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ARMY MEDICAL LIBRARY

        WASHINGTON

           Founded 1836
Section-
Number
3.2...S..3.3.:
:_«<
ipo  3—10543
Form 113c, W. D., S. G. O.
 (Revised June 13. 193G) 
X 
 
EXAMINATIONS
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PRACTICE OF PHYSIC,
 SURGERY, CHEMISTRY, MATERIA MEDICA,
            AND PHARMACY;


        Sox the &se of QtvibznlB.
BY ROBERT HOOPER, M.D.
THIRD AMERICAN, FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION.
        REVISED AND ENLARGED.
          NEW YOR]
J. & H. G. LANGLEY, 8  ASTOR HOUSE.
               1846. 
   w
I US'
  Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845, by
                  J. & H. G.  LANGLEY,
in the Clerk's office of the District Court of the United States for
             the Southern District of New York.
Iter., &  Print.,  16 Spruce  Street. 
                TO THE








GENTLEMEN STUDYING MEDICINE,








                  AND







   PREPARING FOR THEIR EXAMINATION,







            THIS LITTLE WORK







               IS DEDICATED








  AS A MARK OF THE AUTHOR'S ATTENTION








                   TO








       THEIR INTEREST AND WELFARE. 
 
PREFACE.
  The high estimation in which " Hooper's
Manual of Examinations" is held, by the Mem-
bers of  the Medical profession, as well  as
students ; the fact of its being now completely
out of print; and the daily inquiries made for it,
have  induced  the Publishers  to offer  a new
American edition of this valuable work.
  This volume is a correct re-print of the latest
English edition, with such additions  and cor-
rections, as were deemed necessary to render it
as complete as  the size of the volume would
admit.
  January,  1846. 
«* 
          EXAMINATIONS

                    IN

ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PRACTICE OF PHYSIC,
   SURGERY, MATERIA MEDICA, CHEMIS.
           TRY, AND PHARMACY.

      FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF STUDENTS.
               ANATOMY.

