhoid 
character. It makes a valuable gargle in malignant sore throat. It is 
sometimes employed as a tonic in dyspepsia, and has proved useful in 
amenorrhoea. It is said by some to be a remedy for intermittent fever 
or ague, and also to have anthelmintic properties. It is commonly 
exhibited in the form of an infusion, tincture, or fluid extract. The 
infusion is made of J ounce of bruised root to 10 fluid ounces of distilled 
boiling water; dose, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. The tincture is composed of 
2£ ounces of root in coarse powder, and 1 pint of proof spirits; dose, 
£ to 2 teaspoonfuls; dose of fluid extract, £ to £ teaspoonful. 
ARM, arm [Lat. brachium], is that part of the upper extremity of 
the body which extends from the shoulder to the wrist. It consists of 
two portions-the arm, or brachium, properly so called, and the forearm, 
or anti-brachium ; the former having one bone-the humerus; the latter 
two bones-the radius and ulna. (See Anatomy.) 
ARMORACIA, ar-mo-ra'-se-a. in Botany, a genus of plants belong- 
ing to the Nat. order Crucifers. The species A. rusticana is cultivated 
for the sake of the root, which is the common horseradish, so much used 
as a condiment. The plant is frequently met with, growing wild by the 
side of ditches and on the banks of rivers; but, from its bearing some 
resemblance to aconite, the latter has been mistaken for it; and cases of 
poisoning have occurred in consequence. The roots, however, of horse- 
radish are larger and longer than those of aconite; and when scraped, 
have a very pungent odor. A volatile oil, resembling oil of mustard, 
may be obtained from horseradish by distillation, and there can be no 
doubt that all the valuable properties of the plant depend upon this 
principle. The odor of the oil is exceedingly powerful, that arising 
from a single drop being sufficient to fill a whole room. The root is con- 
sidered to be anti-scorbutic, anti-rheumatic, stimulant, diaphoretic, and 
diuretic, and is frequently used in Medicine. Applied to the skin, it 
produces vesication. A syrup made with an infusion of the root and 
sugar has been used, with success, as a remedy for hoarseness, arising 
from relaxation. Burnett states that horseradish steeped in milk forms 
one of the best cosmetics. As a dietetic, it is used scraped, or in the 
form of a sauce, with roasted meat and fish. When eaten on an empty 
stomach it is deleterious. It is used as a tonic in debility of digestive 
organs. Dose of the root grated, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, three times a day. 
ARM-PIT. (See Axilla.) 
ARNICA, ar'-ne-ka, in Botany, the name of a genus of plants belong- ARNICA-AROMATIC COMPOUND. 
133 
ing to the Nat. order Composites,. The most important species is A. mon- 
tana, known by the names of mountain-tobacco, and German leopard- 
bane. It is a perennial herbaceous plant, found growing in the meadows 
of the middle and south of Europe, and also of the western states of North 
America. The florets are of a yellow color, tinged with brown. The 
whole plant, when fresh, possesses a strong and disagreeable odor and 
an acrid, bitter taste. All parts of the plant have striking medicinal 
properties, but the root constitutes the part generally preferred. The 
preparation known as tincture of arnica, which is obtained by macerating 
one ounce of the root with a pint of alcohol, is now largely employed by 
the public as an external application for bruises and swellings; and not- 
withstanding the contempt with which its powers have been spoken of 
by eminent members of the medical profession, it has gradually gained 
ground among practitioners, and has now obtained a place in the new 
British Pharmacopoeia. The leaves and flowers, though not much used 
internally, have been occasionally employed as a substitute for Peruvian 
bark. When taken internally it should be used with caution. It is a 
very energetic stimulant. In small doses, it accelerates the pulse, pro- 
motes perspiration, increases the secretions of the kidneys, etc. In 
Germany, it is used as a stimulant in typhoid fever and other adynamic 
febrile diseases, in chronic palsy and amenorrhoea; also as a tonic in 
rheumatism, and as a tonic and diuretic in the asthenic forms of dropsy. 
It has proved very useful in intermittent fever, also in nyctalopia and 
amaurosis, and in that disordered condition of the system which succeeds 
concussion of the brain from falls and blows. It has been recommended 
in diarrhoea, dysentery, nephritis, gout, chlorosis and diseases where 
there is debility, torpor or inactivity of function. Externally, it is used 
in the form of a fomentation, or diluted tincture or fluid extract to pre- 
vent or discuss local inflammation, and to prevent ecchymosis or dis- 
coloration of the skin from a bruise. Vegetable acids are recommended 
to counteract its poisonous effects. Dose fluid extract, 10 to 60 drops, 
three times a day. 
AROMATIC CALISAYA WINE, ar-o-mat'-ikkal-e-sa'-ya, an agree- 
able and general tonic in convalescence for children and feeble persons, 
and prophylactic against intermittents. Valuable as a tonic during the 
summer months. Each fluid ounce contains the medicinal virtue of 
twenty-four grains of bark. Dose, for adults, a wine-glassful, two or 
three times a day, more or less, as may be necessary; and for children, 
in proportion to age and constitution. 
AROMATIC COMPOUND, ar-o-mat'-ik kom'-pound, composed of 
ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, and other corrigents. Used principally 
for flavoring extracts, and counteracting the unpleasant taste of medi- 134 
ARO MATIC COMPOUND-ARR0 WROCT 
cines. Medicinally, applicable in griping of the bowels, etc. Dose, 1 
to 2 teaspoonfuls. 
AROMATICS, ar-o-mat'-iks, substances as plants, drugs, and medi- 
cines, which emit agreeable odors, and are usually characterized by a 
warm pungent taste. Such are the spices, ginger, cinnamon, pepper, 
balsams, frankincense, etc. They generally contain a peculiar volatile 
oil, mixed with resinous substances. The animal kingdom furnishes 
some aromatics, as ambergris, musk, civet, etc., but they come prin- 
cipally from the vegetable. They are employed in the manufacture of 
perfumery, and in medicine as antispasmodics, etc. 
AROMATIC SPIRITS OF AMMONIA. (See Ammonia.) 
AROMATIC SYRUP OF RHUBARB, ar-o-mat'-ik sir'-up ov 
too'-barb. This is probably the most agreeable form in which rhubarb is 
administered, especially for children. Dose for children, 1 teaspoonful; 
adults, 1 tablespoonful. (See Rhubarb.) 
ARROWROOT, ar'-ro-root, the name given to various kinds of 
starch used as food by man. True West Indian arrowroot is obtained 
from rhizomes or root-stocks of the plant Mar anta arundinacea, and is 
one of the purest and best known of the amylaceous substances. It 
forms a very firm jelly with boiling water, and, thus prepared, is a 
common article of diet for invalids and children, being nutritious and 
demulcent. The name arrowroot is derived from the fact of the bruised 
rhizomes of the plant being employed by the native Indians as an appli- 
cation to the poisons inflicted by arrows. East Indian arrowroot is 
obtained from the rhizomes of Curcuma amgustifolia, and is sometimes 
called curcuma starch. The West Indian plant is, however, cultivated 
to some extent in the East, and supplies of the true arrowroot are 
brought from Singapore. Tahitian arrowroot is obtained from the plant 
named Tacca oceanica, and the substance called Portland arrowroot is 
extracted from the Arum maculatum, a common hedgeweed in England. 
In all these cases, the fecula consists of starch-grains, which are pro- 
duced in great quantities, before the season of rest, in the succulent 
rhizomes or root-stocks of the plants. These grains are separated from 
the cellular tissue, and certain acrid juices, by a very simple process, 
which consists simply in washing the grated root-stocks. The best 
quality of arrowroot is procured from the West Indies, especially from 
Bermuda, whence it is imported in soldered tin cases. It is now also 
imported from East India, and an inferior kind is brought from Tahiti. 
Arrowroot is subject to much mixture and adulteration, but generally- 
as with potato-starch, etc., of a harmless character as regards the con- 
sumer. The " Lancet " periodical has recently, by means of its " Sani- 
tary Commission," thoroughly investigated the subject of these adultera- ABBO WBOOT-ABSEma 
135 
tions. The best arrowroot ought to be pure white, slightly glistening 
in the mass, and the powder of which it is composed, collected together 
in small crumbs or lumps, which break down with a slight crackling 
sensation beneath the finger. Arrowroot is pure starch, and forms a 
peculiarly stiff jelly. As an article of sick cookery it is invaluable, 
where mild support is required without stimulation, and in convalescence 
and chronic disease. There are few stomachs with which it disagrees, 
and infants both like and do well With it. At the same time, it is 
proper to caution against the too common error of trusting too much to 
the nutritive powers of arrowroot alone, especially for children. It may 
give support indirectly, that is to say, by supplying material for respira- 
tion and animal heat, it may save the tissues of the body, or it may 
even go to build up some of these tissues, but alone it can never make 
bone or muscle, for the simple reason that it does not contain the ele- 
ments necessary for these constituents of the frame. A child fed exclu- 
sively on arrowroot, water, and sugar, and such has been the case, must 
become unhealthy, and, without fail, rickety. The case is abundantly 
altered, when, with arrowroot, milk is combined. In this fluid exists 
whatever is requisite for the animal frame - nitrogen for its muscle, 
phosphorus for its nerve, earthy salts for its bone. The combination of 
arrowroot with milk is one of the best which can be given to a child, or 
to an adult in the early stages of convalescence from illness. (See 
Food, Starch, Child, Cookery for the Sick, etc.) 
ARSENIC, ars'-nik [Gr. arsenikos], the substance which, in com- 
merce, goes by this name is the oxide of the metal arsenic, or arsenious 
acid. Arsenic was known in different combinations by the ancients, but 
has only lately been shown to be of metallic origin. It is, however, so 
unlike a metal in many of its properties, that certain French chemists 
consider it as belonging to the non-metallic elements. It conducts 
electricity, and possesses metallic lustre, and is very much allied to 
phosphorus. Arsenic is prepared in the state of arsenic acid or oxide, 
by roasting the arsenical sulphide of iron. Metallic arsenic possesses a 
brilliant gray lustre, which is unmistakably metallic. It may be reduced 
to powder in a mortar. When heated in close vessels, it sublimes 
unaltered; but in a current of air, it absorbs oxygen, and burns with a 
bluish flame, depositing a white mealy powder. A minute quantity of 
arsenic is added to lead, to diminish its cohesion, during the manufacture 
of shot. The only important combinations of arsenic are-arsenious 
acid, AsO3, the white arsenic of the shops; arsenite of copper, or 
Scheele's green; the Schweinfurth green, which is a double acetate of 
arsenic and copper; the bisulphide, or realgar, which is used in pyro- 
techny; and the tersulphide, or orpiment, which is the king's yellow of 136 
ARSENIC. 
the artist. Arsenic also forms a terhydride with hydrogen, analogous to 
the ammonia-like compounds formed by antimony and phosphorus. 
Arsenic forms the connecting link between the non-metallic elements and 
antimony, which is certainly only a little more metallic than itself. 
Arsenic is a powerful irritant poison, causing vomiting, purging, and 
other distressing symptoms. One or two grains may cause death. 
Arsenic is perhaps more universally used than any other, for destroying 
life. Its tastelessness, cheapness, and the culpable facility with which 
it has hitherto been obtainable have combined to make it familiar. Much 
controversy has at times taken place respecting the effect of arsenic 
upon the palate; it is certain, the taste is very faint, but extreme irrita- 
tion of the portions of the lining mucous membrane of the mouth and 
other parts, quickly follows its contact. The length of time after arsenic 
has been swallowed, that symptoms take to show themselves, varies 
much, depending in all probability upon the state of the stomach as to 
emptiness, or the reverse. Sometimes they appear in a few minutes, at 
other times not for hours. Poisoning by arsenic is distinguished by 
faintness, nausea, intense burning pain at the pit of the stomach, and 
vomiting of its ordinary contents, followed by that of a turbid brown 
fluid, and mucus, often streaked with blood; intense burning heat in 
the throat, and thirst; purging ensues, cold sweats, convulsions, death. 
The eyes may become inflamed, but this is more general when the case 
is prolonged, as it may be, in consequence of the small dose, or from 
other circumstances; in this case an eruption on the skin is not unfre- 
quent. The symptoms of course vary, particularly that of pain, which 
occasionally has been almost entirely absent. It must, too, be remem- 
bered, that the symptoms of bilious cholera and those of arsenical 
poisoning, very closely resemble one another. When poisoning by arsenic 
is suspected, of course the first measure is to procure efficient medical 
aid. In the meantime, it is requisite to get as much of the poison as 
possible evacuated from the stomach; it is seldom necessary to produce 
vomiting, that most generally comes on soon; but if it has not done so, 
25 grains of white vitriol-sulphate of zinc-if procurable, should be 
given at once, in a little water; if this is not done, a tablespoonful of 
mustard in water, or tickling the throat with a feather, should be resorted 
to; milk, which by its coagulation may envelope the poison, or thick 
mucilaginous drinks, olive-oil, alone or mixed with lime-water, may, any 
or all, be given, and with them, magnesia. The great object must be, 
to clear the stomach of the poison as thoroughly and speedily as pos- 
sible, for unlike many other poisons, there is no chemical antidote to 
arsenic which can be relied on. A preparation of iron has been vaunted, 
but it is of doubtful efficacy; if either this, or the stomach-pump is used, ARSENLC-ARSENLC LN WALL PAPER. 
137 
it will be in medical hands. In following the directions already given, 
the friends or neighbors of the poisoned person will be doing good 
service. Should the patient survive, and pass on to the second stage of 
arsenical poisoning, inflammation of the stomach, nervous symptoms, 
etc., will perhaps end life, or recovery may follow, but these changes 
must necessarily be attended to under medical guidance. White arsenic 
is not the only preparation of the metal by which poisoning occurs; 
the coloring substances known by the name of King's yellow, and 
Scheele's green, are both compounds of arsenic, and being frequently 
and culpably used in confectionery, have proved fatal. Similar symp- 
toms occur, and similar treatment is to be followed as after poisoning 
by white arsenic. Whether in poisoning by arsenic, or by any other 
agent, the vomited matters should always be carefully preserved in a 
vessel by themselves, for medical inspection; and if there is any sus- 
picion of foul play, some responsible person should place them under 
lock and key. Did those who perpetrate the crime of poisoning by 
arsenic, know beforehand, with what certainty the chemist can separate, 
for exhibition in a court of justice, the instrument of their wickedness, 
perhaps from the body of the victim, years after it had been buried; 
selfish fear, if no other consideration, might stop the deed. 
The influence of a minute quantity of arsenic on the human frame is 
a very curious question. In Styria, it is a common thing for the peasants 
to take 12 or 13 grains per day of white arsenic, to improve their wind. 
They begin by taking a single grain per day, increasing the dose until 
they arrive at their maximum. It appears to do them no harm, so long 
as they relinquish the use of it gradually when they reach fifty or sixty 
years of age. If the doses are discontinued suddenly, death, with all the 
symptoms of arsenical poisoning, is the result. 
In medical doses it is alterative, tonic, and antiperiodic; it is also a 
valuable remedy in diseases of the skin. The principal pharmacopoeical 
preparations of arsenic are:-Acidum arseniosum, arsenious acid, or 
white arsenic, the dose of which is from ~ to of a grain, in solution. 
Liquor arsenicalis, or liquor potasses, arsenitis, arsenical solution, or 
Fowler's solution; dose, from 2 to 8 drops. Liquor arsenici hydro- 
Fdoricus, hydrochloric solution of arsenic; dose, 2 to 8 drops. Ferri 
arsenias, arseniate of iron; dose, to | of a grain. Sodas arsenias, 
arseniate of soda; dose, ~ to -J of a grain. Liquor sodee arseniatis^ 
solution of arseniate of soda; dose, 5 to 10 drops. Arsenic should 
not be used as a medicine except under the careful guidance of a phy- 
sician. (See Solution of Iodides of Arsenic and Mercury, Poisons.) 
ARSENIC IN WALL PAPER. The danger arising from paper 
hangings colored with arsenical green is now sufficiently well-known. It 138 
ARSENIC IN WALL PAPER-ARTEMISIA. 
is the flock papers which are most likely to be injurious, and of course^ 
the more confined the room, the more likely the chance of mischief; 
but nearly all green wall papers contain arsenic. Chemical analysis has 
determined that as high as 15 grains of arsenic have been found in one 
square foot of wall paper. Arsenic is very volatile, and the air becomes 
impregnated with an imperceptible dust, and many people are subject to 
a slow form of poisoning, causing indigestion, diarrhoea, nausea, irrita- 
tion of the mucous membrane, sore throat, congestion of the lungs, 
biliousness, palpitation, prostration of the nervous system, general 
debility, etc. Arsenic in wall paper often produces such serious condi- 
tions, when the cause is not suspected, either by the physician or patient. 
Another fertile cause of disease in wall paper, is the custom among 
some, of pasting one wall paper over another, causing rotten paste, bad 
smells, fungi which often produce fever. People generally are now so 
well aware of the deleterious effects of articles of dress colored with 
arsenical green, that danger from such a cause must be wilfully 
incurred. (See Walls and Wall Papers.) 
ARTANTIIE ELONGATA, ar-tan-the e-lon-ga -ta {Matico}, the 
dried leaves of the artanthe elongata, a plant belonging to the Nat. 
order Piperacec®. It is aromatic, tonic, stimulant, and styptic. Its 
therapeutical agency is highly recommended in hemoptysis, hemateme- 
sis, dysentery and hematuria, in doses of 1 dram of the powdered 
leaves, or 1 teaspoonful of the fluid extract four times a day. Hemor- 
rhage from the nose or uterus has been arrested by the internal admin- 
istration of matico, after other remedies had completely failed to control 
the bleeding. As an internal remedy it has also been successfully 
employed in diseases of the mucous membrane, as gonorrhoea, leucor- 
rhoea, menorrhagia, catarrh of the bladder, hemorrhoids, and epistaxis. 
The leaves form a superior medicinal styptic for arresting hemorrhage- 
from wounds, leech-bites, etc. The downy part of the leaf is said to be 
the most active part. Also applied to ulcers. Its essential oil is recom- 
mended in the treatment of gonorrhoea. Dose of the fluid extract, h to 
2 teaspoonfuls ; of the infusion, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. (See Infusion.) 
ARTEMISIA, ar-te-mizh'-e-a [from Artemis, one of the names of the 
goddess Diana], in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. 
order Composite®, and comprehending several interesting and valuable 
species. A. absinthium, the common wormwood, is an indigenous 
perennial, often met with in waste places and by roadsides. The flowers 
are arranged in globular heads, and are of a buff or yellowish color, 
blossoming in August. The principal constituents are a volatile oil, a 
bitter principle called absinthine, and carbonate of potash. The latter 
was formerly known as "salt of wormwood;" but it possesses no ARTEMISIA-ARTERIAL HEMORRHAGE. 
139 
specific virtue other than belongs to carbonate of potash generally; it 
is still, however, regarded as a patent remedial agent by the ignorant. 
The dried herb, or fiowering-top, under the name of wormwood, is used 
as an aromatic bitter tonic, and as an anthelmintic. It is also employed 
in the preparation of liquors. The anthelmintic known by the names 
Semen-seriphii and Barbotine, consists of the flower-heads of A. 
cazrulescens, a Mediterranean plant. A. chinensis,a,nd other species, are 
stated by Lindley to yield the Moxa of China. (See Moxa.) The sub- 
stance sold as wormseed, and known under the names of semen-contra, 
semen-cinse, and semen-santonicum, consists of the broken flower-stalks, 
involucres, and flower-buds of A. contra, pauciflora, lercheana, sieberi, 
and valiana. 
A. Abrotanum, or southernwood, is tonic and antispasmodic, 
and is employed in intermittents to promote the appetite, and in debili- 
tated conditions of the digestive organs. Dose of fluid extract, 30 to 60 
drops; powder, 10 to 20 grains; infusion, 1 to 2 fluid ounces, three 
times a day. 
A. Absinthium, or wormwood, is anthelmintic, tonic and narcotic, 
and is used in intermittent fever or ague, jaundice, and for worms, 
also to promote the appetite. Externally it is useful in fomenta- 
tions for bruises and local inflammations. Dose of fluid extract, 5 to 40 
drops; solid, 3 to 5 grains; powder, 10 to 20 grains; infusion, 1 to 2 
fluid ounces, three times a day. 
A. Vulgaris, or mugwort, is anthelmintic, tonic, and deobstru- 
ent, and is said to be beneficial in epilepsy, hysteria, and amenor- 
rhcea. Used externally in fomentations for bruises and local inflamma- 
tions. Dose of fluid extract, 20 to 40 drops; powder, 10 to 20 grains; 
infusion, 1 to 2 fluid ounces, three times a day. (See Infusion.) 
ARTERIAL HEMORRHAGE, ar-te'-re-al hem'-or-rgj. Arterial 
hemorrhage may be arrested by compression directly upon the bleeding 
point, and this should be tried until the surgeon's arrival, but it must be 
in positions, such as the hand, foot, etc., where pads can be firmly bound 
over the wound. These pads must be graduated, that is, a small firm 
one is to be placed directly over the bleeding vessel, over the first pad a 
larger, and one still larger over that, and the whole to be firmly bound 
with a bandage or ribbon-or strip of cloth of some kind; at the same 
time, the site of the wound is to be raised above the level of the body. 
Above all things, loose wrapping up is to be avoided, the wound had 
better be exposed to the air than enveloped in a hot poultice of clotted 
blood, which only causes it to bleed the more. Two cases which recently 
occurred in the writer's practice will illustrate the above directions:--!. 
A girl when cutting some bacon, slipped the knife and plunged it into 140 
ARTERIAL HEMORRHA GE-ARTERIOTOMY. 
her hand, dividing one of the arteries; it bled fast, and when she was 
seen by the author some time after, a large quantity of blood had been 
lost; compresses and a bandage being at once applied, not another drop 
of blood was lost, the wound was undisturbed for a good many days, and 
quickly healed. 2. A man when sheep-shearing, had the shears driven 
into his hand by a plunge of the animal, and the artery which runs 
between the thumb and forefinger severed; he had to come three miles 
to the author's house, and must have lost above a quart of blood. In 
this case the vessel was tied, but in either of the cases, if, instead of the 
wound being loosely covered, and the hand kept down, some one had 
been sufficiently informed to tie a firm pad over the wound, until proper 
assistance was obtained, it could not fail to have saved either of these 
individuals a considerable amount of blood-and to a poor man, blood 
is money, he must pay the butcher some hard days' work to make up a 
pound of the vital fluid. Various styptics to arrest bleeding are recom- 
mended, such as alum, matico, fungus, etc., but in arterial hemorrhage, 
pressure is more to be trusted to. Surgeons arrest hemorrhage from a 
cut artery by tying the ends with a ligature of silk or firm twine. This 
might be done in emigrant life under necessity. The bleeding point 
being distinctly seen, is by one person to be pulled forward, either by a 
pair of forceps, or by a hook-tenaculum (see Instruments) made for the 
purpose, sufficiently far to allow of another individual tying it securely. 
The sailor's reef-knot is the proper one for the purpose. The end of the 
vessel next the heart is to be tied, but should the lower end bleed, as it 
may do, especially in a few hours after the accident, it must be tied also. 
The ends of the ligature must not be cut off, and the wound covered 
with a cloth dipped in simple water, till the surgeon's assistance-as it 
must be-has been procured. After arterial hemorrhage, a person 
should always be watched, with light during the night, and a handker- 
chief which could be tightened at any moment, kept closely round the 
limb. The application of water, mdess it be ice-cold or nearly so, to a 
bleeding artery, is better avoided ; free exposure to the air is preferable. 
In severe hemorrhage or flooding after delivery, compression of the 
aorta may be of much avail in preventing further loss of blood until the 
arrival of the medical man. The hand of an attendant must be firmly 
pressed into the centre of the abdomen, until the pulsation of the aorta 
is felt, and felt to be acting against the compression, and not beyond it. 
The pressure must not be relaxed for an instant. (See Artery.) 
ARTERIOTOMY, ar-te-re-ot'-o-me [Gr. apteria, an artery, and temno, 
I cut], is applied to the opening of an artery for the purpose of drawing 
blood, and is distinguished from phlebotomy, or venesection, which is 
the opening of a vein. In ordinary cases, the latter is always preferable ARTERIOTOMY-ARTER Y 
141 
to the former; but sometimes, when it is necessary to take a large quan- 
tity of blood from the system very rapidly, as in apoplexy, arteriotomy 
is adopted, and then it is generally the temporal artery that is selected. 
(See Bleeding ok Blood-Letting.) 
ARTERITIS, ar-te-m'-tis, inflammation of an artery. 
Symptoms.-1Tumultuous vascular excitement, palpitations, heat, and 
throbbing in the course of the principal trunks, succeeded by collapse, 
and occasionally gangrene of the part affected, or of a limb. 
Treatment.-Antiphlogistic, with arterial sedatives, as tartar emetic, 
digitalis, and colchicum. In the chronic form it is often complicated 
with other inflammations and diseases. This disease can only be treated 
by medical skill, hence a physician must always be consulted. 
ARTERY, ar'-te-re [Gr. aer., air, and tereo, I keep], is literally an 
air-duct, and was a name applied by the ancients to certain vessels of the 
human body, which were believed by them to contain air, from their 
being found empty after death. Arteries are membranous cylindrical 
tubes, composed of three coats, viz.: the external, which is firm, strong, 
and elastic; the middle, which is muscular, contractile, and brittle; and 
the internal, which is brittle, smooth, and transparent, and lined with 
epithelium on the side washed by the blood. The action of the arteries, 
called the pulse, corresponds with that of the heart, and is effected by 
the contraction of their muscular coat and the great elasticity of their 
outermost one. Besides the arteries which carry the purified blood from 
the heart to all parts of the body, there is the pulmonary artery, which 
emerges from the right ventricle of the heart, and carries the impure 
blood from the heart to the lungs. The other arteries all spring from 
the aorta. The arteries are distributed to every part of the system, 
serving to convey nutrition, to compensate for the waste that is con- 
stantly taking place. An artery is a vessel which invariably conveys 
blood away from the heart, the blood, with one exception-in the pul- 
monary, or artery of the lungs-being bright red, " arterial," and flow- 
ing in waves or pulsations, corresponding with the beats of the heart. 
When red florid blood flows, or is spirted from a wound in jets, an artery 
is certainly wounded, and the case is most probably serious. Blood from 
a vein is dark and black-looking, and flows in a continuous stream. 
From the aorta, the main artery of the body, directly connected with 
the heart, various secondary vessels are given off, to supply the head and 
upper extremities, and the viscera of the chest and abdomen. Low 
down in the latter cavity, the aorta itself divides or bifurcates into the 
two large vessels which supply the lower limbs. From the secondary 
arteries other branches are given off, until, at last, by division and sub- 
division, the vessels become "capillary," hair-like in their minuteness, 142 
ARTERY. 
forming an intricate net-work, in which the arteries end and the veins 
begin. Arteries consist of three separate coats, an outer or protective, 
an inner or lining, and a middle, partly elastic and partly muscular. It 
is the thickness and firmness of this middle coat which chiefly dis- 
tinguishes the artery from the vein. 
As a general rule, the main arterial trunks run upon the anterior and 
inner surfaces of the body; some knowledge of their positions, and 
especially of those points in their course at which they can be most 
easily felt and compressed, may at times be useful to all. It is no 
uncommon thing for medical men to be called to accidents in which 
immense and injurious loss of blood has taken place from a wounded 
artery, which might have been saved to the sufferer by any one pos- 
sessed of sufficient knowledge and presence of mind to put his thumb on 
the main trunk of the vessel. Wherever the finger is placed upon an 
artery, pulsation is felt. 
In wounds of arteries of the head, such as upon the temples, there is 
the advantage of the bone, against which it is possible directly to com- 
press the bleeding point, and when this can be done, it is the best 
method, otherwise pressure may be exerted according to the position of 
the wound, in front of the ear; or just behind the ear; or where the 
pulsation of an arterial branch may be found, as it winds over the edge 
of the lower jaw. 
In wounds of the large carotid arteries of the neck, pressure is, 
unfortunately, of little avail; there is no point to press against, it is 
impossible to compress the artery without at the same time compressing 
the large vein, and from the size of the vessel and its proximity to the 
heart, the current of blood has much power. The result may be felt 
beating on each side of the windpipe. 
In wounds of the large arteries about the shoulder or arm-pit, pres- 
sure must be made with the thumb, or handle of a moderate-sized key, 
wrapped in a few folds of handkerchief, upon the large vessel, just 
behind the middle of the collar-bone, and where it passes over the first 
rib. In the event of a wounded artery lower down in the arm, the com- 
pression may be exerted over any portion of the course just inside the 
large muscle. At the bend of the arm, the artery divides into two main 
branches, one of which, the pulse artery, runs towards the thumb; 
the other, towards the little finger, in which courses both may be felt; 
from the free intercommunication of the arteries of the hand, pressure is 
more certain to arrest hemorrhage if exerted upon the single trunk of 
the arm. In case of arterial bleeding from wounds of the lower 
extremity, it is most certainly and easily arrested by pressure on the 
large artery of the thigh, at the point in or just below the groin. In all ARTERY-ARTIFICIAL EYE. 
143 
these cases, pressure may be exerted by means of the thumb, or by some 
■convenient body, such as the key above named. To compress arteries 
in the limbs, surgeons use the tourniquet, specially adapted for the pur- 
pose ; but as a temporary substitute, a handkerchief will answer well, 
tolerably firmly tied round the member, between the body and the 
wound; if any one has knowledge enough to place a pad-a rolled-up 
stocking will do-over the course of the main vessel, so much the 
better. 
Arteries are liable to the disease of aneurism, in which one or more 
of the coats become distended at some particular point, into a sac or 
pouch filled with blood. The progress of the disease is for this sac to 
grow larger, whilst its coverings become thinner and thinner, until at 
last they give way, and the individual dies from loss of blood. In many 
cases, surgical interference can save life by arresting the disease, and 
the sooner this is done the better. Aneurism may be suspected, when 
a tumor is felt, which distinctly pulsates, conveys to the finger a thrilling 
sensation, and becomes smaller and less tense when the current of blood 
through the artery leading to it is interrupted. In such a case the 
surgeon should at once be consulted. It is not, however, every tumor 
which pulsates that is aneurism, for proximity to a large artery may give 
the appearance of its doing so. (See Anatomy, Circulation of the 
Blood, Arterial Hemorrhage, Aneurism.) 
ARTHRITIS. (See Gout.) 
ARTHRODIC, ar-throd-ik [Gr. arthrosis, articulation], In Anat- 
omy, a term applied to a connection of bones, in which the head of one 
fits into a hollow cavity in another; by which means motion in nearly 
every direction is admitted of; as, for example, in the joint between the 
humerus and the scapula. 
ARTICULAR, ar-tHd-u-lqr, belonging to a joint; as, articular car- 
tilages, articular arteries, etc. 
ARTICULATION, ar-tik^w-la'-shun, [Lat. articulus, a joint]. 1. In 
Physiology, the formation of distinct syllables by the organs of speech. 
2. In Anatomy, the natural connection of one bone with another in the 
skeleton. 
ARTICULATION, FALSE. False joint. Where a fractured bone 
remains ununited, a false joint is produced. Operations have been per- 
formed to cause reunion, even after years; they consist in cutting to the 
bones, destroying the articular surfaces, and establishing a union 
through the resulting inflammation. 
ARTIFICIAL EYE, ar-te-fisK-ql. It is made of enamel, beauti- 
fully colored, and is a shell of less than a hemisphere. It is applied 
under the eyelids, over the diseased ball. At first it produces consider- 144 
ARTIFICIAL EYE-ARTIZANS, ETC. 
able irritation, and cannot be worn more than a few hours; but, as the 
part hardens, it becomes easy, and the patient is capable of imparting a 
slight motion to the shell. 
ARTIFICIAL LIMBS are ingenious mechanical contrivances for 
supplying substitutes for those limbs, or other organs of the body which 
accident or misfortune has removed, such as hands, arms, or legs. The 
skill of the dentist, or the unerring nicety of calculation required by the 
operator who fixes in an artificial eye, is rather a surgical operation than 
an anatomical contrivance; but by artificial limbs is generally meant 
those combinations of steel framework, screws, springs, cork, leather, 
caoutchouc, and gutta-percha, which imitate the form, and, to some 
extent, the motion and practical utility of the real limb. This is an art 
which has now been brought to a high degree of perfection; and arti- 
ficial limbs are constructed by which, naturally and with ease, many of 
the movements of natural limbs are effected. 
ARTIFICIAL SEA-WATER FOR BATHS. (See Baths and 
Bathing.) 
ARTIFICIAL TEETH. (See Teeth.) 
ARTIZANS AND THEIR DISEASES, ar-te-zanz. The diseases, 
to which workmen are liable in consequence of the nature of, or materi- 
als employed in, their respective businesses, always a subject of great 
interest, is too extensive to admit of being otherwise than very briefly 
entered into in the present work. Legislation and invention have of 
late years done much to screen the various classes of artizans from many 
sources of injury to health to which they were formerly exposed; much 
more remains to be done, and would perhaps be done more quickly, 
were it not for the apathy, and sometimes even contradiction, of those 
who were chiefly to be benefited. It is useless to supply miners with 
Davy lamps, and fork-grinders with magnetic respirators, when the 
means of safety are so constantly and carelessly neglected. One im- 
mense source of evil-now happily ameliorated-has been exertion too 
prolonged, especially in the young; nutriment which should have gone 
to build up the growing frame, is consumed in mere physical exertion, the 
powers of the brain are used up in the same, and if not deformity of 
body, at least great weakness, and with it mental inaptitude, are the con- 
sequences. Many of those who are liable to disease in consequence of 
the materials they work in, owe much to their own want of cleanliness; 
this is the case with regard to the metals, especially lead, and a striking 
improvement has taken place in the health of workmen who have been 
compelled to observe certain rules of cleanliness, such as washing the 
hands before their meals. Workers in quicksilver are liable, in addi- 
tion to affections of the teeth and gums, to a species of shaking palsy, or ARTIZANS, ETC.-ARV AL. 
145 
tremor of the limbs. Modellers in colored wax, makers of wax-flowers, 
etc., are in danger of suffering injury from absorption through the skin 
of the hand, of the poisonous coloring ingredients, and should be ex- 
tremely careful. Workers in lead, such as plumbers, type-founders or 
painters who use it in the form of white or carbonate of lead, are apt to 
suffer from paralysis, more particularly of the muscles ef the forearm; 
their more usual disease, however, is the "painter's colic," or dry belly- 
ache (see Colic.) Copper-smiths, smelters, lucifer-match makers, all 
have their peculiar affections, that of the latter being a disease of the 
jaw-bone. Those who are employed in the filing or dry grinding sub- 
stances which give off a hard dust, are peculiarly liable to chest disease, 
from the mechanical irritation caused by the particles continually inhaled. 
So much is this the case in some trades-such as the Sheffield fork-grinders 
-that most, if not all, their members die before reaching the age of forty. 
Millers, and those employed among the dust of a softer quality, are not 
so likely to become consumptive as the former class, but have more tend- 
ency to asthma; they also suffer from the consequences of the cutaneous 
pores and functions being clogged and hindered by the dust. Grocers 
and bakers who are in the habit of handling flour, sugar, etc., suffer 
frequently from a disagreeable skin disease affecting the fingers, well- 
known by the name of " grocers'-itch. " Housemaids who kneel at 
work have their peculiar swelling, which forms, and sometimes suppur- 
ates over the knee-cap ; this may be prevented by kneeling on a soft sub- 
stance. Clergymen, actors and public speakers have their peculiar 
throat affection; in short, there is scarcely a trade or profession 
which does not expose its follower to some peculiar ailment, but 
there is scarcely one of these ailments which may not be prevented 
or much ameliorated by proper care-by cleanliness more especially, but 
also by attention to the various other prophylactic means which are now 
so generally known and provided. (See Colic, Consumption, Lead, 
Skin, Air, Ventilation, Ablution, Diet, Health, etc.) 
ARUM, a'-rum, in Botany, the typical genus of Nat. order Aracea. 
The only British species is A. maculatum, the common cuckoo-pint, 
wake-robin, or lords-and-ladies, and probably the long purples of Shake- 
speare. This curious perennial is found growing in shady places, hedge- 
banks, rough grounds, and groves. The flowers, which come to perfec- 
tion in April and May, are monoescious; that is, the sexes are contained 
in different flowers on the same plant. They are arranged on a succu- 
lent axis, terminating in a club-shaped receptacle termed a spadix, of a 
purple or yellowish-white color, and enclosed in a membranous sheath 
denominated a spathe. The berries are of a fine scarlet color, and help 
to adorn hedges in autumn. They are very poisonous, and the whole 146 
ARUM-ASAliUM. 
plant contains acrid and poisonous juices. The tubers, which are filled 
with starch, are dried, powdered, and used in France as a cosmetic, 
under the name of cypress powder. The starch, separated from acrid 
juices, forms Portland arrowroot, which was formerly prepared in large 
quantities in the island of Portland, where the plant grows in great pro- 
fusion. In the fresh state, the tubers are stimulant, diaphoretic, and 
expectorant, and were formerly used in the form of an emulsion in 
obstinate rheumatism. 
The A. Tryphyllum, wild turnip or dragon root, a native of all parts 
of the American continent, is acrid, expectorant, and diaphoretic. It 
has been advantageously given in asthma, whooping-cough, chronic 
catarrh, chronic rheumatism, flatulence, croup, stomatitis, chronic laryn- 
gitis, bronchitis, low stages of typhus fever, and various diseases connected 
with a cachectic state of the system. Dose: fluid extract, 10 to 20 drops; 
infusion, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. (See Infusion.) 
ASAGRtEA, as-a-gre'-q, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the 
Nat. order Melanthaceaz or Colchicaceac. The most important species is 
A. officinalis, a native of Mexico, and the principal, if not the only 
source of the Sabadilla, Cevadilla, or Cebadilla of the shops, which 
consists of the fruits and seeds. The seeds are officinal, and yield the 
alkaloid veratria, which has been used externally as a rubefacient in 
rheumatism, gout, and neuralgic affections, and also internally in similar 
cases, in doses of one-twelfth to one-sixth of a grain. It is a most 
powerful poison. Sabadilla seeds have been employed as an anthelmin- 
tic. They are called lice-seeds by the Germans; because, when pow- 
dered and employed externally, they destroy vermin. 
ASARUM, as-'a-rum [Gr. a, not, saron, feminine], in Botany, a 
genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Aristolochiacece. The species 
A.Europwam, a native of Europe, is a rare plant in the woods of Britain. 
The root which forms the drug asarabacca contains a camphor-like prin- 
ciple, and a bitter principle called asarin, which is combined with gallic 
acid. It is sometimes called hazelwort or wild nard. It is emetic, 
cathartic, and errhine. Used principally as an errhine in affections of 
the brain, eyes, face, and throat, toothache, ophthalmia, and paralysis of 
the mouth and tongue. Internally it is a stimulant in doses of 10 or 
12 grains of the dried leaves, and an emetic in £ dram doses. It is said 
to be used in France by drunkards to promote vomiting. 
A. Canadense, or wild ginger, is a spicy stimulating agent, producing 
perspiration, promoting expectoration, and having carminative properties. 
It is used in colic and other painful affections of the bowels and stomach, 
where no inflammation exists, and in chronic pulmonary affections. 
It is also used as an errhine. Dose of the powder, dram; tine- Asclepias Tuberosa. (Pleurisy Boot.) ASAP UAL-ASCLEPIAS. 
147 
ture, | to 2 teaspoonfuls; fluid extract, 20 to 40 drops, three times a 
day. 
ASCARIDES, as-kar'-e-deez [Gr. askarizo, I jump], parasite worms 
which inhabit the intestines of animals. They belong to the genus 
Entozoa, and are ranked in the order of Numatoidea. One of the com- 
monest species, the A. lumbricoides, which is very like the common 
earthworm, is found frequently in the intestines of men, and of horses, 
oxen, etc. They have been observed fifteen inches in length, and they 
are often the cause of severe disease, which has sometimes proved fatal. 
The A. vermicularis, or threadworm, is very common among young 
children. It is white, about half an inch long, and infests the lower 
part of the intestines in great numbers. (See Worms.) 
ASCITES, as-si'-teez [Gr. askites, from askos, a bottle], a term 
used to denote abdominal dropsy, or dropsy in the belly. (See 
Dropsy.) 
ASCLEPIAS, as-kle'-pe-as [Gr. name of EEsculapius, the god of 
medicine], in Botany, a genus of plants, the type of the Nat. order 
AsclepiadacecB. The common English name for the genus is swallow- 
wort. The species are mostly American, and many of them possess 
powerful medicinal qualities, as one might expect from the generic name. 
A. curassavica, the bastard ipecacuanha, is a native of the West Indian 
islands, where the root is employed by the negroes as an emetic, and is 
occasionally sent to this country as ipecacuanha. A. Cornuti, or com- 
mon silk-weed, and known as milk-weed in many parts of the country, 
is tonic, diuretic, alterative, emmenagogue, purgative, and emetic, and 
given in large doses is stimulant and anthelmintic. It is said to be use- 
ful in amenorrhcea, dropsy, retention of urine, asthma, dyspepsia, cough, 
constipation, worms, scrofulous and rheumatic disorders. The action of 
the heart is augmented under its use. It may be taken in syrup or 
ginger, to cover its unpleasant taste. Dose: of fluid extract, 10 to 30 
drops; tincture, 10 to 60 drops; decoction, 2 to 4 fluid ounces, three or 
four times a day; powder, 10 to 20 grains. (See Decoction.) 
A. Incamata, commonly called white Indian hemp, possesses altera- 
tive, diaphoretic, and diuretic properties. Dr. Wm. Hauser, of Georgia, 
has used it with the happiest results in many forms of fever, but regards it 
especially as equal to anything now known in the treatment of gonor- 
rhoea and syphilis. He has used it with little regard to the stage of the 
disease, and with the best success. Prof. Tully recommends it in 
catarrh, asthma, syphilis, rheumatism, and worms. Reputed by many 
to be emetic and cathartic. Dr. King regards it as possessing anthel- 
mintic properties, and as useful in chronic mucous diseases of the 
stomach. Dose: fluid extract, 20 to 40 drops; solid, 3 to 5 grains; 148 
ASCLKPIAS- ASPAPA G US. 
tincture, 10 to 60 drops; decoction, 2 to 4 fluid ounces, three times a day. 
(See Decoction.) 
A. Tuberosa, known as pleurisy root, is diaphoretic, expectorant, 
carminative, diuretic, tonic, and antispasmodic. Used in pleurisy, 
pneumonia, catarrh, febrile diseases, acute rheumatism and dysentery. 
Useful in indigestion, and in all cases of flatus in adults and children. 
It is said that a number of cases of prolapsus uteri have been cured 
under the use of 1 ounce of pleurisy root mixed with an ounce of the 
root of aletris farinosa, and given in dram or teaspoonful doses, three 
times a day. It is said to have been prescribed with favorable effect in 
catarrh, bronchitis and other pulmonary complaints, where it was neces- 
sary to determine to the skin, and at the same time promote free 
expectoration. Dr. Parker, of Massachusetts, employed it with great 
success for twenty years, in dysentery. A pill composed of equal parts 
of asclepidin and dioscorein, will be found very beneficial in flatulency, 
and where persons are subject to flatulent or bilious colic. Dose : fluid 
extract, % to 2 teaspoonfuls; asclepidin, 1 to 5 grains ; infusion, 1 to 4 
fluid ounces; tincture, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls three times a day. (See 
Infusion. ) 
ASIATIC CHOLERA. (See Cholera.) 
ASPARAGUS, as-par-a-gus [probably from Gr. sparasso, I tear], 
in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Liliaceoe, the 
lily family. The species are herbaceous, or shrubby plants, growing 
wild in the southern parts of Europe and in Africa. A. officinalis, 
the common asparagus, has long been cultivated for the sake of the 
young succulent shoots called turios, which form a much-esteemed 
article of food. In the wild state the shoots are slender and tough, but 
by cultivation they are obtained thick and extremely tender. The 
ancient Romans were well acquainted with this delicate culinary vege- 
table, and Pliny mentions a variety which grew near Ravenna, produc- 
ing shoots so large that three weighed upwards of a pound. It is now 
cultivated in all the temperate regions of the world, and to a very great 
extent near London, Paris and Vienna. In no part of Europe is it 
grown to such perfection as in the market-gardens round London. 
There are a great many local varieties of asparagus, but they may all be 
regarded as slight modifications of two well-marked sorts, namely, the 
red-topped and the green-topped. Asparagus-shoots contain a peculiar 
crystalline principle, to which the name asparagin has been given: this 
has a specific action on the urinary organs, and its properties have 
caused asparagus to be properly employed as a lithic. In Medicine, 
the shoots, roots, and flowering stems of A. officinalis are occasionally 
employed as diuretics. The roasted seeds have been used as a substi- ASP AB A G US-ASPLDIUAL 
149 
tute for coffee. Asparagus when young, well boiled, and not over- 
loaded with melted butter, is wholesome and digestible; it gives a 
peculiar odor to the urine. Its peculiar vegetable principle, asparagin, 
contains nitrogen. 
ASPERULA, as-pe-rudg (diminutive of Lat. asper, rough], in 
Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Galiacea., the 
madder family. The species A. odocata, the woodruff, is one of the 
most fragrant plants found in our woods: it contains the natural per- 
fume to which chemists have given the name of coumarin. A. cynan- 
chicha, another indigenous species, is commonly called quinsy-wort, on 
account of its supposed value as a remedy in sore throat. 
ASPHALTUM, as-fall-turn [Lat.], a smooth, hard, brittle, black or 
brown substance, which melts easily when heated, and if pure burns with- 
out residue. It is found in a liquid or soft state on the surface of the Dead 
Sea, and the island of Trinidad. It occurs also as a mineral production 
in various parts of Europe, Asia and America. The Egyptians used 
asphaltum in embalming, under the name of mumia. It was used by 
the Babylonians instead of mortar for cementing bricks. Taken inter- 
nally asphaltum acts as a stimulant, but it is rarely used unless as an in- 
gredient in some plasters and ointments. 
ASPHYXIA, as-fiks'-e-g [Gr. a, not, and sphuxis, pulsation], literally 
signifies without pulsation, and is used to denote that state of body 
during life in which the vital functions are suspended from some cause 
interrupting respiration; and hence, to speak correctly, it should be 
called apnma [Gr. a, not, andpneo, I breathe]. In asphyxia, the action 
of the lungs is suspended, and the blood no longer undergoes that 
purifying process so necessary to life. Hence the system becomes filled 
with impure blood, the powers of sensation and voluntary motion are 
suspended, and if the proper means of restoration are not resorted to, 
death will speedily ensue. Asphyxia may be produced by various causes; 
as by whatever prevents the access of air to the lungs, as strangulation, 
drowning, choking, etc.; or whatever interferes with the action of the 
nerves that are concerned in respiration, as paralysis, cold, stroke of 
lightning, etc. It may also be produced by breathing an impure or 
a too rarefied atmosphere. (See Drowning, Hanging, Suffocation, 
Accidents, Choking, Cold, Paralysis, etc.) 
ASPIDIUM, as-pid'-e-um [Gr. aspidion, a little buckler], in Botany, 
the name of a genus of ferns. The fronds of the species A. fvagrans possess 
aromatic and slightly bitter properties, and have been used as a substi- 
tute for tea. The root of the A. Fllix Mas, or male fern, is strongly 
recommended as an anthelmintic. The accounts of its efficacy in the 
treatment of tape-worm are too numerous to admit of any reasonable 150 
ASPIDIUM- ASSIMILATION 
doubt on the subject. Dr. Peschier stated that in the course of nine 
months 150 tape-worms had been expelled by the extract. Dr. Ebers 
found it completely successful in eight cases. M. Ronsel never found it 
to fail. Its use should be followed by a purgative. Dose : fluid extract, 
1 to 3 teaspoonfuls; oil, 30 to 60 drops; solid extract, 9 to 15 grains; 
pills, 2 grains, 4 to 7 pills; powder, 1 to 3 drams. (See Worms.) 
ASSAFCETIDA, OR ASAFCETIDA, as-g-fet'-e-dg [Persian, asa; 
Lat. fastidus, fetid], the name of a fetid gum-resin, used in Medi- 
cine on account of its antispasmodic and more or less stimulating proper- 
ties, and extensively employed in Persia and adjacent countries as a 
condiment, just as garlic and other allied plants are employed in 
Europe. The umbelliferous plant Narthex, or Ferula assafoetida, yields 
the greater part of the assafoetida of commerce; but in all probability, 
other species of Ferula, and also other plants, yield the drug. Royle 
suggests that Pranges pabularia may be one of the sources. The 
peculiar and offensive odor of assafoetida is attributed to the presence of 
sulphur in combination with allyle. It is useful in hysterical cases, and 
in flatulent distension of the bowels; in the latter case, especially, given 
as a clyster: it is the most efficacious agent we possess. Two teaspoon- 
fuls of the tincture of assafoetida may be added to a simple gruel clyster, 
or to one of the purgative clysters, if requisite. In nervous affections, 
convulsions, flatulence, spasmodic asthma, worms, etc., assafoetida is 
frequently of great service. Dose, from 5 to 20 grains. It is commonly 
given in the form of tincture or pills. The tincture is formed by 
macerating 2£ ounces of assafoetida in 1 pint of rectified spirit; dose, 
from to 1 teaspoonful. The compound pill of A. consists of 2 ounces 
each of assafoetida, galbanuyi, and myrrh, with 1 ounce by weight of 
treacle, heated and mixed well together; dose, 5 to 10 grains. The 
compound A. and aloes pill is made by taking 1 ounce each of socotrine 
aloes in powder, assafoetida, hard soap in powder, and confection of 
roses, beat together till thoroughly mixed; dose, 5 to lOgrains. It is 
also used in the form of enema. (See Clyster-Enema. ) 
ASSES' MILK, ass'-ez, is, on account of its nutritious qualities and 
lightness of digestion, frequently recommended to consumptive patients 
and delicate young children. It contains more sugar and less cheesy 
matter than other milk. It bears a considerable resemblance to human 
milk, and hence is considered best for a child when the other is not 
available. It is a most excellent dietetic article, and restorative in all 
cases of debility. Drank too freely it acts upon the bowels. 
ASSIMILATION, as-sim-e-la'-shun [Lat. adsimilatio, from ad, to, 
and similis, like], the act of organized bodies, by which they convert 
foreign substances into their own proper substance, by which food is ASSIMIL A TION-ASTHMA. 
151 
converted into nutriment. (See Chyle, Chyme, Digestion, Nutrition, 
etc.) 
ASTER PUNICEUS, as'-tur, red-stalked aster. This plant, belong- 
ing to the Nat. order Aster acece, grows in swamps and ditches, and along 
the borders of streams all over the United States and Canada. The fibres 
of the roots are the part used. It is sometimes known by the name of 
squaw-weed. It is stimulant and diaphoretic, and, in the shape of 
infusion, is used in colds, rheumatism, nervous debility, headache, and 
menstrual irregularities. The Aster ^Estiras^ called also rheumatic 
weed, resembles the above, and is used for the same purposes. It is 
said also to possess some virtues as an antidote in the bites of venomous 
snakes. It is given in doses of 1 to 4 fluid ounces of the infusion. 
(See Infusion.) 
ASTHENIA, as-the-ni'-a [Gr. a, not, and sthenos^ strength], denotes 
debility or loss of strength, and is employed in connection with diseases 
of which this is a characteristic. 
ASTHMA, asf-ma [Gr. astkmazo^ I breathe with difficulty]. This 
disease consists of paroxysms of difficult respiration coming on at uncertain 
intervals, usually during the night, accompanied by wheezing respiration, 
and terminating in copious mucous expectoration. Previously to the occur- 
rence of the paroxysms the patient has warning of what is about to happen 
from the state of his digestive organs; he begins to lose his appetite, and to 
suffer from lassitude, weariness, drowsiness, oppression, flatulence, and 
belching, and he retires to rest with a general feeling of illness. After 
passing several long and uncomfortable hours, perhaps dozing at intervals, 
he wakes up about two or three o'clock in the morning with a sense of 
tightness and constriction in the chest. He sits up, and leaning forward, 
places his elbows upon his knee; he labors to get his breath, and feeling 
the absolute necessity of pure air, rushes to the window, which he quickly 
opens. His extremities are cold, but his body is bathed in perspiration; 
the face is flushed and turgid, the pulse feeble and irregular. A large 
quantity of pale limpid urine, like that secreted during the hysterical 
paroxysm, is passed before and during the fit. This state lasts for an 
uncertain period, there may be slight remissions, but at last he expector- 
ates a large quantity of mucus, and the asthmatical paroxysm is at an end. 
During the intervals he enjoys a fair share of health, but is always short- 
winded. 
The air-tubes of the lungs are surrounded by muscular fibres resemb- 
ling those encircling the bowels, and this disease is essentially due to the 
abnormal contraction of this tissue, and the consequent narrowing of 
the passages through which the air has to pass. These fibres surround- 
ing the bronchial.tubes have been proved to be muscular by the aid of 152 
ASTHMA. 
the microscope, which shows that their intimate structure corresponds 
with that of organic, or involuntary muscles in various other parts of 
the body; again, they have been made to contract like muscular fibres 
under the influence of galvanism, and to materially shorten themselves 
by the application of this force to the nerve, or nerves, supplying them. 
That this disease is of a spasmodic nature may be inferred from the 
consideration of the following facts: That spasm co-exists in other parts 
of the body in some cases, that asthmatical patients describe the feeling 
as that of spasm; again, the way in which the paroxysm comes on, and 
the capricious manner in which it goes off, both point to spasm as its 
source, and, finally, the disease is much alleviated and shortened by 
antispasmodic medicines. 
Causes.-Asthma is hereditary, being transmitted from father to son, 
and grandson. It may be due to alterations in the lungs themselves, 
and to diseased states of the heart and large blood-vessels. It is most 
common in men, and in the middle period of life. Particular states of 
the atmosphere may excite a fit of asthma, and other causes may bring 
it on which are of too subtle a nature for our appreciation; thus many 
instances are known in which asthmatical patients could never sleep 
in a certain room of a house without an attack, while he could pass an 
uninterrupted night's rest in any other sleeping apartment of the same 
house; or a person is able to sleep in a house on one side of the street, 
but not in one on the other side. Some individuals cannot breathe an 
atmosphere containing finely divided particles of ipecacuanha without 
suffering severely from attacks of cough and difficulty of breathing 
resembling closely the asthmatical paroxysm as above described. 
Treatment during the paroxysm.-If the stomach be full, as is 
almost always the case, an emetic should be promptly administered. 
10 grains of ipecac, stirred up in half a tumbler of warm water, or a tea- 
spoonful of mustard in a tumbler of warm water, will answer the 
purpose. The bowels should be emptied by an enema of soap and 
water. A hot foot-bath and mustard to the chest, are also indicated. 
A cup of hot, strong coffee frequently exerts a beneficial influence. 
Nitre-paper fumes is an old remedy still very much in use. The papers 
are prepared in the following way: Dissolve in water all the saltpetre it 
will take up. In this saturated solution dip sheets of ordinary red 
blotting paper. Roll in the shape of cigars or cones, and when dry, set 
fire to them, holding them in such a way that the fumes may be inhaled 
by the distressed patient. Stramonium, commonly called thorn-apple, 
and in some parts of the country, jimson-weed, is another favorite 
remedy. Smoking the leaves is said to give very great relief, indeed, in 
many cases it acts like magic. The datura tatula, a species of sea- ASTHMA-ASTRA GAL US. 
153 
weed, may be smoked in the same way. Inhaling the fumes of chloro- 
form gives relief, but it is not a safe remedy out of the hands of a 
physician. Ether is much safer, and just as effectual; a teaspoonful may 
be placed on a handkerchief and inhaled. Lobelia is another remedy in 
high repute ; 20 or 30 drops of the tincture may be given every half hour, 
until relief comes, or until nausea or vomiting is produced. Hoffman's 
anodyne, in doses of 30 drops, may be beneficially combined with the 
lobelia. Indian hemp, in doses of from 2 to 4 grains of the extract, will 
frequently relieve the spasm. Opium, combined with sulphuric ether, 
may be given with good effect as follows: 
Take of Laudanum One teaspoonful. 
Compound spirits of ether Two teaspoonfuls. 
Camphor water Six ounces.-Mix. 
Give two tablespoonfuls every two or three hours. 
Preventive treatment.-The bowels should be kept gently open, the 
food be light and nourishing, sudden changes of temperature to be 
avoided, regular and moderate exercise to be taken, and a change of 
climate or situation to be tried. The best atmosphere on the continent 
for asthmatic patients, is that of Colorado. This class of patients also 
derive great benefit and relief by an abode in Minnesota. Alcoholic 
stimulants must be scrupulously shunned, as they only add fuel to the 
flame. Iodide of potassium, in doses of 5 grains, three times a day, is 
a remedy which has recently been very highly extolled for its preventive 
properties in this disease. The extract of hemlock, either alone, in doses 
of 1 to 2 grains, three or four times a day, or in combination with the 
Indian hemp, in f or £ grain doses, is also highly recommended. Sleep 
is to be procured at night by 6 to 10 grain doses of Dover's powder, or 
25 to 40 drops of laudanum. (See Climate, Health Resorts, Datura, 
Grindelia Robusta, Spasm.) 
ASTRAGALUS, as-trag'-a-lus [Gr. astragalos, a die], is the ankle- 
bone or first bone of the foot, upon which the tibia moves. It is so 
called from being shaped like the die used by the ancients in their 
games. In Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order 
Leguminosw, suborder Papilionacece. More than 250 species have 
been described, and most of them are hardy plants, either shrubby or 
herbaceous. The best known species are A. hypoglottis, the purple 
milk-vetch, and A. glycyphyllos, the liquorice-vetch. The species A. 
verus, A. gummifer, A. creticus, and some others, furnish gum- 
tragacanth, or, as it is frequently termed, gum-dragon. Tragacanth 
exudes naturally from all parts of the above plants, or from wounds 
made in the stems. It is used by manufacturers for stiffening crape and 
other light fabrics, and by perfumers for making bandoline. In Medicine 154 
ASTRA GAL US-A TILER OS PERM UM M OS CHA TUM. 
it is employed for its demulcent and emollient properties, and as a 
vehicle for the exhibition of more active substances. 
ASTRINGENTS, asdrin -jentz [Lat. ad, to, and stringo, I tie fast], 
substances which have the property of contracting or drawing together 
the muscular fibre or coagulating albuminous fluids. They are employed 
medicinally for the purpose of obviating relaxation of the flbres and 
tissues, to check excessive secretions, and to impart tone to the system, 
and hence are useful in checking fluxes, hemorrhage, and diarrhoea. In 
cases of relaxation or debility, either external or internal, in increased 
and injurious secretions from glands or mucous surfaces, astringents are 
the chief remedy. The amount of astringent action, however, depends 
greatly upon the mode and circumstances of its application. The 
astringent principle in the vegetable kingdom, in the form either of 
tannic or of gallic acid, is very widely diffused. The principal vegetable 
astringents used in medicine are: Oak-bark, galls, kino, catechu, 
tormentilia, uva-ursi or bear-berry, logwood, etc. The mineral astrin- 
gents are the acids, alum, salts of iron, particularly the muriate, 
sulphates of copper and zinc, and nitrate and oxide of silver, and salts 
of lead. Cold in any form is astringent. 
ASYLUM, a-srdunc [Gr. a. not, and sulao, I rob], was formerly 
used to denote a sanctuary or place of refuge to which criminals might 
fly for safety, and from which it was considered the greatest impiety to 
take them by force. The term is now commonly applied to certain 
institutions whose object is to alleviate the condition of the blind, deaf 
and dumb, lunatic and destitute. 
ASYLUMS, LUNATIC. (See Insane Asylums.) 
ATAXIA, Os-talcs'-e-a [Gr. a, not, taxis, order], want of regularity. 
Applied to a course or symptoms of disease, or to the functions of the 
animal body. It has been most generally used by late writers to 
denote that state of the nervous system which accompanies nervous 
fever. 
ATAXO-ADYNAMIC, a-taks-o a-di-nard-ik, a term applied by the 
French to typhus fever. 
ATHEROSPERMUM MOSCIIATUM, atli-e-ro-sper-muwi mos-ka'- 
tum, a medicine introduced as a remedy in chronic bronchitis, and 
apparently with some success. Dose of the tincture, a teaspoonful in 
water ev.ery three, four, or six hours, according to circumstances. It is- 
well worthy of a trial in chronic cases which have resisted other methods 
of treatment, and the writer can speak favorably of its effects from 
a pretty extensive experience of its use in such cases. If it causes sick- 
ness, the dose should be somewhat diminished, and it should not be 
given so frequently. ATLANTIC STATES, ETC-ATROPA BELLADONNA. 
155 
ATLANTIC STATES, CLIMATE OF. (See Climate.) 
ATLAS, at'-lqs, in Anatomy, is the name of the first vertebra, so 
called either from the Greek verb atlao^ I sustain, or from Atlas, who 
was fabled to support the world upon his shoulders. It differs from the 
other vertebrae in having its body small and thin, and its forearm very 
large, being in form somewhat like a ring. It is connected above with 
the condyles of the occipital bone, and receives the tooth-like process of 
the second cervical vertebra from below, the former admitting of moving 
the head up and down. 
ATMOSPHERE. (See Air. ) 
ATOM, at'-um [Gr. a, not, and temno, to cut]. Synonymous with 
equivalent. The smallest or ultimate particles of which material bodies 
are composed, are termed atoms. Larger portions of matter are com- 
posed of these, and between them the actions of attraction and repul- 
sion, whereby the condition of bodies is changed, may be supposed to 
take place. 
ATOMIZER, at'-um-i-zur^ an instrument for the atomization of medi- 
cines. There are various modifications of these useful instruments, one 
of the best being that manufactured by Codman & Shurtleff, of Boston. 
By its use any medicated liquid may be converted into the finest spray, 
and in this state may be inhaled into the smallest air-cells. The 
diseases which have been treated more or less successfully by inhalation 
of atomized, medicated fluids, are chiefly those of the pharynx, larynx, 
trachea, bronchia and lungs; croup, diphtheria and whooping-cough have 
also been successfully treated in this way. Simple bronchial catarrh 
often improves rapidly treated in this way, while bleeding from the 
lungs has been many times promptly arrested. 
ATONY, at'-o-ne [Gr. a, not, and tonos, tone], is a term used in 
Medicine to denote deficiency in power or tone, generally applied to 
muscular power. 
ATRESIA, a-tre'-ze-q [Gr. a, not, tras, to perforate], imperforation. 
Absence of the natural opening of any canal or cavity, owing to con- 
genital malformation or occlusion of the same from disease or injury. 
ATROPA BELLADONNA, at'-ropq bel-lq-don -na, belonging to 
the Nat. order Atropacew. This plant is commonly known as the dwale, 
or deadly nightshade. It is a native of Greece and Italy, and also 
indigenous to Britain, but not common. It is perennial, and grows in 
hedges and waste grounds on a calcareous soil, but is only met with in a 
comparatively few localities. It blossoms from June to August, the 
flowers being about an inch long, drooping, bell-shaped, and of a lurid 
purple color. The fruit is a berry of a shining violet black color when 
ripe, about the size of a small cherry. The berries have a most tempt- 156 
ATROPA BELLADONNA. 
ing appearance, and children have frequently been poisoned by them. 
They are powerfully narcotic; and one of the first symptoms of their 
deadly action on the human frame is an appearance of the most besotted 
drunkenness. The dried leaves or an infusion of the leaves, will act in a 
similar manner. Even a small dose causes an extravagant delirium, 
which is usually of an agreeable character. The delirium is sometimes 
accompanied by excessive and uncontrollable laughter, sometimes by ex- 
cessive talking, but occasionally by a complete loss of voice. The state 
of mind sometimes resembles somnambulism, as in the case of a tailor, 
who for fifteen hours, was speechless and insensible to external objects, and 
yet went through all the operations of his trade with great vivacity, and 
moved his lips as if in conversation. Dryness of the moutli and throat, 
difficulty of swallowing, nausea, dimness of vision, giddiness, coma, 
are among the other effects of this poison, and death is usually preceded 
by convulsions and paralysis. The best antidote to the virulent effects 
of this poison is vinegar, when promptly administered; but, if practi- 
cable, the stomach-pump should be at once used. When death ensues 
from its effects, the body soon putrefies, and swells in a remarkable 
manner, being covered with livid spots, and blood sometimes exudes 
from the mouth, nose and eyes. It is to be feared that it is a com- 
mon ingredient in specifics for sparkling eyes sold by perfumers. The 
active principle of the plant is the alkaloid atropia. 
Therapeutic Properties of Belladonna.-Conclusions of M. Dubois: 
1. That belladonna is not without efficacy in inflammations, especially 
in those of the globe of the eye. 2. That it is the best remedy known in 
the intolerance of light which so frequently accompanies inflammation of 
the eye. 3. That its power as a preventive in scarlatina or scarlet fever 
can hardly be contested. 4. That it sometimes cures certain hemorrhages, 
particularly from the lungs, stomach and womb. 5. That it is a remedy 
par excellence for neuralgia, for whooping-cough, and most of the nervous 
diseases. 6. That it is a remedy par excellence to combat pain, especially 
when external. 7. That it alleviates, more than any other remedy, the 
pains of cancer, and cures sometimes, if not cancer, diseases closely 
resembling it. 8. That it can be advantageously employed in spas- 
modic contraction and occlusion of the pupil; to produce prolapse of 
the iris, and to break up adhesions; to prevent the inflammation of the 
iris so frequent after this operation; to maintain dilatation of the pupil, 
and to diminish the chances of adhesions after the operation of couch- 
ing ; to prevent secondary cataract; to re-establish vision, temporarily 
at least, when the lens is opaque in the center, or when there are opaci- 
ties of the cornea; to assist the diagnosis in some diseases of the eye. 
9. That it is of real efficacy in some cases of strangulated rupture. ATROPA BELLADONNA-ATROPHY. 
157 
10. That its property of facilitating labor in spasmodic constriction of 
the uterine neck is powerful and incontestible. 11. That it produces 
advantageous results in some cases of fissure of the anus. 12. That its 
employment may be more or less useful in spasmodic constriction of 
the bowels, in constipation, in spasmodic contraction of the rectum, of 
the anus, and of the vulva; in spasmodic stricture of the urethra, reten- 
tion of urine, strangury, spasmodic stricture of the larynx and oesopha- 
gus; in spasm of the eyelid, incontinence of urine, nephritis, colic, 
piles, etc. 
Antidotes.-The remedies recommended are, stomach-pump, vinegar, 
iodine, emetics, purgatives, cold application to the head; in the comatose 
stages, ammonia internally, with external stimulants. 
Dose: fluid extract of belladonna, 3 to 10 drops; solid extract, 
J to 1 grain ; tincture, 5 to 30 drops. (See Atropia. ) 
ATROPHY, at'-ro-fe [Gr. a, not, and trophe nourishment], denotes 
a wasting, from deficient nutriment, either of a part or of the whole of 
the body. In order to the maintenance of the healthy state of the 
body or of any of its organs, a certain supply of nutrition is required to 
meet the waste that is constantly going on. When, from any cause, the 
supply of nutrition is not able to meet this waste, the natural dimensions 
of those parts are reduced. In a healthy condition of body, an exact 
balance is maintained between the waste and the supply; but in a very 
morbid condition, this balance is more or less disturbed, in consequence 
of which the whole body, or certain parts of it, receive too little or too 
much nourishment. The first state, from whatever cause it arises, is 
termed atrophy, the latter hypertrophy. Atrophy may thus arise from 
a vast variety of causes. It may be occasioned by merely withholding 
the necessary supply of nutritious food, without any actual disease. 
Among the diseases capable of producing atrophy, the most common 
are those of the digestive organs, by which the aliment is taken up and 
prepared for assimilation. Disease of the organs of assimilation may 
produce atrophy as affectually as disease in the primary organs of di- 
gestion. A frequent instance of this is in consumption, when the lungs 
become so diseased as not to be able to take in a sufficient quantity of 
air. Atrophy may result also from a want of activity in an organ, or 
in the whole body; so that when the nutritive particles are conveyed to 
them in the blood, they have not power to appropriate a sufficient quan- 
tity of them. When the vital activity of an organ is small, the nutritive 
particles are taken up slowly and languidly; while the affinity exist- 
ing between them being also weak, they are sooner removed by the pro- 
cess of absorption than in health, and the parts thus circumstanced are 
rapidly wasted. Hence a due supply of nervous stimulus is necessary to 158 
ATROPHY-ATROPIA, OR ATROPINE. 
the vital activity of an organ; while the cessation of action in any organ 
is invariably followed by atrophy. The first change that takes place in 
an atrophied organ, from whatever cause, is diminution of the quantity 
of blood sent to it; and next to this, and chiefly owing to it, is greater 
paleness of color. Subsequently, the organization becomes more com- 
pletely changed; so that frequently all traces of its original conforma- 
tion are lost, and in some cases, it at last disappears altogether. In all 
cases, atrophy arises from the diminution or perversion of the vital ener- 
gies, generally the former; and hence, by exciting the natural vital en- 
ergies of an organ, we tend to remove atrophy. In order to its cure, it 
is necessary to discover in what organ or organs the deficiency or 
perversion exists, and to adopt the mode of treatment that is considered 
most adapted thereto. Beyond this, nourishing diet, fresh air, health- 
ful exercise, and, if suitable, cold bathing, are among the means gener- 
ally adapted to such cases. 
Atrophy or wasting may be either general or local. General atrophy 
is in one sense natural to advanced life, when the powers of nutrition 
being diminished, the muscles, the brain, the organs generally, shrink. 
There may be fat, at the same time much atrophy of the other bodily 
components. Atrophy occurring earlier in life, without obvious cause, 
ought to be regarded suspiciously. When an individual, without depart- 
ing from ordinary habits, begins to lose flesh, the cause ought to be 
looked for, and if the change continue, the person should be submitted 
to a thorough medical examination, and the existence or not of incipient 
disease, if possible, ascertained. In young children atrophy occurs as a 
consequence of faulty digestion, most frequently from improper feeding; 
it also is the result of a diseased condition of the glands of the belly, 
through which the nutrient portion of the food passes on its way to the 
general circulation. For this condition, cod-liver oil is ^remedy, given 
in teaspoonful doses twice a day, to an infant of six or eight months old, 
and the same quantity well rubbed into the skin of the abdomen night 
and morning. Some medicines, such as iodine, have the power of caus- 
ing local or even general atrophy. 
Local atrophy is liable to occur from various causes. Whatever dim- 
inishes the supply of blood to a part, will cause it to waste. Pressure on 
the main artery of the limb, obliteration of the smaller vessels of a part 
by previous inflammation, disuse of a member from paralysis or any 
other cause are all followed by diminution in size of the part affected. 
(See Diet, Food, Digestion, Dyspepsia, Consumption, Air, Ventilation, 
Exercise; Age, Old; Child, Emaciation, Cod-Liver Oil, Health, 
Baths. ) 
ATROPIA, OR ATROPINE, a-tro'-po-a, an alkaloid obtained by ATROPIA, OR ATROPINE-AUSCULTATION. 
159 
Brand in 1819 from the root of the atropa belladonna. It is similar in 
its properties and actions to belladonna, but is much more powerful. 
The dose is from to * of a grain, but it is rarely used internally. In 
neuralgia and neuralgic pains, the ointment, made by mixing 10 grains 
of atropine with | an ounce of lard, has been found very beneficial. A 
piece the size of a pea should be applied thrice daily. Cases of sciatica 
have been cured by injecting of a grain under the skin with the hypo- 
dermic syringe. It is a very powerful remedy, and should never be used 
except by direction of a physician, (^ee Atropa Belladonna, Alka- 
loids.) 
ATTITUDE, at'-te-tude, the different positions which the body is 
capable of assuming by the action of its muscles, are called attitudes. 
The attitude of the body in disease, often affords important indications. 
(See Position.) 
AUDITORY, aw'-de-tur-e [from the Lat. audio, to hear], in Anatomy, 
is a term applied to certain parts of the organ of hearing; as the audi- 
tory nerve, meatus auditorius, etc. (See Ear.) 
AURA EPILEPTIC A. aw'-ra ep-il-ep'-te-ka, a sensation which is 
sometimes felt immediately before a fit of epilepsy. The patient feels 
as if a stream of cold air were ascending from some distant part of the 
body toward the head. A similar phenomena is alleged sometimes to 
occur in hysteria, in which it is called aura hysterica. (See Epilepsy, 
Hysteria. ) 
AURANTII CORTEX, aw'-ran-ti kor'-teks. Aurantii cortex, or 
orange peel, is a mild tonic, carminative and stomachic, but is seldom 
used alone. It is employed to flavor other medicines, to correct their 
nauseating tendencies, and to assist their stimulant impression on the 
stomach. It is a very useful addition to bitter infusions, tinctures or 
decoctions. Dose, fluid extract, to 2 teaspoonfuls. (See Orange.) 
AURICLES, aw'-re-klz, the name given to two.of the cavities of the 
heart. (See Heart.) 
AURIST, aw'-rist [Lat. auris, the ear], is a term applied to one who 
studies and professes to cure diseases of the ear. 
AURUM, aw'-rum, Latin for gold. (See Gold.) 
AUSCULTATION, aws-kul-ta -shun [Lat. auscultare, to listen], in 
Medicine, is a term applied to the method of ascertaining the healthy or 
diseased state of certain organs, by attending to the sounds which they 
produce, either on being struck, or in the natural performance of their 
functions. In a stricter sense, the term auscultation is confined to the 
latter of these cases, the former being termed percussion. Auscultation, 
then, is the art of distinguishing diseases by listening to internal sounds ; 
and is either immediate or direct, by the unassisted ear, or mediate, by 160 
A US CULT A TION-A UTUMNAL COMPLAINTS. 
means of instruments. This is one of the most important discoveries of 
modern medical science; for, though Hippocrates gives directions how, 
by auscultation, fluids are to be detected in the thorax, yet the subject 
seems to have attracted no attention for many centuries. In 1761, 
Leopold Avenbrugger, a physician of Vienna, published a small volume 
in Latin, entitled, Inventum novum ex percussione thoracis kumani, ut 
signo, obstrusos interni pectoris morbos detegendi. The work, however, 
excited little notice till it was translated into French, in 1808, by Corvi- 
sart. Soon after this the practice of percussion became general in 
France and other parts, and was attended with results far more precise 
and certain than had been anticipated. In 1816 the subject received an 
immense impetus from Laennec's invention of the stethoscope. Auscul- 
tation is chiefly valuable as throwing light upon the diseases of the organs 
of circulation and respiration in the chest. By carefully studying the 
varieties of sound (often extremely slight) produced by the organs in 
health and disease, the skillful physician is able to judge of the condition 
of these organs with the greatest accuracy, and thus detect and adopt 
the best means of arresting incipient disease. (See Stethoscope, 
Percussion, Pneumonia, Bronchitis, Consumption; Heart, Diseases 
of the. ) 
AUTOPLASTY, aw-toplas'-te, autoplastic surgery. The restoration 
of lost parts. 
AUTOPSY, aw'-top-se. Inspection ; personal observation; the dis- 
section of a dead body. 
AUTUMNAL COMPLAINTS, aw-tum'-nal kormplaints . To oppose 
autumnal complaints, and even cholera, properly so called, there seems 
no surer or better means than cleanliness, sobriety, and judicious ven- 
tilation. Where there is dirt, that is the place for cholera ; where win- 
dows and doors are kept most jealously shut, there cholera will And 
easiest entrance ; anc^ people who indulge in intemperate diet during the 
hot days of autumn are actually courting death. To repeat it, cleanli- 
ness, sobriety, and free ventilation almost always defy the pestilence; 
but, in case of attack, immediate recourse should be had to a physician. 
The faculty say that a large number of lives have been lost, in many 
seasons, solely from delay in seeking medical assistance. They even 
assert that, taken early, the cholera is by no means a fatal disorder. The 
copious use of salt is recommended on very excellent authority. Other 
autumnal complaints there are, of which diarrhoea is the worst example. 
They come on with pain, flatulence, sickness, with or without vomiting, 
followed by loss of appetite, general lassitude, and weakness. If 
attended to at the first appearance, they may soon be conquered; for 
which purpose it is necessary to assist nature in throwing off the contents AUTUMNAL COMPLAINTS-AVENA. 
161 
of the bowels, which may be done by means of the following prescrip- 
tion : 
Take of Calomel Three grains. 
Rhubarb Eight grains.-Mix. 
Take it in a little honey or jelly, and repeat the dose three times, at 
intervals of four or live hours. The next purpose to be answered is the 
defence of the lining membrane of the intestines from their acrid con- 
tents, which will be best eifected by drinking copiously of linseed tea, 
or of a drink made by pouring boiling water on quince-seeds, which are 
of a very mucilaginous nature; or, what is still better, full draughts of 
whey. If the complaint continue after these means have been employed, 
some astringent or binding medicine will be required, as the subjoined: 
Take of Prepared chalk Two drams. 
Cinnamon-water Seven ounces. 
Syrup of poppies One ounce.-Mix. 
Take 3 tablespoonfuls every four hours. Should this fail to complete 
the cure, oz. of tincture of catechu, or of kino, may be added to it, 
and then it will seldom fail; or a teaspoonful of the tincture of kino 
alone, with a little water, every three hours, till the diarrhoea is checked. 
While any symptoms of derangement are present, particular attention 
must be paid to the diet, which should be pf a soothing, lubricating, and 
light nature, for instance, chicken broth, which should contain but little 
salt. Rice, butter and bread puddings, will be generally relished, and 
be eaten with advantage; but the stomach is too much impaired to digest 
food of a more solid nature. Indeed, we should give that organ, 
together with the bowels, as little trouble as possible while they are so 
incapable of acting in their accustomed manner. Much mischief is 
frequently produced by the absurd practice of taking tincture of 
rhubarb, which is almost certain of aggravating that species of disorder 
which we have now treated; for it is a spirit as strong as brandy, and 
cannot fail of producing harm upon a surface which is rendered tender 
by the formation and contact of vitiated bile. Upon the first symptoms 
appearing, as above described-especially in cholera seasons, medical 
advice should be obtained at once. (See Cholera, Dysentery, Diar- 
rikea, Bilious Cholera, Summer Complaint.) 
AVENA, av-e-na, in Botany, the oat, a genus of grasses; Nat. 
order Graminaceoe. A. sativa is the botanical name for the common 
oat. Oats are extensively used as food for man and domestic animals. 
When deprived of the husks, and coarsely ground, they form oatmeal. 
When merely divested of their integuments, they are called groats; and 
these when crushed constitute embden and prepared groats. The oat is 
a much hardier plant than either wheat or barley, and ripens in colder 162 
AVENA-AXIL, AXILLARY. 
latitudes. Oatmeal is well adapted for human food, and is usually eaten 
in the form of cakes or porridge. It is, however, better suited for those 
who have active exercise in the open air than for persons in sedentary 
employments, being less easily digested than the preparations of wheat. 
Oats are also employed for the production of alcohol. The experiments of 
Professor Buckman, of the Royal Agricultural College, England, show that 
the cultivated varieties of the oat are derived from the wild oat, A. fatua. 
This parent species attains the height of from three to five feet, and is a 
mischievous weed in wheat-fields. The seeds are covered with stiff 
bristles of a brown color, and each is furnished with a long bent awn. 
Professor Buckman collected some of these seeds, and in the following 
spring commenced the cultivation of the wild oat in the experimental 
plots of the Royal Agricultural College. Year by year the seeds were 
saved, and the interesting transformation of a weed into a productive 
cereal grass was traced through all its successive stages. In the first 
year, a lighter colored fruit was obtained; in the second, the fruit 
exhibited a less degree of hairiness; in the third, a greenish, straight, 
and slender awn took the place of the black rigid one, bent at right 
angles, which characterizes the wild plant; in the fourth, the fruits were 
much more plump, owing to the greater development of grain; in the fifth 
year, the ripe fruit separated from the floral envelope less readily than 
in the case of A. fatua. These changes were reported in 1855, and the 
professor was encouraged to continue his experiments for a few more 
seasons. Accordingly, in the spring of 1856, seed, the produce of the 
preceding year, was sown in a prepared bed, and the result was a large 
admixture of two forms or types of crop-oats, one with the flowers all 
round the stem,-the potato oat form of the farmers, and the other with 
the flowers all drooping to one side,-the so-called Tartarian oat. Since 
then Professor Buckman has grown the two sorts so derived in the field, 
and with a gradual improvement in point of productiveness and weight 
per bushel. The same acute observer has lately watched the production 
of wild oats as a gradual degeneration from cultivated ones. The 
hairy seeds of the wild oat are sometimes used by anglers instead of 
artificial flies. (See Oatmeal.) 
AVENS ROOT. (See Geum Rivale.) 
AVOIRDUPOIS. (See Weights and Measures.) 
AXIL, AXILLARY, aks'-il ak'-zHAa-re [Lat. axilla, arm-pit], in 
Botany, the upper angle formed by the leaf with the stem is called the 
axil, and everything arising at that point is said to be axillary. Buds 
are usually axillary. Anything springing from the stem, either above 
or below the axil, is extra-axillary; if above, it may be described as 
supra-axillary; if below, as infra-axillary. AXILLA-AZYG OS. 
163 
AXILLA, aks-il'-lq [Lat.], is applied in Anatomy, to that cavity under 
the upper part of the arm called the arm-pit. Hence the term axillary 
is applied to the arteries, veins, glands, etc., of this part. The arm-pit 
is an important region of the body, on account of the large blood-vessels 
and nerves which occupy its space. A wound of the large artery in this 
situation, unless efficient means are speedily adopted to control the bleed- 
ing, must be quickly fatal. When from the copious flow of florid blood 
from a wound in or near the arm-pit, such an accident is supposed to 
have occurred, a bystander should with all speed exert pressure by means 
of his thumb upon the artery as it passed over the first rib, just behind 
the middle of the collar-bone, until the effusion of blood ceases. This 
pressure of course must be kept up, but as to do so with the thumb 
simply, would be too fatiguing, some solid body-the handle of a 
moderate-sized key is generally recommended-must be wrapped in a few 
folds of handkerchief and used for the purpose. While this is done, if 
medical assistance be many hours distant, as an additional safeguard, 
firm graduated pads should be tightly fixed into the hollow of the axilla, 
and firmly retained by a handkerchief or small shawl crossed over the 
opposite shoulder, but this must be a supplementary aid, until the artery 
is properly secured by the surgeon. The pressure behind the collar- 
bone cannot be relaxed for one moment without risk to life. (See 
Artery, Arterial Hemorrhage.) 
AXIS, aks'-is [Lat]. 1. This term is applied, in the general language 
of science, to a right line passing through, or supposed to occupy, the 
centre of a body. 2. The second cervical vertebra, or dentata. 
AXUNGE, aks'-unje, Latin for hog's lard. Axungia, the lard or fat 
of an animal; A. anserino, goose fat; A. castoris, the fluid of the oil 
bags of the castor fiber ; A. cur ata, A. preparata, purified hogs lard ; 
A. de mumia, marrow ; A. porcina, hog's lard. (See Lard.) 
AZORES, CLIMATE OF THE, a-zorze. The climate is mild, moist, 
and equable. 
AZOTE, (iz-ote [Gr. a, not, zoe, life], the old name for nitrogen. 
Nitrogen was so called from being destructive to life ; but as numerous 
other gases have the same properties, the word has been almost given 
up by chemists, except in such words as azotized, azobenzole, etc. 
The French, how'ever, still azote, azotique, azotate, etc., for nitrogen, 
nitric acid, and nitrate. 
AZYGOS, az'-e-gos [Gr. a, not, and zagos, a yoke], in Anatomy, is 
applied to certain parts of the human body that have no yoke or fellow 
-that, in other words, are single. 164 
BABE, CARE OF-BAG ON. 
BABE, CARE OF. (See Child.) 
BACK, bak [Ang.-Sax.], is that portion of the human body which 
extends from the neck to the loins, and includes the dorsal vertebrse, the 
posterior portions of the ribs, and the muscles and skin pertaining 
thereto. Pains in the back may proceed from a variety of causes; as 
rheumatism, an affection of the spine, inflammation of the muscles, 
disease of the kidneys, or to sympathy with disorder in some distant 
organ-in females, in the uterus. In each case the treatment will 
depend upon the nature or seat of the disease. Pain in the lumbar 
region, or small of the back, frequently proceeds from lumbago. (See 
Lumbago, Spine; Kidney, Diseases of the ; Rheumatism, Sciatica.) 
BACON, ba'-kn [Sax. bacan^ to bake, or Ger. bache^ a wild sow], 
salted and dried pork, made from the sides and belly of a pig. The 
process of curing is effected by impregnating the flesh with salt, and 
allowing it to remain in the brine for some time. It is then taken out, 
dried, and smoked. Bacon-hams are the cured hind-legs. Pork or 
bacon, is undoubtedly a relishing, convenient, and in some degree 
nutritious, addition to the general fare; at the same time, it is a ques- 
tion, whether it does not in many districts form too large a proportion of 
the ordinary nutriment consumed, and whether an advantageous exchange 
might not be made, in part at least, for a more farinaceous diet. Owing 
to the great proportion of fat in bacon, there is comparatively little of 
those elements of food which go to build up the constituent tissues of 
the animal body, and which are contained so abundantly in the grains 
and pulses. Where the choice lies between bacon and bread, or bread 
and milk, or oatmeal and milk, there is no question that much more real 
nourishment will be obtained from the vegetable grain and milk, which 
contain whatever is requisite for every portion of the frame, than from 
that of which simple fat forms so large a share, and which cannot do 
more than afford respiratory food, or at the best, add fat to the body. 
To full-grown men this may be of comparatively little importance, but 
to growing children and youths, it must of necessity be a consideration, 
whether, in consuming the amount of nutriment circumstances permit, 
they consume that which really will afford them strength and substance, 
or not. Bacon used as a dietetic, with breakfast, is often of much 
service in cases of biliary disorder. It is the fat alone, broiled, or toasted 
in slices before the fire, which must be eaten-the lean is hurtful, and BACON-BALDNESS. ALOPECIA. 
165 
must be discarded by the bilious dyspeptic. When used in this way, a 
slight aperient action is certainly exerted, and it is to this, gently but 
regularly carrying oft' its daily proportion of bile, that the undoubted 
beneficial effect is most probably to be attributed. (See Food.) 
BAD SMELLS. (See Disinfectants.) 
BAEL, OR BELA, ba'-el, is the name given to the dried half-ripe 
fruit of the sEgle MaTmelos, a native of Malabar and Coromandel. The 
fruit is roundish, about the size of a large orange, with a hard woody 
rind, and is usually imported in dried slices or fragments. This medi- 
cine has only lately been introduced into this country, and is strongly 
recommended as an astringent in chronic dysentery, diarrhoea, and 
bilious cholera. It is given in the form of liquid extract, in doses of 
from 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. 
BAKING. (See Roasting.) 
BAKING SODA, OR BICARBONATE OF SODA. (See Soda.) 
BALDNESS, ALOPECIA, bawld'-nes. Baldness arises from differ- 
ent, and often from very opposite causes. It is not confined to any 
period of life, for though it is far more general in old age, it is not 
unfrequently to be met with in youth and middle age. The chief causes 
which give rise to baldness are severe sickness, fevers especially, too 
much restriction, and too much relaxation of the skin of the head. 
Want of cleanliness also will cause baldness, and so will the exclusion of 
air from the head by the constant wearing of a hat. Constriction of the 
skin of the head is frequently the result of fever, or violent cold. 
Relaxation is the result of weakness, when a patient perspires on the 
most trivial exertion; relaxation of the skin takes place, the hair falls 
off, and frequently permanent baldness ensues. Baldness which occurs 
in the decline of life is, of course, the most natural, for then the bulbs 
of the hair have lost their vitality, and, as with plants when the roots 
decay, the hair withers and falls off. Baldness, especially in early life, 
is not necessarily permanent. Without putting our faith in nostrums 
which profess to make hair grow upon an old trunk, we may resort to 
remedies in some cases of baldness, with very great hope of success. 
If the scalp, when rubbed with the palm of the hand soon becomes red, 
it is almost certain that the baldness is not of a permanent character; 
while on the other hand, there is little hope of effecting any good if the 
color of the skin remains unaltered under friction. As remedies for 
baldness, any of the more stimulating hair washes may be used; but a 
decoction of box-wood is said to be the most successful. It is to be 
made as follows: Take 4 large handfuls of common box ^buxus semper- 
virens), boil it in 3 pints of water in a closely covered dish for fifteen 
minutes, empty it into an earthenware jar, and let it stand for ten hours 166 
BALDNESS, ALOPECIA. 
or more, and then strain it and add 1| ounces of lavender water. Wash 
the bald part of the head with this lotion once or twice a day. The 
lotion will keep in a well-corked bottle for some time. But the most 
convenient, and perhaps the most reliable remedy for baldness, is pure 
vaseline, a highly concentrated essence of petroleum ; it is quite odorless, 
and melts at 93°. When melted, perfume may be added, making it an 
elegant pomade. It is generally sold in the drug stores of this country. 
Before using the vaseline, or in fact any preparation, rub the scalp for 
some time briskly with a good hair-brush. That which may be found 
efficacious in one will frequently not prove so in another; but pure 
vaseline is probably the most effective preventative, as well as remedy. 
All means that tend to increase the circulation in the scalp to 
greater activity, will aid in the prevention as well as cure of 
baldness, hence, rubbing with a hard towel or hard brush, and the use 
of Spanish-fly ointments are recommended. Several recipes for poma- 
tums and washes to strengthen the growth of the hair, and prevent it 
from falling off, will be found in the following paragraphs. Any of these 
may be tried, always preceding the application with brisk rubbing of the 
scalp with a hair-brush. The undermentioned recipes have frequently 
proved very beneficial: 
Take of Castor-oil Four ounces. 
Jamaica rum Eight ounces. 
Oil of lavender Thirty drops.-Mix. 
Put these in a bottle. Shake the mixture well before using it, which 
should be done by daubing the part with it three times a week and leav- 
ing it to dry. 
When baldness is commencing, use the following pomade:-Macerate 
1 dram of powdered cantharides in 1 ounce of spirits of wine; shake 
it well during a fortnight, and then filter. Take 10 parts of this 
tincture, and rub it with' 90 parts of cold lard, and a little essence of 
bergamot, or any other scent; rub this pomade well into the head night 
and morning. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, this application, 
if commenced in time and continued, will restore the hair. 
Another remedy for baldness is the following: 
Take of Honey (finest quality) Four ounces. 
Sand (well washed and dried) .. .Seven and a half ounces.- Mix. 
Place the mixture in a retort, and subject it to distillation, carefully 
keeping the heat below the point sufficient to scorch the contents. This 
once much-esteemed mixture is called "Honey-water for the Hair." 
The celebrated Dr. Dauvergne recommends 1 part of tar, 10 parts of 
lard, together with a plentiful supply of fragrant substances to get rid of 
the smell of the tar, as one of the best remedies for baldness. BALDNESS, ALOPECIA-BALSAM. 
167 
A very useful oil for baldness or to prevent the falling off of the hair 
may be made as follows: 
Take of Oil of olives or almonds Half pint. 
Oil of origanum Two drams. 
Oil of rosemary One dram. 
English lavender Forty drops.-Mix. 
Frequent shaving of the head, or the temporary use of a wig, will 
often remove or prevent baldness. Cajeput oil being stimulating and 
aromatic, has been highly recommended in the case of premature bald- 
ness as an external application. It should be rubbed into the part or 
parts affected, with a piece of lint, night and morning, and if the effect 
is too irritating, it may be discontinued for a time and begun again. The 
following are also excellent hair-washes: 
Take of Tincture of cantharides One dram. 
Spirit of rosemary One ounce. 
Elder flower water One pint.-Mix. 
This wash may be freely applied night and morning to the roots of the 
hair, by means of a piece of lint or sponge. Or, 
Take of Eau de cologne Two ounces. 
Tincture of cantharides Two drams. 
Oil of lavender and rosemary, of each.. .Ten drops.-Mix. 
This may be applied once or twice a day, but if the scalp becomes sore, 
it must be discontinued for a time. 
It may be stated as a rule, that all the vaunted specifics of advertis- 
ing quacks fail in producing the results said to be obtained, and 
generally consist merely of some irritating or stimulating application, 
while many of them are positively injurious. Some cases of baldness, 
depending upon local disease, can only be cured by treatment directed 
to the removal of the morbid affection. (See IIaik, Scalp.) 
BALM. (See Melissa.) 
BALM OF GILEAD. (See Balsamodendron.) 
BALMONY. (See Chelone Glabra.) 
BALSAM, bawl'-sum [Lat. Balsamum]. The term is derived from 
two Hebrew words, signifying the "prince of oils." It was formerly 
applied to many more substances than it is at present. The balsams of 
Peru and Tolu, and of Copaiba, are the most generally known medicinally. 
The two former are used popularly as external applications. Tolu 
balsam is used to impart a pleasant flavor to lozenges, cough mixtures, 
etc.; at the same time, it undoubtedly exerts a beneficial expectorant 
action. Quarter of an ounce of gum acacia powder, 1 ounce of Tolu 
syrup, to 2 drams of ipecacuanha -wine, and water sufficient to make 
up 6 fluid ounces, forms a pleasant and good cough mixture for children, 168 
BALSAM-BALS AMO DEN DR ON. 
to be given in from teaspoonful to tablespoonful doses, according to age. 
When fever is absent, and the cough getting loose, a dram of tincture of 
squill may be added with advantage to the above. (See Balsam of 
Copaiba, Myrospekmum. ) 
BALSAM OF COPAIBA, bawl-sum co-pd-ba, acts decidedly upon 
the mucous surfaces of the body, and is employed in bronchitis, and in 
irritation of the urinary passages. It is extremely nauseous, and liable 
to disagree with the stomach. These properties are endeavored to be 
overcome by enclosing the medicine in gelatine capsules, and by pre- 
paring it in various ways, as by covering the taste with aromatics, such 
as cinnamon or peppermint-water. In the disease of females called the 
whites, it is considered one of the best medicines in use. It also ranks 
among the most effectual remedies for gonorrhoea. A good method of 
administering it in this disease is to take 2 teaspoonfuls of the balsam 
of Copaiba, 1 teaspoonful of the spirits of red lavender, 1 teaspoonful of 
the sweet spirit of nitre, 1 teaspoonful of laudanum, 2 ounces of gum 
arabic, and a gill or J pint of water, and mix them together. 
Of this mixture take a tablespoonful morning, noon and night. Taken 
in this way, it will effect a cure in a few days. But to obtain prompt 
operation of the medicine, the patient must honestly abstain from every 
stimulating article of diet or drink, and impose upon himself a compara- 
tive state of rest. When active inflammatory or febrile action is present, 
Copaiba must not be used. The ordinary dose of the balsam of Copaiba 
is 10 to 40 drops, three times a day. The usual way of administering 
Copaiba is in capsules, thereby avoiding the unpleasant taste. (See 
Copaifera, Gonorrhea. ) 
BALSAMODENDRON, bal-sam-o-den-drun^ in Botany, an import- 
ant genus of plants, belonging to the Nat. order Amyrtdacea. The 
species are natives of the East, and are remarkable for the odoriferous 
gum-resins which exude from their trunks. B. myrrha^ a small tree 
growing in the north-eastern parts of Africa, and in the adjoining parts 
of Arabia, is believed to be the principal, if not the only source of the 
fragrant gum-resin known in commerce under the name of myrrh. It is 
at first soft, oily, and of a yellowish-white color; on exposure to the air, 
it soon acquires the consistence of butter, and in time becomes much 
harder, and changes to a reddish hue. Medicinally, myrrh is regarded 
as a tonic, stimulant, expectorant, and antispasmodic, when taken 
internally; as an external application, it is astringent and stimulant. 
It is usually given in the form of tincture, of 2| ounces to 1 pint of 
rectified spirits, in doses of to 1 teaspoonful. It is frequently given 
also in combination with other substances, tonic or purgative, as iron, 
aloes, assafoetida, rhubarb, etc.; and is an ingredient of the incense BALSA AIODEN DR ON-BANDA GES. 
169 
burnt in Roman Catholic chapels, and of some kinds of pastiles which 
are used for fumigation. The substance called balm of Gilead, or balm 
of Mecca, and which is supposed to be the balm of the Old Testament, 
is said to be procured from B. gileadense; some authors, however, 
name B. opobalsamum as its source. The tincture of myrrh forms one 
of the most agreeable washes in affections of the mouth, in the propor- 
tion of £ ounce of tincture to pint of water, and a few drops upon the 
tooth-brush is a most excellent habitual application in cleansing the 
teeth, especially if the gums are weak or spongy. 
BALSAM OF PERU. (See Myrospermum, Balsam.) 
BALSAM OF TOLU. (See Myrospermum, Balsam.) 
BANDAGES, band-gje-ez. are strips of calico, linen, flannel, or of 
any other convenient material, employed to envelope in rolls any por- 
tion of the body requiring artificial support, or upon which it is requisite 
to produce pressure, or to retain dressing. The art of applying a band- 
age well, that is, both neatly and efficiently, requires some practice and 
attention, but it is often a most useful accomplishment; for a bandage 
if required at all, must be properly applied, otherwise it is worse than 
useless; if, therefore, none but the surgeon can undertake the task, it 
necessitates a much more frequent attendance on his part than might 
otherwise be requisite. In general, the first few applications of a band- 
age will be made by the medical attendant himself, and ought to be in 
the presence of the individual to whom the duty may be afterwards 
deputed. By careful attention on the one hand, and kind explanation 
on the other, much may be learned and taught, but not all, as the inex- 
perienced bandager will discover on the first attempt; by all means, 
therefore, let the first beginnings be made on some one in health, before 
the call is made to the invalid. Attention to the following directions 
will facilitate the application of the previous practical lesson, or in some 
measure supply its place, if from circumstances it has been wanting. 
Whatever the material, the width of the bandage or roller must be pro- 
portioned in some degree to the size of the part to which it is to be 
applied; if too narrow, it is apt to be stringy, and to cut; if too broad, 
it does not adapt itself readily to the inequalities, and the pressure is 
unequal. For an ordinary-sized adult male leg, a bandage of two and 
a half inches broad is a good proportion ; for the arm of the same per- 
son, one of two inches ought to be sufficiently well adapted. The 
material for bandages must neither be too strong nor too weak, ordinary 
■"shirting calico" is a very convenient texture. The length, of course, 
must vary according to what is required, but rollers are usually put up' 
in six or eight-yard lengths ; they are better torn in one continuous strip, 
free from joinings, and without selvidge edge. The strip, when pre- 170 
BANDAGES. 
pared for use, must be rolled up as firmly as possible, either into a 
single or double head-the former is much the most generally employed. 
If the bandage is a new one, of calico or linen, the loose threads of the 
roll at each end must be roved off, otherwise they are troublesome when 
the roller is applied. Bandages may be applied in simple circles, in 
spiral, etc., or in reverses. They are also applied in various other 
forms to suit the different portions of the body. In applying a bandage, 
the rolled-up strip being held in the right hand, the end which is com- 
menced with is secured by the first turn. If it be the simple circular 
bandage, round the trunk of the body, or round a limb of nearly equal 
girth throughout, either naturally, or from swelling, the roller is carried 
round and round each succeeding turn, slightly overlapping the one 
before it; if the spiral bandage be required, the rolls are carried up very 
obliquely; but if, as most likely, it is the reversed bandage, then, 
wherever the inequality of the parts prevents its being laid on flatly and 
evenly, the band must be turned upon itself, so as to become reversed, 
the surface of the cloth which was next the skin being turned outwards, 
and vice versa. It is difficult to describe the manoeuvre, and.it is a little 
difficult at first to execute it neatly and well, but when practised it 
becomes perfectly simple. This is by far the most useful form of band- 
age, and a person who can put it on well, will have but little difficulty 
in accomplishing the other varieties. 
For the purpose of retaining dressings upon the head, nothing 
answers better than a close-fitting calico cap ; a handkerchief will often 
serve every purpose, or the split cloth may be used; the upper tails 
being brought beneath the under ones, and fastened under the chin, the 
under tails being carried to the back of the head. When it is desirable 
to retain the head in one position, it may be done by bands attached to 
a cap, and fastened as required to a band going round the chest. When 
for this purpose, or to fix a broken rib, such a band is required, it ought 
to be from eight to ten inches wide, made of tolerably strong double 
calico, and sewed firmly round the body. 
To retain a pad or poultice on the arm-pit, a good-sized handkerchief 
answers better than any bandage, the middle being placed at the arm- 
pit, the ends are crossed at the side of the neck opposite, carried under 
the corresponding arm-pit, crossed and brought and tied on the shoulder. 
Slinging the arm, a very simple business, is often very badly done-in 
almost every case the fore-arm should be supported throughout its entire 
length, and it is generally well to include the hand, especially in chil- 
dren. The simple sling handkerchief may be put on, but a much more 
confining sling is made by enveloping the elbow in the long side of a 
triangular handkerchief, fastened up into a little pouch at the centre, and BANDAGES. 
171 
the point, including the hand, being fastened up to one of the ends 
going round the neck. 
Upon the trunk of the body, dressings, blisters, etc., may be retained 
by means of a broad band of any convenient material, fastened round 
and prevented from slipping down by braces over the shoulders. 
For bandaging the abdomen, a broad band, of whatever material '.is 
suitable, is generally made, the ends split for convenience of fastening 
either before or behind, and a triangular piece cut out of either edge at 
the centre, and the edges joined, in order to fit the shape of the region. 
In order to retain poultices, etc., at or near the groin, a piece of cloth is 
to be shaped to fit the region, a band long enough to go round the body, 
cross and fasten in front, is to be sewed to one end, and to the opposite 
point another small band is attached, which, passing between the legs, 
is brought up to the band behind. To retain dressings, etc., between 
the legs or nates, the double T bandage is used. For the groin and 
parts adjacent, the spica or figure of 8 bandage is also used. A roller 
eight yards long is taken, the end secured by one or two turns round the 
pelvis, and then the bandage is brought down across the front of the 
thigh, carried evenly between the legs, and again brought up and 
carried round the pelvis, these being repeated at each turn till the roller 
is exhausted. 
For the extremities, the simple roller applied in reversed turns is 
generally used. Bandaging from above downward may be required, 
but generally it is upwards. There are various methods of commencing 
the application of the roller at the foot. The heel is covered by laying 
the end on the inner ankle, bringing the roller under the heel, then 
round the ankle so as to secure the end, from thence going down to the 
toes, and carrying the bandage up from that point round the foot and 
leg, reversing where required. The arm is to be bandaged-with the 
requisite modifications-by the reverse, like the leg. As a general rule, 
leg bandages, habitually worn, ought to be put on before the individual 
gets out of bed in the morning. A bandage which gives pain after its 
application, without obvious cause, ought to be taken off, and re-applied. 
If there is reason to suspect inflammatory swelling beneath, it will be 
well to try the use of cold water before disturbing matters. There is 
some little management required in taking off a roller as well as putting 
it on: as each successive turn is unrolled, it should be gathered in a 
bunch in the hand, and not, as is often done, three or four yards of 
bandage at full length pulled round the limb every time. A many- 
tailed bandage is used to bandage the leg where it is an object to avoid 
the slightest movement. It is formed of a number of short strips of 
bandage, long enough each to go once and a half round the limb. They 172 
BANDAGES. 
are placed obliquely, and overlapping one another; they may, or may 
not, be joined by a central strip. Upon these arranged strips the limb 
is laid, and each strip in succession is brought round the limb, every 
succeeding securing the previous one. The advantage of the many- 
tailed bandage is, that it can be changed, either partly or entirely, if 
soiled, without the slightest disturbance. It is only necessary to attach 
a fresh strip to that which is to be removed, and pull the one way, and 
the other into its place. When* from movement, a bandage is liable to 
become displaced, the inconvenience is in a great measure prevented, 
by brushing a weak solution of starch or gum over the turns as soon as 
applied. This is different from the starch bandage which is so useful in 
many cases-fractures, etc. For this bandage, the roller is thoroughly 
saturated, as it is put on, with strong starch or flour paste, and, if re- 
quisite, brown paper pasted on the top of the first bandage, and another 
dry one put over all. In thinly-settled countries, where it might be 
requisite to move a person soon after a fracture, the foregoing applica- 
tion would prove simple, safe, and efficacious. It must not, however, 
be put on till inflammation has subsided. In many cases, in which 
bandages used formerly to be applied, they have been superseded by 
elastic materials, of which stockings and belts of all kinds are fabricated: 
elastic rollers are also manufactured. The flannel bandage unites at 
the same time support and protection to the surface-it is useful in 
rheumatic cases, and also when applied over the abdomen in diseases 
of that cavity. A much cheaper and thinner calico than that known as 
"shirting," may often be used, bleached or unbleached. Where there 
is much tenderness over a part, or inflammation of the skin, even of an 
erysipelatous kind, it is well to use cotton wadding freely beneath any 
bandage it may be requisite to apply. When a bandage has been rolled 
round any part to its full length, it requires to be fastened-this may be 
done by one or two pins, or by stitching, or more readily still, by 
simply splitting the end, returning the two ends thus made in opposite 
directions round the limb, and tying them. 
