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                     7
'A-    -W
PHILOSOPHICAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  EDUCATION

                                                   /  ,•  /
         THEIE  SCIENTIFIC APPLICATION
                         TO THE

DEVELOPMENT  AND  PERFECTION OF  MEDML SSIENSE.
          By JOSEPH  JONES, M.  D,

President of the Louisiana State Medical society; Proiessor of Chemistry and Clinical
    Medicine, Medical Department Tul.ine University of Louisiana; Visiting
        Physician of the Charity Hospital of New Orleans, Louisiana.
Delivered  before the  Louisiana  State Medical Society at its

   ioth Annual Session, Monroe,  Louisiana, April 25th, iSSS.
 
|88ft 
Philosophical Principles of Education and Their Scientific Applica-
   tion to the  Development and Perfection of Medical Science.
   Fellows of the  Louisiana State Medical Society:—It
 is impossible to look round upon this assemblage of learned
 and skilful  physicians, intelligent citizens, and fair ladies
 who have honored us with their  presence without the wish
 to say something worthy of the occasion.
   Whilst I feel that I am personally but little fitted for the
 task intrusted to me,  I am on the other hand strengthened
 by the knowledge  that the desire of doing good will stand
 with you in the place of oratorical display.
   Upon the present occasion we desire to  consider, as far
 as the brief space of time at our command will allow, a sub-
 ject of great importance to students, instructors, professors
 and practitioners of medicine; namely:
 The Philosophical Principles of Education and Their
     Scientific Application to the Development
         and  Perfection of Medical Science.
   No subject  is of  greater importance to the citizens of this
 great republic than education.   The strength and progress
 of this republic depends upon the virtue and wisdom of the
 entire  people  who  control its destinies, and it is  the
 solemn duty of each generation to transmit to its successor
 not only the forms of good government, but also a thorough
 sy*stem of education, by which  the citizens shall  be wise
 enough to protect their liberties, preserve their  institutions,
 and develop their  material resources and be capable,  by
 their virtues and their  valor, at all  times to  defend the
 republic from internal  and external enemies.
  We  need  no  labored arguments  to establish the pre-
 eminent importance of  education, and of the discussion of
 the principles of education.  Who will deny that the stabil-
 ity   of   our   government,   the   preservation  of   our
civil  and   religious   liberties,  of  our  national  honor
and  independence, and  the maintenance and  advance- 
4
ment of our position amongst the nations  of the earth, by
the  advancement of science, the development of our re-
sources, and the diffusion  of knowledge,  has  depended,
and will always depend, upon the moral  and  intellectual
education of the people?  Who will deny  that the intel-
lectual, moral  and political  development  and progress  of
every nation, past or present, demonstrates the  importance
of a  correct system of education?
The Importance of  This Inquiry Demonstrated by
       The General Results of  Education in
                  Ancient Greece.
  The physical perfection, the  strength and valor of the
Spartan race were due to the system  of culture inaugurated
by Lycurgus, the fundamental principle of which was that
all children belong immediately to the State.  The intel-
lectual superiority of the  Athenians was  due not so much
to differences of race,  soil, geographical position  or  of
surrounding circumstances,  as  to  the extent and freedom
of their system of education, and to the example, teachings
and  writings  of such men as Solon, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle.
  The great  fundamental  principles of  education were
more generally understood, and more ardently practised by
the Athenians  than by the  moderns: and to this day, the
splendid achievements of the great  sculptors, orators and
philosophers of Athens stand unequalled.  Who amongst
the ancients or moderns formed, by his unaided powers,
the highest conception  of  the divine omniscience, justice,
and  foresight, and of the dignity and immortality of the
soul?   Who  amongst  the  ancients or  moderns  battled
most ardently against corruption, error, superstition and
sophistry? Was it not Socrates, the Athenian, who, after
his splendid exertions in the pursuit of truth, and  in the
cause  of  education (exertions which resulted in the de-
velopment and education of  such  men as  Xenophon, Plato
and./£schines), would  accept no reward but that of a pure
mind?  Where do we  find  in  ancient or modern times  a
purer  and nobler life, a healthier body and soul, than that 
5
of Plato, the Athenian, the pupil of Socrates, whose works
remain to this day the great  models of Athenian  genius,.
elegance and urbanity,  and  whose philosophy has  been
the admiration of all  ages?  Whose intellect towers head
and shoulders above all modern and ancient philosophers?
Is it not the intellect of  Aristotle, the  pupil  of Plato, who
stands second  to none of  the distinguished sages of the
past or present, in brilliancy of genius, strength of intellect
and philosophic depth and acumen?
       Power of Education over National Life.
   What preserves iifviolate the arbitrary divisions  of soci
ety and tyrannical religious and civil usages of the Hindoos,
notwithstanding  the  bloody conquests  and iron  rule  of
British arms ?  Why have the  Hindoos  for two thousand
years  followed  the same  beaten  track  without advance-
ment or  retrogression either in arts, religion, politics or
society ?   The education of  the people is  arbitrary, rigid
and stereotyped, and as a necessary consequence,  the reli-
gious, political and intellectual belief, and the whole cons-
titution  of society  are arbitrary and stereotyped.
    Effects of  Universities upon the Science  and
                 Learning of Europe.
   The end of the twelfth  century was marked by the rise
of  Universities:   Bologna devoted  itself  to  law and
numbered  12,000 students at the end of the twelfth century;
Salerno adopted  as its special province the study of medi-
cine ; and  Paris was thronged with students from  all parts
of Europe who  were anxious  to devote themselves to  a
theology which passed  by indefinite gradations into philos-
ophy.
   The thirteenth, fourteenth and  fifteenth  centuries wit-
nessed the rise of  universities in  almost every portion of
Europe.
   The comparison of the condition of Europe before and
after the establishment of universities of science and learn-
ing, the  mental activity of England, France and Germany, 
                             6

demonstrate in the  clearest and most unequivocal manner
the importance of well-devised systems of education.
  The English universities, Oxford and Cambridge, before
the collegiate system had  undermined and  supplanted the
university system, composed the strength and bloom  of the
nation, picked from all ranks and orders, and whilst every
pulsation of the nation's life was felt in great  power  at the
universities, the national science and learning, on the other
hand, received its most vigorous  impulses from  these cen-
tres of ecclesiastic, political and scientific learning.   So
intimate was the connection of Oxford, in her palmiest days,
with  all  parts  of the  little world of  which she was the
centre, that popular  opinion looked  upon the university
riots  as presages of  civil war,  and  the sanction  of the
university  was solicited for royal acts.
   Within the wall.0- of  Cambridge in  the seventeenth cen-
tury were found two men, Bentley and  Newton,  who,  in
the promotion of classical  learning, criticism and science,
were  the leaders not alone of England,  but of all Europe;
and  to this day Cambridge, rendered illustrious by  the
great fame of  Newton, and  excited by  the memory of his
great achievements, stands pre-eminent  above all the insti-
tutions of the world, for the attention which she devotes to
the studies of  mathematics and physics.
   Men  of  the  greatest learning and  research  have cele-
brated the  power and influence of universities upon the pro-
gress of civilization  and  religion  in   Europe.  Thomas
Babington  Macaulay says :
   "The power of the Universities of Oxford and  Cambridge has during
many ages been great,  but it was at its height during  the  latter part  of
the seventeenth century.  None of" the neighboring countries could boast
 of such splendid seats of learning.  The schools of Edinburgh and Glas-
 gow,  of Leyden and Utrecht, of Louvain and Leipsic, of Padua and Bo-
 logna, seemed mean to scholars who had been educated in the  magnifi-
 cent foundations of Wykeham and Wolsey, of Henry the  VI and Henry
 the VIII.  Literature and science were, in the academical system of Eng-
 land, surrounded with  pomp, armed with magistracy, and closely allied
 with all the most august institutions of the State.  To be the chancellor
 of an University, was a distinction  eagerly sought by the magnates of a
 realm.  To represent an University in Parliament was a favorite object
 of the ambition of statesmen.  Nobles and even princes were  proud to
 receive from  an University the privilege of wearing the doctoral scarlet.
 The curious  were attracted to the Universities by ancient buildings, rich 
7
with the tracery of the middle ages, by modern buildings which exhibited
the highest skill of Jones and Wren, by noble halls and chapels,  by mu-
seums, by botanical gardens, and by the  only great libraries  which the
kingdom then contained. The slate which  Oxford especially displayed
on solemn occasions,  rivalled  that of sovereign princes.   When  her
Chancellor, the venerable Duke of  Ormond, seated in his embroidered
mantle on his throne under the painted ceiling of the Sheldonian Theatre,
surrounded by hundreds of graduates robed according to  their rank,
while  the noblest youths of England were solemnly presented to him as
candidates for academical honors,  he made  an appearance scarcely less
regal than that which his master made in the Banqueting House of White-
hall.  At the Universities had been formed the minds of all the  eminent
clergymen, lawyers, physicians, wits, poets, and orators of the land, and
of a large proportion of the nobility and of the opulent gentry.  It is also
to be observed that the connection  between  the  scholar and"  the school
did not terminate with his residence.  He often continued through life,
a member of the  academical body, and  to vote as such at all important
elections. He therefore regarded his old haunts by the Cam and the Isis,
with even more than the affection which educated men ordinarily feel for
the place of their education.  There was no corner of England  in which
both Universities had not grateful and zealous sons.   Any attack on the
honor or interests of either  Cambridge or Oxford was certain  to excite
the resentment of a powerful, active, and intelligent class, scattered over
every  county, from Northumberland to Cornwall.
  The resident graduates, as a body, were perhaps not superior positively
to the resident graduates of  our time; but they occupied a far higher po-
sition as compared with the rest of the community.  For  Cambridge and
Oxford were then the only two provincial towns in the kingdom in  which
could be found a large number of men whose understandings had  been
highly cultivated.
  Even the capital felt great respect for the authority of the Universities,
not only in questions of divinity, of natural philosophy, and of  classical
antiquity, but also on points in which capitals generally claim  the  right
of deciding in the last resort.   From Will's Coffee House, and from the
pit of the theatre roj'al in Drury Lane, an appeal lay to the two great na-
tional seats of  taste and learning.  Plays which had been enthusiastically
applauded in London were not thought out of danger  till  they  had un-
dergone the more severe judgment of audiences familiar with  Sophocles
and Terence."*

   Who can estimate the  influence of Erasmus in  the  de-

velopment   of the  education   of the  Renaissance, or of

Luther and Melanchthon in the wonderful intellectual  and

moral transformation wrought by the Reformation.

   The  marvelous  resurrection of the mind  and  spirit of

Europe sprang from the touch of the dead hand  of an ex-

tinct civilization.    Its history belongs rather to the  general

history of literature than to that of  education.

   Luther brought  the  school-master into  the  cottage   and

laid  the foundation of  the system which is the chief honor

  * The History of  England, by  Thomas Babington Macaulay. Harper & Brothers,
New York, 1852.  Vol. II, pp. 210,212.
   See  also: The English Universities, by V. A. Huber.  Translated bV F. \V. Newman,
London, 1S43, Vol. I, pp. 66,69,71,  82,85.  Vol. II. pp. 7, 12, 329.  Vol. Ill, pp. 600,

   •"« History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford," etc., by A Wood, 5 vols. 4 to
1786, 90. 
s
and strength of modern Germany, a system  by which the
child of the humblest peasant, by slow but certain grada-
tions, receives the best education which  the  country can-
afford.  The purification and widening of education went
hand in hand with the purification of  religion,  and  these
claims to affection are indissolubly united in  the minds of
his countrymen.
  Melanchthon, from his edition of school-books and his
practical labors in education, earned the title of Precep-
tor  Germanise.  Aristotle had been dethroned from his.
place in the schools and Melanchthon attempted to supply
his place.  He appreciated the importance of  Greek, the
terror of the obscurantists, and is the author of a Greek
grammar.  Melanchthon wrote elementary books in each
department of  the  Trivium, grammar,  dialectics  and
rhetoric.   He made some way with  the  study of the
Jguadrivium, and  wrote  Initia Doctrince Physicce,   a.
primer of physical science.  He lectured at the University
of Wittenberg, and  for ten years, from  1519 to 1529, he
kept a schola privata in his own house.   Horace was  his
favorite classic; his pupils  were taught to learn the whole
of it by heart, ten lines at a time.   " The  tender, refined
lines of his portrait show clearly the character of the pain-
ful, accurate scholar, and contrast with the burly, powerful
form of the genial Luther.  He died in 1560, racked with
anxiety for the church which he had helped  to found.   If
he did not carry Protestantism into the heart of the peas-
ant,  he at least made  it acceptable to the intellect  of the
man of letters."
   Even in this age of progress what can  be more interest-
ing or instructive than  the views of the immortal John
Milton, in his Tractate of Education, addressed to Mr.
Samuel Hartleb, and probably foreshadowing a project of
establishing a university in London ?
   The universities taught men to think, to reason.
   Out of  thought, and  freedom of  discussion, grew free-
dom of action. 
9
  The principles of religious and civil liberty thus  engen-
dered and fostered in  the  universities of England, France
and  Germany, led to revolutions  which  shattered  the
foul-monarchical institutions, broke the fetters of a bigot-
ed, insolent and bloody church, and led to the  establish-
ment of governments and republics in which the civil and
religious rights of all men  are acknowledged  and main-
tained.

The Present and Future Prosperity and  Freedom
     of the United States of America Depend-
         ent  Upon its System  of Education.
   The history of  the  past and  present should teach us
that in no country in  the world is a correct system of edu-
cation in all the departments of knowledge more important
than in" the United States.
   Whilst truth does not change from age to age, the search
of men after truth changes from age to age; and that nation
which has thrown off the shackles of ignorance  and super-
stition, which has gained her liberties  through  blood  and
fire, with the edge of  the sword, and at the cannon's mouth,
will have learned the truth, and gained her freedom and
perfected her experience, by such fearful experiments,
that she will be far more firmly seated in the possession of
the true principles of  government than nations which have
passed through no such process of development.
   The  country which  has gained  her  freedom after the
throes of anarchy and rebellion, which has shaken off the
fetters of superstition, injustice and ignorance, and indeed,
passed through a fiery education, is  in a very different
state from a country  which has been free from her birth,
and in whom legislation has just  commenced.  The laws
of the nation  which  has  experimented and been  experi-
mented with, are the permanent expressions of the result
of her experiments ; whilst the laws of the nation which has
neither experimented nor has been experimented with, may
be the result of speculation or of  abstract reason, which are
not  as firm and lasting as the laws of experience. 
10
   Whilst the constitution and laws of the United States of
 America embody the wisdom and experience of the past
 and present; whilst the government of the  republic  has
 been strong enough to survive the throes of  a bloody and
 mighty civil war, which upheaved the very foundations of
 society, and not only broke the  shackles from the  arms of
 an inferior  and servile  race, but elevated four millions of
 slaves to the rights of citizenship; still it is morally certain
 that without a  correct system of education, even the prin-
 ciples of civil  and religious liberty for which our ancestors
 left their homes  and fire-sides in the old world,  and for
 which they fought and  bled upon the western shores, will
 be forgotten.
   Corruption  in politics, drunkenness,  debauchery and
 dishonesty in high places, the increase of crime and law-
 lessness, in virtue of the reckless disregard of the constitu-
 tion and the most solemn civil and  moral contracts, by the
 exercise of  the pardoning power in behalf of  thieves, rob-
 bers, assassins  and murderers; the great power of wealth
 in politics and  in social life;  the unblushing advocacy and
 advancement of private interests by legislative and munici-
 pal bodies, in violation  of every principle of  honesty and
 every  sentiment  of patriotism,  demonstrate that the edu-
 cation of the young men of the United States is defective.
   The true mode of rescuing our  common country  from
 the  evils which  have destroyed former republics, is  to
 inculcate in the family, in the private and public sohools,
 in the college and in  the university, the great  principles
 of  morality, justice,  truth and  equality, which inspired
 the lives  and governed the actions of their ancestors.
  The stability  of this government will depend upon the care
 and diligence with which  its citizens study  and practise
the great intellectual, moral, civil and religious  truths  re-
vealed by the dealings of Providence, in the rise, develop-
ment, progress  and decline of nations; and by the teachings
of the book  of Nature and  of Divine Revelation. The sta-
bility of  this government and the advancement of  knowl- 
11
edge will depend upon  the  moral, religious, political and
professional education of the people.
  Control the education of a people, and you control the
belief of that people : and when you  control the religious
and political belief of a people, you  control its  principles
of moral, religious and political advancement. The despot
knows the power of education and belief, and maintains his
throne by controlling the fountains of learning and educa-
tion and suppressing free speech, free discussion  and the
 freedom of the press
 The State Responsible for  the Intellectual and
          Moral  Education of her  Citizens.
    The constitution of the State  should not merely defend
 the inherent rights of man, define the police powers, pro-
 claim the principles of justice and protect and foster agricul-
 ture, commerce,  and  manufactures, but it should be  the
 highest exponent  of a lofty, unspotted  and incorruptible
  morality.
    No greater crime can be committed by  legislators than
  the  inculcation,  through the  medium of the  constitution
  of immoral acts and principles.   The State is  responsible
  for the diffusion  of knowledge amongst the masses through
  the common schools, founded and maintained by the taxes
  collected from the people.
    The State is responsible for the foundation and  main-
  tenance of  universities of learning, and she has no right to
  delegate her institutions of learning founded by her patriotic
  citizens, to self-constituted guardians of the public funds
  and  institutions,  and to self-perpetuating corporations.
  The surrender of  sacred trusts by  the State tends  to fos-
  ter the spirit of  monopoly, and leads to injustice, bigotry
  and nepotism.
     Here in Louisiana, the problems connected with educa-
  tion are of the gravest character on account of  the follow-
  ing causes:
     i.   Diversity in the origin and nationalities of the white
  population of Louisiana. 
12
  2.  The existence of two distinct races, the white and
the negro, in nearly equal numbers in Louisiana.
  3.  Deep-seated and apparently irreconcilable differences
of religious belief.
  4.  The recognition, by the Constitution of Louisiana, of
the Lottery as a means of gaining wealth, and of support-
ing charitable institutions and common schools.
  This  is not  the  occasion for the discussion of the pre-
ceding  propositions, and  we desire merely to enter our
solemn  protest  against the evil influence upon the citizens
of our State of  all ages and condition, regardless  of  race,
color or previous  condition, by the  embodiment in the
Constitution of Louisiana, of a section permitting, protect-
ing and sustaining lotteries.
  Article  167 of the  Constitution  of the State of
Louisiana,  adopted in convention at the  city  of  New
Orleans, July 23d,  1879, reads thus:
  "Article 167."—The General Assembly shall have power
to  grant  lottery  charters  or privileges; provided  each
charter or privilege "shall pay not less than forty thousand
dollars per annum in money into the treasury of the State  ;
and provided further, that all charters shall cease and ex-
pire on the  1st of  January,  1895, from  which time all
lotteries are  prohibited in the State."
  "The forty thousand dollars per annum now provided by
law, to  be paid by the Louisiana State Lottery Company,
according to the provisions of its charter, granted in the
year 1868, shall belong  to  the  Charity Hospital of  New
Orleans, and the charter of said company is recognized as
a contract binding on  the State,  for the period therein
specified,  except its monopoly  clause, which  is hereby
abrogated, and  all  laws contrary to the provisions of this
article are hereby  declared  null and void:  provided said
company shall file a written renunciation of all its monop-
oly features in the office of the Secretary of State within 60
days after the ratification of this constitution.
  "Of the  additional sums raised by licenses on lotteries,
the hospital of Shreveport shall receive ten thousand dollars 
13
annually, and the remaining sum shall be divided each year
among the several parishes of the State, for the benefit of
their schools."
   Constitution of the State of Louisiana, 1879, P- 47-
   For a whole generation has the form of the wanton harlot
of chance been planted in the centre of  the constitution of
a great State; and the vice  of gambling is none  the less
heinous, because a minute portion of the immense  sums
acquired by the revolutions of the "Wheel of Fortune"
is devoted  to the maintenance of hospitals and  common
schools.
   Imprudent speculation, intemperance and vice fill our
charitable institutions with the sick and dying, and the desire
to gain wealth by speculation  and the "Wheel  of  For-
tune," rather  than by honest labor and virtuous efforts
converts our youth into idle  vagabonds,  fills our prisons
and penitentiaries with defaulters, forgers, bank robbers,
thieves and murderers. Is the owner of the gilded saloon,
gambling and drinking hell, however high he  may stand
in church or State, more holy or noble than the miserable,
drivelling drunkard who staggers into  our hospitals or is
committed to our insane asylums and prisons?
   Did the African slave trade with its floods of poisonous
rum, and the untold horrors of the middle passage as con-
ducted by the merchants of the New England States in  the
seventeenth  and eighteenth centuries, yield  finally any
other result than the  gigantic, bloody  civil war  of  1861-
1865, whereby  the  soil of the United  States of  America
was  drenched in the blood of her sons, and the entire land
clad in the garb of  sorrow and mourning?
  Can the heart of  a great State as revealed in her consti-
tution be rotten, and her children be  pure,  healthy and
virtuous ?
  What inducement is there to honest labor and virtuous
endeavor, when the mother points to the gaming table and
the deceitful smiles  of Chance as the Royal Road to
Wealth and Position in State and  Church ? 
14
   Let the  work of moral  education in Louisiana  com-
 mence with the purification of her constitution.
   Gentlemen,  we are  then interested in the discussion of
 the principles of  education,  not only as students of  diffi-
 cult and useful sciences,  and  practitioners of medicine,
 but  also  as citizens of a powerful and free nation, which
 has a high political, religious and scientific  destiny to  ful-
 fil amongst the nations of the earth.
   Upon the present occasion, with  the limited  space  of
 time  at  my  command, I can  only  give  an  outline  of
 this important subject.
           Nature and Ends of Education.
   The  word  Education signfies  drawing  out,  develop-
 ment; and the true principles of education should be based
 upon the knowledge of the constitution, properties, powers*
 and relations of the subject capable of development.
  The education of  man should be founded  upon the
 knowledge  of  his  physical,  physiological,  mental and
 moral constitution;  and upon a knowledge of his  relations
 to the universe, to his fellow-men and to his creator.
  To understand  the  true nature  and scope of education
 we must understand :
  ist.  The structure, development and relations  of the
 material part of man.
  2nd. The structure and relations of the intellect.
  3rd.  The structure and relations of the moral nature.
  4th.  The relations of the material, intellectual, and moral
 natures to each other, to the exterior  universe, and to the
 Creator.
  The ends of education are threefold.
  1st. The development and  perfection of the individual
physically, intellectually and morally, for time and eternity,
 as an individual.
  2nd. The development and perfection of the individual
physically, intellectually  and  morally, with reference  to
his fellow-men.
  3rd.  The development and perfection of the individual 
15
physically, intellectually, socially  and morally with  refer-
ence to his relations to his Creator, in time and in eternity.
  It is evident therefore that the true destination  of educa-
tion is indicated by the noblest  wants and  loftiest facul-
ties of man, and that  every system of education  is defec-
tive, which does not  comprehend man in all the  varied
relations of his physical, intellectual and moral natures.
  In  view of the  mighty objects of education,  it may be
said with truth,  that  "Man cannot  propose a higher or
holier object for his  study  than  education,  and all  that
pertains  to it.
  According to  a fine  expression of Kant's, there is in
every man a divinity, the ideal of  a perfect man, conform-
ing to the  type according to which  God  fashioned  him ;
just as in a block of Parian  marble an image of a Hercules
or of an Apollo would be found, if a divine artist  had
traced there  by means of  the natural veins of  the marble,
the contour and form of the future statue.
  This statue it is  the aim  of  education to free  from the
rubbish that  conceals it—it is the object of our entire life to
evolve  its form;  this inherent ideal of divinity  it is the
duty of education to reveal to  our consciousness, and to
enable us to  realize it  by  aiding  the development of all
those germs and dispositions placed within  us by God when
he  made man  according to his  own image, dispositions
which constitute our rational nature—the true nature of the
human race.
  The true method of developing the physical, mental and
moral constitution and faculties of man cannot be  deter-
mined by any process  of abstract reasoning; it  must be
discovered by observation,  experiment, analysis  and syn-
thesis.
  A true theory of  education should be evolved out of the
study of  history, past and present; for it has taken all the
past to make the present; it has  required  every  event of
the  past, every work of art, every experiment, every  dis-
covery in science, in politics, in morals and in religion, to
bring our race to its present state of  development. 
16
Physical  Constitution and Physical Relations  of
                         Man.
  The progressive study of the phenomena of the universe
known to the human mind finds  the  last,  most compre-
hensive and typical work in  man, governed by the me-
chanical,  astronomical,  physical  and chemical laws of
inorganic bodies, and comprehending within himself all or-
ganic nature—composed of inorganic  elements,  prepared
and  grouped into  definite compounds in  the  vegetable
kingdom, by the combined action of the forces of matter,
and   of  the   sun   under   the  guidance   of    the
vital  principle—endowed   with  a body   perfect   in
its   mechanical  structure,  and  in   the   arrangement
of its parts, with the size of its organs, the strength of  its
muscles and bones, and the vigor of its forces, constructed
and arranged with exact reference to the force of gravity,
the size of our globe and its relations with the sun and  all
other worlds in the universe;  worked by forces,the result-
ants of the chemical changes of those substances which, in
the vegetable kingdom, have been elevated  into a state of
force by the action of the sun: unable  to create or annihi-
late  any force,  any  more  than  to  create  or  annihilate
matter; endowed, in  common with all  vegetables  and
animals, with vital force, and arising from the same com-
mon origin,  the  cell, and, like plants and  animals, passing
through  various  stages  of  development; possessing,  in
common with all animals,  and  in contradistinction to vege-
tation, a nervous system,  endowed with special  sensibili-
ties  relating the various  organs and  apparatus to   each
other, in such a  manner that, amidst an innumerable num-
ber of complicated actions, unity and harmony result, and
relating the  mind with the exterior world in such a manner
that it is capable of obtaining  a view of its  own  changing
relations—endowed with  intellectual  and moral faculties
capable of receiving impressions through  the nervous sys-
tem, and of  exciting  the forces by which they are sur-
rounded, and  of directing and controlling them, so   as to 
17
 act upon the exterior universe—formed by the Eternal in
 His Own Image, for purposes stretching into infinite ages,
 and with capacities of rejoicing forever in the warm beams
 of God's universal and all-vivifying love.
   It is a universal law that the component parts of the uni-
 verse have not in themselves the  entire  aim or  reason of
 their existence—every form of  matter  is definitely related
 to every other form of matter upon the face of the globe,
 and the  combinations of these various relations and actions
 and re-actions of terrestrial masses, form the essential con-
 ditions for the manifestations of the designs of the Creator.
 As man  is composed of inorganic  elements, and governed
 by all the laws,  physical, chemical and  astronomical which
 govern the exterior world, it  follows as a necessary conse-
 quence that the  peculiar constitution and relations of the
 inorganic elements of the crust of  our  globe  must affect
 the physical and moral endowments of man.
   The solid portion of the globe has been constructed for
 man, just as the  body has been made  for the soul.   The
 material  relations of  the solid and fluid portions of  our
 globe, and the distribution  of the  forces of the sun have
 exerted no small influence upon the physical  and mental
 development of  the human race.
   The   endless  circulation  of  matter  resulting  from
 the  combined  actions  of  the forces  of  the  sun,  and
 the  forces  of  the  matter of  our  globe—every  earth-
 quake which, in  past  or  present times,   has  fractured
 and  dislocated  the   solid   strata  of  the  earth,  ele-
 vated  the bed  of the ocean or depressed the level of the
continents—even'- volcano  which  has   poured  forth  the
 liquid  contents of  the  interior of the  earth—every flood
 which has swept over the ancient continents, has contributed
more or  less to  the formation of  a suitable soil for  the
maintenance of plants  and  animals, and  the  development
of the human race.
   The examination of the material relations of celestial and
terrestrial motions,  and animated beings, demonstrate that
       2 
18
the existence of man is absolutely  dependent upon the re-
lations of the component members of the universe—that a
single alteration in the chain of phenomena would destroy
the existence and  manifestation  of the phenomena of
man.
  That  the   forces  of  man  are  resultants   of   the
combined actions  and  emanations  of  sun  and  fixed
stars,  which  keep up  a  never-ending circulation  and
change of matter upon  the surface of our globe — that
man cannot  create or annihilate  matter, that the great law
of the indestructibility of force, action and reaction, ap-
plies  to the  phenomena  of  man;  and,  consequently,
the intellectual and moral faculties are limited to the guid-
ance and direction of the forces with which the Creator has
endowed the universe—that man comprehends within him-
self  all phenomena,  astronomical, physical,  chemical,
physiological and psychological,  and is therefore a type of
the universe—that the knowledge of the structure, phenom-
ena and relations of man includes a knowledge of science
whether relating to matter or mind.
  The phenomena of man are complicated and restricted,
and depend for their manifestation upon the general phe-
nomena which affect all bodies.
  Relations  of   the  Intellectual  and Moral
                      Faculties.
  x\s the material part of man has been constructed with
exact reference to the exterior universe,  so the intellect
of man has been constructed with exact reference to the
exterior universe.  The material part of man has also been
constructed  with exact reference  to the structure of  the
intellectual and moral natures; it stands between  the exte-
rior world and the mind, and  as a portion oi*  the exterior
world, a machine governed  by the laws of exterior bodies,
typical of the great mechanism of the surrounding universe,
it forms a fit instrument for the manifestation of  the spirit
breathed into it by the  Creator of the universe.
  The material part of man, with its complicated machin- 
19
ery, appears to have been constructed with exact reference
to the action of the intellectual and moral nature; it stands
between the exterior world and the mind, and as a portion
of  the exterior world, a machine governed by the laws of
exterior bodies, typical of the great mechanism of the sur-
rounding universe, it forms a fit instrument for the manifes-
tation of the spirit breathed into  it by the Creator of  the
universe.
  The material body of man with its complicated machinery,
appears to have been  constructed  with exact reference to
the action of the intellectual and moral nature.   Thus, the
complicated  apparatus of the nervous  system relates the
mind of  man  through  the nerves  with  the  exterior
world;  and the complicated muscular apparatus obeys the
volitions of  the mind through  the  nervous  system and
accomplishes  various mechanical  actions by which matter
is moulded and forces controlled  and directed according
to the interior ideal creations of the intellectual faculties.
The forces which work the  muscular locomotive  system,
are developed by the chemical changes of the elements of
the muscular and nutritive fluids.   The office of the diges-
tive,  circulatory  and  respiratory system  is  to  prepare
materials which will readily enter into chemical changes
and thus generate the forces by which, under the guidance
of the mind, the locomotive apparatus of the bodyr may be
moved  and the barriers and obstacles  in  nature overcome,
and the forces of  nature controlled and directed so as to
accomplish definite effects.
   Classification of  the Faculties  of  the Mind.
   In whatever manner  the intellect of man  be regarded,
whether as an indivisible, immaterial  agent, or as a prod-
uct or secretion of the brain, many  metaphysicians  have
found  it convenient,  if  not  absolutely  indispensable, to
divide and classify  its powers or faculties.
  Thus, for  purposes  of systematic study, analysis  and
comparison, metaphysicians have designated:
  I.  The  simple cognitive  faculties, by which we  attain
the knowledge of individual objects  in the  concrete, as: 
20
  (i.)  Sense perception, by which we know material sub-
stances in certain  modes, or in  the  exercise of certain
qualities;  and,
  (2.)  Self-consciousness, by which we know self in cer-
tain  states.
  II.  The retentive and reproductive  powers, as
  (1.)  Memory, which recalls  what has been before the
mind in time past;
  (2.)  Imagination, which puts what  has been before the
mind in new and  non-existing  forms.  Both of these pos-
sess an imaginary or pictorial power, which  enables us to
represent  objects by signs.
  Above  the  presentative and  representative powers, we
have:
  III.  The correlative faculties, discovering such relations
as that,
  (1.)  Of whole and parts;
  (2.)  Of sameness and difference, in respect  of such
qualities as space, time, quantity and active property ; and
  (3.)  Of cause and effect.
  IV.  The moral faculty, determining in regard to certain
mental states that they are right or wrong.
  Associated with the exercise of  the powers we have :
  V.  The emotions, attaching  us to  certain objects  and
withdrawing us from others.
  VI.  The will, or operative power, choosing or rejecting
among the objects presented to the mind.
  It should be added that there are laws of association,
determining the order of succession of the states produced
by the various powers.
  The object of  education is to  develop these faculties in
their true relations with each other, and  in  subserviency
to the great ends of being.
  The mind has  no  direct communication  with  exterior
bodies; its relations with the exterior world are through the
nervous system,  endowed  with special sensibilities,  and
developed upon  the exterior into the organs  of sense. 
21
Functions and  Structure  of  the Brain and Ner-
                    vous System.
  The organs of  sense are nothing more than  portions of
the nervous system  adapted by conformation  and the ad-
dition of peculiar apparatus, to receive and  transmit im-
pressions from exterior bodies.
  The mind  can have no other knowledge  of  the  ex-
terior world  than that which  is  derived  from  the cog-
nizance of the excited states, modifications   or   disturb-
ances in the apparatus endowed  with special sensibility,
when acted on by  the impressions  of external   bodies ;
and if all  the organs  of sense   were absent,  the mind
would be  shut up to  itself,  and  would  never  acquire
any knowledge of  the various forms of matter and  the
various affections and motions  of  matter in  the   exterior
world.
   The brain  must be  regarded as  a  composite  organ,
whose parts  have each  some  special function,   and are
to  a certain  extent independent of each other;  one part
is essential  to  vital  processes,  hence  its  destruction
causes  death;  another part  presides over  the  various
movements of the body, hence paralysis of motion is the
result of the  destruction  of any portion of this area; a third
part enables the mind  to appreciate  touch,   temperature
and pain ; a fourth region presides over sight; and in the
same way, smell, hearing and taste are  governed  by dis-
tinct portions of  the brain.
   When a combined action of different parts is demanded,
as  in the exercise of  the  reason, judgment, imagination
and will, the knowledge gained by means  of the special
senses can be contrasted and become food for thought.
   The nerves  have been compared  to telegraphic wires,
that put the brain and spinal cord  in direct  connection with
the muscles, the  spine, and the various organs and tissues;
the nervous centres are  therefore  to be  compared to the
main offices of the  telegraphic system, whose  messages
are being constantly received and  dispatched. 
                           'I'l

