J. G. AUNER, ( BOOKSELLER AWD STATIOSER, £ $33 Market St. \' 4 doors below Ninth St. 5 PHILADELPHIA. i Surgeon General's Office t**? ■*■* "■'------------*-"■ I* fr \\\ y^ " * j" • i EXAMINATIONS IN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, SURGERY, CHEMISTRY, MATERIA MEDICA, AND PHARMACY; For the Use of Students. ROBERT HOOPER, M.I> iROil THE LAST LONDON COITION, WITH UPWARDS OF ,'3N'E HUNDRED ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS, --»^.^ AND AN ENTIRE NE'.T CRWTKR QSy 0^^"^ V//^J NEW-YORK ; ;>r BI-ISHED BY COLLINS AND CO. UWe. Southtm District of New-Torky m. BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the first day of October, A. D. 1829, and in the fifty-fourth year of the Independence of the United States of America. COLLINS and Co. of the said district, have deposited in this office the title ol d book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit <* Examinations in Anatomy, Physiology, Practice of Physic, Sur- gery, Chemistry, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy; for the use of Students. By Robert Hooper, M.D. From the last London Edi- tion, with upwards of One Hundred Additional Questions, and an entire new Chapter on Poisons." In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, en- tilled '• An Act for the encnuragenipnt of (paminer, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and hook?, to ihe authors ami proprietor* of such cppies, during the time therein mentioned;*" and also to an act, entitled " An act, supplementary to an act, entitien .in Act for the encouragement or learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." FRED. J. BETTS, Clerk of the Southern District oflfcw-Tork. W. «. DEAN, PRINTER. EXAMINATIONS IS ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, SURGERY, MATERIA .ViEDICA, CHEMISTRY. AND PHARMACY. For the Instruction of Students. ANATOMY. 1. Question. What are the divisions of the sci- ence of Anatomy ? Answer. The science of Anatomy is divided into Osteology, Syndesmology, Myology, Bursalogy, An- giology. Neurology, Adenology, Splanchnology, and Hygrology. 2. Q. What are the solids of the body ? A. The solids of the body are the bones, cartiliges, ligaments, muscles, cellular substance, membranes, vessels, nerves, glands, viscera, and adipose substance. 3. Q,. How do anatomists divide the skeleton ? A. The human skeleton is divided into head, trunk, and extremities. The head is subdivided into crani- um, or skull and face. The upper extremities into brachium, antibrachium, carpus, metacarpus, and pha- langes. The lower extremities into femur, crus, tarsus» metatarsus, and phalanges. The trunk is subdivided into spine, thorax, and pelvis. 4. Q. How many bones compose the cranium? A. Eight: namely, one os frontis, two ossa parieta- lia, one os occipitis, two ossa temporalia, one os eth- ruoides, and the os sphenoides. 5. Q. What are the sutures of the cranium ? A. The sutures of the cranium are five in number, viz. the coronal, the saeittal. the lambdoidal, and the wo sq AAATOMY. 6. Q. What are the peculiarities of the frontal bone in the foetus ? A. The frontal bone in the fcetus is divided down the middle; it contains no sinuses; and neither the orbitar plates nor superciliary ridges are completely formed. 7. Q. Where is the os frontis situated ? A. The os fi ontis is situated in the anterior part of the cranium, and superior part of the face. 8. Q,. Where is the lacltrynal depression situated? A. The lechrymal depression is situated on the or- bitar plate and behind the external angular process. 9 Q,. Describe the parietal bones. A. The parietal bones are of a quadrangular shape, are externally convex, internally concave, and mark- ed with grooves for the meningeal arteries. They form the lateral and superior part of the cranium. 10. Q. Describe the situation of the sphenoidal bone. A. The sphenoidal bone is situated in the middle of the basis of the cranium, extending underneath, from one temple ficross to the other 11 Q. Into how many portions is the temporal bone distinguished .' A. Generally into two portions, viz. a squamous portion and a petrous portion. 12. Q. In what bone is the organ of hearing situat- ed ? A. In the petrous portion of the temporal bone. 13. Q,. How many tables have the bones of the cranium ? A. Two : an external and an internal. 14. Q,. \\ hat is the name of the substance which unites the two tables of the cranium '.' A. It is called diploft. and meditullium. 15. Q. What is attached to the internal angular pro- cess of the frontal bone ? A. There are two muscles attached to the interna! angular process : viz. the conugator supercilii and th- trochlearis, or obliquus superior. ANATOMY. 3 16. Q.. What is the union of the bones of the skull termed ? A. Suture. 17. O.. What is the name of the suture which con- nects the frontal with the parietal bones 1 A. The coronal suture. 18. Q. By what suture is the occipital bone united to the parietal bones ? A. By the lambdoidal suture. 19. Q,. What name is given to the suture which con- nects the parietal bones ? A. It is called the sagittal suture. 20. Q. Describe, the occipital bone. A. The occipital bone forms the posterior and infc- rior part of the skull, is of an irregular figure, exter- nally convex, internally concave. It has many de- pressions and elevations, and is connected, at its in- ferior part, by means of a projection, called the basil- ary process, to the sphenoid bone. 21. Q,. Describe the sphenoid bone. A. The sphenoid bone is divided into a body and wings. It has many processes, depressions, and fora- mina, and is connected to all the bones of the cra- nium. 22. Q.. What are the processes of the sphenoid bone ? A. The principal processes of this bone are, the two pterygoid processes, the stylifonn process, the spi- nous processes, the orbitar processes, the temporal pro- cesses, the ethmoidal process, the olivary process, and the anterior and posterior clinoid processes. 23. Q. What bones are united by the false sutures ? A. The temporal bones are united to the parietal bones by the false or squamous suture. 24. Q,. Through what foramina do the olfactory nerves pass out of the cranium 1 A. Through the foramina cribrosa, which are in the upper part of the ethmoid bone. 25. Q,. Where is the foramen magnum occipitale situated ? a2 I A\A'i-0.-l\. A. In the occipital bone, at the infeiior parlbctwcci. ths condyles and behind the basilary process. 26. Q. To what bone does the crista galli belong ? A. To the ethmoid bone: it forms the projecting process within the cranium, to which the falciform process of th» dura mater is attached. 27. Q. To what bone does the sella turcica belong ? A. To the sphenoid bone : it is placed in the mid- dle, and pr-jtcti into the cavity of the cranium. 23. Q. What (fee, the foramen rotunduni of the sphe- noid bone traiisa.it / A. The foramen rotunduni transmits the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves. 29. of the cranium are connected to those of the face by means of the transverse suture. 43. Q. How many bones compose the face ? A. The face is formed by fourteen bones ; two supe- rior maxillary, two nasal, two palatine, two jugal. two inferior spongy, two lachrymal, the vomer, and the infe- rior maxillary bone. 44. Q. What is attached to the styloid process of t!i< temporal bone ? A. Three muscles, viz. the stylo-pharyngeus.the sty- lo-glossus, and the stylo-hyoideus; also the ligament of thcoshyoides,and the lateral ligament of the lower jaw. 45. Q. Enumerate the principal elevationsof the oc- cipital bone. A. The principal elevations of the occipital bone are, its condyles, a longitudinal ridge, a superior and an in- ferior transverse ridge, a tuberosity in the centre of the superior transverse ridge; these are on the external 6 Ai'ATOJlY. surface. On the internal surface is seen the crucial spine. 46. Q. To what bone does the mastoid process be- long ? A. It is a part of the temporal bone. 47. Q. How many bones compose the orbit ? A. Seven : viz. os frontis, os ethmoides, os sphenoi- des, os lachrymale,os jugale, ospalati, andthe os maxil- lare superius. 48. Q- What passes through the foramen lacerum orbitale superius ? A. The third, the fourth, the first branch of the fifth and sixth pair of nerves. 49. Q. How many bones compose the lower jaw ? A. One, in the adult, the inferior maxillary bone. 50. Q. What bones form the septum narium ? A. The azygos process of the ethmoid bone, and the vomer. 51. Q. To what bone do the superior turbinated bones, as they are called, belong? A. To the ethmoid bone, of which they are a part. 52. Q. In what bone is the antrum of Highmore si- tuated ? A. In the superior maxillary bone, behind the cheeks 53. Q. Is the body of the sphenoid bone hollow or solid ? A. Hollow: it contains the sphenoidal sinuses, which communicate with the nose. 54. Q. What separates the antrum of Highmore from the orbit ? A. The orbitar plate of the superior maxillary bone. 55. Q. Is there any communication between the or- bit and the nostril 7 A. Yes : by the ductus ad nasum, to convey the tears into the nose. 56. Q. How many bones are there in the tympanum ? A. Four: the incus, stapes, malleus, and os orbiculare. 57. Q. Towhatboneof the cranium does the styloid process belong ? A. To the temporal bone. 58. Q. What are the foramina of the superior maxil- lary bone ? A.VA'Ju.Hi". a. The foramina of this bone are. the infra-orbitar foramen, the foramen incLivum, the spheno-maxillary fissure, and the foramen of the antrum maxillare. 59. Q. What bones form the foramen lacerum in basi cranii ? A. The temporal and occipital bones. 60. Q. What passes through the canalis carotideus ? A. The canalis c irotideus transmits thecarotid artery and the intercostal nerve. 61. Q. What are the processes of the spheroid bone called, which form the sides of the posterior nostril ? A. The pterygoid processes. 69. Q. What passes through the foramen lacerum in basi cranii ? A. The jugular vein, par vagum, glossopharyngeal nerve, ami nervus accessorius. 63. Q.. Do the ossa palati form any part of the or- bit? A. Yes: a portion of the palate bone rises into the inferior part of it. 64. Q. Where is the vomer situated? A. In the centre of the nostrils, having the sphenoid .■■nd ethmoid bones at its upper part, the superior max- illary and palatine bones at its lower part, and the car- tilaginous septum of the nose on the anterior part. 65. Q. Where is the Eustachian tube situated? A. It passes from thr: tympanum of the ear oblique- ly forwards and inwards, and opens in the fauces, near the posterior nostril. 63. Q. How many foramina has the inferior maxil- lary bone ? A. It has only two. which belong to the canalis inontnlis: one placed externally and anteriorly, the other placed posteriorly and internally. 67. Q,. Point out the situation of the zygomatic pro- cess on the face. A. It four.-; the lateral and superior part of the clieek, extending anteriorly from the extremity of the tar. 63. H- Where is the os unguis situated ? ^ The os unguis is situated in the orbit, at the irt- ANATOMY. ternal angle immediately underneath the meeting ot the eye-lashes. 69. Q. What is the name of the portions of the.os elhmoides which hang down into the nostrils ? A. The superior turbinated bones and azygos pro- cess. 70. Q,. What sinuses communicate with the cavity of the nostrils ? A. There are five sinuses which enter the cavity of the nostrils; viz. the frontal, ethmoidal, and sphenoi- dal sinuses at the upper part, and the two antral sinuses on the sides. 71. Q,. What is the shape of the os mala? 1 A. It is of a quadrangular shape. 72. 0.. Enumerate the foramina of the sphenoid bone ? A. The foramina of the sphenoid bone are, the fora- mina optica, foramina laceia, foramina rotunda, fora- mina ovalia, foramina spinosa, and the foramina Vidua- na. 73. Q,. What bones of the cranium are called ossa plana ? A. The orbitar plates of the ethmoid bone. 74. Q. What are the elevations of the superior max- illary bone? A. The elevations of the superior maxillary bone are, the alveolar process, the spinous process, the pa- latine process, the nasal process, the orbitar process. the malar process, and the bulbous process. 75. Q,. What are the projections of the inferior maxillary bone? A. The principal projections of the inferior maxil- lary bone are, the coronoid and condyloid processes: the angles; a ridge passing externally, and another internally, from the base of the coronoid process to the commencement of the chin ; a projection on the inner and outer side of each angle ; a projection be- hind the symphysis, and another on each side the base of the chin. 76. Q,. What is the division of the internal ear? A, The internal ear is divided into the tympanum AXATO.UY. U and labyrinth ; and the labyrinth is divided into cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibulum. 77. Q,. How many teeth are there in the adult, and how are they divided > A. In the adult there arc sixteen teeth in each jaw ; and they are divided into three classes on each side of the jaw: two incisores, one cuspidatus, two bicuspi- des, and three molares. 78. Q,. On what vertebra is rotation of the head performed ? A. The head rotates upon the second cervical verte- bra, by the intervention of the atlas. 79. Q,. What are the bones called which compose the spine ? A. Vertebra?, of which there are twenty-four. 80. Q. Describe the spine. A. The spine is a long, bony, and cartilaginous, hol- low column, consisting of twenty-four bones, called vertebrae, which extend from the occipital hone to the os sacrum, and have many processes and foramina. 81. Q. What is there peculiar to the second verte- bra? A. It has an odontoid process at the upper part of its body. 82. Q. What is there peculiar to the atlas ? A. The atlas has no body nor spinous process : its transverse processes are longer than those of the rest, and terminate in an obtuse point. The superior arti- cular processes are very large, and are hollowed out for the condyles of the occipital bone. There are two tuberosities within its large arch for the attach- ment of the transverse ligament; it has a groove be- hind each superior articular process, and there is a surface for the odontoid process to move on. 83. Q,. How would you distinguish a dorsal verte- bra from the rest ? A. The bodies of the dorsal vertebrae are larger than the cervical, and less than the lumbar; they are more flattened at the sides, more convex before, and more concave behind, than any of the other vertebra; 'he spinous process terminates in a round tubercle; the i.0 A.NA'i'OJli'. (ransver.;e process are very thick; they have nv foramen, as in the cervical; there is an articulating surface on the side of the body, and a superficial one in the points of the transverse processes. 84. Q,. Where is the os sacrum situated ? A. Iheos sacrum is situated at the posterior and lower part of the trunk, below the lumbar vertebrae, and between the ossa innominata. 85. Q,. How many foramina open upon the surfaces of the sacrum ? A. There are four pairs of holes on the anterior part of the sacrum, and the same number on its posterior part. 86. Q,. How are the ribs divided ? A. They are divided into seven true ribs, situated superiorly, and five false, which are placed inferiorly. 87. Q,. Into what parts is each rib distinguished ? A. Each rib is divided into middle part or body, an anterior and posterior extremity, an external and in- ternal surface, and a superior and inferior edge. 88. Q. Do the anterior bony extremities of all the ribs reach the sternum ? A. No; only those of the true ribs. 89. Q,. Where is the os hyoides situated ? A. It is situated at the root of the tongue, between it and the larynx. 90. Q. How is the os hyoides divided ? A. The os hyoides is divided into body, two cornua majora, and two cornua minora. 91. Q. Describe the scapula. A. The scapula is a triangular bone, situated at the late- ral and upper part of the back. It has three margins, a spine, the acromion and coracoid process, and an articu- lar cavity for the head of the os humeri. 92. Q. What bone is fixed to the acromion scapulas ? A. I he clavicle, or collar-bone. 93. Q. How many bones has the fore-arm ? A. Two ; the ulna and radius. 94. Q. Where is the ulna situated ? A. When the hand is supine, it is situated at the under and inner part of the fore-arm, between the humetms ind carpus. A.N AX oil V. 11 t>5. Q. What is situated in the groove at the lower in- ternal edge of each rib ? A. The intercostal artery, vein, and nerve. 96. Q. How many portions of bone does the sternum consist of ? A. In the adult the sternum consist of three portions; a superior portion, which nearly resembles the ace of hearts; a middle portion, which is flat on each side, and larger below thau above ; and an inferior portion, which has attached to it the ensiform cartilage. 97. Q. How is the clavicle divided ? A. The clavicle is divided into a body, and an iuter« nal, or sternal, and an external, or scapular, extremity. 98. Q. On what bone do we lean when on our el- bow ? A. The ulna. 99. Q, What is the process called on which we lean 1 A. The olecranon. 100. Q, How mauy bones compose the shoulder joint ? A. Two: the scapula and the os brachii. 101. Q,. What bone unites the ami to the thorax? A. The clavicle, or collar-bone. 102. Q. How many bones compose the carpus ? A. Eight, viz. oa scaphoides, os lunare, os cunei forme, os orbiculare, os trapezium, os magnum, and os unciforme. 103. Q. What receives the head of the os femoris 1 A. The acetabulum, or cup-like cavity of the os in- nominatum. 104 Q. What ligament is attached to the bottom of the acetabulum7 A. The ligamentum teres of the thigh-bone, which confines the head in its socket. 105. Q,. What bone supports the leg ? A- ' he astragalus, on which the tibia rests. 106. Q. How many bones compose the tarsus ; A. Seven; viz. astragalus, os calcis, os navicular-:, •>5 cuboides, and the three cuneiform bones. 107. Q.- What is the situation of the o* calcis ** B 12 V.\ ATOMS. A. The os calcis is placed at the posterior pai tot the tarsus, and forms the heel. 108. Q. Where is the os scaphoides situated ? A The os scaphoides is placed immediately before the astragalus. 109. Q, What is the situation of the three cuneiform bones of the tarsus ? A. The cuneiform bones are situated before the. OS scaphoides, and internal to the os cuboides. 110. Q,. VV here is the trochanter major situated? A. It forms the great projection at the superior and external part of the thigh-bone. 111. Q,. On what bone is the linea aspera situated ? A. On the back part of the os femoris. 112. Q,. What are the processes on the lower end of the os femoris called ? A. They are called condyles. 113. Q,. What is there particular to be noticed on the os humeri .' A. In noticing the os humeri, we may observe its cylindrical shape, its body and two extremities, the bead, neck, great and little tuberosity, the bicipital groove, the two condyles, and trochea. 114. Q. Enumerate the principal parts of the ulna. A. The principal parts of the ulna are, its body and extremities, the olecranon and coronoid process, the great and little sigmoid cavity, the lesser head, and styloid process. 115. Q,. What are the principal parts of the radius .' A. The principal parts of the radius are, its body and two extremities ; its round head, which rolls on the ulna ; the sigmoid cavity, at its lower extremity ; and the styloid process. 116. Q. What are the principal parts of the os fe- moris ? A. The principal parts of the os femoris are, its bo- dy and extremities, the head, neck, the great and lit- tle trochanters, the linea aspera. the external and in. ternal condyle, the notch between the condyles', and t'ossafor the patella. 117. Q. How many bones compose the knee-joint ** ANATOMY. is A. Three ; viz. the patella, the os femoris, and the tibia. 118. Q. What are the bones of the leg called? A. Tibia and fibula. 119. Q. What is the shape of the tibia ? A. It is long and triangular ; larger above than be- low. 120. Q,. What bone forms the inner ankle ? A. The inner ankle is formed of a projection from the lower part of the tibia. 121. Q,. What bone forms the outer ankle ? A. The lower end of the fibula forms it. 122. Q. What are the names of the bones of the pelvis ? A. They are four in number; viz. the two ossa in4 nominata, one os sacrum, and one os coccygis. 123. Q. How would you distinguish a male from a female pelvis ? A. In the female pelvis, the os sacrum is shorter and broader than that of the male, the ossa ilia are more expanded, the brim of the pelvis is nearly of an oval shape, it is wider from side to side than from the symphysis pubis to the os sacrum ; whereas, in man, it is rouider, and every where of loss diameter; the os sacrum is narrower, and the os coccygis more firm- ly connected. 124. Q. Into how many portions is the os innomina- tum distinguished ? A. Into th»e; viz. the iliac, the pubic, and iscbiatic portions which, in the fa-tus, are three distinct bones, and become one In the adult. 125. Q, What separates the ossa innominata from each other behind ? A. The sacrum. 126. Q,. What are the terminations of the crista of the ilium called ? A The terminations of the crista of the ilium are called, the anterior superior, and posterior superior, spinous processes of the ilium. 127. &. What is attached to the crista of the ilium 1 \ The aponeurosis of the fascia lata, the latissimu* 14 A-\ATOiIY. dorsi, and obliquus externus abdominis, are attached to its external part, and posteriorly the gluteus maxi- mus. 128. Q. Describe the tibia. A. The tibia is situated on the inner side of the leg J it is divided into a body and an upper and lower ex- tremity. The upper extremity is ended the head. which has two articular surfaces for the condyles ol the os femoris. The body has three surfaces and three edges: the lower extremity is smaller than the upper, and forms the malleolus internus. 129. Q. What is affixed to the apex of the patella ? A. A ligament is attached to the apex of the patelli*, Which is also affixed to the tuberosity of the tibia. 130. Q,. How woidd you distinguish the right patel- la from the left ? A. By attending to these circumstances:—the apex should be placed upwards, the articular surface turn- ed inwards; then, by recollecting the deepest articu- lar concavity is always externally situated, you may easily distinguish the patella of the right side from that of the left. 131. Q,. Is there any bone between the ossa inno- minata anteriorly ? A. No: the pubic portion of each meets to form the pubes. 13*2. Q,. Where is the os coccygis situated? A. At the lower part, or apex, of the os sacrum. 133. Q. What is the name of the cavity that re- ceives the head of the os humeri ? A. The glenoid cavity. 134. Q. To what bone does the acetabulum belong ? A. It belongs to the os innomiuatum. 335 Q. What bones form the hip-joint ? A. The head of the os femoris and the acetabulum of the os innominatum. 136. Q. Where is the tuberosity of the ischium si' tuated ? A. At the inferior part of the os innominatum ; We sit upon it. 137. Q. Of what bone U tho ascending ramus of (he pubes a part" A.VYTOJli. Ut A. It is a part of the os innominatum. 138. Q. What bones form the thorax? A. Twelve dorsal vertebrae, the sternum, and twelve ribs; in all, twentyrfive bones. '" 7 '■ 139. Q. What is the use of the periosteum ? A. To allow an attachment for muscles, and to af- ford a bed for the ramification of vessels to nourish the bone. 140. Q,. How many kinds of cartilage are there ? A. There are four kinds of cartilage: 1st, Diarthro- dial cartilages, which cover the ends of the bones ; 2d, Synarthiodial cartilages, which are placed between several bones, as that of the symphysis pubis; 3d, In- terarticular cartilages, placed in some of the joints, as those in the knee-joint, &c. ; 4th, Those cartilages which supply the place of bone, as the cartilages of the nose, cars, &x. 141. Q.. How many kinds of ligaments are there ? A. There are two kinds of ligaments; viz. the con- necting and capsular ligaments. 142. Q,. What are the ligaments of the lower jaw, and where are they situated / A. The lower jaw is articulated by two ligaments on each side, a capsular and lateral ligament: the cap- sular ligament is affixed around the articular surface of the temporal bone, and round the condyloid process of the lower jaw ; the lateral ligament goes from the root of the styloid process of the temporal bone to the inside of the angle of the lower jaw. 143. Q. What are the ligaments about the shoulder- joint ? A. The capsular ligament of the head of the os bra- chii; the triangular ligament, which extends from the coracoid process to the acromion ; the conoid and tra- pezoid ligaments, that extend from the clavicle to the coracoid process. 144. Q. What are the ligaments of the pelvis ? A. The long and short sacro-ischiatic ligaments; the ligamentum obturans; the ligamentum Poupartii; the transverse ligaments, going from the spinous processes of the ilium to the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae ; b2 lrj ANATOMY. Ihe annular ligament of the ossa pubis ; the ligamenta vaga, which pass from the ilium to the sacrum; and the lacertus ligamentosus, that ruas from the last Lum- bar vertebra along the ridge of the os innominatum to the pubes: besides these, there are the capsular and longitudinal ligaments of the sacrum and the os coc- cygis. 145. Q. What is the name of the ligament that con- nects the os femoris to the bottom of the acetabulum ? A. The ligamentum teres. 146. U- What are the ligaments of the knee-joint ? A. The ligaments of the knee-joint are, the internal lateral, the long and short external lateral, the poste- rior ligament of Winslow, the ligament of the patella.. the capsular ligament, the two ligamenta alalia, the ligamentum mucosum, the anterior and posterior cru- cial, the transverse ligament of the interarticular car- tilages, and the ligaments which fix these cartilages to the protuberance of the tibia. 147. Q. What is the most elastic substance in the body ? A. The most clastic substance in the body is carti lage. 148. Q; Are tendons elastic? A. No; they arj inelastic, otherwise the effect oi muscles, would be greatly diminished. 149. Q. Where is the ligamentum nuchas situated ? A. The ligamentum nucha; arises from the occipital bone, runs down on the back part of the neck, adher- ing to the spinous processes of the cervical vertebra: and giving origin to the trapezius and other muscles. 150. Q- Describe the annular ligament of the wrist. A. The annular ligament of the uritt consists of two parts: 1st, The ligamentum carpi transversale ex- ternum, which passes from the styloid process of the ulna and os pisiforme, over the back of the wrist to be affixeu to the styloid process of the radius; 2d, The ligamentum carpi transversale internum, which passes across the fore part of the wrist; it arises from the os pisiforme and os unciforme, and is attached to the bs scaphoides and 03 trapezium; on the outer edge. ANATOJU* li 151. Q. What parts of the body are free from adi- pose structure ? A. The skin of the scrotum, penis, and eyelids, has no adipose structure. 152. Q. What are the bones of the tarsus ? A. The bones of the tarsus are seven in number; viz. the astragalus, os calcis, os scaphoides, os cuboides, and the three cuneiform bones. 153. Q,. What muscles are attached to the coracoid process of the scapula ? A. The coraco-brachialis, the pectoralis minor, and the short head of the biceps flexor cubiti. 154. Q. Where is the diaphragm situated ? A. Between the thorax and abdomen, forming a vaulted arch or septum attached to the lower border" of the ribs. 155. Q. What are the muscles of the abdomen ? A. The obliquus externus, obliquus internus, trans versalis abdominis, rectus abdominis, and pyramidalis, in pairs. 156. Q. What is the name of the muscle which has three foramina in it ? A. The diaphragm. 157. Q. How is the diaphragm divided ? A. The diaphragm is divided into the greater and less muscle. 158. Q. Describe the origin and insertion of the two muscles of the diaphragm. A. The greater muscle of the diaphragm arises from all the cartilages of the false and of the last true rib, and is inserted into the centrum tendinosum ; the less muscle arises from eight slips from tie second, third, and fourth lumbar vertebrae, which torm two crura; the muscle is then inserted into the centrum tendino- sum opposite its fellow. 159. Q,. Where is the longest crus of the diaphragm situated ? A. On the right side of the fore part of the loins. 160. Q. What tendon passes through the shoulder- joint? A. The long tendon of the biceps flexor cubiti. 18 ANATO:>H". 161. Q. How many muscles arise from the shouiue; and are inserted into the fore-arm ? A. The muscles that are attached to the shoulder and fore-arm are two in number; viz. biceps flexor cubiti, and the long head of the triceps. 162. Q. How many muscles arise from the arm to be inserted into the fore-arm ? A. The muscles that arise from the arm apd are in- serted into the fore-arm are six in number; namely, the anconeus, the short heads of the triceps extensor cubiti, the brachialis iuternus, supinator radii longus- supinator radii brevis, and pronator radii teres. 163. Q. What muscles arise from the scapula and are inserted into the humerus ? A. The muscles which arise from the scapula and are inserted into the humerus, are the subscapularis, teres major, tores minor, fupraspinatus, infraspinatus.. coraco-brachialis, and the deltoides. 164. Q. What tendon passes over the hamular pro- cess of the sphenoid bon~? A. The tendon of the tensor palati passes over the hook-iike process, to be inserted into the palatum molle. 165. Q. What forms the sheath of the rectus abdo- minis ? A. The sheath of the rectus is formed by the ten- dons of three muscles, viz. the obliquus externus, the obliquus interims, and the transversals. 166. Q. What are the tendinous partitions called.. which are sent betwixt muscles from the fascia cover- ing them ? A. The partitions sent down from the fascia betwixt muscles are called intermuscular ligaments; they con- nect the muscles, and give origin to many of the fi- bres. 167. Q. What muscle is inserted into the os pisifor- me ? A. The muscle which is inserted into the os pisifor- me is called flexor carpi ulnaris. 168. Q. How many muscles are there that arise from the trunk, and are inserted into the scapula ? ANATOMY. 19 A. They are six in number: viz. trapezius, levator scapulas, pectoralis minor, rhomboideus, serratus mag- nus, and subclavius. 169. Q. Do the external condyles of the humerus give origin to the extensor or flexor muscles of the fore- arm? A. To the extensors. 170. Q,. What forms the linea alba ? A. The meeting of the flat tendons of the abdominal muscles, along the centre of the abdomen, forms the ensiform cartilage to the symphysis .pubis. 171. Q. What muscles are divided in amputation of the thigh» A. The muscles divided in amputation of the thigh are the biceps flexor cruris, scmi-tedinosus, semi-mem- branosus, gracilis, sartorious, vastus externus, vastus internus, rectus femoris, and the long tendon of the abductor magnus. 172. Q What muscles are inserted into the patella? A. The rectus femoris, the vastus externus, the vas- tus internus, and cruraeus. 173. Q. What are the names of the muscles which are inserted into the os calcis? A. Gastrocnemius externus, gastrocnemius internus, and plantaris. 174. Q. What is the name of the tendon formed by the gastrocnemius externus, and soleus? A. The tendo Achillis. 175. Q. What muscle crosses the carotid artery and internal jugular vein ? A. These two vessels have the omo-hyoides crossing them, to insert itself into the os hyoides. 176. Q. How many muscles are there on the anteri- or part of the neck? A The muscles on the anterior part of the neck are sixteen in number; viz. platysma myoides. sterno-clei- do-mastoideus, omo-hyoideus, stemo-hyoideus, sterno- thyroideus, thyro-hyoideus, crico-thyroideus, digastri- cus, stylo-hyoideus, stylo-glossus, stylo-pharyrigeus, myo-hoideus, genio-hyoideus, genio-hyo-glossus, myo- xlossus, and Hngnalis i>U AXATOJIA. 177. Q. What forms the lineae transversa: of the ab- domen ? A. The lineae transversa? are formed by the tendi- nous adhesions of the recti muscles, which produce three or four white lines that shine through the fascia covering each muscle. 178. Q. What forms the linea semilunaris ? A. The linea semilunaris is a semicircular white line which runs obliquely from the os pubis over the side of the abdomen, at the distance nf about four inches from the linea alba; it is formed by the tendons of the two oblique and transverse muscles uniting at the rec- tum. 179. Q. Is there any muscle which arises from one of the abdominal muscles and is inserted into the tes- ticle ? A. Yes; the cremaster muscle arises from the inter- nal oblique, passes through the abdominal ring, and descending upon the spermatic cord, is inserted into the tunica vaginalis of the testis. 