In bandaging the hand, the bandage may be from one and a half to 
two inches broad, according to circumstances; for the finger of an 
ordinary-sized man, it may be three-quarters of an inch. When the 
hand is bandaged, it is often well to fill in the hollows, of the palm 
especially, with tow or cotton wool. In bandaging a finger the band may 
first be carried round the wrist, crossed over the back of the hand to the 
root of the finger, round which it is carried, both up and down again, in 
spiral coils, it is then brought back to the wrist and fastened by splitting 
the end so as to make two strings. (See Dislocations, Fractures, 
Wounds.) BANDOLINE, OR FIXATURE-BARBERS ITCH 
173 
BANDOLINE, OB FIXATURE, ban'-do-leen, a preparation sold 
by perfumers, and much used by ladies for stiffening and fixing the hair. 
It is merely a thick mucilage, obtained either from Carrageen moss or 
gum-tragacanth, scented with eau de Cologne or other perfumed 
spirit. A very delicate bandoline may be prepared by soaking 
quince-seeds in cold water for a day or two, and then straining the 
mucilage. 
BANEBERRY, bane'-ber-re, in Botany, a name given to a species of 
Actoea^ the root of which is sometimes used medicinally, on account of 
its antispasmodic, expectorant, and astringent properties. It is a peren- 
nial, herbaceous plant, from one to two feet high, with triternate leaves, 
the leaflets of which are deeply cut and serrated. The flowers are in 
racemes: the berries are black and poisonous. This plant, A. spicata, 
is also known by the name of Herb Christopher. It belongs to the Nat. 
order Ranunculacece. 
BANTING SYSTEM. (See Corpulence.) 
BAPTISIA TINCTORIA, bap-te-zhe-a tingkt-to'-re-a^ commonly 
called wild indigo. A plant belonging to the Nat. order Fabaceoe, and 
found in many parts of the United States. Its antiseptic properties give it 
a medicinal character, though it is in addition, sub-astringent, cathartic, 
and emetic. It acts powerfully on the glandular and nervous system, 
increasing all the glandular secretions, and arousing the liver especially to 
a normal action. It is useful in scarlatina, typhus fever, and in that state 
of the system attending gangrene, or mortification. In threatened or exist- 
ing mortification, it is extremely useful as an internal or external remedy. 
The decoction is an excellent application as a wash or gargle to malig- 
nant ulcerous sore mouth and throat, mercurial sore mouth, scrofulous 
or syphilitic ophthalmia, erysipelatous ulcers, gangrenous ulcers, sore 
nipples, etc. The baptism, combined with leptandrin, podophyllin, 
quinia, or cimicifugin, in diseases where these agents are indicated, will 
be found valuable in typhus and typhoid fevers, and all diseases of the 
typhoid character, when administered internally. Dose: fluid extract, 
to | teaspoonful; baptisin (the active principle), J to £ grain; decoc- 
tion, 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls three or four times a day. (See Decoction.) 
BARBADOES LEG. (See Elephantiasis.) 
BARBERRY, OR BERBERRY. (See Berberis Vulgaris.) 
BARBER'S ITCH, bar'-burz [from Lat. barba, the beard], a con- 
tagious disease occurring on the bearded part of the face. The whole 
face sometimes becomes swollen with it, and the hair wholly or partially 
destroyed. 
Treatment.-The hair must be kept closely cut, and the parts be 
frequently washed with castile soap and warm soft water. Tar oint- 174 
BARBER'S ITCH-BARK. 
ment is an excellent local application, and when that fails, the following 
persistently applied, will almost invariably effect a cure. 
Take of Carbolic acid One dram. 
Pure glycerine One ounce. 
Pure soft water Three ounces.-Mix. 
Apply with a soft linen cloth three or four times a day. 
An occasional dose of mild cathartic medicine, such as Rochelle or 
Epsom salts, will serve to expedite the cure. 
BARBIERS. (See Beriberi.) 
BARILLA, ba-riV-la [Sp. ], the commercial name applied to the 
impure soda-ash procured by calcining various species of Salsola, Sali- 
cornia, Chenopodium, and Atriplex. The plants grow near the sea, in 
salt marshes, and are extensively cultivated in Spain, Sicily, and the 
Canary Islands. The seed is sown at the end of the year, and the 
plants are gathered towards the end of autumn, dried, and burned. 
Barilla is a gray semi-fused mass of ashes, and contains about 30 per 
cent, of carbonate of soda. (See Soda.) 
BARIUM, ba'-re-um, atomic weight 68.5, symbol Ba, in Chemistry, 
the metallic base of the alkaline earth baryta. This metal was dis- 
covered by Davy in 1809, and was named barium, from the Greek word 
barus, heavy, on account of the excessive density of its compounds. Its 
specific gravity is above 2. It is a white, slightly malleable metal, 
decomposing water at ordinary temperatures. It quickly tarnishes in 
the air, from the absorption of oxygen. When moderately heated, it 
burns with a deep-red flame. It forms two oxides-the protoxide acid, 
BaO, and the peroxide, BaO2; the former only forms salts. 
BARIUM, CHLORIDE OF, in Chemistry, made by dissolving car- 
bonate of baryta in hydrochloric acid, evaporating and crystallizing. It is 
a colorless salt, crystallizing in flat four-sided tables, and dissolving in 
3 parts of cold and 2 parts of hot water. Its solution forms the usual 
test for sulphuric acid, which it indicates by forming a white precipitate 
insoluble in nitric acid. In Medicine it is used both externally and 
internally as an irritant stimulant, and deobstruent in scrofula, glandular 
swellings and skin diseases. Internally it is generally given in the form 
of solution, 1 ounce of the chloride to 10 fluid ounces of distilled water, 
in doses of 8 to 10 drops. In large doses this is an active irritant 
poison, the best antidote for which is sulphate of soda or sulphate of 
magnesia. 
BARK, bark [Dan.], in Botany, the external coating of an exogen- 
ous or dicotyledonous stem and its branches. It presents three distinct 
layers, independently of the epidermis which is common to it, with other 
external parts of the plant. These three layers, proceeding from within BARK-BARLEY- WATER. 
175 
outwards, are known as the liber, or inner bark; the cellular envelope, 
or green layer; and the suberous, or corky layer. Some botanists apply 
to these three layers, respectively, the Greek terms, endophloaum^ 
mesophloe/u'm, and epiphloeium. The bark is connected organically with 
the wood by means of the medullary rays and cambium-layer. It 
develops in an opposite direction to that of the wood; for while the 
latter increases by additions to the outer surface, the bark increases by 
additions to the inner. There are several kinds of bark which are 
largely used for medicines. These will be found noticed in separate 
articles, under the botanical names of the genera which include the 
plants producing them. For oak-bark (see Quercus); Peruvian bark 
(see Cinchona); cabbage-bark, Surinam bark (see Andira); Cascarilla 
bark (see Croton) ; wild-cherry bark (see Cerasus). 
The spring of the year, just as soon as it will peel, is the best time 
for gathering barks. The moss should be carefully removed from the 
bark. 
BARLEY, bar'de [Lat. hordei semina\ when prepared as pearl- 
barley, is one of the most useful additions to sick cookery; its decoction, 
'' barley-water, '1 being a pleasant and extremely beneficial demulcent in 
all affections of the mucous membranes, and forming a grateful and 
nutritious beverage in fever; it ought, however, to be made considerably 
thicker in the former case than in the latter. A compound and very 
pleasant drink is made by adding to a quart of simple barley-water, figs 
sliced, and raisins stoned, of each 2£ ounces, licorice-root sliced 5 drams, 
and a pint of water, the whole to be boiled down to a quart and strained. 
This compound decoction is not so well adapted for a fever drink as the 
simpler form. 
In irritation of the urinary passages from gravel, or after the applica- 
tion of a blister, or from any other cause, barley-water is most valuable; 
its soothing properties are still further increased by the addition of an 
ounce of gum arabic to each pint of liquor. In catarrh, and irritable 
cough, or simply as an article of mild unstimulating nourishment, it is 
serviceable. The late Dr. A. T. Thomson-an English physician- 
recommended equal parts of barley-water and milk, sweetened with a 
little refined sugar, as a good food for infants brought up by hand. It 
may act upon the bowels. (See Barley-Water, Food, Hordeum.) 
BARLEY-WATER. Ingredients: 2 ounce of pearl barley, 2 quarts 
of boiling water, and 1 pint of cold water. Mode: Wash the barley in 
cold water, drain it, then put it into a saucepan with 1 pint of cold 
water, and boil for a quarter of an hour; strain off the water and 
add 2 quarts of fresh boiling water. Boil it until the liquid is reduced 
to half; strain it and flavor it with lemon-juice for use. The nourish- 176 
BARLEY- WATER-BAROMETER. 
ment of barley-water may be much increased by adding to 1 ounce 
of gum-arabic, and boiling it with the barley. (See Barley.) 
BAROMETER, ba-rovni-e-tur [Gr. baros, weight, metron, a measure], 
an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the atmosphere. 
It may be said to be the invention of Torricelli, who first demonstrated 
the existence of the atmospheric pressure by means of a column of mer- 
cury contained in a glass tube, but the practical application of this, as 
the means of determining the weight of the atmosphere, is more partic- 
ularly owing to Pascal. The principle of the barometer is very simple. 
It consists of a glass tube about 34 inches in length, sealed at one end, 
and filled with mercury. This is inverted in a cistern containing the 
same fluid, when the mercury in the tube falls so as to correspond with 
the amount of atmospheric pressure on the metal in the cistern, and 
rises or falls in proportion to the degree of this pressure. The siphon 
barometer has in place of the cistern the open end of the tube bent up- 
wards and exposed to atmospheric pressure. For indicating good and 
bad weather, the wheel barometer, invented by Hook, has long been 
used, but it is a very imperfect instrument It is merely a siphon barom- 
eter connected with a needle, which moves round a graduated circle. 
In the shorter leg of the siphon a float is placed, which rises and falls- 
with the mercury. A string attached to this float passes round a pulley,, 
to which the needle is fixed, and at the other end there is a small weight, 
somewhat lighter than the float. When the pressure varies, the float 
sinks or rises, and moves the needle round to the corresponding points 
on the scale. The words rain, fine, variable, etc., generally appear on 
the graduated circle; but they do not always afford reliable indications 
of the weather. 
The rising of the mercury in the upright barometer foretells fair 
weather, and its falling, rain, wind, snow, and storms. In hot summer, 
if the mercury falls, we may expect thunder. In winter, a rising indi- 
cates frost, and falling, thaw. In bad weather, if the mercury rises, 
notwithstanding the weather does not alter, a continuance of fair weather 
may be expected as soon as the change comes. In fair weather, 
when the same occurs, unsettled weather may be expected. If the 
mercury is unsettled, the weather will be so also. A steady barometer 
indicates that the weather at the time will last. In the upright 
barometer, to which these directions apply, it is useful to notice that 
the top of the column of mercury is sometimes flat, sometimes convex, 
and at other times concave. When it is flat or level, a continuance of 
the same weather is indicated ; when it is convex, the mercury is rising; 
and when concave, it is falling-and the weather may, of course, be 
expected to correspond. The connection between the variations of the BAR OALETER-BAR OSKA. 
177 
weather and the pressure of the atmosphere is, however, a subject very 
ill understood. For determining altitude, the barometer is an 
invaluable instrument. In ascending mountains, the mercury is found 
to sink about a tenth of an inch in 90 feet; so that, if the mercury fall 
an inch, we have ascended near 900 feet; but this is subject to 
variations from change of temperature and other causes, which render 
various corrections necessary. There are many forms of the mercurial 
barometer, but they are all modifications of the siphon or the cistern. 
The aneroid barometer is an instrument used for determining the 
variations of atmospheric pressure, without the aid of a liquid, as in 
ordinary barometers. Its action depends upon the principle, that if a 
very thin metallic tube be coiled, any internal pressure on its sides 
tends to uncoil it, and any external pressure to coil it still more. The 
instrument essentially consists of a thin metallic tube, curved so as to 
form about seven-eighths of a circle. This tube, being exhausted of air 
and hermetically closed, is fixed by its middle, so that whenever the 
atmospheric pressure diminishes, it uncoils; and, on the other hand, 
whenever the pressure increases, it contracts. 
BAROSMA, bar-os-ma [Buchu], in Botany, a genus of plants belong- 
ing to the Nat. order Rutaceae. The leaves of several species, such 
as B. betulina, crenata, crenulata, and serratifolia, are used in medi- 
cine for their aromatic, stimulant, antispasmodic, tonic, and diuretic prop- 
erties. They seem also to have a specific influence over the urinary 
organs. The plants yielding them are natives of the Cape of Good Hope. 
In commerce they are known as Buchu leaves, and are thus named in 
the British Pharmacopoeia. They contain a peculiar bitter principle 
called Diosmin or Barosmin, and a powerfully-scented volatile oil. 
Buchu is useful in all diseases of the urinary organs attended with 
increased uric acid; in irritation of the bladder and urethra attending 
in gravel, catarrh of the urinary bladder, and incontinence of urine con- 
nected with diseased prostate, in dyspepsia, dropsy, cutaneous affections 
and chronic rheumatism. By many physicians it is regarded as valuable in 
all diseases of the sexual organs, even of long standing; in constitutional 
debility, incident to secret habits of the young. Buchu is pleasant in 
its taste, efficient in its action, and can be used in all cases with perfect 
safety. It is a moderate excitant, diuretic and tonic, and is said to have 
afforded essential service in chronic cases of rheumatism and gout. 
Acting on the urinary secretion, the urine- is separated in larger quanti- 
ties, and exhales an aromatic odor. The infusion of Buchu leaves, made 
from | ounce of the bruised leaves, and 10 fluid ounces of distilled boil- 
ing water, is given in doses of 1 to 4 fluid ounces, three or four times a 
day; the tincture, ounces of these leaves to 1 pint of rectified spirit, 178 
BAROSMA-BATHS AND BATHING. 
in doses of 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. Dose of fluid extract, to 2 teaspoon- 
fuls. 
BARRENNESS. (See Sterility.) 
BARYTA, OR BARYTES, bo-ri'-to [Gr. barus, heavy], in Chem- 
istry, one of the alkaline earths, discovered by Scheele in 1774. It is 
met with, combined with sulphuric acid, in cawk or heavy spar, and 
combined with carbonic acid in witherite. It may be formed by decom- 
posing the nitrate by a red heat; and is very similar in its properties to 
caustic lime. It is grayish-white; becomes hot when moistened with 
water, falling to a fine white powder forming the hydrate. Its specific 
gravity is 5.4. It has an extremely acrid, caustic taste. The carbonate 
and all the soluble salts are powerful acrid poisons. The best antidote 
is sulphate of soda or magnesia. (See Barium.) 
BASE, base [Lat. basis, a foundation], in Chemistry, a term applied 
to those bodies which unite with acids or halogens to form salts or 
bodies analogous thereto. The basic property of an element is not 
absolute, but only relative; as the same body may act as a base or an 
acid with a different element. Thus we find chromium acting as a base 
in the form of sesquioxide, but as an acid in the form of teroxide or 
chromic acid. 
BASILIC VEIN, ba-sil'-ik vane [Lat. Basilica vena\, the large 
vein that runs in the inner side of the arm, and terminates in the axil- 
lary vein. The branch which crosses at the bend of the arm, from the 
long median vein to join the basilic is called the median basilic. Either 
of them may be opened in the operation of blood-letting. 
BASILICON, barsil'-e-kun [Gr. basilikos, royal, or of great virtue], 
in Pharmacy, the name sometimes given to an ointment, composed of 2 
parts resin, 4 parts of simple ointment, and 1 part yellow wax. It is 
much used as a stimulant dressing to foul or indolent ulcers, with a view 
to keep up the discharge; and as a vehicle for other stimulating sub- 
stances, such as savin and Spanish flies. It is called Unguentum 
Resina or Ceratum Resina, in the pharmacopoeia. Formerly basilicon 
was prepared with yellow wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil, and was 
hence named Unguentum Tetrapharmacum, "the ointment with four 
drugs." 
BASSORA GUM, bas'-sor-q, a whitish or yellowish substance 
brought from the neighborhood of Bassora. It differs from most gums 
in being nearly soluble in water. The plant yielding it is believed to 
be a species of Mimosa. It contains a peculiar principle, called Bas- 
sorin, which also exists in gum-tragacanth. 
BASTARD, OR FALSE CROUP. (See Croup, False.) 
BATHS AND BATHING, bathz, bathd-ing. Applications to the BATHS AND BATHING. 
179 
surface of the body, either general or partial, in the form of liquid, 
vapor, or gas, are now comprehended under the term bath. 
Water-baths may be simple or medicated. 
As regards temperature, they may be cold, tepid, and hot. 
As regards application, they may be general or partial, shower, cold 
affusion, douche, sponge, wet sheet. 
Vapor and hot air are both used as baths. 
The extreme vascularity, the nervous sensibility and sympathies of 
the skin, and its important functions as an excreting organ, all render it 
a most important medium through which to impress and act upon the 
system generally. The subject, till of late years, has been strangely 
neglected and overlooked by medical men; brought prominently for- 
ward under the name of "Hydropathy, or the Water-cure," by Preiss- 
nitz and his followers, it has unfortunately been carried far beyond its 
legitimate lengths, and become associated, in name, with quackery and 
undue pretensions. That much good is to be done by the use and appli- 
cation of water, simply, in the treatment of disease and disorder, there 
can be no question; neither can it be doubted, that much and serious 
evil has resulted from the indiscriminate and ignorant employment of 
this powerful agency. With the medical profession it rests to place the 
subject upon its legitimate basis, by taking it into their own hands, and 
employing it rationally and scientifically. 
The Cold Bath.-The cold bath may be of any temperature up to 
80° or 85° Fahr., the effect upon the system varying, of course, accord- 
ing to the temperature, the length of time it is endured, and the amount 
of muscular movement exerted during that time. A single plunge into 
ice-cold water may depress less than a longer continued bath of a higher 
temperature. As a rule, individuals of weak, nervous and circulatory 
powers, do not bear well the effects of cold bathing, it robs them of an 
amount of animal heat, which they cannot readily again make up; it 
produces nervous exhaustion, unrelieved by reaction to the surface. 
When an individual, after the cold bath, in any form, remains 
chilled, the fingers and lips blue, the countenance pale, and when 
languor and drowsiness succeed, he may be certain that more harm than 
benefit is being derived from the custom, and that it must be modified 
or given up. 
In such a case, if the bath has been usually taken before breakfast, 
the hour should be altered to a couple of hours after that meal, this with 
some will be quite sufficient to make the difference between agreeing or 
not; indeed, it requires a person of very good vital power to derive real 
benefit and comfort from bathing before breakfast. If the change in 
hour does not alter the effects of the cold bath, something may be due 180 
BATHS AND BATHING. 
to its low temperature ; or the bather, especially if he be not a swimmer, 
may expose himself too long to the depressing influence, he may be in 
the habit of going into the water after his powers have been exhausted 
by much exercise, or when he is in too chilled a condition. All these 
points require consideration, before, either the undoubted good effects, 
or the comfort of bathing are given up as unattainable. The last point 
mentioned is one on which particular caution is required; many persons 
in dread of going in to bathe too hot, run to the other extreme, and 
allow themselves to become so chilled, that reaction will not come on. 
After coming out of a cold bath, the skin ought to be well rubbed with a 
rough towel, till a glow is felt; or the hair-glove, now so well known, 
may be used. The above remarks apply to the application of cold water 
generally, to the skin, in whatever form. Few old people can take cold 
baths with advantage, and the perseverance in their use may lay the 
foundation of rheumatic, urinary, or other disease. Those who are 
liable to head affection, should not take the general cold bath; for them 
the shower bath is preferable. Females should not bathe in cold water 
during the menstrual period. Some persons who cannot bathe in fresh- 
water, can do so in the sea; the saline ingredients producing a more 
stimulant effect upon the skin; sometimes, however, the stimulation 
goes so far as to produce a painful rash, which forces the person to give 
up the custom. The restorative and tonic effects of cold bathing are 
undoubted in many cases, if the mode of taking it be properly regulated. 
As a general rule, five or six minutes immersion is sufficiently long. 
The cold bath is beneficially employed in spasmodic asthma, the chronic 
stages of whooping-cough, in nervous diseases, unconnected with disease 
of the brain, and in paralysis consequent on severe inflammatory attacks 
of the brain and spinal column. In short, from whatever cause it may 
arise (disease of the internal viscera excepted), when great relaxation 
and debility exist, the cold bath, properly empldyed, will be found a 
very valuable remedial agent. The cold bath is inadmissible when there 
is a tendency to apoplexy, heart disease, inflammations of the internal 
structures of the body, and cutaneous diseases. 
The Tepid Bath.-The tepid bath, of a temperature varying from 
85° to 94° may be used-about 88° is an agreeable and convenient 
standard. Of course the tepid bath involves the use of a receptacle for 
the water. It does not produce the shock to the system like the cold, 
and the person may remain in it from a quarter of an hour to twenty 
minutes. The tepid bath relaxes and purifies the skin, and promotes 
the insensible perspiration. For the purposes of cleanliness and comfort 
it is most generally applicable. After fatigue from traveling, hunting, 
shooting, &c. ; in irritable states of the system, with dry or chafed skin, BATHS AND BATHING. 
181 
the tepid bath is at once grateful to the feeling, and salutary. Neither 
the tepid bath, nor any other, is well if taken soon after a full 
meal. 
The Warm or Hot Bath.-The warm, or hot bath is, or ought to be, 
a remedial agent only, not one for general use. Its temperature ranges 
from 95° to 102° Fahr -96° is the most general standard. The warm 
bath is used to promote reaction, to allay pain, spasmodic or inflamma- 
tory, to soothe convulsive action, or carried to its fullest extent, to cause 
faintness. The time for remaining in the warm bath is generally from 
twenty to flve-and-twenty minutes, but this must be regulated, somewhat, 
by the effect required. The hot bath of a temperature of 100° is a 
powerful stimulant agent, to be used cautiously, and rarely without 
medical advice; in disease characterized by extreme depression, 
coldness, etc., it is useful. In the employment of the baths generally, 
persons who are the subjects of any organic disease, or have a tendency 
to acute attacks of functional disorder, such as determination of blood to 
the head, etc., must be very cautious, and ought if possible to have 
medical advice. The regulation of the temperature of baths ought 
never to be left to the sensations, the thermometer is the only trust- 
worthy guide, and, indeed, is an article which no house ought to be 
without; the price of the instrument is now extremely low, and whether 
for the bath, the temperature of the room, or the instruction of a child, 
it is equally useful. 
The hot and tepid baths must be used with great caution by persons 
of great obesity, or where there is a tendency to apoplexy, heart disease, 
or hemorrhage, and in febrile diseases where there is a dry, hot skin, 
and an acute circulation, also during the menstrual period and later 
stages of pregnancy. It has proved signally useful in the inflammatory 
attacks of children, remittent fevers, insanity, infantile convulsions, 
Bright's disease, diabetes, tetanus, painter's colic, and inflammatory 
affections of the kidney, bladder and womb, and also in the passage of 
either renal or biliary calculi. 
The Shower Bath.-The shower bath, whether of fresh or salt water, 
whether quite cold or tepid, is a valuable agent in the treatment of many 
nervous affections; it will suit some whom the general bath will not. 
It is well for persons of weak habit, or who suffer from the head, to have 
a thin layer of warm water put in the bottom of the shower bath before 
getting in. In its operation and effects it is very similar to the cold 
bath, but the shock it communicates is much more violent, particularly 
if the quantity of water is great, the temperature low, and the fall 
considerable. It is employed with success in congestive and hysterical 
headaches ; in mania, chorea, or St. Vitus' dance, epilepsy, hypochondria 182 
BATHS AND BATHING. 
and nervous prostration, its use is contra-indicated in the same class of 
cases as the cold bath. 
The Douche Bath.-The douche bath consists of a compact stream 
of water, either warm or cold, allowed to impinge forcibly upon any 
portion of the body. In some bathing establishments, the douche stream 
is of great force and bulk. Domestically, the most familiar douche 
instrument is the pump, and a most efficient one it is to strengthen a 
limb which remains weak after an accident, such as fracture or sprain,-• 
it must be used till aching is produced. The most convenient domestic 
douche is a watering can without a nozzle, but a jug will do; in short, 
whatever will send a stream of water upon the part required. 
Additional force is obtained by the person administering the douche 
standing upon a chair. It is a very powerful agent and requires to be 
used with much caution. Infantile convulsions are very much relieved 
by a thin stream of cold water directed on the head, from an elevation 
of 2 or 3 feet. The same treatment has been found to quiet the wildest 
maniacs. In syncope or fainting, the cold douche suddenly applied to 
the spine, has often an instantaneous effect in restoring consciousness ; 
directed on the thighs and pubes, it is said to relieve the spasm in 
spasmodic stricture of the urethra, and in stiffness of joints after injuries, 
or resulting from rheumatism, the use of the cold douche has often an 
excellent effect. 
The Sponge Bath.-Sponging the skin with water is used in lieu of 
a bath, for purposes of cleanliness and comfort. It may produce 
depression if employed before breakfast. Partial sponging, sponging 
with tepid water, changing the hour, or having a cup of coffee on 
rising early obviate the effect. Rough friction is to be employed 
after. 
The Wet-Sheet Bath.-The wet-sheet bath is sometimes, by 
misnomer, called the cold wet-sheet. It is, in fact, a warm bath, or 
rather a large warm poultice, kept warm by the animal heat. It is 
formed by enveloping the person in a sheet, wrung out of cold or tepid 
water, and covering or packing him up with layers of blankets; very 
free perspiration is the result. It is a most useful remedy and might 
with advantage be more generally used. Sponging with cold water 
after the use of this bath is occasionally practised. 
The Vapor Bath.-The vapor bath produces free perspiration, and 
may be used whenever that is required, as in incipient cold. It is very 
relaxing.' Many different forms of vapor bath have been invented. A 
small kettle to place on the fire, with tubing to convey the steam under- 
neath the blanket or oilcase in which the person is enveloped, forms a 
good vapor bath. A simple extempore vapor bath may be made by BATUS AND BATHING. 
183 
placing a vessel of boiling water underneath the coverings of the patient, 
and keeping up the steam by means of hot stones or metal. 
The hot-air bath is used for the same purposes as the vapor bath, 
but is more stimulating. Apparatus of various kinds for this bath may 
be had at the manufacturers. 
A very powerful and convenient vapor bath may be extemporized 
thus-procure three or four new porous bricks, boil them in water for an 
hour and half, till perfectly saturated, then place them on the floor ; seat 
the patient on a chair-of open cane-work, if possible-over the bricks, 
and pin a blanket round the neck or waist, as the case may be, so as to 
surround the person, and coniine the steam, which rises abundantly. 
This form of bath is far more available in the houses of the poor than a 
hot water bath, and is more efficient-for sciatica and rheumatism of 
the lower limbs it is of much value. It is very useful in cases of 
bronchitis, pleurisy, catarrh, rheumatism, skin diseases. 
Hip and Foot-Baths.-Hip-baths and foot-baths are used where a 
full bath is unnecessary. The former, either cold, tepid, or warm, is 
extremely useful in affections of the loins, hips, etc. The foot-bath, 
generally used as a derivative, ought to be as high a temperature as can 
be borne, and ought to redden the skin after the immersion. If a 
stronger effect is requisite, an ounce of mustard, and a couple of hand- 
fuls of salt may be put in the water. To reap the full benefit of the 
foot-bath, the extremities should either be clothed in woolen stockings, 
or wrapped in flannel infmediately on coming out of the water. The 
fact must always be kept in mind, in using the foot-bath in cases of 
insensibility, that it may be so hot as to scald, and that it cannot be 
complained of. The best mode is to use the thermometer, and not to 
raise the heat above 110°. 
The foot-bath is beneficial in colds, headaches, coughs and slight 
fevers. 
The hip-bath in sciatica, rheumatism and irritable conditions of the 
bladder. 
Sea-Bathing.-Sea-bathing, when properly employed, is a stimulant, 
in the first instance to the skin, and further to the body generally. The 
stimulant action upon the skin, indeed, even proceeds so far as to cause 
eruptions, somewhat resembling scarlatina; in some cases the smarting 
from these eruptions is so severe, after each immersion, that the practice 
has to be discontinued, at least for a time. 
Persons who are unaccustomed to sea-bathing may sometimes find it 
of service to take two or three tepid sea-baths, before going to the open 
sea. There is, however, no necessity, as some suppose, for a course of 
medicine beforehand, unless the individual is decidedly out of health, 184 
BATHS AND BATHING. 
and then sea-bathing should not be engaged in before consultation with 
a medical man, who may give medicine for Ihe existing ailment, but 
certainly persons in good health have no occasion for preparatory medi- 
cine. Individuals who are very plethoric, who are the subjects of any 
organic disease, or who have any tendency to fulness about the head, 
also aged persons, should not bathe without medical sanction. 
If a person is in a state of body to benefit by bathing, and if the 
good effects are not counteracted by too long immersion in the water, 
the bath should be followed by reaction, which conveys a sensation of 
increased strength and spirits, a glow of warmth on the skin, and 
increased appetite; if, on the other hand, the reaction is tardy, if the 
skin continues cold and blue-looking, if the fingers and toes become 
what is called "dead," if there is bodily and mental depression, with 
languor and sleepiness, it is certain the bathing does not agree from 
some cause or other. 
When cold searbathing does not agree, or is too depressing, the tepid 
sea-bath is often of much service, and does not relax like fresh water 
tepid bathing. 
The Sulphur Bath is a valuable means for the external application of 
that remedy. The apparatus consists of a frame large enough to enclose 
the whole body, covered with some impervious material, such as wax- 
cloth, with an aperture at the apex with a loose frill attached, so as to 
tie around the patient's neck. The sulphur is placed on a heated plate 
on the ground, within the apparatus, and the body is exposed to the 
fumes for fifteen or twenty minutes, or longer. It proves exceedingly 
useful in cutaneous and rheumatic diseases, and in lead colic. 
Alkaline Bath.-This is very useful in scaly skin diseases, in gout, 
rheumatism, and affections of the urinary organs. It may be made by 
dissolving 1 pound of carbonate of soda in 25 gallons of soft water, or 
4 ounces of carbonate of potash to same amount of water. 
Nitro-Muriatic Acid Bath is made by adding to 30 gallons of warm 
water, in a wooden bath-tub, 1^ ounces of nitric acid, and 3 ounces of 
muriatic acid. It should be repeated frequently, the patient remaining 
in the bath fifteen or twenty minutes each time. Useful in torpidity of 
the liver, and in various other hepatic affections. 
Iodine Vapor Bath.-Much used in old scrofulous cases, is made by 
adding 1 dram of iodine, £ an ounce of iodide of potassium, and 2 
ounces of solution of potash, to 30 gallons of water. 
Carbolic Acid Bath.-Add 2 drams of carbolic acid, and 2 ounces 
of pure glycerine, to 30 gallons of water. Useful in skin diseases char- 
acterized by a scaly eruption. 
The Turkish Bath.-There are few subjects perhaps upon which less BATHS AND BATHING. 
185 
accurate information is possessed by the public than upon Turkish baths. 
The Turkish or oriental bath has been known from antiquity, and used 
more or less by all Eastern nations, though at present it is chiefly 
patronized by the disciples of Mahomet. How much of the effeminacy 
and sensuality of that race may be attributed to its use or abuse, it is 
not easy to say. The ancient Greeks and Romans were also acquainted 
with the use of baths of a similar kind; and we can trace mention of 
them up to the time of Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine, himself. 
They were undoubtedly introduced into England and into France 
with the Roman conquest, and were extensively made use of for 
centuries. 
The great principle of the Turkish bath is that of a chamber supplied 
with heated air, not dry, but with a little fluid-just enough to moisten 
or soften the skin, and allow of the free escape of its secretions, which 
takes place to a remarkable extent, thus relieving congestion or 
obstruction of internal organs, and favoring the circulation of blood 
through the fine capillary vessels of the skin itself. Exhalation from 
the lungs is also favored, so that the body gets rid of impurities by both 
channels. Of course the building in which the bath is so administered 
must be one adapted and intended for the purpose, with alf the appro- 
priate chambers, the tepidarium, calidarium, etc., and skilful attendants 
must also be provided, who, remarkable to say, are not found to suffer 
in health from their residence there. We would advise people not to be 
too anxious to have an enormous quantity of cuticle or scurf rubbed off 
their skin by the attendant whose duty this is. Some persons are apt, 
from having read the exaggerations that have been circulated on this 
subject, to measure the benefit they are likely to derive from the bath by 
the amount of the matter which is removed by the hair-glove. Finally, 
let it be clearly understood that the Turkish bath is a very useless remedy 
in some, if not in most of the cases for which its help is sought by the 
ignorant, and that in many cases it is likely to prove hurtful and 
dangerous, so that there can be no greater folly than its use by an 
invalid ■without the advice of a properly qualified medical practitioner, 
who will always be ready to point out the case (and there are many 
such) likely to receive benefit from its proper and discriminate appli- 
cation. Some people are so stupid they cannot see that it does not 
follow that because A. derived advantage from the use of a Turkish 
bath, B. must necessarily do so, because his case seems to them to 
resemble A's. They forget that there may be many other circumstances 
connected with B's case which might make the use of a bath hurtful to 
him. We, therefore, hope to hear less for the future of the reckless 
gratuitous advice tendered by the public to their friends on this subject; 186 
BATHS AND BATHING. 
and still less of the public being so silly as to follow the advice of 
those who are interested in the use of baths for pecuniary considera- 
tions. 
Amongst the number of cases likely to be benefited (due attention 
being paid to the precautions aforesaid) may be mentioned chronic 
rheumatism, and gout, especially those cases followed by deposits in 
the joints, and scaly eruptions upon the skin; certain cases of sciatica 
and tic douloureux, as also certain chronic diseases of the lungs, 
stomach, and liver. It has been known to act as a charm in removing 
local dropsies, as of the feet and legs, when not depending upon any 
serious organic disease. We hope to see a wider application of the 
Turkish bath as a means of treating disease upon scientific principles, 
as a preventive of disease, as a promoter of cleanliness and of health, 
and this is only to be effected by its moderate and judicious employment, 
since nothing will be more calculated to drive it into the regions of 
obscurity and neglect than the intemperate and ill-advised encomiums 
of those who are neither capable of understanding its action nor of 
judging of its effects, but who are disturbed by an uneasy desire to 
try anything and everything that is new. 
The SwImming Bath.-This form of bath, which is now-thanks to 
the liberality and enterprise of our town corporations, or of public 
companies-to be met with in almost every city, must be looked 
upon as an important means of improving public health, as well as 
affording an opportunity of learning the art of swimming to many who, 
from being resident in inland towns, would otherwise remain ignorant 
of it. It is generally resorted to as a pleasure and luxury, or for the 
purposes of ablution, or healthful and most useful exercise. The bath 
should be spacious, and its temperature should be maintained at a pitch 
which will render its use agreeable as well as safe even for the compara- 
tive invalid who cannot remain any length of time in perfectly cold 
water. Salt water should also be added in sufficient quantity, if possible, 
as by this means its action is rendered more salutary. 
Hand Shower Bath for Children.-A very useful article has been 
invented of this kind, consisting of a bell-shaped tin vessel, the bottom 
of which is pierced with holes, and from the top of which rises a hollow 
tube. To use it, the bell must be immersed in a basin of water, and 
then the thumb or finger must be placed over the aperture of the tube, 
which serves as a handle. If the thumb be kept firmly pressed over 
the aperture, the atmospheric pressure will keep the bell quite full of 
water while it is raised over the head or any part of the person to whom 
the shower is to be applied. By raising the thumb, the water is suddenly 
discharged in a shower. This bath is invaluable as a means of applying BATHS AND BATHING-BEARD. 
187 
all the benefits of a shower bath to children, without any of its terrifying 
accompaniments. It is peculiarly valuable, and has been much used by 
the writer in cases of nervous disease among children, such as chronic 
St. Vitus' dance, etc. The intensity of the shock may be varied accord- 
ing to the height at which the instrument is held; and, of course, the 
temperature of the water may be varied to suit the individual cases of 
diseases. As a rule, the use of the shower-bath should not be persisted 
in with children to whom it continues to be very irritating and disagree- 
able, after the first few applications. When administered as above, 
many children become exceedingly fond of using it. 
Artificial Sea-Water for Baths may be made as follows: 
Take of Common salt Four pounds. 
Iodide of potash Four drams. 
Lime-water Three ounces. 
Sulphate of magnesia Six ounces. 
Water Sixty gallons.-Mix. 
It may be used at any degree of temperature. This is so exact an 
imitation of sea-water, that sea-plants, and even salt-water fish, are said 
to live and thrive in it. (See Ablution, Affusion, Cramp, Health, 
Health Resorts, Catarrh or Common Cold.) 
BATTLEY'S SOLUTION OF OPIUM, bat'-tleds. Battley's seda- 
tive solution, Liquor opii sedativus, is a preparation of opium introduced 
by Mr. Battley, and long esteemed as an opiate more certain and less 
disagreeable in its effects than most others. It is merely a strong 
aqueous solution of opium resembling the Extractum opii liquidum of 
the British Pharmacopoeia. The dose is from 5 to 20 drops. 
BAYBERRY. (See Myrica Cerifera.) 
BAY-SALT, b^-sawlt^ coarse salt obtained by the evaporation of sea- 
water in large tanks, or bays, as they are technically termed. 
BEAN, bene [Ang.-Sax.] The various species of bean are most 
nutritious to those whose stomachs can digest them ; they are used either 
young and fresh gathered, or old. The nutriment they afford, as shown 
in the case of the miners of South America, who live almost exclusively 
upon them, is calculated to sustain a high condition of muscular develop- 
ment and vigor. Garden-beans as brought to table in this country, must 
be avoided by those of weak digestion. They are less likely to disagree 
if deprived of their skins. 
BEAR-BERRY. (See Uva Ursi. ) 
BEARD, beerd [Ang.-Sax.], the hair growing upon the chin, and 
other adjoining parts of the face, in man; and sometimes, though very 
rarely, in women. It is thicker than the hair of the head, and longer, 
when suffered to grow, than the hair on the other parts of the body. It 188 
BEARD. 
is usually of the same color as the hair of the head, but always the same 
as that of the eyebrows. The beard is most abundant among those of 
the Caucasian race, and many persons, natives of Africa, America, and 
Australia, have little or no beard. The beard was held in great 
estimation among the Jews, as it is until the present day among the 
Arabians. ' ' By the beard of Aaron, " or "by the beard of the Prophet, ' ' 
is looked on as the most solemn oath of a Jew or a Mahomedan. Nearly 
all the eastern peoples prided themselves upon the fashion and form of 
their beards ; and we have it expressly on record, that the Assyrians and 
Persians indulged in very long beards. Among the Greeks, and 
especially among the Greek philosophers, this ornament was held in 
high estimation. Athenseus tells us that the Greeks wore the beard until 
the time of Alexander the Great, who ordered his Macedonian soldiery 
to shave it off, lest the growth of it might give a ready handle to their 
enemies in battle. Philosophers have nearly always affected the beard 
as a mark of gravity, and even venerableness; and Strabo tells us that 
the Gymnosophists of India wore it long. The Bomans wore the beard 
until the 5th century a. u. c., when Publius Ticinus Mena brought over 
a colony of barbers from Sicily to exercise their profession on the Roman 
chins. Augustus, and the Roman emperors, till Hadrian, shaved their 
beards ; and Plutarch says that Hadrian allowed his to grow to hide the 
scars on his face. All the imperial personages after Hadrian grew their 
beards. The Lombards (or Longbeards}, the early French, the ancient 
Britons, and the Anglo-Saxons, after they conquered Britain, all 
nourished the growth of their beards with peculiar care. When Duke 
William conquered England, he insisted rigorously upon carrying out 
the Norman custom of shaving; and he thus constrained many of the 
high-spirited Britons rather to abandon their country than their whiskers. 
But, by-and-by, they got the advantage of their ruthless conquerors ; and 
the higher classes indulged in the moustache, or the entire beard, from 
the reign of Edward III., down to the time of Charles II. In the reign 
of Charles II., the entire face was often shaven; sometimes a slight 
moustache was tolerated, and sometimes the whiskers or hair on the 
cheeks was grown. During the last fifty years, growing the whole beard 
has become very common in Europe and America. First, the practice 
began in Bonaparte's army, then it extended to Italy, then to Germany, 
then to Spain and Russia, and, lastly, to England and America, where 
the beard is now very common. Whatever opinion may be entertained 
as to the advantages or disadvantages of the beard, there can be no 
doubt that it forms a most valuable protection to the throat and lungs, 
and should be cultivated by all in whom these organs are delicate or 
susceptible. To stone-masons, and others who are much in an atmos- BEARD-BED, BED-ROOAL 
189 
phere charged with dust or particles of foreign matter, the moustache 
serves to prevent these from getting access to the lungs. 
To beautify and promote the growth of the beard, use the following : 
Mix | a pound of olive oil with | a dram of oil of origanum, and f of a 
dram of oil of rosemary. This will promote growth and have a tendency 
to make it curl. (See Hair, Barber's Itch.) 
BEAR'S-GREASE, barz'-grese, a commodity which, as its name 
implies, is made from the fat of bears, and is one of the most nourishing 
things it is possible to obtain for the hair. It is so scarce, however, 
that most of those pomades which are so tastefully done up for 
sale by perfumers and others, consist mostly of beef marrow, hog's 
lard, or calves' fat, nitric ether, essence of ambergris, etc. The 
fictitious bear's grease is thus composed, according to the best recipes: 
-Washed hog's lard, 1 lb.; flowers of benzoin, £ oz.; and balsam of 
Peru, J oz. Melt together, pour off the clear portion, and stir until 
nearly cold. 
BEBERINE, or BEBERIA, be-ber-ene, an alkaloid, discovered by 
Dr. Rodie, of Demerara, in 1834, in the bark of the bebeeru tree 
{Nectandra Rodioei). When dry, it is a white, amorphous inodorous 
powder, very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether, and very sparingly in 
water. It is commonly administered in the form of the sulphate, which 
very much resembles the sulphate of quinine in its action and uses, and 
has been recommended as a cheap substitute for it, but it is less powerful. 
It is tonic, antiperiodic, and febrifuge; and is given in doses of from 1 
to 10 grains. 
BED, BED-ROOM, bed, bed'-room [Ang.-Sax.] In Health and in 
Sickness.-The fact that civilized people spend on an average, about 
one-third of their lives in their bed-rooms, is quite conclusive as to the 
importance of their salubrity being a first consideration with every one. 
Whatever the public rooms, bed-rooms should be as spacious, lofty, and 
well-aired, as circumstances will permit. Unfortunately the reverse of this 
is the general rule, and we have close, small sleeping-apartments, crowded 
and ill-ventilated nurseries, and bad health. Good ventilation will do much, 
but it will do far more if aided by plenty of space. During the day- 
time, there is much less danger of persons generally, suffering from 
want of fresh air, than during the night, when in sleep, they are many 
hours confined to one place. Every respiration of the sleeper con- 
taminates certain amount of air, and as a matter of course, the smaller 
the space around, the sooner will the contamination of the whole body 
of air contained in that space be completed, and become loaded with 
an amount of carbonic acid, injurious to health. The room must be 
sufficiently large-and this is rarely the case in modern houses-to 190 
BED, BED-110 OIL. 
supply pure air for respiration during six or eight hours, or some means 
must be provided for carrying off the impure atmosphere. This, 
certainly, is not to be effected by closed doors and windows, and blocked- 
up chimneys, assisted in their injurious operations by closely-drawn 
curtains, which might be contrived for the special purpose of enveloping 
sleepers in their own exhalations, rendering sleep unrefreshing, and 
waking a painful, rather than a pleasurable operation; it cannot be other- 
wise, after the poison of carbonic acid has been regularly inhaled for the 
last few hours. 
If the door of a sleeping-apartment must he locked, the upper panels 
ought to be perforated for the admission of air, but the purpose is much 
better answered by the door being left ajar, while it may be rendered 
equally secure by means of a chain-bolt. There is an advantage in 
admitting the fresh air by this channel, for it must be warmed in some 
degree in its passage through the house. 
Air may Ie admitted directly from without, through the window, 
left slightly open at the top, or better, by means of barred glass or per- 
forated zinc. Some zinc plates are made so that the perforations may be 
opened or closed at pleasure. 
It is not sufficient to let in pure air, the impure must have some 
means of escape, and for this, the chimney-and no sleeping-room 
either for rich or poor should be without one-is the most ready channel, 
and perhaps the best, if under proper arrangements. In former times, 
when fire-places were ample and lofty, the chimneys were of themselves 
sufficient to carry off bad air; but since, by change of fashion, the open- 
ings have been lowered and contracted, they cannot do this. The air, 
warmed by respiration, ascends to the top of the room, where it must 
remain till it becomes cooler, but not more wholesome, it descends to 
be rebreathed, and reaches the level of the breather's nostrils before it 
can pass up an ordinary chimney. Thus, a bed-room to be healthy, must 
have a sufficient entrance for good air; must have a proper exit for that 
which has been rendered impure, and should have space if possible; the 
greater the number of sleepers, the more requisite the fulfilment of these 
conditions. It must also be borne in mind, that a light, and especially 
a gas-light, equally with the lungs contaminates the air. It is advisable 
when a light is burned in a sleeping-room, to place it so that the fumes 
may pass up the chimney; if a gas-light, it ought to be provided with a 
special tube to carry off its fumes; without this it must be a source of 
evil, with it, of good, for in the latter case it increases the current of air 
through the room generally. 
Fires in hed-rooms are frequent sources of impure air, uncomfortable 
sleep, and morning headaches. During the first hours of night, when BED. BED-BOO 21. 
191 
burning briskly, the fire promotes ventilation; but when, as often 
occurs, towards morning, it smoulders down, and becomes choked with 
ashes, it has not sufficient power to create a draught; the current of air 
is reversed, instead of passing up the chimney, it passes down, carrying 
with it into the room a very deteriorated atmosphere, perhaps loaded 
with sulphurous gases. None who regard health will have curtained 
beds; it is difficult to conceive what other purpose the huge masses of 
drapery around a bed can serve, than to collect dust, and when drawn, 
to confine impure air around the sleepers. 
For the young and middle-aged, hair, or where these cannot be 
afforded, firm wool mattresses should always be used; feather-beds never. 
The cotton mattress requires more frequent dressing and cleaning than 
the hair. For the aged, who are deficient in natural warmth, a feather- 
bed is quite admissible. However perfect the provision for ventilation 
of a bed-room during the night may be, it must require additional puri- 
fication in the morning. As a rule, the window should be opened as 
soon as the occupant is about to leave the room, or even before in 
summer, and the bed-clothes turned down over the end of the bedstead, 
or thrown entirely off, for at least an hour before the bed is made up for 
the day; in this way, perspiration, and emanations which take place 
from every animal body, are evaporated and got rid of. Turn-up beds, 
box-beds, and all enclosures of the kind, are perfect abominations. Slops 
of all kinds should be removed from sleeping-rooms as early as possible. 
Children even more than adults require fresh pure air during sleep, yet 
how often are nurseries crowded and shut close up during the night; the 
beds made as soon as left vacant; and the little creatures confined to the 
room in which they have slept, for a great part of the day. This ought 
not to be, nor would it be, but for the generally prevailing ignorance 
upon all points connected with health, and the rules for its preservation. 
There are few parents but would make sacrifices to give their children a 
change of room were they sufficiently aware of the importance of so 
doing; even self-interest would dictate the course, could they know how 
often the first cause of illness, and all its expenses, has originated in the 
badly-aired nursery. 
It is much to be regretted that in the houses of the poor, crowding at 
night is so frequently compelled by circumstances; if it must be so, its 
evils ought to be counteracted by the means of ventilation already 
pointed out, and by strict cleanliness; at the same time, floors should 
not be washed in damp weather, and when they are washed, it should 
be done early enough in the day to permit of their being thoroughly dry 
before the room window is closed for the night. Rooms which are at all 
crowded at night, ought to be whitewashed at least twice a year. 192 
BED, BED-ROOM. 
The chamber of sickness requires all the provisions for health to be 
attended to with increased care, more especially if the illness be of an 
infectious character. In this case, as free ventilation with cool pure air 
as the case will admit-the window, if possible, being open during the 
day-must be continually preserved; and all superfluous furniture or 
clothing, of cotton or wool especially, and bed-hangings, removed; no 
counterpanes or quilts should be used, as they are too heavy for the 
patient, blankets should take their place; dirty linen must be taken 
away at once, and excretions-kept, as they should be, for the inspection 
of the medical attendant-removed to an unoccupied room, or out of 
doors. The zeal for cleanliness, however, must never, either in infec- 
tious disorders or not, go so far as to dictate washing the floor of an 
apartment occupied by the sick; a gentle sweeping with tea-leaves to 
prevent dust, is all that is allowable. Cooking of any kind is out of the 
question. If it is possible to have a second bed into which the sick per- 
son can be moved occasionally, it is a valuable resource. A thermometer 
to regulate the temperature of a sick-room is at all times a safer guide 
than the sensations of individuals, and the best average temperature to- 
be maintained is from 55° to 65° Fahr. All sources of unpleasant or 
teasing noise, creaking hinges or shoes, the ticking of a clock, etc., are 
to be obviated; if there is a mirror into which the invalid can gaze, it 
should be removed. Vessels, whether for food or medicine, should be 
carefully cleansed each time of using. The medicines ought to be kept 
in some sort of order in a place by themselves, never, as is frequently 
done, placed in the window, where they are liable to be decomposed by 
the action of light, or by the heat of the sun's rays. All external 
applications should be unmistakably marked. 
Even in diseases of an infectious character, if proper ventilation and 
cleanliness be observed, the attendants upon the sick have comparatively 
little to fear, though at the same time, every additional precautionary 
measure is to be adopted. Fumigations of tobacco, burning nitre, etc., 
are worse than useless; they give no real protection, and only deteriorate 
the air, or irritate the patient. Chlorine is one of the most effectual disin- 
fectants to be employed, and by far the best preparation for the purpose is 
Collins' patent disinfecting powder, which requires no trouble, and main- 
tains a continued, sufficiently effective, and not unpleasant chlorinated 
atmosphere in the apartment. Carbolic acid, 1 ounce to a gallon 
of water, and the bromo-chloralum manufactured by Tilden, are excel- 
lent disinfectants for this purpose. Vinegar, sprinkled or burned, has 110- 
power of protecting against, or of destroying the power of morbid 
emanations ; but it is sometimes grateful to the patient, and pleasant to 
the attendants. Darkening a sick-room is too often resorted to, and BED, BED-ROOM. 
193 
should not be done except by order of the medical attendant, for some 
special reason. Bed and body linen of course require to be frequently 
changed, in fevers, etc., once in twenty-four hours if possible, that is, 
if it can be done without exhausting the patient. 
Those in attendance upon the sick, especially of an infectious disorder, 
should live sufficiently well, and, if accustomed to it, take a moderate 
proportion of wine or malt liquor; but not, as many do, have recourse 
to extra potations of brandy, which can afford no power of resistance, 
but only render the body more susceptible of noxious influence, when 
the depression which follows excess supervenes. A sitter-up should 
have tea or coffee during the night, and those who have to go about a 
fever-patient in the morning, ought previously to take a cup of one or 
other of those beverages. The breath and exhalations generally of any 
one laboring under an infectious disorder are to be avoided; and as 
much as can be done, any continued position, towards which a draught of 
air may be directed from the patient. With these precautions, those whose 
duty calls them to attend upon the sick, ought never to shrink from that 
duty, but face it with cheerfulness and trustful reliance upon Providence. 
There are now so many inventions for promoting the comfort and 
convenience of the sick, that it would be impossible to enumerate them 
here, but a few of the most useful requisites may be suggested. A 
measure, marked for spoonfuls, to be used instead of metal spoons, 
which vary in size and are apt to be stained. A drop or minim measure; 
a piece of water-proof sheeting, either of gutta-percha or some one of 
the numerous materials now manufactured; a fan; a night-light, either 
simple or made to keep water hot; an air or water-cushion, of water, 
proof material; either as a cushion or as a bed-rest, adapted to any 
elevation. A " sick-feeder " or half-covered cup, with a spout and 
handle, is most useful for giving either liquid aliment or medicine in 
severe illness, when it is desirable that a patient's head should not be 
elevated. After illness of any kind, the chamber which has been used 
ought to undergo a thorough cleansing; after fever or other infectious dis- 
order, everything should be individually cleaned. The room itself ought 
to be papered, painted, or whitewashed afresh, the bed-frame taken 
down, scoured, and with other furniture exposed to the open air for some 
days; feather-beds and hair mattresses taken to pieces, their coverings 
washed, their contents re-baked or fumigated ; whatever can be washed, 
should be. Expose articles which have been about the sick freely to 
the action of air or water, and they will speedily get rid of the noxious 
particles,-"fomites," as they are called. Shut them up, or bundle 
them together, and they will retain the power of propagating disease for 
months, it may be for years. 194 
BED, BED-ROOK-BEDS. 
The crowded rooms of the poor have been mentioned-bad enough 
in health, they become ten times worse in sickness, and this is chiefly 
felt in country districts. In towns, a person seized with an infectious 
disorder, if accommodation and means at home are insufficient, has the 
hospital as a resource, in the country he has not; the consequence is, 
that to their own detriment and that of others, the sick are compelled to 
be lodged in the crowded family dwelling, with every chance of the 
disease spreading through the house or village-the case is continually 
occurring. It might easily be prevented, by providing some isolated 
cottage in a healthy situation, properly laid out and furnished for the 
reception of the sick, with accommodation for a wife or a mother when 
nursing the invalid. Such a small village hospital, whether for the 
reception of those afflicted with infectious disease, or indeed any severe 
disease, would be most invaluable to all, and might be maintained for 
the use of a small surrounding district at trifling expense. (See Air, 
Ventilation, Disinfectants, Sick-Room, Houses, Beds, Sanitary 
Science, Health, Damp, Sleep, Hospitals.) 
BEDFELLOW. (See Acquired Diseases.) 
BEDS, bedz^ spring beds are a decided improvement upon those of 
feathers, hair, etc., inasmuch as when the body is moved they at once 
regain their position, and do not allow the same extent of the accumula- 
tion of the secretions of the body, of heat and moisture. They also save 
a great deal of hard work to domestic servants, as they do not require 
to be shaken up and tumbled about every morning, but always retain 
the same elasticity. 
The invalid bed lift is very valuable in some severe cases, wrhere it is 
impossible to change the patient's bed without great pain and trouble. 
Iron beds, without curtains of any kind, are by far the most healthy 
for general use, and for public institutions no other kind will do. 
In cases where there is great difficulty of breathing, so that the 
patient is forced to sit up in bed, a bed-rest will be found of great value. 
One should be obtained that can be moved or inclined at different angles 
according to the wish of the patient, so as to cause as little inconvenience 
as possible in changing his posture. Bedsteads for invalids can be 
obtained with a part of the sacking made to rise at the head so as to 
support the back. This may be elevated to any desirable angle by means 
of two upright pieces with holes and pins through the bed-frame. 
While in this position the feet of the patient should always be supported 
by a foot-board, to prevent him slipping down in bed. 
All who have waited much upon the sick must be painfully aware, 
that with even the greatest precaution, it is sometimes impossible to 
prevent the formation of bed-sores. To obviate this, air-beds, water- BEDS-BEEF-TEA. 
195 
beds, water-pillows, vulcanized India-rubber beds, etc., have been 
invented. (See Aik-Beds). 
BED-SORES, bed'-sdrz, are sores which form on different parts of 
the body of a person when long confined to bed, particularly if unable 
to shift his posture occasionally. They are especially apt to occur 
during fevers and other diseases in which the patient is much debilitated. 
The parts first appear red and inflamed, then rapidly ulcerate or slough. 
In order to prevent this, means should be taken to ease the parts most 
likely to be affected, by means of small pillows, cushions, and the like, 
and to shift the patient frequently. The hydrostatic or water-bed, now 
much recommended for invalids, serves to prevent the weight of the 
body from pressing too much on any one part. A simple dressing of 
ointment of resin is the best application to the sores. Bed-sores may be 
prevented by frequently washing the parts with a strong decoction of 
white oak bark, or what is still better, sponging them several times a 
day with tincture of Tolu. (See Bed, Beds.) 
BED-WETTING, bed'-wet-ing. A common trouble among children 
is their inability to retain their water during sleep. It arises from a 
diversity of causes, sometimes from disease of the urinary organs, but 
often from too free use of liquids during the evening, from exposure to 
cold, and from not voiding the urine the last thing at night. The 
presence of worms is also a frequent cause of this troublesome affection. 
The common-sense treatment consists in guarding against the above 
causes. The following prescription will also be found useful in many 
cases: 
Take of Tincture of nux vomica Thirty drops. 
Essence of ginger .> Thirty drops. 
Syrup and water, of each One ounce.-Min. 
Give 1 teaspoonful at night. This is for a child from five to ten years 
of age. (See Urine.) 
BREF, beef, the most strongly nutritious animal flesh in use, is 
not quite so digestible and light as mutton for those of weak digestion; 
but this depends in some degree upon the part selected. A slice from a 
coarse-grained shoulder of mutton inay be much more difficult of 
digestion than one from the under side of a sirloin. As a general rule, 
however, mutton is preferable for the dyspeptic and the convalescent. 
(See Beef-Tea, Food.) 
BEEF'S GALL OR BILE. (See Ox-Gall.) 
BEEF-TEA. Take 2 pounds of very fresh beef, remove every bit of 
fat, and cut it up into small pieces about the size of the top of the finger, 
scoring it to let out all the gravy ; place it in a jar with a saltspoonful 
of salt, | a clove, 4 peppercorns, and 1| pints of cold water. Tie over 196 
BEEF-TEA-BENZOIC ACID. 
the top of the jar, and immerse it in a saucepan of water, allowing it to 
boil gently for two hours and a half. Strain, and in order to remove 
any particle of fat that may be on the surface, pass silver paper, or a 
piece of stale crumb of bread, over it. If preferred, boiled rice or 
tapioca may be added. 
We also give below Prof. Liebig's method : This celebrated chemist 
directs a pound of lean beef, freed from fat and bone, to be chopped 
small, as for mince meat, and to be "uniformly mixed with its own 
weight of cold water, slowly heated to boiling, and the liquid, after 
boiling briskly for a minute or two," to be "strained through a towel." 
A little salt, or any allowable seasoning may be added. Beef-tea is a 
most important article in sick cookery, but is very often badly made, 
and much too weak for the purposes for which it is ordered. In diseases 
of exhaustion, or in the last stage of fever, strong beef-tea is perhaps the 
form of nourishment most easily assimilated, which is adapted to afford 
powerful support to the system (See Beef, Food, Cookery for the 
Sick, Osmazome.) 
BEER. (See Ale, Porter.) 
BEES' STINGS. (See Bites and Stings.) 
BEESWAX, beez'-waks. This substance has been investigated by 
numerous chemists. It appears, from the researches of Brodie, that wax 
is a true animal secretion ; for bees fed on sugar only continue to deposit 
it in large quantities. At ordinary temperatures, beeswax is a touglq 
solid, yellow substance, having a specific gravity of 0.96, and fusing at 
about 145°. Wax consists chemically of myricine, insoluble in boiling 
alcohol; cerine, a crystalline substance, dissolved by boiling alcohol; 
and ceroleine, which is dissolved in cold alcohol. (See Cera.) 
BEET,, beet, [Lat. beta]. Beet-root contains so large a quantity of 
sugar, as to make its extraction an object of commerce. The sweetening 
powers are less than those of cane-sugar. The root itself, when boiled, 
is easy of digestion. Its beautiful coloring matter might often be 
substituted for more deleterious substances. 
BEGGAR TICK. (See Bidens Bipinnata.) 
BELA. (See Bael.) 
BELLADONNA. (See Atropa Belladonna.) 
BELLY OR ABDOMEN. (See Abdomen.) 
BENGAL QUINCE. (See tEgle Marmelos.) 
BENJAMIN-BUSH. (See Benzoin Odoriferum.) 
BENJAMIN, GUM. (See Benzoin.) 
BENZINE. (See Benzole.) 
BENZOIC ACID, ben-zo'-lk, (CUH5O3HO).-An acid obtained from 
gum-benzoin. It is also found in balsams of Tolu and Peru, in storax, BENZOIC ACID-BENZOLE. 
197 
and in the urine of herbivorous animals. It is easily prepared by 
sublimation. Benzoic acid forms white glistening needles, having an 
agreeable aromatic odor, and a hot, bitter taste. It melts at 248°, 
sublimes at 293°, and boils at 462°. Its vapor may be kindled, burning 
with a smoky flame. It dissolves in 200 parts of cold water and 25 of 
hot. It is readily soluble in ether and alcohol. It combines with the 
alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, forming benzoates. It forms 
sulpho-, nitro-, and chloro-benzoic acids, by the substitution of atoms of 
sulphuric acid, peroxide of nitrogen, and chlorine, for atoms of hydrogen. 
Its other compounds are too numerous and unimportant for mention 
here. Benzoic acid is stimulant and expectorant, and occasionally given 
for coughs and shortness of breath, in doses of 10 to 15 grains, but is 
chiefly used as an ingredient in paregoric {Tinctura camphorce com- 
posita.} The other preparations in which it exists are Ammonia) 
benzoas^ and Tinctura opii ammoniata. 
BENZOIN ODORIFERUM, bemzoin' o-dur-if-e-rum^ commonly 
called spice-wood, fever-bush, w'ild allspice, and Benjamin-bush. It 
belongs to the Nat. order Lauracece^ and is a shrub growing from 5 to 
12 feet high. It grows in shady places in the United States and Canada. 
Its properties are aromatic, tonic, and stimulant; it has been very success- 
fully employed in the treatment of ague, and the typhoid form of fever, 
and is useful as a refrigerant, for allaying excessive heat and uneasiness. 
It is used warm to produce diaphoresis. Dose of fluid extract, | to 1 
teaspoonful. The decoction may be drunk freely. (See Decoction.) 
BENZOIN, OR GUM-BENJAMIN, bemzoin', a fragrant balsam 
obtained from the Benjamin-tree. (See Styrax.) It exudes from 
incisions in the bark, and soon hardens by exposure to the air. 
Two kinds are distinguished in commerce by the names of Siam and 
Sumatra benzoin. The former is most esteemed in this country. 
Benzoin is used in medicine as a stimulant expectorant. It is, however, 
principally employed for the preparation of benzoic acid, and as an 
ingredient in the incense used in the Greek and Roman Catholic 
churches. It is also an ingredient in fumigating pastiles and court 
plaster. The agreeable odor produced by burning benzoin is due to the 
evolution of the vapor of benzoic acid. (See Benzoic Acid.) 
BENZOLE, ben'-zole (C12II6.) A hypocarbon of considerable im- 
portance, derived from coal-tar. It was first obtained by Faraday from 
a liquid produced by compressing oil-gas, and was called by him 
bicarburetted hydrogen. Mitscherlich afterwards obtained it from 
benzoic acid ; and, latterly, Mansfield has procured it in large quantities 
from coal-naphtha and gas-liquor. It is a limpid, volatile, colorless, and 
mobile liquid, with a peculiar odor, having a specific gravity of 0.85, 198 
BENZOLE-BERBERIS AQUIFOLIUM. 
and boiling at 177°. Exposed to a temperature of 32°, it condenses 
into crystalline masses, which melt at 40°. It is insoluble in water, 
but dissolves freely in alcohol, ether, and oil of turpentine. It is greatly 
used in the arts, being an excellent solvent for India-rubber, gutta- 
percha, wax, camphor, and fats. The property of dissolving fats and 
oils, added to its great volatility, renders it very useful for removing 
grease-stains from articles of dress. It is sold for this purpose under 
the name of "benzine collas," at about three or four times, its real value. 
Benzole is also known as benzine and phene. 
BERBERIS, ber'-be-ris, in Botany, the typical genus of the Nat. 
order Berberidacece, consisting of numerous species, found in temperate 
climates in most parts, except Australia. These are shrubs, often spiny, 
with yellow flowers and acid berries. The three whorls of organs in the 
flower are each made up of six parts : thus, there are six sepals in the 
calyx, six petals in the corolla, and six stamens. The latter are 
remarkable for their irritability ; for if touched at the base by an insect, 
or even with the point of a pin, they start up from their natural reclining 
position, and close upon the pistil. The most interesting species is B. 
vulgaris, the common barberry, which is usually a bush from four to six 
feet high, but which in Italy sometimes becomes as large as a plum-tree. 
It is a very ornamental plant, especially when covered with fruit. The 
berries are of an oval shape, and, when ripe, generally of a bright red 
color, but sometimes whitish, yellow, or almost black. They are very 
acid, and not fit to be eaten raw; but when boiled with sugar, they form 
a most refreshing preserve. The bark and stem are very astringent, 
and yield a bright yellow dye. Of the numerous species of Berberis 
which are cultivated as ornamental shrubs, the finest is undoubtedly B. 
aristata, the bristle-leaved barberry. This is a hardy evergreen, 
producing excellent fruit. It is a native of Nepaul, and was introduced 
into this country about fifty years ago. (See Berberis Vulgaris, 
Berberis Aquifolium. ) 
BERBERIS AQUIFOLIUM, ber'de-risak-we-fo'-le-um. This species 
is found in California. Dr. Bundy, of that State, first discovered the 
properties of the drug, which he described in the "Medical Journal." 
He says, "Berberis aquifolium appears to be a powerful alterative, with 
strong tonic properties, a combination rendering it a sovereign remedy 
m syphilitic and scrofulous diseases, cancers, tubercular affections, 
rheumatism, etc." Dr. Bundy relates several cures of syphilis and salt 
rheum, and gives his opinion of the effects of the drug as follows: "Its 
power as an alterative is certainly marvellous, and not only as an altera- 
tive, but as a tonic also. The root is the part used. As a general 
tonic, I know of nothing that can excel it, and I find it also to be an BERBERIS AQUlFOLimi-BERIBERI. 
199 
effective anti-periodic. Combining, as it does, its great alterative 
properties with its fine tonic power, its great value as an alterative is 
increased, for where an alterative is desirable, a tonic is always needed. 
Since learning of this drug's great anti-syphilitic power, I prescribe but 
a very little of the iodides, from the fact of this so far outdoing them in 
syphilis. I do not care what the disordered state of the blood may 
be, requiring an alterative or tonic, you will find in this the power of 
renovation and innervation, that will give perfect satisfaction, and it will 
bring the answer faithfully." Dose of the fluid extract, 15 to 30 drops, 
three or ^our times daily. 
BERBERIS VULGARIS, ber'-be-ris vul-ga -ris^ commonly called 
barberry or berberry, is tonic and laxative. It is used in cases where 
tonics are indicated, as in jaundice, dysentery, chronic diarrhoea, and 
cholera infantum. It is serviceable as a wash or gargle in aphthous 
sore mouth, and in ophthalmia. It is said to act like rhubarb, and with 
equal promptness and activity. Dose of the fluid extract, | to 1 tea- 
spoonful. 
BERBERRY, OR BARBERRY. (See Berberis, Berberis Vul- 
garis.) 
BERGAMOT, OIL OR ESSENCE OF, ber'-ga-mot, a fragrant 
essential oil, obtained by expression or distillation from the rind of the 
Bergamot orange. It is extensively employed in perfumery for scent- 
ing pomades, and as an ingredient in most compound essences, such as 
eau de Cologne, eau de millefleurs, and Jockey-club bouquet. 
BERIBERI, ber -e-ber-e, a disease common in many parts of Ceylon 
and other parts of the East Indies, characterized by difficulty in breath- 
ing, weakness, stiffness, and a sensation of numbness in the lower limbs, 
a bloated appearance of the face, and dropsical swelling of the whole 
body. The disease commonly comes on slowly, and terminates in the 
course of three or four weeks; but sometimes it attacks suddenly, and 
destroys the patient in from six to thirty hours. The causes of this dis- 
ease are not well understood. It is generally supposed to arise from 
exposure to cold, damp air, and the want of stimulating and nourishing 
diet. Great difference also exists as to the best mode of treating this 
disease: some regard it as a disease of debility, and consequently have 
recourse to stimulants; others consider it to arise from increased in- 
ternal action, and resort to blood-letting, purgatives, diuretics, etc. 
This latter mode appears to be that most generally recommended. The 
chronic paralytic affection termed barbiers, also common in India, was, 
until recently, confounded with this disease. Barbiers is a disease of 
nervous debility, and therefore to be treated with tonics, cordials, and 
nutritive diet. It commences with weakness, trembling, and a pricking 200 
BERIBERI-BI. 
sensation of the legs, thighs, and arms. Loss of appetite, indigestion, 
and emaciation soon follow, and at length, if the disease continues, the 
muscles become paralytic. 
BETEL, be-tl, the name usually given to a narcotic masticatory, 
used by the Malays and other Eastern races. It is prepared by rolling 
up long pieces of the betel-nut (see Areca) in the leaves of the betel- 
pepper, previously dusted on one side with the quicklime of calcined 
shells. When chewed, the betel promotes the flow of saliva, and less- 
ens the perspiration from the skin. It stains the mouth, teeth, and lips 
red, an effect which is considered ornamental by the natives. It imparts 
an agreeable odor to the breath, and is supposed to fasten the teeth, 
cleanse the gums, and cool the mouth. The juice is generally swallowed. 
To one not accustomed to betel-chewing, the nut is powerfully astringent 
in the mouth and throat, while the quicklime often removes the skin 
and deadens the sense of taste. After a while it causes great giddiness. 
On those accustomed to use it, howrever, the betel produces weak, but 
continuous and sustained, exhilarating effects; and that these are of a 
most agreeable kind may be inferred from the very extended area over 
which the practice of betel-chewing prevails. Prof. Johnston estimates 
that betel is chewed by probably not less than fifty millions of men. 
BETIIROOT. (See Trillium Pendulum.) 
BETULA, bei-u-la, in Botany, the birch, a genus of trees or shrubs 
belonging to the Nat. order Betulacew. With the exception of B. ant- 
arctica, an evergreen shrub found in Terra del Fuego, all the species 
flourish beyond the tropic in the northern hemisphere. B. alba, the 
commmon birch, is one of the most beautiful of our forest trees, and is 
found in most of the northern parts of America, Europe, and Asia. 
The leaves are small, of an ovate-triangular shape, and doubly serrated. 
The bark is smooth and silvery white, and the outer layers are thrown 
off as the trunk increases in diameter. This tree yields useful timber 
for turnery, etc., and the bark is valuable as a dye-stuff. The outer 
layer yields an oil which is much prized by the tanner; it is this which 
gives Russia leather its peculiar odor. In the spring the sap of the 
birch contains much sugar, and forms, when fresh, an agreeable bever- 
age; when fermented, it constitutes what is called birch wine, a liquor 
employed medicinally in domestic practice for stone and gravel. 
BEVERAGE, bev'-ur-aj [Itai, beveraggio], a term applied to all 
liquids which are used either to quench the thirst, stimulate the stomach, 
or cause a healthy internal action. There are various kinds of beverages, 
such as cooling, refreshing, tonic, stimulating, etc. 
BI, bi [Lat. bis, twice], a syllable signifying twice or double, and 
used as a prefix in certain compound names; as biceps, two-headed; BI-BILE. 
201 
bicuspis, two-pointed; bicarbonate, a carbonate with two equivalents of 
carbonate to one of base. 
BICARBONATE OF POTASH. (See Potash.) 
BICARBONATE OF SODA. (See Soda.) 
BICUSPIDS, OR BICUSPID ATI, bi-cus-pidz [Lat. bis, and cuspis, 
a spear], in Anatomy, is applied to the two first pairs of molar teeth 
in each jaw, from their having two spearlike tubercles. 
BIDENS BIPINNATA, bi'-denz bipin-na -ta, Spanish Needles, an 
annual plant belonging to the Nat. order Asteracece, found growing 
from one to four feet high, on dry soils, throughout the Middle States. 
There are two other varieties, B. Frondosa, or beggar tick, and B. 
Conuata, or swamp beggar tick. It is an emmenagogue and expectorant, 
and has been successfully used in amenorrhcea, dysmenorrhoea, and other 
uterine derangements. An infusion of the B. Frondosa has been suc- 
cessfully used in croup. It is used also as a syrup, made with honey, and 
given in doses of 1 tablespoonful every ten or fifteen minutes, until vomit- 
ing ensues. 
BILBERRY. (See Vaccinium.) 
BILE, bile [Lat. bills, said to be from bis twice and Us strife, from 
the idea that strife or contentiousness was owing to a superabundance of 
bile], is a peculiar oily fluid secreted from the venous blood by the liver. 
It is separated from the blood of the portal vein by the primary cells of 
the liver, and these discharge it into small ducts which unite to form 
larger ones, terminating in the ductus communis choledochus, whence it 
is conveyed into the duodenum. It then mixes with the digested food, 
and performs the important office of fitting it for absorption into the 
system. The bile thus mixed with the elements of nutrition becomes in 
part also absorbed ; the excrementitious portion passing out of the body 
with the other indigestible materials, and imparting their peculiar color 
to them. When digestion is not going on the bile ascends through the 
cystic duct to the gall-bladder, where it is stored for future use. The 
principal use of the bile is to separate the chyle from the chyme. It 
also aids in exciting the peristaltic motion of the intestines, thus causing 
them to evacuate their contents sooner than they would otherwise do, 
and hence when there is a deficiency of bile the bowels are usually very 
torpid. Bile differs to some extent in nature and chemical composition 
in different animals. Human bile is a viscid and ropy fluid, of a greenish 
or brownish yellow color, a disagreeable odor, and a bitter nauseous 
taste. When poured into water it sinks to the bottom, and does not 
mingle readily with it unless agitated or stirred, and then it becomes 
frothy like a solution of soap. According to Berzelius, its constituents 
are in 1,000, water 904.4, biline (with fat and coloring principles) 80, 202 
BILE-BILIARY DISORDERS. 
mucus (chiefly from the gall-bladder) 3, salts 12.6. The able researches 
of Strecker have shown that bile is principally a combination of two 
peculiar resinous acids with sodium. One of these is termed cholic or 
glycocholic acid, a compound of cholalic or cholic acid and glycoline ; the 
other choleic or tauro-cholic acid, a compound of cholalic acid with 
taurin. Cholesterin is also a constituent of healthy bile, although the 
proportion does not exceed 1 in 10,000, according to Berzelius. Small 
quantities of various fatty bodies, chlorides, phosphate, iron, and 
manganese also occur. Besides these substances a peculiar coloring 
matter is found in combination with an alkaline base, the composition of 
which is not settled. The bile, like the other normal secretions, is- 
liable to alteration in its constituents in disease. The solid constituents 
of the bile are commonly increased in abdominal and heart diseases 
when the motion of the blood in the larger veins is impeded ; in severe 
inflammatory affections again it is commonly found to be poor in solid 
constituents. When, owing to some functional derangement, the bile is 
absorbed into the blood, and carried through the system, it imparts a 
yellow tint to the skin, producing the disease known as jaundice (which 
see). When from a torpid or diseased state of the liver the process of 
secretion is imperfectly carried on the person is said to be bilious. The 
secretion of bile is increased by rich, abundant, good diet, alcoholic 
liquor, heat, indolence, mercury, rhubarb, taraxacum, etc.; and is 
'diminished by light spare diet, active exercise, early rising, temperate 
atmosphere, etc. (See Liver, Biliousness; Bile, Pettenkofer's Test 
for ; Biliary Disorders, Bilious Cholera, Bilious Headache. ) 
BILE, PETTENKOFER'S TEST FOR, bilepet-ten-ko'-furz. The 
suspected fluid, or an alcoholic solution of the solid is placed in a test 
tube, and | the volume of pure sulphuric acid added by drops. When 
the mixture is cold, 2 or 3 drops of pure syrup is added, when, if 
choleic acid be present, the mixture assumes a violet red color. (See 
Bile. ) 
BILIARI CALCULI, bil -yarre kal'-ku-li [Lat. calculus, a small 
stone]. These are sometimes called gall-stones, and are often found in 
the human gall-bladder in large quantities. They are either semi- 
transparent and crystalline, or strongly colored with the bile. They 
mostly consist of cholesterin deposited on a nucleus of phosphate of lime. 
(See Calculus, Gall-Stones.) 
BILIARY DISORDERS. Biliary derangement is so frequent an 
ailment in civilized life, its history is so intimately connected with the 
general principles of health, and the prevention, or at least alleviation, 
of the disorder is so much under individual control, that it has special 
claims upon our attention. BILIARY DISORDERS. 
203 
In ordinary health there must be a certain balance maintained, 
between the secretion and ultimate destination of the bile, the assimila- 
tion of food, and the functions of respiration ; in the excreted bile, 
the blood is freed from certain principles-containing a large amount 
of carbon-which could not be retained in it without injury to health; 
further, the bile, after being separated from the blood by the liver, and 
thrown out into the general tract of the alimentary canal, performs 
an important part in the function of assimilation, and lastly, a con- 
siderable proportion of the bile-without the coloring 'matter-is 
re-absorbed into the system, with the nutriment, in such a state as 
to fit it-or rather its carbon-for union with the oxygen which enters 
by the lungs, so that while heat is generated, the carbon, by taking 
the form of carbonic acid, is fitted for excretion by the lungs or skin. 
Upon these facts, hinge the causes of one at least of the most prevalent 
biliary disorders, that which depends upon the introduction into the 
system of a proportion of carbon aliment too great to be removed by the 
oxygen obtainable through the lungs, and which has its ordinary termina- 
tion in the attacks which are termed, "bilious attacks," "sick head- 
aches," " bowel complaints, " " bilious cholera, " according to the man- 
ner in which the patient is affected. 
The second form of biliary disorder depends upon torpidity or 
inactivity of the liver itself.. The third form is the reverse of the first: 
the gland itself may be sufficiently active, but the blood does not afford 
sufficient material for it to work upon, and bile is deficient. This is 
most frequent in children. 
In addition to those affections, there is jaundice, which will be 
treated of in its proper place. 
The first form of biliary disorder, that dependent upon the accumu- 
lation of carbon, or of the elements of bile in the blood, must evi- 
dently be owing to one of the following causes, or a combination of them: 
either too much food, especially of a highly carbonized character, such 
as fats, oils, sugars, etc., is habitually consumed, or the habits are too 
physically inactive to keep the functions of respiration, animal heat, 
and motor change, and circulation, in healthy action; or the external 
atmosphere is so temporarily or permanently rarefied by heat, that the 
individual cannot obtain the full supply of oxygen in respiration; 
lastly, the excretory functions of the skin may be impeded. Now, 
although it is unquestionable that some individuals have a much greater 
tendency to biliary disorders than others, it is also unquestionable, 
that all have it in their power, in a great degree, if not entirely, to 
control or obviate that tendency, by attention to, and practical applica- 
tion of the above principles. In those who suffer habitually from sick 204 
BILIARY DISORDERS. 
headaches-which depend generally upon the presence of the bile in 
the stomach-and from other forms of biliary disorder common to this 
country, there is generally traceable great error in diet; fats, melted 
butter, pastry, meat, malt liquors or wine, and other highly carbonized 
articles of diet, are taken too freely, or at least, are too regularly 
indulged in, whilst at the same time very little active exercise is taken; 
the blood becomes overloaded with carbon; languor, sleepiness, head- 
aches, giddiness, loss of appetite, furred tongue, depression of spirits, 
are the consequences, and continue, until at last the system is relieved, 
wholly or partially, by an excessive excretion of vitiated bile, which 
passes off either by vomiting or purging. 
That deficient exercise has much to do with the formation of such a 
state of system, is evident from the greater prevalence of such attacks 
among females, who take little exercise, than among men ; and, indeed, 
they would be still more prevalent among the former, were it not for the 
monthly relief. Habitual neglect of the skin, also, by impeding the 
excretion of carbonic acid from its extensive surface, undoubtedly assists 
the evil. Again, we have bilious attacks, more especially those known 
by the name of bilious cholera, prevalent among the community generally 
-but at particular periods of the year-that is, in summer or autumn, 
during or immediately succeeding a prevailing high temperature, and to 
this high temperature must we look for the cause; for whilst as a general 
rule, habits have not been changed, people have been-in consequence 
of the rarefied atmosphere- inhaling a less proportion of oxygen than 
usual. Liebig calculates the difference at one-eighth between winter 
and summer in Germany. Here we have another traceable and uni- 
versally acting cause, permitting the accumulation of carbon in the 
blood, and one which is likewise found to operate upon Americans and 
Europeans especially, who, in tropical climates, adhere too nearly to the 
habits of comparatively full living, admissible in colder climates. 
Prevention.-From what has now been said, it is evident how much 
the avoidance of biliary disorder is under individual control; the ques- 
tion is in reality not one of medicine, but of diet and regimen ; medicine 
certainly may be required, but not by any means to the extent it is often 
used. Those who are habitually liable to biliary disorder ought most 
strictly to regulate the diet; fats of all kinds-except, in some cases,- 
must be avoided; butter either entirely avoided, or used in very small 
proportion, and never when melted; animal food may be taken in 
moderation, but should never be consumed at night; much sugar, strong 
tea or coffee, malt liquor, and the heavier wines, such as port, or sweet 
wines, are all bad. In addition to plain meat, bread, well-boiled 
vegetables, farinaceous preparations, and fruits, ripe or cooked, are the BILIARY DISORDERS-BILIOUS CHOLERA, ETC. 
205 
best articles of diet. Exercise regularly in the open air must be taken, 
and the skin kept clear and in an active state. If the bowels are con- 
fined, a pint of warm water, used as an injection, will be a most suitable 
aperient, or 1 or 2 of the compound rhubarb and blue pills may be 
taken; it is much better, however, not to trust to medicine. When 
from any cause, the languor, sleepiness, furred tongue, etc., give notice 
of an impending bilious attack, 5 or 6 grains of blue pill should be taken, 
or | of a grain of podophyllin, and followed by a black draught, or 
dose of infusion of senna, or of castor-oil, in the morning. Having thus 
cleared the system, it is better to trust to diet and regimen, than to a 
repetition of the dose as a corrective of indulgence. (See Air, Exer- 
cise, Diet, Health, Baths, Ablution, Mineral Waters, Bilious 
Cholera, Bilious Headache, Bile, Biliousness, Jaundice, Blue Pill, 
Mercury, Podophyllum Peltatum.) 
BILIARY DUCTS, in Anatomy, are those ducts or canals which 
convey the bile from the liver to the duodenum. (See Liver.) 
BILIOUS CHOLERA, OR CHOLERA MORBUS, W-yus kol'-e-ra. 
When, during prevailing high temperature, an individual is threatened 
with an attack of bilious cholera, or, as it is frequently called, when 
unattended with vomiting, "bowel complaint," there is for some 
time previously, much languor and sleepiness, especially after meals, 
headache, pain between the shoulders, furred tongue, loss of appetite, 
fullness in the region of the stomach, and high-colored urine. The 
complexion, perhaps, is dusky. When such symptoms show themselves, 
one or two doses of calomel or blue pill-4 grains of the former, 6 or 8 
of the latter-is nearly all that is required for their removal. 
Podophyllin is perhaps more efficient than even the mercurials, in 
relieving the symptoms of overloaded liver. The ordinary dose for an 
adult is from £ to of a grain. 2 grains of compound rhubarb pill, 1 
grain of extract of henbane, and £ of a grain of podophyllin, form a 
pill that may be taken with advantage by most persons. 
The mercurial may be followed or not, as required, by a dose of senna- 
tea, or castor-oil. The diet of course ought to be restricted. If there 
is any tendency to heat or feverishness, 10 grains of carbonate of potash, 
along with a teaspoonful of sweet spirit of nitre, taken in a wine-glassful 
of water, or of infusion of dandelion, twice a day, will relieve. 
If the symptoms above-mentioned are neglected, the acute bilious 
attack, usually known as bilious cholera, is the winding up; it is ushered 
in by a sensation of chilliness, giddiness or headache, bitter taste in the 
mouth, and nausea in most cases, quickly succeeded by vomiting of bile, 
and griping and purging. An attack of this kind may pass off lightly, 
leaving the patient better than for some time previously, or it may be 206 
BILIOUS CHOLERA, ETC. 
so severe as to threaten life. In the latter case, the vomiting is inces- 
sant, the purging profuse, painful, and exhausting, and the motions, 
which were at first feculent and bilious, become light-colored, like thin 
gruel; there is much thirst, cold and blue skin, covered with cold per- 
spiration, cramps, much depression, the pulse imperceptible or nearly so, 
and perhaps the secretion of urine suppressed. In short, it is difficult 
to distinguish the attack from one of the malignant Asiatic cholera. 
Between the severe form and the mildest, the disease occurs in 
every degree of severity; if severe, the attack is always painful and 
alarming, and may be dangerous; and in the country, or at a distance 
from medical aid, requires to be quickly dealt with. The first thing to 
be kept in mind is, that the manifestations are not the disease; that the 
actual outbreak is only an effort of nature to free the system of morbid 
matter; that we may guide, control, and stop, if matters go too fast, but 
must not thwart. A mild attack of bilious cholera is better left alone, 
as far as medicine is concerned, diluent drinks, such as barley or rice- 
water, etc., being given to dilute the bile, which is generally acrid, and 
to assist its passage from the system. In a severer attack, when pain, 
purging, and other symptoms become urgent, it is time to interfere. 
The patient, if not in bed-which, however, frequently happens, from 
the attacks coming on in the night-should go there at once, land hot 
applications, bran and such like, used to the bowels to relieve the pain; 
or more extensively to the limbs, back, etc., if there is much coldness or 
ci;amp. A mustard plaster, the size of the hand, to the pit of the 
stomach will sometimes abate the sickness-general friction is service- 
able. 20 to 25 drops of laudanum should be given to allay pain, 
and moderate purging, and repeated two or three, or even more times 
in succession every half-hour till some effect is produced-if the first 
dose conies up, the second should be given at once; if that does not stay, 
then the third. If the stomach will not retain liquid of any kind, if it 
is to be procured, the powder of opium should be given in a 1 grain 
pill; and if it remains, the dose repeated, if required, in an hour, or a 
half-dose given. Sometimes the vomiting is so obstinate that no ordinary 
means will stop it. Many families in the country now keep creosote for 
toothache; in such a case as the above, a single drop rubbed up with a 
little gum or thick barley-water might be tried, and repeated once: or 
4 to 8 drops of chloroform in a little sugar and water, or brandy and 
water, might have the desired effect. Two tablespoonful doses of the 
ordinary chalk mixture, either with or without the laudanum, or | dram 
doses of aromatic confection will be useful when purging continues. In 
addition to these means, diluent demulcent drinks, barley and rice-water, 
with isinglass or gelatine dissolved in them, are to be freely taken. In BILIOUS CHOLERA, ETC.-BILIOUS HEADACHE. 
207 
case of extreme depression, stimulants, hot brandy and water, etc., are 
to be administered. The attack of bilious cholera is so sudden and its 
course so rapid, that if there is any great distance to send for medical 
assistance, there will be full time for the employment of the above 
means, not only to the relief, but also to the safety of the patient. After 
the attack has somewhat subsided, keeping in mind that the tendency of 
it is to clear the system, the bowels must not be allowed to get confined, 
but kept slightly relaxed; if requisite, 1 dessert-spoonful of castor-oil, 
with 6 drops of laudanum, or a small dose of rhubarb and magnesia, 
with or without laudanum, may be given. The diet should be chiefly 
of a diluent character for a short time, but nourishing. Should any of 
the symptoms which preceded the attack, such as languor, fullness about 
the region of the liver, pain between the shoulders, furred tongue, etc., 
continue, a few doses of the compound rhubarb and blue pill will be 
advisable; if the stomach remains weak, from 5 to 10 grains of car- 
bonate of potash in a wine-glassful of infusion of calumba or gentian 
will be found useful, and if the tongue is perfectly clean and there is debil- 
ity, 1 grain of quinine in £ glass of sherry twice a day. (See Bile, 
Biliary Disorders, Biliousness, Autumnal Complaints ; Cholera, 
Asiatic; Blue Pill, Mercury, Podophyllum Peltatum.') 
BILIOUS COLIC. (See Colic.) 
BILIOUS FEVER. (See Remittent Fever.) 
BILIOUS HEADACHE. That form of headache to which the term 
bilious headache is applied, though often connected with alteration of 
the hepatic function, is also frequently dependent on disorder of the 
stomach. It is characterized by a dull, heavy feeling, rather than of 
acute pain, in the head, chiefly in the forehead, over the eyes, and in 
the eyes themselves. These organs, if pressed upon or turned upwards, 
are found to be very painful. There is often giddiness, always great 
languor and depression, and a tendency to drowsiness and sleep, which, 
though deep, is not refreshing. The conjunctivae, or white portions of 
the eyes, are sometimes slightly jaundiced. There is very generally 
nausea and sickness; and after continuing for a longer or shorter time, 
the attack is not uncommonly terminated by vomiting of green bile, 
often in considerable quantity. The bowels, in such circumstances, 
have most probably been irregular for some days previously, perhaps 
■obstinately confined. 
Many persons suffer from frequently recurring attacks of bilious 
headache; while others, by a careful attention to diet and regimen, con- 
trive to ward them off. Those who are apt to be thus affected should 
exercise great caution in the matter of food. All rich articles should 
be avoided-such are by no means badly named bilious; nor should less 208 
BILIOUS HEADACHE-BILIOUSNESS. 
care be exercised in regard to what is chosen for drink. Bilious sub- 
jects must learn to avoid highly dressed meat - stews and such like, 
pastry, and malt liquors. Plainly dressed and well-cooked meat, and 
not much of it; and farinaceous food should constitute the diet. As to 
tea and coffee, they sometimes disagree with such persons, and if so, 
milk or cocoa may be substituted. The bowels must be carefully regu- 
lated. It is surprising how much may be done in this way without hav- 
ing recourse to medicine. By due attention to diet and regimen, the 
healthy action of the alimentary canal may often be maintained. 
For tlie relief of the headache, however, a dose of laxative medicine 
will generally be found indispensable; let it be of salts, or salts with 
senna, or of compound rhubarb (Dr. Gregory's) powder, or a dessert- 
spoonful of effervescent citrate of magnesia; let cold be applied over 
the forehead; and, while the headache lasts in a severe form, let the 
patient practice abstinence. From 15 to 30 grains of powdered guarana, 
or from 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls of the elixir of guarana, will frequently 
give prompt relief. When the headache has departed, if appetite 
speedily returns, as it sometimes does in a keen degree, let there be 
indulgence to a limited extent, and, for a time, only in what is 
simple and of easy digestion. (See Biliary Disorders, Biliousness, 
Bile, Exercise, Diet, Batus, Mineral Waters, Health, Air.) 
BILIOUSNESS, WtT-yus-nes^ a state of biliary disorder, generally 
connected with stomach derangement, which is not always the con- 
sequence of excess of aliment, but may even arise from the reverse, 
and which requires the aid of medicine for its removal; the liver is 
torpid, the blood is insufficiently freed from its superfluous carbon, and 
in addition to impaired digestion, the individual suffers from the train 
of symptoms previously enumerated as attendant upon the first form 
of biliary disorder, mental and physical depression being the most 
prominent. (See Biliary Disorders.) The bowels are confined, and 
the motions inclined to be light or chalky, at other times almost black. 
There is pain between the shoulders, and sensation of fullness in the 
stomach. When such a train of symptoms occurs, it is better to take 
proper medical advice; if this cannot be done, in order to relieve, a 
few grains of blue pill, or gray powder, or f of a grain of podophyllin, 
may be given every night, or every other night, each to be followed by 
a moderate dose of castor-oil, or infusion of senna in the morning. At 
first, the infusion of taraxacum, with from 5 to 10 grains of carbonate 
of potash, and, if the stomach is weak, a teaspoonful of tincture of 
calumba, taken twice a day, will be of much service. The diet should 
be nourishing and easy of digestion-such as plain meat, potato and 
light puddings-but pastry, cheese, and oily preparations of all kinds BILIOUSNESS. 
209 
should be avoided. In cases of debility, wine, malt liquor, or a little 
weak brandy or whisky and water, whichever generally agrees best, 
may be taken medicinally in moderation. Daily exercise to the extent 
of slight fatigue, relaxation from business, cheerful company, early hours, 
and attention to the state of the skin by means of the tepid bath or spong- 
ing, are all assistant means, and will, even of themselves, be sufficient to 
remove slight attacks. Where the bowels are obstinate, injections of 
tepid water are especially useful, and preferable to the continual use of 
purgatives, which weaken the digestive power of the stomach. When 
the tongue is tolerably clear, and debility of the stomach, or of the system 
generally, remains, 20 drops of dilute nitric acid may be taken with 
advantage twice a day, either in water or in infusion of taraxacum, with 
or without the addition of a tonic bitter. 
It is important to have a clear distinction in the mind between the 
two conditions treated of under the article Biliary Disorder. In the 
former, that which precedes the attack of bilious cholera, the liver 
fails because there is more given it to perform than it can do, even in its 
most healthy state ; in the latter, the liver itself is incapable of doing 
the work it ought, to maintain a healthy condition of body. In the 
former case, reduction of diet is evidently the most common-sense pre- 
vention and cure; in the latter, the organ must be brought up to its 
work; and made, if possible, to do its part in the assimilation of 
sufficient nutriment for health. The diet is to be regulated, not dimin- 
ished, the general functions kept active, and especially the nervous 
system, by moderate, exhilarating exercise, both of mind and body, is 
to be maintained in such a state of regular tonicity, as will enable it to 
impart that due stimulation-which is so much wanted in these cases 
-to every function connected with assimilation. When cases of chronic 
biliary disorder present feverish symptoms, the mercurial at night, and 
the aperient in the morning are still to be used, and also the potash and 
taraxacum, but without the bitter; animal food and stimulants are to be 
strictly forbidden, and milk and farinaceous diet substituted ; the tepid 
bath should be used, and also injections. 
Although such general directions as will be found useful in the 
treatment of chronic biliary disorder have been given, it is not recom- 
mended that home medicine should be resorted to when medical 
assistance is within reach. Much certainly may be done by judicious 
management, but it is probable that efficient medical advice will save 
both time and suffering. 
In children, particularly those of fair complexion, deficiency of 
biliary secretion is frequently evidenced by the irregular action of the 
bowels, and light-colored chalky motions. It is of course desirable to 210 
BILIO USNESS-BINDER. 
correct this, but it must not be attempted by the " gray powders," so 
usually resorted to. They will, undoubtedly, for a time improve the 
appearance of the motions by causing an increased flow of bile, but 
this is obtained at the expense of the system, which does not appear 
able to furnish sufficient material for the secretion-in a few days the 
motions are as deficient in bile as ever. Such a condition can only be 
permanently corrected by a good allowance of animal food, and general 
tonic treatment, iron being especially requisite; a few grains of gray 
powder, however, being given once or twice a week. (See Exercise, 
Air, Diet, Baths, Health, Biliary Disorders, Bile, Bilious Head- 
ache, Mercury, Blue Pill, Podophyllum Peltatum, Mineral Waters.) 
BILIOUS TEMPERAMENT. (See Temperament.) 
BILLS OF MORTALITY. (See Mortality.) 
BINDER, l)ind'-ur^ the bandage which is put round the abdomen of 
the mother in childbirth, and which forms a most important requisite, 
both as regards the comfort and safety of the patient. Many forms of 
binder are used, but none are so generally applicable, or so efficient, as 
a light, small table-cloth, or shawl, or square of calico, folded broad like 
a cravat, so that it will embrace the whole of the lower portion of the 
abdomen, and can be tied in a double knot at the back outside the bed- 
dress, where it is under the control of the attendant. The binder ought 
always to be put on at the commencement of labor, and tied so as just to 
give comfortable and moderate support to the abdomen-as the process 
of parturition progresses, it must be gradually tightened, and as soon as 
the child is born, as much so as will afford comfortable support-lastly, 
after the separation of the after-birth, it must be tightened again. In all 
these changes, the best guide is the feeling of the patient; comfortable, 
efficient support being all that is requisite ; if tied too tightly, the binder 
will do mischief. The greatest benefit which results from the early 
application of the binder, is the prevention of faintness. The sudden 
emptying of the abdominal cavity which takes place when the child is 
expelled, is quite as frequently a cause of the above symptom, as loss of 
blood, the effect being in a great measure purely mechanical, and similar 
to what occurs when fluid is drawn from the belly in dropsy. This 
mechanical support given by the binder, moreover, exerts regular and 
regulated pressure, which must give some assistance to the efforts of 
the womb, and lastly, after the concluding processes of labor are over, 
it is no slight advantage to have a firm efficient binder in its place, 
instead of having to disturb the patient by its adjustment. In cases of 
hemorrhage or flooding, such an arrangement maybe of the very highest 
importance. In the course of an hour or two after labor is concluded, 
the form of binder which has been recommended above, can be BINDER-BISMUTH 
211 
exchanged for the ordinary broad band, fastened round the abdomen by 
pins, or buckles, or for one of the numerous forms of binder, shaped to 
fit the abdomen. One of the best forms is made of double calico, and 
about ten inches wide in the centre; one of the ends being rather 
broader than the other, so as to admit of the latter running through the 
slit, and both being sufficiently long to be brought round and fastened 
in front. (See Childbed.) 
BINDWEED. (See Convolvulus.) 
BIOLOGT, bi-ol'-o-je [Gr. life, and logos, a discourse], is the 
science of life. In its widest sense, it includes life in all its forms on 
earth, and thus comprehends within its sphere all living organized beings. 
In a more restricted sense, it regards man only, and in this view it may 
be said to correspond with Physiology. (See Physiology.) 
BIPED, bi'-ped [Lat. bis, twice, and pes, pedis, a foot], an animal 
having two feet; as man, bird. 
BIRCH. (See Betula.) 
BIRD-NESTS, EDIBLE, burd'-nests ed'-e-bl, the nests of a small 
Indian swallow, which are considered a delicacy, and are frequently 
mixed among soups. On the sea-coasts of China and in Java, at certain 
seasons of the year, vast numbers of these birds are seen. They con- 
struct their nests out of a substance which they find upon the shore. 
This gelatinous matter is supposed by Kempfer to be mollusca or sea- 
worms ; according to M. Ie Poivre it is fish-spawn; and according to 
Linnaeus a kind of medusa or jelly-fish, called by fishermen blubbers or 
jellies. The nests are of a hemispherical shape, and about the size of a 
goose's egg; and in substance bear a strong resemblance to ichthyocolla 
or isinglass. They are gathered by the Chinese, and sent to all parts of 
the world, and are esteemed a great luxury. 
BIRTH. (See Childbed, Parturition.) 
BIRTHWORT. (See Aristolochia.) 
BISCUITS, HOT, Ins'-kits. Hot biscuits should be avoided by those 
of weak digestive powers. 
BISMUTH, biz'-muth [Ger. bismut], in Chemistry, symbol Bi; 
atomic weight 213; specific gravity 9.8-a metal of grayish-white color, 
with a strong characteristic tinge of red. It is hard, brittle, and but 
slightly malleable. It fuses at 507°, and is obtained in fine cubical 
crystals by slow cooling. The peculiar property it possesses of expand- 
ing as it cools, renders its alloys of great use to the type-founder and 
die-sinker. It also increases the fusibility of other metals with which it 
is united. The remarkable alloy known as "fusible metal," contains 
one equivalent of bismuth, one of lead, and two of tin; it fuses below 
212°, and, by a certain admixture of cadmium, can be melted at a still 212 
BISMUTH-BITES AND STINGS. 
lower temperature. Bismuth is also occasionally used in cupellation, 
and some of its compounds are used as pigments, the hydrated oxy- 
chloride being used as a cosmetic under the name of pearl-white. 
Bismuth occurs in nature principally in the metallic form in the clay- 
slate and gneiss formations, its principal source being Schneeberg, in 
Saxony ; it is also found in Cumberland and Cornwall, England, in Cali- 
fornia, Texas, and Utah. Bismuth is extracted from the ore by heating it 
in inclined cast-iron tubes with cups attached. The tubes are brought to 
a white heat, and the bismuth flows into the cups, which are at the 
lowest part of the incline. Bismuth forms two oxides-the teroxide, 
Bi0o, and an acid oxide, BiOc, or bismuthic acid. Nitrate of bismuth 
o' 7 o' 
is prepared by dissolving the metal in dilute nitric acid with the aid of 
heat, which gives rise to four-sided prisms, which are decomposed by 
water into an acid nitrate, which remains in solution, and a basic nitrate, 
the trisnitrate of bismuth, falls as a precipitate. This salt was formerly 
called magistery of bismuth. Bismuth occurs in nature associated with 
cobalt, silver, tin, and arsenic; also as an oxide in bismuth ochre; as 
a sulphide in bismuthine or bismuth glance; as an arsenide, a carbonate, 
and a silicate, in bismuth-blende. It is employed medicinally as an 
antispasmodic, sedative, and astringent in irritable conditions of the 
mucous membrane of the stomach, as in gastrodynia, chronic sickness 
and vomiting, diarrhoea, etc. It is also used externally as an ointment 
mildly stimulant in certain chronic diseases of the skin. Bismuth is 
purified by taking 10 ounces of the metal and 1 ounce of nitrate of 
potash in powder, and fusing them in a crucible, constantly stirring the 
mass for fifteen minutes, or until the salt has solidified into a clay over 
the metal; then remove the salt, add another ounce of the nitrate of 
potash, and repeat the process; then pour the metal into a suitable 
mould, and allow it to cool. 
BISTOURY, bis-tur-e [Fr. bistoire], in Surgery, is any small knife 
used for opening abscesses, and other surgical purposes. It may be 
straight or curved, ponvex or concave, sharp-pointed or probe-pointed, etc. 
BITES AND STINGS, bites and stingz. Bites and stings may be 
divided into three kinds:-1. Those of insects. 2. Those of snakes. 
3. Those of dogs and other animals. 
1. The bites and stings of insects, such as gnats, bees, wasps, etc., 
need cause very little alarm, and are, generally speaking, easily cured. 
They are very serious, however, when they take place on some delicate 
part of the body, such as near the eye, or in the throat. The treatment 
is very simple in most cases, and consists in taking out the sting, if it is 
left behind, with a needle, and applying to the part a liniment made of 
finely-scraped chalk and olive-oil, mixed together to about the thickness BITES ANN STINGS. 
213 
of cream. Bathing the part bitten with warm turpentine or warm 
vinegar is also of great use. Soda is employed; but ammonia or harts- 
horn-the weaker solution-is the best form of alkaline preparation; it 
may be used alone, or mingled with oil. If the person feels faint, he 
should lie quietly on his back, and take a little brandy or whiskey and 
water, or sal-volatile and water. When the inside of the throat is the part 
stung, there is great danger of violent inflammation taking place. In this 
case, from 8 to 12 leeches should be immediately put to the outside of 
the throat, and when they drop off, the part to which they have been 
applied should be well fomented with warm water. The inside of the 
throat is to be constantly gargled with salt and water. Bits of ice are 
to be sucked. Rubbing the face and hands well over with plain olive- 
oil before going to bed, will often keep gnats and mosquitoes from biting 
during the night. Strong scent, such as eau de Cologne, will have the 
same effect. 
2. Bites of snakes or serpents.-The bite of venomous serpents is 
always followed by pain in the parts wounded, which extends over the 
limb or body; a hard swelling ensues, pale at first, soon becoming red, 
livid, and gangrenous. Vomiting, fainting, small and irregular pulse, 
convulsions, difficult breathing, a failure of the sight and intellectual 
powers, and cold sweats follow. Inflammation, suppuration, and gan- 
grene in the wound, sometimes occur before death. 
Treatment of the part bitten.- The great thing is to prevent the 
poison getting into the blood; and, if possible, to remove the whole of 
it at once from the body. A pocket handkerchief, a piece of tape or 
cord, or, in fact, of anything that is at hand, should be tied tightly 
round the part of the body bitten; if it be the leg or arm, immediately 
above the bite, and between it and the heart. The bite should then be 
sucked several times by any one who is near. There is no danger m 
this, provided the person who does it has not got the skin taken off any 
part of his mouth. What has been sucked into the mouth should be 
immediately spitted out again. But if those who are near have sufficient 
nerve for the operation, and a suitable instrument, they should cut out 
the central part bitten, and then bathe the wound for some time with 
warm water, to make it bleed freely. The wound should afterwards be 
rubbed with a stick of lunar caustic, or caustic potash, or a red-hot iron 
should be applied, or nitric acid, or lye boiled down to consistency of 
molasses should be applied, or a solution of 60 grains of lunar caustic dis- 
solved in 1 ounce of water, should be dropped into it. The handker- 
chief or band should be kept on the part during the whole of the time 
that these means are being adopted. The wound should afterwards be 
covered with lint dipped in cold water. The best plan, however, to be 214 
BITES AND STINGS. 
adopted, if it can be managed, is the following: Take a common wine- 
glass, and holding it upside down, put a lighted candle or spirit-lamp 
into it for a minute or two. This will take out the air. Then clap the 
glass suddenly over the bitten part, and it will become attached, and 
hold on to the flesh. The glass being nearly empty of air, the blood 
containing the poison will, in consequence, flow into it from the wound 
of its own accord. This process should be repeated three or four times, 
and the wound sucked or washed with warm water before each applica- 
tion of the glass. As a matter of course, when the glass is removed, all 
the blood should be washed out of it before it is applied again. 
We would again urge the importance of instantly cutting out a 
portion of the skin and flesh around the bite, if it can be done. If 
powerful caustics are not at hand, lye may be made by pouring water 
over wood ashes, then boil to consistency of molasses, and apply freely 
to the wound with a smooth stick. 