  Question.  What  are  the divisions of the
science of Anatomy ?
  Answer. The science of Anatomy is divided
into Osteology, Syndesmology, Myology, Bur-
sology,  Angeiology,  Neurology,  Adenology,
Splanchnology, and Hygrology.
  Q.  What are the solids of the body ?
  A.  The solids of the body are the bones,
cartilages, ligaments,  muscles,  cellular  sub-
stance,  membranes,  vessels,  nerves, glands,
viscera, and adipose substance.
  Q.  How do anatomists divide the skeleton 1
  A. The human skeleton is divided into head,
trunk, and extremities.   The head is subdi-
vided into cranium, or skull, and  face.   The
upper extremities into brachium, antibrachium,
carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges.  The lower 
8                ANATOMY.
extremities into femur, eras, tarsus, metatarsus,
and phalanges.  The trunk is subdivided  into
spine, thorax, and  pelvis.
  Q.  How many bones compose the cranium 1
  A.  Eight: namely, one os frontis, two ossa
parietalia, one os occipitis, two ossa temporalia,
one os ethmoides, and the os sphenoides.
  Q.  What is the  union  of the  bones of the
cranium called 1
  A.  Suture.
  Q.  What are the  names of the sutures of
the cranium ?
  A.  The sutures  of the cranium are five in
number, and are called the coronal, the sagit-
tal, the lambdoidal, and the two squamous.
  Q.  How many kinds of sutures are  there ?
  A.  Two : the true and the false.
  Q.  What is the  name of the suture which
connects the frontal with  the parietal bones 1
  A.  The coronal suture.
  Q.  By  what  suture is the occipital bone
united to the parietal bones ?
  A.  By the lambdoidal suture.
  Q.  What name is given to the suture which
connects the parietal  bones ?
  A.  It is called the  sagittal suture.
  Q. What are the peculiarities of the frontal
bone in the foetus ?
  A.  The frontal bone in the foetus is divided
down the  middle ;  it has no sinuses ; and
neither the  orbitar  plates  nor  superciliary
ridges are completely formed.
  Q.  Where is the os frontis situated •' 
ANATOMY.
9
   A. The os frontis is situated in the anterior
 part of the  cranium, and superior part of the
 face.
   Q. What is the shape of the os frontis ?
   A. It somewhat resembles a cockle-shell.
   Q. Where is the lachrymal depression situ-
 ated ?
   A. The lachrymal depression is situated on
the orbitar plate, and behind the external angu-
lar process.
   Q. Describe the  parietal bones.
   A. The parietal bones are of a quadrangular
shape, are externally convex, internally con-
cave, and marked with grooves for the menin-
geal arteries.  They form the lateral and supe-
rior part of the cranium.
   Q. Describe the  situation of the  sphenoid
bone.
   A. The sphenoid  bone is situated in the mid-
dle of the basis of the cranium, extending un-
derneath, from one temple across to the other.
   Q. Into how many portions is the temporal
bone distinguished ?
   A. Generally into  three  portions, viz.  a
squamous, a mastoid, and  petrous portion,
   Q. In  what bone is the  organ of hearing
situated ?
   A. In the petrous  portion of the  temporal
bone.
   Q. How many tables have the bones of the
cranium ?            »
   A. Two : an external and an internal. 
10
ANATOMY.
  Q. What is the name of the substance which
unites the two tables of the cranium 1
  A. It is called diploe or meditullium.
  Q. What is attached to the internal angular
process of  the frontal bone 1
  A. There are two muscles attached to the
internal angular process: viz. the corrugator
supercilii   and  the  trochlearis, or  obliquus
superior.
  Q. Describe the.occipital bone.
  A. The  occipital bone forms the  posterior
and inferior part of the skull, is of an irregular
figure, externally convex,  internally  concave.
It has many depressions and elevations, and is
connected, at its  inferior part, by means  of a
projection, called the  basilar  process,  to  the
sphenoid bone.
  Q. Describe the sphenoid bone.
  A. The sphenoid bone is divided into a body
and  wings.  It has many  processes, depres-
sions, and foramina, and is connected to all the
bones of the cranium.
  Q. What are the processes of the sphenoid
bone 1
  A. The principal processes of this bone are,
the two pterygoid processes, the hamular  pro-
cess, the  spinous processes,  the  orbitar  pro-
cesses, the temporal processes, the  ethmoidal
process, the olivary process, and the  anterior
and  posterior clinoid processes.
  Q. What bones are united  by  the false
sutures 1
  A. The bones of the face  and the temporal 
ANATOMY.
11
bones are united to the parietal bones by the
false or squamous suture.
   Q. Through what foramina do the olfactory
nerves pass out of the cranium ?
   A. Through  the foramina  cribrosa, which
are in the upper part of the ethmoid bone.
   Q. Where is the foramen magnum situated ?
   A. In the occipital bone, at the inferior part
between the condyles and behind the basilary
process.
   Q. To what bone does the crista galli belong ?
   A. To the  ethmoid bone : it forms the pro-
jecting process within the cranium, to which
the falciform  process of the dura mater  is at-
tached.
   Q. To  what  bone  does the sella turcica
belong 1
   A. To the  sphenoid bone : it is placed in the
middle,  and  projects into the  cavity of the
cranium.
   Q. What does the foramen rotundum of the
sphenoid bone transmit 1
   A. The foramen  rotundum transmits the
second branch of the fifth pair of nerves.
   Q. Describe the frontal bone.
   A. The frontal bone has some resemblance
to a cockle-shell ; it is placed  in the anterior
part of  the skull, and forms the forehead and
upper part of the  orbits.  It receives the an-
terior lobe of the cerebrum, forms  a notch for
the ethmoid bone, is externally convex,  inter-
nally concave, and  has several elevations and
depressions. 
12
ANATOMY.
   Q. Where is the os ethmoides situated 1
   A. The os ethmoides is situated at the root
of the nose, in  a notch between the orbitar
plates of the frontal bone.
   Q. What bone separates the ethmoid from
the occipital bone ?
   A. The sphenoid bone.
   Q. Through  what foramen does the third
branch of the fifth pair of nerves pass ?
   A. The  third branch  of  the fifth pair of
nerves goes through the foramen ovale.
   Q. At what angle of the parietal bone is the
groove for the middle meningeal artery ?
   A. The middle meningeal artery of the dura
mater runs in a groove  at the anterior inferior
angle of the parietal bone.
   Q. What rests on the upper surface of the
cuneiform process of the occipital bone ?
   A. The  medulla oblongata rests upon  the
upper surface  of the cuneiform or  basilar
process.
   Q. What is attached  to  the lateral  parts of
the internal crucial spine of the occipital bone %
   A. The tentorium, which separates the cere-
brum from the cerebellum.
   Q. In what bone is the foramen opticum ?
  A. The foramen opticum is in the sphenoid
bone.
  Q. Is the body of the sphenoid bone solid ?
   A. No;  at the  under and fore part of its
body, the two sphenoidal sinuses are formed.
   Q,. Do they communicate ? 
ANATOMY.              13
   A.  No ;  there is an osseous septum or plate
 between them.
   Q.  Has  the space within  the  clinoid pro-
 cesses any particular name ?
   A. Yes ; it is called  Sella  Turcica.
   Q. What gland is  situated in the sella tur-
 cica 1
   A. The pituitary gland, which was anciently
 supposed to secrete the mucus of the nose.
   Q. Where  is the foramen opticum found in
 the  skulH
   A. In the orbit,  at the very bottom.
   Q. What is the use of the foramen opticum 1
  . A. It transmits the optic nerve to the eye.
   Q. Why  does the optic nerve take a wavino-
 course in the orbit ?
   A. To prevent it from being overstretched
 in the different motions  of the eye.
   Q. What are the eminences of the temporal
 bone1?
   A. The principal eminences are  the mastoid
 process, the zygomatic process,  the  styloid
 process, vaginal process, and the ridge on the
 petrous portion.
   Q. What is the use of the meatus auditorius
 internus 1
   A. The meatus auditorius internus transmits
 the portio dura and  portio mollis.
   Q.  To what nerve does the  fissura Glasseri
give exit %
  A. The chorda tympani.
  Q. What  is the  name of  the suture  that
              1 
14
ANATOMY.
 connects the bones of the face to those of the
 cranium 1
   A. The bones of the cranium are connected
 to those of the face by means of the transverse
 suture.
   Q. How many bones compose the face 1
   A. The face is formed by fourteen  bones j
 two superior maxillary, two nasal, two  pala-
 tine, two jugal, two inferior spongy, two lach-
 rymal, the vomer,  and the  inferior maxillary
 bone.
  Q.  What is attached to the styloid process
 of the temporal bone 1
  A.  Three muscles,  viz.  the  stylo-pharyn-
geus, the stylo-glossus, and the stylo-hyoideus ;
also the stylo-maxillary, and stylo-hyoid liga-
ments.
  Q.  Enumerate the  principal  elevations of
the occipital bone.
  A.  The principal elevations of the occipital
bone are, its condyles, a longitudinal ridge, a
superior  and an  inferior transverse ridge,  a
tuberosity in the  centre of  the superior trans-
verse ridge : these  are on  the  external sur-
face.   On the  internal suface  is seen  the
crucial spine.
  Q.  To what bone does the mastoid process
belong 1
  A.  It is a part of the temporal bone.
  Q.  Where is it situated 1
  A.  Immediately behind the ear.
  Q.  How many bones compose the orbit 1
  A.  Seven: viz. os frontis, os ethmoides, os 
ANATOMY.
15
sphenoides, os lachrymale, os jugale, os palati,
and the os maxillare superius.
  Q.  What passes through the foramen lace-
rum orbitale superius \
  A.  The third, the fourth, the first branch of
the fifth and sixth pair of nerves, and the oph-
thalmic vein.
  Q.  How many bones  compose the lower
jaw?
  A.  One, in the adult, the inferior maxillary
bone.
  Q.  What bones compose the nose 1
  A.  Fourteen: the two ossa nasi, two ossa
maxillaria, and the os frontis on its upper and
fore part;  the os  ethmoides,  and two ossa
unguis on its upper, inner, and lateral  part;
the two maxillaria  superiora, two ossa palati,
os sphenoides, two ossa spongiosa inferiora,
and the  vomer, on  its under, inner, and back
part.
  Q.  What bones form the septum narium 1
  A.  The azygos process of the ethmoid bone,
the vomer, and the  crest formed by the union
of the palatal processes of the superior  max-
illary  and  palate bones.
  Q.  To what bone do the superior turbinated
bones, as they are called, belong ?
  A.  To the ethmoid bone, of which they are
a part.
  Q.  In what bone is the antrum of Highmore
situated ?
  A.  In the superior maxillary bone, behind
the cheeks. 
16
ANATOMY.
   Q. Has  it any opening  or  communication
 with any part ?
   A. Yes : it has one opening into the nostril.
   Q. Where is the opening ?
   A. Under the middle spongy bone.
   Q. Is the body of the sphenoid bone hollow
 or solid ?
   A.  Hollow :  it contains  the  sphenoidal
 sinuses, which communicate with the nose.
   Q. What separates the antrum of Highmore
 from the orbit ?
   A. The orbitar plate of the superior maxil-
 lary bone.
 V  Q. Is there any communication between the
 orbit and the nostril 1
   A. Yes:  by the ductus ad nasum,  to con-
 vey  the tears into the nose.
   Q. How many bones are there in the tym-
 panum 1
   A. Four: the incus, stapes, malleus, and os
 orbiculare.
   Q. To what bone of the cranium does the
styloid process belong 1
   A. To the temporal bone.
   Q. What are  the foramina of the superior
maxillary bone 1
   A. The foramina of this bone are, the infra-
orbitar foramen, the foramen incisivum, the
spheno-maxillary fissure, and the  foramen of
the antrum maxillare.
   Q. What  bones  form the foramen lacerum
posterius 1
   A. The temporal and occipital bones. 
ANATOMY.
17
  Q. What passes through the canalis caroti-
deus 1
  A. The  canalis  carotideus transmits the
carotid artery and the carotid plexus.
  Q. What are the processes of the sphenoid
bone called, which  form the sides of the pos-
terior nostril 1
  A. The pterygoid processes.
  Q. What pass  through the foramen lacerum
in basi cranii ?
  A. The  internal  jugular vein,  the  glosso-
pharyngeal, pneumogastric, and spinal acces-
sory nerves.
  Q- Do the ossa palati form any part of the
orbit ?
  A. Yes : a portion of the palate bone rises
into the inferior part of it.
  Q. Where is the  vomer situated 1
  A. In  the centre  of the nostrils, having the
sphenoid and ethmoid bones at its upper.part,
the superior maxillary and palatine bones  at
its lower part, and the cartilaginous septum of
the nose  on the anterior part.
  Q. Where is the  Eustachian tube situated ?
  A. It passes from the tympanum of the ear
obliquely forwards and inwards, and opens  in
the fauces, near the posterior nostril.
  Q. How  many foramina has the  inferior
maxillary bone ?
  A. It  has only two, which belong to the
canalis  mentalis: one placed externally and
anteriorly,  the  other placed  posteriorly and
internally.
             1* 
18
ANATOMY.
   Q.  Point out the situation of the zygomatic
 process on the face.
   A.  It forms the lateral and superior part of
 the cheek,  extending anteriorly from  the ex-
 tremity of the ear.
   Q.  Where is the os (unguis situated ?
   A.  The os  unguis is situated in the orbit, at
 the internal angle  immediately underneath the
 meeting of the eyelashes.
   Q.  What is  the name of the portions of the
 os  ethmoides which hang down into the nos-
 trils ?
   A. The superior turbinated bones and azygos
 process.
   Q. What sinuses  communicate with  the
 cavity of the nostrils ?
   A. There are five  sinuses which  enter  the
 cavity of the nostrils ; viz. the frontal, ethmoi-
 dal, and sphenoidal sinuses at the  upper part,
 and the two maxillary sinuses  on the sides.
   Q. What is the shape of the os  malse .'
  A. It is of the quadrangular shape.
  Q. Enumerate the foramina of the sphenoid
 bone.
  A. The foramina of the sphenoid bone are,
 the foramina optica, foramina lacera orbitalia,
foramina rotunda,  foramina  ovalia, foramina
spinosa, and the foramina Vidiana.
  Q. What bones of the cranium are called
ossa plana ?
  A. The orbitar plates of the ethmoid bone.
  Q. What  are the elevations of the superior
maxillary  bone ? 
ANATOMY.              19
   A. The elevations of the superior maxillary
 bone are, the alveolar  process,  the  spinous
 process, the palatine process, the nasal process,
 the orbitar process, the malar process, and the
 bulbous process.
   Q. What are the  projections of the inferior
 maxillary bone ?
   A. The principal  projections of the inferior
 maxillary bone are, the coronoid and condyloid
 processes ; the angles ; a ridge  passing exter-
 nally, and another internally, from the base of
 the coronoid process to the commencement of
 the chin * a projection on the inner  and outer
 side of each angle ; a  projection behind  the
 symphysis, and another on each side the  base
 of the chin.                            ^
   Q. What is the division of the internal ear 1
   A. The internal ear, or labyrinth, is divided
 into the vestibule, the semi-circular canals, and
 the cochlea.
   Q. How many teeth are there in the adult,
 and how are  they divided ?
   A. In the adult there are sixteen teeth in
 each jaw; and  they are  divided into three
 classes on each side of the jaw :  two incisores,
 one cuspidatus, two bicuspides, and three mo-
 lares.
   Q. What are the  bones called which com-
 pose the spine ?
   A. Vertebrae, of which  there  are  twenty-
 four.
   Q. On  what vertebrae is the rotation of the
head performed ? 
20
ANATOMY.
  A.  The head rotates upon the second cer-
vical vertebra, by the intervention of the atlas.
  Q.  Describe the spine.
  A.  The spine is a long, bony, and cartilagi-
nous, hollow column, consisting of twenty-four
bones, called vertebrae, which extend from the
occipital bone to the os sacrum, and have many
processes and foramina.
  Q.   What is  there  peculiar to the second
vertebrae ?
  A.  It has the odontoid process at the upper
part of its body.
  Q.  What is there peculiar to the atlas ?
  A.  The atlas has no body nor spinous pro-
cess : its transverse processes  are longer than
those,, of the rest, and  terminate in an obtuse
point.   The superior  articular processes are
very large, and are hollowed  out for the con-
dyles of the occipital  bone.  There  are two
tuberosities within-its large arch, for the attach-
ment   of the  transverse  ligament; it  has a
groove behind each superior articular process,
and there is a surface  for the odontoid process
to move on.
  Q.  How would you distinguish a dorsal ver-
tebra from the rest ?
  A.  The  bodies of the  dorsal vertebrae are
larger than the cervical, and  smaller than the
lumbar ; they are more flattened  at the sides,
more  convex  before,  and more concave be-
hind, than any of the other vertebrae ; the spi-
nous process terminates in a round tubercle ;
the transverse processes are  very  thick; they 
ANATOMY.              21
  have no foramen, as in the cervical;  there is
  an articulating surface on the side of the body,
  and a superficial one in the points of the trans-
  verse processes.
    Q. Where is the os sacrum situated 1
    A. The  os sacrum is situated at the pos-
 terior and lower  part of the trunk, below the
 lumbar  vertebrae, and between the ossa inno-
 minata.
    Q. How many foramina open  upon the sur-
 face of the sacrum 1
   A. There are four  pair of holes on the an-
 terior part of the sacrum, and  the same  num-
 ber on its posterior part.
   Q. Where is the  os uteri situated in the
 skeleton 1
   A. There  is no os uteri in the skeleton—os
 uteri means  the mouth of the uterus, which is
 a fleshy viscus of the female pelvis.
   Q. How are the ribs divided 1
   A.  They are divided into seven true ribs,
 situated  superiorly,  and five false, which are
 placed inferiorly.
   Q.  Into what parts is each rib distinguished ?
   A.  Each rib is divided  into middle part, or
 body, an anterior and posterior extremity, an
 external  and  internal  surface, and a superior
 and inferior edge.
   Q.  Do the anterior extremities  of all  the
ribs reach the sternum ?
  A. No ;  only those of the true ribs.
  Q. Where is the os hyoides situated ? 
22
ANATOMY.
  A.  It is situated at the root of the tongue,
between it and the larynx.
  Q.  How is  the os hyoides divided 1
  A.  The os hyoides  is divided into body, two
cornua majora, and two cornua minora.
  Q.  Describe the scapula.
  A.  The scapula is a triangular bone, situated
at the lateral and upper part of the  back.   It
has three  margins, three processes, the spine,
the acromion and coracoid, three angles, and an
articular cavity for the head of the os humeri.
  Q.  What bone is  fixed  to  the  acromion
scapulae 1
  A.  The clavicle, or collar-bone.
  Q.  How many bones has  the fore-arm ?
  A.  Two ; the radius, and ulna.
  Q.  Where is the ulna situated 1
  A.  When the  hand  is  supine, it is situated
at the inner part of the fore-arm, between the
humerus and carpus.
  Q What is situated  in the groove at the
lower internal edge of each  rib 1
  A.  The intercostal  artery, vein, and nerve.
  Q.  How  many portions  of bone  does the
sternum consist of?
  A.  In the adult the sternum consists of three
portions :  a superior portion, which nearly re-
sembles the ace  of hearts;  a  middle portion,
which is  flat  on  each side,  and larger  below
than above ; and an inferior portion, which has
attached to it the ensiform cartilao-e.
  Q.  How is  the clavicle divided ?
  A.  The clavicle is divided into a body; and 
ANATOMY.             23
  an internal, or  sternal, and.an external,  or
  scapular, extremity.
    Q. On what bone do we  lean when on our
  elbow 1
    A. The ulna.
    Q. What is the process called on which we
  lean?
    A. The olecranon.
    Q. How many bones compose the shoulder-
 joint ?
    A. Two : the scapula and the  os brachii.
    Q. What  bone unites the arm to the thorax 1
    A. The clavicle, or collar-bone.
    Q. How many bones compose the carpus 1
   A.  Eight; viz. os scaphoides, lunare, cunei-
 forme, pisiforme, trapezium, trapezoides, mag-
 num, and unciforme.
   Q. What receives the head of the os femoris ?
   A.  The acetabulum, or cup-like cavity of the
• os innominatum.
   Q.  What ligament is attached to the bottom
 of the acetabulum 1
   A. The ligamentum teres of the thigh-bone,
 which confines the head in its socket.
   Q.  What bone supports the leg ?
   A. The astragalus, on which the tibia rests.
   Q.  Which of the bones of. the leg  is  the
 outermost 1
   A. The fibula, the lower extremity of which
 forms the outer ankle.
   Q. What is the situation of the os calcis ?
   A. The os calcis is placed at the posterior
part of the tarsus, and forms the heel. 
24
ANATOMY.
   Q. Where is the os scaphoides situated 1
   A. Immediately before the astragalus.
   Q. What is the situation of the three cunei-
form bones of the tarsus?
   A. The cuneiform bones are situated before
the os scaphoides, and internal  to  the os cu-
boides.
   Q. Where is the trochanter major situated ?
   A. It forms the great projection  at  the su-
perior and external part of the thigh-bone.
   Q. On what bone is the linea aspera situat-
ed ?
   A. On the back part of the os femoris.
   Q. What are  the  processes  on  the lower
end of the os femoris called ?
   A. They are called condyles.
   Q. What is there particular to be noticed on
the os humeri ?
   A. In noticing  the os humeri, we may ob-
serve its cylindrical shape, its body and  two
extremities, the  head, neck, great and little
tuberosity, the bicipital groove, the two  con-
dyles, and trochlea.
   Q. Enumerate  the  principal parts  of the
ulna.
  A. The principal parts  of the ulna are, its
body and extremities, the  olecranon and coro-
noid process, the great and little sigmoid cavity,
the lesser head, and styloid process.
  Q. What are the principal parts of the ra-
dius ?
  A.  The principal parts of the  radius are, its
body and  two  extremities ;  its round head, 
ANATOMY.
25
 which rolls  on the ulna ;  the  sigmoid cavity,
 at its lower extremity ; and the styloid process.
   Q.  What are the principal  parts of the  os
 femoris ?
   A.  The principal parts of the os femoris are,
 its body and extremities, the  head, neck,»the
 great and little trochanters, the  linea aspera,
 the external and internal condyle, the notch
 between the condyles, and fossa for the patella.
   Q.  How  many  bones compose the knee-
 joint ?
   A. Three ; viz. the patella, the  os femoris,
 and the tibia.
   Q.  What are the bones of the leg called ?
   A. Tibia and fibula.
   Q. What is  the shape of the tibia ?
   A. It  is  long  and triangular;  larger above
 than below.
   Q. What bone forms the inner ankle ?
   A. The inner ankle is formed of a projec-
 tion from the lower part of the tibia.
   Q. What bone forms the outer ankle ?
   A. The lower end of^the fibula forms it.
   Q. What are the names of the bones of the
 pelvis ?
   A. They are four in number; viz. the two
 ossa innominata, one os  sacrum, and  one  os
 coccygis.
   Q. How would you distinguish a male from
 a female pelvis ?
   A. In  the  female  pelvis, the os  sacrum is
 shorter and  broader than that of the male, the
ossa ilia are more expanded, the  brim  of the
             2 
26
ANATOMY.
 pelvis is nearly of an oval shape, it  is wider
 from side to side  than  from the symphysis
 pubis to the os sacrum ;  whereas, in man, it is
 rounder, and everywhere  of less diameter; the
 os sacrum  is narrower, and  the  os  coccygis
 more firmly connected.
   Q. Into how many portions is the os innomi-
 natum distinguished 1
   A. Into three j  the iliac, the pubic,  and
 ischiatic portions, which, in the foetus, are three
 distinct bones, and  become one in the adult.
   Q. What separates the ossa innominata from
 each other behind 1
   A. The sacrum.
   Q. What are the terminations of the  crista
 of the ilium called  ?
   A. The terminations  of  the crista of the
 ilium are called, the anterior superior, and pos-
terior superior, spinous processes of the  ilium.
   Q. What is attached  to the crista of the
 ilium ?
   A. The aponeurosis of the fascia lata, the
 latissimus dorsi, and obliquus externus  abdo-
 minis,  are  attached  to  its  external part, and
 posteriorly the gluteus maximus.
   Q. Describe the tibia.
   A. The tibia is situated on  the inner side of
 the leg:  it is divided into a body and an  upper
 and lower extremity.  The upper extremity is
 called the head, which has two articular sur-
 faces for  the condyles of the os femoris.   The
 body has three surfaces  and three edges: the 
ANATOMY.
27
lower extremity is smaller than the upper, and
forms the malleolus internus.
  Q.  What is affixed to the apex of the pa-
tella ?
  A.  A ligament is attached to the apex of
the  patella, which is also affixed to the tube-
rosity of the tibia.
  Q.  Where is  the  spine of the  tibia? put
your finger on it.
  A.  Here, on the anterior part.
  Q.  Is there any bone between the ossa inno-
minata anteriorly ?
  A.  No :  the pubic portion of each meets to
form the pubes.
  Q.  Where is the os coccygis situated ?
  A.  At the lower part, or  apex, of the os
sacrum.
  Q.  What is the name of the cavity that re-
ceives the head of the os humeri 1
  A.  The glenoid cavity.
  Q.  To what bone does the acetabulum be-
long %
  A.  It belongs to the os innominatum.
  Q.  What bones form the hip-joint ?
  A.  The head of the os femoris and the  ace-
tabulum of the os innominatum.
  Q.  Where is the tuberosity of the ischium
situated ?
  A.  At the inferior part of the os *innomi-
natum.
  Q. On what bone do we sit ?
  A.  The os innominatum, on  the tuberosity
of the ischium. 
'28
ANATOMY.
   Q. Of what bone is the ascending ramus o
 the pubes a part ?
   A. It is a part of the os innominatum.
   Q. What bones form the  thorax ?
   A. Twelve dorsal vertebras, the sternum, and
 twenty-four ribs ; in all, thirty-seven bones.
   Q. What is the use of the periosteum ?
   A. To allow an attachment for muscles, and
 to afford a bed for the ramification of vessels
 to nourish the bone.
   Q. How many kinds of cartilage are there ?
   A. There are four  kinds of cartilage : 1st,
 Diarthrodial cartilages, which cover the ends of
 the bones ; 2d, Synarthrodial cartilages, which
 are  placed between several bones, as that  of
 the  symphysis pubis  ; 3d,  Interarticular car-
 tilages,  placed in some of the joints, as those
 in the knee-joint, &c. ; 4th, Those  cartilages
 which  supply the place of bone, as  the  car-
 tilages of the nose, ears, &c.
   Q. How many kinds of ligaments are there ?
   A. There  are two kinds of ligaments ; viz,
 the connecting and capsular ligaments.
   Q. What are the ligaments of the lower jaw,
 and where are they situated ?
   A. The lower jaw is articulated by two liga-
 ments on each side, a capsular and lateral liga-
ment : the capsular ligament is affixed around
the articular surface of the temporal  bone, and
round the condyloid process of the lower jaw ;
the lateral ligament passes  fromxthe tubercle
of the zygoma to  the  external  surface of the
 neck of the lower jaw. 
ANATOMY.
29
   Q. What are the ligaments about the shoul-
der-joint ?
   A. The capsular ligament of the head of the
os brachii; the triangular ligament, which ex-
tends from the coracoid process to the acro-
mion ; the conoid and trapezoid ligaments, that
extend  from  the  clavicle to the coracoid pro-
cess.
   Q. What are the ligaments of the pelvis ?
   A. The long and short sacro-ischiatic liga-
ments ;  the obturator ligament; Poupart's lig-
ament ;  the transverse ligaments, going from
the spinous processes of the ilium to the fourth
and  fifth lumbar  vertebrae; the annular  liga-
ment of the ossa  pubis ; the ligamenfa vaga,
which pass from the  ilium to the sacrum ;  and
the lacertus ligamentosus, that  runs  from the
last lumbar vertebra along  the ridge of the os
innominatum to the pubes ; besides these, there
are the  capsular and longitudinal  ligaments of
the sacrum and the os coccygis.
   Q. Where  is Poupart's ligament ?
   A. Here;  between  the  anterior  superior
spinous  process of the ilium and the os pubis.
   Q. What is the name of  the ligament that
connects the os femoris to the bottom of the
acetabulum ?
   A. The ligamentum teres.
   Q. What are the ligaments of the knee-joint ?
   A. The ligaments of the knee-joint are, the
internal lateral,  the  long and  short external
lateral, the posterior ligament of Winslow, the
ligament of the patella, the  capsular ligament,
              2* 
30
ANATOMY.
the two ligamenta alaria, the ligamentum mu-
cosum, the anterior  and posterior crucial, the
transverse  ligament  of the interarticular  car-
tilages, and the ligaments  which fix these car-
tilages to the protuberance of the tibia.
  Q. What is the most elastic substance in the
body ?
  A. The most elastic substance in the body is
cartilage.
  Q. Are tendons elastic ?
  A. No; they  are  inelastic,  otherwise   the
effect of the  muscles would be greatly dimin-
ished.
  Q. Where is the ligamentum nuchae situated ?
  A. The ligamentum nuchae arises from the
occipital bone, runs down  on the  back part of
the neck, adhering to the spinous processes of
the cervical vertebrae, and  giving origin to the
trapezius and other muscles.
  Q. Describe  the  annular  ligament of the
wrist.
  A. The annular ligament  of the wrist con-
sists of two parts : 1st, The ligamentum carpi
transversale externum, which  passes from the
styloid process  of the ulna and os pisiforme,
over the back of the  wrist, to be affixed to the
styloid process of the radius ; 2d, The liga-
mentum  carpi  transversale  internum, which
passes across the  fore part  of the wrist; i6
arises from the os pisiforme and os unciforme,
and  is attached to the os scaphoides and os
trapezium, on the outer edge. 
ANATOMY.
31
    Q. What parts of the body are free  from
 adipose structure ?
    A. The skin of the scrotum, penis, and eye-
 lids, has no adipose structure.
    Q. What are the bones of the tarsus ?
   A. The bones of the tarsus are seven in num-
 ber ;  viz. the  astragalus,  os  calcis,  os  sca-
 phoides, os cuboides, and the three cuneiform
 bones.
   Q. What muscles are attached to the cora-
 coid process of the scapula ?
   A. The coraco-brachialis, the pectoralis minor,
 and the short head of the biceps flexor cubiti.
   Q.  Where is the diaphragm situated ?
   A.  Between the thorax and abdomen, form-
 ing a vaulted arch or septum attached to the
 lower borders of the ribs.
   Q.  What are the muscles of the abdomen ?
   A. The obliquus externus, obliquus inter-
 nus, transversalis abdominis, rectus abdominis,
 and pyramidalis, in pairs.
   Q.  What is the name  of the muscle which
 has three foramina in it ?
   A. The diaphragm.
   Q. How is the diaphragm divided ?
   A. The diaphragm is divided into the greater
 and less muscle.
   Q. Describe the origin and insertion of the
 two muscles of the diaphragm.
   A. The greater muscle of the  diaphragm
arises from all the cartilages of the false and of
the last true rib, and is inserted into the cen-
trum tendinosum ; the less muscle arises from 
32
ANATOMY.
eight slips from the second, third, and fourth
lumbar vertebrae, which  form two crura ;  the
muscle is then inserted into the centrum ten-
dincteum opposite its fellow.
  Q. Where is the longest crus  of the  dia-
phragm situated ?
  A. On the right side of the fore part of the
loins.
  Q. What tendon passes through the capsular
ligament of the shoulder-joint ?
  A. The long tendon of  the  biceps  flexor
cubiti.
  Q. How many   muscles  arise  from  the
shoulder and are inserted into  the fore-arm ?
  A. The muscles that are attached to the
shoulder and fore-arm are two in number ; viz.
biceps flexor cubiti, and the long head of the
triceps.
  Q. How many muscles arise  from the arm
to be inserted into  the fore-arm ?
  A. The muscles that arise from the arm and
are  inserted into the fore-arm are six in num-
ber ; namely, the anconeus, the short heads of
the  triceps extensor cubiti, the brachialis inter-
nus, supinator radii  longus,  supinator  radii
brevis, and pronator radii teres.
  Q. What muscles arise from the  scapula and
are inserted into the humerus ?
  A. The muscles which arise  from the sca-
pula and are inserted into the humerus are, the
subscapularis, teres major, teres  minor, supra-
spinatus,  infraspinatus,  coracobrachialis,  and
the deltoides. 
ANATOMY.
33
    Q. What tendon  passes  over the  hamular
  process of the sphenoid bone ?
    A. The tendon of the tensor palati passes
  over the hook-like process, to be inserted into
  the soft plate.
   Q. What forms the  sheath of the  rectus
  abdominis ?
   A. The sheath of the rectus  is formed by
 the tendons of three muscles, viz. the obliquus
 externus, the obliquus internus, and the trans-
 versalis.
   Q.  What are the tendinous partitions called,
 which are  sent betwixt muscles from the fascia
 covering them ?
   A. The partitions sent down from the fascia
 betwixt  muscles are called intermuscular liga-
 ments ;  they connect the muscles, and give
 origin to many of the fibres.
   Q. Where  is the  sphincter of the rectum
 situated ?
   A. At its extremity, which it surrounds.
   Q. What muscle is inserted into the os pisi-
 forme ?
   A. The  muscle which is  inserted  into the
 os pisiforme is called flexor carpi  ulnaris.
   Q. How many muscles are there that arise
 from the trunk, and are  inserted  into the sca-
 pula ?
   A. They are six in number; viz. trapezius,
levator scapulae, pectoralis minor, rhomboideus,
serratus magnus, and subclavius.
  Q. Do the external condyles of the humerus 
34
ANATOMY.
give origin to the extensor or flexor muscles
of the fore-arm ?
  A. To the extensors.
  Q. What forms the linea alba ?
  A. The meeting of the flat tendons of the
abdominal muscles, from the ensiform cartilage
to the symphysis pubis.
  Q. What muscles are divided in amputation
of the thigh ?
  A. The muscles  divided in  amputation of
the  thigh  are, the biceps flexor cruris, semi-
tendinosus,  semi-membranosus,  gracilis, sar-
torius, vastus externus, vastus internus, rectus
femoris, and the long tendon of the abductor
magnus.
  Q. What muscles are inserted into the pa-
tella ?
  A. The rectus femoris, the vastus externus,
the  vastus internus, and cruraeus.
  Q. What are the  names  of the  muscles
which are inserted into the  os calcis ?
  A. Gastrocnemius  externus, gastrocnemius
internus soleus, and plantaris.
  Q. What is the name of the tendon formed
by the gastrocnemius  externus, and soleus ?
  A. The tendo Achillis.
  Q. What muscle  crosses the carotid artery
and internal jugular vein ?
  A. These two vessels have the omo-hyoides
crossing  them, to   insert  itself into the  os
hyoides.
  Q. How  many muscles are there on  the
anterior part of the neck ? 
ANATOMY.
35
   A. The muscles on the anterior part of the
neck are sixteen in number; viz. platysma
myoides,  sterno-cleidomastoideus,  omo-hyoi-
deus, sterno-hyoideus, sterno-thyroideus, thyro-
hyoideus, crico-thyroideus,  digastricus, stylo-
hyoideus, stylo-glossus, stylo-pharyngeus,myo-
hyoideus, genio-hyoideus, genio-hyo-glossus,
hyo-glossus, and lingualis.
  Q. What forms the lineae  transversa? of the
abdomen ?
  A. The lineae transversae  are formed by the
tendinous adhesions of the recti muscles, which
produce  three  or four white  lines that shine
through the fascia covering each muscle.
  Q. What forms the linea semilunaris ?
  A. The linea semilunaris  is a semicircular
white line which  runs obliquely from the os
pubis over the side of the abdomen, at the dis-
tance of about four inches from the linea alba ;
it is formed by the tendons of the two oblique
and transverse muscles uniting at  the rectus.
  Q. Is there  any muscle which arises  from
one of  the abdominal muscles and is inserted
into the testicle ?
  A. Yes; the cremaster muscle arises  from
the internal oblique, passes through the abdomi-
nal ring, and  descending upon  the spermatic
cord, is inserted into the tunica vaginalis of the
testis.
  Q. What are the most important fasciae of
the body ?
  A. The fascia covering the temporal muscle :
—that given off from the biceps  covering the 
36
ANATOMY.
 fore-arm :—that covering the abdominal mus-
 cles and back :—the fascia of the  lower ex-
 tremities :—and the plantar and palmar fascia.
   Q. From whence does the palmar aponeuro-
 sis arise ?
   A. The  palmar aponeurosis arises from  the
 tendon  of  the palmaris, and from the annular
 ligament of the wrist.
   Q. What are bursae mucosae, and their use ?
   A. The bursae mucosae are small bags placed
 under muscles and tendons that are frequently
 brought into action ; they contain a fluid simi-
 lar to synovia, the use of which is to lubricate
 the muscles and tendons.
   Q. Where are bursae mucosae to be found ?
   A. The  bursae  mucosae are  chiefly situated
 in the extremities, between tendons which rub
 against each other,  or where they play on  the
 surfaces of  bones or joints, and between the  in-
 teguments and certain prominent points of bone,
 as at the'knee, elbow, and knuckles.
   Q. From which  side of the tendon of  the
 biceps is an aponeurosis  sent off?
   A. An aponeurosis is sent off from its inside,
 which assists in forming  the fascia of the fore-
 arm.
   Q. Describe the fascia covering the fore-arm.
   A. The fascia covering the fore-arm is con-
tinued from the intermuscular ligaments which
pass down to the condyles, covering the os hu-
meri.  It is attached to the condyles, and ad-
heres firmly to the olecranon.  On the posterior
part of the  arm it receives a great  addition of 
ANATOMY.
37
 fibres  from the triceps extensor, and on the
 fore part of the arm it appears to be a continua-
 tion of  the aponeurosis of the biceps  flexor
 cubiti.
   Q. What is the  use of aponeuroses ?
   A. The  use  of  aponeuroses is to brace the
 muscles, by  keeping   them  in their  proper
 place while in action,  and to  give origin  to  ~
 many muscular fibres of the muscles which lie
 immediately under.
   Q. How many arteries are there ?
   A. Two : viz. the aorta and pulmonary ar-
 tery : all the  other arteries are branches of
 these two.
   Q.  What vessels nourish the heart ?
   A. The coronary arteries.
   Q. What arteries are  given off from the arch
 of the aorta?
   A. Three branches; viz. the arteria innomi- _
 nata, the left carotid, and the left subclavian.
   Q. What parts do the external and internal
 carotid artery supply ?
   A. The external carotid artery supplies the
 face  and external parts of the head ; the inter-
 nal carotid artery supplies the brain.
   Q. What branches does the external carotid
 artery give off?
   A. The external carotid artery gives offeight
branches; viz.  1. thyroidea superior; 2. lin-
gualis ; 3.  facialis ; 4. pharyngea inferior;  5.
occipitalis;  6. auricularisposterior;  7. tempo-
ralis  ; and 8. maxillaris interna.
              3 
38                ANATOMY.
   Q. What are the branches of the internal
 carotid artery ?
   A. The internal carotid artery sends off the
 ophthalmic,  the  communicans,  the  anterior
 cerebri and the media  cerebri.
   Q. What  is  the situation of the common
 carotid artery in the neck ?
   A. The common  carotid artery lies on the
 side of the trachea, between it and the internal
 jugular vein.
   Q. What are the arteries of the dura mater ?
   A. The arteries of the dura mater are  the
 anterior, middle, and posterior meningeal.
   Q.  How   many  arteries has  the  thyroid
 gland ?
   A. The thyroid  gland  has four  arteries,
namely, the  two superior thyroid, and the two
 inferior thyroid.
   Q. Through  what foramen does  the oph-
thalmic artery enter the orbit ?
   A. The ophthalmic  artery  enters the orbit
by the foramen opticum ; it sends its branches
 to the forehead, lachrymal gland, fat, muscles,
 and globe of the eye.
   Q. What is the course of the arteria trans-
 versal is faciei ?
   A. The transversalis faciei,  which is a
branch of the temporal, proceeds transversely
under the zygoma, over the masseter, and near
the parotid duct.
   Q. Describe the course of the internal caro-
tid as it enters the cranium.
   A. The internal  carotid, at the base of the 
ANATOMY.
39
 cranium, makes a sudden turn forwards, and
 enters the carotid canal of the temporal bone ;
 it then passes upwards  and  forwards ;  after
 leaving the canal, it again bends upwards and
 forwards by the  side of the  sella turcica, and
 perforates the dura mater at the root of the
 anterior clinoid process ; it is suddenly reflected
 obliquely backwards and upwards ;  after which
 it divides into branches.
   Q. Where   does  the   anterior  meningeal
 artery arise ?
   A. The anterior  meningeal  artery arises
 from the carotid.
   Q. Where does the posterior meningeal ar-
 tery arise ?
   A. The posterior  meningeal  artery arises
 from the vertebral.
   Q. From whence  does the middle  menin-
 geal artery arise ?
   A. The middle meningeal artery arises from
 the internal maxillary artery.
   Q. What is the course of the external max-
 illary artery over the  jaw-bone ?
   A. The  external  maxillary artery passes
 before the edge  of the masseter over the  mid-
 dle and lateral part of the jaw-bone.
   Q. What are  the  branches which the sub-
 clavian artery gives off ?
   A. They  are  six  in number; viz.  arteria
mammaria interna, thyroidea inferior, intercos-
talis, vertebralis, cervicalis, profunda, and cer-
vicalis superficialis.
   Q. What are  the  muscles  the  subclavian 
40
ANATOMY.
 artery passes between, in  going over the first
 rib?
   A. The subclavian artery, as it  passes over
 the first rib, goes between the scalenus aulicus
 and posticus.
   Q. Where does the subclavian artery  ter-
 minate ?
   A. The subclavian artery terminates in the
 axillary artery at the lower border of the  first
 rib.                               *-*
   Q. What are the branches of the  internal
 maxillary artery ?
   A. The internal maxillary artery gives  off
 the arteria meningea media, which  goes to the
 dura mater through the foramen spinosum ; the
 inferior maxillary, which  enters the canal of
 the lower jaw ; the alveolar, to the back teeth
 of the upper jaw; the infra-orbitar, which gets
 upon the cheek, through the infra-orbitar canal;
 the palato-maxillary, which ramifies  on  the
 palate ;  and the spheno-palatine, to the cavity
 of the nose.
  Q. At what part is the brachial artery con-
sidered to begin ?
  A. The brachial artery begins immediately
 below the tendon of  the latissimus dorsi, and
 teres major.
  Q. From what  artery  does the  inferior
thyroid arise ?
  A. The inferior thyroid artery arises from
the subclavian.
  Q. How many branches does  the axillary
artery send off? 
ANATOMY.
41
   A. The  axillary artery generally gives off
seven;  viz.  thoracica  acromialis, thoracica
suprema, thoracica alaris, thoracica longa, ante-
rior and posterior circumflex, and subscapulars.
   Q. What is the course of the brachial artery ?
   A. The brachial artery descends  behind  the
inner edge of the biceps, over the coraco-bra-
chialis, covered  by the tendinous aponeurosis
of the arm, and  having  the triceps extensor
cubiti on the back part of it; when it gets to
the bend of the arm it divides into two prin-
cipal branches.
   Q. Between what tendons does the radial
artery lie at the wrist ?
   A. The  radial artery lies at the wrist, be-
tween the tendons of the flexor  carpi radialis
and supinator radii longus.
   Q. What is the course of the ulnar  artery ?
   A. The  ulnar  artery, having passed under
the flexors  of the hand and fingers to the inner
part of the fore-arm, along  the outer side of
the flexor carpi ulnaris,  near  the wrist, runs
between the tendons of the flexor carpi ulnaris
and flexor digitorum profundus ; it then passes
over the annular ligament and under the palmar
fascia, to form the superficial palmar arch.
   Q. What is the course of the radial  artery ?
   A. The radial  artery  passes over the pro-
nator teres, and takes the direction of the radius;
when it gets to the wrist it gives  off several
branches, and then forms the arcus profundus.
   Q. At what distance from  the elbow does
the brachial artery divide ? 
42               ANATOMY.
   A. At about an  inch  below the elbow the
brachial artery generally divides into radial and
ulnar.
   Q. What artery forms the superficial palmar
arch ?
   A. The superficial  palmar arch  is chiefly
formed  by the ulnar artery.
   Q. What forms the deep palmar arch ?
   A.  The deep palmar arch is chiefly formed
by the radial artery.
   Q.  What are the arteries given off from the
thoracic aorta ?
   A.  The thoracic aorta gives off the bronchial,
the oesophageal, and the aortic intercostal arte-
ries.
   Q.  What vessels does the right pulmonary
artery pass before it reaches the lungs ?
   A.  The right  pulmonary artery passes  be-
hind the aorta and superior cava.
   Q.  What course does  th«  abdominal  aorta
take ?
   A.  The aorta  passes from the thorax into
the abdomen between the crura of the  dia-
phragm ; as it descends on the fore part of the
spine, it inclines  a little to the left: it  gives
off branches in its way downwards, and bifur-
cates on the fourth lumbar vertebra.
   Q.  What is the course of the coronaria ven-
triculi ?
   A.  The coronaria ventriculi passes from  the
coeliac artery  towards the left side ;  it first
attaches itself to the stomach near its left  ex-
tremity, and sends a branch round the cardia, 
ANATOMY.
43
named ramus coronaria? dexter.  The trunk is
then continued along  the  lesser curvature, to
inosculate with the pylorica or coronaria sin-
istra.
   Q.  What are the branches of the abdominal
aorta ?
   A.  The abdominal aorta  gives off the phre-
nic, the  cosliac,  the superior  mesenteric, the
renal, the spermatic, the lumbar, and the mid-
dle sacral.
   Q.  What is the  course  of the arteria sple-
nica?
   A.  The arteria splenica, after having left the
cceliac artery, passes  under the  stomach and
along the upper  border  of the pancreas, and
enters the concave surface of the spleen.
   Q.  What does the cceliac artery supply ?
   A.  The cceliac artery supplies the stomach,
liver,  and spleen.
   Q.  What are  the arteries of the stomach
called ?
   A.  Coronary:  they are   four  in number;
viz. the  arteria  coronaria, the  gastro-epiploica
dextra, the  gastro-epiploica sinistra, and pylo-
rica.  The veins are called  gastric.
   Q.  Where is the  ductus  arteriosus situated
in the foetus ■
   A.  It passes  obliquely from the pulmonary
artery to the aorta.
   Q.  What are the  branches  of the superior
mesenteric artery ?
   A.  The superior mesenteric artery gives off,
on the right side,  three branches:  the ilio- 
44                ANATOMY.
 colica, the branches of which go to the caecum,
 and to a portion of the ileum ;  the colica dex-
 tra, which supplies the right  side of the colon ;
 and the  colica media,  which  divides  on the
 mesocolon, and sends one  branch to the right
 side and  another  to the left, that inosculates
 with the branch from the  inferior mesenteric
 artery; it also gives off the  arteries  of the
 small intestine.
   Q. What is the course of the  hepatic artery?
   A. It runs from the cceliac  artery in a direc-
 tion opposite to the splenic, towards the right
 side ; after giving  off several branches, it di-
 vides into the right and left hepatic.   The
 right is distributed to the right lobe  of the
 liver, and to the gall-bladder.   The left sup-
 plies the  whole of the  left lobe, the lobulus
 Spigelii, and part of the  right  lobe.
   Q. What are the branches  of the pancreatic
 artery ?
   A. The pancreatica? parvae,  which go  to the
pancreas ;  the  vasa brevia, which  go to the
great curvature of the  stomach ; the gastro-
epiploica  sinistra, which runs along the great
curvature of the stomach, inosculating with the
gastro-epiploica dextra.
  Q. What  are the branches of the  hepatic
artery ?
  A. The hepatic artery gives off the pylorica
or  coronaria dextra, which  ramifies  on  the
pylorus  and lesser curvature of  the stomach ;
the gastro-epiploica dextra, which passes un-
der the pylorus to reach the great curvature of 
ANATOMY.
45
the stomach: the pancreatico-duodenalis, which
is often a branch of the gastro-epiploica, goes
 to the pancreas and duodenum.
  Q. What are the arteries called which sup-
ply the kidneys,?
  A. The renal or emulgent arteries.
  Q.  What is  the course and  distribution of
the epigastric artery ?
  A. It arises from the external iliac artery,
just as it is about to pass under Poupart's liga-
ment ;  it passes  upwards  and inwards at the
upper  and outer part of  the abdominal  ring,
behind the spermatic cord, running along the
edge of the transversus in an  oblique  manner
towards the pyramidalis ;  it then ascends under
the middle of the rectus, furnishing branches to
the abdominal parietes, and terminates above
the umbilicus, anastomosing with the  internal
mammary.
  Q.  What is the course of the femoral artery ?
  A. The femoral artery passes  over the head
of the  os femoris  down into a hollow at the up-
per and inner part of the thigh, with the rectus
and sartorius muscles upon the outside, and the
adductor longus on the inner side ;  it descends
along the inside of the thigh between the vastus
internus  and triceps ; it  then gradually bends
backwards till it  reaches  the ham to  become
the popliteal.
  Q.  What are the names of the valves at the
origin  of the aorta ?
  A. They are called the semilunar valves,
and are three in number. 
46               ANATOMY.
   Q. What are the branches of the  inferior
 mesenteric artery ?
   A. The inferior mesenteric passes in the me-
 sentery to the left  side of the abdomen, and
 gives off—1. The colica sinistra, which ascends
 along the  left side of the colon, to  inosculate
 with the colica media ;  2. Branches which pass
 to the  sigmoid flexure of  the colon;  3. The
 arteria haemorrhoidalis superior,  which runs
 down behind the rectum, on which it ramifies.
   Q. How far distant from the  aorta does the
 common iliac divide ?
   A. The  common  iliac artery divides  in the
 adult at about two inches from their origin, the
 right being rather longer than the left.
   Q. Which is the largest branch of the inter-
 nal iliac ?
   A. The  arteria glutea, which passes  out of
 the pelvis at the upper part of the sciatic notch.
   Q. What is the distribution of the spermatic
 arteries ?
   A. The  spermatic  arteries  in men  pass
 through the abdominal ring to be distributed to
the testes ; while in women they remain  with-
in the  abdomen, and are dispersed upon the
ovaria and uterus.
  Q. What are the  branches of  the  internal
iliac  artery ?
  A.  The internal iliac gives off the obturator,
the gluteal, the ischiatic, and pudic.
  Q.  How are the trunks  of arteries nourish-
ed?
  A.  The arterial trunks are nourished by the 
ANATOMY.
47
 vasa vasorum,  which  arise from  the nearest
 small branches, and are everywhere dispersed
 on their surface.
   Q.  What are the terminations  of  the arte-
 ries ?
   A.  One termination  is in veins—another  in
 secreting extremities—a  third  in glands—a
 fourth  in cells, as  in  the penis—and a  fifth
 termination is in anastomoses.
   Q.  What change do the collateral arteries
 undergo when a large arterial trunk is tied ?
   A. They dilate, their coats become stronger,
 and acquire additional capacity ;  they are  also
 found to become tortuous.
   Q. How  are arteries  distinguished  from
 veins •'
   A. By their  coats being  whiter and more
 dense, and also more elastic.  Their apertures
 gape, in the living body, and they pulsate.  The
 arteries and veins  of the  lower  extremity are
 very similar, in regard to the thickness of their
 coats ; the popliteal  artery and vein both gape.
   Q. What is the course of the external jugu-
 lar vein on the neck ?
   A. The  external  jugular vein being formed
 by branches from the temple, side of the face,
 and throat, crosses obliquely over  the sterno-
 mastoideus muscle, passes behind its outer edge,
and goes beneath the clavicle to enter the sub-
clavian vein.
   Q.  On which side of the carotid artery does
the internal jugular vein run ? 
48
ANATOMY.
   A.  The  internal jugular vein runs  on the
 outer side of the carotid artery.
   Q.  Does  the  subclavian  vein  of  the left
 side  differ  in  any respects from  that of the
 right ?
   A. Yes ; the  left  subclavian vein is much
 longer  than the right, and passes across the
 fore part of the arteries arising from the arch
 of the aorta, to join  the right subclavian be-
 hind the cartilage of the first rib.
   Q. Where  are the  venae  magna?   Galeni
 situated ?
   A.  In the brain ;  they receive the blood
 from the vascular plexus under the fornix, and
 convey it into the torcular of Herophilus.
  Q.  How is the vena cava abdominalis form-
 ed, and what is its course ?
  A.  The vena cava abdominalis is formed by
 the junction of the two common iliac  veins :
 it passes  up through the abdomen on the lum-
 bar vertebrae, and on the right side of the aorta.
  Q.  Do the superficial veins of the fore-arm
 lie above the fascia or below it ?
  A.  The principal veins of the fore-arm lie
above the fascia.
  Q.  What are the veins at the flexure of the
 arm?
  A.  The cephalic, the median-cephalic, the
basilic, and the median-basilic.
  Q.  Have the veins  of the  dura  mater  any
valves ?
  A. No, they have none. 
ANATOMY.
49
   Q.  Where is the torcular of Herophilus to
 be found ?
   A. The torcular of Herophilus is to be found
 at the junction* of the falx  and the tentorium.
   Q. What are the sinuses of the dura mater ?
   A. The sinuses of the  dura mater  are, the
 cavernous, the circular, the superior  and in-
 ferior petrosal, the occipital, the superior and in-
 ferior longitudinal, and  the torcular Herophili.
   Q. How are  the veins of the extremities
 divided ?
   A. The veins of the extremities are divided
 into deep-seated and superficial.
   Q,. What  are  the superficial veins of  the
 lower extremity ?
   A. The superficial veins  of the lower  ex-
 tremity are the  saphena major and saphena
 minor.
   Q. Where do the veins of the brain terminate ?
  A. The veins of  the brain are but small, run
 chiefly between the convolutions, and termi-
 nate obliquely in the different  sinuses.
   Q. Into which sinuses do all the smaller ones
 pour their blood ?
   A. All the other sinuses transmit their blood
 into the lateral sinuses.
   Q.. Have the  deep-seated  veins  the same
 names as the arteries they accompany ?
   A. Yes ; for example, you have in the upper
 extremity one axillary vein, two brachial veins,
 two radial, two interosseal, and two ulnar veins.
  Q. What are the vessels  which form the
vena porta? ?
              4 
50              ANATOMY.
   A.  The superior and inferior mesenteric, and
 the splenic veins.
   Q.  On which side of the aorta is the longest
 emulgent artery situated 1
   A. On the right, in consequence of the vena
 cava being placed on that side, and the artery
 having to pass behind that vessel.
   Q. What is the situation  of the  intercostal
or great sympathetic nerve in the neck ?
   A. The intercostal  nerve lies  behind  the
carotid artery in the cellular membrane, betwixt
that vessel and the muscles covering the ver-
tebrae of the neck.
   Q. What is the situation of the par vagum
in the neck ?
   A. On separating the internal jugular vein,
and trunk of the carotid artery, the par vagum
is seen lying in the same sheath of cellular
substance with  those vessels.
   Q. What nerve lies  upon the belly of the
anterior scalenus muscle ?
   A. The phrenic nerve lies upon the anterior
scalenus muscle, and gets into the thorax be-
twixt the subclavian artery and vein.
   Q. What nerve is that which is seen ascend-
ing between the under surface of the trachea
and oesophagus at the lower part of the neck ?
  A. The recurrent of the pneumogastric.
  Q. What nerves supply the diaphragm ?
  A. The phrenic or diaphragmatic nerves.
  Q. Where does the great sciatic nerve arise?
   A. From a plexus of nerves formed by the 
ANATOMY.
51
 fourth and fifth lumbar nerves, joined by  the
 first, second, and third sacral.
   Q. What is the name of the ganglion in the
 abdomen which supplies most of the abdomi-
 nal viscera ?
   A.  The semilunar ganglion.
   Q.  What does  the  foramen magnum occi-
 pitale transmit ?
   A.  The spinal marrow with its membranes,
 the vertebral arteries, and the spinal accessory
 nerves.
   Q. What nerves form the great sympathetic 1
   A.  A branch of  the sixth  pair of nerves,
 with a recurrent twig of the second branch of
 the fifth pair of nerves.
   Q.  Do the olfactory nerves supply the nose
 with the sense of feeling ?
   A.  No, but branches from the fifth pair do.
   Q. From what part of the brain do the optic
 nerves arise ?
   A. They  arise from the  thalami nervorum
 opticorum.
   Q. From what  part of the  brain do the
 olfactory nerves arise 1
   A. The olfactory nerves arise from the cor-
 pora striata.
   Q. What part of the brain gives  origin to
 the third and fourth pair of nerves I
   A. The third pair  of nerves arise from the
crura cerebri, and the fourth pair from near the
corpora quadrigemina.
  Q. Whence  do  the fifth  and sixth pair of
nerves arise  ? 
52
ANATOMY.
   A. The fifth pair  of  nerves  arise from  the
 sides of the pons  Varolii, and the sixth from
 between the pons Varolii and corpora olivaria.
   Q. What do  the  seventh, eighth, and ninth
 pair of nerves arise from ?
   A. The seventh pair of nerves arise from the
 posterior and lateral part of the pons Varolii;
 the eighth pair arise from the corpora olivaria,
 and the ninth from the corpora pyramidalia.
   Q. What nerves  pass through the  foramen
 lacerum orbitale ?
   A.  The third, the fourth, the first branch of
 the fifth and sixth pair of nerves.
   Q.  Through what foramina do the fifth pair
of nerves pass out of the cranium ?
   A.  Through the foramen lacerum  orbitale,
foramen rotundum, and foramen ovale, in sepa-
rate branches.
   Q.  Does the arm  receive nerves from the
brain, or from the spinal marrow ?
   A. From the spinal marrow.
   Q.  What are  the branches of the fifth pair of
nerves ?
   A.  The branches of the fifth pair of nerves
are the ophthalmic, the superior maxillary, and
the inferior maxillary.
   Q.  What nerve supplies  the  nose  with the
sense of smelling ?
   A. The olfactory, or first pair.
   Q.  What is the first ganglion formed by the
intercostal nerve called ?
   A. The superior cervical ganglion.
   Q. What forms the chorda tympani ? 
ANATOMY.
53
    A. The chorda tympani  is formed by the
 portio dura; it is a reflected  twig of that nerve
 which  passes  between  the  long processes of
 the malleus and incus, and over the membrana
 tympani.
   Q. What are the nerves that form the len-
 ticular ganglion of the eye?
   A. The lenticular  ganglion is formed by  a
 branch from the third and fifth pair of nerves.
   Q. What nerve supplies the tongue for the
 sense of taste ?
   A. A  branch of the fifth pair, termed the gus-
 tatory nerve.
   Q. What nerve perforates  the sterno-cleido-
 mastoideus muscle ?
   A. The sterno-cleido-mastoideus is pierced
 about its middle, by the  spinal accessory.
   Q. How is the axillary plexus formed ?
   A. The axillary plexus is  formed of the
 four inferior cervical and  first dorsal nerves.
   Q. Which is the largest nerve of the human
 body ?
   A. The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve of
 the body.
   Q. What plexus of nerves  surrounds  the
 axillary artery ?
   A. The brachial plexus.
   Q. Describe the course of the great sciatic
 nerve out of the pelvis.
   A. This nerve is  formed  from  the fourth
and fifth  lumbar, and three first sacral nerves ;
it passes  betwixt the pyriformis and gemellus
           4* 
54
ANATOMY.
  superior muscles, and escapes from the back
  part of the pelvis by the sciatic notch.
    Q. Describe the course of the anterior crural
  nerve while in the pelvis.
    A. The anterior crural nerve at its origin lies
  under the psoas magnus muscle, &c, and, as it
  descends, passes betwixt the psoas magnus and
  iliacus  internus, till, having  passed under Pou-
 part's ligament, it emerges from betwixt those
 muscles, and  appears on the  outside  of  the
 femoral artery.
   Q. What forms the anterior  crural nerve ?
   A. The three or four superior lumbar nerves.
   Q. Describe the course  of the  obturator
 nerve and its origin.
   A. The obturator nerve is formed by branch-
 es  of the second,  third,  and  fourth  lumbar
 nerves ; it lies under  the  inner border  of the
 psoas magnus,  descends into the  pelvis, and
 goes obliquely downwards, accompanying the
 obturator  artery through the  thyroid hole.
   Q. What forms  the phrenic nerve ?
   A. The phrenic nerve is formed by the third
and fourth cervical; it also receives a filament
from the second.
  Q. Where is the external  cutaneous  nerve
situated at the bend of the arm ?
  A.  The external cutaneous nerve is situated
at the bend of the arm, under the cephalic and
the median cephalic veins.
  Q.  What is the situation of the internal cu-
taneous  nerve at the bend of the arm ?
  A. The  internal  cutaneous nerve is situated 
ANATOMY.
55
 under the median basilic  vein :  it frequently
 sends a small twig over the vein.
   Q. What is a gland ?
   A. A gland is an organic body composed of
 blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents, and des-
 tined for the secretion of some peculiar fluid.
   Q. How are glands distinguished ?
   A. They are distinguished into four classes :
 simple glands—compounds of simple glands—
 conglobate glands—conglomerate  glands.
   Q. Where are the mesenteric glands  situat-
 ed ?
   A. In the fat between  the layers  of  the
 mesentery, near the branches of  the  blood-
 vessels.
   Q. What  vessels  form the commencement
ef the thoracic duct ?
   A. The lower  extremity  of  the  thoracic
duct is formed by the junction of the trunks of
the  lymphatics  of the right, and left inferior
extremities, and of the lacteal vessels.
   Q. In what part of the spine does that union
take place ?
   A. Generally on  the anterior part of the
third lumbar vertebra.
   Q. What is the name given to the absorb-
ents entering a gland ?
   A. They are called vasa inferentia.
   Q. Absorbent vessels go out from the opposite
side  of the glands, in the manner they entered
them : what name is given to those vessels ?
   A. They are called vasa efferentia.
  Q^ Where is the pituitary gland situated ? 
56              ANATOMY.
     A. In the sella turcica, a cavity in the sphe--
  aoid bone.
     Q. Where is the lachrymal gland  situated ?
     A. In a depression of the orbitar process of
  the frontal bone within the orbit.
    Q. What are the salivary glands called ?
    A. They are the parotid gland, the  sublin-
  gual  gland, the  sub-maxillary  gland,  thr
  glands of the cheek, the labial glands, and mo-
  lar glands.
    Q. Where does the  excretory dust  of thr
 parotid gland open 1
    A.  The excretory duct of the parotid gland,,
 or Steno's duct, passes obliquely over the out-
 side of the masseter muscle, and perforates tho
 cheek, opening near the second molas tooth of
 the upper maxilla.
   Q.  What is the name of the excretory duct
 of the sub-maxillary gland, and where does it
 ©pen?
   A.  The excretory duct of the sub-maxillary
 gland  is called ductus Wartoni; it passes be-
 tween the  genio-glossus  and mylohyoideus
 muscles, and opens  on the side of the fraenum
 lingua?.
   Q. Where is the thyroid body situated ?
   A. Upon the larynx and trachea lying upon
the cricoid cartilage, and horns of  the  thyroid
eartilage.
  Q. What are the  glands called situated at
the root of the lungs ?
  A. Bronchial  glands; they are  of  a dark
color. 
ANATOMY.
5?
   Q.  Can you put your finger on the thymus
 gland ?
   A. No : the thymus gland is peculiar to the
 foetus, and disappears soon after birth.
   Q. Where is it situated ?
   A. In the anterior duplicature of the  medi-
 astinum, under the superior part of the sternum.
   Q. What is the use of the thymus gland ?
   A. It is not known.
   Q. How are the absorbents divided ?
   A. The absorbents are divided into lympha-
 tic and lacteal vessels.
   Q. Do absorbents exist in every part  of the
 body ?
   A. Yes: it is supposed that absorbents ex-
 ist in every part of the body ; but they have
 not yet been observed in the cavity of the cra-
 nium, nor in the placenta.
   Q. Where is the prostate gland  situated ?
   A. It lies  directly  behind the symphysis
 pubis; it embraces the  neck of the bladder,
 and rests upon the rectum.
   Q. Where is its situation in women ?
   A. Women have  no prostate  gland: it is
 an appendage of the penis.
   Q. Where are Cowper's glands to be found ?
   A. Cowper's glands are  situated  near the
 bulb of the urethra, before the prostate gland.
   Q. What are the contents of the cranium ?
   A. The cranium contains the cerebrum, ce-
 rebellum, and medulla  oblongata;—the dura
 mater, the pia mater, and tunica arachnoidea;—
oine pair of nerves, and the accessory nerves 
58               ANATOMY.
  of Willis ;—several sinuses—the arteries that
  nourish the brain and its membranes, and the
  veins that return the blood into the sinuses;
  and also absorbent vessels.
    Q.  What is the line called that runs along
  the centre of the corpus callosum ?
    A. The line in the centre of the corpus cal-
  losum is called raphe.
    Q. Where is the fornix of the brain situated ?
    A.  The fornix is situated immediately under
 the septum lucidum.
    Q.  How do the posterior crura of the fornix
 terminate ?
    A.  The posterior crura of the fornix termi-
 nate by forming the corpora firnbriata.
   Q.  What forms the lyra ?
   A. The  lyra  is formed by the medullary
 lines of the inferior surface of the fornix.
   Q.  Where  is the hippocampus minor situat-
 ed*
   A.  The hippocampus minor is situated in the
 posterior horn of the lateral ventricle.
   Q.  Where  is the hippocampus major situ-
 ated ?
   A.  The hippocampus  major is situated in the
 inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.
   Q.  Where is the third ventricle situated ?■
   A. The  third ventricle  is  a space  betweeD
the two thalami nervorum opticorum.
   Q. Where is the commissura mollis situated ?
  A. The commissura mollis is a short cord of
soft substance, situated at the middle  and  an- 
ANATOMY.
59
Verier part, on the inner sides of  trie  thalami
"nervorum opticorum.
   Q. Has the cerebellum convolutions ?
   A. No: there are  on its surface deep sulci
or grooves.
   Q. At what part of the  cerebellum are the
appendices vermiformes to be found?
   A. The appendices  vermiformes are to  be
found at the anterior superior part, and the in-
ferior part of the cerebellum.
   Q. How many membranes has the brain ?
   A. Three  ; viz. the dura mater, the pia ma-
ter, and the tunica arachnoidea,
   Q. What vessel runs in the falciform process
of the dura mater?
   A. The superior longitudinal  sinus is  the
principal vessel.
   Q. What  vessels empty themselves into the
longitudinal  sinus of the dura mater ?
   A. The veins of  the upper part of the pia
mater.
   Q. Where is the tentorium situated %
   A. Between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
   Q. How many lobes has the brain ?
   A. Six; viz. two  anterior, two posterior,
and two middle or inferior lobes.
   Q. How  many hemispheres has the cere-
brum?
   A. Two ; viz. the right and the left.
   Q. What  are the cavities in the brain called ?
   A. They are called ventricles.
   Q. What separates the lateral ventricles from
each other % 
60
ANATOMY.
  A. The septum lucidum.
  Q. From  what part of the brain  does the
pineal gland arise ?
  A. From the thalamus nervi optici on each
side by peduncles.
  Q. What separates the thalamus nervi optici
from the corpus striatum ?
  A. A  white prominent line,  called taenia
semicircularis.
  Q. What are the processes of the dura mater
called ?
  A. They are three in number, and are called
the falx  cerebri, the tentorium, and  the  falx
cerebelli.
  Q. How many laminae has the dura mater ?
  A. The dura mater has two laminae.
  Q. What  parts of the brain does the  falx
separate ?
  A. The falx separates the two hemispheres.
  Q. What does the tentorium separate ?
  A. The tentorium separates the cerebrum
from the  cerebellum.
  Q. How are the sinuses of the dura  mater
formed ?
  A. The sinuses of the dura mater are formed
by  the  separation of the two layers of  that
membrane.
  Q. Does the pia mater dip between the con-
volutions of the brain, or pass over them ?
  A. The pia mater dips between the convolu-
tions ; but the tunica arachnoidea passes over
them. 
ANATOMY.
61
   Q. What membrane nourishes the internal
table of the skull ?
   A. The  external lamina of the dura mater
nourishes the internal table of the skull.
   Q. How is the pia mater nourished ?
   A. The pia mater  is nourished by arteries
from the brain.
   Q. Where are the tubercula quadrigemina
situated ?
   A. The tubercula quadrigemina are situated
behind the thalami nervorum  opticorum, and
under the pineal gland.
   Q. What canal passes under the  tubercula
quadrigemina ?
   A. The canal is called iter a tertio ad quar-
tum ventriculum ; it forms the communication
between the third and fourth ventricle.
   Q. What is situated at  the anterior part  of
the third ventricle ?
   A. At the anterior part  of the third ventri-
cle are situated the anterior crura of the fornix,
the commissura anterior cerebri, and infundi-
bulum.
   Q. What forms the  floor of the third ven-
tricle ?
   A. The commissura inferior.
   Q. Where  is  the valvula  magna cerebri
situated ?
   A. The valvula magna  cerebri is situated
over the iter a  tertio ad quartum ventriculum,
and the upper part of the fourth ventricle.
   Q. There are three  substances in  the brain,
the cineritious  or cortical,  the  medullary, and 
62
ANATOMY.
the substantia nigra.  Where is the substantia
nigra to be found ?
   A. In the crura of the cerebrum.
   Q. What forms the arbor vita? ?
   A. It is formed by the medullary and cineri-
tious substance  of the  brain, which are dis-
tributed in such a manner as to give the appear-
ance of the branches of a shrub.
   Q. What are  the medullary tracts at the
sides  of the valvula magna cerebri called ?
   A.  These lines are called processus ad testes,
or columna? valvula? Vieussenii.
   Q. Where is the calamus scriptorius situated ?
   A.  The calamus scriptorius is situated in the
fourth ventricle.
   Q. What is to be observed  on the medulla
oblongata ?
   A. On  the medulla oblongata are seen the
pons Varolii, the  corpora olivaria, and corpora
pyramidalia.
   Q. What is the use of the ventricles of the
brain ?
   A. It is not known.
   Q. Do these cavities  contain any  fluid  in
health ?
   A. No:  no more than the  cavity of the
pericardium and  other circumscribed cavities.
   Q. Describe the eye.
   A. The eye is  divided into external and in-
ternal parts.   The external parts are the super-
cilia, the palpebrse, the ciliae, lachrymal gland,
lachrymal caruncle, nasal duct and muscles  of
the bulb, and the tunica conjunctiva.   The 
ANATOMY.
63
internal parts are the sclerotic coat, the cornea,
the choroid coat, iris, uvea,  retina, hyaloid
membrane, capsule of the lens and vitreous
humors, three humors and two chambers.
  Q.  How many coats has the eye ?
  A.  Three;  viz.  the tunica sclerotica, the
tunica choroides, and the retina :—the anterior
portion  of the sclerotica is transparent,  and
called  the cornea  transparens:  the anterior
part of the choroid  membrane forms the iris
and the uvea ; and there is, also, the membrane
of the lens and  of the  vitreous humor:  so
that many anatomists make eight coats.
  Q.  What is the tunica conjunctiva ?
  A.  The tunica conjunctiva is a reflexion of
the inner membrane  of  the eyelid, over the
surface  of the eye ;  it  prevents extraneous
bodies passing deep into the socket.
  Q.  Which is the most dense coat of the eye  ?
  A.  The tunica sclerotica.
  Q.  What is the structure of the cornea ?
  A. The cornea is divisible into several lamel-
la;, between which a transparent fluid is noticed.
  Q.  What is the  most vascular coat of the
eye ?
  A.  The tunica choroides is the most vascu-
lar coat of the eye : the  ciliary arteries ramify
copiously on it, and the veins are numerous and
contorted.
  Q.  What  separates the anterior from the
posterior chamber ?
  A.  The curtain formed by the iris and uvea. 
64               ANATOMY.
   Q. What is contained in the capsule of the
 crystalline lens ?                           >aj
   A. The crystalline lens and a little water.
   Q. What  artery nourishes  the crystalline
 lens?
   A. The arteria centralis retina?.
   Q. Where is the pigmentum nigrum of the
 eye situated ?
   A. Upon the uvea, behind the iris, and upon
 the surface of the tunica choroidea.
   Q. Where are the puncta lachrymalia situ-
 ated ?
   A. Near the internal  canthus of the  eye,
 one in each eyelid.
   Q. Where is the lachrymal sac situated ?
   A. In the  superior  part of  the lachrymal
 groove, or the commencement of the ductus
 ad nasum behind the tendon of the orbicularis.
   Q. What part of the eye is the true organ
 of vision 1
   A. The retina.
  Q. What secretes the pigmentum nigrum of
 the choroid membrane ?
  A. The pigmentum  nigrum  of the choroid
 membrane is secreted  by the arteries  of that
 membrane.
  Q. How many chambers has the eye ?
  A. Two: an anterior and a posterior cham-
ber.
  Q. What gives the whitish blue color to the
bulb of  the eye ?
  A. The whitish  blue color of the bulb of
 the eye  is occasioned by the expanding tendons 
ANATOMY.
65
of the muscles shining through the transparent
tunica conjunctiva.
  Q. Where are the vasa vorticosa situated ?
  A. The vasa vorticosa  are situated  on the
choroid  coat of the. eye; they are formed by a
contortion of the veins of  that membrane.
  Q. What bones form  the lachrymal groove
or ductus ad nasum, and  where does it termi-
nate ?
  A. The lachrymal bone, the superior max-
illary bone, and  the inferior spongy bone.   It
terminates at the lower and lateral parts of the
nose, at the  inner and fore part of the antrum
maxillare, under the os spongiosum inferius, in
a straight line with the second dens molaris.
  Q. What is the division of the external ear ?
  A. The  external  ear  is  divided into the
pinna, lobus, and meatus auditorius.
  Q. What are the eminences of the external
ear?
  A. There are four eminences of the external
ear ; viz. the helix, antihelix, tragus, and anti-
tragus.
  Q. Have the depressions on the external ear
any names ?
   A. Yes:  they are distinguished into the
fossa navicularis, the fossa innominata, and the
concha.
   Q. What is the general division  of  the  in-
ternal ear?
   A. The internal ear is divided into the coch-
lea, vestibule, and semicircular canals.
   Q. Where does the Eustachian tube begin ?
              5* 
66              ANATOMY.
   A. The Eustachian tube begins at the upper
and fore part of the tympanum.
   Q. What membrane lines the meatus audi-
torius externus ?
   A. The meatus is lined by a continuation of
the skin.
   Q. If a probe were passed to the bottom of
the meatus auditorius, what would it rest on ?
   A. The membrana  tympani.
   Q. Where is the fenestra ovalis situated ?
   A.  The fenestra ovalis is situated in the tym-
panum, above the promontory.
   Q. Where do the cells  of the  mastoid pro-
cess open ?
   A.  They open at the upper and back part of
the tympanum.
   Q.  Where does the  fenestra rotunda lead to ?
   A.  The fenestra rotunda leads to the cochlea.
   Q.  How many  openings  are  there  in the
vestibulum ?
   A.  Five foramina, which communicate with
the semicircular canals ;—the fenestra ovalis,
and a round  hole  which  communicates  with
one of the canals of the cochlea.
   Q.  What are the principal parts of the coch-
lea?
   A.  The principal parts of the cochlea are, the
gyri, the modiolus, the infundibulum, the scala
vestibuli, and the scala tympani.
   Q.  How  are the semicircular  canals distin-
guished ?
   A.  The semicircular canals are three in num-
ber : they are distinguished  into  the superior 
ANATOMY.
67
or vertical, the posterior or oblique, and the
exterior or horizontal.
  Q. How is  the palate divided ?
  A. It is divided into hard and soft.
  Q. What forms the first arch of the palate ?
  A. The constrictor isthmi faucium, covered
by the  mucous membrane of the mouth.
  Q. What are the papillae minima? and papilla?
mediae  of the  tongue formed by ?
  A. The papilla? minima? and media? are form-
ed by the  extremities of nerves surrounded by
a lace-work of blood-vessels.
  Q. What forms the second arch of the pa-
late ?
  A. The palato-pharyngeus, covered by the
skin of the mouth.
  Q. What lies between the two arches of the
palate ?
  A. The tonsil.
  Q. How many fangs has an incisor tooth ?
  A. One.
'  Q. What does the uvula consist of?
  A. The uvula consists of the azygos uvulae,
enveloped in the membrane of the palate.
  Q. Where is the pharynx, and what is it ?
  A. The pharynx is a large muscular bag in
form of an irregular funnel, at the back of the
mouth, which terminates  in the oesophagus.
  Q. What forms the inner membrane of the
pharynx ?
  A. The inner membrane of the pharynx is
formed by the continuation of the  membrane
of the mouth 
68              ANATOMY.
   Q. What glands secrete the saliva ?
   A. The saliva is secreted chiefly by the pa-
rotid, the sub-maxillary, and the  sublingual
glands.
   Q. How is the tongue divided ?
   A. The tongue is divided  into a basis and
apex, a superior and inferior  surface, and two
edges.
   Q. What muscles  are attached to the tongue?
   A. Four ; part of the genio-hyo-glossus, the
hyo-glossus, lingualis, and stylo-glossus.   ,
   Q. How many cartilages has the larynx ?
  A. The larynx has five cartilages ;  viz. the
thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytaenoid, and the
cartilage of the epiglottis.
  Q. Where is the xiphoid or ensiform carti-
lage?
   A. Here, at the pit of the stomach.
   Q. What are the viscera of the thorax ?
   A. The  pleurae, the  lungs, the  thymus
gland in children, the  oesophagus, the ductus
thoracicus, the arch of the aorta, branches of
the vena? cava?, the  vena azygos, the  pericar-
dium, the heart, the phrenic  nerve, the  par
vagum,  and the great intercostal nerves.
   Q. How many lobes has the left lung ?
   A. It  has two lobes.
   Q. How many lobes has the right lung ?
   A. The right lung has three lobes.
   Q. Do the lungs  in their natural condition
fill the cavities of the thorax ?
   A. Yes ; they are in contact with the sur-
rounding parts, and completely fill the thorax. 
ANATOMY.
69
  Q. What do the bronchi terminate in ?
  A. The bronchi become membranous tubes
which  terminate in the air-cells.
  Q. What separates the  two cavities of the
chest ?
  A. The mediastinum, which is formed  by
the pleura.
  Q. What  are contained in the  posterior
mediastinum ?
  A. The oesophagus, the bronchi, the large
vessels of the heart, the par vagum, great in-
tercostals, and the thoracic duct.
  Q. What is there in the anterior mediastinum
of children that disappears towards adult age ?
  A. The thymus gland.
  Q. How many membranes has the pericar-
dium ?
  A. The pericardium has two membranes;
an external and  an internal.
  Q. What part of the thorax does the peri-
cardium adhere most to ?
  A. The pericardium adheres most firmly to
the tendinous part of the diaphragm.
  Q. What arteries nourish the pleura ?
  A. The arteries that nourish the pleura are
branches from the intercostal,  mammary, dia-
phragmatic, bronchia], and oesophageal arteries.
  Q. What is the heart ?
  A. The heart is a hollow muscular viscus,
situated in the pericardium, in the cavity of the
thorax, resting upon the diaphragm.
  Q. Has the external surface of the heart any
membranous covering ? 
70              ANATOMY.
   A. Yes ; it has a membranous coat, which
 is a reflexion of the inner layer of the pericar-
 dium.
   Q. Where are the musculi pectinati situated ?
   A. In the right auricle of the heart.
   Q. Where is the tricuspid valve situated ?
   A. The tricuspid valve is situated between
 the right auricle and  right ventricle, hanging
 from  the opening between them.
   Q.  Where does the pulmonary artery origi-
 nate ?
   A.  The pulmonary artery arises from the
 right ventricle.
   Q.  Do the auricles of the heart communicate
 before birth ?
   A.  Yes: by the  foramen  ovale.
   Q.  Where is the Eustachian valve situated ?
   A.  At the entrance  of  the inferior  cava,
 within the  right auricle of the heart.
   Q.  How many openings  has the right auri-
 cle of the heart ?
   A.  Four; viz. the opening of the vena cava
superior, that of the vena cava inferior, that of
the coronary vein, and the right auriculo-ventri-
cular orifice.
   Q.  What is the valve of Eustachius formed
by?
   A.  The  Eustachian  valve is formed  by a
fold of the inner membrane of the right auricle.
  Q.  How many openings has the left auricle
of the heart ?
   A.  Five  ; viz. those of the four pulmonary
vessels and the left auriculo-ventricular orifice. 
ANATOMY.              71
   Q. What are the  differences between the
foetal and adult heart ?
   A. In the fcetal  heart,  an opening  exists
between the auricles in the septum auricularum,
called the foramen ovale ; this is closed in the
adult heart.  An  artery also  passes from the
pulmonary artery obliquely to the ascending
aorta in the foetus, which is called ductus arte-
riosus :  this becomes a ligament in the adult.
   Q. What are the regions of the abdomen ?
   A. The abdomen is divided into three regions,
each of which is subdivided :—1. The epigas-
tric region, which is the superior : its sides are
termed  hypochondriac regions.—2. The um-
bilical region, situated in the centre of the ab-
domen,  the  sides  of which are termed lumbar
regions.—3. The hypogastric region, which is
subdivided  into  three  regions, one  middle,
termed  regio  pubis, and two lateral,  named
iliac fossa?.
   Q. What viscera are contained in  the ab-
domen ?
   A. The  omentum,  the  stomach, the large
and small intestines, the liver and gall-bladder,
the mesentery, the lacteal vessels, the thoracic
duct, the spleen, the pancreas, the kidneys and
suprarenal capsules, part of the aorta  descen-
dens, and vena cava ascendens and the abdomi-
nal nerves.
   Q. What is the membrane called, that lines
the cavity and covers  the viscera of the abdo-
men?
   A. The peritoneum.
   Q. What are the four ligamentous cords seen 
72              ANATOMY.
upon the outside  of the peritoneum at its an-
terior and inferior part ?
   A. They are the remains of parts  peculiar
to the foetus ;  viz. the two umbilical arteries,
the umbilical vein, and the urachus.
   Q. What forms the mesentery ?
   A. The  mesentery is formed by a doubling
of the peritoneum.
   Q. Where does the mesentery begin ?
   A. The mesentery begins at the termination
of the duodenum.
  Q. How is the  colon fixed to the spine ?
   A. The colon is fixed to the spine by a con-
tinuation of the  mesentery,  which is called
mesocolon.
  Q. Which is the largest viscus of the abdo-
men?
  A. The liver.
   Q. Describe the liver.
   A. The liver is the largest abdominal viscus,
placed in the right hypochondriac region, and
partly in the epigastric region.   It is distin-
guished into five lobes, is suspended by five
ligaments, and is composed of arteries, veins,
nerves, absorbents, excretory ducts, and cellu-
lar membrane, and is covered by the perito-
neum.
  Q. Are the kidneys completely enveloped in
the peritoneum ?
  A. No :  they are covered by it on their an-
terior surface only.
  Q. Where is the great lobe of the liver situ-
ated  ? 
ANATOMY.
73
   A. The great lobe of the liver is situated in
the right hypochondriac region, where it occu-
pies a considerable space between the pylorus
and ribs and right kidney, on which it lies.
   Q. Where is  the small lobe  of  the  liver
situated ?
   A.  The small lobe of the liver is situated in
the epigastric region, only a small portion of it
lying in the left hypochondriac region.
   Q. What are the  vessels surrounded by the
capsule of Glisson ?
   A.  The vessels surrounded by the capsule of
Glisson are the vena porta?, the hepatic artery,
the excretory ducts, and some absorbents.
   Q. What forms the  capsule of Glisson ?
   A.  A reflexion of the peritoneum,  which,
with a quantity of cellular substance, surrounds
the vessels and nerves of the liver just before
they enter that viscus.
   Q. What are the ligaments of the liver ?
   A.  The ligaments of the liver are, the broad
ligament,  the right and left lateral ligaments,
the coronary  ligament and  the round ligament.
   Q. What artery nourishes the liver ?
   A. The hepatic artery,  which is a branch of
the cceliac.
   Q. What are the depressions  of the liver ?
   A. The depressions are :—1.  The great fis-
sure :—2. a fissure for the vena porta?  :—3. one
for the vena?  cava? :—4. a furrow between the
left lobe and lobulus Spigelii for the ductus ve-
nosus in the foetus:—5. a depression for the gall
bladder:—6. a superficial cavity caused by the 
74              ANATOMY.
stomach:—and 7. a great sinus for the spine and
oesophagus at the posterior part'of the left lobe.
   Q.  What  is the use of the liver ?
   A. To secrete bile.
   Q. What are  the excretory ducts of the liv-
er called ?."
   A. Pori biliarii.
   Q. Describe the  common  duct formed by
the junction of the hepatic and cystic ducts.
  A. It is called ductus communis choledochus,
of the size of a goose-quill;  it descends under
the head of the pancreas, to  the back  part  of
the  duodenum,  which it enters  about  five
inches from the  pylorus.
  Q. Where is the gall-bladder situated ?
  A. The gall-bladder is situated in  the  right
hypochondrium, attached to a depression in the
right lobe of the  liver.
  Q. How many coats has the  gall-bladder ?
  A. The gall-bladder has three coats ; viz. an
external or peritoneal,  a middle  or muscular,
and an internal or villous coat.
  Q. What is the appearance of the internal
surface of the gall-bladder ?
  A. The internal  surface  of  the  gall-blad-
der is smooth and of a green color, and appears
everywhere  perforated by the ducts of small
follicles,  which afford  a mucus to defend the
inner coat.
  Q. Of what kind  of structure is the outer
surface of the peritoneum ?
  A. The outer surface of the peritoneum  is
cellular. 
ANATOMY.
75
   Q. What is the extent of the peritoneum
covering the urinary bladder ?
   A. The peritoneal coat  extends over the
fundus, sides,  and back part, to near the termi-
nation of the ureters.
   Q. Where is the spleen situated ?
   A. It is situated  in the left hypochondrium,
near the fundus of the stomach, under the ribs.
   Q. What is  the name of the excretory duct
of the spleen ?
  A. No duct excretory has yet been found in
the spleen.
   Q. What nerves supply the spleen ?
   A. The nerves of the spleen are branches of
the great sympathetic and eighth pair.
  Q,. Where is the pancreas situated ?
  A. The pancreas extends from the fissure of
the spleen across the spine, under the posterior
surface of the stomach, and terminates at the
duodenum.
  Q. What arteries nourish the pancreas ?
  A. The arteries  which nourish the pancreas
are derived from the pylorica, duodenalis, and
splenica.
  Q. What is the elongation or process  sent
down from the right extremity of the pancreas
called ?
   A. This process was called by Winslow,
pancreas minus: it is also called head of the
pancreas.
  Q. Where is the pancreatic duct situated ?
  A. The pancreatic duct begins near the  left
extremity of the pancreas; it runs  in the  sub- 
76
ANATOMY.
 stance of the gland, and terminates obliquely in
 the duodenum, along with the ductus commu-
 nis choledochus.
   Q. What are the supra-renal capsules ?
   A. The supra-renal capsules are flat bodies
 of a dark yellow color;  they rest upon the
 kidneys ;  they contain a dark-colored fluid,
 and are larger in the foetus than in the adult.
   Q. What is the use of the capsules, as they
 are called ?
   A. It is not known.
   Q.  What difference in situation is there be-
 tween the right and left kidney ?
   A.  The right kidney is much lower than the
 left, occasioned by the liver occupying so much
 space.
   Q.  What is the excretory duct of the kidney
 called ?
   A. The ureter.
   Q. How many coats compose the  ureter ?
   A. Three : an external, consisting  of a com-
 pact filamentary substance;  the middle  one,
 of several fibres ;  and the  internal one, of the
 mucous kind.
   Q. What does the  substance  of the kidney
 consist of?
   A. The substance of the kidney consists of
an outer  part called  cortical, and  an inner,
termed medullary.
  Q.  What viscera  are in contact with  the
right kidney?
  A. The right kidney lies under the liver, and
is very near to the duodenum. 
ANATOMY.              77
  Q.  Is  the cortical substance endowed with
any peculiar function ?
  A.  Yes : that of secreting the urine.
  Q.  What forms the papilla? of the kidney ?
  A.  The  termination of the  medullary sub-
stance with the urinii'erous tubes.
  Q.  What is  the  name of the duct leading
from the  pelvis of the kidney to the  bladder ?
  A.  The ureter.
  Q.  Into what parts is the alimentary canal
divided ?
  A.  Into  the  pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
duodenum, jejunum,  ilium,  caput   caecum
coli, colon, and rectum.
  Q. What  muscles are concerned  in  the
movements of the pharynx ?
  A. Four on  each side ;  the  stylo-pharyn-
geus, the constrictor pharyngis  inferior, rae-
dius,  and superior.
  Q. Describe the  stomach.
' A. The stomach  is a membranous recepta-
cle, placed in  the  left hypochondriac  region,
composed of three membranes.  It has a supe-
rior orifice called cardia, and an inferior orifice
called pylorus ; a lesser and greater curvature,
and two  surfaces distinguished into anterior and
posterior.
   Q. Where  do the veins of the stomach go ?
   A. They empty  themselves  into the vena
porta?.
u Q. What are the arteries of the stomach ?
   A. The arteries  of  the stomach are  derived
from the caeliac; they consist of the coronaria,
               6* 
78
ANATOMY.
 the gastrica sinistra, the gastrica dextra, and
 the pylorica.
   Q.  What viscera  are attached to the great
 curvature of the stomach ?
   A.  The  large  omentum, the  spleen,  and
 transverse arch of the colon.
   Q.  What is  the proper juice of the stomach
 called ?
   A. The gastric juice.
   Q.  What is the  beginning of the  colon
 called ?
   A. The commencement of the colon is call-
 ed caput coli.
   Q. How  would you distinguish the  small
 from the large intestines ?
   A. The large intestines have three longitu-
 dinal bands, running  on their surface ; they are
 lobulated, and  have  the portions of fat adher-
 ing  to them, called   appendicula? epiploicae ;
 which circumstances are not noticed  in  the
 small intestines.  There  are the valvulae con-
 niventes in  the small intestines, which do  not
 exist in the  large.
   Q. Which is the broadest of the small intes-
tines ?
   A. The duodenum is the broadest of  the
small intestines.
   Q. How are  the mucous glands of the intes-
tines distinguished ?
   A. The mucous glands of the intestines  are
distinguished into solitary and congregate, and
from their describers glandula? Peyeri and glan-
 dulae Brunneri. 
ANATOMY.
79
  Q. What are the ducts that enter the duo-
denum ?
  A. The ductus communis choledochus, and
the ductus pancreaticus.
  Q. By what  means does the cavity of the
omentum communicate with that of the abdo-
men ?
  A. A communication  is  formed under the
capsule of Glisson by means of the foramen of
Winslow.
  Q. In what intestines  are the valvula? con-
niventes found ?
  A. In the  small, chiefly  in the duodenum
and jejunum.
  Q. Describe the situation and course of the
colon.
  A. The colon ascends on the right  side to
the  liver ; passes under  the liver and stomach
to the left side, where  it descends, by a sig-
moid flexure, into the  pelvis, and ends in the
rectum.
  Q. Where  do the mouths  of the lacteals
open ?
  A. Upon the internal surface of the small
intestines.
  Q. Where  does the mesentery begin ?
  A. Near the  termination  of the duodenum.
  Q. How does the  rectum  differ  from the
colon ?
  A. The  rectum differs  from  the colon in be-
ing  covered only anteriorly and laterally by the
peritonaeum;  its muscular fibres are stronger 
80
ANATOMY.
 and thicker, and spread uniformly over the in-
 testine.
   Q.  On what bone does the end of the rectum
 rest?
   A.  On the os coccygis.
   Q.  What is the membranous production call-
 ed by  which the rectum is tied to the sacrum
 and os coccygis.
   A. The mesorectum.
   Q. Describe the uterus.
   A. The uterus is a spongy hollow receptacle,
 of a pear shape, placed in the  pelvis between
 the urinary  bladder and rectum,  divided into
 fundus, cervix,  and orifice or os tinea?: it has
 four ligaments, two Fallopian tubes, two ovaria,
 and the vagina hanging from  its cervix.
  Q. Of  what do the ligamenta lata uteri con-
 sist ?
  A. The ligamenta lata consist of two mem-
 branous productions or doublings of the peri-
 tonaeum, which go from the sides of the uterus
 and vagina, to be affixed to the sides of the
pelvis.
  Q. What are the ligamenta rotunda uteri 1
  A. They are cords composed of vessels and
ligamentous fibres,  arising from  the sides of the
uterus.
  Q. Through what tube does  the ovum pass
from the ovarium into the uterus ?
  A. Through the Fallopian tube.
  Q. Where is the os tincae situated ?
  A. The os tinea?, or mouth of the womb,  is 
ANATOMY.
81
Situated at the top  of the vagina and  inferior
part of the uterus.
   Q. What  part  of the vagina  is covered by
the peritonaeum ?
   A. The upper and posterior part.
   Q. What is  the  length  of the urethra in
females ?
   A. The urethra in females is about an inch
in length.
   Q. Where is the  female urethra situated ?
   A. The female urethra is situated under the
syniphysis of the pubes, between the nympha?
and below the clitoris, just above the entrance
of the vagina.
   Q. Where is the urinary bladder situated ?
   A. The bladder is situated within the pelvis,
immediately behind the ossa pubis ; in males
before the rectum, and in females between the
uterus and pubes.
   Q. On which side of the vesiculae seminales
do the ureters enter into the bladder ?
   A. The ureters perforate the bladder on the
outside of the vesiculae seminales.
   Q. What  muscles does the ureter pass over
in going to the bladder ?
   A. The  ureter descends from the  kidney
over the psoae muscles.
   Q. Where is the  epididymis situated ?
   A The epididymis is situated  at the outer
and back part of the testicle.
   Q. How  many dilations are  there  in  the
urethra ?
   A. There are  generally three dilations to be 
82
ANATOMY.
 found in the urethra of men ; one at the point
 of the glans penis, another  at the bulb of the
 urethra, and the third in the prostate gland.
   Q.  To what do  the  openings of the veru-
 montanum belong ?
   A.  The orifices found on the verumontanum
 belong to the vesiculae seminales.
   Q.  Where is  the  urethra  most  dilated in
 males ?
   A.  The urethra is most dilated at that  part
 which is surrounded by the  prostate gland.
   Q.  What forms the corpus pampiniforme ?
   A. The corpus pampiniforme is formed  by a
 plexus of veins that have a distant resemblance
 to the  shoots of the  vine.
   Q.  What forms the coni vasculosi ?
   A The coni vasculosi are formed by the vasa
 efferentia becoming convoluted  into ^conical
bundles.
   Q.  What does the corpus spongiosum ure-
 thra? consist of?
   A. The corpus spongiosum urethra? consists of
 a plexus of veins ; it is expanded at its anterior
part to form the glans penis.
   Q. Describe the situation and course of the
corpora cavernosa penis.
   A. The corpora cavernosa arise by what are
 called  the crura from the tubera ischii: they
 ascend along the  ischium and  pubes, and  are
united immediately before the cartilaginous arch
of the pubes : they are covered by a ligamento-
tendinous substance, which is very elastic :  in-
ternally they  are cavernous,  and are  separated 
ANATOMY.
83
 from each other by the septum  pectiniforme,
 so called from its numerous perforations.
   Q.  Where are the testicles situated in the
 foetus ?
   A. The testicles in the foetus before the sixth
 month  are  in the abdomen ; they  receive  a
 covering  of peritoneum, and are  placed at the
 lower part of the kidneys.
   Q. How many coats has the testicle ?
   A. It has  two  coats; viz. the tunica vagi-
 nalis and the tunica albuginea.
   Q. Is there any difference in the manner in
 which the two coats surround the testicle ?
   A. Yes:  the tunica vaginalis invests the tes-
 ticle as  the pericardium does the  heart, adher-
 ing only at its  posterior  and superior part;
 while the tunica  albuginea surrounds and is
 firmly attached to the testicle on every part.
   Q. What is the excretory duct of the testi-
 cle called?
   A. The excretory duct  of the  testicle  is
 called vas deferens.
   Q. Where  do  the corpora cavernosa penis
 arise ?
   A. The corpora cavernosa penis arise from
 the edge of the ramus  of the ischium and os
 pubis.
   Q. What forms the scrotum ?
   A.  The scrotum is formed by a  continuation
of the common integuments.
   Q.  What forms the common integuments ?
  A.  The common integuments are formed by 
84               ANATOMY.
the cuticle, rete  mucosum, cutis, and adipose
substance.
   Q. What is the use of the cartilages of the
surfaces of joints ?
   A.  The uses t)f the articular cartilages are to
give the bones a smoothness for easy motion, to
assist motion  by their elasticity,  and to  guard
against  the effects of concussion.
   Q.  What is the most elastic substance in the
body?
  A.  The most elastic  substance in the body
is cartilage.
   Q.  Are tendons elastic ?
  A.  Tendons are not elastic ; for, if they were,
the power of muscles would be greatly  dimi-
nished.
   Q.  What is the use of the adeps ?
   A.  The adeps  guards against the effects of
pressure: it lessens the specific gravity of the
body, fills up the interstices of  muscles, and is
a reservoir for nourishment to the body.
   Q.  When blood is drawn from a vein and is
at rest,  what change takes place ?
   A.  It separates into  serum and crassamen-
turn. 
PHYSIOLOGY.
   Q. What is the course of the circulation ?
   A. The blood is received from the arteries
by the veins, and is returned by the superior
and  inferior  cava to the right  auricle of the
heart, which,  becoming distended, contracts
and empties its blood into the right ventricle.
The right ventricle then contracts and propels
the blood  through the pulmonary artery into
the lungs, there to undergo  a peculiar change,
and  to  be conveyed by  the  four  pulmonary
veins into the  left  auricle.   The left auricle
being distended, evacuates  its blood into the
left ventricle.   The left ventricle propels the
blood through the  aorta, to  be circulated by
the arteries, and again to be  returned  by the
veins to the heart.
   Q. What  is the  use of the tuberculum
Loweri ?
   A. The  use of the tuberculum  Loweri is
supposed to be that of preventing the blood of
the one cava from  rushing  upon that  of the
other, and to direct it into the auricle.
   Q. How is the blood prevented from return-
ing back into the right auricle after it has got
into th<? right ventricle ?
   A.  It is prevented from returning by a valve 
86
PHYSIOLOGY.
 called  tricuspid, which is placed  within the
 ventricle.
   Q.  What prevents the reflux of blood into
 the left auricle of the heart ?
   A. The blood is prevented from going back
 into the auricle from the  left ventricle, by the
 mitral valve.
   Q. How do  you  distinguish  venous  from
 arterial blood ?
   A. Venous blood is of a dark color (except-
 ing that which is in the venous system of the
 lungs).  Arterial blood is of a florid red ver-
 milion hue (excepting the blood of the pulmo-
 nary artery, which is dark).
   Q. What  is  the contraction  of  the heart
 called ?
   A. Systole.
   Q. In what  viscus does the change from
 arterial to venous blood take  place ?
   A. In the lungs.
   Q. What is the color of  the  blood in  the
 pulmonary artery ?
   A. It is of a dark color, like  venous blood.
   Q. What is meant by digestion ?
   A. A function by which the food introduced
 into  the stomach of animals  is subjected to a
peculiar action, and a new compound formed,
fitted to their nourishment and growth.
   Q. £ What are the effects of protracted absti-
 nence ?
   A. A wasting and diminution  of  weight of
 the body from the loss of fat;  discoloration of
 the fluids,  particularly the  blood;  excessive 
PHYSIOLOGY.
87
 sensibility,  sleeplessness, with painful  sensa-
 tions in  the epigastric region.
   Q.  What is the chief agent in digestion ?
   A. The gastric juice.
   Q. What is the use of the sphincter pylori ?
   A.  The  sphincter  pylori,  by contracting,
 prevents the  grosser indigested parts of  the
 aliment from escaping, and, by dilating, allows
 the digested pulp to pass into the duodenum.
   Q. What is the use of the mesentery ?
   A. The use of the mesentery is to suspend
 and  retain the intestines  in  their  places, to
 furnish  them with an  external  coat,  and
 to form  a bed for their glands, vessels,  and
 nerves.
   Q. What is the cause of the bile  regurgi-
 tating into the gall-bladder ?
   A. When  digestion  is  not  going  on,  the
 opening of the ductus communis  choledochus
 is shut;  the  bile therefore,  not finding  an
 access to the  duodenum, regurgitates  into the
 gall-bladder.
   Q. What is the use of the urinary bladder ?
   A. To receive, to retain  for a certain time,
 and  to expel,  the urine.
   Q. What is the use of the gastric juice ?
   A. To digest the food.
   Q. What is the theory of ossification ?
   A. First, the formation of a jelly; this  be-
 coming  cartilage,  the  absorbents   remove a
portion of the cartilage, forming a cavity, and
the  arteries next deposit the osseous matter
in the cavity:  it is, however, not always car- 
88             PHYSIOLOGY.
 tilage  that the bony matter is  deposited in;
 for, in most of the flat bones, the  deposition
 takes place between membranes.
   Q. How is inspiration performed ?
   A. The intercostal  muscles contract, assist-
 ed by other muscles, and increase the trans-
 verse breadth of the cavity of the chest, whilst
 the   diaphragm  contracts and increases  the
 length of the cavity of the chest; the air then
 rushes down the trachea, and inspiration is per-
 formed.
   Q.  When the  chest  of an adult  dilates,
 what quantity of atmospheric air is taken in ?
   A. The quantity of air inspired by an adult
 at each period is between  thirty and forty
 cubic inches of atmospherical air.
   Q.  What changes  has  the air undergone
 which has been expired from the lungs ?
   A. It differs from the air previous to inspira-
 tion  in being diminished in quantity, in having
 its carbonic  acid considerably increased, and by
 being  loaded with aqueous  vapor, besides  at
 times containing hydrogen.
  Q. What  is  meant by secretion ?
  A. A function of the minute extremities of
arteries, by which they form a solid or fluid
different from the blood.
  Q. What change is  produced on the blood
in the lungs ?
  A. The blood is changed from a  dark color
to a florid red ; it is deprived of hydrogen and
carbon, and absorbs oxygen, caloric, and  a
portion of nitrogen. 
PHYSIOLOGY.
89
   Q.  What is the use of the soft palate ?
   A. The soft palate acts like a valve, in pre-
 venting  what we swallow from passing into
 the nose, and conducts  the fluids of the nose
 into the  mouth.
   Q. What prevents the faeces from returning
 from the large intestines into the small ?
   A. The ileo-colic valve, placed at the begin-
 ning of the colon, allows the contents of the
 ileum  to pass into  the  large intestines,  but
 completely prevents their return.
   Q. What causes the bile to pass from  the
 gall-bladder into  the duodenum ?
   A. The bile is discharged from the gall-blad-
 der, when the stomach  is full, chiefly by the
 pressure  of the  surrounding  viscera, and  by
 the contractile power of the gall-bladder.
   Q. What is the use of the bile ?
   A. The use of the bile is to excite the peri-
 staltic  motion of the intestines, to  correct too
 great a disposition  to acidity, and  to assist in
 chylification.
   Q. What is the use of the pancreas ?
   A. It secretes  a  liquor, or juice  resembling
 saliva in appearance, and in chemical proper-
 ties.
   Q. What is the use of the pancreatic juice ?
   A. The pancreatic juice is said to incorpo-
 rate the  bile with the alimentary mass, and to
 answer the same  purposes as bile.
   Q. How is the urine expelled ?
   A. Partly by the contraction of the bladder
itself, and partly by the action of the abdominal
              7# 
90
PHYSIOLOGY.
  muscles and  diaphragm, which press the in-
  testines against the bladder.
    Q. What is the use of the tunica vaginalis
  testis •'
    A. To enclose the testicle, and to assist the
  cremaster in supporting the testicle; it  also
  exhales a fluid, which lubricates the surface of
  the testicle.
   Q. What are the powers engaged in expel-
 ling the faeces .'
   A. The powers engaged  in expelling  the
 faeces are, the muscular coat of the rectum, the
 levator ani, assisted by the action of the  dia-
 phragm, and abdominal muscles.
   Q. How is expiration  performed ?
   A. By relaxation of the intercostal muscles
 and diaphragm, and the  thorax  assuming its
 relaxed state.
   Q. What is meant by animal heat ?
   A. The natural heat of an animal, which, in
 the  human  being,  raises  the  mercury  in
 Fahrenheit's  thermometer to about 95°. _.
   Q. Why does not the fluid exhaled to lubri-
 cate the different cavities of the body accu-
 mulate ?
   A.  Because in a healthy state the inhalants
or absorbents  counterbalance the exhalants or
secreting arteries.
   Q.  How is nutrition effected ?
   A. By the lacteals, the mouths of which
open upon the internal surface of the small in-
testines, selecting  the chyle from the excre-
mentitious part of the food, and conveying it 
PHYSIOLOGY.            91
into the thoracic duct, which empties itself
into the angle of the left jugular and subclavian
veins, thereby repairing the losses the blood
continually sustains in nourishing the body.
   Q. What membrane moderates the effect of
light on the retina ?
   A. The iris,  which  diminishes or enlarges
the pupil,  according  to  the intensity of the
light.
   Q. What is the use of the tears ?
   A. They prevent the effects of friction, and
save the organ of sight from  being dried, at
that part which is exposed to the air.
   Q. What is the use of the fluid which  fills
the labyrinth of the ear ?
   A. It preserves the  nervous fibrils soft,  and
moderates the tremors of sound.
   Q. Why does not the fat gravitate  to  the
lower extremities after long standing, like the
fluid of an anasarcous person ?
   A. Because the fat is contained in vesicles,
which do not communicate like the cells of the
cellular membrane.
   Q. What is the use of the omentum ?
   A. The use of the omentum is supposed to
be that of lubricating the viscera, and to pre-
vent them from being injured by friction.
   Q. How does the ovum  get from the ova-
rium into the uterus ?
   A. The  ovum, when impregnated, escapes
from the ovarium through the Fallopian tube,
which is grasping the ovarium at the time.
   Q. What is the use of the prostate gland ? 
92
PHYSIOLOGY.
    A. The use of the prostate gland is not well
  known; it affords a fluid, which is supposed to
  be of use in generation.
    Q. Why does not  the urine excite  inflam-
  mation of the bladder ?
    A. Because the bladder is accustomed to its
  stimulus, and a great quantity of mucus is se-
  creted  by the internal  membrane to defend it
 from the acrimony of the urine.
   Q. Why do enlarged mesenteric glands cause
 an atrophy ?
   A. Because they obstruct the passage of the
 chyle through the lacteals to the thoracic duct.
   Q. In what ages  and sex is the pulse  the
 most frequent.
   A. In children and  women the pulse is most
 frequent.
   Q. What is the use of the anastomoses  of
 arteries ?
   A. The  use of arteries anastomosing is to
 allow of blood being conveyed  to parts where
 its passage is prevented in the principal branch
 or branches that supply those parts with blood:
 another use is that of facilitating the passage of
 blood from one part to another, and prevent the
 distension of parts.
   Q.  Is the fat solid or fluid in the living body ?
  A. The fat in a living  body is found in some
parts in a state of semi-fluidity, and in other
parts it is found absolutely fluid.
  Q. What is  the cause of the fainting that
sometimes takes  place under the  operation of
tapping ? 
PHYSIOLOGY.
93
   A. Fainting takes place in tapping in conse-
 quence of the sudden removal of the pressure
 of fluid from the diaphragm and viscera.
   Q. How does a compression  of the thoracic
 duct, either by an  aneurism of the heart or
 aorta, occasion so frequently a dropsy ?
   A. The compression of the thoracic duct
 prevents the lymph  from the absorbent vessels
 being returned into  the blood ;  the absorbents
 are therefore prevented performing their office,
 and an accumulation takes place.
   Q. Why does a person troubled with calcu-
 lus find great difficulty in passing the urine
 when he leans forward ?
   A. Because  the calculus falling  against the
 orifice of the urethra, thereby prevents the regu-
 lar flow of urine.
   Q. Why does not the urine flow back from
 the bladder to  the kidney ?
   A. The urine is prevented  flowing back to
 tthe pelvis  of the kidney by the valve formed
 by the inner coat of the bladder  over the orifice
 of the ureter, produced by the ureter's piercing
 the bladder obliquely.
   Q.. Why is the spine composed of so many
 small bones ?
   A. The reason why the spine is composed of
 so many bones is to allow of great  strength,
 with a sufficient degree of mobility.
   Q. Is there any alteration in  the muscles of
 a paralytic limb ?
   A. Yes : the muscles of a paralytic limb are
paler and more flaccid. 
94            PHYSIOLOGY.
   Q. How is the voice performed ?
   A. The voice results from the vibration the
 air suffers during its passage  through the glot-
 tis, when expelled from the lungs.
   Q. Which of the two has the greatest power
 in preventing  luxations of the joint, the mus-
 cles that surround the joint, or its own liga-
 ments ?
  A. The muscles that surround joints defend
them better and give them greater strength thaD
their surrounding ligaments. 
SURGERY.
   Q. What are the symptoms of compressed
 brain ?
   A. The person is mostly insensible; an apo-
 plectic  stertor of the breathing soon comes on ;
 loss of voluntary motion, tremors, and convul-
 sions.   The pupil is contracted or dilated ; and,
 if the person can be roused from%is stertorous
 sleep, he complains of  giddiness and dimness
 of sight.  Often there is haemorrhage from the
 nose, eyes, and ears ; and the faeces and urine
 are discharged involuntarily ; and as the com-
 pression is generally  produced  by fractured
 skull, the finding a  portion of skull depressed
 from the blow is sufficient. The pulse is irregu-
 lar and slow.
  Q. What are the  symptoms of concussion of
 the brain ?
  A. The patient is first in a state of insensi-
 bility, and the extremities usually become cold ;
 there is a great tendency to sleep, but the sleep
is unattended by stertor.  If the compression
be not very  great,  the patient  soon becomes
more sensible; but  vomiting takes place; he
is at times delirious ; the pulse  irregular and
quick ;  and phrenitis often succeeds the con-
cussion.  Should, however, the concussion be 
96
SURGERY.
very great, the insensibility of the patient in-
creases.
   Q. How would you distinguish a fissure of
the cranium from a suture ?
   A. By the course of the fissure, by its ap-
pearance not being zigzag, and by the pericra-
nium not adhering to it in the way it does to a
suture.
   Q. What practice would you adopt  to re-
lieve concussion of the brain ?
   A. The most approved  practice  is to bleed,
according to circumstances ; to administer the
saline purges;  to put the patient  on the an-
tiphlogistic  f-lgimen.    Should  symptoms  of
phrenitis come on, large  and repeated  blood-
letting is to be had recourse to, and blisters are
to be applied to the head, or neck, in order to
reduce the inflammation of the brain.
   Q. When a  portion of the cranium  is  de-
pressed, what would you do to elevate it ? u
   A. Apply the trephine.
   Q. Where would you apply the trephine to
raise the depressed portion of bone ?
   A. On a part of the skull  which would in-
clude a  portion of the depressed bone, that the
elevator may be  introduced  so as  to raise the
depressed portion.
   Q. On what parts of the parietal bone is the
application of the trephine dangerous?
   A. The meningeal artery lies often deep in a
groove at the anterior and inferior angle of the
parietal  bone, and is in danger of being divided 
STJRGERY.
97
 by the trephine applied near that corner; the
 other parts of this bone admit of its application
   Q. On what ether parts of the cranium is the
 application of the trephine dangerous ?
   A. It cannot  be applied with safety on the
 course  of  the superior longitudinal or lateral
 sinuses.
   Q, What cases require the operation ©f the
 trephine ?
   A. A depressed portion of bone or a collec-
 tion of pus, or extravasated blood, in conse-
 quence of  an injury.
   Q. In wounds of the scalp are sutures to be
 used ?
   A. The   use  of  sutures  is always to be
 avoided as much as possible.  Most surgeons
 prefer sticking-plaster.
   Q. When the scalp is much contused or torn,
 is it advisable to cut off the injured portion ?
   A. No :  it is  better to attempt  to preserve
 the torn portion.
   Q. What is the general treatment of a con-
 tused and lacerated scalp ?
   A. The treatment  is to clean  the injured
 portion of the scalp,  as much as possible, from
 extraneous  bodies;  to  retain it in its natural
 position, and to apply cooling lotions or  other
 applications to keep  down inflammation.
   Q. What are the  consequences  that some-
 times take place from punctured wounds of the
 scalp ?
   A. In punctured wounds  of the scalp an
erysipelas frequently takes place ; the inflam-
              8 
98               SURGERY.
 mation and tumor often affect  the whole head
 and face, the skin of which wears a yellowish
 cast, receives the impression of the finger;
 and a symptomatic fever is produced.  If the
 wound  be small, and have passed beneath the
 aponeurosis, worse symptoms than these even
 accrue.
   Q. What is to be done when the scalp (after
 being injured) becomes tense, the pain great,
 and the symptomatic fever very high ?
   A.  It is  recommended to make an incision
 over  the wounded part  down to  the bone,
 which in general removes all the bad symptoms.
   Q.  If there be  doubt as to fracture of the
 cranium, and it is thought not necessary to tre-
 pan, what plan of treatment should the patient
 be put on ?
   A.  Under such circumstances,  the antiphlo-
 gistic plan is the best.
   Q.  What  are the symptoms that attend an
 inflamed state of the membranes  of the brain
 brought on by injury ?
  A. The symptoms are pain in the head, rest-
 lessness, want of sleep, frequent  and  hard
 pulse, hot and dry skin, flushed countenance,
 inflamed eyes, nausea, vomiting, rigor, and,
towards  the end, convulsions and delirium.
  Q. What is meant by the term  hernia ?
  A. By hernia is generally meant a protru-
sion of any viscus from its natural cavity.
  Q.  In what parts of the body do hernia? most
frequently appear ?
  A. Hernia? most commonly make their ap- 
SURGERY.
99
  pearance at the groin, the navel, the labia pu-
  dendi, and  the upper and  fore part  of the
  thigh.
    Q. What names have been adopted  to dis-
  tinguish hernia? by their contents ?
    A. When intestine alone is contained in the
  hernia, it is termed an enterocele : when omen-
  tum alone,  epiplocele ; and when both are in-
  cluded in  the tumor,  an  entero-epiplocele.
  Sometimes the hernia contains  a part  of the
 stomach, liver, bladder, &c. ; then it is named
 accordingly, gastrocele, hepatocele and  cysto-
 cele.
   Q. What do you mean  by an  exomphalos ?
   A.  An umbilical hernia, or protrusion of the
 intestines or omentum, through  the  umbilical
 ring.
   Q.  What is  a bubonocele ?
   A. It is a hernia, in the  inguinal canal.
   Q.  What is  meant by a reducible hernia ?
   A. A  reducible  hernia  is  one that has its
 contents lying quietly in the sac,  and admits of
 being readily put back into the abdomen.
   Q. What is meant by an irreducible hernia ?
   A. An  irreducible hernia is one which, from
 adhesions of the intestine to the sac, or thick-
 ened omentum, cannot be returned into  the
 abdomen.
   Q. How does incarcerated hernia differ from
 irreducible hernia ?
   A. An  incarcerated or  strangulated hernia
not only cannot be  reduced, but circulation of
the blood is stopped,  and the contents of  the 
100
SURGERY.
 bowel  are  prevented  passing  onwards to trie
 anus.
   Q. In  incarcerated  hernia?,  whether  are
 those most easily reduced that contain small or
 large intestine 1
   A. An incarcerated small intestine is more
 easily reduced than an- incarcerated  large in-
 testine.
   Q. Which is the most dangerous, an intesti-
 nal or an omental hernia I
   A. An intestinal  hernia is  the most danger-
 ous, and especially if it is small and recent.
   Q. How  is a femoral hernia distinguished
 from an enlarged lymphatic gland %
   A, The swelling of a femoral hernia comes
 en in a sudden manner ;  it is elastic, and may
 be reduced in size  by pressure ; whereas a
 gland, when inflamed,  is inelastic, cannot be
 seduced in size by pressure, aad  the swelling
 comes on gradually.
   Q. What forms  the  sac in  hernia con-
 genita ?
   A.  The sac in hernia congenita is formed by
 the tunica vaginalis.
   Q.  What are the symptoms ©f strangulated
intestine ?
   A.  The patient is seized with sickness ; ob-
stinate costiveness comes on ; synochal fever
takes  place, and  a vomiting  of faecal matter.
The rupture remains stationary, and  no effort
 can return it; the tumor ©f the  part becomes
very painful, and the pain extends to  the abdo-
 men, attended with a general tension. 
                 SURGERY.              101

