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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
**  ♦  .
FOUNDED 1836
WASHINGTON,  D. C.
B19574 
 
 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
ATMOSPHERE  AND ITS  ABUSES.
AS CONNECTED WITH TIIE COMMON OR POPULAR
MODE OP HEATING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE DWELLINGS,
TOGETHER WITH
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS UPON THE BEST MODE OF WARMING AND VENTILATING, AS
      DEVELOPED BY RECENT INVESTIGATION AND IMPROVEMENTS.
          ROCHESTER:
D. M. DEWEY,  ARCADE  HALL
      Press of Daily Adv., Exchange Place.
             1851. 
M4-37
1851
         Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1851, by

                    D.  M.  D E WEY.

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northern District of New York. 
PREFACE.
  Some four years since, the writer of the following pages had his atten-
tion repeatedly called to the subject of Ventilation, as one of great practical
importance, but most singularly neglected.  Circumstances  subsequently
induced him to examine the matter with considerable care, and  the result
left a deep and lasting impression upon his  mind.   The present  mode of
heating buildings, and the entire inattention  to the abuses  of the atmos-
phere, so common in nearly every private dwelling and public building, is
a striking illustration of the strides society will often make in passing from
one extreme to another.  In shutting  up the o!d fashionaJ.  chimney, and
introducing the close  stove, we have  nearly closed every avenue for fresh
air, and with it there has been a great increase of consumption,  scrofula,
and physical  degeneracy.  "However parodoxical it may appear,"  says
Count Runiford. u there is nothing more difficult  than  to prevail on the
public to  accept the  boon of improvement, even in  matters  which come
home to every man's  business and bosom."  The distribution of heat, and
a wholesome atmosphere, in our dwellings, interests  all classes and condi-
tions of society.   In our  suggestions we have endeavored  to  point out
some of the consequences of inattention to  Ventilation, and  most objec-
tionable modes of heating our houses.   We have avoided all technicalities,
and equivocal  positions, and regret that our  illustrations from engraved
figures are so  meagre.  When  first  proposing to  commit our views  to
paper, we engaged a talented and promising young artist (a son  of the late
J. L. D.  Mathics,) who proceeded to New York with quite a large number
of sketches and when his task was  nearly completed, he was attacked
with a fatal disease.   Having never been  able to find either the plates or
drawings, we  have proceeded without  them, and considerably  contracted
what we at first  proposed.  Soon after the manuscript was put  into the
publisher's hands, we were obliged  to leave town for a short  time, and
upon our return,  found the type had  been set and distributed.  This will
account for several very provoking errors in punctuation, with an occa-
sional misprint, which in some  instances conveys  an impression  entirely
different from that which was intended.  If, however, these hasty sugges-
tions have the effect of awakening  attention to a subject which we deem
to be of vast importance to the health and happiness of the whole com-
munity, our object will have been fully attained. 
 
HEAT   AND  VENTILATION.
               --------   air  i <i__>> i i'i»---------

                    PART  I.
General Observations with regard to the Atmosphere and its Abuse, in
                 Private and Public Buildings.

  In order to appreciate  the necessity  of ventilation,  we must first
understand the properties of the atmosphere and some of the changes
it undergoes.   As it is our object to point out a method, by which
public and private buildings can be furnished with a constant supply
of pure air, and remove that which  has been injured by respiration
or otherwise, it is important that we should  not only understand in
what its purity consists, but by what means its purity can be preserv-
ed.   The atmosphere in its natural state  is composed of three gases—■
Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Carbonic Acid.  There is  still a difference of
opinion among chemists as to the  exact  proportion in which these
separate  gases are combined, but it is sufficient for all practical pur-
poses to take the analysis which is most generally received, viz: that
every 100 parts of the atmosphere  is composed of 21 parts of oxy-
gen, 78 of nitrogen,  and 1 of carbonic  acid.  The air is very com-
pressible  and elastic.  It can be diminished in volume by pressure, or
increased by diminishing the pressure.  Its specific weight has been
accurately ascertained, and found to press or bear upon all substances
at the rate of 15 lbs. on every square inch of surface.  A moment's
reflection will convince any one of the  important  agency performed
by atmospheric air in the whole economy of nature.  It is absolutely
essential  to animal and vegetable life, and  although it is undergoing
constant  changes, which unfit it for the  support of animal life,  its na-
tural reorganization into a state of perfect purity, is one of the most
beautiful illustrations of the wisdom and goodness of the Creator. 
A
   It has been ascertained by separating the gases, composing the at-
 mosphere, that oxygen is  the  supporter  of combustion and  animal
 life.  Nitrogen and carbonic acid will support neither.    Any increase
 or diminution of oxygen in  the atmosphere is injurious to health. An
 excess overacts, and produces fever, inflammation, &c. &c.   A deficien-
 cy produces languor, debility, and finally,  complete  exhaustion.  Al-
 though  human life is entirely  dependant  upon oxygen,  it must be
 diluted by nitrogen, as found  in the natural stale of the atmosphere,
 to be  at all suited  to  the animal  economy, or meet the demands  of
 our physical organization.   Carbonic acid  which constitutes about  1
 per cent, of the  atmosphere  (some writers make it  much less), is,
 when in its pure state, one  of the most deadly poisons known to the
 chemist.  Four per cent, of this gas in the atmosphere, will extinguish a
 lighted taper; and 10 per cent, will destroy animal life almost instant-
 ly.  A lesser quantity will  produce pain  in  the head, congestion  of
 the brain, fainting, drowsiness, and an entire indisposition  to exercise
 of any  sort.  Whenever the air has been once  respired, it is deprived
 of about 6 per cent, of its  oxygen, and its place is  filled with car-
 bonic acid and vapor.   If the expired air  should  be collected in a
 vessel, it would be found to contain from 3 to 4 per cent, of carbonic
 acid; a sufficient quantity to extinguish a burning lamp, according to
 late experiments; the average number of respirations made by a heal-
 thy adult, is 20 per  minute.,  and the average  bulk  of air respired
 from each inspiration, is 16  cubic inches.   Carbonic acid gas is about
 one and a half times as heavy as atmospheric air, and can  be poured
 from one vessel to another.   This gas when mixed with water, makes
 a healthful and invigorating drink; but  if taken into  the lungs, pro-
 duces almost instantaneous death.   It is always produced in burning
 charcoal, and hence the danger of placing pans of hot coals in sleep-
 ing apartments, or in any room imperfectly ventilated.   This fact has
 been so often published to the world, and the  horrible consequences
 of this practice so frequently narrated, it is surprising  that an  indi-
 vidual can be found in ignorance of the fact.
   A great variety of causes are in constant operation to produce car-
bonic acid.   It is evolved  in great quantities from ordinary combus-
tion and the respiration of men and animals; but He who regulates all
things, uses that  which is poisonous to man for the support  of the
vegetable kingdom.   There  is another law equally important  in re-
storing; the atmosphere.   It  is the  affinity which all  gases  have  for 
5
 each other.  The discovery  of  this law  is of  the first importance  in
 establishing the principles of ventilation.   Mr.  Dalton has demonstrat-
 ed, by a great variety of  experiments, that aeriform bodies possess the
 property of diffusing themselves  through each  other's masses to an
 unlimited  extent.  As before  stated,  carbonic  acid  is 1^  times  as
 heavy as atmospheric air, and  according to the law of gravity,  it
 would always fall to the earth,  or  to the floor of a  room, and there
 continue to accumulate,  if it were not for the law of  diffusion.  Mr.
 Dalton filled  two cylinderical vessels—the one with carbonic acid and
 the other with hydrogen.   The  latter was placed perpendicularly over
 the former and  the  two  connected by means of  a small tube two or
 three feet long.  In  a few hours  these gases  were found perfectly
 and  equally  mixed.   Carbonic  acid is some  20 times heavier than
 hydrogen.  A great number of  similar experiments might be named,
 which prove  beyond all  contradiction, that  the diffusion or sponta-
 neous intermixture of gases,  coming in contact with each other, is as
 well established as the fact that vegetation absorbs carbonic  acid and
 eleminates oxygen.  This law of the diffusion of gases  connected with
 the important fact, that respired air is some 5 per cent, lighter than
 the surrounding atmosphere at 65 deg. Fall, makes it  easy to dispose
 of all that is  offensive or injurious,  arising  from respiration or the ex-
 halations  of  the  body.  But notwithstanding  these well  established
 principles we have,  within the  last year,  seen gentlemen of great
intelligence in other  matters, providing ventilating flues at  the  bot-
 tom of the room,  and assigning as a reason for  this  mode  or plan,
 that the specific gravity of carbonic acid caused it to fall to the floor.
 Indeed a popular  writer of late  date, whose  work has received the
most  marked commendation, proposes to  take the carbonic acid from
the bottom of the room to support the combustion going on in the fur-
 nace.
  When we take into consideration the importance of ventilation, and
how  strangely the whole subject has been overlooked by the  most in-
telligent  portion  of the community, we need not be surprised at  the
disease and death so  often produced by a poisonous atmosphere.
  A.  J. Downing, Esq., who has done so much  by his pen to  improve
the taste of our people in architecture, and increase the comforts and
attachments of home, \ery properly says,  " as  a people we still know
nothing about ventilation."   One  has  only to  travel in our crowded
steamboat- where three hundred persons are content to lie down like 
I)
cattle, in the stifled atmosphere of a warm cabin, which as a sleeping
apartment  would contain  wholesome air enough  for barely a dozen
people; or our rail-roads in winter, when thirty or forty people thrust
themselves  into a  car,  with a fiery  little salamander burning  up
what little oxygen may remain in the atmosphere after being continu-
ally breathed over; or be a victim in that worst of all places, a lecture
room, or concert room,  or church,  where some extraordinary  attrac-
tion has drawn a " full house" — to know that the sovereign  people,
who have learned something of the value of pure water, so  as to pay
cheerfully millions for Croton or Schuylkill, have not yet been brought
to acknowledge the indispensable necessity of pure air.  It is certain-
ly one of the most important  of the " rural  arts"  to know how to
build a  dwelling-house so as  to  attain  the maximum of health and
comfort within  its walls.   " But," he continues,  " the ignorance on
this subject (ventilation) is deplorable."
   In the construction of our houses a refined taste  is often displayed,
and everything is constructed in the most substantial manner.  In
this climate great care is taken to shut out every particle of air, with
a view of keeping perfectly warm during the winter months.   Not a
single suggestion has been made by the architect or builder, relating
to ventilation, and  the proprietor  of the establishment often prides
himself upon the fact, that he has the warmest house in town.  His
windows are perhaps  double, every crevice is  closed, and the bleak
winds of winter are  effectually shut out.  Let such a house be heat-
ed, as is often the case, by one of Dr. Nott's fuel-saving  stoves, and
we venture  to assert, a more  unwholesome establishment can seldom
be found.
   After the air has been once used in respiration, it is as unfit for im-
parting  strength and vigor to the constitution, as food which has been
once digested.  We  use  food  three times during the  twenty-four
hours,  and  require  water  about as often; but  the air we breathe is
constantly at our lips, and we cannot live a moment without its intro-
duction into our lungs, and if rendered impure by our  own inattention
or ignorance, the whole constitution must soon feel its effects.
   The circulation of the blood through the body is designed to dis-
tribute  the nourishment which it receives  from the digested food, to
all parts of our organization.   It starts from  the heart, and goes to
the extremities — returns  to the lungs loaded with  carbon which has
been rejected by the animal tissues, as unfit for their growth and pre- 
/
servation.  When it arrives at the air cells of the lungs, this accumu-
lation of carbon combines with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and is
thrown off in the form of carbonic acid gas.  This operation is per-
formed and repeated 20 times per minute and 16 cubic inches of air
used at each respiration.  In order to prevent any portion  of the air
from being inhaled  a second time, it has been estimated by good au-
thority, that each individual should be allowed eight cubic feet of air
per minute.   In a room sixteen feet square with ten feet ceilings, ten
persons will, according  to this allowance, use all the air of the room
once in thirty-two  minutes.   In  a close room  with an Olmstead or
any other kind of " tight-air" stove, and perhaps a large astral lamp
to assist in consuming the oxygen of the atmosphere,  what a luxury
such  a room with double windows,  " perfectly tight," must be in a
cold winter's night!  Need we wonder that when such an atmosphere
re-enters, the cavity of the lungs, loaded with carbon which it has
thrice rejected, but which must again take  the circuit of the circula-
tion, and deposit its poisonous qualities in the most exposed parts of
the constitution, should produce rheumatism, fever, and a thousand
other ills, which " flesh is heir to."
   Bernan, an English writer upon this subject, says: " It should nev-
er be overlooked that, by breathing pent up effete air,  all  the advan-
tages of an abundance of fuel and every blessing  of a genial sky are
utterly thrown away; and though the habitation were  on the hill-top,
favored by the sweetest breezes of heaven, it would become the focus
of contagious and  loathsome disease and of death in its most appal-
ling aspect.  On the other hand even in  the confined quarters of  a
crowded city rife in malaria,  and when pestilence is  striking whole
families and classes, ventilation and warmth,  with cleanliness their
usual attendant,  like the sprinklings on the lintels and door-posts of
the Hebrew dwellings, stand as a sign  to the destroying angel, as he
passes over, to stay his hand, for, in  the warm, fresh-aired chamber,
none may be smitten."
   Nothing is more common  among  our people than the practice of
sleeping in cold chambers for the purpose, as they suppose, of  having
fresh air.  If, during the day or a part of the day, the windows have
been raised at the  bottom and lowered at the top, the probability is
__the room  contains pure air;  but   if the top of  the window is some
distance below the ceiling (as is often the case in  the cottage style of
building,) the ventilation must be  quit©  partial.  If one desires to 
o
satisfy himself on this point, let him burn a small quantity of powder
in a room with low windows,  and then  raise them  in  the ordinary
mode of  " airing," and observe the time required in ejecting all that
is in  the  bed room,  and introducing fresh air in its place.  It there
are windows only on one side of the room, it is almost impossible to
change the air.   Air is none the more'wholesome  for being cold, and
the practice of going from warm rooms, in  a state of perspiration, to
a bed room perfectly cold, when all the clothing must be removed—
the perspiration suddenly checked, and the whole body chilled — is of-
ten as injurious to health  as it is disagreeable to  the feelings.   But
let us suppose the sleeping chamber to have been thoroughly aired
during the day, and  the air perfectly pure, when  we enter it for  the
night.  A room  16 feet square  with 10  feet ceiling,  would  contain
2,560 feet of air.   Place two in this  room, and allow eight cubic feet
per minute to each, and the whole will have been  used  in less than
three hours.  But when  we refer to the  fact that the expired gas is
soon diffused throughout the whole atmosphere of  the room, we need
not wait  three nor two hours to discover the effect; nor need we won-
der at the dryness of  the tongue, feverish taste in  the mouth, or dis-
agreeable odor which  is  so  apparent upon entering a close room of
the size alluded to, in  the morning after  being occupied one night by
two  persons.   If the  air is offensive and unwholesome under such
circumstances, what  must it  be,  when  heated by  a close stove, or
candle kept burning— (a candle will consume  as much oxygen as one
individual) — and  a child lying sick, in the same room, with measles,
scarlet fever, putrid sore throat, or incipient consumption!  Need we
wonder,  when there is added to such effete air, the poisonous exhala-
tions of a diseased skin, or mucous membrane, that scarlet fever runs
through  whole families,  while  perhaps no one else in the  neighbor-
hood is affected; or, is it strange  that consumption still lingers in  a
family after the first  one affected  has been taken  away ?   But if, on
the other hand, our living and  sleeping apartments were properly ven-
tilated, and the entire air of the room expelled, and fresh pure air in-
troduced in its stead every fifteen or twenty minutes,  the exhalations
of scarlet fever, putrid sore throat, and similar diseases, would gener-
ally  pass off  with  the foul air, without affecting those who are  oblig-
ed to attend  upon them.