Constitutional treatment.-As soon as possible, and while persever- 
ing in the foregoing treatment, administer spirituous liquor of some 
kind in very large quantities, and continue it till inebriation sets in, 
which will be an indication that the poison is being overcome; after 
inebriation is fairly set in, gradually diminish the doses of liquor. It 
must be remembered that while the poison is in the ascendency, it will 
require very large draughts of liquor to produce the desired effect, as 
much as half a tumbler at a time is often given, and repeated many 
times before inebriation ensues. Alcoholic liquor is not an antidote for 
serpent bites when the person has been accustomed to use liquors freely. 
The spirit of hartshorn or sal-volatile has been somewhat extensively 
tried as an antidote to the poison of venomous serpents. It is 
applied to the wound, and taken internally in doses of 1 teaspoonful 
every five or ten minutes in a wine-glassful of water, till reaction is 
thoroughly established. Cases have been reported in which it was given 
with success when the system was under the full influence of the 
venom. Many who are acquainted with the virtues of this medicine, and 
are exposed to these reptiles, are in the habit of always carrying it with 
them. So well aware are the intelligent natives of India of the efficacy 
of the spirits of hartshorn in these bites, that they commence with it on 
the instant, not waiting for superior advice. Inflammation, fever, debility, 
etc. (which see) arising from these bites, must be treated upon the general 
principles of treating these affections. In all cases of bites from venomous 
snakes, send for a surgeon as quickly as possible, and act according to the 
above directions until he arrives. 
3. Bites of rabid dogs.-When an individual has been bitten by 
an animal, respecting which the slightest suspicion of hydrophobia exists, BITES AND STINGS. 
215 
the one remedy cannot be too quickly resorted to, complete excision of 
the bitten part. Some persons have possessed sufficient nerve to do this 
for themselves; few perhaps could, but it has often been effected by 
unprofessional persons for others ; indeed, there might be more danger 
in waiting many hours for a surgeon, than in submitting to unprofessional 
operation. The method of excision most to be trusted is the insertion 
of a skewer of wood, made to fit into the wound caused by the tooth, 
and carrying the incision so far round, that the entire hollow or cone of 
flesh is cut out along with the piece of wood. This might be done with 
safety in the thick part of the calves of the legs, or on the back parts of 
the thighs or buttocks. Where excision is not resorted to, the free 
application of nitric acid, caustic potash, or lye boiled down to con- 
sistency of molasses, whichever may be most readily procured, must not 
be neglected,-lunar caustic is not sufficiently strong to be reliable; or 
in lieu of these, a piece of iron, heated to whiteness, may be inserted 
into the wound, so as thoroughly to destroy the surface which may 
have been poisoned. These may seem severe measures, but they are 
light compared to the unceasing anxiety of mind which must haunt a 
person who, after having been bitten, feels that due precaution has 
not been taken; and light indeed compared with liability to the disease 
itself. In the event of none of the above measures being submitted to, 
or available, the wound may be thoroughly washed for hours, by means 
of a stream of warm water poured upon it from a height; a cupping-glass 
being applied at intervals. These measures are of course only pro- 
visional, until the attendance of a surgeon can be procured. 
As might be imagined, the preventive medicines for hydrophobia 
are very numerous; some have been thought highly of by medical 
men, but for the most part they are secret, quack remedies, and perfectly 
worthless. It is absolute folly to trust to them, to the exclusion of the 
only certain preventive-excision or destruction of the wounded 
tissues. 
When, from the peculiar symptoms, and taken in connection with 
the circumstances altogether they can scarcely be overlooked, an indi- 
vidual is thought to be attacked with hydrophobia, if the hope of saving 
life is small, much may be done to alleviate so terrible an affliction by 
proper medical care, which must be sought for at once; in the mean- 
time, whilst all those sights and sounds which aggravate suffering are 
carefully avoided, laudanum may be given in 30 drop doses, and repeated 
as circumstances seem to dictate. If ice can be taken, it is said to afford 
relief, put into the mouth in small morsels; it has also been found of 
service applied to the back of the neck. If, on the arrival of a medical 
man, he likes to try any of the various remedies which have been pro- 216 
BITES AND STINGS. 
posed in this disease, he of course can do so, but the above-mentioned 
will be sufficient for lay interference. 
Some recommend immediate salivation with mercury in addition to 
the foregoing treatment, as one of the most reliable means of neutraliz- 
ing the poison in the blood before it affects the system. Mere scratches 
are considered by some more dangerous than deep wounds. The free 
use of caustic potash, nitric acid, or lye boiled down to consistency of 
molasses, are considered by some physicians to be efficacious, even if 
applied within two or three days after the bite occurs. Lye may be 
prepared impromptu by pouring boiling water over wood ashes, then 
strain out the lye, boil it down to consistency of molasses, and apply 
with a smooth stick. The majority of writers on the subject are in favor 
of keeping the wounds open as long as possible. This may be done by 
putting a few raw beans on it, and then by applying a large linseed-meal 
poultice over them. 
Is a man who has been bitten by a mad dog, and in whose ease no 
precautions have been taken, a doomed man? Will he be sure to have 
the disease, and therefore to die of it? By no means. But few, upon 
the whole, of those who are so bitten become affected with hydrophobia. 
This frequent immunity from the disease in persons who have been 
bitten, has tended to confer reputation upon many vaunted methods 
of prevention. Ignorant and knavish persons have not failed to 
take advantage of this. They announce that they are in possession of 
some secret remedy which will prevent the virus from operating; they 
persuade the friends of those who die that the remedy was not rightly 
employed, or not resorted to sufficiently early; and they persuade those 
who escape, that they escape by virtue of the preventive remedy. If 
the plunder they reap from the foolish and the frightened were all, this 
would be of less consequence, but unfortunately the hope of security 
without undergoing a painful operation leads many to neglect the only 
sure mode of obtaining safety. 
A still more anxious inquiry next arises. Whoever has been bitten 
by a rabid or suspected animal must be considered, and will generally 
consider himself, as being in more or less danger of hydrophobia. This 
dread is not entirely removed, even by the adoption of the best means 
of prevention. Now, how long does this state of hazard continue? 
When is the peril fairly over? After what period may the person who 
has received the injury lay aside all apprehension of the disease? To 
this inquiry, no satisfactory reply can be given. In a vast majority of 
instances, indeed, the disorder has broken out within two months from the 
infliction of the bite. But the exceptions of this rule are too numerous 
to permit us to put firm trust in the unanimity afforded by that interval. BITES AND STINGS-BITUMEN 
217 
Mr. Youatt describes cases in which there had been no symptoms of 
rabies observed in the dog at the time the injury was inflicted, though 
soon afterwards the animal was decidedly rabid. It is much to be 
regretted that the dog is so often destroyed. When a person has been 
bitten by a dog or cat suspected to be rabid, the beast ought by no 
means to be killed, but to be secured and kept under surveillance, and 
suffered, if it should so happen, to die of the disease. If he do not die, 
in other words, if he be really not rabid, that will soon appear, and the 
mind of the patient will then be relieved from a very painful state of 
suspense and uncertainty, which might otherwise have haunted him for 
months or years. Should the dog die mad, the injured person will be no 
worse off than if the animal had been killed in the first instance; nay, 
in one respect, he will be better off, inasmuch as certainty of evil is pre- 
ferable to perpetual and uneasy doubt. 
In this article we have merely given preventive treatment. Hydro- 
phobia will be treated in its proper place. (See Hydrophobia.) 
BITTER ALMOND. (See Amygdalus.) 
BITTERN, bit'-turn, the mother-liquor left after the extraction of salt 
from sea-water by crystallization. It contains sulphate of magnesia, 
or Epsom salts, in large quantities, and is one of the principal sources 
of that salt. 
BITTER ROOT. (See Apocynace^e. ) 
BITTERS, bit'-turz [Ang.-Sax.], the common name for an infusion of 
bitter herbs, which is consumed in large quantities as a stomachic. 
Water will extract the virtues of most bitter substances as well as 
spirituous liquors; but on account of the disposition of spirituous solu- 
tions to keep for a long time, it may sometimes be desirable to use rum, 
brandy, wine, whiskey, or alcohol, in which to dissolve or steep the 
bitter substances; but this is not at all necessary to secure the full effect 
of the bitters. The best bitters are quinine, Peruvian bark, Colombo, 
gentian, quassia, cascarilla bark, chamomile flowers, the inner bark of 
the wild cherry-tree, and wormwood. Several barks may be combined, 
or one substance only may be used. Cinnamon, nutmeg, coriander, 
cardamom, and sugar or simple syrup may be used to flavor. When 
aperient and diuretic properties, in addition to the tonic, are desired, a 
small quantity of Turkey rhubarb and juniper berries may be added, the 
former being aperient and the latter diuretic. Quassia bitters are prefer- 
able for those having a tendency to constipation, as quassia possesses no 
astringent properties. (See Stomachic, Tonics, Dyspepsia.) 
BITTER SWEET. (See Solanum Dulcamara.) 
BITTER WEED. (See Ambrosia.) 
BITUMEN, be-tu'-men [Lat.] This term includes a number of 218 
BITUMEN-BLACK DEATH. 
inflammable mineral substances. The fluid are naphtha, petroleum, 
mineral tar, mineral pitch. The solid are asphaltum, elastic bitumen, or 
mineral caoutchouc, mineral adipocire, retinasphaltum, pit coal, jet 
mellilite or honey-stone, and amber. Of these substances, asphaltum 
and amber have been used in medicine. (See Asphaltum:, Amber.) 
BLACK ALDER. (See Prinos Verticillatus.) 
BLACK ASH, blak ash, impure soda, contaminated with sulphide 
of calcium, charcoal, and other impurities, formed in the manufacture of 
soda from sea-salt. By lixiviation, filtration, and evaporation, the ordin- 
ary soda of commerce is produced. (See Soda.) 
BLACKBERRY. (See Rubus.) 
BLACKBERRY, SYRUP OF. (See Syrups.) 
BLACK COHOSH, blak ko'-hosh [Actea Hacemosa~\, a perennial 
plant belonging to the Nat. order Ranunculacew. It grows in all parts 
of the United States and Canada, and is known by the common names 
of black snake-root, rattle-root, rich-weed, and squaw-weed. The root is 
the part used, and its activity is due to a resinous principle called 
Cimiclfugln. This is an active, powerful and useful remedy, and 
appears to fulfil a great number of indications. It possesses an un- 
doubted influence over the nervous system, and has been successfully 
used in chorea, periodical convulsions, epilepsy, nervous excitability, 
asthma, whooping-cough, delirium tremens, and many spasmodic affec- 
tions ; in consumption, cough, acute rheumatism, neuralgia, milk leg, 
amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, and other uterine affections. 
Its tonic and antiperiodic virtues are well marked in remittent and 
intermittent fevers. The infusion is made by putting 1 ounce of the root 
into 1 pint of boiling water. Dose: of fluid extract, £ to 2 teaspoon- 
fuls; compound fluid extract, £ to 1 teaspoonful; tincture, 1 to 2 tear 
spoonfuls ; decoction or infusion, 2 to 4 fluid ounces, three or four times 
a day. (See Decoction.) 
BLACK DEATH, blak deth. Black death is the name given to a 
most destructive pestilence, which, towards the middle of the fourteenth 
century, extended itself over all parts of the known world. It took its 
name from the black spots which appeared on the skin. It was an 
intense form of the oriental plague, and, like it, was characterized by 
buboes and carbuncles. It is said to have taken its rise in China, and 
to have thence traveled westward to Europe, where it made its appear- 
ance in 1348. Some accounts state that the impure air was actually 
visible as it approached with its burden of death. Historians of that 
time give a most horrible picture of the sufferings and deaths that were 
occasioned by it. In Europe alone, during the three years that it pre- 
vailed, it is said to have carried off 25,000,000 persons, London having Black Cohosh. (Actea Racemosa.) BLACK DEATH-BLADDER. 
219 
lost over 100,000. It was looked upon as a judgment of heaven; and 
many thought to save themselves by giving their goods to the church, 
or by personal chastisements. The Jews were also looked upon as the 
cause of it; and, in consequence, great numbers of them suffered 
death. In the city of Mayence alone 12,000 of them were cruelly 
murdered. The black death has several times made its appearance in 
Europe since that time, but never with the same virulence. Boccaccio, 
in the introduction to his ' ' Decameron, ' ' has given a lively description 
of its physical and moral effects in Florence. 
BLACK DRAUGHT, blak draft, is an active, saline purgative 
frequently employed when a speedy evacuation of the bowels is desired. 
It is composed of an infusion of senna and Epsom salts, with ginger, or 
some other aromatic to counteract its griping tendency. (See Cassia.) 
BLACK-DROP, blak'-drop, is a preparation of opium, formerly secret. 
It is, essentially, a preparation of acetate of morphia, and is devoid of 
some of the stimulating properties of crude opium. Black-drop is 
estimated at three times the strength of ordinary laudanum. Dose, 12 
drops; for a child two years old, 2 drops. 
BLACK EYES. (See Bruises.) 
BLACK HAW. (See Viburnum Prunifolium.) 
BLACK HELLEBORE. (See Helleborus Niger.) 
BLACK LARCH. (See Larix Americana.) 
BLACK OAK. (See Quercus.) 
BLACK PEPPER. (See Piper Nigrum.) 
BLACK SNAKE ROOT. (See Black Cohosh.) 
BLACK VOMIT. (See Yellow Fever.) 
BLADDER, blad'-dur [Sax. bidder, from blawan, to blow], vesica 
urinaria in Anatomy, is a thin membraneous bag which serves as a 
receptacle for the urine secreted by the kidneys, until it is voided 
through the urethra. It is situated in the pelvis, and is kept in its place 
by ligaments, which are usually divided into true and false, the latter 
being formed of folds of the peritoneum. It is composed of three coats 
or membranes-the external or fibrous membrane, the middle or muscu- 
lar membrane, and the internal or mucous membrane. The muscular 
membrane is composed of bands of muscular fibres running in different 
directions, and commonly distinguished into two layers, an external or 
longitudinal, and an internal transverse or circular. Its figure is nearly 
that of a short oval. It is broader on the fore and back than on the 
lateral parts; rounder above than below, when empty; and broader 
below than above, when full. It is divided by anatomists into the sum- 
mit or superior fundus, the body, the base or inferior fundus, and the 
neck-that portion which is constricted by a sphincter muscle, and com- 220 
BLADDER-BLADDER, DISEASES OE TILE. 
municates with the urethra. On each side, rather below its middle, it 
receives the two ducts called ureters, which convey the urine from the 
kidneys into the bladder. (See Bladder, Diseases of the.) 
BLADDER, BLEEDING FROM THE. (See Urine.) 
BLADDER, DISEASES OF THE. The bladder, like every other 
organ of the body, is liable to certain diseases, one of the most common 
of which is inflammation, or cystitis. It chiefly affects the mucous coat 
of the bladder; but all the other coats may be implicated; and it is 
either chronic or acute. The acute form is known by great pain in the 
region of the bladder, attended with fever and hard pulse, and a 
frequent and painful discharge of urine, or a retention. The disease 
runs its course with rapidity, and subsides or carries off the patient in a 
few days. The treatment to be adopted is that which is followed in 
inflammatory diseases generally. Hot fomentations, opiates, mild aperi- 
ents (as castor-oil), a light diet, and mucilaginous drinks, are the means 
to be employed. If there is retention of urine, a catheter should be 
frequently used, but not otherwise. The chronic form of this disease is 
not uncommon, and arises from various causes-from an abnormal con- 
dition of the urine, from a diseased state of the bladder, or of some of 
the neighboring parts, or from the presence of some foreign substance 
in the bladder, as calculus. (See Calculus.) In such cases it is of 
importance to ascertain the true cause. In general, the treatment is by 
opiates, and sedatives with nourishing diet and tonics. Infusion of 
Buchu or of Bearberry is also recommended; and sometimes a bella- 
donna plaster to the part will be of service. Irritability may exist in 
the bladder, unaccompanied by inflammation, and may arise from over- 
distention or from nervousness. It is to be treated by the administration 
of tonics, with the avoidance of all stimulating drinks. The bladder 
may be affected with paralysis, resulting either from accident, or from 
disease of the nervous centres, or from over-distention. It gives rise to 
incontinence of urine, which, however, is to be distinguished from that 
which sometimes arises from irritability, inasmuch as in this case the 
bladder is full, and has no power to evacuate ; so that it must be drawn 
off by the catheter. Retention of urine may be caused by mechanical 
obstacles to its exit, by paralysis, or by a want of power over the 
muscles. 
Many of the diseases and disorders of the bladder are brought on by 
carelessness, neglect, or too great subservience to the conventional 
restraints of society; those persons especially, who habitually or neces- 
sarily are frequently compelled to restrain the desire, and forego for a 
time the relief of emptying a distended bladder, are liable to affections 
of the organ. In early childhood, but sometimes even beyond puberty, BLADDER, DISEASES OF THE. 
221 
the bladder habitually empties itself during sleep ; night after night this 
occurs, and proves a serious annoyance, and expense too, from the con- 
sequent destruction of bedding. The habit or disorder is sometimes 
extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to eradicate. The regular 
use of the cold hip-bath every morning is one of the most efficient 
remedies, and the tincture of muriate of iron, or "tincture of steel," as 
it is frequently called, given twice a day, in 10 drop doses, in water, is 
often useful. Benzoic acid, and nitrftte of potash are both said to have 
proved successful. Without being purged, the bowels are to be kept 
lax. In such cases, fluid is to be taken in small quantity only, in the 
evening. Malt liquor always increases the evil. Where the habit is 
inveterate, it is better to use one of the india-rubber urinals attached 
to the person, than to allow the patient to be a nuisance to himself 
and others. (See Bed-Wetting.) 
Rupture of the bladder is almost invariably fatal. It is generally 
caused by blows dr falls when the viscus is full of urine, but sometimes 
without violence, simply from over-distention. In the former case, 
intoxication is in most instances the first cause of the accident; the 
individual sits drinking till the bladder is quite full, staggers out to 
relieve himself, and either falls or stumbles against some object, the 
urine is effused into the cavity of the abdomen or surrounding tissues; 
agonizing pain, and extreme vital depression are the immediate conse- 
quences, and the patient speedily dies. In the latter case, when the 
bladder is ruptured from over-distension without violence, it is generally 
caused by long retention of urine, from obstruction to its discharge. In 
this case, the first sensation of ruptufe is rather one of relief than other- 
wise, the rent being at the lower part of the organ; the fluid is diffused 
into the loose tissues of the scrotum and surrounding parts, giving rise 
to severe inflammation and mortification. The bladder is sometimes 
ruptured by extreme violence, such as that of the passage of a cart over 
its region. In all these cases, the attendance of a surgeon is absolutely 
requisite, if possible. Death is all but inevitable, but if life cannot be 
saved, much relief may be afforded by the moderate use of stimulants, 
and the free use of large doses of opium. 
Strangury.-During the prime of life, the bladder is not generally 
liable to suffer from chronic disorder, except in persons of dissipated or 
intemperate habits, but one acute and very painful affection, strangury 
-generally caused by the application of a blister-is not uncommon. 
The affection is characterized by burning pain, extending through the 
urinary passages up to the neck of the bladder, accompanied with con- 
stant and distressing desire, and straining effort to pass urine, which 
will only come away in very small quantities, often mixed with blood. 222 
BLADDER, DISEASES OE THE. 
While it lasts, the condition is a painful and most distressing one. The 
means of relief are warm hip-baths, demulcent drinks copiously taken, 
such as barley-water with gum arabic, linseed tea, etc. Warm injections, 
consisting of £ pint of gruel containing 20 or 30 drops of laudanum, 
give much relief; 20 drops of laudanum, or 10 or 15 drops of the seda- 
tive solution, may be given by the mouth, and repeated if requisite. 
When the patient is not in the bath, hot bran poultices are to be used 
over the lower part of the abdomen. 
Stoppage of urine.-With declining years, the bladder becomes 
more subject to disorder and disease; perhaps the most frequent affec- 
tion is sudden inability of the organ to expel the urine. This may arise 
from its having been allowed to become over-distended, from cold, 
from drinking hard malt liquor-or sometimes from external violence. 
The case is one of much distress and alarm, and being not devoid of 
danger, cannot be too soon placed under proper medical treatment. In 
the meanwhile, the person should be got into a hip-bath, temperature 
96°, and kept in for at least half an hour, a warm bed being ready to 
receive him on coming out; hot bran poultices must be ready to be 
applied as soon as he is placed in it; just before entering the bath, 1 
tablespoonful of castor-oil with 10 or 15 drops of laudanum should be 
administered. It is not improbable that relief may be obtained by these 
means ; but all efforts of straining must be avoided as useless and hurt- 
ful. Of course fluid must be eschewed as long as the stoppage con- 
tinues. Whilst the above measures are being carried out, medical 
assistance ought to be procured; for should other means fail, the intro- 
duction of the catheter must be resorted to, to save life. Nevertheless, 
the prosecution of the mode of treatment recommended, if it does not 
prevent such a necessity, will certainly facilitate a sometimes difficult 
operation. 
Weakness of the bladder, and inability perfectly to retain the urine, 
is a frequent disorder of advanced age; it often commences with, and is 
accompanied by imperfect emptying of the organ, either through care- 
lessness or weakness. Sponging the lower parts of the abdomen, etc., 
with vinegar and water, or salt-water, may be of service. Dr. Day 
recommends the use of tincture of ergot of rye in these cases; but as a 
general rule they should be placed under regular medical superintend- 
ence. The same may be said of that very troublesome complaint of old 
age, catarrh of the bladder, in which large quantities of thick mucus are 
discharged. 
Stone in the bladder may be suspected when the urine is liable to 
become bloody after exercise, when there is pain in the bladder and sur- 
rounding parts, in the back and down the thighs, and when the stream BLADDER, DISEASES OF THE-BLEED IN G, ETC. 
223 
of urine is apt to stop suddenly during the act of passing. Under such 
circumstances, proper advice cannot be too soon obtained. (See Kidney, 
Diseases of the; Urine, Blister, Calculus.) 
BLADDER FUCUS. (See Fucus Vesiculosus.) 
BLANCMANGE, OR BLANCMANGER, Ud-monj' [Fr. white 
food], a preparation of milk, cream, sugar, and isinglass, which are 
boiled together. After being flavored, the fluid is run into a mould and 
allowed to stiffen. 
BLEEDING, OR BLOOD-LETTING, hleed'-ing [Sax. lyledan, to 
bleed], in Surgery, is the removing of blood from the body, with a view 
to the prevention or cure of disease. It is divided into general and 
local; venesection and arteriotomy are instances of the former; scarifi- 
cation, cupping, and the application of leeches, of the latter. General 
bleeding is had recourse to when the object is to lessen the whole mass 
of the circulating fluid; local, when the object is to lessen the quantity 
in some particular part of the body. Venesection is the mode usually 
had recourse to in general bleeding, and the veins most commonly 
selected for the purpose are those at the bend of the elbow. In 
proceeding to open a vein, a bandage is first placed moderately tight 
round the arm, above the elbow, to obstruct the return of the venous 
blood; and when the veins begin to swell, the operator selects one, and 
pressing the thumb of his left hand upon it, at a short distance below 
the spot where the opening is to be made, presses the lancet into the 
vein, and gives a slight cut upwards in withdrawing it, so as to make 
the opening sufficiently large to allow the blood to flow out in a thin 
stream. When a sufficient quantity of blood has been abstracted, the 
operator's thumb should be placed on the cut in the vein and the 
bandage removed, when a folded piece of lint, placed over the wound 
and secured by a figure of 8 bandage, will be sufficient to prevent the 
bleeding, and the wound will speedily heal. It should be borne in 
mind, however, that bleeding is always a dangerous operation, even 
apart from the evils that may be produced from the abstraction of too 
much blood, and should never be performed, except in very urgent 
cases, by any but a skilful surgeon. For local bleeding, leeches are 
always the safest, and are most generally had recourse to. In deal- 
ing with leeches, it is well to remember that they are cold-blooded 
animals, and that heat is highly injurious to them, and unfits them for 
the performance of their office. Hence, when there is a difficulty in 
making them fix readily, the part should be cooled with a cloth 
dipped in cold water, or moistened with cream or milk, or a single drop 
of porter, and the leeches confined in the proper situation under a small 
glass. In former times, bleeding was much more practised than it is at 224 
BLEEDING, ETC.-BLINDNESS. 
present. It was resorted to in almost every disease, particularly such as 
were inflammatory, or were thought to be so ; and even where no disease 
existed, it was regarded as an excellent precautionary measure to have a 
vein opened once or twice a year. Some contend that this mode of 
proceeding was then necessary, and that, since that time, a great change 
has taken place in the physical constitution of the people. There may, 
perhaps, be some truth in this; but we cannot believe that the constitu- 
tion of the people ever was such as to justify the wholesale bleeding that 
was at one time practised. (See Cupping, Leech, Arteriotomy, etc.) 
BLEEDING, OR HEMORRHAGE. (See Hemorrhage.) 
BLEEDING FROM THE BLADDER. (See Urine.) 
BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. (See Hemorrhage.) 
BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. (See Hemorrhage.) 
BLEEDING PILES. (See Piles.) 
BLENNORRHG£A, blen-nor-re-a [Gr. Irtenna, mucus; rkeo^ I flow], 
is a term used in Medicine to denote an unusual discharge of mucus 
from any of the mucous membranes. 
BLINDNESS, blwtd'-nes, is a more or less complete deprivation of 
vision, in consequence of a diseased state of the organs of sight. 
Some of the blind retain a slight perception of light, or are able to dis- 
tinguish the general outlines of bodies, or very bright colors, while 
others are entirely deprived of the faculty. Some are blind from birth; 
others become so in consequence of disease. In those that are born 
blind, the eyelids are sometimes united to each other, or to the eye-ball 
itself; sometimes a membrane or film covers the eye; sometimes the 
pupil is closed, or adheres to the cornea; and sometimes the open- 
ing of the pupil is not in the right place, so that the rays of light do 
not fall in the middle of the eye. It may also arise from some defect 
of the optic nerve, or of the brain in connection with it. Blindness may 
result from disease of the optic nerve, or of the brain; or from an 
abnormal condition of the humors or coats of the eye, intercepting the 
passage of the light to the optic nerve. Among the diseases of the 
brain that may produce blindness are hydrocephalus, inflammation, con- 
gestion, softening or wasting of that organ. The eye itself may be 
injured by inflammation, congestion, suppuration, or cancer; spots, 
films, or tumors may form on the cornea, and so destroy its transpar- 
ency; the humors of the eye may become thick and turbid; or the 
opening of the pupil may be destroyed. Blindness often arises from 
debility of the optic nerve, occasioned frequently by long-continued 
overstraining of the sight. It is in this way that certain kinds of 
occupations are so injurious to the sight, and often cause blindness. 
Hence it is, too, that in the northern regions, where the country is BLINDNESS. 
225 
long covered with snow, which reflects the sun's rays, and in the sandy 
deserts of Africa, blindness is common. In old age blindness is usually 
occasioned by a drying up of the humors of the eye, a thickening of 
the cornea, or crystalline lens, or atrophy of the optic nerve. Day 
blindness is an inability to see during the day in a bright light. Those 
who have been long immured in dark cells are often affected in this way. 
Night blindness is that state in which blindness comes on towards even- 
ing. This may continue for some time; but at length the eyes become 
weak during the day also, and it terminates in amaurosis. Proceeding, 
as blindness does, from such a variety of causes, it is impossible to say 
anything here regarding its treatment, which will be found noticed in 
other parts of the work. There is not one of the senses that affords such 
an endless variety of perceptions, such a fund of materials for the mind, 
the imagination, to work upon, as that of sight. When one considers the 
infinitely greater amount of information that is received by the eye than 
by the ear, he is naturally led to the conclusion that the blind must be 
in a much more helpless and pitiable condition than the deaf. In reality, 
however, this is found not to be the case, and various attempts have 
been made to account for it. The blind, as a class, are lively and 
cheerful; the deaf, shy and melancholy, often morose and suspicious. 
"Take," says Dr. Wilson, "a boy, it may be, of nine or ten years of 
age, who has never seen the light, and you will find him conversable, 
and ready to give long narratives of past occurrences, etc. Place by his 
side a boy of the same age who has had the misfortune to be born deaf, 
and observe the contrast. The latter is insensible to all you say; he 
smiles, perhaps, and his countenance is brightened by the beams of 
' holy light; ' he enjoys the face of nature, nay, reads with attention 
your features, and, by sympathy, reflects your smile or frown. But he 
remains mute ; he gives no account of past experience or of future hope. 
You attempt to draw something of this sort from him ; he tries to under- 
stand, and to make himself understood ; but he cannot. He becomes 
embarrassed; you feel for him, and turn away from a scene too trying, 
under the impression that, of these two children of misfortune, the 
comparison is greatly in favor of the blind, who appears by his language 
to enter into all your feelings and conceptions, while the unfortunate 
deaf mute can hardly be regarded as a rational being; yet he possesses 
all the advantages of visual information as direct sensation." The 
cause is not that the blind possess a greater, or anything like an equal 
stock of materials for mental operations, but that "they possess an 
invaluable engine for forwarding these operations, however scanty the 
materials to operate upon-artificial language," which is the medium of 
thinking; and "its value to a man is nearly equivalent to that of his 226 
BLINDNESS-BLISTERS, OR VESICANTS. 
reasoning faculties." The truth is, that the deaf are far more isolated 
all their lives from those that hear than the blind are from those that 
see. The blind are able to make up, in great measure, for their want of 
sight by the greater development of their other senses. By assiduous 
application and attention, the senses of touch and hearing become much 
more delicate and acute. It has even been said that some have been 
able to distinguish colors by means of touch; but this seems very 
doubtful. By accurately distinguishing the various kinds and modifica- 
tions of sound, they are able to form correct ideas on many subjects. 
Much, too, depends upon the memory, which, from exercise, becomes 
much more retentive than in ordinary -cases. It is estimated that there 
are no fewer than three million of blind persons in the world at the 
present time. Of this vast number, thirty-seven thousand are in France, 
about forty-five thousand in Germany, upwards of seventy thousand in 
Russia, about three thousand in Holland, five thousand seven hundred 
in Sweden, upwards of two thousand in Norway, about twenty-nine 
thousand in the British Isles, and upwards of twenty thousand in the 
United States. (See Eye, Vision; Eye, Diseases of the; Amaurosis, 
Ophthalmia, etc.) 
BLINDNESS, COLOR. (See ColorBlindness.) 
BLISTER, blis'-tur [Ang.-Sax.], is a bladder or vesicle on the 
skin, caused by the accumulation of serous fluid under the cuticle, 
and may be occasioned by a burn, by hard friction, or by disease. 
There are certain substances also that possess the property of rais- 
ing blisters. (See Blisters.) In puncturing a blister, in order to 
allow the serous fluid to escape, care should be taken not to ruffle 
or displace the cuticle, particularly if the skin be very tender under- 
neath. 
BLISTERED HANDS OR FEET, llis'-turd. When the hands 
are blistered from rowing, or the feet from walking or other causes, be 
careful not to allow the blisters to break, if possible. Some persons 
are in the habit, by means of a needle and piece of worsted, of placing 
a seton into blisters to draw off the water; but in our opinion this is a 
great mistake, and retards the healing. Bathe the blisters frequently in 
warm water, or, if they are very severe, make a salve of tallow, dropped 
from a lighted candle into a little gin, and worked up to a proper con- 
sistence, and on going to bed cover the blisters with this salve, and place 
a piece of clean soft rag over them. 
BLISTER FLIES. (See Cantharides, Potato Fly.) 
BLISTERS, OR VESICANTS, Ulis'-turz. Blisters, or vesicants, 
are medical agents which, when applied to the skin, irritate it, and 
cause a secretion of serous fluid, which collects under the cuticle, and B LISTENS, Oli VESICANTS-BLOOD. 
227 
forms a blister. Many medicinal agents possess this property, but 
that most commonly employed in this country is the Spanish, or blister- 
ing fly, or cantharis. It is usually employed in the form of a plaster, 
composed of 1 part of cantharides, in powder, to 2 parts of a mixture of 
yellow wax, suet, lard, and resin. Sometimes it is of advantage to 
employ it in a liquid form. The blistering liquid of the pharmacopoeia 
is composed of 8 ounces of cantharides, in powder, 4 fluid ounces of 
acetic acid, and a sufficient quantity of ether to form 20 fluid ounces. 
There is also a blistering paper, ckarta epispastica, sometimes used. 
Tincture of cantharides, croton oil, strong liquid ammonia, and mus- 
tard, are applications of the same kind, but milder in their operation, 
Boiling water is a speedy and powerful vesicant. Blisters are employed 
as counter-irritants, to draw away inflammatory action from a part to 
which direct remedies cannot be applied. They also stimulate the 
absorbents, and thus promote the removal of effused fluids. Blisters 
should never be employed at the beginning of an inflammation, nor dur- 
ing its acute stages, but only after it has subsided. They should not be 
kept on too long, but removed, and the part dressed with soft warm 
poultices. Usually from six to ten or twelve hours is the time allowed 
for a blister, but sometimes three or four hours may be quite sufficient. 
Sores which have taken an unhealthy action have often been produced 
by keeping blisters too long upon children. A piece of very thin paper, 
oiled, is often laid between the blister and the skin when it is applied to 
children or very thin-skinned people. Blisters of cantharides particularly, 
when kept on for too long a time, sometimes produce strangury and 
other distressing affections of the bladder. (See Cantharides, 
Cantharidal Collodion.) 
BLOOD, llud [Sax. klod; Germ, llut; Lat. sanguis], a red fluid 
circulating through the heart, arteries, and veins, of animal bodies, 
serving for the nourishment of all their parts, and the support of life. 
This nutritive fluid, called scientifically the Liquor Sanguinis, consists, 
firstly, of water, holding, in a dissolved condition, fibrine, albumen, 
potassium, and sodium, together with phosphoric acid and other sub- 
stances ; secondly, of corpuscles, or globules, which float in the liquor 
sanguinis. When drawn from the body, the blood undergoes a remark- 
able change. By degrees it gelatinizes, and forms spontaneously 
coagulum and serum. Coao-ulum consists of the fibrine and the cor- 
puscles; serum, of water, albumen, and the various saline matters. The 
corpuscles are of two kinds-red and white, the red being the more 
numerous. In man, a red corpuscle varies in size from - to z-- of an 
inch. The discovery of the globules of the blood is due to Leuwen- 
hoeck and Malpighi, whose researches were made soon after the micro- 228 
BLOOD. 
scope was invented. Blood is termed arterial or venous, according to 
the vessel in which it circulates. Arterial blood is a florid red, with a 
stronger odor and less specific gravity than the venous fluid. Venous 
blood is of a dark purple. The scarlet, or arterial blood, which is one 
degree warmer than venous blood, owes it color to its undergoing 
contact with atmospheric air in the lungs; it circulates in the pulmon- 
ary veins, the left cavities of the heart, and the arteries by which it is 
distributed to the different organs throughout the body. The dark 
purple blood circulates in the veins, in the right cavities of the heart, 
the pulmonary artery, and the lungs. (See Circulation of the 
Blood.) 
There is, again, a difference between arterial and venous blood in 
respect to the gases which they contain; the first holds a supply of 
oxygen; the second is rendered impure by the carbonic acid with which 
it is loaded. Blood is the production of the elaboration of chyle, and 
acquires its nutritive and life-giving qualities in respiration. By means of 
the arterial vessels it penetrates to all the organs, distributing nutrition 
to every organic tissue. It is, moreover, the principal source of animal 
heat; from it, also, the secretive organs derive their various products, 
such as saliva, bile, urine, etc. The average quantity of blood in an 
adult man has been calculated at 28 ft> or pints. It has been shown 
that the composition of the blood undergoes a change in various dis- 
eases : and, after repeated bleedings, the number of corpuscles becomes 
permanently diminished. The color, as well as the composition of the 
blood, varies in different sections of the animal kingdom: red in the 
vertebrates and annelides, white and transparent as water in insects and 
crustaceans, bluish-white in mollusca, yellowish in holothurians, and 
some other invertebrates. This difference in color arises from the 
corpuscles, which are in some cases red, and in others white or straw- 
colored, or bluish-white. The chemical constituents of blood, when in 
a healthy condition, are-albumen, fibrine, haematin or coloring matter, 
oleic, stearic, lactic, phosphoric, sulphuric, and hydrochloric acids, in 
combination with soda, potash, ammonia, lime, magnesia, and a small 
portion of phosphorized fat. The blood also contains oxygen, nitrogen, 
and carbonic acid. In considering the chemical constitution of the 
blood, it may be regarded as consisting of two parts-the liquor san- 
guinis, and the blood corpuscles floating therein. The liquor sanguinis 
is composed of serum, holding a very small quantity of fibrine in 
solution. The following table of the composition of these two 
parts of the blood is based on the analysis of Schmidt and Leh- 
mann, and is a modification of that quoted in Miller's "Elements of 
Chemistry ": BLOOD-BLO WS. 
229 
Specific Gravity of Blood Corpuscles, 1.0885. 
Composition of Blood Corpuscles. 
Water 688 
Solid Constituents: 
Haematin (with iron) 16.75 
Globuline and cell membrane.. .282.22 
Fat 2.31 
Extractive matter. 2.60 
Chlorine 1.686 
Sulphuric acid 0.066 
Phosphoric acid 1.134 
Potassium 3,328 
Sodium 1.052 
Oxygen 0.667 
Phosphate of lime 0.114 
Phosphate of magnesia 0.073 
Specific Gravity of Liquor Sanguinis, 1.028. 
Composition of Liquor Sanguinis. 
Water 902.90 
Fi brine 4.05 
Albumen 78.84 
Fat 1.72 
Extractive matters 3.94 
Chlorine 3.644 
Sulphuric acid '. 0.115 
Phosphoric acid 0.191 
Potassium 0.323 
Sodium 3.341 
Oxygen 0.403 
Phosphate of lime 0.311 
Phosphate of magnesia 0.222 
Taking the blood as a whole, Liebig gives its component parts as follows: 
Water 80 
Solid matter 20 
The solid matter, on being incinerated, gives 1^ to 1^ per cent, of ash, 
which consists of one-half sea-salt, one-tenth of peroxide of iron, and 
the rest of lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, and carbonic 
acid. (See Respiration, Circulation of the Blood, Air, Aeration, 
Food, Digestion.) 
BLOOD-POISONING. (See Pyemia.) 
BLOODROOT. (See Sanguinaria Canadensis.) 
BLOOD, SPITTING OR VOMITING OF. (See Hemorrhage.) 
BLOODY FLUX. (See Dysentery.) 
BLOODY URINE. (See Urine.) 
BLOWS, Noze, maybe serious either from the violence used in their 
infliction, or from the site of the injury. A blow on the head may cause 
merely bruising of the scalp-if more severe, concussion or injury to the 
brain, or fracture of the skull. The latter accident is most likely to 
happen at the side of the temple, where the bone is thin: but severe 
injury to the brain frequently occurs from blows at the under and back 
parts of the head. A severe blow on the spine may cause paralysis of 
the lower limbs, with or without fracturing the vertebrae. When a blow, 
even comparatively slight, is inflicted upon a spot immediately over a 
collection of nerves, most distressing effects, and sometimes immediate 
death may result; such is the case from blows on the neck, on the pit of 
the stomach, or over the region of the heart. The deadly faintness 
which ensues should instantly be combated by the first stimulant- 230 
BL O WB-BL UE PLLL. 
ammonia, ether, or spirit of any kind-which can be procured. Cold 
water should be suddenly dashed over the surface, or down the spine; 
if this is unsuccessful, the patient is to be put into a warm bed, and 
artificial respiration employed along with external heat, mustard-plasters 
to tiie spine and pit of the stomach, and stimulant injections. (See 
Brain, Bruises, Concussion, Concussion of tiie Brain, Shock.) 
BLUEBERRY. (See Blue Cohosh.) 
BLUE COHOSH, blu ko'-hosh [Caidophyllum Thalictroides\ a 
perennial plant belonging to the Nat. order Berberidaceae. It grows in 
low moist grounds all over the United States and Canada. In different 
parts of the country it is known as 'pappoose berry, blueberry, and 
squaw-root. The root is the part used in medicine. Blue cohosh is 
possessed of emmenagogue, parturient, and antispasmodic properties. 
While it is a valuable agent in all chronic uterine diseases appearing to 
exert an especial influence on the uterus, it has also been successfully 
employed in rheumatism, dropsy, colic, cramps, hiccough, epilepsy, 
hysteria, etc. The extract of blue cohosh is preferable to ergot for 
expediting delivery, in all those cases where the delay is owing to 
debility, or want of uterine nervous energy, or is the result of fatigue. 
It is used as a wash for the aphthous sore mouth and throat, combined 
with equal parts of hydrastis canadensis. Dose : fluid extract, 15 to 40 
drops; solid extract, 1 to 5 grains; pills, 2 grains, 1 to 3 pills; decoction 
or infusion, 2 to 4 ounces, three or four times a day. (See Decoction, 
Infusion. ) 
BLUE COPPERAS, blu kop'-pur-gs, sulphate of copper, so called 
to distinguish it from green copperas, which is sulphate of iron. (See 
Copper.) It is also called blue vitriol and blue-stone. 
BLUE DISEASE, bin diz-eez' [Cyanosis], a condition dating from 
birth, in which, from malformation of the heart, the blood is only 
partially arterialized in the lungs. Few subjects of the disease survive 
infancy, but there are instances of their attaining mature age. The 
disease is characterized by the purple appearance of parts which are 
usually red, by languor of all the functions, and by great susceptibility 
to cold. The disease must not be confounded with the leaden blue 
color of the skin, brought on by long-continued internal use of nitrate of 
silver. 
BLUE FLAG. (See Iris Versicolor.) 
BLUE OINTMENT. (See Mercurial Ointment.) 
BLUE PILL, blupil [mercurial pill, Lat. Pilula Hydrargyria is 
formed by rubbing 2 ounces of mercury with 2 ounces of confection of 
roses until metallic globules are no longer visible, then adding 1 ounce 
of liquorice-root in fine powder, and mixing the whole well together. BLUE PILL-BOIL. 
231 
Dose, from 3 to 8 grains-3 grains of the pill containing 1 grain of 
mercury. This is one of the best forms of administering mercury 
internally. To induce salivation, 5 grains may be given night and 
morning, combined with a little opium, to prevent its passing off by the 
bowels. In larger doses it acts as a purgative. Blue pill is very service- 
able in many forms of bilious derangement, but the frequent or indis- 
criminate use of this medicine is justly condemned as productive of 
many evils. (See Mercury.) 
BLUE VITRIOL. (See Blue Copperas.) 
BLUNT-LEAVED DOCK. (See Rumex.) 
BLUSHING, blush'-Ing [Dan. blussen^ to blaze or glisten], is a 
sudden sulfusing or reddening of the face, excited by a sense of shame, 
confusion, or surprise. It is produced by an increased flow of blood 
into the capillary vessels of the face and neck; and, besides reddening, 
it creates a sensation of heat in those parts. It is occasioned by the 
mental shock acting upon the brain, and withdrawing the nervous 
energy which ordinarily contracts the muscular coats of the blood- 
vessels of these parts, whence the blood is permitted to flow with 
greater violence through the vessels. In order to cure the habit of 
blushing, which is often troublesome, persistent efforts should be made 
to maintain a calm and self-possessed frame of mind under exciting cir- 
cumstances. 
BOARDING-SCHOOL. (See School.) 
BOIL, called also favunculus, from the Latin furo, 1 rage, on 
account of the violent heat and inflammation attending it, is a hard, 
painfid tumor of the skin and the subjacent cellular tissue. It makes its 
appearance as a small, hard, inflamed spot on the skin, and gradually 
enlarges into a painful tumor, having a white conical centre, surrounded 
by a hard inflamed base, and varying in size from the bulk of a pea to 
that of a pigeon's egg. It proceeds to suppuration and discharges a few 
drops of purulent matter, commonly mixed with blood, and a central 
mass, called the core. This last often lies deep, and causes consideiable 
pain before coming away*, but, without its removal, the abscess will not 
heal. Boils, though generally very troublesome, are not attended with 
danger. They occur mostly in young and vigorous persons; but they 
also occasionally break out upon the weak and delicate. They some- 
times follow each other in rapid succession, and are most common in the 
spring. 
Treatment.- They all take their rise in some disordered state of the 
digestive organs; and hence it is necessary that the bowels be at first 
freely opened, and then regulated by gentle, unirritating laxatives. The 
diet should be plain and simple. In delicate constitutions, a course of 232 
BOIL-BOILING. 
sarsaparilla will be found of great use; quinine is also recommended in 
some cases. In dealing with the boil itself, suppuration is to be 
hastened and perfected by means of linseed-meal poultices; and as soon 
as the prominent part of the swelling becomes soft, a free opening 
should be made into it with a lancet, and as much matter as can be 
pressed out of it by tolerably firm pressure should be removed, together 
with the core; or the poultice should be continued until the core is 
drawn out, when the wound will speedily heal. Persons who are com- 
pelled to go about their occupations during the progress of a severe boil, 
will find a small piece of lint dipped in olive-oil, and retained in its 
place by a disk of adhesive plaster, a very soothing and convenient 
application. Boils are apt to recur in succession, for the reason, 
probably, that they depend upon some derangement of the system which 
requires attention. If the person be of full habit, the diet should be 
reduced, all fat and rich things eschewed, meat partially or entirely given 
up for a time, and stimulants avoided. A succession of boils is very 
apt, in some constitutions, to follow the application of a blister. In 
constitutions which show evident signs of debility, it may be advisable 
to increase the amount of animal food taken, and to allow good wine in 
moderation. When the bowels are clear, and the tongue tolerably clean, 
but the boils still continue to appear, dilute nitro-hydrochloric acid 
(British Pharmacopoeia) should be given in doses of 20 drops in a wine- 
glassful of water thrice daily, or in a wine-glassful of infusion of bark. 
In some cases iron is required. A grain of quinine may be taken with 
each dose of the mineral acid, instead of bark. 
Boils are popularly said to be " healthy," and in one sense they may 
be so ; that is, if the deranged state of the system relieves itself by their 
eruption ; but they are also to be regarded as warnings that some change 
in habits, or that medicine is required. A series of neglected boils may 
wind up with a carbuncle. Carbuncle is of the same nature as a boil, 
but more severe and dangerous. (See Carbuncle.) 
BOILING, boil'-ing. Boiling is the process in cookery by which 
food is submitted to the action of water at the boiling point of 212° 
Fahr. Theoretically, this is the case, but in the cooking of meat 
especially, boiling, that is ebullition, should not be permitted. A 
temperature-according to Liebig-50 or 60 degrees lower, being suffi- 
cient, if proper time be given to cook meat thoroughly, whilst it is 
rendered much more tender, and easier of digestion than when the pro- 
cess is carried more quickly, and by a greater degree of heat. In fact, 
meat to be properly cooked in this way, ought rather to be stewed than 
boiled. Somewhat, however, must depend upon the end in view in 
cooking the meat. If it is desired to be simply a piece of well-cooked BOILING-BONE, BONES. 
233 
meat, not only as regards taste, but as to nutritive powers, the method 
recommended by Liebig should be followed; that is, the water in which 
the meat is to be cooked should be made to boil briskly at the time the 
latter is put into it, and for a few minutes after, and then sufficient cold 
water is to be thrown into the pot to reduce the temperature of the 
whole to 150°, at about which point it should be maintained until the 
meat is thoroughly cooked, that is, till all appearance of redness has dis- 
appeared. The principle of the process is, that by the sudden immer- 
sion of the meat in boiling water, the most external of the constituents 
of the flesh, but more particularly the albumen, become quickly hardened 
and coagulated, so as to form a kind of case around the interior portions. 
Of course, if the high temperature is preserved, this process of harden- 
ing will go on throughout the whole mass, which is thus-and too often 
it is the case-made hard and indigestible. But in consequence of the 
reduction of temperature produced by the addition of cold water, this is 
prevented, the meat is cooked by a heat which cannot harden it, and its 
nutritive soluble principles are kept from exuding by the case-hardening 
of the first few minutes' boil. The reverse of the above must, in some 
degree, be the case, when meat is boiled for the sake of the soup; it 
must then be put into the water whilst it is cold, and the temperature 
gradually raised to near the boiling point. In this way there is no outer 
hardening to interfere with the water dissolving out the soluble nutrient 
principles of the whole mass ; the latter, of course, losing proportionally. 
As meat cannot be cooked in water without a certain portion of its 
nutrient matters being dissolved out, the water should never be thrown 
away; if the saving is unimportant to those who cook the meat, there 
are plenty of poor to receive the unused liquor; but if it is a considera- 
tion that nothing be lost, then may the soup be turned to account by 
being consumed along with the meat. Of course the cooking may be so 
managed as to make both palatable. 
Vegetables require thorough boiling, and often disagree for want of 
it. (See Food, Broiling, Boasting.) 
BOLDO LEAVES, hole'-do, the new South American tonic. It has 
been used effectually in chronic torpidity of the liver, and in atony of 
various organs, where quinine could not be tolerated. Dr. Zaremba 
recommends it in gonorrhoea, rheumatism, and dyspepsia. Dose, of the 
fluid extract, 1 to 5 drops, gradually increased. 
BONEBLACK. (See Carbo Animalis.) 
BONE, BONES, bone. Bone, in Anatomy, is a hard complex 
structure, forming the framework or skeleton of the body in man and 
the higher animals. It is confined to vertebrate animals; and even in 
the lowest order of this class, the cartilaginous fishes, it is entirely 234 
BONE, BONES. 
wanting. The bones form a framework for the moulding and adequate 
support of the soft parts of the body ; cavities for the lodgement and pro- 
tection of delicate organs; joints for locomotion; and levers for the 
action of the muscles. They are always in the interior of the body, and 
even when they approach the surface are covered by some soft mem- 
brane, muscle, skin, etc. The first development of bone is commonly- 
though not always, as in the bones of the head-preceded by the forma- 
tion of a cartilaginous structure, occupying the place which the bone is- 
afterwards to take. It has commonly been said that the bone is formed 
by the ossification of the cartilage; but this, for various reasons, is 
thought not to be the case. The process of bone-formation always com- 
mences in the immediate neighborhood of blood-vessels, which pass 
down into canals excavated in the substance of the cartilage, and lined 
by a continuation of its investing membrane. Hence the spots where 
these vascular canals are especially developed, are termed centres of 
ossification. One of these is usually found in the centre of the shaft of 
a bone, and one at each end, with an additional one for any considerable 
projection or process. In the flat bones there is generally one in the 
middle of the surface, and one in each of the principal processes. Until 
the bone attains its full dimensions, the parts which contain distinct 
centres are not connected by osseous union, but only by cartilage, so as 
to allow an increase in the size of the bone by the growth of cartilage 
between its detached portions, which gives place to bony structure when 
there is no further need of increase. There exists a close correspondence 
as to the number of ossific centres in the early condition of the skeleton 
of all vertebrated animals. Bones are so constituted that a< constant 
process of deposition and absorption is carried on in them, as in the 
softer tissues, modelling the shaft into its requisite proportions during 
the successive stages of growth. It is much more actively carried on in 
youth than in middle life, and is greater in the vigor of manhood than 
in old age. Bones increase in length not so much by interstitial 
deposit, as by addition to their ends ; that is, by progressive ossification 
of the layers of cartilage which intervene between the ends of the shaft 
and the epiphyses. Bones are largely supplied with blood-vessels. The 
solid osseous texture which forms the cylindrical shafts of the long bones, 
and the thick external plates of the denser flat bones, are penetrated by 
a series of large canals, termed Haversian (after their discoverer), which 
form a network in its interior, and serve for the transmission of blood- 
vessels into>the interior. These canals, in the long bones, run for the 
most part in a direction parallel to the central cavity, and communicate 
with this, with the external surface, and with each other, by frequent 
transverse branches. They vary in diameter from to of an inch. BONE, BONES. 
235 
averaging about -; and are smallest near the outer surface, where the 
bone is most compact; but becomes gradually larger towards the 
interior. In the long bones of man, and of most mammalia, there is a 
central cavity, which is filled with the fatty substance known as marrow; 
and the space in which the marrow lies is called the medullary canal. 
This cavity does not exist in the bone in its early state, but is formed by 
the removal of the cancellated osseous tissue first developed in its 
interior. Among birds, however, the central cavity, instead of being 
occupied by marrow, is filled with air, and communicates with the lungs ; 
so that the membrane lining it becomes an auxiliary organ of respira- 
tion ; while the lightening of the bones thus produced diminishes their 
specific gravity. Bones are covered externally by a strong fibrous mem- 
brane, termed the periosteum, which serves to protect the blood-vessels 
entering them. The medullary canal is also lined by an extremely 
delicate membrane, termed the medullary membrane, which supports the 
marrow, and proyides a stratum for the subdivisions of the medullary 
artery before they penetrate the contiguous osseous substance. The 
Haversian canals are also lined by a similar membrane. Though bones 
possess little sensibility in health, yet, when diseased, they become 
highly sensitive, a manifest indication that they are supplied with nerves. 
These may, indeed, be traced into some of the minute foramina on the 
shaft of a long bone, but more easily in the articular ends. A nerve also 
enters the medullary canal with the nutrient artery of the medulla, and 
divides, like the artery, into an ascending and a descending branch. 
Bone is composed of a basis of animal matter, impregnated with " bone- 
earth," or phosphate of lime. The first ingredient makes it tenacious 
and elastic, the second gives it the requisite hardness. These may be 
separated from each other; the latter may be entirely dissolved away, 
by soaking the bone in dilute muriatic or nitric acid, when a substance 
of cartilaginous appearance is left; the former, by subjecting the bone 
to heat sufficient to decompose the animal matter, when we obtain the 
whole calcareous substance in situ. The animal portion of a bone forms 
about one-third, the earthy about two-thirds; and the relative proportion 
of the two elements is said to differ little in different classes of animals. 
The following are the analyses of ox-femur and the human fore-arm by 
Heintz: 
Animal matter 
Ox-femur. 
30.58 
Human 
fore-arm. 
31.11 
Phosphate of lime 
57.67 
59.14 
6.99 
6.32 
Phosphate of magnesia 
2.07 
1.20 
Fluoride of calcium 
2.69 
2.23 
100.00 
100.00 236 
BONE, BONES-BORACIC ACID. 
Bones are liable to various kinds of disease, like other parts of the 
system. Inflammation may attack them, and produce the same changes 
that it does in the soft parts, suppuration, softening, ulceration, and 
mortification. In slighter cases it may cause softening and swelling. 
Aperient and cooling medicines, with leeches and fomentations, should 
be employed at first, and as soon as matter appears to be formed, a free 
opening should be made. (See Caries, Necrosis, Exostosis, Rickets.) 
Sometimes atrophy, or wasting of the substance of the bone, takes 
place, in consequence of disease, or the supply of arterial blood being 
interrupted, or simply from disuse. Again, bones sometimes lose their 
earthy constituents, and become soft and brittle, breaking often from the 
slightest cause. It is most frequently met with in elderly females. The 
cause of this disease is unknown, and little is known of its treatment, 
beyond endeavoring to strengthen the system. (For broken bones, see 
Fractures.) 
BONESET OR THOROUGH WORT. (See Eupatorium Perfo- 
LIATUM.) 
BOOTS, TIGHT-FITTING. (See Foot, Corns.) 
BORACIC ACID, bo-ras'-ik [from Arab, baurac, a species of nitre], 
(BO .)-This acid, which may be regarded as a teroxide of boron, is the 
only known compound of oxygen and boron. It occurs in nature in 
certain volcanic districts, where it issues from the earth in jets mixed 
with steam. In Tuscany, these jets, or fumerolles as they are called, 
are conducted into artificial basins or small ponds. The boracic acid 
remains dissolved in the water, which is periodically removed, and 
evaporated in shallow leaden pans, which are heated by other funner olles 
in the neighborhood. During the evaporation, great quantities of sul- 
phate of lime are deposited, which require removal from time to time. 
About seven hundred and fifty tons of crude boracic acid are annually 
exported from Tuscany. The crude acid is contaminated with 25 per 
cent, of sulphate of ammonia and alumina, and other saline impurities. 
Boracic acid is used principally for making borax, or biborate of soda. 
(See Borax.) Boracic acid, on being strongly heated, becomes anhy- 
drous ; and at a red heat it fuses into a transparent glass, which remains 
clear as it cools ; but it soon crumbles to pieces by absorbing water from 
the air. Boracic acid communicates to its compounds the property of 
fusibility ; hence the use of many borates, more especially the biborate of 
soda, as fluxes. It dissolves in three times its weight of boiling water, 
but is very insoluble in cold. The solution is remarkable for possessing 
the properties of an alkali when tested with turmeric-paper, which it 
changes to a dark brown. Boracic acid dissolves in alcohol, and burns 
with a characteristic green flame, with the exception of biborate of soda. B OBAX-B OTANY. 
237 
BORAX, bo'-raks [Arab, baurac, a species of nitre], a compound 
containing boracic acid (which see) and soda. It was formerly imported 
from the East in the crude state, under the name of tincal, which con- 
tained borax in combination with various substances of a saponaceous 
nature. It was purified by being heated with lime or soda until the 
whole of the soapy matter and other impurities were separated. Borax 
is now mostly prepared by fusing two parts of boracic acid with one part 
of soda ash. It crystallizes in rectangular hexagonal prisms, containing 
10 equivalents of water. Great pains are taken to crystallize the solution 
in regular crystals of a large size, as such only are marketable. Borax 
has a feebly alkaline taste and reaction; and in medicine is sub-astringent, 
detergent, diuretic, and emmenagogue. It is recommended in certain 
uterine affections, and as a solvent for uric or lithic calculi. Dose, 5 to 
40 grains. The glycerine of borax, composed of 1 ounce of the latter 
and 4 fluid ounces of the former, is an excellent application to aphthae 
and ulcers of the inside of the mouth, sore nipples, eruptions, etc. Of 
similar use is the honey of borax, composed of 64 grains of borax to 1 
ounce of clarified honey. 
BOTANY, bot'-a-ne [Gr. botane, an herb], that part of natural 
history which relates to the vegetable kingdom. In its widest sense, 
botany comprehends all that is known of plants, and, therefore, forms a 
boundless field of inquiry. The student has to consider the external 
configuration of plants,-their structure, the functions which they per- 
form, the relations which they bear to each other, and the uses to which 
they are subservient. Many are deterred from studying botany by a 
misconception of its nature and scope. Imagining that its sole object is 
to name and classify the various vegetable productions of the globe, they 
conclude that the study is confined to the acquisition of certain dry 
details and a vocabulary of hard words. "The standing objection to 
botany," wrote Gilbert White of Selborne, England, "has always been, 
that it is a pursuit that amuses the fancy and exercises the memory, with- 
out improving the mind or advancing any real knowledge. * * * But 
the botanist * * * should be by no means content with a list of names ; 
he should study plants philosophically, should investigate the laws of vege- 
tation, should examine the powers and virtues of efficacious herbs, should 
promote their cultivation, and graft the gardener, the planter, and the 
husbandman on the phytologist. Not that system is by any means to 
be thrown aside,-without system, the field of Nature would be a path- 
less wilderness,-but system should be subservient to, not the main 
object of, pursuit." To facilitate investigation, Botany has been divided 
into several departments, which may be regarded as separate sciences. 
The objects and scope of each of these sub-sciences will now be explained. 238 
BOTANY. 
1. Structural Botany, or Organography, includes everything 
relating to the organization of plants. It describes the different kinds 
of tissue which enter into the composition of plants, it explains the 
structure of every organ; and it also teaches the relation that one organ 
bears to another. That branch of structural botany which has reference 
to the elementary tissues, is sometimes distinguished as Vegetable 
Histology. The microscope has shown that the various tissues of plants 
are composed of little membranous sacs or vesicles, varying in form and 
size, and united in different ways. (See Cells.) The study of these 
elementary organs cannot be prosecuted without the aid of costly instru- 
ments, but much may be learned from the clear descriptions and excel- 
lent illustrations given in modern botanical works, particularly those of 
Gray, Lindley, Balfour, and Bentley. Some plants consist of simple' 
cells only, which continue throughout life to produce new cells, and to 
perform all the vital functions. A flowering plant, however, although 
originally cellular, produces organs composed of cells and vessels, 
variously modified and arranged, and covered by an epidermis. 
These compound organs may be divided into nutritive, or those con- 
cerned in the nourishment of the plant, and reproductive, or those 
which are employed in the production of new individuals. The former 
are the stem, root, and leaf; the latter, the flowers and fruit. Leaves 
occupy various positions on the stem and branches, and their arrange- 
ment forms a subject for special study. The arrangement of flowers on 
the floral axis and its ramifications, has also to be considered. The term 
Morphology has been applied to that portion of Organography which 
treats of the abnormal modifications of the different organs. The 
researches which have been made in this department during the last forty 
years, have confirmed the doctrine advanced by the German poet 
Goethe, namely, that all those parts familiarly known as leaves, flowers, 
and fruit, are constructed on a simple uniform plan, out of one kind of 
organ in different states of modification and combination ; and that there 
is no other difference between the flower of a rose and that of a nettle, 
than what arises from modifications and combinations of this typical 
organ, which is the leaf. Morphology is a most attractive subject for 
study, but less important in a practical point of view than that part of 
Organography which has reference to the ordinary forms of organs, and 
the manner in which they are arranged. No systematic arrangement 
can be understood without a knowledge of the laws upon which the 
symmetry of plants depends, and a practical acquaintance with the 
structure of every kind of organ. 
2. Physiological Botany treats of plants in a living or active state, 
and of the manner in which their functions are performed; it explains BOTANY. 
239 
how they are influenced by the several agencies of light, heat, air, and 
moisture; and it describes their various secretions and the nutriment 
afforded by the soil. Plants, not being endowed with voluntary motion, 
derive their food either from the soil in which they are fixed, or from 
the atmosphere by which they are surrounded. The nutriment, consist- 
ing of water, generally holding salts in solution, is absorbed, by the aid 
of endosmose, by the extremities of the root. It then passes from cell 
to cell, and ascends the stem, dissolving, in its course, some of the 
organic matter stored up in the vegetable tissue. Arrived at the green 
shoots and surfaces of the leaves, which are covered with minute open- 
ings, or stomata, the sap is exposed to the influence of light, heat, and 
air. About two-thirds of the moisture taken up is now evaporated and 
exhaled; the remainder, which, of course, becomes thickened, under- 
goes certain chemical changes, and then begins to descend by the under- 
surface of the leaf, and along the bark. It takes either a direct or a 
circuitous course downwards, communicating with the centre of the 
stem by the medullary rays, depositing various secretions, more espe- 
cially in the bark, and giving origin to substances which are destined to 
nourish and form new tissues. Finally it reaches the extremity of the 
root, where absorption had commenced; a small portion is there excreted, 
while the remainder mixes with the newly absorbed fluids, and again 
circulates in the sap. The circulation of the sap has been adduced as an 
example of the vital processes elucidated by physiology, because it is 
due to the combined action of all the organs of nutrition, and may there- 
fore serve instead of several illustrations. The study of the special 
functions of the various organs necessarily precedes that of the general 
physiological phenomena, such as circulation, assimilation, respiration, 
fertilization, and germination. Under the names of the different organs 
of nutrition and reproduction, the reader will find particulars respecting 
their functions. 
3. Systematic Botany, ok Taxonomy.-This department includes the 
principles of classification, which are based on the observations which 
have been made on the structure and physiology of plants. It cannot, 
therefore, be prosecuted successfully until the student has acquired a 
complete knowledge of Organography. The object of systematic botany 
is to name, describe, and arrange plants in such a manner that the 
botanist may readily ascertain the name of any specimen, and, at the 
same time, get an insight into its true nature and general properties. 
When it is considered that there are some 120,000 known species of 
plants, it is obvious that there must be a definite nomenclature and 
classification, were it only to facilitate reference and communication. 
Before plants can be classified, their peculiarities of structure must be 240 
BOTANY. 
clearly defined; hence the necessity of the technical language which is 
employed in descriptive botany. This language ought not to deter the 
lover of nature from studying the principles of classification ; for, in 
acquiring a knowledge of the numerous technical terms, he will, at the 
same time fix in his mind the ideas which they represent, and thus, in 
reality, become acquainted with important elementary facts. "The 
technicalities of science," says Mr. Page, "often so ignorantly inveighed 
against, are, in fact, the instruments by which it effects its progress. 
New objects require new names, and new facts new phrases to express 
their relations; and the sooner the student can make himself familiar 
with those terms and their applications, the more rapid and pleasant 
will be his onward progress." The principles of classification constitute 
what is properly called Taxonomy, though this term is often applied to 
the whole department. There have been two great plans proposed for 
the classification of plants, one denominated artificial, and the other 
natural. The first is founded on characters taken from certain parts of 
plants oidy, without reference to others ; while the second takes into 
account all the parts of plants, and involves the idea of affinity in 
essential organs. In both artificial and natural systems, the low'er 
divisions-namely, the genera and species-are the same, the great 
difference between them consisting in the manner in which the genera 
are grouped into orders, and the orders into classes. The plants in one 
of the higher divisions of an artificial system, such as that of Linnaeus, 
have no necessary affinity, and are connected only by certain characters, 
more or less superficial, which have been selected as the signs of that 
division. In a natural order, on the contrary, all the genera will be 
found to ha¥e a true family likeness; for their association is the result 
of a careful consideration of the structure of every organ. The classes 
in the natural system have been formed upon the same principle, by 
uniting orders which possess many important characters in common. 
The Linnsean system leads to little more than a knowledge of names, 
and can only be looked upon as an index to the genera. Though 
superior to every artificial scheme previously promulgated, its day has 
gone by, and the more philosophical system has taken its place. 
Linnaeus himself never intended it to be anything more than a pro- 
visional arrangement, and distinctly stated that a natural method was 
the great object of scientific inquiry. The general principles of the 
Linnsean, or Sexual system, may be explained in a few words. Twenty- 
four classes are founded on the number, position, relative lengths, and 
connection of the stamens; while the orders in these classes depend on 
the number of styles, the nature of the fruit, the number of the stamens 
in the classes where this character is not used for distinguishing them, BOTANY. 
241 
and the perfection of the flowers. The twenty-fourth class includes 
plants having inconspicuous flowers, and in it the orders are formed 
according to natural affinities. Under these classes and orders, all the 
known genera and species are arranged. Even as an artificial method 
for discovering the names of plants, the Linnaean system has many 
imperfections. Being based upon the more obvious characters of the 
reproductive organs, it cannot be of the least use when the plants are 
not in full flower, with all the stamens and styles perfect. The different 
flowers on the same plant often vary as regards the number of the 
stamens. Again, if the classification were carried out rigidly, it would 
separate, in many instances, the species of the same genus; but so 
sensible was Linnaeus of the importance of maintaining the natural 
character of his genera, that he sacrificed the symmetry of his scheme 
for the sake of keeping all the species together. 
The natural system of classification is based upon the real characters 
and affinities of plants, and necessarily takes into account all the organs. 
Though not perfect, it has already reached a very high point of develop- 
ment ; and a great number of the orders which have been determined 
are quite as natural as the orders in the animal kingdom. In this way a 
knowledge of one species is to a great extent the knowledge of many; 
for an individual, if well selected, will exhibit the most important char- 
acters of all the other plants in the same natural group. Thus, by 
studying the common radish or mustard the botanist may obtain a 
general knowledge of about 1,600 species which constitute the order 
Crucifer®, and which are all formed, as it were, on the same type. The 
properties of plants accord in a very remarkable manner with their 
structure; and, as a general rule, the position of a plant in the natural 
arrangement indicates its properties. For example, if a botanist, on 
examining a plant, finds all the structural peculiarities of the order just 
mentioned, he may feel confident that it is not poisonous, but most likely 
antiscorbutic or pungent. If, however, he should meet with one of the 
Atropace®, he might safely set it down as a plant possessing poisonous 
narcotic properties. It will thus be seen that the natural system is much 
more than a mere index to the names of plants. It reveals to a certain 
extent the plan of creation, and is at once an aid to research and a record 
of discovery. Several schemes based upon the natural affinities of plants 
have been devised, but they agree in nearly all their grand divisions. 
The characters by which the primary groups have been determined are 
furnished by the elementary tissues, and the most important organs of 
vegetation and reproduction. Regarding only the elementary structure, 
plants may be arranged under the heads of Cellular and Vascular, 
according to the absence or presence of regular vessels. A more satis- 242 
B OTANY-B O UG1E. 
factory arrangement results from a consideration of the different modes 
by which plants are propagated. Some spring from true seeds, contain- 
ing the rudimentary organs called coytledons ; while others are developed 
from spores, in which no distinct organs can be traced. The former are 
said to be cotyledonous, and the latter acotyledonous (i.e. without 
cotyledons). As the number of cotyledons forms a natural distinctive 
character, the first group of plants is subdivided into monocotyledonous, 
having one cotyledon, and dicotyledonous, having two cotyledons. The 
mode in which the root is produced affords characters which confirm this 
arrangement. The young root of an acotyledon is heterorhizal, that of 
a monocotyledon is endorhizal, and that of a dicotyledon is exorhizal. 
(See Embryo.) The three groups are further characterized by the stems ; 
those of the first being acrogenous, those of the second endogenous, 
and those of the third exogenous. Stemless plants are said to be thal- 
logenous, and form a distinct section of the acotyledonous group. The 
venation of the leaves establishes the same great natural divisions; and 
similar results are obtained from a consideration of the flowers ; mono- 
cotyledons and dicotyledons being phanerogamous, or flowering, and 
acotyledons cryptogamous, or flowerless. The following table exhibits 
the relation of the different characters: 
Embryo. Radicle. 
Stem. 
Flower. 
Acotyledonous. Heterorhizal. 
Acrogenous. 
Cryptogamous. 
Monocotyledonous. Endorhizal. 
Endogenous. 
Phanerogamous. 
Dicotyledonous. Exorhizal. 
Exogenous. 
4. Geographical Botany treats of the manner in which plants are 
affected by climate and station, and endeavors to determine the condi- 
tions under which particular families or species of plants are confined to 
certain zones of latitude and altitude. It is a study of great interest, 
and one which cannot be successfully prosecuted without an intimate 
acquaintance with physical geography. 
5. Fossil Botany investigates the nature of the plants found in a 
fossil state in the various geological formations. It is therefore at once 
a branch of botany and of geology. 
The practical bearings of botany are most important, and are some- 
times treated separately in manuals of the science, under the head of 
" Economic Botany." (See various plants under proper headings.) 
BOTTLE NUBSING. (See Child.) 
BOUGIE, boo'-zhe [Fr.], a surgical instrument, used for overcoming 
stricture or other obstruction in any of the passages of the body; as the 
urethra, rectum, oesophagus, etc. It is long and slender in form, solid 
or hollow, stiff or flexible, according to its particular use, usually varying 
from one-fourth to one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. It is made of B 0 UGIE-BRAIN. 
243 
various substances, as silver, or steel-plated, caoutchouc, gutta-percha, 
etc. One kind is also made by dipping a fine cord or thread of flax or 
silk in melted wax until it has acquired a sufficient thickness, when it is 
rolled smooth and firm on a marble slab. Bougies require to be 
employed with skill and caution, as there is always a considerable degree 
of danger attending their use. If used at all by inexperienced hands, 
the utmost caution should be observed, as much injury may arise from 
any hasty or violent efforts to remove the resistance that may present 
itself: it is rather to be overcome gradually, and by repeated attempts, 
so as not to excite much pain or irritation. The bougie should be 
allowed to remain for a few minutes in the passage, and the operation be 
repeated after an interval of three or more days, gradually increasing 
the size of the instrument till the canal is restored to its natural calibre. 
BOWEL COMPLAINTS. (See Autumnal Complaints, Bilious 
Cholera, Diarrhcea, Dysentery, Summer Complaint.) 
BOWELS. (See Intestines.) 
BOWELS, CONSTIPATION OF THE. (See Costiveness.) 
BOWELS, INFLAMMATION OF THE. (See Enteritis, Peru 
TONITIS.) 
BOX. (See Buxus.) 
BOXWOOD. (See Cornus Florida.) 
BOYHOOD. (See Age.) 
BRACHIUM. (See Arm.) 
BRAIN, brane [Ang.-Sax. brcegeri], is the name given to a soft pulpy 
substance, which in man and the higher orders of animals constitutes 
one of the great central masses of the nervous system (which see). 
As was to be expected, it is found most perfectly developed in man, in 
whom, with its membranes, vessels, and nerves, it constitutes the whole 
of the matter enclosed within the bones of the skull, and is hence termed 
the encephalon. In males, the average weight of the full-grown human 
brain is about 49 or 50 ounces; in females, 44. It varies, however, con- 
siderably in different individuals, from about 65 to 34 ounces in the 
male, to 56 to 31 in the female. The brain of the naturalist Cuvier is 
said to have weighed upwards of 64 ounces, and of that of the late Dr. 
Abercrombie, 63 ounces avoirdupois. Anatomists difier in opinion as to 
the size or weight of the brain at different periods of life. Some believe 
that it attains its full size as early as the third year; others about the 
seventh or eighth; while not a few are of opinion that it continues to 
grow until the fortieth year. From a series of observations, however, 
"it appears that in general the weight of the brain increases rapidly up 
to the seventh year, then more slowly to between sixteen and twenty, 
and then more slowly to between thirty-one and forty, at which time it 244 
BRAIN. 
reaches its maximum point. Beyond that period there appears a slow 
but progressive diminution in weight of about 1 ounce during each sub- 
sequent decennial period." 
The brain is divided by anatomists into the cerebrum, or brain 
proper; the cerebellum, or little brain; the pons Varolii, and medulla 
oblongata. The cerebrum occupies the whole of the superior portion of 
the cavity of the cranium, or skull, and is by much the largest portion 
of the brain, averaging, in the male, nearly 44, and in the female, about 
38^ ounces. The cerebellum occupies the lower and back part of the 
cranium, and is next in size to the cerebrum, weighing, in the male, 
about 5J, and in the female, 4f 
ounces. The pons Varolii and 
medulla oblongata occupy the 
base of the brain, and together 
average about 1 ounce in weight, 
being rather larger in the female 
than in the male. The former 
occupies a central position on 
the under surface of the brain, 
and is connected with the cere- 
brum by two cords or peduncles, 
termed crura -cerebri, with the 
cerebellum by two similar cords, 
termed crura cerebelli, and is 
also in contact with the medulla 
oblongata. This last is that por- 
tion of the encephalon which con- 
nects it with the spinal cord. It 
is of a pyramidal form, having its broad extremity turned upwards, 
and connected with the pons Varolii, while its under portion is united 
with the spinal cord. The brain is covered by three membranes, the 
outermost of which, from being of a firmer texture than the others, 
is termed the dura mater, and encloses the brain with its appendages, 
lining also the whole internal surface of the cranium. Its outer surface, 
which adheres to the bones of the cranium, as the periosteum does to 
The Brain. * 
* The above figure has been introduced to show the manner of supplying the brain with arterial blood 
by the vertebral arteries. It will doubtless be recollected by the critical student, that in the lateral arms of 
the vertebrae of the neck, there were round holes, from one bone to the other. Through those holes an 
artery creeps securely into the skull, unexposed to the thousand accidents to which the carotid arteries are 
liable. If, for example, an operation requires that the carotids should be tied, so that no blood can pass in 
them, a supply for the brain is secured by these vertebrals. When they have arrived within the skull, at the 
under side of the brain, the two marked b, b, unite into one, which is c, and then branches off among the 
convolutions of the brain, indicated by the various letters; <7, is the little brain or cerebellum ,'f, the middle 
lobe of the brain, or cerebrum ; e, the anterior lobe of the cerebrum ; and a, the optic nerves, or nerves of 
vision. This is no fanciful distribution of the arteries of this organ, but a perfectly true representation. BRAIN. 
245 
the other bones, is rather rough and irregular; but the inner surface is 
smooth and shining, and is lubricated by a fluid which is secreted by it. 
This membrane is the densest and strongest of the whole body, its com- 
ponent fibres interlacing each other in all directions. It sends off several 
folds or processes, which descend between certain portions of the brain. 
The principal of these is the superior longitudinal process, or falx 
cerebri, as it is termed, from its supposed resemblance to a sickle or 
scythe, which extends from the fore to the back part of the skull, and, 
descending into the substance of the brain, divides it into two portions, 
called the right and left hemispheres. Where it terminates behind, 
there is a large lateral expansion of the same membrane, extending 
across the back part of the skull, and separating the cerebrum from the 
cerebellum ; it is called the tentorium cerebelli. From the middle of the 
tentorium another membranous expansion takes its rise, and descending 
downwards between the lobes of the cerebellum, terminates at the edge 
of the foramen magnum, or great occipital hole. It is termed the falx 
cerebelli. The second, or middle, of the three membranes is an 
extremely thin and delicate substance, and from its fancied resemblance 
to a spider's web, it receives the name of arachnoid. It is transparent 
and colorless, and is spread uniformly over the surface of the brain. 
The third investing membrane, the pia mater, is also very delicate and 
tender, but differs from the arachnoid in its abounding in blood-vessels, 
whereas no blood-vessels have yet been discovered in the latter. The 
blood-vessels with which every part of this delicate membrane is covered 
are the nutrient arteries of the brain. They subdivide and ramify to an 
extreme degree upon the surface of this membrane, so that the blood 
may enter the surface of the brain only in very minute quantities. As 
the pia matter contains and supports the nutrient vessels of the brain, it 
is not only, like the others, spread over its entire surface, but it also 
penetrates between all its convolutions, and lines every cavity which it 
contains. 
The nervous matter of the brain is composed of two distinct sub- 
stances, differing from each other both in color and consistence. One 
of these is the gray or cineritious substance, termed also, where it forms 
the outer covering, as in the cerebrum and cerebellum, the cortical 
substance, from its surrounding the inner part like the bark of a tree. It 
is of a softer consistence than the other, and is composed almost entirely 
of blood-vessels, connected and sustained by exceedingly fine cellular 
membrane. It forms an outer covering to the entire surface of the 
cerebrum of generally about one-tenth of an inch in thickness. The 
'white or medullary substance, which constitutes the internal portion of 
the cerebrum and cerebellum, is of firmer consistence, and is composed 246 
BRAIN. 
of microscopic fibres arranged into laminae and bundles, between which 
intervening vessels ramify. In the cerebrum these fibres run, in general, 
in such a direction as to converge towards the base of the brain. The 
brain proper is divided into two lateral halves, termed hemispheres, 
separated from each other through a great portion of their extent by the 
great longitudinal fissure, iqto which is inserted the falx cerebri. This 
fissure, both before and behind, passes quite through to the base of the 
cerebrum; but in the middle it is interrupted by a transverse portion of 
white substance, termed the corpus callosum, which connects together 
the two hemispheres. Each hemisphere is subdivided into an anterior, 
middle, and posterior lobe, but it is only on the under surface of the 
brain that these lobes are properly marked off. The anterior and middle 
lobes are separated from each other by a deep fissure, named the fissura 
Sylvia, which extends obliquely backwards to a considerable depth. 
The middle and posterior Jobes are not so distinctly marked off, but 
anatomists regard as the posterior lobe that portion of the cerebrum 
which lies over the cerebellum. The surface of the cerebral hemispheres 
presents numerous tortuous eminences, named convolutions, or gyri, 
which are separated from each other by deep grooves or furrows, termed 
sulci. These are generally about an inch in depth, but they vary con- 
siderably in different brains, and even in different parts of the same 
brain; and, indeed, those of one side frequently differ from those of the 
other. The convolutions are more marked as the brain is better 
developed, and are more numerous and manifest in man than in the 
lower animals. As the cortical substance of the brain is continuous 
over the whole surface of the hemispheres, in the fissures as well as upon 
the convolutions, it follows that the greater the number and depth of 
these, the greater is the superficial extent of the gray matter which is 
generally regarded as tbe seat of all the nervous manifestations, as 
sensation, volition, etc. The corpus callosum is formed by the converg- 
ing fibres of the two hemispheres, whence it has been termed the 
commissura magna, or the great commissure of the brain. Under the 
corpus callosum are the two great cavities termed the lateral ventricles, 
distinguished into right and left. They are very irregular in shape, and 
are described as each consisting of a body and three horns, or cornua,- 
the anterior, posterior, and middle. They are separated from each 
other by the septum lucidum, which descends from the lower surface of 
the corpus callosum, and consists of two laminae, between which is the 
very small cavity of the septum lucidum. It rests upon the fornix, a 
triangular medullary body, having its apex directed forwards, and its 
base backwards. Posteriorly it is connected with the corpus callosum, 
and it divides laterally into a posterior cornu on each side, which termi- BliAIN. 
247 
nates in, or rather is continuous with, the taenia hippocampi, and the 
hippocampus major and minor. The sides of the fornix slightly overlap 
the optic thalami, while its inferior surface covers the third ventricle, 
from which it is partly separated by the velum interpositum. The third 
ventricle is a small narrow cavity lying between the optic thalami. 
These last are two large, firm, oblong bodies, nearly an inch and a half 
long, by three-fourths of an inch wide and deep. Anteriorly the optic 
thalami are continuous with the corpora striata, and posteriorly they are 
connected by small peduncles with the pineal gland, and with the nates. 
The corpora striata are two gray pear-shaped bodies, but internally they 
are streaked with white matter,-whence their name. pineal gland 
is a small portion of gray matter about the size of a small pea. It was 
supposed by Descartes to be the seat of the soul. The corpora 
quadrigemina are four small white round bodies, intimately connected 
with each other, of which the anterior aud superior pair are called the 
nares, the posterior and inferior being named the testes. The anterior 
commissure is a medullary band uniting the corpora striata; the middle 
commissure is composed of gray matter, and connects together the two 
optic thalami, as does also posteriorly the posterior commissure, which 
is a rounded white cord. The crura cerebri are two short, thick, rounded 
cords, connecting the optic thalami with the pons Varolii. They are 
composed principally of medullary matter, but in their interior is a 
semilunar mass of dark gray matter. 
The cerebellum, or little brain, consists of a body and three pairs of 
crura or peduncles, by which it is connected with the rest of the 
encephalon. It is not covered with convolutions like the cerebrum, but 
appears to be formed of a number of lamellae, or plates, with sulci 
between them. When cut across, the gray and white matter are seen to 
be arranged somewhat in the form of a tree, the white substance form- 
ing the stalks, and the gray the leaves; and hence, it has been termed 
arbor vitae. The two peduncles of the cerebellum connect it with the 
testes of the cerebrum, and are known as the processus e cerebello ad 
testes; the inferior peduncles-processus e cerebello ad medullam-pass 
downwards to the back part of the medulla oblongata, and correspond 
with the restiform bodies; the middle two are the crura cerebelli, which 
pass from the middle of the cerebellum, round the outer side of the 
crura cerebri, and meet in front in the pons Varolii, constituting its trans- 
verse fibres. The space between the cerebellum behind, and the 
medulla oblongata in front, is named the fourth ventricle of the brain, 
or the ventricle of the cerebellum. The pons Varolii, or annular pro- 
tuberance, is a comparatively small portion of the brain, and occupies a 
central position on its under surface, above and in front of the medulla 248 
BRAIN-BRAIN, DISEASES OF THE. 
oblongata, with which it is continuous. It consists of transverse and 
longitudinal white fibres, interspersed with a quantity of diffused gray 
matter. The transverse fibres, with few exceptions, communicate with 
the cerebellum by means of the middle crura; while the longitudinal 
fibres are those which ascend from the medulla oblongata into the crura 
cerebri. The medulla oblongata is that part of the encephalon which is 
immediately connected with the upper end of the spinal cord, and has 
an inclination obliquely downwards and backwards towards the foramen 
magnum. It is pyramidal in form, tapering towards its connection with 
the spinal cord. It is marked longitudinally by an anterior and pos- 
terior fissure, which are continuous with those of the spinal cord, and 
by which it is partially divided, like the cord, into two lateral and 
symmetrical halves. On the upper part, however, a new arrangement 
takes place; for, on each side of the median line, the lateral fissures 
disappear, and the surface of each half of the medulla presents four 
eminences or columns, which, commencing at the anterior fissure, and 
proceeding backwards each way to the posterior fissure, are met with in 
the following order: the anterior pyramids, the olivary bodies, the 
restiform bodies, and the posterior pyramids. From the under part of 
the brain issue a number of nerves, known as the cranial, and pass 
through foramina in the base of the skull. They are usually reckoned 
as forming nine pairs. (See Nervous System.) The following are the 
proportions of the different substances that compose the gray and white 
matter of the brain : 
Gray. 
White. 
Water 
85.2 
73.0 
Albuminous matter 
7.5 
9.9 
Colorless fat 
1.0 
13.9 
Red fat 
3.7 
0.9 
Osmazome and lactates 
1.4 
1.0 
Phosphates 
1.2 
1.3 
- 
- 
100.0 
100.0 
(See Brain, Diseases of the ; Brain in Old Age, Concussion of the 
Brain, Water on the Brain, Softening of the Brain, Fractures, etc.) 
BRAIN, DISEASES OF THE. The brain, which is the most deli- 
cate and exquisitely formed of all the organs of the human body, is 
subject to a great variety of disorders, most of which will be treated of 
under their proper heads, but some it will be necessary to notice here. 
Inflammation is one of the most common diseases to which the brain is 
subject, and may result from a number of causes-from external injuries, 
as blows or falls, the symptoms of which may not manifest themselves 
for many days; from the improper use of narcotics or stimulants, 
exposure to the cold or the action of the sun's rays, protracted study, BRAIN, DISEASES OF THE-BRAIN IN OLD AGE. 
249 
excessive joy, or other mental emotion; as well as less directly from 
diseases of the digestive or other organs of the body. It is character- 
ized by more or less violent pain of the head, suffusion or prominence of 
the eyes, the countenance generally tumid or Hushed, and delirium or 
stupor, with, usually, nausea and vomiting. In the treatment of this 
disease, general and local bleeding are usually had recourse to ; the 
latter by means of leeches applied about the head, or by cupping. A 
cooling and sedative medicine should also be employed, and the bowels 
kept freely open by purgatives. The head is also usually shaved, and 
kept cool by rags wet with cold or iced water. Frequently, in children, 
inflammation leads to a form of disease known as water in the head, or 
hydrocephalus (which see). Softening of the brain is caused by the want 
of a proper supply of nourishment to the cerebral substance, and may 
arise from various causes. It is characterized by lowness of spirits, 
headaches, giddiness, the loss of memory, and at length imbecility and 
paralysis. Unfortunately, this is a disease which little can be done to 
remedy, especially when it results from a disordered state of the nutrient 
organs themselves, as from disease or obstruction in the arteries which 
convey the blood to the cerebral substance. Frequently it is occasioned 
by over-anxiety or excessive study; in which case everything is to be 
done to get rid of the predisposing cause. Every thought, every mental 
effort, destroys a certain portion of the cerebral matter; and hence, if 
destructidn takes place more rapidly than renewal, a wasting or soften- 
ing of the brain is the result. The blood-vessels, particularly in the 
aged, are also liable to be ruptured. (See Apoplexy, Coma, Convul- 
sions, Epilepsy, Insanity, Delirium Tremens, Paralysis, Concussion 
of the Brain, Water on the Brain, Brain in Old Age, Fractures, 
Brain, Softening of the Brain.) 
BRAIN FEVER, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. (Se.e 
Brain, Diseases of the.) 
BRAIN IN OLD AGE. In the aged the brain becomes more liable 
to disease than heretofore. Congestion of blood from various causes, 
more especially in consequence of disease of the heart, is frequent, but 
quite as often, headache, giddiness, slowness of intellect, or paralysis, 
arise from deficiency of blood in the brain. The distinction is important, 
as in the latter case lowering measures are certain to be followed by an 
aggravation of the disorder. Softening of the brain, so frequent a 
disease of advanced life, has many symptoms similar to those consequent 
upon deficiency of blood, but in an aggravated degree ; the mental 
functions are more regularly and permanently impaired, paralysis is 
more certain. Although cerebral softening is incurable, if its threaten- 
ings are early detected, it may be retarded by the use of tonics and 250 
BRAIN IN OLD AGE-BRAN 
abundant nutriment. The arteries of the aged brain lose their elasticity, 
become brittle and liable to rupture if unduly distended, a fact which 
renders all excitements, whether of the passions or otherwise, so 
dangerous to those advanced in life. The other affections of the brain, 
such as apoplexy, paralysis, delirium tremens, will be found under their 
respective heads. (See Brain, Diseases of the.) 
BRAN, bran, is the broken-up testa or skin of the grain of wheat, 
which is separated from the flour after grinding. When heated, it is one 
of the most useful adjuncts we possess in the alleviation of disease and 
pain, and particularly in a domestic point of view. It is generally to be 
procured, is soon made hot, and retains the heat well; it is at the same 
time soft and adaptable. 
Heated bran is best applied in a flannel bag, which should be made 
ample in size, compared with the part affected: it may be either a dry 
or a moist application, but the latter is in most cases preferable. The 
best method of heating, is in the frying-pan, sprinkling with hot water 
during the process, so as to give just perceptible moisture, and turning 
over and over until the substance is thoroughly hot throughout; it is to 
be quickly transferred to the bag, and the latter fastened by pins or 
thread. When moist, if covered after it is applied to the skin, by a 
piece of oiled silk, oiled calico, or any other waterproof material, the 
heat will not only be better retained, but the vapor also, and no damp- 
ness will be communicated to the clothes. Sometimes, the bran is put 
into the bag dry, and the bag and all dipped into boiling water, but in 
this way too much moisture is absorbed. 
Dry, hot bran may produce perspiration, but frequently it causes 
only feverish dry heat, and if it does not do harm, does little good, com- 
pared with the soothing heat and vapor of the moist preparation, which 
is in fact a continued local vapor-bath, causing free perspiration from the 
skin over the affected part, and often relieving to an extent sufficient to 
render the use of leeches or cupping-which would otherwise have been 
required-uncalled for. 
In severe pain, whether spasmodic or inflammatory, the bag of hot 
moist bran efficiently used, is one of the best, softest, and most certain 
alleviators we possess; and, greater advantage than all, may be used in 
most cases of pain with the most perfect safety. In many acute inflam- 
matory affections, such as those of the chest or abdomen, its use is very 
often preferable, both as regards the comfort and real good of the 
patient, to either blister or mustard plaster. In the inflammatory affec- 
tions of childhood, and in threatened croup, it is invaluable from its easy 
application, soothing, and at the same time, most beneficial effect. 
When weight is an objection, of course the bag must be more lightly BRA N- BR AND Y. 
251 
tilled. The bran may be heated in a dry state, and the effects of 
moisture procured by laying underneath it a double fold of flannel 
wrung out of hot water. Again it is repeated; the hot bran bag to be 
efficient, must be sufficiently ample and well filled to retain the heat so 
long that frequent changing is not required. It must be thoroughly hot, 
slightly moist, but not wet, and is better covered after it is put to the 
part by some material which will prevent evaporation. 
BRANDY, bran-de, a spiritous liquor, separated from wine by 
distillation. The word is derived from brantwein, a German word 
signifying burnt wine. It is prepared from wine in most wine-growing 
countries; but France, and, most notably, the town of Cognac, in the 
Charente, has always been considered the great brandy-producing 
locality. Cognac brandy is esteemed from the absence of a certain fiery 
flavor found in other brandies, which is caused by a very small quantity 
of an acrid oil contained in the skin of the grape. The catawba brandy, 
made from the lees of catawba wine in Ohio, is a very good brandy, 
though it has the peculiar flavor of this wine. The wines of California 
yield brandy abundantly and of good quality. Brandy, when newly 
distilled is as clear and as colorless as water; but, on being put into oak 
casks, it acquires a yellowish-brown color, from dissolving a portion of 
the tannin contained in the wood. This color is generally simulated in 
inferior kinds by the addition of a small quantity of caramel, or burnt 
sugar. British brandy, which has been the subject of numerous patents, 
is an attempt to produce, by factitious means, a spiritous liquor bearing 
a close resemblance to foreign brandy. The best malt spirit is flavored 
and colored by various substances, ranging from French plums to oak 
shavings, each manufacturer having his favourite recipe. The quantity 
of brandy annually made in France is about twenty million gallons, of 
which about three million are imported by England. Chemically speak- 
ing, brandy consists of spirit of wine colored by tannin or burnt sugar, 
and flavored by a small quantity of volatile oil that passes over during 
distillation. 
Brandy, like every other ardent spirit, ought not to be freely or 
regularly used, either diluted or otherwise. Neither should spirit in any 
form be used, except as a medicine. As an addition to our stimulant 
medicines, and as a dietetic, it is valuable. In great debility or de- 
pression, in advanced stages of fever and the like, brandy is of service. 
As a medicine, it does not, perhaps, possess any particular advantage 
over pure spirit of any kind; but in England, it is preferred by most to 
either whiskey or gin, and it is generally the first procurable stimulant 
in most cases. In this country good imported liquors being so high- 
priced, whiskey or American brandies are usually the most reliable, and 252 
BRA ND Y-BREAD. 
most easily procured, but care should be taken to procure them from a relia- 
ble dealer. As a dietetic, dyspeptics, and the aged, who require stimulant, 
and yet cannot take it in other forms, can sometimes use medicinally with 
beneiit a measured quantity of spirit in a little cold water, with their 
meals, once, or twice a day. But for most people, other stimulants are 
much preferable, and the habit of some people of resorting to alcoholic 
liquor for every little ailment, cannot be too much condemned. Spirit 
in any form should only be used when other stimulants will not produce 
the desired eifect, or when others that will, are not procurable. Alco- 
holic liquors, like many other curative agents, are poisonous in very 
large doses. (See Alcohol ; Stimulants, Alcoholic. ) 
BRASSICA, bras'-se-kq [from bresic, the Celtic name of the cabbage], 
in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Crucifera, 
and containing several species, which are commonly cultivated as food 
for man and cattle. B. rapa is the common turnip. The species B. 
campestris is regarded by some as the source of the Swedish turnip; but 
others consider this vegetable to be a hybrid between B. campestris and 
B. rapa, or napus. The species B. oleracea is supposed to be the com- 
mon origin of all the different kinds of cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, 
and kohl-rabi, the different varieties having been produced by the art of 
the gardener. Broccoli and cauliflowers are deformed inflorescences; 
the kohl-rabi is produced by the stem enlarging above the ground into a 
fleshy knob, resembling a turnip. On comparing the original plant, as 
found on our shores, with wavy green leaves, no appearance of head, 
and flowering like wild mustard or charlock, say with the red cabbage or 
the cauliflower, the difference is astonishing. 
BRAYERA, bra-e'-rq, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the 
Nat. order Rosacea, sub-order Rosea. The only interesting species is 
B. anthelmintica, a native of Abyssinia, the flowers of which constitute 
the drug known as Kousso or Cusso, which has been employed with 
considerable success for expelling tapeworm. The flowers are apetalous 
and dioecious, and are imported in a dry state. The mode of adminis- 
tering the Kousso is peculiar. About half an ounce is infused in a glass 
of warm water, and taken thus, flowers and water together, on an 
empty stomach. 
BREAD, bred. The term as usually applied in this country, means 
the leavened, raised, or fermented loaf of wheaten flour, but may also 
be appropriate to any of the other forms in which flour or meal is made 
up, either from wheat or other bread grains. The flour of wheat consists 
of three ingredients; the gluten which approaches animal matter in 
composition, starch, and mucilage. Wheat flour, simply made into a 
cake with water, and baked, like the "damper" of Australia, will BREAD. 
253 
undoubtedly yield nourishment equally as well as leavened bread, to those 
whose digestion is equal to the task; but for the general purposes of 
civilized life, leavened bread is much to be preferred for the greater ease 
with which it is dissolved in the stomach. "The careful mixture with 
the saliva during the mastication of bread, is a condition essential to the 
rapid digestion of the starch. Hence the increase of digestibility 
obtained in bread by the porous form given to it. This porosity and 
lightness is produced in the dough by a process offermentation. Yeast 
is added to the dough, which brings into fermentation the sugar 
formed by the action of the gluten on the starch; and the open porous 
texture of the mass is the result of the carbonic acid thus formed in every 
part of it. Many chemists are of opinion that the flour by the fermenta- 
tion in the dough, loses somewhat of its nutritious constituents, from a 
decomposition of the gluten ; and it has been proposed to render the 
dough porous without fermentation, by means of substances, which, 
when brought into contact, yield carbonic acid. ' ' Baron Liebig, from 
whose "Letters" the above extract is taken, says "this view appears 
to have little foundation." 
Various kinds of "digestive bread," raised without fermentation, 
are however now used. Carbonate of ammonia has been employed for 
this purpose ; but carbonate of soda, with the addition of some acid- 
butter-milk will do-to disengage the carbonic acid, is the most general 
agent. The following method is a good one : 2 drams of carbonate of 
soda in fine powder, are to be well mixed with 1| pounds of flour; to 
rather less than 1 pint of water, there is to be added 2| drams of 
muriatic acid, and the water and acid together are to be added to and 
mixed up with the flour. A rather liquid dough, which must be baked 
immediately, is formed, and if properly managed, is well and lightly 
raised by the disengagement of the carbonic acid from the soda, the 
latter being at the same time converted into common salt by union with 
the muriatic acid. These various kinds of unfermented bread have been 
extolled as particularly digestible, it is a question whether they are more 
so than the ordinary bread which has undergone fermentation. To be 
thoroughly wholesome, bread must be well raised, well baked, and at 
least twenty-four hours old before it is used. The finer descriptions of 
bread made with fine flour, are apt to constipate, and the coarser, which 
contain much coarse bran, are too irritating for many stomachs. As 
bread is at present made in this country, that made with seconds Houris 
quite the most generally wholesome. It is a matter of much importance 
as regards the nutritive properties of bread, "the staff of life," in what 
manner the flour from which it is made, is prepared. Generally, in 
consequence of the very large separation of bran effected in grinding, 254 
BREAD. 
in this country at least, a great proportion of the real nutriment is ab- 
stracted, and the fine flour which remains has much too large a prepond- 
erance of starch, which does not afford real nutriment. This fact was 
well exemplified by the experiment of Magendie, who fed two dogs on 
wheaten bread exclusively, but to one he gave that made of fine flour, 
deprived of bran, to the other the coarse brown bread made of bran and 
Hour together. The former died in forty days, whilst the latter was 
perfectly healthy at the end of the period. The first dog was in fact 
starved, in the same way that he would have been if fed upon arrow- 
root, or sugar alone. The experiment indicates very significantly how 
much real nutriment is lost by the copious separation of the bran in pre- 
paring fine flour. It is not necessary for bran to be coarse: by more 
thoroughly grinding it into the flour, not only would bread made from 
the flour be much more nutritious and wholesome, but the actual amount 
of bread food supplied to the people would be considerably increased. 
Moreover, the mechanical aperient action of the bran upon the bowels 
could not fail to be useful in a country where constipation is a general 
disorder, as it is in this. No one who is liable to habitual constipation 
should regularly consume fine bread. 
Brown bread is made from wheat meal in which the husks have 
been ground up with the rest of the grain. Sometimes the wheat meal 
is mixed with rye, barley or oatmeal. Brown bread is considered to be 
much more nutritious and wholesome than ordinary white bread. 
In times of scarcity, bread is liable to adulteration with flour from 
potatoes, beans, or with rice and other cheap grains. So far as the 
health of the consumer is concerned, such adulterations cannot be very 
injurious, and the deleterious additions to flour of plaster-of-Paris, chalk, 
etc., are now scarcely ever heard of. During times of plenty-like the 
present-almost the only adulteration of bread, and that chiefly of the 
lighter and finer kinds, is with alum, indeed, the "'Lancet' Sanitary 
Commission," in England, recently found this to be the only adultera- 
tion practised at the present time by those bakers whose bread they 
examined. The addition cannot be looked upon as harmless, if for no 
other reason than the constipating effects it must exert upon the con- 
sumers. A certain proportion of bread should form an addition to every 
meal, with those whose digestion is at all weak. It must not be new; 
fatal accidents have occurred from the distention of the stomach by an 
excessive meal of newly-baked bread. Sour bread is, of course, most 
unwholesome. A great mistake is often made in feeding young infants 
upon bread in various forms; it always occasions disorder, griping, and 
flatulence. If circumstances render it necessary that bread must be 
given, it should, at all events, be slowly toasted or re-baked hard, BREAD-BREAD, AERATED. 
255 
throughout, and then well soaked. (See Flour, Cookery for the Sick, 
Food, Starch ; Bread, Aerated ; Diet. ) 
BREAD, AERATED, bred, a'-e-ras-ted. There exist in most of our 
large towns manufactories for the production of this form of bread. 
Being very light, it is in many respects a wholesome and agreeable 
article of diet, and is found to agree better with some persons than bread 
made in the ordinary way. The chief objection brought against it is a 
tendency to become disagreeably dry. 
The process for aerated bread, which was first proposed by Dr. 
Dauglish, consists in preparing the dough with water which has been 
fully impregnated with carbonic acid gas. This is done under pressure in 
air-tight receptacles, and when the pressure is removed, of course, the 
gas expands the dough which it has been the means of forming; in fact, 
the dough effervesces, and the ' ' sponge, ' ' as the dough is called, in this 
case is formed instantaneously, instead of, as under the old mode, by 
the slow extrication of carbonic acid gas, formed at the expense of a 
portion of the flour, which was thus altogether lost. 
Bread made in the usual way, with yeast or leaven, has the first 
principles of fermentation, decomposition, and putrescence commenced 
in it, and when taken into a stomach in which, from disease or the 
weakness of infancy, the gastric juices are not sufficiently powerful to 
arrest the fermentive process, it becomes a source of discomfort, flatu- 
lence, diarrhoea, etc. On the contrary, the aerated bread, being vesicu- 
lated or lightened by the mechanical action of the fixed air or carbonic 
acid gas, has none of the putrefactive elements in its composition. It is 
therefore easily digested and assimilated, and may even be eaten quite 
new by the dyspeptic without his feeling any of the discomfort which new 
leavened bread generally produces on all but the most vigorous stomachs. 
The aerated bread has a like salutary effect on infants when they are 
obliged to be brought up wholly or partially by hand. The aerated 
bread forms a soft, jelly-like compound, when mixed with milk and 
water, which is easily sucked through the tube of a common feeding- 
bottle, and with a little fine sugar makes a food of which infants grow 
very fond. 
It may be stated that it is more economical to bake bread at home, 
provided the flour can be obtained of the best quality, ami the baking 
arrangements are such as to secure the production of good bread on 
every occasion. 
Brown bread, now so largely used, especially by those of a costive 
habit of body, is made of wheat flour ground coarsely, and wholly or 
partially left dressed, or of a mixture of this with rye, barley or oat- 
meal. (See Bread, Food.) 256 
BREAD, BROWN-BREAKFAST 
BREAD, BROWN. (See Bread ; Bread, Aerated.) 
BREAD POULTICE, bred pbl'-tis, is thus directed to be made : 
Put pint of water into a basin, add as much crumb of bread as the 
water will cover, then place a plate over the basin and let it remain for 
about ten minutes. Stir the bread about in the water, or if necessary, 
chop it a little with a knife, and drain off the water by holding the knife 
on the top of the basin, but do not press the bread; then take it out 
lightly and spread it about a third of an inch thick on some linen, and 
lay it on the part. It is an excellent application to burns, scalds, 
excoriations, ulcers, abscesses, etc. (See Poultice.) 
BREAKFAST, brek'-fast, the first morning meal, is to the strong 
and healthy a most enjoyable one, and it may always be taken as one of 
the best signs of health when a man can eat and digest a good breakfast, 
especially after exercise. The circumstance that the strong and healthy 
can enjoy with impunity a full breakfast, has given an erroneous idea as 
to the advisability of invalids making it a hearty meal, and still worse, 
of prefacing it by exercise. With very many, perhaps the majority of 
people in this country, especially in towns, the interval between rising 
and breakfast is not one of great vigor; the powers both of body and 
mind are undoubtedly recruited if there has been due rest, but they are 
not in full action, and if, injudiciously, too long an interval is permitted 
to elapse before food is taken, they become exhausted, and still more so 
if physical exertion is engaged in. Instead of, as is too frequently sup- 
posed, the 6X6111011 improving the digestive power, it weakens it; 
appetite there may be, but digestion will, in a weak individual, be sadly 
deficient; the nervous power which should aid the process, has been 
used up. The very same deficiency of nervous power renders a full 
breakfast, under any circumstances, inadmissible for those of weak 
digestion; instead of giving strength, it causes discomfort and inapti- 
tude for business for the first hours of the forenoon. Thus it is, why it 
speaks well for the health and constitution of the individual who can 
make the first meal of the morning a hearty one. 
It would, perhaps, be difficult to find a custom more suited to the 
present state of civilized life, than warm tea, coffee, or cocoa to break- 
fast, taken along with bread, and if it agrees, with the addition of meat, 
fish, or egg; it just affords the gentle stimulation which the system 
requires. The amount and nature of the nourishment taken at break- 
fast must vary, of course, with the habits and powers of the individual; 
if digestion is weak, it is better to be content with little, and wait for an 
early luncheon. Some dyspeptics can scarcely take any kind of food at 
the morning meal without its disagreeing; such will sometimes find it of 
advantage, when it can be done, to have a small cup of hot coffee, or of BREAKFAST-BREAST. 
257 
some warm fluid, brought to them just before rising; with others, a very 
light supper, just before going to bed, a soda biscuit or piece of toast, 
and where much debility exists, a little wine and water with soda biscuit 
before retiring, will relieve the weakness in the morning. Above 
all, it should be kept in mind by those with whom breakfast is apt to 
disagree, that exhaustion of any kind before the meal, such as walking, 
gardening, bathing, or even cold sponging, are almost certainly injurious. 
