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THE BOOK OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE
• <r
        A  CYCLOPEDIA
            OF SIX THOUSAND
PRACTICAL  RECEIPTS,
collateral information
   ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND TRADES,

               INCLUDING

      Jflc&trittf, fJfjarmacg, anfo ^Domestic (Sconomg.
                                  j
                                  3
             DESIGNED AS A COMPENDIOUS
         BOOK OF REFERENCE
FOR THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN, AMATEUR, AND HEADS
              OF FAMILIES.

       BY ARNOLD JAMES COOLEY,
            PRACTICAL CHEMIST.

     ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
            NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY.
               1851. 
T
C774c
\ 
PUBLISHERS*    PREFACE.
     The " Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts" being now completed, it is pre per to
offer to the reader a few preliminary remarks, concerning the nature and contents of
the work to  which his attention is directed.  From the  Author's  Preface to the
second edition of his  Cyclopaedia, recently  issued in London,—from which  this
volume has been reprinted,—we  extract the ensuing paragraphs, comprising nearly
the whole of  his original Preface.
     " The design of this work is to present an accurate and compendious collection
of formulas and processes, with  a variety of information  suitable to the general
reader, and practical purposes.
     " In the  performance of the laborious task of compilation, the principal aim has
been, to render this work as extensively useful  as possible, as well as a correct,
comprehensive, and conveniently arranged manual of reference on  the  subjects on
which it treats.  It will be found to contain directions  for the preparation of several
thousand articles of interest  and utility, together with their  properties, uses,  and
doses, and  the means of ascertaining their purity, and detecting their presence in
other compounds.  In most cases, the derivations of the  names, and a short histori-
cal notice of  the  more important  substances  have been appended; and the various
scientific and technical terms that occur have been generally defined, for the purpose
of rendering the work as self-explanatory as possible.  As the names of substances,
especially those employed in  chemistry, pharmacy, and medicine, have undergone
repeated  alterations, and even  at the present day frequently vary as applied by dif-
ferent individuals, the old and new names, and the usual synonymes, English, Latin
and Continental, have  been introduced, for the purpose of preventing mistakes, and
facilitating reference to more elaborate works.  A general,  rather than a scientific
arrangement has been adopted, because the object of the work is popular and univer-
sal ; and though useful to men of science, it is more especially addressed to practical
persons and the public at large.  Theoretical  reasonings  have been avoided, except
n some instances, where a slight knowledge of scientific principles  seemed neces-
sary to the  proper application of practical detail.  The whole book will form a com-
pendious Dictionary of Reference for the manufacturer, tradesman, and amateur, as
well as the heads of  families; and there are few persons who will not find, on
looking over its pages, some article that will interest them.
     " The sources from which the materials of the present work have been derived,
render it  deserving of the utmost confidence.  The best  and latest authorities have
been invariably resorted to,  and innumerable volumes, both British and Continental,
have been consulted and compared.   A large portion of the  work has been derived
from the  personal experience of the Editor, and the processes of various laboratories 
6
PREFACE.
and manufactories, many of which he can highly recommend, from having inspected
their application  on an extensive scale.   The  indiscriminate  adoption of  matter,
without  examination, has  been uniformly avoided; and in  no instance has any
process been admitted, unless it rested upon  some  well-known  fact of science, or
came recommended on good authority.  In the majority of cases, the sources of in-
formation  have been  indicated, for <he purpose of  enabling the  reader to  form a
proper estimation of their  value.  Wherever  this is not the case,  in reference to
borrowed formula? or facts, the omission has arisen  from the impossibility of accu-
rately determining to whom the merit is due.   The  individual names that appear in
the work, are those of the persons to whom the immediately attached information or
formulae are usually attributed, or on whose recommendation or authority they have
been taken.
    " It has been endeavored to avoid confusion of the medicinal weights and meas-
ures, with those commonly used in trade  and commerce.   For this  purpose, it was
deemed advisable to employ the usual signs or characters to indicate those denomi-
nations of either,  that  do not correspond in value.  The  quantities would have been
gladly brought to one uniform standard, had such an  attempt been practicable.   The
method adopted in this particular, will be found both  simple and accurate.
    " The nature of a condensed alphabetical arrangement not permitting numerous
individual articles to come  under distinct heads, the casual reader may often be led
to suppose this work  most  deficient, where in reality it is most copious.  Thus, on
searching for  Hydrocyanic Acid under H, or Picric Acid under P,  such an article
will not be found: but on reference to the heads Prussic  Acid, and Carbazotic Acid,
other names for those  articles, much  valuable  matter on those subjects  will be  met
with.   In like manner, a vast number of pharmaceutical  preparations, as Pills, Lo-
tions, Ointments, &c, will be found mentioned in the remarks that follow the notice
of their principal ingredients.  Many extensive subjects  are also necessarily dis-
persed under  several  distinct heads.  Thus,  information  on  the manufacture of
liqueurs will be  found under the  heads, Cordials, Cremes, Balms, Oils, Anisette de
Bordeaux, Sighs of Love, Parfait Amour, Noyeau,  Ratafia, &c.  ; on  perfumery,
under the heads, Eaux,  Esprits, Essences, Extracts, Pommades,  Poudres,  &c.; on
dyeing, under the  heads, Calico-printing,  Dyeing,  Archil, Annotto; Blue, Brown,
Black, and other Dyes;  Alumina, Tin, Mordants, Chloride of Tin, Brazil-wood, and
Indigo.   By a little attention, such divisions may be referred to,  and readily com-
pared.   Sufficient directions are appended  to the various processes, to enable even
those  who are unacquainted with  chemical  manipulations,  to  apply them  with
success."
    The  work has been reprinted exactly from the last  London edition, with one
exception, which must be stated.  After the volume was begun, it  was discovered
that there was a large  number of references to articles which are not comprised in
the miscellany.  It appears that the  compilation was entered upon without any dis-
tinct survey of the multifanous  materials appertaining  to  such a  Cyclopedia*  and
therefore, constant directions were superadded to the same or analogous substance.
or preparations, which it was designed should be embodied  in subsequent portions
of the alphabetic classification.   Early, however, in the  progress of the volume  it
must have been ascertained  that, by following out that unrestricted introduction'of
subjects, the Cyclopaedia would  have  been a book, «  de omnibus rebus, et quibusdam 
PREFACE
7
ahis;" and whether it could  have been  completed to the word  Finis, during the
life-time of the Author, is very problematical.  Those supernumerary explanations,
consequently, were omitted.   Hence it became necessary to subject  the book to  a
close  examination,  that all those fictitious references might be  excluded, and the
reader thus be saved the trouble of turning over the volume for expected information,
which the work does not contain in the  form specified, but which is really included
in the primary articles.   Among the continual variety of those irrelevant references,
it is possible  that a few of them may have been unwittingly overlooked; otherwise,
they have been erased ; and thus the reader has been  saved indefinite perplexity, in
not obtaining, as might be  supposed, the  requisite  intelligence  upon the subject
which he  was investigating.
    The  Publishers, therefore, now  present to the  mistresses and  managers of
domestic economy,  and  to the various classes of experimental artisans, and men of
business, both operatives  and traders, a  volume which is universally admitted to be
very superior to every  preceding collection of receipts, for  general utility.   The
whole series  is  the result of  actual scientific tests, and presented in a very lucid
manner; combining the  utmost economy and utility, with elegance and easiness of
attaining the  object desired.
    Moreover, while it constitutes the best manual that exists, for family use, for the
culinary and  the other departments of  household life, the " Cyclopaedia of Practical
Receipts" will be of peculiar advantage to the dairyman and the farmer; and  for all
the manufacturers and mechanics to whomUre's Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences
is a hand-book, Cooley's  " Practical Receipts" is  an essential accompaniment, as
developing the minute, familiar processes  inculcated in that large and profound de-
velopment of modern discovery and science.
    New York, November 19, 1845 
ABBREVIATIONS  AND  SIGNS
           USED IN THIS WORK.
Ale. Alchemical.
Am. H. American Hospital.
Ant. Antidote.
Arab. Arabic.
Aust. Ph. Austrian Pharmacopeia.
Bat. Ph. Batavian      do.
Co. Compound.
Comp.   Do.
Comp.  Composition.
Dan. Danish.
Dan. Ph. Danish Pharmacopoeia.
Def. Definition.
Der. Derivation.
Dim. Diminutive.
Dnt. Dutch.
E. H. Royal Edinburgh Hospital.
Eq.  Equivalent
Equiv.  Do.
Estim.  Estimation.
Exter. Extermination.
Fr. French.
F. H. French Hospital.
Fr. H.       Do.
For. H. Foreign Hospital.
Ger. H. German  do.
Ger. German.
Guy's H. Guy's Hospital.
Hist. History.
Hos. F. Hospital Formulary.
Ing. Ingredients.
It.  ItaI. Italian.
Ital. H. Italian Hospital.
Linn. Linnaeus
M.  Mix.
Maj. Majendie's Forcaulary.
No. Number.
O. Old Pharmacopoeia.
06s. Obsolete.
  C. An imperial gallon.
  Cong.    Do.
  gall.     Do.
  qt An imperial quart
  O. An imperial pint.
  pt      Do.
  cwt A hundred-weight of 112 lbs. avoirdupois.
  qr. A quarter of a  hundred-weight, of 28 lbs.
avoirdupois.
  lb. When preceded by Arabic figures, a pound,
Avoirdupois, of 7000 grains.
  lb. When  followed  by  Roman numerals,  a
pound, Troy, of 5600 grains.
  P. C. Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica.
  P. Cod. Paris Codex,  or  French Pharmaco-
poeia.
  P. D.  Dublin Pharmacopoeia
  P. E.  Edinburgh  do.
  P. L. London     do.
  P. U. S. United States do.
  p. ee. Equal parts.
  Pf. Proof.
  Port.  Portuguese.
  pp. Prepared.
  Prep. Preparation.
  Pres.  Preservation.
  Proc.  Process.
  Prod. Product.
  Prop. Properties.
  Prus. Ph. Prussian Pharmacopoeia.
  Pur. Purity.
  Purif.  Purification.
  q. p. As much as you please.
  q. s. As much as sufficient.
  R. Recipe, take
  Rest.  Restoration.
  Rus. Ph. Russian Pharmacopoeia.
  S. A. According to art.
  Sour.  Sources.
  Sp. Span. Spanish.
  Span. Ph. Spanish Pharmacopoeia.
  sp. Spirit.
  ■s. One-half.
  St. B. H. St. Bartholomew's Hospital.
  St. Geo. H. Saint George's    do.
  S. V. Spirit of wine.
  S. V. R. Rectified spirit of wine.
  Swed.  Swedish.
  Swed. Ph.  Swedish Pharmacopoeia.
  Syn. Synonymes.
  U. C. H. University College Hospital.
  % A Troy ounce, of 480 grains.
  f£ A fluid ounce, or l-20th of an imperial pint
  oz. An avoirdupois ounce, of 437 ^ grains.
  dr. A drachm, or the l-8th of an ounce.
  3 A Troy drachm.
  dwt. A pennyweight, or 24 grs.
  f3 A fluid drachm, or the l-8th of a  fluid
ounce.
  3 A scruple, or 20 grains.
  m A minim, or drop, of 60 to the fluid drachm.
  Drop Wherever this word occurs, a minim is
intended.
  gr. grs.  A grain, or grains Troy. 
CYCLOPEDIA
OF
PRACTICAL    RECEIPTS.
ABO
ABR
   ABERNETHY MEDICINES.  These origi-
 nally consisted of a three-grain mercurial pill, ad-
 ministered over-night, followed by an  aromatized
 black draught in the morning.  Finding, however,
 that when frequently taken they produced saliva-
 tion, which proved injurious to their sale, the pro-
 prietor lessened the quantity of blue pill, and added
 a proportionate weight  of compound  extract  of
 colocynth.  Two grains of the former, and three
 grains of the  latter, are the quantities generally
 adopted for an adult, followed by  about an ounce
 of the draught, as above mentioned.   When this
 is not agreeable, a dose  of castor oil, or any mild
 purgative medicine that the patient may fancy,
 will prove equally efficacious.
   ABIETIC  ACID.  M.  Baup  has  given this
 name to an acid  principle which he found in the
 resin of the pinus abies.   Caillot  has  applied  the
 same name to a resinous acid which he discovered
 in Strasburg turpentine and common frankincense.
 Berzelius  regards it as a mixture of the resins al-
 pha and beta of the above turpentine.
  Prep.  Digest the resin of the pinus abies, first
in weak and afterwards in strong alcohol, mix the
two liquors, filter and evaporate ; dissolve the resi-
duum in strong alcohol, filter and again evaporate.
It may be further puiified by resolution, forming
a salt of copper by adding a solution of verdigris,
and afterwards decomposing it, by the addition of
hydrochloric acid.
  Remarks. In its purest state it crystallizes  in
square plates, dissolves in alcohol, and forms salts
with the  alkalis.  It is probably a  mixture of the
pinic and sylvic acids.
  ABIETINA.   Syn.  Abietin,  Abietine.   A
crystallizable resin found in Strasburg turpentine.
(Caillot.)   Berzelius says it is the resin gamma of
the same  turpentine. (Jour, de Pharm. xvi. 436.)
  ABORTION.   The expulsion  of the human
foetus, after the sixth week, and before the sixth
month of pregnancy.  In its most extended sense,
the term  has  been applied synonymously with
miscarriage.  The latter term, however, has been
generally  restricted  to the first  six weeks after
                     2
 conception.   The expulsion of the .foetus after tha
 sixth but before the ninth  month, is termed pre-
 mature labor.
   Causes. Nervous irritability, plethora, advanced
 age,  scurvy, syphilitic,  scrofulous, or mercurial
 taints, malformation of spine or pelvis, luxurious
 and indolent habits of living, excessive indulgence
 of the passions, extreme  terror, anger, joy, &c.;
 falls, blows, violent exercise, vomiting, coughing,
 and rough purgatives; hot  baths, stimulating li-
 quors, and other excitants generally.
   Treat.  I. Prevention.  Avoid all  the  above-
 mentioned exciting causes, and immediately  on
 the  appearance of any suspicious symptoms seek
 a recumbent posture, and repose in every shape
 practicable.   A  dose  of castor oil,  confection of
 senna, or other mild aperient should be taken,  and
 should there be much haemorrhage, injections of
 cold water, or cold infusion of black tea, must be
 had recourse to.   A cold hipbath, or sponging the
 lower part of the body with water and vinegar,
 often proves successful.  Should  the  symptoms
 continue unabated,  medical assistance should be
 sought.
   It. Recovery.  Should the preceding measures
 prove ineffectual, and no violent symptoms super-
 vene,  the remaining  treatment may  consist in
 continuing the recumbent  posture, keeping  the
 bowels regular, taking a light nutritious diet, and
 avoiding exposure to draughts of cold  air.  This
 treatment may be  gradually abandoned by  the
 patient for her usual  course of life, in proportion
 as she feels herself able to do so.   In many cases,
 however, the only treatment required throughout,
 is simply the adoption for a few days of the re-
 cumbent posture, gentle laxatives, and a light nu-
 tritious diet.   Various formulae for medicines suit-
 able to the above will be found in the body of this
 work.
  ABRACADABRA.  A word supposed by  the
 Cabalists, and by other weak-minded and  super-
stitious persons, to possess great virtue in prevent-
ing and  curing  fevers, especially intermittents,
 (ague,) of which the kind called semi-tertian was 
ABS
10
ABS
believed to be most easily removed by its incanta-
tion.  The formula has been preserved by Serenus
Samonicus, and  its  application as an amulet may
be seen described in Defoe's ' HiRtory of the Plague
in London.'  A paper with the Abracadabra writ-
ten on it, and worn  round the neck, was thought
to propitiate a  Syrian  deity of that  name.  The
words Abrabax, Abrasax, Abraxas,  and abraca-
dabra, are doubtless  closely connected together in
their  origin  and import,  but tracing  them  back
into the  confusion and superstition of  the  past,
would occupy more space than can be devoted to
the subject  here, and  be of too  theoretical  and
speculative a character for a practical work.
      Formula from Serenus Samonicus.
                 ABRACADABRA.
                 ABRACADABR
                  ABRACAUAB
                   ABRACADA
                    ABRACAU
                    ABRACA
                    ABRAC
                     ABRA
                      ABR
                      AB
                      A
   ABRASION. A superficial injury of the skin,
resulting from the partial removal of the cuticle
by friction.
   Treat.  When the injured surface is small, and
unexposed,  no  application  is  generally required,
but when the  reverse is  the case, it is  proper to
protect the unsound  part from dirt and further in-
jury, by  applying a piece of lint or soft  linen rag,
covered with spermaceti or some other simple un-
guent ;  a piece of strapping, or bandage of any
sort, may then  be placed over it, to keep it  on.
In most cases, however, a simple  piece of strap-
ping, or sticking-plaster, will be found  quite suf-
ficient.
   ABSCESS.   A tumor or swelling in  the mem-
branous  or  fleshy  parts of  the  body, resulting
from inflammatory  action, and  the consequent
formation of purulent matter.
   Symp.  I. Acute Abscess.  Active inflamma-
tion rapidly terminating in the production of  pus
or matter and the  increase  of the tumor.   The
latter may  be  felt  fluctuating within the part, if
near the surface ;  an uneasy sensation  of weight
follows, the  swelling assumes a conical shape, and
what is  popularly known as a head or point;  the
skin reddens, and gradually becomes thinner, until
at last  it breaks, and the imprisoned matter es-
capes.  In favorable cases, healthy action follows,
the injury is repaired,  and  the wound heals.  In
some cases instead of the  tumor bursting,  the
whole of the  matter is absorbed  into the blood,
and the swelling disappears, whence sometimes
disagreeable consequences have resulted, but as
frequently without  any  perceptible  derangement
of the general health.
   II. Chronic Abscess.  This generally occurs in
scrofulous constitutions, and is usually confined to
the lymphatic  glands and  cellular  tissue.   The
symptoms up to the period*of the discharge of the
matter  are  of a similar  kind to those just  de-
scribed, but with a much less degree of inflamma-
tion. At this point, however, the  latter increases,
fever is excited, and the discharge continues, pro-
ducing  debility  and sometimes fatal results.  In
favorable cases, the healing and  reparative pro-
cesses are similar to those of the acute variety,
but much more tedious, the curative action often
barely keeping pace with  the injurious effeets of
the ulcer, even in its improving condition.
   Treat. Cooling  applications, friction, and con-
tinued gentle  pressure may be tried in the  early
stages, and, if ineffectual, suppuration should then
be  promoted  by warm poultices  and fomenta-
tions, accompanied  by  a liberal diet until the
rupture of the tumor; when this takes place, the
ulcer must be regularly dressed twice a day with
simple  ointment,  and  kept perfectly  clean;  a
light  nutritious diet  should now be adopted, and
the bowels kept gently open with mild aperients.
When the abscess is i'tuate in the head, chest,
joints, near the eye, or other part where its pres-
ence  may be productive  of serious  injury from
pressure or diffusion, it  should  be opened  with a
lancet as soon as mature, but this operation had
better be performed by  a  surgeon.  Chronic ab-
scesses  require  to be opened  earlier than acute
ones, but in other respects their treatment is sim-
ilar.
  ABSINTHIC ACID.  A peculiar acid found
by Braconnot  in the artemisia absinthium, or com-
mon  wormwood, where it exists  in combination
with potash.
  Prep. Add a solution of  acetate of lead to a
watery  infusion of common wormwood, wash the
precipitate in cold  distilled water, then  suspend it
in water  contained in a tall vessel of glass, and
pass sulphureted hydrogen gas  through the liquor,
until all the lead is precipitated; lastly, decant the
clear liquid and evaporate.
  Prop. Sour, uncrystallizable, deliquescent, solid,
forming salts  with the  bases,  called absinthates.
These may be procured by double decomposition
from a mixture of absinthate of ammonia, and a
solution  of the  metallic oxides.   Some of these
salts are crystallizable.
   Remarks. It  has lately been asserted that this
acid is similar to the succinic, if it be not actually
the same.
   ABSINTHINE.   Syn. Absinthin, Absinthi-
na, Absintiiia.  The proximate bitter principle of
the  artemisia  absinthium,  or common wormwood,
discovered by  Caventou  in the watery infusion of
the tops and flowers, and called by him the " pure
bitter principle."
   Prep. Precipitate an infusion of wormwood with
another of acetate of lead, pass sulphureted hy-
drogen gas through the filtered liquor, until the
excess  of lead  is  thrown  down,  then filter and
evaporate to  dryness;  digest  the residuum in a
mixture of alcohol and ether, and abandon the
solution to spontaneous  evaporation.   Collect the
ramified  brown product, redissolve  it in  alcohol,
treat it with charcoal, filter and again evaporate,
and  repeat this operation until the absinthine is
rendered quite white.
   Prop., Uses, $c. When quite pure, white, semi-
crystalline, and very soluble in alcohol.  Its phy-
siological effects, as far as known,  are similar to
the extract of wormwood.   It  flavors the milk
and flesh of animals in  the same, way as the plant
from which it is procured.   It has been proposed 
ABS
11
ACE
 as a  remedy for dyspepsia, and  as a substitute
 for  quinine  in  intermittents.   Dose.  Unascer-
 tained.
   ABSORBENT,  ALKALINE.   Prep. Mix 4
 oz. of lime water with 1 oz. each of  liquor of po-
 tassa and sirup of orange peel.   Dose. One table-
 spoonful in a cup of water or broth, in dyspepsia
 and heartburn.
   ABSORBENT,  AROMATIC VOLATILE.
 Prep. I. Carbonate of ammonia 2 dr., pure water
 5 oz., sirup of orange peel 1 oz.,  mix, for a six-
 ounce mixture.
   II.  Sal  volatile 1 oz., water 4 oz., orange sirup
 1 oz., mix, and  keep it  in a well-corked bottle.
 Dose. As last.
   Remarks.  This preparation is much esteemed
 as a mild antacid by persons laboring under  dys-
 pepsia, heartburn, or acidity of the stomach, arising
 from excessive indulgence in spirituous or ferment-
 ed liquors.  It also possesses considerable stimula-
 ting properties, and will partially remove the fit
 of drunkenness.
   ABSORBENTS (in Chemistry.)  Substances
 that possess the property of withdrawing moisture
 from the atmosphere  that surrounds  them.  Ab-
 sorbents are  distinguished from deliquescent salts.
 The latter  attract moisture and dissolve  therein.
 while the former merely absorb or suck it up into
 their pores, in the  same  way  as  a  sponge does
 water.
   Process  of ascertaining the  absorbent power
 of different substances.  Thoroughly dry the  ar-
 ticle by the suitable application of heat, and trans-
 fer it, while  still hot,  into a clean  dry vial  fur-
 nished with a perfectly tight ground-glass  stopper.
 When quite cold, place the substance  in  a pre-
 pared large wide-mouthed glass bottle, which must
 then be  closed, and kept so for some time.  A
 delicate  hygrometer being then introduced,  will
 indicate  on its scale the degree of  dryness of the
 enclosed air.  The atmosphere in the large bottle
 should be rendered  as damp as possible, by sus-
 pending moistened rag or filte-ing paper within it,
 previously to the introduction ol the  substance to
 be examined.
   Remarks. Experiments  of this nature are only
 relatively correct, and must be performed under
 exactly similar circumstances, to furnish even cor-
 rect comparative  results.   In the  examination of
 soils, for instance, not only must the heat employed
 be the same,  but the  duration of  the drying, as
 well as the method of saturating  the air in  the
 large bottle, must also  be the  same; in fact, the
 whole process  in  each  case must be as similar as
 careful manipulation can possibly make them.
   ABSORBENTS  (in Pharmacy.)   Substances
that remove acidity in  the stomach and bowels.
  List. Magnesia and carbonate of magnesia, pre-
pared chalk, and  the carbonates and  bicarbonates
of soda, potassa, and ammonia, are the principal
medicines of this class.  The first three are called
earthy, and the others alkaline absorbents.
  Prop., fyc.   They neutralize  acidity, and fre-
quently possess the  power of stopping diarrhoea,
 (especially  chalk,) and relieving  heartburn and
dyspepsia, particularly  when the latter depends
on  the  presence  of acidity in the  prima? via?.
Dose.  One  teaspoonful of either of the powders
(except the last) in a cup of water, forms an ex-
 cellent antacid draught.  The dose of ammonia
 is 10 to 15 grains.
   Remarks.  Prepared chalk  is most  suitable  to
 diarrhoea; potush, soda, or magnesia, to heartburn
 and dyspepsia;  and ammonia, when  nervous  oi
 hysterical affections  are present.   The latter, be-
 sides being absorbent, is stimulant and diaphoretic,
 and, in large doses, emetic.
   ABSORPTION (in Agriculture.) The pow-
 er possessed  by soils of absorbing moisture.
   Remarks.  The more a soil is  divided by labor
 and vegetation, the greater is its absorbent power,
 and consequently its  fertility.  The* latter chiefly
 depends on its capacity for imbibing moisture, and
 may be illustrated by reference to recent and dis-
 integrated lava. (Leslie.) The finely divided state,
 most penetrable by the delicate  fibres of plants,
 appears to derive its superior power of acting on
 atmospheric  vapor from  the augmentation of its
 Burface and the multiplication of its points of con-
 tact.  (Ure.)   This method  of increasing the fer-
 tility of a soil is well  known to scientific  farmers,
 and seldom neglected by them.  (Loudon.)  The
 method of ascertaining the absorbent power of soils,
 is described   under absorbent in chemistry,  to
 which the reader is referred.  That  soil  must be
 regarded  as the most fertile, which possesses this
 power in  the greatest degree.  Garden-mould has
 the  highest  absorbent power of any mineral sub-
 stance. (Leslie.)
   ACCIDENTS.  Syn. Casualties.   The read-
 er is referred to the separate articles Drowning,
 Fires, &c. &c.,  for the best means of  either pre-
 venting or meeting accidents.  The following re-
 marks are, however, so valuable, that they deserve
 general attention, being equally applicable to every
 description of casualty and misfortune.
   " There is no situation or condition  in human
 life that is not liable to a great variety of serious
 accidents, against which it is not  always possible
 to guard by the greatest care and foresight.  It is
 of the utmost importance, therefore, to  remember
 that in every accident, one  of the greatest  and
 most powerful assistants in remedying it, is pres-
 ence of mind.  For want of  this desirable  self-
 possession, many a person has lost his life, and the
 mischiefs  arising from unforeseen accidents have
 become irretrievable.  If the mind be overwhelmed
 by fear, or astounded  by alarm, it is utterly impos-
 sible that  deliberate  measures can be taken to
 secure either our own safety  or the safety of those
 who happen to be about us, and in the same pre-
 dicament  with ourselves.   We repeat,  therefore,
 that it is a proof of  the truest wisdom to cultivate,
 and endeavor to preserve as much as possible, in
 all extraordinary and  unexpected situations, either
 of body or mind, or both, that chief requisite in
 every accident, for acting with coolness, judgment,
 and effect—presence of mind."
  ACERIC   ACID.   Syn.  Maple  Acid.    An
 acid discovered by Scherer in the milky sap of the
 acer campestre or common maple  tree, where it
 exists in combination with lime.
  Prep. Place the juice of the maple in a warm
situation for about a fortnight, that it may ferment
and lose its acidity ; then filter and add a solution
of acetate of  lead to the clear liquor, separate the
precipitate on  a filter,  and wash it with very cold
water.   Then pour a large quantity of boiling wa- 
ACE
12
ACE
ter on the filter, and receive it in glass vessels.
On cooling, brilliant crystals of acerate of lead will
be deposited.   Alter washing the latter with cold
water, reduce them to fine powder and suspend it
in hot water in a tall glass jar, then  pass sulphu-
reted hydrogen  gas through the  liquid, until  all
the lead is thrown down; filter, boil  for a few
minutes  to expel  the  adhering  sulphurous gfis,
then gently evaporate and crystallize.
   Prop.  These  resemble the malic  acid.  With
the bases it forms salts called acerates.
   Remarks. Frbm the recent researches of Gme-
lin and others, it appears probable that the aceric
and malic acids  are the same, and consequently
their salts must be  also similar.
   ACETAL.    Syn.  Oxygen Ether.   A  fluid
discovered by Dobeireiner, and by him called oxy-
gen ether.
   Prep.  Pour alcohol, to the depth of one inch,
into a tall wide-mouthed glass bottle, and suspend
three or four watch-glasses or capsules containing
platinum powder, to the depth of two lines,  close
to the surface of the spirit.   Moisten the powder
with water, and place  the apparatus in a warm
situation for some months.  Acetal, aldehyde, and
acetic acid and ether will be formed.   The  liquor
must  be  then  neutralized by adding  chalk, and
carefully distilled.  The  product treated with pow-
dered chloride of calcium, until the latter  is no
longer moistened, decanted,  and redistilled,  yields
pure acetal, as soon as  the  boiling point reaches
202° Fahr. (Liebig.)
   Prop. Liquid,  colorless, resembles alcohol, smells
somewhat like the Hungary wines ; boils at 204°
F.; miscib'e with  alcohol; decomposed by strong
alkalis and acids.  Probably a compound of  alde-
hyde and oxide of ethule.  (Liebig.)
   ACETATE.   Syn.  Acetas (Lat.);  Acetate
(Fr.) ; Essigsaure (Germ.)   A salt formed by the
union of the acetic acid with an alkali, earth, or
metallic oxide.
   Prop.  The majority  of the acetates are very
soluble  in water,  and  by destructive  distillation
either yield acetone and water, or  acetone and
acetic acid.  The aqueous solutions of the alkaline
acetates  turn  mouldy   and  are  decomposed  by
keeping.  Care\ should therefore be taken to dis-
solve no more  at once than is wanted for imme-
diate use.
   Prep.  Most of the  acetates may be formed by
direct solution of the hydrate or oxide of the base
in the diluted acid, or by double decomposition.
   Use.  Some  of the acetates are employed in
medicine, and others are used extensively in the
arts.
   Tests. The acetates  are  characterized by the
following properties, by which they may be easily
detected:—1. The fumes of acetic acid evolved on
the addition of sulphuric acid. 2. Striking a deep
red when added  to solutions  of the sesqui-salts of
iron.  3. The  white lamellar and  pearly precipi-
tates they produce  with the nitrates  of mercury
and silver. 4. The production of acetone by expo-
sure to a dull red heat in close vessels.
   ACETIC ACID.  Syn. Acetous Acid.   Ace-
tylic  Acid.  Glacial acetic  Acid.  Radical
Vinegar. Concentrated Vinegar.   Pure pyro-
ligneous  Acid.   Acidum aceticum,  P. L.  1836.
Acidum  aceticum  fortius,  P. L. 1824.  Acidum
acetosum, P. L. 1788.   Acid acetique(Fr.) El-
                 Acido acetico  (Ital.)   Azyh'
(Ger.)
SIGSAURE l.ixr,.,----------------  y- -—'     .J
      (Dut)  The pure sour principle contameu
    iegar, where it exists  :"
    ly in combination wit!
ing matter, and extractive.
in vinegar, where it  exists  in  a dilute state,  an<
usually in combination with mucilage, sugar, color
  r matter, and extractive.
  'Hist  Acetic acid, in the  shape of vinegar, ap-
pears to  have been  known even to remote  anti-
quity   It is mentioned by  Moses, nearly  1500
years before the birth of Christ, (Numb. vi. 3,) and
was extensively used by the Israelites, as well as
by  the Greeks and Romans.   Hippocrates em-
ployed it  medicinally,  and,  according  to  Livy,
Hannibal  the Carthaginian  general is fabled to
have softened the  rocks of  the Alps by fire  and
vinegar.   Geber purified common vinegar by dis-
tillation, and Stahl, at the commencement of the
eighteenth century,  obtained concentrated acetic
acid by decomposing the acetates  by oil of vitriol.
At the present day acetic acid or vinegar is em-
ployed either as  an antiseptic, a condiment, or a
medicine, in every portion of the civilized world.
  Sources.  It is found ready formed in several
products of  the vegetable kingdom, and is  gene-
rated by the fermentation of saccharine fluids, and
the destructive distillation of wood, and other vege-
table  matter.  By the latter process it is procured
in combination with empyreumatic  matter.   (See
Pyroligneous Acid.)  Vauquelin  found the ace-
tates  of potash and lime in elm sap, and Morin
detected acetate of ammonia  in the juice  of the
areca catechu.   Gmelin says acetic acid has been
found in  some mineral waters, and Geiger  states
the same respecting the acetate of  potassa.   The
sambucus nigra, the  rhus typhinus, and the phoe-
nix dactalifera  contain  a large quantity of vine-
gar.
   Var. The acetic acid of commerce is obtained
from vinegar, of  which there  exist four varieties,
usually named after the  materials from which £hey
are procured,  viz.:  1,  Malt  Vinegar;  2,  Wine
Vinegar; 3, Sugar Vinegar; 4, Wood Vinegar.
(See Vinegar.)  The first three are formed by the
acetous fermentation, which converts  the alcohol
of the wine, beer, or fermented sugar into acetic
acid,  by the absorption  of oxygen ; the latter, by
the destructive distillation of wood in  iron retorts.
By a proper process of purification, each of them
may be made to yield  an equally pure  and con-
centrated acid.   (See Acetification.)
   Prep.  In the present  article I shall confine my-
Belf to the pure acetic acid of  the chemist, reserv-
ing the consideration of vinegar and pyroligneous
acid for separate articles.
   There are three different processes employed for
•he manufacture of pure concentrated  acetic acid,
viz.:  I.  The decomposition  of a dry acetate by
oil of vitriol; II.  The decomposition of the ace-
tate of copper or  lead  by dry distillation; and,
III. The  decomposition of the  acetate of lead by
sulphate of iron or soda, in  the dry way.  I shall
describe each, as well as some others less frequent-
ly adopted.
   I.  By  decomposing the acetates by sulphuric
acid.
   a.  By decomposing the acetate of soda.
   1.  (Acidum aceticum, P. L.)   Ing. Acetate of
soda lb. ij. sulphuric acid ^ ix.  water f J ix.   Proc
Mix  the  acid with the water and  pour it on the 
ACE                     13                     ACE
 acetate,  previoujly put  into a  glass  retort,  then
 distil in a sand-bath, taking care not  to  augment
 thr* heat towards the end of the process.
   Remarks.  The proportions  in this process are
 nearly equal to one equivalent of each of the in-
 gredients, and the result is 51 parts  of real acetic
 acid, and 114*5 parts  of water, or 165*5  parts  of
 acetic acid of 30*8[} orsp.gr. 1*048 for every equiv-
 alent, or 137 parts of crystallized acetate of  soda
 employed, being within 1£§ of the estimated pro-
 duct.   100 gr. of this  acid exactly saturate 87 gr.
 of crystallized carbonate of soda.  15 parts added
 to 85 parts of distilled water is equal in strength to
 the distilled vinegar of the London Pharmacopoeia,
 or, under common circumstances, 1  part of acid to
 7 parts of water is sufficiently accurate.
   Prop.  The acetic acid P. L. crystallizes at 28°
 F.,  and even at 45° if a crystal of acid be dropped
 into it;  melts again under 60° ; crystallizes beau-
 tifully  under a  pressure  o£  1100  atmospheres.
 (Phil. Trans. 1826.)   Is not strong enough to dis-
 solve  camphor, resin, or essential  oils,  in  any
 quantity.
   2. (Pure glacial acid. Liebig's Process.)  Ing.
 Three  parts  of  acetate  of soda, thoroughly dried
 and finely powdered;  9*7 parts of pure  sulphuric
 acid.  Proc.  Pour the acid on the powder,  pre-
 viously put into a capacious  retort.   A sufficient
 heat will be developed by the reaction of the in-
 gredients to cause j of the acetic acid to pass  over
 without a Are; heat must be  then applied, until
 the  mass in the retort becomes quite liquid.  Rec-
 tify the product, when two parts of pure  acid will
 be obtained, containing only 20 per cent, of water.
 The latter portion which comes over, exposed in a
 close vessel to a temperature below 40° F., depos-
 ites  crystals of hydrated acetic acid.  The weaker,
 or liquid portion, being poured off, the crystals may
 be again  melted and crystallized by cooling.   The
 crystals  of the  last operation, separated from the
 liquid, are perfectly pure.
   b. By  decomposing  the acetate of potassa by
 sulphi.  :c acid.
   1. (Process of the Dub. Ph.)  Ing. 52 parts of
sulphuric acid ;  100 parts of acetate of potassa.
Proc.  Similar to that  of the London  College ;
carefully  distil to dryness.  Prod. 50 to  51 parts
of liquid acid of  1*074. (P. D.)
   2. Ing. 2 parts of fused and powdered  acetate
of potassa ; 1 part of strongest oil of vitriol. Proc.
Similar to the above. To remove a slight contami-
nation of sulphurous acid, it may be redrawn, put-
tins  a little dried acetate of lead into the retort.
   c. By decomposing acetate of lead by sulphuric
 acid.
   1. (Process  of the Ed. Ph.)  Ing. Acetate of
 lead, fused, and  in fine powder, ^vj, pure strong
 sulphuric  acid, f3ixss.   Proc.  Heat the dried and
 powdered acetate of lead to 320°, in a porcelain
, basin, placed in a bath of oil or fusible metal, and
 continue stirring  until the powder ceases to con-
 crete ; it must then  be weighed, mixed with the
 acid, and  distilled to dryness, at a  heat of 320°.
 Agitate the product with 1 or 2 gr. of oxide of lead,
 decant the clear portion, and re-distil.
   Prop. The sp. gr. of this acid is 1*065. (P. E.) con-
 taining, by Mohr's table, 98*5 p. c.  of glacial acid.
   2. Ing. 4 parts of thoroughly dried acetate of
 lead, in powder ;  1 part  of the strongest oil of vit-
 riol. Proc.  Distil to dryness.
   Remarks. The above yields a very strong acid,
 nearly equal to that  prepared  by the Ed. formula.
 The quality and quantity of  the product are im-
 proved if a little peroxide of manganese be put ♦Into
 the retort  before distilling.  (Baup.)   Liebig recom-
 mends the proportions to be 3 parts of the acetate
 to 8 parts  of the acid.   Dollfuss's  concentrated
 acetic acid was prepared by a similar process, by
i drawing over 7 oz. of acid from a mixture of 12 oz.
 of sugar of lead  with 6  oz. of oil of vitriol.
   II. By submitting the acetate of copper or lead
 to dry distillation.  Acetic  acid,  thus  prepared,
 has been called spirit of verdigris ; esprit de Ve-
 nus ; spiritus veneris, <$-c.
   a. (From binacetate of copper, or  distilled ver-
 digris.) Proc. Carefully dry the binacetate by a
 very gentle heat, then  introduce it  into a stone-
 ware retort, the bottom of which has been previ-
 ously coated with a mixture of fire clay and horse-
 dung, to-render it more capable of  standing the
 heat.  It must then  be placed in  a suitable fur-
 nace, and  connected  by an  adopter tube, with 3
 or 4 double tubulated globes,  the  last  of which
 must be furnished with a vertical tubulature, to
 which  a  double  Welter's safety tube should be
 connected, the other end  being immersed in a basin
 half filled  with distilled vinegar, while the  funnel
 portion communicates with the atmosphere.   Each
 globe is placed  in a basin of water, which is kept
 cool  by a  stream continually passing through  it;
 the  upper portion  is also  covered with cloths, which
 are  kept wetted with cold water.   The distillation
 is not commenced, until  15 or  20  hours  after the
 apparatus  is luted together, to  allow  the luting
 time to dry and harden.   Fire must then  bo ap-
 plied, and  so regulated that the drops follow each
J}, Furnnce.
B B B B, Glass receivers.
C, Stoneware retort.
D, Buttle containing vincear.
E E E E, Busins containing water.
FFFF,  Supports for basins.
ff, Welter safety-tube.
H, Supply-pipe of cold water.
1III, Cocks to supply water to the basins.
./, Water main.
L, Adopter connecting retort and globes. 
ACE                     14                     ACE
•ther with considerable rapidity from the end of
the adopter tube at the same time that the bub-
bles of air succeed each other, in no inconvenient
quantity,  from the other end of the  apparatus.
Should  the process proceed  too  rapidly, the fire
should be  damped.  The  operation  is  continued,
and the fire gradually increased until vapor ceases
to come over, which is known  by the globes cool-
ing, notwithstanding the greater  heat of the fur-
nace.  The operation is now concluded, and the
fire may be allowed to expire.   When  the  whole
has cooled, the acid must be collected and rectified
in glass vessels before it is fit for sale.  The recti-
fying apparatus may be similarly arranged  to the
above, with  the  exception  of the  whole  being
formed of  glass.  The operation must now be very
carefully conducted and discontinued before barely
the whole  of the acid has distilled over, as the last
portion is apt to injure the flavor and color.   The
foregoing  diagram represents the form of the ap-
paratus usually employed in this manufacture.
  Remarks. This process is similar to that of P. L.
of 17^7. The acid obtained is nearly equal to half
the weight of the verdigris employed.   The strong-
est acid is found  in the third receiver, and the
weakest in the first, that of the second being inter-
mediate between the two.   It is always accompa-
nied by a  slight odor of fragrant pyroacetic spirit,
for which  reason it has generally received the pref-
erence for  making aromatic vinegar and perfumery.
I am informed by a friend that good binacetate of
copper will yield by careful management full half
its weight  of  an acid of the sp. gr. 1*050.   It dis-
solves camphor,  resins,  and  essential  oils with fa-
cility.   This is one of the oldest methods of pro-
curing glacial acetic acid,  and still continues to be
preferred for many purposes.
   Caution. The cupreous residuum of the distilla-
tion is pyrophoric, and frequently inflames as soon
as it is exposed to the air.  It consists of metallic
copper in  a state of minute division  along with a
little charcoal.
   6. (From acetate of lead.)  Instead of acetate of
copper use dried acetate of lead, and  proceed as in
the last rocess, taking especial care to avoid over-
firing, as iiie quantity obtained is thereby lessened,
while the  quality is also inferior.
   III. By acting on a mixture of an acetate and
sulphate by heat.
   a.  Ing.  2 parts of  gently-calcined sulphate of
iron ; 5 parts of dried acetate of lead.  Proc.  Mix
them together in fine powder, and cautiously distil
into a large and well-cooled receiver.
   Remarks.  This  is a good  and economical  pro-
cess.  Badollier's strong acetous acid was made in
this way from 1 lb of green vitriol and 10  oz. of
sugar of lead.
   6. Ing.  Sulphate of potassa 12 oz.; oil of vitriol
6 oz.; water 18 oz.; acetate  of soda  9 oz. (dried ;)
oxide of manganese } oz.  Proc.  Dissolve the sul-
phate in the acid and water, evaporate to dryness,
then  mix  it with the acetate of soda  and manga-
nese, and  distil from a glass retort in a sand-bath.
The product has been called Lowitz's acetic acid.
   Other methods of making acetic acid, either not
generally adopted, or but partially known.
   I-  Elegant method of making pure acetic acid.
(From  the German.)  Proc.  Take  a  long glass
case and arrange shelves in it, a few inches apart,
one above another, on which place small flat dishes
of earthenware or wood ; then fill these dishes with
alcohol, and  suspend over each a portion of the
black powder  of platina,  (see  Platinum :) hang
strips of porous paper in the case, with their bottom
edges immersed  in the spirit  to promote evapora-
tion   Set the apparatus in a light place at a tem-
perature of from  68° to 86° F., for which purpose
the sunshine  will be  found convenient.   In a short
time the formation of vinegar will commence, and
the condensed acid  vapors will be seen trickling
down the sides of the  glass, and collecting at the
bottom.   We  shall find  that  during this  process,
produced by the mutual  action of the platina and
the vapor of  alcohol, there will  be  an increase of
temperature, which  will  continue till  all the oxy-
gen contained in the  air enclosed in the  case is
consumed,  when the  act.'fication will stop;  the
case must be then opened for a short time to admit
of a  fresh supply of air, when  the operation will
recommence.
  Prod. A case  of 12 cubic feet contents,  with 7
or 8 oz.  of platina powder,  will produce 1^ lb.  of
absolute acetic acid from 1 lb. of absolute alcohol;
and if we  reckon the  product at the commercial
strength of vinegar, the increase will of course be
very great.   From  25 lb. of  platina powder and
300 lb.  of alcohol may be produced  daily nearly
350 lb. of pure acid.   It is proper to state that the
platina powder does  not  waste,  and that the most
inferior spirit may be employed.
  Remarks.  The revenue laws of this country un-
fortunately forbid the adoption of this beautiful
process, but there is no statute that  prevents any
individual employing it on the small  scale for pri-
vate consumption.  In Germany, vinegar is man-
ufactured on  this plan, and from the price of crude
alcohol, it must prove very profitable. In the United
States of America,  where  alcohol may be  pur-
chased  for less than a dollar  a  gallon,  as well as
in other parts where spirit is  equally cheap, this
process  will  no doubt  ultimately prove  to  be  the
cheapest source of pure acetic acid.
  II.  An excellent acetic acid  of  considerable
strength may be made  by soaking  perfectly dry
charcoal in common vinegar,  and then  subjecting
it to distillation.  The  water comes over first, and
on increasing the heat, the acid follows.   Vinegar-
bottoms will  answer for this purpose.
   III. If vinegar or dilute acetic acid be  exposed
to the air in very cold  weather, or to freezing mix-
tures, the water will separate in the  form of  ice,
and the strong  acetic acid may be  obtained  by
draining it into suitable glass vessels,  observing to
do so  at a temperature sufficiently low to keep the
water solid.
   IV. An acetic acid sufficiently strong for  all
ordinary purposes may be obtained without distil-
lation, by pouring 60 parts of strong sulphuric acid,
diluted  with  5 parts  of water,  on 100 parts of well-
dried acetate of lime, digesting with occasional agi-
tation in a close vessel, decanting the clear liquid
and straining the remainder.
   General  Commentary.  The preceding pages
present a brief synopsis of the  manufacture of pure
acetic acid.   On the  large scale it  is principally
manufactured  from acetate of soda, which yields
a sufficiently strong and pure acid for commercial
purposes, without the trouble of rectification   In 
ACE
15
ACE
this process, shallow copper vessels formed without
rivets or solder in those parts exposed to the action
of the acid, are employed for the purpose of the dis-
tillation.  A coil of drawn copper pipe, heated by
Bteam, having  a pressure of 30  to 35 lbs. to the
inch, traverses the bottom of the  apparatus.  The
refrigeratory consists  of  well-cooled earthenware
vessels, and the adopter or pipe connecting the still
with the receivers, is  also of the same materials.
Stills of earthenware are also frequently employed,
and even worms and condensers of silver are some-
times used.  The principal supply of crude acetate
of soda at the present  time is obtained from Amer-
ica, Norway,  and Sweden. This is purified by the
chemist and sent to  the distiller, who,  after ex-
tracting the acetic  acid, returns  the resulting sul-
phate of soda to the chemist, who employs it in the
decomposition of acetate of lime.   This ingenious
method of  mutual assistance  and application of
chemical science offers some explanation of the low
price at which this article may now be purchased.
I have seen a very pure acetic acid of sp. gr. 1*050
lately bought in quantity at the extraordinary low
price of 5£d. per pound.   In preparing the acid on
the small scale, glass retorts are  usually directed
to be used,  but glass alembics  are much more con-
venient and safe, as the product is less likely to be
contaminated  by the  spirting of the  ingredients,
or the liquor boiling over the brim of the vessel. In
preparing the pure acid,  care should be taken that
the acetate of soda does  not contain common salt,
as the  carbonate of soda, prepared by calcination,
and frequently used to form the  acetate, is gener-
ally contaminated with it, and yields  up its muri-
atic acid during  the  process  of distillation,  thus
vitiating the product.   The formula of the London
College produces a beautiful  acid of  1*048;  that
of the  Dublin College another acid of 1*074; and
that of the Edinburgh a still stronger  acid; but
the  process of the latter  is so unnecessarily minute
and complicated, that it  is never employed except
for experiments.  In all these methods the product
becomes  more concentrated in proportion  to the
dryness of the materials and the strength of the oil
of vitriol usee   The process of Liebig is unexcep-
tionable, and y^lds a  very strong and pure  acid by
the  first  distillation,  which  may be  afterwards
further concentrated  if  required, as is directed in
that formula.  Acid containing 20 JJ- of water, yields
a good deal of its superfluous water to dry sulphate
of soda, by  standing over it.   (Liebig.)
   In all these processes the acetic acid  exists ready
formed in the  acetate, and is set  free  by the supe-
rior affinity of the sulphuric acid for the base ; and
from its volatility, passes over into  the receiver on
the application of heat; when, being again cooled,
it is condensed.  In  the distillation  of  verdigris,
heat may be said to perform a similar part to  that
of the acid.   (See  Acetification and Vinegar.)
   Prop.  Pure a etic  acid (glacial) is liquid above
62°, but below that  temperature forms brilliant,
colorless,  transparent  scales and tabular crystals.
In the  liquid state its  sp.  gr. is 1*063.   It possesses
a powerful odor, and acid taste, dissolves camphor
and resins, and mixes  with alcohol, ether, essential
oils, and water.  In its pure state it is a corrosive
and an acrid poison.  It unites with the basis,
forming salts called acetates.   It should be kept in
Stoppered glass bottles.
  Uses.  In the arts.  (Dilute under the form of
vinegar.)  As an antiseptic in pickling and pre-
serving animal and vegetable food, and anatomi-
cal  preparations; in dyeing and calico printing,
the  manufacture of  tinctures  and other pharma-
ceutical preparations.  As  a  medicine. A  little
added to water forms  a  useful febrile drink, em-
ployed also  for  scurvy,  and  as a  palliative in
phthisis.   Added to  clysters, it has been used in
obstinate constipation ; mixed with honey it forms
a common gargle in ulcerated sore-throat; a few
drops mixed with water make an excellent colly-
rium  for  chronic ophthalmia, and for removing
lime-dust from the  eye; in sprains  and bruises it
forms  a  useful  fomentation.  Strong acetic  acid
(P.  L.) applied by means of a piece of rag tied to
the end of a small stick, is a certain cure for ring-
worm or scaldhead—one or two  applications gen-
erally effect a cure ; as a caustic, it is used to re-
move warts and corns  ; a piece of lint or blotting-
paper wetted with it and  applied to the skin, and
evaporation prevented  by  a  piece of  strapping,
forms  a  common extemporaneous blister; it was
once employed as a disinfectant, but  is now only
used as  a fumigation, to remove the  unpleasant
smell of the sick room or crowded assemblies.  As
a condiment, it promotes the appetite and digestion,
but its habitual use is  said to produce emaciation
It also forms a popular refreshing scent in  faint-
ings, asphyxia, and nervous headache; and is also
frequently used as a rubefacient, astringent, and
local stimulant. 'The strong acid taken internally
acts, however, as a  violent poison,  dissolving  the
animal tissues, and by destroying the organization,
causing death.  Orfila has recorded a  fatal case
arising even from its application  to the surface of
the  body.  Dose,  tf-c.  As a refrigerant, water
soured with acetic  acid oV vinegar may be taken
ad libitum.  In enemas, 1 to 2 oz. of distilled vine-
gar is the proper quantity ;  for a  lotion, 3 oz. of the
latter to  5 or 6 oz. of water; and for a  collyrium,
1 oz. of ditto to 1 pint of distilled  water.
  Purity. Acetic  acid  or vinegar is frequently
adulterated with oil of vitriol, nitric or muriatic
acid, as well as various other acrid substances, for
the purpose of giving it a spurious acidity.  It also
frequently contains  copper, which it derives from
the vessels in which it has been kept or measured.
The following table, which  I have arranged for the
purpose, exhibits an easy method  of ascertaining
its purity.
  In addition to this, it may be remarked that sul-
phurous  acid may  be recognised by yielding  a
white  precipitate on the addition of a small quan-
tity of peroxide of lead, or by drawing  the fumes
into the lungs ;  acrid vegetable matter,  as pepper,
capsicum, horseradish, &c., by  neutralizing  the
acid with an alkali, when it may be easily discov-
ered by tasting.
  Excise Laws.  Vinegar is allowed by law to
contain To1^ part by weight of sulphuric acid, it will
therefore  give  a trifling precipitate with the tests
mentioned in the table, but this will in no case ex-
ceed the 1*15 gr. (when dried and weighed) for  a
fluid ounce.  The manufacture  of acetic  acid of
any kind  comes under the excise laws, and  re-
quires  a license, which costs 100/. (Collyer.)   The
duty is at the rate of 2d. on every gallon of  proof
or No. 24 vinegar,  until the strength  reaches 35 
ACE
16
ACE
o. p. or over proof, or equal to an acid of 40 J, when
it is charged in a different manner.  (See Aceti-
metry.)
  Tests. These are the  same as for the acetatea
Estim.  (See Acetimetry.)
Names of Tests.
«
f Solution of chloride of
    barium, nitrate of ba-
    ryta, or  chloride of
    calcium.........
  Powdered chalk (short)
    of saturation)......i
  Muriatic  acid, added to
    the sample previous-
    ly boiled with a little
    silver-leaf    ......
  Dilute solution of indi- >
    p;o (boiled)   ......i
  Gold-leaf wetted withi
    muriatic   acid,  and I
    digested with heat in [
    a watch-glass......J
  Gold-leaf   moistened i
    with nitric acid   ... i

  Dilute  solution of ni-1
    trate of silver...   ... i


  Weak solution of iodide >
    of potassium  ......i

  Solution  of  acetate of i
    lead    .........\
Sulphureted  hydrogen »
  gas or >yater ......\
Acetic
 Acid
 quite
 pure.
 Acetic Acid
 containing
Oil of Vitriol.
White precip
itate insoluble
in nitric acid
Ditto.
  Pearly-
white pre-
 cipitate.
 Whitish
precipitate.
Acetic Acid
containing
Nitric Acid.
[ White curdy
   precipitate,
"I soluble in am-
[    monia.

  Decolored.
j Partially  <
i    solved.
 Acetic Acid
  containing
Muriatic Acid.
 Partially  dis-
    solved.
' Curdy-white
  precipitate,
 soluble in am-
Turbidness.
Acetic Acid
 containing
  Metals.
{Yellow preci-
 pitate, if lead
 be present.
Black or
 dark-colored
 precipitate.
 (If  this  be
 dissolved  in
 nitric   acid,
 and ammo-
 nia added, it
 will give  a
 blue    color
 if copper be
 present.
  ACETIFICATION.   The  oxidation of alco-
hol in the process of making  vinegar.  To be
capable of acetification or conversion into vinegar
it is necessary that the liquid should  contain alco-
hol in some state or other, or some  substance, as
BUg^r, which, by the process of fermentation, is ca-
pable of producing it.   The presence of a ferment
or vegetable matter, and  a temperature between
70° and 100°  F., facilitates the operation.  In the
conversion of  wines, beer, wort, &.c. into vinegar,
the sugar is first transformed by fermentation into
alcohol, and  in  this  state  becomes oxidized or
acidified by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen.
Manufacturers should always remember that such
is  the true nature of this process.  (See Acids,
Acetic Acid, and Pyroligneous, and Vinegar.)
   ACETIMETER.  Syn. Acetometer. An in-
strument or apparatus for ascertaining the strength
of acetic acid.   (See the next article.)
  ACETIMETRY.  Syn. Acetometry. The art
or process of determining the strength of vinegar
or acetic acid.  Various  methods have been  pro-
posed for this purpose, among which may b*e men-
tioned the following:
  I. (The plan adopted  by the Excise.)   Hydrate
of lime is added gradually to  a sample of the vine-
gar, until it is saturated, and the sp. gr. of the re-
sulting clear solution of acetate of lime  is taken
by  the acetometer, invented by Messrs. J. and P.
Taylor.  This instrument in construction resem-
bles the  common hydrometer, and stands  at the
mark on the stem called proof in a solution  con-
taining 5£ of real acid, which is the  strength  of
No. 24 vinegar, or an acid which will saturate ex-
actly 14 J grains of crystallized carbonate of soda
When the vinegar is stronger than proof, the in-
strument must be loaded with one or more of the
small weights which  are supplied with it, each of 
ACE                    17                    ACE
which will indicate an additional 5°,  up to 35§,
which is the greatest strength at which the duty
is levied by the gallon.  To ascertain the per cent-
age of real  acid, 5$  must therefore be added to
the number indicated by the acetometer.  Thus :
without being  loaded, the instrument, on floating
to a given mark, indicates a proof vinegar or one
of 5°;; with one weight, a vinegar of  11)$ ; with
tioo weights, 15$;  with three weights, 20$, &c,
&c.   The reason of this is, that the starting point,
or proof, is an acid of 5$.   In the technical lan-
guage of trade, each 5$ is called a vinegar.  Thus :
acid of 10$ is  said to contain two vinegars ; one
of 15°;,  three  vinegars,  &c.  A more common
method is, however, to speak of the degrees of the
acetometer as proof or overproof.  Thus :  No. 24
vinegar is said to be proof; one measuring 5 ace-
tometer degrees—5 overproof or  o. p.;  one 10 de-
grees—10 o. p., &c.   In  malt and wine vinegars,
which usually contain gluten or  mucilage, this
method is not  strictly accurate, as these substances
alter  the specific gravity.   A small weight marked
M is supplied by Mr. Bate with the acetometers
made by him, and  is used in trying such vinegar.
   Remarks.   This plan, though sufficiently cor-
rect for commercial purposes, is  liable  to a  small
error, especially in vinegar containing much vege-
table matter.   If it be pure or very nearly so, the
decimal  fraction of the sp. gr. will be  doubled by
conversion into acetate of lime.  Thus : 1*0085 in
vinegar  becomes  1*0170 when  converted into a
solution of acetate of lime.  In malt vinegar, how-
ever, 0*005 may fairly be deducted from its  sp. gr.
as produced by the presence of mucilage and gluten.
The quantity  of foreign matter present in vinegar,
may  thus be  approximatively  ascertained, by de-
ducting the decimal of the sp. gr. of the solution
of acetate of lime, from double that of the decimal
part  of the sp. gr.  of the vinegar.  Thus:  I find
the sp. gr. of a sample of vinegar to be 1*014, and
after  saturating it  with hydrate of lime, I again
try it and find it  to be 1*023, what  is the sp. gr.
of the pure vinegar, and  what  is  due to  foreign
matter—
   Decimal of sp. gr. of vinegar,  doubled   *028
   Decimal of sp. gr.  of solution  of ace- )   „£„
    tate of lime.........)__
   Quantity of foreign matter equal  to )  .qq,.
    the difference........$

   Specific gravity of vinegar  ....  1*014
   Deduct sp. gr. due to foreign matter  .   *005

   Sp. gr. of a solution of acetic acid or i
    pure vinegar of  equal strength to > 1.
    sample..........;
009
  II. Dissolve 200 grains of pure crystallized  bi-
carbonate of potash in a little water, and then add
enough water to make it up to exactly 1000 parts
by  measure; as  for  instance, 1000  minims.  A
solution is thus formed, which, when  added to a
sample containing 100 measures  of acetic acid or
vinegar, until the latter be saturated,  will indicate
the exact amount of real acetic acid present. The
test liquor should be made and measured in a long
glass tube, capable  of holding  the  whole 1000
measures, and graduated into 100 parts, every one
of which will represent 1$ of dry acid.  A conve-
                     3
nient instrument for this purpose, is the  pouret of
Gay Lussac, which consists of a double tube of
the shape of the following figure.
  Remarks.  Any other  method  of
measuring or ascertaining  the exact
quantity of  test liquor employed, may
he used, as convenience or circumstan-
ces may suggest;  but however this is
done, it is necessary to do it in such a
manner as to ensure the greatest  ac-
curacy.
  III. Dissolve 200 grains of  crystal-
lized bicarbonate of potassa in 800 grains
of distilled water,  contained in a suit-
able shaped bottle,  previously  care-
fully weighed ; when  dissolved, weigh
it again, and 6ee that it is exactly equal
to 1000 grs.  This test liquor, like the
last, is  used to neutralize the acid in
the sample for examination, but in  this
case  the quantity must  be 100  grs. instead of
100 measures.  Every  grain  of  the  test liquor
consumed will,  therefore, indicate 1 tenth  of  a
grain of real acetic acid,  and every 10  grs. will
be  equal to  1§.    A very  convenient  shaped
bottle  for this  pur 3se  is that known  as  Schus-
ter's Alkalimeter,  which  consists of a  very light
stoppered glass bottle, having  a  neck drawn out
to the one  side,  and furnished with a very fine
orifice,  which admits of  the liquid being poured
1	p -100
	■90
i	?w
	t70
	r00
	J50
i	|>10
	hm
/	ko
i1-	
k	k)
out in small quantities  with greater ease,  and
without the risk of an accident.   The weight of
the bottle and solution, after the process of neu-
tralizing the acid of the sample, deducted from its
previous weight, gives the exact weight of the test
liquor consumed,  and consequently the quantity
of acetic acid that has been saturated by it.
   Remarks. This  method admits of great  accu-
racy, and  is preferable  to the  previous process,
(No. II,)  as it  is  much easier to weigh than to
measure correctly, especially when the quantity
is small.
   IV. Instead of bicarbonate of potash, in Nos. II
and III, either of the following salts may be used.
   104 grs. dry carbonate of soda.
   135  "   "  carbonate of potash.
   283  " crystallized carbonate of soda.
   Remarks. The  dry  carbonates of potassa and
soda should be prepared by submitting the crystal-
lized carbonate  to a dull  red heat in a crucible,
when,  after cooling, the  proper quantity may be
weighed.
   V. By taking the specific gravity of the sampl»,
(see Specific Gravity,)  and seeking it. in the fol-
lowing  Tables,  the per  centage  of acid may be
ascertained sufficiently correct for most purposes. 
ACE                    18                     ACH
Table I. The following Table is given by Messrs.
    Taylor, as the basis of their Acetometer.

Revenue Proof Acid, called by the manufacturer
                    No. 24.
    sp. gr.
    l-uiif.) contains real or anhydrous acid in 100,   5
1*0170
10257
1-0320
10470
10580
Table II. The following Table, from the Pharm.
  Central Blatt fur 1839, drawn up by M. Mohr,
  exhibits the sp. gr. of pure Acetic Acid of almost
  every strength.
Percent.		Per cent.		Percent.	
of (ilHeial		of Glacial		of Glacial	
Acid,	Sp.Gr.	Acid,	Sp.Gr.	Acid,	Sp.Gr.
(C. 4.H.3,		(C.4, H.3,		(C. 4, H. 3,	
0.3+A(|.)		O. 3+Au.)		0.3+Aq.)	
100	1-0635	66	1069	32	10424
99	1-0635	65	1-068	31	1-041
98	1*067	64	1-068	30	1-040
97	1-0680	63	1-068	29	1-039
96	1-069	62	1-067	28	1-038
95	1-070	61	1-067	27	1-036
94	1-0706	60	1-067	26	1-035
93	1-0708	59	1-066	35	1-034
92	1-071G	58	1-066	24	]• H33
91	1-0721	57	1065	23	1032
90	10730	56	1-064	22	1-031
89	1-0730	55	1-0T4	21	1 -029
88	1-0730	54	1-063	20	1-027
87	1-0730	53	1063	19	1-026
86	1-0730	52	1-002	18	1 -025
85	1-0730	51	1-061	17	1-024
84	1-0730	50	1-060	16	1-023
83	1-0730	49	1-059	15	1-022
82	1 -0730	48	1-058	14	1-020
81	1-0732	47	1 •<).->«	13	1-018
80	1 0735	46	1-055	12	1-017
79	1-0732	45	1-055	11	1-016
78	10732	44	1-051	10	1-015
77	1073	43	1-053	9	1-013
76	1-072	42	1-052	8	1-012
75	1 -072	41	1-0515	7	1-010
74	1-072	40	1-0513	6	1-00S
73	1-071	39	1-050	5	1-0067
72	1-071	38	1-049	4	1-0065
71	1-071	37	1-048	3	1-004
70	1-070	36	1047	2	1-002
69	1-070	35	1-046	1	1-001
68	1-070	34	1-045	0	1-0000
67	1-069	33	1-044		
  Remarks.   Table  I  is adapted to commercial
vinegar, and is sufficiently accurate for  all com-
mon  purposes.  Table II  is intended  for  pure
acetic acid.   It will be seen that above a  certain
per centage, the specific gravity retrogrades;  it
is, therefore, better in trying very strong acid, to
dilute it first with a given weight of distilled water,
and to allow for it afterwards.  The weight of gla-
cial  acetic acid,  multiplied by *8512,  gives the
weight of dry acid which it contains, and anhy-
drous acid, multiplied  by 1*1748, will give a num-
ber representing an  equivalent  weight of  glacial
acid.
  Caution.   As a spurious acidify is frequently
given to vinegar by adding other acids to  it, which
would thus give it a false appearance  of strength,
it is, therefore, better  first to ascertain whether it
be adulterated.  (See Acetic Acid.)  The most
correct, and, in many respects, the easiest method
of actiiMieLry, is .No. Ill or IV.   The acetic acid
 of the  L. P. has a sp. gr. of 1*048, and  contains
 30-2 of dl7 acid*  'n'atof tl,e 1),lbl,n CoII,'Ke ls
 1-074. and that of the  Edinburgh Collefre 1*065.1
 (See Specific Gravity, and  Acidimetry.)
   ACETULE.   The  hypothetical radical  of the
 acetule series; neither i'tself nor oxide has been
 obtained alone.  Its hydrated oxide  is aldehyde.
 The chloride of acetule is formed  by the length-
 ened exposure of chloride  of  ethule to the  action
 of chlorine and light.   The oxychloride,  by satu-
 rating anhydrous ether with perfectly dry chlorine
 gas, exposing to external cold, and afterwards to a
 gentle  heat.   Both this and the  preceding are
 transparent  colorless  fluids.   Suboxyrhloride  of
 acetule is a gas formed  by heating the last article
 in  contact   with  potassium.   Oxysulphurtt  of
 acetule is made by passing sulphureted hydrogen
 gas through the oxychloride, until an  oily liquid is
 formed, which, by exposure, becomes semi-crystal-
 line.  This  is dissolved in  hot alcohol, and  is ob-
 tained in crystals on its cooling.
   Remarks.  For  a  knowledge of  the preceding
 substances we are indebted  to  the researches of
 Malaguti and Regnault.  The compounds of ace-
 tule offer beautiful examples of chemical substitu-
 tion, but the nature of  the  prese   work  will not
 permit their bein<,r enlarged on litre.
   ACHROMATIC.   Free from color, .from the
 Gr. i, without, and xpupa, color,) from which also
 is derived the word
   ACHROMATISM.  The  destruction of the
 colored rings, which accompany the image of an
 object seen through a lens  or prism.
   Causes, <J-c.  Light  is  not homogeneous, but ■
 decomposable into colored  rays,  either by refrac-
 tion,  absorption,  or reflection.  The colors of the
 prismatic  spectrum are formed  out of a ray of
 white light, by passing it through a glass prism,
 and a similar effect is produced if a lens or other
 refracting media be used instead.  It has been ob-
 served,  that  when this  production of color  takes
 place, some of the colored  portions of  the spectra
 are  more bent or  refracted than others, and that
 the refracting or dispersive  power varies with the
 nature of the refracting medium.  A beam of light
 thrown on a simple converging lens, not only suf-
 fers refraction at  the  spherical  surface, (called
 spherical aberration,) but the different colored rays,
 forming the  beam of light, being unequally bent
 or refracted, diverge from their original course,
 and,  consequently, fall  separately instead of to-
 gether, on the  eye or object  that receives  them.
 Heuce arise the colored rings or halos that sur-
 round objects  viewed  through  ordinary  glasses
 This  effect is called chromatic aberration  by opti-
 cians, and forms the greatest impediment to the
 construction of a perfect refracting telescope.  It
 is the object of achromatism to remove this imped-
 iment.  The subject,  theoretically  considered, is
 not less fraught with difficulty than  with practical
 importance, and has engaged the attention of the
 first mathematicians and artists up to the present
time.                                    r


 ,nlD.\A-.^-Tho,I,ps0n Siiys (P* 819 of *>•* Di.spensatorv
10th ed.) ■' that n contains 30-75 real acid by wei/ht •' ?-7t
on the next page he sasi. " that of the L. C. contain, 37»
of real acid and 63S of water."             "-"nmilis J/.

anolher?"-^ ^ ^ '" ^ " " **** to be 1065' «•* *<* 
ACI                     19                     ACI
   Correction.  It has been endeavored to correct
the chromatic aberration of lenses, by combining
two or more made of different materials, possess-
ing different dispersive powers.  Thus the spec-
trum formed  by flint glass,  or  glass  containing
lead, is longer  than that formed by crown glass,
for the same  deviation ; and when combined, the
one tends to diminish the dispersion of the other.
On this principle the achromatic  object glasses of
telescopes are  generally formed in this country.  A
convex lens of crown glass  is  combined with a
weaker concave lens of flint glass, the latter coun-
teracting the dispersion of the former, without ma-
terially  interfering  with its  refraction.   A  still
better plan is, to place a concave lens of flint glass
between two convex lenses of crown glass.
   Remarks.  All the larger object glasses lately
manufactured are  said to  consist of only  two
lenses; the resulting achromatism proving  suffi-
ciently exact for all useful purposes.   The princi-
pal  achromatic  glasses and ' telescopes  recently
made,  have been  manufactured by  Dolland  of
London, and some  of the opticians  of Bavaria and
Switzerland.   The achromatism of prisms depends
upon the same principles, and is determined and
corrected in the same manner as lenses, but pre-
sents  less  difficulty  on  account of the spherical
aberration of  the  latter.   (See Lenses, Tele-
scope, Microscope.)
   ACIDS.  In common language, any substance
possessing sourness or acidity ;  in  chemistry, any
electro-negative  compound, capable of combining
with  bases to  form  salts.  Most of  the liquid acids
possess a sour taste, and redden litmus paper.
   Hist.   The chemical  theory of the acids is still
undecided, and the  laws which regulate their com-
binations with the bases, as well as  the precise na-
ture of the resulting salts, are involved in considera-
ble obscurity.   Lavoisier and the associated French
chemists conceived that acidity resulted from the
union of a peculiar  combustible base, called a rad-
ical,  with  a  common principle of acidification,
called oxygen.  The inaccuracy of this hasty gen-
eralization was disproved by Berthollet, who main-
tained that it was " carrying the limits of analogy
too far to presume that all acidity arises from oxy-
gen."  The early  opinion of Sir II. Davy, after
revised and modified  by Murray, was, that inti-
mately combined water was the  real " acidifying
principle.''   In 1810, however, this  celebrated
chemist  published  a series of dissertations in the
Philosophical Transactions, which fully overthrew
the hypothesis of Lavoisier.  It  was soon estab-
lished that both oxygen and hydrogen were capa-
ble of producing acids, of which the sulphuric and
muriatic acids may be taken as examples.  It is
now generally  acknowledged that no one substance
or element can be regarded  as the general " acid-
ifying principle."  The  more recent theory of the
acids, elaborated out of the researches of Graham,
Liebig, Dumas, Clark, Fremy, Thalow, Dulong,
Peligot, and others, is affirmed by its supporters,
to establish  the views first suggested by  Sir H.
Davy, respecting the chloric  and iodic acids and
their salts.   In this scheme, all the acids are uni-
ted into one  series, and all  the salts into another,
both being so  closely connected, that it  is said,
" that these two series may be considered as one."
The existence  of hydrogen in the oxygen acids, in
 the free or active  state, is here deemed an essen-
 tial part of their constitution, and hence the name
 of hydracids has  been given to them.  This prin-
 ciple has been extended to all  the acids, even the
 organic.  Those acids that contain 1 eq. of hydro-
 gen,  are  called monobasic ; with 2 eq., bibasic;
 with  3 eq., tribasic, and so on; the general term
 polybasic, being applied to those which combine
 with two or more  eq. of hydrogen.   The muriatic
 may  be taken as the type of the first; the  tartaric
 that of the second ;  and the citric acid that of the
 third.  This view  of the acids presents the advan-
 tages of simplicity and unity of classification.  In
 the union of the acids with the bases forming salts,
 it presumes that  the  hydrogen of  the  acid is re-
 placed by the base, it having previously played the
 part of a base itself.   Consequently acids  may be
 viewed as the hydrogen salts of their radicals, and
 acids and salts,  with  regard to  their constitution,
 form but one class.  " The neutralizing power of
 an acid depends entirely on the number of eq. of
 hydrogen replaceable by the  bases."  (Liebig.)
 Other hypotheses have arisen respecting the acids,
 but have possessed little merit and  obtained little
 notoriety.
   Class.  The  acids have been variously classed
 by different writers, as into organic and inorganic;
 metallic and non-metallic; oxygen acids, hydro-
 gen acids, and  acids  destitute of either of these
 elements;  the  names being applied according to
 the kingdom of  nature, or class  of bodies to which
 the radical  belonged, or after the element which
 was presumed to be  the acidifying principle.
   Nomen.  The  names of  the  acids  end either in
 ic or ous; the former being given to that contain-
 ing the larger portion of the electro-negative ele-
 ment, or oxygen, and the  latter to that containing
 the smaller quantity.  As  sulphuric acid,  an acid
 of sulphur, containing 3 atoms of oxygen; sulphur-
 ous  acid, another sulphur acid, containing only
 2 atoms of oxygen. When a base forms more than
 2 acid compounds  with oxygen, the  Greek prepo-
 sition hypo is added to that containing the  smaller
 portion, as hyposulphuric and hyposulphurous acids.
 This  system of nomenclature was originally adopt-
 ed under the idea  that all acids  contained oxygen,
 but the same terms are now applied, regardless of
 the acidifying principle, as hydrochloric acid, hy-
 drofluoric acid, &c.   The  prepositions per, hyper,
 and the syllable oxy are also prefixed to the names
 of acids, when it is intended to denote an increase
 of oxygen, as hypernitrous acid, perchloric acid,
 oxymuriatic acid,  &c.
   Cautions.  All the strong liquid acids should be
 kept in glass bottles, furnished with perfectly tight
 ground-glass stoppers ; glass vessels should  be used
 in measuring them, and they should be  dispensed
 in stoppered vials.
  ACIDS,  OXYGENIZED.   These  are com-
 pounds to which an apparent surcharge of  oxygen
 is given by means  of  deutoxide of barium.   They
 were  first discovered  by  M.  Thernard, and de-
 scribed by him in the Ann. de Chim. et Phys. viii.
 306.
  Proc.  1. Nitrate of baryta should first  be ob-
tained perfectly pure, and, above  all, free from
iron and manganese.   The most certain means of
procuring it is to dissolve the nitrate in water, to
add to the solution a small  excess of baryta water, 
to filter and crystallize.  2.  The pure nitrate is to
be decomposed  by heat.   This ought not  to  be
done iu a common earthenware retort, because it
contains too much of the oxides of iron and manga-
nese,  but in a  perfectly  white porcelain  retort.
Four  or five pounds of nitrate of baryta may be
decomposed at once, and  the process will require
about three  hours.  The baryta thus procured will
contain a considerable quantity of silex and alumi-
na ; but it will have  only very  minute traces of
manganese  and  iron, a circumstance of essential
importance.  3.  The  baryta, divided by a  knife
into pieces as large as the end of the thumb, should
then be placed in a luted tube of glass.  This tube
should be long and large  enough to contain from
2i to  31, lbs. It is to be surrounded  with fire, and
heated to dull redness, and  then a current of dry
oxygen gas  is to be passed through  it.  However
i*apid  the current, the gas is completely  absorbed  ;
srt that when it  passes by the  small tube, which
ought to terminate the larger one, it may be con-
cluded  that  the operation  is  completed.   It is,
however, right to continue the current for seven or
eight  minutes more.   Then the tube being nearly
cold, the deutoxide, which is of a light gray  color,
is taken out and preserved  in  stoppered bottles.
When this is moistened it falls to powder, without
much increase of temperature.   If  in this state it
be mixed with seven  or eight times its  weight of
water, and a dilute acid be poured  in, it dissolves
gradually by agitation, without the evolution  of
any gas.  The solution is neutral, or has no action
on turnsole or turmeric.  When we add to this so-
lution the  requisite quantity of sulphuric acid, a
copious precipitate of baryta falls, and the filtered
liquor is merely water, holding in solution the oxy-
genized acid, or  deutoxide of hydrogen, combined
with the acid itself.
  ACI DIMETER.  An  instrument or apparatus
wherewith to ascertain the strength of acids. (See
Hydrometer.)
  ACIDIMETRY. The estimation of the strength
of acids.
  Memo. This operation must be  understood to
refer to the relative strengths  of the same  acids,
(viz. quantity of real  acid of the same  kind con-
tained in the solutions examined,) and not  to the
comparative strengths of acids of different compo-
sitions or names.   Theoretically, capacity of satu-
ration is no  proof of strength of affinity, or acid
power in different acids in opposition to the views
propounded by Berthollet.   Thus, it takes 50 grs.
of chalk, or 54 grs. of dry carbonate of soda to neu-
tralize 37 grs. of real muriatic  acid, but the same
quantity is enough to neutralize 49 -jre. of the strong-
est  oil of vitriol, containing  40 grs.  of  real  acid.
It tlius appears that a less  quantity  of muriatic
than  su'phuric arid is equivalent  to any  giv/.*q
weight of base, and according to Berthollet's the-
ory, the former should  be  considered  the stronger
acid.   The reverse is however the case, as oil of
vitriol will  take lime from its solution  in hydro-
chloric acid.   No absolute  criterion of the scale of
power, among the different acids, has as yet been
discovered.  The present  article will  be confined
to methods of acidimetry applicable  to  the  acids
generally, but  directions more especially adapted
to the principal acids will be found under tin ir par-
ticular heads.  (See Aceti.metry, Muriatic Acin,
Si'lehuric Acid, &c.)
  Andimetrical  Processes.  These are founded
on the capacity of  the acids to saturate  the  bases.
  I. Place a weighed sample, say 100 grs. of the
acid to be examined in  a glass tube or other suita-
ble  vessel, and, if it be a strong acid, it is better to
dilute it with six or eight times its weight of pure
water, and if solid  or crystallized, as citric or tar-
taric  acid, to  dissolve  it in a like qua.itity.  A
weighed  portion of  dry  powdered carbonate of so-
da or  potassa prepared  from the crystallized car-
bonate by exposing it to a  red heat, is then grad-
ually and carefully added, until the  acid is  satu-
rated, which is known by its ceasing to effervesce,
and to redden litmus  paper.   Great care must be
taken not to exceed the quantity necessary for this
purpose.   After adding each  portion of soda the
solution should be well  stirred up, and  as soon as
the effervescence  becomes  languid  the greatest
caution must be observed  in adding fresh portions
of the alkali.  The proper  point is arrived at when
the liquid ceases  to redden  litmus, and does not
alter  the color of turmeric paper;  if it turns the
latter brown, too much  soda has been added, and
the operation  becomes useless.   As  soon  as the
point  of saturation  or neutralization is arrived  at,
the remaining  carbonate of soda is weighed, and
its  present deducted from  its former weight will
give  the  quantity  consumed, every  53 £ grs.  of
which will represent an equivalent of real acid, ac-
cording to the following table,  which  I have ar-
ranged for the  purpose.
  Remarks.  This  method is sufficiently accurate
for  common purposes, but  when  greater exactness
is required, the following plan is  preferable: The
reason for the adoption  of the carbonate  of potassa
or soda is, that they have a uniform constitution
when  prepared in the way described  as above.
Either of the other articles mentioned in tin table
may, however, be  used instead, if at  hapd, and
known to be pure. 
ACI                     21                      ACI
Table representing the  quantities of the Carbonates of Soda, Potassa, Lime, Carbonic Acid, and
  Hydrate of Lime, equivalent to the given weights of somo of the Acids, together with the compo-
  sition of the latter, hydrogen being considered equal to 1.
 534 grs. of decarbonate of soda,                50J grs. pure chalk,
143£   „   crystallized ditto,                    374
 84J   »   bicarbonate of ditto,                  44|
 694   1,   dry carbonate of potassa,
1004   „   crystallized bicarbonate of ditto,
                                    are equivalent to
of hydrate of lime, (fresh,)
of dry carbonic acid, (when the bicarbo-
nate of potassa or soda is used for test-
ing in the process of Fresenius and Will.)
 Grains.

 51*48

 60*48

 99*4

114*68


 34*9

 52*9

 22*12

 58*48

 76*48

 85*84


127*3

 27-39

 36-42

 54*15

 72-15

 36*24

 63-24

 71*4

 50*48

 401

 49*1

 66*48

 75-48

215*16
Acid, Acetic (anhydrous)

   -------- (crystallized or glacial)
----Arsenious (dry)

   — Benzoic (dry)


   — Boracic (dry)

   ---------(crystallized)
 Carbonic (dry

 Citric (dry)

-----(crystallized)
   — Gallic      ......


   — Hydriodic (dry)

   — Hydrocyanic (dry)

----Hydrochloric (dry)

   — Nitric (dry)

   -------(liquid, sp. gr. 1*5)
 Oxalic (dry)

------■ (crystallized)
----Phosphoric (dry)  ...

----Succinic (dry, or anhydrous crystals)

----Sulphuric (dry)   ......

-------------(liquid, sp. gr. 1-845)
 Tartaric (dry)

--------- (crystallized)
Tannic
 4 Carbon
 3 Oxygen
 3 Hydrogen
 1 Dry Acid
 1 Water
 2 Arsenic
 3 Oxygen
14 Carbon
 3 Oxygen
 5 Hydrogen
6*12X4)
   (8X3)
(6*12X14)
    (8X3)
1 Boron	= 10
3 Oxygen	(8X3) = 24
1 Dry Acid ..	= 34
2 Water	(9X2) = 18
1 Carbon	= 6
2 Oxygen	(8X2) = 16
4 Carbon	. (6*12x4) = 24
4 Oxygen	(8X4) = 32
2 Hydrogen ..	== 2
1 Dry Acid ..	= 58
2 Water	(9X2) = 18
7 Carbon	= 42
3 Hydrogen ..	= 3
5 Oxygen	= 40
1 Iodine	= 126
1 Hydrogen ..	= 1
1 Cyanogen ..	= 26
1 Hydrogen ..	= 1
1 Chlorine	= 35
1 Hydrogen ..	= 1
1 Nitrogen	= 14
5 Oxygen	(8X5) = 40
1 Dry Acid ..	= 54
2 Water	(9X2) = 18
2 Carbon .:	. (6-12x2) = 12
3 Oxygen	(8X3) = 24
1 Dry Acid ..	= 36
3 Water	(9X3) = 27
2 Phosphorus ..	= 31
5 Oxygen	= 40
4 Carbon	. (6*12X4) = 24
3 Oxygen	(8X3) = 24
2 Hydrogen ..	= 2
1 Sulphur	= 16
3 Oxygen	. . (8X3) = 24
1 Dry Acid ..	= 40
1 Water	= 9
4 Carbon	. (6*12X4) =24
5 Oxygen	(8X5) = 40
2 Hydrogen ..	= 2
1 Dry Acid ..	= 66
1 Water 18 Carbon	= 9
	=110
9 Hydrogen ..	= 9
12 Oxygen	= 96
 
ACI
22
ACI
  II. Dissolve 100 grs. of the carbonate of soda
or potassa, prepared as above, in 700 or S00 mea-
sures of boiling water, and when cold make the
quantity up to exactly 1000 measures;  this forms
a test liquor, every 10 measures of which repre-
sent 1 gr. of the dry  carbonate, and every single
measure 1 tenth of a grain.   A convenient grad-
uated glass tube for this purpose  is Gay Lussac's
pouret,  described under the article Acetimetry.
This liquid must be applied to neutralize the acid,
as described  in the last process, and the quantity
consumed for that purpose may be read off on the
graduated tube.
  Remarks.  This plan allows of the alkali being
added with greater ease and in smaller quantities
than can possibly be done with a powder.  If the
graduated portion  of the  pouret be divided into
100 parts, each of them will represent exactly one
grain of the carbonate.
  III. Dissolve  100 grs. of the dry carbonate of
soda or  potassa before described in 900 grs. of hot
water, and when cold make it up to exactly 1000
grs.   This forms a test liquor,  capable of being
applied  with great accuracy, every grain of which
will represent 1 tenth of a grain of alkali, and ev-
ery  10 grs. will be equal to 1  gr., from which the
real  quantity of acid  present  may be ascertained
from  the  preceding table, and by the simple rule
of proportion the per centage may be found.
  Remarks.  The solution is best made and  used
in a  bottle known  as Schuster's  Alkalimeter, de-
scribed  under the article Aclotimetry.   The  ope-
ration is conducted thus:  The  sample of acid,
being accurately weighed, is diluted or dissolved in
6 or  7  parts of water, and the  bottle  containing
the  test liquor is then carefully balanced in  the
scales and the weight noted.  The contents of the
latter are then added in small  and successive por-
tions  to the  acid until the point of saturation is
approached,  when  great care  must be  observed
lest too much be  added.   As soon as  the exact
point of saturation is arrived at, the bottle holding
the test  solution must be again accurately weighed,
when its  loss of weight, divided  by 10, will give
the  number of grains of the carbonate consumed.
  IV. ^Method of  Drs. Will and Fresenius, of
Giessen.)  Ex plan. This method depends upon the
quantity of carbonic acid gas which a given weight
of acid  is capable of expelling from the bicarbo-
nate of  soda  or potassa, which is  estimated by the
loss of weight in the apparatus, after tho gas, ren-
dered perfectly dry by passing through sulphuric
acid, has escaped  into the air,  from which  the
quantity of  acid present in the sample is found by
a simple calculation.
  Oper. A determinate amount of the acid under
examination  is accurately weighed into the flask
A, fig. p. 22 ; and if it be a concentrated acid or a
solid, it  is mixed with or dissolved in 6 or 8 times
as much water.  The little glass tube e is then
nearly filled to the brim with pure bicarbonate of
soda in  powder, and a fine silk  thread is tied round
the  neck of the tube, by  means of which  it is
lowered down into the flask  A, so as  to remain
perpendicularly suspended when the %ork is placed
in the latter, the cord being held between the cork
and the mouth of the flask.  The flask B is about
half filled with oil of vitriol, and the tubes being
arranged in their places, as represented in the en-
graving, the whole apparatus is accurately weij,'
time having been allowed for the mixture of
                                           <rhed,
                                            acid
 and" water "to cool completely, should it have be-
 come hot by mixing.   The cork in the flask A is
 then slightly loosened, so as to allow the little tube
 containing the bicarbonate of  soda to fall into the
 acid, and is  again immediately fixed air-tight in
 its  place.  The evolution  of  carbonic acid now
 commences,  and continues until  the acid in the
 flask  A  is neutralized.  When this takes place,
 which is  easily seen by no bubbles being emitted
 on  shaking  the apparatus, the flask A is put into
 hot water, and kept there with occasional agita-
 tion until the renewed evolution of gas has com-
pletely ceased.  The  little wax  stopper is  then
taken off the tube a, the  apparatus taken out of
 the hot water, wiped dry, and  suction  applied by
 means of the mouth to the end of the tube d, until
the sucked air no longer tastes of carbonic  acid.
The whole is then allowed  to  become  quite cold,
 when it is replaced in the balance (the other scale
still containing the original weights) and weights
 added to  restore the equilibrium, which will  thus
give tho exact weight of the dry carbonic acid gas
that has been  expelled from  the  bicarbonate of
soda, by  the  action of  the sample examined, from
whence the quantity of real acid  it contained is
deduced by the following calculation :—Two mea-
sures of carbonic  acid bear the same proportion
to one measure of the anhydrous acid in question,
as the amount of the  carbonic acid expelled, does
to the amount sought of anhydrous acid.  Thus,
let us suppose, for instance, we had examined di-
lute sulphuric acid, and obtained 3 grs.  of carbonic
acid, the arrangement  would be (22-12x2) : 40 ::
3 : 2-72.   The amount of sulphuric acid  operated
upon, consequently, would contain 2-72 grs. of an-
hydrous acid.  Let us suppose the weight of this
 amount to have been 15 grs., the sulphuric  acid
  Ji, A wide-mouthed flask, capable of holdine 24 to 3 o*
containing sample for trial,/.
  B, Ditto, capable of holding 14 to 2 oz., partly filled with
oil of vitriol, g.                          '
  a e d.  Tubes fitting air-tight in the  flasks by means of
the corks i and j.                        '
  b, Piece of wax fitting air-tight on the end of a
  e, Small tube capable of holding about 1 drachm of pow-
dered bicarbonate of potash.                    ^
  A, Open end of the tube d.
  k, Silk cord fastened to the tube e. 
ACI                    23                     ACQ
 tinder examination would contain 18*13 per cent.
 of real acid;  for 15 : 2*72 :: 100 : 18*13.  The
 quantity of acid in the sample may also be found
 from the preceding table,  where  it will  be seen
 that 44 J grs. of dry carbonic acid are equal to the
 respective quantities of the different  acids, men-
 tioned  in the first and second columns, which  by
 the simple rule of three may be converted into the
 strength per cent.   The foregoing engraving is a
 sketch of the apparatus employed in  this opera-
 tion.
   Remarks.  This operation, though  perhaps ap-
 parently complicated, is in  reality very simple and
 easy to perform, when once understood.  It is not
 absolutely necessary that the bicarbonate of soda
 be perfectly pure, so long as it does not contain any
 neutral carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda.  The
 absence of  these salts  is absolutely necessary, for
 which reason Messrs. Fresenius  and Will direct the
 bicarbonate of commerce to be  purified in the fol-
 lowing manner:—For this  purpose, half a pound
 to one pound of it is reduced to a uniform powder,
 and a portion of it first tested with perchloride  of
 mercury ; if the result be satisfactory,  the powder
 is put  into a glass jar, and  covered with the same
 amount of  cold  rain water; it is then allowed  to
 stand for twenty-four hours, with frequent stirring ;
 the salt is then  placed upon a funnel, the tube of
 which is stopped with loose cotton, so  as to allow
 the ley to drop off; the salt is then washed several
 times with small quantities of cold rain water. The
 bicarbonate of soda, after this operation, is gener-
 ally pure, and adapted for  acidimetrical purposes.
 It is dried between some sheets of blotting-paper,
 without the aid  of heat, and kept for use in a well-
 closed glass bottle.  Before use, it may be  again
 tested  to ascertain its purity. The application of
 heat after the completion of the operation is indis-
 pensable, as, if it were neglected, from 25 to 30
 milligrammes less  of carbonic  acid would  be ob-
 tained.  The  bicarbonate of potassa may be used
 in this method of acidimetry with equal advantage
 as that of soda,  provided it  be pure ; but in either
 case it is always  proper to use an excess, so as to
 leave some  undecomposed  after the operation  is
 concluded.  A piece of litmus paper plunged into
 the liquid in A will not be reddened if the process
 has been properly managed.
   General Commentary.   The preceding sketch
 of the principal methods of acidimetry will, it  is
 hoped, be found sufficiently explicit to be generally
 understood by workmen in  laboratories, and by
 tradesmen and others to whom it may be an ob-
 ject to be able accurately and expeditiously to test
 the acids  that pass through  their hands.   The
 methods Nos. II. and III., and  especially the lat-
ter, combine the above requisites in an eminent
degree, and if a quantity of the test solution of the
proper strength be prepared  as there described,  it
may be kept unharmed for any  length of time, in
a stoppered  bottle,  and will  be  always  ready for
application wherever a good pair of scales or  a
graduated measure is to be found.  The only dan-
ger to be dreaded is over-saturation, and this may
be avoided by care and attention.  A good method
is to tint the acid sample with a few drops of lit-
mus, as described under  Alkalimetry, when it
will assume a reddish shade, which will gradually
deepen into purple as the point of saturation is ap-
 proached, and recover its blue color as soon as this
 point is arrived at.  To see that this  point is not
 passed, a piece of turmeric paper may be dipped
 into the solution„which will retain its color if nei-
 ther acid nor alkali predominate, but if the latter
 be in  excess,  will become  brown, as before de-
 scribed.  The ingenious and  elegant method  of
 Fresenius and Will, for which the English reader
 is indebted to Mr. Bullock, though admirable in the
 hands of a person accustomed to chemical manipu-
 lations, appears somewhat difficult to mere piacti-
 cal men, and  is liable  to failure in  their hands.
 The results, however, if the process be properly
 conducted, are  unimpeachable.
   In commerce, the strength of acids is frequently
 reckoned  with  reference  to a  standard, termed
 100 acidimetric degrees.  This is taken from  the
 circumstance that 91  grs. of commercial oil of vi-
 triol, of a sp. gr. of 1-845, exactly saturate 100 grs.
 of dried carbonate of soda, and hence is said to be
 of 100 acidimetrical degrees.  Any other acid re-
 quiring only 35, 50, or any other number of grains
 of the carbonate to saturate it, would in like man-
 ner be  termed  so many degrees  strong, the num-
 ber of grains representing in every case an equal
 number of  degrees.   This method of testing acids
 is a modification of that introduced by the French
 chemists, and though of course only conventional,
 and principally confined to commercial purposes,
 is especially adapted to practical men but ittle con-
 versant with chemistry,  yet very ready in retaining
 or calculating any thing on the centesimal scaley
 from  its similarity to monetary language and reck-
 oning.
   All the liquid acids admit  of being tested, with
 more or less accuracy, by ascertaining their sp. gr.,
 and where  this  plan  is  applicable, it will be de-
 scribed  in its alphabetical order.
   In conclusion, it may be  remarked, that when
 the acid is costly or scarce, a small quantity may
 be examined as  easily as a larger one.  Thus,  in-
 stead of 91 grs. mentioned above, (when speaking
 of acidimetric degrees,)  any fractional  portion of
 that weight may be employed instead:  13, 26, 39,
 or 52 grs. will yield similar results, by merely mul-
 tiplying the quantity of dried carbonate of soda by
 7 .| .^ or J, accordingly as 13 grs. or any of the fol-
 lowing  numbers  have been  used; in either case
 the product will be in acidimetrical degrees.  The
 centesimal method of calculation  admits of various
 useful applications, by means of  the Simple Rule
 of Three.
  ACONITE.   Syn. Wolfsbane, Monkshood,
 Aconitum napellus.   Caution.  As several arti-
 cles which follow are made from this plant, it may
 be necessary to  caution  parties against the  dan-
 gerous character of itself and preparations.   A fa-
 tal case of poisoning by eating the root instead of
 horseradish  is recorded by Dr. Pereira, and more
 recently twelve persons were  poisoned by swallow-
 ing ninety grains each of oxtract of aconite, in-
stead of ext. cochlearice,  three of whom died, and
the rest barely escaped losing their lives. (Merao-
riale  della  Medicina  contemporanea.)  Officinal
portions of the plant.   The root and leaves (of the
aconitum  paniculatum) are the parts ordered to be
used by the London college, while the Dublin col-
lege orders  only the leaves.   The  aconitum na-
pellus, an equally active  species of aconite, w the 
ACQ                    24                    ACQ
one employed for medical purposes in England, the
aconitum paniculatum not being procurable in any
quantity. (Pereira, Thompson.) The leaves should
be gathered as soon  as  the  flowers appear.   The
root should be taken  up in  autumn.   When the
whole plant is employed, it should be  gathered as
soon as the flowers begin to open.  Herb collectors
should be particular as to the period at which they
gather the several parts of this plant, as its strength
(quantity of aconitina) varies considerably with the
time of the year.
  ACONITE, EXTRACT OF.  Syn. Ext. of
Wolfsbane, Inspissated Juice of Aconite.
  I. (Extractum Aconiti,  P. L.)  Proc.  Bruise
the fresh leaves  of aconite, previously sprinkled
with water, in a marble  mortar, then  express the
juice,  and without depuration, evaporate  to the
consistence of an extract
  II.   (Ed. Ph.)  Beat the fresh leaves of aconite
to a pulp, and express the juice;  then subject the
residuum to percolation with rectified spirit, until
the latter passes through without being materially
colored; unite the expressed juice and the perco-
lated tincture, filter, distil off the spirit, and evap-
orate in a vapor or water bath.
  Remarks.  A variable and  uncertain prepara-
tion.  Numbness  and tingling  should follow its
application to  the lips or tongue, if it be of good
quality.  The extract of the Ed. Ph. is stronger
than that of either the  London or  Dublin.   The
two  latter are prepared in the  same  manner.
Prod.  1 cwt. of fresh leaves yield 5 lb. or 6 lb. of
extract.  Prop. Anodyne, sudorific, and narcotic ;
very poisonous.  Dose.   ^  gr. to 4 grs. once or
twice a day, in neuralgic pains, &c.
  ACONITE, EXTRACT  OF,  (Alcoholic.)
Make  a tincture  by macerating the fresh leaves
of aconite in twice their weight of rectified spirit,
for  14 days; express, filter, and  evaporate in  a
Water bath.
  Prop. Similar to the last,  but much more pow-
erful.   It has been exhibited internally in the form
of pills, and used externally combined with oint-
ment or plaster.   Dose.  One-twelfth to one-sixth
of a grain every three hours.
  ACONITE, PILLS OF  EXTRACT  OF,
(Alcoholic)   Prep. Alcoholic extract of aconite,
1 gr.; liquorice powder, 12 gr.; simple sirup or
Inucilage, q. s!  Proc. Mix  the first two  articles
with enough sirup to form a mass,  then divide
into six pills.   Dose.  One pill every three  or  four
hours.
  Remarks.   The utmost care must  be taken in
weighing and mixing the ingredients accurately.
  ACONITE, PLASTER OF,  (Spread.) Cur-
tis.  Prep.  Gently evaporate the tincture of  aco-
nite to the consistence of  a  soft  extract,  then
spread a very small portion over the surface  of a
common adhesive plaster.   Use.  Mr. Curtis of
Camden-town has strongly recommended this plas-
ter in neuralgia.   Remarks. A little of the alco-
holic extract may be employed with equal success
to that obtained fresh from the tincture.
   ACONITE, OINTMENT OF.  (Dr. Turn-
bull.)   Mix one  part of tj)e alcoholic extract  with
two parts of lard.  Employed  in neuralgia, &c.
   ACONITE, POWDER OF.   Prep.  Dry the
leaves cautiously by means of a current of warm
dry air, and at once reduce them to powder; place
the  product  in  dry vials,  whirh  must  be well
corked, and kept in an obscure place.
   Use, Dose, <J-r.  It has been given in  doses of
1  to 2 grs. in neuralgia, rheumatism, gout, scrof-
ula, syphilis,  &c,  but  its  employment  requires
great caution.
   Remarks.   This powder  is very liable to spoil
by keeping, and  unless recently and carefully pre-
pared,  can hardly be  depended upon.   If the
quality be  good,  a  numbness and tingling of the
tongue and lips will follow soon after  tasting it.
   ACONITE,  SOLUTION  OF.   Prep.  Dis-
solve 4 scr. of extract of aconite in 30 scr. of anti-
monial wine.
   Remarks.   This preparation is highly extolled
by Drs. Richter and Busse in rheumatic affections,
especially of a  chronic kind,  as well as dental
pains of a  similar nature.  Dose. 15  to 25 drops
every  two hours, gradually raised to 40 or  60
drops, in chronic rheumatic pains, toothache, cramp
of the stomach, &c. (Hufeland's Journal.)   1  dr.
of the extract to ^j of the  wine would be more
convenient proportions, and  but very slightly vary
from the above.
   ACONITE, TINCTURE OF.  I. (Pereira.)
Prep.  Reduce lb. i of newly dried root of aconite
to a coarse powder, and digest it in 1 £ pint of rec-
tified spirit of wine for 14 days;  then express the
tincture and filter.  Dose. 2 to 5  drops three times
daily (carefully watching its effects)  in- rheuma-
tism, gout, syphilis, &c, where a  narcotic sedative
is indicated.   Remarks.  Diluted with  water  it
forms  an excellent embrocation in  rheumatism,
neuralgia,  &c.   Applied  by  means   of  a  small
sponge, tied  to  the end of  a stick or glass rod.
 This formula is nearly the same as Dr. Turnbull's.
   II. (A. T. Thompson.)   Prep, ^ij of the leaves
or root to 1 pint  of rectified  spirits of wine.  As
above.  Dose. 5  drops,  gradually increased to 10
and upwards to 30 or 40.
   III. (Kempf. & Pol. Ph.)   Prep. Dried leaves
of aconite  §j, proof spirit ^viij.   As above.  Dose.
5 to 10 drops and upwards.
   IV.  (P. Codex.)  Prep. Dried  leaves of aconite
1), proof spirit %\v.  As before.
   ACONITIC  ACID.   An acid,  discovered  by
Peschier in the aconitum napellus, and by Bracon-
not in  the  equisetum fluviatile.  It exists in the
juice of the aconite combined with lime.
   Prep. Express the juice from the aconitum na-
pellus, previously bruised and sprinkled with wa-
ter, filter,  and add a solution of  acetate of lead ;
collect the  precipitate on a filter,  wash it well with
cold distilled water, then place it in a  glass vessel
with pure water, and pass  sulphureted hydrogen
gas through the vessel until  the whole of  the lead
is thrown down ;  lastly, filter and evaporate.  It
may be purified by resolution in ether.
   Prop. A white, odorless, semi-crystalline mass *
it tastes sour, dissol73e in alcohol, ether,  and wa-
ter,  and unites  with  the alkalis to  form soluble
aconitates, and with the metallic  oxides, salts that
are wholly or nearly insoluble in water.
   Remarks.  It  appears to  be identical with the
true pyrocitric  acid  obtained by  Berzehus and
Dahlstroom from citric acid.
   ACONITINA. Syn. Aconitia. Acomta. Aco-
nitin  Aconitine.  One of  the new  vegeto-alka-
line bodies to which chemists  have  given the 
ACQ                     25                     ACQ
generic name of alkaloid, discovered by  Gieger
and Hesse in 1833.  It exists  in  a greater or less
quantity in every species of the genus aconitum,
but the aconitum napellus is that usually employed
in England.  The alkali is found in every part of
the plant, but more especially in the  roots, where
it is combined with a peculiar acid, (aconitic.)
  Prep. (Process of the London Ph.)  Ing. Root
of aconite, dried and pounded, lbs. ij ;  rectified spi-
rit 3 gals.; dilute sulphuric acid,  solution  of am-
monia, purified animal  charcoal, of each  a suffi-
cient quantity.  Proc. Boil  the  aconite  with a
gallon of the spirit for an hour in a retort to which
d  receiver  is annexed ; pour off the liquor,  and
what remains again boil with another gallon of the
spirit and the recently distilled spirit, and pour off
this liquor.    Let the same thing be done  a third
time.  Then express  the  aconite;  and  all the
liquors being mixed  and  strained, let  the  spirit
distil: evaporate what  remains to the consistence
of an extract.   Dissolve this  in water,  and filter.
Evaporate the  liquor by a gentle heat, so that it
may  acquire the consistence  of a sirup.  To this
add of dilute sulphuric acid  mixed with  distilled
water,  a sufficient quantity to dissolve the aconi-
tine.   Next drop into it the solution  of  ammonia,
and  dissolve the  precipitated aconitine in dilute
sulphuric acid, mixed with water as before.  Then
add  the  animal charcoal,  thoroughly shaking the
vessel every quarter of an  hour ; lastly, strain and
again drop in the  solution  of ammonia, in  order to
throw down the aconitine ; wash and dry.
   II. M. Hesse has obtained  this alkaloid  by add-
ing hydrate  of magnesia  to  the decoction of the
dried leaves of the aconitum napellus, washing the
precipitate thus formed with water,  drying, and
then  treating it with boiling alcohol, which dis-
solves out the aconitina, and deposites greater part
of it  again on cooling, and the remainder  by gen-
tle evaporation.
   Prop. Pure  aconitina is generally in the fonn
of a white odorless powder, soluble in 150 times its
weight of water at 60°, and in 50 parts at 212°.
It dissolves freely  in hot alcohol and ether, and in
the dilute acids forming salts.  By the  formation
and decomposition of the latter, it  may be obtained
very  pure,  when it will crystallize  from its alco-
holic solution submitted to spontaneous evapora-
tion.   In this   process much,  however,  is left
behind in the mother liquor, and suffers decompo-
sition.
   Uses.  Dr.  Turnbull is the only  practitioner who
has employed this substance as a medicine  in Eng-
land.   He  recommended  it in very minute doses,
in the form of pills,  for neuralgic  affections, and
externally made into an embrocation and an oint-
ment.  The  danger attending its internal exhibi-
tion,  from  the  slightest error or want of skill in
dispensing it, has  lately induced  even Dr. Turn-
bull to cease to employ it in that way.
  Pur. There  is a spurious article imported under
the name of  aconitina, which sells for about 3d. a
grain, but possesses none of the properties  of that
prepared by .M r. Morson.   It  has  a yellowish gray
color, is only partially soluble in alcohol and ether,
and  leaves a white calcareous ash, when burnt in
a capsule of glass or platina.   The London Col-
lege say that it should be " largely soluble in  sul-
phuric ether, less so in alcohol, and nearly insoluble
in water."  " It is totally destroyed by heat, leav-
ing no salt of lime."
  Remarks.  This is  one of the  most poisonous
substances with which we are acquainted.  Too
much caution cannot, therefore, be taken in every
thing that concerns it.  It is stated that so sma'i
a portion as the one-fiftieth of a grain of Mr. Mjr-
son's aconitina has endangered the life of  an indi-
vidual. (Pereira, Thompson.)  The young dispenser
should be very  careful to satisfy himself as to the
nature of the termination of the Latin word, when
dispensing this  subtile  article.  The word aconiti,
in loose writing, may greatly resemble  the name
of the alkaloid, to the unaccustomed eye ;  but the
adoption of the latter article  for the former would
certainly doom the patient to an untimely grave,
and subject the dispenser to  all the inconvenience
of legal  proceedings.  It is  scarcely necessary to
caution the inexpert and careless to avoid this arti-
cle altogether.   There is but one maker in Eng-
land, and that  is  Mr. Morson ; and the  price at
which he sells his preparation (3s.  6d. a grain) will
give some idea  of the danger and difficulties  at-
tending its manufacture.  This alkaloid is said to
possess  " extraordinary power in some affections,
and would doubtless be very extensively employed,
were it not for  its extreme costliness."  The  rea-
son for introducing this article into the L. P. when
so many others, in general use among practition-
ers, are  omitted, remains a problem which it has
been  attempted in vain to solve.
   ACONITINA  OINTMENT.  (Turnbull.)
Prep. Aconitina, 16 grs.; alcohol, 12 drops ; olive
oil, 3ss; lard,  ^j-   Proc. Rub the  alkaloid with
the spirit, then  add the oil by drops, and after it is
thoroughly mixed, pour in the lard rendered nearly
liquid by heat; stir well until cold.  Use.  A small
portion  is  applied by the tips of the  fingers and
gentle friction,  in neuralgic  and rheumatic affec-
tions, &c.
   ACONITINA, SOLUTION OF.  Syn. Em-
brocation  of Aconitina.   (Turnbull.)  Prep.
Dissolve  8 grs.  of aconitina in  f §ij  of  spirit of
wine.  Use. As an embrocation in the above cases.
It should be applied by means of a sponge fastened
to the end of a stick or glass rod.
   Caution. Neither this nor  the preceding article,
nor  any similar preparation  of the alcoholic  ex-
tract, should be used if the skin be abraded.
  .ACORUS.  Syn. Sweet Flag. Calamus aro-
maticus.   Ac.  verus.  Ac. Asiaticus.  Ac. cala-
mus.  The root of this plant has been employed
in medicine  ever since  the  days  of Hippocrates.
It has been recommended in  ague,  and combined
with  bitters  in dyspepsia,  &c.   It is generally
taken in the form of infusion or powder.   The
former  is made by digesting 1 oz. of the bruised
root in 1 pint of boiling water for an hour in a cov-
ered vessel.  The  dose is a teacupful.  The pow-
der is given in  doses of 3j to 3j  once or twice a
day.
   Remarks.  By distillation with water, the fresh
root yields a fragrant essential oil, used in per-
fumery and for flavoring spirit.   It is sometimes
given in stomach complaints : 1 drop on a piece of
sugar.  A fragrant water,  also used  for similar
purposes to the infusion and  oil, is made by distil-
ling 1 lb. of the root along with 2 gallons of water,
drawing over only 1 gallon. 
ADU
26
AGR
   ACROLEINE.  When  fixed oils  are  exposed
 to a heat sufficient to produce ebullition, acroleine,
 mixed with carbureted hydrogen, is given off!   By
 passing the vapor  through a  series of well-cooled
 bottles, parti) filled with water;  and by redistilling
 the contents of the  second and third bottles, this
 substance  will be obtained in the form of an oily-
 liquid, possessing a very disagreeable odor.   It has
 never been obtained in an isolated state, and little
 is known concerning its precise  composition.
   ADIPIC ACID.   One of a series of new acids
 discovered  by Laurent, among the products of the
 oxidation of oleic acid, by means of pure colorless
 nitric acid.
   Prep. Gently evaporate the mother liquor, left
 from the process of preparing pimelic acid, set it
 aside  for some days, and then collect the crystals
 deposited ;  repeat  this operation until the liquor
 ceases to yield crystals.   Then  dissolve  them  in
 hot water,  skim off the oil, filter, evaporate,  and
 crystallize.   Dissolve  in  ether,  and evaporate  to
 one half; collect the crystals and repeat the pro-
 cess a second time ; next dissolve the two crops of
 crystals separately in  alcohol, when adipic acid,
 in roundish crystalline grains, and dipic acid,  in
 plates, will  be obtained.
  Prop. Color brown, soluble in  hot water, vola-
 tile above 266°.  It unites with  the bases, forming
 salts called adipates, which are  mostly soluble.
  ADIPOCERE. Syn. Adipocera.  (Aueps Fat,
 and Cera  Wax.)  Grave Wax.  Hist.  On the
 removal of the bodies from the  Cimetiere des Iu-
 nocens in Paris, in 17t<6,  it  was found that they
 were  for the most part converted into a substance
 resembling  spermaceti, to which the name of adi-
 pocere was given. Fourcroy was  the first who
 submitted this substance to  a scientific  examina-
 tion,  though  it is said to have been previously
 known to grave-diggers, and  that it  is even men-
 tioned by Lord Bacon.
  App.  It  was proposed  by Lavoisier to produce
 this substance  artificially, for the purposes of the
 arts.  Dr. Gibbs of Oxford found that lean beef,
 suspended  in running water, was converted  into
 fat  (adipocere) at the end  of  a month.   Three
 pieces of lean mutton were immersed in  each of
the three mineral  acids, in  separate vessels.   At
 the end of  three days, that in the nitric acid  had
changed into  a soft fatty matter; that in the mu-
riatic  was less altered ; while that immersed in the
sulphuric had become black and carbonized.  At-
 tempts have been made to convert the dead bodies
 of cattle (carrion) into  adipocere, for the purposes
 of the candlemaker and the soap-boiler, but with-
 out success.  From the experiments of Von Hark-
 hol, extending over a period of 25 years, it appears
 that the carcasses of mammalia, immersed in run-
 ning water, are after a lapse  of  three years con-
 verted into  a pure, hard, scentless fat, resembling
 white wax, perfectly  fit  for  the  manufacture of
 soap  and candles.  Exposure to stagnant water
 gives more  fat, but of an impurer kind.   For fur-
 ther information on this subject, the  reader is  re-
 ferred to ' Ure's Chemical Dictionary,' and to the
 ' Dictionary of Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines,'
 by the same author.
   ADULTERATION.   The  fraudulent corrup-
 tion of pure articles, by admixture with others of
 less  value, for the  sake of greater  gain.  The
 .... ans of detecting the adulterations generally met
 with in trade, will be found explained, under each
 article of importance, in its alphabetical order.
   JIGIRINON'.  A once popular ointment, made
 by macerating the fruit of the poplar, in six times
 its weight of melted lard, and straining. It is much
 employed in some parts of the Continent.
   VESCULINE.  A new alkaline substance, said
 to have been  found  in the  horse-chestnut.  It is
 probably  extractive matter combined with lime.
   /KTHIOPS.   Syn. Ethiops.   A  name give
 l>y the older chemists to several  black powder*
 on account of their color.  (See the following ar-
 ticles.)
   .ETHIOPS,  ANIMAL.  This was a powder
 obtained  by burning various animals, as the hedge-
 hog, mole, sparrow, <fec, to  a cinder.
   /ETHIOPS,  ANTIMONIAL.   Sijn.  Ethi-
 ops  of Antimony.  ^Ethiops antimonialis.   Prep.
 Sulphuret of antimony, two parts ;  quicksilver, one
 part.   Proc.  Triturate until the  globules  are  ex-
 tinguished.  Dose. 3 to 5 grs., gradually raised to
 a scruple, in some cutaneous diseases.
   /ETHIOPS,  GOLDEN.  Syn. TEthiops  au-
 ripigmentum.  This ethiops is made by triturating
 together the red  sulphuret of arsenic and metallic
 mercury.   It is  poisonous, and is never employed
 in medicine at the present day.
   .ETHIOPS,  JOVIALIS.  Prepared by rub-
 bing together equal parts of tin, quicksilver,  and
 sulphur.   It was once given in skin diseases.
   iETHOGEN.  A  compound of nitrogen with
 boron,  named from its combinations with the met-
 als, producing a  phosphorescent  light, in  the oxi-
 dating flame of the blow-pipe.
   Pn-p.  Mix seven parts of powdered anhydrous
 boracic acid, with nine parts of  melon, place  the
 mixture in  a crucible lined with charcoal,  and ap-
 ply  heat,  then transfer the product into a well-
 stopped vial. (Balmain.)
   Prop.  A light powder,  resembling magnesia,
 infusible,  and nearly insoluble in water.  It forms
 compounds with the  metals,  called aethonides
 These  may be prepared by either exposing a mix-
 ture of the metal and uethogen to heat, or a mix-
 ture of the  cyanide of the metal with boracic acid
   AGRICULTURE.  (From ager, a field,  ana
 cob, I  till.)  The  art or business  of the farmer;
 the  cultivation of the  soil in large quantities, for
 the purpose of raising crops and live stock.   In iti
 more  extended sense,  it  includes road-making,
 embanking, draining, planting,  <£c.   It is one of
 the  most important of the useful  arts, and when
 combined with chemistry is not  unworthy of the
 name of  science.  The following  short sketch of
 the history and principles of agriculture is from the
 pen of J.  C. Loudon, F. L.S., H. S3., &c.
   Hist.  " The  origin of  agriculture  may  be
 traced  to remote antiquity, and was doubtless co-
 eval  with that of fixed-property.   In the primeval
 state of society, the sole riches of the.husbandman
 consisted  of flocks and herds, which were kept in
 a state of movement from one point to another, in
| search of pasturage and water;  but as population
| increased,  mankind  adopted a fixed  abode ;  this
| could only  be done by bestowing on the site  a cer-
i tain degree of labor and care, which became as it
 were  the price  paid  for constituting it private
: property.   At this point in the progress of civiliza- 
AGR                    27                    AGK
 tion, agriculture  may be said to have commenced.
 Previously, the natural products  of the  soil were
 merely consumed where they were found, but now
 men sought to increase them by culture.
   " The culture of land will be found to have de-
 pended  in every country principally on its climate
 and civilization; though partly also on its govern-
 ment and  population.  In the warmer  climates,
 where nature produces fruits in the greatest abun-
 dance, for the food of both men  and animals,  and
 where very little care is required  to procure shelter
 or clothing, agriculture has  made but  little prog-
 ress ; because it is comparatively unnecessary for
 the prosperity of the inhabitants.  In climates of
 a directly opposite character, agriculture has made
 equally slight progress, from the  natural obstacles
 opposed to  it.  In such countries, for example, as
 Greenland and Kamschatka, only one or two kinds
 of corn crops can be cultivated, and  perennial
 grasses  can scarcely exist;  because  the  ground is
 covered with snow for eight months of the year;
 and in these countries agriculture is but little prac-
 tised, as the chief resources of the inhabitants for
 food are found in the sea and  forest.  In interme-
 diate climates, such  as those of South Britain, the
 middle of France, and the North of Italy, the  soil
 may be labored by man throughout the whole
 year, and there is scarcely any limit to the kind
 of crops which may  be raised on it.   In such cli-
 mates, agriculture is calculated to attain  the high-
 est degree  of perfection; and comparing different
 parts of the zones of this description of climate«1n
 both hemispheres, perhaps it may be asserted, that
 the best agriculture in the world is to be found in
 Britain and the North of Italy ; viz., in East  Lo-
 thian and  Norfolk,  in the  Vale  of Arno and on
 the banks of the Po.  The kind of agriculture prac-
 tised in different countries is also  of course adapted
 to the  difference of  climate.  Thus, towards  the
 North Pole, the great art  of the  cultivator would
 be to increase the heat; or,  rather,  in  adopting
 such measures as would best guard plants and  an-
 imals against  cold, rains,  and the vicissitudes of
 the  weather.  Towards the south, on  the other
 hand, the art of the cultivator  would be chiefly di-
 rected to moderating the extreme heat and supply-
 ing moisture.   It thus appears  that the agriculture
 of any country depends on  its latitude ;  and that
 in high and low latitudes, where  there are greater
 extremes of climate and  temperature to contend
 with, agriculture must be  of a more difficult and
 hazardous description than in intermediate or more
 temperate  climates, such as that of Syria, where
 the art is supposed to have  originated, or in Eu-
 rope, where it may be considered as having attain-
 ed its highest  degree of perfection.
   " In tracing the progress  of  this art in civilized
 countries, we  have only to follow the chronology
 of general history.  As  the Greeks and  Romans
 appear to have arrived at as great a degree of per-
 fection in legislation  as the  moderns, so they ap-
 pear to  have  attained nearly equal excellence in
 the practice of agriculture.   Till within the pres-
 ent century, very  little difference existed between
 the most approved  agriculture  of climates analo-
 gous to that of Italy, and  the  agriculture of the
 Romans  as described by Cato,  Columella, and
other ancient  writers.  The  chief  superiority  of
the moderns consists  in their machinery, and  in
 their knowledge of the science of the art; the last
 being of very recent date, and by no means general
 among practitioners,  (farmers.)   By science, im-
 proved breeds  both of plants  and animals  have
 been originated, and by modern machinery a  more
 perfect tillage  has been produced, and also a  more
 complete separation of the produce from the soil,
 from the refuse of the plants  which bore it, and
 from all impurities.
   " The history of British agriculture begins with
 the Roman Conquest.  Julius Caesar found the in-
 habitants in a  state of semi-barbarism; but Agri-
 cola left them in possession of all the arts of civili-
 zation then known. Agriculture declined with the
 invasion of the Saxons ; but was preserved through
 the dark ages  after the establishment  of Christi-
 anity by the intelligence of the religious establish-
 ments, who gradually became possessed of the
 greater portion of the landed property of the coun-
 try.  Agriculture revived in the reign of Henry
 VIII.,  and in  that  of Elizabeth, during the long
 peace which then prevailed, and  the  consequent
 security of property;  and it afterwards declined
 during the civil wars;  it again  revived  during the
 reigns  of William and Mary,  Queen Anne, and
 George I., in consequence of the  introduction of
 the Flemish  husbandry, which  included the cul-
 ture of turnips and  clover.  A still greater stimu-
 lus to the art was given during the reign of George
 III., by the introduction of ploughs drawn by two
 horses, instead of four or six ; of the drill system,
 and its  application  to the culture  of turnips and
 potatoes;  and by the  improvements made in the
 breeding and fearing  live  stock, by Bakewell and
 Culley.  Early in the present century, the thresh-
 ing-machine was an important addition to agricul-
 tural machinery; the reaping-machine, the  fre-
 quent drain system, a*hd  the  subsoil  plough, are
 improvements just coming into use ; and the next
 grand attempt will probably be the general appli-
 cation of 6team, instead of horses and cattle, in
 tillage and other field operations.
   " The principles of agriculture are derived from
 a knowledge of the nature of plants and animals,
 of soils and manures, and of the  climate, the sea-
 sons, and the weather.  Plants are organized be-
 ings, which take up their  food by means of roots,
 from the interior of the soil ;*  animals are organ-
 ized beings, which select their food from vegetables
 growing on the surface of the  soil, or from other
 animals, and this food is prepared before being ab-
 sorbed into  their system, by means of  a stomach.
 The  climate of a country determines both  the
 plants and the animals which can  be  produced in
 it; and the  seasons  and the weather,  the times
 when the plants and animals of the given climates
 are in particular states of vigor or torpidity : and
 when certain  operations of culture can be  per-
 formed on them or on the soil.
   " The nature of these elementary materials be-
 ing understood,  even though  imperfectly, certain
 improvements  can be effected  in  them by  art,
 which are greatly conducive to the  increase of ag-
 ricultural produce.  The kinds of plants and  ani-
 mals suitable to any given  climate,  soil, or season,
 are determined by the  laws  of  nature ; but from
 among these kinds it  is in the power  of man to
  * And by means of their leaves from the atmosphere.—
A. J. C. 
AGR                    28                    AGR
 make a selection ; and with the plants and  aui-
 mals so selected, to originate others, adapted to his
 purposes in a superior degree.  Hence  the impor-
 tance of selecting certain breeds of animals, rather
 than others, and of making choice not merely of
 one kind of bread corn rather than another, but of
 particular varieties  of that corn.  Thus, in the
 case of wheat, there are some kinds, the grains of
 which, under no circumstances, weigh  more than
 from 50 to 55 lbs. per bushel ; while there are  oth-
 ers which never weigh less than 60 lbs. a bushel.
 The nourishment of plants has been found  to de-
 pend chiefly on organized matter contained  in the
 soil, and produced chiefly by the  decay of other
 plants.  This is a law of nature, which, followed
 up by man, has  led to the use of manures ; as the
 fact everywhere observed, that no plant can live
 without water, has led to irrigation;  and, as the
 observation  that  the excess of  water  is injurious,
 has led to surface and under-draining.   The in-
 fluence of temperature and shelter over the growth
 of plants, and the thriving of animals, is "every-
 where observable in wild nature ; and  though the
 temperature of a climate cannot be changed, yet
 that of most localities may be improved  by shelter
 from cold winds, and  by diminishing  evaporation
 from the surface, by means of surface and under-
 draining, to  draw off the superfluous water.   The
 most important principles in the theory of agricul-
 ture are those which  relate to  the  improvements
 of plants and animals, and of the soil.
   '•  The improvement of the soil may be comprised
 under two heads,—the improvement of its earthy
 part;  and the  increase  of the organized matter
 added to the earth.  The improvement of the soil,
 considered as a mixture of different earths, consists
 in rendering it more or less retentive of water, by
 diminishing or increasing *ie size of tho particles
 of which it is composed: for  example, by the  ad-
 dition of clay in some cases, and of sand in others ;
 and  by improving the  earthy condition of the soil,
 by the addition of such  earths as  may be  in too
 small quantities, or absent altogether.  It has been
 found, from  experience, that those  soils  which are
 composed of several primitive earths are naturally
more productive  than those  that consist of only
one earth, all other circumstances being  the same ;
and it has also been found that no soil will maintain
its fertility, for any length of time, that does  not
contain a certain portion  of calcareous earth in its
composition.  Hence,  one  of the  most common
plans of improving all soils not calcareous, is by
 the addition of lime ; and of all  other soils by mix-
mg them with such as are of an opposite descrip-
 tion.
  " All soils are rendered more productive by the
 addition of organized  matter, or what are called
 manures.  Manures may be  either composed of
 animal  or vegetable matter; and these may be
 either applied separately or together, and in a fresh
 state or in a state of  decay.   It has been found
 from experience, and explained  from chemical  ex-
periments,  that  every description  of manure is
rendered more effective by being made to undergo
the putrefactive  fermentation before it is applied ;
and this process is carried on with solid  manures,
in heaps or  dunghills,  and with liquid manure in
tanks or wells.   In the application  of  manure to
Boils, the great object  of the cultivator  is to apply
! enough for the ensuing  crop, and as little more
 as possible;  because all  that  is applied and  not
 immediately  used,  is liable, to a certain extent,
 to have  its particles carried off by  evaporation
 (volatilization) into the atmosphere, or by rain into
I rivers or the sea.  But even if this were not  the
 case, to apply manure to a soil where  it would  not
 be immediately  turned  into a  crop, would be  an
 expenditure of capital without interest."
   Draining,  or  "the operation  of freeing a  soil
 from superfluous water, is of equal or perhaps more
 importance than supplying it  with manure;  be-
 cause, though without manure, plants will not grow
 with great  luxuriance  and  vigor, yet  with  too
 much water, they will not grow at all, or will  be.
 come sickly.   The  excess of watti may proceed
 from three causes: an  extremely moist  climate,
 the only alleviation  to which is arranging the sur-
 face with frequent  furrows,  and short slopes be-
 tween them, so as to  carry off  the rain as soon aa
 it falls; a soil very retentive  of moisture, so as to
 hold  it like a sponge, in which  frequent under-
 drains, as near together as the surface furrows, are
 required; and, lastly, a  soil  lying over  a subsoil
 abounding in springs, or, in other words, which has
 the substrata charged  with water, which is contin-
 ually oozing  out through the surface soil.  Thu
 remedy for this last evil is, by under-drains of con-
 siderable depth, so arranged as to collect the water
 from the substrata, and carry it off before it reaches
 the surface soil."
 : Comminution  and  labor tend considerably  to
 promote the fertility of soils.  " After draining, and
 being rendered of a proper texture and  composi-
 tion, by the admixture of  such  earthy ingredients
 as may be wanting, a soil requires, to  render it fit
 to be easily penetrated by the roots of plants, to be
 frequently stirred and  comminuted.  This is done
 by the mechanical  operations of ploughing, har-
 rowing, &c., which, aided by the  alternate  action
 of droughts and rains, frosts and thaws, and sum-
 mer and winter, have  the effect of pulverizing the
 soil.   To  maintain a soil in a fertile state, it is not
 only necessary to supply it with manure, in pro-
 portion to the crops which have been carried from
 it, but to vary the crops which it  is made to pro-
 duce.  It has  been found, from  experience, that
 crops of plants belonging to the same natural fam-
 ily do not succeed  so well after each other,  as
 when crops of a different family are  made to in-
 tervene.   Thus, the several grasses alternate bet-
 ter with  root  or  herbage crops, than with one
 another ;  or, one  of those grasses of which the
seed is ripened will  alternate better with another
in which  the herbage only constitutes the crop,
than with one of the same kind as itself.   Some-
thing analogous to the succession' of  crops takes
place also with regard to the pasturage of animals,
and it  is  found advantageous to put  cattle in a
field that  has been grazed by horses,  rather than
to put horses after horses, or cattle after cattle.
   " Thus, the principles  of agriculture  may  be
comprised under  the selection of breeds of plants
and  animals;  the improvement of the  soil and
subsoil; the culture or movement of the soil; the
improvement of the local  climate by  shelter and
drying ; and  the succession  of crops.  All these
principles  have been derived from experience ; and
they are only partly accounted for by chemistry 
AGR                    29                    AGR
 »r natural philosophy.  They are not, however, on
 that account, the less true and useful.  It is singu-
 lar that they should all have been known to the
 Romans, and,  to all appearance,  as fully as to
 modern cultivators.
   " The practice of agriculture, in Britain, may
 be included under the heads of the choice, hiring,
 and stocking a farm;  and its general culture
 and management.  In the choice of a farm, in any
 given county, the soil is of the greatest importance ;
 because, though this may be so improved by art and
 expense, as  almost to render a bad soil equal to a
 good one, yet in practice  this would be so expen-
 sive as by no means to answer the  purpose of the
 farmer. It may be thought that the vicinity of good
 roads, of a canal, a river, or a market town, are ob-
 jects of more importance than the nature of the soil;
 but this is not the case, because, supposing the roads
 to be bad and the markets at a distance, it is only
 necessary to change the system of cultivation and
 management, and to turn the produce of the farm
 into some description of live stock,  which may be
 driven to any distance, even  over a country with-
 out roads.  If it be alleged that the nature of the
 climate is of paramount  importance to the soil, in
 the choice of a  farm, we allow that in an extended
 sense it is;  for  example,  if a cultivator had the
 choice of any part of Europe, there are doubtless
 many districts where the climate is far more favor-
 able for all the  operations and products of agricul-
 ture than others;  and if even he had the choice
 of every part of Britain, he might find some local-
 ities much more favorable than others. In general,
 however, the actual choice of any cultivator lies
 within a given locality, where  the climate, in a
 practical point  of view, is everywhere the same.
 Next to soil and climate in the choice of a farm,
 the  state  of the buildings and fences on it, the
 state of the  roads, and the distance from a mar-
 ket  town, a canal, or a seaport, are of importance.
 Without buildings of sufficient  extent, and prop-
 erly situated, and of the proper kinds, the business
 of a farm cannot be carried on ;  and though some
 farms and some kinds of farming may be conduct-
 ed without fences, yet, in general, fences are  as
 necessary as roads.   The last circumstance which
 we shall notice  in  this cursory glance, is the na-
 ture o/the  tenure by which the  farm is  to be
 held, and on the covenants and conditions of the
 lease.   No cultivator who calculates  on the  em-
 ployment of considerable  capital, will risk it on
 lands of another, without some security for having
 it  returned ;  and this security  is a lease for a fixed
 number of years.  On the other hand, no proprie-
 tor of lands will  delegate the possession of them to
 another, for a fixed  number  of  years, without a
 valuable consideration;  and  this he  reserves to
 himself in the  lease, under the  denomination of
 rent.  As lands  in a state of cultivation, and build-
 ings and fences in a state of repair, are  liable to be
 injured and deteriorated in  value  by  bad manage-
 ment or neglect, the proprietor guards against
 these accidents by certain  conditions in the lease.
   "  The culture  and management  of a farm de-
pend jointly on  the  soil  and climate,  and on the
kind of  produce most in  demand  and reckoned
most profitable.   In  the  mountainous  districts of
 Great  Britain, where the  climate is  cold, almost
 the only kind of farming practised is that of breed-
 ing and rearing different kinds of live stock, such
 as sheep or cattle, which are sold for being fattened
 in more favorable  districts; or horses, in order to
 supply the  demand for these animals for the" pur-
 poses of draught or saddle.  The mountainous dis-
 tricts of Scotland  and Wales  are chiefly devoted
 to the  breeding  and rearing of sheep and  black
 cattle, which are  sold to the farmers of the low
 countries, in both kingdoms, in order to be fattened
 for the shambles.  The hilly districts of Yorkshire
 and Lancashire are chiefly employed in breeding
 and rearing of horses.  In the low country of the
 east coast of Great Britain, the climate  being dry,
 is favorable to the culture of  corn; while  on the
 west coast, and  in Ireland generally, the climate
 being moist, is more favorable to pasture.
   " The farm  products most  universally  in de-
 mand are corn and butchers' meat, and  these may
 be produced on  every farm, the soil of whicn ad-
 mits of being kept  alternately in  tillage and  in
 grass.  Butchers' meat may be produce^ 'n  much
 greater abundance on such soils as admit  of the
 culture of root and herbage crops, such as turnips,
 potatoes, and clover;  while corn may be produced
 most abundantly  in strong,  loamy soils,  within
 reach of  extensive sources of manure.   The most
 profitable description of crop will frequently be found
 to be different  from that  which is in most general
 demand; for  example, in the neighborhood of a
 large town, the culture of culinary  vegetables, on
 a large scale, in  what are called farm gardens, is
 generally far more profitable than  the  raising of
 corn or butchers' meat.   Even the raising of food
 for cattle, in such situations, is found to yield more
 profit than ordinary farming.   There are aiso par-
 ticular crops which may be occasionally cultivated,
 which yield extraordinary profits;  such as  drugs
 used in  dyeing,  or  in  some manufacture not
 common; plants of some new and  improved va-
 riety of the kinds in general cultivation, for their
 seed, &c.
   " The  agriculture  of Britain, and  especially
 that of the  low countries of Scotland, excels that
 of most other countries  having similar climates,
 from the superior skill, intelligence, and capital of
 the farmer; the  considerable length of the lease
 which is granted by the landlord ; the superiority
 of the implements  and machines employed; and
 the improved breeds of animals and plants which
 are reared or cultivated.  Perhaps the nearest ap-
 proach  to perfection in the culture of arable land,
 in any part  of Britain, is  made in some parts of
 East Lothian ;  where, in consequence of deep-
 ploughing,  substituting under-drains for furrows,
 regularly supplying manure, and alternating clean-
 ing and restoring crops with exhausting crops, as
 great an  amount of produce is obtained as can
 stand on the surface at one time. The agriculture
 of Britain is most defective  in  the  southern dis-
 tricts of the is'and, in consequence of the. fanners
 being the very opposite of those in the northern
 districts, the want or the shortness  of the leases,
 and the restrictive clauses of those leases, by which
 the tenant is prevented exercising his own  judg-
 ment, and is obliged to follow the routine prescribed
 in the leases of a former age."
  For further information on this important  sub-
ject the reader is referred to  the  * Cyclopaedia of
 Agriculture,' which  contains the best system of 
AGU                   30                    ALA
practical agriculture extant.  The scientific agri-
culturist is  also especially advised to  peruse the
' Agricultural Chemistry' of Liebig, which explains
the application of chemical science to the purposes
of the farmer, and the improvement of the soil,
and contains much that is valuable of a scientific
description connected with agriculture.  The prin-
ciples  and practice laid down  in  these important
works, if applied with only moderate skill and in-
dustry, cannot fail  to produce a degree of success,
unattainable by mere unassisted experience. Seve-
ral articles will also be found in this Cyclopaedia,
containing information  respecting farming.  (See
the heads Farming, Manures.)
   AGRIMONY.  Syn. Agri.monia.  Agrimonia
eupatoria.  A common field plant  flowering  in
June and July.  It is frequently given in the form
of infusion or powder,  in certain skin diseases,
especially the itch.  It is tonic and stomachic.
  AGRIMONY TEA.  Syn. Infusion of Agri-
mony.  Prep.  Pour 1 pint of boiling water on 1 oz.
of the fresh tops of agrimony (gathered before the
flowers  are  formed) and  1  oz. of liquorice root,
(sliced,) macerate  for one hour in a  close vessel
and a warm situation, then strain for use.  Dose.
A teacupful or more two or three  times a day.
  AGUE.   Syn. Intermittent Fever.  A spe-
cies of fever which comes on only at stated inter-
vals, (hence called intermittent,) leaving the patient
between the periods of attack, in  apparently good
health.  The attacks of this disease usually return
with great regularity,  and have  in  consequence
been distinguished  by names having reference  to
the periods  of their visits.   From  this  charac-
teristic  nosologists  have  divided  them into the
Quotidian,  returning  after a  lapse of 24  hours.
Tertian......48   do.
Quartan.....72   do.
and so on until the interval extends to nine or ten
days, as in the nonanus and decimanus.
  Syntp. I. The cold stage, marked by debility,
paleness, coldness, drowsiness, and general rigors
throughout the body, impaired respiration, nausea,
vomiting, &c.  These symptoms gradually abate,
and are followed by—II.  The  hot stage, distin-
guished by the usual marks of fever, and, in some
cases, violent deh/um, &c.   After a certain time
the disease passes into—III. The sweating stage,
marked by a copious perspiration breaking out, and
a gradual return of most  of the functions of the
body to their ordinary state.  In many cases, how-
ever, not only do the symptoms, but the succession
of the stages and their duration also vary.
   Causes. Exposure to the miasmata of marshes
and stagnant water, putrefying animal and vege-
table matter, &.C., poor diet, exposure to cold  and
damps,  damp bed-chamber or linen;  excessive
grief, fatigue, &c.
   Remedial measures.   I. Palliative.  An emetic
jr a full dose of opium or laudanum has been re-
commended at the  commencement of  the fit, fol-
lowed by a warm foot, hip, or full bath. Stimulants,
as ether, spirits, &c, are also used, but when they
fail to relieve they tend to aggravate  the distem-
per.   When any given method succeeds it should
be again had recourse to on the approach of an-
other fit.
  II.  Curative. This consists in the administration
of febrifuge medicine during the intermission of the
paroxysm. The principal of these are bark and its
preparations and liquor of arsenic.  The stomach
and bowels  having been well  cleaned out, by the
administration of two or three doses  of  purgative
medicine, 2 to 5 grs. of the  disulphate of quinine
may be given three or four  times  daily ; or when
this cannot be obtained,  1  to 2 dr.  of  powdered
cinchona  bark may be used  instead.  When the
stomach cannot  bear  the powder,  the  infusion,
decoction, or extract may be employed.   Quinine,
properly administered, generally cures ague.  The
solution of arsenite of potassa (liquor arsenicalis,
P. L.) is also a valuable medicine  in  ague, but its
use requires great care and  attention. Under the
name of " tasteless ague drop," it has cured thou-
sands.   The dose should be at first five drops twice
a day, gradually raised to 20  drops.  This is the
common ague medicine of the fen counties of Eng-
land.   In a certain book of travels through Eng-
land it is said to be  " a common  practice for the
farmers in the marshy parts  of  Essex  to fetch
their wives from the uplands, who seldom live long
in the low countries; so that most of the farmers
there  have  had several  wives, and  many make
much money by  this system  of wifeing."  Does
this mortality arise from the ague  or  the ague
remedy ?  It may be further remarked, that warm
clothing, and a light nutritious  diet should be adopt-
ed during the curative course, and if the patient
reside in a  swampy or marshy district, he  should
remove as quickly as possible to one of a  drier  and
opposite description.
  AUGUSTINE.   Syn. Augustina. Tromsdorf
gave this name to a substance found by him in the
Saxon beryl, which he conceived to be a  base ca-
pable  of neutralizing the acids.   Vauquelin  has
since shown it to be  a  phosphate of  lime, (which
see.)
  ALABASTER.   A white  calcareous or gyp-
seous kind of soft stone, used by sculptors, and for
casting.  The variety employed for the latter pur-
pose is that most generally known, and when burnt,
forms the substance called plaster  of Paris.
  ALABASTER,   OR   PLASTER,  TO
BRONZE.   I. Prepare  the surface  by  sizing it
over once or twice, and when dry touch the promi-
nent parts of the figure with the bronze No. 1,  and
the remainder with No. 2.  Then soften down the
lines of mixture of the two paints with a badger's
hair tool.
  Bronze 1. Grind  equal parts of Dutch metal
and the following paint together, and thin the mix-
ture with a little oil or turpentine.
  Bronze 2. Grind Prussian  blue, verdigris,  and
ochre separately with oil, then mix them together
in such proportions as will produce a bronze green
color.
  II.  Touch over the prominent parts of the  fig-
ure with Bessimer's gold  paint, or instead thereof
use gold or Dutch leaf,  then cover Ihe remainder
of the figure as before, with  the paint No. 2.
  Remarks.  When the lights  are managed with
taste, especially on the prominent parts of the  fea-
tures in a statue, it produces a grand  effect.  (See
Bronzi.su. j
  ALABASTER,  TO CLEAN.  Proc.  Wash
the article with warm soap  and water, then rinse
in clean water.  If the  surface is polished it must
be finished by touching it over with  shave-grass, 
ALA                     31                     ALC
and afterwards with French chalk, or talc, as di-
rected  under the article on  Polishing Alabaster.
Grease spots may be removed with a little  clean
oil of turpentine.
  ALABASTER,  TO  ETCH.  Proc.  Cover
every part of the surface of the model or cast, ex-
cept the portion to be etched, with a mixture of one
part of white wax, dissolved in four parts of  oil of
turpentine, thickened with finely  powdered white-
lead.  When  this coating  has set,  immerse  the
article in pure water, and  allow it to remain for
from 20 to 50 hours, according to the effect in-
tended to be produced.  Then take it out, remove
the superfluous water, wash off  the varnish with
oil of turpentine, and carefully brush the etched
parts over with powdered gypsum.
  ALABASTER,  TO HARDEN.  Proc.  I.
Mix up the plaster  of Paris with a weak  solution
of gum Arabic, (1  oz. to 1 pint  of water,) or, for
common purposes, a  weak  solution  of size.  Re-
marks.  This not only renders  the plaster harder,
but gives the surface a pleasing smoothness.   (See
also Kee.ve's  Marble Cement.)
   II. Expose the pieces in a baker's oven for 24
hours or longer, according to their thickness, then
withdraw them, and when  cool, dip them  twice
into pure  river water,  letting them remain  im-
mersed each time from 2 to 5 minutes ; lastly) ex-
pose them  to  the air for 3 or 4 days before polish-
ing. (M. Tissot.) Remarks. This plan is followed
for pieces of statuary, &c. worked out of the solid
gypsum.  It is not adapted so well to plaster casts.
   ALABASTER,  TO JOIN.  Ornaments of
alabaster or plaster may  be joined together by
means  of  a little white of  egg, thickened with
finely-powdered  quicklime,  or by a  mixture of
newly-baked and finely-powdered plaster of Paris,
mixed up with the least possible quantity of water.
   ALABASTER, TO  POLISH.   Proc. I. The
object, received  in the rough state from the  hands
of the sculptor  or  turner, is rubbed with finely-
powdered pumice-stone, or dried shave-grass  (equi-
setum)  and water,  and  afterwards  with  a paste
formed of  finely-powdered and sifted slaked lime
and water.  The rough polish thus produced is
then brought  up and finished  off by friction with
finely-powdered talc, or French chalk, until a
satiny lustre is produced.
   II. Dip  the cast  or model, previously warmed,
and suspended by a fine silken cord or wire, into
the purest  white wax, melted in  any suitable ves-
sel.  The operation should  be repeated until the
liquid wax  begins to rest  unabsOrbed on the surface
of the plaster, when  the article  must be placed
aside (suspended) until the  next day, when it may
be polished with a clean brush.  Remarks.  None
but  the hardest, purest,  and whitest wax will do
for the  above purpose.   That commonly sold is
mixed  with spermaceti,  stearine, or tallow, and
not unfrequently with potato starch.
  III. Suspend  the  article,  well  cleaned from
dust, by means of a silk cord or wire, in a wooden
trough or other suitably-shaped vessel, of  glass or
earthenware ;  then cover it with a strong and per-
fectly clear solution of alum.  Let it remain until
a sufficient quantity of the salt has crystallized on
the surface, when it should be withdrawn and pol-
ished with a wet cloth.  Remarks.  I have  seen
beautiful imitations of marble produced  in this
manner, but the  process requires  great care and
address.
  ALABASTER,  TO  STAIN  OR  COLOR.
Proc.  I. Mix various colored powders or solutions
with the plaster, at  the time of mixing it up with
water. Remarks. A little terra de  Sienna, in very
fine  powder, or ground with water, added  to the
water employed to  mix up the plaster, imparts a
pleasing color to busts, statues, medallions, &c.
  II. Objects formed from the solid alabaster may
be stained  in  the same way, and with  the same
materials as marble. (See Marble.)
  ALAQUECA  STYPTIC.  A stone used by
the Indians to stop  local bleeding.  It is iron py-
rites.
  ALBUM  RHASIS.  An ointment  composed
of white-lead and  lard,  invented by and named
after the Arabian physician Rhazes.
  ALBUMEN. Syn. Albumen (Lat.) The white
of egg and the serum of the blood contain this sub-
stance in a sufficiently pure  state  for all the pur-
poses of the .irts.  Prop.  The acids, metallic salts,
alcohol, and heat, coagulate albumen ; hence it is
incompatible   with   solutions   containing  them.
Strong oil of vitriol  turns it black  in the cold, but
on applying a gentle heat, a gorgeous red-colored
solution is produced. (Dr. Hope.)  Strong muriatic
acid gives it a violet tinge.   Uses.  As a glaze, or
species  of  varnish,  and as a  clarifier for  wines,
sirups, &c.
  ALBUMEN, PURE or SOLID.  Prep. Agi-
tate the white of egg with 10 or 12  times its weight
of alcohol, and collect the precipitated flocculi on
a muslin filter.  Prop. Insoluble   in  pure  water,
unless it be heated to 150° C. or 302° F.  (Wohler
and Vogel.)
  ALBUMEN POWDER.  Syn. Flake Albu-
mf..n» Soluble solid Albumen.  Prep. Expose the
strained white of  egg, in  a thin stratum, to a cur-
rent of dry air, until it concretes into  a solid trans-
parent substance, resembling horn. In this state it
may  be  kept any  length  of time,  or  it may be
further dried until brittle, and then powdered.
  II. Substitute the serum  of bullock's blood for
the white of egg in  the last formula.
  Prop., Sec.  Soluble in cold water, forming a so-
lution possessing all the  properties of fresh albu-
men.  Use. As a clarifier;  exported in  quantity
to the sugar plantations of the West  Indies.   It is
prepared for use by  stirring it with cold water un-
til it is dissolved,  when it is whisked to a froth in
the usual way, before adding it to the liquid to be
clarified.
  ALBUMEN,  TESTS FOR.   I.  A  solution
of bichloride of mercury dropped  into a fluid con-
taining albumen, occasions a white precipitate.
Sensibility. ^5^.  (Bostock.)
  II. Tannin or  tincture of galls  gives a yellow,
pitchy precipitate.
  ALCAHEST.   Syn.  Alkahest.  A  word of
uncertain meaning, frequently applied by the al-
chemists to liquids  which they thought  to possess
great solvent powers.
  ALCAHEST  OF GLAUBER.  Syn.  Alca-
hest Glauberi.  Obtained by detonating nitre on
hot  coals, and  then exposing it in a damp place
until it runs into an  oily-looking fluid. It thus be-
comes oil of tartar.
  ALCAHEST  RESPURII.  Obtained by de- 
ALC                     32                      ALC
tonating a mixture of nitre  and zinc filings, pow-
dering the  resulting  scoriae, agitating it with wa-
ter,  and  filtering.   The filtered liquor contains
the alcahest.
  ALCAHEST ZWELFERI.   Acetic acid ob-
tained by the dry distillation of verdigris.
  ALCARRAZAS.   A species of porous pottery,
made in Spain, for the purpose of cooling water, by
its transudation and  copious evaporation from the
sides of the vessel.  Vessels made in either of the
following ways possess similar properties.
  Prep. I. Well mix, in the dry state, equal parts
of silicious sand and  good  clay, then bring it to a
proper consistence with brine, adding afterwards a
considerable quantity of common salt, which must
be well incorporated with the clay by beating.  The
vessels formed of this  mixture must be only half
baked.
  II. Mix up your clay with  twice its weight of
charcoal, in powder,  and bake it  until the latter
substance is perfectly burnt out.
  ALCOHOL.  Syn.  Alkohol.  Alkahol. Al-
cahol.  Hochst Rectifizirter Weingeist (Ger.)
Alcohol  (Fr.)  Alcoole (Ital.)  Alchool. Al-
cool.  Alcol. Alkol  (obs.)   From  the Arabic
at the, and kohol antimony.  A  term originally
applied to several chemical  preparations, presumed
to be very  subtile, or brought  to the highest state
of tenuity, but at the present day restricted to pure
spirit of wine, of the strongest class.
  Hist.  Fermented  liquors were known  to  an-
tiquity. " Noah planted a vineyard ; and he drank
of the wine, and was drunken ;" an event supposed
to have happened 2348 years before the birth of
Christ.  Wine and fermented liquors are also men-
tioned by the earlier  profane historians; but the
period at which they were first submitted to distil-
lation  is  undecided.  By some, the  Chinese  are
thought to have  possessed the  earliest  knowledge
of this process ; others think that the northern na-
tions of Europe were the first who were  acquainted
with the art of distillation.   Herodotus, however,
mentions date spirit as an article  of commerce in
Babylonia (b.  c. 445.)    Albucacis, in the  12th
century, taught the method of procuring spirit from
wine ; but the  process was doubtless known  long
before that time.   Raymond  Lully, in the  13th
century, showed  the way to  concentrate it, by
means of  carbonate of potassa; after which  time
it gradually rose into note as an article of trade and
commerce.   At  the present day, more capital is,
perhaps, embarked  in the various processes of dis-
tillation than in any similar branch of business.
  Sources. Alcohol is a product of  the fermenta-
tion of vegetable juices or solutions containing sac-
charine matter, or some substance (as  starch) ca-
pable of conversion  into  sugar.   In this  state, it
forms but a small portion of the fermented liquor,
(as in  wine, beer,  brewer's wash,  &c.,) and is
obtained in an isolated  form by the  process of dis-
tillation.  It is a component  part  of  nearly all
intoxicating beverages, and  gives them their pe-
culiar properties.   Brandy,  gin, and  rum  con-
tain about half their  bulk  of alcohol.    Dilute
alcohol may be  procured, by the ordinary process
of distillation, from all fermented liquors ; when
drawn from wine,  (as in France,)  it  constitutes
brandy ; when from the juice of the sugar-cane, it
is called rum ;  and  when from  malt, grain, or mo-
lasses, (as in England,)  it is called malt, grain, or
molasses  spirit.     The following  table  of  the
sources of spirit will no  doubt prove  interesting to
the reader:
Table of the Sources of the various Spirits of Commerce, by Dr. A. T. Thompson.
Agua ardiente

Arrack  • •
Var. Mahwah Arrack-
    Tuba
Araka.....
Araki.....
Arika.....
Brandy
Var. Lav.
    Rakia
    Rossolio • •
    Trosttr  • •
    Sekis-kayavodka
Geneva.  Hollands  •
Var. Oin
Goldwasser
Kirchwasser  • •
Maraschino
Materials from which they are distilled.
Pulque, the fermented juice of the agave.........
 ( Coarse palm sugar, named jaggery, fermented with the bark of 1
 <  the mimosa ieucophlea; also from rice and the fermented juice \
 (  of the palm     ..............    )
Flowers of the Madhuca tree, bassia butyracea .
Palm wine    .................
Koumis, fermented mare's milk...........
Dates...................
Fermented cow's milk, a variety of koumis.......
J Wine, figs, peaches, Persimmon apple, mulberries, and sometimes
\  other fruits................
Rum
Ditto
Var. Slatkaia trava
Shovv-choo
Whiskey.    •<
Ditto
Y-wer a • •
Vino meresel • •
Husks of grapes, mixed with siromatics..........
A compound of brandy, ros-solis, and other plants   ......
Husks of grapes, fermented with barley and rye     ......
Lees of wine and fruit    ..............
Malted barley and rye, rectified on juniper berries   ......
Malted barley,  rye, potatoes, rectified with turpentine......
 j Wheat, barley, and rye, rectified with aniseeds, cinnamon, and »
 (   other spices     ..............    j
Machaleb cherry    ................
Macarska cherry    ................

Cane sugar and molasses..............
Maple sugar.................
A sweet grass.................
The lees of mandarin, a wine made from boiled rice.....
Malted and raw barley, rye, oats, and potatoes.......
Sloes   ...................
The root of the tee-root, baked, pounded, and fermented
Distilled from pnlqae, the fermented  juice of the agave americana.
   Countries
producing them.
Mexico.

India

India.
Philippine Islands.
Tartary.
Egypt.
Tartary, Iceland.
 1 Europe,  Asia, N. and
 <   S. America; wherev
 (   er wine is made.
Siam.
Dalmatia.
Dantzic.
On the Rhine.
Scio.
Holland.
England.
Dantzic.
Switzerland.
 | Zara, capital of Dalmft-
 (   tia.
 | West Indies and South
 J   America.
North America.
Kamschatka.
China.
Scotland and Ireland.
South of France.
Sandwich Islands.
Mexico. 
ALC                    33                     ALC
  Remarks.  All the different varieties  of  spirit I
mentioned in the preceding table, consist  of dilute
alcohol, holding in solution various quantities of
essential oils and coloring matter, and frequently
a little  ether and extractive.  It is the  presence
and different proportions of these ingredients which ]
give   them  their  distinguishing  characters.   By
subsequent rectification,  alcohol of  equal purity
and strength may be procured from all  of them.
In the present article,  I shall confine myself to a
notice of the preparation  of pure spirit, or alcohol
of the chemist, referring  the  reader  to the heads
Distillation. Spirit, Still, Rum, Brandy, Gin,
Whiskey, &c. for further information.
  Prep. I.  (Alcohol of the  L.  Ph.)   Rectified
spirit  (sp. gr. 0-838) 1 gallon; chloride of calcium
(dried) lb. j.  Proc. Dissolve the chloride  in  the
spirit, and let 7 pints and  5 fluid ounces distil over.
Remarks. The  sp. gr.  of this spirit is 0-815, and
as  it contains  about 7g of  water, it would be
more appropriately  called  highly rectified  spirit.
The  process of the Dublin College is of  a similar
description, except that in addition to the chloride
of calcium, 3£ lbs. of dried  pearl-ashes (still hot)
are used, and the distillation  continued  until  the
residuum begins to thicken.   Alcohol of the D. P.
has the sp. gr. 0-810.
   II. (Alcohol  of the  E. Ph.)  Rectified spirit, 1
pint ;  lime, 18  oz.  Proc.  Break the lime into
small fragments, pour  on the spirit, and heat the
mixture gently  in a glass matrass (closed) until
the lime begins to slake, then withdraw  the heat,
and preserve the upper part of the vessel  cool with
damp cloths, until the  slaking has finished; next
attach  a proper refrigeratory, and carefully distil
off 17 fluid ounces.   Remarks. The sp. gr. of  the
product should be 0-796, in which case it  would be
very  nearly free from water.   Should the density
exceed  -796, the College states that the distillation
must have  been  begun before the slaking of  the
lime was finished.
   III. (Absolute Alcohol.)  a. Saturate alcohol of
d0%, or sp. gr. 0-835 to 0-840, with dried chloride
of calcium  in  powder, and then draw it  over in a
water bath, with a gentle heat. (Liebig.)
   6.  Place alcohol of 90§ under the exhausted re-
ceiver of an air-pump, near a vessel  containing
quicklime.  After the  lapse of 3 or 4 days, if  the
vacuum be well kept  up, the spirit will  have  en-
tirely lost  its water. (Graham.)   Remarks. The
best means  of operating is to use two shallow cir-
cular vessels, of different sizes, and  to place  the
one containing the spirit in the other holding  the
lime,  care being taken to prevent the latter falling
over the side of the small vessel  into the spirit, as
it swells.
  IV. (Varnish-maker's Alcohol.) Take the blad-
der of an  ox or calf,  soak it for some time  in
water, then inflate it and  carefully free it from
the attached fat and vessels; this must  be done
on both sides.  After it  is  again inflated and dried,
smear over the  outer surface  twice, and the inner
surface  four times, with a solution of  isinglass.
Then nearly fill  it with  the spirit to be concen-
trated, leaving only a  small  space vacant; it is
then  to be securely fastened, and  suspended in a
warm situation, at a temperature  of about  122°
Fahr., over a sand bath, or in the neighborhood of
an oven or fire.  In six to twelve hours, if the
heat be properly conducted, the spirit will be con-
centrated, and in a little time longer may be ren-
dered nearly free  from water (anhydrous)  or of
the strength of 97 or 98 per cent.  (Soemmering.)
  Remarks. This alcohol will be sufficiently pure
for all the common purposes of the manufactures,
and is an excellent spirit for making varnishes, &c.
  The  same  bladder  will serve more than  one
hundred times ;  and in fact a common  bladder,
thoroughly cleansed from fat,  and  washed  and
dried, may be used without  any further prepara-
tion.  The bladder should be kept full, or  else a
portion of the  spirit will escape through the empty
part.  To prevent this  accident, I have adopted a
bottle with a double neck, of  the shape of A, (see
engraving,) by which  means I am always  able,
not only to keep the bladder full, but to  empty it
and to  refill  it  without any trouble.  After the
first or second time of using  the bladder, I find it
gives alcohol sufficiently pure for most experimen-
tal purposes.   Before hanging the apparatus up, it
is better to enclose it  in a coarse potato netting,
and to  suspend it  by means of the  latter, which
will prevent any accident arising  from the strain
on the neck of the bladder.   Should weaker spirit
than that  directed in  the preceding formula be
used, to procure alcohol by either method, it must
be  previously concentrated,  or the operation  re-
peated a second time.
  Prop. Light, transparent,  colorless, volatile, in-
flammable ; mixes in  all proportions with water;
dissolves resins, essential oils, camphor, bitumen,
soaps, sugar,  the alkaloids, wax, spermaceti, and
various  other  substances.   Boils at 172° ; curdles
milk;  coagulates albumen,  and separates  both
starch and gum from their mucilages ; uncongeal-
able by cold ; powerfully antiseptic to animal or
vegetable substances immersed in it; with acids it
forms ethers.
   Use.  It is used to dissolve resins by the varnish
maker; essential oils,  by  the perfumer; and by
the pharmaceutist, to prepare tinctures and many
  A, A bottle with two necks, the upper furnished with a
ground-glass stopper.
  B, Loop of cord to hang the apparatus up by.
  C,  Bladder containing spirit, filled by means of the bot
tie A.
  D, Neck of bladder accurately secured to the under
neck of the bottle A. 
ALC                    34                    ALC
other valuable  medicines.  It is  used to  fill tho
tubes of thermometers required to register extreme
degrees of cold;  it is frequently burnt in lamps;
and, where it is inexpensive, it is used for the man-
ufacture of vinegar.  It is employed in medicine,
and as a beverage, in a diluted state, (brandy, gin,
&c.;) but it is powerfully poisonous when undi-
luted with water.   Largely diluted with water, it
has been given as a tonic and stimulant, in some
cases of colic, &c.; but for this purpose, it is not
equal to good brandy or malt spirit, while it is far
less agreeable.  The properties  and  uses  of the
various articles into the composition of which alco-
hol enters, will be described under their respective
heads.
  Pur. The presence of water is best known by
its specific gravity, (see Alcoholometry,)  and the
absence of other foreign matter,  by the following
tests:—The London  College  states,  in the notes
to the Pharmacopoeia,  that it should be " color-
less ; evaporate entirely by heat; combine with
water and with ether, retaining its transparency ;
taste and  smell vinous."   It should be neutral  to
test paper.   Absolute alcohol has  a sp.  gr. of
0*792-0-791  at 68° Fahr., and 0*7947 at 60° Fahr.
   Tests.  I. Add colorless oil of vitriol to the spi-
rit ; a red tinge will be produced if essential oil be
present. (Liebig.)  II. A  solution of nitrate of sil-
ver added to pure alcohol, does not alter its color
or transparency.   If it turns red, it contains oil or
other  organic  matter.  (Vogel.)   Remarks. This
test is very delicate, and  is equally applicable to
dilute as strong alcohol.
   ALCOHOL DE BRUCINE.   Syn. Tincture
of  Brucia  (Majendie.)   Prep. Brucine,  15  grs.;
rectifieoVnspirit of wine, f 5j j dissolve.  Remarks.
The action  of brucine is similar to strychnine, but
in a milder  degree. This tincture is given in doses
of 5 to 25  drops in paralysis, (without fever,) in
dyspepsia, pyrosis, impotence, and  various other
cases, where strychnine has  been prescribed.  It
is an active poison.
   ALCOHOL DE CINCHONINE.  S^n. Tinc-
ture  of  Cinchonine.  Alcool  de  Cinchonine.
(Majendie./  I'rep. Sulphate of cinchonine, 8  grs.;
rectified spirit, f §j ;  dissolve  Dose. 15 to 50 drops
as a febrifuge, (in intermittents.)
   ALCOHOL DE QUININE.  Syn.  Alcool
de Quinine. Tincture of Quinine.  (Majendie.)
Prep. Dissolve 6 grs. of sulphate of quinine in f §j
of  rectified spirit. Dose,  fyc.  As the last.  This
tincture is principally used to prepare the wine of
quinine.
    ALCOHOL  DE   STRYCHNINE.    Syn.
Tincture  of  Strychnine.   (Majendie.)  Prep.
Strychnine, 3 grs..; rectified spirit, f ^iss ;  dissolve.
 Uses, Doses, <SfC. This tincture is given  in para-
lysis, impotence,  &c, in doses of 5 to 20 drops.  It
is a violent poison. (See Strychnine.)
   ALCOHOL DE VERATRINE.  Syn. Tinc-
ture oi Veratria. I. (Majendie.) Veratria, 4 grs.;
rectified spirit, f §j;  dissolve. Dose. 10 to 25 drops.
   II. (Turnbull.)  For  external use.  Veratria,
3j ; rectified spirit, f ^ij: dissolve.
   Remarks. The first is given instead of colchi-
cum, in gout,  rheumatism. &c.; the second has
been employed externally in  neuralgia, as well as
in  gout and rheumatism,  as a  substitute  for the
ointment
  ALCOHOLATES.  Salts,  i" which  alcohol
appears to replace the water of crystallization.
Prep.  Some of them may be formed by simple
solution and crystallization in alcohol. (Graham.)
  ALCOHOLOMETER.   An  hydrometer  or
instrument for ascertaining the quantity of alcohol
in any given  mixture of spirit and water.
  ALCOHOLO M ETRY.   The process or meth-
od of determining the strength of spirits.
  General Remarks on the nature  of Alcoholom-
etry, and the Excise Regulations of Great Brit-
ain.__The great importance of  being able  accu-
rately to determine the strength  of  spirits, in the
United Kingdom,  on account of the high duties
levied thereon,  has induced  the  government au-
thorities, at various times, to  fully investigate the
subject.   Towards the end  of the  last century,
Sir C. Blagden instituted  a series of very minute
and  accurate experiments to determine the real
specific gravity of different mixtures of alcohol and
water.  The results  of  this investigation  were
published in  the Phil. Trans, for 1790, and have
formed the data from which the government have
since made their calculations for the purposes of
the Excise and Customs.  More recently the Lords
of her  Majesty's  Treasury requested  the Royal
Society to examine into the accuracy of these ta-
bles, and  the construction and application of the
instrument (Sike's hydrometer)  now used by the
revenue officers, and  based thereon.  The  Com-
mittee of the Royal Society reported favorably of
the accuracy of the numbers contained in  Gilpin's
Tables, employed by the  government, which they
declared  far surpassed, in this  particular, what
could reasonably be expected, and that they were
sufficiently perfect for all  practical  and scientific
purposes. The experiments went to  show,  that the
error introduced into  calculations  respecting the
strength of spirits, by these tables, was quite unim-
portant in practice, and did not, in any one instance,
amount to unity in the fourth place of decimals.
This method,  which  I shall presently describe,
adopts the sp. gr. as a test of the strength  in alco-
hol, and is founded on the fact that  the latter fluid
is considerably lighter than water,  and that (with
proper corrections for condensation) the  sp. gr.
regularly increases  or  decreases,   according  to
the  relative proportions  in  which  the  two are
mixed.
   Several other methods of alcoholometry have
been proposed,  founded upon the temperature  of
the vapor ; the heat evolved by the admixture with
water ; the insolubility of the carbonate of potassa
in alcohol; the volatility of alcohol, &c. &c.; some
of which I shall notice farther on.   The  method
adapted  by  the Extise  and Customs  should  be
that employed  in trade and commerce in England,
not only on account of its superior simplicity and
correctness, but for the purpose of exactly coincu
ding with the survey of these authorities.
   The duties on spirits are  charged on the num-
ber of proof gallons they contain, which is ascer-
tained by  first " gauging"  or  "  ullaging"  the
liquor, and  then  taking  its specific gravity,  by
 Sike's hydrometer, the number indicated by which,
on reference to the tables, gives the per centage of
spirit it may contain over proof, or its  deficiency
 per cent, under proof; and  the real content per
 centage  of proof, multiplied by the " gauge" or 
ALC                     35                    ALC
" ullage," gives the net  amount of proof spirit in
the quantity surveyed.
  .The proof  strength is  an arbitrary standard,
adopted for the purpose of facilitating calculations,
for which it is well suited.   The sp. gr. of proof
spirit, as defined by Act of Parliament, is -920 at
60° F., and contains, in  100 parts,  by weight, 49
parts of alcohol of *791, and 51 parts of water.  At
51° F., 13 volumes of proof spirit  weigh exactly
equal to 12 volumes  of  distilled water.  It is of"
great advantage to the spirit-dealer to be acquaint-
ed with the method of estimating the correct num-
ber of  proof gallons  in any sample or quantity of
his commodities; and I  have known many disa-
greeable errors result from ignorance on this point.
Calculations  of this  kind  are very simple  and
straightforward.  Thus, when we  find by the hy-
drometer that a given sample of spirits is 10 over-
proof, or " o.p." as it is technically called, it means
that 10 gallons of water added to  100 gallons of
such a spirit, would produce  110 gallons of proof
spirit; or, in other words, that  100 gallons of such
a spirit contain exactly as much alcohol as is con-
tained in 110 gallons of proof.  In overproof spirit,
the per centage overproof always  represents the
quantity of water it will  take to reduce it to proof
By adding its per centage  overproof to 100, we
obtain a number, which, multiplied by any num-
ber of gallons, and divided by 100, will give the
exact number of proof gallons which is contained
in the, given  quantity of  spirit of that strength.
For example, I have a puncheon of rum, holding
91 gallons of spirit, which I find to be21 o.p. How
many proof gallons does it contain ?
Per centage  overproof 21, added to )
  100, equal  to        .    .     .  \
Number of gallons
121
 91
                     Divide by 100 |  11011

No. of gallons of proof spirit        .  110-11
(To divide by 100, is only to point off the last two
figures.)  To  ascertain how much water I must
add to reduce it to the  proof strength, I have only
to deduct the number of gallons of 21 o. p. from
its content in proof;  in the above  case this would
be-
  No. of proof gallons    .     .     .     110-11
  No. of gallons of the o. p. spirit   .      91
Gallons of water to be added
1911
Or as nearly as possible  19  gallons  and 1  pint.
When we say a spirit is 11 u. p. or underproof, we
mean  that 100  gallons of such spirit  contains 11
gallons of water and 89 gallons of proof spirit; and
so of other strengths.   By deducting the per cent-
age underproof from 100, we  not only obtain the
number of proof gallons  contained in  100 gallons
of such a spirit, but  as  in the last case a factor
which multiplied by any number of gallons, and
divided by 100,  gives the exact number of proof
gallons contained in such a quantity of the given
strength   Thus, I have  an ullage brandy piece,
containing 45 gallons of spirit, which I  find by the
hydrometer to be 10  u. p.  How many gallons  of
proof does it contain 1
     Deduct 10 from 100, and we have   90
     Multiply it by the No. of gallons     45

                       Divide by 100 | 4050

               Quantity of proof spirit 4050
     Or exactly 40$ gallons.            _____
On  the  same  plan we  may ascertain how much
water it will take to reduce one strength to another,
of any weaker degree.  Thus, I have a puncheon
of rum,  as before, containing 91 gallons of spirit
21 o. p.,  which I  wish to  reduce  with water to 10
u. p.  I have already found that this quantity con-
tains a little more than  110 proof gallons;  I have
therefore only to  reckon how many gallons of spi-
rit 10 u. p. it would take to contain an equal quan-
tity of that strength.  I find this by the simple rule
of proportion.  I know  that 100  gallons are only
equal to  90 of proof; therefore, if 90 are equal to
100, how many are equal to 110, which I find to
be as nearly as possible  122$ gallons.  I have then
only to  deduct the number of gallons of 21 o. p.
from 122$ gallons to find the quantity of water I
must add to  make 122$ gallons  of spirit 10 u. p.
By a little practice such calculations become ex-
cessively easy.  In all these cases a knowledge of
the four first rules  of decimal fractions is advan-
tageous,  as the Excise calculate their proof to two
figures of decimals or -^ths.   Their plan  is to
reject the third  figure when less than  5, but to
carry 1  to the preceding if it exceeds it; thus,
5*432 would be put down as  only 5-4.3 ;  but 5-437
would be written  5-44.
  Formerly, spirit was  said  to be 1  to 3, 1 to 4,
&c., overproof, by which it was meant that 1 gal-
lon of water added to 3  or 4 gallons of such spirit
would reduce it to proof.  On the contrary, 1 in 3
or 1  in 4 underproof meant that the 3 or 4 gallons,
as the case may be, contained 1 gallon  of  water
and the remaining quantity of proof spirit.  This
method  of calculation  has  now,  however, given
way to the centesimal system, which  not only ad-
mits of greater accuracy, but is  quite as simple,
and  should be adopted  by every spirit-dealer in
England, from being the plan followed by the Ex-
cise, with whose estimate it is absolutely necessary
they should agree.
   The stocks of  " dealers" (who are not permit-
ted to sell less than 2 gallons) are always taken
by the proof; but the spirits sold by the retailers are
only tested on being admitted into stock,  and then
afterwards taken  according to their gross quantity,
(ullage or gauge.)  The Excise can, however, try
the strength  of any sample  they choose, even in
the stock of a retailer, when, if it be altered from
the strength at which  it was " permitted" into
stock more than 3$, or if it be otherwise o£an ille-
gal strength, it becomes seizable.  A surplus, how-
ever small, of more than 2 gallons over the quantity
that  should remain in hand of any one " quality"
of spirit,  after deducting the  amount  sent out by
pennits from the  last stock, is also seizable ; and
even if an increase frequently occurs,  though it be
" less than two gallons," it immediately attracts
the notice  of the Excise, and frequently leads to
inquiries and inconvenience to the dealer.
  By the Revenue Laws of  Great Britain, spirit
of greater strength  than 43 o. p., or sp. gr. 0-8597,
is designated spirit of wine, and marked S. W. by 
ALC                    36                     ALC
the officers.  Distillers of British spirits are not al-
lowed to send out spirit at other strengths tban 25
or 11 per cent. o. p. arid 10 u.p. British compounds
(gin, British  brandy, &c.) are not allowed to be
kept in stock or sent  out stronger than 17 u.p. ;
but gin, as usually sold by the wholesale dealer, is
22 to 24 u. p.;  and when sweetened as in cordial,
gin  is frequently 35 u. p. or even weaker.   Un-
sweetened foreign and colonial spirits must not be
kept or sent  out weaker than 17 u. p.  The  fol-
lowing table,  drawn up from personal examination
of the stocks of several retailers and dealers, and
of the books  of the Excise,  will no doubt interest
the reader.
  The strength of spirits that are sweetened can-
not be determined by the hydrometer or their spe-
cific gravity.   The revenue  authorities, aware of
this fact, merely require a verbal declaration of the
strength of British and other compounds that con-
tain sugar. Thus, gin, cordials, and liqueurs are
never tested for their strength, but  brandy, rum,
&c, are always so.  The method of determining
the quantity of alcohol in sweetened or fermented
liquors is by separating it in  a pure form from the
sample, by distillation or the addition of carbonate
of potassa.
  Methods of Alcoholometry.  I. (Revenue Sys-
tem.)  The figure in the margin  represents Sike's
hydrometer, as made by Mr. Bate,  under the di-
rection of the Commissioners of the  Excise.  It
consists of a stem about 4 inches  long, divided  into
100 parts, and furnished with 9 weights of differ-
ent sizes, by which  it acquires a range over 900
divisions.  The instrument is so formed as to  give
the sp. gr. with almost perfect accuracy, at 62° F.
It is fitted up in a neat  mahogany  case, accom-
panied with a thermometer and a book of tables,
containing corrections  as to  temperature,   &c.
Oper.  A glass tube of  the form of  the following
figure is filled to the mark a with the  sample for
examination,  the thermometer is then immersed
therein, and stirred  about for 2 or 3 minutes,  (ob-
serving not to breathe upon the glass nor hold  it in
the hand,) when it is withdrawn  and the temper-
ature noted.  The hydrometer is then immersed,
and  pressed down in the liquor to the 0  on the
stem with the finger, having been previously load-
ed with any one of the nine weights that will make
it float with the surface of the spirit  at any point
on the graduated part of the stem.  The indication
on the scale, at the point where the surface of the
liquor cuts it, added to the weight with which the
float is  loaded,  gives  a number which must  be
sought in the book of tables.  The latter at the
page headed by " The given Temperature as ob-
served by the Thermometer," and against the part
of the column appropriated to the given indication,
(weight,) will be found the strength.
  Remarks. Other makers,  besides Bate, produce
very accurate hydrometers, (Sike's;) but  in  an
instrument requiring so much  care  and skill in its
manufacture, the purchaser  should'beware that he
procures a perfect one.  A very slight blow, fric-
tion from continual wiping with a rough cloth, and
other trivial  causes, tend to  injure so  delicate  an
instrument.  The shape of the weights varies occa-
sionally, (which is a mere matter of fancy,) as in
b and c, fig.  p. 36 ; but in either case they are at-
tached to  the hydrometer,  at the bottom of the
spindle,  and  thus tend to make it float with greater
steadiness. 
ALC                     3?                     ALC
Table of the principal Spirituous Liquors sold in England, with their usual Strengths, &c
                                    By Mr. Cooley.
					Excise Mark.	Import Strength.	Limits to the strength by the Excise.	Usual selling strer		gth.	
Denomination.								By Permit.	contains Alcohol of 0-825.	contains absolute Alcohol.	Specifie Gravity at 60°.
*Gin (strongest) . . .					X (17 u. p.)	-	Not stronger than 17 u. p.	17 u. p.	...	40§	0*9395
•Do.......					X (22 u. p.)		do.	22 u. p.		37g	0*9445
t Do. (cordial)					X (22 u. p.)		do.	22 u. p.		do.	iro
tDo.....					X (24 u. p.)		do.	24 u. p.		36*5$	iro
t Peppermint .					X mint.		do.	60 u. p.		21*	TO*
tDo. ...					do.		do.	64 u. p.	...	18g	iro*
t Cloves . .											
t Bitters . .											
t Raspberry											
t Noyeau											
t Cinnamon.											
t Tent . . X Aniseed			:	-	X (64 u. p.)	...	do.	64 u. p.		do.	TO*
t Caraway .											
tLovage											
tUsquebaugh											
t Orange cordial											
t Citron do.											
					R.	About 10 o. p. to 43 o. p.	From 17 u. p. to 43 o.p.	11 u. p.		438	0.9329
t Rum Shrub ....					R. Sh.		do.	64 u. p.		188	TO-
tDo. ....					do.		do.	60 u. p.		218	TO-
§ French Brandy . .					F.	"About 5 o. p. to 8 or 10 u. p.	do.	10 u. p.		448	0-9318
|| Spirit of Wine . . .					S. W.		43 o. p. & upwards	54 to 64 o. p.			
Do. (P. L.) ....					do.		do.	56 o. p.		848	0-838
Alcohol (P. L.) . . .								...		938	0-815
Malt, grain, or mo-							25 or				
lasses spirit (sent out							11 o.p. to				
by British distillers)							10 u. p.				
						...	not under 17 u. p.		51*60$	47*778	0-9385
Whiskey (Irish) . .					...				54$	508	
Do. (Scotcf) . .						...		...	54-3g	50-28	
  To convert the strength of the spirit, aa found
by Sike's hydrometer, into the real specific gravity,
  * Frequently retailed at 25 to 35 u. p.
  t Though " permitted" at 22 or 24, are generally from 25
to 35 u. p., or even weaker.
  t These though " permitted" at 60 or 64 u. p. are gener-
ally 75 or 80 u. p.
and vice versa, the following table will be found
convenient:—
  <J Generally retailed as low as the Excise Laws allow,
viz. 17 u. p.
  || Usual strength 54 o. p.
  IT The specific gravity is no guide when sugar is present
as in compounds. 
ALC
38
ALC
Table exhibiting the relations between the Indi-
  cations of Sike's Hydrometer and  the real Spc-
  cific Gravity.  By Mr. Gutteridge.
Over Proof.
Specific Gra-
vity- at 60° F.i
Under Proof.
Specific Gra-
vity at 60° F.
70 per centum	0.8095	(Proof)	0-9200
64 " 631 "	0-8221	5 per centum.	0-9259
	0-8238	10	0-9318
62 «	0-8259	11 "	09329
61-1 "	0-8277	15-3 "	0-9376
60 "	0-8298	171 "	0-9396
59-1 "	0-8315	20 "	0-9426
58 "	0-8336	22-3 "	0-9448
57-1 »	0-8354	231 "	0-9456
56 "	0-8376	251 "	0-9476
55-9 "	0.8379	301 "	0-9522
55-7 "	08383	401 "	0-9603
55 "	08396	50-3 "	0-9673
541 "	0-8413	60-4 "	0-9734
501 "	0-8482	701 "	0-9790
431 "	0-8597	80-4 "	0-9854
25 "	0-8869	90-2 "	0-9922
111 "	0-9060	100 (water.)	10000
   Other instruments of a similar nature to Sike a
 hydrometer (but less complicated) have been con-
 structed, which at once give  the per centage  of
 alcohol in  a given sample.   Thus, the areometer
 of (Jay Lussac, and the alcoholometer of Tralles,
 at once float to a figure on  the stem, which indi-
 cates the  per  centage of alcohol, by volume, in
 the liquor  in which they are placed; while the
 alcoholometer  of Richter gives  at  once the per
 centage by weight.
  II. From  the specific gravity to find the per
 centage of pure Alcohol, by volume.   Proc.  The
sp. gr. at 60°, having been ascertained by any of
the usual methods, (see  Specific  Gravity,) must
be sought for in the second column of the follow-
ing table, against which will be found, in the first
column, a number representing its per centage of
alcohol of  0-7939.
Table exhibiting the per centage by volume of Alcohol, corresponding to any given Specific Gravity.
                                          By Tralles.
Alcohol in
   100
Measures
 of Spirit.
Pure water
    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    G
    7
    8
    9
    10
    11
    12
    13
    14
    15
    16
    17
    18
    19
    20
    21
    22
    23
   24
    25
   26
   27
   28
   29
   30
   31
   32
   33
 Specific
Gravity at
  60° F,
 9991
 9976
 9961
 9947
 9933
 9919
 9906
 9893
 9K81
 98(19
 9rT)7
 9HJ5
 9*:u
 9823
 9812
 9802
 9791
 9781
 9771
 9761
 9751
 9741
 9731
 9720
9710
 9700
 9689
 9679
 9668
9657-
9646
9634
9622
9609
Difference
    of
 Specific
 Gravity.
00
15
15
14
14
14
13
13
12
12
12
12
11
11
11
10
11
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
11
11
11
12
12
13
Alcohol in
   100
Measures
 of Spirit.
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
 Specific
Gravity at
  60° F.
9596
9583
9570
9556
9541
9526
9510
9494
9478
9461
9444
9427
9409
9391
9373
9354
9335
9315
9295
9275
9254
9234
9213
9192
917(1
9148
9126
9104
9082
9059
9036
9013
Difference
    of
 Specific
 Gravity.
13
13
13
14
15
15
16
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
18
19
19
20
20
20
21
20
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
23
23
23
24
24
Alcohol in
   100
Measures
 of Spirit.
  Pure
Alcohol
 Specific
Gravity at
  60° F,
8941
8917
8892
8867
8842
8817
8791
8765
8739
8712
8685
HR58
8631
8603
8575
8547
8518
8488
8458
8428
8397
8365
8332
8299
8265
8230
8194
8157
8118
8077
8034
7988
7939
Difference
    of
 Specific
 Gravity.
24
24
25
25
25
25
26
26
26
27
27
27
27
28
28
28
29
30
30
30
31
32
33
33
34
35
36
37
39
41
43
46
49
   Use of the preceding Table.  When the tem-
perature of the spirit  is 60° F., the first  column
of the table gives at once the per centage of alco-
hol by measure; when the temperature is below
60° an addition must  be made of  1 measure per
cent,  for  every 5 degrees  of  the  thermometer;
and when above 60° a like quantity must be de-
ducted.  This  correction will amount to the frac-
tion \ or the decimal  -2 for every single  degree,
and is very easily made.  If the specific gravity
■ought cann t  be found exactly in the table, the
difference between it and the next greater specific
gravity m the table must be taken,  which  will
give the numerator  of  a  fraction, having  for its
denominator the number  found in the third  col-
umn against the  next greater number just  em-
ployed.  This fraction, added to  the  per centage
01 alcohol in the first column of the table against
tne said specific  gravity,  will  give the true per
centage sought.   Thus: « if the specific gravity
of a spirituous liquor is 9605, what is  its alcoholic
content 1"   Here 9605 is not in the table, but the 
ALC                     39                     ALC
next greater  number is 9609 ; I therefore deduct
the former from the latter, and put the difference
(4) as the numerator of the fraction, having for its
denominator (13), the number in the column of
differences against 9609 ; I then add the fraction
T45 so found  to the per centage against 9609  in
the first column, which gives 33r4g as the true per
centage of alcohol in the given sample.
   The per centage by weight may be found in an
equally simple way: multiply the number of vol-
umes per cent, by -7939, (the specific gravity of
pure alcohol,) and divide the product by the spe-
cific gravity  of the sample, the quotient will give
the number of pounds  of alcohol in 100 lbs. of the
given spirit.  Thus: in spirit of  9609 I find there
are 33 volumes of alcohol per  cent., what is  its
per-centage by weight ?  Example :
  Sp. gr. alcohol  ....  7939
  Volumes of alcohol per \
    cent, in sample  •  . \

  Sp. gr. of sample 9609 | 261987 product.
27-28
or 274, lbs.
of alcohol
per cent.
  III. From the specific gravity to ascertain the
per centage of alcohol by weight.   When it may
be inconvenient to perform the  short calculation
just explained, the per centage by weight may be
ascertained  by mere  inspection  of the following
table.
Table by Lowitz, showing the Acoholic Content, by weight, of Spirits of different Specific
              Gravities, from pure Alcohol to pure Water, at 60° and 68° F.
100 parts.		Specific Gravity.		100 parts.		Specific		Gravity.		100]	jarts.	Specific Gravity.			
Ale.	Wat.	At 68°	At 60°	Ale.	Wat.	At 68°		At 60°		Ale.	Wat.	At 68°		At 60°	
100	0	0-791	0-796	66	34	0-877		0-881		32	68	0-952		0-955	
99	1	0-794	0-798	65	35	0	■880	0	•883	31	69	0	954	0	957
98	2	0-797	0-801	64	36	0	■882	0	■886	30	70	0	956	0	958
97	3	0 800	0-804	63	37	0	■885	0	889	29	71	0	957	0	960
96	4	0-803	0-807	62	38	0	■887	0	891	28	72	0	959	0	962
95	5	0-805	0-809	61	39	0	•889	0	893	27	73	0	961	0	963
94	6	0-808	0*812	60	40	0	■892	0	896	26	74	0	963	0	965
93	7	0-811	0-815*	59	41	0	•894	0	898	25	75	0	965	0	967
92	8	0 813	0-817	58	42	0	■896	0	900	24	76	0	966	0	968
91	9	0-816	0-820	57	43	0	899	0	902	23	77	0	968	0	970
90	10	0-818	0-822	56	44	0	901	0	904	22	78	0	970	0	972
89	11	0-821	0-825	55	45	0	903	0	906	21	79	0	971	0	973
88	12	0-823	0-827	54	46	0	905	0	908	20	80	0	973	0	974
87	13	0-826	0-830	53	47	0	907	0	910	19	81	0	974	0	975
86	14	0-828	0-832	52	48	0	909	0	912	18	82	0	976	0	977
85	15	0-831	0-835	51	49	0	912	0	915	17	83	0	977	0	978
84	16	0-834	0-838t	50	50	0	914	0	917	16	84	0	978	0	979
83	17	0-836	0-840	49	51	0	917	0	920t	15	85	0	980	0	981
82	18	0 839	0-843	48	52	0	919	0	922	14	86	0	981	0	982
81	19	0-842	0-846	47	53	0	921	0	924	13	87	0	983	0	984
80	20	0-844	0-848	46	54	0	923	0	926	12	88	0	985	0	986
79	21	0-847	0-851	45	55	0	925	0	928	11	89	0	986	0	987
78	22	0-849	0-853	44	56	0	927	0	930	10	90	0	987	0	988
77	23	0-851	0-855	43	57	0	930	••o	933	9	91	0	988	0	989
76	24	0-853	0-857	42	58	0	932	0	935	8	92	0	989	0	990
75	25	0-856	0-860	41	59	0	934	0	937	7	93	0	991	0	991
74	26	0-859	0-863	40	60	0	936	0	939	6	94	0	992	0	992
73	27	0-861	0-865	39	61	0	938	0	941	5	95	0	994		
72	28	0-863	0-867	38	62	0	940	0	943	4	96	0	995		
71	29	0 866	0-870	37	63	0	942	0	945	3	97	0	997		
70	30	0-868	0-872	36	64	0	944	0	947	2	98	0	998		
69	31	0-870	0-874	35	65	0	946	0	949	1	99	o'	999		
68	32	0 872 |	?-878	34	66	0-	948	0	951	0	100	1	000		
67	33	0-875	0*879	33	67	0-950		0-953 i							
  Remarks.  This table is exceedingly useful in
chemical calculations, and  in purchasing spirit of
high strength, which is usually sold by weight.
  IV. From  the  temperature of the vapor to de-
termine its alcoholic contents.   This method has
been proposed by Groning, and offers a ready
means of approximating to the strength of the
spirit passing over, at every part of the process of
distillation, as well as the value of the wash left in
the still.   Oper.  Thrust the bulb of  a thermome-
ter through a cork inserted in a tube fixed in the
head  of  the still,  or  other  vessel,  and note the
* Alcohol of the Lond. and Dub. Ph.          t Rectified spirit of the L. Ph.          t Proof soirit. 
ALC                    40                     ALC
temperature of the vapor in which it  is thus im-
mersed.  Against this number in the  following
table, will be  found  the alcoholic contents of the
vapor, and in  the next column that of the boiling
liquid from which it has arisen.

Table, by Groning, of the Alcoholic Content of
  the vapor from mixtures of alcohol  and water,
  and also of  the boiling liquid from  which they
  have been disengaged.
Temperature of Vapor. Fahrenheit.	Alcoholic Content of Vapor by volume per cent.	Alcoholic Content of boiling liquid per cent.
170 0	93	92
171-8	92	90
1720	91	85
172-8 174-0	914 90	80 70
174-6	89	70
1760	87	65
178-3	85	50
180-8	82	40
183 0	80	35
1850	78	30
187-4	76	25
189 8	71	20
192-0	68	18
1940	66	15
196-4	61	12
198-6	55	10
201-0	50	7
203-0	42	5
205-4	36	3
207-7	28	2
2100	13	1
2120	0	0
  V. To determine the alcoholic contents of wine,
beer, tyc.  Proc. a.  Half  fill a  graduated tube
with the liquor to be tried, and add thereto about
128 or 158 °f solution of diacetate of lead,  (see
below,) then agitate the mixture until the color be
nearly  removed;  powdered dry carbonate of po-
tassa must be nex- idded  until it falls down un-
dissolved, on shaking  the liquid;  after which, on
allowing the tube to  repose for a short time, the
alcohol  will be seen  floating on  the top of the
aqueous portion in a well-marked  stratum, and its
quantity  may be read off by means of the gradua-
tions on the tube.
   The solution of lead.  Ing. Powdered litharge,
2 oz.; sugar of lead, 3 oz.; water, 1 pint.  Proc.
Boil to one half in a glass or lead vessel, then put
it into a bottle, and cork it close.
   6. The same  may be effected by  agitating a
little powdered litharge with the sample until it
becomes discolored and limpid, when it may be
saturated with carbonate of potassa as before.
   c. Another  good way to determine the quantity
of alcohol contained in a given sample of wine, is
to separate it from  the non-volatile  constituents
by distillation.  A very neat apparatus for experi-
ments of this nature  has  been  contrived by M.
Gay Lussac ;  but any species of small still  or re-
tort may be employed for the purpose.   You take
three hundred parts of the liquor to be tried, mea-
sured in a graduated glass tube.   The operation is
equally adapted for wins, beer, gin, and all kinds
of spirituous  liquors.   Having inserted the liquor
into  the  still, you carefully and slowly distil over
one hundred parts, or one third of the liquor in the
still, making  use of a graduated tube as the reci-
pient, and stopping the operation when the distilled
liquor  reaches  the hundredth degree.  You then
ascertain  the alcoholic  strength  of  the  distilled
liquor  by means of the hydrometer,  and  dividing
the result  by  three, you have at once  the per
centage of alcohol of the liquor submitted to ex-
amination.  If, for example, the hundred  parts of
distilled liquor  contain thirty parts of  alcohol, the
wine  submitted  to  distillation  contains  ten per
cent, of alcohol.  But if, from want  of attention,
you  distil over more  than  one  hundred parts of
the liquor, it will not do to divide the alcoholic
strength  of the product by three, to obtain the per
centage of alcohol of the liquor submitted to dis-
tillation :  you  must  employ  as the  divisor, the
number which expresses the  relation of the vol-
ume of the distilled  product  to the  bulk of the
wine.  If,  for  example, you  have one hundred
and six parts of distilled  liquor, containing (as as-
certained by the hydrometer) thirty-three parts of
alcohol, you divide three hundred by one hundred
and six, which  gives 2-83, and then divide thirty-
three by 2-83, which gives  11-66.  The last num-
ber expresses the per centage  of alcohol of the
liquor submitted to examination.
  Remarks.  It was at  one time  maintained  by
Fabroni  and others, that alcohol does not exist in
the fermented liquors from which it is procured by
distillation, but is, like the essential oils of almond
and  mustard, formed  during  that process.  The
first  two  of  the above  processes  will, however,
clearly demonstrate  that  such is not the  case.
The process a was first employed by  Brande; the
process 6 by M. Gay Lussac.   The latter chemist
has  also distilled wine in  vacuo  at  59°  F., and
alcohol came over.
   Concluding Remarks. Several other  methods
of alcoholometry have  been adopted at  various
times, besides those just  noticed, but  the majority
have little merit for accuracy, and are therefore
quite inapplicable to  the purposes of trade in this
country.  Formerly the  strength of spirit was es-
timated by what was called the " proof."   A little
of the spirit was poured upon a small quantity of
gunpowder, in  a spoon or saucer, and inflamed;
if explosion of  the powder  followed  the combus-
tion of the spirit the sample was  said to be above
or over proof, but if  the  contrary, it was declared
below or under  proof.  Hence  arose the words
proof and proof spirit, which  have since been ap-
plied to  spirit  of particular strength by  Act of
Parliament.   Another method,  is  the " preuve
d'HoIland" of  the French, or the bead  still fre-
quently employed by persons unacquainted with
the use of the hydrometer.  It consists in shaking
the spirit in  a vial, and  observing the size,  num-
ber, and duration of the bubbles or  " beads," as
they are called.  The larger and more numerous
these  are, and the more rapidly they break and
disappear, the stronger is deemed the spirit.  This
method, like  the last, can but at best  afford  a
mere  approximate idea of the strength of spiritfl, 
ALC                      41                      ALC
while  it  is  liable  to be influenced by circum-
stances, which  will  affect  the sp. gr. in only  a
very trifling degree.  Thus  the addition of  a little
sugar  to  the spirit, barely sufficient to lower the
hydrometer one degree, will sometimes  give to  a
weak sample the appearance of one  many degrees
stronger.   The  gunpowder  test is  even  more fal-
lacious, for if one spoonful of a given spirit  be just
sufficient to fire the powder, double the quantity
of a spirit 208 stronger will  fail  to do so.   Love's
beads  are often employed to ascertain the strength
of spirit.   (See Spec Grav.)   The  sudden in-
crease of temperature produced by mixing a given
weight of the spirit  with a given weight of pure
water being  observed by a  thermometer has  also
been  proposed for  the same purpose, but neither
this nor the last method is capable of great accu-
racy.  The latter plan would require for its appli
cation a series  of tables  based  on  experiments
which we do not however possess.
   Before concluding this imperfect memoir on al-
coholometry, I think  I cannot better consult the
interest  of those connected  with the spirit  trade
than by  giving them  the  following important  ta-
ble.   It  shows by mere  inspection the variation in
the " richness in alcohol," and in volume, which
spirits undergo by change of temperature.  Per-
sons purchasing  spirits during summer, and pay-
ing for them  according to their apparent  quantity
and strength, will lose considerably when the wea-
ther becomes colder,  without  being conscious  of
such loss from the hydrometer.  By the inspection
of this table the corrections to'be made for change
of temperature will become apparent.
Table exhibiting the Volume which 1000 gallons of Spirits of different  strengths, measured at the
  given temperatures, will have when measured at 59° F., arranged from Gay  Lussac's  Tables  to
  his Alcoometre, and adapted to Fahr. Scale by Mr. Cooley.
  Pure
Alcohol
   by
volume,
per cent
Number of gallons which 1000 gallons of spirit  at the given temperatures  will measure
                                at 59° Fahrenheit.
52°   53£°   554°   57$°   59°   60£°   624°   644°  66*°   68
69J'
14°  734°  75i°  77°
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 52
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 54
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 63
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1OO34J10024  10024
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10034 11002$  10024
10034 ! 1002:
10034 1003
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10044 > 10034 ' 10024 I
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 1000 I 9984
 1000  998}
1000 I 9984
1000
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 997
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9934  9924
9924  99l|
9924 ! 99l]
9924 ; 99l]
9924 \ 9914
9924  9914
9924  9914
9924  9914
9924  991*
9924  9914
9i»24  9914
992  ' 9914
992   9914
992   991
992  ! 991
992   991
992   991
9914  991
99l] : 990J 
ALD                    42                     ALE
Table continued.
Pure Alcohol by volume, per cent.	Number of gallons which 1000 gallons of spirit at the given temperatures will measure at 59° Fahrenheit.														
	50°	52° 1 534°	554°	574"	59°	604°	624°	644°	664°	68°	694°	714°	734°	754° ' TV	
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92	10054 10054 10054 10054 1005* 10054 10054 10054 1005! 10054 10054 1006	10044 110034 10044 ' 10034 10044 I 10034 10044 ' 1003* 10044 I 1003* 10044 1003* 10044 1003* 10044 10034 10044 10034 10044 1003] 1004{ 1003] 1005 1004	10024 10024 10024 1002] 1002] 1002} 1002] 1002} 1002} 10024	1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001	1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000	998* 998* 9984 9984 9984 998* 998* 998* 998* 9984	9974 9974 9974 9974 997* 997* 9974 997* 997* 9974	9964 9964 9964 9904 996* 996J 9964 9904 99(54 996	9954 995] 995* 995* 9954 9954 9954 9954 9954	9944 9944 9944 9944 994* 994* 994* 9944 9944	9934 9934 9934 9934 9934 9934 9934 9934	9924 992} 9924 9924 992* 992* 9924 9924	9914 9914 991* 991* 9914 991* 991* 9914	9904 990] 990] 990* 9904 9904 9904	990 990 989) 9894 989* 989J 989|
  ALDEHYDAMMONIA.   A  compound  of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,  and nitrogen, discov-
ered by Doebereiner and Liebig.
  Prep.  Sulphuric acid  6 parts; water 4 parts;
alcohol, of 808, 4 parts ; hyperoxide of manganese
in fine  powder,  6 parts.  Proc.  Dilute the acid
with the water, then carefully add the alcohol,
and  next the  manganese ; agitate and distil with
a gentle heat, from a spacious retort into a receiv-
er surrounded with ice,  and connected with the
former perfectly air-tight.  When  six parts have
distilled, re-distil this portion from its own weight
of dried  muriate of lime, until  three parts have
come over, which must  be  again rectified  in the
same manner, until 1 £ part of liquid is obtained in
the receiver. This liquid must then be mixed with
an equal bulk of ether, and  the mixture saturated
with dry ammoniacal gas; brilliant colorless pris-
matic crystals will then form, which, after washing
with ether and drying, are pure aldehydammonia.
  Prop. <$-c. Smells like turpentine ; melts at 160° ;
volatilizes,  unchanged  at 212° ; decomposed  by
exposure to the air; soluble in most menstrua ex-
cept ether.   Use. To  m^ke aldehyde.  .
  ALDEHYDE.  Syt. Hydrate of Oxide of
Acetule.  A compound of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen.  Discovered by Liebig.
  Prep.  Dissolve aldehydammonia  in  an equal
weight of water; place  the solution in a  retort,
and add rather less than an equal quantity of sul-
phuric  acid, diluted with about half its weight of
water; then distil as above.   Rectify the product
twice from its own weight of dried muriate of lime,
at a heat not exceeding 86°  Fahr.
  Prop.  An ethereous liquid, boiling at 72° ; neu-
tral, inflammable, mixes  with water, alcohol, and
ether;  decomposed  by exposure to the air,  into
liquid acetic acid ; spoils by age.
  ALDEHYDIC  ACID.    Syn.   Acetulous
Acid.   Lampic  Acid.  An  acid  not  perfectly
known, but supposed by Liebig  to  be the lampic
acid of  Davy and Faraday, or  at least its essen-
tial part.
  Prep. Digest oxide of silver in aldehyde, decant
and  pass sulphureted hydrogen through the liquid
to throw down the silver.  The product is  a weak
acid,  forming  salts called  aldehydates  with the
bases.  These salts suffer decomposition during the
evaporation of their solutions, and hence cannot be
obtained in the dry state.
  ALE.  Syn.  Barley Wine. Ala. Cerevisia
A pale-colored liquor, brewed from  lightly-dried
malt.  It is usually described  as containing more
saccharine  matter and mucilage than beer or por-
ter ;  but this is  not a characteristic of the finer
kinds of ale, as Old Burton, Scotch, East India,
and  other varieties, that have undergone a tho-
rough fermentation.   New or mild ale,  on  the
contrary, abounds in undecomposed sugar and
gum, and is thus  rendered more nutritious, though
less alcoholic, than the above varieties.
  Process  of brewing  ale.  The various opera-
tions of brewing are nearly the same for every spe-
cies of malt  liquor, the differences in the products
arising  from the  materials employed, the heat of
the water used for mashing, and the temperature
at which the fermentation is conducted.  (See
Brewing.)   For  ale,  pale  or lightly-dried malt
should be chosen, as well as pale hops, if it be de-
sired to brew a liquor possessing but little color;
and the fermentation should be carried on at a low
temperature.  Almost every  county in England
has its  variety of ale, but the difference consists
chiefly (the same quantity  of malt and hops being
used) in the preparation of the malt.  The water
may in some cases vary  in  quality, the boiling
may be longer  or shorter, or the  liquor may be
turned on  at a  different heat; but these circum-
stances  being  considered,  one general process
serves for the whole, as before observed.   For im-
mediate  use, the  malt may  be all pale; but if
brewed  for  keeping,  or  in  warm weather, one-
fourth should be amber malt.  6 lbs. of  Kent hops
should be used to the quarter,  or  8 to 10 lbs.  for
keeping ale.  The stronger  ales contain about 8jj
of absolute  alcohol; ordinary ales from 5 to 68-
  ALE, BARNSTAPLE.  Boil the water, then
throw two pails of cold water  into the mash tun,
and afterwards the boiling water ; then immediate-
ly put in the malt, half a bushel at a time.  After
stirring  it till it is  soaked, cap it with malt or bran,
cover it close, and let  it  stand three hours;  then
see if the mash  is sunk in the middle; if so, it
must be filled level with boiling  water, to stand
half  an  hour;  when  it should be  run off in a
goose-quill   stream,  and be returned  upon  the
grains, by a bowl or pailful at a time, as far back
as possible  from  the cock,  until the liquor strains
through the body of the  grains, and at  last comes
very fine; otherwise the thick parts are forced 
ALE                    43                    ALE
down to the cock.  This is called  "doubling;"
continue to do so for half an hour, then stop, and
let it stand half an hour longer in winter, but not
in summer.  Then rub  four pounds of hops very
fine into the sieve, for the wort to run through;
do not draw it off too near before lading over more
boiling  water  out of the  copper.  This  is to be
continued until the whole quantity of ale wort is
obtained, which, with all the hops, is to be boiled
till the  liquor  breaks or curdles.   Now empty all
into large  tubs or coolers; work, when cold, with
the same hops altogether, thus:  put a little yeast,
and that not a day old, to a quantity, and mix that
with the rest, to work  12 or 14 hours, and then
Btrain it directly into the barrel, where keep filling
it until it has done working.
  ALE, BAVARIAN.   This is a  beer  which
has been made to ferment at a low  temperature,
until all the substances which favor acetification
have been rendered insoluble.  The fermentation
is conducted in wide, open, shallow vessels, which
afford free and unlimited access to  atmospheric
oxygen, and this in a situation where the tempe-
rature does not exceed 46°  to 50° Fahr.  A sep-
aration  of  the nitrogeneous constituents, i. e., the
exciters of acidification, takes place simultaneous-
ly on the surface  and within the whole body of
the liquid.   The clearing of the fluid is  the sign
by which  it is  known that these matters have sep-
arated.   The  beer obtained  in this way is invaria-
bly far  superior, in quality and stability, to that
brewed according  to the common method.   (Lie-
big.)  To  be enabled to keep the temperature at
the proper point, the operation is conducted in a
situation removed  as much as possible from the
influence  of atmospherical  changes of tempera-
ture, and  at such  seasons as are favorable  to the
same.
  ALE, BURTON.  This is a strong species of
ale, of which  only a  barrel and a half is  drawn
from a quarter of malt.  Temperature for the first
mash 170°, and for the second 180°, followed by
a mash for table beer  at 165°.   It is tunned at
58°, and cleansed at 72°.  The  finest pale  malt,
ground  two days -before using, together with the
best Kent  hops, (6 to 8 lbs.  per quarter,) are em-
ployed for this ale.  Remarks. The " East India"
ale, brewed by Bass & Co. of Burton, is perhaps
as near an approach to wine as  malt liquor is ca-
pable of  receiving;  it  is indeed the  " wine of
malt."
  ALE, DORCHESTER.  This is made with
£ pale  and | amber  malt, with 6 or 7 lbs. of hops
to the quarter.  The temperature of the first mash
is 170°, and  of the second 180° ; boiled  for 30
minutes, and the yeast added,  when a head gath-
ers on  the gyle-tun ; work  until the head  begins
to fall, then cleanse and fill  up the casks as long
as they continue  to work.  Two  barrels  per
quarter.
  ALE, EDINBURGH.   Employ the best pale
malt.  1st. Mash two barrels per quarter, at 180° ;
mash three quarters of an  hour, let  it stand  1
hour, and  allow half  an  hour to  run off the wort.
2d.  Mash  1 barrel per quarter,  at  183° ; mash
three quarters of an hour, let it stand three quar-
ters of an  hour, and tap  as before.  3d. Mash one
barrel per quarter, at 170° ; mash half an hour,
lot it stand half an hour, and tap as before.  The
first and  second .✓ort may  be mixed  together,
boiling them about an hour or an hour and a quar-
ter, with  a quantity of hops proportioned to the
time the beer is intended  to  be kept.   The first
two may be mixed at the heat of 60° in the gyle-
tun, and the second should be fermented separate-
ly for small beer.
   Remarks. The best  hops should be used, in the
proportion of about 4 lbs. for every quarter of malt
employed.
   ALE, ESSEX.  This ale is brewed by putting
boiling water into the mash-tun, and adding there-
to some cold water, and then the malt, gradually,
until a cover of dry malt is left on top ; it is  then
allowed to stand three hours ; in the mean time a
similar mash is  made with half the previous quan-
tity of malt, and the same measure of  water, in
another tun,  as soon  after the first as possible;
both worts are drawn off simultaneously, and the
latter serves as a second water for the malt used
for the  former.   The  smaller quantity of malt is
then mashed a second time with water.  The first
wort is boiled an hour,  or until it breaks into large
flakes, when half of it  is taken out, and  the re-
maining raw wort added to it, and the  boiling con-
tinued until it  again  breaks.   The wort is now
drained off from the grains and boiled, and a fresh
mash made with the wort from the second tun, for
the larger quantity of  malt,  and very hot water
for the other; after an hour  it is  drawn off, and
another mash  made for small beer.  The propor-
tion of hops is  2i lbs.  per quarter.  This system
of mashing, which has no advantage  over the
usual way,  has been  called " succession mash-
ing."
   ALE FOR PRIVATE FAMILIES.  A bush-
el and three quarters of ground malt and a pound
of hops are sufficient to make 18 gallons of  good
family ale.  That  the  saccharine  matter of the
malt may be extracted  by infusion, without the fa-
rina, the temperature of the water should not ex-
ceed  165° or  170° Fahrenheit's  thermometer.
The quantity of water  should be divided into two
portions, one of which should be poured upon the
malt as speedily as possible, and the whole being well
mixed together by active stirring, the vessel should
be closely  covered over  for an hour ;  if the weather
be cold, for an hour and a half.   If hard water be
employed, it should be boiled, and the temperature
allowed, by exposure to the atmosphere,  to fall to
about 165° Fahr.; but  if rain water is used, it may-
be added  to the malt  as  soon as it reaches the
point.  After standing  the  proper  time, the  wort
must  be drawn off into another vessel, and the
second  portion  of  the  water poured on, which
should be allowed  to  mash  an hour.   The first
wort may  then be boiled with £ lb.  of hops for one
hour, by which time the second mashing will  be
ready to be drawn off, and should be boiled for half
an hour, with \ lb. of fresh hops. The two liquors
should now be mixed and cooled down to the tem-
perature of 60°  or  65°, when a pint of good thick
yeast should be well stirred in, and as soon as the
fermentation is completed, the liquor may be drawn
off into a clean  cask previously rinsed with boiling
water.  When  the slow fermentation which will
ensue  has ceased, the cask should be loosely
bunged for two  days, after which, if the liquor be
left quiet, the  bung may  be properly fastened. 
ALE                    44                      ALE
 Pale malt is the best, because, when highly dried,
 it does not afford so much  saccharine matter.   If
 the malt be new, it should be exposed to the air,
 in a dry room, for two days previously to its being
 used.   A third mashing may be made  for table
 beer.
   ALE, LONDON.  I.  Pale mak, 14 quarters ;
 hops, 112 lbs.; mash with  28, 18, and 18  barrels
 of water;  boil with  the hops, cool, and  set with
 36 lbs. of yeast; cleanse with salt, 3 lbs.  Prod.
 34 barrels, or 1| gallon for  each gallon of malt
 employed.
   II. (To brew  two barrels from a quarter of
 malt.) Turn on two barrels at 175° ; mash  one
 hour, and let it stand for the same time.  For sec-
 ond mash, turn on one barrel at 160° ; mash  one
 hour, and stand one hour: boil the first wort brisk-
 ly for one hour ; and boil the second two hours, or
 till the whole is two  barrels.  Cool down to 60°,
 and tun.  Cleanse on the fourth day at 72°, pre-
 viously mixing in 2  ounces  of ginger, £ an ounce
 of 6alt, and a handful of flour.   Keep the working
 tun closely covered, and just  before the head  be-
 gins to fall, skim the top, and rouse  in  the rest.
 When the blebs are large and on the fret, rouse in
 i an ounce of salt, a handful of malted bean-flour,
 and some fresh yeast, after which it will ferment
 more kindly, and the cleansing may soon follow,
 with the new head on.  Take care to fill  up  the
 casks while working, and  before bunging put a
 handful of scalded hops into each.
  ALE, NOTTINGHAM.  This is usually brew-
 ed  by three mashings in the  common way, but a
 much longer time is occupied  in the mashing, and
 after drawing off each wort, the grains are washed
 by pouring over them fresh water from the copper,
 by two or three  bowlfuls at a time.  The boiling
 is conducted in separate portions for each wort, and
 the hops, enclosed in a coarse canvass bag, are only
 allowed to boil for  half an  hour, when  they  are
taken out, and the boiling continued until  the bub-
bles break into little ragged particles.  The quan-
tity of hops is divided  between the boilings, and
frequently the second and  third worts  are  boiled
together.
  ALE, RINGWOOD.  This brewing produces
two h-Tels and a half from the quarter.  The best
pale malt and j -ocket hops are used, at the rate of
6 lbs. to the quarter.  Turn on first mash  at 180°,
and second mash  at 190°.  Pitch the tun at 60°,
and cleanse at 80°.   Mash successively one hour,
and three quarters of an hour, standing  an hour
and a half, and two hours.  Add in the tun 2 lbs.
of yeast  for every barrel, and coat with  salt and
 flour after the first skimming.
  ALE, SCOTCH.  This ale is brewed from the
 finest pale malt, (made from the best English bar-
 ley,) and the best East Kent Hops, or  for long
 keeping, Farnham's  or Country's.  The  brewing
 is restricted to the colder portions of the year, as it
 never succeeds so well during the months of May,
 June, July, August, and September.  Only one
 mask is made, and that at a temperature of about
 180°, with one-third of the quantity of the water
 necessary for the brewing.  The mash-tun is then
 covered up for half an  hour,  when  the wort is
 drawn off, and a quantity of water, at the same
 temperature as before, sprinkled uniformly over its
surface.  This is performed by throwing the water
 into a vessel with a bottom full of holes, somewhat
 resembling a shower-bath,  from  whence it  de-
 scends and gets equally distributed  over every por-
 tion of  tho  malt.    After  an  interval of about
 twenty minutes, this wort is drawn off from sev-
 eral small cocks or holes, placed round the circum-
 ference  of the  bottom, by which  means the  hot
 water is made to percolate  equally through every
 particle  of  the mass.   This  operation, called
 " sparging,"  is  performed a second  time, with a
 fresh portion of  hot water,  and  after a like inter-
 val, is again drawn off.   This process is repeated
 several times, until the density of the mixed worts
 becomes adapted to the quality of the ale required
 Usually eight or ten  " spargings"  are employed,
 the latter  at about  5° or 10° cooler than the first
 The skilful brewer so divides his water that it may
 produce  a wort of the  proper gravity ;  but when a
 very strong one is  required, the  latter  " sparges1
 are used for table  beer, or as water for mashing
 a fresh quantity of  malt.  In this  way, 1 quarter
 of malt will yield full 81 lbs. of extract.  The wort
 is next boiled, with  4 lbs. of hops to every quarter
 of malt,  and  afterwards cooled  down to 50° before
 adding the yeast.   The  latter must not  exceed
 half a gallon for every 100 gallons of wort.  The
 fermentation now commences and proceeds slowly,
 and in some brewings is accelerated by rousing up
 twice a day.   Should more  yeast be  absolutely
 required in a few days, a  little may be added.
 The fermentation generally continues for 15 to 20
 days;  and the ale is  not cleansed before the de-
 gree of attenuation does not exceed £ lb. per diem,
 and not more than \ of the original gravity  of the
 wort remains.  This process is then performed by
 drawing off without  skimming.  As soon as  the
 fermentation is  finished, the ale is  put  into care-
 fully prepared casks, and stored in a cold cellar.
 Here  it  soon becomes fine, and  seldom  wants
 racking before sale.  The usual gravity per barrel
 of the best Scotch ale is about 38 or 40 lbs., and is
 seldom lower than 32 lbs.  or higher than 44 lbs.
  ALE, TABLE.  This is usually made by mash-
 ing the grains after  the wort  for the strong ale or
 beer has been drawn off;  but if a separate  brew-
 ing be made, the following are good proportions •—
 Pale malt 1 quarter ;  mash with 4,  3, and 2rJ bar-
 rels of water; boil with 5 lbs. of hops, set with 1
 gallon of yeast,  and cleanse  by beating  the head
 in and letting it work out.  Prod.  8$ barrels, or
 full 4 gallons of  ale  for 1 of malt.
  ALE, WELSH.   Take 3 quarters of the best
 pale malt and 25 lbs. of hops; turn on the first
 liquor at 178°.   Mash for an  hour and a half, and
stand two hours.  Turn on second liquor at 190°,
 and stand two hours.  Boil  an hour and a half;
pitch the tun  at 62°, and cleanse at 80°, using
salt and flour.  After the second mash, turn on for
table beer  at 150°.    Mash three quarters  of an
hour, and stand two hours.
  ALE, WHITE,  (DEVONSHIRE.)   Boil to-
gether 12 gallons of pale ale-wort, 1 handful of
hops, and 4 or 5  lbs. of grouts; cool, and add of
yeast 3 lbs   When it is in  a state of lively fer-
mentation, bottle in  strong stone half-pints; well
cork them  down, and wire them.  Remarks. This
is much  drunk in some parts of Devonshire.  It
 effervesces when opened.
  ALE, WINDSOR.  This ale is brewed fro* 
ALK                    45                     ALK
 the best pale malt and hops.   Turn  on the first
 water at 180° ;  mash 1$ hour, and stand 1 hour;
 boil 1 hour.  Turn on the  second liquor at 190°;
 stand | of an hour;  boil 3 hours.  Turn on the
 third liquor at 165° ;  mash J of an hour; stand J
 of an hour.  Pitch the tun at 60° ; cleanse at 80°
 on the third day.   Skim as soon as a close yeasty
 head appears, until the yeast ceases to rise, then
 rouse in £  lb. of hops  per quarter.
   ALE,  YORKSHIRE  OAT.  The malt used
 is made from oats of the white sort, and dried with
 coke.   Mash 1 quarter of ground malt with 44
 gallons of cold soft water, and let it stand 12 hours ;
 then  draw off the wort, and infuse therein for 3
 hours 2 lbs. of hops,  well rubbed  between the
 hands; next strain ;  tun it, and work it briskly
 with  yeaet for two or three days ; cleanse, and in
 ten  days it will be fit  to  bottle.   It  drinks very
 smooth, brisk, and pleasant, but will not keep. It
 looks very much like white wine.
   ALIZARINE.  Syn. Pure madder red. Prep.
 I. Expose madder red  to a gentle heat, when the
 alizarine will sublime, and may be collected.
   II.  Add powdered madder cautiously to its own
 weight of  oil of vitriol, and mix  with  a glass rod ;
 then wash the charred mass with clean cold wa-
 ter ;  dry, and sublime a6 before.
   Prop. Orange-red crystals, very soluble in alka-
 line solutions, which it colors  violet; dyes mor-
 danted cloth red.   Remark. The name is derived
 from Ali-zari, the commercial name of madder, in
 the Levant.
   ALKALIS.  (From the Arabic al, an essence,
 and kali,  the plant from which soda was first ob-
 tained.)  Substances which possess the  property
 of forming salts with the  acids,  and for the most
 part of turning the vegetable blues to  greens, and
 yellow turmeric paper brown.  The principal alka-
 lis  are soda, potassa,  and ammonia.  The first
 has been called the mineral, the second the vege-
 table, and the  third  the volatile alkali; but this
 distinction is now  nearly obsolete.  Soda and po-
 tassa have also  been called the fixed alkalis, from
 their permauence  in the fire.
   Hist. At the  time when  Lavoisier declared oxy-
 gen to be  the universal acidifying principle, Mor-
 veau conjectured  hydrogen to be the  alkalifying
 principle ;  but it was afterwards demonstrated by
 Sir H. Davy, that potassa  and soda  are actually
 the oxides  of tne  m»tals,  potassium and sodium.
 Ammonia is a  compound of nitrogen  and hydro-
 gen.   Dr.  Murray conceived that either hydrogen
 or oxygen  might  generate  alkalinity, but that a
 combination of the two was necessary to give this
 condition in its utmost energy.  This theory is not,
 however, borne out by the  observed phenomena of
 chemistry.   Gay Lussac conceives alkalinity to be
 the result of "the  alkalifying property  of th*< met-
 al, and the  acidifying property of the  oxygen,
 modified both by combination  and by the propor-
 tions ;"  but this " coalition" theory is far from sat-
 isfactory.  Of late years the list of alkalis has been
 greatly extended by the discovery of several vege-
 table  principles  possessing important  properties
 and forming salts  with the  acids.  (See Alka-
 loids.)
  Prop., Char., tyc. Potassa, soda, and ammonia,
are known by the  following characteristics :—An
acid urinous taste ;  a  great  degree  of  causticity; |
 turning vegetable blues green, and yellows brown;
 forming soaps with the fixed oils ; solubility in wa-
 ter, and when pure in alcohol;  forming salts with
 the acids ; solubility of their carbonates; action of
 their carbonates oil vegetable colors.
   Caution. The pure or caustic alkalis should be
 kept in glass bottles, well secured from the  air, as
 they rapidly absorb carbonic acid and become  car-
 bonates.
   ALKALIMETER.   A  measurer of  alka-
 linity.
   ALKALIMETRY.  The art or method of de-
 termining the amount of pure alkali contained in
 any given sample.
   Remarks on the principles of alkalimetry,  fyc.
 The common method of alkalimetry is founded on
 the known quantity of pure alkali, which is required
 to saturate a given weight of dilute sulphuric acid.
 The glasses,  or  alkalimeters,  as they are called,
 with which the operation is performed, are usually
 graduated into 100 parts, for the purpose of exact-
 ly estimating the quantity of  acid employed.  As
 the sulphuric acid, however, acts upon the muri-
 ates and sulphurets usually  present in the alkalis
 of commerce, this plan does not admit of great ac-
 curacy, unless proper precautions are taken to avoid
 the source of error.  Some years ago the  German
 soap-boilers estimated  the strength of their ashes
 by merely pouring a quart of water on a pound of
 the former, and then putting in  a piece of Dutch
 soap, added  water, in small  portions at  a time,
 until it sank.  The more water required to  effect
 this object, the richer the ashes were supposed to
 be in alkali.  This plan was also employed at no
 very distant period in some of the remoter parts of
 the United Kingdom.  Alkalimetry has lately  en-
 gaged the attention of some eminent chemists,  and
 by following their suggestions, the " richness" of
 any sample of ashes, barilla,  or alkalis  may be
 obtained with great precision.   The importance of
 this subject to the soap-maker and manufacturing
 chemist must at once  be evident.  The following
 are  among the most  approved methods  of pro-
 cedure.
   I. Oper. Pulverize a little of the  sample,  and
 weigh therefrom  exactly  100 grs.,  agitate it with
 about half an ounce of hot water in a vial  or small
 tube, then allow it to settle, and pour off the clear
 into another tube or vial; repeat the  process with
 a second and third portion of hot water,  or until
 nothing soluble remains,  observing each  time to
 allow the liquid to settle before pouring it  off;  the
 mixed liquid  is then  tested as follows:—the  test
 acid described below is poured into the  glass tube
 until it reaches exactly to the  line marked by  the
 name of the alkali under examination ;  water is
 then poured in to the  line marked  1 or 1000,  and
 the whole is well  mixed by placing the thumb on
 the orifice of the tube and  shaking it well.  The
 measure of this dilute acid must then  be carefully
 observed, and  water added to make up the proper
 quantity as before ; should  it  be lower than  the
 mark, agitation being again employed.  The test
 liquor thus prepared is  then to be carefully added
to the solution of  the alkali  just described until it
be perfectly  neutralized.   The  quantity of  ine
test liquor used must next  be  read off from  the
graduated part of the tube, each larger divisiou of
which will  represent 1 gr. per  cent, of the pure 
ALK
46
ALK
alkali, or its carbonate, as the case may be, in the
•sample under examination.
   The glass tube, or Faraday's alkalimeter, as
it is called, is  here represented, and is about 9£
inches long, and J of an  inch wide ;  it is gradua-
ted into 100 parts, each of which represents 10 grs.
of water.  Opposite  the  numbers  23-44,  48-96,
54-63, and 65, are cut the words written  in  the
margin, and indicate  the  quantity of test acid to
be employed for each of  these  alkalis.  The test
acid being then poured in up to  the proper marks,
and tho tube filled up to 1000 with pure water,
gives a test solution equal to 100 grs. of the given
alkalis.  Consequently, the number of its divisions
consumed to produce  saturation, will exactly ex-
press the value per cent.

                        prs-   C^
                        1000_•—* _j
                                 — 5
                                 —10
                                 —15
Potassa......_    __so
Carbonate of Soda .  —    —55
                         — 60
Carbonate of Potassa  .—    —(s
                         — 70
                         ___7S
   The test acid is prepared by adding pure water
to pure sulphuric acid until the specific  gravity is
reduced to 1*127 at 60°  F., (about 1 measure of
acid to 4 of water.)   The sp. gr. must be carefully
ascertained by means of  the sp. gr. bottle, and its
strength checked by adding to 100 grs. of it, chlo-
ride of barium until  it no  longer produces a precipi-
tate.  This, when washed and  dried at  a low red
heat, contains 33-3 per cent, of sulphuric  acid, from
which the strength of the test acid may be calcu-
lated.  This is an easy method of alkalimetry, and
admits of as -"•rtaining the quantity of alkali to the
J or J, of 1 per cent.   It is best to keep a quantity
of the test acid always ready prepared, as  it saves
trouble.  Should a  Faraday's  alkalimeter not be
at hand,  any other mode by which the  test liquor
can be accurately measured will do as well.
   II. Dissolve  100  grs.  of  alkali,  as described in
the last method, then take a known weight of the
test  acid prepared as directed below,  and proceed
to neutralize the alkaline solution therewith in the
way above mentioned -}  then again weigh the test
acid and note the quantity  consumed ; the loss of
weight divided by 10 gives the real per c; ",*.age of
pure alkali.
   Test acid for soda.  Add pure sulphuric acid to
distilled water until the sp. gr. becomes about 1-109
(about 5 water and 1 aeid.) and 100 grs. of which
saturate  exactly 17 grs. of pure carbonate of soda
dried at a dull red heat;  or which is the  same, 313
grs. should contain exactly 40 grs. of real sulphuric
acid, when 10  grs.  will  be  equivalent to 1 gr. of
pure soda.  The strength may be also  tested by
chloride  of barium.
   Test  acid for potassa.   This  acid  should be
weaker  than the  1st,  its  sp.  gr.  about 1*069  or
1*070 ; 471 i grs. should contain exactly 40 grs. of
real sulphuric acid, and 1000 grs. should neutral-
ize exactly 66J Crs. of dry carbonate of soda.
   Remarks.   The most convenient vessel to con-
tain the test acid during the operation is Schuster's
alkalimeter, described under the article Acetim-
etry.  This method  of  alkalimetry  admits  of
great accuracy.   By  careful  manipulation the
content of real  alkali may  be estimated  to the
one-tenth of 1 per cent.  (C.  Watt, jun., Chemist,
No. 50.)   The art of weighing admits of much
greater  accuracy than that of measuring,  espe.
cially where  small quantities are concerned. This
is the method employed at Apothecary's Hall, at
the Polytechnic  Institution,  (by Mr. L.  Thomp-
son,) in the Laboratory of Messrs. Hawes, and in
various other places  where  great  precision is de-
sired.
  III.  (Method  of  Fresenius  and Will,  of
Giessen.)   Oper. The flask B (article Acidime-
try) is about half filled with oil of  vitriol, and the
sample of alkali  is put into the flask A, and water
poured on until  it be  almost half full.  The tubes
are then fitted into the apparatus quite air-tight;
the end of the tube ,b is fastened with a bit of wax,
and the whole is carefully weighed.   The appa-
ratus  is now removed from the scales, and the
mouth applied to the  end of the tube h, and the
air  in the flask B rarefied by suction; the conse-
quence of  which  is, that the oil of vitriol in B flows
over into A.  The evolution  of carbonic acid im-
mediately commences, which, from the construc-
tion of the apparatus, has to pass  through the oil
of vitriol,  before  it can escape  by the tube d, by
which means it is rendered quite dry.   Whenever
the effervescence flags, a  little more acid  must be
sucked over, until the whole  of  the carbonate  be
decomposed, after which an  additional  quantity is
made to pass into A sufficient to raise the temper-
ature  considerably, which will have  the effect of
expelling  all the gas  absorbed by the fluid during
the operation.  As soon as this is  completed, the
wax is removed  from the aperture 4, and suction
applied to h until all the carbonic acid  gas  in the
apparatus  is replaced by atmospheric air.  The
whole must now be allowed  to cool, when it must
be again weighed.  The loss of weight gives ex-
actly  the  amount of dry  carbonic acid gas that
was contained in the specimen, from which the
weight of pure alkali  is estimated.  Every 2212
grs. of dry carbonic  acid gas  represent  exactly
31-3 grs.  of pure soda, and 47-15  grs.  of pure
potassa.
   Remarks.  Should the specimen contain caustic
potassa,  (as many of those  of commerce  do,)  it
should be triturated, previously to testing, with an
equal weight of  pure quartz sand,  and about $ of
its  weight of carbonate of ammonia added; the
mix.ure is then placed in  a capsule and moistened
with water, and a gentle  heat applied until it be
quite  dry, and all the ammonia expelled.   Should
sulphuret of  potassium or caustic soda be present
in the sample, the same method must be followed,
except that instead of water the powder should be
moistened with   liquor of ammonia; and  in  the
case of soda, the quantity of carbonate of ammo-
nia should be at least equal  to half the weight of
the test specimen.  It will thus be seen that unless
for carbonates,  (unmixed with sulphurets, bicar- 
ALK                    47                    ALK
bonates,  or  caustic alkali,) this method requires
several operations, and is consequently very trou-
blesome and liable to error, except in expert hands.
It is, however, a ready and elegant way of testing
the pure  carbonates.
  Concluding remarks  on Alkalimetry.   Rules
for sampling, fyc.  As each sample is taken from
the cask, place it at once in a wide-mouth bottle,
cork it up immediately and number it.  The sam-
ple should be drawn from as near the centre of the
cask as possible.   Before proceeding to the  assay,
throw the contents of the bottle upon a piece  of
clean paper, crush the lumps, and mix them with
the small;  reduce the whole to coarse powder as
rapidly as possible, and weigh the number of grains
for trial at once.   In a number of casks, at least §
of them  should be tested.  Assays of soda should
never be made while warm, as it will thereby fre-
quently indicate 1 or 2 per cent, more alkali than
when  it  has  been cooled  down and packed in
casks.  The method  of  trying the density of the
test acid by merely dropping a bead of a known
sp. gr. into  it,  as is  frequently recommended  by
chemical reformers, is not sufficiently accurate to
be depended on.  Too much care cannot be taken
to ensure the test acid of the  proper strength, of
which the sp. gr. alone is an insufficient proof.  It
is always best  to keep a stock of the test acid
(properly made and proved) ready for use.
   Those desirous of entering more largely into the
subject of  acidimetry, alkalimetry, &.C., are re-
ferred to Bullock's " Translation of Fresenius and
Will;"' some valuable papers by Mr. C. Watt, jun.,
in the fifth  volume of the " Chemist;" and to a
paper by  Dr.  Ure,  in  the third volume of the
" Pharmaceutical Transactions."
   ALKALOIDS.  Syn. Vegetable  Alkalis.
Organic Alkalis.  Organic  Bases.  Substances
possessing basic  and  alkaline  properties derived
from the  vegetable kingdom. They  are compounds
of carbon, hydrogen,  azote, and oxygen, and have
hence been distinguished by  Dr. Collier, by the
mnemonic word, *' chaos," the first  four letters be-
ing the initials of the elements, and  the " s " show-
ing that they are salifiable.  Some  of  the alka-
loids  are the most violent poisons with which we
are  acquainted;  one-fiftieth of a  grain of pure
aconitina has  endangered  life. (Pereira.)  The
greater  number  possess  similar properties to the
plant from  which  they  are extracted, but in  an
eminently  concentrated  degree.  The  following
table exhibits the principal alkaloids  described in
the body of this work,  together with the  plants
which yield them:

  Alkaloids.             Plants.
  Aconitina  .   . Aconitum Napellus.
  Aricina   .  .  . Arica Bark.
  Atropia   .  .   . Atropia Belladonna.
  Brucia   .  .   . Strychnos Nux Vomica.
  Cinchonia  .   . Cinchona Lancifolia.
  Codeia   .  .   . Opium.
  Conia  .... Conia Maculatum.
  Corydalia.  .   . Corydalis Tuberosa.
  Cynapia  .  .   . jEthusa Cynapium.
  Daturia   .  .   . Datura Stramonium.
  Delphia   .  .   . Delphinium Staphisagria.
  Digitalia  .  .   . Digitalis Purpurea.
  Emetina  .  .   . Cephaelis Ipecacuanha.
Alkaloids.
Hyoscyamia
Meconia  "]
Morphia  I
Narceia   {
NarcotinaJ
Nicotina  .  .
Picrotoxia
Quinia    .  .
Sanguinaria .
Solania   .  .
Thebaia   .  .
Veratria   .  .
      Plants.
Hyoscyamus Niger.

Opium.