   It is the opinion of some of the best medical writers that most con-
tagious diseases are  communicated through the  atmosphere, and  it 
9
requires but a moment's  reflection to perceive, that a confined pesti^
lential atmosphere must  operate with increased power upon  all who
are susceptible to the virus.  There are  other causes about  most of
our dwelling-houses in operation, which greatly injure the atmosphere.
In the cellar even when perfectly dry, there is often more or less veg-
etable decomposition, and not one  cellar  in a thousand is provided
with any plan of ventilation, except an  occasional open window.  If
the weather is cold  and fresh air is admitted,  it falls  from its own
specific gravity to the bottom, and the exhalations from decayed veg-
etation are forced up through the crevices around the  stairway into
the upper part of  the  house.  Many  establishments  have under-
ground  kitchens, and for the purpose of keeping everything in fine
order above stairs, do all their cooking with a cook stove.  Most of the
exhalations from broiled  meats,  vegetables, and  the boiling and stew-
ing, are sent  above, as if to notify  the family of what  was preparing
for their delicate stomachs,  and practically to inhale, what might,
under other circumstances, be a total loss.
   Dr. Backus, one of the most reputable and intelligent physicians in
this section of the  country,  stated in  his lecture  on public  health a
few months  since,  some startling statistics relating to the  diseases
among children.  In New  Orleans and  Chicago,  the  land is  so low
that  it is impracticable to use underground cellars, and while  these
two cities are  considered among the most unhealthy in the Union, the
rate of mortality, among children under five years of  age, is ^ very
large per centage  less than in any other city in the country.  From
this he drew  the inference that the decayed  vegetation, dampness,
and  cooking  of underground cellars,  contributed very largely to the
cause of  mortality  which swept such a large number of infants to an
untimely grave.  He  was  particularly  and, we think, justly severe
upon the " cellar kitchens," particularly in a town like ours, where the
dimensions of our lots are abundantly  large to allow us to  cook and
eat above ground.   If necessity or taste compels any one to  do their
cooking in the basement, we would advise them  to throw out  the cook-
ing stove, and introduce the cooking range.  If properly constructed,
 they are as easily managed as the stove; and if  set as they should be,
 all the noxious gases and  offensive odors are  carried directly up the
 chimney, and none  are allowed to escape even into the  kitchen, much
 less in the rooms above.   It is not a little surprising  in  a  town like
 ours, where so much taste is shown in  the  internal arrangements  as 
10
 well as  in the external  embellishments of our houses  and grounds,
 that so few have introduced  the  cooking range.   By  its  use their
 cooking conveniences can be greatly increased,  and one of the worst
 and  principal obstructions to pure air in  the kitchen  be effectually
 removed.   If desired, they can easily  be  set so as  to use  the waste
 heat in warming air  enough  for an adjoining room,  15 or 18 feet
 square, without a particle of the odor arising from the cooking.
   But let us leave  the private dwelling,  and examine  some of our
 churches, school-houses, lecture-rooms, court-rooms, work-houses, hos-
 pitals, jails, &c. <fec.   Although much has  been said and written dur-
 ing the last two  years, on ventilation, we  are not aware of a single
 public building, (with the exception of one  school-house,) in this city,
 or surrounding countiy,  where the directors or trustees  have availed
 themselves  of the information  and  established  principles which are
 now  accessible to  all.   Our clergy and trustees of  churches have
 contributed generously and freely  to every improvement in the style
 of architecture, arrangement of seats, and in fine everything  in the
 tout ensemble, which is calculated to please  the taste, refine the heart,
 or increase the  comfort  of  those who may  choose  to worship with
 them.   In  one thing, however, they are  sadly at fault, and that is
 ventilation.  There is not a single  church in Western  New  York
 where this subject has received any practical attention.   We have of-
 ten been in our own church,  when every part of it above and below
 was full, and have often performed  the  kind office of assisting  ladies,
 in a fainting state out of the crowd, where they could  enjoy  the lux-
 ury  of  a little fresh air.  We have under such circumstances seen
 anxious friends run for fresh water and throw it  into the pallid face
 with great violence,  and impute the sudden restoration to the  virtue
 of the cold water.  Under the same circumstances we have seen the
 lamps burning very dimly, and  a large portion of the  audience very
 restless and uneasy; others so  stupified they could not, as they gen-
 erally express it,  "keep awake"; the preacher himself calling for  a
tumbler of  water to moisten his parched throat, so as  to enable him to
speak audibly; and all this because "it was afidl house:'  The seeds
of disease, which have been  sown  in our churches, have been very
prolific, and  much of the finest  talent engaged in the  pulpit, has been
rendered useless by the poisonous exhalations of the thousands within
the church  walls, and the carbonic  acid pouring forth from a thou-
sand pairs of lungs.   We have  seen men go into  these crowded as- 
11
semblies three times a day, in obedience  to conscience and their reli-
gious vows,  when  they looked and felt as thoroughly exhausted  as
though they had just arisen from a sick bed.   We all know how com-
mon it is for persons to take cold under such circumstances,  and they
fancy  it arises from going out into the cold air after being confined in
a warm room; while in point of fact they had inhaled effete air, and
carried its poisonous qualities into their circulation, until  they had
produced  congestion in the mucous  membrane of the lungs long be-
fore they left the church.   If  we could record the diseases which an-
nually originate in the most crowded churches in this country, or pub-
lish to the world the number of cases of rheumatism, neuralgia, con-
sumption,  and kindred  disorders—we think it would startle the most
incredulous.  If any one thinks we are drawing upon our imagina-
tion,  we will refer them to those divines, who, in times of general in-
terest, have preached for months to crowded audiences; and let them
say what the effect has been upon themselves, or those who have been
constant and regular attendants.  We will  also venture to refer to
those faithful sabbath-school  teachers  who  are often shut up  in the
basement  of a church  crowded  with  children; some  of whom they
have picked up  in the streets, and are no cleaner than they should
be;  the room heated with box stoves,  and the ceiling not more than
eight or nine feet high;  and ask them,  what sort of feelings they ex-
perience, after remaining in such an atmosphere about an hour  and  a
half.
   But all  this is submitted to with  as much composure  and resigna-
tion as though  it were a special infliction of Divine Providence, and
as though no remedy had ever been discovered or proposed.   Many
of the attendants in our churches would spurn the idea of drinking
out  of the same glass  with one in an  adjoining pew, while they are
with great indifference inhaling the same atmosphere, which has pass-
ed through diseased lungs, and intimately blended  with the exhala-
tions of a skin quite inexperienced in ablutions of any sort.   Now,  it
ouo-ht to be known  to the trustees of churches, and especially  to the
clergy who have so deep an interest in  this matter, that all the  expir-
ed air and exhalations from the body, can be ejected from the church
__no matter how full it may be, and pure air introduced in its place,
with about as much ease and  certainty as the smoke of combustion
can be carried out the chimney-flue prepared for that special purpose.
But notwithstanding the attention which has been paid to this sub- 
12
ject during the past two years in several eastern cities, and the perfect
success attending the exertion  of those who have understood  the
matter, we believe there is not a single church in this city, which has
as yet  seriously taken the subject  into consideration.  The whole ex-
pense would be but trifling,  not more than  a change of drapery for
the pulpit, and the whole congregation might have just as pure air at
the close of the services as when they commenced.
   Barnard's School Architecture — a  work which should be in the
hands  of  every school teacher and every friend of education — con-
tains two  excellent articles upon the ventilation of school-rooms,  and
we advise all who have children at school, and desire to know what
sort of air they breathe, and why  it is they are  so often taken ill in
the school-room,  to read the articles alluded to.  This book  is or
should be in all our book stores, and if  teashers and trustees of school
districts have  done their duty, a copy can be found in each district.
Through the  munificence of the late James Wadsworth, and under
the direction of his  son,  James S. Wadsworth,  a copy of thi3 work
has been  gratuitously furnished for every  district in the State.   In
that invaluable work, they will find drawings of the plan  adopted in
Boston and  other parts  of  New England,  and they will also learn
from the same source that those who have had the matter in charge,
consider a school-house entirely unfit for occupancy,  unless a suitable
plan of ventilation has been  provided.  " Let any one  who is skepti-
cal on this point, visit the school-house of his own district where his
own children  perhaps  are condemned to a shorter allowance of pure
air than the criminals of the State, and he  cannot fail  to see in  the
pale and wearied  countenances of the pupils, the languor and uneasi-
ness manifested, especially by the  younger children, and exhaustion
and irritability of the  teacher, — a  demonstration that the atmosphere
of the  room is no longer such as the comfort, health, and cheerful la-
bor of both teacher  and pupils require."   The class of young men,
who usually   engage   as  teachers in our   common  schools, gen-
erally have other  objects  in  view, and do not look upon the occupa-
tion as a permanent one;  but those who have  been for a long time
faithfully  engaged in  a district school well filled with pupils, are al-
most uniformly in poor health.  " In looking back,"  says the venera-
ble Dr. Woodbridge, in a communication upon  school houses, " upon
the languor of fifty years of  labor  as a teacher,  reiterated with many
a weary day, I attribute a great portion of it to mephitic air; nor can 
13
I doubt that it has compelled many worthy and promising teachers to
quit the employment   Neither can I doubt that it has been the great
cause of their subsequently sickly habits and untimely decease."   If
such is the effect upon teachers, what must it be upon the more deli-
cate and sensitive organization  of  children ?   Who can compute  the
amount of disease which has been generated  in the school-room, by
inhaling the most dreadful poison known  to  the chemist,—or, how
many have been compelled to drag out a miserable  existence,  arising
from some local affection or malformation  which had its origin in  the
confined poison of a school-room ?  The defects of an early education
may be corrected in after life, but a small and contracted chest or dis-
eased spine, a slender form and scrofulous organization can only be pal-
liated—never eradicated.  Could we press this subject home upon the
parents, trustees, teachers, and superintendents  with sufficient force
to have them carefully  examined this  question,  we  should have no
fear but that they would cordially unite with Dr. Wyman,  of Cam-
bridge,  in the opinion that " towns are  just as much bound to supply
children in school with an abundance of fresh air as with teachers."
We have in our own city a  system of free schools  regulated by a
Board of Education,  and a class of substantial buildings,  which  may
justly be called an ornament  and an honor to a town of  much  greater
pretensions than  ours.  These rooms are all  well filled with pupils
who are under the charge of excellent teachers; and  out of the 16
large brick edifices of this character, only  one has  any provision for
ventilation.   The subject, however, is beginning to receive the atten-
tion of the Board of  Education, and we trust it will not only be thor-
oughly examined; but that they will unite in a plan  which will suffi-
ciently simplify the matter to make it easy and practicable for others
to imitate them.   We have,  within the last few years, done much as
 a State to  extend the benefits of  education to  all classes of the  com-
munity.  The people in their sovereign capacity, have  declared that
every child shall receive a primary education  at the expense of the
State.  We have had frequent conventions  of teachers  and superin-
dents, and much  has  of late  been said about school architecture.; but
scarce a single sentence has been uttered on the subject of ventila-
tion.  And is it not strange that a class or convention of such intelli-
gent men as teachers and superintendents, should continue to over-
look this important subject ?  The changes which take place in the air
of a school-room, and the horrible consequences which follow this de- 
14
 terioration of the atmosphere, are established facts, and no  one now
 pretends  to gainsay  them.  From  a  personal  conversation,  a few
 months since, with the Hon. Christopher Morgan, Secretary  of State
 and Superintenrdant of Common Schools, we know that he  feels the
 importance of this question, and we  would  here  take the liberty  of
 suggesting the propriety of his issuing a circular calling special atten-
 tion to some system of ventilation to be  adopted in every school-house
 in the State.  We are quite sure it would receive  general attention,
 and to a very great extent, have the desired  effect.
   While  the  subject of ventilation has  been thus neglected  in our
 school-houses and churches, two  of our most beautiful halls, owned by
 individuals, have been thoroughly ventilated.   Corinthian Hall, (own-
 ed by W. A. Reynolds,  Esq.,) is probably  the most attractive and
 agreeable room for accommodating from 1500 to 1600 people,  to be
 found  in  this State.   The public  spirited proprietor, about a year
 since,  determined he would avail himself of all the information, he
 could obtain upon this subject,  and, if possible, introduce a sufficient
 supply of pure  air during summer  and winter, to meet the wants of
 all who might assemble within its  walls.  Without  entering into de-
 tail of the plan adopted, we will content ourselves  by saying, its ope-
 ration is perfect.  During cold weather,  he warms  a sufficient quanti-
 ty of air by an  apparatus — the surface of which, is seldom  heated
 above the boiling point of water, to supply the crowds which nightly
 assemble for instruction or amusement.   In summer the ventilation is
 forced by a fire in the attic, and under all circumstances,  when the
 hall is literally  crowded  to its  utmost  capacity, the air is as sweet,
 when the audience leaves, as when they enter.  We have frequently
 examined the  air just as an audience of  over  1600 were leaving, and
 applied the usual tests for detecting carbonic acid, and could find no
 trace of it in any part of the room.  Concert Hall, (owned by Messrs.
 Brewster and Blanchard,)  has also been supplied  with the apparatus,
 for what  may be called natural ventilation.   Their heating apparatus
 has not yet been introduced, but we understand it will be in time for
 the cold weather.  If in warming, the air introduced for ventilation—
its  wholesome qualities are not injured—the ventilation will be more
efficient in cold than warm weather.  As by the late construction of
 a large dome in the center,  the  summer ventilation is more thorouo-h
than it would be under other circumstances.
  In our  Court Houses, Halls of  Justices, and Legislature, the subject 
15
of ventilation has been strangely overlooked.   We have often seen
upon the bench some of the most intelligent men in the country, suf-
fering severely from the effects  of pent up effete  air, without being-
aware of its character, or the cause of their exhaustion and general
indisposition.  The distinguished jurist, Addison  Gardiner, once nar-
rated to us his feelings, while charging the jury  in the celebrated case
of the  People vs. Rathburn.  The court-room was  densely crowded,
and soon after he commenced a review of the testimony, he was  seiz-
ed  with a violent pain in his head,  and,  for some moments, was in
doubt whether he could proceed.  At one  moment he would stagger
and be nearly blind,  and at others would have  such indistinct notions
of the  question  before him, that he was several times at the point of
giving  up  and   adjourning  the Court; and if  as he said  the whole
charge had not  been distinctly arranged in his mind before he arose,
he could not possibly have gone through with the task imposed upon
him.   While he was Judge  of the 8th Circuit,  he  says, such attacks
were  frequent,  and became so alarming, he was obliged  to resign.