As a breakfast for children, bread and milk is better than the stimulants, 
tea and coffee; for strong children, nothing is better than oatmeal 
porridge, as used in Scotland and northern England. (See Digestion, 
Dyspepsia, Food, Regimen, Diet, Cookery for the Sick, Meals, 
Luncheon, Dinner, Supper.) 
BREAST, brest [Sax. breost], in Anatomy, is a term applied to the 
whole of the anterior part of the thorax. In a more restricted sense it 
is applied to the two globular fleshy protuberances adhering to the 
anterior and internal regions of the thorax of females, and containing 
the mammary or lacteal glands. On the middle of each breast is a pro- 
jecting portion termed the papilla or nipple, in which the excretory ducts 
of the glands terminate, and around which is a colored orb or disc called 
the areola. The use of the breasts is to secrete milk for the. nourish- 
ment of the newly-born infant. They are composed of common integu- 
ments and adipose tissue, in which are lodged numerous ducts radiating 
from the nipple, and afterwards dividing and subdividing into branches 
and twigs until they terminate in very minute vessels. The enlargement 
of the breast is one of the signs of womanhood. Their fullest develop- 
ment commences in the earlier stages of pregnancy, and they continue 
to increase in size until about the time of delivery, when they are filled 
with the lacteal fluid, which passes readily on suction into the mouth of 
the child. 
Diseases.-The breasts of females .are subject to a variety of dis- 
orders, one of the most common of which is inflammation. It may be 
produced by various causes, as a blow, exposure to cold or wet, great 
mental excitement, excessive accumulation of milk, or undue pressure 
on the parts. It occurs most frequently within the first three months 
after parturition, and is characterized by great heat, pain, redness, and 
swelling of the breasts. The pain is intense, and of a throbbing nature, 
and often extends to the axillary glands. The breasts become tense, 
heavy, and painful to the touch; and there is high inflammatory fever. 
Treatment.-The treatment consists in the application of leeches 
and warm fomentations to the part, and the administration of purgatives. 
If the inflammation do not subside in a few days, suppuration may be 
expected. In general, the abscess may be left to nature; but when it 258 
BREAST-BREA TIL 
occasions much pain, it is advisable to get rid of it by a free incision. 
Chronic inflammation sometimes seats in the breast, in which case 
stimulant applications will be found useful. Where this is attended with 
abscess, it should be opened, so as to give free exit to the pus, and pres- 
sure applied to the part. The breast is also subject to various kinds of 
tumors, some of which may be got rid of by simple pressure, and 
attendance to the general health. When large or painful, a few leeches 
may be applied, or a belladonna plaster. Cinchona bark, with iodide of 
potassium, is useful in restoring the general health. Some of these tumors 
very much resemble cancer, and, doubtless, many of the cures of cancer 
that we see advertised by quacks are simply tumors of this class. In 
general it is not necessary, and may be highly injudicious, to extirpate 
these tumors. In many cases they remain stationary after reaching a 
certain stage ; in others, they, after a time, disappear. Sometimes some 
of the lactiferous ducts are blocked up, producing an enlargement termed 
lacteal tumor. It is to be remedied by puncturing the duct, and keeping 
it open for some time. Occasionally great pain and uneasiness are felt 
in the breast from sympathy with other parts of the system. There is 
no inflammation, swelling, or external alteration of the breast, and yet 
the pain is sometimes excessive, usually intermittent. In this case the 
general health is chiefly to be looked after. Women are frequently sub- 
ject to sore nipples after childbirth, occasioning great pain. In such 
cases care is to be taken to keep the nipples as dry as possible, and an 
application of glycerine is generally found useful. Nipple-shields of 
ivory or glass, with india-rubber teats, should also be used when the 
nipples are too tender to bear the application of the child's mouth. For 
cancer of the breast, refer to Cancer. (See Nipples.) 
BREAST-BONE. (See Sternum.) 
BREAST PANG, OR ANGINA PECTORIS. (See Angina Pec- 
toris. ) 
BREATH, breth [Sax. breath^ is the air which is inhaled and 
expelled in respiration. (See Respiration.) Much can be gathered by 
the skilful physician as to the condition of the internal organs from the 
manner of breathing-if it be short and rapid, slow and labored, pain- 
ful, etc. Fetid, or offensive breath, to which some people are subject, 
may arise from a variety of causes, and is to be treated in as many 
different ways. Sometimes it is owing to a deranged state of the 
digestive organs, and in this case purgatives and tonics are to be admin- 
istered. Occasionally it arises from a diseased condition of parts about 
the mouth and nose, as decayed teeth, or morbid secretions about the 
tonsils. In such cases, the teeth should be frequently cleaned, and the 
mouth should be washed with a weak solution of chloride of lime, or BREATH- BRIGHT'S DISEASE, ETC. 
259 
soda, or what is better, a solution of chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a 
pint of water. Inhalation of steam from hot water, into which some 
creosote has been dropped, is recommended in cases in which the cause 
resides in the nose and respiratory passages. The injection of a lotion 
of sulphate of zinc or copper, by means of a syringe, into the nostrils 
will frequently be of use when the disorder has its seat there. (See 
Oz^na.) Fetid breath may also arise from a diseased state of the lungs. 
Where it cannot be remedied, it will be well for the patient to chew a 
little cinnamon occasionally, or take some of the aromatic pills prepared 
for the purpose. (See Dyspepsia, Teeth.) 
BRIGHT'S DISEASE, OR GRANULAR DISEASE OF THE 
KIDNEYS, brites dlz-eez ^Albuminuria}. Bright's disease, or granu- 
lar disease of the kidneys, is a particular disease of the kidneys, named 
after the late Dr. Bright, who first pointed out its nature and character 
in 1837. 
Causes.-1This disease may be occasioned by severe cold, repressed 
perspiration, or immoderate use of ardent spirits; and it not uncommonly 
follows scarlet fever. It may likewise be hereditary. 
Symptoms. -It is characterized by gradually increasing debility, with 
shortness of breath, headache, drowsiness, pallor, and usually puffiness 
of the face, a frequent disposition to make water, dyspepsia, flatulent 
distension, with attacks of nausea and vomiting. There is also a remark- 
able tendency in this disease to an inflammatory or congestive state of 
other important organs; and hence bronchitis, phthisis, coma, convulsions 
or apoplexy, not unfrequently occur during its progress. The heart, too, 
may become implicated, and dropsy almost always occurs sooner or 
later. It essentially consists in a degeneration of the tissues of the 
kidneys into fat, by which their secreting powers are impaired, and the 
urea which should be separated from the blood is retained, wfliile the 
albumen, which is the great agent of nutrition in the system, passes off 
in the urine. Hence, the existence of albumen in the urine is the dis- 
tinguishing characteristic of this disease, and is readily detected by its 
coagulating on the application of heat. Healthy urine contains no 
albumen; hence, the blood in this disease is poor, thin, and watery, 
containing much less albumen and fewer red corpuscles than in health. 
Indeed, there is no disease that so closely approaches haemorrhage in its 
powers of impoverishing the blood, and exhausting its red corpuscles. 
Hence arises that peculiar aspect which so strongly characterizes 
this complaint. Besides this impoverishment of the blood from the 
impaired action of the kidneys, it retains more or less of its urinous 
excrement, and at length the body is poisoned by the retention of its 
own excrement. 260 
BRIGHT'S DISEASE, ETC.-BROMINE 
Treatment.-In the treatment of this disease the diet should be well 
regulated, and intoxicating drinks, sugar, starch, and fatty substances, 
abstained from. The secretive action of the skin should be promoted 
by means of the warm bath, warm clothing, warm atmosphere, and 
diaphoretics, as Dover's powder. Flannel should be worn next the 
skin, and exercise, change of air, and sea voyages, are recommended. 
Cupping over the loins and warm fomentations are useful in counteract- 
ing the more acute forms of this disease. It is necessary also to stimulate 
the action of the kidneys by diuretics, the most valuable of which is said 
to be the bitartrate of potass, or cream of tartar. The bowels should be 
kept in a relaxed state by the frequent administration of aperients. (See 
Microscope. ) 
BRIMSTONE. (See Sulphur.) 
BROCCOLI, brok'-o-le [Itai., sprouts], the name given to one of the 
many cultivated varieties of the Brassica aleracea. It is. a common 
garden vegetable, and differs from the cauliflower only in having colored 
instead of white heads. (See Brassica.) 
BROILING, broil'-ing^ is, perhaps, the most primitive method of 
cooking; the savage puts his piece of flesh or his fish upon the burning 
coals and broils it. In civilized life, the gridiron is made the medium 
for the process. The principle involved in broiling is, that by sudden 
exposure to the fire, the outer portions of the meat are so hardened that 
they retain the juices of the inner, during the process of cooking. This 
is still more fully effected, by brushing over the surface of the meat with 
white of egg before putting on the fire. Broiling is not so well adapted 
for weak stomachs as either roasting or boiling; but meat cookedin this 
way is very nutritious. (See Boiling, Roasting.) 
'BROKEN BONES. (See Fractures.) 
BROMIC ACID, bro'-mik, symbol BrOg, equivalent 120, the only 
known compound of bromine and oxygen. It corresponds in composition 
to chloric acid, but has never been obtained in an anhydrous condition. 
In combination with water it forms a colorless liquid, which first reddens 
and then bleaches litmus. With bases it forms bromates, which are 
similar in their properties to chlorates. 
BROMIDE OF POTASSIUM. (See Potassium.) 
BROMINE, bro'-mine [Gr. bromos, a stench], symbol Br, equiva- 
lent 80, specific gravity 2.966. Bromine is an elementary sub- 
stance, consisting of a heavy mobile fluid of a deep brownish-red color. 
It was discovered in 1826, by Balard, in minute quantities in sea-water, 
in which it exists as bromide of magnesium. It also occurs in a native 
bromide of silver found in Chili, and in union with various alkalies in 
certain mineral waters. When exposed to the air, it volatilizes rapidly, BR OMINE-BR OMO- CHL ORAL UM. 
261 
and boils at 145Q Fahr. Its smell is disagreeably pungent, giving rise 
to a painful spasm of the glottis, if breathed. It acts energetically on 
the skin, producing a sore immediately on contact. At Fahr, it 
solidities into a yellowish-brown crystalline mass. Bromine is the only 
element that is liquid at ordinary temperatures, except mercury. The 
properties of bromine resemble those of chlorine ; but they are somewhat 
less strongly developed. It bleaches vegetable color, and is a non-sup- 
porter of combustion. It is slightly soluble in water, giving to it a yellow 
color. It combines with water and forms a hydrate, which crystallizes 
at 32° Fahr. The principle compounds of bromine are hydrobromic 
acid, a compound of one equivalent each of hydrogen and bromine. 
With oxygen, bromine forms only one compound, bromic acid. With 
chlorine, bromine forms a chloride, a reddish-yellow volatile liquid, 
soluble in water, and possessing bleaching properties. Bromide of 
potassium is used in medicine, being similar in its action to iodide of 
potassium. It is given in enlargement of the spleen and liver, and 
swellings of the lymphatic glands. It is also said to possess peculiar 
narcotic and anaesthetic powers, and is used in hysteria, epilepsy, etc. 
Dose, 5 to 30 grains, three times a day. 
BROMO-CHLORALUM, bro'-mo-klo'-raAura^ is a concentrated solu- 
tion of aluminium chloride and bromide, is inodorous and nonpoisonous, 
a deodorizer and disinfectant, and is entirely harmless and safe. In con- 
tact with fermented, decomposed or foetid matter, it promptly absorbs 
and decomposes all ammoniacal and noxious gases, and renders the 
atmosphere and surrounding objects sweet and wholesome. 
A striking merit of bromo-chloralum is that it operates by removal 
and not by creating an odor greater than the one sought to be removed, 
and can be applied in the most simple manner, diluting it according to 
the object or locality to be purified. Indeed, one great element of its 
successful operation is the capacity of free diffusion, causing it to affect 
and purify the air as well as the walls, ceilings and floors. 
In small-pox, patients feel much comfort from the use of a dilution of 
1 part to 12 or 16 of water as a wash; it seems to lessen the itching, and 
cools them nicely by neutralizing the poison. Cloths well moistened 
and hung in the room and around the patient, absorb all the odor 
present in such cases, and prevent contagion. Attendants should wash 
themselves with a dilution, and also use a similar dilution as a wash for 
the mouth and throat. 
In typhoid and scarlet fever, and all contagious diseases, use 1 part 
to 6 or 10 of water as a wash to neutralize fever poison. Saturate cloths 
and suspend in the room; use freely on all bedding and in the chamber 
utensils. 262 
BR OXO- CHL ORAL UX-BR ORCHITIS, A CUTE. 
For diphtheria and sore throat, use as a gargle, 1 part to 10 of water, 
or stronger according to circumstances. For hospital use, also, it has 
been proven very useful for various purposes, among others, as a wash 
for offensive sores and ulcers, sloughing gangrene, cancers and offensive 
discharges of all kinds ; also for disinfecting clothes and bed clothing, 
bedding, and for general deodorant and disinfecting purposes. In the 
sick chamber it can be used with perfect safety-when the air is impreg- 
nated with the unwholesome odors which the patient is obliged to 
repeatedly inhale, cloths wet with a dilution of 1 part to 8, should be 
suspended in the room to absorb the noxious odors. A small quantity 
should be placed in all chamber utensils, before use, diluted 1 part to 8 
of water. It will deodorize and disinfect instantly and completely-thus 
preventing all danger of contagion therefrom. It has also proven 
effective in preserving a corpse beyond the time they can ordinarily be 
kept, even in cool weather. Two or three folds of cloth laid over the 
face, or any part of the body, and kept moist, will prevent any noticeable 
change for several days, and preserve the features in a remarkable 
manner. By injecting it undiluted, immediately after death, in the 
various orifices of the body and then closing them with cotton, it will act 
as a thorough antiseptic, rendering the use of ice to preserve the body 
until burial unnecessary. 
For all sanitary purposes, whether in private families or for hygienic 
public uses, it is unsurpassed in efficacy. The great advantage it has 
over other preparations designed for the same purposes is, that while its 
efficacy is greater, the objections to it are less, on account of its non- 
irritating, non-corrosive, and odorless qualities. Bromo-chloralum 
works by diffusion and contact; the dilution should in all cases be 1 
part to 6 of water. (See Disinfectants.) 
BRONCHI, bron-ki [Gr. bronchos, the windpipe], the name given 
to the subdivisions of the trachea, or windpipe, which proceed to the 
lungs. The trachea divides into the two bronchi opposite the third 
dorsal vertebra. The right bronchus is larger than the left, and is 
shorter, reaching the lung on a line with the fourth dorsal vertebra. 
The left bronchus passes under the arch of the aorta. The structure of 
the bronchi is similar to that of the trachea, being round and cartilaginous 
in front, and fat, with muscular and fibrous tissue, behind. On entering 
the substance of a lung, the bronchi divide and subdivide into numerous 
branches, till they terminate in very minute air-cells. 
BRONCHITIS, ACUTE, bron-ki -tis. Bronchitis is inflammation of 
the membrane lining the air tubes, or bronchi. It is one of the most 
common diseases of this climate. Like all the inflammatory affections 
of the mucous membrane of the air passages, the disease is very easily BRONCHITIS, ACUTE. 
263 
excited in most persons ; while there are certain individuals who mani- 
fest an unusual, some an extreme susceptibility, to become affected by 
it. The periods of life most obnoxious to bronchitis are childhood, 
adolescence, and old age, and though it does occur at all ages, the con- 
stitutional vigor of adult life appears, from time to time, to act in 
enabling the individual to resist the invasion of the disease. No disease 
varies more in its degrees of severity than bronchitis; it may assume a 
very simple and easily manageable form, and on the other hand, it may 
appear as a very formidable ailment, showing little amenability to treat- 
ment ; in early and very advanced life it is most apt to assume this severe 
character. 
Causes.-Acute bronchitis may be brought on by the action of cold, 
by the inhalation of chemical and mechanical irritants, by the obstruc- 
tion offered to the circulation by disease of the heart, and it occurs in 
many cases in which there is some morbid condition of the blood, as in 
the course of Bright's disease, typhus and typhoid fevers, measles, 
scarlatina, and small-pox. It is very fatal to old people and young 
children. 
Symptoms.-It usually affects both lungs and their lower parts, it is 
attended with chilliness, sore throat, hoarseness, shivering, constriction 
and tightness across the chest, harassing cough with expectoration in the 
earlier stage of a thin, frothy, serous fluid, and in the latter of a more 
opaque, yellow, viscid, puriform secretion, which is generally more or 
less streaked with blood. The breathing is short, difficult, and laborious, 
the skin is hot, the pulse quick, and there is headache, and a general 
feeling of lassitude; this disease, although much more serious in its 
nature than catarrh, runs through exactly the same phases as that 
affection is described as doing. The aid of a medical man should be 
sought early in this disease, as it often runs a very rapid course, and he 
will be able by his stethoscope and a well-trained ear, to diagnose the 
exact stage at which the disease has arrived, and to prescribe remedies 
accordingly. 
Treatment.-The rapid progress which this disease sometimes makes, 
from its commencement to a fatal termination, renders the sending for 
medical assistance as quickly as possible, an imperative duty; but the 
same reason renders it important that those around should be aware of 
the best method of treatment. Confinement to bed is a matter of 
course; but foot-baths, hot bran poultices to the chest, and warm dilu- 
ent drinks, are all serviceable. In a person of full habit, from eight to 
twelve leeches may be applied to the chest, or five or six ounces of blood 
taken from between the shoulders by cupping; but the chief dependence 
is to be placed upon nauseant medicines, and ipecacuanha is the best 264 
EE0ECUIT1S, ACUTE. 
and safest; 4 grains should be given in a little water every twenty 
minutes, till free vomiting is produced. The skin and mucous mem- 
brane of the affected tubes should be acted upon as soon as possible, and 
this may be accomplished by the following: 
Take of Tartar emetic Two grains. 
Nitrate of potash .Half a dram. 
Bicarbonate of potash One dram. 
Pure water Eight ounces.-Mix. 
Give 2 tablespoonfuls every three or four hours. 
After the action of the emetic, the bowels should be relieved by the 
administration of a large tablespoonful of castor-oil. In the event of 
symptoms of collapse, or sinking coming on before the arrival of medical 
assistance, it will be necessary to stop the nauseating treatment, and to 
give stimulants, such as 5 grains of carbonate of ammonia, in 3 table- 
spoonfuls of water, every half hour or hour; or 1 teaspoonful of sal- 
volatile may be given instead, in the same quantity of water, and at 
the same intervals. If these stimuli are not to be procured, the most 
readily obtainable alcoholic stimulant must be substituted ; but ammonia 
is always preferable ; the strength must at the same time be sustained 
by tablespoonfuls of strong meat broth frequently given. When the 
urgency of the attack has yielded under the use of the nauseant and 
emetic systems, the severity of the treatment may be relaxed, and the 
following substituted: 
Take of Powdered ipecac Five grains. 
Spirit of mindererus One and a half ounces. 
Carbonate of potash One dram. 
Pure water Six and a half ounces.-Mix. 
Give 2 tablespoonfuls every four hours. 
When there is much accumulation of secretion in the lungs, and the 
breathing is very laborious, an emetic of sulphate of zinc will be found 
useful: 
Take of Sulphate of zinc Twenty grains. 
Water Two ounces.-Mix. 
Stimulants in the form of brandy and wine will be necessary, and the 
patient's strength must be nurtured by strong beef-tea, given every 
hour or two. 
When the disease is still further advanced, and the patient is bathed 
in profuse perspiration, and the viscid secretion is discharged in large 
quantities, the following will be found useful: 
Take of Sulphate of iron Fifteen grains. 
Sulphate of quinine Twenty grains. 
Dilute sulphuric acid One and a half drams. 
Pure water Half a pint.-Mix. 
Give 2 tablespoonfuls every four hours. BRONCHITIS, ACUTE. 
265 
Opium must be given with great caution in this disease, for in severe 
cases respiration is but imperfectly performed, and the patient is partially 
narcotized by the retention of carbonic acid in the system, and by the 
addition to this of the soporific influence of the drug, he may be sent into 
a deep sleep from which he may never awake. When the lips and 
cheeks are blue, on account of the circulation of improperly oxygenized 
blood, it ought on no account to be given. 
The acute bronchitis of children is not usually so rapid and strongly 
marked a disease as that just described; it often begins with the irrita- 
tion of the membrane of the nose and eyes, and extends itself into the 
chest. Languor, succeeded by fever, oppressed and quickened respira- 
tion, and cough, are the usual symptoms. If these set in severely, from 
one to four leeches, according to the age of*the child, may in an early stage 
of the disease be applied to the chest; but here, as in the adult, the 
chief dependence must be on ipecacuanha, £ a grain to 1 grain, or more; or 
syrup of ipecac, | to 1 teaspoonful doses, frequently repeated so as to cause 
occasional vomiting. Bran poultices ought to be used to the chest. The 
warm bath may be useful in the first stage of depression ; but when fever 
is high, it is not advisable. If the child is unweaned, it must not be 
allowed to suck, either from the breast or bottle, during a severe attack of 
bronchitis, but ought to be fed with the breast milk, or its usual food, by 
means of a spoon. The Rowels, of course, will require attention. It is 
of the greatest importance to attend to the atmosphere surrounding 
either child or adult suffering from bronchitis; the chamber should be 
well ventilated, and the temperature not suffered to fall below 55° Fahr. 
In the latter stages of infantile bronchitis, a small blister about the size 
of half a dollar, applied for a few hours to tbe fore part of the chest, 
may give relief. Bronchitis in children is so hazardous, and frequently 
fatal a disease, that its domestic treatment ought never to be undertaken, 
except under necessity. Its exciting cause is almost invariably cold and 
moisture, particularly during the prevalence of east wind in the spring 
months ; whilst careless and insufficient clothing amongst the poor, and 
absurd modes of dressing amid the higher classes, render children more 
susceptible of these injurious influences. 
The bronchitic attacks of the aged are always to be regarded with 
serious attention ; what in youth might be but a slight cold, may now be 
a fatal disease; this arises partly from the viscid nature of the secreted 
mucus, but more especially from the inability of persons advanced in 
life to expectorate it; accumulation of phlegm takes place in the bron- 
chial tubes, the oxygenation of the blood is interfered with, torpidity of 
the vital functions ensues, and adds to the already existing inability to 
free the lungs, and death quickly takes place, often unexpectedly sudden. 266 
BRONCHITIS, ACUTE-BRONCHITIS, CHRONIC. 
For the above reasons, colds in old people must always be watched; all 
lowering measures must be avoided, the diet kept nourishing, and the 
medicines be stimulant expectorants. Opium should not be ventured on 
without medical sanction; the compound squill pill in doses of 5 grains 
every six hours, is useful. Camphor, in the form of julep, carbonate 
of ammonia, in 5 grain doses, and sal-volatile, in teaspoonful 
doses, are frequently required. The inhalation of steam will assist 
the expectoration of viscid mucus. (See Bronchitis, Chronic; Ca- 
tarrh or Common Cold, Stethoscope, Bran, Cupping, Ipecacuanha, 
ETC.) 
BRONCHITIS, CHRONIC. Chronic inflammation of the bronchial 
tubes is very common in persons advanced in years, it is often a 
sequel of the acute form, but seldom follows the first attack, the 
patient having in all probability had attacks of cough and catarrh dur- 
ing several preceding winters. In the summer time he is, comparatively 
speaking, well, suffering only from shortness of breath. It is accom- 
panied by habitual cough, difficult respiration, and expectoration of a 
scanty, viscid, gray, frothy secretion, sometimes streaked with blood, or 
it may be viscid, yellow, opaque, and purulent. 
Causes.-It is often the result of exposure to cold, intemperate 
habits, and unhealthy employment, such as manufacturing needles, 
pottery, and cutlery, which give rise to the diffusion of dust and grit 
through the air, which being brought into contact with the mucous mem- 
brane give rise to inflammation, and all the above detailed symptoms 
of chronic bronchitis. In some few cases it is the result of disease in 
the organs of circulation. 
Treatment.-Chronic bronchitis must be treated by stimulating 
expectorants. 
Take of Carbonate of ammonia Sixteen grains. 
Decoction of Senegal Eight ounces- Mix. 
Let 2 tablespoonfuls be taken three times a day. Or, 
Take of Compound tincture of benzoin.... Three drams. 
Carbonate of ammonia Eighteen grains. 
Mucilage of gum Arabic Six ounces.-Mix. 
Let 2 tablespoonfuls be taken every six hours. 
In some cases in which the patient is much debilitated, tonics are 
needed. 
Take of Ammonia-citrate of iron One dram. 
Compound spirits of ammonia... .One and a half drams. 
Pure water Eight ounces.-Mix. 
Let 2 tablespoonfuls be taken three times a day. BRONCHITIS, CHRONIC-BROTH 
267 
If the secretion from the inflamed tubes be profuse, sulphate of iron 
with dilute sulphuric acid should be given. 
Take of Sulphate of iron Fifteen grains. 
Sulphate of quinine Twelve grains. 
Dilute sulphuric acid One dram. 
Distilled water Half a pint.-Mix 
Let 2 tablespoonfuls be taken three times a day. 
His diet must be liberal, and if much depression be present wine and 
brandy should be freely given. Urgent symptoms may be relieved by 
the application of mustard poultices, turpentine fomentations, blisters, 
or dry cupping to the chest. 
Preventive treatment.-This consists in protection of the skin 
generally, particularly that of the chest; flannel worn next it, being 
the most important. The feet are to be well protected from damp and 
cold by thick, cork-soled shoes; warming the air before its reception into 
the lungs, by means of one of the various respirators now in use, is a 
very wise precaution on the part of those in whom the tendency is 
toward this form of disease. The slightest cold should be promptly 
attended to, as many a serious and fatal case of bronchitis has had its 
origin in that trivial thing, a " cold in the head." A damp atmosphere, 
night air, easterly winds, indigestible food, and costive bowels, are the 
natural enemies of the person disposed to bronchitis. People with this 
tendency, whose occupation leads them where they necessarily inhale 
dust or hot irritating gases, if they wish to prolong their days, should at 
once change their mode of living, or if this is not possible, guard against 
trouble by constantly wearing a respirator. (See Bronchitis, Acute; 
Cupping, Catarrh or Common Cold, Respiration.) 
BRONCHOCELE. (See Goitre.) 
BRONCHOPHONY, bromkof'-o-ne. The sound of the voice as 
heard by applying the stethoscope over a large bronchial tube. (See 
Auscultation. ) 
BRONCHOTOMY. (See Tracheotomy.) 
BRONZED SKIN. (See Addison's Disease.) 
BROOM. (See Cytisus Scoparius.) 
BROTH, brawth, is the decoction obtained from animal substances, 
and, when made for the sick, must, of course, be varied in strength, 
according to the state of the patient. It is best made by putting the 
article from which it is to be formed into the quantity of cold water 
requisite, and keeping the whole at a heat somewhat short of boiling, 
for many hours; it should then be allowed to become cold and the fat 
skimmed off. In cases of diarrhoea, broth, in quantity, is apt to increase 
the tendency, but it is at the same time extremely beneficial, if properly 268 
BROTH-BRUISES AND CONTUSIONS. 
managed ; in such cases, it is best made from veal or fowl, and thickened 
with rice-which may be strained off-and gelatine; and it must be 
given in small quantities only at a time. In Scotland, by broth is meant 
the decoction from meat, boiled with pearl barley, and a good proportion 
of vegetables; it is a much used and wholesome article of diet, and 
might, with advantage, form an addition to the fare of Americans. To 
be wholesome it must be thoroughly boiled. (See Beef, Beef-Tea, 
Mutton, Veal, Poultry, etc.) 
BROW AGUE. (See Hemicrania.) 
BRUCIA, OR BRUCINE, brod-ske-q., an alkaloid occurring in large 
quantities in conjunction with strychnia in the strycknos nux vomica. It 
is less marked in its properties than strychnia, which it closely resembles. 
It crystallizes in colorless, transparent, rhombic prisms, which are 
insoluble in ether. Its poisonous properties are less active than those of 
strychnia. (See Strychnia, Strychnos Nux Vomica.) 
BRUCINE. (See Brucia.) 
BRUISES AND CONTUSIONS, l)rooz'-ez andkon-tu'-zkunz^ are the 
effects of external violence applied to the body, and may be simple, or 
complicated with wounds of the skin. The effects of bruises depend of 
course, greatly, upon their situation, and the possibility of the violence 
which produced them having injured important parts, this being more 
likely to happen when the contusion affects the head, neck, or trunk. 
The first effect of a bruise, is to cause effusion of blood, more or less, 
within the textures injured; on the head this is very evident from the 
large tumor which will often rise immediately after a blow;-a black 
eye renders the effused blood visible. Blood effused, as the result of a 
bruise, does not remain in one spot, but diffuses itself through the loose 
surrounding textures, and causes discolorations to appear at a distance 
from the bruise, days after the receipt of the injury. The changes in 
color, from black or blue to greenish yellow, etc., which take place 
during the recovery after a bruise, and which are probably caused by 
the mode of absorption of the effused blood, are too well known to 
require description. After bruises of the abdomen, particular attention 
should be directed to detect the occurrence of blood, either in the stools 
or urine ; if a medical man is called in, it is highly important for him to 
have information on these points. In bruises of the surface generally, 
the best and most agreeable application is lint soaked in cold water, or 
in a cold lotion made with an ounce of tincture of arnica to the pint of 
water. After the lapse of five or six hours, hot applications-poultices 
-will be most required. If heat be used too soon, it may tend to 
increase the effusion of blood, which the cold checks. The same treat- 
ment may be followed, whether the bruise is simple, or complicated writh BR RISES AND CONTUSIONS- B RB O. 
269 
a wound. It is a frequent error, popularly, to apply leeches immediately 
after a bruise, when they cannot possibly be of service, they cannot 
remove the blood which is effused, and are only useful in the event of 
inflammation succeeding the injury. After pain and inflammation, in a 
bruise, have subsided, simple water-dressing may be substituted for the 
poultices for a few days, and after that, should discolored swelling 
remain, friction with soap-liniment will hasten its removal. A severe 
bruise may run on to the formation of an abscess, or end in mortification 
of the part. In either case, the effect is known by the supervention of 
the usual symptoms attendant .on these processes, and must be treated 
accordingly. Severe bruise of a bone is liable to be followed by death 
and separation of the injured part. For a slight bruise, as a black eye, 
the application of a little whiskey, brandy, or spirits of wine, will often 
prevent the effusion of blood or discoloration. (See Abscess, Concussion, 
Mortification, Wounds, Accidents.) 
BRYONIA, bri-o'-ne-a [Gr. bruo, I sprout], in Botany, a genus of 
plants belonging to the Nat. order Cucurbitacece. The most interest- 
ing species is B. dioca, the red-berried bryony, or wild vine, a 
perennial, growing in hedges and thickets, and blossoming during the 
month of May. The flowers are yellowish-white, with green streaks, 
and are dioecious; that is, the male and female flowers are borne by 
distinct plants. The stems are put forth annually, and climb by means 
of tendrils. The root is large, white, and is sold by herbalists under 
the name of white bryony and mandrake-root. The root contains a 
peculiar bitter principle, termed Bryonin. It is a violent emetic and 
purgative, and is highly poisonous, giving rise to symptoms much resem- 
bling those of cholera. It is stated to be frequently used by quack 
doctors, and is employed as a topical application to bruises. 
BUBO, bu -bo [Gr. bonbon, the groin]. A venereal swelling of one 
of the external glands of the body, generally in the groins, or under the 
arms. 
Cause.-1The absorption of the poison of syphilitic ulcers. 
Symptoms.-Begins with pain and soreness, succeeded by a hard 
swelling, at first not larger than a bean, but becoming as large as a 
goose-egg. A bubo sometimes subsides without suppuration, but gen- 
erally the swelling becomes red, marked by acute, throbbing pain, and 
the formation of matter. Care must be taken not to mistake it for a 
rupture, aneurism, or lumbar abscess. 
Treatment.-The first object is to try and disperse the swelling. 
This may sometimes be accomplished by the application of four or five 
leeches, followed by a saturated solution of lead-water. 1 tablespoonful 
of sugar of lead to 1 pint of soft-water, and a dose of salts daily, for three 270 
B UBO-B UFF, OB B UFFY COAT. 
or tour days. A piece of mercurial ointment the size of a bean should 
be rubbed into the swelling every night until it disappears, or a coppery 
taste is found in the mouth, when it should be discontinued. If the bubo 
fails to be dispersed in this way, poultices of bread and milk, or flax- 
seed, should be applied warm, and as soon as matter forms it should be 
evacuated with the lancet. In scrofulous constitutions the ulcers re- 
maining are sometimes difficult to heal. They should be washed twice 
a day with carbolic acid and glycerine washes, 1 dram of the acid to 1 
ounce of glycerine, in pint of water; a decoction of wild indigo root 
sometimes answers better. At the same time the system must be 
supported by a nourishing diet, and the administration of 2 or 3 grains 
of quinine three times a day. (See Syphilis.) 
BUBONOCELE. (See Rupture.) 
BUCHU. (See Barosma.) 
BUCHU COMPOUND, bu'-ku kom' -pound. This combination of 
buchu, juniper berries, uva ursi, and cubebs, has been employed with 
decided success in diseases of the urinary organs to which it has a 
peculiar and specific direction. It may be used in cases when buchu 
alone would be used to arrest excessive discharges from the urethra; in 
the treatment of gonorrhoea and gleet, in chronic bronchial inflammation, 
in ulcerations of the kidneys, bladder, and urinary passages, forming an 
agreeable and safe remedy in these complaints. Dose, fluid extract, 
buchu compound, | to 2 teaspoonfuls, to be taken three or four times a 
day. (See Barosma.) 
BUCK-BEAN, butt-bene, is one of the most beautiful of our marsh 
plants. It bears a trefoil leaf, and flowers in June. The blossoms are 
white and feathery-looking, with a tinge of pink. The leaves of the 
buck-bean are powerfully bitter, and might, perhaps, be more generally 
used as a tonic than they are at present. The infusion may be made 
with 1 ounce of dried leaves to 1 pint of water. Dose, 1 to 2 ounces, 
three times a day. 
BUCKETE BARK, buk'-i [yEsculus Glabra}, used in congestion of 
the liver and womb, piles and habitual constipation. Dose, of the fluid 
extract, from | to 1 teaspoonful. 
BUCK-THORN. (See Rhamnus Catharticus. ) 
BUCKWHEAT. (See Fagopyrum.) 
BUFF, OR BUFFY COAT, buf, in Medicine, is a light yellow, or 
buff-colored viscid substance, which is formed on the surface of blood 
drawn in certain states of disease. Its presence has been frequently 
regarded as a sign of existing inflammation, but this is very far from 
being correct, as it may result from an opposite condition. It merely 
indicates that there is an alteration in the relative proportions of the BUFF, OR BUFFY COAT-BURNS AND SCALDS. 
271 
fibrin and the red particles, an excess of the former, which may be owing 
to a decrease of the latter, as well as to an increase of the other. 
BUGLE WEED. (See Lycopus Virglnious.) 
BUILDING, CHOICE OF SITE. (See Houses.) 
BULLAE. (See Skin, Diseases of the.) 
BUNION, bun-yun [Gr. bounos, an eminence], is a painful inflam- 
matory swelling of the foot, most commonly about the root of the great 
toe. The pressure of tight shoes is usually the exciting cause ; and, in 
order to remedy it, all such pressure upon the part should be avoided. 
Bleeding by leeches, warm fomentations, or poultices, should also be 
resorted to, in order to remove the inflammation. The swelling may 
sometimes be considerably reduced by an application of caustic. It 
should be kept covered with Burgundy pitch, or soap plaster, spread 
upon soft leather, or a circular piece of the fungus called German 
tinder. 
BURDOCK. (See Lappa Minor.) 
BURGUNDY PITCH, bur'-gun-de, a resinous substance used for 
making plasters. It is prepared from the resin of the spruce fir {Abies 
excelsa^ by melting it in hot water immediately after it has been scraped 
from the tree, and then straining it through a cloth. 
BURIAL OF DEAD. (See Death.) 
BURIAL, PREMATURE. (See Death.) 
BURNETT'S DISINFECTING FLUID, bur'-nets, Burnett's solu- 
tion, or, as it is sometimes called, Sir Wm. Burnett's disinfecting fluid, 
is one of the cheapest and best liquid disinfectants. It is composed of a 
solution of chloride of zinc, and, from its cheapness, has been much used 
in the army and navy. When diluted with water, it may be used to 
cleanse night-chairs, water-closets, chamber utensils, etc., and is especially 
useful for this purpose in cases of gastric or enteric, or, as it is often 
called, typhoid fever, in which the stools are not only offensive, but are 
the means of conveying to others the contagious poison peculiar to the 
disease. The solution is so cheap that it may be freely used for the 
above and for similar purposes. It is not so good for washing the hands 
as some other disinfecting solutions (Condy's for example,) as it does 
not form a good lather with soap. It may be used as a stimulant, 
disinfecting and deodorizing dressing to foul-smelling ulcers and sores, 
but for such purposes it must be freely diluted, according to the directions 
which are furnished for its use in the different ways recommended. (See 
Zinc, Disinfectants.) 
BURNS AND SCALDS, burns, are injuries done to the body 
through excessive heat; burns being produced by fire or heated 
solids, scalds by heated fluids. Scalds seldom penetrate deeper than 272 
BURNS AND SCALDS. 
the cutis; burns, on the contrary, may penetrate to any depth. Burns 
are more fatal in the young and old than in those of middle life, and are 
more dangerous on the head or trunk than on the extremities. A burn 
affecting an extensive surface is more to be dreaded than one which 
penetrates deeper without extending over much surface. In the case 
of burns, the following may be laid down as at once the simplest and 
the best, as well as the most readily applicable, and the least painful 
and troublesome method of treatment. Suppose a person, whose clothes 
have been set on fire, to be badly burned. The clothes should at once 
be cut off and removed. The patient must, however, be kept warm, as 
he invariably suffers much from cold and depression soon after a burn. 
The burned surface should next be smeared over with a feather with 
some oily substance, it does not much matter what, provided it be fresh. 
Carron oil is good, if it can be had (i. e., equal parts of olive oil or 
linseed oil and lime-water.) Next, linen or muslin is to be steeped in 
this oily substance, and laid over the burned parts. Those parts which 
are much burned ought to be well protected with this, and finally a 
layer of cotton wool should be put on and secured by some light turns 
of bandage. Unless in the case of a slight scald, in spite of all that has 
been said or written to the contrary, nothing can be more cruel or absurd 
than to cover burns over with cotton wool, as it sticks to the surface 
firmly, and becomes saturated with discharge, which adds to the misery 
and pain of the patient by its unpleasant smell. All attempts to re- 
move the cotton wool, too, cause great pain to the patient, whereas, if 
the oily dressing recommended above be first applied, both it and the 
wool may be removed at pleasure, and the dressing changed and 
renewed as often as may be necessary, or fresh dressings of another 
kind, or poultices, may be applied, according to the nature and demands 
of the case. 
In the case of slight burns, and of scalds generally, quite the best 
application is the cotton wadding in sheets ; it should be at once used to 
envelope the injured parts, double if possible, and bound or bandaged 
on with moderate firmness. If this mode of treatment be resorted to 
within the first twenty minutes after the injury, nothing more need be 
done; the cotton may be allowed to remain on from twenty-four hours 
to three or four days, according to the severity of the accident. Under 
its use blistering rarely occurs, and if it has commenced before the 
application, it subsides quickly, and painlessly. For the first ten 
minutes after the cotton dressing is put on, the pain of the injured 
parts seems increased, but ere long, it diminishes, and the inflamed 
skin appears to relieve itself by gentle perspiration. In the case above 
named, when cotton is to be procured-and no house in the country BURNS AND SCALDS. 
273 
ought to be without one or two sheets of it-it is perfectly unnecessary 
to use any other measures. 
Spirits, whiskey or brandy, turpentine and other stimulants, all have 
their advocates, but the milder methods are preferable, at least domes- 
tically. A mixture of oil and lime-water is good, but disagreeable and 
dirty. A lotion made with ounces of vinegar to 1 pint of water, 
may with advantage be kept constantly applied to a burn if it be not 
extensive-cold water is perhaps the most directly grateful application 
to a burnt or scalded surface, and if continued sufficiently long, will 
undoubtedly restore the usual condition of the part, but it must be 
persevered with for many hours, and when a burn or scald is extensive, 
this is a serious objection, in consequence of the extreme constitutional 
depression which so often follows the accident, especially in the young; 
and here the opportunity is taken, of warning parents of the necessity 
of watching closely the effects of even slight injuries of this kind upon 
children, particularly when the chest or abdomen are the seat of the 
accident; extreme depression-requiring the use of stimulants-may 
unexpectedly come on, and death, from an apparently very slight cause, 
be the result. Recently, a solution of the bicarbonate of soda, or com- 
mon baking soda, has been used with great success in the treatment of 
burns and scalds. Soft linen cloths saturated with the solution, made 
by dissolving 1 teaspoonful of the soda in | a pint of soft water, are 
kept constantly applied to the burnt surface, and the relief is said to be 
almost instantaneous. Kerosene is another article which has been suc- 
cessfully used in the treatment of these accidents. It may be applied 
freely. Flour dredged over the surface is an admirable remedy, even in 
slight burns, but is more useful still in those severe effects of heat in 
which the tissues are deeply destroyed by the action of fire; in such 
cases, flour applied at once, and repeated again and again for days 
together, wherever slight moisture seems oozing through the caked 
covering it forms, is the most generally applicable, pleasant, and safest 
remedy; a little fresh sweet oil, applied to the surface in the first in- 
stance, will make the flour adhere. Whatever application is used in 
the treatment of a burn, should be calculated to exclude the action of 
the external air; it ought to be one, also, which does not require fre- 
quent changing; indeed, the more extensive the surface involved in the 
accident, the greater care should be taken not to expose it to atmospheric 
influence, which, in the first place, increases pain, and in the second, 
adds to constitutional depression. This depression must always be care- 
fully watched, and combated by the use of ammonia, wine, or spirit, 
sufficient to support without stimulating. When pain is excessive, and 
irritating the nervous system, a gentle opiate is required; but in some 274 
BUBNS AND SCALDS. 
of the severest burns, the sensation, not only in the injured part, but 
generally, is either wholly or partially abolished, in consequence of the 
shock to the nervous system at large. The symptom is of most serious, 
and indeed fatal import. In the less severe forms of injury from heat, 
if the cotton, the flour, or cold water, have been properly used, little 
after-treatment is necessary; but when a burn has been neglected or 
badly treated, the blisters broken, and when the true skin beneath is 
inflamed, and secreting matter, a simple tepid bread and water poultice 
should, in the first place, be applied for six or eight hours, and after it 
an ointment composed of 1 dram of liquor of lead or goulard water, rubbed 
up with an ounce of perfectly fresh lard. This ointment spread on 
linen, quickly relieves the very painful condition of the injured surface, 
and is often preferable to the lead lotion sometimes used. 
In cases of deep burns, with destruction of the tissues, after the flour 
has been applied some days, it begins to be pushed off by the matter 
formed underneath, at this time poultices are to be continued until the 
caked flour is separated, and the surface below exposed, after which the 
simple dressing with tepid water will generally be the best and safest 
application, or in a later stage, if healing is slow, the lead ointment 
above recommended will be found useful. 
During the cure of burns involving contiguous parts, such as the 
fingers, care must always be taken to keep the surfaces asunder by the 
interposed dressings, otherwise they may become united. After exten- 
sive burns or scalds, the constitution requires attention; the stimulating 
treatment of the first few hours or days must be dropped when feverish 
symptoms come on, and mild and cooling diet, gentle aperients, and 
cooling saline medicines administered; opium being given if requisite 
to allay pain or nervous irritation. This system will again require to be 
changed for one of stronger nourishment; meat soups, meat and wine, 
or other stimuli, if there is continued discharge. The use of stimulat- 
ing diet, however, requires caution, on account of the tendency to 
inflammation of the lining membrane of the stomach and bowels, which 
exists during convalescence from injury to the skin by heat. 
The freguent occurrence of accidents from burns or scalds, renders it 
desirable that all should be aware of the best methods of managing 
these painful injuries, which, when slight, may be well attended to with- 
out the aid of the surgeon; but which, when severe and extensive, and 
when, in children, the chest and abdomen are involved, ought, without 
delay to be put under professional care; accidents and symptoms may 
arise which educated skill alone can foresee or counteract. Scalds of 
the throat are not unusual accidents to children in consequence of their 
attempting to drink from the spout of a kettle of boiling water. The BUB NS AND SCALDS-BUTTED. 
275 
injury is imminently dangerous, and when it has occurred, whether 
alarming symptoms, come on at once or not, a surgeon should be sum- 
moned ; it may probably become necessary very speedily to open the 
windpipe to save from death by suffocation; and the operation may be 
resorted to with good hope of success. In the interval, before the 
arrival of medical aid, leeches, from 2 to 6, according to the age of the 
child, should be applied to the throat externally, and 2 teaspoonfuls of 
castor-oil administered at once. If ice is to be procured, it should be 
constantly put into the mouth in small fragments. 
In managing burns or scalds immediately after their occurrence, the 
following should be remembered: To protect from the action of the 
atmosphere-and the greater the extent injured the more necessary the 
precaution-to give stimulants or opium cautiously. The remedies- 
cotton-flour-oil and lime-water-vinegar and water-cold water- 
bicarbonate of soda-kerosene. (See Skin ; Lime, Burns fkom ; Acci- 
dents. ) 
BUSINESS, WHEN TO RETIRE FROM. (See Occupation.) 
BUTTER, but'-tur [Lat. butyrum, from Gr. bous, a cow, and turos, 
coagulum]. Butter is the fatty part of the milk of animals, separated by 
the process of churning. Cows' milk is composed of three ingredients, 
-the cheesy portion, or curd; the whey, or watery part; and the 
butter. Milk, when examined by the microscope, is found to consist of 
a number of fatty globules, floating in the whey. These globules, which 
are little sacs, containing the butter, are broken during the process of 
churning, which allows the liberated fatty matter to aggregate in small 
masses, and float on the top of the whey. These are generally united 
by pressure against the bottom of the churn, and the remaining butter- 
milk is given as a drink to pigs. The butter is afterwards spread out in 
a thin layer in a shallow pan, and washed with clear spring water, to 
free it from any butter-milk that may remain in its pores. It is then 
salted and formed into rolls, or packed in crocks, if intended to be sold 
as fresh, but if it is to be kept for any length of time, it is packed in tubs 
or firkins, for the market. The quality and quantity of butter contained 
in cows' milk depend materially on the nature of the pasture. Rich 
natural meadows afford the best food for cows intended to produce butter. 
Poor pastures are objectionable, not only from the quantity of butter 
contained in the milk being diminished, but from its receiving an 
unpleasant taste from certain plants or weeds growing on all unfertile or 
marshy soil. Butter is adulterated with water, salt, lard, etc. The first 
may be detected by the wetness of the butter when squeezed, and the 
last two by small white particles being visible in the newly cut surface of 
the butter. When fresh, that is, free from rancidity, butter forms a 276 
B UTTER-B UXUS. 
nutritious, it might almost be said instinctive, addition to farinaceous 
diet. Much has been said, in writings upon diet, respecting the 
unwholesomeness of butter, and, undoubtedly, in certain states of the 
system and of the digestive organs, it is so, but for healthy individuals 
it is the reverse. Butter in some persons, and if immoderately used in 
all, gives rise to biliary derangement, partly, doubtless, from its furnish- 
ing an excess of biliary material, but also from its presence in the 
stomach, as observed by Dr. Beaumont, causing a flow, or regurgitation 
of bile into that organ. The above remarks apply to simple butter 
unspoiled by cookery. When butter is exposed to gentle heat it melts; 
and under this condition, has obtained a reputation for indigestibility 
which is due rather to the quantity consumed than to its being merely 
put in that state which it assumes when it is exposed to the heat of the 
stomach. The case is very different, however, when butter has been 
exposed, whether alone, or combined with farinaceous articles, to a high 
temperature, such as that of an oven; it now becomes altered in 
character-empyreumatized-and is rendered very indigestible and irri- 
tating to the weak stomach. It is for this reason that baked pastry is so 
much more indigestible than boiled, from the greater heat to which the 
former is exposed. Butter, when it becomes rancid, contains various 
acids, which are so unwholesome that they may almost be ranked as 
poisons. (See Food.) 
BUTTERCUP. (See Ranunculus.) 
BUTTER-MILK, but'-tur-milk., the milk which is left after the butter 
has been separated by means of churning or other processes. It is 
ordinarily procured from milk after it has been kept some time, and has 
become more or less acid ; but it may be procured from new milk when 
it is not acid, and only differs from milk by the absence of its oily parts. 
In this state it is still tolerably nourishing, and, being easy of digestion, 
is recommended in many stomach complaints, in consumption, diabetes, 
etc., being preferable to either the entire milk, or the watery parts of it 
in a more acid state. The acid of butter-milk does not increase the 
acidity of the stomach, or occasion the flatulency usually generated by 
vegetable acids. 
BUTTERNUT. (See Juglans Cinerea.) 
BUTTER OF ANTIMONY. (See Antimony.) 
BUTTER OF ZINC, OR CHLORIDE OF ZINC. (See Zinc.) 
BUTTON SNAKE ROOT. (See Liatris Spicata.) 
BUXUS, buks'-us [supposed to be from Gr. puknos^ dense, in refer- 
ence to the wood], the box, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order 
Euphorbiacea, and consisting of evergreen shrubs or small trees with 
opposite leaves, entire at the margins, and easily split into two plates. B UXUS- CADMIUM. 
277 
The flowers, which are very small, grow in little axillary clusters, the 
male and female flowers being distinct, but borne on the same plants. 
There are only two species known; namely, B. sempervirens and B. 
balearica. The former, which is the common box, is a native of Europe 
and Asia, and seldom attains a height of more than twenty to twenty- 
five feet. Many varieties are known in the European gardens, the most 
remarkable of which is the dwarf-box, so much used for the edgings of 
walks. The wood of the arborescent B. sempervirens is heavier than 
that of any other European tree, and will sink when placed in water. 
The leaves of the common box are purgative, and have been employed 
medicinally. An empyreumatic oil obtained from boxwood has been 
used successfully for the relief of toothache. A decoction of boxwood 
applied to the scalp, is said to be useful in baldness. (See Cornus 
Florida, Baldness.) 
c. 
CABBAGE, kab'-bqj, as an article of diet, is not only wholesome, 
but extremely nutritious ; it is, however, only suited for persons of good 
digestive powers. From the extreme liability of cabbage to pass into a 
state of putrefaction, it should always be used as freshes possible. (See 
Brassica. ) 
CABBAGE BARK TREE. (See Andira.) 
CACHEXIA, karkek'-se-q [Gr. kakos, bad, hexis, habit], is a term 
used to denote a bad condition or habit of body, arising from whatever 
cause, in which the functions are imperfectly performed, and the com- 
plexion unhealthy. It is employed by Cullen to denote a peculiar class 
of diseases in which the general habit is affected, and a change of com- 
plexion, with emaciation or morbid enlargement, are characteristic 
symptoms ; as jaundice, dropsy, etc. 
CACIIINNATION, kak-in-na'-shun, immoderate laughter, a symptom 
which occurs in hysteria, mania, and other affections. 
CACTUS GRANDIFLORUS, kak'-tus, Night-blooming Cereus. A 
new remedy prepared from the fresh flowers is highly recommended in 
cardiac affections, angina pectoris, rheumatism and dropsy. Dose of 
fluid extract, 2 to 5 drops, three times a day. 
CADMIUM, kad'-me-um, symbol Cd., equivalent 56.74, spec. grav. 
8.6.-Cadmium was first discovered in 1818, by Stromeyer, in small 
quantities in certain zinc ores, in consequence of the behavior of their 
solutions with sulphuretted hydrogen. It is soft, malleable, and ductile, 278 
CADHIVM-CAFFEINE, OH TIIEINE. 
of a white color, and when bent emits a creaking sound like tin. It is 
easily fused, and distils at a high temperature. It only forms one oxide, 
CdO, which is formed when cadmium is heated in air. It is yellow, 
brown, or black, according to the temperature to which it has been 
exposed. The chloride is formed by dissolving the metal in hydro- 
chloric acid. It crystallizes in four-sided prisms. The sulphide, which 
is obtained by heating a mixture of oxide of cadmium and sulphur, is 
much used as a pigment. It is of a bright yellow color, but becomes 
temporarily red on being heated. The only other important salt is the 
iodide, which may be formed by direct combination of iodine and 
cadmium in the presence of water. It is alterative and astringent, but 
is seldom used internally. In large quantities it is emetic and poisonous. 
It is used in the form of ointment, 62 grains of the iodide of cadmium 
to 1 ounce of. simple ointment, to reduce scrofulous swellings and 
enlarged joints. 
CAECUM, se'-kum [Lat. ceecus, blind], is the name given to a large 
blind-pouch, or cul-de-sac, extending downwards from the commence- 
ment of the large intestine. (See Intestines.) 
CtESAREAN OPERATION, se-za'-re-an [Lat. ccesus, from ccedo, I 
cut], in Surgery, is the extraction of a child from the womb by an 
incision through the walls of the abdomen and the uterus. It is also 
called hysterotomy, from 1 oyster a, the womb, and tome, a section. This 
operation has been practised from very ancient times, and persons so 
extracted were termed, ccesones. Julius Caesar is said to have received 
his name from his having been brought into the world in this way. The 
ancients, however, only had recourse to this operation when the mother 
was dead and the child alive; but it is now frequently performed on the 
living mother. There are three cases in which this operation may be 
necessary : 1. When the foetus is alive and the mother dead, either in 
labor or in the last two months of pregnancy. 2. When the foetus is 
dead, but cannot be delivered in the usual way, on account of the 
deformity of the mother, or the disproportionate size of the child. 
3. When both mother and child are alive, but delivery cannot take 
place, from any of the above causes. The operation consists in care- 
fully opening the walls of the abdomen in front of the uterus, which is 
also opened, and the child is then directly taken from the womb. When 
it is necessary, the best time for performing it is at the commencement 
of labor, when the strength of the mother is unimpaired, and there is 
less risk of inflammation. The operation is always one of considerable 
danger. 
CAFFEINE, OR TIIEINE, leaf-fe-in (C1gH10N4O4), a crystalline 
alkaloid found in tea, coffee, Paraguay tea, and in guarana, a species of CAFFEINE, OE IHEINE- CAL CAEEO US WATEES. 
279 
chocolate prepared from the fruit of the Paullinia sorbites. Tea con- 
tains from two to four per cent, of caffeine, coffee but one per cent. It 
is easily obtained from tea by making a strong infusion of the leaves, 
mixing it with subacetate of lead, which precipitates the tannin, and 
transmitting a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through the liquid to 
precipitate the excess of lead. On evaporating the solution, and allow- 
ing it to cool, the caffeine crystallizes out in long silky needles. It has a 
weak, bitter taste, and fuses at 453°. Water and alcohol dissolve but a 
small quantity in cold, but it is very soluble in boiling water i^id ether. 
The fact that caffeine forms the essential principle of three substances 
used by widely different nations is a very curious one, and shows that 
the craving which it satisfies is as natural as it is universal. The use of 
tea or coffee as an article of diet seems to exercise a very important 
influence in retarding the waste in the tissues of the body. Its effect on 
the human system has, however, yet to be fully studied. (See Coffee, 
Tea.) 
CAIIINCA. (See Chiococca Racemosa.) 
CAJEPUT. (See Melaleuca.) 
CAKES AND SWEETMEATS. (See Confectionery.) 
CALAMINE, kal'-a-mine [Lat. calamus, a reed]. Calamine is a 
carbonate of zinc employed in medicine in the form of a gray powder; 
it is chiefly used to sprinkle upon excoriations, chaps, etc. ; but there 
are so many better applications that it might be altogether dispensed 
with. Mixed with wax and olive-oil, it forms the ointment known as 
"Turner's Cerate." The proportions are, calamine and wax, of each 
| a pound, olive-oil 16 fluid ounces. The wax and oil are melted 
together, and the powdered calamine is stirred in during the process of 
cooking. 
CALAMUS, kal'-c^mus, a genus of palms consisting of numerous 
species, all having very slender stems, which are found climbing over 
the trees in the forests of the hotter parts of the East Indies. The 
fruit of C. Draco is the chief source of the astringent resinous substance 
known in commerce as dragon's blood. This completely covers the 
fruit, and is melted or scraped off, and then formed into small cakes. 
CALCAREOUS WATERS, kal-ka'-re-us wa'-turz [Lat. calx, calcis, 
lime]. Carbonate of lime dissolves in pure water to the extent of two 
or three grains to the gallon; but when carbonic acid is present, it is 
much more freely taken up. If, however, the temperature be raised, 
the carbonic acid escapes, leaving behind a crystalline deposit of car- 
bonate of lime. In nature, enormous crystalline concretions of this kind 
are formed by water charged with carbonic acid percolating calcareous 
strata. The stalactite caverns of Derbyshire, England, and of the Mam- 280 
CALCAREOUS WATERS-CALCIUM. 
moth Cave, Kentucky, are instances of this. Most spring water contains 
carbonate of lime held in solution, which is deposited on the sides of the 
vessel when the carbonic acid is expelled by heat. In steam boilers this 
becomes a great inconvenience, and is obviated by adding sal-ammoniac 
to the water. Chloride of calcium is formed, which remains dissolved, 
while the carbonate of ammonia is volatilized with steam. Water con- 
taining carbonate of lime in solution, or hard water, as it is popularly 
termed, is therefore softened by means of boiling. Hard water precipi- 
tates so;^> as stearate and margarate of lime, forming the well-known 
curdy precipitate. Until the whole of the lime is thrown down, no 
lather can be formed; hard water is, therefore, very uneconomical for 
washing purposes. Dr. T. Clark has devised a very ingenious method 
of softening hard water, by adding milk of lime. The carbonic acid 
unites with the lime, setting free the carbonate originally dissolved, and 
the whole falls to the bottom as a precipitate of carbonate of lime. 
CALCINE, kal-sine' [Lat. calx, lime], a chemical term, signifying 
the separation of the more volatile portions of a solid body by means of 
heat. Thus lime is formed from chalk or limestone by calcination. The 
older chemists applied the term to the oxidation of metals by heat, 
thinking it was an analogous process to that just mentioned ; they there- 
fore called all oxides produced by heat, calx, or ^alces of the metal; 
thus, calx of tin is what is now called oxide of tin. 
CALCIUM, kal'-se-um (symbol Ca., equivalent 20, specific gravity 
1.55), the metallic base of the alkaline earth lime. Calcium belongs to 
the second group of metals, and has for its analogues barium, strontium, 
and magnesium. It is one of the most abundant substances in 
nature, forming a very large portion of the crust of the earth. It 
occurs in nature in combination with fluorine as fluor spar, with oxygen 
and carbonic acid as chalk, limestone, and marble, and with oxygen and 
sulphuric acid, as gypsum, which is hydrated sulphate of lime. Calcium 
was first obtained by Sir Humphrey Davy by electrolysis, in 1808 ; but 
little was known of its properties until Dr. Matthiessen formed it by the 
electrolytic decomposition of a mixture of the chlorides of calcium and 
strontium. It is a light-yellow metal, of the color of gold alloyed with 
silver; it is rather harder than lead. It melts at a red heat, and is very 
malleable. It tarnishes in a day or two even in dry air, and in moister 
air it becomes slowly oxidized. The best-known compound of calcium 
is its oxide, or lime, which may be obtained in a state of perfect purity 
by heating pure carbonate of lime to redness. In practice, lime is made 
by burning common limestone with alternate layers of coal in a kiln. 
Lime is a white, porous, opaque, inodorous, infusible substance, with 
strong alkaline and caustic properties. It is much used in the arts, for CALCIUM. 
281 
mortar, cement, manure, dyeing, soap-making, leather-dressing, etc. 
When water is thrown on it, an equivalent is absorbed, and heat 
evolved, hydrate of lime (CaOIIO) being the result. Hydrate of lime 
is commonly called slaked or slacked lime, to distinguish it from 
anhydrous oxide, which is known by the name of quicklime., from its 
powerful caustic properties. According to the British Pharmacopoeia 
to form slaked lime, calcis hydras, take 2 lb. of lime and 1 pint of dis- 
tilled water, place the lime in a metal pot, pour the water upon it, and 
when vapor ceases to be disengaged cover the pot with its lid and set it 
aside to cool. When the temperature has fallen to that of the atmos- 
phere, put the lime on an iron-wire sieve, and by gentle agitation cause 
the fine powder to pass through the sieve, rejecting the rest. Then put 
the powder in a well-stoppered bottle and keep it excluded as much as 
possible from the air. Hydrate of lime or slaked lime is used in the purifi- 
cation of gas, in the preparation of ammonia and bleaching-powder, in 
candle-making, soap-boiling, cotton-printing, tanning, and sugar-refining. 
In the laboratory, hydrate of lime is extremely useful in preparing caustic 
alkalies, and in absorbing carbonic acid, for which it possesses a very 
strong affinity. Cold water dissolves about -^-th of its weight of 
hydrate of lime, forming lime-water. Contrary to the usual rule of 
solutions, hot water only dissolves about half that quantity. In fact, 
when lime-water, prepared in the cold, is heated, it deposits crystals, 
which redissolve as the solution cools. Lime-water is alkaline to the 
taste, and turns vegetable yellows brown, and blues green. Exposed to 
air, it gradually absorbs carbonic acid, and deposits carbonate of lime. 
In medicine, lime-water is used as an antacid, and to afford a supply of 
lime to the bones of rickety children who have not the power of 
assimilating sufficient lime from their ordinary food to give the neces- 
sary compactness to their bones. Lime-water, liquor calcis, is made by 
taking 2 ounces of slaked lime and 1 gallon of distilled or rain water, and 
shaking the two together for two or three minutes in a stoppered bottle. 
After twelve hours the excess of lime will have subsided, and the clear 
solution may be drawn off for use. It should be kept in a green glass 
bottle, with a tightly ground stopper. Dose, 1 to 4 fluid ounces. Milk 
of lime is hydrate of lime mixed with water until a milky fluid is 
obtained. The principal oxysalts of calcium are the following: Car- 
bonate of lime (CaOCO2).-This substance enters largely into the com- 
position of rocks and minerals, the bones of animals, the egg-shells of 
birds, the scales of fishes, and the shells of mollusks. The precipitated 
carbonate of lime is composed of 5 ounces of chloride of calcium, and 
13 ounces of carbonate of soda, dissolved in sufficient quantity of boil- 
ing water. Dose, 10 to 60 grains. When burnt with access of air, 282 
CALC1UM. 
limestone forms ordinary lime; if, however, the air be excluded, and 
the heat raised to a considerable height, it fuses without undergoing 
decomposition, and, on cooling, forms a crystalline mass resembling 
marble. Chloride of lime is the name given to bleaching-powder, 
which is prepared by passing a current of chlorine through milk of lime, 
by which means it is obtained in solution; or by passing chlorine over 
hydrate of lime, which produces it in the form of a moist powder. By 
exposure to the air, hypochlorous acid is continually evolved by the 
action of the carbonic acid. If an excess of any acid is added, chlorine 
is produced. The former property is taken advantage of to destroy the 
gaseous poisons with which the air of sick-rooms and other localities is con- 
taminated. By the action of the carbonic acid of the air, or by the 
addition of small portions of dilute sulphuric acid, hypochlorous acid is 
evolved, which oxidizes and destroys the miasmata. Phosphates of 
lime.-There are several phosphates of lime, the most important of 
which is that obtained from the burning of bones, which may be 
regarded as a triphosphate of lime. Superphosphate of lime, much 
used as a manure, is prepared by gradually mixing bone-dust with oil of 
vitriol, and adding an equal quantity of water between each addition of 
acid. The mass is allowed to lie in a heap until it is dry, and is then 
used under the name of superphosphate of lime. Its real composition 
is found to be a mixture of phosphate and sulphate of lime with the 
animal matter of bones. Sulphate of lime occurs in nature as gypsum, 
selenite, and anhydrate. Gypsum, on being burnt, yields a white 
powder, commonly known as plaster of Paris, from the best gypsum- 
beds being found near that city. Plaster of Paris, which is anhydrous 
sulphate of lime, possesses the property of solidifying when mixed with 
water. Sulphate of lime is prepared by passing sulphurous acid through 
water containing chalk or hydrate of lime in a fine state of division. It 
is used as a convenient source of sulphurous acid. The various pre- 
parations of lime have all more or less of the same medicinal properties. 
Quicklime, like the fixed alkalies, is a powerful caustic and irritant. 
It is also used as a masticatory in India, with betel. Lime-water applied 
to suppurating or mucous surfaces checks or stops secretion, and pro- 
duces dryness of the part. Administered internally it neutralizes acidity 
of the stomach, diminishes the secretion of the gastric juice, and occa- 
sions thirst and constipation. It is hence used as an antacid in dyspepsia, 
particularly when attended with nausea and vomiting, and as an astrin- 
gent in diarrhoea, when the inflammatory symptoms have subsided. 
After absorption it increases the secretion of the urine, and diminishes 
the excessive formation or deposition of uric acid and the urates. Lime- 
water and milk is recommended as an antidote in poisoning by the com- CAL CLUM- CAL CUL US. 
283 
mon mineral and oxalic acids. In large doses lime acts as a poison, 
producing thirst, a burning sensation in the mouth and stomach, con- 
stipation, and death. A solution of chloride of lime is recommended as 
a wash in certain diseases of the skin, and is said to be very successful 
as a cure for itch, and also for ring-worm. A weak solution is also of 
great benefit in ophthalmia. 
CALCIUM, COMPOUND ELIXIR IODO-BROMIDE OF. Com- 
ponent parts, bromine, iodine, chlorine, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium 
and potassium (which see). Medically used in scrofula, scrofulous abscesses 
and swellings, and all diseases of the blood traceable to a scrofulous 
diathesis; in syphilis, cancer and cancerous tumors, caries or diseased 
bone; pulmonary degeneration, erysipelas, salt rheum, scald head, and 
cutaneous affections; in neuralgia and rheumatism, and particularly 
as an anti-bilious remedy to combat what is commonly called "liver 
complaint. ' ' Dose, 1 teaspoonful in | a wine-glass of water, threb times 
a day-an hour before each meal. After three days, double the dose. 
CALCIUM, IODIDE OF. This preparation possesses alterative 
and tonic properties. It is very valuable in cases in which the iodide of 
potassium is inadmissible. It does not occasion iodism, or resorption of 
the healthy tissues; it does not excite the circulation, nor irritate the 
stomach and bladder, by passing off too rapidly by the kidneys. Its 
solution in milk is perfectly tasteless. It is particularly useful in 
scaly diseases of the skin, and chronic and metallic poisoning by 
mercury, lead and copper. Dose, | of a grain in solution, three times 
daily. (See Calcium.) 
CALCULUS, kal'-ku-lus [Lat. dim. from calx, a limestone], is a 
hard inorganic concretion formed in various parts of the human body, 
and bearing a general resemblance in form and composition to stone. 
It receives various names, from the parts in which it exists; as, salivary 
in the salivary glands and ducts, pulmonary in the lungs, intestinal in 
the stomach or intestinal canal, biliary in the gall-bladder, urinary in 
the kidneys or bladder, gouty in the joints of gouty persons. The most 
familiar instance of the formation of calculus is the tartar which is 
deposited from the saliva and mucus of the mouth upon the teeth. The 
term calculus is, however, most frequently applied to those concretions 
which are formed in the gall-bladder or biliary ducts, and those 
formed in the kidneys or bladder. Biliary calculi, or gall-stones, 
are composed almost entirely of cholesterine, with some coloring 
matter. They vary greatly in size and number, amounting some- 
times to hundreds, and even, it is said, to thousands; but so long as 
they remain in the gall-bladder they do not usually cause much 
uneasiness. It is when they pass into the canal by which the bile is 284 
CALCULUS. 
conveyed to the duodenum, that they occasion great pain and derange- 
ment of the system. The pain occurs in paroxysms, and is generally 
attended with shivering and vomiting. If the bile be wholly obstructed, 
jaundice conies on, and rapid emaciation succeeds. The disorder some- 
times proves fatal, but generally the stones find their way, sooner or 
later, into the intestines, and the disturbance subsides. The best reme- 
dies are opium and hot applications over the seat of pain, or a warm 
bath. Urinary calculi, gravel, or stone in the bladder, are concretions 
formed and existing in the urinary passages. They generally originate 
in the kidneys, and afterwards pass down into the bladder, where they 
frequently attain a very large size; some have been found to attain the 
weight of 14 to 16 ounces, and even more. While in the kidneys they 
are termed renal calculi, and they sometimes remain there permanently, 
and may even attain a considerable size without causing much incon- 
venience; but they may also produce inflammation and abscess, and 
ultimately cause death. Generally, however, while yet of small size, 
they pass down the ureters into the bladder. Sometimes the passing is 
attended with symptoms similar to those occasioned by the passing of a 
gall-stone, and similar remedies are to be had recourse to. The calculus 
having passed into the bladder, is then termed a vesical calculus. At 
first it is attended with comparatively little pain; but unless removed or 
evacuated, it is sure to enlarge, and to give rise to one of the most 
dreadful diseases that can afflict humanity. In the earlier stages much 
may be done to check the progress of this dangerous malady; but when 
the calculus is once formed, the only means by which it can be got rid of 
is by an operation. The stone must either be withdrawn through the 
urethra by an instrument, or it must be broken into fragments small 
enough to be voided with the urine, or it must be extracted by an 
incision. 
The different varieties of urinary calculus are thus classed by Dr. 
Wollaston, in the order of their frequency: 1. Uric acid. 2, oxalate of 
lime, called the mulberry calculus, from its dark color and rough surface; 
3, ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate, called also the triple phosphate ; 
4, phosphate of lime, or bone-earth calculus; 5, fusible calculus-a 
combination of the last two species, and so called from its fusibility 
under the blowpipe ; 6, the mixed calculus, composed of several of the 
other kinds confusedly mixed; 7, urate of ammonia; 8, carbonate of 
lime ; 9, cystic oxide ; 10, xanthic oxide. The last three are extremely 
rare. Many of the calculi, and, indeed, most of them, are not of one 
uniform composition, but consist of strata of two or three varieties, one 
forming a nucleus for the other deposits, and calculi thus formed receive 
the name of alternating. Uric acid is more common as a nucleus than CALCULUS- CALISAYA, FLIXIR OF. 
285 
any other substance. Urinary calculus is more frequent in some districts 
than others, and locality likewise influences the species of the stone. In 
some families it appears to be hereditary, and especially in those who 
are also subject to attacks of gout. It is much more common among 
males than females; and soldiers and sailors are particularly free from 
it. The predisposing causes of it, however, are still very imperfectly 
understood. 
Treatment.-The treatment should be directed to prevent the forma- 
tion of calculus, or to retard its progress ; to facilitate its expulsion when 
formed, and to relieve the sufferings of the patient. Particular attention 
should be paid to the general health. The diet should be nutritious, but 
not stimulating or rich; the digestion promoted and strengthened by 
tonics, active exercise encouraged, and the secretions by the skin 
encouraged by warm clothing, warm baths, and the flesh brush. When 
the calculus is composed of uric or lithic acid, or when acid predominates 
in the urine, the alkaline bicarbonates, as the bicarbonate of soda, in 10 
grain doses, three or four times a day, should be administered. On the 
other hand, should the urine exhibit an alkaline state, acids will be found 
useful. The Vichy water, a solution of bicarbonate of soda saturated 
with carbonic acid, is strongly recommended in both cases, as by virtue 
of its carbonic acid, it counteracts alkaline formations, and by virtue of its 
alkalies, acid formations; while it also disintegrates the animal matter 
which cements them together. (See Lithotomy, Lithotrity.) 
CALEFACIENT, kal-e-fa-shent, substances are so called which 
excite a degree of warmth in the parts to which they are applied, as 
mustard, pepper, etc. They belong to the class of stimulants. 
CALENDULA, kaAen -du-lq, in Botany, the marigold, a genus of 
plants belonging to the Nat. order Compositae, sub-order Tubiflorce. 
The species C. officinalis is the common marigold. Formerly, many 
medicinal virtues were ascribed to this plant, and its flowers were usually 
added to soups to color them, and also to act as "comforters of the heart 
and spirits." Saffron is frequently adulterated with the yellow florets 
of the marigold. 
CALF'S-FOOT JELLY, kafs-fut jel'de, is made by extracting the 
gelatinous portions from the tendinous structures of the feet and knee- 
joints of the calf, by long boiling. Sugar, wine, or oil and spices, are 
added to the jelly thus obtained. This forms a palatable and easily 
digested article of food for convalescents, and may be taken either cold 
or dissolved in warm water. 
CALIFORNIA, CLIMATE OF. (See Climate.) 
CALIS AY A. (See Cinchona.) 
CALISAYA, ELIXIR OF, kaTe-sa'-yq, e-lik'-suri Calisaya con- 286 
CALISAYA, ELIXIR OF-CALOTROPIS. 
stitutes the active agent of this elegant aromatic preparation. It is an 
agreeable and general tonic in convalescence from disease in children 
and feeble persons, and preventive against intermittents. Its tonic, 
anti-intermittent and sedative properties render it highly useful in a 
great variety of diseases, and while it possesses the distinctive quality of 
subduing fever, it can be used in most cases where tonics are prescribed. 
It is advised in gangrenous affections, in typhoid fevers with extreme 
prostration, in passive hemorrhages accompanied with great feeble- 
ness, etc. It is useful in the treatment of gout, chronic rheumatism, 
scrofula, and scurvy. It will be found of great advantage in dys- 
pepsia, attended with irritation of the stomach; in severe diarrhoeas 
and those that have been chronic ; in long-continued inflammations 
of the mucous membranes, better treated with tonics than in any 
other way; in cases of convalescence, when the system is recover- 
ing from prostration ; and generally in weak and prostrated states of the 
system, particularly during summer months. Each fluid ounce contains 
forty grains of true calisaya bark. Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. (See 
Cinchona, Aromatic Calisaya Wine.) 
CALISTHENICS, kal-is-then-iks, [Gr. kalos^ beautiful, sthenos^ 
strength], the science or practice of exercising the limbs and body for the 
purpose of strengthening the muscles and acquiring a more graceful 
carriage. (See Gymnastics, Exercise.) 
CALLITRICHE VERNA, OR WATER STARWORT, kaUi'-tri-ke 
ver'-na, commonly called water chickweed. It is a small annual that 
floats in the water. It is common in all parts of the United States, and 
flowers from April to September. All parts of the plant are used. It is 
valuable as a diuretic. It is used in the form of a decoction, and may 
be drunk freely. (See Decoction.) 
CALLOSITY, kal-los'-i-te [Lat. callositas\ is an induration or hard- 
ness of the skin; as that of the hands through hard labor. 
CALLUS, kal'-lus^ is the bony matter which is deposited between the 
fractured ends of broken bones, and serves to reunite them. (See 
Fractures.) 
CALMNESS OF MIND. (See Passions.) 
CALOMEL. (See Mercury.) 
CALORIC. (See Heat.) 
CALOTROPIS, ka-lot'-ro-pis [Gr. kalos^ beautiful, tropis, keel, in 
allusion to the keel of the flower], in Botany, a genus of tropical plants 
belonging to the Nat. order Asclepiadacew. The species C. gig anted or 
procera yields the medicinal bark known as mudar bark, which has been 
much employed in India for the treatment of cutaneous affections. It 
is emetic, purgative, and diaphoretic, and is occasionally used as a sub- CALO TP OPTS- CAALPHINE. 
287 
stitute for ipecacuanha. It contains a peculiar principle called mudarine. 
The bark of the root C. Ilamlltonii has similar properties, and is said 
to yield the fibres termed Yercum. 
CALUMBA, COLOMBO, COLUMBA, OR COLUMBIA, ka-lum'-ba, 
the name given to a root very extensively used in medicine. It takes 
its name from Colombo, in Ceylon, whence it was first brought. Calumba 
root is bitter, aromatic, stomachic, and anti-emetic. It has been 
advised in dysentery, in serous diarrhoeas, and bilious fevers. Com- 
bined with opium in a small quantity, it is useful in the treatment 
of obstinate colics, and as an anti-emetic for combating the nausea and 
vomiting which so often accompany the first periods of pregnancy. 
Used in dyspepsia, chronic diarrhoea, and dysentery; in convalescence 
from febrile and inflammatory diseases, hectic fever, and in the muscular 
debility of young children. Like other strong bitters, it occasionally 
checks the remittent and intermittent fevers of hot climates. The 
absence of irritating properties renders it also an appropriate tonic in 
the hectic fever of consumption, and other kindred affections. It is 
frequently administered in combination with other tonics, aromatics, 
mild cathartics, and antacids. In dyspepsia and vomiting it may be 
advantageously combined with bicarbonate of soda, as well as in debility 
with acidity of the stomach. Calumba is one of the best pure bitter tonics 
we possess, it is free from astringency, and exerts a sedative action. 
Calumba may be given in powder, in infusion, fluid extract, or tincture, 
but never in decoction. The dose of the powder is from 10 grains to 40; 
of the infusion, from 1 tablespoonful to 1 wine-glassful; of the tincture, 1 
to 2 teaspoonfuls in water. The powder of calumba may be taken in 
water, simple or aromatic: 8 parts of calumba powder, 8 parts of carbonate 
of soda, and 2 parts of ginger, form a most excellent stomachic in 
dyspepsia, of which £ a teaspoonful may be taken in a wine-glassful of 
water. Dose: of fluid extract, 20 to 60 drops; tincture, j to 2 tea- 
spoonfuls ; solid extract, 4 to 10 grains; pills, 2 grains each, 2 to 5 
pills. (See Infusion. ) 
CAMBOGE. (See Gambogia.) 
CAMOMILE. (See Anthemis.) 
CAMPHENE, CAMPHILINE, OR DADYL, karn-feen', a product 
obtained from turpentine. By acting on that body with hydrochloric 
acid, hydrochlorate of camphene is formed, which is transformed into 
camphene by the abstraction of the hydrochloric acid by the aid of 
quicklime. 
CAMPHINE, kam'-feen, a name applied commercially to a pure 
variety of oil of turpentine which is furnished by the Pinus australis of 
the southern states. 288 
Chi MPIIOR. 
CAMPHOR, kam-fir [Gr. kcimpkogen, Arab. kapkoor\ a solid 
crystalline substance found in many plants, though only obtained in 
large quantities from two; namely, Camphora oficinarum and Dryo- 
balanops aromatica. The former, an evergreen tree growing in China, 
Formosa, and Japan, yields almost all the camphor of European com- 
merce. The camphor, which may be regarded as a solid volatile oil, is 
diffused through the entire plant, and is separated from the root, trunk, 
and branches. These parts are cut into chips, and boiled in water till 
the camphor begins to adhere to the stirring-rod, when the liquid is 
strained and allowed to stand until the camphor concretes. It is then 
sublimed into inverted straw cones contained within the earthen capitals 
of the stills. It is generally in small grayish, slightly sparkling grains, 
which, by aggregation, form crumbling cakes. Refined camphor is 
prepared by mixing the crude product with lime, and subliming it into 
thin glass vessels of a peculiar shape, which are afterwards cracked so 
as to obtain the camphor in concavo-convex cakes, each about three 
inches thick, with a hole in the middle. Camphor is colorless and 
translucent, and has a strong, penetrating, aromatic odor, and a bitter, 
rather pungent taste, though leaving a sensation of coolness in the 
mouth. Its specific gravity is from .98 to. 99; so that it floats upon 
water, and, evaporating while doing so, undergoes a curious rotatory 
movement. It volatilizes slowly at ordinary temperatures, melts at 288° 
Fahr., boils at 400°, and burns with a bright flame. It is soluble in 
alcohol, ether, oils, and dilute acids; also to a certain extent in water. 
Camphor is used in medicine, both internally and externally, as a tem- 
porary stimulant. In moderate doses, it increases the fulness of the 
pulse, raises the temperature of the body, and operates as a sudorific; 
and hence it is frequently employed in fevers, especially of the typhoid 
type, particularly in combination with opium, and other diaphoretics. 
It acts as an anodyne, allaying nervous irritation, and producing quietude 
and placidity of feeling; and hence it is used in mania, melancholia, and 
other forms of mental disorder. In large doses it produces lassitude, 
giddiness, confusion of ideas, disordered vision, noise in the ears, stupor, 
delirium, and convulsions. Dose, 1 to 10 grains. Camphor-water is 
made by macerating half an ounce of camphor enclosed in a muslin bag, 
for at least two days, in a gallon of distilled water, in a stoppered bottle, 
the camphor being kept at the bottom of the bottle by means of a.glass 
rod. Dose, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. The spirit of camphor is composed of 
1 ounce of camphor dissolved in 9 fluid ounces of rectified spirits. Dose, 
10 to 30 drops. The compound tincture of camphor is composed of 40 
grains each of opium in coarse powder and benzoic acid, 30 grains of 
camphor, | a fluid dram of oil of anise, and 1 pint of proof spirit, mac- CAMPHOR-CAMPHOR JVLEP. 
289 
erated for seven days in a close vessel, and then filtered, adding sufficient 
of proof spirit to make 1 pint. Dose, 15 drops to 1 teaspoonful. 
Camphor also forms a constituent in a number of liniments and several 
ointments. Raspail, the founder of a peculiar system of medicine 
widely adopted in France, elevates camphor almost to the dignity of a 
universal medicine. The alcoholic solution of camphor, and the lini- 
ments of which it is the principle ingredient, are much used for external 
application in sprains and bruises, chilblains and chronic rheumatism. 
Insects are kept from attacking specimens of natural history by placing 
pieces of camphor in the case in which such specimens are preserved. 
Furs, clothing, etc., may be protected from moths by placing camphor 
in the trunks or boxes where they are kept. (See Camphora, and the 
five following subjects.) 
CAMPHORA, kam-fd-ra^ in Botany a genus of plants belonging to 
the Natural order Lauraceoe,. The most interesting species is C. 
of^inarum, the camphor-tree, a native of China, Formosa, and Japan, 
where it grows to a considerable size. It is an evergreen, and all parts 
emit a camphoraceous odor when bruised. The wood is white, light, 
and durable, and is much used in China for carpenter's work. From 
the roots, trunk, and branches of this plant the common or officinal 
camphor is obtained. (See Camphor.) 
CAMPHORATED CHALK, kam'-fo-rate-ed chawk, is composed of 
2 ounces of camphor reduced in a mortar to a fine powder, with 10 
drops of spirits of wine ; then add 12 ounces of precipitated chalk ; mix 
them intimately, and rub them through a fine gauze sieve ; or £ ounce 
of camphor may be similarly mixed with 8 ounces of the precipitated 
chalk, and scented with any aromatic oil at pleasure. Both these 
powders should be kept closely stopped in a wide-mouthed glass bottle. 
Used as a local application in skin diseases, burns, excoriations, and 
ulcers. 
CAMPHORATED SPIRITS OF WINE. Useful as an embroca- 
tion for sprains, rheumatism, chilblains, etc. Dissolve 1 ounce of 
camphor in J pint of rectified spirits of wine, or alcohol. 
CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM. (See Paregoric.) 
CAMPHOR JULEP. Ingredients: 
Take of Camphor Twenty grains. 
Spirits of wine Twenty drops. 
White sugar Two drams. 
Gum arabic Two drams. 
Boiling water One pint.-Mix. 
Mode.-Rub the camphor into the spirits of wine, then mix in the 
sugar when reduced to a fine powder, and add the gum-arabic powdered. 290 
CAMPHOR JULEP-CANCER. 
Well mix these ingredients, and pour on them very gradually the boil- 
ing water, continuing the rubbing till the whole of the water is poured 
on. Cover it over, and when cold, strain it through fine linen for use. 
This julep is very useful in all spasmodic cases and nervous affections. 
Dose, 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls. 
CAMPHOR LINIMENT. Ingredients: 
Take of Camphor One ounce. 
Olive oil Two ounces.-Mix. 
Rub them well together till quite smooth. This is a useful liniment for 
cases of rheumatism, etc. 
CAMP ITCH. (See Soldiers' Itch.) 
CANADA BALSAM, kan'-a-da, the juice of the Abies Balsamea 
or fir balsam, a tree found growing in all parts of the continent of 
America. In small doses it increases the urinary discharge, and also 
acts as a general stimulant. It has been found useful in gonorrhoea, 
gleet, chronic inflammation of the bladder, bronchitis, catarrh, piles, 
and rheumatic affections. Dose, from 5 to 20 drops, three times a day. 
CANADA, CLIMATE OF. (See Climate.) 
CANADA FLEABANE. (See Erigeron.) 
CANARIES, CLIMATE OF THE, ka-na'-reez. It resembles, but 
is not quite as equable, as that of Madeira. (See Madeira.) 
C AN ARY WINE, ka-nd-re. This wine, which is also known by the 
name of Teneriffe, is a product of the Canary Islands. In taste it resembles 
Madeira; it is made from grapes which have been gathered before they 
are ripe, and, when new, has a sour and unpleasant taste. After being 
kept carefully for two or three years, its mildness increases greatly, and, 
like Madeira, it is greatly improved by a journey to the tropics. More of it 
is produced on the island of Teneriffe than on the other Canary Islands. 
The name of Canary is only applied to the Bidogne wine, and never to 
the Malvoise or Malmsey of the Canaries. 
CANCER, kari-sur [so called from the large blue veins which 
appear, in cancer, to resemble crab's claws], is a disease of a very 
malignant character, making its appearance as a scirrhous tumor, which 
ultimately terminates in an ill-conditioned and deep ulcer. Any part of 
the body may be the seat of this disease, though the glands are most 
liable to its attack. The female breast, the tongue, or lips, are among 
the parts most liable to it. 
Appearance.-The tumor at first is small, hard, indolent, and nearly 
insensible, and showing no inflammation, with little or no discoloration 
of the surrounding skin. It remains in this state for a longer or shorter 
period, sometimes for years, but at length it passes into a more active 
condition - the tumor increases in size, the skin changes to a livid or CANCER. 
291 
red appearance, and pain begins to be felt in it. The pain, which is of 
a shooting or lancinating nature, is at first slight, and occurs at con- 
siderable intervals; but it increases by degrees, and the intervals 
diminish until it becomes alifiost constant. The cutaneous veins become 
turgid, and the surface of the tumor presents to the feel a knotty, 
uneven surface. Sometimes the skin never actually breaks, but, usually, 
after a longer or shorter period, the tumor ulcerates, and becomes an 
open sore. The discharge is of a thin, foetid, acrid nature, which 
corrodes the surrounding parts. The sore presents thick jagged edges, 
and a soft center, eaten, as it were, into irregular cells. The shooting 
pains are now much increased, and are of a very violent nature. The 
disease pursues its onward course; sometimes it seems as if it had 
exhausted itself, and wTas allowing nature to work a cure by the form- 
ation of new flesh; but this is merely a delusion, for it soon recommences 
its destructive course, and at length, it may be after years, it seizes upon 
some vital organ, or the patient sinks exhausted by the pain and 
continued drain upon his system. 
Causes.-Of the cause, nature, or treatment of this terrible disease, 
little is, unfortunately, known. By some it is regarded as constitutional, 
by others as local; some maintain that it is hereditary, others that it may 
be transmitted by inoculation. So far as may be judged from the 
conflicting evidence on these points, there does seem, in general, to be a 
certain constitutional predisposition to this disease; though, according to 
Mr. Paget, only a sixth of the cases can be traced to any hereditary 
transmission. The evidence is against its being transmitted by inoculation. 
If cancer be at any period merely a local disease, it can only be in its 
earliest stage, for, in a short time, the whole system seems to be infected 
with it; and hence it is that, after a time, the extirpation of the original 
tumor so often fails in effecting a complete cure. Though all ages and both 
sexes are liable to this disease, the younger are less frequently attacked 
by it than the old, and females are more subject to it than males. 
Though cancer is, unfortunately, by no means uncommon, it is not all, 
nor even the majority of tumors, that bear a general resemblance to it, 
that are cancerous; in fact, it is often with the greatest difficulty that the 
cancerous or non-cancerous nature of a tumor can be determined; the 
presumption always is, in the case of a tumor getting well, that it was 
not cancer: hence the great importance, in every suspicious case, of 
having recourse to a skilful surgeon. With medical quacks every tumor 
is pronounced to be a cancer, and every cancer curable, the cures effected 
in the former case being taken credit for as of cancer; and, in the latter 
case, much excruciating agony is entailed upon the sufferer without any 
benefit. 292 
CANCEIl. 
Treatment.-The only hope of a cure in cancer is by extirpating the 
tumor in its earliest stages; and even this, after all, frequently affords 
but a temporary relief. According to Mr. Paget (" Lectures on Surgical 
Pathology") "the average duration of li/e after the appearance of the 
cancer is forty-nine months." In forty-nine cases in which the cancer 
was once removed by operation, the average duration of life was some- 
what more than forty-nine months; and hence he concludes that the 
average duration of life is not materially affected by the removal of the 
local disease, but adds, that it is probable that the progress of the more 
rapid cases is retarded by the operation. Sometimes, in place of the 
knife, escharotics, as chloride of zinc, are had recourse to, but with no 
better success. Much good may be effected by means of palliatives; the 
patient is to be sustained by good nourishing diet, but all stimulants are 
to be avoided, and everything that would tend to increase the activity 
of the disease. The state of the general health is to be carefully 
attended to, and both mind and body kept as free from excitement as 
possible. In the local treatment of the disease, sedatives, as hemlock, 
henbane, and opium, are to be had recourse to in order to allay the pain. 
Of the internal organs, the womb in the female, and the stomach, are 
the most frequent seats of the disease. Cancer is very rare under 
thirty years of age. When, from the nature of a tumor, its hard- 
ness, situation, age of the patient, and particularly if there be any 
hereditary bias towards the disease, incipient cancer is suspected, there 
should be no trifling, no leechings, or rubbing, or fomentings; the 
advice of a skilled surgeon should be sought at once; and neither time, 
distance, nor expense should stand in the way of procuring that assistance 
which may not only preserve life, but save from a lingering or painful 
death. Should the suspicions be unfounded, the mind is restored to 
peace; should they be correct, the one remedy, incision, cannot be too 
soon submitted to, before the glands adjacent to the disease, or other 
textures of the body, become tainted. In any stage of the disease, 
however, the advice of the regular practitioner ought to be taken; above 
all, let the sufferer and the friends beware of being tempted by the 
specious advertisements of quack remedies, and of wasting time of 
which every day is precious. 
When, unfortunately, cancer has reached the stage at which hope of 
cure must be given up; when it has become an open, grey-looking ulcer, 
discharging thin fetid matter, the seat of shooting and stinging pain, and 
when the constitutiori is affected, it only remains to make the situation of 
the sufferer as comfortable as possible. Opium in its various forms is the 
great soother, and the other anodynes, hemlock especially, both 
internally and as a poultice, are all of service. Cod-liver oil in some CANCER-CANKER, OR CAN CRUEL ORIS. 
293 
cases allays the pain and retards the progress of the disease; but the 
regulation and administration of these remedies must be committed to 
the care of the medical attendant; the domestic remedies must be, the 
most perfect cleanliness and kindest consideration for the comfort and 
irritabilities of any one who is the victim of cancerous disease. Cancer 
cannot be said to be propagated by contact; but this should be avoided 
as much as possible; in the intimate relations of'husband and wife, 
especially, whatever the organ or structure affected. 
The lower lip is not unfrequently the site of cancer in old people; it 
is said, in those who smoke much; a painful sore in this situation, which 
will not heal, ought not to be neglected, but submitted to medical 
examination. 
Among the lower animals this disease is not of infrequent occurrence, 
the animals most liable to its attacks being the cat and dog. (See 
Breast, Tongue, Womb, Cancer Scroti, Microscope; Calcium, Com- 
pound Elixir Iodo-Bromide of; Berberis Aquifolium, Alteratives.) 
CANCER ROOT. (See Orobanche Virginiana.) 
CANCER SCROTI. Cancer of the scrotum, or chimney sweep's 
cancer, is a disease of the scrotum, to which chimney sweeps are 
particularly liable, owing, it is believed, to irritation, caused by the 
action of the soot on that'part. It commences by an indurated enlarge- 
ment of the integuments, which may continue for a long time without 
much apparent progress, but eventually proceeds to ulceration, and, if 
not checked, will involve the surrounding parts. Local applications may 
stay the progress of the disease and alleviate the suffering, but the only 
hope of a cure lies in excision, which should be done at an early stage 
of the disease, to afford any hope of permanent relief. (See Cancer.) 
CANELLA ALBA, Ica-nel'-la al'-ba \Canella\. An evergreen tree 
belonging to the Nat. order Candlacew. It is also known by the 
common names, wild cinnamon, white cinnamon. A native of Jamaica 
and other West India islands. The bark is the part employed in 
medicine. Canella is possessed of the ordinary properties of aromatics; 
acting as a local stimulant and gentle tonic, producing upon the stomach 
a warming, cordial effect, which makes it valuable as an addition to tonic 
or purgative medicines in debilitated states of the digestive organs. 
Seldom prescribed except in combinations. Dose: fluid extract, 15 
to 20 drops; powder, 10 to 30 grains. 
CANINE MADNESS. (See Hydrophobia, Bites and Stings.) 
CANINE TEETH. (See Teeth.) 
CANKER LETTUCE. (See Pyrola.) 
CANKER, OR CANCRUM ORIS. (See Thrush, Nursing Sore 
Mouth.) 294 
CANNA- CANNABIS. 
CANNA, kan-na, Canna Starch is obtained from a West Indian 
plant. It is imported from St. Kitts, and is an excellent arrowroot. It 
is a salutary and agreeable article of diet for invalids and children, and 
is easily digested. It may be boiled the same as arrowroot, and used 
for the same purposes, and in the same cases. 
CANNABIS, kanlnq-bis, in Botany, the hemp, a genus of plants 
representing the Nat. order Cannabinacew. Cannabis sativa, the only 
species, yields the valuable fibre called hemp, which has been known for 
more than 2,500 years as a material for cordage, sacking, and cloth. In 
the Northern States the plant grows to the height of about six feet, but in 
warmer climates it has occasionally been found sixteen or eighteen feet 
high. The fruits, commonly termed hemp-seed, are oleaginous and demul- 
cent, and are used for feeding birds. When submitted to pressure, they 
yield about twenty-five per cent, of a fixed oil, which is used for making 
varnishes. In the sap of the hemp-plant there exists a resinous 
substance which has extraordinary narcotic properties. In northern 
climates the proportion of this resin in the several parts of the plants is 
so small as to have escaped general observation; but in the warmer 
regions of the East, the resinous substance is sufficiently abundant to 
exude naturally from the flowers, leaves, and young twigs. The Indian 
hemp, which is so highly prized for its narcotic virtues, is considered by 
some botanists to be a distinct variety, and is distinguished by them as 
C. sativa, var. indica. This herb, and the resin obtained, are largely 
employed in Asia, and in some parts of Africa and South America, for 
the purposes of indulgence. The dried plant is smoked, and sometimes 
chewed. Five or ten grains reduced to powder are smoked from a 
common pipe along with ordinary tobacco, or from a water-pipe with a 
peculiar variety of tobacco called tombeki. The resin and resinous 
extracts are generally swallowed in the form of pills or boluses. The 
hemp-plant and its preparations appear to have been used from very 
remote times. The effects of the natural resin, or churrus, have been 
carefully studied in India by Dr. O'Shaughnessy. He states that when 
taken in moderation it produces increase of appetite and great mental 
cheerfulness; while in excess it causes a peculiar kind of delirium and 
catalepsy. The effect produced by hemp in its various forms varies, 
like that of opium, both in kind and in degree, with the race of men 
who use it, and with the individuals to whom it is administered. Upon 
Orientals its general effect is of an agreeable and cheerful character, 
exciting them to laugh, dance, and sing, and to commit various extrava- 
gances. It, however, renders some excitable and quarrelsome, disposing 
them to acts of violence. Indian Hemp, or Cannabis Indica, is narcotic, 
nervine, and anaesthetic, also hypnotic. The Chinese were acquainted CANNABIS- CANTHARIDES. 
295 
with its use as an anaesthetic as early as the third century of the 
Christian era, and a celebrated Chinese physician is said to have 
operated on his patients after having rendered them insensible by 
a preparation of wine and hemp powder. This agent has been chiefly 
employed in spasmodic and painful affections, and in several of these its 
curative powers are unquestionable. 
The cases of tetanus recorded, demonstrate that when given boldly 
in large doses, the resin of hemp is capable of arresting the progress of 
this formidable disease, and in a large proportion of cases of effecting 
a perfect cure. Professor Miller, of Edinburgh, says: ' ' My own experi- 
ence speaks loudly in favor of hemp. I can now record three fortunate 
cases under its use, all traumatic tetanus." 
In neuralgia, the preparations of hemp have been found to palliate, 
and in not a few instances to effect a perfect cure. 
The action of cannabis or Indian hemp, appears to have been salutary 
in rheumatism. 
It is also recommended to produce sleep where opium, from long 
continued use, has ceased to produce its proper effects. Cases are 
mentioned in which cannabis entirely allayed the intense itching of 
eczema, while the patient continued under its effects, and nrocured 
refreshing sleep which no other means could obtain. 
It has also been employed with satisfactory effects in the treatment 
of delirium tremens. Dose: fluid extract, 5 to 10 drops; solid extract, 
1 to 2 grains; pills £ grain each, 2 to 4 pills; pills 1 grain each, 1 to 2 
pills ; tincture, 5 to 20 drops. 
CANTHARADIN, kan-tkar-a-din, the crystalline blistering prin- 
ciple contained in the Cantkaris veslcatoria, or Spanish blister-fly, first 
obtained by Robiguet. To procure it the flies are digested in alcohol. 
The alcoholic solution is afterwards evaporated to dryness, and washed 
with cold ether, which dissolves out the cantharadin. When pure, it is 
insoluble in water, but very soluble in boiling alcohol. Lard, containing 
one five-hundredth of cantharadin, will produce a very powerful blis- 
tering effect when applied to the human skin. 
CANTHARIDAL COLLODION, kan-tkar'-e-dal koldo'-de-un, a 
solution of cantharides in collodion. It produces a blister in about 
the same time as the ordinary cerate, and has the advantages that it is 
applied with greater facility, is better adapted to cover uneven surfaces, 
and retains its place with more certainty. On application, evaporation 
of the ether takes place in less than a minute, and it may then be 
reapplied if necessary. 
CANTHARIDES, kan-tkar'-e-deez. The word is the Latin plural of 
Cantkaris-vesicatoria the Spanish blistering fly. (See Blisters.) In 296 
CANTHARIDES-CAOUTCHOUC, ETC. 
addition to its uses as a blistering agent, the Spanish fly is used 
internally; but it is too hazardous a remedy for general use. It is some- 
times given as a poison, for malicious or criminal purposes. When 
swallowed in a poisonous dose, cantharides quickly produce pain in the 
stomach and bowels, and intense inflammation; distressing irritation of 
the urinary organs follows, with constant desire to pass urine, which 
comes away in small quantities, with or without blood, or is entirely 
suppressed; stupor and delirium precede death. The remedies in a 
case of poisoning by Spanish fly must be of the most soothing character; 
milk given cold may, as it coagulates in the stomach, envelope the 
irritant particles, or it may be used boiled with flour; white of egg, 
linseed-tea, or indeed the emollient most quickly and easily procurable 
should be swallowed largely; and vomiting, if not present, promoted by 
a feather in the throat, or by ipecacuanha. Oil is sometimes forbidden 
in such cases, from its being a solvent of cantharides; but after 
vomiting, or even before, if the dose is not large, one or two doses of 
castor-oil may safely and advantageously be given, each in combination 
with 20 or 30 drops of laudanum. Injections of starch, linseed-tea, or the 
like, with or without laudanum, will allay the irritation in the lower 
bowels. Hot applications to the abdomen generally should be used, and 
if there is much tenderness, leeches, freely. Should the patient recover, 
the state of the alimentary canal and urinary organs for some time 
require care, and the mildest and most unirritating mode of living must 
be pursued. A little cantharides ointment, smeared upon the silk of a 
seton, increases the discharge when deficient. 
CANTHARIS VITTATA, kan'-tha-ris 'vit-ta'-tq \potato-fly\, the 
common potato-fly of the United States, possesses the same properties, 
in a minor degree, of the Spanish fly, and in the absence of the latter 
may be used for blistering purposes. 
CANTHUS, kan-thus [Lat]. The angle of the eyelids, where the 
upper and under eyelids meet. That nearest the nose is termed the 
internal or greater canthus; and the other, nearest the temple, the 
external, or lesser canthus. 
CAOUTCHOUC, INDIA-RUBBER, OR GUM-ELASTIC, kod- 
chuk or ka-oot'-chook [its Indian name]. Caoutchouc is the solidified milky 
juice of certain tropical plants, the largest supply being obtained from the 
Ficus elastica, a tree belonging to the order iMoracece, found in Assam; 
from other species of Ficus growing in Java and America; from the 
Siphonia elastica, a native of Guiana and Brazil; and from the Urceola 
elastica, a climbing plant found in the islands of the Indian archipelago. 
Many other plants yield caoutchouc in small quantities, such as the com- 
mon fig {Ficus carica), the spurge, the dandelion, and the celandine. CAOUTCHOUC, ETC.-CAPSICUM. 
297 
Chemically considered, pure caoutchouc is a carbide of hydrogen, or hy- 
drocarbon, C8 H7, possessing a specific gravity'of 0.92 to 0.97 (Faraday). 
It is prepared by dissolving the commercial material in chloroform, 
precipitating with alcohol, and drying it at a temperature of 70° to 80° 
Fahr. As it is found in commerce, it is a dark brown material, soft 
and elastic at ordinary temperatures, hardening temporarily at about 
40° Fahr, and melting at 250° into a liquid having the consistency of 
tar, which does not soon resolidify. It is insoluble in water and alcohol, 
but dissolves more or less readily in chloroform, washed ether, bisul- 
phide of carbon, coal-tar, naphtha, benzole, and oil of turpentine. 
Nitric acid, sulphuric acid, and the alkalies, attack it but slowdy. 
Caoutchouc dissolves in the fixed oils, but loses its elastic properties 
thereby. Caoutchouc, in its unvulcanized state, is most useful in the 
laboratory for connecting the tubes of apparatus. Its power for 
resisting re-agents, and its property of cohering to form a tight joint 
when newly cut, render it a desideratum in the modern laboratory. 
In its permanently melted condition it forms a valuable lute for 
pneumatic apparatus. Stoppers and stopcocks lubricated with it remain 
movable, yet perfectly air-tight. Vulcanized, it serves for gas bags 
and tubes, and for many other purposes. It must, however, be used 
with great care, as it is liable to introduce sulphur into solutions near 
which it passes. 
CAPILLARIES, leap'-il-la-reez [Lat. capillus, a hair,] in Anatomy, 
are the minute blood-vessels of the body which form the connection 
between the extremities of the arteries and the veins. They vary in 
size from jVth to ^th of an inch in diameter, being smallest in the 
brain and largest in the bones. It is in the capillaries that nearly all 
the changes in the blood take place. It is in them that its carbonization 
is effected and animal heat produced, and from them that the bile, 
sweat, and urine are secreted. (See Anatomy, Circulation of the 
Blood. ) 
CAPISTRUM, lea-pis'-trum [Lat. a bridle], in Surgery, is a single 
split cloth bandage, used to support the lower jaw; so called from its 
resemblance to a bridle. 
CAPSICINE, kap-se-sin [from capsicum, derived from Gr. kapto, 
I bite, in allusion to its pungency], an alkaloid found in the capsules of 
the various species of capsicum used in the manufacture of cayenne 
pepper. It has a burning taste; is insoluble in water and ether, but 
soluble in alcohol, and may, when quite pure, be crystallized. It 
forms salts with nitric, sulphuric, and acetic acids. Its composition is 
unknown. (See Capsicum, Alkaloids.) 
CAPSICUM, kap'-se-kum [from Gr. kapto, I bite], in Botany, a 298 
CAPSICUM- CARAMEL. 
genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Solanaceaz, consisting of 
numerous species, all remarkable for the presence of an acrid resin called 
Capsicine in their fruits, which are hot, pungent, and stimulating. 
Though now extensively cultivated in many parts of the Old World, the 
various species are supposed to be natives of South America. The 
officinal capsicum, the C. annuum of Linnaeus, or the C. fastigiatum of 
Blume, has oblong-cylindrical fruits, not an inch long in the most 
valuable varieties, but two or three inches long in others. These fruits 
are commonly sold as Chillies, and are used to make a hot pickle, and 
the liquor known as Chilli vinegar. Cayenne pepper consists of the 
powdered fruits of several species of Capsicum, found in the West 
Indies and South America. In medicine, the fruit of the capsicum is 
used as an acrid stimulant and counter-irritant. In small doses it creates 
an agreeable sensation of warmth in the stomach, and promotes the 
digestive process. Dose, to 1 grain. Combined with salt, it is used 
as a stimulant in scarlet fever, and also as a gargle in relaxed sore throat; 
or in the form of cayenne lozenges. Of the tincture, f ounce to 1 pint 
of rectified spirit, the dose is from 10 to 20 drops; dose of fluid extract, 
3 to 15 drops. (See Capsicine.) 
CAPSULE, kap'-sule [Lat. capsa, a chest], is a membranous produc- 
tion, enclosing any part like a bag; as the capsular ligaments enclosing 
the synovia of the joints, the capsule of the crystalline lens of the eye. 