180. Q. What are the most important fasciae of the body ? A. The fascia covering the temporal muscle :—that given off from the biceps covering the fore-arm :—that covering the abdominal muscles and back:—the fascia of the lower extremities:—and the plantar and palmar fascia. 181. Q. From whence does the palmar aponeurosis arise ? A. The palmar aponeurosis arises from the tendon of the palmaris, and from the annular ligament of the wrist. 132. Q. What are bursa? mucosa?, and their use ? A. The bursae mucosae are small bags placed under muscles and tendons that are frequently brought into action ; they contain a fluid similar to synovia, the use of which is to lubricate the muscles and tendons. 183. Q. Where are bursas mucosae to be found ? A. The bursa* mucosae are chiefly situated in the extremities, between tendons which rub against each other, or where they play on the surfaces of bones or ANATOMY. 21 joints, and between the integuments and certain pro- minent points of bone, as at the knee, elbow, and knuckles. 184. Q. From which side of the tendon of the biceps is an aponeurosis sent off ? A. Au aponeurosis is sent off from its inside, which assists in forming the fascia of the fore-arm. 185. Q Describe the fascia covering the fore-arm. A. The fascia covering the fore-arm is continued from the intermuscular ligaments which pass down to the condyles, covering the os humeri. It is attached to the condyles, and adheres firmly to the olecranon. On the posterior part of the arm it receives a great addition of fibres from the triceps extensor, and on the fore part of the arm it appears to be a continua- tion of the aponeurosis of the biceps flexor cubiti. 186. Q. What is the use of aponeuroses ? A. The use of aponeuroses is to brace the muscles, by keeping them in their proper place while in action, and to give origin to many muscular fibres of the mus- cles which lie immeJiateiy under. 187. Q. How many arteries are there ? A. Two; viz. the aorta and pulmonary artery: all the other arteriee are branches of these two. 188. Q. What is the name of the vessels which nou- rish the heart ? A. Coronary arteries. 189. Q. What arteries are given off from the arch of the aorta ? A. Three branches; viz. the arteria innominata, the left carotid, and the left subclavian. 190. Q What parts do the external and internal ca- rotid artery supply ; A. The external carotid artery supplies the face and external parts of the head ; the internal carotid artery supplies the braiu. 191. Q. What branches does the external carotid ar- tery give off ? A. The external carotid artery gives off eight branches ; viz. 1. thyroidea superior ; 2. lingualis ; 3- facialis; 4. pharyngea inferior; 5, occipitalis; 6. au- *•■« A>iAluMY. ricularis posterior; 7. temporalis ; and 8. uiaxillaris interna. 192. Q. What are the branches of the internal ca- rotid artery ? A. The internal carotid artery sends off the ophthal- mic, the communicans, the anterior cerebri and the media cerebri. 193. Q. What is the situation of the common caro- tid artery in the neck ? A. The common carotid artery lies on the side of the trachea, between it and the internal jugular vein. 194. Q. What are the arteries of the dura mater ? A. The arteries of the dura mater are the anterior, middle, and posterior meningeal. 195. Q. How many arteries has the thyroid gland 1 A. The thyroid gland has four arteries, namely, the two superior tbyroideal and the two inferior thyro- ideal. 196. Q. Through what foramen does the ophthalmic artery enter the orbit ? A. Toe ophthalmic artery enters the orbit by the foramen opticum; it sends its branches to the fore- head, lachrymal gland, fat, muscles, and globe of the eye. 197. Q. What is the course of the arteria Iransver- salis faciei ? A. The transversalis faciei, which is a branch of the temporal, proceeds transversely under the zygoma, over the masseler, and near the parotid duct. 198. Q. Describe the course of the internal carotid as it enters the cranium. A. The internal carotid, at the base of the cranium, makes a sudden turn forwards, and enters the carotid canal of the temporal bone ; it then passes upwards and forwards; after leaving the canal, it again bends upwards and forwards by the side of the sella turcica and perforates the dura inater at the root of the an- terior clinoid process ; it is suddenly reflected oblique- ly backwards and upwards; after which it divides in- to branches. 199. Q. Where does the anterior meningeal arten Rrise * AAATU3IIT. 2li A. The anterior meningeal artery arises from the carotid. 200. Q. Where does the posterior meningeal artery arise ? A. The posterior meningeal artery arises from the vertebral. 201. Q. From whence does the middle meningeal artery arise ? A. The middle meningeal artery arises from the in- ternal carotid artery. 202. Q What is the course of the external maxilla- ry artery over the jaw-bone ? A. The external maxillary artery passes before the edge of the masseter over the middle and lateral part of the jaw-bone. 203. Q. What are the branches which the subclavi- an artery gives off? A. They are six in namber ; viz. arteria mammaria interna, thyroidea inferior, intercostalis, vertebralis, ccrvicalis profunda, and cervicaiis superficialis. 204. Q. What are the muscles the subclavian artery passes between, in going over the first rib ? A. The subclavian artery, as it passes over the first rib, goes between the anterior and middle scalenus muscles. 205. Q. Where does the subclavian artery termi- nate? A. The subclavian artery terminates in the axillary artery at the first rib, between the insertion of the sca- leni muscles. 206. Q. What are the branches of the internal max- illary artery ? A. The internal maxillary artery gives off the arte- ria meningea media, which goes to the dura mater through the foramen spinosum ; the inferior maxillary, which enters the canal of the lower jaw ; the alveolar, to the back teeth of the upper jaw; the infra-orbitar, which gets upon the cheek, through the infra-orbitar canal; the palato-maxillary, which ramifies on the palate ; and the sjiheno-palatine, to the cavity of the 3io=e, r ■u ANATOMY. 207. Q. At what part is the brachial artery consider- ed to begin ? A. The brachial artery begins immediately below the tendon of the latissimus dorsi. 208. Q. From what artery does the inferior thyroid arise ? A. The inferior thyroid artery arises from the sub- clavian. 209 Q. How many branches does the axillary arte- ry send off? A. The axillary artery generally gives off four ar- teries, viz. thoracica longior, thoracica superior, tho- racica humeraria, and thoracica alaris. 210. Q. What is the course of the brachial artery ? A. The brachial artery descends behind the inner edt;e of the biceps, over the coraco-brachialis, cover- ed by the tendinous aponeurosis of the arm, and hav- ing the triceps extensor cubiti on the back part of it; when it gets to the bend of the armit' divides into two principal branches. ,: 211. Q. Between what tendons does the radial arte- ry lie at the wrist ? A. The radial artery lies at the wrist, between the tendons of the flexor carpi radialis and supinator radii longus. 212. Q. What is the course of the ulnar artery ? A. The ulnar artery, having passed under the flex ors of the hand and fingers to the inner part of the fore-arm, along the outer side of the flexor carpi ulna- ris, near the wrist, runs between the tendons of the flexor carpi ulnaris and flexor digitorum profundus; if then passes over the annular ligament and under the palmar fascia, to form the superficial palmar arch. 213. Q. What is the course of the radial artery ? A. The radial artery passes over the pronator teres, and takes the direction of the radius ; when it gets to the wrist it gives off several branches, and then forms the arcus profundus. 214. Q. At what distance from the elbow does the brachial artery divide ? A. At about an inch below the elbow the brachial artery generally divides into radial and ulnar ANATOMY". 215. Q. What artery forms the superficial palmar arch ? A. The superficial palmar arch is chiefly formed by the ulnar ariery. 216. Q. What forms the profundal palmar arch ? A. The profundal palmar arch is chiefly formed by the radial artery. 217. Q. What are the arteries given off from the thoracic aorta ? A. The thoracic aorta gives off the bronchial, the oesophageal, and the inferior intercostal arteries. 218. Q. What vessels does the right pulmonary ar- tery pass before it reaches the lungs ? A. The right pulmonary artery passes behind the aorta and superior cava. 219. Q. What course does the abdominal aorta take? A. The aorta passes from the thorax into the abdo- men between the crura of the diaphragm ; as it de- scends on the fore part of the spine, it inclines a little to the left: it gives off branches in its way downwards, and bifurcates on the fourth lumbar vertebra. 220. Q,. What is the course of the coronaria ventri- culi? A. The coronaria ventriculi passes from the cceliac artery towards the left side ; it first attaches itself to th: stomach near its left extremity, and sends a branch round the cardin, named ramus coronaria! dexter The trunk is then continued along the lesser curvature, to inosculate with the pylorica or coronaria sinister. 221. Q- What arc the branches of the abdominal aorta ? A. The abdominal aorta gives off the phrenic, the co^li ic, the superior mesenteric, the renal, the sper- matic, the lumbar, and the sacral arteries. *i-2*2- Q- What is the course of the arteria splenica ? A. The arteria splenica, after having left the cceliac artery, passes under the stomach and along the upper border of the. pancreas, and enters the coucave sur- face of the spleen. 223 Q. What does the eodiac artery supply 1 ■Hi AXATOMY. A. The cceliac artery supplies the stomach, liver, and spleen. 224. Q. What are the arteries of the stomach called ? A. Coronary: they arc four in number; viz. the ar- teria coronaria, gastrica dextra, gastrica sinistra, and pylorica. The veins are called gastric- 225. Q. Where is the ductus arteriosus situated in the foetus ? A. It passes obliquely from the ascending aorta to the pulmonary artery. 226. Q. What are the branches of the superior me- senteric artery ? A. The superior mesenteric artery gives off, on the right side, three branches : the ilio-colica, the branch- es of which go to (he ceecum. and to a portion of the ileum ; the colica dextra, which supplies the right side of the colon ; and the colica media, which divides on the mesocolon, and sends one branch to the right side and another to the left, that inosculates with the branch from the inferior mesenteric artery. 227. Q. What is the course of the hepatic artery ? A. It runs from the cceliac artery in a direction op- posite to the splenic, towards the right side: after giv- ing off several branches, it divides into the right and laft hepatic. The right is distributed to the right lobe of the liver, and to the gall-bladrlcr. The left supplies the whole of the left lobe, the lobulus Spigelii, and part of the right lobe. 228, Q. What are the branches of the pancreatic artery ? A. The pancrenticae parvar, which go to the pan- creas ; the vasa brevia, which go to the great curva- ture of the stomach; the gastro-epiploica sinistra, which runs along the great curvature of the stomach, inosculating with the gastro-epiploica dextra. 229. Q. What arc the branches of the hepatic arte- ry ? A. The hepatic artery gives off the pylorica or co- ronaria dextra, which ramifies on the pylorus and les- ser curvature of the stomach; the gastro-epip'oiea do\tra, which passes nnder the pylorus to reach flu- AN*ATOM*. . •21 i,reat curvature of the stomach : the pancrealico duo- denalis, which is often a branch of the gastro-epiploi- ca, goes to the pancreas and duodenum. 230. Q. What are the arteries called which supply the kidneys ? A. The renal or emulgent arteries. 231. Q. What is the course and distribution of the epigastric artery ? A. It arises from the femoral artery, just as it is about to pass under Poupart's ligament; it passes up- wards and inwards at the upper and outer part of the abdominal ring, behind the spermatic cord, running along the edge of the transversa in an oblique man- ner to the pyramidalis, it then ascends under the middle of the rectus, furnishing branches to the abdo- minal parietes, and terminates above the umbilicus, anastomosing with the mammary. 232. Q. What is the course of the femoral artery I Ai The femoral artery passes over the head of the os femoris down into a hollow at the upper and inner part of the thigh, with the rectus and sartorius mus- cles upon the outside, and the adductor on the inner side ? it descends along the inside of the thigh be- tween the vastus internus and triceps, it then gradual- ly bends backwards till it reaches the ham to become the popliteal. 233. Q. What are the names of the valves at the origin of the aorta ? A. They are called the semilunar valves, and arc three in number. 234. Q,. What are the branches of the inferior me- senteric artery ? A. The inferior mesenteric passes in the mesentery to the left side of the abdomen, and gives off—1. The colica sinistra, which ascends along the left side of the colon, to inosculate with the colica media; 2. branches which pass to the sigmoid flexure of the co- lon ; 3. the arteria haemorrhoidalis interna, which runs down behind the rectum, on which it ramifies. 235. Q. How far distant from the aorta and Pou- part's ligament does the common iliac divide ? c2 -Jb ANATOMY*. A. The common iliac artery divides at rather more than half way between the aorta and Poupart's liga- ment. 236. Q. Which is the largest branch of the inter- nal iliac ? A. The arteria glutea, or iliaca posterior, which passes out of the pelvis at the upper part of the sciatic notch. 237. Q. What is the distribution of the spermatic arteries ? A. The spermatic arteries in men pass through the abdominal ring to be distributed to the testes; while in women they remain within the abdomen, and are dispersed upon the ovaria and uterus. 238. Q. What are the branches of the internal iliac artery ? A. The internal iliac gives off the obturator, the gluteal, the iscbiatic, and pudical. 239. Q. How are the trunks of arteries nourished? A. The arterial trunks are nourished by the vasa vasorum, which arise from the nearest small branch- es, and are every where dispersed on their surface. 240. Q. What are the terminations of the arteries / A. One termination is in veins—another in secret- ing extremities—a third in glands—a fourth in cells, as in the penis—and a fifth termination is in anastomo- ses. 241. Q. What change do the collateral arteries un- dergo when a large arterial trunk is tied ? A. They dilate, their coats become stronger, and acquire additional capacity; they are also found to be- come tortuous. 242. Q. How are arteries distinguished from veins ? A. By their coats being whiter and more dense, and also more elastic. Their apertures gape, in the living body, and tbey pulsate. The arteries and veins of the lower extremity are very similar, in regard to the thickness of their coats; the popliteal artery and vein both gape. 243. Q. What is the course of the external jugular vein on the ne«*t "* ANATOMY. 29 A. The external jugular vein being formed by branches from the temple, side of the face, and throat, crosses obliquely over the sterno-mastoideus muscle, passes behind its outer edge, and goes beneath the cla- vicle to enter the subclavian vein. 244. Q. On which side of the carotid artery does the internal jugular vein run ? A. The internal jugular vein runs on the outer side of the carotid artery. 245. v£. How is the vena cava abdominalis formed, and what is its course ? A. The vena cava abdominalis is formed by the junction of the two common iliac veins : it passes up through the abdomen on the lumbar vertebrae, and on the right side of the aorta. 246. O.. Do the superficial veins of the fore-arm lie above the fascia or below it ? A. The principal veins of the fore-arm lie above the 247. Q. What are the veins at the flexure of the arm ? A. The cephalic, the median-cephalic, the basilic, and the median-basilic. 248. Ci. Have the veins of the dura mater any valves ? A. No, they have none. 249. Q. Where is the torcular of Herophilus to be found ? c , . , A. The torcular of Herophilus is to be found in the junction of the falx and the tentorium. 250. Q. What are the sinuses of the dura mater ? A. The sinuses of the dura mater are, the caver- nous, the circular, the superior and inferior petrosal, the occipital, the superior and inferior longitudinal, and the torcular Herophili. 251. Q. How are the veins of the extremities di- vide0 ? . ,.-,,.. A. The veins of the extremities are divided into deep-seated and superficial. 252. Q- What are the superficial veius of the lower extremity ? 3l> ANATOMY. A. The superficial veins of the lower extremity ait the saphena major and saphena minor. 253- Q. Have the deep-seated veins the same names as the arteries they accompany ? A. Yes ; as for example, you have in the upper ex- tremity one axillary vein, two brachial veins, two ra- dial, two interosseal, and two ulnar veins. 254. Q. What are the vessels which form the vena porta? ? A. The superior and inferior mesenteric, and the splenic veins. 255. Q. On which side of the aorta is the longest emulgent artery situated ? A. On the right, in consequence of the vena cava be- ing placed on that side, and the artery having to pass behind that vessel. 256. Q. What is the situation of the intercostal or great sympathetic nerve in the neck ? A. The intercostal nerve lies behind the carotid ar- tery in the cellular membrane, betwixt that vessel and the muscles covering the vertebr A. Between the cerebrum and cerebellum. 320. Q. How many lobes has the brain ? A. Six; viz. two anterior, two posterior, and two middle or inferior lobes. 321. Q,. How many hemispheres has the cerebrum ? A. Two ; viz. the right and the left. 322. Q. What are the cavities in the brain called? A. They are called ventricles. 323. Q. What separates the lateral ventricles from each other ? A. The septum lucidum. 324. Q. From what part of the brain does the pineal gland arise? A. From the thalamus nervi optici on each side by peduncles. » 325. Q. What separates the thalamus nervi optici from the corpus striatum ? A. A white prominentl ine, called teania semicirca- ^ lans. 221 \® What are the Processes of the dura mater called ? A. They are three in number, and are called the falciform process, the tentorium, and the septum cere- bellh- r ANATOMY. a; 6fi. U How many laminae has the dura mater i A. The dura mater has two laminae. 328. Q. What parts of the brain does the falx sepa- rate ? A. The falx separates the two hemispheres. 329. Q„ What does the tentorium separate ? A. The tentorium separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum. 330. Q. How are the sinuses of the dura mater formed ? A. The sinuses of the dura mater are formed by the separation of the two layers of that membrane. 331. Q. Does the pia mater dip between the convo- lutions of the brain, or pass over them ? A. The pia mater dips between the convolutions; but the tunica arachnoidea passes over them. 332. Q. What membrane nourishes the internal ta- ble of the skull ? A. The external lamina of the dura mater nourishes the internal table of the skull. 333. Q What are the contents of the cranium ? A. The cranium contains the cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata;—the dura mater, the pia ma- ter, and tunica arachnoides;—nine pair of nerves, and the accessory nerves of Willis;—several sinuses,—the arteries t,-at nourish the brain and its membranes, and the veins that return the blood into the sinuses : and also absorbent vessels. 334. Q,. How is the pia mater nourished ? A. The p a mater is nourished by arteries from the brain. 335. Q Where are the tubercula quadrigemina si tuated ? A. The tubercula quadrigemina are situated behind the thalami nervorum opticoruro, and under the pineal gland. 336. Q. What canal passes under the tubercula madrigemina ? A. The canal is called iter a tertio ad quartum ven- triculum; it forms the communication between the 'bird and fourth ventricle cte ANATOMY/ 337. Q. What is situated at the anterior part of (lit third ventricle ? A. At the anterior part of third ventricle are situated the anterior crura of the fornix, the commissuru ante- rior cerebri, and infundibulum. 338. Q. What forms the floor of the third ventricle? A. The commissura inferior. 339. Q.. Where is the valvula magna cerebri situat- ed? A. The valvula magna cerebri is situated over th1? iter a tertio ad q'iartum ventriculum, and the -Upper part of the foutth ventricle. 340. Q. What forms the arbor vitae? A. It is formed by the medullary and cineritious sub- stance of the brain, which are distributed in such a manner as to give the appearance of the branches of a shrub. 341. Q,. What are the medullary tracts at the sides of the valvula magna cerebri railed ? A. These lines are called processus ad testes, or CO- luranae valvulae Vieussenii. 342 Q. Where is the calamus scriptorius situated? A. The calamus scriptorius is situated in the fourth ventricle. 343. Q. What is to be observed on the medulla; ob- longata ? A. On the medulla oblongata are seen the pons Varolii, the corpora olivaria, and corpora pyramidaHa. 344. ©.. Describe the eye. A. The eye is divided into external and internal parts. The external parts are the supercilia, the pal- pebra, the cilia, lachrymal gland, IncLrymal carnncle, nasal duct and muscles of the bulb, and the tunica conjunctiva. The internal parts are the sclerotic coat, the cornea, the choroid coat, iris, uvea, retina, hyaloid membrane, capsule of the lens and vitreous humours three humours and two chambers. 345. Q,. How many coats has the eye ? A. Three; via. the tunica sclerotica, the tunica rhoroides, and the retina :—the anterior portion of the ?derotica if fran'-parent, and called the «ornea trani ANATOMY". 3y parens: the anterior part of the choroid membrane forms the iris and the uvea ; and there is, also, the membrane of the lens and of the vitreous humour: so that many anatomists make eight coats. 346. Q. Wbat is the tunica conjunctiva? A. The tunica conjunctiva is a reflexion of the inner membrane of the eyelid, over the surface of the eye ; it prevents extraneous bodies passing deep into the socket. 347. Q. Which is the most dense coat of the eye ? A. The tunica sclerotica. 348. Q,. What is the structure of the cornea ? A. The cornea is divisible into several lamellae be- tween which a transparent fluid is noticed. 349. Q. Which is the most vascular coat of the eye ? A. The tunica choroides is the most vascular coat of the eye : the ■ ciliary arteries ramify copiously on it, and the veins are numerous and contorted. 350. Q. What separates the anterior from the pos- terior chamber? A. The curtain formed by the iris and uvea. 351. Q. What is contained in the capsule of the crystalline lens? A. The crystalline lens and a little water. 352. Q,. What artery -nourishes the crystalline lens ? A. The arteria centralis retinae. 353. Q. Where is the pigmentum nigrum of the eye situated ? A. Upon the uvea, behind the iris, and upon the sur- face of the tunica choroidea. 354. Q.. Where is the lachrymal sac situated 1 A. In the -uperior part of the lachrymal groove, or the commencement of the ductus ad nasum behind the tendon of the orbicularis. 355. Q. What part of the eye is the true organ of vision ? A. The retina. 356. Q. What secretes the pigmentum nigrum of the ■choroid me^nbratie A. The pigmentum nigrum of the choroid membrane is secreted by the arteries of that membrane. d2 JlO ANATOMY; 857. 6.. How many chambers has the eye 1 A. Two : an anterior and a posterior chamber. 358. Q. What gives the whitish blue colour to the bulb of the eye ? A. The whitish blue colour of the bulb of the eye is occasioned by the expanding tendons of the mustier) shining through the transparent tunica conjunctiva. 359. Q,. Where are the vasa vnrticosa situated ? A. The vasa vorticosa are situated on the choroid coat of the eye : they are formed by a contortion of the veins of that membrane. 360. Q. What bones form the lachrymal groove or ductus ad nasum, and where does it terminate ? A. The lachrymal bone, the superior maxillary bone, and the inferior spongy bone. It terminates at the lower and lateral parts of the nose, at the inner and fore part of the antrum maxillare, under the os spon- giosum inferius, in a straight line with the second dens molaris. 361. Q,. What is the division of the external ear? A. The external ear is divided into the pinna, lobus, fend meatus auditorius. 362. Q. What are the eminences of the external ear ? A. There are four eminences on the external ear; viz. helix, antihelix, tragus, andantitragus. 363. Q. Have the depressions on the external ear any names ? A. Yes; they are distinguished into the fossa na- vicularis, the fossa innominata, and the concha. 364. U. What is the general division of the internal ear? A. The internal oar is divided into the tympanum and labyrinth, which consists of the cochlea, vesti- })tihim, and semicircular canals. 365. Q. Where does the Eustachian tube begin ? A. The Eustachian tube begins at the upper and fore part of the tympanum. 366; Q. What membrane lines the meatus auditorim -tixterniis' * ANATOMY. 41 A. The meatus is lined by a continuation of the skin. 367. Q,. If a probe were passed to the bottom of the meatus auditorius, what would it rest on ? A- The membrana tympani. 368. Q- Where is the fenestra ovalis situated? A. The fenestra ovalis is situated in the tympanum, above the promontory* 369. Q. Where do the cells of the mastoid process open? A. They open at the upper and back part of the tympanum. 370. Q. Where does the fenestra rotunda lead to? A. The fenestra rotunda leads to the cochlea. 371. Q- How many openings are there in the vesti- bulum ? A. Five foramina, which communicate with the se- micircular canals;—the fenestra ovalis, and a round hole which communicates with one of the canals of the cochlea. 372. Q.. What are the principal parts of the cochlea? A. The principal parts of the cochlea are, the gyri, the modiolus, the infundibulum, the scala vestibuli; and the scala tympani. 373. Q,. How are the semicircular canals distrnguish- ea? A. The semicircular canals are three in number i they are distinguished into the superior or vertical, the posterior or oblique, and the exterior or horizontal. 374. Q,. How is the palate divided? A. It is divided into palatum durum and palatum molle. 375. Q. What forms the first arch of the palate ? A. The constrictor isthmi fauchtm, covered by the skin of the mouth. 376. Qi What are the papillae minimae and papillae mediae of the tongue formed by ? A. The papillae minimae and mediae are formed by the extremities of nerves surrounded by a lace-work of blood-vessels. 377. Q. What forms the second arch of the palate 1 4'J IN ATOMY. A. The levator palati, covered by the skin of the mouth. 378. Q. What lies between the two arches of the palate? A. The tonsil gland. 379. Q. What does the uvula consist of? A. The uvula consists of the azygos uvulae, enve- loped in the membrane of the palate. 380. Q,. Where is the pharynx, and what is it? A. The pharynx is a large muscular bag in form of an irregular funnel, at the back of the mouth, which terminates in the oesophagus. 380. Q,. What forms the inner membrane of the pharynx ? A. The inner membrane of the pharynx is formed by the continuation of the membrane of the mouth. 381. Q,. What are the principal glands which se- crete the saliva ? A. The saliva is secreted chiefly by the parotid, the submaxillary, apd the sublingual glands. 382. Q.. How is the tongue divided ? A. The tongue is divided into a basis and apex, a superior and inferior surface, and two edges. 383. Q,. How many cartilages has the larynx ? A. The larynx has five cartilages ; viz. the thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytenoid, and the cartilage of the epiglottis. 384. Q,. What are the viscera of the thorax ? A. The pleura, the lungs, the thymus gland (in child- ren), the oesophagus, the ductus thoracicus the arch of the aorta, branches of the venae cavae. the vena azygos, the pericardium, the heart, the phienic nerve, the par vagum, and 'he great intercostal nerves. 385. Q, How many lobes has the left lung ? A. It has two lobes. 386. Q. How many lobes has the right lung ? A. The right lung has three lobes. 387. Q. What do the bronchia terminate in ? A. The bronchia become membranous tubes which terminate in the air-cells. 388. Q. What separates the chest into two cavities' A A ATOM Y. 4N A. The mediastinum, which is formed by the pleura. 389. Q,. What are contained in the posterior medi- astinum ? A. The oesophagus, the bronchia, the large vessels of the heart, the par vagum, great intercostals, and the thoracic duct. 390. Q,. What is there in the anterior mediastinum that disappears towards adult age ? A. The thymus gland. 391. Q.. How many membranes has the pericar- dium ? A. The pericardium has two membranes ; an exter- nal and an internal. 392. Q. What part of the thorax does the pericar- dium adhere most to ? A. The pericardium adheres most firmly to the ten- dinous part of the diaphragm. 393. Q. What arteries nourish the pleura? A. The arteries that nourish the pleura are branch- es from the intercostal, mammary, diaphragmatic, bronchial, and oesophageal arteries. 394. Q. What is the heart ? A. The heart is a hollow muscular viscus, situated in the pericardium, iri the cavity of the thorax, resting upon the diaphragm. 395. Q. Has the external- surface of the heart any membranous covering ? A. Yes: it has a membranous coat, which is a re- flexion of the inner layer of the pericardium. 396. Q. Where are the musculi pectinati situated ? A. In the right auricle of the heart. 397. Q. Where is the tricuspid Valve situated ? A. The tricuspid valve is situated between the right auricle and right ventricle, hanging from the opening between them. 398. Q. Where does the pulmonary artery originate ? A. The pulmonary artery arises from the right ven- tricle. 399. Q. Do the auricles of the heart communicate before birth ? A. Yes* bv the foramen ovale. 14 ANATOMY. 400. Q. Where is the Eustachian valve situated / A. At the entrance of the inferior cava, within the right auricle of the heart. 401. Q. How many openings has the right auricle of the heart ? A. Four; viz. the opening of the vena cava supe- rior, that of the vena cava inferior, that of the coro- nary vein, and the ostium venosum. 402. Q. What is the valve of K.ustachius formed by'.' A. The Eustachian valve is formed by a fold of the inner membrane of the right auricle. 403. Q,. How many openings has the left auricle of the heart ? A. Five; viz. those of the four pulmonary vessels and the ostium venosum. 404. Q. What are the differences between the fcetal and adult heart ? A. In the foetal heart, an opening exists between the auricles in the septum auricularum, called the foramen ovale ; this is closed in the adult heart. An artery al- so passes from the pulmonary artery obliquely to the ascending aorta in the foetus, which is called canalis arteriosus: this becomes a ligament in the adult. 405. Q. What are the regions of the abdomen ? A. The abdomen is divided into three regions, each of which is subdivided:—1. The epigastric region, which is the superior: its sides are termed hypochon- driac regions.—2. Tne umbilical region, situated in the centre of the abdomen, the sides of which are termed iliac or epicolic regions.—3. The hypogastric region, which is subdivided into three regions, one middle, termed regio pubis, and two lateral, named in- guinal regions. 406. Q. What viscera are contained in the abdomen .' A. The omentum, the stomach, the large and small intestines, the liver and gall bladder, the mesentery, the lacteal vessels, the thoracic duct, the spleen, the pancreas, the kidneys and suprarenal capsules, part of the aorta descendens, and vena cava ascendens, and the abdominal nerves. 407. Q- What is the membrane called, that lines tin •svity and covers the viscera of the abdomen 1 ANATOMY. 4b A. The peritonaeum. 408. Q. What are the four ligamentary cords seen upon the outside of the peritonaeum at its anterior and inferior part ? A. They are the remains of parts peculiar to the foetus; viz. the two umbilical arteries, the umbilical vein, and the urachus. 409. Q. What forms the mesentery ? A. Tiie mesentery is formed by a doubling of the peritonaeum 410. Q. Where does the mesentery begin ? A. The mesentery begins at the termination of the duodenum. 411. Q. How is the colon fixed to the spine ? A. The colon is fixed to the spine by a continuation of the mesentery, which is called mesocolon. 412. Q. Which is the largest viscus of the abdomen ' A. The liver. 