And immediately after his  retirement from the court-room, all these
symptoms  disappeared, and in a few  years thereafter  he  was again
induced to accept a  similar position in the Court of Appeals; and al-
though he has  since enjoyed excellent health, we venture to assert
that if this court were held in a small crowded court-room, the same
predisposition to vertigo would re-appear, and as he is now  of a fuller
habit than when performing the duties of Circuit Judge,  we doubt
whether the termination would be as  favorable.   The symptoms here
alluded to were identical with those  produced by  carbonic acid  gas,
and a  slight increase of this poison in the Batavia Court-Room on the
occasion alluded to, would have been sufficient  to produce death.
   It frequently  occurs in buildings of this character, that  a  window,
most distant from the Court, is raised for the  admission of fresh air,
and if the wind is blowing fresh from the direction of this open win-
dow, the  foul air, arising from the lungs and skin  of all present, will
be driven directly towards the Judge's seat, which  is generally raised
a few feet above the  rest  of the audience.  With such an  arrange-
ment for ventilation, need we wonder  at the effect produced upon our
Judges ?   And is there any impropriety in the inquiry, whether even
handed  justice can be dealt out to all under the influence of such a
powerful narcotic ?   We have often heard  it said  (and we  believe it)
that Justice was in very uncertain  hands when  the Presiding Judge 
16
was under the influence of alcoholic drinks; but  we have no hesita
tion in saying, the intellectual  powers  were much more vigorous and
reliable than when, under the  stupifying effect of these noxious gases,
so freely generated in court-rooms.  If any one will observe the ef-
fect upon those distinguished members of the bar, whose services aro
so valuable that they are generally retained in the most exciting causes,
and  are consequently kept much of their  time in crowded assem-
blies, we  will venture to say,  that four out of five of this class,  par-
ticularly those who attend especially to criminal  cases, are soon great-
ly injured in health,  if not broken down in  constitution.   We should
like  here to give examples by way  of enforcing  the truth  of these
statements, but it would be improper.  The bar seem not to be aware
of the short  lease of life,  which such  men have.  English  statistics
inform us that while 42 Theologians out of  100, arrive at the age  of
70, there are but 29 advocates, attaining the same age.
   Jurors, suitors, witnesses, and officers, all  suffer alike, but none per-
haps endure more for the time being than a country juror.   He is  in
the habit of inhaling the air of his own green fields, and is generally
of that hardy constitution, that he can stand the fresh breeze coming
through the open window of his bed-room; but  when  shut up in a
crowded court-room, and perhaps half  the inmates of  the  jail seated
near him, with the filthy exhalations from their skins,  combined  with
the  volumes  of effete air issuing from  their lungs, and  the vapor
arising from the tobacco-spit floating before him, he often yields to his
indisposition without knowing  the cause, and appeals to the mercy  of
the Court for a discharge.   There is not a court-room  in this State
where the subject of ventilation has received any really practical at-
tention, unless in some new buildings constructed within the last year.
   The Common Council of this city and the Supervisors of the Coun-
ty have united in the construction of a very large  and splendid edi-
fice for city and county purposes, and the  subject of  ventilation has
received that attention which it deserves;  and if no mistakes are made
in executing the designs of the able architect  who has all the work-
ing plans under  his control,  nor means withheld for  completing the
plans, we will venture to  assert, that  it will be the best ventilated
public building in this State, except the  New  York Hospital which
has lately been ventilated under the direction of Dr. Watson.  We
desire to direct the attention of the bar and the bench  to this subject;
and to say if they  will examine with a little care and attention, the 
1.7
question before us, and look at those about them, whose constitutions
have been shattered by inhaling the mephitic gas which is freely gen-
erated in crowded court-rooms, they will promptly lend their influence
in correcting an evil which has been so long overlooked.  Our court-
rooms are generally without any ventilation whatever, excepting what
may be obtained by opening windows and doors.  When the weather
is cold and the court-room crowded as is often the case, the atmos-
phere is almost beyond endurance.  There is  not even the benefit of
a fire-flue or fire-place, as it is ordinarily called.  Two or three large
close stoves, with perhaps a hundred and  fifty feet of heated sheet-
iron pipe running over the heads of the multitude,  heating the rooms
up  to 80 deg.  Far., is  the ordinary apparatus for heating a court-room.
In these days  of progress and improvement in the  arts of civilized
life, it strikes us as "passing strange," that a profession, combining so
much  intelligence and  such frequent opportunities for  observation,
should be so careless of  a question which makes their daily pursuits
almost insupportable.
   In some of  our  halls of Legislation, attempts have  been made to
introduce the  modern improvements in ventilation,  but generally with
but partial success.  In the Assembly Chamber of  Massachusetts, we
believe a thorough system has been adopted, but in this State and in
the House of  Representatives at Washington, particularly the latter,
it is very  far  from being perfect, and we wonder that the constant
complaints of  Hon. Members, and the  frequent deaths  among their
numbers,  have not ere this induced some positive action which would
bring relief.   Certainly some of these distinguished gentlemen must
be  aware  of the'tests which have been made in England and France;
and that it is now settled beyond all controversy, that the Representa-
tives' Hall and Senate Chamber can> if necessary, have all of  the  air
taken out of them every 30 minutes, and pure warm air introduced in
its place in cold weather,  and  the heat considerably reduced in hot
weather, while the change of foul for fresh air is going on.  We will
not here attempt to describe the process.
   During the last three or four years, quite a large number of meri-
torious works,  illustrating this subject in a  great variety of forms,
have made their appearance, and he, who now  attempts the ventila-
tion of a public building, need  not  commit any blunders  nor fail of
perfect success, if he avails himself of the information, which science
and mechanical ingenuity have so fully and plainly disclosed.   There
            3 
18
 are in Washington  a large  number of public  buildings  where  the
 question of pure air seems never to have  entered  the head  of  the
 architect, builder, or occupant, and the provision for supplying the in-
 mates with  this necessary article, is much  more  scanty than in our
 modern prisons and workhouses.
   The Smithsonian  Institute, now nearly completed,  will be one  of
 the most magnificient buildings in this country devoted  to science,
 and since it will be a national ornament, we  trust it will be a national
 model in every particular.  It is very easy during its construction,  to
 provide suitable flues for the admission of pure air into  each and  ev-
 ery apartment, and  also to eject the effete  air;  but if omitted until
 the structure is completed,—^ it is then exceedingly difficult and awk-
 ward  to perfect the arrangement.  It is  therefore to be  hoped that
 those  who have the matter in charge,  will not overlook a question  of
such primary importance.   We cannot learn of a single literary insti-
 tution in the country  where this subject has received any practical at-
 tention, either from  the architect, builder,  or managers  during the
 course of its construction;  and in such an institution as the one allud-
ed to, it would indeed be unfortunate, if the distinguished  gentlemen,
 who compose  the  Directors,  should  follow  in the footsteps  of those
 engaged in similar enterprises on a more moderate scale.
   Within the last quarter of  a century, much has  been said and writ-
 ten upon physical education, and while the most observing and relia-
 ble writers have dwelt with great force upon the necessity of proper
 attention to  diet and the various  kinds of  exercise for the  develop-
 ment  of the body in regular and appropriate proportions; but few  of
them  have directed their investigations to the consequences of  a con-
fined  atmosphere, or proposed any plan to eradicate an evil which has
probably done more to promote effeminaucy in our physical organiza-
tion, than any one cause  which can be  named.  How often do  we
see the laborious student who is shut up in  a close room from month
 to month and  year to year, resemble  in the palor  of his skin and  in-
 disposition to exercise the  inmates of underground cellars  where the
languor produced  by the constant use  of foul air begets such an in-
disposition to  action of any sort, that  the aid of artificial  stimulants
becomes almost indispensable to produce exertion.
   Several of the most intelligent  and philanthropic  of the  medical
professions have, during the  last two years, directed  their attention
and efforts to the ventilation of hospitals  ;;nd prisons.   The  statistics 
10
which they have collected, prove beyond all contradiction the absolute
necessity of a more perfect system of ventilation  than is ordinarily
adopted.  Many of the most  alarming and fatal diseases which run
through hospitals and  affect every patient in an unventilated apart-
ment, have been entirely  checked by  a proper system of ventilation.
In a building of this character, the ventilation should be constant day
and night throughout the  whole year, and the amount of fresh air in-
troduced should be such that  the sense of smell can detect no differ-
ence between the sick room  and the air outside.   This can easily be
attained, if the subject is fully understood, and  the  directors of hos-
pitals are willing to take the trouble to introduce — what our Creator
has furnished  in such  profusion without  money and  without  price.
In hospitals the causes of impure  air are  more numerous than in any
other buildings, containing the same number of individuals, and it is
therefore of the first importance  that the supply of pure  air should
be in proportion to the demand and the objects to be attained by pro-
viding a public  receptacle for the sick.   These institutions are gen-
erally a charge upon the state, or rely for support upon the generos-
ity  of the  humane  and benevolent portion of the community,  and
the good intentions of  each are practically defeated by retaining in
the different wards the foul  and contagious exhalations of a diseased
and feverish skin,  or the  vitiated  air  constantly pouring forth  frora
each pair  of lungs.  The  works  of military surgeons  abound  with
facts showing the benefits, resulting from complete and thorough ven-
tilation, and they have given many instances where patients have re-
covered  with great rapidity in ill-constructed barns;  where  similar
cases in well appointed hospitals, have terminated fatally.
  Several able articles upon this subject have appeared  in the vari-
ous  medical journals  of the  country,  and  Dr.  Morrill Wyman, of
Cambridge, in his treatise on ventilation, gives such full and elaborate
directions,  accompanied by diagrams, that any  intelligent architect
can reduce the whole  system to practice without any fear  of failure
or disappointment.  Although, but few of the managers of our hos-
pitals and asylums, have fully  informed themselves upon this subject,
we  are satisfied the day  is near at hand, when  the appalling  facts
connected with ill-ventilated apartments for the sick, will come home
with such force  to the hearts and heads  of those who have such in-
stitutions  under their  charge, that great criminality will be imputed
to them, if they neglect to furnish that, without which all remedial
measures, in many cases, will prove unavailing. 
20
   In these suggestions, we have had in view the improvement of the
 small  hospitals  and  sick-rooms  connected with our  county-houses.
 A striking instance of the bad effects  of unventilated  sick-rooms, oc-
 curred in our own county-house about three years since when ship-
 fever  was introduced among us.   The first cases came under the
 charge of Dr. Montgomery, and  were treated as  contagious.   The
 pest-house being then unoccupied, the Doctor had them placed in it
 and took  the precaution to have  the room so thoroughly ventilated,
 that a constant stream  of air passed through their apartments night
 and day.  Not a single visitor or attendant was affected  by the dis-
 ease.  Subsequently' other cases appeared cimong emigrants, and the
 attending physician declared  the disease was not  contagious, and had
 them  removed to the  county-house.  They were there placed  in
 small,  unventilated apartments, and every nurse, attendant, and other
 person, who came in contact with the disease,  took it,  and several
 died.  Our object in quoting  these cases, as we might many  others of
 a similar character, is to show  the necessit}*- not only of ventilation  in
 hospitals,  but  in  sick-rooms in private houses.  We believe  the best
 impression now is, that all malignant fevers are, under certain circum-
 stances, contagious,  and facts of the  most conclusive character go
 to show that confined pent-up air will communicate it,  when, in well
 ventilated apartments, it would be harmless.
   In another place, we  have stated other diseases which are commu-
 nicated in the same way, and we might mention the holds of ships
 where almost  every form of  disease is communicated through the
 medium of foul air.   How important it is  that every  family should
 have at least one room prepared  with a perfect plan for ventilating,
 which  could  be  used,  whenever a  case  of sickness  should  occur.
 With such an arrangement, the patient's suffering  would be greatly
 mitigated, its  fatality often prevented, and the disease greatly circum-
 scribed in its influence upon others.
   In most of our prisons, jails, and work-houses, the ventilation is
 lamentably deficient.  When  the prisoners are  placed  in  separate
 cells, the air  is generally  so  confined  and close as to be exceedingly
offensive;  and in many cases of sickness, it has been proved, that the
mere removal of the patient from his close quarters  to the apartment
used as a hospital, has  been  sufficient without any other remedies.
That terrible  disease — the jail-fever—has been  entirely prevented
by a thorough system of ventilation, and the mortality from other dis- 
21
eases very greatly lessened by attention to this subject.   But most of
our county-jails have made  no provision  whatever  for supplying the
prisoners with that indispensable  article, fresh air,  and many of  our
larger prisons have utterly failed in their attempts to supply the cells.
It is said that the plan adopted in the Auburn  Prison is nearly use-
less, and  that many of the  flues  constructed for that purpose have
been closed in consequence of their inutility.   If this is so, it is much
to be regretted  that those having the matter in charge, should not
have learned those simple rules, which science and experience havo
proved to  be unequivocal,  under all circumstances,  for the  certain
ventilation of each and every cell.  If any one interested in this sub-
ject, desires to understand how each  cell can  be amply supplied  with
fresh air, Ave  would refer him to the report  of  the managers of the
Pentonville Prison in England.   The system there adopted, has been
fully tested, and any one, who has made himself acquainted with the
laws which regulate the currents of the atmosphere, will see upon  a
careful examination, that the plan must be certain  in its action;  and
that those who  may adopt it, need have no apprehensions of a failure,
but, on the contrary, be certain of the most unconditional success*
We  do not, however, advise any one to imitate it, until they fully un-
derstand the whole subject.
   We can hardly speak of  any class of buildings where men congre-
gate  together  for  the purposes  of devotion, business, or pleasure,
where this subject has not  been strangely overlooked.   In our efforts
to shut  out the cold air of winter, we have effectually closed every
avenue for the supply of fresh  air.   In our lecture-rooms, concert-
rooms, and other places of amusement,  wherever a crowd is collected,
we generally come away exhausted and oftentimes sick from the effect
of " bad air."   In our large work-shops, particularly our cotton-facto-
ries,  the  atmosphere in cold weather is intolerable.  In the  " Jones'
Cotton-factory," for  illustration, a  large steam-pipe passes over the
heads of the operatives, and each  story is often heated, up to 10 or
80 deg.   The air is filled with dust,  arising from the cotton, in the
various stages  through which  it passes, from  the wool  to the cloth;
the evaporation of the gr-ease from the  machinery,  the exhalations
from the skins  of the operatives, and  the carbonic acid from their

  * Since writing the above, we have had an interview with one of the most intelligent gen-
tlemen in thin country, who visited England with a view of examining the ventilation of the
Pentonville Prison; and he stated eome facts which induces us to believe the plan adopted
has some practical defects which have been strange y neglected  by those who have the con-
trol of the Institution. 
22
ungs. all combine to make up an atmosphere which fully accounts for
the pale and sickly  faces which  occupy  this and similar  buildings.