   Every message sent out is more or less the result of some
 message received  by the nervous centres, which  are con-
 stantly in receipt of afferent impulses or impressions of
 sight, smell, taste, hearing and touch.
   As the result of the information so gained, the mind con-
 stantly sends out from the  nervous  centres afferent or
 motor impulses to the muscles.

       Connection of the Mind with the Brain.
   The cerebro-spinal system in man consists of three" de-
 partments independent one of another,  yet intimately con-
 nected.
   i.   The cerebrum  proper.
   2.   The  cerebellum  and the  apparatuses of cerebella
 innervation.
   3.   The medulla spinalis and its encephalic expansions.
   In the study of the education or development and action
 of the mental and  moral faculties we are chiefly concerned
 with the minute anatomy of the  cerebrum proper, which
 consists of two lobes or hemispheres united to one another
 by a  series  of  white transverse fibres,  which form  an
 anastomosis  between the  homogeneous regions  of  each
 lobe,   so  as  to  constitute  a twin system, of which all the
 molecules are consonant one with another.
   Each central lobe, taken alone, presents  for  considera-
 tion in its turn:
   1.   Masses of gray matter.
   2.   Agglomerations of white fibres.
  The masses of gray matter, which are  composed of many
 myriads  of  cells, and are the essentially active regions of
 the system, are arranged  at the periphery in a thin  undula-
 tory  continuous  layer,  which   constitutes the  cerebral
 cortex; and in the central regions in the form of two  gray
 ganglions, coupled together, which are the  gray substance
 of the optic thalami and corpora striata.
  The white  substance, essentially composed  of nerve
tubules in juxtaposition, occupies  the spaces comprised be- 
23
tween the  cortical  periphery and  the  central  ganglia.
The  fibres of which  it consists represent lines  of union
between  various   regions   of  the  cortical  peripherv,
and  the  regions  of  the   central  ganglia,   and  run
like  a  series of  electric wires  stretched between two
stations in two principal directions.   Some directly unite
the different points of  the cortical periphery with the  cen-
tral ganglia and  are  lost in their mass; the others, on the
contrary, have a transverse direction,  they proceed from
one hemisphere to the other, thus uniting the homologous
regions of the brain, right and left,   They therefore serve
as an anastomosis and commissure between the homologous
regions  and are  thus  the agents which produce unity of
action between the two cerebral hemispheres.  The dense
and compact  network which unites  all the nerve cells of
the cerebral cortex  one with another, is  so  delicate  that
when enlarged to 286 diameters the fibres of  which it is
composed become visible like  single hairs in appearance
and magnitude.   It is evident from these  facts  that the
cerebrum  is  the  sum total of the cerebral  convolutions
united one with another; with  those  on the same  side and
with those on the other, and simultaneously with the central
optic striate  ganglia.   We  find in  the cortical  substance
a few anatomical  elements, an ultimate morphological  unit,
the nerve cell  with  its various attributes  and  definite
configuration,  its  nerve  fibres,  connective tissue  and
capillaries.   These small pyramidal bodies are disposed in
series  parallel to one another, united to one another by
means of an intermediary  network,  and  are moreover
regularly stratified, thus forming  layers successively piled
up like the strata of the cerebral cortex. The cerebral nerve
fibres enter into intimate connection  with  the network  of
cells, and are insensibly  lost in the surrounding tissue.
All the  nerve cells have  a  pyramidal form; they are  of
unequal volume;  the smaller occupy the superficial or  sub-
meningeal, the larger  the deeper region ;  these latter are,
on  an  average,   double the  size  of their fellows  and 
24
the transition from small to large cells is accomplished by
insensible gradations, the cells of the intermediate zones in
general presenting mixed characters.  While  all the cells
are   pyramidal  in  form,   the   summit  of  each  is,
so to speak, attracted towards the  superficial  regions, like
a series of needles magnetized so as to  point  towards the
pole so that their bases are all parallel  and are directed
towards the point from which the nerve fibres arise.  They
give off  from their  substance a species of very delicate,
rootlet-like, hirsute fringe, which gradually spreads out and
forms on all sides a surrounding network ; and as each cell
presents a similar arrangement, the result is that a  close
union  between  them is produced,  so  that  they  form
throughout the cerebral cortex a continuous true  plexus, all
the molecules  of which are by some means  arranged so as
to vibrate in unison.   By their prolongations, which form
the base of the pyramid, they enter more  or less  directly
into relation with the  afferent nerve  fibres,  while  their
apices  send out  a filamentous prolongation,  which pro-
ceeds either to be lost  in  the surrounding network, or to
enter into  contact  with certain  zones of  cells  situated
above.
  The number of cells in the  cortical  substance must be
estimated at many thousands.   In a space of cortical sub-
stance  equal to i square millimeter, and of a thickness of
i0 of  a millimeter,  ioo to 120 nerve cells of various sizes
have, on an average, been counted;  if, now,  we form in
imagination an estimate of  the ratio of this  small  portion
of the cortical substance to the whole, we shall arrive at an
estimate of many thousands.
  The internal structure of the cerebral cell seems to grow
more complex the deeper we proceed in the minute study
of its elements.   Some years ago anatomists admitted of
an investing membrane and a  contained substance,  with a
nucleus and a  nucleolus in the constitution of  the  cell-
later they discovered that its investing membrane was noth
ing more than  the external layer of  an amorphous proto- 
2.)
plasm surrounding the nucleus of  the cell, and prolonging
itself externally in the form of multiple  ramifications.
  The structure of the cerebral cell, however, seems to be
much  more  complicated, for that  eminent anatomist, J.
Luys,    of   Paris,   has  lately  discovered  that  the
substance   called    the  protoplasm   of   the  cerebral
cell is  formed by a true tissue  organized in a  special
manner; that this tissue, consisting of very delicate fibrillae,
interlaced like  the wicker-work  of an  osier basket, has a
tendency to agglomerate  towards the nucleus of the cell,
which thus becomes a true point of concentration; that the
nucleus itself is not homogeneous;  that it is endowed with
a  special  structure, radiated in appearance;  and  that,,
lastly, the nucleolus,  considered as the final expression of
the unity of the nerve cell,  is in its  nature divisible into
secondary filaments.
  It has been well said that the new means of investigation,
which  the  scientific methods of the  nineteenth century
have placed within the reach of our  generation, show that
in the long process  of  evolution which extends  through
ages,  man  only arises step  by step at the fragments  of
truth which he  snatches,  and  that even his most persever-
ing efforts only seem to cause the unknown  to recede a
few paces backward.  It  is strange to  find that, as  fast as
any progress is accomplished  and new discoveries  regis-
tered, new problems incessantly start up; and that just  as
we  thought  we  had  arrived  at the utmost limits of the
known world, at the  demonstration  of elements, simple,
fixed, definite,  our perfected methods of study enable us to
see new complexities and  unexpected hardships.   What
will be  the end of these  unforeseen details which present
themselves in the train of  each adaptation of a new method
of study to our researches into the nervous system?  No
one knows as yet;  it seems as  though the secrets of nervous
organization  escape  from our  eyes,  as fast as we press
further  into the regions  where they conceal themselves.
Imagination is confounded when we thus penetrate into the 
26
 world of the infinitely little, when we find the same infinite
 divisions of matter that so vividly impress us in the  study
 of the siderial world; and when  we thus behold the  mys-
 terious details of the  organization of an anatomical ele-
 ment, which onlyr reveal themselves  when magnified  from
 700 to 800 diameters, and think that this same  anatomical
 element repeats itself a thousand-fold throughout the whole
 thickness of the  cerebral cortex,  we cannot refrain  from
 wonder and admiration;  especially  when we  reflect that
 each of these  little organs has its autonomy, its individu-
 ality, its  minute  organic  grouping ;  that  it is  united with
 its fellows;  that  it participates  in the  common life; and
 that  above  all  it is  a  silent and indefatigable  worker,
 directly elaborating those  nervous forces of the psychic ac-
 tivity  which are incessantly expended in all directions, and
 in the most varied manners, according to the different calls
 which are made upon it and set it vibrating.
   The nerve fibres which  represent the bonds of union be-
 tween the cortical substance and the central  regions of the
 brain emerge from the nuclei of the plexus of  cells. They all
 at first  appear as isolated  filaments, as a derivation, medi-
 ate or immediate, from the tissue proper to each cell-;  then
 by degrees,  as they proceed between the ranges of  cells,
 they enlarge, their sheath thickens, the interposed fatty sub-
 stance  becomes  more abundant, and they  are  insensiblv
 transformed  from gray to white fibrils.
   It would be foreign to our purpose to enter into  the mi-
 nute  anatomy  of the other elements which enter into the
 structure of  the brain, as the  neurologia, lymphatics and
 capillaries, destined for the mechanical support, and nutre-
tion of the nervous elements, and we conclude with the rep-
 etition  of the generalization, that the brain represents an
 immense instrument constructed of nervous elements,  each
gifted with its proper individuality, and yet internally  con-
 nected one with another.   The series of cells arranged in
stratified zones, and the connections of the different strata
communicating  one with  another, imply the idea that the 
27
 nervous activities of  each zone may be indefinitely evok-
 ed; that they may be associated one with another; that they
 may be modified in passing from one  region to another,
 according to the nature of  the intermediary cells brought
 into play ; that, in a word, nervous actions  like  vibrating
 undulations, must propagate themselves, through one point
 of contact after another, following the direction of the or-
 ganic substance that underlies  them, either transversely or
 vertically  from  the  superficial to the  deep regions,  and
 vice versa. The cerebrum considered thus in its totality is an
 instrument essentially sensory-?notor.
   The  nervous and muscular forces  must be regarded in
 the light of  the revelations of chemical, physiological  and
 physical sciences as similar to, if not identical, with electric-
 ity.
   The  doctrine of the unity  and correlation  of  forces pro-
 pounded by Mayer in 1842,  not only led to the recognition
 of the essential unity of the so-called imponderables, name-
 ly, the  chemical forces, heat, light and  electricity and  mo-
 tion, but also slowly but surely revolutionized the theories
 of physiologists, and led to the reference of all chemical,
 physical and vital forces or processes  to a single force or
 power,  which  originally appeared as  light from the  sun_
 and excited in inorganic matter and living organisms, heat,
 mechanical  motion,   chemical  change,  electricity,   and
 nervous and muscular force.  Philosophers have announced
 the  theory,  that there  is in  reality but one single force,
 which runs through an eternally  changing round in dead
 or inorganic, and in organic  nature.  As far as the knowl-
 edge of man extends, matter and  force  are indestructible.
 Force  changes its form; heat is changed into motion;
 chemical action  developes force  in accordance  with  the
 amount and  character  of the  matter altered,  and in all
 chemical and  physical  changes  the  resulting  power or
force maintains a constant  magnitude—animal heat is  de-
pendent upon chemical changes, and the resulting forces,
heat and motion, and muscular and nervous forces, are  de- 
28
pendent upon and are equivalent to the sum of the power
of the simultaneously produced chemical processes.
  The immaterial, intellectual, moral soul of  man has no
direct communication with  the exterior world. The mind
receives impressions, transmits its volitions and excites the
material  structures  of  the engine  by  which it is envi-
roned, through the nervous system, which is endowed with
special sensibilities.
  If we cut the nerve of  the  eye, the mind  will be de-
prived of all luminary impressions.  So also, if we cut the
nerves supplying all the  senses, the mind will be cut off
entirely from all  communication with  the external world.
  The impressions  of  exterior bodies upon  the nervous
svstem are  always attended  by a change of the  structure
of the nervous system, and all the  organs of sense are ex-
cited  by  changes  of   matter.  The  excitement  of  the
nervous system and transmission of the impressions are at-
tended by a change of matter.
  Every act of  the mind which excites the nervous system
is attended by a change  of the chemical  elements of the
nervous system.
  The  intellectual  and  moral faculties  of  man  work
through and by the physical and chemical forces;  they are
distinct from matter, they  are superior  to matter,  they ex-
cite matter  to action, they  direct and control the actions of
matter.
  The intellect of man is free to act  according to its own
volitions and will.
  Matter on the other hand acts always under  like circum-
stances in the same manner.
  The intellect is to  the human locomotive what the en-
gineer is to the steam locomotive.
  It employs the extraordinary powers  of this  magnificent
mechanism to mould exterior material nature, after its own
interior spiritual nature, evolved in ideas  and thoughts.
  By his intellectual and moral nature, man overcomes all
the barriers and obstacles  of nature, not by a suspension or 
29
alteration of  her  immutable  laws, but by peculiar applica-
tion of those forces and laws.
   His locomotive machinery, under the guidance of the in-
tellect, ascends the loftiest mountains, penetrates the earth,
descends into its  bowels and brings forth its buried treas-
ures, traverses the ocean more rapidly than a whirlwind and
communicates its thoughts by the lightning of heaven.
   What  is this mysterious agent?
   Whence came  this immaterial spirit?
   Place  all the elements which compose the material uni-
verse in  every conceivable  circumstance;  act upon them
by all the physical and chemical forces combined, and you
cannot produce  even  the  simplest human being, plant or
animal, much less the intellect of man.
   Analyze the brain and nervous system:  do we discover
the mind?  Three gases, a  solid and  a small quantity of
earthy salts, is all that our analysis discovers.
   Analyze carefully every organ,  tissue and solid of  the
human body, and the results will be the same.   Let the
sharp scalpel of  the skilled anatomist dissect the  anatomy
of the brain  and  organs, and let the most powerful  micro-
scope reveal their  minute structure and unfold  their won-
derful machinery:  does the immortal, immaterial spirit re-
veal itself to the  sight, touch, smell or hearing of  man ?
   The  creation  and  existence  of the mental and moral
faculties of  man must be referred to a being distinct from
matter,  who constituted  and controls matter and all its
forces, who  has  life in himself, and who has imparted life,
intelligence  and  moral being to the organism of man.
   Of all animated beings on this globe, man alone observes
and stores up the results of his reason.
   Man alone constructs science and controls the forces of
nature.
   Man  alone constructs  implements, weapons, tools and
machines and philosophical apparatus for the application of
the forces of nature.
   Man  alone forms  laws  for the government of society, 
30
holds courts of justice, presides as a judge and ruler, erects
temples and daily prostrates himself  in  humble adoration
of his Creator, Preserver and Lord.
  The possession  of  moral and intellectual faculties com-
bined, thus distinguishes man from every other form of mat-
ter and from every other being upon our globe.
  There is no  demonstrated transmission  between the
genus homo and the highest types of  the lower mammalia ;
an impassable gulf separates them,  and no process of
development and no struggle for existence has ever elevated
the most highly organized animal into the plane  of the  in-
tellectual and moral life of  man.