   Q. Describe the operation for strangulated
inguinal hernia.
   A. Having shaved  off the  hair  from  the
tumor, and the patient being placed in a suit-
able situation  for the operation,  an  incision
should be made about  an inch above the ring,
which, if  the tumor be not very large, should
extend  to the most  depending part  of  the
swelling, so that  the skin and  cellular  mem-
brane covering the sac will thus be cut through.
Perhaps the   external  pudic  artery,  that
crosses  the sac near the abdominal ring, will
also be cut through ; if so, it will be necessary
to secure this artery before we proceed, to pre-
vent further bleeding.  Then, with a pair of for-
eeps, a part of the fascia must be raised and di-
vided, to allow the introduction of a director, on
which instrument the fascia is to be divided up-
wards, to within an inch of the abdominal ring,
and downwards,  to the bottom of the tumor.
The next  thing to be  attended to is the divi-
sion of the stricture ; with this view, the finger
is to be passed into the sac, as far as the stric-
ture, which will be found either at the abdomi-
nal ring, or about an inch and a half from this
aperture, inclining upwards  and outwards, or
in the mouth of the sac.  If the stricture be at
the ring, the finger is to be passed as far as the
stricture, and then  a  probe-pointed bistoury
must be conveyed over the  front  part of the
sac into the ring, which is next to be  divided
in a direction upwards, opposite the  middle of
the sac, and to extend just sufficient to allow 
102
SURGERY.
 the protruded parts to be returned into the abdo-
 men.  By this division of the ring, the epigas-
 tric artery is not wounded, nor are the trans-
 verse tendinous fibres cut through, that cross
 the upper part of  the  ring,  by  which  the
 aperture of the ring is not so much weakened.
 The stricture being thus removed, the protrud-
 ed parts are  to be returned into the  cavity of
 the abdomen.  Should  the  intestine be gan-
 grenous, it is not to be returned.   The  intes-
 tine may, however, have  dark discolerations>
 and may be returned  without harm : these
 states should be carefully  distinguished.  If
 the omentum be gangrenous,  the dead part
 should be cut off, and the other part returned,
 if haemorrhage is not likely to occnr from  its
 surface.  When the omentum is indurated, the
 indurated portion may be cut  off.  The parts
 are now to be dressed in the usual way.
   Q. Describe the operation  for femoral  or
 crural hernia.
   A. An incision is to be made from the point
where  the  hernia protrudes, just above Pou-
part's ligament, a little nearer to the symphysis
pubis than the femoral vessels are, and be con-
tinued the whole length  of the tumor.    Any
glands which  may lie over the hernia should be
avoided.  The aponeurotic fibres, which pro-
ceed from the femoral fascia and  ascend ob-
liquely over the front of the thigh, are to be
divided very cautiously.   The hernial sac is to-
be opened  by means of a pair  of dissecting
forceps and bistoury, the operator raising the 
SURGERY.
103
 part by taking hold of the cellular membrane
 attached  to  it, and is then to make  a very
 small  aperture  by a horizontal cut; through
 this opening a director may be introduced, and
 the sac is to be divided nearly as high as Pou-
 part's  ligament, and quite to the bottom of the
 tumor.  The  sac being  laid open, a director
 should next  be introduced within  the  crural
 ring, on the side of the intestine which is near-
 est the symphysis pubis, and an incision should
 be  made  directly upwards, for the  purpose of
 cutting the femoral ligament.   The protruded
 parts are then to be returned.
  Q.  How would you treat a  violent ophthal-
 mia?
  A.  Bleed generally, and locally, according
 to the age of the patient.  If there be  great
 inflammation of the  tunica conjunctiva,  care-
 fully scarify it; apply soft emollient poultices
 to the  eyes, renewing them often ;  give saline
 purges and diaphoretics ; keep the eyes shaded;
 and, as the chronic  stage  succeeds, alter the
 remedies in some degree, according to circum-
 stances;  apply astringent  sedative lotions to
 the eyes, leaving off the  poultices; make use
 of the tincture of opium, dropping in two or
 three   drops, twice  or  thrice a day, between
 the eyelid and ball.
  Q. How would you treat gangrene in general ?
  A.  With tonics, stimulants,  and a mild diet,
with brandy and wine.
  Q.  When a locked jaw arises from an injury,
how would you endeavor to relieve it ? 
104
SURGERY.
   A. By making a free division of the injured
part; and if this did not succeed, by amputat-
ing, if  possible.   Anti-spasmodics, as  opium
and ether, must be given internally.
   Q. When a ball is lodged in the calf of the
leg, and it  is necessary to make an incision
upon it, in  what direction would you make
that incision ?
   A.  In a perpendicular direction.
   Q.  How  does the  complete  division of a
punctured artery (as  the  temporal) stop the
hemorrhage ?
   A.  By the retraction of  the  extremities of
the artery.
  Q.  What  is the cause of the cold  sensation
and numbness of the  leg  and foot,  generally
felt from an  aneurism of the popliteal artery ?
   A.  Pressure upon the popliteal nerve, which
supplies the leg and foot with  nervous influ-
ence ; it is also caused by  obstructed circula-
tion, the popliteal artery losing part of its pow-
er, and containing a quantity of coagulum.
   Q.  If necessary to take up the brachial arte-
ry, near the  flexure of the arm, how will the
circulation of the blood be carried on ?
  A. By the two profundas chiefly, which inos-
culate with the  recurrents of the ulnar and ra-
dial arteries.
  Q.  How is amputation of the shoulder-joint
performed ?
  A.  As there is no room  for the application
of the tourniquet in this operation,  the axil- 
SURGERY.
105
 lary artery is to be compressed by an assistant,
 by means of a pad, just where it  passes  over
 the first rib; or, to render the operation more
 safe, it is preferred to take up the  axillary
 artery at once ;  then, with a large common
 bistoury, a semi-circular incision is to be made
 with its convexity  downwards, to across  the
 integuments covering the deltoid muscle, about
 four inches below the  acromion.  The  skin
 should not be detached, but the  muscle is to
 be cleared from the bone quite up to the joint;
 then the tendons passing over the joint are to
 be cut through, also the capsular  ligament, so
 as  to  allow the bone to  be  dislocated from
 the joint.   Having done this, the skin and other
 parts, underneath the joint, are to be  divided
 with one stroke of the knife ; after this, the cir-
 cumflex, or any small vessel  that may bleed,
should be secured and tied.  The flap of the
 deltoid muscle is next to be laid down, so that
its edge will meet the margin of the wound be-
 low.  The operation is then finished by dressing.
  Q. What do you mean by hydrocele ?
  A. A collection  of serous fluid in the tunica
 vaginalis testis.
  Q. How many methods are there employed
 for the radical cure of hydrocele ?
  A. There are six different methods employed
in the radical cure of hydrocele; viz. the inci-
sion, the  excision, the  application of caustic,
the introduction of a tent, the employment  of a
seton, and injecting some stimulating fluid into
the  cavity of the tunica vaginalis. 
106             SURGERY.
    Q. How  many ways can the lower jaw be
  dislocated ?
    A. The lower jaw can only be luxated for-
  wards on the zygomatic arches.
    Q. How many species of white swelling are
  there ?
    A. Two :  the scrofulous and the rheumatic
  species.
    Q. What muscles are cut through in the ope-
 ration of lithotomy on the male ?
   A. The transversalis  perinaei, and generally
 a part of the  accelerator urinae, and  sometimes
 a part of the levator ani.
   Q. What are the peculiarities of  a gun-shot
 wound ?
   A. Great contusion and  laceration, which
 produce a deadened state of the fibres immedi-
 ately surrounding the wound, that require  to
 be thrown off in the form of slough,  before the
 wound can heal; they also  frequently contain
 pieces of cloth or bullets.
  Q. How many coats have the arteries ?
  A. Three ; the external  is  membranous  or
 cellular; the middle muscular, composed  of
 transverse fibres forming the segments of a cir-
 cle  interposed between  each other; and the
inner coat  is remarkably  thin, smooth, and
dense.   These coats are connected by fine cel-
lular substance.
  Q. How is an aneurismal tumor distinguished
from other tumors ?
  A. By its pulsating, and by its receding, upon 
SURGERY.
107
 pressure, and soon returning again to its usual
 bulk.
   Q. What is the substance generally found in
 aneurismal sacs ?
   A. The coagulable part of the blood, which
 is usually found in layers.
   Q. How is the amputation below  the knee
 performed ?
   A. Having placed  the  patient in a proper
 position, and applied the tourniquet  to  com-
 press the artery, one assistant is to support the
 leg,  while the other pulls up the integuments ;
 a circular incision is then to be made round the
 leg, to divide the integuments ;  when these are
 divided, a portion of them  is to be dissected
 back from the muscles, by means of a scalpel,
 sufficient  to cover  the  stump; these  being
 kept  back, another circular incision  is to be
 made with the  knife, some way higher up than
 the  first incision ; by this  incision,  the  soft
 parts are divided quite to the bone.  The inter-
 osseous  ligament is  then to  be  thoroughly
 divided by the scalpel, or the catlin; the soft
 part should be  properly retracted, and the saw
 should next be applied, to  divide the bones.
 After which, the spiculae left by the saw are to be
 removed by the pincers.   The vessels are next
 to be secured by ligatures, slackening the tour-
 niquet from time to time, lest any vessel should
 not be secured. To discover this, it is always
 necessary to sponge  away  the clotted blood
from the wound.  After these precautions are
taken, the edges of the wound are to be brought 
108              SURGERY.
 together, by drawing the integuments over the
 surface of the wound;  the ligatures are to be
 left out, and the wound covered with lint and
 cloth.
   Q. What are the consequences that generally
 arise from lacerated or wounded nerves ?
   A. Inflammation of the lacerated or wounded
 part, locked jaw, and convulsions.
   Q. What joint of the body is most subject to
 dislocation ?
   A. The shoulder-joint is most subject to dis-
 location.
   Q. How many ways may the head of the
 thigh-bone be dislocated %
   A. The head of the thigh-bone may be dis-
 located  upwards on the dorsum of the ileum ;
 forwards on the os pubis; downwards on the ob-
 tural externus muscle, and backwards on  the
 sciatic notch.
   Q. What are  the  symptoms of  lumbar ab-
 scess ?
   A. This kind of abscess generally forms in a
 very insidious manner:  in the incipient stage
of the disease, the person cannot walk as well
 as usual, and feels a degree of uneasiness about
the lumbar region ; but in general,  there is no
acute pain, even when the abscess has acquired
such a size as to form a large tumor protruding
externally.
  Q. What is meant by a compound fracture ?
  A. It is a fracture of the  bone, attended with
an external wound of the soft parts. 
SURGERY.
109
   Q. What takes place when a bone is denud-
 ed of its periosteum ?
   A. Generally exfoliation, to a certain degree.
   Q. Why are  luxations of the shoulder-joint
 more frequent than luxations  of the hip-joint?
   A. Because the glanoid cavity is very super-
 ficial, to allow of extensive motion to the head
 of the os brachii, which is very large.  The joint
 is also more exposed to unguarded blows, or ac-
 cidents, than any other joint.  The hip-joint, on
 the contrary, is confined as to motion ;the aceta-
 bulum is also very deep in the fresh subject, so
 as almost to cover the head of the os femoris ;
 and thus this joint is rendered very strong.
   Q. What are the general causes of mortifi-
 cation ?
   A. The general causes of mortification are—
 an impeded flow of blood from a part; the stop-
 page of the flow of blood into the same ; and a
 disturbed state of this fluid, and of the nerves.
   Q. How many kinds of fever attend mortifi-
 cation ?
   A. There are three kinds of fever  which
 may accompany  mortification : 1. sympathetic
 inflammatory fever; 2. one attended with ex-
 treme debility, of a typhoid nature ; and 3. one
 depending upon derangement  of the chylopoie-
 tic organs.
   Q. Under what circumstances  is amputation
 of an extremity necessary ?
  A. Where the bone becomes much diseased ;
where  great laceration from gun-shot wounds
has been produced; where great  destruction of
             9 
110              SURGERY.
 parts has taken place in  compound fracture ;
 and where, from other causes, the operation is
 required.
   Q.  What forms the sac in femoral hernia ?
   A. The  fascia of the  thigh, and the  peri-
 toneum.
   Q. In what direction is Poupart's ligament
 to be divided, if necessary, to liberate strangu-
 lated femoral hernia ?
   A. That recommended by Mr. Hey, is to in-
 troduce a director within the crural  ring on
 that side of the intestine, or omentum, which
 is nearest to the symphysis of the pubes, and
 to make the incision directly upwards.  Gim-
 bernat recommends the incision to be carried
 directly towards the symphysis pubis.
   Q. How many ways are there of puncturing
 the bladder, to relieve retention of urine ?
   A. First, from  the perinaeum;  secondly,
 above the os pubis ;  thirdly, through the rec-
 tum in  the  male,  and vagina in  the female;
 fourthly, by dilating the meatus urinarius in the
 female.
   Q. On what part of the  arm is pressure to
be made before amputation of the fore-arm ?
  A. As high  up as convenient;  placing the
pad at the inner edge of the  biceps, so  as to
compress the artery against the bone.
  Q. At what  part  of the aorta do aneurisms
most frequently occur ?
  A. At the arch of the aorta, just as it is about
 to descend.
   Q. What  are the unfavorable circumstances 
SURGERY.
Ill
in compound fracture, that require the extremi-
ty to be amputated ?
   A. When the wound of the soft parts is large
and  lacerated,  and the  bone  or bones very
much splintered, together with a violent degree
of contusion of the neighboring muscles, am-
putation is necessary ;  but a prompt decision,
in many cases of  compound fracture, requires
great discernment on the part  of the surgeon,
whether to amputate or not.
  Q. What are the signs of a fractured cra-
nium ?
  A. A depression of a part of the skull, and
the symptoms of pressure on the brain, as coma,
stertorous breathing, loss of voluntary motion,
convulsions, tumors, involuntary discharge of
the urine  and  faeces, dilatation of  the  pupil,
irregular  pulse, and sometimes  haemorrhage
from the nose, eyes, and ears.
  Q. What is  the  cause of stupor, or  coma,
in fracture of the cranium ?
  A. Pressure upon the brain.
  Q. What is the medical treatment  in frac-
tures of the skull ?
  A. To bleed  repeatedly, give saline purges,
and  order a low diet:  the patient  should be
kept on the antiphlogistic regimen  for near a
month, to guard against subsequent  inflamma-
tion  of the brain.
  Q. How many  kinds  of   abscesses  are
there ?
  A. There are two kinds : the acute or phleg-
monous, and the chronic abscess. 
112             SURGERY.
    Q.  What are the  symptoms of  suppura-
  tion?
    A. When matter is formed in a tumor, there
  is a remission of all the symptoms, the throb-
  bing pain goes off, and there is present a more
  dull heavy pain ; a conical eminence is obser-
  ved, which soon has a whitish or yellowish
  appearance, instead of a deep red ; and a fluc-
 tuation is often  felt by an examination with the
 fingers.   Rigors are present in extensive sup-
 purations, and accompany suppurations which
 take place in the viscera.
   Q. How are fistula? in perinaeo produced?
   A. Fistulae in  perinaeo are generally produced
 by strictures in  the urethra.   The urine being
 restricted in its  passage along the urethra,  an
 ulceration takes  place on the inside of that part
 of the urethra which  is enlarged and  within
 the  stricture ; the internal  membrane having
 ulcerated, the urine readily gets into the loose
 cellular membrane and substance of the-ure-
 thra ;  an abscess is the consequence,  which
 bursts externally and forms a fistulous opening.
   Q. Why are fistula? generally dilated ?
  A. To produce a new action in those ulcers,
 by which granulations take place from their
 bottom.
  Q. How is the radical  cure of hydrocele
 performed ?
  A. By evacuating  the fluid, and afterwards
 exciting such a degree of inflammation of the
tunica vaginalis  and  testicle as will cause ad-
hesion  to take place, and consequently an ob- 
SURGERY.
113
literation of the cavity : this is either done by
caustic, seton, incision, or by injection.
   Q. What is meant by epiphora ?
   A. By an epiphora is meant a redundancy
or over secretion of tears, so that they run over
the cheeks.
   Q. What are the causes of epiphora ?
   A. An epiphora may be caused by a more
copious secretion  of tears  than the  puncta
lachrymalia can absorb ; and by an obstruction
in the lachrymal canal.
   Q. What are the symptoms of empyema ?
  A. The  most pathognomonic symptom  is
hearing the fluid rattle upon shaking the per-
son's chest;  there is also a difficulty of lying
on the opposite side, difficulty  of breathing,
and  sometimes an enlargement of the  side of
the chest which contains the fluid.
  Q. Where  does a  psoas  abscess generally
point ?
  A. In the groin, at the internal  part of the
thigh, and the loins.
   Q. What are the signs of a wounded artery ?
  A. Effusions of florid blood, and  its being
thrown out by jerks from the vessel.
   Q. What are the terminations of inflamma-
tion ?
   A. Resolution,  suppuration, and mortifica-
tion.
   Q. What method is to be taken after a can-
non ball has torn off the limb ?   •
   A. To amputate the stump :  sometimes it is
           9# 
114             SURGERY.
 necessary to perform the amputation above the
 nearest joint.
   Q. What are the circumstances that prevent
 the dilatation  of gun-shot wounds  to extract
 the extraneous substance ?
   A. When it is likely to create a great irrita-
 tion of the wound without  gaining any advan-
 tage ;  when the ball enters far  into the sub-
 stance of a bone ; where it enters  any of the
 large cavities;  where the ball cannot be  dis-
 covered ; and where the foreign bodies are less
 likely to create  inflammation than their extrac-
 tion.
   Q. What  is  the  treatment  of  gun-shot
 wounds ?
   A. First, when the wound is in any extremity.
 to determine for or against  amputation, which
 in many cases requires great judgment; the am-
putation should be performed before inflamma-
tion arises, or a disposition  to gangrene takes
 place in the limbs: should, however, amputation
 be deferred for a day or two, and the wound be
 highly inflamed, it is to be brought  to a state
of suppuration, at which period amputation, if
needful, should be performed, weighing in mind
the constitution of  the patient, and other cir-
cumstances.   Extraneous substances are gene-
rally to be extracted, particularly when they
press upon an important viscus or a  considera-
ble nerve.   If haemorrhage  takes place from a
large artery, it is to be exposed and tied.  The
external wound often requires  dilating, but
sometimes dilatation is improper. 
SURGERY.
115
  Counter-openings are in some instances to
be made, as when the  ball lodges under con-
tused skin that  will probably slough ; but if
the skin  remain uninjured,  and the  ball is
scarcely perceptible to the feel, this operation
is improper, as the wound heals better when it
is left alone.  When sloughing takes place on
the surface of a wound, its removal is favored
by a plentiful suppuration.
  The rest of the treatment is similar to that
for contused wounds.
 Q. How is chordee accounted for ?
 A. In chordee, the inflammation having affect-
ed the corpus spongiosum as well as the urethra,
it produces in it an extravasation of coagulable
lymph, as in the  adhesive inflammation, which,
uniting the cells together, destroys  the power
of distension of the  corpus  spongiosum, and
makes it unequal, in this respect, to the corpora
cavernosa  penis, and therefore  a  curvature
takes place.
   Q. What is  the treatment  of contused
wounds ?
  A.  To  prevent a high degree  of inflamma-
tion, which often terminates in gangrene ; this is
to be effected by a strict antiphlogistic regimen,
topical bleeding by leeches, &c.  The forma-
tion of pus is to be promoted  by emollient
poultices.  Should  gangrene succeed  the in-
flammation, warm stimulating applications are
to be used, and the patient is  to take bark,
wine, and a nourishing diet. 
116
SURGERY.
   Q. What are the terminations of erysipe-
 las ?
   A.  Resolution, suppuration and gangrene.
   Q.  Does.erysipelas generally terminate in
 suppuration ?
   A. No ; true erysipelas seldom suppurates,
 it generally ends in resolution or gangrene.
   Q. In what part is erysipelas attended with
 the greatest  degree  of constitutional disturb-
 ance ?
   A.  The face and head.
   Q.  Under what circumstances is an artificial
 anus to be formed ?
   A.  Where absolute gangrene of an incarce-
 rated  intestine has taken place.
   Q.   How is gastroraphe performed ?
   A.  Gastroraphe is employed to unite wounds
 of the abdomen in the following  way :—two
 needles are  placed on  the same ligature, and
 introduced through  both  lips of  the  wound
 from within  outwards including peritoneum,
 muscles and integuments.
   Q.  What is the general treatment  of the
 hip-joint disease ?
   A.  In the early part of the disease of the
 hip-joint, entire rest,  the application of fomen-
tations, and the employment of topical bleed-
ing, particularly  cupping,  are highly  proper:
this plan  of  treatment  is to be  adopted  to
reduce inflammation  ; when  no  inflammation
is  present, recourse should be had to  blisters,
or caustic issues.
   Q.  Where  do  surgeons generally recom- 
SURGERY.
117
mend the application of a caustic issue to re-
lieve an affection of the hip ?
  A.  In the depression just behind and below
the trochanter major.
  Q.  How  is emphysema produced  from a
wound of the thorax ?
  A.  By the lungs being wounded, and  the
consequent  escape  of air into the  cellular
membrane.
  Q.  What is the treatment of  wounds of the
joints ?
  A.  The admission of air into their cavities is
to be  obviated, as  this causes a high degree
of inflammation to take place.  If the capsular
ligament is much  torn, amputation becomes
necessary ; in other respects the joint is to be
considered  as under a high  degree  of inflam-
mation, and the antiphlogistic regimen is to be
adopted.   If suppuration  takes  place in  the
cavity of the joints, the pus  should be  care-
fully evacuated so  as  not to  allow  the air to
enter.
  Q.  What is meant by spina ventosa ?
  A.  A disease  affecting a bone, in which it
becomes spongy and suppurates ; and the  pus
escapes by several  openings.
  Q. What is the  prognosis in  wounds of the
abdominal viscera ?
  A. Generally bad.
  Q. How may the contents of an abscess of
the liver escape ?
  A.  First, externally, by the liver  forming an
adhesion to the parietes of the abdomen, and 
118              SURGERY.
  the abscess pointing on  its external surface.
  Secondly,  by  adhesive  inflammation  taking
  place between the liver, diaphragm, and lungs,
  and the abscess evacuating itself into the lungs.
  Thirdly, by adhesion taking place between the
  liver and alimentary canal, and the abscess mak-
  ing its  way  into the  stomach  or intestine.
  Fourthly, into the cavity of the abddmen.
   Q.  What symptoms accompany wounds of
 the abdominal viscera ?
   A.  Profuse haemorrhage  from the external
 wound : the escape of the contents of particu-
 lar viscera,  attended with a small, feeble, and
 contracted pulse,  pallid countenance, coldness
 of the  extremities,  great debility,  hiccough,
 vomiting, spasm, and tension of the abdomen.
   Q. How many kinds of wounds are there ?
   A. Wounds  are distinguished by the terms
 of incised, lacerated, punctured, contused, and
 poisoned.
   Q. How is  the  prognosis to  be formed in
 wounds of the lungs ?
  A.  If the lungs  are wounded  near the root,
 it is commonly fatal, from the haemorrhage that
 will ensue :  should the lower and anterior part
 be wounded, and that superficially, the progno-
 sis may be more favorable.
  Q.  What  symptoms will enable you to dis-
tinguished an enlarged prostate gland from stone
in the bladder ?
  A.  The symptoms attending a diseased pros-
 tate gland resemble those of stone in the the blad-
 der ;  but with this difference, that the motion of 
SURGERY.              H9
a coach or a horse does not increase the griev-
ance when the prostate is affected, while it does
so in an intolerable degree in cases of stone.
   Q. Are the symptoms of calculus complain-
ed of by the person sufficient to convince a sur-
geon that there is a stone in the bladder ?
  A.  No : the operation of sounding must be
had recourse to, before a calculus can be ascer-
tained to exist.
  Q..  How is the hip disease distinguished from
an affection of the knee-joint, as  the forerun-
ning symptoms of the hip-disease  are generally
pains  about the knee, and no evident affection
of the hip ?
  A. By a diminution of the circumference of
the leg and thigh  of the affected side, an elon-
gation of the limb, and pressure upon the ace-
tabulum exciting pain.
  Q. In taking up the brachial  artery, what
nerve are you to avoid including in the liga-
ture ?
  A. The median nerve, which  accompanies
the brachial artery.
  Q.  What are granulations ?
  A. They  are secretions of coagulable lymph
from the vessels of the exposed surface, which
soon become organized,  possessing  vessels,
nerves, and  absorbents.
  Q.  What forms the boundaries or cyst of an
abscess ?
  A. A deposite  of coagulable lymph, which
becomes organized so as to form a cyst. 
120              SURGERY.
   Q.  How many modes are there of opening
 an abscess ?
   A.  There are three principal ways of open-
 ing  an abscess: 1.  by the lancet; 2. by caus-
 tic ; 3. by seton.   Most surgeons  prefer the
 opening to be  made by the lancet.
   Q.  What is meant by a furunculus ?
   A. A  circumscribed inflammatory  tumor,
 which usually attains  the size of a small wal-
 nut ; it imperfectly  suppurates, and the matter
 is contained in a cyst.
   Q. In operating for encysted tumor, is it ne-
 cessary to remove the sac ?
   A. Yes:  and, during the  operation,  care
 should be taken not to wound the sac during
 the extirpation of the tumor.
   Q. What is the cause of piles ?
   A. Pressure upon the vessels of the anus,
 which prevents the return of blood to the heart:
 as that from a gravid  uterus,  costiveness, tu-
 mors, and from long sitting ;  which last allows
 the abdominal  viscera to press upon the blood-
 vessels.
   Q. What is meant by meliceris ?
   A. Meliceris  is a  tumor of  the encysted
kind, the contents of which resemble honey.
   Q. What is  meant by condyloma ?
   A. Tumors  or excrescences about the anus
are called condylomata.
   Q. What is  meant by couching ?
   A. Couching consists in removing the opaque
lens of the eye out of the axis  of  vision  by
means of a peculiarly formed needle. 
SURGERY.              121
  Q. How is the operation for fistula lachry-
malis performed ?
  A. First an  opening is to be made at the
most depending part of the  tumor, by  means of
a lancet, which will discharge the sac of its
contents ;  a probe is then to be passed forward
in the natural  passage with moderate force ;
should this be impracticable, an artificial open-
ing is to be cautiously drilled on the anterior
part of the os unguis by a trocar, or any other
sharp  instrument,  in   an  oblique  direction.
When this  has penetrated a sufficient depth,
which may be  ascertained by the want of re-
sistance, and the discharge of blood by the nose,
the perforator  is to be removed, and  a silver
tube  introduced  into  the  opening, where  it
should remain till the passage is perfectly re-es-
tablished.
  Q. What is an exostosis ?
  A.  It is a tumor of bone formed upon bone.
  Q. What is meant by osteo-sarcoma ?
  A.  It is a softening and  conversion of bone
into a substance not unlike to lard or fat; or
the external table of the bone includes a sub-
stance like fungus,  instead of the cancellated
internal structure.
  Q.. Is osteo-sarcoma a common disease ?
  A. No : it is fortunately very rare, and has
been observed  in a few cases to  affect those
who in youth had been rickety.
  Q. What is meant by sphacelus ?
  A.  It is  a complete mortification of a part,
             10 
122             SURGERY.
 whereby it loses its natural color, and becomes
 black and soft.
   Q. What is meant by sarcocele ?
   A. A scirrhous enlargement of the testicle.
   Q. What are  the causes of fistula? in ano ?
   A. They are  caused  by  the formation of
abscesses about the anus, which spread among
the interstices of the muscles, and between the
integuments:  these  abscesses are  produced
originally by  inflammation.  There are  also
other causes which give rise to fistula?, as con-
dylomatous tumors, &c.
   Q. If the carotids artery should be wound-
ed, and assistance should be obtained in  time
to take  up the vessel, what nerve are you to
avoid including in the ligature ?
   A.  In taking up the carotid artery, the pneu-
mogastric nerve,  which run close to the artery,
should not be included  in the ligature.
   Q. What  are  the  symptoms   of a cata-
ract ?
   A.  A  cataract  commences  by  a spot or
speck in the pupil of the eye : it is most com-
monly of a grey or whitish color.  In the com-
mencement of the disease it occasions a weak-
ness or imperfection of  the sight, and it termi-
nates sooner or later in  the almost total extinc-
tion of vision.
   Q. How  many kinds   of  cataracts  are
there ?
   A.  Cataracts are distinguished into :  1. the
firm cataract;  2. the fluid, or milky cataract;
3. the soft, or caseous  cataract; 4. the  mem- 
SURGERY.             123
 branous cataract; and 5. the  congenital cata-
 ract.
   Q.   What  is  the treatment  of  a  cata-
 ract?
   A. The treatment of a cataract consists in
 bleeding, cupping, scarifications, setons, issues,
 blisters, and  fumigations ;   and the principal
 internal remedies are aperients, emetics, ca-
 thartics, sudorifics, and sternutatories.
   Q.  In a  transverse wound of the trachea
 how is  re-union effected ?
   A. The union of a transverse wound of the
 trachea is best effected by bringing the patient's
 head downwards and forwards  to the sternum -y
 the head should be maintained in this position,
 and the edges of the wound  should be kept in
 contact until they have grown together.  Liga-
 tures are not  recommended,  as they create
 irritation in  the trachea.
   Q. What  are  the vessels  generally divided
 when a person cuts his throat ?
   A.  When suicide is attempted by cutting the
 throat, the vessels cut through, are  either the
 external maxillary, the lingual, or the thyroid
 artery : the  trunk of the carotid artery is sel-
 dom cut.
   Q.   How  does   a  false   aneurism  take
 place ?
   A.  A false  aneurism  is occasioned  by an
aperture of  an artery  allowing the blood to
rush into the cellular structure.
   Q.   What  veins  are  most  subject to
varix ? 
124
SURGERY.
   A.  The superficial veins of the lower  ex-
 tremity ;  and the  varix generally takes place
 in the situation of a valve.
   Q.  What are  the  indications  of cure  in
 varix ?
   A. There are two indications ; viz. to remove
 every impediment to the free  return of  blood,
 and to restore the distended vessel to its former
 size.
  Q.  How  is amputation of the  fingers or
 toes accomplished ?
  A.  In amputating the fingers or toes a small
 semilunar incision is to be made on the back of
 the finger or toe, which should extend, forming
 a convexity about  half an inch in front  of the
joint; the flap is next to be raised and reflect-
 ed :  having effected this,  the skin  in front of
 the finger over  the joint is to be divided, and
 this incision  must  extend across the finger or
 toe, and meet the two ends of the first  semi-
 lunar incision ;  then pending the finger, the
 capsular  ligament is to be divided, which will
 allow the head of the bone to be dislocated.
 Should the digital arteries  bleed  much, they
 may be secured, but the haemorrhage  often
 stops without having recourse to ligature ; the
 flap is to be brought over' the wound, and the
edges of the wound kept together by adhesive
plaster.
  Q. What diseases is the antrum of High-
 more subject to ?
   A.  Its membranous lining  may inflame or
 ulcerate; polypi or other fleshy excrescences 
SURGERY.
125
may grow in it;  the mucous secretion may be
of a  bad quality, and the opening, through
which it passes into the  nose, may be  closed ;
the bony cavity may be carious, or  may form
bony excrescences.
  Q.  What is the treatment of a carbuncle ?
  A.  The  treatment of a carbuncle is as  fol-
lows.  In the  local treatment the grand  thing
is to make an early and free incision into  the
tumor, so as to  allow the sloughs and matter
to escape  readily.  As much of the matter as
possible is to be at once pressed out, and then
the  part  is to be covered with an emollient
poultice.  With respect to the constitutional
treatment, bark and camphor are  the  internal
medicines most commonly needed.   Sulphuric
acid may also be given, as well  as wine  and
aromatics, and opium when the pain  is very
severe.
  Q.  How is  emphysema distinguished from
anasarca ?
  A.  Emphysema is  distinguished from ana-
sarca by  the  crackling  noise produced  upon
pressure, and by the rapidity of the swelling.
  Q. What is the general division of  stric-
tures ?
  A. The general division of strictures is into :
—spasmodic, which depends upon a spasmodic
contraction of a part of the canal;—and perma-
nent stricture, which is caused by a partial nar-
rowness,  forming a  ridge.   There  is  also
another kind of stricture, which depends upon
              10* 
126
SURGERY.
a  permanent  contraction  and an  occasional
spasmodic affection.
   Q. How  is  the  introduction of the male
catheter effected ?
   A. The introduction of the male catheter is
performed in the  following  manner:—The
penis should  be drawn upwards, and  held by
the left  hand.   Having oiled the catheter,  it is
to be introduced into the urethra with its con-
cavity towards the abdomen, pressing its point
downwards  until it reaches the bulb of  the
urethra  ; when this has happened, the beak of
the instrument has passed under the arch of
the pubes ; the handle of the instrument is then
to be gradually brought forward between the,
patient's thighs, and during this action the beak
of the instrument becomes elevated, and slips
into the bladder.  The operation may be  per-
formed, either when  the  patient is standing,
sitting, or on his back.
   Q. What  is the character  of a scorbutic
ulcer ?
   A. A scorbutic ulcer is one  that affords a
fetid, sanious, and bloody discharge ; the edges
are of a  livid color, and the surface is  covered
with a loose spongy flesh :  there are generally
other symptoms  which establish  its nature,
such as  loose spongy gums, and livid spots of
the skin.
   Q. What  kind of  treatment do gun-shot
wounds require ?
   A.  In general, gun-shot wounds require  the
antiphlogistic plan of treatment. 
StJRGERY.
127
  Q. What is meant by a polypus ?
  A. A polypus  is  a fleshy tumor  of the
cavities which communicate with the natural
openings of the body, which is generally nar-
row where it originates, and  then becomes
wider, somewhat like a pear.
  Q. What parts are most subject  to polypi I
  A. Polypi are most  commonly met with in
the nose, uterus, vagina, and antrum of High-
tmore.
  Q. In the cure of polypus, which is to be
preferred, extirpation or ligature ?
  A. As the extraction of polypus is invaria-
bly attended with haemorrhage, ligature is gene-
rally preferred.
  Q. What is the treatment of a fractured rib ?
  A. In a case of fractured rib, the action of
the chest is to be confined, and the  ends of the
fractured ribs are to be kept as nearly as possi-
ble in apposition,  which  may be effected by
surrounding the body with a  wide  roller.   It
may also be necessary to bleed the patient, and
adopt  the  antiphlogistic regimen, to guard
against inflammation.
   Q. What is a bronchocele ?
   A. Bronchocele is an  indolent enlargement
of  the thyroid body.
   Q.  What method is to be taken, if, after
liberating a strangulated intestine by operation,
a great quantity of irreducible thickened omen-
tum exists ?
   A.  The indurated omentum is to be cut off,
anless  hemorrhage, or  other circumstances, 
             4
 128              SURGERY.