Most of the operatives in these establishments are young, inexperienc-
ed, uneducated, and poor.   They  fare no  better  than  they should,
while at their homes or boarding-houses, and when  driven  from ne-
cessity into an atmosphere of the character we have described, to work
a  greater number of hours, and  with fewer intermissions than any
other class in the community;  we ask, if their  condition  is  not  de-
plorable!   If  there were no remedy for this—if cotton and woolen
goods  could  not  be manufactured without a poisoned atmosphere,
there might be some apology for this  state of things;  but wherever
there is a  motive  power connected with  the  driving of machinery,
ventilation  is  doubly simple and  certain.   We ask,  therefore, if  the
directors of these establishments are not bound to furnish pure air for
those whose  lot is, at  best,  hard  enough to excite the  sympathy of
every philanthropist, who has his attention directed to their condition.
We have thus alluded to a few of the prominent causes which render
the atmosphere unfit for use, and we  propose in  our next article to
speak more in detail of the  popular errors in  heating buildings and
their effects upon health. 
PART  II.
The popular or common mode of Heating Public and Private Build-
  ings—The  Open Fire  Place—Arnott's  Chimney  Valve—Tight
  Air Stoves— Ventilating Stoves—Hot Air Furnaces and their De-
  fects.
  If we were to go into the history of all the different modes of heat-
ing rooms as adopted by different nations, and follow them in their
progress  to the present period, it would far exceed  the limits which
we  have  prescribed.   We only  propose  to speak briefly of the com-
mon or ordinary means resorted to among the great mass of our Peo-
ple.   It is  only some three hundred years since chimneys  came into
general use; and most of our readers doubtless recollect the old-fash-
ioned  mode of building them, as practised and used by your forefath-
ers.   The  fire-place  was often  from three  to five feet deep, and in
some  cases from  four  to  eight  feet wide.   It  often required wood
enough to make a  single fire in cold weather,  to supply some families
of the present day, two weeks.  When one of these fire-places were
filled  with wood and burning briskly, a  very large volume of rarified
air  was driven up the chimney,  and by consequence, an equal volume
of cold  air must  enter the room from  some  quarter.   If the house
were  well put together, and the doors and windows closely fitted^ such
a chimney would  cease to draw; and the air for the support of com-
bustion, would pass  down  one side of the  chimney—driving part of
the smoke into the room, while the balance  passed up on the opposite
side.  To prevent this annoyance, a window must bo raised, or a door
partially opened.   The cold air, rushing in under such circumstancesj
and passing  rapidly towards the fire, was  of course a great annoy-
ance.   The feet and back of a person facing the fire, would be as cold
as  in the open air,  while the face needed a screen to ward off the
radiation from the fire.   While this was  a very uncomfortable method
of warming a room, we have no  hesitation  in saying, it  was much
more wholesome than the present tight air-stove and the external  air
 excluded.
   It  has been found within the last few years that  not only the size 
24
of the chimney could be greatly diminished, but that the fire-place
could be correspondingly reduced.  This diminution  of the fire-place
and the general introduction of coal—as wood becomes scarce—have
done  much to increase  the domestic comfort of all  classes in  the
community.  There  are, however, some  evils connected with these
improvements,  which have  been quite  generally overlooked.  1 he
comparatively small amount of air required to support the combust-
ion of a coal-fire in a room of ordinary size, is hardly  sufficient for the
necessary amount of ventilation, as our houses are generally construct-
ed.  All the air that enters  through,  the crevices  of the doors and
windows, being heavier than the  warmed air, falls to the floor and
passes regularly along the bottom of the room to the fire.  Thus  the
purest air is used for combustion,  while  the  respired  air rises above
the opening in the fire-place, and remains in the room.   WTe have in
another place stated that air which has been once respired, is entirely
unfit to be  used again.   When a room has been warmed  in this way,
and occupied by several persons,  the  air will soon become very  bad,
if  no ventilation has been provided, except the fire-flue.   Many per-
sons, who deem ventilation of great importance in  their rooms, seem
to think an open fire-place all that is needed; but the fact is now well
established, that, with the use of  a coal grate and a free draft up  the
chimney-flue, the  air may7, in a short time, become almost insupporta-
ble ;  and this fully  accounts for the fact that such  diseases as con-
sumption, and a variety of other similar disorders which  are so com-
mon   in  our modern well-built  houses,  are  seldom heard of in
those countries where wood is cheap  and the old-fashioned fire-place
still in vogue.  For  the  purpose  of illustration  we here  introduce a
small cut—
                              Fig. 1.
Figure 1 represents a room wanned  by a common coal-grate,   b. 
25
represents a window, and the arrows, the course of the fresh air pass-
ing from  the crevices  directly to the fire,  a.   The dark lines  above
the white  space show the position of the bad air caused by respiration
and the exhalations from the body.  The foul air  will remain in this
condition  as long as the room is occupied,  and if a large  number of
persons are collected together, it soon becomes necessary to lower a
window—whatever may be the consequence upon the health of some
delicate or feeble persons who may  happen to be present.  This illus-
tration is  sufficient to show  the necessity of proper attention to venti-
lation, even when an open fire-place is used.  Let no one suppose thi3
is an  illustration of mere theory.  The air, under such circumstances,
has been  analyzed by chemists who have had their attention directed
to the subject, and  these facts have been  as  well established  as any
proposition in mathematics.
   The simplest and easiest  mode of ventilating a room, under such
circumstances, is by the introduction of a chimney  valve invented by
the celebrated Dr. Arnott, of  London.   It should be  placed near  the
ceiling, and the  opening communicate direetly with the smoke-flue, c.
An  ordinary register,  would  answer  all the  purposes for ventilation
even if not for the fact that the smoke will occasionally pass from the
opening in the flue directly into the room.
  Fig. 2 represents the same  room with one of Arnott's Chimney
Valves placed in the chimney-flue at c.  The arrows show the direc-
tion of the respired air passing through the valve, and cold or heavier
air  passing down to the fire-place,  a, for the support  of combustion.
In this  way all the air of the  room is constantly changing, and any
person,  using an open grate without ventilation, will, upon trying this
experiment, be alike surprised and delighted  with the result.
            4 
26
Ft a. 3.
   Fig. 3  represents the  valve  alluded  to.  It is made of cast iron
with a flange  sufficiently broad to cover every break which may be
made in the chimney-flue.  It can be set by any good mason in two
hours without in any manner, defacing the wall, and is the only  arti-
cle of the kind, which  can be thus introduced directly into the smoke
flue, without defacing a finished wall.  Its general appearance is neat,
and the iron-valve is so nicely adjusted that the slightest pressure of foul
air in the  upper part of  the room will cause the  valve to open, while
an equal  pressure  of  smoke from the opposite  side will cause it to
close.  If this  were the only  article  of Dr. Arnott's invention, the
world would be under  lasting obligations to him.  The Doctor is one
of the most philosophical and philanthropic writers of the age, and for
the last four or five years has devoted a very large portion of his time
and talents to  experiments on the various modes of warming and ven-
tilating public  and private buildings,  and has done more to enlighten
and instruct the public on these subjects than any other man living.
   When a room is warmed and ventilated in  the manner here sug-
gested, many persons think it superior to any plan which has been in-
troduced.   There  is, however,  one  serious evil connected with this
mode.   As we have before stated, the cold air  being the heaviest, it
falls directly to the floor.  This keeps the feet cold, and is in violation
of the old but philosophical maxim—" keep the head  cool  and the
feet warm."  The  use  of the foot-stool  for delicate ladies, who com-
plain of cold feet,  is very desirable under such circumstances.   The
feet in this way are often raised above  the current of cold air which
is  passing  along the floor; but the air about the  head is still at a much
higher temperature  than at the top  of  the foot-stool.   If  any one is
skeptical on this point, let him hold  a truthful thermometer at the
height of the head, and  then set it  upon the foot-stool.  The differ-
ence will often be several degrees.
   To overcome the evil  here suggested, the room should be made
perfectly tight, and a  current  of warm  air introduced  in sufficient
quantities  for the purposes of combustion and ventilation. 
27
           Fia. 4

ft-----
'(V
                 H_$>**'
                 g^_______________________
  Fig. 4 represents  a fire-place  with  an iron-pipe running up the
chimney-flue.   The lower end of this pipe communicates with the
external air.  The fire heats the pipe,  the cold air is  warmed, made
light, and ascends, passing through the  opening into the upper part of
the room.  If the windows and  doors  are made close, all  the air en-
tering the  room  is  warmed, and  the  temperature above  and  below
will be nearly equal.  This plan of warming houses is considered by
many, the very best ever introduced; but we shall have occasion here-
after  to  notice its defects.  Whenever this plan is  introduced, the
ventilation should be  on the opposite side of the room from the point,
where the warm  air will be admitted.
   In departing from the old fashioned  chimney and fire place, society
lias gained much by  the introduction  of the present  form and size,
now in general use.   The cheerful open fire is still maintained, and
with the simple  plan of ventilation which we have suggested, a room
may be made very  comfortable and the atmosphere remain uninjured,
with the exception  that it is  sometimes  rendered much drier  than  it
should be.  This evil however is  so trifling in comparison with many
others that exist in our  dwellings, we  need  hardly mention it in this
place.
   But when we reflect upon the fact, that throughout the  whole
 country, as soon as fuel becomes a little  scarce, the open fire place in
 any and every form, is  pretty generally closed  to give place  to the
 stove ; we meet an evil which has been growing upon us for the last
 quarter of  a century to an alarming extent.  It is, however, true that
 in large towns, particularly where coal is  easily obtained, the open
 grate in the best class of houses is quite generally used.   The busi-
 ness of stove-making  in most  of the large towns in this State  and
 throughout the country, has become quite  the leading  branch  of 
28
manufacturing.   Any one who will take the trouble to visit such es-
tablishments in Albanj', Troy, Utica, Syracuse, Seneca Falls, Roches-
ter, Lockport, and Buffalo, will, if unacquainted with the business, be
astonished by the number  which are annually turned  out from these
various establishments.  The  infinite variety, the  taste and skill dis-
played not only in their external  appearance, but in their fuel-saving
qualities, demonstrate that the  demand must be almost unlimited.
The venerable Dr. Nott, of Union College, and Professor  Olmsted, of
New Haven, and many  other intelligent gentlemen, have devoted a
great deal of time, labor, and practical philosophy to the invention of
stoves which would give off the greatest amount of radiant heat with
the least quantity  of fuel.  In this they have been very successful
and, if warming a room in this form, were all that-its inmates requir-
ed, mankind would  be under lasting obligations for the philanthropic
efforts of these distinguished scholars.  From the tenacity with which
they have adhered to their several  models, one would suppose they
were  entirely unconscious of the consequences of  introducing  such a
fuel-saving apparatus into a close room without any means of ventila-
tion.  Although the Germans, Russians, and  French formerly  excell-
ed us in their construction  of stoves, we  are probably quite equal to
them at the present day.   The poorer classes in Germany and Russia,
probably make  their houses  much closer than ours, and exceed our
people in saving all the heat generated.   In Russia, the great mass of
the population exclude the external air in cold weather as far  as pos-
sible, and they  much prefer to respire  the vitiated air to any  admis-
sion of cold air,  for the simple purpose of improving the  atmosphere
of their rooms.
   Among the poorer classes,  fainting or asphyxia is, by no means, un-
common, and all their rooms have that close, unhealthy smell which is
so common among those who live in underground cellars in our own
large towns and cities.   With such  an atmosphere as this and com-
mon as it is among the Russians, we need not wonder that Cholera
remains among them during winter, while in cold weather of other
countries it ceases.  Although many of the  most scientific  men of
the present day—several  of whom  are of the medical profession—
have  depicted in the strongest language, the injurious and oftentimes
fatal  consequences of this mode  of heating buildings; still,  very little
attention is given  to their warnings.  Within the last two or three
years, many of the most distinguished writers of the age have written 
29
 volume after volume, upon the necessity and feasibility of ventilating
 our dwellings.   The great mass even of intelligent and educated per-
 sons seem to be unaware of the disease, pestilence, and death, so of-
 ten resulting from the use of  what is called the " tight air-stove"; and
 the manufacturers of the article are making as many preparations for
 the continuance of the  demand as though  their wholesome qualities
 were as well established as the elegance of  their various designs and
 patterns.   It is a very common thing for persons who are abundantly
 able to secure all the comforts of life even in profusion, and construct
 a dwelling-house  in strict accordance with  all the modern improve-
 ments in  domestic architecture, to leave out entirely the fire-place,
 and in its stead have a small circular opening, six inches in diameter
 to be closed perfectly tight during summer, and opened only in winter;
 to receive the smoke-pipe of a fuel-saving salamander, which shall ad-
 mit no  more air than is barely sufficient to support the combustion of
 the fuel.   He  will avail himself  of the skill of the architect, to make
 all his windows and doors perfectly tight, and as the cold weather ap-
 proaches,  he will oftentimes invite his neighbors in to spend the even-
 ing socially, and at the same time demonstrate by the small amount of
fuel which he uses, that he has the best stove and the warmest dwel-
 ling in town.  Indeed, the whole company will soon testify to the fact
 that the room is really warm — so warm that they are inclined to leave
 early in the evening, and if the same persons should frequently visit
 similar  establishments, they would  soon  come to the conclusion, that
 going out on evening visits is very unwholesome — a species of dissi-
 pation which ought  to be abandoned.   The owner of such an estab-
lishment, as the one alluded to,  is generally far from being parsimo-
 nious, and very likely fond of giving sumptuous entertainments, and in
all his intercourse with his family and society may manifest the most
generous feelings, and show his liberality in a thousand acts of kind-
ness and benevolence; but did he  know the consequences upon him-
self, family, and friends of his  heating apparatus, its fuel-saving quali-
ties would have very little influence upon him.   We are fully aware
that to those who  are very poor, and find it hard  in  cold  climates to
secure fuel enough to keep themselves warm — the tight  air-stove is
perhaps the best thing for them under such cirumstances, which can
be introduced into their  humble abode.  But in such rooms as they
are generally obliged to  occupy,  they suffer  much less for the want of
ventilation than those who live in houses where  all the windows and 
so
doors are so nicely fitted, that the external air  is entirely  excluded
In many of the  coal-stoves  which have  lately  been introduced, the
coal burns so slowly, that the carbonic  acid  gas, which  is generated
(being half as heavy again as the atmospheric air,) cannot ascend
through the smoke-pipe and chimney-flue with the temperature which
is generally maintained a few feet from  the point of combustion.  Dr.
Ure, one of the most scientific writers of the day, says that " carbonic
acid gas cannot  ascend at the temperature  of  250  deg. F."  but re-
gurgitates into the apartment through every pore  of the stove, and
poisons  the atmosphere.  "I have," says  he,  "recently performed
some careful experiments upon  this subject," and find that when the
fuel  is burning so slowly in the stove  as not to heat the iron-surface
above the 250th or 300th degree  of Fahr., there is  a constant deflux
of carbonic  acid gas from  the ash-pit  into the room.  " I  shall, (he
says,) " be happy to afford ocular demonstration of this fact to any in-
credulous votary of the pseudo-economical, anti-ventilating stoves now
so much in vogue.   There is no mode in  which  the health and life of
a person can be placed in more insidious jeopardy than by sitting in a
room with its chimney  closed up with  such a choke-damp—vomiting
stove."