 The Mode in Which the Mind Constructs  Science.
  No correct theory of  education can be founded or com-
prehended, without the formation of clear ideas  of what
constitutes  science and of the methods by which science is
constructed.
  The word science,  derived  from scio, I know, strictly
means knowledge.   According to the modern acceptation
of the word, " science'''' is the knowledge of  the laws of
phenomena whether they relate to mind or matter.  The
term -phenomena meaning  a collection of associated facts,
and the term law,  the relation which pervades  a class of
facts, it is  evident  that the study of the laws of phenomena
must necessarily include the study of the phenomena them-
selves and  their individual facts.
  By mind, we understand that which thinks, wills, and is
capable of moral emotion.
  By matter, we understand that which  affects our senses.
  It is evident that in the construction of every science we
must have  external objects with their phenomena and laws,
and a mind which observes these external objects,notes their
peculiar properties, and, by comparison and analysis,  de-
termines their relations to one another.   Science, then, is
the product of mental operation.
   The method of  developing,  educating the intellectual 
31
faculties must be acquired by a careful study of the history
of the origin and progress of science,  for this is the true
history of the development, progress and mode of action of
the human mind.  The methods or modes  of action of the
human mind, in viewing the phenomena of exterior nature,
and in discovering their relations and laws, have been the
same amongst all peoples and in all ages.
   Science is  the interpretation by the mind, of  the actuali-
ties of existence.    The  ideas of  the mind are science or
truth, only when they are correct expressions of  the  phe-
nomena  and  laws of the  universe.  The great end of
science, and the great proof of its  truth is the power which
it confers upon man of  predicting future events.
   For the discovery of truth,  and  the establishment of sci-
 ence, we must have a mind endowed  with special  facul-
 ties, capable of analyzing and  comparing its own phenom-
 ena and of inferring their fixed relations or laws; capable
 of receiving impressions through  the nervous  system and
 organs of sense, from exterior bodies, and of decomposing,
 analyzing, classifying and  determining the fixed relations
 or laws of the exterior universe.   If  the faculties of  the
 mind be altered, whilst  the surrounding machinery  of the
 material  body and  of the  external universe remain unal-
 tered, the discovery of  the relations of the facts and phe-
 nomena  of  the  external universe would be impossible.
 Thus, the love of Truth, as Truth,  and for no  other rea-
 son, is  a fundamental principle  of  the human mind, the
 knowledge of the existence of which is derived from con-
 sciousness:   it is a primary principle, whose existence
 must  be referred immediately to the Divine  Command.
 This is true of all the faculties of the  mind:  we can give
 no other reason for their existence  and modes of  action,
 than the will of the Creator.   If the love of Truth was not
 a fixed disposition of the human  mind, it would be impos-
 sible to receive any fact on testimony—it  would be impos-
 sible to carry forward  any investigation—it would  be im-
 possible  to construct any science.  In  hke manner, if the 
32
 structure and functions  of  the nervous apparatus,  which
 relates the intellectual faculties with the exterior world, be
 altered,  whilst the intellectual  faculties and  the exterior
 world remain unaltered, the discovery of truth would be
 impossible.
   It is evident therefore, that imperfections of the senses,
 imperfections of the nervous apparatus,  and peculiarities
 of mental endowments are the first sources  of  error in the
 prosecution of knowledge.
   The mind  has no  direct communication with exterior
 bodies, its relations with the exterior world are through the
 nervous system,  endowed  with special sensibilities,  and
 developed upon the exterior into the organs of sense.  The
 organs of sense are  nothing  more than portions of the
 nervous system adapted by  conformation  and the addition
 of peculiar apparatus, to receive and transmit impressions
 from  exterior bodies.  The  mind can have  no other
 knowledge of the  exterior  world, than that  which is
 derived from the cognizance of the excited states, modifica-
 tions  or  disturbances in  the  apparatus  endowed with
 special sensibility, when acted on  by the impressions of
.external bodies;  and if all the organs of sense were absent
 the mind would be  shut  up to itself and would never ac-
 quire any knowledge of  the various forms of matter, and
 of the various affections  and motions of matter in the exte-
 rior world.
   The phenomena or associated facts of the exterior world
 are innumerable ; matter is never  at rest, it is constantlv
 undergoing alterations of form, appearance  and constitu-
 tion—perpetual   change  is  written everywhere; even the
 sun  with  his planets  are  sweeping majestically through
 space, around a distant unknown centre; these changes of
 states,  forms and conditions and  these  modifications of
 relations  are  the subjects  of  sensations and perceptions
 and are represented to the  mind as simple ideas.   The
 causes of the incessant activity of the component members
 of this world and of the universe, cannot be discovered by 
33
the unaided senses ; because  the senses represent only the
superficial  exterior appearances and relations  of  bodies,
and cannot penetrate beyond, and are  therefore limited in
their respective capacities to  the reception of simple ideas,
and can never give any information of the immutable laws
which govern all matter; the true nature, therefore, of ex-
terior objects, the laws which regulate  the  phenomena of
matter  and the relations between  the component mem-
bers of the universe, are problems  which  the- reasoning
powers of man and not his senses can solve.
   After the observation of the facts and phenomena of the
exterior world, the intellectual  faculties, by  their  powers
of analysis, synthesis,  causation, and judgment,  separate
each  fact  from  dissimilar  facts, and  arrange the simple
ideas  into  species,  genera and orders ; thus, acquiring a
knowledge  of  new phenomena and  associations of  facts
inaccessible to the external senses.   By decomposing phe-
nomena into their  component  facts  by analysis and  com-
parison of these facts, the intellectual faculties form abstract
ideas which sum up the principles and laws of associated
facts.   The  perfection of  every  science will, therefore,
depend upon the diligence  and care with which its culti-
vators study the simple properties  and relations of bodies,
and analyze and decompose  and compare  the more  com-
plicated phenomena.   In the language of Bacon, " Man as
the minister and interpreter of nature, does,  and under-
stands, as much as his observations upon the order of na-
ture permit  him,  and neither knows nor is capable of
more"
  The neglect of this, the only true method  of  acquiring a
knowledge of  the laws  governing inorganic  and organic
bodies, has been  the  cause  of the failures  of  the ancient
systems of  philosophy.  Upon the imperfect knowledge of
a few ill observed facts  and  phenomena the   ancients
reared immense superstructures, whose bases were points
and their summits infinity.
  l'he  history of the origin and progress of human knowl-
    3 
34
edge at all times and in all places, demonstrates that in the
pursuit of knowledge and in the direct study of  nature,
facts alone do not constitute science, and  reasoning alone
does not constitute science.   We must have for the con-
struction of science, the exercise of  the senses furnishing
the primary ideas, facts and  phenomena  of the  exterior
world; and  then the exercise of the  reasoning  powers
determining  in virtue  of  their  constitution and relations
through the senses to the exterior world, the fixed relations
or laws of these facts and phenomena.
  To the  formation  of science  two things are requisite;
observation of things without, and an inward examination,
decomposition, analysis and  comparison of the results of
observation.
  It has been well said, "that true knowledge is the inter-
pretation of  nature ;  and therefore it  requires both  the
interpreting mind and nature  for its subject; both the doc-
ument and the ingenuity to read it aright.  Thus invention,
acuteness and connection of thought are necessary on the
one hand for the  progress of philosophical  knowledge;
and on the other hand, the precise and steady application
of  these faculties to  facts  well  known and clearly per-
ceived.'
  The great  end, therefore, of all human  knowledge and
investigation  is to determine  the  fixed relations or laws of
the universe; so that the precise condition of things at any
future time may be predicted with absolute certainty, and
so that the human mind may  appreciate its relations with
the universe  and with the  great Creator of the Universe.
  It is evident from these principles that education should
commence zvith the exercise and discipline of the senses.
The intellectual faculties should  be  taught, carefully to
observe and note the properties and relations and forces of
surrounding bodies, and to arrange  and classify the  phe-
nomena.
  In the first exercises  of the senses and intellectual  fac-
ulties, we should imitate in a manner the action of the human 
35
mind in the first dawn of science when it first began to ob-
serve phenomena and accumulate facts ; and  the method
in which at the present time it originates  and developes
new sciences. Man commenced the construction of science
by  viewing   general  classes  of   phenomena:   the
chronological  commencement   of    science,  therefore,
is with the  complex  mass, whilst  the logical develop-
ment is  with  the  individual  elements. Thus,  Astron-
omy which is conversant with  the  sublimest and most
striking phenomena in nature, had the earliest origin; its
first cultivators were shepherds who confined their  atten-
tion to noting the most obvious  phenomena of the motions
and eclipses of the sun and moon, and  the rising and set-
ting of the stars.   These, the first builders of astronomy,
slowly accumulated materials for the formation of science,
and in due time the reasoning faculties compared the indi-
vidual facts with  each  other, separated  the  dissimilar and
combined the similar,  and  thus arrived at a knowledge of
the fixed relations or  laws  which sum up and express the
whole details of associated facts.
   It is evident from the mode  in which the mind obtains
its ideas and constructs science, that science is the  result
of patient and hard labor.   The first  knowledge acquired
by the ancients consisted of isolated facts ;  gradually facts
were  accumulated,  complex  phenomena observed, de-
composed, and their  component elements  arranged  and
compared, and the errors of the senses corrected,  and it
was not until after many ages, that the great  fundamental
laws of astronomy and physics were established.
   In the work of  education  it should  ever be remembered
that the rise and progress of the science and philosphy of
the whole human  race, is similar to that of each individual
mind.
Science  Rests Upon the Supposition that the Physi-
     cal  Universe is Governed by Fixed  Laws.
   Science, therefore,  is the  resultant of the combined
operation of the senses and intellectual  faculties, and has 
36
for its object  the determination of the laws or fixed  rela-
tions of the phenomena of the universe, and is founded
upon the supposition that these laws  are fixed and immut-
able.
  The end of all science is prevision, and when perfected
it will enable us to predict with absolute certainty the future
course of events.
  The   perfection   of   science depends,   therefore,
primarily  upon   the   truthfulness    of    the    im-
pressions   of    the   senses,   and   secondarily    upon
the  care and  accuracy  with   which the  mind  decom-
poses, analyzes  and compares  the facts  and phenomena
of the exterior world.  The errors of the ancient systems
of philosophy were  not due to  defective operations of the
mind, or to an absence of the love  of the truth or to defec-
tive physical  and mental  vigor, but to the  neglect of the
knowledge derived  by  actual  observation  through  the
senses.
  All sciences approach perfection, as they approach to a
unity of fixed principles, or certain high  elementary con-
ceptions, which are the representatives of the great archi-
typal ideas,  according to  which the whole  system  is ar-
ranged.   Inductive  conceptions,  are the exponents in the
human  intellect of  the great principles  in  nature.   The
laws and profound principles which regulate  the mechan-
ism of the universe,  are the originals, the conception and
expression of them  in  the mind  of  man only  the  copies.
The vast assemblage of physical causes, whether the <>reat
principles of cosmical  forces,   or the minute  molecular
affections, as they  exist in the  heavenly  spaces or among
terrestrial atoms,  are  the realities;  the exposition and
demonstration of them in the  mind of  the  philosopher,
only their images.  Science is   the partial reflexion in the
human mind, of "the  great  all-pervading reason of the
universe" : and the  unity of science is the reflexion of the
unity of  nature, and of "the unity of that supreme reason
and intelligence  which prevails and rules over nature, and 
37
from whence  all reason and all  science  is derived.  All
induction begins and ends in the conception of order, ar-
rangement  and  uniformity throughout nature; and this,
however inadequately  comprehended by our science,  is
again the evidence of a supreme mind, and the universality
of order in time and space,  the manifestation of the uni-
versality of that  supreme mind.  Law is the supreme rule
of the  universe; and  that law is wisdom,  is  intellect,  is
reason, whether in the formation of planetary systems, or
in the organization of the worm."
   The  eternal laws by which  and in accordance with .which
nature  acts, are the mandates of an infinite perfect reason;
so that the  students of  nature  live in  a constant con-
templation and adoration of the omnipresent, infinite and all
powerful divinity.  "The laws of nature  are the thoughts
of nature, and these are the thoughts of God."
   We  are now prepared to examine the:
Character,  Order  and  Relative  Value of the
    Different Departments  of  Knowledge  in
              the Work of Education.
                      Language.
   In the development of knowledge, we  must have signs
and sounds, to  denote the properties and actions and rela-
tions of matter exciting changes in the organs of sense, and
sensation in the ner/ous system.  We must have signs and
sounds to  denote  the objects of thought.  Without signs
and sounds, there could be no communication  of ideas be-
tween  intelligences, because they  are the permanent rep-
resentatives of our ideas.  It is  evident,  therefore,  that
Language was the necessary result of the action  of the mind,
and advanced in perfection and power, and compass, just
as the  human mind and science were developed.
   Hence the Study of  Language  should be  the Starting
Point of all Education.
   In this utilitarian age, the philosophical study  of language,
unfortunately, is too often neglected, and treated with con-
tempt,  as a waste of time. Nothing can be more erroneous.
Language presents a stereotyped expression of the mode 
38
of action and  development  of  the  mind.  The ancient
languages of  Greece and  Rome present a pleasant field,
upon which all minds in all nations may meet and converse
with  the mighty   dead.   Ancient  languages  resemble
geological strata, rich  in the accumulated remains  of ages
__each  word is a  fossil,  which gives evidence of former
organization and life, of ancient convulsions and mighty
revolutions.
  In the  study of languages every word has a history of
its  own,  and must also be studied  in  its relations with
other  words,  and  with  analogous  words   in  other
languages; every sentence has its own construction and
relations to previous sentences, and conveys a definite idea,
which  is  related to preceding and  subsequent  ideas ; the
impossibility therefore  of  rendering the meaning of every
sentence absolutely, and the consequent exercise of select-
ing the nearest and  best of the two  or more approximated
renderings, cultivates in an eminent degree precision and
judgment.
  Value of  the Ancient Languages in  Education.
  In the work of education, the ancient languages should
never be exchanged for the modern languages.
  The modern languages are degenerate and composite;
it is well known that Latin enters into  the  vocabulary  of
the German tongues, and is  the ground-work and frame-
work of Italian, French, Spanish and kindred languages;
consequently the study of the Latin language forms the
best preparation  for  the  acquisition of the modern lan-
guages.
  The relations  of  the ancient to the modern  languages
have been thus aptly illustrated.
  Indeed, when  one  considers these  venerable forms  of
speech in connection with the history of Europe from the
time in which they were spoken to the present day, one is
tempted  to compare them to splendid  edifices  reared by
the genius of antiquity, fairly proportioned and presenting 
39
an outline of squared and polished blocks of the finest mar-
ble; but which, at a period when time had begun to impair
■without destroying their beauty, an earthquake and tempest
suddenly coming on shook them from their foundations and
hivered them into fragments. With whatever material came
into our way, we moderns, when the storm had  subsided,
built ourselves habitations, convenient enough in point of ac-
commodation, and destined to lodge many a  gifted  ten-
ant, but, nevertheless,  devoid of the grace, and decoration
and exquisite symmetry of the original structure.
  And if a few  specimens of  this architecture have  es-
caped the wreck of ages, and  survive in all their primitive
chasteness and elegant simplicity, shall we not teach our
youths to visit them, to admire  their fair proportions,  to
study their cunning workmanship and to  imitate whatever
is imitable  of their perfection ?
  Languages can only be  learned thoroughly and scien-
tifically by comparing them with each other; hence, learn-
ing Latin and Greek, the student learns English also in a
far more thorough manner, and at the same time acquires
in many respects a  more perfect and powerful  instrument
of thought and expression.
  The critical study of languages not only  develops  and
strengthens the memory and reasoning faculties, but it also,
in a manner that can be accomplished by  no other study,
and, in fact,  not by all studies  combined,  refines the taste,
enriches and purifies the imagination, and stores the mind
with useful information in  history and  philosophy.  The
sublimest poetry, the deepest,  most powerful and most
learned works in politics, morals, law, medicine, philoso-
phy and theology were written  in dead languages, and  in
most cases remain still in the  dead languages—the works
of Aristotle and  Plato will remain to the end  of time,  the
text-books  of the statesman, metaphysician and philoso-
pher, the works of  the greatest physician that ever lived
were written and  have  been  preserved in  Greek;   all
the medieval records of medicine, and all  the terms of  the 
40
materia  medica  are found  in  Latin,  and this is the
language in which at this very day the physician writes his
prescriptions, and while the Roman  law is absolutely in-
dispensable to the perfection and accomplishment of even'
lawyer, as the most comprehensive and self-connected  of
all the systems of jurisprudence, its study is absolutely nec-
essary to the Latin philologist and  antiquarian, for the
most successful cultivators of ancient literature have been
cultivators of Roman law, and it is well known that the
knowledge of the dead languages is even  more  important
and essential to the theologian than  to the lawyer, phy-
sician, statesman or philosopher;  for the interpretation  of
the sacred books, the most important function of the theo-
logian  supposes a profound knowledge of not only the lan-
guages, but also of the spirit and  history of the languages
of antiquity.
  As  therefore the  study of  languages develops all the
faculties of  the mind, the reason, judgment, memory,
imagination and the taste, it is unquestionably the best basis
of all education, general  or professional,  legal, medical
and theological.
                  Natural Sciences.
  The study of languages is the best basis of general and
professional education,  but it  is not  the only  basis  or
means  of harmoniously evolving the faculties and capacities
of the  mind in their relative  subordination  to  the  great
ends of being.  The grand  phenomena manifested by the
immense masses of matter, moving in  the great ocean  of
space, the innumerable  forms of matter,  solid, fluid and
gaseous,  composing  the  atmosphere   and crust of our
globe,  are related to man, and have at all times excited his
wonder, and exercised his loftiest faculties in  the search
after their hidden causes; man's power over  the  forces
and  properties of matter,  and  his  social elevation and
power  depend upon his  knowledge  of the properties,
forces,  relations and laws of the  component parts  of the
universe;  the  highest faculties  of  the greatest  men,  of 
41
Pythagoras, Aristotle, Archimedes, Galileo, Copernicus,
Euler, Newton  and  Laplace, have  found  their  most
glorious field of action, and have been  developed and en-
nobled, and have  achieved  those  great  triumphs which
have elevated, dignified, and ennobled  the human race, in
the search by observation and experiment after the knowl-
edge of the fixed relations and  laws of the phenomena of
the universe; when, therefore, we assert that the Study of
Science is an effective means of developing harmoniously
the powers of  mind, and at the same time of endowing the
mind with that knowledge  by which  it can alone direct
and control the forces  of nature for the  advancement of the
physical, social and intellectual good of the  human  race,
we do nothing more  than echo the sentiments  of the il-
lustrious founders  of science.
The  Study  of  the  Natural   Sciences Leads to
     Enlarged Views of the Physical Universe and
     Leads to the Devout Acknowledgment of Unity
     of Design and  the Existence  of a Great First
     Cause.
   The labors of the  natural philosopher and chemist have
demonstrated a uniformity in the molecular and chemical
constitution of all matter in the visible universe.
  Thus, according to. the atomic theory in its widest concep-
tion, as held by the philosophers of the nineteenth century,
every portion of the whole universe, or at least that part of
it which is accessible to us  by means  of the telescope, is
occupied  by atoms inconceivably  minute, hard and un-
changeable, separated from each other by attraction and
repulsion.
  This assemblage of atoms constitutes the matter of the
material universe;  and the attractions  and repulsions, the
forces by  which they are actuated,  .^nd to which  is referred
all the power or  energy which produces the  changes to
which matter is subjected.
  The atoms thus endowed form a  plenum throughout all 
12
space, constituting what is called the ethereal medium, and
in it at wide intervals from each other, are isolated masses of
grosser matter, which constitute our world, the planets, the
sun and stars.  These  also  consist of  atoms of another
order, or of groups of atoms, with spaces between  them,
wide in comparison with the  size of the  atoms,  and these
spaces are pervaded by the minute atoms of  this  ethereal
medium.   These  bodies move  in  the  medium  without
sensible resistance, or such as is only rendered  evident by
the minute retardation of the  nebulous masses denominated
comets.  According  to this  theory, the various isolated
bodies of  the universe act upon  each other by  means of
the force of gravitation, and  also by tremors or  vibrations
in this  medium, radiating  in every direction  from each
body,  as  a centre.  All matter,  therefore,  is  porous,
whether in the liquid, gaseous  or  solid condition.  The
pores may be considered to be of different orders,  namely:
pores  between  the  atoms,   between  the molecules or
assemblages of  atoms,  and  between the  still larger par-
ticles.
  We are obliged to assign to the ethereal medium a simi-
lar constitution to that possessed by grosser matter,  name-
ly, that it  consists of inert atoms, at great distances from
each other, relative  to their  own size, and each kept in
position by attracting and repelling forces.  Through this
medium impulses or minute agitations are transmitted over
celestial space, from  planet  to planet, from system to  svs-
tem, and these tremors or waves constitute light, heat, and
other emanations, which we  receive from the  sun, or in
other words, the solar emanations are not matter, but mo-
tion  communicated  from  atom to atom, beginning  at the
luminous body, and  diffused in  widening, spherical  sur-
faces, enlarging  in size  and diminishing in intensity to the
farthermost portion  of  conceivable space.  The atoms of
the ethereal medium are perfectly free to move in  all di-
rections, so that the earth and dense masses experience no
retardation  as yet  measurable,  though  light  bodies, as 
43
comets, apparently exhibit an effect of  this kind, for the
same reason that  a stock  of  cotton is  more retarded in
falling through the air than a piece of lead.
  Spectrum  analysis has not  only placed  a new power in
the hands of the  chemist, which enables him to detect by
the simplest and most expeditious process, the presence of
chemical substances with a degree of accuracy  and deli-
cacy almost incredible, and thus enlarged the  bounds of
his knowledge of terrestrial matter, but it has armed him
with an  instrument by which  he is  able  to overstep the
narrow bounds of this earth, and to determine with as great
a degree of  certainty as appertains to any conclusions in
 physical science, the chemical  composition of  the atmo-
 sphere,  of the sun and far distant fixed stars.
   It has been demonstrated that in  the solar atmosphere,
 at a  distance of  ninety-one millions  of miles,  substances
 such as sodium, calcium, barium, magnesium,  iron, chro-
 mium, nickel and copper, zinc, strontium, cadmium, co-
 balt, hydrogen, manganese, aluminum and titanium, which
 enter into the composition of  this earth, are present in the
 state of luminous gases.   Simple elementary bodies, well
 known to us on this  earth, have been  shown to exist in the
 atmosphere of planets and fixed stars  and  comets.
   The discoveries of the spectroscope have confirmed those
 of the telescope,  and established a uniformity of  chemical
 composition, as well as of the physical constitution of mat-
 ter   throughout  the  visible  universe.  Aggregated  into
 masses  which,  though differing from  one  another in com-
 position, like the various veins of  ore  which  occur in
 masses  upon the  surface of our globe ; yet, all suns, worlds
 and comets are  evidently of common  origin, all obey the
 same laws, and  all possess  a  chemical  nature similar in
 kind.
   Standing on  the elevation below which the material uni-
 verse, in its everlasting order, lies fresh and youthful  for-
 ever, the truth is borne to us, that the revolution of a planet
 is only the  repetition of the fall of a stone; in the path of a 
44
stone whirled through the air, the graceful curve of a jet of
water, or the course of a  drop of  spray, in  the energy
through which a sparrow falls, we behold the power obeyed
by the mightiest suns and planets of the universe.
  Throughout the realm of nature, the highest order cog-
nizable by man is subject to profounder  ordinances;  pre-
cisely as knowledge advances have the views of man been
enlarged; once the thunder was a prodigy, yet it belongs
to powers which beneficially nourish  whatever is beautiful
on the earth; the raging hurricane springs from the delicious
breezes of the tropics, and is an essential portion of the
harmonious system of the winds.
  In the universe change rises above  change, cycle grows
out  of cycles in magnificent procession ; ever new and ever
widening like the circles that emanate from a spark of flame,
enlarging as  they  ascend, finally to  be lost in the empy-
reum.
  " And if all that we see;  if from earth to sun, and from
sun to  universal star-work—that wherein' we but behold
images of Eternity, Immortality  and God; if  that is only a
state or phase of a course of being,  rolling onward  ever-
more ; what must be the Creator, the Preserver, the Guide
of all?  He at whose bidding these phantoms came  from
nothingness, and shall again disappear;  whose  name amid
all things alone is existence.  I am in that  I am.'"
Logical  Classification  of   the  Departments  of
                       Science.
  In the pursuit of science,  either as a means of develop-
ing the faculties of the mind, or as a  means of controlling
the powers of nature, we should follow the historical de-
velopment and  logical classification  of the various depart-
ments of science.
  If the human intellect was able to view at once  all the
phenomena and laws of the universe, the  classification and
division of science into separate  departments  would  be
unnecessary, and all knowledge would  be comprehended
under one science.   Some philosophers have even gone so 
45
far as to suppose that all the  laws  of the  universe will be
ultimately reduced to a  single  all-pervading law,  which
will be the expression of all the facts  and phenomena of
the universe.
  Science being the interpretation of the actualities  of the
exterior world, the realities of existence, it is evident that
it cannot be divided  into different departments arbitrarily,
but must be divided  in  accordance  with  the phenomena
and laws of the exterior world, and of the phenomena of
the mind.
   In the pursuit of science, either as a means of  develop-
ing the faculties of the mind, or as a means of controlling
the powers of nature, we should follow the  historical de-
velopment and logical classification of the various depart-
ments of  science.
   Those sciences have attained to perfection first,  which
treat of the most general and  simple phenomena,  which
form  the foundation of complex restricted phenomena;
the philosophical system of education should therefore com-
mence with the study of the most  general  and  universal
sciences.
                        Logic.
   Logic,  the science of the laws of thought,  which  gov-
ern every act of the mind, objective and subjective, in-
ductive and deductive, was  developed by Aristotle, when
astronomy, mechanics   and physics were  nothing more
than accumulations of isolated  facts, and chemistry and
physiology were without a name.
   Logic is the most general and abstract  of all  sciences,
because the mind reasons in a fixed manner concerning
all phenomena, and because the  phenomena  of  the  uni-
verse, simple  or complex, are related to  each other  in  a
fixed manner, and are governed by fixed laws, and because
the human mind  has been constructed with  exact refer-
ence, and in exact correspondence to the exterior universe.
  Logic, therefore, may be studied immediately after the
study of languages,   independent  of all  sciences;   while 
46
all sciences are constructed logically,  and  are  therefore
dependent upon logic: on the other hand, logic is necessa-
rily  connected  with  the  philosophic study of language
alone, for whenever  the mind  acts  upon any subject, it
acts according to certain laws, and  under certain condi-
tions.
               Mathematical  Sciences.
  The mathematical sciences stand next to logic,  because
they are related to  every  branch  of human  knowledge,
and are indebted to none,  and enable the human  mind to
deduce the greatest results  from  the smallest data—and
because they are the  great  instruments of exact  inquiry
relative to number, quantity, space, time  and force,  and
consequently the great instrument of establishing the fixed
relations  of  the  component  members of the  universe,
which exist in space  and time, and  are  related  to fixed
laws.
  Without mathematics there could be no  science  of  me-
chanics,  astronomy   or physics,  because  abstract  and
concrete mathematics form not only the   most  powerful
instrument in the investigation of the fixed relations of the
component  members of the  universe, but they also  con-
stitute  the  great  mass  of  astronomical and terrestrial
physics. Without mathematics man would never have been.
able to overcome the obstacles and barriers of  nature,  and
control and direct the forces  of  matter and  predict  the
course of future events,  because  without  mathematics,
mechanics, astronomy, the measurement of time and  sys-
tematic navigation which laid the foundation of the civili-
zation of the world, would never  have existed—without
mathematics, the most splendid generalizations  of the most
splendid minds, of Galileo,  of Newton, and  of Laplace,
would have been impossible,  and  the comprehension of
the unity and harmony of the order of nature,  and of the
infinite power of the Creator,  as manifested  in  the vast-
ness of the universe, would never have been possible.  All
the useful and ornamental arts and occupations of life are 
47
indebted to mathematics.    Mathematics are necessary to
the architect, miner, railroad  constructor, civil  engineer,
mining engineer,  machinist,  surgeon,  ship-builder,  and
military and nautical men.  The architect in  planning the
humblest cottage,  or  in  building the  most lofty bridges
and public edifices, has all his works in  exact mathemati-
cal measurements: out of geometry as applied to astrono-
m\r, grew the art  of  navigation, which  has  made  possi-
ble the enormous  foreign  commerce   which supports  a
large  portion of our population.  The  success  of  nearly
all  modern  manufactures  depends on the  application of
rational  mechanics:   the  properties of the  lever,  the
wheel and axle, are involved in every machine, which must
be  regarded as a solidified  mathematical theorem,  and
in  the nineteenth  century we owe nearly all production
to  machinery.
   These facts  demonstrate  not only the  importance  of
mathematics, but also the true position  which they should
occupy in the scale of sciences, and in the true  system of
education:  the  study of mathematics is  indispensably
preliminary to the study of all sciences, and should there-
fore,  in conjunction with  languages, form the point of  de-
parture of all education general or professional.
   The mathematical sciences  should be studied in the order
of  their  complexity,  historical development, and  logical
classification.
   Thus, the study of abstract mathematics should precede
the study of concrete mathematics; because, as an exten-
sive and  immense application of  the principles of logic to
number and quantity, they are purely instrumental, logical
and rational, and form the necessary and absolute founda-
tion of concrete mathematics, which  notwithstanding the
simplicity of the phenomena are founded upon observation
of  the exterior world.
   Mathematics are to be  studied rather  in their relations to
the physical sciences, and necessary arts of  civilized  life,
than  for themselves  as a means  of  developing  the mental 
48
faculties :  for whilst they are of advantage in correcting the
habit  of mental  distraction,  and in cultivating the  habit
of continuous attention; the exclusive  and  extensive study
of mathematics especially of the abstract division, so far
from developing the powers of  the mind most needed  in
the business of life, and in the discussion  of  the  highest
and  most intricate truths,  has a  manifest  tendency  to
debilitate  the  imagination, invention  and  reasoning  fac-
ulties, and induce  scepticism in morals,  philosophy and
religion.
  To obtain the  ends of education,  concrete  mathematics
are more valuable than the abstract, because they exercise
the powers of observation to a much  greater  extent, and
the procedures are more open to the light, and are attended
with greater consciousness and understanding.
                      Astronomy.
  The application of the principles  of abstract and con
crete  mathematics, to the most general phenomena  of the
universe known to the human mind, resulted in the estab-
lishment  of   the  fixed  relations   of  number,  form,
quantity and arrangement  and motions of  those  members
of the universe whose phenomena came within the range
of man's observation—resulted in the science of Astron-
omy.   The simplicity,  and at  the same time  the univer-
sality of the phenomena of astronomy; the necessity of the
long drawn and complex reasonings  of abstract and con-
crete mathematics, of the  principles of the  calculus in  its
widest extent, of geometry, synthetic and analytic, and  of
mechanics, in solving the problems of astronomy; and the
appearance  of new phenomena  and relations  different
from   those  of  logic  and  mathematics,  demonstrate
that  astronomy  is  more  complex   than   mathemat-
ics—demonstrate that  the laws of  astronomical phenom-
ena could  never  have been determined without the  aid  of
mathematics—demonstrate that in the logical classification
and philosophical system of education, astronomy should
stand next to  mathematics. 
49
   In the survey of terrestrial bodies and phenomena which
logically follow the study of astronomical phenomena, all
bodies and phenomena are divided into two great  classes,
Inorganic and Organized.