 forbid it;  in such cases it may be  left unre-
 turned.
   Q. What is the difference between a femora!!
 and an inguinal hernia ?
   A.  In femoral hernia the intestine  or  omen-
 tum protrudes under Poupart's ligament, and in
 inguinal hernia, it protrudes through  the abdo-
 minal ring.
   Q.  What are  the circumstances by  which
 you judge the operation necessary to liberate
 a strangulated hernia ?
   A.  If reduction of the hernial contents can-
 not be effected by the hand, aided by the posi-
tion of the patient, and by bleeding, cathartics,
clysters,  cold  topical applications, the  warm
bath,  and tobacco-smoke introduced into the
rectum, each of which having been judiciously
tried without  effect, the operation then is im-
periously demanded.
   Q.  What means would you have recourse
to in  order to reduce a  strangulated  hernia,
before  you judge  it necessary to perform the
operation ?
   A.  First, the  patient should be placed in a
suitable position,  with the pelvis elevated, the
thigh bent and rotated inwards, and the reduc-
tion of the hernial contents skilfully attempted;
should this fail, bleeding should be had recourse
to ; and it is recommended to  take away the
blood  suddenly, so as to occasion fainting, at
which time the taxis should again be attempt-
ed.  Success  not being  obtained, cathartics
 and the warm bath should be speedily made 
SURGERY.
129
use of.   These with the taxis not having suc-
ceeded, then the united effect of cold to the
tumor, and tobacco, either in fume  or decoc-
tion, must be  tried; and if strangulation still
continue after  these means  have been  used,
another attempt by the hand should  be made:
all these failing, the operation should be per-
formed, the protraction of which beyond a cer-
tain time would endanger the patient.
  Q. What is meant by scrofula ?
  A.  Scrofula is a disease of the glands of the
neck, axilla, or groin, or other parts, in which
they  enlarge slowly, suppurate  and heal as
slowly, with a peculiar constitution of body.
  Q. What are rickets owing to ?
  A.  Rickets seem to  consist in a want of due
firmness in the bones,  in  consequence of a
deficiency of phosphate of lime in their struc-
ture.
  Q. What are the best remedies for rickets ?
  A.  A nourishing diet, dry air,  the sea-side,
cold bathing, and tonics,  especially steel.
  Q. What is meant by a sinus ?
  A.  A sinus  is a long  hollow tract, leading
from some abscess or diseased bone.
  Q. What  are the  symptoms of retention of
urine ?
  A. A swelling above  the os pubis, a violent
inclination to make water,  tension and pain of
the  abdomen, cold perspirations,  oppressed
respiration ; hiccough and fainting follow.
  Q. How would  you attempt to relieve a re-
tention of urine, in a medical point of view ? 
130
SURGERY.
   A. I would bleed copiously;  apply leeches
 to the perineum, or  above the  os pubis; ex-
 hibit opium by the mouth, and in clysters ; use
 the warm bath, and apply fomentations to the
 bypogastrium and perineum.
   Q. When  these  means  fail to evacuate the
 urine, what would you have recourse to ?
   A. To the catheter.
   Q. What do you  mean by a popliteal aneu-
 rism 1
   A. A dilatation of the popliteal artery form-
 ing a pulsating tumor in  the ham.
   Q. Describe the operation for popliteal aneu-
 rism.
   A. An incision should be made about two
 inches and a half through  the skin and fascia
 of the thigh, on the  inner edge of the sartorius
 muscle :  as soon as the femoral artery is felt,
 a careful incision is to be made on each side of
 it, in order that the finger may be passed under
 it; a double ligature is then to be  introduced
 by means of a blunt needle under the vessel,
 leaving out the femoral vein and  the accompa-
i  ing branches of the anterior crural nerve;
one portion of the ligature is to be tied as high,
the other  as low, as the detachment of the
artery  will  allow.   The part of the vessel
between the ligatures is to be divided, and after
this  the  external  wound  is to be  brought
together and dressed in the usual way.
  Q. What is meant by suppuration ?
  A. Suppuration signifies a process by which
 a peculiar fluid, termed pus, is formed in the 
SURGERY,
131
substance, or from the surface, of parts of the
body,  when such  parts are particularly cir-
cumstanced.
   Q. What is meant by ranula ?
   A. By ranula is  meant a tumor  under the
tongue, arising from an obstruction in the duct
of the submaxillary gland, or in an obstruction
of a follicle.
   Q. What are hemorrhoids ?
   A. Hemorrhoids, or piles, are generally vari-
cose hemorrhoidal  veins, but some surgeons
consider them to  be occasionally  formed  by
effused blood which becomes organized.
   Q. What are the symptoms  of phlegmon ?
  A. Phlegmon is a tumor attended with heat,
redness, pain, tension, and more or less of the
synochal fever.
   Q. How would you treat a phlegmon ?
   A. First by endeavoring  to effect a resolu-
tion by local or general bleeding, the antiphlo-
gistic regimen, the exhibition of  saline cathar-
tics and diaphoretics, and the use of cold, astrin-
gent, sedative applications, warm  emollient
poultices, and fomentation, according to its
nature.   If  suppuration should commence, by
giving tonics and cordials, a generous diet, and
forwarding the process by poultices.   If mor-
tification should appear likely to ensue, bark,
acids, and wine, will be proper, also stimulating
poultices  of beer-grounds, and  fomentations
with bitter decoctions and camphorated spirit.
   Q. Kow  are issues made ?
  A. Issues are made by making an opening 
132             SURGERY.
 either with a lancet or caustic, large enough to
 admit a pea.
   Q.  How many ways may dislocation of the
 wrist occur ?
   A. The carpal bones may be luxated  from
 the lower ends of the radius and ulna forwards,
 backwards, inwards, or outwards.  The two
 first cases, especially the one backwards, are
 the most frequent.
   Q. How many ways may the  foot be dislo-
 cated 1
   A.  The foot may be dislocated inwards or
 outwards, forwards  or backwards.
   Q.  Why do dislocations of the foot inwards
 occur  more frequently than  dislocations  out-
 wards ?
   A.  Dislocations of the foot inwards occur
 more frequently than outwards, from the mal-
 leolus internus not being so low as the malleo-
 lus externus.
   Q.  How  are dislocations  of  the  foot  in-
 wards or outwards to be reduced ?
   A.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  necessary  to
 relax the  strong muscles of the calf by bend-
ing the  leg on  the thigh.   The case is after-
wards to be treated as a fracture of the leg.
   Q.  What is  the  treatment after  amputa-
tion ?
   A.  The chief circumstances to be  attended
 to after amputation are :—to adopt the anti-
 phlogistic regimen,  to  prevent inflammation,
 which is to be regulated by the constitution of
 the patient;  the first  dressing  ought  to  be 
SURGERY.
133
 removed the third or fourth day after the opera-
 tion, and new dressings are to be applied as at
 first, every day until the inflammation has sub-
 sided.  The ligatures are to be very gently pul-
 led after the first week until they come easily off.
   Q. What is the  treatment of hernia humo-
 ralis, or inflammation of the testicle ?
   A. In hernia humoralis the patient  should
 be kept in a horizontal  position ; if young and
 plethoric, bleeding  should be adopted.   It is
 generally necessary to apply leeches repeated-
 ly;  to administer saline purgatives ; fomenta-
 tions and  poultices, or cold  lotions, are to be
 had  recourse to, and the testicle is to be sup-
 ported by a bag truss.   Should  there be great
 pain in the loins, opiates will become necessa-
 r}r:  if, after the inflammation has subsided, an
 induration should exist, frictions with mercu-
 rial ointment will be found beneficial.
   Q. When the parotid duct is wounded, what
 are the consequences  which may be expected
 to arise ?
   A. When the  parotid duct  is wounded, if
 not united by the first intention, a salivary fis-
 tula is the consequence.
   Q. What are the indications of cure in mor-
 tification ?
   A. The indications of cure in mortification
 are, to arrest the progress  of the disease and
 to promote the separation of the mortified part.
   Q. How  is the division of the frenum lin-
gua? to be effected, and what are the veins to
be avoided ?
              11 
134
SURGERY.
   A. The  liberation  of the frenum  lingua?
 consists in dividing the frenum as far as seems
 necessary with a  pair of sharp scissors with
 blunt points:—the ranine veins must be cau-
 tiously avoided in  this operation.
   Q. How many kinds of fractures are there ?
   A. There are two principal kinds of frac-
tures:—1.  simple  fractures, or a division  of
one  or  more  bones, without any  external
wound, from the protrusion  of the ends of the
bones ; 2. compound fractures, or those where
there is a breach of one or  more bones ; and
the integuments  lacerated by the  protrusion of
one or both of the ends of the fracture.
  Q. What is the general treatment of fractures ?
  A. In the general treatment of fractures, the
limb is to be placed in such a position as will
relax those muscles which tend to displace
the ends  of a fractured bone ; this seems best
effected by placing the limb in a  middle state
between  flexion and extension ;  the ends  of
the fractured bone  are to be  confined in a state
of apposition ; this is done by the  aid of splints
secured by straps  :—to remedy the effects  of
pressure from  the  splints, compresses of tow
or  other soft  substances are usually placed
under the  splints.   An eighteen-taii  bandage
is generally made use of in fractures of the long
bones, and is applied close to the limb.   When
there is much inflammation of the limb before
the  fracture is  set, linen  wetted  with cold
saturnine lotions is to be applied  between the
splints and  limb, which  should  be kept cold 
SURGE Rr.             135
 and moist by repeatedly squeezing the lotion
 over the limb.   It may be necessary to bleed
 or give opiates, according to circumstances.
   Q. What is the situation of the protruded
 viscera in congenital hernia ?
   A. In congenital hernia  the protruded vis-
 cera are situated in the tunica vaginalis in con-
 tact with  the testicle; having descended  into
 this position before the closure of the commu-
 nication with the abdomen.
   Q. In umbilical hernia, by what is the stric-
 ture formed when strangulation takes place ?
   A. In strangulated  umbilical  hernia  the
 stricture is made by the tendinous openin°* in
 the linea alba.
   Q. How is a ganglion to be cured ?
   A. A ganglion may often be removed by
 pressure:  sometimes  it may be necessary to
 remove it by the scalpel, or to make a perfora-
tion in  it, and allow its contents to escape.
   Q. How do  aneurisms  terminate if  not
 cured ?
   A. Aneurismal swellings, if not cured,  gra-
 dually increase in size ; the skin over the tumor
 becomes pale ; the pain increases, and the skin
 begins  to grow livid ;  a  degree of inflamma-
 tion takes place ; the skin cracks, and  dis-
charges for some time a bloody serum, until at
 length  it becomes quite gangrenous, when all of
a  sudden  the  tumor bursts, and  the  patient
dies from hemorrhage.
   Q. What is a steatoma?
  A. Steatoma is a tumor  containing a fatty 
136
SURGERY.
 substance,  and surrounded by a cyst of indu-
 rated cellular membrane.
   Q. What is meant by atheroma ?
   A. Atheroma is an encysted tumor contain-
 ing matter of a doughy consistence.
   Q. What is meant by tic doloureux ?
   A  Tic doloureux is a painful affection of the
 nerves, and mostly those of the face, particu-
 larly  of the filaments of that branch of the fifth
 pair of  nerves  which comes out through the
 infra-orbitar foramen.
   Q.  What is the most efficacious plan  to be
 adopted for the relief of the tic doloureux ?
   A.  It is mostly symptomatic of some disease,
 and therefore requires the treatment for the re-
moval of that disease : some recommend, when
the primary disease cannot be  detected, to cut
down and divide the nerve above where the
pain is seated.
   Q.  What prognosis can be formed after the
 operation for hernia ?
   A.  If the operation to liberate strangulated
 hernia be performed early, there is compara-
tively little danger.  The danger is  dependent
upon  the operation being delayed after neces-
sity demands  it.   Mortification has ensued
within twelve hours after strangulation ;  and in
some  few  instances strangulation  has   been
known to subsist for several days, and no mor-
 tification take  place.
   Q.  What causes  give rise to prolapsus ani 1
   A.  The causes that give rise to prolapsus
 ani are  costiveness, debility,  hemorrhoidal 
SURGERY.
137
swellings, or the effect of stimulating substances
that increase the action of the rectum.
   Q. What  are  the  signs  of  luxation  in
general 1
   A. In luxations the shape of  the  joint is
altered; the  motion of the limb is much  im-
paired ; a  certain  degree of inflammation takes
place, the pain  attending whjch is sometimes
so  acute   as  to  occasion  convulsions,  or
spasmodic affections, from the compression of
nerves  by  the displaced bone.
  Q. How are luxations of the  collar-bone to
be cured %
  A. Luxations of  the collar-bone are easily
reduced by pressure with the fingers :   but
there is great difficulty in keeping the  bone in
this situation.   The arm should be raised  and
confined by bandages ; a compress should  be
placed  on  the  luxated bone, to  prevent  the
action of the  muscles drawing the  bone out of
its place.
  Q. How is a venereal ophthalmia cured ?
  A. In the treatment of  venereal  ophthalmia
mercurial  frictions are to be made use of,  and
the decoctum sarsaparillae  compositum should
be  taken.  A collyrium  of the bichloride of
mercury is recommended.  The  eyelid may be
also smeared with the unguentum hydrargyri
mitrico-oxydi.                      ;
  Q. What is a thrombus ?
  A. A thrombus is a tumor formed by a col-
lection of  extravasated coagulated  blood under
the integuments after bleeding-.
           11* 
138
SURGERY.
   Q.  What are the causes of a thrombus /
   A.  A thrombus sometimes depends  on the
 vein being completely divided;  but  it more
 frequently depends on the opening of the vein
 not corresponding to that  of the skin.
   Q. Where is the blood effused in thrombus ?
   A. Thrombus is caused by the blood  being
 effused into the cellular membrane, by the side
 of the vein.
   Q. In what  directions  do  luxations of the
 head of the os brachii most commonly take
 place ?
   A. The  dislocation  of  the head of the os
 brachii generally takes place  into  the axilla.
   Q. How is dislocation  of  the  thigh distin-
 guished from a fracture of its neck 1
   A. Dislocation may be distinguished  from
 fracture of the head of the femur  by these cir-
 cumstances :—in fracture, the leg  is  much
 shorter ; the limb can  be moved  in many di-.
 rections ; the  toes mostly turn outwards ; by
 particular motions, a grating may be perceived,
 and a loss of continuity. In dislocations of the
 thigh joint,  the  leg is generally much length-
ened, the toes are turned  outwards, and  it is
almost impossible  to  turn  them  inwards, al
least without giving  the greatest  pain  ; a va-
cancy is observed at the seat  of the acetabu-
lum, and a tumor  is felt,  which  is caused bj
the head of the bone out of the acetabulum.
  Q. Define a caries.
  A. Caries is a mortification of a bone, attend-
 ed with an ichorous fetid discharge. 
SURGERY.
139
    Q. Why does the tooth-ache produce gene-"
 rally so acute and considerable a pain ?
    A. From the inflamed vessels  of the nerve,
 or pulp within the tooth being confined.
    Q. What are the causes  that  gives rise to
 ischuria ?
   A. Ischuria may arise from inflammation of
 the bladder, produced from various  causes;
 spasms affecting the neck of the bladder; scir-
 rhosities of the prostate gland ;  caruncles in
 the urethra ; pressure of the uterus in the last
 months of pregnancy; tumors in the perineum
 and vagina, as prolapsus of the uterus ; polypi,
 or enlargement of the  corpus spongiosum ; the
 penis itself pressing the  sides of the urethra
 together. Ischuria  may also arise from  a loss
 of tone  in  the  bladder itself, and from stones
 impacted in the urethra.
   Q.  How is  cystocele  distinguished  from
 bubonocele ?
 '  A. Cystocele is always easily distinguishable
 by the  regular  diminution  of  the  swelling
 whenever the patient makes water.
   Q. What constitutes a phrenic hernia ?
   A. A phrenic  hernia is constituted by the
 abdominal  viscera  occasionally  protruding
 through the diaphragm, either through some of
 the natural apertures  of this muscle, or de-
 ficiencies or lacerations in it.
   Q. What is meant by hematocele scroti ?
   A. A tumor produced by blood being extra-
yasated in the  scrotum, tunica vaginalis, or in
 the spermatic chord;  it is mostly occasioned 
140              SURGERY.
 by some external violence, as blows  inflicted
 on the scrotum or surrounding parts, producing
 a rupture of vessels.
   Q. What are the symptoms of a  punctured
 nerve from bleeding ?
   A. In  punctured nerve from bleeding  the
 patient feels a more acute pain than usual under
 the operation; a numbness is communicated
 to the shoulder, and down to the fingers : these
 symptoms are often succeeded by spasms of
 the neck and  jaw, frightful dreams ;  and the
 patient becomes extremely irritable and deli-
 rious.
   Q. What is a cataract ?
   A. An opacity of the crystalline lens or its
 capsule.
   Q. What is meant by mollities ossium ?
   A. A state of bones whereby they  become
soft and preternaturally flexible.
   Q. If the head of the shoulder-bone is luxat-
 ed upwards, what is the consequence ?
   A. When  the head of the shoulder-bone is
luxated upwards, a fracture of the  acromion
process takes place.
   Q. What is the direction in which luxations
of the ulna most commonly happen ?
   A. Luxations  of the ulna  most  frequently
take place upwards and backwards.
   Q,.  What  are  the common  causes of psoas
abscess ?
   A. The cases which give rise to abscess of
 the psoas muscle are, excessive fatigue from
 walking, and then exposing  the back  to cold 
SURGERY.             141
 while the body is still warm with exercise.  It
 may also be brought on by strains, attempting
 to raise great weights, or by twists when car-
 rying a heavy load on the back.
   Q.  On the first attack of inflammation of the
 psoas muscle, what is to be done ?
   A. When  inflammation has  attacked  the
 psoas  muscle, the  antiphlogistic plan is to be
 adopted; and bleeding,  the warm bath, purga-
 tives, &c, must be had recourse to.
   Q. How is a dislocation of the lower  jaw
 reduced ?
   A. A dislocation of the lower jaw is reduced
 by passing both thumbs, previously covered
 with a linen  cloth, into  the mouth; the jaw is
 then to be pushed  backwards, depressing the
 angles, and raising the symphysis of the jaw at
 the same time by gentle pressure ; the jaw im-
 mediately springs back into its natural situation
 by the action of the muscles.
   Q. What is a fungus ?
   A. A fungus is a soft fleshy mass rising out
 of an old wound or ill-conditioned ulcer, and
 preventing its healing.
   Q. How are dislocations of the os femoris
 reduced.
   A. In dislocations of  the thigh-bone, when
 the head is on the obturator externus, the mus-
 cles of the thigh are first to be relaxed as much
 as possible, the limb* is then  to be extended
 to displace the end of the bone from its cavity :
when this is effected, the bone is to be drawn
upwards and  inwards into its socket; this gen- 
142             SURGERY.
 erally effects the reduction: but should  the
 bone  be above the acetabulum, a slight exten-
 sion will effect its reduction.   It happens occa-
 sionally that the head of the bone is not reduced,
 owing to the projection of the acetabulum pre-
 venting the necessary  extension; the   bone
 must then be elevated a little over this projec-
 tion, and the reduction will be effected.
   Q.  In mortification of a limb, what state  are
 the arteries in near the diseased part ?
   A.  When mortification takes place at  the
 lower  part of an extremity, the diameter of the
 arteries is  diminished  near the diseased  r art,
 and  they become stopped up with coagulated
 blood.
   Q. When an  artery is tied by ligature, how
 is a permanent obliteration of its channel effect-
 ed ?
   A. After an artery is stopped by ligature,
 coagulable lymph is separated  near  the frac-
 tured part; this becomes organized, and unites
 the sides of the  artery together, and  thus ob-
 literates the artery.
   Q. In injuries of the gall-bladder  or  liver,
 what prognosis is to be given ?
  A. In wounds of the liver the prognosis is
bad,  by reason of  the great quantity of blood
flowing through  that viscus, and the  soft  tex-
ture  of the  liver itself, which renders it very
apt to  pour  out a great  quantity  of blood
from a  small wound.   Injuries of the gall-blad-
der are still worse : as, in such  cases, the bile
is  evacuated into the  cavity  of  the abdomen, 
SURGERY.
143
where its tendency to putrefaction soon pro-
duces the most fatal effects.
  Q. What are the properties of pus ?
  A. Pus is a fluid of a lightish color, of the
consistence of cream : it  has little smell, is
void of acrimony,  and consists  of  globules
swimming in a transparent, colorless fluid.  Its
specific gravity is greater than that of water.
  Q. What  are the  differences between pus
and mucus ?
  A. Pus is distinguished from mucus by the
following circumstances:—Pus sinks in water,
mucus floats:  pus  gives  to  water a  uniform
white color ; mucus has a ropy appearance in
water.   If  pus and mucus  are  mixed  with
sulphuric  acid, on the addition of water the pus
is precipitated to the bottom, and the mucus
forms swimming flakes.  A solution of caustic
alkali dissolves  both pus and mucus; but, on
the addition of water, the pus is separated, and
not the mucus.
   Q. What are the symptoms which announce
 the formation of pus in inflammation of the
 hip-joint?
    A. The sumptoms which  point out the for-
 mation of pus in inflammation of the  hip-joint
 are various,  as the disease may be acute or
 chronic.  When the former  takes place, the
 parts surrounding the joint  become tense and
 painful, the skin red, and inflammatory fever
 takes place :  as the pain abates, rigors succeed,
 and a swelling is  observed about  the joint.
  When the abscess is the consequence of chronic 
144
SURGERY.
 inflammation, an increase of pain  takes  place
 previous to  the  occurrence of suppuration:
 startings and catchings during sleep are noticed;
 the pus in  the chronic species is a long while
 before it arrives  at the  surface; at length a
 fluctuating  tumor forms, but it does not imme-
 diately point.
   Q.  What is meant by hydrops articuli ?
   A.  By hydrops articuli is meant a collection
 of serous fluid in the capsular  ligament  of a
 joint.
   Q.  How is a fracture of the neck of the
 humerus distinguished from a luxation ?
   A.  When the  neck of  the humerus is frac-
 tured, a depression is observed at the superior
 extremity and external side of the  arm:  in
 luxation, downwards and  inwards, of the head
 of the bone under the projection of the acro-
 mion,  a deep  depression is found in the  part
 which the head of the  humerus before occu-
 pied ;  whereas, in fracture of the neck of that
 bone,  the shoulder  retains  its original form:
 the acromion does not project, and the depres-
 sion  is found below the point of the shoulder :
 besides, the  unequal and  fractured  extremity
 of the  bone will be easily felt; a crepitus may
also be heard,  by moving the arm in  different
directions.
  Q. What is the character of cancerous ulcer ?
  A. Cancerous ulcer is irregular in its figure,
and  unequal on its  surface ; the  edges are
thick,  serrated, and  extremely painful; there
are large  chasms  in  its substance, produced 
SURGERY.
145
 partly by sloughing, and partly by an ulcerating
 process. The ulcer affords a very fetid sanious
 matter, it spreads with  great rapidity, and in
 its progress produces frequent hemorrhages.
   Q. What prognosis is to be given of wounds
 of the oesophagus ?
   A. Wounds of the oesophagus generally are
 mortal.
   Q. How is the removal of a tumor from the
 breast performed ?
   A. In removing  a  tumor from the breast,
 the  operation  is generally  performed as the
 patient is in a sitting position.   The  pectoral
 muscle  is to be made  tense by keeping the
 arm back, and if none of the integuments are
 to be removed, a straight incision is to be made
 through  them ;  the tumor is to be  regularly
 dissected all round from the circumjacent parts,
 and its base is to be detached from its connec-
 tions from above downwards, till the whole is
 separated.   If the tumor is  of a malignant
 nature, and adhering to the  skin and  pectoral
 muscle  beneath, an inch or two of the fat
 should be removed on every side of  the dis-
 eased part;  and after  the removal of the
 tumor, the surface  of   the  pectoral   muscle,
 wherever it is adhering  to the  tumor, should
 be removed.
   Q. What is a node ?
   A. A node is a swelling of a bone, the peri-
osteum, or  a tendon, mostly arising  from a
venereal  cause.
  Q. What is understood by anchylosis ?
             13 
146              SURGERY.
   A. It is the accretion of the extremities of
bones, and a stiffening of the joint.
   Q. Is anchylosis the effect of disease of the
bones, or of the inter-articular cartilages ?
   A. It may be the effect of both.
   Q. What parts of the scapula are most com-
monly fractured ?
   A. The parts of the  scapula most liable to
fracture are the acromion, inferior angle, neck,
and coracoid process.
   Q. What bad consequences may be appre-
hended from a fractured rib ?
   A. The bad consequences of a fractured rib
may be, that a spicula may be driven inwards,
it may lacerate the pleura, wound the lungs,
and  cause  the dangerous train of symptoms
attendant on emphysema.
   Q. What is the character of a venereal ulcer
in the throat ?
   A. A venereal  ulcer affecting  the  throat is
very deep;  it has a defined or thick edge, and
is  generally very foul, having  a  lardaceous
slough adhering to it that cannot be detached.
   Q. How  is the  vena saphena  to be  tied
when in a varicose state .'
   A. The vena saphena is to be tied by pass-
ing a ligature under the vessel: the integu-
ments are to be pinched up  into a  transverse
fold, and the ligature is  to  be conveyed under
the vessel by means of  a blunt silver needle.
   Q. Is there any danger in  tying a vein for
the cure of varix ?
   A. Yes :  sometimes inflammation and sup- 
SURGERY.
147
 puration of the vein take  place, accompanied
 with considerable fever, which has been known
 to prove fatal.
   Q. Where is the fluid in hydrocele situated .'
   A. The fluid in hydrocele  is situated in the
 tunica vaginalis.
   Q. What is the  object in the radical cure  of
 hydrocele ?
   A. The object to be effected in the cure of
 hydrocele is to excite such a degree of inflam-
 mation in  the  tunica  vaginalis,  forming the
 cavity, as  shall end in  an  adhesion  of  that
 membrane, so as to obliterate  any  cavity for
 the reception of fluid.
  Q. How  is  hydrocele  distinguished  from
 other tumors ?
  A. Hydrocele is distinguished from hernia by
 the  tumor in hernia being somewhat elastic,
 and  becoming more distended when the person
 coughs.  The swelling in hernia always begins
 at the top, and extends gradually downwards.
 Hydrocele is distinguished from encysted drop-
 sy of the chord  by the swelling  lying at the
 superior part of  the scrotum, whilst  in hydro-
 cele it is at the inferior part.  It may be distin-
 guished  from scirrhous  testicle,  being  firm,
 hard, and not yielding upon pressure, and from
 the great weight in proportion to its bulk.  In
 hydrocele,  a  lighted candle,  placed  at  the
 opposite side of the tumor, will make the con-
 tents of the sac seem transparent.
  Q. What  are  the favorable symptoms that
point out success from trepanning ? 
148
SURGERY.
    A. The favorable symptoms which point out
 success from trepanning  are, the patient be-
 coming less stupid, his breathing less oppressed,
 and the pupils  contracting  upon exposure to
 strong light.
   Q. If, after trepanning, a collection of fluid
 should  be found  in  the  tunica  arachnoidea,
 how is  it to be removed ?
   A. Under such  circumstances, a small inci-
 sion may be cautiously made through the dura
 mater, to evacuate it.
   Q. What is meant by  a fissure of the cra-
 nium ?
   A. It  is a  partial fracture, in which  the
 bone is, as it were, cracked only.
   Q. How many  kinds of dislocations of the
 patella are there ?
   A. The  patella  may  be luxated  outwards
 or inwards.  The  luxation  outwards is most
 common, because  the bone more  easily slips
 in this direction off the outer condyle  of  the
 femur than inwardly.
   Q. How may the tibia be luxated ?
   A. The tibia may be luxated forward, back-
ward, or to either side.
   Q. When the  parotid  duct is wounded,
what is the consequence ?
  A.  The consequence of  wounding the paro-
tid duct  is a fistulous opening which discharges
saliva, particularly during meals.
   Q. What is meant by an ecchymosis ?
   A.  Ecchymosis is an extravasation of blood 
SURGERY.
149
in the cellular membrane, occasioned by  a
rupture of the small vessels of the part.
  Q. What is meant by exfoliation .'
  A. Exfoliation is a separation of a  dead
portion of bone from the living.
  Q. What method is to  be  taken to prevent
exfoliation  that is likely  to occur  from  a
wound ?
  A. In attempting to prevent exfoliation that
may take place from a wound, all that is to be
done, is to cover the exposed bone as soon as
possible with the flesh that has been detached.
  Q. By what name is the  dead bone called
in necrosis ?
  A. It is called the sequestra.
   Q.  What  bones does  necrosis most fre-
quently attack ?
   A.  The hard   or  middle parts of  those
slightly covered with muscular substance, such
as the inferior maxilla,  clavicle, os humeri,
tibia, and cranium.
  Q. Does the new formed osseous shell sur-
round the sequestra ?
  A. Yes; the new case is formed around the
old dead bone.
I  Q.  How then does the sequestra get out ?
   A.  It  generally  produces  irritation, inflam-
mation, and suppuration of a surrounding part,
and thus forms an opening for itself; or this
process  is facilitated by a surgical operation
of  making  or enlarging  the  opening, and ex-
tracting the loose  sequestra.
   Q.  Is the sequestra not absorbed ?
               12* 
150
SURGERY.
    A. Yes; in young people especially, it is
 frequently all absorbed ; and in  every case a
 considerable  portion  of its  circumference is
 converted into a kind  of pus, and absorbed.
    Q. How are fistule in perineo to be dress-
 ed after they have been laid open ?
   A.  Fistule in perineo, after being laid open,
 are to be dressed quite down to the  end, to
 allow of granulations shooting up from the bot-
 tom before re-union of the parts takes place.
   Q.  What is meant by simple fracture ?
   A. By simple fracture is meant a breach of
 continuity of bone without an external wound.
   Q.  How is luxation of the tibia reduced ?
   A. A luxation of the tibia is  most  easily
 reduced by making gentle extension, and push-
 ing the head into its proper place.
   Q.  What is meant by extravasation ?
   A. Extravasation is a term applied by sur-
 geons  to fluids which  are out of  their proper
 vessels or receptacles.
   Q. What is meant by fistula lachrymalis ?
   A. Fistula  lachrymalis is a disease arising
 from an obstruction in  the ductus  nasalis, and
preventing the tears and mucus of the lachry-
mal parts of the eye from descending into the
nose.
  Q.  What regimen do gun-shot wounds re«
quire ?
  A. Gun-shot wounds generally require the
 antiphlogistic regimen.
  Q.  How is  the operation for phymosis per-
formed ?    „, 
SURGERY.
151
  A.  This operation  is performed by  intro-
ducing a  directory under the  prepuce, then
passing a  curve-pointed bistoury, and slitting
open the prepuce.
  Q.  Where  do  strictures most frequently
take place in the urethra ?
  A.  Strictures most commonly occur  in the
membranous part of the urethra, from its being
more  acted upon  by the  salts of the  urine ;
the urine, after being expelled from the bladder,
remains at this part of the urethra to be thrown
out by the acceleratores urine.
  Q.  From whence does the discharge  of
gonorrhoea flow ?
  A.  The  discharge of gonorrhoea flows from
the mucous lacune of the urethra.
  Q.  What muscles are divided in amputation
of the thigh ?
  A.  The muscles divided in   amputation of
the thigh are the biceps flexor  cruris, semiten*
dinosus,  semimembranosus, gracilis, sartorius,
vastus externus, vastus internus, rectus femo-
ris, crureus, and the long tendon of the  adduc-
tor magnus.
  Q.  At what part of the  os femoris do frac-
tures  most  frequently take place ?
  A.  Fractures of the os femoris most frequent-
ly  take  place at  the middle third  of  its
extent.
  Q.  What part of the tibia is most liable to be
fractured ?
  A.  The part of the tibia most liable to frac-
tures  is a little above the internal malleolus, j A 
152            SURGERY.
   Q. What is meant by spina bifida ?
   A.  Spina bifida is a disease attended with an
 incomplete state of some of the vertebre, and a
 fluid swelling, which is most commonly situat-
 ed over the lower lumbar vertebre, sometimes
 over the dorsal and cervical ones, and in some
 instances over the os sacrum.
   Q. What prognosis is  to be given in spina
 bifida?
   A. The prognosis in spina  bifida is bad ;
 whether the  tumor  is  opened or not, death
 almost always follows.
   Q. What are the symptoms of stone in the
 urinary bladder ?
   A. The  symptoms of the calculus are, a dull
 uneasy sensation about the neck of the bladder,
 with a  similar sensation at the glans  penis:
 this increases, and becomes more frequent.  In
 voiding the urine the  stream is frequently
 stopped, and great pain is produced at the neck
 of the bladder; in order  to obtain ease, the
 patient changes his position ; sometimes small
 pieces of stone are voided.   The urine is occa-
sionally charged with mucus,  at  other times
 limpid: sometimes it is tinged with  blood,
especially after violent exercise : but the most
certain sign' is touching the stone with the
sound.
  Q. What sensation is communicated to the
operator upon touching a stone in the bladder
 with the sound ?
v A. When a  stone in the  bladder is touched 
^SURGERY.              153
with the sound, a tremulous motion is commu-
nicated to the fingers of the operator.
   Q. Why is the finger  introduced  into the
rectum while sounding ?
   A.  The finger is introduced into the rectum
while  sounding, in order to raise the under-
most  part of the bladder, and consequently to
bring the calculus into such a situation that the
sound may touch it.
   Q.  What disease is likely to be mistaken for
stone in the bladder ?
   A.  An  enlarged  prostate  gland:  this has
symptoms resembling stone, but with the differ-
ence that the motion of a coach, or horse, does
not increase the grievance as it does when there
is  stone; beside which, the  fits of pain from
stone  come on at intervals, while in diseased
prostate the pain is not so unequal nor so acute.
   Q.  What are  the organic  derangements of
the prostate gland ?
   A. The prostate gland is sometimes inflamed ;
enlarged and hardened, or scirrhous; suppu-
rates, and forms an abscess containing  common
pus, or scrofulous white curdy matter; calculi
are found  in its ducts  ; it is sometimes preter-
naturally small.
   Q.  After the operation for lithotomy, what
disease is sometimes brought  on ?
   A.  Peritonitis is the disease which is mostly
brought on  from the operation of lithotomy ;
and the majority of those who  die after litho-
tomy  perish from peritoneal inflammation.
   Q.  What treatment should  be adopted if 
154
SURGEhY.
inflammation of the peritoneum  succeed the
operation for lithotomy ?
   A. Copious venesection  should be  put in
practice.   At  the same  time  eight  or ten
leeches should be applied to the hypogastric
region.   The  belly should be  fomented, and
the  bowels  kept open with  the oleum ricini.
Together  with the use of the warm bath,  a
blister on  the lower part of the abdomen, and
emollient clysters are  highly proper.
   Q. What  takes  place in a luxation of the
ancle, the foot being turned upwards and out-
wards ?
   A. When the ancle is luxated, the foot being
turned upwards and  outwards,  the  fibula is
generally fractured.
   Q,. What change do the  collateral  branches
undergo when a large arterial trunk is tied ?
   A. The collateral arteries, after a  large ar-
terial trunk is tied, dilate,  their  coats become
stronger, and  acquire an additional strength;
they are also found to be tortuous.
   Q. What is meant by cicatrization ?
   A. Cicatrization is  that  process by  which
wounds and sores heal, or by which the forma-
tion  of a new skin takes place  over a wound
or ulcer.
   Q. How is castration performed ?
   A. Castration is performed  in the following
manner.   The patient is to be laid on  a table
of convenient height.   An incision is  then to
be made opposite the abdominal ring, and con-
tinued a good way down the scrotum, in order 
SURGERY.
155
to lay bare the spermatic chord and testicle ;
the spermatic chord thus laid bare is to be de-
tached from the surrounding membranous con-
nections, and then the surgeon with his finger
and thumb separates the blood-vessels'from the
vas deferens ; he must next pass a ligature be-
tween  them, and  having tied the former only,
he  must  cut through the  whole  chord at  a
quarter or half an inch from the ligature : the
next thing to be done is, to dissect the testicle
out from the scrotum.  Should  any  vessels
bleed, they are to be  secured.  The wound is
then to be brought together to unite by the first
intention, and the scrotum  is  to be supported
by the T. bandage.
  Q. What is meant by callus ?
  A. Callus is the ossific matter that forms the
union of a fractured bone.
  Q. What is the  theory of the formation of
callus ?
  A. The theory  of the formation of  callus is
this :—from the ends of  a broken bone the
arteries secrete a  gelatinous matter ; this very
soon  becomes organized by the elongation of
the  secreting vessel, which at length deposits
bone in  this new-formed animal substance, so
as to produce a junction of the broken bone.
   Q. What are the  consequences that may
arise from a fractured sternum ?
   A. The consequences that may result from
a fracture of the  sternum are, the fractured
portion  may be driven inwards, so as to  pro-
duce a solid jmction of the broken bone. 
156
SURGERY.
   Q.  How many kinds  of ophthalmia  are
 there ?
   A. Ophthalmia  is  distinguished into:  1.
 acute ; 2. chronic;  3. purulent; 4. scrofulous ;
 5. venereal; and 6. intermittent ophthalmia.31
   Q. What are the cases that require the ope-
 ration for bronchotomy ?
   A. Bronchotomy has been proposed in the
 croup,  to extract the  coagulable lymph that
 would have caused suffocation.  To remove
 foreign  bodies  that become  impacted  in  the
 trachea.  It has also been recommended to be
 performed  on those recently suffocated  or
 drowned, and in glossitis, where the tongue has
 so enlarged  as to shut up the passage through
 the fauces.
   Q.  To what  is  prolapsus ani  generally
 owing ?
   A. Prolapsus ani is mostly owing to a debi-
 lity of the sphincter ani, and parts in its neigh-
 borhood, which serve to support that intestine,
 and keep it in its proper place.
   Q. When is paracentesis thoracis required r
   A. This  operation is indicated when the
heart or lungs  are  oppressed  by  any kind  of
fluid confined in the cavity of the chest.
  Q.  What causes the water to stop suddenly,
which occasionally happens in drawing off the
fluid in ascites ?
  A.  This  occurrence generally takes  place
from a piece of omentum or intestine obstruct-
ing the canula, which may be removed by in- 
SURGERY.
157
 troducing a probe, or any other blunt instru-
 ment, into the canula.
   Q. In trepanning, a slight bleeding generally
 takes place from the diploe, when the saw has
 arrived at that part; what conclusion is to be
 formed when it does not take place ?
   A. When the saw has reached the diploe in
 trepanning, if an oozing of blood does not take
 place, an inference may  be drawn that the
 dura  mater is detached from the  cranium at
 that part.
   Q. What are  the symptoms that sometimes
 attend luxations, besides an  alteration in the
 shape of the joint?
   A.  In  luxations some degree of inflammation
 takes place ; occasionally there are  convulsed
 motions and spasmodic affections of the mus-
 cles, from  compression of the nerves by the
 displaced bone.
   Q.  How would you endeavor to unite a rup-
 tured tendon ?
   A.  A  ruptured tendon  is  to be united, by
 bringing  the  ruptured ends of the  tendon as
 nearly in contact as possible, and keeping the
 muscles of the part relaxed.
   Q.  What is  the  most common cause of a
 retention of urine ?
   A.  The most common cause of a  retention
 of urine,  when a primary disease, is a paralytic
 affection  of the coats of the bladder.
   Q.  What are  the causes of incontinence of
urine ?
  A Incontinence of urine may be induced, from
             13 
158             SURGERY.