   We could quote language and facts of a similar  character from a
great variety of the most reliable authors, but  if  we can induce anv
of our readers to observe the consequences in their  own dwellings  of
these modern machines, we shall have gained more than by simply
inducing them to  peruse  these opinions, however reliable,  they may
be.  In most of  our churches, public halls, school-houses, court-rooms,
places of public  amusement, offices, stores, work-shops, __c, we  meet
in this  section of the  country, the same unwholesome  atmosphere;
and almost  the only variety to be observed in the mode of heating
the room is in the  form of  the stove.  If you  enter  a  public  hotel,
the first thing you meet  in the office or bar-room (if in winter,) is a
large box-stove.   If you go to the  dining-room, you  meet the same
thing again, with perhaps a hundred feet of smoke-pipe crossing the
room at different points; and if the offensive character of the atmos-
phere gives you  a sense of fullness in the  head, while perhaps a dispo-
sition to vertigo compels you to leave the public rooms and retire to the
one  alloted to you.   Then you will  probably find a  neat little elegant
gothic pattern red-hot  by way of showing you a little variety, and if
you are compelled to lower  a window for your relief, and wake up  at 
SI
midnight with a severe cold, you may console  yourself with the fact,
that your  beautiful little stove is of the  latest  and most approved
fashion, and consumes less fuel than any one ever before invented.  If
you stop long in the place, and stay over the Sabbath, and have been
properly educated, you  will of  course go  to  church, and it is your
own fault if you do not find one of beautiful proportions, handsomely
finished, and elegantly decorated.  The stove will be larger  than the
one at your hotel,  and one will be placed in each  corner  of this
splendid edifice.  The sexton will fire up as often  as is necessary, and
keep  you perfectly warm.   It is true the air  may soon become very
disagreeable, and the eloquent voice of the speaker sound dry and
husky; if  he cannot relieve it by moistening his  vocal  organs quite
frequently  with cold water, you  may not be at  all pleased with  its
tones,  silvery and agreeable as they were at first.   But do not  blame
him.   He  is suffering for the purpose of keeping the audience per-
fectly  warm, and if you see a considerable proportion of the congre-
gation  asleep,  particularly if the house is full,  do not wonder at it,
for the atmosphere has been  so  thoroughly  dried  and respired
that there is not oxygen enough remaining to give them the ability of
keeping awake.  If now and then  a delicate lady near you faints
away,  help her out as quick as possible into the fresh air.   You need
not send for a pitcher of fresh water to throw in her face.  The pure
unadulterated atmosphere is abundantly  sufficient to restore the circu-
lation,  though  she may suffer  some time afterwards.   This kind act
being  performed, you  can  return again to the church much invigo-
rated.   If after  this experience you come to the conclusion that all
these  difficulties are caused  by the use of a close  stove, you  need
not mention it to others, for they have heard of it before.  If your
own house is warmed and ventilated according to  modern notions, you
may perhaps congratulate yourself in leaving the town.   In the  rail
road  cars, you expect  to  get into  a different  atmosphere,  but as
soon  as you enter,  you  will  only  find  a different  pattern  of
stove made expressly for rail-roads.  The passengers may insist that
every  window shall be kept closed, and you have no alternative but
to remain a victim to the foul pent up air which is so common  under
such circumstances, until you reach the end of your journey.
   We  have spoken thus freely of the use of the  common box and
tight-air stove,  and did we not know from experience and observation,
and were we not supported by the  highest  medical authority, and 
35
most  unequivocal  chemical tests,  that  the evils  resulting from their
general use far exceed  any and all of our allusions, we should hesi-
tate as to the propriety  of attacking a system which is so universally
adopted.  We know  that many persons have  their houses so con-
structed, that it is  difficult  for them to make any change in this de-
partment of their  domestic arrangements.  But  if we shall be suc-
cessful  in  inducing  those who have seen and felt the evH effects of
heating their houses, without any reference to ventilation or the qual-
ity of the atmosphere they inhale  at  every breath, they will be the
better prepared  to appreciate the improvements which have  lately
been introduced.   In some parts of the country, several attempts have
been made to introduce a kind of stove  which will warm a current of
fresh  air directly introduced from  the  outside.   It is impossible to
ventilate a room by drawing off the foul air without introducing a cor-
responding  amount into the room from  some source.   If cold  air be
introduced for the  purpose of ventilation, all the warmed air will pass
off through the ventiduct, and the cold  air remain.  We need  hardly
say that, under such circumstances, it  is  impossible to  make a room
comfortable. To overcome this difficulty, a ventilating stove has lately
been  introduced in different parts of Europe and in some of the East-
ern towns of this country.
Pig. 5.               Fig-. 6.
Figs. 5 and 6, represent a stove of this character, invented by Dr. 
Clark, of Boston.  This stove is composed of two cylinders, and is in
quite general use in many of the  common  schools in and about Bos-
ton.   Fig. 5 represents the inner cylinder, or stove proper.   Fig. 6 re-
presents the external cylinder, and when in use the external cylinder
is all that is seen.  The lower part of the outer cylinder is connected
directly with a pipe or flue leading directly to the open air.  As  the
inner cylinder is heated, the air is  warmed, and rises  in the direction
of the  arrows, and passes directly  into the room.  In this way the
space between the two cylinders becomes an air chamber, drawing a
constant supply of fresh  air from the outside.  It needs  but a  mo-
ment's reflection to perceive  that if  a  stove of this character is pro-
perly constructed, most of the evils  complained of  from stove-heat
may be avoided.  If, however, the inner cylinder is raised to a very
high temperature, sufficiently  so to burn the air, the atmosphere of
the room  may still be more  or less unwholesome.  This stove with
proper  attention need not necessarily be overheated, and if not called
upon to do too  much, it will answer a most excellent purpose.   But
when placed in a large  room and the weather very cold, we have seen
it at a  red heat, and  the air thus heated presents a most disagreeable
0(lor — and as a matter of course  more or less unwholesome; but even
under such circumstances, it is a  great improvement over the common
box, or any variety of the tight air-stove.  Several designs for ventil-
ating stoves have  lately  made  their  appearance, but the inventors ap-
pear to have no other object in view than that of  raising the air to as
hio-h a temperature as possible.  Some of them have small tubes
not  more than two inches in diameter, sitting directly around the fire-
pot, which are easily raised to  a red heat.   Of course the air, passing
throuo-h these tubes, is greatly injured.  In the construction of a ven-
tilating stove, the air to be warmed  should never be brought into con-
tact with the surface raised  above 212 degrees—the  boiling point of
water.
   In the  use of a stove of this description, the expense of fuel is
but a trifle more  than that  of the tight air-stove, and when we take
into account its advantages, we think  no one, who is enabled to enjoy
an  ordinary share of the comforts  of home, can object  to  them on
 that ground.
   Another mode  of heating houses, which has of  late received a  good
 deal of attention, is that of hot-air furnaces.  It consists in placing a
large stove, generally with a series of  drums in the cellar or some un-
             5 
34
derground room, and enclosing  the whole in a brick chamber.  The
cold air is introduced from the outside within the walls which enclose
the stove, and by the heat, communicated from the stove thus  enclos-
ed, it is made lighter, and conducted  through some metalic pipe into
the room or rooms to be warmed.  In this way, every room in a dwel-
ling may  be kept to a uniform temperature without any of the  annoy-
ance  or  inconvenience  of a  stove  or fire-place  in the rooms  above,
arising from  the frequent renewal  of the fire by the introduction of
fuel,  the dust from the ashes,  &c.   This is  a great improvement,
and most persons much prefer it to the use of the fire-place or open
stove.  It is but a short time since they have been introduced into
this section  of   the  country, and  comparatively few have  availed
themselves of their benefits.   Most persons, who  have  been engaged
in setting them, have had little or no experience in the business, and
a very large portion of those hitherto  introduced, have proved quite
unsatisfactory.   Most of them are so constructed that the fire-pot and
all points near the  combustion are generally kept red hot, and often-
times we have seen them to  a white heat.  To save what heat would
otherwise be  lost, a great  variety of drums, diving and horizontal flues
have been invented to  check the current of heat before it passes off
through the smoke-pipe into the chimney.  Those engaged in making
furnaces  of this character contend that they have arrived  at the very
maximum of  economy,  when they can point to the fire-pot at a white
heat and  at the  same time hold their hand  upon the smoke-pipe  at
the point where it  emerges from  the chamber  for heating the air.
Any one  who is acquainted with the fact that a red-hot surface great-
ly deteriorates the  air, and that  the point where the temperature is as
low as that  alluded to, can effect very little in warming the air, will
readily perceive  that the  latter  point is worse than useless. 
85
i
vr
  Fig. 1 represents a horizontal section of a furnace which was at
one time in more general use than any other in this section of the coun-
try.   It is nothing more than a large box-stove with two or more cast-
iron drums directly over it.  The dotted line in the lower part of the
figure represents the opening for the introduction of fuel, and the small
arrows show the direction of the heat through the drums.   The low-
er part, or stove where combustion is carried on, is easily raised to a
very high  temperature.  In the first drum  above, the temperature
would be much lower.   The third  much less and  so on for any num-
ber of drums till the heat would be  nearly exhausted.  They are all
made of heavy cast-iron, and, at the  point where the heat  enters the
first drum, the temperature would be very much higher than  at the
opposite point where it  entered into the next.drum.  This mode  of
heating causes  irregular expansion and contraction of the  iron-plates
—the joints would soon be partially separated, and the plate itself of-
ten cracked.   As soon as this  occurs, the furnace will begin to leak
the smoke and gases of combustion into the air chamber, which, when
combined with the burned air, would constitute an atmosphere, any-
thing but desirable for those who are obliged to inhale it.  When the
air to be heated is first introduced, it is at the bottom of the air cham-
ber, and is first brought in contact with that part of  the furnace, most
highly heated; and its temperature  cannot of course be increased by
passing over on its way up  a series  of drums at a much  lower tem-
perature.  All furnaces, therefore, which are thus irregularly heated, 
26
or have open joints  or  cracks, are  entirely unfit for  use, and  these
defects have  done much to prejudice people against their use.  Many
persons have  endured them — notwithstanding these objections, in con-
sequence of the facilities afforded for keeping all parts of the  house  at
nn  agreeable temperature.   Since  their first  introduction  into the
coimtry, a o-reat variety have been  invented, but the most  of them
have the same  defects manifested in a different form; as the  simple
illustration  we have here given.  A furnace  properly constructed
should have  all the  joints so accurately fitted together, that none  of
the gases of combustion  can by any possibility escape into the air
chamber, and its form should be such that all parts of it will be heat-
ed to a uniform temperature.   Every person who has had any expe-
rience with stoves, knows that when they are at  a red heat, the  atmos-
phere of  the  room where  they are  placed, soon becomes intolerable.
A furnace,  at the same temperature, will of course  affect  the atmos-
phere in the  same way.   Many of the  furnaces, which have been in-
troduced among us, in addition to the objections here alluded  to, are
so constructed, that when  the soot and ashes accumulate in the  drums
or flues, there is no mode of cleaning them  out; and  many who have
been quite delighted with their use at first, have been equally dissatis-
fied with them  afterwards.
   Most of those  who have been engaged in  manufacturing  them,
seem to have lost sight of  the uses to which  they were to be applied;
and their whole object seems to have been  to heat the air to as high
a temperature as possible,  and they seem to have lost sight of the idea,
that the air thus heated, was to be used for respiration and ventilation
as well as for the purpose  of warming the rooms into which it should
be conducted.  While one furnace has been constructed with a series
of drums as before stated,  another one is so made that, by the turn-
ing of  a damper,  the heat is sent into a number of diving flues at a
point as low as the fire-pot, then brought up again, and finally carried
off to the smoke-pipe or chimney, through horizontal  flues.   Last fall
or winter, a number of furnaces were introduced into this place with a
number of  small tubes placed directly around the top  of the fire-pot
in such a manner, that, whenever the  combustion was at  all active,
they were  uniformly at a high red heat, and the air  to be warmed
was compelled  to pass through these tubes which were of some two
and a half or three inches  in diameter, and two  or three feet long.   If
the inventor of this furnace had designed to injure the  air to the full- 
37
est extent within his power, we doubt whether he could have  chang-
ed his plan without failing to some extent in the accomplishment of
his designs.  Aside from the faulty  construction of these furnaces,
the mode of setting them has, in most cases, been equally objection-
able.   With a view of saving heat, a double brick-chamber has gen-
erally been constructed, and the air introduced at the top, taken down
between the two wails, and introduced to the heating  apparatus at or
near the bottom of the inner wall.  It often occurs in such cases that
when  the wind is blowing from  the opposite direction  of the pipe,
conveying the cold air to the furnace-chamber—and when the  door or
window  to a  room, receiving the warm air, is  suddenly opened the
air passes directly from the room down the pipes intended to bring up
the warm air, and passes  through  the furnace-chamber out of the
cold  air-flue.   The inner brick-wall, before alluded to, is often placed
so near that part  of the furnace which is the most intensely  heated,
that the radiation  from  the fire-pot soon heats this part of the brick-
chamber to a high red heat; and that in return becomes an extended
heating surface for the air to pass  over.  If any one has any curiosity
on this subject,  let him pass air through a brick-flue, when  at a high
red heat,  and notice the effect, after being inhaled, upon the respira-
tory organs.  In addition to the difficulties which we have alluded to,
it should be borne in mind that  the means ordinarily resorted to for
supplying the air with the necessary amount of moisture, are also ve-
ry defective.   In all this class of furnaces, when any attention what-
ever is paid to  evaporation, a metalic basin of some sort is either pla-
ced at the bottom of the air-chamber, where  it receives very little
warmth, or at some point higher up, and against or on the main heat-
ing cylinder where the water  often boils.   In the first position  there
is a very great deficiency of moisture, and in the last great excess.
We might here multiply cases and descriptions of these defective fur-
naces, and equally defective  mode  of setting;  but as we propose
in another place to speak more at  length of the recent improvements
which have lately  been introduced to public notice, we have perhaps
said enough to enable the reader to point out for himself  the  leading
objections which we have suggested; and in conclusion of  this branch
of our subject, we will only say that any mechanic (however well he
may be informed  on other  subjects,) who undertakes to construct  a
furnace and put it in operation, without understanding the laws which
govern the atmosphere, and the  various changes through which  it 
38
passes during  its preparation for domestic use—or is ignorant of the
laws which regulate its currents under an infinite  variety of circum-
stances,—will probably soon regret that he was ever  induced to enter
into the business.
\ 
PART   III.
Practical Suggestions upon the Advantages and Disadvantages of the
   different Modes of Warming Air—The use  of Steam—Hot  Wa-
   ter—Furnaces—Recent  Improvements contrasted  with the Plans
   in general use—Difficulties  to be surmounted—Evaporation— Ven-
   tilation— Conclusion.
   In a climate like ours, no art which Divine  goodness has placed
within our reach, is more valuable than that of generating and distri-
buting heat.   Many  of the most scientific and philanthropic men the
world ever saw, have devoted  great care, application, and attention to
the different modes  of applying heat, so as to meet the wants of all
classes and conditions of society.   The efforts of Count Rumford, in
simplifying  the process of warming rooms,  deservedly  acquired the
highest honor.   His exertions  experienced the sneer of the wit-worms
of his day;  but the  approbation of the  benevolent and  the gratitude
of that  class whose comfort  and happiness he sought  to establish,
greatly overbalanced the jeers of those who feast upon ridicule,  and
are incapable of appreciating a disinterested act of any sort.