CAPSULES, kap'-sulz, a name applied to small egg-shaped or 
spherical vessels, commonly made of gelatine, or of sugar and gelatine, 
and containing medicines of a nauseous nature, so that they may be 
swallowed the more readily. (See Gelatine.) 
CAPUT, ka'-put [Lat. the head], in Anatomy, is applied to that 
portion of the human body which comprises the skull and face. The 
skull is distinguished into the following parts - the vertex, or crown; 
the sinciput, or fore part of the skull; the occiput, or hind part; the 
tempora, or temples. The parts of the facies, or face, are the forehead, 
eyes, nose, etc. The term caput is also applied to - 1, the upper 
extremity t>f a long bone, as the humerus; 2, the origin of a muscle ; 
3, a protuberance resembling a head, as the caput Gallinaginis, a small 
eminence in the urethra; 4, the beginning of a part, as caput coli, the 
head of the colon. 
CARAMEL, kar'-a-mel [Fr]. If sugar is melted, and the heat 
raised to 400° or 420°, the sugar loses two equivalents of water and 
becomes a brown, deliquescent, and nearly tasteless mass called caramel. 
It is often used by cooks and confectioners as a brown coloring matter. 
The brown color in brandy is due to a small portion of caramel dissolved 
in them. CARA WAY- CARBOLIC ACID. 
299 
CARAWAY. (See Carum.) 
CARB AZOTATE OF AMMONIUM. (See Carbazotic Acid.) 
CARBAZOTIC ACID, OR PICRIC ACID, kar-ba-zot'-ik, a com- 
plex acid, produced by the action of nitric acid on a number of organic 
substances, such as phenic acid, salicine, phloridzin, silk, indigo, and a 
number of the resins. It may be prepared in a variety of ways. 
Carbazotate of potash is anhydrous, and requires 160 parts of water for 
its solution; the salts of soda, ammonia, and the earths are freely soluble. 
The picrate or carbazotate of ammonium has lately been introduced as a 
substitute for quinine in the treatment of intermittent fever, and 
especially of the chills so prevalent in the Southern States. It is much 
cheaper than quinine, and said to be quite as efficient. It is given in 
doses of of a grain, three times a day. 
CARBO ANIMALIS, kiir'-bo an-i-mal'-is, bone-black or ivory-black. 
A tasteless, insoluble, rather coarse powder, of a dark brownish or 
blackish color, obtained by burning bones in covered iron vessels at a 
red heat. Its principle use is to decolorize organic matter, to purify 
syrups, and to remove from grai.n its fusel-oil. It is considered equal, 
if not superior, to hydrated sesquioxide of iron in poisoning by arsenic. 
It should be given in warm water, after the use of the stomach-pump 
and the administration of a strong mineral emetic. 
CARBOLIC ACID, kar-bol'-ik [Phenic acid, Hydrate of Phenyl, 
Phenole, Hydrated Oxide of Phenyl, Phenylit Alcohol} (C12II5OIIO). 
- Carbolic acid is a very abundant product of the distillation of coal. 
Laurent obtained carbolic acid from oil of coal-tar by collecting sepa- 
rately those portions which boil between 300° to 400° Fahr. By mixing 
with this oil a hot saturated solution of hydrate of potash, a white 
crystalline substance separates, the supernatant liquor is decanted, and 
the crystals are dissolved in a small quantity of water. The solution 
separates into two portions, the denser of which contains carbolate of 
potash. The potash is abstracted by the addition of hydrochloric acid, 
and the liquid carbolic acid rises to the surface. The carbolic acid 
solution is digested with chloride of calcium to remove water, and after- 
wards exposed to a low temperature. It then crystallizes in long 
colorless needles, which must be kept from contact with the atmosphere. 
Carbolic acid melts at 95c, and boils between 369Q and 370°. The 
slightest trace of moisture is sufficient to cause the liquefaction of the 
crystals. Carbolic acid is but sparingly soluble in water; it is, however, 
readily dissolved by alcohol, ether, and acetic acid. It has a burning 
taste, and an odor of smoke resembling creosote. Its solution does not 
redden litmus, and leaves a permanent greasy mark on paper if let fall 
upon it. A splinter of deal dipped in carbolic acid and then into nitric 300 
CARBOLIC ACID-CARBON. 
acid becomes dyed blue. Carbolic acid lias lately received an important 
application as a disinfectant and deodorizer. In medicine, carbolic 
acid possesses all the properties of creosote in an exalted degree. 
It is a valuable antiseptic, possessing the power of preserving organic 
substances by preserving from putrefaction and arresting ferment- 
ation in a remarkable degree. It is also used as a disinfecting 
wash for ill-conditioned ulcers and gangrenous sores. For disin- 
fecting cellars, sewers, sinks, privies, etc., there is no better prep- 
aration than carbolic acid in the proportion of one ounce of the impure 
acid to a gallon of water. Five grains of the crystallized acid, rubbed 
up with an ounce of simple ointment (see Ointment), and applied morning 
and evening, will cure fetid perspiration of the feet and armpits. For old 
sores, indolent ulcers, and bad smelling wounds, a teaspoonful of the acid 
to a half-pint of water makes an excellent wash. One ounce of the acid to 
4 ounces of glycerine, rubbed together until the acid dissolves, and 
applied morning and evening, will speedily cure the itch, and also 
makes an excellent application for scald-head, ringworm, and other 
obstinate cutaneous diseases caused by vegetable or insect parasites. 
Internally, it is used in chronic diarrhoea and obstinate vomiting, and 
like cases of gastric irritability. Dose, 1 to 3 grains. (See Disin- 
fectants. ) 
CABBON, kiir'-bon [Lat. carbo, a coal],- symbol C, equivalent 6, 
specific gravity as diamond 3.35, as graphite 1.9 to 2.3, an elementary 
non-metallic solid body, very widely diffused through nature. Its purest 
and rarest form is that of the diamond, but in the forms of graphite and 
mineral charcoal it occurs very abundantly in nearly every part of the 
world. It also occurs, in combination with oxygen, as carbonic acid, in 
small quantities in the air, and in the waters of most springs. In 
combination, as carbonic acid, with lime and magnesia, it occurs, 
in enormous quantities, as limestone, marble, chalk, dolomite, etc.; 
whilst, combined with hydrogen, it enters largely into coal, peat, and 
lignite. From its invariable presence in all organic matter, it has been 
called the organic element; and Hoffman poetically calls organic chem- 
istry "the history of the wanderings of carbon." From entering thus 
directly into the vegetable and animal creation, carbon may be consid- 
ered as the most important element; and the giving out of carbonic acid 
by animals, to serve for the food of vegetables, is one of the many 
silent chemical operations constantly going on around us. The wonder- 
ful provision of Nature by which the carbonic acid cast out by animals 
as a poisonous product is converted into food for the support of plants, 
by the action of the sun's rays, has been the admiration of all philo- 
sophers and chemists from the days of Lavoisier to the present time. CARBON. 
301 
Carbon, although not so characteristic a component of the animal as 
of the vegetable kingdom, yet enters largely into the constitution of the 
former; it assists to give permanent form to the various tissues, and 
furnishes one of the most active material agents, which, under the 
influence of life, make up the sum, and contribute to the varied 
changes and effects which are ever going on in the animated body. We 
have every reason to believe that carbon is the medium by which, as it 
combines with the oxygen inhaled by the lungs, and carried through the 
system by the blood-the animal temperature is maintained. Such being 
the case, it is evident that, next to oxygen, carbon is the element which 
must be most regularly and sufficiently supplied to the living body; the 
other constituent elements must undoubtedly be provided in food, but 
their omission for a time is not so apparently and quickly felt as that of 
carbon; if this be not furnished from outward sources, it is used up from 
the bodily tissues as long as they will yield it, even though its use 
involves their destruction, and the dispersion of the other elementary 
bodies of which they are composed. This actually happens in long 
fevers, during which little or no nourishment is taken; the carbon-and 
hydrogen-of the fat in the first place, and afterwards of the other 
portions of the body, is used up in sustaining the animal heat-as fuel 
- until a point is reached when it can be yielded no longer, and when 
the patient will actually die of cold, unless there is freely administered 
the gelatinous soups, the wine and spirit, with their abundant carbon 
and hydrogen, which yield their own combustible elements, to maintain 
the heat, and to protect the tissues of the already exhausted patient. 
The discoveries of modern chemistry show us how beautifully the 
Almighty, in His goodness, has arranged the products of the various 
latitudes of the globe, has disposed the varied articles of food, he gives 
to His creatures, to man, in accordance with the various climates, and 
the modes of life in those clirhates, so that carbon may be consumed in 
due proportion along with the other elements; less in the watery fruits 
of the tropics and of our own summers, more in the fats and oils of the 
cold north. 
Charcoal, or amorphous carbon, exists as ordinary wood charcoal and 
lampblack, generally combined with incompletely burned compounds of 
carbon and hydrogen. Coke and animal charcoal are other forms of 
carbon. Charcoal is made by inclosing wood billets in an iron retort, to 
which is adapted a tube for conveying the products of combustion to 
appropriate receivers, and exposing it to a red heat for four or five hours. 
Where wood is very abundant, large heaps, covered with powdered 
charcoal, leaves, turf, and earth, are fired and allowed to burn slowly for 
a month or more. Charcoal prepared in this way is superior to that 302 
CARB ON- CARB ONATE. 
burnt in retorts. Animal charcoal, or bone black, is prepared in cylin- 
ders, in a similar manner to that employed for wood charcoal. Carbon, in 
its amorphous condition, is a black, dense, perfectly opaque, insoluble, 
infusible, inodorous, tasteless body, conducting heat badly and electricity 
freely. At ordinary temperatures it shows no chemical affinities. This 
property has been taken advantage of by the ancients, who used 
it for ink. The same property has rendered it a common prac- 
tice to char the inside of tubs and casks intended to hold liquids; 
and posts and piles partially charred are found to last longer 
under water than when immersed in their natural state. Finely divided 
charcoal has powerful antiseptic properties, and it is coming into use as 
a deodorizer for purifying the air of sewers. The great success attending 
the use of carbon for filters, both of air and water, is a proof of its 
efficacy as a disinfectant and deodorizer. Charcoal also has the peculiar 
property of absorbing coloring matter from organic solutions; hence it is 
used as a decolorizer. At high temperatures carbon combines ener- 
getically with oxygen, and will remove it from great numbers 
of its combinations: hence its use in reducing metallic oxides. 
Whatever be its source or form, carbon is chemically the same, and, 
when burned in oxygen, forms carbonic acid. Carbon unites w'ith 
several of the elements to form very important compounds. Its inorganic 
compounds are treated of under the heads Carbonic Acid ; Carbonic 
Oxide; Carbon, Bisulphide of; Hydrogen. In Medicine, wood char- 
coal is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. It has lately come much 
into use in indigestion, particularly in the form of lozenges, correcting 
flatulence, fetid breath, fetid stools, etc. It is also used as a tooth 
powder, and is believed to check decay of the teeth. Dose, from 20 to 
60 grains. Charcoal poultice, a useful application for foul and fetid 
ulcers, is made by macerating 2 ounces of bread crumbs for 10 minutes 
in 10 fluid ounces of boiling water, mixing and adding gradually 1^ 
ounces of linseed meal so as to form a poultice, then adding ounce of 
charcoal, and sprinkling another % ounce on the top. Animal charcoal 
possesses the same medicinal properties as those of wood charcoal, but 
some of these to a greater extent. It is particularly useful as a decolor- 
izer, and as an antidote in poisoning by certain vegetable substances, the 
alkaloids, etc., if given immediately. As an antidote its action is much 
aided by its being mixed with water as hot as the patient can swallow' it. 
Dose, 20 to 60 grains. (See Carbon, Bisulphide of; Aeration, Blood, 
Bile, Respiration, Food, Carbonic Acid ; Oxygen, Carbonic Oxide, etc.) 
CARBONATE, kar'-l)on-at. A salt formed by the union of carbonic 
acid with a base. They all effervesce w'ith strong acids, and all are 
decomposed by heat, except the carbonates of potash, soda, and lithia. CARBONATED WATERS-CARBONIC-ACID, ETC. 
303 
CARBONATED WATERS. (See Mineral AVaters.) 
CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. (See Ammonia.) 
CARBONATE OF IRON. (See Iron.) 
CARBONATE OF POTASH. (See Potash.) 
CARBONATE OF SODA. (See Soda.) 
CARBON, BISULPHIDE OF, kar'-bon bt-sid' fide (CS2),-equiva- 
lent 38, specific gravity 1.27, boiling point 118.5° Fahr. Only one 
compound of sulphur and carbon is known. It is prepared by heating 
fragments of charcoal to redness in a retort; into which dip a tube 
reaching to the bottom of the charcoal. From time to time sulphur is 
dropped through the tube, which is closed again immediately. The 
sulphur and carbon gradually combine, and the bisulphide distils over 
into the receiver, which is kept cool with ice. It is at first yellow, from 
excess of sulphur; but by being re-distilled several times it is obtained 
in a state of purity. It is a colorless liquid, with an acrid, pungent 
taste, and a foetid odor. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in ether 
and alcohol. It is very volatile, and has never been frozen. It burns 
with a blue flame, giving off sulphurous and carbonic acid gases. It 
dissolves sulphur and phosphorus readily, and these elements may be 
obtained in crystals by slow evaporation of their solutions. It is said to 
be stimulant, diaphoretic, and emmenagogue in doses of 2 to 6 drops in 
mucilage or on sugar. The vapor is anaesthetic. (See Carbon.) 
CARBONIC-ACID, CARBONIC-ACID GAS, kar-bon'-ik. Car- 
bonic acid (CO2), equivalent 22, specific gravity 1.529. Carbonic acid 
is the product of the combustion of all substances containing carbon. It 
occurs in combination with metallic oxides in the mineral kingdom, also 
dissolved in mineral springs. It issues from the earth in volcanic dis- 
tricts, and forms the deadly choke-damp of the coal-mines. It is also a 
product of respiration, fermentation, and putrefaction, which is nothing 
more than slow combustion. It is easily prepared by acting on a car- 
bonate, such as chalk or marble, with nitric, sulphuric, or hydrochloric 
acid, in a gas-generating apparatus. The carbonate of lime is converted 
into chloride of calcium, and the carbonic acid escapes as gas. Carbonic 
acid is known in the solid, liquid, and gaseous states. By a pressure of 
thirty atmospheres at 32° Fahr., it is liquefied, the pressure required 
decreasing as the temperature gets lower. Liquid carbonic acid is color- 
less, insoluble in water and fatty oils, but mixing in all proportions with 
ether, alcohol, bisulphide of carbon, naphtha, and turpentine. At 94° 
Fahr, it solidifies into a vitreous transparent mass; and is used, in con- 
junction with ether and bisulphide of carbon, for producing intense cold. 
Gaseous carbonic acid is colorless, possessing a slightly acid smell and 
taste. At ordinary temperatures it dissolves in water in the proportion 304 
CARBONIC-ACID, ETC. 
of bulk for bulk. By pressure, water may be made to take up great 
quantities of the gas, the same volume being always absorbed, no matter 
how great the pressure may be. Upon the removal of the pressure, the 
gas escapes in bubbles. When inhaled, carbonic acid produces death, 
even when much diluted. A lighted candle is generally used to test an 
atmosphere suspected to contain carbonic acid ; but it is found that air 
that will support combustion will contain sufficient of this gas to cause 
insensibility and dangerous illness. The ill effects of crowded rooms 
are owing to the systemic depression produced by small quantities of 
carbonic acid. Though a feeble acid, and easily separable from its com- 
binations, carbonic acid unites with the metallic oxides, forming a very 
numerous and important class of salts, the carbonates, descriptions of 
which will be found under the headings of their bases. The carbonates 
of the alkalies are soluble in water, the carbonates of the other metallic 
bases being for the most part insoluble, except the water is highly 
charged with carbonic acid. Hard water contains carbonate of lime or 
magnesia, held in solution by the carbonic acid contained in the water; 
hence, when the gas is dissipated by boiling, the carbonate of lime is 
precipitated, incrusting the vessel in which it has been boiled. 
Carbonic acid gas or choke-damp, is a compound of one part of 
carbon with two parts of oxygen. It is colorless, and much heavier than 
atmospheric air, a property which gives it a dangerous tendency to col- 
lect at the lower parts of any inclosed spaces in which it may be dis- 
engaged. Old wells, brewers' vats, the holds of ships, etc., are all 
liable to become the receptacles for carbonic acid gas, which, formed 
from some decomposing vegetable matter, lies like a stratum of water at 
the bottom of the receptacle. Should any one incautiously descend, so 
as to become enveloped in the carbonic acid atmosphere, respiration is 
either instantly stopped by spasmodic closure of the chink at the upper 
portion of the windpipe, and complete suffocation is the consequence; 
or if the gas is sufficiently diluted with air to be drawn into the lungs, it 
speedily manifests its narcotic effects upon the system, and the person 
quickly falls in a complete state of stupor. The respiration becomes 
labored, and after a time ceases; the countenance is livid or pale, and 
there may be convulsion, and frothing at the mouth. In such a case, 
the body of the individual must be removed, if possible, and as soon as 
possible, from the poisonous atmosphere, or the latter must be destroyed 
or dispersed. The many fatal accidents which have occurred from 
persons venturing rashly into old wells, and such like places, might be a 
warning for the future, and prompt the invariable employment of the 
simple test of lowering a lighted candle into the suspected place. If the 
flame be extinguished, the atmosphere is certainly destructive to life; if CARBONIC-ACID, ETC. 
305 
it burn even with a feeble and diminished intensity, there is danger. Of 
the various modes for destroying a carbonic acid atmosphere, none is 
more speedily effective than the introduction into it of newly-slaked 
lime, either spread upon a board, or mixed with water, and dashed into 
the place; fresh lime, having a powerful affinity for carbonic acid, quickly 
absorbs it. In the absence of lime, a quantity of fresh water dashed 
freely down, so as at the same time to absorb the gas and promote circu- 
lation of air, will be serviceable; or large bundles of combustible 
material, which will cause currents of air, may, when blazing freely, be 
thrown in. Caution in the first instance, is the best preservative; but 
in the event of an individual dropping in an atmosphere of choke-damp, 
it is perfectly useless for others to rush in to bring him out; they can no 
more exist in it than he could, and in stooping to lift a fallen body, they 
become all the more thoroughly immersed in the poisonous gas. Instead 
of rashly sacrificing life in the ill-directed endeavor to rescue another, let 
those who are present dash bucket after bucket of water or weak lime 
and water into the place, and on the fallen person, until the unextin- 
guished flame tokens that the fatal atmosphere is weakened at least; and 
when they do venture in, tie over the mouth a cloth soaked in lime- 
water, in a weak solution of caustic potash, or of simple water if these 
cannot be obtained. 
In cases of suffocation from immersion in choke-damp, cold water 
should be dashed freely over the individual as soon as removed into the 
open air, and this measure, succeeded by heat applied to the surface, 
stimulant embrocations to the chest, spine, etc., stimulant injections, and 
ammonia held at intervals to the nostrils, whilst artificial respiration is 
at the same time brought into action, and steadily persevered in for some 
hours. (See Drowning.) 
Carbonic acid is produced during fermentation, or by the slow 
decomposition of vegetable matter, such as damp straw, sawdust, wood 
chips, etc. It is the gas disengaged in effervescing liquors generally; 
it is also produced along with other vapors of which carbon forms a con- 
stituent, in the burning of charcoal. 
Poisoning by charcoal fumes, either by design or accident, is not an 
unfrequent occurrence. In the latter case, it usually occurs from persons 
ignorantly retiring to sleep in a closed-up room, in which burning char- 
coal is used as a means of warmth. The carbonic acid, and other fumes 
disengaged, act slowly and insidiously, and exert so powerful a narco- 
tizing effect, that those exposed to the influence are quickly rendered 
unable to remedy the circumstances, and perfect insensibility ensues. 
Too often it happens, that the discovery of the accident does not take 
place until morning, long after it is too late to remedy the fatal effects; 306 
CARBON IC-A CID, ETC.-CARBONIC-OXLDE. 
the sufferers are usually found dead. If living, they will probably be 
perfectly insensible; the countenance pale and livid. Immediate removal 
to the open air, and free exposure to its influence by removal of the 
greater part of the clothing, is the first proceeding, and the treatment 
recommended in cases of poisoning from choke-damp is to be followed. 
Carbonic acid is largely evolved in the process of lime-burning, and per- 
sons who have incautiously slept in the immediate neighborhood of a 
kiln have been destroyed by it. The poisonous contamination of the air 
in crowded assemblies has already been treated of in the articles, 
Aeration, Air, etc. 
There is yet another source of poisoning by carbonic acid, which 
occurs when it is largely given off from fluids taken into the stomach in 
a state of fermentation. This accident is said by Liebig to happen in 
Germany in consequence of persons drinking wine whilst it is ferment- 
ing ; the generation of the carbonic acid is stimulated by the heat of the 
stomach, and it is given off in such quantity as to permeate even the 
lungs, causing suffocation. The best remedy is ammonia, both inhaled 
and taken into the stomach. (See Ammonia.) 
In medical practice, carbonic acid is given in the form of effervescing 
drinks. Some mineral waters contain it naturally; soda water, and 
other similar fluids, are mechanically impregnated with the gas; it is, too, 
very frequently given as disengaged from one of the carbonates of the 
alkalies by means of an acid. In most cases, the action of carbonic 
acid, given in this way, on the stomach, is very beneficial; it appears to 
be at once stimulant and sedative, and no remedy is more generally use- 
ful in cases of vomiting; it is an agreeable form of medicine to most 
persons. When effervescing drinks are given to persons confined to 
bed, they should always sit up for a few minutes after the draught is 
swallowed, to allow of the eructation of the air, which not being got 
rid of in a horizontal posture, may produce uncomfortable distension. 
Externally it is useful as a local anaesthetic in painful affections, as 
cancer, etc. (See Aeration, Air, Blood, Carbon, Oxygen, Efferves- 
cence, Ventilation, Respiration.) 
CARBONIC-OXIDE, karlion-ik oks'-id (CO),-equivalent 14. 
specific gravity 0.967. Carbonic oxide is produced when carbonic acid 
is passed over red-hot charcoal; and this gas is formed during the com- 
bustion of almost every organic substance. The first result of combus- 
tion is, of course, carbonic acid, which, passing over the red-hot coals or 
wick, as the case may be, parts with an equivalent of its oxygen. The 
gas, however, is inflamed as fast as it is formed, and reconnected with 
carbonic acid. It is generally prepared by the decomposition of oxalic 
acid by sulphuric acid. Oxalic acid consists of C2H3, unite'd to an CARB ON IC- OXIDE- CARB UNCLE, ANTHRAX. 
307 
equivalent of water, without which it does not appear to be able to 
exist. The sulphuric acid abstracts this equivalent of water, leaving the 
C2II3 at liberty to separate into CO, carbonic oxide, and CO2, carbonic 
acid. The latter is absorbed by passing the mixed gases through milk 
of lime. Carbonic oxide gas thus prepared is colorless and inodorous, 
burning with a blue flame, and giving rise to carbonic acid. It supports 
neither combustion nor respiration, one per cent, mixed with air being 
sufficient to cause dangerous drowsiness. It is now satisfactorily proved 
that the coma generally resulting in death produced by the combustion 
of charcoal in close rooms, is due to the formation of carbonic oxide by 
the carbonic acid formed during combustion being exposed to the action 
of so much incandescent material. It is a neutral body, has no action 
on litmus-paper, does not combine with acids or bases, and has never 
been liquefied ; it is slightly soluble in water. (See Carbonic Acid.) 
CARBUNCLE, ANTHRAX, IciiT-bunglc-ld^ an-thraks [Lat. car- 
bunculus, a little coal]. Carbuncle resembles a boil in many'respects, but 
is larger. It is a hard, inflamed, intensely painful swelling, of any size, up 
to that of a saucer, or even larger; it is flat on the top, and contains a 
slough, or mortified portion of cellular tissue, which must be discharged 
before the disease can subside. After the inflamed swelling has existed 
for some days, small points of ulceration through the skin on its surface 
begin to show themselves, they enlarge, coalesce, and at last form one 
large opening, through which the slough or core is discharged, either entire 
or broken down and mixed with bloody matter. When all has been got rid 
of, the cavity begins to fill up from the bottom; and generally in the 
course of a few weeks becomes entirely healed. Such is the progress 
of a carbuncle, which does not require interference. 
Treatment. -The treatment consists in the first place, of assiduous 
fomentation, and poultices of bread, oatmeal or linseed meal, and in the 
open stage, yeast; when the cavity is fairly emptied of sloughs, the 
poultice must be exchanged for water dressing, which will in all prob- 
ability require no alteration during the cure. A small carbuncle may 
thus, as far as the sore is concerned, be simply and safely attended to, 
but much more may be required. Carbuncle occurs in two very opposite 
states of system-in those of full habit, and in those of broken constitu- 
tion. Tn the former, eight or ten leeches may with advantage be applied 
round the base of a large incipient carbuncle, and free purging, cooling 
saline medicines, and low diet be resorted to; should a surgeon be in 
attendance, he will probably make a free crucial incision to facilitate the 
exit of the core. In those of broken constitution, the opposite treatment 
will be requisite-all unnecessary loss of blood must be avoided, and 
whilst gentle alterative aperients are given, the system must be 308 
CARBUNCLE, ANTHRAX--CARDIAC ORIFICE. 
soothed by opiates, and supported by quinine or bark, along with 
strong meat broths, wine or porter. In such constitutions, a carbuncle 
of any size is a serious, if not unfrequently a fatal affection. Carbuncle 
is certainly indicative of a deranged state of the system generally, and 
of the assimilative powers in particular; it more frequently happens too, 
that a large carbuncle has been preceded by two or three smaller ones, or 
boils, in succession. The occurrence of these ought always to be taken as 
a warning; the man of full habit should reduce his diet, meat and stimuli 
in particular, take exercise freely, and 5 or 6 grains of compound 
colocynth pill every night, or every second night, for a week or ten 
days, and a gentle saline aperient in the morning. A tendency to 
carbuncle in the delicate or aged, must always be regarded seriously, not 
only as indicative of serious functional disorder* of the assimilations, but 
from the direct danger arising from the disease itself. On this account, 
it is always desirable that the case should be put under efficient medical 
care, early, so that, if possible, constitutional treatment may arrest the 
threatened evil. In the case of a carbuncle of any size being developed 
on persons advanced in life, of weak constitutional power, the case is too 
dangerous to be left to domestic management if medical assistance can 
be procured. If not, the treatment must be carried out as above directed. 
The most usual seat of carbuncle is thQ back part of the body and 
head, the arms and thighs. (See Boil.) 
CARBURETS, kar'-bu-rets. Carburets, are now called carbides, the 
word being more analogous to chloride, iodide, etc. 
CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. (See Hydrogen.) 
CARD AMINE, kar-dormine [Gr. kardia^ heart or courage, on account 
of its strengthening properties], in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the Nat. order Cruciferce. C.pratensis^ the cuckoo-flower, or lady's-smock, 
is a perennial met with in meadows and moist pastures, blossoming 
in the month of April and May, when its flowers, which are flesh- 
colored, white, or light purple, present a very pleasing appearance. 
Formerly the flowers were used medicinally, as a remedy in epilepsy. 
The leaves are antiscorbutic, and are sometimes eaten as watercress. 
CARDAMOMS. (See Elettaria.) 
CARDIA, kar'-de-a [Gr. the heart], is the name given to the superior 
opening of the stomach, on account of its being situated near the heart. 
CARDIAC, kiir'-de-ak, of or belonging to the heart. Thus cardiac 
medicines are cordials, or stomachic and stimulant medicines, supposed 
to stimulate or strengthen the heart. 
CARDIAC ORIFICE. The name applied to the upper orifice of the 
stomach, where the oesophagus terminates. The lower opening of the 
stomach receives the appellation pylorus. CARDIAL GIA- CARIES. 
309 
CARDIALGIA, kar-de-al'-je-a [Gr. kardia, and algos, pain], 
denotes pain or an uneasy sensation in the stomach, accompanied with 
anxiety, a heat more or less virulent, sometimes attended with oppres- 
sion or fainting, and frequently with an inclination to vomit, or a 
plentiful discharge of clear lymph-like saliva. (See Dyspepsia, Heart- 
burn. ) 
CARDITIS, kar-di'-tis [Gr. kardia, the heart, terminal itis], in 
Pathology, denotes inflammation of the heart. It is characterized by 
pain in the region of the heart, great anxiety, fever, difficulty of 
breathing, palpitation, cough, irregular pulse, and fainting. It is 
applied properly to inflammation of the muscular tissues of the heart 
itself; but this is a form of disease that rarely occurs alone, being 
usually accompanied by pericarditis, or inflammation of the pericardium, 
or by endocarditis, or inflammation of the lining membrane of the 
heart. The symptoms and treatment in each case are similar. (See 
Heart, Diseases of the.) 
CARDUUS, kar'-du-us [Lat. a thistle], the thistle, a genus of 
plants belonging to the Nat. order Composita, consisting of numerous 
species, some of which are noble-looking flowers. C. Benedictus and a 
few others have been used in medicine as tonics and febrifuges. 
CARE OF CHILDREN. (See Child, Children.) 
CARIES, kd-re-eez [Lat. rottenness], is a disease of the bones anal- 
ogous to ulceration of the soft parts. It differs from necrosis, in that, 
in the latter, the bone is destitute of vitality, which is not the case when 
it is simply carious. Necrosis corresponds to mortification of the soft 
parts. Caries most frequently attacks the bones of the spine; but it may 
affect any of the bones, especially such as are of a spongy texture, as the 
carpal or tarsal bones, or the heads of the long bones, where they 
form articulations. The young, or those of a scrofulous habit of body, 
are most subject to this disease. 
Cause. - The disease is generally the result of wounds, blows, 
exposure to severe cold, or a bad condition of the body, but sometimes 
it supervenes without any assignable cause. 
Symptoms.- It begins with inflammation, usually attended with a 
dull, heavy pain and weakness in the part affected. In course of time 
an abscess forms, which, if not arrested, at length bursts and discharges 
a thin fluid containing particles of the bone. In caries of the vertebrae, 
curvature of the spine takes place, more or less, according to the 
vertebrae affected, and paralysis generally sets in. At the articulation 
of the bones, the part enlarges, the cartilages become affected, and 
amputation or excision of the joint is often necessary, in order to save 
the patient's life. 310 
CARIES-CAROTID ARTERY. 
Treatment.- Much may be done in arresting the progress of this 
disease, at least in its earlier stages. For this purpose, the patient 
should be strengthened by good air and nourishing diet, at the same 
time that rest is enjoined: the state of the stomach and bowels should 
also be attended to. The former may be invigorated by the administra- 
tion of citrate of iron and quinine, in doses of 3 grains, before each 
meal and at bedtime, and the latter be kept gently open by a mild saline 
aperient daily, or one tablespoonful every evening of the excellent 
cathartic elixir prepared by Wyeth, of Philadelphia. In the local 
treatment of the disease, blisters, leeches, and issues are to be employed. 
The abscesses are best left to nature, unless they are productive of much 
uneasiness, in which case they should be promptly opened by a medical 
man. When they have burst, the exfoliation of the diseased part 
should be expedited as much as possible, or when practicable the whole 
of the diseased portion should be removed by a saw or gouge, so that 
the healthy portions may granulate and heal. (See Necrosis.) 
CARMINATIVES, kar-min-mtivz [Lat. carmen, a charm; Fr. 
carminatif], is a term applied to certain substances which have the 
power of dispelling flatulence, or relieving pain in the stomach and bowels. 
They belong chiefly to the vegetable kingdom; as, cardamoms, pepper- 
mint, ginger, anise, and caraway seeds, and other aromatic stimulants. 
CARO, ka'-ro [a Latin word signifying flesh], is frequently used 
in medicine, as well as many of its compounds; as, carnoe columnar, 
the fleshy columns or muscular fasciculi within the cavities of the heart; 
carneous, fleshy, applied to some muscles of the heart; carnicula (dim.) 
a small fleshy substance; carniformis, having the appearance of flesh; 
carnivorous, flesh-devouring, applied to animals that live on flesh; 
carnosus, fleshy. 
CAROTID ARTERY, ka-rot'-id ar'-te-re [Lat. arteria carotided\, is 
the name given to a considerable artery on each side of the neck. It is 
so called from the Greek verb karoo, I cause to sleep, because, if tied or 
compressed, the person becomes comatose, and has the appearance of 
being asleep. The right carotid arises from the arteria innominata, the 
left from the aorta. The left is thus rather longer than the right, and is, 
in general, somewhat smaller. They ascend backwards and outwards into 
the neck, and, when opposite the os hyoides, each of them divides into 
the external and internal carotid arteries ; the former proceeding to the 
face and parts without the cranium, the latter to those within. The 
external carotid afterwards divides into ten branches; viz., the 
superior thyroid, lingual, lateral, occipital, muscular, pharyngea ascen- 
dens, posterior auris, transverse facial, temporal, and internal maxillary. 
The internal carotid enters the cranium by a somewhat tortuous course, CAROTID ARTERY-CARRAL. 
311 
and afterwards separates into four branches-the ophthalmic artery, and 
the anterior, posterior, and central arteries of the brain. 
CARPHOLOGIA, kar-fo-lo'-je-q [Gr. karphos, the nap of clothes, 
and lego, I pluck], is the picking of the bedclothes sometimes observed 
in persons in the delirium of a fever, and regarded as a very dangerous 
symptom. 
CARPUS, kiir'-pus [Gr. karpos}, is a term in Anatomy applied to 
the wrist, or that part of the upper extremity between the forearm and 
the hand. The carpel bones, or bones of the wrist, are eight in number, 
and are arranged in two rows-a superior and inferior, each containing 
four bones. In the superior row, counting from without inwards, are the 
scaphoid or navicular, the lunar, cuneiform or pyramidal, and pisiform 
bones; and in the interior, the trapezium and trapezoid bones, the os 
magnum, and the unciform bone. These bones are connected with each 
other, with the metacarpal bones, and with the extremities of the radius 
and ulna, by numerous ligaments. (See Anatomy.) 
CARRAGEEN, OR IRISH MOSS. (See Chondrus.) 
CARRARA WATER, kar-ra'-rq, is an artificially prepared effer- 
vescing water, holding carbonate of lime in solution by means of an 
excess of carbonic acid. It is useful in some forms of dyspepsia. 
CARRON OIL, kar'-ron oil, is a mixture of equal parts of lime- 
water and linseed-oil ; it has been much celebrated as an application in 
burns, having first come into use at the Carron iron works, in Scotland. 
It is certainly soothing, but need scarcely be employed whilst there are 
other and less disagreeable remedies at hand. When used, it is smeared 
over the burnt part by means of a feather. (See Burns and Scalds.) 
CARROT. (See DauCus.) 
CARTILAGE, kiir'-te-lqj [Lat. cartilago}, in Anatomy, is a white, 
firm, elastic, glistening substance, intermediate between bone and liga- 
ment, and commonly known by the name of gristle. Cartilages are 
divided by anatomists into-1, articular, covering the surface of the 
bones, which form movable joints; 2, inter-articular, which are 
situated between the ends of bones, forming articulations; and 3, 
connecting cartilage, which unites one bone with another. In some 
cases, cartilage occurs unconnected with bone, as in the larynx and 
trachea. In early life, cartilage in various parts occupies the place of 
bone, and becomes afterwards ossified. The physical properties of 
cartilage-its firmness, elasticity, and powers of resistance-render it 
specially fitted for the purposes which it is intended to serve, facilitating 
the motions of bones, or connecting them together. 
CARUM, ka-rum [from Caria, in Asia, it being originally found 
there], a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Umbelliferm. The 312 
CAR UM- CASEINE. 
species C. carui is the common caraway, a native of most parts 
of Europe. It is largely cultivated for its fruits, commonly called 
seeds, which have a pleasant odor and a warm aromatic taste, owing to 
the presence of about five per cent, of volatile oil. They are much used 
in confectionery and for flavoring cakes. The oil, obtained by distilling 
the fruits with water, is used as a corrective adjunct in medicines. Dose 
of the oil, 2 to 5 drops. 
CARUNCLE, kar'-un-ld [Lat. caruncula, dim. of caro, flesh], in 
Anatomy, is used to denote a small piece of flesh, or a little fleshy 
excrescence; hence the caruncula lachrymalis, a small fleshy, glandi- 
form body, situated on the inner angle of each eye. 
CARYA, kd-re-a [Gr. karuon, a nut], a genus of plants belonging 
to the Nat. order Juylandacece. The species are chiefly natives of North 
America. C. alba, the common hickory, is valuable for its timber, and 
also for its edible seeds, which are commonly known as hickory nuts. 
C. Olivmforrnis yields an olive-shaped or elliptical nut, which resembles 
the walnut in flavor, and is known as the pecan nut. C. porcina yields 
an edible nut called the hog-nut. 
CARYOPIIYLLUS, kar-e-of-Ildus, a genus of plants belonging to 
the Nat. order Myrtaceoe. The most important species is C. aromaticus, 
the clove-tree, a native of the Moluccas, but now grown also in the Isle 
of France, India, and the West Indies. The cloves of commerce are the 
unexpanded flower-buds dried. They form a well-known spice, and are 
much used in medicine on account of their aromatic, stimulant, and car- 
minative properties. The oil of cloves, oleum caryophylli, has a strong 
odor, and a warm, aromatic, and even acrid taste. It is one of the few 
volatile oils that sink in water, having a specific gravity of 1.05 to 1.06. 
The infusion of cloves is formed by taking | ounce of bruised cloves, 
and 10 fluid ounces of boiling distilled water, and infusing in a covered 
vessel for half an hour, and then straining. Dose: of powder, 5 to 20 
grains; oil, 2 to 5 drops; infusion, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. The dried unripe 
fruits are called mother cloves, and are used in China and other countries 
instead of the ordinary cloves, to which thev are very inferior. 
CASCARA SAGRADO, kas-ka'-ra. The bark has long been 
known to residents on the Pacific Coast as a sovereign remedy for 
habitual constipation and dyspepsia, and is likely to prove a very valu- 
able addition to the materia medica. Dose, of the fluid extract, from 
15 drops to 1 teaspoonful, three or four times a day. 
CASCARILLA. (See Croton.) 
CASEINE, ka'-se-in [Lat. caseus, cheese], is the nitrogenous prin- 
ciple of milk, which forms a large portion of the curd. Caseine, in the 
soluble form, appears to be preserved in solution by a small quantity of CASEINE- CASSIA. 
313 
alkali contained in the milk. In the coagulated form it is readily 
obtained by adding dilute sulphuric acid to the milk, which precipitates 
in the form of a curd. The curd is well washed and dissolved in car- 
bonate of soda, and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours, to let thq oil 
rise to the surface. This is skimmed off, and the caseine precipitated by 
an acid. The process is repeated a second time, and the coagulum 
digested with alcohol and ether, and dried. With all these precautions 
the caseine still contains some saline matter, which cannot be removed. 
It is also obtained by coagulating the milk with hydrochloric acid. 
Coagulated caseine is readily dissolved by the alkalies and alkaline car- 
bonates. Caseine also unites with earthy carbonates, and forms insoluble 
compounds. A very tenacious lute is made by mixing poor cheese with 
slaked lime. The most remarkable form of coagulation is that produced 
by the action of the secretion from the mucous membrane of the 
stomach. This substance is called rennet, and consists of the inner 
membrane of the fourth stomach of the calf, salted and dried. When a 
solution of rennet is mixed with milk, a dense coagulum is formed, leav- 
ing the whey behind, as a thin, clear, straw-colored liquid. The 
quantity of caseine in milk varies according to the period of lactation at 
which the milk is examined ; and varies also in different animals. (See 
Food, Milk.) 
CASSIA, kasK-she-a [from Arab, katsa, to tear off, the bark being 
stripped from the tree], commonly called senna, a genus of plants 
belonging to the Nat. order Leguntinosce, sub-order Cazsalpinieaz. The 
leaflets of several species furnish the important drug senna. Some un- 
certainty prevails as to the species yielding some of the commercial 
varieties. That kind commonly known as Alexandrian senna is gener- 
ally supposed to be derived from officinalis, var. lanceolata, and 
C. obovata. This is the kind most esteemed, but it is frequently adul- 
terated with the leaves of other plants. The common East Indian, 
Mecca, or Bombay senna is supposed by Royle to be the produce of 
C. officinalis, var. acutifolia ; Tinnevelly senna, a very fine kind, is 
furnished by O. officinalis, var. elongata. The above three varieties 
are those generally used in this country. Senna has a faint, sickly odor, and 
a mucilaginous, bitter and nauseous taste. It is a common, safe and effi- 
cient purgative, and maybe given to children, females, and elderly persons 
with safety. It acts principally on the small intestines, producing copi- 
ous loose evacuations. Its efficacy is increased by drinking plentifully 
of diluents, and its nauseous taste is disguised by giving it in strong 
coffee or tea, or by the addition of sugar and milk. To prevent griping, 
which it has sometimes a tendency to produce, it is frequently conjoined 
with aromatics, as coriander, or ginger. It is usually given in the form 314 
CASSIA- CAST OB. 
of infusion, often in combination with a saline purgative, as sulphate of 
magnesia, or Epsom salts. 
The infusion is formed by taking 1 ounce of senna, 30 grains of 
sliced ginger, and 10 fluid ounces of boiling distilled water; infuse for 
one hour in a covered vessel, and strain. Dose, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. 
The compound mixture of senna, or black draught, is formed by dis- 
solving 4 ounces of sulphate of magnesia and an ounce of extract of 
liquorice in 14 fluid ounces of infusion of senna, with a gentle heat; 
then add 2£ fluid ounces of tincture of senna, 10 fluid drams of com- 
pound tincture of cardamoms, and a sufficiency of infusion of senna to 
make 1 pint. Dose, 1 to D fluid ounces. 
For tincture, take 2| ounces of senna, broken small, 2 ounces of 
raisins, freed from seeds, ounce each of bruised caraway and coriander 
fruit, and 1 pint of proof spirit; macerate for forty-eight hours in a 
closed vessel, and then strain. Dose, 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls. 
The syrup and the confection are very useful and palatable prepara- 
tions of this drug, but they contain a number of ingredients, and the 
making of them is tedious and complicated. Dose : of the former, 1 to 
4 teaspoonfuls ; of the latter, 60 to 120 grains; fluid extract, 1 to 2 tea- 
spoonfuls ; senna compound, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls; senna pills, 2 grains 
each, 1 to 2 pills. 
Other commercial varieties are, Tripoli senna, from C. cethiopica ; 
Aleppo senna, from C. obovata; and American senna, from C. Afarilarb- 
dica. Another drug, called cassia pulp, or purging cassia, is obtained 
from a species of this genus ; namely, C. fistula. The pulp is contained 
in the pods. It is of a reddish-black color, of a sweetish taste, and pos- 
sesses laxative and purgative properties. It is one of the ingredients in 
the confection of senna. The pods of C. Braziliana are used in veteri- 
nary medicine under the name of horse cassia. The seeds of C. Absus, 
under the names of Chichou and Cismatan, are used in Egypt as a 
remedy in ophthalmia. 
CASSIA BARK AND CASSIA BUDS. (See Cinnamomum.) 
CASTANEA, kas-ta'-ne-g, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to 
the Nat. order Corylacece. The species are familiarly known as chest- 
nut-trees. C. vulgaris or vesca is the Spanish chestnut, which is much 
cultivated for timber, and for its edible nuts, which form a principal 
part of the food of the poor of the south of Europe. C. Americana, a 
native of the Northern States produces a much smaller, but very sweet 
nut. 
CASTILE SOAP. (See Soap.) 
CASTOR, kas'-tur, is the dried preputial follicles and their secretion 
obtained from the Beaver (Castor Fiber), and separated from the CASTOR-CATARRH, CHRONIC. 
315 
somewhat shorter and smaller oil-sacs which are frequently attached to* 
them. The follicles are usually in pairs about 3 inches long, fig-shaped, 
firm and heavy, brownish, or greyish black, and containing a dry, 
resinous, reddish-brown or brown, highly odorous secretion, and in great 
part soluble in rectified spirit, and in ether. It is antispasmodic and 
stimulant, and has been recommended in various nervous diseases, as 
hysteria, epilepsy, catalepsy, etc., particularly when attended with 
uterine disorder. Dose, 5 to 10 grains. The tincture of castor (1 
ounce in coarse powder to 1 pint of rectified spirit) is given in doses of 
| to 1 teaspoonful. 
CASTOR-OIL. (See Ricinus Communis.) 
CATALEPSY, kat'-a-lep-se [Gr. katalepsis^ from kata, down or into, 
and lambano, I seize], in Pathology, is a disease characterized by a 
sudden deprivation of sensation and voluntary motion. The attack 
usually comes on without any warning, and during the paroxysm the 
patient remains in precisely the same position as he was in at the 
moment of attack. The circulation and respiration are in most cases 
but little affected; but occasionally they are greatly depressed, and are 
sometimes even imperceptible. The attack may last only for a few 
minutes, or it may continue for hours, and even, it is said, for days; and 
consciousness generally returns with the same suddenness as it left, the 
patient having no recollection of anything that passed during the attack. 
This disease bears a great resemblance to the mesmeric state, and, 
indeed, is so often feigned, that many have doubted whether it really 
had any existence. There can be little doubt, however, that it is some- 
times, though not often, a real disease. 
Causes.-The hysterical and melancholic are most predisposed to it; 
and the paroxysm is frequently induced by some strong mental 
emotion, or by some disorder of the digestive or secretive organs. 
Treatment.- The treatment will necessarily vary in each particular 
case, according to the general condition of the patient and the probable 
exciting cause. Generally, however, the system should be strengthened 
by nourishing diet, gentle exercise, sea-bathing, and tonics. During the 
attack, the body should be kept warm and excited by gentle friction; 
mustard poultices should be applied to the soles of the feet, the palms 
of the hands, and the pit of the stomach; and strong ammonia applied 
to the nostrils. (See Mesmerism.) 
CATAMENIA. (See Menstruation.) 
CATAPLASM. (See Poultice.) 
CATARACT. (See Eye, Diseases of the.) 
CATARRHAL AFFECTIONS OF INFANTS. (See Snuffles.) 
CATARRH, CHRONIC, ka-tar-Causes.- It is caused generally by a 316 
CATARRH, CHRONIC. 
succession of colds, or follows as a sequel to an acute attack of influenza. 
In some instances, it appears to affect whole families at once, giving 
rise to the suspicion that it is contagious. 
Symptoms.- Catarrh is frequently a chronic disease, attended with a 
disagreeable trickling of acrid matter from the posterior nares, or 
nostrils, into the throat. It is attended with a constant expectoration, 
and a continual hawking and spitting. In some people, it continues the 
whole year round, but is particularly aggravated in the autumn and 
winter, and gives rise to a cough which is very annoying, especially at 
night. There is often with it a good deal of irritability of the stomach, 
caused by swallowing more or less of the mucous discharge; and, also, 
at intervals, fever, giving rise, many times, to the supposition that the 
patient is becoming affected with consumption. In persons of advanced 
years, it often ends fatally, and always makes life anything but pleasant. 
On examining the mouth, the soft palate, the tonsils, and the upper and 
posterior part of the pharynx are observed to be red, the mucous 
membrane thickened and exuding a thick pus-like discharge. 
Treatment.-The patient must be warmly clothed, and scrupulously 
avoid all exposure to damp, or intense cold, or sudden changes of 
temperature, and especially to wet feet. The diet should be moderate 
and stimulants avoided. If the case becomes aggravated, the patient 
must be confined to a warm room, and if there be much debility, 
carbonate of ammonia, in 10 grain doses, every three or four hours, will 
be found to give much relief. In the chronic catarrh of old people, 
when much expectoration has accumulated in the air-passages, the 
following will be very beneficial: 
Take of Gum ammoniacum Two drams. 
Dilute nitric acid Two drams. 
Acacia mixture Eight ounces-Mix. 
Give 2 large tablespoonfuls every two or three hours. 
Cures have been effected by impregnating the air of the apartment 
with fumes of benzoin, the drug being thrown on burning coals, or it 
may be inhaled from a common inhaler, the balsam being placed in 
boiling water. When the cough is hard and dry, and the expectoration 
tough and scanty, smoking stramonium affords, many times, almost 
instant relief. The powdered bay-berry root, used in the shape of 
snuff, has also been found of much service. Sulphate of zinc, 20 
grains to the ounce of water, makes an efficient gargle when the throat 
is much inflamed. The happiest results have followed the use of the 
atomizer in this trouble. Any one of the following articles may be used 
by means of the atomizer, namely: Nitrate of silver, 1 to 10 grains to 
1 ounce of water; chlorate of potash, 10 to 30 grains to 1 ounce of CATARRH, CHRONIC-CATARRH, ETC. 
317 
water; tar water, 1 to 2 drams of the officinal solution to 1 ounce 
of water; or, when the cough is very troublesome, fluid extract of 
conium, 3 to 8 drops to 1 ounce of water. Each of the above, used 
separately, is often attended with much success. In the absence of an 
atomizer, tar water or chlorate of potash, of the strength just indicated, 
may be snuffed vigorously up the nostrils. (See Atomizer.) 
CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD, [Gr. katarrlmo, I flow 
down]. Catarrh is inflammatory irritation of the mucous membrane 
lining the air-passages, the nostrils, and bronchi. It usually commences 
in the former and extends to the latter. 
Causes.-Catarrh is generally the result of cold combined with 
damp, but very frequently of checked perspiration, in consequence 
of the individual passing directly from a warm into a cold atmosphere, 
and, we believe, more frequently by passing immediately from a 
cold into a warm atmosphere. It is, too, not improbable that the 
recently discovered agent, ozone, when it exists to excess in the atmos- 
phere, exerts a violent effect upon the respiratory membrane. Catarrh 
is unquestionably the effect in many cases of unavoidable atmospheric 
changes and influences, but it is much oftener the result of carelessness 
or imprudence - of carelessness in not guarding the body against the 
effects of our changeable climate, and particularly the neglect of wearing 
flannel or some woolen material next the skin, which is the very best 
preservative. Rooms, in the house, too warm, and "exposure to the air 
insufficiently clothed, are fertile sources of catarrhal affection, especially 
in children. Insufficient protection to the feet-and consequent damp- 
ness and "cold feet"-is another. (See Cold Feet.) There is, too, 
in females, the exposure of the chest, after heated ball-rooms, public 
amusements, etc. The use of fur round the neck is not unfrequently 
the cause of cold affecting the throat: whilst close to the skin, 
it produces warmth and perspiration, but when the boa or victorine 
is thrown back, a chill at once ensues. It is not meant to controvert the 
use of fur, but to guard against the incautious and sudden relinquish- 
ment of the protection. 
Symptoms.-Catarrh commences with feverish symptoms more or 
less severe, shivering followed by heat. A peculiar dryness and heat of 
the lining membrane of the nostrils is followed by a discharge of thin, 
acrid, watery fluid, "a running at the nose," and with this there is 
intense headache between the eyes, or the throat may be first affected, or 
the chest itself may be directly attacked-though if not, it will quickly 
become so: the windpipe feels as if raw; there is frequent cough, dry 
and harsh, or with thin expectoration, and the breathing is oppressed. 
Treatment.- The first measure in incipient cold, is to restore and 318 
CATARRH, ETC. 
excite the action of the skin, to get free perspiration. This is best 
accomplished by the vapor or warm bath; but if these cannot be had, the 
best remedies are, hot water to the feet, almost entire abstinence from 
food, rest in a warm bed, hot drinks, and one or two doses of some 
medicine to induce moisture on the skin. 6 or 8 grains of Dover's 
powder, repeated in two hours, if necessary, or 1 tablespoonful of the 
solution of acetate of ammonia, commonly known as spirit of minder- 
erus, every two hours, will invariably produce perspiration, if the warm 
bath, the warm bed, and the hot drinks should fail. This is what is 
known as the moist cure. The following method of treatment, recom- 
mended by as high an authority as Dr. C. J. B. Williams, of London, 
is known as the dry cure, and has many enthusiastic advocates both in 
and out of the profession. He says: " It is the common practice to 
drink copiously of tea, gruel, or some other diluent during a cold; as 
long as this promotes perspiration it is of some utility, and although it 
augments the How from the pituitary or nasal membrane, it has the 
effect of diminishing its acrimony by dilution. It is the acrimony of 
this discharge which reacts on the membrane, keeps up the inflamma- 
tion, and its accompanying disagreeable symptoms. On this circum- 
stance depends the efticacy of a measure directly opposed to that just 
noticed, but to the success of which we can bear decided testimony-we 
mean a total abstinence f rom liquids. To those who have the resolu- 
tion to bear the feelings of thirst for thirty-six or forty-eight hours, we 
can promise a pretty certain and complete riddance of their colds, and 
what is, perhaps, more important, a prevention of those coughs which 
commonly succeed to them. Nor is the suffering from thirst nearly so 
great as might be expected. This method of cure operates by diminish- 
ing the mass of fluid in the body to such a degree that it will no longer 
supply the diseased secretion. Anything that will contribute to reduce 
the quantity of fluid in the body will assist in the plan of cure and 
shorten the time necessary for it to take effect. It is, therefore, 
expedient to begin the treatment with an aperient-a tablespoonful of 
castor-oil or a couple of ounces of infusion of senna, followed by the 
sweating mixture mentioned above, as is usual, and this is the more 
necessary when any fever attends; but beyond this no further care need 
be taken, and the individual can devote himself to his usual employments 
with much greater impunity than under the ordinary treatment. The 
coryza begins to be dried up about twelve hours after leaving off liquids; 
from that time the flowing to the eyes, and fulness in the head becomes 
less and less troublesome; the secretion becomes gelatinous, and between 
the thirtieth and the thirty-sixth hour ceases altogether; the whole 
period of abstinence needs scarcely ever to exceed forty-eight hours. CATARRH, ETC.-CATECHU. 
319 
"It is then as well to return to the moderate use of liquids, as the 
first indulgence is apt to be excessive. It is not necessary to limit the 
solid food any more than to that which is plain and simple, except 
where there is an acceleration of the pulse, or gastric irritation, in which 
cases animal food should be abstained from. For the sake of comfort in 
mastication, the food should not be of the driest kind. Thick puddings 
and vegetables, with or without meat, will be the best dinner; and 
toasted bread or biscuit, merely moistened with tea, or other liquid, for 
other meals. A single cup of tea is sufficient to bring back the coryza 
immediately, after twelve hours abstinence has removed it." 
Preventive treatment.-The best preventive against cold is the 
daily use of the cold bath, and this is the best means that can be 
adopted by those who have an habitual tendency to this disease. It 
should, however, be begun in summer, and the water ought to be at first 
tepid, but after being begun, the practice may be continued through the 
winter. The sponge bath is preferable for those in delicate health. 
The avoidance of the causes mentioned in the first part of this 
article is indispensable, especially with those having a tendency to this 
trouble. Flannel, worn next the skin during all seasons, is particularly 
important: in warm weather, wearing light flannels rather than dispens- 
ing with them altogether. (See Catarrh, Chronic; Cold, Bronchitis, 
Snuffles, Cough, Influenza, Clothing, Flannel, Ablution, Baths, 
Damp, etc.) 
CATECHU, kat'-e-ku [Jap. kate, a tree, chu, juice], called kut or 
hutch by the natives of India, is properly an extract prepared from the 
inner brown-colored wood of the Acacia Catechu; but the term is now 
applied also to other extracts similar in appearance and properties. 
Some of the catechu of commerce is prepared from the kernels of Areca 
Catechu, and a kind called Gambir, or Terra yaponica, from the leaves 
of Uncarla Gambir. This last, Catechu pallidum, or pale catechu, is 
the only kind that is now officinal. It is imported in cubes about an 
inch in diameter, or masses formed of coherent cubes. Externally, they 
are brown or reddish-brown; internally, ochreous, or pale brick-red, 
breaking easily with a dull earthy fracture. The taste, bitter, very 
astringent, and mucilaginous, succeeded by slight sweetness. It is 
entirely soluble in boiling water. Catechu is used as an astringent 
externally or internally. It is useful as a lotion, or ointment for indolent 
or ill-conditioned ulcers, where there is copious discharge; also as 
a gargle in relaxed sore throat, and as a local application to sore 
nipples. Internally, it is used in diarrhoea unaccompanied by inflam- 
mation, in doses of 10 to 30 grains. The infusion is made of 160 
grains of the powder, and 30 grains of bruised cinnamon-bark, with 320 
CA TEC HU- CA THAR TICE 
10 fluid ounces of distilled boiling water-dose, 1 to 2 fluid ounces; 
tincture, 2| ounces of the coarse powder, and 1 ounce of cinnamon- 
bark bruised, macerated for seven days in a close vessel with 1 pint 
of proof spirit, and then strained-dose, 1 to 2 fluid drams, or 1 
to 2 teaspoonfuls. Catechu lozenges are made of 720 grains of the 
powder, 25 ounces of refined sugar in powder, 1 ounce of gum acacia 
in powder, 2 fluid ounces of gum acacia, and a sufficient quantity of dis- 
tilled water, mixed together, divided into 720 lozenges, and dried in a 
hot chamber with a moderate heat-dose, 1 to 6 lozenges. Catechu 
contains a large proportion of tannin, very similar in properties to that 
of galls, also a peculiar principle called catechine. (See Acacia, Areca.) 
CATHARTICS, ka-thar'-tiks [Gr. kathairo, I purge or purify], 
in Medicine, is a term applied to such substances as, taken internally, 
cause a special irritation of the intestinal canal, and increase the quan- 
tity or number of the alvine evacuations; in other words, have a purg- 
ative effect. Those which act mildly are usually called aperients or 
laxatives; those which act violently, drastics; those which produce 
copious watery stools, hydragogues ; those which favor the secre- 
tion of bile, cholagogues. Cathartics act upon the system in differ- 
ent ways, and serve different purposes; and in each case that has 
to be selected which is best fitted to meet the circumstances. Laxa- 
tives are employed when we wish to evacuate the bowels with the least 
possible irritation, and include manna, cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes, 
honey, confection of senna, carbonate of magnesia, sulphur, cream of tartar, 
bicarbonate of soda, or baking soda, and the fixed oils, as castor, almond, 
olive, linseed oil. Saline, antiphlogistic, or cooling cathartics increase 
the peristaltic motion of the alimentary canal, and augment the effusion 
of fluids, thereby giving rise to watery stools. They are the sulphates 
of magnesia, potassa, soda, etc. More active than the above are the 
acrid stimulants, as senna, rhubarb, aloes. Senna is employed where 
we want an active but not very irritant or acrid purgative; rhubarb is 
used in debilitated and relaxed states of the canal, and has a subsequent 
tonic and astringent effect; aloes is slow in its effect, and acts more particu- 
larly upon the colon and rectum. Drastic cathartics are such as jalap, 
scammony, camboge, croton oil, colocynth, elaterium, etc. They act power- 
fully and rapidly upon the bowels. Mercurial cathartics, as hydrargyrum 
cum creta, pilula hydrargyri, and calomel, are especially valuable from 
acting on the liver. Podophyllin acts similarly upon the liver. Cathartics 
serve not only to clear the alimentary canal, they purify the blood 
by draining off much of the serous portion, they stimulate the action of 
the absorbents in all parts of the body, and act as counter-irritants in 
inflammatory disorders. " Purging," says Sir Thomas Watson, "is an CATHARTICS. 
321 
expedient which in cases of violent inflammation or high general fever, 
should scarcely ever be omitted. To keep the bowels what is called 
open, forms indeed a part of the antiphlogistic regimen; but in acute 
inflammatory diseases, active purging is of very great service. These 
two points are gained by it: the intestinal canal is freed from accumu- 
lated faeces or other matters, which, by their bulk or their acrimony, 
might prove irritating; and at the same time depletion is carried on by 
means of the serous discharge which is produced from that large extent 
of mucous surface. There are some cases of inflammation in which the 
operation of purgative medicines is of especial benefit, as in inflammatory 
affections of the head, either external or internal, of which part these 
medicines assist or cause depletion in a very sensible manner." 
Purgative or aperient medicines are. unquestionably, much more 
generally had recourse to, both by medical men and the public, than any 
other form of remedial agents, but while it is undoubted that their use 
is great, it is also certain, that they are and have been very greatly 
abused. It is intended to consider, first, the use of aperients, and 
secondly, the abuse. Under such articles as Alimentary Canal, 
Digestion, etc., it has been sufficiently explained, how the food mass, 
after undergoing its principal digestion in the stomach, is gradually 
propelled through the entire tract of the bowels, and how, during this 
propulsion, its nutrient constituents are absorbed from it, the refuse 
being left for discharge; it has also been explained, that the discharge 
from the bowels does not consist simply of the food refuse, but contains 
also various secretions and excretions, thrown out into the bowels - 
from the general system-which excretions cannot be retained in the 
system without injury to the health. 
From these considerations, it must be obvious to all how great the 
importance not only that the bowels should be active as regards the 
excretions into them, but as regards their own discharge, both of these 
excretions and of the food refuse. When the bowels are inactive in 
these respects, the state is termed constipation, or costiveness. As, 
under the latter term, the reader will find the evils which result from 
this condition, and also its most frequent causes, etc., sufficiently 
explicitly stated, it is unnecessary to repeat the information here. 
Under the same article, will be found an explanation of those general 
remedies which are most useful in removing the condition; and, indeed, 
when they prove sufficient, are certainly to be preferred to remedial agents; 
when they do not prove sufficient, either as temporary or permanent means 
of relief, the purgative or aperient medicines must be employed-under the 
general rule, that they should never be used stronger than requisite. 
By this it is not meant, that because manna, or sulphur, or magnesia, 322 
CATHARTICS. 
are classed in the laxatives, they are always, when possible, to be substi- 
tuted for the purgative aloes, or castor-oil, or rhubarb, or senna, such a 
distinction could not be observed without other and greater counter- 
balancing inconveniences, but the rule should be, that relief to the 
bowels is to be afforded with as small an amount of purgative action as 
possible, unless that purgative, or, in other words, lowering action, is 
called for as a part of the treatment, as it is in persons of very full habit 
of body, etc. 
Where aperient medicines are either taken or given domestically, 
there is often too little care in the selection: unless it be in pregnancy, 
or in consequence of individual experience, the idea seems to prevail 
with many, that one aperient is as good as another-this is far from being 
the case. 
Except in persons whose bowels are very easily acted upon, or in 
such cases as those where the aperient is taken rather to give additional 
action than to open the bowels, the "laxative" aperients are scarcely 
sufficient as general aperients; those classed as purgatives, and the 
cathartic colocynth, under the form of its well-known compound pill, are 
in daily use. 
There are few ailments in which increased action of the bowels is 
called for, in which, one or other of the laxative remedies in the list 
will not be applicable. Aloes is valuable for certainty of action on par- 
ticular portions of the bowels, for the small bulk of its general dose, for 
its tonic bitterness and continued effect even after frequent repetition, 
but must be used, carefully, in pregnancy, piles, and other affections 
situated about the lower part of the canal. Castor-oil is recommended 
by its safety in almost all cases, by its certain, perfect action, and like 
aloes, by its not losing effect by repetition ; but, unfortunately, it is too 
often the medicine most disliked and sickened at. Epsom salts require 
much discretion in use, but have deservedly thrown Glauber salts into 
disuse. Jalap is certain and active, but is apt to gripe and to sicken, 
and its bulk is an objection. Mercurials alone, or followed by castor-oil 
or senna, or combined with aloes, rhubarb, or colocynth, most valuable, 
are most abused. Rhubarb, mild, and with some persons effectual, is 
also tonic, but is apt to heat, and its bulk and taste are an objection, 
especially with children. Rochelle salt, similar to Epsom salt in action, 
is pleasanter. Senna, the medicine of the nursery, is invaluable; if 
properly prepared, is safe and certain. 
Colocynth, in its well-known compound pill, forms part of the most 
generally used and useful purgative in costive habits. Scammony is, in 
many of the affections of children, especially combined with a mercurial, 
our most valuable purgative, and is recommended by the small bulk of CATHARTICS. 
323 
its dose. (See articles on all the above-mentioned.) Purgatives, how- 
ever, are used, not only as a means of clearing the bowels of their con- 
tents, but also as agents for the relief of those organs, such as the liver, 
which are closely connected with the bowels; and further, as remedies 
calculated to relieve distant parts, or the system generally. Thus, in 
many head affections, free purging is one of our most powerful remedies, 
in congestion of the liver it is most serviceable; in overfulness of the 
system at large, it relieves greatly. To the above fact, nature strongly 
points in those cases in which sudden and striking relief often follows an 
attack of spontaneous purging or diarrhoea. 
The abuse of aperient medicines, owes its origin, probably, to a 
variety of causes. Constipation, either alone, or as a concomitant of 
disease, is so obvious and common a symptom; it so often occasions 
distress, or at least uncomfortable sensations, its removal is generally so 
simply effected, and often is so sensibly felt as a relief, that it cannot be 
matter of surprise, if both doctor and patient, habitually almost, look 
to the action of the bowels by purgative medicines, as almost the requi- 
site preliminary to all other treatment, and within certain limits they do 
right; but the fatal facility of the treatment, assisted moreover by the 
powerful advocacy which it has received in years gone by, has certainly 
produced a far too general use of aperients as purgatives-not simply in 
the treatment of acute disease, but as a general rule of daily life. If 
the question be put: Which is the greater evil of the two, to have the 
bowels habitually confined, or habitually to take aperient medicines? 
There can be no question, if the choice must lie between the two evils, 
that the latter is the lesser one; but there are few cases in which the 
choice is so circumscribed. The bowels probably are confined, but they 
are so because the general conditions requisite for their healthy action 
(see Costiveness) are neglected, and because the aperient medicine is 
used as the readiest substitute for a little trouble and perseverance. 
Thus used, the aperient is abused, and injury, more or less, is inflicted 
upon the system according to the nature of the medicine, the frequency 
of its use, and the strength of the dose. One most general effect of the 
abuse of aperients, is the weakened digestive power of the stomach, 
another the weakness of the system at large; and a third, not unfre- 
quently, is continued irritation of some portion of the alimentary canal. 
The weakened digestion which follows the abuse of aperients may not 
be obvious at first; indeed, if the digestive organs have been overloaded 
and oppressed, instead of being weaker after an aperient, they are actu- 
ally more active, and this apparent increase of activity is very apt to 
lead to a too frequent renewal of the remedy, and too often-trusting in 
the remedy-to a continuance of those habits of excess which caused the 324 
CATHARTICS- CA UDLE. 
first disorder. (See Dyspepsia.) The debility of the system which 
follows the abuse of aperients, is the natural result of the digested food 
mass being hurried too rapidly through the bowels to admit of its 
nutrient portion being taken up and conveyed into the system; debility 
is also the result of the too frequent employment of purgatives, such 
as the salines, which increase unnecessarily the discharges - especi- 
ally of the serous portion of the blood-into the bowels. Further, 
the too frequent use of purgatives irritates the bowels by depriving 
them of their natural protective mucus; in this way ulceration may 
result. 
As a natural consequence of the food mass and of the secretions and 
excretions, such as the bile, being hurried too quickly into and through 
the bowels, and also of the mucus being carried off too abundantly, 
the stools, under the continued use of purgatives, assume an unhealthy 
character; perhaps contain too much bile, etc., and in consequence of 
this unhealthy appearance, and with a view to its correction, persons are 
too often induced to continue the very cause of its production, and go 
on purging. This is a very common case. (See Aperient, Mineral 
Waters, Biliousness, Digestion, Dyspepsia, Costiveness.) 
CATHETER, katk'-e-tur [Gr. katiemi^ I put down or into], is the 
name of an instrument employed for drawing off urine by introducing 
it into the bladder. It is a long tube, usually formed either of silver or 
gum-elastic, open at the handle, and having at the sides, near the point, 
holes or eyes into which the urine flows, and is thus carried off. Those 
for males are usually from ten to eleven inches in length, and con- 
siderably curved towards the point; those for females are much shorter 
and nearly straight. The introduction of the catheter is an operation 
requiring a considerable degree of tact and skill, and should be done 
with great caution. 
CATNIP, CATNEP. "(See Nepeta Cataria.) 
CATOPTRIC EXAMINATION OF THE Wd^ka-top'-trik. When 
a lighted candle is held before a sound eye, or one affected with amauro- 
sis, three images are seen : the first from the cornea, the other two from 
the anterior and posterior surface of the crystalline lens ; but if either of 
these structures have become opaque, the image from it is either dimmed 
or altogether absent. It is used in the diagnosis of cataract. 
CAUDA EQUINA, kaw'-dq e-kwi'-nq [Lat. for horse's tail]. The 
spinal marrow, at its termination about the second lumbar vertebra, 
gives off a large number of nerves, which, when unravelled, resemble 
the horse's tail: hence the name. . 
CAUDLE, kaw'-dl [Fr. chaudeau, from, Lat. calidus, warm], is a 
kind of warm broth, composed of gruel, wine or beer, sugar, and spices, CA UDLE- CEANOTIIUS. 
325 
and given to the sick. A good mode is to beat up one egg in a wine- 
glassful of sherry, and add half a pint hot gruel, and flavor with nut- 
meg, lemon-peel and sugar. 
CAUL, kawl [Lat. caula, a fold], is a thin membrane, sometimes 
found encompassing the head of a child when born. This was formerly 
regarded with great superstition, it being held to denote that the child 
so born would be very fortunate, and escape many dangers. A caul was 
also believed to confer the like benefits upon its possessor; and hence 
they were frequently sold at a high price. They were regarded by 
seamen as an infallible preservative against drowning. 
CAULIFLOWER, koi'-e-flou-ur, a vegetable of the cabbage tribe, 
agrees better than most other vegetables with those of weak digestion. 
The addition of melted butter is injurious. (See Brassica.) 
CAULIFLOWER EXCRESCENCE, koi'-e-jlou-ur eks-kres'-sense, a 
highly vascular excrescence, growing about the anus, vulva, or os uteri, 
producing a watery discharge, and bleeding from the slightest cause. 
If in the anus, it is often syphilitic. 
CAULOPHYLLUM TIIALICTROIDES. (See Blue Cohosh.) 
CAUSTIC, kaws'-tik [Gr. kausticos, from kaio, I burn], is applied to 
such substances as burn or destroy the skin and flesh by acting chemi- 
cally upon them. The caustics principally used in practice are the 
nitrate of silver, or lunar caustic, and potassa fusa, common caustic, or 
caustic potash. 
CAUSTIC, LUNAR. (See Nitrate of Silver.) 
CAUSTIC POTASH. (See Potash.) 
CAUTERIZATION, kaw'-tur-e-za-shun, the application of a cautery. 
CAUTERY, kaw '-te-re, is a burning or searing of morbid flesh by a 
hot iron or by some lighted inflammable substance, or by caustic medi- 
cines, the former mode being termed actual cautery, the latter potential 
cautery. 
CAVERNOUS RESPIRATION, kav'-urn-us res-pe-ra'-shun, a sound 
similar to that produced by blowing into a bottle. It is produced by 
cavities filled with air, existing in the lungs. 
CAVITY, kav'-e-te [Lat. cawositas]. A term applied generally to the 
hollow parts of the body, as the abdominal cavity, the articular cavities, 
the thoracic cavity, etc. The cavities of bones are usually named 
according to some real or fancy resemblance : thus we have glenoid 
cavities, cotyloid cavities, fossae, sinuses, etc. 
CAYENNE PEPPER. (See Capsicum.) 
CEANOTHUS, se-an-o'-thus [a name given by Theophrastus to a 
spiny plant], a genus of the Nat. order Rhamnacece. The young shoots 
of C. Americanus are used as an astringent, and in New Jersey the 326 
CEANOTHUS- CELLS. 
leaves are employed as a substitute for tea; hence they are commonly 
known as New Jersey tea. It is astringent, expectorant, sedative, 
antispasmodic, and antisyphilitic. Used in gonorrhoea, dysentery, 
asthma, chronic bronchitis, whooping-cough, and other pulmonary 
affections. It is also useful as a wash gargle for sore mouth. Dose of 
the decoction, 1 teaspoonful three or four times a day. (See Decoction.) 
CEDRON SEED. (See Simaba Cedeon.) 
CELANDINE. (See Chelidonium.) 
CELASTRUS SCANDENS, sedas'-trus scan-dens. False bitter- 
sweet, staffvine, waxwork, and climbing bitter-sweet. Belongs to the 
Nat. order Celastracece. It is a climbing, indigenous shrub, growing 
from Canada to Carolina. It must not be confounded with the solanum 
dulcamara, or true bitter-sweet. The bark is the part used in medicine. 
It is alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, with some narcotic powers. It is 
used in secondary syphilis, scrofula, chronic hepatic affections, or liver 
complaint, cutaneous affections, leucorrhoea, rheumatism, and obstructed 
menstruation. As an ointment, it is useful in inflamed and indurated 
breasts of nurses, in prurigo of the vulva, burns, excoriations, etc. 
Dose of the decoction, 2 to 4 fluid ounces, three times a day; dose of the 
extract, 5 to 10 grains. (See Decoction.) 
CELERY, sel'-ur-e, an evergreen herbaceous plant, much used as a 
salad, and is a very wholesome relish, though it sometimes disagrees with 
persons of weak digestive powers. It is said to have properties which 
make it an efficient medicine in some diseases of the kidney. (See Apium. ) 
CELIBACY. (See Maeeiage.) 
CELLARS. (See Houses, Sanitaey Science.) 
CELLS, selz [Lat. cella, a cell], in Physiology, are minute closed 
vesicles, or bags, formed by a membrane in which no definite structure 
can be discerned, and having a cavity which may contain matters of 
variable consistence. These cells, remaining as separate corpuscles iii 
the fluids, and grouped together in the solids, persisting, in some cases, 
with but little change, in others undergoing a partial or thorough trans- 
formation, produce the varieties of form and structure met with in the 
animal and vegetable textures. In other words, they constitute the 
elementary form of all organisms, vegetable or animal. The embryo 
animal, as well as the embryo plant, is, in its early stages, entirely 
formed of cells of a simple and uniform character; and it is by a gradual 
transformation in the progress of development that some of these cells 
become converted into the diversified elements of a complex fabric. 
Indeed, it is now generally believed that the cell structures are the 
agents by which nutrition, secretion, and reproduction are carried on. 
Every cell owes its origin, in some way, to a pre-existing cell. In plants, CELLS- CEPLLAELLS. 
327 
the most common mode of multiplication is the subdivision of the orig- 
inal cell into two halves. Sometimes the new cells originate in little 
bud-like prominences on the surface of the parent cell, which, after a 
time, become detached and form cells. Cells have properly a 
spheroidal or rounded shape, but they assume various forms from 
coming in contact with other cells. The nucleus is a small round or 
oval body in the interior of the cell, sometimes lying free, but at other 
times attached to the cell wall, and averaging in diameter, in the animal 
cells, from to of an inch. (See Kolliker's " Manual of Human 
Histology;" Von Mohl's "Anatomy and Physiology of the Vegetable 
Cell;" Carpenter's " Principles of Physiology; " Quain's "Anatomy.") 
CELLULARES, seV-lurlurz, plants composed of cellular tissue only, 
forming one of the two great sub-kingdoms in De Candolle's system 
of classification. 
CELLULAR TISSUE OR MEMBRANE, sel'du-lar. Cellular 
membrane, or tissue, or areolar tissue, is the reticular membraneous 
web, which connects the various portions of the body, and fills up the 
interstices. It is made up of numberless little fibres and bands crossing 
each other in every direction, and enclosing small spaces, which freely 
communicate throughout the body. The most familiar exemplification 
of cellular tissue, and of its free inter-communication, is seen in the 
blown-up veal of the butcher. In the living body, the areolar tissue 
contains a thin wTater or serous fluid, which, when it accumulates in un- 
due quantities, constitutes one form of dropsy, finding its way by permea- 
tion through the cellular meshes to the most dependent part of the body. 
CEMETERIES, LOCATION, EXHALATION FROM, ETC. (See 
Sanitaky Science.) 
CENTAURY, RED. (See Sabbatia Angulakis.) 
CENTIGRAMME, sert-te-gram, the one hundredth part of a gramme. 
CEPHAELIS, sef-e-lis [from Gr. kephale, head], a genus of plants 
belonging to the Nat. order Cinchonacece. The annulated root of 
C. ipecacuanha is the officinal ipecacuanha of the British Pharma- 
copceia. It is known as true, annulated, Brazilian, or Lisbon ipecacu- 
anha, and is the only sort commonly met with in this country. It is 
collected in all seasons of the year, but chiefly from January to March, 
and is imported from Rio Janiero, Bahia, and Pernambuco. It is 
in pieces of 3 or 4 inches long, about the size of a small quill, of 
a greyish or light-brown color, contorted and irregularly annulated. 
It consists of two parts-a cortical or active portion, which is 
brittle; and a slender, tough, white-woody centre. The powder is 
pale brown, with a faint nauseous odor, and a somewhat acrid and 
bitter taste. 328 
CEPIIAELIS. 
Ipecacuanha, or ipecac, is emetic, expectorant, and diaphoretic. Alter- 
ative, in small doses. Some authors suppose it to possess narcotic 
properties. In doses of £ of a grain to |, it acts as a tonic. It is a 
valuable remedy in acute bronchitis. The symptoms which indicate its 
use are a short, tickling, paroxysmal and spasmodic cough, to relieve 
which, small and repeated doses (£ a grain every hour), are the most 
effectual. This medicine is one of the safest and most efficient in 
suffocative catarrh, and can be used with confidence, either in old age or 
infancy. The paroxysmal and spasmodic cough and whooping-cough 
are sometimes rendered much milder by its use. Daubenton recom- 
mended minute doses of ipecacuanha to be taken in the morning fasting, 
for the relief of gastric debility, and constipation upon want of energy 
in the intestines. Fothergill recommended this agent in diarrhoea. It 
has been held in high esteem as a remedy for dysentery. 
Writers of distinction ascribe efficient haemostatic virtues to this medi- 
cine. Mangetus imputes to a dose of 1 dram of ipecacuanha the subsidence 
of an alarming hemorrhage from the womb, which preceded the expul- 
sion of the ovum in a case of abortion. Dr. Osborne, of Dublin, says 
that the treatment of simple menorrhagia by ipecacuanha has never yet 
failed in his hands, and that he has also found it successful in the treat- 
ment of bleeding at the nose. Cases of its success in hemorrhage from 
the lungs, and profuse menstruation, are mentioned by Frank. In inter- 
mittent fevers of a bilious type, and still more in the bilious and remittent 
fevers, the administration of a full emetic dose of ipecacuanha at the 
outset of the disease, and even for two or more successive days, forms, 
perhaps, the surest method of moderating the violence and shortening 
the duration of the attack. It also prepares the way for a successful 
administration of cinchona. 
When given in large doses of 15 to 20 grains, it acts as an emetic 
and as a purgative; in small doses of a few grains it is expectorant and 
diaphoretic. Its peculiar properties are principally due to an alkaloid 
called emetine. The wine is formed by macerating for seven days 1 
ounce of the bruised root in 1 pint of sherry. Dose: as an expectorant, 
5 to 40 drops; as an emetic, 3 to 6 teaspoonfuls. The compound 
powder is composed of £ an ounce of the powder, £ an ounce of opium 
in powder, and 4 ounces of sulphate of potash in powder. Dose, 5 to 
15 grains. This is otherwise known as Dover's powder, and is one of 
the most valuable of our sudorifics. Pill of I. with squill: take 3 
ounces of the compound powder, 1 ounce each of squill and ammoniacum 
in powder, and a sufficiency of treacle to form a mass of the proper 
consistence. Dose, 3 to 10 grains. The I. lozenges contain each a £ 
of a grain of I., and a dose is from 1 to 3 lozenges. Dose of fluid CEPIIAELIS- CERASUS. 
329 
extract, as an expectorant, 5 to 10 drops; and as an emetic, | to 1 tea- 
spoonful. Dose of syrup of ipecac, as an expectorant for children, one to 
twelve years old, 5 to 10 drops: and in croup, 10 drops to 1 teaspoonful 
every ten minutes till vomiting is produced; and as an expectorant for 
adults, 20 to 40 drops every two or three hours. 
CEPHALALGIA, CEPHALALGY. (See Headache.) 
CEPHALIC, se-fal'-ik [Gr. kepkalikos\ is applied to something 
pertaining to the head. Thus, cephalic medicines are such as are 
administered for disorders of the head. 
CEPHALITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. (See 
Brain, Diseases of the.) 
CERA, se'-ra [Lat.] wax, the prepared honeycomb of the hive bee, 
obtained by dividing the comb and expressing the honey, and then 
melting the residue in boiling water. The impurities are skimmed off, 
and the wax is removed from the surface after the water has cooled. It 
is again melted and strained. This is the cera flava or yellow wax. 
Cera aTba, or white wax, is formed by bleaching the former, making it 
fall in a melted state in small streams upon a revolving cylinder, and 
thus exposing it for some time to moisture, air, and light. Wax is 
chiefly used in medicine to form plasters and ointments. (See Beeswax.) 
CERASINE, ser'-a-sin [from cerasus, the scientific name of the 
cherry-tree], the portion of the gum of the cherry-tree which is insol- 
uble in cold water. 
CERASUS, ser'-a-sus, a genus of trees belonging to the Nat. order 
Rosacea, sub-order Amygdalea. Several species or varieties of this 
genus produce the well-known fruits called cherries. The varieties 
usually cultivated in our gardens are supposed to have been derived 
originally from two wild species, C. avium and vulgaris. Both have 
white flowers in clusters or nearly sessile umbels, and both are generally 
regarded as natives of North America, Britain, and of the middle and 
south of Europe. The timber of C. avium is valuable for the purposes 
of the cabinet-maker, turner, and musical instrument maker; and the 
leaves have been used as a substitute for tea. The bark of the species 
C. cappolim possesses astringent and febrifuge properties; that stripped 
from its root is used in Mexico as a remedy against dysentery. The 
leaves of C. capricida contain so much hydrocyanic (prussic) acid as to 
prove poisonous to cattle that feed upon them. Most parts of the species 
C. Laurocerasus, the cherry-laurel, but especially the leaves and seeds, 
are poisonous. The poisonous effects are supposed to be owing to a 
volatile oil containing hydrocyanic acid. Cherry-laurel water, obtained 
by distilling the leaves with water, is used medicinally for similar pur- 
poses as hydrocyanic acid. The kernels of the species O. accidentalis, 330 
CERASVS- CERATE. 
a native of the West Indies, and others, are used for the purpose of 
flavoring liquors, such as cherry-brandy, Kirschenwasser, Maraschino, 
and Noyeau. The species C. Padus^ or bird-cherry, has similar 
properties, though less powerful, to those of the cherry-laurel. C. Vir- 
giniana, the choke-cherry, has astringent and febrifuge properties, and 
its fruits are commonly mixed with pemmican. The inner bark of the 
C. serotina^ the wild or black cherry, common in most parts of the 
United States and Canada, and improperly classified by some writers 
as Prunus Vlrginiana^ possesses tonic, sedative, and astringent 
properties. It is useful where it is of importance to impart vigor 
of action to the system, and yet, to avoid any undue excitement 
of the heart and blood-vessels, as for instance, during the first stage 
of convalescence from inflammatory attacks, and in many pulmonary 
diseases. Its uses are indicated in all cases requiring the use of a general 
tonic, particularly in cases of the impairment of the constitution by 
dyspepsia, indigestion, etc.; in dyspepsia attended with neuralgic 
symptoms, and general debility following inflammatory fevers; in 
diseases in which debility of the system is united with general local 
irritation. On account of its gently astringent properties united with 
its sedative action, it has been found highly beneficial in complaints 
incident to the summer months, in diarrhoea, chronic diarrhoea, and in 
preventing the weakness and relaxation of the bowels which produce 
them. Wild cherry, horehound, lettuce, veratrum, and bloodroot, form 
a fine compound. It is admirably well adapted to those debilitated states 
of the system complicated with nervous irritability and cough. It 
operates with magical efficacy in the convalescent stages of inflammatory 
attacks, and pulmonary affections. Dose: fluid extract of wild cherry, 
2 to 4 teaspoonfuls; fluid extract of wild cherry compound, % to 2 tea- 
spoonfuls ; prunin, the active principle of cherry, 2 to 6 grains; wine of 
wild cherry, 1 to 4 teaspoonfuls; ferrated wine of wild cherry, 1 to 4 
teaspoonfuls. 
CERATE, se-rate [Lat. ceratum^ from cera, wax], an ointment, of 
which wax forms a component; the hard wax, and fluid oil or lard, 
when combined, forming a compound of convenient consistence. Simple 
cerate is formed by melting together equal parts of white wax and olive- 
oil, and stirring during cooling. 
Calamine, or Turner's Cerate. (See Calamine.) 
Lead Cerate.-Acetate of lead, 5 drams; white wax, 8 ounces; 
olive-oil, 20 ounces. Dissolve tlie wax by heat in 18 ounces of the oil, 
rub up the acetate of lead finely with the remaining 2 ounces, add this 
gradually to the larger quantity, and stir during cooling. 
Resin Cerate.-Take of resin, 5 ounces; lard, 8 ounces, beeswax, CERATE-CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS, ETC. 
331 
2 ounces; melt them together with a gentle heat, and then stir the 
mixture briskly while it cools. 
Soap Cerate is sometimes useful; it is better procured ready pre- 
pared. 
CEREALS, se-re-alz [Lat. cerealia, from Ceres, the goddess of 
corn], is a term applied to the grasses which are cultivated for human 
food, viz., wheat, barley, rye, oats, maize, and rice. They are for the 
most part distinguished by the large quantities of starch, nitrogenous 
compounds, and phosphoric acid, contained in their seeds, and which it 
is the object of cultivation to develop as much as possible. With the 
exception of rice they all contain nearly the same amount of nitrogen, 
in addition to which, wheat possesses a peculiar glutinous substance, 
called gliadin, which renders wheat-flour so well adapted for the making 
of bread. (See Food.) 
CEREBELLUM. (See Brain. ) 
CEREBRITIS, ser-e-bri'-tis, inflammation of the brain. (See Brain, 
Diseases of the.) 
CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR SPOTTED FEVER, 
cer'-e-bro spi'-nal men-in-je -tis. An acute disorder, commonly happen- 
ing as an epidemic, caused by some unknown external influence; sudden 
in its onset, rapid in its course, and very fatal. It prevailed as an 
epidemic in Europe during the fourteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth 
centuries. The first epidemic in America occurred at Medfield, Massa- 
chusetts, in the early part of the present century, and since that time 
several circumscribed epidemics have been noted in various parts of the 
continent, particularly in the Southern and Western States. Many cases 
were seen during the late war, among both the Federal and Confederate 
troops. 
Symptoms.-Nausea, with or without vomiting, severe headache, 
dizziness, excruciating pains in the nape of the neck, limbs, calves of the 
legs, and joints, the pulse quick and feeble, the skin moist and cool, the 
face suffused, and the eyes bloodshot; delirium is generally present, and 
is not so much violent as it is muttering and wandering ; sometimes deep 
stupor is present from the beginning. From one to three days from the 
beginning of the attack, an eruption of dark red or purple spots is seen 
upon the neck, abdomen, back, arms, legs, and sometimes the face. 
Quite early in the disease there is extreme sensitiveness of the skin, so 
that even brushing it with the hand will bring on severe muscular con- 
tractions. One of the most persistent symptoms is a rigid condition of 
the muscles of the neck, the head being violently thrown back. As a 
rule, the bowels are constipated. Respiration is slow and labored, and 
toward the end stertorous. Squinting, with some degree of deafness 332 
CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS, ETC.-CERUMEN. 
and buzzing in the ears, are commonly present. The case may terminate 
in a few hours, or last many weeks. 
Treatment.-There is no specific in this disease. The prime indica- 
tion is to sustain the vital powers, a hot bath frequently gives relief. 
When the surface is cold, mustard to the feet, and friction with turpen- 
tine and chloroform, have been found useful. Relief has also followed a 
blister to the neck, preceded by the application of 6 leeches. If a 
malarial origin is suspected, large doses of quinine, 10 grains every six 
hours, should be given. Prof. Allen, of Chicago, had much success 
with the tincture of cantharides. The bowels should be kept open by 
injections containing croton oil, or turpentine. Bromide of potassium, 
and the inhalation of chloroform and ether, are sometimes useful, but 
often fail. During convalesence, fresh air, good diet, and tonics are 
required. Upon the first suspicion of this somewhat obscure and 
dangerous affection being present, the most skilled medical aid available 
should be promptly secured. It is a disease which unprofessional per- 
sons cannot with certainty recognize, much less successfully treat. 
CEREBRUM. (See Brain. ) 
CEREMENTS, sere'-ments [Lat. cera, wax], cloths dipped in melted 
wax, with which dead bodies were enfolded when they were embalmed. 
CEREUS BONPLANDII, se'-re-us, a species of cactus introduced 
from Mexico. This is said to exert a wonderful influence in functional 
and also in organic diseases of the heart. The irregular pulse is readily 
controlled, as well as palpitation and that feeling of impending danger 
we so often meet with in angina pectoris and excited action of the heart. 
It should rank high as a nerve sedative. Dose of the fluid extract, from 
1 to 8 drops. 
CEREVISDE FERMENTI, OR YEAST, ser-e-vizh'-e-a fer-men'-ti^ 
is the frothy matter which makes its appearance on the surface of wort, 
when fermenting, in the process of making beer. It is a light, soft 
substance, of a greyish color, and readily undergoes the putrefactive 
fermentation if kept moist, but may be kept for some time if dried. It 
is composed of vesicles containing granules, which are, indeed, a species 
of fungus, to which the name of Torula Cerevisia is given. Yeast is a 
tonic and antiseptic, but it is chiefly applied in the form of poultices to 
fetid and sloughing ulcers. Yeast poultice, Cataplasma Ferment^ is 
formed by mixing 6 fluid ounces of beer yeast and a like quantity of 
water, heated at 100°, and stirring in gradually 14 ounces of wheaten 
flour. The mass is then placed near the fire till it rises. 
CERUMEN, se-ru'-men [Lat. cera, wax], is the waxy matter of the ear, 
of which the chief purpose is, probably, the repulsion-by its bitterness 
and other qualities-of insects which might enter or harbor in the passage. CEP VMEN- CETRARIA. 
333 
It sometimes accumulates to so great an extent, especially in the aged, and 
in the young, particularly after acute diseases, as to cause deafness, 
more or less complete, which is generally accompanied with noises and 
other uneasy sensations in the affected organ. The accumulated wax 
may, possibly, be detected, by examining the ear-passage with the aid 
of a lighted candle. In order to remove the hardened mass, a small 
portion of warm olive or almond-oil must be dropped into the ear for 
two or three nights in succession, for the purpose of softening and 
loosening the wax; after that has been done, the passage must be 
thoroughly syringed out with warm water, by means of a two-ounce 
syringe, till the wax is detached and washed out. Some persons become 
faint and giddy on having the ears syringed; in such cases let the per- 
son lie down, as the operation is best undergone in the horizontal 
posture. (See Ear, Syringe, Deafness.) 
CERVICAL, ser'-ve-kgl, belonging to the neck; as, cervical nerves, 
cervical muscles, etc. 
CERVIX, ser'-viks. 1. The neck; properly the back part of the 
neck. 2. Applied also in two portions of organs, which somewhat 
resemble a neck, as cervix uteri, the neck of the uterus. 
CETACEUM, OR SPERMACETI, seda'-she-um, is a crystalline, 
purely white, glistening substance, with little taste or odor, obtained 
from the head of the sperm whale, Physeter Macrocephalus. It is found, 
mixed with oil, in cells, in a peculiar cavity, along the upper jaw of the 
animal. The oil is separated from the spermaceti by boiling, and the 
latter is further purified by draining, pressure, fusion, and the action of 
a weak solution of potash. It is scarcely unctuous to the touch, does 
not melt under 100°, is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, 
more so in ether, and readily in fixed and volatile oils. It is best 
purified from any oil it may contain by boiling in alcohol. Spermaceti 
ointment, Pnguentum Cetacei, is formed by melting together, with a 
gentle heat, 5 ounces of spermaceti, 2 ounces of white wax, and 1 pint 
of almond oil, and stirring constantly while it cools. This is a mild 
and simple dressing for healing blisters and excoriated surfaces. 
CETRARIA, set-ra'-re-g, a genus of lichens, which includes the 
well-known Iceland moss. This lichen, which has been named C. 
islandica, is officinal in the British Pharmacopoeia, and is employed both 
as a nutritious food and as a mild mucilaginous tonic in catarrh and 
consumption. Combined with cocoa, it forms the article known as 
Iceland-moss cocoa. Two kinds of starch are found in this lichen-one 
called lichen starch, and the other inulin; also a peculiar bitter principle, 
which has been named cetrarin. When used for food only, the plant 
should be deprived of its bitterness, either by heating it twice in water 334 
CETRARIA- CHALK. 
to near the boiling point, or by digesting it in a weak alkaline solution, 
formed by adding an ounce of carbonate of potash to about a gallon 
of cold water, and afterwards washing it with pure water. The officinal 
decoction of Iceland moss, Decoctum Cetrarioe, is formed by first wash- 
ing 1 ounce of the moss in cold water, to remove impurities, then 
boiling it in 1 pint of distilled water for ten minutes in a covered vessel; 
afterwards strain with gentle pressure while hot, then pour distilled 
water over the contents of the strainer until the strained product meas- 
ures 1 pint. 
CEVADILLA, OR CEBADILLA. (See Asagrasa.) 
CEYLON MOSS. (See Gracillaria. ) 
CHAFING, tshafe'-ing, a superficial excoriation. It may be remedied 
by cooling cerates, containing acetate of lead. (See Cerate. ) 
CHALK, tshawk [Lat. calx, lime], a variety of limestone, or carbon- 
ate of lime, of a soft earthy nature, generally of a yellowish-white color, 
and sometimes pure white. It often forms strata of great size. It has 
an earthy fracture, is easily broken, and is rough to the touch. After 
being burnt into quicklime, chalk is converted into mortar, in which 
shape it is much used. Perfectly purified chalk, when mixed with 
vegetable coloring matters, such as turmeric, litmus, and saffron, forms 
pastil colors. Medicinally, chalk acts as an absorbent, antacid, and 
mild desiccant. Taken internally it causes constipation, and is hence 
frequently used to check diarrhoea. From acting on the free acids of 
the stomach, however, its frequent use is injurious. Care should be 
taken, after using it for some time, to clear out the bowels, as it tends to 
accumulate in the intestines. It is also used externally as an absorbent 
and desiccant to moist excoriations, ulcers, burns, scalds, etc. For 
medical use it is usually prepared by elutriation, or washing, so as to 
free it from impurities, and is afterwards dried in small masses, usually 
of a conical form. This is prepared chalk, creta preparata, a white 
amorphous powder, effervescing with acids, and dissolving with only a 
slight residue in diluted hydrochloric acid. Dose, 10 to 60 grains. 
Chalk mixture, a very common form in which it is given to check 
diarrhoea arising from acidity, is formed by triturating | ounce each of 
prepared chalk and gum acacia, in powder, with fluid ounces of cin- 
namon water, and afterwards adding | fluid ounce of syrup. Dose, 1 to 
2 fluid ounces every three or four hours. The aromatic powder of chalk 
contains powdered cinnamon, nutmeg, saffron, cloves, cardamom seeds, 
and refined sugar, and is an excellent antacid stimulant and cordial. 
Dose, 10 to 60 grains. The aromatic powder of chalk and opium 
contains | ounce of opium to ounces of the above, and is given in 
doses of 10 to 40 grains. Hydrargyrum cum creta, or mercury and CHALK-CHAMPAGNE WINE. 
335 
chalk, is formed by rubbing together 1 ounce of mercury and 2 ounces 
of prepared chalk in a porcelain mortar, until the metallic globules cease 
to be visible, and the mixture acquires a uniform gray color. Dose, 3 
to 8 grains. 
CHALK-STONE, tshavik' -stone, is the concretion deposited around 
and in the joints of those who sutler from chronic gout. It consists of 
the lithic acid and soda, which form a comparatively insoluble salt. The 
liability to the formation of chalk-stone is a reason why those who are 
subject to gout should,.when an antacid is required, make use of potash, 
which, in union with lithic acid, forms a much more soluble salt than 
soda does. (See Gout, Urine.) 
CHALYBEATE SPRINGS, ka-lil)-e-qt, natural waters, containing 
iron in solution. For an account of the most famous chalybeate waters, 
see Mineral Waters. 
CHAMBER, SICK. (See Sick-room; Bed, Bed-Room.) 
CHAMOIS LEATHER, OR SHAMMY UNDERCLOTHES. (See 
Clothing. ) 
CHAMOMILE. (See Antiiemis.) 
CHAMPAGNE WINE, sham-pane, is produced from the grapes 
grown in Champagne, an old province of France. This wine is divided 
into two classes-white and red champagne. The former is made either 
sparkling or still. Sparkling champagne (mousseux) is produced by 
treating the wine in a particular manner during fermentation. The wine 
is racked off in December, and after being fined with isinglass, is bottled 
and securely corked. Carbonic acid is generated in the wine on account 
of the incomplete nature of the fermentation, and its effervescing quali- 
ties depend upon the quantity of that gas dissolved by the fluid. After 
the sediment which is deposited has been removed, a liquor, composed 
of a solution of sugar-candy in cognac, is added, and each bottle is 
tightly re-corked. Still champagne is first racked off in the March 
after the vintage. On account of the profitable nature of the manufac- 
ture and the popularity of champagne wine, it is much adulterated with 
the juice of pears, gooseberries, etc. Very little of the wine sold as 
champagne in Paris is really genuine. It generally consists of some 
cheap, light wine, charged with carbonic acid gas. Champagne contains 
only about twelve per cent, of alcohol, a much less proportion than port, 
sherry, and other strong wines. Its powerful intoxicating effects are due 
to its effervescence. It is the most speedily exhilarating of all wines, 
but its effects soon pass off, when not taken in excess. Within the last 
ten years, this wine has come into much more general use, owing to the 
reduction in price. In diseases of exhaustion, more especially in the 
extreme debility of fever, when the stomach is irritable, few medicines 336 
CHAMPAGNE NINE-CHANGE OF TYPE. 
are equal to champagne frequently given, in quantities of from £ to 1 
wine-glassful. In many cases of even temporary nervous exhaustion it 
is a valuable restorative. To persons subject to gout, or calcareous 
formations, champagne is considered injurious. 
CHANCRES, shanglc-ura, are small ulcers, the result of inoculation 
with the venereal poison. They commence in the form of small pus- 
tules, which, after breaking, degenerate into yellowish, grey-looking 
sores, around which the skin feels firm or hard. Thorough destruction 
of the chancre in the first instance, by means of nitrate of silver, lunar 
caustic, is the only safe measure. When the disease has advanced 
beyond the incipient stage, or indeed in any stage, it cannot be a subject 
for domestic treatment, and ought more especially, on account of the 
lamentable results which may ensue should the constitution become 
affected, to be without delay intrusted to proper medical care. 
CHANGE OF LIFE. (See Menstruation.) 
CHANGE OF TYPE, tshanje tipe. The change of the type of dis- 
ease is perhaps the question of all others which at the present time is most 
angrily discussed in the ranks of the medical profession, names of the 
highest eminence being ranged on both sides of the disputants. The ques- 
tion is this: Is disease, as observed now, the same as disease observed 
forty years ago, and if so, how are we to account for the great change in 
practice, which may be best illustrated by the fact that now there is almost 
an entire disuse of bleeding instead of its nearly constant employment? or,, 
on the other hand, has the type of disease changed, and are our inflam- 
mations of a different character than formerly, and can this different 
character be proved by the result of an examination of inflamed parts 
after death, as contrasted with those formerly examined? It will readily 
be understood how very few medical men are in a position to give an- 
opinion upon a subject which requires so much experience and so much 
extended observation to settle it. Here, as in most similar questions, 
both parties are probably right to a certain extent; that is to say, our 
diseases at present, as a rule, are not of the severe, or, in medical lang- 
uage, sthenic type which marked them fifty years ago, owing, doubtless,, 
to the influence of many external circumstances, while it must also be 
admitted that a closer, a more accurate, and a more advanced observation 
of the phenomena of disease, has satisfied the minds of medical men 
that the severe bleedings of many of the more ignorant of the routine 
practitioners of days gone by were unnecessary and even hurtful. It is 
well known that there were many in the times alluded to who looked 
with great distrust and apprehension upon the indiscriminate blood- 
lettings of their brethren who ruthlessly ordered poor dying men and 
women to lose 50 or 60 ounces of blood, because they were feverish!. CHANGE OF TYPE-CHAPS. 
337 
In short, were one to sum up all that has been said upon this subject, it 
would amount in substance very much to this-that whether the type of 
the disease has changed or not, the bleeding system was carried to a 
most enormous excess; that the type has probably not changed quite so 
much as those of the old school would have us believe, and that at the 
present time there is not a little danger of the non-bleeding system being 
overdone by those who treat diseases according to the theories advanced 
by others, and not upon the merits of each individual case. (See 
Bleeding, or Blood-Letting.) 
CHAPPED HANDS. (See Chaps.) 
CHAPPED LIPS. (See Chaps.) 
CHAPPED NIPPLES. (See Nipples.) 
CHAPS, tshaps, are cracks of the skin, generally occurring on the 
hands or lips, and occasioned by undue exposure to extremes of heat 
and cold, more particularly in persons whose circulation is naturally 
weak. The part is swollen and inflamed, and attended with heat, pain, 
and itching. They are to be treated with cold cream, spermaceti, or 
lard. The best preventive of chaps is to occasionally rub the parts 
with glycerine, or a solution of glycerine and water. Chapped hands, 
so troublesome to many in frosty weather and during cold winds, may 
partly be avoided by care in thoroughly drying the skin after washing. 
The following prescriptions will be found useful: 
Take of Borax Two scruples. 
Glycerine Half an ounce. 
Water Seven and a half ounces.-Mix. 
Thi» may be used twice a day. 
Take of Lead solution One dram. 
Oxide of zinc One dram. 
Glycerine One dram. 
Pure lard Two ounces.-Mix. 
Rub well together and apply to the hands every night. Or, 
Take of Benzoate of zinc One dram. 
Oil of almonds One dram. 
Cold cream One ounce.-Mix. 
To be applied to the hands every night. Or, 
Take of Oxide of zinc One dram. 
Carron oil Half an ounce. 
Simple ointment Half an ounce.-Mix. 
Glycerine, either alone or with a small quantity of sugar of lead 
added to it, is very useful, and ought to be applied to the hands of those 
who suffer much in this way, after each time they are washed. 
Those who are obliged, from the nature of their occupation, to wash 338 
CHAPS- CHEL1D ONIUM. 
their hands frequently, are the great sufferers from chaps, the chaps or 
cracks themselves becoming dangerous, in some occupations, from their 
liability to absorb poisonous substances into the blood. For the treat- 
ment of chapped hands, M. Testelin recommends the application of 
honey heated in an oven, and deprived of its viscidity by the removal of 
the froth formed under the influence of heat. It should be applied over 
the hands whenever they are washed, and spread with gentle friction. 
The above-mentioned author asserts that he has thus succeeded in curing 
chaps, and in preventing their return, in servant-maids whose hands are 
frequently exposed to the contact of water, and who usually suffered 
from this inconvenient affection throughout the winter. He prescribed 
the same remedy with entire success in Brussels to a clear-starcher, 
although this person did not for a single day discontinue her employment. 
CHARCOAL. (See Carbon.) 
CHARLATAN, sliar'-la-tan [Itai, ciarlare, to talk much], a pre- 
tender; a quack. Hence charlatanry. 
CHEERFULNESS, EFFECT OF, ON HEALTH. (See Health, 
Passions.) 
CHEESE, tsheez [Sax. cese, or cyse], is the curd of milk, salted, 
pressed and dried. Milk is composed of three parts-the oily or fatty 
portion, commonly known as cream, and which separates on standing, 
being lighter than the rest, and the curd and whey, the former remaining 
dissolved in the latter until coagulated by some acid. In the manufac- 
ture of cheese, the acid is supplied by the rennet, which, being the dried 
stomach of the calf, contains a large, amount of gastric juice, and 
appears to be the natural milk-curdle. It is prepared by salting and 
drying the inner membrane of the stomach of a sucking-calf. When 
required for use, a piece is soaked for some hours in water or whey, and 
the whole is added to the warm milk that is to be curdled. When the 
curd has coagulated, it is separated from the whey by straining, and 
pressed in a ring or hoop. The variety of color and flavor in cheeses 
results from difference of pressure, length of time in keeping, varying 
proportion of salt, and many other circumstances. Annotto is sometimes 
added to the milk to give color to cheese. Cheese forms a strong and 
nourishing food for those that can digest it, but it is only adapted to 
those who are of robust constitutions, and who take much exercise. It 
is very improper for persons of weak digestion, or of sedentary habits. 
It tends to produce costiveness, and in no case should it form the 
principal part of a meal. In small quantity, however, and when well 
masticated, and eaten with a due proportion of bread, cheese is 
nutritious and stimulating to the digestive powers. (See Food.) 