irritation on the neck of the bladder, and from
laceration  of  the parts in  the extraction of
large stones.
   Q. At what period  in retention of urine is
puncturing the bladder to be had recourse to ?
   A. The operation  is recommended to be
performed on the third or fourth day from the
commencement of  the total  obstruction, if
milder modes have decidedly failed.
  Q. How is  the interrupted suture  perform-
ed ?
  A. The  interrupted suture is performed by
inserting two needles on one ligature, and in-
troducing each of them at the  bottom of  the
wound ; they are then to be pushed outwards
at a proper distance  from  the edge of  the
wound,  and the needles are to be taken off the
ligature, which  is to  be pulled to  bring  the
edges of the wound into contact.   The  num-
ber of ligatures is to be according to the extent
of the wound.
   Q. How is the twisted suture performed ?
   A. The twisted  suture is performed by in-
troducing  two or more pins, according to  the
extent of the wound, through both its edges :
when the edges of the wound are brought into
contact upon the pins, a wax ligature is  to be
twisted  round  these, so as to form a figure of
8.  This kind of suture  is  generally used in
the operation for the hare lip.
   Q. How is  the glover's suture performed .'
   A. The glover's suture is performed by pass- 
SURGERY.
159
ing a number of stitches in a spiral  direction
along the edges of the wound.
  Q. For what is the glover's suture used?
  A. The glover's suture  is used for wounds
of the abdomen and intestines.
  Q. For  what  is the  interrupted  suture
used?
  A.  The interrupted suture is made use of to
bring the edges of large and deep wounds to-
gether.
  Q.  In tapping the belly, why is  the linea
alba preferred to the spot between the crista of
the ilium and umbilicus ?
  A.  Eecause the  epigastric  artery may be
wounded in the latter place.
  Q. Should  the operation  for tapping the
belly ever  be performed on the right side be-
tween the crista of the  ilium and umbilicus ?
  A.  The ascending arch of the colon is there-
about, and the liver, if enlarged, may  be there ;
so that much caution is requisite, and  it  should
not be performed there, if it can in the usual
place.
  Q. When a person is about to be tapped,
what, in particular, should he be desired to
do?
  A. He should  be desired to make  water,
that the bladder may not be wounded.
  Q. How does the fluid in an ascites differ
from that of an ovarian  dropsy ?
  A. The  fluid in ascites is mostly  serous ;
that of  an ovarian dropsy is mostly albumi-
nous. 
160
SURGERY.
   Q. Is the fluid of ovarian dropsy always re-
moved by one opening ?
   A. No. The fluid being occasionally in more
than one cyst, more openings are required.
   Q. What plan would you adopt against in-
flammation of the testicle ?
   A. Blood-letting, both general  and  local;
the  recumbent  posture; antiphlogistic diet;
purgatives, and cold applications.
   Q. Are emetics ever given ?
   A. Yes;  after clearing the bowels and re-
ducing  the  constitutional   excitement,  an
emetic is sometimes very beneficial;  but it is
very uncertain. 
PRACTICE  OF PHYSIC.
  Q.  How many classes are there in the Cul-
lenian arrangement of diseases ?
  A. There are four classes;  viz. pyrexie—
neuroses—cachexie—locales.
  Q.  How many orders are there in the class
pyrexie ?
  A.  There are five; viz. febres—phlegmasie
—exanthemata—hemorrhagie—profluvia.
  Q.  What are the divisions and genera in the
order febres ?
  A.  There are two divisions in the febres ;
viz. intermittents and continued fevers.  The
genera of the intermittents  are, quotidiana—
tertiana—quartana.  Those of the  other divi-
sion are, synocha—typhus—synochus.
  Q. What are the stages that each paroxysm
of an intermittent is characterized by ?
  A.  The fits of paroxysms are marked by
three different stages,  which are called the cold,
the hot, and the sweating stages.
  Q. What is  considered to be the exciting
cause of an intermittent ?
  A. The effluvia arising from stagnant waters,
or marshy ground, when acted upon by heat,
called marsh miasmata.
            13* 
162      PRACTICE OF PHYSIC,