413. Q. Describe the liver ? A. The liver is the largest abdominal viscus, placed in the right hypochondriac region, and partly in the epigastric region. It is distinguished into three lobes, is suspended by five ligaments, and is composed of ar- teries, veins, nerves, absorbents excretory ducts, and cellular membrane,and is covered by the peritonaeum. 414. Q. Are the kidneys completely enveloped in the peritonaeum ? A. No : only their anterior surfaces. 415. Q. Where is the great lobe of the liver situat- ed ? A. The great lobe of the liver is situated in the right hypochondriac region, and rests upon the pylorus, co- lon, and top of the right kidney. 416. Q,. Where is the small lobe of the line situat- ed ? A. The small lobe of the liver is situated in the epigastric region, only a small portion of it lying in the left hypochondriac region. 417. Q. What are the vessels surrounded by the cap- sule of Glysson ? A, The vessels surrounded by the capsule of Glys- 4t> ANATOMY, son are the venae.portae, the hepatic artery, the hepatie veins, the excretory ducts, and some absorbents. 418. Q.. What forms the capsule of Glysson ? A. A reflexion of the peritonaeum, which, with a quantity of cellular substance, surrounds the vessels and nerves of the liver just before they enter that vis- cus. 419. Q. What are the ligaments of the liver ? A. The ligaments of. the liver are, the broad Hga- ment, the round ligament, the right and left lateral li- gaments, and the coronary ligament 420. Q,. What artery nourishes the liver? A. The hepatic artery, which is a branch of the CC8- liac. 421. Q,. What are the depressions of the liver ? A. The depressions are:—1. The great fissure:—2. a fissure for the vena portae:—3. one for the venae ca. vae:—4. a furrow between the left lobe and lobulusSpi- gelii for the venal canal in the foetus:—5. a depression for the gall-bladder:—6. a superficial cavity caused by the stomach :—and 7. a great sinus for the spine and oesophagus at the posterior part of the left lobe. 422. U. What is the use of the liver ? A. To secrete bile. 423. Q. What are the excretory ducts of the liver called ? A. Pori biliarii. 424. Q,. Where is the gall-bladder situated ? A. The gall-bladder is situated in the right hypo- chondrium, attached to a depression in the right lobe of the liver. , 425. Q. How many coats has the gall-bladder ? A. The gall-bladder has three coats;, viz. an exter- nal or peritonaea!, a middle-or .muscular coat, and an internal or villous coat. t426. CL What is the appearance of the internal sur- face of the. gall-bladder ? A. The internal surface of the gallrbkdder^s smooth and of a green,,colour, and appears every where per- forated by the ducts of small follicles, which afford a nuiriv- to.defend the inner coat. vA ATOMY. n 427. Q. Of what kind of structure is the outer sur- face of the peritonaeum ? A. The outer surface of the peritonaeum is cellular. 428. Q. What is the extent of the peritonaeum co- vering the bladder? A. The peritonaeal coat extends over the fundus, sides, and back part, to near the termination of the ureters. 429. Q. Where is the spleen situated ? A. It is situated in the left hypochondrium, near the fundus of the stomach, under the ribs. 430. Q. What nerves supply the spleen ? A. The nerves of the spleen are branches of the great sympathetic and eighth pair. 431. Q. Where is the pancreas situated ? A. The pancreas extends from the fissure of the spleen across the spine, under the posterior surface of the stomach, and terminates at the duodenum. 432. Q. What arteries nourish the pancreas? A. Tne arteries which nourish the paucreas are de- rived from ihrt pyiorica, duodenalis, and splenica. 433. Q. What is the elongation of process sent down from the right extremity of the pancreas called? A. This process was called by Winslow, pancreas minus : it is also called head of the pancreas. 434. Q. Where is the pancreatie duct situated ? A. The prancreatic duct begins near the left extre- mity of the pancreas; it runs in the substance of the gland, and terminates obliquely in the duodenum, along with the ductus communis choledochus. 435. Q,. What are the supra-renal capsules ? A. The supra-renal capsules are flat bodies, of a dark yellow colour ; they rest upon the kidneys; they con- tain a dark-coloured fluid, and are larger in the foetus than in the adult. 436. Q,. What difference in situation is there between the right and left kidney ? A. The right kidney is much lower than the left, oc- casioned bv the liver occupying so much space. 437. Q. What is the excretory duct of the kidney .•»il*d' 4S A.N ATOMY. A. The ureter. 438. Q. How many coats compose the ureter .' A. Three: an external, consisting of a compact fila- mentary substance ; the middle one. of several fibres; andthe internal one, of the mucous kind. 439. Q. What does the substance of the kidney con- sist of ? A. The substance of the kidney consists of an outer part called cortical, and an inner, termed medullary. 440. Q. What viscera are in contact with the right kidney ? A. The right kidney lies under the liver, and is very near to the duodenum. 441. O.. Is the cortical substance endowed with any peculiar function f A Yes : that of secreting the urine. 442. Q. What forms the papillae of the kidney? A. The terminations of the medullary substance with the uriniferous tubes. 443. O.. What is the name of the duct leading from the pelvis of the kidney to the bladder ? A. ! he ureter. 444. Q, Describe the stomach. A. The stomach is a membranous receptacle, placed in the left hypochondriac region, composed of three membranes. It has a superior orifice called cardh., and an inferior orifice called pylorus; a lesser and greater curvature, and two surfaces distinguished into anterior and posterior. 445. Q,. Where do the veins of the stomach go ? A. The gastric veins empty themselves into the vena portae. 446. Q. What are the arteries of the stomach ? A. The arteries of the stomach are derived from the cceliac ; they consist of the eoronaria, the eastrir* eL nistra, the gastrica dextra andth pylorica 0l,,,'a5,■ va^re S^SS? W "ttBChed * *« *"* cur- •^ofhteheacSolon0mentU,n'the 8plCen' ^transverse eaHed?a Wh8t ^ ^ Pr°Per 1uiCC °f the "tomarb \N ATOMY. 4U A. The gastric juice. 449. Q. What is the beginning of the colon called ' A. The commencement of the colon is called caput coli. 450 Q. How would you distinguish the small from the large intestines ? A. The large intestines have three longitudinal bands, running on their surface ; they are lobulated, and have the portions of fat adhering to them, called appendicu- lae epiploicae ; which circumstances are not noticed in the small intestines There are the valvulae conni- ventes in the small intestines, which do not exist in the large. 451. Q. Which is the broadest of the small intes- tines ? A. The duodenum is the broadest of the small intes- tines. 452. Q. How are the mucous glands of the intestines distinguished >. A The mucous glands of the intestines are distin- guished into solitary and congregate, and form theirdes- •„*-■ • , cribers glandulae Peyeri and glandulae Bnineri. 453. Q. What are the ducts that enter the duodenum ? A. The ductus communis choledochus, and the duc- tus pancreaticus. 454. Q,. By what means does the cavity of the omen- tum communicate with that of the abdomen? A. A communication is formed under the capsule of Glysson by means of the foramen of Winslow. 455. Q. In what intestines are the valvulae conniven- tes found ? A In the small, chiefly in the duodenum and jeju- num. 456. Q. Describe the situation and course of the colon. A. The col m ascends on the right side to the liver; passes under the liver and stomach to the left side, where it descends, by a sigmoid flexure, into the pelvis, and ends in the rectum. 457. Q.. Where do the mouths of the lacteals open ' A. Upon the internal surface of the small intestines. 158 Q,. Where does the mesentery begin ? 60 ANATOMY. A. Near the termination of the duodenum. 459. Q. How does the rectum differ from the colon 1 A. The rectum differs from the colon in being cover- ed only anteriorly and laterally by the peritonaeum *, its muscular fibres are stronger and thicker, and spread uniformly over the intestine. 460. Q,. Describe the uterus. A. The uterus is a spongy hollow receptacle, of a pear shape, placed in the pelvis between the urinary bladder and rectum, divided into fundus, cervix, and ori- fice or os tincae : it has four ligaments, two Fallopian tubes, two ovaria, and the vagina hanging from its cer- vix. 460. Q. Of what do the ligamentalata uteri consist ? A. The ligamenta lata consist of two membranous productions or doublings of the peritonaeum, which go from the sides of the uterus and vagina, to be affixed to the sides of the pelvis. 461. Q,. What are the ligamenta rotunda uteri ? A. They are cords composed of vessels and ligamen- tous fibres, arising from the corners of the uterus. 462. Q,. Through what tube does the ovum pass from the ovarium into the uterus ? A. Through the Fallopian tube. 463. Q,. Where is the os tincae situated ? A- The os tincae, or mouth of the womb, is situated at the top of the vagina and inferior part of the uterus. 464. Q. What part of the vagina is covered by the peritonaeum ? A. The upper and posterior part. 465. Q,. What is the length of the urethra in fe- males ? A. The urethra in females is about an inch in length. 466 Q,. Where is the female in ethra situated ? A. The female urethra is situated under the sym- physis of the pubis, between the nymphae and below the clitoris, just above the entrance of the vagina. 467. Q,. Where is the bladder situated ? A. The bladder is situated within the pelvis, immedi- ately behind the ossa pubis: in males before the rectum. and in females between the uterus and pubes. ANATOMY. ol 468. Q. On which side of the vesiculae seminales do the ureters enter into the bladder ? A. The ureters perforate the bladder on the outside of the vesiculae seminales. 469. Q,. What muscle does the ureter pass in going to the bladder ? A. The ureter descends from the kidney over the psoas muscle. 47U. Q,. Where is the epididymis situated ? A. The epididymis is situated at the outer and back part of the testicle. 471. Q,. How many dilatations are there in the urethra ? A. There are generally three dilatations to be found in the urethra of men ; one at the point of the glans penis, another at the bulb of the urethra, and a third in the prostate gland. 472. Q. To what do the openings of the verumon- tanum belong ? A. The orifices found on the verumontanum belong to the vesiculae seminales. 473. Q. Where is the urethra most dilated ? A. The urethra is most dilated at that part which is surrounded by the prostate gland. 474. Q. What forms the corpus pampiniforme ? A. The corpus pampiniforme is formed by a plexus of veins that have a distant resemblance to the shoots of the vine. 475. Q. What forms the coni vasculosi ? A. The coni vascul isi are forned by the vasa effe- rentia becoming convoluted into conical bundles. 476. Q. What does the corpus spongiosum urethrae consist of? A. The corpus spongiosum urethrae consists of a plexus of veins; it is expanded at its anterior part to form the glans penis. 477. Q. Describe the situation and course of the corpora cavernosa penis. A. The corpora cavernosa arise by what are called the crura from the tubera ischii; they ascend along the ischium and pubes, and are united immediately e2 &2 ynaiomv* before the cartilaginous arch of the pubes: they are covered by a ligamento-tendinous substance, which it rery elastic: internally they are cavernous, and are separated from each otherby the septum pectiniforme, so called from its numerous perforations. 478. Q,. Where are the testicles situated in the foe- tus? A. The testicles in the foetus before the sixth month are in the abdomen ; they receive a covering of pe- ritonaeum, and are placed at the lower part of the kid- neys. 479. Q,. How many coats has the testicle ? A. It has two coats; viz. the tunica vaginalis and the tunica albuginea. 480. Q,. Is there any difference in the manner in which the two coats surround the testicle ? A. Yes: the tunica vaginalis invests the testicle as the pericardium does the heart, adhering only at its posterior and superior part; while the tunica albugi- nea surrounds and is firmly attached to the testicle on every part. 481. Q,. What is the excretory duct of the testicle called ? A- The excretory duct of the testicle is called \*as deferens. 482. Q. Where do the corpora cavernosa penis arise ? A. The Corpora cavernosa penis arise from the edge Of the ramus of the ischium and os pubis. 483 Q. What forms the scrotum ? A. Thescrotum is formed by a continuation of the common integuments. 484. Q,. What forms the common integuments ? A. The common integuments are formed by the cuticle, rete mucosum, cutis, and adipose substance. 485. Q. What is the use of the cartilages of the surfaces of joints ? A. The uses of the articular .cartilages are to give the bones a smoothness for easy motion, to assist mo- tion by their elasticity, and to guard against the effect* of concussion. ANATOMY. O'S 486. $. What is the most elastic substance in the body? A. The most elastic substance in the body is carti- lage. 487. Q. At? tendons elastic ? A. Tendom are not elastic; for, if they Were, the power of muides would be greatly diminished. 488. Q,. Waat is the use of the adeps ? A- The adeos guards against the effects of pressure; it lessens the specific gravity of the body, fills up the interstices of auscles, and is a reservoir for nourish- ment to the body. ;>i r*HY?I01.f the ureter, pro- duced by the ureter's piercing the bladder obliquely. 61. Q. Why is the spine composed of so many small bones ? A. he reason why the spine is composed of so many bones is to allow of great strength, with a suffi- cient degree of mobility. 52. Q. Is there any alteration in the muscles of a paralytic limb ? A. Yes: the muscles of a paralytic limb are paler and more flaccid. 53. Q.. How is the voice performed ? A. The voice results from the vibration the air suf- fers during its passage through the glottis, when expell- ed from the lungs- 54. Q,. Which of he two has the greatest power in preventing luxations of the joint, the muscles that surround the joint, or its own ligaments ? A. The muscles that surround joints defend them better and give them greater strength than their sur- rounding ligaments. -IR«;ERY. OJ SURGERY. 1. Q. What are the symptoms of compressed brain ? A. The person is mostly insensible ; an apoplectic stertor of the breathingswon comes on ; loss of volun- tary motion, tremors, and convulsions. Ihe pupil is contracted, or dilated ; and, if the person can be rous- ed from his stertorous sleep, he complains of giddi- ness and dimness of sight. Often there is haemorrhage from the nose, eyes, and ears; and the faeces and urine are discharged involuntarily; and as the compression is generally produced by fractured skull, the finding a portion of skull depressed from the blow is sufficient. The pulse is irregular and slow. 2. Q. What are the symptoms of concussion of the brain ? A. The patient is first in a state of insensibility, and the extremities usually become cold ; there is a great tendency to sleep, but the sleep is unattended by stertor. If the compression be not very great, the patient soon becomes more sensible, but vomiting takes place ; he is at times delirious: the pulse irregular and quick; and phrenitis often succeeds the concussion. Should, however, the concussion be very great, the insensibility of the patient increases 3. Q. How would you distinguish a fissure of the cranium from a suture ? A. By the course of the fissure, by its appearance not being zigzag, and by the pericranium not adhering to it in the way it does to a suture 4. Q. What practice would you adopt to relieve con- cussion of the brain ? A. Ihe most approved practice is to bleed accord- ing to circumstances; to administer saline purges ; to put the patient on the antiphlogistic regimen. Should symptoms of phrenitis come on, large and repeated blood-letting is to be had recourse to, and blisters are to be applied to the head, or neck, in order to reduce the inflammation of the brain 62 SCUGKKY. 5. Q. When a portion of the cranium is depressed, What would you do to elevate it ? A. Apply the trephine. 6. Q. When a portion of the cranium is depressed, \fhere would you apply the trephine to raise it ? A. On a part of the skull which would include a por- tion of the depressed bone, that the elevator may be introduced so as to raise the depressed portion. 7. Q. In wounds of the scalp are sutures to be used ? A. The use of sutures is always to be avoided as much as possible. Most surgeons prefer sticking-plaster. 8. Q. When the scalp is much contused or torn, is it advisable to cut off the injured portion 1 A No ; it is better to attempt to preserve the torn portion. 9. Q. What is the general treatment of a contused and lacerated scalp ? A. The treatment is to clean the injured portion of the scalp, as much as possible, from extraneous bodies ; to retain it in its natural position, and apply cooling lo- tions orother applications to keep down inflammation. 10. Q. What are the consequences that sometimes take place from punctured wounds of the scalp ? A. In punctured wounds of the scalp an erysipelas frequently takes place ; the inflammation and tumour often affect the whole head and face, the skin of which wears a yellowish cast, receives the impression of the finger; and asymptomatic fever is produced. If the wound be small, and have passed beneath the aponeu- rosis, worse symptoms than these even accrue. 11. Q. What is to be done when the scalp (after be- ing injured) becomes tense, the pain great, and the symptomatic fever very high ? A. It is recommended to make an incision over the wounded part down to the bone, which in general re- moves all the bad symptoms. 12. Q,. If there be doubt as to a fracture of the era- nium, and it is thought not necessary to trepan, what plan of treatment should the patient be put on .' A. The antiphlogistic plan is the best, under such circumstance?. SIKGKRY. M 13. 4i. What are the symptoms that attend an in lamed state of the membranes of the brain brought on by injury ? A. The symptoms are pain in the head, restlessness. want of sleep, frequent and hard pulse, hot and dry skin, flushed countenance, inflamed eyes, nausea, vo- miting, rigor, and towards the end convulsion and de- lirium. 14. Q. What is meant by the term hernia ? A. By hernia is generally meant a preternatural tu- mour occasioned by some of the viscera of the abdo- men being displaced out of thai cavity. 15. Q. In what parts of the body do herniae most frequently appear ? A. Herniae most commonly make their appearance at the groin, the navel, the labia pudendi, and the up- per and fore part of the thigh. 16. O.. What names have been adopted to distin- guish herniae by their contents? A. When intestine alone is contained in the hernia, it is termed an enterocele; when omentum alone, epi- plocele ; and when both are included in the tumour, an entero-epiplocele. Sometimes the hernia contains a part of the stomach, liver, bladder, &c.; then it is named accordingly, gastrocele, hepatocele, and cys- tocele 17. Q,. What do you mean by an exomphalos ? A. An umbilical hernia, or protrusion of the intes- tines or omentum, through the umbilical ring. 18. Q,. What is a bubonocele ? A. It is an inguinal hernia, formed by a protrusion of intestine or omentum through the abdominal ring. 19. Q. What is meant by a reducible hernia 7 A. A reducible hernia is one that has its contents ly- ing quietly in the sac, and admits of being readily put back into the abdomen. 20. Q. What is meant by an irreducible hernia? A. An irreducible hernia is one which, from adhe- sions of the intestine to the sac, or thickened omen- tum, cannot be returned into the abdomen. f 2 04 SVKGERY. 21. Q. How does incarcerated hernia differ from ir- reducible hernia ? A. An incarcerated or strangulated hernia not only cannot be reduced, but circulation is stopped, and the contents of the bowel are prevented passing onwards to the anus. 22. Q. In incarcerated herniae, whether are those most easily reduced that contain small or large intes- testine ? A. An incarcerated small intestine is more easily re- duced than an incarcerated large intestine. 23. Q,. Which is the most dangerous, an intestinal or an omental hernia ? A. An intestinal hernia is the most dangerous, and especially if it is small and recent. 24. Q. How is a femoral hernia distinguished from an enlarged lymphatic gland? A. The swelling of a femoral hernia comes on in a sudden manner; it is elastic, and may be reduced in size by pressure; whilst a gland, when inflamed, is in- elastic, it cannot be reduced in size by pressure, and the swelling comes on gradually. 25. Q,. What forms the sac in hernia congenita ? A. The sac in hernia congenita is formed by the tu- nica vaginalis. 26. Q. What are the symptoms of strangulated in- testine ? A. The patient is seized with sickness; obstinate costiveness comes on; synochal fever takes place, and a vomiting of faecal matter. The rupture remains sta- tionary, and no effort can return it; the tumour of the part becomes very painful, and the pain extends to the abdomen, attended with a general tension. 27. Q. Describe the operation for strangulated in- guinal hernia. A. Having shaved off the hair from the tumour, and the patient being placed in a suitable situation for the operation, an incision should be made about an inch above the ring, which, if the tumour be not very large, should extend to the most depending part of the swell- ing, so that the skin and cellular membrane covering &1/RGERY. 65 the sac will thus be cut through. Perhaps the exter- nal pudical artery, that crosses the sac near the abdo- minal ring, will also be cut through ; if so, it will be necessary to secure this artery before we proceed, to prevent further bleeding. Then, with a pair of for- ceps, a part of the fascia must be raised and divided, to allow the introduction of a director, on which in- strument the fascia is to be divided upwards, to with- in an inch of the abdominal ring, and downwards, to the bottom of the tumour. The next thing to be at- tended to is the division of the stricture i with this view, the finger is to be passed into the sac, as far as the stricture, which will be found either at the abdo- minal ring, or about an inch and a half from this aper- ture, inclining upwards and outwards, or in the mouth of the sac. If the stricture be at the ring, the finger is to be passed as far as the stricture, and then a probe- pointed bistoury must be conveyed over the front part of the sac into the ring, which 13 next to be divided in a direction upwards, opposite the middle of the sac, and to extend just sufficient to allow the protruded parts to be returned into the abdomen. By this divi- sion of the ring, the epigastric artery is not wounded, nor are the transverse tendinous fibres cut through that cross the upper part of the ring, by which the aperture of the ring is not so much weakened. The stricture being thus removed, the protruded parts are to be re- turned into the cavity of the abdomen. Should the intestine be gangrenous, it is not to be returned. The intestine may, however, have dark discolourations, and may be returned without harm: these states should be carefully distinguished. If the omentum be gan- grenous, the dead part should be cut off, and the other part returned, if haemorrhage is not likely to occur from its surface. When the omentum is indurated, the indurated portion may be cut off. The parts are now to be dressed in the usual way. 29. Q,. Describe the operation for femoral or crural hernia. A. An incision is to be made from the point where the hernia protrudes, just above Poupart's ligament, a little nearer to the symphysis pubis than the femoral 00 *IK«KR\. vessels are, and be continued the whole length of the tumour. Any glands which may lie over the hernia should be avoided. The aponeurotic fibres which pro- ceed from the femoral fascia and ascend obliquely over the front of the thigh are to be divided very cau- tiously. The hernial sac is to be opened by means of a pair of dissecting forceps and bistoury, the operator raising the part by taking hold of the cellular mem- brane attached to it, and is then to make a very small aperture by an horizontal cut; through this opening a director may be introduced, and the sac is to be divid- ed nearly as high as Poupait's ligament, and quite to the bottom of the tumour. The sac being laid open, a director should next be introduced within the crural ring, on the side of the intestine which is nearest the symphysis pubis, and an incision should be made di- rectly upwards, for the purpose of cutting the femoral ligament. The protruded parts are then to be returned. 30. Q. How would you treat a violent ophthalmia? A. Bleed locally, and generally, according to the age of the patient. If there be great inflammation of the tunica conjunctiva, carefully scarify it; apply soft emollient poultices to the eyes, renewing them often ; give saline purges and diaphoretics; keep the eyes shaded: and, as the chronic stage succeeds, alter the remedies in some decree, according to circumstances ; apply astringent sedative lotions to the eyes, leaving off the poultices; make use of the tincture of opium, dropping in two or three drops twice or thrice a-day, between the eyelid and ball. 31. Q. How would yon treat gangrene in general ? A. With tonics, stimulants, and a generous diet. 32. Q. When a locked jaw arises from an injury, how would you endeavour to relieve it? A. By making a free division of the injured part; and if this did not succeed, by amputating, if possible. Antispasmodics, as opium and ether, must be given in- ternally. 33. Q. When a ball is lodged in the calf of the leg, and it is necessary to make an incision upon it, in what direction would you make that incision ? SURtJEHY. 67 A. In a perpendicular direction. 34. Q. How does the complete division of a punc- tured artery (as the temporal) stop the haemorrhage ? A. By the retraction of the extremities of the artery. 35. Q. What is the cause of the cold sensation and numbness of the leg and foot, generally felt from an aneurism of the popliteal artery ? A. Pressure upon the popliteal nerve, which sup- plies the leg and foot with nervous in.luence ; it is also caused by obstructed circulation, the popliteal ar- tery losing part of its power, and conta-u.ig a quantity of coagulum. 36. Q. If necessary to take up the brachial artery, near the flexure of the arm, how will the circulation of the blood be carried on ? A. By the two profundals chiefly, which inosculate with the recurrents of the ulnar and radial arteries. 37. Q,. How is amputation of the shoulder-joint per- formed 1 A. As there is no room for the application of the tourniquet in this operation, the axillary artery is to be compressed by an assistant, by means of a pad, just where it passes over the first rib; or, to render the operation more safe, it is preferred to take up the axil- lary artery at once; then, with a large common bistoury, a semicircular incision is to be made with its convexity downwards, to across the integuments covering the deltoid muscle, about four inches below the acromion. The skin should not be detached, but the muscle is to be cleared from the bone quite up to the joint; then the tendons passing over the joint are to be cut through, also the capsular ligament, so as to allow the bone to be dislocated from the joint. Having done this, the skin, and other parts, underneath the joint, are to be divided with one stroke of the knife ; after this, the circumflex, or any small vessel that may bleed, should be secured and tied. The flap of the deltoid muscle is next to be. laid down, so that its edge will meet the margin of the wound below. The operation is then finished by dressing. :'•? Q,. What do you mean by hydrocele ? 08 SL'RGERY. A. A collection of serous fluid in the tunica vagi tialis testis. 39. Q.. How many methods are there employed lor the radical cure of hydrocele ? A. There are six different methods employed in the radical cure of hydrocele ; viz. the incision, the ex- cision, the application of caustic, the introduction of a tent, the employment of a seton. and injecting some stimulating fluid into the caviiy of the tunica vagi- nalis. 40. Q,. How many ways can the lower jaw be dis- located ? A. The lower jaw can only be luxated forwards on the zygomatic arches. 41. Q. How many species of white swelling are there ? A. Two: the scrofulous and the rheumatic species. 42. Q. What muscles are cut through in the opera- tion of lithotomy on the male ? A. The transversalis perinaei, and generally a part of the accelerator urinae, and sometimes a part of the levator ani. 43. Q. What are the pecularities of a gun-shot wound? A. Great contusion and laceration, which produce a deadened state of fibres immediately surroui ding the wound, that require to be thrown off in the form of slough, before the wound can heal ; they also fre- quently contain pieces of cloth or bullets. 44. Q. How is an aneurismal lummr distinguished from other tumours ? A. B. its pulsating, and its receding, upon pressure, and soon returning again to its usual bulk. 45. Q. What is the substat.ee generally found in aneurismal sacs ? A. The coagulable part of the blood, which is usual- ly found in layers. 46. Q. How is amputation below the knee perform- ed? ' A. Having placed the patient in a proper position. and applied the tourniquet to compress the artery, one surukr:*. oy assistant is to support the leg, while the other pulls up the integuments ; a circular incision is then *• made round the leg, to divide the integuments; when these are divided, a portion of them is to be dissected back from the muscles, by means of a scalpel, sufficient to cover the stump; these being kept back, another cir- cular incision is to be made by the knife, some way higher up than the lira incision ; by this incision, the soft parts are divided quite to the bone The inter- osseous ligament is then t> be thoroughly divided by the scalpel, or the catalene : the soft parts should be pro- perly retracted, and the saw siiould next be applied, to divide the bones. After which, the spiculae left by the saw, are to be removed by the pincers. The vessels are next to be secured by ligatures, slackening the tourniquet from tim>' to timej lest any vessel should not be secured. To discover this, it is always neces- sary to sponge away the clotted blood from the wound. After these precautions are taken, the edges of the wound are to be brought together, by drawing the in- teguments over the surface of the wound ; the ligatures are to be left out, and the wound covered with lint and cloth 47. Q What are the consequences that generally arise from lacerated or wounded nerves ' A. Inflammation of the lacerated or wounded part, locked jaw, and convulsions. 48. Q. What joint of the body is most subject to dislocation ? A. The shoulder-joint is most subject to dislocation. 49. Q. How many ways may the head of the thigh- bone be dislocated ? A. The head of the thigh-bone may be dislocated upwards and outwards on tae dorsum of the ileum ; upwards and forwards on the body of the os pubis ; downwards and inwards on the foramen ovale ; and downwards and outwards on the os ischium. * 50. Q- What are the symptoms of lumbar abscess ? A. This kind of abscess generally forms in a very insidious manner : in the incipient stage of the dis- ease the person cannot walk so well as usual, and feeja 70 SURGERY'. a degree of uneasiness about the lumbar region ; but in general there is no acute pain, even when the ab- scess has acquired such a size as to form a large tu- mour protruding externally. 61. Q. What is meant by a compound fracture ? A. It is a fracture of the bone, attended with an ex- ternal wound of the soft parts. 52. Q. What takes place when a bone is denuded of its periosteum ? A. Generally exfoliation, to a certain degree. 53. Q. What bone is perforated in operating for fis- tula lachrymalis ? A. The os unguis. 54. Q. Why are luxations of the shoulder-joint more frequent than luxations of the hip-joint ? A. Because the glenoid cavity is very superficial, to allow of extensive motion to the head of the os bra- chii, which is very large. The joint is also more ex- posed to unguarded blows, or accidents, than any other joint. The hip-joint, on the contrary, is confin- ed as to motion ; the acetabulum is also very deep in the fresh subject, so as almost to cover tho head of the os femoris : and thus this joint is rendered very 6trong. 55. Q. What are the general causes of mortifica- tion ? A. The general causes of mortification are—an im- peded flow of blood from a part; the stoppage of the flow of blood into the same ; and a disturbed state of this fluid, and of the nerves. 