Nicotiana Tabacum.
Meiiispermum Coculus.
Cinchona Cordifolia.
Sanguinaria Canadensis.
Solanum Nigrum.
Opium.
Veratrum Sabadilla.
   The following general method of procuring
the alkaloids will be found applicable  to  such as
full directions are not given for under their respec-
tive heads.
   1. (When the base is insoluble in water, non-
volatile, and existing in the plant in an  insoluble
form.)  Proc.  Boil or macerate the bruised plant
in water acidulated with muriatic acid, filter, neu-
tralize the acid with an alkali, (ammonia, lime, or
magnesia,) and collect the precipitate, which must
be purified by resolution in dilute  acid,  digestion
with animal charcoal, and subsequent crystalliza-
tion or precipitation by an alkali; or the first pre-
cipitate may be purified by dissolving it repeatedly
in alcohol.
   2. (When the  base  is insoluble  in  water, and
non-volatile, but existing in the plant in a soluble
state.)  Proc. Boil or macerate  in hot  water ns
before ;  filter and precipitate by adding an alkali;
purify as last.
   3. (When  the base is soluble  in  water, and
non-volatile.)   Proc. Make an infusion with a di-
lute  acid,  (muriatic;)  concentrate  by a gentle
heat; treat the  liquor with potassa and  ether,
(conjointly ;)  decant and evaporate.
   4. (When the base is both soluble in water and
volatile.)  Proc.  The vegetable or its extract may
be mixed with potassa and distilled ; the product,
neutralized with oxalic or sulphuric acid, carefully
evaporated to dryness, and digested in alcohol, and
this solution agitated with potassa and  ether; the
ethereal solution  thus  formed, if carefully evapo-
rated, leaves the base nearly  pure.  It  may  be
further purified by cautious distillation.
   Remarks.  The  above is a  mere view of the
four general processes of extracting the alkaloids,
which, for success, require  considerable address in
manipulating.   The plan adopted for the extrac-
tion of the principal alkaloids of commerce, will
be found  fully described under  their respective
heads.
   ALKALOIDS,  TESTS  FOR  THE.   Per-
chloride of gold is a more decisive test of certain
vegetable  alkalis than the double chloride  of so-
dium and gold, already employed for this  purpose.
The following  are the colors of the precipitates
which it produces with the salts of the  annexed
alkalis dissolved  in water: quinine, buff-colored;
cinchonine,  sulphur-yellow;  morphine,  yellow,
then bluish, and lastly, violet; in  this last  state
the gold is reduced, and the precipitate  is  insoluble
in water, alcohol, the caustic alkalis, and sulphu-
ric, nitric,  or hydro-chloric acids; it forms  with
aqua regia a solution which is precipitated by pro-
tosulphate of iron; brucine, milk-, coffee-, and 
ALK                     is                     ALK
 then chocolate-brown ; strychnine,canary-yellow;
 veratrine, slightly greenish-yellow.
   All these precipitates, with the exception men-
 tioned,  are  very soluble  in alcohol,  insoluble in
 ether, and slightly soluble  in water.
   Among the reactions of chloride of gold, there
 are two which appear to be  especially important:
 they are those which occur with morphine and
 brucine  ; these are sufficiently marked to prevent
 these alkalis from being mistaken for each other,
 and also yield pretty good characteristics for dis-
 tinguishing brucine from strychnine.   (MM. La-
 rocque and Thibierge.)
   The above authors have  arrived at the following
 conclusions :
   1st.  By the aid of reagents it is possible to de-
 termine the presence of morphine, strychnine, and
 brucine  in substances which,  after being mixed
 with the salts of these  alkalis, have undergone the
 vinous,  acetic, or putrefactive fermentation.   M.
 Orfila has already shown that the putrefactive fer-
 mentation does not alter morphine.
  2d. Crystallized iodic acid,  or a concentrated
solution of this acid, is susceptible of being decom-
posed by neutral  azotized  bodies; but a dilute so-
 ution of this acid cannot be  decomposed  by them
unless there be added concentrated sulphuric acid,
crystallizable acetic acid, oxalic, citric, or tartaric
acid.
  3d. Iodic acid  should not be employed as a test
of morphine without the greatest caution.
  4th. Perchloride of gold produces such effects
with the vegetable alkalis, as serve to distinguish
morphine, brucine, and strychnine from each other.
  5th. The reagents  on which  the greatest  reli-
ance may be placed as tests of morphine are, nitric
acid, neutral perchloride of iron, and perchloride
of gold.
  6th. By the use of reagents, morphine which
has been mixed with  beer, soup, or milk, may be
detected.
  7th. It is  also  easy to  prove by reagents the
presence of meconic  acid  in soup or  milk, espe-
cially when the meconate of lead is decomposed by
dilute sulphuric acid.  (Phil. Mag., Dec, 1842.)
  ALKANET.   Syn. Alkanet  Root.   Qual.,
use,  <J*c.  The best  alkanet  is  brought from the
neighborhood of Montpellier.  The bark contains a
beautiful red color, which it freely gives to oils, fats,
wax, spirits, essences,  and similar substances, by
simple infusion, and  is consequently  much  em-
ployed to  color  varnishes, ointment,  pomatums,
 &c.   Wax, tinged with alkanet  and  applied on
 warm marble, stains  it of a beautiful  flesh-color,
 which sinks deep  into the  stone, and  is possessed
 of considerable permanence.   The spirituous tinc-
 ture of alkanet gives a deep red to marble.
  In selecting this article, the smaller  roots should
 be chosen, as  they  possess  more bark than the
 larger ones in proportion to their weight.
   ALKERMES.  A  cordial  liqueur much  es-
 teemed in some parts of the south of Europe.
   Prep.  1.  Ing. Bay leaves  1 lb., mace 1  lb.,
 nutmegs and cinnamon, each 2 oz.; cloves 1 oz.,
 all bruised ; cognac brandy 34 gallons. Proc. Ma-
 cerate for 3 weeks, frequently shaking, then distil
 over 3 gallons, and add clarified sirup of kermes
 18 lbs., orange flower water  1 pint; mix  well and
 bottle.   Remarks. The above is the true formula
 for the alkermes de Santa Muria Novella, which is
 much valued.
   II.  Spice us  last, 4  gallons of  British  brandy,
 water  1  gallon; macerate  as before, and draw
 over 4 gallons, to which add 2 gallons'of capillaire,
 and 4 oz. of sweet spirits of nitre.  (Cassia may be
 used for cinnamon.)
   ALLANTOIN.   Syn.  Allantoine.   Allan-
 toic  Acid.  Hist.  Discovered by Vauquelin and
 Buniva in the  allantoic fluid  of the  cow.  It has
 since been produced  artificially by  Wohler and
 Liebig. t
   Prep. I. Evaporate the allantoic fluid of the cow
 to rj or J of its volume, when, on cooling and stand-
 ing for  some  time, crystals  will   be deposited
 These must be purified by resolution, digestion
 with animal charcoal, and recrystallization.
   II. Boil 1 part of uric acid in 20 parts of water,
 then  add  thereto, gradually,  freshly-precipitated
 and well-washed oxide of lead until the color ceases
 to change.  Filter while hot, evaporate until a pel-
 licle forms on the surface, and set it aside to crys-
 tallize.   Purify  as above.
   Prop. Small  prismatic crystals, scarcely soluble
 in water; nitric  acid  converts  it into allanturic
 acid.
   ALLANTURIC ACID.  A new nitrogeneous
 acid, discovered by Pelouze, produced by the ac-
 tion of nitric acid on allantoin.   The  name is de-
 rived from allantoin and  uric  acid, the new com-
 pound being made from  the former, and being
 analogous in composition to the latter.
   Prep. Dissolve  allantoin  hi nitric  acid (1*2 to
 1*4) with a  gentle heat; on cooling, pour the li-
 quor from the crystals of nitrate of urea which are
 deposited, evaporate, and dry at 80° F. Treat the
 residuum with  weak water of ammonia,  and add
 alcohol; collect  the white  viscid  matter  thrown
 down,  redissolve it in water, and again precipitate
 it with alcohol;  the last precipitate is the acid.
   Prop. Little  is known about it.
   ALLIGATION. An arithmetical rule  for find-
 ing the price of  mixtures, and for making mixtures
of any given price or value.  From its great use in
trade, and ease of performance, it should be under-
stood by every tradesman.   (Vide Joyce or Walk-
ingame.)  Questions in  alligation may also be very
easily determined  by the method of indeterminate
 analysis, by persons but  slightly conversant with
elementary algebra.  This rule  has been  applied
to ascertain  the  proportions  of compounds  from
their sp. gr. when they  have undergone no change
 in volume ;  but  when this is the case, as in alloys,
 ahjoholic mixtures, &c, it is quite inapplicable.
   ALLOXAN.   Syn.  Erythric  Acid.  A pro-
 duct of the  decomposition  of uric  acid by nitric
 acid, first noticed by Brugnatelli, and afterwards
 by Wohler and  Li^-big.
   Prep. Gradually add  uric  acid  to nitric acid
 (sp. gr. 1*35) gently heated, until crystals  begin to
 appear;  then cool, and throw  the mass on a fun-
 nel choked with asbestos to drain, and afterward!
 drop on it a little  cold water, to displace  the last
 adhering portions of acid liquor ; when well drained
 dissolve  in water, and  crystallize, employing but
 little heat.   The  acid  liquor  will  yield  4  or  5
 crops of crystals by treating it as often with fresh
 unc acid.  Prod. 80 to 90$ of the uric acid em-
 ployed. 
ALL          ,           49
ALM
   Prop. Crystals efflorescent; treated with  al-
kalis it yields alloxanic acid.
   ALLOXANIC ACID.   An acid discovered by
Wohler and  Liebig;  it is formed when  alloxan is
decomposed by the alkalis.  Prep.  Treat an aque-
ous solution of  alloxan with baryta water, and  de-
compose the alloxanate of  Barytes formed with
dilute sulphuric acid ; decant, evaporate, and crys-
tallize.   Prop.  With the bases it forms salts called
alloxanates; these may generally be made from
the  alloxanate of baryta  or ammonia  by double
decomposition ; some of them are soluble.
   ALLOXANTINE.   Obtained by Prout from
uric acid.
   Prep. I. Boil 1 part of  uric acid  in 32 parts of
water, and add dilute nitric acid until  it be dis-
solved ;  evaporate to §is, and set it aside for 12
hours; the crystals, which will then be found  de-
posited,  must be purified by resolution and crystal-
lization.
   II.  Dissolve alloxan in water, and pass sulphur-
eted hydrogen gas through the solution, until  the
alloxantine be  deposited  as a crystalline mass,
which must be purified by resolution and crystal-
lization.
   ALLOY.  Syn. All\y.  Alliage, (Fr.)  Le-
girung, (Ger.)  (From  the French verb Alloyer,
to mix one metal with another for the purposes of
coinage.)  Combinations of the metals with each
other  obtained by fusion.  The term was formerly
restricted  to gold and  silver when mixed with
metals of  inferior value, but is now  applied to any
mixture of two or more metals.
   Prop. Most of the metals unite with each other
by fusion or amalgamation, and acquire new prop-
erties.   Thus:  copper, alloyed with zinc, becomes
brass, and possesses a different density, hardness,
and color  to either of its  constituents.   It is  yet
undecided  whether alloys tend to be formed in defi-
nite or  equivalent proportions of  the metals  of
which they  are  composed, or unite  in  any ratio,
like sugar  and water.  The  proportions  contained
in the  natural alloys of gold and silver, as well as
some phenomena attending the cooling of several
alloys, from a state of fusion, go far to show the
former to be  the case. (Rudberg.)   As, however,
the  metallic  compounds are generally soluble in
each other, or combine by fusion  and mixture,
their nature is much  obscured.  Alloys  generally
melt at lower temperatures than those required for
the fusion  of their separate metals,  which  affords
strong evidence of a chemical change having taken
place.   They also usually possess  more tenacity
and  hardness than the mean of their constituents;
but their malleability, ductility, and their power of
resisting oxygen are diminished.  The combination
of two brittle metals  is  always brittle;  that of a
brittle and  a ductile metal  generally so; and this
is also sometimes the case with two ductile metals.
From the number  of the metals, it  is evident that
several  hundred combinations may be made, but
about 60 are all that have been carefully examined
by the  chemist, and not more than Jd part  of that
number  has. been applied  to useful   purposes.
Among these, however, may be fouiK? • ome pos-
sessing most  valuable properties, not to be met
with in the pure metals.
  Prep.  No general rules for the manufacture  of
alloys applicable to each can be given; but it may
                     7
be remarked that, in uniting those  metals, differ-
ing greatly in their fusibility, the more  fusible one
should not be added to the other until it be melted,
or sufficiently heated, and then at the  lowest pos-
sible temperature at which a perfect union will take
place between the two, lest the more  fusible one
should evaporate or be oxidized, and thus cause the
compound to be imperfect. The mixture is usually
effected under a flux, or some material  that will
prevent evaporation  and exposure to  the atmo-
sphere.  Thus : in melting lead and tin  together,
in forming solder, resin or tallow is thrown upon
the surface ; in tinning copper, the surface is rub-
bed with sal ammonia ; and  in combining some
metals, powdered charcoal  is used for the same
purpose.   For further information on this subject,
the reader is referred to the following table, and
to the separate  articles devoted to the more impor-
tant alloys.  (See  Bronze,  Brass, Pewter, &.c.)

         Table of the principal Alloys.
Tin with
Tin and Copper
German silver.
Standard Silver.
         uld.
  Combining metals.              J)lloys produced.
 Arsenic and copper .  .  .  White Copper or Packt'ong.
 Tin and Lead.....Solder and Common Pewter

 Tin with \ CoppSd I   \ Be*J™tet °' Britannia
        (  Bismuth   S   l  MeUL
          BU„U\h   |    Fusible Met.,.
                       f Bronze Metal,
                      j Speculum do.
                   *  * \ Bell      do.
                       (Cmnon  do.
 Copper and zinc .... j gu'^ gold-
 Copper  |  Zinc. Nickel,
  with  (    and  Iron
 Silver and  Copper  .  .
 Gold with  \ Com,fr and  {    Do.   Gol,
          (    ouver    S
 Mercury and other Metals   Amalgams.
   (See also Amalgams.)
   ALMOND   TREE,  (Amygdalus  communis.)
 The  kernels, sweet almonds,  are  pectoral  and
 cooling, but mawkish ; imported from the south of
 Europe and the  Barbary coast.  Blanched almonds.
 Almonds  thrown into boiling water until the skin
 comes off by pressing between the fingers, the hot
 water is  then strained away,  the almonds flung
 into cold water,  peeled, and dried, either in a stove
 or the sun, until they are brittle.  Burnt almonds.
 Used to color and flavor liqueurs.  Bitter almonds.
 A variety, imported from  Mogadore,  used to re-
 lieve the flavor of the sweet almonds, and to clear
 muddy water ; both pressed for oil. Almond cake,
 left on pressing the oil, used for washing the hands.
   Remarks.  Almonds are  principally used for ob-
 taining the oil ;  and in medicine for the prepara-
 tion of a  confection and mixture; and in cenfec-
 tionary, as an agreeable flavoring,  &c.
   ALMOND FLAVOR.   Syn. Essence of bit
 ter   Almonds.   Essence   of  peach  Kernels.
 Quintessence of Noyeau, &c.  Prep. Dissolve ,
 1 oz. of essential oil of bitter almonds in 1 pint of
 spirits of wine.
  Prop.,  uses, 6fC.  Used  as a flavoring for wine,
 cordials, perfumery, pastry, &.C., and in  any case
 where it is wished to impart an agreeable nutty
flavor or smell ;  also to prepare bitter almond wa-
ter.   Caution. It  should be used in very small
quantities, as it  is very powerful. A few drops are
sufficient for several pounds of pastry.
  ALMONDS,  TO  CANDY.  Oper.  Blanch
^MH 
ALO                    50                     ALU
any quantity of a:nonds, then fry or bake them in
butter, until they acquire a light brown color ; wipe
them with a napkin ,  pour over them sirup, (boiled
to a thread,) and stir  until cold.
   Remarks.  According to  Mrs. Rundel, almonds
so prepared were highly thought of by the London
guests of his  Highness Prince Ekbaladoola, the
Nawaub  of Oude, from whose cook this receipt
was obtained.
   ALMOND PASTE.  Prep. Blanched almonds
4 oz.; white of 1 egg ; spirit of wine and rose wa-
ter,  q. s.  Proc. Beat the  almonds to  a smooth
paste in a mortar,  then add the white of egg and
enough rose-water, mixed with $ its weight of spi-
rit of wine, to give the proper consistence.  Use.
As a cosmetic, to prevent chapped hands, &c.
  Remark. The skins will  easily come  off if the
almonds be immersed for a few minutes  in boiling
hot water.
  ALOES.   As there are several descriptions of
this drug,  and  the  commoner sorts are frequently
sold  for the more expensive, the following charac-
teristics will assist  the  reader in recognising such
deceptions.
  ALOES, SOCOTRINE.  Char.  Color, garnet
red to golden red ; smell, peculiar and  aromatic,
not unlike a decaying russet apple, especially when
breathed on  or warmed ; taste, permanently and
intensely  bitter; fracture, conchoidal ; softens  in
the hand and becomes adhesive, yet retains con-
siderable brittleness ; powder, bright golden  yel-
low color; central portions of the lumps often soft,
especially  when first imported. The Ed. Ph. states
that  socotrine aloes should  be " in thin pieces,
translucent and garnet red, almost entirely soluble
in spirit of the  strength of sherry ;  very rare."
  ALOES,  HEPATIC.  Char.  Less  odorous,
darker-colored, and more opaque than the preced-
ing ; digested inspirit of wine, gives a yellow gran-
ular  powder, resembling lycopodium, and insoluble
hi water, alcohol, ether, and dilute sulphuric acid ;
but  freely soluble  in  liquor  of potassa,  which it
turns red.  Remarks.  The finer  and paler sam-
ples  of this  aloes  constitute the mass of what is
sold  for socotrine.  It  yields  a powder of a duller
color than the latter.
  ALOES,  BARBADOES.  Char. Color, dark
brown or  black ;  smell, strong and unpleasant,
especially  when  breathed  upon ;  powder, dull
olive yellow.
  ALOES,  CAPE.  Char. Smell, stronger than
the last;  color, deep greenish brown ; appearance,
shining and resinous;  fracture, glassy; powder,
lively greenish-yellow color.
  Remarks. The above are the principal kinds  of
aloes ; but there are several other common sorts,
as the Mocha, Caballine, and Indian, all of which
are melted and doctored up by the  conscientious
druggist,   and sold for Barbadoes  and  hepatics.
They may, however,  be readily distinguished by
an experienced person, by their odor and appear-
ance, which are widely different.
  ALOES, STRAINED.  Syn. Melted Aloes.
Aloe colata.   Oper. I.  Melt  aloes in a copper
pan  by the heat of a  steam or water-bath, then
press them through a strong hair or wire sieve.
  II. Melt the aloes  as above, but with the addi-
 ion  of about  twice their weight  of  water, strain
md  evaporate.
   Remarks.   Mocha  and other  common aloes',
treated  in this way  and colored,  are  frequently
sold for melted socotrine and hepatics. The color-
ing employed is usually the precipitated carbonate
of iron (sesquioxide) or Venetian red, in fine pow-
der, and sometimes a little annatto.  The impos-
ture is not readily detected by mere inspection by
any one unaccustomed to these matters, hence the
impunity with which the fraud is perpetrated. The
object in melting  aloes  is to  deprive it of the for-
eign matters, which it generally contains in large
quantities, as sand, leaves,  pieces of wood, &c.
The action of the heat drives off much of the nau-
seous  smell from the commoner kinds, at the same
time  that it deepens their color and renders their
appearance  more  translucent and resinous,  and
hence disguises their original nature.  The opera •
tion of melting aloes on the large scale, is usuallj
carried on at night, in consequence  of the nau-
seous  fumes  evolved, which may  be smelt at  a
great  distance.
   ALOETIC  ACID.   This acid exists in a wa-
tery solution of  aloes.   Trommsdorf supposed  it
to be  the gallic acid, but Dr. Pereira  regards it as
a distinct principle.  Gallic acid gives a blue color
with the persalts of iron, but infusion of aloes pro-
duces an olive brown one. (Pereira.)   Prep. It  is
prepared by adding diacetate of lead to an infusion
of aloes, and decomposing the precipitate with sul-
phureted hydrogen.  Remarks. This acid must be
distinguished from polychromic, chrysammic, and
other  acids produced from aloes by the action of
nitric  acid.
   ALTERATIVES.   (From the  Latin altero,  I
change.)  Medicines that establish the  healthy
functions of the body, without producing any sen-
sible  evacuation,  by  perspiration,  vomiting, or
purging.   Small doses of the preparations of mer-
cury are among the most useful and generally em-
ployed alteratives.  Various formulae for alterative
medicines will be found in this work.
   ALTHIONIC   ACID.   Discovered  by Re-
gnault in the residual liquor from  the preparation
of defiant gas,  from alcohol,  and oil of vitriol.
   Prep.   Dilute  with water and neutralize with
hydrate or milk  of lime.   Decant the solution,
which contains althionate of lime, evaporate and
crystallize.  Dissolve the crystals  in water, and
precipitate with oxalic  acid; the solution is dilute
althionic acid.
   Prop.   A sour liquid, forming  salts, called al-
thionates, with the bases, which  have the same
composition as the sulpho-vinates ;  they are, how-
ever,  distinct salts.  (Regnault and Ettling.)
   ALUM.   Syn.  Lump  Alum.  Rock  Alum.
Sulphate of Ahmina and Potash.   Alumen,
(Lat.;)  Alun,  (Fr.;)  Alaun,  (Ger.;)  Aloin,
(Dut.)  A salt composed of alumina, potassa, and
sulphuric acid, and in its usual state, a large quan-
tity of combined water.
   Manufact.  The principal alum  works in Eng-
land are near Paisley and Whitby. The minerals
from  which it  is  procured  are called  aluminous
slate,  shale,  or schist, and  frequently  alum ore.
Proc.  The  ore,  placed in  heaps  and  moistened
from time to time with water, becomes gradually
hot, and  falls  into a  pulverent  state.   When  it
does not possess this property, by mere exposure  to
air and  moisture, it is broken into  pieces and laid 
ALU
51
ALU
 opon a bed of  brushwood  and small coal, to the
 depth of about 4 feet, when the pile is fired, and
 fresh lumps of alum  rock thrown on,  until the
 mass becomes of considerable height and size ; the
 combustion is  then  conducted with  a smothered
 fire, until the calcination is complete.  The pile is
 then allowed to cool, and further  exposed to the
 action of air and moisture.  The residuum of the
 burning is now placed in large stone cisterns, and
 thoroughly edulcorated with water,  until all the
 soluble portion  is dissolved; the solution is then
 concentrated in  another stone cistern, so made
 that the flame  and heated air of its reverberatory
 furnace  6weep the  surface of the liquor.   The
 evaporation  is  continued until it is near the point,
 but somewhat weaker than that at  which it would
 deposite crystals on cooling; it is then run off, after
 defecation, into other cisterns, and solution of com-
 mon muriate or sulphate of potassa, or (sometimes)
 impure sulphate or carbonate of ammonia, is added
 until a cloud or milkiness ceases to  be produced on
 adding more ;  it is then allowed to settle and get
 thoroughly cold, and the supernatant mother liquor
 being drawn off with  a pump or syphon, the pre-
 cipitate  is well drained.  It is next  well washed
 by stirring it  up with a little very  cold water,
 which after draining off, the operation is  repeated
 a second time.  A saturated solution of the alum
 is then formed in a leaden boiler, and the  clear
 portion is run  off, while boiling hot, into crystalli-
 zing vessels, called " roaching  casks," from which
 it is taken, after the lapse of about a week, in the
 form of large crystalline masses, which are broken
 up and packed in casks for sale.
   Remarks.  The above is an outline of the most
 approved mode of making the alum of commerce.
 It has lately, however, been made  at some chem-
 ical works on the banks of the Tyne, by the direct
 combination of oil of vitriol with a pure aluminous
 clay, the potash being afterwards  added.   This is
 a revival of the method first adopted  by Chaptal.
 A  patent alum is  manufactured  at the  same
 works, which  contains no  alkali,  and is, conse-
 quently, preferable for dyeing,  as it is the alumina
 alone that forms the valuable  ingredient in alums.
 Salts having the same general appearance and
 behavior  as  commoii alum, may be  made by re-
 placing  the  sulphate of potassa in the common
 alum, by ammonia or soda.  Such  compounds are
 known as ammonia and  soda alum.  The best
 sort of alum is formed when potassa alone  has
 been employed in its manufacture.   Good alum
 contains  about 11  per cent, of alumina,  10  per
 cent, of potassa, 33 of sulphuric acid, and 46 of
 water.
   Uses,  <$-c.  Alum is used in large quantities in
 many manufactories; added to tallow, it renders
 it harder;  printers' cushions, and the  blocks used
 in the calico manufactory, are rubbed with burnt
 alum to remove any greasiness, which might pre-
 vent  the ink or color from sticking.   Wood, suf-
 ficiently  soaked in a solution  of alum,  does  not
 easily take fire ; and the same is true of paper im-
 pregnated with  it, which is fitter to  keep gunpow-
 der, as it also excludes moisture.   Paper impreg-
 nated with alum is useful in whitening silver, and
silvering brass without heat.  Alum mixed in milk
helps the separation of its butter.  If added  in  a
very small quantity to turbid water, in a few min-
 utes it renders it perfectly limpid, without any bad
 taste or quality ; while the sulphuric acid imparts
 to it a very sensible acidity, and does not precipi-
 tate so soon, or so well, the opaque earthy mix-
 tures that render it turbid, as I have  often tried.
 It is  used  in making pyrophorus, in tanning, and
 many other manufactures, particularly in the art
 of dyeing, in which it is of the greatest and  most
 important use, by cleansing and opening the pores
 on  the surface of the substance to be dyed, ren-
 dering it fit for receiving the coloring particles, (by
 imparting alumina  to the stuff,)  and in this way
 making  the color fixed.  Crayons generally con-
 sist of the  earth of  alum,  finely powdered,  and*
 tinged for the purpose.   In medicine alum is used
 as a tonic and stringent, in doses of 5  to 20  grs.;
 as a gargle, (3j to £ pint of water;)  and as a col-
 lyrium and  injection, (10 to 15 grs. to 6 oz. of
 water.)  In lead colic, 3ss to 3ij of alum dissolved
 in gum water, every 3 or 4 hours, is said to be in-
 fallible.   Powdered  alum is frequently applied
 with the tips of the fingers, in cases of sore throat
 and ulcerations of the mouth, &c.
  Pur.  The usual impurity which re.jders alum
 unfit for the uses of the dyer, is the ferro-sulphate
 of potassa,  but  if  iron  be present  in any other
 shape, it is equally  injurious.   Common alum fre-
 quently contains ammonia, from urine or the crude
 sulphate of  the gas-works, having been employed
 in its manufacture.  This may be detected by add-
 ing a little quicklime or caustic potassa.  Powdered
 alum is commonly adulterated with  large quanti-
 ties of common salt, when  its solution may be
 tested as described for muriatic acid  and the mu-
 riates.   Pure alum should form a colorless solution
 with water, and  give a white precipitate with pure
 potassa soluble in an excess of the latter.  It should
 suffer no change on the addition of tinct. of galls,
 prussiate of potash, or sulphureted hydrogen.
  Ant.  When excessive doses of alum have been
 taken, an  emetic of  sulphate of  zinc should be
 given immediately, followed by copious  draughts
 of warm water, and as soon  as the  vomiting
 ceases, give a purgative.
  ALUM,  BURNT.  Syn. Dried Alum.  Alu-
 MEN USTUM.   ALUMEN SICCATUM.   A. EXSICCATUM.
 Proc.  Liquefy alum  in  a shallow earthen vessel
 over the fire, then cautiously raise the heat  until
 ebullition has ceased.  (P. L.)
  Remarks.   It is better to take more time,  than
 to employ too much heat, lest a portion of the acid
 be driven off as  well  as the water.   Use.  (Similar
 to common alum, but less soluble; dose 10 to 20
 grs. in colic; it  is  used  as  an escharotic to  burn
 down proud flesh, &c.
  ALUM,  IRON.  Prep.  Mix the solution of
sulphate of potassa with  a solution of  tersulphate
 of peroxide of iron,  and crystallize by spontaneous
 evaporation.
  Remarks.  This salt for the most part resembles
common alum.  It  has sometimes a slight  pink
color.  In a similar way may be made chrome
 and manganese alums.   In all these salts ».mmo-
 nia  may be  substituted  for potassa, w'tt  milar
results.
  ALUM, ROACH.  Syn.  Roman alum.  Tur-
 key Alum.  Red Alum, &c.  A very pure sort of
alum, imported from  Roccha in Syria, and Tolfa
in Italy, covered with an efflorescence  of a palish 
ALU                    52                     ALU
red or rose color.  The article generally met with
in commerce under  this name is, however, nothing
but common  English alum, broken  into  pieces
about the size of almonds, and colored with a little
bole or rose  pink.  This is  done by shaking' the
fragments in a  sieve over a vessel of  hot water,
and then stirring them up with the color, until the
surface is uniformly  tinged therewith.  In the gen-
uine roach alum, the color not only covers the sur-
face, but  also partially pervades the substance of
the crystals.
   ALUM, WHEY.  Prep. Boil I oz. of alum
with a pint of milk, and strain it.  Use. A wine-
glassful in diarrhoea  two or three times daily.
   ALUMINA.   Syn. Pure Alumine. Oxide of
Aluminum.   Magistery  of  Alum.  Aluminous
Earth. Earth of Alum. Argil, &c.  This sub-
stance is the base of the common  alum, just de-
scribed, and  is about one of the  most abundant
productions of nuture.   It forms a large proportion
of the clay out of which bricks, pipes, and earth-
enware are manufactured, and in a pure and crys-
tallized state, constitutes the  ruby and sapphire,
two of the hardest and most  valuable of the gems.
   Prep.  I. Dissolve alum in 6 times its weight of
boiling water, add a solution of carbonate of potas-
sa, (in slight excess,) agitate  for  a few minutes,
filter  and wash with distilled water.  To  render
this perfectly pure, it must  be dissolved in weak
muriatic acid, and again  thrown down with am-
monia, washed with water, and exposed to a white
heat in a crucible.  (Berzelius.)
   II. Precipitate a  solution  of alum with a solu-
tion of chloride of barium, filter, evaporate  to dry-
ness,  and ignite the residuum.  (Liebig.)
   III.  Expose perfectly pure ammonia alum to a
white heat.  (Gay Lussac.)
   Remarks.  It  is  necessary to employ perfectly
pure alum to prevent the product being vitiated.
The third is the simplest process, where pure am-
monia alum can be got; but as this is seldom the
case, the second should be  used in  preference to
the first.  The hydrate of  alumina, in the moist
state, is used to mix with oxide of cobalt, and sev-
eral other substances, as a base for the color.   In
this form it is sometimes called gelatinous alumina.
   ALUMINA   AND  ITS   SALTS, TESTS
FOR.  1. Ammonia and the alkaline carbonates
separate a bulky white powder (hydrate of alumi-
na) from its solutions in  the acids.  2. Pure po-
tassa and soda throw down a white powder, soluble
in excess of the precipitant.   3. Phosphate of am-
monia gives a white precipitate.   4. Iodide of po-
tassium causes a white precipitate, passing into a
permanent  yellow.   5. At  a strong red heat its
salts  part with some of their acid.   6.  Neither ox-
 alate of ammonia, tartaric acid, prussiate of potash,
 nor tincture of galls, disturb their solutions.  7. Bi-
 sulphate of potash,  added to  concentrated solutions,
 gives a precipitate  of octohedral crystals of alum.
 (See the article Bread.)
    ALUMINA, ACETATE OF.  Prep. I. Add
 a solution of acetate of baryta to another of sul-
 phate of alumina.
    II. (Calico printer's mordant.)  Prep. Add 100
 parts of alum to 120 parts of sugar of lead, each
 being first dissolved  separately in hot water, and
 allowed to cool  before mixing; decant the clear
 liquor.
  Prop.   Verv soluble  in  water ; astringent; bj
evaporation, it may be procured as a gummy mass
but much heat decomposes  it.   Vse.  In calico
printing as a mordant, mixed with starch or gum
to thicken it.  In dyeing, as a mordant, the thick
ening being omitted,  lis valuable properties  de-
pend upon the  feeble ullinity existing between its
constituents, which is counterbalanced by that of
the cotton fibres at a moderate heat.   Chemically
pure acetate  of alumina is made by the first for-
mula, or by dissolving the fresh hydrate in concen-
trated  acetic acid.  The  dyer's  mordant, made
like No. II., contains  much sulphate of potassa,
which  is  necessary for  its proper action on  the
cloth.
  ALUMINA, SULPHATE  OF.  Syn. Ter-
sulphate  of  Alumina.   Prep.  Saturate dilute
sulphuric  acid  »ith the freshly precipitated hy-
drate, evaporate, anu crystallize.
  Remarks.  Crystallizes with difficulty.   The di-
sulphate falls down from its solution  when ammo-
nia is added.  The mineral called aluminite, found
near Newhaven, in Sussex, and other places, is  a
disulphate of alumina.
   ALUMINUM.   Syn.  Aluminium.   The me-
tallic base of alumina ;  discovered by Davy. The
following is  Wohler's method  of obtaining this
metal.
   Prep.  Make a thick paste of alumina,  powdered
charcoal, sugar, and oil, and  heat it in  a covered
crucible until all the organic  matter is destroyed;
then transfer the product to a porcelain  tube, and
connect the one end with  another tube containing
dried muriate  of  lime, and the other end with  a
small tubulated receiver.   Then expose  the porce-
lain tube  to  the  heat of a small oblong furnace,
and having  connected the muriate  of lime  tube
with  a" vessel disengaging  chlorine,  pass the  gas
through the apparatus, at the same time raising the
heat of the tube to redness.  In one or two hours,
or as soon as the tube becomes choked, the whole
must be  allowed to cool, and taken to pieces, and
the chloride of aluminum thus formed  collected.
 9 or 10 pieces  of  potassium, of about the  size of
peas, are then to be placed in a platina crucible,
 and upon them an equal number of similar pieces
 of the sesquichloride of alumina, formed  as above;
 the cover is  now to be  put on and  secured in its
 place with a wire, and the heat of  a spirit lamp
 cautiously applied, until the spontaneous incandes-
 cence of the matter ceases.  When cold, yirow
 the crucible into a large vessel of cold water, agi-
 tate  and collect  the  gray powder  deposited, and
 again wash it  well and dry it.    v   '
   Prop.  A gray powder, consisting of  small  me-
 tallic scales, resembling platina.  It is not acted on
 by cold water, but is dissolved  by the alkalis und
 some of  the acids.  Heated to redness,  it  catches
 fire and  burns with great  rapidity in the  air, and
 in oxygen gas, with intense brilliancy.   The pow-
 der, blown upon the flame of a candle, displays an
 immense number of inflamed points  of great splen-
 dor.   When heated to  redness  in  the vapor  of
 phosphorus, it burns vividly, and produces sesqui-
 phosphoret of aluminum.  When mixed with se-
 lenium and exposed to heat, a blackish powder, or
 seleniuret of alumina,  is formed.   When heated
 until  strongly incandescent, and small pieces  of
 sulphur dropped upon its surface, the most brilliant 
AMA                    53                    AMB
 ".ombustion ensues with  the  formation of the ses-
 quisulphuret.  Both this and the  last article  pos-
 sess a semi-metallic lustre, and are easily decom-
 posed by exposure and moisture.   Should any of
 the chloride remain unconsumed, it may be pre-
 served in naphtha.
   AMADOU.   This word  is derived  from the
 French, and is applied  to a spongy, combustible
 Bubstance, made from a species of mushroom, (the
 boletus igniarius,) which grows on the  trunks of
 some old trees.
   Collect, and prep.  It should be collected in the
 months of August and  September, and the outer
 bark having been removed with a knife, the inner
 spongy  light-brown  substance  must be carefully
 separated from the woody part below.  It  must be
 next cut into slices  and well beaten with a ham-
 mer or mallet, until they become soft and easily
 pulled to pieces between the fingers.  It is now fit
 for use.
    Uses,  tyc.  It  is used for  stopping bleeding and
 some other surgical  purposes.  When covered with
 resin plaster, it forms an excellent article for the
 protection of abraded surfaces in exposed situations.
 and a small piece thus prepared, of a circular shape,
 having a round hole cut in  the middle, the size of
 the apex of the  corn, forms the  very best  corn-
 plaster, as from its  great softness  it at  once  pro-
 tects the part from pressure, and removes the cause.
 It is also used to make a match or tinder.
   AMADOU  TINDER.   Syn. Boletus Tin-
 der.  German  Tinder.  Spunk.  Touchmatch.
 Touchwood.  Prep. I.  Boil the prepared amadou
 in a  strong solution of  saltpetre, dry and beat it
 well with a mallet,  then  again soak it in the solu-
 tion, dry and rub out the excess of saltpetre.
   II. Make  a  thin paste   with  gunpowder and
 water, to which a little spirit may be added, then
 thoroughly  imbue the prepared amadou with it;
 dry, beat out the loose  powder, and again rub  it
 with the  paste;  lastly, dry and rub out the loose
 matter.
   Remarks. From  the  color of the last tinder, it
 has received the  name of black spunk ; the former
 is the most cleanly,  the last  the most combustible.
 The  former is sometimes called red amadou.  It is
 much used as a touchmatch, and instead of tinder,
 especially on the  continent, where most smokers,
 prior to the  general use of congreves, carried a box
 with  them containing a little amadou and  a small
 flint and  steel.
   AMALGAMS.    (From &i*a,  together, and
 ya/itiv, to  marry.) Substances formed by  mixing
 quicksilver with another metal.  Alloys containing
 quicksilver.   Remarks. Mercuiy unites with most
 of the metals by mere contact, forming amalgams.
 These are employed for various purposes  in  the
 arts,  as  silvering, gilding,  coating mirrors, &c.
 (See the  following Articles.)
   AMALGAM,   AMMONIACAL.  This  is a
 compound of  mercury,  hydrogen, and  nitrogen,
 produced by placing  a globule of metallic mercury
 in a small cavity, formed  in a piece of sal ammo-
 niac ; the negative pole of a  powerful voltaic bat-
 tery is then brought in  contact with the  metal,
 and the positive  pole with the  ammoniacal salt.
 After a few seconds an  amalgam of a ramified
shape, and  of  the consistence  of soft butter, is
formed.  On withdrawing the  influence of the
 battery, the who'e returns to its former  condition.
 2.  By putting an amalgam of mercury and potas-
 sium into  the moistened  cavity of the sal ammo-
 niac, similar results ensue.  Remarks.  The phe-
 nomena attending the formation of this  amalgam
 have been brought forward to prove the compound
 nature of  nitrogen and the existence  of the theo-
 retical base ammonium.
    AMALGAM, ELECTRICAL.  Ing.  Zinc
 and tin, 1 oz. each ; quicksilver, 2 oz.  Proc. Melt
 the first two in an iron ladle, then withdraw it from
 the fire and add  the mercury also, made hot; stir
 well together with an  iron rod, pour the melted
 metal into a wooden box, and  shake it violently
 until cold.  It should  be preserved in  a corked
 glass vial.
    Use  For covering the cushions of electrical ma-
 chines,  :r which purpose, a little -mist  be poured
 out on a piece of clean paper, crushed quite smooth
 with a flat knife, and  then spread thinly on the
 surface of the rubber, previously touched  over with
 a little tallow.
   AMALGAM  OF GOLD.  Prep. Place one
 part of gold in "a  small iron saucepan or ladlo, per-
 fectly clean, then add 8 parts of  mercury, and
 apply a gentle heat, when the gold will  dissolve;
 agitate the mixture for one minute, and pour it out
 on a clean plate  or stone slab.
    Use. For gilding brass, copper, &c.  The metal
 to be gilded is first rubbed over with a solution of
 nitrate of mercury, and then  covered  with a very
 thin film of the amalgam.  On heat being applied,
 the mercury volatilizes, leaving the gold  behind.
   Remarks. A much less proportion of gold is often
 employed than the above, where  a very thin and
 cheap gilding is  required,  as by  increasing the
 quantity of the  mercury, the precious metal may
 be  extended over a much  larger surface.   A simi-
 lar amalgam prepared with silver is used  for sil-
 vering.
   AMALGAM  FOR  MIRRORS,  &c.  Ing.
 Lead and tin of  each 2 oz.; b smuth 2 oz. ;  mer-
 cury 4 oz.   Proc. Add the mercury to the rest in
 a melted state and removed from  the  fire; mix
 well with an iron rod.
   Uses, SfC.  This amalgam melts at  a low heat,
 and is employed for silvering the iusides of hollow
 glass vessels, globes, convex mirrors, &c.  The
 glass being well cleaned, is carefully warmed, and
 the amalgam, rendered fluid by heat, is then poured
 in,  and the vessel turned round and round,  so that
 the metal may be brought  in contact with every
 part of  the glass, which it is desired to cover.  At
 a certain temperature this  amalgam  readily ad-
 heres to glass.
  AMBER.  Syn.  Succinum  (Lat.) ;  Succin
 (Fr.) ; Bernstein (Ger.)  A yellow semi-transpa-
 rent, vegeto-mineral substance, somewhat  resem-
 bling copal, much -used for the  manufacture of
 trinkets, mouth-pieces  for pipes, &c.  It is found
 upon the coasts of the  Baltic Sea, Sicily, Poland,
 Saxony, Siberia, Greenland, &c.
  Remarks.  The finer  sorts of amber fetch very
 high prices.  A piece of a pound weight  is  said to
 be worth from 10Z. to 151.  5000 dollars were lately
 offered in Prussia  for a piece weighing 13 lbs., and
which, it was stated by the Armenian  merchants,
would fetch from  30 to 40,000 dollars in Constan-
tinople.   It would thus appear to be more valued 
AMB                    54                    AMB
in the east than in  England.  In the royal cabi-
net, Berlin, there is a piece weighing 18 lbs., and
supposed to be the largest ever found. The coarser
kinds are  employed in medicine, chemistry, and
the arts.
   Identity. Amber  may be known  from mellite
and copal, both of which articles are occasionally
substituted for it, by the  following characteristics.
1. Mellite  is infusible by heat, and burns white.
2. A bit of copal, heated on the point of a knife,
catches fire, and runs into drops, which flatten as
they fall.  3. Amber burns with spitting and froth-
ing, and when its liquefied particles drop, they re-
bound from the plane on which they fall.   (M.
Haiiy.)
   AMBER IS JOINED AND  MENDED by
smearing the surfaces of the pieces  with linseed
or boiled oil, and then strongly pressing  them to-
gether, at the same time holding them over a char-
coal fire, or heating them  in any  other way in
which they will not be exposed to injury.
   AMBER IS  WORKED in a lathe, polished
with whiting and water or oil, and finished off by
friction  with flannel.  During the  operation the
pieces often become  hot  and electrical, and fly
into fragments, to avoid which, they should be kept
cool, and only worked for a short period at a time.
The workmen are said to suffer considerably from
electrical  excitement,  often experiencing severe
nervous tremors of the hands and arms.
   AMBER, FACTITIOUS.   Prep.   Dissolve
shellac  in  an  alkaline lye, then pass  chlorine
through the solution until the whole of  the lac is
precipitated.  After washing in water, this  must
be melted and kept over the fire until it runs clear,
taking care that it does not burn ;  it should then
be poured into moulds of the size of the pieces re-
quired.
   Remarks. The darkest and hardest pieces of
copal are  also often substituted for amber.  The
above operation requires considerable management.
(See Chlorine and Gas.)
   AMBER, SOLUBLE.  Prep. Heat the am-
ber cautiously in an iron pot, over a clear fire, until
it softens and becomes  semi-liquid ;  then add pale
boiled linseed oil, heated very hot, and well mix it
in by stirring.  The  best proportions are 3 lbs. of
oil to 4 lbs. of amber.
   Uses, 4cc. In this state, on being cooled a little,
it may be made into a varnish by the addition of
oil of turpentine ; or it may be  preserved  for any
length of time if covered from the air, and is al-
ways ready for the above purpose  on being gently
heated.  It is sometimes used as a cement for glass
and earthenware, by rubbing it on the edges of the
broken piece, previously heated. Amber is soluble
in sulphuric acid and the pure  alkalis, but neither
of these solutions can be used  in  the arts.  The
previous method is that followed by the  varnish-
makers.
   AMBER, TO  IMPROVE.   There  are two
methods practised by the workman to harden com-
mon amber, and to render it clearer.  Oper. I.  Boil
the pieces of amber in rape oil for 24 hours. II. Sur-
round th»3 amber with clean sand in an iron pot,
and exp'^e it to a gradually increasing heat for 30
or 40 hours.   During this process pieces must be
kept in the sand at the side of the pot, for the pur-
pose of  occasional  examination, lest the heat be
raised  too high,  or  be too  long continued.   Re-
marks.  The second process is said to require much
skill and experience  for its successful performance.
   AMBER,  CAMPHOR.   Syn.  Crystalline
Pyretine. Volatile Resin  of Amber.   This
substance is obtained  as a  yellowish  light subli-
mate towards the end of the process of the de-
structive distillation  of amber in close vessels;  it
comes over after the last portion of the oil, and  is
found in the neck of  the retort.
  AMBER VARNISH.   Prep. Amber 1 lb.;
pale boiled oil  10 oz.; turpentine 1  pint.  Proc.
Render  the amber,  placed  in an iron pot, semi-
liquid by heat; then add the  oil, mix, remove  it
from the fire, and when cooled a little, stir in the
turpentine.
  II. To the  amber, melted  as  above,  add 2 oz
of shellac, and proceed as before.
  Remarks. This varnish is rather  dark, but re-
markably tough.   The first form is  the best.  It
is used for the same  purposes as  copal varnish, and
forms an excellent  article for covering wood, o,
any other substance not of a white or very pale
color.  It dries well, and is very hard and durable.
  AMBER VARNISH, BLACK.  Prep.  Am-
ber 1 lb.; boiled  oil  £  pint; powdered asphaltum
6 oz.; oil of  turpentine 1 pint.   Proc.  Melt the
amber,  as before  described, then add the asphal-
tum, previously mixed with the cold oil, and after-
wards heated very hot, mix  well, remove  the ves-
sel from the fire,  and when cooled a  little add the
turpentine, also made warm.
  Remarks.  Each of the above varnishes should
be reduced to a proper consistence with more tur-
pentine  if it be required.   The last form produces
the beautiful  black  varnish  used by the coach-
makers.   Some manufacturers  omit the whole or
part of the asphaltum, and use the same quantity
of clear black rosin instead, in which case the
color is  brought up  by lampblack reduced  to an
impalpable powder, or previously ground very fine
with a little boiled oil.  The varnish made in this
way, lacks, however, that richness, brilliancy, and
depth of blackness imparted by asphaltum.
  AMBERGRIS.   Syn.   Ambergrisea  (Lat.)
Ambregris (Fr.)   A substance  found in irregular
masses floating on the sea in tropical climates, and
supposed to be a morbid secretion of the liver or
intestines of the  spermaceti whale.   Prop. Dirty
pale color; very odorous;  lighter  than water;
largely employed in  perfumery.  Pur.  From its
high price (about  21s. per oz. retail)  it is frequent-
ly adulterated with cheaper matter.   When  quite
pure it is nearly or wholly soluble in  hot ether and
alcohol,  and  yields  about  85$  of ambreine.  Its
sp. gr. should not  exceed -926 nor be less than *780.
It should adhere to the edge  of a knife when
scraped, and should  yield to the pressure of the
nails.  It melts at 144°,  and flies  off as a white
vapor at 212°.  It should burn with an agreeable
odor, and leave no notable quantity of ashes.  It
is  frequently  adulterated with gum  benzoin, lab-
danum, farina, meal,  &c,  mixed  together,  and
scented with musk.  Dose,  «J-c.  It has been given
in doses of 3 to 10 grs. as an aphrodisiac.
  AMBERGRIS,   FACTITIOUS  or REDU-
CED.  An article is sold of this  description, which
is  made in the following way.   Prep.  Ben nuts
6 oz.; spermaceti 8 oz.;  gum benzoin 20 oz.; or- 
AMM                     55                    AMM
ris powder 16 oz.; starch  8 oz.; asf I.Lftum 3 oz.;
mucilage of  gum tragacanth  q.  s.;  good grain
musk 1 oz.; genuine ambergris 8 oz.;  liquor of
ammonia 1 oz.   Proc. Beat to a perfectly homo-
geneous mass, make it up into lumps, and dry.
   Remarks.  This article  is readily distinguished
from genuine ambergris by its imperfect solubility
in alcohol.
   AMBREINE.  Syn. Ambreina.  Odorous prin-
ciple of ambergris.   Prep. Digest ambergris ill
hot alcohol of 0-827 until the  latter  will dissolve
no more, then  filter.  The ambreine will be de-
posited on cooling, in an irregular crystalline mass.
It may be  purified by resolution.
   Prop. White, smells of amber, and is often ad-
vantageously substituted for that substance in per-
fumery. Melts at 86° ; volatilizes at 212°.  Nitric
acid  converts  it  into ambreic acid.   This  acid
combines with the bases, and resembles cholesteric
acid.
   AMIDINE.  A substance found in starch paste
that has been long exposed to the atmosphere, and
also formed immediately by the action of hot wa-
ter.  (Saussure, Caventou.)  Its properties are in-
termediate between those of starch and  gum.
   AMILENE.   Prep.  When the oil  of  potato
spirit is repeatedly distilled with anhydrous phos-
phoric  acid, an ethereous liquid, possessing a pe-
culiar aromatic odor, is obtained, which has been
called amilene by Cahours.
   AMMELIDE.  A  white  powder,  possessing
some  peculiar  properties,  discovered by  Liebig.
Prep. It is  prepared by dissolving melam, mela-
mine, or ammeline, in strong sulphuric  acid, add-
ing alcohol, and washing the precipitate with cold
water.   It  is purified by resolution in dilute nitric
acid, and precipitation by carbonate of ammonia.
   AMMELINE. Prep.  Dissolve melam in boil-
ing dilute muriatic acid, evaporate and crystallize.
Dissolve the crystals in pure water, and precipitate
with ammonia.  Remarks.  A weak alkaline base,
discovered by Liebig.  It  consists of very fine nee-
dles, having a silky lustre.
   AMMONIA.  Syn.  Volatile Alkali.  Al-
kaline Air.   Gaseous  Ammonia.  Azotureted
Hydrogen.  Pure ammonia is an incondensable
colorless gas, possessing great pungency and acrid-
ness, and  powerful alkaline  properties.  Water
readily absorbs  about 500 times its volume of this
substance, and in this state  forms strong liquid
ammonia, which, when much more dilute, is pop-
ularly known as  spirits of hartshorn, or water of
ammonia.   As  usually met with in the  form of a
semi-crystalline whitish  mass, commonly  called
smelling salts, it is combined with carbonic acid
and water, forming a sesquicarbonate of this base.
   Hist., Sources, $-c.   Ammonia, in combination
with acids,  is frequently found ready  formed in
nature ; but that met with in commerce  is an ar-
tificial production.  It  is  found, in variable quan-
tities, among the  saline  product of volcanoes, in
sea water,  in bitumiqous coal, and in the  atmo-
sphere, especially  that of large towns.   The  mi-
nute stellated crystals sometimes found on dirty
windows in London and other populous cities con-
sist of sulphate of ammonia. (Brande.)  Ammonia
was originally brought from Egypt, where  it was
obtained by  sublimation, under the  form of sal
ammoniac, from the soot produced  by burning
camel's dung.  It was afterwards procured from
putrid urine by distillation ; but at the present day
it is chiefly prepared from the  ammoniacal liquor
of the gas-works, and  the manufactories of ivory
black,  animal  charcoal, &c.   In  these  places I
larger quantity of crude ammoniacal liquor is ob-
tained, to which either sulphuric or muriatic acid
is  added, by  which it is converted into a  salt,
which  may be obtained nearly pure by evapora-
tion, crystallization, and  subsequent sublimation
Other processes have been adopted for the prepa-
ration of the  principal  salts of ammonia, viz., its
sulphate, carbonate, and muriate, some of which
have been patented, but  none of these have  got
into general use.
   Prep. Mix  unslaked lime with an equal weight
of sal  ammoniac, both dry and in fine powder;
introduce the  mixture into a glass retort, and join
the beak by a collar of Indian rubber to a glass
tube about  18 inches  long, which  must lie hori-
zontally, and  have  its  beak bent up ready to be
placed under a glass jar, on the shelf of a mercu-
rial pneumatic trough.   Heat  being applied by
means of a spirit-lamp, and the air  contained in
the apparatus having been expelled, the  gas  may
be collected for use.   Ammonia cannot be dried
by means of muriate of lime.
   Use.  It  is employed in several  chemical pro-
cesses ;  absorbed by water it forms  liquor of am-
monia, spirits  of hartshorn, &c, which see.
   Tests and Char. Ammonia is easily recognised
by—1.  Its pungent odor.  2.  By turning vegeta-
ble blues green and yellows brown, but which soon
regain their previous colors, especially on the ap-
plication of heat.   3.  By producing dense white
fumes when brought in contact with those of mu-
riatic acid, as  for instance, by holding the stopper
moistened with the latter over the former.   7 he
salts of ammonia may be known by the following
properties:—1. The exhalation of ammoniacal gas
(recognised  by its odor) when mixed with caustic
potassa,  or  soda.  2. Dropped  into  a solution of
chloride  of platinum, they produce  a yellow pre-
cipitate.   They are mostly soluble in water, vola-
tile, and crystal! izable.
   Estimation. This is  usually performed by put-
ting a given weight of  the sample into a small re-
tort, the end of which  is made  to dip into a vessel
containing dilute muriatic acid.  A strong solution
of caustic potassa is then poured into the retort,
and heat applied by means of  a small spirit lamp.
When all the ammonia is distilled over, the acid so-
lution must  be evaporated to dryness and weighed,
and from the quantity of the muriate thus found,
the weight of pure ammonia will  be known ; 54
parts of the former being equivalent to 17 of the
latter.   If the article  for examination be a solid
substance (as a salt) it  may be dissolved  in water
or dilute acid before being put into the retort.
  AMMONIA, ACETATE  OF.   Prep. I. Mix
together equal parts of sal ammoniac and acetate
of potassa,  and  distil;  binacetate  of ammonia
passes  over into  the receiver, as  an oily  liquid,
which on cooling forms a radiated crystalline mass.
By passing dry ammoniacal  gas into this salt,
melted  by a  gentle heat, it is transformed  into
the neutral acetate, and becomes  solid and  in-
odorous.
  II.  By saturating «etrong acetic  acid with  am 
AMM                    56                    AMM
 monia, and  evaporating  over sulphuric acid in
 vacuo, crystals  of  acetate of ammonia  may be
 obtained.
   Prop. Very soluble both in alcohol and water ;
 very deliquescent.
   AMMONIA, ACETATE, SOLUTION  OF.
 Syn. Minderus Spirit.  Liquid Acetate of  Am-
 monia.  Water of Acetate of Ammonia.  Prep.
 Saturate distilled vinegar  with carbonate of  am-
 monia.
   Proportions.
            Sesquicarbonate  Distilled
             of ammonia.   vinegar.
   Lond. Ph.  .   5'vss      4 pints.
   Edin.  "   .   fj         f gxxiv (s. g. 1-005)
   Dub.  "   .   1 part,   about 30 parts.
   Prop. Colorless ;  taste slightly urinous ; neutral
to litmus and turmeric paper; when concentrated
by heat and mixed  with oil of vitriol, it emits the
fumes  of vinegar,  and those  of  ammonia,  when
mixed with caustic  alkali  or  liquor of  potassa in
exct ss.
   Use, Dose, SfC It is  a  very common febrifuge
and diaphoretic, and an excellent aperient  saline
liquor.   Taken warm in bed, it generally proves a
powerful sudorific;  and  as  it operates without
heat, it is used in febrile  and inflammatory  dis-
orders, where medicines of the warm kind, if" they
fail of producing sweat,  aggravate  the disease.
Its action may likewise be determined to the  kid-
neys, by walking about in  cool air. The common
dose  is half an ounce, either by itself or  along with
other med.cines adapted to the intention.  Exter-
nally it is frequently used as a collyrium in chronic
ophthalmia: 1 oz. to 9 oz. of water.
   Remarks. It  is very necessary to avoid an ex-
cess  of ammonia, as its  presence  would prove in
many cases injurious, especially in eye-waters. A
very trifling excess of acid  is preferable.  The
point of saturation is known by the effervescence
becoming feeble on  adding more ammonia,  and
the liquor being neutral to turmeric and litmus
paper.
   AMMONIA,  SOLUTION OF ACETATE
OF,   (CONCENTRATED.)    Prep.  Saturate
acetic  acid,  sp. gr. 1-038, with sesquicarbonate of
ammonia in powder; about 2£ lbs. of the latter to
1 gallon of the former.
   Remarks. The same precautions are necessary
to produce a neutral solution as in the previous ar-
ticle.   This  article  has a  great  demand in the
wholesale drug trade, under the name of concen-
trated liquor of acetate of  ammonia,  (liq. ammon.
acet. cone.)   It is very convenient for dispensing.
f3j added to  f3vij of water, forms the  liquor  am-
monias acetatis of the L. Ph.
   AMMONIA,  ARSENIATE OF.  Prep. Sat-
urate a strong solution  of arsenic acid with the
liquor of sesquicarbonate of ammonia; evaporate
and  crystallize.  Remarks. A binarseniate may
also  be formed by adding an excess of acid.
   AMMONIA, ARSENITE OF.  Prep. Dis-
solve sesquicarbonate of ammonia in a  hot  and
strong solution of arsenious acid,  until saturation
is produced; evaporate  as last.   Use.  To make
the arsenite of iron.  Its properties and action are
Bimilar to those of arsenite of potash.
   AMMONIA, ARGENTO-CHLORIDE  OF.
Syn  Ammonio-chloride of Silver.  Prep.  Ex-
pose well-washed and freshly precipitated chloride
of silver to the action of ainnioniacal gas, by pla-
cing a small cup containing liquor of ammonia, in
an evaporating basin containing the chloride, and
covering the whole with a sheet of glass or writing
paper.  After the lapse of a i'cw hours, digest the
precipitate in liquor of ammonia, sp. gr. -8H0, grad-
ually applying a  gentle  heat  until at length the
water boils; then  remove the  flask from the fire
and  allow it  to cool,  when  crystals will  form.
These must then be collected, washed with a little
cold liquor of  ammonia, and dried by pressure be-
tween blotting-paper. Caution. This article should
only be prepared in small quantities at a time, as
a brown fulminating powder,of the most danger-
ous description, is not unfrequently thrown down
from  the liquor,  and  has sometimes led to ac-
cidents.
  AMMONIA, BENZOATE OF.   Prep. Dis-
solve pure benzoic acid in strong liquor of carbon-
ate of ammonia, until the  latter  is saturated, ap-
plying (cautiously) a gentle heat; cool and crys-
tallize.   Uses, ifC. As a chemical reagent.
  Remarks.   W'hen the solution is  boiled for a
short time, and abandoned  to  spontaneous evapo-
ration, crystals of  acid benzoate  of ammonia are
deposited.
  AMMONIA, BIMALATE OF.  Prep Add
a strong solution of malic acid to another of neu-
tral malate of ammonia ; cautiously evaporate and
crystallize.  Prop.  Large  crystals; taste,  acid
and agreeably saline ; very soluble in water.
  AMMONIA, CARBONATE OF. Syn. Sub
carbonate of Ditto.  Sescmjicarbonate of Dit-
to.   Volatile Sal  Ammoniac.   Baker's Salt.
Volatile Salts.  Prepared Ammonia.  AmmonijS
Sesquicarbonas, (P. L. and E.)   Ammonia Car-
bonas, (P. D.)   Carbonate d'Ammoniaque, (Fr.;)
Kohlensaures Ammoniak,  (Ger.)  This is the
substance popularly known as " smelling salts."
  Prep.   I.  Sal   ammoniac  1  lb.;  dried chalk
1^ lb.  Proc.  Pulverize the ingredients separately,
then mix and sublime with a gradually increasing
heat, (L. and  E. Ph.)  Remarks. The above are
the  proportions of the London  and Scotch Col-
leges; they  are as 2 to 3.   The D. Ph. directs
equal quantities of dried carbonate of soda and sal
ammoniac.  On the large scale  this salt is pre-
pared as  follows.
  II. Sal ammoniac, or pure commercial sulphate
of ammonia, and chalk, equal parts, both dry and
in powder.  Mix  and sublime  from an  iron pot,
into a long earthen or leaden receiver, well cooled.
  Remarks.  The receiver is usually fitted with a
moveable lead cover, secured by a water joint, and
has an open  lead pipe in the bottom, to allow the
liquid products of the distillation to drain off into a
second receiver.  When made of  the impure sul-
phate of  ammonia, it must be  resublimed in iron
pots, furnished with  leaden heads kept  cool.  A
little water is commonly introduced into the sub-
liming pots,  to render  the product  translucent.
The heat is usually applied by means of a common
furnace,  but a steam or water bath is preferable,
as the temperature required  for this purpose does
not exceed 200° F.
  In  the above processes the salt  is formed by the
double decomposition of the ingredients, a muriate
or sulphate of lime being left  in  the  retort, and 
AMM                    57                   AMM
carbonate (sesqui-) of ammonia passing over into
the r*""!lver.  It is commonly called a carbonate,
but :t is properly a sesquicarbonate, containing 1^
atom of carbonic acid and  1  atom of  ammonia,
besides combined water.   (Phillips, Rose, Thomp-
son.)   As it is usually met with,  its composition
is variable, owing to the action of the atmosphere,
&c.  The  chemically pure carbonate  of ammo-
nia can only be prepared by bringing together per-
fectly pure and dry carbonic acid and ammoniacal
gases.   Such is  the competition  at present  exist-
ing in the ammonia trade, that  this  salt  may be
bought of very fine quality at 5d. a pound, in quan-
tity.  Prop.  Soluble in 4 parts of cold water ;  but
boiling water and alcohol decompose it, with the
evolution of carbonic  acid gas.  By age or  expo-
sure to airjthe  surface  assumes an opaque white
color, frorapa portion of  the ammonia  flying off,
and the remainder being converted  into a  bicar-
bonate.
   Tests and Char.   It  is recognised in the same
way as ammonia, and it is known to be a carbon-
ate by giving a  white precipitate with chloride of
barium.
   Uses.  Much used by bakers,  especially in their
fancy goods, and to make extemporaneous bread
and pastry ; and by  the chemist and pharmaceu-
tist for the preparation of many of the salts of am-
monia.   As  a medicine  it  is stimulant, antacid,
diaphoretic, and antispasmodic.  Dose. 5 to 15 grs.
in pills  or  solution, (in hysteria, dyspepsia, heart-
burn, or chronic rheumatism.)   A plaster made of
1 part of powdered carbonate of ammonia, and 3
parts of extract of belladonna, and spread upon
leather, is used for allaying rheumatic pains.   Ses-
quicarbonate of  ammonia is also used to make an
effervescing saline draught.
20  grs. of sesquicarbon-") f36 of lemon juice, 24
   ate  of ammonia,  in  [   grs. of citric acid, or
  solution,  should   be  f  25  grs.  of  tartaric
  used, to  either—    J   acid.
With the addition of  a few drops of any aromatic
essential oil, as  lavender, bergamotte, &cc.  It is
much  used as a smelling salt  in cases of  faint-
ing, &c.
   AMMONIA,  CARBONATE.   (Super, or
Bicarbonate.)  Prep. (Dub.  Ph.)   Dissolve car-
bonate of ammonia in water, and pass a stream of
carbonic acid gas through it, until  effervescence
ceases.   Dry the crystals without heat, and pre-
serve in stoppered bottles.  (See Carbonic Acid.)
Remarks.  After the  ammoniacal  solution is tho-
roughly saturated with gas, evaporation must be
conducted  with  a very  gentle  heat, when  small
prismatic crystals will form, having neither smell
nor taste.
  Prop., Uses, fyc.   Similar to the sesquicarbon-
ate, except being devoid  of smell.  Dose.  6 to 24
grains.
  AMMONIA, CITRATE.  Prep. I. (Extem-
poraneous.)   Saturate lemon juice with carbonate
of ammonia, about 3j of  the latter to f ^ij and 3ij
of the former.
  II. (Crystals.) Saturate a  solution of pure
citric acid  as above;  evaporate and crystallize,
fabout 7 parts of acid to  6 of  sesquicarbonate of
unmonia.)
  Uses, <$-c. A solution of the crystals is employed
as a chemical reagent; the 1st form is used as a
mild saline  aperient and diaphoretic in febrile dis-
orders.
   AMMONIA, CYANATE OF.  Syn. Urea.
Prep.  Mix 28 parts of perfectly  dry ferro-cyanide
of potassium with 14 parts of black  oxide of man-
ganese, both pure and in fine powder;  then place
them on a smooth iron plate, and heat  them to a
dull red,  over a  charcoal fire.  When the mass
begins to burn, it must be frequently stirred ; after
which cool  and  dissolve in  cold water, filter and
add 20£ parts of dry sulphate of  ammonia, and
decant the clear from the precipitated sulphate of
potassa.   Concentrate at a heat below 212°, again
decant, evaporate to dryness, and digest in boiling
alcohol of 80°;;  crystals of  urea will be deposited
as  the solution  cools.  (Liebig.)   Prod.  4 oz. of
perfectly  colorless   and  beautifully  crystallized
urea, from 1 lb. of the ferro-cyanide of potassium.
   AMMONIA,  HYDROSULPHURET OF.
Syn. Hydrosulphate of Ammonia.  Boyle's Fu-
ming  Liquor.   Beguin's Sulphureted Spirit.
Hepatized  Ammonia.  Sulphuret of Ammonia.
Prep.  Reduce 5  parts of sulphuret of iron to coarse
powder,  put it into  a retort, and pour thereon 7
parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with 32  parts of
water, and pass the  gas evolved through 4 parts of
the strong liquor of ammonia, applying  a gentle
heat towards the end of the process.
   Remarks.  This operation is best conducted in a
Woolf's apparatus,  putting into  the first  bottle a
little water, into the second, the liquor of ammo-
nia, and into  the third, some milk  of  lime to ab-
sorb the superfluous  gas, and prevent its  escape
into the apartment.    This gas is sulphureted hy-
drogen, which is not only  very foetid,  but poi-
sonous.
   Prop. The  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia, when
quite pure, is a  gaseous body, readily absorbable
by water, forming  a transparent solution.  It is
this gas which  constitutes the  nauseous effluvia
evolved from privies, and decomposing animal mat-
ter.  Dose.  5 drops and upwards, mixed with wa-
ter, and instantly swallowed to prevent decompo-
sition,  in diabetes.  It is  principally employed by
the chemist as a test liquor for metals.
   Ant. When this  liquid is swallowed  in large
doses it acts as a violent poison.  Dilute  solution
of chlorine, or the chloride of lime or soda, followed
by a powerful  emetic, or the stomach-pump, are
the best antidotes.   When the gas has  been  re-
spired, free  exposure  to fresh  air, and  copious
affusions of cold  water, with moderate draughts of
brandy and  water,  and the  use  of  the smelling-
bottle, (ammoniacal,) should be adopted.
   AMMONIA, LIQUOR OF.   Syn. Water of
Ammonia.   Solution  of Ammonia.   Water of
caustic  Ammonia.   Dissolution  d'ammoniaciue
(Fr.)  Liquore di Ammoniaco (Ital.)  Atzender
ammonium-liquor (Ger.)  Prep. I. (Liqinr am-
monia:, P. L.)   Ing.  Newly-burnt lime fviij;  sal
ammoniac,  in  small lumps §x ; water 2  pints.
Proc.  Put the lime  into a retort  and slake with a
little water,  then add the sal ammoniac, and the
remainder of the water ;  distil f %xv  of the solution
with a gradually increased heat into a well-cooled
receiver.  The sp. gr. should be 0-960.
   II.  (Aqua ammonia fortior, and aqua ammon
P. E.)   Both  thete  articles are  prepared by one
process,  by using a  second receiver  containing 
AMM
58
AMM
double the quantity of water in  the 1st.   Sp. gr.
0-880 and 0*960.   The proportions are equal parts
of lime and sal ammoniac.
  III. (Aq. ammon. caustica. D. Ph.)   The spe-
cific gravity is 0*950.
  IV.  On the commercial scale this article is pre-
nared from a mixture of about equal parts of quick-
lime and sal ammoniac,  or sulphate of ammonit,
which are heated together in an  iron cylinder or
retort, connected with a  refrigerator, consisting of
a row of stone bottles with double necks  contain-
ing water, and kept very cold.   The arrangement
of this apparatus is represented below, which, witb
the accompanying references, will explain itself
                 A, Cylindrical Iron Retort.
                 B. Furnace for ditto.
                 CC C C, Stoneware Receivers.
  There are two methods of proceeding in mixing
the ingredients:  the one is  to mix the dry ingre-
dients together, and to drive over the dry gas into
water;  the other is first to  slake the lime with a
little water, then to add the sal ammoniac, and
mix the whole to a pap  before applying heat.   In
either case a proportionate quantity of water is put
into the condenser, and the  operation is nearly
similar, but the latter method requires the  least
heat.
  Remarks. Whatever form may be adopted to pre-
pare liquid ammonia, it is absolutely necessary to
keep the receivers as cool as possible for the purpose
of promoting the absorption  of the gas, and to pre-
vent its loss.  On the  small scale the glass re-
ceivers  or bottles  should be surrounded with ice
and furnished with a safety tube to prevent acci-
dents.   The water contained in the  first bottle
will be the strongest, if it be kept well cooled, and
the others will progressively decrease in  strength.
By mixing the contents of one bottle with another,
water of almost any strength may be made.  This
article is now seldom made  by the druggist on the
small scale, the large chemical manufactories sup-
plying it at very low rates, and of very superior
quality.  In the shops,  liquor of  ammonia is kept
of two or three strengths: one of a sp. gr. of -880,
for dissolving essential oils and filling smelliHg-bot-
tles, &c.; another at 0-960,  liq. of ammonia, P. L.;
and a third about  the strength of cemmoji spirits
jf hartshorn, for which it is sold.  1 measure  of
ihe first mixed with 3 measures  of distilled water
     /) /> /) D, Connecting Pipes.
     F. F, Waste Pipe and Receiver.
     a, Safety Tube
will make a water of about 0-970, and with only
2 measures of water, one  of about 0960.   I have
known the strongest sold so low as 9d. per lb., and
the last at 1-Jd.  Caution.  It should be kept in
well-stoppered bottles in a cool cellar.
  Props., Uses, 6fC. Ammonia-water is stimulant,
antacid, diaphoretic, and rubefacient.   Dose.  5 to
20  drops, mixed with water.  It is seldom used
internally.  It enters into the composition of seve-
ral valuable external remedies, and is employed in
many chemical operations.
  Pur. It should neither effervesce with acids, nor
form a precipitate with lime, water, or chloride of
calcium.  When neutralized with nitric acid, nei-
ther nitrate of silver, oxalic acid, nor sesquicarbon-
ate of ammonia, should produce any precipitate.
  Ant.  When the fumes have been inhaled, ex-
pose the patient to a current of fresh air, and when
the liquid has been swallowed, administer vinegai
or lemon-juice mixed with water.
  Strength.  The usual method of ascertaining the
strength of liquid ammonia is by taking its specific
gravity ; before this is done, however, it is best to
test it for its  purity,  as  the presence of  foreign
matter will alter its  density.  (See  Alkalimetry
and Ammonimetry.)
  AMMONIA,   LIQUID,  FOR  TESTING.
Syn. Henry's Pure  Ammonia Water.  Prep. Add
distilled water to pure liquicLammonia, until its sp.
gr. be exactly 0-970.
   Use.  For testing,  in acidimetry, &c. One meas-
ure of this water is exactly equal to one measure
 
AMM                    59                    AMM
tf sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*135 ; one measure of
nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*143, and one measure of mu-
riatic acid, sp. gr.  1-074.   Useful in assaying
waters.
  AMMONIA, MURIATE OF.  Syn. Hydro-
chlorate  of  Ammonia.  Sal Ammoniac Chlo-
ride of  Ammonium.  Chloro-amidide  of  Hy-
drogen.  Hist. This substance  is said  to  have
been known to antiquity ;  it was formerly pre-
pared in Egypt by the sublimation of the soot from
camel's duns, which yields from J to ^ its weight.
^See Ammonia.)  The sal ammoniac of commerce
is now  wholly prepared  at  the great chemical
works, and never by the small consumer, by whom
it is merely occasionally refined or purified.
   Prep. The   crude ammoniacal salt of the gas-
works is plar*«d in iron pots, lined with clay, and a
leaden  dorntf or head  adapted, and heat  applied
until the whole has sublimed.  When the  crude
salt is a sulphate, it is mixed with a sufficient quan-
tity of muriate of soda before sublimation, and the
sal ammoniac is formed by the double decomposi-
tion of the ingredients.  The preceding figure repre-
sents the  arrangement of the pots and furnace,
which was adopted a few years since at the West-
minster gas-works.
   The  preparation of sal ammoniac from  bone-
spirit salt is nearly similar.
   Prop.  The sal ammoniac of commerce is  found
under the form  of  large hemispherical, cup-like
cakes or masses, having a semi-crystalline texture,
and varying in weight from 100 to 1000 lbs.
   Use.   It is much used in  the  arts, especially in
the  working of metals and in dyeing; it is also
employed  in large quantities  to  give a factitious
pungency to snuff;  in chemistry to form frigoric
mixtures, &c,  and in medicine, it is given  as a di-
uretic, stimulant, and  tonic.   Dose. 5 to  20 grs.
(combined with bark, in agues.)   1 oz. to half a
pint of water forms a good chilblain lotion.
  Pur.  It forms a clear and colorless solution with
water, and wholly volatilizes by heat.  Mixed with
lime or  caustic potassa,  it evolves the  pungent
•dor of ammonia; it gives a white curdy precipi-
tate with nitrate of silver.
  Remarks. The  sal ammoniac of commerce is
generally sufficiently pure for all  the  purposes of
the arts, but when wanted of greater purity, it may
be  broken into pieces and  re-sublimed from an
earthenware vessel into a  large receiver of earth-
enware  or glass, in which  state it is known as
"flowers  of sal ammoniac," from  being  in fine
powder.    Chemically pure hydrochlorate of am-
monia may be  preparedby adding the pure carbon-
ate of ammonia to dilute hydrochloric acid until
saturated.
  AMMONIA, NITRATE OF.  Syn. Nitrate
of  Oxide  of  Ammonium.  Nitrum Flammans.
Nitrum Semi-volatile.  Prep.  Dilute nitric acid
with 3 times its weight of water, then gradually add
sesquicarbonate of ammonia in powder, to satura-
tion ; evaporate and crystallize.
  Uses, <J-c.  This salt is principally employed for
the preparation of  nitrous  oxide, or laughing gas,
of which nearly 3 cubic feet may be  procured from
1 lb. (Davy.)  It forms a very convenient " freez-
ing mixture" with water, and may be used  for this
purpose  any number  of times by simply evapora-
ting the solution to dryness, when the salt will be
obtained unaltered, ready for  another operation.
Dose. 20 to 30 grs.* as a febrifuge, but it appears
worthless  in  this respect.  Remarks. Nitrate of
ammonia crystallizes in beautiful hexagonal prisms,
when the  process is conducted at a heat not ex-
ceeding 100° F., but at 212°, in  long silky fibres
or needles.  When dried at 300°, it forms a com-
pact white mass.  The first  is called prismatic,
the second fibrous, and  the third compact nitrate
of ammonia.
   AMMONIA, OXALATE  OF.   (Ammonia
Oxalas, P. E.)  Prep.  Oxalic acid  %\v, water 4
pints, sesquicarbonate of  ammonia §viij.   Proc.
Dissolve the acid in the water, then add the  am-
monia in powder; evaporate and crystallize.
   Remarks.  The above is the form of the Ed. Ph.,
but all that is required is to saturate a solution of
oxalic acid with ammonia.  It is used as a test for
lime, with which it produces a white precipitate so-
luble in nitric acid.
   AMMONIA, WATER OF OXALATE  OF.
Prep. Dissolve oxalate  of ammonia in  10 or 12
times its weight of pure water.  Use.  As above.
   AMMONIA, SUCCINATE OF.  Prep.  Sat-
urate a solution of succinic  acid with ammonia,
(liq.  or carb.,) evaporate and crystallize.   Use. As
a test for iron.  It is said to be antispasmodic.
   AMMONIA, SULPHATE OF.  Syn.  Sul-
famide.  Secret Salt of Glauber.  Sulphate
of Oxide of Ammonium.  Oxysulphion of  Am-
monium.  Secret Sal Ammoniac  Ammonite Sul-
phas. (Lat.)   The manufacture of the crude sul-
phate has been already described; the pure salt is,
made as follows:
   Prep.  Saturate  dilute sulphuric acid with am-
monia ;  evaporate and crystallize.
   Uses, $-c.   It is diuretic and  aperient, but has
been little used in medicine. Dose. 5 to 30 grains.
The crude sulphate forms an excellent manure.
(See Manures.)
   AMMONIACAL  LAVENDER.  Syn.  Am-
moniacal  Alcoholate of Lavender,  (P. Cod.)
Prep. Dissolve 1 oz. of  English oil of lavender in
2 lbs. of spirits of ammonia.  Use. Stimulant; as
a scent in fainting.
   AMMON1METRY.   Syn.  Ammoniometry.
The operation  by  which the strength  of liquid
ammonia or ammonia water is determined.
   Proc. The strength of liquid ammonia is best
found from its specific  gravity, which may be easily
ascertained by  an hydrometer, or sp. gr. bottle.
(See  Specific  Gravity.)  When the content of
ammonia per cent, may be found  by mere inspec-
tion of either of the following tables, or  approxi-
mately by deducting the  sp. gr. expressed in three
integers from  998, and dividing the remainder by
4; the quotient will  give  the per  centage  very
nearly.  (Ure.)  This  rule  may  be employed for
such sp. gr. as are not  contained in the tables.
I.  Table  of  the Per  Centage of Pure Ammonia,
   in Water of  Ammonia of  the  specific gravity
   0-8750 to 0-9692.   By Sir H. Davy.
Sp. Gr.	Ammonia.	Water.
0 8750	32 50	67-50
0 8875	29 25	70-75
0 9000	26 00	74 00
0 9054	25 37	74-63
 
AMN                    60                     ANA
Sp. Gr.	i Ammonia.	Water.
0-9166	22 07	77-93
0 9255	19 54	80-46
0-9326	17 52	82-48
. 0-9385	15-88	84-12
0-9435	14-53	K>-47
0-9476	13-46	86-54
0-9513	12*40	87-60
0-9545	11*56	88-44
0-9573	10-82	89-18
0-9597	1017	89-83
0-9619	9-60	90-40
0-9692	9-50	90-50
II. Table of the Per Centage of Pure Ammonia,
  and of Ammonia Water of 09000 in Water of
  Ammonia of  the  specific  gravity 0-9000  to
  0-9945.   By Dr. Ure.
Water of 0-900.	Ammonia in 100.	Water in 100.		Sp. Gr. by experiment.
100	26-500	73 500		0-9000
95	25-175	74	825	0-9045
90	23-850	76	150	0-9090
85	22-525	77	475	0-9133
80	21-200	78	800	0-9177
75	19-875	80	125	0-9227
70	18-550	81	450	0-9275
65	17-225	82	775	0-9320
60	15-900	84	100	0-9363
55	14-575	85	425	0-9410
50	13-250	86	750	0-9455
45	11-925	88	075	0-9510
40	10 600	89	400	0-9564
35	9-275	90	725	0-9614
30	7-950	92	050	0-9662
25	6-625	93	375	0-9716
20	5-300	94	700	0-9768
15	3-975	96	025	0-9828
10	2-650	97	350	0-9887
5	1-325	98-675		0-9945
  AMMONIACUM.  A gum resin, the inspissa-
ted juice of the dorema ammoniacum.   It is stim-
ulant and expectorant, and  is  much  used in  ca-
tarrhs.  Dose.  10 to 30  grs. in pills,  or  diffused
through water.
  AMMONIACUM,  STRAINED.   Prep. I.
Boil the  ammoniacum with water, until it forms
an emulsion or milk, then strain it through can-
vass ; boil  the  refuse a  second time  with  more
water; mix the liquors, and  evaporate to a proper
consistence.
  II. Place the gum on a sieve or canvass strainer,
and put it on the top of a copper pan, containing a
little  boiling  water.  The steam will  soften  the
gum, which  will then run  through,  leaving  the
impurities behind ; evaporate as before.
  Remarks.   The first  method is that  usually
adopted  in trade; but the  second  preserves  the
odor of the gum much better.  Use. To make the
plaster of ammoniacum, and the plaster of ammo-
niacum and mercurv.
  AMNIOTIC  ACID.   Vauquelin and  Buniva
gt"e this  name to allantoin, which, by some  un-
accountable mistake, they represent to have found
 in the liquor amnii of th*e cow, instead of the fluitj
 of the allantois, as shown by Lassaigne.
   AMULETS.   Substances worn about the per-
 son  to protect  the wearer against some real or
 imaginary evil.   Their protective power depends
 entirely  on the  imagination ; they are  therefore
 now wholly discarded, except  by the  most super-
 stitious and  ignorant.    Camphor  is frequently
 worn as a protective against fever.
   AMYGDALINE.    Discovered by  Robiquet
 and  Boutron Charlard.   Source.  The bitter al-
 mond  and the laurocerasus.
   Prep. Powder bitter almonds, from which  the
 oil has been thoroughly expressed, and boil  it re-
 peatedly in alcohol of 93 or 94°r; mix  the several
 tinctures, and distil off the alcohol; mix thesirupy
 residuum  with water, add a little yeast, and fer-
 ment ; after  the fermentation  has  ceased, evapo-
 rate  in a water  bath to the consistence of a sirup,
 and  add  alcohol of 94$; collect the  precipitate,
 drain well, and purify by repeated re-solutions and
 crystallizations.   Prod. 3 to 4§.
  Prop.,  <J-c.   Form,  Silken crystalline scales;
 taste, sweet and  nutty ; scentless ;  soluble in wa-
 ter and hot alcohol.  Its solution, mixed with milk
 of almonds, produces prussic acid and essential oil
 of almonds.
  AMYGDALINIC  ACID.  A new acid  dis-
 covered by Wohler and Liebig.
  Prep. Dissolve amygdaline in baryta water, and
 boil the solution in a glass vessel as long as ammo-
 nia is evolved ; then add dilute sulphuric acid until
 precipitation ceases ; filter and evaporate the clear
 liquid  in  a water  bath.  Prop., <j-e.  A  colorless
 transparent acidulous mass ; deliquescent in damp
 air, and soluble in water.   With the bases it forms
soluble salts but little known, called amygdalinates.
  AM YLIC ACID.  A new acid compound, first
 described  by  M. Tunnerman in Trommsdorff's
' Journal.'  Its ultimate constituents  are carbon
2-5, oxygen 3.   It is but little known.
  Prep. Three parts of muriatic acid are gradu-
 ally  added through a feeding tube,  to one  part
each of starch,  black  oxide  of  manganese, and
 water, previously well mixed together  and heated
 in a capacious tubu'ated retort, connected with a
 well-cooled receiver. The product is impure amylic
 acid, which should be saturated with carbonate of
 lime, and  crystallized by gentle evaporation. This
salt,  decomposed by 73 per cent, of sulphuric acid,
 yields by distillation pure amylic acid.
  Prop.  It forms salts with the bases, which art
 mostly soluble and deliquescent, and  possess the
property of reducing the nitrate of silver and mu-
riate of gold.  It evaporates when gently heated,
 and gives out a  sharp  smell,  resembling prussic
 acid.
  ANACARDIUM INK.  The cashew nut con-
tains a fluid between the kernel  and shell, which
forms  an  excellent marking ink.  On linen and
cotton  it turns gradually black, and  is very dura-
ble. (Ure.)                              '
  ANALYSIS,  (in^Chemistry.)  The resolution
of any substance into  its elements.    It is divided
into  qualitative  and quantitative  analysis; and
these again into proximate and ultimate analysis.
The  first consists  in merely  finding  the compo-
nents of a compound ;  the second, the  components
 and the proportions of each of them; the third, 
ANE                   61                    ANG
the proximate or compound constituents; and the
fourth, the chemical elements of which it is com-
posed.   For success in chemical  analysis  a tho-
rough acquaintance with the  various properties of
bodies is required, as well as an aptitude in  apply-
ing this knowledge in  discriminating them and
separating them from each other.  Judgment and
expertness in manipulation are also essential.  To
enter fully into the subject of chemical analysis is
not the  object of the present work;  nor would its
size admit of such, even  though every page of it
were  devoted to this subject.   The reader will,
however,  find appended to each article  of  impor-
tance the most  simple  means  of determining its
purity, as well  as  detect:ng its  presence in mix-
tures, and in some cases estimating its quantity.
   ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.   FLU-
 ID FOR.   (Objects  of Natural History, #c.)
 Prrp.l. Saturate water with sulphurous acid, and
 add a little creosote.
    II.  Dssolve4 parts of chloride of tin in  100 of
 water,  to which 3  per cent,  of  muriatic acid has
 been added.
    III.  Dissolve 5 or 6 parts of corrosive sublimate
 in 100 of water, to which 2°; of muriatic acid has
 been added.
    IV.  Mix together one part  of ammonia water
 (strong) with 3 times its weight  (each) of water
 and spirit of wine.
    Remarks. These fluids are  used by immersing
 the objects therein, in close vessels.  The third for-
 mula is apt to render an'mal  substances very hard.
    ANCHOVIES, BRITISH.   Prep.  To a peck
 of sprats put two pounds of  salt, three  ounces of
 bay-salt, one pound of  saltpetre, two  ounces of
 prunella, and a few grains  of cochineal; pound
 them all  in a mortar, then put into a stone   pan or
 anchovy barrel, first a layer of sprats, and then one
 of the compound, and so on alternately  to  the top.
 Press them down hard; cover them close  for six
 months, and they will be fit for nee, and will really
 produce  a most  excellent  flavored sauce. Re-
 marks. A large trade is done in this article, espe-
 cially for making anchovy paste or sauce,  when a
 little more coloring is added.
    ANCHOVY POWDER.   Prep. I. Pound an-
 chovies to a paste, then rub them through  a sieve,
 and add enough flour to  make  a dough, which
 must be  rolled out into  thin slices  and dried for
 powdering.
    II.  Substitute British  anchovies, and add color-
 ing.  Use.  To  make sauces.
   ANCHUSIC ACID.  This name has been
 given to the coloring principle of alkanet root, (the
 anchusa tinctoria,) but little is known  respecting
 it. (See  Alkanet Root.)
   ANEMOMETER.  An instrument  for deter-
 mining the force of the wind.
   An excellent  instrument of this sort which may
 oe applied to determine the draught of a chimney
 as well, is the  anemometer  of Dr. Lind, the con-
 struction of which, by means of  the  annexed en-
 graving, will be rendered familiar.   App. The
 open end, a,  is kept by means of a vane presented
 to the wind,  which acting on the surface  of the
 liquid (water) 6, raises it in the arm c.   The dif-
n
ference of the level of the fluid in
the two arms of the instrument is
the measure of the  force  of  the
wind.  To estimate  the draught
of a flue or chimney, the arm  c is
placed in the chimney, and  the
orifice a in the apartment.
   ANEMONINE.  A substance
noticed  by  Lowig and  Fehling,
extracted  by hot alcohol from  the
anemone pulsatilla, nemorosa, and
pratensis.   By the action of baryta
water on this substance, Lowig obtained a  com-
pound which has been called anemonic acid.
   ANDERSONS PILLS.   Prep.  Barbadoes
aloes 2 oz.; jalap  1 oz., ^>oth  in  powder;)  oil of
aniseed 2 drops ; mix and beat then :uto a mass
with sirup.  Dose. 5 to 20 grains ; purgative.
   ANGELICA,  CANDIED.  Prep.   Boil the
fresh stalks in water, to remove  their bitterness,
then put them into a sirup boiled to a full  candy
height,  and  boiling hot;  let  them remain until
nearly cold, when they may be  taken out and dried.
Prop. Cordial and stomachic.
   ANGELICA, EXTRACTOR  I. (Dr.MoHR.)
Macerate 2 lbs. of the  bruised root  in 1 gallon of
rectified spirit of wine, for 7 days ; strain and press ;
then  macerate  again in 1  gallon of proof spirit;
filter each separately ;  mix and distil off the spirit;
lastly, evaporate the remainder in a water bath to
the consistence of  an extract.   Remarks. Quality
very fine ;  odor and taste strongly balsamic.
   II. Macerate 2  lbs. of bruised  angelica root in
1  gallon of a mixture of equal parts of rectified
spirit and water for 10 days, frequently shaking ;
then  proceed as  before.  Remarks. Not so bal-
samic as the former.
   ANGELICA,   INFUSION  QF.  Dr.  Mohr
directs the use of hot water,  or  preferably wine.
Remarks.  An oil  and water is also obtained from
angelica,  by distillation ;  a tincture is  prepared,
(with rectified  spirit,) and pills are made of the
extract.
   ANGELIC ACID.   During a recent analysis
of angelica root,  by L. A. Buchner, jun., he dis-
covered a peculiar volatile acid, of a pungent sour
smell, and biting acid taste ; sometimes  fluid and
oleaginous, and sometimes  crystallized in striated
prisms. (Schmidt's Jahrb., Aug. 1842.)
   ANGELIC IN E.   A  substance  obtained from
the root of angelica.   The process is troublesome,
and the product small.
   ANGEL  WATER.   Syn.  Portugal Water.
Prep. Mix together 1 pint each of orange-flower
and rose-water, £ pint of myrtle water,  i oz. of
essence of musk, and 1 oz. of essence of amber-
gris ; shake them  well up, and filter through white
blotting-paper.
   ANGOSTURA BARK.  The true  medicinal
angostura  or cusparia bark is brought  from  the
West Indies ; but a spurious  and  poisonous spe-
cies is imported from the  East Indies, and is fre-
quently sold for or mixed with the  former.  The
following  tabular  view of  the characteristics of
each will  afford a ready means of detecting this
fraud 
ANI
62
ANI
Tabular View of the Characteristits of the True and i ise Angostura Barks ; drawn up by Dr. P«.
              REIra, from his own researches, and thosu of Guibourt, Fee, and others.
True Angostura Bark.
Nux Vomica, or False Angostura Bark.
Form.....
Odor.....
Taste.....

Hardness and density. <
Fracture......

Epidermoid crust


Inner surface  • •
JjS  1 Tinct. Litmus.
*5 SJS

<~f*|

B c A
o-Vd
St.-*
Se<quichlo-
  rideoflron j
Prussiate  of I
  Potash  •• j

Nitric Acid .
 ! Quills or flat pieces, straight or slight- j
    ly bent   ........     j
Disagreeable  ..
 S Bilter. afterwards somewhat acrid; )
 )   persistent........     j
 (Bark fragile when dry;  easily cut; j
 \   light; tissue not very dense  ••     j
Dull and blackish........
 ( Whitish  or yellowish;  insipid; un-
<   changed, or rendered slightly orange
 (   red by nitric acid
 I Separable into laminre; deepened by I
 (   nitric acid........     j
Blue color destroyed........
 ( Flocculent dark grayish-brown precip- I
 (   ittte     ........     i
 j No change; hydrochloric acid caused )
 (   a yellow precipitate   • •   > •     S
C A small  quantity makes the liquor 1
<   cloudy ; a large quantity makes it a >
(   transparent deep red  • •   • •     j
 ( Quills or flat pieces;  short; often very much
 |   twisted, like dried horn; arched backwards
None, or very slight.
Intensely bitter; very persistent.
 (Broken, or cut  with difficulty;  heavy;  tissue
 )   compact.
Resinous.
 . Variable; sometimes a spongy rust-colored layer
 S   at other times whitish, prominent spots, innri
 i   or less scattered or approximated.  Nitric acid
 '   makes it intensely dark green or blackish.
 (Not separable into lamina;; rendered blood red
 (   by nitric acid.
Slightly reddened.
Clear yellowish-green liquor.
 ! Slight  turbidness, not increase*  ij hydrochloric
    acid.
 ( A small  quantity  makes the liquor clen and
 j   paler;  a large quantity transparent red.
  ANGOSTURIN.   Syn.  Cusparin.  Saladin.
Bitter Extractive.   Prep.  Digest  bruised  an-
gostura bark  in alcohol until  the  latter will take
up no more ;  then filter  and submit it to sponta-
neous  evaporation.  Prop.  Dissolves in  alcohol,
water, and alkaline  lyes;  neutral;  tincture  of
galls precipitates it from its solutions.
  ANHYDROUS.  (In  Chemistry.)   Without
water; a term  frequently applied  to  gases, salts,
alcohol, acids, and some  other substances, to  ex-
press  their existence in the dry state.  The gases
may generally be  rendered anhydrous, by passing
them  through a tube containing very dry pow-
dered chloride of  calcium, and some  of them  by
passing through  strong sulphuric acid.  Salts may
generally be  dried by cautiously submitting them
to the  action of  heat;  and alcohol, and many
other  volatile fluids,  by  careful distillation from
chloride of calcium.
  ANIMAL  SUBSTANCES  USED  AS
FO.OD, PRESERVATION OF.  Animal sub-
stances are  preserved in various  ways,  among
which may be mentioned—
  1. Exposure  to the sun, or in  a stove, to as
high a heat as possible without scorching them.
  2. Exposure  to the frost until they  become
frozen,  and   then keeping them  in this state.
Meat, fish, poultry, &,c.  are generally  preserved
in this way in the colder  parts of North America,
in Russia, and in  many other parts of the world.
In  Lower Canada, the meat killed early in  the
winter  is frequently  kept in  a frozen state  for
summer use,  to prevent the necessity of killing
during the hotter portions of the  year.  It remains
perfectly  fresh,  tender, and good flavored.
  3.  Salting in brine. This method  is both easy
and effectual.   The best plan is to dissolve about
4 lbs. of good salt in 1 gallon of water, for brine,
and to immerse  the  meat  therein, at  the same
time  adding a  few handfuls of  undissolved large
grained rock salt, more  than it will dissolve, for
the purpose of keeping up its strength.   Three to
ten days, depending  on  the  size, is sufficiently
long to keep the meat in the brine; when it is
taken out  it should be hung up to dry, packed in
barrels with coarse-grained salt, or smoked, which-
ever may be desired.  When  the brine  has been
used for some time, it should  be  boiled with some
more salt  and 2 or  3  eggs,  then skimmed and
strained.  Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat
a red color, and brown sugar improves the flavor.
  4. Dry salting.   In many  parts, as in Hamp-
shire, Yorkshire, &c, the process of dry salting is
adopted, which  consists of merely well rubbing
the salt, mixed  with a  little saltpetre,  into the
meat, and  afterwards  sprinkling some over it, and
placing it on a board  or  trough in such a manner
that the brine may  drain off.   Sometimes fresh
meat is  packed  at once  in casks, with  the best
coarse-grained salt.
  5. Pickling.   This plan is to steep  the sub-
stance in vinegar, or a  mixture  of  vinegar and
beer.  Fish is often served in this way.
  6. Pyroligneous acid brushed  over animal sub-
stances will keep them for any length  of time.
This acid imparts a smoky flavor ; but pure acetic
acid may  be used instead.   Before use, the sub-
Btance should be washed or soaked in water.
  7. Immersion  in olive  oil.   Salmon and other
fish  are  often preserved in jars  of salad oil, well
corked up, and cemented over.
  8. Potting. Small birds, fish, cooked meat, &c.
are frequently pounded to a paste, with spices and
butter,  and  pressed  into pots until nearly full)
when  melted clarified  butter is poured over to
about  $ or { of an inch in depth.  This  plan is
called " potting."
  9. Smoking.   This is  done on the large scale
by hanging the articles up in smoking rooms, into
which smoke is brought  from dry wood  fires, kin-
dled in the cellar, for  the purpose of allowing it to
cool and deposite its  cruder part, before it  arrives
at ths meat.  This process requires from six dayi
to ii many weeks  to perform it properly, and is
best done  in winter.   In farm-houses, where dry
wood is burnt, hams, &c. are  often smoked by 
ANI                     63                    ANN
hanging them up in some cool part of the kitchen
chimney.   When  the meat  is cut into slices, or
scored deeply with a knife, to allow the smoke to
penetrate  it, it  is called " buccaning."  This  is
frequently  performed by hunters in  the remoter
parts of Europe, by placing the slices on a grating
of sticks, about  3 or 4 feet high, over a fire made
with  the  branches of trees,  and  continuing the
drying and smoking until the meat be sufficiently
cured.
   10. Jerking.   In some hot countries the meat,
cut  in thin slices, is dried in the sun, beat  into a
paste in a  mortar, and  pressed  into  jars for use.
Sometimes  meal or flour is  added.  This plan is
called "jerking," or " charqui."
   11. For sea-stores, a  new and simple plan has
been lately adopted. Proc. Immerse the meat,
cut  into slices of from 4 to 8 ounces each, for five
minutes in  a vessel of boiling water, and dry them
on network, at a regular temperature of from 120°
 to 125° Fahr.  Next evaporate the  soup formed
 by washing the meat, to the consistence of a thick
 varnish, adding a little spice to flavor it; into this
 fluid immerse  the  perfectly dry  pieces of flesh,
 and again expose them to the proper drying tem-
 perature.   Repeat the  operation of dipping and
 drying a second and a third  time.  Remarks. For
 use, the meat must  be  cooked  in the usual way
 for  boiling, &c.  In this manner, meat may be
 preserved without salt, for 15 to 20 months.
   12. Skins are  preserved  by  tanning, or  expo-
 sure to the action of oak bark  and other  astrin-
 gents, until they are converted into leather; or by
 tawing them, which is somewhat similar.
   Other  methods have also  been occasionally
 adopted for objects  of  natural  history and ana-
 tomical preparations ; as dilute  spirit or weak  so-
 lution of corrosive sublimate, both of which, how-
 ever,  harden the  texture  of animal  substances
 considerably.  This  may be prevented in the for-
 mer by adding a little  liquor of ammonia.  (See
 Putrefaction.)
   ANIMATION,   SUSPENDED.    Syn. As-
 phyxia.  Causes. Various;  hence it has been di-
 vided into four varieties, viz.:
   1. From suffocation produced by hanging and
 drowning.
   2. From suffocation produced by the inhalation
of irrespirable  gases or vapors, as the fumes of
charcoal, fixed  air, <J-e.
   3. From strokes of lightning or electricity.
   4. From extreme cold.  (Dr. Mason  Good.)
   No general rules  can be given exactly suitable
to each case ; but the reader is referred to Drown-
 ing.  Whenever it is possible to procure medical
aid, it should be immediately sought, as the delay
of a single  minute may  put  the case beyond the
 reach of  assistance.   The following valuable  re-
marks on asphyxia, from the pen of an eminent
physician, may, however, be well introduced here:
   The treatment of asphyxia involves an attention
 both to the  functions of  respiration and to that of
 the true spinal marrow.   The object, doubtless, is
to effect a restoration of  the  respiratory and circu-
latory functions, the former of which has been ar-
rested by the external conditions of the patient;
the  latter, by the  contact of morbidly carbonized
blood with the capillary vessels of the lungs.  The
first tiling  to be attempted  is the restoration of
warmth by active friction with warm hands, &c.;
the second, the imitation of artificial respiration, by
any means at hand, of which none is better, usu-
ally, than the action of alternate pressure and its
relaxation, applied to the thorax and abdomen, so
as to induce expiration first, and inspiration imme-
diately by the play . of the elasticity of the ribs.
The third effort  is made  by suddenly dashing cold
water on the face  and general  surface, previously
warmed by the frictions, in the hope of inducing  a
more decided inspiration.    Artificial respiration
must be  attended to,  if  these measures,  very
promptly enforced, fail;  and  unless the proper ap-
paratus be present, the mouth  of  another person,
of robust make, is to be applied to that of the as-
phyxiated person, covered with a handkerchief,
the nostrils being closed.  (Dr. Marshall Hall.)
   ANISEED,   COMPOUND   SPIRIT  OF.
Prep.  Aniseeds and angelica seeds, of each, 8 oz.;
cassia  bark  and  caraways,  of each, $ oz.; all
bruised ; proof spirit and water, of each, 1 gallon.
Proc.  Macerate for  3 or 4 aays, then  distil over 1
gallon.
   II. Oil of  aniseed 2 drachms; oil of angelica \
drachm; oil of cassia 20 drops ; oil of caraway 15
drops; proof spirit 1 gallon.  Mix well.
   Use. A pleasant cordial in flatulence, low spirits,
&c.  Dose,  i oz. in  water.  Much used by some
old ladies.  Remarks.  Should it he milky, shake it
up with  a tablespoonful * of  magnesia, and  filter
through blotting-paper.
   ANISETTE DE  BOURDEAUX.  Ing. Ani-
seed 4 oz.; coriander and sweet fennel  seeds, of
each,  1  oz.; rectified spirit  J gallon; water  3
quarts.    Proc.  Bruise the seeds, and  macerate
them for 2 days in the spirit and water ; then draw
over 7 pints, and add lump sugar 2 lbs.
   II. Lump sugar 1£ lb.;  oil of aniseed 12 drops ;
oil of cassia and caraway, of each, 5 drops; spirit, 60
u. p., 3 quarts.  Proc. Rub a little of the sugar with
the oils, then dissolve it in the spirit; add the water
and filter through magnesia;  lastly,  dissolve the
remaining portion of the sugar in the filtered liquor.
   III. Good brandy 3 quarts ; sugar 1} lb.; ani-
seed water  1 pint.   As above.  Remarks.  An
agreeable cordial.
   ANNEALING.   The  process by  which glass
is rendered less  frangible,  and metals which have
become brittle again rendered tough  and mallea-
ble.  Glass vessels, and other articles  of glass, are
annealed  by being placed in an oven or apartment
near the furnaces at which they are formed, called
the " leer," where they are allowed to cool slowly,
the process  being prolonged  according to their
bulk.  Steel, iron, and other metals  are annealed
by heating them and allowing  them to cool slowly
on the*hearth of the furnace, or any other suitable
place,  unexposed to the cold.   As a  specimen of
unannealed glass, the Prince  Rupert's drop may
be mentioned, and of unannealed metals, common
cast iron ; to each of which the reader is referred,
in their alphabetical places.
   ANNOTTO.   A valuable coloring matter, im-
ported into Europe in cakes,  and usually made up
in  England  into rolls, before sale.  Source.  The
pellicles of the seeds of the  bixa  orellana.   Si Iv
Alcohol, ether,  volatile, and fixed oils, to each of
which  it imparts  a  beautiful orange  color; very
soluble in  alkaline lyes, which darken  it,  and  in 
ANO
64
ANT
strong sulphuric acid, which turns it  blue.   Re-
marks.   The best annotto is known as roll annot-
to ; flag and egg annotto are not so much esteem-
ed.   Use. For dyeing, painting, coloring, varnish-
ing, cheese-making, &.c.
  ANNOTTO,  PURIFIED.   Syn.  Orelline.
Concentrated Annotto. Prep. Boil annotto in a
solution of pearlash, until it will dissolve no more ;
then  add oil of vitriol, previously diluted with 20
times its weight of water, until  no more coloring
matter is thrown  down, but not enough to make
the liquor taste sour; wash the precipitate with a
little cold water;  then drain and dry it.
  Remarks.  This is the pure coloring matter of
annotto, and possesses all the properties of the best
annotto in a concentrated form.
  ANNOTTO, COMMON. Syn. Reduced An-
notto.   Em;lish  Annotto.  Ing. Egg or  flag
annotto 21 lbs.; gum tragacanth, 10  lbs.;  starch
6 lbs.; soap  1£ lb.; red bole, or  Venetian  red, 1
lb.; water q. s.  Proc.  Mix by heat in a copper
pan, and form into rolls.
  Remarks.  Used for common purposes.  Should
it be attempted to pass this off for genuine annotto,
the fraud may be detected by its partial solubility
in alcohol.
  ANNOTTO, CHOICE  OF.  Annotto  should
be chosen of a good flame  color; brighter  in the
middle than on the outside.   It should feel soft and
smooth, and have a good consistence.  It  should
possess a strong smell.
  ANNOTTO  DYE.   Prep. Cut the  annotto
into small pieces,  and boil  it in a copper, with  an
equal weight of good pearlashes, then  dilute  with
water to a proper color.  Process of dyeing. Im-
merse the articles, previously rinsed  in  clean wa-
ter, in the dye, and give them a good  boil;  then
drain them out and rinse them well in clean water.
  Remarks.  Annotto is chiefly used for silks, to
which it  imparts  a fine orange yellow color, the
6hade of which may be modified, by using differ-
ent proportions of pearlash,  and also by giving the
stuff different mordants before putting it into the
dye-bath.
  ANODYNE.  (From the Gr. d,  without, and
6Swr), pain.)  A medicine which allays pain. Among
the principal anodynes  may be mentioned opium,
morphia,  camphor,  and other medicines  of the
same kind.  " The constant use  of  anodynes be-
 gets their necessity." (W. Cooley.)
  ANODYNE  NECKLACES,  are formed  of
the  roots  of hyoscyamus,  Job's  tears, allspice
steeped in brandy, jumble  beads, or elk's hoof, to
suit the fancies of the prescribers.   Use.  To pro-
 cure easy dentition in children, and sleep in fevers.
 (Bah!)
   ANODYNE,   INFANTILE.   Prep.  Sirup
 of red poppies 1 oz., aniseed water 3 oz., brandy or
 spirit of wine i oz.;  mix.  Use. An excellent ano-
 dyne for  infants.  Dose. A small  teaspoonful as
 required.
   ANODYNE,   MARTIAL.   Prep. Dissolve
 ammoniated iron in water, and precipitate with
 liquor of  potassa; wash and dry.   Remarks. An
 obsolete preparation.  It is sesqui-oxide of iron.
   ANODYNE, MINERAL.  An old prepara-
 tion formed by dissolving diaphoretic antimony in
 water, and  evaporating to drvness.
   ANO ZABAGLIONE.  Prep. Put 2 eggs, 3
teaspoonfuls of sugar, and 2 small glasses of mar-
salu, into a chocolate cup, over the fire, and keep
it rapidly stirred, until it begins to rise and hardens,
then serve it up in glasses.  Remarks. A pleasant
Italian receipt for a cold: very nutritious.
  ANTACIDS.   Medicines  that  neutralize the
acid of the stomach, and  thus tend^ to remove
heartburn, dyspepsia, and diarrhoea.  The princi-
pal  antacids are the carbonates of potassa, soda,
ammonia, lime,  and  magnesia.   Ammonia is the
most powerful, and when the acidity is  conjoined
with  nausea  and faintness,  is  the  best;  when
great irritability  of the coats of the stomach exist,
potash is preferable ; when accompanied with di-
arrhoea, carbonate of lime, (prepared chalk ;) and
when with costiveness, magnesia. (See Adsorb-
ents.)  The dose of the carbonates of potassa and
soda in powder is half a teaspoonful, of chalk, a
teaspoonful, of magnesia, a dessert spoonful, and
of carbonate of ammonia, 10 grs., or a teaspoonful
of the solution. All these are  taken in water.
  ANTHELMINTICS.  Medicines that destroy
worms.   List.  Among  the principal anthelmin-
tics are, calomel, tin powder, castor oil, oil of tur-
pentine, cowhage, and gamboge.   Remarks. A
good plan for removing worms from children, is to
give 3 to 5 grs. of calomel in sugar, overnight, and
a dose of castor oil the next  morning.   The mo-
tions should be observed, and if worms  be found,
the same treatment  may be followed once a week,
until  they are wholly removed.
  ANTHIARINE.   Syn. Antiarine.  The ac-
tive principle of  the antiaris toxicaria, or  upas
poison-tree of Java.   It is extracted from the upas
poison by alcohol, and is obtained under the form
of small crystalline scales.  It is a frightful poison
to which no antidote is known.
  ANTHRAKOKALI.   A remedy recommend
ed by Dr. Polya in scrofula' and  chronic rheuma
tism.  Prep.  Mix in an  iron basin over the fire,
160 parts of powdered coal with  192 parts of *trong
boiling solution of caustic potassa.  JStir until con
verted into  a homogeneous black powder.  Dose,
1 gramme with -25 gramme of powdered liquorice;
3 or 4 times daily.
   Remarks.  What remedy next?  Answer. (See
Fuligokali.)   This is as bad as curing hydropho-
bia with the top of the snuff of a mould candle, or
consumption with  naphtha.
   ANTHRAKOKALI, POMMADEOF Prep.
Anthrakokali in fine powder 1 part, lard 30 parts;
mix.
   Remarks.  " Said" to have  been tried by Dr
Gibert  at the Hopital St. Louis, on 24 cases of
cutaneous disease,  many of which were  cured,
and in all, the symptoms were ameliorated.—1
   ANTHRANILIC ACID.  An acid discovered
by Fritzsche, and prepared from indigo.
   Prep. Dissolve indigo in a hot solution of pure
potassa, sp. gr. 1-35, and add powdered peroxide
of  manganese, until the liquid on dilution and ex-
posure  to the air ceases to form indigo blue.  It
now contains anthranilate of potassa and free al-
kali ; neutralize the alkali with  sulphuric acid,
dissolve out the anthranilate with alcohol, and de-
compose it with acetic acid,  when orange-colored
 crystals of impure  anthranilic  acid will be ob-
tained.  Purify by  uniting it with lime,  crystal-
lizing the salt and decomposing it with acetic acid, 
ANT
65
ANT
when large colorless  tabular crystals will be  de-1
posited as  the  solution cools.  This  is the pure
hydrated acid.
  Remarks. This acid is fusible and volatile, yield-
ing crystals resembling  those of benzoic acid.   It
dissolves in water,  alcohol, and ether, and forms
salts with the bases, called anthranilates.  By de-
structive distillation, it yields aniline.
  ANTI-ATTRITION.   Prep.  Grind together
blacklead with 4 times its weight of lard or tallow.
Use. To lessen friction in machinery, and to pre-
vent iron rusting.   Remark. This  was once a  pa-
tent article.  Camphor is sometimes added, (7 lbs.
to the cwt.)
   ANTIDOTES.   Medicines used to prevent or
remove  the effects of any poison or disease.   At-
tached to each of the principal poisonous prepara-
tions mentioned in  this work, the reader will  find
a notice of the best  antidotes and treatment of
cases of poisoning therewith.
   ANTIHECTIC  POWDER,   POTERIUS'.
Prep.  Melt equal  parts of tin and metallic anti-
mony, powder, mix  with  six  parts  of powdered
nitre, and  deflagrate in a red hot crucible ; lastly,
powder and wash well with water.  Uses.  Astrin-
gent and  tonic ; formerly used in consumption.
Dose.  10 to 30 grs.  It is a mere mixture of the
oxides of antimony and tin.
   ANTIHYSTERIC  DRAUGHT.  (Dr.  Jo-
sat.) Prep. Cyanuret of potassium 0-05 grammes ;
distilled  lettuce water 60 grammes ; sirup of orange
flowers 20 grammes ; mix.
   Admin. One or two teaspoonfuls every ten min-
utes when the fit  is expected; during the fit  it
may be  given in larger doses ;  which, however in-
tense, will be stopped or greatly allayed.  Such is
the assurance  of Dr. Josat, who  declares its  effi-
cacy to  have been  indisputably proved, in upward
of  55 cases.
   ANTIFERMENT.   A substance sold in the
cider districts, for the purpose of arresting fermen-
tation.   Prep.  I.  It  generally consists of sulphite
of  lime  in  powder,  or a mixture of equal parts of
the sulphite and powdered mustard.
   II. Mix together  14 lbs. of  mustard seed with
 1 lb. of  cloves, and bruise them well without dry-
 ing.
   Use.  A portion of  either of the  above added to
cider or perry, tends to allay the fermentation,
when it  has been renewed." The  second  may be
used for wine and beer as well  as cider.  Caution.
In the  above  the sulphite must be employed, not
the sulphate,  which is quite  a  different  article.
(See Fermentation.)
   ANTIMONIC  ACID.  Syn.  Peroxide of
Antimony.  An * acid compound  formed  of anti-
mony and  oxygen.   It  is  the metal in its highest
state of  oxidation.
   Prep.  I. Digest metallic antimony in strong
nitric acid, or dissolve it in nitro-muriatic acid;
then evaporate by heat until the excess of  acid be
expelled, and throw the solution into cold water.
The precipitate is the hydrated acid ; by exposure
to a heat of about  500° or 600° Fahr., the water
is driven off, and the  anhydrous acid remains be-
hind.
   II. Mix  powdered  metallic  antimony with six
times its weight of  nitre, ignite in a silver cruci-
ble, and  when cold, wash out the excess of alkali
with hot water ; the  remaining antimoniate of
potash,  decomposed by muriatic acid,  yields an
insoluble residue of  antimonic acid.
  Prop.  The  hydrated acid (freshly precipitated)
reddens litmus, and is insoluble in water, unless
soured with tartaric  or muriatic acid.  When heat
ed nearly to redness, it gives  out oxygen and be-
comes antimonious  acid.   The hydrated acid is a
white powder; the anhydrous acid has a pale yel-
low color, and is  insoluble in water even with the
assistance of the  acids.  With the bases it forms
salts called antimoniates.  Uses. It has  been used
in medicine, but owing to the high state of oxida-
tion of the metal, appears to be nearly inert.  It
is said to be  diaphoretic in doses of 2  to 10 grs.,
but it has been  given in \ oz. doses, 2  or 3 times
daily, with good effect? (Wilson.)  It is now sel-
dom  used  in  medicine.   Tests.  (See Antimony
and Antimonious Acid.)
   ANTIMONIOUS ACID.   Syn. Binoxide of
Antimony.  Deutoxide of Antimony.   An acid
of antimony, containing 1 eq. less of oxygen than
the last, or 2  eq. of antimony, and 4 eq. of oxy-
gen.
   Prep.  I. Expose the white hydrated antimo-
nic acid to a red heat, when  1 eq. of oxygen will
be driven off along with the water, and pure an-
timonious acid remain.
   II. Either the oxide or sulphuret of  antimony,
exposed  to a  strong heat, long contained in open
vessels, gradually absorbs oxygen, and passes into
antimonious acid.
   III. The hydrated  acid may be prepared by
adding an acid to the antimonite of an alkali.
   Prop. White, very infusible ; insoluble in water,
likewise  in acids after being heated to redness. It
combines with the bases forming salts called anti-
monites.  The hydrated acid reddens litmus and
dissolves in the muriatic and tartaric acids.   Use.
It is  employed in  medicine, and forms the basis
of the  celebrated  nostrum,  James's powder, as
well as  the pulvis  antimonialis of the L. Ph. It
appears, however, to be very inactive and uncer-
tain  in  its operation.  Dr. Elliotson exhibited the
pulvis antimonialis, which contains nearly 40 per
cent,  of this acid, in doses of upwards of 100 grs.,
without  producing  any visible effect.   The  high
state of oxidation in which the antimony exists in
this compound, as  mentioned in the last article,
may account for  its inactivity.
   Remarks. Neither the  salts of this nor the last
acid  have been  applied  to  any  useful purpose.
Tests. (See Antimony.)
   ANTIMONY.   Syn.  Metallic Antimony.
Regulus of Antimony.  Hist., drc. This word
is generally applied to a gray metallic ore, which
is a  sulphuret  of  antimony.  The pure  metal,
formerly called regulus of antimony, is of a whi-
tish, color, and semi-crystalline appearance.   The
derivation of the name is singular:  Basil Valen-
tine, a monk who flourished in the 15th century,
believing that it  fattened pigs, administered some
to his brethren, with the charitable intention of
giving them a plump appearance,  but the experi-
ment was attended with fatal results. ^  Hence it
was called " anti-moine," " antimonk,"  and grad-
ually, antimony.  Tho sulphuret is even now of-
ten given  by farriers to  horses, to render theii
coats  sleek. 
ANT                   66                    ANT
   Prep.  I. Heat  the  protoxide of antimony  to
 redness in a crucible, having previously mixed it
 with an equal weight of cream of tartar ;  pour the
 melted metal into conical moulds.
   II.  Mix  the  powdered sulphuret of  antimony
 of commerce with J its weight of iron filings, and
 submit it to a strong red heat in a covered cruci-
 ble.              S
   III.  Common sulphuret  of  antimony 16 oz.,
 cream of tartar 12 oz., nitre 6 oz.; mix, and  pro-
 ceed as above.  When cold, separate the scoria.
 Remarks. The first form gives a chemically pure
 metal.  On the  large scale, the ore of antimony
 is reduced  in a peculiarly shaped flame  furnace,
 and  afterwards melted under coal dust, in  cruci-
 bles  holding 20 to 30 lbs., placed  upon a reverber-
 atory hearth.  The  following formula has  been
 recommended on the large scale.
  IV.  100 parts of sulphuret ore, 60 parts of ham-
 merschlag, (oxide of iron from the  rolling mills,)
 50 parts of common soda, or glauber salts, and 10
 parts of charcoal. (Berthier.)  Prod. From 65 to
 70 parts of good metal.
  Prop. Antimony is a whitish, brittle,  volatile,
 and inflammable metal, and imparts its brittleness
 to its alloys.
  Uses. It is used  in medicine  ; combined with
 lead, it forms type metals, and with  lead and tin,
 music plate metal, pewter, &c.
  Tests. Sulphureted hydrogen  throws  down an
 orange-colored precipitate, soluble in pure potassa,
 and  also in hot muriatic acid ; from the  latter so-
 lution,  water throws  down a whitish powder.   If
 the sample  be in the solid state, powder, boil in
 muriatic acid, and test as above.
  Estim. Strongly acidulate the  solution with tar-
 taric acid,  then throw down the  antimony as a
sulphuret  by passing sulphureted  hydrogen  gas
 through it.  After warming the solution and allow-
ing it to cool again,  the  precipitate  may be  col-
lected  on a filter, dried, and weighed.   A small
portion  must now be  digested in strong muriatic
acid, which will completely dissolve it if it be the
simple  sulphuret; in which case the quantity of
 antimony  will be obtained by  multiplying  the
 weight  of the sulphuret  by 5, and dividing the
product by 7.  Should, however, only part of the
precipitate be soluble in strong  muriatic acid,  a
 known weight of it must be introduced into a flask,
and fuming nitric acid added, drop by drop, with
great care, until a considerable quantity has been
thus  added; hydrochloric acid should now be add-
ed, and the mixture  digested at a  gentle heat, until
the whole of the sulphur be dissolved. The solu-
tion  must  next be  diluted  with water,  strongly
 acidulated with tartaric acid,  and chloride of ba-
 rium added as long as it produces  a precipitate.
 This collected, dried, and weighed, and the weight
 divided by 3, will give the  quantity of sulphur in
 the  sample  last operated on, which, by proper al-
 lowance and deduction from the  weight of the
 sulphuret first found, will  give  the  quantity of
 metal as before.
  ANTIMONY ASH. Prep. Roast the common
 sulphuret of antimony in an earthen crucible for
 an hour.  Remarks.  Emetic in small doses, used
 to make metallic antimony.
  ANTIMONY, DIAPHORETIC.  Syn. Calx
 of Antimony.  Peroxide  of Antimony.  Prep.
 Mix 1 lb. of powdered sulphuret of antimony with
 3 lbs. of powdered nitre, and deflagrate by spoon.
 fuls at a time, in a red hot crucible ; celled the
 calx and powder it.
   Remarks.  The  flowers that.collect on the sides
 of the crucible must be  carefully rejected, as they
 are violently emetic.  Use.  Once much employed
 in medicine as a  gentle diaphoretic and laxative
 When this article has been  well washed in water,
 it is called washed diaphoretic antimony, washed
 calx of ditto, &c.  The process deprives it of some
 of its alkali.
   ANTIMONY,  FLOWERS   OF.    Prep.
 Throw powdered sulphuret of antimony, by spoon-
 fuls, into an  ignited  tubulated retort,  that  has a
 short and very wide neck, until as  many flowers
 collect in the receiver as are required.   Remarks
 An impure oxysulphuret of antimony.  Emetic in
 doses of 1 to 3 grs.
  ANTIMONY,  FLOWERS OF,  (ARGEN-
 TINE.)   Syn. Sesquioxide of Antimony.  Prep.
 Keep metallic  antimony melted in a vessel, freely
 exposed to the air, and furnished with a cool  place
 for the flowers to rest upon ; collect the flowers as
 deposited. Remarks. These flowers were formerly
 thought to be the binoxide, but Berzelius has clear-
 ly shown them to be the sesquioxide.
  ANTIMONY, FULMINATING.  Syn  Ful-
 minating Antimonial Powder.  Prep. I. Grind
 well together 100 parts of dried tartar emetic, and
3 parts of lamp-black, or charcoal  powder, then
 take a crucible, capable of holding 3 oz. of water,
 and having ground its edge smooth, and rubbed
 the inside with powdered charcoal,  \ fill it with
the above mixture, cover it  with a layer of  char-
 coal powder,  and lute on the cover.   Expose it foi
3 hours to strong heat in a reverberatory furnace,
 and when taken out, let it stand to cool for 6 or 7
 hours, before  removing its contents, to prevent  an
 explosion.  The crucible being now opened, the
 contents must be hastily transferred without break-
 ing to a wide-mouthed  stoppered vial, when, after
some time, it will crumble down into a powder of
 itself. (M. Serullas.)
  II. Triturate together, very carefully, 100 parts
of antimony, 75 parts of carbureted (roasted to
blackness) cream of tartar, and 12 parts of lamp-
black : Dreserve it in vials.  (Ann. de Chim., Oct
 1822.)
  Remarks. When the above  processes are pro-
perly conducted, the resulting powders fulminaU
violently on contact with water.  It  is to the pres-
ence of the very inflammable metal potassium that
they owe this property.  Another compound, made
with  60 parts of carbureted cream of tartar, 120
bismuth, and 1 of nitre, treated as above, contains
 an alloy very rich in  potassium.  A  piece the size
of a pea introduced into a mass of gunpowder ex-
plodes it on  being thrown into water.  Use. Foi
making some kind of fireworks.   It is very proba-
ble  that this  is the  preparation used by  Capt
Warner.
  ANTIMONY, MAGISTERY OF DIAPHO-
 RETIC.  Syn. Materia Perlata.  Prep. Add
oil of vitriol to the water used  in washing diapho-
retic antimony, until it ceases to produce a precipi-
tate.   Wash  this well with water
  ANTIMONY, MARTIAL DIAPHORETIC
 Syn.  Anticachecticlm  Ludovici.  Prep.  Fusi 
ANT                    67                    ANX
equal weights of iron filings and sulphuret of anti-
mony in a crucible, cool, powder, and mix with 3
times their weight of nitre,  and deflagrate them
by spoonfuls in a red hot crucible.   Wash the pro-
duct in water, and collect the brown precipitate.
Use. Formerly given as a tonic, in doses of 10 to
20 grs.
  ANTIMONY,  MEDICINAL.  Syn. Medi-
cinal  Regulus  of  Antimony.   Prep.  Crude
antimony in powder, melted with  nearly its own
weight of salt, and about \ of its weight of potash,
or J its weight  of  a  mixture of nitre  and argol.
When  cold, separate the ashes from the mass,
wash and powder.  Use. Said to be stronger than
crude antimony.  Used in some quack medicines.
  ANTIMONY, MURIATE OF.  Syn.  But-
ter of Antimony.  Chloride of ditto. Sesqui-
chloride of ditto.  Oil of Caustic  Antimony.
Prep.  Mix 2  parts of metallic antimony with 5
parts of corrosive sublimate, and distil from a wide-
necked retort.
   II. Grind together equal parts of common anti-
mony  and corrosive sublimate,  and proceed as
before.
   III.  Common antimony roasted until gray, or
glass of antimony, 9 oz.; powder and mix with
common salt 2 lbs.; oil  of  vitriol 1£ lb.; water
1 lb.;  distil.   Prod.  2£ lbs. of butter of antimony.
   IV.  Common sulphuret or glass  of antimony, as
last, 7 lbs.;  common salt, 28 lbs.; oil  vitriol, 21
lbs. ; water, 14 lbs.; distil.
   V. Boil 20 parts of powdered common sulphu-
ret of antimony, in 100 parts of muriatic acid to
which  1 part of nitric  acid  has  been  added.  A
little pernitrate  of iron is used to color it, and it is
made up to the sp. gr. of about 1-4.  This article
is improved if the crude antimony be roasted  be-
fore dissolving it in the acid.
   Prop. When pure, it somewhat resembles but-
ter, melts with a gentle  heat, and crystallizes on
cooling; it deliquesces into  an  oily liquid when
exposed in a damp place, and this was once  the
common method of obtaining a cheaper article for
sale.  It is decomposed  by  water.  Use. It  is a
common caustic with farriers.
   Remarks. The first of these processes produces
the pure sesquichloride of antimony, the second an
article  less pure, and the last one the liquid sold as
butter of antimony in the shops.  The solution of
the antimony in the acid is attended \ ith the evo-
lution  of a large  quantity of sulphureted .hydro-
gen ; it should therefore be done under a chimney.
  ANTIMONY,  SOLUTION OF MURIATE
OF.   Syn. Liquor Stibii  Muriatici.  (Pharm.
Borruss.)  Prep. Dissolve pure oxide of antimony
in puie muriatic acid.
  ANTIMONY,  OXIDE   OF.   Syn. Sesqui-
oxide of Antimony.  Prep.  I.  (P. E.) Dissolve
§iv of sulphuret of antimony in fine powder, in 1
pint of muriatic acid by heat, filter and pour the
solution into 5 pints of  water, collect the precipi-
tate on a calico filter, and wash it well, first with
cold water, and then with a weak solution of car-
bonate of soda; and lastly,  a second time with
cold water, until the latter ceases to affect turme-
ric  paper.   Dry with a gentle heat.
  II. To the solution of the sulphuret of antimony
as prepared above, enough water is added at  167°
Fj.hr. to produce slight turbidness;  it fs then left
to itself until all the  sulphureted  hydrogen has
escaped, when it is again filtered and mixed with
6 times its weight of water.  Prod.  From 4 oz. of
the sulphuret,—1J  oz. pure white oxide of anti-
mony  soluble without  residue  in  tartaric acid
(Giesler.)
   III. Digest the precipitate obtained by mixing
chloride of antimony with  cold water, in a weak
solution of carbonate of potassa, having first well
washed  it with  cold water ;  agitate occasionally
for some hours,  then collect the powder, wash it
well and dry it.
   IV.  Add a solution of carbonate of soda to an-
other of tartar emetic ;  wash the precipitate well,
and dry it.
   Remarks.  This is a dirty white powder ;  fusible
and volatile ; changing into antimonious acid when
strongly heated  in  open vessels.  It is a  feeble
base.  Uses. To make tartar emetic, and in med-
icine, as a diaphoretic, in doses of 2 to 10 grs., and
an emetic and  purgative in larger  doses.   It has
been  proposed as a  substitute for James's Powder.
Pur. and Tests. It is completely soluble in  hydro-
chloric acid, and again  thrown down as a white
powder by cold water; perfectly soluble in  a solu-
tioii of tartaric acid; it  is  thrown  down from its
solutions as an orange-red powder by sulphureted
hydrogen ; it volatilizes  by  heat.
   ANTIMONY, OXYCHLORIDE OF.   Syn.
Mercurius Vit^e.   Powder of Algaroth. Ox-
ydum Antimonii Nitro-muriaticum, (D. P.) Prep.
Mix the  liquid  chloride of antimony with cold
water; wash and dry the precipitate.  Prop. Sim-
ilar to the oxide.  Used to make tartar emetic.
   ANTIMONY, PURGING.   Syn. Cathartic
Antimony.  Prep.  Digest £ lb. of glass of antimo-
ny in 1^ lb. of oil of vitriol for two days, evaporate
to dryness, powder and  wash the residuum ; dry
and melt with 4 oz. of Glauber salts, and 8 oz. of
sal enixum; again powder, wash, and dry. Re-
marks.  This has been said to be the most certain
of all the antimonial purges.  Dose. 2 to  10  grs
Seldom used.
   ANTIMONY,   SMELTED.    Prep.   Melt
crude antimony, and pour it into conical moulds,
Uses, fyc.  Diaphoretic and alterative.  Dose.  10
to 60  grs.   Used in rheumatism,  scrofula, and
skin diseases  the refining of gold, &c.; and when
reduced to powder,  by ladies, to paint their eye-
lashes black.
   ANTISEPTICS   Substances   that  prevent
putrefaction.  The  principal antiseptics  are com-
mon  salt, saltpetre, spices, sugar,  vinegar, and
creosote. For antiseptic  process, see Animal Sub-
stances, Putrefaction, Provisions, &c.
   ANTISEPTIC  MEDICINES.   Of these the
principal ones are bark, acids, wine, spirits, and
camphor.
   ANTISPASMODICS.  Medicines that allay
spasms and other pains.  Bark, opium, camphor,
ether,  musk, castor,  assafcetida,  valerian, and
chalubeates, are1  antispasmodics.
   ANTISPASMODIC  MIXTURE. (Dr. Col-
lier.)   Prep. Mixtures of asafoetida and cam-
phor of each giiss, tincture of valerian Jj.   Mix.
Dose.  One  tablespoonful  three or four  times
daily.
   ANXIETY,  NERVOUS.   This unpleasant
state may be removed by keeping the bowels reg 
API                    68                     API
 ular with mild purgatives, taking plenty of exercise
 in the open air, adopting a light nutritious diet, and
 seeking  pleasant society.  A teaspoonful of car-
 bonate of soda  or  magnesia, or  a lew drops of
 laudanum, taken the last  thing at night, will gen-
 erally have the effect of preventing watchful-
 ness.
   APERIENT.  A medicine that gently opens
 the bowels.  Among the best  mild  aperients may
 be  mentioned small doses of castor oil,  Epsom
 salts, phosphate of  soda,  (tasteless salt,) or seid-
 litz powder; compound rhubarb pills, compound
 aloetic pills, and pil. rufi.
  APERIENT, DR.   COLLIER'S  SALINE,
 (ANTIMONIAL.)  Ing. Double tartrate  of po-
 tassa and  soda  ^'j* carbonate of soda 3ij,  outer
 yellow peel of the orange  (fresh) 3ij, tartar emetic
 1 gr., boiling water 1£ pint.  Pro. Pour the water
on the other ingredients,  and macerate until cold
in a covered vessel.  Dose.  A small tumbler or
teacupful,  mixed with  a  tablespoonful of  lemon
 juice, or about a dozen grains of tartaric  or citric
acid, and drunk while effervescing, forms an  agree-
able mild aperient.
  APIARY. (From apis, a bee.)  A place where
bees are  kept.
  Establishment  of  an Apiary.   The  proper
time for this purpose is  about  February, or the be-
ginning of  March, as the  stocks have then passed
through  the winter  in safety ;  the combs are then
empty of broods, and light of honey, and may be
removed  with safety and ease.  Stocks should be
selected  by a competent judge, as  the  weight
alone cannot always be relied on ; such as weigh
12 lbs. and upwards, the number of bees being also
observed, and that  they are well  combed to near
the bottom, may be safely chosen.
  As soon  as they are brought home they should
be set in  the bee-house, care being taken  to keep
them dry and from the attacks of vermin.   The
next day plaster  the hive to the bee-board, leaving
an entrance the size of the little finger.
  If the season has passed,  the first and  early
swarm should be selected,  as late ones or casts are
not worth  keeping, unless two or three  of  them
have been united.
  The time for removing stocks is in the  even-
ing ; the  hives  should  be  raised  by wedges some
hours previous, unless the floor be moveable with
the hive, otherwise many bees will remain on the
floor at the time of removal, and prove very trou-
blesome.   When the floor is moveable, plaster the
hive with mortar to the  board,  and pin a card
piercpd with holes  before the entrance; in this
way it will travel any distance in safety.
  Swarms should be brought home the same even-
ing that  they are purchased ; if delayed a day or
two, combs will be worked, and subject to be bro-
ken in removing.
  Management of Bees.  The best situation for
bees is to  the north, with a range of hills wooded
on the summit, and  toward the base enriched with
 heather; and southward,  gardens  where  hardy
 winter-greens have been  allowed  to flower, as
 early food for the  bees.  White mustard should
 also be  sown  very early, in patches near the
hives; but not nearer than  one yard.  A  few
dwarf flowers may come  within two feet, but tall
ones would assitst insects to get up.  To the west
 it would be desirable to have a shrubbery, a wood,
 a broomy common, or heather moor.
   The  stations for  the  hives must be six yards
 asunder, and never nearer than three yards.  The
 board on which they are placed ought to be of one
 piece ; or if joined, the under side  of the  joining
 should be lined with a thinner beard, fixed  closely
 with  wooden pins.   The edges  of this rounded
 standard should project four inches all round from
 the hive.   Place it on three wooden pillars sixteen
 inches long, ten inches  above the ground, but six
 inches of its length should be firmly  thrust into the
 earth;  in all, its length should  be sixteen inches,
 The pillar in front should be an inch shorter than
 the other  two, and the three pillars should be
 within twelve or fourteen inches of the outer edge
 of the board, to exclude  rats and  mice.  For the
 same reason no  tall-growing plant, no wall, nor
 any means for  ascent should  be  within three or
 four feet of the hive. In fine weather the entrance
 to the hive must be four inches long, and an inch
 and a half in depth.
   In the  beginning of the fine season, when  the
 bees can  get food,  or have stores remaining, the
 bee-master has  nothing to  do but to  keep  the
 ground  about the hives  clear  from weeds, and
 from  whatever might  enable  vermin  to  climb
 there.   Yet as a thriving stock  inclines very soon
 to swarm, the hives must be  frequently looked
 after from eight in the morning till  five  in the af-
 ternoon.   The symptoms  are generally thus:—
 The little  city seems  crowded with inhabitants.
 They are continually in motion during  the day;
 and after  working-time they make loud noises.
 The drones may be seen  flying about in the heat
 of the day, and the working  bees  go with a reel-
 ing motion and busy hum.  When the bees come
 regularly out of the hive, let no noise, no interrup-
 tion incommode them ; but if they  fly long, as if
 they were  unsettled, some tinkling  noise, or the
 loud report of a gun, will make the fugitives re-
 pair to the nearest lodgings.  If there is an empty
 hive, with combs and some honey in it, they will
 readily go there.   If a new hive is used, remem-
 ber to  smooth it well  within, and singe off loose
straws.   Perpendicular  sticks  should never  be
 employed.   Four cross sticks  at  equal  distance)
 will support  the  combs.   Old hives do very well
 for  late swarms,  that  are not to  be  preserved
through the  winter; but box-hives are best  for
them, as the bees work  fastest there.  They are
 not, however, fit for  being kept through the cold
seasons.
  It is to be observed, that great haste  in forcing
 a swarm into the hive may disperse them.  Give
 them  time to settle undisturbed,  though keep a
steady eye on their  motions ; but whenever they
 gather into  a cluster, lose no time in placing the
 hive over them.   If  the  swarm rest on any thing
 that can be brought to the ground spread a clean
 linen cloth; lay two sticks on it, two feet asunder;
 lay the body on  which  the  swarm have  fixed,
 gently on the sticks, covering it with the hive by
 a motion  the least  perceptible, and taking caw
 that the edges of the  hive rest upon the  stick".
 Cover hive and all with a cloth, for the sun  might
 allure the  bees to rise  again.  When  they have
 gone into the hive,  cover  it with its  own  board,
 and carry  it cautiously  to its station.   Bees art 
API
69
APP
apt to leave  their hive even after they begin to
work, so they must be watched till  evening, and
throughout the ensuing day.  Whenever they are
sure to remain, fix the hive to its board with a lit-
tle lime round the edges ; and crown it with green
sods, to keep  out too great heat or  rain.
  If a hive divides  into two  swarms, it is a sign
that each  swarm has a queen.   Put each into old
hives  or boxes, but they must be kept separate. If
a cluster of bees about the size of a small plum are
seea together, the queen will generally be found
there.   Separate  them, and with a drinking glass
turned down, you  may seize the queen.  Put her,
and a score or two of her subjects, into a box full
cf holes, large enough to admit  air, and yet not to
allow the  bees to  escape.  Feed her with  honey-
combs, and keep her in reserve in case of the death
of  a  queen  in one of the hives.  When a hive
ceases to  work, it is a sure sign the queen is no
more.  Then the bee-master may  wait an  hour
and not see a loaded bee enter the habitation.  But
if the spare  queen be taken late in the*evening,
(wet  her wings to prevent  her  escape,) and intro-
duced to the desponding society, they will receive
her gladly, and begin to work.
   If  a hive  fight among  themselves, be  assured
there  are two queens ; and they will destroy  each
other, if one is not taken away.
   When bees are to swarm a second or more times
they  do not come out in clusters ; but they make
a sound  called beltings, which  may  be  heard;
ceasing for a little, and renewed again  and again.
If  there are different tones, it is certain there are
several young queens in the hive.   It is only by
putting the ear close to it  that  the  sound can be
heard distinctly.
   To take the honey without destroying the  bees.
In  the dusk of the evening, when the bees are qui-
etly lodged, approach the hive,  and  turn it gently
over.   Having steadily phced  it  in a  small pit,
previously dug  to receive  it, with its bottom up-
wards, cover  it with a clean  new  hive,  which has
been  properly prepared, with  a few sticks across
the inside of it, and rubbed with  aromatic herbs.
Having carefully adjusted the mouth of each hive
to the other, so that no aperture remains between
them, take a small  stick,  and  beat gently round
the sides of the lower hive for about ten  minutes or
a quarter  of an hour, in which  time  the bees will
leave their cells in the lower hive,  ascend, and ad-
here to the upper one.  Then gently lift the new
hive,  with all its little tenants, and place it on the
stand from which the other hive was taken.  This
should be  done some  time in the  week preceding
Midsummer-day,  that the bees may have time, be-
fore the summer  flowers  have  faded, to lay in a
new stock of  honey, which they  will not fail to do,
for their subsistence through winter.
   The color of the  honey shows whether it is fine
or inferior. If it be  wanted to press some in the
comb, choose the  fairest and  those that have not
been  broken: wrap each  comb in  white paper,
such as lines the blue cover of loaf sugar.  Set it
edgewise  as it stood in  the  hive, and  it may be
preserved  many months.  The combs meant to be
drainei must  be  cut in slices.  Lay them on a
nair-search, supported by a rack over the jar, in
which the honey is  to remain;  for  the less it is
•tirred after draining, it keeps the better.  Fill the
jar to the brim, as a little scum must be taken off
when it  has settled.  A bladder well  washed in
lukewarm water, ought to  be laid over the double
fold of white paper with which it is covered.
   To keep hives for  winter.  They must  not be
more than  three  years old, and well stocked with
bees.  A hive  for preserving should weigh  from
thirty to forty  pounds.  Place them in October
where they are to remain.   Stocks of  less weight
than 21  lbs. in  September  should never be kept.
Iu most cases  light  stocks will require  feeding,
which may be done by inserting little troughs con-
taining a mixture of equal parts of sugar and mild
beer, into the hive in  the evening, and removing
them the next morning.  (See also Bees.)
   APOPLEXY.   A sudden suspension or loss of
the powers of sense and motion ; the  heart con-
tinuing to beat  and the lungs to act, but generally
with difficulty.   During the fit  the  patient  fre-
quently  lies in a state resembling sleep, or the stu-
por induced by drunkenness.
   Treat.  Medical aid should  be immediately
sought, as  the  delay  of only a few minutes may
render the  skill of the most talented surgeon una-
vailing.  Until the arrival of the latter, the patient
should be  kept  easy and  cool, with  head  and
shoulders elevated, the neckcloth  removed,  and
the clothes loosened, to avoid pressure on any por-
tion of the body; the  windows should be opened,
and crowding round the patient especially avoided,
a free exposure to fresh air being desirable.   In
this state of affairs the practitioner should be wait-
ed for.   Where medical aid cannot be procured,
(as in remote places,  &c.,) rather  copious bleed-
ing from the arm  should be resorted to ;  cold wa-
ter should be poured upon the head, and the bowels
opened by  means of active purgatives: 10 grs. of
calomel  may be immediately given, and its action
promoted by the use of saline purgatives and stim-
ulating clysters. The legs may be placed in pretty
warm water,  and blisters  applied between the
shoulders.  When  these means prove successful,
the remainder of the treatment may consist in the
administration of mild purgatives and diaphoretics,
avoiding stimulating food or drinks, and  other ex-
citing causes.
   Prev.  Apoplexy is frequently preceded by gid-
diness, pain,  and  swimming in the head, loss of
memory, drowsiness,   noises in the ears,  specks
floating before the  eyes, nightmare, laborious res-
piration,  &.c.   When any of these symptoms oc-
cur in a  person of apoplectic habit, opening medi-
cines and a light diet  should be at once adopted,
and wine,  beer,  and  spirits  avoided;  and  if the
symptoms  increase or continue, bleeding may be
had  recourse  to.   If  the admonitions of  nature
were attended  to, many cases  of apoplexy might
be prevented.
   Remarks.  Short, robust, and plethoric persons,
having short, thick necks, are the most liable to
apoplexy; in them the fit generally comes on with-
out  warning.   Persons once attacked  with  this
malady  are regarded  as especially liable  to the
same again.
   APPENSA.   I. Root of vervain hung round
the neck by a yard of white satin  riband for scro-
fula ; but the usual medicines must be exhibited
during the same period.
   II. A  root of the peony suspended to the neck 
API*                    70                    APP
in epilepsy; its use to  be accompanied with that
of the most active cathartics.
  III. Magnes arsenicalis, or camphor,  hung to
the neck so as to  reach the pit of the stomach, to
guard against contagion.
  Remarks.  All  these probably act by keeping
up the courage and spirits of the wearer.
  APPETITE.  An instinctive desire to perform
certain natural functions.  In its commoner sense,
it is confined  to a  desire for food.
  Remarks.  The sensations of hunger and thirst
are seated in the stomach,  and are necessary to
the body in a state of health.   They  are, how-
ever, frequently disordered and altered  in various
ways, in consequence of diseased action of the sto-
mach and nervous system, or from vicious habits.
A healthy appetite  for food is usually a most cer-
tain indication that nature requires a supply ; yet
when irregular, it should  never  be indulged in be-
yond a moderate  extent.   In the gratification of
the appetite, certain regulations should  be  ob-
served, and a boundary put to mere animal grati-
fication.   By slowly eating and thoroughly masti-
cating or chewing the food, the stomach becomes
gradually distended, and  the individual feels him-
self satisfied only  after he has received  a due pro-
portion thereof, sufficient for the nourishment of
his  body ; but, on  the  contrary, if the  food be
swallowed too rapidly, and without proper masti-
cation, it will press heavily and roughly against the
sides  of  the  stomach, and induce a  sensation of
fulness, before a sufficient quantity has been taken
to meet the continual demands of life ;  the conse-
quence will be, that hunger will soon return. Per-
sons who labor or take much  exercise  have gen-
erally a  better  appetite  than those who  lead a
sedentary occupation;  this arises from the func-
tions  of  the stomach and bowels being promoted
through the action of the muscles of the abdomen
increasing the healthy peristaltic action of those
viscera.  When an enormous  appetite  exists in
persons leading a  sedentary life, it may fairly be
presumed that either the food passes off imperfectly
digested, or that the coats of the stomach are in
an  unhealthy  state.   More food is  required in
winter than in summer, in consequence of a greater
radiation  of  the  heat of the body, and hence a
greater desire for food is usually an accompani-
ment of that  season.  In persons who lead a more
sedentary life in winter than in summer, the  re-
verse is, however, frequently the case ; the want
of exercise producing a corresponding loss of  ap-
petite.
   The  various deviations from the healthy stand-
ard, or the natural desire for food, constitute dis-
eased appetite, among which may be  mentioned
the following.
   APPETITE,  CANINE.  Syn. Voracity.  In-
satiable Hunger.  Bulimia.  This complaint is
generally symptomatic of pregnancy, worms, and
diseases of the stomach and  other viscera,  but
sometimes exists  as  a separate disease.  Many
persons eat enormously from a mere vicious habit,
which is certain to weaken the digestion, and thus
induce an increasing desire for food.
   Treat. When  children display a voracious  ap-
petite, worms may be suspected, and  vermifuges
should  be administered, which will generally re-
move it.  In adults, the common cause is imper-
fect digestion, arising from stomach complainU oi
an excessive consumption  of food, by which the
system  receives an  insufficient  quantity of nour-
ishment, and the languor and  gnawing  pain of
disease is mistaken for that of hunger.  The  best
plan in this  case  is  to regulate the diet, to  keep
the bowels moderately open with gentle laxatives,
and to administer tonics, as  bark and steel, or bit-
ters, as orange peel and gentian.   When preg.
nancy is the cause, a plentiful supply of nutritious
food and good malt liquor  may be adopted  with
advantage.   When  the practice wholly  depends
on vicious habits of indulgence, small doses of tar-
tar-emetic  or ipecacuanha, mixed  with the  food,
will generally effect  a cure.
  APPETITE, DEPRAVED.  Syn. Pica.  A
desire for unnatural  food, as dirt, cinders, tallow,
chalk, &c.   Treat.  The method detailed at the
end of the last article may be followed  in  this.
Emetics and  purgatives, with rhubarb, bark, and
steel, are.the best remedies.
  APPETITE,  DEFICIENT.   A bad appetite
generally arises from a disordered stomach, and is
best improved by exercise and the occasional use
of saline purgatives.   Chalybeates  and bitters will
also prove  advantageous.   A  piece of  rhubarb
chewed an hour  before dinner is employed by
some persons to create an appetite  ; others suck 2
or 3 ginger lozenges, or take a small glass of bit-
ters, for the  same purpose.  One  or two  4-grain
compound  aloes  pills  of the  London Pharmaco-
poeia, taken in the middle  of the  morning,  have
been strongly recommended, under the name of
dinner pills.   (See also Dyspepsia.)
  APPETITE, DRAUGHT  TO PROMOTE
THE.  Compound  tincture of  gentian £ oz.; sal
volatile £ a  teaspoonful; cinnamon water 1 oz.;
compound  tincture of cardamoms 1 teaspoonful.
Mix for a draught  to be taken an hour before a
meal.
  APPETITE,  MIXTURE  TO  RESTORE
THE.  Prep. Gentian root sliced  \ oz.;  fresh
orange  and  lemon peel, each  1 oz.;  tincture of
rhubarb 1 oz.; compound  tincture of cardamoms
J oz.;  spirits of red lavender \ oz.; boiling water
1 pint.  Proc. Pour the water on the gentian and
peels, and  macerate  for 2 hours; strain,  and add
the other ingredients; and if it be wanted  very
clear, it may be  filtered through blotting paper;
lastly, add  2oz. of  lump  sugar.   Dose.  A small
wine-glassful early in the morning or shortly be-
fore dinner.
  APPLE.   The apple is a wholesome and plea-
sant fruit when  perfectly ripe,  and may  be eaten
either raw, roasted, or boiled. The more aromatic
and flavored varieties are well adapted for dessert
fruit,  and are especially useful to persons of  a full
or confined habit of body.
  APPLE-FOOL.    Put the  peeled and  cored
fruit into a jar, with moist sugar to render it pal-
atable, and a very little cider or perry ; place the
jar in a saucepan of water  over the fire, and con-
tinue the heat until  the apples  become quite soft,
then  pulp them through a colander, and add a
sufficient quantity of  milk,  a  little cream, and
sugar to complete the sweetening.   Mix well.
   APPLES  A   LA  CREMONA.  Prep. Cut
the best cooking apples into small squares, until
you have  about 1J lb., strew over them 1 lb. of 
APP                     71                    ARB
good moist sugar and several long strips of lemon-
peel, then  cover them up close in a bowl.   Next
day put the apples, &c., piece by  piece,  into a
email stewpan, with 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of cider
or perry, and simmer gently until  they become
clear; then take them out, and when, cold build a
wall round a small dish with the square pieces,
place the strips of lemon-peel on the top, and pour
the sirup into the middle.
   APPLES, DRIED.   Syn.  Baked Apples.
Prep.   Place any  quantity  of  apples  in  a cool
oven, 6 or 7 times  in succession, flattening them
each time by gentle pressure, gradually applied,
as soon as they are soft  enough to bear it; then
take  them out, and as soon as cold put them on
clean dishes or glass plates.   The sour or tart va-
riety of apples is the "best for baking.
   APPLES and  PEARS, PRESERVATION
OF.   One of the best ways to preserve valuable
fruit of this description, is to wrap each in a piece
of clean dry paper, and to fill small wide-mouthed
jars or honey-pots therewith, and to pack them in
the following manner, in  a dry and  very cold
place, (as a cellar,) but where the frost cannot
            reach  them.  The pots, of the shape
            of fig.  1, are placed in rows one in
            the other, as  in fig. 2, and the  space
             (a) between  the two  pots filled  up
            with plaster of Paris  made  into a
            paste  with water;  the joint is  thus
            rendered air-tight, and  the  fruit  will
          l0r keep good for a long time.  The mouth
            of the  top jar should be covered with
            a slate.
              Remarks.  The fruit  should not be
too ripe for the purpose of being preserved;  and
the later sort is the best.   The jars may be taken
one at a time from the  store-room, as wanted,
and the fj-uit exposed for a week or ten days in a
warm dry room before  being  eaten,  which  will
much  improve the flavor.  Another plan, which
is a modification of the above, is to place alternate
layers of bran or clean dry sand  and apples, either
naked or wrapped in paper, in jars, until they are
full, then  to shake them well  to settle  the bran
between the fruit,  and to add more if required;
they are the  packed away as before described.
   II. Fruit is kept in the large way for the Lon-
don market  by  placing in a cool situation, first a
layer of straw or paper,  then  a layer  of apples,
next a layer of straw, and so on alternately, to
the height of 20 to 25 inches,  which cannot be
well exceeded, as the weight of the superincum-
bent fruit  would be apt  to crush  or injure  the
lower layers.  This plan is frequently modified by
placing alternate layers of fruit  and  paper in bas-
kets or hampers, and covering them  well over  be-
fore placing them in the fruit-room.  The baskets
may then be piled  one over the  other without  in-
jury to the fruit.
  Remarks.  Apples or other fruit  intended  for
preserving  in the above way should  never be laid
in heaps or allowed to touch each other, as they
then-by acquire a  bad flavor.   They should be
gathered in dry weather and immediately carried
to the fruit-room, when they should be laid, if  not
singly, at least thinly, on the floor or shelves, on
paper, and  packed away as soon  as possible.  The
use of brown paper is inadmissible, as it conveys
its peculiar flavor to the fruit.  Thick white brown
paper is the cheapest and the best*
  III. (American method.)   The apples or pears,
after being peeled, are cut into eighths, the cores
extracted, and  then dried in the sun or in a kiln
or oven until they are quite  hard.  Remarks. In
this  way fruit is kept in the United States for two
or three years.
  For use,  wash  the fruit in water, then pour
boiling water on it; let it stand for a few minutes,
and  use it as fresh fruit.  The water it has soaked
in is an excellent substitute for fresh juice.
  APPLE  SUGAR.  Prep.  Express the juice,
and  add chalk until the whole of the  acid is satu-
rated ; pour off the clear liquor; then  clarify by
boiling in a clean  pan with some white of egg;
skim off the dirt;  and lastly evaporate by a gen-
tle heat to a proper consistence.  Remarks. 1 cwt
of apples yield about 84 lbs. of juice and  12 lbs. of
crude sugar.
  APRICOTS, DRIED.   Syn. Candied Apri-
cots.  Prep. Thrust out  the stones with a wooden
skewer, then pare them and roll them in dry pow-
dered lump sugar; afterwards put them  into a
cold sirup, made with 2 lbs. of lump sugar to \ of
a pint of water, and heat them gradually nearly
to the  boiling point, turning them frequently.
Then pour  them into  a deep dish, and  next day
scald them  again, adding as much sugar as will
dissolve; again let them rest until the next day,
when they must be placed on a hair-sieve to drain
and  dry.
  Remarks.  The  fruit  should not be quite ripe.
Sometimes  the apricots are cut into halves* c;
quarters  before  preserving, and  at  other timeE
pickled with the skins on ; in the latter case they
are  gathered sooner,  and infused in  cold water
with some vine leaves; next taken out and gently
immersed in fresh water until they turn yellow,
and  then rubbed with  a flannel and some salt to
remove the down ; they are then again soaked in
the  pan  with  the  vine  leaves, until they turn
greenish.  The best are now selected, rubbed dry,
the stones extracted, and boiled in sirup as above
described.
  AQUETTA. The poison prepared by the once
notorious  woman  named Toffana Tophana, ap-
pears to have been alkarsine, or some preparation
of the kadodule series, to which article the readei
is referred.  The emperor Charles VI. declared to
his physician Garelli, that it was arsenic  dissolved
in aqua cymbelaria.
  ARABESQUE.  The ornamental designs of
this  kind, so much employed to  beautify leather
and fancy cloth binding, are produced  by the pres-
sure  of hot  plates  or rollers, having the design
sunk into them.   (See Bookbinding.)
  ARABINE.  Syn. Soluble Gum.  Prep. Dis-
solve gum arabic in water; filter, and add alcohol
to throw down the arabine;  filter and dry the re-
siduum by a gentle heat.  Prop. Similar to pure
gum arabic ; over the finer sorts it possesses little
or no advantage.
  ARBUTUS  SUGAR.  Prep. From the fruit
of the strawberry, in the same way as  apple sugar.
Strawberries are  said  to yield one-fifth of their
weight of sugar, and  the rape, or pressings, yield
by fermentation and  distillation a very  pleasant
spirit. 
ARC                   72                    ARC
   ARCANUM BECCHINUM.   A solution of
livers of sulphur And sugar in water.  (Willis.)
   ARCANUM CORALLINUM.  Red oxide of
mercury  digested in  potash  water, and  spirits
burned on it.  Remarks.  Formerly used to excite
salivation and as an escharotic.
   ARCANUM DUPLICUM CATHOLICUM.
An amulet composed of the roots of plantain and
colchicum, recommended  by W'edel against con-
tagion.  A relic of superstition.
   ARCHIL.  Syn.  Orchil. Turnsole. Litmus.
Cudbear. Persio.  A beautiful  violet-red or blue
color,  prepared  from several  species of lichens,
(the rocellus, parellus,  &c.)   In Great  Britain it
is principally prepared from the  lecanora tartarea
and parmelia omphilodes.  Archil  is met with in
three states—a  violet-red liquid paste—in blue
lumps—and in powder.
   Uses, <^c.  It is largely employed to dye blues,
violets, &c, mixed with other colors, to which it
imparts a beautiful bloom.  It  is generally used
as a finishing bath, by passing the fabric, already
dyed of the same color, through archil mixed with
hot water.   Its beauty, however, is deceptive, and
soon decays.  Solvents. Water,  urine, ammoni-
acal  and alkaline lyes, acidulated water. Alkalis
turn it  blue, acids red; hence its value as  a test
for these articles in chemistry.  Spirit stained with
archil is sometimes used to fill the  tubes of ther-
mometers, but the color soon fades.  An aqueous
infusion of archil stains marble of a beautiful  violet
color of considerable permanence.  (Fay.)  In  the
state of powder  it is called cudbear, under which
form, when used with skill, it  possesses greater
permanency, and dyes all shades, from pink and
crimson to blue.   The  word archil, as  commonly
applied, means  the  liquid  archil, or violet color,
sold for staining wood, dyeing, &c.   Lump archil,
or dyer's archil, a similar colored substance, under
the form of  a paste or lumps.  Turnsole or litmus
is archil prepared of a  bluish color, and made up
into small lumps, and cudbear is archil in the state
of powder, which has undergone  some trifling pre-
paration for the dyer.   The  names are, however,
frequently used indiscriminately.
   ARCHIL, TO DYE  WITH.   Proc. Diffuse
the archil or cudbear in warm water, then raise it
to nearly the  boiling point, and pass tho  cloth,
previously  prepared by  rinsing in cold water,
through the dye until the proper shade is produced.
   Remarks.  This plan is  principally employed to
bloom  or finish off goods dyed of a permanent
color, as before  alluded to.  Pearlash, or milk of
lime, added  to the bath, deepens the shade ;  acids
redden it.  A beautiful crimson red is obtained,
by first passing the stuff through a mordant of tin
and  tartar,  and then  through a  bath of  archil
mixed  with a  little solution of tin.  By proper
management of this dye, lilachs, violets, mallows,
rosemary flowers, soupes au vin,  agates^ and other
shades may be  prod iced,  on  silk or cloth, either
alone,  or in  conjunction with other dyes to modify
it.  £ lb. of archil or cudbear will dye  1 to  2  lbs.
of cloth.
   ARCHIL, FACTITIOUS.  A factitious col-
oring matter, resembling  ai mil, is prepared  by
fermenting  together a mixture  of rotten onions
with an equal weight of pearlash, for a few  days,
and then adding \ of the weight of the pearlash in
 sugar of lead.  The particulars of the process es-
j sential to its success are, however, kept a secret
   ARCHIL,  INFUSION  OF.   Syn.  Infusion
 of Litmus.  Prep.  Digest 1 oz. of powdered lit-
j mus in 1 pint of hot water, and filter.  Remarks.
 It  will  not  keep without the addition  of spirit.
 Used for testing.  (See the Tincture.)
   ARCHIL,  LIQUID.   Syn. Common Archil,
 (of  the  shops.)  Prep.  The  archil  lichen,  well
 bruised between stones, is moistened with a crude
 ammoniacal liquor,  or urine, mixed wiln a  little
 quicklime ; in  a few days it  acquires a  purplish
 red  color, and  is then steeped in urine until all the
 color is extracted.   Use.  As a dye, especially for
 staining wood, and tinging silk stockings, <fcc.
   Remarks.  When the process is conducted with
 free access of  air, and in  rooms heated bv steam,
 (stove rooms,)  the color  turns more on th. -'iolet,
 and the product is called red archil; but wl. n the
 manufacture is carried on in close vessels, the pro-
 duct is bluish,  and hence  called blue archil.  In
 this way various shades of color are produced.
   ARCHIL,  LUMP.  Syn.  Litmus. Turnsole.
 Prep.  The  archil  plant, ground  to powder, is
 moistened with urine, or bone spirit, and  allowed
 to lie together  for a few days, to ferment; a small
 proportion of chalk  or gypsum is  now added, and
 the  whole is made  up into small squares, (lump
 archil,) or preserved in the state of paste.
   Remarks.  When  the  ground  lichen is muted
 with about half its weight of pearlash before fer-
 menting, and afterwards made with a small quan-
 tity of lime, it becomes quite blue,  and  is then
 called litmus or turnsole.
   ARCHIL   PAPER.   Syn. L'itmus  Paper.
 I.  (Blue.)  Prep.  Stain  thin unglazed  writing-
 paper  with infusion of litmus ; dry,  and keep it
 from the light.  Use. As  a test for  acids, which
 turn it red.  Remarks. It should be of a blue color
 Should the infusion  of litmus turn a  little on  the
 violet, add a minute quantity of alkali (which will
 turn it blue)  before wetting the paper.
   II.  (Red.)   Add 2 or 3 drops of acetic acid to
 the  infusion of litmus, or enough to  turn it  red;
 then stain the  paper, as above.  Use. As a test:
 turned blue by alkalis.
   Remarks. A convenient extemporaneous meth-
 od of preparing this paper, is to take a strip of the
 blue litmus paper, and hold it for an instant over
 a bottle containing muriatic acid, which will  turn
 it red.   In this state it is very sensitive to alkalis.
 A good method of keeping these papers for use, is
 to cut them  into strips about i an  inch wide and
 3 inches long,  and to tie them up in bundles, or to
 keep them in a box of a  similar size to the paper.
 They are then always ready for use, as well as
 excluded from the light.
   ARCHIL,  POWDERED.  Syn. Cudbear.
 Dyer's Archil.  Prep. The bruised archil lichen
 is sprinkled with bone spirit and urine, and allowed
 to ferment for  a few days  in  the  open air, as be-
 fore described, when it is dried and  ground  to a
 fine powder.   Use.  As a dye.
   ARCHIL, TINCTURE OF.  Syn. Tincture
 of Litmus.  I. (Blue.)  Ing. Litmus, in powder,
 1 oz.; water and rectified spirit, of each, ^ pint.
 Proc.  Digest  for a  week.   Use.  As a  test.  It
 turns red with  acids.
   II.  (Red.)  To the above add acetic acid,  just 
ARR                    73                   ARS
sufficient to tinge it red.  Use. As a test;  turned
blue by alkalis.
  Remarks.  A very slight trace of either acids or
alkalis may be detected in mineral waters, or sa-
line  solutions, by means of either the infusion or
the tincture of litmus, or litmus paper.  The latter
is, however, the more convenient, and is that gen-
erally used.
  ARCiEUS, BALSAM  OF.   Mutton  suet 4
parts ;  hogs' lard 2  parts ; turpentine and rosin, of
each, 3  parts.  Proc.  Melt, add  4 parts of hot
water,  and beat together until  cold.   Remarks.
Once a noted ointment for sores and bruises*
   ARICIXA.  Syn.  Aricine.  Ci scomni:.  Cus-
co-cinchonia.   An alkaline principle, discovered
by Pi Uetter and Coriol, in the bark of the arica,
or cusco-cinchona.
   Prep. Boil the bark  in water acidulated with
sulphuric acid;  repeat the process a second and
third time ; concentrate the mixed  liquors, and
precipitate with ammonia.  Collect the powder on
a filter, and  purify by repeated resolutions and
crystallizations from hot alcohol.
   Remarks. It forms salts with the acids.  It is
supposed to be the teroxide  of the base, of which
quina is thought to be the binoxide and cinchona
the  monoxide.
   ARITHMETER.  Syn.  Abacus.  An instru-
ment  frequently employed  in  schools  to  teach
young children  the rudiments of arithmetic.  Its
construction is similar  to the  abacus of the Greek.
The lines  represent the nine digits, and progress
from units  upwards, as  will  be  easily understood
from the annexed  figure, which has the number
  thousands.

— hundreds.
— tens.
  units.
 131,231,431 on it, according to the common sys-
 tem  of notation.   Sometimes a small ball is sus-
 pended over the lines, which in that case adds five
 to the line below,  and thus reduces the number of
 balls on each wire from 9 to 5.
   ARNICINE.   A resinous  substance  extracted
 by alcohol from the root and flowers of the moun-
 tain arnica.   (Pfaff.)
   ARRACK.  A spirituous  liquor,  procured by
 distillation from palm wine, or a fermented  infu-
 sion of rice.   Il is imported from the  East Indies,
 and much  used  to make punch.   When  sliced
 pine  apples are plaoM*  in  arrack, and  the spirit
 kept  for norne time, it acquires a  most  delicious
 flavor, and is thought to be  unrivalled for making
 nectarial punch.
  ARRACK, FACTITIOUS.  Syn.  Mock Ar-
 rack.  Vauxhall Nectar.   Prep.  Dissolve 23
 grs. of flowers of benzoin (benzoic acid) in 1 quart
 of good pale Jamaica rum.  Sold for arrack.
  ARROW ROOT.  A very  pure  and nutritious
species of starch, prepared in the West Indies from
the root of the maranta arundinacea.
                      10
   Pur.  The  mass of what is sold for arrow root,
 in the shops, consists either wholly or in part of the
 fecula or farina, obtained from potatoes, and com-
 monly called potato starch.   This article is known
 in the trade  as " British arrow root," or simply
 " arrow  root," whereas, the genuine kind is always
 described as  " Bermuda,"  "St.  Vincent," " St.
 Kitts," or at  least as " West Indian arrow root."
 The mere addition of  an  adjective is no proof of
 quality, and no sample should be bought without a
 proper examination.  Arrow root is imported in tin
 canisters or cases, and  in  boxes and casks,  but
 the  former is  most esteemed.
I   Tests, <Jr.  Genuine arrow root is odorless and
 tasteless, and produces a sort of crackling noise
j when pressed or rubbed, and emits no peculiar  odor
 when mixed with  muriatic acid. Stirred up  in a
 mortar with double its weight of a mixture of equal
 parts of aquafortis  and water, it  does  not become
 gelatinous and adhesive  in less  than 15 minutes.
 (Dr. Scharling.)
   ARROW ROOT, EAST INDIAN.   Source.
 The roots  of the curcuma  angustifolia.   Char.
 A white powder, somewhat resembling bicarbonate
 of soda or rochella salts.   It does not crepitate be-
 tween the fingers  like West Indian arrow root.
   ARROW ROOT,  BRAZILIAN.   Syn.  Ta-
 pioca Meal.   Source. The cassava plant.  Char.
 Partially soluble  in cold water;  appearance infe-
 rior to W.  I.  arrow  root; grains, mullar-shaped,
 when viewed by the microscope.
   ARROW ROOT, ENGLISH.  Syn.  Farina.
 Potato Starch.   Source.  The  esculent potato.
   Char.  I. When mixed  with  muriatic  acid, a
 smell resembling fresh beans or rushes may be  per-
 ceived.  (Ann. Chem.)
   II.  One drachm of potato starch rubbed  in a
 mortar, with a mixture of one drachm of aquafor-
 tis,  previously diluted with 1 drachm 6f water,
 forms rapidly a very stiff and tenacious jelly.   5g
 of potato starch,  mixed with West  Indian arrow
 root, may be detected in this way. (Scharling.)
   ARROW  ROOT,  PORTLAND.   Source
 The tubers  of the arum  maculatum, or wake-
 robin.  Char.  It  resembles the  Brazilian arrow
 root, mentioned above.
   Remarks. By attention to the  characteristics of
 each of the above varieties, the purity of any sam-
 ple may be easily ascertained.  The grains  of each
 variety have a different appearance  when viewed
 by the microscope, but  when  the  sophistication
 takes  place before grinding, the original  form of
 the grains of each is lost, and this method of  ex-
 amination is then useless.  The reader is referred,
 for further information on this subject, to Dr.  Pe-
 reira's excellent work  on Materia Medica, where
 he will find the subject fully explained and illus-
 trated by engravings, from the pencil of the doc
 tor's talented lady, representing the appearance of
 the magnified grains.
  ARSENIATES.  Sajlts  formed of the  arsenic
acid and the bases.  They are all  poisonous.  Most
of the metallic arseniates  may be made by adding
a soluble salt of the metal to a solution of the acid,
when the arseniate is precipitated.
  ARSENIATE OF AMMONIA AND SODA,
DOUBLE.   Prep. Mix  the separate solutions of
the arseniate of soda and ammonia, evaporate  and
crystallize.  Poisonous. 
ARS
74
ARS
   Remarks.  In a similar way are made the dou-
ble arseniates of soda and potassa, and of  ammo-
nia and potassa.
   ARSENIATE OF BARYTA.  Prep. Add a
solution of chloride of* barium to another of  arse-
niate of potassa or soda ; collect the precipitate and
wash it well.  Remarks.  By dissolving this salt in
a solution of arsenic acid and crystallizing, a biar-
seniate of baryta is obtained.
   ARSENIATE OF POTASSA.   Prep. Satu-
rate a solution of the acid with potassa.  Uncrys-
tallizable.
   ARSENIATE OF POTASSA. (SUPER- or
BI-.)   Syn.  Arse.niated  Kali.   Mvcqueer's
Neutral Arsenical Salt.  Prep. Heat together
equal weights of nitre  and arsenious acid : dissolve
the melted mass  in water, evaporate and crystal-
lize.
   Prop., Uses, <J-c. This salt is obtained  in  large
crystals.   It is tonic.   Dose T*ff to i of gr.; used
in making cobalt blue.
   Remarks.  By a similar  process to the above,
the arseniates of lime and magnesia may be made.
This  salt (potassa) is made on a very extensive
scale  in Saxony.
   ARSENIATE OF SODA.  Saturate  a  solu-
tion of arsenic acid with  another of carbonate of
soda ;  evaporate and crystallize.
   ARSENIATE OF SODA, (SUPER  or BI-
SALT.  Prep.  Heat together in a crucible or
bolthead, a mixture of 9 oz. of  white arsenic with
1 lb. of dry nitrate of soda,  until all the nitric acid
be expelled.  Dose. J to ^ gr.
   ARSENIC.   Syn. Metallic  Arsenic  Reg-
ulus  of  Arsenic  Black  Arsenic  A  brittle,
inflammable, volatile,  and combustible metal, the
base of white arsenic or arsenious  acid.
   Prep.  I.  Mix white  arsenic in powder  with
twice its weight of black flux, and  expose the mix-
ture to a red heat, in  a Hessian crucil-le,  over
which is  luted an empty crucible to receive the
metal.  The upper one must be kept cool.
   II. Mix white arsenic  with twice  its weight of
soft soap, and fuse it in a  crucible, with a very
quick  fire; pour the melted metal into inverted
hot iron cones.
   Remarks.  The  first  is  the  more convenient
process.   Caut.  Too  much care cannot be taken
to avoid  inhaling  the fumes ;  the process should
be conducted only where there is  a strong  current
of air to carry them off   On the large scale it is
procured by distilling white arsenic with charcoal
and iron, or lime.  Use.  To whiten copper, and
in medicine.
   ARSENIC,  BROMIDE OF.  Syn.  Sesqui-
bromide  of Arsenic.  Prep. Add dry arsenic in
powder, cautiously, and  in small  quantities at  a
time, to bromine, as long as light  continues to be
emitted, then distil into a cool receiver.  (Serullas.)
Prop. Solid  below 68°, boils  at 428°.  When
liquid it is yellowish.   Poisonous.
   ARSENIC, PROTOCHLORIDE OF.  Prep.
Mix in a tubulated retort 1  part of arsenious acid,
and 10 parts of strong  sulphuric acid;  heat to
212°, and throw in gradually small quantities of
sea salt.   Collect the chloride in a well-cooled re-
ceiver. (Dumas.)  Remarks. The pure protochlo-
ride swims on a  little hydrated portion when the
orocess has been  too long continued.  The latter
may be  rendered  anhydrous by  distillation  from
strong  sulphuric acid.
  ARSENIC,  SKSQUR'HLORIDE.   Syn.
Chloride  of  Arsenic.   Butter  of Arsenic,
Fi ming Liquor of ditto.   Prep.  I. Distil to-
gether  6 parts of corrosive sublimate and 1 of arse-
nic.  II. Boil muriatic  acid, mixed with a  little
nitric acid, upon arsenic for some time, then con-
centrate and  distil, (if required.)
  Remarks.  All the above are poisonous, corro-
sive, and volatile.
  ARSENIC, IODIDE OF.  Syn.  Periodide
of  Arsenic   Prep.  Gently heat  together in a
tube or flask, ' part of metallic  arsenic in fine
powder, with  6-j r*arts of iodine, then sublime the
iodide  to separate the excess of arsenic.  A sand-
bath or the heat of a spirit-lamp should be em-
ployed  for this purpose.  Prop.   An  orange-red
solid, volatile  and soluble in water.  Dose. J to J
of gr. in lepra, lupus, psoriasis, impetigo, &c.
  ARSENIC, OINTMENT OF IODIDE OF.
(Biett.)   Prep. Mix well together 3 grs. of iodide
of arsenic  and 1 oz.  of lard.   Use. in corroding
tubercular diseases.
  ARSENIC, RED SULPHURET OF.  Syn.
Protosulphuret of Arsenic  Red Arsenic.  Re-
algar.  This substance is found ready formed in
nature, but it may also be produced by art.
  Prep.  Powdered white arsenic 2 parts, flowers
of sulphur 1 part.   Proc. Heat them together in
a crucible, until in  a state of perfect fusion.
  Prop. Transparent ruby red-colored mass.  Very
poisonous.  Uses.  As a pigment and in fireworks.
Not used in medicine.  Its color is  improved by
sublimation in close vessels.
  ARSENIC, YELLOW  SULPHURET  OF.
Syn. Sesquisulphuret  of Arsenic   Yellow
Arsenic   Sulphoarsenious  Acid.   Or"piment.
King's Yellow.   This sulphuret, like  the last, is
found ready formed in nature, and was once called
auripigmentum, from its fine color.
  Prep. I.  Mix together equal parts of sulphur and
arsenious acid, and sublime in a close vessel.
  II. Transmit a current of sulphureted hydrogen
gas through a solution of arsenious  acid; collect
the precipitate and well wash it in cold water.
  Prop. Yellow crystalline  lump,  or fine golden
yellow  powder ; very soluble in the pure alkalis.
  Uses. As a dye, a pigment, in fireworks, and in
some depilatories.  Silk, woollen, or cotton goods,
soaked in a solution of this substance in ammonia,
and then suspended in a warm apartment, are per-
manently dyed of a beautiful  yellow color.  The
native  sulphurets (both red and yellow) are much
less soluble than those prepared artificially, and are
consequently  less poisonous.   The native varieties
possess the finest color, and are  hence preferred
by artists. If  sulphureted hydrogen be transmitted
through a solution  of arsenic acid, a persulphuret
is formed which much resembles orpiment.
  ARSENICAL   CAUSTIC.    (Justamond's.)
Prep.  Melt together 2 parts of white arsenic and
I part of antimony; when cold reduce the  mass
to a fine powder.
  Remarks.  A poisonous and dangerous escha-
rotic, employed by M.  Justamond, mixed  with
powdered opium, in cancer.  It is seldom used in
England.
  ARSENICAL SOLUTION   Syn. (Dr. De- 
ARS
75
ARS
tergie's Mineral Solution.)   Prep. Arsenious
acid (crystallized)  010 centigramme ; carbonate
of potassa 0-10 centigramme ; distilled water 500
grammes ; compound tincture of melissa 050 cen-
tigramme ;  tincture of cochineal to  a deep rose
color.   Proc.  Dissolve the acid and potassa  in
the water, (hot,) and when cold add the rest.
   Remarks. Each gramme is equal to t^tt of ar-
senious acid, or -V of the strength of Fowler's so-
lution.   Used  in  similar cases to the solution  of
arsenite of potassa of  the L. Ph., over which it is
said to  possess the  advantages  of greater con-
venience and safetv in  dispensing.
   ARSENIC  ACID.  An acid formed  by the
 combination of metallic arsenic with oxygen. Hist.
 The combinations of  this acid were noticed  by
 Macqueer, but we are indebted to Scheele for the
 subsequent d:scovery of the acid.
   Prep. Pour 6 parts of strong nitric acid on 1 part
 of white arsenic in a glass vessel,  and distil until
 the solution acquires  the  consistence of a sirup,
 then transfer it into a platina crucible, and expose
 it for  some time to a faint dull red heat,  to expel
 the nitric acid.  Remark.  The addition of a little
 muriatic acid facilitates the process. (Liebig.)
   II.  Submit arsenious acid to the action of aque-
 ous chlorine.
   Prop. Sour, reddens litmus,  dissolves in 6 times
 its weight of cold water,  (twice its weight, La-
 grange,) and less of boiling, and forms salts with
 the bases, called arseniates.  By careful evapora-
 tion it may be obtained under the  form of small
 grains, but as usually met with  has the consistence
 of sirup.   It is deliquescent.
   Use.  It has not been employed in medicine, or
 the  arts, but indirectly some  of its combinations
 have  been used in dyeing.  It is  a more violent
 poison than even the arsenious  acid. (Brodie.)
   Tests. Sulphureted hydrogen gives a  yellow
precipitate ;  nitrate of  silver added to the solution
of an  arseniate, gives  a precipitate  of a brick red
color; nitrate of lead  gives a white one, and the
salts of  copper a bluish colored one.  Pure lump
sugar  dissolved in an  aqueous  solution of arsenic
 acid, becomes  in  a few hours  of a  reddish color,
 and afterwards of a  magnificent purple.  (Ure.)
 This acid, whether free or combined, is reduced to
the  metallic state, and evolves a garlic odor when
heated with charcoal.   Wohler recommends the
addition of sulphurous acid to the suspected liquor,
and to boil  it for a short time, when the arsenic
acid will be reduced to arsenious acid, in which
state it will be more susceptible of tests.  See the
next article.
   ARSENIOUS ACID.   Syn. White Arsenic
Oxide of Arsenic  Arsenic blanc Acide Ar-
senieux. (Fr.)  Arsenichste saure, Gift Mehl.
(Ger.)   Acidum arseniosum. (P. L.)   Hist., Des.,
$c.  This substance,  like  the preceding, is  a
compound of metallic arsenic  and oxygen, and is
a powerful poison ; in fact, one of the most viru-
lent of the class  to which it belongs.  It is com-
monly  known by the simple title of " arsenic," a
term derived from the Greek, apatviKSv, an epithet
once applied to those  natural  substances  which
possess strongly poisonous and acrimonious proper-
ties ; as orpiment was the usual  form under which
arsenic occurred, it consequently received the name,
and hence this word has gradually been altered to
its present application. (Paris.)  Scheele first proved
the white arsenic of the shops to cons;st of a metal
and oxygen, but Fourcroy gave it the name of ar-
senious acid.
   Source. The white arsenic of commerce is prin-
cipally imported from Germany, where  it is  ob-
tained in the  process of roasting the arsenureted
cobalt ores for making zaffre.  At Altenburg it is
procured from arsenical iron pyrites, and at Riech-
enstein  from the  sesquiarseniate of iron.  About
600 to  800 tons  are also annually collected in
Cornwall, being a  secondary product of the  pro-
cess of roasting the  gray copper ores and white
mundic.  The  crude article  obtained in this way
has to be purified by sublimation in suitable iron
vessels, before it is fit for  sale.  It then  forms a
semi-transparent vitreous  cake,  which gradually
becomes opaque, and of a  snowy whiteness by ex-
posure to the  air, and sometimes falls into a pul-
verulent state on the surface.  The powdered white
arsenic of the shops  is generally adulterated with
plaster of Paris, white sand, or ground bone ashes,
and is totally unfit for the purposes of chemistry or
the manufacturer.  To avoid this fraud, the best
way is to purchase it in the lump, which  will gen-
erally be found sufficiently pure.  When wanted
very pure, it may be  resublimed in glass.
   Prop. Volatilizes at 380°  Fahr.  Vapors  smell
of garlic ; sp. gr. 3-7.   Its  taste is usually thought
to be acrid, but this  is not the case.  It may be
deliberately tasted without exciting  more than a
very  faint impression of sweetness, and  perhaps
slight  acidity.  (Turner.)   I can  say from painful
experience that such  is the case.   Hence its dan-
gerous character as a poison.   100 parts of boiling
water dissolve 8 parts of arsenious acid, (Bucholz
and Klaproth;) but on cooling to 60°; only 3 parts
remain in solution.   The opaque variety is  the
more soluble.  (Guibourt.)
   Uses. Extensively  employed in the arts, and in
medicine.  In small therapeutical doses it is a val-
uable remedy in intermittent fevers,  chronic  skin
diseases,  (especially  lepra and  psoriasis,) and in
some nervous  diseases,  (as  neuralgia,  epilepsy,
chorea, tetanus, &c.)  It is the  active ingredient
in the " tasteless  ague  drop," and the Tanjore
pills, long celebrated  in India for the  cure of  the
bite  of the  cobra  di  capello,  and other venomous
serpents,  as well  as hydrophobia.   It has  been
given in syphilis, chronic rheumatism, typhus, and
several other diseases, with more or less advantage.
Externally it  has  been employed in the form of
powder, lotion, and ointment for the  cure of can-
cer.   Its use, whether internal or external, is al-
ways attended with danger,  and should never be
adopted  without proper  advice.   It even proves
destructive to vegetable life,  (Jiiger, MaTcet, Ma-
caire.)  Dose.  In substance, made  into pills with
crumb of bread and lump  sugar, J^th to §th of a
grain, or in solution, (the liq. of arsenite of potassa,
P. L.) 4 to 5 drops, 2  or 3  times  daily, gradually
and cautiously increased to 10 or 15  drops.
  Pur. 1.  It should wholly volatilize by heat.  2.
5 grs. boiled in 1 oz. of water should dissolve with-
out leaving any residue.   3.  Mixed with  half its
weight  of black flux, and heated, it  should sub-
lime with  the production  of a  garlic odor,  and
leave  an  ash  behind, perfectly soluble in distilled
water. 
ARS                     76                     ARS
    ARSENIOUS   ACID,   TESTING   FOR.
  Memo. For the sake of brevity and convenience
  of reference,  I  shall describe  the usual tests for
  arsenic, in alphabetical order, appending such re-
  marks to each, as will render their  application
  quite simple,  even to persons but partially conver-
  sant with chemical  manipulations.
    I. Ammoniacal acetate of copper in a state of
  weak  solution, gives a fine grass-green and very
  characteristic precipitate of arsenite of copper, or
  Scheele's green.  This precipitate, well washed,
  and acted  on  by sulphureted hydrogen  water,
  turns  brownish-red; prussiate of potash turns  it
  blood-red, and nitrate of silver yellow.
    ?rUSC; TToW  (Ure.)
    II.  Ammoniacal nitrate of silver. Syn. Hume's
  test.   A solution of this test, added to  an aqueous
  solution of arsenious acid, gives a yellow precipi-
  tate of arsenite of silver.   This precipitate is solu-
  ble in liquid  ammonia, nitric  acid, and in a solu-
  tion of nitrate of ammonia.
    Susc. j-j-oVinr-  (Devergie.)
    Remarks.  This  test, when properly prepared,
\ yields  a yellow precipitate with  no known sub-
  stance  save arsenious  acid.   It is usually said to
  be inapplicable  to solutions containing sulphate or
  muriate of soda, or chlorine ; but Dr. Ure declares
  that these substances  do not interfere with  the
  test if  it be used in the following manner:—Dip a
  small  glass rod  into  liquid  ammonia, and then
  plunge it into the  fluid under examination; dip
  another glass  rod into a solution of pure nitrate of
  silver,  and plunge this also into the sample, when
  either  a  fine  yellow cloud will be formed, or at
  first merely a white curdy  precipitate.  After  a
  second or third immersion of the  nitrate  rod,  a
  central yellow spot  will be perceived, surrounded
  with the white chloride of silver; and after an-
  other  immersion the yellow cloud on  the surface
  will  become very evident.  Another modification
  of this process is, to drop a little  of the suspected
  fluid on white writing-paper, and  to draw several
  times  over it a stick of lunar caustic  ; if arsenic
  be present it will leave streaks that will assume a
  bright yellow  color when brushed over with liquid
  ammonia; if  the  contrary be the case they  will
  gradually fade and turn black. (Dr. Paris.)
    III.  Ammoniacal sulphate of copper. A dilute
  solution of this  salt, added to another containing
  arsenious acid, gives a green precipitate of arse-
  nite of copper.
    Susc. xsVo* (Devergie.)  .
    IV.  Ellis's Test. This consists in forming ar-
  seniureted hydrogen gas in a Marsh's apparatus,
  or even in a common flask, and passing it through
  a horizontal tube containing slips  of copper-leaf or
  riband, and having  the one end drawn to a capil-
  lary size, at which the gas may be inflamed  and
  tested. (See  fig. below.)  This  is  not, however,
  the  object of the test, as will be presently seen.
  A small 6pirit-lamp must be placed  under that
  part of the tube containing the  copper, so as to
  render it warm, when, if arsenic  be  abundant in
  the  gas,  the  copper will almost instantly become
  frosted over  with  a coating  of metallic  arsenic.
  After  continuing the heat for a  few minutes the
  lamp  may be withdrawn.  The copper on being
  removed  from the  tube will  present  a beautiful
  Bilvery surface,  and may then  be submitted to
further examination.   (See Rensch's Test, p. 77.)
The slips of copper are directed to be prepared for
this  purpose by heating them in a clear fire to a
dull  red, and then throwing them suddenly into
cold water; when wiped dry they are ready for
being placed in the horizontal tube for testing.
  a. Flask containing the suspected fluid, dilute sulphuric
acid, and zinc.
  6, Portion of tube holding slips of copper.
  c, Spirit-lamp.
  d, Support.

   Remarks. Mr. Robert Ellis has since found that
the oxide of copper may be employed in the same
way,  and   possesses  some  advantages  over the
metal.  Susc.  About ^j^A^^.
   V.  Lassaigne's Test.  (Adopted by the French
Academy.)   This consists in passing the arseniu-
reted  hydrogen, generated in  a flask or Marsh's
apparatus, through a solution of nitrate of silver.
(See  eng.)   Black flocculi  of metallic silver are
deposited, and  arsenious  acid  remains in solution
mixed with nitric acid.  A little dilute hydrochlo-
ric acid must now be added  to precipitate any re-
maining nitrate of silver, when the  liquid,  after
filtration, may  be  tested  for arsenic in the usual
way.   Susc. ^ow^.  (Chem. Gaz., I. 6.)
  a. Bottle containing dilute sulphuric acid, zinc, and sus-
pected fluid.
  b, Funnel for supplying the bottle with acid.
  c c, Supports.
  d, Tube filled with asbestos.
  e, Bent tube to convey the liberated gas.
  /, Glass vessel containing a solution of nitrate of silver.

  VI.  Lime Test.  Lime water occasions a white
precipitate of arsenite of lime  in a solution of ar-
senious acid, soluble in most acids, and in an ex-
cess of the arsenious solution.  Susc. TrjyW  (De-
vergie.)   It  is inapplicable when  acids, oxalates
tartrates,  or carbonates are  present.
  VII. Marsh's Test.  Syn. Arseniureted hy-
drogen test.  This test consists in the production
and subsequent  decomposition  of arseniureted hy-
drogen.  The principle  of  its action depends on 
ARS                      77                      ARS
the property possessed by  nascent hydrogen, of
taking the metal from a solution of arsenious acid.
The process is  as follows :  Some of the suspected
liquid  is  mixed  with dilute  sulphuric  acid  and
poured upon some pieces of zinc previously placed
in the  apparatus; hydrogen gas is immediately
evolved, and if arsenic be  present unites with  it,
forming arseniureted hydrogen gas, which may be
recognised as follows :—
   1. It possesses a garlic-like smell.
   2. It burns with a bluish-white flame, and emits
a whitish smoke.
   3. When a  piece of window-glass,  or a white
porcelain plate or saucer, is held a short  distance
above  the flame, arsenious acid, under the form of
a fine  pulverulent film, is deposited thereon.
   4. When the plate is held in the flame, a black-
ish deposite of metallic arsenic acid is obtained.
   *** Both these deposites may be obtained simul-
taneously by  holding nearly vertically over the
flame  a glass tube 8 or 10 inches long, and f ths
of an  inch in diameter.
   5. A solution of arsenious acid may be  obtained
by letting the flame play upon 3 or 4 drops  of
water, placed on the under side  of the piece  of
glass  or  china, to  which the  liquid  tests may be
then applied.  Another plan is to apply  drops of
the liquid tests  to the  plate  as above, and to let
the flame play on  them successively.
   6. The true arsenical spot is  soluble  in nitric
 icid,  and gives with nitrate  of  silver a dull red
 precipitate;  and when  heated is turned  reddish-
 trown by the action of sulphureted hydrogen.
   7.  When a tube through which the gas is made
 to pass is raised to a dull red heat at a certain
part by means of a spirit lamp, a crust of metallic
arsenic  is deposited beyond  the  flame,  on  the
cooler portion  of the tube.  The glass of which
the tube  is made should be of the most  infusible
kind.   The mode of conducting this experiment is
represented in  the  eng. at  p. 76, omitting  the cop-
per wire.
   Remarks. Care should be taken not to light the
 jet of gas before all the air is expelled from the
apparatus, as without this precaution an explosion
may take place.   Tie  following figure represents
 a a. Bent glass tube, containing dilute sulphuric acid,
       zinc, and suspected fluid.
 b, Stopcock and jet.
 e d. Support.
 t e. Bands to keep the tube upright.
/, Plate of glass to receive the st;iin.
the usual form of Mr. Marsh's  apparatus, as well
as the mode of its/application in analysis;  but a
simple wide-mouthed bottle, furnished with a tube
and cock,  will answer quite  as well  or better, as
the  fluid is  less liable to froth than in a  nar-
row tube.   Even a common medicine-vial, fur-
nished with a  tobacco-pipe for  a burner, may be
used when no more convenient apparatus  is at
hand.
   Some objections have been raised to this  mode
of testing, from the great  frothing which occurs in
organic mixtures, and  from antimony and imper-
fectly charred  organic matter also  forming crusts
somewhat  resembling  those  produced by arsenic.
But this objection is  invalid, because  there are
easy means of discriminating  between true arsen-
ical spots or deposites and false ones.   (See the Re-
duction Test, p. 78.)  Another objection is, that
both zinc  and sulphuric  acid sometimes contain
arsenic; but this is frivolous, as it only becomes
necessary to observe that  the substances employed
be perfectly pure, which may be proved by testing
the hydrogen  evolved from  the apparatus, before
adding  the liquid for examination.
   Susc. Yjfs0*66ft* (Commissioners of the French
Academy;)  ^nnnnr*  (Mohr.;) weak traces at
STnTffooit* (Ann.  der Chem. und Pharm.;) the j-^
of a grain.   (Dr. Thompson.;  It may be observed
that the 7th,  and 3d, or 4th  method  of  using
Marsh's apparatus, may be employed  simulta-
neously ; the  former possesses  the  advantage of
not requiring constant  attention.  Lassaigne's and
Ellis's tests are modifications of  Marsh's.
   VIII. Morton's Test. This consists in immers-
ing in the suspected fluid two platina plates,  con-
nected  with the poles of a good galvanic  battery.
The hydrogen liberated at the  negative  electrot'e
must be collected and  examined in the same way
as described  in the last article.  Remarks.   The
advantage  of this apparatus is, that  it obviates the
use of zinc and sulphuric acid,  and thus prevents
the introduction of arsenic by either of those sub-
stances. This advantage is, however, rather ap-
parent  than real, as, with proper care, such  need
never be the case.  Susc. ?nl60. (Morton.)
   IX.   Rensch's  Test.  Syn.  Cupro-arsenical
test.  If arsenic is  contained in any acid, as, for
instance, in phosphoric, sulphuric, acetic acid, &c,
and this be boiled with metallic copper, the  lattei
will remain perfectly bright;  an aqueous  solution
of arsenious acid (As2 O3) likewise does not readily
act  on  copper; if, however, a  few  drops  of  con-
centrated muriatic acid be allowed to run over the
surface  of the sheet of copper, the  liquid  being
still hot, the copper will be instantly covered with
the characteristic iron-gray film of arsenic.
   A solution,  diluted to  100,000 times, was  pie-
pared from another solution of arsenious  acid, di-
luted to YoVn ! these were mixed, with the utmost
precision, with equal  parts  of  concentrated and
perfectly pure muriatic acid  and distilled water,
and different  test liquids  made with  the former,
until diluted to -fnn-iHnnr  °f 'ts  contents.   By di-
luting  with 500,000  parts  of water, containing,
therefore, jTnnrTroiT °f  a grain of arsenic,  the  cop-
per plate,  after the liquor previously boiled had
been allowed to stand for half an hour, was for the
greater  part  covered  with an extrerfiely thin but 
ARS                     78                     ARS
 perceptible film of arsenic.  As a controlling ex-
 periment, a  perfectly similar plate was treated
 with dilute  muriatic  acid  alone ; this remained,
 however,  quite unchanged; but  it*must be  ob-
 served, that in the case of the copper remaining
 for several hours in the liquor under the influence
 of the atmosphere, it becomes covered  with a
 black hue, perhaps an undissolved chloride of cop-
 per ; this, however, can never  cause misconcep-
 tion, since, if arsenic be really contained in  the
 liquor, it will  be completely precipitated after the
 lapse of half  an hour, during which space of time
 metallic copper preserves its lustre in the  acid
 liquor.  In masticated food, taken from the con-
 tents of the stomach and boweis, arsenic may be
 as easily detected  ; they have only to  be  digested
 with dilute muriatic acid, and treated with a plate
 of copper.  In order to detect the  arsenic by an-
 other process, the copper plate must be rinsed with
 water, carefully  dried over a  flame, and  then
 placed in a tube 15 inches long, and drawn out to
 a  point at one extremity ; a small  bent tube, pro-
 vided at the end with a pierced cork, being her-
 metically adapted thereto.  The place where the
 copper plate lies must then be heated by the spirit-
 lamp,  when the  arsenious  acid will  sublime in
 small but  perceptibly glittering crystals.  If the
 point be then  closed by fusion, the arsenious acid
 may be examined as such,  or it may be dissolved
 in muriatic acid, and tested with nitrate of silver
 and  sulphureted hydrogen, or in Marsh's appa-
 ratus.  If it be intended to obtain metallic arsenic,
 and  not  arsenious acid, the small tube must be
 connected with a hydrogen apparatus, and heated.
 The arsenic will then deposite in its metallic  form
 on any cold object. (Siichsisches Gew. Bl.)
   Remarks.  The suspected liquor should be kept
 perfectly acidulous durii>r the whole period of the
 ebullition ; " f3ij of  muriatic acid, to ^viij of the
 liquid,  are generally sufficient, but if the organic
 matter be an animal texture in a state of  decay,"
 a much larger quantity will be required.  (Chris-
 tison.)   Copper leaf cut into  small strips is the
 most convenient form of using that metal.  When
 the quantity  of arsenic  in the suspected fluid is
supposed to be  small, nearly half an hour should
elapse  before  the  copper  should  be removed.
 (Christison.)   By means of this test, Dr. Christison
discovered arsenic  in the stomach 4 months  after
interment  Susc.  Yo„loot). (Rensch.)
0         ■""    ^^=
C------:—Q
       «, The arsenical mixture.
       b, Arsenical ring.
    X. Reduction Test.  If arsenious acid be well
 mixed with an equal weight of newly-burnt char-
 coal, or half its weight of black flux, and the mix-
 ture be placed at the bottom of a small glass tube,
 and heated in the flame of a spirit-lamp or candle,
 metallic arsenic will sublime,  and on reaching the
 cooler portion of  the tube, again condense, in  the
 form of a  metallic crust or ring.   Any common
 test-tube, of small diameter, may be employed for
 this purpose,  but the  reduction-tube of Berzelius
 is  perhaps  the most  convenient.  Care must be
 taken, whatever shaped tube may be  used, to
 avoid soiling its sides in the operation of inserting
 the mixture ; as, unless the tube be quite clear and
 dry, the  experiment will not  succeed.   The pre-
 ceding figures represent  the kind of tubes gener-
 ally used in this method  of testing.
    The metallic ring, or  crust, is  proved to be  ar-
 senical,—1, by the brilliancy of  its outer surface
 often resembling a polished steel mirror.
    2. The  crystalline   and grayisia-white appear-
 ance of its  inner surface.
    3. Its volatility when  heated, shown by its es-
 caping from the hot portion of the  tube and resting
 on the cooler part, further on.
   4. Its conversion into  minute  octohedral  crys-
 tals of arsenious  acid,  when repeatedly chased  up
 and down the tube, by the cautious  application of
 the flame of a spirit-lamp,  first! to one part, and
 then to another.   This is best effected  by holding
 that part of the tube to which  the  arsenic adheres,
 about J of an inch above the flame,  and in such a
 way that the metal may be slowly sublimed.  Thi
 character of these crystals, with  respect to vola-
 tility, lustre, transparency, and form, is  so exceed-
 ingly well marked, that a practised eye may safely
 identify them, though  their weight should not ex-
 ceed the  ,-Ag- part of a grain.   (Liebig  and Greg-
 ory.)  The  form of the  crystals  is very evident
 with a microscope of 4 powers, (200, Wackenro-
 der.)  The  oxide of antimony never forms octo
 hedrons, but only prisms.  (Wackenroder.)  The
 tube is of course broken for this purpose".
   5.  The film being converted into arsenious acid
 as in the last case, may be dissolved in hot distilled
 water, and  tested by any of the  usual chemical
 reagents.
   Remarks. The above  characteristics will  fully
 show the nature of the  film deposited in the reduc-
 tion-tube.   In operating  in this way it is always
 necessary to heat the upper portion of the mixture
first, and  then to expose the bulb or  bottom of the
 tube to the  full flame.  Any substance  containing
 arsenic may be tested  in this  way, but if it be a
 sulphuret, the black flux must be  employed,  as
 charcoal alone is insufficient.  This test is usually
 regarded  as decisive, as  we here  actually obtain
 the arsenic  in a solid form, which may be recog-
 nised by the most unequivocal characters.
   XI. Sulphureted  Hydrogen.  This  substance,
 passed through a solution of arsenious acid, imme-
 diately changes it to a  yellow  color; a  turbidness
 shortly ensues, and a bright  yellow precipitate of
 sesquisulphuret of arsenic or orpiment subsides af-
 ter heating  the liquid, and may be collected on a
 filter. It is necessary to  acidulate the  fluid with
 acetic or hydrochloric acid before applying the test,
 unless it be  already very  sour,  when it  should  be
 first neutralized by an alkali, and  then acidulated. 
ARS                     79                     ARS
The transmission of the gas  should be continued
for at least half an hour. The precipitate is known
to contain arsenic:  1, From  its yellow color; 2,
its solubility in liquid ammonia forming a colorless
Bolution ; and, 3, by yielding metallic arsenic when
mixed with  the black flux and submitted to the
reduction test.
  Remarks.  When the sulphuret is very small in
quantity, it  is  better to wash it in a little water,
and  to dissolve it in liquid ammonia, which may
be then driven off in a  watch-glass or capsule,
after which it may be tested as before. (Devergie.)
The  engravmg represents the mode of executing
this  test.
  Mode of passing sulphureted hydrogen through an ar-
 tenical solution.
   XII.  Voltaic  Test.  The voltaic battery, made
 to act by  two wires on a  little arsenious solution,
 placed on a  piece of window glass, developes me-
 tallic arsenic at the negative  pole, and if the wire
 be formed of copper, it will become whitened and
 polished like silver, in consequence of  the  forma-
 tion of a tombac alloy.
   XIII. Wollaston's Method was to concentrate,
 by heat, in a  capsule,  a little  of the suspected
 liquid, having previously  filtered  it  if necessary,
 then to place it in the middle of a bit of window
 glass, and to draw lines with  the fluid  in different
 directions, so as to form a starlike figure.  To one
 of these a particle of weak solution of ammoniacal
 nitrate of silver was adcfed ; to another ammonia-
 cal acetate of copper; to a third  the deuto-acetate
 of iron; to a fourth  ammonio-acetate of cobalt;
 sulphureted hydrogen to a fifth, and lime-water to
 a sixth ; a drop of sirup of violets to a seventh, and
 the two wires of a galvanic battery to the opposite
 edges of the whole.  Thus with  one  drop of solu-
 tion many exact experiments  may be made. (Ure.)
  General  Remarks.  Detection of  arsenic in
 organic mixtures, <$-c.   Most of the previous tests
 are only applicable, with any degree of certainty,
 to pure solutions  of arsenious acid, or to those that
 are but  slightly  colored or contaminated with or-
 ganic matter.   The tests depending on the extrica-
tion  of  arseniureted  hydrogen  are  partial ex-
ceptions to this rule ;  but even in them, if the sus-
pected liquid be not nearly limpid, so much frothing
 will ensue as to render the process impracticable.
 In this respect Rensch's test, perhaps, possesses the
 advantage over the rest, as it may at once be ap-
flui to mixtures containing organic matter, with-
out the latter undergoing any previous preparation.
The  reduction  test is only applicable to solid ar-
senious  acid,  or to some of the  compounds of
arsenic which are obtained by means of the other
tests.  It has  long  been an object with  chemists
to remove organic  matter from solutions, so as to
render them sufficiently clear, light colored, and
limpid, to permit of the action of reagents.  Va-
rious means have been proposed for this purpose,
some of  which I shall  notice  below.   Suppose a
case of  poisoning, the proceeding should be as fol-
lows :—The stomach being laid open, an examina-
tion should be  made for any particles of powdei
which it may contain in an undissolved state ;  if
any can be found they must be collected  and tried
by the reduction test as before  described.  Should
no solid particles be discovered, the stomach should
be cut into small pieces, and with its previous con-
tents be  boiled in a glass vessel with distilled water
for half an hour, a little potassa or ammonia being
added.    The liquid may  now  be filtered, first
through muslin  and then through paper, and again
boiled with a little acetic acid,  after which it must
be filtered a second time.   In this state the liquid
is usually clear enough  to  be tested with the am-
monio-nitrate  of silver, when, if this test act freely,
the process of testing with, other reagents may  be
proceeded with ; but if, on the contrary, the indica-
tion be feeble, the liquor should be gently  evapora-
ted to dryness, and redissolved by boiling in repeated
portions of distilled water, when, after being once
more filtered, it  will generally be sufficiently limpid
for the perfect application of the tests.  (Christison,
Devergie.)
   It has been recommended to add to the organic
matter contained in a porcelain  capsule, one-sixth
of its weight of strong, pure sulphuric acid, and to
heat the  mixture until vapors of the acid begin to
appear, constantly stirring with a glass  rod during
the whole time ; the heat is to be continued until
the  charcoal  thus formed becomes friable, and
almost dry, when it must  be cooled a little, and
strong nitric or nitro-muriatic acid added by means
of a pipette ; the evaporation must then be contin-
ued to dryness.  The residuum boiled with distilled
water, and the  solution filtered, will be  ready for
testing.   (Danger and Flandin.)
   Another plan is to boil the  suspected fluid con-
taining  organic matter, with  pure  diluted sul-
phuric acid, until it  becomes limpid, and then  to
filter, when  the  usual  tests  may be  applied.
(Fownes.)  When  there is much gelatine in the
liquid it may be got rid of by adding an infusion of
nut-galls, which will precipitate it.  (Fownes.)
   The last plan I shall  mention is  that of evapo-
rating the suspected liquid to  dryness, and then
submitting it to  the reduction test.
   The following tables, taken from the  " London
Dispensatory," showing the reaction of  several re-
agents on various organic  solutions  containing
poison, will, in  many cases, save  the  trouble  of
preparing the fluid previously to testing; or at least
they offer a ready means of confirming the truth
of any more exact method of analysis. 
ARS
80
ARS
Comparative Table  of the Precipitates  obtained  from  Solutions  of Arsenious  Acid,  of Bichloridt
   of Mercury, of Potassio-Tartrate of Antimony, and of Chloride of Barium, with different Tests.—
   By  Dr. A. T. Thomson.
TEST I.--WATER SATURATED  WITH SULPHURETED  HYDROGEN  OAS.
Solvents.
Water ..
Precipitates from
  Solutions of
Arsenious Acid.
Bright   lemon   yellow,
  deepened by the addi-
  tion of a few drops  of
  strong acetic acid.*
Broth .... Scarcely any at first, but
            on adding a few drops
            of strong acetic acid, a
            pale yellow.
Milk..... Little change; but on the
            addition  of a  drop  of
            strong acetic  acid,  a
            straw-colored   precipi-
            tate.
Tea...... At first very pale yellow;
            alter  some time, a pale
            greenish  yellow.  The
            precipitate was curdy.t
Madeira   Turbid, pale yellow, the
  Wine     color  of  the wine de-
            stroyed.
Port Wine Turbid,  pale    yellow;
          j  the  precipitate  slowly
            formed.
Coffee
Gruel .
A deep golden yellow.
Pale yellow, suspended.
  Precipitates from
    Solutions of
Corrosive Sublimate.
Precipitates from
  Solutions of
 Tartar Emetic.
Yellow at the instant of
  its formation, but soon
  becoming   blackish.—
  On  shaking  the tube
  it  changes to a dirty
  white.
Whitish  yellow at first,
  quickly  changing  to
  mixed  clots  of yellow,
  black and white.
Light ochre, requiring for
  its  formation  a  large
  quantity of the test.
Brownish whit* and yel-
  low, mixed.
Muddy, gradually display-
  ing small floating black
  flocculi.
Nearly as  in  the white
  wine,    like   clouds
  through the purple of
  the wine.
Brownish black.
Light  brown,  slowly
  formed.
Orange, curdy, partly sus-
  pended, partly  thrown
  down. Ultimately bright
  orange.J


Pale orange at first, soon
  changing  to a deeper
  bright orange.

Golden  yellow,  with  a
  shade of orange.
Deep orange, curdy, slow-
  ly formed:  the super-
  natant fluid yellow.

Pale  orange,  long  sus-
  pended.

Dark, dirty, orange brown.
Deep orange-brown.
Pale orange.
 Precipitates from
    Solutions of
Chloride of Barium.
Heavy,  and  of a  dirty
  dark brown color.
Dirty pale brown, heavy.
Dirty nankeen,  witn a
  shade of brown.
Dirty light brown, deep-
  ening as it fell.
The chloride mixed with
  white  wine  is milky
  Not tested.
Pale brown, heavy.
Not tested.
Not tested.
	II.—	-SOLUTION OF SULPHURET OF POTASSIUM.		
Water---	White, with a faint tint of sulphur-yellow, when a large quantity of the test was used.§	Black, mottled with yel-low.	Bright orange.	Deep olive-green.
Broth	Pale, but bright, sulphur-	Clotted, heavy, black,	Dull orange, heavy.	Pale brown, partly sus-
	yellow.	mottled with gray.		pended.
Milk.....	Bright golden-yellow.	Black, clotted.	Orange.	Brown, greenish when the mixture was «ha
	A beautiful yellow.	Brownish-black.	Reddish orange, floccu-lent. Deep brownish-orange.	Not tried.
Coffee ...	A deep golden-yellow.||	Nearly black.		Not tried.
Madeira	Sulphur-yellow.	Dirty white, or slate col-	Beautiful bright orange.	Vide 1st Table.
Wine		or.		
Port Wine	Fawn color.	Slate color, with violet, Dark brown, with a tinge		Violet, heavy.
		supernatant fluid.IT	of orange.	
Gruel---	Bright queen's yellow.	Black dense clots.**	Orange clotted.	Dusky yellowish-green.
  * This precipitate, dried upon a filter, and heated with
some caustic potassa in a slender test tube, is decomposed
in a few seconds, forming a sulphuret of potassium, while
the arsenic is volatilized in its metallic form, and adheres
to the sides of the tube. (Orfila.)                -ff
  f All substances  containing  tannic  acid  in  solution
greatly impair the solvent influence of fluids on arsenious
acid.
  t Dr. Pereira states, that, when  the solution of  the
tartar emetic is very dilute,  and the sulphureted hydro-
gen eas passed through it only for a few  seconds,  the
precipitate is of a lemon  yellow, closely resembling that
produced by arsenious acid.  (Med. Gaz., April, 1836.)
  § This sulphuret, added to a solution of the phosphates,
throws down a greenish-yellow precipitate, the superna
tant fluid being yellow and turbid.
 J| Lime water, also, added to coffee containing arsenious
acid, throws down a yellow precipitate; although it pre-
cipitates the watery  solution of  arsenious  acid  white.
(Orfila.)
  IT Corrosive sublimate cannot be exhibited in port wine
with an intention to commit murder, (except by a  self-
murderer,)  as it changes the  color  of the  wine to  pal*
violet
  ** All the  precipitates by the sulphuret, when dried,
and heated in a  tube with iron filings, afford metallic
mercury, which  forms  globules  on  the sides   of the
tube. 
ARS                       81                       ARS
III.--SOLUTION OF AMMONIACO-SULPHATE  OF COPPER.
Solvents
Precipitates from
  Solutions of
 Arsenious Acid.
 Precipitates from
    Solutions of
Corrosive Sublimate.
Precipitates from
  Solutions of
 Tartar Emetic.
 Precipitates from
   Solutions of
Chloride of Barium.
Water. • •. Beautiful grass-green.  It
         |   completely disappeared
            on  the  addition of a
            few   drops  of  strong
         |   acetic acid.*
Broth .... Beautiful pale green, sus-
         |   pended.f

Milk.....Pale grayish-green.
White, thick, and heavy.
                                   White, curdy, partly sus-
                                     pended,  partly thrown
                                     down.
                                   Bluish-white, curdy.

Tea  .....  Obscure olive, but scarce-  Dirty yellowish  white,
            ly a precipitate.        j   curdy.

Coffee....  Dark grass-green.J       I Dirty white.
Madeira   'Grayish,  with  a slight  Heavy clotted white, with
  Wine   !  tinee of green.        j   a tint of green.
Port Wine  Clotted,  heavy,   dark  Heavy,  clotted, bluish-
          i  greenish-gr ly.            gray-
Gruel ....  Beautiful  grass-green.     Pale bluish-white.
Pale whitish-blue,  very
  little thrown down.
Pale whitish-blue, with a
  tint of green.

Whitish-blue.

Muddy, pale bluish-green.


Dirty bluish-green.
^Eruginous blue.

Heavy, dirty slate-blue.

Pale bluish-green.
Copious whitish-blue.
Opaque, glaucous.


Curdy white, with a tinge
  of blue.
Grayish, heavy, superna-
  tant  fluid,  "ycliowish-
  green.
Not tried.
Vide 1st Table.

Dirty violaceous-gray.

Pale bluish-green.
IV.---SOLUTION OF AMMOMIACO-NITRATE OF SILVER.
Water...


Broth ...
MUk.....

Tea......

Coffee....

Madeira
  Wine
Port Wine
Copious  bright sulphur-
  yellow.fS

White,   (owing  to  the
  chloride of sodium.) but
  yellow  when  treated
  with nitric acid.
White,  with  a  tint  of
  yellow.
Yellowish white, which
  soon blackens.
Yellow,  remaining  un-
  changed.
Pale sulphur-yellow.

White, becoming brown
  on exposure to the light.
Yellowish.
Dull  yellowish  white,
  clotted,   changing   to
  dirty-white.
White, copious.
Dirty-white.

Dirty-white.

White, changing to black.

Dirty-white, changing to
  black.
Idem.

Dense, dirty-white clots.
 Pale brown.


 Brownish,  mixed  with
  much muriate  of sil-
  ver.

 Very  pale, scarcely visi-
  ble brown.
 Dirty-brown.

 Not tried.

 White.

 Dirty-white.

Not tried.
White,   heavy ;    soon
  blackening.

White, dense,  curdy.
Not tried.

Not tried.

Not tried.

Vide 1st Table.

Heavy, dirty-white.

Dense, clotted-white.
   Caution. The result of no single test should be
 depended on.  Those most to be  relied on are the
 Reduction  test, Rensch's test,  and with proper
 precautions those depending on  the liberation of
 arseniureted  hydrogen;  also  among the  liquid
 tests, the ammoniacal acetate and sulphate of cop-
 per and nitrate of silver.   Otto  has lately shown
 that when a poisonous mass of  white of egg and
 potatoes is boiled with a lye of potassa and  after-
 wards acidulated with muriatic acid, no precipitate
 is produced by  sulphureted  hydrogen.  This re-
 sults from the action of potassa on  proteine bodies

  * This test is capable of detecting arsenious acid in a
 solution containing y jf,\„0 of its weight.  (Orfila.)
  t It has been suggested that onions, boiled in broth, or
 eaten so as to impregnate with their qualities the contents i
 of the stomach, might produce the same effects on ammo- I
 niaco-sulphate of copper, as if arsenious acid were pres- ,
 ent; but although the fluid  is tinged a green color, yet no
 precipitate forms.
  t Dr. Porter, of South Carolina, says, that sulphate of
 copper with ammonia produces the same colored precipi-
 tate in coffee which contains no arsenious acid.  (Ameri-
 can Journal of Science, vol. iii. p. 354.)
  fj A similar precipitate is  formed by nitrate of silver, in
a solution of any of the phosphates, and with chromate
of potassa; but the  fact of the precipitate being occasioned
                      11
forming a sulphuret of potassium, the sulphur of
which being liberated by the acid, throws down the
arsenic, which is then removed by filtration.  Hence
it would appear a bad plan to boil such substances
with potassa,  as recommended  by Christison and
Devergie.
   ARSEXIC,  ANTIDOTES  TO.   The hy-
drated sesquioxide  of iron, in the gelatinous state,
appears to be  the  only substance  yet discovered
worthy of being considered as an antidote to arse-
nic.   It should be  given in doses of a tablespoonful
every ten  minutes.   Lime-water and chalk and

by arsenious acid is  easily ascertained by testing  a fresh
portion of the solution with lime-water.  If it contain ar-
senious  acid, a  copious white precipitate will  be  thrown
down; if a phosphate only, there is scarcely any change,
or at the must a translucent  flocculent precipitate, which
remains long suspended. A method of employing this test
was suggested by Dr. Paris: namely, to pnt upon  a piece
of clean white paper a broad streak of the suspected fluid,
and then ran lightly over it a stick of lunar caustic;  or
the streak may be brushed  lightly over with liquid ammo-
nia, immediately after the  application of the  caustic;  if
arsenious acid be present,  a  bright queen's yellow U in-
stantly produced, which remains permanent for uearly an
hour: but when the  lunar caustic produces a bright yel-
low before the ammonia is applied, we may suspect the
presence of some phosphate. 
ASP                    82                     ASP
water  have  also  been recommended.   Opium,
camphor, and  ether, may be employed as after
remedies, to recruit the nervous system.
   Remarks.  The first endeavor, in cases of poi-
Boning by arsenic, should be to remove, if possible,
the poison from the stomach;  for this purpose
strong emetics or the stomach-pump should be had
recourse to,  after which the hydrated sesquioxide
of iron may be administered.
   ARSENITES.   Salts formed of the previous
acid (arsenious) and the bases.  The alkaline ar-
senites may be prepared by saturating a solution
of the acid, with another of the base, and most of
the insoluble  arsenites may be made by adding a
soluble salt of the  metal to a solution of the ar-
senite of potassa or ammonia.
   ARSENIURETED  HYDROGEN.  A com-
pound  of arsenic  and  hydrogen,  discovered  by
Scheele.
   Prep.  Melt metallic arsenic  with  an equal
weight of grain zinc, reduce  the  alloy to coarse
powder, place it in a gas bottle, and  pour over it
strong  muriatic acid.  (Soubeiran.)   It must be
collected in the pneumatic trough.
   Prop.  Inflammable,  extinguishes  combustion,
and destroys life.   At a red heat it depositee its
arsenic in the metallic state.
   ARTICHOKE.  This esculent resembles aspar-
agus in its general properties, but it is said to be
more  nutritious and diuretic.  It is  dressed in
several ways according to the fancy of the cook.
See Asafcetida, p. 83.
   ASAFCETIDA CLYSTER.   Prep.  Asafcet-
ida i  gramme; yelk  of 1 egg;  water  } pint.
Proc.  Dissolve.  Use.   This quantity is sufficient
for 10 or 12  clysters for children  under 1 year;  5
or 6 for those under 3 years ; and 2 or 3 for those
under  7.  Two clysters are prescribed daily in
hooping-cough.
   Remark.   M. Reiken has found this more suc-
cessful in removing hooping-cough than  any other
remedy.  To ensure success, it should not be ad-
ministered  until  the  feverish  symptoms  have
passed.   M. Reiken sometimes uses an ointment
of asafcetida,  as well as the clyster.
  ASARABACCA  SNUFF.  Syn.  Cephalic
Snuff.   Prep.  Asarabacca leaves and Lundyfoot
snuff, of each 1 oz.; lavender flowers, 1 drachm ;
essence of bergamotte and oil of cloves,  of each 2
drops.  Proc. Grind the  lavender with  the snuff
and leaves to a fine powder, then add the perfume.
  Remarks.  This is a great improvement on the
old form  with herbs.  It  is  an excellent errhine,
and is much recommended in headaches, dimness
of sight, &c.
  ASARINE.  A substance resembling camphor,
obtained  from the root of the Asarum  Europaeum,
(Asarabacca,) by distillation along with water.
   ASBOLIXE.  A substance found  by^Bracon-
not in  soot, and on which  he thinks  the  anthel-
mintic virtue of  the latter  depends.   Berzelius
regards it as impure acid pyretine.
   ASCARIDES.   Small thread worms that pro-
duce a disagreeable irritation near the  extremity
of the anus.   They are best removed by mild pur-
gatives and the use  of a  clvster of aloes.
  ASCARIDES,   ELECTUARY FOR.  Ing
Flowers of sulphur, 4 oz.; powdered jalap, 1 oz.
powdered bark, 1 oz.;  sirup of buckthorn,  q. s
Proc. Make them into an electuary.  Dose.  Tw«
or three teaspoonfuls every morning.
   ASH-BALLS.   The  ashes  of various plants,
especially ferns,  damped  and  made into balk
Use. As ;  substitute for soap in washing, and to
clean paiiuing.
   ASPARAGIN.  Syn. Asparamide. Altiieink
Agedoile.   A substance  found in the  potato,
marshmallow, liquorice, asparagus, and some other
vegetables.
   Prep.  Boil the expressed juice of the asparagus,
filter, and evaporate.
   II. Macerate the bruised root of the marsbmal-
low with milk of lime ; filter, precipitate with car-
bonate of ammonia, and evaporate.
   Prop.  In its purest state it forms large prismatic
crystals, soluble in water and proof spirit.   Alkalis
and  acids, with the aid of heat, convert it into
aspartic acid.
   ASPARAGUS.   Qual.,  fyc. A very nutritious
article of food, possessing slightly diuretic proper-
ties,  and  little  disposition  *o  induce flatulence
Asparagus is  cooked by boiling, which is  done at
quickly as possible, without breaking the heads,
and is  served  with  melted butter.  The  head, or
upper part, is that which is eaten.  Sometimes the
lower or white end is removed before boiling. Many
nice  little side-dishes are made  with  asparagus;
among which  the following may be classed:—Cut
off the top of  a French roll and take away all the
crumb, then fry it brown in  butter, and fill it with
a hot mixture of cream and yelk of egg, previously
stirred together over the fire until thickened, and
then beat up with the boiled  tops of asparagus, and
a little salt and nutmeg.   Place on the top of the
roll that was cut off, and over all stick in  a few of
the greenest heads of  asparagus. This  is called
" asparagus forced."
   ASPARAGUS,  CULTIVATION OF.
Choose that situation which is the longest  exposed
to the sun during the heat of the day.  Dig a pit
5 feet deep, and sift the mould  through a scarce,
having about 6 holes to the inch ; then fill up the
bed  with  the following  layers:  1,—6 inches of
good dung; 2,—6 inches of turf; 3,—6 inches of
dung ; 4,—6 inches of sifted earth.  Repeat the
layers in the same order a second time.  Then fill
up the last foot with a mixture  of equal  parts of
sifted earth  and  dung.  Now  divide the ground
into beds, 5 feet wide, by paths made of turf, laid
down 18 inches wide  and  9  inches deep. The
plants  must be set in March, 15 inches  asunder
placing the bud or top of the root about l£ inchet
beneath the  surface, and spreading the roots out
as much as possible.  Mark the place where each
plant is set, by placing a small  piece of stick in
the spot.  As  soon as the bed begins to sink, a few
spadefuls  of  fine sand may be thrown  over it,
especially on the  spots where the plants  are set
Should some  of the plants die, their places may
be supplied by others, set later in the season. The
plants  should  be 2  years old when  transplanted,
and in 3 years may be cut for the table.
   Remarks.  A bed of this kind will last 30 years
or longer.  The young  plants are raised from se-?d,
set two together, about 1 inch deep and  9 inches
apart, in beds  of good  earth, removing the weak-
est of the two plants  in the ensuing spring.  A
little good dung may be scattered over the beds in 
ASS                     83                      ASS
autumn.   The male  plants  alone  should be se-
lected  for transplanting.  During winter, aspara-
gus may be raised by  the use of tan in hotbeds.
  ASPHALTUM, PREPARED.   Syn. Liquid
Asphaltum.   Prep. I. Melt Scio turpentine 2 oz.;
then add powdered asphaltum 1 oz.  When mixed,
remove the vessel from the fire, cool a little, and
add oil of turpentine until it be reduced to a proper
consistence.
  II. (Wilson's.) Melt 1 oz. of asphaltum;  then
add 2 oz. of balsam of copaiba.  Remove it from
the fire, and thin with turpentine.
  Remarks.  The turpentine must be heated be-
fore adding it to the  other ingredients, as if  cold,
they will set before it  can be mixed in.  Use. As a
black japan, or varnish.  An excellent glazing color.
  ASPHALTUM, FACTITIOUS. A substance
under  this name, and  which is also often sold for
genuine  asphaltum, is made from the bottoms of
Barbadoes tar, by heating them  until quite  hard.
Color and hardness inferior to asphaltum.
  ASSAY,  (ASSAYING.)   Syn.  Coupella-
tion,  (Fr.)   Atreiben auf der Capelle, (Ger.)
The method of  determining the  quantity of pure
gold and silver in the alloys of these metals.  This
art requires great skill and experience in  its per-
formance ;  and  from  the costliness  of the precious
metals, and their general employment in the man-
ufacture of coin, plate, jewellery, &.C., is of the ut-
most importance. At the Royal Mint of England
there are two assay-masters—the master's assayer
and the king's assayer.  The business of  the for-
mer is to receive and  examine the gold and silver
ingots  brought for coinage, and of the latter to ex-
amine the  melted bars previously to their being
coined into money.   When  the  money is coined,
it is " pixed" before  being sent from the Mint.
This consists in  making an assay of one piece out
of each "journeyweight"  of coin, to ascertain if
it be of the proper standard.  The king's assayer
thus becomes responsible for the  purity of  all the
gold and  silver  coin  issued from the Mint.  The
following is a brief notice of the art of assaying.
 Sectional view of the assay furnace used at the Royal
tint and Goldsmiths' Hall, London.
 a  a.  Rollers on which the furnace rests.
 b.  Ash-pit.          c. One of the ash-pit dampers.
 d,  Grate supporting the muffle-plate.
 e,  Muffle containing the cupels.
/,  The mouth-pl'ite  for the ignited charcoal.
k,  Interiijr of furnace containing charcoal.
I r, Walls of the furnace.
k.  Moveable chimney for regulating draught.
  Operation of Assaying. Materials, apparatus,
$c-—The furnace. Before an assay can be made,
it is necessary to be provided  with a suitable fur-
nace, muffle,  and cupel.  The furnace  used for
assaying at the Royal  Mint  and  Goldsmiths'
Hall, London, has the following  proportions, and
is represented above.
  Dimensions.  Total height 2$ feet; from the
bottom to the  grate, 6 inches; the  grate, muffle-
plate, and bed of  loam that  covers it, 3  inches;
the space between the grate and the bottom of the
funnel or chimney, 2l| inches; funnel, 6 inches.
A furnace of  any other shape and size  may be
employed, provided it will afford a sufficient heat,
and allow the  introduction of  the muffle.
   The muffle is  a pot of the shape of fig. 1, made
of clay, and furnished with an opening to admit
the introduction of the cupels, and  inspection of
the process.   It  is placed on the muffle-plate, (see
preceding figure,)  by which  it is introduced into
the furnace.
                       1.
  The cupel is a sort of shallow crucible, made of
bone ashes  or burnt bones.  At  the  Royal Mint
the cupels are made of the calcined cores of ox-
horns.   The powder  is  slightly  moistened with
water, and a circular steel  mould is  filled there-
with,  and after being pressed down tight, is fin-
ished off with  a rammer, having a convex face of
polished  steel,  which  is  struck  forcibly with a
mallet, until the mass becomes sufficiently hard
and adherent.  The cupel  is then carefully  re-
moved,  and exposed  in  the  air  to  dry, which
usually  takes  from 14 to 21 days.  Fig. 2 repre-
sents  a cupel  in section, and fig. 3 the  tongs for
charging the same. The best weight for cupels
is said to be 180 to 200 grs.
^7
   Process of assaying.  The muffle, with the cu-
pels properly arranged,  being  placed  in the fur-
nace, the  latter is  filled up with charcoal, and
lighted at the top by placing a few pieces, heated
to whiteness, on last.  When the cupels have
been exposed for half an. hour, and have become
white by heat, the lead is put into them by means
of the tongs, and as soon as this becomes tho-
roughly red  and circulating, as  it is  called,  the
metal to be  assayed, wrapped  in a small piece of
paper, is added,  and the fire kept up strongly un-
til the metal  enters  the  lead and circulates well,
when the heat may be slightly diminished, and so
regulated that the assay shall appear  convex and
ardent, while the  cupel  is less red—that the un-
dulations shall circulate in all directions, and that
the middle of the metal shall appear smooth, sur-
rounded with a  small circle of litharge, which is
being continually absorbed by the cupel.  This
treatment must  be continued until the metal be- 
ASS                     84                     ASS
comes bright and shining, or is said to " lighten ,*"
after  which  certain prismatic colors, or rainbow
hues, suddenly flash across the globules, and un-
dulate and cross each other, and the latter metal
soon  after appears very brilliant and clear, and at
length becomes fixed and solid.  This is called
the " brightening," and shows that the separation
ie ended.   In conducting this process, all the ma-
terials used must be accurately weighed, especial-
ly the weight of the alloy before  cupellation, and
the resulting  button of pure metal.  The difference
gives  the quantity of alloy.  The  preceding  gen-
eral description of the process of cupellation will
render the following  articles intelligible,  without
again entering into the minutiae of the operation.
  Assayers' weights.   The richness or purity of
gold  is expressed in carats.  Pure gold is spoken
of as containing 2-1 carats, of 12 grains each; and
any other  sample,  containing 12,  18, 22, or any
other  number of parts of pure gold, in 24  parts, is
said to be of  so many carats fine.  In the process
of assaying gold, the real quantity taken is very
small, generally 6 or 12 grains ;  and this is termed
the " assay pound."   It  is nominally subdivided
into 24 carats, and each carat into 4 assay grains,
and each grain into  quarters, so  that  there are
3*4 separate reports  for gold.  When  the  assay
pound is  only 6 grs., the quarter of the assay grain
will only weigh the T!'l of a grain;  hence the  most
accurate system of weighing must be adopted.
   The richness or purity of silver is  either ex-
pressed in pennyweights or lOOOths.   In  the first
case,  it is  supposed that the  mass of silver to  be
examined consists of 12 equal parts, called penny-
weights ; so that if an ingot weighs an ounce, each
of the parts will be l-12th of an  ounce.  Hence,
if the mass of silver be pure, it is  called silver of
12 pennyweights ; if it contain l-12th of its weight
of alloy, it is called silver of 11 pennyweights ; if
2-12ths of its weight be alloy, it is called silver of
10  pennyweights ; and so on in proportion for
other qualities.  It must  be observed  here, that
the assayers  give the name  pennyweight  to  a
weight equal to 24 real graint>, which must not be
confounded with their ideal weights.  The assay-
ers' grains are called fine  grains.  An ingot of
fine silver, or silver of 12  pennyweights, contains,
then, 288 fine grains ; if this ingot  contain l-288th
of alloy, it is said to be silver of 11 pennyweights
and 23 grains ; if it contain 4-288ths of alloy, it is
said to be 11 pennyweights, 20  grains, &-c._   Now
a certain real weight must be  taken to represent
the assay-weights : for instance, 36 real grains to
represent 12  fine pennyweights; this, if subdivided
into a sufficient number of other smaller  weights,
will also represent fractions of fine pennyweights
and grains.  Thus, 18 real grains represent 6 fine
pennyweights; 3 real grains represent 1 fine pen-
nyweight, or 24 grains; a real grain and a half
represents 12 fine  grains; l-32d  of a  real grain
represents a quarter of a fine grain,  which is only
l-752d part of a mass of 12 pennyweights.  The
purity of silver is now more frequently expressed
in lOOOths, which admits  of greater  accuracy.
   Remarks.  An assay is thought to  be good when
the bead is of a round form, with its  upper surface
brilliant, its  lower one  granular and dead-white,
and  when it  separates readily  from the  cupel.
When the surface  of the bead is duU and flat, it
shows that too much heat has been employed ; and
if the metal bo silver, some  may have been lost in
the process, by fuming  or absorption.   When the
bead is  spongy, and of various colors, and scales
of litharge  still  remain  on  the  cupel,  and the
metal adheres strongly  to the latter, too little heat
has been used, and  the button still  retains some
lead.  To  remedy this, the heat should be raised,
and  a  little  powdered  charcoal,  or  a  few small
pieces of paper, thrown into the cupel, until the
metal again  begins  to  circulate freely.  It is ne-
cessary  that the lead employed  in the process of
cupellation  should  be  perfectly pure.  It ought,
therefore,  to  be  procured  by  reducing refined
litharge.
  ASSAY OF SILVER.   I. The  assay pound
(usually 12 or 20 grains for silver) of the alloy for
examination  is  accurately  weighed,  and  then
wrapped in a small piece of paper ready to under-
go the  process  of cupellation.   The  quantity of
lead used is not uniform ;  but depends on  the na-
ture of the  alloy. It should  be 16 times the weight
of the copper presumed to be  present in 'he sam-
ple.   This, however,  cannot be  accurately as-
certained, though an experienced assayer is gen-
erally able  to guess very nearly the  amount. If
too much  lead be  used, the  button  obtained by
cupellation will be too small, owing to some of the
silver being absorbed by the cupel; and if too little
be used, the  button  will come out too large, from
still containing some copper.  The importance of
justly proportioning the lead  to the  quantity of
copper present in the  alloy, cannot be too much
insisted   on.    The  following table  exhibits  the
proper quantities adapted to silver of various de-
grees of fineness.