   Since the great advances made in  the construction of chimneys, the
general introduction  of coal, and the  mode of setting grates to radiate
the greatest amount of heat, philosophy and the mechanic arts have sug-
gested a variety of modes for distributing a genial warmth to  all parts
of a building, where it might  be  needed.   Sir  Hugh Piatt, in  1652,
suggested that a conservatory might, at a small charge, be heated  by
the use of steam.  His plan was, indeed, very  simple, and consisted
in placing a " tin-cover over a boiling  vessel wherein you boil your
beefe, or drive  your  buck, which, having a pipe  in the top, and being-
made in the fashion of a funnel, may be conveyed into what place of
your orchard  or garden, you shall think meete."   About  100 years
after this, the  subject was brought before the public in a more prac-
tical form; but it received very little attention until within the last fif-
ty years.  At various periods during the present century, the subject
has been discussed, and many able authors commend this mode of 
40
heating,  as decidedly preferable to all others.  There has  been but
little improvement  in the machinery used since its  introduction by
Messrs. Boulton and Watt, some fifty years since.  At one time this
mode of warmino- buildings was received in England, France, and Ger-
many with great favor; but latterly it has to a great extent been aban-
doned.  The practice of  heating rooms by  the radiation from  steam-
pipes, without ventilation, is,  in our opinion, no better than the smoke-
pipe of a close stove, if the joints are so fitted that the gases of combust-
ion cannot leak into the  room.   We have  often examined  buildings
which  were  warmed by steam-pipes running along or near the base-
board,  or perhaps coiled in one corner of the room, and found the air
exceedingly offensive. We visited,  a few months since, the New York
Hospital which has during the past winter been heated by steam, and
thoroughly ventilated.  The  steam-pipes are  coiled in  an air  cham-
ber, and a volume of air is  warmed and distributed in all the  wards.
Great attention has been given  to the subject by Dr. Watson,  a gen-
tleman of high professional attainments, who had the whole  detail un-
der his own direction; and it may, with great  propriety, be  copied by
other institutions, when  the  introduction of steam has  been decided
upon.  We noticed one room where the heat was from the direct radi-
ation of the  steam-pipes, and  the difference between that and the
rooms warmed by a current, direct from the air chamber, was—to say
the least of it—sufficiently striking to illustrate the two systems,  and
condemn the  practice of resorting to the use of  steam without  ventil-
ation.  The machinery and  improvements  connected with its intro-
duction in the Hospital, cost upwards of $50,000, and it  requires an
engineer and  two assistants  to manage it.   This shows that but  few
institutions in this  country  can resort to this method, even if there
were no other mode of warming the air without injuring its  whole-
some qualities.  The same statement connected with the fact, that
none but a careful person, more or less familiar with the steam-engine,
can be  entrusted with its care, shows its impracticability for private
dwellings.  Very large and wealthy institutions  may resort  to it,  and
use the steam and engine for a variety of  purposes, besides warmino-
and ventilating the apartments.
   Mr.  Tredgold, one of the  most scientific authors upon the  nature
and  distribution of heat, recommends steam  as the  only  mode, in
which  a building can be heated, without injuring the atmosphere;
but Mr.  Bramah, who added an appendix to Mr. Tredgold's work, 
40
some years after his death, states, that the author, soon after the pub-
lication of his work, became satisfied that the mode of heating by hot
water was decidedly  preferable to steam; though he had at one peri-
od condemned  it as impracticable, and, upon philosophical principles,
unattainable.
  During the last few years, several works  have made  their appear-
ance,  strongly recommending the hot water apparatus  as decidedly
preferable to steam.   The use of steam, for  the purpose of  distribu-
ting heat throughout a large building, was  designed and intended  to
overcome the objections so strongly urged against stoves and hot air-
furnaces, whose surfaces were often raised  to  so high a temperature,
that the air, coming in contact with  them, was rendered unfit for use.
Steam-pipes, upon what is called  the high pressure  principle, are
often raised to the temperature of  400 to 500 degrees, while  a low
red heat of a stove is about 700  degrees.  In the hot water appara-
tus the'heated  surface must always  be  below 212 degrees, the boiling
point of water.   This fact alone has given the  latter plan the prefer-
ence.   There are a variety of plans for warming buildings by hot
water,  some of which are exceedingly simple,  and others quite com-
plicated.  The  principle  however,  is the same in  each case.  The
expense  for  an ordinary dwelling house is some three  or four  times
that of introducing a warm air furnace.  Aside from the expense, it
must be  remembered that the constant supply of water is often diffi-
cult, and the liability to get out of order  is much greater than in the
use of the  furnace.   There  are, however,  some  points about this
mode of distributing heat which  strongly commend themselves to the
favorable consideration of those who  are abundantly  able to meet
the extra expense  of construction and  alteration.    Many contend
there is no other mode of warming  the  air without injury.  With a
heatincr surface which in no case can be raised above the boiling-point
of water, the air, they fancy, must, under all circumstances, be perfectly
pure, and never be " robbed of moisture or injured in quality."  In Eng-
land this system is, with many, quite popular, and it is better adapted
to that climate  than our own.  The  cold with us is much more intense
than in Great Britain, and a hot water apparatus of sufficient size  to
warm  a building at 28 or 30 degrees would be  quite inefficient when
the temperature is at Zero.  This kind of apparatus is at its maximum
when the water boils, and can accomplish but little before the boiling-
point.   The  same apparatus therefore must  be used, and  the surface
             6 
42
brought to the  same temperature on all occasions, and at all  degrees
of cold.   An apparatus therefore of sufficient size to warm a dwelling
when the temperature outside is at Zero, will give off a great excess
at 32 degrees, the freezing point.   The prejudices which have existed
and  continue to exist against  hot furnaces are most generally well
founded.   Most of those who have been eno-ao-ed in their construction
                                       O O
and introduction seem to have had only one object in view,—that of
heating  the  apartments when it is  introduced.   If  the weather is
intensely cold, they  apply the more fuel, and increase the temperature
cf the heating surface,  until it is often at  a white heat.   The  same
sized furnace  is designed for a dwelling with  double windows, and
well formed walls, as for one of the  same  size with  single windows,
and with walls  plastered directly on  the  surface of the stone  or brick
work.  The  mode of setting the  furnace  in  an air  chamber,  and the
introduction of the  air to be warmed, are very likely  in direct  viola-
tion of those unalterable laws which regulate the radiation and con-
duction of heat, and control  the atmosphere in all the changes which
it undergoes in its rarification and condensation, while passing through
the air chamber, and distribution in the different apartments.  With-
in the last few  years, the public  have been cautioned against the ef-
fects, of a heating  apparatus, any portion  of which,  is raised  to or
near a red heat._  It is very common, therefore, for the  dealers in these
articles to declare and advertise  that no part of it is ever  raised to
such a temperature, while any person,  at all familiar with  the laws of
heat, will see, at a  single glance, that an  active combustion of  fuel
must produce  the  effect alluded  to.  Those  writers, chemists,  and
philosophers, who first depicted the consequences of warming the at-
mosphere by a red-hot surface, supposed and declared that  the oxyT-
gen was partially destroyed; but  it has since been ascertained by  a
more accurate analysis, that the loss  of oxygen wras not the cause of
the difficulty.   The air, after passing through such an apparatus, was
found after being cooled to contain in most instances the usual amount
of oxygen.  This fact has been greatly perverted, when used to show,
that a metalic  surface at a red heat,  did not injure the atmosphere.
  We cannot better answer this position  than by the  following quota-
tion  from  Mr.   Charles Hood, an  English author, who has  written a
most excellent practical volume of some four hundred pages upon the
warming  and  ventilating of  buildings.   After speaking  of the  differ-
ent  methods of distributing  artificial  heat, he says, " Many  of these 
43
methods are highly injurious  to the animal economy, and cannot be
persevered in without permanent derangement of the health of those
who are exposed  to their influence.  There are always suspended in
the air myraids of particles of  animal and vegetable matter, but these
almost unheeded atoms possess a high philosophical importance; how-
ever they may, generally, be disregarded.  They are the evidences of
the unceasing changes which the material world is continually under-
            DO                                      •
going—the irrefragable proofs that the visible matter of the universe
is slowly and almost imperceptibly, passing through  a series of trans-
mutations which affect both organic and inorganic nature.  Many of
these particles  are easily decomposed  by heat, and are then resolved
into the various gases  either in their  elementary or mixed state.
Hence many of the methods  of producing artificial heat, are  materi-
ally affected, as regards their wholesomeness,  by the fact of their be-
ing able, or not, to decompose or chemically alter these floating parti-
cles of matter.  To  this cause is  mainly attributable, the unpleasant
smell  produced by several modes  of warming buildings by highly
heated metalic surfaces, and we have already  seen that the hygromet-
ric  and electric  condition  of the air is also altered by the same
means."  All the different descriptions of hot-air stoves are more or
less liable to these objections,  as also the high pressure system of hot
water apparatus,  and still more, the cockle or hot air-furnaces.   Dr.
Nott's stoves, and also the Russian and German stoves, are subject to
this inconvenience.   But the cockle or hot air-furnace is particularly
liable  to  these objections; for not only  will  it act  powerfully in de-
composing the floating particles  of extraneous matter in  the air, re-
solving them into sulphuretted, phosphuretted, and carburetted hydro-
gen, with various compounds of nitrogen and carbon; but it will like-
wise decompose a portion of the vapor contained in the air, absorbing
the oxygen and liberating the hydrogen.
   These various gases, thus exhaled into the air, cannot  be breathed
without considerable  inconvenience.  Signor Cardone  made some ex-
periments on breathing hydrogen  gas.   He inhaled thirty cubic inch-
es which is about one-ninth part of the  total quantity of air contain-
ed in the lungs, and the almost immediate effect he experienced, was
an oppressive difficulty of breathing, and painful  constriction  of the
superior  orifice  of the  stomach,  followed by abundant  perspiration,
tremor of the bodj', heat,  nausea, and  violent  head-ache; his vision
became indistinct, and a deep murmur  confused  his hearing.  Some 
43
 of these symptoms lasted a considerable time and were, with difficul-
 ty, got rid of.   Sir Humphrey Davy  tried the  effect of inhaling
 carburetted hydrogen.   He made three inspirations of  the gas.   The
 first inspiration  produced a sort of numbness  and  loss of feeling in
 the chest and about the pectoral muscles.  After the  second inspira-
 tion, he lost all power of perceiving external things, and had no  dis-
 tinct sensation, except a terrible oppression on the chest.   During the
 third inspiration  this feeling disappeared, and he seemed sinking into
 annihilation, and had just power enough to drop the mouth-piece from
 his unclosed lips.  The effects of this experiment  lasted  for several
 hours, producing excessive pain, extreme weakness, nausea, loss of
 memory, and deficient sensation.  Carbonic oxide is still more prejudi-
 cial in its action on the animal system.  Sir Humphrey Davy, on try-
 ing the effects of inhaling  a small quantity of  it, was  seized with a
 temporary loss of sensation—succeeded by giddiness,   sickness,  and
 acute pains in different parts of his body; and it was some days be-
 fore he entirely recovered; but Mr. Witter of Dublin, who tried to
 repeat the experiments, was immediately affected with apoplexy,  and
 was restored with difficulty.
   We  might continue to quote similar opinions from late authors, but
 it is perhaps enough to say, that no well-informed wTriter in any man-
 ner, contradicts the statements of Mr. Hood, but, on the contrary, he
 fully concurs with him by the expression of similar views.
   Recent improvements have demonstrated, that a furnace can be so
 constructed that the heating surface  need never be raised above the
 temperature of 212 deg., and  if so, it is  of course just as good  for
 warming air as though its inner surface were filed with boiling water,
 and, at the same time, free from  the objections and  inconvenience
 suggested.  A few years since  it was ascertained that certain apart-
 ments  in the London Custom House, produced ill-health  among the
 officers whose official seats, were placed in them.   Mr. Bernan says,
 " the whole of them complained of a remarkable  coldness  and lan-
 guor at their extremities, more especially the legs and feet, which be-
 came habitual.   Others complained  of a sense  of tension  or fullness
 in  the head, with throbbing of the temples, and vertigo followed not
 unfrequently, with a confusion of ideas very disagreeable to those en-
 gaged  in important  and sometimes intricate calculations."  The medi-
 cal gentleman, who was consulted, recommended  the removal of the
stoves,  and, in their stead,  pipes heated by steam, laid along the floors. 
44
Dr. Arnott was subsequently consulted and employed. The steam-pipes
were not introduced; but a " comfortable and wholesome climate was
produced in  the long room which contains over half a million eubic
feet of space, by means of three warm air-stoves of his contrivance."
The room which he warmed in this way, is 186 feet in length, 64 feet
in width, and 44 feet in height.   These stoves contained 800 feet  of
heating surface, and weigh Of tons.  The surface was  seldom heated
above 137 deg.   With the system of ventilation  introduced at  the
same  time, this simple arrangement was found to be very economical
and the air quite  salubrious.  All  the disagreeable symptoms which
previously existed among the officers and clerks, disappeared, and the
same  apparatus continues to the present time; and we believe without
any desire to change it.  The whole  arrangement shows  great in-
genuity, and  is based upon the most philosophical  principles.   Some
two or  three years since we had constructed a warm air-furnace for
our own  dwelling, intending as far as practicable, to carry out  the
philosophy of Dr.  Arnott.  We  failed in some of  our first  attempts,
but subsequently succeeded with  a comparatively small amount of
fuel in obtaining  a sufficient  amount of heat  and  an  atmosphere as
salubrious and agreeable as need be desired.  To prevent all possibil-
ity of having any point in the heating apparatus raised to a very high
temperature, the fire-pot, or point where  the  combustion was carried
on, was entirely excluded from the  air chamber.  We conceived  the
idea of this  size and  form, from what is called a " patent English
Baker's oven."  We noticed that an oven of this shape could be heat
ed  to a red heat in a very short  time, by making the  fire outside of
the oven and conveying the heat in at one corner, and taking it out at
an  opposite corner of the same end.  We therefore had a sheet-iron
drum made of a similar form, and the heat introduced in  the same
way.   The drum was enclosed in a brick air chamber, and could, in a
very short space of time, be raised to the desired temperature.  This
drum was six feet wide, eight feet long,  eighteen  inches high at the
sides, and two feet and a half high at the centre—the whole contain-
ing about one hundred  and  fifty feet of heating surface.   We were
so well  satisfied with its working, that several  personal friends and ac-
quaintances adopted a similar method in warming their  own  dwell-
ings.   All these furnaces  were designed  for burning wood, as it  was
then  a cheaper article  of fuel than coal.  To keep*this kind of fur-
nace at a uniform temperature required but little fuel at a heat but 
46
needs constant replenishing.   As the furnace must  generally be plac-
ed in an underground room, such a frequent renewal of the fire must
of necessity be  very inconvenient:  and families, no more  systematic
than they should be, will quite likely tire of such an apparatus, parti-
cularly when the fires are made  by the kitchen-girl who  sometimes
arrives at  the strange conclusion, that some one else ought to be em-
ployed to  make the fires.