56. Q. How m^ny kinds of fever attend mortifica- tion ? A. There are three kinds of fever which may ac- company mortification : 1. sympathetic inflammatory fever; 2. one attended with extreme debility, of a typhoid nature; and, 3. one depending upon derange- ment of the chylopoietic organs. 57. Q. Under what circumstances is amputation of an extremity necessary ? A. Where the bohe becomes much diseased; where great laceration from gun-shot wounds hag been pro- SlROERY. "Jl anted ; where great destruction of parts has taken place in compound fracture ; and where, from other causes, the operation is required. 58. Q. What forms the sac in femoral hernia ? A. The fascia of the thigh, and the peritonaeum. 59. Q. In what direction is Poupart's ligament to be divided, if necessary, to liberate strangulated femoral hernia ? A. That recommended by Mr. Hay, is to introduce a director within the crural ring on that side of the intestinp, or omentum, which is nearest to the symphy- sis of the pubes, and to make the incision directly up- wards. Gimbernat recommends the incision to be carried directly towards the symphysis pubis. 60. Q. How many ways arc there of puncturing the bladder, to relieve suppression of urine ? A. First, from the perinaeum ; secondly, above the os pubis; thirdly, through the rectum in the male, and vagina in the female ; fourthly, by dilating the meatus urinarius in the female. 60. Q. On what part of the arm is pressure to be made before amputation of the fore-arm ? A. As high up as convenient; placing the pad at the inner edge of the biceps, so as to compress the ar- tery against the bone. 61. Q. At what part of the aorta do aneurisms most frequently occur ? A. At the arch of the aorta, just as it is about to de- scend. 62. Q. Wbat are the unfavourable circumstances in compound fracture, that require the extremity to be amputated ? A- When the wound of the soft parts is large and lacerated, and the bone or bones very much splinter- ed, together with a violent degree of contusion of the neighbouring muscles, amputation is necessary ; but a prompt decision, in many cases of compound frac- ture, requires great discernment on the part of the sur- geon, whether to amputate or not. 1 63. (J. What are the signs of a fractured cranium 1 A A depression of a part of the skull, and the symp? 72 SURGERY. toms of pressure on the brain, as coma, stertorous breathing, loss of voluntary motion, convulsions, tu- mours, involuntary discharge of the urine and faeces, dilatation of the pupil, irregular pulse, and sometimes haemorrhage from the nose, eyes, and ears. 64. Q. What is the cause of stupor, or coma, in fracture of the cranium ? A. Pressure upon the brain. 65- Q,. What is the medical treatment in fractures of the skull T A. To bleed repeatedly, give-saline purges, and or- der a low diet: the patient should be kept on the an- tiphlogistic regimen for near a month, to guard against subsequent inflammation of the brain. 66. Q.. How many kinds of abscesses are there ? A. There are two kinds : the acute or phlegmonous, and the chronic abscess. 67. Q. What are the symptoms of suppuration ? A. When matter is formed in a tumour, there is a remission of all the symptoms, the throbbing pain goes off, and there is present a more dull heavy pain ; a co- nical eminence is observed, which soon has a whitish or yellowish appearance , instead of a deep red ; and a fluctuation is often felt by an examination with the fingers. Rigors are present in extensive suppurations, and accompany suppurations which take place in the viscera. 68. Q,. How are fistulae in perinaeo produced ? A. Fistulae in perinaeo are generally produced by strictures in the urethra. The urine being impeded in Hs passage along the urethra, an ulceration takes place on the inside of that part of the urethra which is en- larged and within the stricture ; the internal mem- brane having ulcerated, the urine readily gets into the loose cellular membrane and substance of the urethra; an abscess is the consequence, which bursts externally, and forms a fistulous opening. 69. Q.. Why are fistulae generally dilated ? A. To produce a new action in those ulcers, by which granulations take place from their bottom. 70. Q.. How is the radical cure of hydrocele per- formed ? SURGERY. 78 A. By evacuating the fluid, and afterwards exciting such a degree of inflammation of the tunica vaginalis and testicle as will cause adhesion to take place, and consequently an obliteration of the cavity : this is either done by caustic, scton, incision, or by injection. 71. Q,. What is meant by epiphora ? A. By an epiphora is meant an accumulation of tears on the anterior part of the eye. 72. O.. What are the causes of epiphora? A. An epiphora may be caused by a more copious secretion of tears than the puncta lachrymalia can absorb ; and by an obstruction in the lachrymal canal. 73. O.. What are the symptoms of empyema ? A. The most pathognomonic symptom is hearing the fluid rattle upon shaking the person's chest; .there is also a difficulty of lying on the opposite side, diffi- culty of breathing, and sometimes an enlargement of the side of the chest which contains the fluid. 74. Q. Where does a psoas abscess generally point? A. In the groin, at the internal part of the thigh, and the loins. 75. Q. What are Oie signs of a wounded artery ? A. Effusions of florid blood, and its being thrown out by jerks from the vessel. 76. Q,. What are the terminations of inflammation ? A. Resolution, suppuration, and mortification. 77. Q,. What method is to be taken after a cannon- ball has torn off the limb ? A. To amputate the stump: sometimes it is ne- cessary to perform the amputation above the nearest joint. 78. O.. What are the circumstances that prevent the dilatation of gun-shot wounds to extract the extraneous substance ? A. When it is likely to create a great irritation of the wound without gaining any advantage; when the ball enters far into the substance of a bone ; where it enters any of the large cavities ; where the ball can- not be discovered; and where the foreign bodies are less likely to create inflammation than their extrac- lion. M ?t*RG.r;RY. 79. Q. What is the treatment of gun-shot woa.iJi A. First, when the wound is in any extremity to de termine for or against amputation, which in many cases requires great judgment, the amputution should be performed before inflammation arises, or a disposi- tion to gangrene takes place in the limbs: should, how- ever, amputation be deferred for a day or two, and the wound be highly inflamed, it is to be brought to a state of suppuration, at which period amputation, if needful, should be performed, neighing in nvndthe constitution of the patient, and other circumstances. Extraneous substances are generally to be extracted, particularly when they press upon an important visGUs or a considerable nerve. If haemorrhage take place from a large artery, it is to be exposed and tied. The external wound often requires dilating, but sometimes dilatation is improper. Counter-openings are in some instances to be made, as when the ball lodges under contused skin that will probably slough ; but if the skin remain uninjured, and the ball is scarcely perceptible to the feel, this opera- tion is improper, as the wound heals better when it is left alone. When sloughing takes place on the surface of a wound, its removal is favoured by a plentiful sup- puration. The rest of the treatment is similar to that for con- tused wounds. 80. Q. How is chordee accounted for ? A. In chordee, the inflammation having affected the corpus spongiosum as well as the urethra, it produces in it an extravasation of coagulable lymph, as in the adhesive inflammation, which, uniting the cells toge- ther, destroys the power of distention of the corpus spongiosum, and makes it unequal, in this respect, to the corpora cavernosa penis, and therefore a curvature takes place. 81. Q. What is the treatment of contused wounds ? A. To prevent a high degree of inflammation, which often terminates in gangrene; this is to be effected by a strict antiphlogistic regimen, topical bleeding by leeches. &c. The formation of pus is to be promoted SURGERY. 75 by emollient poultices. Should gangrene succeed the inflammation, warm stimulating applications are to be used, and the patient is to take bark, wine, and a nou- rishing diet. 82. Q,. What are the terminations of erysipelas ? A. Resolution, gangrene, and suppuration. 83. d. Qoes erysipelas generally terminate in sup- puration ? A. No; true erysipelas seldom suppurates, it gene- rally ends in resolution or gangrene. 84. Q. In what part is erysipelas attended with the greatest degree of constitutional disturbance ? A The face and head, 85. Q. Under what circumstances is an artificial anus to be formed ? A. Where absolute gangrene of an incarcerated in- testine has taken place. 86. O.. How is gastroraphe performed ? A. Gastroraphe is employed to unite wounds of the abdomen in the following way:—.twe needles are placed on the same ligature, and'introduced through both lips of the wound from within outwards, includ- ing peritonaeum, muscles, and integuments. 87. Q- What is the general treatment of the hip- joint disease ? A: In the early part of the disease of the hip-joint, entire rest, the application of fomentations, and the employment of topical bleeding, particularly cuppingy are highly • proper • this plan of treatment is to be adopted to reduce inflammation ; when no inflamma- tion is presemyrecourse should be had to blisters, or caustic issues. ' 88. Q. Where do surgeons generally recommend the application of a caustic issue to relieve an affection of .the .hip? A. In the depression just behind and below the trochanter major. 89. Q. How is emphysema produced from a wound of the thorax ? A. By the lungs being wounded, and the consequent escape of air into the cellular membrane. g2 *6 scri/ery. 00. Q. What is the treatment of wounds of the ioiuts ? . A. The admission of air into their cavities is tobe obviated, as this causes a high degree of inflammation to take place. If the capsular ligament is much torn amputation becomes necessary ; in other respects the joint is to be considered as under a high degree of in- flammation, and the antiphlogistic regimen is to be adopted. If suppuration take place in the cavity of the joints, the pus should be carefully evacuated, so as not to allow the air to enter. 91. Q. What is meant by spina ventosa ? A. A disea3e affecting a bone, in which it becomes spongy and suppurates ; and the pus escapes by seve- ral, openings. 92. l-i. What is the prognosis iu wounds of the ab- dominal viscera ? A- Generally bad. 93. Q. How may an abscess of the liver rupture ? A. First, externally, by the liver forming an adhe sion to the parictes of the abdomen, and tbe abscess pointing on its external surface. Secondly, by adhe- sive inflammation taking place between the liver, dia- phragm, and lungs, and the abscess evacuating itself into the lungs. Thirdly, by adhesion taking place be- tween the liver and alimentary canal, and the abscess making its way info the stomach or intestines. Fourth- ly, into the cavity of the abdomen. 94. Q. What symptoms accompany wounds of the abdominal viscera ? A. Profuse haemorrhage from the external wound : the escape of the contents of particular viscera, at- tended with a small, feeble, and contracted pulse, pallid countenance, coldness of the extremities, great debility, hiccough, vomiting, spasm, and tension of the abdomen. 95. Q. How many kinds of wounds are there? A. Wounds are distinguished by the terms of in- cised, lacerated, punctured, contused, and poisoned. 96. CI How is the r»0°nn..is to hefortned in wound- of the lungs; ? •jL'RGERY. ?1 A If the lungs are wounded near the root, it is commonly fatal, from the haemorrhage that will en- sue : should the lower and anterior part be wounded, and that superficially, the prognosis may be more fa- vourable. 97. Q What symptoms will enable you to distin- guish an enlarged prostate gland from stone in the bladder ? A. The symptoms attending a diseased prostate gland resemble those of stone in the bladder; but with this difference, that the motion of a coach or a horse does not increase the grievance when the prostate is affected, while it does so in an intolerable degree ifi Cases of stone. 98. Q,. Are the symptoms. 6f calculus complained of by the person sufficient to convince a surgeon that there is a stone in the bladder ? \. No : the operation of sounding must be had re- course to, befdre a calculus can be ascertained to ex- ist. 99. Q.. How is the hip-disease distinguished from' an affection of the knee-joint, as the forerunning symptoms of the hip-disease are generally pains about the knee, and no evident affection of the hip ? A. By a diminution of the circumference of the leg and thigh of the affected side, an elongation of the limb, and pressure upon the acetabulum exciting pain. 100. Q,. In taking up the brachial artery, what nerve are you to avoid including in the ligature ? A. The median nerve, which accompanies the bra- chial artery. 101. Q. What are granulations ? A. They are exudations of coagulable lymph from the vessels of the exposed surface, which soon be- come organized, possessing vessels, nerves, and ab- sorbents. 102. Q. What forms the boundaries or cyst of an abscess ? A. A deposit of coagulable lymph, which becomes organized so as to form a cyst. 103. Q. How many modes are there of Opening an ihscess ° 78 SUHGEkY* A. There are three principal ways of opening au abscess: 1. by lancet; 2. by caustic; 3. by seton Most surgeons prefer the opening to be made by the lancet. 104. d. What is meant by a furunculus ? A. A circumscribed, inflammatory tumour, which usually attains the size of a small walnut; it imper- fectly suppurates, and the matter is contained in a cyst. 1Q5- Q- In operating for encysted tumour, is it necessary to remove the sac 2 A, Yes ; and, during the operation, care should be taken not to wound the sac during the extirpation of the tumour. 106. Q. What is the cause of piles ? A. Pressure upon the vessels of the anus, which prevents the return of blood to the heart: as that from a gravid uterus, costiveness, tumours, and from long.sitting; which last allows the abdominal viscera to press upon the blood-vessels. 107. Q,. What is meant by meliceris ? A. Meliceris is a tumour of the encysted kind, the contents of which resemble wax or honey. 108. Q. What is meant by condyloma ? A. Tumours or excrescences about the anus are call- ed condylomata. 109. Q. What is meant by couching ? A. Couching consists in removing the opaque lens out of the axis of vision by means of a peculiar-form- ed needle. lip. Q. How is the operation for fistula lachryma- lis performed ? A. First an opening is to be made at the most de- pending part of the tumour, by means of a lancet, which will discharge the sac of its contents; a probe is then to be passed forward in the natural passage with moderate force ; should this be impracticable, an ar- tificial opening is to be cautiously drilled on the ante- rior part of the os unguis by a trocar, or any other sharp instrument, in an oblique direction. When this has penetrated a sufficient depth, which may be as- certained by the want of resistance, and the discharge ;i.i*t,JRY. TH a; blood by the nose, the perforator is to be removed. and a silver tube introduced into the opening, where it should remain till the edges of the wound become callous. After this is effected, the tube is to be with- drawn, and the external wound heals readily. 111. Q,. What is an exostosis? A. It is a tumour of bone formed upon bone. 112. Q,. What is meaut by sphacelus ? A. It is a complete mortification of a part, whereby it losss its natural colour, and becomes black and soft. 113. Q,. What is meant by sarcocelc ? A. A scirrhous enlargement of the testicle. 114. Q. What are the causes of fistulae in ano? A. They are caused by the formation of abscesses about the anus, which spread among the interstices of the muscles, and between the integuments : these abscess- es are produced originally by inflammation. There are also other causes giving rise to fistulae, as condy- lomatous tumours, &c. 115. Q,. If the carotid artery should be wounded, and assistance should be obtained in time to take up the vessel, what nerve arc you to avoid including in the li- gature ? A..In faking up the carotid artery, the eighth pair of nerves, which runs close to the artery, should not be included in the ligature. 116. Q. What are the symptoms of a cataract ? A. A cataract commences by a spot or speck in the pupil of the eye : it is most commonly of a gray or whitish colour. Inthe commencement of the disease it occasions a weakness or imperfection of the sight, and it terminates sooner or later in the almost total extinc- tion of vision. .117. Q.. How many kinds of cataracts arc there ? A. Cataracts are distinguished into : 1. firm cata- ract ; 2. fluid, or milky cataract ; 3. soft, or caseous cataract; 4. membranous cataract; and, 5. the con- genital cataract. 118. Q,. What is the treatment of a cataract ? A. The treatment of a cataract consists in bleeding, flipping, scarifications, setons, Isr-uo.?. blisters, and f"- 80 SURGERY. migations ;. andthe principal internal remedies are ape- rients, emetics, cathartics, sudorifics, and sternutatories. 119. Q. In a transverse wound of the trachea how is reunion effected ? A. The union of a transverse wound of the trachea is best effected by bringing the patient's head down- wards and forwards to the sternum ; the head should be maintained in this position, and the edges of the wound should be kept in contact until they have grown together. Ligatures are not recommended, as they create irritation in the trachea. 120. Q,. What are the vessels generally divided when a person cuts his throat ? A. When suicide is attempted by cutting the throat, the vessels cut through are either the external maxil- lary, the Ungual, or the thyroideal artery : the trunk of the carotid artery is seldom cut. 121. Q,. How does a false aneurism take place ? A. A false aneurism is occasioned by an aperture of an artery allowing the blood to rush into the cellular structure. 122. Q,. What veins are most subject to varix ? A. The superficial veins of the lower extremity; and the varix generallytakes place in the situation of a valve. 123. Q,. What are the indications of cure in varix ? A. There are two indications; viz. to remove every impediment to the free return of blood, and to restore the distended vessel to its former size. 124. Q,. How is amputation of the fingers or toes accomplished ? A. In amputating the fingers or toes a small semi- lunar incision is to be made on the back of the finger or toe, which should extend, forming a convexity about half an inch in front of the joint; the flap is next to be raised and reflected : having effected this, the skin hi front of the finger over the joint is to be divided, and this incision must extend across the finger or toe] and meet the two ends of the first semilunar incision : then bending the finger, the capsular ligament is to be divided, which will allow the head of the bone to be dislocated. Should the digital arteries bleed much,they SURGERY. m may be secured, but the haemorrhage often stops with- out having recourse to ligature; the flap is to be brought over the wound, and the edges of the wound kept to- gether by adhesive plaster. 125. Q.. what diseases is the antrum of Highmore subject to ? A. Its membranous lining may inflame or ulcerate ; polypi or other fleshy excrescences may grow in it; the mucous secretion may be of a bad quality, and the opening through which is passes into the nose may be closed : the bony cavity may be carious, or may form osseous funguses. 126. Q,. What is the treatment of a carbuncle ? A. The treatment of a carbuncle is as follows. In the local treatment the grand thing is to make an early and free incision into the tumour, so as to allow the sloughs and matter to escape readily. As much of the matler as possible is to be at once pressed out, and then the part is to be covered with an emollient poultice. With respect to the constitutional treatment, bark and camphire are the internal medicines most commonly needed. Sulphuric acid may also be given, as well us wine and aromatics, and opium when the pain is very severe. 127. Q,. How is emphysema distinguished from ana- sarca ? A. Emphysema is distinguished from anasarca by the crackling noise produced upon pressure, and by the ra- pidity of the swelling. 128. Q. What is the general division of strictures? A. The general division of strictures is into :—spas- modic, wHlch depends upon a spasmodic contraction of a part of the canal;—and permanent stricture, which is caused by a partial narrowness, forming a ridge. There is also another kind of stricture,, which depends upon a permanent contraction and an occasional spas- modic affection. 129. Q.. How is the introduction of the male cathe- ter effected. A. The introduction of the male catheter is perform- ed in the following manner The penis should be drawn upwards, and held by the left hand. Having oiled the catheter, it is to be introduced into the ure- thra with its concavity towards the abdomen, pressing its point downwards until it reaches the bulb of the urethra; when this has happened, the beak of the instru- ment has passed under the arch of the pubes; the handle of the instrument is then to be graduallybrought forward between the patient s thighs, and during this action the beak of the instrument becomes elevated, andslips into the bladder. The operation may be perform- ed either when the patient is standing, sitting,or onhis buck. 130. Q,. What is the character of a scorbutic ul- cer? A. A scorbutic ulcer is one that affords a fetid, sa- nious, and bloody discharge; the edges are of a livid colour, and the surface is covered with a loose spongy flesh: there are generally other symptoms which esta- blish its nature, such as loose spongy gums, and livid spots of the skin. 131. 0.. What kind of treatment do gun-shot wounds require? A. In general, gun-shot wounds require the antiphlo- gistic plan of treatment. 132. Q. What is meant by a polypus ? A. A polypus is a fleshy tumour of the cavities which communicate with the natural openings of the body, which is generally narrow where it originates, and then becomes wider, somewhat like a pear. 133. Q,. What parts are most subject to polypi ? A. Polypi are most commonly met with in the nose, uterus, vagina, and antrum of Highmore. *■ 134. Q,. In the cure of polypus, which is to be pre- ferred, extirpation or ligature ? A. As the extraction of polypus, is invariably at- tended with haemorrhage, ligature is generally pre- ferred. 135. Q,. What is the treatment of a fractured rib ? A. In a case of fractured rib, the action of the. chest is to be confined, and the ends of the fractured ribs are t-j be kept a:- nearly as possible in apposition, which nUKGliiiY. **•& may be effected by surrounding the body with a wide roller. It may also ba necessary to bleed the patient, and adopt the antiphlogistic regimen, to guard against inflammation. 136. Q,. What is a bronchocele ? A. Bronchocele is an indolent enlargement of the thyroid gland. 137. Q. What method is to be taken, if, after libe- rating a strangulated intestine by operation, a great quantity of irreducible thickened omentum exists? A. The indurated omentum is to be cut off, unless haemorrhage, orothercircumstances, forbid it; in such cases it may be left unreturned. 133.' Q. What is the difference between a femoral and an inguinal hernia ? A- In femoral hernia the intestine or omentum protrudes under Poupart's ligament,.and in inguinal hernia they protrude through the abdominal ring. 139. O.. What are the circumstances by which yon judge the operation necessary to liberate a strangulat- ed hernia ? A. If reduction of the hernial contents cannot be effected by the hand, aided by the position of the pa- tient, and by bleeding, cathartics, clysters, cold topi- cal applications, the warm bath, and tobacco-smoke introduced into the rectum, each of which having been judiciously tried without effect, the operation then is imperiously demanded, 140. Q,. What means would you have recourse to in order to reduce a strangulated hernia, before you judge it necessary to perform the .operation ? A. First, the patient should be placed in a suitable position, with the pelvis, elevated, the thigh bent and rotated inwards, and the reduction of the hernial con- tents skilfully attempted ; should this fail, bleeding should be had recourse to ; and it is recommended to take away the blood suddenly, so as to occasion faint- ing, at which time the taxis should again be attempt- ed. Success not being obtained, cathartics and the warm bath should be speedily made use of. These with the taxis not having succeeded, then the nniled 84 SURGERY. effort of cold to the tumour, and tobacco, either in fume or decoction, must be tried ; and if strangula- tion still continue after these means have been used, another attempt by the hand should be made : all these failing, the operation should be performed, the pro- traction of which beyond a certain time would endan- ger the patient. 141. Q. What is meant by scrofula ? A. Scrofula is a disease of the glands, with a pecu- liar constitution of body. 142. Q,. What are rickets owing to ? A. Rickets seem to consist in a want of due firmness in the bones, in consequence of a deficiency of phos- phate of lime in their structure. 14a Q. What are the best remedies for rickets ? A. A nourishing diet, dry air. the sea-side, cold bath- ing, and tonics, especially steel.* 141. Q,. What is meant by a sinus ? A. A sinus is a long hollow track, leading from some abscess or diseased bone. 145. Q. What are the symptoms of suppression of urine ? A. A swelling above the os pubis, a violent inclina- tion to make water, tension and pain of the abdomen, cold perspirations, oppressed respiration ; hiccough and fainting follow. 146. Q.. How would you attempt to relieve a sup- pression of urine in a medical point of view ? A. I would bleed copiously.; apply leeches to the perinaeiim, or above the os pubis ; exhibit opium by the mouth, and in glysters; use the warm bath, and apply fomentations to the hypogastrium and peri- naeum. 147. Q,. When these means fail to evacuate the urine, what would you have recourse to ? A. To the catheter. 148. Q. What do you mean by a popliteal aneu- rism ? A. A dilatation of the popliteal artery forming a pul- sating tumour in the ham. 149. Q,. Describe the operation for popliteal aneu- rism. SURGERY. 85 A. An incision should be' made about two inches and a half through the skin and fascia of the thigh, on the inner edge of the sartorius muscle ; ns soon as the femoral artery is felt, a careful incision is to be made on each side of it, in order that the finger may be passed under it; a double ligature is then to be introduced by means of a blunt needle under the vessel, leaving out the femoral vein and the accom- panying branches of the anterior crural nerve; one portion of the ligature is to be tied as high, the other as low, as the detachment of the artery will allow. The part of the vessel between the ligatures is to be divided, and after this the external wound is to be brought together and dressed in the usual way. 150. Q,. What is meant by suppuration ? A. Suppuration signifies a process by which a pe- culiar fluid, termed pus, is formed in the substance, or from the surface:, of parts of the body, when such parts are particularly circumstanced. 151. Q. What is meant by ranula ? A. By ranula is meant a tumour under the tongue, arising from an obstruction of the saliva in the ducts of the sublingual glands. 152. Q,. What are hemorrhoids ? A. Hemorrhoids, or piles, are generally varices of the haemorrhoidal veins, but some surgeons consider them to be occasionally formed by effused blood which becomes organized. 153. Q. What are the symptoms of a phlegmon ? A. A phlegmon is a tumour attended with heat, red- ness, pain, tension, and more or less of the synochal fever. 154. Q,. How would you treat a phlegmon ? A. First by endeavouring to effect a resolution by lo- cal or general bleeding, the antiphlogistic regimen, the exhibition of saline cathartics and diaphoretics, and the use of cold, astringent, sedative applications, warm emollient poultices, and fomentation, according to its nature. If suppuration should commence, by giving tonics and cordials, a generous diet, and forwarding the process by poultices. It mortification ghould ap- Mi al Rt'EK* . pear likely to ensue, bark, acids, and wine, wnl bt proper, also stimulating poultices of beer-gounds, and fomentations with bitter decoctions and camphorated spirit. 155. Q. How are issues made ? A. Issues are made by making an opening either with a lancet or caustic, large enough.to admit a pea being introduced in it. 156. Q. How many ways may dislocation of the wrist occur ? A. The carpal bones may be luxated from the lower ends of the radius and ulna forwards, backwards, in- wards, or outwards. The two first cases, especially the one backwards, are the most frequent. 157. Q. How many ways may the foot be dislo- cated ? A. The foot may be dislocated inwards or out- wards, forwards or backwards. 158. Q,. Why do dislocations of the foot inwards occur more frequently than dislocations outwards ? A. Dislocations of the foot inwards occur more frequently than outwards, from the malleolus inter- nus not being so low as the malleolus externus. 159. Q. How are dislocations of the foot inwards or outwards to be reduced ? A. To accomplish this it is necessary to relax the strong muscles of the calf by bending the leg on the thigh. The ccse is afterwards to be treated as a frac- ture of the leg. 169. Q. What is the treatment after amputation ? A. 'he chief circumstances to be attended to after amputation are;—to adopt the antiphlogistic regimen, to prevent inflammation, which is to be regulated by the constitution of the patient; the first dressing ought to be removed the third or fourth day after the opera- tion, and new dressings are to be applied as at first every day until the inflammation has entirely subsided. The ligatures are to be very gently pulled after the first week, until they come easily off. 161. Q. What is the treatment of a hernia humo rali?. or inflammation of the testicle ? SOROERY. 87 A. In hernia humoralis the patient should be kept in an horizontal position; if youngand plethoric, bleed- ing should be adopted. It is generally necessary to apply leeches repeatedly ; to administer saline purga- tives ; fomentations and poultices, or cold lotions, are to be had recourse to, and the testicle is to be sup- ported by a bag truss. Should there be great pain in the loins, opiates will become necessary : if, after the inflammation has subsided, an induration should ex- ist, frictions with mercurial ointment will be found be- neficial. 162. Q,. When the parotid duct is wounded, what are the consequences which may be expected to arise? A. When the parotid duct is wounded, if not united by the first intention, a salivary fistula is the conse- quence. 163. Q. What are the indications of cure in morti- fication ? A. The indications of cure in mortification are, to arrest the progress of the disease, and to promote the separation of the mortified part. 164. Q,. How is the division of the fraenum linguae to be effected, and what are the arteries to be avoid- ed ? A. The liberation of the fraenum linguae consists in dividing the fraenum as far as seems necessary with a pair of sharp scissors with blunt points:—the ranine arteries must be cautiously avoided in this operation. 165. Q. How many kinds of fractures are there ? A. There are two principal kinds of fractures:—1. simple fractures, or a division of one or more bones, without any external wound, caused by the protru- sion of the ends of the bones: compound fractures, or those where there is a breach of one or more bones; and the integuments lacerated by the protrusion of one or both of the ends of the fracture. 166. Q. What is the general treatment of fractures ? A. In the general treatment of fractures, the limb is to be placed in such a position as will relax those muscles which tend to displace the ends of a fractured bone; this seems best effected by placing the limb in *5S SURGERY. a middle state between flexion and extension; Uit ends of the fractured bone are to be confined in a state of apposition ; this is done by the aid of splints secured by straps :—to remedy the effects of pressure from the splints, compresses of tow or other soft sub- stances are usually placed under the splints. An eighteen-tail bandage is generally made use of in frac- tures of the long bones, and is applied close to the limb. When there is much inflammation of the limb before the fracture is set, linen wetted with cold sa- turnine lotions is to be applied between the splints and limb, which should be kept cold and moist by re- peatedly squeezing the lotion over the limb. It may be necessary to bleed or give opiates, according to circumstances. 