CHELIDONIUM, kel-e-do'-ne-um [from Gr. chelidon^ a swallow, the CHELID ONIHM- CHEMI STR Y 
339 
plant being said to flower at the coming, and dry up at the departure of 
the swallow], the celandine, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. 
order Papaveracea. The species C. majus is found in waste places and 
on old walls in this country, and may be recognized by its small yellow 
flowers, and the orange-colored juice which exudes from its stem when 
plucked. This juice is poisonous, and is a popular application for the 
cure of warts. It has been used with success in the treatment of 
opacities of the cornea. It yields chelidonic acid. Celandine is stimu- 
lating, aperient, diuretic, and sudorific; it is used in liver affections, and 
is supposed to exert a special influence on the spleen. Applied in the 
form of a wash or poultice in scrofulous and cutaneous diseases and 
piles; also to indolent ulcers, fungous growths, etc. As a drastic 
hydragogue, it is fully equal to gamboge. Dose: of fluid extract, 
10 to 20 drops; of solid extract, 5 to 10 grains. 
CHELONE GLABRA, ke-lo'-ne gla'-bra, balmony, a perennial 
herbaceous plant, belonging to the Nat. order Scrophvlariacew. It is 
sometimes called snake-head, turtle-bloom, turtle-head, salt-rheum weed, 
etc. It is found in the United States, in damp soils. It yields an 
active principle called Chelonin. Especially valuable in jaundice and 
diseases of the liver; likewise for the removal of worms. Used as a 
tonic, in small doses, in dyspepsia, debility of the digestive organs, and 
during convalescence from febrile and inflammatory diseases. As a 
tonic, its influence seems to be expended principally upon the digestive 
apparatus, increasing the appetite, promoting digestion and assimilation, 
improving the condition of the blood, in both volume and quality. 
Dose: of the fluid extract, | to 1 teaspoonful; of the tincture, 1 to 2 
teaspoonfuls; of Chelonin (active principle), 1 to 2 grains; of the 
powder, 1 dram; of the decoction, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. (See Decoction.) 
CHEMICAL ATTRACTION. (See Affinity.) 
CHEMICAL FOOD. (See Phosphates.) 
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. (See Chemistry.) 
CHEMISTRY, kem'-is-tre [Arab, kimia, the occult science; Fr. 
chimie^ Itai. cAzWca], "has for its object the study of the nature and 
properties of all the materials which enter into the composition or structure 
of the earth, the sea, and the air, and of the various organized or living 
beings which inhabit these latter." (Fownes.) 
History.-The empirical mixing of two substances, possessing differ- 
ent properties, to form a third, differing from either, must have com- 
menced with the first peopling of the earth. The fact was transmitted 
to others, who improved on it, and experimented on other similar bodies; 
and thus was a mass of practical information obtained, which gradually 
developed into chemical manufactures. The origin of chemistry is 340 
CHEMISTRY. 
generally traced to Tubal Cain, the father of workers in metal, between 
whom and Hermes Trismegistus lies a period of obscurity of which we 
know nothing. Hermes is said to have been the inventor of alchemy, a 
notion not entitled to much credit. In any case, Egypt, which is said 
to have been colonized by his son Mizraim, was the foremost chemical 
nation of the East; their glass, pottery, colors, and method of embalm- 
ing their dead, bearing strong testimony to the fact of their having 
brought the art to a great state of perfection. The practical preceded 
the theoretical; but by degrees, as men began to think, they began also 
to observe and theorize. They saw that a gross earthy matter, such as 
iron ore, became transmuted, as it were, by tire into a hard metallic sub- 
stance, like iron. What more rational, then, for them to suppose than 
that gold could be formed in a similar way? The change of earth into 
metal was to them more wonderful in theory than the change of lead into 
gold. Thus began alchemy-that specious monster which enticed within 
its grasp legions of philosophers, to whom it gave stones for bread, but 
whose labors have not been without their effect in the subsequent pro- 
gress of the science. The origin of alchemy is lost in obscurity. 
Philology, however, comes to our aid, and points out to us that common 
chemical words, such as alcohol, alkali, aludel, and others, have an 
Arabian origin, which plainly indicates that the Arabians, although 
perhaps not the inventors of the Black Art, were at any rate its most 
ardent votaries. Gradually another notion stole in. The principles and 
practice of pharmacy became more general, and a specious logic was 
brought to bear on the fact that certain salts and liquors of a metallic 
nature assuaged pain and restored drooping vitality. It was then but one 
step further to go to find a compound that would prolong life indefinitely. 
Another object of pursuit was the universal solvent, or alkahest. The 
first practisers of alchemy were, no doubt, honest, serious men; but as 
time wore on there arose a mass of impostors who found ready dupes in 
avaricious people, who were ever ready to buy the secret of unbounded 
riches. In this way there was formed a mass of almost unintelligible 
knowledge, carefully concealed from the vulgar by secret symbols and 
an absurd nomenclature. Through this accumulation of rubbish there 
ran some golden veins; and we must never forget that, although 
alchemy had its philosopher's stone and universal solvent, it also gave 
us a hundred salts and preparations daily used in our own laboratories. 
Towards the end of the fifteenth century arose a set of men whose 
brains were made in a better mould than those of their predecessors. 
Putting aside the idea of transmutation of metals, they turned their 
attention to the discovery of the principles that governed the formation 
and composition of bodies already in their hands, rather than to the pur- CHEMISTRY. 
341 
suit of chemical chimeras. Paracelsus, though imbued with the fanciful 
doctrines of astrology and demonology, must always be regarded with 
reverence for his virtues and pity for his faults. He must ever be 
considered as the connecting link between the alchemists and chemists. 
A few of his researches will be sufficient to show that, although full of 
the maddest hallucinations, he was one of those rare geniuses who have 
the power of lifting a science from the mire. lie was the first to offer a 
true chemical explanation of the action of mercury, iron, and lead in the 
human system. He distinguished alum from copperas, showing that 
the former contained an earth, the latter a metal. He admitted the 
existence of other elastic fluids besides air. He was aware that animals 
could not live, and inflammable matters could not burn, without air. 
To him succeeded Van Helmont, who was the first to distinguish between 
aerial fluids, or gases, as he called them. After Van Helmot came 
Boyle, the founder of the Royal Society, one of the most acute experi- 
mentalists that ever lived. His numerous experiments are marvels of 
accuracy, bearing even the test of our present knowledge. He and his 
contemporary Hook made great improvements in the air-pump, the 
invention of Otto Guericke, and paved the way to further discoveries. 
At the beginning of the eighteenth century come the names and discov- 
eries of Becher and Stahl, the founders of the phlogistic theory. They 
found that by heating charcoal with metallic oxides or calces, they were 
reduced to a metallic state. They further noticed, that wffien charcoal 
w'as burnt it was entirely dissipated. Upon these facts they founded the 
theory that charcoal, or phlogiston, was a principle which united with 
the calx to form the metal. This notion appeared to be further borne 
out by the-fact that metals, when heated, are converted into calces; the 
explanation of which was, that the volatilized charcoal, or phlogiston, 
was consumed by the heat. This theory, which was the first general 
principle applied to the whole range of chemical phenomena, maintained 
its ground for some time, until the discoveries of Priestley tended to 
overthrow it, by proving that the calx, or oxide, of mercury, instead of 
gaining something by being heated, lost something, and that that 
something was oxygen. About this time Cavendish discovered 
hydrogen, and Rutherford nitrogen-experiment being heaped 
upon experiment, and discovery on discovery, until the Stalilian theory 
gave way. It was succeeded by that of Lavoisier, the father of modern 
chemical science, who classified and arranged the known chemical facts 
into a system unparalleled for its precision, extent of view, and logical 
accuracy. His discoveries were few, but he reasoned on the discoveries 
of others with wonderful astuteness. From this moment chemistry 
marched onward with giant strides. 342 
CHEMISTRY. 
It would be impossible to enumerate the whole of the discoveries 
that have taken place since the commencement of the present century; 
a few will suffice to show how wonderfully this science has progressed 
even in our own time. The application of the voltaic current to the 
decomposition of the alkalies, by Davy, resulted in the discovery of a 
dozen or more new metals. The atomic theory of Dalton threw great 
light upon the composition of salts and acids. The invention of the 
present symbolic notation by Berzelius, and the determination of the 
elementary equivalents, soon followed. In 1811, Davy overthrew the 
notion of Lavoisier, that acids could not exist without oxygen, by proving 
that hydrochloric acid consisted only of chlorine and hydrogen. In 
1812, Courtois discovered iodine; Balard followed some time after 
with bromine. Element succeeded element until they reached the 
number of sixty. All this time organic chemistry was making great 
progress. The vegetable alkaloids began to attract great attention; 
their analyses were made, and new theories founded on them. The 
early laborers, Liebig and Berzelius, threw great light on this branch 
of the science, which is even to this day the most attractive to many 
famous chemists. The development of the theory of organic radicles 
has gone on increasing, fostered by the labors of Faraday, Laurent, 
Gerhardt, Hofmann, and a host of others, until it has assumed a mathe- 
matical precision unknown to any other branch of physical science. 
The investigations of organic compounds by these philosophers have 
resulted in a complete change, both in the notation and nomenclature of 
mineral substances. This theory, which was founded by Gerhardt, and 
has received his name, will be afterwards explained. The last great 
discovery has been spectrum analysis, which has resulted in the 
addition of three new elements to our already bulky list, caesium and 
rubidium, by Messrs. Bunsen and Kirchoff, of Heidelberg, and thallium, 
by Mr. Crookes, a distinguished English analytical chemist. The 
researches of Graham upon the diffusion of salts in solution and in 
dialysis, or the separation of crystallizable and non-crystallizable sub- 
stances in solution by means of an intervening diaphragm, are amongst 
the most brilliant discoveries of the age. The researches of Schonbein, 
Schroetter, Brodie, and others, on the allotropic states of bodies, seem 
to point to the compound character of the present elementary bodies. 
In fact, chemistry at the present day is making such enormous strides 
that it can only be properly studied in the current scientific journals. 
Principles.-"It is the province of chemistry," says Professor 
Miller, " to ascertain the nature of the different substances of which the 
universe is composed; to trace their mutual reactions on each other ; to 
effect new combinations of these components with each other; and to CHEMISTRY. 
343 
define the conditions on which the combinations existing around us are 
producible." Material substances are endowed with two different kinds 
of properties, physical and chemical-the study of the former belonging 
to natural philosophy, of the latter to chemistry. The physical proper- 
ties of an object are those which refer to its condition, whether solid, 
liquid, or gaseous; the chemical are such as relate essentially to its 
action upon other bodies, and to the permanent changes which it either 
experiences in itself, or which it effects upon them. Chemical action 
occurs when two or more substances so act upon each other as to pro- 
duce a third substance, differing altogether from the original ones in 
properties; or when one substance is brought under such conditions 
that it forms two or more bodies differing in properties from the original 
one. All substances are either simple or compound. The simple sub- 
stances, or elements, so far as known, are 63 in number; and of com- 
binations of these, all the compound substances are made up. All sub- 
stances, whether simple or compound, are believed to be made up of 
small indivisible particles, called atoms. These can be united with one 
another, or separated from each other, but in no case can any one of 
them be broken up or divided into smaller particles; and hence the 
name [Gr. atomos, indivisible.] What the real size, form, or weight of 
these particles may be, we have no means of determining. The relative 
weight, however, of the atoms of the different elementary bodies to each 
other, is fixed; and those of hydrogen being lighter than those of any of 
the other elements, it is taken as the standard. The atomic weight then 
of any of the elements, is the relative weight of its atoms to those of 
hydrogen. Chemical attraction or affinity (see Affinity) is the 
force which is exerted between the particles of different kinds of 
matter, causing them to combine, so as to form a new matter, with 
properties peculiar to itself, and different from those of its constituents. 
Chemical combinations do not take place indifferently, but in accordance 
with certain strict rules, or laws. Each particular chemical compound 
is always constituted of the same elements, combined together in the 
same proportion. It frequently happens, however, that two elementary 
bodies unite together in more than one proportion, and so form different 
compounds, but these are still formed on a uniform plan, and the pro- 
portions of the elements are in each case related. One substance will 
unite with another in preference to a third, or, in some cases, in 
preference to any other. This preference is denoted by the term elective 
affinity. By means of this elective action, some combinations may be 
decomposed. When one element can take the place of another element 
in a compound, so as to form one analogous, it is said to be equivalent. 
Thus, 100 parts, by weight, of mercury, 80 of bromine, 39 of potassium, 344 
CHEMISTRY. 
23 of sodium, are respectively exchangeable for, or equivalent in combi- 
nation to, one part of hydrogen. The relative quantity of hydrogen 
which can enter into chemical combination being less than that of any 
other element, its combining proportion is taken as the standard of 
comparison or unity. The composition of a body may be determined 
either analytically or synthetically. By analysis a body is separated 
into its constituent elements, so as to determine their nature or quality, 
or their quantity. The former is called qualitative, the latter quantita- 
tive, analysis. By synthesis, different elements are combined, in order 
to form compounds. That branch of chemistry which treats of the 
nature and properties of elements and compounds of mineral origin, is 
called inorganic; and that which deals with those of bodies of an animal 
or vegetable nature, or the products of such, is called organic chemistry. 
Recent discoveries, however, have rendered the distinction between these 
two less and less marked, so that it is impossible to define their exact 
limits. There is, in fact, no definite line of demarcation between inor- 
ganic and organic products. Carbon being the characteristic element 
in all organic bodies, some define organic chemistry as the chemistry of 
carbon, or of the carbon compounds. (See Cakbon. ) 
Formulae.-The alchemists, for the sake of mystery, employed the 
signs of the different planets to represent the various metals. Modern 
chemists, for the sake of convenience and brevity, have given to every 
element one or two letters called symbols, which are used, in conjunction 
with figures and algebraic signs, to express every known compound. 
The principle upon which modern chemical notation is founded, is that 
each symbol indicates one or more atoms of the element it represents: 
thus, C, C2, C27, indicate respectively one, two, and twenty-seven atoms 
of carbon. Two symbols, placed side by side, signify that they are in 
close chemical union: thus, AgO signifies a compound containing an 
atom of silver united to an atom of oxygen. A comma, separating two 
or more groups of symbols, must be taken to mean that they are not in 
such intimate chemical union that the groups cannot be separated with- 
out decomposition: thus, AgO, NO5, represents nitrate of silver, which, 
by certain treatment, can be separated into AgO, oxide of silver, and 
NO5, nitric acid. The sign plus -p signifies that the union is still 
weaker: thus, AgO, NO5+HO means nitrate of silver united to an 
atom of water, HO. A number placed on the left of a group of symbols 
signifies that the whole group, as far as the next comma or plus, is to 
be multiplied by it: thus, KO,2CrO3 signifies that one equivalent of 
potash is united with two of chromic acid. Sometimes the group to be 
multiplied is enclosed in a parenthesis: 3(HgCy)+ 2(KO,SO3) means 
that three equivalents of cyanide of mercury are united to two of sulphate CHEMISTRY. 
345 
of potash. Formulae may be empirical or rational,-the former giving 
merely the constituents of a compound, the latter indicating the manner 
in which they are grouped. It is evident, therefore, that a compound 
can only have one empirical formula, while its rational formulae are as 
numerous as the theories of its composition. Alcohol, for instance, is 
represented empirically by the formula C4H6O2. Rationally, it may be 
represented as the ethylate of water, IIO,C4II5O; the hydrated oxide of 
ethyl, C4II5O, IIO ; as a compound of olefiant gas and two equivalents of 
water, 2IIO, C4H4, and so on, ad infinitum. Brackets are used to denote 
substitution compounds; that is, compounds in which one element, or 
group of elements, has been substituted for another without materially 
affecting the character of the compound. Two changes have been lately 
introduced into chemical formulae that it will be well to notice;-one in 
which dashes are used to denote the atomic power of the element; the 
other, a line through a symbol, to signify that its atomic number has 
been doubled. Bi'" means that bismuth has a triatomic power in the 
way of forming substitution compounds. This notation originated with 
M. Gerhardt, an eminent French chemist, whose views on the subject 
are daily gaining ground, and at no distant day will be generally 
.adopted. 
Gerhardf s Notation differs from that in common use by the doub- 
ling of certain equivalent numbers In looking through a series of 
equivalents, side by side with the specific gravities of the elements to 
which they belong, it will be seen that there is a discrepancy between 
the specific gravities and the equivalents of some few bodies. This will 
be plain from the following examples: 
Equiv. 
Spec. Grav. 
Hydrogen 
1 
1 
Oxygen 
8 
15.9 
Sulphur 
16 
31.7 (vapor). 
Chlorine 
35.5 
34.9 
Bromine 
80 
79.8 
To remove this anomaly, M. Gerhardt doubles the equivalent numbers 
of oxygen, sulphur, carbon, selenium, and tellurium, on the assumption 
that equal volumes of elementary gases and vapors contain the same 
number of atoms when compared under similar conditions of heat and 
pressure; which is equivalent to saying that an atom of oxygen weighs 
sixteen times as much as an atom of hydrogen, because a cubic foot of 
the former gas weighs sixteen times as heavy as a cubic foot of the 
latter. According to this new system, therefore, the equivalents of 
oxygen, carbon, sulphur, selenium, and tellurium are doubled; and in 
most chemical books these doubled equivalents are indicated by a line 
drawn through the letters. Besides the changes in the equivalents, 346 
CHEMISTRY. 
Gerhardt revived and fully carried out a theory of the constitution 
of acids and salts, first propounded by Sir Humphrey Davy. Accord- 
ing to the present theory, as first started by Lavoisier, Berzelius, and 
others, nitrate of silver would be formulated thus: AgO,NO5; being 
looked on as a compound of nitric acid and oxide of silver; but on 
comparing this salt with its corresponding haloid, chloride of silver, a 
discrepancy occurs, which vanishes, if we consider nitric acid, as exist- 
ing in nitrate of silver, to consist of NO6 instead of NOg. From numer- 
ous other anomalies, occurring chiefly in organic bodies, Gerhardt came 
to the following conclusion: 1. That every uncombined acid necessarily 
contained one or more equivalents of hydrogen. 2. That the bodies 
hitherto regarded as dry acids possessed no acid properties until united 
with hydrogen and oxygen. 3. That salts were formed by the substitu- 
tion of one or more atoms of hydrogen, by one or more atoms of a 
metal, or some substance acting as such. Thus, the bodies known as 
NO5, SO3, and CO2, are neutral and inert, until united with an equivalent 
of water, when they form respectively nitric, sulphuric, and carbonic 
acids. This brings the haloid and oxyacid salts into perfect harmony, 
both being regarded as acids in which the hydrogen is replaced. by a 
metal: 
HC1 + K - KC1 + H 
HSO4 + K - KSO4 + H 
Or, in other words, the acid is regarded as the nitrate, sulphate, or car- 
bonate of hydrogen, and the salt formed, as the nitrate, sulphate, or 
carbonate of the metal. Hence the terms nitrate of potassium, sulphate 
of sodium, and carbonate of ammonium, are used by Gerhardt's follow- 
ers, instead of those in ordinary use. Gerhardt also originated the 
system of arranging compounds according to types, and fully worked out 
the theory of the formation of all bodies by the substitution of one 
element, or group of elements, by others of a similar character. 
Nomenclature.-1The present system of chemical nomenclature is due 
to Lavoisier, and is based on the principle that the name of a compound 
should, as far as possible, express its composition and properties. The 
names of many of the simple elements we have received from the 
alchemists, and were formed on no definite plan. Those elements 
which have been lately discovered have been named either from some 
characteristic property possessed by them, or from some word indicating 
their source. Metals, as a rule, terminate in ium, as potassium, thallium, 
etc.; metalloids in on, as boron, silicon, etc.; gases in ine or gen, such 
as chlorine and oxygen. In several instances, theory grounded on in- 
sufficient facts has been allowed to influence the name of an element; 
for example, oxygen was named from oxus, acid, and gennao, to generate; CHEMISTRY. 
347 
the Lavoisierian theory being that no acid could exist without oxygen. 
Subsequently, however, it was found that oxygen occurred in all bases, 
and that many acids existed that contained hydrogen in its stead. The 
Lavoisierian nomenclature is founded on the fact that when a compound 
of two elements is submitted to the action of the voltaic current, these 
elements separate, one (the electro-positive body) being attracted by the 
negative pole, and the other (electro-negative body) going to the positive 
pole. As a rule, it was found that the metalloids were electro-negative, 
and the metals electro-positive. The simplest combinations of two ele- 
ments are termed binary compounds, and fall naturally into two divisions, 
-bases and acids. Bases always- end in ide, and are compounds of 
different proportions of a metal with a metalloid. The proportion of the 
metalloid is indicated by the addition of a Greek or Latin numerical 
particle: thus we have the protoxide, sesquioxide, binoxide, and teroxide 
of various metals, indicating that these compounds contain 1, 1£, 2, and 
3 doses of oxygen to 1 of metal. When the metal is in excess, Greek 
prefixes are used: we have, for instance, the dinoxide or trisoxide of a 
metal, showing that the metal is in a double or triple dose. Generally, 
the prefixes sub and per are used to indicate the excess of metal over 
metalloid, and vice versa. The termination uret was formerly used in 
several cases, such as sulphuret, phosphuret, etc.; but it is now abandoned 
in favor of the termination ide. The compounds of the metalloids with 
each other are named on the same principle. When the dose of oxygen 
is large, the compound is generally possessed of acid properties; thus 
we have Cr2O3, the sesquioxide of chromium, which is a base *, but, by 
increasing the oxygen, we obtain CrO3, which is an acid capable of form- 
ing salts with bases. The amount of oxygen contained in oxyacids is 
indicated by the termination ic or ous, or the prefixes hypo, under, or 
hyper, above. The compounds of acids with bases are always indicated 
by the termination or prefix of the word giving the name of the acid. 
Acids ending in ous and ic form salts ending in ite and ate, the prefix 
being, of course, preserved. When the oxide with which the acid is 
united is a protoxide or peroxide, the prefixes proto and per are added; 
for instance, the pernitrate and protonitrate are the nitrates of the 
protoxide and peroxide of the metal. When the dose of acid is greater 
or less than the base, the prefixes sub, bi, sesqui, are used; as the sub- 
carbonate, bicarbonate, and sesquicarbonate of soda. In double salts 
the name of the base only is repeated ; as the tartrate of potash 
and soda. There are a few instances of acids and salts which have the 
same composition, but different properties. They are distinguished from 
the ordinary kind by the prefix meta; thus we have phosphoric acidwah 
metaphosphoric acid. The prefix pyro signifies that the acid or salt has 348 
CHEMISTRY-CHENOPODIUM ANTIIELMINTICUM. 
been obtained by heat; for instance we have pyrogallic acid produced in 
this way from gallic acid. In organic chemistry the nomenclature is in 
many cases somewhat confused. This is not owing to any want of proper 
principle in the formation of new words, but rather to the differences of 
opinion existing amongst chemists as to the composition of the sub- 
stances indicated. Thus, aniline is called phenylamine, phenylia, 
and benzidam, by different chemists, who each have a theory touching 
its composition. Organic chemistry may be defined as the chemistry of 
organic radicals or compounds containing carbon, which act in every way 
as elements. Organic radicals generally terminate in yl, and mostly con- 
tain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Thus we have ethyl, the radical of 
ether, which forms oxides and salts in the same manner as iron, lead, or 
any of the purely elementary bodies. There are also compounds corre- 
sponding to the electro-negative bodies oxyyen, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc. 
We have, for instance, cyanogen and amidogen, which form cyanides 
and amides, similar in their properties to chlorides and oxides. The 
termination ol or ole is generally applied to neutral compounds of carbon 
and hydrogen, possessed of neither basic nor acid properties, and are 
mostly liquids ; such as benzol, pyrol, quinol. The termination in is 
applied to other neutral substances, generally solid; such as paraffin, 
naphthalin, and albumin. Those ending in ine or ia are generally bodies 
allied to the alkalies in their properties. We have, for instance, quinine 
or quinia, strychnine or strychnia, aniline, etc., which form salts with 
acids. Many of those which end in amine resemble ammonia, and are 
considered substitution compounds of that body, in which one or more 
equivalents of hydrogen are replaced by an organic radical. If two or 
three equivalents are replaced, the prefix di or tri is added to the word; 
for instance, we have dimethylamine and tripropylamine, the composi- 
tion of which is plainly indicated by their names. When the hydrogen 
is replaced by different bodies, their names are prefixed. We have, for 
instance, ethylnnethyhamylamine, which consists of one equivalent of 
nitrogen united to one each of the organic radicals ethyl, methyl, and 
amyl. There are also substitution acids as well as bases; such as 
bromobenzoic acid and chloracetic acid, in which bromine and chlorine 
are substituted for an equivalent of hydrogen. Thus, although these 
names appear unintelligible and unwieldy to the superficial observer, they 
arc as easily understood by the chemical student as any term including 
several nouns and adjectives would be to an ordinarv individual. 
CHENOPODIUM ANTHELMINTICUM, ken-opd-de-um ant-hel- 
min-te-hum, or Wormseed. A perennial plant belonging to the Nat. order 
Chenopodiaceoe. It is found growing in almost all parts of the United 
States, and is commonly known as Jerusalem oak. The seeds are the CHENOPODIUM ANTHELMINTICUM- CHEST. 
349 
part used in medicine, and owe their activity to an essential oil, which 
may be obtained by expression. It is one of our most valuable anthel- 
mintics, and is used in various forms to expel round worms from children. 
A dose of it is usually given before breakfast in the morning, and at 
bedtime in the evening, for three or four days successively, and then 
followed by some brisk cathartic. Dose of the fluid extract, 1 to 2 
teaspoonfuls ; of the infusion, a wine-glassful; of the oil, from 2 to 8 
drops on sugar. (See Infusion.) 
CHERRY AND CHERRY LAUREL. (See Cerasus.) 
CHEST, tshest, qy, in medical language, the thorax, is the important 
cavity situated between the neck and the abdomen-which contains the 
heart and large blood-vessels and the lungs. It is separated from the 
abdomen by the diaphragm, it is bounded by the breast-bone anteriorly, 
laterally by the ribs, and is sup- 
ported posteriorly by the spine. 
It is singular how much ignor- 
ance there is among the unedu- 
cated regarding the situation of 
what is called the chest; gen- 
erally it is referred to the pit of 
the stomach ; and what is called 
" a pain in the chest, " is in many 
instances, a pain in the former 
situation. In ordering applica- 
tions, leeches, blisters, and such 
like to the chest among the un- 
educated, it is absolutely requi- 
site to indicate with the finger 
the exact spot on which they 
are to be placed, otherwise the 
chances are, that if simply the, 
chest is named, the pit of the 
stomach will be understood; a 
serious mistake in many of the 
acute affections of the chest, 
particularly in children. 
The form of the chest itself is, or ought to be, that of a truncated 
cone, broad below, narrow above. It is true it appears the reverse of 
this, even naturally, and is made to do so still more by the absurd ideas 
about small waists; but the greater apparent width at the upper part of 
the chest in the living person is due to the shoulders and arms, w'hen 
these are removed, the contrary is seen to be the case, and the cavity 
Obgans of the Chest. 
A, Lungs. 
B, Heart. 
D, Pulmonary Artery. 
E, Trachea. 350 
CHEST- CHICKEN- POX. 
itself is evidently much, more capacious in its lower than in its upper 
part. The principal contents of the chest are the lungs-and the heart 
-with the large vessels immediately connected with it. 
When by tightly-laced corsets, or other contrivances, the lower part of 
the chest is compressed, the contained viscera must find room somewhere ; 
the diaphragm yields more readily than the long ribs, and is pressed 
down upon the liver, stomach, and bowels, disordering their functions, 
and laying the foundation of disease, whilst at the same time the free 
play of both lungs and heart are impeded. In other words, the possessor 
of that most desirable physical conformation, a capacious chest, is doing 
all that is possible to render it otherwise; or should the cavity be 
naturally small, to make it still more deficient in size, by artificial re- 
straint, instead of every means being used to augment its capacity. A 
small chest always gives a greater liability to disease; all tendency 
therefore to contraction, stooping of the shoulders, etc., ought most 
sedulously to be watched and attended to, particularly in young people, 
whilst the bones are still soft and yielding; disease may be either the 
cause or the consequence; the spine too should be well examined. 
Exercises, which from moderate exertion call for full expansion of the 
chest by respiration, and full play of the arms, are generally useful. 
The elastic "chest expander," made of vulcanized India rubber, is a 
most excellent contrivance for the purpose. Some trades, particularly 
that of shoe-making, tend in the course of time to affect the conformation 
of the cavity of the chest. 
The physical examination of the chest as regards measurement, the 
sounds elicited by tapping upon it in various ways with the fingers, and 
heard by the application of the ear, either directly, or mediately by 
means of the stethoscope, are most important aids in the investigation 
of disease, and should never be omitted or objected to. (See Heart, 
Lungs, Respiration, Auscultation, Stethoscope.) 
CHEST EXPANDER. (See Chest.) 
CHESTNUT, tshes'-nut. Chestnut is the fruit of the Castanea vul- 
garis, it is nutritious, contains much starch, and no oil, like many 
others of the nut tribe. It is certainly indigestible from its firm and 
coherent substance, but is rendered much more unwholesome by being 
converted into dour, in which state it is largely used in Europe. 
Roasted chestnuts are more wholesome than raw, but are not fit for weak 
stomachs. 
CHEST, WATER IN THE. (See Dropsy.) 
CHICKEN. (See Poultry.) 
CHICKEN-POX, tshik'-in poks, is a mild eruptive disease which 
spreads by infection, and chiefly attacks children, occurring once during CHICKEN- POX- CHICO R Y. 
351 
life. It is preceded in most, but not in all cases, by slight feverishness, 
for one or two days. The eruption first appears in the form of conical 
pimples with a white head, on the breast, shoulders and neck, more 
sparingly on the face, and on the body generally. On the second day, 
the vesicles appear like little globular blisters, but with very slight 
surrounding inflammation; on the third and fourth days, the fluid they 
contain becomes opaque or whey-like* they now either break or shrivel 
up, forming thin puckered crusts, which fall off piecemeal in one or two 
days more, seven or eight days being the whole time occupied by the 
course of the disorder. Little or no treatment is required beyond a 
gentle aperient repeated once or twice, and care taken that the child 
does not irritate by scratching. 
Chicken-pox might be mistaken for modified small-pox by the inexper- 
ienced; it is distinguished by the absence or extreme mildness of 
premonitory fever, and by the rapid development, course, and different 
form of the vesicles, particularly in the absence of the central depression, 
which characterizes the true small-pox vesicle. 
CHICK-PEAS. (See Cicek.) 
CHICKWEED. (See Stellaria Media.) 
CHICORY, tshik'-o-re, the Cichorium intybus, the root of which, when 
roasted and ground, forms the well-known adulteration of coffee. Some 
persons consider the admixture of chicory with coffee an improvement, 
and at all events harmless, but investigations of the " 'Lancet' Sanitary 
Commission," in England, tend to show that infusion of chicory, alone 
especially, and also when mixed with coffee in the proportion of twenty- 
five per cent., produced sense of weight at the stomach, languor, and 
headache; it has, by an eminent European authority, been assigned as 
one of the exciting causes of amaurosis. Infusion of chicory occasionally 
acts as an aperient, at other times as a diuretic. In consequence of 
chicory riot containing essential oil, it has not, when roasted, the fra- 
grance of coffee, its infusion has a "sweetish and mawkish taste, and is 
dark-colored, thick and glutinous." But although chicory is used as 
an adulteration, the "Lancet" investigations go to prove that it is 
itself extensively adulterated with various substances. These are, 
"carrot, parsnip, mangel-wurzel, beans, lupin seeds, wheat, rye, dog 
biscuit, burnt sugar, red earth, horse chestnut, acorns, oak bark, tan, 
mahogany sawdust, baked horse's and bullock's liver, Hamburg pow- 
der," which consists of peas roasted and ground, and colored with the 
next article, " Venetian red," also an adulteration. Perhaps after such 
disclosures, few persons will prefer chicory in their coffee; and, at all 
events, the moral fraud of vending for the pure article that which is 
mixed, ought not to be suffered. When hot water has been allowed to 352 
CH IC Oli Y- CHILBLAIN. 
stand for some time on coffee containing chicory powder, the grains of 
the latter lose their color, and resemble small brown sago, whilst those of 
the coffee become rather darker than before. (See Coffee.) 
CHILBLAIN, tshil'-Hane. A chilblain is an inflammatory affection 
of the skin, more particularly of the fingers or toes, caused by alterna- 
tions of cold and heat, and is characterized rather by irritating and 
troublesome itching than by pain. Persons of fine skin, scrofulous 
constitution, or languid circulation, are most liable to suffer from 
chilblains, and old people and children more than those of middle life. 
The sudden exposure of the skin to heat when very cold, is generally, 
and justly, considered to be an exciting cause of the affection, but one 
quite as frequent, is keeping the surface in a state of artificial warmth by 
the use of sleeping socks and hot applications in bed, or of fur-lined 
shoes and foot-warmers in the day-time. All these applications keep the 
skin in a continual state of unnatural perspiration, weaken its tone, and 
so render it more susceptible of the effects of cold, when exposed to it. 
To prevent chilblains, in the predisposed, the feet ought to be regularly 
bathed with cold-or, in the case of the aged, tepid-water, or salt 
water, every morning, and afterwards well rubbed with a rough towel. 
To keep the feet warm, exercise should be depended upon rather than 
artificial heat. When chilblains have formed and the skin is unbroken, 
stimulant applications, such as brandy, camphorated spirit, paregoric, or 
turpentine, will any of them be of service, applied by means of a piece 
of linen, or gently rubbed on. When the skin of a chilblain breaks, an 
ulcer is the consequence, which discharges a thin slimy fluid and is often 
difficult to heal. In this case, the inflammation should be subdued in 
the first place by means of a poultice, and afterwards an ointment used, 
made either with 40 drops of extract of lead, or 10 grains of red precipi- 
tate to the ounce of lard. Of course all friction or pressure from boots 
or shoes must be guarded against. 
Chilblains, when the skin is unbroken, are said to be quickly cured 
by the following: 
Take of Tincture of iodine Two drams. 
Chlorinated solution of soda Six drams.-Mix. 
Apply over inflamed parts twice or thrice daily, drying in before the fire. 
The following ointment is also very good, and may be used whether 
the skin is broken or not: 
Take of Benzoate of zinc One scruple. 
Fresh lard One ounce.-Mix. 
To be applied night and morning. 
The following domestic remedy is also sometimes of service: Shake 
well together in a bottle, spirits of turpentine, white vinegar, and the CHILBLAIN- CHILDBED. 
353 
contents of an egg, in equal proportions. Rub gently when the chil- 
blains are in a state of irritation, and until the redness and swelling are 
dissipated. 
Two parts of glycerine to 100 of collodion make an excellent protect- 
ive application. 
When there is great pain and irritation, the following powerful 
remedy may be used: 
Take of Tincture of aconite One ounce and a half. 
Atropia Two grains. 
Rectified spirit Half an ounce.-Mix,. 
Twenty drops to be rubbed into the affected parts night and morning. 
It is not to be applied where the skin is broken. This preparation is 
poisonous, and should be marked poison. 
CHILDBED, tshild'-bed. The term may be applied either to the 
actual labor itself, or to the confinement generally, from the first com- 
mencement of the symptoms to the completion of convalescence. It is 
in the latter sense it will be considered in this article. 
The process of childbirth consists of a series of the most beautiful 
adaptations to the mechanism and structural and vital endowments of 
the human frame, with every providential provision for the safety both 
of the mother and infant, during the trying but important event. 
When the full period of pregnancy is completed, the process which is to 
free the womb of its contents, commences with the preparatory relaxa- 
tion of the various parts connected with the passage of the child into 
the world; shortly, the long-closed orifice, or "mouth" of the organ 
begins to open or dilate, allowing, in the first place, the protrusion of 
the membraneous bag which contains the fluid, or waters, in which the 
infant floats, and which protrusion forms a soft wedge, dilating the 
maternal structures preparatory to the passage of the hard head of the 
infant, which follows as propelled by the expulsive efforts of the womb. 
Sooner or later, however, this membraneous bag gives way under the 
pressure, the waters are discharged with a gush, and the head itself 
becomes, in great measure, the dilating agent. Although not in the 
position at the commencement of labor, at its conclusion, the head of 
the infant should pass from the mother with the face looking directly 
backwards, and in the great majority of cases it does so, attaining the 
position by a series of turns which cannot be profitably explained to the 
unprofessional. In some cases, however, the position of the head is 
reversed, so that it passes with the face directed forwards, causing a 
more protracted and painful labor. Moreover, the head may not come 
forward, or "present" first, at all, but some other portion of the child, 
causing an irregular or cross birth. 354 
CHILDBED. 
Most -women form, or endeavor to form, a calculation as to the 
period at which they may expect to be confined, and while some do it 
with considerable apparent exactness, others get far wrong, much to the 
inconvenience of themselves and of those appointed to attend upon 
them. The most usual calculation as regards the duration of pregnancy, 
is forty weeks from the last menstrual crisis, and this is generally made 
the basis of the calculation; but as more cases fall within the period 
than extend beyond it, it is safer for expectant mothers to arrange their 
preparations for the thirty-eighth week than later. By some it is 
thought that the duration of pregnancy in the case of a male child is 
longer than in that of a female. As, however, cases of premature con- 
finement of living children are not uncommon, it is always desirable that 
essentials be provided for as early as possible. 
The most generally received premonitory sign of approaching labor 
at the full period, is "sinking;" that is, from twenty-four to forty- 
eight hours before the actual process commences, the female seems as if 
she were smaller and lighter altogether, the waist especially showing a 
diminution in size. At this time, also, there is generally a degree of 
fidgetiness, or undefined mental anxiety, similar to that which is observ- 
able in the lower animals, and there frequently exists irritability of the 
bowels and bladder, calling for repeated efforts at relief. When the 
bowels are very troublesome, and there is much involuntary straining, 
or, as it is called, "tenesmus :" nothing relieves more than an injection 
consisting of £ pint of gruel with 20 drops of laudanum. At length, slight 
twinges of pain are experienced, either in the womb itself, or in the back, 
hips and thighs, or in all together, and there is more or less discharge of 
slimy mucus, generally streaked with blood : shivering, with nausea 
or vomiting, are also frequent concomitants of the first accession of 
labor. 
As time advances, the pains become more defined and regular, and 
when these, the "grinding" pains, have fairly commenced, the first 
stage of labor may be considered as established. This stage lasts, on 
an average, from six to twelve hours, but may, of course, much exceed, 
or fall short of this stated period ; during its continuance, the mouth of 
the womb undergoes "dilatation," or full opening. Towards the close 
of the first or dilating stage of labor, the pains are altered in character, 
and become expulsive, or as they are popularly termed, " bearing down," 
at first slightly so, but as the process advances, their forcing character 
is more strongly marked, and in most instances, the nearer the birth of 
the child, the more powerful and nearly connected are they, until at last 
the infant is expelled. Generally towards the middle of the expulsive 
stage, the "waters" are discharged; the sudden gush sometimes causes CHILDBED. 
355 
alarm to the inexperienced, who ought on this account to be forewarned 
of the circumstance. The whole process of labor, in the case of first 
children, averages from twelve to thirty hours; it is, however, not only 
as regards time, but in every other respect, liable to great variation. 
Attacks of spurious pain, resembling true labor, are not uncommon dur- 
ing the last month of pregnancy, but these may be known by the 
absence of the previous sinking, and of most of the other symptoms 
above enumerated, as characteristic of the real process. The attack is 
often the result of confined bowels, or of indigestion, and is removable 
by a tablespoonful of castor-oil with 10 drops of laudanum, or by a dose 
of rhubarb and magnesia. Occasionally, active labor commences with 
a species of spurious spasmodic pains, which want the regularity of the 
true ones, and only worry and exhaust the patient, who is herself con- 
scious that they are "doing no good." In such a case, the best treat- 
ment is to administer 25 drops of laudanum, and to keep the patient 
perfectly quiet, so that she may sleep if possible ; if she does so, in all 
probability she wakes in a few hours with real labor in full activity; but 
sometimes even sleep does not intervene, the anodyne seems at once to 
convert the spasmodic into the real useful labor pain, and contrary to its 
usual effect, actually to stimulate the progress of the case. Occasionally, 
when labor has reached a certain stage, pain becomes suspended without 
obvious cause, and continues so, for a longer or shorter period; in such 
cases patience is the best resource, unless the cessation of pain appears 
to be connected with some of the complications of childbirth to be here- 
after noticed. The discharge of the waters is sometimes the first sign 
of the commencement of labor, or perhaps, more correctly, their 
discharge from imprudent exertions, such as shakes, jumps, etc., 
hurry on the process, which, in such cases, is often lingering. 
This premature discharge not unfrequently occurs, when some other 
portion of the child than the head is first in the birth. It being 
pre-supposed, that every female in expectation of her confinement, 
if inexperienced herself, will, under the advice and guidance of 
female friends, provide for, and make those arrangements most suited 
to her individual case and circumstances, as soon as the first symptoms 
of approaching labor exhibit themselves, the female attendants ought 
certainly to be summoned; but should a medical man be engaged, it is 
proper before sending for him, to feel assured that the process has com- 
menced in earnest. When sinking pains recurring regularly every ten 
minutes or quarter of an hour, are accompanied with slight "show," 
as the discharge of slimy mucus is termed, the medical attendant may 
be safely summoned, and he will, or ought to see to all subsequent 
details. 356 
CHILDBED. 
A word or two in reference to trusting entirely to unprofessional 
assistance in the important operation of parturition, may not be out of 
place here. 
In natural labor, under ordinary circumstances, a calm, judicious, 
not too self-reliant female attendant, who has had some experi- 
ence in previous cases, may easily perform all that is to be done. 
But serious results have followed, on account of absence of skilled help 
when emergencies have suddenly arisen, and it is in view of the liability 
to these very emergencies that it is so desirable, in all cases, to have a 
physician present, or at least, within easy call. There may be mal- 
position of the child, which the female may not detect, alarming and 
dangerous flooding may immediately follow the birth of the child, the 
placenta may be adherent to the walls of the womb. There may be 
fatal syncope on the part of the mother, or suffocation of the child, all 
of which may be speedily remedied by a professional man, but may 
speedily prove fatal in his absence. Even though none of these alarm- 
ing symptoms should suddenly present themselves, many long hours of 
pain are frequently saved to the suffering female by the assistance in 
fittle details, which none knows so well how to render as the competent 
physician. 
When female attendance is trusted to, these details require to be 
carefully and judiciously insisted upon : 
A lying-in chamber ought to be as roomy, and, whilst free from 
draughts, as well ventilated as circumstances will permit. (See Bed- 
room.) The bed should be of such moderate height, that an attendant 
can conveniently give assistance to the patient. A mattress is always 
preferable to feathers, and curtains, as in beds generally, are better 
dispensed with. In addition to the ordinary furniture, a night-chair and 
bed-pan should be provided; and a vessel of some kind which can be 
used as a bath for the infant. Some water-proof material is requisite for 
"guarding" the bed against injury from moisture. Formerly, a 
prepared skin used to be the general material, but there are now many 
water-proof articles, quite as well or better adapted for this purpose. 
Sheet gutta-percha answers well, and is cheap. An easy chair, a pitcher 
for pure water, a little brandy, a fan, and bottle of smelling salts, cups 
and vessels, including a sick-feeder (see Bed-room) for administering 
either food or medicine, are all advantageous additions to the numerous 
little etceteras; these are, sponge, washing flannel, and starch powder; 
a little lard without salt, or cold cream, soft towels, and abundance of 
napkins or doubles; four ties or ligatures, each six inches long, and 
composed severally of four plies of stout linen thread; a pair of blunt- 
pointed scissors that will cut, and a flannel receiver for the infant. A CHILDBED. 
357 
little laudanum and sal-volatile ought always to be at hand; but when a 
medical man is in attendance, he more generally carries those with him. 
One female friend, and no more, in addition to the nurse, should be 
present at the accouchement; but it is advisable to have another female 
in the house, though not actually present in the room, particularly if a 
midwife only has charge of the case. Mothers ought never to be present 
at the confinement of their daughters. 
As soon as labor commences, the chamber should be prepared, all 
extraneous articles removed, and whatever may be wanted put in order; 
the guard placed upon the bed, and the latter so arranged that when the 
patient lies upon her left side near the edge of it, there may be plenty 
of room for those about her to pass and act. The patient herself ought 
to be encouraged to walk about, and her mind kept occupied and cheer- 
ful by conversation; light nourishment, such as a cup of tea or gruel, 
being given as desired, in small quantity at once; at this time, too, if 
the bowels are at all confined, they should be unloaded by a dose of 
castor-oil, or better still, by an injection, consisting of a pint of thin gruel, 
to which a tablespoonful of olive-oil is added. As time advances, and 
as soon as the pains exhibit signs of "bearing down," the patient, if 
not previously undressed, should now be so, and the folded binder-(see 
Binder)-placed on the abdomen, so as to give gentle and equable 
support. The patient may still continue to walk about a little, but as 
soon as the pains become decidedly expulsive, she must be placed in bed 
upon her left side, and remain so, unless raised up for necessary pur- 
poses, until the infant is born. During all this time the room should be 
kept moderately cool-if regulated by a thermometer, about 55° Fahr. 
The patient, most likely, particularly towards the end of her labor, will 
become extremely hot, and then the occasional and moderate use of the 
fan is very agreeable. She should be induced, from time to time, to 
take a few spoonfuls of gruel; but the stomach is not to be overloaded, 
and above all things, the pernicious and too prevalent custom of giving 
stimulants, brandy, rum, etc., is to be avoided. A case which really 
requires such aids, requires also the presence of a medical man to sanc- 
tion and regulate their use; if given when not required, feverish heat, 
headache, thirst, general uncomfortableness, and it may be after bad con- 
sequences, are the only results. Among the lower, and indeed among 
some of the better classes, it is customary for patients to be "put to 
bed" in their day-clothes; independent of the uncleanliness of the 
proceeding, it is not at all times free from danger, when, after the 
confinement is over, it becomes requisite to remove these clothes, and 
substitute the bed-dress; the usual excuse, that it is for the support given 
by the corsets, is quite inadmissible when the binder is used, which amply 358 
CHILDBED. 
supplies the place of the above undesirable articles; besides, the 
presence of the corsets and clothes may seriously interfere with measures 
which must be taken in some particular cases, such as those of flooding. 
Another practice which is often followed by midwives cannot be too 
strongly condemned, it is that of delivery being effected with the 
patient kneeling on the floor; it is highly dangerous. Such attention 
must always be given to the bladder that it may be duly emptied, 
although, in most instances, the sensations of the patient herself ensure 
this point. 
When the last strong pains of labor are expelling the head of the 
child, the midwife who has, or who ought to have, sufficient experience 
to be aware of the progress of the case, should elevate the upper knee 
during the occurrence of each pain, for the purpose of affording free 
space; this mode of proceeding is preferable to the pillow placed 
between the knees, which heats, and is always getting displaced. A 
towel or some such material is frequently attached to the bed-post or 
some fixed point, and many women appear to derive comfort from 
holding it during the paroxysm of pain ; it may be permitted, if it does 
not encourage too great efforts at straining. The feet must be kept 
warm; cold feet may retard the frequency and force of the pains. 
It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds of all, that 
childbirth is a natural process, and one fully competent in all ordinary 
cases-and in more extraordinary ones that might be imagined-to 
accomplish its end, safely and unassisted. And without assistance, or 
any attempt at assistance, it must and ought to be completed as far as 
female attendance is concerned. 
As soon as the head of the infant is born, the attendant midwife 
ought to pass her fingers around its neck, to ascertain, as sometime 
occurs, that the navel cord is not twisted around it; should it be so, she 
must endeavor gently to slip it over the head, otherwise the neck may be 
so strongly compressed as to occasion fatal strangulation. The cord may 
be coiled once, or two or three times around the neck. At this period 
also, the mouth and nostrils of the child-if there is any delay in the 
passage of the body-should be kept as free as possible from the sur- 
rounding discharges, which may be drawn in by the efforts to breathe. 
Neither ought the body, nor even the legs of the infant, to be drawn 
from the mother, their expulsion should be left to the natural efforts of 
the womb, for if too suddenly emptied, its natural action becomes 
embarrassed, and irregular contraction, accompanied with unnecessary 
pain and discharge, may be the consequence. The infant being fully 
born, the navel cord must be tied by the ligatures, which have been 
ready provided; the first being placed about three fingers' breadth from CHILDBED. 
359 
the body of the child, and the other about an inch and a half further; 
the intervening portion of cord being divided by the scissors. The 
infant now separated from the mother is to be placed in the flannel, in 
the arms of the nurse, and put in a moderately warm situation. (See 
Child.) 
In tying the navel cord, one or two cautions are requisite. The first 
ligature must not be placed nearer the body than the distance above- 
named ; and before the second is put on, it is well-to prevent spurting 
-to squeeze the blood up toward the body of the mother, out of the 
intervening portion. For cutting the cord, a pair of blunt-pointed 
scissors should be used, and care taken at the moment that no other 
portion of the child is intruded between the blades; it has occurred that 
a finger or toe has been lopped off by a careless attendant. After the 
cord is cut through, the cut extremity attached to the child must be 
carefully examined, to make sure that it does not bleed, particularly if 
the cord be thicker than usual, in which case the tying must be most 
carefully performed. From careless tying and neglect, infants have 
been bled to death from the navel vessels immediately after birth. 
Should the infant not appear to breathe as soon as born, it is well to 
delay the severance of the cord for a minute or two, whilst at the same 
time the mouth and nostrils are freed from all adhering mucus, and 
efforts are made to rouse, by blowing upon the face, or by two or three 
smart taps on the back. As soon as the infant is separated from the 
mother, it is proper to ascertain by the hand placed upon the abdomen 
that there is not a twin child; if there be, the remaining bulk will 
indicate it in a way that can scarcely be mistaken, and should it prove 
so, the recurrence of the pain which is to effect the expulsion of the 
second child, must be quietly waited for, unless hemorrhage, or some 
other occurrence, dictates a different course. In most cases of twin chil- 
dren, the second is quickly and easily born, after pain sets in. 
When labor is completed, the binder must be tightened up, so as to 
give gentle and comfortable support to the now lax abdomen, and the 
patient left quiet until the accession of pain gives signal of the throwing 
off of the after-birth. (See After-Birth.) When this is affected, the 
binder will again require slight tightening, and a warm napkin, sprinkled 
with brandy or whiskey, applied to the mother. At this time, chillness, 
succeeding the profuse perspiration, is often complained of, and should be 
counteracted by some additional covering. The female must now be 
allowed to remain quiet, but not left alone, and so far attended to, that 
any symptoms of faintness, or undue discharge of blood-flooding-may 
be detected. If all goes well, in the course of half an hour, if desired, a 
cupful of gruel or arrowroot may be given; in the course of another 360 
CHILDBED. 
half hour, a dry, warm, open, flannel shirt, and dry napkins should be 
substituted for those which have become wet; by this time, everything 
ought to be arranged and quiet for the patient's repose. 
Such are the incidents of natural and regular labor; and could we 
calculate upon the process following undeviatingly the same course in all 
cases, it might safely and at all times be left to the care of judicious and 
instructed females; but, as too well known, accidents and difficulties of 
the most formidable nature will arise, which tax to the utmost the skill 
and nerve of the well-educated practitioner; and with some, this is an 
argument why every case of confinement should be attended by a 
medical man-in many situations at least, a physical impossibility. As, 
therefore, many cases must be left to female care, the foregoing direc- 
tions will, it is trusted, lead to their safer and better management, whilst 
those which are to follow are intended to point out what cases ought 
never to be trusted to a female attendant, and what symptoms occurring 
in a case under female care, indicate the approach of such difficulty or 
danger as requires the attendance of the male accoucheur. As a general 
rule, in a first confinement, it is always desirable to have the attendance 
of a medical practitioner, and especially so, should the female be the 
subject of any deformity, such as curvature of the spine, should she in 
early life have suffered from any tendency to rickets, or been the subject 
of epileptic fits at any period of life. Also, if there exists any suspicion 
of heart or other organic disease. If a previous confinement has in any 
way been irregular, or has required instrumental or artificial delivery of 
any kind ; if convulsive fits have occurred ; or if there has been flooding, 
either from difficulty with the after-birth, or any other cause, the woman 
ought never to trust herself in the hands of a female. 
When a midwife, either professed or otherwise, is in attendance 
upon a case, fainting coming on at any period, any symptoms of wan- 
dering or delirium, or of convulsion, any unusual discharge of blood 
whilst the process is going on, should at once be the signal for summoning 
medical assistance; also, should the labor be more than usually pro- 
tracted, without obvious cause, provided the pains are regular, sufficiently 
numerous, or forcible ; should the navel cord, or anything unusual, such 
as the infant's hand, be felt protruding externally; and lastly, after the 
child is born, should there be any difficulty with the after-birth-(see 
After-birth)-either with or without flooding, medical aid should be 
summoned at once. 
In the interval which must or may elapse in many cases before 
medical assistance can be obtained, should fainting come on, the 
female must be laid on the bed with the head on a level with the 
body, air should be freely admitted around her, and smelling salts used CHILDBED. 
361 
to the nostrils, whilst brandy or whiskey, or sal-volatile are admin- 
istered by the mouth. It ought to be ascertained whether there 
is any discharge of blood externally, and if so, cloths, dipped in 
cold or iced water, are to be freely used to the lower part of the bowels. 
Wandering or delirium, or convulsion, must be soothed by the most 
perfect quiet, and by the free use of cold applications to the head, and 
mustard plasters to the calves of the legs; whilst if the person is of full 
habit, and if the face is full and Hushed, from six to a dozen leeches are 
to be applied to the temples. In all cases of unusual discharge of blood, 
the measures recommended under the article Abortion are to be 
employed, and it must be borne in mind, that if the accident occurs 
after the birth of the child, firm pads composed of folded napkins must 
be kept firmly bound over the situation of the womb-in other words, 
one or two inches below the navel-and kept there whilst cold is used to 
the external parts. In a case of sudden and profuse outward flooding 
after the birth of the child, occurring in a thin individual, much may be 
done to arrest it, by some one instantly pressing the hand firmly and 
steadily upon the belly-at the navel-until the pulsation of the great 
main artery, or aorta, is felt, and felt as arrested by the pressure, to beat 
up to the hand, but not beyond. 
It must, however, be kept in mind that alarming, and even fatal loss 
of blood-internal hemorrhage as it is called-may be going on within 
the womb, and yet be unmanifested by any outward flow, the first signal 
of the mischief, probably, being faintness, and if the abdomen is now 
examined, it will be found to have enlarged more or less since the birth 
of the child. This dangerous condition requires the most energetic and 
well-directed efforts of a medical man to save life, and not one moment 
should be lost in procuring the assistance. In the interval, the binder 
well spread over the bowels, and two or three folded napkins placed 
underneath it, to assist the pressure, is to be tightened well up, and in 
addition, firm pressure must be exercised with the expanded hands of an 
attendant on the outside of the binder. By this method, the ordinary 
attendants will do more to retard the further filling of the womb with 
blood; at the same time cold is to be used to the lower part of the 
bowels, and stimulants given sparingly. The medical man, on his 
arrival, will take much more active measures which could not properly 
be employed by others. The above dangerous accident of the lying-in 
chamber will sometimes occur in spite of every care, but it frequently 
results from bad management, such as too sudden emptying of the 
womb by abstracting the child, instead of allowing the natural efforts to 
accomplish the entire process; by impatience with the after-birth, 
neglect in putting on the binder insufficiently, or not at all, or by moving 362 
CHILDBED. 
too soon after delivery. The existence of cough has a tendency to pro- 
mote its occurrence. The occurrence of internal flooding is sometimes 
indicated by continued pain complained of in the bowels or back, differ- 
ent from the usual intermittent after-pain. 
Lastly, whatever accident may occur in the lying-in room, it should 
be the endeavor of those around to avoid the excited hurry ing, which too 
often seeks to do everything, and does everything but what is right. 
This is one reason at least why it is proper to exclude all but the neces- 
sary attendants, and especially mothers, from the scene; they communi- 
cate their own alarm to the patient, and aggravate the danger, if it 
exists, by so doing. 
When a female has enjoyed a few hours'1 repose after her delivery, if 
the bladder has not been relieved, it should now be so; a little light 
nourishment, such as gruel, taken, and the infant applied to the breast, 
whether it appears to contain milk or not. (See Breast.) If the con- 
finement be a first one, the after-pains will scarcely give trouble. When 
they are severe, 20 drops of laudanum may be given in a little water. 
(See After-Pains.) Perfect quietude is to be observed. 
It is not probable that the bowels will act of themselves, particularly 
if opium has been given ; it is therefore right on the morning of the 
third day after confinement to give an aperient. Castor-oil is almost 
universally prescribed; but when the person is of full habit, and if there 
exists any tendency to fever, a common black draught is preferable. 
After the bowels have been moved, the patient, if doing well, is to be 
allowed an improved diet; a little meat soup, or light pudding; and 
now, provided it can be done without putting the person in the erect 
posture, the bed may be made, and the night-clothes changed. After 
the fourth day, according to the state of the patient, a little solid animal 
food is to be allowed; but stimulants, whether immediately after the 
confinement, or during the period of convalescence, should never be 
taken unless for some special reason, such as great debility. At the end 
of the week, if all goes on well, the female may get on the sofa, towards 
the tenth day begin to get her feet to the ground, and gradually return 
to her usual mode of life. During the whole of the convalescence, there 
is no greater comfort, or more salutary practice than the free use of 
tepid water, so as to preserve the strictest cleanliness; by the use of 
gutta-percha sheeting, or some other waterproof article, drawn under 
the patient, it may be fully employed without wetting the bed. 
When a confinement has been a moderately favorable one, if the fore- 
going directions are attended to, there are few cases that will not pro- 
gress regularly to complete convalescence; it is true, that among the 
poor some of the means and conveniences cannot be carried out or pro- CHILDBED. 
363 
cured as fully as could be wished ; but the most essential, fresh air and 
cleanliness, are mostly at command, and might be more freely taken 
advantage of than they are, and in all cases something like moderate 
care ought to be observed-which is too often not the case. As regards 
comforts and conveniences, in no way can the charity of the more 
fortunate be applied to the relief of their poorer sisters, than in the pro- 
vision both of linen, lent-and diet bestowed, suitable to the time of 
trial, when poverty is often so severely felt. 
Hut recovery after childbirth does not always preserve the smooth 
course. The accession of the milk may be accompanied with feverish 
excitement. This, if not extreme, is to be allayed by means of aperients 
castor-oil, black draught or seidlitz powder, and effervescing saline 
draughts, to each of which may be added five grains of nitrate of 
potassa. Within the first few hours or days after delivery, the woman 
may be attacked with shivering, or rather shaking so severe as to shake the 
bed, succeeded by heat of skin, thirst, delirium, and with or without 
severe pain in the bowels; she is attacked writh childbed fever, and 
cannot be too quickly seen by a medical man, in the meantime, the diet 
must be kept at the lowest ebb ; if time must elapse before efficient aid 
can be got, there should at once be given a pill composed of 1 grain 
of opium and 5 grains of calomel, and this repeated regularly every six 
hours; if pain is severe, a dozen of leeches at least, if they can be pro- 
cured, must be put on the abdomen, and if not, light hot bran poultices 
continually applied. If the bowels have not been moved, they must be 
opened by an injection of gruel and castor or olive-oil. The thirst is to 
be relieved by toast-water freely allowed. But the above active measures 
are not to be the substitutes for a medical attendant; the attack threatens 
life, and may require all that skill can do for its removal; if only a few 
hours are likely to elapse before aid is procured, the poultices, a single 
dose of calomel and opium, and the injection should only be resorted to. 
If a woman, at any time during the first few weeks after her con- 
finement, becomes excited and talkative, if she wanders slightly, if the 
eye becomes restless and wild-looking, and if sleep is absent, she 
requires immediate attention, for an attack of childbed mania is prob- 
ably impending. A medical man should be immediately summoned. In 
the meanwhile, the most perfect quiet is to be preserved around the 
patient, who should be placed in bed, in a room with the light slightly 
shaded; cloths dipped in cold or iced water are to be applied to the head, 
the feet kept perfectly warm, and the bowels, if confined, opened by a 
gentle aperient, but not purged. This, perhaps, is all that it is desirable 
should be done before the case is seen by a professional man, but on an 
emergency it may be requisite, without this aid, to resort to the use of 364 
CHILDBED-CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
opium-Battley's sedative solution is the best-of that 10 drops, or of 
laudanum 15 drops, along with 1 grain of ipecacuanha powder, should 
be given in a little water, every half-hour, till quiet sleep is procured, or 
till at least four doses of either of the above have been administered. 
Occasionally, shortly after labor, the skin of the patient becomes 
covered with a " miliary " eruption, consisting of numberless points 
resembling minute blisters. This is generally the result of over-heating 
or stimulating, and was much more frequently met with in former times 
than now, that a more cooling and rational system has been adopted. 
The principles to be kept in mind in domestic management of child- 
birth, by those in attendance are: To have everything in order and 
ready at hand; to exclude all useless attendance ; to encourage the 
mind of the patient; to preserve the moderate temperature of the room, 
and its free ventilation; to abstain from giving stimulants, and from 
loading the stomach with food; to have the bowels clear ; to avoid all 
meddling interference; to summon medical assistance on the first appear- 
ance of anything unusual; lastly, let the patient be assured, that the 
process, though a painful, is a natural one, and He, who has ordered its 
marvellous arrangement and adaptations, will be present in the hour of 
travail. (See Binder, Puerperal Fever, Pregnancy, Child, After- 
Birth, After-Pains.) 
CHILDBED FEVER. (See Puerperal Fever.) 
CHILDBIRTH. (See Childbed.) 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD, tshild, tshil'-dren, tshild'- 
hood. The period of childhood, including infancy, may be said to extend 
from birth to the thirteenth or fourteenth year, and truly it may be said, 
that the child is the father of the man, for upon the original constitution, 
and upon the physical and mental training of this most important epoch 
of human life, depends in great measure the usefulness, and consequently 
the happiness-it may be the eternal welfare-of the future man and 
woman. 
Infancy.- Continued from Childbed.-When an infant is born, 
should it, in consequence of protracted labor or some other cause, not 
draw breath, and appear purple on the surface, it is advisable in the first 
place to pass the end of the finger, covered with a piece of thin cotton 
or linen, into the mouth, for the purpose of clearing away the stringy 
mucus which not unfrequently obstructs the passage of air into the 
lungs. If, under these circumstances, the navel cord ' continues to 
pulsate, it should not be tied for at least two or three minutes, during 
which efforts are to be made to rouse the child, by blowing sharply on 
the face, or by one or two slight slaps on the back; at the same time an 
attendant ought to be getting a warm bath-temperature 98® Fahr.-in CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
365 
readiness. If, after the lapse of time above-mentioned, animation still 
seems suspended, the cord should be tied without further delay, and the 
infant at once removed and placed in the warm water up to the neck, 
the body being well supported, and the mouth and nostrils carefully kept 
from being accidentally submerged. The mouth and throat having been 
cleared from obstructing mucus as above directed, some one, whilst the 
nostrils of the infant are closed, should, by placing their mouth over 
that of the child, endeavor to inflate the lungs with their breath, and 
then withdrawing the mouth, to empty them by pressure exerted upon 
the abdomen and sides of the chest. The direct effort to inflate the 
lungs having been repeated a few times, the artificial respiratory jnove- 
ments-alternately pressing upon the ribs and abdomen, and allowing 
them to recover by means of their own elasticity-should be persevered 
in for a considerable period. In these cases of suspended animation in 
infants, electricity is unquestionably a powerful restorative; but hitherto 
the difficulties attending its ready application just at the moment, have 
rendered it almost unavailable; now, however, the newly-invented 
electric chains of Pulvermacher will probably place in the hands of the 
accoucheur, and, from their simplicity, even of others, a readily applicable 
source of the above powerful stimulant. (See Electricity.) 
When an infant exhibiting full signs of life is separated from the 
mother, and placed in the flannel receiver, it must not be covered up too 
closely-the caution is not superfluous, for infants have actually been 
smothered in this way by the extra carefulness of the nurse; it must, 
too, be placed where it will be warm. As soon as the child can be 
attended to, it ought to be examined all over, to ascertain whether it be 
perfectly formed; and the tying of the navel cord should be seen to be 
secure. Washing with warm soft water-temperature 98Q-soap, and 
soft flannel, is the next requisition. The skin of a newly-born infant is 
covered with a white unctuous matter, which is to be removed ; this 
should be done as gently and effectually as possible, without fraying the 
skin, the arm-pits and other folds of the body being particularly attended 
to. The child, after being washed, is often dried upon the receiver, 
placed on the nurse's knees; a better plan is, to have placed on the lap 
a moderately soft pillow, covered with two or three large warm napkins, 
on which to lay the child. The drying, which should be done in cold 
weather at a moderate distance from a fire, having been effected gently, 
without scrubbing, a little starch powder should be dusted into the folds 
of the groins and arm-pits, but not elsewhere, unless the skin appears 
frayed. The portion of the navel cord remaining attached to the child, 
is now to be wrapped in a piece of soft linen, which is kept in place by 
a binder of fine flannel, five inches wide, and long enough to pass twice 366 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
round the body of the child, so as to give support without pressure, and 
fastened by needle and thread-not by pins: if too firmly applied the 
respiration of the infant is interfered with. The remainder of an infant's 
clothing is so much regulated by custom and other considerations, that 
it is unnecessary to mention it here, further than to impress the rule 
that it should be perfectly loose and easy, and fastened entirely by tying 
or sewing. A cap should never be placed upon a child's head, which is 
naturally hot enough to do without artificial covering. When the infant 
has been dressed, it should be laid to rest in the cradle, or place 
prepared for it, perhaps beside its mother, but at all events where it will 
be perfectly warm. It will probably sleep for some hours. It ought not 
be fed for the first few hours after birth. As too frequently practised, 
the unfortunate baby is dosed with "rue tea," "sugar and butter," or 
some such mess, or stuffed with soaked bread or gruel, and the first 
foundation laid of the disordered bowels, wind, screamings, etc., etc., 
which are so general in young infants. When the infant wakes from its 
first sleep, or, at all events, in the course of four or five hours after 
birth, it should be put to the breast; even should there not be sufficient 
secretion of milk to satisfy the child, it is well both for it and the 
mother, that it should be thus early induced to take the nipple. If, as 
may occur, the milk-flow is delayed, it will be necessary to give the 
infant the artificial support of cow's milk, unskimmed, but diluted with 
half water, and very slightly sweetened; this may be given, either from 
a common nursing bottle, or by means of a spoon, but the former is 
preferable. On no account should anything like bread, gruel, or the 
like, be allowed to pass the lips of a newly-born infant, unless under the 
pressure of extreme necessity, such as might happen on board ship, and 
then, the powder of grated biscuit, or of twice-baked bread, softened in 
water, is the least hurtful substitute. The first milk of the mother is 
thin and serous, and is generally considered to exert an aperient action 
upon the infant's bowels, by which the slimy olive-green discharge 
named "meconium," which first occurs from them, is carried off. 
Should the bowels not act within twenty-four hours after birth, from 6 to 
8 drops of castor-oil should be given, mixed with a small quantity of 
moist sugar. Should this have no effect, it may be repeated; but 
should the infant appear to make the straining effort to relieve the 
bowels, without its being effected, the vent ought to be carefully 
examined by a medical man, as it may happen that closure of the 
bowels, complete or partial, exists, but which may, nevertheless, be 
remediable. The case is not common, but its possibility is not to be 
forgotten. 
The majority of mothers are able, and ought, as a sacred duty, to CHILD. CHILD HEN. CHILDHOOD. 
367 
nurse their own infants ; but cases occur in which, from illness succeed- 
ing the confinement, or from general weakness of constitution, a female 
is unable to do so, either with benefit to herself or the child. When she 
cannot, it becomes a serious question, whether the duty of nursing is to 
be devolved upon another, or whether the infant is to be brought up by 
hand. The general voice says the former, the author confidently asserts 
that the latter is preferable. In the first place, it is requisite to provide 
a nurse, whose own infant is of the age, or nearly so, of the infant to be 
wet-nursed; it will not do to put a young infant to the breast which has 
been nursing for many weeks or months. This is the first but the 
lightest difficulty. But there is a much more serious consideration. We 
have yet to learn the full measure of influence, both physical and mental, 
which may be exerted upon the child by the peculiar physical and mental 
constitution of the foster-mother from which it draws its first nourish- 
ment. It is true the physical development is generally rigorously 
scrutinized, but how are passions and mental tendencies to be measured, 
and we do know that the class from which wet-nurses are often selected, 
are certainly not in the habit of controlling their appetites and passions ; 
and farther we know, that the physical qualities, at least, of the milk, 
are very liable to be affected by the mental emotions of the nurse; here 
at least is one source of danger, were we sure, which we are not, that 
there is no deeper, more lasting, life-felt influence exerted. And withal, 
it is quite possible, that some physical taint, venereal perhaps-it has 
happened and may happen-has escaped the searching examination of 
the selecting physician. These are all serious considerations for a mother 
before she submits her child to draw its first nourishment from the body 
of a stranger, one too, who must either be suffering from the intense 
grief which every mother feels who loses her infant from her breast, and 
whose milk must be affected by that grief, or who must have been com- 
pelled by poverty, and all its physical evils, to undertake the task; or 
one whose mental constitution is so unscrupulous, that, without neces- 
sity, she will consent for gain, to cast aside her own infant, and, at the 
risk of its welfare, give its birthright to a stranger. Are any of these 
the qualifications which a mother will choose for the nurse of her child, 
even if she has the selfishness to tempt another to desert her own 
legitimate offspring? Medical men often witness the painful sight of one 
infant declining away, whilst the mother is nourishing another into 
strength. The system and importance of wet-nursing has been much 
over-rated; for it is perfectly possible, if the care and trouble requisite 
will be incurred, to bring up a child by hand, as well and healthily as at 
the breast of a foster-mother. Care and trouble it does involve, but if 
these are grudged, the child had better go to its grave at once. 368 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
In bringing up a child by hand, milk must be its only nourishment 
for the first three or four months. Ass's milk, or goat's milk, may be 
employed, but more generally cow's milk will be used, either with or 
without the cream removed, according to its richness, and according-as 
the first few days' experience will show-to its effect upon the infant. 
The milk is to be diluted with one-half water, and just perceptibly 
sweetened. It is not to be given by spoon, but by means of a common 
nursing-bottle, which should always be of glass; of these bottles there 
should be two, both on account of accidents, and also, that the unvary- 
ing and essential cleanliness may be observed. Without the most 
scrupulous care-and on this depends the success of bringing a child up 
by hand-the purity and wholesomeness of the food cannot be preserved. 
The milk and water should be mixed fresh, at least twice a day, and, in 
summer kept in vessels immersed in cold water; it is to be given to the 
child at nearly the temperature of the body-about 96°. The food is to 
be sucked from the bottle, and much care is requisite in the management 
of the artificial nipple. It should, without being too impervious, occa- 
sion the infant some exertion to draw the milk through it, if it does not, 
the child is apt to over-fill the stomach, and loses the exercise which it 
has when it draws its nourishment from the breast of the mother. Silver 
nipples are generally too hard for the gums. India-rubber nipples of 
excellent quality are now made. Wash-leather or parchment, double 
linen, and muslin, are also used for this purpose. Whichever is used, 
it must be made up into the form of a cone, or like a small jelly-bag, 
with a piece of sponge about the size of a large pea, to give a little sub- 
stance, fastened inside by one or two stitches passed through. The 
nipple must then be firmly secured to the end of the feeding-bottle, and 
will require changing every day, otherwise it becomes sour-smelling and 
unwholesome, independent of which, wash-leather thickens and becomes 
impervious, and the other materials are apt to wear through. Again it 
is repeated, that the most thorough cleanliness, in milk-can, bottle, and 
nipple, is to be observed, and must, except in rare instances, be a 
mother's care. Another caution is requisite. In feeding children from 
the bottle, careless nurses may frequently be observed to incline it the 
wrong way, so that the infant goes on for a time sucking wind. The best 
nursing bottles, however, are so constructed that this cannot occur while 
there is milk in the bottle. For the first three or four months this milk 
and water food is all that is requisite, with the addition if at any time 
the bowels should be too much relaxed, of a portion of isinglass, from 
one to two small teaspoonfuls dissolved in the half-pint of fluid. About 
the fourth or fifth month, a small portion of arrowroot or wheat flour 
may be boiled in the water before it is added to the milk, and about the CHILD CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
369 
seventh or eighth month, the spoon may be used to give some of the 
more solid milk and farinaceous preparations. In bringing up by hand, 
as well as at the breast, during the first three months at least, the child 
will require feeding about six or seven times in the twenty-four hours. 
At first, about 6 tablespoonfuls, or 1| fluid ounces may be given at each 
feeding on the average, and this quantity may be gradually increased. 
Small delicate children, however, will scarcely take half this quantity, 
and great care must be taken, both with them and others, not to allow 
p .... ... 
the stomach to be overloaded. If an infant is habitually vomiting after 
feeding, the quantity allowed at once must be reduced, for, though 
happily the infant stomach relieves itself easily of superfluous food, it is 
better to avoid the superfluity, notwithstanding the popular fallacy that 
vomiting or spewing is a sign of infant health. 
The system of rearing by hand is much more prevalent in some parts 
of Germany than in this country. The following passage from the work 
of Dr. Andrew Combe, the substance of which he says he derived from 
the German work of Dr. Von Ammon, is so full of practical instruction, 
that the author makes no apology for quoting it at length: 
"In some constitutions, however, cow's milk does not agree when 
merely diluted and sweetened; but answers perfectly well when a large 
proportion of water and a small quantity of any well-prepared farinace- 
ous substance is added. In this case, it is a common custom in some 
parts of Germany to dilute the milk with a weak infusion of any 
light aromatic, such as linden-tree flowers, instead of pure water. But 
after the first month or two, where diluted milk does not agree, a small 
proportion of well-boiled arrowroot, grated Dutch rusk, or well-baked or 
toasted bread, sometimes forms a very useful addition wherewith to 
thicken the milk to the consistence of thin gruel. Briand, indeed, 
remarks that milk diluted and boiled for a length of time with anv 
light farinaceous substance, is more easily digested by some infants 
than pure milk: and that when the use of milk alone is followed by 
white and curdy evacuations, a change to a louiUi, made of milk and 
farina, often restores them to a healthy color and consistence. For this 
reason, he recommends panada, made by boiling for a length of time in 
water, or milk and water, thin slices of bread, previously well dried in 
the oven. Another of which he speaks highly, is the creme de pain, 
made by infusing in water for several hours well-baked bread, previously 
dried in the oven in slices, and boiling it gently for some hours 
more, adding water from time to time to prevent it becoming too 
thick. It is then strained and sweetened, and a few drops of orange- 
flower water are added. For infants a few months old, arrowroot, sago, 
or semolina, may be used in the same way. The bouilli in common 370 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
use in France as the first food of infants, is made by gently roasting the 
best wheat-flour in an oven, then boiling it for a considerable time, either 
in water, or in milk and water, and adding sugar to it. When carefully 
made, not too thick, and free from knots, it is considered an excellent 
food, especially where the use of milk excites a tendency to diarrhoea, or 
colicky pains. On changing to the bouilli, the digestion immediately 
improves, and the evacuations become healthy and unattended by 
pain." 
' ' In some instances, especially when the bowels are sluggish, barley- 
water or thin gruel, with or without the addition of weak chicken-tea, or 
beef-tea, answers best; and the grand rule ought to be to follow what 
seems best suited to the individual constitution. In soft flabby children, 
the chicken or beef-tea is often most useful; while in thin, active, and 
irritable infant^ the milder milk and farinaceous diet answers best. But 
in trying the effect of any alteration, we must not be too rash, and 
because no advantage is apparent within a day or two, conclude that 
therefore it will not' agree. In many instances, the effects of a partial 
change of diet show themselves so gradually, that it is sometimes only 
after an interval of a week or two, or even longer, that we can tell 
positively whether benefit will result from it or not." 
When the infant is to be nursed at the breast of its mother, it ought, 
as above directed, to be put to it, unless some cogent reason forbids, 
within six hours after birth, and from that time it will require it every 
three or four hours for the first few months. It may be requisite, either 
from weakness of the child, or some other cause, to have the nipple 
drawn out either by a stronger or older infant, or by some other 
means. Should the mother not be able to nurse her infant entirely, 
the extra feeding must be conducted upon the rules laid down for bring- 
ing up by hand. 
The first few weeks of an inf ant'' s life are spent principally in 
sleeping and taking nourishment, movement is but little indulged in, 
and consequently the power of sustaining the animal temperature is but 
slight; for this reason care is always requisite that sufficient heat be 
preserved, both of clothing and of situation, during the day, and by the 
infant sleeping with its mother or nurse during the night, for the first 
few weeks of its life at least. Equally important with temperature, nay 
even more so, is the purity of the atmosphere which a young child 
breathes; errors in this respect have led to the most deplorable loss of 
infant life. On^ instance is sufficient to illustrate this point: it is the 
well-known one of the Lying-in Hospital of Dublin, in which, at one 
period, one child out of every six died within the first fortnight of 
existence, but by the adoption of proper means of ventilation, this very CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
371 
great mortality was at once reduced to one death for every nineteen or 
twenty children born. It is unnecessary here to repeat what has been 
said in the article Bed-Room, upon the means of ventilation, etc., and to 
that article the reader is referred. The cradle or bassinet in which an 
infant sleeps should not be smothered up with curtains, and it is better, 
for some time at least, without sheets, light blankets only being used. 
The mattress should be hair, if possible, but where economy is 
requisite, cotton-wool will answer the purpose; it should be protected 
from wet by means of waterproof material of some kind. A pillow too 
large and soft is not advisable, for by allowing the head to sink into it, 
an injurious amount of heat and perspiration is promoted, and the child 
rendered susceptible of cold when taken up. The skin of an infant 
requires the most scrupulous care; by its powerful agency it frees the 
body from matter which must be noxious if retained, and which is 
especially apt to act injuriously upon the susceptible infant nervous 
system. The skin ought to be washed with tepid water and soap, night 
and morning, and after each washing, reaction promoted by gentle 
friction with the hand for a few minutes. Care must always be taken 
that the situation for washing is sufficiently warm, but not, as too often 
the case, before a scorching fire; draughts of air are especially to be 
guarded against. Before leaving this subject, it is requisite to notice the 
filthy custom, that has been observed, of allowing the scurf, the oily 
secretion, and the dirt, to cake upon the skin of the head, under the idea 
that it preserves from cold. The habit is not only disgusting, but is 
productive of disease -perfect cleanliness is requisite here as elsewhere. 
In fat children, the creases or folds in the skin require extra attention, 
from the liability of the opposed surfaces to become inflamed, and to 
pour out an irritating moisture; dusting with starch-powder, or the inteis 
vention of a piece of soft linen spread with simple cerate (see Cerate) 
may either of them be used as a remedy. The portion of navel cord 
which is left attached to the child, will require attention. This separates 
by a kind of moist decay; it may come off entirely by the fourth day, or 
take a fortnight to do so; it must never be hurried. Generally, when the 
navel separates, it leaves the puckered closing of the skin perfectly 
complete; it sometimes, however, occurs that bleeding or inflammation 
and ulceration take place at the time of separation; such cases ought at 
once to be placed under medical care. When actual bleeding occurs, the 
condition is all but hopeless. When the opening at the navel does not 
thoroughly close at birth, protrusion of a portion of the bowel takes 
place when the child cries. This state of things, apt to occur when the 
cord has been of more than average thickness, requires much attention, 
as the comfort and safety of the individual, especially of a female, in 372 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
after life, may be considerably interfered with, if the malformation is 
not, as it may be, cured in childhood. The belly-band, or binder, has 
of course considerable power in preventing the protrusion through the 
navel opening; but in these cases it is not sufficient; and for the first 
few weeks, one or two graduated compresses, made of folded linen, 
should be placed over the navel, underneath the binder; and when the 
child is a month or six weeks old, the following apparatus must be used: 
From a cork, the diameter of which is about half as large again as that of 
the protrusion, a slice the eighth of an inch thick is to be cut, flatly padded, 
covered with linen, and affixed to two cross pieces of plaster by stitching. 
The plasters being warmed before application, are used to retain the 
padded cork directly over the opening of the navel; above all, the 
binder is applied. The plasters will probably require renewal every few 
days. It is better to trust to the linen pads alone, as long as any 
tendency to inflammation of the skin exists, using at the same time a 
plaster of simple cerate or gold-beater's leaf next the skin. Instead of 
either linen or cork pad, one of vulcanized India-rubber, filled with air, 
might be substituted. The treatment of navel protrusion, or hernia, in 
infants, and the management of the apparatus, involves some amount of 
care and trouble, but not more than the necessity and importance of the 
evil demands for its rectification. In such cases, the infant should be 
kept from crying by all reasonable means, the best preventive being 
the careful attention to the rules of health laid down in this article. 
Rupture at the groin may occur in children at birth, and may be 
suspected to exist, when unusual fulness or swelling is observed in this 
situation, and if the fulness and tension is increased when the child cries, 
the case should at once be seen by a medical man. 
Any malformation with which an infant is lorn, ought as soon as 
possible to be submitted to the judgment of the surgeon, so that he may 
have full opportunity of fixing the appropriate time for its rectification 
or removal. The operations for hare-lip, distorted joints, such as club- 
feet, are now performed at a much earlier period than they were formerly. 
In the case of vascular naevus, or mother-mark, (which see) which often 
increases rapidly from a mere perceptible point to a large size, surgical 
interference as early as possible is most important. These naevi are 
composed of so thick a network of capillary vessels as to be almost 
spongy, and should they be accidentally wounded, bleed freely, and if of 
any size, dangerously; they vary in color from bright red to purple ; if 
the finger be pressed upon a naevus, it becomes emptied of blood, and 
pale; but the instant the pressure is removed, the blood, and conse- 
quently the color, instantly return. There are various methods employed 
for their removal; but the one used in each case must depend upon the CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
373 
surgeon; a simple, painless, and frequently successful mode of cure, is 
vaccinating upon the neevus, which is cured by the inflammation which 
takes place in the progress of the cow-pox. The possibility of this being 
done is an additional reason why the disease should be seen as early as 
possible by a medical man. The continued use of the compound tincture 
of iodine to a naevus, the surface being painted over with it night and 
morning, will, sometimes, if perseveringly adhered to, be successful in 
removing it; the application being intermitted for a few days should the 
skin become sore. 
Tongue-tying in infants is not uncommon • it depends on too great 
prolongation of the "fraenum," or bridle which retains the tongue in 
place. It is easily rectified by a snip of the surgeon's blunt-pointed 
scissors. . 
The time at which an infant may first he taken out of doors after 
birth, must depend, of course, greatly upon the time of year; in fine 
warm summer weather, in the course of ten days or a fortnight, it will be 
safe to make the change; in winter it can scarcely be prudent to do so 
for a month or six weeks, and then only on a fine day. In either case, 
free exposure in the house should first be practised, the first airing should 
not extend longer than twenty minutes, and the eyes, especially at first, 
must be shaded from the glare of the sunlight; of course, either the 
chill of morning, or the damp of evening, must be avoided. A young 
infant should not be taken out during the prevalence of east wind. 
The principal ailments, likely to come under domestic management, 
to which infants are liable, are thrush, red gum, colicky-pains in the 
bowels, and diarrhoea. For the first-thrush-the reader is referred to 
that article. Red gum is a mild species of "papular" eruption, to 
which many children are subject soon after birth. It is quite devoid 
of danger, and requires no treatment if the bowels are in good order, if 
not, a dose or two of castor-oil may be given. The usual friction after 
washing must be moderate during its continuance. Inflammatory swell- 
ing of the breasts in infants is not unfrequent; gentle friction with 
camphorated oil, three or four times a day, will suffice to remove it. 
Most infants are troubled, more or less, with wind, or colicky-pains in the 
bowels, and not unfrequently with diarrhoea, but these are much aggra- 
vated by errors in feeding so universally prevalent, particularly among 
the poorer classes; sometimes when the child is nursed entirely at the 
breast, particularly of a wet-nurse, they are caused by the nurse's trans- 
gressions in diet. Attention to the rules already laid down relating 
to feeding, will greatly prevent the above ailments; but when they 
do occur, they must be rectified as simply as possible, but never by the 
dangerous and baneful quack carminatives so extensively sold and used. 374 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
Pain, and wind in the bowels in children, are generally connected with 
superabundant acidity; for the correction of the cause and its conse- 
quences, either of the two following mixtures may be used moderately, 
both with safety and good effect. No. 1: 
Take of Calcined magnesia Twelve grains. 
Dill water One and a half ounces.-Mix. 
No. 2: 
Take of Prepared chalk Ten grains. 
Dill water One and a half ounces.-Mix. 
Of either of the above mixtures, a small teaspoonful may be given, and 
repeated if requisite. The first, or No. 1, is to be selected, should the 
bowels be at all confined; the second, No 2, should they be too relaxed. 
It is not recommended that either of these medicines, simple as they are, 
or any others, are to be given too freely to infants, and on every slight 
occasion, but it is better to give them than to allow a child to suffer; 
they, or something similar, ought to be the substitutes in every nursery 
for the secret quack nostrums. It is true they will not either as quickly 
stop pain, or sleep a child, as mixtures which contain opium or poppy 
syrup; but they cannot, like them, either put it into its last long sleep 
by an over-dose, or injure not less fatally, when frequently used, even in 
small doses, by gradually disordering the brain and nervous system. 
When either of the mixtures above recommended are given to children, 
or indeed whenever magnesia or chalk is given habitually, it is always 
prudent to give an occasional dose of castor-oil, as cases have occurred 
in which concretions of chalk, and of magnesia, have accumulated in the 
intestines. The dose of castor-oil for a young infant may be from 10 
drops to | a teaspoonful. In cases of diarrhoea, should the affection be 
slight, and the infant be a hand-nursed one, the addition of isinglass to 
the milk food will, in most cases, stop the tendency at once, particularly 
if assisted by a few doses of mixture No. 2, and by a warm bath for five 
or six minutes, at a temperature of 98°, regulated by a thermometer. 
Should the affection be more severe, the emulsion of castor-oil with yolk 
of egg (see Castor-oil) must be given. To 1^ ounces of the emulsion, 
made with 1 teaspoonful of castor-oil, 2 drops of laudanum, or 20 drops of 
paregoric are to be added, and 1 teaspoonful, or twelfth part, given once in 
six hours. And here the opportunity is taken to warn, respecting the 
administration of opiates to children. They are most susceptible of the 
influence of the drug, and accidents are continually occurring-more fre- 
quently perhaps than comes to light-from its effects; a single drop of 
laudanum has been known to prove fatal to a young infant. The above 
treatment is given, not as an inducement for parents, who can readily 
procure medical aid, to take the treatment of their children, when ill, CHILD, CHILD DEN, CHILDHOOD. 
375 
into their own hands, but it is because it may be of service in situations 
when skilled assistance is not readily procurable. Many of the diseases 
of children commence insidiously, but after attaining a certain stage, run 
their course rapidly. No parent, therefore, who either values his child's 
life, or his own peace of mind, should delay procuring medical assistance 
when real illness shows itself; but at the same time, the very same 
reason ought to induce every parent to inform himself upon the nature 
of the symptoms which most generally usher in real illness in children, 
and also, how and by what means the illness which these symptoms 
indicate, is to be most effectually retarded and obviated. More upon this 
head will be given when the diseases of childhood generally are touched 
upon. Within the first five months of an infant's life, vaccination ought 
to be performed, that is, before the constitution is liable to suffer from 
the irritation of teething. (See Vaccination.) 
The period of teething varies extremely, and not less so in the 
manner in which it affects children. For information upon the mode in 
which the teeth are developed, the reader is referred to the articles 
Teeth and Dentition. Some children cut the two front teeth of the 
lower jaw-which always appear first-as early as the fourth or fifth 
month, whilst others, apparently equally strong, do not have them 
developed within the year. The usual, and popularly received sign of 
approaching tooth-cutting, is watering of the mouth, but this may con- 
tinue for many weeks before the teeth appear. Before the teeth come 
through, the gums flatten on the top, look semi-transparent and full, and 
are sometimes extremely swollen and inflamed. The constitution of the 
child always sympathizes more or less with the cutting of the teeth, most 
simply and beneficially so by the occurrence of mild diarrhoea, which is 
always-unless it goes to an undue extent-a safeguard, and is better not 
interfered with. When the gums are much swollen and inflamed, and must 
be very painful, the susceptible brain and nervous system of the child is 
strongly and injuriously affected by the irritation. The little sufferer is 
fevered, flushed in the cheeks, and peevish, sleep is disturbed with 
moaning and starting, and the fingers are constantly in the mouth, or 
the lower jaw is moved from side to side. In such cases, lancing the 
gums thoroughly, warm baths, and aperients if the bowels are not 
relaxed, are the remedies, the first especially, without which the others 
are useless or nearly so. The popular idea, that lancing the gums is 
beneficial, by assisting the passage of the teeth through them, is quite 
erroneous, and may lead to an erroneous method of performing this 
simple little operation, which every parent who lives at a distance from 
medical assistance, and particularly in emigrant life, ought to know how 
to do. The real benefit is derived from the relief which the incisions 376 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
afford to the tense and distended gum, and from the slight flow of blood 
which follows, and on this account it is advisable, not only to cut the 
upper surface, but also the side of the gum, so as to divide the vessels 
freely. The operation is most conveniently and safely done by a "gum 
lancet' ' made for the purpose-but a common penknife may be employed 
on emergency, the blade being wrapped with a piece of linen, to within 
a short distance of the point, to prevent any chance to cut the lips. It 
is superfluous to describe this simple proceeding, it should be seen done 
once, or at least the method shown. It is not recommended, of course, 
that the gums are to be lanced for every slight irritation of teething, but 
when the child exhibits the graver symptoms above described, it ought 
to be done at once, and, if requisite repeated again and again. In 
addition to lancing the gums, a warm bath for ten minutes will be found 
eminently serviceable in soothing the irritated system, and aperients 
should be given-2 grains of gray powder at night, followed by a small 
teaspoonful of castor-oil in the morning, or if stronger action be thought 
requisite, a powder composed of 1 grain of calomel to 2 of powdered 
scammony is to be given at bedtime to a child of six or eight months 
old. If the irritation attendant on teething produces convulsion, medical 
aid must be had as soon as possible, and in the meantime, those remedies 
employed which are suitable. (See Convulsion.) 
In judging of the diseases of children, it ought to be borne in mind 
that the pulse of an infant is always quick, averaging from 120 to 130 in 
the minute, and that at the end of the first year its average is still 
considerably above 100. (See Pulse.) 
The regulation of the exercise of young children is of much import- 
ance. At first, the mere respiratory movements, occasional crying, and 
the effort of sucking, are exercises sufficient, if gentle nursing movements 
be employed; but gentle they must be; the system so often adopted of 
jerking infants about is much to be condemned, and may be extremely 
hurtful. In the course of a few weeks after birth, the infant begins to 
show signs of increased power of movement, and evidently experiences 
physical pleasure in the exercise of its limbs; as time goes on, its next 
effort is to sit up in the nurse's arms, till, if a vigorous healthy child, at 
about fourteen months, generally, it tries to walk;-all these movements 
will come spontaneously to the child, when its frame and muscular 
powers are adequate to the exertion, but they should never be forced. It is 
astonishing what an amount of practical ignorance prevails on the above 
point; children are put to sit in chairs, held upon their feet, or put in 
go-carts of various construction, long before the bones are fit to bear the 
weight, and curved spines and distorted legs are the consequences. 
Again, it is repeated, every advance of the child towards walking and CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
377 
the upright position, can only be safe when spontaneous. When a child 
first commences walking it must get falls, but it is surprising how little 
material injury the head, which most generally suffers, seems to receive. 
At the same time, in families in which tendency to head affection exists, 
extra care must be taken-a padded band round the head is a useful and 
frequently used protection. (See Walking in article Exercise.) 
We make the following extract, as showing the sort of observation 
and knowledge required by those who 'would be skilful nurses for children'. 
-" The signs of disease differ, as well according to the age of the child, 
as according to the disease from which it is suffering. Cries are the 
only language which a young baby has to express its distress; as smiles, 
and laughter, and merry antics tell, without a word, of its gladness. 
The baby must be ill, is all its cries tell one person; another, who has 
seen much of sick children, will gather from them more, and will be 
able to judge whether its suffering is in the head, or chest, or stomach. 
The cries of a baby with stomach-ache are loud, and long, and passionate; 
it sheds a profusion of tears ; now stops for a moment, and then begins 
again; drawing up its legs to its stomach, and, as the pain passes off, 
stretches them out again; and, with many little sobs, passes off into a 
quiet sleep. If it have inflammation of its chest, it does not cry aloud, 
it weeps no tears; but every few minutes, especially after drawing a 
deeper breath than before, or after each short, hacking cough, it gives 
a little cry, which it checks apparently before it is half finished; and 
this either because it has no breath to waste in cries, or because the 
effort makes its breathing more painful. If disease is going on in the 
head, the child will utter sharp, piercing shrieks, and then, between 
whiles, a low moan or wail, or perhaps no sound at all; but will lie quiet, 
apparently dozing, till pain wakes it up again." This is quoted as an 
instance of the kind of observation that is required, and to show how 
much a skilful nurse in such matters may help the doctor to find out 
quickly what is the matter with his little patient who cannot speak for 
himself. It is very often the case that, when a child's nurse is asked 
what sort of a night he has passed, she either can give no answer at all, 
or one which is quite unsatisfactory. How important a question this is, 
however, may be in some degree realized by reading the following, 
(from Dr. West's "How to nurse sick children,"-an English work): 
-"With the approach of night very many diseases get worse; and 
while you expect this is to be the case, you must carefully notice what 
are the signs of increased illness which, in each instance, manifest 
themselves. Fever is generally higher-you must notice if it is very 
much so; the dull, heavy state of many children suffering from inflam- 
mation of the brain, or from some forms of fever, in which they lie 378 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
dozing during the day, is often succeeded by delirium and loud outcries 
for some hours at night; or, if the child sleeps, it talks much in its 
sleep about its lessons or its play ; and the observation that these things 
have happened will serve to help the doctor in his judgment. If, 
though these things do not occur, yet the child is restless, you must try 
to ascertain from what cause. It may be from pain, or it may be from 
thirst, or from cough which disturbs the child, or from difficult breathing, 
which grows worse whenever the child falls asleep, and then wakes him 
up again every few minutes; or it may be from that sleeplessness which 
illness brings with it. If, then, you are to give a useful report to the 
doctor at his visit, you must not merely be able to tell whether the child 
slept or was restless, but you must have watched so attentively as to be 
able to describe exactly the manner in which the night was passed; to 
report when the child slept, and how-when it was restless, and why." 
A good nurse further observes all particulars relating to the breathing of 
her little patient, cough, etc.; whether there is any tendency to vomiting, 
or to excessive thirst; whether there has occurred anything like a con- 
vulsion, drawing in of the fingers or toes, squinting, or twisting of the- 
features, flushing of the face, any eruption on the skin, or any fact 
whatever which may be of importance. 
One of the most common and troublesome matters to deal with in the 
case of infants is a tendency to excoriation and redness of the skin in 
those suffering from diarrhoea. Now, this is very troublesome; and 
from the excessive irritation gives rise to great suffering. It can be 
almost entirely prevented by extreme cleanliness and good management 
after the bowels are moved. Soap must not, however, be used, as it 
increases the irritation, but very thin starch should be employed instead. 
The child should then be carefully dried with a soft napkin, and the 
parts dusted with Fuller's earth or with zinc powder, and afterwards 
dressed with an ointment made with one dram of benzoate of zinc to an 
ounce of lard. The ointment must be kept quite fresh, as rancid oint- 
ments never fail to increase the irritation and soreness. 
Many children are destroyed by being too much moved about when 
suffering f rom exhaustion owing to excessive vomiting, purging, or some 
severe disease. In such cases the little patient is lifted by its mother or 
nurse from its cot many times in an hour, whereas it should never be 
removed from the recumbent posture at all. By turning it from side to 
side it may be shifted and changed, and even a new night-gown may be 
put on in this way, if it is slit up the back and run together afterwards 
by means of a few stitches. 
Vomiting and diarrhoea are among the most f requent troubles of 
ci ildren, especially those that are brought up by hand; in fact, many CHILD CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
379 
children at one time or another of their existence are reduced so low by 
them that, to an inexperienced spectator, it would seem almost impos- 
sible they could recover. Now, in checking the tendency to these, the 
nurse can do a great deal by means of a little common sense, and can 
greatly aid the doctor. Foolish and inexperienced nurses, when a child 
vomits or purges after everything that he takes, go on cramming 
him with food under the idea that as what he has had has come back or 
gone through him, it can have done him no good, and therefore he had 
better have some more. It is painful to see the poor little creatures 
sometimes in this state, vomiting taking place every time they are moved. 
The obvious indication under such circumstances is to give the tired 
and irritable stomach an hour or two's rest at a time, and then cautiously 
at first, and without moving the child, give only a small teaspoonful of 
cold water, to be followed, if that is retained, by a little cold milk and 
water, or something of the simplest description, small in quantity and 
cold. If that is retained, a gradual return to its accustomed food may 
be attempted. Chlorodyne is a most useful addition to our medicines for 
children's diseases, especially diarrhoea. It requires, however, to be 
very carefully and cautiously used. (See Chlorodyne.) 
When a child begins to walk, and to attempt to talk, the period of 
infancy may be considered as ended, and childhood begun. Many of 
the directions applicable to the former are equally so, in a modified 
degree, to the latter, and vice versa; but "childhood" requires further 
remark. When distinct nursing is no longer requisite, the child becomes 
more truly the inhabitant of The Nursery, and much of its health and 
happiness for the next few years of its life, will depend upon the proper 
regulation of this important department of the household. 
Whatever is said respecting the necessity for pure air and ventilation, 
either in this article or any other, such as Bed-Roost, Am, Houses, Venti- 
lation, etc., applies to the nursery, or rather nurseries; for every parent, 
whose means will admit, should provide a night and a day nursery for his 
children, and in neither should such operations as washing clothes, 
cooking, etc., ever be carried on. The double room will allow of all 
necessary airings, washings of floors, etc., to be perfectly carried out 
without the health or comfort of the children being interfered with. 
Should one nursery only be available, the children should be taken out 
of it as soon as possible after rising in the morning, the windows thrown 
wide open, and all necessary cleaning performed before they again enter 
it, and, both now and at every period of the day, all kinds of slops 
removed. Should any action of the bowels take place during the night, 
the receptacle should be put out of the room at once. The observations 
respecting the sanitary regulation of the nursery, are more particularly 380 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
applicable in the case of the middle classes, who lack the abundant 
accommodation of the wealthy, and whose children, in towns at least, do 
not have the same free access to the open air, as those of their poorer 
neighbors. The situation of a nursery in the house is important; it 
must, if possible, be in the upper stories, it should have a south aspect, 
abundantly supplied with light-the latter is a most necessary considera- 
tion. A guarded open fire-place is one of the best means of warmth, 
and the heat, regulated by a thermometer, should be kept as near 60° 
as possible. 
But, however salubrious the nursery arrangements, children must 
have as much open air as possible; when the exercise can be taken as 
play, in summer, upon the grass, or otherwise, it is quite the most bene- 
ficial ; when weather and other considerations forbid, and walking is had 
recourse to, it must not go to the extent of real fatigue. At all times it 
adds much to the beneficial effect of exercise if the mind be engaged 
pleasurably in it-and therefore, all active plays, either in-doors or out, 
are preferable to the mere walk, which few children enjoy. The 
clothing during the whole period of childhood, in a changeable climate, 
requires much attention; woolen texture next the skin, both winter and 
summer, is indispensable for health; during the former season, it should 
cover the chest and abdomen, and come at least half way down the 
thighs ; in the latter, it may be a lighter material, and not extend so far 
over the chest; woolen stockings extending over the knees ought always 
to be worn in winter, and at all times should the entire clothing be such 
as will keep the surface of the skin comfortably warm; there is no 
greater or more fatal error than that which exposes children lightly 
clad to the influences of our variable climate, with the view of hardening 
them. 
Thorough purification of the skin must be maintained. A child 
should be washed all over with soap and water at least once a day. In 
the case of strong children, the water may be cold, in the weaker, tepid, 
and in both friction with a tolerably rough towel should be used after 
the bath, both to cleanse and to promote reaction. If a child continues 
chilled and cold-looking, and appears languid after a cold bath, it is a 
sign it does not agree, and the temperature of the water should be 
raised, or the washing should first be performed in tepid water, and just 
at the last, a little cold water dashed over the body. (See Ablution, 
Baths and Bathing.) 
The food in childhood claims care, equally with air, clothing, exer- 
cise, and cleanliness; its regulation in infancy has already been 
sufficiently noticed. For strong, healthy children, particularly those 
inclined to full or gross habit, the milk and farinaceous-such as rice, CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD. 
381 
sago, bread, etc.-cannot be exchanged for a better, for the first 
fourteen months at least, but if children are delicate, and incline to the 
lymphatic constitution, the use of animal broths ought to be commenced 
even as early as the sixth month. The broth made from fowl, mutton, 
beef, or veal, should not be too strong, should be free from fat, and is 
better thickened with arrowroot or sago for a young child, or with rice or 
bread-crumb for an older one. Towards the twelfth month, a lightly 
boiled egg may be given, but quite the best method of giving the 
powerful nutriment of egg to children, is to break the raw egg into some 
one of the milk preparations, whilst the latter is quite hot, and to beat 
up together. In this way, the albumen is sufficiently cooked, but not 
hardened. When the teeth of a child are sufficiently advanced to 
masticate it, animal food in the solid form may be given, but the 
quantity and frequency must entirely depend upon the constitution of 
the child. Strong, ruddy children are better with it only twice or three 
times a week; weaker children should have it once a day at least, and 
in the more advanced stages of childhood, perhaps twice, but this is a 
point which should be settled by a medical adviser. Potatoes, and the 
more wholesome vegetables, ripe fruits in their season, may all be 
allowed to children, in moderation, after the first eighteen months, and 
particularly should there be a tendency to costiveness, or to eruptions on 
the skin, and other affections depending upon gross habit of body; 
weaker children may also partake of them, but more moderately, and 
provided they do not become substituted for more indispensably, nour- 
ishing food. Children at any age are better without baked pastry of any 
kind, but boiled paste puddings are not unwholesome;-cheese, and all 
sorts of spiced and seasoned dishes are quite objectionable. A healthy 
child should never have an alcoholic stimulant within its lips, and tea or 
coffee, if allowed, should be very weak, and made with much milk; but 
there are some delicate children, nay infants, who may derive much 
benefit from a portion of alcoholic stimulant, carefully given as medicine, 
and as medicine requiring so much care and consideration, that it should 
only be employed when and as advised by a medical man. Children 
should not be made to wait long without some nourishment in the morn- 
ing; the rapid changes which go on in their system render them 
peculiarly sensitive to any, even temporary, want of nourishment. 
Regularity in meals is important even from the earliest period of exist- 
ence ; it is always advisable that the principal meal be taken early in 
the day. 
Physical training, however, and the closest attention to physical 
regulations, require the addition of mental training to carry out thor- 
oughly even the physical education of a child. For the infant a cheerful 382 
CHILD, CHILDREN, CHILDHOOD 
nurse is most valuable. As childhood advances, whatever may depress 
or frighten ought especially to be guarded against, and all threats or 
practices which excite undefined terror, especially avoided. Affection of 
the brain may be the result. Undue precocity in a child should always 
be regarded, if not with alarm, at least with suspicion. Many scrofulous 
children are unusually precocious, and as a general rule in such instances, 
the brain is more prone to disease, which may end life, or predispose to 
mental affection. In such cases it is of the highest importance not only 
to avoid everything which can stimulate to mental effort, but to excite 
them to such moderate and regular physical exertion, as will in some 
degree draw off from the brain itself, both the activity of circulation and 
of nervous energy. (See Precocity.) 
There are some diseases which are more particularly considered as 
those of childhood, such are measles, whooping-cough, scarlet fever, 
small-pox at times, and chicken-pox, not that they do not occur in adults, 
but more generally, being passed through but once, it is in the earlier 
years of life. In addition to the above, such affections of the brain as 
acute inflammation ending in effusion of water, convulsive disease, 
croup, inflammation of the lungs, and summer complaint, are the most 
common acute affections of children. They and other diseases may be 
referred to under their proper heads. Children quickly exhibit the general 
symptoms of illness, but it often requires much more tact and discrimi- 
nation to make out its exact seat and nature than it does in the case of 
adults; it is, therefore, always desirable to place them under proper 
medical care as quickly as possible, at the same time the following 
ought to be some guide as to the site of the affection, and to its pro- 
visional treatment: 
When in a child complaining of illness, or appearing ill, the eyes 
look heavy, and are wholly or partially closed against the light, if the 
brow is contracted, and if with these symptoms there is general fever, 
some acute affection of the head is to be dreaded, and the indications 
should not be neglected for an hour; if vomiting is present with the 
above, so much the worse. Oppression of the breathing, along with 
general appearance of depression, is often the forerunner of severe 
inflammatory affection of the chest, which may be considered as 
established, if heat of skin, general fever, rapid breathing and cough 
succeed. In the chest affections of children, the movements of the 
nostrils are much affected. Constipation, which can scarcely be classed 
as a disease, is almost natural to some children, but requires correction, 
and this should be effected if possible by food. Coarse wheat bread or 
corn bread should always be employed, and fruits, either cooked or ripe, 
such as roasted apples, given in moderation; honey or treacle are use- CHILD. ETC.-CHIMAPHILA UMBELLATA. 