   Q. Are  agues  influenced  by the  time  of
year?
   A. Yes': the tertian ague is most apt to pre-
vail in the spring, and the quartan in autumn.
   Q. What quantity of  cinchona should be
given during the intervals in the different species
of agues ?
   A.  In a quotidian, an  ounce, at least, should
be given between the fits : in a tertian, half as
much more ; and a quartan, two ounces.
   Q.  What is meant by synocha ?
   A.  Inflammatory fever; a  species  of con-
tinued fever, characterized by increased heat,
frequent hard  pulse, urine high-colored,  and
senses not impaired.
   Q. Is synocha often met with in large towns ?
   A. No :  it is prevalent  in the  country ; but
is more particularly the disease of cold climates.
   Q. What is the indication of cure in synocha ?
   A.  To lessen the excessive vascular action,
by evacuations, and the  antiphlogistic regimen.
   Q. What disease is formed  by a combination
of the symptoms of synocha and typhus ?
   'A.  Mixed fever, orsynochus.
   Q. What are the genera of the order phleg-
masie f
   A.  There are eighteen genera in  this order ;
viz.phlogosis—ophthalmia—phrenitis—cynan-
che—pneumonia—carditis —peritonitis —gas-
tritis—enteritis—hepatitis—splenitis—nephri-
tis — cystitis — hysteritis —  rheumatismus —
odontalgia—podagra—arthropuosis. 
PRACTICE  OP PHYSIC.       163
   Q. What are the eruptive  fevers in the or-
der exanthemata ?
   A. There are teE genera of ercptire diseases
in the order exanthemata; vi-E. variola—vari-
cella—rubeola—scarlatina—^pestis—erysipelas
—miliaria—urticaria—pemphigus—aphtha.
   Q. How many genera has the order hemoi**-
rhagie ?
   A. There are five genera in this order; viz.
epistaxis — hemoptysis — hematemesis—he-
snorrhois—menorrhagia.
   Q. What diseases  belong  to the order pro*
fluvia?
   A. Catarrhus and dyseeteria.
   Q. How many orders  are there  in the class
neuroses ?
   A. Four:  comata -— adynamie — spasmi—
vesanie.
   Q. What genera' belong  to the order co^-
matal
   A. There  are  only two in this order, viz.
apoplexia and paralysis.
   Q. What are the diseases  belonging to the
order adynamie ?
   A. Syncope—dyspepsia—hypochondriasis—
 chlorosis.
   Q. What  diseases beloiag  to  the   order
spasmi ?
   A. Tetanus—trismus—coavulsio—chorea^'-*-
raphania — epilepsia — palpitatio — asthma —
(dyspnoea—pertussis—- pyrosis—colica—cholera
—diarrhoea—diabetes—hysteria—hydropho-
bia ; making seventeen in all. 
164      PRACTICE  OF  PHYSIC.
   Q. How many genera are there in the order
 vesanie ?
   A. There are four genera in this order ; viz.
 amentia—melancholia—mania—oneirodynia.
   Q.  How many  orders  has  the class  ca-
 chexie ?
   A. Three ; viz. marcores—intumescentie—-
 impetigines.
   Q. What genera belong to marcores ?
   A. The genera of marcores  are  tabes and
 atrophia.
   Q. What diseases belong to the order intu-
 mescentie ?
   A. There are thirteen diseases that belong
 to this order; viz. polysarcia—pneumatosis—
 tympanites — physometra — anasarca—hydro-
 cephalus — hydrorachitis—hydrothorax—asci-
 tes—hydrometra — hydrocele — physconia —
rachitis.
   Q. What are the genera in the order impe-
 tigines ?
   A. They are : scrofula—syphilis—scorbutus
 —elephantiasis — lepra—frambesia—trichoma
 —icterus.
   Q. What are the orders of the class locales 1
   A. Locales comprehends eight orders  : dys-
 esthesia—dysorexie— dyscinesie — apoceno-
 ses — epischeses — tumores — ectopie — dia-
 lysis.
   Q. What do you understand by inflammation?
   A. By inflammation  is understood that state
 of a part in which it is more painful, hotter, red-
 der, and more turgid than it naturally is. These 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.       165
local  symptoms,  when  present in any  great
degree, or when they affect very sensible parts,
are attended with fever.
   Q.  How  many kinds of inflammation  are
there  ?
   A.  There are  two kinds of  inflammation :
viz. the phlegmonous and  the  erysipelatous;
each of which is  divided into the acute or ac-
tive, and the chronic or passive.
   Q.  How do  you  distinguish phlegmonous
from erysipelatous inflammation 1
   A.  Phlegmonous inflammation may be dis-
tinguished by the tumefaction  being circum-
scribed, and not diffused, as in erysipelatous
inflammation.  The redness of phlegmon does
not disappear on pressure, as in erysipelas ;
nor is the sense of throbbing and darting pain
so observable in erysipelas as in phlegmon.
   Q.  How would you distinguish chronic from
acute inflammation ?
   A.  Chronic inflammation may be distinguish-
ed from  acute  by  its long continuance,  the
want  of activity in the symptoms, and by the
fever  having abated, or assumed a new type.
   Q.  What treatment does active inflamma-
tion require ?
   A.   Active inflammation requires powerful
antiphlogistic measures;  as blood-letting, purg-
ing, diaphoretics, and a low diet.
   Q.  Does active  erysipelas give way to the
same plan ?
   A.  Active erysipelas in young and  sanguine
subjects, and especially  in  the  country, gene- 
166      PRACTICE  OF  PHYSIC.

rally gives way to the same kind of treatment;
but the erysipalas of large towns, being accom-
panied  by typhus  fever, soon  requires bark,
acids, wine, &c.
   Q. What is the  proper regimen and diet of
inflammatory diseases called ?
   A. The proper regimen and diet of inflam-
matory diseases is called antiphlogistic, which
means against inflammation.
   Q. What foods  and drink do you consider
antiphlogistic ?
   A. The foods and drink which may  be con-
sidered as antiphlogistic are, all kinds of farina.-
ceous vegetables, and  the most simple fluids, as
barley-water, toast and water, &c.
   Q. Which are the best antiphlogistic pur-
gatives ?
   A. The best are those which are refrigerato-
ry, such as the sulphate of soda, the sulphate of
potassa, and the tartrate of potassa.
   Q. What is meant  by inflammatory dia-
thesis ?
   A. By  inflammatory diathesis is meant a
,   te of body that favors and attends inflamma-
tory diseases, such as redundancy of blood, an
increased action of the heart and arteries, a ful-
ness of habit, &c.
   Q. What kind of urine is made when active
inflammation exists ?•
   A. When active inflammation  exists, the
urine voided is of a high  color;  and when
allowed to  stand, deposits  the  lateritious os*
briekdust-like sediment. 
          PRACTICE OF  PHYSIC.       167

  Q.  What is the composition  of the  lateri-
tious sediment ?
  A.  The lateritious sediment is found to con-
sist of uric acid, with phosphate of lime.
  Q.  What character has the pulse when  in-
flammation is going on ?
  A.  The pulse, when inflammation is going
on, is frequent, strong, and hard.
  Q.  What kind of delirium is most frequent
in typhus fevers ?
  A.  The delirium most  frequent in typhus is
not of the violent kind, and is marked by low-
muttering, accompanied with stupidity.
  Q.  Is bleeding  recommended in  the cure
of typhoid fevers ?
  A.  Bleeding is not recommended in typhus
fevers, because it would weaken the energy of
the  powers  necessary to life, the  actions of
which are already weaker than they ought to
be.
  Q.  How many  species of typhus fevers  are
there  ?
  A.  There are four species of typhus fevers ;
1st, typhus  nervosus,  or nervous  fever;  2d,
typhus mitior, the  low fever,  or  mild form of
typhus ; 3d, the typhus gravior, the severe spe-
cies of typhus fever, or putrid fever ; 4th,  the
typhus icterodes,  or typhus with symptoms of
^aundicp.
  Q. What  h the most common cause  of
typhus fevers?
  A.  Contagion, which  is a poison generated
from putrid  animal and vegetable substances j 
168      PRACTICE OF  PHYSIC.
 by the human body under the disease ;  by con-
 fined animal secretions, and other sources.
    Q. What  kind of pulse have you in ente-
 ritis  ?
    A. In inflammation of the intestines, or inte-
 nds,  the  pulse is often  peculiarly small and
 feeble and slow.
    Q. What are the symptoms of gastritis 1
    A. Pain in  the epigastric region increased
 under pressure, frequent vomiting, particularly
 when anything is taken into the stomach, oc-
 casionally hiccup, and a  small and frequent
 pulse.
   Q. How  may inflammation  of the  trachea
 terminate ?
   A. It seldom  terminates in suppuration, and
 mostly in resolution or by the formation of co-
 agulable lymph, so as to cause suffocation in
 many instances.
   Q. What are the symptoms of trismus ?
   A. When trismus  comes on gradually, the
 symptoms are :  a slight stiffness is at first per-
 ceived at the  back part of the neck, which,
 after  a short  time, becomes considerably in-
 creased,  and at length renders the motion of
 the head both  difficult and painful.   With the
 rigidity of the head, there is likewise an  un-
 easy sensation at the  root of the  tongue, to-
gether with some difficulty in swallowing ; and
a great tightness is  perceived about  the chest,
with a pain at the  sternum, shooting into  the
back;  a  stiffness next takes place about the
 aws, which  increases  to such  a height, that 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.        169
 the teeth become  closed  together, and  the
 disease trismus or locked jaw is formed.
   Q. To what diseases  are muscles subject ?
   A. Muscles are  subject to morbid contrac-
 tion, which may be either spasmodic or perma-
 nent ; they are liable to inflammation, to have ab-
 scesses formed in them, to become gangrenous,
 to become flaccid, to be  diminished in bulk, to
 have bony matter deposited in their substance,
 and to rheumatism.
   Q. What is a cramp or spasm ?
   A, A spasm or cramp is an  involuntary con-
 traction of the muscular  fibres, or that state of
 the contraction of muscles which is not sponta-
 neously disposed to alternate with relaxation.
   Q. How  many   species  of  scarlatina are
 there?
   A. Three:  1. scarlatina  simplex; 2.  scar-
 latina anginosa ; and 3. scarlatina maligna.
   Q. Is  it  proper to use cold ablution in
 rubeola ?
   A. No : if the eruption be repelled by cold,
 delirium, dyspnea, or diarrhoea occurs, attend-
 ed with considerable danger.
   Q. On what day of the fever does the erup-
 tion of measles appear 1
   A. Generally on the fourth day.
   Q. How many species  of variola  are there  ?
   A. Two; viz. variola  discreta, and variola
 confluens.
   Q. What kind of  fever  attends  confluent
small-pox ?
   A. Typhoid or malignant fever.
              14 
170       PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
   Q. After varicella has existed for four days,
 can you distinguish it from variola ?
   A. Yes:  at this   period  you  have  often
 vesicles,  pustules, and incrustations  or scabs
 existing together, which distinguish its eruption
 from the firm and durable pustules of smali
 pox.
   Q. What  kind of habits are most liable to
 hemoptysis  ?
   A. Persons of a sanguineous temperament;
 and more frequently perhaps men than women.
   Q. What  is the color  of the blood usually
 coughed up  in hemoptysis ?
   A. Generally a florid color.
   Q. What  is the  appearance of the blood
brought up in hematemesis ?
   A. It is  dark-colored or black, generally
 fluid, and often mixed with portions  of food :
sometimes it  has the appearance of coffee
grounds.
   Q. What  fever accompanies phthisis ?
   A. Hectic fever.
   Q. What  may be expected to take  place in
consequence of apoplexy not being cured ?
   A. If apoplexy is not  removed  entirely, it
often leaves a state of mental imbecility behind,
or terminates in hemiplegia or death.
   Q. What  persons are  most subject to  thc
serous form  of apoplexy ?
   A. Those  of phlegmatic temperament.
   Q. What  are the indications of cure in dys-
pepsia ?
   A. There  are  three indications  of cure in 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.        171
 dyspepsia:  1. to obviate the several exciting
 causes ;  2.  to relieve urgent symptoms ;  and
 3. to restore the tone of the stomach, or the
 general system.
   Q. How  is dropsy distinguished  according
 to the situation of the fluid 1
   A. When it is diffused through the cellular
 membrane it  is  called  anasarca ; when  it is
 deposited in the cavity of the cranium, it is
 termed  hydrocephalus;  when  in  the chest,
 hydrothorax ; when in the abdomen, ascites ;
 in the uterus, bydrometra; and in the testicle,
 hydrocele.
  Q. How would  you form  a prognosis  in
 vertigo ?
  A. When it is a symptom of hysteria or any
other nervous disease, it is not attended with
danger, but when it takes place in consequence
of an over-fulness of blood in the head, it be-
comes dangerous, as it may lead to apoplexy or
 palsy.
  Q. What is the office  of the liver ?
  A. The office of the liver is to supply a fluid
called bile to the intestines, which is of the
utmost importance in chylification.
  Q. What  are the characters of healthy bile ?
  A. Healthy bile is of a yellow-green color,
of a plastic consistence, like thin oil, and when
very  much  agitated it froths like  soap  and
water ; its smell is somewhat like musk,  and
its taste is bitter.
  Q. What are its uses ?
  A.  The uses of bile are, 1st, to extricate the 
172       PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
 chyle from the chyme ; 2d, by its stimulus it
 excites the action of the intestines; 3d, it im-
 parts a yellow color to the feces ;  4th, it pre-
 vents  the abundance of mucus, and acidity in
 the prime vie.
   Q. Does bile ever get into the blood ?
   A. Yes: bile gets into the blood when it*
 regular course is  interrupted, as in jaundice,
 diseased liver, &c.
   Q. Enumerate the principal organic derange-
 ments of the liver.
   A. Acute and chronic inflammation  ; adhe-
 sion to the contiguous parts ; a part of its coats.
 cartilaginous; induration,  or scirrhus, some-
 times  accompanied with  a  diminution, but
 much more frequently with an enlargement of
 its size ;  tubercles on its  surface,  and in  it&
 substance ; abscesses in its substance ;, hydatids
 in a cyst of considerable size, and hard as car-
 tilage ; the liver is sometimes unusually soft
 and pulpy, with redness.
   Q. How does it get into it ?
   A. Bile gets into the blood through the me-
 dium of the absorbents, which remove  it from.
the bile-ducts  that  are preternaturally distend-
ed, and convey it  into the  blood  by means of
the thoracic duct.
   Q. What is the  most common way in which,
the bile is prevented passing, as it ought to do,
out of its ducts into the duodenum ?
   A. The most common way in  which bile is
prevented passing  through its ducts into the 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.       173
duodenum is from an obstruction in the ductus
communis choledochus.
   Q. In what way may the ductus communis
choledochus be obstructed *?
   A. The ductus communis may be obstructed
by spasm, by a calculus, by mucus  from the
duodenum,  and by the pressure of adjacent
tumors.
   Q. How do  you know when  the bile  is
vitiated or unhealthy ?
   A. The stomach does not perform its func-
tion  properly, the intestines  are irritated, and
the feces are not of their healthy color.
   Q. Does a vitiated bile influence the forma-
tion  of the blood ?
   A. Yes :—vitiated bile impairs digestion ; the
chyle is not properly separated from the chyme,
or that which is separated is  of a diseased
quality;  and  when formed  into blood, the
blood is of an  unhealthy nature, and improper
for nutrition.
   Q. What  are  the organic derangements  of
the pancreas ?
   A. It is subject to inflammation and all it*
consequences, suppuration anu abscess, gan-
grene, scirrhus, enlargement  of  size;  and
<calculi in the ducts.
   Q. What are the unhealthy appearances  of
the blood that you  are acquainted with ?
   A. The unhealthy appearances of the blood
that  are usually met with are, an  excess  of
crassamentum, an excess of coagulable lymph
m the crassamentum, which shows itself by
              n* 
174       PRACTICE OF PHYSIC,
the white coriaceous crust  on the surface;  a
loose flabby cruor;  an excess of  serum;  a
yellow serum.
   Q. When too much albumen  exists in the
cruor, how does it affect the solids ?
   A. When there is  too much in the cruor,
the solids are firmer than they should be, and
there is a predisposition in  the system to in-
flammatory diseases.
   Q. When the crassamentum is loose, and the
serum in excess, how ase the solids influenced ?
   A. The solids  are loose and flabby, and there
is a tendency to  dropsy.
   Q. What do you understand by excitement ?
   A. Excitement is  the property by  which.
animals may he affected by  external agents, as
well  as by certain powers  peculiar to them-
selves, in such a manner, that the phenomena
peculiar to the living state can be produced.
   Q. In  the commencement  of fevers, when
there is  no  diminution of vital energy, what
means are the most likely  to stop their pro-
gress ?
   A. The means most likely to stop their pro-
gress, under such circumstances, are, an emetic,,
combined with a cathartic and blood-letting.
   Q. What  are  the most  proper  remedies to-
check febrile action at the very  commence-
ment, when there is an evident diminution o£
vital power ?
   A. When there is an evident diminution of
vital power  at the commencement  of febrile
action, a cordial diaphoretic, as the compound 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.       175
powder of ipecacuanha, spirit of sulphuric and
nitric ether, are found the most successful.
  Q. What do you mean by tetanus ?
  A. It is a rigid spasm of several muscles of
the body.
  Q. How would you treat inflammation of
the bowels ?
  A. By general and  topical blood-letting, by
the warm bath and fomentations, by the fre-
quent  exhibitions  of purges, and  by giving
saline diaphoretics with mucilaginous drinks.
  Q. What is a dysentery ?
  A. It  is  a spasmodic  constriction  of the
colon, with a retention of the natural feces,
and the frequent expulsion of mucous or san-
guineous motions.
  Q. What are the symptoms of enteritis ?
  A. Fever, costiveness, a twisting around the
umbilicus, tension  and acute pain  of the abdo-
men, increased pain upon pressure, tenesmus
or vomiting, according to the seat of the inflam-
mation ;  quick, or  slow,  and hard, contracted
pulse ; great prostration of strength, and high-
colored urine.
  Q. What are the symptoms of volvulus?
  A. Violent pain  and distension of the abdo-
men, attended with a peculiar twisting  around
the navel, obstinate costiveness, slight febrile
symptoms, and a frequent vomiting of a sterco-
raceous matter.
  Q. What are the symptoms of nephritis ?
  A. Pyrexia, pain in the region of the kid-
ney, extending along the  course of the ureter, 
176       PRACTICE OF PHYSIC
accompanied with  numbness of the leg and
thigh of the affected side, nausea and vomiting,
retraction of the testicle, high-colored urine,
sometimes mucous or bloody, frequent mictu-
rition, dysuria.
   Q.  How would  you distinguish hepatitis
from gastritis -'
   A.  From gastritis by the seat of the pain, by
the  sympathetic pains  of  the  clavicle  and
shoulder, by the less prostration of strength, and
greater fulness of the pulse, by the color of the
stools and urine.
  Q.  What purges would you give in nephri-
tis ?
w A.  Oleaginous purges and frequent emollient
clysters.
  Q.  What are the symptoms of pneumonia ?
   A.  Obtuse pain and sense of weight and op-
pression in the chest; anxious  breathing, and
the pain is increased during  inspiration ; hard,
contracted, and  frequent pulse ; the face  is
usually flushed,  and of a  purple hue; the
tongue is white, the urine is high-colored, and
there are other symptoms of synocha.
   Q.   How  would you distinguish cystitis
from enteritis ?
   A.  From enteritis by the seat of the pain ;
the tension  and tumor,  which is above the
pubes  in cystitis; by the micturition, and by
the painful discharge of  urine in small quanti-
ties, or the complete  obstruction to its  pas-
sage. 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.       177
   Q.  When gangrene takes place in  internal
 parts, what are the symptoms ?
   A.  A peculiar appearance of  the  counte-
 nance ;  cold  perspirations;  coldness  of  the
 extremities ;  sudden cessation  of pain; hic-
 cup ;  subsultus  tendinum;  suppression   of
 urine ; convulsions, and the pulse scarcely per-
 ceptible.
   Q.  What are  the  symptoms  of hydroce-
 phalus ?
   A. Languor,  inactivity, loss  of appetite,
 nausea, vomiting, parched tongue, dry skin,
 flushing of the face,  and other symptoms of
 pyrexia ; pain over the eyes ; the  pain in  the
 head becomes extremely acute, and intermits,
 occasioning the patient to scream violently *,
 disturbed sleep, extreme restlessness,  flushed
 countenance,  costiveness, vomiting,  stupor,
 convulsions, dilated pupils.
   Q. What is a typhus fever 2
   A.  A very infectious fever, characterized by
 great debility, disturbed animal functions, lan-
 guid circulation, furred tongue, aching pains in
 different parts  of the body, particularly  the
 head and small of the  back, and the evacuated
 fluids  of the body undergoing speedy putre-
 faction.
   Q. What are  the  indications of cure in a
 typhus fever •'
   A.  To excite  a new action in  the system,
by rousing  that of the brain and  arteries; to
support the strength of the patient; and to  ob-
viate the putrid tendency in the fluids. 
178       PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
    Q. What is the best way of destroying the
 fetid smell of sick wards 2
    A. By extricating nitrous fumes from a mix-
 ture of  nitre and sulphuric acid placed in hot
 sand.
    Q. What is meant by scrofula ?
    A.  A peculiar disease affecting people of a
 particular habit of body, and usually the glandu-
 lar parts, causing them to swell.
   Q.  What is the best way of relieving inflam-
 matory affections ?
   A.  By bleeding either locally or generally,
 by blisters, exhibiting cathartics, diaphoretics,
 and a low diet.
   Q.  How is the colic  distinguished from en-
 teritis ?
   A.  The colic is  distinguished from enteritis
 by the peculiar twisting and occasional pain ;
 by the absence of fever in the  early part of
 the disease ; by the pain in enteritis being in-
 creased,  in colic  alleviated, by pressure ; by
 the irregular contraction of the abdominal mus-
 cles.
   Q. How  is  a diarrhoea distinguished  from
dysentery ?
   A.  Diarrhoea is distinguished from dysentery
by being unattended either with fever, inflam-
mation, contagion, or tenesmus ; by the appear-
ance  of the  matter evacuated, which  in  one
disease is feculent  or mixed with alimentary
matter, in the other mucous, sanguineous, or
putrid.
   Q.  How many species of diabetes are there -: 
PRACTICE OF  PHYSIC.        179
   A.  There are two  species of diabetes, viz.
 diabetes mellitus, and the diabetes insipidus.
   Q.  How is  mania  distinguished from phre-
 nitis ?
   A.  Mania is distinguished from phrenitis by
 the former being without fever, which the latter
 never  is.
   Q.  What is meant by anasarca .'
   A.  Anasarca is a preternatural collection of
 serum or watery fluid  in the cellular membrane
 of the  whole or part of the body.
   Q.  What are  the indications in the cure of
 scurvy ?
   A.  The indications in  the  cure of scurvy
 are ; 1st, to correct the septic tendency of the
 fluids ; 2d, to  palliate urgent  symptoms; 3d,
 to restore the  tone of the solids.
   Q.  What are the species of tympanites -'
  A. There are two species of tympanites, viz.
 tympanites abdominalis, or collection of air in
 the cavity of the peritoneum;  and tympanites
 intestinalis, or collection of air in the cavity of
 the intestines.
  Q. What are Dr. Cullen's species  of para-
 lysis ?
  A.  His species of paralysis are,  1st, paraly-
 sis partialis, or palsy of a certain muscle or set
 of muscles ; 2d,  paralysis hemiplegica, or a
 total palsy of one side  of the body ; 3d, para-
lysis paraplegica,  or a palsy of one half the
 body taken transversely ; 4th,  paralysis vene-
nata, or palsy from poisons.
  Q. How many species of catarrh are there ? 
180        PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.
   A.  Two, viz. catarrhus a frigore, or common
 cold, and catarrhus contagiosus, or the  influ-
 enza.
   Q.  What are the species of apoplexy ?
   A.  There are several: but the most useful
 distinction is  into  the sanguineous and the
 serous.
   Q.  What are the indications of cure in  drop-
 sy?
   A.  To evacuate the fluid, and to prevent a
 second accumulation.
   Q. How many species of cholera are there •'
   A. Two, viz. cholera spontanea and cholera
 accidentalis.
   Q. What is the  immediate cause  of the
 symptoms of cholera ?
   A. An  immediate secretion of acrimonious
 bile.
   Q. What are the species of syncope •'
   A. Three, viz. syncope accidentalis, syncope;
 cardiaca, and syncope anginosa.
   Q. What is the most frequent cause of syn-
 cope anginosa •'
   A. The most  frequent cause of  this com-
 plaint is spasms of some of the muscular fibres
 of the  heart from ossification.
   Q. What are the indications of cure  in ca-
 tarrh ?
   A. To reduce the febrile  action  of the sys-
tem, and  to allay the irritation of the affected
parts.
  Q. How is synocha distinguished from typhus? 
PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.        181
    A. From typhus by the more sudden acces-
 sion of the disease ; by its arising from common
 causes, as sudden alterations of temperature;
 the application of cold to a heated body; violent
 exercise, intemperance, &c, and not from con-
 tagion ;  by the strength  of the body not being
 diminished ; the hardness  of the  pulse ; the
 whiteness of the tongue;  and by the  high
 color of the urine.
   Q. How is cynanche tonsillaris distinguished
 from cynanche maligna ?
   A. By the fever, which in the former is in-
 flammatory, in the latter typhoid,  and by the
 absence of ulceration in  cynanche tonsillaris.
   Q. How is rheumatism distinguished from
 podagra ?
   A. By  its  generally  attacking  the  larger
 joints ; by the pain shifting its seat, and follow-
 ing the course of the muscles in its translation
 to other*parts ; by the disease not having been
 preceded  by symptoms of dyspepsia;  by its
 occurring at any period  of life,  whereas gout
 is usually confined to the adult age.
   Q. How is tympanites distinguished  from
 ascites ?
   A. By the  absence of fluctuation and of
 those symptoms which characterize  the hydro-
 pic diathesis.
   Q. Is pregnancy ever mistaken for dropsy ?
   A. Yes, very often.
   Q. How are they distinguished ?
   A. The  most unequivocal system  is  the
motion of the child.
             15 
182       PRACTICE OF PHYSIC.

  Q. Is not fluctuation sufficient to form the
diagnosis ?
  A. No, certainly not.   Fluctuation  merely
determines the existence of a fluid ; but dropsy
and pregnancy may exist together. 
MATERIA MEDICA.
   Q. Whence does ammoniacum come ?
   A. Ammoniacum comes from the East In-
 dies ; the plant  which affords this substance
 is also said to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia, and
 the  interior of Egypt.
   Q. What are the virtues of ammoniacum ?
   A. The virtues of ammoniacum are stimu-
 lant, antispasmodic, and expectorant; its dose
 is from ten to thirty  grains.  Externally ap-
 plied  it is  supposed to soften and ripen hard
 tumors.
   Q. How many species of cinchona or Peru-
 vian barks are there ?
   A. There are several species, but only three
 in general use, viz. cortex cinchone cordifolie,
 or yellow bark ;—cortex  cinchone lancifolie,
 or common  quilled bark;—cortex cinchone
 oblongifolie, or red bark.
   Q. What are the virtues  of cinchona bark ?
   A. Tonic, antiseptic, and stomachic.
   Q. What is the late compound obtained by
 chemical process from Peruvian bark called ?
  A. It is called a sulphate of quinine or quinia.
  Q. What is it?
  A. It is a compound of an alkali  which ex-
ists in Peruvian bark, and to which chemists 
  184          MATERIA MEDICA.

  have given the name of quinia, or quinine, with
  sulphuric acid ; but the more appropriate name
  would have been cinchonia.
    Q. What are its virtues ?
    A. The same*as those of the genuine Peru-
  vian bark, but it has great advantages over it;
  the small quantity of a grain  being equal to a
  drachm of the powder of bark.
    Q. Is it soluble in most menstrua ?
   A. It is soluble in a dilute acid ; a grain or
 two in an ounce or two of the acidulated rose in-
 fusions forms an elegant and stomachic draught.
   Q. Are there not several other new medi-
 cines discovered in, and made from, vegetables ?
   A. Yes :  but none have been so  approved by
 the profession as the sulphate of quinia.   Iodine
 and its preparations are said to  be  useful.
   Q. What is iodine ?
   A. It is a simple principle of some sea weeds,
 and is obtained by burning kelp.
   Q. What is it like ?
  A. Its vapor is of a violet-blue color, hence
 called iodium,  or iodine, and looks  like a salt.
  Q.  Against what disease is it given ?
  A. Against  scrofulous complaints and bron-
chocele.
  Q. What are the virtues of opium ?
  A. Narcotic, antispasmodic, and stimulant,
or sedative, according to the  dose  which is
administered.
  Q. What is the dose of digitalis ?
  A. From one to three grains in  the form of
powder. 
MATERIA MEDICA.         185
   Q. What are the virtues of aloes ?
   A. Cathartic, emmenagogue, and anthelmin-
 tic.
   Q. What do you mean by cathartics?
   A. Those  medicines, which, when  taken
 internally, increase the alvine evacuations.
   Q. What do you mean by emmenagogues ?
   A. Medicines which have the power of de-
 termining  blood to the uterus, either by their
 local irritation, or by their exciting the action
 of the system generally.
   Q. What are diaphoretics ?
   A. They are medicines which augment the
 insensible perspiration.
   Q. What are diuretics •'
   A. Medicines which increase the secretion
 of urine.
   Q. What quantity of confectio opii of the
 London  Pharmacopoeia contains one grain of
 opium 2
   A. About six-and-thirty grains.
   Q. What is meant by antispasmodics?
   A. Medicines  which have the power of
 allaying or removing inordinate motion in the
 muscular system.
   Q. What medicines come under the class of
 antispasmodics ?
   A. Moschus, castoreum, oleum  animale,
petroleum, ammonia, assafoetida,  sagapenum,
galbanum, Valeriana, oleum cajupute, opium,
camphor, ether.
   Q. What are the diseases in which  arnica
flowers have been exhibited ?
              15* 
186          MATERIA MEDICA.
   A.  Arnica flowers are given on the Conti-
nent, but seldom in this country, in paralytic
diseases, retention of the urine, amaurosis ; in
putrid diseases, in  typhoid  inflammations; in
dysentery and  diarrhoea, and to promote  the
uterine discharge ;  but  they are a very feeble
medicine.
   Q. What are the virtues of acetum or vine-
gar ?
   A. Taken internally it acts as a refrigerant,
promotes diaphoresis, and is a powerful anti-
narcotic ; it acts externally as a discutient, and
is  moderately stimulant and astringent.
   Q. What are the virtues of sulphuric acid ?
   A.  Sulphuric acid is a tonic, astringent, and
antiseptic when given internally in a small and
properly diluted dose.
   Q. What are the virtues of arum ?
   A.  Arum is given as a stimulant, in cachectic
cases supposed to arise  from an accumulation
of phlegm, and in  some rheumatic affections,
in  the dose of ten or fifteen grains three times
a day, in the form of bolus.
   Q. What is meant by. sialogogues ?
   A.  Those  medicines  which promote a dis-
charge of saliva from the salivary glands.
   Q.  What are tonics ?
   A.  Medicines which 'give  strength to the
system.
   Q. What medicines come under the class of
tonics 2
   A.   Peruvian bark ;  quassia ;  camomile ;
gentian; oak bark;  calumba;  lesser centaury; 
materia medica.          187
 pomegranate; cascarilla;  wormwood; south-
 ernwood ; tansy; buck-bean ; elm-bark; agri-
 mony ; ferruginous  preparations ; sulphate of
 copper; oxide of zinc ; sulphate of zinc; alum •
 and most of the mineral acids.
   Q.  What is the dose of confectio opii ?
   A.  From five grains to half a drachm.
   Q.  In a fluid ounce of the  liquor antimonii
 tartarisati how much antimonium tartarizatura
 is contained ?
   A. Two  grains.
   Q. What quantity of mercury is  contained
 in three grains of the pilula hydrargyri 1
   A. One grain.
   Q. How many kinds of aloes are now used
 in medicine ?
   A. Two;  viz.  the extract of  the aloea
 spicata, called Socotrine aloes, and the extract
 of the aloes vulgaris, called Barbadoes aloes.
   Q. What is the dose of the nitras argenti ?
   A. From  gr. fs. to gr. iij: it has been given
 in a much larger dose.
   Q. What are expectorants ?
   A. Such medicines as promote the secretion
 from the lungs.
   Q. What  are stimulants ?
   A. Medicines  which increase  the action of
 the nervous and  vascular system.
   Q. How much mercury is contained in two
drachms of the unguentum hydrargyri fortius?
  A. One drachm.
  Q. What is musk ?
  A. Musk  is a  peculiar secretion,  deposited 
188         MATERIA MEDICA.
 in a small sac, situated near the umbilicus of
 the male mosch animal.
    Q. In ten grains of the pulvis ipecacuanha
 compositus how much opium is contained ?
    A. One grain.
    Q.  What  is the dose of the oxidum hydrar-
 gyri rubrum ?
   A. Half a grain ; but  it is seldom given in-
 ternally.
   Q. What is the dose  of the submurias hy-
 drargyri ?
   A. From one to twelve grains, to act as a
 purgative ; and from  one eighth of a grain to
 one grain, to act as an alterative.
   Q. What is meant by antiseptics ?
   A. Medicines which  are capable of resist-
 ing a tendency to putrefaction.
   Q. What are the substances that come under
 the class of antiseptics ?
   A. All  the acids;  Peruvian bark ; quassia;
 calumba ;  wormwood ;   southernwood ;  al-
 cohol ;  ether ; wine ; seneca  root: opium ;
 camphire.
   Q. What is meant by anthelmintics ?
   A. Such substances as have  the power  of
destroying worms.
   Q.. Enumerate the principal anthelmintics ?
   A. Worm-seed ;   tin-filings ;  assafoetida;
tansy ;  Indian  pink; male  fern ;  tobacco ;
cowage ; cabbage-tree bark; savine;  aloes ;
camboge ; hedge-hyssop ; jalap ;  castor  oil;
almond oil; and most of the cathartics. 
MATERIA MEDICA.          189
    Q. In what part of the root of the Polygala
 senega does the active part reside ?
    A. The active part of the root of the Poly-
 gala senega resides in the bark.
    Q. From what part of the world do we ob-
 tain the Polygala senega ?
    A.  It grows wild in North America.
    Q. What is the name of the plant that af-
 fords the radix bistorta ?
   A.  Polygonum bistorta.
   Q.  What do you mean by alteratives ?
   A.  Alteratives  are those medicines which
 so change the state of the solids and fluids as
 to effect the cure of a disease without produc-
 ing any evacuation, or suddenly influencing
 the animal functions.
   Q.  What are astringents ?
   A.  They  are  medicines  which have the
 power of constringing the animal fibre.
   Q.  What are the substances that  come un-
 der this class ?
   A. Alum ; acetate of lead; preparations of
 iron ;  opium ;  logwood ;   oak-bark ;  pome-
 granate ;  galls ;  tormentil ; simarouba; red
 roses; balaustine  flowers;  rhubarb in  small
 doses ; catechu;  oxide  of zinc ; acetate  of
 zinc ;  sulphate of copper ; sulphuric acid ;
 the calcareous earths;  and bistort.
   Q. What  are the,  virtues of the  nitras ar-
genti ?
   A.  It is  used externally  as an  escharotic;
internally it is given  as an  anti-spasmodic in
epilepsy and chorea Sancti Viti. 
190
MATERIA MEDICA.
    Q.  What are the virtues of the antimonium
  tartarizatum ?
    A.  It acts as a diaphoretic in the dose of
  one-eighth of a grain to one  grain, and as an
  emetic from one grain to six.
    Q.  In cases where poison has  been taken,
  what emetic would you select ?
    A. Sulphate  of zinc, because it is  more
 speedy in its operation than most of the other
 emetics.
   Q. What are the  virtues and dose of the
 pulvis ipecacuanhe compositus ?
   A. It is given  as  a diaphoretic from four
 grains to a scruple; the average  dose  to  an
 adult is ten grains.
   Q. What is myrrh ?
   A. A substance  of  a black-red  color, solid
 and heavy, of a peculiar smell and bitter taste,
 brought from Arabia.
   Q. What are the virtues of myrrh ?
   A. Myrrh is given internally as a stimulant;
 it occasions a mild diaphoresis, and promotes
 the fluid secretions in general ; it proves ser-
 viceable in cachectic  diseases, arising from
 inactivity of the system; it acts also on the
 uterine system, and resists putrefaction.
  Q. What is  the  systematic  name of the
 tree that affords the Chian turpentine ?
  A.  It is  called Pistachia  terebinthus, and
it grows abundantly in  the  islands of Chios
and Cyprus.
  Q.  What are the  virtues of the sulphuretum
hydrargyri rubrum ? 
MATERIA MEDICA.          191
   A.   It is given as an alterative from two
 grains  to  a scruple; and  it is  also  used  to
 fumigate  venereal ulcers  of the  throat and
 other parts.
   Q.   What are the virtues of  the acetas
 potasse ?
   A. It is given as a diuretic and purgative
 from ten grains to three drachms.
   Q.  What  are  the virtues of the  tartras
 potasse ?
   A. It is given as a purgative from a scruple
 to three drachms.
   Q.   What are the virtues of  the pulvis
 antimonialis ?
   A. It is given as an alterative and  diapho-
 retic from three grains to fifteen.
   Q.  What  is the  dose  of the oxy-murias
 hydrargyri ?
   A. From  the sixteenth part of  a  grain  to
 half a grain.
   Q. What are styptics ?
   A. They  are  medicines which possess a
 power of stopping hemorrhages.
   Q. What is meant  by errhines  ?
   A. Those medicines which, when applied to
 the  membrane of the nose, excite sneezing,
 and increase the secretion therefrom.
   Q. What do you mean by epispastics ?
   A. Substances which blister the skin, that is,
 which increase the action of the vessels of those
 parts of the body  to which  they  are applied,
 producing  an afflux of fluid there, and a col-
lection of serum between the cuticle and cutis. 
192
MATERIA MEDICA.
    Q. What is catechu ?
    A. A reddish-brown substance of an astrin-
 gent taste,  prepared  in  India  by boiling the
 wood of the acacia catechu, and evaporating
 the decoction by the heat of the sun.
    Q. What are the virtues of juniper oil ?
   A. Juniper oil is given internally as a stimu-
 lant, carminative, diaphoretic, and diuretic.
   Q. What are the virtues of gum acacia ?
   A. Gum acacia is exhibited  internally as a
 mucilaginous demulcent  and astringent; and
 is employed in diarrhea, dysentery, chincough,
 hoarseness, strangury, &c.   It is also used  to
 give form to some  remedies, and correct the
 acrimony of others.
   Q. What is the medical use of elaterium ?
   A. Elaterium, in the  dose of from  half a
 grain to  two grains, operates as a drastic ca-
 thartic, and emetic, and is extremely useful in
 dropsy of the chest and belly.
   Q. What is scammony ?
   A. A  concrete  gummi-resinous juice, of a
 light grey color, and rather an unpleasant smell
 and bitterish sub-acid taste, brought from Alep-
po and Smyrna.  It exudes  from the cut root
of the convolvulus scammonia.
  Q.  What is ipecacuanha ?
  A.  A small root, wrinkled and contorted, of
a greyish or ash color, of a bitter sub-acid taste,
and very little smell, the produce of the Calli-
cacca ipecacuanha, growing in South Ameica.
  Q.  What is camphor ?
  A.  A substance which is white and pellucid, 
MATERIA MEDICA.         193
 somewhat unctuous to the touch, of a bitterish,
 aromatic,  acrid taste ; of a fragrant smeM, re-
 sembling that of rosemary : it is found in con-
 crete lumps between the bark in the interstices
 of the wood and pith of the Laurus camphora,
 which grows  in Japan ; it undergoes two sub-
 limations before we receive it in England.
   Q. Is camphor the produce of one tree only?
   A. No : camphor is obtained from the Lau-
 rus  camphora, but it is  contained  in many
 plants,  especially those  of the. aromatic kind ;
 besides which it is  often deposited from some
 essential oils that have been long kept.
   Q. From whence do we obtain opium, and
 what is the name of the plant that affords it?
   A. It is obtained from  Persia, Arabia, and
 Turkey, where incisions  are made  into the
 capsule or  head of  the  Papaver somniferum ;
 the'juice flows, and becomes concrete  by the
 heat of the sun.
   Q. What is the character of bad opium ?
   A. Opium  is regarded as bad when it  is
 either very soft or friable, of an intensely black
 color, or mixed with any impurities.
   Q. Are you obliged to give a larger quantity
 of Turkey  than Indian opium  to produce the
 same narcotic effect ?
   A. The  Turkey opium  is the best,  conse-
 quently a smaller dose will be sufficient to pro-
 duce the same effect as a larger dose of the
 other.
  Q. Does the  Papaver  somniferum  afford
anv other officinal preparations besides opium?
              16 
194          MATERIA MEDICA.
   A.  There are two preparations made from
 the capsules of the white poppy, besides opium,
 viz. the syrupus  papaveris, and the extractum
 papaveris.
   Q.   What  are  officinal  preparations   of
 opium ?
   A.  The preparations of opium are, the pilula
 saponis cum opio, pulvis opiatus, tinctura opii,
 tinctura camphore composita, pulvis ipecacu-
 anha compositus, confectio opii, and the pulvis
 crete compositus.
   Q. What is considered to be the narcotic
 principle of opium ?
   A.  According to Sertuerner an alkaline salt,
 which he has called morphia.
   Q. What animal  affords castor,  and what
 part of the animal does it form ?
   A. The animal that affords this substance is
 the Castor fiber,  which  inhabits the nortflem
 countries of Europe and America: the sub-
 stance so called is found in two bags, situated
 in the inguinal regions of the male  beaver, dis-
 tinct from the testes.
   Q.  What is quassia ?
   A.  A wood  afforded by the quassia excelsa,
 which grows abundantly at Surinam.
   Q.  What  plant affords  the jalap root ?
   A.  The convolvulus  jalapa, which grows in
 South America.
   Q.  From whence do we obtain cetaceum ?
   A.  From  the head of the Physeter macro-
 cephalus, a species of whale  that  inhabits the
northern seas. 
MATERIA MEDICA.          195
    Q. What  are the  virtues of linseed, and
 what plant affords it ?
    A. The virtues of linseed are emollient and
 demulcent; it is used in cataplasms.  The in-
 fusion is much  given  as a pectoral  drink, in
 ardor urine and nephritic pains.   The  plant
 that affords linseed is called Linum usitatissi-
 mum.
    Q. What are  the virtues of willow bark ?
    A. Tonic and astringent:  it has been given
 as a substitute for cinchona.
    Q. What are  the virtues of soap ?
   A.  Soap is  considered as a purgative and
 lithontriptic ; it  is given  in  habitual costive-
 ness, jaundice, calculous cases ; and is also re-
 garded as an  antidote in decomposing some
 metalic poisons when taken into the stomach.
   Q.  What  are the virtues of the  different
 kinds of turpentines ?
   A. They are all of them stimulant, cathar-
 tic, diuretic, and anthelmintic, and externally
 they are rubefacient.
   Q. What preparations does the pinus syl-
 vestris afford ?
   A. Common turpentine, oil of turpentine,
 resin, black pitch, and tar.
   Q. What is the name of the tree that affords
 the Venice turpentine ?
   A. The larch or pinus larix.
   Q. What  turpentine does the   pinus  bal-
samea afford ?
   A. The Canada turpentine.
   Q. What does  the pinus abies afford ? 
196          MATERIA MEDICA.
  A.  Thus, or abietis resina; and Burgundy
pitch.
  Q.  What are the virtues of carbonic acid {
  A.  It has been used with success in the cure
of typhus, and is of great service in irritability
and weakness of the stomach producing vomit-
ing : it is also used externally, as an antiseptic. 
   CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