167. Q,. What is the situation of the protruded vis- cera in congenital hernia ? A. In congenital hernia the protruded viscera are situated in the tunica vaginalis in contact with the testicle ; having descended into this position before the closure of the communication with the abdomen. 168. Q. In umbilical hernia, by what is the stricture formed when strangulation takes place ? A. In strangulated umbilical hernia the stricture is made by the tendinous opening in the linea alba. 169. Q. How is a ganglion to he cured ? A. A ganglion may often be removed by pressure : sometimes it may be necessary to remove it by th* scalpel, or to make a perforation in it, and allow its contents to escape. 170. Q. How do aneurisms terminate if not cured ? A. Aneurismal swellings, if not cured, gradually in- crease in size ; the skin over the tumour becomes pale; the pain increases, and the skin begins to giow livid; a degree of inflammation takes place ; the skin cracks, and discbarges for some time a bloody serum, until at length it becomes quite gangrenous, when all of a sud- den the tumour bursts, and the patient dies from hae- morrhage. 171. Q. What is a steatoma ? A. Steatoma is a tumour containing a fatty sub- SURGERY. 8U stance, and surrounded by a cyst of indurated cellular membrane. 172. Q. What is meant by atheroma? A. Atheroma is an encysted tumour containing mat- ter of a doughy consistence. 173. Q. What is meant by tin doloureux ? A. Tic doloureux is a painful affection of the nerves, and mostly those of the face, particularly of the fila- ments of that branch of the fifth pair of nerves which comes out through the infra-orbitar foramen. 174. Q- What is the most efficacious plan to be adopted for the relief of the tic doloureux? A. The most effectual plan is to cut down and di- vide the nerve above where the pain is seated. 175. Q,. What prognosis can be formed after the operation for hernia ? A. If the operation to liberate strangulated hernia be performed early, there is comparatively little danger. The danger is dependent upon the operation being de- layed after necessity demands it. Mortification has ensued within twelve hours after strangulation ; and in some few instances strangulation has been known to subsist for several days, and no mortification take place. 176. Q. What causes give rise fo prolapsus ani'! A. The causes that give rise to prolapsus ani are costiveness, debility, haemorrhoidal swellings, or the effect of stimulative substances that increase the ac- tion of the rectum. 177. Q,. What are the signs of luxation in general ? A. In luxations the shape of the joint is altered ; the motion of the limb is much impaired; a certain de- gree of inflammation takes place, the pain attending which is sometimes so acute as to occasion convul- sions, or spasmodic affections, from the compression of nerves by the displaced bone. 178. Q- How are luxations of the collar-bone to be cured ? A. Luxations of the collar-bone are easily reduced by pressure with the fingers: but there is great diffi- culty in keeping the bone in this situation. The arm h)0 .SURGERY. should be raised and confined by bandages; a com- press should be placed on the luxated bone, to prevent the action of the muscles drawing the bone out of its place. 179. Q,. How is a venereal ophthalmy fo be cured ? A. In the treatment of venereal ophthalmy mer- curial frictions are to be made use of, and the decoc- tura sarsaparillae compositum should be taken. A collyrium of the oxy-muriate of mercury is recom- mended. The eyelid may be also smeared with the tinguenttim hydrargyri nitrico-oxydi. 180. Q. What is a thrombus ? A. A thrombus is a tumour formed by a collection of extravasated coagulated blood under the integuments after bleeding. 181. Q. What are the causes of a thrombus ? A. Athrombus sometimes depends on the vein beino- completely divided ; but it more frequently depends on the opening of the vein not corresponding to that of the skin. 182. Q.. Where is the blood effused in thrombus ? A. Thrombus is caused by the blood being effused into the cellular membrane, by the side of the vein. 183. Q,. In what direction do luxations of the head of the os brachii most commonly take place ? A. The dislocation of the head of the os brachii generally takes place into the axilla. 184. &. How is dislocation of the thigh distinguish- ed from a fracture of its neck ? A. Dislocation may be distinguished from fracture of the head of the femur by these circumstances :—In fracture, the leg is much shorter; the limb can be moved in many directions; the toes mostly turn out- wards ; by particular motions, a grating may be per- ceived, and a loss of continuity. In dislocations of the thigh joint, the leg is generally much lengthened, the toes are turned outwards, and it is almost impossible to turn them inwards, at least without giving the great- est pain ; a vacancy is observed at the seat of the acetabulum, and a tumour is felt, which is caused by the head of the bone out of the acetabulum. Sl'RGURY. 91 le5. Q. Define a caries. A. Caries is a mortification of a bone, attended with an ichorous fetid discbarge. 186. Q. Why does the tooth-ache produce generally so acute and considerable a pain ? A. From the inflamed vessels of the nerve or pulp within the tooth being confined. 187. Q. What are the causes that give rise to is- churia? ' A. Ischuria may arise from inflammation of the bladder, produced from various causes, spasms affect- ing the neck of the bladder, scirrhosities of the pros- tate gland; caruncles in the urethra ; pressure of the uterus in the last months of pregnancy ; tumours in the perinaeum and vagina, as prolapsus of the uterus; polypi, or enlargement of the corpus spongiosum; the penis itself pressing the sides of the urethra together: ischuria may also arise from a loss of tone in the blad- der itself, and from stones impacted in the urethra. 188. Q. How is cystocele distinguished from bubo- nocele ? A. Cystocele is always easily distinguishable by the regular diminution of the swelling whenever the pa- tient makes water. 189. Q. What constitutes a phrenic hernia ? A. A phrenic hernia is constituted by the abdominal viscera occasionally protruding through the diaphragm, either through some of the natural apertures of this muscle, or deficiencies or lacerations in it. 190. What is meant by haematocele scroti? A. A tumour produced by blood being extravasated in the scrotutn, tunica vaginalis, or in the spermatic chord ; it is mostly occasioned by some external vio- lence, as blows inflicted on the scrotum or surround- ing parts, producing a rupture of vessels. 191. Q. What are the symptoms of a punctured nerve from bleeding ? A. In punctured nerve from bleeding the patient feels a more acute pain than usual under the operation ; a numbness is communicated to the shoulder, and down to the fingers ; these symptoms are often succeeded by J) 2 SURGERY. spasms of the neck and jaw, frightful dreams i and the patient becomes exlremely irritable and delirious. 192. Q. What is a cataract. A. An opacity of the crystalline lens or its capsule. 193. Q. What is meant by mollities ossium ? A. A state of bones whereby they become soft and preternaturally flexible. 194. Q. If the head of the shoulder-bone is luxated upwards, what is the consequence ? A. When the head of the shoulder-bone is luxated upwards, a fracture of the acromion process takes place. 195. Q. What is the direction in which luxations of the ulna most commonly happen ? A. Luxations of the ulna most frequently take place upwards and backwards. 19G. Q. What are the common causes of psoas ab- scess ? A. The causes which give rise to abscess of the psoas muscle are, excessive fatigue from walking, and then exposing the back to cold while the body is still warm with exercise. It may also be brought on by strains, attempting to raise great weights, or by twists when carrying a heavy load on the back. 197. Q- On the first attack of inflammation of the psoas muscle, what is to be done ? A. When inflammation has attacked the psoas mus- cle, the antiphlogistic plan is to be adopted; and bleeding, the warm bath, purgatives, Sic. must be had recourse to. 198. Q,. How is a dislocation of the lower jaw re- duced? A. A dislocation of the lower jaw is reduced by passing both thumbs, previously covered with a linen cloth, into the mouth ; the jaw is then to be pushed backwards, depressing the angles, and raising the sym- physis of the jaw at the same time by gentle pressure ; the jaw immediately springs back into its natural situa- tion by the action of the muscles. 199. Q. What is a fungus ? \ A fungus isa soft fleshy excrescence rising out of an old wound or ill-conditioned ulcer, and preventing its healing. SUHGEIU. *J3 200. Q. How are dislocations of the os femoris re- duced ! A. In dislocations of the thigh-bone, when the head is in the foramen ovale, the muscles of the thigh are first to be relaxed as much as possible, the limb is then to be extended to displace the end of the bone from its ca- vity : when this is effected, the bone is to be drawn up- wards and inwards into its socket; this generally ef- fects the reduction: but should the bone be above the acetabulum, a slight extension will effect its reduction. It happens occasionally that the head of the bone is not reduced, owing to the projection of the acetabulum preventing the necessary extension ; the bone must then be elevated a little over this projection, and the reduction will be effected. 201. Q,. In mortification of a limb, what state are the arteries in near the diseased part ? A. When mortification takes place at the lower part of an extremity, the diameter of the arteries is dimi- nished near the diseased part, and they become stopped up with coagulated blood. 202. Q,. When an artery is tied by ligature, how is a permanent obliteration of its channel effected ? A. After an artery is stopped by ligature, coagulable lymph is separated near the fractured part; this be- comes organized, and unites the sides of the arteries together, and thus obliterates the artery. 203. Q. In injuries of the gall-bladder or liver, what prognosis is to be-given? A. In wounds of the liver the prognosis is bad, by reason of the great quantity of blood flowing through that viscus and the soft texture of the liver itself, which renders it very apt to pour out a great quantity of blood from a small wound. Injuries of the gall-bladder arc still worse ; as, in such cases, the bile is evacuated into the cavity of the abdomen, where its tendency to pu- trefaction soon produces the most fatal effects. 204. Q. What are the properties of pus ? A. Pus is a fluid of a lightish colour, of the consist- ence of cream ; it has little smell, is void of acrimony, and consists of globules swimming in a transparent. i>4 »UKGERi. colourless fluid. Its specific gravity is greater than that of water. 205. Q. What are the differences between pus and mucus ? A. Pus is distinguished from mucus by the follow- ing circumstances :—Pus sinks in water, mucus floats : pus gives to water an uniform white colour; mucus lias a ropy appearance in water. If pus and mucus are mixed with sulphuric acid, on the addition of wa- ter the pus is precipitated to the bottom, and the mucus forms swimming flakes. A solution of caustic alkali dissolves both pus and mucus; but, on the addition of water, the pus is separated, and not the mucus. 206. Q,. What are the symptoms which announce the formation of pus in inflammation of the hip-joint? A. The symptoms which point out the formation of pus in inflammation of the hip-joint are various, as the disease may be acute or chronic When the former takes place, the part? surrounding the joint become tense and painful, the skin red, and inflammatory fever takes place: as the pain abates, rigors succeed, and a swelling is observed about the joint. When the ab- scess is the consequence of chronic inflammation, an increase of pain takes place previous to the occurrence of suppuration: startings and catchings during sleep are noticed: the pus in the chronic species is along while before it arrives at the surface; at length a fluc- tuating tumour forms, but it docs not immediately point. 207. Q. What is meant by hydrops articuli ? A. By hydrops articuli is meant a collection of se^ rous fluid in the capsular ligament of a joint. 208. Q,. How is a fracture of the neck of the hume- rus distinguished from a luxation ? A. When the neck of the humerus is fractured, a de- pression is observed at the superior extremity and ex- ternal side of the arm: in luxation, downwards and inwards, of the head of the bone under the projection of the acromion, a deep depression is found in the part which the head of the humerus before occupied; "•hereas, in fracture of the neck of that bone. Hie St'RGERY. \io shoulder retains its original form: the acromion doea not project, and the depression is found below the point of the shoulder: besides, the unequal and frac- tured extremity of the bone will be easily felt; a cre- pitus may also be heard, by moving the arm in differ- ent directions. 209. Q,. What is the character of cancerous ulcer ? A. Cancerous ulcer is irregular in its figure, and un- equal on its surface; the edges are thick, serrated, and extremely painful; there are large chasms in its sub- stance, produced partly by sloughing, and partly by an ulcerating process. The ulcer affords a very fetid saniou3 matter, it spreads with great rapidity, and in its progress produces frequent haemorrhages. 210. Q.. What prognosis is to he given of wounds of the oesophagus ? A. Wounds of the oesophagus generally are mortal. . 211.. Q. How is the removal of a tumour from the breast performed ? A. In removing a tumour from the breast, the ope- ration is generally performed as the patient is in a sit- ting position. The pectoral muscle is to be made tense by keeping the arm back, and if none of the integu- ments are to be removed, a straight incision is to be made through them ; the tumour is to be regularly dissected all round from the circumjacent parts, and its base is to be detached from its connexions from above downwards, till the whole is separated. If the tumour is of a malignant nature, and adhering to the skin and pectoral muscle beneath, an inch or two of the fat should be removed on every side of the diseas- ed part; and after the removal of the tumour, the sur- face of the pectoral muscle, wherever it is adhering to the tumour, should be removed. 212. a. What is a node ? A. A node is a swelling of a bone, the periosteum, or a tendon, mostly arising from a venereal cause. 213. Q. What parts of the scapula are most com- monly fractured ? A. The parts of the scapula most liable to fracture are the. acromion, inferior angle, neck, and rora<«id wicr anthemata ? A. There are ten genera of eruptive diseases in the order exanthemata; viz. variola—varicella—rubeola —scarlatina—pestis—erysipelas—miliaria—urticaria— pemphigus—aphtha. 14. Q. How many genera has the order haemor- rhagiae ? A. There are five genera in this order; viz. cpis- tn*KTS — haemoptysis —haematemesis—haemorrhois— Menorrhagia. 15. Q. What diseases belong to the order profln- via ? A. Catarrhus and dysenteria. 16. Q. How many orders are there in the class neu- roses ? A. Four: comata—adynamiae—spasmi—vesaniae. 17. Q. What genera belong to the order comata? A. There are only two in this order, viz. apoplexia and paralysis. 18. Q. What arc the diseases belonging to the t>rJf aayntrmiae? PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. 107 A. Syncope—dyspepsia—hypochondriasis—chloro- sis. 19. Q. What diseases belong to the order spasmi ? A. Tetanus—trismus—convulsio—chorea—raphania —epilepsia—palpitatio —asthma—dyspnoea— pertussis —pyrosis — colica — cholera — diarrhoea — diabetes— hysteria—hydrophobia; making seventeen in all- 20. Q. How many genera are there in the order vesaniae ? A. There are four genera in this order; viz. amen- tia—melancholia—mania—oneirodynia. 21. Q. How many orders has the class cachexiae ? A. Three; viz. marcores—intumescentiae—impeti- ghtes. 22. Q,. What genera belong to marcores ? A. The genera of marcores are tabes and atrophia. 23- Q. What diseases belong to the order intumes centiae? A. There are thirteen diseases that belong to this order; viz. polysarcia — pneumatosis—tympanites— physometra—anasarca—hydrocephalus—hydrorachitis —hydrothorax — ascites —hydrometra—hydrocele— physconia—rachitis. 24. Q,. What are the genera in the order impeti-" gines ? A. They are: scrofula — syphilis — scorbutus—ele- phantiasis—lepra—frambesia—trichoma—icterus. 25. Q. What are the orders of the class locales ? A. Locales comprehends eight orders: dysaesthesia —dysorexiae — dyscinesiae — apocenoses—epischeses —tumores—ectopiae—dialysis. 26. Q- What do you understand by inflammation ? A- By inflammation is understood that state of a part in which it is painful, hotter, redder, and more turgid than it naturally is. These local symptoms, when present in any great degree, or when they affect very sensible parts, are attended with fever. 27. Q. How many kinds of inflammation are there * A- There are two kinds of inflammation; viz- the phlegmonoid and the erysipelatous; each of which is K iOB PRACTICE OF I'UYblt. divided into the acute or active, and the chronic or passive. 28. Q. How do you distinguish phlegmonoid from erysipelatous inflammation ? A. Phlegmonoid inflammation may be distinguished by the tumefaction being circumscribed, and not dif- fused, as in erysipelatous inflammation. The redness of phlegmon does not disappear on pressure, as in ery- sipelas ; nor is the sense of throbbing and darting pain so observable in erysipelas as in phlegmon. 29. Q. How would you distinguish chronic from acute inflammation ? A. Chronic inflammation may be distinguished from acute by its long continuance, the want of activity in the symptoms, and by the fever having abated, or as- sumed a new type. 30. Q. What treatment does active inflammation re- quire ? A. Active inflammation requires powerful antiphlo- gistic measures; as blood-letting, purging, diaphoretics and a low diet. 31. Q. Does active erysipelas give way to the same plan? A. Active erysipelas in the country generally gives way to the same kind of treatment; but the erysipe- las of large towns, being accompanied by typhus fever. Soon requires bark, acids, wine, &c. 32. Q. What is the proper regimen and diet of in- flammatory diseases called ? A. The proper regimen and diet of inflammatory diseases is called antiphlogistic. 33. Q. What foods and drink do you consider anti- phlogistic ? A. The foods and drink which may be considered as antiphlogistic are, all kinds of vegetables, especially the farinaceous, light puddings, barley-water, toast and water, «fcc. 34. Q. Which'are the antiphlogistic purgatives ? A. The best are those which are refrigeratory, such as the sulphate of soda, the sulphate of magnesia, the sulphate of potass, and the tartrate of potass. PRACTICE OF PHYSIC 1Q& 35. Q. What is meant by inflammatory diathesis 1 A. By inflammatory diathesis is meant a state of body that favours and attends inflammatory diseases, such as a redundancy of blood, an increased action of the heart and arteries, a fulness of habit, &c. 36. Q,. What kind of urine is made when active in- flammation exists ? A. When active inflammation exists, the urine void- ed is of a high colour; and when allowed to stand, de- posits the lateritious or brickdust-like sediment. 37. Q,. What is the composition of the lateritiou*s sediment ? A. The lateritious sediment is found to consist of uric acid, with phosphate of lime. 38. Q. What character has the pulse when inflam- mation is going on ? A. The pulse, when inflammation is going on, is fre- quent, strong, and bard. 39. Q, What kind of delirium is most frequent in typhus fevers ? A. The delirium most frequent in typhus is not of the violent kind, and is marked by low muttering, ac- companied with stupidity. 40. Q. Is bleeding recommended in the cure of ty- phoid fevers ? A Bleeding is not recommended ia typhus fevers, because it would weaken the energy of the powers ne- cessary to life, the actions of which are already weaker. than they ought to be. 41. Q How many species of typhus feversare there ? A. There are four species of typhus fevers; 1st, typhus nervosus, or nervou- fever ; 2d, typhus mitior, the low fever, ur m'ld form of typhus; 3d, the typhus fravior, the severe species of typhus fever, or putrid ever; 4th, the typhus icterodes, or typhus with symp toms of jaundice. 42. Gt- What is the most common cause of typhus fevers ? A. Contagion, a poison generated from putrid ani- mal and vegetable substances; by the human body under the disease ; by confined animal secretions, and other **onrrp!-7 110 PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. 43. Q. What kind of a pulse have you in enteritis A- In inflammation of the intestines, or enteritis. the pulse is often peculiarly small and feeble. 44. Q. What are the symptoms of gastritis ? A. Pain in the epigastric region increased under pressure, frequent vomiting, particularly when any thin" is taken into the stomach, occasionally hiccup, and a small and frequent pulse. 45. Q. How may inflammation of the trachea ter- minate ? A. It may terminate in suppuration, but more fre- quently it ends either in resolution or by the forma- tion of coagulable lymph, so as to cause suffocation in many instances. 46. Q. What are the symptoms of trismus ? A. When trismus comes on gradually, the symptoms are—a slight stiffness is at first perceived at the back part of the neck, which, after a short time, becomes considerably increased, and at length renders the mo- tion of the head both difficult and painful. With the rigidity of the head, there is likewise an uneasy sen- sation at the root of the tongue, together with some difficulty in swallowing; and a great tightness is per- ceived about the chest, with a pain at the sternum, phooting into the back; astiffnessnext takes place about the jaws, which increases to such a height, that the teeth become closed together, and the disease trismus or locked-jaw is formed. 47- Q- To what diseases are muscles subject? A. Muscles are subject to morbid contraction, which may be either spasmodic, or permanent; they are lia- ble to inflammation, to have abscesses form in them, to become gangrenous, to become flaccid, to be di- minished in bulk, to have bony matter deposited in their substance, and to rheumatism. 48. Q. What is a cramp or spasm ? A. A spasm or cramp is an involuntary contraction of the muscular fibres, or that state of the contraction of muscles which is not spontaneously disposed to al- ternate with relaxation.' 49. Q. How many species of scarlatina are there " I'R.YCTU C oi PHYSIC. Ill A. Three : 1. scarlatina simplex ; 2. scarlatina an- iinosa; and 3. scarlatina maligna. 50. Q,. Is it proper to use cold ablution in rubeola ? A. No : if the eruption be repelled by cold, deliri- um, dyspnoea, or diarrhoea occurs, attended with con- siderable danger. 51. Q. On what day of the fever does the eruption of measles appear? A. Generally on the fourth day. 52. Q, How many species of variola are there i A. Two ; viz. variola discreta, and variola con- iluens. * 53. Q.. What kind of fever attends confluent small- pox ? A. Typhoid or malignant fever. 54. Q. After varicella has existed for four days, can you distinguish it from variela? A. Yes: at this period yoa have often vesicles, pus- tules, and incrustations or scabs existing together. which distinguish its eruption from the firm and dura- ble pustules of small pox. 55. Q. What kind of habits are most liable to hae- moptysis ? A. Persons of a sanguineous temperament; and more frequently perhaps men than women. 56. Q,. What is the colour of the blood usually coughed-up in the haemoptysis? A. Generally a florid colour. 57. Q.. What is the appearance of the blood brought up in haematemesis ? A. It is dark-coloured or black, generally fluid, and often mixed with portions of food; sometimes it has the appearance of coffee grounds. 58. Q,. What fever accompanies phthisis ? A. Hectic fever. 59. Q,. What may be expected to take place in con- sequence of apoplexy not being cured ? A. If apoplexy is not removed entirely, it often leaves a state of mental imbecility behind, or termi- nates in hemiplegia or death. k2 \VZ PRACTICE OF PlIYslL. 60. CI- What persons are most subject to the serous form of apoplexy ? A- Those of a phlegmatic habit of body. 61. Q. What are the indications of cure in dyspep- sia ? A. There are three indications of cure in dyspep- sia: 1. to obviate the several exciting causes; 2. to relieve urgent symptoms; and 3. to restore the tone of the stomach, or the general system. 62- Q. How is dropsy distinguished according to the situation of the fluid 1 A. When it is diffused through the cellular mem- brane it is called anasarca; when it is deposited in the cavity of the cranium, it is termed hydrocephalus; when in the chest, hydrothorax; when in the abdo- men, ascites; inthe uterus, hydrometra; and within the tunica vaginalis, hydrocele. 63. Q,. How would you form a prognosis in vertigo ' A. When it arises as a symptom of hysteria or any other nervous disease, it is not attended with danger; but when it takes place in consequence of an over- fulness of blood in the head, it becomes dangerous, as it may lead to apoplexy or palsy. 65. Q. What is the office of the liver ? A- The office of the liver is to supply a fluid called bile to the intestines, which is of the utmost impor- tance in chylification. 66. Q,. What are the characters of healthy bile ? A. Healthy bile is of a yellow-green colour, of a plastic consistence, like thin oil, and when very much agitated it froths like soap and water; its smell is somewhat like musk, and its taste is bitter. 67. Q,. What are its uses ? A. The uses of bile are, 1st, to extricate the chyle from the chyme ; 3d, by its stimulus it excites the ac- tion of the intestines; 3d, it imparts a yellow colour to the faeces ; 4th, it prevents the abundance of mu- cus, and acidity in the primae viae. 68. Q. Does bile ever get into the blood ? A- Yes: bile gets into the blood when its regular course is interrupted, as in jaundice, diseased liver, &c 69- <*. How does it get into it ? PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. 115?J A. Bile gets into the blood through the medium of the absorbents, which remove it from the bile-ducts that are preternaturally distended, and convey it into the blood by means of the thoracic duct. 70. Q. What is the most common way in which the bile is prevented passing, as it ought to do, out of its ducts into the duodenum ? A. The most common way in which bile is prevent- ed passing through its ducts into the duodenum, is from an obstruction in the ductus communis choledo- chus. 71. Q. In what way may the ductus communis cho- ledochus be obstructed ? A. The ductus communis may be obstructed by spasm, by a calculus, by mucus from the duodenum, and by the pressure of adjacent tumours. 72. Q,. How do you know when the bile is vitiated or unhealthy ? A. The stomach does not perform its function pro- perly, the intestines are irritated, and the faeces are not of their healthy colour. 73. Q Does a vitiated bile influence the formation of the blood ? A. Yes:—vitiated bile impairs disgestion : the chyle is not properly separated from the chyme, or that which is separated is of a diseased quality ; and when formed into blood, the blood is of an unhealthy nature, and im- proper for nutrition. 74. Q,. What are the unhealthy appearances of the blood that you are acquainted with ? A. The unhealthy appearances of the blood that are usually met with are, an excess of crassamentum, an excess of coagulable lymph in the crassamentum, which shows itself by the w hite coriaceous crust on the sur- face ; a loose flabby cruor; an excess of serum; a yel- low serum. 75. Q,. When too much coagulable lymph exists in the cruor, how does it affect the solids ? A. When there is too much coagulable lymph in the cruor, the solids are firmer than they should be, and there is a predisposition in the system to inflammatory diseases ill PRACTICE OF PHY>Ii • 76. Q,. When the crassamentum is loose, and Iui serum in excess, how are the solids influenced ? A The solids are loose and flabby, and there is a ter; dency to dropsy. 77. Q. What do you understand by excitement ? A. Excitement is the property by which animals may be affected by external agents, as well us by certain powers peculiar to themselves, in such a manner, that the phenomena peculiar to the living state can be produced. 78. Q,. In the commencement of fevers, when there is no diminution of vital energy, what means are the most likely to stop their progress ? A. The means most likely to stop their progress, un- der such circumstances, are, an emetic, combined with a cathartic and blood-letting. 79. Q. What are the most proper remedies to check febrile action at the very commencement, when there is an evident diminution of vital power ? A. When there is an evident diminution of vital power at the commencement of febrile action, a cor- dial diaphoretic, as the compound powder of ipeca- cuanha, spirit of sulphuric and nitric ether, are found the most successful. SO. Q. What do you mean by tetanus ? A. It is a rigid spasm of several muscles of thebody 81. Q,. How would you treat inflammation of the bowels ? A. By general and topical blood-letting, by the warm bath and fomentations, by the frequent exhibitions of purges, and by giving saline diaphoretics with muci- laginous drinks. 82 Q. What is a dysentery. A. It is a spasmodic constriction of the colon, with a retention of the natural faeces, and the frequent ex- pulsion of mucous or sanguineous motions. 83. Q. What are the symptoms of enteritis ? A. Fever, costiveness, a twisting around the umbili- cus, tension and acute pain of the abdomen, increased pain upon pressure, tenesmus or vomiting, according fo the seat of the inflammation : quick, or slow, and PRACTICE OF PHY all . llo hard, contracted pulse ; great prostration of strength and high-coloured urine. 84. Q. What are the symptoms of volvulus ? A. Violent pain and distention of the abdomen, attended with a peculiar twisting around the navel, obstinate costiveness, slight febrile symptoms, and a frequent vomiting of a stercoraceous matter. 85. Q. What are the symptoms of nephritis? A. Pyrexia, pain in the region of the kidney, extend- ing along the course of the ureter, accompanied with numbness of the leg and thigh of the affected side, nau- sea and vomiting, retraction of the testicle, high-co- loured urine, sometimes mucous or bloody, frequent micturition, dysuria. 86. Q. How would you distinguish hepatitis from gastritis ? A. From gastritis by the seat of the pain, by the sym- pathetic pains of the clavicle and shoulder, by the less prostration of strength, and greater fulness of the pulse, by the colour of the stools and urine. 87. Q. What purges would you give in nephritis ? A. Oleaginouspurges and frequent emollient clysters. 88. Q,. What are the symptoms of pneumonia ? A. Obtuse pain and sense of weight and oppression in the chest; anxious breathing, and the pain is increas- ed during inspiration; hard, contracted, and frequent pulse; the face is usually flushed, and of a purple hue ; the tongue is white, the urine is high-coloured, and there are other symptoms of synocha. 89. Q. How w-ould you distinguish cystitis from en- teritis ? A From enteritis by the seat of the pain ; the ten- sion and tumour, which is above the pubes in cystitis ; by the micturition, and by the painful discharge of urine in small quantities, or the complete obstruction to its passage. 90. Q,. When gangrene takes place in internal parts, what are the symptoms ? A- A peculiar appearance of the countenance ; cold perspirations; coldness of the extremities; sudden ces- sation of pain : hiccup : subsultus tendinum : suppres no PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. sion of urine ; convulsions, and the pulse scarcely per ceptible. 91 Q. What are the symptoms of hydrocephalus ? A. Languor, inactivity, loss of appetite, nausea, vo- miting, parched tongue, dry skin, flushing of the face, and other symptoms of pyrexia ; pain over the eyes; the pain in the head becomes extremely acute, and in- termits, occasioning the patient to scream violently ; disturbed sleep, extreme restlessness, flushed counte- nance, costiveness, vomiting, stupor, convulsions, di- lated pupils. 