         Physics, Chemistry  and Physiology.
   Inorganic bodies enter  into the structure of organized
bodies, form the  necessary conditions for their existence
and the manifestation of their phenomena, and at the same
time are wholly independent of organized animate bodies,
are less complex in structure, and the laws of their existence
are more universal; the study  of inorganic bodies  should
therefore precede,  and form  the basis of the stud}- of
organized bodies.  The sciences of inorganic bodies should
also be studied  with  strict reference to their historical
development, and the position  which they occupy  in  the
scale of logical classification; thus physics, which  teaches
the laws of the general phenomena of bodies and  of the
general motions or  affections  of  matter  which are unat-
tended by any permanent change  of the  individual  mole-
cules,  as heat, light and  electricity, and   which  affect  all
bodies in similar manners, should precede  chemistry, which
teaches the laws of the compositions  and decompositions
which result from the  mutual  actions of dissimilar mole-
cules,   and which in every  instance  present   something
specific.
   While Inorganic bodies are  homogeneous in  structure,
and would remain forever at rest and unchanged, physically
and chemically, unless acted upon by extraneous forces,
organized animate  beings on  the other  hand,  although
composed of inorganic elements and governed by all the laws
of inorganic bodies, are not homogeneous in structure  (all
vegetables, from the simple cell to the most highly developed,
and all  animals, from  the  simple  cell  animalcule, to the
complicated  organism  of  man, are  composed of cells,
variously developed and grouped, so as to  form  organs  and
apparatus, capable of accomplishing definite  results, when
      4 
50
moved by the physical and chemical forces, resulting from
the changes of inorganic matter) ; and living  bodies, even
the simplest forms of vegetables and animals, manifest new
phenomena, (the development of a form  from a formless
mass, and the preservation of that  form amidst unceasing
chemical and physical changes;  nutrition, secretion  and
generation, due  to the combined actions of  the physical
and chemical forces guided by the vital principle) ; and the
higher forms of animated beings  present another  set of
phenomena dependent upon the existence  of the  nervous
system  and intellectual  faculties;  and in man  we have
another set of phenomena dependent upon the constitution
and relations of the intellectual and  moral faculties  ; it  is
evident  therefore,  not only  that the phenomena of  living
beings,  plants  and animals, are more complicated and less
general  than those of inorganic inanimate bodies, but also
that the study of organized beings should commence with
the  most  simply constructed,  the conditions of  whose
existence are less complicated, and proceed step  by step,
first through the  vegetable kingdom and  then through the
animal kingdom  up to the most complicated and restricted.
   The study of the mechanical,  astronomical,  physical,
and chemical phenomena of the globe; the study of the me-
chanical,  physical and chemical structure and relations of
all vegetables and animals; the study of the relations of the
physical and chemical  forces to each other, and the vital
principle, form  the  necessary introduction  to the study of
the phenomena  of man; the elements of whose physical
structures are derived from the exterior world through the
vegetable kingdom and  undergo perpetual  changes,  like
those carried on  amongst the elements  of the surrounding
universe, under  the action of the great forces,  heat and
gravitation, which work unceasingly throughout all  nature
—whose structures pass through successive stages  of de-
velopment, analogous to the progressing stages of develop-
ment manifested in a permanent form in the lower animals, 
51
 and are worked by mechanical  and physical forces—and
 whose intellect directs and controls the forces of matter.
   The complete knowledge of the relations of the intel-
 lectual and moral constitution of man alone, requires the
 knowledge of the relations of the moral and  intellectual
 faculties of man, to the material structures by which they
 are  surrounded—requires the knowledge  of the nature,
. origin  and  development  of  all  science—requires the
 knowledge of the constitution, phenomena  and  progress
 of the moral and intellectual  faculties as revealed in all
 history scientific, civil, and religious, past and present.
                      Physiology.
   Physiology,  which  rests  upon  astronomy, physics,
 chemistry and anatomy, and which  could  never  have at-
 tained to the rank of a science, without those fundamental
 sciences, should form the  third grand division of medical
 sciences ; and can never be thoroughly comprehended with-
 out the knowledge  of astronomy,  physics, chemistry and
 anatomy.
   That physiological  phenomena depend as absolutely for
 their  existence  and  manifestation  upon  astronomical
 phenomena,  as upon physical and chemical phenomena,
 may be rendered  evident by even  a casual  glance at
 the facts,  that astronomical phenomena affect  all bodies,
 whether they belong  to this world or to the countless sys-
 tems scattered  through  the great ocean of space; the law
 of gravity affects  all  bodies, inorganic and organic,inani-
 mate  and animate,  and  forms an  essential condition for
 the  existence of  the universe  in  its present  order; the
plants and  animals of our globe have  all been constructed
with  exact  reference  to its structure, mass, and force of
gravitv,  and  the forces  of the sun and sister planets, and
fixed stars; if the mass  and force of gravity of our earth
were increased or diminished whilst the plants and animals
retained  their  present  constitution,  the mechanics  and
chemistry of  organized beings would be deranged ; the
weight of the moon  and her distance from the earth, the 
52
■distance of the earth from  the  sun and sister planets, the
relations of the earth with the fixed stars, the length of the
year and day, the inclination of the earth's  axis, the size
and  shape of its orbit,  and the  duration and revolution of
the seasons, and the character and intensity and distribution
of the forces of the sun, have all been arranged by the great
Architect, with  exact reference to the constitution and
preservation  of  the  organized beings  existing upon our#
globe; a single alteration  in the astronomical relations of
our globe would  result in the complete destruction of ani-
mated beings.
   We will consider more fully the extensive  application of
the facts of chemistry, to all the  arts of life—to metallurgy,
to agriculture, to medicine and to physiology and hygiene.
All  the  essential facts of  physiology  and  of sanitary
science rest absolutely upon the labors and  discoveries of
the chemist.
   It is to the chemist that we look for  all  the essential
knowledge of the wonderful phenomena of circulation,
respiration and nervous action.
   We have thus presented a general view of   the relations
of the grand divisions of science, and endeavored to un-
fold the principles of the logical classification and philosoph-
ical evolution of the  departments  of human knowledge.

Field for Moral, Physical  and  Intellectual De-
                  velopment of Man.
   The great fields for the physical, moral and intellectual
development {education} of the human race are:
   ist.  The Family.
   2d.  The Church.
   3d.  The School.
   4th. The College.
   5th. The University.
   The  first four schools should  furnish the essentials of  a
 moral,  intellectual, scientific  and  liberal education, and
 prepare the individual for the prosecution of special  lines 
53
of study, such as the application of physics and chemistry
to the arts, agriculture and medicine,  and furnish rules for
the moral conduct of man in  his social  and  political re-
lations.
   The earliest education at all times, past and  present, is.
that of  the family.
   Every child must be trained to acquire that  knowledge
and those arts which will help in the  maintenance of the
economy of the household and which will add to the com-
fort, happiness and support of the parents.
   The child should be taught to yield  cheerful and impli-
cit obedience  to the parental authority, and love should be
founded upon mutual respect and confidence.
   As the family is the fountain of life and strength  to the
State and nation, we cannot have a law-abiding and united
people, and a vigorous and healthy national life, if the  edu-
cation of  the  children  in the  family be  defective.  A
wholesome  respect for the sanctity and  majesty of  law
must first be engendered in the heart of the boy in his  own
home and by the father and mother who bore him.  Law-
lessness and vice in the social  relations, and  corruption in
politics and injustice in the conduct of government and in
the administration of the laws, have their origin in defective
family education.  We cannot expect the development of a.
pure, healthy and noble race of women and men, when the
blood of the mother and father has been poisoned by the
contagion of  vice,  and the debasing  effects of alcohol.
Can the vulture  breed  the  eagle?   Can  the  jackal en-
gender  the lion?
  From all ages the Church has been a source of education*
The earliest physical and intellectual training of man  was
acquired by the practice of the arts of the chase and  war,
and  subsequently of those of agriculture.   Savage  man
viewed  all natural phenomena with superstitious awe,  and
he was easily led to hero worship, and the  erection of the
physical forces of nature, into innumerable benign and evil
deities, the fantastic creation of his own fears and imagina- 
54
tion. The belief in the immortality of the soul, and of a fu-
ture existence of pain or pleasure in accordance with the
good or bad acts of each individual, has been wide-spread at
all times and amongst  most races, and  has underlain and
given form and life to religious superstitious systems, beliefs
and rights.
  As soon  as an educated priesthood took  the place  of
diviners, sorcerers and jugglers, who abused the credulity
of the earlier races, the Priest or representative of the
superstitious and religious ideas, became a potent factor in
the affairs of education, as well as those of government.
  We find the Schools of the  Prophets established  at
an early day in Egypt and Persia.
  The training required for imposing religious ceremonials,
the life of the priest apart from the family, the accomplish-
ments of writing, reading and music, formed a nidus for the
organization of culture, and an opportunity for the efforts
of a philosopher in advance of his  age.  The schools  of
Egypt,  Assyria  and Persia, although  in  a manner theo-
logical, were largely educational.  The Hebrews had little
or no effect upon the progress of science, but the obliga-
tions of the human race to the learning and science of the
priests of the Nile valley are  great indeed.  Much of their
learning is obscure at this day ; but there is reason to  con-
clude that there  is no branch of  science in which they did
not progress, at least  so far as  observation and  careful
registration of facts could carry them.
  The priests of Egypt were  a source of enlightenment to
surrounding nations, even  to the great law-giver of the
Hebrews;  and  those  poets,  historians and  philosophers
who at a later age were most active in  stimulating the nas-
cent energy of Hellas, were careful to trace their ideas and
philosophy and cosmogonies and arts to the wisdom of the
Egyptians.  Greece, in giving her undying name to the lit-
erature of Alexandria,  was only  repaying the debt she had
incurred centuries before.
  Education became secular in  those countries where the 
00
priesthood did not exist as a  separate body.   At Rome,
until Greece took her conqueror captive, a child was trained
in the arts of life in the Forum and in the Senate House.
  The Greeks were the first to de/elop a system of educa-
tion  distinct from ecclesiastic training, and Plato is  the
author of the first systematic treatise on education.
                   The University.
   The university should furnish great libraries, museums,
laboratories, schools of arts and sciences, lecture rooms, lec-
turers, instructors, original investigators, philosophers and
learned professors, with every facility and  appliance  for
the full and free  prosecution  of  the  highest branches of
human knowledge.
   The fully equipped university should  embrace  distinct
departments for theoretical, practical, scientific  and pro-
fessional education, as:
   i.  Natural History.—(a) Botany; (b) Mineralogy;
(c) Zoology; (d) Biology;  (e)  Comparative  Anatomy;
(f) Ethnology;  (g) Physiology;   (h)  Climatology;   (i)
Physical Geography; (j) Geology:  (k) Natural History,
or geographical distribution and progressive  development
and comparative embryology and  structure of plants,  ani-
mals and man.
   2. Theoretical and Applied Mathematics,  Physics,
Astronomy,  Mechanics and Chemistry.—(a) Mathe-
matics, theoretical and applied,  abstract and concrete;
(b) Astronomy;  (c) Physics ;  (d) Mechanics;   (e) Civil
Engineering; (f)  Metallurgy;  (g) Mining Engineering;
(h) Mineralogy;   (i) Chemistry,  inorganic and  organic;
(j) Technical Chemistry;  (k)  Agricultural  Chemistry;
(1) Agriculture.
   3.  Medical  Science  and  Art.—(a)   Physics in
their relations  to  mechanical, chemical, cosmic  and vital
phenomena ; (b)  Inorganic and Organic Chemistry;   (c)
Chemistry in its application to the preparation, manufac-
ture  and  determination of reagents, tests, chemicals  and 
56
medicinal agents; (d) Physiological Chemistry;(z)Patho-
logical Chemistry: (f) Materia Medica, medical botany,
medical mineralogy, physical and chemical and therapeut-
ical properties, and physiological and toxicological action of
remedial agents—natural history, origin and preparation
of mineral and vegetable medicines; (g) Comparative and
Human Anatomy; (h) Pathological Anatomy; (i) Pathol-
ogy;(j) Biology, embryology; (k) Physiology, compara-
tive and human; (1) Therapeutics; (m)  Toxicology;  (n)
Theory and Practice  of Medicine ; (o) Obstetrics; gyne-
cology ; abdominal  and   genitourinary  surgery;  (p)
Diseases of Women  and  Children ; (q) Theoretical  and
Practical Surgery, surgical pathology, laryngology, dental
and  aural surgery; ophthalmology, otology,  surgery of
abdominal  and genito-urinary organs; (r) Hygiene; (s)
Medical Jurisprudence.
  4.  Legal Science.—(a) General Principles of  Civil,
Commercial and International Law; (b)Civil Law; (^Crim-
inal Law ; (d) Commercial Law; (e) National and Inter-
national Law.
 • 5.  Language.—(a)  Ancient  Languages:   Sanscrit,
Arabic, Chinese, Hindoo, Egyptian,  Greek, Latin; (b)
Modern Languages: English, French, German, Russian,
Italian and Spanish;  (c) Philosophy of  Language;  (d)
History of Language,  mode of origin and progressive de-
velopment.
  6.  History.—(a)  History of  Ancient  Nations;  (b)
History of Modern Nations; (c) Philosophy of History.
  7.  Military Science.
  8.  Naval  Science.
  9.   Theology.—(a) Didactic; (b) Pastoral; (c) Logic;
(d)  Mental  Philosophy; (e) Philology;  (f) Languages:
Sanscrit, Hebrew, Egyptian,  Greek,  Latin; (g)  Natural
Theology; (h)  Theoretical and Practical Theology.
  10.  Arts—Fine  Arts.—(a) Drawing; (b) Painting;
(c) Sculpture ;  (d) Music ; (e) Poetry.
  It appears  to  be  reasonable to hold that  the  United 
0<
States of  America should establish at a locality as near as
possible  to  the  center of population of the Republic,  a
NationalUniversity to which all the colleges and univer-
sities of the individual States should be tributary.
  Each State should be represented by its most eminent
men in the various branches of human  knowledge, and the
National University should be amply endowed with schol-
arships,  to  be  filled  by the most intelligent and worthy
young men of the several  States, who have won  their
special  positions by competitive examinations.   Thus, the
humblest, as well as the richest citizen of the United States,
would have an opportunity, upon merit, and  merit alone,
to enter the door of  the temple and be maintained free of
expense during the  prosecution of  his studies, and would
have unfolded to him the theoretical  and practical learn-
ing, wisdom and science  of all  countries and of all  ages.
The National University should  be removed from political
influences and should be situated within the great valley of
the  Mississippi, so as to be  equally accessible to  all por-
tions of this vast republic.  The government of the United
 States  of America maintains  its army and navy, and its
 military  and naval  schools;  why then  should not  the
 money of the people be applied to the accomplishment of
 the  greatest good by the development  and education of the
 highest and noblest powers, intellectual and moral, of  her
 citizens?
   The system of education in  each State should be mod-
 elled upon the highest and most philosophic plan, and the
 individual  public  schools, colleges and State universities
 should form component parts of one  grand system, culmi-
 nating and finding its highest  expression in the National
 University.  Each State should organize a graded system
 of public schools and colleges, from  the grammar school
 up  to the university.
   Education descends from above to the masses; from the
 highly educated to the ignorant;  hence, the State promotes
 the highest ends  of education, not  merely by the estab- 
58
lishment of  common schools, accessible to all, but also by
founding and sustaining institutions in which the  highest
and best instruction in the branches of theoretical and ap-
plied science, in chemistry, mathematics, mechanics, phys-
ics, agricultural chemistry, languages, law, medicine, and
in all the branches of human knowledge, maybe accessible
to the best minds in the commonwealth.
                 Medical Education.
  The  principles  upon  which the  education of medical
students should  be  conducted  do not differ from  those
already  unfolded; the student who designs  becoming a
physician should, in his collegiate course, bend his mental
energies to those branches of science as Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Comparative Anatomy,  Physiology and Botany,
which are most  intimately  connected with the science of
medicine.  The want of preliminary and thorough scientific
training is the source  of  incalculable and almost unremed-
iable difficulty  to the medical student in the pursuit of the
different branches of Medical Science.
  It is of importance that the medical student should form
correct  and enlarged  views, as to the nature, scope and
mutual relations of the  different  branches   of knowledge
included under  the general term Medical Science.
  Up  to a  comparatively recent  period the majority of
American medical  colleges  presented  in  their  working
courses  seven  Professorships  or Lectureships under  the
following heads:
   i.  Chemistry and Pharmacy.
  2.  Materia Medica and Therapeutics.
  3.  Anatomy.
  4.  Physiology and Pathology.
  5.  Obstetrics.
  6.  Surgei-y.
   7.   Theory and Practice of Medicine.
  The advances made in all branches of knowledge, and
especially in the  science  of  medicine,  during the  past 
59
century have exceeded in extent and  value  those  of all
past ages ; and it is no longer possible to compress its vast
domain within the narrow limits  of "Seven  Professor-
ships," or to compass its circle within the brief span of less
than THIRTY MONTHS.
  The present age owes its wonderful progress to experi-
mental scientific research.
  The value and perfection of modern educational systems
are due to  a large extent to practical demonstrations in the
fields of physics,  chemistry, physiology, pathology, thera-
peutics and clinical  medicine.
  Universities of  learning and science  must be  regarded
as composed of two  distinct  bodies.   On  the one  hand
must  be  ranged  the  organizing  powers  and  executive
officers—the trustees and professors;  and  on  the  other
hand, the greater and more  useful body, the grand army of
the Alumni.  The voice of the latter should not be silent,
but should speak  in thunder tones,  demanding a firm, wise
and  steady enlargement  and  practical advance  of the
colleges and universities all along  the  lines  of literature,
art and science.
   We  propose  to  consider the relations  of the  various
branches  of knowledge, grouped  under the head of the
Art  and Science of Medicine,  and  to  present such  an
analysis of each,  as shall illustrate  at  once  their  mutual
and scientific development and possibilities.
   In  accordance with  the principles of  classification
previously laid down we shall proceed from the general to
the complex and  restricted.  The science of medicine will
thus  resemble  a  pyramid,  the  broad base  of which rests
upon the physical and chemical phenomena of inorganic,
 organic and living matter.
                 Physics and Chemistry.
   The study of the physical forces should precede that of
 chemistry proper.
   The science of chemistry has  contributed more  to the
 physical and industrial  progress and wealth of the human 
60
 race than all the other branches of knowledge.  Chemistry-
 is the basis of hygiene and physiology, and it has furnished
 facts of inestimable value to the agriculturist, to the mining
 engineer, and to the manufacturing chemist.
  The introduction of the  study  of inorganic and organic
 chemistry into the public  schools of  Louisiana and of all
 the States and territories of the Republic will not only aid
 in the intellectual  training  of  the children, but will aid
 materially in the agricultural and  mining progress and de-
 velopment of the States.
  Chemistry is an experimental science.   Its conclusions
 and principles are supported by facts.  If our knowledge
 were bounded simply by  the observation of the facts  and
 phenomena  presented by  nature  it  would be  limited
 and uncertain in its  nature.  To supply the deficiency, the
 philosopher has resorted to experiments.
  It may be  said, without exaggeration, that nine-tenths
 of the facts upon which the science of chemistry is  found-
 ed have been evolved by artificial  means;  and without the
 great body  of truth  thus furnished  by experiment,  the:
 science could not have existed.
  It is   impossible  for the  student  of ch emistry and of
 medical  science,  to overestimate  the importance  of this
 great branch of knowledge,  which not  only enlarges  to
 the greatest extent  the  power and dominion of man over
 the powers and properties of matter, administers  to  the
 wants  and  comforts and pleasures of life, and arms  the
 skillful physician with  his most sure and potent weapon in
 the treatment and  prevention  of disease, but it also, in a
pre-eminent degree,  develops and strengthens the mind of
 the medical student, by the habit of careful  experimental
 research,  accurate  observation  and patient  and deep
 thought,  which its  practical study  in the laboratory de-
 velopes.
  In  becoming familiar with chemical  experiments  and
 manipulation, the  medical student  not only observes the
 most  important properties  and phenomena of  nature, by 
                             61


.actual demonstrations, but he gains that knowledge which

 may enable  him  when properly applied, to extend the

 bounds of our knowledge.  After he has learned not only

 how to devise  experiments, but also skillfully to perform

 them,  whenever a doubt or question arises in his mind, as

 for instance  concerning  the  purity  and  efficacy  of his

 drugs, or  the  nature and action of morbid products,  he will

 find that it will be best answered by the  result of actual

 experiment.

   Whatever preliminary knowledge  therefore enables the

 medical student to perform experiments in the  quickest and

 most  correct  manner, should be esteemed by him of the

 utmost value.   Experiment becomes to the  student like the

 external senses  to the  mind—channels of  information, by

 not merely unfold'ng  and illustrating the direct  object of

 inquiry, but also opening collateral views, which pursued and

 extended, terminate in additional chains of information and

 discovery.

   "Nothing" as Dr.  Johnson observes, "is to be consider-

 ed as a trifle by which the mind  is inured  to  caution, fore-

sight  and circumspection.   The same skill, and often the

.same degree  of  skill, is exerted in great and little things."


       Medical  Physics ane  Medical Chemistry.

   A  comprehensive course of lectures on Medical Physics

 and  Medical  Chemistry,  to be  of  practical  value  to the

practitioner of medicine, should  embrace :

 I.  Medical Physics.  Molecular Constitution of Matter.  Specific Grav-
      ity. Weights and Measures. Osmosis.  Diffusion of Gases.  Heat.
      Manufacture and Uses of Thermometers.  Agencies of Heat.  Cli-
      mate.  Heat as a Therapeutical  Agent.   Sources of Heat.  Light.
      Structure   and Uses of the  Microscope.  The  Spectroscope and
      Spectroscopic Analysis. Relations of Light and Heat to Plants and
      Animals.   Electricity,  Static and Dynamic.   Magnetism.   Gal-
      vanism. Relations of Elect.icity to Chemical Affinity.  Agencies
      of Electricity.  Application of Electricity to the treatment of dis-
      eases.  Relations of the Physical,  Chemical and Vital Forces.
II.  Medical Chemistry.   Chemical Affinity.   Chemical Nomenclature
      and Notation.  Classification of Elements and their Compounds.
      Chemical Reagents.   Analysis.  Synthesis.  Inorganic Chemistry.
      Chemistry of the Non-Metals. Pharmaceutical Operations with the
      Metalloids. Toxic  properties  and therapeutic properties of the 
G2
      Non metals and their Compounds. Chemistry of the Metals. Phar-
      maceutical prerarations of the Metals and their Compounds.  Or-
     ganic  Chemistry.  Carbon  and its  Compounds.  Pharmaceutical
      preparation,  therapeutic  application and toxic  properties of Or-
      ganic Compounds.
III.  Vegetable Chemistry.
TV.  Animal Chemistry.
 V.  Pathological Chemistry.

   Each simple body may be  considered in its relations to
the physical forces, and with reference to its relative chem-
ical powers, as will  be fully illustrated  by  the following

tables:
Table I. — Classification of the  Elements in Electro-Chemical,
    Magnetic and Diamagnetic Order.
,----Electro-Chemical Order.---->
  Electro Negative.  Electro-Positive.
Oxygen,
Sulphur,
Selenium,
Nitrogen,
Fluorine,
Chlorine,
Bromine,
Iodine,
Phosphorus,
Arsenicum,
Chromium,
Vanadium,
Molybdenum,
Tungsten,
Boron,
Carbon,
Antimony,
Tellurium,
Silicon,
Hydrogen,
Gold,
 Platinum,
 Palladium,
 Mercury,
Silver,
Copper,
Bismuth,
Tin,
Lead,
Cadmium,
Cobalt,
Nickel,
Iron,
Zinc,
Manganese,
Uranium,
Aluminium,
Magnesium,
Calcium,
Strontium,
Barium,
Lithium,
Sodium,
Potassium.
  -----Magnetic
  Magnetic,
Iron,
Nickel,
Cobalt,
Manganese,
Chromium,
Cerium,
Titanium,
Palladium,
Crown Glass,
Platinum,
Osmium,
Oxjgen.
and Diamagnetic.-----v
      Diamagnetic.
   Bismuth,
   Phosphorus,
   Antimony,
   Zinc,
   Silico-bor. of lead
   Tin,
   Cadmium,
   Sodium,
   Flint Glass,
   Mercury,
   Lead,
   Silver,
   Copper,
   Water,
   Gold,
   Alcohol,
   Ether,
   Arsenicum.
   Uranium,
   Rhodium,
   Iridium,
   Tungsten,
   Nitrogen. 
G3
Table II.—Classification of the Elements in Groups, According to
    Their CHEMICAL EQUIVALENCY™ Relation to Hydrogen.
    The  Atom of  One Element is  by  no Means  Necessarily
    Equivalent  in  Chemical  Power  to  the Atom  of  Another
    Element.
 MONADS.    DYADS.
 Elements     Elements
UsuallyEqui- Usually Equi-
 valent to
  Atom ol
 Hydrogen.
Hydrogen.
Fluorine.
Chlorine.
Bromine.
Iodine.
Lithium.
Sodium.
Potassium.
Rubidium.
Caesium.
Thallium.
Silver.
valent to 2
 Atoms of
Hydrogen.
 TRIADS.   TETRADS.
 Elements    Elements
Usually Equi- Usually Equi-
 valent to 3    valent to 4
  Atoms of    Atoms of
 Hydrogen.    Hydrogen.
PENTADS.  HEXADS.
 Elements    Elements
UsuallyEqui- UsuallyEqui-
Nitrogen.  Carbon.
Phosphorus.Silicon.
Arsenicum. Titanium.
Antimony. Tin.
 valent to 5
 Atoms  of
 Hydrogen.

Niobium.
Tantalum.
Bismuth.
Gold.
Rhodium.
Zirconium.
Thorium.
Lead.
Platinum.
 valent to 6
  Atoms of
  Hydrogen..
Molybde-
  num.
Vanadium.
Tungsten.
Osmium.
Chromium
Manganese
           Oxygen.
           Sulphur.
           Selenium.
           Tellurium.
           Barium.
           Strontium,
           Cadmium.
           Magnesium Boron.
           Zinc.       Aluminium. Palladium.
           Copper.               Iridium.
           Mercury.              Ruthenium.
           Lanthanum            Iron.
           Didymium.            Cobalt.
           Glucinum.             Nickel.
                                  Cerium.
                                  Uranium.

   The equivalent power of an element may be indicated by

affixing dashes or Roman numerals to its symbol.