  To overcome the difficulty of  this frequent and regular renewal of
the fire, Ave recommended after a great variety of experiments, an en-
tirely different form for the construction of the drum, by which a lar-
ger amount of fuel could be introduced and burned much more slow-
ly.   It contained the same amount of heating surface, and the whole
could easily be raised to a uniform temperature.  We  considered this
an excellent substitute for a hot water apparatus, as it was intended
never to raise the heating surface above 212 deg.   That such a fur-
nace can easily be constructed, and that  it has all  the advantages of
the hot water system without its inconvenience, no  one who carefully
examines the subject, need doubt.   Of  course it must be constructed
of a good  quality of iron, and all the joints and connections be as firm-
ly fitted as though it  were to hold  water  or steam.   If this is done,
none of the gases of combustion can leak  into the air chamber;  and
if the iron is of sufficient thickness,  to resist the injury from rust, it
will, for aught we can see or learn from the best authorities and sheet-
iron workers, be  a durable apparatus.   The proprietor  of  Corinthian
Hall, uses two of these furnaces, and he informed us a few days since
that it met his highest expectations, both  in respect to the quality of
the warmed air  and  the  ease, with which  they could  be managed.
The two contain about 325 feet of heating surface.  He says the hall
has been  warmed nearly  every evening during the cold season with
the use of but fifteen cords of wood.   The mode of setting this fur-
nace is somewhat peculiar.   We had intended  to  give  the reader a
more definite idea of it by an engraved figure; but we have been dis-
appointed in obtaining it.  We have thus dwelt somewhat  in detail
upon the  furnace, invented by Dr. Arnott, and the  one introduced
among us, to show that the expense and inconvenience of usino- hot
water is quite unnecessary.
  This kind of furnace is, however,  quite expensive, and with a view
of calling  attention to what is ordinarily called a portable furnace, we
here introduce an engraving of one  constructed upon the  same prin- 
47
ciple, and capable of warming three or four common sized rooms and
a hall—
                               Pio. 8.
   Fio\ 8 is a vertical section through  the centre, showing the fire-pot
and the different cylinders:  a.  represents the  fire-pot which  is con-
structed of heavy cast-iron,  one  inch in thickness; b. is the ash-pit;
c c. is a circular passage around the ash-pit; and d. is a tube, leading
from it to the bottom of the  smoke-pipe; e e. is a sheet-iron cylinder,
called the heating,cylinder.  This encompasses the fire-pot, a., and fits
tightly over  the top of the base which receives the fire-pot, a.  Be-
tween the heating cylinder,  e e., and the fire-pot, a., circular openings
are formed through the base, which  receive the smoke and gases of
combustion;  and which terminate in  the tube,  d.—the heating cylin- 
47
der, e. e., is larger in diameter than the fire-pot, a., and extends some
distance above it, and is closed  at the top by a circular  casting made
with a flange or shoulder, so as to fit very close, and make the whole
sufficiently tight to prevent any  of the gases of combustion from es-
caping and combining with the  air to be warmed,  ff. is a radiating
oylinder, also constructed of sheet-iron of a lighter quality,  which
surrounds the heating cylinder, e e., and is opened  at the top.   The
lower part fits tightly over  a small  vertical projection  of the base.
g g., is the outer cylinder which incloses the whole as seen in Fig. 8,
and is generally constructed of galvanized iron.   The space  between
the outer cylinder, g g. and the inner cylinder, e e., is divided perpen-
dicularly by the radiating cylinder, ff.   When the combustion  is go-
ing on, the inner cylinder is heated, and the.radiation from this affects
the radiating cylinder, ff.; as the external air is introduced  between
the three cylinders, that which is  between  the radiating  and heating-
cylinder, will of course be raised to a much higher temperature than
what is passing up  between the  radiating  and outer cylinder.  To
prevent these currents, passing  into the apartments at different tem-
peratures, a flange, h h., is thrown across from the outer to the inner
cylinder.   The openings in this flange are so formed that the air, when
it arrives at the  flange, passes from  the outside  to the inside of the
radiating cylinders, and vice versa, so that  all the air to be warmed
passes over about half the distance of the heating cylinder, e e.  The
arrows show the air passing from the inner side to the  outside, and
from the outside to the inside of the radiating cylinder.  In this fur-
nace, it is intended, after  the  fire is fully ignited that  the heat, after
rising in the  heating cylinder, shall descend all around the fire-pot, as
shown by the arrows with two small points.   It is often difficult when
kindling a fire, to carry off the smoke through a descending flue.  A
direct flue, k., connects the heating cylinder at the top of the smoke-
pipe, c.   In  this last mentioned flue, there is  a self-acting damper
which closes at a temperature  of about 300 deg.  The circulation in
the smoke-pipe having been  established, there is no difficulty in send-
ing off the smoke and gases of combustion through the diving  or des-
cending flues,  i i. represents a circular cast-iron vessel which fits on
the outer  cylinder as represented in Figs. 7 and 8.  j j. are the con-
ducting  pipes for conveying the warmed air to the apartments.
   We will not trouble the reader with a farther  description, but refer
him to the leading points which we deem so essential in the construe- 
49
tion of an air-warming apparatus.  The fire-pot, it will be seen,  is so
situated that, however high the atmosphere may be raised, the air to
be warmed can never come in contact with it; and the heating cylin-
der is at a sufficient distance  from it,  to prevent its being affected by
contact  with the coal in a state of combustion.  The amount of heat-
ing surface is  quite large, and while  none of the air can, under any
circumstances, come  in  contact with the fire-pot, the whole air cham-
ber is made practically useful by the action of the  equalizing flange.
The situation of the  water for evaporation we may speak of hereafter.
Fi°\ 9 is a front view of this furnace, set  in galvanized iron.  Rus-
t-iron is better,  when set in a basement-room, used for  domestic
           7
5 
50
purposes.   Quite a large number of these furnaces have  been intro-
ducedamong us, and we believe they have given entire  satisfaction.
Messrs.  James Cowles  & Co., of this city, are the inventors, and we
think they are entitled to the credit of introducing a cheap and philo-
sophical apparatus—free  from  all  the objections which  have, with
great propriety, been urged  against furnaces of this character.  It
can be enlarged or diminished to meet the wants of almost any family.
                              Fig.  10.
  Fig. 10 represents  the  celebrated  furnace  invented a few years
since, by Gardiner Chilson of Boston.  We regret that we have not
a series of engravings for illustrating  more fully some of the striking-
peculiarities of this invention;  but as we have only the figure before
us, we shall proceed  to give  the reader as  full a description as our
space and ability will  allow.
  Mr.  Chilson, for this and some other inventions of a similar nature,
may justly be considered as  one of the best practical inventors in
this department  of mechanical science.   The  section of the furnace,
here  given, shows the  air chamber, formed  by brick-work which
surrounds it.  The cold air passes through  an opening in the brick-
work, and  when  warmed, rises  and goes out  in the direction of the
black arrows, through the conducting pipes into the apartments  to be
warmed.   The fire-pot is one-third smaller at the  bottom, than at the
top, and is lined with fire-brick  or soap-stone.   It is broad  and  shal-
low, instead of a deep fire-pot and a correspondingly deep fire. When 
51
the combustion  is going on, the coal burns with slowbut perfect com-
bustion, and the radiation from the ignited fuel is thrown directly up-
on the heating cylinder.   The position of the pipes at the top is such
that the  heat is drawn directly to all sides of the  cylinder, and con-
tinues its course as shown by the direction of the  white arrows, into
a large cast-iron annular chamber which is connected by a cross-pipe,
and from this is carried  down  near the bottom of the  air  chamber,
and again ascends, as shown in the engraving.  The whole radiating
surface of the largest size contains about 140 feet, without reference
to the smoke-pipe.   All  the joints  and  connections are  so made, that
any expansion or contraction is perfectly harmless; as it is impossible,
if correctly set,  for any of the gases of combustion  to escape into the
air chamber, unless  the  castings are broken.  This single fact  is of
great  consequence, and  as  the mode of making these  connections is
patented, it will be several years  before others can avail  themselves of
the improvement.   The greatest point gained  by this  furnace, con-
sists in  the fact, that whether the combustion  is slow  or rapid, the
whole surface is heated alike.   In all the cast-iron furnaces which we
have seen, (and we  believe we have either seen the castings or draw-
ings of all that have been patented in this country up January, 1851,
and all patented in Europe up to 1849) ; the part nearest  the  com-
bustion is uniformly at much the  highest temperature.  In most of
them, the fire-pot is  often at a white heat,  when, by some diving flue,
drum, or radiator, the  course  of the heat is so completely checked,
that there is not heat enough  in the smoke-pipe  to carry off all  the
heavier  gases of combustion.  The irregular expansion  and contrac-
tion, resultino- from  the  unequal  distribution  of the heat, soon causes
the joints to open, and the  poisonous gases escape into the  air cham-
ber, and unite with  the air, often otherwise injured by such a heating-
apparatus.  But it is hardly necessary for us to dwell upon the merits
of this useful invention.   Others whose opinions  would have  more
weio-ht than our own, have under various  circumstances practically
 tested its merits.    Our  readers will judge  whether our statements
 and opinions are well founded, while contending that all air-warming
 furnaces should be  so constructed;  that all  parts  of the heating sur-
face should be  heated to the same temperature; that no part of that
 surface  should  be raised much above the boiling point of water;  and
 that, under no possible state of circumstances, should any of the gases
 of combustion,  be permitted to escape into  the air  chamber. 
52
   We know that the community generally will  thank us, if we will
 point them to a furnace  which is best calculated to meet their wants;
 but, without saying more of this  particular furnace, we prefer to quote
 from others.   The  school committee of Boston, united  with a com-
 mittee from the Board of Aldermen, and used $4,000  in testing the
 qualities of the  various furnaces which had been introduced in New
 England.   The result of their experiments induced  the committee to
 introduce it into the different schools, and this joint committee thus
 speak of Mr. Chilson's invention.  "Your committee have made them-
 selves acquainted, not  only with all the  furnaces which have been
 manufactured in this place and  its neighborhood; but with  all  those
 which have recently been exhibited  here.   Most of them show much
 ingenuity of contrivance  and  excellence  of workmanship;  but they
 are all, so far  as we can judge,  inferior in many  respects to the one
 invented by Mr.  Chilson—a model and plan of which we now exhibit
 and recommend  as superior to all others"
   Dr.  Bell of the McLean Asylum, and  author of an excellent essay
 on the ventilation of public and private buildings, speaks of it, in simi-
 lar language, and the new addition  to this flourishing institution,  we
 understand, is to be warmed by  these furnaces.   The Gerard College
 and the higher classes of schools'in Philadelphia, have  lately sent a
 committee to Boston to examine and inquire  into this whole subject,
 and we see upon their return home,  they recommend the introduction
of Mr. Chilson's plan.  We need hardly mention  the number of pre-
 miums it has  lately received at different Fairs, for these awards are
 often made upon such  hasty examinations  that  they are not always
 certain evidence of merit; but when such gentlemen  as  Professor
 Norton of Yale  College, Professor  James D. Dana, and many  other
 scientific gentlemen, who, after a careful  examination, and using it  in
 their own dwellings, have written communications, commending it  in
 the strongest terms,  those who rely  upon others' opinions, will see and
 feel the force of  such authority.  In looking over the reports of com-
 mittees, in favor of this furnace, and the various communications of in-
 dividuals, we have noticed in addition to the above an array of  testi-
 mony in its favor sufficient to convince almost any one of its merits;
and if  our readers  are in doubt about our philosophy, we feel  quite
 safe  in referring them to the opinions of  others.   We mio-ht add  to
 the list of those who speak  from experience, Prof. H.  J. Risley,  J.
T. Headley, Esq., Frederick  Emerson, Esq., General John A.  Gran- 
53
ger,  General E. W. Leavenworth, J.  H. Colton, Esq., and many oth-
ers, who are less  known to  the  public generally.
  Mr.  A. J. Downing, the distinguished author we have several times
alluded to, says, " the best air-warming furnace  in this country, so far
as our  knowledge extends, is one invented by Mr. Chilson, of Boston.
We have  carefully examined  several  of the  best patterns, and found
them all  defective from heating,  the air too hot, while this, (which
we  have  satisfactorily proved in our own residence,) will  deliver a
large supply of warm air heated to that temperature which warms the
rooms  agreeably without deteriorating it in quality."  We believe Mr.
D. is the first writer on architecture in this country, who has in good
earnest taken up the subject,  and given instructions for warming and
ventilating private  and public buildings; and  although it is about a
years since  the publication of his views we trust the  day, is not far
distant, when the great mass  of our  people will heed his suggestions
and  profit by his illustrations.
  We  have endeavored  in our suggestions  to place  the reader in a
position where  he could  judge for himself in the selection of an arti-
cle of  this kind, which is now considered almost indispensable, in or-
der  to  make a house comfortable  during the cold  season.  We have
pointed out  what we consider some of the most  prominent defects  in
the  construction of the various furnaces which have  been introduced
in most parts of the country, and have endeavored to show that most
of the evils complained of, can be avoided; but there is one point, we
have purposely evaded, as we desired to impress our  views asstrongly
as possible upon those who may be influenced  by what we may say.
  Every one who will take the trouble to read the descriptions of this
and  that kind  of air-warming furnace, will often  see it announced,
that it has the rare power of warming the air without needing any
evaporation  in the air chamber.  Most persons, experienced in the use
of such a furnace, are fully aware  that the dryness of the atmosphere
is such to use  a common expression, that "it tears  the furniture all
to pieces;" and we  will here  venture to say, if the inmates of such a
dwelling had watched themselves as  closely as they did the furniture,
some striking  injury  would have shown itself in one  or more mem-
bers of the  family.
  No matter how  perfect the heating  apparatus whether, of steam,
hot  water, or a furnace, the temperature of which  is never raised
above  the boiling point of water, evaporation is still indispensable. 
54
Any one who attempts, when the thermometer is near or  below  the
freezing  point, to warm a dwelling  by a current of warmed air, and
says, evaporation is unnecessary in the air chamber, must be quite ig-
norant of what constitutes a wholesome atmosphere, or suppose those
who listen to him, have the most indefinite notions on the subject.