92. Q,. What is a typhus fever ? A. A very infectious fever, characterized by great debility, disturbed animal functions, languid circula- tion, furred tongue, aching pains in different parts of the body, particularly the head and small of the back, and the evacuated fluid's of the body undergoing speedy pu- trefaction. 93. Q. What are the indications of cure in a typhus fever ? A. To excite a new action in the system, by rousing that of the brain and arteries ; to support the strength of the patient; and to obviate the putrid tendency in the fluids. 94. Q. What is the best way of destroying the fetid smell of sick wards ? A. By extricating nitrous fumes from a mixture of nitre and sulphuric acid placed in hot sand. 95. Q,. What is meant by scrofula ? A A peculiar disease affecting people of a particu- lar habit of body, and usually the glandular parts, caus- ing them to swell. 96. Q. What is the best way of relieving inflamma- tory affections ? A. By bleeding either locally or generally, by blis- ters, exhibiting cathartics, diaphoretics, and a low diet. 97. Q,. How is the colic distinguished from enteri- tis? A. The colic is distinguished from enteritis by the peculiar twisting and occasional pain ; by the absence of fever in the early part of the disease : by Ihe pain in PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. 117 enteritis being increased, in colic alleviated, by pres- sure ; by the irregular contraction of the abdominal muscles. 98. Q,. How is a diarrhoea distinguished from dy- sentery ? A. Diarrhoea is distinguished from dysentery by being unattended either with fever, inflammation, con- tagion, or tenesmus; by the appearance of the matter evacuated, which iri one disease is feculent or mixed with alimentary matter, in the other mucal, sanguine- ous, or putrid. 99. Q. How many species of diabetes are there ? A. There two species of diabetes, viz. diabetes mel- litus, and the diabetes insipidus. 100. Q. How is mania distinguished from phrenitis? A. Mania is distinguished from phrenitis by the for- mer being without fever, which the latter never is. 101. Q. What is meant by anasarca ? A. Anasarca is a preternatural collection of serum or watery fluid in the cellular membrane of the whole or part of the body. 102. Q. What are the indications in the cure of scur- vy ? A. The indications in the cure of scurvy are; 1st, to correct the septic tendency of the fluids; 2d, to palli- ate urgent symptoms; 3d, to restore the tone of the solids. 103. Q. What are the species of tympanites ? A. There are two species of tympanites, viz. tympani- tes abdominalis, or collection of air in the cavity of the peritonaeum ; and tympanites intestinalis, or collec- tion of air in the cavity of the intestines. 104. Q,. What are Dr. Cullen's species of paralysis? _A. His species of paralysis are, 1st, paralysis parti- alis, or palsy of a certain muscle or set of muscles j 2d, paralysis hemiplegia, or a total palsy of one side of the body; 3d, paralysis paraplegica, or a palsy of one half the body taken transversely; 4th, paralysis venenata, or palsy from poisons. 105. Q. How many species of catarrh are there ? A. Two, viz. catarrhus a frigore, or common cold, and catarrhus contagiosus, or the influenza. ilW PRACTICE OF PHYSIt, 106. Q. What are the species of apoplexy ? A. There are several; but the most useful distinc- tion is into the sanguineous and the serous. 107. Q. What are the indications of cure in dropsy ? A. To evacuate the fluid, and to prevent a second accumulation. 108. Q,. How many species of cholera are there ? A. Two, viz. cholera spontanea and cholera ac- cidentalis. 109. Q,. What are the species of syncope ? A. Three, viz. syncope accidentalis, syncope cardia- ca, and syncope anginosa. 110. Q,. What are the indications of cure in catarrh ? A. To reduce the febrile action of the system, and to allay the irritation of the affected parts. 111. Q,.. How is synocha distinguished from typhus ? A. From typhus by the more sudden accession of the disease; by its arising from common causes, as sudden alterations of temperature; the application of cold to a heated body; violent exercise, intemperance, &c, and not from contagion ; by the strength of the body not being diminished ; the hardness of the pulse; the whiteness of the tongue; and by the high colour of the urine. 112. Q. How is cynanche tonsillaris distinguished from cynanche maligna? A. By the fever, which in the former is inflamma- tory, in the latter typhoid, and by the absence of ul- ceration in cynanche tonsillaris. 113. Q,. How is rheumatism distinguished from po- dagra? A. By it generally attacking the larger joints; by the pain shifting hs seat, and following the course of the muscles in its translation to other parts ; by the disease not having been preceded by symptoms of dyspepsia; by its occurring at any period of life, whereas gout is usually confined to the adult age. 114. (J. How is tympanites distinguished from as- cites? A. By the absence of fluctuation and of those symp- toms which characterize the hydropic diathesis. PRACTICE Oi l-HYSIC. I L'J 115. Q. What are the indications of treatment in intermittent fever ? A. In the first place, to evacuate thoroughly the stomach and bowels with a view of removing the cause of disease ; secondly, to shorten the duration of the paroxysm ; and thirdly, to prevent its recurrence. 116. Q,. How is the first indication to be accom- plished? A. By emetics and purgatives. 117. Q. In what stage of the disease are emetics most proper to be given ? A. A short time before the accession of the pa- roxysm. 118. Q. What is the best emetic to be used ? A. Tartarized antimony and ipecacuanha combin- ed. 119. Q. How is the second indication of cure to be accomplished ? A. In the cold stage, by the external application of heat and warm diluent drinks •, and in the hot stage, by general antiphlogistic treatment. 120. Q. How is the third indication to be accom- plished ? A. By tonics. 121. Q. What tonics are best suited to this pur- pose ? A. Peruvian bark; sulphate of quinine; Fowler's solution ; and the vegetable bitters generally. 122. Q. What is the dose of sulphate of quinine ' A. From one to two grains. 123. Q- What is Fowler's solution ? A. It is a solution of arsenic with sub-carbonate of potash. 124. Q,. What is the dose in which it is given ? A. From five to ten drops. 125. Ci- Is opium ever used in intermittent fever ? A. Given a short time before the paroxysm is ex- pected to come on, it frequently prevents its access. 126. Q,- What are the symptoms of yellow fever? A. A slight rigorjj succeeded by great heat, pain in the forehead and over the eye-balls; in the back and J M PRACTICE OF PHYriU. the calves of the legs; oppression and heat about the praecordia, nausea and retching. The pulse is full and quick, and sometimes natural; tongue moist with red edges; the eyes of a peculiar reddish tinge, and countenance looks depressed. After thirty-six or forty-eight hours these symptoms subside, and arc soon followed by great prostration, increased nausea, vomiting of a dark flocculent matter with slate-colour- ed sediment, great pain in epigastico, intolerable thirst, dark yellow suffusion over the face, neck, and breast; death. 127. Q.. What is the usual duration of yellow fever? A. From three to seven days 128. Q. What is black vomit? A. A haemorrhage from the villous coat of the stomach. 129. Q. At what season of the year does yellow fever occur? A. During the summer and autumn. 130. Q,. VVhat effect has frost upon the spread of yel- low fever ? A. It puts a stopyto it immediately. 131. Q. How is yellow fever to be treated ? A. During the first two -days of the disease, if the pulse be full and hard, bleeding may be resorted to; after this purgatives; sudorifics; and blisters to the re- gion of the stomach. 132. Q. What are the effects of emetics in yellow fever ? A. They always increase the irritability of the sto- mach, and thus invariably prove injurious 133. Q,. What are the symptoms of bilious remitting fever ? A. The symptoms resemble those of ordinary remit- tents, with the addition of great discharges of bile both upward and downward; and they are more apt to prove speedily fatal. 134. Q. What is the mode of treating it ? A. If the pulse requires it, venesection; after this emetics, succeeded by purgatives and the antiphlogis- tic regimen. If the fever still continue, blisters, and calomel, so as to produce ptyalism. PR At ITCE OF Pin :>U . 121 135. fcl. In what seasons of the year docs typhis lever occur ? A. At all seasons, but more especially during the autumn and winter. 136. Q. How is ophthalmia to be treated 1 A. By blood-letting, general and local; active purg- ing; blisters to the neck, and sedative lotions to the eye. 137. Q.- What are the symptoms of phrenitis? A. Acute pain in the head; eyes red and painful; face flushed; great intolerance of light and sound; general inflammatory fever, delirium, coma and death. 13S. Q. What are the causes of phren.tis ? A. Injury to the brain from external violence; in- toxication; great heat or cold ; intense study; the sup- pression of habitual discharges. 139. Q. How is phrenitis to be treated ? A. Copious venesection; purging; blisters, with strictest antiphlogistic regimen. 140. Q. How does phrenitis differ from mania? A. Mania is of longer duration, and unaccompanied by general fever. 141. Q. What are the different species of cynanche ? A. Cynanche tonsillaris—cynanche maligna—cy- nanche laryngaea—cynanche trachealis—cynanche parotidaea. 142. Q. What are the symptoms of cynanche ma- ligna ? A. Tumor and redness of the fauces, ending in ulce- ration and sloughing of the parts. The fever accom- panying it is of the typhoid character. 143. Q,. Is cynanche maligna contagious ? A. It is generally believed to be so. 144. Q. How is cynanche maligna to be treated? A. By emetics; calomel blisters to the throat; and stimulating and detergent gargles. 145. Q. What are the symptoms of cynanche laryn- gaea ? A. Pain about the larynx, hoarseness and slight red- ness about the fauces, the epiglottis frequently erected and swollen, the breathing difficult, great mental agi- tation, and the circulation much hurried V2i PRACTICE OF PIIYhlC. 146. Q. What arc the causes of cynanche laryn- gaea? A. Cold is the principal exciting cause. 147. Q. How is cynanche laryngaea to be treated 1 A. By general antiphlogistic means. 148. Q. In what patients does cynanche laryngaea generally occur? A. In adults. 149. Qi. At what period of life does cynanche tra- chealis or croup occur ? A. In infants, and young persons under twelve years of age. 150. Q. What are the symptoms of croup ? A. Difficulty of breathing, pain or uneasiness in the region of the trachea; shrillness of voice, and a dry cough resembling the barking of a dog ; accompanied with genera! febrile symptoms. 151. Q. What are the appearances on dissection in croup ? A. A preternatural membrane lining the whole of the trachea, and extending frequently into the bran- chiae. 152. Q,. What are the causes of croup 1 A. Cold and a variable atmosphere. 153. Q,. How is croup to be treated ? A. By emetics; repeated venesection; blisters, and other antiphlogistic remedies. 154. Q. How does Dr. Cullen define pneumonia ? A. Pyrexia pain in some part of the thoiax, dysp- noea and cough. 155. Q. Into how many species is it divided ? A. Two—peripneumony and pleurisy. 156. Q,. What is the difference between peripneu- mony and pleurisy ? A. Peripneumony is an inflammation of the paren- chematous substance of the lungs, characterized by deep-seated pain, cough, expectoration of mucous and bloody matter; general fever. Pleurisy is an inflam- mation of the membrane investing the lungs ; pain in ihe side; pulse hard and frequent; cough dry. Jf>7 Q. What are the causes of Pneumonia " PRACTICE OF PEYail., 123 A. Cold and moist weather; violent exercise; vio- lent couching; acrid vapours received into the longs : certain other diseases of the lungs, and even of the abdomen 158. Q.. What is the treatment proper in pneumo- nia? A Blood-letting, free and repealed according to the circumstances of the case; nauseating medicines, as tartar emetic ; blisters, and other antipnlogistic means. 159. Q. What is a stethoscope ? A. It is an instrument by which the chest can be examined to ascertain the existence of disease in it. It is cylindrical in form, composed of wood of a light loose texture, twelve inches in length, and four and a half in circumference. It is perforated through its mid- dle by a canal, lined with a brass tube, through which the sound is conwyed and at the pectoral extremity it has a funnel-like excavation, which can be filled up. By applying one end of this instrument to the thorax of a patient, and the other to the ear, so that its canal will be opposite to the meatus, and causing the patient to speak, the vibration of peculiar sounds, characteris- tic of morbid conditions of the lungs, is rendered au- dible. 160. Q. What is the treatment proper in dysentery 1 A. If the pulse is fuil and hard, and pain very ur- gent, blood should be drawn from the arm and leeches applied to the abdomen. Calomel should then be giv- en, combined with rhubarb, ipecacuanha or opium, and alternated with the use of castor oil or sulphate of magnesia, according to the symptoms which prevail. Barley water should be drank freely throughout the disease. 161. Q,. How would you ascertain whether dropsy is attended by an inflammatory state of the system or not? A. By subjecting the urine of a dropsical patient to the action of heat: if a coagulum appears in the urine, it is considered a test of inflammation, and de- pletory means are indicated, and vice versa. V24 PJKACT1CE OF PHYSIC. 162. U- What treatment has been found most sue cessful in hydrocephalus internus ? A. Before water is actually effused to any extent, the disease has been removed by large and repeated venesection, cathartics, blisters, and mercuiy given to the extent of inducing salivation. 163. Q. How would you treat a case of cholera morbus ? A. Diluents to be freely given at first to assist in clearing out the stomach ; after this opiates and as- tringents, &c. 164. Q,. What is the treatment proper in cholera infantum ? A. Calomel alone, or in combination with ipecacu- anha, in small doses, so as to produce an alterative ef- fect ; where the bowels are too loose, opium must be interposed. In the latter stages, mild astringents and tonics may become necessary. The warm bath, toge- ther with flannel next the skin, are proper. 165. Q,. To what diseases is the spleen subject ? A. To acute and chronic inflammation, and to schir- rus. 166. Q. How is diabetes to be treated? A. By the use of animal food and by tonics. 167. Q. What are the symptoms of angina pec- toris ? A- An acute pain or stricture at the lower part of the sternum, great anxiety, violent palpitation of the heart, difficulty of breathing, and a sense of suffoca- tion. 168. Q,. What is the treatment of angina pectoris 7 A. Venesection, blisters, anodynes, a recumbent posture, and perfect quiet of mind and body. 169. Q,. How is scurvy to be treated ? A. By the use of fresh vegetable diet, the free use of lemon juice, cleanliness and free ventilation, and tonics. 170. Q,. How are cutaneous diseases divided bv Dr. Willan ? 3 A. Into eight orders, viz. 1. papulae, (pimples); 2. squamae, (scales); 3. wanfhemata, (rashes); 4. PRACTICE OF PHY sic. i*j;» oallae; 5. pustulae, (pustules) ; 6. vesiculae, (vesi- cles) ; 7. tubercula, (tubercles) ; 8. maculae, (spots). 171. Q. How is the first order, papulae, described '.' A. Papulae or pimples originate in an inflammation of the papillae of the skin, by which they are enlarg- ed, elevated, and indurated, and made to assume more or less of a red colour. Sometimes even . a slight ef- fusion of lymph takes place, which gives a vesicular appearance to several of the papulae ; but the fluid is absorbed without breaking the cuticle, and they ter- minate for the most part in scurf. 172. Q,. How many genera are included under this order ? A. Three, viz. 1. strophulus, (red gum, white gum of children) ; 2. lichen,—affects adults, and embraces tetters, ringworms, prickly heat, &c.; 3. prurigo. 173. Q,. How is the second order, squamae, defin- ed? A. Opaque or thickened laminae of the cuticle. called scales ; commonly produced by some degree of inflammation of the true skin, over which they are formed; occasionally the cuticle alone, or with the rete mucosum, appears in a morbid state. 174. Q,. What are the genera under this order? A. 1. Lepra; 2. psoriasis; 3. pityriasis; 4. ichthy- osis. 175. Q,. How is the third order, the exanthemata, defined ? A. Patches of superficial redness of the skin, of va- rious extent and intensity, occasioned by an unusual determination of blood into the cutaneous vessels, sometimes with partial extravasation. Some are con- tagious, others not; some are always febrile, others not manifestly attended with fever; some continue for a definite time, others are of an uncertain dura- tion. 176- Q. What are the genera of this order ? A- 1- Rubeola, (measles) ; 2. scarlatina, (scarlet fe- ver) ; 3. urticaria, (nettle-rash) ; 4. roseola; 5. pur- pura; 6. erythema. 177. Q- How is the fourth order, bullae, describ- ed7 '•20 PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. A. Large and often irregular vesications, which ais charge a watery fluid when they break; the excoriat- ed surface is sometimes covered with a flat yellowish or blackish «"cab, which remains till a new cuticle is formed underneath ; sometimes it is converted into an obstinate ulcer. 178. Q. What are thi geneiaof this order ? A. 1. Erysipelas; -2. pan higus; 3. pompholyx. 179. Q,. How is the film order, pustulae defined ? A. Pust iles, origina ing from an inflammation of the skm, and the consequent ■ a .ial effusion of puru- lent matter under the cuiicle, by which the latter is elevated into small circumscribed tumours ; often ter- minating in a scabby incrustation, varying in hardnes* according to the various tenacity of the contained flu- id ; and sometimes superficial ulceration : some con- tagious, others not; some ecti'e, others chronic 180. Q. What are the genera of this order ? A. 1. mpeligo ; 2 porr go; 3. ecthyma; A. variola, \ small pox) ; 5. sc>:bic , itcii) 181. Q. riow is the sixth order, vesiculae. defined / A. They are characterized by a smali orbicular ele- vation of the cuticle, containing lymph, which is ?ometimes clear and colourless, but often opaque and whitish or pearl-coloured. It is succeeded either by scurf, or by a laminaw d scab. 182. Q. Whai are the genera of this order? A. 1- rarirella, (chicken pox) ; 2. vaccmia, (cow pox); 3. htrpes; 4. rupi ; 5. miliaria; 6. eczema; 7. aphtha. 183. Q.. How is the seventh order, tubercula, de- fined ? A. Tubercles, small, hard, superficial tumours. circumscribed aud permanent, or suppurating par- tially 184. Q. What are the genera of this order 1 A. 1. Phisma; 2. verruca; 3. mollvscum; 4. viti- ligo; 5. acne; 6. sycosis; 7. lupus; 8. elephantiasis; 9. frawbaesia. 185. Gt. How is the eighth order, maculae, defined ? *V. They comprise those discolorations of the akin PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. 12T which are permanent, and most of which are the re- sult of an alteration of the natural texture of the part It comprehends therefore several varieties of con- nate and acquired disfigurations of the skin, some of which are not capable of being removed, and most of them are removable only by surgical means. 186. Q,. What are the genera of this order ? A. 1. Ephelis, (freckles) ; 2. naerus and pilus, &c 12,s 'I \TERIA MKPICA. MATERIA MEDJCA. 1. Q. Whkncte does amtnoniacnm come I A. Ammoniacum comes from the East Indies; the plant which affords this substance is also «aid to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia, ■■ -n-1 the interior of Egypt. 2. Q, What are the virtues of ammoniacum 1 A. The virtues of ammoniacum are stimulant, an- tispasmodic, arid expectorant; its do>e is from ten to thirty grains. Externally applied, it is supposed to soften and ripen hard tumours. 3. Q, How many species of cinchona or Peruvi- an barks are there? A. There are several species, but only three in ge- neral use, viz. cortex cinchonae cordifoliae, or yel- low bark;—cortex cinchonae lancifoliae, or common quilled bark ;—cortex cinchonae phlongifoliae, or red bark. 4. Q What are the virtues of cinchona bark? A. Tonic, antiseptic and -tomaehic. 5. Q. What are the virtues of opium? A. Narcotic, antispasmodic, and stimulant, or seda- tive, according to the dose which is administered. 6. Q. What is the dose of digitalis ? A. From one to three grains in the form of powder. 7. Q,. What are the virtues of aloes? A. Cathartic emmenagogue, and anthelmintic. 8 Q,. What do you mean by cathartics ? A. Those mefiicim-s, which, when taken internally. increase the alviue evacuations. 9. Q,. What d-i you mea>. by emmet.agogues? A. Medici--es which have the power of determin- ing blood to the uterus, either by tbeir local irritation, or by their exciting the action of the system generally. 10. Q. What are diaphoretics ? A. They are medicines which augment the insensi- ble perspiration. Jl. Q. What are diuretic*1 .MATERIA ML OIL A. 1*>9 A- Those medicines which increase the secretion of urine. 12. \^. What quantity of confectio opii of the Lon- don Pharmacopoeia contains one grain of opium ? A. About six-and thirty grains. 13. Q,- WImi is meant by antispasmodics? A. Medicines winch have the power ot allaying ov removing inordinate motion in the muscular sy.-tem. 14 V4. What medicines come under the class of an- tispasmodics? A. Moschus, castoreum, oleum animale, petroleum, ammonia, assaftetida, sagapenum, galbanum, Valeria- na, oleum cajeputa, opium camphor, aether. 15. urinam 75. Q. What plant afford', the jalap root ? A. Ihe Convolvulus jalapa, which grows in South America. 76. Q. From whence do we obtain cetaceum? A. From the head of the Physeter macrocephalus, a species of whale that inhai its the northern seas. 77. Q. What are the virtues of linseed, and what plant affords it ? A. The virtues of linseed are emollient and demul- cent; it is used in cataplasms. The infusion is much given as a pectoral drink, in ardor urinae and nephri- m2 !3ti tlATERIA MEDICA. lie pains. The plant that affords linseed is tailed Li num usitatissimum. 78. Q.. What are the virtues of willow bark ? A. Tonic and astringent: it has been given as a sub- stitute for cinchona 79. Q. What are the virtues of soap ? A. Soap is considered as a purgative and lithontrip- tic ; it is given in habitual costiveness, jaundice, cal- culous cases ; and is also regarded as an antidote in decomposing some metallic poisons when taken into the stomach. 80. Q. What are the virtues of the different kinds of turpentines r A They are all of them stimulant, cathartic, diure- tic, and anthelmintic, and externally they are rubefa- cient. 81. Q. What preparation does the Pinus sylvestris afford ? A. Common turpentine, oil of turpentine, resin. black pitch, and tar. 82. Q. What is the name of the tree that affords the Venice turpentine ? A. The larch or Pinus larix. 83. Q. What turpentine does the Pinus balsamea afford ? A. The Canada turpentine. 84 Q. What does the Pinus abies afford ? A. Thus, or abietis resina; and Burgundy pitch. 85. Q,. What are the virtues of carbonic acid ? A. It has been used with success in the cure of ty phus, and is of great service in irritability and weak- ness of the stomach producing vomiting: it is also used externally, as an antiseptic. 86. Q. What is the dose of sulphate of quinine ? A. From one to two grains. 87. Q,. What is the black drop, and what its dose .' A. It is a combination of a vegetable acid (the citric or acetic) with opium, by which a salt of morphium. an alkali contained in opium, is obtained. Its medium dose is ten drops. 88. Q. What are the virtues of the rroton tiglium ' MATERIA MEJDICA. 13: A. Purgative even in the small quantity of a single drop. 89. Q. What is ergot ? A. It is the diseased seed of the rye, called spurred rye ; of a black colour externally, light and brittle in texture, and long and cylindrical in its form, and gene- rally curved. 90. Q, What is its most remarkable effect on the system ? A. To increase the force of the uterine contractions, and hasten the delivery of the child. 91. Q,. What are the circumstances which should re- gulate its use A- The ostincae should be dilated; the soft parts somewhat relaxed, and there should be no malforma- tion. 92. Q,. In what doses is it administered ? A. From ten grains to half a drachm in decoction. *o be repeated if necessarv l-ts i-nFMrsT*av \nt> i-harmm \ CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY. I. Q. What is meant by effervescence ? A. Effervescence is the escape of a gas which is sc parateii durina the action of bodie- on each other. 2. Q, How is distill, ton ; erlormed ? A. Distillation is pertom.ed in three ways : 1st, per ascen-mm ; 2d, per dex-ensum ; 3d, p< r latus. 3. Q. Explain the three methods, and the apparatus made u-e of. A. 'I de distillation per ascensum is performed gene- rally with the common still, vwiich has affiled to it a head and refrigeratory. The still is for the purpose of containing the materials to be distilled ; the hi ad for the vapour to a cend From the Lead n tube is con- tinued in a circular manner through a tub of cold wa- ter : this last constitutes the refrigeratory ; the use of which i> to condense the vapour into a fluid by ab- stracting heat.—Distillation perdescensum is perform- ed in the following way: a perforated tinned iron plate is fixed within any convenient vessel, so as to leave a space beneath it; on this the substance to be distilled is laid, and over it is placed another plate, accurately closing th* mouth of the vessel, and strong enough to bear the fuel. The heat is thus ai plied at top and the vapour is forced to descend into the inferior cavity. where it is condensed.—Distillation per latus is per- formed in a retort with a receiver . the fluid to be dis- tilled is introduced into the body of the retort, the re ceiver is then adjusted, ai,d heat is applied to the re- tort ; the fluid is thus raised to a state of vapour, that becomes condensed into a fluid, which runs down the side of the neck into the receiver. 4. Q. What is the composition of the vinegar of commerce ? A. The vinegar of commerce contains, besides the once acetic acid, a quantity of water, tartaric arid, tar- CHEMISTRY AND TIIAK3tACY. 139 * rate of potash, mucilaginous matters, and sometimes phosphoric acid. 5. Q. How do we get alkohol ? A Alkohol is produced by distillation from wine and vegetable infusions that have undergone the spiri- tuous fermentation. 6. Q. What is meant by solution? A. Solution is the diminution of the aggregation of a solid , so as to cause it to lose the solid form, and to enter into chemical combination with a fluid. 7. Q,. What is the difference between infusion and decoction ? A. Infusion consists in pouring upon any substance a cold or hot menstruum, and suffering it to stand a certain time, and then straining it off. Decoction con- sists in boiling the substance with the menstruum, and then straining off. 8. Q. What is meant by precipitation ? A. That process by which a solid is obtained from a solution. 9. Q,. What substances are generally used to de- prive rectified spirit of its water ? A. The sub-carbonate of potash has been used; but muriate of lime is thought preferable, because its af- finity for water is not only very great, but, by being soluble in alkohol, it comes in contact with every par- ticle of the fluid. 10. Q,. In what respects does crystallization differ from precipitation t A. Only that the particles in the solvend, on sepa- rating from the solution, assume certain determinate arrangements. 11. Q,. To what is the transparency of crystals ow- ing? A. To a quantity of water that they hold, which i< called water of crystallization. 12. Q. When crystals part with their water of crys rallization, what are they said to do ? A. To effloresce. 13. Q.. What is meant by deliquescence ? 4. It i« n. term ariven to express a property in <*ome 14tf CHEMISTRY AXD PHARMACY. salts by which they absorb the moisture of the atmos phere, and become fluid. 14. Q. What is meant by attraction ? A. A term given to denote the power by which bodies unite with each other, or remain in contact with each other until a superior force is exerted to se- parate them. 15. Q,. What is the difference between attraction of aggregation or cohesion, and chemical attraction or affinity ? A- Attraction of aggregation denotes that power Which is exerted between particles of a similar nature, as those of mercury, glass, wood, &c. On the con- trary, chemical attraction denotes the power exerted between particles of a dissimilar nature, as salt and Water, muriatic acid and soda, nitric acid and potash, dec. 16. Q. How many kinds of affinity are there 1 A- Affinity is divided into: 1. affinity of aggrega- tion; 2. compound affinity; 3. simple affinity; 4. double affinity; 5. divellent affinity; 6. quiescent affinity; 7. intermediate affinity; and 8. reciprocal affinity. 17. Q What is meant by repulsion ? A. It is a peculiar property, inherent in the particles ef matter, by which they have a constant tendency to recede from each other. 18. Q. What is the result of a chemical combina- tion'' A. A new substance is formed, in which the par- ticles combined have assumed new properties. 19. Q. What do yo-> mean by the term salt ? A. By salt is meant a eombinatioi. of an acjd with an alkali, an earth. <>r a m< ta"ic oxide 20. Q. What is understood by neutral salts? A. Where there is no excess either of acid or base, the salt formed is called a neutral salt. 21. ft When a compound is resolved into its consti- tuent parts, what process is it said to have under- gone? \ The nrocrro-of analysis i-HEJ'lJj-TRi AAD fMARMACV. 141 '22. Q. How is the analysis of compounds effected ? A. Either by the power of heat, or by the power of a superior affinity. 23. Q. Which is heaviest, platinum or gold ? A. Platinum is the heaviest. 24. Q. What gives the peculiar character to mineral waters! A. Mineral waters derive their peculiarity of cha- racter in general, either from containing carbonic add or soda not neutralized, sulphuretted hydrogen, purg- ing salts, earthy salts, or iron, or from the temperature exceeding in a greater or less degree that of the atmos- phere. 25. Q,. Wuat is meant by synthesis ? A. The formation of a compound (possessing new properties) by the combination of two or more simple substances. 26. Q. What is caloric ? A. A substance, the evolution of which produces the sensation of heat ? 27. Q. How many sources of caloric are there ? A. There are six sources which afford caloric;—1. the rays of the sun ;—2. combustion ;—3. percussion ; —4. friction ;—5. the mixture of different substances ; and 6. electricity and galvanism.. 28. Q. What is the difference between latent and sensible caloric .' A. Latent caloric is that which exists in bodies, and makes no sensible addition to their temperature. Sen- sible caloric is the matter of heat disengaged, and ia denoted by an increase of temperature. 29. Q, What are the general effects of caloric upon substances ? A. 1st, Substances are expanded, and thus increase in bulk by their combination with ealoric (excepting alumina, which 19 contracted). 2d, It is the cause of fluidity. 3d, It produces vaporization. 4th, It effects ignition; and its combination with some substances is said to be the cause of their elasticity. 30. Q. What is oxygen ? A. The acidifying principle ; a peculiar gas, colour- less, invisible, and elastic: it supports life and flame. 14 filARMACi. rious forms; in a native state, mixed with gypsum and limestone ; it is also thrown out from volcanoes, and it is found combined with several metals : sulphur like- wise exists both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms 52. Q. What are the preparations of sulphur direct- Icd by the London Pharmacopoeia ? A. Sulphur lotum, sulphur praecipitatum, oleum sul phuratum, and sulphuretum potassae. 53. Q. How is the sulphur praecipitatum made ? A. By boiling quick lime, sulphur, and water, toge- ther for a certain time ; filtering the solution, and add- ing muriatic acid in order to throw down the sulphur, which is separated and washed. 54. H. What takes place during this operation ? A. During the boiling the sulphur combines with a portion of hydrogen from the water; it afterwards unites itself to the lime, forming an bydroguretted sul- phuret of lime ; this is held in solution by the water. , and passes through the filter : upon the addition of mu- riatic acid, the muriatic acid combines v\ith the iime. the hydrogen is evolved from the sulphur, and the sul- phur is precipitated. 55. Q. To what is the pule colour of sulphur praeci- pitatum owing ? A The pale colour of the sulphur praecipitatum is said by some to be owing to its more minute division ; . but by Dr. Thomson it is supposed to be caused by its containing a little water. 