           Table III.—Classification of the Elements.
                         I.—Non-Metals,

  The non-metallic elements are fourteen in number, exclusive of Arse-
nic, which  by some chemists has been grouped with Sulphur, Selenium,
Tellurium  and Phosphorus.  We  have, however,  classed Arsenicum
amongst the metals which it resembles in some of its properties.
                                                             Atomic
                                                             Weight.
                                                              35-37
(0-
(3)
(5)
Atomic
Weight.
 15.96
             Symbol,
Oxygen,................O
Hydrogen.............H       1
Nitrogen.............N      14.01
Carbon................C      11.97
Phosphorus..........P      30.96
Sulphur.................S      3!-°S
Selenium............Se      78.0
Tellurium...........T     128.0
                  Svmbol.
(2). Chlorine....................CI
    Bromine..................Br
    Iodine...........................I
    Fluorine          ..F
(4). Boron..............B
     Silicon......................Si
II.—Metals: 49 in number.
    Potassium..........K
    Sodium...............Na      22.99
    Lithium..............Li       7.01
    Rubidium...........Rb      85.2
    Caesium..........Cs     133.0
(6). Calcium       Ca      39.9
    Strontium.......... St      87.2
    Barium........---Ba     136.8
39.04  (11). Manganese...........Mn
           Iron...........................Fe
           Cobalt......................Co
           Nickel...................Ni
(12). Chromium..............Cr
     Molybdenum.......Mo
     Tungsten...............W
     Uranium ............   Y
 79-75
126.53
 19.00
 11.0
 2S.0
 54-8
 55-9
 58.6
 58.6

 52-4
 95-6
184.6
240.0 
                           64
(7). Beryllum...........Be     90.   (13). Tin.............................Sn   ii7.8
    Magnesium....., Mg     23.94      Titanium................-^    4^_-
    Zinc....................Zn     64.9      Ziiconium................^r    9°>°
    Cadmium..........Ca     m.6      Thorium..................lh   23 J-J
(8). Lead.................Pb     2064 (14). Vanadium.................^    M-
    Thallium............Th     203.6      Arsenicum...............As    74-9
(9). Copper...............Cu     63.0      Antimony...............&b   12-.U
y9)  Silver.................Ag     to7.66      Bismuth...................-Bi   210.0
    Mercury .........Hg     198.8      Tantalum...............Ja   182.0
                                 Niobium...................>-b    94-°
f 10). Yttrium.............Y     93-                      .     T^A ,
1    Cerium.............Ct     141.2 (15). Gold.........................A"    ^
     Lanthanum.......La     139.0      Platinum.................It   190-<_
     Didvmium ........Di.     14?-       Iridium......................-Ir    I9£-/
     Erbium............Er     169.       Osmium...................Us   19&.0
     Aluminium.......Al     27.3
     Iridium..............lr     113.4 (16). Ruthenium..............Ku    103.5
                                 Rhodium.............Rh    104.1
                                 Palladium...............Pd    106.2
   Of these 63 elements, a distinction must be drawn as  to
their relative utility  and importance to the medical student;
and this elimination  of  the extended consideration  of  the
more rare and less useful elements and  their compounds
from the curriculum of medical chemistry has  proved  of
value and great importance to the speaker, in that it has en-
abled him to concentrate the energies of his students upon
those elements and their compounds which enter into  the
composition of the body of man, and which furnish his most
valuable remedial agents. This proposition will be illustrated
by the following:
Table IV.—Elements  Concerned in the Chemical Changes Taking
                       Place in Life.
Non-Metallic-
Oxygen,         Sulphur,        Potassium,      Aluminium,
Hydrogen,                      Sodium,        Iron,
Nitrogen,        Phosphorus,
Carbon,                        Calcium,       Manganese.
               Chlorine,        Magnesium.
Silicon,         Iodine.
   Of the preceding  16  simple bodies connected  with  the
chemical changes taking place in life,  we  find  that very
few are absolutely essential to the formation of the  proto-
plasm of  the  vegetable  and  animal kingdoms,  namely:
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon.   Oxygen and ni-
trogen constitute the atmosphere;   oxygen and  hydrogen
combine  to form water, the most widely  diffused  of all 
65
liquids, and absolutely essential to all animal and vegetable
development, evolution  and growth;   carbon,  in  various
combinations with oxygen and  hydrogen, forms the basis
and frame-work of all organic compounds.
  The physics and chemistry of water embrace the phys-
ics and chemistry of the crust of our globe  and of the ani-
mal and vegetable kingdoms.
  Without the physical and chemical properties of water
we could have no  manifestation  of  animal  or vegetable
life.   Without the peculiar chemical and physical constitu-
tion of the atmosphere all life would be impossible as  now
known to the human intellect.
  Of the*'63  elements  only  4 occur in  the air; about 30
have  been detected in the sea, and the remainder are found
irregularly  distributed  through  the  solid  mass  of   our
earth.
  The following table gives the  proportion of the chief con-
stituents of the earth's crust: all the other elements occur
in quantities  less than  any of those mentioned.
Table V.— The Composition of  the Earth's  Solid Ciu->t in  100
                    Parts  by Weight.
Oxygen......................44.01048.7  Calcium......................6.6 to 0.9
Silicon................................22.8 to 36.2  Magnesium.........   2.7 to 0.1
Aluminium ........................ 9.9 to 6.1  Sodium...................   2.4102.5
Iron .................................. 9.9 to 2.4  Potassium.........................1.7103.1
  What  determined this distribution of the  elements?
  Why should oxygen, the most important of all elements
to the origin  and development and perfection of plants, be
at the same time the most abundant and widely distributed
of all the elements?
  Did the vegetable and animal kingdoms pre-arrange and
pre-determine the chemical and physical proportions  and
relation of the crust of the globe and its aqueous and aerial
envelopes ?
  Were the forces emanating from  the sun, by which all
vegetable and animal  life is sustained on this earth, engen-
dered by, or in any manner related, as cause and effect.to
he physical and chemical forces of the  sun?
      5 
G«
  Everywhere  in this universe we  find a mutual relation
and correlation  of  the physical  and chemical  forces;  and
upon their uniform relations or  laws, as determined by one
all-pervading and  all-mighty  cause,  rest  manifestations of
life and intellect.
  The great importance of a thorough knowledge of  the
chemistry of  oxygen, hydrogen  and nitrogen  to the medi-
cal student and practitioner, is  most  clearly  illustrated by
the following table, giving the chemical equivalents of cer-
tain  organic compounds:
Table IV.—Che.mil \l Equivalents.
Albuminoids (Liebe	kuhn),	Kreatin.......................	......C4HuN30,
......................C7	H112NlsS023	Kreatinin .................	.....C4H7NiO
P2xcretin......................	C7JtH1:,hS02	Uric or lithic acid.....	C,H4N4Oa
Taurocholic acid......	C26H4,N07S	Urea...........................	...CH4N..O
Glvcocholic acid.......	C26H43NOa	Oxalic acid.............	.... c,n,o,
Cholic acid..........	C4H4(>0,		.....GeH10Or,
Taurin .......................	C2H7NO,S	Dextrin ................	......C.H^O,
Glycocin....................	.CIL.NO,	Glycogen.................	• C0Hl0O,
Bilirubin ...	..CiaH1HN203	Cane sugar...............	C12H,.,011
Biliverdin...................	C18H20N2O;,	Glucose ....................	CH, 20(i
Tyrosin .......................	-C,HnN03	Lactose ...................	......C0H12O8
	CfiH)3N02	Inosite .......	C0Hi 2Oti
Hippuric acid .........	C9H9N03	Lievulose....................	C^H! 20(i
Xanthin...................	C0H4N4O,	Cholesterin.............	......C26H440
Cvstin........................	C,H7NSO,		
  For purposes of systematic study we have  arranged the
non-metals in four groups and the metals in twelve groups,
but it must be observed,
   i.  That  such  classifications  are, to a  certain  extent,
arbitrary.  Thus we may arrange the metals in eight groups
as follows :
  i.  Metals of the Alkalies, 5 in number— 1, Potassium; 2, Sodium,
3, Lithium; 4, Caesium; 5, Rubidium.
  2.  Metals of the Alkaline Earths, 3  in number—6,  Barium; 7
Strontium: 8, Calcium.
  3.  Metals of the Earths,S in number—9, Aluminium : 10, Glucinum ;
11, Yttrium;  12, Erbium;i3, Terbium; 14, Cerium; ^Lanthanum;  16, Di-
dymium.
  4.  Metals More or Less Analogous  to  Iron, 6 in number__17,
Cobalt;i8, Nickel; 19, Uranium; 20, Iron; 21, Chromium; 22,  Manganese.
  5.  Magnesian Metals, 3  in number—23, Magnesium; 24, Zinc: 25,
Cadmium.
  6.  Metals Which Yield Acids When Their Higher Oxides are
Combined With Water, 12 in  number—26, Tin ; 27, Titanium ; 28 Zir-
conium;  29, Thorium; 30, Molybdemum; 31, Tungsten; 32, Niobium; 33,
Tantalum; 34, Vanadium; 35, Arsenicum 136, Antimony; 37, Bismuth. 
07
  7.  Four Metals—38, Coppei ; 39, Lead; 40, Thallium; 41, Iridium.
  8.  Noble Metals, 9 in number—42, Mercury;  43, Silver; 44, Gold;
40, Platinum; 46, Palladium ; 47, Rhodium ; 48, Ruthenium; 49, Osmium;
59, Iridium.

   If a strictly natural order  were to  be followed  in group-

ing the  elements it would be necessary to modify the fore-

going   arrangement.   In  many  instances  these  natural

relations  between  the individual elements thus grouped

together  are  very  striking, in  others  they  are  more

obscurely marked and in the case of the metals of the earth

proper, as well as of  the  noble metals, the natural chemi-

cal  relations of  their elements with  the others  are  as yet

but incompletely known.

   The metals may also be classified  for analytical purposes

and for purposes of ready detection, according to their  be-

havior  with  certain   chemical reagents as hydrosulphuric

acid, hydrosulphate  of  ammonia and  carbonate of am-

monia,  as in the following table.

      ANALYTICAL CLASSIFICATION  OF THE METALS.
     1.            n.           in.           iv.           v.
Metals, the solu-
tions  of which
are precipitated
hy HYDRO-
CHLORIC
ACID, because
their  com-
pounds  -with
chlorine (chlo-
rides)  are  in-
soluble or nearly
so, in water and
in diluted acids.

Lead.
Silver.
Mercury  (in
  the mercur-
  o u s   or
  proto-salts)
Metals,thesolu-
tions  of which
are precipitated
liv HYDRO-
S'ULPHCRIC
ACID in  the
presence  o(
iiydrochl o r i c
acid,   because
their  c o m -
pounds  with
sulphur  (sul-
phides) are in-
soluble in water
and cold diluted
acids.

Lead.
Mercury  (in
  the mercu-
  ric or per-
  salts).
Bismuth.
Copper.
Tin.
Antimony.
Arsenic.
Metals, the solu-
tions of which
are precipitated
by HYDRO
SULPHATE
OFAMMONIA
in the presence
of  amm o n i a ,
because the sul-
phides of  the
first rive and the
oxides of  the
last two are in-
soluble in water
and in ammonia
or its salts.

Iron.
Nickel.
Cobalt.
Manganese.
Zinc.
Aluminium.
Chromium.
Metals, the solu-
tions  of which
are precipitated
by CARBO-
NATE   OF
AMMONIA be-
cause their car-
bonates are in-
soluble in water
and in ammonia
or its salts.

Barium.
Strontium.
Calcium.
Metals,thesolu
tions of which
are not precipi-
tated  by  the
foregoing tests.

Magnesium.
Potassium.
Sodium.
Ammonium.
   The preceding facts  illustrate  the vast extent  and com-
plexity of the science of chemistry, and  the  impossibility
of  covering  the  entire field  in  the  short  space of five
months. 
C8
   The great defect in the system pursued  in the majority
 of American medical colleges is the want, in the first place,
 of preliminary  training,  and, in the second place,  of  the
 necessary time, and, in the third place, of carefully graded
 courses.
   It is manifestly impracticable for the professor of  chem-
 istry to give an equal amount of  time to the consideration
 of the individual elements.
   An extended experience as a teacher of medical chemis-
 istry has led to  the adoption of the following plan of  in-
 struction as best  adapted to  establish  the most thorough
 knowledge  of those branches of chemical science which
 will be of the greatest scientific and practical utility to  the
 medical student and practitioner:
   ist.   The individual elements  are  considered in their
 relative importance in  their relations  to the chemical con-
stitution and piocesses, and to the treatment  of diseases of
 man, as in the following order :
       Non Metals.
         Oxygen.
         Hydrogen.
Nitrogen,
Carbon.
Phosphorus.
Sulphur.
Chlorine.
Bromine.
Iodine.
	Metals.
I.	Potassium.
2.	Sodium.
3-	Calcium.
4-	Magnesium
5-	Iron.
6.	Antimony.
7-	Arsenic.
S.	Mercury.
9-	Lead.
IO.	Copper.
n.	Zinc.
12.	Silver.
'3-	Bismuth.
«4-	Tin.
i;.	Nickel.
16.	Gold.
17-	Manganese.
iS.	Lithium.
   2d.   Each  element is considered in its four-fold  rela-
tions, namely  :
   (a)   Natural history, properties, geological and  geo-
graphical distribution, mode of  extraction  and prepara-
tion.
   (b)   Physical and chemical  properties,  relations and
compounds. 
G'J
   (c)   Physiological and therapeutical properties and re-

lations.  Relations to organic compounds.

   (d)   Poisonous properties.   Toxic   effects  and  anti-

dotes.


                ORGANIC  CHEMISTRY.

   The  complexity  and  the  vastness   of the  field  now

covered by the modern science of Organic Chemistry may

be demonstrated by  a mere enumeration of  the more im-

portant chemical processes and compounds.


Organic Chemistry, or the Chkmistry  of the Hydro

             carbons and their derivatives.

  Organic Analyses: Classification of Organic Bodies;  Metamorphorsis;
Synthesis. Differences between Organized and Organic Bodies.  Differ
ences between Organic and Inorganic Compounds.
  Ultimate Organic Analysis: Determination of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxy-
gen, Nitrogen, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Phosphorus, Sulphur, and other
elements.  Calculation of Analysis, Determination of Vapor Density.
Determination of Molecular Formula*.  Empirical and Rational Formula?.

            Classification  of the Carbon Compounds.
                  I.  Fatty Bodies.—Paraffins.

  Fractional distillation.

       II.  The Compounds of the Monad Alcohol  Radicals.

   The Alcohols and their Derivatives.  General Principles of  Classifica-
cation, Homologous Series;  Illustration  from the Alcohols.  Collateral
series.  Theory of  Compound Radicals.   Theory of Isolated  Radicals—
Atoms. Molecules.  Chemical Types. Theory o*f Multivalent or Polyad
Elejnents.
  Production of Chemical Metamorphosis by Oxidation, Reduction and
Substitution. Synthesis of Organic Compounds.
  Different Varieties of Fermentation.  Products of Fermentation.
    Synthesis of the Primary Alcohols and the Fatty Acids.  Secondary
Alcohols and Ketnos. Tertiary  Alcohols.  The Methyl Group. Methane
or Methyl Hydride.  Methyl Alcohol.  Methyl Oxide or Di-Methyl Ether.
Ethereal Salts of Methyl.  Sulphur, Tellurium, Selenium, Compounds of
Methyl.  Nitrogen  Bas"is  of Methyl, Cyanogen, Compounds of Methyl.
Nitro-compounds of Methyl.   Phosphorus Compounds of Methyl. Ar-
senic Compound* of Methyl, Cacodyl or Dimethylarsine Compounds.
  Compounds of Methyl with Antimony,  Boron, and Silicon.  Metallic
Compounds of Methyl, Trichlormethane  or Chloroform.
  The Formyl Group. Formic Aldehyde:  Formic Acid,  the Formates.
  The Ethyl Group. Ethane, Ethyl Alcohol, Alcoholometry. The Alcoho-
lates, Eth vlates, Ethyl Ether.or Ethvl Oxide, Chlorine substitution products
of Ether." The Ethereal Salts  of Ethyl or Ethyl Compound Ethers: Ethyl
Sulphuric Acid,  Ethvl Sulphates, Ethyl Nitrites and Nitrates, Phosphites
and Phosphates of Ethyl.  Arsenites, Arsenates and Borates of Ethyl, Ethyl
Silicates, Carbonates, Ethyl Formates, Sulphur Compounds of  Ethyl, 
70
 Xanthic Acid,  Compounds of Ethyl  with Selenium and  Tellurium, Ni-
 trogen bases of  Ethyl, Cyanogen Compounds of Ethyl, Ethylated I'reas,
 Ethyl Semicarbonides, Ethylated Thio-Ureas, Nitro-Compounds of Ethyl,
 Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, Boron and Silicon Compounds
 with Ethyl, Compounds of Ethyl with the metals.
   Actyl Compounds:  Acetic  Acid, the Acetates or the Salts and Ethers
 of Acetic Acid,  Haloid  Compounds of Acetyl, Sulphur and Nitrogen
 Compounds of Acetyl.
   Acetonitril and its Derivatives.  Methyl Cyanide, Pulmonuric Acid.
   Substitution Products of Acetic Acid. Chlorine  substitution  products,
 Mono-Chloracetic  Acid,  Dichloracetic Acid, Trichloracetaldehyde or
 Chloral, Chloral Hydrate, Trichloracetic Acid, Bromine and Iodine sub-
 stitution products.
 ///.  Compounds Containing Three Atoms of Carbon, or the Pro-
        phyl Group.
 IV.  Compounds of Four Atoms of  Carbon or the Butyl Group.
 V.   Compounds Containing Five Atoms  of Carbon or  the Pentvl
        Group.  Pentane and its derivatives.

     Isopentine and  its derivatives.
     The A my I Compounds.  The Amyl Ethers.
 VI.  Compounds with Six Atoms of Carbon or the Ilexyl Group.
 VII.  Compounds  Containing  Seven  Atoms of Carbon  or thk
       Heptyl Group.
 VIII.   Compounds  Containing  Eight Atoms  of  Carbon or the
      Octyl Group,  Octyl Compounds, Tetra-Methyl, Butane and its
      derivatives, Ilex-Methyl Ethane, Octric Acids.
 IX.  Compounds Containing Nine Atoms of  Carbon or  the  Nonyl
      Group.
 A'.  Compounds  Containing Ten Atoms of Carbon or the Decalyl Group,
      the Capric or Decalyl Acids.
 XI.  Compounds Containing Eleven Atoms of Carbon  or  the Hendccatyl
      Group.
 XII.  Compounds Containing Tv.'elvc Atoms  of Carbon  or the Dodecatyl
      Group.

 XIII.   Compounds Containing Thirteen Atoms of Carbon or the Tridecatyl
      Group.                                                  t
 XIV.  Compounds Containing  Fourteen Atoms of Carbon  or the
      Tetrad f.catyl Group.
 XV.  Compounds Containing Fifteen Atoms of Carbon or the Pev-
      tadec atyl Group.
 A'lY.  Compounds Containing Sixteen  Atoms of Carbon or the Hecdecatyl
      Group.
XVII.  Compounds Containing Seventeen Atoms of Carbon.
XVIII.  Compounds Containing Eighteen Atoms of Carbon.
 AYA'.   Fatty Acids Containing from Nine to Twenty-five Atoms of Carbon.
      The Waxes, Fatty Acids, Soap.
A'A'.   Compounds Containing Divalent Radicals.  Dyad Alcohol Radi-
      cals.
Dioxysuccinic or a Tartaric Acid.  Uric Acid Derivatives. The aloxan, para-
      banic,  and allantoin groups,  xanthine, sarcine,  and  guanene
      caffeine and theobromine guanines.
XXI.   Compounds of Trivalents or Triad Radicals.  Propenyl alcohol or
      glycerine—the fats orglvcerides  and glycine acid. 
71
XXII.  Compounds of the Monad-Alcohol Radicals.  Compounds con-
      taining  from ten to fifteen atoms of carbon.  Oleic Acid.
XXIII.  Tribasic Acids.  Citric Acid, Citrates, Aconitic Acid.
XXIV.  Drying Oils:
A'AT.  Alcohols of the Tctratomic  Radicals.  Alcohols of the Hexatomtc.
      Radicals.   Carbohydrates.  The sugar group.  The Amylose group
      The Saccharoses.
XXVI.  Aromatic  Compounds, or  Compounds Rich in  carbon.    Aro-
      matic hydrocarbons.  Isomerism in the aromatic group.
XXVII.  Dihydroxy-benzine and allied products.
XXVIII.   Trihydroxy-bcnzine, Pyrogallol.
A'A/A".  Diamidobcnzeues.
A'A A'.  Essential Oils and Resins.
      Essences, Resins  and  Glucosides Coloring Matters,  Ycllv-v Dyes,
      Red Dyes, Blue Dyes.
      Products of Destructive Destination.
      Compounds of Cyanogen:  Bases of Animal Origin, L'ric Acid and
      its dei natives.
 \ \ AY.  Bases of  Animal  Origin. — Urea,  Kreatine, Kreatinine,
      Sarkosine,  Methyluramine,  Guanine,  Xanthine, Ilvpozanthine,
      Glycosine, Alanine, Leucine, Tyrosine.
 XXXII.  Uric Acid and its Derivatives, Urates, Products of the decom-
      position of Uric Acid.
 V \ XIII.  Albuminoid and Gelatinous Principles.—Gelatine, Products of
       the Oxidation of the Albuminoid and Gelatigenous Groups.
       Protein and its Derivatives,Albumin, Paralbumin,Globulin,Yitellin,
       Fibrin, Casein, Legumin, Gelatin, Orsein, Chondrin.
  \ V V/U.  Chemical Properties of the Solids  and Fluids of Animals.
       Bones, Cartilage, Silk,  Feathers, Hair  Sponge, Chitin Cartilage,
       Muscular Tissue, Juice of Flesh,  Inosic Acid, Inisate,  Inosui
       (Muscle-Sugar).                                     .
       CompSnents of the  Brain.  Cerebric and Oleophosphonc Acids,
       Mvelin,Protagon and Neurine.
       Plas'.ic Nutrient Animal Liquids. Blood,  Hemoglobin,Cruronn or
       Hamiato-Crvstalin, Hematin or  ILematosin.
       The Chyle," Milk, Lymph, Saliva, Gastric Juice,  Pancreatic Juice,
       Mucus-Mucin.                          .
       The  Bile.—Glvcocholic Acid, Cholic  Acid,  Cholates, Choloidic
       Acid   Dvslvsin,  Choloidanic  Acid, Taurocholic or Cholic Acid,
       Hvocholic "Acid, Taurin, Cholesterin, Cholesterolin, Cholesteric
       Acid,  Lithofellic Acid, Biliary Calculi,  Colouring  Matters of the
       Bile,'Bilirubin, Cholepyrrhin,  Biliverdin.
  \\\V   Escremeniitious  Products.— The  Urine  in  Health  and
 " '  ' Disease,  Constituents  of the  Urine,  Normal, Abnormal, Urinarv
       Sediments and Calculi, Diabetic Urine, Albuminous Urine.  Sweat,
       Cutaneous Excretions,  Pulmonary  Excretions, Solid Excrements,
       Excreatine, Excretolic Acid.

    We have  thus only  given  the mere names of  the subjects

 and genera  of  the substances  which at  present are group-

 ed under the head  of  "Organic Chemistry," and  the  bare

 recital  of  this  formidable catalogue  is  sufficient to  appal

 and dishearten the brightest and most sanguine student. 
72
  How absolutely essential to the  progress of the medical
students is the faithful guidance of the professor of chem-
istry who after a survey of the entire domain of organic
chemistry selects, arranges and illustrates those subjects and
substances which are of the greatest  value to the medical
student and practitioner?
  How shall we estimate  the value of  careful demonstra-
tions of the great organic groups and of the most important
processes of analysis, and of the most important bodies, as
the alcohols alcaloids, vegetable and animal products—the
composition of  the urine and blood in  health and disease
with all the most important tests, chemical, microscopical
and spectroscopical demonstrations !

               II.—MATERIA MEDIC A.
  Materia medica designates that  department of  medicine
which  is  devoted  to the consideration of the chemical,
physical, botanical  and medicinal properties of remedies.
  A thorough  knowledge of  the nature, strength, source
and purity of remedies, should embrace the study of
  (a) Uotanv.
  (b) The geographical and geological distribution of minerals,  plants
and animals, yielding remedies for the treatment of diseases.
  (c) The mineralogical characters of remedies.
  (d) The chemical relations, reactions and incompatibles  of remedies,
whether derived from the inorganic or organic kingdoms.
  The progress of  materia medica as a branch of medical
knowledge has been largely dependent  upon the progress
of chemistry.
  In the present state  of knowledge we appear to  be al-
ways on the verge  of  the  most amazing  results,  and  we
are often  at a  loss to know when or where the outcome
will be.  Chemistry, which used  to  be chiefly  analytical,
has latterly shown  signs of  progress in a  new and  unex-
pected  direction; it has now become synthetical.   There
are virtually no  limits to the substances which can be made
synthetically.  Thus, Berthelot, in considering the possible
number of combinations with acids of certain alcohols, cal-
culates that if you give each a name, allowing a line for the 
name, then print ioo lines on a page, and make volumes of
iooo pages,  and place a million  volumes in a library, it
would require 14,000 libraries to contain this catalogue.
  Berthelot properly calls such bodies  infinite, instancing
the synthetical construction of the  alcohol and  aldehyde
series, of the organic acids, of the amides, of urea, and
the millions of possible bodies which loom in the future.
  It is well known that bodies of this nature have import-
ant relations  to  the properties of  the nervous system in
man.   We  have but  to mention  sulphuric ether, chloro-
form,  chloralhydrate, nitrite  of  amyl  and  the various
amides.
  The experiments of Bernard on  amygd'alin have shown
that this question is even more intricate  and vast than was
expressed by Berthelot.
  It is manifest, therefore, that  the  possible agents for
affecting the human body are infinite, and  that  the prob-
lems relating to  pathology and therapeutics, which may be
experimentally discussed and solved in  the higher animal
organisms, are equally infinite.
  It is customary  in  many medical colleges  to combine
Materia Medica and Therapeutics under the same division
or chair.  Such  combination,  however, is  neither  neces-
sary nor philosophical.
  Therapeutics, in that it treats of the use and administra-
tion of medicines in the  cure  of disease, necessarily pre-
supposes on the  part of the student something more than a
knowledge of chemistry and  materia medica—it  demands
also a knowledge of physiology and pathology.