383 
ful, but nothing is more so, than the daily use of porridge made from 
oatmeal. When the tendency to constipation in children cannot be over- 
come by diet, the next best remedy is the use of a small enema or 
injection of gruel, simply or medicated with castor-oil, senna, or any 
simple aperient, or made with soap water, but the simple gruel ought 
always to be tried first. Dr. Marshall Hall considers, that in children 
especially, the use of warm injections exerts a peculiarly beneficial effect 
in stimulating the liver. An injection for a child of six years old, should 
not exceed 12 ounces, and ought to be administered slowly. When 
medicine must be given, as general aperients, castor-oil or infusion of 
senna are most useful; caution must, however, be exerted in forcing the 
former medicine-as sometimes must be the case-upon very young 
children ; death has been occasioned from its getting into the windpipe. 
The aromatic syrup of rhubarb is a most excellent, safe and pleasant 
aperient medicine for children; but where a tendency to constipation 
exists, it should not be habitually used, on account of its subsequent 
astringent action; magnesia is easily given in milk, and may be useful 
either in the solid or fiuid form where active effects are not required, but 
the former especially ought not to be long continued. Calomel and gray 
powder, given alone, are too much given for their aperient action; they 
should not be administered except under medical sanction. 
As a general rule, in giving medicine to children, deception should 
not be practised; but whilst the child knows that it is medicine which it 
takes, it ought to have it in as palatable a form as may be, without inter- 
fering with the efficacy of the drug. Defer to articles on diseases and 
medicines generally. (See Ablution, Baths, Bed-Room, Sleep, Venti- 
lation, Clothing, Diet, Milk, Oatmeal, Exercise, Electricity, Breast, 
Skin, Teeth, Emaciation, Snuffles, Cough, Vaccination, Cry of Chil- 
dren, Screaming, Fear, Rupture, Sanitary Science, Health, Con- 
tagion, Cold Feet, Mineral Waters.) 
CHILD-CROWING, OR SPASMODIC CROUP. (See Croup, 
False. ) 
CHILDHOOD. (See Age, Child.) 
CHILL FEVER, chil fe'-vur, a common name for one of the forms 
of ague, and hence the treatment is the same as prescribed in article 
Ague (which see). 
CHIMAPHILA UMBELLATA, ki-ma-fil'-a umrbel-la'-tay Prince's 
Pine, or Pipsissewa, a plant belonging to the Nat. order Pyrolaceaz. It 
is also known by the common names, ground leaf, ground holly, Amer- 
ican wintergreen, king's cure, rheumatism - weed. This is a small 
evergreen plant, growing in the northern latitude of this country, 
Europe and Asia. The whole plant is endowed with active properties, 384 
CHIMAPHILA UMBELLATA-CHIMNEY. 
tonic, diuretic and astringent. Highly recommended in dropsy ; useful 
in disordered digestion and general debility, rheumatism, and disorders 
of the kidney, scrofula, in obstinate, ill-conditioned ulcers, in cutaneous 
eruptions, and in chronic affections of the urinary organs. Dose : of the 
fluid extract, £ to 1 teaspoonful; of the solid extract, 10 to 20 grains ; of 
the decoction, 1 to 4 fluid ounces; to be taken three times a day. (See 
Decoction. ) 
CHIMNEY, chim'-ne. A chimney, by intention the channel by 
which the smoke and fumes of fire are conveyed away, also performs the 
no less important, but scarcely-until of late-calculated upon, office of 
a ventilator. In former times, when the fire-place formed almost a 
separate chamber, in which persons sat round the fire, or indeed as long 
as it retained its ample dimensions, the people enjoyed an efficient 
means of ventilation, although in ignorance of the benefit. By change 
of fashion, the chimney has been gradually contracted and lowered to 
the model of the present modern fire-place; whilst this has been done, 
from ignorance of the necessity for pure air, no provision has been made 
to supply the loss of the efficient ventilating power of the old-fashioned 
construction, and consequently health must have suffered, and does 
suffer materially from the omission, although it is to be hoped that the 
diffusion of popular knowledge upon this and other points of sanitary 
regulation, will not allow such to be the case much longer. The fire- 
place, however, is a notable instance of society enjoying ignorantly an 
arrangement conducive to health; and that ignorance, whilst making 
alterations more consistent with comfort and convenience, doing away 
with one great advantage, of which it remains for science to point out 
both the loss and the means of reparation. As whatever goes up, or 
ought to go up, the chimney, are vapors and gases which cannot remain 
down without injury to health, it is a matter of importance that the fire- 
place of a house draw well, more especially those of bed-rooms in which 
fire is used. As a means of ventilation simply, independent of the fire, 
the importance of afire-place is so great, that rooms in this climate which 
are destitute of one cannot be considered healthy, although it must be 
confessed, that this secondary office appended to the original intention, 
is rather a clumsy method of effecting so important an end ; it is one, 
however, of which it is requisite to make the most, and therefore fire- 
places ought to have a thorough good draught for smoke, ought never to 
be stopped when not in use, unless other means of efficient ventilation 
are possessed, and, when possible, should be fitted with some effi- 
cient mechanical contrivance for increasing their ventilating power. 
(See Bed-Room, Ventilation, Air, Aeration, Carbonic Acid, Stoves, 
etc.) CHIMNEY-SWEEP'S, ETC.-CHLORATE OF POTASH. 
385 
CHIMNEY-SWEEP'S CANCER. (See Cancer Scroti.) 
CHIOCOCCA RACEMOSA, ki-o-kok'-kq ra-se-md-sq, or cahinca, a 
climbing shrub belonging to the Nat. order Cinchonacefje. It is some- 
times called snowberry. It is a native of the West Indies, South 
America, and of the sea-coast of Florida. The bark of the root is the 
part used. In medium doses it augments the urinary discharge, and 
slightly increases the action of the heart, besides increasing the peris- 
taltic action of the bowels. If warm infusions of this drug be drunk, 
and the body be kept warm, it will produce perspiration instead of 
purging. In large doses it is a violent emetic. It has been found very 
efficient in dropsy, amenorrhcea, rheumatism, and syphilis. In Brazil, 
it is used as an antidote to poisonous snake-bites. Dose of the powdered 
root-bark, 20 to 60 grains, three or four times a day. 
CIIIONANTHUS VIRGINICA, ki-o-nan-thus vir-fin'-e-kq, or 
fringe tree. A shrub belonging to the Nat. order Oleacem. The bark of 
the root is the part used. It is aperient, alterative, and diuretic. An 
infusion is found beneficial in bilious and typhoid fevers, as well as in 
obstinate intermittents. The dose of the infusion is from 2 to 10 large 
tablespoonfuls four times a day. (See Infusion.) 
CHIRETTA OR CHIRATA. (See Ophelia Chirata.) 
CHLORAL, klo'-rql, is a thin, oily, colorless fluid, of a peculiar 
penetrating odor, which excites tears, and with but little taste. It is 
prepared by passing perfectly dry chlorine into anhydrous alcohol to 
saturation, whence the name. It is freely soluble in water, alcohol, and 
ether; boils at 201°, and has a density of 1.5. Mixed with its own 
volume of water and evaporated, it forms a white crystalline mass called 
the Hydrate of Chloral^ which has been found to possess properties 
analogous to those of chloroform, but its effects are produced more 
slowly, and last for a much longer time. It is administered by the 
stomach, and its action is owing to the production of chloroform in the 
system by means of the alkalies of the blood. It acts as a powerful 
sedative on the motor and sensory nerves and seems to have also a con- 
tracting influence over the arteries. As a narcotic it is much safer and 
more certain than opium, and is without any of its unpleasant after- 
symptoms. The sleep produced is calm and refreshing. In painful dis- 
eases, as neuralgia, gout, cancer, burns, etc., in sleeplessness, or ner- 
vous agitation, delirium tremens, insanity, and the like, it is found to 
be of the greatest service. Dose, from 15 or 20 to 60 grains. (See 
Anaesthetics; Ether, Sulphuric; Chloroform.) 
CHLORATE OF POTASH, kid-rat, is usually formed by pass- 
ing chlorine through a mixture of solution of caustic potash and 
hydrate of lime. It is refrigerant, sudorific and diuretic. This medi- 386 
CHL ORATE OF POTASH- OHL OR IC ETHER. 
cine has been very successfully employed in scurvy, liver affections, 
canker, abscesses, boils, mercurial salivation, maternal inflammation 
of the mouth, eruptions, and by some practitioners mainly relied on 
in scarlet fever, foetid breath, diphtheria, and ordinary cases of sore 
throat. It is acknowledged a superior remedy in gangrene and 
ulceration of the mouth, destroying the disagreeable odor, diminishing 
the discharge of saliva, and expediting granulation. Some authorities 
pronounce it a sedative to the nervous and circulatory systems, and a 
stimulant to the digestive and urinary organs. Dr. Watson states that 
1 dram dissolved in 1 pint of water is a beneficial daily drink in 
typhoid ip ver. It may be applied externally as a wash or injection in 
solution of 6 to 20 grains to 1 fluid ounce of water. It answers thus in 
affections of the mouth and throat, aided by internal administration. 
In persistent sore mouth or throat, and whenever ulceration exists, a 
very strong solution must be used, which may be prepared by putting 
2 teaspoonfuls of chlorate of potash into an ordinary-sized coffee cup, 
and tilling it with boiling hot water. Use this as a gargle several times 
a day. 1 fluid ounce of water dissolves about 25 grains of the crystals. 
In internal administration no nicety need be observed in the dose. As 
a prophylactic in salivation, small doses will serve. Ordinary dose, 10 
grains in water, three or four times a day. (See Potash, Chloric Acid, 
Gargles, etc.) 
CHLORIC ACID, Ido'-rik, is formed by passing a current of chlo- 
rine through an alkaline solution when the chloride of the metal and the 
chlorate of the alkali are formed. It is colorless, strongly acid, has an 
oily consistence, and a pungent smell. It is not decomposed by light, 
and its oxidizing properties are very powerful. It forms salts wiHli 
bases, called chlorates, which are decomposed by heat, the chloride of 
the metal being left behind, while oxygen is liberated. The most useful 
of them is the chlorate of potash, which is formed by passing chlorine 
through a solution of caustic potash: chloride of potash and chloride of 
potassium are formed, the former being separated by crystallization. 
(See Chlorate of Potash.) 
CHLORIC ETHER, klo'-rik e'-ther, is called in the British Phar- 
macopoeia, spirit of chloroform. There are few remedies more generally 
used in all spasmodic affections, such as asthma, coughs, etc. It 
is also of great value as a sedative in painful affections, especially in 
combination with opium and other remedies. Owing to its intensely 
sweet taste, it is much used to make certain mixtures more palatable. 
It is invaluable as a diffusible stimulant in cases of great debility, and 
of obstruction to the respiration occurring in the course of heart or 
pulmonary disease, or both. The following prescription, which will be CHLORIC ETHER-CHLORINE. 
387 
found as palatable as most liqueur, may be taken in cases of difficulty of 
breathing, faintness, etc.: 
Take of Spirit of chloroform Three drams. 
Compound tincture of cardamoms Five drams.-Mix. 
A teaspoonful to be taken in a wine-glassful of water when required. Or, 
Take of Spirit of chloroform Two drams. 
Tincture of ginger Six drams.-Mix,. 
A teaspoonful to be taken in a wine-glassful of water. (See Ether, Sul- 
phuric.) 
CHLORIDE OF LIME, CHLORINATED LIME. (See Calcium, 
Chlorine. ) 
CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. (See Salt.) 
CHLORINE, klo'-rin [Gr. chlor os, green]-symbol Cl, equivalent 
35.5, specific gravity 2.44. Chlorine, dephlogisticated marine acid, or 
oxymuriatic acid, was discovered by Scheele in 1774, while examining 
an ore of manganese. It was thought at first to be a compound gas; 
but Gay-Lussac and Thenard supposed, and Sir Humphrey Davy proved, 
that it was an elementary body. It was the latter philosopher that 
bestowed upon it the name of chlorine, from chlor os, green (Greek), on 
account of its color. It occurs in nature in great abundance, in com- 
bination with many mineral substances, such as rock-salt; also in sea- 
water and sea-plants, as the chlorides of potassium and sodium. It may 
be prepared in two ways-either by heating black oxide of manganese 
with hydrochloric acid, or by heating a mixture of black oxide of man- 
ganese, chloride of sodium and dilute sulphuric acid. It is a transpar- 
ent gas of a greenish-yellow color and a powerfully suffocating odor, 
which, even largely diluted with air, produces great irritation of the air- 
passages. It is about two and a half times heavier than atmospheric 
air. Water absorbs about twice its volume; it can, therefore, be only 
collected by displacement or over warm water. Under a pressure of 
four atmospheres it condenses into a yellow limpid liquid, rather heavier 
than water, and remains fluid and unfrozen at a temperature of-220° 
Fahr. With water, chlorine forms a definite hydrate, which, when sub- 
jected to a cold of 32° Fahr., solidifies in the form of large yellow 
crystals. Chlorine is not combustible, but supports combustion to a 
certain degree. Chlorine, in common with several other elementary 
bodies, has the property of replacing hydrogen in its organic com- 
pounds. It is in this manner that chlorine bleaches textile fabrics. The 
brownness of the fabric is due to some brown organic substance, which, 
when submitted to the action of chlorine, parts with its hydrogen and 
assumes a colorless form, containing chlorine. Another property of 
chlorine is that of destroying noxious vapors and miasmata. For the 388 
CHL OR I NE- C1IL OR OD YNE. 
same reason, it is used as a disinfectant, the action being the same as 
that mentioned above. A small proportion of chlorine gas diffused 
through the atmosphere, very quickly and thoroughly destroys not 
only the smell, but the injurious properties of floating emanations, 
which are capable of engendering disease. Chlorine gas is obtained in 
various ways, but the great magazine for its supply, is common salt, 
which is composed of chlorine and sodium. For sanitary purposes, 
various preparations, calculated to yield chlorine, simply and easily, 
have been used; of these the chloride of lime is the best known. 
Chlorine is possessed of powerful affinities, and unites with all the 
metalloids and met.als. In Medicine, when used externally, it acts as a 
local irritant and rubefacient. Inhaled even when mixed with air, it 
causes a sensation of tightness and suffocation, and violent cough. 
When largely diluted it occasions a sensation of warmth in the respira- 
tory passages, and promotes expectoration. 
CHLORINE WATER, klo'-rin waw'-tur, is made by passing 
chlorine gas through water, is used externally as a caustic appli- 
cation to wounds caused by rabid animals, and diluted, as a wash in 
skin diseases, and a gargle in putrid sore throat. It is sometimes given 
in typhus, scarlet fever, and diseases of the liver. It is also used as an 
antidote in poisoning by hydrocyanic acid or sulphuretted hydrogen. 
The antidote to chlorine poisoning is the cautious inhaling of ammoniacal 
gas. Chlorine is inhaled by putting 2 ounces of chlorinated lime into a 
suitable apparatus, moistening it with 'cold water, and inhaling the vapor 
as it arises. 
CHLORODYNE, Idor-o-dlne, a secret medicine which has been 
much used as an anodyne and sedative. It was first introduced by Dr. 
J. Collis Browne, though the invention has been claimed by others, and 
has led to some expensive law suits. It is composed of chloroform, 
morphia, hydrocyanic acid, and certain other ingredients. Several 
attempts have been made to ascertain its exact composition. We give 
the latest and apparently the most correct: 
Take of Chloroform Four fluid drams. 
Muriate of morphia Twenty grains. 
Rectified ether Two fluid drams. 
Oil of peppermint Eight minims. 
Diluted hydrocyanic acid Four fluid drams. 
Tincture of capsicum Six fluid drams. 
Mixture of acacia One fluid ounce. 
Treacle Five fluid ounces.-Mix. 
It is agreeable to the taste of many persons, and can be given either 
alone in water, or combined with other remedies. Perhaps its greatest 
value has been in cases of irritating cough, as in consumption, and in CHL OR OD YNE- CHL OR OFORM. 
389 
irritation of the bowels, accompanied by pain and diarrhoea. In the 
former case 5 or 10 drops in an ounce of camphor mixture, three times 
a day, and in the latter the same dose in an ounce of chalk mixture may 
be given. In cases of acidity, with much irritation of the stomach, an 
excellent prescription is, 10 or 15 drops of chlorodyne with 15 to 20 
grains of bicarbonate of soda, in a wine-glassful of water, two or three 
times a day. From its warm, aromatic taste, and comforting action in 
cases of griping and uneasiness in the bowels, it is generally a favorite 
remedy with patients ; and, although, in the strictest sense of the 
word, a quack medicine, and, of course, not allowed a place in the 
Pharmacopoeias, yet it is very much prescribed by some medical men. 
Either alone, or combined with other remedies, it has proved of eminent 
service in cases of sea-sickness which have resisted many other kinds of 
treatment. It has been extensively used, both in this country and 
abroad, domestically as well as by regular practitioners, in the treatment 
of diarrhoea and dysentery, and it has been authoritatively stated that it 
is one of the best known remedies for cholera. One thing is certain, 
that its uses are so varied and general that it should form part of the 
equipment of every domestic medicine-chest. Chlorodyne of known 
composition can now be obtained, so that those who have a very proper 
objection to using remedies the constituent parts of which are kept 
secret, may employ it without further scruple. In the cholera epidemic 
at Manilla it was stated that chlorodyne had proved more efficacious 
than any other remedy which had been tried. Of course, as it has the 
action of a powerful opiate, it must be given with extreme caution to 
young children, and in all cases where opiates are likely to exert an 
undue action. 
In infantile diarrhoea 12 grains of bicarbonate of soda or baking soda, 
and 5 drops of chlorodyne, in 1| ounces of water, form an excellent 
mixture where there is griping and flatulence; 1 teaspoonful may be 
given twice or thrice in the twenty-four hours. When diarrhoea is pres- 
ent, chalk may be substituted for soda. 
CHLOROFORM, klo'-ro-form [prefix chloro and formyl^ C2IIC13. 
-This interesting compound is produced by a variety of reactions. 
The most usual way of preparing it is by acting upon dilute alcohol with 
chloride of lime. Chloroform is a colorless, volatile, mobile, highly 
refracting liquid, of specific gravity 1.497, and boiling at 142° Fahr. It 
has an ethereal odor, and a sweetish penetrating taste. It is readily 
soluble in ether and alcohol, but sparingly so in water. The vapor of 
chloroform has the remarkable property of rendering a person breathing 
it temporarily insensible to pain. To Professor Simpson, of Edinburgh, 
is due the credit of introducing chloroform as an anaesthetic. (See 390 
CHLOROFORM. 
Anesthetics.) Chloroform is an excellent solvent for sulphur, phos-. 
phorus, and iodine. It also readily dissolves fatty and resinous bodies. 
It is a perfect solvent of caoutchouc, which is left unaltered on evapora- 
tion. Chloroform is given internally in doses of 3 to 10 drops as an 
anodyne, stimulant, and antispasmodic. The spirit of chloroform, 1 
fluid ounce of chloroform to 19 fluid ounces of rectified spirit, is given in 
doses of 20 to 60 drops; the compound tincture, 2 fluid ounces of chloro- 
form, 8 fluid ounces of rectified spirit, and 10 fluid ounces of compound 
tincture of cardamoms, in doses of 26 to 60 drops. The liniment is 
composed of equal parts of chloroform and liniment of camphor, and is 
used as an ansesthetic application in neuralgia, rheumatism, painful 
tumors, etc. 
The power which chloroform possesses of producing "anaesthesia," 
or insensibility to pain, when inhaled, is now too universally known to 
require comment. It is, however, too potent an agent to be trusted in 
unprofessional hands, except, indeed, under direct medical sanction and 
direction in each particular case. In the more painful and larger opera- 
tions of surgery it is one of the greatest boons conferred upon suffering 
humanity, and its use tends to diminish the average mortality after 
them; in the case of minor operations, however, such as tooth-drawing, 
it becomes a question whether its employment is advisable; fatal cases 
have followed its inhalation, and although these have been in very small 
proportion compared with the numbers in which it is daily and hourly 
administered, still the fact of their having occurred, is sufficient to make 
us pause before incurring even the remote chance of so serious a result, 
for the sake of avoiding a momentary though sharp pain. Moreover, 
cases do occur, in which very disagreeable effects, such as headache, 
sickness, hysteria, etc., have succeeded the use of chloroform. Noone 
should ever be tempted to inhale this agent, without being certain 
beforehand that no tendency to organic disease exists, especially of the 
heart or lungs. 
Although not suited for domestic use as inhaled, chloroform may be 
employed with perfect safety and much advantage, as an external appli- 
cation in painful affections, of the nerves especially, such as neuralgia 
and toothache. For this purpose, a piece of linen or lint, of a size 
proportioned to the part affected, is to be soaked in the fluid, and 
applied to the skin, covered with some material, such as oiled silk, to 
prevent quick evaporation. It destroys the silk-in the course of a few 
seconds, it produces an intense but scarcely disagreeable burning sensa- 
tion, which continues until the fluid is all dispersed. In many cases the 
neuralgic pain disappears at once. When the covering is removed, the 
portion of skin to which the chloroform has been applied is found much CHLOROFORM-CHLOROSIS, OR ANAEMIA. 
391 
reddened, sometimes slightly blistered. A small portion of cotton wool 
soaked in chloroform will, sometimes, if placed in the cavity, allay the 
pain of toothache. Chloroform, taken into the stomach, has been found 
useful in spasmodic diseases, asthma, hysteria, etc., and might be 
administered, in the absence of other remedies, in doses of from 6 to 10 
drops, with 1 teaspoonful of brandy or whiskey in 3 tablespoonfuls of water. 
The best covering for lint soaked in chloroform when used to the skin is 
very thin tin foil, which is of course, unaffected by the agent, like oiled 
silk or gutta-percha. A most excellent and safe mode of using chloro- 
form internally, is in the form of julep, that is, dissolved in water. If 
£ a dram by measure of chloroform be well shaken in a bottle, with 20 
ounces, or 1 medicinal pint of water, it is exactly dissolved. The resulting 
mixture is an extremely pleasant stimulant and anodyne, and may be 
given in doses of from 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, or even a little more. (See 
Anaesthetics ; Ethek, Sulphuric ; Laughing-Gas. ) 
CHLOROSIS, OR ANAEMIA, Ido-ro'-sis mne'-me-q [Gr. chloros, 
green], commonly called green sickness. A disease to which young 
females are subject, and which is characterized by a peculiar sallow or 
greenish-yellow hue of the countenance, and hence known as the green 
sickness. 
Causes.-Chlorosis or anaemia may arise from accidental causes, 
such as deficient nourishment, unhealthy situation, extreme loss of 
blood, or may be of constitutional origin. In the former case, it is gen- 
erally quickly recovered from, if the constitution be a good one, under 
the use of iron and good living; in the latter case, it often requires long 
and patient perseverance in these and other means to effect a cure. The 
primary cause of chlorosis, or anaemia, is still obscure, but the direct 
cause of the symptoms is undoubtedly poverty of the blood. 
Symptoms.-It is usually attended with great debility, palpitation 
of the heart, difficulty of breathing, pains in the back and loins, very 
heavy sleep, headache, mental debility, impaired, capricious, or de- 
praved appetite, constipated bowels, swelling of the feet, general lan- 
guor and listlessness, and other distressing symptoms; the monthly 
secretion is either absent or very pale. 
Treatment.- To improve the vital fluid must be the great aim of 
treatment. The bowels should be kept open, not purged, by some mild 
aperient, such as the compound rhubarb, or colocynth pill, and 10 drops 
of the muriated tincture of iron, or 2 grains of the ammonio-tartrate of 
iron, given in a wine-glassful of water twice or three times a day. If the 
salicine, appetite is deficient, and does not improve, a dose of tonic bitter, 
quinine, or gentian, (which see) must be given along with, or substituted 
for 1 dose of iron. Cod-liver oil is also useful. The diet must be gem 392 
CHLOROSIS, OR ANAEMIA-CHOKE-DAMP. 
erous; meat twice a-day, eggs if preferred, puddings in small proportion, 
and bread partly substituted for vegetables. Malt liquor, porter, or 
beer, to the extent of one of the usual pint bottles, may be taken, in 
divided portions, daily, or a couple of glasses of port-wine, if the former 
disagrees. The patient ought to retire to rest by ten o'clock, and to 
rise, as a general rule, by half-past seven, but ought never to delay 
breakfast beyond the mere time required for dressing; going out before 
the meal is quite out of the question, and, indeed, in some cases, where 
there is a tendency to fainting, it is better to have a cup of coffee, or 
warm milk, before rising, and even to this, as a temporary remedy, it may 
be requisite to add a teaspoonful of brandy or other spirit. The skin 
must be attended to, but by tepid sponging only. The bed should be a 
hair mattress. Exercise in the open air, on foot or horseback, must be 
regular, but not carried beyond comfortable fatigue. Change of air to the 
sea-side, or to a chalybeate spring, is of great service. Mothers are 
often anxious about the non-appearance of the monthly discharge; its 
absence is but a symptom of the disease, and it is better that the con- 
stitution should not be drained even by it, until it is able to support 
it. Such are the general rules respecting anaemia, but a confirmed case 
should always be submitted to the medical man-causes may be aggra- 
vating, or effects such as consumption, springing from the disease, 
which he only can detect. Moreover, in extreme cases of this disease, 
sudden death has occurred. (See Chalybeate Springs, Mineral 
Waters, Iron, Quinine, Salicine, Gentiana, Citrate of Iron and 
Strychnia, Menstruation. ) 
CHOCOLATE. (See Cocoa.) 
CHOKE-CHERRY. (See Cerasus.) 
CHOKE-DAMP, tshoke-damp [Ang.-Sax.]. Choke-damp is a name 
given by miners to carbonic acid, as distinguished from fire-damp, which 
is carburetted hydrogen. Choke-damp is met with in rooms where 
charcoal is burnt, and where there is not sufficient draft to allow it to 
escape ; in coal-pits, near lime-kilns, in breweries, and in rooms and 
houses where a great many people live huddled together in wretched- 
ness and filth, and where the air in consequence becomes poisoned. 
This gas gives out no smell, so that we cannot know of its presence. A 
candle will not burn in a room which contains much of it. 
Effects.-At first there is giddiness, and a great wish to sleep; after 
a little time, or where there is much of it present, a person feels great 
weight in the head and becomes stupid; gets by degrees quite unable 
to move, and snores as if in a deep sleep. The limbs may or may not 
be stiff. The heat of the body remains much the same as at first. 
Treatment.-Remove the person affected into the open air, and, CHOKE-DAMP-CHOLERA, ASIATIC, ETC. 
393 
even though it is cold weather, take off his clothes. Then lay him on 
his back, with his head slightly raised. Having done this, dash vinegar 
and water over the whole of the body, and rub it hard, especially the 
face and chest, with towels dipped in the same mixture. The hands 
and feet also should be rubbed with a hard brush. Apply smelling- 
salts to the nose, which may be tickled with a feather. Dashing cold 
water down the middle of the back is of great service. If the person 
can swallow, give him a little lemon water or vinegar and water to 
drink. The principal means, however, to be employed in this, as, in 
fact, in most cases of apparent suffocation, is what is called artificial 
breathing. This operation should be performed by three persons, and 
in the following manner: The first person should put the nozzle of a 
common pair of bellows into one of the patient's nostrils ; the second 
should push down, and then thrust back, that part of the throat called 
"Adam's apple; " and the third should first raise and then depress the 
chest, one hand being placed over each side of the ribs. These three 
actions should be performed in the following order: First of all, the 
throat should be drawn down and thrust back; then the chest should be 
raised, and the bellows gently blown into the nostril. Directly this is 
done, the chest should be depressed, so as to imitate common breathing. 
This process should be repeated about eighteen times a minute. The 
mouth and the other nostril should be closed while the bellows are 
being blown. Persevere, if necessary, with this treatment for seven or 
eight hours-in fact, until the patient revives, or absolute signs of death 
are visible. Many lives are lost by giving it up too quickly. When 
the patient becomes roused, he is to be put into a warm bed, and 20 
drops of sal-volatile given cautiously now and then; or if this cannot be 
had, a little brandy and water, or whiskey and water, may be given in 
like manner. This treatment is to be adopted in all cases where people 
are affected from breathing bad air, smells, etc. (See Respiration, 
Carbonic Acid, Drowning.) 
CHOKING. (See Foreign Bodies in Air Passages, Suffocation, 
Asphyxia, Foreign Bodies in Gullet, Accidents.) 
CHOLAGOGUE, kol'-a-gog, a term applied to purgative medicines 
which bring away a quantity of bile. (See Cathartics.) 
CHOLEIC ACID. (See Bile.) 
CHOLERA, ASIATIC, OR MALIGNANT, Icol-e-ra [Gr. Me, 
bile, and rheo, I flow]. This is an epidemic disease consisting of vomit- 
ing and purging, and in some respects resembling bilious cholera, but 
differing from it by the early supervention of collapse, the great mor- 
tality, and the suppression of bile and urine. 
Causes.-Cholera is due to the presence of some poison in the blood. 394 
CHOLERA, ASIATIC, ETC. 
The general theory of the disease is, that the symptoms of collapse 
are due to the violent purging, and constant retching and vomiting, but 
some deny this fact, and maintain that they are due to some obstruction 
to the circulation through the large vessels leading to the lungs; and 
that the suppression of bile and urine, the black color of the blood, and 
the coldness of the surface of the body may be accounted for by the 
diminished oxygenation going on in the system. Some cases have been 
traced to the use of impure drinking water, or unwholesome food, and 
in all neighborhoods where the disease is rife, the water supply should 
be carefully examined. This deadly malady is contagious, and may be 
conveyed from person to person through the medium of air or water. 
Dr. Pettenkoffer, of Munich, believes that the subtle poison acts like a 
ferment. Anything tending to debilitate the system will act as a pre- 
disposing cause of cholera, such as intemperance, uncleanliness, inhala- 
tion of impure air, long-continued abstinence; and during the epidemic 
no drastic purgatives should be taken, for fear of laying the foundation 
for this epidemic distemper. At such times all cases of diarrhoea should 
be looked upon with suspicion. 
Death may take place from exhaustion, or there may be hemorrhage 
from the bowels; in some cases the system becomes poisoned with the 
retained excreta. The mortality of the disease is fearful, for when the 
second stage is arrived at, nearly half die. 
Symptoms.-This disease is divided by scientific writers into three 
stages, each attended by its own symptoms ; the first is that of diarrhoea, 
and is marked by nausea, vomiting, and purging; in the second stage, 
or that of collapse, the surface of the body grows cold and blue, the 
features shrink, and the patient shivers; the nails turn blue, and rings 
which just now fitted the fingers tightly, drop off; the voice becomes 
low, weak, and hollow, and is peculiar to this disease, and hence called 
the choleraic voice, or vox cholerica; the eyeballs sink in, the secretion 
of bile and urine is stopped, and the stools look like rice-water, and 
have a peculiar sickly odor. The blood is thick, black, and tarry, there 
are severe cramps in the legs and body, thirst becomes extreme, but the 
intellect remains clear. The third stage is that of consecutive fever, 
accompanied by renal or pulmonary congestion. 
Treatment.-Dr. Watson thinks that the first stage, or that of 
diarrhoea, should be arrested, if possible, by astringents, thus: 
Take of Prepared chalk Two drams. 
Powdered gum acacia Two drams. 
Laudanum One dram. 
Tincture of catechu Half an ounce. 
Pure water Six ounces.-Mix 
Give two tablespoonfuls every four hours. CHOLERA, ASIATIC, ETC. 
395 
Dr. Johnson, on the other hand, says that the vomiting and purging 
on no account should be stopped, but that emetics and mild purgatives 
should be given; and he prefers castor-oil. The diet should be scanty, 
and consist of milk and farinaceous food, sago, rice, arrowroot, gruel, 
tapioca, and oatmeal. When the symptoms of cholera are well marked, 
and the disease has arrived at its second stage-that of collapse-medi- 
cine has very little power over it, as seen in the many drugs which have 
been held up by different medical men as being almost antidotes. 
During the epidemics of cholera, many were the different kinds of 
treatment resorted to; one man trusted to brandy and opium, another 
to bleeding and mustard emetics; some put faith in cajeput-oil and hot 
baths ; while others gave large doses of saline drugs, and in some few 
instances injected hot saline solutions into the blood. Dr. Stevens 
strongly advocated the alkaline treatment, and Dr. Tanner acquiesces in 
his views. The following was his prescription: 
Take of Chloride of sodium Two drams. 
Carbonate of soda Three drams. 
Chlorate of potash Forty-two grains. 
Pure water Six ounces.-Mix. 
Give 2 tablespoonfuls diluted with water every half-hour. 
At the same time mustard poultices were applied to the abdomen, 
and alkaline injections thrown up the bowels. 
Dr. Johnson treats the stage of collapse thus: no food is allowed, 
and only cold water to drink; emetics and mild purgatives are still 
persevered in; and in extreme cases bleeding is had recourse to, to 
relieve the congested state of the pulmonary vessels and the right side 
of the heart. Dr. Watson treated all his cases in the second stage, on 
large doses of calomel. 
In the third stage, or that of consecutive fever, pulmonary engorge- 
ment may be relieved by leeches or cupping, and a mustard poultice 
may be applied. Should the kidneys become congested, the skin and 
bowels may be called into action by diaphoretic and purgative medicines, 
and the patient may have a few leeches applied over the affected organ. 
Prevention.-During the prevalence of cholera, many err in making 
material changes in their ordinary modes of living, and by so disorder- 
ing the regularity of the functions, lay themselves open to attacks of the 
disease. Of course, if a man is aware that he is habitually indulging in 
practices injurious to health, such as intemperance, debauchery, etc., he 
only acts wisely as regards his physical safety, in changing those habits, 
but it is hazardous to alter regular modes of living, which have hitherto 
been found compatible with good health, it being understood, that what- 
ever tends to lower the standard of health, favors the attack of the 396 
CHOLERA, ASIATIC, ETC.-CIIONDRUS. 
disease. There is, however, one important precaution which ought to be 
observed, at all times indeed, but more particularly during the epidemic 
of cholera, the perfect purity of the drinking-water should be ascer- 
tained, and its freedom from all decomposing organic matters made 
certain. Care is also to be observed not to take active purgatives, par- 
ticularly salines, which produce watery evacuation ; if aperient medicine 
is required, it ought to be of a warm character, such as magnesia and 
rhubarb, with some aromatic; for whatever produces free action of the 
bowels, apparently increases the susceptibility to attack. For this 
reason, too, the slightest tendency to diarrhoea should at once be arrested, 
by the aromatic confection or chalk-mixture, repeated as often as 
requisite, with the addition of from 5 to 10 drops of laudanum to each 
dose, and the use of milk and farinaceous preparations, containing gela- 
tine, for food. The following will be found very useful in such cases : 
Take of Confection aromatic One dram. 
Prepared chalk One dram. 
Powdered gum-arabic One dram. 
Pimento-water Two ounces. 
Pure water Four ounces. 
Laudanum Forty drops.-Mix. 
A grown person to take 2 tablespoonfuls for the first dose, and 1 table- 
spoonful after every evacuation of the bowels. Dose for a child between 
five and ten years of age, 1 teaspoonful. 
The speedy adoption of these measures, in places distant from medi- 
cal assistance ; and their enforcement by the clergyman or some intelli- 
gent individual, might do much to check the disease. Should the 
astringents above recommended fail, 3 or 4 doses of acetate of lead and 
opium might be given by a careful person, 3 grains of the former to 1 of 
the latter, repeated every four or six hours. (See Chlorodyne, Health, 
Sanitary Science, Autumnal Complaints.) 
CHOLERA INFANTUM. (See Summer Complaint.) 
CHOLERA MORBUS. (See Bilious Cholera.) 
CHOLESTERINE, kolas'de-rin, is a crystalline fatty matter found 
in the bile, nerves, brain, and blood, and forming almost the entire sub- 
stance of gall-stones. It is tasteless and inodorous, insoluble in water, 
but soluble in alcohol and ether. It consists of C26II22O. According to 
Dr. Flint, of New York, cholesterin is a product of the destructive 
assimilation of the nervous tissue, being absorbed from the substance of 
the brain and nerves by the blood, and eliminated by the liver. 
CHONDRUS, kon'-drus., in Botany, a genus of Algae. The most 
important species is C. crispus, commonly called carrageen, or Irish 
moss, which is used medicinally for its nutritive, emollient, and demul- 
cent properties, being administered in the form of a decoction or jelly. CIIONDR US- CICATRIX. 
397 
C. 'mamiUosus^ which has similar properties, is always found in the car- 
rageen moss kept at the stores. 
CHORDEE. (See Gonorrhcea.) 
CHOREA. (See Saint Vitus's Dance.) 
CHROMIC ACID, kro'-mik (CrO3). This acid occurs in nature in 
combination with lead as chrome yellow, and with iron as chrome iron- 
ore. It is prepared by adding 1 measure of a warm saturated solution 
of bichromate of potash to 1^ of concentrated sulphuric acid. The 
acid is added in small portions at a time, the solution being allowed to 
cool between each addition. Chromic acid crystallizes out, and bisul- 
phate of potash remains in solution. Although chromic acid is one of 
the most powerful oxidizing agents known, it is easily decomposed by 
light and organic substances. The most useful of the compounds of 
chromic acid is the bichromate of potash, which forms fine red tubular 
crystals, which are anhydrous, and remain unchanged by exposure to the 
air. Both the chromate and the bichromate are extensively used in dye- 
ing and calico-printing. Chromic acid is a powerful caustic, and is some- 
times applied to cancerous and other ulcerations. Its action is slower 
and more gradual, and it is said to cause much less pain than other 
similar applications, but it is deeply penetrating in its nature, and 
recpiires to be carefully used. 
CHRONIC, kron-ik [Gr. chromos, time], a term applied in Medicine 
to such diseases as are of long duration, as contra-distinguished from 
acute-those that soon terminate either in recovery or death. 
CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. (See Bronchitis, Chronic.) 
CHRONIC CATARRH. (See Catarrh, Chronic.) 
CHRONIC CATARRH OF THE CHEST, OR CHRONIC BRON- 
CHITIS. (See Bronchitis, Chronic.) 
CHRONIC DIARRHCEA. (See Diarrikea.) 
CHYLE, kile [Gr. chulos, juice], is the milk-like fluid which is formed 
by the action of the bile and pancreatic juice upon the chyme in the 
duodenum, and absorbed by the lacteal vessels. The use of the chyle is 
to supply the matter from which the blood is formed and the waste of 
the living organs repaired. (See Digestion.) 
CHYLOPOETIC, ki-lo-po-et'-ik^ is a term applied to the viscera 
which assist in the formation of the chyle. 
CHYME, kime [Gr. chumos^ juice], is the ingested mass formed by 
the action of the stomach upon the food, and which passes from the 
stomach into the duodenum. (See Digestion.) 
CICATRIX, se-kd-triks [Gr. for a scar], is the scar or mark left upon 
the skin or upon an internal organ, at the place where separation of 
substance, either from violence or ulceration, has been healed. 398 
CICATRIZATION- CINCHONA. 
CICATRIZATION, sik-a-tre-zd-shun [Lat. cicatrico, I heal up], is a 
term applied to the healing or skinning over of an ulcer or broken sur- 
face of the skin. 
CICER, si'-ser [from Gr. kikus, strength, in reference to its quali- 
ties], a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Leguminosoe, sub- 
order Papilionaceoe. C. Arietinum, a native of the countries around 
the Mediterranean, produces the edible seeds called chick-peas. These 
are extensively used as food, either boiled or roasted, and are the most 
common parched pulse of the East. The herbage affords a nutritious 
food for cattle. 
CICHORIUM. (See Chicory.) 
CIDER, OR CYDER, si'-dur [Fr. cidre\, the expressed and fer- 
mented juice of apples. The apples are reduced to a pulp, then placed 
under a press ; the screw is turned slowly and the juice exudes, flowing 
into a tub; from this it is poured into casks placed in a position where 
there is a free current of air. The liquor ferments, and the clear cider 
is drawn off from time to time: this is again racked until it is perfectly 
clear. Cider requires great care in keeping, being apt to turn sour. It 
is largely used as a beverage, contains from 5 to 9 per cent, of 
alcohol, and is therefore intoxicating when largely partaken of. It is 
largely drunk in some localities exposed to malaria, the malic acid it con- 
tains being supposed to act as a prevention to ague. Good cider vinegar 
is useful when sponged over the surface of the body, to allay itching. 
CILIUM, sil'-e-um [Lat.], is a name given in Anatomy to the eyelid 
or eyelash, and hence the term ciliary is applied to the arteries, glands, 
etc., belonging to the eyelids. (See Eye.) 
CINCHONA, sin-ko'-nq, the typical genus of the Nat. order Cin- 
chonacew. The plants of this genus are natives of the intertropical 
valleys of the Andes, and are found principally on the eastern face of 
the Cordilleras, growing commonly at heights varying from about 4,000 
to nearly 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. The plants are small 
shrubs or large forest trees, with evergreen leaves, and commonly showy 
flowers. They appear to require great moisture, and a mean tempera- 
ture of about 62°. The cultivation of these plants has lately been com- 
menced in India with every prospect of success. The barks of several 
species and varieties are extensively used in medicine, and are undoubtedly 
the most valuable drugs known. They are imported into this country 
under the names of Cinchona, Peruvian, Crown, and Jesuits' bark. 
Over thirty different varieties have been described. The most important 
are Loxa, pale or crown bark; Calisaya, or yellow bark; and red bark. 
These three are officinal, and are the principal sources of the precious 
alkaloids quinia or quinine, cinchonia or cinchonine, and quinidia, CINCHONA. 
399 
which are all used in Medicine, and possess in an eminent degree tonic, 
febrifugal, and anti-periodic properties. The barks themselves have 
similar properties, and are, moreover, slightly astringent. The name 
cinchona was given to the genus by Linnaeus, in compliment to the 
Countess of Cinchon, whose husband was the viceroy of Peru. She had 
derived great benefit from the bark during her residence in South 
America; and on her return to Europe, in 1639, she took with her 
several specimens. The native names, curiously enough, are very 
similar to the scientific one, being qinquino and quina-quina. The 
medicinal use of the bark was first made known in Europe by the Jesuits, 
hence the common name Jesuits' bark. Cinchona is tonic, and some- 
what astringent, and, topically, antiseptic. It has succeeded well in 
cases of debility, from exhausting and protracted diseases, and in that 
languid and prostrate condition of the system prevalent during the heat 
of spring and summer months, when a general tonic is necessary. It is 
valuable in functional derangements of the stomach, improving digestion, 
and invigorating the nervous and muscular systems in diseases of general 
debility, and in convalescence from exhausting diseases. As a tonic it 
will be found of advantage in measles, small-pox, scarlet fever, during the 
absence of fever or inflammation, also in cases when the system is 
exhausted by purulent discharges. It may likewise be used in all 
chronic diseases attended with debility, as scrofula, dropsy, obstinate 
skin diseases, etc. To obtain the anti-periodic influence, the red and 
yellow barks are considered superior to the pale, while the pale is pre- 
ferred as a tonic. All the varieties of cinchona are tonic, astringent and 
anti-periodic, and are, of all medicines of their class, the most powerful 
and uniform in their action. They owe their astringency to the presence 
of cincho-tannic and red cinchoric acids. Their tonic and anti-peri- 
odic properties are due to the alkaloids, particularly the quinine, in 
which they abound. Peculiarity in the action of the different kinds of 
bark depends on the proportions in which the alkaloids are present in 
them. The powder of cinchona bark is given in doses of 10 to 60 
grains, but in general it is better administered in one of the many forms 
in which it is prepared. The infusion is formed by infusing $ ounce of 
the powder for two hours in 10 fluid ounces of boiling distilled or rain 
water, and then straining; dose, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. Decoction, Boil for 
ten minutes If ounce of the powder in 1 pint of distilled or rain water, 
strain and add water to make up 1 pint of product; dose, 1 to 2 fluid 
ounces. Tincture of cinchona, 4 ounces of powder to 1 pint of proof 
spirit; dose, £ to 2 teaspoonfuls; dose of the fluid extract of cinchona, 
| to 1 teaspoonful. To be taken three or four times a day. (See 
Quinine, Cinciionia, Ague, etc.) 400 
CINCHONA COMPOUND- CINNANONUN. 
CINCHONA COMPOUND, sin-kd-nq> konk-pound. Compounded 
of cinchona, orange peel, gentian, serpentaria, cloves, and red saunders. 
This combination of tonics has met with the entire approbation of all 
who have used it, in cases of debility arising from the weakening and 
exhaustion of the hot season, in dyspepsia, and in that debilitated con- 
dition of the system consequent to severe sickness, as well as accom- 
panying chronic complaints. In these cases Nature needs assistance, 
and only a gentle assistance, that she may bring the system back to its 
normal state, and give an increased vitality to the functions. In that 
enfeebled state of the system consequent to old age, a slight tonic 
stimulant is necessary, and in such cases the best results have followed 
from the use of the cinchona compound. It is applicable, indeed, to 
all cases when the cinchona alone would be administered. Dose of 
fluid extract cinchona compound, £ to 1 teaspoonful, three or four times 
a day. 
CINCHONIA, OR CINCHONINE, sin-kd-ne-a, sin-ko-nin^ is an 
alkaloid resembling quinine, but less energetic in its action, found in 
the different species of cinchona. The muriate and sulphate of cin- 
chonine, as well as cinchonine itself, have of late been much recom- 
mended as substitutes for quinine. They have certainly this advan- 
tage, that they are much cheaper, but pretty extensive experience of 
them in hospital practice has not warranted physicians in coming to 
the conclusion that they are to be considered at all equal to quinine, 
either as tonics, or as antiperiodic remedies. Some patients complain 
of low and depressing sensations after taking cinchonine or its salts. 
There can be no doubt, however, that they are worthy of a more 
extensive trial than they have yet received at the hands of the medical 
profession. Quinine is such an expensive remedy, that of course, it 
would be a great boon to the poor if a cheap substitute equally effica- 
cious could be obtained, and it is far from improbable that some of 
the preparations of cinchonine may be found, which will take its 
place. Dose, 5 to 15 grains, three times a day. (See Alkaloids, Cin- 
chona. ) 
CINERITIOUS, sin-e-risk'-us [Lat. cineritlus^ resembling ashes], 
is a term applied to the exterior substance of the brain on account of its 
ashy appearance. 
CINNAMOMUM, sin-na-mo'-mum [Lat.], a genus of plants belong- 
ing to the Nat. order Lauracem, including many species remarkable for 
their aromatic properties. C. zeylanicum^ the cinnamon-tree, a native 
of Ceylon, is extensively cultivated in that island, also on the Malabar 
coast, in Java and Cayenne, for the sake of the aromatic bark of the 
young branches, which forms the true cinnamon of commerce. Cinna- CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
(Heart, Lungs, Arteries and Veins). CLNNAAIOMUAI-CLRCULATLON OF THE BLOOD. 
401 
mon is much employed as a spice, and medicinally as a cordial, stimu- 
lant, carminative, astringent, antispasmodic agent, and as an adjunct to 
other medicines. It owes its properties to the presence of a volatile-oil 
and tannin. The volatile-oil is imported from Ceylon, where it is 
obtained from the rejected bark by distillation. It is known by the 
name of oil of cinnamon, and is used medicinally as a stimulant, and by 
cooks and confectioners for flavoring. Cinnamon water is prepared by 
taking 20 ounces of the bruised bark with 2 gallons of water and distilling 
1 gallon. The tincture of cinnamon is made of 2£ ounces of the bark 
in coarse powder and 1 pint of proof-spirit, macerated for forty-eight 
hours, passed through a percolator, and then filtered. Dose, to 2 tea- 
spoonfuls. C. cassia, a native of China, yields the cassia bark of com- 
merce, which possesses analogous properties to those of cinnamon. 
From this bark the fragrant oil of cassia is obtained. The cassia buds 
of commerce, which are now much used as a condiment, are said to be 
the flower-buds of this plant. Several other species of cinnamomum 
yield aromatic barks. 
CINNAMON. (See Cinnamomum.) 
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD, ser-hu-la -shun [Lat. circulus, 
a circle], is the course of the blood through the body, from the heart to the 
capillaries, and from the capillaries back again to the heart. The several 
organs of circulation are the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. By 
the heart the blood is propelled through the arteries to all parts of the 
body. The capillaries are very minute vessels, connecting the extremi- 
ties of the arteries with those of the veins; and by the veins the blood 
is returned again to the heart. The heart is composed of two distinct 
cavities, separated from each other by a partition or septum, and termed 
the right and left sides of the heart; the right being also termed the 
venous or pulmonic heart, the left the arterial or systemic heart. Each 
of these sides is subdivided into two cavities, the superior being termed 
the auricle, the inferior the ventricle. The blood which has been dis- 
tributed by the arteries through the different parts of the body, passes 
from them, by means of the capillaries, into the veins. The veins from 
the lower part of the body empty themselves into the inferior vena cava, 
and those from the upper part into the superior vena cava, and both 
pour their contents into the right auricle. This contracts, and forces 
the blood into the right ventricle, which, in turn, forces it through the 
pulmonary artery to the lungs, where, by the action of the air, the 
venous blood is purified and changed into arterial. It is then conveyed 
by the four pulmonary veins into the left auricle, whence it passes into 
the left ventricle, from which it is propelled into the aorta, and by this 
means distributed to all parts of the body. The pulse which is felt in 402 
CIR GELATION OF THE BLOOD- CITRA TE OFIR ON. 
the arteries is caused by the action of the heart propelling the blood in 
waves through the body. The discovery of the circulation of the blood 
is due to Dr. Harvey, afterwards physician to Charles I.; the opinion 
previous to his time being, that the blood circulated only in the veins, 
and that the arteries, from being always found empty after death, con- 
tained nothing but air; and hence their name. Although the forces 
which circulate blood, namely, the muscular propelling power of the 
heart, the muscular and elastic contractility of the arterial coats, and 
the suction power exerted within the chest, are sufficient of themselves, 
during health, to maintain the vital current, which flows, and must flow 
from the first moment of life until death; their power and efficiency is 
much assisted by the muscular movements of the body, by exercise, 
which, quickening the respiration and the action of the heart, sends the 
blood with increased force and frequency throughout the frame, and 
stimulates every function to increased action. Thus, provision has been 
made by the Creator, that whilst the powers which circulate the blood 
can, of themselves, carry on that necessary process sufficiently to pre- 
serve life; high health and vigor can only be attained by the active 
exercise of our limbs. In the aged, and in those exhausted by disease, 
who are long confined to a horizontal posture, the circulating powers 
become too feeble to overcome the force of gravity, and the blood tends 
to accumulate, more particularly in the lungs, in the most dependent 
part; for this reason, change of posture is advisable. (See Artery, 
Veins, Blood, Heart, Respiration, Oxygen, Carbonic Acid, Air, etc.) 
CISSAMPELOS, sis-san!-pel-os [Gr. kissos, ivy; ampelos^ a vine], 
a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Menispermaceoe. The 
root of C. Pareira, a climbing plant indigenous in Brazil, is an article 
of our Materia Medica, and is commonly known as Pareira brava. It 
possesses bitter, tonic, and diuretic properties, which are chiefly due to 
the presence of an uncrystallizable alkaloid named cissampeline or pelo- 
sine. Its main use in medicine has been in chronic inflammation, or 
catarrh of the bladder. Taste at first sweetish and aromatic, afterwards 
intensely bitter. The decoction is formed of 1^ ounces of the root sliced 
and boiled for fifteen minutes in a pint of distilled water and afterwards 
strained. Dose, 1 to 2 fluid ounces. The extract is formed by digesting 
for twenty-four hours 1 pound of the root in coarse powder with a pint of 
boiling distilled water, percolating, and adding more boiling water until a 
gallon of the liquid has passed, then evaporating the liquor until the 
extract is of a consistence suitable for making pills. Dose, 10 to 20 
grains. The liquid extract is formed by adding 3 fluid ounces of recti- 
fied spirit to the above. Dose, £ to 2 teaspoonfuls. 
CITRATE OF IRON, sit!-rat Purn [Lat. citreum, the citron], is a CITRATE OF IRON-CITRATE OF SODA. 
403 
compound of iron and citric acid. It is an elegant and pleasant form, 
and may be given in solution in water in 2 or 8 grain doses. It becomes 
moist if exposed to the action of the air. (See Ikon.) 
CITRATE OF IRON AND STRYCHNIA, sit'-rat, i'm, strik'- 
ne-q. This is one of the best of the tonic and strengthening chalybeate 
preparations. It is very useful in cases of nervous debility, accompanied 
with uterine derangement; and also in cases of anaemia, or deficiency of 
blood, with debility, languor, and lowness of spirits. It is a beautiful, 
sparkling salt, of a rich, purplish brown color. The following prescrip- 
tion may be taken as a good example of the way of administering it; 
and if it agree, the dose may be doubled with advantage : 
Take of Citrate of iron and strychnia One scruple. 
Chloric ether One dram. 
Water Half a pint.-Mix. 
2 tablespoonfuls to be taken three times a day. 
For those who dislike a sweet taste, the chloric ether maybe omitted; 
and if it be desired to give an acid tonic, 2 drams of dilute nitric acid 
may be substituted for the chloric ether. It may also be given in the 
form of pill if required. It has been used in the treatment of paralysis 
of certain kinds. One hundred grains of the salt contain only one grain 
of strychnia. Dose, 3 to 5 grains for an adult. (See Iron, StrycTinia.) 
CITRATE OF MAGNESIA, sit'-rat, mag-no'-zhe-q, a popular and 
effective medicine when cooling aperients are needed, and in large doses 
acts as a mild cathartic. The effervescing properties of this elegant pre- 
paration are retained in granular form, preserving the flavor as a palat- 
able saline draught. As an aperient or purgative it is pleasant to the 
taste, unobjectionable to the most delicate organization, mild but certain 
in its operation, and has a popularity unequalled by any other of its class 
of medicines. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls dissolved in 2 fluid ounces of water 
act as an aperient. Larger doses are required to produce a purgative 
operation. (See Magnesia, Concretion.) 
CITRATE OF POTASH, sit'-rat, pot'-ash. This salt is used medi- 
cinally, in the form of the common effervescing saline draught, made 
with citric acid and carbonate of potash. It is useful in allaying irritabil- 
ity of the stomach and vomiting, and is a slight diaphoretic. Dose, 20 
to 60 grains in water. (See Potash, Effervescence.) 
CITRATE OF QUININE AND IRON, sit'-rat, kwe-nine', kwi'- 
nine, or qwin-ine, i-urn, is a compound of iron, citric acid, and quinine, 
and is an elegant and highly useful form of tonic; it may be given in 
doses of 5 or 10 grains in solution in water. (See Iron, Quinine.) 
CITRATE OF SODA, sit'-rat, so'-da. A scruple of carbonate of 
soda, neutralized by a sufficient quantity of lemon-juice, or 10 grains of 404 
CITRATE OF SODA-CITRUS. 
citric acid, forms an effervescing draught, which has nearly the same 
effects as that made with citrate of potash. (See Soda Effervescence.) 
CITRIC ACID, sit'-rik as-id, is found principally in the lemon, 
orange, and other members of the Aurantiaceoe family. It also 
occurs in other acid fruits, such as the gooseberry, raspberry, strawberry, 
and tamarind. It is procured by neutralizing lemon or lime-juice with 
chalk, and decomposing the insoluble citrate thus formed with sulphuric 
acitL Citric acid is very soluble in water. It crystallizes in transparent, 
colorless, rhombic prisms, which have an agreeable acid taste. Com- 
binations of citric acid with iron and ammonia are much used in medi- 
cine; and it is also used in the preparation of effervescing draughts. 
The properties which render lemon-juice a remedy against scurvy are 
due to the presence of citric acid. 
CITRINE OINTMENT, sit'-rin oint'-ment [ Unguentum Citrinum 
or Ilydrargyri Nitratis, Ointment of Nitrate of Afer cury\\s, formed of 
4 ounces by weight of mercury dissolved in 12 fluid ounces of nitric acid, 
and adding 15 ounces of prepared lard, melted in 32 fluid ounces of olive- 
oil. This is a valuable stimulant application, particularly in chronic 
inflammation of the eyes, when it is a*pplied to the eyelids. It is also 
used in various diseases of the skin, as well as to foul and indolent 
ulcers. In its ordinary form it is too strong; and should be mixed with 
once or twice its weight in lard. Iron utensils or spatulas must not be 
used in its manipulation. It is an ointment which very quickly spoils. 
CITRUS, sit'-rus [said to be from the town Citron, in Judea], in 
Botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Nat. order Aurantiaceoe. 
The different species and varieties of this genus yield the fruits known 
under the names of orange, lemon, lime, shaddock, pompelmoose, 
forbidden fruit, kumkuat, and citron. The species of C. Aurantium, 
and its varieties, produce all the various descriptions of sweet oranges, 
the most important of which are the St. Michael's, the blood-red, the 
Maltese, and the common oranges. C. Bigaradia, or vulgaris, yields 
the bitter or Seville orange. By distilling the rind of the ripe sweet 
orange with water, a fragrant oil, named essential oil of sweet orange, is 
obtained. The rind itself is used in medicine as an aromatic, stimulant, 
and tonic. The juice of the fruit forms a refreshing beverage, and in 
medicine a valuable refrigerant. The bitter orange is chietiy used for 
making marmalade. Its rind yields a volatile oil called essential oil of 
bitter orange, and is used medicinally, and for making candied orange 
peel. C. Limonum and its varieties produce the fruits called lemons, 
the chief varieties of which are the wax-lemon, the imperial lemon, and 
the Gaeta lemon. Both the rind and juice are employed in medicine, 
the former as an aromatic and stomachic, and the latter for its refrigerant CITRUS-CLAY. 
405 
and anti-scorbutic effects. The juice contains a large quantity of citric 
acid, and is extensively used for flavoring, and to form the refreshing 
beverage called lemonade. The rind contains a large quantity of 
essential oil, which is obtained from it by expression or by distillation, 
and is known as the essential oil, or essence of lemon. This oil is prin- 
cipally used as a flavoring agent in confectionery and in medicine, and 
occasionally in perfumery. C. Limetta is the source of the lime. This 
fruit is generally imported into this country in a preserved state, and in 
that condition it forms a most agreeable dessert. Its juice is also 
imported, and largely employed, with that of the lemon, in the prepara- 
tion of citric acid. C. medico, yields the fruit called the citron, which is 
supposed to be the Hebrew tappuach^ translated in the English version 
of the Old Testament "apple." The rind of the citron is imported in 
a preserved state, and is used in confectionery. The pulp is less acid 
and juicy than that of the lemon. The citron, lime, and lemon, are dis- 
tinguished from the orange by their adherent rinds, their most lengthened 
form, and by the occurrence of a more or less prominent protuberance 
at the apex. (See Lemon, Orange, Citric Acid.) 
CITY AIR. (See Air.) 
CITY HEALTH. (See Air.) 
CLAIRVOYANCE. (See Mesmerism.) 
CLARET, Idar'-et [Fr. clairet^ from clair^ clear], a name commonly 
used in this country, to denote the light red wines of France. Clairet, 
in France, signifies those wines which are red or rose-colored; but the 
word as used by us to denote every description of light red wine, is 
unknown in France. Claret is one of the most wholesome of the light 
wines. It contains 15.10 per cent, of alcohol. In convalescence, from 
acute fevers, in which wine is admissible, but where there exists tendency 
to fever from slight causes, claret is most useful, and preferable to the 
stronger and heavier wines. In diabetes, claret has been recommended 
as superior to every other form of stimulant. (See Wine.) 
CLAVICLE, OR COLLAR-BONE, Ida/v'-e-ld [Lat. clavicula^ from 
clavis, a key], is the bone which extends horizontally from the sternum 
to the scapula, and serves to keep the shoulders apart, that the arms may 
enjoy a freer and wider range of motion. It takes its name from its 
resemblance to the ancient Roman key, and is curved somewhat in the 
form of an italic f. Its sternal end is thick, strong, and expanded, 
while the acromial end is broad and flattened, and presents an oblong 
surface, in order to articulate with the acromion process of the scapula. 
(See Anatomy, Shoulder.) 
CLAY, Ida, as a Dressing for Fietid Sores.-It is well to know 
that, when no other substance-such as charcoal-can be obtained, clay 406 
CLAY- CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT. 
poultices may be applied to sores, the discharge from which is of an 
offensive nature. The clay must be used only after having been finely 
powdered, and after all impurities are removed; and it may be employed 
either alone or mixed with bread, linseed-meal, or the materials com- 
monly used in the making of any ordinary poultice. Dr. Schreber of 
Leipsic recommends the use of clay as the most "energetic, the most 
innocent, the most simple, and the most economical of palliative appli- 
cations to surfaces yielding foul and moist discharges." lie moreover 
considers that it has a specific action in accelerating the cure. Clay 
softened down in water, and freed from all gritty particles, is laid, layer 
by layer, over the affected part, to the thickness of about a sixteenth of 
an inch. If it become dry and fall off, fresh layers are to be applied to 
the cleansed surface. The irritating secretion is rapidly absorbed by the 
clay, and contact of air prevented. The cure thus goes on rapidly. 
This clay ointment has decisive action in cases of foetid perspiration of 
the feet or arm-pits. A single layer applied in the morning will destroy 
all odor for the day. It remains a long time supple, and the pieces 
which fall off in fine powder produce no inconvenience. Nothing cer- 
tainly could be more simple than the above method. It may be applied 
by means of a feather or a camel's hair pencil, care being taken not to 
put on too much at a time, but rather to apply it in fine layers. 
CLEANLINESS. (See Ablution, Baths, Skin; Skin, Diseases of 
the; Teeth, Clothing, Flannel, Health, Sanitary Science, etc.) 
CLEAVERS. (See Galium Aparine.) 
CLEMATIS VIRGINIANA, klem'-a-tis ver - jin-e-an-a, or virgin 
bower. A climbing perennial plant belonging to the Nat. order 
Ranunculaceoe. It is a native of the United States, growing on river 
banks, and in moist places from Canada to Georgia. The bark, leaves, 
and blossoms, are the parts used. When applied to the skin in the pure 
state they blister, and sometimes are used for purposes of vesication. 
Used externally in certain cutaneous diseases, and internally it is said 
to possess diuretic and sudorific properties in a high degree. It is 
not, however, very much used. Dose: of the solid extract, 1 to 2 
grains; infusion, 1 to 2 ounces. (See Infusion.) 
CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT, kier'-je-manz \Dysphonia Cleri- 
corurn\. This is in some cases a nervous, but in others an inflammatory 
disease affecting the throat of men who are in the habit of speaking 
much, and so most frequently met with in clergymen, public speakers, 
singers, and actors. It consists of inflammation, and relaxation of the 
mucous membrane lining the back part of the mouth, the soft palate, 
and fauces; the tonsils are somewhat enlarged, and the uvula elongated. 
There is an uneasy sensation in the throat, as if something were lodged CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT-CLIMACTERIC. 
407 
there, and the patient is constantly trying to swallow it; the voice is 
weak, thick, and hoarse, and in some cases scarcely audible. In many 
cases cough harasses the patient, being attended with expectoration of 
mucus. 
Treatment.-If upon examining the throat we find no signs of inflam- 
mation, we should recommend change of air and scene, to the patient, 
and tonics must be given, as quinine and iron, and the cold shower bath 
will be found useful. 
Take of Sulphate of iron Sixteen grains. 
Sulphate of quinine Twelve grains. 
Dilute sulphuric acid One and a half drams. 
Compound tincture of lavender One dram. 
Pure water Eight ounces.-Mix. 
Let 2 tablespoonfuls be taken three times a day. 
In some few cases, when other remedies have failed, bichloride of 
mercury has been successful, and may be given thus: 
Take of Bichloride of mercury Two grains. 
Powdered opium. Five grains. 
Confection of roses Two scruples.-Mix. 
Divide into 16 pills, 1 of which must be taken night and morning. 
Liberal diet must be allowed; and the nervous patient should mix 
freely in society, resting for a short time from his vocal exertions. The 
organs of voice may be swabbed with a solution of nitrate of silver, con- 
taining 1 scruple of this salt to 1 ounce of distilled water; for this 
purpose a camel's hair brush should be used, which is made in the form 
of a right angle towards its end, and which, by a little careful manipula- 
tion, may be gently directed down upon the vocal cords. When the 
tonsils are inflamed, a warm linseed poultice may be applied to the 
throat, and the following gargle used: 
Take of Dilute sulphuric acid Three drams. 
Compound tincture of lavender Two drams. 
Pure water Half a pint.-Mix. 
This gargle to be used frequently. After using this application, the 
mouth should be freely rinsed out with cold water to prevent the acid 
exerting an injurious influence upon the teeth. If the tonsils be in a 
chronic state of inflammation and enlargement, they may be removed by 
the knife of the surgeon. 
CLIMACTERIC, Idi-mald-ter-zk [Lat. climacterzcus annus, from 
climax, a ladder or steps], denotes a critical year or period in a man's 
life, wherein, according to astrologers, there is some notable alteration 
to happen in the body, and the person will be exposed to great danger 
of death. The idea of climacterics is very ancient. According to 408 
CLI Al A CLERIC- CL 1 AI A TE. 
some, every seventh year of a man's life is a climacteric year, certain 
important changes then taking place in the body. The ages of sixty- 
three and eighty-four are regarded as the grand climacterics^ the changes 
being then greater, and the danger attending these periods much in- 
creased. Others allow the term climacteric only to the product of 7 
multiplied by odd numbers, as 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. Some, again, consider 
every ninth year a climacteric. (See Climacteric Disease.) 
CLIMACTERIC DISEASE, kli-mak'-ter-ik diz-eez , is a sudden giv- 
ing way of the vital powers in persons of advanced life, without any 
definite disease to account for the change. The affection seldom occurs 
before fifty years of age, and is more common in men than women, for 
one reason, probably, that its most frequent exciting cause is over-work 
and anxiety of the mind in business. The person who is becoming the 
subject of climacteric disease, complains of weakness coming on gradu- 
ally, the appetite gives way, sleep is deficient, the bowels sluggish, the 
pulse quick, and the tongue furred; the flesh falls away, and the altered 
countenance assumes an aged look in a short period: in other words, 
the "constitution is breaking up," and the individual's friends remark 
that "he grows old very fast." Swelling of the limbs, eruptions of the 
skin, and mental apathy, are further concomitants of the disease, which, 
if unchecked, may run on to a speedy fatal termination; whilst it also 
renders the patient liable to sink easily under any attack of acute illness, 
even of a common cold, which, too, it may be observed, is often the 
first traceable commencement of the attack of climacteric. Another 
very frequent cause, is grief caused by the loss of friends or relatives, 
who have been much mingled in the affections and habits of daily life. 
When an aged person exhibits the symptoms described above, he 
should be immediately attended to: the case must be put under medical 
management, and will require tonic treatment, generous living, complete 
relaxation from the cares and anxiety of business, and, if possible, change 
Of climate. Dr. Day, an English writer, in treating this subject, makes 
the remarkable statement, that by careful statistics kept of the deaths 
of nearly fifty-five thousand people, who exceeded sixty years of age, 
the fact was shown, that the deaths in January were nearly twice as 
many as in July. The above, with many similar observations, shows 
the importance of those who have arrived at this stage of life, spending 
two, three, or more winters in a mild, equable climate. Frequently 
many years may thus be added to life. Florida is probably the most 
desirable resort for this class of health-seekers. (See Age, Old; Decay, 
Climacteric, Health, Longevity, Climate, Acclimatization, Health 
Resorts. ) 
CLIMATE, kli'-mat. Climate is derived from the Greek word CLIMATE. 
409 
Idlma, signifying inclination, but which was also applied to certain 
zones on the earth's surface, from their supposed inclination to the 
pole. In its present and most general acceptation, the word cli- 
mate may be said to include all those atmospheric conditions and 
changes that sensibly affect our organs, such as heat, moisture, 
winds, electricity, etc. It is to the varieties in the climate of different 
places that we are indebted for the great variety that exists in the 
vegetable and animal kingdoms. Every species of plant has certain 
climatic boundaries, some much more extended than others, within 
which alone it will flourish. Animals, too, have their climatic bounds. 
To man alone is it given to subsist in any climate. Even him, however, 
different climates affect very differently-some being favorable to health, 
others tending to disease. As in the case of plants and animals, it is 
found that the pathological characters of disease vary with the climate, 
and that particular diseases have their geographical seats and limits, 
being regulated in their distribution according to atmospheric tempera- 
ture and moisture, the density and electricity of the air, the nature of 
the soil and the character of the vegetation. Each race of mankind has 
its prescribed salubrious limits, and deteriorates in proportion as it 
departs therefrom. The study of the effects of different climates upon 
different constitutions and their curative effects in different diseases, 
forms an important branch of medicine. By change of climate the 
patient is exposed to new atmospheric, celestial, and telluric influences, 
varying in all conceivable varieties and modes of association from those 
to which he has been accustomed. There are few diseases that may not 
be influenced by climate; and hence the necessity to the physician of 
making himself acquainted with the atmospheric conditions of different 
localities. 
The latitude, the elevation, the proximity to, or the distance from 
the sea-; the soil, the absence or presence o*f water, including the 
drainage, the amount of wood, and the shelter or otherwise from pre- 
vailing winds, all exert important influences upon the characteristic 
climate of any locality, and have to be considered in the recommenda- 
tion given, or plan of action resorted to by invalids. The decision 
respecting the climate, resort to which is likely to benefit each individual 
case, is so much matter of judgment, and is really so important, that 
medical opinion ought always to be taken, when change of air or climate 
is seriously sought as a remedy in illness. Very much precious time is 
often lost, and real injury inflicted, from want of due care upon this 
head, and from persons acting upon their own ideas, or upon insufficient 
advice. 
There are few diseases, perhaps, which do not derive either tern- 410 
CLIMATE. 
porary or permanent relief from change of air and climate, but some 
are more strikingly benefited than others ; these are particularly diseases 
of a neuralgic, intermittent, or spasmodic character, of which whoop- 
ing-cough and asthma are good examples. Chronic rheumatism, scrof- 
ula, weakness of the constitution generally, including pulmonary con- 
sumption, and dyspepsia may also be mentioned. As a general rule, 
benefit appears to result from change to a climate presenting characters 
which contrast with those of the one in which the individual is or has 
been generally resident; the dyspeptic or consumptive patient will 
derive advantage by removing from the colder to the more genial region ; 
the fever-stricken resident of the sultry or vaporous plain, will regain 
health and strength in the bracing air of the hills, and even the country 
child, in whose constitution whooping-cough lingers, will probably lose 
it if transferred to city air for a short period. Perhaps no air exerts 
such universally tonic effects as that of the sea, but to some it is too 
stimulating in some particular localities, though not so in others, but, in 
fact, the differences in climate, and its effects, are so numerous and 
varied, that it is impossible here to pass beyond the general considera- 
tion of the subject. Unquestionably some amount of the beneficial 
influence of change of climate is due to the stimulant effect upon the 
mind, which excitement and change of scene produce, this being more 
particularly the case, if the condition of the individual permits or calls 
for the continued change of travelling .from place to place. 
The error is frequently committed, of resorting to the change of 
climate as a last resource, which, if earlier had recourse to, might have 
proved of essential or real service. Another error, is trusting too much 
to the curative power of climate, and invalids, by throwing aside the 
restraints of the regimen to which they have been previously subjected, 
and neglecting the other accessory adjuncts to recovery, fail to derive 
the full measure of benefit which they ought; and this, more especially 
if they do not consider and endeavor to accommodate themselves to the 
modes of living, and other requirements, adapted to the climate in 
which they are resident for the time. 
The choice of a climate is a question to the consideration of which 
too much time and attention cannot "be given. There are many points 
to be thoughtfully and carefully considered, in connection with each 
individual case-for the chalige, if not productive of much good, is likely 
to be fraught with much danger. Some climates have a tonic effect on 
the system, while others are sedative in their nature; in some cases the 
atmosphere is exceedingly dry, in others, saturated with moisture. In 
prescribing change of climate we must, therefore, fully make up our 
minds as to the requirements of the case. The moist atmosphere that CLIMATE. 
411 
would be of a decided benefit to the patient with irritable throat and 
air-passages, would be decidedly injurious to one suffering from gout 
or rheumatism, and the cold atmosphere that would almost kill a patient 
suffering from chronic catarrh, would be just the air for a patient suffering 
from torpidity of the liver. In the search for a desirable change of 
climate, it is always necessary that we should find one in which there is a 
comparatively equable temperature-not many degrees difference be- 
tween the heat of the day and the night-not any very sudden transi- 
tions from heat to cold, and the reverse-no high, irregular winds, and 
especially no malaria, or marsh poison, now known to be the cause of so 
many diseases, especially fevers of different kinds. 
Of the climate of the Eastern Hemisphere little need be said here 
beyond what may be found in article Health Resorts, as those possessed 
of sufficient means to enable them to take so extended a trip, can easily 
acquaint themselves with the climatic differences by reading some of the 
very many works that treat of that subject. The Island of Madeira is, 
in the equability of its temperature, one of the most desirable places 
known for the consumptive, where the necessary comforts can be ob- 
tained. The summer and winter being mild, it is peculiarly suited for 
the permanent residence of the patient. The climate of the Canary 
Islands resembles Madeira, but is not quite as equable. 
The climate of the United States, owing to its great extent from 
north to south, its great chains of mountains and its magnificent water- 
courses, has a very variable climate, or more correctly, is possessed of 
many climates. 
The climate of the Nero England States is as a rule severe, but com- 
paratively uniform; the winters are long and cold, the summers short 
and hot; the winds are frequently high and irregular, and near the coast 
are extremely unfavorable to those suffering from pulmonary complaints. 
Owing to the almost entire absence of malaria there is not much fever, 
and comparative freedom from epidemics. The climate of Rhode Island 
and Connecticut is modified by warm southern winds, but even in Ver- 
mont and New Hampshire, the genial summer renders it a most delight- 
ful part of the country. 
The climate of the Middle States presents many variations. New 
York, on the whole, is healthy; throat and lung diseases prevail in the 
east, and bilious complaints in the west. New Jersey possesses a good 
deal of marsh land, giving rise to malarial fevers. Maryland has neither 
the extreme cold of the north, nor the excessive heat of the south, but 
in the vicinity of the bay and Potomac, where there is much marsh 
lands, remittent and intermittent fevers prevail. The Atlantic States 
north of Florida, especially near the coast, owing to the sudden changes, 412 
CLIMATE. 
and the damp and ofttimes cold easterly winds, are extremely unfavorable 
to consumptive and rheumatic patients. 
In the Southern States a great portion, owing to immense tracts of 
marsh lands, is unfavorable to invalids. The high, dry lands of South 
Carolina and Florida, are well adapted for those who could not stand 
the cold, moist winds of the northern Atlantic States, nor the severe 
dry cold of the northwest. The climate of Southern Florida is perhaps 
the most equable on the continent, and is the most frequently visited by 
invalids, many thousands going each year. Southern Texas has been 
highly recommended by some, and the climate at times is very propitious 
for those with weak lungs, having very much the same temperature as 
some parts of Florida, but the sudden advent of those terrible winds 
known as ' ' northers, ' ' renders it not at all a safe climate for sutferers 
from bronchial affections. The climate of Arkansas has a good reputa- 
tion for the relief of pulmonary disease, being sheltered from the north 
winds and the fierce heat of the south. The Hot Springs of this State, 
so famed for their health-giving influence, will be mentioned under the 
articles Mineral Waters and Health Resorts. 
Of the Northwestern States, Minnesota is famed for the salubrious 
character of its winters, and notwithstanding the severe cold, that State 
is annually visited by many suffering from pulmonary and rheumatic 
trouble, who, after a residence of some time, go away wonderfully 
relieved. St. Paul has long been noted as a health resort. 
The climate of Wisconsin is similar in many respects to Minnesota. 
The winters are long and severe, but, as a general rule, uniform. The 
temperature is very much modified by the moisture from the lakes, 
which form so much of the eastern and northern boundaries of the State. 
The summers are beautifully mild, though the springs are backward, 
and the southern and central portions are dotted all over with health 
resorts, which are visited with benefit by parties from all parts of the 
Union. 
Colorado. Perhaps a more favorable region still for consumptives, 
is the elevated State of Colorado, with its pure bracing air and its com- 
plete freedom from all miasmatic diseases. Asthma, catarrh, bronchitis, 
and consumption, if not too far advanced, are almost invariably cured. 
It has numerous mineral springs, which combine with its bracing 
climate and mountain parks, to render it a great national sanitarium. 
The climate of California is twofold; that of the sea-coast, and that 
of the interior; that of the former, owing to the dense volumes of cold 
mist which pour in from the ocean, contrasts very unfavorably with the 
dry salubrious atmosphere of the interior. Except in the north, there 
is scarcely any winter; the sea-breeze, which tempers the drought of CLIMATE-CLINIC, CLINICAL. 
413 
summer in the beautiful Californian valleys, also moderates the severity 
of the winter. After Colorado, these middle and Southern counties of 
the Golden State are admirably adapted for a resort for the weak-lunged 
invalids of the Atlantic States and the Canadian Provinces. (See Con- 
sumption. ) 
Western and Middle Oregon are noted for their mild, equable, and 
healthy climate. 
The climate of the Dominion of Canada is somewhat variable. In 
the eastern provinces it is very similar to that of the Northeastern 
States; the. winters are long and severe, the summers hot but very 
pleasant. High, irregular winds frequently prevail, making the climate 
undesirable for consumptives and rheumatics. The climate of the Prov- 
ince of Quebec resembles Northern New York, and that of Ontario is 
similar to Western New York. In Manitoba and the Valley of the Sas- 
katchewan, the snow falls early and in great abundance, continuing to a 
late date in the spring, the thermometer falling many degrees below 
zero; but the summers, though short, are beautiful, and the air is not 
unfavorable, even to those with weak lungs and irritable air-passages. 
The climate of British Columbia is comparatively mild, resembling very 
much that of Oregon, and in some respects that of California. 
In resorting to change of climate for the restoration of health, care 
must be taken that the journey be made by easy stages, in pleasant com- 
pany, and by the least monotonous route. The night air, if possible, 
should be avoided, and the meals be as regularly partaken of as at home. 
The first few days after arrival, the patient need not be surprised if he 
should suffer some headache, or a slight attack of diarrhoea, with some 
slight febrile excitement. Absolute rest, low diet, and mild saline laxa- 
tives, will speedily bring amendment. Particular attention must be paid 
to the clothing, so as to conform as much as possible to the requirements 
of the particular region; it will be safe, however, always to wear flannel 
next to the skin. (See Health Resorts, Mineral Waters, Acclimati- 
zation, Air, Seasons, Madeira, Canaries, etc.) 
CLIMBING BITTER-SWEET. (See Celastrus Scandens.) 
CLINIC, CLINICAL, klin'-ik^ Idin-e-hgl [Gr. hlinikos^ from kline, 
a bed], is applied to the observation and treatment of diseases at the 
bedside of the sick; and hence clinical lectures are such as are given at 
the bedside of the patient, or from notes and observations made at the 
bedside. This is the most valuable mode of instructing in the art of 
medicine; the students are taken to the bedside of the patients in a 
public hospital, and there practically instructed in the various phenomena 
of disease, taught to observe the characteristics of each individual case, 
and to study the effects of the various modes of treatment. In modern 414 
CLINIC, CLINICAL-CLOTHING. 
times at least, clinical medicine was entirely neglected till about the 
middle of the seventeenth century; and it was not till the beginning of 
the eighteenth that it began, by Boerhaave, to be systematically carried 
out. Since that time it has come into general use, and now every good 
medical school has an establishment for clinical medicine in connection 
with it. 
CLONIC, klo'-nik [Gr. kloneo. to move to and fro], a spasm which is 
not of long duration, though, it may be repeated in rapid succession; 
such are the spasms which affect the muscles in epilepsy. 
CLOTHES, DAMP. (See Damp.) 
CLOTHING, klotlie'-Ing. Health and comfort depend in no small 
degree upon clothing, particularly in a variable climate like ours. Care 
should be taken that all articles of dress be ■worn so as not to press 
injuriously upon tender parts or to impede the action of important 
organs. It is particularly necessary to attend to this in regard to children. 
Further, the clothing should be warm and suited to the season of the 
year. Children and old people require to be much more warmly clad 
than such as are in the prime of life. It is a great mistake to clothe 
children too thinly. In this way the seeds of disease are frequently 
laid. John Hunter was wont to say that the best receipt for rearing 
healthy children was "plenty of milk, plenty of sleep, and plenty of 
flannel." Even the robust should always ■wear flannel next the skin; 
how essential then, must it be for the delicate, and those who are subject 
to colds. Flannel worn next the skin should be frequently washed, at 
least once a week. They should also be changed at night. No garment 
should be slept in that has been worn during the day, on account of hav- 
ing become impregnated with perspiration, exhalations from the body, 
dust, etc. Some persons, who from irritability of the skin, cannot 
wear woolen material next it, find a woven silk texture a good sub- 
stitute. Shammy vests are sometimes worn with benefit by the weakly, 
over flannel, and by those subject to rheumatism, next the skin. Drawers 
of the same material are also useful in rheumatism, sciatica, etc. The 
form of clothing must ever vary with fashion ; the principle ought always 
to continue the same, that is, it should involve complete and thorough 
protection of the surface of the body, and especially of the cavities of 
the chest and abdomen, from cold or sudden chill. This is best insured 
by a covering of woolen material next the skin ; the habit should be 
commenced from the earliest childhood, and continued through life in 
every season of the year, varying only the thickness of the flannel, or 
other woolen texture, according to the average temperature. No out- 
ward clothing can be so uniformly efficacious as the inner one of wool, 
as a protection against our variable climate, and yet very many there CL OTHING- CL UB-FOOT. 
415 
are, who, both in their own persons, and in those of their children, 
neglect this real preservative of health, and therefore, this real economy, 
although the cost at first may seem much to the poor. In addition to 
the inner clothing, the outer ought of course to be sufficient, and in 
winter, an addition made on going from the warmth of the house into 
the open air. In this respect, men are generally better provided, under 
all circumstances, than women and children. Women, from the nature 
of their dress, and from the pernicious custom of exposing the chest and 
arms-not always, which would be less hurtful-but occasionally, suffer 
much from errors in clothing; they subject themselves to the extremes 
of fur and thick shawls in the morning, and of thin dresses at night, 
added to which there is often exposure to currents of air when heated, 
and without any protection against their effects. Any article of clothing, 
such as fur, etc., which keeps up a. more than average degree of heat, 
and even induces perspiration, and which is liable to be thrown off or put 
on easily and as fancy dictates, is hazardous and injurious. Children are 
in many cases most insufficiently protected from the weather; numbers 
are without a single article of woolen underclothing, either in conse- 
quence of carelessness, or from the erroneous idea of rendering them 
hardy ; a system which may answer in the offspring of hardy parents, 
whose children are hardy in every other respect, but which can only be 
productive of injury to health in those who spend most of their time in 
warm, perhaps too warm, rooms and nurseries. The surface of a child, 
from the neck downwards, ought to be kept warm by clothing ; exposed 
chests, bare legs, and thin insufficient coverings, are synonymous with 
croup, inflammation of the lungs, and scrofula. For the same reason 
that boas, etc., are unsafe articles of dress for women, comforters and 
woollen neck-wrappers are not advisable, except under particular circum- 
stances, for boys ; they heat the neck, and if thrown off carelessly, pre- 
dispose to cold or bronchitic affection. The clothing of the feet is a 
matter of the highest importance to all; dryness and warmth must be 
attended to by those wdio value health. Cork soles are a good inven- 
tion, as they effectually protect the feet from dampness. On the other 
hand, the head is often, in infants and children especially, kept too hot. 
(See Flannel, Climate, Acclimatization, Air, Cold, Damp, Tight- 
Lacing, Catarrh or Common Cold, Rheumatism, Animal Heat, etc.) 
CLOVER, RED AND WHITE, Ido'-vur. Red and white clover 
grow on grass lands all over America. An ointment made from the 
flowers and leaves, boiled down to an extract, is useful in foul conditioned 
ulcers. 
CLOVES. (See Caryophyllus. ) 
CLUB-FOOT, Tduby is a distortion of the foot, occasioned by the 416 
CLUB-FOOT-CLYSTER, ENEMA, OR INJECTION. 
greater contractions of some muscles than others, by which means the 
foot is drawn out of its natural position, it may be inwards or outwards, 
with the elevation of the heel and depression of the toes, or the depres- 
sion of the heel and elevation of the toes and fore part of the foot. Such 
deformities are usually congenital, but sometimes they may arise from 
some disordered state of the system, or be occasioned by convulsions. 
When recent, it is of importance to ascertain the cause, and to direct 
attention to its removal. If owing to weakness or irritation, we must 
strive to strengthen the muscles, and to soothe the nerves. Attention 
to the general health, properly directed exercise of the part, and, if 
necessary, special appliances to retain the limb in position, will go far, 
in most cases, to effect a cure. In cases where these means are 
ineffectual, a careful subcutaneous division of the contracted tendons, 
rarely fails to effect a cure. (See Deformity.) 
CLYSTER, ENEMA, OR INJECTION, klis'-ter, eni-e-mg, in-jek'- 
shun [Gr. klyso, to wash out], are all names for the same useful adjunct 
to medical treatment, the mechanical injection of fluid into the bowels 
by the fundament and rectum. Clysters are most commonly employed 
as aperients, but they are also used as anodynes, or antispasmodics, for 
the purpose of dispelling wind, or as internal fomentations, or as styptics. 
In illness they are generally administered to the patient by others, but 
instruments are constructed to facilitate their self-administration, which 
is of course preferable when, as frequently occurs, they are often required 
in ordinary health. 
The mechanical means used for the administration of clysters are 
very numerous, the most useful are the injecting syringes of different 
kinds, procurable in any drug store. 
The injection syringe is most useful when the clyster to be adminis- 
tered much exceeds half a pint in quantity, when it is used as an 
aperient, and requires to be forcibly injected. When the clyster does not 
exceed half a pint, as in the case of children, or when used as an anodyne 
or styptic, the vulcanized india-rubber bag is quite the most convenient 
mechanical agent, from its simplicity, and the ease with which any one 
may use it. When a clyster is administered to the sick, the patient may 
either be laid on the face or on the left side, near the edge of the bed, 
with the knees drawn up. The metal or bone pipe which is introduced 
into the bowel, should be well oiled or greased, and its introduction 
should be effected with perfect gentleness, not straight up, but in a 
direction slightly inclined towards the back bone, care being taken that 
no abrasion or scratching of the parts be occasioned; this is a most neces- 
sary caution in all cases, but more especially in those in which repeated 
use of the remedy will probably be required. Even with the greatest CLYSTER, ENEMA, OR INJECTION 
417 
care, the parts are liable to become sore, causing the patient both to 
dread and suffer each time the instrument is used, and even to be unable 
to bear a continuance of the practice. In all cases a clyster should be 
given slowly and gently, and care taken that air is not thrown up into 
the bowel as well as fluid; with the syringe, this is to be avoided by 
pumping it full of fluid before it is applied to the patient, and by not 
continuing the operation when the fluid used gets so low in the basin as 
to allow air to be drawn in ; with the bag care should be taken that the 
pipe-end is always held the lowest. When the bag is used, air is less 
likely to be introduced if the patient is laid on the face. If an instru- 
ment has been used for anything but simple water, it ought always to be 
well washed out wTith warm water before putting by. When taken to 
pieces it must always be unscrewed by the hand holding the metal 
mountings. Clysters self-administered, can only be so conveniently, by 
means of the syringe. 
Aperient clysters may be simply mechanical, of water, gruel, and the 
like, either cold, tepid, or warm, or they may be medicinal. There is 
an objection to clysters of simple water, that in some cases they are apt 
to wash off the natural protecting mucus of the bowel, and therefore it is 
perhaps better as a general rule, and where the remedy is often or 
habitually used, to employ a demulcent, such as gruel or barley-water. 
Cold clysters, sometimes useful, ought never to be resorted to except by 
medical direction; the fluid about the temperature of 90° will generally 
be found most appropriate, and when used simply, about a quart thrown 
up slowly, but with sufficient force, will be found a suitable amount for 
the generality of adults. Some use a much larger quantity, as much as 
two or three quarts ; this, in certain cases of illness, may be a useful 
measure, but as a habitual thing is bad; the frequent over-distension 
with so large a quantity of warm fluid, produces want of tone, which 
aggravates the torpid tendency of the bowels, and favors faecal accumula- 
tion. For a child of six years of age, half a pint of simple gruel clyster 
is ample. These simple clysters act by stimulating the bowel by their 
mechanical bulk; when a medicinal clyster is used, the object is in some 
degree to avoid this, so that the medicinal agent may not be expelled 
before it has time to exert its peculiar agency. The medicinal clyster 
ought, therefore, as a general rule, not much to exceed one-half the 
quantity of the simple one. 
The simplest and readiest medicinal clyster is made, either with a 
tablespoonful of common salt in a pint of gruel, or with a piece of brown 
soap, the size of a hazel-nut, rubbed down into a pint of warm water ; or 
instead of these, from | ounce to 1 ounce of Epsom salts, or 2 ounces of 
olive-oil, or half that quantity .of castor-oil; or infusion of senna, 418 
CL YSTER, ENEMA, OR INJECT1 ON- COAL - GAS, ETC. 
ounce of leaves to the pint, may be employed. Stronger clysters, with 
turpentine, croton-oil, etc., are also used by medical men. 
Anodyne clysters ought always to be so small in bulk -not exceeding 
3 fluid ounces-as not to stimulate the bowel to expel them, which, from 
the nature of the cases in which they are usually given, it is apt to do. 
In all cases, anodyne clysters are most conveniently administered by 
means of the vulcanized bag, and the best form is from 15 to 25 drops 
of laudanum in 3 ounces of moderately thin starch. This clyster is of 
course to be retained in the bowel if possible. One of the most useful 
clysters for dispersing flatulence, is made with 2 drams of tincture of 
assafoetida to J pint of gruel, to which, if there is much pain, 10 or 15 
drops of laudanum may be added ; or the same quantity of assafoetida 
tincture, may, if required, be added to an aperient clyster. A useful 
domestic clyster, in the country, for the same purpose, is £ pint to 1 pint 
of strong " rue tea," or infusion of rue. 
Clysters used for the purposes of internal fomentation may be given 
to the amount of 1 quart, and of a temperature of 98° or 100® Fahr. 
In hemorrhage from the lower bowel, when it is proper to interfere 
with it, a 2 or 3 ounce cold styptic clyster may be used, made with 
sulphate of zinc 4- grains, or sulphate of iron 1 grain, to 1 ounce of fluid. 
(See Syringe, Costiveness.) 
COAGULABLE LYMPH, ko-ag -u-lqrbi limf. The transparent, 
gelatinous exudation from wounded or inflamed vessels, which becomes 
organized and serves to repair injuries or produce adhesions. Its pecu- 
liar component is fibrine, and it differs from blood only in the absence 
of red globules. 
COAGULATION, ko-ag-u-ld-shun [Lat. coagulatlo~\, is the conver- 
sion of the whole of a fluid, or of some of its constituents, into a solid. 
The solidification of the white of an egg by heat is an instance of the 
former, that of the clot in blood, or of the curd in milk, of the latter. 
The coagulating power of the blood is the great safeguard in bleeding, 
which could not be permanently stopped by any appliances, without this 
property of the vital fluid, and it is the loss of this property that gives 
rise to the occasional cases of danger or death from bleeding, in conse- 
quence of comparatively slight wounds, such as those from leech-bites, 
or from the extraction of a tooth. 
COAL-GAS, FIKE-DAMP, hole-gas. Coal-gas, or fire-damp, is a 
compound of carbon with hydrogen. The fearfully destructive explosions 
in the coal mines are the result of the ignition of this gas when it has col- 
lected in quantity. Its constant use in dwelling-houses, as a means of light, 
sometimes gives rise to similar accidents, and occasionally life has been 
endangered by the inhalation of it when it has escaped into an apart- COAL-GAS, ETC.-COCHINEAL. 
419 
ment. This has sometimes occurred from persons unused to gas-light, 
blowing out the flame on going to bed, instead of turning the stop-cock. 
In such cases, treatment very similar to that pursued in poisoning by 
carbonic acid may be followed out. (See Carbonic Acid.) 
COAL OIL AND ITS MEDICINAL USES. (See Petroleum.) 
COAL-TAR, kole'-tar [Aug.-Sax. col tare\. This is usedin several 
forms as a disinfectant, and also is said to have been applied, in solu- 
tion, with success in the treatment of itch. The liquor carbonis deter- 
gens, or concentrated alcoholic solution of the active principles of coal 
tar, is used as a dressing for putrid sores in the form of emulsion with a 
little water, and is a favorite remedy with many in skin diseases, especi- 
ally of a scaly character. Its antiseptic or preservative qualities have 
made it a favorite with those interested in the collection of specimens of 
natural history. (See Tar, Disinfectants.) 
COBWEB, kob'-web., employed as a styptic to arrest bleeding from 
simple flesh wounds, or from leech-bites. The web of the black spider, 
which builds in outhouses, etc., has been used with much success, as a 
medicine in ague, given in doses of 10 grains, in the form of pills, every 
two hours, commencing six hours before the return of the paroxysm. 
COCA LEAVES. (See Erythroxylon Coca.) 
COCCULUS INDICUS, kok'-ku-lus in'-de-kus, or Indian berry, is 
the fruit of the Anamirta paniculata. It has some resemblance to the 
bayberry, and is imported into this country from the Eastern archipelago. 
It is chiefly used for adulterating cheap beer; and it is really wonderful 
in how many ways it is fitted to disguise a liquor prepared from insuffi- 
cient quantities of malt and hops; thus, it imparts to the sophisticated 
liquor an intensely bitter taste, a darkness of color and a fulness of body, 
while it adds to its inebriating qualities. It is scarcely necessary to state 
that the cocculus is never employed by respectable brewers. Its use has 
been forbidden by law. In large doses it is poisonous to all animals, 
and it has long been used by sportsmen for stupefying fish and game. 
In medicine it has been employed in the form of an ointment as an ex- 
ternal remedy for certain skin diseases. It owes its active properties to 
a very poisonous crystalline alkaloid called picrotoxine. 
COCCYX, OR OS COCCYGIS, kok'-siks [Gr. kokkos^ a cuckoo], 
in Anatomy, is the name given to the lower end of the spine, from its 
supposed resemblance to a cuckoo's beak. (See Spine.) 
COCHINEAL, kotsK-e-neek an insect which yields the well-known 
coloring matter carmine, is brought from Mexico, being gathered from 
various species of cacti, on which it feeds. It is used chiefly as a color- 
ing agent, but has been employed, especially as a domestic remedy, in 
whooping-cough. Its powers are very doubtful. Tincture of cochineal 420 
COCHINEAL- COCO A, CHOCOLATE. 
is formed by macerating for seven days in a close vessel, 2^ ounces of 
the powder in one pint of proof spirit, and then straining and filtering. 
Dose of the tincture, i to 1 teaspoonful every three or four hours. 
COCHLEA. (See Ear.) 
COCKLEBURR. (See Agrimony.) 
COCKSCOMB, RED. (See Amaranth.) 
COCK-UP-HAT. (See Stillingia Sylvatica.) 
COCOA, CHOCOLATE, kd-ko, tshokdo-lat. Cocoa is prepared 
from the seeds or beans of a tree-the Theobroma Cacao-cultivated 
chiefly in the West Indies and South America. The beans are roasted 
to develop the aroma and free them from the husks, which are com- 
paratively innutritions, though frequently mixed up with the prepared 
cocoas of commerce. Cocoa, when genuine and properly prepared, is a 
wholesome and nutritious article of diet; it contains a considerable 
quantity of oily or fatty matter, starch, etc., and a peculiar principle, 
"theobromine," which, according to Liebig, nearly approaches theine 
and caffeine-the characteristic principles of tea and coffee-in composi- 
tion ; cocoa does not, however, affect the nervous system in the same 
manner as these beverages, and may therefore be taken in cases when 
they are inadmissible. Cocoa, as a beverage, ought to be prepared only 
from the crushed beans themselves, or "nibs," as they are called, for 
there is no certainty as regards the purity of the various artificial pre- 
parations sold under the names of "flake," "rock," "granulated," 
"homoeopathic" cocoa, etc. In recent investigations these often puffed- 
off compounds have been found to be made up of cocoa, sugar, starch, 
or flour, husks of the cocoa bean, etc., and sometimes with fats and oils 
of various kinds, and earthy and coloring matters. 
Chocolate is professedly a manufactured article, and should be made 
with the kernels of the cocoa bean, perfectly free from husks, and re- 
duced to a smooth uniform paste with sugar, and starch of some kind, 
such as arrowroot; vanilla or cinnamon being used to impart flavor. 
Such a preparation as chocolate is of course liable to many adulterations, 
of which the most deleterious are those with ochre, red lead, vermillion, 
sulphate of lime, chalk, etc.; tallow is sometimes used in the prepara- 
tion of the cheap forms. It need scarcely be said that those who make 
use of chocolate ought always to procure it from dealers on whom they 
can depend. That of French make is generally to be preferred. As an 
article of diet, chocolate is extremely nutritious, but on account of the 
oil it contains, is apt to disagree with weak stomachs, particularly if too 
great heat be used in preparing; moreover, the addition of vanilla is apt 
still more to increase its indigestibility, and, according to Dr. Paris, to 
occasion nervous disorder. (See Coffee, Tea, Breakfast.) INDEX OF DISEASES, 
WITH REFERENCES TO REMEDIES. INDEX OF DISEASES, 
WITH REFERENCES TO REMEDIES. 
As it would be manifestly impossible, in a work of this kind, to give, in one short article, all the remedies 
that may be prescribed for any particular disease, this index has been prepared with the view of enabling the 
reader, after perusing the article on any particular disease, conveniently to turn to other remedies not men- 
tioned in the article, but which are also used in the treatment of the same or similar forms of disease. For 
example: Having read the article on Rheumatism, its treatment, etc., the reader may turn to this index, and 
under the word " Rheumatism," find references to all the medicines or remedies contained in the book which are 
mentioned as being useful in the treatment of this disease. 
The reader should understand that this is not an index of all the articles or subjects in the book, but of 
diseases only. Should he attempt, by the index, to find such articles as "Anatomy," "Circulation of the 
Blood," "Sanitary Science," or any others, not strictly classed under the head of diseases, of course he 
would fail; therefore, let him remember, that since all of the titles in the book are arranged in alphabetical 
order, every article may be found by turning directly to the body of the work, and proceeding after the manner 
of looking for a word in a dictionary. 
PAGE 
AGUE, INTERMITTENT 
FEVER 45 
See Acorus Calamus 30 
jEsculus 38 
Anthemis 114 
Apocynaceae 123 
Aristolochia 131 
Arnica 132 
Aromatic Calisaya Wine. 133 
Artemisia 138 
Benzoin Odoriferum .... 197 
Black Cohosh 218 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Cahimba 287 
Carbazotate of Ammo- 
nium 299 
Cephaelis 327 
Chionanthus Virginica.. 385 
Cider 398 
Cobweb 419 
Cornus Florida 479 
Curcuma 506 
Diospyros Virginiana . . 551 
Eucalyptus Globulus .... 625 
Euonymus Atropurpu- 
reus 625 
Eupatorium P e r f o 1 i a- 
tum 625 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Fowler's Solution 674 
Gentiana 698 
Geum Rivale 701 
Gillenia Trifoliata 701 
Helianthus Annuus 740 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Hypophosphites 769 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
•Tuglans Cinerea 801 
Liriodendron Tulipifera 828 
Magnolia 844 
Monsel's Solution 892 
Ostrya Virginica 947 
Parsley Seeds 959 
Petroleum 971 
Pills 981 
Piper Nigrum 989 
Podophyllum Peltatum.. 998 
Populus Tremuloides ... 1012 
PAGE 
AGUE, INTERMITTENT 
FEVER-{Continued). 
See Prinos Verticillatus 1030 
Ptelea Trifoliata 1034 
Pyrus Malus 1043 
Quercus 1045 
Quinine 1045 
Salicine 1083 
Salix Alba 1084 
Simaba Cedron 1113 
Simaruba Excelsa 1113 
Thuja Occidentalis 1165 
Valeriana Officinalis .... 1187 
Verbena Hastata 1191 
Vernonia Fasiculata .... 1191 
Yarrow 1212 
AIR PASSAGES, FOREIGN 
BODIES IN. 
See article Foreign Bodies 
in Air Passages, in this 
Index. 
AIR SWELLINGS. 
See article Tympany, in this 
Index. 
ALBUGO 62 
ALBUMINURIA. 
See article Bright's Dis- 
ease, in this Index. 
ALKALIES, POISONING BY. 71 
ALOPECIA. 
See article Baldness, in this 
Index. 
AMAUROSIS 78 
See Arnica 132 
Strychnos Nux Vomica . 1142 
AMENORRHCEA. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
ANEMIA. 
See article Chlorosis, in this 
Index. 
ANASARCA. 
See article Dropsy, in this 
Index. 
ANCHYLOSIS 102 
ANEURISM 104 
Nee Digitalis Purpurea 548 
Pressure 1029 
A. 
PAGE 
ABORTION 10 
See Helonias Dioica 740 
Viburnum Prunifolium. 1191 
ABRASION 12 
See Cold Cream 428 
Collodion 432 
Gutta-percha 716 
Lead 812 
ABSCESS 12 
See Bread Poultice 256 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide of 283 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Cubeba 502 
Potash 1015 
Suppuratives 1150 
ACARUS 19 
ACCIDENNTS 19 
ACIDITY OF STOMACH .... 2g 
See Calumba 287 
Chlorodyne 388 
Magnesia 842 
Soda 1123 
ACNE 27 
ACNE ROSACEA 28 
ACUTE BRONCHITIS. 
See article Bronchitis, 
Acute, in this Index. 
ACUTE RHEUMATISM. 
See article Rheumatism, in 
this Index. 
ADDER BITES. 
See article Bites and Stings, 
in this Index. 
ADDISON'S DISEASE 32 
AFTER-BIRTH 39 
AFTER-PAINS 41 
See Sassafras Officinale 1089 
Viburnum Prunifolium . 1191 
AGE, OLD 43 
See Cinchona Compound.... 400 
AGUE CAKE 51 
See Bromine 260 
Mineral Waters 878 
Potassium 1017 
Taraxacum Dens-Leonis. 1157 IV 
INDEX OF DISEASES. 
PAGE 
ANGINA PECTORIS 105 
See Cactus Grandiflorus .... 277 
Cereus Bonplandii 332 
Ether, Sulphuric 624 
Quinine 1045 
ANGINA TONSILLARIS .... 106 
ANIMATION, SUSPENDED. 112 
ANTHRAX. 
See article Carbuncle, in 
this Index. 
ANTRUM OF HIGHMORE, 
(Affections of, etc.) 120 
ANXIETY 121 
See Pills 981 
AORTITIS 121 
APHONIA 122 
See Armoracia 132 
Electricity 603 
Euphrasia Officinalis.... 626 
Ice 771 
Maiden-Hair 844 
APHTHA INFANTUM. 
See article Thrush, in this 
Index. 
APHTHA LACTEA. 
See article Nursing Sore 
Mouth, in this Index. 
APOPLEXY 123 
APPETITE (Loss of, etc.).... 127 
See Artemisia 138 
Ophelia Chirata 937 
Panax Quinquefolium .. 955 
Pepsin 965 
Pills 981. 
Populus Tremuloides... 1012 
Sulphuric Acid 1146 
Thymus Vulgaris 1165 
ARTERIAL HEMOR- 
RHAGE 139 
Acupressure 31 
ARTERITIS 141 
ARTHRITIS. 
See article Gout, in this In- 
dex. 
ARTICULATION, FALSE ... 143 
ARTIZANS AND THEIR DIS- 
EASES 144 
ASCARIDES 147 
ASIATIC CHOLERA. 
See article Cholera, in this 
Index. 
ASPHYXIA 149 
See Electricity 603 
ASTHMA 151 
See Ailanthus Glandulosa... 51 
Aristema 131 
Arum 145 
Asclepias 147 
Assafoetida 150 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh 218 
Ceanothus 325 
Chloric Ether 386 
Chloroform 389 
Conium 442 
Datura Stramonium .... 511 
Electricity 603 
Emetics 606 
Grindelia Robusta 712 
Hydrocyanic Acid 764 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Lobelia Inflata 831 
Maiden-Hair 844 
Marrubium Vulgare .... 848 
Musk 902 
Myrospermum 904 
Nepeta Cataria 909 
Ptelea Trifoliata 1034 
Silphium Gummiferum. 1112 
Symplocarpus Foetidus.. 1152 
Tobacco 1166 
Trillium Pendulum 1173 
Tussilago Farfara 1175 
Viburnum Opulus 1191 
ATROPHY PA157 
See Cod-Liver Oil 421 
AUTUMNAL COMPLAINTS. 160 
B. 
BACK (Diseases of, etc.} 164 
See Plasters 992 
BALDNESS, ALOPECIA 165 
See Buxus 276 
Glycerine ... 703 
Petroleum 971 
Vaseline 1187 
BARBADOES LEG. 
See article Elephantiasis, 
in this Index. 
BARBER'S ITCH 173 
BARRENNESS. 
See article Sterility, in this 
Index. 
BASTARD, OR FALSE 
CROUP. 
See article Croup, False, in 
this Index. 
BED-SORES 195 
See Alcohol 63 
Alum 76 
Collodion 432 
Lead 812 
BED-WETTING 195 
See Electricity 603 
Eupatorium Purpureum 626 
BEES' STINGS. 
See article Bites and Stings, 
in this Index. 