         Assay Table, by  M. D'Arcet.
Fineness of the Silver.	Proportion of Copper in the Alloy.	Dose of Lead required, the weight of sil-	Relation be-tween the Lead and Cop
		ver being one.	per.
Silver at			
1000		3 T0-	
950	50	3	70 to 1
900	100	7	60tol
800	200	10	50tol
700	300	12	40tol
600	400	14	35 to 1
500	500	16 to 17	32tol
400	600	do.	26-6 to 1
300	700	do.	22-8 to 1
200	800	do.	20tol
100	900	do.	17*7 to 1
pure copper.	1000	do.	16 to 1
  Remarks.  As the lead always carries off a small
portion of the silver into the cupel, the assay gen-
erally comes out  too  low, which was ascertained
by M. D'Arcet to be  equal to—

     For fine silver,......^qqq

           900   ((                   _4*3
          iooo   "......loot
           800   tf                   4*9
          1000    '......1000 
ASS
       „    500                       4-2
       t or ----  "......----
           1000                     1000


           iooo  '......Tooo

   During the process of cupellation with silver, the
 button is apt to " vegetate," especially if it be fine
 silver,  and  therefore  requires  to be  carefully
 watched; for which purpose the cupel  is usually
 kept at a convenient part  of the muffle, ready to
 be drawn forward  if required.   It has  just been
 Been that to apportion the  lead  correctly requires
 that the title of the silver should  be known ;  when
 this is not the case, it may be determined approxi-
 matively, by exposing  in the cupel 0-1 part of  the
 sample with 1 part of lead.   French gold and sil-
 ver coin contain T'()- of copper; British silver coin
 consists  of  i| of  silver, and -'j- of copper; and
 British gold coin of 11 parts of gold and 1 of cop-
 per, or a mixture of copper and silver.
    II.  Humid assay of silver,  a.  Dissolve  10 grs.
 of the alloy in 100 grs. of nitric  acid, sp. gr. 1-28,
 by the aid of heat; the solution being made in a
 tall stoppered  glass tube, furnished with  a foot;
 then  place  it  in a very  delicate balance,  which
 must be brought into an exact state of equilibrium,
 and add the test solution gradually and cautiously
 until the whole of the  silver be thrown down ; but
 the utmost care must be taken not to exceed this
 point.   The number of grains now required  to re-
 store the equilibrium of the scales gives  the exact
 quantity of pure silver present in 1000 parts of the
 sample.
    Test liquor. Dissolve 54-27 (54$) grs. of pure
 sea salt  in  9945-73 grs. (or 22  oz. and  320| grs.
 avoirdupois) of distilled wate.-; filter, and keep the
 liquor in a stoppered bottle for use.
   Pure sea salt.  Boil together for a few minutes,
 in a glass vessel, a solution of salt with a  little pure
 bicarbonate of soda ; filter ; add  muriatic acid un-
 til the liquor be neutral to litmus and turmeric pa-
 per ; then evaporate and crystallize.
   Remarks.  The addition  of the test liquor to the
 solution requires the utmost exactness. After each
 addition the stopper should be placed in the tube,
 and the latter violently agitated  for a short time,
 when the liquor will rapidly clear and enable us to
 see when  the operation is concluded.  We  must
 then, as a check, add a small quantity of a solu-
 tion of nitrate of silver  to  the liquor in  the  tube,
 after having first  carefully taken the weight.  If
 too much of the test liquor has been added, this
 will produce a fresh precipitate, and the assay can-
 not then be depended on.
   Instead of weighing  the quantity of test liquor
 used, a tube graduated  into 100 parts, and holding
 1000 grs.,  may be  used instead, every division  of
 which required to throw down the silver, will rep-
 resent the  Jfjth of a grain.   The  tube being filled
 to the 0, is ready for use, and from  being gradua-
 ted downward  the  quantity  poured out may  at
 once  be read off   Generally speaking, however,
 measuring does not admit of the same accuracy  as
 weighing.  The termination  of the operation  is
 clearly marked, when, on adding  a minute quan-
tity of  the test liquor  to the  silver solution, no
cloudiness occurs.   (See Alkalimetry and Acid-
imetry.)
85                    ASS
   b. The precipitate  thrown down in the last ex-
 periment  may be  collected in  a filter  of white
 paper, and dried,  washed,  and  weighed.   The
 previous  weight of the  paper, deducted  from the
 gross weight of the paper and silver, will give the
 quantity of chloride of silver present,  which multi-
 plied by -7533, the weight  of metal  in  one grain
 of the chloride, will give the exact weight of the
 pure silver contained in the sample.
   Remarks.   Mercury is the  only metal whose
 presence  at all interferes with  the  process; the
 chloride  of mercury being  also  thrown down by
 salt, as well as the  chloride of silver.   When no
 mercury is present  in the  precipitate, it rapidly
 becomes black on exposure  to the light, but when
 it contains -j-^- or Tf)5o7T of chloride of mercury, it
 remains of a dead white, with -p^g-g- it is not sensi-
 bly discolored  by the diffused light of a room,  with
 To (W 01lly slight'y darkened, with r^ more so,
 but with pure chloride of silver,  the  effect is  very
 rapid  and intense.   When mercury is present,
 which is  however seldom the case, the assay sam-
 ple  must be placed in a small  crucible, and ex-
 posed  to  a full red heat, before solution in  the
 acid.   For the method of assaying silver by the
 humid way, when  alloyed  with gold,  see Gold.
 Those who wish to enter fully into the  subject of
 the  humid assay of silver, are referred to Gay Lus-
 sac's Essay.
   ASSAY OF GOLD.   1. This process may be
 divided into five operations.
   I. Cupellation.  Either 6 or 12 grs. of the alloy
 is the weight usually taken for the assay, to which
 is added 16 parts of lead  for every 1 part of  cop-
 per  that it is presumed to contain, though consid-
 erably more lead may be used when the sample
 does not contain any silver ; but  if the reverse be
 the  case, an excess of lead would lead  to the loss
 of the latter metal, which ought not to be separa-
 ted  until the operation of parting.  When silver is
 present an  additional  allowance of lead, equal to
 -Jjc of its weight, is made on that account.  When,
 however, the quantity of silver is small, or is not
 required to be estimated, it becomes of little con-
 sequence what weight of lead is employed, so long
 as enough be used to carry off the base  metals, at
 the same time  that the quantity is not too large for
 the cupel.  The sample  is then  submitted to cu-
 pellation.    This process does not require so much
 care for gold as silver, as none of  this metal is ab-
 sorbed by the cupel, or lost by evaporation, and it
 will  safely  bear the highest heat  of  the  furnace
 without injury.   In other respects the  operation
 may be conducted in exactly the same manner as
 for silver.
  II.  Quartation.   After gold has passed the  cu-
 pel,  it may still retain  either of the other perfect
 metals, particularly silver.  To  remove  the latter
 it undergoes the operations of quartation and part-
 ing.   Quartation  is performed by adding  3 parts
 of silver to one of the  cupelled sample, and fusing
 them 'together, by which  the gold is reduced to
 one  fourth  of the mass or even  less; hence  the
 name.  In  this state nitric acid will dissolve  out
the silver, which brings us to the next operation.
  In many cases the  operation of quartation is
performed  conjointly  with that  of cupellation, as
in the processes of Nos. 2 and 3. 
ASS
86
ASS
   III.  Parting.  The alloy of gold and  silver
thus formed, is next hammered or rolled out, into
a  thin strip  or leaf, curled  up into a spiral  form,
and submitted to  the  action of nitric acid, sp. g.
1-3, diluted with  half its weight of  water; this
being  poured off, another  quantity  of  acid, of
about 1-26, and undiluted, may be employed.  In
each case the acid should be boiled upon the alloy
for about a quarter of an hour.  In the first case
the quantity of  fluid should  be about 21foz., and
in the second l$oz.  The second part of the ope-
ration of parting is called the " reprise."   If the
acid be used too strong it leaves the gold in a state
of powder, otherwise the metal preserves  its form
throughout the  process  of  parting.  It  is next
carefully collected, washed, and dried.
   IV. Annealing.   The sample of pure  gold has
now only to  be  annealed, which is done  by put-
ting it into a small porous crucible, and heating it
to redness in the muffle.
   V. Weighing.  The  pure  gold is next accurate-
ly weighed.   This  weight doubled or quadrupled,
gives the number  of carats fine of the alloy ex-
amined, without calculation.
   Re?narks.  The  loss of weight by cupellation
gives the amount  of copper  in the sample; that
after parting, the  amount of silver, deducting of
course  the  weight of silver used in  the  process,
which is called the " witness."  When the sample
contains but  very little gold, the dry method of
assaying cannot be  depended on,  and chemical
analysis must be had recourse to.
   2. (M. Chaudet's process.)  Submit  to cupel-
lation 0-500 of the sample with 1-500 of pure sil-
ver, and 1*000 of pure  lead.  Form the button
into a strip or riband 3  inches long, and roll it into
a  cornet.   Boil  for 3  or 4 minutes in a  matrass
with nitric acid of 22° Baume, decant and  again
boil for 10 minutes with acid of 32°  Baume,  again
decant and repeat  the  last boiling with a fresh lot
of acid, at 32 B. for  10 minutes longer.  Next
wash the cornet with  pure  water, put it into a
small crucible permeable to water,  and submit it
to a dull red  heat in  the muffle.  Lastly, cool,
take it from the crucible, and weigh it.
   Remarks. The above is M. Chaudet's method of
assaying fine gold.   It  affords very perfect results.
   3. (Old  French government method.)   Oper.
" Twelve  grains of the gold intended to be as-
sayed must be mixed  with  30 grs. of fine silver,
and cupelled with  108 grs. of lead.  The  cupella-
tion must be carefully attended to, and all the im-
perfect buttons rejected.  When the cupellation is
ended, the button must be reduced  by lamination
into a plate of 1£ inch, or rather more, in length,
and 4 or 5 lines in breadth.   This must be  rolled
up upon a quill, and  placed  in  a matrass  capable
of holding about 3  oz. of liquid, when  filled  up to
its narrow part.  Two  oz. and a half of very pure
aquafortis, of the strength of 20° of Baume's are-
ometer, must then be poured upon  it;  and the
matrass being placed upon hot ashes, or sand, the
acid must be kept  gently boiling for a quarter of
an hour:  the acid must  then be cautiously de-
canted, and an additional quantity of ljoz. must
be poured on the metal, and  slightly boiled for 12
minutes.  This being likewise carefully decanted,
the small spiral piece  of metal must be  washed
with filtered river water, or distilled water, by fill-
I ing the matrass with this fluid.  The vessel is then
 to be reversed, by  applving the extremity of its
 neck  against  the bottom  of a crucible of  fine
 earth, the internal surface of which is very smooth.
I The  annealing must then be made, after having
 separated the  portion of water  which had fallen
 into the  crucible: and, lastly, the  annealed gold
 must be weighed.   For the certainty of this ope-
 ration, two assays must be  made  in  the same
 manner,  together with a third assay upon gold of
 24 carats, or upon  gold the  fineness of which is
 perfectly and generally known."
   " No conclusion must be drawn from this assay,
 unless the latter gold should prove to be of the
 fineness of 24 carats exactly, or of  its  known de-
 gree  of fineness ; for,  if there  be  either loss or
 surplus, it may be inferred that the other two as-
 says, having undergone the same operation, must
 be subject to the same error."
   4.  (When the  alloy contains platina.)   This
 alloy  generally  contains copper,  silver, platina,
 and gold.  The sample must be cupelled in the
 usual way, and the loss of  weight will  express the
 amount  of copper ; the button, made  into a  rib-
 and and treated with sulphuric acid, will indicate,
 by the portion  dissolved,  the amount  of  silver
 present.   By submitting the  residuum to quarta-
 tion, the  platina will become  soluble in nitric acid.
 The  loss after digestion in this menstruum will
 express the weight of that  metal, and  the weight
 of the portion now remaining will be  that of tha
 pure  gold.
   5.  Other methods.  Assay of the touch.  Jew-
 ellery, small quantities, <SfC.   When it is desired
 to ascertain the  fineness  of small  quantities of
 gold, as in jewellery, &c, touch needles and stones
 are employed.  The former are made in sets, con-
 taining gold of different finenesses and differently
 alloyed with  copper and silver.  Pieces of black
 pottery form  excellent  touch stones.  The mode
 of using  them is  to mark the stone with the sam-
 ple under examination, and to compare its appear-
 ance, hardness, &c. with that produced by one or
 more of the needles.   When the two are similar,
 the quality is  considered to be the  same.   They
 are then further examined  by moistening  the
 stroke with aquafortis when red hot.
   General Remarks.  The preceding is a brief no-
 tice of the most approved methods of  assaying.
 Other ways of determining the constitution of al-
 loys exist, which are not only easier to perform,
 but far   more accurate.   In the  dry way,  the
 causes of error are  numerous, and assays made
 by different persons after that plan, seldom agree
 closer than one or two thousandths, while in the
 case  of silver, it  often  amounts to j-Jfo or j^-
 Thus  samples of the  same silver sent by the
 French  government  to  be  assayed at different
 places, gave different results.
   At the Mint of Paris....   895-6
          "       Vienna .     .     .     8984
          "       Madrid   .    .     .   893*7
          "       Naples  .     .     .     891-0
 the difference between the two extremes of which
 is TWtP  whereas, each of these  samples  really
 contained J^w  of pure silver.   It  will  be thus
 seen, as before explained, that the assay of silvel
 always comes out too low, besides being  more ex- 
AST                     87                    ATR
posed to error in the operation than gold.   Chem-
ical analysis, or the  humid  process of assay, ad-
mits, however, of ascertaining with certainty the
quantity of each metal in an alloy to a degree of
exactness unattainable by the cupel.
  ASSES' MILK, SUBSTITUTE FOR. Prep.
I.  Boil together one quart of new milk, one ounce
each  of sugar-candy and ground rice, and one
drachm of eringo root bruised.  Strain.
  II. .Mix  together one ounce of lump sugar, the
white of two  eggs,  and half a  pint of the best
milk, then  add  half a teaspoonful of sirup  of tolu,
and mix well.
  III. Boil together a pint of water and  1 oz. of
hartshorn shavings, until reduced to a jelly, then
add 2 oz. of lump sugar ; dissolve ; when cold add
1 pint of new milk, and a  teaspoonful or  less of
sirup of tolu.
   Remarks. The above are among the best forms
for this  article.  Others are  often adopted of  a
very dirty  class, as boiling snails, &c. with water,
and so many medicaments, that I presume any
thing but an article resembling asses' milk is pro-
duced.   Use.  As  a beverage, a cupful  with or
without a spoonful of rum, three or four  times  a
day, or ad libitum.   An  old  woman's remedy for
consumption.
   ASTHMA.   (From  aodtiahu, I breathe hard.)
A disease characterized by difficulty of breathing,
coming on by fits, accompanied by a wheezing
sound, cough, and tightness of the chest, and gen-
erally terminating in a copious expectoration, after
the lapse of a few hours.   Asthma is principally
confined to the later periods of life, and appears in
many cases to  be hereditary.  The fits vary from
two to several hours' duration. Sometimes copious
expectoration attends asthma, which has led to its
division into two kinds,—dry (asthma siccum) and
humid, (asthma humidum.)   It  is brought on by
sudden exposure from heat to cold, to unwhole-
some effluvia,  by hard drinking, full meals,  vi-
olent exercise,  and  by  cold, damp,  and foggy
weather.
   Treatment.  I.  Prev.  Avoid the  above  exciting
causes.   Seek  a dry, warm, and  airy situation.
Wear flannel,  keep  the bowels regular, and the
stomach in order.  Cure. The severity of the par-
oxysm may be lessened by adopting the sitting
posture, and inhaling the vapor of hot water, or
an infusion of cbtynomile.   Emetics and  diapho-
retics, followed by  mild purgatives, may also be
administered with advantage.  Various other rem-
edies  have  also been recommended; among the
principal are tobacco and stramonium smoking.
In using the latter herb, the root  and  lower parts
of the stem are chopped up and placed in the bowl
of a common  tobacco-pipe, and a few whiffs are
occasionally taken.   Drinking at the same time
should be avoided.   Lately the lobelia inflata, or
Indian tobacco, has been highly extolled in asth-
ma.   The dose of the tincture is from 20 drops to
3ij.  A light nutritious  diet  and strictly  regular
habits should be adopted, which will often produce
a marked improvement  and  effect a  cure, when
medicines have failed.  The use of bark or bitters
will  tend  to improve  the  general tone  of the
system.
  ASTHMA, DRAUGHT  FOR.   Prep.  Vin-
egar of squills, 3ss; ipecacuanha wine, 15  drops;
cinnamon water, 1J oz.;  mix for a draught to be
taken three times daily.  Expectorant.
  ASTHMA. MIKTURE FOR.  Prep. I. (Ex-
pectorant.) Milk of gum ammoniacum 3 oz., sirup
of squills 2 oz., wine  of  ipecacuanha 1 oz.; mix.
Dose. A small teaspoonful 4 or 5 times daily.
   II. (Tonic.)  Infusion of cascarilla 3 oz., infu-
sion of  gentian  2 oz., simple  sirup 1 oz.;  mix.
Dose. Two tablespoonfuls 3 times a day.
   ASTHMA, PILLS FOR.  I.  (Expectorant.)
Compound squill pill 20 grs., calomel 5 grs., pow-
dered opium 3  grs.;  make  them  into  6 pills.
Dose.  One or two at bedtime.  • Expectorant, and
sometimes laxative.
   II.  (Tonic.)  Compound iron pills, 2 drachms,
extract of gentian, 1  drachm; mix, and divide
into 60  pills.   Dose.  Two night and morning.
   ASTRINGENTS,  (In Medicine.)   Substan-
ces that constrict the animal fibre, and coagulate
albumen.  When employed to check  bleeding,
they are called styptics.  The principal vegetable
astringents are catechu, kino, galls,  and oak
bark;  the principal mineral astringents are sul-
phate of  iron, nitrate of silver, chloride of zinc,
sulphate of copper, acetate of lead, &c.
   ASTRINGENT COLLYRIUM. Prep. Com-
pound liquor of alum, £ oz., rose water, 5J oz.,
laudanum, 60 drops.   Use.  For weak eyes.
   ASTRINGENT PILLS.  Prep. Alum, 6 grs.,
extract of opium, 1 gr., powdered catechu, 20 grs.;
divide into 6 pills.  Dose. One  after  each motion
in diarrhoea.
   ASTRINGENT POWDER.  Powdered galls
and burnt alum, of each equal parts, in very fine
powder; mix.   Use.  For piles and soft polypi of
the nose.
   ATMOSPHERE,  PURITY  OF.  Test.  A
simple method of ascertaining the presence of im-
purity  (carbonic acid) in the  atmosphere, is  to
nearly fill a glass tumbler with limewater, and to
place it in any convenient position, as on the man-
tel-piece of a room.   The  rapidity with which  a
pellicle forms on its surface, or the water becomes
cloudy,  corresponds to the amount of the carbonic
acid present in the atmosphere that surrounds it.
II. A little moist carbonate of lead put on a plate
or saucer, and  exposed in the same way, will turn
black, should any  sulphureted hydrogen  be con-
tained in the air.   This is a very delicate test for
that destructive gas.
  ATROPIA.   Syn. Atropina.  Atropine. At-
ropium.  An alkaloid, or vegetable alkali, discov-
ered in the atropa  belladonna, by Brande.   Prep.
I. Make an aqueous decoction with 2 lbs. of the
dried leaves of the deadly nightshade,  press out
the liquor, and boil them a second time; mix the
two  waters, and add a little sulphuric acid ; then
filter, supersaturate the liquor with potash, collect
the precipitate, wash with cold water, and dry it.
The product is 89 grs.  This  must then be purified
by repeated solutions in dilute acid, the use of ani-
mal charcoal, and precipitation by an alkali.  Ac-
cording  to Mein  and Thompson, 1 oz. of the root
of belladonna yields 1 gr. of pure atropia.
  II. Add freshly precipitated hydrate of magne-
sta  to the filtered  expressed juice  of belladonna,
evaporate to dryness  as  quickly as possible in  a
water bath, then pulverize the residuum, and di-
gest it in strong alcohol;  decant the  clear liquid, 
AVI                    88                    BAI
 and  allow it to  evaporate  spontaneously.  The
 crystals may be purified by repeated resolutions in
 alcohol.
   Remarks.  This alkaloid is a powerful narcotic
 poison.  In quantity scarcely appreciable, it occa-
 sions dilatation of the  pupil,  when  applied to the
 eye.  The T'ff of a grain causes very serious effects
 in the human subject.   It is volatile at common
 temperatures, and  rises in vapor at 212° ;  hence
 the  danger of experimenting  on this  substance.
 Brande suffered so much from  this  cause, that he
 was compelled to discontinue  his experiments on
 the properties of  this  alkali.   It  forms salts with
 many of the acids, which may be  crystallized.
 They may be made by saturating the dilute acids
 with  the bases.
   ATROPIC  ACID.  Richter has given  this
 name to a volatile and crystallizable  acid, resem-
 bling the benzoic, extracted from  the atropa bella-
 donna,  or  deadly nightshade.   (Pharm.  Centr.
 Blatt. 1837, s. 614.)
  ATROPHY.   Syn. Atrophia.  A wasting of
 the whole  body.   Cause and Treatment. This is
 generally produced by  the body  receiving an in-
 sufficient supply of nourishment, arising from im-
 perfect  digestion, diarrhoea, and in  children, very
 frequently from worms.  The best treatment is to
 keep  the bowels  regular, and  to administer mild
 tonics, or alteratives, accompanied  with a  nutri-
 tious  diet;  cleanliness, fresh air, and moderate ex-
 ercise are  also essential.   When worms are  the
 cause, attempts should be immediately made to
 remove them.  (See Anthelmintics.)
  AURANTIIN.  The bitter principle extracted
 from  the peel of the orange and lemon.
  Prep.  The  exterior peel separated from  the
 white matter, should be well dried by free  expo-
 sure to warm dry air, until it  has  nearly lost  its
 fragrance.   It is then to be boiled with water, and
 the liquor strained off  and evaporated to dryness.
 Purify by frequent solution in alcohol.
  Prop. Possesses the bitter  properties of the peel
in a  concentrated state, without any of its fra-
 grance.
  AURO-CHLORIDES.  Prep. These salts may
be prepared by mixing  the terchloride  of gold with
the chloride of the base, in atomic proportions, and
setting aside the solution to crystallize.
  Prop. Most of the auro-chlorides crystallize in
prisms, dissolve in both alcohol and water, have an
orange  or yellow color, and are  decomposed at a
red heat.
   AURO-CHLORIDE   OF  HYDROGEN.
 Formed by cautiously evaporating an acid solution
 of terchloride of gold.
  AVIARY,  (from avis, a  bird.)   A place for
 keeping birds.  Situation, <J-c.  In constructing an
 aviary for exotic birds,  a place should be selected
 where the temperature can be kept at a proper de-
 gree throughout the year, and which is well pro-
 tected from the  weather.  This is most conve-
 niently done by choosing a space attached to the
 summer or hot house.   When the aviary is only
 intended for  birds of climates similar to our own,
 any part of the open  garden may be  chosen, and
 a portion closed in.  Among the commoner exotic
 birds  kept  in  aviaries, are canaries, turtle-doves,
 parrots, and paroquettes; and among those inhab-
 King  climates resembling Great  Britain, are gold
 and silver pheasants, and the finer \<uuties of
 pigeons.  Among aquatic  birds may be mentioned
 black and white swans, Muscovy ducks, &.c., all
 of which, however, require  good protection from
 the vicissitudes of the weather.
   AZOBENZIDE.  Prep. Add solid hydrate of
 potassa to nitro-benzide, dissolved in alcohol in a
 retort;  apply heat and distil the red solution. The
 first portion which comes over is alcohol, and  the
 next azobenzide,  which must be collected sepa-
 rately.
   Remarks.   Form. Large red crystals.   Discov-
 ered by Mitzcherlitz.
   AZOBENZULE.  Prep.  The residuum of  the
 preparation  of  benzhydramide  boiled with  100
 parts of alcohol, deposites crystals of a-nbenzule
 on cooling-.  Form, a white crystalline ponder.
   AZOERYTHRINE.   A  substance exacted
 by Kane  from Orchil.  It is  insoluble  in alcohol,
 ether, and water; but very soluble in alkaline lyes,
 to which it imparts a port-wine color.  (Phil. Trans.
 1840, p. 273.)
  AZOLITMINE.  A  substance extracted  tj
 Kane from  litmus.   It  is insoluble  in water and
 alcohol;  soluble in alkaline  lyes.  It forms the
 principal ingredient in litmus.
  AZOMARIC ACID.   An acid  discovered  by
 Laurent during his researches on  the turpentine
 of the pinus  maritima.   It is formed by submitting
 pimaric acid to the action of nitric acid.
  AZURE, EGYPTIAN.  Prep.  Carbonate  of
soda 1 lb.; calcined flints  1 £ lb. ;  copper  filings J
 lb.; all  in fine powder.   Proc. Mix and fuse them
 together in a  crucible for 2 hours.  When cold,
 reduce to  an impalpable powder.
  Remarks. This is a most beautiful and perma-
 nent sky-blue  color.  It is used in painting, and
 as a substitute for smalts.
  AZURE, PIGMENT.  Prep.  Quicksilver 2
oz.; sulphur  and  sal ammoniac, of each £ oz.
 Proc. Grind well  together, and place  the ingre-
dients in a matrass, which must be exposed to a
slow fire until  an azure fume arises;  then  cool and
powder.  (Mackenzie.)   Remarks.  This   form is
stated to produce a color nearly equal to ultrama-
rine, but I much doubt it.
  BACHER'S  PILLS.  Prep. Extract of black
hellebore and powdered myrrh, of each 1 oz.; car-
duus  benedictus  (blessed thistle) 3  oz.; mix and
divide into 1-grain pills.   Dose. 2 to 6 three times
a day.  Tonic.
  BACON.  Qual. When  this  article  has been
properly prepared from healthy meat, and is neither
old  nor rusty, it  forms a very wholesome and ex-
cellent  food,  especially when eaten with vegeta-
bles.  It is too strong, however, for  the  stomachs
of very delicate  persons,  and should therefore  be
avoided by them.   Choice.  Good bacon has a thin
rind, the fat  has a firm  consistence and reddish
tinge  ; the lean has a pleasing red color, is tender,
and adheres  strongly to the  bone.  The streaky
parts  are  the most esteemed as well  as the most
wholesome.  When   the   fat  has   a  yellowish
tint,  it  is  rusty, or becoming so, and should be
avoided.
  BAILEY'S ITCH OINTMENT.  This con-
sists of nitre, alum,  sulphate of zinc,  cinnabar,
olive  oil, and lard, scented with the essential oil* 
BAL                     89                     BAL
of aniseed, origanum,  and lavender,  and colored
with alkanet.
   BAKERS  ITCH.   Sijn. Psoriasis diffusa.
This disease is of common occurrence on the hands
of bakers ; hence the vulgar name.   Treat.  Fre-
quent ablution in warm water, keeping the bowels
open with saline purgatives, and  the nightly use
of the following ointment will generally effect  a
cure.  Salt  food should be  avoided  as  much as
possible, as well  as keeping the hands covered with
dough and flour; the latter being the cause of the
dlSC3.SC
   BAKER'S ITCH,  OINTMENT FOR.  Mix
well together i  oz.  of  ointment of nitrate of  mer-
cury, and 1 oz.  of palm oil.
   BAKING. (In Cookery.)  One of the cheap-
est and most convenient ways of  dressing dinners
for small families.  Though the  flavor of baked
meat  is generally considered barely equal to the
same roasted, yet there are some joints  and dishes
 to which it appears particularly suitable.  Among
 these  may be mentioned legs and loins of pork,
legs and shoulders of  mutton, fillets  of  veal, &c.
A baked pig,  if it has been occasionally basted
with melted butter during the operation, and the
heat has  not  been too great, will eat equal  to  a
roasted one.   Geese and ducks treated in the same
way are also excellent.   A hare  prepared in the
same way as for roasting, and basted occasionally
with milk and melted  butter, will also eat well; so
will various pieces of beef, especially the buttock.
The latter should be prepared as  follows:—After
it has  been  salted about a week,  it  should be
washed and put into a brown earthen pan, glazed
inside, with about a pint of water; it should  then
be tied over with writing-paper, three or four times
thick,  and baked for  4 or 5 hours in a lightly-
heated oven.   A  baked  ham  is  preferable  to  a
boiled  one; it not only eats much  tenderer, but
cuts fuller of gravy, and  has a  finer flavor.  Be-
fore  being baked it  should be soaked in clean wa-
ter for an hour,  then wiped dry with a towel, and
covered with a thin paste or batter.
   Much of the prejudice that exists against baking
arises from the careless manner in which it is  usu-
ally  performed by  the basers, and  also from so
many different dishes,  possessing such various fla-
vors and odors, being baked together in the same
oven.
   BALDNESS.  Cause.  This  is generally  pro-
duced by fever or old age, but is sometimes found
in comparatively young persons,  enjoying perfect
health.   Remarks.  When the hair bulbs  have dis-
appeared, there  is no means known  that will re-
store the hair, notwithstanding the daily assurances
to the contrary, by numerous advertising impostors.
When  a disposition  to baldness exists, or when the
hair falls off in large quantities,  the  constant use
of the hair-brush, and  any emollient oil or poma-
tum, scented with some stimulating aromatic, will
generally prove  sufficient.  Should this  not  suc-
ceed, the head should be shaved.  The following
formulse tend to strengthen the hair,  and to keep
the head clean.
   BALDNESS, OIL   FOR.  Prep.  Salad oil
1 oz.; oil of origanum  12 drops; oil  of  rosemary
10 drops ; oil of  lavender 6 drops ;  oil of  cloves 2
drops ;  mix and shake well together.
  BALDNESS, POMMADE FOR.  Prep. Beef
                      12
 suet t oz.; tincture  Of cantharides 1 teaspoonful'
 oil of origanum  and bergamotte, of each 10 drops.
 Proc.  Melt the suet, and when nearly cold, add
 the rest and stir until set.
   BALDWIN'S PHOSPHORUS.  Prep. Eva-
 porate to dryness an aqueous solution of nitrate  of
 lime, and continue the heat until  the  nitrate  be
 fused, in which  state it must be  kept for 5 to  10
 minutes,  and then poured  out into an  iron pot,
 previously made warm, and allowed to  cool grad-
 ually ; after which, break it into pieces  and put it
 into well-stopped vials.   Prop. After exposure  to
 the sun for some time, it emits  a beautiful white
 light in the dark.
   BALLOONS.  BALLOONING.  Syn. Bal-
 lon (Fr.)  Aeronautics,  (the  art of sailing  in
 and navigating the air.)  Aerostation,  (properly,
 weighing the air, but frequently  used to imply
 the art of raising substances into the atmosphere
 by means of balloons.)  Aeronaut, (literally,  an
 air-sailor,) one who travels  in  a balloon.   Hist.
 There appears to have been an inherent desire  in
 man, from the most remote antiquity to the present
 time, to assume a similar sovereignty over the  air
 that he possesses over the sea.  The story of Dae-
 dalus and the fate of Icarus, must be familiar  to
 every classical reader.   The account of the au-
 tomaton dove, constructed by the geometer Archy-
 tas,  appears to have  been  no fable.  During the
 middle ages many attempts were made at flying,
 but it was not until  the eighteenth century that
 any efforts of this nature were crowned with suc-
 cess.  In the  year 17e<2, the brothers Montgolfier
 constructed a balloon,  which was inflated  with
 the smoke produced from the combustion of damp
 straw, and in ITiS'J, Pilatre de Rozier and the Mar-
 quis d'Arlandes ascended in a smoke balloon, from
 Paris, to an elevation of upwards of 3000 feet.  In
 the  beginning of 1784, MM. Charles and Robert
 ascended  in a balloon filled with hydrogen gas, and
 after a flight of 90 minutes, alighted  in  safety.
 Other successful ascents followed, and no accident
 occurred until the young naturalist,  Pilatre de Ro-
 zier, and his companion Romain,  lost their lives in
 attempting to  cross  the  channel  from France  to
 England.   The  machine on this  occasion  was
 double, having a  large upper balloon filled  with
 hydrogen, and a smaller one below (for the sake
 of raising or sinking the machine at pleasure) in-
 flated with smoke.   At a height of  3000 feet, the
 whole apparatus was discovered to  be on fire, and
 the unfortunate aeronauts were precipitated to the
 ground.  The victory of Jordan  over the Austri-
 ans  at Fleurus in 1794,  is  said to have been ob-
 tained from the knowledge  he  acquired of the
 enemy's movements by means of a balloon.  An
 ascent, very interesting to  science, was made by
 Biot and Gay Lussac in 1804, when an elevation
 of upwards of 13,000 feet was attained.  A similar
 ascent was made soon after by Gay Lussac alone,
 when the enormous  height  of  2.'1.(40  feet  was
■reached, or an elevation of upwards of 4\ English
 miles, being higher than  the  highest peak  of the
 Andes.  Since that time to the present  numerous
 ascents have taken place in most of the principal
 towns of England, and  in the majority of these
 cases, the balloons have been  inflated  with  coal
 gas, furnished by the gas works   The feat of Mr.
 Green, who  ascended in  a  gigantic balloon from 
BAL
Vauxhall in November, 1836, and succeeded in
safely conducting across the channel to Nassau in
Germany, not  only himself,  but  two companions
and a ton  of ballast, must be within the recollec-
tion of every one, and the more recent "jugglery"
of Mr. Henson and  his  "phantom" aerial machine,
must be still more familiar.
   Principles of Ballooning.  The weight of the
body of air which a balloon displaces, must exceed
the gross weight of  the balloon and all its append-
ages.  Pure hydrogen   is   16  times lighter  than
common air at  the earth's surface ; but when pre-
pared on the large  scale for ballooning, it  is only
from 7 to  11 times lighter.   (Cavendish.)  Hence a
bag, filled with this gas, will ascend  to a position
in the atmosphere where the latter possesses a sim-
ilar  density to  itself, allowing, of course, for the
addition to  the gravity of  the gas, occasioned by
the weight of its envelope.  It has been computed
that a balloon of 60 feet diameter, filled with com-
mon hydrogen  gas,  prepared from iron filings and
acid, on the large scale, and being 6 times rarer
than the atmosphere, would raise a weight of nearly
7000 lbs., besides the weight of the gas case, while
one of only 1£ feet in diameter would  barely float,
from the less proportion of gas to the weight of the
case that contains  it.   The  aerostatic power of
balloons is  proportional  to their dimensions in the
ratio of the cubes of their diameters.   Balloons are
made of larger size than   required to contain the
necessary' quantity of gas, to allow room for its in-
crease of  bulk, as it rises into a rarer medium.  A
foot of gas, measured at the earth's  surface, will
fill a space of two feet at an elevation of 3^ miles.
The carbureted hydrogen, supplied by the  gas-
works, is  much heavier than hydrogen gas, and
consequently, a balloon filled with  the  former has a
much less ascensional power than when filled with
the latter.   Materials,  cj-c.  The  fabric, of which
air balloons are made,  is strong, thin silk,  covered
with a  varnish of  Indian rubber.  Fire balloons
(on the  small scale) are generally made of silver
paper, and inflated  by burning spirits of wine, by
means of a sponge dipped   therein, and suspended
just within the mouth of the balloon.  The follow-
ing table  of the diameters, surfaces,  and  capaci-
ties of spheres, as well  as the remarks that follow,
are taken  from the Chemical Dictionary of Dr.
Ure.
Table showing the  relations  between the diame-
   ters, surfaces, and  capacities of spheres.   By
   Dr. Ure.
Diameters.	Surfaces.	Capacities.
1	3-141	0-523
2	12*567	4-188
3	28*274	14*137
4	50-265	33-51
5	78-54	6545
10	314*159	523-6
15	706*9	1767*1
20	1256-6	4189*
25	1963*5	8181-
30	2827*	14137*
40	5026-	33510-
  Remarks.   Having  ascertained by  experiment
he weight of a square foot of the varnished cloth,
BAL
we find, by inspection in the above table, a multi-
plier, whence we readily compute the total weight
of the balloon.   A cubic  foot of atmospheric ail
weighs 527 grs., and a cubic foot of hydrogen about
40.  But as the gas employed to  fill balloons is
never pure, we must estimate its weight at some-
thing more.  And perhaps, taking every thing into
account, we shall find it a convenient and suffi.
ciently precise  rule for  aerostation,  to  consider
every cubic foot of included gas to have by itself a
buoyancy of fully one ounce avoirdupois.  Hence,
a balloon of 10 feet  diameter will have an ascen-
sional  force  of fully 524 oz. or 33 lbs. minus tne
weight of the 314 superficial feet of cloth ; and one
of 30  feet  diameter, a  buoyancy of fully  14,137
oz., or nearly 890 lbs. minus the weight of the 2827
feet of cloth.  On  this  calculation  no allowance
need be made for the seams of the balloon.
   BALLOON VARNISH.  I. Good boiled lin-
seed oil, if allowed a  sufficient  time  to  dry and
harden, forms an  excellent varnish for balloon cases.
   II. Indian rubber 1 lb., (cut smai!;) oil  of  tur-
pentine 6 lbs.; boiled  drying  oil 1  gallon.  Proc.
Digest the  Indian  rubber in  the turpentine, in a
warm  place, for  a  week, frequently shaking the
vessel  during the whole time, then place it  in a
water bath  and gradually heat it until the solution
be completed ; next  add  the oil, previously made
warm, gently simmer for five minutes, stirring all
the while,  after  which  closely cover it  over, and
when cold  strain it through flannel.
   III.  Ing. Birdlime 1  lb.;  boiled linseed oil 3
pints ; turpentine q. s.    Proc. Boil the birdlime
with 1 pint of the oil  in an iron pot, over  a slow
fire, for  about  half an  hour, or until the former
ceases to cackle, then  add the  rest of the oil,  pre-
viously heated, and again boil for about  one hour,
stirring well all the time, being careful that it does
not boil over, as it is very liable to  do so.   When
it has boiled sufficiently, may  be known by its ad-
mitting of being  drawn into threads between two
knives.  As soon as this occurs, remove the pot
from the fire, and when  cooled a little, add a suf-
ficient quantity of spirits of turpentine (warm) to
reduce it to a proper consistence, and work it well
up.
   Remarks. These  varnishes  are  better  applied
lukewarm  to the silk,  previously  stretched out
tight.  In about 24 hours they will dry.
   BALLS,  ALTERATIVE,  (for   Horses.)
Prep.  I. Ing. Calomel I,  oz.; powdered aloes \\
oz.; starch 6 oz.;  soft  soap  8 oz.  Proc. Make
them into a mass, and divide into 12 balls.   Use.
To improve the constitution.
   II. Ing. Tartar emetic and powdered  ginger, of
each 5 oz.; powdered opium and calomel, of each
1 oz. ;  treacle to  mix.  Divide into 16 balls.
   III.  Powdered Barbadoes  aloes, ginger,  and
liquorice, of each 2 oz.; all  in powder; Castile
soap  2  oz.; treacle to  mix; divide into  6 balls.
Use.  For grease.
-   IV.  Barbadoes aloes,  emetic  tartar, and liquor-
ice, of each 1 oz.;  Castile  soap, 2 oz.; treacle to
mix.   For  4 balls.  Use. For strangles.
   V. Calomel, sulphuret of antimony, and pow-
dered opium, of each £ oz.; powdered gum  guaia-
cum 2£ oz.; Castile soap 12  oz.; treacle  to  mix
Divide into 12 balls.   Use. For weak horses with
a bad constitution.
)0 
BAL
91
BAL
   VI. Calomel $ oz.; cascarilla  and rhubarb, of
 each 1 oz.; aloes and soap, of each 4 oz.;  treacle
 to mix.  For 12 balls.   Use. For weak horses.
   BALLS, ANODYNE, (for Horses.)   Opium
 and camphor, of each \ oz.; aniseed powder 2  oz.;
 ginger 1 oz.; oil of  caraways \ oz.;  Castile soap
 1£ oz.; treacle to mix. Divide into 3 balls.  Warm-
 ing,  Composing.
   BALLS, ASTRINGENT, (for Horses.)   I.
 Opium i oz.; carbonate of soda 1 oz.; powdered
 cassia and ginger, of each ^  oz.; powdered gen-
 tian 2 oz.; treacle to mix.  For 4 balls.   Tonic
 and binding.
   II. Opium i oz.; ginger \  lb.; prepared chalk
 J lb.; treacle to mix.  For 10 balls.  For loose-
 ness.
   III.  Gum  catechu f  oz.;  powdered ginger 1
 oz.;  powdered liquorice 2 oz.;  soft  soap  to  mix.
 For 3 balls.   Astringent and tonic.
   BALLS, BITTER.  Ing.  Powdered  gentian
 2 lbs. ; extract of gentian 1 lb.; treacle q. s. Proc.
 Beat the ingredients to a  hard mass, and make it
 into i lb. rolls.  Use. Substituted  for hops by fraud-
 ulent brewers.
   BALLS, BLACK.  Syn.  Blacking Balls.  I.
 Beeswax 8 oz.; resin 1 oz.; tallow £ oz.;  melt to-
 gether, then add gum arabic  1£  oz.;  dissolved  in
 water 2 oz.; and  as much lamp-black as neces-
 sary to  color; stir until nearly  cold,  then run  it
 into tin moulds.
   II. Lard and wax,  each  1 oz.;  ivory black,
 lampblack, and brown sugar,  of each 8 oz.;  best
 size 4 oz.; mix as above.
   III.  Ivory black 16 oz.; gum tragacanth 2  oz.;
 sugar candy 4 oz.; water 16 oz.; mix with heat.
   IV. Ivory black and lampblack, of each 16  oz.;
 thick mucilage of gum arabic 7 oz.;  brown sugar
 6 oz.; melted glue 1 oz.;  water 1 quart, as above.
   V. Suet 4 oz.; beeswax and  sweet oil, 1 oz.
 each ; sugar candy and gum arabic, both in  fine
 powder, 1 drachm  each; melt  together  over  a
 slow fire, then add one tablespoonful of turpentine,
 and enough lampblack to produce  a good color.
 Mould as above.   Use.  For blacking leather.
   BALLS, BREECHES.  Ing.  Bath  brick  1
 lb.; pumice-stone \ lb.;  all in fine  powder;  ox-
 gall 6 oz.  Proc. Make them into a paste, with a
 little water, if required, and mould them  of  any
 shape you please.
   II. Mix together equal parts  of whiting  and
 pipeclay, to which some coloring may be added.
 Remarks.  Rose pink, yellow ochre,  umber, Irish
 slate, or any other similar coloring matter may be
 added to produce the desired tint.
   BALLS, CAMPHOR, (for Horses.)  I. Cam-
 phor 1 oz., (reduce it to powder by adding a little
 spirit and rubbing it  in a mortar;) powdered nitre
 4 oz.; liquorice powder 1 oz.;  treacle to mix.  For
 4 balls.   Anodyne and diuretic.
   II. Omit the nitre, and add 4 oz. more liquorice
 powder.   Anodyne.
   BALLS, CLOTHES.   I. Pipeclay 2 lbs.; ful-
 ler's earth 1 lb.; whiting $ lb.; white pepper 3 oz.;
 mix with water.
   II. Fuller's  earth  2 lbs.; curd soap 1 lb.;  ox-
galls sufficient to make a stiff dough, with which
form balls.
  Use. To remove grease from cloth and to clean
ilothes.
   BALLS,  COLIC, (for Horses.)   Powdered
 opium  \ oz.;  Castile soap and camphor, each
 1 oz.; powdered ginger and cassia, each £ oz.;
 liquorice powder 2 oz.;  treacle to make 4 balls.
   BALLS, CORDIAL, (for Horses.)  Aniseed,
 caraway-seed, and cumin-seed, of each  4 lbs. *
 ginger 2 lbs. ; all in powder; treacle q. s. to mix'.
 Product 21 lbs.   To be made up into balls weigh-
 ing If oz.  each.
   II. Powdered  ginger  1 lb.; liquorice  powder 3
 lbs.; whiting 2 lbs.;  powdered opium 1 oz.; oil of
 caraway £ oz.; oil of cassia \ oz.;  oil  of nutmegs
 and cloves, each 1 drachm;  treacle to mix.  Di-
 vide into balls \\ oz. each.
   III.  Starch and powdered ginger, of each \ lb.;
 oils of  caraway, cassia, and cloves, of each \ oz.;
 treacle to  mix.  Divide into 12 balls.  Use. As a
 cordial after looseness, (especially No.  II.,) during
 colds &/C
   BALLS,  COUGH,  (for Horses.)   I. Cordial
 ball mass 4 lbs.; gum ammoniacum 4 oz.; pow-
 dered squills 1 oz.; treacle to  mix.   Divide into 4
 dozen balls.
   II. Powdered  ipecacuanha  1  oz. ; powdered
 squills, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each £  oz.;
 liquorice powder 16 oz.; treacle to  mix.   For 12
 balls.
   III.  Gum ammoniacum 3 oz.; powdered squills
 1 oz.;  camphor J oz.; opium  £  oz.; powdered
 ginger 2 oz.; oil of aniseed 5 drachms ; treacle to
 mix.  For 8 balls.
   BALLS,  CREAM.   White  curd soap  1  lb.;
 powdered starch  3 oz.; beat together, weigh  into
 1 oz. balls, and roll them in powdered starch. Use
 For cleaning the hands.
   BALLS, DIAPHORETIC, (for  Horses.)
 I.  Antimonial  powder  1  oz.;  camphor  J  oz.;»
 starch 6 oz.; mix with  treacle,  and divide  into 6
 balls.        »
   II. Tartar emetic  and camphor, of  each \  oz.;
 liquorice powder 2 oz.;  make them into two balls,
 with treacle.
   III. Camphor 1 oz.; sal ammoniac 3 oz.; li-
 quorice  powder 2  oz.; oil of aniseed \ oz.;  soft
 soap 8 oz.; beat together, and divide into 6 balls.
   BALLS, DIURETIC, (for Horses.)   I. Soft
 soap and Venice  turpentine,  of  each 4 oz.; pow-
 dered nitre 2 oz.;  oil juniper, £ oz.; liquorice pow-
 der 3 oz.  Divide into 8 balls.
   II. Powdered nitre, rosin, and soft soap, of each
 4 oz.; liquorice powder 5 oz.; oil of juniper 1 oz.;
 treacle to mix.   For 12 balls.
   III. Powdered  rosin 6 lbs.;  nitre 4 lbs.; soft
 soap and Venice turpentine, of each 1 lb.;  oil of
 juniper 1 oz.; treacle to mix.  Weigh into  If oz.
 balls.
   BALLS, FARCY,  (for Horses.)   Corrosive
 sublimate  10 grains; liquorice powder 1 oz.; oil
 of aniseed £ a drachm ;  mix with treacle for 1 ball.
   II. Calomel  1 oz.;  powdered opium £ oz.;
 liquorice powder 12 oz.; mix with  treacle for 12
 balls.
   BALLS,  FEVER,   (for  Horses.)   Tartar
 emetic 2 oz.; nitre 8 oz.;  liquorice  6  oz.; all in
 fine powder ; mix with treacle for 12 balls.
   II. Nitre and tartar emetic,  of  each 1  lb., in
fine powder;  powdered  digitalis 4 oz.;  antimonial
powder 8 oz.; liquorice  powder \\ lb.; treacle to
mix.  Divide into balls weighing 1 oz. 3 drs. each. 
BAL                    92                     BAL
   BALLS,  FURNITURE.   I. Melt together in
 a pipkin 1 lb. of beeswax and $ oz. of alkanet root
 until the former be well colored ; then add linseed
 oil  and spirits of turpentine, of each \ pint. Strain
 through a piece of coarse muslin.
   II. Linseed oil  1 pint, alkanet root 2 oz.;  heat
 them together until a proper color be  produced,
 strain, and add yellow wax l\ lb., and rosin  2  oz.
 Use.  For polishing furniture.
   BALLS,  GARLICK,  (for Horses.)   Garlick
 1 oz.; liquorice powder enough to  make a  ball.
 Use.  For chronic  coughs.
   BALLS,  GRIPE,  (for Horses.)  Liquorice,
 black pepper, ginger, and prepared chalk, all in
 powder, of each 4oz.; oils of caraway, cloves, and
 cassia, of each 1 drachm; treacle to mix.   For 12
 balls.
   BALLS, INFLUENZA,  (for Horses.)  Bar-
 badoes aloes, nitre,  and  Venice  turpentine,  of
 each 1 lb.; gentian 2 lbs.; ginger $ lb.; treacle
 to mix.  Divide into 1£ oz. balls.
   BALLS, LAXATIVE, (for Horses.)  I. Aloes,
 ginger, and  soft soap,  of  each 3  drachms ; mix
 with treacle for 1 ball.  Cordial and laxative.
   II. Flowers of sulphur f lb.; powdered antimo-
 ny  2 oz.;  calomel  1 oz.;  powdered ginger 3 oz.;
 treacle to mix for  12 balls.
   BALLS, MANGE, (for Horses.)  Crude an-
 timony 2  oz.; calomel 1 oz. ;  opium £ oz.; flow-
 ers of sulphur 1 lb.;  mix with treacle and divide
 into 12 balls.  Remark.  A piece the size of a horse
 bean to that of a  small nut,  is a capital medicine
 for dogs.
   BALLS,   MERCURIAL,   (for  Horses.)
 I. Calomel 1 oz.; aloes 2 oz.;  rhubarb \ oz.;
 liquorice  powder 14 oz.; treacle  to mix.  Divide
■into 12 balls.  Laxative and alterative.
   II. Strong mercurial ointment \ lb.; powdered
 ginger 3 oz.; liquorice powder 10 dz.; treacle to
 mix for 12 balls.
  BALLS,  PHYSIC.   Syn.  Purging  Balls,
 (for Horses.)  Barbadoes aloes 5 oz.; hard  soap
 3 oz. ; ginger and  olive oil,  of each 1  oz. ;  melt
 together in a ladle, and while warm, divide into 6
 balls.
  II.  Aloes  and hard soap, of each 5 oz.; pearl-
 ashes 1 oz.; powdered ginger 2 oz.; melt as above
 for 8 balls.
   BALLS, SCOURING.   I. Ing. Curd soap 8
 oz.; oil of turpentine  and ox-gall, of each  1  oz.
 Proc. Melt the soap, and when  cooled a little,
 stir in the rest, and make it into cakes while warm.
  II.  Soft soap and fuller's earth,  each 1 lb.; beat
 them  well together in a mortar,  and form into
 cakes.  Use. To remove grease, &c,  from cloth.
 The spot first moistened with water is rubbed with
 the cake, and allowed to dry, when it is well rub-
 bed with   a  little warm  water, and  afterwards
 rinsed or rubbed off clean.
  BALLS, STOMACHIC,  (for  Horses.) Pow-
 dered gentian, 4 oz.; powdered ginger and carbon-
 ate of soda, each 2 oz.; soft  soap 8 oz.;  mix and
 divide into 8 balls.
  II.  Powdered quassia,  myrrh, soda, aloes, and
 rhubarb, of each 2 drachms ; oil of cloves 10 drops;
 treacle to mix for 1 ball.
  III.  Aloes J oz ; rhubarb and ginger, each -J oz.;
 calomel 1  drachm; oil of caraway 10 drops; soft
 soap  3 drachms; for 1 ball.
!   BALLS, STRENGTHENING, (for Hohbes.)
 Powdered calomba  and cascarilla, of each -} oz.;
 soft soap J oz.; chalk £ oz.; make into  a ball, for
 looseness, fyc.
i   II. Powdered gentian 2 oz.; sulphate  of iron
 and myrrh, of each 1 oz.; liquorice  powder 4 oz.;
 treacle to mix.   For 8  balls.
   BALLS, SULPHUR, (for Horses.)  Flowers
 of sulphur 1  lb. ; powdered antimony 3 oz.;  red
 sulphuret of mercury (pure) 2  oz.; powdered gum
 1 oz.; treacle to  mix.  For  12 balls.  Said  to
 make the coat sleek ; also for mange, &c.
   BALLS, SWEET.   Syn. Pomambra.   I. Ing.
 Florentine orris  root 3 oz.; cassia 1 oz.;  cloves,
 rhodium wood, and  lavender flowers, of each J oz.;
 ambergris and musk, of each 6 grs.; oil of  ver-
 bena 10 drops.   Proc.  Make them  into balls with
 mucilage  of  gum  tragacanth made with rose-
 water.
   II. Gum benzoin and styrax, of each  1  oz.;
 cloves  and cassia,  of  each \ oz.; musk and civet
 5 grs.; balsam of Peru, oil of  verbena, oil of rho-
 dium, otto of roses, and true  neroli, of each 10
 drops; Florentine orris root 2 oz.   Proc. Reduce
 the dry articles to powder, then  add the essences,
 and make the whole into balls  with essence of jus-
I mine, jonquil, violet, and tuberose, of each equal
, parts.
   III. Plaster of Paris 4 oz.;  sandal wood, cype-
 rus root, and cloves, of each £ oz.;  gum benzoin
[ and styrax, of each 1 oz.; ivory-black 2 oz.; musk
 and civet, of each 1 scruple ; ambergris  10 grains;
 balsam of Peru £ oz. ;  oil of cassia 10  drops; oil
 of rhodium £  a drachm ; essence of jasmin \  oz.;
 essence of neroli £ a  drachm ; otto  of roses 15
 drops ; mucilage made with orange-flower water
 to mix.   Proc. Make them into beads, and pierce
 them while soft.
   Use. Worn in the pocket as a perfume.  Some
 persons varnish them, but that keeps in the smell.
   BALLS, TONIC,  (for Horses.)   Gentian J
 oz.;  opium £ a  drachm; cascarilla,  myrrh,  and
 carbonate of soda,  of each 1 drachm ; soft soap J
 oz.   Form into a ball.
   II. Calomba 2 oz.;  cassia \ oz.;  allspice £ oz.;
 treacle to make 2 balls.
   III.  Powdered bark  8 oz.;  gentian 2 oz.; salts
 of tartar 1 oz.; opium £ oz.; liquorice powder and
 iron filings, of each  3 oz.; treacle to make 12 balls.
 If the horse is costive, omit the opium.
   IV. Sulphate of iron 4£ oz.; powder  of calom-
 ba 5 oz.; do. of cascarilla 3 oz.; soft soap 8 oz.
 For 12 balls.
   V. Sulphate of  iron, myrrh,  and  gentian, of
 each, \ oz.;  ginger $ oz.; carbonate  of soda 3
 drachms; treacle to make 1 ball.  The last three
 are suited for washy horses.
   VI. Gentian  8 oz.;  ginger  4 oz.; opium \ oz.;
 nitre 3 oz.; oil of caraway $ oz.; liquorice powder
 and treacle to make 12 balls.  For excessive stal-
 ing.
   VII. Sulphate of iron and  sulphate  of copper,
 of each,  1 drachm ; Venice turpentine 1 oz.;  gin-
 ger and cassia, of each, \ oz.;  liquorice  powder to
 make 2 balls.  For incontinence of urine.
   BALLS, WTORM,   (for  Horses.)   I. Aloes
 5 drachms ; Castile  soap J oz.; calomel and  gin-
 ger, of each, 1 £ drachms ;  oil of cloves and cassia,
 of each, 6 drops;  treacle to make  a ball.   II. 
BAL
93
BAL
Aloes, powdered tin,  ginger, and soft  soap,  of
each, £ oz.;  oil of cloves 15  drops.   Make  a
ball.
  BALLS, WASH, (Mottled.)   I. (Red.) Cut
white curd or Windsor soap, not too  dry, into
small square  pieces, and roll them in  a mixture
of powdered bole and starch, or bole alone ;  then
squeeze them into  balls without mixing the  color
more than is necessary.
  II. (Blue.) Roll  the pieces in  powdered  blue,
and proceed  as before.
  III. (Green.) Roll  the  pieces in a mixture of
powdered blue and  yellow ochre.
  Remarks. In this way, by varying the color of
the  powder, mottled wash-balls of any color may
be produced.
   BALM OF  GILEAD.  Syn. Balsam.eleon.
Opobalsam.   Oil of  Balsam.  Balm of Mecca.
Balsamum  Judaicu.m.   The  genuine balsam of
Mecca is the juice of the amyris gileadensis, and
is obtained by  cutting the bark  of the tree with
an  axe.  It is  both  scarce  and costly, and none
of  it ever reaches  this  country as an  article of
commerce.  " There  are  only two shops in  Con-
stantinople at which  the genuine balsam  can be
obtained.  Its price is exorbitant, one grain being
charged 5  Turkish piastres  =  Is. OJd."   That
which is sent to England is obtained by boiling
the  twigs of the balsam tree in water.  The real
balsam of Mecca  is  of a clear  gold  color, and
possesses a  penetrating  and delicate  fragrance,
and  a sharp bitter astringent taste.  A drop let
fall on the surface of hot water spreads itself over
the  whole  surface, like a thin film of oil, and
again contracts  on  the water cooling.  It dissolves
completely in fatty and  essential  oils, which then
assume the  peculiar  flavor of the balsam.  Use.
It is thought  to be antiseptic, stimulant, and vul-
nerary, and that its fumes prevent barrenness.   It
is employed in  the east as a cosmetic and per-
fume. When applied  to the skin it causes redness
and swelling.
  BALM OF GILEAD, FACTITIOUS.  The
article met with in  trade under the name of  balm
of Gilead  is either the article alluded to above or
a spurious kind prepared  by one of the formulas
below.
  I.  Ing. Yellow rosin  10oz.;  tincture of ben-
zoin  and  oil of  lemons 3  oz. each;  oils of cara-
ways and rosemary,  of  each, 2 oz.  Proc.  Melt
the rosin;  then  remove it  from  the heat, and stir
in the tincture ;  lastly, add the essential  oils.
  II. Yellow rosin 1  lb.; gum benzoin (bright)
4 oz.; best liquid styrax 2 oz.; essence of  lemons
3oz.; oil of rosemary  2 oz.;  oils of caraways and
cassia, each, 1 oz.  Proc.  Keep the  rosin  melted
by a gentle heat for 15 minutes ; then remove the
heat, and  add the  benzoin,  previously powdered
and  rubbed up  with an  equal weight of tincture
of benzoin, and when thoroughly incorporated add
the rest;  reduce it  to a proper consistence  with
spirit of wine, and strain  through flannel.
  III. Balsam of Canada 16 oz.; gum benzoin,
Dright and clear, 5 oz.; oils of lemons, rosemary,
and  cassia, of each, \ oz.   Powder the benzoin,
and  well  mix it with  the  Canada balsam ;  then
piace the mixture in a flask, and after closing the
mouth expose it  to the  heat of a water-bath, until
the  liquid will dissolve no  more of the  benzoin;
next allow  it to settle  until clear  and cold, and
then add the essences.
   BALSAM.   Syn.  Baume,  (Fr.)   Balsame,
(Ger.)  Balsams  are  semi-liquid  resinous  sub-
stances, having  for the most part the  consistence
of  honey.   Some, however,  are solid, and  the
greater number harden by exposure to  the air and
age.  They are generally aromatic, soluble in al-
cohol, partly soluble in ether, and not at all so in
water.   Their usual constituents are  resin and
benzoic acid, mixed with a large portion of aro-
matic essential oil.  Some of the substances false-
ly called balsams contain no benzoic acid, as the
balsam of copaiba, &c.; and many preparations,
from the presumption that  they possess balsamic
qualities,  have also received this name.
   BALSAM, ACOUSTIC.  Prep.   I. Tincture
of  benzoin,  tincture  of castor,  and  tincture  of
opium,  of each,  1  oz.; essential ?il of asafoetida
5 drops.   Mix.
   II.  (Baume's.)   Tinctures  of ambergris, asa-
foetida,  castor, and opium,  of each, 1 oz.; tere-
binthinated balsam of sulphur and oil of rue, of
each, 15 drops.   Mix.
   Use.  In atonic deafness, 1 or 2  drops  poured
into the ear; or a piece of  cotton wool moistened
therewith, is introduced instead.
   BALSAM OF AMBER.   The  thick  oil left
in  the retort after rectifying  oil of  amber.  The
properties are similar  to oil of amber.
   BALSAM,  ANODYNE,  (BATE'S.)   Prep
Castile  soap, in shavings, 3 oz.; camphor 2 oz.;
powdered opium £ oz.; hay  saffron and oil of rose-
mary, of  each, 1 drachm;  rectified spirit  1 pint.
Proc. Digest (with agitation) for 10 days.
   II. Soft soap 1^ lb.; powdered opium and cam-
phor, of  each, \ lb.; oil of rosemary *j oz.; recti-
fied spirit 1 gallon.  As above.
   III. Opodeldoc 3 oz.;  laudanum 1 oz.;  mix.
Use. As  an  anodyne and rubefacient  for sprains,
&c.  Dose. 20 to 40  drops.
   BALSAM,  CANADA.   This balsam is the
product of  the  Canadian balsam fir, (the abies
balsamea,) a tree of very common growth in Can-
ada and the State of Maine, (U. S.)  When fresh,
it has the consistence  of thin honey, an agreeable
odor, an acid taste, and a pale yellow  color, near-
ly white.
  Pur.  It should be perfectly  transparent, and
soluble in rectified oil  of turpentine, with which it
forms  a  beautiful  glassy and  colorless varnish,
which is much used for preparing a semi-transpa-
rent copying-paper.  A factitious kind is sold, but
is wholly  deficient of some of the properties of the
genuine balsam.
  BALSAM, CANADA (FACTITIOUS.)
Prep.  Dissolve  3 lb.  of  clear yellow  resin  in  1
gallon of oil of turpentine ;  then add i  pint  of
pale linseed oil, and \ oz. each of essence of lemon
and oil of rosemary.
  BALSAM OF COPAIBA.  The oleoresinous
juice of the copaifera  officinalis.
  Pur.  As  this substance is frequently adultera-
ted, and  sometimes a factitious  article is sold in-
stead, it becomes important to be able to ascertain
its purity.
  1. The Ed. Ph. states that it should  be " trans-
parent, free of turpentine  odor when heated, sol-
uble in 2 parts of alcohol, and dissolve one fourth 
BAL
94
BAL
of its weight of carbonate of magnesia when heat-
ed, and continue translucent."
  2. Place a drop of the balsam on a piece of un-
sized paper, and heat it  until  all the essential oil
be expelled;  it should then form a semi-transpa-
rent well-defined spot;  but  if the  balsam has
been  adulterated with a fat oil, it will  be  sur-
rounded by an oily areola.  (Chevallier.)
  3. Shaken with liquid ammonia, sp. gr. *965, it
becomes clear and transparent in a few moments.
(Planche.)
  4. 2$  parts of balsam with 1 of liquor of am-
monia, form a transparent mixture,  which may
be  heated  to 212°  without  becoming  opaque.
(Vigne.)
  5. Boiled with 50 times its weight  of water for
1  hour,  it should lose  at least half its  weight.
(Vigne.)
  6. Two samples  of balsam from Para, which
were considered to have been purposely adultera-
ted with  rancid oil of almonds, dissolved well  in
alcohol,  but  combined badly with  magnesia and
ammonia.   Direct experiments showed that  pure
copaiba balsam  may  be adulterated  with  50 per
cent, of a fat oil (nut oil, almond oil) without its
ceasing to give a clear solution in 2 parts of alco-
hol.  Only after 12 to 15 hours does  tho oil sepa-
rate.   Excess of alcohol separates the oil in all
cases.   It is evident, therefore, that under certain
circumstances an unadulterated balsam  may be
insoluble  or  of  difficult  solution in  alcohol; an
adulterated one, on the  contrary, may be soluble.
The best test for detecting the fat oils would be
alcohol to which some  caustic potash has  been
added.  (Journ. de Pharm., 1842, p. 52.)
   Use. Balsam  of copaiba is considered detersive,
vulnerary, diuretic, and astringent;  and appears
to possess a sort of specific power over  diseases
of  the mucous  membranes of  the  urino-genital
organs.  Dose.  20  to 60 drops on sugar,  or float-
ing on water, to which 30 or 40 drops of  elixir of
vitriol has been  added.   It may be  taken 3 or 4
tunes  daily,  if the stomach will bear it.   A few
drops  of sweet spirits of nitre and  laudanum are
a good  addition to allay the nausea.  It is also
given  in the form  of  sirup,  mixture, pills, and
clyster.
   Remarks. Numerous preparations of this article
are continually being puffed off by certain adver-
tising  druggists ; as " soluble  copaiba," " specific
solution," " salt of copaiba," &c.; but none ap-
pear to possess equal activity and certainty to the
natural balsam.  As the whole virtue of copaiba
 as a medicine depends upon the essential oil it con-
tains,  the value of any  of these preparations may
be estimated by the quantity of  that article which
 is found in them.  In the case of the first two ar-
 ticles  above mentioned, the quantity  is very small
 indeed, and in  the  latter it  is wholly deficient.
 Hence the large doses of those articles that may
 be taken with impunity, as far  as their balsamic
 properties go, always,  of course, excepting the
 danger of burning a hole through the coats of the
 stomach with the large quantity of caustic potassa
 which they usually contain.
   BALSAM COPAIBA, ENEMA OF.  (Vel-
 PEau.)  Prep. Balsam of copaiba \ oz.; yelk of 1
 egg :  distilled water 8 oz.  Make an emulsion, and
 add 'il) to 30 drops of laudanum.
  BALSAM OF  COPAIBA,  FACTITIOUS
Prep. Powdered gum  benzoin 4 oz.; castor  oil 1
gallon ;  yellow  rosin 3  lbs.; balsam of  Canada 2
lbs.; oil of juniper 2 oz.; oil of savine 1 oz.; es-
sences of orange and lemon, of each £ oz.  Proc.
Melt the rosin, then add a little of the castor oil
and the powdered benzoin, and withdraw the heat;
when well mixed add the  remainder of the castor
oil, and  when nearly cold  the essences; mix well,
and filter through a Canton flannel bag, adding a
little coarsely-powdered charcoal.
  II.  Balsam of Canada 8  lbs.; yellow  rosin 2
lbs.; castor  oil  3 lbs.;  oil  of juniper \ oz.;  essen-
tial oil of almonds 15 drops; oil of savine 20 drops.
As above.
  III.  Balsam of Canada 9 lbs.;  yellow  rosin 1
lb.; Venice  turpentine 2  lbs.; oils of  rosemary,
juniper, and savine, 1 drachm each;  essential oil
of almonds 15 drops.
  IV. Balsam of Canada 3 lbs.; Venice turpen-
tine 1 lb.; oils  of fennel,  juniper, and savine, of
each q.  s.
  Remarks.  The  above compounds may easily
be distinguished from the  genuine balsam,  by any
one  acquainted with  the characters, <cs  of the
latter.
  BALSAM OF COPAIBA, REDUCED.  Bah
sam of copaiba 4 lbs.;  castor oil 3 lbs.   Mix.
   II. Balsam of copaiba  7 lbs.; castor  oil  4  lbs.;
yellow rosin 2 lbs.
   III. Equal parts of  balsam of copaiba and bal-
sam of Canada mixed  together.
   IV. To the last add 2 lbs. of Venice turpentine.
   V. Balsams of Canada and copaiba, and nut or
castor oil, equal parts.
   VI. Copaiba 7 lbs.; nut oil 3 lbs.; yellow  rosin
2 lbs.; balsam  of Canada 1 lb.
   Remarks.  The above are  the forms  for the re-
duction of copaiba balsam, that have from  time to
time been circulated in the drug trade.  For the
mode of distinguishing such compounds from the
pure balsam, see Balsam  of Copaiba.
   BALSAM OF COPAIBA, RESIN OF.  The
residuum left from  the process of distilling the oil
of copaiba from the balsam.  (See Oils,  Oil op
Copaiba.)  Prop., Use, fyc. It consists principally
of copaibic  acid.  It has been  recommended for
gonorrhoea, but appears to be nearly inert.  I  once
foolishly swallowed, out  of bravado, nearly  \ oz.
of this resin,  without experiencing any sensible ef-
fects in consequence.
   BALSAM OF COPAIBA, SIRUP OF. Prep
Rub 4 oz. of copaiba with 32 grs. of calcined mag-
nesia, 64 drops of  oil of peppermint, and a little
simple sirup ; when thoroughly mixed, add enough
of the  latter to make up the  whole quantity to
62 oz.
   BALSAM,   GODBOLD'S   VEGETABLE.
Prep.  Lump sugar 1 lb.; vinegar i pint;  garlic \
oz.; tincture of tolu 1 teaspoonful  ; rectified spirit
3 oz.   Proc.   Steep the garlic  in  the vinegar for
3 or 4 days,  then strain off the  clear and  dissolve
the sugar therein, after which add  the other ingre-
dients and shake them well together.
   BALSAM,  GREEN.  Prep. Linseed oil 8 oz.;
gum elemi 2 oz.; verdigris powdered \ oz.   Proc.
Melt together and strain.  Use.  The same as
green oil.
  BALSAM  OF GUAIACUM.
Prep.  G urn 
BAL                      95                     BAL
  guaiacum in coarse powder 16 oz.; balsam of Pe-
  ru ^ oz.;  rectified spirit 1 quart.   Proc. Macerate
  for 10 days, frequently shaking the mixture.
    Use. As a  diaphoretic.   Dose. 30  to  60 drops.
  Externally antisuppurative.
    BALSAM  OF HONEY.  Prep. I. Balsam
  of tolu 2 oz.; gum storax and powdered opium, of
  each \ oz.; honey 8  oz.; rectified  spirit 1 quart.
  Proc. Mix well together, and agitate  occasionally
  for 3 or 4 days, then  decant the clear and filter
  the  residuum.   Use.  As a pectoral, in tickling
  coughs.   Dose. 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.
    II.  (Hill's.) a. Balsam of tolu 1  lb.; honey 2
  lbs.; rectified spirit 1 gallon.   Dissolve.
    6.  Balsam of tolu 1 oz.;  styrax 1 drachm ; opi-
  um 2  drachms ; honey \ lb.; rectified  spirit 1 pint,
  as above.  Dose.  Half to a whole teaspoonful.  As
  a pectoral in coughs and colds.
    BALSAM  OF LEAD.   Prep. Sugar of  lead
  2 oz.; oil of turpentine 1 pint.  Proc. Heat them
  together for half an  hour,  and then  pour off the
  clear.  Use.  As a cooling external application.
    BALSAM, LOCATELLES.  Prep. I. Yel-
  low rosin, olive oil, and Venice turpentine, of each
  1 lb.; shavings of red Sanders wood 1 oz.  Proc.
  Boil to the  consistence of  a thin ointment, and
  strain.
    II.  Yellow wax 4 oz.; olive oil and Venice tur-
  pentine, of each 1 lb.; alkanet root 2  oz. ; as last.
    Use. As a pectoral  in coughs and colds.  Dose.
  J to 1 teaspoonful mixed with the same  quantity
  of conserve of roses.
    BALSAM, PECTORAL.  Prep.  Tincture of
  tolu, and compound tincture of benzoin, of each 2
  oz.; rectified  spirit 4 oz.   Mix.   Use. As a pec-
  toral in coujrhs and colds.   Dose.  A teaspoonful.
   BALSAM  OF  PERU.  Prep,  and Source.
  Genuine balsam of Peru is obtained by boiling the
  bark and branches of the myrospermum peruiferum
  in water.  It should possess the following charac-
  teristics :
   Pur. and Tests. I. Balsam of Peru  should have
  a consistence and  appearance resembling treacle,
  and an aromatic odor between that of benzoin and
  vanilla.  II.  It should  be entirely soluble in alco-
  hol.   III. It should undergo no diminution in vol-
  ume when agitated with  water.  IV.  1000 parts
  of the  balsam  should saturate exactly 75 grains of
 pure crystallized carbonate of soda.  V. Its sp. gr.
 should not be  less than 1-150, nor more  than 1-160.
   Remarks. Like  most other costly articles, it is
 both imitated and  adulterated.  The following are
 the formulas adopted for this purpose, but the arti-
 cles so produced will not answer to the  above tests
   BALSAM OF PERU, FACTITIOUS. Prep.
 Balsam of tolu 1 lb.; gum benzoin 3  lbs.;  liquid
 storax 1 oz.; rectified spirit q. s.  Proc. The gum
 benzoin in  coarse powder is dissolved  in a little of
 the spirit, and then mixed up with the balsam of
 tolu and storax, adding  as much  spirit as is neces-
 sary to  reduce it to  a proper consistence.
   BALSAM  OF  PERU, REDUCED.  Prep.
 Balsam of Peru 3 lbs.; balsam of tolu 2 lbs.; rec-
 tified spirit enough to -educe it to a proper consist-
 ence.  As above.
   II. Balsam of Peru 3 lbs.; gum benzoin (dis-
solved in the least quantity of spirit possible) 1  lb.
As above.       i
  BALSAM,  RIGA.   Syn.  Baume de Carpa- I
  thes. (Fr.)   Balsamu.m Libani. (Lat.)  True Ri.
  ga balsam is  a pellucid white fluid, obtained from
  the shoots of the pinus cembra.   It smells and
  tastes strongly of oil of juniper, and like that arti-
  cle  is powerfully  diuretic  and  vulnerary.   The
  bottoms of oil of juniper thinned with spirit  are
  generally sold for it.   The spiritus  turioimm pini
  is also commonly called Riga balsam.
    BALSAM, RIGA.  Syn. Spiritus Turionum
  Pini.  Prep.  I. Young shoots of Scotch  fir (col-
  lected in March) 2 lbs.; rectified spirit and water,
  of each 5 pints.   Proc. Bruise the fir-shoots and
  macerate in the spirit  and water for 3 or 4 days,
  then distil  1 gallon.
    II.  (Extemporaneous.)  Mix together, rectified
  spirit 8 oz.; oil of juniper and compound tincture
  of benzoin, of each 1 oz.; agitate well and filter.
  Prop.,  Use,  <SfC.  Stimulant  and  diuretic; also
  used for sprains and bruises.
    BALSAM OF SULPHUR.  Syn. Oil of Sul-
  phur.  Sulphureted Oil.   Prop. I. Flowers of
  sulphur 1 lb.; olive oil 8 lbs.  Proc.  Heat them
  together in a  large iron  pot, and  stir until they
  combine. (P. E.)
    II. Flowers of sulphur 1 lb.; linseed oil 1 gallon.
    BALSAM  OF  SULPHUR,  ANISATED.
  Prep. I. Dissolve 1 oz. of flowers of sulphur in 4
  oz. of oil of aniseed.
    II. Balsam of sulphur 12 oz.; oil of aniseed 4
  oz.  Mix.
    Use,  Dose,  fyc. Balsam of sulphur  is said to
  possess expectorant and diaphoretic qualities, and
  has been given in  doses of  40 to 50 drops, in dis-
  eases of the lungs, and used externally as  an ap-
  plication to foul ulcers.   Its disagreeable taste and
  smell have, however, almost precluded its use. The
  last two formula? are pectoral, in doses of 10 to 30
  drops.
   BALSAM,  THIBAULT'S.   Prep.  Myrrh,
  aloes, and dragon's  blood, of  each  1  drachm;
  flowers of Saint John's wort 1 handful; spirit of
  wine % a pint; Canada balsam  £ oz.  Proc.  Di-
  gest the flowers in the spirit for 3 days, then express
 the liquor and dissolve the other ingredients therein.
  Use. To heal cuts and wounds, and to stop bleedino-.
  Internally diuretic, in doses of 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls ;
 given in gonorrhoea.
   BALSAM OF  TOLU.  This substance is ob-
 tained  from the  myrospermum  toluiferum, and
 when fresh, is  a soft, translucent, tenacious, and
 resinous-looking  mass, of a reddish or yellowish
 brown color, a fragrant odor, and a sweetish taste.
 It is perfectly soluble  in  alcohol, forming a trans-
 parent solution. By exposure to the air it becomes
 hard and brittle.   It is frequently adulterated,  in
 which case it has a weaker smell, is less soluble in
 alcohol, and the tincture formed with that fluid
 is opaque.
  BALSAM OF TOLU, FACTITIOUS.  Prep.
 Orange shellac and gum benzoin, of each 1 lb. in
 coarse powder ; dissolve in rectified spirit 5 lb., (in
 a close vessel;)  filter and distil off the spirit until
 the residuum has a proper consistence, then add a
 few drops of the oils of cassia and  nutmeg, dis-
 solved in a little essence of vanilla.
  BALSAM OF TOLU, (REDUCED.)  I. Bal-
 sam of tolu 1  lb.; mix  it by a gentle heat in  a
 close vessel with 1 \ lb. of the brightest and clearest
pieces of gum benzoin reduced to a coarse powder, 
BAR                     96                     BAR
and soften with a little tincture of vanilla and spi-
rit of wine.
  II. Equal parts of balsam of tolu, benzoin, orange
shellac, and  spirit of wine, mixed  together  by a
gentle  heat, and flavored with a little  essence  of
Jtorax and essence of vanilla.
  BALSAM OF TURPENTINE.  Prep. Melt
by a gentle  heat  black  rosin  1 lb.; remove the
vessel from the fire and add oil of turpentine 1 pint.
  BAMBOO,  ENGLISH.   This  is  a sort  of
pickle prepared from the young shoots of elder in
spring.  Prep.  The outer skin is peeled off, and
they are immersed  in salt water for 12 or 14 hours,
then boiled in vinegar for a few seconds ; they are
next put into a jar with a little white pepper, gin-
ger, mace, and pimento,  and vinegar (boiling hot)
poured over them ; the jar  is then  well covered
up, and set for about 2 hours in a hot place  by the
fireside, where it is kept  scalding until the pickle
is done.
  Use. For making Indian pickle, also eaten with
boiled mutton.  The clusters of elder flowers, just
before they open, also make a beautiful pickle.
  BANDANNA.   This is  a species of calico
printing distinguished by  light, or white figures or
spots on a dark ground, and has been practised in
India from time immemorial. Formerly bandanna
handkerchiefs were wholly imported from  India,
but of late  years  those  of British  manufacture
have entirely superseded them.  The latter are not
only much  cheaper,  but also  vastly  superior in
quality.  At  the works of  Messrs.  Monteith and
Co. at Glasgow, no less than 1600 pieces, or 19,200
yards of cotton, are converted into  bandannas in
the short space of 10 hours, by the  labor of  only
4 workmen.   The machinery  employed for this
purpose is of the most ingenious description.
  (Process of printing Bandannas.)   A series of
presses are arranged furnished with lead plates, out
of which the  pattern is cut, the pieces of  cotton,
dyed (generally) of a Turkey red, are then placed
in, several at a time, and the presses put in action
by hydraulic machinery, by which every part of
the cloth, except where the pattern  has  been cut
out of  the lead plates, receives a  pressure  of up-
wards of 300 tons.  A clear solution of chloride of
lime is now  admitted to  the pattern, by properly
arranged pipes, and after it has removed the color,
which  it does very rapidly, a  stream of water is
passed  through the pattern, to wash off the bleach-
ing solution, when  the operation is complete.  The
pieces of cloth are then removed from the  presses
and others substituted, to undergo a similar opera-
tion.
  BARBAROSSA'S PILLS.  These are  sup-
posed to have been the first mercurial preparation
employed in  medicine.  They consisted of  quick-
silver,  rhubarb, musk, and amber.
  BARCLAY'S ANTIBILIOUS PILLS. Prep.
Colocynth 2 drachms ; extract of jalap 1 drachm ;
almond soap  1 £  drachms;  gum   guaiacum  3
drachms; emetic  tartar 8  grs.; oils  of juniper,
caraway, and rosemary, of  each 4 drops.  Proc.
Make  the  ingredients into a  mass with sirup of
buckthorn, and divide into 64 pills.
  BAREGES WATER   Prep. Alum, carbon-
ate of lime, and hard Spanish soap, of each 2 grs.;
common salt 4 grs.;  dried carbonate  of soda  20
grs.; sulphuret of potassium 16 grs.; water 1 quart.
Pmr.  Reduce the solid ingredients to powder, and
boil them in the water until the fumes of sulphu-
reted hydrogen begin to  be  evolved,  then add
enough water to make up 1 gallon.  Use.  As a
medicated lotion or bath  in cutaneous diseases,
from the slightest eruption to  the most obstinate
cases of leprosy.  Remarks. The above are the
proportions for  1 gallon, but when a larger  quan-
tity of water is wanted, a proportionate weight of
the materials may be dissolved in a little of the
water, as above, and then added to the bath. This
was the medicated warm bath used by the Empe-
ror Napoleon.
   BARIUM.  The metallic base of the earth ba-
ryta, discovered by Sir H.  Davy in 1808.
   Prep.  Make a paste with carbonate of baryta
and water, and place a globule of  mercury in a
little hollow, formed  in  its surface.  The whole
must  be  then  laid on a small platina tray, con-
nected with the positive pole of a galvanic battery,
of 100 double plates, while the negative wire must
be inserted into the globule of mercury.  An amal-
gam of barium is formed, which, on being heated
in a vacuum, parts with its mercury and leaves
the former metal pure.
   Prop., tf-c. A dark gray colored metal, posses
sing little lustre, and decomposed by both air and
water, absorbing oxygen,  which converts it into
the earth baryta.
   BARIUM, BROMIDE OF.  Prep. Boil to-
gether protobromide of iron  and moist  carbonate
of baryta, in excess, evaporate  the filtered solution
and heat the residue to redness.  Remarks. By
the careful evaporation  of  a solution of  this sub-
stance prismatic crystals  may be  obtained. It
dissolves freely both in water and alcohol.
   BARIUM, CHLORIDE  OF.  Syn.  Muriate
of Baryta.  Hydrochlorate  of  ditto.  Prep.
I. Carbonate of baryta §x;  muriatic acid £ pint;
water  1  quart.  Proc.  Dilute the acid  with the
water, then dissolve the carbonate of baryta  in it;
evaporate and crystallize. (P. L.)
   II.  Sulphate of baryta rb ij; powdered charcoal
§iv ; muriatic acid q. s.   Proc.  Heat the sulphate
of baryta to redness, then cool and powder;  next
add the  charcoal, and expose the  mixture  in a
covered  crucible for three  hours  to a  low  white
heat; cool and powder ;  lastly, dissolve  in water,
filter, and add muriatic acid  until  effervescence
ceases.   The solution  may  now be evaporated and
crystallized as before.  (P. E.)
   Prop.  Form ; crystalline plates or tables, solu-
ble in water, and fixed in the  air.   It communi-
cates  a  greenish  yellow  color to  flame.   Use.
Principally as a test for sulphuric acid, its solution
causing a white precipitate in another, containing
oil of  vitriol or a sulphate.    It has been given in
scrofula, scirrhous cancer, skin diseases, &o.  It is
poisonous.  Its antidotes  are the same as those
for baryta.
   Remarks.  The process  of the London College
is the simplest and most convenient.   That of the
Edinburgh requires to be conducted under a chim-
ney, or in a strong current  of air, to  carry off the
sulphureted hydrogen, evolved in large quantities,
during the process.  The form of the P. D. is sim-
ilar to the Edinburgh.
   BARIUM, FLUORIDE OF.  Syn. Hydro-
fluorate of Baryta.   A white  powder formed 
BAR                    97                    BAR
ay digesting freshly-precipitated carbonate of ba-
ryta in hydrofluoric acid in excess.
  BARIUM,  IODIDE OF.   Syn. Protiodide
of  Barium.   Hydriodate  of Baryta.   Prep.
I.  Dissolve sulphuret of barium in water, and add I
iodine gradually, in excess,  then filter and evapo-
rate. (Phillips.)
  II.  Decompose an aqueous solution of iodide of
iron by freshly-precipitated  carbonate of baryta ;
filter, evaporate, and crystallize.
   Use. An ointment made with 4 grs. of the iodide
to 1 oz. of lard has been used in scrofula.
  BARIUM,  OXIDES  OF.  I. (Protoxide of
Barium.    Syn.  Oxide of Barium.   Barvtes.
Baryta.)   When the metal, barium, is exposed to
the action of  either air or water this oxide is the
sole product.
   Prep.  a. Strongly ignite the pure crystallized
nitrate of baryta in a covered crucible.
   6. Ignite, as before, a mixture of carbonate of
baryta and charcoal in  a blacklead crucible.
   c. (Hydrated.)  Precipitate a solution  of either
muriate or nitrate of baryta with another of caustic
potassa or soda.
   Prop.  Obtained by the first two processes it forms
a grayish white  powder, having a very caustic and
alkaline taste, and  slaking, on the addition of wa-
ter, like quicklime, but  with the evolution of more
heat.  It then  forms  a bulky white  powder, re-
sembling  that prepared by the last formula.   It
rapidly passes into the state of carbonate on expo-
sure to air.   Use.  As a test for  carbonic acid and
for the formation  of some  salts.  Ant.  It is very
poisonous.   The best antidotes are water  soured
with  sulphuric acid, or a  solution  of sulphate of
soda, or sulphate of magnesia.
   II. (Peroxide of Barium.   Syn.  Deutoxide
of Barii'm.J Prep.  a.  Heat pure baryta to a dull
red, and pass pure dry oxygen gas over it.
   b. Heat pure  baryta  as above in  a platina cruci-
ble, then gradually add one-fourth of its weight of
chlorate of potassa. Afterwards wash off the chlo-
ride of potassium  formed with cold  water.   The
deutoxide remains as a white powder.
   c. Heat nitrate of baryta to redness in an earth-
enware retort, having a tube attached to its nose,
to  convey off the  liberated gases, to a trough of
water, and  continue the heat until nitrous fumes
are no longer  evolved.   Uses. To make the oxy-
genized acids and peroxide of hydrogen.  (Quesne-
villc)
   BARIUM, PHOSPHURET  OF.   This  is
formed by exposing its constituents mixed together
in atomic proportions, to a gentle heat in a glass tube.
   BARIUM,  SULPHURET  OF.  Prep.  Mix
together  equal parts  of sulphate of  baryta  and
wheat flour  or charcoal, and expose the mixture to
a  full  white heat in a covered crucible.   When
cold dissolve in water, filter, evaporate, and crys-
tallize. Prop.  Decomposed by exposure in solution
to the air.   Use. To form baryta and its salts and
in organic analysis.
   BARK, BRITISH.  Syn.  Oak Bark.  The bark
of the young branches  of the oak  has been pro-
posed for the more expensive productions of South
America. The leaves also  contain a large quantity
of astringent matter. Mr. Stuart, who first brought
oak bark into  notice, says that it is a certain re-
medy for scurvy.
                         13
  BARLEY.  Qua I.  Next to wheat, barley may
be considered the most valuable grain to man, both
for the purposes of food and for forming several bev-
erages in  general  consumption.   (Malt liquors,
&,c.)   It forms  good wholesome  bread, especially
for persons  who otherwise live luxuriously, but for
those who live abstemiously wheaten bread is pre-
ferable.
  BARLEY, CULTIVATION OF. After wheat,
barley may be considered the most important grain
crop, especially in light and sharp soils, but  it " is
a tender grain, and easily hurt in any of the stages
of its growth, particularly at seed-time ; a heavy
shower of rain will then almost ruin a crop on the
best-prepared land;  and in all the after-processes,
greater pains and attention are  required to ensure
success than in the case of other grains.  The har-
vest process is  difficult, and often attended with
danger;  even the thrashing of it is not easily exe-
cuted with  machines, because the  awn  generally
adheres to  the grain, and renders separation from
the  straw a troublesome task.   Barley, in fact, is
raised at a greater expense than wheat, and gene-
rally speaking is a more hazardous crop.  Except
upon rich and genial soils, where climate will al-
low  wheat  to be perfectly reared, it ought not to
be cultivated.
   "  Barley  may be  divided  into two  sorts, early
and  late ; to which may be added a bastard varie-
ty, called bear or bigg, which affords similar nutri-
ment or substance, though of inferior quality.  Early
barley, under various  names, was  formerly sown
in Britain, upon lands  that  had been  previously
summer  fallowed, or were in high  condition; but
this  mode of culture being in a great measure re-
nounced, the common sort, which admits of being
sown either early or late, is now generally used.
   "  The most proper seed-season is any time in
April, though we have seen good crops produced,
the seed of  which was sown at a much later period."
   Barley is generally sown after turnips and  fre-
quently after peas  and beans,  but seldom  after
wheat or oats.  The quantity of seed varies with
the quality of the soil.  Upon very rich land eight
pecks per acre are commonly sown, and frequently
ten or twelve, whilst upon poor lands a larger quan-
tity  is sometimes given.   Enough seed should be
sown to  ensure a full  crop without offsets, which
are always produced if too little seed is used.
   The harvesting of  barley requires  much care
even in good seasons, while, in bad ones, it is very
difficult to  save  it. It must be cut before the straw
gets brittle, and must be suffered to remain in the
field until the grain is hardened, and the straw suf-
ficiently dry.  If stacked too soon it is apt to heat.
A good way to prevent this is to form  an opening
through the stack from top to bottom.  This open-
ing is generally  made by placing a large bundle of
straw in the centre of the stack, when  the  build-
ing commences, and, in proportion  as it rises, the
straw is drawn  upward, leaving a  hollow behind,
which, if one or  two  openings are left in the side of
the stack nea,r the bottom, ensures so  complete a
circulation  of air as not only to  prevent  heating,
but to preserve the grain from becoming musty.
   BARNS   AND    OUTHOUSES    FROM
MITES AND  WEEVILS, TO FREE.  (Ger-
man  method.)   Let the walls  and rafters,  above
and  below, of such granaries be covered completely 
BAR                    98                     BAR
with quicklime, slaked  in  water, in which trefoil,
wormwood, and hyssop, or mix vomica have been
boiled.   This composition should bo applied as hot
as possible.   " A  farmer who had his  granaries
empty  in June last, collected  quantities of  the
largest sized ants in sacks, and  scattered  them
about the place infested with weevils.   The  ants
immediately fell upon and devoured them all."
  BAROMETER (From Bapoj weight and /icrpov,
measure.) An instrument for measuring the weight
and pressure of the atmosphere, commonly termed
a weather-glass.  This  instrument is made of  va-
rious shapes, but the principle of its construction is
the same in each, and consists of a column of mer-
cury, supported  in vacuo, in a  glass tube, by the
pressure of the  atmosphere  on its  surface   The
following engravings represent  the principal varie-
ties.  The several shapes have arisen from the at-
tempts which have been made from time to time
to improve this instrument, either by increasing its
range  or  portability.  None, however, equal the
old forms  proposed  by Torricelli, and  represented
by the figures 1 and 2.  The same letters apply to
a similar portion  of each figure ;  the references at
foot will therefore sufficiently explain the peculia-
rities of their construction.
1. Torricelli's cistern barometer.
2.--------syphon   ditto.
3. Huypen's barometer.
4.--------modified.
5. Wheel l>:irometer.
6. Bernouilli's syphon ditto.
7. Aminton's conical ditto.
8. Gay Lussac's ditto.
9. Ditto,  modified by M. Bunten

  The  wheel barometer (fig. 5) is  the one most
commonly used, especially as a weather-glass, but
it is not to be depended on, as it  neither indicates
the absolute  height of the mercurial column, nor
its variations with sufficient accuracy for any phi-
losophical purpose.   Even as a weather-glass it is
the worst  of all the common forms of the barome-
ter.   For  travelling the  las,  is  perhaps the most
unexceptionable.
  The  Construction of  a  Barometer may be
divided  into five  operations, in each of which  the
utmost skill and care are required.   The materials
must  be of the best quality.  Not only must  the
mercury be perfectly pure and free from  air, but
the tube must be quite dry and clean, and its inner
surface  must be smooth and regular.
  1. The  tubes for barometers should  be hermeti-
cally  sealed immediately after their manufacture
at the glasshouse, and kept in this state until they
are wanted for filling.  By this plan they  may be
kept clean for any length of time, whereas if they
are left with one  end open they become sullied
with  dust and smoke, which, on account of the
Bmallness of their diameters, can never be perfectly
removed.   When wanted for use  they may be
opened  with a file, after which care must be taken
not to  breathe into them, and washing them out
with spirit of wine, &c, especially avoided.   When
cleaning is absolutely necessary,  it should  be done
by means of a clean, dry linen rag, and a piece of
wire, observing not to let  the end of the wire scratch
the glass, as, if it does, such tubes  will generally
be found  broken, if laid  aside for a short time, or,
what is worse, they will  break during  the process
of filling them.   The best tubes are perfectly cylin-
a, Tube containing a column of mercury.
b, Mercurial cistern.
c, A column of mercury supporting another of water, A.
e e, Weights, one of which floats on the surface of the
     mercury, and by means of the cord / moves the
     index ff.
h, Graduated dial.
k, Capillary hole drilled laterally to admit air.
drical, 33 inches in length, and  the  diameter of
their bore never less than 2 to 2£ lines, as the ca-
pillary attraction and friction increases in an inverse
ratio  to the capacity of the tube.   The thickness
of the glass should not greatly exceed half a line.
  2. The mercury must  be perfectly pure, which
should be  ascertained before using it, as, if it be
adulterated with common metals, as is frequently
the case, its  fluidity is lessened, and  its tendency
to oxidize increased.   When it cannot be got tin-
adulterated it should be rectified in an iron retort;
or pure cinnabar, mixed with half its weight of iron
filings,  may  be treated  in  the same  way, when
pure mercury will distil over.  (See Mercury.)
  3. Filling the tube  is performed by pouring the
mercury into it, having  previously boiled it in a
porcelain or iron  vessel,  to expel  the air.  The
tube is then exposed to a  gradually increasing heat
over a chafing-dish of charcoal until  the mercury
boils, and all the air in the tube is extricated; it is
now allowed to cool and again filled up with mer-
cury, and  the exposure  over the chafing-dish re-
peated ; when again perfectly cool it may be filled
up with a little freshly-boiled mercury, and is then
ready for fixing in its frame.
  4.  The tube filled as above must next be placed
in its frame, for which  purpose  the open end is
perfectly stopped, and it  is inverted  into a small
trough  of  prepared mercury;  or if  it be of the
syphon kind, simply inverted and  fixed in its frame.
  5.  The graduated scale has now to be adjusted
to the  tube.  This is usually done by means of »
tangent screw, which  permits the scale to be raised
or lowered, until its zero exactly corresponds to the
lower surface of the mercury ; but  in many easel 
BAR                    99                    BAR
the cistern is raised or lowered by means of screws
arranged for that  purpose.  The best mode of ob-
taining  an exact adjustment of the surface of the
mercury to the zero of the tube, is that adopted by
the celebrated French artist,  Fortin.   An  ivory
needle is attached to the scale pointing downwards,
its  point being exactly on a level with the zero of
the scale.  The image  of the needle  is clearly
reflected  from the surface of the mercury  in the
cistern, and either the scale or cistern is raised or
lowered, until the point of the needle and its image
exactly coincide.
   Use. This instrument is employed for ascertain-
ing the amount of atmospherical refraction in astro-
nomical calculations, in measuring altitudes and in
prognosticating the weather.  For the latter pur-
pose, on  land, it frequently proves a false prophet,
but at sea, (according to Dr. Arnot,) the case is
widely different, and its monitions are  worthy of
 attention.  (Elem. Nat. Phil. i. 353.)
    Remarks.  The  above  is a brief  outline of  the
method of constructing barometers, and in propor-
tion to the skill therein exercised will be the accu-
racy of  the  instrument.  However  cleverly this
may have been performed, it is nevertheless found
that these instruments gradually suffer deterioration
from the external air insinuating itself between  the
mercury and  the glass tube, thus lessening the per-
fection of the vacuum.  Various plans have been
proposed to remedy this inconvenience  and source
of error.  Professor Daniels lines the bottom  of the
tube with platinum to the extent of about J of an
 inch; this  has proved  quite  sufficient.   Dr. Ure
uses  platinum  foil for the same purpose.   It is
usual, as I  have above described, to boil the metal
after its introduction into the glass tube, but some
persons disapprove of this  practice in consequence
of the mercury absorbing a little oxygen during  the
process, and instead thereof, they strongly heat  the
glass tube and pour in the mercury very hot.
   BAROMETER, PORTABLE, (Simple.) This
instrument consists in general of a tube of the usual
length, passing through the upper parts of a wooden
cistern,  to  which  it  is glued, and the bottom of
which  is made of leather.  The tube being filled
with  mercury,  which  has been previously well
purged of air, and placed  in a proper position, the
superfluous mercury descends into the cistern, and
assumes a level in the tube corresponding with the
weight of the external  air.   The surface of the
mercury in  the cistern is adjusted to the same level
by a screw, which presses  more or less against the
flexible leather at the  bottom,  and raises or de-
presses it at pleasure.  From the line of this level,
which is called zero, the scale commences, and is
reckoned upwards to the height of about 32 inches;
the actual divisions of the scale begin at about 15
inches.
   Remarks. The  most accurate  portable barome-
ters are those of Gay Lussac and  Bunten, (Figures
8,  9.)  When  set on  universal  joints and well
balanced, they  are the most perfect instruments
for ships that have been yet constructed.
   BAROMETER, TROUGHTON'S MARINE.
The tube of this instrument consists of  two parts,
joined together  about 5 inches below the top; the
bore in the upper part being  about T4ir of an inch,
and in the lower part only T(-J-ff.  By this construc-
tion, partly  from the  difference of the  bores, and
partly from  the  greater friction  in  the lower end,
the motion  of the mercury is so much  retarded,
that any impulse given by the ship, having a ten-
dency  to raise it, will scarcely  have produced a
sensible effect, before  an opposite impulse will  be
given, having a tendency to depress it.  To coun-
teract more effectually the effects of the ship's mo-
tions, the instrume*-* is suspended in gimbals.
   BAROMETER, THE VIAL.   Prep.  Take
a common vial and cut off the rim and part of the
neck, by means of a piece of cord passed round it,
and moved rapidly to and fro, in a sawing  direc-
tion ; the one end being held in the left hand and
the other  fastened to  any convenient object, while
the right  hand holds and moves the vial; when
heated, dip it suddenly into cold water, and the part
will crack off; or separate it with a file.  Then
nearly fill the vial  with clean water, place  your
finger :n the mouth and invert it;  withdraw your
finger dnd suspend  it in this position with a piece
of twine.   In dry weather the under surface of the
water will  be level with the  neck of the bottle, or
even concave;  in damp weather, on the  contrary,
a drop will appear at the mouth and continue until
it falls, and is then followed by another in the same
way.
   Barometrical  corrections.  Cistern barometers
formed  of  tubes  of very small diameters, require
what is called "correction for capillarity."

   The following Table is taken  from the " Ency-
clopaedia Britannica."
. of Tube.	Depression.	
Inches.	Inches	
0-10	0-1403	
0-15	0-0863	
0-20	0-0581	
0-25	0-0407	
0-30	0-0292	
0-35	0-0211	
0*40	0-0153	
0-45	0-0112	
0-50	0-0083	
0-60	0-0044	
0-70	0-0023	
0-80	0*0012	
  Remarks.  It will be  seen, that as the  tube in-
creases  in diameter, so  the depression of the mer-
cury lessens.   Syphon barometers that  have each
of their  legs of equal size, require no correction, as
the depression is equal at both ends.  A correction
is also made for  temperature in nice observations,
but this is of too scientific a nature to be  entered
into in the present work.
  BAROMETRICAL  RULES FOR  PROG-
NOSTICATING THE WEATHER.
  1. After a  continuance of dry weather,  if  the
barometer begins to  fall slowly and steadily, rain
will certainly ensue;  but if the fine weather  has
been of  long duration, the mercury may fall for 2
or 3  days, before any perceptible change  takes
place, and the longer time that elapses before rain
comes, the longer the wet weather is likely to last
  2. Conversely, if,  after a great deal  of wet
weather, with  the  barometer  below  its  mean 
BAS                    100                    BAT
height,  the  mercury  begins  to  rise steadily  and
slowly, fine weather will come, though 2 or 3  wot
days miy first elapse ; and the fine weather will be
the more permanent, in proportion to the length
of time that  passes before the perceptible change
takes place.
  3  On either of the two foregoing suppositions,
if the change immediately ensues on the  motion
of the mercury, the change will not be permanent.
  4. If the barometer rises slowly and steadily for
two days together, or more, fine weather will come,
though for those two days it may rain incessantly,
and the reverse;  but if the barometer rises for  two
days  or  more during rain, and then, on the  ap-
pearance of fine weather, begins to fall again, the
fine weather will be very transient, and vice versa.
  5. A sudden fall of the barometer in  spring or
autumn  indicates  wind; in summer, during very
hot weather, a thunder-storm may be  expected;
in winter a sudden  fall  after frost  of some conti-
nuance, indicates a change of wind  with thaw  and
rain ; but in a continued frost a rise  of the mercury
indicates approaching snow.
  6. No rapid fluctuations of the barometer  are
to be interpreted  as  indicating  either dry or  wet
weather of any continuance ; it is  only  the slow,
steady, and continued rise or fall, that is to be at-
tended to in this respect.
   7. A rise of the mercury late in the autumn,
after a  long continuance  of  wet and windy wea-
ther, generally indicates a change  of wind to the
northern quarters, and the approach of frost.
   BARYTA.   Syn.  Piiotoxide  of   Barium.
Oxide of ditto.   (See Barium.)
   BARYTA,  SALTS  OF.  Prep.   All  the
soluble salts of baryta may be made by solution  of
its  carbonate or  hydrate in  the dilute  acids,  and
the  insoluble  salts, generally, by  the  double  de-
composition of its muriate, by a soluble salt of the
acid.
   BARYTA, TESTS  FOR, AND ITS SALTS.
I. This earth forms an  alkaline solution with
water.   II. Baryta in  solution, and all its salts,
give a white precipitate in alkaline  carbonates and
sulphates, and sulphuric acid ; the  last two being
insoluble in both acid and alkaline menstrua.
   BARYTA, ALLOXANATE OF. Prep.  Add
barytic water to an  aqueous solution of alloxan,
neated   to  140"  until the  precipitate  formed,
ceases to be redissoived on stirring ; then cool  and
collect the crystals, and repeat the  process of add-
ing barytic water to the mother liquor, which will
thus  furnish several  crops of crystals.  Use. To
form some salts.
   BARYTIN.   A new vegetable base discovered
by Simon, in the rhizomes of white hellebore.   It
is precipitated from its  solutions by sulphuric  acid
and the sulphates, like baryta,  hence the name;
and this property affords  a  means  for its  separa-
tion.
   BASE, (in Chemistry.)   A term  applied  to
metallic oxides,  (from  their forming salts with
acids,)  and to the principal constituent of a com-
pound.   Thus: soda is called the base of sulphate
of soda, (giauber salts;) quinine the base of disul-
phate of quinine, Cyc.   Forms will  be found  in
this book for the  preparation  of the  principal bases,
as well as their salts.
   BASILICON, BLACK.   Pre p.  Yellow  wax
 1 lb.; black rosin and olive oil, ot each 2 lbs. Proc
 Melt together and strain through a piece of canvass.
 Remarks.   This old preparation  is similar to the
 resin cerate of the London  Pharm., with the ex-
 ception of containing black instead of yellow rosin.
 Linseed oil, used instead of olive oil, comes cheaper,
 and is preferred by many persons.
   BASSORIN.   S>m.  Insoluble Gum.  The in-
 soluble  portion of gum tiagacanth, &c,  after the
 soluble part has been removed with water.  Prep. It
 is best prepared by soaking gum bassora in a large
 quantity of hot water, and  filtering off  the clear
 portion.
   BATE MAN'S PECTORAL DROPS.  Prep.
 Paregoric 10 oz.; tincture of castor 4 oz.; lauda-
 num 1  oz.; tincture of  saffron or cochineal £ oz.;
 oil of aniseed 15 drops.  Mix.  Dose. A teaspoon-
 ful or more in coughs and colds.
   BATE.MANS  ITCH OINTMENT.  Prep.
 Carbonate of potassa 1 oz.;  red sulphuret of mer-
 cury i  oz.; hog's lard and  flowers of sulphur, of
 each 22 oz.; bergamotte 60 drops; rose-water 2
 oz.  Proc.  Mix  the potassa and  powders w 'h a
 little of the lard, and rub them well together, then
 add the remainder of the  lard, previously softened
 by heat, and  afterwards the  rose-water gently
 warmed : stir until cold.
   BATHS,  BATHING.   General   Remarks.
 The practice  of bathing is not  only an act of
 cleanliness, but is  eminently conducive to health.
 The delicate pores of the skin soon become choked
 by the solid matter of the perspiration and the ac-
 cumulation of dirt, and require frequent ablution
 with water, to preserve  their natural functions in
 a state of  activity.  The  mere wearing of flannel
 and washing the more exposed parts of  the body,
 and the daily use of clean linen, is but an imper-
 fect attempt at cleanliness,  without  being accom-
 panied  by entire submersion of the body in water.
 The phlegmatic  Englishman, unlike his  lively
 French neighbor, seems perfectly incredulous on
 this point,  and would sooner spend his sixpence or
 his shilling in a glass  of grog, or a ride to Green-
 wich, than in the healthy recreation of the bath.
   Bathing is  not only  conducive to  cleanliness,
 but to both the physical and mental health.   The
 body cannot be  in a state of lively health, while
 the proper  offices of the skin  are interfered with,
 any more  than would be the case with either of
 the other excretory organs, placed in a like condi
 tion.  Nor can the mind, dependent as it is on the
 organization of the body, escape unharmed, when
 the animal  functions are imperfectly performed.
 Intellectual and moral vigor  are universally promo-
 ted by the imperceptible yet controlling influence
 of the physical system, and he who would increase
 the former, cannot go on a safer method than that
 which tends to preserve or improve the health.
   " On the continent,  ' Maisons  des Bains' or
 bathing-houses,  are almost as numerous as the
 chemists and druggists  are  in this country.  The
 inference  necessarily is, that bathing in  France is
 as much patronized as physic is in England.  The
 French need  the latter  less, because  they live
 more temperately, are  less  ground down to  think
 and work ; and because they perform general per-
 sonal  ablution  (to the  benefit of  one  of  the mos1
 important  functions of life,  namely, free  perspira-
[ tion) with as much zeal  as though it were a re- 
BAT                    101                    BAT
  ligious duty.  The inducement  to  such frequent
  use of the warm  bath among our neighbors, may
  be fancied to be the low charges for bathing, and
  the little value the Messieurs attach to their own
  time.   The  first notion is a fallacy.   Warm bath-
  ing on the continent is not cheaper  in  comparison
  with all  the other necessaries or luxuries of life,
  viewed in connection with a fore-Tier's resources,
  than it is in England.  With regard  to the ap-
  parently little importance they attach to their own
  time, they are wise enough to discover, that life is
  not one jot sweeter by passing sixteen hours a day
  behind the  desk or counter, to the exclusion of all
  recreation, except recreation be to count the gains of
  such exilement; or to indulge the hope of amassing a
  sufficiency to do the ' important' at the close of a
  wearied life, when and which  the infirmities of age
  forbid  to enjoy.   A Frenchman  lice?, works, and
  enjoys himself to the last.  Prince Talleyrand
  died  in armor;  his life was a  bouquet in which
  all but the  sweetest flowers  were  excluded.  A
  Frenchman  takes the bath for the  mental and bodily
  gratification it  affords;  he  can appreciate the
  luxury of it, while at the same time he is sensible
  of its  healthfulness.   An Englishman  is  such a
  stiffuecked  fellow, that  in most things, he will
  only do  that which pleases him  best, and his
  standard of  pleasure  is estimated by that which
  adds most to his hoard, and which gives the great-
  est  amount  of satisfaction to the  inward man.
  Advise him  to take a warm bath; the answer is,
  he cannot spare the time, and he hates  the bother
  of uncravating, &c.   The waste of the»one and
  the  trouble  of the other add  not to his income,
  whatever they may to his health.   The  roast beef,
  the  brandied wines, and  the  London-brewed are
  his stomach's deities, the minor godships  being blue
  pills and black draughts.   The latter are indispens-
  able attendants  upon the  former, to temper down
  Mr. Bull, lest he become a giant in noses and car-
  buncles.  A  Frenchman  knows  no ill  but what
  pleasure denies;  he rarely has dyspepsia, gout,
  rheumatism, or fevers. Half his life is spent  in
  Elysium,—half ours in Purgatory.   Indigestion,
  headaches, restless nights—the blues  when awake,
  and the terribles when asleep—fall to  the lot of
  the mind-absorbed and grossly-fed Londoner, while
  our  lively Parisian, with  his light meal and still
  more lightsome body, finds trouble only  in broken
 limbs, or positive starvation."
    The  warm bath, especially, is  one of the most
 valuable, but most  neglected remedies  which we
 possess.   It is generally imagined by Englishmen,
 that  bathing  is  but little  fitted for their country,
 owing to the changefulness of the climate,  and
 that to attempt to place a sick man  in  a bath in
 any other than the  mildest weather,  would be to
 subject him to all the horrors of "  sniffling, sneez-
 ing, coughing, and relapse."   But that such re-
 sults of  bathing  have  no existence  beyond  the
 minds of the  fearful,  ignorant, and  prejudiced,
 must be acknowledged  by every candid person.
 Even the cold bath, as in the treatment termed
 "hydropathy," is beneficial when applied with
 judgment; and it is  only when  common discretion
 is not exercised,  that bathing  under any shape
 ever proves injurious.
  Some  persons  are very susceptible of taking
eold,  and are  themselves  "living barometers;"
  but even to them warm bathing would prove ad-
  vantageous.  One half of the rheumatic  twinges,
  swollen limbs, and cramped joints that  occur in
  such persons, would give way before  proper per-
  severance and confidence in this remedy.
    Whenever in  delicate  persons the  cold bath is
  deemed proper,  the warm,  tepid,  and cool bath
  may be used as  a preparative, and when the for-
  mer is at length  adopted, it should be  at first only
  for one or  two minutes  at  a  time, gradually in-
  creased to a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes *
  care  being taken  never to remain  immersed suf-
  ficiently long to induce a sensation of cold on com-
  ing out. A healthy  reaction should  follow the
  bath, and a pleasing glow of warmth should diffuse
  itself over the surface  of  the body.   If this be not
  the case, the bath has either been  indulged in too
  long, or been injudiciously taken.   When any
  symptoms appear that contra-indicate  the use  of
  the cold bath, the tepid, warm, or vapor bath may
  be substituted, according to circumstance's.
    In conclusion, I may remark,  that bathing, es-
  pecially in water at a temperature  nearly similar
  to that of our bodies,  (tepid bath,) is at once ne
  of the most cleanly and health-preserving luxuries,
  or, I should  say, necessaries of life.  The following
  short notice of each description of  bath, is all the
  space that can be spared for this subject.
    I. Affusion of cold  water over  the  surface of
  the body, has been adopted  with success, for ar-
  resting the progress of some fevers.  In scarlatina,
  &c., sponging the body with tepid water, or water
  mixed with vinegar, has been employed instead.
   II.  Air bath.  a. (Cold.)   The  mere exposure
  of the body in a state of nudity to the atmosphere,
  forms the common air bath.   It has  been found
  useful in allaying slight degrees of febrile excite-
 ment, and to  act  as a mild  tonic,  when  not too
 long continued.
   6. (Hot.)   This consists in placing the  patient
 in an apartment to which  heated air is admitted.
 It is generally considered to be  more stimulant
 than the vapor bath ; it produces  a  powerful per-
 spiration, and has been recommended  in cholera,
 congestive  fevers,  rheumatism,  scaly skin-dis-
 eases, &.C
   III.   Chlorine bath.  Water holding in solution
 a small quantity of chlorine gas. Its action  has not
 been much examined.  I may mention here, that
 I have seen several cases of itch cured by two or
 three immersions  in a warm bath, to which a lit-
 tle chloride of lime has been added.
   IV.  Cold  bath.  The temperature of this bath
 varies  from 45° to 85°.  It is considered tonic and
 stimulant, when not too long continued. To pro-
 duce its full effects, the  patient should feel  a plea-
 sant glow upon the surface of the  body,  imme-
 diately on coming out of the water.   If a sensation
 of coldness or shivering follows, it should  not be
 repeated.  The duration  of the immersion  may
 vary from two minutes to a  quarter of an hour,
 depending upon the temperature of the water, and
 the feelings of the bather; the latter period not
 being too long, provided swimming  or violent ex-
 ercise be adopted in the bath.   The temperature
 of the water of the rivers, and on  the coast of
 England, varies in summer from 55° to  70°.
   The following hints on cold bathing may be in-
teresting to the reader 
BAT                     102                    BAT
  1. " In using the cold bath, it is  of  essential
importance to know that there is  no truth  in the
vulgar opinion,  that it  is safer to enter the water
when the body  is cool,  and that persons heated by
exercise, and beginning to perspire,  should wait
till they are perfectly cooled.
  " It is a rule  liable to no exception,  that  mode-
rate exercise  ought always to precede cold bath-
ing ; for neither previous rest, nor exercise to a
violent degree, is proper on this occasion.
  2. " The duration of cold bathing ought to be
short, and must be determined by the bodily con-
stitution  and  sensation  of  the  individual;  for
healthy persons  may continue in it much  longer
than valetudinarians.   In  summer it  may be en-
joyed for an hour,  when in spring or autumn, one
or two minutes  will be  sufficient.  Under similar
circumstances, cold water acts on aged and lean
persons with more violence than on the young and
corpulent;  hence the former, even in the hottest
days of summer, can seldom with safety remain in
the bath longer than a  quarter of an hour; while
the latter are generally able to sustain its impres-
sions for a much longer period.
  3. " The head should first come in contact with
the water, either by immersion, by being showered
upon, or by covering it for a minute  with  a wet
cloth, and then  plunging  head foremost into the
water.
  4. " As the immersion will  be less  felt when it
is effected  suddenly, and  as it  is of consequence
that  the first impression should be uniform over
the body, the bath ought not to be entered  slowly
or timorously, but with a  degree  of boldness.  A
contrary method, in some constitutions, is danger-
ous, as it propels the blood from the upper  to the
lower parts of the  body, and thus predisposes to a
fit of apoplexy. For  these reasons,  the shower
bath  is  attended  with considerable  advantages,
because  it  transmits the water quickly  over the
whole  body.
  5. " The morning is the proper  time  for using
the cold bath,  unless it be in a  river; in  which
case the afternoon, or from one to two hours be-
fore sunset, will be more eligible.  On the  whole,
one hour after a light  breakfast,  or two hours be-
fore, or four after  dinner, are the best periods of
the day for this purpose.
  6. " While the bather is in the water, he should
not remain inactive, but apply brisk  and general
friction, and move  his  arms and legs, to promote
the circulation of the fluids from  the  heart to the
extremities.  It is extremely imprudent to con-
tinue in the water  till  a second chilliness attacks
the body.
  7. " Immediately after leaving the bath, it is
nscessary that the bather should quickly wipe his
body dry with a coarse dry cloth.   He should not
afterwards sit inactive, but if the season permit,
he ought to take gentle exercise, till the usual cir-
culation, and the customary action of  the muscles,
be restored.
  8. " The best place  for cold bathing  is in the
sea, or a clear river;  but where neither of these
can be conveniently had,  the shower bath may be
used.
  9. " The principal  advantages to  be  expected
from  cold  bathing, besides the salutary exercise,
are either the  reduction of excessive heat, or the
producing of a salutary reaction of the system.  Ij
the former, it has been found  useful in several t>.
vers.   Affusion, however, in  those cases, is most
advisable, and  more  efficacious  in  reducing the
morbid temperature,  than  immersion.  But the
cold affusion must not be employed in the  cold
stage.   As soon as the hot fit is  formed, the  cold
affusion is to  be used immediately, and repeated
occasionally.   In the sweating  stage, it  is to be
cautiously avoided.
  " In  nervous  diseases,  too, the cold bath has
sometimes been of service.
  " In  gouty  and rheumatic complaints, in dis-
eases of the hip-joint, lumbago,  or sciatica,  after
the removal of those complaints by the use of tho
vapor or hot bath, and in conjunction with other
remedies,  the alternation  of the cold with the va-
por bath fortifies  the  constitution against  a return
of such attacks.
  10. " The best preparation for cold bathing, is
to begin with a warm, then a  tepid, and after-
wards  a cool bath; after this course  the bather
may in general plunge with  safety into  the cold
bath.  In most  cases, a bath every second day,
from the commencement  of the  warm bathing to
the end of a fortnight, will be sufficiently frequent;
afterwards the cold immersion may be continued
daily."
  V.  The douche consists in the projection of a
stream  of cold water from a tube upon any part
of the body.   It  is powerfully sedative,  and has
been long employed in inflammation of the brain.
It should1 be used with  caution, as its action is so
powerful that a full inflammatory pulse frequently
sinks into one almost imperceptible, in a very short
space of time.  It is one of the principal  methods
of applying cold water adopted  by the hydropa-
thists.
  VI.  Medicated baths.   These consist  of water
holding in solution various medicinal substances;
as wine-baths, milk-baths, soup-baths—these have
been  used to convey nourishment  to  the body;
sulphureous baths, mercurial  baths,  &c, used in
skin diseases,  syphilis, &c.; aromatic and chaly-
beate baths, employed as  tonics; acid baths, some-
times used to remove the  effects  of mercury, &c.
  VII. Nitromuriatic  bath.  Prep. Mix 3 fluid
ounces of muriatic acid with 2 fluid ounces of ni-
tric acid, and 5 fluid ounces of distilled water, and
add 3  ounces of the above mixture to every gallon
of water in the bath.  Should the bath prick  the
skin, a little more water may be added.
   Remarks.  This bath was first introduced as a
remedy for liver complaints. It must be contained
in a wooden  vessel,  and  may be used as a hip,
knee,  or foot-bath, a  knee-bath being the one gen-
erally adopted  in England.  The  inventor,  Dr.
Scott, once plunged the Duke of Wellington up to
his chin in a bath of  this kind in India,  and thus
cured  him of a severe hepatic affection.
   VIII. Sulphur bath.  a.  The patient is placed
(not including the head) in a species of box, at the
bottom of which is  put a  piece of hot iron, on
which a little sulphur is thrown, great care being
taken to  avoid the escape of the fumes, and the
inhalation of the same by either  the patient  or the
attendants.  Another method is to dissolve a little
sulphuret of potassium in the water of a comraou
warm bath.   The proportion is 1 oz. of the sul 
BAT                    103                    BAT
 phuret to 8 gallons of water.   This form of the
 bath is not, however, quite as efficient as the  gase-
 ous one first described.
   6.  (Dupuytren's gelatino-sulphurous  bath.)
 This is formed by dissolving 1 oz. of the sulphuret
 of potassium and 4 oz. of Flanders glue, in  every
 8 gallons of the water of a warm bath.   It is an
 imitation of the celebrated waters of Bareges, the
 glue supplying the place of the baregine found in
 the latter.
   Remarks.  The sulphur-bath under any form is
 a powerful  remedy in every  description  of skin
 disease.  Leprosy,  the most obstinate of all, has
 been cured by it.  The common itch requires only
 one or two  applications of the sulphur-bath  to
 eradicate it entirely.   All forms of scurf, whether
 on  the  face, head, or  body, yield to its influence.
 Local irritation occasioned by  minute  pimples, or
 inflammatory patches of disordered skin, is speed-
 ily subdued and removed.  Scrofula, and also those
 affections for which the warm or vapor baths have
 been recommended, will derive powerful assistance
 from the sulphur-bath.
    IX. Tepid bath.  The temperature of this bath
 varies from 85° to 92° Fahr., 88° being considered
 a medium temperature.  Its action on the body is
 intermediate between that  of  the warm and cold
 baths, and is admirably adapted for the purposes of
 cleanliness, and promoting  the healthy action of
 the skin.  It is frequently employed as a prepara-
 tive to cold bathing.
   X. The warm bath has a temperature of from
 92° to 100° Fahr., or about that of the human
 body.
   Remarks.  The  warm bath is at once the most
 luxurious  and  effective mode of bathing, and if
 taken under proper restrictions,  is highly conducive
 to health.  If  only on  the grounds  of personal
 cleanliness, this species of bathing  has the highest
 claim on our  attention.  " The sensations attend-
 ant upon immersion in a warm bath are most de-
 licious.  Its effect is,  first to increase the circula-
 tion of the blood, and to  determine it to the  skin;
 after a few minutes an agreeable and universal in-
 crease of heat is experienced;  the face, and fore-
 head generally,  are soon bedewed with perspira-
 tion : a pleasing and prevailing  calm is felt,  men-
 tally and physically; and after remaining in  some
 12 or 15 minutes,  coming out  and dressing, the
 refreshing feeling and consciousness of personal
 purity give rise to associations of the most happy
 character.  The warm bath may be taken at any
 time during the  day:  it is perhaps better to em-
 ploy it  upon an empty stomach, or before a meal,
 rather than after one.  The  temperature should
 be from 98° to 100° ; the time of immersion should
 not  exceed  15 minutes.  The  old idea that it is
 relaxing,  is erroneous, except  where persons re-
 main in for hours, as some people do, or where it is
 taken too often."
   The warm bath, in a medical point of view, is
 especially adapted to general torpor of the system,
 liver and bowel complaints,  hypochondriasis,  hys-
 terical affections, morbid suppressions,  dry skin,
 nearly all cutaneous and nervous diseases, chronic
 rheumatism, &c.  As  a tonic or stimulant after
 excessive  fatigue,  great mental excitement, or
physical  exertion, it  is unequalled,  and furnishes
one of the most wholesome, and at the same time
 luxurious sources of refreshment we are acquainted
 with.
   XI.  The vapor-bath consists in vapor being ad-
 mitted to  the apartment, and thus not only is tha
 body immersed in it, but it is inhaled  as well.   It
 is used at different temperatures,  known by the
 name of tepid, when the  temperature varies from
 90°  to 100° ; warm, when  from 100°  to  112° ;
 and  hot, from  110° to 130° ; but when the vapor
 is not inhaled, the heat of the latter may be raised
 to 160°.
   Remarks.  The  principal  action of the  vapor-
 bath is to  produce a copious diaphoresis.  In fact,
 it is  the most powerful diaphoretic agent known.
 It is a certain specific for a  cold ; and in all those
 cases wherein  warm bathing is recommended, the
 vapor-bath ranks highest.   It constitutes the most
 powerful  pharmaceutical  remedy existent: com-
 bined with friction,  or  shampooing, its utility  in
 cases requiring an  additional  action, as in con-
 tracted muscles, tendons, &c, is much increased ;
 " and  instances are numerous,  where the  lame
 have thrown  aside  their  crutches, and the bed-
 ridden have again mixed  with  the world, after a
 few applications of this bath." " It is no uncommon
 thing to hear a patient start and shriek with ag-
 ony  before entering  the bath, and to receive his
 congratulations and thanks on his  coming out:
 they will oftentimes exclaim,—' It is wonderful!
 I could not hare believed it—I am  well—/ can
 walk—/ can jump !' "
   The vapor-bath is administered in chronic rheu-
 matism, stiff joints, long-continued  indigestion,
 gout, lumbago,  sciatica, scrofulous swellings, fever,
 skin  diseases, &c, but should be avoided in acute
 inflammations,  and for persons  of a very full  and
 excitable habit of body.
   XII.  The shower-bath.  This may be regarded
 as a  modification of  the cold bath or plunge bath,
 and its effects are similar.  The cold shower-bath
 is however less alarming to nervous  persons,  and
 less liable to produce cramp,  than cold immersion:
 it may be considered as  the  best and safest mode
 of cold  bathing, and is recommended in many ner-
 vous  complaints.
   It  has also afforded relief in some cases  of in-
 sanity.
   Where the saving of expense is an  object, or a
 regular shower-bath is not  to be procured, a large
 common watering-pot filled  with cold water may
 be used as a substitute.  Let the patient sit  un-
 dressed upon  a stool, which may be placed in  a
 large  tub, and pour the water from the pot over the
 head, face, neck, shoulders,  and all parts of  the
 body, progressively  down to the feet, until  the
 whole has been  thoroughly wetted.
   BATHS, TO HEAT.  Various methods have
 been proposed for this purpose, but they are for the
 most  part expensive and  unsuited to private  fami-
 lies.   The following plan, however, is an exception
 to the above, and will be  found at once cheap and
 convenient.
   Italian plan of warming  baths. This consists
 in immersing in the bath a sort of u or syphon-
shaped sheet iron tube, furnished with a little fire-
place, near the bottom, for the purpose of burning
charcoal.   In the following figure is given a rep-
resentation of this simple apparatus and its appli-
cation. 
BAT
      a, Bath tub.
      *, The larger arm of the warming-tube by which the
    charcoal is introduced, and by which the fumes fly off".
      c, The smaller arm to admit air to support the  com-
    bustion.
      d, The fire-grate, to support the burning charcoal.

      BATHS,  THE  SITUATION  OF.   This
    should always be, if possible, near the principal
    bedrooms on the same floor, for the sake of ready-
    access to them, and in a place where  plenty of
    good water can be procured.
      BATHS, (in Chemistry.)   These mostl)- con-
    sist of water or alkaline solutions, in which vessels
    are placed containing substances that it is desirous
    to submit to a limited degree of heat.   The high-
    est temperature that can be given to any substance
    contained in a vessel placed in another of boiling
    water, is  about 205 or 206° ; but  by adding one-
    fifth of salt to the bath,  a heat of 212° may be
    obtained.   Baths of fusible metal,  saturated solu-
    tions of salt, sand, and (on the large scale) steam,
    are also  used. (See Boiling Point.)
      BATH METAL.   Prep.  Melt together, under
    charcoal,  1 lb. of brass, with 4 J oz. of spelter.
      BATH  PIPE.   Prep. Powdered white sugar
    1 lb.; Italian juice (dissolved in  a little water) 2
    oz.;  powdered  gum  arabic  1 oz.  Proc.  Make
" •   them into a stiff mass with warm water, and roll
    it  into the usual form.
      BATTER, (in  Cookery.)   A mixture of flour,
    milK, eggs, oil, or butter, and frequently spices,
    beat together to a thin paste.   Use. To cover va-
    rious articles during the operation of cooking, and
    also to form puddings.
      BATTERY,  GALVANIC OR  VOLTAIC.
    An instrument or apparatus for the production of
    an electrical current by chemical decomposition.
      One of  the most useful forms of the galvanic
    battery is that proposed by Professor Daniell, and
    commonly known by his  name.  Its peculiar  ad-
    vantages arise from  its action continuing without
    interruption for a long time, hence the  name of
    constant battery that has been applied to it.  The
    following figure will explain its construction.
      Between the membrane and the copper cylinder
    is  poured a saturated solution  of blue vitriol, and
    in the aiaphragm  or  cylinder B, dilute  sulphuric
    acid of the s. g. of 1*136 made with about 1  part
    of oil of vitriol and 7 or 8 of water.  The battery
    is  now ready to be applied to the purposes of elec-
    trotyping, for which one is quite sufficient;  six of
    these simple batteries will form a circle of consid-
    erable power, and about  20 will  produce one suf-
    ficiently strong for most experiments of demonstra-
    tion and research.
104                    BEA
  A, A copper cylinder filled with a saturated solution of
sulphate of copper.
  B, A smaller porous cylinder or membrane, containing
a mixture of 1 part of oil of vitriol and 7 of v.iter.
  C, A rod of zinc supported in the smaller cylinder by the
cross-piece i.
  D, A shelf full of'small holes, for supporting crystals of
sulphate of copper, to keep up the strength of the solution.
  e and /, Screws and caps to connect  the wires g anr1
with the battery.
  g, The positive wire.
  A, The negative wire.

  I."  Another permanent battery of considerable
powet is formed by arranging a series of  cells, 2
inches in liameter, in each of which is placed a
smaller cell,  of 1 inch in diameter. The latter are
filled with  a  solution of sulphuret  of potassium, of
the sp. gr. 1*14, and the former with nitric  acid, of
the sp. gr.  1-35, the pairs are then  connected to-
gether with small discs of platinum foil.
  III.  Professor  Jacobi has  lately described a
very simple, cheap, and convenient form  of battery
said to be discovered  by a  Russian prince, but
wh'ch is,   in reality, only  an  adaptation on the
small scale,  of the  terraqueous  battery of Mr.
Bain, by which he works his telegraph.  This new
battery is formed by immersing a plate of zinc and
another of copper, in  common  garden  mould,
placed in a flower-pot, when,  on completing the
circuit, a  powerful  current of electricity is pro-
duced.  All that is necessary to keep up the ac-
tion of the battery is to moisten the earth with a
little water.  The plates should  be  placed  equi-
distant from  each other, and the sides of  the pot.
The professor has had a battery of twenty  of them
at work for a month without their  activity  being
apparently diminished.
  BEANS.   Qual. A wholesome esculent,  when
eaten in the  green state, and well cooked, but apt
to produce flatulence unless combined with spices.
In the dried  or ripe state they are more difficult oi
digestion,  and are apt  to  distend  the  stomach.
Beans are mostly cooked by boiling in water, to
which a little salt of tartar has been  added, to pre-
serve their green color.
  BEANS, CULTIVATION OF.   Beans should
succeed a  grain crop, provided the ground is in
decent order, and not worn out by previous work-
ing. Less than four bushels of seed ought not to be    j
used per acre, and this is best sown by running the    i
drill-barrow  after  every third plough;  afterwards   ™
harrowing  before the young plants reach the sur-
face.
  Dung is frequently given  to beans,  especially
when they succeed wheat,  that had not received
manure.  It  is best applied on the stubble, before
the winter ploughing  is given, or it may be thrown
into the drills with the seed.  Beans require hoeing
or earthing up, which is sometimes  done by hand
or plough ; they also  require weeding, which must 
BEE
105
BEE
be done by hand, after the hoeing.   Before beans
are cut they should be well ripened, and may be
generally  harvested at the end of  September or
beginning of October.  They  should be, cut with
the sickle  and tied in sheaves, and in stacking
them a " bole," or air funnel, should be left in the
centre  of the stack, in such a  manner that a cur-
rent of air may pervade the whole.  (See Barley.)
   BEAR'S GREASE.  This fat is much esteem-
ed for  promoting  the  growth  of the  hair, but in
reality possesses no superiority over any other ani-
mal fat.   The mass of that which is  sold in Eng-
land is hog's lard.  The  quantity annually con-
sumed in Great Britain and exported, is estimated
at several tons, being a larger  quantity than all the
bears at present procurable in Europe would sup-
ply, if slaughtered and roasted for their fat.
   BEAR'S GREASE.  (FACTITIOUS.) Prep.
Hog's lard 16 oz.; flowers of benzoin and  palm
oil, of each \  oz.  Proc. Melt together until  com-
bined, and stir until cold.  Remarks. This article
does not readily become rancid by age, and may
be scented at pleasure.
   BECHAMEL, (in Cookery.)   A  variety of
fine white broth,  or  consommee, thickened with
cream.  Proc. Cut  lean veal and ham or bacon
into small slices, put them into a stewpan with a
good piece of butter, an onion, a blade of mace, a
few mushroom-buttons, a bit of thyme, and a bay-
leaf ;  fry the  whole  over a very slow fire,  but not
to brown it;  thicken it with flour.   Add an equal
quantity of good veal  or mutton broth, and cream.
Let it boil gently one  hour, stirring it all" the  time.
Strain it through a soup-strainer.
   BE ECU WOOD MAHOGANY.  Prep. Dis-
solve 2 oz. of dragon's blood and 1  oz. of aloes in
1  quart of rectified spirit of wine, and  apply it to
the surface of the wood previously well polished.
   II.  Wash over the surface of the wood with
aquafortis, and when thoroughly dry give it a coat
of the  above varnish.
   III. Boil 1  lb. of logwood chips  in 2 quarts of
water, and add  2 handfuls of walnut peels  ; boil
again, then strain, and add 1  pint of good vinegar,
as above.
   BEEF.   Qual. The  flesh of a  bullock, not
past the  middle  age,  is very  nutritious, and  espe-
cially  adapted to persons of good appetite, or that
labor,  or take much exercise.   It is  also well suit-
ed for persons of delicate constitutions, if not  over-
cooked, and left full of gravy, in which case it will
sit lightly on the stomach, and its fat prove almost
as digestible as that of veal.
   Choice.  Ox beef is considered the best, and may
be known by  having a fine smooth  open grain, a
good red  color, and  a tender texture.  The  fat
should look whitish yellow, or but slightly yellow.
Cow beef has a closer grain than ox beef, and the
lean a deeper  red; bull beef is closer still,  the  fat
hard and skinny, the lean of a deep red, and it has
a stronger smell.   Heifer beef resembles  ox  beef,
except in being smaller, for which reason it is pre-
ferred  in some families.  The  best roasting pieces
are the sirloin and the  long ribs, but the short ribs
and the silver side of the round are also sometimes
roasted, but do not turn out so well.  These pieces
are  much improved  by  being steeped  for three
or  four hours in a  marinade made with three
par's of water and one of vinegar, before roasting.
                      14
  BEEF  A-LA-MODE.   Prep. I.  " Cut  out
the bone from the beef, and convert it, with the
trimmings, into gravy; then stuff  the orifice with
rich forcemeat.  Half roast it, and before it is put
into  the stewpan,  lard the  top with  dried and
pickled  mushrooms, adding  mushroom-powder in
the orifices; then put in two quarts of gravy from
the bones, a large onion  stuck with cloves, and
two  carrots cut in slices.   When the beef  has
stewed  till it  is quite tender, strain and  thicken
the sauce, add to  it a glass of wine, mushrooms,
and  oysters, and sippets of fried paste:  either the
mushrooms or oysters may be omitted, if the  fla-
vor of either should not be desirable."
   II. " Take  3 lbs. of the rump,  or any  part  of
the beef which will stew well;  trim it nicely, and
out off  all the fat.  Chop all sorts of sweet herbs
together veiy  finely, with a little shalot, and a
great deal of spice, and put them into a saucer of
vinegar, that  has  been rubbed with garlic.  Cut
fat bacon into long slips  and dip it into the herbs
and vinegar; lard  the beef regularly on both sides,
if necessary, in order that it  should be thoroughly
flavored; rub  the  beef over with the herbs and
spice ; flour the meat, cuu a piece of butter, thp
size  of  a walnut, rolled in  flour, and  a pint  of
water.  Bake the  beef in an oven, strain the gra-
vy, which  will scarcely require  either thickening
or browning, and serve it up with pickles on the
top.   It is most excellent when cold, but should
be served  up  hot  at  first.   The  gravy may  be
boiled to a glaze  if necessary.  It will require a
good deal of spice ; a teaspoonful of cayenne pep
per, one of white pepper, a saltspoonful of allspice,
half  the quantity  of pounded cloves, and a blade
of mace pounded,  or the  mixed  spices may  be
used."
   BEEF,  COLLARED.  " Take the best part
of a shin of beef, of which soup has been made,
(for  it must be stewed until very  tender,) and an
ox-tail,  also  well-stewed; cut  them  into  small
pieces, season them well, add a glass of wine and
a glass of ketchup, and put it into  a stewpan cov-
ered with a part of the liquor in which the ox-tail
has been boiled ; stew it for about twenty minutes,
and  then put it into a mould.  It must be very
cold  before it is turned out.   This is a good way
of employing the beef and heel  when soup or jelly
is made ; a few chopped sweet herbs may be add-
ed, and hard  eggs cut into slices, or pickles, such
as sliced  cucumbers,  intermingled.   The  flavoi
may be varied in many ways."
   BEEF, DUTCH.   Prep. Cover lean beef
with  a  mixture of treacle and moist sugar,   for
three days, then  salt it well with common salt
and saltpetre,  rubbed well in, and  turn it well ev-
ery day for a  fortnight.   It  must then be  rolled
tight  in a coarse  cloth,  and submitted to heavy
pressure,  after  which it is  to be  hung up  in
wood smoke,  and turned every  day.   If after
boiling  it be  well pressed  it  will grate  or  cut
in " shivers"   equal  to  the finest  Dutch beef.
One  pound of salt is enough  for twelve pounds
of beef.
  BEEF,  HAMBURGH.   Prep.  This is pre-
pared by pickling the beef for three weeks, with a
mixture of 1£ lb. of salt, 1 lb. of treacle, and 1 Joz.
of saltpetre, well rubbed in, after which it is dried
in wood smoke.  The ribs is the  part  generally 
BEE                   106                    BEE
used, of which the above  pickle **ill be enough
for 15 to 18 lbs.
  BEEF,  HUNG.   Prep. I. Choose a piece of
beef with as little bone as you can, (the flank is
best,) sprinkle it, and let it  drain a day;  then rub
it with salt and saltpetre, but only a small propor-
tion of the latter; and you may add a few grains
of cochineal;  all in fine powder.  Rub the pickle
every day into  the  meat  for a week, then  only
turn it.
  It will  be  excellent in eight days.  In sixteen
drain it from  the pickle;  and let it  be smoked at
the oven's mouth when heated with wood, or send
it to the baker's.  A few days will smoke it.
  A little of the coarsest sugar may be added to
the salt.
  It eats well boiled tender with greens or carrots.
If to be grated as Dutch, then cut a lean bit, boil
it till extremely tender, and while hot put it under
a press.  When cold, fold it  in a sheet of paper,
and  it will keep  in  a  dry  place  two  or  three
months, ready for serving on bread and butter.
  II. Rub the beef with one eighth of its weight
of salt, to which a little saltpetre  has been added,
then put  it into a tub  or other suitable vessel,
place a board over it, and pile heavy weights  upon
it;  let it remain so for fourteen to twenty days,
then take it out and hang it up for three weeks or
a month to dry.
  BEEF, HUNTER'S.  Prep. To a round of
beef,  weighing  twenty-four pounds,  take  three
ounces of saltpetre, three  ounces of the  coarsest
sugar, an ounce of cloves and nutmeg, half an
ounce of allspice, and three  handfuls of common
salt, all in the finest powder.  Allow the beef to
hang two or three days, remove the bones, then
rub the spices well into it, continuing to  do so ev-
ery day for two or three weeks.   Before dressing
it, dip it into cold water to  take off the loose spice.
Bind it up tightly with tape,  and put it into a pan
with a teacupful of water at the bottom ; cover
the top of the  meat with shred suet, and cover the
pan with a coarse crust, and brown  paper over it.
Let it bake five hours, and when cold take off the
paste and the  tape.
  BEEF, LEICESTER SPICED. Prep. Take
a round of beef, rub  in a  quarter of a pound of
saltpetre, finely  pounded ; let it stand a day, then
season it with half a pound of bay-salt, an ounce
of black pepper, and the  same of  allspice,  both
pounded.  Let  it lie in the pickle a month,  turn-
ing it every day.
  BEEF, PICKLED.  Prep.  Rub each  piece
of beef very lightly with salt;  let them lie singly
on  a tray or board for  24  hours, then wipe  them
very  dry.  Pack them  closely in  a tub, taking
care that it  is perfectly sweet and clean.  Have
the pickle ready, made thus: Boil four gallons of
soft  water with ten  pounds of coarse salt,  four
ounces of saltpetre,  and  two pounds of coarse
brown sugar; let it boil 15 minutes, and skim  it
while  boiling  very clean.   When  perfectly  cold
pour it on the beef, laying  a weight  oh the top to
keep the meat under the pickle.  This quantity is
sufficient for 100 lbs. of beef if closely packed.
   BEEF, POTTED.  Prep. Cut the beef small,
add to it tome melted  butter, 2 anchovies, boned
and washed, and a little  of the  best pepper,
*U  pounded very fine.   Beat the whole  well to-
gether in  a marble mortar, until the paste is very
smooth  and yellow colored, then put  it into  pots
and  pour  clarified butter over it,  about J of an
inch deep.
  BEEF,  WELSH.  Prep. Rub two ounces of
saltpetre into  a round of beef, let it remain an
hour, then season it with pepper, salt, and a fourth
portion of allspice ; allow the beef  :o stand in the
brine for 15 days, turning it frequently.   Work it
A*ell with pickle ; put it into an earthen vessel,
with a  quantity of  beef-suet over  and under it,
cover it with a coarse paste and  bake it, allowing
it to remain in the oven  for 6 or  8 hours.  Pour
off the gravy, and let the beef stand till cold.  It
will  keep for  two months  in winter, and will be
found useful amid the Christmas  fare in the coun-
try.
  BEER,   ALE, and  PORTER.  Qual,  $c.
Pure malt liquor, which  has undergone a perfect
fermentation, is perhaps  the most wholesome bev-
erage that can be drurJc  provided it be not taken
in excess.   Malt liquor boars different names ac-
cording to  its strength  and solor.  Ale is  the
most nutritious variety, but  good porter frequently
agrees better with bilious constitutions.  The most
wholesome  and  perhaps the least exceptionable
beverages prepared from  malt are those known as
East  India, Scotch, and Bavarian ales.  A  late
writer has described  good beer as nutritious, from
the sugar and  mucilage it contains; exhilarating,
from its spirit;  and strengthening and narcotic,
from its hops.   The stronger varieties of ale con-
tain  7 to 8 per cent, of absolute alcohol; average
strong ale  5 to 6 per cent.; brown stout 6 to 7
per cent.;  London porter 3£ to 4 per cent.; and
table beer 1 to 2 per cent.   (See Brewing, Ale
and  Malt Liquor.)
  BEER,  AMBER.  Prep. Amber  is now out
of fashion, but formerly was drunk in great quan-
tities, in London, mixed with bitters, and called
purl.  The  proportions of malt were three qu;>r.
ters amber,  and one quarter pale, with six pounds
of hops  to the  quarter.   The first liquor is usually
turned on at 170°, and the  second  at 185°.  The
worts are  boiled together  for two hours. It is
tunned  at 64°, and  after 24 hours roused every 2
hours, till  the heat is increased to 74°.  It is then
skimmed every hour for 6 hours and cleansed, and
generally used as soon  as it  has done working in
the barrels.
  BEER,  BRAN.  A very good article of table
beer may be brewed from  bran, especially if it be
mashed with about •— of its weight of good malt
A proportionate quantity  of  hops must be used, and
the addition of a little moist sugar will vastly im-
prove it.  Bran will yield from 16 to  20 lbs. pel
barrel, with proper management.
  BEER, CHEAP. "No production of this coun-
try abounds so much with  saccharine matter as *
the shells of green  peas.   A strong decoction of
them so much resembles, in odor  and taste, an in*
fusion of malt  (termed wort) as to deceive a brew-
er.   This  decoction, rendered slightly bitter with
the wood  sage,  and afterwards fermented with
yeast, affords a very excellent beverage.  The me-
thod employed is as follows:
  " Fill a boiler with the green shells of peas, pour
on water till it  rises half  an inch above the shelly
and simmer for three hours.  Strain off the liquor. 
BEE
107
BEE
  and add a  strong decoction of  the wood sage, or
  the  hop, so as to render  it pleasantly bitter; then
  ferment in the  usual  manner.   The wood sage  is
  the  best substitute for  hops, and  being free  from
  any anodyne property is  entitled  to a preference.
  By boiling a fresh quantity of shells in  the decoc-
  tion before it becomes cold, it may be so thoroughly
  impregnated with saccharine matter as to afford a
  liquor, when fermented, as strong as ale."
    BEER, POTATO. An excellent beverage may
  be prepared by  mixing the pulped potatoes with
  about TV of their weight of good barley malt, and
  mashing with  water at  160°,  keeping it at the
  same temperature for 4 hours;  after draining off
  this wort, a second mash must be made  at 180°
  for  1 hour; the  mixed worts must be then boiled
  with a little hops, cooled and fermented.
    BEER,  SPRUCE. I.  (White.)  Ing. Water 10
  gallons; sugar 10 lbs.; essence of spruce -J lb.;
  yeast £  pint.   Proc.  Dissolve  the sugar  and es-
  sence of spruce  in the water, previously warmed ;
  then allow it to cool a little, and add the yeast,  as
  in making ginger-beer; bottle immediately in half-
  pint bottles.
    II. (Brown.)  For sugar use treacle.  Remarks.
  Spruce beer is a pleasant beverage, when well pre-
  pared, and possesses slightly diuretic properties.
    BEER,  SUGAR. Prep.  Mash a peck of bran
  in 10 gallons of boiling water for 2 hours, draw off
  the wort, add 7 lbs. of moist sugar, and boil it with
  a \ lb. of hops;  then cool it down and add a little
  yeast.   It may be put  into the  cask the next day,
  and in 3 days  more it may be  bunged down.  At
  the expiration  of 6 or 8 days it  will be fit to drink.
  This beer will  not keep long.
    BEER,  SUGAR  AND  MALT.   Prep. $c.
  It has been found that 100 lbs. of good moist sugar,
  mixed with 1 quarter of malt, will produce an equal
  quantity of wort, and of the same  quality, as 2
  quarters of malt  would do under similar treatment.
  The best plan is to add the sugar to the wort from
  the malt, after it is let down from the mash-tun.
  In other respects the brewing is the same as from
  malt alone.
    BEER,  TREACLE.  Prep. Boil \ lb. of hops
  with 14 lbs. of treacle in 36 gallons of water for 1
  hour ; then strain off the wort and add, when  near-
  ly cold, \ a pint of yeast; the next day it may be
  put into a cask or bottled.
    II. Hops 1  oz.;  treacle 1 lb.;  water  1 gallon.
  As above.  Remarks. A cheap and pleasant bev-
  erage when well made.   It will not  keep for any
  length of time.
    BEER,  TABLE.   Prep.  I. Malt 1  bushel;
  hops | lb.   Draw off 1$  barrel of wort  at  three
  mashings.   (See Brewing.)
    II. Malt 8 bushels ; hops 7 lbs.; sugar coloring
  7 lbs.; Spanish juice 1 lb.; treacle  14 lbs.  To pro-
  duce 10 barrels, or five times the malt.
    BEER, TWOPENNY (or simply, Twopenny.)
  Prep. Malt 3 bushels ; hops 2 lbs.; Spanish  juice
  2 lbs.; treacle 14 lbs; capsicum £ oz. To produce
  1 barrel, or three times the malt.  Drank  in cold
  weather  as a stimulant,  frequently when only  a
'.  week old.
    BEES. In addition to what has been said under
  the  article  Apiary, the  following will  no  doubt
!  prove interesting to the reader.
    Mr CobbeX t  on the management of Bees.  The
best hives are those made of clean unblighted rye.
straw. A swarm should always be put into a new
hi'*e, and the sticks should be new that  are  put
into the hive for  the bees  to work on;  for, if the
hive be  old, it  is not so wholesome; and a thou-
sand to one but it contains  the embryons of moths
and other insects  injurious to bees.  Over the hive
itself there should be a cap  of thatch, made also of
clean rye-straw; and it  should not  only  be  new
when first put on the hive, but a new one should
be  made to supply the  place  of the former  one
every three or four months; for,  when  the straw
begins to get rotten, as it soon does,  insects  breed
in  it, it  smells  bad, and  its effect on the bees is
dangerous.
   The hives should be placed on a bench, the legs
of  which mice and rats cannot creep up.   Tin
round the legs is best. But even this will not keep
down ants,  which are mortal enemies of bees.  To
keep these away, if they  infest the hive, take a
green stick and twist it  round in the  shape of a
ring, to  lay on the ground, round the legs of the
bench, and at a few inches from it; and cover this
stick with tar.  This will keep  away the ants.
   Besides the hive and its cap, there should be a
sort of shed, with top, back, and ends, to give ad-
ditional protection in winter; though, in summer,
hives may be kept too hot, and in that case, the
bees become sickly, and  the produce light.   The
situation of the hive is to face the south-east;  or,
at  any rate, to be  sheltered from the  north  and
the west,  i'rom  the  north always,  and from the
west in winter. If it be a very dry season in sum-
mer, it contributes  greatly to  the success of the
bees, to  place clear water  near their home, in a
thing that they can conveniently drink out of; for,
if they have to go a great way for drink, they have
not much time for work.
   It is supposed that bees live only a year; at  any
rate, it is best never to keep the same stall, or fa-
mily, over  two years, except it be wanted to  in-
crease the  number of hives.  The swarm of this
summer  should always be taken in the autumn of
the next year.  It is whimsical to save the  bees
when the honey is taken. They must be fed;  and
if saved, they will die of old age before the  next
fall;  and though young ones will supply the place
of  the dead, this is nothing like a good swarm put
up  during the summer.
  A good stall of bees, that is to  say, the produce
of  one, is always worth about two bushels of  good
wheat.   The cost is nothing to the  laborer.   He
must be  a stupid countryman  indeed who cannot
make a bee-hive ; and a lazy one  indeed, if he will
not if he can.  In short,  there is nothing but  care
demanded; and there are  very few situations in
the  country, especially in  the  south of England,
where a  laboring man may not have half  a dozen
stalls of bees to take every  year. The main things
are to keep away  insects, mice, and birds, and
especially a little  bird called the bee-bird ; and to
keep all clean and fresh as  to the  hives and cover-
ings.  Never put  a swarm into an old hive.   If
wasps or  hornets annoy you, watch them home in
the day-time ; and, in the  night,  kill them by fire
or by boiling water.   Fowls should not go where
bees are,  for they eat them.
  On the different kinds of hives.—1.  The com-
mon hive. This hive  is too well known to require 
BEE
108
BEL
any description.   It should be made of good clean
dry straw, and sufficiently thick and firm to pro-
tect the bees.  The size of the hive should be pro-
portionate to the  size of the swarm placed in it.
Care should be taken to avoid covering this hive
with a hackle or turf, as it induces mice to build in
it, and ultimately to destroy both  combs  and bees.
2. Glass hives. There are various modifications of
this useful kind of hive.  That of Mr. Moulton con-
sists in placing glasses on  a board furnished with
holes at the upper part of a straw hive of peculiar
construction;  when  filled with honey these may
be removed without injury to the bees or disturbing
the economy of the hive. The first year the glasses
are only filled once, and generally produce about
8 lbs. of honey of superior quality ;  but the second
year and subsequent years  the  glasses  may be
worked twice  or oftener.  3. The double cottage
straw  hive.  This hive  is worked  by first  hiving
the bees in the lower hive, and after 10 days clear-
ing the opening at top and affixing thereon another
small hive either of glass or straw.  When full, the
latter may  be removed.   4. The  box  hive  and
hexagon box  and straw hives may be worked in
the common way, or by placing a glass hive over
it.  The management is very similar  to the  pre-
ceding varieties.
   Bee-flowers. Bees seldom fly more  than a mile
for their food ; it is therefore advisable to encourage
the growth of such  flowers as they appear to be
most  attached to.  The following  are said to be
the most favorable for  pasturage, and those  that
blossom early should be preferred:
Shrubs, <J-c.
Rosemary,
Broom,
Heath,
Furze,
Fruit-blossoms.
Flowers.
Mignonnette,
Lemon thyme,
White clover,
Bean-flowers.
  Swarming.  As soon as a stock has increased to
a certain number, which can  barely find accom-
modation in the hive, an inclination  to swarm is
evinced as soon as a queen bee is ready to lead
them.  When the bees begin to carry in farina, or
pellets on their thighs, it  denotes  that they have
commenced breeding, which frequently begins in
February, and does  not finish till  October.  The
indication of swarming is the clustering of the bees
in great numbers below the resting-board.   They
never rise but in fine weather, and  most frequently
about noon ; it becomes therefore necessary to ob-
serve the hives well  during the swarming season,
or from April to July.   A second  cast may gene-
rally be expected within 3 or 4 days after the first,
but the  interval seldom  exceeds  8  or  10 days.
Should a stock overswarm  itself, it will perish un-
less strengthened ; for this purpose, the number of
bees that enter the  hive should be carefully ob-
served.
  Hiving.  The method of hiving a swarm of bees
varies according to the object on which they may
have settled.  Should they alight on the ground,
place a new hive over them, avoiding injuring any
of the bees, or talking at the time, or breathing on
them.  Should they alight on a tree, the  branch
may be shaken over the hive, or if small, cut off
and  placed in it, and the  hive  left on  the spot,
when the remaining bees will go into it.   The hive
should then be left near to where they settle until
the evening, when it may be  gently removed to
the bee-house.   Ringing a bell, or  beating  an old
kettle, is a common way of collecting the bees to-
gether and making them alight.
   Reinforcement of weak stocks.   Weak swarms
of bees should  be strengthened.  This is done by
hiving the swarms as  usual, and  in  the evening
striking the bottom of the hive containing the new
swarm smartly, on a cloth spread upon the ground,
The bees then  fall in a cluster on  the cloth, when
the hive containing the stock to be  reinforced must
be placed over them as quickly as possible; after
the lapse of about a quarter  of an  hour, they will
have  become  united   as  one  family.  Another
method is to invert the one hive and to place it in
a bucket or pail, then to set the other hive over it;
by the next morning the bees in the lower one will
have ascended into the upper.  The  operation of
reinforcing stocks is very economical, as  it is found
that one strong stock will produce more honey than
two weak ones.
   Weak stocks.   Stocks weighing less than 18 or
20 lbs. cannot be safely brought through the  winter
without  feeding.  The best  food is a mixture .'
sugar and water, or equal  parts of  sugar and beet
   BEETLES. The common pest  of our kitchens,
to which this name is applied, is properly the blatta
or  cockroach,  which  is an  insect  of  the order
orthopterous, and not belonging to the coleopterous,
or beetle tribe.   The blatta, or cockroach, is char-
acterized by its  nocturnal  appearance, retiring
during the day to the cracks and holes in the floors
and walls  surrounding  the fireplaces.   It is prin-
cipally found on the basement floor, and  likes a
warm damp situation.
   Exter.   Place a few lumps of unslaked lime
where they frequent; or  set a dish or trap, con-
taining a little beer or sirup  at  the bottom, and
place a  few sticks slanting against its sides, so as
to form a sort of gangway for the beetles to climb
up by, when they will go headlong into the bait
set for them.  Another plan: mix equal weights
of red lead, sugar, and flour, and  place it nightly
near their haunts.  This  last mixture,  made into
sheets, forms  the  beetle-wafers,  sold  at the oil
shops.
   BEET ROOT.   Qual., Use, $c.  Beet root it
cooling,  saccharine, and nutritious, and is much
used for its color in cookery.   It is cooked by eithei
boiling or baking, with a little vinegar and  gravy,
and is also used as an ingredient in several excel-
lent  winter  salads.  Under the name  of mangel
wurzel it is much employed for feeding cattle.
   BEET ROOT SUGAR.  Prep. This is made
by expressing  the juice of the white-rooted beet,
and  afterwards boiling the  marc in water,  and
again expressing the liquor.   The  fluids are then
mixed, evaporated to the consistence of a simp,
clarified with white of egg, and lastly, evaporated
to a  proper consistence.  Remarks.  Beet  root
yields too little saccharine juice (and that of a ver)
inferior  quality) to be  employed  as a source of
sugar, as  long as cane-sugar  is procurable at iU
present  rate.  The marc, or  cake, left after the
process, forms  an excellent food for feeding cattle,
 and especially for pigs and cows.
   BELLADONNIN.  A  volatile alkali  some-
 what resembling ammonia, discovered  by  Luebe 
BEN                    109                    BEN
kind in the atropa belladonna.  (Phar. Centr. Blatt.
fur 1839.)
  BELL  METAL.  A species of bronze applied to
the manufacture of bells, &c.
  Prep.   I.  Melt together under powdered char-
coal, 100  parts of pure copper, with 20  parts of
tin, and unite the two metals by frequently stirring
the mass.   Remark. Product very fine.
   II. Copper 3 parts; tin  1 part; as above.   Re-
mark.  Some of the finest church bells in the world
have this  composition.
   III. Copper 2 parts ; tin 1 part ; as above.
   IV.  Copper 72 parts;   tin 26£ parts; iron 1J
parts.   Remarks.  The bells of small clocks or
pendules are made of this alloy in Paris.
   Remarks. It is absolutely necessary in  this pro-
cess to keep the metals from contact with the air,
for which purpose, the powdered charcoal is em-
ployed.   The union of the two metals in this alloy
is so complete,  that  its   gravity is  considerably
greater than that of the mean of its constituents,
thus evincing chemical union to have taken place.
   The proportions of the first form are those of the
Indian  gong, so  much celebrated for the  richness
of its tone.   In  very small bells, and  in  those of
repeating watches, a little  zinc is generally added,
which makes them give out their tones the sharper.
A less proportion of tin is now generally used for
church bells, than for house or clock bells, the tones
being thought to be rendered thereby more suitable
to  their respective purposes.  The substitution of
zinc for the  iron in the last formula, would (I am
told) improve the tone.
   To give this alloy its highest degree of sonorous-
ness, it must be subjected  to sudden refrigeration.
M. D'Arcet recommends the pieces to be ignited
after they are cast, and then to be suddenly plung-
ed into cold water.  They are  next to undergo a
well-regulated pressure by skilful hammering, un-
til they have assumed their intended form ; then
to be heated, and allowed to cool slowly in the air.
In a general way, however, bells are  formed by
simple casting.   The  addition of lead, and other
metals, to this  alloy, greatly lessens its sonorous-
ness.  For  common  purposes the third  form is
generally used.
   BENZAMIDE.  A compound  discovered by
Wohler and Liebig,  supposed  to be formed by the
union of  the two theoretical bases benzule  and
amide, hence the name. Prep. Saturate chloride of
benzule with dry ammoniacal gas, reduce the re-
sulting dry white mass to   a fine powder, and well
wash it with cold water.   Dissolve the residuum
in boiling water; the benzamide will  crystallize
out on the  liquor cooling.   Remarks.  Benzamide
is soluble  in water, alcohol, and  ether,  and is de-
composed  bv both acids and alkalis.
   BEN'ZHYDRAMIDE.   A compound discover-
ed  by  Luirent.   It is formed  by  the action of
stronrr liquid ammonia, on  jV °f >ts volume of oil
of bitter almonds, at a temperature of about 112°,
and  purified  by  boiling in ether, for some time,
when crystals will be deposited on cooling.   These
are again  dissolved in boiling alcohol, and  purified
by filtering and crystallization.
  BEXZILE.   (Discovered  by  Laurent,  who
called it benzule, with which it is isomeric.) Prep.
Pass chlorine^ gas ov?r   melted benzoin, until
muriatic acid ceases to be  formed; cool and  dis-
 solve in hot alcohol, which, on cooling, will deposite
 crystals of pure benzile.  Prop. Soluble in alcohol
| and ether; tasteless,  inodorous, volatile, and in-
 flammable.
   BENZILIC ACID.   (Discovered by Liebig.)
1 Prep.  Boil benzoine or benzile with a saturated
 alcoholic solution of potassa, adding more  of the
 latter, as  long as  a blue  color is  produced, after
 the previous portion has been decolored bv boilino-.
 Then neutralize  with muriatic acid, filter and add
 muriatic  acid in excess;  on cooling, crystals of
 benzilic acid  will be deposited.  Prop. Soluble  in
 water;  fusible;  with  potassa  and silver it forms
 bcnzilates of those  bases, which are crystallizable.
   BENZIMIDE.   The pearly needles and la-
 mella?, which separate under certain circumstances
 from the  essential oil of bitter almonds.  It was
 discovered by Laurent, and  has been thought by
 some to be dry benzoate of ammonia.
   BENZOIC ACID.   Syn.  Flowed  «•  Ben-
 zoin or Benjamin.  Prep.  There are two general
 methods of procuring this acid from gum benzoin :
 one by sublimation, or the " dry way," as it is com-
 monly called ; and the other, by dissolving it out
 in the form of a salt, from which the  acid is after-
 wards procured ; this has been called the " moist
 way."
   I. By sublimation.
   a. Put  1 pound of coarsely triturated benzoin
 into an iron pot with a flat bottom, whose diameter
 is from 8 to 9 inches; the benzoin forming* therein
 a layer of from 1 to 2 inches in depth.   The open
 end of the pot is then to be covered with a sheet
 of soft and  loose  blotting  paper, (felt, Liebig,)
 which must be attached to the rim with paste.  A
 cone, formed  with strong and thick paper,  (cart-
 ridge paper,)  is then to be capped  over the top of
 the pot, including  the  blotting paper; and this is
 also to be attached with paste and  string.   The
 apparatus thus prepared, should then be placed on
 the sand-bath, and exposed  from  4 to 6 hours to
 a gentle heat. After this lapse of time, it may be
 removed  from the  sand-bath,  inverted, and the
 string  detached,  when  beautiful white needles, oi
 a silky lustre, possessing the agreeable odor of
 benzoic acid,  will be found in the paper cone.
   Prod. From 1 lb. of good  benzoin 1£ to 2 oz. of
 benzoic  acid  may  be procured.  The second sub-
 limation ordered in the London Pharm. becomes
 quite unnecessary when the above method is fol-
 lowed.   The  following modification of the above
 is highly recommended by Gauger.
   b. Place 12 oz.  of  coarsely powdered benzoin
 resin, mixed with sand, in a flat iron vessel capa-
 ble of containing  from 2 to 4 lbs.; cover the mouth
 of-the vessel with loose blotting paper, place there-
 in a stick  to  support 4 or 5 paper discs, at some
 distance above the blotting paper,  horizontally
 fixed on the stick; then tilt a paper bag in the
 form of a sugar-loaf, and formed of a double sheet
 of paper,  (inward blotting  paper, and  outward
 sugar paper,)  over it, and attach this apparatus by
 means of a string, around the brim of the vessel.
 After 6 or 8 hours' exposure in a sand-bath, allow
 it to cool;  take out the benzoic acid from the bag
 and the paper discs,  renew the  paper attached
 over the mouth of  the vessel, and again arrange
 the whole  as before, when it must be heated for
 some hours to a higher temperature.  It is advisa- 
BEN                    110                   BEN
 ble to renew the paper  for a  third time.  The
 white crystals are separated from the product, the
 colored crystals strongly pressed between folds of
 blotting paper, and again sublimed as before.   12
 oz. of  good benzoin  thus furnish  from  10 to  11
 drachms of fine benzoic acid.  Some benzoic acid
 may afterwards  be obtained  from the papers em-
 ployed. (Gauger's Report, 1842.)
   c. (Process at Apothecary's Hall.)  The best
 gum benzoin is put into an iron pot, set in brick-
 work, over a proper fire,  and communicating by
 a conical metal neck, with a wooden  box lined
 with paper, as a receiver for the flowers.  The
 sublimation  is conducted rather rapidly, and the
 acid condenses in beautiful elastic  prismatic crys-
 tals ; but if the process be conducted more slowly,
 the product is proportionately scaly.  Prod. 10 to
 12 per cent, of flowers are thus generally procured,
 which, after being pressed in blotting paper, are
 again sublimed,  and  give 8 or 9  per cent, of very
 pure acid.
   II. By the moist way.
   a. (Scheele's process.)  Mix intimately togeth-
 er, equal parts of finely powdered benzoin and hy-
 drate of lime, and boil for 1 hour, wjtli 40 parts of
 water; filter and evaporate to one-fifth ; saturate
 the lime with muriatic acid, when the benzoic acid
 will crystallize out as the liquor cools;  it should
 be then either washed or sublimed, after first well
 drying it.  Remarks. If a perfect mixture of the
 lime and powdered gum be not first made, the lat-
 ter will  run  into  a solid mass in the boiling  water,
 and the process will fail.  1 lb. of benjamin yields
 §j> 3yj, j)ij  of flowers.  (Gray.)   By my own ma-
 nipulations I could never succeed in procuring this
 proportion of acid. The above process is similar
 to that  of the Dublin  Pharmacopoeia.
   6.  (Process of Stoltze.)  Dissolve the resin in
 3 times  its  weight of alcohol, introduce  the solu-
 tion into a retort, and add thereto gradually, a so-
 lution  of carbonate of soda  in  weak spirit  and
 water, until all the free acid be neutralized ; water
 equal to twice the weight of the benzoin employed,
 must be next poured in, and the  alcohol removed
 by distillation.  The floating resin should be now
 skimmed off the remaining liquid,  and washed
 with a little water, which should be  added to the
 contents of the retort, which will deposite crystals
 on cooling.
   c. Boil hippuric acid for 15 minutes in nitric
 acid, sp. gr. 1*42, then add water, and allow the
 solution  to  crystallize ; collect the  crystals,  and
 purify by  sublimation  as  above.  %*  Hippuric
 acid is  manufactured from the  urine of horses,
 which is  evaporated to J  of  its  original  volume,
 and then mixed with muriatic acid ;  after which,
 the  liquid deposites the acid, somewhat  impure,
 under the form of a crystalline  powder.   Large
 quantities of benzoic acid are said to be obtained
 by the above process, but owing  to  its not being
 generally well purified, is of inferior quality  and
 unsaleable.   It may, however, be rendered quite
 equal to that obtained  from gum benzoin, by care-
 ful manipulation.  " A manufactory of sal ammo-
 niac, near  Magdeburgh,  which uses urine, is
 able to supply flowers of  benjamin by the cwt."
 (Gray.)
  Remarks.  The manufacture of benzoic acid has
lately assumed considerable interest from the scar-
I city and high price of gum benzoin, which is now
j from  40Z.  to  50Z. the  cwt.   The  low  price at
j which this acid has for some time past  been sold,
 is barely sufficient to repay the expenses  incurred
 in  its manufacture.  The finest gum  benzoin is
 exported in large  quantities  to Spain,  where it is
 mixed with olibanum and used as incense.   Ben-
 zoic acid  is at the present time very dear, being
 about Is.  7^d. to Is. 8d. an ounce, whereas, its
 usual  price averages  from Is. ^d. to  Is. 2d. the
 oz.  A large manufacturer, with whom I am ac-
 quainted, made a sale some time  since at Is. ljo'.,
 of  about 300  oz., but has  lately greedily taken
 back the greater portion, which remained unsold,
 at Is.  4d., besides paying all the expenses of tran-
 sit, &c.
   The product by the  process of sublimation is
 generally greater than by the  humid way, and is
 consequently the  one usually  adopted.   Much,
 however, depends  upon  the  quality of the  gum
 employed.   It is found to  be the most economical
 to use the  best benzoin, as it is richer in benzoic
 acid than the inferior kinds.
   Prop., Uses, tyc.  Form;  light feathery white
 crystals; very soluble  in alcohol.   It is  used in
 making paregoric,  and is  sometimes administered
 in chronic bronchial affections; it is expectorant
 Dose.  10 to 20 grs. in old coughs.
  Pur. 24 parts of boiling  water dissolve 1 part
 of  benzoic acid, and again deposite the greater
 portion on  cooling.   Freely soluble in alcohol, and
 in liquor of potassa, from which it is precipitated
 by adding  muriatic acid.   When  cautiously heat-
 ed, it wholly evaporates, with an odor of benzoin.
 It is inflammable.  (P. L.)
  BENZOATES.  Combinations  of  the bases
 with benzoic acid.
  Prep.  The benzoates of  ammonia, soda,  and
 potassa,  may be made  by  dissolving  with heat
 benzoic acid in their respective aqueous solutions,
 until they become perfectly neutral.  Most of the
 other benzoates may be formed in a similar way,
 or by adding a benzoate of an alkali to a salt of
 the base.
  BExNZOINAMIDE.   Syn.  IIydrobenzoina-
 mide.  A white, tasteless, inodorous,  volatile pow-
der,  obtained by heating  benzoin with water of
 ammonia.
  BENZOIN.  Syn.  Camphor of Oil of Alm-
onds.  A compound isomeric with  benzule,  dis-
covered by Robiquet and Boutron  Charlard. Prep.
 Mix together equal parts  by measure of the raw
oil of bitter almonds, and  a solution of caustic po-
tassa in alcohol.  As soon as the  liquid becomes
full of  crystals, and apparently solid, it must be
dissolved  in  alcohol, filtered, and crystallized
Prop., tyc.  Brilliant prismatic crystals ; tasteless,
odorless,  volatile, and inflammable ; soluble in al-
cohol,  and  forming with oil of vitriol,  and with
alcoholic solution of potash, a violet-blue solution.
  BENZOLE.  Syn.  Benzine.   Discovered by
 Faraday among the products of the destructive
distillation   of  organic substances;  it  resembles
ether.  Prep. Submit a mixture of 1 part  of ben-
zoic  acid and  3  parts of slaked lime, to  distilla-
tion, and redistil the oily product with water.
  BENZONE.  Syn.  Carbobenzide.   An  oily
liquid,  heavier than water,  disco-^red  by Mis-
cherlieh and Peligot.   Prep. The raw product o! 
BEZ                   111                   BIC
the distillation of benzoate of lime, is distilled first
in a  water-bath,  and then  afterwards until the
heat gradually rises to 920°, as long as benzole
comes over.   The  product is  next exposed to a
cold of —5°, when  the  crystals of naphthaline
which form  must  be separated from  the  liquid,
which is pure henzone.
   BENZULE.   The hypothetical radical of sev-
eral compounds  ob.'ained  from the oil of bitter al-
monds, and supposed to be the base of benzoic acid.
Among the  principal members of this group may
be mentioned hydruret of benzule, obtained from
a mixture of oil  of almonds, milk of lime, and chlo-
ride of iron, by distillation  ; the chloride of benzule,
obtained  from  the  last  article  (rendered dry by
chloride of calcium) by passing chlorine gas through
 it, as long as muriatic acid is formed; the bromide
 of benzule,  also prepared like  the  chloride;  the
 iodide of benzule, prepared  from  a  mixture  of
 iodide of potassium and chloride  of benzule by dis-
 tillation; the sulphuret  of benzule, prepared by
 distillation from a mixture of sulphuret of lead and
 chloride of benzule; and  cyanuret of benzule, also
 prepared by  distillation, from a mixture of bicyanide
 of mercury  and chloride of benzule.  The series
 also includes hippuric acid, amygdalinic acid, and
 amygdaline, as well as  several other  substances
 whose names contain (benz-) the first part of the
 word benzule, as indicative of their constitution.
   BERBERINE.   A  substance  discovered by
 Buchner, in the barberry shrub,  (berberis vulgaris.)
 It belongs  to the class  of  azotized coloring sub-
 stances.  It is soluble in  boiling  water and in alco-
 hol, from either of which it may  be  obtained in
 crystals.
   BETULINE.  Sijn.   Betulina.  A substance
 discovered  by  Lowitz, in the  bark of the white
 birch, (the betula alba.)    It is obtained under the
 form of white crystalline needles, soluble in ether,
 alcohol, oil,  and acids.    It is fusible, volatile, and
 inflammable.
    BEZOARS. Preternatural concretions found in
 the stomach and intestines of some animals, form-
 erly supposed to possess  alexipharmic powers, and
 were both taken internally and worn  as amulets.
 They have  now, however, sunk into  disuse, and
 though  ordered in the preparation of Gascoigne's
 ball and powder, a factitious  kind  is substituted.
 The  name  bezoar was formerly extended to vari-
 ous  other substances supposed  to  possess similar
 virtues.
   BEZOARS,  FACTITIOUS.   Prep.   Make
 tobacco-pipe clay into a paste  with ox-gall, and
 add a little hair or wool; then form into shapes.
   Remarks.  This will  give a yellow tint to paper,
 rubbed with chalk, and  a green one to quicklime,
 which tests  are  considered as  proof of  genuine
 bezoars.
   BEZOAR, MINERAL.  Powder  of algaroth
 deflagrated  with nitre  in a red hot crucible, and
 then well washed with water.  Once used in doses
 of 5 to 15 grs.  as a diaphoretic,  but  now obsolete.
 According to the mode  by  which  the powder of
 algaroth was made, arose the names bezoardicum
 joviale and  bezoardicum martiale, also applied to
this preparation.
   BEZOAR, ARGENTINE.    Syn. Bezoardi-
cum LuNAitK.  Made by distilling a mixture of but-
ter of antimony* and nitrate of silver.  Once given
in epilepsy and head diseases, in doses of 6 to 12
grains.
  BEZOAR  OF LEAD.   Syn. Bezoardicum
Saturni.   Made  by  distilling a mixture of oxide of
lead,  butter of antimony, and  nitric  acid.  Once
given in doses of 5 or 6 grs. in diseases of the spleen.
   BHAURTA, (in  Cookery.)  An  Indian  dish
made with mashed potatoes, onions, and capsicum,
moulded into a shape and slightly baked.
   BIBROMISATINE AND  BROMISATINE.
These are formed by the action of bromine on isa-
tine.   Treated with  potassa, they yield acids of the
same names.
   BIC ARBONATES.  Combinations of the bases
with the carbonic acid, in which two atoms of the
latter are united to one of the former.  The follow-
ing are the principal bicarbonates.
   BICARBONATE OF POTASSA. Syn. Aer-
ated  Kali.   Prep. There  are two  methods of
preparing  this salt:  one, by passing  a stream of
carbonic  acid through a solution of the carbonate
of potassa ; the other, by the addition  of sesquicar-
bonate of ammonia.   The processes of the London
and Edinburgh colleges offer an example of each.
   I. a. (Process of  the L. Ph.)   Ing. Carbonate
of potassa lb. vj; distilled water 1 gallon.  Proc.
Dissolve the salt in the water, and pass carbonic
acid gas through  the solution, to saturation ; apply
a gentle heat  to  redissolve any crystals that  may
have, been deposited, then  set  the liquor aside to
crystallize; lastly, pour off the liquid  and dry the
crystals.
   *** The carbonic acid  may be obtained from
chalk or whiting, rubbed up with water to the  con-
sistence of a sirup, upon which  oil  of vitriol, diluted
with an equal weight of water, is to be poured.
   b.  (Process at Apothecaries' Hall.)  Ing. Car-
bonate of potassa 150 lbs.; distilled water 17  gal-
lons.   Proc.  Dissolve  100 lbs. of the  carbonate in
the water; then saturate with carbonic acid gas as
last, when 35 to 40  lbs. of crystals of bicarbonate
of potassa may be  obtained.  The remaining 50
lbs. of the carbonate are now dissolved in the mother
liquor, and enough  water  added  to make it  up a
second time to 17 gallons, the remaining part of the
operation being performed as  before.  This  plan
may be repeated  again and again.
   Remarks.  The following plan has been proposed
as a substitute for the preceding process, but  does
not produce a pure salt.  Dissolve pearlash in wa-
ter ; add  bran or sawdust, to soak up the liquor;
put it into a crucible, lute on the cover, and  heat
it to  redness; cool,  wash out  the salt, evaporate,
and crystallize.  Repeat tho process with the re-
maining liquor.  Yields a very imperfect salt.
   II.  (Process of the Ed.  Pharm. Cartheuser's
Process.)
   a. Carbonate of potassa 6 oz.; sesquicarbonate
of ammonia 3£ oz.   Proc. Triturate together, and
when reduced to a very fine powder and  perfectly
mixed, make  them  into a stiff paste with water.
Dry this very carefully at a  heat  not higher  than
140°  Fahr. until a  fine powder,  perfectly devoid
of ammoniacal odor, be obtained, occasionally tri-
turating the mass towards the end of the  process.
   b.  (Process of Henry and Guibourt.)  Dissolve
500 parts of pure carbonate of potassa in 1000  parts
of water; filter,  if necessary,  and place  the  fluid
in  a  porcelain capsule; rtt  in a  salt-water bath, 
BIC                     112                    BIL
and  add gradually 300 parts of sesquicarbonate of
ammonia.  Slightly agitate the liquor until ammo-
niacal  fumes  are perceived; then filter over a
heated vessel, and set it aside to cool.  Remarks.
The process recommended by Gei-rer is similar to
the last, but the proportions are  1  lb. of carbonate
of potassa and 1 lb. 6 oz. of sesquicarbonate of am-
monia.
   Prop. Use, <$-c.  It is soluble in 4 times its weight
of water at 60° ; is fixed in the air, but decom-
posed into a carbonate at a red heat.  It  possesses
the general alkaline properties of carbonate of po-
tassa, but in an inferior degree.   It  is much  used
as an antacid, and for making effervescing saline
draughts.   The  dose  is from  10 grains to  £ a
drachm.
     20 grs. bicarbonate of potassa in crystals
     14 grs. of crystallized citric acid ;
     15 grs.        "      tartaric acid;  and
     £  oz. of lemon juice.
  Pur. and Tests.   A solution of corrosive subli-
mate merely causes an opalescence, or very slight
white  precipitate in a solution of  this salt; if it
contains  carbonate of potassa a brick-colored pre-
cipitate will be thrown down.   In other respects it
may be tested like the carbonate, which see.
  BICARBONATE OF SODA.  Syn.  Aerated
Soda.   This is prepared in a similar  way  to the
bicarbonate of potassa.
  I. a. (Sesquicarbonate of Soda, P. L.)  Ing.
Carbonate of soda, lb. vij.;  water 1 gallon.  Proc.
Dissolve and pass carbonic acid through the solu-
tion, in the same way as in  making the bicarbonate
of potassa.
  b. Dissolve  160 lbs. of carbonate of soda in 13
gallons of water, and  pass carbonic acid through
the solution.   The  bicarbonate falls down  to the
amount of about 50 lbs.,  and  may be collected and
dried by pressure in an  hydraulic press.  A fresh
portion of soda may be then dissolved in the mother
liquor, and the whole  process  repeated  as before.
(Brande.)
  c. Mix together 1 part of carbonate of soda, with
2 parts of dried carbonate of soda, both in powder,
and surround them with  an atmosphere of carbonic
jcid gas, under pressure.  Let  the action go on till
no  more gas is absorbed, which will generally oc-
cupy 10  to 14 hours, according  to the pressure em-
ployed, then  remove the salt and dry it at a heat
not  above 120°.  This  process  is a modification
both of that of the Edinburgh  Pharmacopoeia and
that of  Mr.  Smith, described  in the Philadelphia
Pharmaceutical Journal.  Smith,  however,  em-
p'oys the salt in crystals.  In Scotland the method
just described  has been  adopted with  perfect suc-
cess, and I can, from my own experience, bear
testimony to its efficiency.
   Remarks.  A crude sesquicarbonate  of soda has
been prepared as follows:  Calcine carbonate of
soda with bran, as in making bicarbonate of po-
tassa ; wash out the 6alt and crystallize: very in-
ferior.
   II.  Ing. Carbonate of  potassa  and  water, of
each 1  lb.;  carbonate of ammonia \ lb.  Proc.
Dissolve the carbonate in the water, then add the
ammonia, and drive off the ammoniacal fumes at
a heat under 120° ; lastly, set  the solution aside
to crystallize.   Remarks.  The  above  are nearly
the proportions of the P. L. of  1809.  Winckler,
however, directs 80 of carbonate of soda, 3 of car-
bonate of ammonia, and 20 of water ;  and Henry
and Guibourt  order  6 parts of  the  soda, 2 of the
ammonia, and 4 of water.  The processes I. b and
1. c are those adapted for commercial purposes.
  Prop., Use, Sf-c.  These are  very similar to the
carbonate of soda, but it is more  feebly alkaline.
It loses a part of its  acid  by heat.  The dose is
from 10 to 40  grains, as an antacid and absorbent
It is largely employed in the  preparation of effer.
vescing powders and draughts,  for which purpose
     20 grs. of commercial bicarbonate of soda
     »______.--------------------y-------------------------J
              are taken with either
     ,----------'----;--;---^
     18 grs. of crystallized tartaric  acid;
     17 grs. of crystallized citric acid ; or
     \ oz. of lemon juice.
   Tests and  Pur.   Dissolved  in  40 parts of wa-
ter it does not give a reddisA precipitate with a so-
lution of corrosive sublimate.  (P. E.)  It is totally
dissolved in water ; neither chloride of  platina nor
sulphate of magnesia throws down any thing from
this solution.   It is  converted into the anhydrous
carbonate by heat.  (P. L.)   The  quantity of bi-
carbonate  any given sample  contains may be
pretty nearly  ascertained  by  well  washing 100
grains of  the salt with an equal weight of water,
and filtering the solution.  The  residuum left upon
the filter, dried at a heat of 120° and  weighed,
will give the  per  centage  of bicarbonate of soda
present, (very nearly.)  Dissolved in  water this
will give only a trifling white  precipitate, with cor-
rosive sublimate, as described  above,  while the
filtered portion, which was used to wash the salt,
will give a red one, if it contains the simple carbon-
ate of soda.
   BICE, BLUE.  The native blue carbonate of
copper, prepared  by grinding and washing. Use.
As a pigment.
   BICE, GREEN.  The native green carbonate
of copper, prepared  as above. Use. As a pigment.
   BILE, BILIOUSNESS.  Treat, $c. Persons
subject to bilious attacks  should  be particularly
careful to avoid excess in eating and drinking, and
should especially avoid using those articles of food
which, from experience, they find  to disagree will
them.  A mutton chop under-cooked is an excel-
lent article for the breakfast or lunch  of a bilious
patient; and  mutton  or beef, either  broiled or
roasted, so that the gravy be retained, is better for
dinner  than many  articles apparently more deli-
cate.  These, with game and venison, form a good
variety from which to choose a bill of fare.  New
beer and porter should be particularly avoided, at
well  as puddings  and  most  articles of pastry, as
they are  very indigestible.   Hard cheese, butter,
unripe fruit, and especially beans, peas, and nuts,
are also  objectionable.  An attack of bile may
frequently be prevented by the  use of a saline pur-
gative, and it may generally be  removed by an
emetic, followed  by  a dose of castor oil, epsoru
salts, or seidlitz powders
    BILLS OF FARE.  (In cookery and domes-
tic economy.)   Lists of the various articles of diet,
either actually provided for use, or, beinu in sea 
BIL                    113                   BIR
son, are procurable for that purpose.   The follow-
ing bills of fare, for which I am indebted to " The
New  System of  Codfcery," published  by  Mr.
Murray, exhibits  at a glance the various articles
in season at different periods of the year, and which
are usually found at those  times  upon the greater
number of well-provided tables.
   Bills of  Fare for Family Dinners,  &c,
containing a list of various articles in season
in different months of the year:
   First  Quarter.   January.—Poultry: Game,
pheasants, partridges, hares, rabbits, woodcocks,
snipes,  turkeys,  capons, pullets, fowls, chickens,
tame pigeons.   Fish :  Carp, tench, perch, lam-
preys, eels, cray-fish, cod, soles,  flounders, plaice,
turbot,  thornback, skate,  sturgeon, smelts, whit-
ings, lobsters, crabs, prawns, oysters.  Vegetables :
Cabbage, savoys, colewort, sprouts, leeks, onions,
beet, sorrel,  chervil, endive, spinach, celery, gar-
lic, scorzonera, potatoes, parsnips, turnips, brocoli,
(white and purple,) shalots, lettuces,  cresses, mus-
tard, rape, salsafy, herbs of all sorts, dry and some
green ;  cucumbers, asparagus, and  mushrooms to
be had, though not in season.   Fruit: Apples,
pears, nuts,  walnuts, medlars, grapes.
   February and M'irrh.  Meat, fowls, and game,
as in January, with  the addition  of  ducklings and
chickens; which last are to be  bought in London
most if  not  all the year, but very dear.   Fish :
As the  last two months, except that cod is not
thought so good  from February to July, but may
be bought.   Vegetables:   The  same as the for-
mer  months, with the  addition of kidney-beans.
Fruits: Apples, pears, forced strawberries.
   Second Quarter.   April, May,  and June.—
Meat:  Beef, mutton,  veal, lamb,  venison,  (in
June.)   Poultry: Pullets, fowls, chickens, duck-
lings, pigeons,  rabbits, leverets.   Fish:  Carp,
tench,  soles, smelts, eels,  trout, turbot, lobsters,
chub, salmon, herrings, cray-fish, mackerel, crabs,
prawns, shrimps.  Vegetables:   As before; and
in May  early  potatoes, peas,  radishes, kidney-
beans, carrots, turnips, early cabbages, cauliflow-
ers, asparagus, artichokes, all sorts of salads forced.
Fruit:  In  June ; strawberries,  cherries, melons,
green apricots, currants and gooseberries for tarts ;
pears, grapes, nectarines, peaches, and s<^tne other
fruit; but most of these are forced,  and conse-
quently  very dear.
   Third Quarter.   July, August, and Septem-
ber.—Meat  as before.   Poultry: Pullets, fowls,
chickens, rabbits, pigeons,  green geese,  leverets,
turkey poults. Two former months plovers, wheat-
eaters ; geese in September.   Fish :  Cod, had-
dock, flounders, plaice,  skate, thornback, mullets,
pike,  carp, eels, shellfish, except oysters, mackerel
the first  two  months  of  the quarter, but not good
in August.   Partridge shooting  begins  the  1st of
September;   what  is  used before  is  therefore
poached.  Vegetables :  Of all sorts, beans, peas,
French beans, &c, &c.  Fruit:  In July ; straw-
berries,  gooseberries, pine-apples, plums, various ;
cherries, apricots, raspberries,  melons,  currants,
damsons. In August and  September; peaches,
plums, figs,  filberts,  mulberries,  cherries, apples,
pears, nectarines, grapes.   Latter months, pines,
melons,  strawberries, medlars, and quinces;  in
the latter month, Morella cherries, damsons, and
various plums.
                      15
   Fourth Quarter.  October, November, and De-
cember.—Meat as before, and doe venison.  Poul-
try  and  Game: Domestic fowls as  in  former
quarters ; pheasants from the 1st of October ; par-
tridges, larks,  hares,  dotterels;  the end  of the
month wild-ducks, teal, snipes, widgeon,  grouse.
Fish : Dories, smelts, pike, perch, halibuts, brills.
carp, salmon-trout, barbel, gudgeons,  tench, shell-
fish.  Vegetables: As in January, French beans,
last crop of beans, &c.   Fruit:  Peaches, pears,
figs, bullace, grapes, apples, medlars,  damsons, fil-
berts, walnuts,  nuts,  quinces, services, medlars.
In November—Meat:  Beef,  mutton, veal, pork,
house lamb, doe venison, poultry and game as the
last month.  Fish : As the last month.   Vegeta-
bles : Carrots, turnips, parsnips, potatoes, skirrets,
scorzonera, onions, leeks, shalots, cabbage, savoys,
colewort, spinach, chard-beets, chardoons, cresses.
endive,  celery,  lettuces,  salad-herbs, pot-herbs.
Fruit: Pears, apples, nuts, walnuts, bullace, ches-
nuts, medlars,  grapes.    In December—Meat:
beef, mutton, veal, house lamb, pork, and venison.
Poultry and Game :  Geese, turkeys,  pullets, pi-
geons,  capons,   fowls,  chickens,  rabbits,  hares,
snipes,  woodcocks,  larks,  pheasants,  partridges,
sea-fowls, guinea-fowls, wild-ducks, teal, widgeon,
dotterels, dun-birds, grouse.   Fish :  Cod, turbot,
halibuts, soles, gurnets, sturgeon,  carp, gudgeons,
codlings, eels, dories,  shellfish.   Vegetables:  As
in the last  month. Asparagus forced,  &c.   Fruit :
As the last, except bullace.
   BIRCH SUGAR.  Prep. This is prepared from
the juice procured by boring a hole  in the trunk
of the birch tree, under one of the largest branches,
carrying it quite through the wood to the bark on
the opposite side.  The  juice that flows from the
wood is collected in  suitable vessels, and  after
mixing  with a  little  chalk and  clarifying with
white of e<rg, is boiled down to a proper consistence.
   BIRDLIME.   Prep. Boil the  middle bark of
the holly, gathered  in June  or July,  for 6  or 8
hours in  water,  until  it  becomes tender; then
drain off the water,  and place it in a pit under
ground, in  layers with fern, and  surround it with
stones.  Leave  it to  ferment for two or three
weeks,  until it  forms a sort  of mucilage, which
must be pounded in a mortar, into a  mass,  and
well rubbed between the hands, in running water,
until all the refuse is worked out; then  place it
in an earthen vessel, and  leave it for four or five
days to ferment  and purify itself.
   Remarks.  Birdlime may also be made from mis-
tletoe berries, the bark of the wayfaring tree, and
other vegetables,  by  a similar process.   Should
any of it stick to the hands it may be removed by
means of a little  oil of lemon bottoms, or turpen-
tine.  Use. To rub over twigs to  catch  birds or
small animals.   It is said to be  discutient when
applied externally.
  BIRDS  may  be preserved in a fresh state for
some time  by removing the intestines, wiping the
inside out quite dry with a towel, and then flour-
ing them.  A piece of blotting paper, on which
one or two  drops of creosote have  been placed, is
now to be put inside them, and a similarly prepar-
ed piece of paper tied  round them.  They should
then be  hung up in  a cool dry place, and will  be
found to keep much  longer  than  without  under-
going this process. 
BIS                    114                    BIS
  BISCUITS.  A species of hard, dry, unleaven-
ed bread, made in thin flat pieces, and generally
composed of flour  and water, to which  butter,
sugar, almonds, and other articles are occasionally
added.
  BISCUITS, FANCY.  Prep.  Pound  1 lb. of
blanched  almonds  very  fine  and sprinkle them
with a little orange flower water; when reduced
to a perfectly smooth paste put it into a small pan,
and add a little of the finest  flour; mix well and
put the pan over a slow fire, and move the paste
well about to prevent it burning, until it becomes
hard enough not to stick to the fingers;  then take
it out  and roll it  into snnill fillets, and make it
into knots, rings, or other shapes, as you may fan-
cy.   Next make an icing of different colors, and
dip one side of  your forms in it and set them to
drain  on  a clean sieve.  They may be  varied by
strewing over them pistachio nuts of different colors,
according to fancv.
  BISCUITS, SPONGE. Prep.  Add the whites
and yelks of twelve eggs, previously well beaten,
to 1^ lbs. of finely powdered sugar,  and whisk it
until it rises in bubbles, then add 1  lb. of flour and
the rind of two lemons grated.  Form  them into
shapes, sift  a  little sugar  over  them,  and bake
them in buttered tin  moulds, in a quick oven fbr
one hour.
  BISCUITS, DEVILLED.   Butter captain's
biscuits (or any similar kind) on both sides, and
pepper them well, then make a slice of good cheese
into a paste, with made mustard, and lay it on one
side of each  biscuit, spice  with  cayenne  pepper,
and grill them.  Chopped  anchovies, or essence of
anchovies, is also a good addition.
  BISMUTH.   Syn.  Tin  Glass.  Marcasite.
Commercial bismuth is  principally  prepared  in
Germany, whence it is exported to England.  In
this state  it generally contains both arsenic and
copper.  Chemically pure  bismuth is made as fol-
lows:
  Prep. Heat  to redness, in a covered crucible, a
mixture of the oxide, or subnitrate of bismuth, with
half its weight of charcoal.
  Use, ifc. Bismuth is used in the composition of
type metal, solder, pewter, fusible metal, and sev-
eral  other metallic  mixtures.   When  added  to
other  metals  it renders them more fusible.  An
alloy of tin, nickel, bismuth, and silver  is said  to
hinder iron from rusting.   (Erdeman's Jour.)
  Tests.  Bismuth  dissolves entirely in nitric acid,
from  which water and   alkalis  throw down a
white precipitate,  and  sulphureted   hydrogen a
black one.  The  nitric solution is unaltered by
addino- sulphuric acid.
  BISMUTH, BROMIDE OF. This is prepared
by heating the metal with an excess  of bromine in
a glass tube, when a gray-colored mass, resembling
fused iodine, is formed.  It is volatile, and decom-
posed bv  water.
  BISMUTH, CHLORIDE OF.   Prep.  Mix
together two parts of corrosive sublimate and one
part  of bismuth, both  in powder, and expose the
mixture to heat until all the mercury be expelled;
a granular substance of a  grayish white color re-
mains.
  BISMUTH, ESTIMATION OF.  I. (When
mixed with  bodies  unaffected  by  sulphureted
hydrogen.)   Pass  sulphureted   hydrogen gas
 through the liquid previously mixed with a  large
 quantity of acetic acid, and  diluted with water.
 Collect the precipitated sulphuret on a filter,  wash
 .well with  water, and  redissolve  in  nitric acid in
 excess; dilute  with water  and filter, wash the
 sulphur left on the filter with water,  soured with
 nitric acid; mix  the whole  together, and precipi-
 tate the bismuth in the state of oxide by carbonate
 of ammonia.  Allow the liquor  to stand for  some
 hours, then collect the deposite on a filter, wash it
 with water, and ignite it in a porcelain crucible;
 lastly, weigh it.  The  weight, in grains of  oxide
 multiplied by -899, will give  the weight of metal in
 the sample.
   Remarks.  Should the sample be in the  solid
 state, it may be dissolved in nitric acid in excess,
 and precipitated by sulphureted hydrogen as above.
   II. (When neither  mixed with muriatic  acid
 nor substances precipitated by  carbonate of am.
 monia.)  In this case the oxide of bismuth may be
 at once thrown down  ,rith carbonate of ammonia,
 ignited, and weighed ijs before.
   III.  (When mixed  with  lead.) a. " Ullgren
 precipitates the oxides with carbonate of ammonia
 and dissolves them in  acetic acid; a strip of clean
 lead, the weight  of which is  known, is then put
 into this solution, so that the whole of it is covered.
 The vessel is closed and allowed to stand for some
 hours.   Bismuth  is separated in a metallic state,
 that which remains on the lead  is washed off, and
 the strip  dried and  weighed.   The  bismuth is
 brought on  to  a  filter and washed with water
 which  has been boiled and allowed to cool; it is
 then dissolved  in nitric acid, evaporated, heated,
 and the oxide of bismuth weighed.  The solution
 of lead is precipitated with carbonate of ammonia,
 and  the  oxide  determined.   The loss of weight
 which the lead has suffered gives the quantity of
 oxide of lead which was not originally in the  solu-
 tion."  (Berzelius Jahresbericht, 21.)
   o. Add  caustic potassa to the nitric solution, in
 sufficient excess to redissolve all  the oxide of lead
 at first thrown  down.   The oxide of bismuth re-
 mains behind, and may be  dried and weighed as
 before.
   BISMUTH,  FLOWERS  OF.   Prep.   Mix
 together 2 lbs. of nitre and  1  lb. of bismuth,  both
 in powder, and gradually inject them into an ig-
 nited tubulated earthenware retort, having a  wide
 mouth and furnished with a receiver  to catch the
 flowers.
   BISMUTH,  OXIDES  OF.   I. (Protoxide.)
 Prep. a. Expose the nitrate or subnitrate to a full
 red heat in a crucible.   Color; yellow.
   6. Dissolve 2 lbs. of bismuth in 2£ lbs. of nitric
 acid, and drop it gradually into a solution of 3 lbs.
 of carbonate of potassa in twice its weight of water;
 wash the precipitate well with cold water.
   Remarks. This is much used  by the ladies as a
 cosmetic.   In  medicine it has  been used as an
 antispasmodic.   Color : pearl white.
   II. (Peroxide.  Syn. Deutoxide.)  Prep.  Gen-
 tly heat the protoxide, for some time in a solution of
 chlorate of potassa, wash it well with water, and
 then dissolve out  any undecomposed protoxido by
 digestion in dilute nitric acid, formed with 1 part
 of strong  acid  to 9 parts  of water;  afterwards
 again well wash it with water.   A heavy brown
I powder. 
BIS                    115                     BIT
   BISMUTH,  SUBCHLORIDE  OF.   Syn.
 Pearl Powder.   Prep. Drop a weak  solution of
 common salt, or muriatic acid, into another of bis-
 muth, prepared by dissolving that metal in twice
 its weight of  nitric  acid: colled  the  precipitate
 and wash it well with water.  Use. As  a cosmetic.
 Both this article and the subnitrate have received
 the name of  pearl  powder,  from their extreme
 beauty and whiteness.
   BISMUTH,   SUBNITRATE   OF.   Syn.
 Trinitrate   of  Bismuth,  (P. L.)  White  Bis-
 muth, (P. E.)  Pearl-white.   Magistery of Bis-
 muth.  Fard's Spanish White. Blanc de Fard.
 (Fr.)  Prep.   (Process of the London Ph.)  Dis-
 solve §ij of bismuth in f^iij of nitric acid,  previous-
 ly diluted with f^ij  of distilled water ;  then add 3
 quarts of cold water, and allow the white precipi-
 tate to subside.    Afterwards decant the clear
 liquor, wash the  powder, and dry it by  a gentle
 heat.
    Remarks.   The  processes  of the Dublin  and
 Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias are similar.  Geiseler
 has ascertained  by  comparative  experiment  that
 the product is greater, if, according to  Duflos, the
 nitrate of bismuth  be allowed to crystallize  pre-
 viously to dilution with water, than if  the dilution
 be executed at once.  The proportion  of the  pro-
 ceeds was as  10 J to 14, the quality of both  pre-
 parations being alike.  (Ph. C. Bl., Dec. 1842.)
   Prop.  A  white inodorous  powder, insoluble in
 water, but freely so in nitric acid.  Use.  It has
 been given in  some chronic stomach complaints in
 doses  of 5 to 20 grs. and upwards.  An ointment
 formed with  1 part  of this substance and 4 parts
 of lard, has been long in use as a remedy in some
 chronic  skin  diseases.   Used  by  the ladies as  a
 cosmetic.
   BISMUTH, SULPHURET OF.  This  is  a
 natural production, but may be prepared artificial-
 ly by fusing its elements together, or  by passing
 sulphureted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate
 of bismuth.
   BISTRE.   A  dark brown-colored pigment,
 used for  water-color drawings, after the style of
 Indian ink.   Prep.  This color is made from the
 soot of beech-wood, or peat, the former being  pre-
 ferred.  The   most  compact,  best  colored,  and
 well burnt parcels of the soot  are selected from
 the chimney, reduced to a fine powder, and sifted
 through a very fine  lawn sieve.   This powder is
 then digested in pure cold water for several hours,
 frequently stirring it up during the time with a rod
 of glass or wood, after which it is allowed to  set-
 tle, and the clear water decanted.   More water is
 then poured on, and the process repeated a second,
 and even a third  time.   The  paste is now poured
 into a tall narrow vessel, which is then filled up
 with water, and  well agitated ; after which  the
 grosser parts are allowed to subside for 2 or 3 min-
 utes, and  the  supernatant  liquor,  containing  the
 finer portion of the bistre in suspension, is poured
 off into another vessel, where it is left to  deposite
 its contents.  For  very fine bistre, this process is
 generally repeated a  second  time.   The  powder
 deposited in the last  vessel  is  now collected and
 partially dried, when gum-water is added, and it
is made into cakes  and finally dried for use.
  Remarks. Bistre is esteemed by artists as supe-
rior to Indian ink, for drawings which are intended
                ----------------1-------------
 to be afterwards tinted with  other colors.  It oc-
 cupies the same place in water colors that brown
 pink does in oil painting.
   BITES   AND  STINGS  OF  INSECTS,
 REPTILES, &c.   Treat, $c.  The  best treat-
 ment  for the  bites and stings of insects, as bees,
 wasps, hornets, &c, is to wash the part with wa-
 ter  of  ammonia,  or solution  of chloride of lime.
 Should considerable inflammation ensue, and the
 part become much swollen,  leeches may be  ap-
 plied, and a purgative given.   The stings of ven-
 omous reptiles may be similarly treated, except in
 cases where they are of a very poisonous descrip-
 tion, when the wound should  be first well washed
 with water of ammonia, and afterwards thorough-
 ly seared with lunar  caustic  in every part, espe-
 cially the interior  and deep-seated portions ; or the
 surface of the wound, both internal and  external,
 may be removed with the knife, or in the case of
 a small joint, as a finger, the injured portion may
 be  at once  amputated.  A similar line  of treat-
 ment should  be followed after the bite of a dog
 supposed to be mad.   It has been lately asserted
 by one of our most celebrated veterinary surgeons,
 that both he and his colleague have been repeat-
 edly bitten  by dogs  that  have afterwards been
 proved to be mad, but from having fearlessly ap-
 plied the caustic to the parts, they have escaped
 uninjured.
   The poison inserted by the stings  and bites of
 many venomous reptiles, is so rapidly absorbed,
 and of  so fatal a  description, as frequently to oc-
 casion  death within a very short space  of time,
 and before any remedy or antidote can be applied.
 But even in these extreme cases, it is  probable
 that strong Jiquid ammonia, or solution^of chloride
 of lime, or bichloride of mercury, if at hand, and
 applied to every portion of the wound, immediate-
 ly after its infliction, would neutralize and destroy
 the dangerous action of the poison.  Unfortunate-
 ly, however, these wounds are inflicted in parts of
 the world where precautionary measures  are  sel-
 dom thought of, and generally at times when peo-
 ple are  least prepared  to  meet  them, and so sud-
 denly and unexpectedly, as  to stagger even those
 observers who may be in no absolute danger them-
 selves.  Such is the bite of the East Indian copra
 de capello, against which two  Carnatic, or Asiatic
 (arsenical) pills are prescribed by the Hindoos, but
 which are generally scarcely swallowed, before
 the poison of the serpent has rendered the patient
 a stiffened corpse.   In  all cases of this emergent
 kind, the  remedy must be either one to be applied
 to the wound, to  neutralize the poison before it
 can be absorbed into the blood, or one that will at
 once mingle with  the circulation, and destroy its
 action, if already introduced into the system. Med-
 icines taken by the mouth are  slow in  their action,
 and require some time to  enter into and  mix up
 with the whole mass of blood.   When the venom
 of a  rabid dog, or of the more  poisonous snakes, is
 once fully absorbed into the system, there  appears
to be no treatment that can save the  patient.   A '
bottle of Madeira wine, drunk in two doses, about
3 minutes apart, has been recommended  against
the latter, and is perhaps as  likely to prove bene-
ficial as any thing else.
  BITTERN.  Prep. A mixture of 1 part each,
of extract of  quassia and  powdered  sulphate ol 
BLA                     116                    BLA
iron, with 2 parts of  extract of  cocculus  indicns,
4 parts of Spanish liquorice, and  s of treacle. The
liquorice is  lir.-t boiled with water until dissolved,
and evaporated to a proper consistence before add-
ing the other ingrodien'-s.   Remarks. This  mixture
is made by the brewers' druggists, and sent  out in
casks,  disguised,  to escape  detection.   It is em-
ployed by the fraudulent brewer to impart a false
bitter and strength to  his liquor.
  BITTERS.   Bitter? are  considered as  tonic
and stomachic, and to improve the  appetite  when
taken in moderation.  The  best time is early in
the morning, or an hour before meals.  An ex-
cessive use of bitters tends to weaken the stomach.
They should not  be  taken  for a  longer period
than a  fortnight  at one time, allowing a similar
period to  elapse before again having recourse to
them.
  BITTERS,  BRANDY.   Syn.  Spirit   Bit-
ters.  Prep. I. Dried orange and lemon  peel, of
each 2 oz.;  fresh ditto, of each 3 oz.; good  bran-
dy 1 gallon  ; lump sugar 1 lb.   Proc. Digest the
peel  in  the  brandy for 10  days, frequently  shak-
ing ; then press out the  liquor and filter  through
blotting paper ; lastly, dissolve the  sugar  therein.
Remarks. A very agreeable bitter, either taken as
a dram, or mixed with other liquor.
  II. Gentian  root, bruised, 4 oz.; fresh orange
peel  5 oz.;  cassia bark 2  oz.; cardamom seeds,
bruised,  1 oz.; cochineal,  bruised, \  oz. ;  proof
spirit 1  gallon.   Proc.  Digest for  a week, then
decant  the  clear, press  the bottoms,  and   pour
thereon 5 pints of  water;  again  digest for 3  days,
then press out the liquor, mix the  two  tinctures,
filter and add sugar 2  lbs.
  III.  Bruised gentian 2 oz.;  fresh orange peel
3 oz.; cassia bark \ oz.; cloves  1 drachm ;  proof
spirit 1 gallon ; cape  or raisin wine £ gallon ; di-
gest  for  a week  as before, then add sugar 1 lb.,
and a little coloring, if required.
  IV.  Bruised gentian \  lb.;  cochineal \ oz.;
sugar \  lb.;  spirit (24 u. p.)  1 gallon.
  BITTERS,  CALOMBA.   Prep.  Calomba
root, fresh orange  and* lemon peel, of each  1 oz.;
proof spirit 1 quart ; digest for  a week, then ex-
press the tincture, add lump sugar 4 oz., and a
little coloring.
  BITTERS,  WINE.  I. Ing. Bruised  gentian
root, fresh orange and lemon peel, of each \\ oz.;
white wine  1  quart; digest for  a week, and
strain.
  II. (M. Dubois.) Cinchona bark, bruised,  8 oz.;
white canella 1£ oz.;  juniper berries, lemon  peel,
and  wiuter's bark, of each 1-J oz.; carbonate  of
Boda | oz.;  Madeira wine 1J gallons; digest for a
week.
  III.  Fresh lemon peel 1  lb.; dried orange peel
J lb.; bruised gentian  root \ lb.; cape wine  1 gal-
lon : as before.
   Use.  As a tonic and stomachic.
  BLACK  ASH.  The waste  lye of  the  soap-
makers, evaporated in large iron boilers, the salt
separated as it falls down, and then  heated in a
reverberatory furnace until  it is partially decom-
posed and fused, when it  is run into iron pots to
cool.   Use.  It is used in the manufacture  of com-
raou soap and alum.
   BLACK, BEECH.  Syn.  Vegetable  Blue
Black.   Made by burning beech-wood  in close
I vessels, and well washing and  igniting the char.
 coal with water.  17sed as a pigment.
   BLACK,  BONE.  Syn.  Animal  Charcoal
 The residuum  of the distillation of bone spirit.
 Use.  As  a pigment;  for making blacking ; as a
 material for the moulds of founders ;  for clarifying
 and bleaching liquids, and for removing lime from
 sirup in refining sugar.   Sold for ivory-black.
   BLACK,  (FINE,)  BONE.   Syn.   Park,
 Black.   Turners'  bone-dust,  burnt  with great
 care in covered  iron crucibles,  and  afterwards
 ground very fine.   Use.  A beautiful black, works
 well both  in oil  and water; sold for real ivory.
 black,  and for burnt  lamp-black.
   BLACK,  BRUNSWICK.   Prep.  Melt with
 care 2  lbs. of asphaltum in  an iron  pot, then stir
 in 1 pint of hot boiled oil, mix well,  remove the
 pot  from the fire, and  when  cooled a little, add 2
 quarts of oil of turpentine.   Use. To blacken and
 polish grates and ironwork.
   BLACK, BURNT LAMP.  Lamp-black heat-
 ed in a covered  iron  crucible  until all its greasi-
 ness is  burnt off  Use.  As a water-color.  Paris
 black is usually sold  for it.
   BLACK,  COMPOSITE N.  Syn. Prussian
 Black.   The residuum of the  process of making
 prussiate of potash  from blood and hoofs.  Use.
 As  a pigment, and  instead  of bone-black, than
 which it decolors better.
   BLACK DYE.   I.  (For Cotton and Linen.)
 Proc.  a.  Steep the  goods, previously dyed blue,
 for 24 hours in a decoction of gall nuts or sumach,
 then withdraw them,  rinse them well in water,
 and pass them through a bath of acetate of iron
 for  a quarter of  an hour;  again rinse  and air
 them, then pass them a second time through the
 bath, to which a  little more iron liquor must be
 added.   The whole  process  may be repeated as
 often as necessary.
   b. Steep the goods in a mordant  of acetate of
 iron, working them well, then pass them  through
 a bath  of madder and logwood  for 2 hours.
   Remarks.  About  2 oz.  of coarsely powdered
 galls, or 4 oz. of sumach, are  required for every
 pound of cotton, in the  process of galling.  The
 former should be boiled in water, in the proportion
 of about 3 or 4 pints of  water  to every pound of
 cotton,  but the sumach bath  is better made by
 mere infusion in very  hot water.  For a very su-
 perior black the stuff must be- first dyed blue, ai
 before mentioned.
   II.  (For  Silk.)   Silks are dyed  much in the
 same way as woollens, but the  process is conduct-
 ed with less heat, and the richness of the dye may
 be varied at pleasure,  by  allowing the goods  to
 remain a longer or shorter time in the bath.
   Proc. a.  Give  the silk a  bath of gall nuts for
 from  12  to 40  hours,  occasionally  working  it
 therein, then take it  out, rinse and air it.  and run
 it through a bath containing a little  sulphate of
 iron, for a  few minutes-, again rinse and air it
 The whole operation may then be repeated until
 the  proper depth of color is obtained.
   b. Boil  22 lbs.  of Aleppo galls, bruised, for 1
 hour in 2  hogsheads of water, then  add 32 lbs. of
 copperas,  14 lbs. of iron filings, and 22 lbs.  of
 gum ;  digest for 1 hour, and  when the ingredients
 are dissolved, pass the silk, previously galled with
 £ of its weight of galls, through the bath for 1 
BLA                    117                   BLA
   hour, then rinse and air it well;  next leave it in
   the dye  bath for from 6 to 12 hours, and again
   repeat the whole process  as  often  as  necessary.
   The above ingredients are  for 1 cwt. of silk.
   1   III (For  Wool.)   Wool and woollen goods are
   usually dyed blue, preparatory to undergoing the
   process of being dyed black, as  not  only  is the
   color thus rendered fuller  and finer than it would
   otherwise be, but also more durable.   When the
   goods are  coarse or  common, and the price is an
   object, they are generally " rooted" instead of be-
   ing " blued."  This consists in giving  them a dun
   or brown color, with  the husks of walnuts, or the
   roots of  the  walnut tree.  The goods  being thus
   prepared are ready to receive the dye.
      Proc.  a. Twenty lbs.  of logwood chips and 18
   lbs. of galls,  reduced to  a  rough powder, are en-
   closed in a  coarse  bag, and  placed in a suitable
   sized boiler, where  they  are boiled with water for
    8 or 10  hours; J of  this decoction  is  then trans-
    ferred into another copper, with  2 lbs. of  verdigris
    and a sufficient quantity of water, and the goods
   passed through it for two  hours, at a heat but lit-
   tle below boiling.   The goods are next  drained
   out,  and another J  of the decoction of logwood
   and  galls, and 9  lbs. of  copperas added to the
   boiler; the fire is then lowered, and as soon as the
   copperas is dissolved, the cloth is again introduced
   and worked  through it well for 1 hour; it is then
   taken out and  aired, and the remaining third of
   the decoction added, with about 20 lbs. of sumach ;
   the whole is then brought to a boil, and 2 pounds
   more sulphate of iron added, with a pailful of cold
   water, after  which  the  goods are put in a third
   time, and worked for 1 hour; they  must  then be
   taken out, washed and aired, and again passed
   through  the  bath for an hour. The stuff is now
%  thoroughly rinsed, until the water comes off clean,
   when it  may be dried at once, or further softened
   and beautified by  putting  it, for  a quarter of an
   hour, through a hot bath of weld, but  not boiling,
   after which  it must be  again rinsed.  Remarks.
   The  above proportions are for 1 cwt.  to lr} cwt.
   of  wool or  stuff, and forms  a beautiful  though
   expensive  dye.   The following  are simpler and
   cheaper  methods.
      b.  Make a bath as before with 2 lbs. of fustic,
   4£ lbs. of logwood,  and  11 lbs. of sumach; boil
   the  cloth therein for 3 hours,  then lift it  out and
   add  11 lbs. of sulphate of iron, and when dissolved
   pass  the  cloth through  it  during 2 hours.  Next
   rinse  and air the cloth, and again  pass it  through
   the bath  for 1 hour; lastly, rinse until the water
   runs clear.
     c.  Make a bath as before, with 4 oz. of bruised
   galls, and 1£ lbs.  of logwood chips;  boil your
   goods  therein for 2 hours, then  take them out,
   and add  4 oz. of green  copperas, and when it is
   dissolved, pass your  goods  through it for 2 hours,
   keeping the bath very hot,  but not boiling; again
   take them out, wash and air them well, add 1 oz.
   more of copperas to the  bath, and pass the cloth
   through it for another hour;  lastly, well  rinse it.
   This method  is suited to  dyeing in the small way
   in private families.    The  above  ingredients are
   sufficient for  7 or 8 lbs. of  woollen goods, if well
   managed.
     Remarks. In the process of dyeing black, es-
   pecially on wool, it  is necessary  to take  it out
 several times, and expose it  to the  air; this is
 called " airing," and is done to allow the oxygen
 of the  atmosphere  to  act  upon the dye,  without
 which  a  good  color  cannot be produced.  The
 usual proportions employed by the dyers of  Eng-
 land are,  5 lbs.  each of galls and  copperas, and
 30 lbs. of  logwood for every cwt. of cloth,  but
 these weights are often increased for choice goods.
    BLACK  DRAUGHT.   Syn. Compound Sen-
 na Mixture.
   Prep. I.  Infusion  of senna  f §xivss.;  tincture
 of senna f ^iss.; epsom salts  §iv.; carbonate of
 ammonia 3j ; mix.   (U. H.)
    II. Senna 13  oz.; boiling water  2  quarts;  di-
 gest for 4  hours in a hot place, then press out  the
 liquor in  a tincture  press, and add | of a pint of
 tincture of senna (co.) and 1 lb. of epsom salts.
    III. East India senna  2 lbs.; boiling water 9
 quarts ; tincture of senna and epsom salts, of each
 3% lbs.; as last.
    IV. Senna 8 lbs.; boiling water  9 gallons ;  ep-
 som salts  16 lbs.;  tincture of senna  1^  gallons;
 treacle and coloring, of each, 1 quart.
   V. As  last, but instead of tincture of senna,
 use 3 quarts of spirits of wine and 2 quarts  of
 water.
   Remarks. As  *he  above mixture contains but
 little spirit, and f:om its great consumption, being
 made in large quantities, it frequently spoils be-
 fore the whole  is sold, especially in hot weather.
 To avoid this, 1 drachm of  cloves and 2 drachms
 of mustard seed, both bruised, may be added to
 every gallon of the  strained liquor at the  same
 time with  the  salts, spirit,  and coloring,  after
 which it must be shaken up repeatedly for a few
 days, and  then  allowed to repose  for a few days
 more, when it will become as clear as brandy.
 If wanted  immediately* it may be at once filtered
 through a flannel bag.
   BLACK,'FLOREY.   Syn. Floree  d'Inde.
 The  dried  scum  of the  dyer's woad bath.  It
 makes a superior blue-black.
   BLACK,  FRANKFORT.  Vine branches,
 lees of wine,  &c.,  calcined in  covered  vessels,
 and then  well washed and ground.  Use. As a
 pigment, and to make printer's ink.
   BLACK,  FROM  WINE LEES AND TAR-
 TAR.  This pigment is prepared  by calcination
 in cylindrical iron  pots, furnished with covers, in
 the centre of which  is left a  small hole  for the
 escape of the fumes and  vapors.  When smoke
 ceases to  be  evolved,  the  process is  concluded,
 and after cooling, the whole is well washed and
 ground fine.   Use.  Similar to Frankfort black.
   BLACK,  HARTSHORN.   Prepared by cal-
 cining the residuum of the distillation of spirits  of
 hartshorn.   Similar to ivory and bone black.
   BLACKING, (for Dress Boots and Shoes.)
 Prep.  I. Gum arabic 4 oz.; treacle or moist su-
 gar 1 oz.;  ink \ pint; vinegar and  spirit of wine,
 of each, 1 oz.   Proc. Dissolve the gum and trea-
 cle in the  ink and  vinegar, then strain and add
 the spirit.
   II. To the above  add 1 oz. of sweet oil, and
-J- oz. of lamp-black.
   III. Beat well together the whites of two eggs,
a  tablespoonful  of spirit of wine, a lump of su-
gar, and a little finely-powdered ivory-black  to
thicken. 
BLA                   118                    BLA
  Remarks. The  first two articles are applied to '
the leather by the tip of the finger or a sponge,
and allowed to dry out of the  dust, and are only J
adapted for clean, dry weather, or indoors.  The
last is laid on and  polished  with a brush, and then
left for a few hours to harden.   It may also be
used to revive the faded black leather seats and
backs  of old  chairs.   All  of these  possess great
brilliancy for a time.
  BLACKING,  (for  Harness,   &c.)   Prep.
Melt  2 oz. of mutton suet with 6  oz. of bees'-
wax; add 6 oz. of sugar-candy, 2 oz. of soft soap
dissolved in water, and 1 oz. of indigo finely pow-
dered ; when  melted  and  well mixed, add a. gill
of turpentine.   Lay it  on the  harness with a
sponge, and polish off with a brush.
  BLACKING, (for Boots and  Shoes.)
  I. (Liquid.) Prep. a.  Ivory-black, in fine pow-
der, 1 lb.: treacle  f lb.; sweet  oil 2 oz.; beer and
vinegar, of each, 1 pint.  Proc. Rub together the
first three until the oil be perfectly " killed," then
add the beer and vinegar.
  b. Ivory-black and treacle, of each 1 lb.; sweet
oil and oil of vitriol, of each \ lb.  Proc. Mix the
first three as before, then gradually add the vitriol,
diluted with thrice its  weight of water ;  mix well,
and let  it stand for 3  hours, when  it may be  re-
duced  to a proper  consistence with water or sour
beer.
  c. Ivory-black and treacle, of each \ lb; oil of
vitriol 1 oz.; sweet oil 2 oz.; sour beer 1 pint; as
above.
  d. Ivory-black 7 lbs.; treacle 6 lbs.;  sweet oil
1 lb.; oil of vitriol  J lb.;  water q. s., as last.
  e. Ivory-black 3 cwt.; crude molasses 2 cwt.;
linseed oil 3 gallons;  oil of vitriol  20 lbs.; water
q. s., as last. .
  II.  (Paste.) Prep.  a. Treacle 1 lb.; ivory-black
l\ lbs.; sweet oil  2 oz.;  rub together as before,
then add a little lemon juice or strong vinegar.
  6. Ivory-black 2 lbs.; treacle 1 lb.; olive oil and
oil of vitriol, of each \  lb.;  water q. s., as before.
  c. Ivory-black 28  lbs.; treacle 21 lbs.;  common
oil 1 quart: oil of vitriol 3 lbs.; water q. s.
  d. Ivory-black 3 cwt.; common treacle 2 cwt.;
linseed oil and vinegar bottoms, of each 3 gallons;
oil of vitriol \ cwt.; water q. s.
  Remarks. The  manipulations required for paste
and liquid blacking are the  same, the difference in
the two being the  quantity of liquid added.  Thus,
by diluting paste blacking  with water or beer bot-
toms, it may be converted into liquid blacking of
a similar quality, and, by using less  fluid  matter,
the ingredients of liquid blacking will produce paste
blacking.   One thing must, however, be observed,
and that  is, that  the ivory-black used for liquid
blacking must be  reduced  to a much finer powder
than for paste blacking, as, if this be not  attended
to, it  will settle to  the bottom, and be with difficul-
ty  diffused again  through  the liquid.  For  those
persons who do not like the use of blacking con-
taining oil of vitriol, the first of the above forms,
either for  paste or liquid, may be  adopted.   The
vitriol, however, greatly contributes to promote the
shining properties of  the  blacking,  and in  small
quantities is not so injurious to  the  leather as  has
been  falsely represented, as it wholly unites itself
to the lime of  the phosphate contained in the ivory-
black, and is  thus partly neutralized.  This is the
reason why  lamp-black should never be  employed
for blacking, as  it has no earthy base to absorb or
neutralize the  acid, which would then prove very
hurtful to the leather.  Oil of vitriol is now em-
ployed in the  manufacture of all  the most cele-
brated shining blackings.  The addition  of white
of eggs, isinglass, gum arabic, and similar articles
to blacking, always proves injurious, as  they tend
to stiffen the leather and to make it crack.
  BLACK,  JAPAN.   Syn. Bituminous  Var-
nish.   Prep. Fuse by a gentle heat 12 oz. of am-
ber, and 2 oz. of asphaltum, then add 2 oz. of black
rosin, and J> a  P'ut of boiled oil;  mix well, remove
it from the  fire, and when nearly cold, add  J pint
of spirit of turpentine ; mix well together. Use.  To
varnish metals.
  BLACK,  IVORY.   Syn.  Cologne  Black.
Cassel Black.   Prep.  Put into a crucible, sur-
rounded by burning coals, fragments or turnings of
ivory, or of the osseous parts of animals, and cover
it closely. The ivory or bones, by  exposure to  the
heat, will be reduced to charcoal.  When no more
smoke is  seen to pass through the joining of  the
cover, leave the crucible over the  fire for half an
hour  longer, or  until it  has completely  cooled,
There will then be found in it a hard carbonaceous
matter, which must be pounded and ground on por-
phyry with  water, washed on a filter with warm
water, and dried.  Before it is used it must be again
subjected to grinding.   Remarks. Black furnished
by bones  is reddish.   That  produced by  ivory is
more beautiful.  It is brighter than black obtained
from  peach stones.  When mixed  in a proper dost
with  whitelead,  it forms a beautiful pearl gray
Ivory-black has a very deep and rich color.  Th(
Cologne and Cassel blacks are formed from ivory.
  BLACK, LAMP.   Prep. I.  Suspend  over a
lamp a conical funnel of tin plate, having above it
a pipe to convey from the apartment the smoke
which escapes from the lamp.  Large mushrooms,
of a very black carbonaceous matter, and exceed-
ingly light,  will  be formed at the  summit of the
cone.  This carbon is reduced to such a state of
division, as cannot be given to any other matter,
by grinding it  on a piece of porphyry.  This black
goes  a great  way in every kind of painting.   It
may be rendered less oily and drier by calcination
in close vessels.
  The funnel should be united to the pipe, which
conveys  off the smoke, by means of wire, because
solder would be melted by the flame of the lamp.
  II. This  article was originally prepared by burn-
ing oil in lamps and  collecting the  soot in a funnel
inverted  over it, as above described.  Hence the
name.  It is now, however, generally made on the
commercial scale, by burning the  oil of bones or
common coal  tar, previously freed  from  its ammo-
nia,  and receiving the smoke in  a suitable cham-
ber.   In  the patent process of Messrs. Martin and
Grafton, the coal tar is violently agitated with lime
water, until the two  are well mixed, after which it
is allowed  to subside, and  the  lime water being
drawn off, it is washed several times with hot  wa-
ter.   After the whole  of the water has been re-
moved by subsidence and decantation, it is put into
stills,  and heat applied until the  impurities have
passed over, and the spirit runs clear and smooth.
The receiver is then  charged, and  the heat raised
sufficiently  high to drive over the  whole of the oil 
BLA                    119                    BLA
 and spirit, leaving only the  asphaltum in the still.
 The tar or liquor in the receiver  is then put into
 a  long cast-iron tube,  furnished  with  numerous
 large burners,  underneath  which is a furnace  to
 heat the pipe to  nearly the boiling point.   Over
 each  burner is a sort of funnel, which goes into a
 cast-iron pipe  or main, and which receives the
 smoke in a similar way from all the burners.  From
 this the smoke is conveyed by large pipes to a box,
 where the  heaviest part of the black is deposited ;
 from  this it is carried  by pipes to  a second box,
 where another deposite takes place, and  from this
 box the pipe is continued until it passes into a series
 of large canvass  bags, arranged side-by-side, and
 connected  together at top and bottom alternately.
 Fifty or eighty of these bags are employed, the last
 one being left open to admit of the  escape  of the
 smoke, which has thus been made to traverse a space
 of about 400 yards.  As soon  as  the bags contain
 any considerable  quantity  of black, they are re-
 moved and  emptied.  The black deposited  in the
 last bag is the finest and best, and it becomes pro-
 gressively coarser as it approaches the furnace.
   BLACKLEAD.   Syn.  Plumbago.  Carburet
 of Iron?   Qual.  Use, #c.   The  best  blacklead
 comes  from Cumberland, and is used for making
 pencils for artists.  The coarser sorts are employed
 to impart a metallic lustre to other bodies, and mix-
 ed with grease to diminish friction.   Blacklead is
 also used to cover the face  of  articles on which it
 is desired to deposite a coating of copper by the elec-
 trotype.  It has  been  used in herpes,  and some
 chronic skin diseases, in the form of an ointment,
 made  with 4 times its weight of lard.
   BLACK, PEACHSTONE. The stones or ker-
 nels of peaches, cherries, and  other similar  kinds
 of fruit, burned in close vessels, then ground' and
 washed well.   Use.  It works well with oil; mixed
 with white lead and oil it makes old  gray.
   BLACK,  PITCOAL.  The best coal for this
 purpose is that which has  a shining fracture.   It
 affords, perhaps, the most useful brown  the  artist
 can place on his  palette ; being remarkably  clear,
 not so warm as Vandyke-brown, and serving as a
 shadow for blues, reds,  or  yellows, when glazed
 over them.  It seems almost  certain that Titian
 made large use of this material. Coal, when burn-
 ed to a white heat, then quenched  in water, and
 ground down, gives an excellent blue-black.
   BLACK REVIVER.  Syn. Paris's  Anticar-
 dium.   Prep. I.  Blue  galls, bruised, 4  oz.;  log-
 wood, copperas, iron filings, and sumach, of each
 1 oz.;  vinegar 1 quart.  Proc.  Macerate in a close
 vessel, with heat, for 24 hours, then strain off the
 clear, add the filings and copperas,  and shake  it oc-
 casionally for a week.   Keep it in a corked bottle.
   II.  Bruised blue galls 1$ lbs.; logwood J lb.;
 copperas 6 oz.; vinegar 1 quart; water  3 quarts.
 As above.
   III.  Galls 1 lb.; logwood 2 lbs.; copperas $ lb.;
 boil for 2  hours in water 5 quarts,  until reduced
 to a gallon, and strain.   Use. To restore  the  color
 of black cloth.
   BLACK, RUSSIAN.   Syn. Russian  Lamp-
 Black. Prepared by burning the  chips  of resin-
ous deals, and collecting the black matter  deposited
by the  smoke.  It is a  good black  pigment, but
apt to take fire  spontaneously if left for some  time
moistened with oiL
   BLACK, RICE.   Prepared by burning rice  in
 close vessels.  The color is very poor.
   BLACK,  SPANISH.   Syn. Cork  Black.
 Cork burnt in close vessels, and the charcoal ground
 and washed with water.  A good color, and works
 very soft.
   BLACK, SOOT.   The soot of coal fires, ground
 and sifted.   Used as a common paint; mixed with
 Venetian red  and oil, it makes a chocolate color;
 also used to make  gray mortar.
   BLACK,  SUGAR.   Syn.  Jamaica  Black.
 Prepared by burning sugar in  close vessels.  It
 works free, but is deficient in body.   It is a warm
 color for washing drawings, and  equal in mellow-
 ness to Indian ink  and bistre.
   BLACK, VINE  TWIG.  Prep. From  vine
 twigs, by calcination as above.  With whitelead
 and oil it produces beautiful  shades of silver gray
 and white.
   BLACK, WHEAT.   From wheat  burnt  in
 close vessels.  Remarks.  A superior black, be-
 tween ivory and lamp-black;  it has a full  body
 and dries hard and quickly with oil.
   BLADDERS. Prep.  $c.   These  articles are
 prepared by cutting off the fat and  loose  mem-
 branes attached to them, and  washing them first
 in a weak solution of chloride  of lime, and after-
 wards in clear water ;  they are then blown out and
 submitted to pressure by rolling them under the
 arm, by which they  become considerably larger;
 they are next blown quite tight, dried, and tied up
 in dozens for sale.   Use. Employed  by druggists
 and oil and colormen to  tie over pots, bottles, and
 jars, and to contain pill  masses, and  other similar
 substances.   Caution. Never buy bladders unless
 they are perfectly dry and tight, as, if the reverse
 be the case, they will neither keep nor prove sound.
   BLANCHING OR WHITENING.  An oper-
 ation in cookery,  performed by putting  tongues,
 palates,  meat, &c, into cold  water, when  it  is
 gradually brought to boil, and the article taken out
 and plunged into cold water, where it is left  until
 quite cold.   It  is  intended  to  impart whiteness,
 plumpness, and softness.
   BLANC, (in Cookery.)   A compound, formed
 by mixing 1 lb. of grated bacon, 1 lb.  of suet, £ lb.
 of butter, 2 lemons, 3 or 4 carrots cut into  dice,
 3  or 4 onions, and a little water, and  boiling  them
 until done,
   BLANCMANGE,  (in Cookery.)  Jelly, sea-
 soned and made up into forms.   Prep.  I.   Isin-
 glass  1 oz.; sweet  almonds,  12 in no.; bitter do.
 6  in no.; milk  1  quart.  Proc.  Boil  the  isinglass
 and  almonds grated in the milk, until of a proper
 consistence when cold; then strain it, and  when
 nearly cold pour  it  into the  moulds, previously
 rubbed with a little salad oil, and  then wiped out
 again.
   II.  To the above add \ lb. of lump sugar and 4
 tablespoonfuls of cream ; when cold, remelt it and
 add a tablespoonful of orange flower  water,  after
 which it  may be moulded as before.
   III.  Use calves' feet jelly instead of isinglass.
   IV. (Mrs.  Hoffman's.)  Isinglass  \ lb.;   rose-
 water \  pint; milk 2 quarts;  milk of almonds  j
pint.
   V. (Rice.) Ground rice 2 oz.; milk 1 pint; lump
sugar 3 oz.;  a little lemon peel and cinnamon ;  dis-
solve the rice in the milk by boiling; reduce it to a 
BLE
proper consistence, then add the spice and sugar,
boil for 1 minute, and strain, and when nearly cold
mould as above.   Caution. The powdered rice
must  be rubbed  up with a little  cold water pre-
viously to adding it to the milk, to prevent it run-
uing into lumps.
  VI.  (West Indian.)  Make a jelly with arrow-
root, and  to every pint, when nearly cold, add a
glass  of sherry, a  spoonful each  of brandy and
orange flower water, and 2 oz. of lump sugar.
  Vll. (Transparent.)  Instead of milk use water,
and clarify with the white of an egg.
  BLANQUENINE.   A name given  by  Dr.
Mills  to a uew vegetable alkali, which he thought
he had discovered in white cinchona bark.   (Quar.
Jour. Science, Ap. 1828.)
  BLANQUETTE,  (in  Cookery.)   A sort  of
white fricasee.
  BLEACHING.   Syn.  Blanchissage.   (Fr.)
Bleichk.n. (Ger.)   The  operation by which  the
natural colors of substances are  discharged, and
they become white or colorless.  Bleaching may
be performed either by natural means, as exposure
to light, air, and moisture,  or by chemical agents,
as chlorine, chloride of lime, sulphurous acid, &c.
In many of the processes adopted for  this purpose,
both methods are combined.  The most important
application of the art of  bleaching in the United
Kingdom, is in the manufacture of textile fabrics.
The celerity with which  this is performed in the
most  perfect  manner,  and  the  trifling  expense
thereby incurred, contribute, in no small degree,
towards inducing that preference universally shown
to the productions of the looms  of Great Britain.
  Cotton, from its original whiteness, and little  at-
traction for coloring matter, is more easily bleached
than most other substances.  On the old plan, it is
first well  washed in  warm water to remove the
weaver's paste or dressing, then " bucked" (boiled)
in a weak alkaline lye, and after being well washed
is spread out upon the grass, or bleaching ground,
and freely exposed to  the joint action of light, air,
and moisture.   The operation of " bucking" and
exposure is  repeated  as often as  necessary, when
the goods are " soured" or immersed in water acid-
ulated with sulphuric acid, after which they  re-
ceive  a thorough washing in clean water, and are
dried.  From the length of the exposure upon the
bleaching ground, this method  has been found to
injure  the texture of the cloth, and from the num-
ber of operations required, necessarily becomes ex-
pensive,  and produces considerable delay;  it has
therefore very generally given place to the improved
system of chemical bleaching, by means of chloride
of lime.   In this method,  after the first operation
of washing and bucking, as in the common process,
the cotton is submitted to the action of weak solu-
tions  of  chloride of lime,  and afterwards passed
through  soured water, when it  has only to be tho-
roughly washed and dried.
   Linen is bleached in a similar way to cotton, but
the operation is more  troublesome, from its greater
affinity for coloring matter.
   Wool is first exposed  to the joint action of ful-
ler's earth and soap, in the fulling mill, to remove
adherent grease and dirt, and is then well washed
and dried,  when it is  usually  found sufficiently
white for the purposes of the dyer; but should  the
■light yellow tint it retains prove objectionable, it is
BLE
run through water tinged blue with  indigo, or it ii
exposed to the fumes of burning sulphur ; the latter
method gives it a harsh feel, which is best removed
by a bath of soap and water, but this will repro-
duce its previous yellowishness.
  Silk is bleached by boiling it in white soap and
water, to remove the natural yellow varnish that
covers it, after  which it is subjected to repeated
rinsings.  Articles  that  are required to be very
white, as gloves, stockings, &c, are also submitted
to the action of sulphurous acid, or  the fumes of
burning sulphur.
  Straw is also bleached by the fumes of sulphur;
hence arises the sulphurous smell emitted  by new
straw hats and  bonnets.   They may, however, be
bleached in  a much better manner by the use of a
little oxalic acid, or chloride of lime.
  Old  Rags, for the manufacture  of paper, and
paper pulp, are generally bleached with  chlorine.
  Printed Books,  Engravings, &.c, may be whi-
tened by first subjecting them to the action of weak
chloride of lime water, next to water soured with
sulphuric  acid,  and,  lastly, to pure water, to re-
move any adhering acid or chlorine.
  Remarks.  The theoretical principles of bleach-
ing are but little understood;  it is thought 'o de-
pend upon the action of oxygen, in a nascent state,
on the particles  of coloring  matter, but  this is un-
supported by  direct experiment.  It is, however,
an art eminently indebted to chemistry for its pres-
ent efficiency, and is based on the practical appli-
cation of facts  which that science has called to
light.
  BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE.   When
this  occurs  under  common  circumstances, and
without violence, it may be regarded as a natural
effort to relieve  the body from an excess of blood;
but when it  becomes habitual,  or is the result of
violence, remedial measures should be had recourse
to.  A simple means of  arresting the haemorrhage
is to introduce, by means of a probe, a small piece
of lint or soft cotton, previously dipped  into some
mild styptic, as  a solution of alum, white vitriol, or
creosote, or even cold water.   This will generally
succeed, but  should it  not, cold water may be
snuffed up  the  nostrils, or a  small piece  of ice
placed in the nose.   Should the bleeding be very
profuse,  or  persistent, medical advice  should be
had  recourse to.  I  once saw a person (an inn-
keeper) lose  his life  in  the course of a few days
from a voluntary haemorrhage from the nose, which
it was found impossible to stop or lessen.
  A plan has been lately proposed by Dr. Negrier,
of Angiers, which, he says, is simple and  certain.
"It is preferable to the occlusion of the nostrils, as
that is difficult to maintain, especially in sleep.
During three years that, in numerous cases, he has
tried this method,  which is simply elevating the
patient's arm, he has never found it to fail.   After
detailing  several cases, he thus explains the ra-
tionale of the plan.   When the person is standing
with the arms at the side, the blood which escapes
from the upper part of the arch of the aorta, takes
two directions, viz., towards the head, and towards
the arms, and that which  goes to the head is al-
most  equal  in quantity  to that which is received
by  both superior  extremities.  If,  however, the
individual who  was formerly hanging  his arms,
raised them, the blood which was flowing horizon-
U 
BLI                     121                    BLO
tally and without effort from the subclavian into
the brachial  arteries, must then ascend against
the weight of the column of blood contained in the
latter; and as there is nothing in the act of raising
the arm to increase the force of the circulation, it
follows, that part of the force formerly expended
in sending the blood up the carotids, must now be
subtracted, and added to that which  drives it
through the  brachial arteries.   This explanation
may or may not be  confirmed  by experiments.
The subject  is  worth  investigation."   (Archives
generates de  Medecine.  June, 1842.)
   BLENORRHCEA.  An increased discharge of
mucus from the urethra or vagina.   Treat Ad-
minister mild aperients and tonics.  Cold bathing,
and general  habits of cleanliness, powerfully pro-
mote a cure.
   BLIND, WRITING FOR THE.   If an iron
style or pencil, with a moderately fine point, be used
to write with upon paper, and a little  more  pres-
sure be employed  than in using a common pen,
characters will be produced  which may easily be
read  by  blind  persons after a little practice, by
passing their fingers over them, either on the side
on which they were written, where they will ap-
pear in  intaglio, or by reversing the paper, where
they will appear in relief.
   BLISTER,  EXTEMPORANEOUS.   I. A
piece  of  lint dipped  into vinegar of cantharides,
and immediately  after its application to the  skin,
covered  over with a piece  of strapping, to prevent
evaporation, will speedily raise a blister.
   II.  Concentrated  acetic  acid,  applied  in the
same  way, will have a similar effect.
   III. The  following  method, proposed by Dr.
Darcq, is very simple and  convenient:  Into a flat
watch-glass, pour from 8 to 10 drops of very con-
centrated ammonia ;  cover the liquid with a small
piece of  linen, of  a rather less diameter than that
of the glass,  and slowly apply this little apparatus
to the previously shaved skin.  Keep the whole in
its place by  means of moderate pressure with the
fingers.
   As  soon as a red ring, about 2 centimetres in
breadth, is observed round  the glass, it is certain
that  vesication is effected.  Sometimes scarcely
30 seconds is  necessary for  obtaining this result.
It remains only to remove the apparatus, to wash
the part, and to tear away with a pair of nippers the
epidermis, which comes off easily and in one piece.
   The dressing is according to the object in view,
—to  the  indications  of the endermic method, for
example.   (Bull, de Their. & Chem., No. L. 88.)
   BLISTER, LIQUID.  Prep.  I. Spanish flies
2 oz.; boiling water  1 pint;  spirits of wine 4 oz.;
corrosivo  sublimate \  oz.;  spirits  of  salts  \ oz.
Proc.  Digest tho  flies  in  the water, in a warm
place, for 24 hours, then add the corrosive subli-
mate,  dissolved in the spirits of wine,  and lastly,
the spirits of  salts.  It  may either be strained, or
used as it is.
   II.  Rectified spirit, and liquid ammonia, of each
2 oz.; oil of origanum  1  oz.; mix.  Add finely
powdered Spanish flies  1 oz.
   III. Strongest blistering  plaster 2 oz.; oil of tur-
pentine 1 oz.; mix with a gentle heat.
   IV. Linseed oil, resin cerate, and oil of turpen-
tine, of each 2£ oz.; powdered flies 1 oz.; as above.
   Use. For horses and cattle.
                       16
   BLISTER,  PERPETUAL.   A common blis-
 ter, raised in the usual way, but  instead of allow-
 ing the surface to heal  up, after the discharge of
 the water, it is kept open by dressing it with savine
 or cantharides ointment.
    BLISTERING  TISSUE.   Thin paper, or
 silk, spread over with  a  thin coat  of  alcoholic,
 acetic, or ethereal extract of Spanish flies.
    BLOOD, BULLOCK'S.  This article is em-
 ployed for the  clarification of wines and sirups ; in
 the preparation of adhesive cements ; coarse paint
 for out-door work ; as a manure ; as a bleaching
 powder; and  for several other purposes.   The
 blood of sheep, pigs,  and bullocks,  mixed  with
 flour or oatmeal,  and  seasoning, is used as an ali-
 ment by the common people, but it is rather indi-
 gestible, and consequently cannot prove nourishing.
    BLOOD,   POWDERED.   Prep.  Dry the
 blood, by free  exposure in thin layers to a current
 of air, at a heat under 125°, until it becomes suf-
 ficiently dry to powder.   Use.  For exportation to
 the colonies, where it  is  Uted hi the sugar works.
 Remarks.  Bullock's blood, dried at a temperature
 from  212° to  225°,  and  coarsely  powdered,  is
 much used by fraudulent  dealers  to adulterate
 musk.
    BLOOD,  SPITTING  OF.  (See  Hemop-
 tysis.)
    BLOOD, SPITTING OF.  Popular  Reme-
 dy for.  Prep. Infusion of red roses 5J oz.; sirup
 of poppies  ■} oz.;  diluted sulphuric acid 20 drops;
 mix.  Dose. One or two tablespoonfuls four times
 a day.
    BLOOM,  ALMOND.  Prep. Boil  1  oz. of
 ground  Brazil  wood in 3 pints  of  water, for 15
 minutes, strain and add ^ oz. of  isinglass, \ oz. of
 powdered cochineal, 1 oz. of alum, and \ oz. of bo-
 rax ; boil again for 3 minutes, or until the whole is
 dissolved, and strain through a piece  of fine cloth.
    BLOWPIPE.   An instrument by means of
 which the  flame of a candle or lamp is directed
 upon  any substance placed to receive it, which is
 thus subjected to an intense heat.
    The hottest  portion of the  flame produced by
 the action of the blowpipe, is at  the tip of the out-
 er white flame, which has also the property of
 rapidly burning or oxidizing any substance placed
 in it, which is  capable of such  an action;  hence
 it has been called the " oxidizing flame."   The
 interior blue flame has also been called the  " re-
 ducing  flame," from the property it possesses of
 abstracting oxygen from  most substances placed
 in it.
    App.   " The substance  to be  submitted to the
 action of the  blowpipe,  must  be  placed  on a
 piece  of charcoal, or in a small spoon of platina,
 gold, or silver ; or, according to  Saussure, a plate
 of cyanite may  sometimes be  used.  Charcoal
 from the pine  is to be preferred, which should be
 well ignited and dried, that it may not crack. The
 sides,  not the ends, of  the  fibres must be  used ;
 otherwise the substance to be fused spreads about,
 and a round  bead  will not be  formed.  A small
 hole is to be made in the charcoal,  which is best
 done  by a slip of plate  iron bent longitudinally.
 Into this hole  the substance to be examined must
 be put, in very small quantity;  if a  very intense
 heat is to be used, it should not exceed the size of
I half a peppercorn. 
BLO                    122                     BLU
  " Metallic spoons are used when the substance
to be examined is intended to be exposed to the ac-
tion of heat only, and might undergo some change
by immediate contact with  the charcoal.  W hen
the spoon is used, the flame of the blowpipe should
be directed to that part of  it which  contains the
substance under examination, and not be imme-
diately applied to the substance itself.   The  han-
dle of the  spoon  may  be  inserted into a piece
of charcoal; and if a very  intense  heat is re-
quired, the bowl of the spoon may be adapted to
a hole in the charcoal.   Small portions may  be
taken  up by platina forceps.  Salts  and volatile
substances are to be heated  in a glass tube closed
at one end, and enlarged according to circumstan-
ces, so as to form a small matrass."
  When  the behavior of the substance  has  been
observed  in this  way,  it is melted with various
fluxes, as  microcosmic salt, borax, &c, and their
action examined, both in the interior and exterior
flame, by which means  its composition may be
generally ascertained, by reference to any  work
on mineralogy.
   Beginners are usually unable to  maintain a con-
tinual  stream of air from the jet, which is,  how-
ever, very simple to accomplish.   The operation
depends  upon a little  artifice in  blowing through
the pipe,  which  is in reality more difficult to de-
scribe  than to  acquire.   " The effect intended to
be produced is a continual stream of  air for many-
minutes,  if necessary, without ceasing. This is
done by applying the tongue to  the roof of the
mouth, so as to interrupt the communication be-
tween the mouth and the passage of the nostrils;
by which means  the  operator  is at  liberty  to
breathe through the nostrils, at the same time that
by the muscles of  the lips  he forces  a continual
stream of air from the anterior part of the mouth
through  the blowpipe.  When  the mouth begins
to be empty, it is replenished by  the  lungs  in an
instant, while the  tongue is withdrawn from  the
roof of the mouth, and replaced again in the same
manner  as in  pronouncing  the monosyllable tut.
In this way, the stream  may be continued for a
long time without any fatigue,  if the  flame  be
not urged too impetuously ; and even in this case
no other fatigue is felt thai? that of the muscles of
the lips." (Ure.)
   For producing extreme   degrees  of  heat,  the
flame is blown with a jet of oxygen  gas, and  the
instrument is then  called an " oxygen blowpipe;"
or a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen  is burned,
when it  is called  an " oxy-hydrogen" blowpipe.
The heat produced by the last is  so great that no
substance can stand before it  The most refrac-
 tory native  compounds, as rock crystal, quartz,
 flint, chalk, plumbago, &c, are'-immedi.itely fused.
 Gold  is  volatilized, and iron is rapidly consumed
 the instant it is placed in the flame.   To use  this
 wonderful instrument with  safety, and to prevent
 an  explosion, a  peculiarly constructed jet  is re-
 quired.   The principal  blowpipes in  general  use
 are figured in the accompanying engravings.  The
 shape of the common  blowpipe adopted by  the
 experimentalist may depend upon the fancy of its
 employer.
   This  apparatus is also furnished with valves  and
 springs.
   Beside the following there are several other va-
   ], Oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.
   2, Black's         do.
   3, Bergman's      do.
   4, Pepy's         do.
   5, Wollaston's     do.
   6, Heniining's safety jet for the oxy-hydrogen ditto.
     a, Pipe conveying oxygen gas.
     6, Do.    do.    hydrogen gas.
     c, Bnll stuffed with tine wire gauze.
     e, Jet, (internal diameter l-80th of an inch.)