                    III.—Pharmacy.
  Pharmacy treats of the collection, classification, prepar-
ation,  preservation  and dispensation of medicines.   The
physical and chemical processes and analytical and  syn-
thetical methods of pharmacy  do not differ from those of
organic  and  inorganic  chemistry.  In  like manner the
chemical reagents are  all the  results of the operations of
the chemist. 
74
   A systematic course on Pharmacy  should  embrace the

following subjects :

    (a.)   Laboratory  and dispensary  stove, furniture, apparatus and  im-
plements.
    (b)   Analysis of the  various pharmacopoeias, used by the  United
States of America, the British Empire, the German Empire, the  French
Republic and  other  nations.
    (c)   Specific gravity, weights and measures: modes of generating,
measuring, regulating and applying  heat, trituration, crystalization, fil-
tration, solution, evaporation and distillation; percolation or the displace-
ment process.
    (d)   The  different parts of plants, their collection, desiccation and
powdering.
    (e)   Inorganic  Pharmaceutical  Chemistry.
    Non-metallic elements and their medicinal preparations;  Inorganic
acids, monad  metals and their  medicinal  preparations;  dyad, triad,
tetrad and pentad metals and their medicinal preparations.
    (f)   Quantitative and qualitative  analysis.   Reagents, test solutions,
volumetric solutions.
    (g)   Pharmacy in its Relations to Organic Chemistry.
    (h)   Lignine fibre and its derivatives.
    (i)   Farinaceous, mucilaginous and saccharine principles.  Starches,
amylaceous medicines, etc.  Gums and mucilaginous medicines.  Sugars,
tests for sugars and other  carbohydrates, saccharine group of medicines.
    (j)   Animal products used in medicines.
    (k)   Fermentation, alcohols  and ethers; alcohol and its derivatives
Ether: chloroform, chloral, iodoform, etc.
    (1)  Fixed Oils and Fats.  Fatty Acids.  Lead Plaster. Glycerine.
Fixed Oils and Fats used in Medicine.
    (m^i Volatile Oils, Camphors  and Resins, and their use in Medicine
    (n)  Organic Acids used in Medicine.
    (o)  Organic Alkalies and Alkaloids.  Natural and Artificial Quaterna-
ry Alkaloids.  Native Tertiary Alkaloids.  Artificial Tertiarv Alkaloids.
Opium,  Cinchona, Strychnos, Solanaceous and Tertiary Alkaloids.  Alka-
loids of  Animal Origin.
    (p)  Neutral Organic Principles.
    (q)  Galenical Pharmacy.
    (r) Medicinal Waters.
    (s)  Infusions, Decoctions, Spirits and Tinctures, Medicated  Wines,
Vinegars, Elixirs and Cordials.
    (t)  Fluid Extracts.
    (u)  Syrups, Honeys and Glvcerites.
    (v)  Opium and its Derivatives.  Assay of Opium.
    (w)   Liniments,  Powders,  Abstracts  and  Extracts,  Resins  and
Resinoids, Conserves, Confections, Lozenges, etc.
    (x)  Pills, Pill Masses, Suppositories, Cerates, Ointments, Oleates and
Plasters.
    (y)  Extemporaneous  Pharmacy.—Prescriptions.  Language and
Mode of Writing Prescriptions.  Of the Art  of  Selecting and Com-
bining Medicines.
    (z)  On  Dispensing and Compounding Prescriptions. The Furniture
of a Physician's Dispensing Office.  Dispensing.

   The source  of   medical  instruction   furnished   by   a

thoroughly equipped medical college should be so full  and

comprehensive, that the  diploma conferring  the degree of 
75
Doctor of Medicine should also qualify the graduate  to
practise the subordinate and inferior art of the druggist or
Master of Pharmacy.   The success  of the druggist should
depend absolutely upon the support and encouragement of
the physician, otherwise the druggist would usurp the office
of the physician and prescribe for diseased people, as well
as compound and  vend his medicine. Every graduate of a
recognized regular school of medicine has undoubtedly the
right not merely to prescribe, but also to compound and dis-
pense his own medicines to the sick under his care. If the
surgeon is empowered by his diploma to use his knives in
operations upon the living human body, in like manner the
physician has the inalienable right of  preparing and dis-
pensing his own medicines.  Without this right the prac-
tice of the medical profession would be impossible through
vast districts of the United States.
   We observe at the present day  a  constant tendenc}'  on
the part of retail  and wholesale druggists, pharmaceutists
and manufacturing chemists, to  usurp the functions of the
medical profession.
   The retail druggist, in  many  instances, not only retails
intoxicating liquors, and  sells deadly  poisons, but he pre-
scribes for diseases and sells his own preparations or those
of the  patent  medicine vendor.  The retail druggist also
frequently recommends the  prescriptions  of  the neighbor-
ing practitioner, and  in not  a  few instances  has  obtained
patents for the exclusive use of  the same.
   When  druggists pretend to  devise and prepare certain
medicinal compounds,  which  they  recommend to the
public as specifics for the cure of certain  diseases, and sell
the same to any and every ignorant and unsuspecting dupe,
they deliberately usurp the powers  and  privileges of the
regular medical profession, and should be  prosecuted for
practising medicine  without a  license.  The  question of
malpractice is also worthy of consideration.
   The large manufacturing drug and chemical houses of the
commercial centres of the United States and foreign  coun- 
7(i
 tries not merely  subsidize  the'public press, which literally
 fattens on their advertisements, but they have invaded the
 sacred temple of medicine, and planted their emblems, fitly
 represented by the hog and other unclean  beasts, in  the
 very heart of the medical literature of the day.
   Whether the medical  profession  possesses  the inherent
 power to control these evils by first purging  its garments,
 and  then invoking the strong arm  of the law,  remains as
 one of the grave  problems of the future.
   The plain duty of our medical schools is to  impart that
 amount  of  thorough  and  comprehensive  knowledge  in
 chemistry,  materia  medica,  pharmacy,  physiology  and
 therapeutics, as will furnish a corps of thoroughly educated
 and skilled physicians, fully equipped, to guard and guide
 the  public in  all  matters  relating to the preservation of
 health and the healing of diseases.
   The true independence of our beloved Southern country
 in this and in all other matters relating to her physical and
 intellectual welfare and progress, must be achieved by en-
 larging and perfecting our institutions of  learning and sci-
 ence, and by  the  most careful  training  and the highest
 moral, intellectual and scientific development of her sons.
                      IV. Anatomy.
   The province of  Anatomy  is to determine the construc-
 tion,  form  and  relations  of the  structures of organized
 bodies.
    (a) Comparati\e Anatomy.
    (b) Human Anatomy (Anthropotomy).
    (c) Developmental or Embryological Anatomy.
    (d) Morphological Anatomy.
    fe) Teleological or Physiological Anatomy.
    (f) General Anatomy, Anatomy of the textures and organs.  His-
 tologv, Microscopical or Minute Anatomy.
    (g) Regional  Anatomy,  Anatomy of  the organs  and tissues and
 bloodvessels in their natural positions and relations.
    (h) Surgical Anatomy, the Anatomy of the bones, muscles,  nerves
 and blood vessels considered in their relations to the nature and objects of
 surgical operations.
   (i) Morbid or Pathological Anatomy.
  From  its  manifold aspects, Anatomy forms the basis of
the biological sciences;  and a thorough knowledge of  this 
77
fundamental branch of medical science is absolutelv essen-
tial to the physiologist,  pathologist, obstetrician, surgeon
and practitioner of  medicine.
   Human Anatomy, the dissection or separation of parts
by cutting, can only be learned thoroughly and practically
in the dissecting room and in the  dead-house.
   An abundant  supply of well injected and well preserved
human bodies exposed in well ventilated  and well lighted
rooms, is absolutely  essential to the successful pursuit of
practical anatomy by the medical  student.
   The utmost caution and the highest skill should be ex-
ercised in  the  preparation  and  preservation  of human
bodies designed for dissection and the  study of  practical
Anatomy in the warm, moist climate of New Orleans and
other Southern cities.
   Every  facility should  be  furnished  to  the medical
student for the  careful  and  thorough examination of  the
organs and tissues by  the aid of the microscope.
   It is impossible  to teach Anatomy by the aid alone of
lectures, class demonstrations, models and drawings.  The
medical student should regard the dissection of the human
body as  at once  his highest duty and most valuable
privilege.

V. PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY.
   The advance of medical science necessitates  the separa-
tion of pathological anatomy into a distinct branch of medi-
cal science, which should receive the care and attention of
a teacher or professor especially  devoted to its develop-
ment and illustration.
   A well ventilated, commodious and well lighted laboratory
supplied with the latest improvements in optical instruments,
(microscopic, photographic instruments, spectroscopes and
polariscopes), and stocked with the necessary instruments
for making minute dissections, and sections of the diseased
organs and tissues should at  all times be  at the command
of the professor of pathological anatomy  for the through
and svstematic instruction of his students. 
78
  All the best reagents for staining and preserving tissues, as-
well as all the  necessary apparatus  for the study of bac-
teria and their culture, should be liberally supplied.
  It is impossible to overestimate  the value of  the results
which might flow from the careful and systematic investi-
gation of  the pathological anatomy of such  diseases as
yellow fever and the  various forms  of  malarial fever.
  If the  teachers of pathological anatomy had  spent more
time in the  dead-house and had labored more  assiduously
with the microscope, the profession  would have been sup-
plied with  substantial facts as to the  true pathological ana-
tomy of many  diseases, and more especially of yellow and
malarial  fevers. We should no longer hear the absurd and
false statement that ycllozu fever has no recognizable patho-
log ical anatomy—no distinctive pathological lesions.
  If any substantial advance is  to be made in the knowl-
edge  of  the causes and  rational  treatment of insanity, it
must  be based upon  and arise  out  of the careful  deter-
mination  of the pathology of the  cerebro-spinal nervous
system.
  Those in charge of hospitals  and asylums for the insane
should embrace every opportunity for the thorough phys-
ical, chemical  and microscopical examination of the  struc-
tures of the cerebro-spinal and sympathetic nervous systems.
  The  systematic  and practical  course in Pathological
Anatomy and Histology, should embrace the  following
subjects.
    i'a) The  method of making post-mortem examinations.
    (b) Methods of preparing pathological specimens, and of  prepar
ing them for study.
    (c) Morbid changes in the heart and blood vessels.
    fd) Morbid changes in the blood.                       _
    (e) Degenerations.
    (f)  Changes caused by inflammation.
    (g) Structure and mode of development of tumors:  fatty tumors;
cancers, etc.
    (h) Pathological changes characteristic of phthisis, leprosv svphilis,
etc.
    (i)  Pathological anatomy and histology of the various organs, tex-
tures, as the integuments; muscular and fibrous tissues; circulating and
respiratory apparatus, nervous system, digestive system, genito-urinary
system, etc.
    (j)  Animal parasites. 
79
   (k)  Bacteria:  microscopical  and chemical examinations; culture
experiments; methods of demonstrating the presence and effects of bac-
teria, methods of staining  etc.
   (1)  The lesions found in general diseases (fevers, etc.), in poisoning
and in violent deaths.
                      VI. Biology.
   Biology deals with the phenomena manifested  by living
matter.  Though it is customary  to  group  apart  such of
these phenomena as are termed mental, and such of them
as are  exhibited by men in  society,   under the heads of
Psychology  and Sociology, yet it  must  be allowed  that
no natural boundary  separates  the subject  matter of the
latter sciences from Biology.
   Psychology is  inseparably linked with Physiology,  and
the phases of social life exhibited by animals other than
man, fall within the'province of the  biologist.
   The Biological  Sciences  are sharply marked  off from
the  abiological,  or those  which treat of the  phenomena
manifested by non-living matter, in so far  as the properties
of living matter distinguish  it absolutely   from  all other
kind of  things, and  as  the  present   state  of knowledge
furnishes us with no link between the  living and  the non-
living.
   Distinctive Properties of Living Matter.—The distinc-
tive properties of living matter are :
   i. Its  chemical  composition, containing one   or  more
forms  of  a  complex compound  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen,
Oxygen  and  Nitrogen, the  so-called Protein, which has
never  yet  been obtained  except as  a product  of living
bodies,  united  with a large  proportion  of  water,  and
forming the chief  constituent of a  substance which in its
primary unmodified state is known as protoplasm.
   2. Its  universal disintegration and waste  by  oxidation
and its concomitant reintegration by the intus-susception of
new   matter.  Lime  is constantly  associated  with  the
breaking up of the  protoplasm into oxides, of  the  elements
Carbon, Hydrogen and Nitrogen.
   The new matter taken in to make good  this loss is either 
w
 a ready formed protoplasmic  material supplied  by some
 other living being, or it consists of the elements of proto-
 plasm, united in simple  combinations which  consequently
 have to be built up into protoplasm by the agency of living
 matter itself.
   In either case the addition" of molecules to  those which
 already existed takes place, not at the surface of the living
 mass, but by interposition  between  the existing molecules
 of the latter.
   The decrease, increase  or  stationary  condition  of  the
 protoplasm depend upon  the  balance between these  two
 processes.
   3.  The tendency of living matter to undergo cyclical
 changes.   All living  matter  proceeds  from pre-existing
 living matter, a portion of the latter being detached, ac-
 quiring an  independent existence.   The  new form  takes
 the character of that from which it arose, exhibiting the same
 power  of propagating itself by means of an off-shoot,  and
 sooner or later, like its  predecessor, ceases  to live and is
 resolved  into the more highly  oxidated  compounds  of its
 elements.
  4.  The activities of living matter depend upon moisture
 and upon heat, with a  limited range of heat and with cer-
 tain structural  organization.
  5.  Even in  the simplest forms of living matter the  mi-
 croscope reveals that they are  heterogenous optically,  and
 that the different  parts differ  chemically and physically,
 and that in more  highly organized things more heteroge-
 neity is exchanged for a  definite structure,  whereby  the
body is distinguished  into visibly  different  parts, which
possess different powers or functions.  Living  things which
present this visible structure are said to be organized.
  Living matter or protoplasm  and the  products of its
metamorphosis may be regarded under four aspects :
  1st.  External and internal form or structure.
  2d.  It occupies a certain position in space  and in time.
  3d.  It is subject to  the operation of certain forces, in 
si
 virtue of which it undergoes internal changes, modifies ex-
 ternal objects and is modified by them.
   4th.   Its form, place  and powers are the effects of cer-
 tain causes.
   In correspondence with these  four conditions or aspects
 of living matter biology is divisible into four chief subdi-
 visions.
    1 st.  Morphology.
    2d.  Distribution.
    3d.  Physiology.
    4th. ^Etiology!
   Morphology includes  anatomy, histology (minute or mi-
 croscopal anatomy) ; development, or the history of the an-
 atomy of a living being  at the successive periods of its ex-
 istence and of the  manner in which an anatomical stage
 passes into the next; taxonomy, or the arrangement of  liv-
 ing beings into groups  according to their degrees of like-
 ness.
   Distribution.— Differences produced or manifested  in
 fauna and flora by  land  and water, by  latitude, elevation
 and by climate should be considered in present  and in past
 geological epochs.
   Physiology.—Living beings are not only  natural  bodies
 having a definite form and mode of  structure, growth and
 development; they are machines in  action, and  under this
 aspect the phenomena which they present  have  no parallel
 in the mineral world.  The actions of  livino;  matter  are
 termed its functions, which  may be referred to  three cate-
 gories :
   r.  Functions which  affect the material composition of
 the body and  determine its mass, which is the balance of
 the processes of waste on the one hand, or those of assimi-
 lation on the other.
   2. Functions  which  subserve the process of  reproduc-
tion, which is essentially  the  detachment of a part with
the power of developing into an independent  whole.
   3.  Functions in virtue of  which one part of the body
is  able to exert a direct influence on another and the body
      6 
by  its parts or as a whole becomes the  source of molar
motion.
  The first  may be termed sustentative, the second genera-
tive and the third correlative.
  4.  ^-Etiology.—Morphology,distribution and physiology,
instigate  and  determine the facts of  biology.   ^Etiology
has for its object the ascertainment of  the causes of these
facts and the  explanation  of biological phenomena, by
showing that they  constitute  particular  cases  of  general
physical laws.
               VII.—Human Physio log v.
  The word physiology may be used in a general  or in a
restricted sense.   It has been used of  old to denote all in-
quiry into the nature of living beings;  but the phenomena
can be studied from two  apparently  different  points  of
view.
  The most striking character of a living being  is, that it
is an agent  performing actions and producing  effects  in
the world outside of itself.
  We have  on the one  hand the peculiar molecular chemi-
cal  and vital actions of the living being ; and on the other
its  relations to the medium in which it lives and  performs
its  acts.
  Physiology embraces a  study of:
    1st.  The  living phenomena of the human body in their natural  or
healthy state.
    2d.  The  physical structure  and conformation of the solid parts.
    3d.  The  determinate chemical composition of the solids and fluids.
    4th.  The dynamical characters.
    5th.  The nature, occurrences,  character and  correlation of certain
chemical, physical and vital  changes which go on during that active state
which we call  life.
  Life  results  from the concurrent exercise of  the several
functions performed by various organs.    The living state
follows a determined  evolutional  history from  the  com-
mencement of life to its close.
  As anatomy teaches the structure of an organized body,
organic chemistry, its chemical  constitution, and physics
its  physical properties; so physiology  deals with  the phys 
K8
ical,  chemical and vital actions which occur in an organ-
ized body during life.   Physiology, therefore, requires a
knowledge of physics, chemistry and anatomy.
  In the older sense Physiology embraced morphological
problems and so corresponded with Biology; in the more
modern sense, physiology leaves these matters on one side
and deals only with the actions of living  beings on their
surroundings (the study of these necessarily involving cor-
relative study of the effect of the surroundings on the  living
being), and appeals to matters of  form and structure only
so far as they throw light  on problems of action.
  It is evident that man regarded as  a machine capable of
accomplishing definite results, must be governed by physi-
cal  laws  capable  of expression in the  exact terms  of
physics. On the other hand, physiology presents problems
peculiar to the condition  known as life.  The three-fold
problems of physiology may be thus represented:
   ist.   The  determination of the  laws according to which
the complex  unstable food is  transmuted into  the still
more complex and still more stable living flesh, and the
laws according to which this living substance breaks down
into simple stable waste products, void or nearly void of
energy.   The amount of these chemical changes and the
resultants in  muscular and  nervous  force and in the form
of animal heat can be made the subject of accurate ex-
periment.
   2d.   The determination  of the  laws according to which
the  vibrations  of  the nervous  substance  originate from
extrinsic and intrinsic causes, the  laws according to which
these vibrations pass to and fro  in  the body, acting and
re-acting upon each  other,  and  the  laws according  to
which they finally  break up and  are  lost, either in these
larger circles of muscular  contraction whereby the move-
ments of the body  are affected, or in some other way.
   3rd.  The determination and consideration of the abstruse
problems as to how these neural vibrations become attend-
ed with changes of consciousness, as well as the less  subtle 
M
vibrations of  the  contracting muscles, are wrought out of
sudden complex chemical  decompositions of the nervous
and muscular substances ; or in other words, to determine
how the energy of chemical action is transmuted into and
serves as the supply of that vital energy which appears as
movement, feeling and thought.
  Physiology depends for its advancement upon well de-
vised and carefully executed experiments, and  a correct
knowledge of this branch of medical science can never be
acquired by the student from mere  lectures,  tables,  dia-
grams and artificial models.   Those only have advanced
physiology who have interrogated nature and extorted her
secrets by direct research and well devised experiments.
  The foundation of scientific Physiology was laid by Wil-
liam Harvey, in the year 1616 (the year of Shakespeare's
death),  when he  delivered his  lectures in St". Barthol-
omew's  Hospital, London,  and first  brought forward his
views on the movements of the heart and blood, which were
published in his treatise on  the blood, in 1628.   His great
work on Generation, published in 1651, laid the foundation
of scientific Morphology, and solved many of  the most im-
portant problems of Biology.
  In his final deed of gift of  his property to  the college
and library which he had erected, and for the endowment
of an annual oration, the orator, Dr. Harvey, orders in his
deed of gift to " exhort  the fellows of the college to search
out and study the secrets of nature by way of experiment,
and also, for the honor of the profession* to continue mu-
tual love and affection among themselves."
  The discovery of Oxygen by  Joseph Priestley, on  Au-
gust 1st, 1774, which he obtained by heating the red oxide
of mercury by means of the sun's rays concentrated with
a burning glass, not merely directed the attention of  chem-
ists to the composition of the atmosphere, but  led to the
overthrow of the phlogistic theory, and formed the found-
ation of  the splendid labors of Lavoisier,  who placed
chemistry in the path  which it has ever since followed. 
K5
  The discoveries of Black, Priestley, Scheele and Caven-
dish, as  well as his own experiments, enabled Lavoisier
to establish the  correct  theory of combustion and of the
origin of animal heat, and placed the science of the phys-
ics and chemistry of living beings upon its true basis.
  Scarcely one hundred years have elapsed since the sci-
ence of physiology has been placed upon the unalterable
laws of physics and chemistry.
  The experiments, dissections and  original researches of
John  Hunter enlarged the bounds of comparative and hu-
man physiology,  and established important principles in
surgical pathology.                                   ,
  The all-important questions relating to:
  ist.   The Functions of the Brain.
  2d.  The Functions of the Spinal  Cord.
  3d.  The Functions  of the Sympathetic  Nervous Sys-
tem.
  4th.  The  Relations  of the Cerebro-Spinal and Sympa-
thetic Nervous  Systems  to each other, and to the processes
of Respiration, Circulation,  Nutrition, Animal  Tempera-
ture and to such diseased states as Fatty Degeneration, In-
flammation and Fever.
  5th.  The  Relation  of the  Cerebro-Spinal   Nervous
System to spasmodic diseases, such as Traumatic Tetanus,
Epilepsy, Catalepsy, Hysteria and Hydrophobia.
  6th.  The  determination of the functions  of the indivi-
dual  portions  of the brain  and their relations to motion,
sensation and intellectual action, memory, language, imagi-
nation and will.
  These  and  other important  inquiries  have  been made
the careful subject of experiments upon living animals, by
a host of  able and learned  physiologists, and the further
advance  of our knowledge with reference to these abstruse
subjects  must depend mainly upon:
  ist.  Careful observation of  the  phenomena  of living
animals.
  2d.  The careful record of pathological phenomena dur-
ing life and of  pathological changes after death. 
H(i
   3d.   Vivisections.   The injur)- or ablation of  definite
portions of  the  cerebro-spinal and sympathetic  nervous
systems by the knife, electricity, or certain  physical and
chemical agents.
   The continuous practice of  experiments  upon  animals
(vivisection} is absolutely necessary to  the progress  and
perfection of the physiology of the nervous system, and each
thoroughly  organized  medical college should  be furnished
with a well equipped physiological laboratory furnished with
the instruments, re-agents and living  animals necessary for
the scientific elucidation  and  demonstration  of the  most
abstruse problems.
                  VIII.—Pathology.
   Pathology, The Science of Disease, cannot be defined
unconditionally, for the terms health and disease, well and
ill, local and constitutional, and diatheses are, to a certain
extent,  indefinite.   The doctrine of  disease {or that which
is suffered')  has  varied in different ages  and with  the
different sects of  philosophy and medicine.
   Although Hippocrates laid  down the broad principle that
the medical art, upon which all men  are dependent, should
not be  made subject to the  influence of any hypothesis,
and that the care  and cure of the sick should not be subor-
dinated to  Pathological  theory, but should be guided by-
experience ; yet the practitioners of medicine have at no
time been able to dispense with theory.   Even the avowed
followers of  Hippocrates, whilst  apparently remaining
steadfast  amidst  the   rise  and  fall of   systems,  have
been more or less  influenced by theory at every step of their
practice.  The view  held by Cullen  has  met with the
approval of physicians,  as  presenting  a  rational view:
"You will not  find it  possible to separate  practice  from
theory altogether; and  therefore if you have a mind to begin
with theory, I have no objection... .to render it safe  it is
necessary to cultivate theory to its fullest extent.''''
   Dr. Charles Creighton has  well  said:  " The progress
of pathology hitherto has been exactly  parallel  with the 
87
progress of philosophy itself, system succeeding system in
genetic order.   No other department of biological science
has shown itself so little able to shake off the philosophi-
cal character, or to  run  in  the career  of  positivism or
pure phenomenalism.  This unique  position  of pathology
among the natural.sciences is doubtless owing to the fact
that it is a theory of practice, a body of truth  and guess-
work existing  for the  benefit  of a working profession
which is daily brought face to face with  emergencies  and
is constantly reminded of  the need of a reasoned  rule of
conduct.   It is idle to attribute the philosophising habit in
medicine, or the habit of system-making, to an unscientific
method in past times.  The  extremely  various  points of
view  from which the  problems  of  diseased life are ap-
proached in the very latest and most authoritative writings,
are an evidence that the difficulty is really inherent  in the
subject matter.
   " The positive progress of the biological  sciences does
not essentially depend on the philosophical  conception of
life as action  and reaction; but the  notion of action  and
reaction comes  to the front on every page of a pathological
treatise, and  at every step of practice.
   In  considering the forms of diseased  life, if not  in  the
study of living things themselves, we are constantly driven
back to that ultimate analysis. The influences from without
which make up /Etiology, or the  doctrine  of the causes
of disease, assume a position in medicine, the urgency or
immediate interest of which  far exceeds that of the biolog-
ical problem, the  correspondence  between  life  and its
circumstances."
   The standing difficulty in  pathology has been its  rela-
tion to aetiology, or the relations of the " ens morbi to the
a gens morbi."
   The great truths enunciated by Thomas Sydenham in the
seventeenth century have been recognized more and more
by the medical  profession, from the death of  the Enolish
Hippocrates, in 1689, to the  present moment. 
HH
  Sydenham advcnced the cause of medical  science by
advocating  and  practising  the  inductive  method   of
Hippocrates.
  Thus, Sydenham taught:
  ist.  The  improvement  of physic depends—first, upon
collecting a genuine and  natural history  of  all diseases;
and second, laying down a fixed and complete method of
cure.
  2d.  All diseases ought to be reduced to certain and de-
terminate kinds, with the same exactness as we see it done
by botanical writers in  their treaties of  plants.
  3d.  In writing a history of  a disease, every philosophical
hypothesis which  hath  possessed  the writer in its form,
ought to be totally laid aside, and the manifest and natural
phenomena  of diseases,  however minute, must be noted
with the utmost accuracy, imitating in this the great exact-
ness of  painters, who,  in their pictures, copy the smallest
spots or motes in the original.
  4th.   In describing any  disease, it is necessary to  enu-
merate both the peculiar and constant phenomena or symp-
toms,  and the accidental ones separately;  of which latter
kind are those which differ occasionally by reason  of the
age and constitution  of the patient,  and  the  different
methods of cure.   *  *
  5th.   The seasons of  the  year that principally promote
any particular kind of diseases are to be carefully remarked.
Some diseases happen  indiscriminately  at any time, whilst
many others, by a  secret process of nature, follow the sea-
sons of the year with as much certainty as some birds and
plants.  A knowledge  of  the  seasons in which diseases
ordinarily arise, is of great use to a physician towards dis-
covering the species of the  disease as well as the method
of  curing  it;  and the  consequence  of neglecting this
knowledge leads to ill success, both in the discovery and
cure of diseases.
  These  principles  constituted  the  work  of  Thomas
Sydenham,  the  Novum  Organon of  the  Medical 
8!)
Sciences in the seventeenth century, as  the great work of
Lord  Bacon, which  had  appeared  in 1620, was the  im-
mortal Novum Organon of all the  physical  and ^natural
sciences.
  A clear distinction  should be made  between that which
is esopathic  and that  which  is endopathic  in disease; and
general pathology should follow the direction and order of
physiology.
  Pathology deals with :
  1.   The  causes of disease—./Etiology.
  /Etiology is  related  with and gets its subject  matter
from :
  (a)  Cosmical Physics.
  (b)  Meteorology.
  (c)  Geology.
  {d)  Physical  Geography.
  (e)  The chemical constitution and relations, and]the
fauna and  flora  of  the atmosphere, earth and  terrestrial
waters.
  (f)   Chemistry.
  (jo)  Botany.
  (h)  Zoology.
  (i)  Sociology.
  It has  well been said that ^Etiology is without limits.
  2.  To ascertain the esoteric connections existing among
diseases  themselves.
  There are certain groups of  symptoms  which recur with
the uniformity of a   type  in tlve most  various  diseases,
which depend upon  one constant factor—the human body
and its structural  and functional tendencies.
  The  causation of disease may be classified as:
  (1)  Exoteric—Exopathic.
  (a)  Injury from without, climate and terrestrial  causes.
  (b)  Parasites; including Bacteria, Bacilli, etc.
  (r)  Morbific ferments  and  poisons engendered without the living
organism.
  (2)  Esoteric—Autopathic.
  (a)  Deficient rudiments and defective growth,  premature morbidity
or obsolescence, hypertrophy and atrophy.
  (A)  Derangement  of the chemical changes and disturbances of the
balance of the forces by over-exertion.
  (c)  The development of morbific agents within  the body itself. 
!»<)
  Diseases may also be considered in a systematic treatise
on general pathology.
  As General or Local—
  Under the head of General  or Constitutional diseases,
nosologists have classed such diseases as yellow fever, mal-
arial fever, typhoid, typhus and relapsing fevers.
  Under the head of Local diseases have been ranged:
  Diseases of the respiratory, circulating and nervous sys-
tems, of the locomotive, digestive and excretory organs
and absorbents.
  The larger number of maladies do not arise autochthon-
ously, and the exopathic point of view may be regarded as
the dominant one at present; and it is from the Etiological
side  that the most wide-spread  and fatal contagious and
infectious diseases are chiefly studied.