We do not propose to enter into  the theory of evaporation, or dwell
upon the various causes which  in a natural  state  of the atmosphere
increase or diminish it, but simply state the facts which late investiga-
tions have settled beyond  all controversj'.   The air at zero is  as dry
as at 98  deg. in summer, and probably somewhat drier;  as there is
little or no evaporation  from the earth at this low temperature.  If,
therefore, the air at this temperature (zero)  is  conducted  into an air
chamber, and warmed so as to keep the  apartments into  which it is
conducted at 65  deg., without being supplied with the necessary moist-
ure by evaporation, it is exceedingly unwholesome, and will produce
serious disturbance upon all  the  wood-work about the inside of the
dwelling.   When  the air is raised from Zero to 27 deg., its capacity
for moisture is doubled, and every 27 deg. thereafter, it is  again dou-
bled.   The author of almost every kind  of air-warming   apparatus,
has found  great difficulty in supplying the air, with the necessary
amount of moisture.  In some instances, there will be a great  excess,
and at other times, a great  deficiency.  One party would  complain
that the air was too dry,  and another that the excessive moisture con-
densed upon the windows, walls, and ceilings so as to make the rooms
exceedingly disagreeable.  In this dilemma,  the inventor would often
come to  the sage conclusion,  that evaporation was entirely unnecessa-
ry, and that  the shrinking of the  furniture and wood-work  of the'
dwelling was owing entirely to bad construction and unseasoned tim-
ber.  Late authors have laid down  quite a variety of rules for sup-
plying the air with the necessary amount of  evaporation;  but none of
them have taken the pains to apply these rules to an air-warming ap-
paratus.   All agree in opinion that when the temperature of  the at-
mosphere is raised, it will absorb  moisture from anything and every-
thing, with which it comes in contact, and  we know no  better plan
than that introduced in the portable furnace invented and  constructed
by Messrs. James Cowles &  Co.  By a reference to  fig.  8, it  will be
seen that the circular evaporating vessel, i L, is so placed that  the air,
after it is warmed, passes off into the conducting pipes directly over
a surface of water.  This evaporating vessel is at a sufficient distance 
55
above the heating cylinder lo prevent its receiving heat enough, under
any circumstances, to boil the water.   We deem it to be indispensa-
ble, that the location of the evaporating  vessel should be  at a point
where the water never can  boil, and at the same  time where all the
warmed  air can pass directly over its surface; and the plan above al-
luded to, is in our opinion sufficiently correct for all practical purposes.
  Although  the heating apparatus  may  be  constructed  just as it
should be, and the air exactly fitted and brought into the apartments,
for the most delicate, or the most robust, it can in  a very  short time
be rendered quite unwholesome, nay poisonous, by the respiration and
exhalations of the human body.   It is impossible to warm a dwelling
and have the air remain sweet and pure without ventilation.  Few
persons have any idea of the horrible consequences which result from
impure air, and how seriously the duration of human life is  affected
by the want of proper attention to this subject.  Downing says  "The
greatest possible improvement in a dwelling house—ventilation—is as
yet a thing almost unknown in this country."
  Dr. James Johnson says,  in speaking of the effects of impure  air,
that " ao-ue and fever, two of the most prominent features  of the ma-
larious influence, are as a drop of water in the ocean, when compared
with the other less obtrusive, but more dangerous maladies that silent-
ly disorganize the vital structure of the human fabric, under the in-
fluence of this deleterious and invisible poison."
   The importance of this  subject has awakened  so  much attention
within the last two years, that many of those who have been writing
and talking upon it,  have been the subject of  many a joke from those
whose existence depends upon finding something which they can turn
into ridicule,  for the gratification of that high order of intellectual pow-
er which distinguishes them from the rest of mankind.   Some of these
severe and witty creatures, when in a serious mood,  declare " there
is nothing new in ventilation—that it is as old as fire;" but they seem
to forget that prior to the introduction of chimneys indwelling houses,
ventilation was neither thought of,  nor needed.  Agricola,  some-
time  in the sixteenth century, appears to have been the first writer on
artificial ventilation;  but for dwellings and public buildings, it receiv-
ed  very little attention until within the last few years, and even now it
seems to be almost impossible for the community to understand  a sub-
ject of such  vital importance to the health and happiness of every in-
dividual.  Many persons suppose the subject is so exceedingly simple, 
56
 that any one can attend to it.  Architects and builders quite generally
 speak of it as a matter of no consequence, and if it is desired by any
 one, they are prepared to attend to it with as much  promptness as tho
 it were ten fold more simple than they represent.   In all  such cases
 that have come under our observation, the whole  thing has in some
 respects, at least,  proved  a failure.  Bernan says that " ventilation is
 a process so simple in itself, yet withal so delicate, as to be easily im-
 peded or destroyed even  by seemingly skilful  arrangements  to pro-
 mote it."  Dr. Wyman, of Cambridge, one of the  best  authors who
 has ever written upon this subject,  advises that the ventilation of a
 building should be committed to no  one who does not fully understand
 the subject.   Mr. Hood, Mr. Tredgold, Mr. Richardson, Dr. Reed, and
 Dr. Arnott, each of whom have written extensively upon the subject,
 express similar opinions.  Some few architects  have lately taken  up
 the subject, and we have one among  us who has  taken much pains
 not only to inform himself fully, but to introduce it practically  among
 our people.
   The disagreement which  exists between  those  who  contend that
 the vitiated  air is always at the bottom of a  room, and those who
 insist upon discharging it at the highest point, arises, as we  think, from
 an entire misapprehension of the  " known laws which govern the mo-
 tions of fluids."  We listened a few months since,  to two  very inter-
 esting lectures by Henry  Ruttan, Esq., of Cobourg.   They contained
 a great  deal of useful information and valuable statistics, relating to
 the consequences  upon human life, arising from the present defective
mode of ventilating buildings.   These lectures were at Minerva  Hall
—a  large and  beautiful  structure which had been ventilated, under
his direction, by the construction of flues or openings at the bottom of
the room.  We are fully aware that  carbonic  acid  gas, which  is so
freely generated by respiration and the exhalations  from the body,  is,
when reduced  to the  temperature of the surrounding atmosphere and
 after parting with its vapor, heavier  than  the  other gases.   It  is,
however, an  authenticated fact  that  respired air,  when first thrown
from the lungs, is only a  small  fraction less  than five per  cent, light-
 er than the surrounding atmosphere  at 65 deg. Fahr.  The  exhala-
 tions of the body, when thrown off in a state of vapor, are still light-
 er.   This important fact,  (in  which  all late  writers  concur,) greatly
simplifies  the  process of spontaneous  ventilation, and  renders what
 would, under other circumstances, be extremehj difficult—equally sim- 
57
pie and certain.  Any and all attempts, therefore at ventilation from"
the bottom  of the  room, must subject  the inmates or a public audi-
ence, to the  disagreeable  effect of using,  at least, a part of the  air
which has been once respired.  In order to have the ventilation per-
fect, it must be direct and constant.  The size of the openings to ad-
rait fresh air,  must be proportioned  to  the openings for the efflux of
the vitiated air.  The fresh air should in all cases be introduced at the
bottom—the  effete air ejected at the top, and no side or contrary cur-
rents should be allowed to interfere.   We are aware that cold or fresh
air, if introduced at or near the top, will, from its own  specific gravi-
ty, fall directly to the bottom; but the consequences are so Avell  de-
scribed by Mr. Hood, that we prefer quoting from  him to a descrip-
tion of  our own.  After speaking of the practice of  admitting cold air
at or near the top, he says:
   <: These effects are frequently very sensibly felt in churches and other
buildings, where part of the ventilation is effected by means of windows.
The cold air entering at these windows generally descends upon the heads
of those who  are placed  near them.   The effect of this entering  current
is to lower the temperature of the vitiated air, which parts with a portion
of its heat to  the fresh air entering the building, and the vitiated air being
heavier than fresh air of the same temperature, it falls by its specific grav-
ity,  and is again breathed by the persons assembled, instead of the pure
air which they would have received, had  the opening been at or near the
floor of the building.   No  plan of ventilation can be worse than that just
described, which, however, is the method  adopted in a great  majority of
the churches,  and other  large buildings.   Notwithstanding this plan has
obtained  such extensive  adoption, it is certain that it is opposed to every ,
sound principle of science, and had its rise in  the most perfect ignorance'
of the physical laws; and no better proof than this needs to  be adduced,
 to show how  very little the true principles of  ventilation  have been  stu-
died, and how erroneous any conclusions on this subject are likely to prove
 that are not based on the known laws which govern the atmosphere."
   In very  hot weather, this mode  of ventilation is not always suffi-
 cient in a crowded assembly to secure  a wholesome and comfortable
 state of the atmosphere.   Artificial means have therefore long been
 used for increasing the natural or spontaneous effect of the plan allud-
 ed  to.   This can be done in various  ways.  The  air in  the upper
 part of the ventilating  tube may be heated, or it may be carried  to a
 chimney in any other part of the building,  where  a furnace or open-
 fire is burning.  All that is necessary  is to supply the combustion, and
 the heated surface from  the room  or rooms to be  ventilated.   Fred-
 erick Emerson, Esq., of Boston, has, upon strictly scientific principles,
 invented a kind of top for a ventilating tube, which will, whenever there
 is a current  in the atmosphere outside, greatly  assist  in  spontaneous
 ventilation.   It also protects  the  tube from the descent   of  the
         8 
58
storm, and is,  in  its whole  construction  and operation,  exceedingly
simple.   We should here present a  drawing of the invention, if the
reader could, from such an inspection, form any idea of its great utili-
ty.   It is destined, in  our opinion, to become an indispensable  article
in ventilation, and will be equally sought after  for the use of chim-
neys, which are unfavorably affected by any change of the wind   as
soon as its  merits are understood.  Mr. Emerson is a gentleman  who
has probably done more to reduce pneumatics to a science, and  free
it from those never ending exceptions  which accompany its  general
rules, than any gentleman in this country.
  During the  cold season, when  a room is to be  raised to the proper
temperature, by a  current of warmed air, the opening at  the top
should be closed.   The warm air  being the lightest, will ascend to
the upper  part of the building, and  if the ventilating flue is not closed
there will be a great loss of heat.   In  all cases, therefore, the venti-
duct should have an opening at the  bottom of the room also.  As the
warm air enters the apartment, and  seeks the highest point, the colder
air falls, and passes up the flue, as shown  in figure 11,
   A, represents the heating apparatus,  placed  in the  basement; B,
the flue for the admission of cold  air; C, the  conducting  pipes, for
warmed air.   The  arrows show the  direction of the aii.   D> shows 
59
the opening at the top of the room;  and E, the lower one;  G, rep-
resents the ventiduct, surmounted by  the cap invented by  Mr. Emer-
son.  In a private dwelling, the register at the top can, in  very cold
weather, be kept closed most of the time, but in a public room, or any
place where a large number of persons are collected together, as soon
as the room is warmed, the upper flue should be opened.   An unoc-
cupied public room, with the temperature at 55 deg., will soon run up
to  65 deg., when tilled with people, without any increase of heat from
the furnace.  The admission of warm air should  be sufficient to sup-
ply each individual with  at least eight cubic feet per minute; and  if
the respired air, which at  once  seeks the upper  part  of  the  room,
meets with no obstruction, but passes directly out of the building, the
air will be just as sweet and pure when the audience leaves,  as when
they entered.
   But we must again check ourselves, and draw our remarks  to a con-
clusion.   The  subject is so full of interest and importance,  that we
find it difficult to be  as brief as we intended.   We should  have been
glad to  have given  full directions and drawings for some of the va-
rious modes of ventilating public and private buildings, but for rea-
sons which we have  stated in our preface.  The  different modes  of
warming buildings are so  inseparably connected  with  their ventila-
 tion, that neither can be  made practical  without   fully understanding
 both.  The mode of  conducting the warmed air to the different apart-
 ments—its retention without  interfering  with its purity—the cooling
 effect of the glass-windows and various  surfaces with which it comes
 in contact, are each fit and appropriate  subjects for a long chapter.
 Each of these points have been reduced  to a system, and  the " thou-
 sand and one" blunders  which have  been made,  need not be  repeated.
 We  should also have been glad, if time and space permitted, to have
 written an article on ship ventilation, the want of  which sends annu-
 ally  such vast multitudes of emigrants  and others to an  untimely
 grave. 
PUBLISHER'S  NOTE.
  When we commenced the publication of this  work, we were greatly
pressed with orders, and as soon as the type was set,  we were obliged to
complete it without  further  consultation  with the author; and no one
regrets more than ourselves, the errors which have occurred.
  The reader is requested to note the following corrections, which constitute
but a part of the result of " too much haste."
  Page 4, 21st line from top, after the word " lamp," should be a period.
    "  13, line 15, read  examine, for '' examined."
    "  25,  do 20,  "   were it,  do   '• even if.'
    "  35,  do  1,  "   vertical, instead of '' horizontal."
    "  41,  do 28,   "   attention,  instead of " alteration."
    "  42,  do 12,  "  firred, instead  of  " formed."
    "  44,  do 22, omit the word (; he." 
  t>~ v> -  cJjL c-
   v_        f.
P^^^ssa^asasci^_^2sasascisasasai5assaif
AT .AND VENTILATION.
M
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
ATMOSPHERE AND  ITS ABUSES,
I
AS CONNECTED WITH THE COMMON OR POPULAR
MODE OF HEATING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS,
TOGETHER WITH
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS UPON THE BEST MODE OF WARMING AND VENTILATING, AS
     DEVELOPED BY RECENT INVESTIGATION AND IMPROVEMENTS.
2l* 9 j r
■21)
               ROCHESTER:
       D. M. DEWEY, ARCADE HALL.
            Press of Daily Adv., Exchange Place.
                 1851.
), ■__ C533 c^ggp 3333 3333 333a S2S? ^^ c^ SSSSSaSr^ i c
:_j5LPj_?o^7ei£_-_M£.^^ 
4 
WARMING   AND  VENTILATING
              PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
a
oo
  The subscribers after much practical experience and investigation, are now pre-
pared to furnish at wholesale and retail, all the most approved WARM AIR FUR-
NACES and VENTILATING STOVES, which recent investigation, and the
most rigid philosophical tests have sanctioned.  They have taken unwearied pains
to inform themselves upon the various plans which have been adopted in this coun-
try and Europe, and trust their improvements will meet the approbation of the .
community, and give entire satisfaction to all their customers.  They are prepared
with experienced workmen  to fulfil contracts for warming and ventilating PRI-
VATE DWELLINGS and PUBLIC BUILDINGS, either by STEAM, HOT
WATER, or a FURNACE, so constructed that no part of the HEATING SUR-
FACE can, by ordinary means, be raised above the temperature of the steam ■
pipe, or apparatus containing  boiling water.  They manufacture the  celebrated
Invented by «-_ Kdiner Chilson, of Boston, which has been so highly commended
in eastern cities and are prepared to furnish dealers and agents with different sizes
for either WC/OD or COAL, and  give full  instructions and drawings for setting
the same, an d arranging the ventilation.  They also manufacture
'ST
ARTICLES OF GREAT UTILITY.
fvxnau  Eegistere  and  benttlator©,

                        OF EVERY VARIETY.
  Italian, Spanish, and Egyptian Mantles °r Chimney Pieces, worth
from $15 to $300 each.
  Iron Chimney Pieces, a beautiful article.
  Coal Grates, the largest and best  assortment in this market, at prices vary-
ing  from five dollars to thirty-five dollars.
  Cooking' Ranges  of various sizes, and the most approved patterns, for either
wood or coal.                                                      J\j
  Iron Railing, Iron  Chairs, Tables, Vases, Hall Stands, Rustic |(]
Seats, &c, &c.
                        JAS. COWLES  &  Co,
                                112 and 114 State St., Rochester, N. Y.

  N. B. Orders from a distance should in all cases be accompanied by a drawing /\A
of the rooms to be warmed; with the number, size, and location of windows, doors, lA/
and  chimney-flues.  Also the height of ceilings and whether the walls are  furred. AA 
 
 
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