rieties of blowpipes, in which the air is expelled by
the pressure of a column of water, (hence  called
" hydrostatic  blowpipes,")  or the flame  blown
with the vapor of boiling  alcohol, (" spirit blow-
pipe.")
   Use. The blowpipe is of  most extensive appli-
cation  in qualitative analysis, especially of min-
erals, and its use  cannot be too highly recom-
mended to the young chemist.
   For  further  information  on  this  subject the
reader is referred to  Gahn  on the Blowpipe; to
Ure's Dictionary  of  Chemistry;  to Campbell's
Translation of Kobell's  Instructions for the Dis-
crimination of Minerals;  and  to  the Chemist,
iv. 462.
   BLUBBER.  This substance, which is so plen-
tiful on some parts of  the coast of England, forms
a very rich manure for  pasture and  arable land,
when used at the rate of 1 ton to every 20 or 30
loads of  mould, together with a chaldron of lime
per acre.   It must be well turned over, and after
lying 3 or 4 months the  land will be in prime con-
dition.
   BLUE, CHARCOAL.   Prep. Triturate car-
bonized vine stalks with an equal weight of pot-
ash, then put it into  a crucible and place it over
the fire,  until  the mixture  ceases to swell, keeping
it well stirred all  the time ; next allow it to cool,
dissolve  it in  water,  and  saturate  the  excess of
alkali  with dilute sulphuric acid;  the  liquid  be-
comes blue,  and  a dark  precipitate falls  down,
which turns of a brilliant blue  color when dried
and heated.
   BLUE, COBALT.  Prep. I.  Dissolve Zaffre
1 lb. in } lb. of nitric  acid, diluted with an  equal
weight of water, by digestion for some  hours,
evaporate  nearly to dryness, then dissolve in warm
water, filter  and  add a solution of phosphate of
soda as  long  as any precipitate  falls down *, col-
lect this on a filter and wash it with cold water,
then  mix it  while still moist  with 8 times its
weight of  freshly precipitate hydrate of alumina,
also well washed and still  moist.  Stir them to-
gether until dry;  lastly, expose  the mixture to a
cherry red heat in a crucible, after which cool the
mass,  and reduce it to a fine powder.
   II.  Precipitate  a  solution  of nitrate of cobalt as
above, and proceed  as before.
   III. Make a strong  solution of neutral  nitrate 
BLU                   123                    BOI
of obalt, and mix it  with pure moist alumina,
then dry it and proceed as before.
  IV. Precipitate  a solution of nitrate of cobalt
with ammonia alum, collect the precipitate, wash,
dry, and heat it to a cherry red as before.
  Use.  A beautiful  blue  pigment,  very  perma-
nent.
  BLUE, CHEMIC.  Syn.  Saxon Blue.   Li-
quid  Blue.   Sulphate  of  Indigo.   Prep.  I.
Indigo  1 lb.; oil  of vitriol 8 lbs.  Proc. Put the
acid into an earthenware pan, placed in a tub of
water to  keep  it  cool, and add the indigo, pre-
viously  reduced  to fine powder, in small succes-
sive portions, carefully stirring to prevent it heat-
ing.  When all the indigo has been added, cover
up  the  vessel  and let it  stand for 4 hours, occa-
sionally stirring it during the time; lastly, dilute
it with an equal weight of water.
  II. Indigo 1 oz.; oil of vitriol 4 oz.; dissolve as
before ;  the next day add 1 oz. of dry potash ;  let
it stand a day longer, then dilute it with 12 oz. of
water.
   Use.  In dyeing greens and blues, either with-
out preparation or with  a mordant of alum  and
tartar.
   BLUE, CHINA.  Syn. Royal Smalts.  Prep.
Grind together oxide of cobalt  or zaff're, with an
equal weight of potash, and 8 times its weight of
feldspar.  Then submit the mixture to fusion in a
crucible.  Use.  To paint pottery,  and as a pig-
ment.
   BLUE, IRON.  Prep. Precipitate a filtered
solution of protosulphate of iron, with another of
phosphate of soda.    Collect the powder,  wash
and dry it.  Use. A lively sky-blue.
   BLUE, MOLYBDENUM.  Prep.  Dissolve
sulphuret of molybdenum in nitric acid, then add
some tki  filings and a little muriatic acid.   After
digestion  for some time,  pour off the clear  and
evaporate to dryness.   Mix the powder thus ob-
tained with  moist  hydrate of alumina, as in ma-
king  cobalt blue, and heat it  to  nearly  a dull
red.
   BLUE, MOUNTAIN.  Carbonate of copper,
mixed with earthy matter.
   BLUE, SAXON.   Prep. Dissolve 1 oz. of sul-
phate of iron  and 8  oz. of alum  in  1 gallon  of
water, then  add simultaneously, separate solutions
of prussiate of potash  and common pearlash, un-
til they cease  to produce  a  precipitate;  lastly,
allow the liquid to deposite, decant the clear por-
tion, wash the remainder well  with water, and
dry it.   Or a solution  of the sulphate of iron may
be first  made  and precipitated with the prussiate
of potash, and instantly mixed with the solution
of alum and a solution of pearlash,  added until
it ceases to produce a precipitate.
  BLUE, SUPERB  LIQUID.  Prep. Put into
a small  matrass  or common  vial 1 oz. of pure
Prussian blue reduced  to powder, and pour over it
from 1J  oz. to 2 oz. of  concentrated mur'atic acid.
The mixture produces an effervescence and the
prussiate soon  assumes the consistence of thin
paste.   Leave it in this state  for 24 hours, then
dilute it  with 8 or 9 oz. of water, and preserve the
color thus diluted in a bottle well stopped.
  The intensity of this color may be lessened, if
 necessary, by new doses of water.  If the whole
 of this mixture  be poured into 1 quart of water, it
 will still exhibit a color sufficiently dark for wash-
 ing prints.
    BLUE,  STONE.  Syn.  Fig Blue.   Thumb
 Blue.  Knob Blue.  Crown Blue.   Mecklen-
 burg Blue.  Queen's Blue.  Prep.  Mix finely
 powdered indigo  with  starch paste until a proper
 color be produced, then make it into small lumps.
 II.  Instead of starch use  whiting  and  a little
 weak  size.   Z7se. Employed by laundresses  to
 give a faint blue tinge to linen.
    BLUE DYE.  Proc. First give  the goods  a
 mordant of alum, then rinse them well and boil
 them  in a  bath of logwood, to which a small
 quantity of blue vitriol has been added.
    II.  Boil in  a bath of logwood, then add 1 oz.
 each of  tartar and  verdigris to  every pound  of
 logwood employed, and boil again.
    III. Bilberries, elder-berries, mulberries, privet-
 berries, and several other vegetable blue sub-
 stances, may be used to dye blue as above instead
 of logwood.
    Remarks. By increasing the proportion of alum
 the  color verges  on  purple, and  by  employing  a
 little acetate of iron  or green copperas, the darker
 shades are produced.  Verdigris, blue  vitriol, and
 alkalis turn it more on the blue, and a mordant  of
 tin imparts  a  violet  cast.  None of  these dyes,
 however skilfully managed, are  so permanent  as
 those  produced  with indigo and Prussian blue.
 (See Indigo, Prussian  Blue, and Dyeing.)
    BOARDS, MARBLE, &c, TO TAKE OIL
 AND GREASE OUT OF.  I. Make a paste
 with fuller's earth and hot water, cover the spots
 therewith, let it dry on, and the next day scour it
 off with soft or-yellow soap.
    II. Make a paste with soft soap, fuller's earth,
 and  a little pearlash,  and use it as above.
    III. Make  a paste  of fresh slaked  lime, wa-
 ter,  and pearlash, and use  it as above.  Remarks.
 Observe  not  to  touch  the  last mixture with the
 finger, as it is very caustic unless  it be largely di-
 luted with water.
    BOERHAAVE'S RULES FOR PRESERV-
 ING HEALTH.
            " Keep the  feet warm ;
             The head cool;  and
             The body open."
   These  rules are very concise,  and  convey di-
 rections which, though valuable, are too often neg-
 lected.
   BOILING POINT.  The boiling point of wa-
 ter may be raised considerably above 212° Fahr.
 by the addition  of saline matter.  Thus, 60 parts
 of dry acetate of soda added to 40 of water raise
 the boiling point to 256° Fahr., and  30 parts  of
 muriate of soda added  to 70 of  water raise it to*
 224 Fahr.  As in practice, however,  it proves in-
 convenient to employ a saturated solution for  a
 bath, from the evaporation of the water continually
 inducing the salt to crystallize, it  is usual to keep
 it  considerably below that  point.   By means of
 such solutions the chemist is enabled to evaporate
 fluids and desiccate solids at any required temper-
ature.  The boiling point of baths containing dif-
ferent salts may be seen below. 
BOL                    124                    BON
Taiile of the Boilinir Points of several Saline So-
  lutions, abridged  from the  Table of Mr.  T.
  Griffiths.   (Jour. Science, xviii. 89.)
Names of Salts.
Dry Salt in
   100.
Acetate of soda, .  .   .
Nitrate of soda,  .  .   .
Rochelle salt, ....
Nitre,......
Muriate of ammonia,   .
Tartrate of potash,  .   .
Muriate of soda, .  .   .
Ditto,......
Muriate of lime, .  .   .
Sulphate of magnesia,  .
Supersulphate of potash,
Borax.......
Phosphate of soda,  .   .
Carbonate of soda,  .   .
Muriate of baryta,  .   .
Alum,......
Sulph^e of potash,  .   .
Bitai trate of potash,
Sulphate of soda,   .   .
   Remarks.  From 5 to 9 degrees are usually lost
 by passing  through the vessel, depending  on its
 thickness and materials.   The  boiling point of
 water in glass vessels, under common  circum-
 stances, varies from 212-54° to 215-6°, and in per-
 fectly pure  and smooth glass vessels, water may
 be heated  to 221°  F. without boiling.  (M. F.
 Marcet.)
   BOILS.   Treat. When these appear, suppura-
 tion should  be promoted by poultices of bread and
 linseed meal, to  which a  little  'fat or oil may be
 added, to prevent their  getting hard.  When poul-
 tices are  inconvenient,  exposure to the vapor of
 hot water, or the application of stimulating plas-
 ters,  may be  adopted instead.   When sufficiently
 ripe, the matter should  be evacuated,  and the
 wound dressed with a little simple ointment spread
 on a piece of clean lint  or linen.  The diet may be
 full and  liberal until the maturation  of the tumor
 and the discharge of the matter, when it should be
 lessened, and the  bowels  opened by some saline
 purgatives,  as salts  or cream of  tartar.   When
 there is a disposition  in the constitution to the for-
 mation of boils, the bowels should be  kept regular,
 and tonics,  as bark or  steel, taken, with the fre-
 quent use of sea-bathing, if possible.
   BOLAS.   Prep. Into 2 lbs. of flour pour f pint
 of warm  milk, a small teacupful of yeast, and 6
 eggs; make them  into a dough, add 1 lb. of but-
 ter, by degrees, and let  it rise for 1 hour, then mix
. in 1  lb. o/ powdered sugar, and make the mass into
 cakes; put these into cups or tins previously well
 buttered, and ornament the top with candied or-
 ange or  lemon peel ;  lastly, bake them.
   BOLUS  OF ALUM.  Prep. Powdered alum
 and  conserve roses, of  each 15 grs.; sirup of or-
 ange peel or saffron to mix.  Used  in fluxes, &c.
   BOLUS  OF MUSK.  Prep.  I. Musk 15 grs.;
 camphor 5  grs.;  powdered gum 3 grs.;  mix with
 sirup of  saffron.  Use.  In convulsions and typhus
 fever.
   II. Musk and carbonate  of ammonia of each
10 grs.; conserve  of  roses q. s.;  to  make a bolus,
Use. Sometimes given every three hours in morti-
fication accompanied  with spasms.
  BOLUS, PURGING,  (for  Dogs.)  Prep. Ja.
lap and rhubarb, of each 15 grs.;  ginger  1 grs.;
soap 10 grs.;  water q. s.;  if this  does  not open
the bowels,  add aloes  half a drachm, or 3 or
4 grs. of culomel.   Use. In the distemper ; it must
be pre-ceded  by copious  bleeding, and abstinence
from food  for a dav or a night.
  BOLUS OF SULPHATE  OF ZINC.  Prep.
Sulphate  of zinc 20 to  2.3 grs.  ; conserve of roses
q. s. to make a bolus.   Use.  As  an  emetic where
poison has been taken,  to be followed by copious
draughts of warm water or weak tea.
  BOLETIC  ACID.    An  acid  discovered by
Bracounot in the juice of  the boletus pseudo-ignia-
rius.
  Prep. Concentrate the  expressed juice to a sirup
by means of a gentle  heat, then digest it in strong
alcohol, and dissolve the residuum in  water ; add t
solution of nitrate of lead  as long as any precipitate
falls, which must  be  washed with water, diffused
through water in a tall  glass  vessel, and in this
state a current of sulphureted  hydrogen must be
passed through it, until the lead  is thrown down;
filter, evaporate, and  crystallize ;  lastly, purify by
resolution  and crystallization from alcohol.
  Remarks.   This acid dissolves in  45 parts of al-
cohol and  180 of water, and is volatile. It is doubt-
ful whether it be a distinct acid principle.
  BOLOGNA VIAL.    The bologna, or philoso-
phical vial, is a small vessel of  glass which has
been suddenly cooled, open at  the upper  end, and
rounded at the bottom.  It is made so thick at the
bottom  that  it will bear  a smart blow against a
hard body without breaking; but if  a little pebble,
or piece of flint, is let  fall into it, it immediately
cracks, and the bottom falls into pieces; but un-
less the pebble or flint is large and angular enough
to scratch the surface of the glass, it  will not break.
  BOLOGNIAN  PHOSPHORUS.   Syn.  Bo-
lognian Stone.  This  is  a  phosphorescent stone
that once  excited  great  attention.   It was acci-
dentally discovered by a shoemaker  of Bologna in
the 17th* century.  A family of the name of Lo-
gani, who were very  successful in making it, ac-
quired a large fortune by selling it  to the curious
throughout Europe.
  Prep. Powder native sulphate of baryta that has
been previously ignited, and make  it into a paste
with mucilage of gum arabic ;  roll this into pieces
a quarter of  an inch thick, and dry them in a
moderate  heat; then  expose  them to the heat of a
wind  furnace by  placing them  loose among the
charcoal.
  Prop.,  Use, tyc.  Placed in  a vial and exposed
for a  few minutes  to the sun's rays, it will give
light enough in the dark to see the  figures on the
dial-plate  of a watch.
  BOMBIC ACID.   An acid which M. Chaus-
sier extracted from the  silkworm in  1781.  It has
since been found not to be a distinct acid.
  BON-BONS.  Prep.  Provide  leaden mould*
which must be of various shapes,  and be oiled with
oil of sweet almonds.  Take a quantity of brown-
sugar sirup in the proportion to their size, in  that
state called a blow, which may be known by dip-
ping the skimmer into the sugar, shaking  it, and 
BON                   125                    BON
blowing  through the holes,  when parts  of light
may be seen ;  add a drop of any esteemed essence.
If the bon-bons  are preferred white, when the su-
gar has cooled a little, stir it round  the pan till it
grains, and shines on the surface ; then pour it
into a funnel and fill the little moulds, when it will
take a proper  form  and harden:  as'soon as it is
cold take it from the moulds;  dry it for two or
three days, and  put it  upon paper.  If the bon-
bons ure  required to be colored, add the color just
as the sugar is ready to be taken off the fire.
   BONES.   The bones of  animals are employed
for various purposes in the arts, manufactures, and
domestic economy. (See the succeeding articles.)
   BONE  ASH.    Syn.  Impure  Phosphate of
Lime.  Prep. Calcine bones to whiteness, and re-
duce the ash to  fine powder.  Use. To make pure
phosphate of lime, and to form  cupels.  It is sold
for burnt hartshorn.
   BONE  BLACK.  Syn.  Animal  Charcoal.
Ivory-Black.  Bones burnt in close vessels.
   Prep.  On the large scale, two different process-
es are adopted to produce bone black.
   I. (From bones as the sole product.) The bones
broken to pieces are put  into small cast-iron pots
of the shape  of the engraving, and varying from





j to £ an inch in thickness.  Two of these being
filled, are dexterously placed  with their mouths
together and then luted with loam.  A number of
vessels, thus prepared, are placed  side by side and
over each other, in an  oven resembling a potter's
kiln, to the number of 100 to 150.  The fire is then
kindled,  and the heat kept  up  strongly for 10 or
12 hours,  according to circumstances,  until the
process is completed.   The whole  is allowed to
cool before opening the pots.
   II. (The residuum of the manufacture of Bone
Spirit.)   The bones are  here introduced into re-
torts  similar to  those used  at the gas works, and
boat  being applied, the volatile  products are con-
veyed away by iron pipes  to cisterns where its
condensable portion is collected.  As soon as the
process of distillation is finished, the solid residuum
in the retorts, while still red hot, is removed through
their lower ends into wrought-iron  canisters,  which
are instantly closed by air-tight covers, and  luted
over.   'These  are then raised to the ground by a
crane and allowed to cool.
   Remarks. Previously to distillation or  calcina-
tion, the  bones are boiled for their grease, which is
sold to the candle and soap makers.  They are then
sorted, the finest pieces being selected for making
handles for knives,  tooth-brushes, buttons,  &c.;
the next  sort for making  into bone black ;  while
the smallest and worst description is reserved for
grinding  into  manure.  The bones lose  about $
their weight by the process of burning.   After this
they are ground  in a mill, sorted by sieves into two
kinds,  one granular, somewhat resembling gun-
powder, and the other quite fine.  The one is sold
under the name  of animal charcoal, for decoloring
liquors, the other as a pigment.  This article pos-
sesses tho valuable property of taking lime from
sirups, at the same time that  it  decolors  them.
Its power as a decolorizer may be tested by adding
it to a solution of brown sugar or molasses, or wa-
ter containing T,r,Jnr part of indigo dissolved in sul-
phuric acid.  The test should be made in a small
glass tube.  By well washing and careful reburn-
ing, this charcoal may be used any number of times
as a decolorizer.
   BONES AND  IVORY,  DYES  FOR.   1.
(Red.) a. Make an infusion of cochineal in water
of ammonia, then immerse the pieces therein, hav-
ing previously soaked  them for a few minutes in
very  weak aquafortis and water.
   6.  Boil the bones with 1 lb. of Brazil dust, in 1
gallon of water, for 3 hours, then add \ lb. of alum
and boil for 1 hour more.
   2.  (Black.) a. Immerse i..e pieces in  a weak
solution  of nitrate of  silver, for a short time, then
expose them to  the sunlight.
   6.  Steep for  2 or 3  days, in a decoction made
with 1 lb. of galls and 2 lbs. of logwood, then steep
for a few hours  in iron liquor, (acetate of iron.)
   3.  (Green.) a. Steep in a solution of verdigris to
which a little aquafortis has been added.
   6.  Dissolve distilled verdigris  in  weak  vinegar,
and steep the pieces therein.
   c.  Steep in a solution of 2 parts of verdigris, and
1 of sal ammoniac.  Observe not to use a metallic
vessel for the  above.
   4.  (Purple.)  a. Steep  in  a  weak solution of
terchloride of gold.
   6.  Boil for 6 hours in a decoction of 1 lb. of log-
wood in  ^  gallon of water, adding more water, as
it wastes by boiling, then  add 2 oz. of alum, and
boil for 1 hour more.
   5.  (Yellow.)  a. Boil  for  1  hour in a solution
made with 1 pound of alum  in 1 gallon of water,
then take out the pieces and steep them  in a de-
coction made  with £ lb. of turmeric in 2 quarts of
water;  lastly, mix the two liquors  and boil them
therein for 1 hour.
   b.  Steep the pieces for 24 hours in a solution of
sugar of lead, then take them out,  and when dry,
immerse them in a solution of chromate of potassa.
  c. Dissolve  as much of the  best orpiment in wa-
ter of ammonia or hartshorn, as it will take up,
then steep the pieces therein for twenty-four hours;
lastly, take them  out and dry  them, when  they
will turn yellow.  Remark.  By diluting the solu-
tion with water, any shade of yellow may be made.
  6.  (Blue.) a.  Stain them green, then steep them
in  a hot  and strong solution of pearlash.
  b. Boil them  in a strong decoction of logwood,
and afterwards  steep  them in a solution of blue
vitriol.
  c. Steep them for a sihort time in a weak solu-
tion of sulphate of indigo,  to  which a little salt of
tartar has been added ; or, still better, boil them in
a dyer's  green indigo vat.  Remarks. The bones
of living  animals may be dyed by mixing  madder
with their food.  The bones of young pigeons  may
thus be tinged of a rose color  in 24 hours, and of a
deep scarlet in 3 days; but the bones oLadiilt ani-
mals take a fortnight to acquire a rose cfflor.   The
bones nearest the heart  become tinged  soeuest.
In the same way extract of logwood will tinge the
bones of  young pigeons purple.   (Mr.  Gibson.)
  BONE  GREASE.   Prep. By bruising  and
boiling the refuse bones of  the kitchen, and skim-
ming the broth when cold, from \ (?) to \  of their 
BOO                      126                   BOO
weight of good fat may be obtained, fit for culina-
ry purposes when fresh, but always  excellent for
making soap  and candles.  (Proust.)
  BONE GLUE.  Syn. Gelatine.   Prep. This
is made by dissolving  out the earth of bones, pre-
viously boiled for the grease, washing the remain-
ing jelly with water, then boiling it with  a little
water, and forming it into cakes for sale.  (See
Glue.)
  BONE MANURE.  For this purpose the bones
arc ground to a coarse powder in a mill, and sowed
along with the seed in a drill.  It is said that wheat
thus treated  yields 30 to 50  per cent,  more  in
weight of straw and grain than by  the  common
methods.   It is  usually applied  to light or turnip
soils, which it renders more than ordinarily pro-
ductive.  Bone manure is much used in  the west
of Yorkshire, Holderness, and  Lincolnshire.   The
usual quantity per acre is 70 bushels, when used
alone ; but when  mixed  with ashes, as  common
manure of any sort, 30 bushels per acre is thought
quite enough. It is applied at the same periods as
other manure, and has been  found in this way to
remain 7 years in the ground.   The rough part of
this manure, after being 5 years in the ground,
has been gathered off one field  and thrown upon
another of a  different soil,  and  has proved, even
then, good manure.
  BONES,  (in  Cookery.)   The bones of good
meat form most excellent materials for making
soups and gravies, as is well known to every good
cook.  In France, soup is extensively made by dis-
solving  bruised  bones in a steam heat of  2 or 3
days' continuance, and also by  dissolving out the
earthy  part  by  digestion in weak muriatic acid,
when a lump of gelatine  is obtained, which after
being well washed with water will dissolve by boil-
ing, and is equal to isinglass for all the purposes of
making soups and jellies.  Proust has recommended
the following process for making the best of bones,
in  hospitals, jails, and similar  establishments:—
Crush the bones small, then boil them for 15 min-
utes in a kettle  of water, cool,  and  skim the  fat
off, which  varies from § to \ (?) of the weight of
the bones employed, and when  fresh is  fit  for all
common purposes.  The  bones are  then ground,
and boiled in 8 to 10 times their weight  of water,
of which that already used must form a part, until
} is wasted, when a very nutritious jelly is obtained.
A copper vessel should not be  used, as  the jelly
acts upon this metal.   An iron  Papin's digester is
the most*suitable.  The bones of boiled  meat are
nearly as  productive as those of fresh meat, but
roasted meat bones scarcely afford any jelly.  (Dr.
Young.)  As boning meat before cooking is now a
very  general practice, a  quantity of fresh bones
may always  be had.
   BONE SHAVINGS.   Syn.  Bone Dust. Bone
Turnings.  These yield a beautiful  jelly by boil-
ing with water, nearly equal to that produced from
hartshorn  shavings, for which they are  very fre-
quently sold.
   BOOKBINDING.   The  process  of binding
books may be divided into several distinct opera-
tions, which, in  large  establishments, are usually
performed by different  persons, such a method
being found to produce greater expedition and bet-
ter work,  than when the whole is  done by  one
person.
  The sheets received from the hands of tho printei
are—
  1. Folded, which is done correctly by observing
the marks or catchwords at the bottom of the
pages.   As the sheets are folded they are laid upon
each other in proper order, and  are  ready to un-
dergo—
  2. The operation of beating.  This is performed
by laying them  upon a  large stone, and  striking
them with a heavy smoothed-faced hammer, or by
passing them through a rolling press.   The former
method is usually adopted in the small way, and
the latter on the large scale.
  3. The sheets  are next fastened  to  bands,
which  is done by taking the folded sheets up one by
one, and sewing them to piec-?«i of cord, stretched
in a little frame screwed or fastened to the counte'
or table, called the sewing-pressi  (See eng.)  The
C
3
number of bands used, is generally 6 for a folio,
5 for a quarto, and  so on  proportionally, less than
4 seldom being  employed  even for small sizes.
The ends of the cords being cut off to within about
2 inches of the back, the sheets are ready for—
  4. Glueing.   The  back  being  knocked  into
shape with a  hammer, and the sheets placed in
the cutting press, which is  then slightly screwed
up, melted glue is thinly and evenly applied. After
a short time the book  is removed  from the precs,
and the back  properly adjusted with a hammer,
when it is again put into the cutting pre. s, where
it is screwed up very tight, and is then ready for—
  5. Cutting.  The instrument employed for this
purpose is of a peculiar shape, and called a plough
or plough-knife.
  6. Affixing  the  boards.   The bands are now
scraped  out fine at the ends, and the pasteboard
to form the covers  is fastened thereto, and is then
properly adjusted, and shaped with a large pair of
shears.   The edges  now undergo the  operation
of—
  7. Sprinkling, or other adornment.   The first
is performed  by a stiff brush of hog's bristles, dip-
ped in the color; the brush being held  in the one
hand, and the hairs moved with the other.
  8.  The external covering of leather, fancy
cloth, or paper, is  now applied, having been pre-
viously  well soaked in paste, to  make it  properly
adhere.  One or more of the blank leaves of  the
book are next pasted against the inside of the cover,
to screen the ends that are  turned over, when the
book  is finished; or for choice work, is handed to
a "finisher" for—
  9. Lettering, gilding, <$-c.  Gold-leaf is applied
by  means of white  of egg, the pattern being givon
by  pressure with heated brass tools, having the
design or letters on their surfaces.  The whole il
then glazed over and poljphed.
   Remarks.  The succession of some of the above
operations sometimes varies with the workmen and 
BOO                    127                    BOO
the nature of the binding.   The above must there-
fore only be regarded as a short and general out-
line of the process.   If the reader will accompany
the perusal  by an examination of a bound  book,
the whole will be rendered quite familiar.
  The following varieties of binding may be  notic-
ed:
  a.  Boards.  A book, loosely done up without
cutting the edges, and covered with paper or cloth,
is said to be in boards.
  6. Cloth-binding. This style of binding is that
in which the majority of works are now issued.
It admits of great neatness and even beauty, and
is very durable and cheap.  Proc. The prepared
cloth, cut by a pattern to the  size suited to the
volume, is  passed rapidly through a rolling  press,
between engraved  cylinders of  hardened  steel,
which print the  pattern  in  relief.   Paste is now
applied to the cloth, when  it is placed over the
volume,  previously prepared  to receive  it.  Books
in cloth-binding are  not commonly  cut at the
edges, unless highly finished.
   c.  Dutch binding.   This  species of binding is
distinguished by the backs being of vellum.
   d.  French binding.  This consists in pasting a
piece of parchment over the  back of the book, be-
tween each band, and pasting the ends upon the
inside of each cover.
   e.  Half-binding.  Books  forwarded in boards,
 and  finished with  leather backs and corners, are
 called " half-bound."
   f.  Hancock's  patent binding.  In this method
 the sheets are folded in double leaves, and  being
properly placed together and  adjusted, the book is
subjected to the action of a press, and a strong so-
lution of Indian  rubber is smeared over the back
with the finger.   The operation is  repeated, as
 often  as necessary, when fil'ets  of cloth are ce-
 mented on  with the varnish,  and the book is ready
 to have the boards attached.   Thus several of the
 common operations of binding are  dispensed with.
 I willingly bear  testimony  to the strength and
 durability  of this method, and the great conve-
 nience it affords in allowing the books to open per-
 fectly flat  upon a table, or to be distorted  in any
 possible manner, without  injury to their backs. It
 is the best way of  binding books for travellers.   I
 once had  a large  trunk  of  books, among  which
 was one bound on Hancock's plan.  All the rest
 were nearly torn to pieces by a few months' jour-
 ney, but this one was uninjured.
   g. Law binding.  A strong method applied to
 law books.
   h.  Leather binding.   Proc. Immerse the lea-
 ther in water; after which wring it, and stretch it
 on a board; place the book with the boards extend-
 ed thereon, and cut out the  cover, allowing about
 half an inch larger than the book, to turn over the
 inside of the pasteboards.  Pare the  edges  of the
 cover very thin  all round on a  marble slab, and
paste  it  well; glue the  back  of the  book, and
spread the cover on the board.
   Let the  pasteboards be properly  squared and
even; put the book on the cover, which draw on
very  tight.  Rub the" cover smooth with a folding-
stick, and turn it over on  the inside of the paste-
boards on  tho fore edge.   The  corners on the in-
side must be cut and  neatly pressed down; tie a
piece of thread round the book, between the  boards
and head-bands, draw up the leather on the back,
if necessary, to cover the top of the head-bands;
rub the back very smooth with a flat folding-stick,
and place it at a distance from the fire to dry.
  Rough calf must be damped on the grain side with
a sponge and water before pasting and coverincr.
  Russia leather must be well soaked in water fo
an hour, taken out,  well beaten, and rubbed : afte-
which the paste must be well worked into the flesi
side before covering.
  Morocco must be grained by  rubbing it on  e
board, with the grain side inside, and  after  being
pasted, left to soak  for a quarter  of an hour, and
the cover then drawn on with  a piece of woollen
cloth  to preserve the grain.
  Roan may be either soaked in water or left to
soak when pasted.
  i.  Italian binding.   This is a common variety
of binding employed in Italy, (hence its name,) in
which the books are covered with a kind  of thick
coarse paper.  In Italy it is called " alia rustica."
  k.  Marble binding.   Named from the design of
the exterior.
  I.  Palmer's patent  binding.  This consists in
applying small  brass bars, linked  together, to the
back  of the book,  in  such  a  manner that they
make the different sections of the book, when open,
parallel with each other, and thus admit of writ-
ing, without inconvenience, on the ruled lines near
the back.
  m.  School binding.  The following is  a strong
method for school books:—When  the books have
been  cut, colored, and backed, cut off the part of
the bands intended  to be laced  to the pasteboards,
and  glue on the back  a  piece of strong smooth
linen  cloth, which must reach within half an inch
of the head  and foot, turning on  the  sides  about
an inch ; paste the boards on each side of the cloth,
fixing them close in at the groove, and give  the
books a firm pressing in the  standing-press till dry.
Square the boards,  glue the backs, and cover and
finish in the usual manner.
  This method will secure and give  strength to
the joints, so as  effectually to prevent  the leather
from  breaking,  and require no more time than
lacing in the bands.   The edges may  now  be
colored, sprinkled, or marbled, as required.
  n.  William's patent binding.   This consists in
placing a back, of a curved  form, turned a little at
the edges, and  made of iron, copper, brass, wood,
ivory, or any other  material of sufficient firmness.
This back is adjusted to the book before it is bound,
in such a manner that it  may just cover, but  not
press  upon the edges, and is fastened on by enclos-
ing it in vellum or ferret wrappers, which are past-
ed down upon the boards or drawn through  them.
The effect is, to make the book open evenly and free-
ly, and to prevent it from spreading on either side.
  BOOTS, TO CLEAN.  To do this in the best
style  always use " boot-trees," employ  but little
blacking, and brush it off while damp.  The  dirt
should, of course, be carefully brushed off before
applying the blacking.
  BOOTS  AND   SHOES,  WATERPROOF
COMPOSITION  FOR.  Prep.  Boiled oil 1 pint;
oil of turpentine, black rosin, and bees' wax, of
each  3 oz.  Proc.  Melt the wax  and rosin, then
stir in th» oil, remove  the  pot  from the  fire, and
when it has cooled  a little, add the turpentine. 
BOR
128
BOR
   II. Take  3 oz. of spermaceti, and melt  it in a
pipkin, or other earthen vessel, over a slow fire ; add
thereto 6  drachms of Indian rubber, cut into slices,
and these will  presently  dissolve.   Then  add
seriatim of tallow 8 oz.;  hog's  lard 2 oz.;  amber
varnish 4 oz.  Mix, and it will  be fit  for use im-
mediately.  App. The boots or other  material  to
be treated,.are xo receive two or three coats, with
a common bladkiug brush, and a fine polish is the
result.
   BOOT-TOP LIQUID.  Prep. I.  Oxalic acid
and white vitriol of each 1 oz.; water  1£ pints.
Proc. Dissolve and apply with  a sponge  to the
leather  previously washed with  water, then wash
the composition  oft' with water,  and dry.  This
liquid is poisonous.
   II. Mix in a vial, 1 drachm  of oxymuriate of
potass, with 2 oz. of distilled water; and when the
salt is dissolved, add 2  oz. of muriatic acid.  Then
shake well together, mix  in another vial 3 oz. of
rectified spirit of  wine  with J an oz. of the essen-
tial oil of lemon, unite the contents  of the  two
vials, and keep  the liquid, thus  prepared,  closely
corked for use.   This liquid should be applied with
a clean  sponge, and dried in a gentle  heat; after
which, the boot-tops may be polished with a pro-
per brush, so  as to appear like new leather.
  III. Sour milk 1 quart; gum  arabic 1 oz.; juice
of 2 lemons; white of 2 eggs; oil  vitriol 2  oz.
Mix.
  IV. Sour milk 1 quart; butter of  antimony,
cream of  tartar, tartaric acid,  and burnt alum, of
each 2 oz. Mix.
  BORACIC  ACID.   Syn.   Sedative  Salt.
Sed.  Salt of  Vitriol.   Sed.  Salt of  Hom-
berg.  Prep. Dissolve borax in 4 times its  weight
of boiling  water, then add sulphuric acid to  the so-
lution  until  it  acquires a distinct acid  reaction,
(about i the  weight of the borax.) As the solution
cools, crystals of  boracic  acid  will be  deposited.
These crystals must be then placed on a  filter, and
washed  with a  little  cold water.  They may be
still  further  purified by solution in boiling water
and recrystallization.
  Remarks.  Even after this treatment,  the crys-
tals are  apt to retain a little sulphuric acid or  sul-
phate of  soda, which  can only be got rid  of by
heating them in a platinum.crucible, before redis-
solving them  and crystallizing the second time,  as
above  described.   When wanted perfectly pure
for chemical  analyses, this plan must be  always
adopted.
  The boracic acid of  commerce is extracted from
the acid lagoons of Tuscany.
   Prep.  As thus obtained, this  acid  is soluble  in
25 times its weight of  cold, and 3 times its  weight
of boiling water.  Very soluble  in alcohol, which
then burns with  a bright green flame, offering  a
sure test  of  the  presence of  boracic  acid.  Odor-
less, and tastes bitter.  Reddens litmus, but  browns
turmeric paper.   It was once administered inter-
nally in large doses, (by Cullen,) but is now scarcely
ever employed as a medicine.
   BORATE. A compound,  formed of the prece-
ding acid and one of the bases.
   Prop.  The boracic  acid has but a feeble  affinity
for the  bases;  most of the borates  being decom-
posed by the stronger acids, the former being liber-
ated in u free  stats.   Prep  Many of them mav
be formed by digestion of the hydrate of the base
in a solution of the acid, with  the assistance of
heat, or by double decomposition.
   Tests.  I.  By digestion in slight excess of oil of
vitriol, evaporating to dryness, powdering, and dis-
solving in alcohol, the latter will acquire  the pro-
perty of burning with a green flame.   II. If to a
strong and a hot solution of a borate, sulphuric acid
be added  in  excess,  crystals of boracic acid will
form as the liquor cools.
  BORATE OF MERCURY.  Prep.  I. Neu-
tral  borate of  soda 265 grs.; calomel 222 grs.;
grind together in a mortar, with a little water, then
fill the mortar up with hot water ; collect the  red
precipitate ; wash and dry.
  II. Add a solution of borax to a solution of quick-
silver in nitric acid.   Collect the precipitate as be-
fore.   (White.)
  BORATE OF  SODA.   I. (Neutral  borate.)
Prep.  Saturate boracic  acid in solution with car-
bonate of soda, at a boiling heat. (Berzelius.)
  II. (Biborate.) This salt, often erroneously call-
ed borate  and subborate, is the borax of commerce,
and  is a natural production.   (See Borax.)
  BORAX.  Syn.  Biborate  of Soda.   Borate
of Soda.  Subborate of Soda.  Refined Borax.
Crude borax  is a natural production, and after be-
ing refined, forms a large portion  of the borax of
commerce.   In its rough state it  is called crude
borax, tincal, tincar, &c.  It is  found crystallized
on the edges  and shallows  of  a  brackish lake in
Thibet, during  the  winter.  It is also  prepared by
saturating the native boracic acid of Tuscany with
soda.  The market being literally  overloaded with
the former article, its price has fallen  so low as to
allow of its employment for this purpose with great
advantage.   A valuable paper on  this subject, by
M. Payen, appeared in the " Ann.  de Chimie et de
Phys." for July, 1841;  and a translation  of the
same in " The  Chemist," vol. ii.  363, to which the
reader is  referred  for a complete  account  of this
process.
  The best Tuscany boracic acid contains only 50
per cent, of real boracic acid, and  yields  no more
than 140 to 150 per cent, of good borax.
  Prop.,  Use, See.  It is extensively employed as a
flux  for metals, for soldering, and in medicine. In-
ternally it is diuretic, sedative, emmenagogue, and
cooling, in doses of 15 to 40 grains ; externally as
a gargle for sore throat,  and in powder as a deter-
gent in aphthae, and ulcerations of the mouth. Dis-
solved in  rose-water, it is used as a cosmetic, and
mixed with 8 times its weight of lard, forms a use-
ful piles ointment.
  Tests.  These are the same as for  the  borates,
which see.   It  reddens turmeric  paper, and, be-
fore  the blowpipe, fuses into glass, which may be
tinged red by terchloride of gold,  and blue by co-
balt.
  Pur. The purity and strength of borax are best
ascertained by  determining the quantity  of sul-
phuric acid required to  neutralize a given weight,
as indicated by litmus  paper.  Common salt and
alum are  frequently mixed with borax to lower the
value.  The former may be detected by dissolving
the  borax in hot water, when a solution of lunar
caustic will give a curdy white precipitate, soluble
in ammonia; and the latter by water of ammonia,
which will give a bulky white  precipitate.  Th« 
BOU                    129                    BOX
 former must be distinguished from the white pul-
 verulent precipitate of borate of silver, which will
 be thrown down from pure borax.
  BORAX, GLASS OF. Prep.  Dry borax with
 a gentle heat, breaking down  the froth as it  rises,
 then melt it by increasing the heat until  it runs
 into a glass.   Use.  In  soldering, and  as  a blow-
 pipe flux.
  BORO-FLUORIDE  OF   HYDROGEN.—
 Prep.  Pass fluoboric acid gas through water, and
 afterwards carefully concentrate the solution; cool
 and separate the crystalline powder from the solu-
 tion, which is the boro-fluoride of hydrogen. Prop.,
 tyc.  With  most of  the protoxides it  interchanges
 bases, and metallic boro-fluorides result.
  BORO-FLUORIDE  OF  BARIUM.   Prep.
 Add carbonate of baryta  to boro-fluoride of hydro-
 gen, until it ceases  to  be dissolved;  evaporate  to
 the consistence of a sirup, when crystals will form.
 Remarks. The boro-fluoride of  calcium, magnesi-
 um, and lead, may be formed in a similar way.
   BORO-FLUORIDE  OF   POTASSIUM —
 Prep.  Drop boro-fluoride of hydrogen  into a solu-
 tion of carbonate of potassa, collect the white pow-
 der that falls, and wash it with cold water.
   BORO-FLUORIDE  OF SODIUM.   Prep.
 Dissolve fluoride of sodium in boro-fluoride of hy-
 drogen, and crystallize.   Remarks.  Boro-fluoride
 of lithium may also  be  formed in a similar way.
   BORON.  The base of boracic acid, discovered
 by Sir H.  Davy, in 1807, by means of  the gal-
 vanic battery of the Royal Institute.
   Prep.  Potassium, and perfectly  dry  boracic
 acid, or still better, boro-fluate of potassa, intimate-
 ly mixed together, are to be placed in an adopter,
 or  glass  tube, and  submitted to a  low red  heat.
 When cool, remove  the loose cork that fastened its
 mouth, and pour in  successive portions of hot wa-
 ter, until the whole matter is detached and dis-
 solved.   Collect the  liquid  and allow it to settle,
 then wash the precipitate, first with a solution of
 sal ammoniac, and finally, with alcohol; next dry
 the boron in a capsule, and put it into  a well-stop-
 ped vial.
  Prop.,  6cc. A solid, tasteless, and inodorous pow-
 der, of grayish-brown color. With sulphur it unites
 at  high  temperatures, forming  sulphurets; and
 when placed in chlorine  gas  it spontaneously in-
 flames,  and  a  gaseous chloride is produced.  This
 gas may also be made by exposing calcined borax
 and  charcoal at a red heat to the action of dry
 chlorine.
  BOTTLE,  RED.  Syn. Taylor's Red Bot-
 tle. Whitworth  Doctor's Red Bottle. Prep.
 British brandy 1 quart; powdered cochineal \ oz.;
 oil of origanum 10 drops.  Digest for 24 hours and
 filter.
  BOUGIE.  Syn.  Candela.   Candela  cerea.
 Candelula.  Virga  cerea.   Cerea.. Cereola.
 Cereus.   Cereolus.  A long ^lender  instrument,
 introduced into the urethra, oesophagus, or rectum,
 to overcome  strictures of those canals.   The word
 bougie is the French for a wax candle.
  Prep.  I. Add 3 parts of boiled linseed oil to 1
 part of melted amber, and when  mixed add 1  part
of oil of turpentine;  spread the mixture at 3 suc-
cessive intervals upon loose spun silk cord or web,
dry in a heat of 150°, and repeat the process until
the  instrument has acquired the  proper size, then
                      17
 polish, first with pumice-stone, and afterwards with
 tripoli and oil.
   Remarks.  The above is the original receipt of
 the French professor Picket, and is still generally
 used, slightly modified, on the continent.
   II. Add to  the oil and amber melted together,
 as last, caoutchouc in the  proportion of -*ff of^the
 weight of the  oil employed; when dissolved, re-
 move the vessel from the fire and  proceed as be-
 fore.
   Remarks.  This  is the plan  usually adopted at
 Paris, and for the best elastic bougies this  process
 usually occupies from 6 to 8 weeks.   When the
 bougie is wanted to be hollow, a piece of polished
 metallic wire is introduced into the  axis of the silk,
 or tinfoil is rolled round the wire and the composi-
 tion applied as before.   When dry and hard the
 wire  is withdrawn.
   III.  (Caoutchouc, or elastic gum bougies.)  a.
 In France these are made by applying a solution
 of Indian rubber in  ether, to the silk or foil pre-
 pared as above.
   b.  In England,  where  ether  is  expensive,
 naphtha  is employed,  or  slips of Indian  rubber
 previously boiled in water, or that  have had their
 edges softened with ether, are wound  round the
 wire or foil, and kept in their place by a piece of
 tape applied over them, as in making elastic tubes.
 They are afterwards carefully smoothed off
   IV. A common kind of bougie is made  by dip-
 ping pieces of catgut or soft linen into lead  plaster,
 melted,  and rolling it while yet warm upon a slab.
 Very inferior.
   V. (White.) Prep. Yellow wax 1 lb.; sperma-
 ceti 1 oz.;  finely-powdered  sugar of lead J oz.;
 melt  and spread  upon slips of  old  linen, then roll
 them up while warm with the spread side out-
 wards.
   VI. (Bell's.)   Lead plaster 1 lb.; yellow wax
 8 oz. ; olive oil 2  oz.; as last.   Very inferior.
   BOUILLI.  (French for boiled meat.)  This
 name has been applied  by cooks to several dishes
 of boiled meat, as a refinement on the plain  Eng-
 lish.  Thus " beef bouilli, beef in bouilli, &c,"
 means, stewed or boiled  beef, &c.   As, however,
 the name is a la francais, so must be the accom-
 paniments, which generally consist of  herbs and
 vegetable seasoning  in greater quantity  and varie-
 ty than is usually  deemed essential to a plain-
 spoken piece of boiled or stewed meat!
   BOULES DE NANCY.   Equal parts of iron
 filings and  red  tartar,  made up  into  balls with
 spirit.   Use. As a tonic dissolved in hot water.
   BOUQUET DE LA REINE.  Prep.  I. Es-
 sence of  bergamotte 1  drachm; English  oil of
 lavender  23 drops;  oil of cloves and aromatic
 vinegar, of  each 8  drops; essence of musk 10
 drops ; alcohol £ oz.   Mix.
   II.  Oils of bergamotte and  lavender 30 drops
 each; neroli 15 drops ; oils of verbena and  cloves,
 of each 5 drops.   Essences of musk, ambergris,
 and jasmin, of each £ drachm ; rectified spirit of
 wine (strongest) 1 oz.  Mix.
   BOX WOOD  MAHOGANY.  Prep.  Warm
the wood by the fire, then wash it over with aqua-
fortis, let it stand 24 hours to dry, and polish it
with linseed oil reddened with alkanet root,  or give
it a coat of varnish, made by dissolving  aloes and
annotto in spirit of wine. 
BRA                     130                    BRA
   BOYLE'S FUMING LIQUOR.   Hydrosul-
phuret of ammonia is usually employed and sold
for this  article, but the liquor prepared by Boyle's
process  contains an excess of sulphur.  (Gay Lus-
sac.)  The properties of both are however the same.
   Prep. Mix 4 parts of fresh slaked lime ; 2 of
sal ammoniac, and 1 of  sulphur, then submit the
mixture to distillation.
   BRA GRAS.   Tar, black rosin, and the dregs
of strained rosin, melted together.
   BRAIN CAKES.  Prep. Clean, wash, blanch,
and  soak the brains, then beat  them  up with  a
little  white pepper and  salt, a sage-leaf or two,
scalded and  finely chopped, and the yelk  of an
egg;  make them  into small cakes  or fritters, and
fry them.
   BRAN.   The husk of wheat which immediate-
ly covers the grain, and which is left in the bolting
machine.   Use.  It is largely employed by the
calico printers, when diffused through  hot water,
to remove the coloring matter from those parts of
their goods which  are not mordanted.   A handful
mixed with a pail of warm water, forms an excel-
lent emollient foot-bath.  Infused in water,  (bran
tea,) and sweetened, it forms a popular demulcent,
much used in coughs and hoarseness, and,  taken
in quantity, proves gently laxative.  It  also forms
an excellent  manure, and, from containing the
ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate,  is  especially
adapted for potatoes.   It is frequently mixed with
flour and made into bread, by the poorer orders.
   BRANDY.   Syn.  Eau  de Vie. Aqua Vitm.
Spiriti  s Gallicus.   Brandy-wine.   The spiritu-
ous liquor obtained by  the distillation of  wine.
When first distilled it  is colorless, and only acquires
a  yellowish tint from the wood  of the casks, in
which state it is known and sold  as pale or white
brandy.  The deep color that it  usually possesses,
is  imparted to  it by adding a little spirit coloring,
(burnt sugar or caramel,) and occasionally a little
red sanders wood as well, and is intended to imitate
the appearance acquired by  brandy from  great
age, when kept in wood.   The natural color, how-
ever,  which the spirit  receives from the cask, no
matter how long it may have been in it, never ex-
ceeds an amber tint,  about  the common color of
pale Jamaica rum ; but the public taste  has been
gradually vitiated in tins respect, until only a spirit
of a lively and full " brandy color" (unless  for  a
pale brandy)  will sell.
   The  brandies most esteemed  in England  are
imported from France, and are those of Cognac
and  Armagnac, the  preference  being  generally
given to the former.   The brandies  of Rochelle
and Bordeaux may be reckoned  next in quality,
while those obtained  from Portugal,  Spain, and
Italy  are very inferior.
   The constituents of brandy are alcohol and wa-
ter, and small quantities of volatile oil, acetic acid,
acetic ether, cenanthic ether, coloring matter, and
tannin.   It is from the presence of the last six of
these substances that the  spirit derives its dis-
tinguishing smell  and flavor.  Tha quantity of
alcohol  present in brandy varies from 48 to 55 per
cent.  When first imported, it is  generally 1 or 2
overproof, but by age  its strength is lessened, and
by the time it is usually taken from the bond store
for sale, seldom exceeds 3 or 4 underproof.  From
considerable personal acquaintance with the cognac
 trade, I feel confidence in asserting, that brandies
 of  the  best quality seldom  exceed proof, and  are
 generally below it, and that it is a common  prac-
 tice in France to add spirit of wine and coloring to
 raise the  strength to  any given point  desired by
 the English purchaser, and to charge the same in
 the invoice; or  where the purchaser is not well
 acquainted with the subject, and desires a strong
 spirit at a low rate, to  sell him brandy so mixed as
 genuine.   The very finest brandies average from
 5 to 10 u. p., and never exceed about 2  u. p.; they
 then contain more than £  their weight of water,
 and from  their boiling point being higher, they
 come over more highly charged with essential  oil,
 and other volatile  and fragrant principles of the,
 grape, and  thus possess in a greater degree that
 peculiar aroma and flavor  for which they are so
 much esteemed.   French brandy or wine, distilled
 at a low temperature in a water bath, yields a very
 pure and scarcely flavored spirit.
  The quality of the brandy imported from France
 varies  considerably from  that which is  druiJi  on
 the continent, principally from its being prepared,
 or,  as it is technically termed, " made up," for the
 London market, which means  lowering it by the
 addition of spirit,  coloring, &c. above  described
 The common strength at which foreign brandy is
 sold in England is about 11 or 12 u. p., and below
 17  u. p. it becomes seizable by  the excise.  The
 strength at which  it is sold and permitted in trade,
 is generally 10 u. p., to which it is reduced by add-
 ing water, and never less than 12 u. p., unless it be
 specially  agreed upon.  In large quantities and
 from bond, of course the  strength depends  much
 upon the age and  quality of the spirit.  A fine old
 brandy being, perhaps, 8 or 10 u. p., while one of
 the last year's vintage of a commoner quality may
 be as strong as 2 or 1 u. p.   But these distinctions
 are familiar to every experienced brandy dealer.
  In France there are several varieties of this
 spirit distilled, which are known by names descrip-
 tive both of their quality and source.   The " eau
 de%vie superieure," or cognac brandy, is generally
 obtained from pale wliito wines, by careful  distil-
 lation, and is remarkable  for its superior flavor.
 When kept  in glass or stone bottles,  it is  called
 white cognac brandy, and the same term  is also
 generally  applied when it has been kept in casks,
 but has not  been artificially colored ; in  the latter
 case, however, it generally acquires a pale amber
 tint.
  The " eau de vie ordinaire," or common brandy,
 is distilled  from  high-colored  white or red wines,
 and has generally a sp. gr. of 0-948,  and  varies
 from 22 to 27 u. p.
  The " eau de vie de marc" is obtained from the
 lees of vinegar and other wines, the marc or cake
of grapes from which the juice has been pressed,
 and the commonest red wines, fermented and dis-
tilled together by .a quick  fire, to drive over as
much essential oil  and flavoring as possible.
  The " eau de  vie seconde"  is the  weak  spirit
that passes over after the stronger spirit has been
drawn off, and the receiver changed.   It is used
for common drinking, or mixed with other brandy.
  The " eau de vie a preuve d'Hollaude" is bran-
dy about 19° Baume, or sp. gr. *9420, the common
strength at which  it is  retailed in France, and will
stand the "proof" or " bead " 
BRA                     131                     BRA
  The " eau de vie a preuve d'huile" is the strong-
sst brandy usually drunk ; it is about 23° Baume,
or sp. gr. -918 ; pure  olive oil will just  sink in it;
hence the above term.
  The " eau de vie fort" is  usually  prepared by
the  redistillation of common  brandy, keeping the
first portion  separate.  It answers to our spirit of
wine.  It is  made of 12 different strengths,  distin-
guished by names, exhibiting the quantity of water
required to  reduce  the  sample  to  the "preuve
d'Hollande."  The weakest  is called cinq-six,  or
|, and the strongest trois-neuf, or %, the difference
between the numerator and the denominator being
the quantity of water the 3 parts of the  former will
take to reduce it to the  " preuve," when it would
make 9 parts.  Its sp. gr. is about -839.
  The esprit de vin is brandy or spirit  rectified to
0-890 and upwards.
  The  general  method of  distilling  brandy  in
France differs in no important particular from that
practised in England, for grain or molasses spirit.
Neither are the French  workmen more skilful nor
more cleanly in their operations  than the English.
It is the materials alone  that, in this case, conduce
to the superiority of the  product.  The quality of
the brandy varies with that of the wine  from which
it has been distilled.  Every  soil, every climate,
every kind  of  grape,  produces a wine possessing
some peculiarity confined to itself, and this  wine
on distillation produces a spirit possessing like dis-
tinctions.   A large quantity of brandy is prepared
in  France  soon after  the vintage, as the juice of
the poorer grapes that is unfit for wine  is ferment-
ed  and at once distilled.   It is a general rule, in
France, to distil only such wines as are unsaleable,
as the profits on the wine, sold as such, are much
greater than when it is converted into brandy.
   The Strength of Brandy may be  ascertained
in  the  same way as  alcohol, for which purpose
Sike's hydrometer is used in England.  In France,
from the value of spirit  being  less, it is frequently
tested by simpler methods, though great accuracy
obtains, in this particular, where necessary.
   Pur. Very little perfectly pure French brandy
is obtained by the small consumer in England, as
it is  not only  generally lowered a  little by the
wholesale dealer, but  undergoes a like process at
the hands  of  the retailer.  The safest method is
either to procure it direct from the bond store,
without its even entering a private cellar, or to buy
of  some known  respectable party, and to pay a
price that will offer no inducement  to  dishonesty.
If this be not done, by all means buy British bran-
dy, which is now  made of excellent  quality  by
many of  the leading houses, as Betts,  Bretts,
Booth, and Grimble.   From the two former a sin-
gle sealed bottle  may be procured  at the same
price as by the gallon.
  The importation of foreign brandy for home  con-
sumption amounts to  about  1,400,000 gallons a
year.
  BRANDY, (REDUCED.)   I. To  20 gallons
of Cognac brandy add 5  gallons of the best British
brandy.
  II. To 72 gallons of full-flavored French brandy,
add 10 gallons  of spirit of wine, (56  o. p.,) 8  gal-
lons of water, and 1 pint of good coloring.  Rum-
mage well up and let it stand until the next  day.
  hemarks.   The  above  reduction  is  generally
adopted in trade, and is known  by the  name of
" improving"  But such is the poverty of the pal-
ate of the English brandy drinker,  that  the adul-
teration is often not suspected,  even when  it is
carried to double the extent of the above, whiah rf
generally exceeded in the hands of the retailer. So
long,  however,  as the foreign  spirit constitutes
about half of the mixture,  and was at first of de-
cent quality and age, the infatuated Englishman
smacks his lips, and cunningly holding up his glass
between the light and his eye,  exclaims, " Ah !
this is a drop of the real."
   BRANDY,  (BRITISH.)   Syn. British  Co-
gnac.   Imitation Cognac, &c.  From the heavy
duty levied on French brandy  imported into Eng-
land for home consumption, it has  become a de-
sideratum with the distiller (rectifier) to produce
an English spirit of a similar description.  For some
time the attempt proved quite unsuccessful, but of
late years much capital and talent  have been em-
barked  in  the pursuit, and the result has proved
very satisfactory.  An article of  British  manufac-
ture may now be purchased, at a very reasonable
rate, of really respectable quality,  and possessing
much of the flavor and aroma of foreign brandy,
while,  as  a  beverage, it  is  equally wholesome.
Much of the British brandy, however, that is com-
monly met with, is of such a wrei.hed quality as
to be  quite undeserving of the name, which is evi-
dence of the fact, that much skill  and experience
is required to ensure success in  its manufacture.
For a long time  this liquor was distilled from spoilt
wine and dregs  of wine, both British and  foreign,
mixed with beer bottoms and similar articles; and
.when, instead of these, corn,  malt, and molasses
spirit were employed,  it was considered as an unpar-
donable and wicked misuse of those  articles. Mod-
ern experience has proved, however, that perfectly
pure and tasteless malt spirit is the  best article to
form into an imitation brandy.
   The following formula?, by skilful management,
will produce very  good brandy, but it must be re-
collected that much depends on the quality of the
materials employed,  as well as  on the operator.
As the strength  and quality of the ingredients, and
the methods of manipulation vary,  so will the re-
sult ;  much must therefore be left to the judgment
and discretion of  the artist.  It  offers a profitable
pursuit to the ingenious and industrious chemist and
rectifier.
   Prep. I. Take 12 gallons of  the finest flavorless
malt spirit at proof, (or if of a  different strength a
proportionate quantity;)  add thereto 5 gallons  of
water, \ lb. of the best crude  red tartar or wine-
stone, previously dissolved in  1  gallon  of boiling
water;  \ pint of acetic  ether; 2 quarts of  good
French wine vinegar; 7 lbs.  of bruised  French
plums, and 1 or  2 gallons of wine bottoms or flavor
stuff from Cognac,  mix them in a fresh-emptied
sherry cask,  and  let  them stand together for  14
days, frequently rummaging up  the  liquor with a
stick;  next draw over 15  gallons  of  the mixture
from a still furnished with  an agitator.   Put the
rectified spirit into a  clean, fresh-emptied  Cognac
brandy  cask, and add thereto £ pint of tincture of
catechu, 1 lb. of fresh and clean oak shavings, and
about a pint  of good  spirit coloring.  Bung close,
and agitate occasionally for a few days.  Remark*.
Age improves tha above  article,  and renders it 
BRA
132
BRA
 (pro\ ided the process be well managed) cf a very
 superior quality.   The above receipt yields 15 gal-
 lons of  brandy 17 u. p.  The following forms may
 also be  recommended:—
   M. Perfectly pure spirit, pf. 99 gallons ;  red tar-
 tar, dissolved,  7 lbs.; acetic ether 3 lbs.; wine vin-
 egar 3  gallons : bruised raisins, or French  plums,
 7 lbs.;  bitter ajinonds, bruised, 1 oz.;  water suffi-
 cient.   Dissolve the tartar in the water, then add
 the  other ingredients,  macerate  as  before, and
 draw over 120 gallons; lastly, add a few lbs. of
 oak shavings,  1 lb. of powdered catechu made into
 a paste  with water and burnt-sugar coloring as be-
 fore.  Remarks. This yields 120  gallons of spirit
 fully 17 u.p.
   III.  Clean  spirit  17 u. p.,  100 gallons; nitric
 ether 2  quarts; cassia buds, ground, 4 oz.; bitter
 almond meal 2 oz.; orris  root, sliced, 6 oz.; pow-
 dered cloves 1 oz.; capsicum 1J oz.;  good vinegar
 2 gallons ; brandy coloring 1 quart; powdered ca-
 techu 1 lb.; full-flavored Jamaica rum 2  gallons.
 Mix well  in an empty Cognac  cask, and let them
 macerate  for   a  fortnight,  occasionally  stirring.
 Remarks.  The proportion of the  ingredients may
 be varied  by the skilful brewer, as much depends
 on their respective strengths.
   IV. Good plain malt spirit, 17 u.p., 100 gal-
 lons ; finely-powdered catechu 12 oz.;  tincture of
 vanilla  4 oz.;  burnt-sugar coloring 1 quart; good
 rum 3  gallons, or more; acetic or nitric  ether 2
 quarts.  Mix well.
   V.  Clean spirit, 17  u.p.,  89  gallons; high-fla-
 vored cognac 10 gallons ; oil of cassia 1^ drachms  ;
 oil of bitter almonds, essential, £ a drachm ; pow-
 dered catechu 10 oz.;  cream of tartar, dissolved,
 16 oz.;  Beaufoy's concentrated acetic acid 3 lbs.;
 sugar coloring 1 quart,  or more ; good rum 1 gal-
 lon.   Put the whole into a  fresh  emptied brandy
 piece, and let them remain a week together, with
 occasional agitation, then let them stand to settle.
 If this  mixture  be distilled, the  French brandy,
 rum, coloring, and catechu, should  not be added
 till afterwards.
  VI. To colored plain spirit at  17  u.p., add a
 little tincture of catechu, and a sufficient quantity
 of essential oil, distilled from wine lees, to give it
 a proper flavor.  This oil is obtained by distillation
 from the wine lees, either dried  and made up into
 cakes, or  in  their wet state mixed with about 7
 times their weight of  water.   It should  be dis-
solved in  alcohol, and kept  in this  state,  as it is
 apt to lose its  flavor.   Remarks. When this pro-
cess is well managed a very capital article results,
but it requires considerable  address to conduct it
well.  The spirit  produced by this plan is better
for distill ation.  The brandy from any part of the
world may thus  be  imitated, by distilling the oil
from the  lees of the wines  produced  in the  par-
ticular  district.  This  is the only method  of pro-
ducing  an exact  imitation.  A pound each of
finely-powdered charcoal and ground rice has been
recommended to  be digested in  a gallon of spirit
for a fortnight.   Where  black  tea is cheap, as in
America,  it is very commonly employed to impart
the roughness  and  flavor  of  brandy to  colored
spirits.
  BRANDY,  CHERRY.   Prep. I. To every
gallon of  brandy  put an  equal measure of cher-
ries, bruised between the fingers; steep for 3 days,
then express the liquor; add 2 As. of lump sugar,
and strain for use.
   II. To the above add  1  quart of raspberries,
and £ a pint of orange-flower water.  %* Qual-
ity very fine.
   III.  Treacle 1 cwt.;  spirit (45 u.p.)  41  gal-
lons ;  bruised bitter  almonds  (more  or  less,  to
taste)  5 oz.;  cloves 1 oz.; cassia 2 oz.   Put the
ingredients  into  a large cask, well mix  and let
them lie a month, occasionally stirring.
   Remarks.  Equal  parts of fully  ripe  Morello
and black cherries produce the richest cordial.
   BRANDY, CARAWAY.   Prep. I.   Steep 4
oz. of bruised caraway seeds and 2 lbs. of sugar in
1 gallon of  British brandy, for a fortnight.
   II. Sugar 1 lb.;  caraways 1 oz.;  3 bitter al-
monds;  spirits of  wine  and water,  of  each  1
quart;  (or  spirit 22 u. p. £ a gallon.)   Macerate
as above.
   BRANDY, DANTZIC.  This .s distilled from
rye, ground with the root of  calamus aromaticus.
It has a mixed flavor of orrice and cinnamon.
   BRANDY, LEMON.  Prep. I.  Steep J lb.
of fresh lemon peel and £ a dozen lemons, cut in
slices, in 1 gallon of brandy, for a week, then add
1 lb. of  lump sugar.
   II. Proof spirit 7 gallons;  essence of lemon  3
drachms; sugar 5  lbs.; tartaric  acid 1 oz.,  dis-
solved in water  2 gallons;  coloring q. s.  Mix,
and rummage repeatedly for 14 days.  Remarks.
Sometimes milk is added to the above, in the pro-
portion  of 1 quart (boiling hot) to every gallon.
   BRANDY, MALT.  Malt spirit, flavored with
sweet spirits of nitre and terra Japonica, and  col-
ored with treacle, or  spirit coloring.  (See Brit
Brandy.)
   BRANDY, ORANGE.  This may be made
in a similar  way to lemon brandy.
   BRANDY, PEACH.   Prep. 1. From peaches,
by fermentation  and  distillation.  Much  used in
the United States, where peaches  are very cheap
   II. Bruise the peaches, then steep them in twice
their  weight  of  British  brandy,  or malt spirit;
lastly, express the liquor.
   III.  Bitter almonds (bruised) 2 oz.; proof spirit
(light) 10 gallons; water 3 gallons;  sugar 5 or 6
lbs.;  orange-flower water \ a pint.  Mix,  and
macerate for 14 days.
   *»*  Color  with  brandy coloring,  if (required
darker.
   BRANDY, RASPBERRY.  Prep. I. Pour as
much  brandy over  raspberries as will just cover
them ; let it stand  for 24 hours, then drain it off,
and replace it with a like quantity of fresh spirit;
after 24 hours more, drain this off and replace it
with water ; lastly, drain well, and press the rasp-
berries  quite dry.  Next add sugar  to the mixed
liquors, in the proportion of 2 lbs. to  every gallon,
along with a -J of a  pint of orange-flower water.
   II.  Mix equal parts of mashed raspberries  and
brandy  together, let thenv stand for 24 hours, then
press  out the liquor.  Sweeten as above, and add
a little cinnamon and cloves, if agreeable; lastlyi
strain.
   BRASS.   An alloy of copper and zinc.
   Hist, and Prep.  Brass was formerly manufac-
tured by cementing  granulated copper, or copptr
clippings, with calcined calamine and charcoal, in
crucibles, exposed to  a bright  heat.   The alio] 
BRA                   133                   BRA
was found in lumps at the bottom of the crucible
on cooling.  These were remelted and cast into
ingots.  At  the present day, brass is generally
made by direct union of the metals.  This process
requires much care, owing to the different degrees
of fusibility of copper and zinc.  The proper quan-
tity of zinc  is  first melted,  and slips of copper
plunged into it, which are rapidly dissolved, as it
were, and the  addition is  continued until an alloy-
is formed, somewhat difficult of fusion, when  the
remainder of the copper is added.   The brass thus
formed  is  typken into pieces, and remelted  under
charcoal, a.'°Jf a proper addition of either zinc or
copper made, to bring it up to the color and qual-
ity desired.   It is next cast into  plates, or other
forms, in moulds of granite.  When submitted to
the rolling-press for reduction to thin plates, it re-
quires to undergo the operation of annealing sev-
eral times.
  Prep. I.  (Fine Brass.)   2 parts of copper to
1 part of zinc.  Remarks. This is nearly 1 equiv-
alent each  of copper and zinc, if the equivalent
of the former metal be taken at 63*2 ; or 2 equiv-
alents of copper  to 1  equivalent of zinc, if it  be
taken, with Liebig and Berzelius, at 31*6.
  II. Copper  4 parts, zinc 1 part.   An excellent
and very useful brass.
  III.  (Gold-colored Brass.)  Syn. Red  Brass.
Dutch Gold.   Tombac.   Similor.  Prince's
Metal.  Pinchbeck, &c.
  a.  Copper and zinc, equal parts.
  b.  Copper 2 parts; zinc 1 or 1J parts.  This is
Manheim gold.
  c. Copper 3 to 5$ parts; zinc  1  part.  Deep
colored.
  Remarks. The proportion of zinc in this alloy
is altered  to suit the color and other properties to
the purposes for  which  it is intended, and often
varies from  £ to ^, or £ of the weight of the alloy.
At the celebrated works of Hegermiihl, near Pots-
dam, the proportions are 11 parts of copper to two
of zinc, which produces a metal  which is  after-
wards rolled into sheets for the purpose of making
Dutch leaf-gold.
  BRASS,  BUTTON.  (Best.)  I. Copper 8
parts ; zinc  5 parts, as above.
  II. (Common.) Copper 50 parts; zinc40 parts;
tin 4  parts ;  lead  6 parts.
  BRASS,  FOR SOLDER.  Syn. Hard Sol-
der.  I. 12 parts of brass ;  6 parts of zinc,  and 1
of tin, melted  together.
  II. 2 parts of brass, and 1 of zinc.
  III. (Very strong.)   3 parts of brass, and 1 of
zinc.
  BRASS,  TURNER'S.   98 parts of brass, and
2 of lead.   Remarks.  The addition  of lead im-
proves the  brass  for the  uses of the turner, but
lessens its malleability.
  BRASS,  CLEANING OF.   Brass and cop-
per are best cleaned with sweet  oil and tripoli,
powdered  bath-brick,  rotten-stone,  or red brick-
dust,  rubbed on  with  flannel and polished with
leather.  A  strong solution of oxalic acid in water
gives brass a fine  color.  Vitriol and spirits of salts
make brass  and copper very bright, but they very
soon  tarnish, and consequently require more fre-
quent cleaning.   A strong lye of roche-alum and
water will also improve brass.
  Brass inlaid work may be cleaned as follows:—
Mix tripoli and linseed oil, and dip into it a rubbei
of hat, with which  polish the work.  If the wood'
be ebony or rosewood, polish it with a little finely-
powdered elder-ashes ; or make a paste of rotten-
stone, a  little starch,  sweet-oil, and oxalic acid,
mixed with water.   The ornaments of a French
clock are, however,  best cleaned  with  bread-
crumb, carefully rubbed, so  as not to  spoil  the
woodwork.   Ormolu  candlesticks,  lamps,  and
branches, may be cleaned with soap  and water.
They will  bear  more cleaning than  lacquered ar-
ticles, which  are spoiled by frequent  rubbing, or
by acids, or strong alkalis.
   BRASS COATING.  I. Brass plates and rods
may be covered with a superficial coating of brass,
by exposing  *!aem in a heated state to the fumes
of melted zinc, at a high temperature.   Use. For
rolling into thin  plates, or drawing into wire.  The
celebrated spurious  gold wire  of Lyons is thus
made.
   II. Vesse* of copper may be coated with brass,
internally, by filling them  with  water strongly
acidulated with muriatic acid, adding some amal-
gain of zinc and cream of tartar, and then boiling
for a short time.
   BRASS-COLORED PIGMENT.  Syn. Brass
Bronze.   Prep.  I.  (Red.)  Grind copper filings,
or precipitated  powder of copper, with a little red
ochre.
   II.  (Yellow  or  gold-colored.)  Gold-colored
brass, or Dutch  leaf reduced to a very fine pow-
der.
   Remarks.  Both these powders are mixed up
with varnish, and used  as  a paint.   No  more
should be mixed at a time than wanted for imme-
diate use.  They are also used by dusting them
over any surface, previously covered with varnish
to make  them adhere.   (See Oxide  of Copper.)
   BRASS-COLORED VARNISH.  Prep. Dis-
solve 1 oz. each of pale shell lac and gum sanda-
rach, in £ a pint of rectified spirit of  wine.
   Use. To mix up the preceding powders.
   BRASS, PASTE FOR  CLEANING.  Prep.
I. Soft soap  2 oz., rotten-stone 4 oz.; beat them
to a paste.
   SI I. Rotten-stone  made into  a paste with sweet
   .
   III.  Rotten-stone 4 oz.; oxalic acid 1 oz.;  sweet
oil 1J oz.;  turpentine enough to make  a paste.
   Use.   To clean brass.  The first  and last  are
best applied  with  a little water.   The second,
with a little spirits of turpentine, or sweet oil. Both
require friction with soft leather.
   BRASS ORNAMENTS, PRESERVATION
OF. Brass ornaments, when not gilt or lacquered,
may be cleansed, and a fine color given to them
by two simple processes. The first is  to beat sal
ammoniac into  a fine powder, then to moisten it
with soft water, rubbing it  on  the  ornaments,
which must be  afterwards rubbed dry with bran
and  whiting.   The second is to wash the brass-
work with roche alum boiled to a strong lye, in
the proportion of an ounce to  a pint;  when dry,
it must be rubbed with fine tripoli.  Either of these
processes will give to brass the brilliancy of gold.
   BRASS  STAIN.   I.  Cut sheet-brass into
small pieces, and expose it to  a strong heat for 2
or 3  days, then powder it, and again expose it for
several days to a like heat; again powder and sift, 
BRA
134
and  expose it a third time to heat, testing it occa-
sionally, to see if it be properly burnt.   When this
is  the  case,  a  little of  it fused with  glass will
make the latter swell and froth up.
   Uses,  fyc   It imparts to glass a green tint,
passing into torquoise.
   II. Calcine equal parts of plate-brass  and sul-
phur, stratified  together  in a crucible, until they
become friable; then  powder  and expose  them
again,  as last.
   Use.   Imparts a calcedony red or yellow tinge
to glass by fusion,  according to  the  mode  of
using it.
   BRAWN,  CHOICE.    When young,  the
horny parts feel moderately tender; if the rind be
hard, it is old.
   BRAWN,  MOCK.  Prep. Take the head and
belly piece of a young  porker, well saltpetred;
split  the head and boil  it; take out the bones and
cut it to pieces;  then take four ox-feet boiled ten-
der,  and cut them in thin pieces; lay them in the
belly piece, with the  head  cut small;  roll  it  up
tight with sheet tin, and  boil it four or five hours.
When  it comes out, set  it up on one end, put; a
trencher on it within the  tin, press it down with a
large weight, and let it stand all night.   The next
morning take it  out of the tin, and bind it with a
fillet, put it into cold  salt and water, and it will
be fit for use;  it will  keep  a bug time, if fresh
salt and water are put  into it every four days.
   BRAZIL WOOD.   Syn. Sapan Wood. Saint
Martha  Wood.  Fernambuca.   This  wood  is
much used in dyeing.  A decoction  is made by
boiling for some hours in hard spring water, and
this is generally kept for  some time, or until it un-
dergoes a species of fermentation, as it is thus
found  to  yield  more  permanent  and   beautiful
colors than when employed  quite new.   Use.  To
dye red.
   BRAZIL WOOD  DYE.  I. (For cotton and
linen.)  a. First boil the goods in a bath of su-
mach, next work them through  a weak mordant
of solution of tin, and  then run them through the
Brazil bath, lukewarm.  This gives a bright red.
   6.  First alum the goods and rinse them, then
give  them a mordant of solution of tin, rinse again,
and turn them through the dye-bath.  This gives
a rose color.
   Remarks.  The shades of this dye may be va-
ried by the strength of  the bath, mordant, &c.   A
little alum added to the Brazil-bath, gives a pur-
ple tint.   1 lb. of Brazil  wood, £ oz. of alum, and
2 oz. of tartar will dye  20 to 25 lbs. of cotton.
   II.  (For silk.)  The silk, after being well al-
umed in the  same way  as  wool, but at  a lower
temperature, is rinsed,  and passed through the de-
coction of Brazil, just  lukewarm.
   Remarks.  By adding  a little alkali to the bath,
or by passing the silk  through  a water holding a
little alkali in solution,  after it is dyed, will produce
what is called the  false  crimson.   When wanted
uf a very deep crimson, a little logwood is added
to the Brazil-bath.  In this way any shade of color
may be produced.
   III.   (For wool.)  Boil the wool in water hold-
ing in solution 5 parts of alum and 1 of tartar, for
1 hour; then let it lie in  the cold liquor for several
days, frequently moving it about; lastly, boil it in
a decoction of Brazil for  £ an hour.
  BRAZILINE.   Syn. Breziline.   The color.
ing principle of Brazil wood, obtained by Ghevreul
in small orange-colored needles.  It is soluble in
both water and  alcohol;  alkalis turn it violet,
acids yellow.  With alum it dyes red.
  BRAZING. The operation of uniting the edges
of pieces of copper, brass, iron,  &c, by means of
hard solder.
  Proc.   The edges, after being filed quite clean,
are covered  with a mixture  of hard solder and
powdered borax,  made into  a paste with water.
The whole is then  allowed to dry, apt! afterwards
exposed in a clear fire to a heat suf?.-. n»nt to melt
the solder.
  Remarks.   In some cases a little silver is added
to the solder, when it receives the name of " sil-
ver solder."
  BREAD.   Principles  of bread-making, d}c.
This most important article of food is made of the
flour of different grains, but only those that con-
tain gluten admit of conversion into light spongy
bread.   Hence it is that wheat flour is best calcu-
lated for this purpose.  When flour is made into a
stiff paste  or  dough with  water, and rolled into
cakes and baked, it forms biscuits, or unleavened
bread, which was once the only description known.
When  the dough,  previously to baking, is left for
some time in a moderately warm  place, varying
from 80° to 120°, a state  of fermentation cornea
on, formerly called the panary  fermentation, but
which is, in reality, the sugar of the  flour gradu-
ally undergoing the process of conversion into al-
cohol, and resembles  in every  respect the same
change which takes place  in  the manufacture of
wine,  beer,  &c.   During this process,  a large
quantity of carbonic acid gas is liberated, and the
toughness of the  dough preventing its escape, the
whole mass becomes puffed up and spongy, and a
light porous paste is formed, ready for baking into
bread.   The  natural  process of fermenting the
dough just described, is, however, subject to much
uncertainty, and is inconvenient from the time it
occupies to  complete it,  and  the  tendency the
dough  has to run  into the acetous fermentation,
when it acquires a sour and disagreeable taste, and
is rendered less nutritious and  easy of digestion.
This has  led to the  use of a ferment, which at
once  excites a  proper  state  of  fermentation
throughout the mass,  and speedily renders it light
and spongy.   Leaven or dough, already in a state
of fermentation, was originally  employed for this
purpose, and the bread so made was hence called
leavened bread.  But this has been wholly super-
seded by  barm or yeast.  Thus it will  be seen
that all that  is essential to make a  loaf of bread,
is to add a proper quantity of yeast to the dough,
and to  allow it to remain for  a short time in a
warm  place, until  it rises  or  becomes  sponge
when it must be subjected to the operation of ba-
king.  If the process be well managed,  and the
flour be good, bread  of superior quality will Le
produced.
   Process of making bread.   In preparing  hi*
dough, the modern baker takes a part of the water
needed for the batch, and having warmed it to a
temperature of about 80° or 90°, dissolves his sal".
therein, and  then  adds the yeast and a portion of
the flour.   These he works up into a dough, which
he sets aside in a warm place usually provided foi 
BRE                   135                   BRE
the purpose, nnd called the " kneading trough,"
where  it soon  begins  to ferment  and swell up.
This process is called " setting the sponge," and
according to the proportion the water in  it bears
to the whole quantity  that is to be used, it re-
ceives the name of " whole," " half," or " quarter
sponge"  The  evolution of carbonic acid in the
process of  fermentation,  causes the sponge  to
heave and swell, and when the  surface bursts, it
subsides, and  then swells again and again in a
similar  manner.  This  action would go on  for
some time, if not interfered with ; but  the baker
is careful to stop it before it has  communicated a
sourness to the mass.   After  the first, or at the
furthest, after the second or third " dropping of
the  sponge,"  he adds  the remaining quantity of
flour, water, and salt, necessary to form the batch.
These  he  incorporates  by  long  and  laborious
kneadings, until the entire mass acquires uniform-
ity,  and is sufficiently  tough and elastic  to bear'
the  pressure of the  hand without adhering  to  it.
The dough is  now left  to itself  for  a  few hours,
during  which  time fermentation  goes on,  after
which the inflated mass is again  kneaded, when it
is ready to be cut into pieces and weighed. These
pieces  are then shaped into  loaves, and  set aside
for an hour or two, during which time  they swell
 up to nearly double their former size; they are
then placed in the oven and  baked.  During this
 operation they continue for a time to increase in
 size, in consequence of the dilation of the pent-up
 gas by the heat of  the oven, until at length the
 fermentation  is checked, and the dough  becomes
too solid to admit of further alteration.
   Remarks. A number of other processes are used
by cooks and confectioners to make the different
varieties of fancy  bread, cakes,  puddings, &c,
most of which vary according  to the peculiar char-
acteristic it is desired  to communicate to them.
Thus some kinds of cakes and pastes are made to
eat "short," as it  is called, or are rendered less
tenacious, and  a species of brittleness imparted to
them  by the addition  of starch and sugar.  In
pastry  a similar effect  and peculiar lightness is
produced by butter or lard, while in some articles,
white of egg, gum-water, isinglass, and other ad-
hesive substances are added to produce an exceed-
ingly light and porous mass.
   The  different varieties of bread made in Eng-
land vary chiefly in their quality, according to the
flour of which  they are formed.   The best white
bread is made from the purest wheat flour ; ordi-
nary wheaten bread, of flour to which a little of
the  finest  bran has been added; seconds,  from
flour containing a still larger portion of bran ; and
common household bread, from flour produced  by
grinding the whole substance of the grain without
any separation of the bran.  Symnel bread, man-
chet or roll bread, and French bread  are varieties
made of the purest flour, from the finest wheat, a
little milk being usually added for rolls, and butter
and eggs for choicer purposes.  Several other minor
kinds of bread  are also  made, varied by the addi-
tion of 6undry trifles, as sugar, currants, and other
palatable ingredients.  The Scotch " short bread"
is made from a very thick dough, to which butter,
■ugar,  orange-peel,  and spices, are added.   (See
Gingerbread.)
   In France a number  of different kinds of bread
 are made.   The  " pain  bis" is the coarsest sort,
 and is made of a mixture of  groats and wheat
 flour; the "pain  bis blanc" is  made of a mixture
 of oatmeal and wheat flour; the "pain blanc" of
 flour from which the finest portion has been sifted ;
 the " pain mollet," or  soft bread, is made of the
 purest  wheat? flour, from  the  finest  grain; the
 "pain chaland," made from the same materials
 as the last, but the  paste is pounded ;  the " pain
 chapale" is a small variety  of bread, similar to the
 French or roll bread of England ; the " pain cornu"
 is a kind of small bread, named from being done
 up  into four-cornered  pieces;  the  "pain  de la
 reine" is another variety of small bread, and the
 "pain gruau"  is abroad which has been*made
 of late  years in  Paris, prepared from  the small
 granular particles separated from the  best wheat
 after  a  slight grinding.  The  French have  also
 their soup  bread  and  their country white  bread,
' besides  several  other varieties,  not mentioned in
 the above list.
    In  the manufacture  of white bread from dam-
 aged or inferior flour, a large quantity  of alum is
 employed by the bakers, but with the best flour no
 alum is  required.  The utmost beauty, sponginess,
 and sweetness, may be given to bread without the
 addition of one particle  of alum, provided the best
 materials are employed.  As such is not, however,
 generally  the case, it is a common practice with
 the bakers to introduce 4 or 5 oz. of alum to every
 sack of  flour, or about  1 oz. to each bushel.  The
 method  of detecting this adulteration will be pres-
 ently explained.   The proper quantity of salt to be
 used is  6 or 7 lbs. to the sack, or 1-J  lbs. to the
 bushel.   1 sack of the best flour, and 6  lbs. of salt,
 ought to yield about 360 lbs. of  good bread, and a
 sack of seconds 345 to 350  lbs. of bread.
   Wheaten bread, made of pure materials, is one
 of the most wholesome articles of food, and has
 been justly termed  the staff of life.   When well
 fermented and  baked,  it is  very easy of digestion.
 It should  never be eaten till it  has stood 24 hours
 after being taken out of the oven, as newer bread
 is apt to disagree with the stomach, frequently pro-
 ducing flatulence, heartburn, and indigestion.
   Adult. This is often  carried to a fearful extent:
 Mr. Accum says, " The bakers' flour is very often
 made of  the worst kinds of  damaged  foreign
 wheat, and other cereal  grains mixed  with them
 in grinding the wheat  into  flour.  In this capital,
 no fewer than six distinct kinds of wheaten flour
 are brought into the market.   They  are  called
 fine flour, seconds, middlings, fine middlings, coarse
 middlings, and twenty-penny flour.   Common gar-
 den beans and peas are also frequently ground  up
 among the  London bread flour.
   " The smallest quantity  of alum  that can  be
 employed  with  effect to produce a  white, light,
 and porous bread, from  an inferior kind of flour, I
 have my own baker's authority to state, is from 3
 to 4 oz. to a sack of flour weighing 240 lbs."
   " The following account of making  a sack  of
 five bushels of flour into bread,  is taken from Dr.
 P. Markham's ' Considerations on the Ingredients
 used in  the Adulteration of Flour  and Bread,'
 (p. 21:)  5 bushels of flour; 8 oz. of alum;  4 lbs.
 of salt;  £ gallon of yeast, mixed with about 3 gal-
 Ions of water.
   "Another  substance  employed  by  fraudulent 
BRE                    136                    BRE
bakers is subcarbonate of ammonia.   With this
salt  they realize the  important  consideration  of
producing light and porous bread from spoiled,  or,
what is technically called, sour flour.   This salt,
which becomes wholly converted into a gaseous
substance during the operation of baking, causes
the dough to swell up into air bubbles, which carry
before them the stiff dough, and thus it renders the
dough porous;  the  salt itself is  at  the same time
totally volatilized during the operation of baking.  .  .
Potatoes are likewise largely, and  perhaps con-
stantly, used by fraudulent bakers, as a cheap  in-
gredient, to enhance  their  profit. . .  . There are
instances of convictions on  record, of bakers hav-
ing used gypsum, chalk, and pipeclay, in the man-
ufacture of bread."
   A gentleman, lately writing from the north of
England, says that he found in one sample of flour
which he recently examined, upwards of 16 per
cent, of gypsum, and in another 12 per cent, of the
same earth.
   Sometime since it was discovered that some of
the  bakers  in  France and Belgium  added blue
vitriol to their dough to make it take more water.
It is said that they  dissolved 1 oz. of this  sulphate
in a quart of water, and added a wine-glassful of
this solution to  the water necessary to make about
50 41b. loaves.   To the credit of the English ba-
ker, no such poisonous materials have ever been
found  mixed with  his bread.   This fraud may be
discovered by boiling a little of the bread in water,
to which 5 or 6  drops of nitric acid have been
added, and testing the filtered liquor with prussiate
of potash, which will  give a brown  precipitate if
copper be present.
   Alum may be detected by boiling  the bread in
water, and adding a  little chloride of barium or
lime water, or a little water of ammonia, either of
which will produce a white precipitate.
   Chalk, whiting, burnt bones, plaster of Paris,
and similar substances are easily detected by burn-
ing a little of the flour or  bread in a clean open
vessel, when the amount of ashes left will indicate
the quantity of adulteration.  The quantity of ashes
left by genuine flour is very trifling indeed.
   Caution. If  you purchase bread from the ba-
kers, by all means buy the best.   When you make
it yourself, however, various  additions  may  be
made  of a  wholesome kind, that will  render it
cheaper.  Thus mashed potatoes, ground bran,
potato farina, and  several other articles may be
added at pleasure.  Mixing  the flour up with a
decoction of bran,  pumpkins, Iceland moss, and
some  other similar  substances,  has been recom-
mended, and it is said that flour  so mixed will
yield one quarter  more bread  than when water
alone is used, and that it will keep good for some
time.
   BREAD, BEE.  This is  the matter collected
by the bees to form the bottom of the hive ; it  re-
sembles a mixture of rosin and wax; its fumes are
thought to be anti-asthmatic.
   BREAD, BRAN.   Prep. I. Mix with i, a peck
of flour, containing the whole of the bran, a -J of a
pint of small-beer yeast, and a quart of lukewarm
water; stir  it well with a wooden spoon until it
becomes a thick batter, then put a napkin over the
dough, and set it  about three feet from the fire,
until it rises well.   Add, if requisite,  a little more
warm water, strew  over it a tablespoonful of salt,
and make the whole into a  stiff paste.   Put it to
the fire, and when it rises, again knead it into tha
dough.  If baked in tins, the  loaves will  be im-
proved.
  II. To every pound  of flour add  \ lb. of braa,
and proceed as above.
  BREAD,  EXTEMPORANEOUS.  Prep. I.
(Ammoniacal Bread.)  Dissolve  1  oz. of sesqui-
carbonate of ammonia  in water, sufficient to make
7 lbs. of flour into a dough, which must be formed
into loaves and baked immediately.
  II. Divide the flour (8 lbs.) into two portions;
mix  up the  first with water,  holding in solution
2 oz. of bicarbonate of soda, and the second with
the other portion, to which 1 oz.  of muriatic acid
has been added.   When each mass  of  dough has
been separately well kneaded to a proper consist-
ence, mix them together (perfectly) as quickly as
possible ; form the mass into loaves,  and bake  im-
mediately.
  Remarks.  This bread is considered very whole-
some.  It contains no yeast.
  BREAD,  FRENCH.  Prep.  I.  i nt 1 pint of
milk into 3 quarts  of  water.   In winter let it be
scalding hot, but in  summer, little more than milk-
warm: put  in salt  sufficient.  Take \\ pints of
good ale  yeast, free from bitterness, and lay it in 1
gallon  of water the night  before.  Pour  off the
yeast into the milk  and water, and then break in
rather more than \  lb.  of butter.   Work it well till
it is dissolved ; then beat up 2 eggs in a basin, and
stir them in.  Mix about 1^ pecks of flour with
the liquor, and, in winter, make the dough pretty
stiff, but more slack in summer ;  mix it well, and
the less it is worked the better.  Stir the liquor
into flour, as for pie-crust, and after the dough is
made cover it with  a cloth,  and let  it lie to  rise,
while the oven  is  heating.  When the  rolls or
loaves have lain in  a quick oven  about a quarter
of an hour, turn them on the other  side for about
a quarter of an hour longer.   Then take them out
and chip them with a knife, which will make them
look spongy, and of a fine yellow, whereas rasping
takes off this fine color, and renders their look less
inviting.
  II. Proceed as for the best bread; use the finest
flour, and moisten it with a little milk.
  BREAD,  FRENCH COUNTRY  WHITE
This is made without yeast.
  BREAD,  FRENCH SOUP.    This is made
by adding 1 lb. or more of salt to each sack, in
the place of yeast; and it is baked in thin loaves,
so as to be nearly all crust, by which means it be-
comes more soluble in the hot soup.
  BREAD,   FROM   AMERICAN  FLOUR-
This flour requires  nearly twice as much water to
make it  into bread, as that made  from  English
wheat, and  is therefore much more economical.
14 lbs. of American flour will make  21 i lbs. of
bread,  but the best sort of English flour produces
but 184 lbs. (Mrs. Rundell.)
  BREAD,  FROM GRAINS.  " Birkenmayer,
a brewer of Constance, has succeeded in manufac-
turing bread from the farinaceous residue  of beer.
10 lbs. of this species of paste,  1 lb. of yeast, 5 lbs.
of ordinary meal, and a handful  of salt,  produce
12 lbs. of black bread, both savory and nourishing.*
  BREAD,  (For one  sack.)   Flour 1 sack;  salt 
BRE                    137                    BRE
4 lbs.; water, sufficient  quantity ; yeast  4 pints.!
Dissolve the salt in 3$ gallons of the water, (warm,)
then add a little of the flour and the whole of the
yeast; make a dough, and keep it in a warm place
until it ;ises, then add more flour and warm water
in the  same  way, and work again ;  after 3 or 4
hours add the remainder of the flour, and sufficient
water  to bring the dough to a proper consistence.
When the whole mass of dough is in a proper state,
it is to be cut into loaves  and baked.
  Remarks.  The bakers employ alum in making
their bread, as it not only makes  the  dough more
retentive of moisture, but improves the color of the
bread. The proportion is usually 6 or 8 oz. of alum
per sack, or even more.
  By this process a sack  of flour will produce from
345 to 351) lbs. of M>eZZ-baked bread,  or  if slack-
baked, from 370 to 385 lbs. of crumbling bread.
  BREAD, HICK'S PATENT.  This is merely
bread made in the common way, but baked in an
oven  so  arranged that the vapors arising during
the process  may be  condensed in  a suitable re-
ceiver.   The condensed  liquor is a crude, weak
spirit,  produced during  the  fermentation of the
bread.  The product will not pay the expense and
trouble of the collection.
   B It E A D,   HOUSEHOLD.   (Economical
Bread.)   Prep. I. Remove the flake bran from
the flour, and boil 5 lbs. of it in 4 gallons of water,
until it  is reduced to 3J gallons ; strain.  With
this liquor knead 56  lbs. of the flour, adding salt
and veast as for other bread.  Bake the loaves for
2^  hours. (Rev. Mr. Haggett.)
  II.  Mix 7 lbs. of flour with 3 lbs. of mealy po-
tatoes, previously well mashed, add 2 or 3 spoon-
fuls of salt, and make a dough with water; then
well work it  with 3 or 4 spoonfuls of yeast, and af-
ter 4 hours bake it.
  BREAD,  IMPROVEMENT OF.   A i oz. of
carbonate of magnesia added to the flour, for a 4
lb.  loaf,  materially improves  the quality of the
bread, even when made  from the worst  new sec-
onds flour. (Professor E.  Davy.)   This addition is
perfectly innocent.
  BREAD,  ICELAND MOSS.  This vegetable
may be  made into bread, either alone, or mixed
with  flour.  It is used,  in  the  first case, in the
state of meal, in  the same way as  flour; in the
second case,  7 lbs. of it are directed to be boiled in
12 or 13 gallons of water, and employed to  make
70 lbs. of flour into dough, which is then fermented
and baked in the  usual way.   It, is said that the
above quantity of  flour will produce, in  this way,
160 lbs. (?) of good household bread, whereas the
same flour, treated in the usual  way, would not
produce  more than 80 lbs.   A simpler  mode of
making this bread, is to  mix 1 lb. of lichen meal
with 3J; to 4 lbs. of flour.  The bitterness of the
lichen is  extracted by soaking it in cold water.
  BREAD,  LEAVENED.  Prep.  Take about
2 lbs. of dough of the last making, which has been
raised by barm ; keep it in a wooden vessel, cov-
ered well with flour.  This  will become leaven
when sufficiently sour.  Work this quantity into a
peck of flour with warm water.   Cover the dough
close  with a cloth, or flannel,  and keep it in  a
warm place ; further, mix it next  morning with 2
or 3 bushels  of flour,  mixed up with warm water
and a little salt.   When the  dough is thoroughly
made, cover it as before.  As soon as it rises, well
knead it into loaves.  Observe in this process, that
the more leaven is put to the flour, the  lighter the
bread will be, and the fresher the leaven, the less
sour will it taste.
   BREAD, PARIS WHITE.  Prep.  To 80 lbs.
of the dough, before the yeast was added, from
yesterday's  baking, add as much lukewarm water
as will make 320 lbs. of flour into a thin dough ;
as  soon as this has risen, 80 lbs.  are to be taken
out and reserved in a warm place as leaven for the
next  baking, and 1 lb. of dry yeast, dissolved  in
warm water, is to be  added to the remaining por-
tion, which is immediately made into loaves, and
shortly afterwards bated, the  loaves being placed
in the oven without touching each other, that they
may become crusty all round.
   BREAD, POTATO.  Prep. I. To  mealy po-
tatoes,  well milled, add an equal quantity of
dough, made with flour, then add  a proper quan-
tity of yeast, and mix in as much potato farina,  or
• wheat flour, as will suffice to bring it to a proper
consistence.  Ferment and bake, as usual.
   II. Mix equal parts of potato starch and finely-
pulped potatoes, and work them into a dough over
night, adding the proper quantity  of yeast; the
next morning work in the same quantity of potato
starch, mashed potatoes, and wheat  flour, adding
as  much hot  water as  may be  required ; let  it
stand to rise, then work it well, cut it into loaves,
and in 2 hours put them into the oven.
   BREAD, SOURNESS  IN.   (To  rectify.)
When the  dough has  become sour from the fer-
mentation proceeding too far, or the flour being of
inferior quality,  the addition of about  a \ oz. of
carbonate of magnesia, or a little carbonate of soda,
will remove it.   When it arises  from the sourness
of the yeast, this method is especially applicable.
   BREAD, STEAM-BAKED,  (a la  Vienne.)
It has been known for some time at Vienna, that
if the hearth of  an oven be  cleaned with a moisf-
ened wisp  of straw, bread  baked therein  imme-
diately afterwards presents a much better appear-
ance, the crust having a beautiful yellow tint.   It
was thence  inferred that this peculiarity must be
attributed to the vapor, which being condensed on
the roof of the oven, fell back on the bread.   At
Paris, in order to secure with certainty so desirable
an appearance, the following arrangement is prac-
tised :—The hearth of the oven is laid so as to form
an inclined plane, with a rise of about 11 inches in
3 feet, and the  arched roof  is built  lower  at the
end nearest the  door, as compared with the  far-
thest extremity.   When the oven  is charged, the
entrance is closed with a wet bundle of straw. By
this arrangement the steam  is driven down on the
bread, and a golden-yellow  crust is given  to the
bread, as if it  had been previously covered with
the yelk of an egg.  (Hbgen Correspondent, Sept.
27.  Ann. of Chym. and Prac. Pharm.)
  BREAD,  TO   SWEETEN,  (without  Su-
gar.)   It is not  generally known that pure  starch
added to flour and made into dough, will be par-
tially converted  into a  species of sugar during the
process of fermentation and  baking, and produces
sweet wholesome  bread.  From the experiments
of Dr. Colquhoun, it appears that  starch arrow-
root, farina of potatoes, or similar amylaceous sub-
stances, made into a jelly with hot water, may be 
BRE                    138                    BRE
employed for this  purpose with  advantage.   It is
only necessary to mix the flour up with the jelly,
instead of mere  water, to add yeast and  salt, and
to bake in the common way-  Dr. Percival has re-
commended .the addition of salep for this purpose.
1 oz. of salep dissolved in 1 quart of water ; 2 lbs.
of flour ;  80 grains of salt, and 2 oz. of yeast, gave
3 lbs. 2 oz. of good bread ; but the same weight of
materials, without the salep, gave only 2| lbs.  If
too  much salep  be added, however, it will give  its
flavor to  the bread.
  BREAD, WHITING'S,  (Patent.)   This is
made by dividing the dough into two  portions; to
the  one a little carbonate of soda is added, to the
other, a little dilute muriatid  acid ; they are both
well kneaded separately, then mixed   together,
formed into loaves, and  baked immediately.  No
yeast is used.
  BREATH, FCETID.  Scarcely any thing is
more  disagreeable or disgusting than a stinking
breath.   Various means have been proposed to re-
move this annoyance, depending principally on the
administration of aromatics, which  by their odor
might smother it for a time ; but these require con-
tinual  repetition, and are liable, to  interfere with
the  functions of digestion.  The real cause of a
stinking breath is either a diseased stomach or ca-
rious teeth; when the former is the case  aperients
should be administered ;  and if  these  do  not suc-
ceed, an emetic may be given, followed by a dose of
salts, or castor oil occasionally.  When rotten teeth
are  the cause, they should be removed; or, if this
be  impossible, they should  be kept clean.   Dirty
teeth often cause the breath to smell.  The use of
the tooth-brush  should be a daily  habit.  Occa-
sionally rinsing out the mouth with  a little clean
water, to which  a few drops of  a solution of  chlo-
ride of lime, or chloride of soda, has been added, is
an  effective method.   The following lozenges have
also been recommended:—
  Gum  catechu 2 oz.;  white sugar 4 oz.;  orris
powder 1 oz.; make them into a paste with mucil-
age, and add a drop or two of neroli.  One or two
may be sucked at pleasure.
  BREAKFAST POWDER.  Syn. Rye  Cof-
fee.  DlLLENIUs's  DITTO.   Hunt's   ECONOMICAL
Breakfast  Powder.  Rye  roasted along  with a
little fat.   Use.  As a substitute for foreign  coffee,
of which it is one of the  cheapest and best.
  BREE'S ANTI-ASTHMATIC  PLASTER.
Prep.  Simple diachylon  1 oz.;  powdered camphor
and powdered opium, of  each -J oz.; sweet oil ^ a
teaspoonful.  Proc.  Melt the plaster with  the oil,
then  remove the vessel from the fire, and  stir in
the powders; spread it  on  leather before  it gets
cold.   Remark.  It is better  made with  only half
the above quantity of opium.
  BREWING.   The art of making beer.
  General notice. Before entering on a description
of  the process  of brewing, it will  be necessary to
notice the apparatus and materials required for its
conduct.
    The apparatus consists of,
   1.  A copper or boiler capable of  holding fully
two-thirds of the quantity proposed to be brewed;
with a gauge-stick  to determine  the number of
gallons of fluid at any given depth therein.  A cop-
per holding about  140 gallons is a convenient size
for brewing a quarter of malt.
  2. A mash-tub, or tun, capable  of containing
rather more than tho copper.
  3. One or more tuns, or vessels, to ferment the
beer in.
  4. Three or four shallow coolers  to reduce the
wort as rapidly as possible to a proper temperature
for fermenting.
  5. One or two copper or wooden bowls, for bail-
ing, &c.
  6. A thermometer with  a scale reaching  from
zero to above the boiling point of water.
  7. A suitable number of casks (clean) to con-
tain the beer.
  8. One or more large funnels, or  tunners.
  9. Two or more clean pails.
  10. A hand-pump of a size proportionate to the
brewing.
  These articles will vary in value from .£10 up-
wards, to many hundreds, according  to the extent
of the brewing ; but the whole of them, necessary
for a privato family, may be bought for Itss  than
the former amount.  By proper care they will last
for 30 or 40 years, and  still be in a useful  state.
The place where these vessehi are kept, and the
operations carried on, is called the " Brewhouse."
  The materials necessary to brew beer are, good
malt, hops, and water,  and a  little yeast.
  The malt is bruised  or  crushed in a mill before
brewing, that  it may be acted on the more readily
by the water.   It should not be ground too small,
as it would then make the wort  thick ; the crush-
ed malt may advantageously lie for a few days in
a cool situation, by which it will attract a consider-
able quantity of moisture  from the air, and conse-
quently its soluble portion will be the moro  easily
dissolved out by the water used in mashing.   Pale
malt may be used coarser than  amber or brown
malt.  A bushel of malt should make a bushel and
a quarter when ground, and a quarter should yield
between 9£ and 10 bushels, the quantity slightly
varying according to the degree of bruising it has
undergone.  On the large scale, malt is ground in
crushing mills, furnished with  iron rollers ; and on
a small  scale, by wooden rollers  or small  mills
worked by hand.  For  private brewing, the  malt
is generally bought ready ground, for convenience
sake. (See Malt.)
   The hops should be those of the previous season,
and for general purposes  grown in Kent; but for
the finer sorts of malt liquor, East Kent hops should
be used;  and where it  is intended  to be kept for
some long  time, those known  by  the names of
Country's,  Alton's, or Farnham Hops  must be
employed.  The quantity of hops  required  to a
given  measure of malt varies from  2 lbs. to  8 lbs.
of the former, to 1 quarter of  the latter, according
to the  nature of the  brewing.   For good strong
beer, 4 lbs. or 4$ lbs. is usually sufficient, but when
the liquor  is very strong, and  it is intended to be
highly aromatic, aDd to be kept for a long period, 1
lb. of hops may be used to every bushel of malt, or
8 lbs. to the quarter.   Mild porter has about 3 lbs.
to the  quarter, and weak common  beer  has fre-
quently only about \ lb. of hops to the bushel of
malt.   A portion of hops  is also frequently added
to the finer sort of beer, after it is  casked, as we
shall presently explain.
   The water should be soft  and  clear, the  yeast
sweet and good, and all the vessels and casks both 
BRE                    139                    BRE
tweet and clean.  If this be not the case, with the
latter especially, the best brewing in the world will
be useless.
  Process of  brewing.   This may  be divided
into
  I.  7 he mashing.  This  operation  consists  in
placing the ground or bruised malt in  a large tub
or " tun," known  by the name of the " mash-tun,"
macerating it for some time in hot water, and lastly
drawing  off the wort from a  hole in the bottom,
over which a bunch  of straw, or a strainer, or false
bottom, is placed, to  prevent the malt  passing out
along with the liquor. During the process  of mash-
ing, a peculiar  principle, called by chemists dias-
tase, reacts  upon  the starch also contained  in the
malt, and converts it first into a species of gum,
called  by the French chemists  " dextrine," and
then into a species of sugar resembling that pro-
duced  by the action  of sulphuric  acid. The greater
the quantity of starch converted into sugar in this
way, the stronger and  finer will be the wort.  It
therefore becomes a desideratum with  the brewer
to mash at a temperature that will most fully pro-
mote this object.   It has been found that the best
temperature for this purpose  varies from 157° to
160°,  but when more than one liquor  is  used, the
first should  be  something lower than  the former,
the next  may be between the two, and  the third
may slightly exceed the latter, or be  about 165°
or 170°.  The action of the first  mash is merely
to extract the sugar contained in the malt already
formed ; that of  the second to convert the starch
into sugar by the action of the diastase ;  the third
to fully complete  this object, as well  as  to  carry
away  the remaining portions of extract.
   The mashing is usually performed by filling the
copper with water, and  as   soon* as  it acquires
the  temperature  of  145° in  summer,  or 167°  in
winter, 45 gallons are  run off into the mash-tun,
and 1  quarter of crushed malt gradually thrown in
and well mixed by laborious working,  until  it be-
comes thoroughly incorporated and no lumps re-
main ; the agitation is then continued  for 30 or  40
minutes, when  36 gallons of water from the  boiler,
at a temperature  of 200°, are added, and the whole
again  well agitated  until thoroughly mixed.   The
mash-tun is now closely covered up, and allowed
to stand for an hour or an hour and  a half.  At
the end of this time the tap is set, and the wort is
drawn off into tho  " underback," and generally
amounts to about 50 to 52 gallons: 60 gallons  of
water, at a temperature of 200°, aro next added to
tho  mash-tun,  previously drained well, and after
being well worked, the whole  is covered up as be-
fore.   This mash is allowed to remain for an hour,
when  it is drawn off, and the malt again drained
ready for the third mash.  This time only 35 gal-
Ions  of water are added at 200°,  and  allowed  to
stand for J an hour,  when it is run off in the same
manner as before, and the malt  allowed  to  drain.
The worts are now ready for boiling.
   In some cases only the first and second mash is
used for strong beer,  and the third kept for  table,
or as water to mash  a fresh quantity of malt with.
In Scotland  (see Scotch Ale)  the brewer only
mashes once, and afterwards washes his malt by
frequent showers or " sparges" of water, by which
he gets a wort of  greater strength in proportion  to
its quantity.   In operating as above, the average
or mean temperature of the first mash is 145°, of
the second 170°, and of the third 180°.  In win-
ter the  mean temperature may be reckoned as 6
or 7° lower.  A quarter of malt in this way will
produce a wort having a specific gravity by the
saccharometer of 1-234, or equal to 84 lbs. of ex-
tract.  (See Saccharometer.)
   It  is  calculated that 32  gallons of the water
employed in the mashing remain in the grains af-
ter the wort is drawn off.
   II. Boiling.   The  wort is next  transferred to
the copper, and heated to the boiling point as soon
as possible.  In large breweries where several cop-
pers are employed, the first mash is no sooner run
into the underback, than it is  transferred to the
wort copper, and immediately boiled, and the suc-
cessive  mashings added as soon as drawn off; but
in private-houses, where there is only one copper,
the boiling cannot be  commenced until the water
for the  last mashing  is removed.   In some cases
the worts are brewed separately, thus producing 2
or  3 qualities of beer,  viz.  strong ale or stout,
beer, and table beer.   No sooner has the boiling
commenced than the hops may be added, and the
boiling  continued for  2 or 3 hour« or more.  In
some breweries the beer is boiled for several hours,
and in  Belgium it is  said that this is even  con-
tinued for 10 or  12 hours, but too much boiling
drives off the flavor of the hops.  In general, two
hours good boiling will be  found  sufficient.  In
small brewings  the first wort  should be sharply
boiled for 1  hour, and the second for 2  hours.
But if intended for beer of long keeping, the  time
should be extended half an hour.  The hops should
be  strained from each preceding wort, and re-
turned  into the copper with the succeeding one.
Between  the boilings the fire should be damped
with wet  cinders, and the  copper door set open.
   For small-beer only half an hour  is necessary
for the  first  wort, 1 hour for the second, and 2
hours for the third.
   It  is  reckoned that  ^ to A_ part  0f the wort is
dissipated in steam during the process  of boiling,
but  this must of course depend altogether on the
evaporative power of the boiler and the length of
time the boiling is continued.
   III. Cooling.  The boiling being finished, the
wort is run off  from the copper  into the hopback,
which is  furnished with a strainer to keep back
the  hops.  It is then  pumped into large square
shallow vessels called  " coolers," where it is ex-
posed to a good current of air to cool it down to a
proper fermenting temperature  as  quickly as pos-
sible*.  This  is  of the  utmost  importance for the
success  of the brewing.  The wort  should be laid
so shallow as to cool  within 6 or 7 hours to the
temperature of about 60°.   In warm weather, the
depth should not  exceed 3 or 4  inches; but in
cold weather it may be 5 or 6 inches.  As soon as
the heat  has fallen to about 60°, it should be in-
stantly tunned and yeasted.
  It  is  reckoned that  by the joint  evaporation
from  the  boilers and  coolers, there  is a loss of
about 40 gallons per quarter.
  In private families  a good way is to bring the
wort from the copper in pails, and to  pour it into
a basket  or  a  hamper, set  over the coolers, by
which means the hops will be retained, and the
beer run through clear. 
BRE
140
BRE
  IV.  Fermentation.  Wrhen the  wort is suffi-
ciently cool, it is run into  the fermenting tuns or
vessels, which in small brewings may be casks,
with  one of their  heads  removed.   These  are
called " gyle tuns," and  should  not be more than
§ full.   The  yeast, previously mixed with a little
wort, and kept until this latter  has begun to fer-
ment, may now  be added, uud the whole agitated
well: the tun should then be covered up, until the
fermentation  is well established.   During this pro-
cess the temperature rises from 9° to 15°.
  The qup.i.tity  of yeast employed, and the tem-
perature of the  wort when  it is added, differ in
different breweries and for different kinds of beer.
From  £ to 1°;  of yeast, taken  from  a previous
brewing of the same kind of beer, is the quantity
usually employed.  The higher  the temperature
the less yeast necessary.   In England, the tem-
perature at which the  yeast  is usually  added,
varies  from 55° to 65° Fahr.   In cold weather,
the heats in the  coolers should be 5° or 6° higher
than in mild and warm weather.  For ale,  in cold
weather, it should be tunned as soon as it  has
fallen to 60° in the coolers.  For porter, to 64°,
and for table be.er to 70° ; and in warm weather,
strong beer should be 4° or 5° less, and  table beer
7°  or 8°.  Care should  be  also taken that  the
worts do not get cold before the  yeast  is mixed to
produce fermentation.  The common rule for mix-
ing the yeast is 1 £ lbs. to  every barrel of strong
beer wort, and 1 lb. to every barrel of table beer
wort.
  'The commencement of the fermentation is in-
dicated by a line of small bubbles round the sides
of the tun, which, in a short time, extends over
the surface.  A crusty head follows, and then  a
fine rocky one,  followed by  a light frothy head.
In the last stage, the head assumes a yeasty ap-
pearance, and the color is yellow  or brown,  the
smell of the  tun becoming strongly vinous.  As
60011 as this head begins to  fall,  the tun should be
skimmed, and the skimming continued every two
hours till  no more  yeast appears ; this closes the
operation, and the beer should  then be put into
casks, or, in technical  language, " cleansed."   A
minute  attention to  every stage of this process  is
necessary to  secure  a  fine  flavor and  a brilliant
beverage.
  In Scotland the temperature at which the yeast
is added, is generally much  lower than in Eng-
land ; for ale, it  is from 51° to 52°, and the whole
process is conducted in the cooler part of the year,
so that the temperature seldom rises higher than
65° or 66°.  The Bavarian beer, so much oele-
brated on the continent, as well as the finest kinds
of East India ale, are fermented at very low tem-
peratures.
  It may be generally regarded as a  rule, that
the lower the temperature, and  the slower, more
regular and less  interrupted the process of fermen-
tation, the better will be the product and the  less
likely to change  by age.  More  yeast  is required
in winter than in summer.   Should the  fermenta-
tion  become  slack in the v\ le tun, a  little more
yeast is frequently added, and the whole is roused
up ;  but on the  contrary, should  the temperature
rise considerably, or the fermentation become too
active,  the wort should be  cooled a  little and
skimmed, or at once cleansed.
  V.  Cleansing.   When the  fermentation  hat
proceeded to a certain extent,  the  liquor under-
goes the operation called " cleansing."  This con-
sists in drawing it off from the gyle tun into other
vessels, or casks, set sloping, so that  the yeast, as
it forms, may work off the one side of the top, and
fall into the vessel placed below to receive it.   In
small brewings, the beer is often at once trans-
ferred from the gyle tun to the store  casks, which
are sloped  a little until  the fermentation is over,
when they  are skimmed, filled, and bunged up.
When the operation of cleansing is not  employed,
the yeast is removed from the surface of the  gyle
tun with a skimmer, and the clear  liqua drawn
off into the store casks.
  The process of cleansing  should  always com-
mence as soon as the gravity of the  liquor falls to
10 or 11 lbs. per barrel, which it  usually does  in
about  48  hours,  provided the  fermentation has
been  well  conducted.  Some brewers  add $  to
J lb. of wheat or bean  flour to the beer in the
gyle-tun, shortly before cleansing, to quicken the
discharge of yeast, but it is not clearly ascertained
whether such a plan be advantageous or the con-
trary.
  VI.  Storing.   As  soon as  the  fermenta. on  is
concluded, which generally takes from 6 to 8 days,
or more, the clear liquor is drawn off into the store
casks, or  vats,  which  are  then  closely bunged
down, and deposited in a cool cellar.
  VII.  Ripening.  After a  period,  varying from
1 to 12 months, or  more, according to the nature
of the brewing, the liquor will have become fine,
and sufficiently ripe for use.  All the attention re-
quired during this interval, is to  look occasionally
to see that there  is no  leakage, and to open the
vent holes,  should any  oozings  appear between
the staves of the casks.
  VIII. Fining.   It frequently happens that malt
liquor, especially porter, with all  the care bestow-
ed upon it in brewing, will not turn out sufficiently
fine to meet the taste and eye  of the consumer,
in which case it is usually subjected  to the opera-
tion of " clarifying."  For this purpose 1 oz. of
isinglass is  put into  1 quart of weak vinegar,  or
still better, hard beer, and when dissolved, a suf-
ficient quantity of good  beer may be  added  to
make it measure  1  gallon.  This mixture is called
" finings;" 1 to  2 pints  of which  is the proper
quantity for a barrel.  The method of using it, is
to put  the finings into a bucket, and to gradually
add some  of the  beer,  until  the bucket is three
parts full, during which time it is violently agitated
with a whisk, and this  is continued until  a good
frothy head is raised upon  it, when it  is thrown
into the barrel  of beer, and the whole well rum-
maged up, by means of a large stick  shoved in  at
the bunghole.  In a few days the beer will usual-
ly become fine.
  In some bad sorts of beer isinglass will have no
effect.   This may be ascertained beforehand, by
trying some  in a long glass  tube, or vial, with a
little of the finings.  These should be well shaken
together, and then set aside for a short time, when
it will  be  found that the finings will rise to the
top, leaving the central portion of the beer clear,
if it be in a proper condition for clarifying; but if,
on the contrary, they sink to the  bottom, and the
liquor still keeps foul, no quantity of finings, how- 
BRE                   141                   BRE
ever great, will ever clarify it.   This latter defect
may be remedied by proceeding to fine it after the
manner  above described, and  then adding, after
the finings have been well  rummaged up, either 1
spoonful of oil of vitriol, or gum catechu, dissolved
in ^ a pint of warm water, again rummaging well
for a quarter of an hour.  Or 1 or 2 oz. of tincture
of catechu may be used instead, mixed with a lit-
tle water.  Either of these additions acts chemical-
ly on the finings, in  the same  way as good beer
does, precipitating them along with  the foulness,
and thus brightening  the liquor. The  addition of
a handful of hops, previously boiled  for 5 minutes
in a little of the beer, and then added to the barrel,
and the whole allowed to stand for a few days,
before proceeding to clarify it, will  generally have
the same effect.
   Concluding Remarks.   The nature and varie-
 ties of beer, cj-c.  The numerous varieties of beer
met with in commerce, arise either from a differ-
 ence in  the  materials, or the management of the
 brewing.  Thus the water, but more generally the
 nature  of the malt,  or the temperature of the
  lashing or the fermentation, decides the character
 of the liquor.  The  difference  between ale  and
 porter arises from  the color of  the  malt, and the
 distinctions between the same class  of liquor, brew-
 ed from similar  materials, may be referred to the
 mashing or the  fermentation.  Scotch  ale  and
 Bavarian  beer differ in style from other  ales, as
 before explained, from  being  fermented at lower
 temperatures; and porter differs  from either of
 these, because it has been made with higher dried
 malt.  This  is the cause of the  almost  endless
 varieties of malt  liquor  met  with  in England.
 Every countny—nay, every town and every brew-
 er, is distinguished by the  production of a different
flavored beer. Besides the varieties arising from
difference of quality or manipulation in the brew-
ing of similar kinds  of liquor,  there are  certain
leading features which distinguish  some of them,
which has led them to be  considered in the  light
of  distinct members of the same family.  These
are ale, beer, and porter.   Ale is  a pale liquor,
brewed from lightly-dried malt,  and is usually met
with, abounding in undecomposed saccharine mat-
ter and  mucilage ; beer is  a fine, strong, well-fer-
mented  liquor, darker,  less saccharine, and more
alcoholic than ale.   The  finer class  of Scotch,
Bavarian, and East India  ales,  properly belong to
this class;  porter is a  dark brown  colored liquor,
originally prepared from high-dried malt, but now
generally made from  pale malt, and colored and
flavored  by patent or  burnt malt.  Small or table
beer is a weak liquor,  containing 3  or 4 times  the
quantity of  water that is used for  ordinary beer.
Stout, brown stout,  &c. are varieties of  porter,
differing  only in their strength.   See Ale, Beer,
and Porter, in their alphabetical order.
   Qualities.  The characteristics  of good beer
are transparency and a fine color,  to whatever
variety it may belong  ;  and if it  has been properly
brewed, this will usually be the case.  Hence color
and transparency  become  a proof  of good beer.
Good beer is pleasant,  wholesome, and  nutritious,
at the same time  that it  is  strengthening and ex-
hilarating.
  Season for brewing.  The best  times of year
for browing are the spring and autumn, as at those
 periods the temperature of the air  is such as to
 permit the  cooling of the worts sufficiently low,
 without having recourse to artificial refrigeration,
 or the use of machinery for that purpose.
   Adulteration.   Laws respecting brewing, $c
 By the laws of England, which have existed, with
 slight modifications, ever since the days of Queen
 Anne, nothing is allowed to enter into the compo-
 sition of beer but malt and hops.  The cupidity of
 the  fraudulent brewer has, however,  frequently
 induced him  to introduce other ingredients with
 the view  of imparting a false strength to his liquor,
 or as a substitute for one or other of its constituents.
 Thus, to  impart bitterness, and to lessen the quan-
 tity of hops required for the beer, quassia, gentian,
 wormwood,  and broom-tops  have been used; to
 give pungency and flavor, capsicum, and grains
 of paradise,  (in concentrated, tinctures,)  ginger,
 corianders, orange-peel,  and  caraways; to give
 intoxicating properties—opium, cocculus indicus,
 nux  vomica, tobacco, extract of poppies and tinc-
 ture  of henbane; as a substitute f^r malt—molas-
 ses, coloring and sugar ; to impart i false appear-
 ance of age—sulphuric acid, alum, green vitriol,
 and  common  salt.   The  following is a list of the
 unlawful  substances  seized at different breweries,
 and  brewers' druggists' laboratories in London, as
 copied from the minutes  of  the committee of the
 House of Commons. " Cocculus indicus, mu I turn,
 (an  extract  of the  cocculus,) coloring, honey,
 hartshorn shavings,  Spanish juice, orange pow-
 der, ginger, grains of paradise, quassia, liquor-
 ice, caraway seeds,  copperas, capsicum, mixed
 drugs."
   Sugar  and coriander seeds  may be mentioned
 as a very common addition to beer.   It is said that
 6 lbs. of  the  former, and  1 lb. of  the latter, are
 equal in  strength   and intoxicating quality  to  a
 bushel of  malt.  The sugar is employed in a roast-
 ed state, for the sake of its color ; even coffee has
 been  used for this purpose.  Publicans generally
 reduce their strong  beer with water,  or table beer,
 and add treacle, (which they call "foots,") and a
 mixture of copperas, salt, and  alum, (which  they
 call " heading,") to make it bear a frothy  head,
 and in many cases, gentian, sugar, or other similar
 ingredients, are  added  to keep up an appearance
 of strength,  and to impart a flavor.
  The " cheap beer"  sold by some taverns in Lon-
 don, is made by dividing the contents of two butt9
 among three butts,  filling them up with water, and
 adding a  bladder of  porter  extract (technically
 termed p.  e.) to each.
  The desire of  evading the duty on malt, led to
 the discovery of its being  only necessary to  malt
 J or less of  the grain, this  portion being sufficient
 to convert the starch  of the other part into sugar,
 in the process  of mashing.  This plan answers well
 when the  wort is merely intended for the  produc-
 tion of "grain spirit," but beer so  made is infe
 rior in quality to that  brewed wholly from  malt
 Inferior kinds of beer have also been made  from
 other  ingredients than barley  malt; thus, the grain
 of other cereals  may  be used for this purpose, as
 wheat, oats,  &c, and many other vegetable sub
stances that contain starch and sugar.  Potatoes,
 turnips, beet  root, carrots, parsnips, and  other
similar roots and seeds, will  all produce  beer by
peculiar management, but the liquor must be con- 
BRI                     142                   BRO
fined to private consumption, as the law does not
permit its sale.   Some of the above  articles pro-
duce very wholesome  beer, if mashed with about
yl0- or A- of their weight of good barley malt.
  The densities of the worts employed for different
kinds of beer vary considerably, as will be seen
by the following table.

  Table exhibiting the densities of different kinds
                    of Beer.
Description.
Pounds per
  Barrel.
Specific Gravity.
40 to 43	1-111 to 1120
35 to 40	1-097 to 1-111
28 to 33	1-077 to 1-092
25 to 27	1-070 to 1-073
21	1-058
40 to 44	1*111 to 1*1-2-2
33 to 40	1-092 to 1-111
18	1-050
18 to 21	1-050 to 1-058
20 to 22	1-055 to 1-060
23	1004
26	1072
12 to 14	1-033 to 1-039
6	1-014
Burton Ale, 1st Class
  Do.      2d  "
  Do.      3d  "
Ordinary Ale  . .  .
Common Ale  . .  .
Scotch Ale, 1st Class
  Do.      2d  "
Porter (ordinary) .
  Do. (good)  . .
  Do. (double) .  .
Brown Stout   . .
  Do.    (best)  .
Table Beer .   . .
Table Beer (common
  BREWING UTENSILS, TO CLEAN AND
PRESERVE.   In cleaning them before being put
away, avoid the use of soap, or any greasy mate-
rial, and use only a brush and scalding water, be-
ing particularly  careful not to leave any yeast or
fur on the sides, then place them  away in a clean,
and moderately dry situation. Should they become
tainted  or  mouldy, take  a strong lye of pearlash,
which spread over the bottoms of the vessels scald-
ing hot, and then with the broom scrub the  sides
and other parts.
  Or, take common salt  and spread  it over the
coolers, &.c,  and strew some on their wet sides,
turn  in scalding  water  and  scrub them with  a
broom.
  Or, throw some quicklime into water in the ves-
sel, and scrub over the bottom  and  sides with it;
in each case  well washing afterwards  with clean
water.
  Or, wash well first with oil of vitriol diluted with
8 times its weight of water, and afterwards with
clean water.
  Remarks.  Brewing utensils with care will last
for many  years.   Mr. Cobbett says: " I am now
in a farm-house,  where the same  utensils  have
been used for forty years ; and the  owner tells me
that they  may last for forty years longer."
  BRINE, RED CABBAGE.   Prep. Steep red
cabbage leaves  in a strong solution  of salt.  Use.
As a test  for acids and alkalis.
  BRINE, VIOLET.   Prep.  The same as the
above, but made from the petals  of  the blue violet.
   BRIOCHE PASTE, (in Cookery.)  Prep., $c.
A paste made of eggs and flour,  fermented with a
. ttle yeast, to which a little salt, a  large quantity
of sugar, and half as much butter as the weight of
the flour  used, are afterwards  added and well
worked m.  Use. As an  addition to soup, a casing
for lobsters, patties, eggs, &c.
   BRITANNIA METAL.  Syn. Tutania.   A
fine species of pewter.
   Prep. Melt together equal parts of  plate brass,
bismuth, antimony, and  tin, and add the mixture
at discretion to  melted tin, until  it acquires tha
proper degree of color and hardness.
  II. To  the  last add  an equal part, or \ of its
weight of metallic arsenic.  To be used as before.
  III. Melt together 1 part  of antimony, 4 parts
of brass, and 5 or more parts of tin.  This may be
used at once, as Britannia metal.   (See Pewter.)
  BRITISH  GUM.   When starch is exposed to
a temperature of 300°, (Ure,) 600°, (Brande,) it
becomes brown, soluble in cold water, and  ceases
to strike a blue color with  iodine.  It is largely
employed by the calico printers, as a substitute for
gum.
  BRISTLES AND HORSE HAIR, TO DYE.
These readily take any of the usual dyes applied
to cotton or wool.
  BROMAL.  A  compound  discovered by  Lo.
wig, produced by the action of bromine on alcohol,
hence the name, from the first portion of the name
of each constituent.   (See Chloral.)
  BROMATES.   Compounds of the bases with
bromic acid, which see.  Char., Tests, <$rc.  When
heated they evolve oxygen, and become bromides;
with nitrate of silver and  the proto-salts of mer-
cury, they give white  precipitates; that with the
former is insoluble in nitric acid, but very soluble
in ammonia.  If a few drops of muriatic acid be
added to a bromate, and it be then shaken with a
little ether in a glass tube, a solution of bromine is
obtained.
  BROMBENZOIC  ACID.  A new  acid, dis-
covered by Peligot, and prepared by exposing ben-
zoate of silver to the vapors of bromine, until they
cease to be absorbed, when the acid is  dissolved
out with ether and obtained by evaporation.
   BROMIC ACID.  An acid composed of oxy-
gen and brome.
  Prep.  Add sulphuric acid to a solution of bro-
mate of  baryta,  until all the earth be  thrown
down,  particularly  avoiding an  excess  of  acid;
then concentrate the liquor by heat, until it be of
the consistence of a sirup.
   Prop. If the evaporation be carried too far, the
acid  will be* decomposed.  This  acid forms  salts
with the  bases, called bromates, which are  very
similar to the chlorates and iodates.  Bromate of
potassa may be made by agitating bromine with a
concentrated solution of caustic potassa, collecting
the  crystalline white powder that  falls down, and
purifying it by solution in boiling water, and crys-
tallization.  Bromate of silver is formed by adding
a solution of  bromate of potassa to another of ni-
trate of silver.
   BROMIDE.  A compound form of a  base and
bromine.   (See Bromine.)
   Char,  and Tests.   The soluble bromides  give
white precipitates with nitrate of silver, acetate of
lead, and protonitrate  of mercury.   That from the
first of these is insoluble in ammonia water, unless
concentrated.   A few drops of  liquid chlorine
poured upon a bromide, and the mixture agitated
with a little sulphuric ether, yields  an ethereal so-
lution of bromine.
   BROMIDE  OF AMMONIA, may be formed
by  the mixture  of ammoniacal and  hydrobromic
 acid gases, or liquid hydrobromic  acid and liquor
of  ammonia, or by putting bromine into water of
 ammonia.
   Prop.  This salt may be obtained by evaporation 
BRO                    143                    BRO
in the form of solid white prismatic crystals.  It is
volatile and easily decomposed.
  BROMIDE  OF  CARBON.   (Discovered  by
M.  Serullas.)  Prep.  Brome 2  parts;  periodide
of carbon 1 part,  mix; just enough solution of  po-
tassa is added to  make the liberated iodine disap-
pear.  The liquid bromide of carbon, which col-
lects at the bottom of  the solution, is then separa-
ted from the supernatant portion, and allowed to
Btand until it becomes clear.  A few crystals of j
iodide of potassium rise to the surface, and may be
removed.  The clear liquid is then put into a little
water slightly alkalized with  potassa, to remove a
little remaining iodide of carbon, after which it is
quite pure.
  BROMIDE OF  IODINE.  Bromine and io-
dine unite rapidly by mere  mixture.  By careful
distillation a red vapor is obtained, which,  on cool-
ing, condenses into  red crystals,  of  a form resem-
bling fern leaves. This is said to be the protobro-
mide.   By adding  more bromine,  these  crystals
are converted into a  fluid, said to be the bibromide.
   BROMIDE OF  SULPHUR. This is made by
dissolving sublimed sulphur in bromine ; it is a red-
dish,  oily-looking fluid,  easily decomposed, espe-
cially by water.
   BROMINE.  Syn.  Brome.   An elementary
substance, discovered  by M.  Balard, of Montpel-
lier, in 1826.
   Prep. A current of chlorine  is passed through
the uncrystallizable  residuum of sea-water, called
bittern,  which then  assumes an orange  tint, in
consequence of  bromine being  set  free  from its
combinations; sulphuric ether  is  then   agitated
with it,  and the  mixture is allowed to stand until
the ethereal portion, holding  the bromine  in solu-
tion, floats upon  the surface.   This is then care-
fully decanted, and  agitated with a  solution of  po-
tassa, by which  means bromide  of  potassium and
bromate  of potash are  formed.
   The whole is  next  evaporated to dryness, and
submitted to a dull red heat;  the residuum is then
powdered, mixed with pure  peroxide of  manga-
nese, and placed in a retort; sulphuric  acid, di-
luted with half its weight of water,  is now poured
in.   Red vapors  immediately arise, and condense
into drops of bromine, and are collected by plung-
ing the. neck of the  retort to the  bottom of a small
receiver, containing cold  water.   The   bromine
forms a  stratum  beneath the water, and  may be
collected and further  purified, by distillation from
dry chloride of calcium.
  Prop., Use, <J-e.  A dark, reddish-colored liquid,
having an odor resembling chlorine.  It freezes at
—4°, boils at 116-5°, is about 3 times as heavy as
water, is very soluble  in ether, less  so in  alcohol,
and only slightly so  in water.  With hydrogen it
forms hydrobromic acid, and with the bases, com-
pounds called bromides, or hydrobromates.  It pos-
sesses similar medicinal  properties to iodine, and
has been administered in goitre, scrofula, &c, in
the form of  an aqueous solution, composed of 1
part of bromine to 4 of water; 5 or 6 drops being
the dose. This solution has also been used as a
lotion.
   Tests  and Antidotes.  The solution of chloride
of gold gives a red tinge with hydrobromic acid, or
an electro-positive hydrobromate.
  When bromine exists in  an organic  mixture,
caustic potassa should be added to the mass, which
should then  be reduced to an ash, exhausted by
distilled  water, and chlorine  passed through the
solution, or the chloride of gold added to it, pre-
viously carefully neutralized by hydrochloric  acid.
When chlorine is  used, starch  may render the
presence of the element more  perceptible.   Nitrate
of silver is also a delicate test, where the bromine
is not mixed with  chlorine ;  the  bromide  of silver
is distinguished from  the chloride by heating with
hydrochloric acid and chlorite of lime, when ruddy
fumes are  evolved, if bromine is present.
   M. Barthez  has proposed magnesia as  an  anti-
dote  for bromine.  From  several experiments,  it
appears  that the bromide  of  magnesium  is by no
means an active salt;  neither is it inert.  From
experiments performed on   rabbits, I  conclude
starch in solution, and white of egg, to be excel-
lent antidotes to the poison. (Dr. Glover, Med. and
Sur.  Jour., No. 152.)
   BROMINE, CHLORIDE OF.   Prep. Trans-
mit a current of dry chlorine  through brome, and
condense the disengaged vapors in  a receiver sur-
rounded  with ice.  Prop.  A volatile reddish fluid,
soluble in water, without decomposition.
   BRONCHITIS.   An inflammation of the mu-
cous  lining of the bronchia, or smaller ramifications
of the windpipe.  In its milder form it is common-
ly called " a cold on  the chest."
   Symp.  Hoarseness, dry cough,  a slight degree
of fever, followed by expectoration of mucus, at
first thin, and  afterwards thick and copious.  In
the severer forms, there is  more fever, cough, and
oppression  at the chest, &c.
   Treat.  The generality of cases  of bronchitis
yield to small and repeated doses of ipecacuanha,
and  antimonial diaphoretics, at the same  time
adopting a light diet, and keeping the bowels open
with  mild purgatives.
   BRONZE.  A metallic alloy, composed  prin-
cipally of tin and copper,  remarkable for the ex-
actness  of  the  impressions  which  it takes  by
moulding, as well as its durability ;  and hence, ex-
tensively employed  in the casting of busts, medals,
and statues.   Bell, cannon, and  speculum metal
are varieties of bronze.  In  ancient times, when
the manufacture of steel was ill-understood, cut-
ting  instruments were frequently made of this al-
loy.   For statuary work, the great  desideratum is
to obtain an alloy capable of flowing freely into
the most minute outlines of the mould, hard, and
yet tough,  and capable of  resisting  the corroding
action of the weather.   It must  also acquire that
peculiar  antique green appearance, that is so
much admired  in bronzes.
  When only a small quantity of the alloy is re-
quired, it is prepared in crucibles,  but for statues
or larger works, on reverberatory  hearths.  The
fusion of the  mixed metals  must be  conducted un-
der pounded  charcoal, and as rapidly as  possible.
When melted, it must bo frequently stirred togeth-
er to produce  a perfect mixture, before  casting.
Coal  is the fuel principally employed for the fur-
naces.
  The proportions of the materials so vary in dif-
ferent castings, that it is almost  impossible to say
precisely what  quantities  are  the best.  The fol-
lowing may be  regarded as good specimens.  (See
also Cannon, Bell, and Speculum  Metal.) 
BRO                    144                    BRO
   BRONZE, (FOR STATUARY.)   I. Copper
 SS parts ; tin 9 parts; zinc 2 parts;  lead 1 part.
   II. Copper f-'i parts; tin 5 parts; zinc  10J
 parts; lead 2 parts.   These are very  nearly  the
 proportions in the celebrated statue of Louis XV.
   III.  Copper 90 parts ;  tin 9 parts ; lead 1 part.
   IV. Copper 91 parts; tin 9 parts.
   BRONZE, (FOR MEDALS.)   I. Copper 89
 parts ; tin 8 parts; zinc 3 parts.   Remarks. This
 metal assumes a beautiful antique appearance by-
 age, and takes a good impression by stamping.
   II.  Copper 95  parts;  tin 4 or 5 parts.   These
 are the proportions recommended by M. Chaudet,
 who casts it  in moulds made of bone-ash,  like cu-
 pels, and afterwards finishes and polishes the med-
 als in a coining press.  This  is also  excellent for
 any small castings.
    BRONZE,   (FOR  CUTTING  INSTRU-
 MENTS.)   Copper 100 parts ;  tin 14 parts.
   Remarks.   M. Dussaussy says  that the  above
 alloy, when  hardened and tempered after the man-
 ner of the ancients, will yield an  edge nearly equal
 to that of steel.  Several analyses have been made
 of  ancient cutting instruments, whence it  appears
 that the proportion of tin varies from  4 to 15 per
 cent., which tends to prove that more  depends on
 the exact mode of tempering the  alloy, than  on
 the relative  quantities of the ingredients.  Zinc
 and tin are inadmissible in bronze for this purpose.
 One or 2 per cent, of iron might, nevertheless, be
 added with advantage.  The ancient bronze used
 for springs,  contained only 3 to  4  per cent,  of
 tin.
   BRONZE, (FOR MORTARS.)   Copper  93
 parts ; lead  5 parts ; tin 2 parts.
   Remarks.  The edges and lips of  mortars must
 be  tempered by heating them to  a cherry red, and
 then plunging them into cold water; as unless so
 treated, they are very apt to be broken.
   BRONZE, (FOR ORNAMENTAL WORK,
 TO BE GILDED.)  I.  Copper 82 parts;  zinc
 18  parts  ; tin 3 parts ; lead 2 parts.
   II. Copper 83 parts; rrinc 17 parts;  tin 1 part;
 lead if part.
   BRONZE POWDERS.   I.  (Beautiful red.)
 Prep. Mix together sulphate of copper 100 parts ;
 carbonate of soda 60 parts ;  apply  heat until they
 unite into a  mass, then cool, powder, and add cop-
 per filings 15 parts;  well  mix, and keep them at
 a white heat for twenty minutes, then cool, pow-
 der, and  wash and dry.
  II.   (Gold colored.)  Prep. a. Verdigris 8 oz.;
 tutty powder 4 oz.; borax  and nitre, of each 2 oz.;
 bichloride of mercury \  oz.;  make  them  into a
 paste with oil, and fuse them  together.  Used  in
 japanning as a gold  color.
  b. Dutch leaf reduced to an impalpable  powder
 by grinding.
  III.  (Iron colored.)   Plumbago finely  pow-
 dered.
  IV.  (Silver white.) Prep. Melt together 1 oz.
each of bismuth and  tiri, then add 1 oz. of running
quicksilver ;  cool and powder.
  BRONZING  OF  MEDALS, AND ORNA-
MENTS OF COPPER, ELECTROTYPES,
&c.  Proc.   I.  Having thoroughly  cleaned and
polished the surface of the specimen, with a brush
apply  the common  crocus  powder,  previously
made into a  paste with water.   When dry,  place
it  in  an iron ladle, or on  a common  fire-shovel,
over  a  clear fire for about 1 minute ; and when
sufficiently  cool, polish with  a plate-brush.  By
this process a bronze similar to that on tea-urns is
produced ;  the shade depending upon the duration
of the exposure to the fire.  (Chemist, iii. 49.)
   II. By substituting finely-powdered  plumbago
for crocus powder in  the above process, a beauti-
ful, deep,  and permanent  bronze  appearance is
produced.
   III. Rub the medal with a solution of livers of
sulphur, or sulphuret of potassium, then dry. This
produces the appearance of antique bronze very
exactly.
   IV. Dissolve 2 oz. of verdigris  and 1 oz. of sal
ammoniac  in  1 pint of  vinegar, and  dilute the
mixture  with water until it tastes but slightly me-
tallic, when it must be boiled for a few minutes,
and  filtered for use.  Copper medals,  &c.,  pre-
viously thoroughly cleaned from  grease and  dirt,
are to be steeped in the liquor at the boiling point,
until the desired effect is produced.  Care must be
taken not  to  keep them in the solution too long.
When taken out, they should be carefully washed
in  hot water, and well dried.   Gives an antique
appearance.
   V.  (Chinese method.)  Make a paste with 2 oz.
each  of  verdigris and vermilion; 5 oz.  each of
alum  and sal ammoniac,  all  in fine powder, and
vinegar q. s.; then spread it over the  surface of
the copper, previously well  cleaned and bright-
ened, uniformly warm the article by the fire, and
afterwards  well wash and dry it, when, if the tint
be not deep enough, the process may be repeated.
The addition of a little  blue vitriol inclines the
color  to  a  chesnut brown, and a little borax to a
yellowish brown.  Much employed by the Chinese
for copper tea-urns.
   VI. Dissolve 1 oz. of sal ammoniac, 3 oz. cream
of  tartar, and 6  oz. of common salt, in 1 pint of
hot water; then add 2 oz. of nitrate  of copper, dis-
solved in J a pint of water; mix  well,  and apply
it repeatedly to the article,  placed in a damp sit-
uation, by means of a brush moistened therewith.
Effect  Very antique.
   VII.  Salt of sorrel -J oz.; sal ammoniac  1 oz.;
distilled vinegar 2^ pints ;  dissolve.  As last.
   BRONZING,  SURFACE. This term is ap-
plied to  the process of imparting to the surfaces of
figures of wood,  plaster of  Paris, &c,  a  metallic
appearance.  This is done by first giving them a
coat of oil or size varnish, and when this is nearly
dry, applying with a  dabber of cotton or a camel-
hair pencil, any of the metallic bronze  powders;
or  the powder may  be placed in a little bag of
muslin,  and dusted over the  surface,  and after-
wards finished off with a wad of linen.  The sur-
face must be afterwards varnished.
   Paper is bronzed by mixing the  powders up with
a little gum and water, and afterwards burnishing.
   Iron  castings may be  bronzed  by thorough
cleaning, and subsequent immersion in a solution
of  sulphate of copper, when they acquire a coat of
the latter metal.  They must be then washed in
water.
   BROOM ASHES.  Prep. Burn  broom stallu
and collect  the ashes.   Sometimes used as a diure-
tic in  dropsy.
  BROOM COFFEE.   Broom seeds,  roasted 
BRO                   145                    BRO
with a little butter and then ground.   ITsc.  As a
substitute for coffee.
  BROOM, SALT OF.  Obtained by dissolving
broom ashes  in water,  filtering and evaporating.
Remarks. Antacid, consists principally of carbon-
ate of potassa.   Sometimes used in dropsy.
  BROTH, (in Cookery.) ' The liquor in which
meat is boiled ; it is distinguished from soup by its
inferior strength  and quantity of seasoning, &c.
The general method of preparing broth is similar
to that of soup, to which article the reader is re-
ferred.
  BROWN DYE.   The different  shades  of this
dye, vary from pale yellow and reddish brown,  up
to very dark brown, almost black, every shade of
which, however, may bo produced as the taste of
the workman lhay dictate, by mixtures of reds and
yellows with blues  and blacks, or by simple dyes,
which at once  impart a brown,—as catechu, wal-
nut rinds, or oxide of manganese.
  I. (For  Wool.)   a. Boil the  cloth in a mordant
of alum, and common salt dissolved in water, then
dye  it in a bath of logwood, to which a little green
copperas has been added.  The proportion of alum
should be 2 oz., and of salt 1 oz., to every pound
of cloth.
  li.  Boil the goods in a mordant of alum and sul-
phate of iron,  then wince them  through a bath of
madder.  Remarks.  The tint depends on the rel-
ative proportions  of the alum and copperas; the
more of the latter, the darker will be the dye. The
joint weight of the two should not exceed $ of the
weight of the wool.  The  best  proportions  are 2
parts of alum  and 3 of copperas.
  y.  Give  the wool a mordant of alum and tartar,
then pass it through a madder bath, which will dye
it red.  It  must now be run through a black bath
of galls and sumach,  or logwood, to which a little
acetate or sulphate of iron has been added.
  o". Proceed to mordant the cloth as last, and dye
in a madder bath, then remove  it and add a little
acetate or sulphate  of  iron,  and  again pass it
through  the bath, until the required tint  is pro-
duced.
  t.  Give the cloth a light blue ground with indigo,
then give it a  mordant with alum, wash  in water,
and run it through a bath of madder.
  f,. Give the  cloth a mordant of alum and tartar,
then pass it through a madder bath,  and afterwards
through a bath of weld or fustic, to which a  little
iron  liquor has  been previously added. In this way
every shade from  mordore' and cinnamon to dark
chesnut may be dyed.
  V-  Boil 1 lb. of fustic chips for 2 hours, and pass
the cloth through  the bath for  1 hour,  take  it out
and drain, then add 1-J oz. of green copperas, and
J lb.  of good  madder,  and pass the cloth  again
through the bath, until the proper tint is produced.
This  makes bronze browns, but by varying the
proportion  of the  mordant, other shades may  be
produced.
  II. (For Silk.)   a. Give the  silk a mordant  as
before described, then dye in a bath made by mix-
ing the equal parts of decoction of logwood, fustic,
and  Brazil wood.  The shade may be varied by
mixing  the decoctions  in  different  proportions.
Brazil wood reddening, logwood darkening, and
fustic yellowing, the tint.
  0. Dissolve 4 oz. of annotto and  1 lb. of pearl-
                      19
ash in boiling water, and pass the silk through it
for 2 hours, then  take it out, squeeze  it well and
dry; next give it  a mordant  of alum, and pass it
first  through a  bath of Brazil wood, and  after-
wards through a bath of logwood, to which a little
green copperas has been added ; wring it out and
dry ; afterwards rinse well.
   III. (For  Cotton  and Linen.)   a.  Give the
pieces a mixed mordant of acetate of alumina and
acetate  of iron,  and then dye them in a bath
of madder, or madder and fustic.  When the ace-
tate of alumina  predominates,  the dye  has an
amaranth tint.  The iron darkens it.
   0. First  gall the goods,  then turn them  for a
short time through a black bath, next give them a
mordant of sulphate of copper,  and  pass  them
through a decoction of fustic, afterwards  through
a bath of madder, and again  through the  solution
of sulphate of  copper;  drain, dry, and rinse well,
then finish with a boil in soap and water.  This
gives  a chesnut brown.
   y. First give a  mordant of alum, then pass the
goods through a madder bath, and next through a
bath of  fustic, to  which a little green copperas has
been added.  This gives a cinnamon brown.
   Remarks.  Browns  may be also dyed  at  once,
by what are  called  substantive  or direct dyes;
thus—
   I. Decoction of oak bark dyes  wool a fast
brown of various shades, according to the quantity
employed.  If  the cloth be first passed through a
mordant of alum, the color is brightened.
   II.  Infusion or decoction of walnut peels dyes
wool and silk'a brown, which, like the preceding,
is  brightened by alum.  The older the liquor the
better.
   III.  Horse-chesnut  peels  also give a brown.
A mordant of muriate of tin turns it on the bronze,
and sugar of lead  the reddish brown.
   IV. Catechu, or terra japonica, gives cotton a
brown dye ; blue vitriol turns  it on the bronze, and
green copperas darkens  it, when applied as a mor-
dant, and the stuff dyed in the bath  boiling hot.
Acetate  of alumina  as a  mordant  brightens it.
The French  color, called  " carmelite," is  given
with 1 lb. of catechu, 4 oz. of verdigris, and 5 oz.
of sal  ammoniac.
  V. Sulphate or  muriate of manganese, dissolved
in  water with a little tartaric acid, gives the bronze
tint called "solitaire."   The  stuff,  after  being
passed through the solution, must be turned through
a weak lye of potash,  and afterwards through an-
other of chloride of lime, to brighten and fix it.
  VI. Prussiate  of copper gives a bronze or yel-
lowish-brown to silk.   The piece well  mordanted
with blue vitriol, may be passed through a solution
of prussiate of potash.
  BROWN  PIGMENTS.   The  principal and
most useful of these are, umber and terra di sienna,
both burnt and raw.   Brown  may also be made of
almost any shade, by the admixture of blacks with
reds and yellow,  or with greens, in different pro-
portions.
  BROWNING, (in  Cookery.)  A fluid prepar-
ation used to color and flavor  gravies, soups, &c.
  Prep.  I. Melt  4 oz. of sugar in a frying-pan, or
other  convenient  vessel, with water, add  1 oz. of
butter, and continue the heat until the  whole k
turned quite  brown;  then  pour in 1 pint of poll 
BRU                    146                   BUG
mne, stirring well  all the time, and remove  the
pan from the fire.  When the whole of the roasted
sugar is dissolved,  pour it into a bottle, and add 4
oz. each of bruised pimento and  black pepper ;  6
shalots cut small;  a little mace  and finely-grated
lemon-peel;  and a quarter of a pint of mushroom
catsup.   Digest for a week, occasionally shaking;
then strain through a piece of muslin, and preserve
for use.
  II. Instead of port wine use water, and add  a
glass of spirits.
  III. Sugar coloring  1  pint; salt \ lb.;  mush-
room catsup $ pint;  add spice.
  IV. Lump  sugar  (powdered)  2£ lbs.;  salad oil
i lb.; heat  in an iron vessel until quite brown,
then add port wine  1 quart ;  Cape wine 3 quarts ;
shalots 6 oz.; mixed spice 4 oz.; black pepper 3
oz.;  mace  1 oz.; salt £ lbs.; lemon juice £ pint;
catsup 1 quart.
  V. Good spirit, or sugar coloring, and mushroom
catsup, of each 1 gal.; Jamaica pepper, black pep-
per, and shalots, of each 4 oz.; cloves, cassia, and
mace,  bruised, of each  £ oz.; boil in a covered
vessel for 5 minutes, then digest for 14 days, and
strain.
  BROWNING FOR GUN BARRELS. Prep.
I. Mix 1 oz. each  of aquafortis  and  sweet spirits
of nitre ; 4 oz. of powdered  blue vitriol;  2 oz. of
tincture of iron, and water, 1£ pint; agitate until
dissolved.   Use. Rub this on the barrel, previously
well polished, and afterwards cleaned off with whi-
ting to remove the oil.  Let it remain till the next
day, then rub it off with a stiff brush.  The liquid
may be again applied until  a proper color is  pro-
duced.  When this is the  case, wash in  pearlash
water, and afterwards in clean water, and then
polish, either with  the  burnisher or with bees-
wax ; or apply a coat  of shellac varnish. (See
below.)
  II. Blue  vitriol  and sweet spirits  of nitre,  of
each, 1 oz.;  water 1 pint; dissolve as last.
  III. Mix equal parts of butter of antimony and
rrweet oil, and apply the mixture to the iron pre-
viously warmed.
  Remarks.  The varnish used for gun barrels, af-
ter  they  are bronzed, is made by dissolving 1 oz.
of shellac  and  one  or two drachms of dragon's
blood, in  a  quart of  alcohol;  and filtering the so-
lution through blotting paper into a bottle, which
must be kept closely corked.
  BRUCINE.  Syn. Brucia.   Brucina.  Vomi-
cina.  A vegetable  alkali, discovered by Pelletier
and  Caventou,  in  the bark of  the  Brucia anti-
dysenterica, and afterwards combined with  strych-
nia in nux vomica.
  Prep.  Digest ether on  the powdered bark of
brucia antidysenterica, to separate a fatty matter ;
Btrain, add  alcohol  at 36° Baume; digest, filter,
evaporate to dryness; dissolve the mass in water,
add  liquid  6ubacetate of  lead; filter, pass sulphu-
reted hydrogen gas through the clear liquor; filter
again, and add calcined magnesia;  filter again,
wash the sediment  very slightly with cold water,
dry, digest in alcohol, filter, and distil  off the spirit.
To  purify  the brucine, add a solution  of oxalic
acid, crystallize, add a mixture of alcohol  at  40°
Baume, and ether at 60°, to extract  the  coloring
matter, then dissolve the  oxalate  of brucine  in
water, add calcined magnesia,  filter; digest the
sediment in alcohol, filter, and let the spirit evap.
orate by exposure to the air.
  Prop., Use, $c.  'The crystals thus obtained are
soluble in 850 parts of cold and 500 parts of boil-
ing water.  When added to  the dilute acids until
they  are  neutralized, brucia forms  crystallizable
salts, easily obtained by evaporation.   Of  these,
the sulphate and  bisulphate, the  muriate,  phos-
phate, nitrate and  binitrate, acetate, oxalate, and
some others have been examined.   Most of  these,
especially the first three or four, are very soluble
in water.   Its physiological effects  are similar to
strychnia, but it is said  to possess only ^ of the
strength of that alkali.  According to Dr.  Fuss
and Professor Erdeman, it  is not a  distinct alka-
loid, but a compound of strychnia and resin.  Dose.
i gr. to 2 or 3 grs. daily, in the fsjrm of pills or
solution.  It is given in similar cases to those for
which strychnia is prescribi<l: viz.  paralysis, im-
potence, and other affections »f the nervous sys-
tem.  It is a violent poison.  Its antidotes are the
same as those for strychnia.   Tests.  Nitric acid
gives it a fine red color, which is removed by sul-
phureted  hydrogen and sulphurous acid.  Iodic
acid,  chloric acid, and chlorine, also turn it red.
  BRUCINE, PILLS  OF.  Prep. Brucia 2
grains; conserves  of roses and  liquorice powder,
of each, 1 scruple; mix and divide into 16 pills.
Dose.  1 to  6 daily, at first,  gradually increasing
the dose.
  BRUISES.   Treat. These may be rubbed with
a little  opodeldoc  or soap  liniment; or if the in-
flammation be considerable,  they may be washed
with a little weak  goulard water, or leeches may
be applied to the part.
  BRYONIN.   A peculiar bitter  principle, ex-
tracted from the white bryony or mandrake root
It is  obtained  from the expressed  juice by  filtra-
tion, evaporation to dryness, and re-solution in al-
cohol.  It is a drastic purgative and poisonous.  It
forms a yellowish white mass.
  BUBBLE  AND  SQUEAK,  (in  Cookery.)
Prep. Cut  slices from  a cold round of beef; let
them be fried  quickly until brown, and put them
into a dish to keep hot.   Clean the  pan from the
fat;  put into it  greens and  carrots previously
boiled and chopped small;  add a little butter, pep-
per, and salt; make them very hot, and put them
round the beef  with a  little gravy.  Cold  pork
boiled is a better material for bubble and squeak
than beef, which is  always  hard;  in  either case
the slices should be very thin and lightly fried.
   BUGS.  Various means have been  proposed to
drive away these noctural marauders and enemies
of " tired nature's sweet  restorer, balmy sleep.'
Among the most  certain  of these  is  cleanliness.
The  furniture brokers put articles  infested with
this insect population into  a room with doors and
windows  fitting quite close,  when they subject
them to the fumes of burning sulphur or chlorine
In  the small  way,  poisonous mixtures are fre-
quently resorted to, with  which the articles are
washed.  The following form is that usually em-
ployed :—
   Corrosive sublimate and muriatic acid, of each,
1 oz.; water 4 oz.  Dissolve, then  add turpentine
and decoction of  tobacco, of each, | of a pint
Mix.
   ***  For the  decoction of tobacco, boil 2 oz. of 
BUR                   147                   BUT
tobacco in a pint of water.   This mixture must
be applied with  a paint brush.   Caution. This
wash is a " deadly poison.'"
  The following  extract may be of assistance to
persons interested in the matter:—"These pests
exist only  in dirty houses.  A careful housewife or
servant will soon  completely destroy them.  The
surest method of  destruction is to  catch them in-
dividually when  they attack  the  person in bed.
When their bite  is  felt, instantly rise  and light a
candle and  capture them.  This may be trouble-
some, but if there be not  a great number, a few
nights will finish them.  When there is a large
number, and they have gained a lodgment in the
timbers, take the bed in pieces, and fill in all the
apertures  and joints with a  mixture of soft soap
and  Scotch snuff.   A piece of wicker-work, called
a bug-trap, placed at the head of the bed, forms a
receptacle for them, and then they may be daily
caught till  no more are  left.  Fumigations are
very dangerous, and rarely effectual, therefore at-
tempt no such  project.  Oil-painting a wall  is a
sure means of  excluding and destroying them."
(Chamber's Information for the People, No. 91, p.
653.)
   BUNION.  Cause  and Treat.  The bunion,
or swelling on  the ball of the  great  toe, is pro-
duced by the same cause as the corn—pressure
and irritation by friction.  The  treatment recom-
mended for corns will succeed in cases of bunions ;
but  in consequence  of the greater extension of the
disease, the cure of course is more tedious.  When
a  bunion is commencing, it may be  effectually
stopped by  poulticing,  and then opening with a
lancet;  but this requires caution, and should be
performed with care.
   BUNS.  Prep.  I. (Cross Buns.)  To  flour 2$
lbs., add sifted sugar \ lb., and a little coriander
seed, cassia, and mace, powdered fine, then make
a paste with butter £ lb., dissolved in hot  milk £ a
pint, work in 3 tablespoonfuls of yeast and a little
salt; set it before the fire for an hour to rise, then
make it into buns, and again set them before the
fire  on a  tin for half an hour; lastly, brush them
over with warm  milk,  and bake them to a nice
brown in  a moderate oven.
   II. (Madeira.)   Butter 8  oz.;  2  eggs ;  flour
1  lb.;  powdered sugar 6 oz.; half  a  nutmeg,
grated ; powdered ginger and caraway seeds, each
1 teaspoonful; work well together, then add sherry
wine 1 glassful,  and as much  milk as required.
Bake in tins in a quick  oven.
   III. (Plain.)  a.  Flour 2  lbs.;  butter  \  lb.;
sugar 6 oz.;  a  little salt, powdered caraway  and
ginger; make a paste with yeast, 4 spoonfuls, and
warm milk  a sufficient  quantity, then proceed as
in No. I.
   b. To the last add currants, well washed, £ lb.
   IV.  (Rich.)  Dried and warm flour 3 lbs.; pow-
dered sugar 1 lb.; butter 2£ lbs., melted and beat
with rose water  4 oz.; form into  a light  paste,
with £ of  a pint of yeast, and place it  for an hour
to rise, then add a little  candied lemon  and orange
peel, and  1  lb.  of currants, and make the  whole
into buns; set them before the fire for*40 minutes,
then wash them over with milk, and  put a little
grated peel and a few caraway comfits on the top
of each.
   BURGLARIES, TO PREVENT.   " In  ad-
dition to the usual precautions of locks and boltSj
alarum  bells and firearms, three things have been
found efficacious in preserving houses from nightly
depredators.  1st. A  light in the upper part of
the house.  2d.  A small  dog, in  a  room  on the
ground floor, which offers the means of its running
into a place of safety from its enemies: not to be
fed too  high, and allowed to sleep  by day.   3d.
Some ashes fresh from the fireplace spread before
the door, underneath the  window or other place.
Thus the thieves' shoes will creak, the dog will be
roused and bark, and the  fear of detection by the
approach of the  light, will deter rogues of common
feeling.   At least, should they enter, the dog can-
not be readily come at to be slain ; and the scuffle
occasioned by effecting this  necessary prelude  to
robbery, will, in almost all cases, promote inter-
ruption  from within or without."
   BURNS AND SCALDS.  These are too well
known to require description.
   Treat. When the  injury is merely superficial, a
little creosote may be applied to the part, and if it
be a scald, the vesicle may be first pierced with a
needle,  and the aqueous fluid gently squeezed out.
When creosote  is not to  be procured, a liniment
formed with equal parts of soft soap, basilicon oint-
ment, oil of turpentine and water may be used in-
stead.   When the part is very hot and painful, a
poultice may be  applied, on the  surface of which
a few drops of creosote, or the liniment, should be
spread with a knife.   This treatment will generally
allay the pain, after  which a dressing of any sim-
ple ointment may be adopted.  In  many severe
flesh burns which I   have had the misfortune  to
receive,  I poured creosote  plentifully over the
part,  which  produced scarcely  any  smarting  or
pain, as  is frequently asserted, whilst it  removed
the burning sensation that previously existed, and
the charred surface assumed a dry scabby appear-
ance, which, by dressing with  simple ointment,
soon came off and left the part beneath both sound
and healthy. If a poultice be applied, it is best to
keep it on until  the next day, when in general a
little spermaceti ointment spread  on  a bit  of soft
linen may be used instead.  Plunging the part into
cold water immediately on the receipt of an injury
of this kind will frequently  prevent  any  further
remedy  being necessary.   In all  cases of burns
and scalds, it is  necessary to observe that if fever
should ensue, laxative  medicines, as castor oil and
epsom salts, should be administered.
   BURNING LENS, CHEAP AND SIMPLE.
Take two circular discs of plate glass, of  the re-
quisite dimensions, and place one at each end of a
shallow  tube ; an inch long will be quite sufficient
for any  size; they are kept  in their  position very
firmly by means of screw clamps, in  an analogous
manner  to the   two  lenses for showing Newton's
concentric colored rings.  To the  tube is fitted a
short tube with a stop-cock  attached; to the end
of this tube a condensing  syringe is fixed, and the
cavity between  the glasses filled with turpentine,
varnish, bleached oil, or any other  suitable  sub-
stance of  a high refractive  power.   When the
glasses have attained the requisite degree of curve-
ture, the stopcock may be shut, the syringe screwed
off, and  the fluid lens (for  such in  reality it is)
mounted for use.  (Chemist,  iii. 50.)
   BUTTER.  Qual., #c. This article is perhaps 
BUT                    148                    BUT
in more general use, and subject to greater varia-
tions in quality, than any other substance employed
in domestic economy.  It  is an aliment consumed
by every grade of society, and, when good,  ap-
pears not only to be wholesome, but extremely  nu-
tritious.   " Some  writers  inveigh  against the use
of butter as universally pernicious ; but they might
with  equal  reason  condemn all vegetable oils,
which form  a  considerable  part of  diet  in  the
southern climates, and  seem to have been bene-
ficially intended by nature for that purpose.  But-
ter, like every other oily substance, has  doubtless
a  relaxing quality, and if  long retained  in  the
stomach, is liable to become rancid ; but, if eaten
in moderation, it will not produce those effects.   It
is. however, improper in bilious constitutions.  The
worst consequence produced by butter when eaten
with bread is, that  it obstructs the discharge of the
saliva in the act of mastication or chewing; by
which means the  food is not so easily  digested.
To obviate this effect, it would be a commendable
practice at breakfast, first to eat some dry bread,
and chew it well, till the salivary glands  were ex-
hausted, and  afterwards to eat it with butter.   By
these means  such a quantity of saliva might be
carried into the stomach as would  be sufficient for
the purpose of digestion."
   Pur.  Butter  is  frequently  adulterated,  as  the
following quotation will show:—Butter is  sent over
from Ireland, mixed, full one half, with bad flour,
oatmeal, and pea  flour, with  a  large quantity of
salt and water,  and is sold  in London, Liverpool,
Glasgow,  and Edinburg, &c. &c. &c.;  and  thus
the public, and  especially the poor, are defrauded.
The trick is concocted  between  the Irish  factors
and our dealers.  The samples we have  seen  are
sad evidences of human depravity.  We are alive
to the scheme, and shall send any samples we may
get, when tested, to the source whence  are to be
expected the remedy of the nuisance and the pun-
ishment of the wretches of such baseness.  (Che-
mist, ii.  64.)
   Rancid butter, and butter  in a state of decompo-
sition, is capable of producing dangerous symptoms
when eaten. Two  cases of poisoning, by bad butter,
are detailed in the Jour, de Chimie Med.  for 1842.
   Choice. Fresh butter should have  a pleasant
butyrous smell, and be of an equal color through-
out its substance.  If it smell sour, the buttermilk
has not been well washed out, and if it  be streaked
or veiny it is probably mixed with stale butter.   A
good way to try butter is to insert a knife  into it,
which should not  smell  rancid and  unpleasant
when drawn out.
   Process of  making  Butter.  I. Mrs.  Run-
dell's Instructions for making Butter.   "  During
summer, skim  the milk when  the sun has  not
heated the dairy ; at that season it should stand for
butter 24 hours without skimming, and 48 in win-
ter.  Deposite the  cream-pot in  a very cold cellar,
if your dairy is not more so.   If you cannot churn
daily, change it  into scalded fresh pots; but never
omit churning twice a-week.  If possible, put the
churn in a thorough air;  and if not a barrel one,
set it in a tub of water two feet deep, which  will
give firmness to the butter.  When the butter  is
come, pour off the buttermilk, and put the butter
into a fresh scalded pan,  or tub which  has been
standing in cold water.  Pour water on it, and let
it lie to acquire some hardness before you work it
then change the water, and beat it with flat boardi
so perfectly that not the least taste of the butter-
milk remain, and  that the water, which must be
often changed, shall be quite clear in color.  Then
work some salt into  it, weigh, and make it  into
forms ;  throw them into cold water, in an earthen
pan  and cover made  of queen's ware.  You will
then have very nice and cool  butter in the hottest
weather.   It requires more working in hot than in
cold  weather; but it neither should  be  left with a
particle of buttermilk,  nor a sour taste, as is some-
times done."
  II. (Dumbarton method.) The cream is put into
the churn, previously well  cleaned out, and worked
until the butter separates, when the latter is put
into  a clean vessel, and  a corn sickle is drawn
several  times crosswise through it, to extract  any
hairs that may adhere to it.  This operat'on is per-
formed  in  cold spring water, and  is folli  ,ved by
thoroughly washing it therein ;  10 oz. of salt are
now  added to every stone-weight of butter, and it
is  well  mixed up.  In summer 1 oz. more salt is
used, and in winter 1 oz. less.   It  is next made
into forms, or packed  in perfectly sound kits.
  III. (Russian method.)  The sweet milk is gently
simmered for 15 minutes,  and then churned in the
usual manner.
  IV.  (Devonshire  method.)   This  consists in
scalding the milk in  copper pans over  a charcoal
fire,  and collecting the cream as soon  as it  has
risen.  It is then churned in the usual way.  Re-
marks.  Without care  the  cream is apt to absorb
some of the fumes from the charcoal, which impart
a peculiar taste to the butter.
  BUTTER, CLARIFIED.  Prep. Melt fresh
butter by placing it in  a vessel set in a water bath,
let it settle, and pour off the clear into an earthen-
ware basin or pot, set  in cold water, to cool it as
quickly as possible, without letting it crystallize.
It keeps a  long time without becoming rank.
  BUTTER, MELTED, (in Cookery.)  Prep.
Beat up about 1 oz. of flour with 4 oz. of butter in
the cold, until it be evenly and thoroughly mixed,
then add 4 or 5 tablespoonfuls of milk, (hot,) and
put the whole into a small saucepan, and continue
shaking  it, all in one direction, until it  simmers;
after 1 minute remove it from the fire for use.
  BUTTER, HONEY.   Prep. Well mix 2 oz.
of the finest Narbonne honey with 1 lb. of  good
butter,   Use. As a delicacy for children, or sick or
aged persons.
   BUTTER OF CACAO.  This is obtained from
the nut by bruising it and boiling it in water.   On
the latter cooling, the  oil floats and is skimmed off
Use, SfC. As commonly met with it has the con-
sistence  of butter,  hence its  name.  It is much
used in perfumery and for burning in lamps. W hen
mixed with a little caoutchoucine, or distilled spirit
of Indian  rubber, it  loses its concrete form, and
assumes the limpidity  of common oil, at the same
time that its illuminating power is vastly increased.
   BUTTER OF NUTMEGS.  This is collected
from the surface of the water in the still, after the
distillation of the essential oil of nutmegs.
   BUTTER  OF  ROSES.  Prep. By distilling
damask  roses.   It separates slowly from the wa-
ter.  It  has but  little smell, and  is consequently
used to dilute the odor of musk, ambergris, and civet 
BUT                     149                    CAB
  BUTTER OF WAX.  Prepared by distilling
bees' wax.   A factitious kind is made.
  BUTTER, ORANGE.  Prep. I. Beat together
6 eggs, 2 oz. of powdered sugar, 4 oz. of butter, 2 oz.
of blanched almonds, and a little orange flour water.
  II. Beat together, until perfectly  united, 1 lb. of
butter  and  4 oz.  of sirup of orange peel.  Use.
Eaten  as a delicacy.
  Remarks.  Lemon  butter is made in a similar
manner.
  BUTTER,  TO   PRESERVE   OR  CURE.
Proc.  I. Melt  the butter  in well glazed earthen
pans, at a  heat  not exceeding  180° in  a water
bath, and keep  it heated, skimming it from time to
time, until the  butter becomes quite transparent,
then pour off the  clear into another  vessel, and cool
it as quickly as possible, by  surrounding it with
cold water or ice.
   Remarks. The above is the method of preserv-
ing butter employed by  the  Tartars who supply
the Constantinople market, and in this state it may
be  preserved perfectly fresh for 6 montlis, if kept
in a close vessel  and a cool place.   This plan re-
ceived  the approval of  Thenard,  as well as Mr.
Eaton; the latter states that  butter melted by the
Tartarian  method and  then  salted by ours, will
keep good and fine-tasted for  two years.   Any of
the following methods of  salting may be adopted.
   II.  Mix  well  together  1 oz. each of saltpetre
and white  sugar, and 2  oz. of the best Spanish
great  salt, all in very fine powder, then add 1 oz.
of  this mixture to every pound of butter, and tho-
roughly incorporate  them together.  The  butter
thus prepared is then to be tightly pressed into clean
glazed  earthenware vessels, so  as  to have no va-
cuities.  Remarks.  This is the plan recommended
by Dr. Anderson, who declares that butter so pre-
pared will  keep in a cool place for  years, and will
bear a voyage to the East Indies, if packed so as
not to  melt.
   This butter  does not taste well before it has
stood for a fortnight or three weeks, after which it
acquires a  rich  marrow flavor, which no other  but-
ter  ever possesses.   Any good well-made  fresh
butter, free from  buttermilk,  will succeed by this
method, but the application of it to butter clarified
by the Tartarian plan,  as described above,  pro-
duces an article  that will  keep longer  good than
butter  cured by any other process  yet  discovered.
The best method to preserve butter from  the air,
is to fill the pots to within an  inch of the top, and
to lay  on  it common coarse-grained salt, to the
depth of $ an inch  or £ of an inch, and then to
cover the pot up with any flat article that may be
convenient.  The salt by long keeping  will run to
brine, and form a layer  on the top  of the butter,
which  will  effectually keep out  the air, and  may
at any time be very easily removed  by turning the
pot on  one side.
  III.  Fresh butter  16 lbs.; salt 1 lb.
  IV.  Fresh butter  18  lbs.; salt 1 lb.; saltpetre
1£ oz.; honey or fine brown sugar 2 oz.
  BUTTER, RANCID.  This may be  restored
by melting it in a water bath with some coarsely-
powdered animal charcoal, (which  has  been tho-
roughly freed from dust by sifting,) and straining
through clean flannel.
  BUTTER OR  MILK, TO REMOVE THE
TURNIP FLAVOR FROM.   When  cows  are
fed on turnips or  cabbages, the milk, and conse-
quently the butter, acquires a disagreeable flavor
'This is said to be removed by either of the following
methods:   " When the milk  is strained  into the
pans, put to every 6 gallons 1 gallon of boiling water
Or dissolve 1 oz. of nitre in a pint  of spring water,
and put a £ pint to every 15 gallons of milk.  Or,
when  you  churn, keep  back a £ pint of the sour
cream, and  put it into  a well-scalded pot,  into
which you are to gather the next cream; stir that
well, and do so with every fresh addition."
   BUTTERMILK.   Qual.,  $c.  If the butter be
prepared from sweet cream, the  buttermilk left
from the operation is not only very  delicious, but
exceedingly wholesome  and nutritious. Buttermilk,
when  not  sour,  is very good to eat with fruit, pud-
dings, and cakes.  It is 6aid to possess the property
of allaying the  nervous irritability induced by ex-
cessive tea-drinking.
   BUTTON GILDING. Proc.  The buttons are
formed of common brass, either by casting or turn-
ing, when  they are polished off in the lathe, and
thrown into a pan with an amalgam of gold, and as
much  aquafortis,  diluted with water, as will wet
them all over.   Here they are well stirred up, un-
til they assume a white  appearance,  resembling
silver, when they are taken  out and washed well
with clean water.  They are  then submitted to a
sufficient  heat in a suitable  apparatus, until the
mercury is volatilized, which is collected for future
operations.  The buttons are next cooled and well
tossed and  rubbed about with a painter's brush;
and, lastly, burnished by washing them well with
beer or ale grounds.
   BUTYRIC ACID.  An oily acid obtained by
Chevreul from butter ; hence  its name.
   It may be procured from  the butyrate of baryta
or magnesia, by adding  a little sulphuric acid, in
quantity not  quite  sufficient  to  decompose the
whole  of the salt; filter and distil  the clear liquor,
when the product will be  butyric acid, from which
the water may be removed by chloride of calcium.
   BUTYRATE  OF  BARYTA.   Prep. Sapo-
nify butter with boiling  caustic alkali, and decom-
pose it by adding a solution of tartaric acid ; filter
and distil, neutralize the  distilled liquor by adding
hydrate of baryta, and evaporate; the first  crys-
tals that form are caprate of baryta; the  next ca-
proate of baryta ; and the last of  all butyrate of
baryta.  The latter salt  is very soluble in water,
and hence is easily separated from the others.  Used
for making butyric acid.
   BUTYRINE.  An oily fluid obtained by Chev-
reul from butter.  Prep.  Keep  clarified butter in
a porcelain vessel, at a heat of 66° for some days,
carefully collect the oily portion which separates,
and agitate it with an equal weight of  alcohol of
0*796  for 24  hours, then pour  off the  clear and
evaporate,  treat  the oily residuum with a little car-
bonate of  magnesia to  remove any free acid, and
wash off the  butyrate  formed with  water; next
heat the remaining fatty matter in alcohol, filter
and evaporate to obtain the butyrine.
   BUXINE.  An alkaline substance detected by
M. Faure in the Buxus sempervirens.

   CABBAGE.    Qual. This  common esculent
forms an agreeable and wholesome addition to ani-
mal food, the grossness  of which it tends to cor- 
CAD                    150                    CAK
rect.  It has, however, a greater tendency to pu-
trefaction than most  other vegetable substances,
and  emits, during this state, a very disagreeable
effluvium, strongly resembling that evolved by ani-
mal matter in a state of decomposition.  It should
therefore be  eaten only when freshly cooked, and
the unconsumed  portion, as well as the water  in
which it was  boiled, should be at once  thrown
away.  The  " concentrated perfume of cabbage-
water"  is aptly alluded to  by Dickens,  in  his
" Martin Chuzzlewit," as symbolical of  a factor
of the worst class.  So far, however, from  induc-
ing a putrid disposition in the body, cabbage has,
on the contrary, the very opposite effect.
  CABBAGES,  PRESERVATION  OF.  Proc.
Cut  them so that they may have   about 2 inches
of stem  left below the leaves, scoop out the pith as
far down as a small knife will reach, then suspend
them, by means of a cord, exactly  perpendicular,
but in an inverted position, and daily fill  up the
hollow part of the stem with clean cold water.   It
is stated, that by this method, cabbages,  cauliflow-
ers,  brocoli, celery,  &c, may be  preserved  for
some time in a cool place;  it affords an easy
means of keeping a  supply  of green vegetables
during a severe winter.
  CADMIUM.  A whitish volatile metal, some-
what resembling tin, discovered by Stromeyer, as-
sociated with zinc.
   Prep. I. Dissolve the ore of cadmium in an ex-
cess of dilute sulphuric or muriatic  acid, and pass
sulphureted hydrogen through the solution, which
will  throw down the metal  in combination with
sulphur.   Dissolve the  precipitate  in nitric acid,
and  evaporate  to  dryness; dissolve in water, and
precipitate with carbonate of ammonia in  excess ;
collect the powder, mix  it with charcoal, and heat
it  to redness.   Metallic cadmium will sublime.
(Stromeyer.)
   II. Dissolve the ore as above, place the  solution
in a platinum capsule, and insert  therein a piece
of metallic zinc. The cadmium will soon be found
firmly adherent to the  sides of the capsule, and
may be separated, washed, and dried.
  Prop., (SfC. Cadmium unites with oxygen, form-
ing an oxide, which may be  prepared  by  heating
to redness the precipitate thrown down in the pre-
ceding process,  on the addition of carbonate of am-
monia.   It has a fine orange color, and has been
proposed as a pigment.   With sulphur it forms a
sulphuret, which is found in zinc blende, and may
also be formed  artificially, by passing sulphureted
hydrogen through a solution of cadmium,  or  by
melting  its elements  together.  It  has  been pro-
posed as an orange-red pigment.   With chlorine
it  forms a  chloride, which may be made  by dis-
solving its oxide in muriatic  acid, evaporating and
crystallizing.   With  iodine it  forms  an iodide,
which may be made in the same way as iodide of
zinc.  With  phosphorus it forms  a phosphuret,
which may be  prepared by the direct union of its
elements.  With  the acids it forms salts,  most of
which may be made by dissolving the hydrated
carbonate, thrown down by carbonate  of ammo-
nia,  in the acids, or by double decomposition.  The
sulphate has  been  used by surgeons to remove
specks  from  the  eyes.  Thousands of pounds  of
cadmium are yearly wasted at the  zinc  works,
which might be easily collected.
  CAFFEIC ACID.  A white powder, discover.
ed by Runge in coffee.   When heated, it  yioldj
the aromatic odor of the roasted berry.   Pfaff de-
clares that the aroma of coffee is dependent on the
volatilization, or rather, the decomposition of this
acid.
  CAFFEIN.   Syn.  Caffeine.  Theine.  Gua-
ranine.  A peculiar principle, originally discover-
ed by Robiquet in  coffee, and confirmed by Pel-
letier, Caventou, and Pfaff.
  Prep.  Boil bruised raw coffee in water, and add
acetate of lead, to throw down the extractive and
coloring matter, then precipitate the excess of lead
with sulphureted hydrogen,  filter,  and evaporate
by a gentle  heat.   Dissolve the residuum in boil-
ing water, or  alcohol, agitate with freshly-burnt
animal charcoal, filter, evaporate, and crystallize.
Redissolve in hot alcohol, from which  it may be
obtained  in white, shining, silky filaments.
  Prop.  Scarcely soluble in cold, but freely so in
hot water, and  in alcohol.  Tastes slightly  bitter.
With sulphuric and muriatic acids it forms crystal-
lizable  compounds.
  Remarks.    Caffein was originally thought to
be a principle peculiar to coffee, but the researches
of Pfaff and Liebig have shown that it also occurs
in tea, and  guarana;   and,   consequently, that
theine, caffeine, and guaranine are in reality one
and the same thing.  It is a remarkable fact that
both tea  and  coffee contain  this  substance, and
that both of them are used by whole nations as a
refreshment.  Liebig, in his late work on " Animal
Chemistry and  Physiology," has shown  the simi-
larity of composition between caffeine and taurine,
one of the constituents of bile ; and gives it  as his
opinion, that it  assists in the production of the lat-
ter, and thus facilitates the process of respiration.
  CAINCIC ACID. An acid principle, discover-
ed by Pelletier  and  Caventou in  the bark of  the
cainca root, obtained from Brazil.   It is extracted
by alcohol, has a bitter taste,  and is crystallizable.
  CAKES.  (In the Art of the Pastry-cook,
Baker, &c.)   A species of  fancy bread or trifle,
too well known to require description.
  General observations on cake-making.  Before
proceeding to the operation  of cake-making,  the
various materials employed therein  should undergo
a certain amount of preparation.  For this purpose
every article should be got ready one hour previous-
ly to their being wanted, and should be placed be-
fore the  fire, or upon  a stove, that they may be-
come gently heated, without which it will be  im-
possible to produce  good  cakes. The flour should
be thoroughly dried, and well warmed.   The cur-
rants  should be nicely washed in a  hair sieve,
wiped dry in a cloth, and then set before the fire
Before use they must be dusted over with a little
flour.  The sugar should be rubbed to a fine pow-
der, and passed through a  sieve.    The egf!t>
should be  well beaten in a  basin, and strained.
The butter should be melted, by being placed in
a  basin, set in hot water,  and afterwards well
beaten up with a little warm milk.  The  lemon-
peel should  be cut very thin, and beaten in  a
mortar to a paste or powder, with lump-sugar.
The caraways, ginger, and other similar flavoring
ingredients, are best used in  the  form of  a  fine
powder, or under that of an essence, made  by di«
gesting them in spirits of wine ; the former tat, 
CAK                   151                       CAK
however, frequently used whole.  The milk and
water  should be  each of a good warmth.  After
all these things are ready, they should be put into
a pan,  one after another,  in proper order, and well
beaten up, as the lightness  of  the  cakes will  be
thereby increased.  In plum-cakes, if a little yeast
be added after the butter, and the mass be allowed
to rise  a little, and  then  again well kneaded, not
only less butter  and eggs may be used, but the
product will be  much lighter.   It  is therefore a
great improvement in various  kinds of cakes, to
introduce a little yeast, even where it is not custo-
mary to do so.   Good stale  bread, well soaked in
hot milk or water, and then beaten to a paste, and
passed through  a fine sieve,  forms an excellent
thing to mix up the ingredients with, and produces
a  light and very nutritious cake.   Cakes wetted
up with milk are richer, but do not keep so well
as those without it: they get stale sooner.
   Pres. Cakes keep best in tin canisters ; wooden
boxes, unless well seasoned, are apt to give them
a  disagreeable  taste.    Brown  paper should  be
avoided for the same reason.
   CAKES, ALMOND. Prep. I. Take sweet
almonds, flour, and powdered sugar, of each £  lb.,
eggs 7 in  number, and the outside  yellow peel of
4 lemons,  shredded small.  Pound the almonds,
previously blanched,  until they are very  smooth,
adding gradually the sugar and lemon-peel, then
take them out, add  the  eggs, and  beat the whole
until it be  as  white as sponge paste; next add
the  flour,  work  well, put  it  into well-buttered
moulds, and bake  in a  slack oven, with  8 or 10
thicknesses  of  paper under them  and one over
them.
   II. Almonds 1  lb.; sugar $ lb.; rose, or orange-
flower water, £ pint; flour £ lb. ; eggs 3 in num-
ber,  as above.   Remarks. Some persons ice these
cakes with powdered sugar, beat up with a little
white of egg.
   CAKES, BANBURY.   Prep.  Work butter 1
lb. into the same weight of dough, made for white
bread, as  in making puff paste, then roll it out
very thin, and  cut it into oval pieces, or as the
cakes  are wanted.   Mix some good moist sugar
with an equal  weight of currants, and wet them
with brandy, then put a  little upon  each piece of
paste; close them up, and  place them on a  tin
with the closed  side downwards, and bake them.
Flavor some powdered sugar  with candied peel,
grated, or essence of  lemon, and sift a little over
the cakes as soon as they come out of the  oven.
  CAKES, BATH.   Prep.  Mix  well  together
i lb. of butter, 1 lb. of flour, 5 eggs, and a cupful
of yeast.   Set the whole before the fire  to rise,
which effected, add 4 oz. of finely-powdered sugar,
and  1 oz. of caraways; roll the paste out into little
cakes.  Bake them on tins.
  CAKES,  BENTON  TEA.  Prep.  Make a
paste with flour 1 lb., butter 4  oz.,  and milk suf-
ficient ; roll  it  out very thin, cut it into  shapes,
and bake on a hot hearth or slow oven-plate.
  II. To the last add 4  tablespoonfuls  of yeast,
and prick the cakes all over with a fork.
  CAKES, CHEESE.   Prep.  Curdle some new
milk previously warmed, with  rennet, drain the
curd in a linen bag, then  beat it as fine as butter,
and add £ of its weight, each, of sugar and butter,
6 eggs, some grated nutmeg, and a little  orange-
 flower or rose water; work the whole well to-
 gether.
   II.  (Almond.)  To the  above add as much
 blanched almonds, beaten to a smooth paste, as
 there is butter, along with an equal weight of ma-
 caroni.  Beat well together.
   III. (Lemon.) To the first form add lemon-peel
 grated fine, or a little essence of lemon
   CAKES,  DIET.  Prep. Dissolve sugar  1  lb.
 in  milk  i pint, add  6 eggs, and whisk to a full
 froth, then cautiously stir in flour 1 lb., beat  it for
 1 hour, and immediately bake  it in a quick oven.
 It may be baked whole or divided into small forms.
   CAKES,  DIET  BREAD.   Prep.  Make  a
 paste with equal parts of fine flour and powdered
 sugar, 6 eggs, and the juice and rind (grated) of 1
 lemon.  Bake in a slow oven.
   CAKES, DROP.  Prep. Eggs 1  dozen ;  rose-
 water 1  tablespoonful; powdered sugar ^ lb.; beat
 them  together for 1 hour, then  add \ lb. of fine
 flour, and £ oz. of caraways.   Drop  it on wafer
 paper, and bake.
   CAKES,  GINGER.    Prep.  Make  a paste
 with sugar 1  lb.; powdered ginger 4 oz.; flour 2
 lbs.; water 1 pint; butter £ lb.; and  8  caps  of
 candied  orange  peel,  grated; form   them  into
 cakes, and prick them with a  foTk before baking
 them.
   CAKES, ICING FOR. Prep. Beat the white
 of eggs to a full froth, with a little rose or orange-
 flower water; then add,  gradually, as  much  fine-
 ly powdered sugar as will make it thick  enough,
 beating it well all the time.  Use. Dust the  cake
 over with flour, then gently rub it off, lay on the
 icing with a  flat  knife, stick  on the  ornaments
 while it is wet, and place it in  the oven for a few
 minutes  to harden, but not long  enough to dis-
 color it.
   CAKES, LEMON.  Prep.   Flour  and sugar,
 of each 1 lb.;  eggs 1  dozen ; grated peal and  juice
 of  four lemons ; whisk the eggs  to a high froth,
 then gradually add the rest.  Bake  in  small oval
 tins, well buttered, and place  six thicknesses  of
 paper beneath each tin.  Thinly ice them.
  CAKES, MARLBOROUGH. Prep. Beat 8
 eggs and 1 lb. of pounded sugar three-quarters of
 an  hour ; then by degrees mix in 1 lb. of fine  flour
 well dried; add 2 oz. of caraway seeds, and  bake
 in soup plates or tin pans, in a brisk oven.
  CAKES, PLAIN. Prep. I. Flour 4 lbs.; cur-
 rants 2 lbs.;  butter  £ lb.; caraway  seeds £ oz.;
 candied lemon  peel,  grated, 1 oz.; wet it up  with
 milk, and J a pint of yeast.  Let it rise well before
 baking.
  II. Baker's dough 2 lbs.; currants 1 lb.; butter
 £ lb.; 3 eggs ; milk (hot) £ pint.  As above.
  III.  "  The following is a receipt for making a
 good plain cake, fit  to  be given to  children  at
 breakfast, instead of buttered bread.
  " Take as much dough as will make a quartern
 loaf, (either  made  at home or procured  at the ba-
 ker's,) work into this  a £ pound of butter, a £ pound
 of moist  sugar,  and a handful  of caraway seeds
 When well worked together, pull  into  pieces the
 size of a golden pippin, and work it together again.
 This must be done  three times, or  it  will be in
lumps,  and heavy when baked"
  IV. (Rich.) Equal weights of flour,  butter, sul-
tana raisins,  eggs,  currants,  and brown  sugar, 
CAK
152
CAK
mixed  up with milk, and  seasoned with candied
peel, nutmeg, &c.  Bake in a quick oven.
  OAKES, PLUM.  Prep.  I. (Good.)  Mix $ lb.
of butter in 3 lbs.  of dry flour and 8  oz. of fine Lis-
bon sugar; add plums and  currants, of each £ lb.,
washed and dried, and some  pimento, finely pow-
dered.   Put 3 spoonfuls of yeast into a Winchester
pint  oi  new milk warmed,  and mix it into a  light
dough with the above.   Make it into a cake, and
bake on a floured tin half an hour.
  II  (Excellent.)  Beat 1 lb. of fresh butter with
a strong wooden fork until it resembles cream ; add
1 lb. of sifted sugar, and mix them very completely ;
have ready the whites of 10 eggs beaten, and pour
them into the butter and sugar; then add the yelk
of 18 eggs, also well beaten, and beat them all  up
for 10 minutes. Take 1  lb. of flour, 2 oz. of pounded
and sifted spices, viz. cloves, mace,  cinnamon, nut-
meg, and allspice, and mix them by degrees with
the other ingredients, then beat the cake 10 minutes
longer; and when the  oven is ready, add 1  lb.  of
currants, 4  oz. of sliced almonds, 4 lb. of raisins
stoned  and  chopped, and a large glass of brandy.
Bake the cake  in a hot oven.  When sufficiently
baked, let the oven cool, and afterwards put in the
cake and allow it to remain for  several hours to
dry.  (Rundell.)
  III.  (Rich.)  Take  fresh butter  and sugar,  of
each 1 lb.; of flour 1£  lb.; of currants 2 lbs.; a
glass of brandy, 1 lb. of sweetmeats, 2 oz. of sweet
almonds. 10 eggs, £ oz. each of allspico and cinna-
mon.   Melt the  butter to a cream,  and put in the
sugar; stir  it till quite light, adding  the allspice
and pounded cinnamon; in a quarter of an  hour
take the yelks of  the eggs,  and work them in, 2 or
3 at a time; and  the whites of the  same must  by
this time be beaten into a strong snow quite  ready
to work in, as the paste must not stand to chill the
butter, or it will  be  heavy; work  in the whites
gradually ; then  add the orange peel, lemon, and
citron, cut in fine stripes, and the currants, which
must be mixed in well, with the  sweet almonds;
then add the sifted flour and glass of brandy.  Bake
this cake in a tin hoop in a hot oven for 3 hours,
and put 12 sheets of paper under it to  keep it from
burning. (Mackenzie.)
  CAKE, POUND.   Prep. I. As  the above; but
use 1 lb. each  of all the ingredients, except the
spices.
  II. Use equal parts of sugar, flour, currants, and
Hultana raisins, and half that quantity each of but-
ter, brandy,  and candied  peel, with  spices  as re-
quired.
  CAKES, PORTUGAL.  Prep.  Flour,   pow-
dered sugar, and  fresh butter, of each 1  lb.;  work
it well up until it crumbles, then add 10 eggs, cur-
rants 4 lb.,  and  a little white wine.  Bake  it in
small tins only half filled.
  CAKES, QUEEN.  Prep. Mix 1 lb. each  of
dried flour,  sifted sugar,  washed  clean currants,
and  butter, with  8 eggs, beaten separately; beat
the whole an hour ; butter little  tins, teacups, or
saucers, and bake the  batter in, only half filling
them.   Sift a little fine  sugar over, just before you
bake them.  A little nutmeg, mace, and cinnamon
are sometimes added.
  CAKES,  RATIFIA.  Prep.  Beat  4 lb.  of
sweet and 1 oz. of bitter almonds in  fine orange,
rose, or ratafia water;  mix in 4 lb. of  fine pounded
and sifted sugar with the same ;  add the whites of
4 eggs,  well  beaten, to it ;  set it over a moderate
fire in a preserving-pan ;  stir  it  one way until it is
pretty hot, and when a little cool form it into small
rolls, and cut it into thin  cakes ; shake  some flour
lightly on them,  give  each  a light tap,  and  put
them on sugar papers; sift a little sugar on them,
and put them into a thorough slack oven.
  CAKES, ROUT.   Prep.  Mix together flour 2
lbs.; butter, sugar, and  currants, of each 1 lb.;
wet them up with 3 eggs well beaten, 4 pint of milk,
2 glasses of  white wine, and 1  glass  of  brandy;
drop on  a  tin plate,  and bake  them.  They are
soon done.
  CAKES,  SAVOY.   Prep.   To  1 lb.  of fine
sifted  sugar put  the yelks of 10 eggs, (have  the
whites in a separate pan,) and wt it, if in summer,
in cold water; if there is any ice set the pun on it,
as it will cause the eggs to be beat finer ; then beat
the yelks and sugar well with . wooden spoon for
20 minutes, and put in the rind oi a lemon grated;
beat up the whites with a whisk  until they become
quite stiff,  and white as  snow; stir them  into  the
batter by degrees, then add 1  lb. of well-dried flour.
Finally, put it into  moulds,  and bake  in a slack
oven.
  CAKE,  SEED. Prep.  I. (Plain.)  Mix £ peck
of flour with 4 lb. of sugar, £ oz. of allspice, and a lit-
tle ginger ; melt 4 lb. of butter with 4 pint  of milk;
when just warm, put to it £ pint of yeast, and work
up to a good dough.  Let it stand before the fire a
few minutes before it goes to  the oven:  add seeds,
or currants; bake an hour and a half.
  II.  (Good.) To the preceding add butter and
sugar, of each 4  lb., and wet it up with milk pre-
viously mixed with 6 eggs.
  III.  (Rich.)  Take  of flour 1$ lb., well dried,
butter and sugar, of each 1  lb., 8 eggs, and 2 oz. of
caraway seeds, 1 grated  nutmeg, and its weight in
cinnamon.   Beat the  butter into a cream, put in
the sugar, beat the whites of the eggs and the yelks
separately, then mix them with the butter and su-
gar.   Beat in the flour, spices,  and seed, a .ittle
before sending it  away.  Bake 2 hours in a puick
oven.
  IV.  (Scotch.)  Eggs 9 in  number;  sugar and
butter, of each 4 lb.; mix well together, then add
a little cinnamon, grated nutmeg, and cloves, £ oz
of caraway seeds, 1 lb. of candied citron, £ lb. of
candied orange peel, and 4 lb. of blanched almonds,
pounded fine ; mix well; then add flour 3  lbs., and
brandy £ pint; work well and bake it
  CAKES,  SHREWSBURY.   Prep.  Flour 3
lbs.; sugar 1 lb.; a little cinnamon and nutmegs;
eggs 3 in number; a little rose water and melted
butter,  enough  to make it  into a dough.  Roll it
thin, and cut it into shapes.
   CAKES,  SODA.   Prep.  Flour 1  lb.; bicar-
bonate of soda £ oz.; sugar and butter, of each i
lb.; currants | lb.; make a  paste with milk, and
add  candied orange,  lemon,  or citron  peel, or the
fresh peek grated, according to fancy.  Remarks.
A £ oz. of carbonate of  magnesia, used instead of
the soda, also makes  good cakes, very suitable to
delicate stomachs, especially if  the  candied peels
be omitted.
   CAKE, SPONGE.   Prep. 8  eggs, £ lb. of
lump sugar;  4 lb. of flour;  £ pint of water;  the
peel of a lemon: mix as follows:—Overnight pan 
CAL
153
CAL
a good-sized lemon thin, and put the peel into the
water ; when about to make the cake, put the su-
gar into a saucepan,  pour the water  and lemon
peel to  it, and let it stand  by the fire to get hot.
Break the eggs into a deep earthen vessel that has
been made quite hot; whisk  the eggs for a few
minutes with a whisk that has been well soaked in
water; make the sugar  and water boil up, and
pour  it  boiling-hot over  the  eggs;  continue  to
whisk them  briskly for about a quarter of an hour,
or till they become quite  thick and white, which
is a proof of  their lightness.  Have the  flour well
dried, and quite warm  from the fire, just stir  it
lightly in, put the cake into tins, lined with white
paper, and bake them immediately in a moderately
hot oven.  (Mrs. Rundell.)
   CAKES, STAINS FOR.   Prep. I. (Red.)  a.
Boil £ oz. of cochineal in powder, 4 oz. of cream  of
tartar, and a piece of alum as large as a pea in 4 a
pint of water, for 4 an hour.
   /?.  Shred  beet root into a little water, let them
stand a short time, then express the juice.
   y.  Dissolve a few grains of*%armine in spirits of
hartshorn.   This gives a fine color, and also tends
to make the cake light.
   II. (White.)   Use almonds, blanched and beat-
en very fine ; or use  cream.
   III. (Yellow.)  a- Use yelk of egg.
   0.  A little saffron, steeped in hot water.
   Y.  A little turmeric, steeped  in a little  gin or hot
 water.
   <5.  Infuse  marygold or stertian flowers in hot
water.
   IV. (Green.) The juice of spinach or beet leaves,
obtained by pounding and expression.
   V.  (Blue.)   a. A little  finely-pounded indigo
diffused in water.
   /?.  A few drops of liquid blue, added to water.
   y.  The juice of mulberries, elderberries, privet
berries, &lc, to which a little salt of tartar has been
added.
   <5. An infusion of  logwood,  mixed with a little
salt of tartar.
   £. The juice of any of the blue flowers.
   CAKES,  TIPSY.  Prep. Steep small sponge
cakes in brandy, then cover them with grated al-
monds and candied peel, or almonds cut into spikes
and stuck in them ;  pile them in a dish, surround
them with a custard, and  cover them with pre-
serves, drained as dry as possible.
   CAKES,  WIGG.  Prep.  Put 4 pint of warm
milk to £ lb. of fine flour, and mix in 2 or 3 spoon-
fuls of light yeast.  Cover it  up, and set it before
the fire  1 hour, in  order to make  it rise.  Work
into it 4 oz.  each of sugar and butter, make it into
cakes, or wiggs, with as  little flour as  possible,
and a few caraway seeds, and  bake them quickly.
   CALAMINE.  Syn. Calamina.  Lapis Cala-
minaris.  Crude Carbonate of Zinc. Source and
Prep. Native carbonate  of zinc occurs  in great
abundance in various parts of England and Ger-
many.  For medicinal purposes, it is  ground in
mills until reduced to fine powder,  and then sub-
mitted to the process of elutriation, or washing over,
as  in the preparation of  chalk.  In this  state  it
constitutes the  " prepared calamine," (P. L.,) the
'•impure carbonate of zinc," (P. E.,)  and the " la-
pis calaminaris praparatus," (P. D.)
   Prop., Use,  6cc.  It is drying and astringent;
                    20
frequently used as a  dusting Dowder for children,
for excoriations and ulcers, and as an ingredient in
calamine cerate.  It is also largely used in metal-
lurgy to furnish zinc and to make brass.
  Pur.  The  article generally sold in  the shops as
lapis calaminaris, does not contain a particle of this
substance.  It is  a  mixture  of heavy sulphate  of
baryta (cawk) and chalk, colored with American
bole.  Mr. Brett found it  to contain 75g to 87*5°j
of sulphate of baryta.
  Tests. It should be wholly or nearly soluble  in
dilute sulphuric  acid, evolving only a few bubbles
of gas during the solution.   On the addition of  li-
quor of ammonia or potassa, a white precipitate is
formed, which is  redissolved in excess  of the pre-
cipitant.
  CALCINATION.  Calx, Calcis, (in Chemis-
try.)   The operation of the fire on any substance,
or the process of burning, is called calcination, and
the  residuum, or cinder,  was formerly called the
calx or calces, (plur.)   Thus,—chalk, by burning,
is converted  into lime; gypsum into plaster  of
Paris; wood into charcoal, and bones into ivory-
black.   Proc. The method of conducting the pro-
cess of calcination depends upon the nature of the
body operated on.  Many substances, for delicate
experiments,  are  calcined over a spirit-lamp in a
platina  spoon, or crucible ; others in iron vessels or
earthen crucibles, placed in a common furnace.
When the action of the air  would prove injurious,
as in the manufacture of charcoal, 'the process is
performed in  close vessels or chambers.  In some
cases, the fuel is  mixed with the article, and they
are both burnt together, as in the manufacture  of
lime, in the  common kiln,—in the roasting some
kinds of ores, &c.   The process of drying salts, or
driving  off their  water of crystallization,  is also
frequently called calcination ; thus we have cal-
cined copperas, alum, &c.
  CALCIUM.  This is the metallic base of lime.
It was discovered by Davy,  and is prepared in the
same way as the metal  Barium.   Prop.  It is a
whiter metal  than either barium or strontium, and,
by  oxidation, yields quicklime.  It also forms  a
peroxide with an additional dose  of oxygen, which
may be made in the same way as peroxide of ba-
rium. .. It unites with bromine, forming a bromide;
with fluorine, a. fluoride ; with iodine, an iodide ;
and with phosphorus,  a  phosphoret of calcium.
  CALCIUM. CHLORIDE OF.  Syn. Hydro-
chlorate of Lime.  Muriate  of Lime.   Prep.
Saturate dilute  muriatic acid with chalk or white
marble ; then filter, evaporate, and crystallize.
  Remark. The London College orders the salt to
be evaporated to dryness, then placed in a crucible,
fused with a  quick fire,  and poured out on a clean
flat stone. WThen cold, it is to be broken to pieces,
and kept in close bottles.  The  Edin. Ph. directs
white marble to be  used, and the salt to be crys-
tallized.  The Dublin Ph. orders  the residual liquor
of the preparation of  liquor  of ammonia, from sal
ammoniac and lime, to  be filtered and evaporated.
This is the cheapest method.
  Props., Use, $c.  From the strong affinity this
salt has for water, it is much used for drying gases
and absorbing the water from ethereal and oily li-
quids, in organic analyses.  For this purpose it is
used in  the dry state.   In its hydrous  or crjstal-
lized form, it  is much used  in the preparation  of 
CAL                     154                     CAL
freezing  mixtures  with snow.  In  this case,  the
evaporation need only be conducted so far that the
whole  becomes a  solid mass on removal from  the
fire.  For both this and the last-mentioned use it
is  reduced to  powder.  It is also much used as a
test for sulphuric  acid, with which it produces a
white  precipitate  insoluble  in nitric acid; in  the
rectification of alcohol, and for  forming a water-
bath with a high boiling point.  As a medicine, it
has been given in  some scrofulous  and glandular
diseases, and has also been  used as a bath in the
same cases.
   CALCIUM, SULPHURET OF. Prep. I. (Bi-
sulphuret.)  Boil  together for 1 hour slaked  lime
3  parts,  sulphur 1 part,  and water 20 parts ; set
aside the solution  (sediment and all) in a  corked
flask for a few days, when orange-colored prismat-
ic  crystals  will be  deposited.
   II. (Protosulphuret.)  Fuse equal parts of sul-
phur and lime, or  sulphate of lime and charcoal,
mixed  together in  a crucible.
   Props.,  ticc. Acrid  and caustic ;  yields pure sul-
phur on the  addition  of muriatic  acid.  Used to
make precipitated  sulphur.
   CALICO FURNITURE, PRESERVATION
AND  CLEANING OF. Curtains, bed-hangings,
&.C., when taken down for the summer, should be
well shaken, to remove the loose dust; after which
they should be brushed with a long-haired clothes'
brush;  and  lastly, rubbed with pieces of stale
crumb of  bread which are  not  too hard.  They
may now be folded up and placed away in any dry
closet or cupboard.
   While colored calico furniture is up, it  should
be  screened as much  as  possible from  the light,
which  makes it fade,  and the dust which accumu-
lates on it  may be  blown off with a pair of strong
bellows.
   CALICO  PRINTING.  The art of producing
figured patterns upon calico, by means of dyes or
mordants topically applied by wooden blocks, cop-
per-plates,  or engraved  cylinders,  by which  the
goods  are  either directly printed or receive their
color by being run  through a coloring or mor-
dant bath, when the  dye is only  produced upon
that portion  of  the  ground previously  prepared
for it.
  The mordants are  thickened by some glutinous
substance,  as  flour, starch,  gum,  &c,  to  render
them adhesive and to  prevent their spreading.
  There are eight styles of calico-printing, each
requiring a different method of manipulation.
   1. The madder, or chintz style.   In this meth-
od  the mordants are  applied to the white cloth,
and the colors brought out  in the  dye-bath.  In
this way the patterns on permanent prints are pro-
duced.
  2. The padding, or plaquage style.  Here the
whole cloth is  passed through a bath of  the mor-
dant, and  different mordants afterwards printed
on  it before submitting  it to the  dye-bath.   By
this means the color of the  ground  and pattern is
varied.
  3. The reserve  style, in which white or colored
spots are produced on a blue ground, by covering
those parts with a  composition called resist paste,
before passing it through the dye-bath, which is
usually done cold.
  4. The discharge,  or rongeant style, is the re-
verse  of  the  preceding;  it exhibits bright  figures
on a dark ground.  It is performed by printing with
acidulous or discharge mordants before the cloth is
passed through the coloring-bath.
  5. China blue,  or  a style  resembling that on
blue stone-ware.
  6. The decoloring  or enlavage style, which is
performed by the topical application of chlorine oi
chromic acid  to the surface of the goods previously
dyed, by which the color is discharged.  (See Ban-
danna.)
  7. Steam-color printing.  A 6tyle  in which a
mixture of dye exti.-cts and mordants are printed
on the calico, and afurwards  exposed to the ac-
tion of steam.
  8. Spirit-color printing.  A method by which
brilliant colors are  produced, by a mixture of dye
extracts  and  solution of tin, called  by the dyers
" spirits of tin."
  For further information on this  subject,  the
reader is referred  to  Ure's " Dictionary of Arts,
Manufactures, and  Mines," where he will find the
several  processes of calico printing fully  treated
on.   To  enter largely into the  subject in this work
might amuse the reader, but would be of no prac-
tical utility, as calico-printing  is an art only prac-
tised on  the  large  6cale, and  by men who obtain
their whole knowledge of it hi the laboratories and
printing rooms of the factories.
  CALOMEL.   Syn.  Chloride of  Mercury.
Protochloride of  do.   Subchloride  of  do.
dlchloride  of do.  muriate of  do.  submu-
riate  of do.  Sweet  Mercury.  Sweet Sub-
limate.   Sweet  Precipitate.   Hydrargyrum
Chloridum,  (P. L.)   Chlorure de  Mercure,
(Fr.)   Versusstes-zucksilber,  (Ger.)  A com-
pound of chlorine  and metallic  mercury.   The
word is probably derived from  icaXds fair, and uiXas
black.
  Prep.  There are two methods of preparing cal-
omel, viz. by  sublimation and by  precipitation.
  I. (By sublimation.)
  a. (Process of the London Ph.)   Ing. Mer-
cury lb. iv; sulphuric acid lb. iij; chloride of so-
dium  lb.  iss;  distilled water q.  s.  Proc. Boil half
the mercury with the sulphuric acid in a proper
vessel until the bipersulphate thus formed remains
dry;  let it cool, and rub  it with the remaining
half of the mercury  in  an earthen  mortar  until
they be perfectly mixed ; next add the chloride of
sodium, and again  triturate, until globules  are no
longer visible, then sublime ; lastly, rub the subli-
mate  to  a  very fine powder, wash it with  boiling
distilled water, and dry it.  The processes of the
P. E. and P.  D.  are nearly similar.
  0. (Process employed at Apothecaries' Hall,
London.)  Mercury  50  lbs.;  sulphuric acid 70
lbs.; boil to dryness  in a  cast-iron  vessel; tritu-
rate 62 lbs. of the dry salt thus formed with 404
lbs. of mercury, until the globules disappear, and
add 34 lbs. of common salt, and again triturate
until perfectly mixed; then sublime.   Grind the
sublimate to  an impalpable powder, well wash it
with distilled  water, and dry it.  Prod. 95 to 100
lbs.
  y. (Jewel's patent process.)  This consists in
keeping the receiver filled with steam, so that the
calomel vapor is condensed in it  under the form
of an impalpable powder. 
CAL                    155                    CAL
  The annexed engraving represents M. O. Hen
ry's modification of this plan.
  a, Furnace.
  b, An eartlienware retort, having a short and wide neck,
containing the ingredients for making calomel.
  c. An earthen receiver having 3 tubulatures.
  d, A vessel containing water.
  e, A steam boiler.
  S.  Soubeiran proposes the following method ai
better than that with steam, being easier to exe^
cute and producing a beautiful preparation.  The
calomel is heated in an earthen tube in a furnace,
and  a current of air is directed uninterruptedly
into  the tube  by  means  of  a  small ventilator.
This sweeps away, as it were,  the vapors of calo-
mel, and in a straight tube will carry them a dis-
tance of 60 feet, to avoid  which the end  of the
recipient enters into water, by which means the
calomel  is moistened and  falls  down.   (Compt.
Rend., 1842, 665.)
   Remark. The long-continued action  of  steam
on calomel in a state of minute division  is attend-
ed by the formation of a small quantity of corro-
sive sublimate.  (Rhighini.)
   II. (By precipitation.)   Digest 9 parts of pure
quicksilver in 8 parts of nitric  acid, sp. gr. 1*20 to
1-25, until no more metal  will  dissolve;  then
mix it with a  boiling solution of 8 parts of com-
mon salt in 32 times its weight of water, to which
a little muriatic acid  has  been added.  The pre-
cipitate must be collected, well washed in distilled
water, and dried.
   Remarks. The last is not only the best but the
cheapest process for making  calomel.  That by
sublimation is, however,  generally adopted.  To
produce a  fine  article of calomel in the dry way
is somewhat difficult, and the process frequently
fails in the hands of unskilful operators.  It is only
lately, and that through the exertions of the per-
severing and talented Soubeiran, that the French
manufacturers have at all succeeded  in producing
calomel of equal quality to that made in England.
This will show that much practical experience is
required to ensure  success.  The  solution  of the
quicksilver is  best made in an iron vessel, and the
sublimation should  be conducted (preferably) in
an earthenware retort, having a short but very
wide neck, and fitted to a spacious receiver, hav-
ing a large flat bottom, also of earthenware.  A
little cold water is put into the latter.  For small
quantities the heat may be  applied by means of a
sand-bath. The form above given for calomel, by
precipitation, produces  a  large product, perfectly
free from  corrosive  sublimate and subnitrate  of
mercury, and is consequently free from the objec-
tions frequently raised against  that mode of prep-
aration.
   " The form in which ca'.omel sublimes depends
much upon the dimensions and temperature of the
subliming vessels.  In small  vessels it  generally
condenses in a  crystalline cake, the interior  sur-
face of  which  is  often  covered  with  beautiful
quadrangular prismatic crystals, transparent, and
of a texture somewhat elastic or horny.  In this
state it acquires,  by the necessary  rubbing  into
powder, a decidedly yellow or buff color, more or
less deep, according to the degree of trituration it
has undergone.   If, on  the contrary, the calomel
be sublimed in a very capacious and cold receiver,
it falls in an impalpable and perfectly white pow-
der, which  requires only one  elutriation to fit it
for use, it then remains perfectly colorless.
   " This accounts for the various appearances un-
der which calomel  is met with in  commerce.  It
may be added,  that the  buff aspect of this  sub-
stance  indicates the absence of corrosive subli-
mate ; though  it by no means follows,  as a  con-
sequence, that  when snow-white it contains  it
When the surface of massive sublimed calomel is
scratched, it always exhibits  a buff color;  it  also
becomes yellow when heated, but loses  its  tint as
it again cools."   (Brande.)
   100 parts of mercury, if  well  managed,  will
produce 118 parts of calomel.
   Pur. Calomel is  frequently contaminated  with
small quantities of the bichloride or  subnitrate of
mercury.  The  former may  be detected  by di-
gesting a little of it in alcohol, decanting the clear
portion, and testing it with a drop or two of liquor
of  potassa,  when  a reddish  precipitate will  be
formed,  if any  bichloride be present.   The  sub-
nitrate  may be  detected by  digestion  in dilute
nitric acid,  and  the addition  of a  little liquor  of
potassa, as before, when a similar  precipitate will
fall down if it be contaminated therewith.
   In " The London Pharmacopoeia," the follow-
ing are mentioned  as tests of  its purity:—Black-
ened by potassa, and forms into globules by the
application  of   heat.  Heat  totally  dissipates  it.
Water in which it  has been  washed should give
no precipitate with either nitrate  of silver, lime-
water, or sulphureted hydrogen.
   The Ed. College states, that ether agitated  with
calomel, filtered, and evaporated to dryness, leaves
no crystalline residuum, and what may be left is
not turned yellow with liquor of potassa.
   Tests.  Calomel may  be recognised  by—1. It
turns greenish-yellow when digested  in  a solution
of iodide of potassium.   2.  Intensely black when
digested in  liquor of potassa, or ammonia  in ex-
cess. 3. Digested in strong nitric acid, it dissolves,
and the solution gives a red precipitate, both  with
iodide of potassium and  liquor of potassa, and a
cloudy white one with nitrate of silver, the latter
being rapidly darkened in the light, and insoluble
in nitric acid, but readily so in liquor of ammonia.
   Use, Sec.  Calomel is one of the most valuable
of the mercurials, and, perhaps, of  all  medicines
as an alterative.  It is frequently given in doses
of 4 to 1 gr., generally combined with antimonials,
as in Plummer's pill.  As a purgative  2 to 5 grs.
either combined with  or  followed by other purga-
tives, as jalap,  rhubarb,  senna, colocynth,  Epsom
salts, &c.   As a vermifuge, 2 to 5 grs.  overnight,
followed  by a  dose of castor oil next morning.
Combined with opium, it is frequently used in va-
rious complaints to produce salivation.   It  is also
employed as a sialogogue, sedative, and errhine. 
CAM                    15b                    CAM
 It  is,  perhaps,  more frequently  used,  and  in  a
 greater variety of  complaints,  than any other
 medicine.
   CALUMBINE.   Syn.  Calombine.   The bit-
 ter principle of  calumba root.  It is  extracted by
 alcohol or ether from the root, reduced to a coarse
 powder, and is purified by repeated resolutions and
 evaporations.  When pure, it forms prismatic crys-
 tals, or delicate white needles ; it readily combines
 with acetic  acid, and the compound  is intensely
 bitter; hence vinegar, or sour wine, would  be the
 best menstruum to make infusion of calumba with.
 The properties of calumbine are similar to those of
 calumba root.
   CALVES' FEET JELLY.   Prep.  For each
 foot take 3 pints of water,  and boil it to one-half;
 then let it cool, and skim off the fat.   It must now
 be  boiled for 2 or  3 minutes, with the peel of a
 lemon, and  a little spice, when  it should  be re-
 moved from the fire, strained through  a flannel
 bag, and the juice of a lemon  and a glass of wine
 added; wheii cooled  a little, it may be  put into
 glasses or forms.
   Remarks. If wanted very transparent, the jelly,
 after the fat is removed, should be gently warmed,
 just enough to melt it, and then well beaten with
 the white of an egg and the seasoning, after which
 it must be brought to a boil for a minute or two,
 when  it will be ready for straining, and  being
 mixed  with  the wine. The addition of a little beet-
 root juice will give it a beautiful color.  The calf's
 feet should  not  be  bought  ready  boiled, but only
 scalded.  Cows' feet or heels make  as good jelly
 as that from calves' feet, and are much more eco-
 nomical.
  CALX OF ANTIMONY.  Syn. Diaphoretic
 Antimony.   Impure antimonious acid, prepared by
 deflagrating  crude  antimony  with 3  times its
 weight of saltpetre.
  CAMELEON, MINERAL.   Prep.  Heat to
 redness a mixture of equal parts of black oxide of
 manganese, and nitre or potassa.
  Prop., Sec.  When dissolved in water, its solu-
 tion, at  first green, passes spontaneously through
 all the  colored rays to the red, when, if potassa be
 added, the color retrogrades until it  reaches the
 original green.   The  addition of  oil of vitriol, or
 chlorine, renders the solution colorless.  The addi-
tion of a weak acid, or even boiling or agitating the
liquid, will turn it from green to red.
  CAMERA LUCIDA.  An instrument invent-
ed by  Dr. Wollaston, for  the purpose of enabling
persons ignorant of drawing or perspective, to trace
the outlines  of distant  objects or  landscapes with
 accuracy.
  Prin. and Cons.  When a ray of  light (r) falls
 upon a quadrangular glass prism,  (a,) it is bent by
 two reflections, (at c and d,) and  thrown upwards
 where  it may be received by the eye, to which  it
 will appear described  on the table or sheet of pa-
 Per» (/>) placed to receive it. The point of a  pencil
 used to trace any object on the paper, can also be
seen, and by its means  the  picture may therefore
 be easily copied.  Various modifications of this in-
strument exist.  When the  prism is mounted on a
 stand,  and a thin brass plate, with  a small hole
 through  it for the  eyepiece, adjusted thereto,  it
 forms the instrument  sold by the  opticians.  The
 image  may  be magnified or lessened by placing a
lens, so as either to intercept the rays before they
strike the prism, or before they reach the eye. An
ingenious person will readily be  able to set up this
instrument.
   CAMERA  OBSCURA    Literally,  a  daik
chamber.  An optical app^iatus, by which the im-
ages of external objects are thrown upon any white
surface,  placed  in an obscure situation to receive
them, whereby they are represented in their natu-
ral forms and colors.
   Prin.  and Cons.  A convex lens (B) is placed in
a hole admitting the  light into a darkened box or
chamber, (A,) which, falling on a  white ground
(D) within the room, produces an inverted picture
of every object within its range.  The image thus
formed may be restored to its natural position, by
allowing the  rays  of light to pass through  two
lenses instead of one, or by receiving the rays on
a mirror placed  at an angle of 45°, when the  im-
age will  be thrown on the floor in its original posi-
tion.  The picture may be viewed through an ob-
long aperture cut in the box, or the experiment
may be performed in a darkened room, by placing
the lens  in a hole in the shutter, allowing the  im-
age to fall on the wall, (white,) or a sheet of paper
stretched to  receive it.   The following engraving
will explain the  construction of this instrument.
  A,  A box formed of two parts, to slide one within ths
other, to adjust the screen  or hind wall to receive the
imnge.
  B,  Convex lens.
  C,  External object.
  D, Ditto painted in a reversed position on a screen or
wall.