                 IX.—Therapeutics.
  Therapeutics is  the most practical and useful  branch
of medical science, for it is the cure of disease which both
the practitioner and patient seek.
  Therapeutics necessitates for its successful study and
practical application a knowledge of  chemistry,  materia
medica, pharmacy and pathology; and should  be based
upon:
  ist.  The accurate study of the natural history of disease.
  2d.  The effects of remedies upon the healthy human or-
ganism.
  3d.  The effects of  remedies as determined by carefully
and  well executed  experiments upon living animals.
  4th. The effects  of remedies during diseased states of
the human organism.
  The power of the physician over disease depends  main-
ly upon  the force and culture of his  intellectual  powers
upon the extent arid character of  his knowledge of  the
symptoms and pathology of various  diseases and upon his
knowledge of the effects, power and value of therapeutic
measures and agents. 
01
  Therapeutics  has  advanced as the knowledge  of  man
has advanced as to the pathology of exopathic and endo-
pathic diseases,  and  with the enlargement  and perfection
of the materia medica.
  The progressive advances of chemistry have  furnished
the physician with his most potent and valuable remedies,
as Quinine, Salicine, Salicylic Acid, Salicylates, Antipyrin,
Antifebrine, Morphia, Brucia, Strychnia, Cocaine, Bromi-
des and Iodides  of Sodium, Potassium and Calcium, Ether,
Nitrate of Amyl, Chloroform, Chloral, Nitro-Glycerine and
a host of others.   No limits can be placed upon the pos-
sible therapeutic agents which may be  developed by the
labors of the chemist, and hence therapeutics is the  most
progressive of the branches of medical science.
  It must be admitted that the therapeutics of the  day are
to a  large  extent empirical,  and  that  numerous careful
clinical observations  by the  bed-side, and  careful experi-
ments upon living animals in the therapeutical laboratorv
are needed to place this branch of medical science upon  a
firm and broad scientific basis.
  By experimental Physiology  the functions of various
parts  of the body and their relations to  each  other are be-
ing gradually determined.
  In experimental Pathology, diseases are induced artifici-
ally in order that we may discern the alterations produced
bv them in the functions.
  In experimental Pharmacology drugs  are  administered
in  order  to determine the part of  the body which they
affect, and the nature of  the alterations which they pro-
duce in its functions.
  In  Rational  Therapeutics the  physician  endeavors to
recognize  from  the  symptoms of the  patient the organ
affected by disease,  the  nature of the disturbance in its
function   and to apply a remedy  which  will counteract
such  disturbance.  Great  advances must in our day be
made in  rational therapeutics before we can hope to ob-
tain such exact  knowledge as we  desire. 
!)2
  When the efforts of the physician are directed towards
the  removal of the cause of disease  it has been  called
Pathogenetic Therapeutics.
  In Symptomatic  Therapeutics, when the  cause of  the
disease  cannot be  recognized  or  cannot be  removed, the
treatment  is directed  to  those parts  of the organism on
which the cause of disease acts, so  as  to lessen or remove
the symptoms which it would otherwise produce.
.  When the physician can  neither remove the cause  nor
remove  the  symptoms, but  is forced  to trust to  the vis
medicatrix natural, and endeavors to maintain the patient's
strength by food and nursing, the terms expectant treatment
or expectant therapeutics have been employed.
  In its  widest acceptation expectant therapeutics includes
nursing, climate  and measures  of treatment,  such as
regulated  exercise,  gymnastics,  friction,  massage,  the
application of heat and of simple or medicated cold and
hot water.

       X.—Science and Practice of Medicine.
  The science of medicine rests upon  the knowledge of
diseases, of the conditions under which they arise, of their
nature,  causes,  and their modification or cure: and neces-
sarily implies a  knowledge of Chemistry, Materia Medica,
Pathology and Therapeutics.
  If  the student of medicine has  mastered the essential
laws and facts  of Medical  Physics and Chemistry, and
of Materia Medica, Pathology and Therapeutics,  he is
prepared to   consider Medicine as an  Art of ^practical
value, to diagnose, to prevent, to cure diseases, to alleviate
human suffering and lengthen  out human existence.
  The art of Medicine should  be founded upon \ facts and
principles capable of clear demonstration  and*of universal
applicability.
  What we have  stated with  reference  to pathology and
therapeutics in  the uncertain  and empirical application to
the causes and  cure of  many diseased  states applies with
equal force to medicine regarded as an  art. 
!•:'.
  The terms science and art of medicine must be regarded
as generic, and the professor of a chair having this title, or
the author of "The Practice of  Medicine," must neces-
sarily draw their  materials from  pathology  and therapeu-
tics, and find their illustrations  in the careful and ample
records of clinical medicine.
  The Art of Medicine may be divided into two distinct
branches:
  ist.   The  cure of disease and  the  relief  of  those who
suffer (therapeutics).
  2d.   The prevention of disease and the preservation of
health (hygiene).
                    XL—Hygiene.
  The prevention of  disease  and the maintenance of the
conditions for the preservation of  health must be  based
upon the sciences of chemistry,  physiology and  pathology.
  Medicine has ever been related to humanity, but its re-
lations to the wants  of  man have  been increased, and are
ever increasing,  in the complex state of modern  society,
with the exigencies of its fast growing population.
  In our day, preventative and public medicine  (Hygiene)
has become an important branch of medicine, when one of
the peculiarities of modern life is  shown from statistics to
be  the  tendency to increase of  population in great towns,
and to the creation and support  of vast standing armies.
   In England, between 1841  and 1851, there was an in-
crease in the population of  towns of over 100,000 inhabi-
tants of 23 per cent., and in the  following decennial period,
 1851-1861, there  was  in France, in towns of similar mag-
nitude, taken collectively, an increase of 50 per cent.; in
 the United States of America the tendency to accumulate
and concentrate the population  in great centres has been
 equally great; and in our Southern country, since the civil
war, the negro population has shown a constant tendency to
 crowd  the cities, and add to  their unhygienic condition,
and increase their mortality. 
!M
  The  active, restless population  of our great American

Republic is advancing all along the  lines of  science  and

art.

  By  her*position, by the character of  her population and

by  her commercial intercourse  with all  nations  of  North,

South, Central and Insular America; of Europe, Asia and

Africa,  the United States is the very  heart  of our world,

and should of all  the  nations of the earth be  the foremost

in the promotion of domestic,  public and international hy-

giene.

  Hygiene should be  considered  and studied under the

following  heads.

                            Hygiene.

                     I.   Domestic  Hygiene.
    (a)   Meteorological Conditions (Climate).
    (b)   The Soil or Site of the Dwelling.
    (c)   The Character of the Sub-soil, Water and Air.
    (d)   The Materials of Dwellings.
    (e)   Drainage and Sewage.
    (f)   Ventilation.
    (g)   Water Supply.
    (h)   Heating and Lighting of Dwelling.
    (i)   Clothing and Personal Cleanliness.
    (j )   Work and  Exercise.
    (k',   Food Supply.

             II. Public  Hygiene, National  Hygiene.

    (1)   Boards of Health.
    (m)  Location of Towns and Cities.
    (n)   Drainage and Sewage.
    ^o)   Construction of  Hou*es and  Street-Paving; Open Squares, etc
    (p)   Relations of Race to Public Hygiene and to the National Death-
rate.
    (q)   Public Sanitation.
    (r)   The Arrest of such Contagious and Infectious Diseases as Yellow
Fever and Small-Pox. Vaccination.
    is)   Disinfectants:  Their Chemical Relation, Their Relative Value
and Mode of Use, Heat, Corrosive Sublimate, Carbolic Acid, etc.
    (t)   Quarantine,  Domestic and Maritime.
    (u)  The Conduct of Railroads during the Progress of Epidemics.
    (v)   Hygiene of  Armies  and Navies.
    (w) Hygiene of Schools, Public Buildings, Jails and  Prisons.

                  III.  International Hygiene.

    (x)  Quarantine Considered as an International Regulation.
    (y)  The Establishment of National Commissions for the investigations
of contagious and infectious diseases, and for the prompt communication
from  one nation to another of all facts  relating to  the existence  of
diseases prejudicial  to the public health.
    (z)  The Treatment and Continuous Exchange of Prisoners of War. 
Ui)
      XII.—Science and Practice of Surgery.
  In all countries, the  accidents of ordinary life, of per-
sonal conflicts and of war, led to the application of surgery
and surgical art from the earliest  times, in the setting of
bones, the staunching of blood,  the  extraction of  arrows
and the binding up of wounds.  A knowledge of the healing
powers of the tissues was known to men in all  nations and
at all times.   In both branches of  the Aryan stock surgical
practice as well as medical, reached a high degree of per-
fection at a very early period.   It would be foreign  to our
purpose to inquire whether the Greeks derived their medi-
cal and surgical knowledge from  the Hindus through the
medium of the Egyptian priesthood, or whether the Hindus
owed that high degree of medical  and surgical knowledge
and skill  which is reflected by Charaka and Susruta, com-
mentators of the Yajur-Veda, to their contest with Western
civilization after the campaign of Alexandria.
   We have a strong argument for the  former  view of the
Eastern origin of medical  and surgical  science,  in the
 close  correspondence between the Susruta and Hippocratic
collections in the sections relating to  the  ethics of medical
practice; the description of lithotomy,  and the description
in the Susruta of certain dexterous operations, as that of
 Rhinoplastic of native invention ; besides the use  of such
remedies as  arsenic, mercury, zinc and many other substan-
 ces of permanent value, not containing a  single article of
 foreign source.
   There  is  also evidence  in Strabo,  Arrian and other
 writers that  the East enjoyed a proverbial reputation  for
 medical and surgical wisdom at the time  of  the  invasion
 of Alexander the Great.
   The testimony of Herodotus indicates great  advances
 among the Egyptians at an early era in medicine  and sur-
 gery:  and it is worthy  of note  that  the tendency of the
 present day  is to  the multiplication of special  branches  in
 the practice of the arts of surgery, and to the devotion  of 
i>6
 physicians to special lines of study  and  practice,  as  was
 the habit with the ancient physicians of Egypt.
   Thus Herodotus says, that the art  of  medicine  is thus
 divided amongst the Egyptians:  " Each physician  applies
 himself to one disease only, and not  more.    All places
 abound in physicians : some physicians are for  the eyes ;
 others  for the head, others for the parts  about  the belly,
 and others for internal disorders."—Herodotus :  Euterpe
 n, p.  125.
   Surgery  may be considered as a science and  as an  art
 under  two heads :
   1st.   Scientific or general surgical  principles of surgical
 pathology.
   2d.  Operative surgery.
   The  special divisions  of Surgery as  applied to actual
 practice are as follows :
    (a)  Military Surgery.
    (b)  Naval Surgery.
    (c)  Ophthalmology.
    (d)  Dental and Oral  Surgerv.
    (e)  Otology.
    (f)  Laryngotomv.
    (g)  Abdominal Surgery.
    (h)  Pelvic Surgery.
    (i)  Genito-Urinary Surgerv.
    (j)  Anal Surgerv.
    (k)  Orthopaedic Surgery.
    (1)  Uterine Surgery.
   Such divisions are to a certain extent  arbitrary, and  the
 same general principles of physiology, pathology and thera-
 peutics   must  govern  the   scientific  surgeon,  regard-
 less of the special branch of his art to which  his energies
 are devoted.
   The increase of  specialists in our day has not tended to
 elevate  the standard of professional ethics, but, on the con-
 trary, has promoted discord in  the ranks of the profes-
 sion.
   Without  doubt,  important advances  have been  made
 during the past twenty years, in the application of the well-
known principles and agents of chemistry to the antiseptic
treatment of wounds, and abdominal surgery owes much of 
its increasing success to the  scrupulous  attention  to the
laws of hygiene on the one hand, and to the scientific use
of antiseptics.
  Modern surgery has made marked advances in the treat-
ment of the brain and nerves and wounds  of the abdominal
viscera by operative procedure and antiseptic measures, as
will be shown by the following brief outline :

             Intercranial  H/KMORRHAGE.
  Trephining is now recognized as a legitimate operation in
the treatment of intercranial haemorrhage  following a trau-
matic  injury where life is endangered from compression of
the brain due to  this cause.
  Intercranial   haemorrhage from  the  middle  meningeal
artery.is  now looked upon by surgeons as a positive  indi-
cation  for  the  use of the  trephine whether the skull is
fractured or intact.
                 Abscess of the'Brain.
  During  the  last few years a number of  cases of deep-
seated  chronic  abscesses of  the brain have been success-
fully  treated by incision and drainage.  In most  cases a
positive  diagnosis was  made before  the  operation  and
when  this  was not possible, the  abscess  wras actually
located by making one or more exploratory punctures.
                Tumors of the Brain.
  The  removal   of   endocranial  tumors   by  operative
procedure constitutes  the  most recent  advancement  of
cerebral surgery.  The  success of such dangerous opera-
tions  as the  evacuation of abscesses and the removal of
tumors of the brajn manifestly depend upon:
  ist.  The position and extent of the abscess or tumor, as
determined by  accurate diagnosis  based upon  extensive
anatomical, physiological  and pathological  knowledge of
the  anatomical structures and physiological functions of
the  brain.
  2d.  The proper use of Anaesthetics. 
                          !ls

  3rd.  The mode of operating.
  4th.  The previous preparation of the patient.
  5th.  The actual  size and  location  of the abscess  or
tumor as determined by the operation.
  6th.  The technique  of the  operation  including: (a)
The treatment of the  wound;  (b)  The  treatment of the
brain: (c)  The use of  antiseptics and antiseptic sutures
and dressings.
  Cysts of  the  Brain.—Trephining for Epilepsy.
  Recent experience in  the  treatment  of  epilepsy has
strengthened the  faith of the profession in this method of
treatment in  well  selected  cases  where  some tangible
lesion in the skull or its contents can be brought into direct
connection with the development  of  the  disease.   The
operation of trephining  has  been shorn of its risks since
the  introduction   of  antiseptic surgery,  and  hence  the
modern surgeon regards himself as warranted in proposing
and performing an operation in all intractable cases of this
dreadful disease.   When  he  is able to detect some latent
cause amenable to direct treatment,  and if he fails to cure
the disease,  he has  the consolation that his interference
did not expose the  patient to any great risks of life, and
seldom if ever, is followed by aggravation of symptom".
              Surgery of the  Abdomen.
  The brilliant results obtained  in  cerebral surgery ac-
complished largely through the  study of symptoms, thus
leading to correct diagnosis, has  stimulated surgeons who
perform operations  upon  the organs  of  the  abdominal
cavity to increase and define  their knowledge in this re-
spect: the  methods of  operative  procedure  have  been
greatly improved  and the details so well  defined  as  to as-
sure  successful results when  faithfully carried out; and
the careful  study of  symptoms  has  greatly  advanced
knowledge in the direction of diagnosis, so that  the field
of diagnosticated laparotomy has been  lessened. 
99
  The operative treatment  of  penetrating  wounds  of the
abdomen complicated  by visceral  injury  of the gastro-
intestinal canal, is now  sanctioned  by the  best surgical
authorities  and may be considered  as a well established
procedure   based  as  it is upon  the results  of experi-
mentation and  clinical experience.  A visceral  wound  of
the stomach or any portion  of  the intestinal canal sufficient
in size to give rise to extravasation into the peritoneal  cavi-
ty must be  looked upon as a mortal injury unless promptly
treated  by  abdominal  section.  The great  difficulty that
presents itself to the surgeon  in the  absence of positive
symptoms, is the  differential diagnosis between a simple
penetrating wound and a penetrating wound  complicated
by injury of the gastro-intestinal canal.
   Dr. N. Senn, of Chicago, has sought to solve the doubts
in such cases and to enlarge our means of accurate  diag-
nosis by demonstrating by a series of  well devised  experi-
ments that  "the rectal insufflation of  hydrogen  gas  is  an
infallible test in  the  diagnosis of  visceral injury  of the
gastro-intestinal canal  in penetrating wounds of  the  abdo-
men.
  Increasing experience  demonstrates that the best results
are obtained in operations upon the abdominal cavity when
they are performed under rigid antiseptic methods, which
are each day being simplified, and in this way it becomes
in the power of surgeons even in localities most remote to
employ them.
   The great achievements of abdominal surgery have been
accomplished only through the methods of antiseptic sur-
gery, and the medical  schools  should  imbue  their  pupils
with the principles and practice of antiseptic surgery.
XIII.—Obstetrics,  Gynaecology, Diseases  of Women
                    and Children.
   Every woman bearing children,  from  the  primeval or
ori<nnal mother of the human race,  has experienced with
greater or  less severity the pangs of labor, and hence from 
100
 the earliest times the occupation of the  Midwife has been
 recognized.  In ancient times the midwife was clad in the
 modest garb of woman; but in our day her representative
 of the male sex  is booted and  spurred,  and  brandishes
 his flashing forceps  and  dazzling  speculum, and  boasts
 that obstetrics is  both a science and an art.
   The teacher of obstetrics deals with  the  condition  of
 normal and abnormal labor, with the  surgical  operations
 necessitated by the emergencies of labor.or by the  pelvic
 diseases incident to females and peculiar to their  genito-
 urinary  system; he  also treats  of  the septic fever  and
 accidents,  as  hemorrhage and pelvic abscess, peculiar  to
 the puerperal state,  and  of the diseases incident to  child-
 hood.
   These subjects are grouped together rather from  their
 connection in  time and  space than from any scientific prin-
 ciples of classification.
   Under the head of obstetrics, gynaecology, and diseases
 peculiar to women and children may  be included the  fol-
 lowing:
  (a)  Embryology.
  (b)  Morphology.
  (c)  Normal labor (Physiological labor).
  (d)  Abnormal  labor due to  the  action  of  extrinsic or  intrinsic
 causes.  The  natural or physiological  course of labor may be  deranged
 by the states of the system induced by scant and improper diet, by the ac-
 tion of febrile poisons; by the existence of the syphilitic or scrofulous or
 tuberculous diathesis, Blight's disease, cardiac  disease, dropsv  and va-
 rious nervous derangements as epilepsy and insanity; by the occurrence
 of premature  labor, haemorrhage, convulsions; the pelvis also may  be
 so malformed as to prevent the natural delivery of the child,  and to ne-
 cessitate either the destruction of the fcetus or the performance of the
 Caesarean section.
   (e) Abdominal Surgery (Ovariotomy).
   (f)  Pelvic Surgery.
   (g) Hygiene, and the antiseptic treatment  of the puerperal state.
   (h) Uterine Surgery.
   (i)  Diseases peculiar to  women;  hysteria,  disease of  uterus and
 ovaries: prolapsus uteri,  etc.
  (j),  Diseases peculiar to  childhood and especially to  the period  of
 dentition.
  (k), Principles regulating the nutrition and physical training and
 development of children.
   The recent  successes  achieved  by obstetrical surgeons
 in the performance of the Caesarian section in this country
illustrate in  a  forcible manner  the progressive nature of 
101
 this branch of medicine, and must be  attributed to the fol-
 lowing causes:
    ist.  To the performance of the Caesarean section at the
 earliest practicable moment, without waiting until the pow-
 ers of the  patient have been exhausted in fruitless efforts
 to expel the foetus.
    2d.   To the maintenance of the strength of the patient
 by suitable nourishment, administered in  small quantities
 at regular intervals.
    3d.   In  the  systematic  and scientific application to the
 wounded surface of antiseptic sutures and antiseptic dress-
 ings.
    4th.  The careful attention  to ventilation and cleanliness
 "—to all the requirements of an enlightened hygiene.
             XIV.—Medical  Jurisprudence.
   The duty of the physician  is not  merely to prevent and
 cure diseases, but he is the natural guardian of the lives of
 his .fellow-citizens,  by  detecting poisons, and   pointing
 out the nature  of  the  weapons and injuries  inducing
 death.
   The scientific physician has often  to  summon  all his
 skill and wisdom, and press into the public service all his
 knowledge in chemistry, microscopy, physiology  and pa-
 thology, in the investigation of cases  of poisoning, rape,
.and injuries inflicted by firearms, and weapons  of every
 description.  The life of a human  being often turns upon
 the decision of the chemist and microscopist as to the na-
. ture of the  spot or stain upon a garment, whether paint or
 blood, or upon the determination of the presence or ab-
 sence  of arsenic,  antimony, lead, morphia, strychnia, or
 some  other poison in food, drink or  in the stomach and
 organs of man.
   We cannot overestimate  on  the one  hand the responsi-
 bility  of the  conscientious and learned  physician  who
 undertakes  a medico-legal investigation; and on the other
 the obligations  of  the  public  for the  invaluable  services 
U)->
rendered to law and  justice by exposing crime, which, but
for the learning of the chemist, microscopist and patholo
gist, would remain forever hidden.
   We may truly say that the scientific and  pure-minded
physician  is the  Natural and  Ordained  Guardian ok
the Public Peace  and  Health.
   A knowledge of Medical Jurisprudence necessitates the
careful studv of the following branches of science :
  (a)  Chemistry (qualitative and quantitative analysis).
  (b)  Toxicology.
  (c)  Microscopy.  Spectroscopic analysis.
  (d)  Physiology.
  (e)  Pathology.
  (/')  The general principles of civil and criminal law, as applicable to
Idiocy, Imbecility, Insanity, Illegitimacy, Rape and Murder, or attempt
to Murder, by firearms, instruments of all kinds, by drowning, strangula-
tion, and poisoning.
                XV.—Clinical Medicine.
   Clinical  medicine  can  be  successfully pursued  by the
students in the wards of the   Hospital, by the  bedside  of
the patient,  and  under the direction of learned and ex-
perienced teachers.
   Clinical   medicine,  though a  special  department  of
knowledge, is so  intimately connected  with other sciences
that,  when  the  claims  of these  are satisfied, it has been
said that nothing  would remain to it; it would not even be
too much to assert that, were  it possible to compress in one
human  intellect all that is  now known  of other sciences,
such  knowledge  would be  compatible with  entire  igno-
rance of the department of clinical medicine.
   Clinical work stands apart,  but has the most intimate re-
lations to all that  surrounds it; it is elucidated by the light
of  physics,  chemistry and physiology, yet  is not compre-
hended  by them.
   WThatever theoretical  notions  the  physician  may have
entertained as to  the nature or treatment  of  disease, when
brought face to  face with the  sick and  suffering in the
presence of his  earnest and intelligent students, he is com-
pelled to submit every question to the crucial test of actual
observation.  Hi* duty lies in giving an exact and  scienti- 
lo:J,
fie character to his observations, and to investigate the phe-
nomena of disease with that concentration which is neces-
sary  in every  physical  inquiry,  and  with  all those aids
which are afforded  in  increasing perfection by  modern
science.
   The clinical teacher should  have no system to satisfy,
and no dogmatic  opinions to enforce ;  and he should go to
his daily bedside  work, untrammelled by any exclusive the-
ories  in pathology or therapeutics, but  he should  investi-
gate disease  in every possible way and by all  the appliances
of medical science.
   The clinical teacher must bring into  the court of inquiry
all possible  evidence, and decide upon it by the light of
science and experience.
   The constant study of  disease gives  certainty to diagno-
sis by following the subjects of fatal diseases to the dead
house, and subjecting all the  organs  and tissues to a rigid
post-mortem examination; and bringing to our aid chemical
reagents and microscopical investigation, gives precision to
our pathological knowledge.
   In the present age the means of physical  diagnosis and
of careful clinical study  have  increased with unexampled
rapidity, and no bounds  can be  set  to the  possible con-
quests of medical science.
   Half  a century ago there was no  conception  of  those
means of modern investigation  and research  which are ap-
plied  daily to the  discovery and explanation  of physiologi-
cal and pathological  phenomena.
   To the interpretation of sounds heard within the body,
Laennec and a host of subsequent observers, brought pre-
cise acoustical observation and experiments,   and  showed
us how to map out the  condition  of  internal parts,   the
action of which we hear but cannot see.
   By the application of  optical  instruments, Czermak,
Desormeaux  and Cruise  have  laid open to  us man)- organs
of  the  body,  before  inscrutable—the  pharynx,   the
vocal   chords,   the  trachea,   the  vagina,   the  uterus, 
101
the urethra, the bladder; so that the  actual,  but  hidden
causes of many phenomena are no longer matters of argu-
ment, but of sight and demonstration.   The secrets of the
eye have been disclosed by the physical  contrivances  of
Helmholtz and  others:  and  the proposition  has  been
worked out by Ogle and Allbutt and others, that some states
of the eye are not very important  in  themselves as local
abnormities, but as  being pathognomic of other  suspected
conditions in other and distant organs.
  The skillful apparatus  of Marey  has  so supplemented
the sense of  touch that the  very  phenomena of the pulse
and heart are registered; and  thereby,  through indirect
clear induction, we  can fathom the secrets not only of  the
circulating apparatus, but of nerve action and nerve lesion
behind and beyond.   In  every practitioner's hand the  mi-
croscope and the test-tube answer in a  moment  questions
of  the gravest moment, which were once unanswerable.
  The exploration   of the  nervous   system  by physical
agencies, by manometers and  the  like through  the labors
of  M. Duchenne and  others;  and  the  registration  of
changes of temperature, in evidence  of chemical  altera-
tions, and in proof of corresponding alterations  in the or-
ganism, may also be cited as illustrations of the advances
of  physical inquiry  as applied  to the  investigation  and
correct diagnosis of disease.