  Q.  What is meant by effervescence ?
  A.   Effervescence is the escape  of  a gas
which is separated during the action  of bodies
on each other.
  Q.  How is distillation performed ?
  A.  Distillation is performed in three ways :
—1st, per ascensum ; 2d, per descensum ; 3d?
per latus.
  Q.  Explain the three  methods, and the ap-
paratus made use of.
  A.  The distillation per ascensum is performed
generally with the common still, which has
affixed to  it a head  and refrigeratory.  The
still is for the purpose of containing the materials
to be  distilled ; the head for the vapor to ascend.
From the head a tube is continued in a circu-
lar manner through a tub of cold water : this
last constitutes  the refrigeratory; the use  of
which is to condense the vapor into a fluid by
abstracting  heat.—Distillation per descensum
is performed in the following way : a perforated
tinned iron plate is fixed within any convenient
vessel, so  as to  leave a space beneath it; on
this the  substance  to  be distilled is laid, and
over it is placed  another plate, accurately ;los-
            16* 
 198    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

 ing the mouth of the vessel, and strong enough
 to bear the fuel.  The heat is thus applied  at
 top, and the vapor is forced to descend into the
 inferior cavity, where it is condensed.—Distil-
 lation per latus is performed in a retort with a
 receiver; the fluid to be distilled is introduced
 into the body of the  retort, the receiver is then
 adjusted, and heat is applied to the retort; the
 fluid is thus raised to  a state  of vapor, that
 becomes condensed  into a fluid,  which  runs
 down the side of the neck into the receiver.
  Q,. What is the composition of the vinegar
 of commerce ?
  A. The vinegar of commerce contains,  be-
 sides the pure acetic acid, a quantity of water,
 tartaric acid, tartrate of potassa, mucilaginous
 matters, and sometimes phosphoric acid.
  Q. How do we get alcohol ?
  A. Alcohol is  produced  by distillation from
 wine and vegetable  infusions that have under-
 gone the spirituous fermentation.
  Q. What is meant by solution ?
  A. Solution is the diminution of the aggre-
gation of a solid ; so as to cause it to lose the
solid form, and to enter into chemical combina-
tion with a fluid.
  Q. What is the difference between infusion
and decoction ?
  A. Infusion consists  in  pouring  upon any
substance a cold or hot menstruum, and suffer-
 ing it to stand a certain  time, and  then strain-
 ing it off.  Decoction  consists in  boiling the 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     199
 substance with the menstruum, and then strain-
 ing off*.
   Q.  What is meant by precipitation ?
   A.  That process by which a solid is  obtain-
 ed from a solution.
   Q.  What substances are  generally used to
 deprive rectified spirit of its  water ?
   A.  The sub-carbonate of  potassa  has  been
 used ; but muriate of lime is thought prefera-
 ble, because its affinity for  water is not only
 very great, but, by being soluble in alcohol, it
 comes in contact with every particle of the
 fluid.
   Q.  In what respects does  crystallization dif-
 fer from precipitation ?
   A. Only that the particles in the solvent, on
 separating from the solution, assume certain de-
 terminate arrangements.
   Q. To what is the transparency of crystals
 owing ?
   A. To a  quantity of water that they hold,
 which is called water of crystallization.
   Q. When crystals part  with their water of
crystallization, what are they said to do ?
   A. To  effloresce.
   Q. What is meant by deliquescence ?
   A. It is a term given to express a property
in some salts by which  they absorb the mois-
ture of the atmosphere, and become fluid.
   Q. What is meant by attraction ?
   A. A  term given to  denote the power by
which bodies unite with each other, or remain 
 200    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

 in contact with each other until a superior force
 is exerted to separate them.
   Q.  What is the  difference  between  attrac-
 tion of aggregation or cohesion, and  chemical
 attraction or affinity ?
   A.  Attraction of aggregation denotes that
 power which is  exerted between particles of a
 similar nature,  as those  of  mercury,  glass,
 wood, &c.   On the contrary,  chemical attrac-
 tion denotes the power exerted between parti-
 cles of a dissimilar nature, as  salt and water,
 muriatic acid and  soda, nitric  acid and  potas-
 sa, &c.
   Q. How many kinds of affinity are there 1
   A. Affinity is divided into, 1. affinity of ag-
 gregation ; 2. compound affinity;  3. simple
 affinity; 4. double affinity;  5. divellent affini-
 ty ; 6. quiescent affinity; 7. intermediate  af-
 finity ; and 8. reciprocal affinity.
   Q. What is meant by repulsion ?
   A. It is a peculiar property, inherent in the
particles of matter, by which they have a con-
stant tendency to recede from each other.
   Q.  What is the result of a chemical combi-
nation ?
   A. A new substance is formed, in which the
particles combined  have assumed new proper-
ties.
  Q. What do you mean by the term salt ?
  A. By salt is meant a combination of an acid
with an alkali, an earth, or a metallic oxide.
  Q. What* is understood by neutral salts ? 
CHEMISYftY AND PHARMACY.     201
    A. Where there is no excess either of acid
 or base, the salt formed is called a neutral salt.
    Q. When a compound is  resolved  into  its
 constituent  parts,  what  process  is it  said to
 have undergone ?
   A. The process of analysis.
   Q. How  is the analysis of compounds ef-
 fected.
   A. Either by the power of heat, or by the
 power of a superior affinity.
   Q. Which is heaviest, platinum or gold ?
   A. Platinum is the heaviest.
   Q. What gives  the  peculiar  character  to
 mineral waters ?
   A. Mineral waters  derive  their peculiarity
 of character in general, either from containing
 carbonic acid or-eoda not neutralized, sulphu-
 retted hydrogen, purging salts, earthy salts, or
 iron, or from the temperature exceeding in a
 greater or  less degree that of  the  atmosphere.
   Q. What is meant bjr synthesis ?
   A. The formation of a compound (possess-
 ing new properties) by the combination of two
 or more simple substances.
   Q. What  is caloric ?
   A. A substance, the evolution of which pro-
 duces the sensation of heat.
   Q. How many sources of caloric are there ?
   A. There  are six sources which afford calo-
 ric :—1. the rays of the sun ;—2. combustion ;
 —3.  percussion;—4. friction;—5. the mixture
of different substances ;—and 6. electricity and
galvanism. 
202    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
    Q. What is the difference between latent
 and sensible caloric ?
    A. Latent caloric  is that which exists  in
 bodies, and makes no sensible addition to their
 temperature.  Sensible caloric is the matter of
 heat disengaged, and is denoted by an increase
 of temperature.
    Q.  What  are  the general effects of caloric
 upon substances ?
   A.  1st, substances are expanded, and thus
 increase in bulk by their combination with calo-
 ric (excepting  alumina, which is contracted).
 2d, It is the cause of fluidity.  3d, It produces
 vaporization.   4th, It  effects ignition ; and its
 combination with some substances is said to be
 the cause of their elasticity.
   Q.  What is  oxygen ?
   A. The acidifying principle; a peculiar gas,
 colorless, invisible, and elastic : it supports life
 and flame.
   Q. When  oxygen enters into  combination,
 what are  the  classes of compounds that  it
 forms ?
   A. Two classes; viz. oxides and acids.
   Q. What is an oxide ?
   A.  A  metal, or a   combustible,  combined
with oxygen, that does not possess  acid pro-
perties.
   Q. What are properties of hydrogen ?
   A.  It is an invisible elastic  gas, which has
a  peculiar smell,  extinguishes flame, burns in
contact with  oxygen, explodes  when mixed
with oxygen, and is about twelve times lighter
than common air. 
         CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    203

    Q. What are the compounds of hydrogen 1
    A. Sulphuretted, phosphuretted and carbu-
 retted hydrogen gases.
    Q. What are the purging salts usually con-
 tained in mineral waters.
    A. The purging salts usually found in mine-
 ral waters are, muriate of magnesia, of soda, of
 lime, and the sulphates of soda and magnesia.
    Q. To what  is  the  sparkling  of  mineral
 waters owing ?
    A. It is owing to the carbonic acid which
 they contain.
    Q. What is the composition of water ?
    A. Oxygen and hydrogen in chemical com-
 bination.
    Q. What is meant by a hydrate ?
   A. A combination of water with a salt or
 other substance; the crystals are  hydrates,
 and the sulphur precipitatum is  a hydrate of
 sulphur.
   Q. What is nitrogen ?
   A. An elastic, invisible gas, exceedingly ir-
 respirable, and which extinguishes flame.
   Q.. What are the compounds of nitrogen ?
   A.  In a state of mechanical  combination
 with  oxygen, it forms  atmospheric air:  and
 when chemically combined with different pro-
 portions  of  oxygen, it forms two oxides  and
 one acid, viz. nitrous oxide, or gaseous  oxide
 of  azote; nitric  oxide, which  possesses a
greater proportion of oxygen  than the preced-
ing ; and  nitric acid, which is fully saturated
with oxygen. 
204    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   Q.  How is it that nitrogen, which is inju-
 rious to animal life, should be present in such
 large quantities in the atmosphere ?
   A. Nitrogen has the effect of neutralizing,
 in some degree,  the properties of oxygen gas,
 and rendering it  fit for respiration and  combus-
 tion.
   Q.  What are the component parts of  atmo-
 spheric air ?
  A. Atmospheric air  is chiefly composed of
 oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid.
  Q. How is  a combination of a combustible
 with a metal or an earth designated ?
  A. The combustible is terminated by the
 syllable uret, but the metal or earth retains its
 original name: for example,  if sulphur and
 lime were combined, it would be  called sul-
 phured of lime;  phosphoius  and  iron,  phos-
 phuret of iron ; and so forth.
  Q. What is phosphorus ?
  A. Avery inflammable substance, of a white
 semi-transparent  color, and of the  consistency
 of wax.
  Q. What are  the compounds of phospho-
 rus ?
  A. It combines  with certain combustibles,
 earth, and metals, forming  phosphurets;  it
forms an oxide, and two acids, viz. the  phos-
phorous acic and the phosphoric acid.
  Q. In what  does pure carbon exist ?
  A. The diamond is pure carbon.
  Q. What is  charcoal ?
  A. An impure carbon. 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     205
   Q,. What are the other compounds of carbon ?
   A. Gaseous  carbonic  oxide, carbonic gas,
 and the carburetted hydrogen gas.
   Q. How would you exhibit carbonic acid
 gas internally ?
   A. Either  by the saline draught in the state
 of effervescence, or by giving yeast mixed up
 in a convenient vehicle, or by the double soda
 water.
   Q. What is sulphur ?
   A. A simple  inflammable substance.
   Q. From what  kingdom  of nature  do  we
 obtain sulphur ?
   A. From the  mineral kingdom.   It is found
 in various forms ; in a native state, mixed with
 gypsum and  limestone ;  it is also thrown out
 from volcanoes, and it is found combined with
 several metals  : sulphur likewise exists both
 in the vegetable and animal kingdoms.
   Q. What are the  preparations of sulphur
 directed by the  London Pharmacopeia ?
   A. Sulphur  lotum,  sulphur precipitatum,
 oleum sulphuratum, and sulphuretum potasse.
   Q,. How is  the sulphur precipitatum made ?
   A. By boiling quicklime, sulphur, and water,
 together for a certain time ; filtering the solu-
tion, and adding muriatic acid in order to throw
 down the  sulphur, which is  separated and
 washed.
   Q. What takes place during this operation 1
   A. During the boiling the sulphur combines
with a portion of hydrogen from the water ;  it
afterwards unites itself to the lime, forming an
             17 
206    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
 hydroguretted sulphuret of lime ; this is held
 in solution  by the  water, and passes through
 the filter:  upon the addition of muriatic acid,
 the muriatic acid combines with  the lime, the
 hydrogen is evolved from the sulphur, and the
 sulphur is precipitated.
   Q. To what  is the pale color of sulphur
 precipitatum owing ?
   A. The pale color of the sulphur precipita-
 tum is said by some to be owing to its more
 minute  division ; but by  Dr.  Thomson it is
 supposed  to  be caused by  its  containing  a
 little water.
   Q. When sub-carbonate of potassa is made
 to unite with sulphur by means of fusion, what
 takes place ?
   A. When the combination  takes  place, the
 carbonic acid is expelled.
   Q. In  what respects  do the sulphur lotum
 and the sulphur precipitatum  differ from the
 sulphur sublimatum ?
   A. The sulphur sublimatum contains a small
 portion  of  sulphuric acid ; the  other prepara-
 tions are free from this acid, and are considered
 to hold a portion of water in a state of chemical
 combination :  they are therefore hydrates  of
sulphur.
  Q.  What combinations  does sulphur form
with oxygen ?
  A. It forms the hypo-sulphurous, the sulphu-
rous,  the  hypo-sulphuric and  the  sulphuric
 acids. 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     207
    Q. Are there any other compounds of sul-
  phur?
    A. Yes ;  it combines with hydrogen, phos-
  phorus, the metals, the earths, and alkalies.
    Q. When sulphur is  dissolved in  hydrogen
  gas, what does it form ?
    A. A fetid  elastic gas is formed  somewhat
  heavier than  atmospheric air, called sulphu-
  retted hydrogen gas, which is soluble in water.
    Q. What are the properties of sulphuretted
  hydrogen ?
    A. Sulphuretted hydrogen has many of the
 characters of an acid : it combines with earths,
 alkalies, and several metallic oxides, and forms
 compounds  which are called hydro-sulphu-
 rets.
    Q. Is sulphuretted hydrogeu used in medi-
 cine ?
    A. Yes ;  in  the form of medicinal waters ;
 those of Harrogate, Aix-la-Chapelle, and others
 of a similar nature, owe their virtues to sul-
 phuretted hydrogen gas.
    Q. If sulphur is burnt in oxygen gas, what
 acid will be formed ?
    A. Sulphurous acid.
   Q. What are  the  properties of sulphuric
"•acid?
   A.  It is very ponderous and corrosive,  is
 destitute  of color  and smell, and has a very
 acid taste ;  it has a great attraction for water,
 and combines with earths, alkalies, and metallic
 oxides.
   Q.  What are acids -' 
208    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
    A. They are substances of a sour taste, pos-
 sessing a power of changing vegetable blues to
 red, and of combining with earths, metals,  and
 alkalies.
    Q. What does an acid consist of ?
    A. An acid consists of a base or bases com-
 bined with oxygen ;  the  base is called the aci-
 difiable  principle,  and the oxygen the acidify-
 ing principle.
   Q.  How do chemists distinguish  the  acids
 according to the  proportion of oxygen  with
 which they are combined ?
   A. If an  acid  basis  is perfectly  saturated
 with oxygen, the  acid  produced  is  said  to be
 perfect,  and is distinguised in  English by the
 syllable  ic, as, sulphuric acid; but if the base
 predominates, the acid is considered as imper-
 fect, and is distinguished by the English ous,
 as,  sulphurous acid.  When an  acid  has  an
 excess of oxygen, it is called oxygenated, and
 hyper-oxygenated.
   Q. What are the  acids employed  medici-
 nally ?
   A. The acetic,  tartaric, citric, benzoic, car-
 bonic,  boracic, muriatic,  nitric,  sulphuric,
phosphoric, succinic.
   Q. How  is benzoic acid made ?            «
   A. A  quantity of gum  benzoin  and  lime is
rubbed together and boiled with a quantity of
water for half an hour;  it is then  filtered, and
to the  solution  muriatic acid is added, as  long
 as any precipitate is formed ; the precipitate is 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     209
 then collected and dried, to undergo the pro-
 cess of sublimation.
   Q. What is the theory of the formation of
 benzoic acid in this way ?
   A.  The  lime  during  the boiling takes  the
 benzoic acid  from the gum benzoin ; the ben-
 roate of lime thus formed is held in solution by
 the water :  upon the addition of muriatic acid,
 the lime abandons the benzoie acid, to combine
 with the muriatie acid ; the benzoic acid, from
 its insolubility, is precipitated, and the muriate
 of lime remains in the solutiou.
   Q.  How  is citric acid made ?
   A.  A quantity of lemon-juice is  made—boil-
 ing hot, and a sufficient quantity of prepared
 chalk is added until it is saturated  : the pow-
 der  that forms is to be washed  and  dried ;
 dilute sulphuric acid is then to be  boiled upom
 the powder ; the  fluid is next filtered off and
 evaporated with a gentle heat, so that crystals
 may  form as it cools.   The crystals are fur-
 ther purified by repeated crystallization.
   Q. How  is the  formation  of  citric acid
 effected as directed by the London College ?
   A. When the lemon-juice and prepared chalk
 •are mixed  together, the citric acid and lime
 combine, while the  carbonic acid  escapes in
 effervescence: the citrate  of lime is decom-
 posed by the sulphurie  acid which is  added,
 for it takes to the lime, and sets the citric acid
at liberty.
   Q.  How is the strength of  muriatic acid
ascertained ?
              17* 
210    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
    A.  Half an ounce of  limestone  should be
  dissolved in a fluid ounce of muriatic acid.
    Q. What salt is taken into the stomach when
  the common saline draught is given 1
    A. The citrate of potassa.
    Q. In what respects do the nitric and nitrous
  acids differ ?
    A. The nitrous acid  holds  in  solution a
  quantity of nitric oxide, which is continually
 escaping;  this gas gives the acid an orange
 color, and is the cause of its fuming:  the nitric
 acid  is colorless, and does  not  evolve  nitric
 oxide.
   Q..  How is muriatic acid made ?
   A. A quantity of sulphuric acid diluted, with
 water is put into a glass retort; to this is added
 a quantity of muriate of soda ; one third of the
 water directed  to be used  is put into the re-
 ceiver, to  absorb a  quantity of gas  that  may
 be  suddenly evolved ; the receiver is then luted
 to the retort, and the muriatic acid is distilled
 over by the heat of  a sand-bath.
  Q. What is  the new  name  given to  oxy-
 muriatic acid ?
  A.  Sir  Humphrey Davy  has given  it the
name of chloriae, from its  yellowish  green
color.
  Q.  What are the discoveries  that Sir H.
Davy has made  with respect to muriatic  acid
and oxy-muriatic acid ?
  A.  He asserts that the muriatic acid consists
of hydrogen and chlorine, and that chlorine ov 
        CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     211

 oxy-muriatic acid is a simple undecomposable
 substance.
   Q.  If  this be  true, what becomes  of  the
 oxygen which the black oxide of manganese
 appears to give  to the muriatic acid in making
 of chlorine ?
   A.  The oxygen decomposes the  muriatic
 acid, absorbs its hydrogen, and forms water.
   Q.  In the formation of muriatic acid, what
 are the decompositions and combinations ?
   A. The muriate of soda is decomposed by
 the  sulphuric acid, which combines  with  the
 soda : the muriatic acid, thus let loose in  the
 state of gas,  is dissolved  by the water.
   Q.  What  salt remains after the distillation
 of muriatic acid ?
   A. The residuum in the retort consists prin-
 cipally of sulphate of soda.
   Q. In what state  does  muriatic acid exist
 when deprived of its water ?
   A. When  muriatic acid is deprived of water,
 it exists in the state of gas.
   Q. Does nitric acid absorb humidity, or not ?
   A. Nitric  acid  has a great affinity for hu-
 midity, for it attracts the  water from the atmo-
 sphere.
   Q. What vapor is  used by the French phy-
 sicians to destroy contagion ?
   A.  The  vapor of the oxy-muriatic acid.
   Q. How is nitric acid  made ?
   A.  Equal  parts of dried nitrate of potassa
 and sulphuric acid are put into a glass retort;
distillation is  then  to  be  carried on in a sand- 
212    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
  bath until a red vapor arises ; the  nitric  acid
  that is to be distilled over is to  be re-distilled
  from a fresh portion  of dried nitrate of po-
  tassa.
    Q. In making nitric acid, what takes place ?
    A. The sulphuric acid combines with the
 alkali of the nitrate of potassa, forming  sul-
 phate of potassa, and the nitric acid is distilled
 over.
    Q. How is boracic acid obtained ?
    A. By adding sulphuric acid to a hot solution
 of borax :  this combines both the soda of the
 borax, forming  sulphate of soda, and the bo-
 racic acid is crystallized upon the solution cool-

   Q. How is the oxy-muriatic acid obtained ?
   A. It is obtained from a mixture of muriate
 of soda, black oxide of manganese,  and  sul-
 phuric acid.
   Q. Why is the oxy-muriatic acid  required
 to be kept in the dark ?
   A. Because it decomposes the water by the
 agency of light;  that is, it is resolved into mu-
 riatic acid.
   Q. Has  this acid the property  of  changing
 vegetable blues to a red ?
   A. No:  it deprives vegetable substances of
 color ; hence its utility  in bleaching.
   Q. What is the composition of nitric acid ?
   A. Oxygen and nitrogen.
   Q. What are the properties of phosphorous
acid ?
   A. Phosphorous  acid is a white fluid of an 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    213
  oily appearance : it has a fetid odor and  disa-
  greeable taste ; it gives out a thick white smoke
  and vivid flames, when  strongly heated; and
  it is decomposed by ignited charcoal.
   Q. What  compound of phosphoric  acid is
  used in medicine 1
   A. The officinal  preparation of phosphoric
  acid is phosphate of soda, or the combination
  of phosphoric acid and soda.
   Q. What is the composition of phosphoric
  acid?
   A. Phosphorus and oxygen.
   Q.  In what state do we obtain hyper-oxy-
 muriatic acid  ?
   A.  Combined with  an  alkaline base;  as
 forming the hyper-oxymuriate of potassa.  This
 is the only state in which it exists.
   Q.  What  is  the  composition of carbonic
 acid ?
   A. Carbon  and oxygen.  By heating potas-
 sium or  the metal of potassa in carbonic acid,
 the  potassium combines with the  oxygen  of
 the  carbonic  acid,  and charcoal, or oxide of
 carbon, is deposited.
   Q. What are the acids that have not hitherto
 been decomposed ?
   A. The  fluoric acid, and the boracic acid.
   Q. What is the composition of the vegeta-
ble acids ?
   A. Varied proportions of carbon and hydro-
gen acidified by oxygen:
   Q. What are alkalies ?
  A.  They are substances that possess an acrid 
214    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
  taste, and a urinous smell; they convert  most
  vegetable blues to a green, and they render oils
  miscible with water.
    Q. What is the composition of the  alkalies 1
    A. A metal and oxygen.
    Q. What is the general distinction of alka-
  lies ?
    A. Into fixed  and volatile ; they  are  also
 distinguished into vegetable alkali, or  potassa ;
 mineral alkali, or soda ; and volatile alkali, or
 ammonia.  Potassa and soda are considered as
 fixed alkalies, because they are not  volatilized
 but by a very intense heat; whereas ammonia,
 which is the volatile alkali, requires only the
 temperature of  the  atmosphere  to change its
 state of aggregation.
   Q. How is the potassa of commerce obtain-
 ed ?
   A. From the lixivium of wood ashes :—the
 ashes of all wood afford  this alkali,  but  the
 harder   woods  most abundantly.   Another
 method of obtaining potassa is by burning the
 impure  tartar of commerce, and lixiviating it.
   Q. How are salts distinguished  according
to the quantity of acid they contain ?
   A.  If the salt should  contain an excess of
acid, the  preposition  super is  prefixed  to its
name ; and when the acid  contained  is not
sufficient to saturate the base, the preposition
sub is added : thus we have super-sulphate and
sub-sulphate of mercury.
  Q.  How is the  sub-carbonas potasse ob-
tained ? 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    215
  A.  By mixing a quantity of impure potassa
of commerce with a stated quantity of water ;
by  boiling these for  a certain  time, filtering
the solution, and finally evaporating the water
from the salt, while stirring it.
  Q.  How are the extraneous or more crys-
tallizable salts  of the impure potassa got rid
of ?
   A.  Sub-carbonate  of potassa being  very
soluble in water in comparison to the extrane-
ous salts contained in impure potassa, an ad-
vantage is taken of this, for only a sufficient
quantity of water is added to dissolve the
sub-carbonates;  the  extraneous  salts  there-
fore,  not being  dissolved,  remain upon  the
filter.   They  consist chiefly  of sulphate of
potassa, muriate of potassa, with a quantity of
earthy impurities.
  Q.  What is  the  difference between sal tar-
tari, sal absinthii, and sub-carbonas potasse ?
  A.  Very  little  difference, excepting in the
proportion of carbonic acid   with which  they
are combined : they are all  sub-carbonates of
potassa, but are differently obtained:
  Q.  What are  the  preparations  of potassa
directed to be used by the London College ?
  A.  Acetas potasse, sulphas potasse,  super-
sulphas potasse, tartras potasse, sub-carbonas
potasse, carbonas potasse, liquor sub-carbona-
tis  potasse, liquor  potasse,  potassa  fusa,
potassa cum calce.
  Q.  What nitrates are used in medicine ? 
216    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
    A. The nitrates used  in medicine are the
  nitrate of potassa and the nitrate of silver.
    Q. How are the nitrates known ?
    A. The nitrates yield oxygen, they give out
  a  white vapor when  acted  on by sulphuric
  acid, and when mixed with combustible sub-
  stances, produce, at a  red heat, detonation or
  inflammation.
    Q. How would you know the muriates ?
    A. The muriates, when acted upon by con-
 centrated sulphuric acid, yield muriatic acid
 in  the form of vapor.
   Q. How are the carbonates known ?
   A. They are  decomposed by all the acids,
 producing an effervescence ; and they preserve
 their alkaline  properties in some degree.
   Q. What carbonates are used in medicine 1
   A. The carbonates used in medicine are,
 carbonate of  barytes, carbonate  of lime,  of
 magnesia, of potassa, of soda, of ammonia, of
 zinc, and of iron.
  Q. How is the potassa fusa  obtained ?
  A. By  evaporating  the water from the
liquor potasse, melting the salt, and casting it
into proper moulds.
  Q. How is  the liquor potasse made 1
  A.  By  putting together sub-carbonate  of
potassa, quicklime, and hot water, suffering
them to remain  a length of time, then filter-
ing.
  Q.  Why is the lime added ?
  A.  To abstract  the carbonic  acid from the
sub-carbonate of potassa. 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    217
    Q.  What  is  the composition  of cremor
 tartari ?
    A. It is a super-tartrate of potassa, that is,
 potassa combined with  an excess of tartaric
 acid.
    Q. How is the tartras potasse made ?
    A. It is made by  adding a quantity of sub-
 carbonate of  potassa  to  a quantity of super-
 tartrate of potassa dissolved in  water, evapo-
 rating to a certain extent, and crystallizing the
 salt.
   Q. What effect has the sub-carbonate  of
 potassa in this preparation ?
   A. It parts with its carbonic acid to combine
 with the  excess of tartaric acid  in the super-
 tartras potasse, to form a neutral salt.
   Q. How is the perfect  carbonate of potassa
 formed ?
   A. By adding carbonate of ammonia to sub-
 carbonate of potassa dissolved in water.  This
 solution is exposed to a certain degree of heat
 until all  the  ammonia is  expelled,  and the
 sub-carbonate  of  potassa becomes a perfect
 carbonate  by taking carbonic acid from the
 carbonate of ammonia.
   Q. Why is the  carbonate of potassa prefer-
 red to the  sub-carbonate for a saline draught,
 to be taken in a state  of effervescence ?
   A. Because it affords most carbonic acid.
   Q. What  remains in  the retort after the
distillation of nitric acid ?
   A. A super-sulphate of potassa.
   Q. What is the character of the acetates ?
              18 
218    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
  A.  Acetates are very soluble in water, are
decomposed by heat, by exposure to air, and
by the stronger acids.
  Q.  What acetates are used in medicine ?
  A.  There  are  four  acetates  used in medi-
cine ; viz. acetate of potassa, of lead, of zinc,
and of mercury.
  Q.  What is  the composition  of nitre crys-
tals ?     j
  A.  Nitric acid, potassa, and water ?
  Q.  Why is the nitras potasse  made use of
in forming sulphuric acid ?
  A.  To  supply  the  sulphur when burning
with a greater quantity of oxygen.
  Q.  What are the states of combination that
potassa enters into with tartaric acid ?
  A.  Two states, so as to form an acidulous
salt and a neutral salt.
  Q.  How is the tartras potasse made ?
  A.  By adding  a sufficient quantity of  sub-
carbonate of potassa  to neutralize  the  super-
tartrate of potassa, which  is previously  to be
dissolved in hot water: it is  afterwards to be
evaporated,  filtered, and then put by in order
to crystallize.
  Q.  How is impure soda obtained ?
  A.  It is generally obtained by lixiviating the
ashes of burnt plants,  that have grown on the
sea-shore, particularly the herb called Salsola
kali.
  Q.  How is the sub-carbonas sode obtained 1
  A.  By  boiling a stated  quantity of impure
soda  of commerce in a quantity  of  distilled 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
water, filtering the solution, evaporating it, and
crystallizing the salt.
  Q.  How is carbonas sode obtained ?
  A.  By adding sub-carbonate of ammonia to
sub-carbonate  of soda, dissolved in  a quanti-
ty of distilled water ;  exposing this solution to
heat for a certain time, in order to expel the
ammonia ;  then crystallizing the carbonate of
soda.
  Q.  What salt remains after the distillation of
muriatic acid?
  A.  Sulphate of soda, which is directed to be
reserved and prepared for use.
  Q.  What is  the  composition of common
table salt ?
  A. It consists principally of  muriatic acid
and soda.
  Q. Why does it deliquesce ?
  A. Because it  contains a little muriate of
magnesia.
  Q. How are salts crystallized ?
  A. A certain portion of the water of solution
 is evaporated, and the remainder left in a pro-
 per temperature  at rest;  the salts will after a
 time be found dispersed through  the mother
 water at the bottom and sides of the vessel.
   Q. How is ammonia obtained ?
   A.  In a variety of ways :  it  is abundantly
 formed by animal decomposition ;  it exists in
 soot in combination with an acid ; it is obtained
 by distilling hartshorn.or bones ; but it is gene-
 rally obtained from the sal ammoniac of com-
 merce. 
220     CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   Q. What is the composition of ammonia?
   A. Hydrogen  and nitrogen:  but  Sir Hum-
 phry Davy has  made it  appear to be a com-
 pound of a metal, which he has named ammo-
 nium.
   Q. What compounds of ammonia are direct-
 ed to be kept by the London College ?
   A. Carbonas ammonie, liquor acetatis am-
 monite,  liquor carbonatis ammonie, and the
 liquor ammonie.
   Q. How  is the formation of carbonate of
 ammonia effected ?
   A. By sublimation, from a mixture of dried
prepared chalk  and muriate of ammonia:  a
double decomposition takes place; the lime of
the  prepared chalk combines with the muri-
atic  acid, forming muriate of lime ; while the
carbonic  acid, the  other constituent  of the
chalk, combines  with the  ammonia, and forms
carbonate of ammonia, which is sublimed.
   Q. Is this a perfect carbonate ?
   A. No : it is a sub-carbonate: the carbonate
of ammonia is void of smell.
   Q. How is the liquor ammonie made ?
   A. By abstracting the muriatic acid of muri-
ate of ammonia by means  of lime, and causing
the ammoniacal gas to be absorbed by water.
   Q. How  is the  liquor ammonie  acetatis
made ?
   A.  By saturating acetic acid with sub-carbo-
nate of ammonia.
   Q. What is an  earth ?
   A. A  substance that is nearly insoluble in 
       CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     221