  When intended  as an  instrument for taking
views  or portraits,  the image is  thrown upon a
mirror placed* at an angle of 45°, and resting on
the bottom of the box, by which means it is thrown
upwards against a  plate of glass,  also placed at a
similar angle.   On  this  is  laid a  piece of semi-
transparent paper, when  the object is seen painted
on it, and may be traced out with  a pencil.
  CAMPHOR.    Syn.   Camphire.   Kampkuk.
Camphora, (Lat.)   Hist, and Source. The cam-
phor of commerce  is a natural production.  It is
principally extracted from the laurus camphora,
or laurel camphor  tree, but it is also  found il
several other members of the vegetable kingdom 
CAM                   157                    CAM
It is occasionally found  in small masses, between
the bark and the wood, in a perfectly pure slpte.
The Chinese and Japanese extract  the  camphor
by cutting the wood into small pieces, and  boiling
it with water in iron  vessels,—which are covered
with large earthen capitals or domes.—lined with
rice straw.  As  the water  boils, the camphor is
volatilized along with the steam, and condenses on
the straw, under the form of grayish granulations.
In this state it is collected and  transported  to Eu-
rope, when it undergoes the process of refining into
white camphor.
  Proc. of Refining.  100 parts of crude camphor
are mixed with 2 parts each of quicklime andt ani-
mal charcoal, and placed in a thin globular glass
vessel, sunk in  a sand-bath.  The heat  is then
cautiously applied, and  the vessel  gradually and
carefully raised  out of the sand as the sublimation
goes on.   When this "is completed, the whole is
allowed to cool.
   Remarks. If  the process be conducted too slow-
ly, or at a heat under 375°  Fahr.. the product
will be flaky, and consequently unsaleable, with-
out remelting or subliming.  An improvement on
this process would be, simply to sublime the above
mixture in any convenient vessel,  furnished with
a large  and well-cooled receiver,  and to remelt
the product in close vessels under pressure, when
it  hould be cooled as rapidly as possible.
   Prop., Uses,  tyc. A white semi-crystalline solid,
very  volatile  at common temperatures.   Soluble
in alcohol, ether, oils, and acetic acid, and suffi-
ciently so in water (about 1£ grs. to 1 oz.)  to im-
part its characteristic smell and taste.   It  is stim-
ulant, narcotic, anodyne, and diaphoretic, and is
given  in  doses of 2 to 20 grs., in the form  of pills
or bolus, or made  into  an  emulsion with  yelk of
egg, mucilage, or almonds.  An overdose of cam-
phor is accompanied with symptoms of poisoning.
The best antidote is opium.  Camphor is frequent-
ly put into wardrobes and clothes-trunks,  to keep
away  insects, and  it is  used  to make the white
stars  and  fire of  the  pyrotechnist.   Mixed with
copal, it renders that gum soluble in some essential
oils and alcohol.  (See  Copal.)  Mixed with six
times its weight of clay, and distilled, it undergoes
decomposition, and yields a yellow aromatic oil,
smelling strongly of thyme and rosemary, which,
I am told, is much used  to adulterate some of the
more costly essential oils.
   CAMPHOR, ARTIFICIAL.   Kind first dis-
covered, and Trommsdorff and Boullay confirmed
the fact, that rectified oil of turpentine, exposed to
the action of muriatic acid, absorbs that gas with
the production of a white crystalline mass resem-
bling camphor.
   CAMPHOR  FROM  ESSENTIAL  OILS.
Prep. tf-c.  By careful distillation of \ of the oil, the
remaining portion, on being cooled, will be found to
contain a species of camphor, on separating which,
and redistilling the remainder of the oil, 2 or 3 times,
the whole of the camphor may be obtained.  Oil
oj  rosemary, treated in  this way, yields about 10$
of camphor; oil of sweet marjoram the same ; oil
of sage yields  13g; oil of lavender 25}}.   That
from  sage oil forms cubical crystals, insoluble in
nitric acid ;  that from marjoram oil is scarcely vola-
tile or inflammable.  By keeping the  oils  loosely
corked, and in a cool  place, they produce a larger
portion  of  this pseudo-camphor.   The  substance
called aniseed camphor is procured by pouring off
the liquid portion of the oil, after it has  been par-
tially frozen by exposure to a cool atmosphere.
  CAMPHOR CAKE.  Prep. I. Campho- lini-
ment, (P. L.,) 1 oz.; melted spermaceti 1 drachm;
mix.
  II. White almond oil 4 oz.; spermaceti  £ oz.;
melt, add camphor, (cut  small,)  1 oz.; stir until
melted, then pour it into shapes  and allow it to
crystallize.
  CAMPHOR  JULEP,  CONCENTRATED
Syn. Essence of Camphor.  Prep.  Camphor 1
oz.; rectified spirit  10 oz. by weight; dissolve.
Use. 20 drops, added  to 1 fluid oz.  of pure cold
water, makes transparent  camphor julep.
  CAMPHOR, TO POWDER.  Camphor may
be beaten in a mortar for some time, without being
reduced to powder, but if it  be first broken with
the pestle, and then sprinkled with a few drops ."
spirit of wine, it may be readily pulverized.   Pow-
dered camphor is much used in tooth powders, fire-
works. &c.
  CAMPHORATED ACETIC  ACID.   Prep.
Dissolve fss of camphor,  in  ^viss of acetic acid,
(P. E.)   Use. Similar to aromatic vinegar.
  CAMPHORATED  CHALK.  Syn. Creta-
ceous  Tooth  Powder.   Prep.   I.  Precipitated
chalk 3 oz.;  camphor  1  oz.  Proc.  Add  a few
drops of spirit of wine to the camphor, then reduce
it to a fine powder, and mix it .(perfectly) with the
chalk ; lastly, pass it through a clean sieve of suffi-
cient fineness.
  II. Prepared chalk  (not  precipitated) 7 oz.;
camphor 1 oz.; as last.
  Use.  Extensively employed as  a dentifrice.   It
should be kept in corked bottles, to  prevent  the
camphor flying off.
  CAMPHORIC ACID.  Prep.  Put  1 part of
camphor and 4 parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*33, into
a glass retort, connected with  a receiver, and apply
a gradually increasing heat, until vapors cease  to
be extricated ; then add the camphor that has been
volatilized to the acid in  the retort, along with 4
or 5 parts more of nitric acid.  Repeat the process,
again and again, until 20 parts of  nitric acid have
been consumed.  When the whole of the camphor
is  acidified, it will crystallize  in the  remaining
liquor.   When the whole  is perfectly cold, it must
be thrown upon a filter  and well washed with dis-
tilled water, after which it must be dissolved in boil-
ing water, evaporated to a pellicle, and set aside to
crystallize.
  Prop. The crystals somewhat resemble those of
muriate of ammonia.  They are soluble in alcohol,
and are not precipitated from  it by water, by  which
camphoric acid may be  distinguished from benzoic
acid.  With  the bases it  fonns salts called  cam-
phorates.  The soluble camphorates may be made
by digesting the carbonate or hydrate of the base
in a hot solution of the acid, and the insoluble ones,
by double decomposition.
  CAMPHORIC ETHER.   Syn.  Camphorate
of Oxide of Ethule.   Prep. By heating  cam-
phoric acid, sulphuric acid, and alcohol together, a
colorless, sirupy liquid is  formed,  which must be
submitted to distillation, and the product dissolved
in alcohol.  When the liquid ceases to deposite crys-
tals of camphoric acid, water  must be added, when 
CAN
158
CAN
the ether will  separate under the form of an  cly
liquid, and may be collected.  Prop.  It is heavier
than water, and boils at 545°.
  CAMPHRONE.   When  the vapor of cam-
phor  is passed over quicklime at a red heat,  and
then  into  a cool receiver, a peculiar volatile liquid
is condensed, to which the name of camphrone has
been given.
  CANDLES. Candles are made of  various ma-
terials, but the first operation, in all  cases, is the
preparation of the wicks.   The best candle  wicks
are made  of cotton rovings, imported from Turkey
in skeins.   4 or more of these, according to the in-
tended thickness of the wick, are wound on a reel,
from which they are again run off, and cut of the
proper lengths.  They are then dipped into melted
tallow,  and after rubbing  with the  hands,  are
placed straight and allowed to harden.  They are
next arranged upon the broaches ready for dipping.
For mould and  other candles that do not undergo
the process of dipping, this last operation is omitted.
In some cases the wicks are formed by twisting or
plaiting the cotton together, or  winding it  round
wires, which are withdrawn after the candles  are
made, thus leaving the wicks hollow ;  this was the
method patented by Gay Lussac, for his stearine
candles.   In some instances, the cotton is steeped
in metallic solutions.  The object in all these pro-
cesses is  to produce a wick that  will  consume
itself, and  thus prevent the  necessity of snuffing.
Great care is taken to select a cotton  that  will
yield  the  least possible quantity of ashes, or non-
volatile matter after burning.
  I. Tallow  candles,   a. (By dipping.)   Proc.
The broaches being covered  with  wicks, are ar-
ranged in  frames ready for dipping.   The dipping
cistern being filled with tallow of a proper temper-
ature from the boiler, one of the frames  is placed
upon  the  end of  the dipping beam, and pressed
down gently into the melted fat; it  is next with-
drawn, the bottoms of the candles just touched
against a  board placed on one side of the  cistern
for the purpose, and then removed  to  the rack.
Another is now  taken and  treated in  the same
manner, and the  process  is continued with fresh
frames until those first dipped are sufficiently  cool
to undergo a second immersion.   This operation is
repeated until the candles acquire a sufficient size,
when they are finally cooled, sorted, weighed, and
strung in pounds  for sale.  The dipping beam  is
simply aj>iece of  wood hung from the ceiling by
the centre, and arranged with weights at one end,
and at the other with supports to receive the frames
with  the  wicks.   It  is so balanced  that a slight
pressure with  the fingers  is sufficient to depress it
so as to immerse the wicks or partly formed can-
dles into  the  tallow  of the  dipping  cistern.  On
withdrawing the pressure, the beam again assumes
the horizontal position, and thus raises the  candles
out of the melted fat.  The dipping-room, or shop,
is usually situated in the coldest part of the  pre-
mises, and furnished with  a species of Venetian
shutters throughout the entire length of walls, (if
possible,)  after the  manner  of  breweries,  to  pre-
serve a constant current of cool  air.
   b.  (By  moulding.)  Proc, <fyc.  Mould  candles
are made of the best kind of tallow ;  a mixture of
3 parts of sheep with 1 part of ox suet, both fresh,
makes the most glossy and .' onsistent candles.  The
, moulds are  nade oi pewter;  the part answering
 to the bottom of the candle being left open, and a
 small hole at the top also left  for the wick: eight
 or more of these moulds are fitted into a stool, the
 upper surface of which forms a kind of trough, the
 bottom  part of the mould being upwards.   The
 wicks are. then introduced by  putting a long wire,
 furnished with an  eye or hook at one end, down
 through the mould, until it protrudes at the bottom,
 (or rather top,)  when a wick  is inserted and  the
 needle is then immediately drawn back. As 6oon
 as all the moulds have received their wicks, a wire
 is run through the  loop of each and then allowed
 to rest on the top of  the moulds; the  protruding
 portion of the wicks is next  pulled tight, and pro-
 perly arranged  in the  centres -of  the  moulds.
 Melted tallow of  a proper temperature is now
 poured into  the trough-like part of the stool, until
 the moulds  are all  full.  'The wicks are again
 pulled tight, and the whole allowed to cool.  When
 quite cold, the wire that  held  the witAS is with-
 drawn, and  the candles pulled out one  by one, by
 inserting a bodkin into the loop of the wick.  The
 better class of moulds are then either bleached by
 exposing them to the dew and air for a few days, or
 by keeping them for a few weeks, until sufficiently
 whitened.
   II. Wax candles.  These  are made either by
 pouring melted wax over the  wicks, or by apply-
 ing the wax in a soft state with the hands, and after-
 wards rolling it smooth with a roller of polished box
 wood, upon a table formed of polished walnut wood
 They are then cut and  trimmed.  The first part
 of this process is usually conducted over the cistern
 of melted wax, and the wicks  are strung upon an
 iron hoop suspended from  the ceiling.
   III. Spermaceti candles.   Spermaceti, either
 alone or combined with hard  white  tallow, forms
 very good candles, but they will not bear carrying
 about in the hand without spilling the melted por-
 tion.
   IV.  Composition candles.   These are  gener-
 ally made of  a  mixture of spermaceti and hard
 white  tallow, to which a little bleached rosin is
 sometimes added.   The origin of the  application
 of the term " composite" or  " composition" to
 candles, is somewhat laughable.  " A manufac-
 turer who had a large stock of spermaceti candles
 on hand, of a dirty hue, and therefore unsaleable,
 advertised them under the above name, and they
 were soon disposed of, from the supposition  that
 they were composed of  some new combination of
 materials."   After this it may be asked—" Whafs
 in a name ?"
    V. Stearine candles.  These are made of the
 stearine or  stearic acid  obtained from tallow, in
 the  same way  as other mould candles.  They
 furnish a superior  light, and burn a long time: 3
 or 4 years ago  it  was a general practice for  the
 manufacturer to add a little arsenious  acid (white
 arsenic) to his stearine, to prevent it crystallizing,
 and thus spoiling  the  appearance of the candle;
 but owing to the spirited way in which this rascal-
 ity was exposed by the press,  I believe it has been
 discontinued by all the respectable  houses.  In
 Ure's  " Dictionary  of  Arts,  Manufactures, and
 Mines," it  is stated, that " When the blocks of
 stearine are broken, they display a highly crystal-
 line texture, which would render them unfit for 
CAN                    159                    CAN
making candles.  This texture is therefore broken
down or  comminuted in a plated copper  pan,
along with one  thousandth part of pulverized ar-
senious acid, after which it is  ready to be cast
into candles in  appropriate moulds."   It is a pity
to see a really respectable man, like Dr. Ure, thus
recommending  the addition of a poison to the com-
mon materials  of which candles are  made, more
especially as there are other methods perfectly in-
nocent to  effect  the same purpose.   The at-
mosphere of a room  in which two such candles (4
to the lb.) are burnt, would  thus become contami-
nated with 34 grains of white arsenic in the space
of about 8 or 9  hours, the influence of which upon
the health of the  inmates must be highly perni-
cious.   Margarine candles  are  similar to those
made of stearine.
  Remarks. Of late years  the best candles are
made  in  such  manner  that they  do  not require
snuffing.  The simplest  way of  effecting this is to
make the wick with one strand of  loosely twisted
cotton, which will become slightly stretched when
the wick is  placed in the candle, but will contract
again on its burning,  removing the  force that kept
it extended.  If this roving be  placed at the out-
side of the wick, it  is  evident  that when  it con-
tracts, it will pull the latter into a curved shape,
and thus expose its upper part to the outer portion
of the  flame,  as  well  as to the  atmosphere, by
which means  it will be consumed with sufficient
rapidity to prevent the necessity of using the snuf-
fers.   The  same  may  be effected by placing the
candle at an angle of about 45°, by which means
the upper part  of the wick will be out of the flame ;
but this plan, besides being unsightly, is liable to the
risk of the tallow dropping beyond the  candlestick.
Platted wicks,  so  arranged  that one portion shall
be stretched more than  another, have long been
adopted for the same purpose.
  CANDLES,  MERCURIAL.   Cinnabar  or
gray oxide of  mercury mixed  with  wax, and  a
wick inserted therein.   Use. They have been re-
commended by Mr.  Colles  for  partial mercurial
fumigation.  A candle  so prepared is burnt under
a glass funnel with a curved neck, the upper orifice
of which is directed to the diseased part.
  CANDLESTICKS,  SNUFFERS, &c.   TO
CLEAN.  Silver, plated, and  japanned candle-
sticks, snuffers  and snuffer-stands, should be clean-
ed by first removing the drops  of wax or tallow
that may have fallen on them, by washing in boil-
ing hot water, afterwards wiping  them quite dry
and clean with  a piece of soft wash leather. If made
of silver, or copper-plated,  they may be  finish-
ed off with a little plate-powder.  On  no account
place them before the fire to melt the grease off,
as much heat will melt off the solder or japan, or
injure the face  of the plate.  In placing the can-
dles in the  sockets fit them in  tightly, either by
means of a strip of paper wound round them, or
by the newly-invented  candle  springs;  they will
thus be prevented from falling  about and spilling
the melted portion of the tallow or other materials
of which they may be composed.
  CANNON  METAL.   Syn.   Gun Metal.
This is a variety of bronze in which the proportion
of tin varies from 8  to  14  per  cent.   From the
experiments of  the Comte Lamartilliere, made at
Douay, it appears that never less than 8}}, or more
than ll°r, of this  metal should be used, the re-
maining 89 or 92°; being pure copper.
  CANTHARIDES.  Syn. Lyttjs. Blistering
Flies.  Spanish  Flies.   The best  Spanish flies
are imported  from  Saint  Petersburg, and have
more  of a coppery cast than those of Southern
Europe.  The color of the latter has more of a
brassy tint.  They are frequently adulterated with
the melontha vitis, an insect which is wholly des-
titute of vesicating  power.  The latter may be
distinguished by a squarer form than the genuine
cantharides, and also by having black feet.   Use
Externally they are  used to raise blisters, and in-
ternally as a stimulant and diuretic, generally in
the form of tincture.  In excess they produce
strangury,  bloody  urine, satyriasis, delirium, con-
vulsions, and death.
   Pres.  These  insects should be  preserved  in
well-closed bottles or tin canisters, as they are sub-
ject to decay as well  as the attack of a species of
mite, (the acarus  domesticus,)  besides a moth, (the
tinea fiavifrontella,) and other insects.  The addi-
tion of a few drops of oil of cloves, or strong acetic
acid, or even a few cloves  in substance, will pre-
serve them unchanged for a length of time in close
vessels.
   Adult. The best proof of the goodness of can-
tharides is  their smell.  Both  the plaster and the
powder are generally mixed with euphorbium.  I
know it to be a fact,  that the greater portion of the
powder sold is adulterated.   The plan of many of
the druggists is to sort out the  most worthless flies
for powdering, and to compensate for their defi-
ciency of vesicating power, to add 1 lb. of euphor-
bium to every 12 or 14 lbs. of flies.  Where a
superior article of  cantharides is used, liquorice or
some other cheap and simple powder is added, in
the proportion of 4 or 5 lbs. to every 14 lbs., along
with 1 lb. of euphorbium, and sufficient blue-black
or charcoal to turn the yellow of the liquorice to a
greenish color.  The best method of detecting this
adulteration is by the microscope.
   Ant.  When cantharides have been taken  in
poisonous doses, a strong emetic of sulphate of zinc
should be  immediately administered, and if this
does not rapidly operate, the stomach-pump should
be applied.   The  vomiting  may be promoted by
copiously drinking warm bland  diluents, such  as
broth,  linseed tea, milk,  &c.   Friction on the
spine, with volatile liniment and laudanum, and
the subsequent administration of draughts contain-
ing musk, opium,  and camphorated emulsion, have
been strongly recommended.
   Tests. The microscope offers the readiest means
of detecting cantharides.   By its use, very minute
particles may be   discovered in  the  stomach and
intestines, on a post-mortem examination.  Orfila
even found particles  of cantharides in a body that
had been interred 9 months.  When a few frag-
ments or particles can be found, or a little of the
powder, this may be digested in ether, and the
solution evaporated to the consistence of an extract,
when a little may be tested by applying it to the
inside  of the lip.  If the  suspected  matter  be a
liquid,  it may be gently evaporated to the consist-
ence of a sirup, and  then  digested in ether as be-
fore.
  CANTON'S  PHOSPHORUS.  Prep.   Mix
together  3  parts  of  calcined oyster-shells, and 1 
CAO                     160                    CAO
 part of flowers of sulphur, and expose the mixture
 for an hour to a strong heat in a covered crucible.
 Prop. This substance  becomes phosphorescent in
 the dark, after exposure for  a short  time to the
 «sunshine.
   CAOUTCHOUC. Syn. Indian Rubber. Elas-
 tic Gum.  Indian rubber is the concrete  juice of
 the Jatropa elastica, and several other plants.  The
 fresh milky juice is spread over moulds of unbaked
 clay, and then exposed to the  heat and smoke of
 a fire, or torches, to dry it, whence it derives  its
 dark  color, the  pure juice  being nearly white.
 Successive coats of juice are laid on, and the ope-
 ration of drying repeated, until the bottles acquire
 sufficient thickness. When it has become thorough-
 ly hard and dry, the clay is  beaten out.  In this
 form  it is imported.
   Prop., Use,  tj-e.  This substance  is eminently
 elastic, and impervious  to water, and on  this ac-
 count is largely employed in  the  manufacture of
 sundry elastic  and  waterproof goods,  as elastic
 bands,  braces,  galoches,  portmanteaus,  bottles,
 catheters, bougies, probes, &c.  It is used in  the
 manufacture of various waterproof varnishes—for
 the removal of pencil marks  from paper, and for
 numerous other purposes.  It has lately been used,
 with  apparent success, as an article for pavements
 and floorings, after the manner of asphalte. Tubes
 are formed of this  substance, by  cutting  it into
 uniform slips of a proper thickness, and winding it
 round rods of  glass or  metal, so  that  the edges
 shall  be in close  contact; a piece  of  tape is then
 wound round outside it, and in this state  it  is boiled
 for 2  or 3 hours in water, when the edges will  be
 found to be sufficiently adherent.  Pieces of Indian
 rubber may be joined by moistening their edges
 with  a solution of it in ether,  turpentine, or naph-
 tha ;  or they  may be softened by simply boiling
 them in water, or touching them with either of the
 above solvents.  The parts  being, in each case,
 immediately pressed tightly together, will be found
 to unite very firmly.   Indian  rubber is very solu-
 ble in ether, mineral naphtha, and  turpentine, and
 in the fixed and many of the volatile oils.  It may
 be procured from the ethereal  solution in an un-
 altered state.   Frederic the  Great had a pair of
 riding boots made by applying successive layers of
 this solution to  a  mould.   From the high  price of
 ether  it is, however,  seldom used as a  solvent.
 The celebrated patent mackintoshes are made by
 dissolving Indian rubber  in hot naphtha,  distilled
 from  native petroleum, or coal tar.  The jelly-like
 paste so formed is then  triturated until it becomes
 quite  smooth, when  it is pressed through  a sieve,
 and forms a homogeneous varnish, which is applied
 by a flat edge  of metal or wood, to  the cloth or
 fabric, properly stretched to receive  it.  Several suc-
 cessive coats are applied, and when the last is par-
 tially dry, the surfaces are brought evenly together,
 and passed between rollers, by which process they
 are made to adhere firmly together.  The prepar-
 ed cloth is then dried in a stove  room.   Next to
 ether, naphtha is the best solvent  of  caoutchouc.
 Oil of  turpentine dissolves it very readily, or, at
least, forms a sort of jelly therewith, but it dries
with difficulty: the solution  made  with the fixed
oils always remains  glutinous.  Caoutchoueine, a
substance lately  discovered,  promises to  become
the cheapest and most  useful solvent of Indian
rubber, as soon  as  the expiration  of tho patent
right and  monopoly leads to the reduction of its
price.   Indian rubber  melts  at  a heat  of  about
24s°, and does not again solidify.
  CAOUTCHOUC,  ARTIFICIAL.    If  well
prepared  boiled linseed oil (made  with  litharge)
be  applied, by means of a brush, to any smooth
surface, and dried in the  sun or smoke, and the
process repeated until some thickness be  attained,
it will afford a substance of considerable fineness,
semitransparent, wonderfully  elastic, and resem-
bling Indian rubber in most of its sensible  qualities.
It is well  adapted to make catheters, bougies, var-
nishes, &c.  A pound  of the oil may be spread
upon a stone, in a thin stratum,  and will  take
about six months to acquire these properties in the
utmost perfection.
  CAOUTCHOUCINE. A highly volatile fluid,
discovered by Mr. Barnard.
  Prep. The following is  an  abstract of  the most
interesting portion of Mr. Barnard's specification,
(patent.)   " I take  a mass  of Indian rubber, or
caoutchouc,  as  imported, and having cut it into
small lumps, containing about 2 cubic inches each,
I throw them into a cast-iron still, connected with
a well-cooled  worm-tub, (a diagram  of  which is
annexed to the specification, but any flat vessel
with a large evaporating surface will do, the en-
tire top of which can be removed for the  purpose
of cleaning it out.—Ed.)  I then  apply heat, in
the usual way, until  the thermometer ranges at
about 600° Fahr., when, as it progresses upwards
to this  temperature, a dark-colored  oil or liquid is
distilled over.  When  the  thermometer   reaches
600°, or thereabouts, nothing is left in the still but
dirt  and charcoal.  I  afterwards rectify this oil,
and  thereby obtain  fluids, varying  in  sp. gr., the
lightest of which has  not been  under -670.  At
each rectification the color becomes brighter and
paler, until at about sp. gr. *680 it is colorless, and
highly volatile.   1 rectify it  along  with £ of its
weight of water.  To enable the dirt  to be  removed
from the  bottom  of the still with greater ease, I
throw in common solder, to the  depth of about J
an  inch ;  when  this  becomes fused, the dirt is
easily  taken off.   I have found the disagreeable
smell of this liquid to  be removed by shaking it up
with nitro-muriatic acid, or chlorine, in the propor-
tion of a £ of a pint of the acid to 1 gallon of the
liquid."
  Remarks.  This substance possesses  singular
properties.  It is the lightest fluid known, and yet
its vapor is denser than the heaviest of the gases.
Mixed with alcohol, it dissolves all  the resins, es-
pecially copal and Indian rubber, at  the  common
temperature  of the  atmosphere, and  it  speedily
evaporates, leaving them again in the solid state.
It mixes with  the oils in all proportions. (See But-
ter of Cacao.)   It promises to  be  a valuable ar-
ticle for the solution of  resins in  the manufacture
of varnishes, and for liquefying oil paints, instead of
turpentine.  It is very volatile, and requires to be
kept in close vessels.  According to the researches
of Himly, Gregory,  and  Bouchardat, it appears
that the caoutchoueine of Barnard consists of sev-
eral  liquids, some of which have  the  composition
of olefiant gas, and others that of oil of turpentine
One of these,  the caoutchene of Bouchardat, boih
below 32°, while  another (Heveene) boils at 599° 
CAP                     161                    CAP
 The most volatile of these  liquids has the sp. gr.
 of 0*654.
   CAPERS.  The capers  employed in  cookery,
 and as a sauce, are  the flower-buds of the caper
 tree, which  is largely  cultivated in Spain, Italy,
 and the south of France.
   Col. and  Pres.  The flower-buds  are  picked
 daily,  and added to the same cask of vinegar, until
 it becomes full, when it is sold to the dealers, who
 sort them by sifting them through  copper  sieves,
 of  different  sizes.  In  this way they are divided
 into nonpareille, capucine, capote, seconds, and
 thirds, according  to  their sizes and qualities;
 other things  being equal, the smallest are regarded
 as  the best.   Much,  however, depends upon  the
 strength of the vinegar used to pickle them.
   Pur. P'rom the use of copper sieves in the sepa-
 ration, capers  frequently  become   contaminated
 with this  metal.   This contributes  to give them
 that lively green appearance so much valued by
 connoisseurs.  Pieces of copper money, as sous, or
 halfpence, are also  frequently added for this pur-
 pose.   This  vile fraud  is, however, very easily de-
 tected.  If copper be  present in either the capers
 or the pickle, they will  dev%lope a blue  color, when
 agitated with  liquid  ammonia in excess.   A solu-
 tion of prussiate of potash added to the pickle will
 also throw down a brown precipitate.
   CAPILLAIRE.  Simple sirup, or a solution of
 sugar  in  water, generally flavored with  orange
 flowers.  The name is derived  from  that of  the
 mucilaginous sirup, formerly directed to  be made
 of the adiantum capillus veneris, or true maiden
 hair.
   Prep. I.  Fine white lump sugar 1 cwt.; dis-
 tilled  water  54 gallons.  Proc.  Put them into  a
 clean and brightly-polished copper boiler, and grad-
 ually apply heat until  the water boils, then with-
 draw the fire, and stir until the  sugar dissolves ;
 again  apply heat, and let it boil for half a min-
 ute, then remove it from the fire, and when  near-
 ly  cold, add orange-flower water 4  a  gallon, and
 strain  through flannel into large  clean stone jars,
 which must then be at once well corked and placed
 in a cool cellar, where it will be  always ready for
 bottling.
   Remarks.  If the sirup  be made with pure dis-
 tilled water,  it will be perfectly bright  and trans-
 parent, but if common water be  used, it must un-
 dergo the process of clarification, as the lime con-
 tained in the latter is precipitated by boiling, and
 thus makes the sirup cloudy. This is best done by
 allowing the  whole to cool as soon as the sugar is
 dissolved, and then beating up a  little of the sirup
 with the whites of 12. eggs, and  about a pint of
 water, until it froths well; this must be added to
 the sirup in the boiler, and the whole whisked  up
 to a good froth : heat should now be applied, when
 a scum will  form, which  must be removed  from
 time to time with a clean skimmer.  As  soon  as
 the sirup begins to simmer,  it  must be removed
 from the fire, and  allowed  to stand  until it has
 cooled  a little, when it should be  again  skimmed,
 if necessary,  and then passed through  flannel  as
 before.   The orange-flower water may be  next
 added.   The  whole of this process is best perform-
 ed by steam,  as too great a degree of heat is  likely
to injure both the color and flavor of the product.
 Capillaire  is usually sold in small bottles of a pe-
 culiar shape, known in the trade as " Capillaires,"
 but no more of them should be filled at a time than
 is necessary,  as no  liquid preparation  of  sugar
 keeps  well  unless in a  cold situation.   (See
 Sirup.)
    II. Sugar  28 lbs.; water  1£  gallons; orange-
 flower water 1 pint; as last.
    III. Sugar 2 lbs.; water 1 pint;  orange-flower
 water 1 oz.;  as last.
    IV.  Gum  tragacanth 2 oz.;  water 1 gallon;
 dissolve by boiling, then add sugar 8 lbs.;  dissolve,
 clarify, and add orange-flower water 4 pint.  This
 does not mix well with wine or spirit.
    V. Simple  sirup  1  pint; orange or rose water,
 or curacoa, 1  wine-glassful.
    Use. Grog or wine is sweetened with capillaire
 in preference to sugar.  A  tablespoonful,  added
 to a glass of water,  makes  a very pleasant bev-
 erage.
    C APNOMOR.  An oily fluid, possessing a pun-
 gent and an agreeable odor, obtained by Reichen-
 bach, from beech tar.
    CAPROIC  ACID.   An  acid discovered  by
 Chevreul.  It is best  obtained by adding  dilute
 sulphuric acid to a solution  of caproate of baryta,
 when an oily liquid rises to the surface, which is
 the acid.  It must be collected, and dried by means
 of chloride of calcium.
   CAPRIC ACID.  An acid discovered by Che-
 vreul, and  obtained in a similar way to  the last,
 from the caprate of baryta.   (See Butyrate  of
 Baryta.)
   CAPSICIN.  Syn. Capsica.  This substance
 was obtained by Bucholz and Braconnot, from the
 capsicum  annuum, or common capsicum.   It is
 best prepared by digesting the  soft alcoholic extract
 in ether, and  evaporating the solution.  Prop. A
 volatile  reddish-colored  liquid,  intensely pungent.
 4 gr. volatilized in a large room, will cause all  its
 inmates to cough and sneeze.
   CAPSULES, (in Pharmacy.)  (From  capsula,
 diminutive of capsa, a box,  case,  or bag.)   Small
 spherical, or pear-shaped vessels,  in  which medi-
 cines are placed, for the purpose of covering their
 nauseous taste, at the time of swallowing them.
   Prep. I. These articles are usually prepared by
 dipping the bulbous extremity of a metallic rod into
 a strong solution of gelatine.   When  the  rod is
 withdrawn, it is rotated in order to diffuse the fluid
 jelly equally over its surface.  As soon as the ge-
 latinous  film has hardened,  it is  removed from the
 mould and placed on pins, furnished with suitable
 heads, and fixed on a cork table.  When  dry, the
 capsules are placed upright in little cells, made in
 the table to receive them, and the liquid with which
 they are to be  filled is  then introduced by means
 of a small glass tube.  They are next closed by
 dropping some  of the  solution of gelatine on the
 orifices.
   II. Oval balls of wax, of  the  requisite size, are
 prepared by  pouring wax into  a  wooden  mould,
 consisting of two parts,  and arranged for the re-
 ception of a row of these balls.  These are after-
 wards stuck on  iron needles, affixed to  rods of
 convenient size, in rows.  The balls are next uni-
 formly coated all at  once by dipping  in the usual
manner, then  removed from  the  needles,  and
placed,  with the needle-holes downwards, on a
heated plate, when the wax flows out, and a round 
CAR
162
CAR
capsule is left behind.   (Simonin in Jour. d. Chim.
Med.)
   Use, 6rc. These capsules  were  invented by
Mothe, and are now extensively employed to cover
the nauseous odor and flavor of various medicines,
as balsam of copaiba, oil of cubebs, creosote, Dip-
pel's  oil,  &.c.  When swallowed,  the gelatinous
capsule gradually dissolves in the stomach,  and
allows its  contents to escape.   The capsules usu-
ally met with, hold about 10 or 12 grs. of balsam
of copaiba.   It has lately been proposed Vo make
them of a mixture  of gelatine and sugar, instead
of gelatine, by which means  they would retain
their elasticity the. longer.
   CARAMEL, PURE.  Prep. The caramel of
commerce is spirit-coloring,  or a solution  of burnt
sugar, in water.  In this state it is mixed with va-
riable quantities of undecomposed sugar and  cer-
tain bitter compounds, (assamar, &c.)  To render
it quite pure, it should be dissolved in  water, filter-
ed, and alcohol added until it  ceases to produce a
precipitate.  The  caramel is  thus thrown  down,
while  the  impurities remain  in solution.  Prop.
A black or dark-brown  powder, soluble in water,
to which it gives  a rich sepia  tint; it is  insoluble
in alcohol, and incapable of  fermentation.
   CARAT.  (In the Art of the  Lapidary:) A
weight of 4 grains used in weighing diamonds,
which are spoken of as of so many carats weight.
(In the Art of Assaying :)  A weight of 12 grains ;
but more commonly a proportional weight or term,
representing the number of parts of pure gold in 24
parts of the alloy ;  pure gold  being spoken of as
of 24  carats fine.  It is commonly the 24th part
of the " assay pound," and  is nominally subdi-
vided  into 4 assay grains,  and these  again  into
quarters.
   CARBAZOTIC ACID.   Syn.  Picric  Acid.
Nitro-picric  Acid. 'Prep. Add cautiously  and
gradually, 1 part  of the finest indigo  in powder to
10 or  12 parts  of nitric acid, sp. gr. 143.   When
the scum has fallen, boil until  nitrous  fumes cease
to rise, adding more  acid if necessary.  On cool-
ing, crystals of impure picric acid will  be deposited.
Dissolve these  in boiling water, and remove by
means  of bibulous  paper the  oily matter, which
will be found floating on the surface.   On cooling,
crystals will again form.   These must be collected
and again dissolved in boiling water, saturated with
carbonate of potassa, and set  aside to crystallize.
The crystals of picrate  of  potassa thus obtained
must  be dissolved in boiling  water,  and  decom-
posed by nitric acid.  Crystals of the acid will be
now deposited, and may be  further purified by re-
solution in boiling water and recrystallization.
   Prop. It forms brilliant yellow scales, very sol-
uble in boiling water, and in alcohol and ether. It
has a bitter taste and is  fusible  and volatile.  It
forms salts with the bases, mostly possessing a yel-
low color, and exploding when heated.   The  pi-
crate  or carbazotate of lead has been proposed as
a  fulminating powder for percussion caps.  The
carbazotate  of potassa has been given with advan-
tage in intermittent fevers.  A solution of th't acid
in alcohol  is an excellent test  for potassa, if there
be not too much water present, as it throws down
a  yellow crystalline precipitate with that  alkali,
but forms a very soluble salt  with soda.   These
two alkalis  may thus  be  readily  distinguished.
Most of the salts cf this acid- may be made by th«
direct solution of the  carbonate, hydrate, or oxide
of the base, in a solution of the acid in hot water-
The  carbazotate  of silver  forms beautiful starry
groups of acicular crystals,  having the color and
lustre of gold.
   CARBON.  A chemical  element, the  inflam-
mable base of charcoal.  The diamond is perfectly
pure carbon.
   Prep. Carbon, sufficiently pure for all chemical
purposes, may be obtained by strongly  igniting
lamp-black in a covered crucible.  This, like  the
diamond, yields pure  carbonic acid by combustion
in oxygen.
   CARBON,  BISULPHURET   OF.   Prep
Heat together  in a close vessel, 5 parts of bisuh
phuret of iron, and 1 part of well dried charcoal;
or transmit the vap\f of sulphur over fragments
of charcoal heated to redness in a porcelain tube.
In either case  the resulting compound  should be
carried off as soon as formed, by means of a glass
tube plunged into cold water, beneath which it will
collect.   It may be afterwards freed from adhering
moisture and sulphur by distilling it at a jbw tem-
perature from chloride of calcium.
  Prop. A  colorless, pungent, foetid  liquid, ex-
ceedingly volatile and combustible.  It exceeds all
substances in refractive power.  (Brewster.)   In
dispersive power it exceeds all fluid substances ex-
cept oil of cassia.  It produces intense cold by its
evaporation.    A  spirit  thermometer,  having its
bulb covered with cotton, if  dipped into this fluid
and suspended  in  the air,  rapidly sinks from  60°
to 0°, and  if put  into the receiver of an air-pump
it will fall to—81°.   Mercury may be readily fro-
zen in this  way. The following experiment is both
amusing and illustrative.—A  glass of water has
remained on the table since the preceding evening,
and though it might be  some  degrees  below 32°
Fahr., it indicated no disposition for congelation.
A few drops of sulphuret of carbon were  applied
to the  surface ;   instantly the  globules became
cased with a shell of icy spiculae of retiform tex-
ture.  Where they were in  contact with the wa-
ter, plumose branches darted from the sulphuret,
as from a centre, to the bottom of the vessel, and
the whole  became solidified.  The  sulphuret  of
carbon  in the interim volatilized; and during this
period the spicules exhibited  the colors of the solar
spectrum in beautiful array.  (J. Murray.)
  CARBONATE.  A  compound formed by the
union of carbonic acid with an earth, alkali, or
metallic  oxide.
   Char. They are distinguished by  the property
of effervescing on  the addition of an acid.
  Anal. The quantity of the base in an alkalinfl
or earthy carbonate  may be easily determined by
the method described under the head Alkalime-
try, (Nos. II. and III.,) and the quantity  of car-
bonic acid by the method of Fresenius, also de-
tailed in the same article.   Another easy method
to determine the carbonic  acid, is to use the  fol-
lowing little  apparatus.  It  consists of a flask a,
into which  a weighed portion of the sample  foi
examination is placed, along with a little water, in
which it should be dissolved or diffused.  A small
tube b, sufficiently long to maintain a slanting po-
sition without falling,  is then filled with either sul-
phuric or muriatic acid, and placed  in  the flask 
CAR                     163                    CAR
One end of a  bent tube c, is now fitted air-tight
into the flask, and the other end air-tight into a hori-
 zontal tube d, filled with small fragments of dried
 muriate of lime, and having its other  end e drawn
 out, so that there  shall be only a capillary orifice.
 It must now be accurately weighed.   On inclining
 the apparatus so  prepared, the acid escapes over
 the side of the small tube, and mixing with the li-
 quor in the flask, expels the carbonic acid of the
 carbonate, which, passing over the muriate of lime,
 is rendered quite dry before it flies off by the open-
 ing e.   After effervescence has ceased, heat should
 be applied to the  bottom of the flask, until  it be
 filled with steam, to expel the carbonic gas it con-
 tains.   On  again becoming cold,  the apparatus
 should be weighed, when the difference between
 its present and former weights will give  the exact
 weight of the carbonic  acid gas that was contained
 in the sample.  The quantity of carbonic acid in
 the carbonates of the  metals, that do not contain
 water, may be  determined  by  heating them to
 redness in a platina crucible.
   CARBONATE  OF POTASSA.  Syn.  Sub-
 carbonate of Potash.  Salt of Tartar.  Kali.
 (Mild Vegetable  Alkali.   Nitre  fixed  by
 Charcoal.  Obs.)  Soucarbonate  de  Potasse,
 (Fr.)   Kohlensaures  Kali, (Germ.)
   Hist, and Source.   Impure or commercial car-
 bonate of potassa, commonly known by the name
 of pearlash, or potash,  is imported from  America
 and Russia, where  it  is  obtained  by  lixiviating
 wood  ashes, and  evaporating the solution to dry-
 ness.  The mass  is then kept in a state of fusion
 for several hours,  until  it becomes quiescent, when
 it is  transferred into iron pots, and left to cool; it
 is then broken up and packed  in  air-tight barrels,
 and  in this  state constitutes the potash of com-
 merce. Another  method is to transfer the black
 salts, or product of the first  evaporation, from the
 kettles to a large oven or furnace, so constructed
 that the flame is  made to play over the alkaline
 mass, which is kept continually stirred  by means
 of an iron rod.  The ignition is continued until the
 impurities are burned out, and the mass changes
 from black to a dirty or bluish white.   The whole
 is then cooled, broken up, and packed in  casks, as
 before.  This constitutes pearlash.  When potash
 or pearlash  is dissolved in water, depurated and
 crystallized, or evaporated  to dryness, it forms re-
 fined ashes, or a  carbonate of potash sufficiently
 pure for most purposes.
  The  following  are the  directions  of the "Col-
 leges.
  I.  Take of impure carbonate of potassa lb. ij ;
water 14 pints.  Dissolve the impure carbonate of
potassa in tho distilled water, and filter; then pour
 the solution into  a suitable vessel, and evaporate
 the water, that the liquor may thicken ; then stii
 assiduously  with  a  spatula  until  the salt  con-
 cretes.
   A purer carbonate of potassa  may be preparec
 from the crystals of bicarbonate of  potassa heatec
 to  redness.  (P. L.)
   II. Pure carbonate of potash may be most read-
 ily obtained by heating crystallized  bicarbonate of
 potash  to redness in a crucible, but more cheaply
 by dissolving bitartrate of potash in thirty parts of
 boiling water, separating and washing the crystals
 which  form on cooling,  heating them in a loosely
 covered crucible to redness so long as fumes are
 discharged, breaking'down the mass, and roasting
 it  in an oven for  two hours, with  occasional stir-
 ring ; lixiviating the product with  distilled water,
 filtering the solution thus obtained, evaporating the
 solution to dryness, granulating the  salt towards
 the close by brisk agitation, and heating the gran-
 ular salt nearly to redness.   The product of either
 process must be kept in well-closed  bottles. (P. E.)
   III.  Mix charcoal with four times its weight of
 nitre, and  deflagrate  it,  by throwing it, in small
 portions at a time, into  a  red hot  crucible; then
 keep it at  a bright red heat  for a  few minutes;
 lastly, dissolve in water, filter, and evaporate.
   IV.  Dissolve 10 parts of  raw potash in 6  parts
 of  water, and allow it to remain (repeatedly stir-
 ring) for twenty-four hours in a cool place ; then
 filter, and  somewhat  concentrate by evaporation ;
 meanwhile prevent crystallization  by continually
 stirring, until the  whole mass is nearly cool, when
 it should be decanted into a strainer.  The mother
 liquor, containing chloride of potassium and silicate
 of  potassa, drips off; after which,  evaporate the
 residue to dryness at a gentle heat; then dissolve
 in  an equal quantity of  distilled water, and  after
 filtration, again evaporate to dryness.  The product
 is quite  free from sulphate of potassa, and nearly
 free  from  the  muriate and silicate.  (M. Meyer
 Vogel's Notizen.)
   Pur., Tests, SfC.  This salt frequently contains
 water, silicic acid, sulphates,  and chlorides.  The
 first may be detected by the loss  of weight the salt
 suffers  by  heat; the  second  by adding muriatic
 acid in  excess, evaporating to dryness, and igniting
 the residuum, by which this contamination will be
 rendered insoluble, and be left behind on digestion
 in water ; the third and fourth may be detected by
 adding  nitric acid  in  excess, and testing with ni-
 trate of silver and chloride of  barium.  If the for-
 mer produces a white precipitate, a muriate must
 be  present; and if the latter  does  the  same, the
 contamination must be a sulphate.   The London
 College  states  that  good carbonate of potassa is
 " entirely dissolved by water ; in an open vessel it
 spontaneously liquefies.   It changes the color of
 turmeric brown.  Supersaturated with nitric acid
 neither  carbonate of  soda nor chloride of barium
 throws down any thing, and nitrate of silver very
 little.   100 parts lose 16 of  water by a strong red
 heat, and 26-3  parts of carbonic  acid on the addi-
 tion of dilute sulphuric acid."  (P. L.)  " Pure car
 bonate of potash does not lose weight at a low red
 heat; and a solution, supersaturated with pure ni-
tric acid, is precipitated either faintly or not at all,
by a solution of nitrate of baryta or nitrate of sil-
ver." (P. E.) 
CAR
16
  Prop., Use, cj-c.  It possesses pow. rful antacid
and alkaline properties,  and is given in  doses of 5
to 30 grains.   It  is sometimes employed to make
effervescing draughts, with  citric or tartaric acid ;
for this purpose,
        20 grains of carbonate of potassa
                  are taken for
     i--------------------------------------------A--------------------------------------------<
     17 grs. of crystallized citric  acid ;
     18 grs.       "       tartaric acid; and
     f 5 ss of lemon juice.
  The carbonate of commerce is largely employed
in the arts, in soap-making, the manufacture of
glass, &,c.
  Ant.  Carbonate of potash is caustic,  and when
taken in excessive doses, is poisonous.  The best
remedy is water  strongly soured with  vinegar or
lemon juice, or tartaric, citric, or sulphuric acid.
  Remarks. The high price of  pearlash and pot-
ash has led to the preparation of carbonate of pot-
ash from the bisulphate or sulphate, by heating it
in a reverberatory furnace with  charcoal.   A sul-
phuret is  formed, which, by continuing the roast-
ing, is converted into a carbonate of potash, which
is then  purified by solution, defecation, and evap-
oration.
  CARBONATE OF POTASSA  WATER,
HENRY'S. Prep.   Dissolve pure  carbonate  of
potassa in distilled water, and make it up to the
spec. grav. T248, that it may saturate an equal
measure of sulphuric acid, spec.  grav. T135, or of
nitric acid, spec. grav.  T143, or of muriatic acid,
spec. grav. 1-074.  Use.  In   assaying  mineral
waters, &c.
  CARBONATE OF  SODA.  Syn. Subcar-
bonate of Soda.  Mild Mineral or Fossil Al-
kali.   Aerated  Mineral  Alkali.   Salt  of
Soda.   Salt  of  Barilla.  Prepared Natron.
SOUCARBONATE DE SoUDE, CrISTAUX  DE  SOUDE.
(Fr.)  Einfach  Kohlensaures Natron.  (Ger.)
The carbonate  of soda of commerce is  either pre-
pared by  lixiviating  the ashes of sea-weed, or by
heating a  mixture of  sulphate  of soda, (glauber
salts,) sawdust, and  lime, in a  reverberatory fur-
nace, washing out the carbonate with water, evap-
orating, and crystallizing.  The ashes of  marine
plants have been long an article  of commerce, un-
der the  names of barilla, barilla  ashes, kelp, blan-
quette, &c, but the  carbonate made from them is
of a very impure description.  That made from the
sulphate is  much purer, and when the process is
well managed, merely contains a trace  of sulphu-
ric acid.  The  quantity of carbonate  of soda in
the ashes of marine plants,, varies from  3 to 40§.
  Prep. I.  (From sulphate  of  soda.)  The sul-
phate of soda is generally formed by decomposing
chloride of sodium (common  salt) with sulphuric
acid.  The gas evolved is either  passed  into water,
when it forms liquid  muriatic acid, or into milk of
lime, when muriate of lime is produced.  A large
quantity of sulphate of soda is also procured from
the manufacturers of chloride of lime   and acetic
acid. The sulphate, of soda is mixed with an equal
weight of chalk and  about half its weight of coal,
each being  previously ground to powder, and the
mixture is exposed to a great heat in a reverbera-
tory furnace, and during  the  calcination is  fre-
quently stirred  about with a  long  iron  rod.  The
CAR
dark gray product has received the name of British
barilla,  or ball alkali.  It usually contains  about
22 or 23°; of  carbonate of soda.   This is now lixi-
viated with water, and the  solution, after defeca-
tion,  evaporated  to dryness,  mixed with a little
sawdust,  and roasted  in  a reverberatory furnace
until all the sulphur is expelled.  The product now
receives  the  name of soda-ash, or soda-salt, and
contains about 5I>§ of  alkali.  It may be purified
by solution in  water, defecation, evaporation, and
crystallization.   A  purer  article is yielded by a
mixture of 5 parts of sulphate of soda, and 4 parts
of chalk  or  lime, and 1  or 2 parts  of powdered
charcoal, treated as above.   The annexed engra-
ving represents a vertical paction of the soda fur
nace employed in Scotland.
  II. (From the ashes of marine plants.)  This
process  consists in simple lixiviation with water,
allowing the impurities to subside, and evaporating,
  III. (From common salt.) Dissolve  2 parts of'
common salt in water, then add  6 parts of finely-
pulverized  litharge, and  1 part of chalk ; agitate
well  together;  decomposition gradually ensues,
and a solution of carbonate of soda is formed, and
crystallizes out of the liquid.   The product is tol-
erably pure.
  IV. (Sod(e carbonas, P. L.) " Take of impure
carbonate  of soda lb. ij ; distilled water 4 pints.
Boil the impure carbonate of soda in the water for
half an hour, and filter the solution while it is hot
Finally, set it apart that crystals may be formed."
  V.  (Chemically pure.) This is best prepared by
heating the pure bicarbonate or acetate of soda to
redness in a platinum crucible.
  Prop., Use, <J-c. This salt forms oblique rhom-
bic prisms; it is soluble in twice  its weight of wa-
ter at 60°, and less than an equal weight at 212°.
As a medicine, it  is deobstruent  and  antacid, and
is given in  doses of 10 to 30 grs.  It is also used to
make effervescing draughts and extemporaneous
soda-water; but for  this purpose it is inferior to
bicarbonate of soda, or potassa.
     20 grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda,
are equal to
       10 grs. of crystallized citric acid ;
       11 grs.       "       tartaric acid;
       3 drachms (about) of lemon juice.
  When taken in an over dose, the antidotes are
the same as for carbonate of potassa.  The crude
carbonate of soda of commerce is largely employed
in the manufacture of soap, glass, &c.
  Pur. The  ordinary carbonate of  soda generally   ,
contains either  sulphates or chlorides,  and fre-
quently both. These  impurities may be detected in
the same manner as  described in the  last  article.
(See Carbonate of  Potassa.)   It should be " to- 
CAR                   165                    CAR
tally soluble in water, but not  at  all in alcohol."
(P. L.)   A solution of 21 grains  in f§j of water,
precipitated by 19 grains of nitrate of baryta, re-
mains  precipitable by more  of the test;  and the
precipitate is entirely soluble in nitric acid.  (P. E.)
   Tests. It effervesces with acids,  and gives  a
reddish precipitate  with corrosive sublimate;  it
turns turmeric paper brown, and yields  a white
precipitate  with epsom salts.  Its solution is not
disturbed by adding a solution of picric acid in al-
cohol.   This test will distinguish  it from the car-
bonate of potassa.
   CARBONATE  OF SODA, DRIED.  Prep.
Put carbonate of soda into a proper vessel, and
apply heat until it be dried, then heat it to red-
ness ; lastly, rub it to powder.  (P. L.)
   Prop., Use, <J-c. 54 grs. of the dried carbonate
of soda are equal to 144 of the crystallized salt.
Its medicinal  properties are similar to the crystal-
lized carbonate.   It  has, however, the disadvan-
tage of being difficultly soluble in water.  The dose
is 5 to 20  grs. in pills or powder.   A better, more
uniform, and soluble preparation is made by simply
exposing the salt, reduced to coarse powder, to the
air in a dry and warm situation, when it will rap-
idly effloresce  and fall into a  pulverulent state,
not  liable  to  further change.  Dr.  Beddoes has
highly recommended the use of this preparation in
calculous complaints. With this intention it should
be exhibited  in small doses, frequently repeated,
combined with soap and aromatics.
   CARBONATE OF SODA WATER, HEN-
RY'S.  Dissolve  carbonate of soda  in  water,  so
that the solution  may have the sp. gr. of 1*11:—
2 measures are equal in saturating power to one
of his carbonate of potash water.
   CARBONIC ACID.  Syn. Fixed Air.  Ae-
rial Acid. Choke-damp.   An  acid compound,
formed by  the union of carbon with oxygen.   It is
easily procured by either of the following processes:
   Prep. I. Dilute  muriatic acid with 4  times its
weight of water, then pour it upon fragments of
marble,  previously placed in a  tubulated retort.
Carbonic acid gas will be rapidly evolved, and may
either  be  collected  in the mercurial  pneumatic
trough, or applied to immediate use. When wanted
perfectly dry, it must be  passed over dried chlo-
ride of calcium, or  through  concentrated oil of
vitriol.   Remarks.  This  is  the most convenient
way of procuring the gas on the small scale, or in
the laboratory.
   II.  Dilute  oil  of vitriol with 3 or 4 times its
weight of  water, then pour it  on whiting, placed
in a suitable vessel, and apply agitation. Remarks.
This is the plan adopted on  the large scale by the
soda water makers.   (See Soda Water.)
   Prop. A colorless gas possessing a pungent odor
and acidulous taste, rapidly absorbed by water
forming liquid carbonic acid.  The agreeable pun-
gency  of ale, beer, porter, wine, &c, is in a great
measure owing to the presence of carbonic acid,
which  they lose on  exposure to the air, and then
become flat and stale.   Spring  and well water
contain carbonic  acid, and water that has been
boiled, has  an insipid taste from  its absence.  Un-
der a pressure of 36 atmospheres  at 32° Fahr., it
becomes fluid, and on the pressure being removed,
congeals from the cold produced by its rapid evap-
oration.  It has been  estimated that the tempera-1
ture falls to —180° in this experiment.  Carbonic
acid gas is destructive to life, and  extinguishes
combustion. An atmosphere containing more than
its natural  quantity, (about TilB7j,) is unfit for res-
piration.  The air of wells, cellars, brewers' vats,
&c, is frequently contaminated with this gas ; hence
the  necessity  of the old  plan of letting down a
burning candle before venturing in.  If the candle
will not burn, man cannot  breathe  there.  Had
this simple precaution  been  universally adopted,
the late fatal accident ^t Barclay's brewery might
have been  prevented.
   Tests.   It feebly reddens litmus paper,  extin-
guishes the flame of a burning taper,  and forms a
white  precipitate in aqueous solutions of lime and
baryta, which is soluble in acetic acid.  (See also
Carbonates.) By the last test, a very small quan-
tity of this gas  may be  easily detected in the  at-
mosphere of rooms, &c.
   Ant.  When  asphyxia from the inhalation of
canonic acid  gas occurs, the patient should be im-
mediately  removed into  the  open air, and placed
upon his back with the head slightly raised.  Cold
water  should  be dashed  over  the body, hot water
applied to  the feet, and  ammonia io  the nostrils.
Brandy and water, and  other stimulants, may be
administered.   Friction on the surface of the body
is also recommended.  If the  patient has ceased
to breathe, artificial respiration should be attempt-
ed.  This  may be done by pressing down the ribs,
forcing up the  diaphragm,  and  then suddenly
withdrawing the pressure.  The  inhalation of air,
mixed with a  little  chlorine gas, has also been re-
commended.
   CARBONIC OXIDE. This is a compound of
single  equivalents  of carbon  and oxygen,  (thus
containing 1 atom less of the latter than carbonic
acid.)   It was discovered by Priestley, but its real
nature was first pointed out by Cruickshanks.
   Prep. I. Pass carbonic acid gas over fragments
of charcoal, heated  to redness in a tube of porce-.
lain or iron.
   II.  Mix  equal weights of chalk or carbonate of
soda, and  iron filings or charcoal, and ignite them
together.
   III.  Heat binoxalate  of potassa with  5 or 6
times  its weight of strong oil of vitriol in a glass
retort.   (M. Dumas.)
   Remarks. The gas must be passed first through
a caustic alkaline solution to deprive it of carbonic
acid, and next over dried chloride of calcium, to
deprive it of moisture.  It may be collected either
over mercury or water,  as the latter  absorbs but
very little.   Prop.  Gaseous,  colorless, inodorous,
neutral, inflammable, and incapable of supporting
respiration.
   CARBURETED HYDROGEN.  Syn, Light
carbureted  Hydrogen.   Heavy  inflammable
Air.  Marsh Air.   Dicarburet of  Hydrogen.
Subcarbureted Hydrogen.   Fire-damp.   This
substance is abundantly formed in stagnant pools,
during the spontaneous decomposition of dead vege-
table matter.  It is easily procured by stirring the
mud at the bottom of them, and collecting the gas
as it escapes in an inverted glass vessel.  By pass-
ing this gas through lime-water, or a  solution of
caustic alkali,  it is rendered quite pure.   It ie this
gas  that forms  the much-dreaded fire-damp  of
miners. 
CAR
166
C\R
  CARDWORK, TO VARNISH.  Proc.  Before
varnishing cardwork, it must receive 2 or 3 coats
of size, to  prevent the absorption of the varnish,
and  any injury to the design.   The size may be
made by dissolving a little isinglass  in hot  water,
or by boiling some parchment cuttings until dis-
solved.  In either case the solution must be strained
through a piece of clean muslin, and for very nice
purposes, should be clarified with a little white of
egg.  A small clean brush, called  by painters  a
sash tool, is the best for applying the size, as well
as the varnish.  A light  delicate touch  must be
adopted, especially for the first coat,  lest the ink or
colors be started, or smothered.
  CARMINATIVES.  Medicines that allay flat-
ulency, and the pains that accompany it.   List.
The principal carminatives are ginger, cardamoms,
cinnamon, cassia, aniseed,  carawayseed, pepper-
mint, and ardent spirits.   Most of the  aromatic
essences and tinctures are carminative.
  CARMINATIVE, DALBY'S.   Prep.  Mag-
nesia 60 grs.; oil of peppermint 1 drop ; oil of nut-
meg 2 drops; oil  of aniseed 3 drops; tincture of
castor 30  drops;  tincture  of asafcetida 15  drops;
laudanum  5  drops; compound tincture of  carda-
moms 30 drops ; pennyroyal water 4 oz- 5 pepper-
mint water 2 oz.;  mix.  Dose. A small teaspoon-
ful.   The  bottle should be shaken before pouring
it out.
  CARMINE, BLUE.   Prep. When the solu-
tion of  indigo in oil of vitriol is neutralized with
carbonate  of potash, a bulky blue precipitate sep-
arates,  which has received the name of blue car-
mine or soluble indigo.
  CARMINE, (RED.)   Syn. Carminum.   Ve-
getable Scarlet.  Carmine is the most beautiful
pigment that the artist possesses.  It is the only
substance  that can impart  the transparent ruddi-
ness of health to  the portrait, or the bloom of the
rose to the artificial flower.  The  preparation of
carmine is little  understood, but success   in its
manufacture depends less on any mystery attached
thereto, than the employment of the purest water
and the best materials, and the exercise of moderate
care,  dexterity,  and patience.    The following
forms will produce carmine of  the  richest hues
down to ordinary and common,  according to the
skill possessed by the manipulator.
  Prep. I. (Process of Madame Cenette of Am-
sterdam.)   Finest cochineal, reduced to powder,
2 lbs.; pure river water, boiling hot, 15 gallons;
boil for 2  hours, then add refined  saltpetre, bruised,
3 oz.; boil for 3 minutes  longer, and  add 4 oz. of
salts of sorrel.  Boil  for 10 minutes  longer, then
remove the heat,  and allow the liquor to settle for
4 hours, when it must be decanted, with a syphon,
into shallow plates, and set aside for 3 weeks.  At
the  end of this time, the film of  mould formed  on
the  surface must  be dexterously and  carefully re-
moved, without breaking or disturbing the liquid
portion.  The latter must be now removed with a
syphon, and the remaining moisture drained off, or
sucked up with a pipette.   The carmine which  is
left behind must be dried  in the shade, and will be
found to possess extraordinary lustre and beauty.
   II.  (Process of Alxon or Langlois.)   Boiling
river water 4 gallons; cochineal, in powder, 1 lb.;
boil for 10 minutes, then add £ oz. of carbonate of
soda, dissolved in water 1 lb.; boil  again for 4 an
hour; cool, add £ oz. of alum in fine powder, agitata
rapidly until it be dissolved, then let it stand for 20
minutes, after which carefully decant into another
vessel.  The white of 2 eggs, dissolved  in 1  pint
of water, is now to be added, and the whole  weli
agitated; apply heat until the liquor be clarified,
then draw it  off, and  allow  it to repose for  J an
hour, or longer, when the clear portion must be
decanted, and the carmine that has been deposited
at the bottom collected, and placed upon a filter to
drain.   When it has acquired the consistenco of a
paste, remove it  from the filter with an  ivory o-
silver knife,  and finish  the  drying  upon  shallow
plates, covered with silver paper.  The product of
either of the above processes is T*ff  to  T'T of the
weight of the cochineal employed.
   III. (German process.)  Boil powdered cochi-
neal 1  lb.  in 4 gallons of pure water for 15 min-
utes, then add powdered alum  1 oz.;  boil for 3
minutes longer, remove the heat, and  allow tin
liquor to settle for 5 minutes, pour off the clear por-
tion into porcelain or earthenware vessels, and set
them aside for three days.  At the end of this time,
the clear  liquor must be decanted into other ves-
sels, and these must, in like manner, be set aside
for a few days longer.   The  carmine deposited in
the first vessels must be now carefully drained and
dried, as above described.  The product from  1 lb.
of cochineal is about 14  oz., besides £ oz., or more,
of an inferior quality obtained as a second deposite.
   IV.  (Spirit process.)  Boil 1 lb. of cochineal in
3  gallons of water for  15 minutes, then add  1
drachm of alum, in powder, boil again for 5 min-
utes, and let it cool.   Next decant  the clear por-
tion, and  again heat it, and cautiously drop  in a
solution of tin, (spirits of tin,) until all the  carmine
be precipitated; drain and dry as before.  Prod
14 oz.
   V.  (French process.)  To 3 gallons of boiling
water, add 1 lb. of cochineal, in powder; boil for
15 minutes, then add crearn of tartar, in  powder,
1 oz.;  boil for 10 minutes more, then  add powdered
alum 14 oz.; boil for 2 minutes longer, withdraw
the heat, and let  it settle for 5 minutes, then de-
cant the clear into porcelain vessels, and set them
aside until the  carmine falls down. Drain, and
dry it in the shade, as before.
   VI.  (Ordinary English carmine.)  Boil cochi-
neal 1 lb. with carbonate of potash  4 oz-'" water
7 gallons, for 15 minutes.  Next remove the vessel
from  the fire, and add 1 oz. of  powdered alum,
agitate  the liquor, and then allow it to settle for 15
minutes longer.   The  clear  liquid  must  now be
decanted into a clean copper, placed over the fire,
and 4 an oz. of isinglass, dissolved in 1 pint of wa-
ter, and strained, must be added.   As soon as a
coagulum forms upon  the surface, the  heat must
be removed, and the liquid strongly agitated with
a bone  or silver spatula, after which it must be
allowed to repose for 20 or 30 minutes, when the
carmine will  be deposited, and  must  be drained
and dried as before.
   VII. (In the small way.)   Boil 1 oz. of cochi-
neal, finely powdered,  in 5 or 6 quarts of rain  or
distilled water, in a tinned copper vessel, for 3  min-
utes ; then add alum 25 grs., continue the boiling
for 2 minutes longer, and let it cool; draw off the
clear liquor, as soon as it is only blood  warm, into
shallow vessels, put them by for a couple of day*) 
CAR                    167                    CAS
by which  time the carmine will have settled.   In
case the carmine does not separate properly, a few
drops of muriate of tin (dyers' spirit) or of  a solu-
tion of green vitriol, will throw it down immedi-
ately ;  the water being then drawn off, the carmine
may be dried in a warm  stove.
  Use. Carmine is much employed in miniature
painting, water-color drawing, and in tinting arti-
ficial flowers; S^so as rouge by the ladies.  It  is
not only richer  and more  transparent, but goes
further than any other color of the like kind.
  Remarks.  The powdered cochineal from which
the clear  liquid has been decanted, as well as the
colored liquid, after it has deposited  its carmine,
may be used in the preparation of carminated lake.
Pure carminG should be almost entirely soluble  in
liquid ammonia.  According to MM. Pelletier and
Caventou, the muriate of tin should be at the maxi-
mum of oxidizement to obtain a beautiful shade.
  CARMINE,  LIQUID.   Syn. Carmine Ink.
Prep.  Dissolve carmine in liquid ammonia, or spir-
its of hartshorn.   Use.  As an ink, and as  a beau-
tiful color in water-color tinting, and velvet paint-
ing.
  CARMINE, TO PURIFY  AND BRIGHT-
EN.   Proc.   Digest liquid ammonia  on carmine,
until all the color is taken up,  filter, and add ace-
tic  acid and  alcohol, till the whole is  precipitated;
lastly, carefully wash with spirit, and dry in the
shade.  Remarks.  In this way may be produced
carmine of the richest and most lustrous hue, even
from samples of inferior quality.  (See Cochinil-
lin.)
  CARPETS, TO CLEAN.  Before  proceeding
to sweep a carpet, a few handfuls of waste tea-
leaves should be sprinkled  over  it.  A stiff hair
broom or brush should  be  employed, unless the
carpet bo very dirty, when  a whisk  or  carpet-
broom should be used first, followed by  another
made of  hair, to take off the loose dust.  The fre-
quen* use of a stiff carpet-broom soon wears off the
beauty of the best carpet.  An  ordinary clothes-
brush is best  adapted for superior  carpets.   When
carpets are very dirty, they should be cleaned by
shaking and beating.
  Brussels Carpets may be cleaned  as follows:—
Take them up and shake and  beat them,  so as  to
render them  perfectly free from  dust.  Have the
floor thoroughly  scoured and  dry, and nail the
carpet firmly  down  upon it.  If still  much soiled,
it may be cleaned in the following manner:—Take
a pailful  of clean  cold spring water,  and put into
it about 3 gills of ox-gall. Take another pail with
clean  cold water  only.  Now rub  with  a  soft
scrubbing brush some of the ox-gall water on the
r«rpet, which will  raise  a lather.  When  a con-
venient sized  portion is  done, wash the lather off
with a clean linen cloth dipped in the  clean water.
Let this water be changed frequently.  When  all
the lather has disappeared, rub  the  part  with  a
clean dry  cloth.  After  all is done, open the win-
dow to allow  the carpet to dry.   A carpet  treated
in this  manner will be greatly refreshed in color,
particularly the greens.   It is very advisable  in
laying down carpets at first, to  cover the floor be-
neath them with  large  sheets of paper,  so as to
prevent the dust from rising  between the  boards.
A carpet lasts longer by adopting this precaution.
  Kidderminster Carpets will scarcely bear the
above .treatment  without  becoming so  soft as to
get speedily dirty again.   This may in some mea-
sure be prevented by brushing them over with a
hot weak solution of size in water, to which a little
alum has been added.  Curd soap, dissolved in hot
water, may be  used instead  of ox-gall, but it  is
more likely to injure the colors, if produced by false
dyes.  When there are spots of grease on the car-
peting, they may be covered with curd soap, dis-
solved in boiling water, and rubbed with  a brush
until the stains are  removed,  when they must be
cleaned with warm water as before.  The  addition
of a little gall to  the soap renders it  more effica-
cious.
   CARRAGEENIN.  The  pure jelly extracted
from carrageen, or Irish moss.  It may be purified
by agitation with dilute alcohol, and filtration.  It
closely resembles  animal jelly.   (Lucae.)
   CARYOPHILLIN.   Syn.  Clove Resin.  A
resinous substance, extracted from Molucca cloves
by means  of  alcohol.   By  repeated  evaporations
and re-solutions,  it may be  obtained  in a satiny,
crystalline state.  It is  odorless, tasteless, fusible,
volatile, and soluble both in alcohol and ether.
    CASE-HARDENING,   (in  Metallurgy.)
The operation of ^'ving a surface of steel to pieces
of iron, by which they are rendered capable of re-
ceiving great external hardness, while the interior
portion retains all the toughness of good wrought
iron.  Iron tools, fire-irons, fenders, keys,  &c, are
usually case-hardened.
   Proc. I.  The  goods, finished in every  respect
but polishing, are put into  an iron box, and covered
with animal or vegetable  charcoal, and cemented
at a red  heat, for a  period varying with  the  size
and description of the articles  operated on.
   II. Cow's horn or hoof is  to be baked or tho-
roughly  dried,  and  pulverized.  To  this   add an
equal quantity of bay salt: mix them  with  stale
chamber-lye,  or  white wine  vinegar: cover the
iron with this mixture, and  bed it in the same in
loam, or enclose it in an  iron box: lay it then on
the hearth  of the forge to dry and harden:  then
put it into the fire, and blow till the  lump have a
blood-red heat, and no higher, lest the mixture be
burnt too much.  Take the  iron out, and immerse
it in water to harden.  (Moxon's Mechanic Exer-
cises.)
   III. The iron, previously polished and finished,
is  to be heated  to a  bright-red  and  rubbed or
sprinkled over with prussiate  of potash.  As soon
as the prussiate appears to be  decomposed and dis-
sipated, plunge the article into cold water.
   IV. Make a paste with a concentrated  solution
of prussiate of potash and loam, and coat the iron
therewith; then expose it  to a  strong red heat^and
when it has fallen to a dull  red, plunge the whole
into cold water.
   Remarks.  The process of  case-hardening has
been well conducted when the surface of the metal
proves sufficiently hard to resist a file.  The  last
two plans are a great improvement upon the com-
mon method.   By  the  topical application of the
prussiate, (as in  III,) any part of a piece of  iron
may be  case-hardened,  without  interfering  with
the rest.
   CASEINE. Cheese made  from skimmed milk,
and well pressed, is nearly pure caseine.  (Liebig.)
   Remarks.  This  substance  has  lately engaged 
CAS
168
CAT
the attention  of  organic  chemists, from being a
modification of the  principle  called  proteine by
Mulder.   When caseine is  thrown  down from
milk by adding an acid, it combines with  a little
of it, forming a kind  of salt.   With sulphuric acid
a sulphate of caseine is formed.   The acid may be
removed by means  of carbonate of  lead,   when
pure caseine is left behind.  Legumine is vegeta-
ble caseine.  By first adding a little caustic potassa
to albumen, and then some  alcohol, a precipitate
is  formed,  having all  the properties  of caseine.
(Liebig.)
   CASKS, PRESERVATION OF.   Casks last
longest when kept either in a dry situation,  or one
uniformly very  moist.  The continual variation
from the one to the other speedily rots them.  As
soon as casks are emptied they should be bunged
down quite air-tight, with as much care as if they
were full, by which means they will be preserved
sweet.  Should any of the  hoops become  loose,
they should be immediately driven up tight, which
will at once prevent  the liability  of their being lost
or misplaced,  as well as the casks fouling or be-
coming  musty from  the admission of air.   Good
casks are very expensive articles. The casks and
vats belonging to the great brewery of Barclay &
Co., of London, are said to be worth several score
thousand pounds.
   CASKS, SWEETENING  MATCH   FOR.
Prep. Dip a strip of coarse linen cloth into melted
brimstone.   Use.  Set fire  to  the  brimstone  match
formed as above, put it into the cask,  and keep it
suspended  by fastening one  end under the  bung,
which should be driven in tight.   After the lapse
of 1 or 2 hours, the match may be removed.
   CASKS, STINKING OR  MUSTY,  (TO
(SWEETEN.)  For this purpose numerous plans
are followed, among which the following may be
mentioned.  In every  case  great care should be
taken to scald or well wash  the  casks out  before
filling them with liquor.
   I. Wash them well out with oil of  vitriol, dilu-
ted with an  equal  weight of water ; afterwards
soak them  in clean water and rinse them well.
   II.  Wash them first with a  little  chloride of
lime and hot water, then with water  soured with
oil of vitriol, and lastly, with pure water, until all
the fumes and smell  are removed.
   III. Match them  with sulphur, or with sulphur
mixed with a very little saltpetre.
   IV. Unhead them and whitewash them with
milk of  lime,  made pretty strong.  This plan is
commonly  followed for brewer's vats.
   V.  Remo*/e the heads  and  char the insides of
the staves, by the aid of a fire of shavings, kindled
within them.  A safer  and more effectual method
is to wash  the dry casks  out with the most con-
centrated oil of vitriol.  This will char  not only the
surface  of  the staves, but penetrate  into all  the
cracks,  which the  fire cannot  reach.   The  ex-
pense is trifling.   The  strongest oil of vitriol, sp.
gr. 1-845, may be bought in quantity at \\d. per
lb., and 1 gallon, worth  about 2s., will  wash  out
upwards of 50 hogsheads, if common care be taken
not to waste it.  Caution. As oil of vitriol is pow-
erfully caustic and corrosive, great care should be
taken to avoid splashing it over the skin or clothes,
as it will rapidly burn them.
   VI. Steam has lately been applied to the insides
of casks,  with great  advantage.   fligh-prcwuri
steam is driven in  at  the  bung-hole, at the same
time that  the cask is  violently agitated, (a heavy
chain having been  previously put into it,) until all
the dirt and bad smell is removed.  This plan has
been lately patented.
  VII. Washing the casks out with a lye of pearl-
ash, or soda, with  milk of lime, strong hot brine,
cow-dung, salt and water, and other similar liquors
has been adopted,  bv some persons.  The coopers
boil the staves for gin casks in a strong lye of alum
before  placing them  together,  to prevent  their
coloring the  spirit, but washing with oil of vitriol
is a better plan.   Some persons fill musty casks
with water, and add 3 or 4 lbs. of coarsely-pow
dered charcoal, and agitate well  for a few days.
  CAST  ENGRAVINGS.   These are made bj
taking a mould from  any kind of engraving, and
in pouring on this mould an alloy, in a melted
state, capable of  taking the  finest  impression.
Bronze, type metal, zinc,  &c., have been used for
this purpose.
  This plan is particularly applicable to engra-
vings which meet with a ready sale, and of which
a large number is  required.  As soon as one  cast
is worn out, another may be taken from the origi-
nal plate, so that  not only will  every impression
be a proof, but the whole expense of  retouching
will be avoided.  For another method of multiply-
ing engravings, see Electrotype.
  CASTS, (IN FUSIBLE METAL.)  A com-
bination of 3 parts of  lead, with  2 of tin, and  5 of
bismuth, forms an  alloy which melts at the  tem-
perature of 197° Fahr.
  In taking  casts  with  this and  similar alloys, it
is important to use the metal at a temperature as
low as possible ;  as, if but a few degrees elevated,
the water which adheres to the things  from which
casts are to be taken  is converted into  vapor, and
produces bubbles.   The fused metal must be al-
lowed to cool in a  teacup until just ready to set at
the edges, and then poured into  the moulds.  In
this way beautiful  casts from  moulds of wood, or
of other  similar  substances,  may  be procured.
When taking impressions  from  gems, seals,  &,c,
the fused alloy should be placed on paper or paste-
board, and stirred about till it becomes  pasty, from
cooling, at which  moment the  gem, die, or seal,
should be  suddenly stamped  on  it, and  a very
sharp impression will then be obtained.  (Jour, of
Science, No. 26.)
  CASTORINE.  Syn.  Castorina.  Castoreum
Camphor.  Prep.  Cut castor into small pieces and
boil it in 6 times its weight of alcohol.   On cooling,
it will deposite the castorine, which, by re-solution
in alcohol, may be obtained  under the form of-
prismatic acicular  crystals.
  Remarks.   Genuine  Russian  castor must b«
employed in the  above  process, as scarcely any
castorine  can be  obtained  from  the  American.
Castorine  is soluble both  in ether and hot alcohol,
is inflammable,  and  by  long boiling  with nitric
acid, becomes converted into castoric acid.  This
acid is capable of forming salts with the bases.
  CATALEPSY.  Syn.  Catalepsis. Catalep-
sia.  Trance.  A  disease  in which the organs of
sense and motion cease to exercise their functions,
and the heart and  lungs  feebly perform their of-
fices and in a scarcely perceptible manner.   The 
CAT                     169                    CAT
paroxysm generally  comes  on  without previous
warning, and its duration varies from a few min-
utes to several days,  and if medical reports are to
be credited, sometimes for a much  longer period.
Dr. Cullen affirms that this disease is always coun-
terfeited, but this surely  cannot be correct.
   Treat.   Ammoniacal  stimulants applied to the
nostrils, and spirituous  liquors  injected into  the
stomach, with general friction and free access to
pure air, are the best remedies.  Electricity and
galvanism  should  also be had recourse to, when
the instruments are at hand.
   CATARRH.    Syn.   Catarrhus.  In  popular
language, a cold in the head or chest.   Influenza
is  a severer form of  this  omplaint, and has been
called epidemic catarrh.
   The common symptoms of catarrh are a copious
discharge from the  eyes and  nose, a hoarseness,
and generally a cough, more or less severe.   The
exciting causes are sudden changes of temperature
and exposure to  currents of cold  air,  while  the
body is heated ;  hence  the  frequency of colds in
changeable weather.
   Treat. A light or spoon diet should be adopted,
and animal food and fermented or spirituous liquors
should be particularly avoided.  The bowels should
be opened  with some mild  aperients, and if  the
symptoms  be severe, or fever or headache be pres-
ent, small diaphoretic  doses  of antimonials,  ac-
companied  by copious  draughts  of diluents, as
barley-water, weak tea,  or gruel, should be taken.
Unless in very bad cases, this treatment, with pro-
per care, will generally effect a cure.
   CATECHINE.  Syn. Catechuic Acid. Res-
inous Tannin.  Prep. Cubical gambir or catechu,
powdered and treated with cold water, leaves an
'usoluble residuum, which, by repeated solutions in
klcohol, may be obtained under the form of white
ftIky needles.
   Prop.  It strikes a green color with the salts of
i-on, but does not precipitate gelatine.   When dis-
solved in caustic potassa, and the solution exposed
to the  air,  oxygen is absorbed  and Japonic Acid
formed.  If, instead of^caustic potassa, the carbon-
ate be employed, it is converted into Rubinic Acid.
   CATGUT. Syn.  Cordeaboyau, (Fr.) Darm-
baite, (Ger.)  The prepared and twisted intestines
of animals.  Prep. The guts, taken while warm
from the animal, are thoroughly cleaned, freed from
adherent fat, and well rinsed in pure water. They
are next soaked for about 2 days in water, after
which they are laid  on  a table and scraped with
a copper-plate, having a semi-circular notch, be-
ginning the operation at the smaller end.  The
guts are then put into fresh water, and soaked
until the next day, when they are again scraped,
the larger  ends  cut  off, and after well washing,
again steeped for a night in  fresh water, and then
for 2 or 3 hours in  lye water, each gallon of which
contains  1 oz. each of pearlash and potash.  They
are lastly  washed in  clean water,  and passed
through  a  polished hole in a  piece  of brass  to
smooth and equalize their surface, and then twist-
ed and sorted according  to the purposes  for which
they are  intended.
   Remarks.  Catgut is employed in several of the
arts.  The strings of harps, and all the instruments
of the violin class, are  formed of  this  material.
For this purpose  the mucous and peritoneal mem-
                       22
branes are removed with great care, they are then
soaked for a day or two in water, to which potash
is added, then removed to water impregnated with
burnt lees of wine, which  is  made  stronger by
degrees,  scraping  them  carefully to separute the
fat.  As soon as the intestines begin to float, they
are immediately taken  out, twisted, briinstoned,
again twisted, and dried; when sufficiently dry,
the catgut is rubbed over with olive oil, and kept
as long as convenient before use, as it improves
by age.   Whipcord is made from  catgut, which
is sewed together while  soft with the filandre or
scrapings, after which  it is  put into a  frame and
twisted.   It  next  receives  1  or  2  sulphurings,
and is then dyed and coiled  up for sale.   Red and
black  ink, infusion  of logwood, to which a little
alum or blue vitriol has been added, (blue and pur-
ple,) distilled  verdigris or sap  green, are the dyes
commonly employed.  Bowstrings for hatmakers
are made out of the largest intestines,  4 to 12 of
which are twisted together, until the cord  is ex-
tended to 15 to 25 feet in length.  It is then rub-
bed perfectly smooth and free from knots, half
dried, sulphured twice,  again  stretched and  sul-
phured,  and lastly,  dried in  a state of  tension.
Clockmaker's cords are  made of the smallest in-
testines.   When wanted particularly small, they
are slit into strings by means of a knife,  fitted with
a  ball to guide it.  In  this operation  the  gut is
strained  over the ball, and an equal portion of the
divided gut pulled  down  by each hand, while the
knife remains immoveable.   This method is similar
in principle to that by which the barrels of straws
are divided by the  straw-plait makers.
   The best fine catgut comes from Italy,  and is
made at Venice or Rome.   The superiority arises
from its being prepared from the intestines of thin
sinewy sheep, while that  made in England is form-
ed from the fat sheep killed for the shambles.  It
has long been known to physiologists, that  the
membranes  of healthy  lean  animals  are  much
tougher than  those of fat ones. This is well ex-
emplified in  the human species ; few men  being
at the same time very muscular and corpulent.
  A coarse  species of catgut, used for  turning
lathes and similar purposes, is made from the in-
testines of horses.   The  guts, previously cleaned,
are soaked in water, with a pailful of weak solu-
tion  of chloride of lime for each 8  or 10 sets;
the mucous membrane is then  separated, the in-
testine cut into 4  strips  by  forcing a  ball with 4
knives placed crosswise along them ; these strips
are next twisted, and when dry, any slight inequal-
ities removed by fish skin.
  CATHARTICS.   Syn.   Purgatives.   These
have been divided  into 5  orders or classes, accord-
ing to their particular actions.   The following are
the principal of each class.
  1. (Laxatives,  lenitives,  or  mild  cathartics.)
Manna,  cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes,  honey,
and phosphate of soda; castor, almond, and olive
oils ; ripe fruit.
  2.  (Saline, or cooling  laxatives.)  Epsom salts,
glauber salts,  phosphate  of  soda, (tasteless salts,)
seidlitz powders, &c.
  3.  (Active cathartics,  occasionally acrid, fre-
quently tonic and  stomachic.)  Rhubarb, senna,
aloes, &lc.
  4.   (Drastic or  violent  purgatives.)   Jalap, 
CAU                    170                    CEM
scammony, gamboge, croton oil, colocynth, elate-
rium, &c.
   5. (Mercurial purgatives.)   Calomel, blue-pill,
quicksilver with chalk, &c.
   The doses of all the above will be found in the
table of the doses of medicines, as well as at the
end of the notices of most of them, in their alpha-
betical order.
   CATHARTINE.   The purgative principle of
senna, obtained by Lassaigne and Fenuelle from a
strong aqueous  infusion  of  the  leaves.   Prep.
Evaporate to the consistence of a sirup, out of con-
tact  with the air, then digest in alcohol, filter, and
evaporate.  Prop. Color, reddish; taste and smell,
nauseous; it is soluble in water and  alcohol, and
strongly cathartic.
   CATHETER.   A long hollow  tube introduced
into the bladder, for the purpose of drawing off its
contents.  Catheters  are  either made of metal or
elastic gum ; and if of the former material, a suit-
able  shape is given to them, foi the purpose of ac-
commodating them to the flexure of the urethra.
   Prep.  I.  Coat a piece of smooth  catgut with
melted wax, and  while still warm, bend it to  a
proper shape.  When cold, dip  it  repeatedly into
an ethereal solution of Indian rubber, until a suffi-
cient thickness is obtained, dry by a gentle heat,
and then boil it in water to melt out the wax, and
to allow the catgut to be withdrawn.   A piece of
polished steel wire may be used instead of catgut.
   II. Instead  of applying the  caoutchouc in solu-
tion, wind  ribands of it round  the  wire, having
previously softened their  edges  with  ether, or by
boiling in water.   Over  this wind, as tightly  as
possible,  a  strong  silk riband, and over  all some
fine packthread.  The next day boil the whole in
water  for half an hour, and  withdraw the wire;
lastly,  polish off the outside as smoothly as possi-
ble.  (See Caoutchouc)
   III. Weave a  smooth tissue of silk  over the
bent wire, and then coat it with a surface of In-
dian rubber, or elastic varnish. Finish it off as before.
   CAUDLE, (in Cookery.)  A species of gruel.
Made  with  oatmeal, groats, rice,  or wheat flour,
and mixed with half its weight of good ale, and as
much mace, nutmeg, sugar, &c, as  will make it
agreeable.   White wine, the juice of a  lemon, a
little of the  peel grated, with  1 or more  eggs, are
frequently  added.   It is an  excellent  domestic
remedy for colds,  &c, unaccompanied with fever,
for which purpose  it should be taken on going to
rest.
   CAUSTICS.   Substances that corrode or de-
stroy the texture of the skin and organized bodies.
Their action is commonly called " burning."
   The principal caustics employed  by  surgeons
are,  nitrate of silver, caustic potassa,  sulphate
of copper, red oxide of mercury, and the  nitric
and acetic acids.
   Use. Caustics are employed to  remove excres-
cences, morbid  growths, granulations, &c,  as
corns, warts, and  proudflesh, and  to  open issues,

   CAUSTIC, COMMON.   Syn. Potash with
Lime.  Potential Cautery. Potassa cum Calce.
Prep.  Hydrate of potassa and quicklime, equal
parts;  rub  them together  in a  mortar, and keep
them in a well-corked bottle. (P. L.)    Use.  When
placed on the skin, it rapidly decomposes it, leav-
 ing a soft eschar, which is  slowly detached.  It ii
 employed to open issues, abscesses, &,p
   CAUSTIC,   COMMON.    Syn.  Causticum
 commune mitius. (P. L. 1745.)  Prep. Soft soap
 and quicklime, equal parts.   Mix them at the time
 of use.
   Remarks.  Both  the  above  are  less liable to
| spread than  pure  potassa,  but  arc considerably
 weaker.
   CAUSTIC,  (for Canker in Horses.)  Prep.
1 Dissolve corrosive sublimate £ oz. in muriatic acid 1
I oz"., then add rectified spirit and water, of each 4 oz
   CAUSTIC,  OPIATE.   Syn. Common Cais
 tic with Opium.  Common caustic 4 dr.; pow
 dered opium 1 dr.; soft soap enough to  mix.  Use
 Applied to fungcus ulcers.
   CEMENT.   A;-y substance  which, on being
 placed  between  two surfaces, makes them  adhere
 together.  This name is also applied (in architec-
 ture) to  some species of mortars, employed either
 to unite stones or bricks into masses, or as  a pro
 tective covering  against the weather or water.
   CEMENT, ALABASTER  Prep. I. Finely-
 powdered plaster of Paris, made  into a cream with
 water.
   II.  Melt yellow resin, or  equal parts of  yellow
 resin and beeswax, then stir in half as much finely-
 powdered plaster of Paris.
   Use.   The first  is used to join and  fit together
 pieces of alabaster or marble, or to  mend broken
 plaster figures.   The second is used to join alabas-
 ter, marble, porphyry, Derbyshire  spar, and any
 similar substances, that will bear being heated. It
 must be applied hot, and  the stone  must be made
 warm.   Derbyshire, and  some other stones, may
 also be joined by heating them sufficiently to melt
 a lump of sulphur, with which their edges must be
 then smeared, after which they must be placed to-
 gether, and held so until cold.   Little deficiencies,
 as chips out of the corners,  &c, may be filled up
 with melted  sulphur or bleached shellac, colored
 to any shade, as required.
   CEMENT,  ARCHITECTURAL. Prep. I.
 Reduce paper to a  smooth paste by boiling it in
 water; then  add an  equal  weight  each of sifted
 whiting and good size ; boil to a proper consistence.
   II. Paper, paste, and size, equal  parts; finely-
 powdered plaster of Paris, to make it of a proper
 consistence.   Use it as soon as mixed.
   Use. To make  architectural  ornaments, busts,
 statues, columns, &c.  It is very light, and receive!
 a good polish* but will not stand the weather.
   CEMENT,   ARMENIAN.   Syn.  Diamoot
 Cement.  Persian ditto,  Turkish ditto.  This
 article, so much  esteemed for uniting pieces of bro-
 ken glass, for repairing precious stones,  and for ce-
 menting them  to  watch  cases  and other orna-
 ments, is made  by soaking isinglass in water until
 it becomes quite soft, and  then mixing  it with
 spirit in which a little gum  mastic and ammonia-
 cum have been dissolved.
   The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Ar-
 menians, have a singular method of ornamenting
 watch-cases, &c,  with diamonds and  other pre-
 cious stones, by simply glueing or cementing them
 on.   The stone  is set in silver or gold, and the
 lower part of the metal made flat, or to correspond
 with the part to which it is to be fixed ; it is then
 warmed gently,  and has  the glue  applied, whka 
CEM                   171                   CEM
is so  very  strong  that  the parts thus cemented
never  separate;  this  glue,  which  will strongly
unite bits of glass, and even polished steel,  and
may be applied to a variety of useful  purposes, is
thus made  in Turkey:—Dissolve five or six bits of
gum  mastich, each the size of  a large pea, in as
much  spirits of wine as will suffice to  render it
liquid; and in another vessel,  dissolve  as  much
isinglass, previously  a little  softened in  water,
(though  none of  the water  must  be used,) in
French brandy or good rum, as will make a two-
ounce vial of very strong glue, adding two small
bits  of gum galbanum, or ammoniacum, which
must be rubbed  or ground till  they are  dissolved.
Then mix the whole with a sufficient heat.  Keep
the glue in a vial closely stopped, and wheii  it is
to be  used, set  the vial  in boiling water.   Some
persons have sold a composition under the name of
Armenian  cement, in  England; but  this compo-
sition is badly made ; it is much too thin, and the
quantity of mastich is much too small. (Eton.)
   II.  The  following are  good proportions:  isin-
glass, soaked in water and dissolved  in  spirit, 2 oz.,
(thick;)  dissolve  in  this  10 grains of very pale
gum ammoniac,  (in tears,) by rubbing them  to-
gether ;  then add  6 large tears of ,gum mastich,
dissolved in the least possible quantity of rectified
spirit.
   III. Isinglass, dissolved in proof spirit, as above,
3 oz.; bottoms of mastich varnish (thick but clear)
 14 oz.; mix well.
   Remarks.  When carefully  made,  this cement
resists moisture,  and dries colorless.  As usually
met with,  it  is not only of very bad  quality, but
sold at exorbitant prices.
   CEMENT, BRUYERE'S  WATER.   Prep.
Mix 3 gallons of clay with 1 gallon of  slaked lime,
and  expose them to a full red heat for  3 hours.
   CEMENT, BUILDING.   Syn.  Artificial
Puzzolene.   Prep. This  is made by exposing a
mixture of clay or loam,  broken pottery, flints, or
silicious sand, or  broken  bottle-glass,  with wood
ashes, to a considerable heat in a furnace, until it
becomes partially vitrified. It must then be ground
to a  fine powder, sifted, and  mixed with one-third
its weight  of quicklime, also in  fine powder, after
which it must be packed  (tight) in  casks to pre-
serve it from the  air and moisture.   For  use, it  is
mixed up  with  water, and applied like Roman
cement.
   CEMENT,  BOTANY  BAY.   Yellow gum
and brickdust equal parts, melted together.  Used
to cement coarse earthenware,  &c.
   CEMENT, CHINESE.  Prep.  Dissolve shel-
lac in  enough rectified spirit to make a liquid of
the consistence of treacle.
   II. Instead of spirit, use wood naphtha, (pyrox-
ilic spirit.)
   III. Boil borax 1 oz. and shellac 4 oz  in water
until dissolved.
   Use. To  mend  glass, china, fancy  ornaments,
&c.   The  first form produces a cement so strong
that  pieces  of wood may  be joined  together,  cut
slopingly  across the grain, and will afterwards re-
sist every  attempt to break them  at the  same
place.  In  many  of  the  islands of the Indian
Ocean, in Japan,  China,  and the East Indies, a
similar cement is used to join pieces of wood for
bows, lances,  &c.   Ti e  fluid is thinly  smeared |
 over  each face of the joint, a piece  of very thin
 gauze interposed, and the  whole pressed  tightly
 together and maintained so until  the  next day.
 Joints so made will even bear the  continual flex-
 ure of a bow without separating.
   CEMENT,  COPPERSMITHS'.  Bullock's
 blood thickened  with finely powdered  quicklime.
 Use.  To secure the edges and rivets of copper
 boilers, to mend  leaks from joints, &c.  It must
 be used as soon as mixed, as it  rapidly gets hard.
 It is extremely  cheap  and very durable,  and is
 suited for many purposes where a strong cement
 is required.   It is frequently called blood cement.
   CEMENT,  CUTLERS'.   Prep.  I.   Black
 rosin 4 lbs.; beeswax 1 lb.; melt, then add 1 lb.
 of finely-powdered and well-dried brickdust.
   II.  Equal weights of rosin  and brickdust melt-
 ed together.
   Use. To fix knives and forks in their handles.
   CEMENT,  EGG.  White  of egg thickened
 with finely-powdered quicklime.  Use. To mend
 earthenware, glass, china, marble, alabaster, spar
 ornaments, &c.  It does not resist moisture.
   CEMENT, ELECTRICAL AND  CHEM-
 ICAL, (SINGER'S.)   I. Rosin 5 lbs.; wax and
 dry  red  ochre,  in  fine powder, of each,  1  lb.;
 plaster of Paris  4 oz.; melt  the first  two, then
 add  the  ochre, and, lastly, the plaster.  Mix well
 together.
   II. Black  rosin 7 lbs.; well-dried red ochre and
 plaster of Paris, of each, 1  lb.;  as above.
   Use. To cement the plates in voltaic troughs,
 join  chemical vessels, &c.
   CEMENT, ENGINEERS'. I.  Mix  ground
 white-lead with  as  much  powdered red-lead as
 will  make it  of the consistence of putty.
   II. Mix equal weights of red and white lead
 with boiled linseed oil to a proper consistence.
   Use.  Employed  by  engineers and  others to
 make  metallic joints.  A washer of  hemp, yarn,
 or canvass smeared with the  cement is  placed
 in the joint,  which  is then "brought home," or
 screwed up tight.  It dries as hard as stone.
   This cement  answers well for joining  broken
 stones, however  large.   Cisterns built  of  square
 stones, put together, while dry,  with  this cement,
 will  never leak or come to repair.   It is only ne-
 cessary to use it for an inch or two next the wa-
 ter ;  the rest  of the joint  may be filled with good
 mortar.  It is better, however, to  use  it for the
 whole joint.
   CEMENT,  EXTEMPORANEOUS.   Shel-
 lac melted and  run into small sticks the size of a
 quill.   Use. To join glass, earthenware, &c.  The
 edges must  be heated sufficiently hot to melt the
 cement, which must be  then thinly smeared over
 them, and the joint made while  they are still hot.
 This  is the cement  so  commonly vended in the
 streets of London.
   CEMENT,  FRENCH.  Prep.  Make a thick
 mucilage  with  gum  arabic  and  water, then add
 starch in  fine powder to thicken it.  Use. Em-
 ployed by naturalists and French artificial-flower
 makers.   A little lemon juice is sometimes added.
  CEMENT   FOR  IRON  BOILERS, &c.
 Prep. Dried  clay in  powder  6  lbs.; iron filings
 1 lb.; make a paste with boiled linseed oil   Used
to stop the  cracks and leaks  in  iron  boilers,
stoves, &.c. 
CEM
172
CEM
  CEMENT FOR  BROKEN  GLASS, CHI-
NA,  &c   Various preparations and methods are
adopted for mending broken china, earthenware,
and  glass, among which are the following:  the
white of an egg  beaten with quicklime, in impal-
pable powder, into a paste ; to which is sometimes
added a little whey, made by mixing vinegar and
milk.  A little isinglass, dissolved in mastich var-
nish,  is another  cement.  Nature supplies some
cements ready to our hands, as the juice of garlic
and  the  white slime of  large snails; and it  has
been stated in a respectable scientific journal that
a broken  flint has been  joined so effectually with
this snail  cement, that when  dashed upon a stone
pavement  the flint broke elsewhere than at  the
cemented part.   In  their anxiety to unite  broken
articles,  persons  generally defeat themselves  by
spreading the cement too thickly upon the edges
of the article, whereas the least  possible quantity
should be  used, so as to bring the edges almost
close together; and  this  may be  aided by heating
the fragments to be joined.   (Chambers's Infor-
mation for the People.)
  (See  also  Armenian, Extemporaneous, Chi-
nese  Cements, &c.  &c.)
  CEMENT, GAD'S  HYDRAULIC.  Prep.
Mix 3 lbs. of  well-dried  and  powdered  clay with
1 lb. of oxide of  iron; then  add  as much boiled
oil as will reduce  them to a stiff paste.
  Use.  For work required to  harden under water.
  CEMENT, GLASS  GRINDERS'.   I. Melt
pitch  and add thereto one fourth of  its  weight
each of finely-powdered wood-ashes and hard tal-
low.   For coarse  work.
  II. Melt 4 lbs. of black rosin, then add  1  lb.
each  of  beeswax and whiting previously  heated
red hot and still warm.
  III. Shellac melted, and applied to the pieces
previously warmed.
  Use. To fix the articles while grinding.
  CEMENT, GLUE.  Prep.  I. Melt  1 lb.  of
glue without water, then  add 1 lb. of black rosin
and 4 oz.  of red ochre.
  II. Melt glue without water, then stir in £ of its
weight each of boiled oil  and  red  ochre.
  Use.  For various  common purposes,  especially
to fix stones ill their frames.
  CEMENT, HAMELIN'S,  (or MASTICH.)
To any given weight of the earth or earths, com-
monly called  pit-sand, river-sand, rock-sand,  or
any  other sand of the same or  the like nature,
or pulverized  earthenware or porcelain, add two
thirds of such given weight of the earth or earths,
commonly called Portland stone, Bath stone, or
any other stone of the same  or like nature, pul-
verized.   To every  560  lbs. of  these earths,  so
prepared,  add 40 lbs. of  litharge, and with  the
last-mentioned given weights combine  2 lbs.  of
pulverized glass or flint stone.  Then join  to this
mixture 1 lb. of minium  and 2 lbs. of gray oxide
of lead.
  When this  composition is  intended to be made
into cement, to every 605 lbs. of the composition
are added 5 gallons of vegetable oil, as linseed oil,
walnut oil, or pink oil.  The composition  is then
mixed in a similar way to mortar.
  When this  cement  is  applied to the purpose of
covering buildings intended to resemble  stone, the
surface of the building is washed with oil.
  CEMENT,  IRON.  This is  formed of  the
boriugs or turnings of cast-iron, which should be
clean  and  free from rust, mixed with  a  small
quantity of  sal ammoniac and flowers of sulphur.
When wanted for use, it  is  mixed up with  just
enough water to  thoroughly moisten it, and it ia
rammed or calked  into the joints with  a  blunt
calking chisel and hammer, after which the joint
is screwed  up by its bolts  as tightly  us  possible.
If the turnings or  borings be very coarse, they ure
broken by pounding in an iron  mortar,  and  the
dust sifted off before use.  The following are good
proportions.
  I. Sal ammoniac in powder 2 oz.;  flowers of
sulphur 1 oz.; iron borings 5 lbs.;  water to mix.
  II. Sal ammoniac 1 oz.; sulphur  4 oz.; iron
borings 6 lbs.; water to mix.
  III. Sal  ammoniac 2 oz.;  iron borings 7 or 8
lbs. ;  water to mix.
  IV. Iron  borings 4 lbs.;  good pipeclay 2 lbs.;
powdered potsherds 1 lb.;  make them into a paste
with salt and water.                              i
  Remarks. The  first of these forms is that gen-
erally employed  for common purposes,  but  for-
merly much more  sulphur and sal ammoniac were
used.  I am informed by one of the leading engi-
neers  of  London,  that the strongest  cement is
made without sulphur, and with only 1 or 2 parts
of sal ammoniac  to 100 of  iron borings,  (see  the
third  form;) but that when the  work is  required
to dry rapidly, as for steam joints of machinery
wanted in haste, the quantity  of sal ammoniac is
increased a little, and occasionally a  very  small
quantity of sulphur is added.  This addition makes
it set qircker, but reduces its strength.  As  the
power of the cement depends on the oxidizement
and  consequent  expansion of  the  mass, it is evi-
dent  that the less foreign matter introduced  the
better.  No more  of this cement should be  made
at a  time than  can be used  at  once, because it
soon spoils.  I have seen it become quite hot by
standing even a few hours, when it contained sul-
phur ; and  I  have  been  informed by workmen,
that when much sulphur is used, and it has been
left together in quantity all  night, combustion has
taken place.
  The last form produces a cement that gets very
hard when allowed to dry slowly.
  CEMENT, JAPANESE.   Syn. Rice Glob.
Prep. Intimately  mix the best powdered rice with
a little cold water, then gradually add  boiling wa-
ter, until  a  proper consistence is  acquired,  being
particularly careful to keep it well stirred all the
time ; lastly, it must be boiled for 1 minute in a
clean saucepan or  earthen pipkin.
  Use. This glue  is beautifully white, and almost
transparent, for which reason it is well adapted for
fancy paper work,  which  requires a  strong and
colorless cement.
  CEMENT, KEENE'S MARBLE.  The foi-
lowing is an  abstract of  a paper read  by Mr.
White before  the Society of Arts, and will  ex-
plain  the  preparation of this beautiful  and useful
cement: " Keene's Marble Cement is described as
a combination of sulphate of lime and alum.* The
gypsum  undergoes the same  preparation as  for
plaster of Paris, being deprived  of its water  of crys-
  * A  pleasing tint is  given to this cement by adding a lit-
tle solution of green copperas to the alum liquor. 
CEM                    173                   CER
 tallization  by baking.   It is  then steeped in a
 saturated solution of alum ; and  this compound,
 when recalcined and reduced to a powder, is in a fit
 rtate for use.  This cement has been most  exten-
 iively applied as a stucco ; but the finer qualities,
 (when  colored by the  simple  process of infusing
 mineral colors in the water with which the  ce-
 ment powder is finally mixed  for working,) being
 Btisceptible  of a high  degree  of polish, produce
 beautiful imitations of  mosaic,  and other inlaid
 marbles, scagliola, &c.  The cement is not adapted
 to hydraulic purposes, or for exposure to the weath-
 er, but has  been  u^ed as a stucco in the internal
 decorations of Windsor and Buckingham palaces.
 From  its  extreme  hardness,  it  has been found
 serviceable when  used for imbedding and  setting
 the tiles of tesselated pavements,  &c.; and  has
 been adopted for this purpose  at  the French  Pro-
 testant  church, the  new fire-proof chambers in
 Shorter's Court, and the  Reform Club-House."
   In the course  of the discussion which followed,
 Mr. C. H. Smith and Mr. Lee adverted  to the ex-
 treme hardness of the  cement as its principal re-
 commendation, when  applied as stucco  and for
 mouldings.
   CEMENT,  MAHOGANY.    Prep. I. Melt
 beeswax 4  oz.;  then add Indian red  1 oz., and
 enough yellow ochre to produce the required tint.
   II.  Shellac, melted and colored as above.  Very
 hard.
    Use. To fill up holes and cracks in mahogany.
   CEMENT,  OPTICIAN'S.   Prep.  I. Shel-
 lac, softened with rectified spirit or wood naph-
 tha.   For fine work.
   II.  Melt wax 1 oz., and resin 15 oz.; then add
 whiting 4 oz.; previously made  red hot, and still
 warm.
   III.  Resin 1 lb.; melt, then add plaster of Paris
 (dry) 4 oz.
   Use. To fix glasses, stones, &c, while polishing
 and cutting.  The last is  a very strong cement for
 rough purposes.
   CEMENT, PARABOLIC.   Syn. Universal
 Cement.  Prep. Curdle skim-milk, press out the
 whey, and  dry the curd  by a gentle heat, but as
 quickly  as  possible.   When it has become quite
 dry, grind it to powder in a coffee or pepper mill,
 and mix it with j1^ of its weight of finely-powdered
 quicklime, and a piece  of camphor the  size of a
 pea, also reduced to powder, to every ounce of the
 mixture.  Keep it in wide-mouth 1 oz. vials, well
 corked.  For use, make it into  a paste with  a little
 water, and apply it immediately.
  CEMENT, PARKER'S.  This valuable  ce-
 ment "is made of the  nodules of indurated  and
 slightly ferruginous marl, called  by mineralogists
 septaria, and also of some other species of argilla-
 ceous limestone.   These  are  burned in  conical
 kilns, with pit coal, in a similar way to other lime-
 stone, care being taken  to avoid the use  of too
 much heat, as if the pieces undergo the  slightest
 degree of fusion, even on  the surface, they will be
 unfit to form  the cement.  After being properly
 roasted, the calx is reduced to a very fine powder
 by grinding, and immediately packed in barrels, to
 keep it from the air and moisture.
  Use.  It is tempered with water to  a proper con-
sistence, and applied  at once, as it soon  hardens,
and will not  bear being again softened down with
  water.   For foundations  and cornioes exposed to
  the  weather, it  is usually  mixed with  an equal
  quantity of clean angular sand ; for use as a com-
  mon mortar, with about twice as much sand ;  for
  coating walls exposed to  cold and wet, the com-
  mon proportions are 3 of sand to 2 of cement, and for
  walls exposed  to  extreme dryness  or heat, about
  24 or 3 of sand to 1 of cement;  for facing cistern
  work, water frontages, &c,  nothing but cement
  and water should be employed.
    This cement, under the name of compo, or Ro-
  man cement, is much employed for facing houses,
  water-cisterns, setting the foundations of large edi-
  ficcs &.C.
    CEMENT, PLUMBER'S.  Prep. Melt black
  rosin 1 lb.,  then stir in brickdust 1 to 2 lb. Some-
  times a little tallow is added.
    CEMENT, ROMAN.  Genuine Roman ce-
  ment  consists  of puzzolene,  (a ferruginous clay
  from Puteoli, calcined by the fires of Vesuvius,)
  lime, and sand, mixed up with soft  water.  The
  only preparation  which  the puzzolene undergoes
  is that of pounding  and  sifting;  but the ingredi-
  ents are occasionally mixed  up with bullock's blood
  and oil, to give the composition more tenacity.
    CEMENT, SEAL ENGRAVER'S.   Com-
  mon resin and brickdust melted together.
    Use. To fix the pieces of metal while cutting,
  and also to secure seals and tools in their handles.
  It  grows harder  and improves  every time it is
  melted.
    CEMENT, TURNER'S.   Pitch,  rosin,  and
  brickdust melted  together.
    CEMENT, WATER.  Prep.  I. Good gray
  clay 4 parts ; black oxide of  manganese 6 parts ;
  good limestone, reduced to powder by sprinkling it
  with water, 90 parts; mix, calcine,  and powder.
    II. Mix white  iron ore  (manganese iron ore) 15
  parts, with  lime 85  parts; calcine and powder as
  above. Both this  and the  preceding must be mixed
  up with a little sand for use.   A piece thrown into
  water will rapidly harden.
    III. Fine clean sand 1  cwt.; quicklime in pow-
  der 28 lbs.; bone ashes 14  lbs.  For use, beat  it
  up with water as quickly  as possible.
    CEMENT,  WATERPROOF,  (OF  DIHL.)
  Pure clay, dried by a gentle heat, and  powdered,
  mixed up to the consistency of a paste with boiled
  linseed oil.
    Remarks. It may be colored by adding a little
  red or yellow ochre, or any similar pigment.  It is
  used to cove.r the fronts  of  buildings, roofs of ve-
  randas, &c.  It may be  thinned with turpentine.
   CEMENTATION,  (in  Metallurgy.)  The
  operation of  surrounding a solid body with powder
  or some other body, and in this state exposing it to
  the action of heat.  Steel and porcelain  undergo
  cementation.
   CERATES.   Unctuous preparations possessing
  a consistence intermediate between ointments and
  plasters.   The  term  is derived from Cera, wax,
  because that is the  ingredient on which their so-
  lidity mainly depends.
   In the prepa-ation  of cerates, the oils and fats
  used should  br perfectly  fresh, and the wax una-
  dulterated.   It is  a general custom with the drug-
  gists to use a less  quantity of wax than what is re-
 quired to  give the compound a proper consistence,
i and in many cases it is omitted altogether, and its 
CER
174
CER
place supplied by hard suet  or  stearine, and fre-
quently rosin.  Lard  is also very  generally sub-
stituted for olive oil.  The operation of melting the
ingredients should be performed in a water or steam
bath, and the liquid mass should be  assiduously
stirred until cold.
  CERATE, BLISTERING.  Syn. Cerate of
Spanish Flies.  Ceratum  Cantharides.  (P. L.)
Prep.  Spanish flies in fine powder §j; spermaceti
cerate §vj ; soften the cerate by heat, then care-
fully mix in the powdered flies.
  Use. To keep blisters open, and as a mild stim-
ulant.  Its use is sometimes, however,  attended
by strangury  and other disagreeable symptoms.  A
blister on the scalp, dressed for 4 days  with this
cerate, was followed by the head swelling to  an
alarming size, an cedematose erysipelas  over the
face and  scalp to the occlusion of the eyes, and
great fever. These symptoms were removed by the
use of emollient fermentations  and simple dress-
ings.   (A. T. Thompson.)   Very probably the co-
rate contained euphorbium, which it derived from
the powdered flies being adulterated with this sub-
stance. (See Cantharides.)
  CERATE, CALAMINE.   Syn.   Ceratu.m
Epuloticum,  (P. L. 1745.)   Ceratum Lapis Ca-
laminaris, (P. L.  1788.)   Ceratum  Calamine,
(P.  L. lt<36.)  Healing Salve.   Turner's Ce-
rate.  Prep. Prepared calamine (lapis calamina-
ris) and wax, of each lb. ss ; olive oil f ^xvj.  Proc.
Mix the oil with the melted wax, and as  soon as it
begins to thicken, add the  calamine and stir until
cold.
  Use. To dress excoriations, ulcers, burns, sore
nipples, &c.   It is drying and healing.
  Remarks.  On the large scale this cerate is usu-
ally made without a particle of wax.  4 lbs.  of
suet are melted with 3 lbs. of lard, and 3$ lbs. of
calamine  sifted  in; the whole is then well mixed
np for a few  minutes, and after one minute's  re-
pose, it is poured off into another vessel, a  little
coarse sediment that has fallen  to  the bottom be-
ing left behind.  It is  then stirred until  cold.   In
many  cases  nothing but lard  and  calamine are
used.
  CERATE, CALAMINE, (WITH MERCU-
RY.)  Prep.  (Ceratum Calamine  cum  Hydrar-
gyro, P. C.)   Calamine cerate  lb. j;  nitric oxide
of mercury §j.  Proc. Triturate  the oxide  until
reduced to an impalpable powder,  then add the
cerate and thoroughly blend  them together.
  GERATE, CALOMEL.  Prep. Simple  ce-
rate 3vij ; calomel 3j ; mix.
  CERATE,   CALOMEL,   (COMPOUND.)
Calamine cerate §ij; calomel ^j ; mix.
   CERATE,  CINCHONA.    (Paris  Codex.)
Equal parts of extract of cinchona and simple ce-
rate, mixed together.
  CERATE, COMPOUND LEAD. Syn. Gou-
lard's Cerate.   Ceratum  Plumbi  compositum,
(P.  L ) Prep. Solution of diacetate of lead f ^iij;
wax ^iv; olive oil  4  pint;  camphor 3ss.   Proc
A.dd 8 oz  of the  oil to the melted wax, and  as soon
is it begins to cool,  add the  solution of  lead, and
continue the stirring until cold ;  then add the cam-
phor dissolved in the remaining portion of the oil.
  Use. A cooling  cerate  for burns, excoriations,
&c
  CERATE,  COMPOUND   MERCURIAL.
Syn. Ceratum Hydrar<;yui  compositum, (P. L.)
Prep.  Mercurial ointment and soap cerate, of
each 5'v ; powdered camphor  ^j J niix.
  Use.  As a stimulant application  to indolent tu.
mors, and as a resolvent in enlarged joints, &.c.
  CERATE,  COPPER.   Syn.  Ceratum Cu-
pri.  Prep. Liquor of ammoniated  copper 1 part;
simple cerate 8 parts.  Proc.  Soften the cerate b)
heat, then add the cupreous solution, and stir un-
til cold.  (Swediaur.)
  CERATE,  COSMETIC.   Syn. Pom.made en
Creme.   Prep. Oil of almonds 5 oz.; white wax
and spermaceti, of each  4 oz.  ; melt, add rose wa-
ter 3 oz., and tincture of balsam of Mecca £ oz.;
stir  until cold.
  CERATE,  HEMLOCK.    (Ceratum Conii,
St. B. H.)   Hemlock ointment  12 oz.;  sperma-
ceti 2 oz. ;  white  wax 3 oz.; melt the  last two,
then add them to lh<* first,  softened by a gentle
heat.  Used for invett ute cancerous, scrofulous,
and other sores.
  CERATE,  HONE St   (Ceratum Mellis, P.
C.)   Lead plaster and  b-eswax,  of each 4 oz.;
olive oil 6 oz.; melt and add honey 5 oz.
  CERATE,  KIRKLAND'S   NEUTRAL
Prep. Lead plaster ^viij ; olive oil and prepared
chalk, of each §iv;  mix with heat and add sugar
of lead  3iij, dissolved in distilled  vinegar  f^iv.
Stir until cold.   Use.  As a cooling  dressing for in-
dolent ulcers.
  CERATE,  MARSHALL'S. Prep. Palm oil
and calomel, of each 2  oz.;  sugar of lead 1 oz.;
ointment of nitrate of mercury 4  oz.;  mix tho-
roughly by rubbing them together in a Wedgewood
mortar.
  CERATE,  MERCURIAL.  (Ceratum Mb*-'
curiale, P. L. 1746.)  Strong mercurial ointment
and yellow wax,  of each 6 oz.; lard 3  oz.  Melt
the  wax and lard together, then stir in the oint-
ment.
  CERATE OF ACETATE OF LEAD. (Ce-
ratum Plumbi  Acetatis, P.  L.)  Acetate of lead
in fine powder 3ij ; wax fij ;  olive  oil f ^viij; melt
the wax in 7 oz. of the oil; then add the acetate
of lead, separately rubbed down with the remain-
ing oil;  stir until cold.
  Use.  As a cooling cerate to burns, excoriations
and inflamed sores.
  CERATE  OF ARSENIC.  (Ceratum Ar-
senici, P. U. S.)   White  arsenic in  fine powdei
3j ; simple cerate Jj; mix.
  CERATE OF NITRATE OF MERCURY
(Ceratum   Hydrargyri  Nitratis,  St. B.  H.)
Prep. Ointment of nitrate of mercury and simple
cerate, equal parts ; mix.
  CERATE,   OPIUM.   (Ceratum Opii, Dr.
Lagneau.)   Prep.  Opium in  fine  powder 3ss;
yelk of 1 egg ; mix, then rub  it up with  simple ce-
rate §ij.
  CERATE,   QUININE.   (Ceratum Quinls,
F. H.)   Sulphate of quinine 1  part; simple ce-
rate 10  parts ; mix well.
  CERATE,  RESIN.   Syn.  Yellow Basili-
con.  Basilicon  Cerate.   Ceratum Citrimm,
(P.  L.  1745.)   C. Resins Flwm, (P.  L. 17*8.)
Ceratum Resinjs, (P. L.  1809, 1824, and 1836.J
Prep. Yellow resin and wax, of each lb. j ; melt;
then add olive  oil f fxvj.   Stir until cold.
  Remarks. This cerate is a mild  stimulant, de- 
CER                    175                    CER
 tergent, and digestive application ; and is employed
 to dress foul and indolent ulcers.
   The above is the form of the Lond. Ph., but the
 basilicon of the shops is seldom, if ever, made in
 this manner.   The following forms are those com-
 monly used on the large scale, but the product is
 inferior to the  P. L.
   II.  Yellow  resin 10 lbs.;  beeswax  2 lbs.;  lin-
 seed oil 7 lbs.; melt together and stir until cold.
   III.  As last, but use nut oil for linseed oil.
   IV. Nut oil 1 gall.; beeswax 5 lbs.; yellow re-
 sin 14 lbs.
   V. Lard (common) and linseed oil, of each 3
 lbs.; yellow resin 9 lbs.;  mix as before.
   CERATE,  ROSE.   Syn.  Lip Salve.   (Ce-
 ratum Rosatum, P. Cod.)   Oil of almonds 1 lb.;
 white wax 4 lb.; alkanet root 1 oz.; melt and di-
 gest until sufficiently colored, strain,  and when
 cooled a little, add otto of roses (24 drops) to  per-
 fume.
   CERATE,  SAVINE.  (Ceratum Sabine, P.
 L.)  Prep. Lard lbs. ij ; savine leaves lb. j ;  wax
 fviij.   Proc.   Melt the wax and lard,  and boil the
 leaves in the mixture, then  strain through a linen
 cloth.
   Remarks. The  preparation  of this cerate  re-
 quires caution, as the active principle of the savine
 being volatile,  is injured by long boiling or too high
 a temperature.  The leaves are usually boiled un-
 til they are crisp, but as  this takes some time, the
 essential  oil, and consequently the odor, is nearly
 all  dissipated.   A better plan is to express  the
 juice from the  leaves, and to add  it to the wax
 and oil melted together, and just beginning to cool.
 As  usually met with,' this  ointment  has a deep
 green color,  and the  odor  of the fresh plant, but
 neither of these is  derived from the  leaves, in the
 common process of making it.   The  first is caused
 by the addition of verdigris, and the latter by add-
 ing a little of the essential oil of savine  to the com-
 pound  when nearly  cold.   The  cerate prepared
 according to the form of  either of the British Col-
 leges, has but  a very  pale green  color, and that
 rapidly changes unless  it  be well  covered  up from
 the air.   A greater quantity of color  is got fiom
 the leaves by long digestion in the fat  and wax in
 earthen vessels, at a moderate heat, than by hast-
 ily boiling.  In this way a lively  green is some-
 times produced, but it rapidly changes.
   The following forms are those that have been
 adopted by many druggists for the manufacture* of
 this cerate.
   II. Lard and  suet, of  each 6 lbs.; yellow wax
 2 lbs.; melt them together in an earthen vessel;
 then  add  2 oz. of distilled verdigris, previously
 rubbed down smooth  in a mortar, with an equal
 weight of sweet oil ;  strain while hot into a large
 earthen pot, and when cooled a little, add 1 oz. of
 oil of savine ; stir till  cold.
   III. Savine  leaves 4 lbs.; yellow wax 2 lbs.;
 lard 8 lbs.; boil until the leaves become crisp ; then
 strain, and add, of lively-colored green  ointment 5
 lbs.; and when cooled a little, 3 drs. of oil of  sa-
 vine.   Stir briskly until cold.   Prod.  134 lbs.
  The practice of coloring this cerate with verdi-
gris, which is next to  universal,  cannot be too  se-
verely censured, as its  therapeutic action is thereby
altered.  The copper  may be detected by burning
down a little in a platinum or  Hessian crucible,
 washing  out  the ashes with  a little  dilute acid,
 placing  the liquor in a  glass  tube, and pouring
 thereon liquid ammonia.   When a blue color, am-
 moniureted copper will be nroduced, if copper be
 present.
   Use. To keep blisters open.
   CERATE, SOAP.  (Ceratum Saponis, P. L.)
 Prep. Boil litharge §xv in distilled vinegar 1 gal-
 lon  until  dissolved, stirring continually;  then  add
 of Castile soap  §x; boil again  until the moisture
 be entirely evaporated .* then add gradually,  wax
 §xiiss,  and olive  oil  1 pint, previously melted to-
 gether.
   Remarks. Unless the above  instructions be ex-
 actly followed in  every particular, the process will
 miscarry.  When this is the case, it will be found
 that the  cerate on cooling will separate into two
 portions, and be full of hard gritty particles.   To
 prevent this,  care should  be taken to use soap  of
 the best quality.  When  once this mishap occurs,
 no boiling or stirring in the world will remove it.
 The only remedy is the addition  of a little more
 soap, previously  melted  with  some water,  and
 again evaporating to a  proper  consistence.   A
 small quantity of liquor of potassa will ^Iso have
 the  same effect.
   The color and consistence of this cerate  wholly
 depend upon the length of time it is kept  heated
 after the  addition of the oil and wax.  As -evapo-
 ration proceeds, so do the color  and  consistence
 increase.   Its  usual  color is that of a lively pale
 chocolate-brown, but  occasionally it is much paler.
 This arises from its containing moisture, which, by
 stirring,  reduces the  color.   The following form
 may be used on the large scale.
   II. Distilled vinegar 6 galls.; litharge 5 lbs.;
 soap 3| lbs.; yellow wax 4£ lbs.; olive oil 6 pints.
 Mix as  above.   (Good nut or poppy  oil may be
 used for olive oil.)
   Uses.  Soap cerate  is used as  a  cool dressing for
 scrofulous swellings,  &c.   It  may be spread on
 linen and applied like a plaster.
   CERATE,  SIMPLE.   Syn. Oil and  Bees-
 wax.  Simple Dressing.  Cerat  simple, (Fr.)
 Ceratum simplex, (P. L.  1824.)  Ceratum, (P. L.
 1809 and 1836.)   Prep.  Olive oil ffiv;  yellow
 wax §iv ; mix by heat, and stir until cold.
   Remarks. This is the ceratum of the " London
 Pharmacopoeia."   It  is used as a simple emollient
 dressing for excoriations and sores.  The ceratum
 simplex of the Scotch College is spermaceti cerate.
 Simple cerate is but  little used, preference being
 given to the next preparation.
   CERATE,  SPERMACETI.   Syn.  White
 Lip  Salve.   Cerat de blanc  de Baleine, (Fr.)
 Simple Cerate,,(P. E.)   Ceratum album, (P. L.
 1745.)  C. Spermatis Ceti, (P. L. 1788.)  Cera-
 tum  Cetacei, (P. L.  1809, 1824, 1836.)  Prep.
 Spermaceti  ^ij ' white wax §viii; olive oil  1 pint.
 Melt together and stir assiduously until cold. Use.
 As a soft cooling dressing.
   Remarks. As soon as the materials are melted,
 they should be moved  from the fire, strained into
 a clean vessel, and stirred until cold.  To facilitate
 the cooling,  the vessel may be placed in cold wa-
 ter or a current of cold air.  This will  render the
product both whiter and finer than when allowed
to  cool by itself.  The operation of melting should
be performed in a water bath.  On the large scale 
CHA                   176                    CIJA
 lard or suet is substituted for oil, by which means
 less wax is required.  The following is a good form
 where a cheap article is wanted.
   II.  Clarified  mutton  suet 54 lbs.;  white wax
 and spermaceti, of each f lb.  As above.
   CERATE,  SULPHUR.  (Ceratum Sulphu-
 ratum, P. Cod.)   Washed sulphur 2 parts; cerate
 of Galen 7 parts; almond oil 1  part.  Mix.
   CERATE,  SULPHURET OF MERCURY.
 (Ceratum Rubrum, P. Cod.)  Yellow wax,  lard,
 and yellow resin, of each fj; red sulphuret of mer-
 cury* gr. xxx.   Mix.
   CERATE,  ZINC,  AND  LYCOPODIUM.
 (Ceratum Zivci-cumLycopodio, Hufeland.)  Sim-
 ple cerate 3iv; oxide of  zinc and lycopodium, in
 powder,  of each gr. xv.   Mix.
   CERIUM.  A metal discovered in 1803 by Hi-
 singer and Berzelius, in  a mineral named cerite.
 It is obtained in combination with a metal called
 by Mosander Lantanium.   The mixed oxides may
 be procured by dissolving calcined and powdered
 cerite in nitro-muriatic acid,  filtering, neutralizing
.with pure potassa,and then precipitating with tar-
 trate of potassa.  The powder  that falls  down is
 next washed and calcined.
   The mixed oxides may be separated by solution
 in nitric  acid, evaporation, and calcination.  The
 mass previously powdered is then to be digested in
 water  containing 2g of nitric acid ; the undissolved
 portion is the oxide of cerium.  The solution con-
 tains the oxide of lantanium, which may be ob-
 tained as a carbonate by adding a solution of car-
 bonate of potassa.
   The combination of these metals is but  little
 known,  and is  now the  subject of investigation
 by several eminent foreign chemists.   Various
 compounds of these  metals with  the acids, sulphur,
 and chlorine have been formed.
   CETENE.   A colorless oily-looking liquid, ob-
 tained by repeatedly distilling ethal  with glacial
 phosphoric acid.  It is inflammable and soluble in
 alcohol and ether.
   CETINE.  Syn. Pure  Spermaceti.   Prep.
 Dissolve spermaceti  in boiling alcohol, and collect
 the crystals that  deposite  on  cooling.    Prop.
 Bright pearly crystals; melts at  1-20° ; sublimes
 at 670°.
   CHAIRS.   The  black leather work of chairs,
 settees,  &c, may be restored by first washing off
 the dirt with a little warm  soap  and water, and
 afterwards  with clean water.  The  brown  and
 faded  portions may  now be restained by means
 of a little black  ink, or preferably black reviver,
 and when this has  got thoroughly dry, they may
 be touched over with white of egg, strained and
 mixed with a little sugar-candy.  .When the latter
 is nearly dry, it should be polished off with a clean
 dry brush.
   A similar process will  revive ladies' and gentle-
 men's dress boots and shoes.
   CHALK.  Syn.  Earthy Carbonate of Lime.
 Perhaps there is no one thing better known, or
 more  universally distributed throughout England,
 than chalk.   It is here largely used in the manu-
 factures, the arts,  and in medicine ;  and it forms
 an important geological feature of the country. It
 was the hills of chalk, the white cliffs of England,
 that conferred  on it the name  of Albion, (from
 albus or albens, white.)   The chalk formation
ranges over a great portion of the  country, and in
many cases obtains  an elevation  of nearly 1000
feet above the level of the sea.  'There are various
kinds of chalk,  principally  distinguished  by their
color.
  CHALK.  PRECIPITATED.   Syn. Creta
Precipitata.  Prep. (Calcis Carbonas Precipi-
tatum, P. D.)  Add a solution of carbonate of soda
in 6 times its weight of water, to  another of mu-
riate of lime.    Wash  the precipitute repeatedly
with distilled water.
  Use.  Precipitated chalk is ordered by the Irish
College to be used in the preparation  of "quick-
silver with  chalk."  It is  also frequently  used as
an ingredient  in aromatic confection, cretaceous
tooth-powder,  &c, and is preferable in every case
where  chalk is  ordered,  and expense is not an
object.
  CHALK, PREPARED.   Syn. Creta.  Cal-
cis  Carbonas Friabilis,  (P. L.)   Friable Car-
bonate of Lime,  (P.  E.)   Creta Alba, (P. D.)
Prep.  Rub chalk lb. j with sufficient water,  added
gradually,  until  reduced to a very  fine powder;
then put this into a large vessel with water, agitate
well, and, after a short interval, pour oft'the super-
natant water,  still turbid, into another vessel, and
let the suspended  powder subside.   In the same
way shells  are  prepared,  after being  first freed
from impurities, and washed with boiling water
(P. L.)
  Remarks.   On  the  large  scale  the  chalk is
ground in mills,  and the  deposite made in large
reservoirs.  It is  now  seldom prepared  by  the
druggist.
  Use.  Prepared chalk is used in  medicine  as an
absorbent, antacid, and desiccant.   It forms a val-
uable dusting powder in excoriations, ulcers, &c,
especially in children.   It is administered in dys-
pepsia, heartburn, acidity of the stomach, &c. In
diarrhoea, depending on acidity or  irritation, it is
very serviceable, either alone, or  combined with
aromatics,  astringents, or opium.   Dose.  10  grs. to
a spoonful.  The  precipitated chalk is preferable
when it can be obtained pure, and either that or
the prepared  chalk must  alone  be used in  medi-
cine.   The latter is, however, the  cheaper of the
two, and is consequently the one  more generally
used.
  Pur. Precipitated chalk  is frequently  adulter-
ated, and, in many cases,  the article sold as such
does not contain one particle of carbonate of lime.
The following extract  from  a letter published in
the " Annals of  Chemistry," will throw some light
on this  subject.   The  truth  of Mr. Bartlett's as-
sertions I can testify to.   " An article has been
offered and purchased by both wholesale and retail
druggists, (in one instance, I believe, to the extent
of a ton weight,) under the name of precipitated
chalk, at 8d. or  Wd. per  lb. instead of Is.  Ad. or
Is.  Gd.,  the  price  of the genuine  article.   This
article  appears  beautifully  white  and flocculent,
having all the appearance of the  genuine,  but is
nothing more than  pure sulphate  of lime."   " It
is well known that the carbonic  acid  gas 'of the
soda-water manufacturer is obtained from whiting,
and that it is disengaged therefrom by sulphuric
acid.   A short time since  it was inquired of us to
what purpose the pappy residuary mass of sulphate
of lime and excess of  whiting could be applied in 
CHA                     177                     CHA
chemistry ?  At the time we were unable to fur-
nish  a satisfactory reply ;  the impression of our
querist being that, on account of the secrecy ob-
served in removing it, he had no doubt the uses to
which it could be applied involved a good  profit.
We think Mr. B.'s letter may be received as a clue
to the  uses of  this  residue.   Creta precipitata
should be entirely soluble in  acetic acid, with ef-
fervescence ; the sulphate of lime,  on the con-
trary,  is  insoluble."    (Ann. Chem. and  Pract.
Pharm.)
  The following are the tests of purity  mentioned
in the  London Phar.:—" Entirely soluble in dilute
muriatic acid, with effervescence.  After this so-
lution  has been boiled, no precipitate is produced
when ammonia is dropped in."
  CHAMBERLAIN'S   RESTORATIVE
PILLS.  A quack medicine, composed of cinna-
bar,  sulphur, and sulphate of lime, made into pills
with mucilage.
  CHAMBERLIGHT, IMPROVED.  Take a
common cylindrical ointment pot, a 2  oz.-size in
the  winter,  (in  the summer a  smaller one ;)  fill
this  with any kind of fat, as the waste  fat from
the  kitchen for instance.   Trim by about 4 an
inch of the  common wax-wick, sold at  the tallow-
chandler's,  simply  stuck  into a thin  slice of a
wine-bottle  cork, upon which place a strip of stout
filtering paper,  about  half  the  diameter of the
cork in breadth, and a diameter and  a  half in
length.  It  need not be quite so broad,  but it must
be  at  least the length stated.   The  reason for
using  the bibulous paper is, that it feeds  the wick
properly ; without it, or some such contrivance, it
will  not burn.   Remove with the handle of a tea-
spoon sufficient of the fat to allow  the cork to be
a little below  the surface, and  then  place the fat
so removed  over the cork and paper,  neatly spread-
ing it to make an even surface.   The light is now
prepared.  (Ann. of Chem.)
  CHAMOMILE  DROPS.  Prep.  Dissolve 1
oz. of essential oil of chamomile in 1 pint of recti-
fied  spirit of  wine.   Use.  As a stomachic and
stimulant.   Dose. 5 to 30 drops; 4 an oz., shaken
with about  1  pint of  pure water, forms an excel-
lent  chamomile  water.
  CHAPPED  HANDS AND  LIPS.  The ap-
plication of a little cold cream, pomatum, sper-
maceti ointment, lard, or any  similar article, will
generall)- prevent chaps and chilblains on the lips
and  hands.    Persons  employed  in  oil  works, or
about  oil, and who have consequently their hands
continually  imbued  therewith, never suffer from
these things.  A little oil or unguent of any kind,
well rubbed over the hands on going to rest, (re-
moving the superfluous portion with a  cloth,) will
not  only preserve  them from cold, but  render
them beautifully soft and white.  It L;  said that a
favorite actress, celebrated for the beauty  of her
hands, covers thern nightly with the  flare of a
calf  or lamb with the fat attached, over which is
drawn a glove of leather.   (What inconvenience
and  even pain  will  not persons  suffer  to gratify
their pride'.)
  CHARCOAL.   A  peculiar and well-known
black substance, obtained from organic  matter, by
calcination  in close vessels.  There  are two kinds
of charcoal  met with in  commerce, viz., animal
(bone) and vegetable, (wood.)
                       23
  I.  (Animal charcoal.)   The preparation of this
kind of charcoal has been already explained.
  II. (Vegetable charcoal.)   Prep. This  is pre-
pared for fuel by cutting pieces of  wood, of  from
1 to  3 or 4 inches in diameter, into  lengths, vary-
ing from  1 to 2 or 3 feet, forming them into a
conical pile, covering them with turf or clay, to
exclude the air, leaving only 2 or 3 small holes at
the bottom for lighting the wood, and a few others
still  smaller  at  top to  admit  the  escape  of the
smoke.   The wood is now kindled, and  the  com-
bustion allowed to proceed slowly for 8 or 10  days,
more or less, until the volatile matter of  the  wood
be driven off, when the  air holes are stopped up
with clay, and the  further combustion of the pile
arrested.   The whole  is  then allowed to  remain
until cold, before it  is broken up.  In case of very
high winds occurring during the carbonization of
the wood, the holes to windward are stopped up
with clay or  earth, to prevent the mass burning
too rapidly.
   The charcoal employed in  the manufacture of
gunpowder is burnt in close iron  cylinders, and
has  hence received the  name of " cylinder  char-
coal."   For  this and other nice purposes,  it is es-
sential that the last portion of the tar and vinegar
be suffered to escape, and reabsorption of the  crude
vapors prevented, by cutting  off the  communica-
tion between the cylinders and the condensing ap-
paratus,  as  without this precaution,  on the fire   •
being withdrawn, this would certainly take place,
and the product be  much reduced in quality.   The
dogwood, alder, and willow are those used for ma-
king charcoal at Waltham  Abbey.   The Dutch
white willow, and  after  that  the Huntingdon wil-
low, are said to  yield the best charcoal for gun-
powder-   (Lieut.-Col. Moody.)
   It has been  stated,  that  in charring wood, a
portion of it  is sometimes converted into a species
of pyrophorous.  Perhaps this might have  been
the  cause of the  late  dreadful  explosion at  the
above works.
   Uses,  <J-c.  Charcoal  is used as  a  fuel, and in
metallurgy for  tempering  metals.    Reduced  to
powder,  it is  used  to surround vessels and bodies
required  to retain  their  heat for some  time.  A
coating of charcoal formed on piles and stakes of
wood, by charring  them, is frequently adopted to
promote their preservation, as it is unchangeable
by air and moisture.  Powdered  fresh-burnt  char-
coal restores tainted meat and putrid water, decol-
ors  vegetable solutions,  and withdraws lime from
sirups filtered through it.   For both these purposes
animal charcoal is  best.
   Charcoal varies in its qualities according to  the
substance from which  it  is prepared; that of the
soft  woods,  as  the willow  or alder, is best for
crayons, and for making gunpowder ; that of the
harder woods is used for fuel, or for a support for
substances exposed to the flame of the  blowpipe.
Charcoal of animal  substances  has the greatest
clarifying power.   That  made by a low red  heat,
not exceeding cherry red, has a  dull surface, and
is best for clarifying liquids, and probably for ma-
king gunpowder, and for fuel.  If  the heat ba
carried  beyond  this point, the charcoal acquires a
brilliant  surface, and  is  considerably inferior for
clarifying, and probably  for every other use.
   Oak, beech, and hazel charcoal are those com- 
CHA                   176                   CHE
monly sold in London for  fuel.   Willow charcoal
is also occasionally found mixed therewith, and is
frequently picked out for crayons, polishing copper-
plates, for grinding, to make tooth-powders, poul-
tices, &c.  Chesnut charcoal is preferred by smiths
for forging, as it  not only burns slowly, but dead-
ens as soon as the blast ceases.   Areca-nut char-
coal is preferred as a dentifrice, but that from the
willow is commonly sold for it.
  Ill medicine, charcoal is  principally used as an
antiseptic or disinfectant,  either  in  the form of
powder or made  into  a poultice.   It has  been
given internally in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery,
and  heartburn, with advantage.   Dose. 10 grs. to
a tablespoonful, ad libitum.  An ointment made
with lard and charcoal has been employed in some
skin diseases.
  Ant.  In  cases  of asphyxia, produced by respi-
ring the fumes of burning charcoal, the treatment
is similar to that described under carbonic acid.
  If the person has been only so much exposed to
the vapor as to stagger, on  coming  into the  fresh
air  it goes off;  but  the  head remains affected.
When the exposure has been so  long that sleepi-
ness comes on, the patient  should be  immediately
bled, cold water thrown upon the head, &c, and
stimulating applications to  the  feet.   There  have
been  instances of recovery by these  means,  even
when respiration had ceased, and some part of the
animal heat had been lost.   If life does not quickly
return it will be highly proper to attempt artificial
respiration.   (See Asphyxia.)  The  most simple
excitant in this species of asphyxia, is the passage
into the nasal fosses of a feather dipped in common
vinegar. It  is the means  which has always  first
caused  the muscular contractions indicating  revi-
val.   (Gabriel Pelletan.)
  Gilders, jewellers, copper-plate printers, brasiers,
&c., who use small open fires of burning charcoal,
should endeavor to create a draught of air to carry
off  the  fumes, and  should take  care to  keep to
" windward," (as sailors call it,) by which means
they will avoid them.  Vessels containing milk of
lime have  been employed  to absorb  the gas, but
their action  must necessarily  be very  limited.
The only certain remedy is thorough ventilation.
This  should  be adopted, even at slight personal
inconvenience in  other respects.
  CHARCOAL CRAYONS.   Prep. Saw the
finest-grained, softest, and blackest pieces of char-
coal, into slips of the size  required, put them into
a pipkin of melted wax, and allow them to mace-
rate over a slow fire for half an hour, then  take
them out and lay them on blotting-paper to dry.
  Remarks.  The above process may  also be em-
ployed for red and black chalk.   Drawings made
with  these, crayons  are very permanent,  and if
warmed slightly  on the wrong  side, the lines will
adhere  and become as durahle  as  ink.   These
crayons may also be made  by simply shaping the
charcoal with a  knife.  Willow  charcoal should
be used for this purpose.
  CHARCOAL, LARDNER'S PREPARED.
Prep. Mix  well  together  1 oz.  of finely-ground
charcoal with 3  oz. of  prepared chalk.  Use. As
a tooth-powder.
  CHARRING, SURFACE.  The  operation by
which the surface of wood is carbonized, to pre-
vent  its decay on exposure  to air  and moisture.
Stakes and piles are generally thus treated before
they are driven into the ground.  Casks are char-
red on the inside by coopers when they are in.
tended to hold water.   In both these cases the fire
is  applied directly to the wood.   A  new method
has, however, been lately employed with apparent
success.  This consists  in washing the wood with
the strongest oil of vitriol.  In this way, not only
the outer surface, but the surface of all the cracks
and holes, gets carbonized, which  is  not the case
when heat is employed.
   CHEESE.  The curd of  milk compressed into
a solid mass.
   Qual., <$-c. This well-known substance has been
objected to as an article of diet, but  without suf-
ficient reason.  That the inferior  kinds of cheese
are not very digestible must be acknowledged, and
when eaten in quantity may overload the stomach;
but when the  quality is good, and the digestive
organs are in a healthy condition,  it must evident-
ly prove  not only wholesome but very nutritious.
Like  all  other food, cheese  diges.*  nore readily
when well masticated, and the neglect of this pre-
caution is one  reason why it frequently disagrees
with  delicate stomachs.   It  is  rendered more
agreeable to most palates by toasting, but becomes
less digestible by that operation.  The basis of
cheese is  caseine or coagulated  curd, a proteine
substance ; it therefore cannot fail to prove nutri-
tious, provided it be properly digested.  Cheese-
curd,  carefully freed from water and  milk by ex-
pression, and the addition of salt, is a  mixture of
caseine and butter; it contains all the phosphate
of lime, and part of the phosphate of soda, of the
milk.   (Liebig.)  When  taken as a condiment,
especially when  rich and old, it  powerfully pro-
motes the secretion of the saliva and gastric juice,
and thereby  aids the  stomach in performing its
proper functions.
   Principles  of  Cheesemaking.   When  any
vegetable  or mineral acid is added to  milk, and
heat applied, a coagulum is formed, which, when
separated from the liquid portion, constitutes cheese
Neutral salts, earthy and metallic salts, sugar, and
gum  Arabic, as  well  as some other substances,
also produce the same effect; but what answers
best is rennet, or the mucous membrane of the last
stomach  of the calf.  Alkalis dissolve  this curd
at  a  boiling  heat, and acids  again precipitate it
The solubility of cheese in  milk  is occasioned by
the presence of alkaline phosphates  and of  free
alkalis.   In fresh milk these may be readily de-
tected by the property it possesses of restoring the
color of reddened litmus  paper.   The addition of
an acid neutralizes the alkali, and so precipitates
the curd in an insoluble state.
   " The acid indispensable  to the coagulation of
milk, is not added  to the milk in the preparation
of cheese, but it is formed in the milk at the ex-
pense of the milk-sugar present.   A small quanti-
ty of water is left in contact with a small quantity
of a calf's stomach  for a few  hours, or for a night;
the water absorbs so minute  a portion of the mu-
cous membrane as to be scarcely ponderable ; this
is  mixed with milk ; its state of  transformation is
communicated, (and this  is a most important cir-
cumstance,)  not  to  the  cheese but  to  the milk-
sugar, the  elements of  which  transpose them
selves into lactic acid, which neutralizes the al 
CHE
179
CHE
kali, and thus cau^s the separation of the cheese.
By means of litmas paper the process may be fol-
lowed and observed through all its stages ; the al-
kaline reaction of the  milk  ceases as soon as the
coagulation begins.  If the cheese is  not immedi-
ately separated  from the whey, the  formation of
lactic acid continues, the fluid turns acid, and the
cheese itself passes into a state of decomposition.
   " When  cheese-curd is kept in a cool place, a
series of transformations take place, in consequence
of which  it assumes entirely new properties; it
gradually becomes semi-transparent, and more or
less soft throughout  the whole mass ; it exhibits a
fedbly acid reaction, and develops the  character-
istic caseous odor. • Fresh cheese is very sparingly
soluble in water, but after having been left to itself
for two or three years, it becomes (especially if all
the fat be previously removed) almost completely
soluble  in cold  water, forming with  it a solution,
which, like milk, is coagulated by the addition of
the  acetic or  mineral  acids.  The cheese, which
while fresh is insoluble, returns during the matu-
ration, or ripening, as it is called, to a state similar
to that in which it originally existed in the milk.
In those English, Dutch, and Swiss cheeses which
are nearly inodorous, and in the  superior kinds of
French cheese, the caseine of the milk  is present
in its unaltered state.  The odor  and flavor of the
cheese is owing to the  decomposition of the butter;
the non-volatile acids,  the  margaric   and  oleic
acids,  and the  volatile butyric  acid, capric and
caproic acids, are liberated in consequence of the
decomposition of glycerine, (the sweet principle of
oils, or, as  it might  be termed, the sugar  of oils.)
Butyric  acid  imparts  to cheese  its  characteristic
caseous odor, and the differences in  its pungency
or aromatic flavor depend upon the proportion of
free butyric, capric, and caproic acids present.
   " The transition  of  the  insoluble into soluble
caseine depends upon the  decomposition of the
phosphate of lime by the margaric acid  of the but-
ter ; margarite of lime is formed while  the phos-
phoric acid combines with the caserne, forming a
compound soluble in water.
   " The bad smell of  inferior kinds of cheese, es-
pecially those called meager or poor cheeses, is
caused  by certain  fetid products containing sul-
phur, and which are formed  by the decomposition
or putrefaction  of the caseine.   The  alteration
which  the butter undergoes,  (that is, in becoming
rancid,) or  which occurs in the  milk-sugar still
present, being transmitted to the caseine, changes
both the composition of the  latter substance  and
its nutritive qualities.
   " The principal conditions for the preparation of
the superior  kinds of  cheese, (other obvious cir-
cumstances being of course duly regarded,) are a
careful  removal of the whey,  which  holds the
milk-sugar  in solution, and a low  temperature
during the maturation or ripening of the cheese."
(Liebig's Lectures.)
  Cheese differs vastly in quality and  flavor, ac-
cording to the method employed in its manufacture,
and the richness of the milk of which  it is made.
It is thought by some that the pasture, or the food
on which the cows feed, exercises considerable in-
fluence upon the quality of the cheese ; but this
influence, if any,  is very slight and  subordinate.
As the cheese made on the same farm does not
vary in any important  degree, whether made in
winter or summer, while the food must differ con-
siderably from the luxuriance of vegetation at the
one period, and its scantiness  and the absence of
flowering plants at the other.   So long as the cows
receive sufficient food of good quality, the precise
description appears of little consequence.   Much
depends upon the  richness of the  milk, or the
quantity of cream  it contains, and consequently,
when a superior quality of cheese  is desired, cream
is frequently added.  This  plan is adopted  in the
manufacture of Stilton cheese.  The addition of a
pound or two of butter to the  curd for a middling
size  cheese, will  also vastly improve its quality.
To ensure the richness of the  milk, it  is of course
necessary that the cow be not only properly fed,
but be of  a good breed, such as are  commonly
known as good milkers.  The breeds cultivated in
Alderney, Cheshire, Gloucester, North Wiltshire,
Chedder, and Guernsey, deserve  notice in this re-
spect.
   The taste and  odor  of  cheese vary in  almost
every county of  England, and even  in portions of
the same  county, where the  herbage is similar;
it  is therefore  evident that the mode of manipu-
lating  and  the quality  of  the  milk  must be the
chief causes of the  difference.  Stilton, Chedder,
Cheshire,  and Gloucester, are among the most
celebrated places or districts for its manufacture in
England.
   Cheese is generally made from the  milk of cows,
but occasionally from that of ewes, and sometimes,
though more rarely, from the milk of goats.
   Process  of  Cheesemaking.   The materials
employed  in making cheese are milk and. rennet.
Rennet is the stomach of the calf, and may be
used  either fresh,  or salted and dried.  It is gen-
erally kept in the latter state,  for the sake of pre-
serving it good.   The stomach is taken from the
calf as soon as killed, and after  being cleared of
the curd  always found in it, it is  well salted both
on the outside and in, and after,draining for a suf-
ficient time, it is stretched out upon a stick  and
dried.  The milk  may be  of  any kind, from the
poorest skimmed-milk  to that rich in cream, ac-
cording to the quality of the cheese required. 'The
poorest kind of cheese  is made from the former,
and the finer from the latter, to  which cream  is
frequently added.
   The materials being  ready, the greater portion
of the milk is put  into a  large  tub, and the re-
mainder  sufficiently  heated  to  raise the  whole
quantity to the  temperature of  new milk.   The
whole is then whisked  together, the rennet added,
and  the tub covered over.  It is now allowed to
stand until  completely  turned, when the curd  is
struck down several times with the skimming-
dish, after which it is allowed to subside.  The vat
covered with  cheese-cloth is  next  placed  on  a
" horse or  ladder" over the tub, and  filled with
curd by means of the skimmer ; the curd is pressed
down with the hands, and  more  added as it sinks
This process is  repeated until the  curd rises to
about 2 inches above the edge.   The cheese thus
partially separated from the whey is now placed in
a clean tub, and a proper  quantity of salt added,
or the salt is added to it  without  removing it from
the vat, after  which a  board  is  placed over  and
under it, and  pressure  applied for 2  or 3  hours. 
CHE                   180                    CHE
The cheese is next  turned out and surrounded by
a fres  cheese-cloth, and pressure again applied for
8 or 10 hours, when it is commonly removed from
the press, salted all  over, and pressed again for 15
to 20 hours.  The quality of the cheese especially
depends a? this part of the process, as if any of the
w hey be ie't in the cheese, it will not keep, but
will  rapidly oecome bad-flavored.  Before placing
it  in  the  press the  last  time, the edges should be
pared smooth and sightly.   It now only remains to
wash the outside of the cheese  in warm whey or
water, wipe it dry, and color it with annotto as is
usually done.
  There are several  methods of collecting the curd
adopted, and as the  flavor of the . heese varies
accordingly, it  is as well to notice them.   One
way is to break the  curd early, and to remove the
whey as soon  as possible ; another plan is to gather
it with the hands very gently towards the sides of
the tub, letting the  whey run oft" through  the fin-
gers until  it beoomes cleared, and  ladling  it off as
it  collects. A  third method  is to remove it  as
quickly as possible  with the curd-skimmer.  Of
these the second plan is said to be the best, as it
preserves the  oily particles, many of which are lost
by the other methods.
  The cheese being made, it now  only remains to
place it  in a proper situation to mature or  ripen.
In  England a cool, and slightly  damp cellar, is
commonly regarded as the best to bring it forward.
The temperature should on no account exceed 50°
at any portion of the year, but an average  of about
45°  is  preferable when it can  be procured.  A
place exposed to sudden changes of temperature is
unfit for. storing cheese.  " The quality of Roche-
fort cheese, which is prepared from sheep's milk,
and is very  excellent,  depends exclusively  upon
the places where the cheeses are kept after press-
ing  and  during  maturation.  These are cellars,
communicating with mountain grottoes and cav-
erns, which are kept constantly cool, at about 41°
to 42° Fahr., by currents  of air from clefts in the
mountains.   The value of these cellars as store-
houses varies with their  property of maintaining
an equable and low temperature.  Giron (Ann. de
Chim. et  Phys.  xlv. 371)  mentions that a certain
cellar, the construction of which had  cost 480l,
(12,000  francs,) was sold  for  8,600Z., (215,000
francs,) being  found to maintain a suitable  tem-
perature,  a convincing proof of the importance at-
tached to temperature in  the preparation of  these
superior cheeses."   (Liebig's Lectures.)
   It will  thus be seen that very slight  differences
in the materials, the preparation, or the storing of
cheese, will materially influence  the quality and
flavor.  The richness of the milk,—the addition to
or subtraction of cream from the milk,—the sep-
aration of the curd  from the whey with or without
compression,—the salting of the curd,—the collec-
tion  of the curd, either whole  or broken,  before
pressing,—the  addition of coloring matter, as an-
aotto or  safLon, or of flavoring,—the place and
 method of storing,—and the length of time allowed
 for maturation, all  tend to alter the taste  and odor
 of the cheese, in some or other particular, and that
 in a way readily perceptible to the refined palate.
 The nature  of  the pasture, or the food on which
 the cows are fed, as well  as their  particular breed,
 no doubt also tend- in  some slight degree to pro-
mote the same diversity of flavor and quality.   No
other alimentary substance appears to  be so m«.te-
rially affected by slight variations in the quality of
the materials from which it  is made, or by such
apparently trifling  differences in  the  methods of
preparing it.
   Var.  There are several varieties of  cheese  met
with in trade, differing from each other in quality
or flavor; and these are generally distinguished by
the names of the  places where they have been
manufactured, and  sometimes, though more rarely,
by their flavor, or the milk from which they are
manufactured.  Three  divisions  may  however J)e
made, depending upon the quality of the materials,
each of which is .veil marked,%nd to one or the
other all kinds of cheese belong.  These are skim-
med-milk, raw-milk, and cream cheeses, the names
of which respectively express the materials of which
they are made.   The following  are the principal
cheeses met with in Europe.
   Brickbat cheese, made  in Wiltshire  of new milk
and cream.   This  name is given to it from its be-
ing made into forms resembling brickbats.
   Chedder cheese, named after the place where it
is made.   This is  a fine kind of cheese, with a
spongy  appearance, the eyes  or  vesicles of which
contain a rich oil.   It is made up into  round thick
cheeses of considerable size.
   Cheshire cheese.   The best Cheshire cheese is
made of new milk without skimming, the  morn-
ing's milk being mixed with that of the preceding
evening,  previously warmed,  so  that the  whole
may be brought to  the heat of new milk.   To this
the rennet is added, in  less  quantity than is com-
monly  used for other kinds  of  cheese.  On  this
point,  much  of the flavor and  mildness of  the
cheese is  said to depend.  A piece of dried rennet,
of the size of half-a-crown, put into a pint of wa-
ter over night, and allowed to stand until the  next
morning,  is sufficient for 18 or 20 gallons of milk.
The curd is next broken down and separated from
the whey, after which it is put  into  a cheese vat
and pressed very dry.   It is next broken very small
with the hands, and  mixed with a proper quantity
of salt, and  about half  its weight of curd, from
yesterday's  batch,  kept  for   the  purpose.   The
mixed  curds are  now  pressed  tightly with  the
hands,  into  a cheese-vat,  previously lined  with
cheese  cloth, pressed for 4 or 5 hours, then taken
out, turned,  and again put into  the press and left
for the  night.  It is taken out next morning, well
salted,  and left until  the salt is quite melted, when
it is wiped dry, placed in a  dry, cool situation, and
turned  every day until it  becomes fit for the mar-
ket.
   " If  the  milk be  set together very warm, the
curd will be firm:  in this case, the usual  mode is
to take a common  case-knife, and make incisions
across it, to the full depth of  the knife's  blade, at
the distance of  about 1 inch ; and again cros*H-iso
in the same manner, the incisions intersecting  each
other at  right angles.  The  whey rising  through
these incisions is of a fine pale green  color.  The
cheese-maker and two assistants then proceed to
break the curd: this is performed by  their repeat-
edly putting  their  hands down into the  tub; the
 cheese-makers, with the  skimming-dish in  one
 hand, breaking every part of it  as they  catch  it,
I raising the curd from the  bottom, and still breaking 
CHE                   181                       CHE
 it.  This  part of the business is continued till the
 whole is  broken  uniformly small ;  it  generally
 takes up about 40 minutes, and the curd is then
 left covered  over  with a cloth  for about  half an
 hour  to subside.   If the milk  has been set  cool
 together,  the  curd,  as before mentioned, will be
 much more tender, the whey will not be so green,
 but  rather of  a  milky appearance."   (Cheshire
 County Agricultural Report.)
   Cream cheese.  This is either made of the " strip-
 pings," (the last of the milk drawn from the  cow
 at each  milking,)  or  of a mixture of  milk  and
 cream.   It is usually made up into small pieces,
 and a gentle pressure, as that of a 2 or 4 lb. weight,
 applied to press out the whey.   After twelve hours,
 it is placed upon a board or wooden trencher, and
 turned every day, until dry.  In about three weeks,
 it will be ripe.   Notiiing but  raw cream, turned
 with  a little rennet, is employed, when a very rich
 cheese is wanted.   A  little salt is generally added,
 and frequently a little powdered lump sugar.   The
 vats employed for cream cheeses are usually square,
 and of small size.
   Cottenham cheese, named from the town where
 it is made, is a species of cream cheese, superior to
 Stilton, from which it also  differs  in shape, being
 flatter and broader than the latter.   Its superiority
 is said to be derived from the rich grasses growing
 on the fens of Cambridgeshire.
   Derbyshire cheese is a small rich variety,  of a
 pale color, very similar to the following:
  Dunlop cheese, named  after a town in Ayr-
 shire, where it was originally made.   It is very
 rich,  white,  and  buttery, and is  made  up  into
 round forms,  weighing from \ cwt. to  4 cwt.  It
 is now made very generally throughout the whole
 of Scotland.
  Dutch cheese.  This is very commonly met with
 in England,  and  is readily distinguished by its
 globular  form.  The cheeses made at  Edam are
 very highly salted ; those made at  Gouda are less
 so.   The common size of these cheeses is from 5
 to 14 lbs.
  French cheese.   The Rochefort and the Neuf-
 chatel are the most esteemed.
  German cheese.  The only kind made in Ger-
 many of any celebrity, is the Westphalian, which
 derives its peculiar flavor from the  curd being al-
 lowed to  become  partially  putrid before being
 pressed.  It is made up  into small balls or cylin-
 ders, of  about a pound weight, somewhat resem-
 bling  in shape the pounds of butter in some parts
 of the west of England.
  Gloucester cheese.   There are two varieties of
 this cheese: the single, made of milk deprived of
 part of its cream,  and  the  double, made of milk
 retaining the whole of  the cream.  The best kind
 has a fine mild taste ; a  semi-buttery consistence,
 without  being friable, and is made up  into large
 round flattish forms.
  Green  or sage cheese is made from  milk  pre-
 viously mixed with the juice or an  infusion or de-
 coction of sage leaves,  to which some  marygold
 flowers and parsley are frequently added.
  Lincolnshire cheese is made of new  milk and
 cream, and formed into pieces about 2 inches
thick.  It is very soft, and without great care, will
act keep over two months.  Some persons sprinkle
dry salt over them, when they will keep better.
   Norfolk cheese. This is remarkable for the curd
 being dyed yellow, with annotto or saffron.  It is
 of very good but not superior quality, and  usually
 weighs from -J to 4 cwt.
   Neufchatel cheese. After Rochefort cheese, this
 is the best  manufactured in France.   It is made
 of  cream,  and  seldom exceeds  5  or 6 oz. in
 weight.
   Parmesan cheese.  This is made at Parma, and
 in other parts of  Lombardy.  Its peculiar flavor is
 said to arise from the luxuriance of vegetation in
 that part of Italy, and from the great abundance
 of aromatic flowers in the pastures.   It is more
 probable, however, that the application of heat to
 the curd of the milk, to harden it, as is the com-
 mon practice in Lombardy,  is the true cause of its
 flavor.  The following method  is said to produce
 a cheese equal to the best Parmesan:
   " Let the day's milk '.*? heated to the degree of
 120° of Fahrenheit,  then  removed from the fire
 until  all motion ceases, put in the rennet, allow an
 hour  for the coagulation, after which set the  curd
 on a slow fire until  heated  to 150°, during which
 the curd separates in small lumps.   A few pinches
 of saffron are then thrown in, together with cold
 water sufficient to reduce it  instantly to a bearable
 heat, when the curd is collected  bypassing a cloth
 beneath  it, and  gathering  it up  at  the  corners.
 Place the curd in a circle of wood without a bot-
 tom ; lay it on a  table covered by  a round piece
 of wood, pressed down by  a heavy stone.  The
 cheese will acquire sufficient consistence in the
 course of a  night to bear turning, when the upper
 side is to be rubbed with salt, and continued alter-
 nately for forty days."
   " In Italy, the outer crust is next cut off, and
 the new surface  varnished  with linseed oil; but
 that may well be omitted, as well as coloring one
 side of it red."
   Polish cheese.  This is generally of very inferior
 quality, and made in  imitation of English cheese.
   Rochefort cheese.   This is made of ewe's milk,
 and is the best  kind  prepared in France.  It re-
 sembles Stilton, but  is scarcely  of equal richness
 or  quality.  By  kneading  the  gluten of wheat
 with a little salt,  and  a small portion of a solution
 of starch, it acquires the taste, smell, and  unctu-
 osity of cheese;.so that after it has been kept a
 certain time, it is not to be distinguished from the
 celebrated Rochefort  cheese, of which it has all
 the pungency. (Roulle.)  See the remarks on the
 Principles of Cheesemaking, above.
  Russian cheese. This is generally of a very in-
 ferior kind.  The best sort  is that made in imita-
 tion  of English  cheese;  the   commoner kinds
 merely consist of  salted curd, placed in a bag and
 wrung dry, by two persons twisting the ends in op-
posite directions.   It is usually not only bad tasted,
but dirty.
  Slipcoat or soft cheese  is a very rich white
cheese, somewhat resembling  butter,  made  for
present use.
  Stilton cheese, named after the town where it
was originally made,  is at  once the richest  and
finest variety of cheese manufactured in England.
It is prepared from raw milk, to which cream ta-
ken from other milk is added.  Its shape is pecu-
liar, being generally twice as high as it is broad.
It is generally twice the price of Cheshire or dou« 
CHE                    182                   CHI
 ble Gloucester.   Like wine,  this cheese is vastly
 improved by  age,  and is  therefore seldom  eaten
 before it is two years old.   A spurious appearance
 of acre is sometimes given to it by placing  it in
 a warm damp  cellar, or by surrounding it  with
 masses of fermenting straw, or rotten cow-dung.
   Suffolk cheese is made from skimmed milk, and
 is usually shaped into  tound  flat forms, weighing
 from 24 lbs. to 30  lbs. each.  It much  resembles
 the  skimmed  or "scald"  milk  cheese made  in
 Devonshire.
   Swiss cheese.  The principal cheeses made in
 Switzerland are  the Gruyere, or Jura, and the
 Schabzieger, or green cheese.   The latter is fla-
 vored with melilot.
   Wiltshire cheese resembles  poor Cheshire  or
 Glo'ster.  The outside is  generally covered with
 red paint, made by mixing up ruddle or red ochre
 with whey, and laying it in with a brush.
  Yorkshire  cheese is a fine  variety of cream
 cheese, but will not keep.
  Concluding  Remarks.   It is  surprising  that
 cheese is not more frequently made an article of
 domestic manufacture,  especially by housewives
 resident in the country.  The operations of cheese-
 making are all exceedingly simple, and not at all
 laborious, and will, in most  cases, amply repay the
 outlay for the  milk.   With  the peasantry,  who
 can usually procure a few gallons of milk from the
 houses of the farmers for whom  they work, it re-
 ally appears a want of common foresight, not  to
 provide themselves  with' a  few pounds  of this
 wholesome and nutritious article, which  is looked
 upon by some of  those roughly-fed children of the
 soil, as a luxury beyond their reach.   In a family
 where cheese is generally relished by the majority
 of the members,  it  becomes quite as necessary  to
 have home-made cheese as  home-made bread, and
 there is scarcely a portion of the United Kingdom
 where  milk may not be obtained, during the sum-
 ner months, at such a price as to render it impor-
 tant in a pecuniary point of view.  Besides, cheese
 is not  unfrequently colored with stains and  pig-
ments  which are injurious, and even poisonous.
 Several persons have nearly  lost their lives, from
eating  cheese  colored  with annotto, for instance.
This dye is commonly adulterated with red-lead,
so that the farmer (cheosemaker) may very inno-
cently  introduce a dreadful poison, when he only
 intends to improve the color.  By making our own
cheeses,  the  liability  to   such  an  accident  is
avoided.
  When a whole  cheese is cut, and the consump-
tion small, it is generally found to become unpleas-
 antly dry, and to  lose flavor before it is consumed.
 This is best prevented by cutting  a sufficient quan-
 tity for a few days'  consumption  from the cheese,
 and  placing the remainder in a cool place, rather
 damp  than dry,  spreading a thin film  of butter
 over the cut surface, and covering it with a cloth
 to keep off the dirt.  This  removes the  objection
 existing in small families  against  purchasing  a
 whole cheese at a time.  The common practice of
 buying small quantities of cheese should be avoid-
 ed, as  not only a higher price  is paid for any given
 quality, but there is  little  likelihood of  obtaining
 exactly the same flavor twice running.   Should
 cheese become too dry to be  agreeable, it may be
 used for stewing, or when grated  cheese is wanted.
   Toasted cheese is  much relished by some per-
sons, but is seldom met with well  prepared.  Th*«
following  has been handed  to tne  iir:'»- bv tlia
cook of a certain nobleman who prides himseif o>.
his gustful appetite.   Cut the cheese into slices of
moderate  thickness, and put them  into a tinned
copper saucepan, with a little butter and cream,
simmer very gently until quite dissolved, then re-
move it from the fire, allow it to cool a little, and
add some yelk of egg, well  beaten ; make it into
a shape, and brown it before the fire.
   CHELTENHAM  SALTS.   Prep.  Glauber
salts 1 oz.; Epsom salts £ oz.; culinary salt a tea-
spoonful ;  sulphate  of iron  2 grs.;  reduce  them
separately to fine powder, then mix them.
   II. Glauber salts and Epsom salts, of. each 28
lbs.;  common salt 7 lbs.; sulphate of iron \\ oz.;
mix.
   Remarks.  The above salts must be dried  in an
oven, or over the  fire, before reducing  them to
powder.  The Glauber's should be dried by itself,
as it liquefies when slightly heated.  Cathartic and
tonic.  Dose. 4  oz. to 14 oz.
   CHELSEA PENSIONER.  Prep.  Gumgua-
iacum -J oz.; rhubarb  4 oz- > cream of tartar 2
oz.; flowers of sulphur 4 oz.; nutmegs 2 in num-
ber, (all in powder;)  honey 14 lb.;  make  them
into a confection by  beating them together  in a
mortar.
   Remarks.  The dose is two tablespoonfuls,  night
and morning, in rheumatism.  The name is said
to  have been given to it from the circumstance of
a Chelsea pensioner having  cured Lord Amherst
with it.
   CHILBLAIN.  An inflammatory swelling, of
a purple or lead  color, produced by the action of
cold.  Children,  especially  those  of a  scrofulous
habit, and elderly persons,  are generally most lia-
ble to chilblains.   The common cause of chilblains
is holding the hands or feet to the  fire, after expo-
sure to cold.  The sudden  change of temperature
partially destroys' the vitality, and prevents the
proper flow of blood  through  the  part.   The best
preventives  of   chilblains  are woollen  socks or
stockings, good  waterproof  shoes, woollen  gloves,
exercise, and friction.   When chilblains have once
formed, the best treatment is friction, with stimu-
lants, as spirits of wine  and  camphor, turpentine,
opodeldoc,  dilute  spirits,  camphorated  oil,  &c.
Linnaeus recommends bathing the part with dilute
muriatic acid, just strong enough  to faintly prick
the skin.  When the  inflamed parts have  ulcera-
ted, they are commonly called kibes.  In this  stat*
they should be dressed with a little resin cerate, 01
elemi ointment,  and  if fungous granulations ap-
pear, they must be  removed  by touching them
with nitrate of silver or blue vitriol.
  CHILBLAINS,  LOTIONS  FOR,  (POPU-
LAR.) I. Dissolve white copperas  1 oz. in water 1
pint, and occasionally apply it to the affected parts.
  II. Dissolve sal ammoniac 1 oz. in  vinegar \
pint; as above.
   III. Mix  compound soap liniment  2 oz.  with
tincture of Spanish flies 1 oz.; as  above.
   IV. Vinegar  and spirit  of wine, (or rum,) 01
each \ pint; sal  ammoniac, in powder, 1 oz.; mix
and shake until the latter dissolves.
  V.  Spirits of salts 1 oz.;  water J pint; mix ; as
above. 
CHI
183
CHL
  CHILBLAINS, OINTMENT FOR.   Prep.
Ointment of  nitrate of mercury 1  oz.; camphor 1
dr.;  oil of turpentine 2  drs.;  oil of olives 4 drs.;
mix well together.  To be applied, by gentle fric-
tion. 2 or 3 times daily.
  II. Calomel  and camphor, of each 1 dr.; sper-
maceti ointment 4 drs.; oil of turpentine 2 drs.; as
last.
  Remarks.  All  the  preceding lotions  and oint-
ments  are   intended  for  chilblains  before they
break.
  CHILBLAINS, RUSSIAN REMEDY FOR.
A common remedy for chilblains among the peas-
ants in  Russia is the rind of perfectly ripe cucum-
bers, dried with the soft parts attached, and  placed
with  the inner side, previously soaked in  warm
water, over the sore parts.   Dumitriefsky confirms
the efficacy of  this remedy.  (Med. Zeitung.)
  CHIMNEYS ON FIRE maybe readily extin-
guished in several ways,  without  having  recourse
to throwing  water down them from the top, by
which much damage  is frequently done to the fur-
niture in the rooms.   One of the simplest methods
is, to scatter a  handful  of flowers of sulphur over
the dullest part of the burning coals,  the mephitic
vapors  arising  from which  will not support com-
bustion, and consequently extinguish the  flames.
Another method is, to shut the doors and windows,
and to stop up  the bottom, of the  chimney  with a
piece of wet carpet  or blanket, throwing  a little
water or flowers of sulphur, or  salt, on the fire im-
mediately before  doing so.   By  this means the
draught is stopped, and  the burning  soaH must be
extinguished for want of air.   If the chimney be
stopped at top, instead of the bottom, the whole of
the  smoke  must, of  course,  be  driven  into the
apartment.   If every fireplace were provided with
a damper, or shutter of sheet-iron  or tin plate, suf-
ficiently large to choke it thoroughly, fires in chim-
neys would become of little consequence, as it would
only be necessary to apply this damper to put them
out.
  CHINA,  (CHOICE OF.)   In purchasing chi-
na, glass, and earthenware, care  should be taken
to select those sets that in case of breakage can be
readily  matched.  Peculiar or rare patterns should
be avoided, for  if any such be broken, it will gen-
erally be found very  difficult  and  expensive,  and
frequently impossible, to replace them.
  Cleaning.  China  (when very dirty)  is best
cleaned  with finely-powdered fuller's earth  and
warm  water, afterwards rinsing  it well in clean
water.  A little clean soft soap may be added to
the water instead of fuller's earth.   The same plan
is recommended for cleaning glass.
  Packing.  As there is  considerable  art in pack-
ing brittle hollow-ware, in such a way that  it will
stand exposure  to the  jolting, blows, and agitation
of land-carriage, it is better, where it is of much
value, or in quantity, to  have it done by a person
used to the job.   A man, accustomed to packing
such articles, may be readily procured at any
glass-works, or china warehouse, for a trifling con-
sideration.
  CHINA-ROOT STARCH.  A reddish-colored
farina, procured from the smilax china.
  CHINESE SHEET-LEAD. The Chinese em-
ploy large quantities of sheet-lead in packing their
tea., which they  make in the following way:—
 Melted lead is poured from a crucible upon a large
 flat stone, placed upon  the ground,  and immedi-
 ately another stone  is dashed upon t le  fluid lead,
 which is thus pressed out into a very thin plate or
 leaf.  This is instantly removed, and  the operation
 repeated as  rapidly as possible.  The rough edges
 of the plates are afterwards cut off,  and then sol-
 dered together for use.  The Chinese employ two
 men in this process; one to pour on the melted
 lead, and  the other to work the stone.   A similar
 method has been adopted for  some years in Eng-
 land, to form the plates  of zinc  for galvanic batte-
 ries.
   CHIRAYITINE, SULPHATE OF.   The
 substance sold under this name is sulphate of quina.
 Chirayita yields no alkaloid, but  merely a bitter
 matter.
   CHLORAL.  A substance prepared by the  ac-
 tion of chlorine on alcohol.
   Prep.  Place anhydrous alcohol in a tubulated
 retort,  and pass dry chlorine gas through it, at first
 in the cold, but afterwards with the application of
 a gentle heat.   As soon as the chlorine passes un-
 decomposed through the liquor  at the boiling tem-
 perature, the process is complete.   On cooling, the
 liquid in the retort  solidifies, forming a crystalline
 mass of hydrated chloral.  This  must  be melted
 by gentle  heat, and agitated with  thrice  its volume
 of oil of vitriol, when, on increasing the  heat a lit-
 tle, an  oily stratum of impure  chloral will  rise to
 the  surface.   This  must be  removed,  boiled  for
 some time, to drive  off some free hydrochloric acid
 and alcohol, and next distilled with  an  equal vol-
 ume of oil of vitriol; lastly,  it must be rectified
 from finely-powdered quicklime, stopping the pro-
 cess as  soon  as the surface of the  lime becomes
 dry.
   Remarks.  The chlorine is best introduced by a
 tube inserted into the tubulature of the retort, and
 a long  tube, bent upwards,  should be  connected
 with the beak  to convey away  the hydrochloric
 acid gas extricated, and  to allow the  volatilized
 alcohol and chloral to condense and flow back into
 the retort.
   Prop.   Chloral is an oily liquid, possessing an
 ethereal smell; it is soluble in  alcohol,  ether, and
 water, but its solution in the latter rapidly changes
 into  a  semi-solid crystalline mass of hydrate  of
1 chloral, soluble  in  a larger quantity  of  water.
[ Chloral boils at 202°, and has a sp. gr. of 1-502.
   CHLORATE.   A compound  of chloric acid
 with a  base.  The chlorates are very similar to the
 nitrates, both in their properties and composition.
i They are  all decomposed at  a red heat, metallic
| chlorides being formed,  and oxygen  gas given off
I Like the nitrates, they deflagrate with  infiamma-
' ble substances, but  with greater  facility and vio-
| lence.  A mixture of this kind  will detonate with
 a slight blow or friction.   All the  chlorates are  so-
 luble in water.
   Tests. Rubbed with sulphur, or phosphorus, they
1 explode violently; mixed with  muriatic  acid,  and
[ then with water, a  liquid is formed,  possessing
[ bleaching properties.  When  heated, they evolve
 oxygen.   Thrown  on red-hot  coals, they  defla-
 grate like nitre.  Sulphuric acid  turns them orange
 red.  The following simple method of testing the
 commercial  chlorates has been proposed by  M*
 Choron: 
Cni,                   184                    CHE
     The protoxide of lead,  heated  with chlorate
 of potassa in a glass tube closed at one end, gives
 puce oxide of lead, (Pb O2,) mixed  with a small
 quantity  of  minium.   On this  new  reaction  is
 founded the  test which I propose with relation to
 the chlorates.  It consists  in slowly heating to fu-
 sion an intimate mixture  of the chlorate  and li-
 tharge  in suitable proportion, covering it  with  a
 layer of chloride  of sodium ;  in treating  the fused
 mass with dilute nitric acid;  then  in collecting on
 a  filter the puce oxide obtained, by aid of which
 the quantity of  chlorate employed  may  be ap-
 proximately calculated.
   " This prompt and cheap process appears to me
 sufficiently accurate  to be employed hi the arts."
 (Comptes Rendus, xiv.)
   CHLORATE   OF  BARYTA.    (Wheeler's
 process.)  Digest for a few minutes a concentra-
 ted solution of chlorate of potassa, with a slight
 excess of  silicated hydro-fluoric acid.   A precipi-
 tate of double fluoride of silicon and potassium
will subside, and  chloric acid remain  in soluu.n.
 Filter, neutralize with carbonate of baryta ; again
filter, when prismatic crystals of chlorate of bary-
ta  may be obtained by cautious evaporation.
   Prop.,  c)[-c.  Soluble  in  4 parts of cold  water.
Used  to make chloric acid.  This salt may  also
be  formed by passing chlorine  through a  strong
milk of hydrate  or  carbonate of baryta,  in the
same  way as in making chlorate of potassa.
   CHLORATE  OF POTASSA.  Syn. Hyper-
OXYMUIUATE OF POTASH.   OxYMURIATE OF DITTO.
Prep.  I. Transmit chlorine gas through a solution
of pure potassa, or its carbonate, until the alkali
be completely neutralized, then boil for a few min-
 utes, gently evaporate until a pellicle forms on the
 surface, and set it aside, where it will cool very
slowly.   Crystals of  the chlorate will form as the
 liquor  cools,   and must  be collected,  carefully
 washed with  a little  cold  water,  and  purified by
 re-solution and crystallization. The mother liquor,
 by evaporation, will yield more crystals, or it may
 be saved for a future operation.
   Remarks. This operation is best conducted in a
 Woolf s apparatus, or similarly arrnnged  vessels.
 When the process is  about half completed, as in-
 dicated by litmus paper, ceasing to  be darkened,
 and beginning to  be blanched, it is better to inter-
rupt the operation, and to remove  any chloride of
potassium that may have  fallen down ;  this may
be  washed with  a little water, and  the  washings
added  to  the  liquor, when the chlorine  should be
 again passed through the solution.  When the bub-
 bles of gas pass through without any being sensi-
 bly absorbed, the process is completed.  The gas
 tube should be of large dimensions at the end im-
 mersed in the 6aline solution, and care should be
 taken that it  does not get stopped up with crystals.
 In general the pure chlorate obtained  from the
 second crystallization, amounts to about -f\ of the
 weight of the potash employed.  The  smallness
 of  the product arises  from a large  portion being
 converted into chloride of potassium.
   II. (Graham's process.)  This consists  in  sub-
 mitting equal equivalents of  carbonate of potassa,
 and hydrate of lime mixed with water, to  the ac-
 tion of chlorine, in a similar way to the above.
   III.  (Liebig's process.)  a.  The  chlorine  is
 passed  into a mixture of one equivalent of chlo-
ride of potassium, and 6 cquiv  lents of hydrate of
lime, previously stirred with water to  the consist-
ence  of a  thin paste,  whereby  the  lime unites,
with the  chlorine, forming  chloride  of  calcium,
and  the chloride  of  potassium is converted into
chlorate potassa ;  the latter  is then separated  bjr
crystallization.   (Buchner's Re pert.)
  b. Heat chloride of lime in water until it ceases
to affect vegetable colors, then dissolve  it in hot
water, concentrate by evaporation, and add chlo-
ride  of potassium.  After cooling, a  quantity  of
crystals of chlorate of potassa are  obtained. Chlo-
ride of lime, of  so bad a quality as to be worthless
for  other  purposes, may be employed; hence this
is a very economical process.
  IV.  (Vee'sprocess.)   Heat a solution of chlo-
ride  of lime, marking. 18  or 20°  Baume,  in  a
leaden or cast-iron vessel, and when  hot, dissolve
therein enough chloride of potassium,  to  raise the
hydrometer   3  or 4  degrees;  then  concentrate
quickly, but cautiously, until the  gravity 6f 30 or
31° Baume  be  obtained, and set it aside to crys-
tallize.  The mother water, concern.-ted to 36°,
will yield  more  crystals.  By re-solution  in water,
concentrating to 15  or  16°, filtering and again
cooling, pure chlorate of potassa will  be  obtained
This is a good and economical process.
  V. (Patent process of M. Rumer.)  This  con-
sists in placing pure carbonate of potassa on shelves
in an  air-tight  chamber, communicating with  a
retort,   filled with the  materials  for  generating
chlorine, by which the  alkali becomes surrounded
with an afcmosphere of chlorine.   The operation is
allowed to proceed for  12 hours  without interfe-
rence,  after  which,  the heat of a water bath is
applied to the  retort for 6 hours longer.  The ap-
paratus is now  opened, and the chlorate of potassa
thus formed, is purified and freed from  muriate by
solution and crystallization.   The materials for
generating the  chlorine,  arc—^crystallized peroxide
of manganese, in fine powder, 10 lbs.; plumbago
10 lbs.; common salt 30 lbs.; strongest oil of vit-
riol 20 lbs.;  water 16 lbs.; the weight of the  car-
bonate of potassa placed upon the shelves is 10 lbs
Not being acquainted with  the product obtained
by this process,  I cannot speak as to its value.
  Prop.,  Uses,  <£c.  Crystallizes in  four and six
sided pearly scales;  dissolves in 16 parts of water
at 60°, and in 24 parts at 212°.   At  about 450°,
it undergoes  the igneous fusion, and on increasing
the heat almost to redness,  effervescence ensues,
and pure oxygen gas is given off.  It yields 39*15j
by weight of this gas, (Ure,) and becomes changed
into chloride of potassium.   It will bear a  heat
of 600°  rahr.  without undergoing  any  change.
When mixed with  inflammable  substances, and
triturated, heated, or subjected to  a smart blow, it
explodes with  great violence.  It also fulminates
when  thrown into strong acids.  As a medicine,
it is stimulant and diuretic.   Dose. 5 to 15 gr. or
more.   It is principally used in the  manufacture
of fireworks, oxygen gas, Inciter matches,  &c,
and was formerly used to fill percus.4on caps, but
was abandoned  for fulminating mercury, as it was
found  to rust the nipples of  the  guns, which ths
latter does not do.
  The following experiments with this salt, which
are mentioned in most chemical works, may amuse
the young experimentalist.—Rub 2 gr. into powder 
CHL                   185                   CHL
in a mortar, add 1 gr. of sulphur, mix them well
by gentle trituration, then collect the powder into
a heap, and  press upon  it suddenly and forcibly
with the pestle ;  a loud detonation will ensue.  If
the mixture be wrapped in strong paper, and struck
with a  hammer,  tho  report will be still  louder.
5 gr. of the salt, mixed in the  same manner with
24 of charcoal, will be inflamed by strong tritura-
tion, especially  if a grain or two of  sulphur be
added, but without much noise.  If a  little sugar
be  mixed with half its weight of the chlorate, and
a little strong sulphuric acid poured on it, a sudden
and vehement inflammation will  ensue ; but this
experiment requires caution, as well as the  follow-
ing.  To 1 gr. of the  powdered salt in a mortar,
add J a gr. of phosphorus; it will detonate with a
loud report,  on  the gentlest trituration.   In this
experiment the  hand should  be defended  by a
glove, and great care should be taken that none
of the phosphorus  get into the eyes.   Phosphorus
may  be inflamed by  it  under water, by  putting
into a wine  glass  1 part of phosphorus  and 2 of
the chlorate, nearly filling  the glass with water,
and then pouring in,  through a glass tube reach-
ing to tlie bottom, 3 or  4 parts of sulphuric acid.
This experiment, too, is very hazardous to the
eyes.  If olive or linseed oil be taken instead of
phosphorus, it may be inflamed by similar means
on the surface of  the water.  This 6alt should not
be kept mixed  with sulphur, or perhaps any in-
flammable substance,  as in this  state  it has been
known to detonate spontaneously.  The addition
of sulphuric  acid  to  such  mixtures immediately
causes them to inflame and explode ; but this ex-
periment does not succeed with diamond powder.
(Chenevix.)
   Pur. The  usual impurity is muriate of potash.
This is readily  detected by adding a few drops of
a solution of nitrate of silver, which  will give  a
curdy white precipitate soluble in liquor of ammo-
nia, if a muriate  be present, whereas the solution
will remain clear, if the salt be  pure.   The tests
are the same as  those  mentioned under chlorate.
The salt may be known to contain potash, by the
tests described under the article potassa, and may
thus be distinguished from chlorate of soda.
   CHLORATE  MATCHES.   Prep. Chlorate
of potassa 30 grs. ;  flowers of  sulphur  10 grs.;
powdered  lump sugar 8 grs. ; powdered gum ara-
bic 5 grs. ; vermilion enough to color.   Proc. Re-
duce the chlorate to  fine powder in a marble or
wedgewood-ware  mortar, then place it on a stone
slab, add  the other ingredients, and mix them all
together with a  wooden  or bone knife, adding just
sufficient water  to make a paste.  Into  this mix-
ture the points  of matches, made of slips of thin
wood or pasteboard, are to be dipped, and  after-
wards carefully  dried in  a moderately warm  situa-
tion.
   Remarks.  These matches,  dipped into  a little
sulphuric acid, or exposed to smart friction, imme-
diately enflame.   The risk of spilling the acid may
bo avoided by placing a little asbestos in the bottle,
and pouring thereon only as much sulphuric acid
as the asbestos will absorb.  It is only the  compo-
sition on the  match that should  be touched with
the acid, for  if the wood be well wetted it will not
burn.  To ensure success it is best to dip them into
melted brimstone to the height of about |  of an
                    24
inch before  applying the  composition.   Thesf
matches once occupied the place that Lucifers did
a few years since, and that Congreves do now.
  CHLORATE, PRIMING, (for Guns.)  Prep.
Pulverize  the best gunpowder, and make it into  a
paste with water ; then add half its weight of chlo-
rate of potassa, and, while semi-fluid, drop  it into
the  empty copper caps;  place  them aside in  a
warm situation to dry.
  Remarks. The  same precautions  must be  ob-
served in mixing the ingredients, as directed  in the
last article.  This priming is now superseded by
fulminating mercury,  which, as  before observed,
does not  rust the nipple  and foul the touchhole,
like the chlorate mixture.
  CHLORATES, (PER-.)   Salts formed by the
union of perchloric acid with  the bases.  'The per-
chlorate of potassa may be formed by adding well-
dried and finely-powdered chlorate of potassa, in
small portions  at a time, to an equal weight of con-
centrated oil of vitriol, gently warmed in  an open
vessel.   The  bisulphate  of  potassa formed must
then be washed off with  a little  cold water,  and
the residuum of perchlorate dissolved in boiling
water and crystallized.  Remarks. These  salts are
distinguished from the chlorates by not turning yel-
low with hydrochloric acid. The other perchlorates
may be formed by neutralizing the acid with the
base. The perchlorate of potassa requires 65 times
its  weight  of cold water for its solution, while the
chlorate only requires 16.
   CHLORIC  ACID.   An acid  composed  of
chlorine and oxygen.
   Prep. Dissolve chlorate of baryta in 16  times its
weight  of water; then add  dilute sulphuric acid
until all the baryta  be precipitated as  sulphate.
The clear liquid may then be concentrated by eva-
poration until it acquires a thin oily consistence.
   Props.  In this state  it  has a yellowish tint,
emits a smell like nitric acid, and sets fire  to pa-
per and other dry organic matter thrown into it.
By heat it is resolved into chlorine and oxygen. It
may be readily detected by its forming chlorate of
potassa with that of alkali.
   CHLORIC  ACID, (PER-.)   A compound of
chlorine and oxygen, containing 2 eq. more  of the
latter than the last acid.
   Prep. Put any quantity of powdered perchlorate
of  potassa into  a retort,  and pour thereon 4 'ts
weight  of strong sulphuric acid,  previously diluted
with an equal weight  of water.    Heat must now
be  applied, and as it  rises to 284°  F., vapors of
this acid will pass over and  condense as  a color-
less liquid in the receiver.
   Remarks. This is a more stable compound than
chloric  acid,  and does not  inflame  organic sub-
stances.  By  distilling it from  concentrated  sul-
phuric acid, Serullas obtained it in a solid  form. In
this state  it hisses when  thrown  into water,  like
red-hot iron.
   CHLORIDES.   Compounds  of  chlorine with
the bases in definite proportions.   The test3 for the
chlorides are the same as  for  chlorine. (See  Chlo-
rine.)
   CHLORIDES OF CARBON. Prep.  I. (Per-
chloride.)   Expose the oily  compound formed by
mixing equal volumes of moist  chlorine  and  ole-
fiant gas, to the direct solar rays in a vessel  full of
chlorine gas.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  given off and 
CHL
186
CHL
perchloride of carbon formed.  Props. Solid; smells strong muriatic acid with  half of its weight  of
somewhat  like camphor; it is  twice  as  heavy as
water, fusible, volatile; soluble in alcohol,  ether,
and oils, and slightly so in water ; combustible.
  II. (Protochloride.)  When tho  perchloride of
carbon is passed through a glass or porcelain tube
filled with fragments of glass or rock crystal heat-
ed to redness, chlorine is separated,  and a vapor
formed, which must be condensed by  the applica-
tion of cold.  This is the protochloride of carbon.
Prop.  Liquid, limpid, and  colorless ;  vaporizes at
165° F.
  CHLORINE.   Syn. Oxvmuriatic Acid.  An
elementary substance  discovered by Scheele in
1774, and named by him dephlogisticated marine
acid.   It was  afterwards  called by  the French
chemists oxygenized and oxymuriatic acid, on the
supposition of its being a compound of muriatic acid
and  oxygen.  In 1809, Gay Lussac and Ther-
nard suggested that it might be regarded  as a sim-
ple substance : but it was reserved for Sir H. Davy
to prove the truth of this suggestion.  After some
researches, in which every method of decomposing
it was tried that genius  and experience could sug-
gest, he declared it to be a  simple body,  and gave
it its present name, (from x*W*s■ green,) on account
of its color.
  Prep.  I.  Mix together in a glass flask or retort
       Brand   ....  4 water
       Liebig   ....  2   "
       Thernard  .   .   .  4   "
finely-powdered peroxide of manganese.   Chlorine
gas is immediately evolved even in the cold,  but
much more rapidly on the  application of a gentle
heat.   Remarks.  This gas must be  collected in
clean dry bottles by displacement.  The tube con-
ducting the gas  must reach to the bottom of  the
bottle, when the chlorine,  being heavier than  the
air, will displace the latter, without mixing with it.
The bottle is known  to be  full by the gas over-
flowing the mouth, which is easily perceived by its
green color.   The bottle must now be closed up
with  an  accurately-fitting  stopper,  previously
greased, and  an empty one put in its place, which
must be subsequently treated in like manner.  To
free the gas entirely from muriatic acid, it  may be
passed through water; and to render it dry, it may
be passed over dry chloride of calcium.   Chlorine
gas may also be collected . ver a saturated solution
of common salt in the pneumatic trough.
   II. Pour common muriatic acid, diluted with an
equal weight of water, upon half its weight of
chloride of lime, and proceed as before.
   III.  Pour sulphuric acid,  diluted  with water
upon a mixture  of common salt and binoxide of
manganese previously  placed in a retort.  The
proportions ordered by different  authorities vary;
the following are the principal:
         5  acid    .     3 oxide   8 salt.
         2    "          1  "     3  "
         4   "     .     2 "     3  "
Graham
as much dilute acid as contains  13 of oil vitriol
   Remarks.  The  first or second  process  is the
most convenient for small experiments  in the la-
boratory,  and the  latter  may  be adopted  where
peroxide of manganese cannot  be procured.   The
third is the  cheapest method, and that employed
on the large scale.   Mr. Julius Seybel  has  lately
taken out a patent for improvements in the manu-
facture of sulphate of soda and chlorine, which are
formed by one operation.  This is done by decom-
posing common  salt by sulphuric acid,  in  closed
vessels of lead, or lined with lead, having heat ap-
plied externally; and in employing  the  vapor of
the muriatic acid thus formed  to act on manga-
nese immersed in water,  such vapor  being con-
ducted below  and  permitted to  escape upwards
through the water and manganese.
  Prop. Chlorine  is a  gaseous  substance, possess-
ing a yellowish green color, a pungent suffocating
odor, and an astringent taste.  Its most remarka-
ble properties  are,  its  power of destroying almost
all  vegetable  and animal colors, and the  putrid
odor of decomposing organic matter;  hence  its
value as a bleaching agent, and as a disinfectant and
fumigant.   Water absorbs twice its volume of this
gas, and acquires a yellowish color.  Under a pres-
sure of about four atmospheres  it condenses  into  a
yellow transparent liquid.  With the bases, chlorine
forms an important series  of  compounds,  called
chlorides, chlorurets, or muriates, of which calomel
and common salt may be taken as examples, the
first being a chloride of mercury, and  the second
of sodium.  The metallic  chlorides are mostly solid
at common temperatures,  and all, save two, (mer-
cury and silver,) soluble in water.  They are fusi-
ble, and often crystalline.  The  chlorides  of tin,
antimony,  arsenic, and mercury, are volatile and
sublime unchanged.   The chlorides are generally
colorless,  and resemble  the  salts  in  appearance.
They are  mostly decomposed by  a strong heat
They are not decomposed by pure  anhydrous sul-
phuric acid, but readily so by oil of vitriol.   The
metallic chlorides may generally be formed by the
direct action of chlorine on the metals at common
temperatures, and in many instances the union is
accompanied by the evolution of  light  and heat
They may also be frequently formed by dissolving
the oxides, carbonates, or hydrates  of the bases, in
muriatic acid, and crystallizing, or applying heat,
until all the water is expelled.  Chlorine has such
a strong attraction for the metals  that it displaces
oxygen in nearly all cases at a red heat.
   Tests.  This gas  is readily distinguished from
other gases by its color, odor, and  bleaching prop-
erties.  It  forms a white curdy precipitate  with
nitrate of silver, (chloride of  silver,) which is inso-
luble in nitric acid, but readily so in liquid ammo-
nia, and is blackened by  light.  Its aqueous solu-
tion dissolves  gold leaf, and instantly blackens a
piece of silver plunged into it.  It rapidly destroys
the color of iodide of starch,  solution of indigo, lit-
mus, and turmeric.  The soluble chlorides may be
readily detected by acidulating their solutions with
nitric acid, and then  adding a solution of nitrate of
silver, when chloride of silver will be precipitated,
and may be recognised in the way just mentioned.
The insoluble chlorides may be tested by digesting
them in a little liquor of  potassa, when  a solution
of chloride of potassium will be formed, which may
be  treated as a  liquid  chloride  ; or the chloride
may be  dissolved  in  nitric acid, and  tested  with
nitrate of  silver  as  before.  A simple method  of
detecting free chlorine is to  hold a rod, dipped  in 
CHL                    187                    CHL
water of ammonia, over it, when white fumes  of
sal  ammoniac will  be formed ;  this, coupled with
the property of bleaching colors,  may,  in  most
cases, be taken as evidence of the presence of this
substance.   (See Chlorometry.)
  Ant.  When the fumes of chlorine  are  inhaled,
it proves an irritative poison.  The best  antidotes
are said to be ammoniacal gas or the vapors of warm
water, of wine, or of ether.  The writer of this ar-
ticle once suffered severely from getting a full in-
spiration of this gas, by the bursting of a large ves-
sel  employed  in  its manufacture, and which was
full at  the  time.  For  a  minute  or  two he was
completely overcome ; but, on being removed into
the fresh air, he  rapidly recovered, and, with the
exception of a violent and convulsive cough, which
lasted several  hours, felt even better  than he did
before.   The gas  appeared to have acted both as
a mental and bodily stimulant.   Every known an-
tidote was  tried in  this case, but without  any ap-
parent advantage.  The effects gradually wore off,
after the lapse of seven  or eight  hours.
  CHLORINE,  LIQUID.  Syn. Oxymuriatic
Acid  Oxymuriatic Water.  Solution of Chlo-
rine.   Chlorine  Water.    Dephlogisticated
Spirit of Salt. Prep.  I. (Aqua Chlorinii, P. D.)
Mix h7 parts of  sulphuric acid with 124 of water,
and pour it upon 100 parts of dried muriate of soda
and 30  parts of oxide of manganese, previously
mixed together  and  placed in a retort.  Conduct
the gas evolved  into 200 parts of distilled water.
   II.  (Aqua  Chlorinei, P. E.) Muriate of soda
60 grs.; red oxide  of lead 350  grs.;  triturate to-
gether, and put them into f^ viij of distilled water
contained in a stoppered  bottle  ; then add 2 fluid
drachms of sulphuric acid, put in the  stopper, and
agitate occasionally until  the oxide of lead turns
white.  The clear liquid (after subsidence) is  to be
poured off into another stoppered bottle.
  III. Pass chlorine gas, procured by any of the
methods mentioned under Chlorine, into water,
until it will  absorb no more.
  CHLORITES.  Salts formed of  the  chlorous,
acid with the  bases.  The alkaline chlorites may
be  formed   by passing a current of chlorous acid
gas into a solution of the pure alkalis. They are so-
luble and remarkable for their  bleaching and ox-
idizing properties.
  CHLORITES, (HYPO-.)   These are formed
by the action of chlorine gas on the salifiable bases.
Chloride of lime, soda, and potash  are  said  by
some to be hypochlorites, but this is undecided ; in
fact, tho very existence of the  hypochlorites has
been denied.
  CHLORO-CARBONIC ACID.  Syn. Phos-
gene.   Chloro-carbonous Acid.   Prep. Expose
equal volumes of caibonic oxide and  dry chlorine
to the rays of the sun, or diffused daylight. In the
first case combination ensues in a few minutes, in
the second  after a few hours.   Prep. A  colorless
gas, having a disagreeable odor;  easily decom-
posed, especially by water.
  CHLOROMETER.   Syn. Chlorimeter. An
instrument for testing the strength of chlorides.
  CHLOROMETRY.  Syn. Chlorimetry. Chlo-
rimetrie, (Fr.)  The process or operation of test-
ing the decoloring power of the compounds of chlo-
rine.  It is  principally applied to those met with in
commerce,—the chlorides of lime, potash, and so-
da.  Among the numerous tests proposed for this
purpose,  the following  appear to  be those most
worthy of notice.                           •
   I.  (Dalton's  test.) Weigh exactly  78 grs. of
pure  proto-sulphate  of  iron, previously  dried by
strong pressure between the folds of cloth, and dis-
solve  it  in 2 oz. of distilled water, to which add a
few drops  of muriatic  or  sulphuric acid.  Next
weigh out exactly 50 grs. of the chloride of lime,
well mix it  in a mortar with 2 oz. of tepid water,
and pour the mixture into a graduated  tube or al-
kalimeter.  Then fill the measure up to 0 with the
washings of the mortar.  The whole should be now
well mixed, by placing the thumb over the orifice
and shaking it.  The solution of chloride of lime
is  next to be gradually and  cautiously added to the
solution of sulphate of iron, until the latter be com-
pletely peroxidized, which may be known when it
ceases to be affected by  the red prussiate of potash.
The latter test is applied by putting a drop of its
solution upon a white plate, and touching  it with
the point of a glass stirrer or  rod, dipped in  the
liquor under examination.  As soon as the test in-
dicates that enough of the solution of the chloride
has been added, the  number of measures poured
from  the alkalimeter must be carefully observed,
from whence the richness of the sample may be
estimated, as follows:—As 100  of the alkalimeter
divisions  contain  exactly 50 grs. of the  chloride,
each measure will contain half a grain, and, con-
sequently, any number of measures consumed, will
represent half that number of grains of the chlo-
ride under examination ; and the  weight  of  the
chloride thus used will  have contained 10 grs. of
chlorine—the constant quantity of  that  substance
required to peroxide the  given solution of sulphate
of iron.   Thus ;—If  80  measures of the liquor in
the alkalimeter be consumed,  this quantity will
have contained 40 grs. of the chloride and 10 grains
of chlorine.  By dividing 1000 by this number, the
per centage of chlorine will be obtained, thus :
  The above method admits of 'much greater ac-
curacy, if the chloride of lime be dissolved in tepid
water, placed in a Schuster's alkalimeter, previ-
ously weighed, and the solution made up to  ex-
actly 1000  grs.  when cold.  The  quantity  con-
sumed may hure be ascertained with great exact-
ness.   Every grain of the solution will be  only
equal to Jff of a grain of the chloride.   The quan-
tity  of  the  solution consumed  is  determined by
weighing the alkalimeter before  and after the opr
eration.  The difference  is the  quantity that  has
been used.
  A modification of this plan has been  suggested
by Mr. Crum.  He proposes to make the solution
of the sulphate  of iron in a stoppered  bottle, and
to add the chloride in the state of powder from  a
weighed quantity.
  II. (Crum's process.)  Mix equal weights of wa-
ter  and muriatic  acid, and dissolve therein cast-
iron  bffrings  until saturated.  To eusure perfect
saturation a large excess of iron is employed, and
the liquid kept  at the  heat of boiling water for
some time.  One measure of the solution, marking
40° on Twaddle's scale, (sp. gr. 1*200,)  is mixed
with an equal quantity of acetic acid, (sp. gr. 1*048.) 
CHL                    188                    CHL
This forms the proof solution, which, if mixed with 6
or 8 parts of water, is quite colorless, but chloride of
lime occasions the production of peracetate of iron,
which gives it a red color.
  The above proof-solution is then poured into 12
two-oz.  vials, of  exactly equal diameters,  to the
amount of i of their capacity; these are filled up
with bleaching liquid of various strengths ; the first
at TV of a degree o'f Twaddle, the second f^, and
so on up to || or 1°.   They are then well corked
up, and, after agitation, arranged  side  by side on
a tray,  furnished with  holes to  receive them,  in
the maimer  represented in the engraving.  A se-
,1'Mlijl #ft  ft
00»o(ot*>t=J^=J Lat^slcJ Icjc^^y
[If'.lli,.
ries of test vials are thus formed, showing the vari-
ous shades  of color that the solutions of the given
strengths are capable of producing.  To ascertain
the strength of an  unknown sample of bleaching
liquor, the proof solution of iron is put  into a vial,
exactly similar to the  12 previously used, and in
precisely the same proportion,  ('.)   The vial  is
then  filled  up with  the  bleaching liquor, well
shaken, and placed beside  that one of the 12 al-
ready prepared which it  most  resembles in color.
The number on that vial expresses the strength of
the sample under  examination, in TVths of a de-
gree of Twaddle's hydrometer.

Table exhibiting the quantity of Bleaching Liquid,
  at 6° on Twaddle's scale, (sp. gr. 1*030,) requi-
  red to be added  to a weaker liquor, to raise it to
  the given strengths.  Adapted from Mr. Crum's
  table  by  Mr. Cooley.
Strength of sample in Ty>.	Required Strength.	Proportions Given Sample.	required. Liquor at 6°.
•		Parts.	Part.
Water.	8 0	8	1
1	do.	94	1
2	do.	11	1
3	do.	134	1
4	do.	17	1
5	do.	23	1
6	do.	35	1
7	do.	71	1
Water.	6 O	11	1
1	do.	134	1
2	do.	17	1
3	do.	23	1
4	do.	35	1
5	do.	71	1
Water.	4 O	17	1
1	do.	23	1
2	do.	35	1
3	do.	71	1
Water.	3 0 1 3	23	1
1	do.	35	1
2	do.	71	1
   Remarks.  The  preceding method is admirably
suited for weak solutions, such as are employed for
bleaching textile fabrics, and is well adapted (from
its simplicity) to the purposes of practical men.  It
is  employed  in many  of the  Scotch bleaching
houses.
   According  to Mr. Crum, the  range of strength
within which cotton  is safe,  is very  limited.  A
solution at 1° of Twaddle's scale, (sp. gr. 1-005,) is
not more than  safe, while  one at 4° is scarcely
sufficiently strong  for the first operation on  stout
cloth, unless it be packed more loosely than usual.
(Trans. Glasgow Phil. Soc.)
   III. (Ure's test.)  This consists in adding watei
of ammonia  of a known strength, tinged  with
litmus, to a solution of a given weight of the  chlo-
ride, until the whole of the chlorine be  neutralized,
which is known by the color ceasing to be destroy-
ed. From the quantity of ammonia consumed, the
strength is estimated.   During the above process
azote is evolved, and the estimation cf the volume
thus liberated has been proposed as a^. ether easy
method of chlorimetry by Dr. Ure.
   This gentleman recommends the two substances
to be mixed in  an inverted and  graduated syphon
tube  over  mercury.   (See Engraving.)   " The
shut end a and the open end 6, are both  f\c
graduated to  one scale ; for example, to
T^f of an inch, or to  grain  or 10 grain
measures.  The tube  is to be filled with
mercury, and then 10 measures of it are
to be displaced at the open end, by in-
serting  a wooden plug.   This  space
being filled with a solution of a given
weight of chloride of lime, is to be turn-
ed up into the shut end, by covering the
open end with the finger and inverting
the tube;  a few drops of  water  may be  sent
through  to wash  the mercury.  The ammonia
being now let up will cause a reaction, and evolve
a quantity of  azote, equivalent to the chlorine  pres-
ent.  The  action  may be  accelerated by holding
the sealed  end  of the  tube over the flame of a
spirit-lamp.   The  mercury  is protected from the
chlorine  by the  ammonia; and should any notion
be  entertained of such an action,  the ammonia
may be let up first.  I  have made innumerable
researches over  mercury, with a detached  appa-
ratus of this  kind, which  combines  precision with
rapidity of result."  (Ure's Diet. Arts.)
   IV.  (Process of M. Gay Lussac.)  One part
of the best  indigo  is dissolved in 9 parts of strong
sulphuric acid, by the aid  of  a gentle  heat.   This
solution is then mixed with distilled water, in such
proportion, that 1 volume of chlorine gas shall ex-
actly decolor 10 volumes of this solution.    Each
measure so decolored is called a degree, and  each
degree is divided into fifths.  5  grains of the best
chloride of lime, dissolved in 500 grain measures of
water, will possess the above power, and  indicate
10° or proof, and will decolor 10 times its volume
of the indigo solution.  The objections to this meth-
od of  chlorimetry are, that the  indigo  solution
alters by keeping, and that  it is not  adapted  for
testing  strong  solutions of chloride  of lime.  " I
have tried the indigo test in many ways, but never
could confide in it."   (Ure.)
   CHLORO-NITROUS GAS.  A gaseous  com-
pound,  discovered by E. Davy.   It is obtained
 
CHO                    189                    CHO
 by treating fused chloride  of sodium,  potassium,
 or calcium, in  powder, with as much strong nitric
 acid  as  is sufficient  to  wet  it,  when  this gas is
 evolved.   Prop.  It  has an orange  color, smells
 like chlorine, and bleaches.   Soluble in water.
   CHLOROPHYLL.   Syn.  Chlorophile.
 Chlorophyle.  The  green coloring matter  con-
 tained in the leaves, stalks, unripe fruit, and juices
 of most plants.  It is extracted by ether, and pu-
 rified by successive solutions in alcohol and muriatic
 acid ;  from the last it is precipitated pure by water.
   Prop.   A dark green mass, producing a grass.
 green powder.   It  is soluble in  ether,  alcohol
 acids, alkalis, and oils.  If an earthy  or metallic
 salt be  mixed with  the alcoholic solution, and an
 alkaline carbonate be added, the earth or oxide is
 thrown  down  in combination with this coloring
 matter,  forming a green lake, possessing consider-
 able  permanency.  Pelletier  and Caventou,  who
 first discovered chlorophyll, obtained it by simply
 pressing  the leaves,  washing in  water, and after-
 wards treating it with alcohol.
   CHLOROUS  ACID.   Syn.   Peroxide of
 Chlorine.  A compound of  oxygen and chlorine
 Prep. Chlorate of potassa  in fine powder, made
 into a paste with strong sulphuric acid, is put into
 a retort and heated  in  a water-bath,  hot but not
 boiling.   A yellowish green gas is given off, which
 may either be  collected in dry  bottles, or passed
 into water, when it will  form  liquid chlorous acid
   Props.,  tyc.  Its  aqueous solution  undergoes
 gradual decomposition, yielding chlorine and chlo-
 ric  acid.   It   possesses  powerful  oxidizing  and
 bleaching properties, and  unites with the bases
 forming salts called chlorites.  These are all solu-
 ble in water, and possess bleaching powers  like the
 acid.  They may be recognised  by the evolution
 of chlorous acid gas when acted on by an acid.
   CHOCOLATE.    Syn.  Chocolada.   Choco-
 Lat, (Fr.)  The roasted cacao  nut made into a
 paste  by triturating  it in a  heated  mortar, with
 sugar  and  aromatics, and  cast in tin  moulds,  in
 which it concretes into cakes  on  cooling.   The
 term is  derived from  two Indian  words, choco,
 sound, and atte, water ;  because of the  noise made
 in its preparation. (Dr. Alston.)
   Qual.  Chocolate is nutritive and  wholesome,  if
 taken in moderation,  but is  sometimes apt  to disa-
 gree with weak stomachs, especially those that are
 easily affected by oily substances  or vegetable food.
 The quantity of aromatics mixed with  the richer
 varieties, improve the flavor, but render them more
 stimulant and prone to produce nervous  symptoms,
 and complaints of the head.
  Prep.  The nuts are first roasted,  (on the small
 scale this may be done in a  frying-pan,) and after
 beina* cleared  from the  husks, reduced to coarse
 powder ; they are then beaten in an iron mortar,
 the bottom of  which  is heated, until they  are re-
 duced to a paste, which  is effected by  the action
 of the heat on the oil or  butter they  contain. This
 paste or semi-fluid mass  is then poured out  into
moulds, and left until cold, when it forms cake
chocolate,  or chocolate paste; or it may be re-
duced  to  coarse powder, by grinding, when it is
known under the name of chocolate powder.
  Remarks.  Chocolate,  prepared as above, with-
out the addition of aromatics, is known  in  the
trade as plain chocolate.   Tho Spaniards flavor it
 with vanilla, cloves, and cinnamon, and frequently
 scent it with musk and  ambergris.  In  general,
 they add too large a quantity of the last four arti-
 cles. The Parisians, on the contrary, use but lit-
 tle flavoring, and that  principally vanilla.  They
 employ the best caracca nuts, and add a consider-
 able quantity of refined sugar.
   The mass of the common chocolate sold  in Eng-
 land, is prepared from the cake  left  after  the ex-
 pression of the oil,  and this is frequently mixed
 with the roasted seeds  of ground peas, and maize
 or potato flour, to which  a sufficient quantity of
 inferior brown sugar, or treacle and mutton suet is
 added, to make it adhere together.   In this way is
 made the article  commonly marked in the  shops
 at 8d., 9<f., and lOd. the pound.  I know  a person
 who lately bought a large  quantity at 5d., where-
 as good nuts,  in  their  unprepared  state, cost at
 wholesale more than double the money.
   To excel  in  the manufacture of  chocolate re-
 quires some little experience.  The roasting of the
 nuts must be done with great care, and  the pro-
 cess stopped  as soon as  the aroma is  well devel-
 oped.  They should  then be turned out, cooled,
 and fanned from the husks.  On the large scale,
 chocolate is made in mills, worked by steam pow-
 er, and  the machinery employed in the grinding,
 admirably fulfils its duty.
   The  South American beans are  esteemed the
 best for making chocolate.  Like wine, it improves
 by age, if kept  in a  dry but not too  warm  a
 place.
   CHOCOLATE  CREAM.   Prep. Chocolate
 scraped  fine  1 oz.; thick  cream  1  quart; sugar
 (best) 6 oz.;  heat it nearly to boiling, then remove
 it from the fire, and mill it well.  When cold, add
 the whites of 8 or 10  eggs; whisk rapidly, and
 take up the froth  on a  sieve;  serve the cream in
 glasses,  and  pile  up the froth  on the  top  of
 them.
   CHOCOLATE  DROPS.   Reduce 1 oz. of
 chocolate to fine powder by scraping, and add it to
 1  lb. of  finely-powdered sugar;  moisten the paste
 with clear water, and heat it over the fire until it
 runs smooth,  and will not spread too much when
 dropped  out; then drop it regularly on a smooth
 plate.  Avoid heating it a second time.
   CHOCOLATE  FOR  ICING.   Syn.  Sorbet
 au Chocolat.  Prep. Rub 2 oz. of chocolate to a
 paste with 2 tablespoonfuls of hot  milk, then add
 cream for icing 1  quart.   Ice  as wanted for
 use.
   CHOCOLATE FOR THE  TABLE.  Prep.
 Put the  milk and water  on to boil; then scrape
 the chocolate fine, from one to two squares  to  a
 pint, to  suit  the stomach: when  the milk  and
 water boils, take it off the fire, throw in the choc-
 olate, mill it well, and serve it  up with the froth,
 which process  will not  take five  minutes.   The
 sugar may either be put in with the scraped choc-
 olate, or added afterwards.
   It should never be made before it is wanted;
 because heating again injures the flavor, destroys
 the froth, and separates  the body of the chocolate ;
 the oil of the  nut being observed, after a few min-
 utes' boiling, or even standing long by  the fire, to
rise to the top, which is  the only cause  why choc-
olate can offend the most delicate stomach.
   CHOCOLATE, FRENCH.  Prep. Finest ca- 
CHR v                  190                    CHR
free, and then  decomposed, forming a green solu-
tion of chloride  of chromium.  2. With acetate of
lead,  the  chromates  give a  yellow precipitate:
3, with nitrate  of silver, a reddish violet; 4, with
nitrate of mercury, a red one.
  CHROMATE OF POTASH.  Syn. Salt of
Chrome.   Neutral Chromate of Potassa.  On
the large scale  this salt is prepared from chrome
ore, a natural octohedral chromate of iron, found
in various parts of Europe and America.
  Prep.  I.  The ore, freed as  much as possible
from its gangue, is ground to powder in a mill, and
mixed with 4 or i °f 'ts weight of bruised nitre,
and in this state  exposed to a powerful  heat for
several- hours,  on the  hearth of a  reverberatory
furnace, during which  time it * frequently stirred
up with iron  rods.  The calcined matter is next
raked out and lixiviated with water.  A beautiful
yellow-colored  solution  results, which is evapora-
ted briskly over a naked fire, when the chromate
of potash falls down under the form of a granular
yellow salt, which is removed from time to time
with  a  ladle, and thrown into  a wooden vessel,
furnished with  a bottom full  of holes,  called the
draining box, where it is left to drain and dry.  In
this state it  forms  the commercial chromate of
potash.   By a second solution and crystallization,
it may  be  obtained in larger  and  more regular
crystals.
  Remarks.  As the object to be aimed at in con-
ducting this process, is  to procure a neutral chro-
mate  of potassa, it is evident that the quantity of
chrome oxide in the ore should be first ascertained,
so that the proper quantity of nitre may  be added.
In every  case, the  proportion of nitre  or  alkali
should be slightly less than what is absolutely re-
quired to saturate the ore, as the production of a
neutral salt is thereby ensured ; and should not the
whole of the  chrome oxide be decomposed by the
first  burning, it may easily be  roasted  a second
time with fresh  alkali, should the remaining quan-
tity be thought worth saving.   These remarks also
apply to the following formulas.
  II.  Chrome ore (containing 50°; of protoxide of
chrome) 2 parts ; saltpetre 1 part ;  as last.
  III. Chrome ore of  34$, 4  parts;  potashes  2
parts ; nitre 1 part; as  above.
  IV. Chrome  ore  of  34°-, 10 parts; potashes  5
parts ; peroxide of manganese 1 part ;  as last.
  V.  (Process  of Mr.  Charles Watt, jun.)  " I
have tried numerous experiments, with a view to
the employment of  cheaper salts than the nitrates
in this branch of manufacture.   I have found that
the sulphates of potassa and soda may be entirely
substituted  for  the  nitrates of those bases, by the
simultaneous  employment of lime, which assists in
the decomposition of the sulphate.
  " The process is as follows:—The sulphate is to
be ground,  or otherwise intimately mixed with the
pulverized ore, and the lime* is then added, which
should also be intimately mixed  with  the mass.
It is then to  be subjected, for about 4 hours, to a
strong red heat.   The nature of the furnace to be
employed for the purpose  is not of any great im-
cao nuts 3 lbs.; best refined sugar 1 lb.;  beans of
vanilla 2 in number;  grind together, as before de-
scribed.
  CHOCOLATE  MILK.   Prep. Dissolve 1 oz.
of chocolate in 1 pint of new milk
  CHOCOLATE  POWDER.   Cake  chocolate
scraped or ground.  Usually sold in tin canisters.
  CHOCOLATE, SPANISH.   Prep.  I.  Ca-
racca  nuts 11 lbs.; sugar (white)  3 lbs.; vanilla
1 oz.;  cinnamon  (cassia)  \  oz.; cloves 4 dr.; as
above.
  II. Caracca nuts 10 lbs.; sweet almonds 1  lb.;
sugar 3 lbs.;  vanilla 3 oz.; as above.
  III. Caracca nuts  8 lbs.; island  cacao 2 lbs.;
white sugar 10 lbs.; aromatics as above.
  IV.  Island cacao 7 lbs.;  farina to absorb  the
oil; inferior.
  CHOCOLATE, VANILLA.  Syn. Chocolat
a la Vanilla.  Caracca nuts 7 lbs.;  Mexican  va-
nilla 1  oz.; cinnamon 4 oz.; cloves 3 in  number;
as before.
  II.  Best chocolate  paste 21 lbs.; vanilla 4 oz.;
cinnamon 2 oz.; cloves  4 dr.; musk 10 grs.; as
before.
  CHOLERA.   Syn. Cholera  Morbus.  Eng-
lish Cholera.  (From \o\rj, bile,  piu>,  I flow.
Celsus.)   A disease characterized by bilious vom-
iting and purging, accompanied by great  pain and
debility.   It most  frequently occurs towards  the
end of the summer and the beginning of  autumn,
and appears to be produced by sudden changes of
temperature, checked perspiration, and the exces-
sive use of indigestible fruit, &c.   It is usually ac-
companied by fever, thirst, and severe abdominal
pains, and sometimes  by  cold sweats, extreme  de-
bility, feeble pulse, &c, under which the patient
sinks in 24 hours.
  Treat.  In most cases this complaint is not dan-
gerous, and yields to  proper  treatment  in  a  few
days.   As soon after the commencement of  the
attack as possible,  some mild aperient,  as castor
oil, should be  administered, and its action acceler-
ated by drinking  copiously of diluents, as barley-
water, toast and water, water gruel, &.c.   Opiates
may be  employed, both topically  and  by   the
mouth.   A teaspoonful of laudanum rubbed over
the  region of  the  stomach and bowels, is a simple
method, and will  generally allay the pain.  15 or
20 drops  of laudanum, mixed with a tablespoonful
of good brandy, may  also be taken every hour, if
the  pain be severe.  Should  the stomach reject it,
or the vomiting be apparently increased by drink-
ing copiously, the same treatment  should  be per-
severed in. When the violence of the symptoms
has abated, tonics  and bitters, as gentian, calom-
ba,  orange-peel, &c.,  may be had recourse to.
  CHROMATE.   A saline  compound, formed
by the  union of the chromic acid with a base. The
chromates are characterized  by their yellow or red
color, the latter predominating when the acid is in
excess.
  Prep.   The insoluble salts of chromic acid, as
those of  baryta, zinc, lead,  mercury, silver, &c,
may be  made  by mixing a  soluble salt of those
bases,  with  neutral   chromate of potassa.  The
first three are red, the fourth orange, and the fifth
deep red or purple.
  Tests.  1. On boiling a chromate in hydrochloric
acid, mixed with alcohol, chromic acid is first set
  *  " It is quite immaterial whether the lime 1>« in a state
of carbonate, or otherwise; but I think,  generally sp.Mk-
in»,  it will be found quite as advantageous to employ thTal
which has been burnt, as it will gave trouble and expense
in grinding." 
CHR                    191                    CHR
 portance, so long  as  carbonaceous matters from
 the  fire are entirely  excluded,  and the required
 temperature is  attainable.   Unless strong  heat is
 employed, no decomposition will  take place;  the
 temperature already employed in manufacturing
 this article from the nitrates, will be sufficient,  and
 the  furnaces used  in  every way suitable.  The
 mass should be well raked about every half hour,
 to ensure the whole of it being sufficiently  heated.
   " Proceeding thus, the manufacturer may ascer-
 tain whether the process is complete by taking out
 a sample from the furnace, and treating it with a
 slight preponderance of dilute pure nitric acid, then
 adding chloride of barium;  if,  on this addition,
 much precipitate of sulphate is formed, the opera-
 tion is not completed ;  but if, on the other hand,
 only a slight milkiness  is produced, the  ' batch'
 may be considered as finished.
   " I  have  found, from numerous analyses, that
 different  samples of the  ore  vary considerably in
 the  quantity of oxide of chromium which they con-
 tain, and I therefore advise every manufacturer to
 analyze a fair  average sample before he makes a
 purchase."
   The following is the plan which Mr. Watt  has
 adopted for this purpose:—
   " Take a given  weight of  the ore,  say 200  gr.,
 previously reduced to a fine powder, and intimately
 mix it with twice its weight of  the nitrate of po-
 tassa or soda,*  adding a little slaked  lime  to pre-
 vent it from fluxing; place  it in an iron crucible,
 and subject it to a strong red heat for about 3 or 4
 hours; then treat  the mass with water to dissolve
 out the chromate.   The insoluble  matter  having
 been  washed  several times  until the  water  has
 ceased to come off colored, the washings are to be
 added  together and evaporated to concentrate the
 solution.   This being done, it is  to be treated with
 an excess of dilute sulphuric acid  to  liberate the
 chromic  acid,  and  then treated with spirit of
 wine,  by which the chromic  acid will be reduced
 to the state of green  oxide, which will remain in
 solution in the preponderance of sulphuric acid  em-
 ployed.   A solution of caustic ammonia in excess
 is then to  be  added, which  will precipitate  the
 oxide  of chromium;  the mass  is then boiled to
 evaporate the superabundance of ammonia.
   " It must now be passed through a filter to  col-
 lect the oxide,  and a little fresh water poured on it
 to free it from  any saline matter: then gently dry
 on  the filter, when  it may  be  eitirely removed
 with ease, as the oxide, which was previously of a
 very bulky  nature,  contracts very considerably.
 It may then be subjected  to a dull red heat in a
 silver,  platinum, or porcelain crucible,  and after-
 wards  its weight ascertained, from which the per
 centage of oxide of chromium which  the ore con-
 tains, and, consequently, the amount of sulphate
 required to convert  it into a chromate, may  be cal-
 culated."   (Chemist, iv. 70.)
  Prop.,  Uses,  <$-c. The  commercial chromate of
 potash has a bright  yellow color, but in other re-
 spects, resembles coarse culinary salt.   It is used
 in various processes in the arts,—in dyeing, bleach-
 ing,  the manufacture of chromic acid, bichromate
 of potassa, and several other chromates.