56. Q,. When sub-carbonate of potash is made to unite with sulphur by means of fusion, n hat takes place ? A. When the combination takes place, the carbonic acid is expelled. 57. Q. In what respects do the sulphur lotum and the sulphur praecipitatum differ from the sulphur subli- matum ? A. The sulphur sublimatum contains a small portion of sulphuric acid ; the other preparations are free from this acid, a--H are considered to hold a portion ot wa- ter in a state of chemical combination: they are there- fore hydrates of sulphur. CHEMISTRY ANJ> PHARMACY. 145 o~ Q. What combinations does sulphur form with oxygen 7 A. It forms an oxide, the sulphureous acid, and the -ulphuric acid 59. Q. Are there any other compounds of. sulphur ? A. Yes : it combines with hydrogen, phosphorus, the metals, the earths, and alkalis 60. U When sulphur is dissolved in hydrogen gas, what does it form ? A. A fetid elastic gas is formed somewhat heavier than atmospheric air, calledsulpburelted hydrogen gas, which is soluble in water. 61. Q. What are the properties of sulphuretted hy- drogen r A. Sulphuretted hydrogen has many of the charac- ters of an acid : it combines with earths, alkalis, and several metallic oxides, and forms compounds which are called b\ dro-sulphurets. 62. Q. Is sulphuretted hydrogen used in medicine ? A. Yes; in the form of medicinal waters : those ot • 4-Iarrowgate, Aix-la-Chapelle, and others of a similar nature, owe their virtues to sulphuretted hydrogen gas. 63. Q.. If sulphur ic burnt in oxygen gas, what acid will be formed ? A. Sulphuric acid. 64. Q,. What are the properties of sulphuric acid ? A. It is very ponderous and corrosive, is destitute of colour and smell, and has a very acid taste ; it has a great attiaction tor water, and combines with earth* alkalis, and metallic oxides, 65. Q,. What are acids ? A. They are substances of a sour taste, possessing a power of changing ve ^etable b uei to red, and ot com- bining with earths, meals, and alkalis. 66. CL What does a . acid consist of ? A. An acid consists of a base or bases combined with oxygen ; the base is called the acidifiable principle, and the oxygen the acidifying principle. 67. Q".. How do chemists distinguish the acids ac- cording to the proportion of oxygen with which they vre combine-' l4»> CHEMlSTRi YAH l'HARMACY. A. If an acid basis is perfectly saturated with osyg< u the acid produced is said to be perfect, and is dislin guishedin English by the syllable ic, as, sulphuric acid ; but if the base predominates, the acid is considered as imperfect, and is distinguished by the English ous, as. sulphurous acid When an acid has an excess of oxy gen, it is called oxygenated, and hv per-oxygenated. 68. Q What are the acids employed medicinal y '■ A. The acetic, tartaric, citi ic, benzoic, caibnnic. bo racic, muriatic, nitric, sulphuric, phosphoric, succinic. 69 »i. II,iw i- benzoic acid ma ie 1 A. A quantity of gum benzoin ard lime is rubbed together and boiled with a quantity of water lor half an hour ; it is ih> n filtered, and to ihe solution muria- tic acid is added, as long a any precipitate is formed ; the precipitate is then collected and dried, to undergo the process ol s-ubl mation. 70. vi. H hat is the *heory of the formation of ben zoic acid in this way ? A. The lime during the boiling takesthe benzoic acid from the gum benzoin ; n e benzoateof lime thus form- ed is held in solution by the water ; upon the addition of muriatic acid, the lime abandons the benzoic acid. to cmbiie with the mmi,'lit: acid; the bt nzoic acid, from its insolubility, is precipitated, and the muriate of lime remains in the so uti<>n. 71. Q» How is citric acid made ? A A quantity of lemon-juice is made boiling hot. and a sufficient quantity of prepared chalk is added until it is saturated : the powder that forms is to be washed and dried ; dilute sulphuric acid is then to be boiled upon the powder ; th- fluid is next fi tered oft' and evaporated with a entle jieat, so that crystals may form as it cools. The crystals are further purified b'v repeated cystallization. 72. Q,. How is the formation of citric acid effected as directed by the London College ? A. When the lemon-juice and p.epared chalk are .mixed together, the citric acid and lime combine, while the carbonic acid escapes in effervescence : the citrate ^f lime is decomposed by the sulphuric acid which i« ' t'l.UiriTHV AM"- l'H.Vlt.ll.UV. 14' added, for it takes to the lime, and sets the citric acid at liberty. 73. Q,. How is the strength of muriatic acid ascer • tained ? A. Half an ounce of limestone should be dissolved. >n a fluid ounce of muriatic acid. 74 Q. What salt is token into the stomach when the 'common saline draught is given ? A. fhe citrate of potash. 75. '} In what respects do the nitric and nitrous acids differ ? A. The nitrous acid holds in solution a quantity of nitric oxide, which is continually escaping; this gas gives the acid au orange colour, and is the cause of its fuming: the nitric acid is colourless, and does not evolve nitric oxide. ^ 7S. Q. How U muriatic acid made ? A. A quantity of sulphuric acid diluted with water is put into a glass retort: to this is added a quantity of muriate of soda ; one third of the water directed to be used is put into the receiver, to absorb a quantity of gas that may be suddenly evolved; the receiver is then uted to the retort, and the muriatic acidis distilled over by the heat of a sand bath. 77. Q. What is the new name given to oxy-muriatic acid ? A. Sir Humphry Davy has given it the name of chlorine, from its yellowish green colour. 78. Q. What are the discoveries that Sir H. Davy has made with respect to muriatic acid and oxy-muriatic acid? A. He asserts that the muriatic acid consists of hy- drogen and chlorine, and that chlorine or oxy-muriatic acid is a simple uudecomposable substance. 79. •'.!. If this be true, what becomes of the oxygen which the black oxide of manganese appears to give to the muriatic acid in making of chlorine ? A. I he oxygen decomposes the muriatic acid, ab- sorbs its hydrogen, and forms water. 80. Q,. In the formation of muriatic acid, what are 'he decompositions and combination-* ^ t IS CHEMISTRY AND PHARMAC i A. The muriate of soda is decomposed by the su. phuric acid, which combines with the soda: the muria tic acid, thus let loose in the state of gas, is dissolved by the water. 81. Q. What salt remains after the distillation of mu- riatic acid ? A. The residuum in the retort consists principally of sulphate of soda. 82. Q,. In what state does muriatic acid exist when deprived of its water ? A. When muriatic acid is deprived of water, it exists in the state of gas. S3. Q. Does nitric acid absorb humidity, or not? A. Nitric acid has a great affinity for humidity, for it attracts the water from the atmosphere. 84. Q,. What vapour is used by the French chemists to destroy contagion ? A. The vapour of the oxy-muriatic acid. 35- Q. How is nitric acid made ? A. Equal parts of dried nitrate, of potash and sul- phuric acid are put into a glass retort; distillation is then to be carried on in a sand-bath until a red va- pour arises: the nitric acid that is distilled over is to be re-distilled from a fresh portion of dried nitrate of potash. , 86. Q,. In making nitric acid, what takes place ? A. The sulphuric acid combines with the potash ot the nitrate of potass, forming sulphat ot potash, and the nitric acid is distilled c-ver. t 87. Q. How is boracic acid obtained ? A. By adding sulphuric acid to a hot solution of borax: this combines w ith (he soda of the borax, forming sulphat of soda, and thi boracic acid is crys- tallized upon the solution cooling. 88- Q,. How is the oxy-muriatic acid obtained? A- It is obtained from a mixture of muriate of soda, black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric acid. 89. Q. Why is the oxy-muriatic acid required to be kept in the dark ? A. Because it decomposes the water by the agencv of light: that is. it is resolved into muriatic acid CHEMISTRY A*\D PHARMACY. 149 M. Q. Has this acid the property of changing vege- table blues to a red ? A. No: it deprives vegetable substances of colour: hence its utility in bleaching 91. Q,. What i5 the composition of nitric acid? A. Oxygen and nitrogen. 92. Q. What are the properties of phosphorous acid? A. Phosphorous acid is a white fluid of an oily ap- pearance: it has a fetid odour and disagreeable taste ; it gives out a thick white smoke and vivid flame, when strongly heated ; and it is decomposed by ignited char- coal. • 93. Q What compound of phosphoric acid is used in medicine ? A. The officinal preparation of phosphoric acid is phosphate of soda, or the combination of phosphoric acid and soda. 94. Q. What is the composition of phosphoric acid? A. Phosphorus and oxygen. 95. Q. In what state do we obtain hyper-oxymuria- tic acid ? A. Combined with an alkaline base ; as forming the hyper-oxymuriate of potash. This is the only state in which it exists. 96 Q. What is the composition of carbonic acid ? A. Carbon and oxygen. By heating potassium or the metal of potash in carbonic acid, the potassium combines with the oxygen of the carbonic acid, and charcoal, or oxide of carbon, is deposited. 97- Q.. What are the acids that have not hitherto been decomposed? , A. The fluoric acid, and the boracic acid. , 98. Q,. What is the composition of the vegetable acids ? A. Varied proportions of carbon and hydrogen aci- dified by oxygen. 99. Q. What are alkalis ? A. They are substances that possess an acrid taste, and a urinous smell; they convert most vegetable blues to a green, and they render oils miscible with ■water lot) CllE-RTsTRV A.M» l'HARMAt V. 100. Q,. What is the composition of the alkalis ' A. A metal and oxygen. .101. &. What is the general distinction of alkalis ' A. Into fixed and volatile: they are also distinguished into vegetable alkali, or potash ; mineral alkali,or soda; and volatile alkali, or ammonia Potash and soda are considered as fixed alkalis,because they are not volatiliz- ed but by a very intense heat; whereas ammonia, which is the volatile alkali, requires only the temperature of the atmosphere to change its state of aggregation. . 102. Q,. How is the potash of commerce obtained? A. From the lixivium of wood ashes:—the ashes of all wood afford this alkali, but the harder woods most abundantly. Another method of obtaining potash is by burning the impure tartar of commerce, and lixivi- ating it. 103. Q. How are salts distinguished according to I he quantity of acid they contain ? A. If the salt should contain an excess of acid, the preposition super is prefixed to its name ; and when the acid contained is not sufficient to saturate the base, the preposition sub is added : thus we have super-sul- phatand sub-sulphat of mercury. . 104. Q. How is the sub carbonas potassae obtain- ed? A. By mixing a quantity of impure potash of com- merce with a stated quantity of water; by boiling these for a certain time, filtering the solution, and finally evaporating the water from the salt, while stir- ing it. 105. Q,. How are the extraneous or more crystalliz- * able salts of the impure potash got rid of? A. Sub-carbonate of potash being very soluble in water in comparison to the extraneous salts contained in impure potash, an advantage is taken of this, for only a sufficient quantity of water is added to dissolve the sub carbonates; the extraneous salts therefore, not being dissolved, remain upon the filter. They consist chiefly of sulphat of potash, muriate of potash, with a quantity of earthy impurities. * 106. Q. What is the difference between sal tartari. sal absinthii. and sub-carbonas potassae ? CHEMISTRY A.\i) PHARMACY. 15! A. Very little difference, excepting in the proportion of carbonic acid with which they are combined: they are ab sub-carbonates of potash, but are differently ob- tained. . 107. Q W'hat are the preparations of potash direct- ed to be u»ed by the London College ? A. Acetas potassae, sulphas potassae, super-sulphas potassae. tartras potassae, sub-caibonas potassae, car- bonas potassae, liquor sub-carbonatis potassae, liquor potassae, pota>sa fusa, pota»a cum calce. lOd. Q,. What nitrates are used in medicine ! , A. The nitrates used iu medicine are the nitrate of potash and the nitrate of silver. » lOy. Q. How are the nitrates known ? A. The nitrates yield oxygen, they give out a white vapour when acted on by sulphuric acid, and when mixed with combustible substances, produce, at a red heat, detonation or inflammation. .110. Q,. How would vou know the muriates? A. i he muriates, when acted upon by co< centrated sulphuric acid, yield mmiatic acid in the form of va- pour. . Ill, Q. How are the carbonates known ? A 5 hex are decomposed by all the acids, produc- ing an effervescence : and they preserve their alkaline properties in some degree. .112. Q. What carbonates are used in medicine ? A. Ihe carbonates used in medicine are, carbonate ofbarytes, carbonate of lime, of magnesia, of potash, of soda, of ammonia, of zinc, a d of iron. • 113. :.i Hiw is the potassa fusa obtained? A. By evaporating the wat.-r fr< m the liquor pota:- >ae, melting the salt, and casting it into proper moulds. . 114. Q. How is the liquor potassa*- made ? A. By putting together sub-carbonate of potash quick lime, and hot water, suffering them to remain a length of time, then filtering. • 115. Q. Why is the lime added ? A. To abstract the carbonic acid from the sub-car- '•onate of potash. lit*. Q What i<= the composition of cremor tartar' !52 t JlEUISir-Y A-M) l'IIAJOf',1 \. A. It i-: a super-tnrtrate of potash : that is, pota-- eombined with an excess of tartari-;- acid. 117. Q. How is The fartras potassae made ? A. It is made by adding a quantity of sub-carbonate of potash to a quantity of super-tartrate of potash dis- solved in water, evaporating to a certain extent, and crystallizing the salt. <-—" " 118 Q. What effect has the sub-carbonate of potash in this preparation ? A. It parts with its carbonic acid to combine with the excess of tartaric acid in the super-tartias potassae. to form a neutral salt. • lf'J. Q, How is the perfect carbonate of potash formed ? A. By adding carbonate of ammonia to sub-carbon- ate of potash dissolved in water. This solution is ex- posed to a certain degree of heat until all the ammo- nia is expelled, and the sub-carbonate of potash be- comes a perfect carbonate by taking carbonic acid from the carbonate of ammonia. 120. Q. Why is the earbonate of potash preferred to the sub carbonate for a saline draught, to be taken in the stale of effervescence ? A. Because it affords most carbonic acid. ► 121. Q. What remains in the retort after the distil- lation of nitric acid ? A. A super-sulphat of potash. ., 122. Q. What is the character of the acetates? A. Acetates are very soluble in water, are decom- posed by heat, by exposure to air, and by the stronger acids. 123. Q,. What acetates are used in medicine "* » A. There are four acetates used in medicine ; viz. acetate of potass, of lead, of zinc, and of mercury. 124. Q,. What is the composition of nitre crystals ? A. Nitric acid, potash, and water. 125 Q,. Why is the nitras potassae made use of in forming sulphuric acid ? % A. To supply the sulphur when burning with a great- er quantity of oxygen 126. Q. What are the states of combination that pot < a«h enters into Airith tartaric arid \ cil::MI&TRY AM) IHAKMACY. 153 A. Two states, so as to form an acidulous salt and a neutral salt- _ „..,- 127. Q. How Ts the tRrtras potassae made ? A. *By adding a sufficient quantity of sub-carbonate of potash to neutralize the super-tartrate of potash, which is previously to be dissolved in hot water: it is afterwards to be evaporated, filtered, and then put by in order to crystallize.----------- • 128. Q How is impure soda obtained ? A. It is generally obtained by lixiviating the ashes of burnt plants, that have grown on the sea-shore, par- ticularly the herb called Salsola kali. • 129. Q. How is the sub-carbonas sodae obtained ? A. By boiling a stated quantity of impure soda of commerce in a quantity of distilled water, filtering the >o!ution, evaporating it, and crystallizing the salt. . 130. Q. How is the carbonas sodae obtained ? A. By adding sub-carbonate of ammonia to sub-car- bonate of soda, dissolved in a quantity of distil.ed wa- ter; exposing this solution to heat for a certain time, in order to expel the ammonia; then crystallizing the carbonate of soda. 131. Q. What salt remains after the distillation of muriatic acid ? A. Sulphat of soda, which is directed to be reserv- ed and prepared for use. 132. Q. What is the composition of common table salt? A. It consists principally of muriatic acid and soda. 133. Q. Why does it deliquesce ? A. Because it contains a little muriate of magnesia 134. Q. How are salts crystallized ? A. A certain portion of the water of solution is eva- porated, and the remainder left in a proper tempera- ture at rest; the salts will after a time be found dis- persed through the mother water at the bottom and sides of the vessel. . 135. Q. How is ammonia obtained ? A. In a variety of ways: it is abundantly formed by animal decomposition; it exists in soot in combi- nation with an acid; it is obtained by distilling harts- (54 CJlEMllslRY Ai\t» PHARMACY. horn, or bones ; but it is generally obtained from the sal ammoniac of commerce. 136. Q. What is the composition of ammonia? A. Hydrogen and nitrogen : but Sir Humphry Da- vy has made it appear to be a compound ot a metal, which he has named ammonium. 137. Q,. What compounds of ammonia are directed to be kept by the London College ? A Carbonas ammoniae, liquor acetatis ammoniae, liquor carbonatis ammoniae, and the liquorammoniae. . 138. Q How is the formation of carbonate of am- monia effected ? A. By sublimation, from a mixture of dried prepar- ed chalk and muriate of ammonia ; a double decom- position takes place ; the lime of the prepared chalk combines with the muriatic acid, forming muriate of lime, while the carbonic acid, the other constituent of the chalk, combines with the ammonia, and forms car- bonate of ammoiiia, which is sublimed. . 139. Q,. Is this a perfect carbonate ? A. No : it is a sub-carbonate: the carbonate of am- monia is void of smell. 140. Q,. How is the liquor ammoniae made ? A. By abstracting the muriatic acid of muriate of ammonia by means of lime, and causing the ammonia cal gas to be absorbed by water. , 141. Q,. How is the liquorammoniae acetatis made ? A. By saturating acetic acid with sub-carbonate of ammonia. „ 142. U- What is an earth ? A. A substance that is nearly insoluble in water; that has little or no smell; that is incombustible ; and, when pure, assumes the form of a white pow der. The specific gravity of an earth should not exceed 4.9. All the earths are supposed to have metallic bases, but are at present considered as simple substances. . 143. Q.. How many earths are at present known to chemists ? A, Nine ; viz. silex, argil magnesia, lime, barytes, strontian, zircon, glucine, and yttria. • 144. Q,. What are the earths that are used in medi- cine ? CHEMi.-TEV A All PHARMACY. l«J.> A. They are four in number; viz. magnesia, lime. argil or alumina, and barytes ; which last is not admit- ted into the London Pharmacopoeia. 145. Q,. What substances afford argil ? A. It exists in many fossils, and forms the basis ot common clay. 146. Q,. What is there peculiar to this earth 1 A. It contracts when exposed to heat, and becomes so hard as to he capable of striking fire with steel. 14i. Q. Is argil ever found pure iu nature, or used in medicine in its pure state ? A. No. ,146. Q,. What substances afford gallic acid ? A. Gallic acid is afforded by nut-galls and most as- tringent substances. 149. Q,. What compounds of argil are directed to br kept in th* shops, by the London College ? A. The alumen exsiccatum, and the liquor aluminis eomposifus. 150. Q. What is the composition of alumen ? A. Sulphuric acid in excess, alumina, a small portion of potash, and often amm->nia. ,151. Q,. Why is pota-h always put in to form alum ' A. To facilitate crystallization. I lie sulphat, or su- per-sulphat of argil alone crystallizes in very small quantities, and that wi-h great difficulty. ,152. CJ,. In alum °vcr found in nature ? A. Yes : it is often found in a specie of slate deno- minated alum slate, which is mixed with the layers of coal. 153. 'i. From whence do wc obtain magnesia ? A. It is never found in the pure state, but in com- bination in many fossils ; it is also found combined with acids in matiy springs, and in sea-water: from these several sources the earth is obtained. 154. Q. What preparations of magnesia does the Co. Jege direct to be used t A. The carbonas magnesiae and the sulphas mag- nesiae, and magnesia. 155- Q>' How is the carbonas magnesiae made ? \. Bv mixing together a solution of sub-carbonate O 16fj CHt'MI&JRV AAl' iHARJJACl. of potash and of sulphat of magne-ia. boiling lor a cer- tain time, and filtering. The carbonate of magnesia remains upon the filter, and is to be well washed with hot water, to deprive it entirely of the sulphat of po- tash . it is afterwards dried. .156. Q. Wl,a; takes place in this process ? A. A double decomposition takes place; the potash loses its carbonic acid to combine with the sulphuric acid, while, the magnesia loses its sulphuric acid to com- bine with the carbonic a, id ; and thus a carbonate of magnesia is obtained, and a sulphat of potash remains in solution 157. Q, When the carbonate of magnesia is exposed to an intense beat for *ome time, w !.ai takes place ? A. It loses its carbonic acid, and pure magnesia i-, obtained. 158. Q,. Which is lightest, the carbonas magnesiae, or magnesia .' A. Magnesia. 159. Q. How would you keep pure magnesia? A. In a bottle well stopt to prevent the absorption of carbonic acid: it however attracts carbonic acid but slowly. , 160. Q, How is sulphat of magnesia obtained ? A. It used to be made by evaporating the water of the mineral springs at Epsom : but it is now gene- rally obtained by evaporating the bittern, or the fluid that remains after the crystallization of salt from sea- water. % 1.61. Q. What are the sources of lime ? A. It is a constituent of chalk-stone, lime-stone, marl, shells, bones ; it is found combined with many acids, as carbonic, fluoric, boracic, and sulphuric acid ; it exists in small portions in sea-water, in spring and river water, and it is found in vegetables. . 162. Q,. What preparations of lime do the London College direct to be kept / A. Calx liquor calcis, creta praeparata. .163. Q. How is calx, or lime, to be obtained .' A. By burning chalk-stone with a white heat, until it ceases to effervesce, or give off carbonic acid, when thrown into acetic acid. CHEMISTRY AJ>J» PHAitHACY. 15i . 164. Q,. Is this pure lime which remains ? A. Sufficiently pare for medical purposes, but not tor chemical. 165. Q. What takes place, if lime-water is exposed to the air for any length of time ? A. The lime that is held in solution soon combine> with carbonic acid, and precipitates, leaving the water pure. 166. Q,. What takes place in the slacking of lime? A. The water is absorbed with a hissing noise, the lim» cracks and falls int.- powder, a great quantity of caloric is evolved, so as to convert one portion of wa- ter into a vapour, while the other portion of the water enters into combination with the lime, and becomes solidified. - 167.*Q,. Which of the earths used in medicine is a poison ? A. Barytes is a violent poison : in an overdose it produces nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, vertigo, and death. .168. Q. What preparation of barytes is used in me- dicine ? A. The muriate of barytes is admitted into the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia; and has been given in scro- fula, and to remove tumours, worms, and cutaneous diseases. 169. Q. What is a metal ? A. It is a simple substance, possessed of great tena- city and hardness, opacity, the property of reflecting light, a certain specific gravity, and of combustibility, when raised to a certain temperature, in contact with oxygen. 170. Q. Are all the metals opaque ? A. Yes, all except gold-leaf, which, when beat ex- tremely thin, transmits green light. 171. Q.. What is the difference between ductility malleability, and tenacity. A. Malleability is that property by which a metal may be pressed or beat into thin leaves, or plates ; due tility, the property by which a metal mav be drawn into v ires of certain diameters : and tenacity, the pow- . .'» cHEMIsTRY AND i"T.vi'MAt\. er of cohesion of the particles of metals, by which they allow of ductility and malleability. 172. Ci. What is the cause of expansion in metals ? A Caloric, which is supposed to cause the metallic- particles to assume greater distances. 173. Q. Do metals conduct caloric? A. Yes : they are the best conductors of that prin- ciple. 174. Q. Do metals differ much in fusibility ? A. Yes. Mercury melts at a very low temperature, even the coldest atmosphere ; on the contrary, plati- num requires the most intense heat for its fusion. 175. Q. Are these the chief properties of metals ? A. Yes, excepting that they are the best electrical conductors, and generate galvanism by Contact,. 176. Q. When a metal combines with oxygen, what change has it undergone ? A. It has become oxydized, and the compound form- ed is called an oxide. 177. Q,. When a metal combines with an acid, so as to form a salt, what change does the metal first un- dergo ? A. It becomes oxydized either by decomposing the water, or part of the acid, and is then dissolved by the remaining acid. 178. Q. When two metals are combined, what is the compound called ? A. An alloy ; excepting the combination of a metal with mercury, which is termed an amalgam. - 179. Q,. What is the number of metals at present known ? A. They amount to twenty-one, if the new metals of the alkalis, &c. ire excluded. 180. Q. Enumerate the. metals. A. Gold, platinum, silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin, lead, nickel, zinc, bismuth, antimony, teliur.um, arse- nic, cobalt, manganese, tungsten, molybdenum, ura- nium, titanium, chromium. . 181. Q,. What are the metals that are used in medi- -ine ? A. Silver, mercury, copper, iron. tin. lead, zinc hU •muth. ar<*eni''. antim<*>nv i iiEMI>J'RY AND PHARMACY. 151' 162. Q,. In what state is silver found in nature '.' A. Native and mineralized. • 183. Q. What are the preparations of silver used in medicine ? A. Only the nitras argenti, which is made with sil- ver, nitric acid, and distilled water. The nitric acid and water are mixed ; the silver is then added, which speedily becomes dissolved by the application of a gradual heat; when this is effected, the solution is evaporated, in order to obtain a dry nitrate of sil- ver. The nitrate of silver is then melted in a cru- cible, with a gMitle heat, and is cast into proper moulds. . 184. Q. What takes place during the melting of the nitrate of silver ? A. It loses part of its nitric acid, and becomes re- duced to a sub-nitrate. . 185. Q~ What are the sources of mercuiy ? A It is found native ; it is found in combination ,viHi muriatic acid ; and it is found in combination with sulphur, constituting an ore called native cinna- bar : from this ore the quicksilver of commerce is ge- nerally obtained. . 186. Q,. What are the properties of mercury ? A. Mercury is a fluid metal in the temperature ol our atmosphere, and has the appearance of melted sil- ver, in which state it is neither ductile nor mallea- ble, is very volatile when heated, and extremely di- visible ; it combines with other metals and forms amal- gams . 187. Q. What preparations of mercury are directed to be used by the London Pharmacopoeia ? A. Oxymurias hydrargyri, liquor oxymuriatis hy- drargyri, hydrargyrus cum creta, submurias hydrargyri, nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri, oxydum hydrargyri cine- reum, oxydum hydrargyri, rubrum, hydrargyrus prae- cipitatus albus, hydrargyrus purificatus, and sulphure- tum hydrargyri rubrum, fkc. • 188. Q,- How is the oxymurias hydrargyri formed ? A. Mercury and sulphuric acid are first boiled to- gether, in a glass vessel, until a dry salt is obtained; o2 ibO CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACY. by this process the mercury first becomes oxydizeu. and then dissolves in the remaining acid ; this is eva- porated, until a dry salt is procured, which is an oxy- sulphat of mercury ; this is mixed with a quantity of dried muriate ol soda, and sublimed : the order of af- finities is now changed; the muriatic acid combines with the oxide of mercury, forming an oxy-muriate of mercury, which is sublimed, and the sulphuric acid combines with the soda, forming sulphat of soda, which is not sublimed. . lo9. Q. In what state of oxidizement does the mer- cury exist in this preparation ? A. In the state of red oxide. , 190. Q,. How is the hydrargyrus cum creta made ? A. By rubbing creta and mercury together, until the globules of the mercury disappear. , 191. Q. What is the composition of this prepara- 'ion ? A. It is composed of an oxide of mercury combin- ed with carbonate of lime. - 192. (J,. In what state is the mercury that is present inthe unguentum hydrargyri fortius, emplastrum hy- drargyri, and pilula hydrargyri ? . A. It is in the state of protoride or gray oxide. 193. Q. How is the submurias hydrargyri made? A. A quantity of oxy-muriate of mercury is rubbed with a quantity of purified mercury, until the globules "of the mercury are extinguished; it is then to be sub- limed, and the sublimation and rubbing are to be re- peated three times ; after w hich it is to be reduced to a very subtile powder. 194. Q. What is the use of the purified mercury in this preparation ? A. It abstracts from the oxy-muriate of mercury a portion of iis ox;, gen ; by which the oxide of mercu- iy that »xisted in the oxy-muriate is converted into ^ an imperfect black oxide : this imperfect oxide re- quires less uuriatic acid to saturate it than the perfect oxide does : the compound formed is therefore a mu- riate, but the London College have thought proper to '•all it a sub-muriate, to prevent mistakes ClIEMl^IRY A.ND PHARMACY. ltiJ , 195. Q. What are the characters of calomel > A. Calomel is inodorous, insipid, and has a light yei low or ivory colour, which deepens by long exposure to the light. Lime-water and the alkalis, when tritu rated with it, instantly render it black, which is one test of its purity;-Tor, if it contains any oxy-muriate, a yellow tint is mingled with the black on the addition of lime-water. 196. Q. Is there any other mode of obtaining ca lomel besides that directed by the London College? A Yes: Mr. Howard has proposed the following improvement; instead of subliming the calomel in a concrete form, the vapour as it rises is thrown into a vessel containing water, where it instantly condense0 into the form of a white impalpable powder. • 197. Q. How is the nitrico-oxydum hydrargyri made? A. By boiling mercury, nitric acid, and water, tc dryness, and then raising the heat gradually until the red vapour ceases to arise. , 198. Q. What colour does the oxide of gold give to >,'!ass ? A. Glass is coloured purple by the oxide of gold. , 199. Q. What compound is formed with the oxide of gold and ammonia ? A. This compound is called fulminating gold. • 200. Q,. What takes place during the formation of nitric oxide of mercury ? A. The mercury decomposes a portion of the nitric acid by attracting oxygen ; it becomes converted into an oxide, and nitric oxide gas is evolved ; the oxide of mercury thus formed, is then dissolved by the un- decomposed* nitric acid, and a nitrate of mercury is formed. When the dried nitrate of mercury is expos- ed to heat, the greater part of the nitric acid is driven off, and a perfect oxide of mercury remains, holding a very small portion of nitric acid. „ 201 &■ How is the red oxide of mercury made ? A- By exposing mercury in a glass vessel, with a broad bottom, a long neck, and a narrow mouth, to a heat of 600". until the mercury is converted into red I'tV.] i llKMIbTRY AND PSIAICMACH scales, which are to be reduced to a very fine poVv- der. , 202. Q,. What is the theory of this process? A. The mercury, when exposed to a heat of 600°, rises iu vapour up t!i< neck of the vessel; the vapour of the mercury combines with a m^imurn of oxygen, by decomposing atmospheric air, and falls back into the vessel in the state of dark red scales, which be- come of a deeper red as the process goes on. 203 Q,. Why does not the mercuiy escape when exposed to this temperature? A. Because the vessel is provided with a long nar- row neck, that is drawn out into a capillary opening. which prevents the escape of the mercury, but allows a free admission of air. .204. Q,. How is the gray oxide of mercury prepared ' A. It is prepared by boiling sub-muriate of mercury u ith lime-water, constantly stirring, until a gray oxide of mercury is separated ; it is then to be washed with distilled water, and dried. During this preparation, the lime combines with the muriatic acid of the muri- ate of mercury, and its oxide is separated. . 