water; that has little or no smell; that  is in-
combustible ; and, when pure,  assumes the
form of a -white powder. The specific gravity
of an earth should  not  exceed 4.9.   All the
earths have metallic bases.
  Q. How many earths  are at present known
to chemists ?
  A. Nine ; viz. silex,  argil, magnesia, lime,
barytes, strontian, zircon, glucine, and yttria.
  Q. What  are  the earths  that are  used  in
medicine ?
  A. They are four in number ; viz. magnesia,
lime, alumina,  and barytes;  which last  is
not admitted into the London Pharmacopoeia.
  Q. What substances afford alumina ?
  A. It exists in many fossils, and forms the
basis of common clay.
  Q. What is there peculiar to this earth ?
  A. It contracts  when exposed to heat, and
becomes  so  hard as to be capable of striking
fire with  steel.
  Q. Is alumina ever found  pure in nature, or
used in medicine in its pure state ?
  A. No.
  Q. What substances afford gallic acid ?
  A. Gallic acid is afforded  by nut-galls, and
most astringent substances.
  Q. What compounds  of argil are directed to
be kept in the shops, by the  London College ?
  A. The alumen  exsiccatum, and  the liquor
aluminis  compositus.
  Q. What is the composition of alumen ?
            18* 
222    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   A. Sulphuric acid in excess, alumina, a small
 portion of potassa, and often ammonia.
   Q. Why is potassa always put in to form
 alum ?
   A. To facilitate  crystallization.   The  sul-
 phate, or super-sulphate  of alumina  alone,
 crystallizes in very small quantities, and  that
 with great difficulty.
   Q. Is alum ever found in nature ?
   A. Yes; it is often found in  a  species of
 slate denominated  alum slate, which is mixed
 with the layers of coal.
   Q. From whence do we obtain magnesia ?
   A. It is never found in the pure state, but in
 combination in  many fossils; it  is also found
 combined with acids  in  many springs, and in
 sea-water : from these several sources the earth
 is obtained.
   Q. What preparations of magnesia does the
 College direct to be used ?
   A.  The carbonas magnesie and the sulphas
 magnesie, and  magnesia.
   Q. How is the carbonas magnesie  made ?
   A.  By mixing  together  a solution of sub-
 carbonate of potassa and of sulphate of mag-
 nesia, boiling for a certain time,  and filtering.
 The carbonate of magnesia  remains  upon the
filter, and is to be well washed with hot water,
 to deprive it entirely of the sulphate  of po-
 tassa ; it is afterwards dried.
   Q. What takes place in this process ?
   A.  A double decomposition takes place ; the
potassa loses  its carbonic acid to  combine with 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     223
the sulphuric acid, while the magnesia  loses
its sulphuric acid to combine with the carbonic
acid; and thus a carbonate of magnesia is ob-
tained, and a sulphate  of potassa remains  in
solution.
  Q. When the carbonate of magnesia is ex-
posed to an intense heat for  some time,  what
takes place ?
  A.  It loses its carbonic acid, and pure  mag-
nesia is obtained.
  Q. Which is lightest, the carbonas magnesie,
or magnesia?
  A.  Magnesia.
  Q.  How would you keep pure magnesia ?
  A.  In a bottle well stopt, to prevent the ab-
sorption of carbonic acid : it  however attracts
carbonic acid but slowly.
  Q.  How is sulphate of magnesia obtained ?
  A. It used  to be  made by evaporating the
water of the mineral springs at Epsom : but it
is now generally obtained by evaporating the
bittern, or the fluid that remains  after the cr}*s-
tallization of salt from sea-water.
  Q. What are the sources of lime ?
  A.  It is  a  constituent of chalk-stone,  lime-
stone, marl, shells, bones : it is found  combined
with many acids, as  carbonic, fluoric, boracic,
and sulphuric acid ; it exists in small portions
in sea-water, in spring and river water, and  it
is found in vegetables.
  Q.  What preparations of lime does the  Lon-
don College direct to be kept ?
  A.  Calx, liquor calcis, creta preparata. 
224    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   Q. How is calx, or lime, to be obtained ?
   A. By burning chalk-stone with  a white
heat, until it ceases to  effervesce, or give off
carbonic acid, when thrown into acetic acid.
   Q. Is this pure lime which remains ?
   A. Sufficiently pure for medical purposes,
but not for chemical.
   Q. What takes place if lime-water is exposed
to the air for any length of time ?
   A. The lime that is held  in solution  soon
combines with carbonic acid, and  precipitates,
leaving the water pure.
   Q. What takes place in the slacking of lime ?
   A. The water is absorbed  with a  hissing
noise, the lime cracks and falls into powder, a
great quantity of caloric is  evolved, so  as to
convert  one  portion  of  water into a vapor,
while the other portion of water  enters into
combination with the lime, and  becomes so-
lidified.
   Q. Which of the earths used in medicine is
a poison ?
   A. Barytes is a violent poison : in an over-
dose it produces nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea,
vertigo, and death.
   Q. What  preparation of barytes is  used in
medicine ?
   A. The muriate of barytes is admitted  into
the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia ; and has been
given  in  scrofula,  and  to  remove  tumors,
worms, and cutaneous diseases.
   Q. What is a metal ?
   A. It is a simple substance,  possessed of 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     225
 great tenacity and  hardness, opacity, the pro-
 perty  of  reflecting  light,  a  certain  specific
 gravity, and of combustibility, when raised to
 a certain temperature, in contact with oxygen.
   Q. Are  all the metals opaque ?
   A. Yes, all except gold-leaf,  which,  when
 beat extremely thin, transmits green light.
   Q. What is the difference between ductility,
 malleability, and tenacity ?
   A. Malleability is that property by which-'a
 metal may be pressed or beat into thin leaves,
 or plates ; ductility, the property by which a
 metal may be drawn into wires of certain dia-
 meters ; and tenacity, the   power of cohesion
 of the particles of metals, by which they allow
 of ductility and malleability.
   Q. What is the cause of expansion in metals ?
   A. Caloric, which is supposed  to cause  the
 metallic particles to assume greater distances.
   Q. Do metals conduct caloric ?
   A. Yes : they are  the  best conductors  of
 that principle.
   Q. Do metals differ much in fusibility ?
  A. Yes.   Mercury melts  at a very low
 temperature, even the  coldest atmosphere ; on
 the contrary, platinum requires  the most in-
 tense heat for its fusion.
  Q. Are these the chief properties of metals ?
  A. Yes, excepting that  they  are the best
electrical  conductors, and generate  galvanism
 by contact.
  Q. When a metal  combines with oxygen,
what change has it undergone ? 
226     CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   A. It has become oxidized, and  the  com-
 pound formed is called an oxide.
   Q. When a metal combines with an acid, bo
 as to form a salt, what change does the metal
 first undergo ?
   A. It becomes oxidized either by decom-
 posing the  water, or part of the acid, and is
 then dissolved by the remaining acid.
   Q. When two  metals are combined, what is
 the compound called ?
   A. An alloy ; excepting the combination of
 a metal  with  mercury, which is  termed an
 amalgam.
   Q. What is the number of metals at present
 known ?
   A. They amount to twenty-one, if  the new
 metals of the alkalies, &c, are excluded.
   Q. Enumerate  the metals.
   A. Gold, platinum, silver, mercury, copper,
 iron, tin, lead, nickel, zinc, bismuth, antimony,
 tellurium, arsenic, cobalt, manganese, tungsten,
 molybdenum, uranium, titanium, chromium.
   Q. What are the  metals that  are  used in
 medicine ?
  A. Silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin, lead,
 zinc, bismuth, arsenic, antimony.
  Q. In what state is silver found in nature?
  A. Native and mineralized.
  Q. What are  the preparations of silver used
in medicine ?
  A. Only the  nitras argenti, which  is made
with silver, nitric  acid, and  distilled water.
The nitric acid and water are mixed ;  the sil- 
        CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     227

ver is then added, which speedily becomes dis-
solved by the application of a gradual heat;
when this is effected, the solution is evaporat-
ed, in order to obtain a dry  nitrate  of silver.
The nitrate of silver is then  melted  in a cruci-
ble, with a gentle heat, and is cast into proper
moulds.
  Q. What takes place during the  melting of
the nitrate of silver?
  A. It loses part of its nitric acid, and becomes
reduced to a sub-nitrate.
  Q. What are the sources of mercury ?
  A. It is found native; it is found in combina-
tion  with muriatic acid ; it is found in combina-
tion  with  sulphur, constituting  an  ore called
native cinnabar: from this ore the quicksilver
of commerce is generally obtained.
  Q. What are the properties of mercury ?
  A. Mercury is a fluid metal in the tempera-
ture  of  our atmosphere, and has the appear-
ance  of melted silver,  in  which  state  it is
neither  ductile nor malleable, is very  volatile
when heated, and extremely divisible ;  it com-
bines with other metals and  forms amalgams.
  Q. What preparations of mercury are direct-
ed to be used by the  London Pharmacopoeia r
  A. Oxymurias hydrargyri, liquor  oxymuria-
tis  hydrargyri, hydrargyrus cum creta, sub-
murias hydrargyri, nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri,
oxydum hydrargyri cinereum, oxydum  hydrar-
gyri  rubrum, hydrargyrus precipitatus albus,
hydrargyrus purificatus, and sulphuretum hy- 
228    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

drargyrus purificatus, and sulphuretum hydrar-
gyri rubrum, &c.
  Q. How is the oxymurias hydrargyri formed ?
  A.  Mercury  and  sulphuric  acid  are  first
boiled together, in a glass vessel, until a dry
salt is obtained ;  by this process the  mercury
first becomes oxidized, and then dissolves  in
the remaining acid ; this is evaporated, until a
dry salt is procured, which is  an oxy-sulphate
of mercury; this is mixed with  a quantity of
dried muriate of soda, and sublimed: the order
of affinities is now changed; the muriatic acid
combines with the oxide of mercury, forming
an oxy-muriate of mercury, which is sublimed,
and the sulphuric acid combines with the soda,
forming sulphate of soda, which is not sublimed.
  Q.  In what state of oxidation does the mer-
cury exist in this preparation ?
  A.  In the state of red oxide.
  Q.  How is the hydrargyrus cum creta made ?
  A.  By rubbing creta and mercury together
until the globules of the mercury disappear.
  Q.  What is the composition of this prepara-
tion ?
  A.  It is composed of an  oxide of mercury
combined with carbonate of lime.
  Q.  In what state is the mercury that is pre-
sent  in the unguentum  hydrargyri fortius,
emplastrum hydrargyri, and pilula hydrargyri ?
   A.  It is in the state of protoxide,  or  grey
oxide.
   Q. How is the submurias hydrargyri made ?
   A. A quantity of oxy-muriate of mercury 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    229
 is rubbed with a quantity of purified mercury,
 until the globules  of the mercury are extin-
 guished; it is then to be sublimed, and the
 sublimation and rubbing  are  to be repeated
 three times ; after which it is to be reduced to
 a very subtile powder.
   Q. What is the  use of the purified mercury
 in this preparation ?
   A. It abstracts from the oxy-muriate  of mer-
 cury a portion  of its  oxygen ;  by which the
 oxide of mercury that existed in the oxy-muri-
 ate is converted into an imperfect black oxide :
 this imperfect oxide requires less muriatic acid
 to saturate it than  the perfect oxide does : the
 compound formed  is therefore  a muriate, but
 the London College have thought proper to
 call it a submuriate, to prevent mistakes.
   Q. What are the characters  of the sub-
 muriate of mercury ?
   A. It is inodorous, insipid, and  has  a light
 yellow or ivory color, which deepens by long
 exposure  to  the light.   Lime-water and the
 alkalies, when triturated with it, instantly ren-
 der it black, which is one test of its purity;
 for, if it  contains any  oxy-muriate, a  yellow
 tint is mingled with the black on the addition
 of lime-water.
   Q. Is there  any other mode of obtaining the
 submuriate of mercury or calomel besides that
 directed by the London College ?
  A. Yes:  Mr. Howard has  proposed  the
following improvement;  instead of subliming
the calomel in a concrete form, the vapor as it 
230    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
rises is thrown into a vessel containing water,
where it instantly condenses into the form of
a white impalpable powder.
  Q. How is the  nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri
made ?
  A. By boiling  mercury,  nitric  acid, and
water, to dryness, and then raising  the  heat
gradually until the red vapor ceases to arise.
  Q. What color does the oxide of gold give
to glass ?
  A. Glass is colored purple by the oxide of
gold.
  Q. What compound is formed with the oxide
of gold  and ammonia ?
  A. This  compound  is  called fulminating
gold.
  Q. What takes place  during  the formation
of nitric oxide of mercury ?
  A. The mercury  decomposes a portion of
the  nitric acid  by  attracting oxygen ; it  be-
comes converted into an oxide, and nitric oxide
gas  is evolved; the oxide  of  mercury  thus
formed, is then dissolved by the undecomposed
nitric acid, and a nitrate of mercury is formed.
When the dried nitrate of mercury is exposed
to heat, the greater  part of the  nitric  acid is
driven off, and a perfect oxide of mercury re-
mains, holding a very small portion of nitric
acid.
  Q. How is the red oxide of mercury made ?
  A. By exposing mercury in a  glass vessel,
with a broad bottom, a long neck, and a narrow
mouth, to a heat of 600°, until the mercury is 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    231
converted into red scales, which are to be re-
duced to a very fine powder.
  Q. What is the .theory of this process?
  A. The mercury, when exposed to a heat of
600°, rises in vapor up the neck of the vessel;
the  vapor of the  mercury combines with a
maximum of oxygen, by decomposing atmo-
spheric air, and falls back into the vessel in the
state of dark red scales, which become of a
deeper red as the process goes on.
  Q. Why does  not the mercury escape when
exposed to this temperature ?
  A. Because  the vessel is provided with a
long narrow neck,  that is  drawn  out  into a
capillary opening, which prevents  the  escape
of the mercury, but allows a free admission of
air.
  Q. How is the grey oxide  of mercury pre-
pared ?
  A. It  is prepared by boiling sub-muriate of
mercury  with  lime-water, constantly stirring,
until a grey oxide of mercury is separated ; it
is then to be washed with distilled water, and
dried.  During this  preparation, the lime com-
bines with the muriatic acid of the muriate of
mercury, and its  oxide is separated.
  Q. Why are iron filings directed  to be used
in purifying mercury ?
  A. Because the iron has a greater attraction
for  the  metals with which mercury is often
amalgamated, than for the mercury.
  Q. How  is  the sulphuretum  hydrargyri
made ? 
232    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   A.  It is  made by  mixing  mercury  with
melted  sulphur over the fire; when  this is
effected, the mass is cooled, reduced to pow-
der, and sublimed.
   Q.  How  is  the hydrargyrus  precipitatus
albus made ?
   A.  By dissolving muriate of ammonia and
oxy-muriate of mercury  in water, and pour-
ing into this solution a quantity of liquid  sub-
carbonate  of potassa.   The  powder that  is
thrown down, is washed until  it  becomes
insipid, and dried.
   Q.  Where is iron found ?
   A.  It is found abundantly in the earth, under
a  variety of forms, mineralized  by sulphur,
combined  with earths, alloyed with metals :
it  exists in the waters of many springs; it is
contained in vegetables ; it gives color to the
blood, and to many fossil substances.
   Q.  What preparations of iron are directed
to be  kept by the London College ?
   A. Ferrum  ammoniatum;  carbonas ferri;
sulphas ferri ; ferrum  tartarizatura ;  liquor
ferri alkalini ; tinctura ferri muriatis ; tinctura
ferri ammoniati;  vinum ferri.
   Q.  How many oxides of iron are there ?
   A.  Two : the  black or protoxide, and the
red or peroxide.
   Q.  Would you order the  preparations  of
iron to be combined with astringent decoctions
for medical use ?
   A.  No:  because most of such decoctions 
        CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    233

 contain gallic acid  and tannin, which,  com-
 bined with iron, form an ink-like mixture.
   Q. If sulphate  of iron is  burnt  in a white
 heat, what will  remain after  the  process has
 been continued some time ?
   A. The peroxide or red oxide of iron.
   Q. What is the composition of ferrum am-
 moniatum ?
   A. It is composed  of muriate of iron and
 muriate of ammonia.
   Q. How is  it  made ?
   A. By subliming  equal  parts of carbonate
 of iron and muriate of ammonia.
   Q. How is the carbonate of iron made ?
   A. By dissolving sub-carbonate of soda and
 sulphate of iron in  two separate portions of
 water,  mixing  the   solutions, suffering  the
 green powder to  subside, then washing and
 drying it.
   Q. What change of affinities  is produced
 by mixing these  solutions ?
   A. The carbonic  acid  combines with the
 iron, leaving the  soda to  combine with the
 sulphuric  acid;  a  sulphate of soda therefore
 remains in solution, and a  carbonate of iron is
 precipitated.   This  new  compound  consists
 of the black oxide of iron, combined with car-
 bonic acid, but upon exposure to the air, passes
 very soon to the state of red oxide.
  Q. How is the ferrum tartarizatum made ?
  A. It is made  by mixing iron filings, super-
tartrate  of potassa, and  water together;  they
are exposed to the air in a  broad glass vessel,
             19* 
234    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
 for eight days ;  the compound is then dried in
 a sand-bath,  and reduced  to  powder: after
 this is  done, it  is to be mixed with another
 portion of  water, and exposed  for eight  days
 longer.
   Q. What is the theory of the  formation of
 this compound ?
   A. During the exposure to the air, the iron
 becomes oxidized by abstracting oxygen both
 from the air and the water  with which  it is
 mixed; and the oxide of iron combines  with
 the superabundant tartaric acid of the super-
 tartrate of  potassa; the  compound  formed is
 therefore a tartrate of potassa and iron.
   Q. When iron wire  is burnt  in oxygen gas,
 what compound  is formed ?
   A. When iron is burnt in oxygen gas, the
 compound  formed is the  black oxide of  iron.
   Q. When iron is heated, in contact  with
 air, what is formed ?
   A. In this process a  black oxide of iron is
 formed.
   Q. When carbon is united to iron, what is
formed ?
   A. Steel.
   Q. What is the composition of the liquor
ferri alkalini ?
   A. It is  considered as  composed  of nitric
acid, red oxide of iron, with potassa, forming
a triple compound.
   Q. How is it made?
   A. It is made with iron, nitric acid, distilled
 water, and solution of sub-carbonate of potassa. 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     235
'The acid, and water, are first to be mixed, and
poured  on the iron : when the effervescence
has ceased, the  acid solution is to be  poured
off, and added gradually to a solution  of sub-
carbonate of potassa,  occasionally  shaking it
until it  has assumed a deep  brown-red color,
and  no further effervescence  takes place ;  it is
then to be set by for six hours, and its clear so-
lution poured off.
   Q. How is the tinctura ferri muriatis made ?
   A. Carbonate of  iron  is put with muriatic
acid for three days :  during which time  the
carbonic acid is displaced from the red oxide
of iron, and  the red oxide combines with the
muriatic acid, and  forms an oxy-murdate  of
iron, which  is  afterwards  combined  with a
quantity of rectified  spirit.
   Q. What  compound of iron exists in  the
vinum ferri ?
   A. A tartrate of iron and potassa.
   Q. In what state  in nature is lead found ?
   A. It is found oxidized, forming a variety of
ores ;  combined with  sulphur, forming an ore
called  galena:  combined  with muriatic  and
carbonic acids.  It is found in the state of car-
bonate, phosphate, arseniate, arsenic phosphate,
molybdate, and sulphate.
   Q.  What is plumbago  ?
   A. Plumbago is a carburet  of iron, or iron
combined with  carbon, in its first  degreee of
*oxy elation.
   Q.  What are the compounds of lead admit-
ted into the  new London  Pharmacopoeia ? 
236    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
  A. Liquor acetatis plumbi;  acetas plumbi;
and liquor acetatis plumbi dilutus.
  Q. How is the acetate of lead made ?
  A. It  is  made  by boiling the carbonated
oxide of lead in acetic  acid, which displaces
the carbonic acid, and combines with the oxide
of lead ; the solution is to be filtered, evaporat-
ed to a certain extent,  and set aside to crys-
tallize.
  Q. What are the substances which ought
not  to  be given  internally with acetate  of
lead?
  A. Alkalies, and their  carbonates, most  of
the acids, and neutral salts, lime and magnesia.
  Q. How is the liquor acetatis plumbi made ?
  A. By  boiling acetic acid and vitrified oxide
of lead together, to a certain extent; then set-
ting the solution by, that the  feculences may
subside.
  Q. What is the theory of this process ?
  A. The oxide of lead  combines with the
acetic acid, and a sub-acetate of lead is formed.
  Q. How  is the  cerusse of commerce pre-
pared ?
  A. Small sheets of lead are rolled  up in a
spiral  form ; these  are placed perpendicularly
on a support, over a vessel containing vinegar ;
several of these vessels  covered are placed to-
gether, and surrounded with dung, the heat of
which raises the vinegar in vapor, which con-
verts the surface of the lead into a white oxide,
or rather  a carbonate; at length the whole  of 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     237
the lead  is thus converted ; it is then taken
out, and ground to powder.
   Q.  What form of lead is litharge ?
   A.  Litharge is the yellow oxide of lead in a
kind of vitriform state, and combined  with a
little carbonic acid.
   Q.  How many oxides of lead are there ?
   A.  Lead is considered at present as capable
of forming four different oxides.
   Q.  What oxide  is minium ?
   A.  The tritoxide or red oxide of lead.
   Q.  In  what state is copper found in nature ?
   A.  It is found mineralized by oxygen ; com-
bined  with  carbonic acid, forming malachite
and mountain blue ; in combination with phos-
phoric acid, with muriatic acid, with sulphuric
acid,  with  arsenic  acid ; and it is abundantly
found mineralized with sulphur, forming all the
varieties of copper pyrites.
   Q.  What preparation of iron exists in the
mistura ferri composita ?
   A.  A carbonate of iron.
   Q.  How many oxides  of copper are there X
   A.  There are two oxides of copper, viz. the
protoxide of a red or orange  color,  and the
peroxide of a black color.
   Q.   What form  of copper is erugo or ver-
digris ?
   A.  Verdigris is  a sub-acetate of copper.
   Q.  What are  the  compounds  of copper
directed  to be used by the London Pharmaco-
poeia  1 
238    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   A. They are the cuprum ammoniatum, and
 the liquor cupri ammoniati.
   Q. How is the ammoniated copper made ?
   A. It is made by rubbing sulphate of copper
 and sub-carbonate of ammonia together, in a
 glass mortar, until the mixture ceases to effer-
 vesce ;  it is then to be  wrapped  in bibulous
 paper, and dried by a moderate heat.
   Q. From whence do we obtain arsenic ?
   A.  It is found in nature amongst the ores of
 cobalt, antimony, tin, iron, copper, and silver;
 it is found in combination with sulphur, form-
 ing an  ore called orpiment;  and  it is  found
 combined with  oxygen,  forming an ore  called
 the white oxide of arsenic.
   Q.  What preparations of arsenic are used in
 medicine ?
   A.  The oxidum  arsenici preparatum, and
 liquor arsenicalis.
   Q.  How many oxides  of arsenic are there ?
   A.  There are two oxides of arsenic, viz. the
 protoxide, or what is called  white  oxide, and
 the peroxide, wh'ch is generally called arsenic
 acid.
   Q.  How is  the prepared oxide of arsenic
made?
   A. By reducing common oxide of arsenic to
powder, and placing it in a crucible, covered
by an inverted crucible; into which the oxide
of arsenic is sublimed.
  Q. How is the liquor arsenicalis made  ?
  A. By taking sixty-four grains of  prepared
oxide of arsenic, and sixty-four grains of the 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     239
sub-carbonate of potassa from tartar ; these are
to be boiled in a glass vessel, with a pint of water,
until they are entirely dissolved, to which are
to be added four fluid drachms of the compound
tincture of lavender, with as much water as
will make the whole exactly fill a pint measure.
  Q.  What is the compound formed  in this
preparation ?
  A.  An arseniate of potassa.
  Q.  Has  the oxide of arsenic any peculiar
properties ?
  A.  Yes ; instead of being insipid, as  most
other oxides are, it is acrid and corrosive to
the taste, it is soluble in  water, and  can be
crystallized in octahedrons ; it reddens the in-
fusion of litmus, and combines with alkalies ; it
has therefore  been  considered, by some  che-
mists, rather as an acid than an oxide, and has
been called arsenious acid.
  Q,.  What are  the sources of antimony ?
  A.  Antimony is found native, in  combina-
tion with oxygen, with sulphur, and with mu-
riatic acid.
  Q.  What preparations of antimony does the
London College  direct to be kept ?
  A.  The oxidum antimonii, sulphuretum anti-
monii, precipitatum, antimonium tartarizatum,
pulvis antimonialis,  and the liquor  antimonii
tartarizati.
  Q.  How is  the oxide of antimony made ?
  A.  A quantity of sulphuret of antimony is to
be added  to  a  mixture of  muriatic acid and
nitric acid ; which is to be digested for an hour, 
240    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
 in a  boiling heat; the solution is then to be
 strained, and poured into a quantity of water, in
 which is dissolved a portion of sub-carbonate of
 potassa;  a precipitate is  then formed, which
 is to  be well washed and dried on bibulous pa-
 per.
   Q. What is the  theory of  the formation of
 this oxide ?
   A.  The antimony of the sulphuret first be-
 comes oxidized by the nitric acid, which is de-
 composed ;  the oxide of antimony is then  dis-
 solved by the muriatic  acid, and a muriate of
 antimony  is obtained ; when this  is added to
the sub-carbonate of potassa, the sub-carbonate
 of potassa is  first  decomposed, the carbonic
 acid escapes, and the  potassa unites  itself to
 the muriatic acid and forms muriate of potassa;
 the muriatic acid  having thus combined with
 the potassa, the oxide of antimony is precipi-
 tated.
  Q.  When zinc is  exposed in the state of
fusion to the action of air, what is formed ?
  A.  The zinc,  under these circumstances,
 catches fire, and forms the white oxide.
  Q.  What metals  are generally employed to
decompose water ?
  A.  The metals generally made use of to  de-
compose water are iron and zinc.
  Q.  What preparations of  zinc are used in
medicine ?
  A.  The oxide and sulphate of zinc.
  Q.  What is calamine ?
  A.  Calamine is an impure  oxide  of zinc. 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
   Q. What part of the world does zinc come
from ?                                .  .
   A. Zinc is obtained from most of the mining
countries of Europe ; Derbyshire affords it in
great abundance.
   Q. How many oxides will zinc form ?
   A. Two : the protoxide of a flesh color, and
the peroxide of a white color.
   Q. How is the sulphuretum antimonii pre-
cipitatum made ?
   A. Sulphuret of antimony, solution of potas-
sa, and distilled water,  are mixed and  boiled
over a slow fire ; the  mixture is kept stirred,
and as much distilled water is added as evapo-
rates ; when this part of the process is finished,
the solution is to be strained through a double
linen cloth, and while it is  yet hot, sulphuric
acid is to be dropped in, as may be required, to
precipitate  the powder,  which is afterwards to
be well  washed, to free it of the  sulphate of
potassa ;  then dried.
   Q. Explain what takes place in this process.
   A. Potassa, sulphur, antimony, and water,
are boiled together ; the  water becomes decom-
posed into its constituents, oxygen and hydro-
gen ; the potassa unites to the greater part of
the  sulphur,  and attracts hydrogen  from  the
water, so that a  hydro-sulphuret of potassa is
formed ; the antimony combines with the oxy-
gen  of the water, and  the  sulphur  which it
retains attracts the other portion of hydrogen,
with which the  sulphuret of potassa has  not
combined ;  an hydro-sulphuretted oxide of anti-
             20 
 242     CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

 mony is thus formed, which is held in solution;
 when the sulphuric acid is added, the hydro-
 sulphuret of  potassa  is decomposed; the sul-
 phuric acid and potassa combine, and form sul-
 phate of potassa; the hydrogen escapes, and
 the sulphur, intimately mixed  with the hydro-
 sulphuretted oxide of antimony, is precipitated.
    Q. What acids dissolve the oxides of mer-
 cury ?
   A. The oxides of  mercury are dissolved by
 the sulphuric, nitric, and oxymuriatic acids.
   Q.  How  is  the antimonium  tartarizatum
 made?
   A. It is made with  sulphuret of antimony,
 nitrate of potassa, super-tartrate of potassa, sul-
 phuric acid, and  distilled water.   The acid is
 to be mixed with the water, and heated in a
 sand-bath ; when this is moderately warm, the
 sulphuret of antimony and  nitre, previously
 mixed, are to be added ; they are next to be
 strained and boiled until all the moisture is con-
 sumed.   The residue is then to  be washed with
 distilled water, until it becomes tasteless, and
 while moist the  super-tartrate  of potassa is  to
 be  added; it  is, lastly, to be put into distilled
 water, boiled, and set aside to crystallize.
  Q. What takes place in the formation of this
 compound ?
  A. It  is  considered, that during the process
the nitrate of potassa is  decomposed by the
sulphuric acid, as is shown by  the extrication
of nitrous gas,  and part of its oxygen being ex-
pended upon the oxide of the sulphuret.   This 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    243
last is converted into  protoxide of antimony,
while perhaps, also, at the same time, the sul-
phur  is partly converted into an acid.  Subsul-
phate of antimony is then formed by the action
of part of the acid on the protoxide ; in this
state  the tartaric acid  of  the super-tartrate of
potassa acts  upon  it so as to form the triple
compound of tartrate of antimony  and potassa.
  Q.  How is antimonial powder made ?
  A.  By mixing one part of sulphuret of anti-
mony  and two parts  of  hartshorn shavings,
throwing them into a broad iron pot, heated to
a white  heat, and stirring  the mixture con-
stantly until it acquires an ash color ; having
taken it out, it is to be  reduced to  powder, and
put into a coated crucible, upon which another
small crucible, having a small hole in its bottom,
is to be luted ; the fire is now to be raised  to
whiteness, and  kept so for  two hours.  The
mass is then to be reduced to a very fine pow-
der.
  Q.  What does this compound consist of?
  A.  It  consists of oxide  of antimony and
phosphate of lime.
  Q.  Describe  the phenomenon that  takes
place during its preparation.
  A.  When  the sulphuret  of antimony and
hartshorn shavings are exposed to the white
heat,  the sulphate of antimony is decomposed,
its sulphur is driven off, and the antimony re-
mains oxidized while the gelatine  of the harts-
horn shavings is destroyed, and nothing is left
but phosphate of lime, which becomes mixed
with the oxide of antimony. 
244    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
    Q. What is the active ingredient of the yeast
 cataplasm ?
    A. The  carbonic acid gas which is evolved,
 and which is the product of fermentation.
    Q. What are the chemical compounds that
 exist in the rnistura ferri composita ?
    A. Carbonate  of iron and sulphate of  po-
 tassa.
    Q. What is meant by fermentation ?
   A.  The  spontaneous change  of vegetable
 substances, by which their  properties become
 altered.
   Q.  What circumstances are required for fer-
 mentation to go on ?
   A. A certain degree of fluidity ; a degree of
 heat between 55° and 65° Fahrenheit, and the
 contact of air.
   Q. What are the species  of fermentations 1
   A. Fermentation is divided into the spiritu-
 ous, the acetous, and the putrefactive ; besides
 which, Dr. Thompson has added two others, viz.
 the panary and the saccharine fermentation.
   Q. What ingredients are necessary for fer-'
 mentation ?
   A.  Water, sugar, and mucilage.
   Q.  Can a fluid, after it has undergone the
 acetous fermentation, be made to undergo the
vinous ?
   A.  No :   the fermentations will  only take
place  in their regular succession ; first from the
acetous to the vinous, and then from the vinous
to the putrefactive. 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.     245
   Q.  What are the products of the spirituous
 fermentation ?
   A. Ardent spirits, wines and beers.
   Q. What do the acetous and  putrefactive
 fermentations produce ?
   A. The acetous fermentation produces vine-
 gar, and the putrefactive fermentation produces
 ammonia.
   Q.  What gas escapes during fermentation ?
   A. Carbonic acid gas.
   Q. In forming  the medicated wines, what
 wine does the London College direct to be used ?
   A. Sherry wine.
   Q. How is alcohol obtained ?
   A. Alcohol may be obtained by distilling any
 spirituous  liquor.   Brandy affords the greatest
 quantity, but in this country it is usually ob-
 tained from malt spirit, when it is termed rec-
 tified spirit.
   Q. How does  the  London College direct
 alcohol to be made from rectified spirit ?
   A. A quantity  of heated  sub-carbonate  of
 potassa is added to a quantity of rectified spirit;
 these are macerated together for  twenty-four
 hours ;  the alcohol is then distilled off by means
 of a water-bath.
   Q. What is the use of the sub-carbonate of
potassa ?
   A. It abstracts the greater  part of the water
from the rectified spirit.   Alcohol appears al-
ways to contain  a portion of water.
   Q. How  is the strength of alcohol ascer-
tained ?
            20* 
 246    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.

   A. The strength of  alcohol is known  by
 taking its specific gravity, which, according to
 the London College, ought to be 815, water
 being 1000.
   Q. What is the solvent of a resin ?
   A.  Alcohol; but rectified spirit is genera ly
 used.
   Q.  In what menstruum is gum soluble 1
   A.  Water, and not in alcohol.
   Q.  What menstruum should  be  used  to dis-
 solve a gum resin ?
   A. A mixture of spirit and water.
   Q.  What use is  made of rectified spirit in
 medicine ?
   A. To  make  ethers,  different   spirits,  and
 tinctures.
   Q. When arsenic is exposed to heat, what
 smell does it emit ?
   A. Arsenic, when exposed to heat, emits  a
 smell like garlic.
   Q.  Of what  are the  different  medicinal
 spirits composed ?
   A. A particular volatile oil, a quantity of al-
 cohol, and water.
   Q. What are the elements of alcohol  ?
   A. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
   Q. What is an ether.
   A. A compound formed by the action  of an
acid  upon  alcohol; it is the lightest fluid
known ; it is highly volatile, pungent, odorous,
and inflammable.
   Q. How are ethers designated ?
   A. They are named from the acid by which 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    247
they are obtained : that obtained  by sulphuric
acijl and alcohol, is called sulphuric ether ; by
acetic  acid, acetic ether ; by nitric acid, nitric
ether, and so forth.
  Q. What is the composition of ether ?
  A. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
  Q. How does ether  differ from alcohol, as
its constituents are the same ?
  A. The  proportions  of its constituents  are
different: it is supposed to contain more hydro-
gen and less carbon than alcohol.
  Q. Is the acid decomposed* in the  formation
of ether ?
   A. In some degree ; but its presence seems
chiefly  to  predispose  to  an alteration of the
affinities of the elements of the alcohol.
  Q. What will ether dissolve ?
  A. Ether will dissolve phosphorus and sul-
phur in small portions ;  it also dissolves muriate
of  gold and  the  oxymuriate of mercury: it
likewise readily dissolves ammonia and nitrous
gas, besides which, it will dissolve the fixed and
volatile oils and bitumen.
   Q. Will  ether combine in every proportion
of water ?
   A. No :  ether combines only in a small pro-
portion with water ;  ten parts of that  liquid
dissolve about one part of ether.
   Q. What proportion of  water does nitric
ether require for its solution ?
   A. Nitric ether dissolves  in about 48 parts
of water, and gives to that liquid an odor like
that of apples. 
248    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
    Q. What ethereal compounds are directed to
 be kept in the shops by the London College ?
    A. The sulphuric ether, the rectified  ether,
 ethereal oil, aromatic spirits of ether, compound
 spirits of  sulphuric ether, spirit of nitric ether.
    Q. How is the ether sulphuricus made ?
    A. By  distillation  from equal quantities of
 rectified spirit and sulphuric acid.   There are
 several precautions necessary in the  making of
 ether ; it  is to be distilled from a glass  retort
 into a double receiver, or two receivers luted
 together ;  they are to be kept cold by ice, or
 cold  water ; the distillation is to be carried on
 until a heavier fluid  passes over, that sinks to
 the bottom of the ether.
   Q. How is ether rectificatus made ?
   A. Sulphuric ether is distilled from a certain
 quantity of fused potassa and water; if fourteen
 fluid  ounces are used, twelve  are to be distilled
 over.
   Q. Of what  use is the potassa in this prepa-
 ration ?
   A. It combines with the sulphurous acid and
 ethereal oil, which the sulphuric acid contain-
 ed ; these  remain behind  in the retort.
   Q. How is the oleum ethereum made ?
   A. After the distillation of sulphuric ether,
 the distillation is to be carried on until a black
 froth  begins to rise, when  the  retort is to be
 immediately removed.  The oil is then to be
 separated from the fluid  in the  receiver, and
 washed with lime-water, to free  it of the adhe-
rent acid. 
CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.    249
  Q. What is the spiritus etheris  aromaticus
made with ?
  A. It is made with cinnamon-bark, cardamom-
seed, long  pepper, ginger-root, and spirits  of
sulphuric ether.
  Q. Of what is the spiritus etheris sulphurici
compositus formed ?
  A. It is  formed of spirits of  sulphuric ether
and ethereal oil.
  Q. How is the spiritus etheris nitrici made ?
  A. By distillation  from  a mixture of nitric
acid and rectified spirit.
  Q. How are  essential oils obtained ?
  A. Essential oils are obtained either by ex-
pression or distillation.
  Q. Why are  not essential oils distilled with
alcohol instead of water?
  A. Because  the volatile salts are volatile at
the temperature  of  boiling water: but  there
are many of them not volatile  at the tempera-
ture at which  alcohol boils, consequently the
alcohol  would pass over weakly impregnated
with their  odor and properties.
  Q. How would you ascertain if a volatile oil
was adulterated with a fixed oil?
  A. This may be  ascertained by heating a
small portion of the  oil on a  piece  of  clean
paper; if  any  fixed oil be present, a greasy
spot will remain ; whereas, if  the  volatile oil
be pure, the paper will be  left clean.
  Q. What takes place when  volatile oils are
exposed to the air and light ?
  A. They become  more  viscid,  alter  their 
250    CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY.
color, lose part of their odor, redden the tinct-
ure of turnsole, and gradually assume the form
of resins.
   Q. What are these changes owing to ?
   A. They depend upon the absorption of oxy-
gen ; and hence the  necessity  of preserving
volatile oils in small phials completely full  and
well corked.
   Q. Are volatile oils soluble in any degree in
water ?
   A. Yes: in the distillation of the aromatic
herbs the water retains a small portion  of  the
volatile oils in solution, which gives the taste
and odor of the vegetable. 
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