  * " It will be as well to use a nitrate in the analy-is; the
quantity being small, it will be of no consequence."
   Pur. Chromate  of potash is very  commonly
adulterated with sulphate and muriate of potash, it
therefore becomes important to the manufacturer
to be able to test its purity.
   I. (Tesr of M. Zuber.)   Add tartaric acid, dis-
solved in 50 parts of water, to a like solution of the
sample.  As soon as the decomposition is complete,
and the color verges towards the green, the super-
natant  liquor should  afford no precipitate  with
either the  nitrate of silver or baryta, whence the
absence of muriates and sulphates may be inferred.
The proportions are, 8 parts of tartaric acid  to 1  '
part of the chromate, both in solution.  If saltpetre
be the adulterating ingredient, the sample will de-
flagrate when thrown upon burning coals.
   Mr. Watt says, " A  short time ago,  I was  sup-
plied with a sample which was nothing but  sul-
phate of soda and chloride of sodium, colored with
a strong solution  of the chromate,  and which
caused a white precipitate in  any of the soluble
salts of lead.  For  the benefit of the purchaser, I
subjoin the following method of examining  the
chromates of potassa and soda.
   " First ascertain the quantity of moisture con-
tained in the sample, by weighing  out a certain
portion, drying it on a sand-bath, and again weigh-
ing ;  the loss of weight will give  the quantity of
water:  then dissolve it in distilled water, and  add
any soluble salt of lead  until  it ceases to give a
precipitate.   The mass is then to  be boiled,  and
more distilled water added; the supernatant liquor
is then  to be poured off, and if  the sample under
examination contain any chloride of sodium, small
shining crystalline needles of chloride of lead  will
form in the liquor as it cools.  The remaining  pre-
cipitate is then to  be  treated  with  strong nitric
acid, which will decompose the chromate ;  by
adding distilled water, the nitrate  of lead, formed
by the decomposition of the chromate of lead,  will
be dissolved, and the remaining sulphate of lead,
if any, may be dried, and its amount ascertained,
from which the quantity of  sulphate in the chro-
mate may be calculated.
   " If it  be required to ascertain the quantity of
chloride, this may  be  done  by redissolving  the
chloride of lead by means of heat, and operating
on it by any of the soluble salts of silver."  (Chem-
ist, iii. 388.
   CHROMATE  OF  POTASH,  (BI- or  SU-
PER-.)  Prep.  Acidulate a concentrated solution
of the neutral chromate with sulphuric,  or,  still
better, the acetic acid.  Then heat  the liquid and
allow it to cool slowly, when beautiful red crystals
of bichromate  of potash  will be deposited.   Its
Prop., Uses, and Tests are  the same as the neu-
tral salt.
   CHROMATE  OF  POTASH,  SOLUTION
OF.  Prep.  Dissolve neutral chromate of potash
1 oz., in  distilled water 1 lb.  Use. As a test li-
quor for metals, especially lead.
   CHROMATE OF SODA.  This salt may be
prepared in the same way as chromate  of potash,
by employing a salt of soda instead of  potassa in
the preceding processes.   It  may also be made on
the small  scale for experiment, by neutralizing
chromic acid with carbonate of soda.
   Remarks.  This salt has been proposnH as a sub-
stitute for chromate of potassa, and  has the  ad-
vantage in cheapness.  " Why nitrate of potassa 
CHR                   192                   CHR
has been so long employed in  this manufacture, I
am at a loss  to  discover; for it must be obvious
that chromate of  soda would  answer all  the  pur-
poses of chromate  of potassa, the base being  of
little  consequence,  so long as it forms a soluble
salt with the  chromic acid, as it is  merely useful
as a  vehicle  for  the chromic acid."   (C. Watt,
jun.)
  CHROME  RED.  Syn. Dichromate of Lead.
Subchromate  of  ditto.   Red Chromate of dit-
to.  Prep. I.  Boil  carbonate  of lead  with  chro-
mate of potash, in excess, until it assumes a prop-
er color; wash well with pure  water  and dry in
the shade.
  II. Boil  neutral chromate of  lead with a  little
water of ammonia or lime water.
  III. (Process  of Liebig and Wohler.)  Fuse
saltpetre at a low  red heat  in a  crucible, and
throw in chrome  yellow,  by small  portions  at  a
time,  until  the  nitre be nearly  exhausted.  A
strong ebullition takes place upon  each  addition
of the pigment, and the mass becomes black and
remains so while hot.   After it  has settled  for  a
minute or two, the fluid part should  be  poured off,
and the mass  remaining  in the crucible washed
with water, and dried by a gentle heat.
  Remarks. Great care  must be taken in  con-
ducting the last process, not to  employ too much
heat, or to allow  the  saline  matter  to  stand  long
over the newly-formed chrome-red, as the color is
thus apt to change to a brown or orange.  When
well managed, the product has a crystalline tex-
ture, and so beautiful  a red color, that it vies with
cinnabar.   It  has been proposed  as a pigment.
  CHROME  YELLOW.   Syn. Chromate  of
Lead.  Yellow  Chromate of  ditto.   Prep. I.
Add a filtered solution of nitrate or  acetate  of
lead, to a like  solution of  neutral chromate of pot-
ash ; collect the precipitate, wash it well, and dry
it out of the reach of  sulphureted vapors.
  II. To the lye  of chromate  of potash, prepared
by roasting* the chrome ore with  nitre, and lixivia-
tion with water, add a solution of'acetate of  lead,
and proceed as before.
  Remarks. This substance  is  the beautiful pig-
ment employed  by painters.    Four shades are
usually met with in  the  shops,  viz.: Pale yellow
or straw color, yellow, full yellow, and orange.
The former are  made by adding a little  alum or
sulphuric acid  to the solution of  the chromate be-
fore mixing it  with the solution of lead ;  the latter,
by the addition of a little subacetate of lead.  The
darker color appears to arise from a little dichro-
mate being thrown down intimately mixed with
the neutral chromate, and the paler shades from a
slight excess of acid.  I found a little  alumina in
some samples of pale  chrome  yellow, which I
lately examined,  and in  one instance  a little sul-
phate of lead.
   CHROMIC ACID.  A compound of the metal
chromium  and oxygen.
   Prep.  I. Pure chromic acid may be prepared
by transmitting the gaseous fluoride  of chromium
into water contained in a  vessel  of platinum or sil-
ver, and evaporating the liquid to dryness.
   II.  Bv conducting gaseous fluoride of chromium
into a silver or platinum vessel, the  sides of which
are  just moistened with water,  and the  aperture
eovered with  a piece  of moist paper, the acid will
be deposited under  the form of red acicular crys-
tals, which will fill the vessel.
   III. "The  principle upon which this  is based
is, that  nitrate of baryta, which  results  from the
decomposition  of the chromate  of baryta  by nitric
acid, is quite insoluble in concentrated nitric acid,
which I have  verified by many experiments, and
which fact  was, I  believe,  first  observed by Mr.
Reuben Phillips.
   " The chromic  acid   may*  be  separated  from
the nitrate of  baryta by decantation, or,  which  is
still  better,  by filtration  through asbestos.  Care
must  be taken not  to let it come in contact witn
any organic matter, or it will be decomposed.
   " The chromic acid is then to be  evaporated to
dryness, when the  nitric  acid  will be volatilized,
leaving  pur* chromic acid.
   " When the quantity of chromic  acid  prepared
by this plan is considerable, to reduce the expense
as much as  possible, it will be as well to  carry on
the evaporation so that the superabundance of ni-
tric acid which has  been used  may be condensed,
which may  again be used for the same purpose.
   " The only precautions necessary to ensure the
purity of the chromic acid prepared by this plan,
are the  following:—to use a sufficient quantity of
nitric acid, and to take care that the nitric acid is
sufficiently concentrated, and  that it is pure, oth-
erwise the impurities which it contains will remain
in the chromic acid.
   " The chromate  of baryta may be easily pre-
pared by mixing together solutions of the chloride
of barium, and any of the soluble chromates; be-
fore it is used  for the preparation of pure chromic
acid, it should  be washed several times."   (Chem-
ist, iii. 266.)
   On the commercial scale, crude chromic is pre-
pared by either of the following plans:
   IV. To a saturated solution of 100 parts of chro-
mate of potash in water, add 49  parts of sulphuric
acid,  (sp. gr. 1*845.)   This is the common process,
but the  product contains  sulphate of potash.
   V.  Digest chromate of baryta in  an equivalent
proportion of sulphuric acid,.diluted  with water;
after a few  hours decant the clear liquid.
   VI. Digest chromate of lead in sulphuric acid in
equivalent proportions.
   Mr.  Charles  Watt,  jun.,  recommends  chro-
mate of lime  as a  source of chromic acid.  This
salt he prepares from the oxide of chromium, con-
tained  in  the "residual  liquor  of the process of
bleaching with chromic acid, and this he effects by
a  very inexpensive  process.   The chromic solution
is placed in  a wooden vessel, and slaked lime cau-
tiously added  until  the  sulphuric or  muriatic acid
present is saturated, carefully avoiding  excess, as
oxide of chrome would be then  precipitated.  After
an hour's  repose the clear portion is decanted, and
finely-slaked  lime  added,  until  all  the  oxide is
thrown down ; which may be known by the liquor
becoming clear when allowed  to settle.  During
the addition of the lime, constant agitation must be
employed.  The oxide of chromium  must now  be
allowed to settle, and after the liquid portion is de-
canted, washed with a few pailfuls of clean water.
After the latter has drained off, the  residual mix-
ture  of oxide  of chromium and lime must then be
placed  about 2 inches thick upon a laige flat iron
plate, set evenly over a fire, and turned every half 
CHR                    193                    CID
hour until the process be completed, which may be
known by the mass assuming a  yellow color, in-
stead of the grayish one it previously possessed.
Care must be taken  not to employ too much heat,
as the product of this process (chromate of lime) is
readily decomposed,  and assumes a green color,  in
which case it is rendered useless.   From the chro-
mate of lime the acid is procured by the action of
an equivalent  proportion of sulphuric  acid.  This
process has  the  great recommendation of cheap-
ness, and Mr. Watt says that he has employed it
in the factory of Messrs. Haws, for nearly  two
years, with perfect success.
  Prop.,  Uses,  cj-c.   Pure chromic acid forms red
crystals, and is soluble in water and alcohol. It is
readily decomposed  by the action of light and con-
tact with organic matter. Hence it should be kept
in stoppered glass  bottles, and its solution filtered
through asbestos.   The  ease  with which  it parts
with a portion of its oxygen constitutes its value as
a bleaching agent   It is largely employed in  the
arts, in calico-printing, bleaching of textile fabrics,
tallow,  oils, &c.
   CHROMIUM,  (from xpu/ia,  color.)  A metal
discovered by Vauquelin in 1797.
   Prep.  I. Mix dry chloride of chromium with oil,
place the paste in a crucible  lined with charcoal,
lute on the cover, and expose it for an hour to an
intense heat.   (Vauquelin.)
   II. Heat the compound of terchloride of chro-
mium and ammonia to redness, and expose it to a
current of dry ammoniacal gas.   (Liebig.)
   Remarks. The product of the  first process has a
whitish-yellow  color,  and a metallic lustre;  that
of  the  second is a black  powder.  Metallic chro-
mium has not been  applied to any use in the arts.
   CHROMIUM, CHLORIDE OF.  Syn. Ses-
tauiciiLORiDE of Chromium.  Prep. I. Dissolve the
hydrated oxide in muriatic acid, and  evaporate to
dryness.
   If. Digest  chromate  of  lead  in  muriatic  acid
mixed with a little alcohol, and throw down  the
excess of lead with sulphureted hydrogen.
   III. Pass dry chlorine over a mixture of chrome
oxide and charcoal  heated  to redness, in a porce-
lain tube.  The chloride  collects as a sublimate, of
a peach or purple  color.
   Remarks. By the first process the product is a
green powder, which, when heated  to 400°,  be-
comes purplish red,  and then forms pure, dry chlo-
ride of chromium.  This process should be per-
formed in a tube filled with carbonic acid gas.
  CHROMIUM,  OXIDE  OF.  Syn.  Sesqui-
oxide of  Ditto- P>ep. To a solution of chromate
of potash, add another of protonitrate of mercury
as long  as any precipitate falls down.  This must
be well washed in water, and heated to redness in
an earthen crucible.
  II. Expose bichromate of potash to  a strong red
heat, then wash out the potassa with water.
  III.  Expose  bichromate of potash, mixed with
half its weight of sulphur, as above.
  Prop.   A  green  powder,  insoluble in  water.
Fused  with borax or glass, it imparls a beautiful
green color.   The  emerald  owes its color to  this
oxide.  With the  acids it forms salts which also
have a  green color.  These compounds may  be
made by adding equal parts of muriatic acid and
alcohol to a boiling solution of chromate of potassa, |
                      25
in water, in small portions  at a time, until the red
tint disappears,  and the liquid  assumes a  green
color.  Pure  ammonia,  in  excess, should now be
added, when  a hydrated green  oxide will subside,
which,  after being washed with water, may be
dissolved in the  acids.   Oxide of chrome is much
used in the  manufacture  of colored glasses  and
enamels, and in  dyeing.
  Remarks.  The above appears to be the only ox-
ide  of  chromium, in opposition to the assertion of
Berzelius, that there is  a protoxide and  deutoxide.
  CHRYSAMMIC ACID.  Prep.  Add  1 part
of aloes to 8 of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1-37, and heat
the mixture  in  an open vessel.  When the  first
violent action is over, introduce the whole  into a
retort, and distil to two-thirds.   Then add  4 parts
more of nitric acid, and keep the mixture nearly
at the boiling point for some days, or as long as ga«
is disengaged. Water should next be added, which
will throw down impure chrysammic acid, while
chrysolepic acid and oxalic  acid will remain in so-
lution.  The precipitate must be well washed with
water combined with potash, and purified  by re-
crystallization.  The crystals are next dissolved in
water, and nitric acid added, when a golden  yel-
low powder will be deposited, which is chrysammic
acid.
  Prop.  Soluble in alcohol, ether, and  hot  acids;
explodes by heat, and forms salts, called chrysam-
mates, with the bases.  The  salt of potash,  pre-
pared  as above,  is a beautiful crystalline carmine
red powder, and when slowly produced it forms
beautiful small greenish golden crystals.   The salts
of soda and magnesia are similar. Ammonia forms,
with  chrysammic  acid, a deep purple solution,
which deposites dark green crystals.   The other
salts of this acid are all  of great beauty, and mostly
of various shades of red, and exhibit a golden lus-
tre  under the polishing steel.
  CIDER. Syn. Cyder. Pomatium. Cidre, (Fr.)
The fermented juice of the apple.  Cider and per-
ry were known to antiquity, and are  mentioned
by Pliny,  who calls them the wine  of apples  and
pears.   Modern Europe is, however, indebted to
the Moors of Biscay, who introduced its manufac-
ture into Normandy,  whence  it spread into the
other provinces of France,  into  England, Germa-
ny, Russia, and America.   The best cider made
at the present day is that of Normandy, Hereford-
shire, and^New  Jersey, (U. S.,)  and, next, that of
Devonshire and Somersetshire.  The last is, how-
ever, very inferior.  Cider  is made in all the tem-
perate climates of the  world, where the heat is
insufficient to produce the grape, and the cold not
so great as to  interfere with the growth  of the
apple.
  The process of making cider varies in different
parts  of England,  but  in  every case  essentially
consists of—the  collection of the'fruit; the expres-
sion and fermentation of the juice ; and the storing
and management of the fermented liquor.
  The apples are crushed or ground in a mill,  and
the  pulp placed in haircloth or coarse canvass bags,
and  subjected  to  powerful pressure : tlj,e  liquor
which  runs off  is put  into casks, and  freely ex-
posed to the air  in the shade, and allowed to  fer-
ment.  This part of the process is carefully watched,
and as soon as the sediment has subsided, the liquor
is racked off  into clean  sasks.   Before winter  the 
CID
194
CID
tasks are stored  in  a cellar, or other  cool place,
ivhere the temperature is low and regular, and by
the following spring the liquor is fit for  use or bot-
tling.
  Remarks. Much of the excellence of cider de-
pends upon the temperature at which the ferment-
ation is conducted ; but this is a point utterly over-
looked by the manufacturers of this liquor.  Instead
of the apple-juice, as soon as expressed from the
fruit, being placed in  a cool  situation, where the
temperature should not exceed 50° of Fahr., it is
frequently left exposed to the full heat  of autumn.
In  this way much of the  alcohol formed by the
decomposition of the sugar is converted into vine-
gar, by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen, and
thus the liquor acquires that peculiar and unwhole-
some acidity, known  in the cider districts by the
name of  " roughness."   On  the contrary,  if the
fermentation be conducted at a  low temperature,
nearly the whole of  the  sugar  is converted into
alcohol, and this remains  in the liquor instead of
undergoing the process of acetification.  The ace-
tous fermentation, or the conversion of alcohol into
vinegar,  proceeds most rapidly  at a temperature
of 95° Fahr., and at  lower temperatures, the ac-
tion becomes  slower, until at 46° 50" Fahr., no
such change takes place. (Liebig.)  It is therefore
quite evident that if the saccharine juice of apples,
or any other fruit, be  made to undergo the vinous
fermentation in a cool situation,  less of the  spirit
resulting from the transformation of the sugar will
be  converted  into acetic  acid,  and consequently
more will be retained in an unaltered state  in the
liquor, and tend  not  only to improve  its quality,
but by its conservative  and chemical action, to
precipitate the  nitrogenous substances, or exciters
of future change.  Independently of differences in
the quality of the fruit, this is the principal cause
of  the superiority of the cider made by one person
over another, living in the same  district.  The one
has probably  a cooler barn  and cellar  than the
other to store his cider in.  In practice it has been
found that sour and  rough-tasted apples produce
the best cider.  This arises because they contain
less sugar and more malic acid, and the presence
of the latter impedes the conversion of alcohol into
vinegar.   But  cider  made with  such apples can
never equal in quality that prepared at a tow tem-
perature from fruit abounding in sugar.   In De-
vonshire the pressing and fermentation are con-
ducted in situations where the  temperature varies
but little from the external air, and fluctuates with
all its changes ; the result is that Devonshire cider,
of  the best class, will rarely keep more than 5 or
6 years,  and seldom  improves after the  second or
third year, while the cider of Herefordshire and
Worcestershire, where these operations  are more
carefully attended to, will keep  for 20 or 30 years.
   In the cider counties  the  culture of the  apple
engages especial attention.   Dry  rising ground,
sheltered from the  northerly and easterly winds,
is best suited for an orchard.  The fruit, after be-
ing gathered,  is  usually left for 14 or 15 days,  in
a barn or loft, to mellow  or mature, during which
time a considerable portion of the mucilage is de-
composed, and alcohol and carbonic acid developed.
The spoiled apples should then be separated from
the sound ones, as they not only impart a bad fla-
vor to the cider,  but  prevent its spontaneous clari-
fication.   Unripe apples should also be avoided, as
they do not contain sufficient sugar to undergo the
vinous fermentation, while they contribute to ren-
der the  liquor rough and acidulous.   Sour and
rough-tasted apples are usually preferred by  fann-
ers for making cider, but fruit abounding in  sugar
would be preferable, provided the same skill were
exercised in  the manufacture of cider as in the
process of brewing malt liquor.
   As the juice of apples contains less sugar in pro«
portion to the amount of acid  and nit/ogenizea
matter than that of grapes, the addition  of  some
of this article would render it more suitable for the
production of a vinous  liquor.  Good West  India
sugar is the best for this purpose.   I have  tasted
cider made in  this way, and that had  been stored
in fresh emptied rum puncheons, that had all the
pungency and vinosity of foreign wine.
   The best cider yields about 9 or 10$ of real alco-
hol.  Ordinary cider from 4 to 6$.
   CIDER, DEVONSHIRE.   The ap; **,  after
being  plucked, are  left  in  heaps in the  orchard
for some time, to complete their ripening, and ren-
der them more sacch^ jne. They are then crushed
between grooved cylinders,  surmounted by a hop-
per, or in a circular trough, by two vertical  edge-
wheels of wood moved  by a horse ; after passing
through which, they are received  into large tubs
or cives, and  are  then 'called  pommage.   They
are afterwards laid on the vat in alternate  layers
of the  pommage and  clean straw, called  reeds.
They are then pressed,  a little water  being  occa-
sionally added.  The juice passes through a hair
sieve, or similar strainer, and is received in a large
vessel, whence it is run  into  casks or open vats,
where every thing  held  in mechanical suspension
is  deposited.   The  fermentation is often slow of
being developed; though the juice be set in No-
vember  or  December,  the  working sometimes
hardly commences till March.   Till this time the
cider is sweet; it  now becomes pungent and vi-
nous, and is  ready to be racked for use.   If the
fermentation  continue, it is usual to rack it  again
into a clean  cask that has been well sulphured out,
 and to leave  behind the head  and sediment; or
two or three  cans of cider are put into a clean cask:
 and a match of  brimstone  burned in it:  it is then
 agitated, by  vwhich the fermentation of that quan-
tity is completely stopped. The cask is  then  nearly
 filled, the fermentation of the whole  is checked,
 and the cider becomes fine.   If, on the first  opera-
 tion, the fermentation is  not  checked, the process
 of racking is repeated  until  it becomes  so, and is
 continued from time to  time till the cider  is in a
 quiet state and fit for drinking.
    A common practice in Devonshire  is to  add a
 stuff called " stum," sold by the wine-coopers, or •
 an article called " anti-ferment," sold by the drug-
 gists, for the purpose of checking the fermentation,
 but a much better plan  is to rack, as above de-
 scribed, into a well-sulphured cask, and to  add 5
 or 6 oz. of mustard-seed, and £ oz. cloves, both well
 bruised ; racking into a fresh-emptied spirit  cask ii
 also a good plan.
    About six sacks, or twenty-four  bushels  of ap-
 ples, are used for a hogshead of 63 gallons.   If the
 weather be warm, it will be necessary to carry on
 the process in the  shade, in the open  air, and by
 every means to keep the juice as cool  as jwssible 
CID                    195                    CIN
  In nine months it will  usually be in condition
for bottling or drinking ; if it continues thick use
some  isinglass finings, and if at  any time it fer-
ments and threatens acidity, the cure is to rack it,
and leave the  head and sediment  behind.
  CIDER, CHAMPAGNE.  Prep.  Good pale
vinous cider 1  hogshead ;  proof spirit (pale) 3 gal-
lons ;  honey or sugar 14  lbs.;  mix,  and let them
remain  together  in a temperate situation  for  1
month; then  add orange-flower  water  1  quart ;
and fine it down with skimmed milk 4 a gallon.
  Remarks. This will be very pale ; and a simi-
lar  article,  when bottled in champagne bottles,
silvered, and  labelled, has been  often sold to the
ignorant for  champagne.  It opens  very brisk,  if
managed properly.
  C1DEK CHEESE.  The residuum or cake of
pommage or bruised apples, from which  the juice
has been expressed.   It  forms excellent food for
pigs, and is very  acceptable to  them.
  CIDER, FRENCH.   After the fruit is mashed
in a mill, between iron cylinders, it  is allowed  to
remain in a  large tun or tub  for 14 or 15  hours,
before  pressing.   The juice is  placed  in  casks,
which  are  kept  quite full, and so placed upon
gawntrees, or stillions, that small tubs may  be put
under them, to receive the matter that works over.
At the end of 3  or 4 days, for sweet  cider, and 9
or 10 days for strong cider, it is racked into sul-
phured casks, and then stored in  a cool place.
   CIDER, MANAGEMENT OF.  Cider should
be stored in a cool place,  and should not be drunk
before it becomes sufficiently mature.  To improve
the flavor of a hogshead of cider,  14 gallons  of
good  brandy  or  rum are frequently  added, with
2 oz. of powdered catechu, (dissolved in water,)
7 lbs. of good moist sugar or honey, 4 oz. each  of
bitter almonds and cloves,  and  4 oz. of mustard
seed.    These must be well rummaged in, and oc-
casionally stirred up  for a fortnight, after which it
must be allowed  to repose for 3 or 4 months, when
it will usually be found as bright as  wine.  Should
this not be the case, it  must be fined with a pint
of isinglass finings, or a dozen  eggs,  and in a fort-
night more it  will be fit  for  use.  If  the cider  be
preferred pale, omit the  catechu, and instead  of
isinglass fine  with a quart of  skimmed milk.   If
wanted of a  light reddish, or  rose  tint, use 4 oz.
of cochineal,  and omit the catechu.
   Preparatory to bottling cider it should be exam-
ined,  to see whether it be clear ai»d  sparkling.   If
not it should be  clarified in a similar way to beer,
and left for a  fortnight.  The night before it is in-
tended  to put it into bottles, the bung should  be
taken out of  the cask, and left so until the  next
day, when it may be bottled, but not corked down
until  the day after,  as,  if this be  done aft once,
many of the  bottles will  burst by keeping.  The
best corks, and champagne-bottles should be used,
and it  is usual  to wire  and cover  the corks with
tinfoil,  after the manner of champagne.   A few
bottles  may be kept in a  warm place  to ripen, or
a small piece of lump sugar  may be put into each
bottle before corking, if  the cider be wanted for
immediate use,  or  for  consumption  during the
cooler portion of the year, but for warm weather
and for long  keeping this is  inadmissible.   The
bottled stock should be  stored  in  a  cool  cellar,
when the quality will be greatly improved by age.
Cider for  bottling  should be of good quality, and
at least 18 months old.
  CIDER,  MADE.   An article under this name
is made in Devonshire, for the supply of the Lon-
don market, it  having been found that the ordi-
nary cider will not stand a voyage to the metrop-
olis without  some preparation.   The  finest quality
of made cider is only ordinary cider  racked into a
clean cask,  and well sulphured; but the mass of
that which is sent  to London, is mixed with water,
treacle, and alum,  and then  fined down, after
which it is racked  into well-matched casks.  The
larger portion of the cider sold in London, profess-
ing to be Devonshire cider, would be  rejected even
by the farmers' servants in that county.
   CIDER  MOIL.  Syn. Water Moil.  A weak
cider or liquor, prepared by adding  water to  the
pressed cake, and  fermenting.  Very inferior.
   CIDER, RAISIN.  This is made  in a similar
way to raisin wine, but without  employing sugar,
and with only 2  lbs. of raisins  to the gallon, or
even more,  of water.  It is usually fit for bottling
in 10 days,  and in a week more is ready for use.
   CIDER-SPIRIT.  Syn. Cider Brandy.   Ob-
tained  from cider by distillation.   It is  largely
manufactured in America, where a very  decent
article  may be purchased for about 50 cents per
gallon, at proof.  An illicit distillation of this spirit
is frequently carried on by the farmers  in the west
of England.
   CIGARS, MERCURIAL.   M.  Paul Bernard
lately proposed to the Academie de la M6decine
the  use of  cigars  impregnated with a  weak solu-
tion of bichloride of mercury, for persons  afflicted
with syphilitic affections of the throat  and palate,
as a mode of conveying mercurial fumigation.   It
has been proposed  first to deprive the tobacco of its
nicotin by frequent washings.  (Lancet, May 13,
1843.)
   CINCHONA BARK.  There are  three kinds
of cinchona bark employed in medicine ;  the  cor-
tex cinchonas lancifolias, (of the London and Dub-
lin Pharmacopoeias,) or the cortex cinchonas  con-
daminea,  (of the  Ed. Ph.,) commonly known in
commerce as pale, crown, loxa,  or quillbark; the
cortex  cinchonas cordifolias, (Lond. and Dub.,)  or
the  cortex  cinchonas  flavas,  (Edin.,)  commonly
known as yellow  or royal yellow bark ;  and the
cortex cinchonas oblongifolias, (Lond. and Dub.,) or
red cinchona bark, (Edin.:) medically considered,
they are all tonic and febrifuge, and may be given
in powder,  from 20 grs. to 3ij, every two  or  four
hours, so  as to  get  down an ounce  between each
fit of intermittent fever ; used  also  to stop  the
progress of  gangrene ; they are also given  in infu-
sion and decoction.  Since the introduction of the
cinchona alkaloids, the employment  of  bark in
substance has considerably lessened.
   Pur. The officinal species of cinchona bark are
frequently imported mixed with other kinds, that
contain less of the febrifuge  principle.  The most
common  adulteration  is,  however, the admixture
of the same drug that has been exhausted of its
 active portions. This method consists in employ-
 ing the bark, but slightly broken,  (or generally
 whole, as imported,) for  the  manufacture of sul-
phate of quinine, cinchonine, and tincture, infu-
sion, decoction, and extract of bark, after which it
is carefully dried, without injury to its color, and 
CIN                    196                    CIN
mixed up with fresh bark  for sale, or is sent to
the mill to  be ground into powder.  The greater
amount of adulteration  is generally practised on
the powder, on account of the  fraud  being  less
easily detected when the drug is  in the pulveru-
lent  state.   Not only is the worst description of
bark  chosen for grinding,  frequently largely  ad-
mixed with exhausted balk, as just mentioned, but
" the roots of bistort, calamus  aromaticus, avens,
water-avens, and tormentil; oak bark, that of  sev-
eral  kinds of willow, horse-chesnut, ash, and the
sloe  bush ;  mahogany  sawdust, the dried herbs
of yellow loosestrife, bugle, wa.ter-horehound,  and
self-heal, are used either as substitutes or to re-
duce the price of the ground bark ;  as  is also the
root of Geum montanum.  The barks of Pinknea
^ubescens, Unnona febrifuga, Swietenia febrifuga,
Cedrela tuna, Magnolia  glauca,  M. acuminata,
M. tripetala,  Aehras sapota, Rubus trivialis,  and
R. villosus, are also used as substitutes,'' (Gray ;)
and, in fact, any trash that will  possibly produce
a powder at all resembling that of bark, or  that
can be  made so by grinding and the  addition of
coloring.
   Tests. The simplest  and only certain method
of ascertaining the quality of cinchona bark, and
of detecting fraudulent  admixture, is by an assay
for the alkaloid.  (See Qcinometry.)  The tannic
acid which  exists in every species of cinchona
bark, may be recognised by its  precipitating the
sesquichloride of iron of a green color, gelatine of
a whitish color, and a solution of tartar emetic  of a
dirty white.
   CINCHONIA.   Syn. Cinchonine.  Cinciio-
nina.  Cinchonium.  An alkaline  principle  ex-
tracted from pale cinchona bark, in the same  way
as quinine is from yellow cinchona bark.
   Prep. I.  Add  ammonia to a dilute  solution of
sulphate of cinchonine,  as  long as any  precipitate
falls.   Wash with cold water, dissolve  in «alcohol
and crystallize.
   II. A pound of  bruised bark is boiled in about a
gallon of water, to which 3 fluid drachms of  sul-
phuric acid  have been previously added.  A simi-
lar decoction is repeated with about half the quan-
tity of liquid, and  so on till all the soluble matter
is extracted.   The decoctions are then mixed to-
gether, and  strained ; and powdered slaked  lime
is  added, in  a proportion somewhat greater than
necessary to saturate the  acid ;  the  precipitate
that ensues (a mixture of cinchonina and sulphate
of lime) is collected, dried,  and  boiled for some
minutes- in strong alcohol, which is then decanted
off while still hot,  and fresh portions successively
added for the repetition  of the same operation, un-
til it ceases to act on the residuum, which  is  then
merely sulphate of lime.  The different alcoholic
solutions are then put  into a  retort or still,  and
considerably evaporated, during which, and espe-
cially  on  cooling, acicular crystals of cinchonina
are deposited.  When the whole  is thus collected,
the crystals, if yellow or discolored, must be again
dissolved in  boiling alcohol, and thus, by recrystal-
lization, they will be obtained colorless.   (Brande's
Manual of Pharm.)
   III. Boil  Peruvian bark in alcohol until all the
bitterness is  extracted;  distil to dryness, dissolve
the extract  in boiling water, rendered  very sour,
with  muriatic acid; add calcined magnesia, boil
for  a few  minutes till  the liquor is clear;  when
cold,  filter, wash  the  sediment left on the filter
with  cold  water, dry it, boil alcohol upon it until
all the bitterness is extracted; pour off the alcohol,
and, as it cools, the cinchonine will crystallize.  It
may be purified by solution in  a very weak acid,
and the addition of an alkali.
  Prop,  and Uses. These  are  similar to quinine.
It is, however, rather less soluble  in water than
that alkaloid, as  it requires 2500 parts of  water,
at 60°, for its solution.  It forms  salts  with  the
acids,  all  of which may  be made in  the  samo
manner  as those  of quinine.   The neutral sul-
phate, bisulphate,  disulphate, muriate, nitrate, io-
dide, iodate, &c. have been formed and examined.
  Purity and  Tests. (See Quinine.)
  CINNAMMIC ACID.  A substance discovered
by Dumas  and Peligot in oil of cinnamon. It crys-
tallizes out of the  oil when long exposed to the at-
mosphere:
  Prep.  Dissolve oil of balsam of Peru in potassa
water, evaporate  to dryness, tI:ssolve the  residuum
in boiling water,  and  add  an  excess of muriatic
acid.   The cinnammic acid is deposited in  crys-
tals as the  solution cools, and may  be  purified by
re-solution and crystallization.
  II. By cautious distillation of balsam of Tolu by
a gentle  heat it fuses, and a little water and vola-
tile oil first  comes over,  followed by cinnammic
acid,  in the form  of a heavy oil, which  condenses
on the cool parts of the neck of  the retort, as a
white crystalline  mass.  Towards the end  of  the
process, some empyreumatic oil distils over.  The
acid  must be  purified by  pressure  between  the
folds of*filtering paper and solution in boiling wa-
ter.   On cooling, minute  colorless crystals of cin-
nammic  acid will  be deposited.   Pure balsam of
Tolu  yields about  J of its weight of this acid. (Mr.
Heaver in  the Ann. Chym.)
  Prop.  Colorless transparent  scales, or prisms,
scarcely  soluble in water,  but freely so in alcohol.
Fuses at 240° ; volatilizes unchanged at  555°.  It
forms salts with  the bases, called  cinnammates,
which generally resemble the benzoates.
  CINNAMEINE.   Syn. Oil  of Balsam of
Peru.  Prep.  Add  an alcoholic  solution of bal-
sam of Peru, to a  like solution of potassa. A com-
pound of  resin and  potassa is precipitated, and
cinnammate of potassa and cinuttmeine are  left in
solution.    On  adding "water, the  latter  separates
and floats  uponjtfie surface.
  II. Add 2 measures  of  balbam of Peru to 3 of
liquor of potassa, (sp. gr.  1*300,) apply  a  gentle
heat,  when  a yellowish  brown oil  will separate
and float above a heavy black liquid, containing
the potash.  The former  must be  collected, and
may be purified by cautious distillation.
  Prep., 6fC  It  dissolves in  alcohol  and  ether,
and by the action of  alkalis is converted into cin-
nammic  acid.
  CINNAMON.   From  the high price of this
drug, it has become a general practice to substitute
cassia for it, which so exceedingly resembles it that
most  persons, unacquainted with the drug, regard
them as  the same.  Cassia is, however, not only
thicker and  coarser than  cinnamon, but its frac-
ture  is short  and resinous, and its  flavor is more
biting and  hot, while it lacks the peculiar sweetish
taste of the latter spice.   The thickness of  cinna 
CIT                     197                     CIT
mon seldom exceeds that of good drawing paper.
The same remarks are also applicable to the oil
and powder.  In pharmacy it is a general practice
to  employ  cassia  and its preparations whenever
those of cinnamon are ordered.  Both these drugs
are wholesome  aromatics.   The principal  con-
sumers of genuine  cinnamon are the chocolate-
makers of France, Spain,  Italy, and Mexico. The
Germans, Turks, and Russians prefer chocolate
flavored with cassia.   " Some cinnamon, sent to
Constantinople  by mistake, proved unsaleable at
any price, while cassia, worth about  sixpence per
pound, was in great request."  (Pereira.)
   CITRATES.   Salts formed of the citric acid
and the bases.  ^
   Prep.  Those  in general  use  may be all made
by the addition  of either the hydrate, oxide, or
carbonate of the base, to a solution of the acid in
water, until the latter be neutralized, when crys-
tals may generally be obtained by evaporation.
   Prop., tf-c. The citrates are mostly soluble, and
when  heated, froth, blacken, and are decomposed.
When an anhydrous citrate is decompose^ by an
alcoholic solution  of hydrochloric acid, the  . trie
acid is principally transformed into hydrated aconi-
tic acid.
    Char,  and Tests.  The citrates are character-
ized by giving a white precipitate with acetate of
lead, soluble in ammonia,  and  also a white precip-
itate with nitrate of silver, which, by the applica-
tion of heat, froths up, deflagrates, and leaves an
abundant ash, which, on  increasing the heat, be-
comes pure silver.
   Remarks. The principal  citrates are citrate of
ammonia, (soluble  and crystallizable ;) citrate of
potash, (very soluble and deliquescent;) citrate of
soda,  (large crystals,  soluble ;) citrate of baryta,
(beautiful shining silvery bushes, scarcely soluble ;)
citrate of lime, (see  Citric Acid ;) magnesia,
alumina, and protoxide of manganese, each form 2
salts with citric acid, one soluble, the other  insolu-
ble ; citrate of protoxide of iron, (scarcely  soluble
and crystallizable ;) percitrate of iron, (soluble and
brown ;) ammonio-citrate  of iron, (garnet colored,
very soluble ;) citrate of zinc, (scarcely soluble ;)
citrate of lead, (insoluble  white  powder;)  citrate
of copper, (green powder ;) citrate of silver,  (bril-
liant white powder ;) potassio-citrate of antimony,
(dazzling white prisms.)
  CITRATE, OR AMMONIO-CITRATE OF
IRON. Syn. Ammonio-Citrate of  Peroxide of
Iron.  Ferro-Citrate of Ammonia.  Percitrate
of  Iron  and Ammonia.  There  are three  salts
generally  known under this name—two, having
the peroxide for their base, and one, the protoxide.
There  is also a fourth, formed  from the magnetic
oxide of  iron, which has scarcely been introduced
into this  country, though  commonly employed in
France, and highly recommended by Beral.   The
salt at  present so much advertised as citrate  of
iron, is a double citrate of  iron and ammonia—an
ammonio-citrate, and as such  I  shall describe it.
I find  that several  other  double citrates of iron
may be prepared, but they  are possessed of inferior
qualities to those  just mentioned.  They therefore
offer no inducement for their manufacture.
  I. This-salt is most conveniently formed by dis-
solving moist hydrated peroxide  of iron in liquid
citric  acid, (pure,)  assisting the solution by heat,
 and then bringing it to a perfectly neutral state by
 the addition of a little sesquicarbonate of ammonia.
 It must  then be filtered, cooled, and  spread very
 thinly on warm  sheets of  glass to dry, which it
,will rapidly do, and may then be easily detached
 from the glass, in thin scales, or lamellas, of great
 brilliancy and  beauty.  Only a gentle heat must
 be employed, not  exceeding that of a water-bath.
 This is  the  mystery of producing  those beautiful
 transparent ruby-colored scales which are so much
 admired.
   II.  Competition  in the sale of this article has in-
 duced the  manufacturer  to adopt  a cheaper for-
 mula  than that originally published by Beral and
 employed  by many houses.  It is  now generally
 prepared by placing together, for some days, in a
 warm situation, a mixture of iron, filings, and citric
 acid in powder, with barely sufficient water to co-
 ver them, occasionally stirring and replacing  the
 water as it evaporates.  A saturated solution is
 made in distilled water, there being previously  ad-
 ded more citric acid, (about half the weight of  the
 acid first used,) if required  ; it is the.    eutralized
 with liq. ammon. fort,  (about 1^ oz. of liquor of am-
 monia, sp. gr. -882, to  every gallon of  the  solution
 of sp.  gr. 1-025,) and concentrated by evaporation:
 the  same plan  mentioned above is then followed,
 to complete the process.  The first part of this pro-
 cess produces a salt of the protoxide of iron, which
 is afterwards converted, by exposure to  the atmo-
 sphere, into  a citrate of the  magnetic oxide, and
 lastly into citrate of peroxide of iron.
   Remarks. This beautiful salt is of a rich ruby
 color, and may be obtained  under the form of glis-
 tening transparent scales, very soluble  in aqueous
 menstrua, while its solution  is not so easily decom-
 posed as that of  many other salts of iron.  It is
 ntarly tasteless, and highly deliquescent. The  ab-
 surd statements  put forth  in advertisements  re-
 specting this preparation being compatible with the
 volatile  and fixed  alkalis  and their  carbonates,
 &c, I find to  be ipcorrect;  for on adding some
 liquor potassas  to a solution of this salt, it imme-
 diately became turbid, exhaled ammonia in large
 quantities, and deposited oxide of iron. I found the
 same take  place with the  carbonate ; and no doubt,
 had I extended the  experiments to the other arti-
 cles mentioned as  compatible, I should  have met
 with another similar result.  It is doubtful whether
 this article has not obtained a larger sale from its
 pleasing  appearance, than from its medicinal vir-
 tues.  I  know  several parties who  have prepared
 this  salt  in lumps  or  powder, by simple evapora-
 tion of the solution to dryness, who have been un-
 able to  sell it under that form, even  at a lower
 price.
  M. Beral, in his directions for the preparatiori of
 this  salt, directs  a platina  capsule to  be used, as
 well as  attention to other  minutias, which I find
 quite unessential  to  the success of the  operation.
 Glass, Wedgewood ware, or even metallic vessels,
 may be employed;  the former, however, are pref-
 erable.   I  find  that  boiling water  will dissolve
 about twice its  weight  of citric acid, and retain 4■»
 of this quantity in solution when cold, and that it
takes  rather more than twice the weight of the
citric acid,  in most hydrated  protoxide of iron, to
produce saturation.
  We may, therefore,  with  great advantage, em- 
CIT                    198                     CIT
ploy the following formula, which contains nearly
the proportions recommended by Beral, but which
has the advantage of employing the protoxide for
the peroxide, and thus saving the nitric acid neces-
sary to form the latter.
   Crystals of citric acid,   .            1 part.
   Boiling distilled water,   .         .   2 do.
   Dissolve;  add
   Moist hydrated protoxide of iron,   .   2 J  do.
   Continue the heat until  the acid is saturated,
then add ammonia q. s.   Filter, &c.
   It is better to use more oxide than the acid will
dissolve, as the remainder may be employed in a
future operation.  Less water may  be used, or
even  a larger quantity  than that mentioned; but
in the first case, the liquid will become difficult to
filter—in the latter, it  will require  more evap-
oration.
   CITRATE  OF  IROx\.  Syn. Citrate  of
Peroxide of Iron.   Percitrate of Iron.  Prep.
As the last, omitting the ammonia.   It resembles
the ammonio-citrate, but  is only  slightly soluble
in water.
   CITRATE  OF  PROTOXIDE  OF IRON.
Syn.  Protocitrate of Iron.  Prep.  This salt is
easily formed by digesting iron filings  or wire in
liquid citric acid.   It presents the appearance of a
white powder, nearly insoluble in water, and rap-
idly passing  to a  higher state of  oxidation under
the influence of light, damp, or warmth, or  mere
exposure to the air  under most ordinary circum-
stances.   Its taste is very metallic, and  it is best
exhibited under the form of pills, mixed with  gum
and simp, or sirup alone, to prevent it  from being
prematurely decomposed.
   CITRATE  OF  MAGNETIC OXIDE OF
IRON.  Prepared  from the  magnetic  oxide  of
iron,  in  the  same way as the last   It may  be
formed  into  beautiful transparent  scales, or  la-
mella?,  in  a similar manner to  the  ammonio-
citrate.   Its  solution is of  a  lively green color,
permanent in the air, but possessing  an intensely
ferruginous taste.  For this reason, this citrate can
only be exhibited in pills or sirup.
   CITRIC ACID.  Syn.  White Citric Acid.
Concrete Acid of Lemons. Crystallized ditto.
Acid citrique,  (Fr.)   Citronensaure,  (Ger.)
An acid peculiar to the vegetable kingdom, and
found in the juices of several kinds of fruit, espe-
cially those of the genus citrus.
   The process of its manufacture consists in sep-
arating it from the mucilage, sugar,  and  other
foreign matter with which it is combined.
   Prep. Each of  the  British Colleges gives a
formula for the preparation of citric acid.
   I. (Acidum citricum, P. L.)   Take  of lemon
juice 4 pints; prepared  chalk ^'vss;  diluted sul-
phuric  acid  f %xxviiss;  distilled   water 2  pints.
Add  the  chalk by  degrees to the lemon juice,
heated, and  mix; set by,  that the powder  may
precipitate; afterwards  pour off  the  supernatant
liquor   Wash  the citrate of lime  frequently with
warm water; then pour upon it  the  diluted sul-
phuric acid and the distilled water, and boil for 15
minutes; press the liquor strongly  through a  linen
cloth,  and filter  it.  Evaporate the filtered liquor
with a gentle heat, and  set it aside that crystals
may form.  To obtain the  crystals pure, dissolve
them in water  a second and a third time;  filter
each solution, evaporate, and set it apart to crys-
tallize.   The process of the Dublin  and Edinburgh
Colleges is similar, but the latter orders the washed
citrate of lime to be squeezed in a  powerful press,
and also  the  filtered solution of citric acid to  be
tested with nitrate of baryta, and if " the precipi-
tate is not nearly all soluble  in nitric acid, edd a
little citrate of lime to the whole liquor, till it stand
this test."
  Remarks.  The preparation of citric  acid has be-
come an  important branch of chemical manufac-
ture, from the large consumption of this article in
various  operations in the arts.  In  conducting this
process, some  .little expertness and  care are neces-
sary to  ensure success.   The  chalk  employed
should be dry, and in  fine powder, and be added
to the juice until  it be perfectly neutralized, and
the  quantity  consumed must be  exactly noted.
The precipitated  citrate  of  lime should  be  well
washed,  and the sulphuric acid  diluted with 6 or
8 times its weight of water,  poured upon  it while
still warm,  and thoroughly  mixed with it.   The
agitation  must be occasionally  renewed for  8  or
10 hours, when the dilute citric acid must be poured
off, and the residuum of sulphate of lime thorough-
ly washed with warm  water, and the  washings
added to the dilute acid.  The latter must then  be
poured off from the impurities that may have  been
deposited, and evaporated in  a leaden boiler,  over
the naked fire, until it acquires the  gravity of  1*13,
when the process must be continued by steam  heat
until  a  pellicle appears upon the  surface.   This
part of  the process requires  great attention  and
judgment, as, if not properly conducted,  the whole
batch may be carbonized and spoiled.
  The proper time for withdrawing the heat is in-
dicated by the liquid assuming a sirupy aspect, and
by  a film or pellicle  appearing,  first  in small
patches,   and  then  gradually creeping over the
whole  surface.   At this  point  the  evaporation
must  be  stopped,  and  the  concentrated  solution
emptied into warm and clean crystallizing vessels,
set  in a  dry  apartment, where the thermometer
does not  fall  below temperate.   At the end  of 4
days the  crystals will be ready to remove from the
pans, when they must  be  well  drained, redissolv-
ed  in as  little water as possible, and  after being
allowed to stand for a few hours to deposite impuri-
ties, again  evaporated and   crystallized.  When
the process has been  well managed,  the acid  of
the second  crystallization will usually  be  suffi-
ciently pure;  but if this be not the case, a third,
or even a fourth crystallization must be  had re-
course to.  The mother liquors from  the several
pans are  collected together,  and, by  evaporation,
yield  a  second or  third crop of crystals.  Citric
acid crystallizes with great ease, but in some cases,
where all the citrate of  lime has not undergone de-
composition by the sulphuric  acid,  a little of  that
salt is taken up by the  free citric acid, and mate-
rially obstructs  the  crystallization.  This is  best
avoided by  exactly apportioning the  quantity  of
the sulphuric  acid  to that of the chalk used, al-
ways remembering  that it requires a  quantity of
liquid sulphuric acid, containing exactly 40 parts
of dry acid, to decompose 50 parts  of carbonate of
lime.  Commercial sulphuric  acid is usually of the
sp.  gr. of 1-845, it  will therefore take exactly  49
lbs. of this acid for 50 lbs. of chalk. 
CIT                      199                    CLA
  Sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1-8418 contains exactly
80  per  cent of real acid;  it  is,  consequently, a
very convenient  way to use  it of this strength,
when the quantity of chalk and acid may be ex-
actly the same.   In practice  it is found that a
very slight  excess of sulphuric acid is better than
leaving  any citrate of lime  undecomposed.  This
excess  must,  however,  be very  trifling.  This
may be  ascertained by  nitrate of  barytes, which
will  give a white  precipitate,  insoluble in nitric
acid if oil of vitriol be present.  The first crop of
crystals is called " brown citric acid," and is much
used by the  calico  printers.   Sometimes  a  little
nitric acid  is added to the solution of the  colored
crystals, for the purpose of whitening them.  Good
lemon-juice yields fully 5$ of lemon acid,  or 2
gallons  yield about  1 lb. of crystals.  If the im-
ported citrate of lime be used," a  given quantity
must be heated to redness,  and  then  weighed,
when the  per  centage  of  limt present  will  be
ascertained ;  every  28 lbs.  of which will  require
49 lbs. of sulphuric  acid of 1-845,  (or a quantity
containing  exactly  40  parts  of dry  acid,) for its
complete decomposition.
  Prop., Uses,  tyc.  Form,  rhomboidal  prisms;
clear, colorless, odorless,  sour, and  deliquescent in
a moist atmosphere.  It is  an agreeable acid, at
once cooling  and  antiseptic.  It is much  used in
medicine as  a  substitute for  lemon  juice, and to
form effervescing draughts,  citrates, &c.
    20 grs. commercial citric acid in crystals,
                 are equivalent to
   .------------*-----------,
   29 grs. crystals of bicarbonate of potassa;
   24 grs. of commercial carbonate of do.;
   17   "   sesquicarbonate of ammonia;
   41   "   crystals of carbonate of soda ;
   24   "   commercial sesquicarbonate of soda.
   The bicarbonate of  potassa  is that generally
 used for  making saline draughts with citric acid,
 and flavored with tincture of orange peel and sim-
 ple  sirup,  or sirup of orange  peel alone,  forms  a
 most delicious effervescing beverage.
   Pur. and Tests.  Citric acid is frequently adul-
 terated with  tartaric  acid.  This may be easily
 detected by dissolving a little in a small quantity
 of water, and adding cautiously a solution of car-
 bonate of  potash, taking care  that the acid be in
 excess. ' If any  tartaric acid  be  present,  a white
 precipitate of cream of tartar will be formed.  The
 London College  states  that "it is entirely soluble
 in water,  and what  is thrown down by acetate of
 lead from  this solution, is entirely soluble in dilute
 nitric acid.  No  salt of potassa,  except the tar-
 trate, yields a precipitate with  the aqueous solu-
 tion.   It is entirely destroyed  by heat."   (P. L.)
 " When a few drops of a solution of citric acid are
 added to lime water, a clear liquid results,  which,
 when heated, deposites a white powder, soluble in
 acids without effervescence." (Liebig.)
  CITRONELLE.   Syn.  Eau  de  Barbades.
 Prep.  I. Fresh  orange  peel 2 oz.;  fresh lemon
peel 4 oz.; cloves  4 drachm; corianders and cinna-
mon, of each 1 drachm ; proof spirit 4 pints.  Di-
gest for 10 days,  then add water 1  quart, and dis-
til 4 gallon.  To  the rectified  cordial add white
sugar 2 lbs.
  II. Add of essence of orange 4 drachm ; essence
 of lemon 1 drachm; oil of cloves and cassia, of
 each 10 drops; oil of coriander 20 drops to 5 pints
 of spirit—at 58 o. p. Agitate until dissolved, then
 add distilled or  clear soft water 3 pints; well mix,
 and if the liquor  be not clear, shake it up with a
 spoonful of magnesia, and filter it through blotting
 paper,  placed on a  funnel; when it has all run
 through and is  clear, add a sufficient quantity of
 sugar.
   Remarks. This last form does not require distil-
 lation.
   CITRONS.  The fruit of the  citron  tree (the
 citrus medica) is acidulous, antiseptic, and antiscor-
 butic ;  it excites  the appetite  and stops vomiting.
 Mixed with cordials, it is used as an antidote to
 the manchineel poison.  The rind of the fruit is
 odorous, aromatic,  and tonic, and yields the es-
 sence de cedrat, so much esteemed by the liqueur-
 ist and perfumer.  The fragrant essence  of the
 rind may be easily obtained by the following sim-
 ple process:—After'cleaning off any speck in the
 outer rind  of the fruit, break off a large  piece of
 loaf sugar,  and  rub the citron on it till the yellow
 rind is completely absorbed.  Those parts of the
 sugar which are impregnated with the essence are,
 from time  to time, to be cut  away with a knife,
 and put into an earthen dish.   The whole being
 thus taken  off, the sugared essence is to be closely
 pressed, and put  by in pots,  where it is to be
 squeezed down  hard; have a bladder over the pa-
 per by which it  is covered, and tied tightly up.  It
 is at any time fit  for use, and will keep for many
 years.  Exactly in the  same manner may be ob-
 tained and  preserved the essences of the rinds of
 Seville oranges, lemons, bergamots, &c.
   CITRON PEEL, CANDIED.   Prep. Soak
 the  peels  in water, which must be frequently
 changed, until  the  bitterness  is  extracted, then
 drain and place them in sirup, until  they become
 soft and transparent; the strength of the sirup be-
 ing kept up by boiling it occasionally with fresh
 sugar.  When they are taken out, they should be
 drained and placed on a hair sieve to dry, in a dry
 and warm situation.
   Use.  Stomachic; much used  as a sweetmeat,
 and by the confectioner and pastry-cook.
   CIVET.   Syn.  Zibethum.   A  perfume,  ob-
 tained from the civet  cat, a fierce  carnivorous
 quadruped, somewhat resenfbling a fox, found in
 China, and the East and West Indies.  " Several
 of these animals have been brought into Holland,
 and afford a considerable branch of commerce, es-
 pecially at Amsterdam.   The civet is squeezed out
 in summer every other day, in winter twice a week ;
 the quantity procured at once is from 2 scruples to
 1 drachm or more.   The juice  thus  collected is
 much smoother  and  finer than  that which the an-
 imal sheds  against trees and  stones in its native
 climate."  (Ure.)    It is frequently  adulterated
 with spermaceti and butter, and  a  similar sub-
stance to civet, but of a darker  color, and obtained
from the polecat, is frequently mixed with it.
  CLAIRET.  Syn. Rossalis des six  graines.
Prep. Aniseed,  fennel seed, coriander seed, cara-
way seed, dill seed, and  seeds of daucus creticus,
of each  1 oz.; bruise them in a  clean mortar, then
steep^them in 4  a gallon of proof spirit for 1 week,
strain, and add 1 lb. of loaf sugar.
  CLARET RAGS.  Syn. Tournesol en Dra- 
CLE
200
CLd
peau.  Bezetta Ccerulea.   Prep.  I. Color pieces
of clean linen with  auvergne or ground  archel,
(lichen parellus.)
  II. Dip pieces of clean linen  into the juice of
mulberries, blood-red grapes, lees of red wine,  &c.
  Use. To color jellies and confectionary, and the
rind of cheeses.
  CLARIFICATION.  This word (from clarus,
clear,  and facio, I make) means,  properly, any
process of freeing a fluid from heterogeneous mat-
ter, and thus includes  filtration.   In its commoner
sense, however, it is applied to the process of clear-
ing liquids by the  addition of some  substance that
either inviscates the feculous  matter, and subsides
with it to the bottom, or, that induces such  a change
in its nature or bulk, that it subsides by its own
density, in each case leaving the  liquor transparent
Albanum, gelatin,  acids, certain salts, blood, lime,
plaster of Paris, alum, heat, alcohol, &-c, serve in
many  cases for this purpose.  The first is used
under the form of white of egg, for the clarification
of sirups, as  it combines with the liquid when cold,
but on the application of  heat, rapidly coagulates
and rises to  the surface,  carrying  the impurities
with it, forming a  scum which  is easily removed
with a skimmer.   It is also much  used for fining
wines and liqueurs, particularly  the red wines and
more limpid cordials.   Gelatin, under the form of
isinglass, dissolved in water, or weak vinegar, is
used to fine white wines,  beer,  cider, and similar
liquors, that contain a sufficient quantity of either
spirit or astringency (tannin)  to  induce its precipi-
tation.  Sulphuric acid is frequently added to weak
liquors for a similar purpose,  either alone, or after
the addition of white  of egg, or gelatin, both of
which it rapidly throws down in an insoluble form.
A pernicious practice  exists among  some unprinci-
pled parties, of using certain  salts of lead and  pot-
ash to clear their  liquors,  especially those that are
expected to sparkle in the glass, as cordial,  gin,
&c.  For this  purpose, a  little  sugar of  lead, dis-
solved in  water, is first mixed  up  with  the fluid,
and afterwards about  half its weight of sulphate of
potash, also dissolved in water, is added, and the
liquor  is again roused up.  By standing, the  sul-
phate of lead, formed  by this mixture, subsides, and
leaves the liquor clear.  Blood is used in the same
way as isinglass or white  of eggs, for fining red
wines, beer, and porter.  Lime,  alum, alcohol, and
heat, act by curdling or coagulating  the feculen-
cies, and thus, by increasing their  density,  induce
their subsidence.   Plaster of  Paris  acts partly like
the  above, and partly  like albumine, or  gelatin,
by  enveloping and forcing  down  the suspended
matter.  Sand is  often sifted over liquors  for the
simple purpose of acting by its gravity, but  appears
to be quite useless.  The juices of plants are clari-
fied by heat, which coagulates the albumine they
contain.  Marl, or clay, is frequently used to clear
cider and perry.   A strip of isinglass is generally
employed  to clarify coffee.  (See  Wines,  Brew-
ing, Cordial, Coffee, Infusion.)
   CLEANING.  The best way to clean a house is
to  keep it dean by a daily attention to small things,
and not allow  it to get into such a state of dirtiness
and  disorder  as  to  require great and periodical
 cleanings.   Some mistresses, and  also  some ser-
 vants, seem to have  an  idea that a house should
 undergo " regular cleanings," or great washing and
scrubbing matches once every three or six months,
on which occasions the house is turned almost in-
side out, and made most  uncomfortable.   All this
is bad economy, and indicates general slovenliness
of habits.  (Chambers.)
  CLEAR-STARCHING.   This is practised as
follows:  " Rinse  the  articles in three waters, dry
them, and dip them in a thick starch, previously
strained  through muslin; squeeze  them, shake
them gently, and again hang them up to dry ; and
when dry, dip them twice or thrice in clear water,
squeeze them, spread  them on a linen  cloth, roll
them up in it, and let them lie#an hour before iron-
ing them.  Some persons put sugar into the starch
to prevent it  sticking while ironing, and others stir
the starch with a candle to effect the same  end ;
we object to  these practices as injurious to the ar-
ticle starched, or as very nauseous.  The best plan
to prevent sticking is to make the starch well, and
to have the irons quite clean and highly polish*  ' "
  CLOTH,  CLEANING  AND   SCOUUIN,
OF.  The common method of cleaning cloth is  by
beating  and brushing,  unless  when very  dirty,
when it undergoes the operation of scouring.  This
is best done on the small scale, as for articles of
wearing apparel,  &c., by dissolving a  little curd
soap in water, and, after mixing it with a little ox-
gall, to touch over all the spots of grease, dirt, &c,
with it, and to rub them well with a  stiff brush un-
til they are removed, after which the article may
be  well rubbed  all over with  a brush or sponge
dipped  into  some warm water, to which  the pre-
vious mixture and a little more ox-gall has been
added.   When this has been properly done, it only
remains to thoroughly rinse  the  article in  clean
water until the latter passes off uncolored, when it
must be hung up to dry.  For dark-colored cloths
the common practice  is to add some fuller's earth
to the  mixture  of soap and  gall.   When nearly
dry, the nap should be laid  right, and the  article
carefully pressed, after which a brush, moistened
with  a drop  or two of olive  oil, should be  several
times passed over  it, which  will give it a superior
finish.  Cloth may also be cleaned in the dry way
as follows:—First, remove the spots as above, and,
when the parts have dried, strew clean damp sand
over  it, and  beat it in with a brush, after  which
brush the article with a hard brush, when the sand
will readily come out, and bring  the dirt with it
Black  cloth which is very rusty, should receive a
coat of reviver after drying, and be  hung up until
the next day, when it may be pressed and finished
off as before.  Scarlet cloth requires considerable
caution.  After  being thoroughly rinsed,  it should
be repeatedly passed through cold spring water, to
which a tablespoonful or two of solution of tin has
been added?  If much faded, it should be  dipped
in  a scarlet dye-bath.  Buff  cloth is  generally
 cleaned by  covering it  with a paste made with
 pipe-clay and water,  which,  when  dry, is  rubbed
 and brushed ofE
   Fruit spots and similar stains  may frequently
 be removed by holding the part  over a  common
 brimstone match,  lighted, or by water acidulated
 with a little salt of lemons, oxalic or muriatic acid ;
 but care must be taken not to  apply this liquid to
 colors that it will injure.
    The stains of acids may be removed by wash-
 ing the  part with a little spirits of hartshorn or 
CLO                    201                    COB
 liquid ammonia ; those of alkalis, by water acidu-
 lated with lemon juice or tartaric acid.
   Grease spots may generally be taken out by
 means of a little soft soap ; or, if the color be deli-
 cate,  or a false dye, a little  ox-gall or curd soap
 will be better.  These must be used as above de-
 scribed   Stains of painters' oils, wax, paints, or
 varnishei, will not usually yield to the above plan;
 in these cases, a simple way  is to soak the  part in
 spirits of turpentine,  and, when softened,  to wash
 it off with the same fluid.  Ether or essential  oil
 of lemons will also quickly remove these spots, but
 is too expensive for general use.
   CLOTH, INCOMBUSTIBLE.  Th - s made
 of fibres of asbestos by  weaving.  It  will  bear a
 considerable heat without injury.  Cotton and linen
 fabrics prepared with a solution of sal ammoniac,
 or phosphate of ammonia, may be placed in contact
 with  ignited bodies without  danger.   They  will
 carbonize,  but not inflame.   Solutions of alum,
 sea salt, &.c, have been used for  the  same pur-
 pose.   It is by a  knowledge of this property of
 culinary salt, that jugglers are enabled to perform
 the common  trick of burning a  thread of  cotton
 while supporting a ring or a  key, without the lat-
 ter falling to  the ground.  The  cotton is  reduced
 to a cinder, but, from the  action  of the  salt, its
 fibres still  retain  sufficient tenacity to support a
 light weight
   CLOTH,  RENOVATION OF.   The article
 undergoes the process of scouring before described,
 and, after being well rinsed and drained, it  is put
 on a board, and the  threadbare parts rubbed with
 a half-worn  hatter's card, filled with flocks, or
 with  a teazle  or a prickly thistle, until a nap  is
 raised.  It is next  hung up to dry, the  nap laid the
 right way with a  hard brush, and finished as be-
 fore.  When the cloth is  much faded, it is usual to
 give it a " dip," as it is called, or to pass it through
 a dve-bath, to freshen up the color. «
   CLOTHES, BRUSHING AND  PRESER-
 VATION  OF.  If  very dusty, hang  them  on  a
 horse  or line,  and  beat them with a  cane; then
 lay them on a clean board or table, and well brush
 them, first  with a stiff brush, to remove the spots
 of mud and the coarsest of the dirt, and next with
 a softer one, to remove the dust and to lay the nap
 properly.  If clothes be -wet and spotted with dirt,
 dry them before brushing,  and then rub  out the
 spots with the hands.   The hard brush should be
 used as little as possible, and then with a light hand,
 as it will, if roughly and constantly employed, soon
 render the cloth threadbare.  Should there be spots
 of tallow-grease on  the  clothes,  take it off with
 the nail, or, if that  cannot be done, have  a hot
 iron with some thick browh  paper, lay the  paper
 on the part  where the grease  is, then put the iron
 upon  the spot; if  the  grease comes through the
 paper, put on another piece, till it ceases to soil it.
  After the clothes  are  brushed,  they should be
 hung up in a clean  place, free from dust, if want-
 ed for  immediate use ; but if intended to  remain
 unused for some time, they should be placed away
 on the shelves of the clothes' closet or wardrobe.
 The latter should always  be in the driest situation
possible, as  if the clothes be exposed to the least
damp,  they not only acquire an unpleasant smell,
but gradually become rotten.
  CLOVES.   The  flower buds  of the eugenia
 caryophyllata, dried and smoked.  It is a common
 practice to adulterate this spice in the same man-
 ner as cinchona bark.   Cloves from which the oil
 has been distilled are dried and rubbed between
 the hands, previously moistened with a little sweet
 oil, to brighten their color, after which they are
 mixed up with fresh spice for sale.
   COACH  ACCIDENTS.   " Should the horses
 run off,  in defiance of all  restraint,  while you are
 in  a coach, sit perfectly still,  and in  anticipation
 of  the possible overturn, keep  your legs and arms
 from straggling.  Sit easily and compactly, so that,
 when upset, you will gently roll over in  the direc-
 tion you are  thrown. We have seen  ladies in these
 circumstances scream wildly, and throw their arms
 out of  the windows, thus  exposing themselves  to
 the chance of broken limbs.  If run away with  in
 a gig, either sit still collectedly*, or drop out at the
 back, so as  to fall  on your hands.   Never jump
 from a rapidly-moving vehicle, unless (supposing it
 impossible to slip down behind) you see a precipice
 in  front, in which case any risk of personal dam-
 age is preferable to remaining still.   The Duke of
 Orleans lost his life by neglecting these simple pre-
 cautions."
    COAK.   Syn. Coke.   Charred Coal.  Min-
 eral Charcoal.  Carbonized coal.  The princi-
 ple of its manufacture is similar to that of charcoal.
 There are three varieties of coak, viz.
    I.  (Kiln-made coak.  Stifled coak.)  Made by
 burning the  coal in a pile, kiln,  or  stove.  It has
 a dull black color, and produces  an intense heat
 when used as fuel.   The coal  is frequently burnt
 in  a series of shallow stoves, with  as little access
 of  air as will support  the combustion,  and the
 smoke conducted through proper horizontal tun-
 nels to  a capacious  brick  chamber, 100 yards or
 more in  length, kept  as  cool as  possible by a
 stream of water passing over its roof, or by a shal-
 low pond resting on it.  Here the bituminous va-
 pors are condensed in the  form of tar, along with
 a considerable quantity of  crude ammoniacal salt.
 Common coal yields about 3§ of tar when treated
 in this way,  but some strong bituminous coal will
 give J}- or | of its weight.   This tar, when inspis-
 sated, gives 75§ of pitch, and 20 to 24§ of a crude
 species  of naphtha,  that is excellent for out-door
 painting.  The ammonia is made into sal ammo-
 niac.    The  screenings,  or dust-coal,  separated
 from the better kinds of bituminous coal, is the sort
 commonly used for making coak in ovens.
  II. (Gas coak. Distilled coak.)  The cinder left
 in the retorts after the gas has "been  distilled off
 Its  color is gray, and it only produces a weak heat
 in burning, not sufficient to smelt iron.
  III. (Slate coak.  Carbon mineral.)   From bi-
 tuminous  slate, burned in  covered iron pots, in  a
 similar way to that adopted for making bone-black
 Also burnt in piles.   It is black and  friable.  Used
 to clarify liquids, but vastly inferior to bone-black,
 and does not  abstract the lime from sirups.
  COBALT.  Syn. Regulus of Cobalt. A met-
 al discovered by Brandt, in 1733.  It is  found  in
 ores, associated with arsenic and other rnetals, and
 is constantly  present in meteoric iron.
  Prep.  Dissolve oxide of cobalt in muriatic acid,
 and pass sulphureted hydrogen gas  through the
solution, until all the arsenic is thrown down ; filter,
and boil with a little  nitric  acid, then add  an ex- 
COB                     202                    COC
cess of carbonate of potassa,  and digest the pre-
cipitate in a solution of oxalic  acid to remove any
oxide of iron; wash and  dry the  residuum, which
is  the pure oxalate, and expose it to heat, either
in a retort  or crucible, from which the  air is ex-
cluded, when pure metallic  cobalt will be  ob-
tained. .
   II. Mix  equal parts of oxide of cobalt and soft
soap, and expose them to a violent heat in a cov-
ered crucible.
   III. Roast Cornish cobalt ore, then  powder it,
and smelt it with twice its weight of soft soap.
   Remarks.  Cobalt is seldom employed  in  the
metallic state, from the great difficulty of reducing
its  ores, but its oxide is largely used in the  arts.
It has been said to form three compounrie  with
oxygen, but only one—the  black  or peroxide—is
employed.  It forms  salts with the  acids, which
are  interesting from the remarkable  changes  of
color which they exhibit.   The sulphate is formed
by boiling sulphuric acid  on the metal,  or by dis-
solving  the  oxide in the  acid.  It forms reddish
crystals, soluble in 24 parts of water.  The nitrate,
made in a similar way, forms deliquescent crystals.
The muriate may be made by dissolving the oxide
41 muriatic acid; the neutral solution is  blue when
rjoncentrated, and red*»when diluted; the addition
:f a little acid turns it green.  Dissolved in water,
t forms a sympathetic ink, the traces of  which be-
some blue when heated, but if the salt be contam-
inated with iron, they become  green.   (Klaproth.)
The  addition  of a  little  nitrate of copper to the
above solution, forms a sympathetic ink, which  by
heat gives a  rich greenish-yellow color.  (Ure.)
The  addition of a very little common salt  makes
the traces disappear with greater rapidity,  on the
withdrawal of the  heat.  The acetate  forms  an
ink which  turns blue when  heated.  The oxalate
and phosphate may be  formed by digesting the
oxide in a solution of the acid, or by double decom-
position. The  latter  salt is. an  insoluble  purple
powder, which, when heated along with  8 times its
weight of gelatinous alumina, produces a blue pig-
ment, almost  equal  in  beauty to ultramarine.
With sulphur cobalt unites, forming a  sulphuret,
and with phosphorus a phosphuret.
   Char, and  Tests. The  neutral salts of cobalt
form red solutions,  turning  green  on the addition
of an excess of the acids, and giving a blue-colored
precipitate  with the alkalis, unless arsenic be  pres-
ent, when  the color will be brown.   Their  solu-
tions are unaffected by sulphureted hydrogen, but
hydro-sulphuret of ammonia throws down a black
powder, soluble in an excess of the precipitant  If
the  solution contain arsenic, a yellow  powder is
first precipitated, after which the filtered fluid will
remain unaffected  by sulphureted hydrogen gas.
Tincture of galls gives a yellowish-white precipi-
tate, and the solution of oxalic acid a red one.
   COBALT, OXIDE OF.  Syn. Black Oxide
of Cobalt.   Cobalt Black.  Prep.  Trf a solution
of muriate of cobalt, add  another of carbonate of
potassa as long as it produces a precipitate ; filter,
wash, and  dry.              .
   II. Boil  powdered bright-white cobalt ore (from
Cornwall)  in nitric  acid;  dilute with a large
quantity of water, and add a solution of carbonate
of potassa, very gradually,  until  the clear liquor,
after the impurities  have settled, becomes of a rose
color: then add the potash water as long as a pre
cipitate falls ; wash and dry.
  Use. To make blue colors  for painters, enamel-
lers, and potters.   In medicine it has occasionally
been used as a remedy for rheumatism.
  COCCULUS INDICUS.   The fruit of a shrub
(the menispermum  cocculus) which  abounds on
the sandy shores of Malabar, and other parts of tha
East Indies.  It contains about 20 of picrotoxin, a
peculiar  vegetable principle, possessing very poi-
sonous properties.   It also contains menispermine
and paramenispermine.   (Pelletier  and Couerbe.)
A small  portion of this dangerous drug is used by
poachers, and a  still smaller quantity to destroy
vermin, the remaining, and by far the greater part,
being used to adulterate beer and wine.   It forms
a profitable article of trade to the wholesale drug-
gist, who is enabled to sell  it at a high  price to
brewers,  from its being a contraband article.  The
use of cocculus indicus in  brewing is  no secret, as
several writers  have openly recommended its use.
One of these conscientious gentlemen states, that
" it is impossible with pure malt  and i..ps  alone, to
produce a strong-bodied porter ;" he  therefore re-
commends the use of " cocculus indicus, grains of
Paradise, and mix vomica."   (Childe,  on Brewing.)
Another  author, with the most unblushing effront-
ery, actually gives full directions for  its use.  He
orders 3  lbs. of cocculus to be  used  for  every 10
quarters of malt, and adds, " it gives an inebriating
quality, which passes for strength of liquor ; it pre-
vents second  fermentation   in  bottled beer, and
consequently, the bursting of the bottles  in warm
climates."   (Morrice's Treatise on Brewing.)  It
is really disgusting to find that men can so degrade
themselves, as thus publicly to recommend a whole-
sale system of slow  poisoning.   The  conscientious
brewer, who understands the  art  which he pro-
fesses, finds no difficulty in producing "  a strong-
bodied porter"  from malt and  hops alone.  It is
only persons whose cupidity induces them  to reduce
the quantity of malt and hops required for the pro-
duction of good liquor, that encounter  any  difficulty
in so doing.   There  is a penalty of 200/.  upon the
brewer for purchasing or having in his possession
any ingredient for the  adulteration  of beer, and
there is a penalty of 500/. upon the seller of such
ingredients.   Yet, in defiance of these heavy fines,
the trade in these articles is unabated, though car-
ried on  in  a  clandestine manner.   The general
way this is managed, is to pack the  drug in com-
mon  soda barrels, and  to place 3 or 4 inches of
small crystals of Scotch soda at  the bottom and top
of  the cask.   In this  way  the package readily
passes off as a cask of common soda, and even
should it be opened, the alkali would first present
itself to view, and thus satisfy the examiner.  An-
other way commonly adopted, is to form  it into an
extract, known by the name of B. E., or black ex-
tract, which is ostensibly  prepared  for tanners,
but its real destination is the beer cask.  The store
of  a certain druggist, which came under my ex-
amination some short time since, contained an im-
mense number of bags  of this  article ; in  f ict,  it
formed at least one fourth of the entire stock.
  COCIIENILLIN.   Syn.   Cochineal  Red.
Carminium.  Carminia.   Ti nn Carmine.   The
coloring  principle  of cochineal.   The carmine of
commerce consists of cochenillin, combined with a 
COD                    203                     COF
little animal matter  and an acid, from which it
may be nearly purified by  solution  in  liquid  am-
monia,  and precipitations by  acetic acid, mixed
with alcohol.   Cochenillin  may also be prepared
by evaporating a watery infusion of cochineal to
the consistence of  sirup, dissolving this in proof
spirit, filtering,  again evaporating, and dissolving
the residuum in  liquid  ammonia as before.   It is
turned  orange  by acids, and violet by  alkalis.  It
has been obtained under the form of reddish-purple
crystalline grains.
   COCKLE POWDER.   Cockles pulped through
a sieve, made  into  a paste  with flour,  and a  little
salt, and then rolled out into thin pieces and dried.
It is next reduced to powder, sifted, and packed in
well-corked bottles.  Use.  To make sauce, (about
4 oz. to 4 pint.)
   COCOA.   I.  The roasted  husks of the cacao,
or chocolate bean,  reduced to powder by grinding.
   II. The cake left after expressing the  oil  from
the beans.
   COCOA, PATENT.   The cacao nut roasted
and ground, (including the husks.)
   COCOA, FLAKED.   Ground cocoa  strongly
compressed, and flaked with a sharp knife or ma-
chine.
   COCOA, SOLUBLE.   Cocoa ground to a very
fine powder,  and  mixed with sugar.  It  is  thus
rendered miscible with boiling  water.
   Remarks. Cocoa  forms  a very wholesome  bev-
erage,  especially  for  breakfast.   Much of  the
cheap  stuff sold under this name is very inferior,
being made with  damaged nuts that have  been
pressed for the oil,  mixed with potato flour, mutton
suet, &c.  Trash of this kind is frequently ticketed
in the  shop windows of London at 6d.  to 8d. a
pound.   (See Chocolate.)   The nut of the palma
cocos is commonly confounded with that of the theo-
broma  cacao.   The latter is  the small chocolate
bean, while the former is the large nut, filled with
a refreshing milky  juice.
   COD.  This  excellent fish is in season from the
beginning of October to the end of April.  It should"
be chosen by the redness of the gills, freshness of
the  eyes, and  the  whiteness and firmness of the
flesh.   The best fish are very thick about the neck.
It is generally  cooked by boiling, but is sometimes
baked,  or cut into slices and broiled or fried. Cod's
head and shoulders, with oyster sauce, is a favorite
dish.   Shrimp  and anchovy sauce are also  good
additions.  The flesh of the cod is often  split and
dried, (dried cod,) or salted.  The fish so largely
imported  from Newfoundland are cod, beheaded,
split open, gutted and salted.   They are caught by
millions on the " Grand  Bank."  Cod-sounds are
pickled  in brine and also made into isinglass.   The
liver is boiled for its  oil, and the spawn made into
caviare.
   CODEIA.   Syn.  Codeine.   An alkaloid  dis-
covered by Robiquet  associated with morphia.
   Prep. Dissolve  commercial  hydro-chlorate of
morphia in water, precipitate with ammonia, evap-
orate  and  crystallize.   The product  is a double
salt of morphia and  codeine, and  when  digested
with warm liquor of  potassa gives up its morphia.
It may  be further purified by solution in ether, and
by the addition of a little water  and spontaneous
evaporation may be obtained quite  pure and  in a
erysti lline state.
  Prop. Soluble in alcohol, ether, and water.  Its
solution  in the latter, by slow evaporation, yields
large transparent octohedrons.  With the acids it
forms crystallizable salts.  These possess the sin-
gular property of producing a general and v»lent
itching  of the surface of the body when adminis-
tered internally.  The same  symptoms frequently
follow the exhibition of opium and muriate of mor-
phia, and are referred to the  presence of a salt of
codcia.   (Gregory.)   The commercial muriate fre-
quently contains 3 to 4§ of codeia.
   Char, and Tests. It is distinguished from mor-
phia by not  becoming blue on the addition of the
sesquichloride of iron, nor turning  red with nitric
acid, and by not being  precipitated by ammonia,
when dissolved in muriatic acid and mixed with a
large quantity of water.  TJnlike morphia, it is in-
soluble  in liquor of  potassa and  is soluble in ether.
The salts of codeia may also  be known by tincture
of  galls throwing down a copious precipitate from
their solutions, but this does not occur in the salts
of  morphia.  It may be distinguished from meeo-
nine by its aqueous solution  showing an alkaline
reaction with test paper.
   COFFEE.   The berry  of  tffe  coffasa  Ara-
bica.  II. A decoction or infusion prepared there-
from.
   Qual. Coffee promotes digestion and exhilarates
the spirits, and  when  strong generally  occasions
watchfulness, but in some phlegmatic constitutions
induces sleep.  Drunk in moderation, especially if
combined with sugar and milk, it is perhaps the
most wholesome beverage known.  The  various
qualities that have been ascribed to it by some per-
sons, such as  dispelling  or causing flatulency, re-
moving  dizziness of the  head, attenuating the
blood, causing biliousness, &c, appear to be wholly
imaginary. In a medical point of view it has been
regarded as diuretic, sedative, and  a corrector of
opium.  It should be given as medicine in a strong
infusion, and is best cold.  In spasmodic asthma
it has been  particularly serviceable; and  it has
been recommended in gangrene of  the extremities
arising from hard drinking.  (See Caffein.)
   Pur. The most common adulteration of ground
coffee is chicory, which is added not only to cheap-
en  the  article, but to improve  the flavor of dam-
aged or inferior berries.   This adulteration  may be
readily  detected by shaking a spoonful of the sus-
pected coffee with a wine-glassful of water, when,
if it be pure, it will swim  and scarcely color the
liquid, but if chicory be present, it will sink to the
bottom, and  the  water will  be tinged  of  a deep
red.  Roasted corn is  another common adultera-
tion.  This may be detected by the cold decoction
striking a blue color with tincture of iodine.
  COFFEE CREAM.  Prep.  Add a teacupful
of very clear strong  coffee to 1 pint each of clarified
calf's feet jelly and good  cream ;  sweeten with
lump sugar, give  it one  boil  up, and pour  it into
shapes or glasses, when nearly cool.  The calf's
feet jelly should be thick enough to render the
whole lightly solid but  not stiff.
  COFFEE DROPS.  Prep. Make an infusion
with 1 oz. of coffee, clarify it, and moisten 1 lb. of
sugar therewith,  in  the way directed for confec-
tionary drops.
  COFFEE, ESSENCE OF.  A concentrated
infusion of coffee prepared by percolation, to whicn 
COF                     204                    COF
is  added about 5g of perfectly tasteless rectified
spirit of wine.
  COFFEE  FOR  ICING.   Syn. Shorbet au
Cafe.   Cream for icing 1 quart;  strong infusion
of coffee a small teacupful; sugar 2 oz.; yelks of
4 eggs.   Mix, and ice as wanted.
   COFFEE  FOR THE  TABLE.  To produce
the beverage called coffee, in  perfection, it is ne-
cessary to  employ the  best materials in its  manu-
facture.  The finest kind of coffee is  that called
mocha, and should be used when a very fine flavor
is desired;  but for common use, the better sorts of
British  plantation coffee may be employed.  The
berries  should be  carefully roasted by a gradual
application of the  heat, until  the  aroma  be well
developed,  and the toughness destroyed.   If too
much heat be used, the volatile and aromatic p'rop-
erties of the coffee will be  injured and  the flavor
inferior ; while, on the other hand, if the berries be
too little roasted,  they will produce  a beverage
with a raw, green taste, very liable to induce sick-
ness and vomiting.  Properly roasted coffee should
have a  lively chocolate brown  color, and  should
not have lost more than 18§ of its weight by the
process.  If the loss exeeds 20§ the flavor will be
materially injured.  As soon as roasted, the cof-
fee should  be pla*ced in a very dry situation, the
drier the better, and the sooner it is consumed the
finer will be the flavor, as it powerfully absorbs  a
certain  amount of moisture from the atmosphere by
reason of its hygrometric power. This arises from
the presence of a newly-discovered principle called
assamar.  (Reichenbach.)  The berries should not
be ground  until a few minutes  before being made
into liquid coffee, for the same  reason, and should
more be reduced to powder at once than is wanted
for immediate use, the surplus portion  should be
kept in a tin canister or glass bottle.
   The shape or description  of  the  coffee-pot ap-
pears of little consequence, though one furnished
with a percolator or strainer,  that will permit  a
moderately rapid filtration, is  perhaps preferable.
At least 1 oz. of coffee should be used to make  4
common sized coffee-cupfuls, and if wanted strong,
this quantity should be doubled.  The  prevailing
fault of the coffee  made in England, arises from
using too little of the powdered  berry.  The  cof-
fee-pot  should be  heated previously to putting in
the coffee, which may be done by means of a little
boiling  water.  The common  practice of boiling
coffee  is quite unnecessary, for all its flavor and
aroma  is readily extracted by boiling hot water.
Should it, however, be placed upon  the  fire,  it
should  be  only just  simmered for a minute, as
long or violent boiling injures it considerably.  Hot
water is capable of removing all  the soluble aro-
matic  portion  of  coffee,  even at  a  temperature
so low as 195° Fahr.   I have often proved this by
actual experiment with one of Beart's pneumatic
filters, when a fluid, deliriously aromatic and spark-
ling, has been produced,  and the grounds have
only yielded a nauseous bitter flavor and faint co-
lor to fresh water, even when boiling hot.
   When coffee is  prepared in a common pot, the
latter being first made hot, the boiling water should
be poured  over the powder, and  not, as is com-
monly the plan,  put in first.   It  should then be
kept stirred for 4 or 5 minutes, when a cup should
be poured out and returned again, and this opera-
tion  repeated 3 or 4 times, after which, if allowed
to repose for  a few minutes,  it will usually be
fine.
  Coffee is sometimes  clarified, which is done by
adding a shred of isinglass, a small piece of clean
eel or sole-skin, or a spoonful of white of egg.  An
excellent plan, common in France, is to place the
vessel containing the made coffee upon the hearth,
and to sprinkle over its surface a cupful  of  cold
water, which  from its  greater gravity  descends,
and  carries  the  foulness  with it.  Another plan
sometimes  adopted is  to  wrap a cloth, previously
dipped in cold water, round  the coffee-pot.  This
method is commonly practised  by the Arabians in
the neighborhood of Yemen and Moka, and is said
to rapidly clarify the liquor.
  The Parisians,  who are remarkable for the su-
perior  quality of their coffee, generally allow an
ounce  to each large coffee-cupful of water, and
they use the cqffee both newly ground and roast-
ed.   A shred  of saffron, or a little vanilla, is fre-
quently added.  The coffee-pot called a grecque,
the cafe tier e a la belloy, or coffee-biggin, is com-
monly employed.  This consists of  a "arge coffee-
pot, with an upper receptacle made to fit close into
it, the  bottom of which is perforated with small
holes, and contains in its interior  two  moveable
metal strainers, over the second of which the pow-
der is  placed, and  immediately under the third;
upon this upper strainer boiling water  is noured un-
til it bubbles up through the strainer ; tmr cover of
the machine  is  then shut close down, and  it  is
placed near  the  fire; so soon  as  the water has
drained through the coffee the operation is repeat-
ed,  until the whole  intended quantity be  passed
through.  Thus the fragrance  and flavor will be
retained, with all  the  balsamic and stimulating
powers, and in a few moments will be obtained—
without the  aid of hartshorn-shavings, isinglass, or
whites of eggs—a perfectly transparent infusion of
coffee.  When the Parisian uses a common coffee-
pot,  he generally divides the water  into 2 parts.
The first portion he pours on boiling hot, and al-
lows it to infuse for 4 or 5 minutes, he then pours
this off as clear  as  possible, and boils the grounds
for 2 or 3 minutes with the remaining half of the
water.  After  the latter has deposited the sediment
it is decanted, and mixed with  the  infusion.  The
object of this  process is to obtain the  whole of the
strength, as well as the  flavor.  The infusion is
conceived to contain the latter,  and  the decoction
the  former.   This plan  has been  recommended,
with some modifications, by Mr.  Donovan,  and
more recently by Dr. Davidson, in L'Experience.
  COFFEE, MILK.  Boil a dessert-spoonful of
ground coffee  in about a  pint of milk,  a  quarter
of an hour; then put into it a  shaving  or two of
isinglass, and clear it; let it boil a  few minutes,
and set it on the side of the fire to fine.   This is a
very fine breakfast, and should be sweetened  wi'h
real'Lisbon  sugar.
   " Those of  a  spare  habit,  and disposed  towards
affections of the lungs, would do well to  make this
their breakfast."
   COFFEE, SEARLE'S PATENT.   This  is
prepared by evaporating skimmed milk mixed with
one-fortieth part of sugar, at a low temperature,
and, when nearly solid, adding a very concentrated
essence of coffee, and continuing the evaporation 
COI
205
COL
 at a very low temperature, (in vacuo  if possible,)
 until the mixture  acquires the  consistence of a
 sirup,  paste, or candy.  (The latter may be pow-
 dered.)
   COFFEE,  SUBSTITUTES  FOR.   These
 are numerous, but the principal are the following:
   I. (Rye coffee. Dillenius's ditto. Hunt's break-
 fast-powder.)  Rye,  roasted along with  a little
 butter, and  ground to powder.  A good substitute.
   II.  (German coffee.  Succory ditto.  Chicory
 ditto.)  From succory, as above.  Used either for
 or mixed with foreign  coffee.  The most  common
 adulteration of the latter.
   III. (Rice  coffee.)   From rice, as above.   A
 good substitute.
   IV. (Currant coffee.)   From  the seeds washed
 out of the cake left m making currant wine.
   V.  (Gooseberry coffee.) From gooseberry seeds,
 as the last.
   VI. (Holly coffee.)   From the berries.
   VII.  (Egyptian coffee.)  From chickpeas.
   VIII.  (Rosetta coffee.)  From fenugreek seeds
 moistened with lemon juice.
   IX. (Corsican coffee.)  From the  seeds of  the
 knee-holly.
   X.  (Sassafras coffee.)   From the fruit or  nut
 of the sassafras tree, or from  the wood  cut into
 chips.   Very wholesome.  Much recommended in
 skin diseases, &c.
   XL (Raspings.)  The raspings of  the crust of
 loaves,  procured at  the  baker's.  Equal  to  rye
 coffee.
   XII.  (Beech-mast  coffee.)   From beech-mast
 or nuts.   Very wholesome.
   XIII.  (Acorn coffee.)   From acorns,  deprived
 of their shells, husked, dried, and roasted.   A good
 substitute.
   XIV.  (Beet-root coffee.) From the yellow beet-
 root,  sliced, dried in  a kiln or oven, and ground
 with a little foreign coffee.  A good substitute.
   XV. (Bean coffee.)   Horse-beans roasted along
 with a little honey or sugar.  When removed from
 the fire,  a small quantity of  cassia-buds is fre-
 quently  added, and the whole is  stirred until cold.
 Said to be a good substitute.
   XVI.  (Almond coffee.)  Rye or wheat roasted
 along  with  a few almonds.  A very small quan-
 tity of cassia-buds improves it.  A good substitute.
   COINS,  IMPRESSIONS  FROM.    A very
 easy and elegant way of taking the impressions of
 medals and coins, not  generally  known, is  as fol-
 lows :  Melt a little isinglass glue  with  brandy, and
 pour it thinly over the medal, so as  to cover its
 whole  surface ; let it remain on  for a day or two,
 till it has thoroughly dried and hardened, and then
 take it off, when it will be fine, clear,  and as hard
 as a piece of Muscovy glass, and will  have a very-
 elegant impression of the  coin.   It will also resist
 the  effects of damp air, which occasions all other
 kinds of  glue to soften and bend  if not prepared in
 this way. (Shaw.)   If the wrong side of the isin-
 glass be breathed on, and  gold-leaf applied, it will
 adhere, and be seen on the other  side,  producing a
 very pleasing effect.  Isinglass  glue,  made with
 Water  alone, will do nearly as well as if brandy be
 used.
  Remarks.  Medals may  also be copied  by sur-
 rounding them v. ith  a hoop of paper,  and pouring
on them  plaster of Paris (mixed with  water to the
consistence of cream) to the depth of about 4 an
inch.   Melted wax, stearine, fusible metal, or any
similar material, may be used in the same way.
If it be desired to copy  the  metal  in  copper,  a
mould should be first formed in the above manner,
and the metal deposited on its surface by the agen-
cy of electricity.   (See Electrotype.)
  COLCHICINE.  Syn. Colchicina.  Colchia.
A peculiar principle discovered by Gieger and Hesse
in the seeds of  the colchicum autumnale,  or com-
mon meadow saffron.  It also  exists in the cormi
or bulbs.
  Prep.  Macerate the crushed seeds in boiling al-
cohol, add hydrate of magnesia to throw down the
alkaloid, digest the  precipitate in boiling alcohol,
and  filter.    By  cautious evaporation  colchicine
will be deposited.  It may be purified by re-solu-
tion.
   Prop., ifC. Odorless; tastes  bitter ; forms  salts
with the acids.   It  5 very poisonous.  One-tenth
of a grain,  dissolved in spirit,  killed  a  cat in 12
hours.   It differs from veratrine in being soluble in
water, crystalline, and the non-production of sneez-
ing when applied to the nose.   Strong oil of vitriol
turns this  alkaloid of a yellowish browr * nitric
acid of a deep violet, passing into indigo blue, green,
and yellow.
  COLCHICUM, POWDER OF.  I.  (Collier.)
Seeds  of colchicum  2 grs.; rhubarb 6 grs.; mag-
nesia 10 grs.; mix for 1 powder, to be taken every
six hours in acute rheumatism, inflammatory gout,
&c, washing it down with a glass of Seltzer wa-
ter, during high febrile action only.
  II. (Collier.)  Seeds of colchicum 3 grs.;  mu-
riate of ammonia 5 grs.; for 1 powder.  For check-
ing a paroxysm of gout, but its use requires cau-
tion.  " After all  that  has  been said respecting
colchicum  in gout,  and admitting that  it rarely
fails to allay pain and check a paroxysm, I would
record  my opinion that he who would wish to ar-
rive at a good old age, should eschew it as an or-
dinary remedy, and consider that he is drawing on
his constitution for a temporary relief, with a cer-
tainty  of becoming  prematurely bankrupt in his
vital energies."
  COINDET'S PILLS.  Prep.  Protiodide of
mercury  1 gr.;  extract of liquorice 20 grs.; mix,
and divide into 8 pills. Dose. 2  to 4 twice or thrice
daily, as an  alterative in scrofulous tumors, ulcers,
&c.
  COLD.   When the body of an animal is im-
mersed in an atmosphere at a temperature below
tho healthy  standard, a  sensation of coldness is
experienced, produced by the passage of the calo-
ric or heat of the body into the  colder medium. If
this withdrawal of caloric exceed the quantity pro-
duced by the vital system, the temperature of the
body decreases,  until it sinks below the point at
which the functions of life can be performed. This
declination is gradual;  the extreme sensation of
coldness changes into a disinclination for voluntary
motion ; next comes on drowsiness, followed by
numbness and insensibility.  In this state, if the
sufferer be not rescued, and remedial measures had
recourse to,  death must rapidly  follow.
  Prevention of the effects  of excessive cold.—
The extremities of the  body first suffer from the
action of cold, owing to the circulation of the blood
being less vigorous in those  parts; they should, 
COL
206
COL
therefore, be properly protected from its action.
Woollen stockings or socks, with good  shoes  or
boots, should be worn  on  the feet, and the body
should be clad in thick woollen fabrics, proportion-
ed to the inclemency of the weather, and the habits
of the wearer.   The circulation of the blood should
be promoted by active exercise, and any disposition
to sleep shaken off by increased bodily  exertion.
If the situation be such that exercise  cannot be
had  recourse to, drowsiness is more likely to be
experienced, and must be warded off,  if possible,
by keeping the mind  incessantly and actively en-
gaged.   The principal  endeavor  should be to keep
the extremities warm, as, if this  be accomplished,
no danger need be feared.   In travelling by coach
or on horseback, recourse may be had to  hay and
straw, which may be  thrown over the  feet and
legs, and will materially ward off the effects of the
weather.
  Remedial measures for asphyxia produced by
intense cold.—The patient should be laid in a room
remote from the fire, and bathed  with cold salt and
water, after which the body should be  wiped dry,
and friction applied by the hands of the attendants,
(warmed ;) as many operating at once as  can con-
veniently do so.  Gentle stimulants  should be ad-
ministered by the mouth, and the  bowels excited by
some mild stimulating clyster.  The  lungs should
also  be  inflated. (See Asphyxia.)   As soon  as
symptoms of returning animation are  evinced, and
the breathing and circulation restored, the patient
should be laid in a bed between blankets, and a
little wine and water administered, and perspiration
promoted by heaping an ample quantity of clothing
on the bed.  Should the patient have  suffered from
hunger as well  as cold, the appetite may be ap-
peased by the administration of a limfted quantity
of light food, taking especial care to  avoid excess,
or any thing indigestible or exciting.            •
  COLIC.  (From koiAov, the colon,  the  supposed
seat  of the disease.) The colic or bellyache.  This
name is commonly given to  all severe griping ab-
dominal pains, whatever may be  the  cause.  This
disease has been distinguished by nosologists into
several varieties, as follows:—
  I.  (The spasmodic colic.)  This kind is marked
by a fluctuating pain about the  navel, which goes
away and returns  by starts, often leaving the pa-
tient for some time.  The belly is usually soft, and
the intestines  may often be felt in lumps, which
move about under  the hand, or wholly vanish for a
time.  It is unaccompanied by  flatulency.   The
remedies are, warm fomentations, warm clysters,
and carminatives, accompanied  by small  doses of
camphor and opium.
  II. (The stercoraceous  colic.)  This is marked
by severe  griping pains and constipation  of the
bowels.   The remedies are powerful  cathartics, as
full doses of calomel, aloes, colocynth,  jalap, &c.,
followed by purgative salts, as sulphate of magne-
sia or soda.
   III. (Bilious colic.)  In this variety  the pain
is intermittent and transient, accompanied by con-
stipation, nausea,  and vomiting. The fasces,  if
any, are bilious, dark-colored, and offensive.   The
remedies are, a full dose of blue pill, calomel, colo-
cynth, or aloes, followed by a sufficient quantity
of epsom or glauber salts.  Warm fomentations are
also  serviceable.
  IV.  (Flatulent  colic.) Marked by constipation,
and the irregular distension of the bowels by gas,
accompanied by a rumbling noise, &.c.  It is com-
monly produced by the  use of flatulent vegetables
and slops.  The remedies  are, a full  dose of tine-
ture of rhubarb combined with a few drops  of es-
sence of peppermint.  If this does not afford relief,
a pill made of 3 grs. of blue pill and 2 grs. of com-
pound extract of colocynth, may be taken, washed
down with a  glass of any cordial water, as pepper-
mint, cinnamon, or caraway.   If  the pain  be ex-
treme, warm fomentations to the belly, or  a car-
minative clyster may be adopted.
  V. (Accidental  colic.)   Produced  by improper
food and poisons.  The treatment differs but little
from the last  variety.
  VI.  (Colica  pictonum.    Devonshire   colic.
Plumber's do.  Painter's  do.   Lead  do.)  The
dry bellyache.   This species of colic is marked by
obstinate costiveness, acrid biliou" vomitings, vio-
lent pains about the region of the ns rel, convulsive
spasms in the intestines, and a tendency to para-
lysis  in the extremities.  It is most  prevalent in
the cider counties, and  among persons exposed to
the fumes of  lead.   The n medies are the same as
for the spasmodic variety.  Should these fail, aftei
the bowels have been thoroughly evacuated, small
doses of camphor and opium may be administered.
Mr. Benson, the managing director of the British
Whitelead Works at Birmingham, strongly recom-
mends the use of sulphuric  acid ; he says : " I met
with a statement some  time since that sulphuric
lemonade has  been successfully used at a white
lead manufactory in France as a preventive of the
injurious effects of white lead ; and it occurred to
me that by adding sulphuric  acid to the treacle-
beer then used by our people, its supposed efficacy
might be tested.  This idea was carried into effect
in the summer of 1841, and the results have proved
most gratifying, as, although during several  weeks
after the addition of the sulphuric acid to the trea-
cle beverage, little advantage seemed to be derived,
yet the cases of lead colic became gradually less
frequent, and since October of that year, or  during
a period of fifteen months, not a single case of lead
colic has occurred among the people." (Lancet.)
  The following is Mr. Benson's form for his trea-
cle or  sulphuric beer:—Take  of treacle 15 lbs.;
bruised  ginger 4 lb.;  water 12  gallons; yeast 1
quart; bicarbonate of soda 14 oz.; sulphuric acid
(oil of  vitriol) 14 oz. by weight:  boil the ginger in
2 gallons of water; add the treacle  and the re-
mainder of the water, hot; when nearly cold trans-
fer it  to a cask, and add the yeast  to  cause fer-
mentation ; when  this has nearly ceased, add the
sulphuric acid, previously diluted with eight times
its quantity of water, and then  add the bicarbonate
of soda, dissolved in one quart of water.   Close up
the cask, and in three or four days the beer will be
fit for use. As  acetous fermentation speedily takes
place,  particularly in hot weather,  new supplies
Bhould be prepared as required.
   COLOCYNTHINE.    Syn.  Colocynthite.
Colocynthium.  The purgative bitter principle of
the colocynth.
  Prep. Digest the aqueous extract or the pulp of
colocynth in  alcohol, filter and evaporate the tinc-
ture.   The  residuum is  colocynthine  combined
with acetate  of potassa.  By agitation with a little 
CON                   207                   CON
 water the latter is removed. It may be purified by
 e-solution in alcohol, and eVaporation.
   Prop. It yellowish brown translucent  resinous
 Bubstance, very soluble in alcohol, less so in ether,
 and only slightly  so in water.   It  is intensely bit-
 ter, and acts as a drastic purgative.
   COLORING.  Syn. Brewer's Coloring,
 Brandy do.  Spirit do.   Essentia Bina.  Cara-
 mel.  Prep.  Melt brown sugar in an iron vessel
 over the fire, until it grows black and bitter, stir-
 ring it well all  the time, then make it into a sirup
 with water.
   Remarks.  Some use  lime-water to dissolve the
 burnt sugar.   Care must be taken not to overburn
 it, as a greater quantity is thereby rendered inso-
 luble.   The  heat should not  exceed  430°, nor be
 less than 400°.  The process  for nice experiments
 is best conducted in a bath of melted  tin, to which
 a little bismuth has been added to reduce its melt-
 ing point  to about 435° ; a little powdered resin or
 charcoal, or a  little oil being put upon the surface
 of the metal to prevent oxidizement
   COLORS,  COMPOUND.  (In Dyeing.) The
 mixture of blue and yellow dyes  produces greeny
 red and blue, violet, purple, lilacs, ifC.; red and
 yellow,  orange, cinnamon,  fyc.; red, yellow,
 and  blue, olives;  red and blues,  or  green or
 black, browns of all  shades; black mixed with
 other dyes produces various shades of brown and
 olive, and when  pale it constitutes gray, either by
 itself or the addition of a faint blue.
   COLOMBIUM.   A  rare metal, discovered by
 Mr. Hatchet in 1801, in a black mineral belonging
 to the  British  Museum.   Supposed to have been
 brought from  America,  hence the  name.  (See
 Tantalum.)
   COLUMBIC  ACID. The preceding metal ex-
 ists in its  ores in  the form of an acid, united to iron,
 manganese, or yttria.   From  these it may be ob-
 tained  by fusion  with 3 or 4  parts of  potash, solu-
 tion in water,  and precipitation with an acid.  It
 falls as a  white powder or  hydrate.
   CONCENTRATION.  (In Chemistry.)  The
 volatilization of part of a liquid in order to increase
 the strength of the remainder.   The operation can
 only be performed on solutions of substances of
 greater fixity than the menstrua in which they are
 dissolved.  Many of the liquid  acids, solutions of
 the alkalis, &c,  are concentrated by distilling off
 their water.
   (In Pharmacy.)  The term " concentrated" is
 very commonly applied  to any liquid preparation
 possessing  more  than  the usual strength.   Thus
 we  have  " concentrated" infusions, decoctions,
 liquors, solutions, tinctures,  and essences,  most
 of which are made of 8 times the common strength.
 This is generally effected by using  8 times the
 usual quantity  of the ingredients, with a given por-
 tion of  the menstruum, and operating by digestion
 or percolation;  the latter being generally adopted
 when the  articles are  bulky.   When  the men-
 struum  is water, a little spirit is added to make the
 product keep.
  CONCRETE.  (In Architecture.)   A  com-
pact mass, composed of  pebbles, lime, and sand,
employed  in  the foundations  of buildings.  The
best proportions are 60 parts of coarse pebbles, 25
of rough sand, and 15 of lime.
  CONDIMENTS.  Substances  taken  with the
food,  to  improve its  flavor, or to render it more
wholesome  or  digestible.   The  principal  condi-
ments are  common  salt, vinegar, lemon juice,
spices, aromatic herbs,  oil, butter, sugar, honey,
and sauces.   Most  of these,  in moderation,  pro-
mote the appetite and digestion, but their excessive
use tends to injure the stomach, and vitiate  the
gastric juice.
  CONFECTIONS.   (In Pharmacy.)   Medi
cines, usually pulverulent, mixed up to the consist-
ence of a paste with powdered sugar, sirup, or ho-
ney.  In the " London Pharmacopoeia," both con-
serves and electuaries are included under this head,
though there appears  to be some little distinction
between them.   As remedial agents, the officinal
confections possess but little value, and are chiefly
useful as vetycles for the administration'of more
active medicines.  In making confections, the su-
gar requires the same  attention as for sirups. They
should be kept in stone jars, covered with writing
paper, and placed  in  a  cool  and dry situation.
Without this precaution, they are apt to mould on
the top.   All  the  dry ingredients employed  in
making confections should be  reduced to  a very
fine powder, and passed  through a sieve not coarser
than 80 holes to the inch.
  CONFECTION  OF  ALMONDS.   Prep.
(Confectio  Amygdalee, P.  L.)   Sweet  almonds
§viii; white sugar §iv;  powdered gum arabic fj.
Macerate the almonds in cold water, then remove
the skins, and beat them with the other ingredients
until reduced to a smooth  confection.
   Use.  To  prepare milk of-almonds.   A little of
this paste or powder, triturated with a sufficient
portion of water, and strained through a piece of
calico, forms emulsion of almonds.
  CONFECTION OF  ALKERMES.   Prep.
White sugar 1  lb.;  rose-water \ pint; clarified
juice  of  alkermes 3 lbs.; oil cinnamon  10 or 12
drops.   Mix.  It was formerly a common practice
to add a little gold-leaf, rubbed small, 60 as to float
about in it; also musk and ambergris.
  CONFECTION  OF  ALUM.  Prep.  (Conf.
Aluminis, St. B. H.)  Alum in fine  powder, 80
grs.;  conserve of roses,  enough to mix.  Use. As
an astringent
  CONFECTION,  AROMATIC.   Syn.   Sir
Walter  Raleigh's  Cordial.    Confectio  Ra-
leighana, (P. L.  1720.)   Ditto Cardiaca, (P. L.
1745.)  Ditto Aromatica, (P. L. 1788, and since.)
Prep. I.  (P. L.) Nutmegs, cinnamon, and hay saf-
fron, of each §ij;  cloves ^j',  cardamoms §ss;  pre-
pared chalk ^xvj ; white sugar lbs. ij.   Reduce the
whole to a very fine  powder, and keep it in a closed
vessel.  When wanted  for use, mix it with water
to the consistence of a confection.
  Remarks. On  the large scale the above form is
seldom adhered to.  Less saffron is commonly used,
cassia is substituted  for  cinnamon, and, generally,
the essential oil for  the powder of cloves.  Should
there  be any deficiency  of color, this is brought up
by a little tincture or infusion of turmeric.   When
a very smooth and fine powder is desired, it should
be passed through a gauze sieve, not coarser than
80 holes to the inch, and precipitated chalk should
be employed.  The  saffron should be dried with as
little heat as possible, and care  should be taken
not to waste  any  in powdering.  The following
formula,  which  is  employed  by  a  large whole- 
CON                   208 •                     CON
sale  druggist in the city, produces an  excellent
arti2le.                                •
  II. Hay saffron, cassia, and turmeric, of each 4
oz.;  cardamoms 1 oz.; starch 8 oz.; precipitated
chalk 2 lbs.;  white  sugar 4 lbs.; oil of nutmegs 2
drachms; oil of cloves 3  drachms.  Reduce  the
dry ingredients to fine powder, and pass it through
an !-0 hole sieve, then add the oils, and after well
mixing, pass  it  through a coarse sieve, (about  40
holes to the inch,) to ensure the whole being per-
rectly mixed.
  The following form produces  a powder possess-
ing great depth and  brilliancy of color.
  III.  Hay saffron  4 oz.; turmeric 3 oz.; pow-
dered starch 8 oz.; precipitated chalk 2 lbs.; white
sugar 4 lbs.;  oils of cloves  and  cassia, of each 3
drachms; oil  of nutmegs 2  drachms; essence of
cardamoms 1  oz.  jProc. Boil the saffron and tur-
meric in 1 gallon of  water, placed in a bright cop-
per pan, for 10 minutes,  then, without straining,
add the chalk, starch, and sugar;  mix well, and
continue stirring until the mixture becomes quite
stiff,  then  break  it up and dry it until fit for pow-
dering.  This must  be performed in a water  or
steam  bath.  To  the powder, passed through a
fine sieve, as before, the oils  and tincture must be
added,  and after being  well mixed, and  passed
through a coarse sieve, it should be placed in a jar
or bottle, and bunged up close.
  Remarks.  In the wholesale trade this article is
kept under two forms: one in powder, as ordered
by the College, and commonly called, for distinc-
tion sake, " pulvis confectionis aromaticce ;" the
other mixed  up ready for use.  In preparing the
latter, it is a common plan to make a strong infu-
sion or decoction of the saffron, and to use it to mix
up the other ingredients.  Some persons follow the
method described in the  last formula, mixing  up
the powder to a proper consistence with water be-
fore  adding the  aromatics.   When the price  of
precipitated  chalk  is an objection  to its use, pre-
pared  chalk  may be used instead.   This confec-
tion  is cordial, stimulant, and antacid.  Dose.  10
to 60 sts.
  CONFECTION OF BLACK PEPPER. Syn.
Ward's Paste.   Prep. (Confectio Piperis Nigri,
P. L.)   Black pepper and  elecampane root,  of
each lb. j; fennel seed  lb. iij ;  honey and white
sugar, of each lb. ij; mix.
  Remarks.  The common  practice is to keep the
dry ingredients ready mixed in a bottle,  and only
to add  the honey as wanted.  The proportions are
2 parts of the latter te 7 of the mixture.  The dose
is 1 to  2 drachms 2  or 3 times a-day, in  piles, fis-
tula, &c.   It should be persevered in for  2, 3, or 4
months, (Sir B. Brodie ;)  and as  it  is apt to accu-
mulate in  the bowels, its use should be accompa-
nied by mild  aperients.  (Pereira.)
  CONFECTIONS OF CASSIA.  Syn. Elec-
tuarium Cassls, (P. L. 1788.)  Prep. (Confectio
Cassia, P. L.)  Fresh cassia pulp lb. ss.;  manna
§ij;  tamarind pulp Jj; sirup of roses fjviij.  Bruj* e
the manna and  dissolve it in the sirup, then add
the pulps and evaporate to a proper consistence.
  CONFECTION  OF  HExMLOCK.  (Dr. Os-
borne.)  Prep. Fresh leaves of hemlock  and moist
sugar equal parts; beat them to a confection in a
mortar.
  CONFECTION OF OPIUM.  Syn.  Philo-
nium  Romanum,  (P.  L. 1720.)   Ditto  Londi-
nense, (P. L.  1745.) * Confectio  Opiata, (P. L.
1788.)  Ditto Oph, (P. L. 1809, and since.) Prep.
(P. L.)   Powdered  opium  3vj ; long pepper $j;
ginger 3<j ', caraways  ^iij ;  tragacanth  3ij ; all in
fine powder ;  sirup f^xvj.   Mix.
   Use and Dose. This confection is intended as a
substitute for the mithridate and  theriaca of the
old Pharmacopeia.  It is stimulant and lfhrcotic,
and is given in flatulent colic and diarrhoea unac-
companied by  fever.   The dose  is from 15 to
50 grs.
  CONFECTION OF ORANGE PEEL.  Syn.
CoNSERVA  FLAVED1N1S CoRTICUM  Al'RANTIORUM,
(P. L. 1720 and  1745.)   Ditto Corticis exte-
RIORIS AURANTII HlSPALENSIS, (P. L. 1788.)  DlTTO
Aurantiorum,  (P. L.  1^24.)   Ditto  Aijrantii,
i P. L. 1809 and 1836.)  Prep.  (P. L.)   The ex-
ternal rind of the fresh orange,  separated by rasp-
ing, lb. j; white sugar lb. iij.  Beat the rind  in a
stone  mortar  with a wooden pestle, then add the
powdered sugar,  and  beat the  mixture until the
two are  perfectly  incorporated.
. Remarks. This confection is tonic and stomachic,
and is principally used as a vehicle for the exhibi-
tion of tonic powders.
  CONFECTION OF  PEPPERMINT. Prep.
Green peppermint 4  oz.; powdered  white sugar
12 oz. ;  beat them together as last.
   Use. Anti-emetic and flatulent.  Given in colic,
&c, in  the form  of a bolus, or madlte into a mix-
ture.
  CONFECTION OF THE DOG ROSE. Syn.
Confection of Hips.   Conserva Fructus cynos-
bati,  (P. L. 1720 and 1745.)   Ditto Cynosbati,
(P. L. 1788.)   Ditto  Ros^e Canin.e, (P. L.  lr>09,
and since.)   Prep.  (P. L.) Pulp of the  dog rose
lb. j ;  powdered refined sugar fxx ; mix by a gen-
tle heat  in an earthen vessel.
  II. Pulped hips 2 cwt.; fine white sugar 2£ cwt.;
incorporate them  without applying heat.
  Remarks.  Both this and the following confec-
tion has a brighter color, if made without heat, or
touching metallic vessels.  On the small scale it
is  made  by beating the ingredients together in a
marble mortar, but in  large quantities by grinding
in a mill.   It is slightly laxative, and is principally
used for forming pills.   It candies by keeping.
  CONFECTION OF THE RED ROSE. Syn.
Conserva  Rosarum  Rubrarum,  (P.  L.  1745.)
Ditto Ros.e, (P. L. 1788.)  Ditto Ros.e Galli-
cs,  (P.  L. 1809 and  1824.)   Confectio  Ros.e
Gallics, (P. L. 1836.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Petals of
the red  rose  lb. j; refined sugar lb. iij;  beat the
petals in a stone mortar, then add the sugar, and
again beat until thoroughly incorporated.
   Remarks. On  the  large scale this is  prepared
like  the  confection of hips.  It is astringent and
tonic, and  principally  used for forming pills.  If
'.iken alone, the dose  is 1 to 2 drachms.
   CONFECTION OF RUE.   Syn.  Electua-
*..um  e Boccis  Lauri, (P. L. 1720, 1745.)  Con-
fectio  Rut.*, (P.  L. 1809, and since.)   Prep.
 (P. L.)   Dried rue, caraway, and laurel berries,
 of each  %'iss; sagapenum (true) §ss ;  black pepper
 3ij;  honey §XVJ-   Reduce  the  dry ingredients to
 very  fine powder, and when wanted for use, make
 them into a confection with the honey.
   Use,  $c. It is antispasmodic; in  enemas 30 to 
CON                   209                   CON
60  grs.,  with half a pint of  gruel, for  flatulent
fcolic, &c.
  CONFECTION  OF  SCAMMONY.   Syn.
Elect uarium  Caryocostinum,  (P.  L.  1720.)
Ditto e  Scammonio, (P. L.  1745.)   Ditto Scam-
moxii, (P. L. 1809 and 1788.)   Confectio  Scam-
mone*:, (P. L. 1809 and 1824.)  Prep. (Confectio
Scammonii  P. L.)   Scammony ^iss;  cloves and
ginger, of each, 3vj;  oil of caraway  f3ss.  Re-
duce  the ingredients to  a very fine powder, and
when wanted for  use, make them  into a confec-
tion with sirup of roses, and lastly add  the oil.
   Use, <$rr.  Cathartic in doses of 10 to 30 grs.
  CONFECTION OF  SENNA.  Syn. Leni-
tive  Electuary.   Electuarium Senn^e,  (P. L.
1788.) Confectio Senna, (P. L. 1809, and since.)
Prep. (P. L.)  Senna ^viij;  figs lb. j ;  pulp of
tamarinds, prunes, and  cassia, of   each, lb. ss.;
coriander seeds ^iv; liquorice ^i'j ;  sugar lb. iiss;
 ivater 3  pints.  Proc.  Rub the senna  and corian-
ders in a mortar, and separate by sifting ^x of the,
mixed powders.  Boil the figs and liquorice in the
water, until reduced  to  one half; then press and
strain the liquor.   Evaporate the strained  liquor
until  only 24 fluid ounces  remain, then add the
sugar, and when dissolved,  mix in  the pulps, and
lastly the powder.
   Use, Dose, tyc.  Confection of senna is a gentle
and pleasant purgative, and well adapted for per-
sons  suffering from piles, and as a laxative during
pregnancy.   The  dose is \  to £ oz. taken at bed-
time  or early in the morning.
   Remarks. Perhaps  there is no one pharmaco-
poeial preparation which  it is  more difficult to ob-
tain of good quality than the above.  The absolute
cost of an article  prepared according to the direc-
tions  of the  College, will  be somewhere  about
Is. 9d.  per  lb. ; but  there  are  many wholesale
drug  houses vending confection  of  senna, which
they  warrant as  genuine,  at from 9d.  to Is. a
pound.   Dr.  Paris  (in his  Pharmacologia) very
truly  remarks, that " the directions of the Phar-
macopasia are very rarely  followed."   I  under-
stand that considerable  quantities  are manufac-
tured, into which unsound and spoiled apples enter
as  a  principal ingredient.  The following forms
are, to my  knowledge, employed by some  mem-
bers of the trade.
  II. Powdered senna, pulp of tamarinds, cassia,
and prunes,  of each, 14 lb.; powdered corianders
J lb.; Spanish juice £ lb.; simple sirup 12 lbs.
  III. As the above, omitting the cassia pulp, and
adding 2 lbs. more  tamarind  pulp.
  Both these articles  are labelled P. L.,  and sent
out as genuine, and that when no competition as
to price  exists.  The  cheaper article  is  made as
follows:     •
  IV. Common prunes  and tamarinds,  of each,
16 lbs.;  treacle | cwt.;  species (a  compound of
senna dust and small senna, mixed with 3 lbs. of
                      27
coriander seeds, and strengthened with jalap, at
ground to a fine powder) 18-Hbs.   To this is fre-
quently added \ cwt. of rotten  or  inferior apples,
which are pulped with  the prunes  and tamarinds.
This  article is not unfrequently labelled " Conf.
Senn.b Ver." by the conscientious tradesman.
   CONFECTION  OF   SULPHUR,  (COM-
POUND.)  Prep. (St. B. H.)   Precipitated sul-
phur  5s8 j cream of tartar 3j; honey |j; mix
As a  laxative in piles, &c.  Dose.  §ss.
   CONFECTION  OF  STEEL.   Syn.   Con-
fection  of Carbonate of Iron.   Prep. Confec-
tion of orange-peel and sesquioxide of iron, (P. L.,)
of each, 4 oz.; powdered  white sugar 6 oz.; sim-
ple sirup 2 oz.; mix.  Aromatic and tonic.  Dose
A teaspoonful to 4 oz. twice or thrice daily.
   CONGELATION,  (from congelo,  to freeze.)
In Chemistry.  The conversion of a liquid into a
solid state, by the action of cold.
   The production of an extreme degree of cold is
often of  the utmost importance in chemical opera-
tions, and an easy  method of doing  so is con-
sequently  a  desideratum.   The  means hitherto
adopted  for this purpose have either  depended
upon  the sudden liquefaction of solids, or the ab-
straction of heat by rapid evaporation.  The loss
of sensible heat, by the first method, is the basis
of the various processes of producing  cold by what
are commonly called  freezing  mixtures, all of
which act upon the principle of liquefying solid
substances without supplying  heat.  The caloric
of liquidity being in  these cases derived from that
previously existing in the  solid  itself ill a sensible
state, the temperature  must necessarily fall.   The
degree of cold produced, depends  upon the quan-
tity of heat which is thus diffused through a larger
mass, or which, as it were, disappears, and this is
dependent on the quantity of solid matter lique-
fied, and the rapidity of the liquefaction.  Saline
compounds are the substances most frequently em-
ployed,  and those which have the greatest affinity
for water,\and thus  liquefy the most rapidly, pro-
duce the greatest degree of  cold.   Thus it is, that
chloride of calcium and nitrate of ammonia,  when
dry and in fine powder,  if suddenly mixed with
water, produce  extreme  cold.   The latter,  sud-
denly mixed with  an equal weight of water at
50°, will sink the thermometer to +4°, or 28°
below the freezing point.  The most  common and
convenient freezing mixture, when snow can be
procured, is formed by  mixing 2 parts of that sub-
stance with 1 part of sea-salt   This will sink the
thermometer to  —5°,  or  37°  below the freezing
"point  of  water.  Equal parts of these substances
produce  a degree of cold  marked  by the zero of
Fahrenheit's thermometer, and is the standard ta-
ken for graduating that instrument.  Mr. Walker,
a  gentleman who fully investigated this subject,
recommends the following proportions for the pro-
duction of extreme cold. 
CON                   210                   CON
TABLES exhibiting a collective View of all the Frigorific Mixtures contained in Mr. Walkih'i
                                      Publication, 1808.

    Table I. Consisting of Frigorific Mixtures, composed of Ice, with Chemical Salts and Acids-
Mixtures
i Snow or pounded ice .
1 Muriate of soda
 Snow or pounded ice .
 Muriate of soda
 Muriate of ammonia .
 Snow or pounded ice
 Muriate of soda .
 Muriate of ammonia
 Nitrate of  potash.
 Snow or pounded ice
 Muriate of soda .
 Nitrate of  ammonia
 Snow .....
 Diluted sulphuric acidt   .
 Snow .....
 Muriatic acid (concentrated)
 Snow .....
 Concentrated nitrous acid
 Snow.....
 Muriate of lime
 Snow .....
 Crystallized muriate of lime
 Snow.....
 Potash  ....
 2 parts
 1   "
 5   "
 2   "
 1   "
24   "
10   "
 5   "
 5   "
12   "
 5   "
 5   "
 3   "
 2   "
 8   "
 5   "
 7   «
 4   «
 4   "
 5   «
 2   "
 3   «
 3   «
 4   "
Thermometer sinks.		Degree of cold produced.
	rto—5°	»
		
at	to —12°	»
P. s		
r	to —18°	•
e o i-i		
fe	to —25°	•
From +32° to —23°		55°
From +32° to —27°		59
From +32° to —30°		62
From +32° to -^0°		72
From +32° to —50°		82
From +32c	' to —51°	83
  N. B.  The reason for the omissions in the last column of this table is, the thermometer sinking in
these mixtures to the degree mentioned in the preceding column, and never lower, whatever may be
the temperature of the materials at mixing.
Table II. Consisting of Frigorific Mixtures, having the power of generating or creating Cold, with-
  out the aid of Ice, sufficient for all  useful and  philosophical purposes, in any part m the world at
  any season.
Mixtures.
C Muriate of ammonia
2 Nitrate of potash
( Water
. Muriate of ammonia
\ Nitrate of potash .
i Sulphate of soda
1 Water.
( Nitrate of ammonia
( Water.
C Nitrate of ammonia.
1 Carbonate of soda
I Water   .
{ Sulphate of soda .
I Diluted nitrous acidt
  Sulphate of soda .
\ Muriate of ammonia
J Nitrate of potash.
  Diluted nitrous acid.
Thermometer sinks.
 5 parts
 5
16
 5
 5
 8
16
From +50° to 4-10°
       From +50° to +4°


   I   From +50° to 4-4°


   >   From +50° to —7°


   I   From +50° to —3°


\   i   From +50° to —10°
Degree of cold
  produced.
40°



46


46


57


53


60
t Strong acid 2 parts; water or snow 1 part, by weight.
I Fuming nitrous acid 2 parts; watei 1 part, by weight. 
CON
211
CON
Table II. continued.
Mixtures.
C Sulphate of soda .
< Nitrate of ammonia.
( Diluted nitrous acid
( Phosphate of soda   .
I Diluted nitrous acid
t Phosphate of soda   .
1 Nitrate of ammonia
( Diluted nitrous acid.
\ Sulphate of soda .
\ Muriatic acid  .
^ Sulphate of soda .
( Diluted sulphuric acid*
Thermometer sinks.
6 parts
5
4
9
4
9
6
4
8
5
5
4
    From +50° to —14°


I   From 4-50° to —12°


    From +50° to —21°
j   From +50° to 0°

I   From +50° to +3°
Degree of cold
  produced.
64°


62


71


50

47
  N. B.   If the materials are mixed at a warmer temperature than that expressed in the Table, the
effect will be proportionately greater;  thus, if the most powerful of these mixtures be made when the
air is +85°, it will sink the thermometer to +2°.
Table III.  Consisting of Frigorific Mixtures selected from the foregoing Tables, and combined so as
                       to increase or extend Cold to the extremest Degrees.
Mixtures.			Thermometer sinks.	Degree of cold produced.
i Phosphate of soda < Nitrate of ammonia. ( Diluted nitrous acid	. 5 3 . 4	sarts j " 5	From 0° to —34°	34°
C Phosphate of soda . 2 Nitrate of ammonia ( Diluted mixed acids.	3 . 2 4	(C	From —34° to —50°	16
\ Diluted nitrous acid.	. 3 2	" i	From 0° to —46°	46
< Diluted sulphuric acid ( Diluted nitrous acid	. 8 3 . 3	EC ' il \	From —10° to —56°	46
( Snow .... 1 Diluted sulphuric acid .	1 . 1	" ) " i	From —20° to —60°	40
( Snow .... 1 Muriate of lime .	3 . 4	" / " (	From +20° to —48°	68
( Snow .... \ Muriate of lime .	3 4	« i	From +10° to —54°	64
J Snow \ Muriate of lime .	2 . 3		From —15° to —68°	53
S Snow .... \ Crystallized muriate of lime. < Snow .... ( Crystallized muriate of lime.	1 . 2 1 . 3	" i " ) " t	From 0° to —66° From —40° to —73°	66 33
< Snow .... ( Diluted sulphuric acid .	8 . 10		From —68° to —91°	23
  Remarks.  The  above artificial processes for the production of cold are more effective when the
ingredients are first cooled by immersion in other freezing mixtures.   In this way Mr. Walker suc-
ceeded in producing a cold equal to 100° below the zero of Fahrenheit, or 132° below the freezing
point of water.
  The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to mixing, to the temperature required,
by mixtures taken from either of the preceding tables.
* Equal weights of strong acid and water. 
CON                   212                   CON
  II. (By evaporation.)   When heat passes from
the sensible to the insensible state, as in the for-
mation of vapor, cold is generated.   This may be
illustrated by pouring a  few  drops of ether, or
highly rectified alcohol, on the palm of the hand,
when a strong sensation of cold will  be produced.
In like manner, if the bulb of  a thermometer be
covered with lint, and the latter moistened with
ether, the quicksilver will  rapidly fall.   Even in
hot climates water is frozen by the joint operation
of evaporation and radiation.   The natives of In-
dia procure  ice when the temperature of  the air
much exceeds the freezing point.  On the open
plains, near Calcutta, this  is effected by exposing
a thin stratum of water to the  atmosphere, during
the fine clear nights of December, January, and
February.  The pans are made of porous earthen-
ware, and water is poured in to  the depth of about
1£ inches.  A large number of vessels of this kind
are arranged in an excavation in the ground, 30
or 40 feet square  and 2 feet deep, the bottom of
which is covered, to the  depth of  10 or 12  inches,
with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian corn.   At
sunrise  the  pans  are  visited,  the  ice separated
from the water, and packed as tight  as possible
in a deep cavity or pit, well  screened from the
heat.
  It has been  found that evaporation  proceeds
much more rapidly from the surface of fluids in a
vacuum than in the atmosphere.  Dr. Cullen was
the first person to apply this practically.  In 1755
he plunged a vial of ether into a tumbler of water,
and on placing it under a  receiver and exhausting
the air, the ether boiled and the water was speedily
frozen.  In 1777, Mr. Nairne published his method
of rendering the rarefied atmosphere of an exhaust-
ed receiver free from aqueous vapor by means of
sulphuric acid.  By the application of this  discov-
ery, Professor Leslie  in 1810 succeeded in freezing
water with great ease.   This he effected by intro-
ducing a surface of sulphuric  acid  under the  re-
ceiver of  an air-pump,  over which he  placed a
watch-glass filled with water, so that the vapor
arising from the latter was rapidly absorbed by the
former.  After a few strokes of the piston the wa-
ter was converted into  a solid cake  of ice, which
on being left in the rarefied medium continued to
evaporate, and in about an hour totally disappear-
ed.  Professor Leslie found that when  the  air was
rarefied 250 times, the surface of evaporation was
cooled down 120° in winter,  and when only 50
times, a depression of 80° or even 100° took place.
A pleasing  philosophical  toy, illustrative  of the
evaporative power of a vacuum, is the Cryophorus,
or frost-bearer of Dr. Wollaston.  This instrument
consists of two small glass globes united by a tube,
one  of which is  partly filled with water, but the
apparatus is perfectly free from air.




   The part  of the apparatus unoccupied by the
water, though apparently  empty, is in reality filled
with aqueous vapor, and thus  checks evaporation
by its pressure on  the surface of the water.   No
sooner is the pressure removed, as by plunging the
empty ball  into a freezing mixture, (which  con-
denses  the  vapor,)  than  rapid evaporation com-
mences,  and the water in the other ball is  frozen
in two or three minutes.
  To succeed well in the production of cold in this
way, it is necessary that the surfaces of the two
fluids should be pretty near together, and that the
acid should have the greater  amount of surface of
the two.   The acid should be poured to the depth
of £ an inch into a broad shallow dish or capsule,
and the water into another vessel of a similar kind,
but having only half  the diameter of the former,
and proportionally shallow.   The  smaller capsule
may be supported ovei the surface of the larger one
by means of  3 slender feet.   As  soon as the acid
has acquired one-tenth of its weight of water, its
absorbent power is diminished -p1^ ; when this di-
lution  reaches \ the  reduction  is ^, and when
it reaches £ the cooling power has diminished about
50$.  " Sulphuric acid  is  capable of congealing
more than 20 times  its weight of water before  it
has imbibed nearly its own bulk of that liquid, or
has lost about J of its refrigerating power."  (Ure.)
Sulphuric acid, which has become diluted  in this
way, may be reconcentrated  by heat.
   It has been discovered that oatmeal, dried near-
ly to brownness before a  common fire, and  cooled
in close  vessels, may be substituted for sulphuric
acid.   With a quantity of this substance, one foot
diameter, and 1  inch deep, Professor Leslie  froze 1
imperial  pint  of water, contained in a hemispheri-
cal porous  cup.   Ignited chloride  of calcium, in
porous pieces, has also been successfully used for
the same purpose.  Dr. Ure  has found that a re-
quisite vacuum  may  be  produced by the agency
of steam, in the following manner, without the use
of an air-pump:  " A cast-iron drum of considera-
ble dimensions being filled with  steam by heating
a small quantity of water in it, will sufficiently ex-
pel the air.   When it is  cooled by the  affusion of
water, a transferrer  plate being  attached  to the
stopcock on  its  upper surface would easily  enable
us, without any  air-pump, to  effect congelation by
means of sulphuric acid in  the attenuated atmo-
sphere.   Suppose the capacity of the receiver to be
one-sixtieth of the iron cylinder, an aeriform rare-
faction to this degree  would  be effected in  a mo-
ment by a turn  of the stopcock ; and,  on its being
returned, the moisture below would be  cut off, and
the acid  would speedily condense  the small quan-
tity of vapor  which had ascended."
   Many curious experiments may be performed
over sulphuric acid, in the receiver of an air-pump,
among which one of the  most instructive and amu-
sing is the congelation of quicksilver, a metal which
requires, for this purpose, a temperature of 39° be-
low zero, or 71° below the freezing point of water.
This is readily effected by suspending the metal in
a capsule of  ice by means of threads, near to the
surface of the sulphuric  acid, and urging the rare-
faction as much as possible.  Mercury so  frozen
may be kept in  the solid state for several hours.
   The processes of congelation above detailed ad-
mit of being applied to several  useful purposes,
especially in  domestic economy, and  the  arts of
the cook and confectioner,  as in the  making of
1CGS  &.C.
   CONGREVE  MATCHES.   I. (Process  of
M. Joblonouski.)   Put  phosphorus 40 grammes
into a wide-mouthed vial, with enough oil  of tur-
pentine to cover it, add  flowers of sulphur 10 gr., 
CON
213
CON
  and put the vial into hot water, (using great cau-
  tion,) until the phosphorus is melted.   Then cork
  close and agitate until cold, when any supernatant
  spirits of turpentine must be poured off  Into this
  pulpy mass the extremities of the  matches are
  dipped, and when  they have  become  rather dry,
  they are again dipped into the following mixture:
  Gum arabic 30 grammes, (dissolved in a little wa-
  ter ;)  chlorate of potassa 20  grammes;  soot, or
  vermilion,  (rubbed  up with a few drops of  alco-
  hol,) 10 gr.; mix, and dip the tips of the matches
  therein  as before,  then dry them cautiously in  a
  warm apartment.  These matches inflame without
  fulmination (noise) on  being  rubbed  against any
  rough surface.
     II. (Joblonouski.)  Chlorate of potassa 2 parts ;
  phosphorus  4 parts;  gum arabic 7 parts;  gelatin
  2 parts.  Proc.  The phosphorus is divided in the
  gum brought to  the state of thick mucilage, and
  warmed; the gelatin is melted and added to the
  phosphoreted mucilage.  The chlorate of  potassa
  is bruised in a mortar, and at the same  time moist-
  ened with the mucilage.  When it is  bruised the
  whole is mixed together, and  a paste  is obtained,
  with which matches, tipped with sulphur, may be
  embued.   They are then dried in the air.
    III.  (Process of Dr. R. Boettger.)   Gum ara-
  bic and vermilion,  of each  16 parts;  phosphorus
  9 parts;  saltpetre 14 parts.  Proc. The phospho-
  rus must be reduced to a state of fine division, by
  agitating it with fresh urine, or, still better,  a solu-
  tion of pure urea, which, in  consequence  of the
  discovery by Liebig, of a process of preparing that
  substance artificially, may now be easily procured
  or made.  Hot water  must  be employed to  melt
  the phosphorus, and this part of the process  is sim-
  ilar to that previously detailed.  The minutely di-
  vided phosphorus thus formed, is mixed with the
  other articles made into a  paste, with the  gum
  dissolved  in  the  least quantity of water, and the
  matches dipped into the mingled ingredients and
  dried.  They are then dipped into a dilute varnish
  of copal, or a thin solution of gum arabic contain-
  ing saltpetre, and again dried.  (Boettger's Beitrage.)
  These matches  are very superior, and explode
  without noise.
   Remarks.  The matches formerly made,  explo-
 ded with a crackling noise, and frequently threw
 out small sparks of fire, which rendered  them dan -
 gerous.   This arose from their containing too large
 a quantity of chlorate of potassa.  An opposite plan
 is now generally followed, and a less proportion of
 the chlorate  is used, or  instead thereof saltpetre.
 The quantity of  the  igniting  ingredients has  also
 been greatly lessened,  so  as  to avoid any danger
 on that  account.  This plan answers  very well,
 when the body of the matches, whether of wood
 or pasteboard, is properly  prepared ; but  if this be
 not the case, frequent  disappointment  will occur,
 from their going  out  again immediately after in-
 flaming.   To prevent this, the matches  should be
 dipped into sulphur previously to coating them with
 the composition, unless  intended for cigar fusees,
 when they should be  prepared by soaking them in
 water holding some saltpetre, bichromate of potash,
 or acetate of lead in solution, preference being usu-
 ally given to the first  of these articles.   Different
 coloring substant es are employed to tint  the  com-
position,  according to the fancy of the  manufac-1
  turer, as smalts, red lead, vermilion, black oxide
  of manganese, soot, &c.  A very elegant method
  of reducing phosphorus to a  state of minute divi-
  sion, is  to  melt it  in  rectified spirit, and agitate
  until cold, as above.
    The manufacture and sale of matches, contain-
  ing  sulphur and phosphorus, as in the first formula,
  have been  forbidden in Paris, in consequence of
  the  extreme facility with which they ignite, having
  led  to several accidents. (See Chlorate Matches,
  and Lucifers.)
    •CONIA.   Syn. Coneine. Conicin.  Cicutine,
  &c.  A poisonous alkaloid, discovered by Gieseke
  in hemlock.
    Prep.   Distil the seeds of hemlock, or their al-
  coholic extract, with water and potassa.  During
  this process, the conia passes over into the receiver
  and  floats upon the top of the water, which also
  contains a little conia in solution.  It must be pu-
  rified in the way directed for the volatile  bases.
  (See Alkaloid.)  If the alcoholic extract be em-
  ployed, about £ its weight  of potassa  should be
  used.
    Remarks. 6 lbs. of fresh and 9 lbs. of dried seeds
  yielded  1  oz. of conia.  (Gieger.)   40 lbs. of the
  ripe but green seeds yielded 2^ oz. of hydrated co-
  nia.  (Christison.)  It is remarkably poisonous. One
  drop, placed in  the eye of  a rabbit, killed it in 9
  minutes.  Five drops, poured into the throat of a
  dog, killed it in less than a minute.  It has been
  employed in some convulsive and spasmodic dis-
  eases.  " The plaintive  cries, the contortions, and
  the rigidity of the limbs, which have always pre-
  ceded death, (caused by conia,)  leave no doubt as
  to the cruel  pains  which this kind of poisoning
  brings on."  (Boutron-Chalard and Henry.)
    CONSERVES.  (From conservo, to keep.)   In
  pharmacy, a composition of some recent vegetable
  matter and sugar, beat together to the consistence
  of a paste.  The object aimed at in the prepara-
  tion  of conserves, is to  preserve the properties of
  the active  ingredient, which  would  otherwise  be
  liable to change. In the last edition of the London
  Pharmacopoeia, conserves, as well as electuaries,
  are included under the head of confections.   The
 term confection appears, however, less appropriate
 to some of them, than the word  conserve or elec-
 tuary.  The word confection  has a more general
 application, and implies  any sweetmeat or compo-
 sition, in  which sugar is  the principal ingredient.
   CONSERVE OF ALMONDS.  (Conserva
 Amygdalarum, P. D.)   Confection of almonds.
   CONSERVE,  ANTISCORBUTIC.   (Con-
 serva Antiscorbutica.  Selle.)   Horseradish, wa-
 ter-cress, water-trefoil,  radish juice, and orange
 juice, of each equal parts ; white sugar enough to
 make a confection.
   CONSERVE   OF   ARUM.   (Wakerobin.)
 Prep. Fresh arum roots  j lb.; white sugar 1 i lb.;
 beat together.  Diuretic  and attenuant
   CONSERVE OF LAVENDER.  Prep. Lav-
 ender flowers 1 part; lump sugar 3 parts;  beat
 together.
   Remarks.  In a similar way conserves are made
 from various other leaves and  flowers; but mostly
 with only twice their weight of sugar.  The above
is frequently used to sweeten the breath.
  CONSERVE  OF  LEMON-PEEL.   Prep
Rasp  off the external rind of the  lemon,  and beat 
COP                    214                    COP
 it in a mortar with  three times its weight of pow-
 dered white sugar.  (See Confection of Orange-
 Peel.)   Tonic and stomachic.
   CONSERVE  OF ORANGE-PEEL.  (Con-
 serva Aurantii, P. E.)  The same as the confec-
 tion of orange-peel,  P. L.
   CONSERVE  OF RED  ROSES.  (Conser-
 va Rosa, P.  E.  and D.)   That of  the  Dublin
 Pharmacopoeia is the same  as  the  confection of
 roses, P. L.; that of the  Edinburgh has only 2 lbs.
 of sugar to 1 lb. of rose petals.
   CONSERVE  OF ROSEMARY.   Prep. *1
 part of  the leaves or tops, beaten up with 3 parts
 of sugar.
   CONSERVE  OF SCURVY GRASS.  Syn.
 Conserva Cochlears  Hortf.nsis.  Prep. Beat
 1 lb. of the leaves with 3 lbs. of lump sugar. Stim-
 ulant and antiscorbutic.
  CONSERVE  OF SLOES.  Syn. Conserva
 Pruni Sylvestris, (P. L. 1788.)  Pulp of sloes 1
part; sugar 3 parts ; mix.
  CONSERVE OF SQUILLS.  Syn. Conser-
va Scill.e, (P. L. 1788.)  Fresh squills Jj 5 white
sugar ^v ; mix.  Diuretic ; attenuant.
  CONSERVE OF TAMARINDS. Syn. Con-
serva Tamarindorum.   Prep. (P. Cod.)  Pulp of
tamarinds 4 oz.; white  sugar  6 oz.; heat by a
water-bath in  an earthen vessel, until mixed and
of a due consistence.
  CONSERVE OF WORMWOOD. Syn. Con-
serva Absinthii  Maritimi,  (P.  L. 1788.)  Prep.
Beat fresh-picked leaves of  sea  wormwood  in a
marble mortar, with a wooden pestle, first alone,
and then with 3 times  their weight of  refined
sugar.
  CONSTIPATION,  (OF  THE  BOWELS.)
Costiveness.   When this is merely  accidental or
occasional, a dose of some cathartic  is the  only
treatment necessary, but when  it is  habitual, it
calls for further  attention.   The common causes
of constipation are—The use of  bread containing
alum, and water containing lime ; and the want
of sufficient exercise.  The treatment should con-
sist in adopting a diet free  from astringents, and
consisting of a  large portion of  green vegetables
and ripe fruit.  Brown  bread  is frequently eaten
for  this  purpose, and acts by the laxative nature
of the  bran it  contains.  The occasional use  of
laxative  and emollient enemata  may be had re-
course  to, but  their habitual administration,  as
well as that of purgative medicines, by the mouth,
is not to  be recommended.   The bowels, accus-
tomed to  the  continual  use of stimulants, act but
 languidly, or scarcely at all, without their applica-
 tion.  In females, especially of the higher classes,
 the want of  proper  exercise is generally the chief
 cause of constipation. With such persons, a short
 walk two or three  times daily will often do won-
 ders, particularly  if  a little ripe fruit, a few raisins
 or tamarinds, or 2 or 3 drum figs, be occasionally
 eaten.
  COPAIBA.   Syn. Capivi.  Balsam of Capivi.
 The best copaiba is that imported from Maracaibo
 and St Martha, and is packed in casks containing
 from 1 to 1£ cwt. each, in large  bottles, or in cyl-
 indrical  tin  Iwxes.   Considerable variation exists
 in the color, consistence, and sp. gr., as well as in
 the proportion  of  oil and resin yielded by different
 samples, scarcely any two of which exactly agree.
Even the odor, taste, and transparency vary con-
siderably. Brazilian capivi is thin, clear, and pale;
while the West Indian  is thick, golden yellow, less
transparent, and has a less agreeable and some-
what terebinthinate smell.   Some varieties are
opaque, and continue so, unless filtered.   This is a
most  troublesome operation, unless well managed,
and without proper precautions, frequently proves
useless.  The  opacity  generally  arises from the
presence of water, which is frequently found mixed
with copaiba when first imported.  This  it retains
with great tenacity.  The following is the plan I
have found to answer on the  large scale.   Place
the casks upon  their ends in a warm situation, and
leave them so for a fortnight,  or longer, if conve-
nient.  They may then be tapped a  little  above
the bottom, when some of them will generally be
found quite transparent, and  may be drawn off
and vatted, care being  taken  to avoid shaking up
the bottom.  Those that are foul must be filtered
through  one or more long Canton flannel  bags,
sunk in the bottom of a tin  cistern, placed over a
suitable receiver; a few pounds of coarsely-pow-
dered charcoal  being mixed up with the  first 5 or
6 gallons thrown in.  This will rapidly fill up the
pores of  the bag, and make the balsam flow clear
and pale. The first runnings should  be  returned
until  it becomes perfectly transparent.   The bot-
toms of the  casks, containing  the water or impu-
rities, may be poured into a large can or jar, and
allowed to deposite for  a few  days, when the co-
paiba may be poured off the top, and  filtered.   A
sudden change  of temperature  will frequently turn
a brilliant sample of this article opaque or milky;
it is not,  therefore,  deemed  fit to send out by the
wholesale trade, unless  it will " stand"  this test.
To ascertain this point,  a common practice is to
fill a small bottle with the copaiba, and to leave it
out of doors  all  night in  an exposed situation. (See
also Balsam of Copaiba.)
  COPAIBA,  ALKALINE  TINCTURE OF.
(Lewis Thompson.)  Prep.  Dissolve 2 oz. of car-
bonate (formerly subcarbonate) of potassa in 1 pint
of water, and add to this, balsam of copaiba in a
thin  stream, constantly stirring the mixture, until
this, at first white and milky, becomes clear like
jelly or amber, which  will  generally  take  place
when about a pint  of balsam has been added;  set
the mixture  aside for two or three hours, then pour
in two pints of spirit of wine, and mix the whole
together  ; the solution is then  fit for use,  and may
be flavored with any of the  essential oils.  Sweet
spirit of nitre may be substituted for spirit of wine;
but it is necessary to destroy its acidity by distilla-
tion  from lime or potassa, otherwise a decomposi-
tion will  take place.
  This solution is compatible with iodide  of potas-
sium and nitrate of potassa, but is decomposed by
all earthy, metallic, and ammoniacal salts, such as
sulphate  of magnesia, chloride of iron, acetate  of
ammonia, &c, which must not,  therefore,'be ad-
ministered in conjunction with it.  (Chemist,  iv
510.)
  COPAIBA  AND KALI.  Prep. Carbonate
of potassa and water, of each  equal  parts ; dis-
solve, and add gradually transparent balsam of co-
paiba until the fluid, at first milky, turns quite clear
  COPAIBA  CAPSULES.  Gelatinous capeuki
filled with balsam of copaiba. 
COP                     215                    COP
   COPAIBA AND JtHATANY, CAPSULES
 OF.   Ricord  has recommended capsules  of co-
 paiba, coated with  extract of rhatany, as much
 superior to the common ones of copaiba alone, in
 the treatment of blenorrhcea.  They may be easily
 prepared by  either of the  two following meth-
 ods:
   1.  By immersing, for an instant,  the common
 capsule  in the following composition: or,
   2.  By forming the bodies of the capsules  with
 the composition, instead of with gelatin, and fol-
 lowing the same manipulations as for the  manu-
 facture of the common gelatin capsules.
   The Rhatany Composition. Extract of rhatany,
 newly prepared  from the root, 3 parts ; sirup of
 moist sugar 1  part; mucilage of gum  arabic  1
 part.  Melt  the extract and reduce it in a water
 bath until sufficiently stiff, when cold; do the same
 with the sirup and gum; then mix them together
 while hot, but only in such quantity as may be
 used at  one time.
   These capsules are said  to sit well upon the
 stomach, the  tone  of  which  they contribute to
 improve.
   COPAIBA, MISCIBLE.  Prep.  Mix trans-
 parent balsam of copaiba with half its volume of
 liquor of potassa of double strength.
   Remarks.  Different  samples of balsam often re-
 quire slightly different quantities of the solution of
 potassa; it is therefore best to mix them gradually
 and  cautiously together.   Should the  mixture be
 opaque, a little more, of one or other of the ingredi-
 ents, as the case may be, will render it clear.  No
 heat should be used.  This article is miscible with
 water, with which it forms a kind  of milk ;  and
 from containing all the volatile oil of  the copaiba
 is a very valuable preparation.  Its activity is con-
 sidered equal  to the balsam  itself, and it is given
 in similar doses.
   COPAIBA,  MIXTURE   OF.     (Chopart.)
 Prep. Copaiba, alcohol, sirup of Tolu, peppermint
 water, orange-flower water,  of each  fij ; sweet
 spirits of nitre 3ij. Proc. Rub the copaiba with the
 sirup until perfectly mixed, then add  the  spirits,
 and lastlv the  waters.
   COPAIBA,  SOLUBLE.  Prep.  I. Heat mis-
 cible  copaiba to the boiling point, pour it while hot
 into a "  separator," and place it in some situation
 where it will  cool slowly.  After a few days draw
 off the clear portion from a  cock  or hole placed
 near the bottom of the vessel, observing to stop the
 stream before any of the floating oil  begins to flow
 through.   A  very  little  concentrated liquor of
 potassa added before applying the heat, will render
 it more  soluble.  Prod. Thick, clear, and soluble
 in pure water.  Resembles copaiba in appearance.
   II. Agitate  balsam of  copaiba with an equal
 measure  of liquor  of potassa, (P. L.;) boil for a
 few minutes in a clean tinned copper pan, then
 pour  it into a separator,  and proceed as before.
 Thinner  than the last.
  COPAIBA,  SPECIFIC   SOLUTION  OF.
 (Frank's.) Prep. I. Balsam of copaiba 2  parts;
 liquor of potassa (P. L.) 3 parts; water  7  parts;
 boil it for 2 or 3 minutes, put  it into  a separator,
 and allow it  to stand for  5 or 6 days,  then draw
 it off from the bottom, avoiding the upper stratum
 of oil.  To the clear  liquid  add 1 part of  sweet
■pints of  nitre, perfectly free from acid, to which a
 few drops of liquor of potassa has been added,
 until it  slightly browns turmeric paper ; should it
 turn foul or milky, a very little liquor  of potassa
 will usually brighten it; if not, place it in a clean
 separator for a few days, and draw it off from the
 bottom as before, when it will be perfectly brilliant
 without filtering.
   Remarks.  Some persons add the sweet spirits of
 nitre while the solution is still hot, mix it in as rap-
 idly as possible,  and immediately cork or fasten up
 the vessel.  This is a good way when the article
 is wanted in a hurry, but is objectionable from the
 loss of spirit thereby occasioned, and the danger,
 without care,  of bursting the separator.
   A receipt for  this article, upon the authority of
 Battley, has been going the round of the pharma-
 ceutical works for some years, but which produces
 a preparation  not at all resembling " Frank's spe-
 cific  solution."   It is as  follows: " Take  12 oz.
 of balsam of  copaiba  and 6 oz. of calcined  mag-
 nesia ; rub together, add a pint of proof spirit, fil-
 ter, and  then add  i oz. of sweet spirits of nitre."
 (Gray's Supplement.)  I have  tried this formula,
 and I find the product to  be  a white tincture,
 scarcely flavored with  copaiba, and perfectly lim-
 pid.  No sooner is  balsam  of copaiba mixed with
 half its weight  of  magnesia, than the  two  unite,
 and produce a compound insoluble in spirit of wine.
 Such is the. affinity of this  earth for copaiba, (co-
 paibic acid,) that it will even take it from caustic
 potassa.   Thus I find the solution of this  balsam,
 (containing potassa,) if filtered through blotting-
 paper, with a  little  magnesia, becomes so  strongly
 alkaline  as to materially injure its quality, while
 a glutinous mass is deposited upon the sides  and
 bottom of the paper.   I have been led to a notice
 of this subject, from well knowing that many drug-
 gists  have adopted this  formula, and  have been
 disappointed with the results, which are, however,
 only such as might be reasonably anticipated.
   COPAIBA, SALT OF.  Syn. Sal Copaiba
 There are two preparations bearing this name, the
 one, copaibic acid, and the  other, copaibate  of an
 alkali.  They are  both sold at ridiculously high
 prices.  The advertisement of  one of these  prep-
 arations is heralded in with the following pseudo-
 philosophical announcement :•
   " This preparation of copaiba, in its chemical
 and medical  analogies, may be compared to qui-
 nine from bark, the former being the tonic of the
 mucous membranes, and the latter that of the der-
 moid structures.
   " This salt contains all the properties of the
 balsam of copaiba  in  a  very concentrated  form,
 without its nauseating qualities, and from  this  cir-
 cumstance it may be administered to the most deli-
 cate constitution."
   It is the general  opinion  of medical  men, that
 the active properties of copaiba reside in a volatile
 or essential oil, of which the aooi;e preparation is
 destitute. It is therefore difficult to conceive how,
 in this instance, the reverse should be the  case. I
 can speak  from my own experience, and  that of
several high  authorities to whom I have referred,
that both the  viscid and acid resins of copaiba  are
almost inert, and that all the alkaline preparations
of these  substances are  nearly similar.   I  have
taken the " sal copaibas" myself, and have watch-
ed its action on others, but  have not been able  to 
COP                     216                    COP
 perceive any good  effects to result  from its ad-
 ministration.
   COPAIBIC  ACID. Syn.  Capivic Acid. The
 yellow brittle resin of balsam of copaiba.   It  is
 prepared by digesting the resin (left after distilling
 the  oil from  the balsam) in  alcohol, which  dis-
 solves the acid resin, but leaves the viscid one.   It
 may be purified by re-solution in alcohol.  It forms
 about  50°f of the balsam.
   Prop. An amber-colored, brittle,  semi-crystal-
 line, resinous substance, soluble  in alcohol, ether,
 and oils, reddens litmus paper,  and forms salts with
 the  bases,  called copaivates.  These may  gene-
 rally be made by dropping into  a solution of the
 acid in alcohol,  an  alcoholic solution  of a soluble
 salt of the base.   The  copaivates of  potash, soda,
 and ammonia are easily prepared, by adding to an al-
 coholic solution of the acid another of the pure alkali,
 until it be neutralized,  when the salts may be ob-
 tained  by careful evaporation.  Copaivate  of silver
 is formed by neutralizing the acid with nitrate of
 silver,  both  being dissolved in alcohol, and  then
 adding a little  liquor of ammonia, when a white
 crystalline precipitate  will subside.   The copai-
 vates of lead, lime,  and iron, as well as several
 others, may be made in a similar manner.
  Copaivate of magnesia may be made by adding
 copaivate of potassa to a solution  of  epsom salts.
 All these salts are easily decomposed by acids.
  COPAL.   Syn.  Gum Copal.  A resinous sub-
stance, which exudes spontaneously from  the Rhus
 copallinum,  and  the Elsocarpus copalifer.  When
 of good quality, it is too hard to be scratched by the
 nail, and has a  conchoidal fracture.  It dissolves
 with difficulty, and this, combined with its extreme
 hardness, renders it very valuable for making var-
 nishes.
  Solvents. I.  Caoutchoueine;  sparingly.  II.
 Equal  parts  of caoutchoueine and alcohol, of -825;
 freely soluble in  the cold.  III. Absolute  alcohol,
 added gradually  to  the  copal,  previously rendered
gelatinous  by water  of ammonia, assisting  the
union with   heat.  IV.  Alcohol added to the co-
pal, previously softened with ether.  V. Absolute
alcohol 1£ parts, digested  on copal 1  part for 24
hours.  (Unverdorben.)  VI. Alcohol, to  which  a
little camphor has been added.   VII.  Ether; and
this solution  may be diluted with  alcohol. VIII.
 Oils of rosemary and  lavender, (spike;) too  ex-
pensive for general use.  IX.  Copal, heated until
it fuses, acquires the property of dissolving in tur-
pentine and  alcohol.  X. Copal, reduced to  pow-
der and exposed for some time to the  air, also be-
 comes  soluble in alcohol and turpentine. XL  Dry-
 ing  linseed oil, at  nearly the boiling point, dis-
 solves copal, and will bear dilution with spirits of
 turpentine as  soon  as  it  has  cooled  sufficiently.
 This is the common way of making copal varnish.
 XII. Ammonia enables oil of turpentine to dissolve
 copal; but  it requires  such  nice management of
 the  fire,  that   it  seldom  succeeds  completely.
 (Lewis.)   XIII. Powdered copal, triturated with
 a little camphor, softens and becomes a coherent
 mass; and camphor,  added  either to alcohol or
 oil of turpentine, renders it a solvent of copal. $ oz.
 r»f camphor  is sufficient for 1 quart of oil of turpen-
 tine, which  should be of the best quality ;  and the
 copal,  about the size of a large walnut, should be
 broken into very small  pieces, but not reduced to
! a fine powder.  The mixture  should be set on a
I fire so brisk as to  make it boil almost immediately
 The vessel should be of tin or other metal, strong,
 shaped like  a wine-bottle with a long  neck, and
 capable of holding 2 quarts.   The mouth should
 be stopped with a cork, in which a notch is cut to
 prevent the vessel  from  bursting.   (Sheldrake.)
 XIV. A  good varnish may be made by pouring
 upon the purest lumps of  copal, reduced to a fine
 mass in a mortar, colorless spirits of turpentine, to
 about one third higher than the copal, and tritura- '
 ting the mixture occasionally in the course of the
 day.   Next  morning it may be poured  off into  a
 bottle for use.  Successive portions of oil  of turpen-
 tine may thus be worked with the same copal
 mass.   (Varley, Tilloch's Mag. 51.)
   *„* In all the  above cases  the copal should be
 reduced to a coarse powder. A fine powder is apt
 to stick together and form hard lumps.  The solu-
 tion of copal, even in its most ready solvents, is at-
 tended  with  some difficulty, and frequently mis-
 carries in the hands of the inexperienced.  A mix-
 ture of caoutchoueine and alcohol (as in  No. II.) is
 an exception.
   COPAL,  MELTED.   Obtained by holding
 the gum  before a  good fire, so that as soon as the
 copal melts, it may drop into a pan of water:  a
 kind of oil separates from it, and the copal becomes
 soluble  in spirits  of wine, and  still more so if the
 melting is repeated.
   COPAL,  POWDERED.   Copal reduced to
 powder and exposed to the air in a thin stratum,
 on sieves  covered with paper, for  3  or  4  months.
 Soluble iu alcohol.
   COPPER.   (From cuprum, a corruption of
 ««;Tpof, from the island of Cyprus, whence it was
 formerly brought.)  A red-colored metal, too well
 known to require description.
   Hist.  Copper and its alloys appear to  have been
 known to the most remote ages of antiquity. Brass,
 an alloy of copper,  is mentioned by  Moses (Job,
 xxviii.) upwards of 1600 years before the birth of
 Christ.  (Hales.)   This metal is found in the me-
 tallic state, and in combination  with  oxygen, sul-
 phur, acids, and other minerals, and in the organic
 kingdom, in the ashes of plants, and  in the blood
 of animals. (Sarzeau.)  The copper of  commerce
 is principally prepared from copper pyrites, a mixed
 sulphuret of iron and copper, found in Cornwall, and
 other parts of the  world.
   Prep. Copper is only prepared from its ores on
 the large scale. The copper pyrites is first roasted,
 and then smelted, by which process " coarse metal"
 is produced ; this is again  submitted to calcination
 and smelting, when  "fine metal" is  obtained.  It
 afterwards undergoes  the  process of  refining and
 toughening.
   Prop.  This metal is malleable and ductile.  It
 has a specific  gravity of 88 to 89, fuses at about
 2000°  Fahr., and volatilizes at higher tempera-
 tures.  It forms numerous compounds, all of which
 are more  or less poisonous.
   Char, and  Tests.  The solutions of copper pos-
 sess a blue or green color, and yield  a blue precip-
 itate with 6oda or potassa.  Ammonia produces a
 bluish-white precipitate, soluble in an excess of the
 precipitant, forming a deep blue solution. Prussiate
 of potash  gives a  reddish-brown precipitate, sul-
 phureted hydrogen and hydrosulphurets, a  black 
COP                    217                    COP
 9ne.  A polished iron plate, immersed in an acidu-
 lous solution of copper, becomes coated with  that
 metal.
   Estim.  The quantity of copper present in any
 compound, may be estimated by throwing it down
 from its solution by pure  potassa, after  which it
 must be carefully collected, washed, dried, ignited,
 and weighed.  This will give the quantity of the
 oxide from which its equivalent of metallic copper
 may be calculated ; every 5 parts  of  the  former
 being (as near as possible)  equal to 4 of the latter.
 Copper may  also be  precipitated at once in the
 metallic stat^,  by immersing a piece  of polished
 steel into the  solution, but this method will not give
 very accurate results.  Copper may be separated
 from lead by adding  sulphuric acid to the nitric
 solution, and  evaporating to dryness, when water
 digested on the residuum will dissolve out the sul-
 phate of copper, but leave  the sulphate  of lead be-
 hind.   From  this solution the oxide of copper  may
 be thrown down as before.  Copper may be sepa-
 rated from zinc by sulphureted hydrogen, which
 will throw down a sulphuret of copper,  which  may
 be dissolved in nitric acid, and treated as above.
    Uses. The applications of copper  in the arts are
 too well known  to require  notice.  In medicine, 3
 or 4 grains of the filings  were formerly given  hi
 rheumatism,  and to prevent hydrophobia.
   Ant.  Copper in the metallic  state appears to be
 inert,  but most of its compounds  are poisonous.
 The antidotes are, the white of egg, milk, or  flour
 mixed with water.  Iron filings (Payen, Chevallier,
 Dumas) and the prussiate of potash have also been
 recommended.  A drachm or  more of the latter
 may be taken dissolved in water, and ^ oz. or more
 of the  former,  ad libituir.  Sugar  has also been
 proposed as an antidote. (Duval, Postel.)
   COPPER, ALLOVS OF.   With zinc copper
 forms brass;  with tin,  bronze, bell, and cannon
 metal.   An  alloy made with 100 parts of copper
 and 50 of tin, forms speculum metal.   White  cop-
 per is formed by the  addition of metallic  arsenic,
 and German silver is a mixture  of nickel, zinc, and
 copper.   See these articles  in  their alphabetical
 places.
   COPPER,  ACETATES  OF.   I. (Neutral
 Acetate.  Syn.  Distilled Verdigris.   Binacetate
 of Copper.  Crystallized Verdigris.)  Prep.  Dis-
 solve verdigris in vinegar, with the aid of heat, and
 crystallize.  It forms dark  green or blue crystals.
   II.  (Diacetate.   Syn.  Verdigris.   AUruro.)
 Formed by exposing sheets of copper to the vapor
 of acetic acid, in a warm situation.   (See Verdi-
 gris.)   It forms a green or bluish-green powder.
   III. (Sesquibasic Acetate.)   The blue portion
 of verdigris, soluble in  water.
   IV. (Trisacetate.)   The green  insoluble portion
 of verdigris.
   COPPER,  ARSENITE OF.  Syn.  Scheele's
 Green.  Prep.   Mix  a solution of 2 parts of  sul-
phate of copper in 44  of water,  with a  solution of
2 parts of potash of commerce, and 1 of pulverized
arsenious  acid,  also in 44 of water.   Both solu-
tions  being warm, the  first is  to  be  gradually
poured into the second. The grass-green insoluble
precipitate is to be washed with water.
  COPPER,  AMMONIURETED.   Syn.  Cu-
PRO-SULPHATE  OF A.MMONIA. Am.MONIATED COPPER,
(P. E.)   Prep.   'Ammonio-sulphate oj  Copper, I
                      28
 P. L.)  Sulphate of copper ^j; sesquicarbonate of
 ammonia ^iss.   Rub them together until carbonic
 acid ceases to  evolve, then wrap it up in bibulous
 paper and dry it in the air.
  Prop. By heat ammonia is evolved,  and oxide
 of copper remains.  Its aqueous solution changes
 the color of turmeric, and a solution of arsenious
 acid renders it green.  (P. L.)
   Uses.  Employed  in  pyrotechny.   It has been
 given in doses of ^ to 5 grs. in chorea, epilepsy,
 hysteria, &c., but it is principally employed as an
 injection and as a collyrium, in opacity of the cor-
 nea.
   Remarks. Great care must be taken in  drying
 this article, as it is apt not only to lose a large por-
 tion of  its weight, but become of an inferior color.
 Both the ingredients should  be separately reduced
 to powder before mixing.
   COPPER, BEAN-SHOT.   Prep. Melt  cop-
 per, and pour it in a small stream into boiling wa-
 ter.   It is in small lumps like peas or beans, hence
 its name.
   COPPER, BLANCHED.  Prep.  Fuse  cop-
 per with y1^ of  its weight of neutral arsenical salt,
 under a flux of calcined borax, charcoal, and pow-
 dered glass.
   COPPER,  CARBONATE  OF.   Syn.  Di-
 CARBONATE  OF  COPPER.  MlNERAL GREEN.  Prep.
 Add a solution  of carbonate of soda or potassa to a
 hot solution of protosulphate of copper.
   Remarks. The beautiful  green mineral called
 malachite, is a hydrated dicarbonate of copper.  If
 the solution of copper in the above formula be em-
 ployed  cold, the precipitate  has  a  bluish-green
 color.   (See Verditer.)
  COPPER, CHLORIDES OF.  Prep. I. (Sub-
 chloride.   Syn.  Dichloride of Copper.  Renin
 of ditto.  White muriate of ditto.) Distil  a mix-
 ture of  1 part of copper  filings, witli iwo parti, of
 corrosive sublimate.
   II. (Chloride.  Syn. Muriate of Copper.   Hy-
 drochlorate of  ditto.  Protochloride  of  ditto.)
 Dissolve  protoxide  of  copper  iii  muriatic arid,
 evaporate and crystallize.
  Remarks. This salt forms green needles, is  de-
 liquescent, soluble in alcohol, and when heated,
 (under 400°,) loses  its water, and becomes anhy-
 drous chloride of copper, and assumes the form of
 a yellow powder.  The first of these preparations
 is sometimes called  the protochloride or muriate ;
 the second the deutochloride.
  COPPER, CHROMATE  OF.   Prep.  Pre-
 cipitate a salt  of copper, with  neutral  chromate
 of potash ; or dissolve hydrated peroxide or car-
 bonate of copper in chromic acid. Caustic ammo-
 nia dissolves this salt, forming a magnificent dark-
 green liquid, from  which, by  the  admixture of
 spirit  of wine,  ammonio-chromate  of copper,  or
 cupro-chromate of ammonia, is disengaged in the
 form of a powder of  a splendid, rather dark-green
 appearance.  The readiest way of preparing this
 permanent and  beautiful color, is to add solution
 of chromate of  potash to ammoniacal sulphate of
 copper.
  COPPER, FEATHER-SHOT.   Prep. Melt-
ed copper, poured  in  a small  stream  into cold
 water.   It forms small  pieces, with  a  feathered
edge, hence the name.   It is used to make solu-
tion of copper. 
COP                    218                   COP
   COPPER GREEN.  Syn.  Oxv-chloride of
 Copper.    Bremen  Green.   Brunswick  ditto.
 Friezland  ditto.   Prep   Pour a saturated so-
 lution of muriate of ammonia over copper filings
 or shreds in a close vessel, keeping the  mixture in
 a warm place, and  adding  more  of the solution
 from time to time, till 3 parts of muriate and 2 of
 copper have been used.  After' standing a  few
 weeks, the pigment  is to be separated from the
 unoxidized copper, by  washing through a sieve;
 and then it is to be well washed, and dried slowly
 in the shade.  This green is almost always adul-
 terated with ceruse, which improves the color.
   Remarks. A mixture i/f cream-tartrate, or car-
 bonate of copper, with carbonate of lime and mag-
 nesia, is also sold under the  name of Brunswick
 green.
   COPPER, IN  FINE POWDER.   Prep.  A
 solution  of sulphate  of copper  is  heated  to  the
 boiling-point, and  precipitated with distilled  zinc.
 The precipitated copper is then separated from the
 adherent zinc by  diluted sulphuric acid, and dried
 by exposure to a moderate  temperature.   From
 recently precipitated chloride of  silver, an exceed-
 ingly fine silver-dust may also be obtained by boil-
 ing it with  water, acidulated  with  sulphuric acid
 and zinc.   (Boettger's Beitrage.)
   COPPER, IODIDE OF.   I. (Iodide.)  When
 iodide of potassium is added to a solution of a  salt
 of copper, a diniodide of copper falls down, and an
 iodide remains in  solution.  It is but little known.
   II.  (Diniodide.) To a solution  of 4 parts of
 protosulphate of  copper, and  5  parts of protosul-
 phate of iron, add a solution of iodide of potassium,
 wash and dry the precipitate.
   R*»i irks. The last preparation is that common-
 ly known in trade by the name of iodide of copper.
   COPPER, OXIDES OF.  I.  (Black Oxide.
 Syn.   Protoj ide  of Copper.)  Prep. This may
 be formed by calcining metallic copper,  nitrate of
 copper, or  the hydrate, thrown  down  from solu-
 tions of the  salts  of copper by means of pure po-
 tassa.  This preparation was  formerly called  the
 deutoxide of copper.  It is not changed by heat,
 but readily gives out its oxygen when heated with
 combustible matter; hence its general  use in or-
 ganic analysis for supplying oxygen.
   II.  (Red Oxide.   Syn. Dioxide of Copper.)
 Prep. a. Mix 316 parts of copper filings with 39*6
 parts of black oxide of copper, and  heat them to-
 gether in a covered crucible.
  b.  Boil a solution of the acetate of protoxide of
 copper with sugar;  collect the red powder, wash it
 with water, and dry it.
  c. Mix dichloride of copper with an equal weight
 of carbonate of soda, and fuse  it  at a low  red
 heat, then  well wash the mass  with water, and
 dry the red powder.
  d.  Mix 100 parts of sulphate of copper with 57
 parts of carbonate  of  soda, (both in crystals,) and
 fuse them  at  a gentle heat;  cool, pulverize, add
 25 parts of fine  copper filings,  ram the mixture
 into a crucible, cover it over, and expose it  for 20
 minutes to a white heat.
  e. A saturated solution of 6ugar of milk, con-
taining some carbonate of soda, is poured over re-
cently prepared moist hydrated  oxide  of copper,
and heated to boiling.   A dark  orange-colored
p. iripitate of hydrate of protoxide of copper soon
 appears, from which saccharine matter is removed
 by washing in distilled water, and then dried.
   /.  (Magnificently red anhydrous protoxide of
 copper.)   A solution of 27 parts of cane-sugar, in
 60 parts of water, is poured over  9 parts of  hy-
 drate of oxide  of  copper, (weighed in  the com-
 pressed  and still  moist state ;)  a solution  of 18
 parts of caustic potassa, in  60  parts of  water, is
 added;  the whole mass well agitated together at
 the  ordinary temperatures,  and strained through
 linen.  If the dark-blue liquid, after being passed
 through the strainer, is heated, continually stirring
 over  the water-bath, anhydrous protoxide of cop-
 per is disengaged, and the liquid becomes colorless.
 (Boettger's Beitrage.)
   Remarks.  Red oxide of  copper resembles me-
 tallic copper in  appearance.  It is used as a pig.
 ment and a bronze.  By heat it is converted into
 the black oxide.  With ammonia  it  forms a color-
 less  solution, but  rapidly becomes bluo from the
 action of the air.   This  preparation was  formerly
 called protoxide of copper.
   III. (Peroxide.) Formed by the  action of per-
 oxide of hydrogen  water, on the  hydrated black
 oxide.  (Thernard.)  It is very liable to spontane-
 ous decomposition.
   Remarks.  According to the opinions of Berze-
 lius,  Thompson, Liebig, Gregory, and  others, the
 eq  of copper is 31-6, and  consequently the red
 oxide is a sub- or di-oxide, and the black the oxide
 oi protoxide.  The former  containing 63-2  parts
 of copper and 8 of oxygen, and the  latter 31-6 of
 copper and 8 of oxygen.  But if the eq. of copper
 be taken at 63-2, as is done  by some persons, the
 first of these preparations must be regarded as the
 protoxide, and the  second as the deuto-  or bin-
 oxide.  The latter terms were  generally applied
 to them  in chemical works, until within  the last
 few years.  The black oxide has also been  called
 the peroxide.   This explanation is  called for, to
 prevent the tyro in chemistry mistaking the one
 preparation for the  other.
  COPPER, SALTS  OF.  These  are  more  or
 less poisonous, and may be recognised in the man-
 ner as described under the article Copper.
  COPPER VESSELS.  Culinary and pharma-
 ceutical vessels  are very commonly  made of cop-
 per, but too much  caution  cannot be exercised-in
 their employment.   Acid sirups, vegetable juices,
 aqueous  extracts,  soups, stews, &.c, prepared  in
 copper  saucepans,  or  boilers,  receive  a  metal-
 lic contamination  proportional to the length  of
 time  they are  exposed to the action of the metal.
 Such  vessels are frequently tinned, for the purpose
 of protecting the copper from contact with  their
contents, but this  film  of tin is  necessarily very
thin, and rubs off  by constant use.   When acids
or acidulous fluids  are  boiled in vessels  of imper-
fectly tinned copper, a portion of the tin is taken
up by the liquid, and deposited upon the  abraded
or exposed part,  thus protecting  the  copper  from
the farther action of the menstruum ; but the pro-
tective power of such a deposite is limited, and it
has been proved  that when a coating of metal is
extremely thin, though appearing  quite perfect to
the eye, it has a certain porosity, that permits the
action of acids on  the  metal beneath.  This has
been proved to be the case, even when the deposite
is of silver.  (W*irruigton.)   When copper vessels 
COR
219
COR
are allowed to remain wet or dirty, and especially
greasy, a poisonous green matter forms upon their
surface, somewhat similar to verdigris, and if ar-
ticles prepared  in them  without their being first
properly cleaned, be taken  as food, serious conse-
quences may ensue.  Cases of poisoning from this
cause  are  frequently met with, and instances of
vomiting following the use of such articles are still
more common.  I have  known extracts prepared
in copper pans  deposite a  coating  of that metal
upon the knives used to  stir them, and  the  ashes
of the  inspissated juices of fresh vegetables, and
especially the pulps of fruit, prepared in vessels of
the  same  metal, have  exhibited the  presence of
copper on the application of chemical tests.   The
most wholesome  material  for  culinary utensils is
thin sheet iron  or tin plate, which is very durable
if kept clean and dry when not in use.  Copper
vessels of every kind should be cleaned out, im-
mediately  before  use,   even  though  they  may
not  appear to want it,  and on no account  should
they be employed for any fluids that are the least
acidulous, or that are  required to remain long in
them.
   COPPERAS.   Syn. Green Copperas. Green
Vitriol.  Vitriol of Iron.   Commercial Sul-
phate of Iron.  Crude sulphate of iron, made by
allowing iron pyrites to effloresce in the air, wash-
 ing out the salt, boiling along with scraps of old
 iron, evaporating and crystallizing.
   COPPERAS,   CALCINED.   Syn.   Dried
 Sulphate of Iron.  Calcined ditto.  Prep. Heat
 green vitriol in an unglazed earthen pot, or spread
 it out in a warm situation, until it  becomes white
and dry.  Use.  It is astringent and drying, and is
sometimes used in making ink, and in dyeing.
   CORAL,  FACTITIOUS.   Prepared  chalk
dried, colored with  a little sesquioxide of iron, or
rose pink, and passed through a sieve.  This is al-
most universally sold by the druggists for powdered
coral.  It possesses similar properties.
   CORDIAL,  (in Medicine.)  Any warm stim-
ulant  that  tends  to  raise  the  spirits  and promote
the circulation.   The principal cordial  medicines
are the aromatized tinctures.
  CORDIAL,  (in  the  art  of the  Rectifier.)
Aromatized and sweetened spirit, employed as  a
beverage.
  Cordials are prepared by either infusing the aro-
matics in  the spirit, and drawing off the  essence
by distillation, which is  then sweetened, or without
distillation, by  flavoring the  spirit  with essential
oils, or simple digestion on the ingredients, adding
sugar or sirup, as before.   Malt or  molasses spirit
is the kind  usually employed, and for this purpose
should be perfectly flavorless; as,  if this be  not
the case, the quality of the cordial will be inferior.
Rectified spirit of  wine is generally the most free
from flavor, and when reduced to a proper strength
with water, forms the  best and purest spirit for
cordial liquors.   Spirit which has been freed from
its own  essential  oil, by careful rectification, is
commonly called 'pure,' 'flavorless,'  'plain,' or
'silent spirit.'  The solid ingredients should be
coarsely pounded or bruised, before digestion in the
spirit, and this should be  done  immediately before
putting them into the cask  or vat;  as, after they
are bruised, they rapidly lose their aromatic prop-
•rties by  exposure to the  air.  The  practice of
drying  the ingredients  before  pounding  them,
adopted by some workmen for  the mere  sake of
lessening the labor, cannot be too much avoided,
as the least exposure to heat tends to lessen their
aromatic properties, which are very volatile.  The
length of time  the ingredients should be digested
in the  spirit, should  never  be less than  3 or 4
days, but a longer period is preferable when distil-
lation is not employed.   In  either case, the time
allowed for digestion  may be advantageously ex-
tended to 10 days or a fortnight, and frequent agi-
tation should be had recourse to.   When essential
oils are  employed  to give  the flavor, they should
be first  dissolved in a little strong alcohol, or recti-
fied spirit of wine, so as to make a perfectly trans-
parent  solution;  and  when  added  to  the spirit,
they should be mixed up with the whole  mass as
rapidly  and as perfectly  as  possible, by laborious
and long-continued agitation.  In managing the
still, the fire should be proportioned to the ponder-
osity of the oil or flavoring, and the receiver should
be changed before the faints come  over, as the
latter are unfit to be mixed with the cordial.  The
stronger spirit  may  be  reduced to the  desired
strength by means of clear soft water, or the clar-
ified sirup  used for sweetening.   The  sugar em-
ployed should be of the finest quality, and is pref-
erably made into  capillaire or sirup before adding
it to the aromatized spirit; and this  should not be
added until the latter has been  rendered perfectly
fine by filtering or fining.  Some spirits, as aniseed,
&c,  frequently require this  treatment, which is
best performed by running them through a fine
and clean wine-bag, having previously mixed them
with  a spoonful or two  of  magnesia.   By good
management, cordials thus made'will be perfectly
" clear" and transparent; but  should this not be
the case, they may be fined with the  whites of
about 12 or 20 eggs to the hogshead, or by adding
a little alum, either alone, or followed by  a little
carbonate of soda or potassa,  both dissolved in wa-
ter.  In a  week or a  fortnight  the liquor will be
clear.   (See Clarification.)
   A most convenient  and easy way of manufac-
turing cordials, especially where  it  is  wished  to
avoid keeping a large stock, is always to keep two
casks of sweetened spirit ready  prepared,  at the
strength of 60 or 64 u. p.  The one should  contain
1 lb. of sugar to the gallon, the other  3 lbs. per
gallon.  From  these  may be made  spirit of any
intermediate sweetness, which  may be  flavored
with any essential oil dissolved in alcohol, or any
aromatic spirit, prepared either by digestion or dis-
tillation. As a  general rule, the concentrated es-
sences may be  made by dissolving 1 oz. of the es-
sential oil in  1 pint of  the strongest rectified spirit
of wine.  This  solution  should be  kept in  well-
corked bottles, and used by dropping it  cautiously
into the sweetened spirit, until the desired flavor is
produced.  During this  operation, the cordial should
be frequently and violently shaken, to  produce a
perfect  admixture.  Should sufficient essence to
foul the liquor be added by accident, the transpa-
rency may be restored by the addition  of  a little
more spirit, or by clarification.
   The most frequent cause of failure in the manu-
facture  of cordials, is the addition of too  much fla-
voring.  Persons unaccustomed to the use of strong
aromatics and essential oils, seldom sufficiently es- 
COR                   220                   COR
 timate their  power, and consequently, generally
 add too much of them,  and thus not only is  the
 liquor rendered disagreeably high flavored, but the
 quantity of oil present turns it  'milky,'  or 'foul,'
 on the addition of  the water.  This  again is  an-
 other source  of annoyance, as  from  the  consist-
 ence  or  viscidity of the fluid,  it  is  less readily
 'fined down' than unsweetened liquor, and often
 gives much trouble  to  clumsy and inexperienced
 Operators.  The most certain  way to prevent  this
 fa to use toolittle,rather than too much flavoring;
 for if the quantity  prove insufficient,  it may
 readily be  ' brought up,' even after the cordial is
 made.
   A careful attention to the previous remarks  will
 render this branch of the  rectifier's art far more
 perfect and easy of performance than  it is at pres-
 ent, and will,  in most cases, produce at once a  sat-
 isfactory article, 'fine, sweet,  and  pleasant.'
   It may be observed, before concluding this short
 notice, that the majority of  cordials may be made
 with the pure essential oils, of  nearly  equal flavor
 to  those  prepared  by distillation ; and for such as
 are colored, simple digestion of the ingredients is
 almost universally  employed.    Inferior lump, or
 even  good  brown sugar is used for some dark  and
 strong-flavored articles.  Ingredients that are not
 volatile, are,  of course, always  added after distil-
 lation.  Though I  have said  that very excellent
 cordials may  be made without distillation, yet the
 still should be  always employed to impart  the
 flavor and aroma of volatile aromatics to spirits,
 when  the  expense, labor, and time are of no  im-
 portance compared to the production of a superior
 article.   The strength at which cordials are  usu-
 ally sent out  by permits is 60 or 64 u. p.
   CORDIAL, ANISEED.  Prep.  I.  Aniseed
 (bruised)  1 lb.; proof spirit 6 gallons; macerate
 for a week ;  then distil 5 gallons; add 2 gallons
 of clear soft water, and 1  gallon of clarified sirup.
' This will make 8 gallons of cordial 24 u. p., which
 is as weak as " aniseed" should  ever"be made.  It
 may be reduced by sweetened  water.
   II. Instead of distilling off the spirit, merely pass
 it through a wine-bag, to take off the seed, lower
 it with clear soft water, and sweeten as before.
    III. Instead of  1 lb. of  aniseed, add enough of
 the essential oil, dissolved in spirit of wine, to pro-
 duce  the desired  flavor;  2 drachms  of the oil is
 fully equal to 1 lb. of the seeds.
   CORDIAL,  BILIOUS,  (CHAMBER-
 LAIN'S.)  An American  medicine, prepared from
 the inner bark of the juglans  cinerea, mixed with
 spices.
   CORDIAL  FOR CALVES.  Prep.  I. Car-
 aways, powdered,  £ oz.; ginger and carbonate of
 soda, of  each  a spoonful;  gin or brandy, | of  a
 wineglassful; water 6 oz.
    II. Brandy  £ oz.;   cow's  urine  4  oz.;  mix.
 (Gray.)
    Use. As a  stimulant  for  looseness,  &c, in
 calves.
    CORDIAL,  CARAWAY.   Prep.  Bruised
 caraway seeds 3 lbs., or, essential oil of caraway
 1£ oz.;  sugar  56  lbs.; clean  spirit,  at proof, 40
 gallons ; water q. s.
    Remarks.  The  addition of 30 drops of oil of  cas-
 sia, and 20 drops  each of essence of lemon  and
 orange-peel,  to the above quantity,  improves the
flavor; also a  larger quantity of sugar must bo
used, if the cordial is to be much lowered.
  II. Seeds $ lb., or oil 1 drachm;  proof spirit 1
gallon ; sugar 3 lbs.;  water q. s.   As last.
  CORDIAL, CEDRAT.   Prep.  I.  Essence of
cedrat \ oz.; dissolve in pure proof spirit 1 gallon;
add water 3 pints, agitate well ;  draw off 3 quarts,
and add an equal measure of clarified sirup.
  Remarks. This is a most delicious cordial.
  II. Cut 12 lemons in pieces, and  digest in spirit
of wine 1 gallon; add  water 1 quart;  draw off 1
gallon, and add an equal weight of capillaire.  In-
ferior to the last.
  CORDIAL,  CINNAMON.    This  is  seldom
made with cinnamon, but with either the essential
oil, or bark of cassia.   It is preferred colored, and
therefore may be very well prepared by simple di-
gestion.  If the oil be used, 1 dr. will be found to
be enough  for 2 or 3  gallons of spirit.   The addi-
tion of 2 or 3 drops each of essence  of  lemon and
orange peel, with about a  spoonful of essence of
cardamoms to each gallon, will improve it.  Some
persons add to  the  above  quantity 1  drachm of
cardamom seeds and 1 oz. each  of dried  orange
and lemon peel.  1 oz. of oil of cassia is considered
to be  equal  to 8 lbs.  of the buds, or bark.  If
wanted dark  it may be colored with burnt sugar.
The quantity of sugar is 1 *j lb. to the gallon.
  CORDIAL, CITRON.  Prep. Yellow  rind of
citrons 3 lbs.:  orange peel 1 lb. ; nutmegs bruised
2 oz.; proof spirit 13 gallons; distil ,.1  nacerate,
add water sufficient, and 2 lbs. of fine lump sugar,
for every gallon of the cordial.
  CORDIAL,  CLOVE.   Prep. Bruised  cloves
1 oz., or  essential oil, 1 dr. to every 4 gallons of
proof spirit.  If distilled  it should be drawn  ovei
with a pretty quick  fire.   It is preferred of a  very
deep color, and is therefore strongly colored  with
poppy-flowers  or cochineal, or  more  commonly
with  brandy coloring,  or  red sanders  wood.  It
should have 3  lbs. of sugar to the gallon, and this
need not be very fine.  The addition of 1 drachm
of bruised pimento, or 5 drops of the oil for every
ounce of cloves, improves this cordial.
  CORDIAL,  CORIANDER.  Prep.  1  lb. of
coriander seeds; 1 oz. of caraways, and the  peel
and juice of 1 orange to every 3  gallons of proof
spirit.
  CORDIAL,  GOLD.   Prep.  Angelica  root,
sliced, 1  lb.: raisins £  lb.; coriander  seeds 2 oz.;
caraway seeds and  cassia, of each  1£  oz.; cloves
£ oz.; figs and sliced liquorice root, of  each 4 oz.;
proof spirit 3  gallons;  water 1  gallon.  Digest 2
days, and draw off 3 gallons by  a gentle heat; to
this  add 8 lbs. of sugar dissolved in 1  quart  each
of rose-water and  clear  soft water, and stee;; 1$
oz. of hay saffron in the liquid until it acquires a
proper color.
  Remarks.  The above is the  form for a  cordial
once  in much esteem, and which derived its name
from  a small quantity of gold leaf being added to it
It is now but little drunk, and this addition  seldom
made.
  CORDIAL,  GODFREY'S.   Prep. I.  Mo-
lasses 15 lbs.; distilled water 2| gallons; dissolve;
add oil of sassafras 1 oz. dissolved in rectified  spirit
of wine £ gallon, bruised ginger J  oz.; cloves £ oz.;
laudanum 8 oz.; macerate for 14 days, and strain
through flannel. 
COR                    221                     COR
    II. Sassafras chips 1 lb.; ginger bruised  4 oz.;
  water 3 gallons; simmer until reduced  to  2 gal-
  lons; then add treacle  16 lbs.,  rectified spirits 7
  pints, and laudanum 1 pint.
    III. Opium £ oz.; treacle 5 lbs.; boiling water
  1 gallon; dissolve, and add.rectified spirit £ pint;
  oil of sassafras £ dr.; cloves, mustard seed, of each
  -J oz.; corianders and caraway seeds, of each 1 dr.;
  digest for a week.
    IV. Caraway, corianders, and aniseed, of each
  1 lb.; water 6  gallons; distil 5  gallons, and add
  treacle 28 lbs.;  mix, then, add laudanum 1  quart,
  and oil of sassafras  1  oz. previously dissolved in
  rectified spirit 1 gallon.
    Remarks.  The above forms are those commonly
  current in the drug trade.  This cordial is anodyne
  and narcotic, and is commonly  given to children
  troubled with wind or colic.   Its  frequent and ex-
  cessive use has  sent many infants  prematurely to
  the grave.   Gray says, " It is chiefly used to pre-
  vent the crying of children in pain or starving."
  The dose is  £ of  a teaspoonful and upwards, ac-
  cording to the age of the child.
    CORDIAL,  GOUT.  Prep.  Rhubarb, senna,
  coriander seed, sweet fennel  seed, and cochineal,
  of each 2 oz.;  liquorice root and  saffron, of each 1
  oz.; raisins 2£ lbs.; rectified  spirit of wine  2 gal-
  lons ; digest  for 14 days.   Used in gout and rheu-
  matism.   Dose. 1 tablespoonful  to £ oz.   It is
  aromatic and slightly laxative.
  •  CORDIAL, HORSE.  Prep. Compound tinc-
  ture of benzoin  1 pint;  compound spirit of ammo-
  nia, and sweet spirits of nitre, of each 8 oz.; mix ;
  put  it up in Bateman's  bottles, and seal them.
    CORDIAL  LEMON.  Prep.  Digest  2  oz.
  each of fresh and dried lemon peel, and 1  oz. of
  fresh orange peel in 1  gallon of  proof spirit for a
  week ; strain with expression, add clear soft water
  to reduce it to the desired strength,  and  lump su-
  gar,  in the proportion of 2£ lbs. to 3 lbs. to the gal-
  lon.   The addition of a little orange-flower or rose-
  water improves it.
   CORDIAL, LOVAGE.  Prep.  Fresh roots of
  lovage 2 oz.; fresh roots of celery and sweet fen-
 nel, of each 1 oz.; essential oil of caraway  \ oz.;
 proof spirit 3  gallons; digest for  7 days, add wa-
 ter 1 gallon ;  distil off 2£  gallons;  add  water to
 make it of the desired strength, and  sweeten with
 loaf  sugar.   To the above ingredients some per-
 sons  add, before distillation, £ oz.  of fresh valerian
 root,  and  1 drachm of oil of savine.
   CORDIAL,  NERVOUS.  (Brodum's.) Prep.
 Tinctures of  gentian, calumba, cardamoms, and
 cinchona, compound spirits of lavender, and  steel
 vine, of each equal parts.  Tonic and stomachic.
   CORDIAL,  ORANGE.  Like lemon cordial.
 £ lb.  fresh orange peel to the gallon.
   CORDIAL, PEPPERMINT.  Syn.  Sports-
 man's Cordial.   Eau de Chasseurs.  Prep.  Add
 English oil of peppermint 2 oz. to rectified spirit of
 wine  1 quart, agitate well  in a corked bottle, ca-
 pable of holding 3 pints or more, then pour it into
 a cask having a capacity of upwards of 100  gal-
 lons ;  add 36  gallons of  perfectly white  and fla-
 vorless proof spirit,  agitate well for 10 minutes,
then  add 2 cwt.  of the best refined lump sugar,
previously dissolved in twice  its  weight of  pure
filtered  rain water; rummage well, and further
add sufficient  clear rain water tc  make up the
 whole quantity to exactly 100 gallons; again rum-
 mage well; add 2 oz. alum, dissolved in 1 quart of
 rain water, and a third time agitate  for 15 min-
 utes, after which put in the bung and let it stand
 for a fortnight, when it will be fit for sale.
    Remarks. The above produces a beautiful  arti-
 cle, provided the oil  of  peppermint be of good
 quality, the sugar  double refined and stove-dried,
 and the cask one that will not give color.  To
 ensure  the first, the oil should be purchased of
 some known respectable  dealer.  That prepared
 at Mitcham, Surrey, and hence called " Mitcham
 oil of peppermint," is  not only the strongest but
 best flavored, and though  more than  double  the
 price of the foreign  oil, is, in the long run, much
 the cheapest.  The sugar should  be  sufficiently
 pure to dissolve in  a  wine glassful of clear  soft
 water, without injuring its transparency, and  the
 cask  should be  a fresh-emptied gin pipe,  or  one
 properly prepared for gin, as if it give color it  will
 spoil the cordial.  If these particulars be attended
 to, the product will be a clear transparent liquor
 as soon as made, and will  not  require fining;  but
 should there be the slightest opacity, some alum
 may be added as above, which will clear it down.
 Some persons add more oil of peppermint, others
 less, than  the quantity  I have ordered, but this, as
 well as the weight of sugar, must depend upon the
 taste of the  purchasers, and the price the liquor is
 to be sold at  The product is  100 gallons of cor-
 dial at 64 u. p., which is the strongest usually sent
 out. A similar plan may be followed for the  manu-
 facture of  any other cordial liquor, the same prin-
 ciples and  operations being common to all.
   CORDIAL,  Sir  WALTER  RALEIGH'S.
 Syn. Sir W. Raleigh's Confection.   Aromatic
 do.  Prep.  Fresh summits of rosemary and juni-
 per berries, of each 1 lb.; cardamom seeds,  zedoa-
 ry, and saffron, of each £ lb.; proof spirit 1 £ gal-
 lons ;  digest for  a fortnight, express and strain;
 evaporate to 2£ lbs. and add Gascoigne's powder
 1  lb.; cinnamon and nutmegs, of each 2 oz.; cloves
 1  oz., white sugar 2 lbs., mix well together.
   Remarks. The above formula  is that for  the
 original  aromatic  confection.   Sir Walter Ra-
 leigh's own receipt was far more complicated.
   CORDIAL, SPORTSMAN'S.   Syn. Eau de
 Chasseurs.  Prep. Peppermint water and  recti-
 fied spirits of wine, of each 1 pint; lump sugar £
 lb.  Dissolve the sugar  in the water and add it to
 the spirit.
   CORDIAL,  WARNER'S.   Prep.  Rhubarb
 •jj;  senna §iss; saffron 3j;  liquorice root 3iv ; rai-
 sins lb. j;  rectified spirit lb. iij:  digest for a fort-
 night.   Laxative.
   CORK.   Syn. Corker.  The lichen omphalodes
 made into balls.  Used  to dye wool.
   CORKS.  The common  practice of employing
 inferior  corks  for  the   purpose  of stopping  the
 mouths of bottles, is often productive of considera-
 ble loss, from the air being only partially excluded,
 and the contents suffering in consequence.  I once
saw a  large  " bin" of valuable  wine become,  in
less than a year, little better than sour Cape, from
the parsimony of its owner on this point, and I have
frequently had to  regret the loss of valuable chem-
ical  preparations  from a similar  cause.   The best
corks are those called " velvet corks," and of these
the finest qualities are imported from France. 
COR                     222                   COR
   CORNS.   Round, horny, cutaneous extuber-
ances, with central nuclei, very sensitive at the
base, arising from continued pressure over the pro-
jection of the bones,  from tight or  stiff 6hocs or
boots.  Corns are of two kinds, hard and soft.  The
former grow on the exposed portions of the joints,
the latter between the toes.
   Treat. First soak the feet in warm water for a
few minutes, then pare the corns as close as possi-
ble with a sharp knife, taking  care not  to  make
them bleed.   They may  now  be touched  over
with a little lunar caustic,  or nitric acid.  The for-
mer  is  used by merely rubbing it on the corns,
previously slightly moistened with water ; the lat-
ter by moistening them with it, by means of a strip
of wood, or preferably a rod of glass.  This  treat-
ment adopted  every other  day for 10  or 12 days,
accompanied by the use of soft, loose shoes, will
generally effect a cure.  Concentrated acetic acid
may be used instead of nitric acid, and is preferred
by some persons from  not  staining the skin, but  it
is less active, and requires to be more frequently
applied.  It has  been  recommended to  remove
large  corns by ligatures of silk, applied as close
to the base as possible, and tightened daily un-
til they drop off; but this plan  is  tedious, and  is
not always successful.   Another mode of extirpa-
tion is the application of a  small blister, which will
frequently raise them with the  skin out of their
beds.   In this case the exposed surface must be
dressed with a little simple ointment.  Soft corns
may also be easily removed by applying ivy leaf
previously soaked  in strong vinegar, changing the
piece every morning; or by placing a dressing of
soap cerate, spread  on a bit of lint or old rag, be-
tween the toes.  One of the simplest and best rem-
edies for hard corns, and which has lately received
the sanction of high medical authority, is to wear
upon the toe or part affected a small circular piece
of soft  leather,  or  still better, a  piece of amadou,
spread with  diachylon  or other emollient plaster,
and having a hole cut in its centre the size  of  the
corn. (Sir B. Brodie.)   By this means the pressure
of the boot or shoe  is' equalized, and the corn pro-
tected.
  Prevention.   This consists  in keeping the feet
clean, by frequent ablutions  with warm water, and
the use  of easy, soft shoes or boots.   Without  the
latter precaution, corns will  generally return, even
after they appear to have been perfectly removed,
  CORNS, POPULAR REMEDIES FOR.   I.
(Lotion.) Sal ammoniac 1 oz., spirit 4 oz.; dissolve.
Moisten the corn with this lotion every morning
and evening.
  II. (Powder.)  Savine leaves 2 oz.; verdigris 1
oz.;  red precipitate £ oz.; all in powder.  Mix. Ap-
plied by means of a piece of rag to  the corn nightly.
  III.  (Plaster.)  White diachylon and  yellow
rosin, of each 2 oz.;  melt and add finely-powdered
verdigris 1 oz.  For use, spread it on paper, linen,
or leather, and apply a small piece to the corn.
  CORN  SOLVENT, SIR H. DAVY'S.  Prep.
Potash  2  parts, salt sorrel  1  part;  each in  fine
powder.  Mix and  lay a small  quantity on  the
corn for four or five successive nights, binding it on
with a rag.
  CORRECTING PROOFS.  (In  Typography.)
The operation of marking on the proof sheets of a
work any  errors  of orthography, punctuation,  ar-
rangement, or language, they may contain,  and
also  any alterations that may appear  necessary.
The following specimen will  explain the method
generally adopted for this purpose, and with a little
attention will enable any person to  superintend a
work through the press,  as far,  at least, as  de-
pends upon  the correction of the proofs: 
COR                  223                   COR
1	■Ja
2	i>
3	>/
4	»/
5	^V
6	4
7	Twm
8	fr
9	faf
10 fthfyj	
12	Oft//
13	fa/
14	^e/
15	KmonJ
16	•>l
17	1
.18	1V&
19	J/efi
20	Wff/iecr
21	^
22	l.c
23	Jm.orAj
24	
25	Of
26	(jy a
27	°?
28	W
 [Proof.]
   As the vine, which has long
twined  its  graceful  foliage

about the oak/  and  been
lifted by it into sunshine, will

when the hardy plant  is rift

ed  by  the  thunderOD°ll-
cling  round/  it  with  its
caressing tendrils, and bind
/\its   shattered boughs up)
so is it ^ordered ^beautifully^
by providence, that  woman,
 who is the mere depend yfyLt
 and ornament of man in 4te*
 happier hours,  should ^ his
 stay and solace. J
           (_ When smitten by
 sudden   calamity/ winding

 herself  ~  into the  rugged

 recesses  of his Mature,  ten-
 derly  supporting the  droop-
 ing head ,  and binding up
 the broken  heart.   [ It  also
 is ^interesting to notice how
 some  minds seem  almost to
 create themselves,  springing

 up under ^, and working their
 solitary butjirresistible way, A
through/a  thousand   obsta-
cles / / Nature seems, &c.

                 IRWING.
__ewrte c/b/attfvtmfizGes
The same corrected :
  As the vine, which has long twined its graceful
foliage about the oak, and been lifted by it into
sunshine, will, when the hardy plant is rifted by
the thunderbolt, cling round  it with its caressing
tendrils,  and bind up  its shattered boughs, so is it
beautifully ordered by Providence, that WOMAN,
who  is  the  mere dependant and  ornament of
man hi his happier hours, should be his  stay and
solace when smitten by sudden calamity; winding
herself into the rugged recesses of his nature, ten-
derly supporting the drooping head,  and binding
up the broken heart.
  It also is  interesting to notice how some minds
seem almost to create themselves, springing up
under every disadvantage, and working their " sol-
itary but irresistible way," through a thousand ob-
stacles.  Nature seems, &c
                                   Irving.

Explanation of the marks.
   1. When a letter or word is to be in italics.
   2. When a letter is turned upside down.
   3. The substitution of a comma for another point
or letter.
   4. The insertion of  a hyphen ; also marked -/
   5. When letters should be close together.
   6. When a letter or word is to be omitted.
   7. When a word is to be changed to Roman.
   8, 9.  Two methods of marking a transposition ;
when there are several words  to be transposed,
and they are much  intermixed, it  is a common
plan to number them, and to put the usual mark
in the margin.
   10. Substitution of a capital for a small letter.
   11. When a word is to be changed from  small
letters to capitals.
   12. The transposition of letters in a word.
   13. The substitution of one word for another.
   14. When a word or letter is  to be inserted.
   15.  When a paragraph occurs improperly.
   16.  The insertion of a semicolon.
   17.  When a space or quadrat stands up, and is
seen along with the type.
   18.  When letters of a wrong fount are used.
  19.  When words crossed off are to remain.
  20.  The mark for a paragraph, when its com-
mencement  has been  neglected.  Sometimes the
sign [, or f, or the word " break," is used, instead
of the syllables " New Par."
  21.  For the insertion of a space when omitted.
  22. To change capitals to small letters.
  23.  To change small letters to small capitals.
  24.  When lines or words are not straight.
  25, 26. The insertion of inverted commas. The
apostrophe is similarly marked.
  27.  The insertion of a period when omitted, or
in place  of another point or letter.
  28.  Substitution of one letter for another.
  29.  The method of marking an omission or in-
sertion when too long for the side margin. 
COS                    224                    COU
   CORROSION,  PREVENTION  OF.   The
best means of preventing the corrosion of metals is
first to dip the articles into very dilute  nitric acid,
and afterwards to immerse them in linseed oil, al-
lowing the superfluity of oil to drain off; they are
by this means very effectively  preserved from rust
or oxidation.  (W. J. Lander.)
   COSMETICS.  (Cosmetica,  from  Koo-//fa>, /
adorn.)   Any external application used  for  the
purpose  of  preserving  or  restoring the  beauty.
The term is generally understood to refer  to sub-
stances applied to the cuticle, to improve the color
and clearness of  the complexion; but some  wri-
ters have included under this head, every topical
application to promote  the  personal  appearance.
Hence cosmetics  may be divided into three kinds,
viz.:—Cutaneous  cosmetics, or those  applied to
the skin ;  hair cosmetics, or such as are employed
to promote the growth and beauty  of the hair ;
and teeth cosmetics, or such as are used to cleanse
and beautify the teeth.   The  present  article will
be confined  to a  short notice of the first of these
divisions, referring  the reader to the separate heads
—hair dyes, pomatums, pommades, depilatories,
dentifrices,  tooth powders, fyc, for  infonr.ation
respecting the remainder.
  Cutaneous Cosmetics.  The most  simple and
universally employed cosmetics  are soap and wa-
ter, which at once cleanse and soften the skin.
Soap  containing a full  proportion of alkali, exer-
cises a  solvent power upon the cuticle, a minute
portion of which it dissolves ; but when it contains
a small preponderance of oily matter, as the prin-
cipal  part of the milder  toilet  soaps  now do, it
mechanically softens the skin  and promotes  its
smoothness.   Almond, Naples, and Castile soaps
are esteemed for these  properties, and milk  of
roses, cold cream, and almond powder,  (paste,)
are used  for a similar purpose.  To  produce an
opposite  effect, and to harden  the cuticle, spirits,
astringents,  acids, and  astringent salts are com-
monly employed.   The frequent use of hard wa-
ter has a similar effect.  The  application of these
articles is generally for the purpose of strengthen-
ing or preserving any given part against the action
of cold, moisture, &c.; as  the  lips, or mammas,
from chapping, or the hands from contracting chil-
blains;  but  in this respect, oils, pommades, and
other  oleaginous bodies, are preferable.
  Another class  of cutaneous  cosmetics are em-
ployed to remove freckles and eruptions.  Among
the most innocent and valuable of these,  is Gow-
Iand's lotion, which has long been a popular arti-
cle, and deservedly so, for it not only tends to im-
part a delightful softness to the skin, but is a most
valuable  remedy for many obstinate  eruptive  dis-
eases, which frequently resist the usual methods
of treatment. Bitter almonds  have been  recom-
mended to remove freckles, (Celsns,) but moisten-
ing them with a lotion made  by mixing I oz. of
rectified  spirit of wine, and a teaspoonft/  of mu-
riatic acid, with 7 or 8 oz. of water, is  said to do
this more effectually.  A safe  and excellent cos-
metic is, an infusion of horseradish in  cold milk.
(Withering.)
   Skin paints and stains  are  employed  to give
an artificial bloom, or delicacy to the skin.  Rouge
and carmine are  the articles  most generally used
to  communicate  a red color.  The former is the
only cosmetic that can be employed, without in
jury, to brighten a lady's complexion.  The latter,
though possessing unrivalled beauty, is apt  to im-
part a  sallowness to the skin by frequent use
Starch powder is employed to impart a white tint,
and is perfectly harmless.   The American ladies
who are very fond of painting their  necks white,
use finely-powdered  magnesia, which is  another
very innocent  substance.  Several metallic com-
pounds, as  trisnitrate, subchloride,  and oxide of
bismuth, (pearl white, Fard's white, &c.,)  carbo-
nate of lead, (flake white,) white precipitate, &c,
are frequently used to revive faded complexions;
but they are not only injurious to the skin, but act
as poisons, if taken up by the  absorbents.  Tris-
nitrate  of  bismuth, (pearl  white,) probably  the
least injurious  of  these articles, has  caused spas-
modic tremblings of the muscles of the face, end-
ing in paralysis. (Vogt. Pharm.) The employment
of liquid preparations, containing  sugar  of lead,
which are commonly  sold under the name of milk
of roses, cream of roses, &c., is equally injurious.
Another disadvantage  of  these  white  metallic
preparations is, that they readily turn black, when
exposed  to the action of  sulphureted  hydrogen
gas, or the vapors of sulphur, which frequently
escape into the apartment from coal  fires.  There
are many instances recorded, of a whole company
being suddenly alarmed, by the pearly complexion
of  one  of  its belles  being  suddenly  transformed
into a sickly gray  or black.  A friend of the wri-
ter's was once startled  at  a Christmas  party by
observing the one side of a lady's face and neck,
which was  exposed to the fire, become discolored
in this way, and was so amused  on learning the
cause, that he has since played two or three jokes
of the kind on some petulant old ladies, remark-
able for the great attention they pay to their toi-
let.  In conclusion it may be remarked, that the
best purifiers  of  the skin are soap and  water,
followed by  the use of a coarse cloth, in opposi-
tion to the costly and soft diapers that  are com-
monly employed;  and the  best  beautifiers, are
health, exercise, and GOOD TEMPER.
   COSMETIC,  SIMPLE.   Prep.  Soft soap J
lb.; melt over a slow fire with a gill of  sweet oil,
add half a teacupful of  fine sand,  and  stir  the
mixture together until cold.  The shelly sea-sand,
sifted from the shells, has been found better  than
that which has no shells.
   Remarks. This simple cosmetic has, for several
years past, been used by many ladies who are re-
markable for the  delicate softness  and whiteness
of their  hands, which they, in a  great  measure,
attribute to the use of it.  Its cheapness is a strong
recommendation.
   COUGH.  The sudden  and violent expulsion
of  air from  the lungs.  It  is  generally sympto-
matic of other affections, but is sometimes idiopa-
thic.   Many cases of cough depend  upon the ex-
tension of catarrh to the  trachea and  bronchia,
which thus become loaded with mucus or phlegm,
which they endeavor to throw off by the convul-
sive effort called  coughing.   In some cases it is
caused  by  a vitiation  and inspissation of  the secre-
tions, arising from the imperfect action of the ab-
sorbents;  this is  the common cause of the dry
cough of old people.  Idiopathic cough is not con-
sidered dangerous in itself,  or while running it* 
COW                    225                   COW
 regular course, but it is often productive of most
 serious consequences, by superinducing the inflam-
 mation of some organ, or laying the foundation of
 phthisis.
   Cough is sometimes attended by copious expec-
 toration, and at other times exists without  any ; it
 has hence been distinguished into moist or mucous
 cough, and  dry cough.
   Treat.  The treatment  of  common catarrhal
 cough consists  in allaying  the  irritation as much
 as possible, by demulcents  and expectorants, as
 mucilaginous drinks and lozenges, which act upon
 the glottis,  and sympathetically upon the  trachea
 and bronchia?.  Among  the first  may be  men-
 tioned,  almond milk, barley water, refined  Spanish
 juice, gum  arabic, and a mixture of the last two
 made into lozenges; among the second, the most
 innocent and  convenient is ipecacuanha, in  the
 shape of lozenges, 2 or 3 of which may be sucked
 whenever the cough is troublesome.  A light diet
 should  be adopted, the bowels kept slightly re-
 laxed by mild aperients, and a mild and equable
 temperature sought  as much as possible.  When
 this plan does  not  succeed, recourse may be had
 to an emetic, followed by  small doses of Dover's
 powders, and  extract or tincture  of henbane, or
 squill pill.  When a cough is troublesome at night,
 and unattended with fever, a small  dose of lauda-
 num, or tincture  of henbane, taken on going to
 rest, will generally procure sleep.  In the  treat-
 ment of dry cough  the more stimulating expecto-
 rants are useful,  as garlic, ammoniacum, styrac,
 and  benzoin, combined with narcotics  and seda-
 tives, as henbane,  hemlock, and opium.  A dia-
 phoretic opiate is also very useful, especialiy in
 the cough of old people.
   COUGH,  POPULAR   REMEDIES FOR.
 I. (Draughts.)  a.  Sirup of poppies  1  dessert-
 spoonful ; antimonial wine  20 drops ;  mix for  a
 dose, to be taken  in a little  warm tea on  going to
 bed.  6. Laudanum 30 drops; vinegar  and honey,
 of each, a dessert-spoonful; ipecacuanha wine 25
 drops ;  mix for one dose,  as last.
   II. (Emulsion.)   Milk of almonds 4 oz.; sirup
 of squills and tolu, of each, 1 oz.; mix.   Dose. A
 tablespoonful every 2 hours.
   III.  (Mixtures.)   a.  Tincture of tolu \  oz.;
 Daregoric elixir and tincture of squills, of  each,
 £ oz. ; sirup of white poppies 1 oz. ; mix.  Dose.
 1 teaspoonful in barley water, whenever the cough
 is troublesome,  b.  Milk of ammoniacum 4 oz.;
 sirup of  squills 2 oz.; mix.   A tablespoonful 3 or
 4 times daily,  for the cough of old persons,  c.
 (Dr. Munro's.)  Paregoric £ oz.; sulphuric  ether
 and tincture of tolu, of each, \ oz.; mix.  Dose.
 A teaspoonful  night and morning, or when the
 cough is troublesome, in a little  warm water,  d.
 (Dr. Radcliff's.)  Sirup of poppies, sirup of squills,
 and paregoric,  of each,  £  oz.; mix.   Dose. As
 last.
   COUMARIXE.  The fragrant volatile princi-
 ple of the tonka bean, the diptera odorata of Wil-
 denow.   It  is dissolved out by ether, and  purified
 by alcohol.  It crystal izes in small prisms.
   COWHAGE. Syn. Cowitch. Dolichis pubes.
 The down which grows upon the pods  of the mu-
 cuna pruriens.   (Dolichos pruriens.)   It occasions
 violent itching, when it comes in contact with the
skin, which can only be  allayed by  a solution of
                         29
given vitriol or oil.   It  is frequently administered
as a vermifuge, made into a confection, by scraping
the hair off a pod into treacle, sirup, or honey, for
a morning dose,  which is repeated  for 3 or 4 suc-
cessive days, followed by a brisk purge.
  COWS, MILCH,  (CHOICE OF.)   As  to  a
choice of breeds  for a private family, none in Eng-
land, (says Mr. Lawrence,) probably combine so
many advantages as the Suffolk dun-cows. They
excel both in quantity and quality  of milk ;  they
feed well after they become barren ;  they are small-
sized, and polled or hornless; the last  a great con-
venience.   The  horns of cows which butt and gore
others, should be immediately broad tipped.  There
is a breed of polled Yorkshire,  or Holderness cows,
some of them of middling size, great  milkers, and
well adapted to  the use  of families, where a great
quantity of milk is required,  and where  price  is no
object, and food in  plenty.   If richer milk and  a
comparison of the two famous breeds be desired,
one of each may be selected, namely, the last men-
tioned,  and the  other of the  midland county, or
long-horned species.   Color  is so far  no  object,
that neither a good cow nor a good horse can be
of  a bad  color; nevertheless,  in  an ornamental
view, the sheeted and pied  stock of the Yorkshire
shorthorns make  a  picturesque   figure  in  the'
grounds.
   The  Alderney cows  yield  rich milk  upon less
food than larger stock, but are seldom large milk-
ers, and are particularly scanty of produce in the
winter season.   They are,  besides, worth little or
nothing as barreners, not only on account of  their
small size, but their inaptitude to take on fat, and
the ordinary quality of their  beef.
   Feeding. There  is nothing  equal to rich pastu-
rage for milch cows, but at  such  seasons, and du-
ring such weather that  this cannot be procured,
good hay, with turnips, carrots, potatoes, or man-
gel-wurzel, must be given  instead, along with  a
sufficient  quantity of clean  water.  The principal
cowkeepers of the metropolis have  dairy-farms in
the suburbs, where the  animals are turned out  a
portion  of every day  in the year, except during
heavy rains, or when the ground  is covered with
snow.   They are also well  supplied with brewers'
grains,  tares,  beet-root, &c,  and great care  is
taken that they  get fresh air,  and exercise suffi-
cient for  their health.   Such  cows yield a large
quantity of wholesome milk,  very different to much
that is sold in London,  obtained from cows  kept
in  stables, cellars,  and  other  confined  situations,
and which are seldom supplied with green food. It
has lately been shown by Boussingault, that man-
gel-wurzel, so  commonly used for feeding cattle,
is insufficient as  an  article of food.   He found that
a cow fed. on this substance ceases to give her usual
quantity of milk, and that  even when  other food
was given along with it, the  animal  yielded  less
than her ordinary quantity.  Before giving turnips
to cows, the rotten or bad ones should  be picked
out, as it is said that even the presence of a sin-
gle  damaged one will flavor  the milk,  and perhaps
spoil a whole dairy of cheese or butter.
  Economy of a cow.   The annual consumption
of food  per cow, if turned  to grass, is from an
acre to  an acre and  a half in the summer, and
from a ton to a ton  and  a half of hay  in  the win-
ter.  A cow  may be  allowed 2 pecks  of carrota 
CRA                    226                     CRA
per day.  The grass being cut and carried,  will
economize it full  £.  The annual product of a good
fair dairy cow, during seven months after calving,
and either in summer or winter,  if duly fed  and
kept in during the latter season, will be an average
of 7 lbs. of butter per week, from 3 to 5 gallons of
milk  per  day.  Afterwards, a weekly average of
3 or 4 lbs. of butter from  barely half the quautity
of milk.  It depends on the constitution of the
cow,  and how nearly she may be milked to the
time  of her calving, some giving  good milk until
within  a  week  or  two of that  period, others re-
quiring to be dried 8 or 9 weeks previously.  I have
heard (says Mr. Lawrence) of 20 lbs. of butter,
and even  22 lbs., made from the  milk of  1 long-
horned cow in 7 days; but I have never been for-
tunate  enough to obtain one that would  produce
more than 12 lbs. per week, although I have  had
a Yorkshire cow which milked 7 gallons per day,
yet never made 5 lbs. of butter in  one week.  On
the average, 3 gallons of good milk will make 1 lb.
of butter.
  CRACKNELS.   Prep.  Mix  a pint of  flour
with a little grated nutmeg, the yelks of 2  eggs,  2
or 3 spoonfuls of rose-water, and cold water suffi-
cient  to make a paste ; then roll  in £ lb. of butter,
and make it into shapes.   In 1 hour put them  into
a kettle of boiling water,  and boil them until they
swim, then throw them into cold water ; take them
out, and when dry bake them on tins.
  CRACKNUTS.   Prep. Flour  1 lb.; sugar  |
lb. ; melted butter £ lb.;  6 or 7 eggs, well beaten ;
make a paste with a glassful of raisin wine and  a
little water ; add caraways, roll  it out as thin as
paper, cut it into shapes with a tumbler, wash the
pieces with the white of egg, and  dust them over
with powdered sugar.
  CRAMP.   Spasmodic  or involuntary contrac-
tions  of the muscles, generally of the extremities,
accompanied with great pain.  The muscles of the
legs  and feet are  those  most commonly affected
with cramp,  especially after great  exertion.  The
best  treatment is immediately to stand upright,
and to well rub the part with the hand.   The  ap-
plication of strong stimulants, as spirits of ammo-
nia, or of anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been
recommended.  When cramp occurs in the stom-
ach, a  teaspoonful  of sal volatile in water,  or  a
dram  glassful'of sfood brandy, should be swallowed
immediately.  When  cramp comes on during cold
bathing, the limb should be thrown out as sudden-
ly and violently as  possible, which will generally
remove it, care being also taken  not to become
flurried nor frightened ; as presence of mind is very
essential to personal safety on such an occasion.
A common cause of cramp is indigestion, and the
use of acescent liquors ; these should be avoided,
and bitters and absorbents had recourse to.
  CRAYONS.   Small  cylinders or  pencils of
coloring substances, used  for drawing upon paper,
&c.
  Prep. Crayons are  commonly prepared by mix-
ing  up  the  color with some substance that will
dilute it to a proper  shade, and give it  the  neces-
sary softness and tenacity to adhere readily to pa-
per, when rubbed against it. The cylindrical form
is generally given to them by means of a cylinder
of 2 or 3 inches diameter, having one  end open,
and the other firmly secured to a perforated plate,
 having holes of the same size as the intended cray-
 ons.  The  crayon-composition, in the state of n
 stiff paste,  is  introduced into tho open end, and is
 driven down and through the holes, by means of a
 small plug or  piston, that exactly fits the inside of
 the cylinder.  To impart an equable  motion, whicJo
 is essential to  the formation of well-shaped crayons,
 a small screw is employed.  The  pieces that pass
 through the holes are  cut into lengths and dried
 All the materials employed in making crayons are
 previously reduced to  the state of an  impalpable
 powder, and those that are  gritty are elutriated or
 washed over.   The following are among the best
 formula? for making crayons:
   I. Spermaceti 3 oz.; boiling water 1 pint; agi-
 tate together till they  form a species of emulsion,
 with which mix  up bone ashes 1 lb.,  (previously
 reduced to an impalpable pow.wr,)  and coloring
 matter as much as  is required to give the proper
 tint.  When half dry form the mass into crayons.
   II. Pipeclay, and  the finest  prepared  chalk,
 equal parts;  or pipeclay alone,  q. s.; coloring a
 sufficient quantity.  Make them into a paste with
 pale mild  ale.
   III. (Process  of  the  brothers  Joel, of Paris.)
 Shellac 3  parts ;  spirits  of wine 2 parts; oil of
 turpentine 1 part; coloring matter,and blue clay,
 of each 6 parts.   The shellac is  dissolved  in the
 spirit, and well mixed  by trituration with the clay,
 (previously elutriated and dried,) the colored pow-
 der, and the turpentine;  the  mass is then  made
 into crayons, which  are dried by a stove heat.
   IV.  White  curd or Castile soap,  cut into thin
 shavings, 1  oz.; boiling water 1 pint; dissolve, and
 when cold add gradually as much rectified spirit
 of wine as will barely render the liquid transparent
 With this  fluid  make the coloring matter  into a
 paste, along with  £  its weight each of the  finest
 elutriated clay and chalk.
  V. Shellac  5 parts; wood naphtha 10  parts;
 dissolve, and with this fluid mix  up the coloring
 powder, previously stirred up with  an equal weight
 of fine  blue clay.   Dry  the  crayons by a stove
 heat.  If this  process  be well  managed, it will
 produce crayons equal  to those of the best Parisian
 houses.
  VI.  (Colored crayons.)  Crayons  may be made
 of any color or  shade, by employing suitable pig-
ments, and diluting  them with a proper quantity
of elutriated or prepared chalk.  White crayons
are made of this  substance, by simply combining
it with a suitable quantity of pure clay, or by mix-
ing it  up in  either  of the ways just described.
 Black  crayons are  made of prepared blacklead,
ivory-black, lamp-black, &c.   Black chalk is fre-
quently made into crayons  by simply sawing it
into  suitably-sized pieces.   Red crayons have,  as
their  coloring  ingredients,  carmine,  carminated
lakes, vermilion, and any of the earthy or mineral
colors commonly used  as  pigments.   General Lo-
met  has proposed, as  a superior red cravon, the
softest hematite, elutriated, drjed, and made into a
paste with water holding  in solution  a little gum
and soap.  Blue crayons aro made of indigo, smalts,
 Prussian blue, verditer, &.c.   Green  crayons of a
mixture of  king's yellow, or  yellow ochre, with
blues.  Yellow crayons  of kin<r\s yellow, Naples
ditto, yellow ochre, &c.  Brown  crayons of um-
 ber,  (raw  and burnt,)  terra di sienna, (raw anil 
CRE                    227        •            CRE
burnt,)  Cullen's  earth, brown ochre, &c.;  and
Borne peculiar shades, of a mixture of black, car-
mine, and either of the above colors. Purple cray-
ons are made with any of the more brilliant blues,
mixed with carmine, lake, or vermilion.
  Remarks.  As crayon colors do not  admit of be-
ing mixed together at the  time of using them, like
liquid colors, it is usual to make  3 to 6 different
shades of each color, so as  to enable the artist at
once to produce any effect he chooses.
  CRAYONS, LITHOGRAPHIC.  Prep.  I.
Tallow soap  7 parts ; white wax 6 parts; melt by
a gentle heat, add lamp-black 1  part, and cast it
into moulds.
  II. White wax 4  parts;  shellac  and hard tal-
low soap, of  each 2  parts ; lamp-black 1 part;  as
last.
  III.  Spermaceti,  white wax,  and hard tallow
soap, of each  equal  parts; lamp-black  to color;
as last.
   Use. To draw designs on lithographic stones.
  CREAM.  The  oleaginous  portion  of  milk,
which collects in a thin stratum upon the surface,
when that fluid is left undisturbed for some time.
By the  process of  churning, it is  converted into
butter.   When  kept  for some  days, it becomes
thicker, and partially coagulated, in  consequence
of the formation of some lactic acid, which precip-
itates the caseous matter contained in the small
portion of the milk with which the cream is mixed.
If  cream in this state be violently shaken, as in
the operation of churning, the oily portion, or but-
ter, quickly separates, and leaves a liquid behind,
called buttermilk.   If instead of churning it,  we
suspend it in a linen bag, and allow it to drain, it
will gradually become drier and harder by the sep-
aration of the  liquid portion, and will then form
what is known by the name of cream cheese.  By
the application of slight pressure, the separation
of the whey is more completely effected, and the
product  is  not  only  better,  but  will keep longer.
When cream is intended for churning, it  should be
kept until it turns slightly sour, as then the butter
will readily  "come;" for if churned  while quite
sweet, the operation will be tedious, and frequently
fail.  When  this happens, the dairy maids declare
the milk is " charmed," or  " bewitched," and re-
luctantly proceed with the operation.   The cause
of this is the  want of acidity, which is  not the case
when the cream has been kept for a  certain time
before churning, for  then a portion of the sugar
contained in the serum  is  converted into lactic
acid.   The addition of a little rennet, or vinegar,
is the proper  remedy in this  case, and will cause
the  almost immediate appearance of the butter.
  The term " Cream" is also frequently applied to
some compound spirits and cordial liquors, because
of their cream-like smoothness and flavor.
  Qual. The cream of milk may be regarded  as
an article of  food in the same light as butter, as it
is converted into the latter by the  process of diges-
tion, especially when violent exercise follows after
eating it. On  this  account much  cream should
never be taken  at  once by persons  of delicate
stomachs.  In eating cream  with fruit, persons are
hardly aware of the large quantity they consume,
until  they find it disagree  with  their stomachs,
when the condiment is blamed for the indiscretion
of those who  take it
  CREAM,  ALMOND.  Prep. Sweet almonds
2 oz.; bitter almonds 4 in number; blanch and beat
them in a mortar to a smooth paste, adding a tea-
spoonful of water to prevent oiling.   Mix this with
a pint of cream, the juice of a lemon, and  enough
powdered  lump sugar to sweeten;  whisk up a
froth, take it off and lay it on a clean sieve; then
fill glasses with the liquor, and place some of the
froth on the top of each.
  CREAM,  BRANDY.  Prep. Mix a  teacup-
ful of almond cream with £ a  pint of milk ; boil for
2 minutes, and when cold, add the yelks of 6 eggs
and a quart of cream ; heat it gently over  the fire
until it thickens, keeping it well stirred ; then add
2 pr 3 glasses of brandy, and pour  it into small
dps or shallow glasses.
  CREAM,  BURNT.  Prep.  Cream  1  quart;
cassia  a small stick ; the peel  of half  a  lemon ;
boil for 5  minutes; let it cool  a little and take out
the spice ; then add the yelks  of 9 eggs,  and sugar
to sweeten ; stir until cold, put it into a dish, strew
powdered.sugar over it, and bake it until brown.
  CREAM,   COLD.   Syn.  Galen's  Cerate.
Ceratum  Galeni.  Prep. I.  Oil of almonds 1 lb.;
white wax \ lb.; melt  together  in a water-bath,
strain,  if  necessary,  and  add  by   degrees rose
water (made warm)  £ pint;  stir assiduously until
cold.
  II. Olive oil and  rose water, of each  1 pint;
spermaceti and white  wax,  of each  4 oz.;  as
last.
  III.  White lard 1 lb.;  spermaceti \ lb.;  orange
flower water \ pint;  as last.
  Remarks. The above may be further scented by
the addition of any fragrant essence  or  oil, if de-
sired.  It  is used as a mild unguent  to soften the
skin, prevent  chaps, &c.
  CREAM,  COLD,  (HUDSON'S.)  Pfep. Oil
of almonds 4 oz.; white  wax and spermaceti, of
each i oz.; rose water 4 oz.;  orange flower water
1 oz.; as last.
  CREAM,  COSTOPHIN.   Named after a vil-
lage near  Edinburgh, where it is commonly made.
Prep. Put the milk of 3 or 4 consecutive days,  to-
gether with the  cream, into a vessel, and allow it
to remain  until sour  and coagulated.  The whey
must be now  drawn off, and  fresh cream added.
It is eaten with sugar and fruit, especially straw-
berries and raspberries.
  CREAM, DEVONSHIRE RAW. Sour cream
mixed with an equal quantity of fresh cream, and
sweetened with sugar.  Eaten with fruit.
  CREAM, DEVONSHIRE SCALDED.  Syn.
Clouted  Cream.  Prep.  Set the milk  of yester-
day in a  polished  shallow brass pan, over  a char-
coal or other clear fire, free  from smoke,  and grad-
ually heat it very hot, but be careful  not to let it
boil.  It is readily known to be done enough when
the undulations on the surface look thick, and form
a ring  round the top of the  fluid, the size of the
bottom of  the  pan.  Let it cool, and the next day
skim off the cream.  It is eaten with sugar and
fruit, and  is made into butter.
  CREAM,   D'lLLOTTE'S   VEGETABLE.
Syn.  Crystallized  Cream.  Prep. Oil of  al-
monds 2 oz.;  spermaceti \ oz.;  melt and add ber-
gamotte,  neroli, and verbena,  of each  5 drops;
huile au jasmin  10 drops.  Stir well together, and
pour it into small wide-mouthed bottles to crystal- 
CRE
lize.   If preferred harder, 1 drachm more sperma-
ceti may be used.
  CREAM, FOR  ICING.  Prep. I. New milk
2 pints; yelks of 6 eggs; white sugar 4 oz.;  mix,
striin  heat gently, and  cool  gradually.  Ice as
wantt-j.  Used to make ice creams.
  II. Cream  1 pint; sugar  4 oz.    Mix.   As
above.
  CREAM, FRUIT.  Prep. Pulped or preserved
fruit  1 lb.; cream,  or good raw milk, 1  quart;
sugar sufficient; boil for 1 minute ; cool, and add
a glass of brandy.
  CREAM, FURNITURE.   Prep.  Pearlash
2 oz.;  water half a gallon.   Dissolve  and filter,
add white wax 4 oz., and boil until dissolved.
  II. Soft  water 1  gallon;  beeswax  1  lb.;  soap
\ lb.; pearlash 2 oz.   Boil until dissolved.
  Use. To  polish furniture, varnish wood-work,
statues, &c.  It is diluted with water,  and spread
upon  the surface with a painter's brush, then pol-
ished off with a hard brush, cloth, or leather.
  CREAM, ICE.  Proc. About half fill the  icing
pot  with  the mixture  which it is desired to freeze,
place it in  a pail or  any suitable wooden vessel,
with ice beat small, and mixed with about'half its
weight of common  salt;  turn it  backwards  and
forwards  as quickly as possible, and  as the ice
cream sticks to  the sides, break it down with an
ice  spoon,  so that the whole may be  equally ex-
posed to the cold.  As the salt and ice  in the tub
melt, add more, until  the process is finished, then
put the cream into glasses, and place  them  in a
mixture of  salt and ice until wanted for use.   Be-
fore sending them to tabic, dip the outside of the
glass into lukewarm water, and wipe it dry.
  Remarks.  Flavored ice-creams are  made by
mixing " cream for icing"  with half its  weight
of maslied  or  preserved fruit, previously  rubbed
through a  clean hair  sieve; or, when  the flavor
depends on the juice of fruit or on essential oil, by
adding a sufficient  quantity of  such  substances.
Thus raspberry  and  strawberry ice-creams are
made according to  the former  method;  lemon,
orange, noyeau, and  almond ice-creams,  by the
latter method.   In the same way any other article
besides cream mav be frozen.
  CREAM, IMITATION  Syn. Mock Cream.
Substitute for ditto, &c.  Prep. I. Beat 2 eggs,
1 oz. of sugar, and a small piece of butter, with a
pint of warm milk, then put it into hot water and
stir  it one way, until  it acquires the  consistence
of cream.
  II.  Instead of eggs, as above, use  a spoonful
of arrow-root, first well beaten with a little  cold
milk.
  CREAM, LEMON.  Prep.  Cream  1  pint;
yelks of 3 eggs ; powdered sugar 6 oz.;  the yellow
rind of 1 lemon, (grated,) with the juice ; mix, ap-
ply  heat, and stir until cold.  If wanted white, the
whites of the eggs should be used instead of the
yelks.
  CREAM, ORANGE.  Prep.  Similar to lemon
cream.
  CREAM, PAINTER'S.  Prep. Pale  nut oil
6 oz.; mastich 1 oz.;  dissolve, add sugar of lead \
oz., previously ground  in the least possible quantity
of oil; then add water gradually until  it acquires
the consistence of cream, working it well all the
ime.   Used by painters to cover their woite, when
URE
they aro obliged to leave it  for some time.  It
may be washed off with a sponge and water.
  CREAM, PISTACHIO.   Prep. Beat £ lb. of
pistachio nut kernels in a mortar with a spoonful
of brandy.  Put them into a pan  with a pint of
good cream and the yelks of  2 eggs, beaten fine.
Stir it gently over the fire till  it grows thick, and
then put  it into  glasses or a China  soup  plate.
When  it is cold, stick it over with  small pieces of
the nuts, and send it to table.
  CREAM, RASPBERRY.   Prep. Rub a quart
of the  fruit through  a  hair sieve  to extract  the
seeds, then  mix it with  the cream, sweeten with
sugar,  and raise a froth thereon with a chocolate
mill.  Take this off, and  place it on a hair sieve,
then fill your glasses with the cream, and place
some of the froth upon th  *op of each.  The ex-
pressed juice of raspberries also makes a delicious
cream.  In winter, raspbe ry jelly, jam, or  sirup,
may be used.   A  glass  of good brandy improves
this cream.
  CREAM,  STONE.    Syn. Cream  Blanc-
mange.   Prep. Dissolve isinglass £ an oz. in water
a teacupful; add cream  1 pint, and sugar 4 oz.;
heat it boiling hot  and stir until nearly cold, then
pour it over some fruit or  preserves, placed on the
bottom of glass dishes.
  CREAM  SIRUP.   Finely powdered  lump
sugar mixed with  an equal weight  of«cream.   It
will keep for a  long time if put into  bottles and
closely corked and sealed over.  It is commonly
placed  in 2 oz. wide-mouthed  vials, and taken on
long voyages, a  fresh vial  being opened  at every
meal.
  CREAM,  SCOTCH   SOUR.    Prep.  Put
skimmed milk over night in a wooden tub with a
spigot at bottom, and put this tub into another fill-
ed with hot water ; in the morning take  out the
small tub and draw off the thin part of the milk
(wigg) until the thick sour cream begins to come.
This process requires practice as to the heat of the
water; when  it succeeds, skimmed  milk yields
nearly  one half of this cream,  which is eaten with
sugar as a  delicacy;  it  is only   distinguishable
from cream by its taste,  and  sells for double the
price of fresh milk.   (Gray.)
  CREAM, VANILLA.  Prep.  I. Boil  a stick
of vanilla, (grated,) and half an oz. of isinglass, in
a pint of milk, until the latter is dissolved; strain
and add sugar 6 oz., and  cream 1 pint; stir till
nearly  cold, then pour it  into  moulds  like blanc-
mange.
  II. Cream and  isinglass jelly, of each  1 pint;
sugar 6 oz.; essence of  vanilla \ oz.;  mix as be-
fore.
  CREAM, VELVET.   As the last, but, insteac
of vanilla, flavor with the rind and juice of 1 lemon,
and about a teacupful of white wine.   Mould like
blancmange.
  CREAM, WHIPT.  Prep.  Whites of 12 eggs;
cream  1 quart; pale sherry £ a pint; essence of
musk and  ambergris, of each  10  drops ;  essence
of lemon and  orange peel, of each 3 or 4 drops;
whisk to a froth, remove the latter on to a sieve,
fill the  glasses with the  cream, and then  pile the
froth on the top of them.   Very fine.
  CREME. (Fr.) Cream.  This name is applied
to several  compound spirits and cordial  liquors,
especially by the French liqueuristes, who pride 
CRE
229
CRE
 themselves on the superior quality and cream-like
 smoothness of their manufactures.  Like the cor-
 dials of the English, they are mostly dilute spirit,
 aromatized and sweetened.
    CREME  D'ANISE.   The same  as  aniseed
 cordial.
    CREME DES BARBADES.  Prep. I Lem-
 ons sliced 2 dozens ; citrons sliced £ dozen ; fresh
 balm leaves 8 oz.; proof spirit 4 gallons; digest
 for a fortnight, then express the liquor, strain, and
 add 2 gallons each of clarified sirup and  pure
 water.
    II. The fresh peels of three oranges and 3  lem-
 ons ; cassia bruised 4  oz.;  mace,  pimento, and
 cloves,  of each 1 dr. ;  rum, at proof, 2£ gallons;
 digest  as before,  distil over 2 gallons,  and add
 clarified sirup 1  gallon.   If wanted weaker, lower
 with clear soft water.
    CREME DE CACAO.  Prep.  Infuse roasted
 caracca cacao nuts (cut  small) 1 lb., and vanilla
 £ oz., in brandy 1  gallon, for 8 days; strain, and
 add 3 quarts of thick sirup.
    CREME D'ORANGE.  Prep. Oranges, sliced,
 3 dozen ; rectified spirit 2  gallons; digest for 14
 days ;  add lump sugar 21 lbs. (previously dissolv-
 ed in water 4£ gallons ;) tincture of  saffron 1 £ oz.;
 and orange-flower water 2 quarts ;  mix well, and
 strain.
    CREME  DE  PORTUGAL.  Prep.  Proof
 spirit 1 quart; essence  of lemon 30 drops; essen-
 tial oil of almonds 5 drops ;  mix ; then add  clari-
 fied sirup 1£ pint; and water £ pint.
    CRENIC ACID.   A  brown  acid, discovered
 by Berzelius, in certain mineral  waters.  It is a
 modification  of  humus, produced by the decay of
 vegetable matter.  Apocrenic acid  is nearly sim-
 ilar.
    CREOSOTE.   Syn.  Creasote.   Kreasote.
 Kreosote. Creasoton, (P. L.) Creazotum, (P. E.)
 This substance is a product of the dry distillation
 of organic bodies, and  the  peculiar preservative
 principle of smoke and pyroligneous  acid.  It pre-
 vents the decomposition of meat, and thence its
 name from xpias, flesh, and o&(,eiv,  to preserve.  It
 was discovered by Reichenbach.  It is manufac-
 tured from wood-tar, in  which it is sometimes con-
 tained  to the  amount of  20 per  cent., and from
 crude pyroligneous acid  and pyroxilic oil.  Its
 components are  carbon, hydrogen and  oxygen, in
 a  proportion not yet precisely ascertained.
   Prep.  (Process of  M. Simon.)  A  copper still,
 capable  of containing 80 Berlin  quarts, is filled to
 one third with the  oil of  wood-tar,  and  distilled.
 First, the more volatile matters pass  over.  These
 do not contain creosote, and are,  therefore, to be
 rejected ; but when, by the gradually increased
 temperature, there passes over a  very acid fluid,
 which becomes turbid, and at the same time an
 Oil separates therefrom when mixed with water,
 the product must be collected, and the distillation
 continued until the operator notices a squirting in
 the still,  when the  process is  interrupted.  The
 distilled product is then  nearly saturated with po-
 tassa, returned to the still, which must have been
 previously cleansed, and should be now half filled
 with water, when distillation must  be recommenc-
 ed.  At first an oil  comes over, which floats on
water, and which consists chiefly  of eupione, for
which reason  it is useless1 for preparing creosote.
 As soon, however, as  the oil  begins to sink in the
 water which comes over with it, it is charged with
 creosote, and should be carefully collected.   The
 distilling aqueous fluid should be reintroduced, from
 time to time, into the still, and the distillation con-
 tinued so long as any oil continues  to come over
 with it.   The  distilled oily fluid is  now dissolved
 in  liquor potasses, sp. gr. 1*120.  That which re-
 mains undissolved  is eupione, and must be  skim-
 med off.  The solution of creosote in potassa con-
 tains, however, a considerable portion of eupione,
 which dissolves therein.  The greater portion of this
 may be separated by dilution, and distilling with an
 equal quantity or five-fourths of its volume of water,
 pure water being added from  time to time, so long
 as any eup r me comes over with the distilled liquor.
 When eupione  has ceased  to pass over, sulphuric
 acid is  poured into  the  still  in quantity exactly
 sufficient to saturate J of the potassa employed,
 and  the distillation is then  renewed.   Creosote
 then distils, the  first portions  of which, however,
 still  contain  eupione,  after which  pure creosote
 follows ; that is to say, " a creosote which, when
 mixed with 6 or 8 times its quantity of a solution
 of pure potassa, furnishes a mixt..*- which, by the
 addition of any further quantity wnatever of water,
 does not become  turbid."  The  combination of
 creosote remaining in the still is now mixed with
 sulphuric acid  in slight excess, and  the distillation
 renewed, the water coming over at the same time
 is from  time to  time  returned into the still; and
 when no further oil passes over with  the water, the
 process  is complete.   The creosote thus obtained
 is redistilled with the water which has passed over
 with it, while  the distilled water is  meanwhile,
 from time to time,  poured back into  the still.  The
 creosote thus obtained is then colorless ; but it con-
 tains a considerable quantity  of water in solution,
 which is separated by distillation in  a glass retort.
 The water,distils first, and then creosote, which,
 after cleaning the neck of the retort from the wa-
 ter, must be received  in another dry receiver.  If
 the creosote  assumes  a red color after being ex-
 posed for some time to the air,  it must be redistilled,
 and then it keeps very well.  Korne found that
 tar, prepared  from turf,  furnishes  much  more
 creosote  than that from fir-wood, &c. &c.  (Berze-
 lius' Lehr. and Ann. Chym.)
   Pur. The fluid commonly sold in the shops for
 creosote,  is a mixture  of creosote,  picamar, and
 light oil of tar.  Pure creosote has a specific gravity
 of 1*037, and boils at 397° F.   It is perfectly solu-
 ble in both acetic acid and  liquor of potassa.  If
 shaken with  an equal volume of water in a  nar-
 row test  tube, not more than the 80th part disap-
 pears ; otherwise it contains water, of which  creo-
 sote is able to assume T'ff, without becoming turbid.
 If it  can be dissolved  completely in 80 parts by
 weight of-water, at a medium temperature, it then
 forms a perfectly neutral  liquid.   An  oily residue
 floating  on  the surface betrays  the presence of
 other foreign products, (eupione,  capnomore, pi-
 camar,) which are obtained at the same time with
 the creosote during the  dry distillation  of organic
substances.
  The specific gravity of picamar is  1*095, of par-
 affine  0-87, of capnomore  0-977,  and  of eupione
0-655.   The  first  of these is  readily detected by
agitating the sample with strong liquor of potassa, 
CRO                    230                   CRU
 when, if it be present in any quantity, the mixture
 will solidify into a mass of crystals in 21 hours.
 Eupione may be discovered by its partial solubility
 in liquor of potassa.
   Prop.   Creosote is a colorless and transparent
 liquor, but little heavier than water, of a peculiar,
 unpleasant, penetrating odor, and a very pungent
 and caustic taste; acts in a state of concentration
 like a poison,  makes the eyes feel  painful,  boils at
 390° F., does not consolidate even at —5° F.;
 produces  on paper greasy spots, which  afterwards
 disappear; dissolves in 80 parts of water, and mixes
 in any proportion with spirit of wine, ether, essen-
 tial and fat oils, acetic acid, ammonia, and potassa.
 It dissolves iodine, phosphorus, sulphur, resins, and
 the alkaloids.  The aqueous solution is neutral, and
 precipitates solutions  of gum and  the whites of
 eggs-
   Uses. Creosote is recommended for internal use
 against several diseases of the channels of digestion
 and  the organs of respiration, against rheumatism
 and  gout, torpid nervous  fever, spasms, diabetes,
 tapeworm ;  in the form of pills ; with the juice of
 Spanish liquorice as an emulsion ;  as an ethereal
 or spirituous solution ; externally, against chronic
 diseases of the skin, sores of different kinds, morti-
 fication, scalding ; wounds, as a styptic ; caries of
 the teeth, and toothache thereby produced,  mostly
 in the form of  an  aqueous solution, (1 to M);) for
 poultices, lotions, and injections ; and likewise, mix-
 ed with lard (5 drops to  1  dr.) as  an  ointment;
 and, dissolved  in spirits of wine, as a popular reme-
 dy for toothache.  The opinions as to the effects
 of creosote, as an  internal  remedy, are divided,
 obviously  because, as is generally  the case  with
 new remedies, too much was expected from it, and
 it has therefore been employed in the  most oppo-
 site diseases.  It is doubtless most effective in the
 cases named  as  an external remedy. (Duflos's
 Pharm.   Chym.)   Creosote is also employed to
 preserve  animal substances,  either  by washing it
 over them, or  by immersing them in its aqueous
 solution.   A few drops in  a saucer, or on a piece
 of spongy paper, if placed in a larder, will effectu-
 ally drive  away insects, and make  the meat  keep
 several days longer than otherwise.  A small quan-
 tity added  to  brine or vinegar is  commonly em-
 ployed to impart a smoky flavor to  meat and fish,
 and its solution in acetic  acid is used to give the
 flavor of whiskey to plain spirit.
  CRICKETS.  These insects may be destroyed
 by putting Scotch  snuff into their  holes,  or,  by
 placing some pieces of beetle  wafers for them to
 eat.
  CROUP.   An  inflammatory disease affecting
 the larynx and trachea.
  Symp.  A  permanently laborious  and  suffo-
 cative breathing, accompanied by wheezing,  cough,
 a peculiar shrillness of the voice, more or less ex-
 pectoration of purulent matter, which  continually
 threatens  suffocation.   This disease has been di-
 vided by nosologists into acute and chronic croup.
 The latter is very rare.
   Treat  Bleeding by leeches, or cupping over the
 region of  the  trachea, should be immediately had
 recourse  to, when the symptoms are  urgent; or
 violent local irritants, as pieces of lint dipped in
 strong acetic acid, or blisters may be applied to the
same part.  In weakly subjects of  irritable  con-
 stitution,  bleeding  should  be avoided.   Dr. Lar
 roque  recommended  repeated  vomiting,  in  the
 croup  of  children,  and M. Marotte and  M. Bou-
 det  adopted this plan with great success.  This
 treatment consists  in  making the children attack-
 ed  with croup, vomit a great number  of times
 within  twenty-four hours,  so  as to  detach  the
 pseudo-membrane from  the larynx as fast  as it is
 formed.   For this  purpose, M. Marotte  employed
 one or other*of the  following formula? :
  I. Tartar emetic 00-10 gram.; sirup of ipeca-
 cuanha 3000 gram.;  water 60-00 gram.
  II. Impure emetine 00-20 gram.; sirup  of ipe-
 cacuanha 60-00 gram.;  water 30-00 gram.
  He  administered  these  draughts by spoonfuls
 every ten minutes, until there had been a sufficient
 number of vomitings;  in this manner, he was al-
 ways able  to make them  expectorate  a certain
 quantity of  false membrane.  This treatment was
 adopted conjointly with the use of  fractional doses
 of calomel, leeches  to the neck,  and blisters to the
 nape of the  neck; but it is the opinion of M. Ma-
 rotte  that the  vomitings  produced the  curative
 effects.    M. Boudet  observes,  that  out  of  25
 cases that occurred at  the  Hopital des Enfans, the
 only authenticated  case of cure, among all these,
 was effected by vomitives.   (Gaz. Med. de Paris,
 lf42.)
  Remarks. The croup is a very dangerous dis-
 ease,  and  medical  aid  should  be immediately
sought wherever it can be procured.  It is  princi-
 pally confined to  infancy, or to  children  under 9
 years old,  but occasionally attacks adults.
  CRUCIBLES.    Syn. Schmelztiegel,  (Ger.)
Creusets,  (Fr.)   Conical-shaped vessels  made
of clay, and employed to hold substances submit-
ted to a strong heat. Some crucibles will bear the
most intense heat of the  blast furnace.
  a a, External steel mould.

  b b, Clay or composition for
forming the crucible.

  c, Internal steel mould.

  d d, Wooden stand.

  e, Cord or chain to withdraw
the internal mould or plug.
  Manuf. There are two ways of making cruci-
bles :  one by forcibly shaping  the  ingredients in a
double mould, (see engraving;) the other, by pour-
ing the " slip," of the  consistence of cream, into
porous moulds, made of a species of stucco.  In
the latter case, a series of the moulds are placed
upon a table and filled  with  the semifluid compo-
sition.  By the time this operation is finished on 50
or 60 moulds, the workman  returns  to  the first
one filled, and  alternately pours  the slip out of
them, leaving only a very small  quantity behind
to give the requisite  thickness to the bottom.  In
each of the  moulds  so  filled,  a perfect crucible is
formed, by  the abstraction  of the water of that
portion  of the " slip" in immediate  contact with
the stucco, and the crucible will be  either thicker
or thinner, in proportion to the time this absorbent
action has been allowed to go on.  70 or 80 cruci-
	ill til III	
d		d
		
 
CRY                     231                        CUB
 bles may thus  be  made in less  than 15 minutes.
 The moulds and their contents are next placed in
 a stove or slow oven.  In a short time from  the
 contraction of the clay in drying, the  crucibles
 may be readily removed, and the moulds, as soon
 as they have become dry, may be again filled, and
 by  care will last for years.  As soon as the cruci-
 bles, formed by either of the above methods, have
 become  perfectly dry, they are ready for baking,
 which is performed by exposing them to heat in a
 potter's kiln.
  The compositions, of which crucibles are made,
 differ according to the uses for which  they are in-
 tended.  The  following  may be  taken as good
 specimens.
  I. (Berlin.) Stourbridge clay 8 parts; cement
 (old crucibles  ground to a fine  powder) 3  parts;
 coak  5  parts;  graphite 4 parts.   Will resist  the
 greatest heat, and bear being repeatedly  heated
 and cooled without cracking.
   II.  Stoifrbridge  clay 4  parts; cement 2 parts;
 coak powder and pipeclay, of each 1 part.  Suita-
 ble for the crucibles used by brassfounders.
   III. (Hessian.)  Clay, (containing 10$ of silica
 and a little of the  oxides of iron and manganese ;)
 sand,  (containing 2§ of alumina, and  1*5§ of  the
 above metallic oxides,  and  nearly 1§ of  lime.)
 (Wurzer.)
   IV. (Blacklead.) Fine  clay 1 part;  graphite 2
 parts; mix well.   This composition bears a great
 heat and sudden changes of temperature, and the
 vessels made with it have the advantage of smooth-
 ness of surface.  It is excellent for forming porta-
 ble furnaces,  &c.
   V.  (Anstey's patent.)  Raw  Stourbridge clay 2
 parts ; hard gas coak  (previously ground and sifted
 through a sieve, of J  inch mesh) 1 part.   The cru-
 cibles  formed with  this composition are only dried,
 and not baked.  When wanted  for use they are
 warmed, placed on the furnace, bottom upwards,
 the burning coak  gradually heaped round  them,
 and the firing  continued  until  they acquire a full
 red heat.  They are now turned and charged with
 cold iron.  These pots will stand 15 or 16 meltings,
 but are liable  to crack by cooling.
  CRUMPETS.   Prep. Make 2 lbs. of flour  into
 a dough with  some warm  milk  and water,  adding
 a little salt, 3 eggs, well beaten, and 3 spoonfuls
 of yeast; mix well, and reduce it with warm milk
 and water to the consistence of thick batter; place
 it before the fire to rise, then  pour it into buttered
 tins, and bake it slowly to a fine yellow.
  CRUST, (in Cookery.)  The paste with which
 pies, tarts, &c., are covered, or made.
  I. (Fine.)  Flour 1  lb.; sugar \ lb.; melted but-
 ter  £ lb.: 3 eggs.   Requires but little baking.
  II.  (Raised crust for meat pies, $-c.) As the
 last, except using 6 oz. of lard for the butter, and 2
 instead of 3 eggs.
  III. (Short.) Flour 1 lb.; butter and sugar, of
 each 2 oz.; eggs 2 in number.   Make a stiff paste.
  CRYSTALLIZATION.   (From /cptoraXAos, a
 crystal.)   The formation of crystals.  When fluid
 substances are suffered to pass with adequate slow-
 ness to the solid state, or when solutions of solids
 are  slowly concentrated  by  evaporation, or  the
solvent powers of  the  menstruum, gradually  les-
sened  by cooling, the ultimate particles of matte:
frequently so arrange themselves as to form  regu
lar  geometrical  bodies, familiarly known  by the
name of crystals.  This wonderful property, which
is possessed by a great variety of substances in the
mineral kingdom, and by most saline bodies, is re-
sorted to for many useful and important purposes
in the chemical arts.   It is by means of crystalli-
zation  that  the majority of salts are obtained in a
state of purity;  for. in the act of passing into the
crystalline state, the foreign substances, with which
they are united, are  left behind in  the " mother
water."   By repeating the process 2 or 3 times,
they are usually rendered quite pure.
  Solids are obtained in a  crystalline state  by
melting  them, and  placing them  in  a situation
where they  will  cool very slowly.  Thus iodide of
sulphur  is crystallized by  melting  it  in  a flask
placed  in a salt water bath, and  allowing it to
remain in the water until the latter  becomes cold.
Sulphur and many metals  are crystallized  by
pouring them in a state of fusion into a  hot vessel,
'having a plug in the bottom, which is  withdrawn
as  soon as  the surface becomes cool, when the
liquid portion runs out and  lea*' cs the  under sur-
face iu the form of  a mass of agglomerated crys-
tals.  Perfectly  pure  wax, stearine, and sperma-
ceti, have a  very pleasing appearance when treated
in this way.
  Salts are crystallized, either by allowing  then-
hot and saturated solutions  to  cool slowly, or by
simply evaporating the menstrua until crystals are
obtained. In the first case, the liquid is commonly
evaporated until a pellicle forms upon the surface,
when  it is  set aside in some sheltered situation
until cold: in the second case, the solution is con-
centrated until it ceases to yield crystals, and these
are usually removed from the liquid as soon as they
are deposited.  The  former method is  adopted for
those salts  that are  considerably more soluble in
hot than in cold water, as carbonate of soda, Ep-
som salts, &c.;  the  latter method  for  those that
possess nearly equal  solubility in both  cases,  and
also for many salts which are not required in hand-
some crystals ; thus, common salt and chromate of
potash are crystallized in this way.   Many of the
alkaloids, and their  salts, are obtained  in crystals,
by  allowing their solutions (generally alcoholic or
ethereal) to evaporate spontaneously.
  CUBEBIN.  A  peculiar  substance, obtained
from cubebs, (piper cubeba.)
  Prep. Submit the cubebs to distillation to expel
the oil, dry, make a  strong alcoholic tincture, and
evaporate the latter to one fourth, filter, and again
evaporate nearly to dryness.   Leave the residuum
in a cold  place, until it assumes a semi-crystalline
appearance, then place it on a linen strainer, and
allow the fluid portion (the cubebin of M. Cassola)
to drain off.   In 24  hours, dissolve the substance
left upon the filter in 4 times its weight of boiling
alcohol of 0-90, allow the solution to deposite its un-
dissolved resin, (still maintaining nearly  the boiling
temperature,) and decant the clear portion. Crys-
tals will  be deposited on cooling,  which is  the
cubebin  of  Soubeiran, Capitaine, and-Steer.  It
may be  purified by re-solution  in boiling concen-
trated alcohol, the addition of a little  boiling water,
and animal charcoal, and  filtering, when  long
white needles will be deposited, if the solution  be
allowed to cool very  slowly.
  Remarks. M.  Monheim has described, under 
CDS                    232                    CYA
the name of cubebine, a volatile substance, but
the above is the article to which this term is now
universally applied.  It is insoluble in water, and
nearly so in cold alcohol, but very soluble  in boil-
ing alcohol.   Its physiological action has been but
little studied.
  CURRY.  A  noted  dish  in  Indian cookery,
prepared in  great variety, of which our space will
only allow two  or three examples.
  I. (The King of Oudc's.)  Take £ lb. of fresh
butter, 2 large  onions, 1 gill of good gravy, (veal
is the best,) 1 large, piled tablespoonful of curry-
powder ;  add to these ingredients any kind  of meat
cut into  pieces.  Put the whole into a stewpan,
cover it  close,  and  gently  simmer  for 2 hours.
When ready to serve up, squeeze as much lemon-
juice as will give it an acid flavor.  (New  System
of Cookery.   Murray.)
  II.  (Dopeeaza Curry.)   Skin  a fowl, and dis-
joint it, take 2 oz. of coriander-seed freed from the
husks,  and rub it perfectly smooth  in a  mortar,
with 1 drachm  of red pepper, and half a dozen
onions.  Set -J lb. of butter on the fire, and slice in
an  onion; when the onion is well browned, take
it out, and put  in the fowl; let  it fry until it is
brown, then mix 1 pint of curds with  the onions
and coriander-seed, and add it to the stew; slice
in a sour apple, and  keep stirring to prevent the
stewpan burning, adding a little water occasionally
should the curry become too dry.   When the apple
is tender, the curry  is  sufficiently done, and may
be served up.
  III. (Lord Clive's.)  Slice 6  onions,   1  green
apple, and 1 clove of garlic;  stew them in a little
good  stock  until they will pulp, then  add 1 tea-
spoonful of curry-powder, a few tablespoonfuls  of
stock, a  little salt, and a little  cayenne  pepper,
half a saltspoonful of each ; stew in this gravy any
kind of meat cut into small pieces, adding a piece
of butter, the size of a walnut, rolled in flour.
  CUSTARDS.  (In  the art of the Cook and
Confectioner.)  A  species  of  sweetmeat, con-
sisting principally of milk or cream, thickened with
eggs, and flavored.
  I. (Almond.) Blanched sweet almonds 4 oz.;
beat them to a  smooth paste in a mortar,  and add
it to 1 pint of thick cream, with the yelks of 4
eggs, 2 or 3 spoonfuls of rose water, and  2 drops
each  of  essential  oil of almonds and  essence  of
lemon.   Stir the whole over a slow fire,  until  of
a proper consistence, then pour it into cups.  Some
use milk instead of cream, and 2 eggs  in  addition
to the above.
  II. (Baked.)   Mix cream 1  pint with 4 eggs,
flavor with mace, nutmeg, and cinnamon,  and add
a little white wine, rose water, and sugar; bake.
   III. (Lemon.) Boil £ pint of  new milk, with a
piece of  lemon-peel, 1  bitter almond, and  8 lumps
of  white  sugar.   Should cream  be  employed  in-
stead of milk, there  will be no occasion to skim it.
Beat the yelks and whites of 3 eggs, strain the
milk through coarse muslin, or a hair-sieve ; then
mix the  eggs  and milk very gradually together,
and simmer it gently on the fire, stirring it until
it thickens.
   IV. (Orange.)  Boil very  tender  the  rind  of
half a Seville orange,  and beat  it in a mortar un-
til  it is very fine; put  to it a spoonful of brandy,
the juice of a  Seville orange, 4 oz. of loaf  sugar,
and  the yelks of 4 eggs.  Beat them all togethei
for 10 minutes, and then pour in by degrees 1 pint
of hot cream ; beat them until cold,  and put them
in custard cups, in a dish of  hot water; let them
stand till  they are set, then  take them out and
stick preserved orange-peel on the top ; this forms
a fine flavored dish, and may be served up  hot or
cold.
  V. (Rice.) Boil £ a cupful of the best ground
rice  in a  pint of milk until  dissolved, then mix it
with a quart of cream, flavor with nutmeg, mace,
and  a little brandy,  and  put it  into  cups or  a
dish.
  CUTS.   Treat. The divided parts should be
drawn close toget "»r,  and  held so  with small
pieces  of  strapping ^t adhesive plaster stretched
across  the wound.  If the part be  covered with
blood,  it  should be first wiped off with a sponge.
When the wound is large,  and the parts much
exposed, a good method  is to sew it  up.   The ap-
plication of a little creosote will generally  stop
local bleeding, provided it  be applied to the clean
extremities of the wounded vessels.  A good way
is to place a piece of lint, moistened  with creosote,
on the wounc1 oreviously wiped clean, or to  pour a
drop or two of Uiat liquid upon it.  Friar's balsam,
quick drying copal vaniish, tincture  of galls, cop-
peras water, black ink,  &c.  are popular remedies
applied in the same way.  A bit of the fur plucked
from a black beaver hat, is  an excellent remedy
to stop the bleeding  from a cut produced  by the
razor in shaving.
  CUTTINGS. (In Horticulture.) The choice
of cuttings should be made from the side shoots of
trees and  plants, and, when possible, from such as
recline towards the ground, observing to leave a
little wood of a former year or season's growth
attached to them, as  such are found to take root
more readily than when they are wholly composed
of new wood.   The  time to  take  cuttings is as
soon as the sap gets into full  motion.   Before set-
ting them they should be cut across, just below an
eye  or joint, with as smooth a section as possible,
observing not to injure the bud.   The  superfluous
leaves may be  removed, but a sufficient number
should be  left on for the purposes of vegetation.
The common practice  of removing all or nearly
all the leaves of cuttings is  injudicious.  In some
cases leaves alone will strike root.  When cuttings
are set in  pots, they should be so placed as to reach
to the  bottom and touch the  sides throughout their
whole length, when they  will seldom fail  to be-
come rooted plants.  In the case of tubular  stalked
plants, it  is said to be advantageous  to insert both
ends into  the soil, each of which will  take root,
and may  then be divided, when two plants will be
produced  instead of  one.  An equable  tempera-
ture, a moist atmosphere, a  shady  situation, and
a moderate supply of  water, are  the principal
requisites  to  induce  speedy  rooting.   Excess  of
any of these is prejudicial.   When  the size of the
cuttings admits, it is better to place them under a
hand or bell glass, which will preserve a constant
degree of heat, and prevent  evaporation from the
surface of the leaves, which  is the  most common
cause of  their dying, especially in  hot,*.dry  wea-
ther.
   CYANATES.   Compounds  formed  by  the
 union of  the cyanic  acid  with the bases.   They 
CYA                   233           #        CYA
»re distinguished by evolving the odor of cyanic
acid, accompanied by effervescence, when  treated
with dilute  minerd acids,  and by  this solution,
mixed  with  hydrate of lime, evolving ammonia.
The alkaline cyanates  are  soluble, the others in-
soluble.
  The basic cyanate  of ammonia  is formed by
mixing dry  ammoniacal gas with the vapors of
hydrated cyanic acid.  It forms a white, woolly,
Bemi-crystalline mass.  By heat, or exposure to
the air, it is converted into urea.  Cyanate of po-
tassa may be formed  by roasting, at a red heat,
dry  ferrocyanide of  potassium,  in  fine  powder,
upon an  iron plate, constantly stirring, until it be-
comes fused into one mass, when it must be re-
duced  to fine powder, and digested in boiling alco-
hol, from which crystals of the cyanate  will be
deposited as the solution cools.  A mixture of the
ferrocyanide of  potassium, with half its weight of
peroxide of  manganese, may also be used to  pro-
duce this salt.   The compound should be  kindled
by  a red-hot body,  and allowed to smoulder away,
after which it  may be treated with  alcohol as be-
fore.   (See Urea.)  The cyanates of silver lead,
and many other metals, may be made by adding
a solution  of cyanate of potassa to another  of a
neutral salt of  the  base.
   CYANIC ACID.  A compound of cyanogen
and oxygen,  discovered by Wohler.   It  is  only
known in the  hydrated state, or united to 1 atom
of  water.
   Prep. I.  Distil dry cyanuric acid, or cyamelide,
in a retort, and collect the product in a well-cooled
receiver.   It is also  formed when  cyanogen  is
transmitted over carbonate of potassa heated to
redness ; a cyanate of potassa results.
   II.  Pass a current of sulphureted hydrogen gas
through  water  in which  cyanate of silver is dif-
fused.  (Liebig.)  This arid reddens  litmus strong-
ly ;  is sour to  the taste;  it possesses the smell
which is always perceived when any of  its  salts
are  decomposed by an acid; it neutralizes bases
perfectly, forming salts called cyanates, but when
hi contact with  water it suffers decomposition in a
few hours, and is converted into carbonic  acid gas
and ammonia.  The sulphureted hydrogen must
not be passed so long as to decompose  all  the cya-
nate of silver;  for then  the cyanic acid is  con-
verted into  other products  by the excess of the
sulphureted hydrogen.
  CYANIDE.   Syn.  Cyanuret.   A compound
of cyanogen and a metal.   (See Cyanogen  and
Hydrocvamc Acid.)
  CYANIDE  OF GOLD.  Syn.  Tercyanide
of Gold.  Percyanide of ditto.  Prep.  I.  Add
pure cyanide Of potassium to a solution of gold in
aqua regia, carefully  deprived  of  all  excess of
acid by  evaporation;  collect the yellow  precipi-
tate.
  II. Add a boiling solution of 24 parts of bicya-
nide of mercury to another of 16  parts  of gold,
dissolved in aqua regia, evaporate to dryness,  and
wash with pure water.
  Remarks.  This  salt has been introduced  into
the French  Codex, and  has been used, both  ex-
ternally and internally, in scrofulous and similar
affections.  Dose. T*? to' Jj  of a grain, made  into
a pill
  CYANIDE   OF MERCURY.   Syn.  Bicya-
nide  of Mercury.   Hydrargyri  Bicyanidu*!
(PL.)  Hydrargyri Cyanuretum. (P. D.)  Prus-
sian Mercury.   Prussiate  of Mercury.  Hy-
DROCYANATE OF DITTO.  CYANURET OF DITTO.  Cy-
ANODIDE OF DITTO.  CYANURE DE MERCURE, (Fr.)
Prep.  (Proc. of the L. Ph.)   Percyanide  of iron
§viij; binoxide  of mercury §x; distilled water  4
pints.  Boil for half an hour, strain, and evaporate
that crystals may form.
   II. (Winckle's process.) Saturate dilute hydro-
cyanic  acid with binoxide of mercury; evaporate
and crystallize.
   Pur., $-c.   It should be "transparent and to-
tally sojuble in water.   This  solution, on the  ad-
dition of muriatic  acid, evolves hydrocyanic acid,
known  by its smell, and a glass moistened with a
solution of  nitrate of silver, and held over it, gives
a deposite soluble in nitric acid.   When  heated  it
evolves cyanogen, and runs  into globules  of me-
tallic mercury." (P. L.)  The cyanogen may be
recognised  by burning with a violet-colored flame.
A solution  of bicyanide of mercury, gives a black
precipitate  with sulphureted  hydrogen, and white
pearly crystalline plates, with iodide of potassium.
   Uses, ice. It has  been administered in some
hepatic and skin diseases, and has been proposed
as  a  substitute  for corrosive  sublimate.  (Parent.)
It is  principally used as a source of prussic acid.
Dose.  A$ to £ gr., in pills or alcoholic solution ; as
a gargle or lotion, 10 grs. to water 1 pint; as  an
ointment, 10 or  12 grs. to lard 1 oz.
   CYANIDE  OF  POTASSIUM.    Prep.  I.
Treat a saturated alcoholic solution of pure potas-
sa, with the  vapors of hydrocyanic  acid, as long
as  it throws down a white crystalline precipitate,
which must be  collected and washed with alco-
hol.
   II. Add hydrocyanic acid  in excess to a con-
centrated solution of pure potassa ; evaporate until
crystallization commences,  then  pour  it  into  a
porcelain vessel  and fuse at a  red heat.
   III.  Expose well-dried and powdered  ferrocya-
nide of potassium  to  a strong red heat  in a close
vessel.  When cold, powder, place it in a funnel,
moisten with a  little alcohol, and wash with cold
water.   Evaporate the solution thus formed  to
dryness, expose it to a red heat in a porcelain dish,
cool, powder, and boil in alcohol of  60$.  As the
spirit cools, crystals of cyanide of potassium  will
be deposited.
   Remarks.  When pure, this salt is colorless and
odorless; when  exposed to the atmosphere, mois-
ture is absorbed, and  it acquires  the  smell of hy-
drocyanic  acid.   If it effervesces with acids,  it
contains carbonate of potassa, and if  it be yellow,
it contains  iron.   It is employed in chemical anal-
yses, and for the preparation  of hydrocyanic acid;
cyanide of soda may be made in the same way.
   CYANIDE  OF  SILVER.   Syn.  Ahgenti
Cyanidum, (P. L.)  Prep. Add dilute hydrocyanic
acid to  a solution of nitrate of silver, as long  as  a
precipitate  falls down ;  wash  and dry.   The pro-
portions ordered  by the London College, are nitrate
of silver ^ij and 3ij, dissolved in water 1  pint; di-
lute hydrocyanic acid, q. s.
   Remarks.  Cyanide of silver is white,  soluble in
ammonia, and decomposed by contact with  neutral
vegetable substances.   By exposure to light it turns
violet-colored.  It has  been  given m  some com- 
DAI                    234                     DAI
plaints, in doses  of one-tenth to one-eighth  of a
grain,  (Serre,) and has been proposed as a source
of hydrocvanic acid. (Everitt)
  CYANIDE OF ZINC.   Prep. Dissolve  me-
tallic zinc in hot ?cetic acid, and add hydrocyanic
acid as long as a precipitate falls.
  CYANOGEN. Syn. Prussixe. Cyanogenium.
Bicarburet of Nitrogen.   (From  Kvavos, blue,
and ytwau, to generate.)  A compound of carbon
and nitrogen, discovered by M. Gay Lussac, in 1 s< 15.
  Prep.  Expose carefully-dried bicyanide of mer-
cury in a small retort, to the heat of a spirit-lamp,
and collect  the gas in  the mercurial pneumatic
trough.
  Prop.  A colorless gas, possessing a pungent and
peculiar  odor.   Under a  pressure of 3 or 4 atmo-
spheres, it becomes liquid at a temperature  of 45°,
(Faraday,) and this fluid again becomes gaseous
on  withdrawal of the pressure.   Water absorbs
uearh  5  times  its bulk of cyanogen  at  60°, and
alcohol about 23 times.  With hydrogen it forms
hydrocyanic acid, and with the metals, cyanides,
or cyanurets.   (See  Cyanide and Hydrocyanic
Acid.)
  CYAXURIC ACID.   Syn. Pyro-uric Acid.
A peculiar acid, discovered  by Scheele.   It is a
product of the decomposition of the soluble cyanates
by dilute acid, of urea by heat, &c.
  Prep.  Heat urea until  it fuses,  and is converted
into a white or grayish-white mass; dissolve in
strong oil of vitriol, and  add nitric acid, drop by
drop, to  the solution  until it becomes colorless;
then mix the liquid with an equal volume of water.
On cooling, crystals of cyanuric acid will  be de-
posited, which must be washed with  a little cold
water, and  then  dissolved in 21 parts of boiling
water, when crystals of the hydrated acid will
form  as  the solution  cools.   By  exposure to the
atmosphere, or a gentle heat, they lose their water
and fall into powder.
  Prop., <$cc.   It forms salts with the bases called
cyanurates.    The alkaline  cyanurates  may be
formed by neutralizing a boiling solution of the
acid with the base, and the cyanurate of silver by
adding a solution  of nitrate of silver to another of
cyaimrate of potassa.