205. Q,. Why are iron filings directed to be used in purifying mercury? A. Because the iron has a greater attraction for the metals with which mercuiy is often amalgamated, than for the mercury. 206. Q. How is the sulphuretum hydrargyri made? A. It is made by mixing mercury with melted sul- phur over the fire ; when this is effected, the mass is cooled, reduced to powder, and sublimed. „ 207. Q. How is the hydrargyrus praecipitatus albus made? A. By dissolving muriate of ammonia and ox> -mu- riate of mercury in water, and pouring into this solu- tion a quantity of liquid sub-carbonate of potash. The powder that is thrown down, is washed until it becomes insipid, and dried. 208. Q. Where is iron found ? A. It is found abundantly in the earth, under a vari- ety of forms, mineralized by sulphur, combined with earths, alloyed with metals : it exists in the waters ->f CilL-iiI.^rRY AM) PHARMACY. lttjl many springs ; it is contained in vegetables ; it give- colour to the blood, and to many fossil substances. . 209. Q- What preparations of iron are directed t be kept by the London College ? A. Ferruin ammoniatum ; carbonas ferri; sulphas ferri; ferrum tnrtarizatum ; liquor ferri alkalioi ; tinc- tura ferri inuriatis ; tinctura ferri ammoniati; vinutn ferri. . 210. Q. How many oxides of iron are there ? A. Two: the black or protoxide, and the red or peroxide. . 2ll. Q. Would you order the preparations of iron to he combined with astringent decoctions for medi- cal use ? A. No : because most of such decoctions contain gallic acid and tannin, which, combined with iron, form ink. • 212. Q. If sulphate of iron is burnt in a white heat, what will remain after the process has been continued some time ? A. The peroxide or red oxide of iron. 213. Q. What is the composition of ferrum ammo- niatum ? A. It is composed of muriate of iron and muriate of ammonia. , 214. Q,. How is it made ? * A. By subliming equal parts of carbonate of iron and muriate of ammonia. . 215. Q. How is the carbonate of iron made ? A. By dissolving sub-carbonate of soda and sulphat of iron in two separate portions of water, mixing the solut:ons, suffering the green powder to subside, then washing and drying it. • 216. Q,. What change of affinities is produced by mix- ing these solutions ? A The carbonic acid combines with the iron, leav- ing the soda to combine with the sulphuric acid ; a su! phat of soda therefore remains in solution, and a car- bonate of iron is precipitated. This new compound consists of the black oxide of iron, combined with carbonic acid, but, upon exposure to the air, pa==ea ve. rv *oon to the >-*ate of j-r-.! r.xirt.- 1154 CHEMISTRY" A.VJ* PHARMACY. . 217. tl. How is the ferrum tartarizatum made .' A. It is made by mixing iron filings, supertartrate ol potash, and water together ; they are exposed to the air in a broad glass vessel, for eight days; the com- pound is then dried in a sand-bath, and reduced to powder ; after this is done, it is to be mixed with ano- ther portion of water, and exposed for eight days long- er. 218. Q,. What is the theory of the formation of this compound ? A. During the exposure to the air, the iron becomes oxydized by abstractingoxygen both from the air and the water with which it is mixed ; and the oxide of iron combines with the superabundant tartaric acid of the superiartrate of potash ; the compound formed is therefore a tartrate of potash and iron. 219. Q. When iron wire is burnt in oxygen gas, what compound is formed ? A. When iron is burnt in oxygen gas, the compound formed is the black oxide of iron. 220. Q,. When iron is heated, in contact with air, what is formed ? A. In this process a black oxide of iron is formed. 221. Q,. When carbon is united to iron, what is formed ? A. Steel. . 222. Q,. What is the composition of the liquor ferri alkalini ? A. It is considered as composed of nitric acid, red oxide of iron, with potash, forming a triple compound. . 223. Q,. How i-; it made ? A. It is made with iron, nitric acid, distilled water, and solution of sub-carbonate of potash. The acid and water are firs' to be mixed, and poured on the iron ; when the effervescence has ceased, the acid so- lution is to be poured off. and added gradually to the solution of sub-carbonate of potash, occasionally shak- ing it until it has assumed a deep brown-red colour, and no further effervescence takes place ; it is then to be set bv for six hours, and its clear solution poured i-ff. i.HEMl&TRY AM) PHARMACY. iG^ • -24. Q,. How is the tinctura ferri inuriatis made ? A. Carbonate of iron is put with muriatic acid for three days ; during which time the carbonic acid is displaced from the red oxide of iron, and the red ox- ide combines with the muriatic acid, and forms an oxy-muriate of iron, which is afterwards combined with a quantity of rectified spirit. . 225. Q. What cempound of iron exists in the vi- num ferri? A. A tartrate of iron and potash. 4 226. vi. In what state in nature is lead found .' A. It is found oxydized, forming a variety of ores : combined with sulphur, forming an ore called galena ; combined with muriatic and earbonic acids. It is found in the state of carbonate phosphate, arseniate, arsenic phosphate, molybdate, and sulphat. 227. Q,. What is plumbago? . A. Plumbago is a carburet of iron, or iron combined with carbon, iu its first degree of oxidisement. , 228. Q,. What are the compounds of lead admitted into the new London Pharmacopoeia ? A. Liquor acetatis plumbi; super-acetas plumbi : and liquor acetatis plumbi dilutus. 229. Q. How is the super-acetate of lead made ? A. It is made by boiling the carbonated oxide ot lead in acetic acid, which displaces the carbonic acid and combines with the oxide of lead ; the solution is to be filtered, evaporated to a certain extent, and set aside to crystallize. ,230. Q,. What are the substances which ought not to be given inter.ially wi'h super-acetate of lead? A. Alkalis, and their carbonates, most of the acids and neutral salts, lime and magnesia. „ 231. How is the liquor acetatis plumbi made ? A. By boiling acetic acid and vitrified oxide of lead A together, to a certain extent; then setting the solution by, that the feculencies may subside. 232. Q.. What is the theory of this process ? * A. The oxide of lead combines with the acetic acid, and a sub-acetate of lead is formed. 233. Q,. How is the cerusse of commerce prepared' itjti CUEMl&iKx A.Nii PHARMA'.Y. A. Small sheets of lead are rolled up in a opira, form; these are placed perpendicularly on a support over a vessel containing vinegar ; several of thfse ves- sels covered are placed together, and surrounded with dung, the heat of which raises the vinegar in vapour, which converts the surface of the lead into a white ox- ide, or rather a carbonate ; at length the whole of the lead is thus converted ; it is then taken out, and grouud to powder. r 234. Q. What form of lead is litharge .' A. Litharge is the yellow oxide of lead in a kind o: triform state,and combined with a little carbonic acid. „ 235. Q. How many oxides of lead are there ? A. Lead is considered at present as capable of form ing four different oxides. 236. Q,. What oxide is minium ? A. The tritoxide or red oxide of lead. . 237. tL In what state is copper found in nalure A. It is found mineralized by oxygen ; combine: with carbonic acid, forming malachite and mountain blue; in combination with phosphoric acid, with-mu- riatic acid, with sulphuric acid, with arsenic acid ; and it is abundantly found mineralized with sulphur, form- ing all the varieties of copper pyrites. , 2*38. Q,. What .(reparation of iron exists in the mis nira ferri composita ? A. A carbonate of iron. 239 Q.. Howr many oxides of copper are there ! " A. There are two oxides of copper, viz. the pro- toxide of a red or orange colour, and the peroxide of a black colour. . 240. Q. What form of copper i-. aerugo or verdi- gris ? A. Verdigris is a sub-acetate of copper. 241. Q. What are the compounds of copper directed to be used by the London Pharmacopoeia ? A. They are the cuprum ammoniatum, and the liquor cupri ammoniati. . 242. Q. How is the ammoniated copper made ? A. It is made by rubbing sulphat of copper and sub- earbonate of ammonia together, in a glass mortar '•nt.MI»T,Kl- AJNW PHARMACY. 1*57 until the mixture ceases to effervesce ; it is then to be wrapped in bibulous paper, and dried by a moderate heat. • 243. Q. From whence do we obtain arsenic ? A. It is found in nature amongst the ores of cobalt, antimony, tin, iron, copper, and silver ; it is found in combination with sulphur, forming an ore called orpi- ment; and it is found combined with oxygen, forming an ore called the white oxide of arsenic. . 244. Q,. What preparations of arsenic are used in medicine ? \. The oxydum arsenici praeparatum, and liquor ; i 11 KM1STRY *A.\'1> PHAEMAC Y . » 250. A. The antimony of the sulphuret first becomes oxydised by the nitric aeid, which is decomposed ; the oxide of antimony is then dissolved by the muriatic acid, and a muriate of antimony is obtained; when this is added to the sub-carbonate of potash, the sub- oarbonate of potash is first decomposed, the carbonic acid escapes, and the potash unites itself to the muriatic acid and forms muriate of potash; the muriatic acid having thus combined with the potash, the oxide ot antimony is precipitated. ■ 254. Q,. When zinc is exposed in the stale of fusion to the action of air, what is formed ? A. The zinc, under these circumstances, catches fire. and forms the white oxide. . 255. Q. What metals are generally employed f_o decompose water? A. The metals generally made use of to decompose water are iron and zinc. . 256. Q. What preparations of zinc are used in me- dicine ? A. The oxide and sulphat of zinc „ 257. Q What i« calamine ? i liEMISTRY AM) PHARMACY. It'll A. Calamine is an impure oxide of zinc. » 258. Q. What part of the world does zinc come from ? A. Zinc is obtained from most of the mining coun- tries of Europe ; Derbyshire affords it in great abun- dance. , 259. Q, How many oxides will zinc form ? A. Two: the protoxide of a flesh colour, and the peroxide of a white colour. 260. Q. How is the sulphuretum antimonii prae- cipitatum made ? A. Sulphuret of antimony, solution of potash, and distilled water, are mixed and boiled over a slow fire ; the mixture is kept stirred, and as much distilled water is added as evaporates ; when this part of the process is finished, the solution is to be strained through a dou- ble linen cloth, and while it is yet hot, sulphuric acid is to be dropped in, as may be required, to precipitate the powder, which is afterwards to be well washed, to free it of the sulphat of potash; then dried. , 261. Q. Explain what takes place in this process. A Potash, sulphur, antimony, and water, are boiled together; the water becomes decomposed into its con- stituents, oxygen and hydrogen ; the potash unites to the greater part of the sulphur, and attracts hydrogen from the water, so that a hydro-sulphuret of potash is formed; the antimony combines with the oxygen of the water, and the sulphur which it retains attracts the other portion of hydrogen, with which the sulphuret of potash has not combined; an hydro-sulphuretted oxide o£ antimony is thus formed, which is held in so- lution ; when the sulphuric acid is added, the hydro- sulpiiuret of potash is decomposed; the sulphuric acid and potash combine, and form sulphat of potash ; the hydrogen escapes, and the sulphur intimately mixed with the hydro sulphuretted oxide of antimony is pre- cipitated. 262. Q. What acids dissolve the oxides of mercury ' A. The oxides of mercury are dissolved by the sul- phuric, nitric, and oxymuriatic acids. 263. d- How is the antimonium tartarizatum made ? i/0 ( iruMlSXRY A.ND PHARMACY. A. It is made with sulphuret of antimony, nitrate, m potash, super-tartrate of potash, sulphuric acid, and distilled water. The acid is to be mixed with the wa- ter, and heated in a sand-bath ; when this is moderate- ly warm the sulphuret of antimony and nitre, previous- ly mixed, are to be added ; (hey are next to be strain- ed and boiled until all the moisture is consumed. The residue is then to be washed with distilled water, until it becomes tasteless, a.id while moist the super-tartrate of potash is to be added ; it is, lastly, to be put into distilled water, boiled, and set aside to crystallize. _. 264. Q,. What takes place in the formation of this compound ? A. It is considered, that during the process the ni- trate of potash is decomposed by the sulphuric acid, as is shown by the extrication of nitrous gas, and part of its oxygen being expended upon the oxide of the sulphuret. This lajt is converted into protoxide of antimony, while perhaps, also, at the same time, the sulphur is partly converted into an acid. Subsulphat u antl-?ony is then formed by the action of part of the acid on the protoxide; in this state the tartaric acid ot the super-tartrate of potash acts upon it so as to torm the triple compound of tartrate of antimony and , 265. Q. How isantimonial powder made? A. By mixing one part of sulphuret of antimony and two parts of hartshorn shavings, throwing them into a broad iron pot, heated to a white heat, and stir- ring thi * mixture constantly until it acquires an ash co- lour; having taken it out, it is to be reduced, to pow- der, and put into a coated crucible, upon which ano- ther inverted crucible, having a small hole in its bot- tom is to be luted; the fire is now to be raised to whiteness, and kept so for two hours. The mass is then lo be reduced to a very fine powder. . 266. Q What does this compound consist of •f limcCOnS'StSOf °XidC °f an,imo"y a',d Phosphate 267. Q. Describe the phenomena that take nlare luring its preparation. ' A When the sulphuret of antimony and hnrdhnr* CHEMISTRY AYD PHARMACY. 1/4 -■havings are exposed to a white heat, the sulphuret of antimony is decomposed, its sulphur is driven off, and the antimony remains oxydized, while the gelatine of the hartshorn shavings is destroyed, and nothing is left but phosphate of lime, which becomes mixed with the oxide of antimony. 268. Q What is the active ingredient of the yeast cataplasm ? A. The carbonic acid gas which is evolved, and which is the product of fermentation * 269. Q,. What are the chemical compounds that ex- ist in the mistura ferri composita ? A. Carbonate of iron and sulphat of potash. 27'». Q,. What is meant by fermentation ? A. The spontaneous change of vegetable substan- ces, by which their properties become altered. 271. Q,. What circumstances are required for fer- mentation to go on ? A. A certain degree of fluidity ; a degree of heat between 55° and 65° Fahrenheit, and the contact of air. 272. Q,. What are the species of fermentations ? A. Fermentation is divided into the spirituous, the acetous, and the putrefactive; besides which, Dr. Thomson has added two others, viz. the panary and the saccharine fermentation. • 273. Q. What ingredients are necessary for fermen- tation ? A. Water, sugar, and mucilage. 274. Q. Can a fluid, after it has undergone the ace- tous fermentation, be made to undergo the vinous ? A. No: the fermentations will only take place in their regular succession ; first from the acetous to the vinous, and then from the vinous to the putrefactive. 275. Q. What are the products of the spirituous fer- mentation ? A. Ardent spirits, wines, and beers. 276. Q,. What do the acetous and putrefactive fer- mentations produce ? A. The acetous fermentation produces vinegar, and the putrefactive fermentation produces ammonia P2 I "2 ' •U-'MISlRY a.\b pharmacy. 277. Q. What gas escapes during fermentatiou : A. Carbonic acid gas. 278. Q. In forming the medicated wines, what wint does the London College direct to be used ? A. Sherry wine. 279. Q. How is alkohol obtained ? A. Aikohol may be obtained by distilling any spi- rituous liquor. Brandy affords the greatest quantity, but in this country it is usually obtained from malt spi- rit, when it is termed rectified spirit. 280. Q. How does the London College direct alko- hol to be made from rectified spirit ? A. A quantity of healed sub-carbonate of potash is added to a quantity of rectified spirit; these are ma- cerated together for twenty-four hours; the alkohol is then distilled off by means of a water bath. . 281. Q,. What is the use of the sub-carbonate of potash ? A. It abstracts the greater part of the water from the rectified spirit. Aikohol appears always to contain a portion of water. 282. Q,. How is the strength of alkohol ascertained .' A. The strength of alkohol is known by taking its specific gravity, which, according to the London Col- lege, ought to be 815, water being 1000. 283. Q,. What is the solvent of a resin ? A. Alkohol; but rectified spirit is generally used. 284. Q.. Iu what menstruum is gum soluble ? A. Water, and not in alkohol. 285. Q,. What menstruum should be used to dissolve a gum resin ? A. A mixture of spirit and water. 286. Q,. What use is made of rectified spirit in me- dicine ? A. To make ethers, different spirits, and tinctures i 287. Q,. When arsenic is exposed to heat, what smell does it emit ? A. Arsenic, when exposed to heat, emits a smell like garlic. , 288. Q,. Of what are the different medicinal spirits composed7 > I1EM1-URY AMI PHARMACY. (To* A. A particular volatile oil. a quantity of alkohol uid water. . 289. Q. Wbat are the elements of alkohol ? A. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. 290. Q. What is an ether? A. A compound formed by the action of an acid upon alkohol; it is the lightest fluid known ; it is high- ly volatile, pungent, odorous, and inflammable. 291. Q,. How are ethers designated ? A. They are named from the acid by which they are obtained: I hat obtained by sulphuric acid and al- kohol, is called sulpiiuiic ether; by acetic acid, acetic ether ; by nitric acid, nitric ether, and so forth. 292. Ci. What is the composition of ether ? A. Oxvgen, hydrogen, and carbon. 293. ci. How does ether differ from alkohol, as its constituents are the same ? A. The proportions of its constituents are different: it is supposed to contain more hydrogen and less car- bon than alkohol. 294. Q. Is the acid decomposed in the formation of ether ? A. In some degree; but its presence seems chiefly to predispose to an alteration of the affinities of the elements of the alkohol. p295. Q. What will ether dissolve? *A. Ether will dissolve phosphorus and sulphur in small portions; it also dissolves muriate of gold and the oxymuriate of mercury: likewise it readily dis- solves ammonia and nitrous gas, besides which it will dissolve the fixed and volatile oils and bitumen. 296. Q. Will ether combine in every proportion of water ? A. No : ether combines only in a small proportion with water ; ten parts of that liquid dissolve about one part of ether. 297. Q. What proportion of water does nitric ether require for its solution ? A. Nitric ether dissolves in about 48 parts of water, and gives to that liquid an odour like that of apples. 298. Q,. What ethereal compounds are directed to be. kept in the shops by the London College ° I 71 CHEMISTRY AMI 11IAKMACV. A. The sulphuric ether, the rectified ether, ethereal oil. aromatic spirits of ether, compound spirits of ether, spirit of nitric ether. ,299. Q,. How is the aether sulphuricus made? A. By distillation from equal quantities of rectified spirit and sulphuric acid There are several precautions necessary in the making of ether: it is to be distilled from a glass retort into a double receiver, or two re. ceivers luted together ; they are to be kept cold by ice, or cold water: the distillation is to be carried on until a heavier fluid passes over, that sinks to the bottom of the ether. __ 300. Q. How is aether rectificatus made ? A. Sulphuric ether is distilled from a certain quan- tity of fused potash and water; if fourteen fluid ounces are used, twelve ounces are to be distilled over. . 301. Q. Of what use is the potash in this preparation .' A. It combines with the suphurous acid and ethereal oil, which the sulphuric acid contained ; these remain behind in the retort. „ 302. Q. How is the oleum aethereum made ? A. After the distillation of sulphuric ether, the dis- tillation is to be carried on until a black froth begins to rise, when the retort is to be immediately removed The oil is then to be separated from the fluid in the receiver, and washed with lime water, to free it of the adherent acid made whh .^^ '* '^ SP'rUUS aetheris aromaUcua A. It is made with cinnamon-bark, cardamom-seed long; pepper, ginger-root. ,md spirits of sulphuric ether! formed? " th*' sPiritus aethe»s compositus reaVoi, 'S f0mcd °f spirilS of sulPuur'c ether and ethe- f5'n?A -?{,w.is th-e s',irit,,s ae«he»s nitrici made ? rec1ifi!dyspirit1Ia,,0n fr°m a misture °f nitric acid a'"J ' l°6rQ' HoW are essential oils obtained ? diStilIationnt,al °iIS arC °btained « PHARMACY. 175 * ;ii»7. v-i. "Why are not essential oils distilled with al- kohol instead of water ? A. Because the volatile oils are volatile at the tem- perature of boiling water: but there are many of them not volatile at the temperature at which alkohol boils, consequently the alkohol would pass over weakly im- pregiated with their odour and properties. . 30*-!. Q. How would you ascertain if a volatile oil was adulterated with a fixed oil ? A. This may be ascertained by heating a small por- tion of the oil on a niece of clean paper; if there is pres-nt any fixed oil, a greasy spot will remain ; whereas, if the volatile oil be pure, the paper will be left clean. .309. Q,. What takes place when volatile oils are ex- posed to the air and light ? A. They become more viscid, alter their colour, lose pari of their odour, redden the tincture of turn- sole, and gradually assume the form of resins. 3l0. Q,. What are these changes owing to ? ' A. Tnese changes depend upon the absorption of oxygen; and hence the necessity of preserving vola- tile oils iu small phials completely full and well corked. , 311. Q.. Are volatile oils soluble in any degree iu water ? A. Yes: in the distillation of the aromatic herbs the water retains a small portion of the volatile oils in so- lution, which gives the taste and odour of the vegeta- ble. I7t> i'oi-jf».\> POISONS. ]. U. What is a poison ? A. A poison is any substance capable oi altering or destroying some or all of the functions necessaiy to life. 2. Q. What are. the principal mineral poisons? A. Arsenic ; antimony; copper ; lead ; and mer- cury. 3. Q. What are the symptoms of poisoning by ar- senic ? A. An austere taste, constriction of the pharynx and oesophagus, hiccup, nausea, and vomiting of brown or bloody matter; great anxiety ; heat and severe pain at the pit of the stomach ; black and foetid stools; small frequent, and irregular pulse ; palpitation, and diffi- cult breathing; great thirst; burning heat; delirium. convulsions, and death. 4. Q. How is a case of poisoning by arsenic to be treated ? A. Vomiting is to be immediately excited by an emetic, of zinc, or ipecacuanha, aided by the liberal use of diluents. If vomiting is not speedily induced by these means, the stomach should be washed out by Jukes's syringe. After the stomach has been thus cleared of the poison, the next indication is to counter- act the secondary symptoms. This is to be accom- pli^ ed by venesection, fomentations, emollient glys- ters, as circumstances may require. 5. Q. Is there any known antidote to the poison of arsenic ? A. Sulphuret of potash, alkaline salts, charcoal, sulphur, &c, have all been recommended, but are of doubtful efficacy. Carbonate of magnesia is perhaps •ntitled to the most credit as an antidote. 6. «J. What are the tests of arsenic ? V The following are the most important: viz. 1. The ammoniaro-nitrate of silver dropped into POISU.XS. 177 a solution of arsenic, produces a copious yellow precipitate, which in the course of a few hours turns to a dark brown. 2. The ammoniaco-sulphate of copper produces a copious green precipitate, well-known under the name of Scheele'6 green. 3. If astream of sulphuretted hydrogen be passed through a solution of arsenic, it causes a yellow precipitate. 4. If arsenic be thrown upon hot coals, it burns with a garlic smell. 5. If arsenic be surrounded with a circle of char- coal, between two copper plates, and subjected to heat for a few minutes, on separating the plates a silver-like stain will be left upon the plates. 6. Another test is the reduction of the metal, by calcining the dried suspected matter in a glass tv tube, with equal parts of charcoal and potash, " when, if arsenic be present, even in very minute quantity, it will be sublimed, in the form of a shin- ing metallic coating. 7. Take a little recent wheat starch, add to it a sufficient quantity of iodine to give it a blue co- lour; mix a little of this blue matter with water so as to have a blue-coloured liquid. If into this liquid a few drops of an aqueous solution of ar- seniousacid be put, the blue colour is immediate- ly changed to a reddish brown, and is gradually dissipated entirely. If a few drops of sulphuric acid be now added, the blue colour is again restor- ed. 8. Take a few drops of the solution of chromate of potash to the filtered solution, or to a grain of white arsenic in substance, and in half an hour a bright grass-green colour will be produced. 7. Q,. What are the apperances on dissection of a person who has been poisoned by arsenic ? A. The stomach is the principal seat of morbid ap- pearances. The villous coat of that organ is most generally found in a state of high inflammation*,- fre- quently with erosions upon its sm-f»ep. The villous l/.S I'UiftuA- coat may not unfrequently be separated. 'Ihe inte; tines are also inflamed, but in a less degree. Tin: lungs are also usually affected—they are livid, or have livid spots on their surface. The other viscera are generally in a healthy condition. 8. Q, What are the effects of tartar emetic, when taken in a large dose ? A. Severe pain in the stomach ; excessive vomiting: profuse liquid stools; face pale; great prostration of strength; pulse small and feeble; cramps in the ex- tremities. 9. &. What are the appearances on dissection? A. Inflammation of stomach and intestines. The lungs are also frequently inflamed. 10. Q,. How is poisoning by tartar emetic to be treated ? A. Vomiting, if not already present, to be excited by tickling the throat with the finger or a feather, and diluting with large draughts of mild fluids. The in- flammatoy symptoms afterwards to be subdued by Un- usual antiphlogistic means. 11. Q. What are the best antidotes to tartar eme- tic? A. Decoction of bark is the best. If this cannot be obtained, strong tea, or a decoction of nut galls, or any other astringent herb will answer. 12. Q. What are the tests of tartar emetic ? V 1. Sulphuretted hydrogen and the hydro-sul- pburets, when used in small quantities, throw down an orange-yellow precipitate; when used in larger quantities, a deep brown red. 2. Sulphuric acid produces a white precipi- tate. ' ^ 3. Lime water, water of barytes, and alkalis give a thick white precipitate. 4. Infusion of galls causes a copious white pre- cipitate, and is the most delicate test of all 5. When heated red hot with the black flux «i Pr1eParat-i°ns of antimony are reduced to the metallic state. 13. Q,. What is the preparation of copper which i« most usually poisonous ? ' '1S POIcSOA-j. l?ii A. Verdegris, or the sub-acetate of copper. 14. Q,. What are the symptoms of poisoning by cop- per? A. An acrid, styptic, coppery taste in the mouth; parched and dry tongue; a sense of strangulation in the throat, coppery eructations, constant spitting, nau: sea, copious vomitings, or vain efforts to vomit, shoot- ing pains in the stomach, which are often very severe; horrible gripings; frequent alvine evacuations, some- times bloody and blackish, with tenesmus and debility; the abdomen inflated and painful; the pulse small, ir- regular, tight, and frequent; syncope, heat of skin, ar- dent thirst, difficulty of breathing, anxiety about the praecordia, cold sweats, scanty urine, violent headach, vertigo, faintness, weakness in the limbs, cramps of the legs, and convulsions. 15. Q,. What are the appearances on dissection ? A. The stomach and intestinal canal are found in flamed, and sometimes gangrenous. 16. Q. How is poisoning by copper to be treated ? A. For the purpose of expelling the poison, vomit- ing is to be excited by copious draughts of milk and water. After this inflammatory symptoms are to be subdued by the usual means, and nervous symptoms by opium and antispasmodics. 17. Q,. What is the antidote to copper? A. Whites of eggs mixed up with water, which must be taken freely. 18. Q. What are the tests of verdegris? A. 1. Mix the verdegris with charcoal, and heat it to redness in a crucible, and metallic copper will be formed. 2. Sulphuretted hydrogen precipitates a black sulphuret of copper. 3. Ammonia gives a blue precipitate, but if add- L- ed in excess, the precipitate re-dissolves, and the liquor is of a beautiful blue colour. 4. A clean plate of iron immersed in the solu- tion, becomes covered in a few hours with a por- tion of the copper, and the blue colour of the so- lution grows first green, and then turns to red. ;^(j i'OlSOAs. 19. Q. What are the symptoms of poisoning by lead ? . . .. , . • A. When taken in large quantities, a sweetish a^tnn- «eut, constriction of the throat, pain in the region of the stomach, obstinate, and often bloody vomitings, Hiccup, convulsions, and death.—When taken in small quantities and long continued doses, it causes colica pictonuni and paralysis. SO. Q. What are thecjiftrfo/cs tolead ? A. Sulphate of soda and sulphate of magnesia. 21. Q. Whpt is the treatment proper for cases of poi;oning by lead ? A. A weak solution of Glauber's or Epsom salts to be drank very freely for the purpose of vomiting and purging, as well as to neutralize the poison.—In- flammatory symptoms to be afterwards subdued in the usual manner. 22. Q. What are the chemical tests of lead ? A. 1. All the preparations of lead are easily reduced to the metallic state by calcination with charcoal. 2. The acetate of lead, dissolved in water, is pre- cipitated White by sulphuric acid. 3. By ohromate of potash and chromic acid, it is precipitated of a canary-yellow colour. 4. By sulphuretted hydrogen and the hydro- ^nlphurets, a black precipitate. , 5. By sulphate of soda, a white precipitate. ' 6. Gallic acid gi'vs a yel!*!wi;h-vvbitc' precipi- tate. 23. Q. What preparation of mercury is generally used as a poison ? A. The muriate of mercury, or corrosive sublimate 24 Q,. What are the symptoms of poisoning by cor- rosive-stab! imate ? A. An acrid, astringent, metallic taste in the motif!: , stricture a r.d burning in the throat ; anxiety and rend- ing pains inthe stomach and intestines; nausea and vomiting, which is somesimes bloody; diarrhoea, • ■■inetimci dysentery; pulse small, hard, and fre- li-irtt: fainting: great pro^'ru'mi-! of strength; difli PoISOAp. I hi ..uity oi breathing; cold sweats; cramps iu the limbs; insensibility ; convulsions, and death. 25. Q,. What are the appearances on dissection? A. Inflammation of the stomach- and intestine.-. sometimes ending in gangrene. 26. $ What is the a -uidole to corrosive sublimate? A. Albumen or the whiles of eggs.—Lately wheat Soar has been recommended. 27. Q." What is the treatment in cases of poisoning by corrosive sublimate ? A. The whites of eggs to be mixed with water, and one given every two or three minutes to promote vo- miting as well as to. decompose the poison. Milk, sugar and water, or water to be taken liberally at: the same time. Symptoms of inflammation to be ovcrcomr by venesection, &c. 28. Q. Whet are the chemical tests of eorrosive sublimate ? A. 1- By mixing corrosive sublimate with char- coal and water, and subjecting it to heat in a close vessel, metallic mercury is'obtained. 2. By exposing it to heat without any admixture in a glass tube, it will be sublimed, and found lining the top of the tube in the form of a white shining crust. S. By ammonia, a white precipitate is produced. 4. Carbonate of potash causes a precipitate like brick dust. 5. Caustic potash produces a yellow precipi- tate. 6. Lime water produces an orange-eoloured precipitate 7. Nitrate of silver occasions a white curdy precif-'iafc. 29. Q. What are the symptoms of poisoning by <>pium ? A. Stupor, numbness, heaviness in the head, pupil of the eye dilated, sometimes furious delirium, pain, convulsions of different parts of the body, or palsy of the limbs. The pulse is variable, but at first generally strong and full : the breathing is quick. *and thrro u s-reat nn*":ie<>' '*°™a- death. 18*