BERIBERI 199 
BILIARY DISORDERS 
(Liver Troubles, etc.)... 202 
See Apocynaceae 123 
Apocynin 123 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Blue Pill 230 
Boldo Leaves 233 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo - Bromide 
of 283 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Chelidonium 338 
Chelone Glabra 339 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Chlorine Water ... 388 
Colocynth 433 
Currants 506 
Emetics 606 
Euonymus Atropurpu- 
reus 625 
Gentiana Quinqueflora.. 698 
Hepatica Americana .... 745 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Inula Helenium 790 
Iris Versicolor 793 
Larix Americana 809 
Leptandra Virginica .... 817 
Manganese 846 
Mercury 864 
Mineral Waters 878 
Nitric Acid 921 
Pills 981 
Podophyllum Peltatum . 998 
Potash 1015 
Sambucus Canadensis .. 1086 
Saponaria Officinalis.... 1089 
Stillingia Sylvatica 1135 
Taraxacum Dens-Leonis. 1157 
Tomato •... 1168 
XanthoxylumFraxineum 1212 
BILIOUS CHOLERA, OR 
CHOLERA MORBUS .... 205 
See Agrimony 45 
Bael 165 
Coto Bark 486 
Delphinium 528 
Geranium Maculatum . 700 
Guarana 714 
BILIOUS CHOLERA, OR 
CHOLERA MORBUS- 
(Continued}. 
See Pinus Canadensis 988 
Solidago Odora 1125 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
BILIOUS COLIC. 
See article Colic, in this 
Index. 
BILIOUS FEVER. 
See article Remittent 
Fever, in this Index. 
BILIOUS HEADACHE 207 
See Gelsemium Sempervi- 
rens 697 
BILIOUSNESS 208 
BIRTH. 
See articles Childbed, Par- 
turition, in this Index. 
BITES AND STINGS 212 
See Alcohol 62 
Aster Puniceus 151 
Chiococca Racemosa.... 385 
Chlorine Water 388 
Eryngium Aquaticum .. 621 
Liatris Spicata 819 
Nabalus Albus 904 
Plantago Major 991 
Potash 1015 
BLACK DEATH 218 
BLACK EYES. 
See article Bruises, in this 
Index. 
BLACK VOMIT. 
See article Yellow Fever, 
in this Index. 
BLADDER, BLEEDING 
FROM THE. 
See article Urine, in this 
Index. 
BLADDER, DISEASES OF 
THE 220 
See Ammonia 79 
Artanthe Elongata 138 
Barosma 17? 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Buchu Compound 270 
Canada Balsam 290 
Cissampelos 402 
Collinsonia Canadensis . 432 
Corydalis Formosa 481 
Diervilla Canadensis.... 540 
Electricity 603 
Erigeron 620 
Galium Aparine 689 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Juniperus 802 
Krameria Triandra 806 
Mineral Waters 878 
Salicylic Acid 1083 
Strychnos Nux Vomica . 1142 
Suppository 1150 
Triti cum Repens 1174 
Uva Ursi 1184 
BLEEDING, OR HEMOR- 
RHAGE. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
BLEEDING FROM THE 
BLADDER. 
See article Urine, in this In- 
dex. 
BLEEDING FROM THE 
LUNGS. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
BLEEDING FROM THE 
NOSE. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
BLEEDING PILES. 
See article Piles, in this In- 
dex. 
BLINDNESS 224 INDEX OF DISEASES. 
V 
PAGE 
BLINDNESS, COLOR. 
See article Color Blind- 
ness, in this Index. 
BLISTER 226 
See Cetaceum 333 
Cotton 486 
Symplocarpus Foetidus . 1152 
BLISTERED HANDS OR 
FEET 226 
BLOOD-POISONING. 
See article Pyemia, in this 
Index. 
BLOOD, SPITTING OR VOM- 
ITING OF. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
BLOODY FLUX. 
See article Dysentery, in 
this Index. 
BLOODY URINE. 
See article Urine, in this In- 
dex. 
BLOWS 229 
BLUE DISEASE 230 
BLUSHING 231 
BOIL 231 
See Chlorate of Potash 385 
Ficus 652 
Gnaphalium Margarita- 
ceum ... 704 
Onion 936 
Potash 1015 
Poultice 1018 
Suppuratives 1150 
BOWEL COMPLAINTS. 
See articles Autumnal Com- 
plaints, Bilious Chol- 
era, Diarrhiea, Dysen- 
tery,Summer Complaint, 
in this Index. 
BOWELS, CONSTIPATION 
OF THE. 
See article Costiveness, in 
this Index. 
BOWELS, INFLAMMATION 
OF THE. 
See articles Enteritis, Peri- 
tonitis, in this Index. 
BRAIN, DISEASES OF THE. 248 
See Asarum 146 
Colocynth 433 
Gambogia 691 
Ipomeea Jalapa 792 
BRAIN FEVER, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE BRAIN. 
See article Brain, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
BREAST {Diseases of, etc,).. 257 
See Alcohol 62 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Friction 686 
Hypericum Perforatum. 768 
BREAST PANG, OR ANGINA 
PECTORIS. 
See article Angina Pectoris, 
in this Index. 
BREATH {Offensive, etc.).... 258 
See Carbon 300 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Iris Fiorentina 792 
BRIGHT'S DISEASE, OR 
GRANULAR DISEASE 
OF THE KIDNEYS 259 
See Baths and Bathing 178 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Mineral Waters 878 
Pilocarpus Pennatifolius 988 
BROKEN BONES. 
See article Fractures, in 
this Index. 
BRONCHITIS, ACUTE 262 
See Althaea .... 75 
Ampelopsis 83 
Arisaema 131 
BRONCHITIS, ACUTE- PA&E 
{Continued.) 
See Asclepias 147 
Balsam of Copaiba 168 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Canada Balsam 290 
Cephaelis 327 
Eucalyptus Globulus.... 625 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Grindelia Robusta 712 
Pilocarpus Pennatifolius 988 
Scilla Maritima 1098 
BRONCHITIS, CHRONIC.... 266 
See Arum 145 
Atherospermum Moscha- 
tum 154 
Buchu Compound 270 
Ceanothus 325 
Cubeba 502 
Hydrocyanic Acid 764 
Liquidambar 827 
Symplocarpus Foetidus.. 1152 
Tar and Pitch 1157 
BRONCHOCELE. 
See article Goitre, in this In- 
dex. 
BRONZED SKIN. 
See article Addison's Dis- 
ease, in this Index. 
BROW AGUE. 
See article Hemicrania, in 
this Index. 
BRUISES AND CONTU- 
SIONS 268 
See Aconitum Napellus 28 
Alcohol 62 
Arnica 132 
Artemisia 138 
Bryonia 269 
Camphor 288 
Gnaphalium Margarita- 
ceum 704 
Hypericum Perforatum 768 
Hyssopus Officinalis .... 769 
Liniment 825 
Petroleum 971 
BUBO '! 269 
BUBONOCELE. 
See article Rupture, in this 
Index. 
BULL2E. 
See article Skin, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
BUNION 271 
BURNS AND SCALDS 271 
See Alcohol 62 
Bread Poultice 256 
Camphorated Chalk 289 
Carron Oil 311 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Chalk 334 
Chloral 385 
Collodion 432 
Cotton 486 
Dressing 574 
Gutta-percha 716 
Ice 771 
Liniment 825 
Linseed 826 
Papa ver Somniferum... 956 
Petroleum 971 
Soda 1123 
Vaseline 1187 
c. 
CALCULUS 283 
See Aralia 129 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Betula 200 
Borax 237 
Collinsonia Canadensis.. 432 
Corydalis Formosa 481 
Epigsea Repens 614 
CALCULUS-{Continued.) 
See Equisetum Hyemale .... 620 
Eupatorium Purpureum. 626 
Heat 737 
Hydrangea Arborescens. 761 
Liatris Spicata.. 819 
Ligusticum Levisticum . 824 
Lithium.. 828 
Lithontriptic 828 
Lithotomy 829 
Lithotrity 829 
Mentha Viridis 864 
Mineral Waters 878 
Polytrichum Juniperum. 1012 
Senecio Aureus 1106 
CAMP ITCH. 
See article Soldiers' Itch, 
in this Index. 
CANCER 290 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
Berberis Aquifolium.... 198 
Bromo-Chloralum 261 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo - Bromide 
of 283 
Carbonic-Acid 303 
Chloral 385 
Chromic Acid 397 
Conium 442 
Gutta-percha 716 
Haematoxylon 719 
Mineral Waters 878 
Rumex 1076 
Solution, Iodides of Ar- 
senic and Mercury.... 1125 
Thuja Occidentalis 1165 
CANCER SCROTI 293 
CANINE MADNESS. 
See articles Hydrophobia, 
Bites and Stings, in this 
Index. 
CANKER, OR CANCRUM 
ORIS. 
See articles Thrush, Nurs- 
ing Sore Mouth, in this 
Index. 
CARBUNCLE, ANTHRAX... 307 
See Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
CARDIALGIA 309 
CARDITIS 309 
CARIES 309 
See Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide of... 283 
CATALEPSY 315 
See Castor 314 
CATAMENIA. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
CATARACT. 
See article Eye, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
CATARRHAL AFFECTIONS 
OF INFANTS. 
See article Snuffles, in this 
Index. 
CATARRH, CHRONIC 315 
See Arum 145 
Asclepias 147 
Conium 442 
Liquidambar 827 
Maiden-Hair 844 
Marrubium Vulgare .... 848 
Myrospermum 904 
Polygala Senega 1010 
Symplocarpus Foetidus . 1152 
Verbena Hastata 1191 
CATARRH, OR COMMON 
COLD 317 
See Antimony 116 
Aster Puniceus 151 
Barley 175 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Canada Balsam . 29(4 VI 
INDEX OF DISEASES. 
CATARRH, OR COMMON 
COLD-(Continued.) 
See Cephaelis 327 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
Dover's Powder 572 
Ether, Nitrous 624 
Eucalyptus Globulus.... 625 
Eupatorium Perfoliatum 625 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Gelsemium Semper virens 697 
Glycyrrhiza Glabra 704 
Grindelia Robusta 712 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Lobelia Inflata 831 
Marrubium Vulgare 848 
Milk 874 
Nepeta Cataria 909 
Oxymel 949 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
Summer-Savory 1148 
Vaseline 1187 
Verbascum Thapsus.... 1190 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
CEPHALALGIA, CEPHAL- 
ALGY. 
See article Headache, in this 
Index. 
CEPHALITIS, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE BRAIN. 
See article Brain, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
CEREBRITIS 331 
CEREBRO-SPINAL MENIN- 
GITIS, OR SPOTTED FE- 
VER 331 
CERUMEN (Accumulation 
of in the Ear, etc.) 332 
CHAFING 334 
CHANCHRES 336 
Nee Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 
CHANGE OF LIFE. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this index. 
CHAPPED HANDS. 
See article Chaps, in this In- 
dex. 
CHAPPED LIPS. 
See article Chaps, in this In- 
dex. 
CHAPPED NIPPLES. 
See article Nipples, in this 
Index. 
CHAPS 337 
See Calamine 279 
Cold Cream 428 
Collodion 432 
Glycerine 703 
Liniment 825 
CHEST, WATER IN THE. 
See article Dropsy, in this 
Index. 
CHICKEN-POX 350 
CHILBLAIN 352 
See Allspice 73 
Camphor 288 
Camphorated Spirits of 
Wine 289 
Collodion 432 
Petroleum 971 
Vaseline 1187 
CHILDBED 353 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
Blue Cohosh. 230 
CHILDBED FEVER. 
See article Puerperal Fe- 
ver, in this Index. 
CHILDBIRTH. 
See article Childbed, in this 
Index. 
CHILD-CROWING, OR SPAS- 
MODIC CROUP. 
See article Croup, False, in 
this Index. 
CHILL FEVER 383 
CHIMNEY-SWEEP'S CAN- PA°E 
CER. 
See article Cancer Scroti, 
in this Index. 
CHLOROSIS, OR ANAEMIA. 391 
See Arnica 132 
Citrate of Iron and 
Strychnia 403 
Crocus Sativus 495 
Gossypimn Herbaceum. 708 
Mineral Waters 878 
Symphytum Officinale.. 1152 
CHOKE-DAMP (Effectsfrom 
inhaling, etc.) 392 
CHOKING. 
See articles Asphyxia, For- 
eign Bodies in Gullet, 
in this Index. 
CHOLERA, ASIATIC, OR MA- 
LIGNANT 393 
See Chlorodyne 388 
Copper 475 
Erechthites Hieracifolius 620 
Gelsemium Sempervi- 
rens 697 
CHOLERA INFANTUM. 
See article Summer Com- 
plaint, in this Index. 
CHOLERA MORBUS. 
See article Bilious Chol- 
era, in this Index. 
CHORDEE. 
See article Gonorrhiea, in 
this Index. 
CHOREA. 
See article Saint Vitus's 
Dance, in this Index. 
CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 
See article Bronchitis, 
Chronic, in this Index. 
CHRONIC CATARRH. 
See article Catarrh, 
Chronic, in this Index. 
CHRONIC CATARRH OF 
THE CHEST, OR CHRON- 
IC BRONCHITIS. 
See article Bronchitis, 
Chronic, in this Index. 
CHRONIC DIARRHCEA. 
See article Diarrhiea, in 
this Index. 
CLERGYMAN'S SORE 
THROAT 406 
See Mineral Waters 878 
CLIMACTERIC DISEASE... 408 
CLUB-FOOT 415 
COAL-GAS, FIRE-DAMP, 
(Effects from inhaling, 
etc.) 418 
COLD FEET 428 
COLD IN THE HEAD. 
See articles Catarrh or Com- 
mon Cold, Snuffles, in 
this Index. 
COLD ON THE BREAST, OR 
IN THE CHEST. 
See articles Bronchitis, 
Pneumonia, in this Index. 
COLDS. 
See articles Catarrh or 
Common Cold; S n u f- 
fles ; Catarrh, Chronic ; 
Cough; Influenza; 
Bronchitis, Acute; 
Bronchitis, Chronic; 
Pneumonia, in this Index. 
COLIC 429 
See Alum 76 
Ammonia 79 
Anthemis 114 
Archangelica 130 
Arissema 131 
Asarum 146 
Asclepias 147 
PAGE 
COLIC-Continued. 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Bismuth 211 
Blue Cohosh 230 
Calumba 287 
Collinsonia Canadensis. 432 
Coto Bark 486 
Croton 495 
Dioscorea Villosa 551 
Foeniculum 658 
Gaultheria Procumbens. 697 
Gregory's Powder or 
Mixture 712 
Heat 737 
Hedeoma Pulegioides... 739 
Helonias Dioica 740 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Mentha Piperitae 864 
Mentha Viridis 864 
Nepeta Cataria 909 
Polygonum Punctatum 1011 
Ruta Graveolens 1079 
Solidago Odora 1125 
Soot 1125 
Summer-Savory 1148 
Thymus Vulgaris 1165 
Yarrow 1212 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
COLLAPSE 431 
See Ammonia 79 
COLLIERS, DISEASES OF.. 431 
COLOR BLINDNESS 434 
COMA 435 
COMMON COLD. 
See article Catarrh or Com- 
mon Cold, in this Index. 
COMMON COLD OF IN- 
FANTS. 
See article Snuffles, in this 
Index. 
COMPRESSION OF THE 
BRAIN. 
See article Apoplexy, in 
this Index. 
CONCRETION 438 
CONCUSSION 438 
CONCUSSION OF THE 
BRAIN 439 
See Arnica 132 
CONCUSSION OF THE SPI- 
NAL CORD. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
CONGESTION 442 
See Buckeye Bark 270 
Cupping 502 
Friction 686 
CONGESTION OF THE 
BRAIN. 
See article Congestion, in 
this Index. 
CONGESTION OF THE 
LIVER. 
See article Congestion, in 
this Index. 
CONGESTION OF THE 
LUNGS. 
See article Congestion, in 
this Index. 
CONSTIPATION. 
See article Costiveness, in 
this Index. 
CONSTITUTION 443 
CONSTITUTION, BREAK- 
ING OF. 
See article Climacteric Dis- 
ease, in this Index. 
CONSUMPTION, PHTHISIS 
PULMONALIS, OR PUL- 
MONARY CONSUMP- 
TION 444 
See Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 INDEX ON DISEASES, 
VII 
PAGE 
CONSUMPTION, PHTHISIS 
PULMONALIS, OR PUL- 
MONARY CONSUMP- 
TION- Continued. 
Aralia 129 
Asarum 146 
Asses' Milk 150 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Berberis Aquifolium... 198 
Black Cohosh 218 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide of 283 
Calumba 287 
Cerasus 329 
Chloric Ether 386 
Chlorodyne 388 
Cod-Liver Oil 421 
Conium 442 
Emetics 606 
Erechthites Hieracifolius 620 
Eryngium Aquaticum... 621 
Euonymus Atropurpu- 
reus 625 
Geum Rivale 701 
Gnaphalium Margarita- 
ceum 704 
Goat's Milk 704 
Gracillaria 710 
Hsematoxylon 719 
Hepatica Americana ... 745 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Hypophosphites 769 
Inula Helenium 790 
Liriodendron Tulipifera 828 
Lycopus Virginicus .... 841 
Marrubium Vulgare ... 848 
Parsley Seeds 959 
Pitch Plaster 989 
Pulmonaria Officinalis.. 1037 
Saccharum Lactis 1080 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
Tar and Pitch 1157 
CONTAGION 456 
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 
See article Contagion, in 
this Index. 
CONTINUED FEVER. 
See article Fever, in this 
Index. 
CONTUSION. 
See article Bruises and Con- 
tusions, in this Index. 
CONVALESCENCE 459 
See Calisaya, Elixir of. .. . 285 
Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound... 400 
Cookery for the sick.... 468 
Maranta 847 
Porter 1013 
Port Wine 1013 
Poultry 1021 
Pyrus Malus 1043 
Quinine 1045 
Rheum Palmatum 1067 
Sabbatia Angularis 1080 
Salt 1085 
Solidago Odora 1125 
Summer-Savory 1148 
Tanacetum Vulgare 1156 
Thymus Vulgaris 1165 
Triosteum Perfoliatum. 1174 
CONVULSIONS 463 
See Allium 72 
Assafoetida 150 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh . 218 
Hypophosphites 769 
Monotropa Uniflora 892 
Musk 902 
Scutellaria Lateriflora .. 1102 
Viburnum Opulus 1191 
CORNS 478 
CORPULENCE 480 
See Fucus Vesiculosus 687 
PAGE 
CORYZA, OR COMMON 
COLD. 
See article Catarrh, or 
Common Cold, in this In- 
dex. 
COSTIVENESS, OR CONSTI- 
PATION 482 
See 2Egle Marmelos 37 
Aloes 74 
Asclepias 147 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Buckeye Bark 270 
Cascara Sagrado 312 
Cephaelis 327 
Electricity 603 
Epsom Salts 619 
Euonymus Atropurpu- 
reus 625 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Gambogia 691 
Gillenia Trifoliata 701 
Ipomaea Jalapa 792 
Iris Fiorentina 792 
Juglans Cinerea 801 
Mineral Waters 878 
Movement Cure 897 
Oatmeal 930 
Ox-Gall 948 
Pills 981 
Ricinus Communis 1070 
COUGH 486 
See Asclepias 147 
Balsam 167 
Barley 175 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Benzoic Acid 196 
Black Cohosh 218 
Cephaelis 327 
Cerasus 329 
Chloric Ether 386 
Chlorodyne 388 
Codeia 421 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Euphrasia Officinalis... 626 
Glycyrrhiza Glabra 704 
Honey 752 
Hydrocyanic Acid. 764 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Inula Helenium 790 
Linseed 826 
Lycopus Virginicus .... 841 
Maiden-Hair 844 
Marrubium Vulgare.... 848 
Opium 940 
Oxymel 949 
Pills 981 
Silphium Gummiferum . 1112 
Symphytum Officinale . 1152 
Symplocarpus Fcetidus. 1152 
Trillium Pendulum 1173 
Tussilago Farfara 1175 
Vaseline 1187 
Verbascum Thapsus.... 1190 
COUP DE SOLEIL, OR SUN- 
STROKE. 
See article Sunstroke, in 
this Index. 
COURSES. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
COW-POX. 
See article Vaccination, in 
this Index. 
CRAMP 492 
See Alcohol 62 
Blue. Cohosh 230 
Collinsonia Canadensis. 432 
Dioscorea Villosa 551 
.Jeffersonia Dlphylla.... 800 
Mentha Piperitae 864 
Viburnum Opulus 1191 
CROUP 496 
See Alum 76 
Antimony 116 
PAGE 
CROUP-(Continued.) 
See Arisaema 131 
Arum 145 
Bidens Bipinnata 201 
Bran .. 250 
Eucalyptus Globulus.... 625 
Lobelia Inflata 831 
Pinus Canadensis 988 
Polygala Senega 1010 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
Scilla Maritima 1098 
Vaseline 1187 
CROUP, FALSE; SPAS- 
MODIC CROUP, OR 
CHILD-CROWING 499 
CURVATURE OF THE 
SPINE. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
CUTANEOUS DISEASES. 
See article Skin, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
CUTS. 
See article Wounds, in this 
Index. 
CUT-THROAT 507 
CYANOSIS, OR BLUE DIS- 
EASE 507 
CYSTITIS. 
See article Bladder, Dis- 
eases of the, in this In- 
dex. 
D. 
DANCING MANIA 511 
DANDRIFF, DANDRUFF, 
OR SCURF 511 
See Solauum Dulcamara.... 1124 
DAY BLINDNESS. 
See article Blindness, in 
this Index. 
DEAFNESS 512 
See Glycerine 703 
DEATH 515 
DEBILITY, OR WEAKNESS 520 
See Ale 65 
Ammonia 79 
Arnica . 132 
Asses' Milk 150 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Brandy 251 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Chimaphila Umbellata.. 383 
Chloric Ether. 386 
Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound... 400 
Citrate of Iron and 
Strychnia 403 
Cod-Liver Oil 421 
Comptouia Asplenifolia. 437 
Convallaria Multiflora... 462 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
Epsom Salts 619 
Eupatorium Perfoliatum 625 
Gaultheria Procumbens. 697 
Goat's Milk 704 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Hypophosphites 769 
Inula Helenium 790 
Iron 793 
Menispermum C a n a - 
dense 856 
Mineral Waters 878 
Phosphates 972 
Pills 981 
Populus Tremuloides.,, 1012 
Port Wine 1013 
Prinos Verticillatus..... 1030 
Quercus 1045 
Quinine 1045 
Simaruba Excelsa 1113 
Stimulants 1136 VIII 
INDEX OF DISEASES, 
DEBILITY, OR WEAKNESS PA°E 
(Continued.) 
See Symphytum Officinale., 1152 
Xanthoxylum Frax- 
ineum 1212 
DECAY 523 
DECLINE. 
See article Consumption, in 
in this Index. 
DECREPITUDE, MEANS OF 
PREVENTION. 
See articles Longevity, 
Health, in this Index. 
DEFORMITY ' 524 
DELIRIUM 525 
DELIRIUM TREMENS 526 
See Black Cohosh 218 
Cannabis 294 
Chloral 385 
Pills 981 
Scutellaria Lateriflora... 1102 
DELIVERY. 
See articles Childbed, Par- 
turition, in this Index. 
DEMENTIA. 
See article Insanity, in this 
Index. 
DENGUE, OR BREAK-BONE 
FEVER ; 528 
DENTITION 529 
DERBYSHIRE NECK. 
See article Goitre, in this 
Index. 
DESQUAMATION . 532 
DIABETES 533 
See Baths and Bathing..... 178 
Claret 405 
Erigeron 620 
Geranium Maculatum.. 700 
Lycopus Virginicus 841 
Mineral Waters 878 
Pilocarpus Pennatifolius 988 
Porter 1013 
Uva Ursi. 1184 
DIARRHOEA 537 
See Acetate of Lead 25 
jEgle Marmelos 37 
Agave Virginica 42 
Althaea 76 
Alum 76 
Amaranth 78 
Arnica 132 
Bael 165 
Berberis Vulgaris 199 
Bismuth 211 
Calcium 280 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Calumba 287 
Carbolic Acid 299 
Catechu 319 
Cephaelis .. 327 
Cerasus 329 
Chalk 334 
Chlorodyne 388 
Comptonia Asplenifolia. 437 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
Coto Bark 486 
Croton 495 
Echinospermum Virgini- 
cum 598 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Gentiana 698 
Geranium Maculatum... 700 
Geum Rivale ;.. 701 
Gnaphalium Margarita- 
ceum 704 
Gracillaria.. 710 
Haematoxylon 719 
Hamamelis Virginica... 721 
Hepatica Americana.... 745 
Heuchera Americana.... 749 
Hydrastis Canadensis. . 762 
Hypericum Perforatum. 768 
Kino 804 
PAGE 
DIARRHOEA -{Continued:) 
See Krameria Triandra 806 
Lactuca Sativa 808 
Larix Americana 809 
Leptandra Virginica.... 817 
Liriodendron Tulipifera 828 
Myrica Cerifera 903 
Myrica Gale. 904 
Nymphaea Odorata 930 
Orobanche Virginiana. . 946 
Pills 981 
Pinus Canadensis 988 
Plantago Major 991 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Populus Tremuloides. .. 1012 
Prinos Verticillatus 1030 
Quercus. 1045 
Rheum Palmatum 1067 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Rice 1069 
Ricinus Communis 1070 
Rubus 1075 
Salix Alba 1084 
Silver 1112 
Solidago Odora 1125 
Spiraea Tomentosa 1130 
Strawberry 1141 
Symphytum Officinale.. 1152 
Uva Ursi 1184 
Verbascum Thapsus.... 1190 
Viburnum Prunifolium. 1191 
Vitis 1193 
DIFFICULT MENSTRUA- 
TION. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
DIMNESS OF SIGHT. 
See article Amaurosis, in 
this Index. 
DIPHTHERIA 552 
See Bromo-Chloral urn 261 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Eucalyptus Globulus.... 625 
Potash 1015 
Quinine 1045 
Salicylic Acid 1083 
Soda 1123 
DIPSOMANIA 555 
DISCHARGE FROM THE 
EAR. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
DISEASE 557 
DISEASES AND INJURIES 
OF THE SPINE. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
DISEASES FEIGNED. 
See article Feigned Dis- 
eases, in this Index. 
DISEASES OF THE BLAD- 
DER. 
See articles Bladder, Dis- 
eases of the; Urine, in 
this Index. 
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 
See article Brain, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
DISEASES OF THE DIGES- 
TIVE ORGANS. 
See articles Gastritis, Peri- 
tonitis, Enteritis, Chol- 
era, Bowel Complaints, 
Dyspepsia, in this Index. 
DISEASES OF THE EAR. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
DISEASES OF THE EYE. 
See article Eye, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
DISEASE OF THE HEART. 
See article Heart, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
PAGE 
DISEASES OF THE KID- 
NEY. 
See articles Nephritis, 
Bright's Disease, in this 
Index. 
DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 
See articles Hepatitis, Bil- 
iary Disorders, Bilious- 
ness, in this Index. 
DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 
See articles Pneumonia, 
Bronchitis, Pleurisy, 
Consumption, in this In- 
dex. 
DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 
See article Skin, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
DISLOCATIONS 564 
DISPLACEMENT OF THE 
WOMB. 
See article Womb, in this In- 
dex. 
DISTORTION. 
See article Deformity, in 
this Index. 
DISTURBED SLEEP. 
See articles Sleep, Dream- 
ing, in this Index. 
DIZZINESS. 
See article Giddiness, in this 
Index. 
DOGS, BITES OF. 
See articles Bites and 
Stings, Hydrophobia, in 
this Index. 
DREAMING {Disagreeable, 
etc.,) 573 
DROPSY 577 
See Apocynaceae 123 
Apocynin 123 
Aralia 129 
Arnica 132 
Asclepias ... 147 
Barosma 177 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Blue Cohosh .... '230 
Cactus Graudiflorus.... 277 
Chimaphila Umbellata.. 383 
Chiococca Racemosa.... 385 
Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound... 400 
Colchicum 424 
Collinsonia Canadensis. 432 
Colocynth 433 
Corydalis Formosa 481 
Curcuma 506 
Cytisus Scoparius 508 
Digitalis Purpurea 548 
Equisetum Hyemale.... 620 
Erigerou 620 
Erodium Cycutarium... 620 
Eryngium Aquaticum... 621 
Euonymus Atro p u r p u- 
reus 625 
Eupatorium Purpureum 626 
Gambogia 691 
Gillenia Trifoliata 701 
Impatiens Pallida 775 
Ipomrea Jalapa 792 
Iris Fiorentina 792 
Iris Versicolor 793 
Jeffersonia Diphylla.... 800 
Juniperus 802 
Liatris Spicata 819 
Momardica 892 
Parsley Seeds 959 
Pills 981 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Polytrichum Juniperum 1012 
Prinos Verticillatus 1030 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
Scilla Maritima 1098 
Silphium Gummiferum. 1112 
Symplocarpus Foetidus. 1152 INDEX OF DISEASES. 
IX 
DROP-WRIST OR WRIST- PA°K 
DROP 579 
See Electricity 603 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
DROWNING 579 
See Electricity 603 
DRUNKENNESS AND ITS 
TREATMENT, ETC. 
See articles Dipsomania, De- 
lirium Tremens, Intoxi- 
cation ; Stimulants, Al- 
coholic ; in this Index. 
DUMB AGUE 582 
DUMBNESS 582 
DYSENTERY 583 
See Acetate of Lead 25 
Ailanthus Glandulosa... 51 
Amaranth 78 
Apocynacese 123 
Arnica 132 
Artanthe Elongata 138 
Asclepias 147 
Bael 165 
Berberis Vulgaris 199 
Calumba .... 287 
Ceanothus. ...*. 325 
Cephaelis 327 
Chlorodyne 388 
Comptonia Asplenifolia. 437 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
Coto Bark .. 486 
Croton 495 
Diospyros Virginiana.. 551 
Echinospermum Virgini- 
cum .... 598 
Erechthites Hieracifolius 620 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Geranium Maculatum... 700 
Geum Ri vale 701 
Gnaphalium Margarita- 
ceum 704 
Hamamelis Virginica... 721 
Hepatica Americana.... 745 
Heuchera Americana.... 749 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Hypericum Perforatum. 768 
Juglans Ciuerea 801 
Labarraquc's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
Larix Americana 809 
Leptandra Virginica.... 817 
Myrica Cerifera 903 
Myrica Gale 904 
Nymph®a Odorata 930 
Pills 981 
Pinus Canadensis 988 
Plantago Major 991 
Podophyllum Peltatum.. 998 
Quercus .... 1045 
Rheum Palmatum 1067 
Rh us Glabrum 1068 
Rubus 1075 
Salix Alba 1084 
Solidago Odora 1125 
Statice Caroliniana 1133 
Strawberry 1141 
Symphytum Officinale. 1152 
Uva Ursi 1184 
Vaccinium 1186 
Verbascum Thapsus.... 1190 
Viburnum Prunifolium 1191 
DYSMENORRHCEA. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
DYSPEPSIA 586 
See Absinthine 16 
Ale 65 
Aletris . ..' 66 
Allspice 73 
Anthemis 114 
Apocynace® 123 
Aristolochia 131 
Armoracia 132 
Asclepias. 147 
PAGE 
DYSPEPSIA-(Continued.) 
See Barosma 177 
Boldo Leaves 233 
Brandy 251 
Calcium 280 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Calumba 287 
Carbon 300 
Carrara Water 311 
Cascara Sagrado 312 
Cerasus 329 
Chelone Glabra 339 
Chimaphlla Umbellata.. 383 
Chlorate of Potash.... 385 
Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound... 400 
Copper 475 
Croton 495 
Curcuma 506 
Electricity 603 
Euonymus Atropurpu- 
reus 625 
Eupatorium Perfoliatum 625 
Fceniculum 658 
Geutiana 698 
GeumRivale 701 
Gillenia Trifoliata 701 
Helonias Dioica 740 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Hydrochloric Acid 763 
Lactic Acid 808 
Ledum Latifolium 814 
Leptandra Virginica.... 817 
Magnolia 844 
Masterwort 848 
Menispermum Cana- 
dense 856 
Mineral Waters 878 
Movement Cure 897 
Nitric Acid 921 
Ophelia Chirata 937 
Ostrya Virginica 947 
Pepsin 965 
Pepsin, Wine of 965 
Pills 981 
Populus Tremuloides... 1012 
Potash 1015 
Rheum Palmatum 1067 
Sabbatia Angularis 1080 
Salix Alba 1084 
Salvia Officinalis 1086 
Sanguinaria Canadensis 1087 
Sarracenia Purpurea.... 1089 
Simaba Cedron 1113 
Simaruba Excelsa 1113 
Soap 1123 
Soda 1123 
Strychnine 1142 
Strychnos Ignatii 1142 
Sulphuric Acid 1146 
Tauacetum Vulgate 1156 
Taraxacum Dens-Leonis 1157 
Triosteum Perfoliatum.. 1174 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
DYSPHONIA CLERICORUM, 
OR CLERGYMAN'S SORE 
THROAT. 
See article Clergyman's 
Sore Throat, in this In- 
dex. 
DYSPNCEA ' 591 
DYSURIA. 
See articles Bladder, Dis- 
eases of the; Urine, in 
this Index. 
E. 
EARACHE. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
EAR, DISEASES OF THE... 592 
See Ear Syringe 597 
Euphrasia Officinalis ... 626 
Hoffman's Anodyne.... 752 
PAGE 
EAR, FOREIGN BODIES IN. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
ECTHYMA 598 
ECZEMA 598 
See Cannabis 294 
Iodoform ... 792 
ELBOW,DISLOCATIONS OF. 
See article Dislocations, in 
this Index. 
ELEPHANTIASIS, OR BAR- 
BADOES LEG 604 
EMACIATION 605 
EMPHYSEMA 609 
ENCEPHALITIS. 
See article Brain, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
ENDOCARDITIS. 
See article Heart, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
ENLARGEMENT OF THE 
HEART. 
See article Heart, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
ENTERITIS, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE BOW- 
ELS 610 
See Alcohol 62 
Apocynace® 123 
Polygonum Punctatum. 1011 
ENURESIS. 
See articles Urine; Blad- 
der, Diseases of the; 
Bed-Wetting, in this In- 
dex. 
EPHELIS ... 613 
EPIDEMIC 613 
EPIDEMIC CATARRH, OR 
INFLUENZA. 
See article Influenza, in 
this Index. 
EPILEPSY, OR FALLING 
SICKNESS 614 
See Ailanthus Glandulosa... 51 
Ammonia 79 
Artemisia 138 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh 218 
Blue Cohosh..... 230 
Bromine 260 
Castor 314 
Datura Stramonium.... 511 
Euphrasia Officinalis.... 626 
Hypophosphites 769 
Ice 771 
Indigofera 776 
Monotropa Uniflora.... 892 
Musk 902 
Potassium 1017 
Ruta Graveolens 1079 
Succinum 1144 
Symplocarpus Foetidus. 1152 
Valeriana Officinalis.... 1187 
Zinc 1214 
ERUPTION 621 
ERYSIPELAS 621 
See Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide of 283 
Convallaria Multiflora.. 462 
Hydrastis Canadensis.. 762 
Indigofera 776 
• Orobanche Virginiana.. 946 
Sambncus Canadensis.. 1086 
ERYTHEMA 623 
EXCORIATED NIPPLES. 
See article Nipples, in this 
Index. 
EXCORIATION 628 
See Bread Poultice 256 
Calamine 279 
Camphorated Chalk.... 289 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Cetaceum 333 
Chalk.... 334 INDEX OF DISEASES. 
X 
PAGE 
FEIGNED DISEASES 646 
FELON. 
See article Whitlow, in this 
Index. 
FETID BREATH. 
See article Breath, in this 
Index. 
FEVER 647 
See Acetic Acid 25 
Affusion 39 
Alcohol 62 
Ammonia 79 
Angustura Bark 106 
Antimonial Powder 116 
Asclepias 147 
Barley 175 
Baths and Bathing.... 178 
Beberine 189 
Beef-Tea 195 
Brandy 251 
Calumba 287 
Camphor 288 
Carduus 309 
Cerasus 329 
Champagne Wine 335 
Chelone Glabra 339 
Claret 405 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
Drinks 576 
Gelsemium Sempervi- 
rens 697 
Gerardia 700 
Hydrochloric Acid 763 
Ice 771 
Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
Lemon 815 
Maiden-Hair 844 
Melissa 855 
Nepeta Cataria 909 
Neutral Mixture 918 
Oxymel 949 
Pilocarpus Pennatifolius 988 
Port Wine 1013 
Potash 1015 
Pyrus Malus .... 1043 
Raspberry 1049 
Rheum Palmatum 1067 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Sabbatia Angularis 1080 
Summer-Savory 1148 
Triosteum Perfoliatum. 1174 
Valeriana Officinalis.... 1187 
Vanilla Aromatica 1187 
Xanthoxylum Frax- 
ineum 1212 
Yarrow 1212 
FEVER AND AGUE. 
See article Ague, in this In- 
dex. 
FEVER, CAMP. 
See article Typhus Fever, 
in this Index. 
FEVER, CONTINUED. 
See article Fever, in this In- 
dex. 
FEVER, SCARLET. 
See article Scarlet Fever, 
in this Index. 
FEVER, TYPHOID. 
See article Typhoid Fever, 
in this Index. 
FEVER, TYPHUS. 
See article Typhus Fever, 
in this Index. 
FILARIA 652 
FIRE-DAMP. 
See article Coal-Gas, in this 
Index. 
FIRE, ST. ANTHONY'S. 
See article Erysipelas, in 
this Index. 
FISTULA 654 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
PAGE 
EXCORIATION-(Continued.') 
Nee Glycerine 703 
Papaver Somniferum.. 956 
Pyroxyline 1043 
EXHAUSTION 633 
See Pills 981 
EYE, BLACK. 
See article Bruises, in this 
Index. 
EYE, DISEASES OF THE... 637 
See Acetate of Zinc 25 
Alum, Compound Solu- 
tion of 77 
Asarum 146 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Golden Ointment 706 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Lead 812 
Ophthalmoscope 939 
Tannin 1156 
Veratria 1190 
EYE, FOREIGN BODIES IN 
THE. 
See article Eye, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
F. 
FACE-ACHE. 
See articles Hemicrania or 
Brow Ague, Neuralgia, 
in this Index. 
FAINTING, OR SYNCOPE.. 643 
See Ammonia 79 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Chloric Ether 386 
Ether, Sulphuric 624 
Lavandula 811 
FALLING OF THE BOWEL. 
See article Prolapsus Ani, 
in this Index. 
FALLING OF THE WOMB. 
See article Womb, in this In- 
dex. 
FALLING SICKNESS. 
See article Epilepsy, in this 
Index. 
FALLS. 
See articles Bruises, Con- 
cussion, Shock, Disloca- 
tions, Fractures, Acci- 
dents, in this Index. 
False conceptions. 
See article Moles, in this 
Index. 
FALSE CROUP. 
See article Croup, False, 
in this Index. 
FALSE PREGNANCY. 
See article Pregnancy, in 
this Index. 
FAMINE FEVER. 
See article Typhus Fever, 
in this Index. 
FARCY. 
See article Glanders, in this 
Index. 
FATIGUE. 
See article Exhaustion, in 
this Index. 
FATTY DEGENERATION 
OF THE HEART. 
See article Heart, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
FAVUS 645 
FEAR 645 
FEET, BLISTERED. 
See article Blistered Hands 
or Feet, in this Index. 
FEET, COLD. 
See article Cold Feet, in 
this Index. 
FISTULA IN ANO. 
See article Fistula, in this 
Index. 
FITS. 
See articles Apoplexy, Con- 
vulsions, Epilepsy, Hys- 
teria, in this Index. 
FLATULENCE 655 
See Agave Virginica 42 
Aletris 66 
Allspice 73 
Anise 112 
Anthemis 114 
Apium 122 
Arisaema 131 
Arum 145 
Asclepias 147 
Assafcetida 150 
Aurantii Cortex 159 
Carbon 300 
Caryophyllus 312 
Chlorodyne 388 
Cinnamomum 400 
Clyster, Enema, or In- 
jection 416 
Dioscorea Villosa 551 
Fceniculum 658 
Hedeoma Pulegioides... 739 
Hoffman's Anodyne.... 752 
Lavandula 811 
Ligusticum Levisticum. 824 
Masterwort 848 
Mentha Piperit® 864 
Mentha Viridis 864 
Myristica 904 
Pills 981 
Piper Nigrum 989 
Pyrethrum Parthenium. 1042 
•Ruta Graveolens 1079 
Salvia Ofiicinalis 1086 
Tanacetum Vulgare 1156 
Thymus Vulgaris 1165 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
FLOODING. 
See articles Hemorrhage, 
Childbed, in this Index. 
FLUX 658 
FLUX, BLOODY. 
See article Dysentery, in 
this Index. 
FCETID SORES. 
See article Sores, in this In- 
dex. 
FOREIGN BODIES IN AIR 
PASSAGES 672 
FOREIGN BODIES IN THE 
EAR. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
FOREIGN BODIES IN THE 
EYE. 
See article Eye, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
FOREIGN BODIES IN THE 
GULLET 673 
See Probang 1031 
FOREIGN BODIES IN THE 
NOSE. 
SetarticleNosE,inthis Index 
FRACTURES 674 
See Gutta-percha 716 
Plaster of Paris 992 
FRAMBCEZIA, OR YAWS.... 685 
FRECKLES 685 
See Almond Paste 73 
FRIGHT. 
NeearticleFEAR, in this Index 
FROST-BITES 686 
Nee Petroleum 971 
Vaseline 1187 
FROZEN FEET, HANDS, 
FACE, ETC. 
See article Frost-Bites, in 
this Index, INDEX OF DISEASES. 
XI 
PAGE 
FULL THROAT. 
See article Goitre, in this 
Index. 
FULNESS. 
See article Plethora, in 
this Index. 
FUNCTIONAL DISEASE. 
See article Disease, in this 
Index. 
FUNCTIONAL DISEASES 
OF THE HEART. 
See article Heart, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
FUNGUS 688 
See Chelidonium 338 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
FURUNCLE. 
See article Boil, in this In- 
dex. 
c. 
GALLOPING CONSUMP- 
TION. 
See article Consumption, in 
this Index 
GALL-STONES 690 
See Heat 737 
Soap 1123 
GANGLION 692 
GANGRENE 692 
See Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Bromo-Chloralum 261 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Gutta-Percha 716 
Hiematoxylon 719 
Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
Prinos Verticillatus 1030 
Quercus 1045 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Trillium Pendulum 1173 
GAOL FEVER. 
See article Typhus Feveb, 
in this Index. 
GAPING, OR YAWNING.... 694 
GAS, ACCIDENTS FROM. 
See article Coal-Gas, in this 
Index. 
GASTRIC FEVER. 
See article Typhoid Fever, 
in this Index. 
GASTRITIS, OR IN F L A M- 
MATION OF THE 
STOMACH 695 
See Ice 771 
GASTRODYNIA. 
See articles Cramp, Colic, 
in this Index. 
GIDDINESS, DIZZINESS, 
OR VERTIGO 701 
GLAND (Diseases of, etc.)... 702 
See AEthiops Mineral 38 
Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 
Barium, Chloride of.... 174 
Bromine 260 
Cod-Liver Oil 421 
Iodine 791 
Iodoform 792 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Rheum Pahnatum 1067 
GLANDERS 702 
GLANDULAR SWELLINGS. 
See article Gland, in this In- 
dex. 
GLAUCOMA 703 
GLEET 703 
GLOBUS HYSTERICUS ... 703 
GLOSSITIS, OR INFLAMMA- 
TION OF THE TONGUE. 
See article Tongue, in this 
Index. 
PAGE 
GOITRE, OR BRONCHO- 
CELE 705 
See Iodine 791 
Iodoform 792 
Pressure 1029 
GONORRHOEA 706 
See Acetate of Zinc 25 
Agrimony 45 
Ambrosia 79 
Artanthe Elongata 138 
Asclepias 147 
Balsam of Copaiba 168 
Boldo Leaves 233 
Buchu Compound 270 
Canada Balsam 290 
Ceanothus 325 
Colchicum 424 
Conium 442 
Copaifera 475 
Cubeba 502 
Diervilla Canadensis.... 540 
Eryngium Aquaticum... 621 
Galium Aparine 689 
Geranium Maculatum.. 700 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Kava-Kava 802 
Liatris Spicata 819 
Liquidambar 827 
Mentha Viridis 864 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Uva Ursi 1184 
GOUT 708 
See Arnica 132 
Asagreea 146 
Asclepias 147 
Barosma 177 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Calisaya, EUxir of 285 
Chloral 385 
Colchicum 424 
Coto Bark 486 
Erigeron 620 
Eupatorium Purpureum 626 
Gentiana 698 
Guaiacum 714 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Kava-Kava 802 
Lappa Minor 808 
Lithium 828 
Mineral Waters 878 
Moxa 898 
Potash 1015 
Soda 1123 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
GRANULATIONS 711 
GRAVEL. 
See articles Calculus, 
Urine, in this Index. 
GREEN-SICKNESS. 
See article Chlorosis, in 
this Index. 
GRIEF. 
See article Passions, in this 
Index. 
GRIPING 713 
See Anthemis 114 
Aromatic Compound.... 133 
Chlorodyne 388 
GROCER'S ITCH. 
See articles Skin, Diseases 
of the ; Impetigo, in this 
Index. 
GRYPHOSIS 714 
GUINEA WORM. 
See article Filaria, in this 
Index. 
GULLET, FOREIGN BODIES 
IN THE. 
See article Foreign Bodies 
in the Gullet, in this 
Index. 
GUMBOIL 715 
GUMS (Diseased, etc.) 715 
GUNSHOT WOUNDS. 
See article Wounds, in this 
Index. 
H. 
H2EMATEMESIS. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
HJ5MATOCELE 718 
HEMATURIA 719 
HAEMOPTYSIS. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
HAEMORRHAGE. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
HEMORRHOIDS. 
See article Piles, in this Index 
HAIR (Diseases of, etc.) 719 
See Bear's-Grease 189 
HALLUCINATION 721 
HANDS, BLISTERED. 
See article Blistered Hands 
or Feet, in this Index. 
HANGING 722 
HARELIP 723 
HARTSHORN, POISONING 
BY. 
See article Alkalies, Poi- 
soning by, in this Index. 
HATRED. 
See article Passions, in this 
Index. 
HAY ASTHMA 723 
See Grindelia Robusta 712 
HEADACHE, CEPHALAL- 
GIA, OR CEPHALALGY. 724 
See Aloes 74 
Ammonia 79 
Aster Puniceus 151 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Collinsonia Canadensis. 432 
Cypripedium Pubescens 508 
Euphrasia Officinalis... 626 
Gelsemium S e m p e r v i- 
rens 697 
Guarana 714 
Pills 981 
Tea 1158 
Thymus Vulgaris 1165 
HEART-BURN 732 
Anfmonia 79 
Archangelica 130 
Magnesia 842 
HEART, DISEASES OF THE 733 
See Cactus Grandiflorus.... 277 
Cereus Bonplandii 332 
Chloric Ether 386 
Conium 442 
Digitalis Purpurea 548 
Hydrocyanic Acid 764 
Plasters 992 
HEART SPASM, OR ANGINA 
PECTORIS. 
See article Angina Pectoris, 
in this Index. 
HECTIC FEVER 739 
See Calumba 287 
Liriodendron Tulipifera 828 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Salvia Officinalis 1086 
HEMATURIA, OR BLEED- 
ING FROM THE BLAD- 
DER. 
See article Urine, in this 
Index. 
HEMICRANIA, OR BROW 
AGUE 741 
See Ammonia 79 
Valeriana Officinalis.... 1187 
Veratria 1190 XII 
INDEX OF DISEASES. 
PAGE 
HEMIPLEGY. 
See article Paralysis, in this 
Index. 
HEMORRHAGE, OR BLEED- 
ING 741 
See Acetate of Lead 25 
Agaric us 41 
Alum 76 
Amadou 77 
Amaranth 78 
Artanthe Elongata 138 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Cephaelis 327 
Clyster, Enema, or In- 
jection 416 
Cobweb 419 
Collodion 432 
Comptonia Asplenifolia. 437 
Digitalis Purpurea 548 
Diospyrus Virginiana. . 551 
Erigeron 620 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Gallic Acid 689 
Gelsemium Sempervi- 
rens 697 
Geranium Maculatum... 700 
Haematoxylon ... : 719 
Hamamelis Virginica... 721 
Heuchera Americana... 749 
Hypericum Perforatum. 768 
Ice 771 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Krameria Triandra 806 
Larix Americana 809 
Lycoperdon 841 
Lycopus Virginicus 841 
Monsel's Solution 892 
Nettle 916 
Orobanche Virginiana.. 946 
Pills 981 
Pressure 1029 
Pulmonaria Officinalis.. 1037 
Quercus 1045 
Rubus 1075 
Secale Cornutum 1104 
Styptics 1143 
Symphytum Officinale.. 1152 
Tannin 1156 
Yarrow 1212 
HEMORRHOIDS. 
See article Piles, in this In- 
dex. 
HEPATITIS, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE 
LIVER 745 
HEPATIZATION 747 
HEREDITARY TENDENCY, 
HEREDITARY DISEASE 747 
HERNIA. 
See article Rupture, in this 
Index. 
HERPES 749 
See Orobanche Virginiana.. 946 
Rottlera Tinctoria 1074 
HICCUP, OR HICCOUGH. . 750 
See Ailanthus Glandulosa... 51 
' Blue Cohosh 230 
Hoffman's Anodyne.... 752 
HIP-JOINT DISEASE, OR 
MORBUS COXARIUS.... 750 
HIVES 752 
HIVES. 
See article Croup, in this 
Index. 
HOARSENESS. 
See article Aphonia, in this 
Index. 
HOME SICKNESS. 
See article Nostalgia, in 
this Index. 
HOOPING COUGH. 
See article Whooping 
Cough, in this Index. 
page 
HOSPITAL FEVER. 
See article Typhus Fever, 
in this Index. 
HOSPITAL GANGRENE. 
See article Gangrene, in 
this Index. 
HOUSEMAID'S KNEE. 
See article Knee, in this In- 
dex. 
HUMID, ORMOISTTETTER. 
See article Impetigo, in this 
Index. 
HUNGER 760 
HYDROCELE 762 
See Electricity ... 603 
HYDROCEPHALUS 762 
HYDROPHOBIA 765 
HYDROTHORAX. 
See article Dropsy, in this 
Index. 
HYPERTROPHY OF THE 
HEART. 
See article Heart, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
HYPOCHONDRIASIS 768 
See Baths and Bathing 178 
Lavandula 811 
Mineral Waters 878 
Valeriana Officinalis.... 1187 
HYSTERIA 770 
See Aletris 66 
Ammonia 79 
Anthemis 114 
Artemisia 138 
Assafoetida 150 
Blue Cohosh 230 
Bromine 260 
Castor 314 
Chloroform 389 
Crocus Sativus 495 
Cypripedium Pubescens 508 
Emetics 606 
Gentiana 698 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Hypericum Perforatum. 768 
Ice 771 
Lavandula 811 
Mentha Piperita; 864 
Musk 902 
Nepeta Cataria 909 
Orange 945 
Pills 981 
Potassium. 1017 
Pyrethrum Parthenium. 1042 
Ruta Graveolens 1079 
Succinum 1144 
Symplocarpus Fcetidus. 1152 
Tanasetum Vulgare 1156 
Thymus Vulgaris 1165 
Valeriana Officinalis.... 1187 
Vanilla Aromatica 1187 
HYSTERITIS. 
See article Womb, in this In- 
dex. 
I 
ICHTHYOSIS 772 
ICTERUS. 
See article Jaundice, in this 
Index. 
ICTERUS INFANTUM. 
See article Yellow Gum, in 
this Index. 
IDIOCY AND IMBECILITY. 773 
ILLUSIONS. 
See article Hallucination, 
in this Index. 
IMBECILITY. 
See articles Idiocy, Insan- 
ity, in this Index. 
IMPERFORATE ANUS 775 
IMPERFORATE VAGINA.. 775 
IMPETIGO 775 
IMPOTENCE PA775 
See Damiana 509 
Electricity 603 
See Strychnos Nux Vomica. 1142 
INCONTINENCE OF URINE. 
See articles Bed-Wetting ; 
Bladder, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
INCUBUS OR NIGHTMARE. 
See articles Sleep, Dream- 
ing, in this Index. * 
INDIGESTION. 
See article Dyspepsia, in this 
Index. 
INFANTILE CONVUL- 
SIONS, OR FITS. 
See article Convulsions, in 
this Index. 
INFANTS, CATARRHAL AF- 
FECTIONS OF. 
See article Snuffles, in this 
Index. 
INFECTION 777 
INFLAMMATION 777 
See Aconitum Napellus 28 
Alcohol 62 
Althaea 75 
Ammonia 79 
Arnica 132 
Artemisia 138 
Blisters 226 
Bran 250 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Digitalis Purpurea 548 
Gerardia 700 
Heat 737 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Ice 771 
Issue 796 
Kalmia Latifolia 802 
Lemon 815 
Papa ver Somniferum... 956 
Potash . 1015 
- Pulsatilla. 1037 
Ricinus Communis 1070 
Turpentine 1175 
Veratrum Viride 1190 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
AIR-PASSAGES. 
See article Bronchitis, in 
this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
BLADER. 
See article Bladder, Dis- 
eases of the, in this Index 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
BOWELS. 
See articles Enteritis, Peri- 
tonitis, in this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
BRAIN. 
See article Brain, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
BREASTS. 
See article Breast, in this 
Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
EAR. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, iu this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
EYES. 
Nee articles Ophthalmia; 
Eyi^ Diseases of the, in 
this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
HEART, OR CARDITIS. 
See article Heart, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
KIDNEYS. 
See article Nephritis, in this 
Index. INDEX OF DISEASES. 
XIII 
page 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
LARYNX. 
See article Laryngitis, in 
this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
LIVER. 
See article Hepatitis, in this 
Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
LUNGS. 
See article Pneumonia, in 
this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
SPINE. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
STOMACH. 
See article Gastritis, in this 
Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
TONGUE. 
See article Tongue, in this 
Index. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
WINDPIPE. 
See article Croup, in this In- 
dex. 
INFLAMMATION OF THE 
WOMB. 
See article Womb, in this In- 
dex. 
INFLAMMATORY FEVER.. 781 
INFL AMMATORY RHEUMA- 
TISM, OR ACUTE RHEU- 
MATISM. 
See article Rheumatism, in 
this Index. 
INFLUENZA 781 
See Maiden-Hair 844 
INGROWING NAILS. 
See article Nails, Ingrow- 
ing of the, in this Index. 
INGUINAL HERNIA. 
See article Rupture, in this 
Index. 
INJURIES AND DISEASES 
OF THE SPINE. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the. 
INOCULATION 784 
INSANITY 785 
See Baths and Bathing 178 
Camphor 288 
Chloral 385 
Datura Stramonium.... 511 
Hyoscyamus Niger..... 767 
Pills 981 
Quinine 1045 
INSENSIBILITY, OR UN- 
CONSCIOUSNESS. 
See articles Coma, Fainting, 
Apoplexy, Intoxication, 
Concussion, Concussion 
of the Brain, Shock, 
in this Index. 
INTERMITTENT FEVER, 
OR FEVER AND AGUE. 
See article Ague, in this In- 
dex. 
INTOXICATION 789 
INVERSION 790 
IRRITABILITY 795 
IRRITATION 795 
See Papaver Somniferum .. 956 
IRRITATION OF THE 
SPINE. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
ISCHURIA 795 
ITCH 796 
See Calcium 280 
page 
ITCH-{Continued.) 
See Carbolic Acid 299 
Coal-Tar 419 
Curcuma 506 
Hedera Helix 740 
Mercurial Ointment 864 
Rumex 1076 
Sulphur 1146 
ITCH, BARBERS' 797 
ITCH, GROCERS'. 
See articles Impetigo ; Skin, 
Diseases of the, in this 
Index. 
J. 
JAIL FEVER. 
See article Typhus Fever, 
in this Index. 
JAUNDICE, OR ICTERUS... 797 
See Apocynaceaa 123 
Apocynin...' 123 
Artemisia 138 
Berberis Vulgaris 199 
Chelone Glabra.. 339 
Crocus Sativus 495 
Curcuma 506 
Emetics 606 
Hypericum Perforatum 768 
Impatiens Pallida 775 
Kalmia Latifolia 802 
Larix Americana 809 
Ligusticum Levisticum. 824 
Myrica Cerifera 903 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Prinos Verticillatus.. 1030 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
Saponaria Officinalis.... 1089 
JAW, LOWER, DISLOCA- 
TION OF. 
See article Dislocations, in 
this Index. 
JAW, LOWER, FRACTURE 
OF. 
See article Fractures, in 
this Index. 
JEALOUSY. 
See article Passions, in this 
Index. 
JOINTS, DISLOCATIONS OF 
See article Dislocations, in 
this Index. 
K. 
KIDNEY,DISEASES OF THE 803 
See Agave Americana 42 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Buchu Compound 270 
Celery 326 
Chimaphila Umbellata. 383 
Equisetum Hyemale.... 620 
Erigeron 620 
Iris Versicolor 793 
Juniperus 802 
Lappa Minor 808 
Liatris Spicata 819 
Mineral Waters 878 
Tanacetum Vulgare 1156 
Uva Ursi 1184 
KNEE {Diseases of, etc.).... 804 
KNIE-JOINT, DISLOCA- 
TION OF. 
See article Dislocations, in 
this Index. 
KNEE-PAN, FRACTURE OF. 
See article Patella, in this 
Index. 
L. 
LABOR, OR CHILDBIRTH. 
See articles Childbed, Par- 
turition, in this Index. 
LACERATION. 
See article Wounds, in this 
Index. 
PAGE 
LAKE FEVER. 
See article Remittent 
Fever, in this Index. 
LAME BACK. 
See articles Lumbago; 
Spine, Diseases and 
Injuries of the, in this 
Index. 
LANGUOR. 
See article Debility, in this 
Index. 
LARYNGISMUS STRIDU- 
LUS. 
See article Croup, False, in 
this Index. 
LARYNGITIS, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE 
LARYNX 809 
See Arum 145 
LATERAL CURVATURE OF 
THE SPINE. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
LEAD COLIC. 
See article Colic, in this 
Index. 
LEAD POISONING. 
See article Colic, in this 
Index. 
LEG, MILK. 
See article Milk-Leg, in this 
Index. 
LEPRA, OR LEPROSY 816 
See Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 
Iodoform 792 
Rumex 1076 
Solanum Dulcamara.... 1124 
Solution, Iodides of 
Arsenic and Mercury. 1125 
Sulphur, Iodide of 1147 
LETHARGY 818 
LEUCOMA 818 
LEUCORRHCEA. 
See article Whites, in this 
Index. 
LICE. 
See article Acarus, in this 
Index. 
LICHEN 819 
LIME, BURNS FROM 825 
LIME IN THE EYE. 
See article Lime, Burns 
from, in this Index. 
LIQUOR POTASS7E, POISON- 
ING BY. 
See article Alkalies, Poi- 
soning by, in this Index. 
LISPING 828 
LIVER COMPLAINT. 
See articles B i l i ar y Di s-( 
orders, Biliousness, 
Bilious Cholera, Cos- 
tiveness, Hepatitis, 
Jaundice, in this Index. 
LOCK-JAW 832 
See Datura Stramonium.... 511 
LONGING 835 
LOOSENESS OF THE 
BOWELS. 
See article Diarrhiea, in this 
Index. 
LOSS OF BLOOD. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
LOSS OF FLESH. 
See articles Atrophy, Ema- 
ciation, in this Index. 
LOSS OF HAIR. 
See article Baldness, in this 
Index. 
LOSS OF SIGHT. 
See articles Amaurosis. 
Blindness, in this Index. XIV 
INDEX OF DISEASES 
LOSS OF VOICE. 
Nee article Aphonia, in this 
Index. 
LOWER JAW, DISLOCA- 
TIONS OF. 
See article Dislocations, in 
this Index. 
LOWER JAW, FRACTURE 
OF. 
See article Fractubes, in 
this Index. 
LOW SPIRITS. 
See articles Hypochondria- 
sis, Nervous Diseases, 
Melancholy, Dyspepsia, 
in this Index. 
LUMBAGO 836 
See Pitch Plaster 989 
Turpentine 1175 
LUNACY. 
See article Insanity, in this 
Index. 
LUNG FEVER. 
See article Pneumonia, in 
this Index. 
LUNGS, BLEEDING FROM. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
LUPUS 841 
M. 
MAD DOGS, BITES OF. 
See article Bites and 
Stings, in this Index. 
MADNESS. 
See article Insanity, in this 
Index. 
MALFORMATION. 
See articles Deformity; 
Spine, Diseases and In- 
juries of the ; Imperfor- 
ate Anus, Imperforate 
Vagina, in this Index. 
MALIGNANT SORE 
THROAT. 
See articles Scarlet Fever, 
Diphtheria, in this Index. 
MANIA. 
See article Insanity, in this 
Index. 
MARASMUS OR WASTING. 
See articles Atrophy, Ema- 
ciation, in this Index. 
MASTURBATION. 
See articles Onanism, Semen, 
Nocturnal Discharges, 
in this Index. 
MEASLES 850 
See Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound ... 400 
C?rocus Sativus 495 
MECHANICS AND THEIR 
DISEASES. 
See article Artizans and 
their Diseases, in this 
Index. 
MELANCHOLIA. 
See article Melancholy, in 
this Index. 
MELANCHOLY, OR MEN- 
TAL DEJECTION 855 
See Camphor 288 
Pills 981 
MENORRHAGIA. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
MENSES. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
MENSTRUATION 857 
See Agave Virginica 42 
Amaranth 78 
Anthemis 114 
PAGE 
MENSTRUATION-(Contin- 
ued.') 
See Apocynacese 123 
Apocynin 123 
Archangelica 130 
Aristolochia 131 
Arnica 132 
Artanthe Elongata 138 
Artemisia 138 
Asclepias 147 
Aster Puniceus 151 
Bidens Bipinnata 201 
Black Cohosh 218 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Cephaelis 327 
Chiococca Racemosa.... 385 
Conium 442 
Convallaria Multiflora.. 462 
Crocus Sativus 495 
Electricity 603 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Gallic Acid 689 
Gentiana 698 
Gillenia Trifoliata 701 
Gossypium Herbaceum . 708 
Hedeoma Pulegioides... 739 
Helleborus Niger 740 
Helonias Dioica 740 
Hieracium Venosum.... 750 
Inula Helenium 790 
Iodoform 792 
J uniperus 802 
Krameria Triandra 806 
Larix Americana 809 
Leonurus Cardiaca 816 
Liatris Spicata 819 
Melissa 855 
Mineral Waters 878 
Nepeta Cataria 909 
Origanum 946 
Parsley Seeds 959 
Pills 981 
Pinus Canadensis 988 
Plantago Major 991 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Polygala Senega 1010 
Polygonum Punctatum . 1011 
Pyrethrum Parthenium. 1042 
Rubia Tinctorum 1075 
Sabbatia Angularis 1080 
Sassafras Officinale 1089 
Summer-Savory 1148 
Thymus Vulgaris . 1165 
Uva Ursi 1184 
Verbena Hestata 1191 
Vernonia Fasiculata .... 1191 
MENTAL DEJECTION. 
See articles Melancholy, 
Hypochondriasis, in this 
Index. 
MILK-CRUST. 
See article Impetigo, in this 
Index. 
MILK FEVER 876 
MILK-LEG, PHLEGMASIA 
DOLENS 877 
Black Cohosh 218 
MILK-SICKNESS 877 
MINERS, DISEASES OF. 
See article Colliers, Dis- 
eases of, in this Index. 
MISCARRIAGE. 
See article Abortion, in this 
Index. 
MOIST TETTER. 
See article Impetigo, in this 
Index. 
MOLES 892 
MOLES ON THE SKIN 892 
MONOMANIA 892 
MONTHLY DISCHARGE. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
MORBID GROWTHS 893 
PAGE 
MORBUS COXARIUS. 
See article Hip-Joint Dis- 
ease, in this Index. 
MORTIFICATION 896 
See Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Poultice 1018 
Prinos Verticillatus 1030 
Quercue 1045 
MOTHER-MARK 897 
MOUNTAIN FEVER 897 
MUMPS OR PAROTITIS ... 899 
See Verbascum Thapsus.... 1190 
N. 
NAILS, INGROWING OF 
THE 905 
NAUSEA 906 
See Bismuth 211 
Calumba 287 
Dioscorea Villosa 551 
Hedeoma Pulegioides... 739 
Helonias Dioica 740 
Lavandula 811 
Mentha Piperitae 864 
Mentha Viridis 864 
Salvia Officinalis 1086 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
NEAR-SIGHT. 
See article Vision, in this 
Index. 
NECROSIS 909 
NEPHRITIS, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE KID- 
NEYS 910 
See Arnica 132 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Galium Aparine 689 
Parsley Seeds 959 
NERVOUS DEBILITY. 
See articles Nervous Dis- 
eases, Debility, in this 
Index. 
NERVOUS DISEASES 910 
See Ale 65 
Ammonia 79 
Anthemis 114 
Assaf oetida 150 
Aster Puniceus 151 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh 218 
Camphor .... 288 
Camphor Julep 289 
Cerasus 329 
Cereus Bonplandii 332 
Champagne Wine 335 
Chloral 385 
Chlorate of Potash . ... 385 
Citrate of Iron and 
Strychnia 403 
Conium /42 
Cypripedium Pubescens 508 
Hoffman's Anodyne.... 752 
Ice 771 
Jeffersonia Diphylla.... 800 
Leonurus Cardiaca 816 
Melissa 855 
Mineral Waters 878 
Monotropa Uniflora.... 892 
Panax Quinquefolium .. 955 
Pills 981 
Potassium 1017 
Ruta Graveolens 1079 
Scutellaria Lateriflora .. 1102 
Yarrow 1212 
Zinc 1214 
NERVOUSNESS. 
See article Nervous Dis- 
eases, in this Index. 
NETTLE-RASH. 
See article Skin, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
NEURALGIA 917 INDEX OF DISEASES. 
PASSION, OR ANGER 961 
PASSIONS 961 
PATELLA, OR KNEE-PAN 
{Fracture of. etc.) 961 
PEARLASH, POISONING BY 
See article Alkalies,Poison- 
ing by, in this Index. 
PELVIS {Fracture of, etc)... 964 
PERFORATION 966 
PERICARDITIS. 
See article Heabt, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
PERIODS, SUPPRESSED. 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
PERITONITIS, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE PERI- 
TON^UM, OR SEROUS 
COVERING OF THE 
BOWELS 968 
PERTUSSIS. 
See article Whooping- 
Cough, in this Index. 
PHARYNGITIS. 
See article Sore Throat, in 
this Index. 
PHLEBITIS. 
See article Veins, in this In- 
dex. 
PHLEGMASIA DOLENS. 
See article Milk-Leg, in this 
Index. 
PHRENITIS 973 
PHTHISIS. 
See article Consumption, in 
this Index. 
PHYMOSIS 974 
PILES, OR HEMORRHOIDS. 978 
See Artanthe Elongata 138 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Buckeye Bark 270 
Canada Balsam 290 
Chelidonium 338 
Convallaria Multiflora .. 462 
Cubeba 502 
Datura Stramonium .... 511 
Erigeron 620 
Galls 690 
Mentha Viridis 864 
Mineral Waters 878 
Plantago Major 991 
Polygonum Punctatum . 1011 
Quercus 1045 
Statice Caroliniana 1133 
Sulphur 1146 
Tannin 1156 
Tar and Pitch 1157 
Verbascum Thapsus.... 1190 
PIMPLES. 
See articles Acne, Impetigo, 
Eczema, Herpes ; Skin, 
Diseases of the, in this 
Index. 
PLAGUE 989 
PLETHORA, OR FULNESS.. 993 
PLEURISY, OR PLEURITIS 995 
See Alcohol 62 
Asclepias 147 
Baths and Bathing 178 
PNEUMONIA 997 
See Antimony 116 
Asclepias 147 
Gelsemium Sempervi- 
rens 697 
Pilocarpus Pennatifolius 988 
Polygala Senega 1010 
Quinine 1045 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
POISONOUS WOUNDS. 
See articles Wounds, Bites 
and Stings, in this Index. 
POISONS AND THEIR ANTI- 
DOTES 999 
POLYPUS 1011 
XV 
' PAGE 
NEURALGIA-{Continued.) 
See Aconitum Napellus 28 
Acupuncture 31 
jEsculus 38 
Asagraea 146 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Atropia 158 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Black C ohosh 218 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide of 283 
Cannabis 294 
Chloral 385 
Chloroform 389 
Colchicum 424 
Conium 442 
Creasote 494 
Cypripedium Pubescens 508 
Datura Stramonium .... 511 
Delphinium 528 
Electricity 603 
Guarana 714 
Humulus Lupulus 760 
Hydrocyanic Acid 764 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Iodide of Potassium ... 790 
Iodoform 792 
Kalmia Latifolia 802 
Leonurus Cardiaca 816 
Liniment 825 
Ostrya Virginica 947 
Quinine 1045 
Scutellaria Lateriflora .. 1102 
Simaba Cedron 1113 
Veratria 1190 
NIGHT-BLINDNESS 919 
NIGHTMARE. 
See articles Sleep, Dream- 
ing, in this Index. 
NIGHT-SWEATS. 
See article Consumption, 
in this Index. 
NIPPLES {Sore, etc.) 919 
See Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Borax 237 
Catechu.... 319 
Collodion 432 
Kino 804 
Tannin 1156 
NOCTURNAL DISCHARGES 923 
See Salvia Officinalis. 1086 
Strychnos Nux Vomica 1142 
NOISES IN THE EAR. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
NOSE {Fracture of. etc.) .... 923 
NOSE, BLEEDING FROM. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
NOSE, FOREIGN BODIES 
IN THE. 
See article Nose, in this In- 
dex. 
NOSTALGIA, OR HOME- 
SICKNESS 925 
NURSING SORE MOUTH, OR 
APHTHA LACTEA 928 
See Chlorate of Potash 385 
NYCTALOPIA 929 
See Arnica 132 
O. 
OBESITY. 
See article Corpulence, in 
this Index. 
OBSTRUCTION OF THE 
BOWELS. 
See article Enteritis, in this 
Index. 
(EDEMA 932 
ONANISM 935 
ONYCHIA 936 
PAGE 
OPACITY 936 
See Chelidonium . 338 
OPHTHALMIA, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE EYES. 937 
See Acetate of Zinc 25 
Asarum .... 146 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Berberis Vulgaris 199 
Calcium 280 
Citrine Ointment 404 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Kalmia Latifolia 802 
Stellaria Media 1133 
OPTICAL DELUSIONS 944 
OTALGIA AND OTITIS. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
OVARY AND OVARIAN DIS- 
EASE. v 947 
P. 
PAIN .. 950 
See Aconitum Napellus 28 
Alcohol 62 
Anodyne Plaster 113 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Bran 250 
Chloric Ether 386 
Chloroform 389 
Conium 442 
Cupping 502 
Heat 737 
Humulus Lupulus 760 
Lactuca Sativa ... 808 
Opium 940 
Pills 981 
PAIN IN THE SIDE. 
See article Side, Pain in 
the, in this Index. 
PAINTER'S COLIC. 
See article Colic, in this 
Index. 
PAINTER'S PARALYSIS. 
See article Drop-Wrist, in 
this Index. 
PALPITATION OF THE 
HEART 953 
See Ailanthus Glandulosa... 51 
Cereus Bonplandii 332 
Colchicum 424 
Hydrocyanic Acid 764 
PALSY. 
See article Paralysis, in this 
Index. 
PARALYSIS, OR PALSY .... 956 
See Arnica 132 
Asarum 146 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Citrate of Iron and 
Strychnia 403 
Electricity . 603 
PiUs 981 
Strychnine 1142 
Strychnos Nux Vomica. 1142 
PARAPHYMOSIS. 
See article Phymosis, in this 
Index. 
PARIS GREEN {Poisoning 
by.) 
See article Poisons and 
their Antidotes, in this 
Index. 
PARONYCHIA. 
See article Whitlow, in this 
Index. 
PAROTITIS. 
See article Mumps, in this 
Index. 
PARTURITION I... 959 
See Rubus 1075 XVI 
INDEX OF DISEASES. 
PAGE 
PORRIGO. 
See article Scald-Head, in 
this Index. 
PRECOCITY 1022 
PREGNANCY 1022 
See Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
Ricinus Communis 1070 
Sulphur 1146 
PREMATURE BIRTH 1028 
PRICKLY HEAT 1030 
PROLAPSUS ANI, OR FALL- 
ING OF THE BOWEL... 1031 
See Quercus 1045 
PROLAPSUS OF THE WOMB, 
OR PROLAPSUS UTERI. 
See article Womb, in this In- 
dex. 
PROSTATE (Diseased) 1033 
See Colchicum 424 
PROUD FLESH 1033 
See Copper ... 475 
PRURIGO 1033 
See Celastrus Scandens 326 
Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
PRURITUS. 
See article Skin, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
PSORIASIS, OR SALT- 
RHEUM 1033 
See Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 
Berberis Aquifolium.... 198 
Calcium, Compound El- 
ixir Iodo-Bromide of . 283 
Fucus Vesiculosus 687 
Hedera Helix 740 
Impatiens Pallida 775 
Iodoform 792 
Plantago Major ... 991 
Solanum Dulcamara.... 1124 
Sulphur, Iodide of 1147 
PTYALISM. 
See article Salivation, in 
this Index. 
PUERPERAL FEVER 1035 
See Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
PUERPERAL SWELLED 
LEG, OR MILK-LEG. 
See article Milk-Leg, in this 
Index. 
PUNCTURED WOUNDS. 
See article Wounds, in this 
Index. 
PURPLES, THE. 
See article Purpura, in this 
Index. 
PURPURA 1040 
PUSTULES 1041 
PUTRID SORE THROAT. 
See articles Scarlet Fever, 
Diphtheria, in this Index 
PYEMIA 1042 
PYROSIS. 
See article Water-Brash, 
in this Index. 
Q 
QUINSY, OR TONSILLITIS. 1046 
See Verbascum Thapsus.... 1190 
R. 
RABIES. 
See articles Bites and 
Stings, Hydrophobia, in 
this Index. 
RATTLESNAKES, BITES OF 
See article Bites and 
Stings, in this Index. 
RECTUM (Diseases of, etc.) 1051 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
RED-GUM, OR TOOTH- 
RASH 1053 
REDUNDANCY OF BLOOD. 
See article Plethora, in this 
Index. 
RELAPSING FEVER 1054 
REMITTENT, OR BILIOUS 
FEVER 1055 
See Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh 218 
Calumba , 287 
Cephaelis 327 
Chionanthus Virginica.. 385 
Eupatorium Perfoliatum 625 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Hydrastis Canadensis... 762 
Hypophosphites 769 
J uglans Cinerea 801 
Leptandra Virginica .... 817 
Pills ^ ... 981 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Ptelea Trifoliata 1034 
Quinine 1045 
Simaruba Excelsa 1113 
RETCHING. 
See articles Nausea, Vomit- 
ing, in this Index. 
RETENTION OF URINE. 
See articles Ischuria, 
Urine ; Bladder, D i s- 
eases of the, in this In- 
dex. 
REVERY 1060 
RHEUMATIC FEVER. 
See article Rheumatism, in 
this Index. 
RHEUMATISM 1061 
See Acetate of Potash 25 
Aconitum Napellus 28 
Acupuncture 31 
JEsculus 38 
Alcohol 62 
Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 
Apocynaceae 123 
Apocynin 123 
Aralia 129 
Arisaema 131 
Armoracia 132 
Arnica 132 
Arum 145 
A sagr;ea 146 
Asclepias . 147 
Aster Puniceus 151 
Barosma < 177 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Berberis Aquifolium.... 198 
Black Cohosh 218 
Blue Cohosh 230 
Boldo Leaves 233 
Cactus Grandiflorus.... 277 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide of 283 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Camphor 288 
Camphorated Spirits of 
Wine 289 
Camphor Liniment 290 
Canada Balsam 290 
Cannabis 294 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Chimaphila Umbellata.. 383 
Chiococca Racemosa.... 385 
Chloroform ... 389 
Colchicum 424 
Conium 442 
Coto Bark 486 
Creasote 494 
Datura Stramonium .... 511 
Delphinium 528 
Electricity... 603 
Eupatorium Purpureum 626 
Gillenia Trifoliata 701 
Gold ' 706 
Guaiacum 714 
RH E U M AT IS M-(C 0 n - 
tinned.) 
See Guairana 714 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Iodide of Potassium .... 790 
Jeffersonia Diphylla .... 800 
Kava-Kava 802 
Lemon 815 
Liniment 825 
Liriodendron Tulipifera 828 
Mineral Waters 878 
Moxa 898 
Petroleum 971 
Phytolacca Decandra ... 977 
Pilocarpus Pennatifolius 988 
Pinus Canadensis 988 
Podophyllum Peltatum . 998 
Potash 1015 
Propylamine 1032 
Quinine 1045 
Salicine ... 1083 
Salicylic Acid 1083 
Salt 1085 
Sanguinaria Canadensis 1087 
Saponaria Officinalis.... 1089 
Sassafras Officinale 1089 
Shampooing 1107 
Smilax 1122 
Soda 1123 
Symplocarpus Foetidus . 1152 
Thuja Occidentails 1165 
Turpentine . 1175 
Vanilla Aromatica...... 1187 
Vaseline 1187 
Xanthoxylum Frax- 
ineum 1212 
RIBS BROKEN. 
See article Fbactures, in 
this Index. 
RICKETS, OR RACHITIS . . 1071 
See Calcium 280 
Hypophosphites 769 
Phosphoric Acid 972 
RIGOR 1071 
RINGING IN THE EARS. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
RINGWORM 1071 
See Calcium 280 
Carbolic Acid 299 
Impatiens Pallida 775 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
ROARING IN THE EARS. 
See article Ear, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
ROSE. 
See article Erysipelas, in 
this Index. 
ROSE-COLD. 
See article Hay Asthma, in 
this article. 
ROSEOLA, OR ROSE-RASH. 
See article Skin, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
ROSE-RASH. 
See article Skin, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
ROUND SHOULDERS. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
RUBEOLA, OR MEASLES. 
See article Measles, in this 
Index. 
RUNROUND. 
See article Whitlow, in this 
Index. 
RUPTURE, HERNIA 1077 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
Coffea 422 
RUPTURE OF THE BLAD- 
DER. 
See article Bladder, Dis- 
eases of the, in this Index INDEX OF DISEASES. 
XVII 
PAGE 
s. 
SADNESS. 
See articles Melancholy, 
Hypochondriasis, in this 
Index. 
SAINT ANTHONY'S FIRE. 
See article Erysipelas, in 
this Index. 
SAINT VITUS'S DANCE, OR 
CHOREA 1081 
See Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh 218 
Datura Stramonium .... 511 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Monotropa Uniflora .... 892 
Pills 981 
Propylamine 1032 
Scutellaria Lateriflora .. 1102 
Zinc 1214 
SALIVATION,OR PT YALISM 1084 
See Ambrosia 79 
Baptisia Tiuctoria 173 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Mercury 864 
Polygonum Punctatum . 1011 
Potash 1015 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
SALT-RHEUM. 
See article Psoriasis, in this 
Index. 
SCABIES, OR ITCH. 
See article Itch, in this In- 
Index. 
SCALD-HEAD. 
See Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide 
of 283 
Carbolic Acid 299 
Kalmia Latifolia 802 
Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid. 806 
SCALDS. 
See article Burns and 
Scalds, in this Index. 
SCALES, OR SCURF. 
See article Desquamation, 
in this Index. 
SCALP {Diseases of, etc.).... 1091 
See Solution, Iodides of Ar- 
senic and Mercury 1125 
SCARLATINA 1092 
SCARLET FEVER, OR SCAR- 
LATINA 1092 
See Affusion 39 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Bromo-Chloralum 261 
Capsicum 297 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Chlorine Water 388 
Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound.... 400 
Colchicum 424 
Crocus Sativus 495 
Helianthemum Cana- 
dense 740 
Ice 771 
Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
Potash .... 1015 
Quinine 1045 
Salicylic Acid 1083 
Sanguinaria Canadensis. 1087 
Statice CaroUniana 1133 
SCARLET-RASH, OR ROSE- 
RASH. 
See article Skin, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
SCIATICA 1097 
See Aconitum Napellus 28 
Atropia 158 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Petroleum 971 
PAGE 
SCIATICA {Continued.) 
See Turpentine 1175 
SCREAMING OF INFANTS. 1099 
SCROFULA, OR KING'S 
EVIL 1099 
See 2Ethiops Mineral 38 
Agrimony 45 
Alnus Rubra 73 
Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 
Apocynacese 123 
Apocynin . 123 
Arisaama 131 
Asclepias 147 
Barium, Chloride, of.... 174 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Berberis Aquifolium.... 198 
Cadmium 277 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide 
of 283 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Chelidonium 338 
Chimaphila Umbellata .. 383 
Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound ... 400 
Cod-Liver Oil 421 
Conium 442 
Corydalis Formosa 481 
Eryngium Aquaticum... 621 
Gentiana 698 
Gold .'... 706 
Green Salve 712 
Gutta-percha 716 
Helianthemum Cana- 
dense 740 
Hieracium Venosum.... 750 
Hypophosphites 769 
Iodide of Potassium .... 790 
Iodine 791 
Iodoform 792 
Iponuea Jalapa 792 
Iris Versicolor 793 
Lappa Minor 808 
Liatris Spicata 819 
Menispermum Cana- 
dense 856 
Mineral Waters 878 
Myrica Cerifera 903 
Nymphsea Odorata 930 
Ostrya Virginica 947 
Phytolacca Decandra... 977 
Plantago Major 991 
Podophyllum Peltatum . 998 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Rumex 1076 
Saponaria Officinalis.... 1089 
Sassafras Officinale 1089 
Smilax 1122 
Stillingia Sylvatica 1135 
Symphytum Officinale .. 1152 
Verbena Hestata 1191 
Vernonia Fasiculata .... 1191 
SCURF. 
See article Dandriff, in this 
Index. 
SCURVY 1102 
See Agave Americana 42 
Armoracia 132 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Lappa Minor 808 
Lemon 815 
Potash 1015 
Rumex 1076 
Thuja Occidentals 1165 
Vaccinium 1186 
SEA-SICKNESS 1103 
See Chlorodyne 388 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
SELF-ABUSE. 
See articles Onanism, Semen, 
Nocturnal Discharges, 
Sterility, in this Index. 
PAGE 
SEMEN {Excessive, etc.) .... 1105 
SEMINAL WEAKNESS. 
See articles Semen, Onanism, 
Nocturnal Discharges, 
Sterility, in this Index. 
SERPENTS' BITES. 
See article Bites and Stings, 
in this Index. 
SEXUAL EXCESSES. 
See articles Onanism, Semen, 
Nocturnal Discharges, 
Impotence, Sterility, 
Gonorrhcea, Syphilis, in 
this Index. 
SHINGLES. 
See article Herpes, in this 
Index. 
SHIP FEVER. 
See article Typhus Fever, in 
this Index. 
SHOCK 1108 
SHORT-SIGHT. 
See article Vision, in this 
Index. 
SIDE, PAIN IN THE 1112 
SINGING IN THE EAR. 
See Ear, Diseases of the, 
in this Index. 
SINKING 1113 
SKIN BOUND 1114 
SKIN, DISEASES OF THE . 1114 
See .ZEthiops Mineral 38 
Alnus Rubra 73 
Andromeda 103 
Aralia 129 
Arsenio 135 
Barium, Chloride of .... 174 
Barosma 177 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Bismuth 211 
Borax 237 
Calcium 280 
Calcium, Compound 
Elixir Iodo-Bromide 
of 283 
Calcium, Iodide of 283 
Camphorated Chalk .... 289 
Carbolic Acid. .. 299 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Chelidonium 338 
Chimaphila Umbellata.. 383 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Chlorine Water 388 
Cinchona .... 398 
Cinchona Compound ... 400 
Citrine (fitment 404 
Clematis Virginiana .... 406 
Coal-Tar 419 
Cocculus Indicus 419 
Collodion 432 
Conium 442 
Convallaria Multiflora .. 462 
Corydalis Formosa 481 
Fowler's Solution ...... 674 
Guaiacum 714 
Gutta-percha 716 
Helianthemum Cana- 
dense 740 
Iodoform 792 
Kalmia Latifolia 802 
Lappa Minor 808 
Larix Americana 809 
Menispe rmum C ana - 
dense 856 
Mineral Waters 878 
Orobanche Virginiana .. 946 
Potassium 1017 
Prinos Verticillatus 1030 
Pyrus Malus 1043 
Quinine 1045 
Saponaria Officinalis.... 1089 
Sassafras Officinale 1089 
Smilax 1122 
Soda 1123 XVIII 
INDEX OF DISEASES 
page 
SKIN, DISEASES OF THE 
(Continued.) 
See Solanum Dulcamara .... 1124 
Solution, Iodides of 
Arsenic and Mercury.. 1125 
Stillingia Sylvatica 1135 
Sulphur 1146 
Sulphur, Iodide of 1147 
Sulphurous Acid 1147 
Vaseline 1187 
SLEEP (Disturbed, etc.) 1116 
See Chloral 385 
Conium 442 
Hoffman's Anodyne.... 752 
Humulus Lupulus 760 
Leonurus Cardiaca 816 
Lettuce 818 
Opium 940 
Pills 981 
SLEEPLESSNESS. 
See article Sleep, in this In 
dex. 
SLEEP-WALKING. 
See article Sleep, in this In- 
dex. 
SLOUGH 1119 
SMALL-POX, OR VARIOLA . 1119 
See Bromomo-Chloralum ... 261 
Cinchona 398 
Cinchona Compound ... 400 
Gutta-percha 716 
Litharge 828 
Sarracenia Purpurea.... 1089 
Vaccination 1185 
SMOTHERING. 
See articles Asphyxia, Suf- 
focation, in this Index. 
SNAKES, BITES OF. 
See article Bites and 
Stings, in this Index. 
SNEEZING 1122 
SNUFFLES 1123 
SOFT CANCER. 
See article Fungus, in this 
Index. 
SOFTENING OF THE BRAIN 1124 
SOLDIER'S ITCH, OR CAMP 
ITCH 1125 
SOMNAMBULISM. 
See article Sleep, in this In- 
dex. 
SORE MOUTH. 
See articles Nursing Sore 
Mouth, Thrush, Saliva- 
tion, Stomatitis, in this 
Index. 
SORES. 
See articles Ulcers, 
Wounds, Granulations, 
in this Index. 
SORE THROAT 1125 
See Ascetic Acid 25 
Agrimony 45 
Alcohol 62 
Aristolochia 131 
Asperula 149 
Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Bromo-Chloralum 261 
Capsicum 297 
Catechu 319 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Chlorine Water 388 
Currants 506 
Dorstenia Contrayerva.. 569 
Effervescence 599 
Geranium Maculatum .. 700 
Honey 753 
Hyssopus Officinalis.... 769 
Iodide of Potassium .... 790 
Kino 804 
Liatris Spicata 819 
Liniment 825 
Port Wine 1013 
Potash 1015 
page 
SORE THROAT (Continued.) 
See Pyrola Rotundifolia .... 1043 
Quercus 1045 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Sal-Prunella 1085 
Salvia Officinalis 1086 
Vaseline 1187 
SOUR STOMACH. 
See articles Acidity of the 
Stomach, Heart-Burn, 
Water-Brash, Dyspep- 
sia, in this Index. 
SPASM 1126 
See Agave Virginica 42 
Anthemis .114 
Camphor Julep 289 
Chloroform 389 
Cinnamomum 400 
Conium 442 
Dioscorea Villosa 551 
Emetics 606 
Ether, Sulphuric 624 
Jeffersonia DiphyIla.... 800 
Lobelia Inflata 831 
Mentha Piperita 864 
Pills 981 
Simaba Cedron 1113 
Viburnum Opulus 1191 
Zingiber Officinale 1215 
SPASMODIC DISEASES. 
See articles Tetanus, Lock- 
Jaw, Saint Vitus's 
Dance,Spasm, in this Index 
SPASM OF THE HEART, OR 
ANGINA PECTORIS. 
See article Angina Pe]c- 
toris, in this Index. 
SPEECH (Indistinctness of, 
etc.) 1127 
SPERMATORRHOEA. 
See articles Onanism, 
Semen, Nocturnal Dis- 
charges, in this Index. 
SPINE, DISEASES AND IN- 
JURIES OF THE 1128 
See Leonurus Cardiaca 816 
SPITTING OF BLOOD. 
See article Hemorrhage, in 
this Index. 
SPLENITIS, OR INFLAM- 
MATION OF THE 
SPLEEN 1131 
See Iris Versicolor 793 
SPOTTED FEVER 1131 
SPRAIN, OR STRAIN 1131 
See Aconitum Napellus 28 
Alcohol 62 
Camphor 288 
Camphorated Spirits of 
Wine 289 
Gnaphalium Margarita- 
ceum 704 
Liniment 825 
Petroleum 971 
Salt „ 1085 
Shampooing 1107 
Vaseline 1187 
SQUINTING, OR STRABIS- 
MUS 1132 
STAMMERING. 
See article Speech, in this 
Index. 
ST. ANTHONY'S FIRE. 
See article Erysipelas, in 
this Index. 
STARVATION 1132 
STERILITY, OR BARREN- 
NESS 1133 
STIFF JOINT. 
See article Anchylosis, in 
this Index. 
STILLBORN. 
See articles Abortion, 
Childbed, in this Index. 
PAGE 
STINGS. 
See article Bites and 
Stings, in this Index. 
STITCHES, STITCH IN THE 
SIDE 1137 
STOMATITIS, OR INFLAM- 
M A TIO N OF THE 
MOUTH 1138 
See Arum 145 
STONE IN THE BLADDER. 
See articles Calculus, 
Urine, in this Index. 
STOOPING. 
See article Spine, Diseases 
and Injuries of the, in 
this Index. 
STOPPAGE OF URINE. 
See article Bladder, Dis- 
eases of the, in this In- 
dex. 
STRANGURY 1141 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
Senecio Aureus 1106 
Tanacetum Vulgare .... 1156 
STRICTURE 1141 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Bougie 242 
STUPOR, OR COMA. 
See article Coma, in this In- 
dex. 
STUTTERING, OR STAM- 
MERING. 
See article Speech, in this 
Index. 
ST. VITUS'S DANCE. 
See article Saint Vitus's 
Dance, in this Index. 
STY, OR STYE 1143 
SUFFOCATION 1144 
SUICIDE, SUICIDAL TEND- 
ENCY 1145 
SUMMEILCOMPLAINT, OR 
CHOLERA INFANTUM ... 1147 
See Berberis Vulgaris 199 
Comptonia Asplenifolia. 437 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
ErechthitesHieracifolius 620 
Pinus Canadensis 988 
Rheum Palmatum 1067 
Rubus 1075 
Soot 1125 
Spirsea Tomentosa 1130 
SUNSTROKE, OR COUP DE 
SOLEIL 1148 
See Tea 1158 
SUPPRESSION OF THE 
MENSES. 
See articles Chlorosis, Men- 
struation, in this Index. 
SUSPENDED ANIMATION. 
See articles Animation, Sus- 
pended; Asphyxia, Suf- 
focation, Drowning, 
Hanging, Death, in this 
Index. 
SWAMP FEVER, OR AGUE. 
See article Ague, in this In- 
dex. 
SWELLED-LEG, OR MILK- 
LEG. 
See article Milk-Leg, in this 
Index. 
SWELLING 1151 
See Ammoniacum 81 
Arnica 132 
Calcium, Compound El- 
ixir Iodo-Bromide of . 283 
Conium 442 
Galbanum 689 
Gnaphalium Margarita- 
ceum 704 
Iodine 791 
Poultice 1018 INDEX OF DISEASES. 
XIX 
PAGE 
SWOON, OR SYNCOPE. 
See article Fainting, in this 
Index. 
syncope! 
See article Fainting, in this 
Index. 
SYPHILIS 1154 
See Alnus Rubra 73 
Ammonium, Iodide of.. 82 
Apocynacete 123 
Aralia 129 
Asclepias 147 
Berberis Aquifolium.... 198 
Calcium, Compound El- 
ixir Iodo-Bromide of. 283 
Celastrns Scandens 326 
Chiococca Racemosa.... 385 
Conium 442 
Corydalis Formosa 481 
Gold 706 
Guaiacum 714 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Iodine 791 
Iodoform 792 
Kalmia Latifolia 802 
Phytolacca Decandra.... 977 
Pills 981 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Rumex 1076 
Saponaria Officinalis.... 1089 
Smilax 1122 
Solution, Iodides of 
Arsenic and Mercury . 1125 
Stillingia Sylvatica 1135 
TABES 1156 
TAPE-WORM. 
See articleWORMS,in this Index 
TEETH (Toothache, etc.).... 1159 
See Aralia ... 129 
Areca 130 
Asarum 146 
Balsamodendron 168 
Buxus 276 
Carbon 300 
Chloroform 389 
Creasote 494 
Dentifrice 529 
Humulus Lupulus 760 
Opium 940 
TERTIAN AGUE. 
See article Ague,in this Index. 
TETANUS 1163 
See Baths and Bathing 178 
Cannabis 294 
Musk 902 
Scutellaria Lateriflora .. 1102 
TETTER. 
See article Psoriasis, in this 
Index. 
THE PURPLES. 
See article Purpura, in this 
Index. 
THIRST 1164 
THROAT, CUT. 
See article Cut-Throat, in 
this Index. 
THRUSH 1165 
See Agrimony 45 
Arisaema 131 
Balsamodendron 168 
Berberis Vulgaris 199 
Borax 237 
Ceanothus 325 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Geranium Maculatum .. 700 
Potash 1015 
Pyrola Rotundifolia .... 1043 
Sal-Prunella 1085 
TIC DOULOUREUX. 
See article Neuralgia, in 
this Index. 
PAGE 
TOE-NAILS, INGROWING. 
See article Nails, Ingrow- 
ing of the, in this Index. 
TONGUE {Diseases of, etc.).. 1168 
TONGUE-TIED. 
See article Speech, in this 
Index. 
TONSILLITIS. 
See article Quinsy, in this 
Index. 
TOOTHACHE. 
See article Teeth, in this 
Index. 
TOOTH-RASH. 
See article Red-Gum, in this 
Index. 
TRANCE, CATALEPSY. 
See article Catalepsy, in 
this Index. 
TREMOR, OR TREMBLING. 1172 
TRICHINA 1172 
TRICHINOSIS 1173 
TROPICS AND TROPICAL 
DISEASES 1174 
TUBERCLE 1174 
TUMOR 1175 
See Ammonia 79 
Ammoniacum 81 
Calcium, Compound El- 
ixir Iodo-Bromide of. 283 
Chloroform 389 
Conium 442 
Ficus 652 
Galbanum 689 
Hypericum Perforatum. 768 
Nymphaea Odorata 930 
Pills 981 
Pressure 1029 
Vernonia Fasiculata.... 1191 
TURN OF LIFE. , 
See article Menstruation, 
in this Index. 
TYMPANY 1175 
TYPHOID, ENTERIC, O R 
GASTRIC FEVER 1176 
See Acetate of Zinc 25 
Aristolochia 131 
Arnica 132 
Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Benzoin Odoriferum.... 197 
Bromo-Chloralum 261 
Calisaya, Elixir of 285 
Camphor 288 
Chionanthus Virginica.. 385 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Cornus Florida 479 
Hydrastis Canadensis .. 762 
Hypophosphites 769 
Ice 771 
Leptandra Virginica.... 817 
Pills 981 
Podophyllum Peltatum. 998 
Quinine 1045 
TYPHUS FEVER 1178 
See Affusion 39 
Anthemis 114 
Arum 145 
Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Chlorine Water 388 
Cornus Florida 479 
Ice 771 
Quinine 1045 
u. 
ULCERATED SORE 
THROAT. 
See article Sore Throat, in 
this Index. 
ULCERS AND ULCERATION 1180 
See Adhesive Plaster 32 
Alum, Compound Solu- 
tion of 77 
Amaranth 78 
ULCERS-{Continued.) 
See Aralia 129 
Artanthe Elongata 138 
Baptisia Tinctoria 173 
Basilicon 178 
Bread Poultice 256 
Bromo-Chloralum 261 
Burnett's Disinfecting 
Fluid <. 271 
Camphorated Chalk .. \ 289 
Carbolic Acid 299 
Carbon 300 
Catechu 319 
Cerevisiae Fermenti .... 332 
Chalk 334 
Chelidonium 338 
Chimaphila Umbellata.. 383 
Chromic Acid 397 
Citrine Ointment 404 
Clay 405 
Clover, Red and White.. 415 
Coal-Tar 419 
Conium 442 
Creasote 494 
Dressing 574 
Electricity 603 
Eucalyptus Globulus.... 625 
Geranium Maculatum.. 700 
Green Salve 712 
Gutta-percha 716 
Kino 804 
Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
Lappa Minor 808 
Lint 826 
Nitrate of Silver 920 
Nymphaea Odorata 930 
Orobanche Virginiana .. 946 
Plantago Major 991 
Polygonum Punctatum . 1011 
Poultice 1018 
Prinos Verticillatus 1030 
Rheum Palmatum 1067 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Sanguinaria Canadensis 1087 
Stellaria Media 1133 
Trillium Pendulum 1173 
Zinc 1214 
UNCONSCIOUSNESS. 
See articles Coma, Fainting, 
Apoplexy, Intoxication, 
Concussion, Concussion 
of the Brain, Shock. 
URETHRA {Stricture of, etc.) 1181 
See Atropa Belladonna 155 
Triticum Repens 1174 
URINE (Urinary Organs, 
etc.. Diseases of) 1181 
See Alisma Plantago 70 
Aralia 129 
Asclepias 147 
Asparagus 148 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Balsam of Copaiba 168 
Barosma 177 
Calcium 280 
Chimaphila Umbellata.. 383 
Chlorate of Potash 385 
Corydalis Formosa 481 
Cubeba 502 
Cytisus Scoparius 508 
Epigsea Repens 614 
Equisetum Hyemale.... 620 
Ether, Nitrous 624 
Eupatorium Purpureum 626 
Galium Aparine 689 
Gin 702 
Glycyrrhiza Glabra 704 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Hypericum Perforatum. 768 
Juniperus 802 
Ligusticum Levisticum. 824 
Linseed 826 
Mentha Viridis 864 INDEX OF DISEASES 
XX 
URINE-{Continued.) 
See Phosphoric Acid 972 
Polytrichum Juni perum 1012 
Potash 1015 
Pumpkin Seeds 1039 
Pyrethrum Parthenium. 1042 
Pyrola Rotundifolia 1043 
Rubia Tinctorum 1075 
Senecio Aureus 1106 
Strawberry 1141 
Tobacco 1166 
Vaccinium 1186 
UVULA {Relaxed, etc.) 1184 
See Quercus 1045 
Salvia Officinalis 1086 
V. 
VACCINATION 1185 
VALVULAR DISEASE OF 
THE HEART. 
See article Heabt, Diseases 
of the, in this Index. 
VARICOSE VEINS. 
See articleVeins, in this Index. 
VARIOLA, OR SMALL-POX. 
See article Small-Pox, in 
this Index. 
VARIOLOID. 
See article Small-Pox, in 
this Index. 
VEINS {Diseases of, etc.).... 1188 
VENEREAL DISEASE. 
See article Syphilis, in this 
Index. 
VERTIGO. 
See article Giddiness, in this 
Index. 
VIPERS, BITES OF. 
See article Bites and Stings, 
in this Index. 
VISION {Dera n gements of etc.) 1192 
See Zingiber Officinale 1215 
VOMITING 1193 
See Bismuth 211 
Carbolic Acid 299 
Carbonic-Acid 303 
Citrate of Potash 403 
Cookery for the Sick.... 468 
Creasote 494 
Dioscorea Villosa 551 
Effervescence 599 
Helonias Dioica 740 
Ice 771 
Mentha Piperitse 864 
Mentha Viridis 864 
VOMITING OF BLOOD. 
See article Hemoebhage, in 
this Index. 
w. 
WAKEFULNESS. 
See article Sleep, in this In- 
dex. 
WALKING IN SLEEP. 
See article Sleep, in this Index. 
WARTS 1194 
See Chehdonium 338 
Hieracium Venosum.... 750 
Impatiens Pallida 775 
Sanguinaria Canadensis 1087 
WASTING OF FLESH. 
See articles Atbophy,Emaci- 
ation, Tabes, in this Index. 
WATER-BRASH, PYROSIS.. 1196 
See Gallic Acid 689 
WATER IN THE CHEST. 
See article Dbopsy, in this 
Index. 
WATER IN THE HEAD. 
See article Hydbocephalus, 
in this Index. 
WATER ON THE BRAIN. 
See article Hydbocephalus, 
in this Index. 
PAGE 
WAX IN THE EAR. 
See articles Cerumen,Deaf- 
ness, in this Index. 
WEAKNESS. 
See article Debility, in this 
Index. 
WEAKNESS OF THE BLAD- 
DER. 
See article Bladdeb, Dis- 
eases of the, in this In- 
dex. 
WEEPING EYE 1197 
WEN 1198 
WETTING THE BED. 
See articles Bed-Wetting ; 
Bladdeb, Diseases of 
the, in this Index. 
WHITES 1199 
See Agrimony 45 
Ambrosia 79 
Artanthe Elongata 138 
Balsam of Copaiba 168 
Black Cohosh 218 
Celastrus Scandens 326 
Collinsonia Canadensis. 432 
Comptonia Asplenifolia. 437 
Convallaria Multiflora.. 462 
Cubeba 502 
Eucalyptus Globulus... 625 
Geranium Maculatum.. 700 
Geum Ri vale 701 
Hsematoxylon 719 
Helonias Dioica 740 
Hydrastis Canadensis. . 762 
Iodide of Potassium.... 790 
Krameria Triandra 806 
Nymphsea Odorata 930 
Quercus 1045 
Rhus Glabrum 1068 
Symphytum Officinale.. 1152 
Trillium Pendulum 1173 
Uva Ursi 1184 
WHITE-SWELLING 1200 
See Verbascum Thapsus ... 1190 
WHITLOW 1200 
See Labarraque's Disinfect- 
ing Fluid 806 
WHOOPING-COUGH 1202 
See Arisaema 131 
Arum 145 
Atropa Belladonna 155 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh 218 
Ceanothus 325 
Cephaelis 327 
Cochineal 419 
Conium.... 442 
Euphorbia Ipecacuanha. 626 
Hydrocyanic Acid 764 
Hyoscyamus Niger 767 
Lobelia Inflata 831 
Musk 902 
Pulsatilla 1037 
Sanguinaria Canadensis 1087 
Succinum 1144 
Symplocarpus Foetidus. 1152 
Tannin 1156 
Tussilago Farfara 1175 
WIND. 
See article Flatulence, in 
this Index. 
WIND-DROPSY. 
See article Tympany, in this 
Index. 
WOMB, FALLING OF THE. 
See article Womb, in this In- 
dex. 
WOMB, OR UTERUS {Dis- 
eases of. etc.) 1205 
See Alcohol 62 
Aletris 66 
Asclepias 147 
Baths and Bathing 178 
Black Cohosh 218 
PAGE 
WOMB- {Continued.') 
Blue Cohosh ..... 230 
Buckeye Bark 270 
Citrate of Iroa and 
Strychnia 403 
Datura Stramonium.... 511 
Mineral Waters 878 
Sarracenia Purpurea.... 1089 
Suppository 1150 
WORMS 1207 
See Absinthe 16 
Ji thiops Mineral 38 
Agrimony 45 
Aloes 74 
Amygdalus 84 
Andira 103 
Aristolochia 131 
Artemisia 138 
Asagraea 146 
Asclepias 147 
Aspidium 149 
Assafoetida 150 
Brayera 252 
Chelone Glabra 339 
Chenopodium Anthel- 
minticum 348 
Gambogia 691 
Gentiana 698 
Gillenia Trifoliata 701 
Gracillaria 710 
Helleborus Niger 740 
Hypericum Perforatum . 768 
Kousso 806 
Marrubium Vulgare.... 848 
Mucuna 898 
Myrica Gale 904 
Olive Oil 935 
Peach 963 
Pills 981 
Pomegranate 1012 
Pumpkin Seeds 1039 
Rottlera Tinctoria ... .. 1074 
Ruta Graveolens 1079 
Sabbatia Angularis 1080 
Salt 1085 
Salvia Officinalis 1086 
Santonine 1088 
Spigelia Marilandica.... 1128 
Tanacetum Vulgare.... 1156 
Turpentine 1175 
WOUNDS 1209 
See Adhesive Plaster 32 
Alcohol 62 
Althaea 75 
Alum 76 
Carbolic Acid 299 
Collodion 432 
Copper 475 
Diachylon 534 
Dressing 574 
Electricity 603 
Geranium Maculatum.. 700 
Glycerine .. 703 
Gutta-percha 716 
Lint 826 
Nitrate of Silver 920 
Poultice 1018 
Probe 1031 
Resin 1059 
Suture 1151 
Vaseline 1187 
WRIST-DROP. 
See article Dbop-Wbist, in 
this Index. 
Y. 
YAWNING. 
See article Gaping,ob Yawn- 
ing, in this Index. 
YELLOW-FEVER 1212 
YELLOW GUM, OR ICTER- 
US INFANTUM 1214