  DAHLINE.   A substance analogous to starch
and inulin, discovered by M. Payen in the bulbs or
tubers of the dahlia.
  Prep.  Diffuse the pulp of dahlia bulbs in  its own
weight of water,  filter through cloth, add ^V part
of common chalk, boil for half an hour, and filter.
Then  press the residuum of the bulbs, mix the
liquors, evaporate to fths, add 4$ of animal char-
coal, clarify with  the white of an egg, filter, and
evaporate until a  film forms upon the surface ; as
tho liquid cools, dahline will be deposited.
  Remarks.  The bulbs of dahlias yield about 4-g
of dahline.  It differs from starch and  inulin by
forming a granulated mass, when its aqueous solu-
tion is evaporated; as also in its  specific gravity,
which is 1-356, whereas that  of starch is  1-53.
  DAIRY.   An apartment either in a  house, or
adjoining it, for the purpose of keeping milk, and
making butter, cheese, &c.
  The best situation for  a dairy is  on the north
side of the dwelling-house, because it will thereby
br- sheltered from the sun during the heat of the
day-  Ample means should be provided to ensure
thorough ventilation by  means of Venetian shut-
ters, or suitable windows, so  arranged as  to admit
the air, but to exclude flies and other insects;  and
also to permit a due regulation of the temperature,
which should be preserved as much as possible in
an equable state, ranging from 45° to 55° F.   To
lessen the influence of external variations of tem-
perature, the walls should be double, or of consid-
erable thickness, and the windows  provided with
shutters or doors.  In summer  the  heat may be
lessened by sprinkling water upon the floor, which
will produce  a considerable  degree of cold by its
evaporation.   Dairies Niilt of mud  or " cob,"  are
preferred in the west of  England, and this prefer-
ence  arises  from  the  uniform temperature  they
maintain, on  account of  the great thickness of  the
walls, and their being very bad conductors of heat
In large dairy-farms, where butter and cheese  are
made, the  dairy  is generally a  separate building,
and divided into 3 or 4 apartments, one of which
is called the milk-room,  a second  the  churning-
room, a third the  cheese-room, containing  the
cheese-press, &c, and a fourth the drying-room,
where the cheeses are placed to dry and harden.
To these may be added  a scullery, furnished with
copper, water, &c., for scalding  and cleaning  the
dairy utensils.
  Besides the preservation of the milk, after it has
been brought into the dairy, and the manufacture,
ripening, and  preservation of the  cheese  and but-
ter, the management of a dairy includes an atten-
tion to the health and feeding of the cows.  These
animals require  regular and careful  treatment
The cow-stall should be visited at  an  early hour
every morning, and the udder of each cow washed
clean with cold  water and a sponge, after which
they should bo milked.   If any of the  cows have
sore teats, warm water should be used, and a little
dressing of simple ointment, or  a lotion  of spirit
and water  applied.  When the  former  is used,
great cleanliness is necessary, and the milk should
be given to the pigs.
  The operation of milking the  cows should be
performed at  regular and early  hours, and  each
cow should be  milked  as dry  as  possible, both
morning and evening, as, unless this point be  at-
tended to, the quantity of milk will decrease.  Af-
ter each cow has been milked  as dry as possible,
the dairy-maid should begin again with the  one
first milked, and proceed to " drip"  each  of them,
by which  means not only will  the  " strippings,"
which are very rich in cream, be obtained, but  the
health and productiveness of the  animals will be
promoted.  Cleanliness  is very essential in all  the
operations of the dairy,  and in none more so than
in the milking of the cows.  The hands and arms
of  fhe  milk-maid should  be kept scrupulously
clean, and should  be well washed with soap and
water, after touching the udder of a sick  cow, as
without this precaution, the sores may be conveyed
to the healthy  ones.  The  milk-cans should be
scalded  out daily, and,  as well  as  all the  other
dairy utensils, should be  kept clean  and dry.   Be-
fore placing the milk on  the shelves of the uairy,
it  should  be  strained  through  a hair-sieve or  a
scarce, covered with clean cheesecloth, as by  this
precaution, any stray hairs that may have fallen
into the milk-pail will be taken out. 
DAP
•235
DEA
   It is of importance in the management of cows,
 that the majority of them should calve from Lady-
 day to May, that the large quantity of milk that
 follows,  may  be supported by the luxuriance  of
 vegetation.   The other portion  should calve  in
 August  or September,  to  ensure a supply during
 the winter.   The calves should be taken from the
 cows when 7 or 8 days old, and fed with skimmed-
 milk, made oatmeal, &c, allowing them to be out
 in the  pasture during some portion of every day,
 unless it should be wet and cold.
   The average  produce of a milch cow, supplied
 with good pasturage, is about 3 gallons  daily, from
 Lady-day to Michaelmas,  and from  that time to
 February,  about 1  gallon daily.  Cows of good
 breed  will  be profitable milkers to 14 or 15 years
 of age, if well fed.   (See Butter, Cows, Cream,
 and Cheese.)
   DAMP LINEN is  very injurious  to  health,
 and should be  especially avoided.  In  travelling,
 when  it is expected that  the bed has not been
 properly aired, the  best way is  to sleep between
 the blankets.  A good plan to ascertain this point,
 is to have the bed warmed, and immediately after
 to introduce a  clean, dry glass tumbler between
 the sheets, in an inverted position ; after it has  re-
 mained a few minutes it should be examined, when
 if found dry, and untarnished with steam, it may
 be fairly presumed  that the bed  is perfectly safe ;
 but if  the  reverse should be the  case, it should be
 avoided.  When it is impossible to prevent the use
 of damp linen, as articles of dress, the best way to
 obviate any ill effects, is to keep  constantly in mo-
 tion, and avoid  remaining near  the  fire, or in a
 warm  apartment, or a  draught of cold air, until
 sufficient time has  elapsed to allow the escape of
 the moisture.
   DAMSONS.  A species of small black plum,
 much  used in the preparations of tarts,  &c.  They
 are rather apt to disagree  with delicate stomachs,
 and also to affect the bowels.
   DAMSON CHEESE.   Prep. Boil  the fruit in
 a sufficient quantity of water to cover it; strain
 the pulp through a very coarse sieve ; to each lb.
 add 4 oz. of sugar.   Boil till it begins to candy on
 the sides, then  pour it into tin moulds.   Other
 kinds of plums  may be treated in the same way,
 as also cherries,  and several other kinds of fruit.
  DANDELION.   Syn.  Leontodon.   Leonto-
 Don Taraxacum. The root of this plant is diuretic
 and tonic.  It is roasted and used as coffee, and
 when mixed with an equal  weight of foreign coffee,
 constitutes  the article  once so much puffed under
 the name of  " Dandelion coffee."  The blanched
 leaves  are used in salads, and the inspissated juice,
 extract, and decoction are  employed in medicine,
 and are considered as detergent, aperitive, and de-
 obstruent.
  DAPHNIN.  A peculiar bitter principle, dis-
 covered by  Vauquelin in the daphne alpina.  It is
 procured by separating the resin from the alcoholic
 tincture  of the bark  by evaporation ;  afterwards
 diluting with water, filtering, and adding acetate
 of lead. A  yellow substance, which  has been
 called daphnate of lead, falls down, which, when
 decomposed by sulphureted hydrogen, forms small
 transparent crystals of daphnin.   This  substance
is bitter, gray-colored, volatile, and sparingly solu-
blo in cold water.
   DATURA.  Syn. Daturia.  Daturina.  Da-
turium.   An organic alkali, discovered  by Geigei
and Hesse in datura  stramonium.   It is best ob-
tained from the seeds.  It is  sparingly  soluble in
cold water ; but more so in hot water, alcohol, and
ether.   It tastes bitter, dilates the pupil strongly,
and is very poisonous.  It may be  sublimed unal-
tered,  and may be obtained in prismatic crystals,
by the  addition of water to its alcoholic solution.
With  the  acids  it forms salts, which are  mostly
crystallizable. (See Alkaloid.)
   DEAFNESS.  Syn. Dyskcjea, (from Svt, with
difficulty, and axoif, hearing,) an imperfect state,
or deficiency of the faculty of hearing.   Deafness
has been  divided into two species:—1.  Organic,
arising from wax in  the meatus,  injuries  of the
membrane, or inflammation and  obstruction of the
tube.    2. Atonic, when without any  discernible
injury of  the organ.  (Cullen.)  When deafness is
present in infancy and childhood, it is accompanied
with dumbness, or imperfect articulation, in conse-
quence of the impossibility of  conveying a  know-
ledge of the sounds neces-iary for the exercise of
the imitative faculty of speech.  A common cause
of deafness is some  imperfection  or obstruction of
the passage leading to the membrane of the tym-
panum or drum  of the ear.   In some  cases this
passage is totally occluded by  a membrane,  or
some  malformation of the tube, which  may fre-
quently be removed by a surgical operation.  Even
instances of partial obliteration of this passage have
occurred,  which  have  been effectually cured.  A
more frequent cause  of deafness is, however, the
presence of foreign bodies in the aural passages, or
the accumulation of hardened wax. In these cases
the best treatment is to inject warm water into the
ear by means of a proper syringe,  the head being
placed with that side upwards during the operation.
Insects may be destroyed by pouring a spoonful of
warm  olive oil,  or camphorated oil, into the ear
over night, retaining it there until the next morn-
ing by means  of  a piece of cotton wool, when it
may be washed  out with a little  mild   soap and
warm water.  When there is a deficient secretion
of wax, or a dryness  of the  aural passage, mild
oleaginous stimulants should  be employed.  For
this purpose a little olive or almond oil, to which a
few drops of oil  of turpentine, oil  of juniper,  or
camphor liniment, have been added, may be  used
with advantage.   When deafness  is accompanied
with continued acute pain, or a discharge of a pu-
rulent matter,  inflammation of the tympanum,  or
some  other portion of the  internal ear,  probably
exists, and medical advice should  be sought as soon
as possible.  The deafness that frequently accom-
panies a violent cold, is generally caused  by ob-
structions  in the Eustachian tube,  and goes off as
soon as the secretions return  to a healthy state.
When imperfect hearing depends upon  obtundity
of the  auditory nerve, or an extensive obliteration
or malformation of the internal ear, it scarcely ad-
mits of cure.
  DEAFNESS,  TAYLOR'S REMEDY FOR.
Prep.  Oil  of almonds lb", j ; garlic,  bruised, fij;
alkanet root  §ss ; infuse and strain.  A little is
poured into the ear in deafness.
  DEATH.   In cases of sudden death,  interment
should be  deferred till signs  of putrefaction begin
to appear, especially when no  gradation of disease 
DEC                  236                    DEC
 has preceded, as in  cases  of apoplexy, hysterics,
 external injuries, drowning, suffocation, &c.
   In cases of malignant fevers, putrescency ad-
 vances speedily, and,  under such circumstances,
 the time of the funeral ought not to be unnecessa-
 rily protracted; but this  ought never  to  be the
 case in northern climates, and in temperate or even
 cool weather.  Young persons, in the bloom  of
 health and vigor, may be  struck down by an ill-
 ness of only a  few days, or even hours, but they
 ought not to be  consigned to the same summary
 sentence, merely because  custom has ordained it
 No sooner has breathing  apparently ceased, and
 the visage  assumed  a  ghastly or death-like  hue,
 than the patient, after his  eyes are closed, is too
 often hurried into a coffin, and the body, scarcely
 yet cold, is precipitated into the grave.  So ex-
 tremely fallacious  are the signs of death, that too
 often  has the  semblance  been  mistaken for the
reality ; especially after sudden accidents, or short
illness.   Many of  these,  however,  by prompt
means and judicious  treatment, have been happily
restored.
  Unequivocal  proofs of death should always  be
waited for, and every possible means of resuscita-
tion persevered in when these do not appear, espe-
cially when we consider how appearances may be
deceitful, and how unexpectedly the  latent sparks
of life  may be  rekindled.   The effects of sound
 upon  animal life are astonishing.   The beat of a
 drum, for instance, has had a very beneficial effect
 upon  persons in a state of suspended animation.
 At one  time, a scream, extorted by grief,  proved
 the means of resuscitating a person who was sup-
 posed to be dead, and who had exhibited the usual
 recent marks of the extinction  of life.  In cases
 of catalepsy, or trance, having the semblance  of
 death, the action of the lungs and heart continues,
 though  in a nearly imperceptible degree.  By pla-
 cing a cold mirror, or piece of highly polished met-
 al,  immediately over the mouth of the  patient,
 symptoms of moisture will appear upon the sur-
 face, if the most feeble respiration takes place.
  DEBILITY.  Weakness.  Feebleness.  When
 this arises  from a diseased action of the stomach,
 the occasional use of mild aperients,  followed  by
 bitters and tonics, is the  best treatment.  When
 from a general  laxity of the solids, and there are
 no symptoms of fever, nor a tendency of blood to
 the head, a course of chalybeates will prove advan-
 tageous.  Either of the following may be adopted
 for this  purpose.  I.  Pure sulphate of iron 1 dr. ;
 extract  of gentian and powdered ginger, of each
 1£ dr., beat together into  a mass, and divide into
 120 pills, one to be taken morning, noon, and night
 II.  Sulphate of iron  and powdered myrrh, of each
 1 dr.; sulphate of quinine  £ dr.; conserve of roses,
 sufficient to form a pill mass.  Divide into 120 pills.
 Dose, as before.
  DECANTATION.  The operation of pouring
 or drawing off the clear portion of a liquid, from
 the impurities or grosser matter, that has subsided.
 It is commonly performed, either  by gently incli-
 ning the vessel, or by the use of a syphon or pump.
 In the laboratory it  s much resorted to  in the pu-
 rification of precipitates, or other similar operations,
 where repeated edulcoration or washing is required,
 for which purpose it  is preferable to filtration, from
 being less troublesome and more economical.   In
 these cases, after a sufficient time having been al-
 lowed for the subsidence of the precipitate or pow-
 der, or for the clearing of the supernatant fluid, it
 is decanted, and its place supplied by a fresh por-
 tion of water, which, after  sufficient  agitation, is
 similarly treated, and the whole operation repeated
 as often as necessary.
   DECANTERS. There is often much difficulty
 experienced in cleaning decanters, especially after
 port wine has  stood in them for some time.   The
 best way is to wash them out with a little pearlash
 and warm water, adding a spoonful or two of fresh
 slaked lime if necessary.  To facilitate the  action
 of the fluid against the sides  of  the  glass,  a few
 small cinders may be used.   A spoonful of  strong
 oil of vitriol will also  rapidly remove  any kind of
 dirt from glass bottles, but care must  be taken not
 to pour it into  them while wet, nor to wash them
 out until they have been thoroughly drained; for
 when the above strong acid comes into contact with
 water, sufficient  heat is generated  to  crack the
 glass.
   Another cause  of annoyance which frequently
 occurs,  is, that the stoppers of  glass  bottles and
 decanters become fixed  in  their places  so firmly,
 that the exertion of sufficient force to  remove them
 would endanger  the vessels.   In  such  cases,
 knocking them gently with a piece of wood,  first
 on one side, and then on the  other, will generally
 loosen them.   If this method does not succeed, a
 cloth  wetted with  hot water, and applied  to the
 neck, will generally expand  the  glass sufficiently
 to  allow them to be  easily withdrawn.  Should
 neither of these methods succeed, the decanter or
 bottle may be  placed in a kettle or boiler of  cold
 water, which > must then be  heated to the boiling
 point, by which time the stopper will in most cases
 be  loosened by the pressure of the air confined
 within the vessel, which will be greatly expanded
 by the heat.   This  plan should,  however, never
 be adopted but as a last resource, as if the vessel
 be not sufficiently strong to resist the internal pres-
 sure,  it must  of course be  broken.   A piece of
 cloth  should  be tied over the stopper, in 6iich a
 way as  to  permit  it to become well  loosened, but
 to prevent  it being blown out, because in the lat-
 ter  case it would most likely be broken  on falling
 to the ground.
   DECARBONIZATION.   This  operation  is
 performed  on cast  iron,  to convert it into steel or
 soft  iron.  The articles to  be  decarbonized  are
 packed  in finely-powdered hrematite,  or  native
 oxide of iron, to which iron filings are often  added,
| and exposed  for some time  to a strong red heat,
 by  which  the  excess of carbon is  abstracted or
 burnt out.  The process somewhat resembles an-
 nealing or cementation.
   DECOCTION.   Syn. Decoction,  (Fr.)  Ab-
 kochung, (Ger.) Decoctum, (Lat.) From decoquo,
 to boil.   (In Pharmacy.)  An aqueous solution of
 the active principles of vegetables,  obtained by
 boiling.   (In Chemistry.)   A continued ebullition
 with water, to separate such parts of bodies as are
 only soluble at the boiling temperature.
   The effect of boiling water differs  greatly  from
 that of infusion.   At the heat of 212°, the i-sen-
 tial oils and aromatic principles  of vegetables are
 dissipated or decomposed ; while by infusion in hot
 water, in  covered vessels,  they  remain for  tha 
DEC                    237                     DEC
 most part uninjured.  The solvent powers of boil-
 ing water are, however, much greater than those
 of hot  water ;  and many  vegetable principles
 scarcely acted on by the  latter, are freely soluble
 in the former.  This is the case with many of the
 alkaloids, on which  the medicinal virtues of several
 vegetables, depend.   On the other  hand, it must
 be recollected  that the  solutions of  many sub-
 stances, though more readily made by boiling, are
 speedily weakened  or rendered inert by ebullition,
 in consequence of the active principles  being either
 volatilized  along  with  the steam, or  oxidized, or
 decomposed by exposure to the atmosphere.  This
 is particularly the case  with substances abounding
 in extractive  or  astringent  matter.  When the
 medicinal properties of vegetables are volatile, or
 arc injured by a strong  heat, infusion should be
 had  recourse to,   in preference to boiling;  but
 when a solution of  the fixed  constituents is alone
 sought, decoction is preferable.   In preparing com-
 pound decoctions, those ingredients should be boil-
 ed first  which least readily  impart  their active
 principles, and those which most  readily  impart
 them should be added afterwards.   In  many cases
 it will be proper simply to  infuse the more aromatic
 subs.^.^ces in the  hot  decoction  of the other in-
 gredients, by which means their volatile principles
 will be preserved.   Some of the preparations in the
 pharmacopoeias  are  injudiciously  ordered  to  be
 boiled, while others that would not suffer by ebul-
 lition u'jjng with water, are directed to be infused.
 As examples of the former, may be mentioned the
 compound decoctions of aloes,  chamomile,  and
 sarsaparilla, and the simple decoctions of mezereon,
 cinchona bark,  &c.; as  examples  of the  latter,
 the infusions of quassia and rhatany  may be no-
 ticed.
   For making decoctions, the substances  should
 be well  bruised, or  reduced to a very coarse pow-
 der,  or,  if fresh and soft, they should be sliced
 small.   In the former case, any very fine powder
 or adhering dust should be removed with a sieve,
 as its presence would tend to  make the  product
 thick and disagreeable, and also more troublesome
 to strain.  The vessel  in which the ebullition is
 conducted should be furnished with an accurately
 fitting cover, the better to exclude  the  air; and
 the application of the heat should be so conducted
 that the fluid may  be kept " simmering," or only
 gently boiling, as violent  boiling is not only quite
 unnecessary, but absolutely injurious.  In every
 case the  liquor should be strained while hot, but
 not boiling, and the best method  of doing  this is
 to employ a  fine  hair sieve, or a coarse flannel
 bag.   In general it is found, that  as decoctions
 cool,  a sediment is formed, in  consequence of the
 boiling water dissolving  a  larger portion of vege-
 table  matter than it can retain  in  solution  when
 cold.  This deposite for the  most part consists of the
 active principles of the solution,  and should be
 mingled  with the clear  liquid  by agitation, when
 the decoction enters into extemporaneous compo-
 sitions, or when the dose  is taken.  It will thus
 be seen that the common  practice of  leaving the
 filtration until the liquid has become cold, and also
 of rejecting the sediment, is injudicious, and should
 be scrupulously avoided ;  as, however, much decoc-
 tions so prepared may please the eye, they are
not only inferior in strength, but, in many cases,
 nearly inert   It  may be  further remarked, that
 long boiling is in no case necessary, and  should
 be avoided, especially in decoctions  prepared from
 aromatic vegetables, or those abounding in extrac-
 tive.  The colleges, in such cases, direct the in-
 gredients " to  be boiled for a short time,"  (P. D
 Art. Dec. Chamomeli Co.;) or "for 10 minutes,"
 (P. L. Art. Dec. Cinchona-;)  or  they limit the
 period of the ebullition by stating the quantity that
 must be volatilized, as—" boil to a pint, and strain,"
 (P. L. Art. Lee. Cetraria?;) the  latter method
 being generally employed for those substances that
 do not suffer by lengthened boiling.
   Distilled water, or perfectly clean rain  water,
 should alone be used for decoctions.  Spring and
 river water, from containing lime, have less solvent
 powers.
   The aqueous solutions of organic matter, from
 the nature of  their  constituents, rapidly ferment,
 or putrefy.   Vegetable substances, from ..bounding
 in sugar and  starch, mostly undergo  the  former
 change, and this takes place, under common cir-
 cumstances, after the lapse of  only a few hours.
 At  the  ordinary temperature of the atmosphere,
 neither decoctions nor infusions are fit to be used
 in dispensing,  unless made the same  day; they
 should,  consequently, be  only prepared in  small
 quantities at a time, and any unconsumed portion
 should be rejected.    Some  of these preparations
 will keep for 48 hours, in  temperate weather, but
 as the ingredients are mostly of little value, and
 the menstruum (water) valueless, it would be im-
 prudent for the dispenser to risk his own reputation,
 and the welfare of  the  patient, by employing an
 article of dubious quality.
   It has of late years become a general  practice
 for the wholesale  houses to vend preparations un-
 der the name of " concentrated decoctions,"
 which, with the exception  of the compound decoc-
 tion of aloes, are stated to bo- of 8 times the phar-
 macopoeial strength; so that one drachm of these
 liquids, added to seven drachms of water, form ex-
 temporaneous  decoctions, professedly  resembling
 those  of the pharmacopoeia.  The  decoction of
 aloes is made of only four times the usual strength,
 as the nature of its composition would  not permit
 further concentration.  I feel it to  be, however, a
 bounden duty to the sick, to state, that such prep-
 arations are but very imperfect substitutes for the
 decoctions of the Colleges, and  in the usual man-
 ner.  The extreme  difficulty of  forming  concen-
 trated solutions of vegetablo matter with  bulky
 ingredients, too often leads  to  the omission of a
 portion of the materials, or to the practice of con-
 centrating the  liquid by evaporation; in the first
 case, the strength is of course less than it should
 be, and in the second, the  quality is injured, and
 perhaps the preparation is rendered  nearly inert by
 the  lengthened exposure to  heat,  and the  con
 sequent volatilization or decomposition of its active
 constituents.  The common practice of adding a
 considerable portion  of spirit to these preparations,
 which is absolutely necessary to make them keep,
 is  also objectionable, as, in many cases in which
 decoctions are prescribed, this article, even in small
quantities, would have a prejudicial  effect.  Be
sides, tho object in employing aqueous  decoctions
or infusions  is to avoid the use of spirituous prepa-
rations.  Some concentrated decoctions have been 
DEC                   238                    DEC
recently offered  for sale which do not contain a
particle of alcohol, being preserved by the addition
of sulphurous acid, or the sulphite of lime ; but on
lately examining a sample of one of these, I found
it perfectly worthless; it possessed a strong odor
of bark, but it contained barely a trace of cincho-
nine.  (See Concentration, Infusion,  Essence,
Extracts, Liquor.)
   DECOCTION,  COOLING.   Prep.  Barley
water 1 pint; muriatic  acid 1  drachm; sirup or
lump sugar to sweeten.  Use.  A common drink
in putrid fevers, taken ad libitum.
   DECOCTION, DIAPHORETIC. Prep. De-
coction of bark 1 pint;  liquor of acetate of ammo-
nia 4 oz.; aromatic confection  1  oz.  Dose. 2 or
3 tablespoonfuls every 3 hours.
  DECOCTION FOR FOMENTATION. Syn.
Decoctum pro  Fomento, (P.  L. 1788.)  Prep.
Leaves  of  southernwood, sea  wormwood,  and
chamomile flowers, of each 1 oz.; laurel leaves £
oz.; water 5 pints ; boil, and strain.
  DECOCTION, MERCURIAL.  Prep. Cor-
rosive sublimate gr. j ; (dissolved in) spirits of wine
30 drops ;  extract of sarsaparilla 3iij; decoction of
sarsaparilla f ^viij;  mix.'  Dose. One large table-
spoonful 3 times  a day.
  DECOCTION OF ALOES.  (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Decoctum Aloes compositum,  (P. L. &  E.)
Balsam of Life.  Baume  de Vie. Prep. I. Ex-
tract of liquorice 3vij  ;  carbonate of potassa  3j;
aloes, myrrh, and saffron, of each 3iss ;  compound
tincture of cardamoms f^vij; water 1£ pints. Boil
the  first five ingredients in the  water, until  the
fluid be reduced to a pint, strain, cool, and add  the
tincture.  (P. L.)
  Remarks. The preceding instructions, which  are
those of our Phunnacopceia, appear  to  be  objec-
tionable, as there cannot  possibly be any advan-
tage in boiling ther.«LilIVon, while by such  an  opera-
tion the whole  of  its  fr.ij'iunce is dissipated.  A
better plan is to macerate the saffron  in  the tinc-
ture for a  few days, previously to adding the latter
to the decoction of tho other  ingredients.  After
the tincture has been strained off from the saffron,
the  latter may be washed with a little water, to
remove  any adhering color and odor, and this may
be  added  to  the decoction.  The addition of  the
tincture produces a deposite  of mucilaginous  and
feculent matter, which has been  dissolved out of
the liquorice, for which  reason  some houses omit
the latter  altogether, and supply its place with  an
equal quantity of lump eugur, and a little coloring.
By this method  the  liquid, after  being once ren-
dered fine by decanting or filtering, will  continue
so for any length of lime.  The full quantity of
saffron ordered by the College, is seldom used in
making this preparation, a small fraction of it only
being employed.   The  following formula is used
by  a wholesale London drug house, that does very
largely  in this article.
   II. Solazzi juice 1£  lb.; kali (carbonate of pot-
assa) 3  oz.; aloes (hepatic) 4£ oz.; myrrh (small)
4 oz.; water 4£ gallons; boil  to 3 gallons, strain
through flannel,  cool,  and add  10 pints of com-
pound  tincture of cardamoms, that  has been  di-
gested for 10 days on saffron, 1 £ oz.; mix well, and
add essential oil  of nutmeg 15 drops, oils of cassia
and caraway, of er.ch 10 drops, and  oils of cloves
and pimento, of each  5 drops.   Agitate well  to-
gether, and allow it to repose for a week, then de-
cant the clear portion from the sediment, and pre-
serve it in a cool place.
  DECOCTION   OF  ALOES,  (CONCEN.
TRATED  COMPOUND.)   In preparing thir
article, there is considerable advantage  in  sulisti
tuting sugar for  the  liquorice, as, if the  latter be
used, there is a large deposite  from which the last
portion of tho liquid is separated with difficulty
The following form may be used with advantage.
  I. Lump  sugar 8 oz.; burnt sugar coloring \
pint; carbonate of potash 2 oz. ; aloes, myrrh, and
saffron, of each 3 oz.;  compound tincture of car-
damoms £ a gallon ; water 3 pints ; boil the firsl
five in the  water, until the  liquid be nearly re-
duced to  one half;  cool and add the tincture, pre-
viously digested  for a week, on the saffron ;  then
prooeed as directed in the last article.
  Remarks.  The proportion  of saffron  usually
employed in the drug trade for the above quantity,
is £ oz.;  and some fragrant oils are frequently ad-
ded to bring up the smell, as before described.  The
high price of saffron, for some time past, has led
many unprincipled persons to omit it altogether.
Should it be preferred to use extract  of liquorice,
14 oz. of solazzi juice must be added to the above,
and the sugar and coloring omitted.  Tho price at
which many houses offer this preparation, is abso-
lutely less than the bare cost of the ingredients or-
dered by the College.   I am in the habit of prepa-
ring this article by digesting the aloes, myrrh, li-
quorice, and pntassa, all reduced  to powder, along
with the saffron, in  the tincture, for  a fortnight,
employing frequent  agitation.   In this case the
proportion of  the tincture in the above  formula
should be 5$ pints, and the water should be omit-
ted.  In  this way a very odorous and  beautiful
preparation  is produced, which  has  been much
admired.
  DECOCTION OF  APOCYNUM.  Syn. De-
coctum Apocyni.   Prep.  (Dr.  Griscom.)  Root
of apocynum  cannabinum and juniper berries, of
each ^j ; water 3 pints; boil to 1  quart and strain.
  DECOCTION  OF  ASPARAGUS.   .Syn.
Dec. Asparagi.  Prep,  asparagus root §j; water
lb. ij ; boil for 5 minutes and strain.
  DECOCTION OF  AVENS.   Syn. Dec Gei
Urbani.   Prep.  (Thompson.)  Avens root (herb
bennet) §j»  water 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes.
  DECOCTION OF BALLOTA  LANATA.
Prep. Leaves and  flowers  2 oz.; water 2  lbs.;
boil to 1  lb. and strain.  Dose. 1 or 2 oz., 3 or 4
times a dav ; as a diuretic in dropsy.
  DECOCTION OF BARK.   Syn.  Dec. op
Cinchona. I. (Dec. of Lanced-leaved  Cinchona
or Pale Bark.  Decoctum Cinchona, P. L. 17b3,
1809, and  lb:24.  Dec. Cinchona. Lancifolia, P.
L.  1836.),  Prep.  Lance-leaved  cinchona bark,
well bruised, §j; water, sufficient to leave 1 pint
when strained; boil for 10 minutes, (P. L.)  Be-
fore dispensing or pouring out  the dose, the sedi-
ment should be shaken up with tho  liquid, as it
consists of the most active portion of the bark.
  II. (Decoction of Heart-leaved  Cinchona oi
Yellow Bark.  Syn. Dec. Cinchona Cordifolia,
P. L.)  Prep. Heart-leaved  cinchona,  or  yellow
bark, bruised,  3x ; distilled water  1 pint; boil fot
10  minutes, and strain  while hot.
  III. (Decoction of Oblong-leaved Cinchona or 
DEC
23U
DEC
 Red Bark.   Syn. Dec. Cinchona Oblongifolia,
 P. L.)   As the decoction of yellow bark.
  Dose, fyc.  Either of the above is given in doses
 of 1 to 2 oz., 3 or 4 times daily, as a tonic, stomachic,
 and febrifuge, where the stomach will not bear the
 administration of bark in powder, in cases of dys-
 pepsia, convalescences, &c.
  DECOCTION  OF BARLEY. Syn.  Barley
 Water.  Plain ditto.  Ao.ua Hordeata.  Dec
 Hordei, (P. L.)  Prep. Pearl barley §iiss; water
 4£ pints.  First wash the barley with some water,
 thou boil in £ pint  of the water for a little time,
 throw this away, pour on  the remaining  4 pints,
 boiling hot, boil down to 1  quartj and strain.
  DECOCTION  OF BARLEY, COMPOUND.
 Syn. Barley Water.   Pectoral  Decoction.
 Ptisana communis.   Dec. Hordei  compositum,
 (P. L.)   Prep. Barley water  1 quart; sliced figs
 and stoned  raisins, of each §iiss ; liquorice  root,
 sliced  and bruised, 3v; water 1 pint; boil down
 to 1 quart, and strain.
   Remarks.  Both the above are used as demul-
 cents in  fevers, phthisis, strangury, &c, taken ad
 libitum.  They are  slightly laxative, and where
 Uiis would be an objection to their use, a few drops
 of laudanum may  be added.  Mixed with an equal
 quantity of decoction of bark, barley  water forms
 an excellent  gargle  in cynanche  maligna, (ulcer-
 ated 6ore throat,) and, with a like quantity of milk
 and a little sugar,  a good  substitute for the breast
 in dry-nursing infants.
   DECOCTION OF  THE  BLUE CARDI-
 NAL FLOWER.  Syn.  Dec Lobelle Syphili-
 tic*.   Dec  Lobelia.   Prep. (P. C.)  Root of
 the  lobelia syphilitica 1 handful; water  12  lbs.;
 boil to 7 lbs., and strain.
   Remarks.  This decoction is purgative,  and was
 once thought to possess alterative virtues.   It was
 strongly recommended by Swediaur, in certain com-
 plaints ; he  gave  half a pint at first twice daily,
 and afterwards 4 times a day, unless  it acted too
 strongly on the bowels, when the frequency of the
 dose was diminished, or it was discontinued for 3
 or 4 days, and  then  had  recourse to  again, until
 the cure was effected. It is now seldom employed.
  DECOCTION  OF  BROOM TOPS.   Syn.
 Dec Spartii Cacumnium. Dec Scoparii.  Prep.
 Tops of broom (cut  small)  1  oz.; water 1 pint;
 boil  to  one  half,  and strain. As a diuretic in
 dropsy.
  DECOCTION  OF BROOM,  COMPOUND.
 Syn.  Dec.  Spartii  Cacumnium  co.   Dec ^Sco-
 parii  compositum, (P. L.)   Prep.  Broom tops,
juniper  berries, and dandelion root,  of each §ss;
water 1£ pint;  boil to 1 pint, and strain.
  Remarks.  The Edinburgh •preparation,  in addf-
tion to the above, contains  2£ drs. of cream of tar-
tar, and is hence said to be  preferable to that of
the London Pharmacopoeia.   Both the above are
diuretic, and  are chiefly administered in  dropsy,
especially ascites, (dropsy of the belly.)
  DECOCTION  OF BURDOCK.   Syn. Dec
Bardan^e. Prep.  (P. C.)  Bardana root fvj; wa-
ter 5 pints; boil to  3 pints,  and strain.
  Use.  As an alterative, a pint to a quart daily, or
ad libitum, in all those cases in which  sarsaparilla
is recommended. '
  DECOCTION OF BURNT SPONGE.  Syn.
Dec.  SpoNGiiE.  Deo.  Sponqlk  Ust^e.   Prep.
(Hufeland.)  Burnt sponge (powdered) Jj;  water
1 pint;  boil  a little, digest 12 hours, strain, and
add of cinnamon water §ij.
  Remarks. Burnt sponge was once much recom-
mended in scrofula, but has fallen into disuse.  If
it possesses any virtue, it must depend  upon the
very small quantity of iodine it  generally con-
tains.
  DECOCTION OF  CABBAGE TREE
BARK. Syn. Dec Geoffroy^e, (P.  D.)  Bark of
the cabbage tree bruised § j ; water  1 quart;  boi' t:
one half, strain, and add ^ij of sirup of orange pee
  Uses, <J-e.  Cathartic, narcotic,  and anthelmiE
tic.  Dose. 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls for an adult.
  DECOCTION OF CALUMBA.  Syn. Dec
CalumbjE.  Prep.  Calumba root,  sliced, ^j;  wa
ter l£pint;  boil to  1 pint and strain.   Dose. A
tablespoonful 2 or 3 times  daily.   Bitter,  tonic
stomachic.
  DECOCTION   OF  CALUMBA,   COM-
POUND.  Syn. Dec Calumba; comp. (P.  U. S.)
Prep. Calumba root and quassia  sliced, of each
3ij ;  orange peel 3j ; rhubarb 3j; carbonate of po-
tassa 3ss; water 1  pint.  Boil to f §xvj ;  strain,
and  add compound  tincture  of   lavender, f^ss.
Dose, fyc, as above.
  DECOCTION OF CEYLON MOSS.   Syn.
Dec  Fuci Amylacei.  Prep.  Ceylon rnowi 1
oz.;  water 3 pints ; boil for 20 minutes.
  DECOCTION  OF  CHAMOMILE.   Syn.
Dec Anthfmidis.   Dec  ChamjEmeli.  Prep.
Chamomile flowers 5j ;  water  1 pint; geutly sim-
mer  for 5 minutes in a closely  covered vessel.
  DECOCTION  OF  CHAMOMILE, COM-
POUND.   Syn. Dec  Cham^emeli compositum,
(P. D.)  Prep.  Chamomile flowers dried  ^ss ; fen-
nel seeds 3ij; water 1 pint; as above.
   Uses, <$-c. Both the above are bitter, stomachic,
and tonic, and are commonly used as fomentations
and clysters.
  DECOCTION OF CHYRATA.  Syn. Dec
Chyrat.e.  Prep.  Chyrata §j; water   1  quart;
boil for 10 minutes, and strain.
  DECOCTION   OF   CINCHONA  AND
SNAKEROOT.   Syn.  Decoction Cinchona
cum  Serpentaria.   Prep. (Sir J. Pringle.)   Cin-
chona bark  3iij;  water 1 pint; boil to  one half,
and infuse therein Virginian snakeroot 3iij.
  DECOCTION  OF   COLTSFOOT.   Syn
Dec. Tussilaginis. Prep. (Pereira.) Fresh leaves
of coltsfoot f ij ;  water 1 quart; boil to a pint.
  Remarks. This decoction is a popular remedy
in chronic coughs, consumption, &c.  It is emol-
lient and  demulcent.   Dose.  £ a teacupful, ad
libitum.
  DECOCTION OF CORSICAN MOSS. Syn.
Dec Helmintiiocorti.  Prep. Corsican moss 3v;
water 1 £ pint; boil to a pint.                 >
  DECOCTION  OF  DANDELION.   Syn.
Dec Taraxaci, (P. D.)  Prep. Fresh  herb and
root  fiv; (gvii  P. E.;) water lb.  ij; (2 pints P.
E.;)  boil to one half, and strain.
  Remarks. This decoction is aperient, tonic, and
stomachic.  The dose is 2 to 3 oz. 2 or 3 times
daily.  Its virtue is increased by combination with
saline medicines, as bitartrate  of potassa,  &c.
The  root has considerably the most virtue when
duff up in autumn, as it is then full of milky juicd
  DECOCTION  OF   DEADLY   NIGHT- 
DEC                    240                   DEC
 SHADE.   Syn.  Dec Digitalis.  Prep. Dried
 eaves of deadly nightshade 3ij;  boiling  water 1
 pint; macerate  for half an hour,  then gently boil
 for two minutes  and strain.
   DECOCTION OF  ELDER  BARK.  Syn.
 Dec Sambuci.   Prep.  I. (Sydenham.)   Elder
 bark §j; water  and milk, of each 1 pint; boil to
 a pint and strain.
   II. (Collier.)  Elder bark Jj; water  f £xvj; boil
 to £ a pint and strain.
   Dose, f §ij three times a day in dropsy and some
 cutaneous affections.
   DECOCTION OF ELECAMPANE, COM-
 POUND.   Syn. Dec Inul* comp.  Prep.  (Ra-
 tier.)  Elecampane root  ^j "> hyssop and ground-
, ivy, of  each 3ij ; water 1 pint; boil \ of an hour,
 strain, and add of honey §ij.
   DECOCTION OF ERGOT OF RYE.  Syn.
 Dec Ergot.e.   Dec Secale  Cornuti. Prep.
 (Pereira.)  Ergot of rye 3j; water f ^vj ;  boil for
 10 minutes  and  strain.  Dose. $ of the above re-
 peated everv half hour, until the whole be taken.
   DECOCTION OF ELM BARK.   Syn. Dec
 Ulmi, (P. L.)  Fresh elm bark bruised, ^iiss;  dis-
 tilled water 1 quart; boil to a pint and strain.
   Uses, tj-c.  Bitter,  mucilaginous,  and  diuretic.
 It is given with advantage in herpetic eruptions.
 Dr. Lettsom states that he cured a case of lepra
 ichthyosis by means of elm bark.—? Dose. 4  to 6
 oz. twice a day.
   DECOCTION OF  ELM   BARK,  COM-
 POUND.   Syn. Dec Ulmi comp.  Prep.  (Jef-
 frey.)   Simple  decoction  of  elm bark  8 pints;
 liquorice root, sassafras,  and guaiacum chips, of
 each §j; mezereon root 3iij ;  boil  for 1 hour  and

   DECOCTION OF GALLS.  Syn. Dec Gal-
 LiE.  Prep. I. Aleppo galls, bruised, £ oz.; water
 1£ pint; boil to a pint and strain.
  II. Galls, bruised, £ oz.; water 2£ pints;  boil
 to a quart, strain, cool, and add of tincture of  gall
 1 oz.
   Use,  6fC. As  a fomentation,  enema,  or injec-
 tion, in  prolapsus ani, piles, and leucorrhcea.
   DECOCTION OF WATERDOCK.   Syn.
 Dec Rumicis.   Prep. (A. T.  Thomson.)  Root
 of the common  waterdock (Rumex Obtusifolius)
 §j; water 1 pint; boil for 10 minutes and strain.
   Uses, SfC. This decoction is astringent, and  was
 once much celebrated as a remedy for  scurvy and
 some other  cutaneous  diseases.  " It  is the  only
 remedy which proves efficacious  in that disease,
 when the ulcers are  healed, and the patient is
 nttacked with asthma."   (Linnreus, on the scurvy
 of the Laplanders.)
   DECOCTION OF GUAIACUM.   Syn.  De-
 coction of the Woods.   Dec. Guaiaci, (P. E.)
 Prep. Guaiacum turnings Jiij;  sassafras,  rasped,
 (chips,) and liquorice root, bruised, of each §j  ;
 raisins Jij; water 1 gallon ; boil the guaiacum and
 raisins w*ith the  water down to 5 pints, adding the
 liquorice and sassafras towards  the  close;  then

   DECOCTION  OF   GUAIACUM,  COM-
 POUND.   Syn. Dec  of the  Woods.  Dec
 Guaiaci compositum,  (P.  D.)  Prep.  Guaiacum
 wood (rasped) 5»j 5 sassafras shavings 3x ; liquor-
 'ce root, bruised, ^'ss; water 10  old  wine pints.
 Boil the guaiacum in the  water until the liquid be
 reduced to £, then add the liquorice and sassafras:
 boil a little longer and strain.
   Dose.  A teacupful 3 or 4 times daily, or oftener,
 in chronic rheumatism, some cutaneous diseases,
 after a course of mercury, &,c.  Its virtues are of
 a very dubious kind.
   DECOCTION  OF   HELLEBORE.   Syn
 Dec Helebori Albi, (P. L. 1788.)  Dec Vera
 tri, (P. L. 1836.)  Root of white hellebore, bruised,
 3x; water 1 quart;  boil  to  one half, strain, and
 add rectified spirit of wine f ^iij-
   Use, tyc. As a wash, in itch, ringworm, leprosy,
 psoriasis, &c, either  alone, or  mixed  with wato;,
 also to destroy vermin in the hair,  &c.
   DECOCTION OF  HEMEDESMUS IND1
 CUS.   Syn.  Dec  Hemedebmi  Indici.  Prxp
 (Pereira.)  Hemedesmus root ^ij ;  water 1£ pmt
 boii to  1 pint.
   Used in  similar cases to sarsaparilla.  Tt  is d<
 urelic and tonic.
   DECOCTION  OF  IRISH  MOSS.   Syn
 Dec Condri.  Prep. (Pereira.)   Carrageen mo-s
 1 oz.; macerate  in lukewarm  water  for 10 min-
 utes, then boH in water 3  pints  for  15 minutes, aid
 strain through linen,
   Remarks.  Milk may be used instead of water.,
 and if twice the above weight of moss be employed,
 a mucilage will be produced, which  may be fla-
 vored with lemon juice,  spices, &.c,  and forms a
 most nutritious article  of spoon-diet   It  is  com-
 monly  taken in  pulmonary complaints, scrofula,
 chronic diarrhoea, cough, &c, and Is  frequently
 employed in cookery, as a  substitute for animal
 jelly, in  the preparation of  blancmanges, jellies,
 soups, &.c.
   DECOCTION OF JAMAICA DOGWOOD.
 Syn.  Dec. Corni  Florid.*.  Prep.  (Dr. Coxe.)
 Jamaica  dogwood ^j 5  water f §xvj;  boil for 20
 minutes.
   DECOCTION  OF  JUNIPER  BERRIES,
 (COMP.)   Syn. Dec  Juniperi comp.  Prep.
 (St. B. H.)   Juniper berries §ij ; cream of tartar
 3iij ; water 4 pints; boil to a quart, strain, and
 add compound spirit of juniper  f^ij.  Diuretic.
   DECOCTION OF LIQUORICE.  Syn. Dec
 GlycyrrhizjE, (P. D.)   Prep. Bruised liquorice
 root ^iss ; water 1 pint; boil  10 minutes and strain.
 A mild demulcent;  it is  taken either alone, or is
 used as a vehicle for more aetive remedies.
   DECOCTION  OF  LIVERWORT.   Syn.
 Dec of  Iceland Moss.   Dec. Lichems, (P. L.
 1809 and 1824.)  Dec Cetrari*, (P. L. 1636.J
 Prep.  Liverwort 3v; water 1 £ pints ;  boil  down
 to a pint, and strain.
   Remarks. This is given in doses of 1 to 4 oz.,
 three  or  four times  a day, in pulmonary  com-
 plaints, &c.  The addition of vinegar,  lemon juice,
 or sulphuric acid, barely enough  to  acidulate  it,
 with a little sugar or sirup, has been highly rec-
 ommended.  This preparation is  intensely  bitter
 and nauseous, when  made according  to the above
: formula,  but if the moss be soaked for a few  hours
 in cold water before  making the  decoction, most
 of the bitterness will  be extracted, while the other
 properties will remain uninjured.
   DECOCTION OF LOGWOOD.   Syn.  Dec.
J HjEmatoxyli,  (P.  E. and D.)  Prep. Logwood
 chips  5J> (3188 P* D.;) powdered  cinnamon  3j;
I water 1 pint, (2 old wine pints, P. D.;) boil to one- 
DEC                   241                   DEC
 half, adding the cinnamon towards the close of the
 operation, and strain.
   Use.  Astringent and tonic.  Dose.  1 to 4 or 5
 tablespoonfuls,  in diarrhoea.
   DECOCTION  OF  MALLOWS,  COM-
 POUND.   Syn. Common Decoction.  Dec pro
 Enemate, (P.  L. 1787.)  Dec commune.  Dec
 Malvas  compositum,  (P. L. 1836.)  Prep.  Mal-
 lows,  dried, ^j j  chamomile flowers, dried,  3s8 j
 water 1  pint; boil for 15 minutes, and strain.
   Use. For fomentations and enemas.
   DECOCTION  OF  MALT.   Syn.  Sweet-
 wort.   Dec  Malti.   Prep.  (Fr.  H.) Barley
 malt 4 oz.; water 3  pints; boil for  10 minutes,
 add liquorice root 3j ;  boil down to a quart, and
 strain.   Demulcent; laxative.
   DECOCTION  OF  MARSHMALLOWS.
 Syn.  Dec Altile.e, (P. D.)   Prep. Dried root
 and herb of marshmallow S^iv *,  raisins, stoned, §ij;
 water 7 pints, (wine measure;)  boil down  to 5
 pints, strain, allow it to deposite the sediment, and
 decant the clear  liquid.
   Use,  <£c.  It is demulcent.  Dose.  A cupful ad
 libitum, in coughs, colds, calculous affections, and
 other diseases of the urinary organs.
   DECOCTION  OF  MEZEREON.    Syn.
 Dec  Mezkrei, (P. D. and  E.)   Prep.  Mezereon
 root,  in chipe, 3ij; liquorice  root, bruised,  5SS j
 water 1 quart, (3  old wine  pints,  P. D.;) gently
 boil  to  1£  pint,  (2 old wine  pints,  P. D.,) and
 strain.
   Dose, f ^iij  to a teacupful, two or three times a
 day, in chronic  rheumatism, scrofula,  lepra, and
 some other cutaneous  affections.  Much boiling in-
 jures the virtues of mezereon.
   DECOCTION OF OAK BARK.   Syn.  Dec
 Quercus.   Prep.  Oak bark 3x;  water 1 quart;
 boil  to one-half, and strain.
   Uses, <Jr-c. Astringent.  It is used as a gargle in
 ulcerated sore throat, relaxation of the uvula, &c,
 and as a wash and injection in piles, leucorrhoea,
 hemorrhages, prolapsus ani, &c.
   DECOCTION OF PAREIRA BRAVA.  Syn..
 Dec PareiRjE.  Prep. (Brodie.) Pareira root 3y ;
 water 3 pints ;  boil to one-third.
   DECOCTION OF POMEGRANATE.  Syn.
 Dec Granati.   Prep. I.   (P.  L.)  Pomegranate
 peel 3-ij; water 1£ pint; boil to-a pint, and strain.
   II.  (P. Cod.) Bark of the pomegranate root §ij ;
 water 1$ pint; boil gently to f§xvj.
   III.  (Collier.)  Bark of the root §ij; water 1
 pint; boil to one-half.   This is the common  form
 used in India.
   Remarks. These decoctions are astringent, pur-
 gative, and  vermifuge.  Those prepared from the
 root, possess the latter  property in the highest de-
 gree.  Dr. Collier  recommends the whole of the
 last  preparation to be  given at 2 doses, at the in-
 terval of 2 hours.  It  purges, and in 5  or 6 hours
 frequently expels the worm ;  if this does not  take
 place, it should be  persevered in.   " Look for the
 head of the taenia, (worm ;)  for if that  is not ex-
 pelled, you have done nothing."  (Collier.)
   DECOCTION  OF PYROLA.  Syn.  Dec
 of Winter-Green.  Dec Pyrol^e.  Dec Chim-
 aphil.e,  (P. L.)   Prep. Winter-green §j; distilled
 water 1£ pint;  boil to a pint, and strain.   Dose. 1
to 2 oz. in dropsy, either alone  or  combined with
cream of tartar.                                j
                       31
  DECOCTION  OF  POPPIES  Syn.  De4
Papaveris, (P. L.)  Prep.  Poppy heads, sliced,
§iv ; water 2 quarts ; boil 15 minutes, and strain.
   Use,  6fC  This decoction  is employed as as
emollient  fomentation in painful swellings, excori-
ations, &c.  The addition of a \ pint of vinegar to
the above quantity, is said to promote its efficacy
  DECOCTION   OF  PURPLE WILLOW
HERB.   Syn. Dec Salicarle.   Prep. (Thom-
son.)   Fresh root of tho purple willow  herb 3x ;
water 1 pint;  boil  for 15 minutes.
   DECOCTION  OF QUINCE  SEEDS.  Syn.
Dec CYDONiiE,  (P. L.)   Prep. Quince  seeds 3ij ;
water  1  pint; simmer them  together for 10 min-
utes, then strain.  Demulcent.
.   DECOCTION  OF RICE.  Syn. Rice Water
Rice Drink.  Dec Oryz^e.   Prep. Rice 2 oz.;
water  1 quart; boil to one-half, and strain.   De-
mulcent.  A good drink in fevers, coughs, &c. It
may  be sweetened, and flavored with  a  little
lemon-peel.
   DECOCTION  OF SARSAPARILLA.  Syn.
Dec SarzjE, (P. L. and E.)   Dec Sarsaparillje,
(P. D.)  Decoction de Salsepareille, (Fr.) Sar-
saparille-Dekokte, (Ger.)  Decotto  di Sarsa-
parillo, (Ital.)  Prep. Sarsaparilla root, sliced,
^v;  boiling  distilled water  4 pints ; macerate for
4 hours, in a vessel lightly covered, and  placed in
a warm situation ;  then take out  the  root, bruise
it, return  it again  to the liquor, and again mace-
rate for 2 hours;  next  boil down to 1 quart, and
strain. (P. L.)  The formulae of the   Irish and
Scotch Colleges are similar.
   Remarks.  The medicinal virtues of sarsaparilla
root reside wholly  in the bark, or cortical portion ;
it is therefore quite unnecessary to  bruise it, as di-
rected by the Colleges.  By those  houses which
do largely in decoction  of sarsaparilla, the root is
seldom split or cut; but the bundles in which it is
made up are simply untied and spread open, to al-
low of the free  exposure of every part to the sol-
vent action of the water. By this plan, the whole
of the soluble  portion of the bark is  extracted,
while the feculent matter that pervades the  wood
is only partially dissolved out  Dose. 4 oz. to half
a pint, 3 or 4 times daily.  (See Sarsaparilla.)
  An extemporaneous decoction of sarsaparilla is
made by dissolving £ oz. of the simple extract in 1
pint of hot water.
  DECOCTION  of SARSAPARILLA, (CON-
CENTRATED.)   Prep. Sarsaparilla  root  (Ja-
maica) 10 lbs.; place it in a large and well-cleaned
copper boiler, and add enough water to  cover it;
bring it to the  boiling  temperature, then let  it
macerate, without boiling, for 5 or 6 hours, after
which  boil it  for  1 hour, draw off the liquor into
another clean copper pan, and wash the root (af-
ter it has well drained) with  boiling water, until
the latter runs off but little colored ; add the wash-
ings to the decoction, and evaporate as quickly as
possible to 6£ pints; let it cool, and further add
1£ pint of rectified spirits of wine; mix,  and keep
it in a well-corked bottle.  In  a few days it  will
become as clear and brilliant as brandy, will  have
but very little  sediment, and will  keep for  any
length  of time  uninjured.   Some  manufacturers,
instead of washing the roots, give it a second and
third water, boiling it each time, and evaporating
the mixed liquors. 
DEC                     242                    DEC
  Remarks.  1  drachm of this decoction, mixed
with 7 drachms of water, forms a similar prepara-
tion to the Decoctum Sarzse of the Pharmacopoeia,
and  is now very  frequently  substituted for  it in
dispensing.  (See Sarsaparilla.)
  DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA. COM-
POUND.  Syn. Lisbon Diet Drink.  Compound
Decoction of Sarsaparilla and the Woods.  De-
coctum Lusitanicum.  Dec.  Sarsaparilla  com-
positum, (P. D.)  Dec Sarzas  comp., (P. L.) Prep.
Decoction of sarsaparilla  (boiling) 4 pints; sassa-
fras  chips,  guaiacum,  (rasped,)   liquorice  root,
(bruised,) of each 3x ; mezereon root 3iij; boil for
15 minutes, and  strain.
  Dose,  $-c.  4 to 6 oz. 3 or 4 times a day, either
along with or after a mercurial  course, in chronic
rheumatism,  lepra, psoriasis, and several  other
skin  diseases.  It  is alterative  and diaphoretic;
during its use the skin should be kept warm.  See
the preceding articles, and Sarsaparilla, in its al-
Dhabetical order.
  DECOCTION OF SARSAPARILLA, COM-
POUND, (CONCENTRATED.)    There  is a
very considerable trade done in this  article, in  con-
sequence of the  compound decoction of sarsapa-
rilla being very commonly ordered in prescriptions,
and taken in large doses.  When mixed with 7
times its weight of water,  it forms a similar prepa-
ration to the Decoctum Sarza compositum, P. L.;
and is  very generally substituted for it in dispens-
ing.  When honestly and skilfully prepared,  it is
eally a most convenient  and valuable article ; it
s, however, more frequently met with of  an  infe-
rior quality, and as the difference is  not readily
distinguished by mere ocular examination, it would
be better  for the dispenser to avoid employing it,
unless  it be ordered.  The following  formula is
that employed by one of the largest metropolitan
drug-houses, which is proverbial for the  superior
quality of their decoction of sarsaparilla.
  Prep.  Red Jamaica sarsaparilla 96 lbs.; meze-
reon root  9  lbs.; liquorice root (bruised) 16 lbs.
Proc. These are packed into  a  clean copper  pan,
and two or three boards with  as many £ cwt. iron
weights placed thereon ;  water  is  now run in, to
about 10 inches  higher than the ingredients, and
heat is applied until ebullition commences.   The
materials are now  allowed to macerate  without
boiling for about 6 hours, when the weights  and
boards  are removed, and the liquid is gently boiled
for 1 hour, care  being taken  to add  fresh water
from time to time, so  as  to keep  the whole  well
covered.  The decoction  is next run off, and set
evaporating as quickly as possible ; the ingredients
are then washed with boiling water, by allowing
it to descend from  a species of shower-bath,  after
the  manner  of  " sparging,"  described under
" Scotch ale."   This  is repeated until the water
runs off nearly colorless.   The whole of the liquid
is now evaporated without delay, until reduced to
8£ gallons, when, after cooling,  2 drachms of es-
sential oi-1 of sassafras, dissolved in 2 gallons of
rectified spirit of  wine, are added, and  afterwards,
1 pint of essence of guaiacum.   The liquid is  then
placed  in a suitable sized barrel,  set upon its head,
fitted with a small cock, (not  placed too near the
bottom,) and  allowed  to  repose for a week, by
which time it becomes clear and brilliant.
  Remarks. To  conduct this process successfully,
several large copper pans are required ;  Dne of
which, to boil the ingredients in, must be capable
of containing from 120 to 150 gallons at least, and
the  remainder sufficiently large to receive the
liquors drawn off.  The evaporation and decoction
should also be conducted by steam-heat   A very
excellent plan adopted  by some houses is, to em-
ploy large wooden vats, and to apply the heat by
means of pipes laid along the bottom, and supplied
with  high-pressure steam.  This  method is less
expensive than the use of double steam  pans, as
above.  When essence of guaiacum is not  used,
24 lbs. of guaiacum shavings, from which the dust
has  been  sifted, are boiled with the other ingre-
dients instead.  (See Sarsaparilla.)
  DECOCTION  OF SENEGA ROOT.   Syn.
Dec of American  Snakeroot.   Dec  Senegas,
(P. L.)  Prep. Seneka root  3x; water 2 pints;
boil to one-half, and strain.
  Dose, fjiss to f^iij, three or four times daily, in
humoral asthma, chronic  cough,  dropsy, &c.  It
is  stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic,  and in
large doses, emetic and  cathartic.  It is the anti-
dote  employed by the Senegd.-o  Indians  against
the bite of the rattlesnake.   (Dr. Tcnnant.)
  DECOCTION OF SQUILLS, COMPOUND.
Syn. Dec Scilla comp.  Prep. (P. U. S.) Squills
3iij; juniper  berries %iv; snakeroot ^iij;  water
lb. iv; boil to one  half, strain, and add  of sweet
spirits of nitre f^iv.
  DECOCTION  OF  STARCH.   Syn. Muci-
lago Amyli, (P. L.  1788-1824.)  Dec  Amyli,
(P. L. 1836.)  Prep. Starch 3iv; water  1 pint;
mix gradually and boil for a short time.   Use. As
an enema in dysentery, diarrhoea, and excoriations
of the rectum.
  DECOCTION   OF  STEMLESS   MILK
VETCH.  Syn. Dec Astragali. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Root of the astragalus escapus 3x ; water 3 pints;
boil  to 1  quart.   Dose. The whole  to  be taken
within the 24 hours.   Alterative, &c.
  DECOCTION, STRENGTHENING.  Syn.
Tonic Decoction.   Prep.  I.  Peruvian bark,
bruised, §ss;  Virginian snakeroot 3ij ;  water  1
pint; boil  to  one half, strain, and add  spirits of
cinnamon §iss ; diluted sulphuric acid Jiss.  Dose.
2 oz. two or three times  a day.
  II. Decoction of bark %v ; tincture of bark 3yj;
aromatic confection 3j ; sal volatile 3j.   Dose.  1
or 2  tablespoonfuls night and morning.
  DECOCTION OF SUET.  Syn. Artificial
Goat's Milk.  Dec Sevi. Prep. (Dr. Cummin.)
Tie some chopped mutton suet in a piece of muslin,
and simmer it for a short time in milk.
  DECOCTION,  SYDENHAM'S  WHITE.
Syn.  Hartshorn Drink.  Mistura Cornu Usti.
Prep.  Prepared burnt  hartshorn §ij ; gum arabic
^j ; water 3 pints; boil to 1 quart and strain.  Mu-
cilaginous ; demulcent.
  DECOCTION   OF  TAMARINDS.   Syn.
Dec   Tamarindorum.  Prep.  Tamarinds  ^iss;
arater 1 pint; boil for 5 minutes and strain.  A
feasant drink in fevers, asthma,  chronic coughs,
&.C.
  DECOCTION  OF TAMARINDS   AND
SENNA.  Syn. Dec Tamarindorum cum  Sen-
na, (P. E. 1744.)  Tamarinds 3vj ; cream of tartar
3ij ;  water f^xxiv; boil in a glazed earthen vessel
until reduced toffxiv; then infuse therein for J 2 
DEC                    243                   DEC
 hours, senna 3iv; strain, and add sirup of violets
 £j.  Purgative.
   DECOCTION OF TAR.   Syn. Tar Water.
 Dec Picis liquids.   Prep. Tar 1 oz.; water 1£
 pints ; boil to 1 pint
   DECOCTION  OF  TORMENTIL.   Syn.
 Dec Tormentile, (P. L.) Prep. Tormentil root,
 bruised, §ij; water 1£ pints;  boil  to  1 pint and
 strain.  Astringent.  Dose. 2  to 4 tablespoonfuls
 Jl diarrhoea, &c.
   DECOCTION  OF VERBENA.  Syn.  Dec
 VerbenjE.  Prep.  Verbena (vervain)  2 oz.; wa-
 ter 1£ pints ; boil to 1 pint and strain.
   Remarks.  The verbena officinalis was former-
 ly  highly recommended  by Etmuller, Hartman,
 De Haen, Morley, and others, in scrofula, cepha-
 lalgia, &c, but afterwards fell into neglect.   More
 recently, a decoction of the plant has been highly
 extolled by  Bos>.anov as an anti-febrile.
   DECOCTION, VULNERARY.   Syn.  Dec
 Vulnerarium.  Prep.  (E. H.) Ground  ivy, and
 broad-leaved plantain, of each $ss ; water 3 pints;
 boil to 1 quart, strain, and add sugar §ss.
   DECOCTION  OF WALNUT BARK.  Syn.
 Dec Juglandis.  Prep.  (P. Gen.) Green bark of
 walnuts  ^j j water 1 pint; boil  for  15 minutes
 and strain.
   DECOCTION   OF  WALL-PELLITORY.
 Syn. Dec  Parietari^e.   Prep. (Ratier.) Root of
 wall-pellitory ^j; water 1 £ pints;  boil  to 1 pint.
   DECOCTION  OF  WHORTLEBERRIES.
 Syn. Dec  Uvas Ursi, (P. L.)  Prep.  Whortleber-
 ry leaves, bruised, ^j j  water  1£ pints; boil to 1
 pint and strain.
   Dose.  1 to 4 tablespoonfuls, in phthisis and pu-
 rulent affections of the urinary organs.
   DECOCTION  OF WILLOW BARK.  Syn.
 Dec Salicis.  Prep. (Wilkinson.) Willow  (salix
 latifolia) bark, bruised, fiss ; macerate in  water
 lb. ij, for 6 hours, then boil for 15 minutes and
 strain.  Tonic, astringent, and febrifuge.
   DECOCTION   OF   WOODY   NIGHT-
 SHADE.   Syn.  Dec of Bitter-sweet.  Dec
 Dulcamara, (P. L.)  Prep.  Stalks of the  herb,
 sliced, 3x ;  water 1£  pints; boil to  1  pint and
 strain.
   Dose. 1 to 3 oz. It is diaphoretic, diuretic, and
 narcotic,  and is given  in dropsy, asthma, and sev-
 eral scaly skin diseases.  Its narcotic  action may
 be obviated  by the addition  of £  an oz. of com-
 pound spirits of lavender.   (Collier.)
  DECOCTION OF WORMSEED. Syn.  Dec
 Santonici.  Prep. Wormseed,  bruised, §ij ; water
 1 pint; boil down to f^xvj, and strain.  Stomachic,
 vermifuge.  It is principally used  as an injection
 against ascarides.
  DECOCTION OF  YELLOW  MULLEIN.
 Syn.  Dec Verbasci Thapsi.  Prep. (Dr. Home.)
 Yellow mullein 5j '■> water 1 pint;  boil  for a short
 time.
  DECOLORATION.  The  blanching or  loss
 of the natural color  of any substance.  Sirups,
 and many animal, vegetable, and salino solutions,
 are decolored or whitened  by agitation  with ani-
 mal charcoal, and subsequent subsidence or filtra-
 tion.  Many fluids rapidly lose  their natural color
 oy exposure  to light, especially the direct rays of
 the sun.   In  this way, castor, nut, poppy, and
several other oils,  are  whitened.   By  the joint
action of light,  air, and moisture,  cottons  and
linens  are  commonly bleached.  The  peculiar
way in which light produces this effect, has never
been  satisfactorily explained.   That  it is  not de-
pendent  on  the  absorption of  oxygen,  appears
evident, from the fact, that contact with air is not
always necessary.   I find that raw castor oil, ex-
posed  to the sun  in a bottle closely corked, will
whiten with  as much rapidity as that  in another
similar sized  bottle, placed beside it  and left un-
corked.  There is, however,  a small quantity of
gaseous  matter given off, which has an  odor re-
sembling  carbureted hydrogen ; but  in the  open
bottle, oxygen is continually absorbed, certain oily
acids  formed, and some impure  carbonic  acid
evolved.   When this action is permitted to go on
for some time, the oil becomes  thick and  rancid,
but may be partially restored to its  former state,
by filtration through coarsely-powdered and fresh-
ly-burnt  animal charcoal.  The  latter substance is
commonly employed to  deprive  fish  oils  of  their
disagreeable odor,  as well as to lessen their color.
The decoloration of textile fabrics and solid bodies
generally, is called bleaching.   (See Oils, Tal-
low, Sirup, Sugar, &c.)
   DECOMPOSITION.  Syn. Decomposition,
(Fr.)  Zersetzung, (Ger.)  In Chemistry.  The
resolution of compounds into their elements, or the
alteration of their chemical constitution in such a
manner  that  new  products are formed.—Thus:
the gas that illuminates our streets, is the   --suit of
the decomposition  of pit-coal;   and  vinegar  and
brandy, the result of the decomposition of the sac-
charine matter of grape juice.  The decomposition
of bodies  may be either simple or complicated, ac-
cordingly as one or more compounds are produced.
—Thus:  when the vapor of water, (steam,) which
is a compound of % parts of oxygen and 1 of hy-
drogen, is passed over red-hot iron, the latter unites
with the  oxygen, and the  hydrogen is liberated in
an uncombined state.  This resolution of the ele-
ments  of one body, and  the formation of a new
compound, is called by chemists, simple or single
decomposition.  The above change  may be rep-
resented by the following diagram :—
   Materials.       Composition.      Products.
               ^  Hydrogen .   Hydrogen gas

Iron
  When, however, two bodies suffer mutual altera-
tion, and an interchange of their elements takes
place, producing new compounds, it is called  dou-
ble decomposition.  Thus: when  sal  ammoniac
and chalk are  mixed together and distilled, as in
the preparation of  smelling salts, (sesquicarbonate
of ammonia,) the  hydrochloric acid of the former
unites to the lime of the latter, forming hydrochlo-
rate of lime ; while the ammonia of the sal ammo-
niac unites with the carbonic acid of the chalk, form-
ing sesquicarbonate of ammonia, which passes over
and is condensed in the receiver.  This mutual de-
composition is exhibited in the following diagram :—
Materials.      Composition.          Products
Sal Am- I Hydrochloric Acid i
 moniac  } Ammonia  .  .  1 [  HydrocM.of r.tme.
         JK j ■             \ \   Sesquicarbonate of
          CaTbonicAcid  S       Amm°nia-
  For  the sake of  simplicity, no notice is taken in
Vapor of Watee
  - yg    * *  ( Oxide of Iron.
Iron . .  . .  $        J 
DEC                    244                    DEC
the above diagram of the water formed by the hy-
drogen of the hydrochloric acid and  tho  oxygen
of  the  lime,  one portion of  which is dissipated
along with an  atom of ammonia,  and another is
condensed along with the newly-formed carbonate
of ammonia.
   An  intimate  acquaintance  with the order  in
which  decompositions  take place  among  com-
pounds, is of vast importance to the chemical man-
ufacturer, and, in fact,  forms the ground-work of
operative chemistry.  The tyro  in this art is, there-
fore, recommended to pay especial attention to the
subject  A knowledge " of the  elective affinities
of bodies, simple and  compound, imparts to its pos-
sessor an irresistible power over the unions and dis-
unions of the  elements, which he can exercise
with certainty in effecting innumerable transforma-
tions in the arts."   (Ure.)  The following tables
will be found to contain much valuable informa-
tion on this subject, in a very condensed form, and
will enable the reader to understand the nature of
many of the decompositions that take  place in the
chemical operations  detailed in this work, as well
as to anticipate the effects  resulting from the ad-
mixture of numerous substances.

          I.  Table of  simple Affinity.
   The  following table, drawn  up from  the  re-
searches of Geoffroy, Bergman, Vauquelin, Four-
croy, and others, has been  arranged in alphabeti-
cal order for  the convenience  of reference.  The
Bubstance, the attractions of which are to be shown,
is placed at the commencement of each paragraph,
and the substances to which it  has an attraction,
follow in the order of the forces of attraction.
Acetic Acid.   Baryta ; Potassa ; Soda ;  Stron-
   tia;  Lime ;  Ammonia;  Magnesia ;  Metallic
   oxides ; Glucina;  Alumina;  Zirconia.
As.cohol.  Water;  Ether ; Volatile oil; Alkaline
   sulphurets.
Alumina.  Acids—Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochlo-
   ric,  Oxalic,  Arsenic,  Fluoric, Tartaric,  Suc-
   cinic, Mucic, Citric, Phosphoric, Lactic, Benzoic,
   Acetic, Boracic, Sulphurous, Nitrous, Carbonic,
   Hydrocyanic.
Ammonia.  Acids—Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochlo-
   ric,  Phosphoric, Fluoric,  Oxalic, Tartaric, Ar-
   senic, Succinic, Citric, Lactic, Benzoic, Sulphur-
   ous, Acetic,  Mucic,  Boracic, Nitrous, Carbonic,
   Hydrocyanic ; Oil;  Water ; Sulphur.
Arsenic Acid.  The same as Fluoric Acid, omit-
   ting Silica.
Baryta.   Acids—Sulphuric, Oxalic, Succinic,
   Fluoric,  Phosphoric,  Mucic, Nitric, Hydrochlo-
   ric,  Suberic, Citric,  Tartaric, Arsenic, Lactic,
   Benzoic, Acetic, Boracic, Sulphurous, Nitrous,
   Carbonic, Hydrocyanic ; Sulphur ; Phosphorus;
   Water;  Fixed Oils.
 Benzoic Acid.  White oxi'de of arsenic ; Potassa ;
   Soda; Ammonia; Baryta ;  Lime ;  Magnesia;
   Alumina.
Boracic Acid. The same as Fluoric Acid, omit-
   ting Silica, and adding Water and Alcohol.
Camphoric Acid.  Lime;  Potassa;  Soda ; Ba-
   ryta ; Ammonia ;  Alumina; Magnesia.
Carbon.  Oxygen ;  Iron;  Hydrogen.
Carbonic Acid.  Baryta ; Strontia ;  Lime; Po-
   tassa ; Soda; Magnesia  ; Ammonia; Glucina ;
   Zirconia;  Metallic oxides.
Citric  Acid.  Same  as Oxalic acid,  excepting
  that  Zirconia  should be  inserted  after Alu-
  mina.
Fixed  Oils.   Lime ;  Baryta;  Potassa;  Soda ;
  Magnesia ; Oxide of Mercury ; Metallic oxides;
  Alumina.
Fluoric Acid.  Lime ; Baryta; Strontia;  Mag-
  nesia ;  Potassa ;  Soda;  Ammonia;  Glucina;
  Alumina ; Zirconia ;  Silex.
Hydrochloric Acid.   The same as Nitric acid,
  excepting that Ammonia  should stand  above
  Magnesia.
Hydrocyanic Acid.  Baryta ; Strontia; Potassa;
  Soda ; Lime ; Magnesia ;  Ammonia.
Hydrogen.   Oxygen ;  Sulphur ;  Carbon;  Phos-
  phorus : Nitrogen.
Lactic Acid.  The same as Acetic acid.
Lime.   Acids—Oxalic, Sulphuric, Tartaric, Suc-
  cinic, Phosphoric, Mucic, Nitric, Hydrochloric,
  Suberic, Fluoric,  Arsenic, Lactic, Citric, Malic,
  Benzoic, Acetic,  Boracic,  Sulphurous, Nitrous,
  Carbonic, Hydrocyanic; Sulphur;  Phosphorus;
  Water; Fixed oil.
Magnesia. Acids—Oxalic, Phosphoric,  Sulphuric,
  Fluoric, Arsenic,  Mucic, Succinic, Nitric, Hy-
  drochloric, Tartaric, Citric, Malic, Lactic, Ben-
  zoic,  Acetic,  Boracic,  Sulphurous, Nitrous,
  Carbonic, Hydrocyanic ; Sulphur.
Nitric Acid.   Baryta ; Potassa ; Soda; Strontia;
  Lime ;  Magnesia ;  Ammonia; Glucina; Alu-
  mina ; Zirconia ;  Metallic oxides.
Nitrogen.  Oxygen ; Sulphur ; Phosphorus; Hy-
  drogen.
Oxalic Acid.  Lime ;  Baryta ; Strontia ; Mag-
  nesia ;  Potassa;   Soda; Ammonia;  Alumina;
  Metallic oxides ;  Water ; Alcohol.
Oxide  of  Antimony.   Acids—Gallic, Hydro-
  chloric, Benzoic,  Oxalic, Sulphuric, Nitric, Tar-
  taric, Mucic, Phosphoric, Citric, Succinic. Fluo-
  ric,  Arsenic, Lactic, Acetic,  Boracic, Hydro-
  cyanic ; Fixed alkalis ; Ammonia.
Oxide of Arsenic  Acids—Gallic, Hydrochlo-
  ric,  Oxalic,  Sulphuric, Nitric, Tartaric,  Phos-
  phoric,  Fluoric,  Succinic, Citric,  Acetic, Hy-
  drocyanic ;  Fixed  alkalis;  Ammonia;  Fixed
  oils;  Water.
Oxide of Copper.   Acids—Gallic, Oxalic, Tar-
  taric, Hydrochloric,  Sulphuric, Mucic,  Nitric,
  Arsenic,  Phosphoric, Succinic, Fluoric, Citric,
  Lactic, Acetic, Boracic, Hydrocyanic, Carbonic;
  Fixed alkalis ; Ammonia ; Fixed oils.
Oxide  of Gold.   Acids—Gallic, Hydrochloric,
  Nitric,  Sulphuric,  Arsenic,  Fluoric,  Tartaric,
  Phosphoric,  Acetic,  Hydrocyanic; Ammonia;
  Sulphureted Hydrogen.
Oxide of Iron. Acids—Gallic, Oxalic, Tartaric,
  Camphoric,  Sulphuric,  Mucic,  Hydrochloric,
  Nitric,  Phosphoric, Arsenic,  Fluoric, Succinic,
  Citric,  Lactic, Acetic, Boracic, Hydrocyanic,
  Carbonic.
Oxide of Lead.   Acids—Gallic, Sulphuric, Mu-
  cic, Oxalic, Arsenic, Tartaric, Phosphoric, Hy-
  drochloric, Sulphurous, Suberic, Nitric, Fluoric,
  Citric, Malic, Succinic, Lactic, Acetic, Benzoic,
  Boracic,  Hydrocyanic,  Carbonic ;  Fixed oils;
  Ammonia.
Oxide of Mercury.  Acids—Gallic, Hydrochlo-
  ric, Oxalic, Succinic, Arsenic, Phosphoric, Sul-
  phuric, Mucic, Tartaric, Citric, Mafic, Sulphur- 
DEC                   245                    DEC
  ous, Nitric, Fluoric,  Acetic,  Benzoic, Boracic,
  Hydrocyanic, Carbonic.
Oxide of Platina.  Acids—Gallic, Hydrochloric,
  Nitric,  Sulphuric,  Arsenic,  Fluoric, Tartaric,
  Phosphoric,  Oxalic,  Citric,  Acetic,  Succinic,
  Hydrocyanic, Carbonic ;  Ammonia.
Oxide of  Silver.  Acids—Gallic, Hydrochloric,
  Oxalic, Sulphuric,  Mucic, Phosphoric, Sulphur-
  ous, Nitric,  Arsenic,  Fluoric, Tartaric,  Citric,
  Lactic, Succinic, Acetic, Hydrocyanic, Carbon-
  ic ;  Ammonia.
Oxide  of Tin.   Acids—Gallic,  Hydrochloric,
  Sulphuric, Oxalic,  Tartaric, Arsenic,  Phosphor-
  ic. Nitric,  Succinic, Fluoric, Mucic, Citric, Lac-
  tic, Acetic, Boracic,  Hydrocyanic ; Ammonia.
Oxide of  Zinc   Acids—Gallic, Oxalic, Sulphu-
  ric, Hydrochloric,  Mucic,   Nitric,  Tartaric,
  Phosphoric,  Citric, Succinic, Fluoric, Arsenic,
  Lactic,  Acetic, Boracic,  Hydrocyanic, Carbo»
  ic ; Fixed alkalis ; Ammonia.
Oxygen.   Carbon ; Charcoal;  Manganese ; Zinc ;
  Iron ;  Tin ; Antimony ; Hydrogen ; Phosphorus;
  Sulphur;  Arsenic  ; Nitrogen ; Nickel; Cobalt;
  Copper; Bismuth; Caloric?  Mercury; Silver;
  Arsenious  acid;  Nitrous oxide ;  Gold;  Plati-
  num ;   Carbonic  oxide ;  Hydrochloric  acid;
  White  oxide of manganese;  White oxide of
  lead.
Oxygen.*  Titanium;  Manganese; Zinc;  Iron;
  Tin ;  Uranium ; Molybdenum ; Tungsten ; Co-
  balt ;  Antimony;  Nickel;  Arsenic ; Chrome ;
   Bismuth ; Lead; Copper; Tellurium ; Platinum;
   Mercury ; Silver ;  Gold.
Phosphoric Acid.  Baryta ; Strontia ; Lime ; Po-
  tassa ;  Soda ; Ammonia; Magnesia ; Glucina ;
  Alumina ; Zirconia ; Metallic oxides; Silica.
Phosphorous  Acid.   Lime ;  Baryta ;  Strontia ;
  Potassa ; Soda; Ammonia ; Glucina; Alumina ;
  Zirconia;  Metallic oxides.
Phosphorus.   The same as Sulphur.
Potassa.   The same as Ammonia.
Silica.  Fluoric acid;  Potassa.
Soda.  The same as Ammonia.
Strontia. Acids—Sulphuric, Phosphoric, Oxalic,
  Tartaric, Fluoric, Nitric, Hydrochloric, Succin-

  *  Vauquelin's table of the affinity of the metals for oxy-
gen, according to the difficulty with which their oxides are
decomposed by heat.
   Y ttna ; Alumina ; zarconia ;  Metallic oxides.
Sulphurous Acid.   Baryta ; Lime ; Potassa ; So-
  da ;  Strontia ; Magnesia;  Ammonia ; Glucina :
  Alumina ; Zii\ snia; Metallic oxides.
Sulphureted Htdroge*!.   Baryta; Potassa; So-
  da ;  Lime ; Ammonia ; Magnesia ; Zirconia.
rp._______a___   t,___. „„ (\„-i;„__:j
  ic,  Acetic,  Arsenic, Boracic, Carbonic;  Wa-
  ter.
Suberic Acid.  Baryta; Potassa; Soda; Lime;
  Ammonia ;  Magnesia ; Alumina.
Succinic Acid.   Baryta; Lime ;  Potassa; Soda;
  Ammonia;  Magnesia; Alumina; Metallic ox-
  ides.
Sulphur.  Potassa; Soda;  Iron;  Copper;  Tin ;
  Lead; Silver; Bismuth ; Antimony ; Mercury;
  Arsenic;  Molybdenum.
Sulphuric  Acid.   Baryta;  Strontia ;  Potassa;
  Un/lo « T i,no •  \TnfrnnctQ •  A .....-.i.^n . / * I__*__.
  Arsenic;  Molybdenum.
Sulphuric  Acid.   Baryta;  Strontia ;  Potassa;
  Soda ; Lime ; Magnesia ; Ammonia ; Glucina ;
  Yttria ; Alumina ; Zirconia ; Metallic oxides.
Sulphurous Acid.   Baryta ;  Lime ; Potassa ; So-
  da ;  Strontia ; Magnesia; Ammonia ; Glucina ;
  Alumina ; Zii\ snia; Metallic oxides.
  ua ; oironua ;  luagnesia ;  Ammonia ; -jiuc
  Alumina ; Zii\ wiia; Metallic oxides.
sulphureted HfDROGE**.  Baryta ; Potassa
  da ; Lime ; Ammonia ; Magnesia ; Zirconia
rARTARic Acid.   Same as Oxalic acid.
fu.NGSTic Acid.   The same  as Fluoric acid.
II.  Table of the order of Decomposition among
  some of the Metallic Oxides, according to the
  researches of Prof. Persoz.
      nitric ACID.
Oxide of magnesium.
   "     silver.
   "   '  cobalt.
   "     nickel.
Protoxide of cerium.
Oxide of zinc.
Protoxide of manganese.
Oxide of lead.
   "     cadmium.
   "     copper.
   "     glucinum.
   "     aluminum.
   "     uranium.
   "     chromium.
Protoxide of mercury.
Oxide of mercury.
   "     iron.
   "     bismuth.
                             MURIATIC ACID.
                         Oxide of magnesium.
                            "     chromium.
                            "     nickel.
                         Protoxide of mercury.
                              "      cerium.
                         Oxide of zinc.
                         Protoxide of manganese.
                              "     iron.
                              "     uranium.
                              "     copper.
                              "     tin.
                         Oxide of glucinum.
                            "     aluminum.
                            "     uranium.
                            "     chromium.
                            "     iron.
                            "     tin.
                            "     bismuth.
                            "     antimony.
  *#*  Oxide of copper separates the oxides of alu-
minum, uranium, chromium, titanium, and  vana-
dium, from all the oxides which are precipitable,
as sulphurets by hydrosulphuret of ammonia.
        III. Table of the Sequences of the Bases with the different Acids, by Dr. Young.
In all mixtures of the aqueous solutions of two salts, each acia remains united to the base which stands nearest to it in this Take.
SULPHURIC ACID.
Baryta
Strontia
Lime
(Silver ?)
(Mercury?)
Potnssa
Soda
Zinc    1
Iron      >
Copper  J
Magnesia
Ammonia*
Glucina
Alumina
Zirconia
Nitric
Baryta
Strontia
Lime
Potassa
Soda
(Mercury ?)
(Iron ?)
Magnesia
Ammoniat
Glucina
Aluminaf
Zirconia
(Copper ?)
Baryta
Potassa
Soda
Ammonia
Strontia
Magnesia}
Glucina
Alumina
Zirconia
Lime
Baryta
Potassa
Soda
Strontia
Ammonia
Magnesia
Glucina
Alumina
Zirconia
Lime
Baryta
Potassa
Soda
Strontia
Ammonia?
Magnesia§
Glucina
Alumina
Zirconia
Lime
Baryta
Potassa
Soda
Strontia
Ammoniafl
Magnesia
Lime
Glucina
Alumina
Zirconia
Potassa
Soda
Baryta
Strontia
Ammoniall
Lime
Magnesia
Glucina
Alumina
Zirconia
Baryta
Strontia
Lime
Potassa
Soda
Magnesia ?
Ammonia
Glucina
Alumina
Zirconia
Baryta     uead
Potassa    Mercury
Soda     flron
Ammonia J Potassa
Strontia   | Soda
Magnesia  IMagnesia
Glucina
Alumina   Lead
Zirconia    Zinc
Lime?     Copper
Mt riatic Phosphoric Fluoric Sulphurous Boracio  Carbonic  Nitrous  Phosphorous Acetic
• Ammonia stands above magnesia when cold.              t A triple salt is formed.          ...„j. .k„„. .„___.•„
t Perhaps magnesia ought to stnnd lower.    § A compound salt is formed, and when hot, magnesia stands above ammonia.
IFourcroy says that sulphate of strontia is decomposed by borate of ammonia.
IT With heat, ammonia stands below lime and magnesia. 
DEM                    246                   DEN
   DEFECATION.   Syn.  Defecation,  (Fr.)
Klaren,  (Ger.)   From Lat.  de and fax,  dregs.
In chemistry, the separation  of  a  liquid  from its
fseces or impurities.  This is usually performed by
subsidence and  decantation, and is commonly ap-
plied to the purification of saline  solutions, on the
large scale, in preference to filtration ; than which
it  is both more expeditious and inexpensive.
   DEFLAGRATION.    Syn.  Deflagration,
(Fr.)  Verpuffung,  (Ger.)  Deflagratio, (Lat.,
from defiagro, to burn.)  In chemistry, the rapid
combustion of any substance,  for the purpose of
producing some  change in its  composition, by the
joint action of heat and oxygen.  The process of
oxidizing substances by means of nitre, is common-
ly called deflagration, and is performed by project-
ing a mixture of equal parts of the nitrate and the
inflammable or oxidizable body into a red-hot cru-
cible, in small  portions at a time.  Several articles
mentioned in this work are prepared in this way.
   DELIQUESCENCE.   Syn.  Zerfliessen,
(Ger.)   Diliquescentia, (Lat., from diliquesco,
to melt down.)   The attraction of the moisture of
the atmosphere,  and solution  therein.  The term
is applied to certain salts, that  by exposure gradu-
ally assume the liquid state.  Such salts are said
to be deliquescent.
   DELPHINE.   Syn.  Delphina.  Delphinia.
Delphinium.   An alkaloid, discovered  by Las-
saigne  and Feneulle  in the  delphinium staphysa-
gria, or stavesacre.
   Prep.  I. The husked seeds are ground to pow-
der, boiled in a little water, and pressed in a cloth.
The filtered decoction is then boiled for a few min-
utes with  a little  pure magnesia,  and refiltered,
and-the residuum, after being  well washed, is  dis-
solved  in  boiling strong alcohol, which  dissolves
out the alkali, and  gives  it up  again by gentle
evaporation and cooling.
   II. Digest the bruised but unshelled seeds in di-
lute sulphuric  acid, strain, precipitate with carbon-
ate of potassa, and digest the precipitate in alcohol
as before.
   Prep.,  Uses,  6fC.  A semi-crystalline  white
odorless powder, having an acid bitter taste.   It is
scarcely soluble  in water,  but dissolves in ether,
and readily in alcohol.  It forms  salts  with  the
acids, which are very bitter, and crystallize with
difficulty.   As commonly  procured,  it is mixed
with an acrid resin called staphysain.  (Couerbe.)
Its alcoholic solution produces a burning  and  tin-
gling sensation, when rubbed  on the skin, and a
similar sensation is produced in various parts of the
body, when it is taken in doses of a few grains. It
has been exhibited in neuralgia  and rheumatism,
by Dr. Turnbull.
   DEMULCENTS.  (From  demulceo,  I sooth.)
Bland, emollient substances that obviate  irritation
by covering the expdsed part,  and protecting it
from the  action of  acrid matter.  The  principal
demulcents are, gum arabic, gum tragacanth, lin-
seed, liquorice, arrow-root, pearl  barley,  isinglass,
almonds,  spermaceti, almond  and  olive  oils,  and
most mucilaginous and oily substances.   For in-
ternal use these are made into mucilages, decoc-
tions, emulsions, or  milks, with water, and form
suitable beverages in dysentery, diarrhoea, catarrh,
diseases of the urinary organs, and all other  dis-
eases where diluents are useful.
   DENSITY.  (From densus, thick.) The quan-
tity of matter contained  in  a given  space.   It is
commonly used synonymously with specific grav-
ity.   Thus, quicksilver is said to have  a greater
density  than copper, and alcohol a less density
than oil of vitriol.
   DENTIFRICE.   (Dentifricum, Lat., from
dens, a tooth, and frico,  I rub.)  Substances ap-
plied to the teeth, to cleanse and beautify them.
The most usual form of dentifrices is that of pow-
der; but washes and electuaries are also some-
times employed.   The ingredients  employed in
dentifrices  should not be too hard or gritty, lest
they injure the enamel of the teeth  ; nor should
they be too soft or adhesive,  for in that  case they
would adhere to the gums,  and be  disagreeable
Finely-powdered pumice-stone is one  of those sub-
stances that act entirely by mechanical attrition,
and is hence an objectionable ingredient in tooth-
powder,  intended  for  daily use.   It  is,  however,
very  generally present in the various  advertised
dentifrices, which are  remarkable  for their rapid
action in whitening the teeth.   Finely-powdered
Bath  brick is another substance of a similar nature
to pumice, and, like  that article, should only be
occasionally  employed.   Cuttle-fish  bone, coral,
and prepared chalk are  also commonly used for
the same purpose, but  the latter is rather too soft
and absorbent,  to  form the  sole ingredient of a
tooth-powder.  Charcoal,  which  is so very gener-
ally employed as a  dentifrice, acts partly mechan-
ically, and  partly  by its  chemical properties of
destroying foul smells, and arresting  putrefaction.
For this purpose it should be newly burnt,  and
kept in well-closed vessels, as by exposure  to the
air it rapidly loses its antiseptic powers.   Powder-
ed rhatany, cinchona bark, and catechu  are used
as astringents, and  are very  useful in foulness 01
sponginess of the gums.   Myrrh and mastich are
employed on acount of their odor, and also because
of their presumed preservative action, and power
of fixing  loose  teeth.  Insoluble  powders have
been objected to on account  of  their being apt to
accumulate between the folds of the gums, and in
the cracks of the  teeth,  and thus impart a disa-
greeable appearance.  To remedy this   defect, a
reddish  or  flesh-colored tinge is commonly given
to them with a little rose  pink, or similar coloring
substance,  when any small  portion that remains
unwashed  off will  be  less  conspicuous.   Some
persons employ  soluble substances as tooth-pow-
ders,  which  are free  from  the  above  objection.
Thus, sulphate of potash  and cream  of  tartar are
used for  this purpose, because of the grittiness of
their powders and  their slight solubility in water.
Phosphate  of soda and common  salt  are also  em-
ployed as dentifrices, and  possess the  advantage of
being readily removed from  the  mouth  by means
of a  little water.   Among those  substances  that
chemically decolor  and remove  unpleasant odors,
the only ones employed as dentifrices are charcoal
and the  chlorides of lime  and soda.   The first I
have already noticed ;  the others may be used by
brushing the teeth with water, to which  a little of
their  solutions has  been  added.   A very weak
solution of chloride  of lime is commonly  employed
by smokers to remove -the odor and color imparted
by tobacco  to  the teeth.   Electuaries  made  of
honey and astringent substances  are  frequently 
DEX                   247                    DIA
 employed  in diseases of the gums.  The juice of
 the  common  strawberry has been  recommended
 as an elegant natural dentifrice, as it readily dis-
 solves the tartareous  incrustatioue  on the teeth,
 and imparts an agreeable odor to the breath. (See
 Electuary.)
   DEPILATORY.    Syn.  Depilatoire,  (Fr.)
 Enthaarensmittel,  (Ger.)  Depilatorius, (Lat.,
 from de, from, and pilus, the hair.)   A term ap-
 plied to any application that removes hair from the
 human skin.  Depilatories act either mechanical-
 ly  or chemically.   To the  first belong  adhesive
 plasters, that on  their removal from the skin bring
 away the hair with  them; equal parts of pitch
 and resin, spread on leather, have been used for this
 purpose.   To the second class belong those  sub-
 stances which act upon the  bulbous roots of the
 hairs, and destroy their vitality.  The former me-
 thod is more  painful,  but less dangerous, than the
 lattei one.  The following  are the principal depil-
 atories at present  employed in  the fashionable
 world.
   I. (Delcroix's Poudre Subtile.)  Prep.  Orpi-
 ment 1 part;  finely-powdered quicklime and starch,
 of each 11 parts ; mix.
   Remarks.  It should be kept from the air.  For
 use, make it into a paste with a little warm water,
 and apply it  to  the  part, previously shaved close.
 As  60on as it has become thoroughly dry, it  may
 bo washed off with a  little warm water.
   II. (Oriental  Rusma.) Prep. Quicklime 2 oz.;
 orpiment £ oz.; strong alkaline lye 1 lb.; boil to-
 gether until a feather dipped into  it loses its flue.
 It is applied to the skin, previously soaked in warm
 water, by gentle friction,  for a very short time,
 followed  by washing with  warm water.  This is
 one of the most  certain and  powerful depilatories
 made, but rapidly loses its  strength unless kept in
 a well-stoppered glass bottle.
   III.  (Chinese Depilatory.)  Quicklime  lib.;
 pearlash and sulphuret of potassium, of each 2 oz.;
 reduce thein to a fine powder, and keep it in well-
 corked bottles.   Use like Poudre Subtile.
   IV. (Plenck's Pasta Epilatoria.)  Orpiment 1
 part;  quicklime  12 parts;  starch 10  parts.  As
 last.
   V. (Rayer's Depilatory^)   Lime 1 oz.;  carbon-
 ate  of potash 2  oz.;  charcoal powder 1 drachm.
 As last.   This and No. Ill  are preferred by those
 persons who do not approve of the use of arsenic.
   VI. (Roseate Depilatory.)  Like IV, but slight-
 ly colored with rose-pink.
   VII. (Turkish Depilatory.)  Quicklime 7 oz.;
 orpiment  1 oz.; mix.  As above.
   VIII.  (Depilatory  Paste.)  Quicklime  1  oz.;
 orpiment and  orris-root, of each, 3 drachms ; salt-
 petre and  sulph; r, of each  1  dr.; soap-lees  k a
 pint; evaporate to a proper consistence.  It should
 be kept from the  air.
  IX.  (Depilatory  Soap.)   Turkish  depilatory
 and  soft soap,  equal parts ; mix.
  DETERGENT, COLLIER'S.  Prep. Liquor
of potassa  f3ij ;  rose-water  f^vss ; spirits of rose-
mary f^ss ; mix.  Frees the head from scurf.
  DEXTRINE.    A  substance formed  by  the
action of dilute acids at the boiling temperature,
and by infusion of malt, at about 150° F. on starch.
It resembles gum.  Its name is derived from the
action  of is solution on ptlarized  light; it causes
the plane of polarization to deviate  to  the  right
(See Diastase.)
   DIAMONDS, PARISIAN.   These beautiful
imitations  of  the  "priceless gem," which  have
lately attracted so much attention, are made by a
chemist in Paris, and are only the oxide of tin.  It
is to  be regretted  that the  brilliancy which has
rendered this  imitation so  famous, cannot  be de-
pended upon,  as, after exposure for some  tirr.e,
they become as dull  as common glass.  (Mining
Journal.)
   DIAPENTE.  Prep. Laurel berries and mus-
tard, of each 3 lbs.; gentian root 2 lbs.; turmeric
4 lbs.; all  in  fine  powder;  mix well.   Used by
farriers as a tonic.
   DIAPHORETICS.   (Diaphoreticus,  Lat,
from  Staipopiu), I carry through.)  Medicines that
increase  the  perspiration.    Those  that produce
this effect  in  a powerful  degree, are generally
called sudorifics.  The principal diaphoretics are
warm diluents, as gruel, tea, barley-water, &c.;
salts of the alkalis, as the citrates of potassa and
soda, acetate and carbonate  of ammonia, sal am-
moniac, nitre, &c.; preparations of antimony, as
tartar emetic,  antimonial  powder, &.c.; also Do-
ver's  powder,  opium,  camphor,  ipecacuanha, al-
cohol, wine, &c.
   The use of diaphoretics  is  indicated in most
diseases accompanied by fever, and a dry skin.
   DIAPHRAGM.    (Diaphragma,  Lat,  from
Sta<ppdao-t>>, I separate  by a  partition.)  This term
has been applied to the porous  cell or vessel that
separates the fluid containing the positive  plate
from the fluid  that surrounds the negative  plate,
in  constant galvanic  batteries.   (See  Battery.)
The most  convenient  diaphragms for all common
purposes,  are those  composed of  thin biscuit-ware*
they are also frequently made of plaster of  Paris,
animal membrane, coarse  and tightly-wove can-
vass, &c.  Those of plaster may be easily formed by
surrounding an oiled cylinder of  wood with a hoop
of paper, and  pouring plaster of Paris, mixed up
with water, into the space between the two.
   DIARRHCEA.  (From Siafreu,, I flow through.)
A purging or looseners of the bowels.   The causes
of diarrhoea are various, but among the most com-
mon is the presence of irritating  matter, worms, or
acidity in the stomach or bowels.  In  general,  it
will be proper to administer an aperient, for which
purpose rhubarb is  usually preferred.   The dose
may be from  20 to 30 grains, on sugar, or made
into a bolus.  After the due operation of this med-
icine, opium,  astringents,  and absorbents may  be
taken with advantage.  The first and  second are
indicated  when great irritability  exists, and the
third, in cases of diarrhoea  arising from the  pres-
ence of acidity.  Chalk mixture, to which  a few
drops of laudanum  have been added, or the com-
pound  powder of chalk and opium, aie excellent
medicines, and will generally quiet the  bowels.  A
small piece of catechu, or hard extract of logwood,
sucked in the same way as a lozenge, is a pleasant
method of  taking either of  those powerful astrin-
gents.
  DIASTASE.  A peculiar substance, contained
in malt, which effects the conversion of starch into
dextrine and grape sugar.   It may be procured
from a cold infusion of malt, by adding alcohol,
which precipitates it under the form of  a tasteless 
DIE                     248                    DII.
white powder.  In this state it is freely soluble in
water.  It appears from experiments, that 1 part
of diastase will convert 2000  parts of  starch into
grape sugar.   Malted barley is said  to contain ^o i
part of this substance; yet this small portion is
quite sufficient to convert the starch of the malt
into sugar during the operation of mashing, provi-
ded this be properly conducted. " The most favor-
able temperature for this conversion is 140° to 149° .
Fahr.  It is  also of the utmost  importance that
the saccharification should take place  as speedily
as possible, so  that the sugar produced may not re-
main  in  contact with much  gummy matter,  in
which case the diastase will not convert the latter
into sugar.  In fact, the liquefaction and sacchar-
ification should proceed simultaneously." (M. Gue-
rin Varry.)
   Hence it would appear that the  Scotch system
of ale-brewing is, in this latter respect, most excel-
lent, and if the mashing were conducted at a low-
er temperature, would be almost perfect.   It has
been  proved  by experience, that the richest and
sweetest extracts of malt are obtained by employ-
ing water at a heat ranging from 157° to 160° F.,
beginning at  the  lowest  of  these  temperatures.
Where three  mashings are made, the  mean tem-
perature of each mash should be  respectively,—
145°,—1 GO0,—175° F. (See Brewing, and* Fer-
mentation.)
   DIET.  "  The dietetic part of medicine is no
inconsiderable branch, and deserves a much great-
er share of regard than it  commonly  meets with.
A great variety of diseases might be removed by
the observance of a proper diet and  regimen, with-
out the assistance of medicine, were it not for the
impatience of the sufferers.   On all  occasions,  it
may come in as a proper assistant to the cure,
which sometimes  cannot  be performed without a
due observance of the non-naturals."  The follow-
ing tables will convey to the reader the meaning
c"  s.e, terms, low diet, full diet, &c.

                   Low Diet.
   Breakfast and Tea.—Warm new milk and wa-
ter ; weak black tea, its astringent  properties cor-
rected by a due addition of milk.  Gruel, toasted
bread, at least one day  old, and without butter.
Rusks sopped in the above fluids.
   Dinner.—Gruel, new milk and arrow-root, sago,
or tapioca ; chicken and veal broths; roasted ap-
ples ; light bread  puddings.   Pastry of every de-
scription must be avoided.
   Supper.—Gruel, arrow-root.
   Occasional drinks.—Filtered or spring  water;
toast-and-water made with toasted bread or brown-
ed biscuit;  barley-water ;  whey; lemonade, of
Rubdued  acidity.  Sweet oranges  may  be freely
taken, if the sense of thirst be oppressive.
                  Middle Diet.
    Breakfast  and Tea.—Same as in low diet, with
 the addition of mixed tea.
    Luncheon, (if required.)—A cup of arrow-root,
 sago, tapioca, with biscuit, or two or three bars of
 toasted (stale) bread ;  or these with oranges.
    Dinner.—In addition to " low diet," boiled chick-
 ens ;  calves' and  sheep's feet, stewed;  mutton
 broth; beef tea; boiled soles, whiting, turbot, &c.;
 lamb; potatoes, asparagus, light bread or rice pud-
 ding, roasted apples.   After the repast, may be ta-
ken one glass of port, old sherry, or madeira wine
diluted with at least twice its quantity of water.
  Supper.—A cup of gruel,  sago, tapioca, or  ar-
row-root
                   Full Diet.
  Breakfast and  Tea.—Same  as  in  " middle
diet;" in addition to which may be taken coffee or
chocolate.   Stale or toasted  bread, sparingly but-
tered.
  Luncheon—A biscuit and a glass of table-ale
or porter.
  Dinner.—The " middle diet" bill of fare may be
augmented  by  mutton-chops,  rump-steaks, roast
or boiled fresh meats, fruit pies, (avoiding the pas-
try,) baked or boiled rice or tapioca puddings.   At
this meal  table-beer or  porter  may  be  taken as
common drink, and after it,  one or two glasses of
port, old sherry, or  Madeira.
  Supper.—Same  as in  " middle diet."
  An additional glass of wine  at dinner or lunch-
eon, will convert  this  "full" into  " generous"
diet.
 Milk, Farinaceous, Vegetable, and Fruit Diet.
  The articles of food within this range are milk,
eggs lightly boiled, gruel, sago, arrow-root, tapio-
ca,  isinglass, wheaten and barley bread, rice, po-
tatoes, carrots, parsnips, turnips, artichokes, peas,
cauliflowers, cabbage, spinage, water-cress, cele-
ry.   Fruit may  be regarded  rather as a luxury
than as nutriment; however, when taken in mod-
eration, it is wholesome; when to excess, poison-
ous.  Stone fruit, as nectarines, apricots, peaches,
plums, and  cherries, are  the least digestible, and
should never be taken but when ripe ; apples and
pears are not so apt to run into the acetous fer-
mentation as stone fruit, but, unless ripe and well-
masticated, had better be eaten cooked.   Oranges,
gooseberries, (avoiding the skins,) grapes, without
the husks and  seeds, currants,  ripe strawberries
and raspberries, follow consecutively  in  the order
in which they are here enumerated, the first being
most easy of digestion.   Notwithstanding such an
ample store of  materials, the selection must of
course  depend  upon  season,  appetite,  and  the
known  effects  of each   upon  individual constitu-
tions.
  DIETETIC  COMPOSITION.  Prep. Pow-
dered sago and  patent  cacao, equal parts; mix.
It is used like arrow root.
  DIGITALIN.  Syn.  Digitalia.  Digitalina.
An alkali discovered by M. Royer  in the digitalis
purpurea.
  Prep.  Digest 1 lb. of foxglove in  ether, first in
the cold and then heated under pressure; when it
has again become  cold, filter, and  distil off the
ether, dissolve in water, and  again filter; treat the
solution with hydrated oxide of lead, gently evap-
orate the whole to dryness, and again digest in
ether.  From this solution the alkali may be ob-
tained by evaporation.   By repeated re-solutions it
may be procured in a crystalline state.
   Remarks. As obtained above, it forms a brown
mass, faintly alkaline to test paper.   It is power-
fully poisonous,  and is  said to possess  the  same
properties as digitalis,  but in a very concentrated
degree.
   DILUENTS.   (From  diluo,  I  wash away.)
Aqueous liquors, so named because they increase 
DIS                     249                    DIS
 the fluid portion of the body.  Tea, barley-water,
 water gruel, and similar articles are the most com-
 mon diluents, after pure  water.   The copious use
 of liquids of this class is recommended in all acute
 inflammatory diseases, and to promote the action
 of diuretics and sudorifics.
   DIOSMIN. A bitter extractive matter obtained
 by Brande, from buchu leaves.   It is very soluble
 in water, but not in alcohol and ether.
   DISINFECTANTS.   Agents which  destroy
 miasmata.   The  principal of these are chlorine,
 the chlorides of lime and soda, the fumes of nitric
 and nitrous acids, heat, and ventilation.   The last
 two are the most efficient and easily applied. The
 clothing, bedding, &c. of patients laboring under
 contagious diseases, may be effectually disinfected
 by exposure to a temperature of about that of boil-
 ing water.   Neither the texture nor color of textile
 fabrics is injured even by a heat of 250°  Fahr.   It
 is a practice at some  of the workhouses to bake
 the clothes of the  paupers who have the itch,  or
 are infested with vermin.  Quicklime rapidly ab-
 sorbs  carbonic acid,'  sulphureted hydrogen,  and
 several other noxious gases, and  is therefore com-
 monly used as a wash for the  walls  of buildings.
 Acetic acid, camphor,  fragrant pastiles, cascarilla,
 and other similar substances, are  frequently burnt
 or volatilized by heat, for the purpose of disguising
 unpleasant odors.  The sulphates of iron and lime
 have  the property of rapidly, destroying noxious
 effluvia.   A quantity  of either of these sulphates
 thrown into a cesspool, for instance, will in a few
 hours remove the fetid smell.
   DISTILLATION.  Syn.  Distillation, (Fr.)
 Branntweinbren.nerei,  (Ger.) In Chemistry:—
 The evaporation and  subsequent  condensation of
 fluid, by means of a still and refrigerator, or other
 similar apparatus.  In commercial language, the
 term is applied  to the manufacture  of  spirituous
 liquors
   The discovery of the art of distillation is usu-
 ally ascribed to  the alchemists, but there appears
 to be good reason to suppose that it was known in
 more remote ages to the Arabians  and other eastern
 nations, to whom it probably descended from the
 ancient Babylonians.   Certain it  is, however, that
 a rediscovery of the process was made by some of
 the northern nations of Europe, and that the first
 notice of it appears in the writings of Arnoldus de
 Villa Nova,  and   his  pupil Raymond  Lully,  by
 whom  spirit, or aqua  vita, as itwas called, was
 declared  to  be " an emanation of the deity;  an
 element newly revealed to man,  and destined  to
 restore  the energies of modern decrepitude," and
 that the discovery of this fluid indicated the con-
 summation of all things, and the end of the world.
   The  process  of distillation,  as  carried  on
 in the  distilleries  of Great Britain, may  be di-
 vided  into  four  general  operations, viz.—The
 mashing  or formation of  a  saccharine infusion,
 from  certain  vegetable matters,  as malt,  barley,
 oats, rye, &c.;—the cooling of this wort or  liquor;
 the fermentation or process by which the sugar of
 the coded wort is converted into  alcohol; and the
separation of the spirit so formed by means of a
rrtill and refrigerator.   By the first operation, the
materials for the formation of the alcohol are ob-
tained ; by the second, they are brought to  a tem-
perature most favorable to the transformation that
                       o2
! takes place in the third, after which it only re-
 mains to free the product of the last operation from
 the foreign matter with which it is associated: this
 is  done in the fourth, and,  correctly  speaking,
 constitutes the only part of the process which can
 be called distillation.
   The general principles  of  the first three of the
 preceding operations,  are noticed in the articles
 Brewing, Diastase, and  Fermentation.   It will
 there be seen, that the amylaceous or starchy mat-
 ter of the grain is first saccharified and afterwards
 converted into alchohol, and  that  certain precau-
 tions are  necessary to render the process success-
 ful and economical.   In many of the distilleries of
 Great  Britain, molasses and analogous saccharine
! substances are employed, in which case the vege-
 table principle (sugar) essential to the  formation
 of alcohol, is already present, and merely  requires
 simple solution in water of a proper  temperature,
I to be ready to be subjected to immediate  fermen-
 tation.  In general, hov »ver, the sources  of spirit
 in England are the various kinds of grain ; barley,
 wheat, and rye,  are  those  commonly  employed
 These are ground and mixed with bruised malt in
 various proportions, and are mashed in a  similar
 manner to malted grain.  The fermentation is car-
 ried on until the  density  of the  liquor  ceases to
 lessen, or attenuate,  which is determined by  an
 instrument  called a  saccharometer. When  this
 point is arrived at, it is submitted to  distillation, to
 prevent the access of the acetous  fermentation,
 which  would lessen its alcoholic value.
    During the process of  distilling  off the spirit of
 the fermented " wash" or wort, a-hydrometer  is
 employed to ascertain its strength, and as soon as
 the liquor that  passes over acquires a certain de-
 gree of weakness, the operation is stopped and the
 spent wash removed.   The spirits  obtained by the
 first distillation are generally called " low wines,"
 and  have a specific  gravity of about  *975.  By
 rectification or " doubling," a  crude milky spirit,
 abounding in oil, at first  comes over, followed  by
 clear spirit,, which  is received in a separate vessel.
 The process is continued  until the alcoholic con-
 tent of the distilled liquor diminishes to a certain
 degree, when the remaining weak spirit that comes
 over, called "faints," is caught  separately  and
 mixed with the low wines, preparatory to  another
 distillation.  The  strongest spirit passes over first,
 and  the  condensed   liquor   gradually  becomes
 weaker, until it ceases to  contain alcohol.   It will
 thus be seen, that by  receiving in  separate vessels
 any given portion of the product, spirit of any re-
 quired  strength within certain limits' may be ob-
 tained.  It is found from experience,  and is readily
 accounted for by theory, that the  lower the tem-
 perature at which the distillation is conducted, the
 stronger will be the product, and the less quantity
 of oil or other volatile matter will come over along
 with it.  To promote  this, it has been proposed to
 carry on the process in vacuo, but  on  the large
 scale this has never  been adopted.  The  distilla-
 tion of  the " wash" is usually carried on in a sep-
 arate  set  of stills, to those employed for the rec-
 tification of the low wines.   For very strong and
 tasteless spirit, a third, and even a fourth rectifica-
 tion takes place, conjointly with other methods to
 abstract the  water,  and  to  remove any foreign
 matter that vitiates its odor or flavor.  A portion 
DRA                   250                    DRA
of soap is put into the still with the wash to pre-
vent excessive frothing.
  The quantity of spirit obtained from various sub-
stances, and even from  pure  sugar, depends upon
the skill with which the  several operations are con-
ducted.  By  theory, pure sugar should yield 51°;
of alcohol, but in practice 1 gallon of proof spirit
is the utmost obtained from 1U lbs.  of sugar.   Ac-
cording to Harmstaedt,  100 lbs. of  starch yield 3.")
lbs. of alcohol, or 7-8 gallons  of proof  spirit; and
100 lbs. of the  following grains, produce the ac-
companying quantities by weight of spirit of sp. gr.
■9427, or containing 45 per cent, of pure alcohol;
wheat, 40  to 45g ;  rye, 36 to 42g ;  barley, 40% ;
oats, 36$ ; buckwheat, 4Ug; maize, 40g; the  mean
being, 3-47 gallons of proof spirit.   It is found that
a bushel  of good malt  yields 2 gallons  of  proof
epirit, and that  the  maximum quantity of  proof
spirit  obtained from  raw grain, mashed with one-
fifth or one-sixth of malt, does not exceed 22 gal-
lons per quarter.
  By the  excise laws, the distiller is restricted in
the density of his worts, \p sp. gr. between 1050 and
1090 ; and in Scotland, between 1030 and 1075 ;
nor is a distiller  allowed to mash and distil  at the
same time. (See Alcohol, Fermentation, Still,
Brandy, Gin, &c.)
  DIURETICS.  (Diuretica, from Sia, through,
and  ovpov, the urine.)   Medicines  which promote
the secretion of urine.   The  principal diuretics
are aqueous fluids,—which act by increasing the
watery portion  of  the blood,—and  certain sub-
stances which promote the secretion of urine, by
stimulating the kidneys.  Among the former may
be  classed nearly all aqueous liquids,  as most of
them produce diuresis,  if the skin be kept  cool.
Among the latter, may  be mentioned  the nitrate,
acetate, and  bitartrate of potassa; oils of juniper,
turpentine, cajeput, and copaiba ; dilute spirit, and
sweet spirits of nitre  ; decoction of common broom,
&c.
  DOORS.  Much  annoyance is sometimes ex-
perienced from the  creaking  of doors.   This may
be prevented by rubbiug a little soap, or a mixture
of tallow and blacklead on the hinges.
  DRACINE.  Syn.  Draco.mn.  A red  vegeto-
alkaline body, discovered by M. Melandre in drag-
on's blood.
  Prep.  Dissolve dragon's blood in alcohol, filter,
concentrate, add cold water, and collect the spongy
precipitate.   Wash  this well, neutralize with di-
lute sulphuric  acid, and again wash well  with
water.
  Prop.,  fyc. Dracine has  a  fine  red  color; is
tasteless,  inodorous,  flexible, and  fuses at 131° F.
The most remarkable property is, that the smallest
quantity of carbonate of lime in filtering-paper,
may be detected by sulphate of dracine, the yellow
color instantly turning red.
  DRAGON'S    BLOOD,    (FACTITIOUS.)
Prep. Shellac 4 lbs.; melt, remove from the fire,
and add Canada balsam 5 oz.;  and coarsely-pow-
dered gum benzoin 2 oz.; when well  mixed, stir in
red sanders wood and Venetian red, (both in fine
powder,) of each 1 lb.; blend well together, and
form  into sticks.
  Remarks.  The above may  be distinguished from
genuine dragon's blood, by its partial solubility in
alcohol.   It  makes, however, a very fine colored
powder, but for varnishes is better without the Ve.
netian red.
  DRAUGHT. Syn. Haustus, (Lat.) In Phar-
macy :  a single dose of liquid medicine.  Draughts
are  almost exclusively extemporaneous, and differ
from mixtures only in quantity.  They are gener-
ally dispensed in two-ounce vials.
  DRAUGHT, ANTACID.  Syn. Haustus An-
tacidus.  Prep. I. (Collier.)  Compound  tincture
of cardamoms f3j; solution of bicarbonate of mag.
nesia (fluid magnesia) f 3ix ; mix.
  II.  (Thomson.)  a.  Magnesia  3j;  peppermint
water f^iss ;  tincture of orange-peel f3j ; mix.  In
heartburn, and acidity of the stomach.
  6. Liquor of ammonia  16 drops ;  almond  mix-
ture f3ij; laudanum 10 drops.  In acidities of the
primse vioe, 2 or 3 times daily.
  III. Carbonate of soda 20 grs.; compound in-
fusion of gentian and water, of each f3vj ; tincture
of hops  f3j;  mix.  In dyspepsia, heartburn, &&,
twice a day.
  DRAUGHT, ANTI-EML PIC.   Syn. Hacs-
tub Anti-Emeticus  Rivieri.   (P. Cod.)  Prep
Bicarbonate  of potassa 3ss ;  water  13 iij ; lemon
sirup f^j ; lemon juice f^ss ;  mix, and  cork secure-
ly in a strong bottle.
  DRAUGHT, ANTISEPTIC. Prep. (Collier.)
Decoction of yellow cinchona bark fjj ;  laudanum
5 drops;  spirit of pimento  f3iij mix.  In putrid
fevers, gangrene, &c.         ™
  DRAUGHT, ANTISPASMODIC.  Prep. I.
(Collier.)   Tincture of castor f3j; sulphuric ether
10 drops ; peppermint water f^iss ; mix.  In hys-
teria,  and that species of irregular muscular action
dependent on debility.
  II.  (Thomson.)  a.  Musk mixture f3xiv ; liquor
of ammonia 16 drops ; tincture of castor f3j ; sirup
of poppies f3ss ; mix.  Three or four times daily,
in hysteria and convulsive affections,  after  the
bowels have been well cleared out.
  b. Oil of aniseed  10 drops; magnesia 20 grs.;
tincture  of senna f3ij;  peppermint  water  f3x;
mix.   In flatulence and spasms of the stomach.
  DRAUGHT, APERIENT. I. (Haustus ape-
riens  niger,  Paris.)   Infusion of senna fjj;  tinc-
tures  of senna and jalap, of each f3j ;  tartrate of
potash 3j; sirup of senna  f3j; mix.
  II.  (Haustus aperiens effervescens, Dr. Young.)
Prep.  Crystals of carbonate of 6oda 3iiss;  watel
8 oz.;  cream of tartar 3iij ; mix, in a soda-watel
bottle, and cork instantly.   It should be drunk
while effervescing.
  III.  (Seidlitz.)   Sesquicarbonate  of  soda  50
grs.;  potassio-tartrate of soda 2 dr.;  water 6 oz.
dissolve, and  add tartaric  acid 40 grs.
  DRAUGHT,  AROMATIC.   Syn. Haustus
Aromaticus  cum Rheo.   Prep. (St. B. H.)  Aro-
matic confection 3j.; infusion of rhubarb and cin-
namon-water, of each, f3vj;  mix.   In diarrhoea,
&c.
  DRAUGHT, ASTRINGENT.  Prep. I.  (Dr.
Paris.)   Chalk mixture fiss ; laudanum 15 drops;
tincture of cateclm f3j ;  mix.   Both this and the
last are excellent in diarrhoea, after the bowels
have been first cleared out with a purgative.  Out
may be taken after each motion.
  II. (Thomson.)  Extract of logwood  12  grs.;
cinnamon water f3xv;  tincture of  catechu f3j.
In diarrhoea,  dysentery, &c.;  as last 
DRA                    251                    DRA
   DRAUGHT, CATHARTIC.  Prep.  I. (Dr.
 Thomson.)  a. Tartrate of potash |j ;  tincture of
 senna f3j ; infusion of senna fSxivss; sirup of saf-
 fron f3ss ; mix.  In acute diseases, taken early in
 the morning.
   b. Epsom salts and manna, of each, 3ij;  infu-
 sion of roses f3xiv ; dilute sulphuric acid 10 drops ;
 mix.  In inflammatory affections, and to check
 vomiting in low fevers.    .
   c. Carbonate of magnesia 3j ; powdered rhubarb
 20 grs.; peppermint water  f3xij ; mix.  In dys-
 pepsia, attended with costiveness and acidity, taken
 an hour before dinner.
   d. Castor oil f3v ;  powdered gum 20 grs.;  rose-
 water   f 5j s  compound  tincture of  lavender 8
 drops;  sirup  of poppies  f3j ; mix.   In colic and
 calculus.
   DRAUGHT,   DIAPHORETIC.   Prep.   I.
 (Collier.)   Infusion of serpentary f^iss; tincture
 of ditto f3j; mix.  Tonic and diaphoretic.
   II. (Thomson.)  a.  Sesquicarbonate of potassa
 20 grs.; fresh  lemon juice f3iv; tartrate of anti-
 mony one-sixth gr.; water f3xj ; sirup of poppies
 f3j; mix.
   b. Liquor of acetate of ammonia f3vj; camphor
 mixture f3x ; nitrate of potassa 10 grs.;  sirup of
 tolu f3ss ; mix.   In inflammatory affections.
   DRAUGHT, DIURETIC.  I. (Collier.) Tinc-
 ture of  jalap  f3ij ; vinegar of squills f3j ;  pepper-
 mint water f3x ; mix.
   II. (Copland.) Acetate of potassa 3ss ;  infusion
 of quassia  and cinnamon water, of each  f3vj;
 vinegar of squills and sweet spirits of nitre, of each,
 f3ss ; mix.
   III.  (Thomson.)  Nitre 8 grs.; tincture of di-
 gitalis  16 drops; infusion of roses f3xiij ;  sirup of
 roses f3j ; mix.  In dropsy ; three times daily.
   DRAUGHT, EFFERVESCING.  Prep.  (G.
 H.)  Sesquicarbonate of soda 30 grs.; water or
 peppermint water f^iss ; sirup of  orange-peel f3ij;
 tincture of calumba f3ss ; tartaric or citric acid 25
 grs.; add the  acid last, and drink while efferves-
 cing.  Stomachic, tonic, anti-emetic, &c.
   DRAUGHT, EMETIC. Prep.  I. (Thomson.)
 a. Ipecacuanha powder 20 grs.;  ipecacuanha wino
 f3ij; water f3vj; mix.  For unloading the stomach
 in ordinary cases.
   b. Sulphate of zinc 30 grs ; water f3x; dissolve.
 In cases  of poisoning, and  the commencement
 of an intermittent fever.
   c. Sulphate of copper 10 grs.;  water ffij; mix.
 As an emetic  when laudanum has been taken as
 a poison.
   DRAUGHT, EXPECTORANT. Prep.  (Col-
 lier.) Mixtures of ammoniacum  and almonds, of
 each, f3vj; tincture of squills 10  drops; mix.
   DRAUGHT, LAXATIVE.   (Haustus Lax-
 ans  cum Taraxaco, Dr.  Copland.)   Infusion of
 senna, and compound infusion of gentian, of each,
 f3vj; sulphate of potassa 20 to 30 grs.; extract of
 taraxacum 30  to  40 grs.; compound  tincture of
 cardamoms 3iss ; mix.   Aperient, stonichic, and
 alterative.
   DRAUGHT, NARCOTIC.   Prep.  (Thom-
son.)  a. Camphor mixture f^iss; laudanum  35
drops ; sulphuric ether and sirup of saffron, of each
f3j;  mix.  In  intermittent headache.
  b.  Carbonate of ammonia 15  grs.; fresh lemon
juice fjss; water f^j; spirit of nutmeg f3j;  sirup
of orange-peel f3ss ; tincture of hemlock 10 drops
mix.  In diseases of increased irritability.
  c. Carbonate of potassa  20 grs.; fresh lemon
juice f^ss; peppermint water f£j; laudanum 25
drops ; sirup of tolu f3ss ; mix.   To procure sleep
in the majority of diseases.
  DRAUGHT  OF ACETATE  OF AMMO-
NIA.  Prep.  (Paris.)   Camphor mixture fgiss;
liquor of  acetate of ammonia  f3iv;  antimonial
wine 20 drops ; mix.
  DRAUGHT  OF   AMMONIA.   Prep.
(Brande.)  Liquor of ammonia  20  to 30 drops;
compound  tinctures  of cardamoms  and gentian,
of each f3ss ; camphor mixture f§iss ; mix.
  DRAUGHT  OF BISMUTH.  Prep.  (Dr.
Paris.)   Trisnitrate  of bismuth  8 grs.;  almond
mixture fjj ;  tincture of henbane 20 drops ; mix.
  DRAUGHT OF BALSAM OF PERU. Prep.
(Haustus Balsami Peruviani.   St. B. II.)  Bal-
sam of  Peru  f3ss ; mucilage of acacia f3iv; pi-
mento water f3iij; water f3v ;  mix.
  DRAUGHT OF  BALSAM OF TOLU.   As
the last.
  DRAUGHT OF  CAJEPUT.  (OIL.) Prep
(Paris.)   Oil  of cajeput 3 drops; white sugar 10
grs.; infusion  of calumba f3ix;  tincture  of  ditto
f3j  ; mix.
  DRAUGHT OF CAMPHOR.  Prep.  (Haus-
tus  Camphora.  G. II.)  Powdered camphor 6
grs. ;  rectified spirit q. s.; white  sugar 3j; muci-
lage of gum acacia 3iij ; water f^iss ; mix.
  DRAUGHTOFCHLORIDEOFCALCIUM.
Prep. (Collier.)  Liquor of chloride of calcium 20
drops; compound infusion of gentian f3x ;  mix.
  DRAUGHT  OF CINCHONA.  Prep.  (Dr.
Joy.)  Decoction of cinchona f^iss ; extract of cin-
chona 15 grs.; tincture of cinchona f3j ; aromatic
spirit of ammonia 30 drops ;  mix.
  DRAUGHT   OF   COLCHICUM.   Prep.
(Brande.)  Wine of colchicum 30 drops ;  carbon-
ate of magnesia 15 grs ; cinnamon water ffss ;
water f|j ; mix.
  DRAUGHT OF COPAIBA.  (St. B. II.)  The
same as Draught of Balsam of Peru.
  DRAUGHT  OF  HEMLOCK AND  HEN-
BANE.   (Haustus  Conii et Hyosciami, Paris.)
Extracts of hemlock and henbane, of each, 5  grs.;
mucilage 3ij;  liquor of acetate of ammonia f3iv ;
sirup of red poppies f3j ; water §j ; mix.
  DRAUGHT OF IODIDE OF POTASSIUM.
Prep.  (Collier.)   Iodide of potassium  10  grs ;
compound infusion of orange-peel f3x ; mix.
  DRAUGHT OF IODIDE OF IRON. Prep.
(Thomson.)   Iodide of iron 1 to 2 grs. ;  tincture
of orange-peel foj; water f3xi;  mix.  Tonic.
  DRAUGHT  OF  JALAP AND  SQUILLS.
Prep. (Copland.)  Tincture of jalap f3ij ;  vinegar
of squills f3j ;  peppermint water f^iss ;  mix.
  DRAUGHT OF NITRATE  OF POTASSA.
Prep. Nitre 15 grs.; powdered gum 10 grs.; al-
mond mixture  f§iss ;  mix.
  DRAUGHT OF TURPENTINE.  The same
as Draught of Balsam of Tolu.
  DRAUGHT,  REFRIGERANT.   Prep.  I
Carbonate of potassa 20 grs.; sirup of orange-peel
f3j ; spirit of nutmeg t"3ss ; water f.fiss ; mix.
  II.  (Thomson.) Nitre 12 grs.; almond  mixture
f^iss; sirup of tolu f3j ; mix.   Both the  above,
in fevers and inflammatory diseases. 
DRO                   252                   DRO
  DRAUGHT, SALINE.  I. (Collier.) Carbon-
ate of potassa 20 grs.; antimonial wine 20 drops ;
sirup of orange-peel  f3j ;  tincture of orange-peel
f3ss ; water fjiss ; mix and add a large tablespoon-
ful of lemon juice.  In inflammatory diseases.
  DRAUGHT, TONIC.  I. (Collier.)  Disulphate
of quinine 2  grs. ;  tincture of  orange-peel f 3j ;
diluted sulphuric acid 5 drops ; laudanum 10 drops ;
infusion of cascarilla f fiss ; mix.   In pyrosis, &c,
1 hour before dinner.
  II.  (Thomson.) a. Infusion of yellow bark f 3iss;
compound tincture of cinchona f 3j ; powdered  cin-
chona 40 grs.; sirup of orange-peel f 3ss ; mix.  In
intermittents and acute rheumatisms.
  b. Infusion of cascarilla  f§iss;  tinctures of cas-
carilla and ginger, of each  f 3j ; mix.  In dyspepsia,
arising from intemperance.
  DRAUGHT, VERMIFUGE. Prep. (M.  Le-
vacher.) Castor oil  60 grammes; essence of  tur-
pentine  16 ditto; mint water  64  ditto ;  sirup 32
ditto; powdered gum 8 ditto;  mix.   For tape-
worm.
  DRAWINGS, CHALK and PENCIL. These
may be  fixed so as not to suffer from abrasion, by
washing them  with skimmed milk,  or with water
holding  in  solution a little isinglass.  When  the
former is used, great care must be taken to deprive
it of the whole of the cream, as,  if the latter sub-
stance be present, it will grease the drawing.  An
easy way of applying these fluids, is to pour them
into a shallow vessel, and  to lay  the drawing  flat
upcA the surface, then to place it on blotting paper
in an  inclined position to drain and dry.
  DROP,  BLACK. Syn. Bkaithwait's genuine
Black  Drop.  Lancaster's  do. Quaker's  do.
Toustall's do.  Armstrong's do. Gutta Nigra,
(Lat.)  The following account of the origin  and
composition of this well-known medicine, is taken
from Dr. Armstrong's Work on Typhus  Fever:—
  " The black drop was  originally prepared  up-
wards  of one  hundred years  ago,  by  Edward
Toustall, a medical practitioner  in the  county of
Durham, and one of the Society of Friends.  The
recipe passing into the possession of a near relative,
John  Walton,  of Shildon, was  found among his
brother's papers, and, by the permission of Thomas
Richardson, of Bishop's Wearmouth, one  of his
executors, it is here inserted.
  " Prep. Take £ lb. of opium, sliced ; 3 pints of
good verjuice ;  l1 oz. of nutmeg; £  oz. of saffron ;
boil them  to  a proper thickness, then add \ lb. of
sugar and two spoonfuls of yeast  Set the whole
in a warm  place, near the fire,  for 6  or 8 weeks,
then place it in the open air until  it becomes of the
consistence of  a sirup;  lastly, decant, filter,  and
bottle it up,  adding  a  little sugar to each bottle.
These ingredients ought to yield, when properly
made, about 2 pints of the strained liquor."
  The  article sold  in  trade under  the  name of
Black Drop, is, however, seldom, or scarcely ever,
made in the above way.   It is generally prepared
by macerating opium £ lb.  in distilled vinegar 2 lbs.,
for about a fortnight.  Black  drop is considered to
be four times the strength  of laudanum, and to be
milder and less exciting.
  DR^OP, TASTELESS AGUE.  Prep. White
arsenic  1 gr.; water  1 oz.;  dissolve.  ' Dose.  1
teaspoonful night and morning.
  DROPS.  Syn. Gutt*, (Lat.)  This term is
commonly applied to compound medicines that are
only taken in small  doses.  The plan of  directing*
liquids to be measured by dropping is objectionable.
because tho  drops of different  fluids vary in size,
and are also further influenced by the size of  the
bottle and the shape of  its  neck, as well  as  the
quantity of liquid it  contains.   In Confectionary,
lozenges formed  by  dropping melted sugar on any
mooth surface, are  cajled drops.
  DROPS,  ACIDULATED.  Syn.  Acidulated
Lemon Lozenges.   Trociusci Acidi Tartarici,
(P. E.) Prep. Tartaric acid \ oz.; white sugar 8
oz., both in  powder; oil  of lemon 10 drops ; mix
thoroughly,  then beat them into a mass with mu-
cilage, and form into lozenges.
  Remarks. The above are the instructions of the
Edinburgh College,  but a^.v^lated drops are seldom
prepared by the druggist,  being generally pur-
chased of the confectioner, who makes them in
the way described  under Confectionary  Drops.
They form an agreeable  lozenge  for coughs, sore
throats, &c.
  DROPS,  ABBE ROUSSEAU'S.  Syn. Abbe
Rousseau's  Laudanum.   Wine of  Opium, pre-
pared by  Fermentation.  Prep.  Honey ^xij;
boiling water lb. iij ; set it in a warm  place, and as
soon as fermentation commences,  add opium ^iv,
dissolved in  water f ^xij ;  let it work  for a month;
strain, evaporate to  §x ; again strain, and add rec-
tified spirit of wine f §ivss.
  Remarks. This  preparation is similar  to  the
Lancaster Black  Drop.
  DROPS,  ACOUSTIC.  Prep. I. Almond oil
1 oz. ; oil of turpentine and laudanum, of each 1
drachm ; mix.
  II. (Dr. Hugh Smith.) Ox gall 3iij; balsam of
Peru 3j ; mix.   In  deafness.
  DROPS,  iETHER AND  TURPENTINE.
Prep.  (Gutta Mtheris Terebinthinata, M. Du-
rande.)  Sulphuric  ether  2 parts ; oil of turpentine
1 part ; mix.  For  gall-stones.
  DROPS,  ANODYNE.   Prep.  Acetate  of
morphia  16 grs.;  acetic acid 8  drops; rectified
spirit of wine 3j ; water §j; mix.  Anodyne ; dose
6 to 25 drops.  The muriate or sulphate of mor-
phia may be  used  for a change, instead of  the

  DROPS,  ANTACID.  Prep.  (U.  C.   H.)
Liquor of potassa f^iij ;  liquor of ammonia f§j
myrrh §j ; triturate together, and strain.
  DROPS, CONFECTIONARY.  Prep.  Pound
and sift double-refined sugar through a hair sieve,
but not too fine vand then sift it through a gauze
sieve, to take our all the fine dust,  which would
destroy the beauty of the drop.  Put the sugar into
a clean pan, and moisten it with any favorite aro-
matic  ; if rose-water, pour it in slowly, stirring it
with a paddle, which the 6ugar will  fall  from, as
soon as it is moist enough, without slicking  Color
it with a small quantity of liquid  carmine, or any
other color,  ground  fine.   Take a small  pan with
a lip, fill it three  parts with paste, place it on a
small stove, the half-hole being of the size of  the
pan, and stir the sugar with a  little ivory or bone
handle, until it becomes  liquid.   When it  almost
boils, take it from the fire and continue to 6tir it;
if it be t;o moist, take a little of the powdered sugar,
and add some  to the paste, and stir it till  it is of
such a consistence as to run without too much  ex- 
DRO                   253                    DRO
 tension.  Have a tin plate, very clean and smooth;
 take the little  pan in the left hand, and hold in the
 right a bit of iron, copper, or silver wire, 4 inches
 long, to take off the drop from the lip of the  pan,
 and let it fall regularly  on the tin plate ;  2 hours
 afterwards  take off the drops with the  blade  of a
 knife.
   DROPS, DUTCH.   Syn.  Balsam of Turpen-
 tine.  The imported or genuine Dutch drops are
 the residue  of the rectification of oil of turpentine.
 It is also prepared by distilling rosin, and collecting
 the product in different portions.   At first a white,
 then a yellow, and  lastly a red  oil, comes over.
 The latter  is  the balsam.  The article commonly
 sold  under this name is prepared as follows:—oil
 of turpentine, tincture of gum guaiacum, and sweet
 spirits  of nitre, of  each 1 oz.; oil of amber and
 cloves, of each 15 drops ; mix.   Another prepara-
 tion, made by mixing balsam  of sulphur with 5
 times its weight of oil of turpentine, is also sold as
 Dutch  drops.    Each  of the  above is diuretic,
 stimulant,  and detergent.
   DROPS, FIT.   Syn. Soot Drops.  Tinctura
 Fuliginis.  Prep. Wood-soot  §ij ; subcarbonate of
 potassa lb.  ss ; sal ammoniac  §j ; soft water lb. iv ;
 digest for three days, and strain.  Said  to be  anti-
 spasmodic.
   DROPS, GOLDEN, (DE  LA  MOTTE'S.)
 Syn. Bestucheff's Nervous Tincture.  Elixir
 d' or.   Chloride of iron (obtained by distilling iron
 pyrites with twice its weight of corrosive sublimate)
 3 oz. ; alcohol £ oz.; expose  for  some time to the
 rays of the sun.  These drops have the remarkable
 property of losing their yellow color in the sun, and
 recovering it  in the shade.   They  are taken in
 gout, hypochondriasis,  and nervous complaints.
   DROPS, GINGER.   Prep. Add finely-pow-
 dered Jamaica ginger, or a  few drops  of the es-
 sence, or a strong infusion, to the sugar, as in Con-
 fectionary  Drops.
   DROPS, JESUITS'.  Syn. Elixir Antivene-
 reum.   Balsamum  Polychrestum.  Prep.  Gum
 guaiacum ^vij ; balsam of Peru  3iv ; root of sar-
 saparilla %v ; spirit  of  wine lb. iiss ; digest for 14
 days.   (See also Compound Tincture of  Ben-
 zoin.)
   DROPS, LAVENDER.   (The same as Com-
 pound Tincture of Lavender.)
   DROPS, LEMON.  Prep. Confectionary drops
 acidulated with tartaric acid, and flavored with es-
 sence of  lemons.  They may be colored with an
 infusion of turmeric.
   DROPS   OF  LIFE,  SALMON'S.   Syn.
 Gvttm  VitjB.  Prep.  Tincture  of  castor ^viij ;
 antimonial  wine and water, of each lb. j; opium
 ^iij ;  saffron ^ss ; cochineal,  camphor,  and nut-
 megs, of each  3ij ;  digest for  10 days.   Anodyne
 and diaphoretic.  Dose.  20 to 60 drops.
   DROPS, NORRIS'S.  An aqueous solution of
 tartar emetic, mixed with spirit of wine, and col-
 ored.
   DROPS,  ODONTALGIC.  Prep. (Dr.  Blake.)
 Alum, in fine  powder, 3j ; sweet spirits of nitre
 3vij ;  dissolve.
  DROPS,    PECTORAL,   (BATEMAN'S.)
 Prep. Castor 1 oz.;  oil  of aniseed 1 dr.; camphor
5 dr.; cochineal 1 "j  dr.;  opium  £ oz.;  treacle  1
lb.; proof spirit 1 gallon ; digest for a week.
  DROPS,  PEPPERMINT. Confectionary drops |
 flavored with essence or oil of peppermint, or pep-
 permint water.  The whitest sugar should be used,
 and English oil of peppermint
   DROPS, SCOURING.  Prep.  Spirits of tur
 pentine and oil of lemons, equal parts ; mix.  Used
 to remove grease and paint from cloth.  Both of
 the  ingredients must be pure  and newly-distilled.
   DROPS, SPILBURY'S.  Prep. Corrosive sub-
 limate, gentian root, and  dried orange peel, of each
 3ij ; crude antimony and  red sanders wood, of each
 3j ;  spirit of wine and water, of each ^viij ; mace-
 rate for 10 days.  Antiscorbutic.
   DROPS, TONIC.   Prep. (Collier.) Elixir of
 vitriol f 3ij; tincture of calumba f 3vj ;  mix.  Dose
 A teaspoonful three times a day in cold water.
   DROPS, WARD'S  WHITE.  Prep. Quick-
 silver 4 oz.; nitric acid 1 lb.; dissolve, add carbon
 ate  of  ammonia 7 oz.; evaporate  and crystallize
 then dissolve the salt in four times its weight of
 rose-water.  Poisonous.
   DROPSY.   (From iSup, water.) An unnatural
 collection of aqueous fluid in  any part of the body
 Dropsy has been divided into different kinds,  and
 has received different names, according to the part
 of the body affected by the disease.  When it oc-
 curs in the cellular membrane it is called anasarca;
 when in the cavity of the abdomen, ascites; in the
 cavity of the cranium, hydrocephalus; in the scro-
 tum, hydrocele; in the  uterus, hydrometra ;  and
 in  the chest, hydrothorax.  Dropsy  is mostly  a
 symptom of extreme debility and a broken-down
 constitution.
   The treatment of dropsy,  perhaps,  more than
 any other disease, depends upon the circumstances
 with which it  is connected,  and more especially
 those which have caused it. The acute inflamma-
 tory forms of dropsy  generally require  depletion;
 in some other cases tonics are  administered, and
 to promote the absorption of the  accumulated flu-
 ids,  diuretics are commonly resorted to.  Confirm-
 ed dropsy, especially hydrocephalus and hydrotho-
 rax, are seldom  cured.
   DROWNING.  The  cause of death from sub-
 mersion in water is but  little understood by per-
 sons generally.  It is commonly thought to arise
 from the introduction of water into the lungs in-
 stead of air; and hence the vulgar and dangerous
 practice adopted by the ignorant,  of holding  the
 body of a drowned person in an inverted position,
 under the  idea  of  allowing the inhaled water to
 flow out.   The actual cause of death  is, however,
 the  exclusion of air from the  lungs, by which  the
 proper aeration  of  the venous blood is prevented,
 and  consequently the  latter circulates through  the
 arterial system, while the pulmonary vein  ceases
 to convey oxygenized blood to  the heart. The con-
 sequences  are, the rapid extinction of the vital
 functions, and the loss of  animal heat, so that gen-
 erally, in the  course  of  4 or 5 minutes after the
 access of air has been cut off, life becomes extinct,
 Many cases have  nevertheless  occurred,  where
 persons have been submerged for 15 or 20 minutes,
 and  even longer, and where  perfect  insensibility
 has existed, and yet recovery has been effected by
 long and skilful exertion.
  Prevention.  It is a well-established  fact that
 the specific gravity  of the human body is less than
 that  of  water, so long as the  lungs are partially
filled with  air; and that this difference is suffi- 
DRO                    254                    DRO
cient to permit of the body floating with the mouth
and nostrils  free for respiration, provided the face
be turned upwards, or the head  thrown back, so
that the greater  portion of the latter may be im-
mersed, and its weight sustained by the  water.  It
is  also a well known fact, that if a person throw
himself into the water, the body will rapidly rise to
the surface and assume nearly the erect position,
and that the upper part of the head, down to a lit-
tle below the eyes, will remain above the  surface.
This position is occasioned by the greater density
of the legs  and thighs compared to that of the
chest, which  acts as a species of float or buoy to
the rest of the body.  In  this situation, however,
it would'of course be found  impossible to breathe,
but if the head be  thrown back, so  that the face
may become the  exposed  portion, as before men-
tioned, respiration may be carried on without in-
convenience.
  The truth of  the above I have frequently de-
monstrated in practice; I  found  that  at each in-
spiration a larger portion of the face  became ex-
posed, and at each expiration, the water rose very
nearly to the corners of the  mouth, but  still not
sufficiently high to run into it, unless  a forced and
hurried  respiration was purposely had recourse  to.
Thus a continual rising and  sinking of the  body
takes place, and these motions  are  synchronous
with the inflations and contractions  of  the lungs.
When a hand and  part of the  forearm is  raised
above  the water, the  face becomes  instantly im-
mersed.  From the above it appears evident, that
if  a  person fall into the water, and  exercise but
common presence  of mind, he  may readily float
for some time, or until  assistance  can reach him,
even though  he be not able  to  swim.   Unfortu-
nately,  however, the state of alarm  and agitation
into which persons are thrown on falling into the
water, and their ignorance of the general means
which should be resorted to in such an emergency,
as well  as want of presence of mind,  lead them to
neglect those obvious measures that are essential
to their preservation. Persons suddenly submerged
in the water should endeavor to preserve  them-
selves as collected  as  possible,  and should avoid
splashing and  throwing themselves  about, as this
will naturally increase the danger.  They should
allow the body to assume  its natural  position, and
if  they  cannot  swim, should  patiently  wait until
assistance be afforded them.  Another point which
should be remembered by  every person under such
circumstances is, that there is always a  considera-
ble amount of residual  air  in the lungs in a nearly
deoxidized state, and  that if  this be expelled by
two or three forced  inspirations, and a deep inspira-
tion  be then taken, a larger quantity of vital  air
will be introduced  to the lungs, and  the blood will
continue aerated  for a proportionally longer time,
and consequently a longer period will elapse be-
fore another inspiration will be required.  J.t will be
found, that if, in the ordinary course of  breathing,
we suddenly hold our breath, we shall only be able
to do so for a space of  time varying from 20 to 30
seconds ; but if, on the contrary, we prepare our-
selves by taking two or three forced inspirations,
and then take a full inspiration, we may remain
for 1J or 2 minutes before a second attempt at res-
piration need be mi de. This is the  plan adopted
by the pearl fishers, and  other divers who are  re-
markable for remaining beneath the surface of tha
water for some time.  A person in danger of ship-
wreck, or expecting immediate submersion in any
other situation, should have recourse to this meth-
od, as it would permit the breath to be held until
the body rises to the surface of the water, and
would prevent  the dreadful effects of attempting
respiration while  the  mouth is covered with  that
fluid.
   The writer of this  article nearly lost his life"a
few years since, from  not exercising the precau-
tions which  he is now  recommending to others.
He had been swimming for about a quarter of an
hour, as was his daily custom at the period alluded
to, and was returning to the bank, when a species
of paralysis seized  both extremities, and instead
of preserving his presence of  mind, and patiently
waiting until the fit went  off", he exhausted  him-
self in fruitless endeavors to reach the and.   The
result was, that after a few vain struggles  he sunk,
and vividly present to his mind, even at this  mo-
ment, are the feelings  he then experienced.   The
recollection of a comrade that was drowned a few
days before, near the  same spot, and the convic-
tion of inevitable death, passed across his mind like
an electric shock,—life, death, and eternity—the
dread of leaving his friends in ignorance of his fate,
and a thousand other subjects, were idealized in a
moment, and were followed by others in incessant
and rapid succession.  Space and time seemed an-
nihilated,—they presented  no  visible horizon to the
mind's eye,—all was present,—all  the events of
life seemed collected and performing at the same
moment—as in a day-dream, where individual dis-
tinctness is  blended  with general confusion.  A
pleasing state of mental serenity ensued ;  the pros-
pect gradually changed,  and surrounding 6pacc
seemed covered with verdure of the softest green;
and illuminated with  green light of the most sub-
dued tone,  which gradually  faded into twilight,
and—here consciousness ceased. During the whole
of this time, which  occupied about 3$ minutes, nc
great bodily  suffering was experienced;  after the
first sensations of suffocation were passed, none  at
all are recollected to have been felt.   Many years
have now passed over since the occurrence of the
accident above alluded to, but  though time has
erased from the memory of the writer many events
of more recent date, and with  a  busy hand has
scattered trials and afflictions  in his path, yet tho
incidents that  occurred on the  morning of----,
still occasionally slart  up before the mind, as dis-
tinctly as the doings of yesterday.
   Treatment  of persons  apparently drowned.
The first object is the restoration of the anima!
heat.  For this purpose, the wet clothes  are to be
removed without delay, and the body, after  being
well dried,  is  to be  surrounded with warm air
The heat should at first be moderate, and gently
increased.   In the absence of a warm-air bath;
the  body should  be  laid in a  well-heated  bed  or
blankets, and bottles of hot water laid to the feet
and armpits.   A warming-pan or heated  bricks
should  be passed over the body, or gentle friction
exercised with other warm  substances.  Mean-
while,  continual though gentle attempts should be
made to excite respiration  artificially; and. if the
apparatus be at hand, slight shocks of electricity
should be kept up at the  same time.  If there be 
DRU                    255                    DRU
any signs of returning life, such as sighing or con-
vulsive twitching, a  vein may be opened.  The
throat may be  tickled to excite a propensity to
vomit, and  a teaspoonful  of warm water adminis-
tered to test the power of swallowing.   If it exist, a
tablespoonful of warm diluted wine or brandy may
De given.  Even if no vestige of returning ani-
mation  be  discovered, these means of recovery
should be persisted in for three or four hours.
   In  the treatment  of this species  of asphyxia,
nasal  stimulants, as  ammonia, aromatic vinegar,
and similar pungent  and  volatile  applications,
should be avoided, as well as  the injection of to-
bacco smoke, which would prove injurious to a
healthy  person, and, in  the present case, would
most likely render all attempts  at the restoration
of animation ineffectual.   The practice of holding
the  body with the head downwards, which is some-
times adopted by the vulgar and ignorant, under
the  idea of allowing the  water  to run out by  the
mouth, should be equally avoided.   The supposi-
tion  that water is inhaled by  drowning persons,
instead  of  air, though very  plausible, is  perfectly
fallacious.  The peculiar mechanism of the glottis,
or upper portion of the windpipe, is such as to pre-
vent,  by the  spasmodic  closure of  the epiglottis,
the  entrance of more than a very trifling and  ac-
cidental quantity of water, which is altogether too
insignificant to  produce any very injurious effects.
 (See Asphyxia.)
   DRUNKENNESS.   The disordered  condition
of the intellectual functions  and volition, produced
by taking excessive quantities of alcoholic or intox-
icating  liquors.  The word  is also commonly  ap-
plied to  habitual inebriety.
   The action of spirituous and fermented liquors
on the human body,  in all the numerous relations
of causes and effects, has  been ably and eloquently
treated  of,  in  the " Anatomy of Drunkenness,"
and it would afford to the editor and reader much
pleasure and instruction,  would  our space permit
us to avail ourselves of the mass of facts and judi-
cious  remarks collected  in that work.  As  how-
ever such is not the case, the present article will
be confined to  a short notice of the means of  re-
moving  the " fit of drunkenness," and  the vicious
habit  that produces  its frequent repetition.  The
pernicious influence  of intoxicating  liquors  upon
individuals  and society, and the beneficial effects
of temperance, cannot be better illustrated  than
by reference to,the general longevity of the Qua-
kers.  From the  registers of this sect, it  may be
seen that, as a consequence  of their habitual tem-
perance  and the regularity of their lives, " one half
of those  that are born live to the age of 47 years;
whereas, Dr. Price tells  us, that of the  general
population of London, half that are born live only
2| years !*   Among  the  Quakers, 1 in 10 arrives
at 80 years  of age;  of the  general population of
London, only 1 in 40."   Never did a more power-
ful argument support the practice of temperance
and  virtue.
  Among the remedies  employed to remove the
"fit of drunkenness," the preparations of ammo-
nia,  and  the vegetable acids, are the most impor-
tant.   About 2 or 3 drachms of aromatic spirits of

  * Since the time that this calculation was made,  the
health of  the metropolis has  slightly improved, and, con-
sequently, the expectation of life has increased.
ammonia, (spirits of sal volatile,) or a like quantity
of solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia, (mindererus
spirit,) mixed with a wine-glassful of water, will
in general  neutralize  or greatly lessen the action
of intoxicating liquors.   In  some cases these fluids
produce vomiting, which is,  however, a good symp-
tom,  as nothing tends to  restore an  inebriated
person so soon as the  removal  of  the liquor from
the stomach.  Hence tickling the  fauces with the
finger or a feather, until sickness  be  produced, is
a  method  very commonly adopted by  drunkards
to restore  themselves to a sober  state, and also by
those wretches who are so  far sunk  in the scale
of humanity, as to be eager, like a certain Roman
emperor, to free their  stomachs of one batch  of
liquor, that  they may  gratify  their appetites by
swallowing  another.  The use  of  aromatic water
of ammonia was first suggested by Mr.  Broomley.
With a like intention, some persons have recourse
to soda-water,  which  acts by the free carbonic
acid  it  contains, as well as a diluent, and from  its
coldness, as a tonic on  the coats of  the stomach.
The carbonates and  bicarbonates of  soda And po-
tassa are  also  favorite remedies  with habitual
drunkards.  Among the vegetable acids, the acetic
is the one that appears to possess the greatest power
of removing intoxication ; aud after this follow the
tartaric, citric,  malic, and carbonic acids.   The
above property of these substances is well known to
habitual drunkards, and they are hence commonly
taken by soldiers before  going to parade.  The
usual dose is a small teacupful of vinegar.   In the
West Indies, where, from  the  low price of rum,
no inconsiderable number of the soldiers are per-
petually tipsy when off duty, lime juice, or lemon
juice, is had recourse  to.   Both these juices act
from  the citric acid they contain.
   To cure the " habit  of  drunkenness," various
means have been proposed, many of which are
more ingenious than useful.  Among several that
have  come under my attention, the  following de-
serve notice:—
   I. In a small  treatise  on  Naval Discipline, late-
ly published, the  following whimsical  and inge-
nious mode  of punishing drunken seamen is re-
commended : " Separate for one month every man
who is found drunk from  the  rest of the crew ;
mark their  clothes ' drunkard;'  give  them six-
water grog, or, if beer, mixed with one-half water ;
let them dine when the crew have finished ; em-
ploy them  in every dirty  and disgraceful work,
&c.   This had such a salutary effect, that in less
than  six months not  a drunken man was  to be
found in the ship.  The same system was intro-
duced by the writer into  every ship  on board which
he subsequently served.   When  first lieutenant of
the Victory and Diomede, the  beneficial  conse-
quences were acknowledged ;  the culprits  were
heard to say, that they would  rather receive six
dozen lashes at the gangway, and be done with it,
than  be put into the '  drunken mess'  (for so it
was named) for a month."
  II. Dr.  Pitcairn,  in  attempting to break the
habit  in a highland chieftain, one  of his patients,
exacted a promise that the  latter would  every day
drop as much sealing-wax  into  his glass as would
receive the impression of his seal.  He did so, and
as the wax accumulated, the capacity of the glaw
diminished,  and  consequently,  the  quantity of 
DRU                    256                    DYE
whiskey it was capable of containing.   By  this
plan he was cured of his bad habit altogether.   In
mentioning such a whimsical proceeding, I do not
mean particularly to recommend it for adoption, al-
though I am satisfied that the  principle on which
its eccentric contriver proceeded was substantially
correct.  (Coombe.)
  III. Dr. Kain, an American physician, recom-
mends tartar emetic for the cure of habitual drunk-*
enness.   " Possessing," he observe*, " no positive
taste  itself, it communicates a disgusting quality
to those fluids in  which it  is  dissolved.  I have
often  seen persons  who,  from taking a medicine in
the form of antimonial wine,  could never  after-
wards drink wine.   Nothing, therefore, eeems bet-
ter calculated  to form our indication of breaking
up the association in the patient's feelings, between
his disease and the  relief to be obtained from stimu-
lating liquors.   These liquors, with the addition of
a very small quantity of emetic tartar, instead of
relieving, increase the sensation of loathing of food,
and quickly produce in the patient  an indomitable
repugnance to the vehicle  of  its  administration.
My method of prescribing it  has  varied according
to the habits, age,  and constitution of the patient.
I give it only in alterative and  slightly nauseating
doses.  A convenient preparation of the medicine
is 8 grains dissolved in 4 oz. of  boiling water, £ an
oz. of the  solution  to be put into a  i pint, pint, or
quart of the  patient's favorite liquor, and  to be
taken daily in divided portions.  If severe vomit-
ing and purging ensue,  I should  direct laudanum
to allay the irritation, and diminish the dose.   In
every patient  it should  be  varied according to its
effects.   In one instance, in a patient who  lived
ten miles from me, severe vomiting was produced,
more, I think, from excessive  drinking  than the
use of the remedy.  He recovered from it, how-
ever,  without any  bad effects.   In some cases, the
change suddenly produced in the patient's  habits
has brought on considerable lassitude and debility,
which were of but short duration.  In a majority
of cases, no other effect has been  perceptible than
slight nausea,  some diarrhoea,  and a gradual but
very uniform distaste to  the menstruum."  A sim-
ilar plan has been  proposed by  Mr.  Chambers.
  IV. Infuse  a little of  the star-shoot plant in the
liquor, at drinking which disgust will be  gradually
excited.
  V.  The following singular  means of curing
habitual  drunkenness is employed by a Russian
physician,  Dr. Schreiber, of Brzese-Litewski:  it
consists in confining the drunkard in a room,  and
in furnishing  him  at discretion with  his favorite
spirit  diluted  with  two thirds of water;  as much
wine, beer, and coffee as he desires, but containing
one third of spirit; all the food—the bread, meat,
and the legumes, are steeped  in  spirit and water.
The  poor  devil is continually drunk  and ' dort.'
On the fifth day of this regima he has an extreme
disgust for spirit; he earnestly  requests other diet;
but his desire  must not be yielded to, until the poor
wretch no longer desires to eat or drink ;  he is then
certainly cured of  his penchant  for drunkenness.
He acquires  such  a disgust for  brandy, or other
spirits, that he is ready to vomit  at the very sight
of it.  {Bulletin de Therapeutique.)
  Tho same treatment it equally adapted  to the
Wine or beer  drunkard, but in such cases the fa-
vorits liquor, whatever it may be, must be the on*
employed to soak the victuals in.
  DRY  DISTILLATION.  Syn. Df.structivi
Distillation.  The distillation of substances with-
out the addition of water or any other fluid matter.
Thus, wood is exposed to destructive distillation in
the preparation of pyroligneous acid ; and coal un-
dergoes a like process, in the manufacture of the
gas that  lights our streets.
  DRYING OIL.   Syn. Boiled Oil.   Linseed
oil boiled along with oxide  of lead, (litharge,) by
which it  acquires the property  of  drying  quickly
when exposed in a thin stratum  to the  air.   It is
much used in the preparation of  paints and var-
nishes.
  DRY-ROT.  A peculiar disease  that  attacks
wood, and renders it brittle and rotten.   It prin-
cipally occurs among the timbers of ships  and of
damp and ill-ventilated houses.  It has been as-
cribed to the formation  of  fungi.   Various means
have been proposed to prevent the  attacks of dry-
rot, and to arrest its progress when it has com-
menced,  among which the process called " Kyani-
sing," (after Kyan,  the name of the patentee,) is
most generally known,  and  has been most exten-
sively adopted.  It consists  in immersing the tim-
ber in a  bath of  corrosive  sublimate.   A  solution
of pyrolignite of iron has also been used  for tha
same purpose and in a similar way, with the besl
effect.   It is asserted, however, that " Kyanised"
wood, that has been exposed  for  a considerable
time in some unfavorable situations, has  suffered
from the  dry-rot in nearly  an  equal degree  with
unprepared  wood.   Lately, the  process  termed
" Paynising" (after Mr. Payne, the inventor) has
been  adopted, and   appears likely to  supersede
every  other method.  This  plan consists in first
filling the pores with a solution  of  muriate of lime,
and next forcing in a solution of sulphate  of iron,
by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is formed
in the body of the wood, and the hitter is rendered
nearly as hard as stone.   Wood so prepared has
already been adopted in several  public works.
  DYEING.  Syn. Teinture, (Fr.)  Farberei,
(Ger.)   The  art of  fixing  coloring matters uni-
formly and permanently in the fibres of wool, silk,
linen, cotton, and other substances.  Dyeing is a
chemical process, and the mode of its performance
depends  upon the substance operated on.  Thus, it
is found  that the process by which wool  is  dyed
black, would only impart  a rusty brown  to linen.
Wool unites with almost all  coloring matters with
great facility, silk in the next  degree, cotton less
easily than silk, and  linen  with even  more  diffi-
culty.   Preparatory  to  the operation  of  dyeing,
each of  these substances undergoes a species  of
preparation to free the fibres from adhering foreign
matter, as dirt, grease, &c, which would  prevent
the absorption of the  aqueous fluid  to be afterwards
applied,  as well as  impair the brilliancy of the
edge.  Wool is cleaned or scoured by means of a
weak  alkaline  lye,  soap  and  water, or  putrid
urine ; the latter being very generally used for this
purpose.  Silk is cleaned from the natural varnish
that covers  it,  by  boiling  with  white soap and
water.   Cotton and linen are cleaned  with alka-
line lyes of more or less density.   The  substances
so prepared are ready to undergo the  various ope-
rations of dyeing. 
DYE                   257                    DYS
   Among the various coloring materials employed
 by dyers, some impart their tints to different sub-
 stances by simple  immersion in their  infusions  or
 decoctions, and have hence been called " substan-
 tive colors;''  but  by far the greater number  only
 impart a fugitive dye, unless the fibres of the stuff
 have been previously filled with some substance,
 which has a strong  affinity for  the latter on the
 one hand, and the coloring material on the other.
 The substances  applied  with  this intention are
 called "'Mordants," and  generally exercise the
 double  property  of  "fixing" and  " striking" the
 color. Thus,  if calico be dyed with a decoction  of
 madder, it will only receive a fugitive and dirty red
 tinge, but if it be first run through a solution  of
 acetate of alumina, dried  at a  high temperature,
 washed, and  then run through a madder bath, it
 will come out of a permanent and lively red.  The
 principal  mordants  are  the acetates  of iron and
 alumina, sulphate of iron, alum, and some other
 chemical salts.  A perfect knowledgo  of the beha-
 vior of mordants, with different coloring substances,
 is of paramount importance to the dyer.
   After having received the proper mordants, the
 goods are dried and rinsed, after which they are
 passed for a shorter or longer time through an in-
 fusion, decoction, or solution of the dyeing mate-
 rials, which constitute the  " dye-bath;" they are
 again dried and  rinsed.   In many cases, the im-
 mersion in the dye-bath is  repeated^, either  with
 the same materials or with others to vary or modify
 the color.   After  the substances have been proper-
 ly dyed, they are subjected to a thorough rinsing
 or washing in soft water, until the latter runs off
 uncolored.
   The  modification of the  art of dyeing called
 " calico  printing,"  consists in the application  of
 the mordants, and sometimes the colors, by means
 of blocks of  wood  or  engraved copper cylinders,
 the  calico being either subsequently passed through
 a dye-bath, or a solution of a mordant, as the  case
 may be.  It was my intention to have  given in this
 article a concise history of the arts of dyeing and
 calico printing, and an outline of the scientific
 principles and mechanical  operations  employed
 therein, but from  want  of space I  am compelled
 to omit the  paper  I had  prepared on  the  subject.
 I  must therefore  conclude with  the following con-
 densed  description of the  fast  dyes employed by
 the calico printers, for which I am indebted to Dr.
 Ure.
   Dye-stuffs  used by the  calico-printers  for pro-
 ducing fast colors.   The mordants  are thickened
 with gum, or  calcined  starch, when applied with
 the block, roller, plates, or pencil.
   1. Black. The cloth is impregnated with acetate
 of iron, (iron liquor,) and dyed in a  bath of madder
 and  logwood.
   2. Purple.  The preceding mordant  of iron, di-
 luted ; with the same dyeing bath.
   3. Crimson.  The mordant for  purple, united
 with  a portion of  acetate of alumina,  or red mor-
 dant, and the above  bath.
   4. Red. Acetate of alumina is the mordant, (see
 Alumina,) and madder is the dye-stuff.
  5. Pale red of different shades.   The preceding
mordant  diluted with water, and a weak madder
bath.
  6  Brown or Pompadour.  A mixed  mordant,
                      33
containing a somewhat larger proportion of the red
than of the black ;  and the dye of madder.
   7. Orange.  The red mordant; and a bath first
of madder, and then of quercitron.
   8. Yellow.   A strong  red mordant;  and  the
quercitron bath, whose temperature should be con-
siderably under the boiling point of water.
   9. Blue.  Indigo, rendered soluble and greenish-
yellow  colored, by potash  and orpiment   It re-
covers its blue  color by exposure to air, and there-
by also fixes firmly on the cloth.   An indigo vat is
also made, with that blue substance diffused in
water with quicklime and  copperas.  These sub-
stances are supposed  to  deoxidize indigo, and at
the same time to render it soluble.
   Golden-dye.  The cloth is immersed alternately
in  a solution of copperas and lime water.   The
protoxide  of iron precipitated on  the fibre,  soon
passes, by absorption of atmospherical oxygen, into
the golden-colored deutoxide.
   Buff.  The   preceding substances,  in a  more
dilute state.
   Blue vat, in  which  white spots are left on a blue
ground of cloth, is made by applying to those points
a paste composed of a solution of sulphate of cop-
per and pipeclay ;  and after they are dried, im-
mersing it, stretched on  frames, for  a definite
number of minutes, in the yellowish-green vat, of
1 part of indigo, 2 of copperas, and 2 of lime, with
water.
   Green.  Cloth dyed  blue, and well  washed, is
imbued with the aluminous acetate,  dried, and
subjected to the quercitron bath.
   In the above cases, the cloth, after receiving the
mordant paste,  is dried, and  put through a mixture
of cow-dung and warm water.  It is then put into
the dyeing vat  or copper.   (Ure's  Diet, of Chem.
and Min.)
   DYSPEPSIA.   (From   6vs,  with  difficulty,
and ir/jrru,  /  digest.)   Indigestion.   This  com-
plaint, of all others, is of the most  common occur-
rence, and pervades every rank of society.  The
usual symptoms are want of appetite, sudden and
transient distensions of the stomach, frequent eruc-
tations,  heartburn,  stomachic  pains,  occasional
vomiting, and frequently costiveness and diarrhoea.
Sometimes the head  is affected, and dimness of
sight,  double vision, muse®  volitantes, and slight
vertigo, are experienced, along with  a multitude
of other symptoms, depending on a disarrangement
of the functions  of the nervous  system.   The
causes of dyspepsia are numerous.   In the higher
ranks of society, it is a  common  consequence of
over indulgence in the luxuries of  the table, or of
the want of proper exercise, both bodily and  men-
tal.  In the studious, and those who lead a seden-
tary life, it is usually  caused by excessive mental
exertion oi anxiety, or by the fatigues of business,
and the want of sufficient bodily exertion  and pure
air.  In the lower  orders of society, it generally
results  from inebriety, or a  deficiency of proper
food and clothing.
   Treat. The treatment of dyspepsia depends less
on medicine than on the adoption of regular habits
of life.   Moderation in eating,  drinking, and the
indulgence of the passions; early rising, due ex-
ercise and retiring  to rest at an early hour, will
do much to  restore  the tone both  of the stomach
and nerves   Excessive study and mental exertion 
EAR
258
EAU
should be avoided, and recourse should frequently
be had to society, and amusements of a lively and
interesting character.   If the bowels are confined,
mild aperients should be taken, and if diarrhoea be
present, antacids and absorbents  may be had re-
course to with advantage.  The  stomach should
be strengthened  by the use of mild bitters, tonics,
and stimulants, and sea-bathing, or the tepid bath
may be taken when convenient Where dyspepsia
is a secondary or symptomatic  disease, the cause
should be sought into, and  the treatment varied
accordingly.  Among the aperient medicines most
suitable to dyspepsia, may be mentioned—Epsom
salts, phosphate of soda, and  Seidlitz  powders,
either of  which should be  taken largely diluted
with water.   An occasional dose of the Abeniethy
Medicines, noticed on our first page, has also been
recommended.   Among antacids, are the bicar-
bonates and  carbonates of potassa  and soda, either
of which may be taken in doses of  half a teaspoon-
ful dissolved "in water, or  if the spirits be low, one
or two teaspoonfuls of spirits of sal volatile will be
more  appropriate, and  in  cases accompanied by
dhtrrhoea,  a little  prepared  chalk.    As bitters,
compound infusion  of orange-peel, or gentian,  is
excellent.   As  tonics, small  doses  of  bark, or
disulphate of quinine, to which chalybeates may
be added, if there  be  no disposition  to fever or
headache.
  EARTHS. Syn. Terras, (Lat.) Terres, (Fr.)
Erden, (Ger.)   In Agriculture: soils wholly or
nearly destitute of organic matter. In Chemistry :
certain metallic oxides that constitute the principal
portion of the various stony  and pulverent masses
that form our mountains, valleys, and plains, and
the whole crust of the globe we  inhabit, as far as
the researches of man have penetrated.  The prim-
itive  earths  are nine  in  number,  viz.   baryta,
strontia, lime, magnesia,  alumina, glucina, zir-
conia, yltria, and  thorina.  The first four have
been  denominated  alkaline earths, from their
partial solubility in water, their alkaline taste, and
their  action on  vegetaW '•  colors; the remainder
have been called earths proper, from their insolu-
bility  in water, and their imperfect  neutralization
of the acids.  Silica and  lithia have also been
classed  with the earths, but the former  is more
correctly placed among the acids, from its power
of neutralizing  bases, and the latter with the al-
kalis,  from  its  behavior with the acids,  and  the
solubility of its carbonate in water.  All the above
earths were regarded  as  elementary substances,
until  Sir  H. Davy, in  1808, proved  them  to be
metallic  oxides.  In a state of purity they  are
white and incombustible, but they exist in nature
in combination with other substances, mostly acids
and oxides of the common metals, which alter their
appearance.  Baryta is the mineral constituent of
rat's stone and heavy spar; Lime, combined with
carbonic arid, forms chalk, marble, and the shells
of fish, and with phosphoric acid, the earthy por-
tion of the bones of animals ; alumina constitutes
clay,  in  which state it is  usually combined with
oxide of  iron and carbonate of lime; the other
earths play a less important part in the economy
of the globe.  The metals of which the earths are
the oxides, are  obtained with difficulty, and possess
but an evanescent existence.  (See Barium. Axo-
minium, &c.)     •
   EATON'S  STYPTIC.   A spirituous solution
of sulphate of iron, disguised  by the addition Of
some other ingredients.
   EAU.  (Fr.)  Water. Eau douce, fresh or river
water.  Eau de  mer, sea or salt "water.   Eau de
fontaine, spring water.  Eau de source, do.  Eau
de puits, well  water.   Eau de  riviere, river wa-
ter.   Eau de rose, eau  rose, rose water.   Eau de
vie,  brandy.  Eau  d'Hongrie, Hungary water.
Eau  benite, holy water.  Eau forte, aquafortis.
   The word eau  is applied to numerous substances,
differing in  their composition, sensible properties,
and uses,  as will  be seen above.   In perfumery, it
is generally used  to . esignate solutions of the fra-
grant essential oils in  spirit, as eau de Cologne,
eau de bouquet,  &c, or to distilled waters, largely
charged with the odorous  principles  of plants, as
eau de rose, eau  de fleurs d'oranges, &lc.  In the
art of  the  liqueuriste, it is  frequently  applied
to aromatized  spirits,  or cordial  liqueurs.   (See
Water.)
   EAU D'ANGE  DISTILLEE.   Prep.  Ben-
zoin 4 oz.;  storax 2  oz.;  cloves  J  oz.;  calamus
and  cinnamon, of each -j  oz.;  coriander seeds 1
dr.;  all bruised ;  water 5 pints; draw off 2 quarts.
Fragrant.
   EAU  D'ANGE  DISTILLEE  ET  MUS-
QUEE.  Prep.  Benzoin 4 oz.; storax 2 oz.;  cin-
namon £  oz.; cloves and  calamus \ oz.;  2  fresh
emptied musk bags; water 3  pints ; digest  in a
gentle heat for 2 hours, then draw over 1 quart
Fragrant.
   EAU D'ANGE  BOUILLEE.   Prep.  Rose
water and  orange-flower water, of  each 3 pints;
benzoin 1  lb.;  storax £ lb.; cinnamon 1 oz.; cloves
£ oz.; 3  fresh emptied musk  bags; digest  in a
securely-covered  vessel  at  nearly  the boiling  heat
for 2 hours, then allow it  to cool;  strain off the
clear, and press the remainder; lastly filter for use.
Fragrant.
   EAU D'ANSERINE.  Distilled from the herb,
2 lbs. to water  5  quarts, drawing off only 1 gallon.
It is scentless and tasteless.  Used by the French
in dressing gauzes.
   EAU  D'ARQUEBUSADE.   Syn.  Vulne-
rary Water.   Aqua  Vulneraria.  Ao..  Vul.
Spirituosa.   Ao..  Sclopetaria.    Prep.  Dried
tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, marjoram.
savory, thyme, rosemary, calamint,  balm, pepper-
mint, schordium, angelica  leaves,  (fresh,)   basil
leaves, and  lavender  flowers, of each 4 oz.;  proof
spirit 2  gallons ;  digest  for 14 days, and distil over
1£ gallons.
   II. Rosemary  leaves  1£  lbs.; leaves  of thyme
and summits of millefoil, of each J lb.; proof spirit
2 gallons ; distil  over 5  quarts.
   This water is  stimulant and  vulnerary, and is
used  as a cosmetic and cordial.
   EAU DE BELLOSTE.  Prep. Brandy 1 pint;
muriatic acid £ pint; hay saffron  and sirup of saf-
fron, of each 2 oz.; digest for 14 days and  filter
 Formerly used as a resolvent.
   EAU DE BOUQUET.   Prep. Rectified spirit
of wine 1 quart; spirits of rosemary and essence
of violets, of  each 1 oz.:  essences of bergamotte
 and jasmine,  of  each  1 dr. ; oils of verbena and
 lavender  i dr.; eau do  rose J pint;  orunga-rlowei 
EAU                    259                    EAU
 water 1 oz.; mix well and filter.   An  agreeable
 perfume.
   EAU DE COLOGNE.   Syn. Cologne Wa-
 ter. Aqua Coloniensis.  Spiritus do.  Prep  I.
 (P. Cod.)  Oils of bergamotte, lemons, and cedrat,
 of each 3»j ; oils of rosemary, lavender, and neroli,
 of each §iss ; oil of cinnamon 3vj ;  rectified spirit
 3 gallons ; spirits of rosemary 1 quart; compound
 spirit of balm (eau de melisse des Cannes) 3 pints;
 digest for 8 days, then distil 3 gallons.
   II.  (Cadet Gassincourt)  Neroli, essences (oils)
 of cedrat, orange, lemon, bergamotte, and rosema-
 ry, of each 24 drops ; lesser cardamom seeds \ oz.;
 spirit at 32° B. (0*869) 2 quarts; digest, then dis-
 til 1J  pint
   III. (Farina.) Rectified  spirit 5  gallons; cala-
 mus aromaticus, sage, and thyme,  of each £ dr.;
 balm mint and spear mint, of each 1 oz.; angelica
 root  10 grs.;  camphor 15 grains; petals of roses
 and violets, of  each  3 drs.; lavender flowers  1£
 dr.;  orange  flowers  1 dr.;  wormwood, nutmeg,
 cloves, cassia lignea# and mace, of each 20 grs.;
 oranges and  lemons, sliced, of  each 2 in number;
 bruise or slice the solids, macerate with agitation
 for 48 hours, then distil off §, and add to the pro-
 duct—essences of  lemons, cedrat, balm mint, and
 lavender, of each  1  dr.; pure neroli  and essence
 of the seeds of anthos, of each 20 drops ; essences
 of jasmine and bergamotte, of each  1 oz.; mix
 well, and filter, if necessary.
   IV.  (Trommsdorff.) Oils  of neroli, citron, ber-
 gamotte, orange, and rosemary, of each  12 drops;
 Malabar cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr.  ; rectified spirit
 of wine 1 quart; mix, and after standing 2 or 3
 days distil.
   V. Essence of bergamotte  40 drops ; essence of
 lemons 45 drops; oil  of rosemary 6 drops; oil  of
 orange 22 drops ; finest neroli  12  drops ; essence
 of musk 1 drop;  rectified  spirit of  wine 6  oz.,
 (fluid ;)  mix.   Excellent without distillation, if the
 oils be good.
   VI. Rectified spirit of wine 1 pint; oils of ber-
 gamotte, orange, and rosemary, of each 1 dr.; car-
 damom  seeds 1  dr.; orange-flower  water 1 pint;
 mix, digest for a day, then distil.
   VII. Neroli, essences of cedrat, orange, citron,
 bergamotte,  and rosemary, of each  "j dr.; oil  of
 verbena 20 drops;  lesser cardamoms  1 dr.; recti-
 fied  spirit  of wine, at 32°  B.  J  gallon; orange-
 flower water J pint; digest and distil 3 pints.
   VIII. To the last add, before distillation,  es-
 sences of musk and  ambergris, of each 10 drops;
 powdered benzoin 15 grs ;  otto of roses 8 drops.
   IX.  Essence  of bergamotte  3 oz.; essence  of
 lemon 3 drs.; essence  of cedrat 2 drs.; neroli  1£
 dr.;  oil of rosemary 1 dr.; spirit  of wine 1 £ gal-
 lon ; rosemary tops 4 oz.;  balm J dr.; distil.
   Remarks.  In the preparation of eau de Cologne,
 it is essential that the spirit be  of the purest de-
 scription, both tasteless and scentless, and that the
 oils be not only genuine, but recently  distilled, as
 old oils are less odorous and contain a considerable
 quantity of resin  and  camphor, which would prove
 injurious. To produce  an article of the finest qual-
 ity, distillation should be had recourse  to, as  di-
 rected  above ; but a very excellent eau de Cologne
may be produced by simple solution or maceration
of the  ingredients in the spirit, provided all the es-
sences be new, pale-colored, and pure. When pre-
pared in the latter way, any article that would im-
part a color should be avoided, as eau  de Cologne
should be both transparent and colorless. The mass
of the eau de Cologne prepared in England, some
of which possesses the most delicate fragrance, and
is nearly equal  to the best imported, is made with-
out distillation.   In the shops two kinds of this ar-
ticle are generally kept, viz., French and German.
That  prepared by Farina of Cologne  is esteemed
the best, and is preferred in the fashionable  world.
   Eau  de Cologne  is  principally used as  a  per-
fume, but  a  very large quantity is consumed by
fashionable ladies, as a  cordial and stimulant to
drive  away the vapors. For this purpose it is dulcified
with sugar.  A piece of linen dipped *in Cologne
water, and laid across  the forehead, is a fashiona-
ble remedy for  headache.
   EAU DIVINE.   Prep. Essences of lemon and
bergamotte,  of each 1  dr.;  dissolve  in rectified
spirit  of wine 1 gallon ;  distil  or filter ; then  add
clarified sirup 3 quarts;  distilled water 5 quarts;
mix well  and  add  orange-flower water 6 oz.  A
pleasant and fragrant cordial.
   EAU DE FRAMBOISES. Prep. Strawber-
ries, bruised,  16 lbs.; spirits of wine 1 gallon;  dis-
til to  dryness in a salt-water or steam bath.
   EAU  DE  HUSSON.  Syn.  Eau Medicinale.
Aqua Medicinalis  Hussonii.   This is a nostrum
which was originally  prepared by M.  Husson, a
French military officer,  and which has acquired
great reputation for allaying the pain  and remov-
ing the paroxysms of gout.  It was submitted  to a
chemical  investigation by Cadet and Parmentier,
in 1782, but  without eliciting  further  information
than  that it is a purely vegetable solution.  Alyon
has asserted that  it is prepared with gratiola ;  Mr.
Moore that it is an infusion of hellebore and lauda-
num ; and Mr. Want  that  it is a vinous infusion
of colchicum.   The general opinion coincides with
that of the latter  gentleman, and the wine of  col-
chicum is  commonly substituted for  it, and  pro-
duces like effects.  Dr. Collier  has  given  the  fol-
lowing form for the  eau medicinale de Husson:—
" Colchicum  root, sliced, §ij ;  cherry  wine  f §iv ;
macerate."  This preparation is 2^ times as strong
as the " vinum colchici" of the Pharmacopoeia,
and the dose  should  consequently be from 8 to 24
drops.
   EAU DE  LAVANDE.  Syn. Lavender Wa-
ter.  Double  Distilled  do.  Prep.  I. Picked
flowers 7 lbs. ;  rectified spirit 2 gallons; macerate
for a week, then distil.
   II.  Flowers  7  lbs.;  rectified  spirit  1£ gallons;
water i gallon ; as before.
   III. Mitcham oil  of lavender 8 oz.; essence of
bergamot 1£ oz.;  essence of musk 4 oz.; rectified
spirit  2 gallons; mix well.   Very fine.
   IV. To the last, add 3 quarts of distilled water,
and after well  mixing, filter through blotting pa-
per, with a few grains of magnesia.
   Remarks.  Both this and the preceding are  better
for distillation, and in that case, the musk should
be added to the distilled spirit.   The oils should be
of the best quality, and newly distilled, and  the
spirit  should be perfectly scentless.
   Eau de Lavande is a  most  agreeable  perfume.
The article produced by the third form  has been
used bv her majesty and many of the nobility.
   EAU DE  MARESCHALE.  Prep. I.  Musk 
EAU                    260                    EGG
 (grain) and ambergris, of each 20 grs.; oils of ber-
 gamot, lavender, and cloves, of each 1 oz.: oil  of
 sassafras  10 drops; oil of origanum 20 drops ; rec-
 tified spirit 2 quarts ; macerate.
   II. Rectified  spirit 1 pint;  essence of violets  1
 oz.; essences  of bergamot  and ceillets, of  each \
 oz.; orange-flower water £ pint.  As last.
   EAU DE  MELISSE DES CARMEN. Syn.
 Eau des Carmes.  Aqua  Melissa comp. Spiritus
 Melissa  co.  Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Fresh  balm flow-
 ers %xxiv; fresh  lemon-peel §iv; cinnamon, cloves,
 and nutmegs, of each  §ij; coriander seed and dried
 angelica root, of each |j ;  rectified spirit lb. viij ;
 macerate  for 8 days, and distil in a water-bath  to
 dryness.
   II. Take of spirit of balm 8 pints;  lemon-peel
 4  pints; nutmegs and coriander seeds, of each 2
 pints; rosemary, marjoram, thyme, hyssop, cinna-
 mon,  sage, aniseed,  cloves, angelica,  (roots,) of
 each 1 pint.  Mix, distil, and keep it for a year in
 an ice-house.
   This  is the original receipt of the barefooted Car-
 melites, now in the possession of the Company of
 Apothecaries of  Paris, who sell a vast quantity of
 this celebrated water.   It is  much esteemed  in
 France as a stomachic, a cosmetic, and a stimu-
 lant.
   EAU DE MILLEFLEURS.  Prep. I. Musk
 10 grs.; essence of lemon 1£ oz.;  essence of am-
 bergris 2 oz.;  oils of cloves, and  lavender, (Eng-
 lish,) of each  1 oz.; neroli and  oil of verbena, of
 each 15 drops  ; rectified spirit 2 quarts.  Macerate
 in  a close vessel in a warm situation  for a fort-
 night.
   II.  Rectified spirit 1 pint; essence of bergamot
 J oz.; eau lavande and essence of jasmine, of each
 1 oz.;  orange-flower water 8 oz.; mix.
   III.  Grain musk 15 grs.; essence of ambergris
 1 drachm  ; eau d'ange 1  quart.  As before.
   EAU DE   NAPHRE.  Syn.  Eau de Naphe.
 Aqua Napha.  Double distilled Orange-flow-
 er Water. Prep.  This article  is distilled in Lan-
 guedoc  from the leaves of the bigarade  or  bitter
 orange-tree, but  the preparation sold  in  England
 under  this name, is  commonly prepared as fol-
lows :  orange-flowers 7  lbs.; yellow  peel  of the
bigarade or Seville orange £  lb.; white  wine 5
quarts;  spirits of wine 1 pint.   Macerate in a
 warm place for three  days, then distil.
 "  EAU D'OZILLET.   Prep. Cloves, bruised,
 1 lb.; water 5  quarts ; macerate for 24 hours, then
distil 1  gallon.
   EAU DE  RABEL.    Syn.  Aqua  Rabelii.
 Prep. Strong oil of vitriol 1 part; alcohol 3 parts.
 Used as an astringent.
   EAU D' HONGRIE.  Syn.  Eau de la Reine
 d'Hongrie. Aqua Hungarica.  Hungary Wa-
 ter.  Prep. I. Rosemary tops, in blossom, 4 lbs.;
fresh sage £  lb.;  bruised ginger 2 oz.; rectified
spirit 1£ gallon ;  water £ gallon.  Macerate for 10
days, then distil 11 pints.
   II.   Fresh rosemary flowers 2  lbs.;  lavender
 flowers  2 oz.;  rectified spirit 3 pints.   Distil 3 lbs.
   Hungary water is fragrant and stimulant, and
 is  much esteemed by some  persons as a cosmetic,
and, sweetened with sugar, as a liqueur.
   EAU SANS PAREILLE.   Prep.  I. Essence
of bergamotte 5 drachms;  essence of lemon  8
drachms;  essence of  citron 4 drachms; Hungary
 water 1 pint; rectified  spirit 6 quarts.  Macercii
 and distil.
   II.  Grain musk 20 grs.;  ambergris 25 grs.; oils
 of  lavender and cloves, of each 1 oz.;  essence of
 bergamot J oz.; oils of  sassafras and origanum, of
 each 20 drops ; rectified spirit 1 gallon.  Macerate
 for 14 days.  A fragrant cosmetic.
   EAU  DE TAIN.   Prep. Lemon thyme 1 lb.;
 water  5 quarts.  Distil  1 gallon.  Fragrant.
   EAU  DE VIE D'ANDAYE.  Prep.  Brandy
 or proof spirit 1 gallon ;  simple sirup 1 lb.;  aniseed
 water  J pint; mix.
   EBONY.  Pale-colored  woods  are  stained  in
 imitation of ebony, by washing them with or steep
 ing them in a strong decoction of logwood or galls,
 allowing them to dry  and then washing them over
 with a solution of  the  sulphate or acetate of iron.
 When dry they are washed with clean water, ana
 the process repeated if  required.   They are lastly
 polished or varnished.
   EDULCORATE.   Syn.  Ehicorer, (Fr.)
 AussiisEN, (Germ.) From edulco, to make sweet
 (In Chemistry.) The affusion of water on any sub-
 stance for the purpose of removing the  portion so-
 luble in that fluid.  Edulcoration  is  usually per-
 formed by agitating or  triturating the article with
 water, and removing the latter after subsidence by
 decantation or filtration.  It is the method com-
 monly adopted to purify  precipitates  and other
 powders which are insoluble in water.
   EGGS.  Syn. Qlufs, (Fr.) Ovum, an egg; Al-
 bumen Ovi, white  of egg ; Vitellus Ovi, yelk of
 egg ;  (Lat.) The eggs of birds are nutritious and
 easily  digestible ; and when" lightly cooked by boil-
 ing, and eaten with  a little salt,  are  admirably
 adapted as an aliment for the sick, and for persons
 with delicate stomachs.  When boiled hard or fried,
 they are  rendered less  easily digestible, and have
 no advantage in this respect over good meat   A
 new-laid egg, broken into  a cup of tea, coffee, or
 chocolate, and well beaten up, is  an excellent in-
 gredient in the breakfast of a person having a de-
 ficient appetite, and will be found very supporting.
 A glass of wine, beer, or porter, similarly treated,
 along with a biscuit, has been recommended as a
 light and nutritious luncheon or supper, well suited
 to the  debilitated and the dyspeptic.
  The average weight of  a new-laid  egg is about
3£ oz.; the white generally weiglis 1| oz.;  the yelk
 li, and the shell and skin £ oz.
  Choice.  The larger end of a new-laid egg fee-
 cold, when placed  against the tongue.  New-Iaio.
 eggs appear semi-transparent when  placed  be-
tween  the eye and a strong light, and have a small
 and perceptible division  of the skin from the shell,
 which  is filled with  air.  When they shake the)
 are stale. The eggs of the large black fowls called
 Minorcas or Spanish, and which have a very white
 and  rough shell, are those that possess the mos*.
delicate flavor.  The eggs of turkeys are much es-
teemed for some purposes;  those  of  ducks anc
geese are coarse and inferior.
  Pres. Eggs may be preserved for any length ol
time by excluding them from the air.   One of the
cleanest and easiest  methods of doing  this, is to
pack them  in clean dry salt, in barrels or tubs, and
to place them in a  cool and dry situation.   I have
eaten eggs thus preserved that were a twelvemonth
old, and that had Deen some montlis aboard ship, 
EGG                   261                   ELA
 in a tropical  climate, and yet retained  all the pe-
 culiar sweetness of new-laid eggs.   With  a like
 intention, eggs are placed in vessels containing milk
 of lime, or strong brine, or rubbed over with butter,
 lard, or gum-water ; all of which act by excluding
 the  air.   Eggs may be preserved for some weeks
 in a cold situation, by placing them in a cabbage
 or potato-net, and hanging them to a nail, observ-
 ing to hang them up by a fresh  mesh  of the net
 every day.   Some persons place eggs which they
 wish to preserve in a netting, or on a sieve or col-
 ander, and immerse them for an instant  in a cal-
 dron of boiling water, before  packing them away.
 The practice of packing eggs  in damp straw, or
 any thing else that can convey  a flavor, should be
 avoided.  The shells of eggs  are porous, and readi-
 ly admit  the passage of gaseous substances and
 fetid odors.   It is from  inattention  to this point
 that a large  portion of the eggs imported  from the
 coast of  France have a less delicate flavor than
 those of our  poultry yards.  Damp chopped straw,
 as well as most  other organic substances exposed to
 warmth and moisture, readily ferment, and during
 fermentation, a considerable  increase of tempera-
 ture takes place,  as any one may readily perceive
 by examining the common hotbeds in our gardens;
 which are merely masses of organic matter in a
 state of decomposition.  Eggs,  as long  as they re-
 tain the  vital  principle  or embryo  of  the  future
 chick, in a living state, (if  I may be allowed the
 term,) possess in themselves a  certain degree of
 warmth,  which  tends materially to promote the
 decomposition of the substance they are packed in,
 if moisture be present.
   The importation of foreign eggs, during the year
 183H, amounted to nearly 84,000,000, and the duty
 paid on them to upwards of  £211,000.  Since that
 time the  number annually imported has, I believe,
 immensely increased.
   EGGS and BACON, ARTIFICIAL. " Make
 clear blancmange in a white  dish, cut it into rounds
 with the top  of a teacup,  and lay them on the dish
 on  which it  is  to be served  ; make yellow Dutch
 flummery, run it into a small teacup, in  the form
 of the yelk of an egg, and place  one on each round
 of  the blancmange.   Cut six  straight pieces of
 blancmange, on which lay three streaks  of pre-
 served damsons, and serve all on the same dish."
   EGG FLIP.   Beer 1 pint; eggs 3 in  no.; su-
 gar 2 oz.; nutmeg and  ginger  sufficient.   Break
 the eggs into one half of the beer, add the sugar,
 and beat  well together; then place  it in a  clean
 " warmer," and heat it over  the fire to nearly the
 boiling point, stirring it all the time, but do not let
 it boil; next  add the other portion of the beer and
 the spices, and mix well together.  Some persons
 add a glass of spirits.  Care  must be taken not to
 let it boil, as, if it does, the eggs will separate.
  EGG WINE.  Like the last, using equal parts
 of white wine and water instead of beer.
  EGGS, GLAIRE  OF.   Prep.  Separate the
 whites from the yelks, and whisk them to a froth,
 let them stand 24 hours, and strain them through
 muslin.  Used as a glaze or varnish.
  EGGS IN SALADS, &c.  (Substitute.) Prep.
 Cream 1  tablespoonful;  unflavored calves' feet
 jelly 2 do.; a piece of salt the size of a bean ; hot
 water, stained yellow with  turmeric,  1  dessert-
spoonful ;  mix well.
  ELAIDIC  ACID.  An acid compound formed
by the action of nitrous acid or nitrate of mercurj
on oleic acid.
  Prep. Pass  a  current  of  nitruu.-. gas through
pure oleic  arid, at a low temperature, for 5 min-
utes ; wash the crystalline mass, that shortly af-
terwards forms, with hot water *.  and then dissolve
it in an equal volume of hot alcohol.  On cooling,
crystals will form, and must  be  purified by pres-
sure, re-solution, and crystallization.  (Meyer.)
  Prop., $-c.  Elaidic acid, prepared as  above, re-
sembles sublimed benzoic acid; melts at 113° Fahr.,
and is soluble in alcohol and ether ;  with the alka-
lis and  their carbonates  it  forms  hydrated salts,
which yield strong soapy solutions.
  ELAIDIN.  A compound of elaidic acid and
glycerine, formed by the action of  nitrate of mer-
cury on olive oil.   It is one of the components  of
citrine ointment
  ELATERINE.   Syn.  Momordicine. The ac-
tive principle of elaterium.  It was discovered by
Dr. Clutterb^rk in 1819, but first  obtained  in  a
state of purity in 1830, by the late Mr. Hennel.
  Prep. I.  Digest elaterium in hot alcohol, evapo-
rate the tincture to the consistence of thin  oil,
then throw it into boiling distilled water, and allow
the whole to cool; collect the  precipitate, and puri-
fy by re-solution in  alcohol  and precipitation by
water as before.   (Dr. Morries.)
  II.  Digest the alcoholic extract of elaterium in
ether, and  dissolve the residuum in hot alcohol;
crystals will form as  the solution cools.  (Hennel.)
  Remarks. Elaterine forms  delicate silky crys-
tals, having a bitter taste.  It is a drastic purga-
tive.  Dose. One-sixteenth gr.
  ELATERIUM.   (From eXawu,  I stimulate or
urge forward.)  The term IXarrjpiov was  applied
by the Greeks to any drastic  purgative, but prin-
cipally to the juice of the wild or squirting cucum-
ber.   The  word elaterium, according  to  present
usage, means the  deposite  obtained from the juice
of the wild cucumber.
  Prep. I.  (Dr. Clutterbuck.) Gather the cucum-
bers when as ripe as  possible, but without violence
that might  endanger  their bursting.  Then wet
them  by the  affusion  of  cold water,  cut  them
through  longitudinally, and   allow  the juice  to
strain through  a fine sieve into an earthenware
vessel.    Scoop out  the   seeds  and  surrounding
pulp, plaee them c--  the sieve, and wash them re-
peatedly with cold water.   The same process may
afterwards be applied to the split cucumbers.  The
several  waters  being received in the same vessel
with the juice, the whole is to be  allowed to re-
pose for a few hours, when the clear portion must
be decanted and the sediment spread thinly on fine
linen and exposed to  the air to dry.   Exposure to
sunshine or a bright  light  should be avoided, but
gentle warmth  may  be employed without injury.
Quality very fine, but the  product  small.  Forty
fruits  yielded  Dr.  Clutterbuck only 6  grains of
elaterium.                           .
  II.  (Process followed at Apothecaries Hall.)
The fruit cut longitudinally into  halves, is placed
in  hempen or horse-hair  bags, and submitted  to
slight  pressure in  a tincture press.   The juice, as
it runs off, passes  through a fine hair sieve into a
cylindrical  glass jug  or jar, where  it is allowed to
remain for two hours, when the clear supernatant 
ELE                     262                    ELE
liquor is poured off, and the thick portion contain-
ing the sediment is placed on a bibulous paper fil-
-er, supported on linen, and allowed to drain, after
which  it is dried by a gentle heat in a stove.  The
product has  a green  color, and constitutes  the
finest  elaterium.  A paler and  inferior article is
obtained  from the mother liquor, poured from  the
first sediment by placing it in shallow pans and al-
lowing it to deposite.
   Remarks.  To procure a fine article of elaterium
it  is necessary to remove it as soon as it is depos-
ited, as a heavy mucilage  falls down soon after-
wards, which materially injures its  quality  and
appearance.   Good  elaterium  yields from 50 to
60$ of its  weight to strong alcohol,  and from 25 to
44$ of elaterin.   (See Extract of  Elaterium.)
   ELECTROTYPE.     Electrometallurgy.
The art of working in metals by means of voltaic
electricity.  The most simple and easily managed
electrotype apparatus, is formed in  a similar man-
ner to  the common constant  battery, but  instead
of employing a plate  of copper for the negative
element, a mould of the  object  to be copied,  the
face of which has been covered with plumbago, is
substituted.   An  electrograph of this kind may be
made of any well-glazed earthen jar or vessel, and
the following arrangement will  be found conve-
nient for  most of the purposes to which this art is
applied  by  the  amateur;  viz.  copying medals,
multiplying plates, &c.
  a. An oval vessel of salt glazed earthenware or wood,
nearly filled with a concentrated solution of sulphate of
copper.
  b, A porous diaphragm, containing the  cylinder of zinc
c, and filled with dilute sulphuric acid.
  d, A small bar of brass or copper, fastened to the vessel
by the binding screws e, e, and supporting the cylinder of
r.inc c, by the hook ef copper wire f, and the mould g, by
the hook h.
  j, A small shelf or partition to support  crystals of sul-
phate of copper, to keep up the strength of the solution.

   Another method is to employ a trough  or de-
composition cell connected  with a constant batte-
ry, by which means several moulds may be coated
at once.
   This arrangement will  be understood by refer-
ence to the annexed engraving:
  «, A constant battery.  (See Battery.)
  k, Decomposition cell; a cubical vessel made of wood,
or earthenware, and filled with a mixture of 1 jart of di-
lute sulphuric acid and 2 paru of concentrated solotlon of
sulphate of copper.
  c, c, e, Moulds suspended to the brass rod /, and con
nected with the copper or negative element of the b.iltcry
a, by means of the screw g.
  d, d. Pieces of sheet  copper suspended on the brass rod
A, and connected with the zinc,  end of the battery,  by
means of the screw i, employed to keep up the strength of
the cupreous solution in the decomposition cell.