Clinical  Investigation and Instruction in the Char-
             ity Hospital of  New Orleans.
   During the past twrenty years I have  followed the  plan
now indicated,  in the  prosecution of  my  clinical labors
and in the instruction of  medical students in the wards of
the Charity Hospital of New Orleans.
            i.  Investigation and Record of Cases.
    (a)  History of Case; name, date of admission ; number of ward and
bed;  age, nativity, occupation, weight, height, temperament; general
description of person;   habits, temperate or intemperate;  indications;
preceding diseases or injuries; history of present attack.
    (b)  Expression of countenance;  complexion;  state of intellect;
general appearance of body, full or emaciated; appearance and expression
of eyes;  color of conjunctiva; condition of tongue;  results of phvsical 
105
exploration of different  parts ot the  body and of the different  regions;
state  of  appetite and digestion;  condition of  bowels,  constipated or
loose.
    (c)  Pulse full, soft, rapid, feeble;  tracing of pulse by means of the
sphygmograph;  action of heart;  condition of general and capillary cir-
culation; description of  aneurisms, etc.
    (d)  Examination of fauces, larynx, etc., by laryngoscope; ausculta*
tion and percussion of heart and lungs;  physical signs;  detail of all facts
relating  to the normal and abnormal  sounds in  the heart, pericardium,
pleura and lungs, etc.;   mensuration, palpation and succussion.
    (e)  Condition of abdomen and  abdominal organs;  size and condi-
tion of spleen, liver, kidneys,  etc.
    (f)  Condition of cutaneous system;  presence or absence  of erup-
tive diseases.
    (g)   Condition of biliary and urinary and intestinal secretions.
     (h)   Changes of temperature;  number of beats of the heart and of
the respirations during the minute: character of the changes of circula-
tion, respiration and temperature.
     (i)  Condition of blood; qualitative and quantitative and microscop-
 ical examination of the  blood.
     (j)  Amount and character of the urinary secretion:  qualitative and
 quantitative analysis of  urine;  amount, color, nature of urine and urina-
 ry deposits; presence  or absence of  albumen,  diabetic sugar, sperma-
 tozoa casts, blood, etc.
     (k)   Daily and hourly record of all important  symptoms.
     (\)   Careful post-mortem examinations in fatal cases, illustrated by
 microscopical and chemical analysis.

 H._The Clinical  Lectures hyBedside ok Patients in Wards ok the
                               Hospital.
    The daily lectures in  the Hospital are illustrated by:
    (in)  Demonstration  of the physical apparatus, and chemical and mi-
 croscopical reagents and methods adapted to the investigation of disease.
    (n)   Instruction of the student in case-taking, clinical records, meth-
 ods of phvsical examination and exploration.
    (o)   Auscultation, Percussion, Physical Diagnosis, Careful Diagrams
 illustrating the pathological lesions and stages of Pulmonary and  Cardiac
 Diseases.                                        .           .
    (p)   Diseases of the Cutaneous,  Nervous, Digestive and I nuary Sys-
 tem illustrated by lectures, diagrams, microscopical drawings and demon-
 strations.                                       . .
    (a)   local Diseases,  such  as Laryngitis, Bronchitis, Pneumonitis, Pleu-
 Htis,, Endo-Carditis, Carditis, Valvular diseases ot the  heart, Aneurism,
 Peritonitis, etc.                                  ,..,•,-      r ,
    (r)   General or Constitutional Diseases—Fevers: Gastric bever,  Inter-
 mittent Remittent and pernicious malarial fever,  Yellow Fever, continued
 fever Tvphus, Tvphoid and  relapsing  fevers, Rheumatism,  Syphilis, sep-
 tic and zymotic "rHseases, Cholera, Small-Pox.  Scarlatina,  Measles, etc.,
 Phthisis.
    (s)   Diseases of Nervous Svstem.               <       .
    (t)   Diseases of  Respiratory,  Circulatory, Digestive, Genito-Lnnary
 and Lymphatic systems.
 HI —illl-sTRVITON AND DEMONSTRATION  OF THE RELATIVE  POSITION,
    '  Size \\d Color, and Microscopical Character  and Pathologi-
      cal Appearance  of the  Organs  by  Paintings,  Charts and
      Models.
    IV__Post-Mortem  Examinations.
    y — Chemical and  Microscopical Examinations and  analysis  of
      the Blood, Urine, and, in  Fatal Cases,  of the  Secretions, Ex-
      cretions and Organs, in  the  Practumm  Chemical and Patho-
      logical LAKORVrORY. 
l()(i
   The  preceding gives but a brief and imperfect outline  of
our labors and plan of  instruction which we have  pursued
in the Charity Hospital of New Orleans.
   The  extent and  value of  the  Charity  Hospital  of New
Orleans for clinical study and instruction  will be illustrated
by the following table:
Charity  Hospital  of New  Orleans,  Louisiana, United States of
    America—Table of  Admissions, Discharges and Deaths  for
    Fifty-six Years.
Year,
*i8;,2 ....
 1833 -■
 1834
 1S35
 1836
 ■1837..-
 [S3S..
 1S39 ■•■•
 1840 ...
 18+1.....
 1842....
 1843.
 1S44 -■
 1845.....
 •1846.....
 •"847.....
 1848.....
 »849.....
 1S50.....
 1851.....
 1852 ....
 lS53 ................... 13.759
 IS54................. 13.i92
 ^ss ................... 1-1,192
 l80..................   9,432
1S57
iSsS
3»9
169
262
265

228
^39
267
3H
3^3
401]
4^7;
8291
609
7i9
 2,170
 3.S51
 5.841
 6,205
 4.754
 6,103
 4,687
 4-S33
 5.041
 4.38o
 4.404
 S.013
 5.846
 6,136
 8,044
11,890
11.945
'5.55S
18,476
18,420
18,035
     8,897
573  11,137
r>44  12.775
 1,703 568
 2,6171114
 4-745 1052
 4,999 1226
 4.163 585
 4,640 1420
 3,890 683
 3.6n 955
 4,370 619
 3.093 "56
 3.516' 761
 3,672 1041
 5'°59 7'3
 5.446 563
 7.074 855
 9.369 3037
10,010 1897
'■2,133-745
15,989 1884
16,777 'Sjr
i.S,"57 ^098
10,7333164
 9.9762702
 9.701 2391
 S,6oi  974;
 7,91411017
 8,993 2290
11,257 132U
♦Present building's erected in
fXo report for 1863.
  i860
  l86l
  1862
 T1S63
  1864
  1865
  1866.
  1867
  1868
  1869
  1870
  1871.
  1872.
  1873
  1874.
  1875
  1876.
  1877..
  1878
  1879
  1880.
  1881..
  18S2..
  1883..
  1S84..
  1885.
  1886.
  1887.
1S32.
730 14,000 12,257,390
S91  8,665  7.9l9  79S
     6,016  5,532  719
Grand total  of Admissions
Grand total  of Discharges
Grand total  of Deaths........
Mortality................................
 373
 4-3
 640
 738
 637
 660
 717
 672
 700
 57o
 543
 ■554^
 5-5
 693
 600
 604
 643
 534
 559
668
620
556.
639
722
 4,861
 6,466
 9,3^9
 8,612
 4,981
 6,177
 7,837
 6,671
 5.541
 5>°90
 5.33i
 4.945
 5.690
 6,002
 5.873
 5,348
 5.537
 5,843
 6,980
 8,152
 7,280
 rM43
5,8o7
5,999
3,999 812
5,580 669
8,108 1122
7,260 1438
4,365 49°
5,32 7, 784
6,764 (i 18
5,73o S91
4.846' S25
4,124 993
4,360. 860
4.i3i 753
4.?8o 742
5,290 805
4;6i5 11 jo
4,390 693
4,140 65S
4.351 S25
5.375' S05
7.134
6.345
5.313
4,764
4.336
IOI3

 985
IOO5
 960

 941
   The Charity Hospital of N
est  field  for the  study of  the
-......... 432,187
............ 360,331
.............  63,31-1
 14.65 per cent.
e\v Orleans forms the grand-
diseases of tropical and sub- 
                                 l'>7


 tropical regions; and no men enjoy superior advantages for

 the  study  of  Southern  diseases,  and  especially for the

 clinical investigation  of the fevers and diseases characteris-

 tic of warm climates  than  the  students  of  medicine  who

 are  daily  admitted  to  its  wards, or the resident students.

 who  reside permanently within its walls.

   The  importance  with which the medical students gath-

 ered annually in New Orleans  from many  of the Southern,

 Southwestern  and Western States of the great Valley of

 the  Mississippi,  view  the  position  of  resident  student,

 will  be seen from the  following correspondence :
    Petition of Medical Students of Tulane University of Louisiana, -.it/i
 Reference  to the  Appointment of Resident  Students—Rep. y  of Joseph
 Jones, M. D., President of the Louisiana State Medical Society.
         Medic/l  Department of Ti  lane University of Louisiana, )
                                  New Orleans,  February 13, 188S. I
    To Professor Joseph  Jones, M. D., President of  the Louisiana  State
 Medical Society:
    Sir:—It is with feelings of great pleasure and satisfaction that we, the
 undersigned, students of the Medical Department of Tulane University of
 Louisiana, acknowledge your efforts to have repealed  the  Legislative Act
 of 1886, whereby the selection of  medical students for  positions in the
 Charity Hospital was restricted to applicants then resident in the State of
 Louisiana.
    Believing, yK we do, that a better selection can be made by choosing
 the most worthy, regardless of section or State; and furthermore, believ-
 ing it to  be of the greatest  importance to  have  the ablest and  most
 proficient students  as sub-medical  attendants in immediate charge of the
 various wards of the institution, subservient to the orders of the attending
 physicians and surgeons, thereby securing the most careful and intelligent
 attention, medical  and ministerial, to  the thousands of suffering  poor
 who seek the comfort and shelter of thi* noble  institution to be cured of
 their diseases and  healed of their wounds; and believing,  furthermore,
 that the continued enforcement of  said act will tend to impair the growth
 of the Medical Department of Tulane  University, said  Medical  Depart-
 ment  having been enabled to offer  her most proficient  students to the ser-
 vice of the Charity Hospital  regardless  of section or State, and at the
 same  time offering, as an  incentive to all students desirous  of so doiny,
 the opportunity to  compete in examinations,  necessary to  appointment
to resident studentship.
    Whereas,  the  continued  prosperity of the above  mentioned  Uni-
 versity, and the interests of the Charity Hospital, are matters  of  great
 importance to us; therefore we respectfully ask that you, in your official
position as President of the Louisiana  State Medical Society,  give this
matter the attention it deserves, and use your  efforts  to have it  brought
before the next Legislative Assembly, urging its repeal.
  We, knowing your devotion to your  chosen  profession, to the State of
 Louisiana  and to  the city of New Orleans, to the Charity Hospital, to
which you have given so many years of valuable service, conferring bene-
fits  to surtering thousands, whom you have treated  within its walls,
whose testimony can be had from many portions of the civilized world; a
knowledge of the above facts makes us  feel that we can ask this of you 
lux
 with the confident assurance that your best efforts will be expended in its
 accomplishment.
   We know your kindly  regard for ourselves, and vour untiring efforts to
 place us in the position of the most valuable practical and advanced ideas
 in medical science; and appreciating your disregard for self-interest and
 advancement, we hope to emulate  those  noble  and elevated  sentiments
 whereby we can rise  superior to  sectional thought, and render  justice
 where merited.  We  hope  that your efforts may  be strengthened to the
 accomplishment of the purpose as herein set forth ; and again asking that
 you give this matter your attention, and use your best efforts to have it
 brought to the attention of the  Legislature of  Louisiana, we  hereunto
 subscribe our names.
     (Signed)                                          A. W. Boren,
 and by 160 other students of the  Medical Department of the Tulane
 University of Louisiana.
                        156 Washington Avenue, 4TH  District,    \
                             New Orleans, La., February, 15,  18S8. j
 To A.W. Boren,  and the medical students of the Medical Department of
     Tulane University of Louisiana:
  Gentlemen—I have the honor to  acknowledge  the  receipt of your com-
 munication of  February 13, 18S8, and beg leave  to submit the  following:
 The act to which  you  refer, containing the proscriptive legislation regulat-
 ing the mode of selecting the resident  students of Charity Hospital of
 New Orleans,  was passed by the General Assembly of the State of Louis-
 iana at the regular session of 1886,  Act No. 47,  "Making appropriations
 to defray the ordinary expenses of the State Government."   *    *    *
 "Approved July 3, 18S6, by S.  D.  McEnerv,  Governor of the State of
 Louisiana."  The following is the portion of Act 47  which relates to the
 subject referred to in your communication:
  "Charity Hospital in New Orleans.  To support of Charity Hospital in
 New  Orleans  for  year  ending  |une 30,  1S87,  forty thousand dollars.
 For  the  year ending  June   30,  1888,  forty   thousand   dollars:
 Provided, that none but resident  Louisianians  be admitted as resident
 students.  Act of  General Assembly of Louisiana, 1886,  p. 72."
  We will not discuss the question of the legality of an act of the General
 Assembly of Louisiana, which makes an  appropriation for the support of
 the destitute  sick, contingent  upon the performance  of an act  by  the
 Board of Administrators,  of which His  Excellency, Governors. D. Mc-
Enery, is  President,  which  related solely to the nativity of the students
to be appointed, and not to the mode ot  expenditure of the funds devoted
to such charitable purposes as the purchase of food and medical supplies,
 and the payment  ot the  salaries of the  house surgeon,  assistant house
surgeon, treasurer, and other employees  of the hospital.  It is more im-
portant that we should inquire into the official interpretation of the special
 and proscriptive legislation of Act 47.
  Through the courtesy of Edwin  Marks, Esq.,  Secretary and Treasurer
 of the Charity Hospital, we  have been able to  make the following ex-
 tract from the  letter of Governor  S. D. McEnery, of February- 9, 1887,
 giving his official  interpretation of  that part of  Act 47  which  "relates to
 the class of students to be selected as resident students:
                     Executive Department State of Louisiana, "I
                             Baton Rouge, February 9, 18S7.     /
  Edv.'in Marks,  Esq., Secretary Charity Hospital,  A7'.  O.—Dear Sir:
 *  *  *  M v interpretation, in the Act ot the General Assembly referred
 to,  of the words " resident Louisianians," is that they mean citizenship.
 Any citizen of the State is a Louisianian, and the words  do not implv or
 mean that the person  should be native born. I presume that vour inqiiirv
 is made in order to ascertain whether  the medical students at the Tulane
 University from other States can be admitted as resident students in the 
10'J
Hospital, from the fact of their residence  in the State during the time
they have been pursuing their studies.   This residence is not sufficient.
If the student is under age, he of course cannot select his residence; but
if he is of age and came to the State with the intention of acquiring a res-
idence in the State, and of remaining permanently here, then he is en-
titled to  admission.
  It is the intention of the act of residence coupled with the intention  of
remaining permanently, which fixes his  residence, and which will  entitle
the party to become a  resident student of the hospital.  (McRowan vs.
McGwin, 15 and 637.)
                                        Respectfully yours,
  (Signed)                                S. D. McEnery, Governor.
  Regarding  the  action  of the  General  Assembly  of Louisiana  of
1886, in  Act 47, relative to the appointment of resident students in the
Charity  Hospital as unjust and  unwise, and as injurious to the best inter-
est of  the students and patients, I embraced the earliest opportunity to ob-
tain the sense of the highest medical  authority in the State, to the end
that the  obnoxious clause might be  repealed, or  rather that such legisla-
tion might never again be repeated.
  To accomplish this end, I attended the meeting of the Louisiana State
Medical Society held in the month of  April,  18S7, in  Alexandria; as will
be seen  from the following extracts of the proceedings of that Society.
Resident Students of the Charity Hospital of Xev: Orleans, La.
  Dr. Joseph Jones ottered the following:
  Whereas,  The Charity Hospital of New Orleans receives the distressed
and destitute, sick and wounded, of the  States of the Union, and  all the
nations of the world, be it
  Resolved,  Bv  the members   of the  Louisiana State Medical  Society,
that the position of resident students in this great and  noble institution
should be open to the competition of all honorable, intelligent and ac-
complished medical students.  Be it further
  Resolved,  That the General  Assembly of the State of Louisiana  be re-
spectfullv and earnestly requested by the Louisiana State Medical Society
to rescind the law enacted by  the General Assembly  of 18S6,  excluding
all  medical students  from  competition for the position of resident stu-
dents of the  Charity Hospital except  natives and residents of Louisiana.
  Resolved,  That the action  of the General  Assembly of  Louisiana  of
1886  was  in violation  of those true, generous  and patriotic principles
which have ever characterized the philanthropic citizens of Louisiana.
  Resolved, That the President of the Louisiana State Medical  Society
be empowered to urge  the  abrogation of this law of  18S6,  establishing,
for the first time  in the history of  Louisiana,  the unwise  and illiberal
policv of excluding  from the  competitive  examination  of the medical
service of the Charity  Hospital the intelligent  and enterprising medical
students of other  States.
  Dr. Joseph Jones supported the preceding resolutions by the following
arguments:
  (a)  The object of this great and noble institution is the relief of suffer-
ing humanity, the healing of  disease,  the restoration of the sick to the
performance of  Ihe  active  duties  of life,  and  the advancement of the
highest  intellectual, moral, and physical welfare of the commonwealth.
  (b)  The generous citizens of Louisiana  have not confined their bene-
fits and  ministrations to their  own citizens.  Upon a careful examina-
tion and classification of statistics  of the Charity Hospital  of New Or-
leans during  the  period  of fort v years  (1836-1876), we find that 310,659
patients were admitted, and  of  this number  248,011 were foreigners,
54,403 natives of the United States ou'side  of Louisiana, and only 11,761
were  natives of Louisiana:   It is evident  from  these  statistics that the
noblest and broadest charitv has actuated the citizens, and especially the 
110
medical profession, of  Louisiana, in the charitable ministrations to the
destitute sick ot all States and countries.
  (r)   By again throwing open the field for honorable competition of all
accomplished medical students, regardless  of their nativity, the State of
Louisiana will  secure the most effective service and achieve the greatest
good to suffering humanity.
  Duly seconded and carried.
  In conclusion, allow  me to direct the attention of the students of the
Medical Department of the Tulane  University of Louisiana,  and  of our
sister States, who may in future desire to compete for the position of
resident students in the Charity  Hospital of New Orleans, to the following
important facts:
  I.   That Act 47 >s not a lavj of the State of Louisiana.
  2.  The operation of Act 47, as  far as  the appointment  of resident
students of the Charity Hospital is concerned, ceases absolutely' on  July
'1st, iS88-
  3.  Unless the General Assembly of Louisiana, at its subsequent meet-
ting, is induced to repeal this  unwise and proscriptive legislation, the
Board of Administrators of the Charity  Hospital of New  Orleans,  will,
after the 30th of June, 188S, be untrammelled in their appointment of resi-
dent students.  They may, or let us hope they will, act regardless of State
lines, basing the appointments upon merit and merit alone.
  As your friend and  professor, and  as a representative of the medical
profession, I shall cheerfully comply with your request, and exert any in-
fluence at my command to avert similar legislation in the future.
  With  thanks for the kind and  courteous terms in which you  have
been pleased to couch your petition, and with kind regards,
                      I remain as ever your friend,
                                   Joseph Jone.'-,  M. D.,
                           President Louisiana State Medical Society.

  One of   the most important measures  for the  advance-

ment of the  medical profession, and fnr the  promotion of

its higher education in  the State of Louisiana, is the estab-

lishment of a State Medical Library,  for the  preservation

of the archives of  the  Society,  the  diffusion  of medical

knowledge,  and  the promotion  of original scientific re-

search in  all the departments  of medical science.

  The speaker urged the  consideration of this   important

subject upon the attention of  the Louisiana State  Medical

Society, as is well  known, at its Ninth Annual Meeting in

Alexandria,  April, 1887.

  The Charity Hospital, of New Orleans, would seem to

be the proper place for the  collection and   preservation of

the Archives of the Louisiana  State  Medical  Society, in

virtue  of  its  being  the  great medical centre of clinical ser-

vice and clinical study, and  investigation  of all  diseases,

but especially of those peculiar to  our Southern States.

  The medical profession of the valley of  the  Mississippi 
Ill
should at all times have access to these valuable  archives,
sheltered within the walls of an institution, whose portals
are open by day and by night to the sick  and  destitute of
all States and all nations.
  The students also, who  annually throng the wards of the
Charity Hospital in the prosecution  of their clinical studies,
would have free access to the State  Medical Library.
                      Conclusion.
   I have thus endeavored to lay before the members of the
Louisiana State Medical Society the results of our investi-
gations relative to  the  principles  of  education and
THEIR SCIENTIFIC  APPLICATION  TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF
MEDICAL SCIENCE.
   \o nobler or grander theme has ever engaged  the ener-
gies of my life; and if the  sketch  has been imperfect and
meagre, the failure rests  with  my  own  imperfections, but
not with the importance of  the subject.
   We hold
   ist.  That the  students should be thoroughly prepared
and equipped for  the study  of medicine by a systematic and
philosophic  preliminary  course of  study of the tunda-
mental branches of science.
   2nd.  That  a thorough  course  of medical  instruction
should embrace not less than fifteen chairs or departments
with the necessary number  of professors and  instructors.
furnished  with all  the  necessary  instruments, reagents,
agents and  well   constructed and thoroughly  equipped
chemical,  anatomical,  physiological,  therapeutical  and
pathological laboratories.
   3rd.  Medical students should be taught  by actual  ex-
periments  and demonstrations in   chemistry,  physics.
physiology, pathology and therapeutics.
   4th.  Students  should be prepared by  their  course  of
study, not only for the practice, but also for  the develop-
ment and advancement of medical science.
   5th.  The course of medical studies should be  graded, 
112
 and should embrace for their  completion  not less than
 four years.
   6th.  Clinical instruction  is essential to the perfection
 and advancement of medical knowledge with the student
 of medicine—and should be prosecuted from the inception
 to the end of the medical course  of study.
   In presenting an outline of this vast subject we fear that
 we have taxed beyond endurance the patience of this in-
 telligent and cultured audience, but we crave indulgence in
 view  of the importance  and elevated  character  of the
 science of  medicine; its object, the preservation of the
 health and lives, and  the  healing of the diseases  and the
 amelioration of the physical and  mental sufferings of our
 fellow-human beings, its extent embracing a  knowledge of
 all science,  whether relating to matter or mind.
   Health  has ever been looked upon as the first of all bless-
 ings,  and the truly wise and good physician  is  justly en-
 titled to the regard, esteem and even veneration with which
 he has been held in all ages and amongst  all nations, even
 the most barbaric, and by the afflicted and  destitute poor,
 as well as by kings and princes.  " Homines ad deos nulla
 re propioies accedunt quam salutem hominibus dando," is
 the expressed opinion of the celebrated  Roman orator.
   The nobleness  of medical   science  has been  well
 shadowed by the ancient poets, in that they  made  yEscu-
 lapius to be  the son of the sun, the one  being the fountain
 of life, the other of health or the second stream.   But how
 infinitely more  honored by the example  of our. Saviour,
 who,  as Lord Bacon has said, made the body of man the
 object of his miracles, for we read not that he vouchsafed
 to do  any  miracle about honor  or money, except that one
 for giving tribute to Caesar, but only about the preserving,
 sustaining and  healing of the body of man!
   While we should be duly  impressed with  the  dignity
 and responsibility  of the  medical profession, at the same
time it should ever  be remembered that the true phy-
 sician  is endowed with the modesty  of the  philosopher, 
113
 and  even in his highest and most self-sacrificing labors
 for the good of humanity  must expect to  encounter the
 opposition and neglect not only of his  fellow-men, but
 even of the profession itself.
   Whilst the dream of the elixir of  life and of the philos-
 opher's stone no longer animates the  ardent child of na-
 ture, a pure mind and heart, actuated always by a sense of
 duty and by a lofty endeavor after the truth,  may  well re-
 ceive the description of the  Angelical  stone of  the alche-
 mist:   The Angelical stone  can  neither be felt, seen nor
 weighed; it will lodge in the fire to eternity without being
 ■prejudiced';  it hath a divine power, celestial and invisible,
 and e?idows its possessor with divine gifts.
   The physician works with  deadly knives, and still more
 deadly medicines ;  he is entrusted with the lives  of his fel-
 low men-; his life is  spent in the  nearest communion with
 the sick  and  dying, in sight of the very gates  of eternity ;
 the work of  the physician, therefore, requires the highest
 self-command, the loftiest  moral training, and  the purest
 religious belief.  The intimate association with disease and
 dea£ji, the frequent view of the effects of vice in all its forms ;
 the tetnptation to promote private interests and elevate one's-
 self in the good opinion of others by the secret undermining
 of the  professional  reputation of rivals ; the great power
 which the privacy with which a physician  works,  confers
 of injuring rivals by those delicate and almost imperceptible
 stabs, which  are all the more powerful  and  fatal, because
 inflicted  at a  time when all the sympathies are aroused; the
 temptation to exaggerate personal qualification and power
 over disease  : all tend, if  not restrained by a noble, self-
 sacrificing spirit, by high moral culture and  pure religious
 belief, to degrade the noblest profession, the noblest field
for the exercise of the highest intellectual and moral facul-
ties, into  a field of strife-—into a dark school for the devel-
opment and education of the meanest and lowest principles
of evil.   As immortal beings, and as  members of a profes-
sion  which deals with immortal  beings in their last extrem- 
in
ities, you cannot if you would, shut your eyes to the im-
portance of Moral Education.
  Happily the very pursuit of knowledge tends to develop
the moral  faculties.
  It has been truly said,  " that knowlegde is not a  couch
whereon to rest a searching and restless spirit, or a terrace
for a wandering and variable mind to walk up and  down,
with a fair prospect, or a tower of  state for a proud  mind
to raise  itself upon, or a fort, or commanding ground for
strife and contention, or a shop for profit and sale;  but a
rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator  and the relief
of man's estate."
  The  end of  scientific education  is  the reflection  in the
human mind of  the relations and laws of the members of
the universe and the  enrichment of the intellect with that
knowledge which  enables man  to predict the  course of
future events, and direct  and control  the forces of nature
to the advancement of his physical and social position.
  In all  our  labors  we should  be encouraged  by the
thoughts that the humblest cultivator of natural science and
especially of medical knowledge, is  like the coral insect,
helping  to rear an edifice, which, emerging from the vexed
ocean of conflicting credence, shall  be first stable  and
secure,  and at last shall cover  itself with verdure, flowers
and fruits, and bloom beautiful in the face of heaven. 
 

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