  When it is desired to copy  any object by either
of these apparatuses, an exact mould must be first
procured.   Supposing  the article to be a  medal,
for instance, a hoop of paper  is commonly placed
round it, and white  wax, or any similar substance,
poured on  it in a  melted stato,  and  then  allowed
to cool, when  it is removed, a small  piece of cop-
per wire to suspend  it by is attached, and its face
brushed over with finely-powdered plumbago, by
means  of a  camel-hair  pencil; the excess and
loose portion being carefully removed.  The mould
so prepared is next suspended in the apparatus, to
receive a deposite  of metal on its surface.  Some
persons experience  considerable difficulty in  pro-
curing moulds free  from air  bubbles, but this in-
convenience is readily avoided, by removing with
a camel-hair pencil  any that  may be observed on
the surface of  the medal, after the  melted wax is
poured on, and while  it remains liquid and trans-
parent.   Stearine, hard tallow, shellac, rosin  soft-
ened with a little  oil, plaster of Paris, sealing wax,
fusible metal,  and  numerous other substances are
employed as materials  for moulds.  When plaster
of Paris is used, it  is  necessary to imbue its surface
with melted wax,  to enable it to retain the plum-
bago.  Fusible metal requires no preparation.
  After the mould has received  a sufficiently thick
deposite, the latter is separated, washed in a little
clean water, and  bronzed.  Any of the methods
mentioned under  "  Bronzing of  Metals,"  may
be employed for this purpose, but either the first
or second  will be found the simplest and most con-
venient   The length  of  time required to produce
a deposite of any given thickness, depends upon the
temperature of the solution and the  state of the
battery.   Other   things  being  equal, this  takes
place more rapidly  the  higher the temperature,
within given limits.   In very cold water, the ope-
ration proceeds exceedingly slowly.
  The tyro in electrotype manipulation, frequently
experiences  much  annoyance  from the metal
being deposited on the surface of the mould, undei
the form of a powder, or in a  very friable or brittlo
state.  This generally arises  from the battery be-
ing in too active a condition.  It is found that tho
slower the deposite is formed, the tougher and more
perfect it will  be.  Air-bubbles may be avoided by
brushing them off the face of the mould  after im-
mersion in the decomposition  cell, and by properly
regulating the  action of the battery. The dilute
sulphuric acid  employed  to excite the zinc end of
the battery, should  never be  stronger than 1 part
of concentrated acid, to 8 or 9 parts of water.  Iron
may be substituted  for zinc, and is more econom-
ical.
  In gilding, silvering, or platinizing the  common
metals, by electricity, solutions of  gold, silver, oi
platina, are placed  in  the decomposition cell, or
around the moulds, and  plates of those metals,
instead of copper,  suspended in the solution.
  ELECTUARY.   Syn. Electuarium, (Lat, 
ELE                    263                   ELE
 from 'v.*\sKr6v.)   Vegetable and light earthy pow-
 ders, mixed up with honey, sirup, or sugar, to the
 consistence of a thick paste.  In the present Phar-
 macopoeia, electuaries are included under the title
 Confection,  but this arrangement is manifestly
 improper, as these words are not synonymous.  " In
 Conserves (or confections) the addition of the sac-
 charine  matter is in much larger proportion, and
 is designed to preserve the vegetable matter;  in
 Electuaries the sirup is designed merely to com-
 municate the required form." (Dr. Murray.)
   The preparation  of electuaries  is similar to that
 of confections and  conserves, and the same pre-
 cautions  must be observed to reduce the dry in-
 gredients to veiy fine powder, and vegetable  sub-
 stances  to a minutely divided state.  Care must
 also be  taken to diffuse  the ingredients equally
 through every portion of the mass, by patient and
 laborious pounding or stirring.  An inattention to
 this point has often led  to disagreeable  conse-
 quences, from some portion of the electuary being
 nearly inert, while  another portion has  possessed
 increased activity.   (See Conserves and Confec-
 tions.)
   ELECTUARY, AROMATIC.  Syn.  Elec-
 tuarium Aromaticum,  (P. E.)   Prep.  Aromatic
 powder  (P.  E.)  1  part;   sirup of  orange-peel 2
 parts ; mix.
   Remarks.  This preparation differs from the aro-
 matic confection of  the other British Colleges, in
 not containing  chalk.   It is  aromatic  and sto-
 machic, but  not antacid or absorbent.
   ELECTUARY,  BLACK.   Syn. Elect.
 Nigrum.  Trousseau's  Black  Tonic  Prep.
 Perchloride»of iron 3iv ; tannin  3j;  confection of
 roses §ij ; sirup  of  orange §j ; mix.  Tonic and
 astringent.
   ELECTUARY,   CATHARTIC.   Syn.   E.
 Catharticum.  Confection of  senna ^iss j  flow-
 ers of sulphur §ss;  sirup  of  roses or orange peel
 q s.
   Pose. A teaspoonful  3 or 4 times a day in piles.
 A mild and excellent medicine.
   ELECTUARY,  DEMULCENT.   Syn.   E.
 Demulcens.   Prep.  Spermaceti, sirup of poppies,
 and sirup of tolu,  of  each  3ij ; powdered  gum
 tragacanth 3j ; confection of roses 3vj ;  nitre 3ss ;
 mix.
   Dose. A piece the size  of  a  small  nutmeg fre-
 quently.
   ELECTUARY,  EMMENAGOGUE.   Syn.
 E. Emmenagogicum.  Prep. Myrrh 1 dr.; ammo-
 niated iron 1  scruple ; ginger sirup to mix.
   Dose.  A piece the size of a nutmeg, night and
 morning.
   ELECTUARY,   FEBRIFUGE.    Syn.  E.
 Febrifugum.  Prep. (E. II.) Powdered cinchona
 ^j ; sal  ammoniac 3j; sirup  of lemon juice  q. s.
 In fevers.
   ELECTUARY FOR DYSENTERY.   Syn.
 E.  Anti-dysentericum.   Prep.  (P.  E.  1744.)
 Electuary of  catechu, mixed with half its weight
of Locatel's balsam.
   ELECTUARY FOR EPILEPSY.   Syn. E.
Anti-epilepticum.  Prep.  (Dr. Mead.) Powdered
cinchona §j;  valerian and tin (both in powder) of
each 5s8 i sirup to mix.
  ELECTUARY FOR THE CHOLERA. Syn.
E. Anti-cholericum. Prep. Mix together  equal
parts of finely-powdered and  newly-burnt char-
coal, lard, and maple sugar.  A popular remedy
   ELECTUARY FOR THE PILES.   Syn. E
Hamourhoidale.  Prep.  (Dr. Copland.)   Cream
of tartar 5j; precipitated sulphur  3iij ; confection
of senna jij ; sirup of orange or ginger to mix.
   Remarks.  An  excellent medicine  for piles.
Dose.  A teaspoonful 3  or -4 times a day.  From
the  difficulty experienced  in procuring pure pre-
cipitated sulphur,  the flowers of sulphur may be
advantageously substituted.
   ELECTUARY FOR THE TEETH.  Syn.
E. Dentifricum.  Prep. I. (Coral dentifrice.  E.
Gingivale.) a.  Red coral 4 oz.; cuttle-fish bone 1
oz.; cream of tartar 2 oz.; cochineal 1 dr.; alum
£ dr.; (all in fine powder ;) clarified honey 10 oz.;
mix.
   b. Clarified honey 12 oz.; tincture of myrrh 3
oz.; oil of cajeput  10 drops ;  oil of cassia or cin-
namon 20 drops;  tincture of cochineal 1  dr.;
cream of tartar £ oz. ; mix.
   II.  Myrrh 3  oz.; cream of tartar and cochineal,
of each 1£ oz.; powdered cloves  1  oz.; honey 4
oz.; mix.
   III. To the last add 1 dr. of powdered orris root
and 5  drops of otto of roses.
   Remarks. All the above are used  to whiten and
preserve the teeth, but are most serviceable in foul
or scorbutic gums.
   ELECTUARY  FOR  WORMS.   Syn.  E.
Vermifugum.   E.  Anthelminticum.  Prep.  I.
(Bresmer.)  Worm seed and tansy seed, of each
3iv ; powdered  valerian root 3ij ; ditto jalap  and
sulphate of potash, of each 3iss to 3ij ; oxymel of
squills to mix.
   II. Powdered tin §iij; confection of red  roses
§ss ; orange sirup to mix.  Dose.  A tablespoonful
early in the morning for 3  or  4 successive days,
followed by a cathartic.
   III. (Dr. Cheston.)   Powdered tin §iv;  confec-
tion of wormwood ^iij 5 carbonate of iron  §j ; mix.
   ELECTUARY OF  ANTIMONY.  Syn. E.
Antimonii.  Prep. (P. C.)  Prepared sulphuret of
antimony, gum  guaiacum, and black sulphuret of
mercury, of each 3j; confection of senna 3ij; sirup
to mix.
   Diaphoretic  and  alterative.  Dose.   1 to  2
drachms twice a day in chronic cutaneous diseases,
combined with  sarsaparilla or decoction  of  elm
bark.
   ELECTUARY OF  CASSIA.  Syn.  E. Cas-
sia.  Prep. (P. D.) Fresh cassia pulp and sirup
of orange, of each lb.  ss ; manna §ij ;  tamarind
pulp Jj ; mix and evaporate to  a proper consist-
ence.
   Dose.  2 dr. to 1 oz.  It  is gently  laxative, and
is chiefly used  as a purge for children,  or  as a
vehicle for other cathartics.   It is commonly made
with equal parts of tamarind and  cassia pulps,
mixed with £ of manna, and  flavored with a few
drops of tincture of orange peel, without any evap-
oration.                           r         _
   ELECTUARY OF  CATECHU.  Syn.   E.
Catechu.  Prep. (P. E.)  Powdered catechu, and
kino, of each ?iv ; cinnamon and nutmegs, of each
S ; opium (dissolved in a little  sherry) 3iss ; sirup
of red roses (evaporated to the consistence of honey)

^ELECTUARY  OF  CATECHU,   COM- 
ELE                    264                    ELE
POUND.   Syn. E. Catechu compositum. Prep.
(P. D.)  Catechu  %\v ;  kino f iij ; cinnamon ^ij;
ginger sirup (boiled as above) lb. ij, ^iij;  hard re-
fined opium (diffused in wine as above) 3iss ; mix.
  Remarks. Both  the above are astringent and
aromatic.  Dose.  3j to 3ij in diarrhoea, dysentery,

  ELECTUARY OF CHARCOAL.   Syn. E.
Carbonis.   Prep.  Newly-burnt and  finely-pow-
dered charcoal and carbonate of soda, of each 3ij ;
confection of senna ^iv;  mix.
  ELECTUARY  OF  CINCHONA  AND
SODA.  Syn.  E.  Cinchona cum  Soda.  Prep.
(P. C.)  Powdered cinchona §j;  carbonate of soda
3ij ;  thin mucilage to mix.  Dose. 2 dr. 2 or 3
times a day.
  ELECTUARY OF COPAIBA.  Syn. E. Co-
paiba.  Prep. (Caspar.) Blanched almonds 3vj;
powdered  althaea 3j ; catechu 3ss; balsam of co-
paiba 3iij ; mix.
  ELECTUARY OF  COWHAGE.   Syn. E.
Doliciii.   E.  Mucuna.  Prep.  (Chamberlain.)
Dip the pods into  treacle, withdraw, and scrape
off the hairs, repeating the process with fresh pods
till sufficiently thick.
  Dose. One teaspoonful in the morning fasting,
followed by  a purgative  a  day or two afterwards.
Vermifuge.  (See also E. for Worms.)
  ELECTUARY OF HELLEBORE.   Syn. E.
Hellebori  Albi.  Prep.  Bruised white hellebore
root lb. j ; water 1 gallon ; boil to one half, strain,
add  honey lb. iij ; and evaporate to a proper con-
S1SL611CC
   ELECTUARY OF IRON.  Syn.  E. of Steel.
E. Chalybeatum.  Prep. (Collier.)  a.  Potassio-
tartrate of  iron §ss; confection of red roses §j '
sirup to mix.
   b.  Precipitated sesquioxide of iron ^j; honey ^ij ;
ginger sirup §ss ;  mix.
   Both the above are tonic.   Dose.  One  tea-
spoonful thrice a day.
   ELECTUARY OF LAUREL BERRIES.
 Syn. E. e  Baccis Lauri.  Prep. Leaves of rue,
caraway seeds, parsley seed, and laurel berries, of
each ^j j  gum sagapenum 3ss ; black pepper and
Russian castor,  of each  3ij ;  honey %xv;  mix.
 (See Confection of Rue.)
   ELECTUARY OF  MUSTARD.   Syn. E.
 Sinapis.   Prep. (P. C.) Flour of mustard and con-
 serve of roses, of each 3iv ;  ginger sirup  to mix.
   ELECTUARY OF OLIBANUM.   Syn. E.
 Olibani.   Prep. (P. C.) Powdered olibanum, and
 balsam of copaiba, of each 3iv ; confection of hips
 ?j ;  sirup to mix.
   ELECTUARY OF OPIUM.   Syn. E. The-
 baiacum.   E. Opii.  E. Opiatum.   Prep. (P. E.)
 Aromatic powder §iv ; senega §iij ; opium (diffused
 in a little sherry) §ss ; sirup of ginger lb. j ; mix.
   ELECTUARY OF PEPPER.  Syn.  F Pi-
 peris.  Prep.  (P. E.) Black pepper and liquorice
 root, in fine powder, of each lb. j; fennel lb. iij ;
 honey and  white sugar, of each lb. ij; mix.  Use,
 jfre.  Same as confection of black pepper.
   ELECTUARY OF SCAMMONY. Syn.  E.
 Scammonii.  Prep. (P. D.) Powdered  scammony
 |iss ; cloves,  bruised, and  ginger,  in powder,  of
 each 3vj; oil of caraway 3ss; sirup of roses to mix.
 A stimulant cathartic.  Dose.  10 grs. to £ dr.
   ELECTUARY  OF  SULPHUR.   Syn.  E.
Sulphuris.  Prep. Flowers  of milphur 1 oz, and
honey  or treacle  2  oz; mix.  Gently laxative
Dose.  A teaspoonful night  and morning in piles
and some skin diseases.
  ELECTUARY  OF   SULPHUR,  COM-
POUND.  Syn. E. Sulphuris co.  Prep. I. (St.
B. H.)   Precipitated  sulphur ^ss ;  cream of tartar
3j;  honey §j ;  mix.  An excellent  laxative  in
piles.   Flowers of sulphur may be substituted for
preoipitated sulphur in the above form.   Dose. 3j
to 3ij.
  II.  Flowers of sulphur ^ss ; cream of tartar 5j;
confection of senna §ij ; confection of black pep-
per  ^iss ; sirup of ginger f £j ; mix. This is an ex-
cellent medicine.   Dose and Use.  As last.
  ELECTUARY OF SULPHUR  AND  BO-
RAX.   Syn.  E. Sulphuris cum  Borace.  Prep.
Flowers of sulphur §j ; cream of tartar ^iss ; borax
jss  ; confection of senna §iiss ; sirup of orange peel
to mix.  Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls in diseases  of
the uterine organs and lower bowels.
  ELECTUARY OF  TURPENTINE.   Syn.
E.  Terebinthina.  Prep. (St. B. II.)  Common
turpentine §j ; honey §ij ; mix.  Dose. 1 to 2 tea-
spoonfuls in complaints of the  urinary organs,
worms, &c.
  ELECTUARY, PECTORAL.  Syn. E. Pec
torale.  Prep.  I. (P.  E. 1744.)  Conserve of roses
§ij  ; compound tragacanth  powder §ss ; benzoic
acid 3j ; sirup of tolu q. s.
  II.  Oxymel of  squills, sirup of marshmallows,
mucilage of gum arabic and sirup of tolu, of each
?ss ; powdered lump sugar §ij ; mix.
  ELECTUARY,  STIMULANT.   Syn.  E.
Stimulans.  Prep.  Gum ammoniacum (strained)
§j ; vinegar of squills ^as ; mix with a gentle heat
and spread on leather.  As an application to the
chest or pit of the stomach.
   ELECTUARY, STOMACHIC.   Green pep-
 permint, lump sugar, and confection of orange-
peel, of each equal parts; mix.  Dose.  A tea-
spoonful.
   ELEMI.  This resin is the produce of an unas-
certained tree, respecting which  there have beer
various conjectures.  The London  and Dublir,
 Colleges assign it  to the amyris elemifera, but the
 Edinburgh College,  with greater discretion, state
 it to be the " concrete resinous exudation from  one
 or  more unascertained plants."  Dr.  Pereira  has
 suggested, that it may be tho produce of the icica
 icicaribo, the canarium zephyrinum, or the cana-
 rium balsamiferum,  but the question is still unde-
 cided.
    The elemi of commerce is of a pale yellow color,
 exteriorly brittle, but soft and tough within ; it has
 a warm bitter taste, and a fragrant aromatic smell,
"partaking of  fennel  and juniper.  It  is only par-
 tially transparent even in thin plates, is very fusi-
 ble, and has a density a little greater than that of
 water.  According  to Bonastre, it consists of 84
 per cent, of resin, 12*15 of  a fragrant essential oil
 and  a  little  bitter .extractive.   In  medicine it is
 only  employed  in  the  preparation of  the elemi
 ointment of the Pharmacopoeia.
    The elemi of the shops is often adulterated, but
  more frequently a factitious kind  is sold  for the
  genuine gum.  This  is formed  by adding  1  part
  of balsam of Canada  to 4 parts of yellow resin, in
  the melted state, but  removed from the fire, after 
ELI
265
ELL
which about 1J p. c. of oil of juniper, and half this
quantity of oil of fennel are stirred in.  This fraud
may be detected by exposing the suspected article
to heat,  along with a little water, when its fra-
grance will  evaporate, and the coarse terebinthi-
nate smell of the resin will become readily distin-
guishable.
   ELIXIR.   (From the Arabic Elekser, quintes-
sence.)   A name formerly applied to various com-
pound tinctures.
   ELIXIR, ANTISCROFULOUS.   Syn.  E.
Antiscrofulosum.  Ammoniated tincture of gen-
tian.
   ELIXIR, ASTHMATIC.  Prep. Opium, oil
of aniseed and camphor, of each 1 oz.; proof spirit
 1 gallon.  Digest a week.
   ELIXIR,  BOERHAAVE'S  ANTI-ASTH-
 MATIC.   Syn. Elixir Antiasthmaticum Boer-
 haavii.  A tincture made with aniseed, orris-root,
 assarabacca, sweet flag, liquorice, and elecampane.
 Dose. 20 to 40 drops.
   ELIXIR, DAFFY'S.  Syn.  E. Salutis. Com-
 pound Tincture of  Senna.   Prep. I. Jalap root
 5 oz. ; East India senna 1£ lbs.; coriander seeds
 and aniseed, of each  £ lb.; rhubarb \ lb.; shavings
 of red sanders wood 2 oz.; treacle 7 lbs., and sub-
 carbonate of potash  2 oz., both dissolved in water
 3^ gallons ;  rectified  spirit of wine 2£ gallons.  All
 the solids must be well bruised, and macerated in
 the mixed fluids for 14  days,-when the whole must
 be  pressed, and  strained through  a fine  flannel
 bag.  It is  too glutinous to  run through filtering
 paper.
   II. (Dicey's.) Senna lb. j ; guaiacum shavings,
 elecampane root, (dried,) aniseed,  caraway seed,
 coriander seed, and  liquorice root, of each lb. ss ;
 stoned raisins lbs. ij ;  proof spirit or brandy 9 quarts.
 As last.
   III. (Swinton's.)  Jalap 3 lbs.;  senna 1  lb.;
 coriander seeds, caraway seeds, liquorice root, and
 elecampane root, of each 4 oz.; moist sugar 2 lb.;
 rectified spirit of wine and water, of each 1 gallon.
 As last.
   IV. Jalap and caraways,  of each 1 lb.; senna,
 rhubarb, and aniseed, of each 2  lbs.; red  sanders
 wood £ lb.; brown  sugar  7 lbs.;  proof spirit 10
  gallons.  As last.
   V.  Rhubarb (East India) 14 lbs.   senna 56 lbs.;
 aniseed  7 lbs. ; coriander seeds t   bs.; caraway
 seeds and red sanders wood,  of each 5 lbs.; cassia
 bark and jalap, of each 3 lbs.; proof spirit 100 gal-
 lons.  Digest  for 14 days, press, strain, and add
 molasses 84 lbs.  Mix well,  and either -clarify, or
 strain through flannel.
   VI. For proof spirit in the preceding formulae,
 use equal parts of spirit of wine and water.
   Remarks.  Daffy's  elixir is a favorite purge with
 drunkards, and  is a common  and very popular
 remedy  in flatulent  colic, dyspepsia, &c.  Dose.
 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls.
   ELIXIR, THE  DEVIL'S.  Prep.  Pods of
 capsicum and cloves, (bruised,) of each f); ginger
 and  saffron, of each §iij; cantharides 3v ;  proof
 spirit lbs. vij.  Digest for  10 days.  Dose. 3ss to
 3iij, in mixtures.  It is stimulating and aphrodisiac.
   ELIXIR OF GARLIC.  Syn. E. Allii. Prep.
 Garlic roots rtO in number; rectified spirit 1 pint.
 Distil to dryness, and repeat the process with the
 same spirit from fresh  roots a second and  a third
                       34
time, then add camphor 3ij.  Diaphoretic.  Dost
A teaspoonful twice a day.
  ELIXIR  DE  GARUS.  Prep.  Myrrh ^ss;
aloes and  saffron, of each 3ij; cinnamon, cloves,
and  nutmegs, of each 3ss;  proof spirit 1  quart.
Digest for 7  days, strain, and add sirup of maiden-
hair lbs. ij ;  orange-flower water ^iss.
  ELIXIR  OF JALAP.  Syn.  E.  Jalapa com-
positum.  Prep. Jalap  §iv ; scammony 3iv ; gam-
boo-e 3ij;  rectified spirit 1  quart.
  ELIXIR  OF LONG LIFE.  Syn. E. Long*
Vita.  Tincture of rhubarb and  aloes.
   ELIXIR OF  MYRRH.  Tincture of savine.
 (comp.)   P. L. 1788.
   ELIXIR D'OR.  Syn. Elixir of Gold.  De
 La Motte's  golden drops.
   ELIXIR, PAREGORIC.  Tincture of cam-
 phor (co.) and ammoniated tincture  of opium.
   ELIXIR  PROPRIETATIS.   Compound
 tincture of aloes.
   ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS  CUM  ACIDO.
 The last article acidulated with sulphuric arid.
   ELIXIR PROPRIETATIS TARTARIZA-
 TUM.  The elixir proprietatis alkalized with salts
 of tartar.
   ELIXIR, PECTORAL.  Syn. E. Pectorale.
 Prep. (P.  E.  1744)  Balsam of tolu  §ij; gum
 benzoin ^iss ; saffron fss; rectified  spirit ffxxxij.
 Digest in a sand heat for 4 days.
   ELIXIR POLYCHRESTUM.   Prep.  (P. E
 1744.) Gum guaiacum ^vj ; balsam of Peru  §ss;
 rectified spirit 1 quart.  Digest 4 days and strain.
   ELIXIR SACRUM.  Tincture of aloes  and
 rhubarb.
   ELIXIR SALUTIS.  Tincture  of senna.
   ELIXIR, SQUIRE'S.  Prep. Opium 2  oz.;
 camphor  and cochineal, of each  £ oz.; sweet  fen-
 nel 1  drachm; tincture of serpentary 10 oz. ;  spi-
 rits of aniseed 1  gallon; water 1 pint;   aurum
 musivum 3 oz.; mix.
   ELIXIR, STOMACHIC.  Compound tincture
 of gentian.
   ELIXIR OF VITRIOL.  Syn. E. Vitrioli.
  Water strongly acidulated with  sulphuric  acid.
  See  Aromatic  Sulphuric Acid,  which  is  also
 frequently called elixir of vitriol.
   ELIXIR OF VITRIOL, SWEET.  Syn.  E.
 Vitrioli Dulce.  Prep. (P. E. 1744.)  Spirit of
 sulphuric ether lbs. ij; oil of peppermint %S9; es-
 sence of  lemons and oil of nutmegs, of each 3ij;
 mix.  See  Aromatic  Spirit of ^Ether, which
  is also called by this name.
   ELIXIR  OF VITRIOL,   MYNSICHT'S.
  Syn. Acid E. of  Vitriol.  E. Vitrioli Myn-
 sichti.   Prep. Cinnamon,  ginger,  and cloves, of
 each3iij; calamus aromaticus Jj;  smaller galan-
 gal ^iss;  sage and peppermint  leaves, (dried,) of
 each  ^ss ;  cubebs and nutmegs,  of each 3ij; aloes
 wood and  lemon-peel, of each 3j; sugar candy
 lw ;  rectified spirit lbs. iss;  oil vitriol lb. j.   Digest
 for three weeks.                      .   „
    ELIXIR OF  VITRIOL, VIGAM S.  Prep.
 Spirits of sulphuric ether gviij;  aromatic tincture
 lb. j; mix.           •           _ „          ,.
    ELLAGIC  ACID.  (From  Galle reversed.)
  When an aqueous infusion  of nut  galls is left for
 some time  exposed to the atmosphere, the tannic
 acid gradually disappears, and is replaced by gal-
 lic  acid,  and an  insoluble gray powder, to which 
EMB                    266                   EME
the term ellagic acid was applied by Chevreul.  It
is soluble in alkalis, forming salts,  and is precipi-
tated by acids.
  ELUTRIATION.   Syn.  Elutriatio, (Lat,
from elutrio, to cleanse.)  In Chemistry, the ope-
ration  of washing insoluble  powders with water,
to separate them from foreign matter, or the coars-
er portion.  It is usually  performed by grinding
or triturating the mass with a  little  water,  until
reduced to a very fine  powder, and this  paste is
suddenly diffused  through a large quantity of wa-
ter, in  a deep vessel, from which, after the subsi-
dence of the grosser  portion, the liquid is poured
into another vessel, and allowed to deposite the fine
powder it still holds in suspension.  'When this has
taken  place, the  clear  supernatant liquor is de-
canted, and the sediment drained and dried.   The
coarse  sediment deposited in the first vessel is now
submitted to a fresh grinding and diffusion through
water,  and the entire operation is  repeated, until
the whole of the  pulverizable  portion is washed
over.   The proper length of time for the liquid to
remain  in the first vessel, depends solely on the
density of the  powder, and  the degree of fineness
required in the product; heavy powders subsiding
almost  immediately,  while  light ones often  take
several  minutes  to deposite their coarsor portion.
Sometimes three  or  more vessels  are employed,
and the muddy liquor, after remaining a short time
in the first, is  poured into the next one, and  this,
in a short  time longer,  into the third, and so on,
until the last vessel is filled, by which means, pow-
ders of  different degrees of  fineness are obtained ;
that deposited  in the last vessel being in the minu-
test state of division.  (See Chalk, Bistre,  De-
cantation, Edulcoration, &.c.)
  EMBROCATION.  Syn. Embrocatio, (Lat,
from t/ifipt^w, / moisten.) A fluid medicine rubbed
on any part of the body.
  EMBROCATION,  COMMON.   Syn.  Em-
brocatio  Communis.  Prep.  (U. C. H.)  Sesqui-
carbonate of ammonia  ^iv; distilled  vinegar 6£
pints ;  mix, and add proof spirit 3 pints.
  EMBROCATION,  GUESTONIAN.   Syn.
Emb. Terebinthina. Prep. Oil of  turpentine and
olive oil, of each ^iss ; dilute sulphuric acid f 3iij ;
mix well.  For rheuinatis-n.
  EMBROCATION  FOR  BRUISES.  Prep.
I. Soap liniment 5 oz.; liquor of ammonia 1 oz. ;
mix.
  II. Soap liniment 3 oz.; oil of turpentine 2 oz.;
camphor 1 oz.  ; mix.
  III.  Tincture of cantharides and  rectified spirit,
of each 1 oz.; camphor and  oil of origanum, of
each £  oz.; mix.
  IV.  Sal  ammoniac 1 oz.; distilled  vinegar £
pint; dissolve.
  V. Sugar  of lead £  oz.; distilled vinegar and
water,  of each £ pint; dissolve.
  EMBROCATION for HOOPING COUGH,
ROCHE'S.   Prep.  Sweet oil 2 oz.; oil of amber
1 oz.;  oil of cloves 1 drachm ; mix.
  EMBROCATION  FOR  STRAINS.   (In
Horses.)  Prep.  I.  Soft soap and  oil of turpen-
tine, of each 4 oz.; oil of rosemary and camphor,
of each 1 drachm ; mix.
  II. Olive oil, oil of turpentine, and elder-flower
ointment, of each 2 oz.; mix, and add oil of origa-
num 3  drachms.
   EMBROCATION, LYNCH'S.  Pup. Steep
alkanet root in sweet oil  until the latter becomes
sufficiently  colored,  then scent  with  essential
oils.
   EMBROCATION OF ACETATE OF AM
MONT A  AND   SOAP.   Syn.  Emb.  Ammonia
Acetatis cum Sapone.   Prep.  (P. C.) a. Soap
liniment and solution of acetate  of ammonia, of
each 1 oz. ;  mix.
   b.  To the last  add liquor of ammonia f 3iij.  For
sprains, bruises,  <&c.
   EMBROCATION  OF ALUM.    Syn. Emb.
Aluminis. Alum £ oz.; distilled vinegar and proof
spirit, of  each £ pint; mix.   For chilblains, dis-
eased joints, &c.
   EMBROCATION  OF AMMONIA.   Syn.
Emb. Ammonia.  Prep, "-iquor of ammonia 1 oz.;
proof spirit and water, of each 5 oz.  As last
   EMBROCATION  OF AMMONIA, CAM-
PHORATED.   Syn.  Emb.  Ammonia Acetatis
Camphorata.  Prep.  I.  Soap liniment and liquor
of acetate of  ammonia,  equal parts;  mix.  For
sprains, bruises, chilblains, &.c.
   II. To every ounce of the  above, add 2  drs. of
liquor of ammonia.
   EMBROCATION OF CAMPHOR.   Syn.
Emb. Camphora.  Prep. I.  Soap liniment  and
camphorated spirit of wine, equal parts.'
   II.  (Collier.) Camphorated spirit of wine, essen-
tial oil  of amber, and laudanum, equal parts.
   EMBROCATION   OF   CANTHARIDES.
Sun. Emb. Lytta.   Emb. Cantharidis.   Prep.
Tincture of cantharides and camphorated spirit, of
each 1 oz.; mix.  Stimulant  It should be used
with caution, lest the absorption of the cantharides
induce  strangury.
   EMBROCATION OF SOAP. Soap liniment
The following is  also a common form :  soft soap 3
oz.; camphor  1 oz.; soap liniment £ pint; water
and spirit of wine, of  each G  oz. ; spirits of harts-
horn 4 oz.; mix.  For -sprains, bruises, chilblains,
&.C.
   EMBROCATION,   STIMULANT.    Syn.
Emb. Stimulans.  Prep. (Thompson.) a.  Liquoi
of ammonia f 3ij ; olive oil f 3vj ;  mix.  Used in
sore throat, &c.
   b.  Compound  camphor liniment f 3ix; tincture
of cantharides f3j ;  laudanum f3ij ; mix. Rubbed
over painful joints,  and over the bowels in colic
and cramp.  It is stimulant and anodyne.
   EMBROIDERY.  Gold and silver fancy work
of this  description may be easiest  cleaned with a
little spirit of wine, either alone, or diluted with
an equal  weight  of water.   The  common prac-
tice of  using alkaline  or  acidulous liquors is very
injurious, and frequently destroys the beauty of the
articles instead of cleaning them.
   EMERALD.  Syn. Emeraude, (Fr.) Smaragd,
(Ger.)  A precious stone of a beautiful green color,
and ranking next to the diamond in value.  A fine
emerald of 4 or 5 grains is worth as many pounds,
one of  10 grs. about 21. per gr.; one of  15 grs. 3/.
to 41. per gr., and so on  in proportion  to  the  in-
crease  in size.  One of 24 grs. fetched 100/.  Ac-
cording to Vauquelin,  the emerald consists of 65$
of silica, 16g of  alumina, 13$ of  glucina, (about)
3g of oxide of chromium, and  a trace of lime. The
finest emeralds are obtained from Peru.
   EMERALDS, FACTITIOUS.  The follow- 
EME                    267                    EMU
 ing method of obtaining artificial rubies and emer-
 alds is exceedingly simple and  inexpensive, and
 offers an ample field for the ingenious experiment-
 alist  Recently precipitated and well washed hy-
 drate of alumina is moistened with a few drops of
 neutral chromate of potassa,  and kneaded so that
 the  mass assumes a tinge scarcely perceptible ; it
 is then rolled out into small sticks, about the thick-
 ness of a finger, and slowly dried, taking the pre-
 caution to fill the fissures  that form during desicca-
 tion with fresh hydrate of alumina.   When  per-
 fectly dry, one end of these sticks is brought into
 the  termination of the flame of an  oxyhydrogen
 blowpipe, until a portion of  the mass is fused into
 a small globule.  After the lapse of a  few minutes,
 Beveral minute balls, of some millimetres diameter,
 and of such intense hardness, that quartz, glass, to-
 paz, granite, can be easily and perceptibly scratch-
 ed therewith, will form.   When cut  and polished,
 they appear, however, slightly  opaque.  By em-
 ploying nitrate  of nickel in  lieu of chromate of
 potassa,  green-colored  globules  resembling the
 emerald were obtained.   (Boettger.)
   By the substitution of oxide  of chromium  for
 chromate  of potassa,  the editor of this work has
 procured factitious gems  of considerable hardness
 and beauty, though slightly opaque  in some por-
 tion of the  mass.  But  this might  doubtless be
 avoided by  more  careful manipulation.   From
 some experiments in which a little silica was added,
 there was less opacity, though in other respects the
 stones were inferior.
   EMETIC.   Syn. Emetique, (Fr.)  Emeticus,
 (Lat.)  E/ieriKot, (Gr.,  from tpm, I vomit) A med-
 icine  which   excites vomiting.   The principal
 emetics are Ipecacuanha and Tartarized Anti-
 mony, and their preparations ;  and the sulphates
 of zinc and copper. The first  of these is commonly
 employed  either in substance or infused in wine,
 (wine of ipecacuanha,) when it is merely wished
 to evacuate the contents of the stomach, when
 that viscus is in a disordered state, or  overloaded
 with food.   At the beginning of fevers and  other
 inflammatory disorders, the timely administration
 of an emetic will frequently induce  copious  dia-
 phoresis and produce  a  cure, or at  least  greatly
 mitigate the severity of the symptoms. For this
 purpose emetic  tartar or  antimonial  wine  is pref-
 erable, either alone or  combined with  ipecacuanha.
 When poison has been  taken,  and the stomach-
 pump is not at hand, the sulphate of zinc or copper
 should be  administered.   £ dr. of either of  thes*e
 substances should be dissolved in 3 or 4 oz. of wa-
 ter, and a third should be  taken every ten minutes
 until vomiting is induced.   The operation of emet-
 ics  is  powerfully promoted by drinking copiously
 of diluents, especially warm water. The latter, in
 fact, is itself an emetic, when taken  in quantity.
 Its  use will also prevent  that dreadful straining
 and retching, which make emetics so  much dread-
 ed by some persons.  Small and repeated doses of
 emetics are frequently administered to** produce
 nausea, in many diseases of the lungs and stomach.
 Emetics should be avoided in plethoric habits, in
hernia,  pregnancy, and whenever an  inflamma-
tory  diathesis exists.  They should  also be given
with great caution to young children, and in  such
cases, wine or powder of ipecacuanha  should alone
be employed.   Some chronic and obstinate dis-
eases,  especially rheumatism, are  sometimes re*
lieved by emetics.
   EMETINE.  Syn. Emetina.  Emetin.   La
Matiere Vomitive.  Prep.  I.  Digest coarsely-
powdered  ipecacuanha root,  first  in ether  and
then in  alcohol. Evaporate the latter tincture to
dryness, dissolve in water, and precipitate  with
acetate of  lead.  Wash the precipitate, diffuse it
in distilled water, in a tall glass vessel, and  pass
sulphureted hydrogen  through it, to throw down
the lead ;  filter and evaporate to dryness.  Prod.
Brownish red, deliquescent scales. Emetic in doses
of i to £ a gr.  (Ann. de  Chimie et de Physique.)
   II. The powder  of ipecacuanha  is digested in
water  with calcined magnesia.   The deposite is
thrown on  a filter, washed carefully with very cold
water, and dried.  The emetin is then taken up
by alcohol.  It may be afterwards combined  with
an acid, and the salt may be  purified with animal
charcoal.  When the emetin is once more thrown
down by magnesia, alcohol redissolves it in a color-
less  state.   Emetin thus  obtained is yellowish-
white and pulverulent, but may be obtained  per-
fectly white, by repeating the latter part of the
process.  White  and pure emetin  is emetic  in
doses of one-sixteenth of a grain.
   Props. Emetin is pulverent, inodorous, and bit-
ter ; fusible at  122° F. ;  very soluble in  alcohol,
but only slightly so in ether, oils, and water.  It
partially neutralizes the  acids,  forming  scarcely
crystallizable salts.   Tincture of iodine produces a
reddish precipitate in an alcoholic solution of eme-
tin.  With tincture  of galls this solution behaves
like morphia ; but, unlike the last  substance, the
salts of iron produce no change of color in it.
   EMULSION. Syn. Emulsion, (Fr.) Emulsio,
(Lat,  from emulgeo,  to milk.)  A  milky fluid,
formed by the mechanical admixture of oil and
water,  by  means of some other substance  that
possesses the power of  combining with both.  The
emulsions of the London Pharmacopoeia, are in-
cluded under the same  head as mixtures.   In the
preparation of emulsions,  the  oily  or resinous in-
gredients are usually suspended by means of  mu-
cilage of gum arabic ;  almonds, or new-laid eggs;
1 drachm of the first, made with equal  parts of
gum and water ; 1  oz.  of  the  second, (usually 26
in number,) and one in no. of the  last, will  form
two  drachms  of any  oil into an  emulsion  with
about 1 oz. of water.
   EMULSION, FARRIERS'. Prep. I. (Simple.)
Sweet  oil 2 oz.; honey or  moist sugar 3 oz.;  salts
of tartar \  oz.; warm soft water 1  pint;  mix and
shake till quite cold.
   II.  (Pectoral.) Camphor 2 dr.;  spirit of wine 1
oz.;  oil of aniseed  20 drops ; dissolve, then add
of simple emulsion £ pint.
   EMULSION   OF   ASAFCETIDA.   Syn.
Emulsio Assafcstida.  Prep.  (Duclow.)  Asa-
foetida gviij ; powdered gum ^xvj ; oil of  almonds
1£ pints ; water 1 quart; make an emulsion, strain
through linen, and keep it in  a well-corked bottle.
Antispasmodic.
  EMULSION OF CAMPHOR.  Syn. Mistura
Camphora.  E. do.  E. Camphorata. Prep. (P.
E. 1830.)  Camphor 9j ;  lump sugar ^ss ; tritu-
rate together, and add blanched almonds 3SS ;  beat
well, then gradually add water 1 pint.  Stimulant,
antispasmodic, and diaphoretic. 
ENA                  268                   ENA
   EMULSION OF COPAIBA.   Syn.  E. Co-
 paiba.  Prep.  Balsam  of copaiba, mucilage  of
 gum, and simple sirup, of each 3ij; water £xij;
 mix.  Dose. £ oz. to an ounce 2 or 3 times a day
 in certain complaints.
   EMULSION, CATHARTIC.  Syn. E. Pur-
 gans cum Resina Jalapa.   Prep. (P. Cod.) Resin
 of jalap 10 grs.; white sugar 5J;  £ the yelk of an
 egg ;  orange-flower water 3ij;  water f |iv ; mix.
   EMULSION OF  GUM.   Syn. E. Acacia.
 Mistura Acacia.  Prep.   (P. E., 1839.)   Sweet
 almonds, blanched, 3x ; white sugar 3v ; mucilage
 '^■'J ? water 1 quart.   In coughs, &c.
   EMULSION OF OIL OF ALMONDS. Syn.
 E. Olei Amygdala.   Prep. Oil of almonds 3iij;
 thick  mucilage and simple sirup, of each ^ss ; rose
 water f Jj; distilled water ^iij or 5'v 5 m'x*
  Remarks. When well made, this is  an elegant
 and efficient substitute for almond milk.
  EMULSION OF PERUVIAN  BALSAM.
 Syn.  E. Balsamica.  E. Balsami  Peruviani.
Prep.  (Ger.  H.) Balsam  of  Peru 3iv;  oil of
almonds 3vj ; powdered gum  §j ;  mix, and add
cautiously rose water  f 5vj-
  EMULSION, PURGATIVE.  Syn. E. Pur-
gans  cum  Scammonio.  Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Virgin
scammony  10 grs ; milk f ^iv ;  sugar 3iv; cherry-
laurel water f 3ij; mix.
  EMULSION OF  SPERMACETI. Syn. E.
Cetacei. Prep.  (F. H.) as emulsion of wax.  De-
mulcent.
  EMULSION OF TURPENTINE.  Syn. E.
 Terebinthina. Prep. Chio turpentine 3ij ; white
 sugar ^j j  yelk of 1 egg;  milk of  almonds f ^iv ;
 mix.  In gleets.
  EMULSION OF  OIL OF TURPENTINE.
 Syn. E. Olei Terebinthina.  Prep. Oil of tur-
 pentine 9j ; white sugar §j; yelk of one egg;  mix.
 For nephritic pains.
  EMULSION OF  WAX.  Syn. E. Cera. E.
 C. Alba.  Prep. (Guibourt.) White wax §j ; pow-
 dered gum 3iss;  water f §xxiv ; simple sirup f ^iv  ;
 put the wax with the sirup and gum into a warm
 mortar, triturate with a warm pestle until  united,
 then  add the water  (warm) gradually, and  con-
tinue  the agitation till quite cold.   Demulcent.
  ENAMELS.  Syn. Emaux, (Fr.) Schmelzglas,
 (Ger.) Transparent or opaque substances, usually
 formed of glass colored with metallic  oxides, and
 applied in a thin stratum to brightly polished  me-
 tallic surfaces, (copper or gold,) on which they are
 fused  by the flame of a lamp urged by the blow-
 pipe, or by the  heat  of a  small furnace,  an 1 in
 cooling form a sort of vitreous varnish.  The art
 of enamelling acquired the greatest perfection in
 ancient times,  and very beautiful  specimens are
 still preserved,  which  the  moderns are unable to
 equal, and with the materials of which they are
 totally unacquainted.  At  the  present day, this
 pleasing and useful application of human industry
 is carried on with the greatest  success by the Ve-
 netians, and, after  them,  by  the  French.  The
 limits of this work will not permit a description of
 the various operations of enamelling, which essen-
 tially  depend on skilful manipulation ; a knowledge
 of which  can  only be obtained  by long practice.
 The preparation of enamels  being, however, en-
 tirely  dependent on chemistry,  I  deem it proper to
 present the following  formula to  the reader.  It is
nevertheless right  to  remark, that almost every
artist has  his  own  receipts.   (See  Cems,  and
Pastes.)
  The basis of all enamels is a highly transparent
and fusible glass, which readily receives a color on
the addition of metallic oxides.  As this is required
in the preparation of many of those that follow, it
is placed first
  ENAMELS, BASE OR  FLUX FOR. Prep.
Red lead 16 parts; calcined borax 3 parts ;  pow-
dered flint glass 12 parts ; powdered flints 4 parts;
fuse in a Hessian crucible for 12  hours, then pour
it out into water, and  reduce  it to jt powder in a
biscuit-ware mortar.   (Wynn.  Trans.  Soc. Arts,
1817.)
  II.  Powdered flints 10  parts;  nitre  and white
arsenic, of each 1 part; as last.  (Wynn.)
  III. Flint glass  3 oz.; red lead 1  oz.; as last
(Wynn.)
  IV. Red lead 18 parts ;  borax (not calcined) 11
parts ; flint glass 16 parts ;  as last.   (Wynn.)
  V.  Flint glass 6 parts;  flux No. II. (above) 4
parts ; red lead 8 parts ; as last.   (Wynn.)
  VI. Tin 2 to 5 parts ; lead 10 parts; calcine in
an iron pot at a dull cherry-red heat, and scrape
off the oxide as it forms, observing to obtain it quite
free from undecomposed metal: when  enough of
the  dross is obtained, reduce it to fine powder by
grinding and elutriation, then mix 4 parts of this
powder with an equal weight of pure sand or  pow-
dered flints, and 1 of sea-salt, or other alkaline
matter,  fuse the mixture in a Hessian crucible, and
proceed as before.  The best proportions of the tin
and lead, for all ordinary purposes, are  about 3 cf
the  former to 10 of the latter.  The calcined mixed
oxides are commonly called " calcine."
  VII.  Lead  and  tin, equal parts;  calcine as
above ; and take of  the mixed oxides, or calcine
and ground flints, of each 1 part; pure subcarbon
ate  of potash 2 parts ; as before.   (Chaptal.)
  VIII. Lead 30 parts; tin 33 parts;  calcine as
before, then mix 50 parts of the calcine  with an
equal weight of flints, in powder, and 1 lb. of salts
of tartar;  as before.   A fine dead white snamel.
(Neri. Kunckel.)
  Remarks. The precise qualities of the  products
of the above  processes depend  greatly upon the
duration and degree  of heat employed.   By in-
creasing the  quantity of sand,  glass, or  flux, the
enamel  is rendered more  fusible, and the opacity
and whiteness  is increased by the addition of oxide
of tin.  The  use  of  borax  should be avoided, or
used very sparingly, as it is apt to make the enamel
effloresce and lose color.  (Tilloch.)
  ENAMELS, BLACK.  Prep. I. Pure clay 3
parts ; protoxide of iron 1 part ; mix and fuse.  A
fine black.   (Clouet.)
  II.  Calcined iron (protoxide)  12 parts ; oxide of
cobalt 1 part ; mix and add  an equal  weight of
white flux.
  III. Peroxide of manganese 3 parts; zaffre 1
part; mix and add it  as required to white flux.
  ENAMELS, BLUE.   Prep.  Either of the
fluxes colored with oxide of cobalt.
  II. Sand, red lead,  and nitre, of each 10 parts ;
flint glass or ground flints 20 parts ; oxide of cobalt
1 part, more or less, the quantity wholly depend-
ing on the depth of color required.
  ENAMELS, BROWN.   Prep.  I. Red lead 
ENA                   269                    ENE
and  calcined  iron, of  each  1  part; antimony,
litharge, and sand, of each 2 parts;  mix and add
it  in any required proportion to a flux, according
to the color desired.  A little oxide of  cobalt or
zaffre is frequently added, and alters the shade of
brown.
   II. Manganese 5  parts;  red lead 16  parts;
flint powder 8  parts ; mix.
   III. Manganese  9 parts;  red lead 34 parts;
flint powder 16 parts.   (Wynn.)
   ENAMELS, GREEN.  Prep. I. Flux 2 lbs.;
black oxide of copper  1 oz.; red oxide of iron £
dr.;  mix.
   II. As above,  but use the red oxide of copper.
Less decisive.
   III. Copper dust and litharge, of each 2 oz.;
nitre  1 oz.; sand 4 oz.; flux as much as required.
   IV. Add oxide of chrome to a sufficient quantity
of flux to  produce  the  desired shade: when well
managed,  the color  is superb,  and will  stand a
very  great heat; but  in common  hands, it fre-
quently  turns  on the dead-leaf tinge.
   V. Transparent flux  5 oz.; black oxide of cop-
per 2 scruples ;  oxide of chrome 2  grs.   Resem-
bles the  emerald.
   VI. Mix blue  and yellow enamel  in the requir-
ed proportions.
   ENAMELS,  OLIVE.    Prep.   Good   blue
enamel  2 parts ; black and  yellow  do., of each 1
part; mix.  (See also Brown Enamels.)
   ENAMELS,  ORANGE.  Prep. I. Red lead
 12 parts; red sulphate  of iron and  oxide of  anti-
mony, of each  1 part; flint powder 3 parts ; cal-
cine, powder,  and melt  with flux, 50 parts.
   IL Red  lead  12 parts;  oxide of antimony 4
parts; flint powder 3 parts; red sulphate of iron
1  part;  calcine,  then add flux 5 parts to every 2
parts of this mixture.   (Wynn.)
   ENAMELS,  PURPLE.   Prep.  I. Flux color-
ed with oxide  of gold, purple precipitate of cassius,
or peroxide of manganese.
   II. Sulphur, nitre, vitriol, antimony, and oxide
of tin, of each 1 lb. ; red lead  60 lbs.; mix and
fuse,  cool  and powder, add  rose copper 19 oz.;
zaffre  1  oz.; crocus martis 1£  oz.;  borax 3 oz.;
and  1 lb. of a compound  formed of gold, silver,
and mercury ;  fuse, stirring the melted mass with
a  copper rod all the time, then place  it in crucibles,
and submit them to the action of a  reverberatory
furnace for 24 hours.   (Phil. Mag.)
   Remarks. This is said to be the purple enamel
used in the mosaic pictures of St. Peter's at Rome.
   ENAMELS, RED.   Prep. I. Sulphate of iron
(calcined dark)  1 part; a  mixture  of 6  parts of
flux (IV.) and  1  of colcothar, 3  parts; dark red.
(Wynn.)
   II. Red  sulphate of iron  2 parts; flux (No.  I.)
6 parts ;  white lead 3 parts ;  light red.  (Wynn.)
   III. Paste or flux colored with the red or pro-
toxide of copper.  Should the color  pass into the
green or  brown, from the partial peroxidizement of
the copper, from the heat being raised too high,
the red  color may be restored by the addition of
any carbonaceous matter, as tallow,  or charcoal.
   IV. The most beautiful and costly red, inclining
to  the purple tinge, is produced by tinging glass or
flux with the  oxide or salts of gold, or with  the
purple precipitate of cassius,  which consists of gold
and tin.  In the hands of the skilful  artist, any of
these substances produce shades of red of the most
exquisite hue:  when most perfect, the enamel
comes from the fire quite colorless, and afterwards
receives its rich hue from the flame of a candle or
lamp, urged by the blowpipe.
  ENAMELS,   ROSE-COLORED.   Prep.
Purple enamel, or its elements, 3 parts; flux 90
parts;  mix and add silver-leaf, or oxide of  silver,
1 part or less.
  ENAMELS, TRANSPARENT.  Either
of the fluxes,  except  the last three.   (See  also
Pastes.)
  ENAMELS, VIOLET.  Prep. Saline  or al-
kaline frits or fluxes colored with  small quantities
of peroxide of manga, ese.  As the color depends
on the metal being at the maximum of oxidation,
contact with all substances that would abstract
any of its oxygen should  be avoided.  The same
remarks apply to other metallic oxides.
  ENAMELS, YELLOW.  Prep. I. Red  lead
8 oz. ;  oxide of  antimony and tin, calcined toge-
ther, of each 1 oz.; mix and add flux (No. IV.) 15
oz. ; mix and  fuse.  (Wynn.)  By varying the
proportion of the ingredients, various shades may
be produced.
  II. Lead* tin  ashes, litharge,  antimony,  and
sand, of each 1  oz.; nitre  4 oz.; mix, fuse, and
powder; and add the  product to any quantity of
flux according to the color required.
  III. White  oxide of  antimony, alum, and sal
ammoniac, of each 1 part; pure carbonate of lead
1 to 3 parts, as required; all in powder; mix, and
expose to a heat sufficiently high to decompose the
sal ammoniac.  Very bright.
  IV.  Flux fused with  oxide of lead, and  a little
red oxide of iron.
  V. Pure oxide of silver added  to the metallic
fluxes.  The salts of silver are also  used, but are
difficult to manage. If a thin film of oxide of silver
be spread over the surface of the enamel to be
colored, exposed to a  moderate heat, then with-
drawn, and  the film of  reduced silver on the sur-
face removed, the part under will be found tinged
of a fine yellow.
  Remarks. Superior yellow enamels are less easi-
ly produced than most  other colors; they require
but  little  flux,  and that mostly of a metallic na-
ture.
  ENAMELS,  WHITE.  Prep.  I.  Calcine,
(from 2 parts of tin and 1 part of lead calcined
together)  1  part;  fine crystal or frit 2 parts; a
very trifling quantity of  manganese ;  powder, mix,
melt, and pour the fused  mass into  clean water;
dry, powder, and again  fuse, and repeat the whole
process 3 or 4  times, observing to avoid contami-
nation  with smoke, dirt, or oxide of iron. A  fine
dead white.
  II. Washed  diaphoretic antimony 1 part; fine
glass (perfectly free from  lead) 3 parts; mix, and
proceed as before.  Very fine.
  Remarks. For white  enamel, the  articles must
be perfectly free  from  foreign admixture, as  this
would impart a color.  When well managed, either
of the above forms will produce a paste that will
rival the opal.
  ENEMA. (From evvpw, to inject.)   A clyster,
glyster, lavement, or injection.  Medicine usually
liquid (sometimes gaseous) thrown into the rectum
or lower bowels.  The number of substances era • 
ENE                    270                    ENE
ployed in the preparation of enemata is very great;
the following are some of  them, arranged accord-
ing to their effects.
   I. (Aperients or Cathartics.)  Aloes, colocynth,
senna, various purging salts, gruel, decoction of
marshmallows, decoction of linseed, warm water,
&c, are  commonly  employed to  promote  the
peristaltic action  of  the bowels,  and to destroy
worms.
   II. Tobacco infusion  or smoke  is employed to
relax the powers of the  body, to remove spasms,
and to produce syncope.
   III. Demulcents, as decoction of starch, gum,
isinglass, glue, &,c. either alone or combined with
opium, are used to protect the coats of the intes-
tines and  to  allay irritation; as also  to restrain
diarrhoea, especially when combined  with astrin-
gents, as logwood, catechu, or oak bark.
   IV.  Animal jelly,  soups, broths, milk, &c. are
frequently used as injections to  convey  nourish-
ment to the body.
   V. Anodynes and narcotics, as opium, henbane,
&c., are employed to allay spasms of  the bowels,
stomach, uterus, bladder, &.c.
   It is generally regarded  that the susceptibility
of the rectum is only A of that of the  stomach,
and that to exert a like  absorbent action, it occu-
pies 5 times as long as that viscus; and that, con-
sequently, the dose  and the interval between its
repetition should be proportionally increased.  This
has been shown, however, not to be  universally
correct, for  according to  Orfila, and  some other
authorities, narcotics, as opium, tobacco,  &c, are
more readily absorbed  by the rectum  than the
stomach.  Others deny this altogether, and assert
that 2  or 3 times the ordinary dose of  opium may
be exhibited per anum, without producing  any
remarkable effect.  (Pereira, Christison.)
   Clysters usually consist  of some weak glutinous
or mucilaginous  fluid, to which the active  ingre-
dients  are  added ; or a decoction or infusion  is
made  of the  medicaments.  In  either case the
fluid is administered warm.   The quantity for an
adult may vary from £ to  £ of a pint; that for an
infant within a month old, should be about 1 oz.;
for a chi.~ 1 year old, about 2£ oz.;  from 1  to 7
years,  from 3 oz. to 4 oz.;  and from that age to 12
or 14, from 6 to  7 oz.; after that age to puberty,
£ a pint may be  employed.  Clysters  are usually
administered  by means  of a syringe,  bladder, or
elastic bag, furnished with a rectum tube.  Great
care should  be taken to avoid injuring  the  coats
of the rectum by the use of an improperly shaped
pipe, or one that  is too long.  A neglect of this
point often produces very  serious  consequences in
young children.  The extremity of the pipe or tube
should  be  perfectly smooth, well rounded,  and
rather spherical  than pointed, and  in using it no
force should be employed.   I once witnessed a
case where  a young infant lost  its life, from an
ignorant nurse forcibly thrusting the tube of a sy-
ringe through the upper parts of the rectum, in her
attempt to administer a clyster.
   Tobacco smoke may  be administered  by means
of a double  pair of bellows, supplied with air from
a small funnel under which the herb is burning,—
and gaseous matter, by  connecting  the rectum
tube with a small gasometer, exerting  a trifling
pressure on the confined gas.
  The injection of large quantities  of liquid mat-
ter into the bowels, as well as the constant use of
clysters, (even of warm water,)  is deemed by the
highest medical  authorities  to be injurious.  The
bowels, continually  accustomed  to a stimulant,
cease to act without one.
  ENEMA, ANODYNE.  Syn. Enema Anody-
num.   Prep. Starch jelly £  pint; laudanum 40 to
60 drops;  mix.  In dysentery, diarrhoea, cholera,
colic, &c.
  II. (For horses.) Opium  1£ dr., (or laudanum
1£ oz.;) water gruel 2 or 3 pints ;  mix.  »
  E N E M A,  ANTISPASMODIC.   Syn. E.
Antispasmodicum.  Prep. Tincture of asafoetida
^ss ; laudanum 40 drops; thin gruel  half a pint;
mix.   For spasmodic affections of the bowels.
  ENEMA, ASTRINGENT.  Sy„. E.  Astrin-
gens.  Prep.  (H.) Electuary of catechu 3ij;  lime
water f%v;  water 5 or 6 oz.;  mix.  In diarrhoea,
&c, arising from a relaxed state of the coats of the
intestines.
  II. Any of the astringent decoctions ■'as pome-
granate, cinchona,  oak  bark, galls, &c, 3  oz.;
water  or  barley water 6 or 8 oz.; mix.   As the
last.
  ENEMA, CATHARTIC.  Syn.  E.  Cathar-
ticum.   (Purging  clyster.)  Prep. I.  (P.  D.)
Manna §j;  compound decoction  of chamomile £
pint; add olive oil §j;  Epsom salts ^ss ;  mix.
  II. (P.  E.) Senna §ss;  water f^xvj; infuse,
add Epsom salts ^ss ; sugar and olive oil, of  each
§j ; mix well.  Both the above are  purgative.
  III. Epsom salts §j ; dissolve  in water gruel or
barley water §xj ;  then add  sweet oil Jj ; mix well.
Purgative.
  IV.  Compound  decoction of  mallows  £ pint;
Epsom salts 3j',  sweet oil f ^ij; mix, as above.
  V.  (For  horses.)   Common salt 8 oz.; warm
water  1 gallon ;  dissolve.
  VI.  (For cows.) Common salt 12 oz.;  water 10
pints;  dissolve.
  ENEMA.  COMMON.    Syn.  E. Commune.
Prep.  (St.  B. H.)   Barley water 1 pint;  com-
mon salt  §j ? dissolve.   Purgative.  Decoction of
mallows, linseed tea,  or water gruel, may also be
used as the solvent.
  ENEMA,  DOMESTIC.  Syn. E.  Domesti-
cum.   Prep. (E. H.)   Milk £ pint; sugar or ho-
ney  and olive oil, of each ^j ;  mix.   Laxative and
nutritive.
  II. Mutton broth and oil, of each 4 oz.; brown
sugar 1 oz.;  dissolve.  As last.     '
  ENEMA,  EMOLLIENT.   Syn. E. Emol-
liens.  Prep. (H.) Decoction of linseed, barley,
or starch, 1 pint; linseed or olive  oil 1  oz.; mix.
Emollient;  demulcent.
  ENEMA FOR COLIC.  Syn. E. Anticoli-
cum.   Prep. Infusion of chamomile f§x; oil of
cajeput or  peppermint  5  drops;  (dissolved in)
sweet spirits of nitre 40 drops; laudanum 10 drops;
mix.
  ENEMA FOR FEVER.   Syn.  E.  Febrifu-
gum.  Prep. (Collier.)   Thin gruel f ^xij ; sugar
^j *,  mix.   In low fevers.
  ENEMA FOR WORMS.  Syn. E. Vermifu-
gum.  Prep. (Collier.) Oil of turpentine f£j;  olive
oil £ pint; mix.   In ascarides.
   ENEMA, LAXATIVE.  Syn.  E. L^xativum.
Prep. (Richard.) Linseed and senna, of each ^ss *i 
ENE
27
water 1 £ pint; boil to a pint, strain and add glau-
ber or Epsom salts 3ij to 3iij.
   ENEMA, NOURISHING.   Syn.  E. Nutri-
ens.  Prep.  Strong beef tea 12 oz.;  thicken with
hartshorn shavings or arrow-root. To nourish the
body when aliments cannot  be received by the
tnouth or retained by the stomach.
   ENEMA  OF  ALOES.   Syn. E. Aloes. (P.
L.)  Prep.  Aloes 3ij ; carbonate of potassa 15 grs.;
barley water f§x; mix.    In  ascarides,  atonic
amenorrhcea, &c. It should not be employed when
irritability  of  the rectum, bladder, or genitals ex-
ists, nor in piles.
   ENEMA OF ASAFGETIDA.   Syn. E. Fce-
tidum.  (P. E. & D.)   Prep. Add f 3ij of tincture
of asafcetida to  the  cathartic clyster.   Stimulant,
antispasmodic,  carminative,  and purgative.  An
excellent remedy in hysteria,  flatulent  colic, in-
fantile convulsions, worms, hooping-cough, &c.
   ENEMA  OF CAMPHOR.  Syn.  E. Cam-
phora.  Camphor Clyster  for Horses.  Prep.
Camphor £ oz. ;  dissolve in sweet oil by heat;  add
\ oz. of subcarbonate of potash, mix well  together,
and add gradually warm water 1 quart.   Diuretic.
In difficult or obstructed micturition.
   ENEMA OF COPAIBA.   Syn. E. Copaiba.
Prep. (Collier.)  Balsam of copaiba 3ij ; oil of tur-
pentine 3iv ; extract of opium 1 gr.;  make an ene-
ma with the yelk of egg.  In ascarides  and  cer-
tain complaints.
   ENEMA  OF COLOCYNTH.   E. Colocyn-
thidis. (P. L.)   Prep. Compound extract of colo-
cynth 3ij ;  soft soap ^j j warm water 1 pint;
carefully mix the first two by trituration, then
gradually add the water.  A strong purgative  in
colic and constipation without spasms.
   ENEMA  OF OPIUM.   Syn.  E.  Orn.   E.
Opiatum.  E. Anodynum.    Prep.  (P. L.)  De-
coction of starch f fiv;  laudanum 30 drops ; mix.
   II. (P.  E.) Starch  §ss;  laudanum 30 to   60
drops; water f3ij ; make the starch into a muci-
lage with the water, boiling; and when cooled suffi-
ciently, add the tincture.
   III. (P. D.) Laudanum 3j; water §vj ;  mix.
   Remarks.   The above are the orders of the Col-
leges, but in  practice the quantity of laudanum is
frequently doubled ;  this should,  however, be done
with great care.   Opium clysters are used in dys-
entery, colic,  cholera,  and various  painful affec-
tions of the intestines,  bladder, &c.  The  bowels
should be emptied before its administration, and  in
inflammatory complaints it should not be used for
the  first 48  hours.  Clysters containing opium,
even in small quantities, are  dangerous remedies
for young children.
   ENEMA OF TOBACCO.   Syn.  E. Tabaci.
(P L.)   Prep. Tobacco 3j; boiling  water 1 pint;
macerate for  1 hour, and strain.  Violently depress-
ing  and  relaxing; producing fainting.   It is ex-
hibited in strangulated hernia, &c.: 3 parts of Vir-
ginian  tobacco are equal to  7 parts of any other
kind. (Davy.)
   ENEMA OF  TURPENTINE.  Syn. E. Te-
rebinthina.  (P.  Ii.) Prep. Oil of turpentine fjj ;
yelk of egg, a sufficiency ;  rub together until uni-
ted,  then add barley water f f xix ; mix.  In calcu-
lus,  flatulent  colic,  ascarides, &c.   (See Enema
for Worms.)
  ENEMA OF  SOAP. Syn. E. Saponis. Prep.
ERU
(St. B. H.)  Soft soap 3vj; hot water 1 pint;  dis-
solve.
  ENEMA, STIMULANT. Syn. E. Stimulans.
(F. H.)  Colocynth pulp 3j; boil  in water 1 pint
till reduced  to  two-thirds, then  add common  salt
and sirup of buckthorn, of each 3j.  Cathartic.
  II. (For Horses.) Common salt and linseed oil,
of each  8 oz.; hot water 1 gallon; gum arabic 1
oz.;  mix.  In stomach staggers.
  ERGOT.   Syn. Spurred Rye.  Secale Cor-
nutum.   Ergota.  Diseased  grains of rye, much
used as an emmenagogue in small doses,  and to
accelerate the contraction of the uterus in protract-
ed labor.  The dose is 10 to 15 grs. every 10 or 15
minutes, either in  powder, or made into an infu-
sion.
  Pres.  Ergot of rye deteriorates greatly by age.
It is fed on by a description of acarus resembling
the cheese mite, but much smaller,  and this insect
in time destroys the whole of the internal  portion
of the grain, leaving nothing but the  shell, and a
considerable  quantity of excrementitious matter.
To prevent this the ergot should  be we!! dried,  and
then placed in  bottles or tin canisters, and  closely
preserved from the air.  The addition of a  few
cloves, or drops of the oil of cloves, or strong acetic
acid, or a little camphor, or  camphorated spirit of
wine, will preserve this substance for years in close
vessels.  The following  method has been proposed
by M. Martin,  and is likely  to  prove  efficacious,
but is somewhat troublesome:—
  Ergot  in good condition and very dry is steeped
in a concentrated solution of gum arabic, and dried
on a sheet of white iron.  When it is  dry the  op-
eration is repeated: two or three  immersions  are
sufficient.  When the last layer of gum is perfect-
ly dry, the ergot is kept in a very  dry and well-
corked flask.  Gum arabic cannot be prejudicial
to the  effect  of ergot of rye.  (Jour,  de Chimie
Med. 1841.)
  Ergot  is mostly kept  in large well covered tin
canisters or boxes, by the wholesale druggists, and
these are placed in a dry situation.
  ERGOTINE.  Syn.  Ergotina.  A substance
discovered by  Wiggers  in ergot of rye, and  of
which it  appears to be the active constituent.
  Prep.  Submit  ergot   (previously ground in  a
coffee-mill, not powdered) to the  action of ether
to remove the fatty portion, then digest it in boil-
ing alcohol, and evaporate the  latter solution to
the consistence of a sirup ; treat this fluid extract
with water, which will dissolve the foreign matter,
and leave the ergotine behind.  It may be further
purified by re-solution in hot alcohol.
  Props., Uses, fyc.  Ergotine, as thus prepared,
has a brownish red color, an acrid bitter taste, and
a peculiar unpleasant odor when warmed.   Nine
grs. are said to  be equivalent to 1£ oz.  of ergot
  ERGOT,  ESSENTIAL  SOLUTION OF.
(Lever's.)  Prep. Ergot, coarsely powdered, 5'V ;
ether f^iv;  digest for  7 days; submit to sponta-
neous evaporation, and dissolve the residuum  in
ether f^ij.  Dose. 15 to 30  drops  on sugar.   It
exercises a  similar action on the  uterus  to the
crude ergot.
  ERUCINE.  A yellowish white substance, dis-
covered by Simon in white mustard, (sinapis alba.)
It is  soluble in ether  and essential oils, and  in
boiling alcohol. 
ESP                    272                   ESS
  ERYTHRIN'E, Pseudo-erythrine, Erythri-
LINE, Amarythrine, Telerythrine.  Substances
obtained by Kane  and Heeren from parmelia roc-
cella  and leconara Tartarea.   The  names have
been  differently applied by these authorities, and
hence has arisen some confusion.  They are of
little  interest  except  in  a  theoretical point of
view.
  ERYTHROLEINE,  Erythrolitmine,  Azo-
litmine,  Azoerythrine, Spamolitmine,  Ery-
throleic  Acid. Substances obtained from litmus
and archil by Kane.   They  are but little  known,
and have not been  applied in the arts.
  ESCHAROTIC.   Syn. Escharoticus.  (Lat,
from  ta%apou), to scab over.)   Any substance that
destroys the texture of living organic sub-tances,
with the production of an eschar ^m^upa)  or scab.
Escharotics have been divided into eroding eschar-
otics; as  blue vitriol,  red precipitate, burnt alum,
&c.;  and into caustic escharotics; as lunar caus-
tic, pure potassa, strong sulphuric acid,  nitric acid,
&c.   All caustics that produce a scab, or eschar,
are properly escharotics.   (See Caustics.)
  ESCHAROTIC SOLUTIOxN.  (Freyburg's.)
Prep.  Camphor 30 grs.; corrosive sublimate 460
grs.;  strong  alcohol 450  grs.; dissolve.  This is
employed  in  the Hospital of Charity at Berlin in
syphilitic vegetations,  and especially  against  con-
dylomes.  It is  spread over the diseased  surface,
either at once, or  after the  application of a  liga-
ture.
   ESCULENTS.  (Esculentus, Lat.)   Animal
and vegetable substances used  for food.
   ESCULIC ACID.   A peculiar acid found by
M. Bussy in the bark  of the horse-chesnut.   It is
but little known, and has not been applied to any
use.
   ESENBECKINE.   An  alkaloid   found by
Buchner in the esenbeckia febrifuga.
   ESPRIT.  (Fr.)  Spirit.   This term is applied
to alcoholic solutions  of the essential  oils and to
various odorous  and aromatic essences.   Sold by
the perfumers.
   ESPRIT  DE  BERGAMOTTE.   Syn. Spi-
rit of Bergamotte.   Prep. Peel of the Berga-
motte orange 2 lbs.;  proof  spirit 1 gallon ; digest
for a week, add water 1 quart, and distil 1 gal-
lon.
   II. Essence of bergamotte (best) 5 oz.; essence
of ambergris (pale) 2  oz.; essence of musk £ oz.;
oil of verbena \ oz.; rectified spirit of wine 1 gal-
lon ; mix.  An elegant perfume.
   ESPRIT  DE  LA  ROSE.   Syn.  Spirit  of
Roses.  Prep.  I.  Fresh petals  of roses 8  lbs.;
rectified spirit of wine £ gallon; macerate for a
week, and distil to dryness in a water bath.
   II.  Salted petals 14 lbs.; spirit of wine 4£ pints;
distil £ gallon.
   III. Attar of roses 2 dr.;  neroli 20 drops ;  spirit
of wine 1 gallon;  dissolve, add chloride of cal-
cium, well  dried  and in powder, 1 lb.;  agitate
well, and distil 7 pints.  Very  fine.
   IV.  Spirit of wine 1 quart;  otto  £ drachm;
mix, place the bottle in hot water so  as to warm
the  spirit, then  cork  close,  shake until cold, and
the next day filter if required.
   ESPRIT  DE SAVON.  Syn. Spirit of Soap.
Essence  of do.  Shaving  Fluid.   Prep. Vene-
tian soap  | lb.; subcarbonate of potash 1 oz.; ben-
zoin £ oz.;  spirit of wine  1  gallon;  digest for a
week, or until the whole is dissolved, then filter.
   II. Best soft  soap  $ lb.; boiling water  1 pint;
dissolve, cool, and  add oils of cinnamon, (cassia,)
verbena, and neroli, of each,  4 drops; dissolved in
rectified  spirit of wine 1 pint;  mix well,  and if
not perfectly  transparent, filter  through blotting
paper.
   Remarks.  Instead of the above  perfumes,  15
drops of essence of musk or ambergris, or 30 drops
of any of the perfumed spirits, or 3 drops of attar
of roses, or 6 drops of  any of the aromatic essen-
tial oils, may  be  added,  when  a corresponding
name is given to the preparation, as  esprit de Sa-
von de la rose, &c.
   This alcoholic solution of soap is used for sha-
ving, and is very convenient in travelling,  as a
good lather may be  instantly produced  without
the trouble of employing a  soap-box.
   ESPRIT  DE  SUAVE.   Prep. Essences  of
cloves  and  bergamotte, of each, 1 £ dr.;  neroli
£ dr.; essence of musk 1 oz. ; eau de rose, spirits
of tuberose, and the  strongest spirits of wine,-of
each, 1  pint; spirits of jasmin and cassia, of each,
1  quart;  dissolve the  essences in  the  spirit  of
wine, then  add the  other spirits, and when well
mixed add the rose-water.  A most  delicious per-
fume.
   ESPRIT DE TAIN.  Syn.  Spirits of Lem-
on Thyme.  Spiritus Thymi.   Prep.  Tops  of
lemon  thyme 1  lb. ;  proof  spirit 1 gallon ;  distil 7
pints.
 "  ESPRIT  DE  VIOLETTES.  Syn.  Spirit
of Violets.   Essence of do.  Essence of Or-
ris.  Prep. I.   Florentine orris root, reduced to
coarse  powder,  \  lb.;  rectified  spirit of wine 1
pint; digest for 14 days, and strain with  expres-
sion.
   II. Orris (as above) 5 lbs.; rectified spirit 1 gal-
lon ; digest  as before  and  submit the root to pow-
erful pressure in a tincture  press, to extract the
last portion of the liquor; filter.  Very fragrant
This may be advantageously prepared by percola-
tion.
   ESSENCE.   Syn.  Essence.   Esprit, (Fr.)
Essentia, (Lat., from esse, to be, or exist)  That
part of  a substance on which its most remarkable
properties depend.   The term has been very gen-
erally  applied  to preparations  of vegetables  or
organic substances, that contain  their active prin-
ciples  in  a  concentrated  form, but  it is more
properly restricted to  the volatile  oils obtained
from vegetables by distillation, or to a solution of
these oils in alcohol.  In Pha-rmacy the word  es-
sence is very commonly applied to concentrated
preparations that  vastly differ  from each other.
Thus,  concentrated infusions, decoctions,  liquors,
and tinctures are frequently called essences  by
the  druggists,  but  the  term "fluid  extracts"
would be more appropriate.   The  present article
will be confined to a short notice of the principal
compound essences, or those that undergo some
preparation, beyond  being merely extracted from
vegetables by distillation aiong with water.  The
latter will be considered under the article Oils.
   Prep.  The  Concentrated preparations  of  the
pharmaceutist,  termed essences, are mostly pre-
pared by digesting the active ingredient in recti-
fied spirit of wine, either with or without tho addi- 
ESS
273
ESS
tion of a certain portion of water;  or they are
extemporaneously formed by dissolving a certain
portion  of the  essential oil  of 6uch  substances in
the spirit.  In this way are  made  the essences of
lavender, of musk, and  of ginger.  When it  is
desired  only to  obtain  the  aromatic and volatile
portion  of the  ingredients,  the  latter are usually
first digested in the spirit  for a few days, and then
submitted to distillation, when the alcohol comes
over fragrant, and  loaded with  aromatic  essential
oil, or other volatile matter.   In this  way are pre-
pared most  of the  fragrant essences of  the per-
fumer  and  druggist, when  simple solution of the
essential oils  in alcohol  is not  resorted  to.  In
many cases the active principles of the ingredients
are partly volatile, and partly fixed, or  at least do
not readily volatilize  at the temperature a}, which
alcohol distils over.  This is the case, for instance,
with the active portion  of cubebs  and  Jamaica
ginger.  In such cases digestion  alone-should be
adopted.   When the principles  of  organic sub-
stances, of  which it is desired to  obtain a concfen-
trated solution, are resinous, oily,  or but little solu-
ble  in weak spirit, which is mostly the case, the
strongest rectified  spirit of wine  should  alone be
employed.  In  the preparation of essences, with-
out distillation, the method  by percolation is pref-
erable to that of simple maceration and expression,
as it is not only.more economical, but a more con-
centrated solution may thereby be obtained. The
ingredients  for  the preparation of essences must
undergo the same operations of bruising, powder-
ing, or  slicing,  as is  directed under  Tinctures,
previous to digestion  in  the spirit, or other men-
struum ; and the length of time they should be
allowed  to infuse,  when  this  method  alone  is
adopted, should not  be less than ten days; but
this time may  be  advantageously extended to  a
fortnight, or longer.  During the  whole of this pe-
riod frequent agitation should  be employed, and
when  the ingredients  are  so bulky as to absorb
the  whole of the fluid, the  vessel which contains
the mixture should be securely fastened by a bung
covered  with bladder, and inverted every alternate
day.  By this means, the fluid will equally  extract
the virtue of every portion of the ingredients.  In
all  such cases percolation is  preferable.  For the
essences used as perfumes and  flavoring, not only
must the spirit be perfectly  tasteless and scentless,
but  it must be also  quite  devoid of color.  (See
Concentrated Decoctions, Infusions, Liquors,
Spirit, and Percolation.)
  ESSENCE,   ANODYNE.    Syn.  Essentia
Anodyna.   Prep. (Germ. Ph.)   Aqueous extract
of opium ^i  ; spirits of cinnamon fjix ; dissolve.
  ESSENCE, ANTI-HYSTERIC.  Syn. Ess.
Anti-hysterica.  Prep.  (P. Cod.)   The same as
fetid spirit of ammonia.
  ESSENCE,  BITTER.    Syn.   Ess.  Amara.
Prep.  (Ph.  Den.)  Wormwood 4 parts;  gentian
root, bitter orange peel, and blessed thistle, of each
1 part;  alcohol 45 parts ; digest for a week.  Dose.
£ dr. to  2 drs., combined with mixtures.  Tonic
and stomachic.
  ESSENCE, CEPHALIC.  Syn. E. Cephali-
CA.   Prep. (Dr Ward.)   The same  as the com-
pound camphor liniment, P.  L.
  ESSENCE  D'OZILLETS.  Prep. Cinnamon
3 oz.;  cloves li oz., (both well bruised;)  rectified
spirit 2 quarts; digest for a week.   Oil of clove*
also bears this name.
  ESSENCE  D'ORIENT.   A pearly-looking
substance, found at the base of the  scales of the
blay or bleak, a small fish of the  genus cyprinus.
It is employed  in the arts for the  manufacture of
factitious pearls.
  Prep.  The scales are scraped from the fish into
a tub containing water, and after agitation and re-
pose, the fluid is poured off, and its place supplied
with fresh water, and this in its turn, after agita-
tion and repose, is also poured off.   This part of
the operation is repeated till the essence aud scales
are perfectly freed from impurities, when the whole
is thrown on  a sieve, which retains the latter, but
allows  the former to flow through.  The essence
is then obtained as a deposite at the bottom of the
vessel.
  Remarks.  This substance has  a  bluish  white
and pearly aspect, and  is employed  to  cover the
interior of glass bubbles and beads, in imitation of
pearls, or mother of pearl.  Its tendency to putre-
faction, while in the  moist  state, may be obviated
by the addition of a little water of ammonia.
  ESSENCE  DE MYRTE.  Syn. Essence of
Myrtle Blossoms.  Prep.  Myrtle tops (in  blos-
som) 1£ lb.; proof spirit 9  pints; digest  3  days,
then distil 1 gallon.  A pleasant perfume.
  ESSENCE  DE  TUBEROSE.   Prep. The
flowers are  stratified with  sheep's or cotton wool,
impregnated  with the purest oil of ben or olives, in
an earthen vessel, closely covered,  and kept  for 12
hours in a water bath; the flowers  are then re-
moved and  fresh  ones substituted, and  this is re-
peated until  the oil is sufficiently scented.   The
wool or cotton is then mixed with the purest spirit
of wine, and distilled in a water  bath, or else di-
gested  in a warm  situation, and in a well closed
vessel, for several days ; during the whole of  which
time frequent agitation should  be had recourse to.
In  a similar way may be made  the essences of
jasmine, violets, and other flowers.   (See Spirit.)
  ESSENCE  DES VIOLETTES.   (See  Es-
prit des Violettes, and Spirit of Violets.)
  ESSENCE   FOR  THE   HEADACHE.
(WARD'S.)   Prep.  Liquor of ammonia, 4  oz.;
English  oil of lavender £  dr.; camphor 1  oz.;
spirit of wine 1 pint; dissolve.  Stimulant; rube-
facient ;  used for local  pains, as headache, colic,
&.c.  Compound  camphor  liniment is usually sold
for it.
  ESSENCE  OF  ALLSPICE.  Syn.  Ess. of
Pimento.   Ess. Pimenta. Prep.  Essential oil of
allspice 1 oz.; spirit of wine 1  quart;  dissolve
Used as a flavoring by cooks and confectioners
  ESSENCE   OF  ALLSPICE,  CONCEN-
TRATED.  Oil of  allspice 1 oz.; strongest spirit
of wine 1 pint; mix.  As last.
  ESSENCE OF  AMBERGRIS.   Syn. Ess
Ambra Grisea.   Tinctura  do.  Prep. I.  Am-
bergris £ oz.; rectified spirit of wine 1 pint; cut
the ambergris  into small fragments, place it  in a
strong  vessel, secure the mouth very firmly, and
expose it to  the heat of the sun or in an equally
warm situation for 1 or 2 months, frequently sha-
king it during the  time; lastly decant, and filter
through paper.
  II. To the last  add a fresh emptied musk  bag
and proceed as before. 
ESS                    274                   ESS
  III. Ambergris 2  oz.;  bladder  musk 1 *oz.;
spirit of ambrette 1 gallon ; as before.
  IV. Ambergris £ oz.; musk 3 drs.; lump sugar
2 drs.; grind together in a smooth Wedgwood-
ware mortar, add 10 drops of oil of cloves, 20 drops
of true balsam  of Peru, and  enough essence of
jasmine or tuberose to convert it into a perfectly
smooth paste; then put it into  a strong bottle with
1 quart of rectified spirit of wine, observing, before
adding the whole of the last, to raise the mortar
out well with it, that nothing may be lost; lastly,
digest for 6 or 8 weeks, as above.
  Remarks. Essence  of  ambergris  is  used  as a
perfume, and is added in small  quantities to sweet-
scented spirits and wines, to improve their flavor
and  aroma.  The last two formulas produce  re-
markably  fine products.   A very small  quantity
of either of these added to lavender  water, eau de
Cologne, tooth-powder, hair-powder, wash-balls,
or a hogshead of claret, communicates  a delicious
fragrance.
  ESSENCE  OF  AMMONIACUM.   Syn.
Ess. Ammoniaci.  Prep.  I. Ammoniacum in tears
1 lb.; bruise it in a very cold  marble mortar with
half its weight of coarse and well-washed silicious
sand  or powdered glass; add  gradually rectified
spirit of wine £ pint, work the whole to a smooth
paste, then place it in a wide-mouthed bottle, and
further add spirit of  wine 1£ pints; cork down
close, digest for a week  with  constant  agitation,
allow it to repose until quite settled, then pour off
the  supernatant  transparent   liquid  into another
bottle for use.
  II. Reduce 1  lb.  of gum   ammoniacum  to a
cream with f pint of boiling  water, cool a little,
place it in a strong bottle, and add cautiously 1$
pint of rectified  spirits of wine, cork down close,
and  macerate for a  few days ; lastly, place the
bottle  in a moderately warm situation that the
sediment may  subside, after  which pour off the
clearest portion through flannel into  another bottle.
  Remarks.  Both the above  are used  as substi-
tutes for the gum in substance, for extemporane-
ously preparing  the milk and mixture  of ammo-
niacum,  &c.   They  are said  to  possess equal
medicinal  virtue, with the same weight of solid
gum.  The product of the first process,  when well
managed,  is a  beautiful  pale  brownish-colored
transparent tincture ; that of the second is milky.
  ESSENCE   OF   AMMONIACUM,  (CON-
CENTRATED.)  The preparation usually sold
under this name, and represented as twice as
strong as the gum in substance, is  generally pre-
pared with the same quantity of ingredients as the
first of the  above.  A stronger article may be pre-
pared by a similar process by using 1 lb. of ammo-
niacum to a pint of the strongest  rectified spirit.
As,  however, a  clear liquid  at this strength is
somewhat  difficult to produce, it is very seldom
attempted  by druggists; they  therefore generally
content themselves with  sending out the liquid at
half  the professed strength, leaving the label to
confer the  additional concentration.
  ESSENCE OF ANCHOVIES.  Prep. I. An-
chovies 7 lbs.;  pulp through a fine  hair or brass-
wire sieve ; boil the bones and  portion that will not
pass through in water 5 quarts;  strain, add to the
clear liquid the pulped fish, and salt and flour, of
each 1 lb-, along with red bole, or infusion of  co-
chineal,  sufficient to color, and  again  pass  the
whole  through the sieve.  The  product will be
about 20 lbs.
  II. To the last add Cayenne pepper \ oz.;  the
grated peel of a lemon,  and mushroom catsup,
4 oz.
  III. Use  British  anchovies (pickled sprats) oi
young pilchards,  along with herring liquor, or  the
drainings of anchovy barrels.
  Use. As  a  sauce and  condiment;  when well
prepared it has a  fine flavor.
  ESSENCE OF BITTER ALMONDS.  (See
Almond  Flavor.)
  ESSENCE OF  BITTER  ALMONDS,
(CONCENTRATED.)   Prep.  Essential oil of
almonds 2 oz.; rectified st.rit of wine 1 pint; dis-
solve.  Very powerful.  (See page 49.)
  ESSENCE  OF  CHAMOMILE.  Prep. Es-
sential oil of chamomile  £ oz. to 1  oz.;  spirit of
wine 1 pint; mix.  White.
  II. Gentian  root,  sliced or bruised, 1 lb.; dried
orange peel  \ lb.; spirit of wine  1 gallon; essen-
tial oil of chamomile  5 oz.;  macerate  a week.
Slightly colored.  Some persons use  £ lb. of quas-
sia wood,  instead of the gentian  and orange peel.
Both the above are stomachic and tonic.
  ESSENCE  OF  CAMPHOR.    Syn. Ess.
Camphora.   Do. Concentrated.   Prep.  Cam-
phor (clean) 4£ oz.;  rectified spirit of w ae 1 gal-
lon ; dissolve.
  Remarks. There is a large quantity of this  so-
lution of camphor sold by  the wholesale druggists,
who charge a considerable price for it.   It  is very
convenient for preparing extemporaneous camphor
julep or mixture.   About  £ dr. added to 7£ drs. of
distilled water forms 1 oz.  of  a transparent aque-
ous solution of camphor.   (See  Camphor  Julep,
p. 156.)
  ESSENCE  OF  CAPSICUM.   The same as
Essence of Cayenne.
  ESSENCE  OF CARAWAY SEEDS.  Syn.
Ess. Carui.  Concentrated  Ess. of  Caraways.
Prep.  Essential oil of caraway 1 oz.; spirit of wine
1 pint  Used in dispensing,  and by confectioners
and cooks as a flavoring.
  ESSENCE OF  CARAWAY SEEDS, (dou-
ble distilled.)  Essential oil 2 oz.; spirit of wine
1 pint.
  ESSENCE OF CAYENNE.  Syn. Ess. Cap-
sici.  Concentrated Essence of Cayenne Pep-
per.  Prep. Capsules of capsicum, bruised, 3 IBs.:
rectified  spirit  1  gallon;  digest for 14 days, then
press and filter.
  Remarks. This liquid has  an intensely burning
taste ;  one drop is sufficient to deprive a person of
the power of speech for several seconds.  It is used
as a  flavoring, and for making soluble cayenne
pepper; also in dispensing.
  ESSENCE OF CASSIA.  Syn. Ess. C assize
Prep.  Oil  of  cassia 1 oz.; spirit of wine  1 pint j
mix.   Used as a  flavoring, &c.
  ESSENCE OF  CARDAxMOMS.  Syn.  Ess.
Cardamomi.  Do. do. concent.    Prep.  Lesser
cardamom seeds  5£ lbs. ;  spirit of wine  1 gallon;
digest for a fortnight; press and filter.
   Remarks. This preparation is  very convenient
for flavoring cordials, pastry,  &c.  It is very pow-
erful.  In the druggist's laboratory it is frequently
substituted for powdered  cardamoms  in making 
ESS
275
ESS
 compound extract of colocynth, and for this pur-
 pose has the advantage of adding no inert matter,
 while it imparts the  characteristic odor of the seeds
 in  a remarkable degree.   When used in this way,
 it is  added to  the  Extract when nearly cold and
 about to be taken from the pan.
   Cardamom seeds  are very difficult to bruise in
 a mortar, and seldom  get  perfectly crushed,  even
 after long beating.   It will be found much the best
 plan to grind them  in  a  pepper-mill.   The tests
 should be  separated from  the kernels,  as the for-
 mer are quite inert,  and if used occasion a loss of
 Bpirit for no purpose.
   ESSENCE OF CELERY SEED.   Syn. Con-
 centrated Ess. of  Celery.  Prep. Celeryseeds,
 bruised, 4 oz.;  proof spirit 1 pint; digest  10  days
 or more.   Use.  As a flavoring.   It is better if pre-
 pared with rectified spirit, when double the weight
 of seed may be used.
   ESSENCE  OF  CINNAMON.   Syn.  Ess.
 Cinnamo.mi.   As Essence of Cassia.  Used in con-
 fectionery and cookery.
   ESSENCE  OF ClVETTE.  Syn. Ess. Zi-
 bethi.   Prep.  I. Civette  1 oz.; spirit  of  wine 1
 pint ; as essence of  musk.
   II. Instead  of spirit of  wine use spirit of am-
 brette.   Used as a perfume.
   ESSENCE OF COLTSFOOT. Prep. I. Bal-
 sam of tolu 1  oz.;  compound  tincture of benzoin
 and rectified spirit of wine, of each 2 oz.;  dissolve.
   II. Tincture of tolu, compound tincture of ben-
 zoin, and spirit of wine, of each equal parts.
   Remarks. This balsam  is pectoral  and stimu-
 lant.   It is a quack remedy for consumption and
 most diseases of the lungs, but  is more likely to
 kill than cure in these complaints.
   ESSENCE  OF  CUBEBS.  Syn.  Ess. Cube-
 ba.  Prep. Cubebs 4 lbs., (bruised, or preferably
 ground  in a pepper-mill;)  rectified spirit 1 gallon;
 digest 14 days,  press and filter.  This essence has
 a very large sale, and if carefully prepared from a
 good sample of the  drug, is a most excellent prep-
 aration.  It is generally called " Concentrated Es-
 sence of Cubebs."
   II. (Dublanc.)  Oleo-resinous extract of cubebs
 ^j; rectified spirit ^iij; dissolve.   This is  a  very
 active and concentrated form of  administering cu-
 bebs, but must not  be confounded with the  pre-
 ceding.   The  former  is  the one  always meant
 when " Essence of Cubebs" is ordered.
  ESSENCE OF  DILL.   Syn.  Ess. Anethi.
 Prep.  I. Oil of dill  (anethum) ffj ; spirit of wine
 f fxix ;  mix ; white.
  II. Oil of dill, extract of dill, and salt of tartar,
 of each  5s8 > spirit  of wine j pint;  digest and
 strain.
  Remarks  Both the  above are  aromatic and
 flatulent   The  first is  commonly us°d as an ad-
 junct to other medicines,  especially purgat:ves for
 children.
  ESSENCE OF ERGOT.   Syn. Ess. Ergota.
 Ess. Secali Cornuti.  Concentrated Ess. of
 Ergot of Rye.   Prep. Ergot, reduced to coarse
powder by pounding, or preferably  by grinding  in
a pepper-mill, 1 lb.; boiling distilled water  4  lbs.;
mix in a close  vessel,  and digest  with agitation
until cold, then put  it into a wide-mouthed bottle,
and add rectified spirit 2 lbs.; macerate for a week,
Dress and filter.
   Remarks.  4 dr. of this essence are equal to 1 dr.
of ergot in substance.   It is  8 times the strength
of the infusion, (as usually prepared according to
the formula of Pereira  and others,) and 2£ times
the strength of the tincture of ergot of the London
Apothecary's Hall.
   ESSENCE OF GINGER.  Syn. Ess. Zingi-
bers.  Concentrated. Ess. of Ginger.  Prep.
I. Unbleached Jamaica ginger 4 oz., (well bruised ;)
rectified spirit of wine 1 pint; digest for a fortnight,
press, and filter.
   II. (Oxley's  concentrated Essence of Jamaica
Ginger.)   The same  as the preceding, with  the
addition of a very small  quantity of  essence of
cayenne.
   III. Bruised unbleached Jamaica ginger 12 lbs.;
rectified spirit of wine  2£ gallons; digest 14 days,
press, strain, and reduce the essence by distilla-
tion to 1 gallon ; cool  and filter.   Remarks. This
produces a most beautiful article.  A certain me-
tropolitan drug-house that does very  extensively
in this  preparation, employs this form.  It is at
once inexpensive and easily performed,  as the spi-
rit distilled  off may be used with advantage for
preparing the common tincture of ginger, and sev-
eral  other  articles; 2 oz.  of  this essence are re-
garded as equivalent to 3  oz. of  the  finest  ginger.
A single drop swallowed will almost produce suf-
focation.
   IV. Digest 12 lbs. of ginger in 3 galls,  of spirit
of wine, as last, and reduce the  tincture by distil-
lation to 4 pints,  then  cool as quickly as possible
out of contact with the air, and add, of the strong-
est rectified spirit of wine  £ a gallon ; lastly, filter
if required.  Quality remarkably fine.
   V. Ginger and animal charcoal, both in coarse
powder, equal parts ; add enough rectified spirits
of wine to perfectly moisten them, and  after 24
hours put the mass into a " percolator,"  return the
first  runnings  2 or 3 times, then change the re-
ceiver, and pour on spirit gradually as required,
and  at intervals, until as much essence is obtained
as there was ginger employed.  Remarks. Quality
excellent  The mass  remaining in the percolator
may be treated with fresh spirit until  exhausted,
and the tincture so obtained may be advantageous-
ly employed, instead of spirit, in making more es-
sence with fresh ginger.  The last portion of spirit
in the mass  may be  obtained  by adding a little
water.  (See Percolation.)
   ESSENCE   OF GUAIACUM.    Syn.  Ess.
Guaiaci. Concentrated Ess. of Guaiacum. Fluid
Extract of do.  Prep. Guaiacum shavings, from
which the  dust has been  sifted, 3 cwt.  Exhaust
the wood by boiling with water, as in preparing an
extract, using as little of that fluid as is absolutely
necessary; evaporate to exactly 1| gallons; let it
stand until cold, stirring it a!l the time to prevent the
deposite of resinous matter ; put the whole into a
bottle, add  spirit of wine 5 pints;  agitate repeat-
edly for a week, then allow it to settle  for 7 or 8
davs, and decant the clear into another  bottle.
   R, marks.  This preparation is  frequently substi-
tuted for guaiacum shavings in the preparation of
compound aeroction of sarsaparilla.  1  pint of this
essence  is considered equivalent to 19 lbs. of guaia-
cum in substance.
   ESSENCE  OF LEMON-PEEL.   Syn. Ess,
Corticis Limonis. Quintessence of Lemon-rind 
ESS                    276                .   ESS
Prep. I. Yellow peel of fresh lemons £ lb.; spirit
of wine 1 pint.  Digest for a week, press, and filter.
Very fragrant.
   II. Yellow peel  of fresh lemons  1 lb.;  boiling
water £ gallon.  Infuse  1  hour, express the liquor,
boil  down  to  £ a pint,  cool,  and add essence of
lemon  \ oz., dissolved in  spirit of wine 1£ pints;
mix  well, and filter.
   Remarks.  The above  are  used  by cooks and
confectioners as a pleasant flavorinf.  Essence of
orange-peel is made in the same way.
   ESSENCE OF  MUSK.   Syn.  Ess. Moscm.
Tinctura  do.  Prep. I. Grain musk 2 oz. ;  boil-
ing water 1 pint.   Digest in a close vessel  until
cold, then add rectified spirit of wine 7 pints ;  car-
bonate of potassa £ dr.  Cork close, and digest  in
a matrass, in  the sunshine, for 2 months, if in sum-
mer, or in winter in an equally warm situation.  A
water-bath may be  employed to facilitate the pro-
cess.
   II. Substitute  1 oz. of liquor of ammonia  for the
carbonate of potassa in the last formula.
   III.  Grain musk 2 drs.; spirit of wine 2 pints ;
essence of ambergris 1 oz.  As above.
   IV.  Musk  from the  bladder, cut small, 5 oz.;
civet 1 oz.; essence of ambergris 1  pint; spirit of
ambrette 1  gallon.   As before.
   Remarks.  All the  preceding formula? yield fine
essences, but the product of the last is of the  very
finest quality, and such as is seldom  sold except by
the most celebrated houses, when it  fetches  a  very
high price.  It is powerfully and deliriously odorous.
   ESSENCE   OF  MUSTARD,  (WHITE-
HEAD'S.) Prep.  Oil of turpentine 1 pint; cam-
phor, oil of rosemary, and flower of mustard, of
each £ oz. ; mix.
   ESSENCE OF  NEROLI. Prep. I. Neroli 2
dr.;  spirit of wine 1 pint;  mix. A pleasing  per-
fume.
   II. Oil of  orange 2 drs.; orris root, bruised, £
oz.;  ambergris 10 grs.;  neroli  15  drops;  spirit of
wine 1 pint;  digest 14 davs.   Very  fragrant.
   ESSENCE OF  NUTMEG.  Syn.  Ess.  My-
ristica. Ess. Nucis Moschata.   Prep. Essen-
tial oil  1 oz. ;  rectified spirit 1 pint;  dissolve.  Use.
As a flavoring in  the arts  of  the cook, liqueurist,
and confectioner.
   ESSENCE OF ORANGE, YELLOW. Prep.
Fresh  orange-peel,  spirit of wine, and  water, of
each £ pint  Digest for 1 week, press, filter, and
add sherrv  wine 2 or 3 pints.   A pleasant liqueur.
   ESSENCE OF ORANGE PEEL,  (SAC-
CHARINE.)  Syn. Oleo-saccharum of Orange.
The  yellow rind rubbed  off with hard white sugar.
In a similar way may  be prepared essences or oleo-
sacchara of  every variety  of lemons, citrons,
oranges. &c.   (See Citrons, p. 199.)
   ESSENCE OF PATCHOULI.   Syn.  Spirit
of Patchouli. Prep. Indian patchouli  leaves 2
lbs.; rectified spirit  of wine 9 pints; water 1 gal-
lon.  Macerate for 1 week, frequently shaking the
vessel, then distil over  exactly 1 gallon.   A  very
fashionable perfume.
   ESSENCE OF PENNYROYAL.  Syn.  Ess.
Pulegh.  Spiritus Pulegii.  Spirit of Penny-
royal.  Prep. Oil of pennyroyal  3 oz. ;  green
spinage or  parsley 1 oz.;  spirit of wine 1  quart ;
mix.  Digest until sufficiently colored, and strain.
Aromatic, stimulant, emmenagogue.
  ESSENCE  OF PEPPERMINT.  Syn. Ess
Mentha Piperita.  Prep.  Oil  of peppermint 1
oz; herb  peppermint £  oz. ; spirit of wine  1  pint
Digest for a week, or  until  sufficiently colored.
Palish-green, and very strong of the peppermint
  Remarks.  Essence of  peppermint is not  con-
ceived to be good by the ignorant unless it has a
pale tint of green, which they presume is a proof
of its being genuine. The most harmless way is
to steep a little of the green peppermint in the spirit
for this purpose, (as above,) or if this is not at hand,
a little parsley will  do equally as well, and  in fact
improve the flavor.   Some persons use spinage for
the same purpose, and others add a few grains  of
sap green, dissolved in a spoonful of hot water. All
these are quite innocent.   The  practice of using
cupreous salts, adopted  by some lazy and unprin-
cipled makers, is  unpardonable, and admits of  no
excuse, even a  lame one,  $ not the least  advan-
tage, either of convenience, or cost, or appearance,
results from  such  a practice, while the coloring
matter, though small in  quantity, is nevertheless
sufficient to impart  a noxious quality to the liquor,
This fraud may be detected by the addition  of
liquor of ammonia in excess.
  Essence of peppermint is cordial, s. piulant, and
stomachic.  A  few drops  on sugar, or mixed with
water, or wine, is an excellent  remedy in flatu-
lence, colic, sickness, &c.  It is also used as a fla-
voring.   Dose.  10 drops to a teaspoonful.
  ESSENCE  OF QUININE.  Syn.  Alkalink
Ess. of Quinine.   Prep.  Diluted  sulphuric acid
1 dr.;  alcohol  1  oz.; add sulphate of  quinine to
saturation.
  ESSENCE  OF RATIFIA.  Prep. Essential
oil of almonds  1  oz.; spirit  of wine 1  pint; mix.
Used to  make  noyeau, &.c.  (See Almond Fla-
vor, and Essence of Bitter Almonds.)
  ESSENCE OF ROSES, (ODOROUS.) Prep.
I. Attar of roses 1 oz.; spirit of wine 1 gallon. Mix
in a close vessel, and assist the solution by placing
it in a bath  of  hot water.  As soon  as  the spirit
gets warm, take it from  the water and  shake till
quite cold.  The next day filter.  Unless the spirit
of wine  be of more than the common strength, it
will not retain the whole of the otto in solution in
very cold weather  '(See  Esprit de la Rose.)
  II. Petals of roses 3 lbs.; digest in spirit of wine
5 quarts for 24  hours; distil to dryness in a water-
bath ; digest  the  distilled  spirit  on 2 lbs. of fresh
rose petals, as before, and repeat the whole pro-
cess of maceration  and  distillation a third,  fourth,
fifth, and sixth time, or  oftener, the  last time only
drawing over 1  gallon, which is the essence. Very
fine.
  ESSENCE OF  ROSES, i^RED.) Syn. Spirit
of Red  Roses.   Tincture oi-  do.   Prep.  Ross
leaves 1 lb.;  spirit  of wine  and water, of  each 2
quarts.  Digest  for 14 days, press, strain, add di-
luted sulphuric  arid 2 drs.; mix well, and the next
day filter.  Use.  To make extemporaneous sirup
and honey of roses, &c. Smells, colors, and tastes
strongly.
  ESSENCE ROY ALE. Syn.  Royal Essence.
Ess.  Regalis.    Prep. (Soubeiran.)  Ambergris
3ij; musk 3j;  civet  and subcarbonate  of po-
tassa, of each 10 grs.; oil  of cinnamon 6 drops;
oil of rhodium and  otto  of roses, of each 4 drops;
rectified  spirit of wine 4 fluid ounces.  Macerate 
ESS                    277                   ETC
 for 10 days, or longer.  Antispasmodic and aphro-
 disiac.  A few drops on sugar, or in sirup of capil-
 laire.
   ESSENCE  ROYALE POUR FAIRE  LA
 BARBE.  Prep. Castile soap, in shavings, 4  oz.;
 proof spirit 1 pint; dissolve. As Esprit de Savon.
   ESSENCE OF  SAVORY  SPICES.   Prep.
 Black pepper 2 oz.; allspice 1 oz.; nutmegs £  oz.;
 cloves, cassia, coriander  and caraway  seeds, of
 each 1 drachm, (all bruised ;) rectified spirit of
 wine 1 pint.   Digest for 14 days, press,  and filter.
 Used  as  a flavoring.  When  made  with  proof
 spirit, and only £ the above weight of spice,  it is
 called " Tincture of Savory Spices."
   ESSENCE  OF SOUP  HERBS, (KITCH-
 INER'S.)   Syn. Spirit of Soup Herbs.  Con-
 centrated  Tincture  of  do.   Prep.  Lemon
 thyme, winter savory, sweet marjoram, and sweet
 basil, of each  L  oz.;  lemon-peel,  grated,  and
 shalotes,  of each £ oz.; bruised celery seed \  oz.;
 proof spirit 1 pint.  Digest for 10 days,  or a fort-
 night.  A superior flavoring essence  for  soups,
 gravies, &c.
   ESSENCE  OF  SOAP.   Syn. Ess. Saponis.
 Prep. (P. Cod.) White soap  §iij; carbonate of
 potassa 3j; proof spirit ^xij.   Dissolve and filter.
   ESSENCE  OF SMOKE.  Syn.  Ess. Fuli-
 ginis.  Smoking Fluid, &c.  Rough pyroligneous
 acid.  Used to impart a smoky flavor to meat and
 fish, by washing it over them, or immersing them
 in it for 2 or 3 minutes.
   ESSENCE  OF SPEARMINT.   Syn.  Ess.
 Mentha Viridis.   Ess. Mentha Sativa. Prep.
 1 oz. of  essential  oil to 1 pint of spirit of wine,
 tinged green.  Process, use, and dose,  the same as
 Essence of Peppermint.
   ESSENCE  OF SPRATS.   Syn. Solid  Es-
 sence of Sprats.   Extract of  do.  Prep.  Es-
 sence of  anchovies (made  with sprats) 7 lbs.;  add
 wheat flour to thicken to the consistence  of cream,
 then gently evaporate  to  a stiff paste.  Sold for
 solid essence of anchovies.
   ESSENCE OF SPRUCE.  Syn.  Ess. Abie-
 tis.   This is prepared by  boiling the twigs of the
 spruce or Scotch fir in water, and evaporating the
 decoction.  It is stimulant and  tonic.  Used to
 make spruce beer.
   ESSENCE  OF  TURTLE.  Prep. Essence
 of anchovies and shallot wine, of each  3 oz.; basil
 wine £ pint; mushroom ketchup i pint;  the juice
 of 2 lemons ; the yellow peel of 1 lemon ; curry
 powder \  oz.  Digest for 1 -week.  Use.  To  im-
 part the flavor of turtle to soups and gravies.
   ESSENCE  OF VANILLA.  Prep.  I.  Va-
 nilla, cut small,  1 lb.; spirit of wine £ gallon.  As
 Essence of Musk.
   II. Vanilla (best)  f  lb.;  spirit  of ambrette  1
 quart; cloves 30 grs.; grain musk 7 grs.  As last.
 Very superior. Used as a perfume and flavoring.
  ESSENCE OF WORMWOOD.   Syn. Ess.
 Absinthii.  Prep.  (Van  Mons.)  Salt of worm-
 wood 3v;  extract of wormwood 3j;  tincture  of
 wormwood 1  pint.   Digest  and filter.
  ESSENCES  FOR KITCHEN USE.   Syn
Culinary Essences.  Flavoring do.  Spice  do.
Essences  for the Table.  The principal of these
are the Esiences of Allspice,  Cassia,  Celery,
Cinnamon, Cloves,  Mace, Marjoram,  Nutmegs,
Ginger, Cayenne, Garlic,  Lemon-peel, Orange-
 peel, Peppermint,  Spearmint,  Caraway seeds
 Cardamom seeds, Coriander seeds, <$-c, fyc.; the
 whole of which are generally made by either dis.
 solving £ oz. of the essential oil of the  spice in  a
 pint of rectified spirit of wine, or by macerating  4
 oz. of the  bruised spice in a like quuntity'of the
 same fluid for  a week.  When made  with only  £
 or \ the above quantity of spice or flavoring, and
 with proof spirit, or brandy, instead  of spirit of
 wine, they are  commonly called " Culinary Tinc-
 tures,"  or " Tinctures for Kitchen  Use." The
 whole  of these are employed to flavor  gravies,
 soups,  pastry,  mulled wine,  &c.  See also Con-
 centrati-.d Essences, before described.
   ESSENTIA BINiE.   (Literally,  Essence of
 Malt.)   The brewer's name for coloring, or burnt
 sugar.   (See Coloring.)
   ESSENTIA ODORIFERA.   Prep.  I. Grain
 musk and balsam of Peru, of each 11 grs.; civet
 and oil of cloves, of each 5 grs.; oil of rhodium  2
 grs.; salt of tartar 30 grs. ; alcohol 2 oz.   Mace-
 rate for 14 days, then pour off the clear.   A beau-
 tiful perfume.
   II.  Oil of rhodium and balsam of Peru, of ea^.
 £ dr.; oil of cloves 1 dr. ;  spirit of ammonia \ oz.;
 essence of civet 2 oz.; essence  of musk 5 oz.; ne-
 roli, oils of lavender, verbena, and cassia,  of each
 5 drops.  Mix. dissolve, and filter.  Very fine
   ESSENTIAL SALT OF  BARK.    Extrs*t
 of Peruvian bark, prepared with cold water, and
 evaporated bv a gentle heat.
   ESSENTIAL SALT  OF LEMONS. The
 preparation sold under this name  is made by mix-
 ing cream  of  tartar (bitartrate  of potassa) with
 twice its weight of salt of sorrel, (binoxalate of po-
 tassa,) both in fine powder.   It is used to remove
 fruit stains from  linen, by rubbing a little  of it on
 the part moistened with warm water.  It is poison-
 ous.
   ETCHING. A species of engraving, in which
 the design is formed on the plate  by the action of
 an acid, or some other fluid, instead of the graver.
   Proc. The  plate is  covered with a ground or
 varnish capable of resisting the action of the etch-
 ing fluid, the design is next scratched on the metal
 by means of a  species of needle or pointed tool of
 steel.  A border of wax  is then placed round the
 plate, and the "biting" menstruum poured  on, and
 allowed to remain till the lights or finest portion of
 the design  is sufficiently " bit  in." The  etching
 fluid is then poured off, the plate  washed,  and the
 light  parts " stopped up"  with wax  or  varnish,
 when the solvent is again  poured on, and  allowed
 to remain until the finest portion  of the exposed
 lines are sufficiently deep, when the acid is again
 poured  off, and the whole process is repeated till
 the very darkest lines or shadows are sufficiently
 formed.  The plate is then cleaned, and is printed
 from in  the same way as a common engraved cop-
 per-plate.  The most approved  way of laying the
 design on the  etching ground, is first to  draw it
 with a black-lead pencil on paper, then  to damp
 the paper, place it with the design  next the wax
 or varnish, and  to pass the whole through a rolling-
 press, by which means the picture will be  trans-
 ferred from the  paper to the ground.
   There are several  varieties of  etching,  among
 which may be  named etching  with a dry point,
performed entirely with  the  point, without any 
ETC                    278                    ETH
ground, the burr being removed with the scraper ;
etching with a soft ground, when  a coating of
lard or tallow is employed, and the design is drawn
on a piece  of paper, laid evenly on the ground, by
which means the fatty matter adheres to the paper,
on the parts pressed on by the pencil, and the cop-
per beneath becomes exposed.  This method  is
employed to  produce imitations  of chalk or pencil
drawings.  Stippling, or executing  the  design in
dots instead of lines. Aquatinta, in which a weak
spirituous solution of gum mastich is poured over the
plate, placed in a  slanting  direction, by which a
granulated surface is formed, and small interstices
left, exposing the  naked metal: a wall of wax is
next  placed  round the margin of the plate, the
etching fluid poured on, and the  lighter parts  suc-
cessively " stopped out" until the design is com-
pleted.  Aquatinta  etchings bear a great  resem-
blance to Indian ink drawings.  The fineness or
coarseness of the grain depends  entirely upon the
quantity of matter dissolved in the spirit employed
to form the ground.
   The fluids employed for " biting" in the designs
vary considerably; almost every etcher having his
own receipt.   Aquafortis, more or less diluted, is,
however, generally employed for copper, and  this,
with the addition of pyroligneous acid, for etching
on steel; but any fluid that will rapidly dissolve the
metal may be used for this purpose.   The etching
varnish or ground may be formed of any substance
 capable of resisting the action of the etching fluid,
 and, at the same time, sufficiently soft to allow of
 the  free use of the needle or point, and sufficiently
 solid to prevent an injury to the design during the
 " scratching in."   (See Fluids and Varnishes.)
   In etching on glass, the  ground is  laid on, and
 the  design scratched out in  the usual way, when
 liquid hydrofluoric  acid is applied, or the  glass is
 exposed to the action of hydrofluoric acid gas.  The
 former renders the surface of the etching transpa-
 rent, the  latter opaque.  A  very simple way of
 performing this operation is to wet the design  with
 sulphuric acid, and then to sprinkle on some finely-
 pulverized fluor  spar,  (fluoride of calcium,) by
 which means  hydrofluoric acid is set  free  and at-
 tacks the  glass.  This may be very easily applied
 to the graduation  of glass vessels, thermometer
 tubes, &c.
   A most rapid method of etching on iron or steel,
 capable of very general application, is as follows :
 Warm the  metal  until it is capable of melting a
 piece of beeswax,  or etching varnish, which  must
 then be carefully  rubbed over it, so  as to form a
 thin and  even coating; allow the whole  to  cool,
 and scratch out the design in the  common  way,
 with a needle or  point; then  sprinkle on a little
 powdered iodine, and at the same time add a few
 drops of water with a camel-hair pencil, and  work
 them into a liquid paste, which must  be  moved
 about  over  the  intended engraving, for a period
 varying from one to five minutes, accordiug to the
 depth  of  lines required  to  be  produced.  After-
 wards wash the whole in  clean water.   Persons
 acquainted with the properties of iodine will  read-
 ily  perceive that the same etching-paste, by  being
 kept for a few days, will again acquire the  prop-
 erty of dissolving  iron.   I  have thus successfully
 employed the same materials three or four times.
persede the use of acids for the above purpose, or
account of its portability  and convenience.   To
travellers  and amateurs  who amuse  themselves
with the delightful art of etching, it will, I think,
prove  invaluable.   [I published  this  method of
etching some  two or three years since, and have
since adopted it with considerable success.]
   ETHAL, (from eth and al, the first syllables of
ether and alcohol, from its composition resembling
those liquids.)  A substance  discovered by Chev-
reul, and formed  during the saponification of sper-
maceti.
   ETHER.  Syn.  Sulphuric Ether.  Oxide of
Ethule.  Ether, (Fr.)  ^Ether, (Lat.) ./Ether
vitriolicus, (P. L.  1788.)  jEther rectificatus,
(P. L. 1809 and 18-24.)  jEther sulphuricus, (P.
L.)  Vitriolic Naphtha.  Naphtha Vine  (From
aiQns, pure air, or any  highly subtile fluid.)  In
Chemistry, a volatile, fragrant,/inflammable, and
intoxicating liquid, obtained by distilling a mixture
of sulphuric acid and alcohol.
   Hist. Ether,  in  combination with alcohol, is
said to  have been known to Raymond Lully in the
,13th, and  to Basil Valentine  in  the 15th century;
but the precise directions  for its preparation were
first  published  by  Valerius  Cordus in  1544, by
whom it was called Oleum  Vitrioli dulce.  The
term ether was first employed by Froberus about
the year 1730.   It  is  only within the present cen-
tury that  ether  has been obtained in a state of
absolute purity.
   Principles of  ether;firation.   When a mixture
of alcohol  and sulphuric acid is heated to a certain
temperature, a series  of complicated changes en-
sue, among  which is the conversion of the former
 into ether, which  passes over along with some  wa-
 ter  and undecomposed  alcohol, and condense*-, in
 the receiver.   According  to  Liebig,  ether is the
 oxide of a hypothetical  radical  called "ethulr;"
 and alcohol is the hvdrate of this  oxide.   On the
 admixture of sulphuric  acid  and alcohol, a hydra-
 ted bisulphate of ether (oxide of ethule) is formed,
 and this is subsequently  decomposed by heat  into
 ether, water, and sulphuric acid.  " If we consider
 each particle of  the hydrated bisulphate of oxide
 of ethule,  as  composed of ether, (oxide of ethule,)
 anhydrous sulphuric acid, and water, it is clear that
 the anhydrous acid, at the moment of its  separa-
 tion from  the ether, must seize on  all water, free
 or combined, in  the vicinity  of  the ether.   Thus,
 at the  moment the ether  becomes free, the anhy-
 drous acid, also  set free,  prevents it from uniting
 with water to form alcohol.   But when the gaseous
 ether passes through  the  undecomposed hydrated
 bisulphate of oxide of ethule, a certain portion of
 the water of that compound must evaporate in the
 dry gas ;  and under these circumstances the ether
 and water do not combine together.  The  surface
 of the  effervescing liquid has the temperature at
 which  the hydrated bisulphate of oxide of ethule is
 decomposed ; but at  this temperature C2840) the
 water  of  that compound is  gaseous-   There are
 thus produced simultaneously,—water, in the gas-
 eous form, and ether, also gaseous, by decomposi-
 tion ; which, as both are in the nascent state, unite
 to form alcohol.  Thus, the  alcohol, always ob-
 served to  distil over with the ether, is derived from
 the surface; and the ether  and*water which dis-
Iodine will, doubtless, at no very distant period, su-1 til over, proceed from  the decomposition in the 
ETH
279
ETH
 interior of the liquid.   This explains why no ether
 is obtained, when the liquid is not in a state of
 brisn. ebullition, no matter how high the temper-
 ature may be ;  it explains further why more alco-
 hol  is obtained when a  current  of dry air passes
 through the liquid; as, in that  case, the same de-
 composition goes on in the  interior of the liquid as
 generally occurs at the surface."   (Liebig.)
   According to the opinion of  some,  ether  is the
 first hydrate of defiant gas,  and alcohol the sec-
 ond ; and the conversion of the latter into the for-
 mer consists in  the mere abstraction of  the second
 equivalent of water.   This  hypothesis-has been
 principally held in France, and the former in Ger-
 many ;  and  the  elaborate  investigations into the
 composition  of  ethereal compounds, induced by
 these  conflicting opinions  during nearly a dozen
 years, has led to the enrichment of organic  chem-
 istry with a multitude of new compounds- and new
 facts, which might otherwise  have  been  lost to
 science.   These  opposite opinions are, however,
 essentially the  same ; and, as  it  has  been justly
 observed by Liebig,  " men  disputed about them
 because they were not agreed on the  interpreta-
 tion of phenomena."
   A similar opinion to the preceding, is that ether
 is the  hydrate  of a  quadrihydrocarbon, to which
 the name etherin has been  given.  The late Mr.
 Hennel, of Apothecaries' Hall, held this view. He
 considered that in the  conversion of alcohol into
 ether,  a compound of sulphuric  acid and etherin
 (sulphovinic acid) is first formed  with  part  of the
 alcohol, and  that during the ebullition  this com-
 pound is decomposed  ; its dihydrate of carbon uni-
 ting with the  remaining alcohol to  form  ether,
 which distils over, mixed with undecomposed alco-
 hol and water.
   Thus ether has been regarded  by different au-
 thorities as a a  dihydrate of olefiant gas;  a hy-
 drate of etherin;  and as an oxide of ethule, or
 ethereum ; but it must appear  to an impartial ob-
 server that these opinions do not  so grea"tly differ,
 as  their advocates have represented; and  if, as
 suggested  by Kane and Malaguti, acetule be taken
 as the hypothetical radical  of the series, this will
 be very  evident, as may be seen by mere inspec-
 tion of the following table:
   Acetule = C4HS unknown.
   Olefiant gas =C4H 3 + H
   Ethule =C4H3-(-H2 = unknown.
   Ether  = C4II H3+0 = oxide of ethule.
  Chloride of ethule.
          = C4H3Ha-f-CZ = chloric ether.
   Iodide of ethule . . .
          = C4H3H2-f-I  = hydriodic do.
  Acetate of oxide of ethule
          = C4H3 H  50-(-A= acetic do.
  From  the  above table the formation  of  other
 compounds of ethule may be readily explained, by
 mere substitution, which view is supported by the
 actual constitution of  the ethers, according to the
 most correct analysis.  *
  During the distillation of a  mixture of sulphuric
 acid and alcohol, the  relative  proportions of the
ingiedients are  constantly varying, occasioned by
the decomposition of the  alcohol,  and evaporation
of the newly-formed ether  and  undecomposed al-
cohol, by  which  means  the  relative quantity of
sulphuric acid increases, the boiling point rises, and
new reactions take place.  Olefiant gas,  sulphur-
ous  acid, water, carbon, and other products are
formed, some of which pass over into the  receiver.
The distillation of  i'ier is, however, usually stop-
ped  before this po.u. is arrived at.
.   According to theory, 2 equivalents, or  46 parts
of absolute  alcohol, should produce  1  eq., or 37
parts of pure ether, but in practice no such product
can  ever be obtained.  The  greatest product, by
operating according to Boullay's method, which
produces more ether than any other, does  not ex-
ceed 33£ parts for the preceding quantity  of alco-
hol,  or 7f-5§.  (Geiger.)
   Prep. There  are only two methods employed
for the preparation of ether, viz. I. By mixing the
whole of the ingredients at once, and immediately
subjecting them to distillation.   II. By adding the
alcohol  in a slender streamlet to the acid, previ-
ously raised to the  etherifying temperature.   The
former, though  less economical, is the one more
generally employed.   " Ether is  also formed bv
the decomposition of the  bisulphate, biphosphate,
and  biarseniate  of oxide of ethule,  (sulphovinic,
phosphovinic, andarseniovinic acids,) and by the ac-
tion  of fluoride of boron, chloride of zinc,  chloride
of tin, and other chlorides on alcohol." (Liebig.)
   I. a.  (Process  of the L. Ph.)   Rectified spirit
lb. iij ; sulphuric  acid lb. ij ; carbonate of  potassa,
previously ignited,  ^j ;  pour rb. ij of the spirit into
a  glass retort, add the acid,  place it on  a sand-
bath, so that the liquor may boil as quickly as pos-
sible, and the ether pass into  a receiver cooled by
ice or water ;  and distil until a  heavier fluid begin
to pass over.   Then lower the  heat, add  the re-
mainder of the  spirit,  and distil as before.   Mix
the  distilled liquors  together,  pour off the super-
natant portion, add the carbonate of potassa, and
agitate occasionally for one hour; finally, distil the
ether from a large retort, and keep  it  in a well-
stoppered bottle.
   0.  (Liebig.)   Mix 5 parts of alcohol of 90g with
9 parts  of oil  of vitriol, in a  vessel  of copper or
iron, immersed in cold water; introduce  the mix-
ture  into a still, connect it with a refrigerator, and
a well-cooled  receiver,  and raise it  to a  state of
ebullition as rapidly as  possible.  Next  add to the
liquid in the still a fresh quantity of  alcohol, equal
in bulk to the  liquid distilled over, and repeat the
operation.  To the  distilled liquid,  add  as much
concentrated alcoholic  solution of potassa as will
give it a perceptible alkaline reaction, then rectify
it  by distillation in  a water-bath as long as the
ether, which distils  over, has  a sp. gr. of 0-720 to
0-725 at 80° Fahr.  Instead of the  potassa, a lit-
tle milk of lime  may be used, along with  its  own
bulk of water, rectifying the ether as before.   By
allowing the product to stand for some days over
chloride of calcium or quicklime, and again recti-
fying along with one of these substances, perfectly
pure ether will be obtained.
   II. a.  (Process of the  Edinburgh Ph.)  Rec-
tified spirit f §L ; sulphuric acid f ^x ; pour f §xij ol
the  spirit gently  over  the  acid contained in an
open vessel, mix well ; transfer the mixture imme
diately  into a glass matrass connected with a re-
frigeratory,  and  raise the heat  quickly to about
280°.  As soon as ether begins to distil over, sup-
ply fresh spirit tlirough  a tube into the matrass, in. 
ETH                     280                     ETH
a  continued stream,  and in such  quantity as to
equal that of the fluid which distils over   This  is
best done by connecting one end of the tube with
a  graduated vessel  containing the  spirit, passing
the other end through a cork fitted into  the mat-
rass, and having a stopcock on the tube, to regu-
late the  discharge.   When f-^xlij  have distilled
over, and the whole spirit has been added, the pro-
cess may be stopped.  Agitate the product with
f^xvj of a saturated solution of muriate  of lime,
containing ^ss of lime recently slaked,  pour off
the supernatant  liquor,  and  distil  it with a very
gentle heat, so long as the liquor which passes over
has a density not above *735.   More ether  of the
same strength is then to be obtained from the so-
lution of muriate of lime.   From the residuum of
both distillations a weaker  ether may be  obtained
in a small  quantity, which must be rectified  by
gently distilling it again.  Remarks. This process
is  a mere modification of  that first pointed out  by
Boullay, and which has since  been described and
recommended by Mitscherlich,  Liebig, and others.
   /?. (Process employed  at Apothecaries'  Hall.)
The apparatus consists of a leaden still, having a
pewter head, and connected by means of about 6
feet of tin pipe, with a powerful worm condenser,
surrounded  by a constant  stream  of  cold  water,
and which is connected with pewter receivers, fur-
nished with glass lids. The still is heated with a coil
of lead pipe, supplied with high pressure steam, and
the alcohol is supplied to the acid as required,by  means
of a small pipe entering the upper part of the still.
   y. (Process  of Boullay.)  Three parts  of the
strongest oil of vitriol are mixed with sufficient al-
cohol to  reduce its sp. gr.  to 1-780,  (about 2 parts
of alcohol of -830,)  which may be easily regulated
by distilling off some of the ether, if required. The
still or retort is then  connected with a vessel  full
of alcohol, of 90$, by means of a small  syphon fur-
nished with a stopcock;  the  longer  limb  of the
syphon, which should be of glass, being so arranged
that it just dips into the mixture of acid and alco-
hol.   Heat is next applied,  and the  contents of the
still raised to the boiling point as  rapidly  as possi-
ble, and as soon as  full ehullition  commences, the
stopcock of the syphon is turned, so as to  allow the
alcohol to flow down in such a  manner as to keep
the boiling liquid exactly at the same level; or, in
Other words, to supply a quantity of  alcohol exactly
equal to that of the liquid which  distils over.  By
  a, Condenser tube, japanned zinc 28 inches long; b. c,
glass tube, 36 inches long; d, funnel by which cold water
runs in from the water bottle, h; e.pipe by which water es-
capes through/into the bottle g; t, retort; k,  adapter con-
necting the retort with the condenser;  I, adapter, connect-
ing the condenser with the bottles, t, t.  A, Black wooden
tressel, with moveable arms, n, o,  for  supporting and ad-
justing the  height of the condenser; B,  black wooden
careful manipulation  the whole  of the  alcohol
which enters the retort will pass over as ether and
water, and this  decomposition  proceeds for some
time, and would  continue for an unlimited period,
but that the sulphuric acid ultimately becomes too
weak to  form ether, from the  gradual absorption
of the superfluous water contained in the alcohol.
Were it convenient  or practicable to use absolute
alcohol, a  given  weight of sulphuric acid,  of the
proper strength, would maintain the power of pro-
ducing ether for an  indefinite period.   In practice,
the quantity of alcohol that may thus be etherefied
is twice or thrice as much as by the common pro-
cess,  while neither sulphurous acid, su'phovinic
acid, (Geiger,) nor sweet oil of  wine is generated,
and the residual liquid of the distillation continues
limpid, and has only a pale  brown color   A mix-
ture of 9 parts of oil of vitri 1 and 5 parts of alco-
hol of 90$, ceases to produce ether, after 31 parts
of such alcohol have been added.  Sulphuric acid
containing more  than  4£ atoms of water to 1 atom
of dry acid, is too weak for the etherification of
alcohol, and 3£ to 4 atoms of water appears to be
the limit  of dilution, fixed by  experience, for  the
productive preparation of ether.   (Liebig.)
  Remarks.  The  mixture of  alcohol with strong
oil of vitriol requires some caution.  It may be best
done  by  introducing  the alcohol  into a suitable
vessel, and imparting to it a rapid whirling motion,
by  which  a considerable conical  cavity  will be
formed in the centre, and into which the acid may
be  gradually  poured  with perfect  safety.   The
mixed fluids should  be brought to a state of rapid
ebullition  as quickly  as possible, as without this
precaution much of the alcohol will distil over be-
fore the liquor acquires the proper temperature for
etherification.  On  the small  scale, a  tubulated
retort, connected with a Liebig's condensing tube,
and two globular receivers surrounded with a freez-
ing mixture, or very cold water, may be employed
as the distillatory apparatus.  The second receiver
should be*  connected with the  first by means of  a
bent glass tube,  reaching nearly  to the bottom of
the latter; and the whole of the joints should be
securely luted as soon as the  expanded  air has
been allowed to escape.  The following convenient
little apparatus  has been employed  by the writer
for the preparation of small quantities of ether, and
will be found very suitable  for the distillation of
most volatile fluids.
stool for supporting the water bottle, (the legs unscrew
for travelling:) q, furnace ; r,  support for the furnace;?,
gutter for carrying off water that overflows the  funnel d,
and preventing its escape along the pipe c ; m. leg of sypboa
connected with bottle containing alcohol; t, t, glass globes,
placed  in the basins v, v, and surrounded with ice-cold
water; id, safety tube containing a little mercury at x.
 
ETH                    281                    ETH
   This apparatus  may be purchased of Messrs.
 Griffin and Co., or their agents, at a very reasona-
 ble price.   By connecting the neck  of a flask or
 digester  containing volatile fluids with the  lower
 instead of the upper end of the refrigerator, ebulli-
 tion may be  carried on without loss, as  the vola-
 tilized fluid will be  condensed, and run back into
 the vessel from which  it had just distilled.   This
 arrangement will be found useful for boiling mix-
 tures of alcohol and organic acids, described further
 on, or for any similar purpose.  (See  Ethers, or-
 ganic.)
   For the  rectification of  ether a water-ba*h
 should be  employed, and the neck  of the  retort
 may be  advantageously connected with the above
 simple  refrigerator, and the  receivers should be
 surrounded by freezing mixtures.
   Pres. Ether rapidly evaporates at common tem-
 peratures when  kept  in  corked bottles, and even
 in bottles secured with ground-glass  stoppers and
 tightly tied over with  bladder and leather;  it also
 becomes sour by age.   To prevent this waste, the
 stoppers should fit very accurately, and the bottles
 should be  placed in as cool a situation  as possible.
           Bottles furnished with ground-glass caps
           (see engraving) as well as stoppers, are
           frequently  employed.  Dewar's  ether
           vial  is  formed  on a  similar principle.
           The  shoulder is surrounded with a cir-
           cular rim not rising quite  so high as the
           mouth of the bottle, and a capsule sim-
           ilar to the one in the engraving  is in-
           verted and fitted into it.   Mercury  is
           then poured into the rim, and hermeti-
 cally closes  it.   I have seen bottles of ether accu-
 rately stoppered, tied over with bladder and waxed,
 which have  yet become  quite empty by a voyage
 to the tropics, though  they still  appeared to be as
 firmly secured as when they  were first put up.
   Prop., tyc.  Pure ether is  a colorless, transpa-
 rent, and very limpid  fluid, having  a penetrating
 and  agreeable smell,  and a taste at  first burning
 and sweetish, followed by a sensation of coolness.
 Its specific gravity has been variously stated.  Ac-
 cording to Liebig and  Gregory it  is 0-7119 at 75° ;
 0-7154 at lis0 ; and 0*7237 at 55° Fahr.  Others
 state it to be 0-713 to 0-715 at 60°, (Ure, &c.;) or
 0*713 at 68°, (Dumas, Boullay.)   It  is said to be-
 gin  to crystallize in brilliant white  plates when
 cooled to —24°  F., and  at —46° or —47° it be-
 comes a  white  crystalline  mass,  (Ure, Liebig,
 Fourcroy,  Vauquelin,) but,  according to others,
 absolutely  pure  ether  cannot be  solidified by any
 degree of cold that  can  be produced, (Thenard
 and  Bussy.)   It remained fluid  when placed in
 contact with solid carbonic acid, at a temperature
 of about —148°  Fahr., (Pereira.)  It boils at 96°
 or 97° Fahr. ; is very  combustible, is soluble in 10
 parts of distilled  water, and mixes with alcohol in
 all proportions.   It abstracts  corrosive  sublimate,
 terchloride of gold, and sesquichloride of iron from
 their watery solutions.  It  readily  dissolves the
 volatile and fixed oils, most fatty matters, as well
 as sulphur and  phosphorus,  ill small quantities.
By exposure to light and air it absorbs oxygen, and
Water and acetic acid are formed.
   Ether may be  recognised by its volatility, odor,
taste, sparing solubility in water, admixture with
alcohol  in  all  proportions;  its  inflammability,
                       36
burning with a yellowish white flame,  and by itl
power of dissolving fats and resins.
  Pur.  The ether of the shops, generally, contains
alcohol, water, or  acetic acid, and sometimes al
of them.   Its usual specific gravity fluctuates be-
tween -733 and -765.  The London College states
that it should be -750, while the Edinburgh  Col-
lege fixes it at -735 or under.  " It  totally  evapo-
rizes in the air, and slightly reddens litmus."   (P.
L.)   Pure ether should, however, be neutral to test
paper.  " When shaken in a minim measure  with
half its  volume of concentrated solution of muriate
of lime, its volume  is not lessened."  (P. E.)  Ten
fluid ounces of water should only dissolve one  fluid
ounce of  ether,  and should remain transparent.
   Uses, Sec. Ether is powerfully stimulant,  nar-
cotic, and  antispasmodic,  and externally refrige-
rant, and is used in various diseases.   Applied to
the forehead by means of the fingers or a strip  of
linen, it will generally relieve nervous  headache.
In pharmacy it is employed in the  preparation of
several  tinctures, alkaloids,  spirits, &c. ; and  in
chemistry is frequently used in organic  analyses.
It is also  employed as a solvent of resins,  Indian
rubber, &c, in the preparation of varnishes, and
for several other  useful purposes.  Dose. 20 drops
to f 3ij in water or wine.   Excessive doses of ether
produce intoxication resembling that from alcohol,
and  require similar antidotes.  It is  commonly
taken as  a.stimulant by  fashionable  ladies, and
though generally disguised by Cologne water,  may
be often distinguished  in the breath of persons be-
longing to the higher ranks of society.
   Caution. The vapor of  ether is very  inflamma-
ble, and when mixed with atmospheric  air it forms
a violently explosive mixture.   The density of this
vapor is 2-586, that of air  being 1, (Gay  Lussac;)
hence it rapidly sinks,  and frequently accumulates
in the lower parts of buildings, especially  cellars
which are badly ventilated.   Every crack, every
joint  in the  floors of rooms, the  space beneath
doors,  &.c,  offer  a road  for the passage  of this
vapor, which, though  invisible, as surely runs out
of every orifice and finds its level, as a stream of
water would do.   The only remedy is thorough
ventilation.  Many serious accidents have arisen
from this cause, for no sooner is a light carried into
an apartment where such vapor is present, than an
explosion  takes place.   In this  respect the vapor
of ether resembles fire-damp and light gas.  A late
extensive  fire in Upper Thames-street  arose from
a small  bottle of  ether being broken in  the  opera-
tion of packing.  I have heard Dr. Reid particu-
larly call  attention to  this point at his lectures ;
and Dr. Pereira, in  his excellent work on Materia
Medica, mentions  the  case of  an  apothecary at
Bern, whose house was blown up in consequence
of a lighted candle  being taken into the cellar,  in
which a bottle of ether had been broken.
  ETHER, ACETIC.  Syn. Acetate of  Oxide
of  Ethule.   Pyroligneous  Ether.    jEther
Aceticus.   A compound of acetic acid  and ether,
discovered  by the Count de Lauraguais in 1759.
(Thomson.)  Prep. I. (Liebig.) a. Dry acetate
of lead 32 parts ; alcohol 9 parts; oil of vitriol 12
parts ; mix and distil.
  0. Crystallized acetate of soda 10 parts; oil of
vitriol 15 parts ; alcohol of 80 or 85§, 6 parts  ; as
before. 
ETH                    282                    ETH
  II. (Ure.)  a. Acetate of lead 40 parts ;  alcohol
20  parts; concentrated  sulphuric acid 23 parts;
as before.
  fi. Anhydrous acetate of lead 16 parts; sulphu-
ric acid 5 parts ; absolute alcohol (or its equivalent
in alcohol of bO or 85$) 4£ parts ; as before.
  III. Acetate of potassa 3 parts, (or an equiva-
lent proportion of acetate of soda ;)  alcohol of 85§,
3 parts ; strong oil  of vitriol  2 parts ; as before.
An economical process.
  IV. (P. Cod.) Rectified spirit  fxxx ; acetic acid
f §xx; sulphuric acid Jvj 3ij; distil  §xl ; agitate
with carbonate of potash and redistil.
  Remarks.   The distillation should be conducted
in a glass  retort, or earthenware still, connected
with a well-cooled receiver,  and the product should
be rectified along with  chloride of calcium to ab-
sorb the water, and slaked lime to remove the acid,
(Liebig;) or the distilled liquid may be  agitated
along with a weak lye of potassa, and after repose
the supernatant ether may be decanted and recti-
fied along with magnesia and powdered charcoal.
(Ure.)  The rectified acetic ether will be equal in
weight to the alcohol employed.  (Liebig.)
  Prop. Acetic ether is colorless, and bears a con-
siderable resemblance to ether, (sulphuric ether,)
but  has a much  more  agreeable and refreshing
odor.  It boils at 165°, (Liebig —166° Ure ;) has
a sp. gr. of 0-89 at 60° Fahr., (Liebig —0-866  at
45° Fahr., Ure ;)  dissolves in  7  parts of water,
(Liebig. —8 parts, Ure ;) and mixes in all propor-
tions with alcohol and ether.  It is decomposed by
alkalis and oil of vitriol.  According to the acetule-
theory this ether is  properly an acetate of other,
(oxide of ethule.) and may consequently be regard-
ed  as a salt of acetic acid.
   Uses. Acetic  ether is diaphoretic, stimulant,
antispasmodic and narcotic, and has been given in
doses of f oss to f 3ij, in similar cases to those  in
which  sulphuric ether is employed.  Its principal
consumption  is  in  the manufacture  of  British
brandv-
   ETHER,  BENZOIC.   Syn.   Bknzoate   of
 Ether.  Benzoate of  Oxide of  Ethule.   A
colorless oily liquid,  having an  aromatic odor and
taste, and  a sp. gr. slightly  exceeding that of wa-
ter.  It boils at 410° Fahr., and is miscible with
alcohol and ether.   It was  discovered by Scheele.
   Prep. Alcohol of -&30, 4 parts ; crystals of ben-
zoic acid 2 parts; concentrated muriatic acid  1
part;  mix, distil, and as soon  as the  product turns
milky when mixed with water, change the receiver
and collect  the  liquid that distils over.   To  the
product add  water, separate the supernatant ether,
boil with water and a little oxide of lead, (to sepa-
rate benzoic acid,) and  lastly, free  it from water
by allowing  it to stand over  chloride of calcium.
 (Liebig.)  See Ethers, organic
   ETHER, CARBONIC.  Syn. Carbonate  of
 Ether.  Carbonate  of  Oxide   of  Ethule.
Mther Carbonicus.    An ethereal liquid, dis-
covered by Ettling,  and somewhat resembling ox-
alic ether.
   Prep. Add gradually, fragments of potassium
 to  oxalic ether, gently warmed, as  long as bub-
bles of gas are formed ; remove the excess of metal
from  the  semisolid mass,  add water and  distil.
The carbonic ether  will float on the surface of the
liquid in the receiver, and must be collected, dried
by contact with chloride of calcium, and rectified
along with some potassium or sodium, till it ceases
to yield acetate of potassa when acted on by caus-
tic potassa.   (Liebig.)
  ETHER,  CHLORIC.   Syn.  Chloride of
Ethule. Chlorhydric Ether. Hydrochloric do.
Muriatic do.  Marine do.  jEther Muriaticub.
Do.  Ciiloricus. Do.  Hydrochloricus.  Prep. I.
(P. Cod.)  Alcohol and muriatic acid equal parts by
weight; distil by a gentle heat, into a series of re-
ceivers, the  first of which should  contain a  little
warm water, and the  others should be surrounded
with ice.
  II. (Medicinal Chloric Ether.)  This is usually
prepared by putting dry chloride  of lime  into a
glass or earthenware retort, with just enough al-
cohol to moisten and  cover it, and distilling by a
gentle heat into a receiver, surrounded with ice or
a freezing mixture.
  III.  (Pure.)  Saturate   alcohol  with  muriatic
acid gas, carefully distil, purify the product  from
alcohol  and water by neans of chloride of calcium,
and preserve it in inverted stoppered bottles, in a
cool  place.
  Remarks. Chloric ether  requires the same care
in its distillation  as sulphuric ether, previously de-
scribed, and the same  apparatus may be advanta-
geously employed.  It has a  penetrating,  garlic-
like smell, a sp. gr. of  *874  at 40°, dissolves in 24
parts of water, is neutral, boils at  51°, and burns
with a greenish flame and the production of mu-
riatic acid.   Its  physiological  action is similar to
the other ethers.  It has  been given in dyspepsia,
hepatic diseases,  hectic fever, &c,  in doses of f 3ss
to f'3iij.   The spiritus salis  dulcis (P. E. 1735)
was a mixture of this ether and alcohol, but Gehlen
first brought  it into notice in 1804.   (Thomson.)
It is but little employed  in England, judging from
the demand for it; a very  large metropolitan drug-
house having only sold about 16 ounces in the last
twelve months.
  ETHER,  CHLORO-CARBOMC.   Dumas
has given this name to a peculiar liquid formed by
saturating absolute alcohol with  chloro-carbonic
acid, (phosgene  gas.)  The  lower stratum that
forms is the  ether.  It must be purified by stand-
ing over oxide of lead  and muriate  of lime, and by
subsequent  rectification.   It has  a disagreeable
smell, is  heavier than water, and boils at  200°
Fahr.   It  is decomposed by water.
   ETHER,  CYANIC.   Syn.  Bicyanurate  of
Ether.   Do.  of Oxide  of  Ethule.    -Ether
Cyanicus.   Prep.  Saturate a mixture of  alcohol
and  ether with hydrated cyanic acid, in vapor.  In
24  hours collect the crystals, and  purify by solu-
tion  and crystallization in  hot alcohol or  water.
Tasteless,  inodorous, colorless, transparent needles
and  prisms.   (Wohler and Liebig.)
   ETHER,  HYDRIODIC.   Syn.  Iodide of
Ethule.   A colorless liquid, discovered by Gay
Lussac, and obtained by  saturating alcohol with
hydriodic acid and distilling.   It is about as dense
as oil of vitriol, has an ethereal smell, and  boils at
150° to 160° Fahr.
   ETHER, HYDROBROMIC.  .s,„.  Bromide
of Ethule.  A  volatile ethereal l.qn.d di>co\cred
by Serullas.  It  is prepared by  dissolving  H parts
of bromine in 32 parts of  alcohol, add n- one part
of phosphorus, and distilling the mixture by a gentle 
ETH                    283                     ETH
 heat as soon as it becomes cold.   The ether is sep-
 arated  from the distilled liquid by the addition of
 water ; it is heavier than the latter.
   ETHER, HYDROTELLURIC.  Thismaybe
 prepared  by distilling the mixed aqueous solutions
 of sulphovinate of baryta and telluret  of sodium.
 The  latter  is prepared by calcining  tellurium, or
 telluret of bismuth with carbonate of soda and char-
 coal,  and must be used as soon as  made.  Hydro-
 telluric ether has  a yellowish red color, like bro-
 mine, and is heavier than water.   (Wohler.)
   ETHER, METHYLIC.  Syn.  Hydrate  of
 Methylene.  A colorless gas, prepared  by distil-
 ling a mixture of »qual measures of oil of vitriol and
 pyroxilic spirit
   ETHER,  MURIATIC,  (HEAVY.) A name
 given to a liquid obtained by Scheele, by distilling a
 mixture of oil of vitriol, peroxide of manganese, chlo-
 ride of sodium and  aicohol. It is more conveniently
 prepared by saturating alcohol of 80  to 85g, in the
 cold, with chlorine,  adding  water, collecting the
 oily fluid that separates, and washing it with wa-
 ter as  long as any of it is dissolved.   This fluid
 boils  at about 245° Fahr., and is heavier than wa-
 ter.   This ether enters into the composition of the
 spiritus muriatico-ethereus, a remedy occasionally
 used  on the Continent.   (Liebig.)
   ETHER,  NITROUS.   Syn.  Hyponitrous
 Ether.  Hyponitrite of Oxide of  Ethule. Do.
 of Ether.   It is said that sweet spirit of nitre was
 known to Raymond Lully in the 13th century, and
 that  Basil Valentine, in the 15th  century, taught
 an improved method of preparing it, (Dulk, quoted
 by Dr.  Pereira;) but nitric ether was  first mention-
 ed by Kunckel  in 1681.  (Thomson.)
   Prep. I. (Process of the Edinburgh Ph.) Rec-
 tified spirit  1 quart, and f^vj;  pure nitric acid of
 1-500 f^vij ; put f^xv of the spirit  into  a quart
 matrass, fitted with a cork and safety tube, reach-
 ing to within an inch of the  spirit, and a  second
 tube  leading to a refrigeratory. Fill the safety tube
 with  the nitric acid, then add through it, gradually
 and cautiously,  f ^iiiss of the acid.  When the vio-
 lent action that ensues  is nearly over, gradually
 add  the remaining portion of the acid, f |ss at a
 time, and at intervals.  The ether  that distils over
 must be agitated first with a little milk of lime, till it
 ceases to redden litmus paper, and then with half its
 volume of concentrated solution of  muriate of lime.
 " The pure hyponitrous ether should  have a densi-
 ty of 0-899."
   II.  The Dublin College orders  purified  nitrate
 of potash, dried and in powder, lb. iss; sulphuric
 acid lb.j ; rectified spirit of  wine f fxix; the acid
 and spirit are to be first  mixed, and then  poured
 very gradually on the powdered nitrate placed in
 a  tubulated  retort,  and  connected  with  a well-
 cooled receiver,  by means of a bottle, containing a
 pound of spirit of wine, adopting the usual precau-
 tions ; the product  is to  be  shaken  with  about a
 drachm of dried and finely-powdered carbonate of
 pot'wsa, and the ether decanted after a time.
  III. (Process of  M.  Pedroni.)  Crystallised ni-
trate of ammonia  11 parts ;  oil of vitriol 8 parts;
alcohol  9 parts ; mix the last two, and pour them
on the  salt contained in any suitable  distillatory
vessel, connected with a well-cooled receiver.  Ni-
trous  ether will gradually distil over  by  the appli-
 cation of heat.  A common fire may be employed
without danger, as the liberation  of the ether pro-
ceeds gradually, and  not almost instantaneously,
as in operating in the usual way.  Sulphate of am-
monia is left  in  the retort.   (Comptes  Rendus,
1«43.)
   IV.  Alcohol of 85§, 9 parts; water 4 parts;
fuming nitric acid 8 parts; introduce the spirit into
a strong cylindrical glass vessel, 3 times as high as
wide, capable of holding one-fifth  more than the
liquid to be placed in it, and by means of a funnel
tube reaching to the bottom  of the vessel, and
having a small orifice ; add the water cautiously,
so that it may form a stratum beneath the alcohol,
without  mixing with  it; in like manner add  the
acid, taking care that the three strata do not  mix ;
then tightly stop the vessel, and allow it to repose
at a temperature of 53° Fahr., for  2 or 3  days,
when the stratum of ether which has formed must
be collected and purified by rectification. (Turner's
Chem., 7th ed.)
   V. (Liebig's Process.) Starch  1  part;  nitric
acid, sp. gr. 1-30, 10 parts ; alcohol of 85g, 2 parts;
water 1 part; introduce the starch and acid into
a capacious retort, connected with a wide tube 2
or 3 feet long, bent at right angles, and terminating
near the bottom of a two-necked bottle,  contain-
ing  the  alcohol and  water mixed together, and
surrounded with a  freezing mixture  or very cold
water.  The other neck of the bottle must be con-
nected by a wide and long glass tube, with a good
refrigerator or condenser.   The  heat of a water
bath must be cautiously applied to the retort, when
pure hyponitrous acid will be set free, and passing
into the alcohol will form hyponitrite of oxide of
ethule, (ether,) which will distil in a gentle stream.
The tube connecting the retort and bottle must be
cooled by means of a rag or moist paper, wetted
from time to time with ice-cold water; for if  the
tube and the  alcohol be not carefully cooled,  the
latter becomes  spontaneously  hot, and boils vio-
lently, when the product is vitiated.  This process
is very productive and economical, and yields per-
fectly pure  hyponitrous ether.
   Prop., Uses, fyc. Pure hyponitrous ether  has a
pale yellow color, a mixed odor of apples and Hun-
gary wines, a sp. gr. of 0-947 at 60° Fahr., and boils
at 62° Fahr.  That prepared by the ordinary pro-
cesses contains aldehyde, boils at 70°, has a sp. gr.
of 0*886 at 40° Fahr., has a similar odor to the for-
mer, but at times suffocating, and turns brown  when
mixed with an alcoholic solution of potassa,  while
the former remains white. It also becomes acid by
age, while pure hyponitrous ether remains neutral.
The ether  prepared by the  last formula is chemi-
cally pure, (Liebig,) and that by the  third, nearly
so.   The Others contain aldehyde.   Ordinary hy-
ponitrous ether dissolves in about 48 parts of wa-
ter, and mixes  in all proportions with alcohol and
sulphuric ether.  (Liebig.)
  Hyponitrous ether is refrigerant, diaphoretic, and
diuretic,  but is seldom  employed alone,  though,
when largely diluted with alcohol, under the name
of " sweet spirits of nitre," it is a common remedy.
It is also used in the  manufacture of British bran-
dy.  (See Spirits of  Nitre, sweet.)
   ETHER, CENANTHIC.   Syn.  (Enanthate
of  Oxide  of Ethule.  This  is the oil obtained
towards the  end of the distillation  of fermented
liquors, especially wines  Tt is  purified by agita- 
ETH                    284                   ETH
tion with a weak solution of carbonate of potassa,
repose, and decantation.   It is lighter than water,
boils at 425° Fahr., and has  an odor# resembling
an empty wine cask  or  bottle that has  been ex-
posed to the air for some time.  As obtained by dis-
tillation,  it is uuited with a little cenanthic  acid.
2200 imperial gallons of wine (about 35 hogsheads)
only yielded 2\ lbs. of the mixed oil.
  ETHER,  OXALIC.   Syn.  Oxalate of Ox-
ide of  Ethule.  Neutral do.  A colorless oily
liquid, slightly heavier than water, boiling at 370°
Fahr., and having an aromatic smell.   It was dis-
covered by Thenard.
  Prep.  Biuoxalate of potassa, and alcohol of 90$,
of each 4 parts;  oil of vitriol  5 parts ; mix  in  a
glass retort and distil with a quick fire; as soon as
the product becomes turbid when mixed  with  wa-
ter, change  the  receiver, agitate the subsequent
product with 4 or 5 times its weight of water, and
repeat the agitation  with  fresh water  until  the
ether becomes neutral to test  paper ;  then rectify
it in a dry retort that it will  about nine-tenths fill,
and as soon as the boiling proceeds smoothly, in-
stead of by jerks, change the receiver; the remain-
ing product will be pure anhydrous oxalic ether.
(Ettlinsr.)  See Ethers,  organic
  ETHER, PHOSPHORATED. Syn. jEther
Phosphoratus.  Prep. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, cut
small,  1  part; ether 50  parts;  digest with occa-
sional agitation for 1 month, and decant  the clear.
  ETHER, SULFURIQUE  IODURE.   Syn.
Ethereal Tincture of Iodine.   Prep.  Iodine
40 grs.;  sulphuric ether  Jj; dissolve.   Dose.  5 to
10 drops, where the use of iodine is indicated.
  ETHER, SULFURIQUE  avec  le Deuto-
iodure de Mercure.  Syn. Ethereal Tincture
of  Bin-iodide* of Mercury.  Prep.  Biniodide of
mercury 16  grs.; sulphuric ether §iss ;   dissolve.
Dose.   5 to 12 drops.
  ETHERS, ORGANIC.   The preparation of
some of  the  organic ethers has been found to be
attended with considerable  difficulty, and hence
have  arisen various contrivances to induce the or-
ganic acids to combine  with the ethereal  base.
Among the methods generally adopted until lately,
may be mentioned the admixture of  a salt of the
organic acid with  alcohol, to  which  some strong
inorganic acid is added, when the acid of the salt
being liberated in the nascent  state, it enters  into
a  new combination, forming  ether.   In  this way
acetic and oxalic  ethers are commonly  prepared.
Or the organic acid being mixed with alcohol, sul-
phuric or hydrochloric acid  is added,  by  which an
oiganic ether is  produced.   Benzoic ether may be
taken as an instance of this mode of operating.
Ethers have also been formed  by the simple dis-
tillation of some of the organic acids with alcohol,
but this method is usually tedious, and requires the
repeated return  of  the products  of distillation into
the retort, as well as  considerable time for its per-
formance, to which several other objections may
be  added.   More  recently it has been shown that
when the organic acids are  heated nearly to their
point of decomposition,  and alcohol  is  gradually
and cautiously  dropped  on them, ethers of  those
acids are readily formed.  In this way many of
the  acids which are wholly or  partly volatile—as
the oxalic, benzoic, and succinic acids,—yield large
quantities of ether.  (Gaultier de Claubry.)  This
 method is applicable to most acids that do not suf"
 fer  decomposition  a  a low temperature,  but  id
 other cases the prodi 3t would be vitiated and un-
 certain.   Thus, citric acid under  this treatment
 might yield citric, itaconic, citraconic, or aconitic
 ether, or a mixture  of two or  more of them, and
 this in a way entirely beyond the power  of the
 operator to influence.  Another method  recom-
 mended, and very suitable to  the  preparation of
 the  ethers of the fatty acids, is—to  dissolve the
 organic acid in alcohol, and to pass a current of
 muriatic acid gas  through the solution.    A still
 simpler plan, and which  appears likely to  super-
 sede most others, at least in the majority of cases,
 is to mix- equal  parts of  alcohol and  the organic
 acid,  with  ith or  |th of oil of  vitriol,  and  to
 place it in a flask  or digester, fitted with a cork,
 through which passes an  upright thin glass  tube, 5
 or 6 feet long, and after  luting the joint  quite se-
 curely, to submit the mixture  to gentle ebu'ition
 in  a sand-bath, or  over a spirit lamp for several
 hours.  In  this way the  spirituous and ethereal
 vapors are  condensed in  the cool  portions  of the
 tube,  and fall back again  into the  matrass, by
 which means no loss of either can possibly occur
 A Liebig's refrigerator  reversed may also be used
 for  this purpose.   (See Ether.)  By this method
 some  ethers  may be  readily  formed  that can
 scarcely be obtained pure in the usual way.  Thus
 mucic ether may be obtained by this process, which
 will  become perfectly white  by  crystallization,
 while by Malagutti's method,  the product is quilt
 black, and is purified with difficulty.  One or othei
 of the above plans may be adopted for the prepara-
 tion of those ethers for which  formulae are  not in-
 serted in this volume.
   ETHERIN.   A name applied  by  some chem-
 ists  to a hydrocarbon, assumed to  be  the base of
 ether.  Its  atomic  constitution, according  to this
 hypothesis,  is 4 equivalents each of hydrogen and
 carbon.
   ETHERINE.   Syn. Camphor of Oil of Wine.
 A peculiar substance obtained by exposing ethe-
 role for a  long time to a  low temperature.   It
 forms brilliant prisms and plates,  and is tasteless,
 soluble in alcohol and ether, fuses at 230°,  boils at
 500°, and is a little lighter than water.  The crys-
 tals are purified by pressure between  the folds of
 bibulous paper, solution in ether, and evaporation.
   ETHEROLE.   Syn.  Light Oil of Wine.   A
 hydrocarbon  discovered  by Hennel.   It  is pre-
 pared by gently heating ethereal oil with water, se-
 parating the supernatant  light oil, and washing this
 with water till it becomes quite neutral, after which
 it is dried by means of chloride of calcium.   Ethe-   «
 role is a colorless oily  liquid,  lighter  than  water,
 boiling at 536°, and soluble in absolute alcohol and
 ether.
   ETHIOPS.   (See jEthiops.)
   ETHIOPS, MARTIAL. Syn. jEthiops Mar-
 tialis.  Oxide of  iron prepared by keeping iron
 filings under water, and occasionally shaking them.
I It must be washed with water, and dried as  quickly
 as possible to prevent its rusting.  It was formerly
 much esteemed as a tonic.
   ETHIOP'S MINERAL, (TYSON'S.)   Prep.
 Oxide of mercury, (prepared by decomposing calo-
 mel with an equivalent proportion of  liquor of po-
 tassa, to which a little liquor of ammonia has been 
EVA
285
EXP
added,) and flowers of sulphur, equal parts.  Tri-
turate together till perfectly mixed.
   Remarks.   Mr. Tyson has recommended this as
an efficient substitute for the old and  uncertain
preparation commonly  sold  under  the  name of
Ethiop's mineral.  Mr.  Tyson's ethiops is, how-
ever, of more  than double  the usual strength, and
should  therefore be taken in proportionate doses.
(Fharm. Journ.)
   ETHIOPS,  VEGETABLE.   Syn. ./Ethiops
Vegetabius.   Pulvis Quercus Marin.e.  Blad-
der  wrack (fucus  vesiculosus)  burned in a'close
vessel  till  it  becomes black  and friable.   It  has
been used in  bronchocele, &c.;  and, like burnt
sponge, probably owes  any  little virtue  it may
possess to the presence of a  very small quantity
of iodine.
   EUGENIN.   Syn.  Stearoptene of Oil of
Cloves.   Thin, white,  pearly scales,  found by
 Bonastre in oil of cloves.  It smells and tastes of
cloves, and is soluble in  alcohol and ether
   EUPHORBIUM.  PREPARED.   Syn.  Eu-
 phorbium prjBparatum.  Prep.  Euphorbium 2 oz.;
 len. .:  juice, or vinegar, 1 pint.  Dissolve, strain,
 and evaporate to drvness.
   EVAPORATION.   Syn. Evaporatio, (Lat.)
 Evaporation,   (Fr.)   Abdunsten,  Abdampfen,
 KGcr.)   The  dissipation of a fluid by  means of
 heat.   In Chemistry and  Pharmacy evaporation
 is had  recourse to, either for the purpose of recov-
 ering a solid body from  its solution, as in  the pre-
 paration  of extracts,  chemical salts, &c,  or to
 strengthen a solution by the expulsion of  some of
 the fluid matter that forms the menstruum.  Evap-
oration is  also  employed,  though less frequently,
to purify liquids, by dissipating the volatile matters
which  may contaminate  them.  Under ordinary
circumstances, evaporation is  confined to  the sur-
face of the heated  liquid, and  is  therefore slower
or quicker in  proportion to the extension of that
surface.  Hence has arisen the adoption of wide
ohallow vessels for containing  fluids during their
exposure to heat for this purpose.
   It  has been found that evaporation  proceeds
most rapidly when a current of air is made to pass
over  the surface of the  fluid, as,  in this case, the
vapor *ls prevented  resting upon  the surface,  and
impeding  the  process  by  its pressure.   On  the
small scale, shallow capsules of glass, Wedgwood-
ware, porcelain, or metal, are commonly employed
as evaporating  vessels, and these are exposed to
heat  by placing  them over a lamp, or naked fire,
or in a  water-bath, or sand-bath,  according to the
temperature at which it is proper to conduct the
process. On  the large scale,  high-pressure steam
is usually  employed as the  source of  the heat.
The term  "spontaneous evaporation"  is applied
to the  dissipation of a fluid by mere  exposure in
open  vessels, at  the common temperature of  the
atmosphere, and without the  application of artifi-
cial heat   The celerity  of this species of evapora-
tion  wholly depends on the degree of humidity of
the surrounding air,  and  differs from the  former, in
which the  rate of evaporation  is proportionate to
the degree of heat  at which  the process  is con-
ducted, and the amount of pressure  upon the sur-
face of the liquid.   Evaporation in vacuo  (as it is
called) is conducted  under the receiver of  an  air-
pump, or in an attenuated atmosphere, produced I
 by filling a vessel with steam, by which means the
 air is expelled, when all  communication  with the
 external atmosphere is cut off, and the vapor con-
 densed by the application of cold.  Fluids are also
 evaporated  in  air-tight  receivers  over sulphuric
 acid, by which  they are continually exposed to the
 action of a  very dry atmosphere.  When such  a
 receiver is connected with an  air-pump in action,
 evaporation proceeds with  increased rapidity, and
 intense cold is produced.  (See Congelation, Dis-
 tillation, Extracts, &c.)
    EXCORIATION.   Syn.  Excoriatio,  (from
 excorio, to flay, or to cut off the skin.)  An abra-
 sion.  Young children are very apt  to be chafed
 under  the  arms, behind the ears,  between the
 thighs, and  in  the  wrinkles -jid folds of the  skin,
 unless  great attention is paia  ,o cleanliness, and
 wiping  the  skin  perfectly dry after  washing.
 Whenever there is a tendency to excoriations of
 this kind, either in adults or children, a little finely
 powdered starch, or violet powder,  applied  by
 means of a  puff, or  a small  bag of muslin, once or
 twice a day, will generally remove them, and pre-
 vent their  occurrence in future.  Mild unguents,
 as cold cream, or spermaceti  cerate or ointment,
 may also be used  with  advantage.   The prefer-
 ence  should, however,  be  given to the  former
 remedies from  their not soiling the linen.  Exco-
 riations arising  from  the removal of the skin  by
 friction  or  external violence,  have  already  been
 noticed under the head Abra*sion.
    EXPECTORANTS.   (From expectorare,  to
 expectorate.)  Medicines that promote  the secre-
 tion  of the  tracheal and bronchial  mucus.  Ac-
 cording to Dr. Good, true expectorants are " those
 medicines which rather promote the separation of
 the viscid  phlegm  with  which the  bronchiae are
 loaded, than simply inviscate and dilute it; though
 these are also  treated  as  expectorants by many
 writers."  Numerous articles of the materia medica
 have been denominated expectorants, of which the
 following are the principal:—Tartarized antimony,
 ipecacuanha, squills, garlic, asafoetida, ammonia-
 cum, the oily resins, the  balsams of tolu and Peru,
 benzoin,  styrax, benzoic acid, the fumes of vine-
 gar, tar, and of many of the volatile oils, and the
 smoke of tobacco and stramonium.   Chlorine and
 ammoniacal gases have also been called expecto-
 rants.  Medicines of this class are commonly em-
 ployed in pulmonary complaints  and affections of
 the air-tubes, attended by a vitiated state of the
 mucus, or an imperfect performance of the natural
 functions of the secretory vessels.   " Of all classes
 of the materia medica, none are more uncertain in
 their action  than expectorants."   (Pereira.)   The
 act of  ejecting  matter  from  the chest  is called
 expectoration.
   EXPRESSION.  Syn. Expressio, (Lat., from
 exprimo, to press out.)   A mechanical operation,
 by which any fluid  contained in the pores or  cells
 of a  solid is expelled.   Many of the fluid  sub-
 stances employed in pharmacy and chemistry are
 obtained by expression.  Thus, the unctuous vege-
 table oils,  as those  of almonds,  linseed, &c.  &c,
 are procured by submitting those substances  to
 powerful pressure between  iron plates, which are
 either made warm,  or the bruised seeds are previ-
 ously exposed in bags to the  steam of boiling wa-
I ter.  The juices  of fresh vegetables are also ob« 
EXT                     286                    EXT
  tained  by expression.   The substances are first
  bruised in a marble mortar, or, on the large scale,
  in a mill, and immediately submitted to the  press,
  to prevent them passing into the state of fermenta-
t tion, which would injure the quality of the product.
  Fruits  which  contain highly-flavored  seeds,  or
  which  have rinds  containing essential oil,  should
  be deprived of them before pressing.   The subacid
  fruits  should also  be allowed to lie together for
  some  days before  being pressed, as the  quantity
  and quality of the product are thereby increased.
  The fluid matter absorbed by the ingredients em-
  ployed in the preparation  of tinctures, infusions,
  decoctions, extracts, &.c, is generally obtained by
  powerful pressure.   Expression is also frequently
  employed for the purpose  of obtaining solids in  a
  state of purity, as  in the  expulsion  of oleine from
  stearine, and water from the bicarbonate of soda.
  On the small scale,  the common screw-press, or
  one of like construction, is usually employed ; but
  the power thus obtained is insufficient to expel the
  whole  of a  fluid diffused through the pores of a
  solid.   Hence has  arisen the use of the hydraulic
  press, which is alone employed on the large scale.
  In all  these cases, the substances  are placed in
  bags made of hair-cloth, or coarse canvass, previ-
  ously to their being submitted  to pressure.
    EXSICCATION.  Syn.  Exsiccatio,  (Lat,
  from exsicco, to dry  up.)   The evaporation of the
  aqueous portion of solid bodies.  In Chemistry and
  Pharmacy,  this term  is  commonly applied to the
  operation by which plants  and chemical prepara-
  tions are deprived  of their humidity.  This is done
  by exposure to the sun, a  current  of  dry  air, an
  atmosphere rendered artificially dry by  sulphuric
  acid, or by the direct application of heat by means
  of a water-bath, a sand-bath, or a common fire.
    EXTRACTS.   Syn.  Extraits,   (Fr.)   Ex-
  tracten, (Ger.)   Extracta, (Lat., from extraho,
  to draw out)   In Chemistry, the  residuum from
  the evaporation of aqueous decoctions,  or infusions
  of vegetable  matter.   In Pharmacy,  preparations
  obtained by evaporating the expressed juices, or
  the decoctions, infusions,  or tinctures, of vegeta-
  ble substances, until a mass,  of a solid or semi-
  solid  consistence,  is formed.   Extracts vary in
  their nature and composition with the substances
  from which they are prepared,  and the fluids em-
  ployed as solvents.  When water is used for ma-
  king the solution, the  extract will  usually consist
  of gum, starch, sugar, albumen, and saline and
  other matter, along with a  peculiar vegetable prin-
  ciple, which, from its  occurrence in  most plants,
  has received the name of  extractive.  This sub-
  stance was discovered by Fourcroy, and presumed
  by him to  be the  common  basis of all  extracts;
  but it has since been proved by Chevreul, and sev-
  eral  other chemists,  to be a heterogeneous com-
  pound, varying in  composition with  the plant from
  which it is extracted.  This substance has a brown
  color,  speedily  putrefies,  and  becomes  oxidized,
  and is rendered insoluble by long exposure  to air,
  and by repeated solutions and evaporations.  In its
  unaltered state it is  soluble in  vater, and  in alco-
  hol,  and is  precipitated from  its solutions  by the
  acids and metallic oxides.   With alumina it forms
  the basis of several brown dyes.  In the prepara-
  tion of the  greater number of extracts, water is
  employed as the menstruum, and  these prepara-
tions are called, by way of distinction, " watery
extracts."  When  spirit is employed as the solv-
ent, the  extract may  contain  most of the  sub-
stances above enumerated,  except gum, which is
insoluble in strong spirit.  Besides these, spirit dis-
solves out many substances which are either whol-
ly or nearly insoluble in water, as resins, essential
oils, and the proximate  principles  of  vegetables.
Extracts  prepared  with alcohol, either alone,  or
diluted with water,  are termed " spirituous ex-
tracts,"  and, with scarcely an exception, are  con-
siderably more powerful than the aqueous extracts
of the same vegetables. In some cases,  dilute  acid,
(the  acetic,) or acidulated water, is employed  as
the menstruum, and such  preparations are hence
called " acetic extracts."  The  extracts of  aco-
nite, hemlock, henbane, stramonium, and  colchi-
cum, as well as of all other plants containing alka-
loids, possess greater activity when  prepared  with
vinegar  than with  water.  Thus,  a quantity  of
either the alcoholic or acetic extract of colchicum,
equal to the common dose of the aqueous extract,
would most probably produce  death.   Still  more
active extracts may be obtained by a combination
of the last two menstrua.   According to Ferrari,
plants treated with  rectified spirit of wine, mixed
with one-thirty-sixth part  of pyroligneous (acetic)
acid, yield extracts of remarkable activity. (Prov
Med. Jour.,  1843.)   To  the preceding  may  be
added, that the term simple extract is applied to
one prepared from a  single plant, or vegetable
substance, and the term compound extract to one
prepared from two or more of such substances.
   The above are the principal varieties of extracts
employed in British  Pharmacy, all  of which are
classed under the  general  head Extracta,  (ex-
tracts,) in the London Pharmacopoeia ; but on the
Continent,  ether is sometimes used as the  men-
struum for the active principles of certain substan-
ces, as cantharides,  cubebs, sem. cinae, &c.
   Of all the foreign Pharmacopoeias, that of Ba-
den is most prolific of extracts; its  pages contain
•directions  for 58 or  60 of these  preparations,  of
which the following is a brief notice:—
   I. Watery Extracts.  a.  (By displacem-nt
with cold water.)    Ext.  absinthii; cardui b-'.e-
dicti; %centaurii min.; chamomilla? ;  china? fiucffi,
(cinchona? ;) china? regia? ; dulcamara? ; fuma.iae;
gentianre ; glycyrrhizoe ;  graminis ord., (liquid and
solid ;)  ligni  campech.; marrubii alb.  ; mil'.efolii;
rhatania?; rad.  saponar; taraxaci,  (ordinary and
fluid ;)  tormentilla? ;  trifolii fibr.
   /?. (By  the ordinary  method of maceration.)
Ext. aloes ; myrrhae; opii; scillae, valerianse; chi-
na* fuscae.
   II. Spirituous Extracts,  a. (Prepared  with
spirit of sp. gr. 0-944, by 24 hours' maceration,
or by the method  of displacement.)   Ext.  cort
aurantii; angelica?;  rad. arnica? ; calami; calen-
dula?, (marygold ;)   cascarillae ; -calumba? ;  colo-
cynth. ;  inula? ;  hellebori nigri;  levistici, (Lovage ;)
quassia?; rha?i.
   P. (Prepared in a similar way to the last with
spirit of sp. gr. 0-841.)   Ext. aconiti; belladon-
na? ; chelidonii maj., (great celandine :~\ conii mac.;
digitalis ;  gratiola?,  (hedge  hyssop:) hyoscyami;
lactuca? virosa? ;  Pulsatillas, (Pasque fh.wer ;)  herb.
taxi baccatae, (yew ;) rad. artemisme,  nucis  vom-
ica?. 
EXT                   287         *          EXT
   III.  Ethereal Extracts.  Cubebs; sem. cina?;
 and the roots of male-fern ;  prepared as the last.
   IV.  Compound Extracts.  Ext. ferri pom.; ext
 rhsei co.
   To the above may be added fel. tauri inspiss.
   Though many of the above extracts may be su-
 perfluous, yet the  directions for their  preparation
 are doubtless very  judicious, and it would promote
 in no small degree the success of the medical prac-
 titioner, if a  like  exactness pervaded the instruc-
 tions of the London Pharmacopoeia, and equal care
 and skill obtained in the pharmaceutical laboratory
 in  England to that which is  general in France and
 Germany.
   Prep. The preparation  of medicinal  extracts
 may be conveniently considered under two divi-
 sions,  viz.:  the production of  a  solution of the
 soluble portion of the substances operated on, and
 the reduction of this solution by evaporation to the
 consistence of an extract.
   When water is employed  as the menstruum, the
 vegetable matter subjected  to its action should be
 well bruised or reduced to coarse powder, or other-
 wise divided by slicing with  a knife, that every
 portion may  be fully exposed to the solvent powers
 of the  fluid.  The ingredients should then  be treat-
 ed with water  until all the  soluble matter that it
 is  desired to  obtain  is dissolved  out.   There are
 several methods of effecting this object, depending
 upon the nature of the vegetable  substance  acted
 on.  In some  cases, maceration  in  cold water is
 resorted to;—at other  times, percolation with that
 fluid in a displacement apparatus; but more gen-
 erally, boiling water is poured on the substance,  or
 it is boiled along with water, as in the preparation
 of infusions and decoctions.  After  the ebullition
 or infusion  has continued  a sufficient time, the
 heat is removed, and  the  liquid portion drawn off.
 The ingredients are  then pressed to  extract the
 remaining  liquid,  or, they  are washed with hot
 water, which expels  it by  displacement   In the
 majority of  cases, however, a second  quantity  of
 water is poured On  after the firot has been thorough-
 ly  drained off, and  the infusion or decoction  is re-
 peated a second and a third time, or until the in-
 gredients are perfectly exhausted  of their soluble
 portion.  The several liquors,  being allowed to re-
 pose for 15 or 20  minutes, for the purpose of de-
 positing the sand or other gritty  and  heavy matter
 that is mechanically  mixed with  them, are then
 carefully decanted from the sediment,  and,  after
 being run through  a fine sieve, or  flannel  bag, are
 ready for concentration.
   The  reduction of the solution to the proper con-
 sistence is effected by evaporation ; but the mode
 in which this is performed varies for different ex-
 tracts.   The  London College directs  that,  " unless
 otherwise ordered,  the evaporation should  be con-
 ducted  as quickly as possible,  in a broad  shallow
 pan, placed in a water-bath, until a proper  con-
 sistence is acquired for forming  pills; stirring as-
 siduously with a spatula towards  the  end of the
 operation."  Though the water-bath has the sanc-
 tion of  the British  colleges,  it  is doubtful whether
 it will be well adapted for  ordinary purposes, as,
 from its low  evaporative  power, the advantages
 which are  derived  from  its  equable  temperature,
ere vastly overbalanced  by the lengthened expo-
sure of  the solution in a heated state to the action
of the atmosphere.   It is doubtful whether a vege-
table solution so prepared is not inferior in quality
to a similar one, evaporated in  a shallow pan over
a  naked fire, or  placed in a sand-bath,  provided
proper care be taken,  and  assiduous  stirring be
adopted during the whole  time of the exposure td
heat.  In  practice,  however, the  use of  a naked
fire is perfectly inadmissible, as the least neglect
on the part of the operator would probably lead to
the incineration of the whole ;  but  the water-bath
may readily be rendered available  by the addition
of one-fifth part of salt, which  will  raise its boiling
point to 21b|° Fahr., and the  temperature of the
contained extract to 212° ; the remaining 6|° be-
ing lost by the interposition of the substance of the
evaporating vessel.
   ')u the  large scale the  evaporation of -extracts
is  usjally conducted in very wide, shallow copper
or tinned-copper  pans, having  steam-tight jackets
of cast iron, and heated by allowing steam to play
between the two.  In this way  a very high evapo-
rative power  is  obtained, and a  degree  of heat
which may be regulated at the  will  of the operator,
and which will at no time much exceed the temper-
ature of boiling water.
   The rapid deterioration wnich vegetable  juices
and solutions  undergo  by exposure to  the  air,
especially at high temperatures, has led to the  in-
troduction  of  apparatus,  by which they  may  be
concentrated without contact with the atmosphere,
and at a less  degree of heat than  is required  for
that purpose in open vessels.  Such is the method,
commonly called Barry's process, in  which the
air is removed  from certain air-tight refrigerators
by the introduction of steam, which  is then con-
densed.by the  application of cold, by which means
a  partial  vacuum  is obtained.  Another process
for attenuating the atmosphere over the surface of
fluids during evaporation, is by the action of an air-
pump. • This  plan  was introduced  by Howard,
and is commonly applied to the concentration of
sirups in our sugar refineries.  Extracts  obtained
by either of these methods are said  to be prepared
" in vacuo," and are found  in practice to be im-
mensely superior  to  the common  extracts of the
shops, and consequently require to  be exhibited in
proportionably small doses.
   When water,  acidulated  with   acetic  acid, is
employed  in the preparation of extracts, the vege-
table  substances  are usually macerated  in it, in
the cold, or the dilute acid is  sprinkled over the
bruised plant in the fresh  or recent state, and the
whole is then  submitted to strong  pressure, to ex-
pel the juice, which  is strained and evaporated in
the usual way, but preferably  in a tin or plated-
copper pan.
   Spirituous  extracts  are prepared by evapora-
ting a concentrated tincture of the vegetable sub-
stance in any suitable vessel, by which the volatil-
ized spirit  may be saved.  Ethereal extracts are
obtained  in a  similar manner; but being merely
prepared in small quantities at  a time, the process
may be conveniently performed  in glass vessels.
When it is required to boil either of the above fluids,
or  any other volatile liquid on the ingredients, a
vessel  fitted with a long tube,  or a Liebig's refri-
gerator reversed,  may be  used  to prevent  any loss
of the menstruum.  (See Ether and Ethers, or-
ganic) 
EXT  .                  288                    EXT
  The inspissated vegetable juices are classed with
extracts  by the  London College, and are ordered
to be prepared by evaporating the expressed juice
without filtration in a water-bath ; but in this way
a considerable portion of their activity is lost.  Some
of these juices, as that of aconite, are impaired in
so short a time as scarcely to compensate  for  the
trouble of preparing them.  This deterioration does
not, however, take place in any remarkable degree,
if the expressed juice from the recent vegetable be
evaporated by exposing it in  a thin stratum to a
current of very dry air, as adopted by Mr.  Squire.
This  may  be managed  by putting the  juice into
small flat  trays or dishes, placed on shelves in a
suitably arranged apparatus,  alternated  with simi-
lar  vessels of concentrated sulphuric acid,  and by
causing a current of dry air,  at the common tem-
perature  of the atmosphere, to pass over them, by
which means the moisture  continually exhaling
from the one will be absorbed by the other.  Prac-
tical  experiments have   fully demonstrated   the
superiority  of this method of inspissating vegetable
juices over every other  plan  at present  in use ;
" for it was shown that 10 grains of extract, thus
prepared, were more than equal to 20  grains pre-
pared in vacuo;  and to  more than 60 grs. of that
prepared by  the common process of boiling down
the juice to an extract."
  The Dublin College directs that all  simple  ex-
tracts, (extracta simpliciora,) unless  otherwise  or-
dered, are  to be prepared by boiling  the vegetable
matter in 8 times its weight of water till the liquid
is reduced to one half;  the  liquor  is  then to be
expressed,  and after a short time allowed for defe-
cation, to be decanted, filtered, and  evaporated in
a water-bath, until  it begins to thicken, and then
finally inspissated by a reduced heat, continually
stirring until  a consistence for forming pills  be  at-
tained.
  I have already mentioned that it is proper to  al-
low the  infusion or decoction to purify itself  by
defecation, and  to  pass  it  through a  flannel or
horse-hair  strainer  previously to  concentration.
This- may  be regarded  as a  general rule  for all
ordinary extracts.   But in some cases, this method
will be found insufficient to render the liquid clear.
Such solutions may  be  rendered transparent  by
clarification with a  little white of egg, skimming
off  the scum  as it rises, and straining through flan-
nel in the common way; or  they may  be  filtered
through  a  bag made of very fine Welsh  flannel,
or of twilled  cotton cloth, both of which should be
soaked in clean water for at  least an hour before
use. Ill the small way, filters of linen or paper  are
sometimes  employed ; but as all  media sufficient-
ly  fine to  renderjregetable  solutions transparent
soon choke up, such filters are objectionable, from
the length  of time the liquid  has to be  exposed to
the air when they are employed.  In this respect,
the method of clarifying  first mentioned is vastly
preferable, and is  inexpensive,  expeditious,  and
easy  of  performance, and hence has been adopt-
ed  by  many large manufacturers.   In  some
houses, the aqueous infusion or decoction is allowed
to  repose  for 24  hours,  and then decanted  and
evaporated *. but such a  plan  is objectionable ;  as,
however smooth and glossy extracts so prepared
may  appear, their  medicinal  virtues are lessened
by  the lengthened  exposure  to the atmosphere.
Spirituous  tinctures  should be  filtered through
r»per, and acetic solutions through linen, or paper
supported on linen.   Ethereal  tinctures are  pref-
erably clarified by repose and  decantation, as tin
volatility of ether precludes its  filtration, except in
close vessels.
  Wrhen about one half of an aqueous solution*has
evaporated, it  is  often advantageous to repass it
through a flannel  or horse-hair strainer,  to remove
the flocculi that  generally form by  the action of
the heat  and  air.  This  is especially  necessary
with vegetable solutions prepared without boiling,
and  should be adopted whenever a  smooth and
sightly extract  is  desired.
  The directions  previously given for " finishing
off"  extracts should  be scrupulously attended to.
Towards the end  of the process, the  heat should
be lessened, and   as soon  as the extrifct acquires
the consistence of thick treacle, it should be re-
moved altogether, and the remainder of  fluid mat-
ter evaporated  by  the heat retained by the copper
pan, the process being promoted by assiduous and
laborious stirring  with  a suitably-shaped wooden
spatula ;  and this stirring should be continued until
a proper consistence is attained  and  the extract is
nearly cold.  It must be carefully observed not to
commence the stirring until the heat (steam)  has
been withdrawn, as, if an extract having a temper-
ature of about  the boiling point of water, or even
a few degrees below it,  be agitated, it becomes full
of bubbles, and appears rough  and puffy, and this
appearance cannot be removed by subsequent stir-
ring, or by  any method but re-solution  in water
and  re-evaporation.   This  is especially  the  case
with the extracts  of sarsaparilla, (simple and com-
pound,) gentian,   liquorice, and  most others of a
similar class.  A  good workman knows from expe-
rience the proper  time for the removal of the heat,
but unpractised persons often fail in this particular.
In such  cases, should  the heat  retained by the
evaporating pan, and by the extract,  prove insuffi-
cient to complete the process, a little more  may
be cautiously  applied.   Without  assiduous  and
laborious stirring  in  the  way  described, a  very
smooth and glossy extract cannot  be  produced.
To promote this  artificial  appearance,  some per-
sons  add 3  or 4 per cent each of olive oil and gum
arabic, dissolved in water, with  about 1 or 2 per
cent, of spirit of wine.
  In conclusion, it may be observed, that the great
desiderata to be aimed at in the preparation of ex-
tracts are,  to suit the menstrua and  the methods
of manipulating  to  the peculiar  characteristics
of the active  constituents of  the  vegetable  sub-
stances operated  on.   The pharmaceutist should
always bear in mind that a perfect extract should
be " a concentrated, solid  mass, exactly repre-
senting in medicinal efficacy  the materials from
whichJt has been prepared, and capable of being
redissolved, so as to form a solution  exactly
similar to  that   whence  it has been   derived."
(G. M. Mowbray.)  An extract possessing equal
strength to the whole mass of the ingredients  from   ^
which it has  been prepared, is almost next to an
impossibility, however  desirable  such a  degree of
perfection may be.  The operator may deem  him-
self  fortunate,  if, after  the exercise of the utmost
skill and judgment, and accuracy of manipulation!
he obtain a product only approximating to the ideai 
EXT
289
EXT
picture of a perfect extract above quoted.  It is a
fact that is proved by practical experience, and is
readily  accounted for by  chemical science,  that
the medicinal properties of all solutions of vegeta-
ble matter are injured by being reduced to the
solid state; arid this deterioration, more or  less,
takes place, whether the  solvent be water, proof
spirit, or alcohol.  Thus the volatile portions, the
essential oils, the aroma, &c, are nearly or wholly
dissipated, and though these do not always  form
the principal or active ingredients of the vegetables
from which extracts are  prepared, yet it cannot
be denied that they generally exercise a modify-
ing and controlling influence over the other ingre-
dients,  which considerably alters their therapeuti-
cal action.   That the  essential oils which mostly
constitute the fragrant portion  of vegi-tables are
devoid  of efficacy, it would  be the height of folly
to assert; examples  to the  contrary  may be  in-
stanced in the oils of cloves and chamomile.  The
power of small  doses  of the former  to  lessen  or
prevent the griping properties of some acrid cathar-
tics, and of the latter as a stomachic, are instances
familiar to every one who has tried them.  Yet in
extractum anthemidis, no odor of chamomiles can
be perceived, or, at least, if such exists, it is pro-
duced  by the  addition  of the essential oil  after the
solution has been evaporated.   But this is a  mere
trifling deficiency, compared to that in the extracta
aconiti, hyoscyami,  belladonna?, conii, &.c, pre-
pared  according to the  pharmacopoeia!  process.
 In these cases, it is well known that the inert prep-
arations  are  wholly deficient of the odor of the
recent  plant, and that in proportion as the odor is
developed so is their activity preserved.  Compare
the powerful smell of the recently expressed  juice
of hemlock with the scarcely perceptible odor of
the extractum conii, P. L.   Yet  the  dose of the
one often  reaches 20 or 30 grs., while that of the
other seldom  exceeds  5  or  10 drops,  or a portion
equivalent in  dry ingredients to considerably less
than J  a grain.
   Though  I have  mentioned  some  processes  as
preferable to others, and  have noticed the inferi-
ority of some of the  officinal extracts, yet  it is
proper  to observe that when extracts are ordered
in prescriptions, those  of the London  Pharmaco-
poeia should be  alone  employed by the dispenser,
as the substitution of others would not only be vio-
lating faith with the prcscriber, but might produce
consequences  alike  injurious to  the dispenser and
the patient.   Many medical gentlemen prefer ex-
tracts prepared by particular processes or  persons,
but such is always indicated in their prescriptions.
A serious accident of this sort  lately came under
my notice.   A druggist had  prepared a number of
prescriptions from an extract which he had  pur-
chased  of a wholesale drug house,  and which was
labelled P. L., but was in reality almost inert, and
in consequence of the presumed insensibility of the
patient  to its narcotic  action, the medical practi-
tioner had gradually increased  the quantity to  an
enormous extent.  In the mean time, the druggist's
small stock of extract was exhausted,  and another
pot purchased of the same parties, which was of
an average quality:  in  came the receipt as usual;
but this time it was prepared  from the new extract
I  need  scarcely mention  the consequences:—loss
•f speech, coma, delirium, and death ensued.
                       37
  Pres. Extracts  should  be put into pots as soon
as taken  from the pan, and, after being securely
tied  over  with bladder, should be placed in a dry
situation.   The London College orders  " a small
quantity of rectified spirit to be sprinkled upon all
the  softer extracts, to prevent them  becoming
mouldy."   A better way  is, however, to employ a
little spirit, holding in solution a few drops of o I of
cloves, or a still  less quantity of creosote.  This
should be added to them  the last thing  before re-
moving them  from the evaporating pan,  and when
they are  nearly cold.  Hard  extracts should be
kept in bladders or gut  skins, placed in stone pots,
and  well  covered over.   With care, extracts  pre-
pared  from recent vegetable substances may be
preserved twelve months,  or from season  to season ;
and  those from dry ingredients, or such as  are 'ess
inclined to spoil, for perhaps double that  time ; but
beyond these  periods their virtues cannot be relied
on, and they should consequently be discarded, if
remaining unused or unsold.
   Qual.,  pur., tyc. The quality of an extract can
not  be ascertained by mere inspection,  nor can it
be readily discovered by chemical tests.  A know-
ledge  of  these facts  has induced  the mercenary
and  fraudulent manufacturer  to employ damaged
and  inferior drugs  in their  preparation,  regardless
of their slight medicinal virtues and the welfare of
the patient.   The  production of a smooth, bright,
and  glossy article  is  all  that is usually  attempted
by these individuals, and all that is sought after by
the mass  of purchasers, who mistake the mere ex-
ternal appearances of good quality for  its  actual
existence.   But it is a fact, which I  can verify
from extensive experience  in  the  laboratory, and
from years of observation on  this point, that the
mass of extracts,  faithfully prepared from good
materials, do not possess such a sightly and pleas-
ing appearance as those commonly vended  by the
wholesale  druggists.  I have with great care, for
some years,  compared the. extracts prepared by
different metropolitan  houses,  and, without  being
desirous of making any  remarks hurtful  to the
feelings, or injurious to the interests of any individ-
ual  in  particular, I feel bound to state,  that those
extracts that have come under  my  notice, and
which exhibited a remarkably bright and glossy
appearance, I have found to be uniformly inferior,
and  sometimes nearly inert, while those that ap-
peared less prepossessing were generally of good
quality.   This is also well established by reference
to the extracts of those houses and  institutions that
are  remarkable for the  superior quality of theii
preparations,  and  by  comparing them with  the
common  extracts  of tho shops supplied  by the
wholesale  trade.   Without naming any  private
individual  or  establishment in particular,  I  will
only  instance  the extracts  last  mentioned,  and
those of Apothecaries' Hall.
  It is a  common practice  with some  manufac-
turers, not only to pick out the least expensive va-
riety of every drug for  the preparation of their
extracts, but the most  inferior, and often damaged
and  worthless portion of  this already inferior  arti-
cle.   I have seen  rubbish employed for this  pur-
pose that  an honest man  would  not pick  off a
dunghill;  and yet, because the worthless product
obtained from this stuff has been " finished off  in
such a manner as to exhibit  a  smooth and glossy 
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290
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appearance, it has been sold at a  good price,  and
been deemed of superior quality by the purchaser.
  A good extract  should  be free from grit,  and
wholly soluble in 20 parts  of the menstruum  em-
ployed in its preparation, forming a nearly clear
solution;  it should have  a  uniform texture  and
color, and be of a  proper consistence.  The ex-
tracts prepared  from the expressed juices of plants,
without straining off the coagulated albumen, are
of course exceptions to the second particular.
   The best mode  of ascertaining the medicinal
value  of extracts is to assay them  for the proxi-
mate vegetable principles  contained in the  plants
from  which  they have been prepared, or,  where
this is impossible,  they may be exhibited in  proper
doses, and the effects carefully watched.  Unfor-
tunately, however, these  tests are not easily  per-
formed, and are inapplicable to those extracts  that
exercise no very marked physiological action, un-
less when taken in repeated doses,  and long con-
tinued.  This want of a ready means of accurately
testing the qualities of extracts,  has  enabled the
fraudulent manufacturer  to  sell  inferior articles
with impunity,  and without  even the fear  of de-
tection.
   Prop, and Uses. The extracts of the shops are
generally acknowledged  to  be the  most varying,
imperfect, and uncertain  class of medicines con-
tained in the pharmacopoeia.  They are mostly
used in the  same cases as the plants from which
they are prepared, but in smaller  doses.
   EXTRACT, BLACK.   Syn.  Ext. Nigrum.
Extract of cocculus indicus.   It is used by fraudu-
lent brewers to impart an intoricating property to

   EXTRACT OF ACONITE.  Syn. Ext. of
Monkshood.  Do.  of Wolfsbane.   Extrait d'-
Aconit,  (Fr.)    Eisenhutlein-extrakt,  (Ger.)
ESTHATTO DI AcONITO, (Ital.)
   R  -'.ark. The extract of the root is said to be
12 times as strong  as  that of the leaves.
   EXTRACT  OF  ALOES.   Syn.  Purified
Aloes.  Alof.s Lota.  Gummi Aloes. Extract-
um Aloes, (P.  L. 1H09.)   Ext. Aloes purifica-
tum,  (P. L.  lis-21, and since.)   Ext.  Aloes  He-
patic*,, (P. D.)  Extrait d'Aloes,  (Fr.)  Aloe-
extrakt, (Ger.) Estratto d'Aloe,  (Ital.)  Prep.
(P. L.) Hepatic aloes, in powder,  §xv ;  boiling
water 1 gallon; macerate for 3 days in a  gentle
heat, strain, defecate, decant the  clear, and evap-
orate.
   Remarks. The object  of this  process is  to de-
prive the aloes of resin,  on which  its acrid  and
griping qualities have been erroneously supposed
to depend.  When made with the juice, it formed
the old Aloes  Depurata, and with the juice of
borage, bugloss, &c, the old  Aloe  Insuccata.
Dose. 5 to 15 grs., in the same cases  as powdered
aloes.
   EXTRACT  OF  ANEMONE.   Syn. Ext.
Anf.monib Prate.nsis.  Prep.  The undepurated
expressed juice of  the anemone pratensis, evapo-
rated  to  a  proper consistence.   It  is said to be
resolvent, and has  been given in some chronic dis-
eases, especially amaurosis, cataract, opacity of
the cornea,  nocturnal pains,  suppressions,  &c.
fStoerck.)
   EXTRACT OF BARD AN A.  Syn. Ext. of
Burdock. Ext. BardanjE. Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Grind
the root moderately fine with half its weight of dis
tilled  water,  macerate for 12  hours, then  put it
into a percolator, and pass temperate water through
it until exhausted; filter, and evaporate in a wa-
ter-bath
  EXTRACT OF  BARK.   Syn. Ext. of Cin-
chona Bark.  Extrait de Quinquina, (Fr.)  Es-
tratto di China, (Ital.)  China-extrakt, (6rer.J
Prep.  I.  (Ext. Cinchona, P E.   Ext. Corticis
Peruviana.   Ext.  Cinchona  Resinosum.  Ext
Corticis Cinchona  cum Resina.)  Any variety
of cinchona  bark,  reduced to fine powder,  ^iv
proof spirit f^xxiv ; percolate, distil off most of tha
spirit  from the  tincture, and then  evaporate  in a
water-bath to a proper consistence. (P. E.)
  Remarks.  The  ext.  cinchona?  (P.  D.) is an
aqueous  extract of  lance-leaved  cinchona  bark.
The aboJve extract is kept in two forms ; one hard
and dry for powdering ;  the other of a pillular con-
sistence.  The  one  is  called Extractum  Cin-
chonas molle ; the other Ext. Cinchona durum.
The ext. cinchona  cum  resina, (F. T-  1788,) and
the resinous extract of bark of the shops, are  pre-
pared in the same way as extract of cascarilla.
  II. (Extract  of lance-leaved cinchona bark;
ext. of pale  do.; ext.  corticis  Peruviani, P. L
1745,  1788.  Ext  cinchona, P.  L. 1809,  1824.
Ext. cinchona lancifolia, P. L. 1^-36.) Prep.  Pale
bark, bruised, ^xv; water 4  gallons;  boil with 1
gallon of water till reduced to 45 pints, and strain
while warm; repeat the same process wun  eacii
remaining gallon of the water, and finally evapo-
rate the  mixed solutions.
  III. (Extract of yellow cinchona bark.  Ext,
of heart-leaved do.  Extractum cinchona cordi-
folia, P. L.)  Prep. The same as the last.   Nei-
ther this extract nor the  following is kept in the
shops; and, as far as my knowledge  extends, is
never employed or asked for.
  IV.  (Extract of red.  ciwhona  bark.  Ext. of
oblong-leaved do.  Ext.  cinchona  oblong ifolia,
P. L.)   Prep. The same as the last.
  V.  (Essential salt of bark.  Extractum cincho-
na per aquam< frigidam.)  Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Ex-
haust the bruised bark by maceration in successive
portions of cold water, evaporate the mixed  infu-
sions to the consistence of a soft extract, spread it
thinly  on earthen or porcelain dishes, dry by a
gentle heat, and chip off the extract
  Remarks.  The  aqueous  extracts of  cinchona
bark possess  little  medicinal virtue, and this  prin-
cipally arises from  the insolubility  of the alkaloids,
(quinine, cinchonine,) or their most valuable por-
tion, in water, and also from the rapid oxidation of
their extractive matter,  when  exposed  in solution
to the joint action of heat and  atmospheric oxygen.
The spirituous extract of the P. E. is  less objec-
tionable.
  Dose. 5 grs. to 3ss,  dissolved in water,  faintly
acidulated with sulphuric acid.  Cinchona  bark
yields about 25°. of aqueous  extract.
  EXTRACT OF BELLADONNA.   Syn.  Ext.
of Deadly Nightshade.  Ext.  Belladonna, (P.
L. and E.) SuccusSpissatub Belladonna, (P. D.)
Extrait de Belladonne, (Fr.)   Bella donna-
extrakt, (Ger.)   Estratto di l'Erba  di Bella-
donna, (Ital.)   Prep. I. (P. L. and D.)   As ex-
tract of aconite.
  II. (P. E.)  Bruise the plant in a marble  mor- 
EXT
291
EXT
    th

w
tar, express the juice, sprinkle  the  residuum with
water, and again press, mix the two liquids, filter,
and evaporate in a water-bath.
   Remarks.  This  extract  is  an  acro-narcotic.
Dose,  i gr. to  5  grs.  It is  principally employed
to allay pain and  nervous  irritation in neuralgia,
tic-douloureux, &.c.;  as an  antispasmodic to  re-
lieve rigidity and spasms of the muscular fibre in
various affections  of the uterus, rectum, urethra,
bladder,  &,c.,  and in hooping-cough ; in  various
maladies of the eyes ; and as a resolvent and dis-
cutient in several glandular diseases.  It has been
recommended by  some German physicians as a
preservative against scarlet fever.   It is most fre-
quently employed externally, under the form of a
plaster, ointment, or lotion. It is poisonous. Fresh
belladonna yields  about  5-g of extract.   (Brande.
\ GraY-)
   EXTRACT OF BISTORT.   Syn. Ext. Bis-
tort.*:. (P. Cod.)   Prep. As extract of  bardana.
It is astringent and tonic.
   EXTRACT  OF  BLACK  HELLEBORE.
Syn. Ext. IIellebori Nigri, (P. L. 1788.)  Ext.
Radicum  Hf.lleb. Nig.   Prep.   Macerate  the
bruised root  in 10 parts of  boiling water for 24
hours, express the  liquid, strain, and evaporate.
   Remarks. When prepared by coction with wa-
ter till exhausted of soluble matter, black hellebore
root yields about 40$ of  extract.   It is alterative,
cathartic, and resolvent  Dose. 2 to 20 grs.
   EXTRACT  OF  BITTER-SWEET.  Syn.
Ext. of Woody Nightshade.  Ext. Dulcamara?:.
Prep. (P.  Cod.)   As the last.   It is diuretic, dia-
phoretic, and narcotic.
   EXTRACT OF BROOM TOPS.  Syn. Ext.
Cacuminum Genistas.  Ext.  Spartii  Scoparii,
(P. D.)  Boil the tops of broom in 8 times their
weight of water, till reduced to one half, express
the liquid, strain, and evaporate.  Dose. J a dr. to
1 dr., as a diuretic in dropsy.   Seldom used.
   EXTRACT OF CALAMUS.  Syn.  Ext. of
Common Sweet Flag.   Ext. Acori.  Ext. Cal-
ami Aromatici. From the Rhizomes of the acorus
calamus.
   EXTRACT OF CALUMBA.   Syn. Ext. Ra-
dicisCalu.mbas.  Prep. From calumba root, in the
same way  as extract  of dandelion.   Bitter,  tonic,
stomachic.
   EXTRACT OF CANTHARIDIS. Syn. Ext.
of Spanish  Flies.  Ext.  Cantharidis.  Ext.
Lytt.e.  Prep. (P. Cod.)  Evaporate a  tincture
made with proof spirit.
   EXTRACT OF CASCARILLA.  Syn. Ext.
Cascarillas.  Ext. Corticis Cascarillai.   Prep.
(P. L. 1788.)  Cascarilla lb. iiss; rectified  spirit of
wine 1 gallon;  macerate for 4 days, and express
the liquid; boil the residue in water 2 gallons, and
strain. Distil off the spirit from the tincture till  the
latter acquires the  consistence of  honey, then mix
it with the decoction, also brought to the same con-
sistence by evaporation, and continue stirring until
the whole is reduced to a proper consistence.
   Remarks. This  extract  is tonic and stomachic.
  oat.  5 to 15 grs., or more, 2 or  3 times a day.
28 lbs. of bark yield 5} lbs. of extract.
   EXTRACT OF CATECHU.   Prepared from
the wood of the mimosa, or acacia catechu.   It is
"wholly imported, and is commonly known as Japan
earth, terra Japonica, &c.   It is  astringent and
tonic.  Dose. 5 grs. to 3ss, or more.  It is mostly
used in dyeing and tanning.
  EXTRACT OF CHAMOMILES.  Syn. Ext
Florum Chamasmeli.   Ext. Chamasmeli, (P. D.)
Ext. Anthemidis, (P. E.)  Ext. Anthemidis Mo-
bilis.   Extrait  de Ca.mo.mille Romaine, (Fr.)
Kamillen-extrakt,  (Ger.)   Est-iatto di fiori
di Camomillo, (lial.)   Prep.  From the flowers,
as extract  of dandelion.  Bitter,  tonic, and sto-
machic.  Dose.  10 to 20 grs.
  Remarks. This extract contains  all the bitter
portion of the chamomile, but none of the aromat-
ic volatile oil; the latter being dissipated during
the evaporation.  It is  usually prepared from flow-
ers  that  have lost their smell  from  age, and are
thus rendered unsaleable.  The extract of chamo-
mile that has been lately offered for sale by some
houses, and which smells strongly of the flowers,
is prepared by adding 1 drachm of the essential oil
to every pound of extract, when  nearly cold, and
just before removing it from  the evaporatioii pan.
The mass of this extract met with in the shops is
nothing but extract of  gentian flavored with oil
of chamomile.   1 cwt. of chamomiles yields about
48 lbs. of extract.
  EXTRACT  OF COCCULUS.   Syn.  Hard
Multum.   Black Extract.  Ext. Cocculi In-
dici.  Prep. By decoction with water.   It is nar-
cotic  and  poisonous.    Employed  by  fraudulent
brewers to give a false strength to their  liquor.
  EXTRACT  OF COLCHICUM.  Syn.  Ext.
of the corms of colchicum.   ext. of meadow
Saffron.  Ext. Colchici. Ext. Colchici Cormi,
(P. L.) Prep. As extract of aconite, P. L.   (See
page 24.)   It is  given in the usual cases in which
colchicum  is employed.  Dose. 1 to 4 grs.  every
third or fourth hour.  (Thomson.)   " This is a fa-
vorite remedy of Dr. Hue of  St. Bartholomew's
Hospital, in the early stages of acute rheumatism.
The dose is 1 gr. every four hours."  (Pereira.)
  EXTRACT OF COLCHICUM, (ACETIC.)
Syn.  Acetic Ext. of Colchicum.   Do. of Mea-
dow Saffron.  Ext. Colchici Aceticum, (P. L.)
Prep.  Fresh colchicum (cormi) lb. j ;  acetic arid
f^iij ; bruise the  corms, sprinkle on the acid, ex-
press  the juice, and  evaporate in a Wedgewood-
ware or salt-glazed earthen  vessel.  Dose.  1 to 3
grs. two or three times a day.  It is  stronger than
the common extract.
  Remarks. The  above extracts  are  generally
prepared from the dried  corms, and hence the va-
rying activity and inferior qualify of those com-
monly met with.  The  simple  extract is made by
decoction with  water and  evaporation ;  but the
product rapidly  gets dry  and  crumbly, and will
scarcely keep a  week  in warm weather without
becoming mouldy, unless spirit be added.  It has
not above \ of the activity of the  ext colchici,
P. L.   The following form is employed  by several
wholesale houses, and, I believe, a similar one is
adopted by the majority of persons to  the exclu-
sion of that of  the college:—colchicum (cormi,
dried) 14 lbs.; pyroligneous  acid (acetic) 6 pints;
distilled water 5i gallons; digest 14 days, filter,
and evaporate.   Product. 2$ to 3 lbs.  Inferior to
the ext. colchici aceticum, P. L. The same quan-
tity of colchicum treated with water, by decoction,
yields more than half its weight of simple extract,
which is considerably more than that procured by 
EXT                     292                   EXT
the process of the college; hence its adoption by
the druggists.
  EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH.  Syn.  Ext.
of Bitter Apples.   Ext. Colocynthidis Molle.
Ext. Colocynthidis,  (P. L., E.. & D.) Prep.  Co-
locynth pulp, sliced, lb. j ; water 2 gallons ; boil for 6
hours, adding more water as  it wastes, strain  and
evaporate.
  Remarks. This extract rapidly gets hard,crum-
Dly, and mouldy by keeping ; but this may be pre-
vented by adding a little  spirit, holding in  solution
a few drops of oil of cloves.  Dose. 5 grs. to 3j, as a
cathartic.   Colocynth pulp yields 65g of extract
  EXTRACT  OF   COLOCYNTH,   (COM-
POUND.)  Syn. Compound  Ext. of Bitter  Ap-
plies.   Ext. Cathartici m, (P.  L.  1745.)  Ext.
Colocynthidis  compositum,  (P.  L.  1788,  and
since.)   Prep. I. (P.  L. 1836.) Colocynth pulp,
sliced,  §vj ; purified  extract of aloes (ext. aloes
purif., P. L.) §xij; powdered scammony §iv ; pow-
dered cardamoms ^j 5 hard  soap  (Castile)  ^''j j
proof spirit 1 gallon ;  digest the  colocynth in the
spirit, with a gentle heat, for 4 days, express the tinc-
ture, filter, add the aloes,  scammony, and soap,
evaporate (distil) to  a proper  consistence, and to-
wards the end add the powdered cardamoms.
  II. (P.  D.)   The same  as the  London  form,
except using hepatic aloes for the aqueous extract.
  Remarks. There are  few formula? which have
undergone so many alterations in the hands of the
College as that for the ext. coloc. co. Before 1809,
proof spirit  was  ordered to be  employed  as  the
menstruum, and the preparation  resembled that of
the present Pharmacopoeia, omitting the soap ; but
in 1809,  the  College  directed  water to be  used
instead of spirit, and  added a certain quantity of
soap.—Colocynth 3vj ; water lb. ij; aloes  (socc.)
§iss; scammony 3SS >  hard soap §iij ; cardamoms
3j.  (P. L. 1809.)  In the next edition of the Phar-
macopoeia, or  that of  1815,  the soap was  again
omitted; but in the edition of 1824, the formula of
1809  was again  adopted, substituting, however,
proof spirit lb.j for the water.  These directions
were also continued in the edition of 1836, as will
be seen by reference to the above formula, (No. I.,)
which is that of the present Pharmacopoeia.
  Compound extract of colocynth, when faithfully
prepared,  is a  most  valuable  medicine,  but that
which is commonly met with in trade is a very in-
ferior and uncertain preparation.   This  inferiority
of the extracts of the shops, chiefly arises from the
substitution of water for the proof spirit ordered by
the College, and the use of inferior scammony and
aloes.  There  are, however, many establishments
where  this extract may be procured of most ex-
cellent quality, but  these are the  exceptions, not
the rule.   As  a  proof, however,  of the proverb,
" honesty is the bc->t policy," it may be mentioned
that a  certain metropolitan  druggist, remarkable
for the superiority of his compound extract of colo-
cynth, has obtained  no  inconsiderable fortune by
the sale of this preparation alone ; while the miser-
able host of venders of the evaporated decoction of
colocynth seeds, Cape aloes, worthless scammony,
and scentless cardamoms, sold  under this name,
attempt to ruin each other by offering their rub-
bish at a price that prevents the  possibility of a
large profit, or even  the establishment of a re-
spectable connection.
   The following forms are  employed by a whole-
sale house that does very largely in this prepara-
tion :
   III. Turkey colocynth  18 lbs.;  hepatic  aloes
40 lbs.; Castile soap 10 lbs.;  powdered scammony
6 lbs.; essence of cardamoms 2 lbs.; moist sugar
4 lbs.; boil the colocynth in 20 times its weight of
water for six hours ; strain and add the aloes; boil
until  dissolved, and  decant  the solution.   In the
mean time exhaust the colocynth with a  second
quantity  of water, less than the  first, strain and
add this to the undissolved residuum of the aloes,
boil again for a few minutes, then draw it off, mix it
with  the former decoction of aloes, and allow the
mixed liquors to stand  until the next day, to depos-
ite the resinous portion.  Next draw off'the liquor,
evaporate as quickly as possible, and  as  soon as
the consistence  of treacle is arrived at, allow the
whole to cool considerably, and add the soap (pre-
viously melted with a little water)  and the scam-
mony.  Sift the latter  in gradually, while  the ex-
tract  is  assiduously stirred  by a second  person.
Lastly, moderate the heat and continue the stir-
ring until a rather harder  consistence is acquired
than is proper for the extract, then,  as soon as the
whole has become sufficiently cool  to prevent any
considerable  evaporation of  the spirit, add the es-
sence, mix  thoroughly, and immediately put  it
into stone jars or pots for  use.   The extract  is
usually  labelled  Ext. Colocynth. Comp. Opt.   It
looks well, and smells very aromatic.
   IV. Turkey colocynth 2\  lbs.; hepatic aloes 5i|
lbs.; powdered scammony  1 "j lbs. ;  powdered car-
damoms  6 oz.;  (or  essence  8 oz. ;) Castile soap
(genuine) 1  lb.  2 oz.;  pale moist  sugar i lb.; as
the last.   This  certainly products a beautiful ar-
ticle, and of excellent quality, though of course
inferior to the extract of the College.  It is labelled
and sent out as Ext. Colocynth. Comp. P. L.
   The  compound extract of colocynth,  and the
simple and compound extracts  of sarsaparilla, are
in  greater demand in the wholesale trade, and are
sold in  larger quantities  at  a time, than all the
other medicinal extracts put  together.
   Qual.  and Tests.  This extract is often  adulter-
ated with powerful and acrid cathartics to make
up for the deficiency or inferiority of its proper in-
gredients, and foreign matter often becomes mixed
with  it  by  the use  of impure scammony.  The
presence of Cape aloes may usually be detected
by the odor ; chalk, (an article frequently present
in  bad scammony,) by placing a  little ball of the
e  'ract  in a glass  tube, and  pouring over it  some
dilute muriatic  or acetic acid, when an efferves-
cence  will  ensue, if that substance be present;
jalap, scammony adulterated with fecvla, and
other starchy substances, by  the filtered decoction
of  the extract turning blue on the  addition  of
tincture of iodine ; gamboge, by the decoction be-
coming deep red on the addition of liquor of potassa,
and by a  filtered  alcoholic solution  of the extract
forming a yellow emulsion with water, which be-
comes transparent and assumes  a deep red  coior
on the addition of caustic potassa, and by this solu-
tion (if the alkali  be not in excess) giving a yellow
precipitate with  acids and  with acetate of lead, a
brown precipitate with sulphate  of copper, and a
very dark brown one with the salts of iron.  The
ethereal solution dropped on water yields an opaque 
EXT                    293                   EXT
 yellow film, also soluble in caustic potassa, if gam-
 boge be present.
   Dose.  5 grs. to 3j.   It is a safe, mild, yet cer-
 tain  purgative.   It may be mixed  with calomel
 without  the  latter being  decomposed.  2\  grs.
 mixed with an equal weight of blue pill and taken
 overnight, forms an excellent aperient in dyspepsia,
 liver complaints, &c.
   EXTRACT  OF  CUBEBS.   (OLEO-RESI-
 NOUS.)  Syn.  Ext.  Cubebas  Oleo-resinosum.
 Prep. (M. Dublanc.)  Mix the  oil  obtained  by
 distillation, with the resinous extract obtained by
 evaporating a spirituous tincture of the dried resi-
 duum.  Possesses the whole of the virtues of cubebs
 in a very concentrated form.
   EXTRACT   OF DANDELION.   Syn. Ext.
 of Taraxacum.   Ext. Taraxaci, (P. L. & E.)
 Ext. Herba?. et radicis Taraxaci, (P. D.)  Low-
 enzahn-extrakt,  (Ger.)   Estratto  di Taras-
 saco, (Ital.)  Extrait  de Pissenlit,  (Fr.)  Prep.
 Macerate the fresh root of taraxacum in 10 or 11
 times its weight of boiling distilled water  for 24
 hours, then boil down to £,  strain and evaporate to
 a proper consistence.
   Remarks.  The  above are the orders of the Col-
 lege, but the extract is better when  prepared  by
 rapidly inspissating the expressed juice in a current
 of dry air.   The  extract of the  shops is usually
 prepared by exhausting the root  by  coction with
 water.   The first of the above has  a faint  and
 agreeable odor,  and a sweet,  bitter taste  ;  the
 second smells strongly of  the recent root,  has a
 pale  and lively brownish yellow color, and a bitter
 acidulous taste  without any trace of sweetness;
 the third is devoid of odor,  and  possesses a coffee-
 brown color, and a sweetish, burnt taste, not much
 unlike a solution of burnt sugar.  The medicinal
 virtue of this extract is greatest when  the  aroma
 and bitter taste  of the recent root are well develop-
 ed, and  when sweet, its  efficacy as  a remedy is
 impaired.  (Squire.)  The  Dublin College directs
 tho employment both of the herb and  root. Tarax-
 acum root  should  be gathered  during the winter
 months, as then  a given weight of the juice yields
 more extract, but in summer and autumn it pos-
 sesses more bitterness  and  aroma ; 4 lbs. of juice
 from  roots gathered in  November and December
 yielded 1 lb. of  extract, while it took from 6 to 9
 lbs. of juice  from the root, gathered  in spring or
 summer,  to yield a like quantity.  (Squire.)   The
 herb  yields  by   the evaporation of its expressed
 juice, about 5§ of extract.   Good extract of tarax-
 acum should  be wholly soluble in water.  Dose.
 10 grs.  to 3ss, as a resolvent, aperient, and tonic
 in liver  and stomach complaints, &c.
   EXTRACT OF DANDELION.   Syn. Ext.
 Foliorum Taraxaci.   From  the leaves, as  the
 last.
   EXTRACT OF ELATERIUM.   Syn. Ext.
 of Squirting Cucumber.  Elaterium.  Ext.
 ElATERII,  (P. L.)  SUCCUS SPISSATUS M0M0RDICA5
 Elaterii.   Prep. (Process of the L. Ph.)  Slice
 ripe wild cucumbers, very gently express the  juice,
 strain through a  fine hair sieve, and set it aside for
some  hours, until the thicker  part has subsided;
then decant  the  supernatant liquor, and dry the
remainder by gentle heat.    (See Elaterium.)
  Remarks. Good  elaterium should  have only a
light greenish hue, and  should be light and easily
 pulverized by pressure.  Elaterium obtained as a
 second deposite, is dark  and inferior, and hence
 called elaterium nigrum.   The English  elaterium
 is the best.  The foreign  is  uniformly adulterated
 with chalk, and colored with  sap green.  Dose.
 One-sixth gr. to 2 grs., as a hydragogue and cathar-
 tic, in dropsies.
   EXTRACT OF ELATERIUM,  (WHITE.)
 Syn.  White Elaterium.   Elaterium  Album.
 Prep.  From the half-ripe  fruit of the squirting
 cucumber, as last.  Its properties are similar
   EXTRACT  OF   ELECAMPANE.   Syn
 Ext. Inul.e.   Ext. Radicum  Inul.e Campan.e.
 Prep.  From elecampane root, like extract of dan-
 delion.
   EXTRACT  OF FOX-GLOVE.  Syn.  Ext.
 Digitalis, (P. L. & E.) Prep.  From the leaves of
 digitalis purpurea as extract of aconite, P.  L. (See
 page 24.)       ,
   Remarks. The juice of foxglove is readily in-
 jured  by exposure  to  air and  heat.  The evap-
 oration should  therefore  be  conducted as rapidly
 as possible, but  at  a low temperature.   It spoils
 by keeping.  Dose, "j gr. to 3 grs.   It is narcotic,
 sedative, and diuretic, and is powerfully poisonous.
 It is principally given in fevers, dropsy, diseases of
 the heart, pulmonary consumption, epilepsy, scro-
 fula, and asthma.
   EXTRACT  OF  FUMARIA.    Syn.  Ext
 Fumarias.   Prep. From the leaves of  the com-
 mon fumitory, like  extract of dandelion.  It has
 been recommended in some diseases of the leprous
 kind.
   EXTRACT  OF  GENTIAN.    Syn.  Ext.
 Gentianas  Molle.    Ext.   Radicis  Gentianas.
 Ext. Radicis Gentianas lutf.as,  (P. D.)  Ext.
 Gentianas, (P. L. and E.) Extrait  de Gentiane,
 (Fr.) Estratto di  Gentiane, (Ital.)  Exzian-
 extrakt, (Ger.)  Prep.  From  gentian root sliced,
 as extract of dandelion.
   Remarks. The Edinburgh College  directs the
 powdered root to be exhausted by percolation with
 temperate water.  On  the large scale this extract
 is almost  universally prepared  by exhausting the
 root  by coction with water.  When well  prepared
 it is one of the  smoothest and liveliest-looking ex-
 tracts of the pharmacopoeia.   Good gentian  root
 yields by the process of the College fully 50$ by
 weight  of extract, and by decoction  about 60$.
 Dose.  10 grs. to 3ss,  as a  bitter stomachic  and
 tonic.  The great consumption  of extract of gen-
 tian  is  by the brewers.
   EXTRACT OF GENTIAN, (HARD.)  Syn.
 Ext. Gentianaj Durum.  The last  extract re-
 duced to a proper consistence for powdering.
   EXTRACT  OF  GUAIACUM.   Syn. Ext.
 Ligni Vitas.  Ext. Guaiaci.  Ext.  Ligni Guaiaci
 Molle.  Prep.  (P. L. 1746.)   From lignum vita?
shavings or sawdust, bv decoction with water.
   EXTRACT   OF  HELLEBORE,  (ALKA-
 LINE.)   Syn.  Ext.   Hellebori  Alkalinum.
 Ext.  Hellebori  Bacheri.   Prep.  (P. Cod.)
 Black  hellebore lb. j ;  carbonate of potassa £iv;
proof spirit and white wine, of each 3 pints ; digest
 12 hours, strain and  evaporate.  (See  Ext. of
Black Hellebore.)
  EXTRACT  OF HEMLOCK.   Syn. Succus
spissatus Conii maculate  Succus  Cicutas spis-
satus,  (P. L. 1788.)   Extractum Conii,  (P   E. 
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and P. L. 1809, and since.)  Succus inspissatus
Conii, (P. D.)  Estratto  del Erba della Ci-
cuta, (Ital.)  Estrait  de Cigue, (Fr.)  Schier-
lings-extrakt,  (Ger.)    Prep.   (P.  L.)   From
hemlock leaves, like extract of aconite, P. L.
  Remarks.  The Edinburgh College directs the
filtered juice to  be  evaporated  in  vacuo,  or by
means of a current of dry air.  Of  all the inspis-
sated juices  (excepting  aconite) that  of hemlock
is most readily injured by  exposure and heat.   Its
active principle is a volatile alkaloid  named  conia,
and in proportion  as the  extract smells of this sub-
stance, so is its medicinal value.   Good extract of
hemlock should have a  green color, a strong odor
of the fresh  bruised  plant, and should develop a
strong " mouse odor" when triturated  with caustic
potassa.  On the large scale the whole  of the green
portion of the plant is pressed for juice.  1 cwt. of
hemlock yields from 3 to 5 lbs. of extract.  Dose.
2  grs. to 3ss, as an  alterative  and  resolvent in
various obstinate disorders.
   EXTRACT OF  HENBANE.    Syn.   Ext.
of Hyoscyamus.  Ext.  Hyosciami, (P. L. and E.)
Succus  spissatls  Hyoscyami,  (P.  D.)  Succus
spissatus Hyoscyami nigri.   Extrait de Jusqui-
ame,  (Fr)   Hyoszyamis-extrakt, (Ger.)  Es-
tratto  di Giusquia.ma  nera, (Ital.)  Prep.   (P.
L.)   From  the leaves of henbane,  as the extract
of aconite, P. L.  (See page 24.)
   Remarks.  The Edinburgh Ph. directs this ex-
tract to be prepared in the same way  as the ex-
tract of hemlock, P. E.   1 lb. of  the  fresh  leaves
yielded  8 to 10  drs. of  extract, (Geiger;) 1  cwt.
yielded  4 to 5 lbs., (Brande ;) 1 cwt. of the recent
plant yielded by an ordinary screw  press 59J lbs.
of juice, and this evaporated  in a water-bath gave
5  lbs. 9 oz.  of extract.  (Squire.)   If cwt. of the
green herb yielded 11 pounds of  extract.  (Gray.)
Dose. 2 to  20 grs. as an  anodyne, and antispas-
modic.   It is narcotic and poisonous.
   EXTRACT OF HOPS.  Syn.  Ext. Lupuli,
(P. L. aud E.)   Ext. Humuli, (P. L. 1809, 1824,
and P. D.)   Prep. From  the strobiles of hops, in
the same way as extract of dandelion.
   Remarks. 1 cwt. of ordinary  hops yield  about
40 lbs. of extract.  (Brande.)  The druggists usu-
ally employ hops 2  or more  years  old, called by
the dealers  " yearlings,"  " olds," or  " old olds,"
because these may be purchased at § to ^ the price
of those of the last season's growth.  The first of
the above are estimated  to have only § the strength
of new hops ; the second about \  ; and the last
little or none, at least in a medical point of view.
 Dose. 5 to 20 grs., as an anodyne, in  cases that do
not admit of the use of opium.
   EXTRACT  OF  INDIAN  HEMP.    Syn.
 Ext. Cannabis Indici.  Prep.   (O'Shaughnessy.)
 Boil  the resinous tops  of the  dried  gunjah, (the
 Indian  hemp plant, which has flowered, and from
 which the resin has not been removed,) in rectified
 spirit of wine until all the resin  is  dissolved, then
 distil off the spirit, and  finish the evaporation in  a
 water-bath.
   Remarks.  It is anodyne, stimulant, and aphro-
 disiac,  and, in  over  doses, produces  catalepsy.
 (O'Shaughnessy.)  10 to 20 grs. of this preparation
 have been recommended in hydrophobia ; but, ac-
 cording to  the  above authority,  1 grain produced
 catalepsy  in a rheumatic patient.  The  extract
prepared with the plant grown in our botanic  gar-
dens has quite a  different effect  to  that  of the
Indian plant.  This hemp is known in India as the
" increaser of pleasure,"  the  " exciter of desire,'
the " cementer of friendship," the " causer  of a
T3eling gait," the   "aughter-mover," &c.   (For a
fuH examination i. xo the merits of this plant, and
the opinions of preceding writers, see Dr. Pereira'a
valuable work on  Materia Medica, 2d ed.)
  EXTRACT OF  IPECACUANHA.    Syn.
Ext. Ipecacuanhas.  Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Evaporate
a tincture prepared from  powdered root of ipecacu-
anha lb. ij, and proof spirit lb. vij, by the method
of displacement.
  EXTRACT OF JALAP.   Syn. Ext. Jalapii,
(P. L. 1745, 17t--t\)  Ext.  Jalap/e,  (P.  L. 1809,
and since.)  Ext., sive  Resinas Jalapa*:, (P. E.)
Ext. Jalapii Molle.   Ext. Jalapas  Resinosum.
Ext. Radicis Jalapas.  Ext.  Convolvuli Jalapas.
Extrait de Jalap, (Fr.)
  Prep. I. (P.  L.)   From the root of the ipomrra
jalapa,  in  the same way as  extract of cascarilla,'
P. L.  17b8.  Product.   About 66-g- of the weight
of the jalap employed.  (Brande.)  18 lbs. of  jalap
yield, in this way, 16 lbs. (7) of extract.  (Gray.)
  II.  (P. E.)  Moisten finely-powdered jalap with
rectified spirit, put it into a percolator, and exhaust
it with more spirit; filter, recover the greater part
of the spirit by  distillation, and finish the evapora-
tion in a water-bath.  This is an  impure resin of
jalap.   Product.  16$.
   III.  (P. D.)   Similar  to the London form, and
produces, like that, a mixture of resin of jalap and
gummy extractive matter.
   Remarks. The extract of the London and  Dub-
lin  Colleges is purgative  in doses of 10 to 20 grs.;
that of the Edinburgh in doses of 2 to 6 grs. The)
should be well beaten up with a little sulphate ol
potassa, sugar,  or  some  aromatic  powder, to pre-
vent griping.
   Extract of jalap is kept in the soft state, or of a
pilular consistence, and in a hard state fit for pow-
dering-   The latter is termed Hard  Extract of
Jalap, or Extractum Jalapas durum.
   The substance commonly sold as extract of jalap
in the shops, is prepared  by boiling jalap  root for
3 or 4 hours in water, when  it is taken out, and
well bruised or sliced, and  again boiled with water
until exhausted of soluble matter.  The mixed de-
coctions are then allowed 12 or 14 hours for  defe-
cation,  after which the supernatant portion is de-
canted  and evaporated.
   EXTRACT OF JALAP.  Syn.  Ext.  Jalapa!
 Alkalinum.  Prep.  (P. E. 1744.)   Add 1  oz. of
subcarbonate of potash  to the water used  for ma-
king the extract of jalap, P.  L.
   EXTRACT OF JUNIPER.   Syn.  Ext. Ju-
 niperi.  Prep. (P. Cod.)  Macerate juniper ber-
 ries in  warm water (about 85°  F.)  for  24 hours,
 strain,  repeat the process with a fresh quantity of
 water :  mix the liquors, filter, and evaporate.
    EXTRACT OF LETTUCE.  Syn.  Succus
 spissatus Lactucas Sativas.   Ext. Lactucas, (P.
 L.)  Extrait de Laitue, (Fr.)  Pttfip.  (P. L.)
 From the expressed juice of the  common garden
 lettuce, like Extract ok Aconite, P. L.
    Remarks.  This extract is anodyne,  antispas-
 modic, sopon ic,  and sedative.  Dose.  3 to  5 grs.,
 or more, gra lually increased, in cases where the 
EXT                   295                   EXT
 ise of opium  is objectionable.   1 cwt. of lettuce
 yields 4  to  5 lbs. of extract.  (Brande.)  " The
 proper juice, collected by incisions into the flower-
 ing stem  when the plant is in flower, is preferable
 to this extract.  A good plant  of garden lettuce
 will yield 3ss of dried juice *.  of  lactuca virosa will
 yield 3j." (Thomson.)  See Lactucariu.vi.
   EXTRACT OF LILY OF THE VALLEY.
 Syn.  Ext.  of May-lily.   Ext. Convallarias.
 Prep. From the flowers or roots,  like extract of dan-
 delion. Aperient and laxative. Dose. 15 grs. to 3j.
   EXTRACT OF LIQUORICE.  Syn.  Ext.
 Glycyrrhizas.  (P. L. E. &  D.)  Ext. Glycyr-
 rhizas molle.   Prep.  (P.  L.)  From liquorice
 root, sliced, as extract of dandelion.
   Remarks.  The Edinburgh College  directs  this
 extract to be prepared 'ike'its extract  of gentian,
 by percolation with disulled water, and the Dublin
 College according to the general rule for simple
 extracts.   It is, however, seldom prepared by the
 English druggists, being principally imported in the
 dry state, and only  softened down in  England.
 The extract  prepared from the fresh root  is usually
 preferred to the best foreign, as the latter has a
 less sweet and agreeable taste.  Foreign extract
 of liquorice is commonly called Spanish or Italian
 Juice, being chiefly imported from those countries,
 that from Solazzi being most esteemed.   It is also
 termed Black Sugar, Liquorice Juice,  Succus
 Glycyrrhizas simplex, &.c.   A great deal of the
 foreign extract is mixed with fa?cula, or the pulp of
 plums ; hence its inferior quality.  Refined juice
 is prepared by dissolving the foreign juice in water,
 filtering and evaporating.
   Pontefracl cakes, or lozenges, are made of re-
 fined juice, to which some sugar is added.  By the
 following process an  extract of superior  quality
 may be  prepared  from the imported juice :—A
 layer of straw  is placed in the vessel about half a
 line above the cock ;  it is then  filled with rolls of
 liquorice,  and water poured over them.   After  48
 hours  this is drawn  off, fresh  water added, and
 again  drawn off after 24 hours, and this is repeated
 until the water passes through nearly colorless. On
 the whole, about 1£ time the weight of the liquor-
 ice juice  in  water  is consumed.   The residue,
 when stirred with water, imparts to it but  a  very
 faint color. (Mohlenbrock. Buch. Rept. xxviii, 198.)
   Soft extract  of liquorice is often employed  as a
 pill basis, and the hard extract is used as  a lozenge
 to allay tickling cough.  The mass of the latter is,
 however, consumed by the porter brewers.
   EXTRACT  OF  LOGWOOD.   Syn.  Ext.
 Ligni Campechensis,  (P. L. 1745.)   Ext. ILema-
 toxyli, (P. L. and E.)  Ext. Scobis Hasmato*yli
 Campechiani, (P. D.)   Campecheholze-extrakt,
 (Ger.)  Prep.  The College orders this extract to
 be prepared from the chips, in the same way as the
 extracts of dandelion, gentian, and liquorice.   On
 the large scale it is prepared by decoction.  1 cwt.
 of wood yields about 20 lbs. of extract, (Brande ;)
 80 lbs. yield 14 lbs. of extract, (Gray.)  It is kept
 in  two states, hard and soft   The Dose of the
 first is  10 to 20 grs. dissolved in wine, or any cordial
 water, after each motion in diarrhoea ; the  second
may be employed as a lozenge in the same disease.
  EXTRACT  OF  LUPULINE.   Syn. Ext.
Lupulini.   Estrait  de Lupuline, (Fr.)  Prep.
From lupuline by infusion in cold water.
   EXTRACT DE LUPULINE avecleDecoc
 tion.  Syn.  Ext. Lupulini  Coctione Paratum
 Prep. By boiling  with water and evaporating
 Both this and the preceding are similar to extract
 of hops, but stronger.
   EXTRACT OF MAHOGANY.  Prepared by
 decoction from  the chips or sawdust.  It is astrin-
 gent, and is frequently sold  for kino.  It is  also
 employed in tanning.
   EXTRACT OF MALE  FERN.  (ETHE-
 REAL.)   Syn. Ext. Filicis /Ethereum.  Bal-
 samum Filicis.  Oleum  Filicis Pesciueri.  Prep.
 (Peschier.) From the rhizomes, or buds of the male
 shield fern, (Aspidiutn filix mas, P. L.)
   EXTRACT OF  MALE FERN. (Alcoholic)
 Syn. Ext. Filicis  Alcoholice.  Prep.  As last,
 but using alcohol.
   Remarks.  Both the above  are given for tape-
 worm, in doses of 3ss to 3j, made into an electuary
 with  powdered sugar,  followed in 1 or 2 hours by a
 strong dose of castor oil.  Madame Nouffer's cele-
 brated Swiss remedy for  tapeworm,  for  which
 Louis XVI. gave  18,000 francs, consisted of 2 of 3
 drachms of powdered  male fern, taken in \ pint of
 water in the morning, fasting, followed in 2 hours
 by  a bolus made of  calomel and scammony, of
 each  10  grs.;  gamboge 6  or 7 grs.  (Pereira.)
 Heaven help the  man who  swallowed  the whole
 of this bolus ; for it would certainly assist him to
 the grave!
   EXTRACT  OF MILLEFOIL.  Syn. Ext.
 Achilleas Millefolii.   From the achillea mille-
 folium.   As  Extract  of Dandelion.  Astringent
 and tonic.
   EXTRACT  OF  MIMOSA BARK.  Imported
 from  New Holland.   Said to be much superior to
 oak bark for tanning.
   EXTRACT  OF  MYRRH. Syn. Ext.
 Myrrhas.  Prep. (P. Cod.)   As extract of squills.
   EXTRACT  OF  MYRRH.  (AQUEOUS.)
 Syn.  Ext. Myrrhas  Aquosum.   Prep.   Digest
 coarsely-powdered myrrh in warm  water, filter
 and evaporate.
   EXTRACT  OF  NOSEGAY.   Syn. Extrait
 de Bouquet. Prep. Flowers of benzoin  1 drachm;
 essence  of ambergris 2 oz.;  spirit  of jasmine  and
 extract of violets,  of each 1 pint;  spirits of cassia,
 roses, orange, and gillyflower, of each £ pint; mix.
 A most delightful  perfume.
  EXTRACT  OF NUX  VOMICA.   (ALCO-
 HOLIC.)  Syn.  Ext. Nucis Vomicas, (P. E.  and
 D.)   Prep. I. (P. D.)  Nux vomica, rasped, 5V'U j
 proof spirit 3£ pints ; make a tincture, express the
 liquid, filter, distil off most of the spirit, and evap-
 orate.
  II.  (P.  E.) By percolation, or boiling with rec-
 tified spirit.
  III. (P. Cod.) As extract of squills.
  Remarks.  This extract consists of impure igas-
 urate  of strychnia, and is exhibited in similar cases
to that alkaloid. Dose, i gr. gradually increased to
2 or 3 grs.  It is very poisonous.
  EXTRACT  OF OAK  BARK.  Syn. Ext.
 Quercus.  Ext. Corticis Quercus, (P. D.)  Es-
tratto  DELLA  QUERCIA,  (It'll.)     ExTRAIT D -
 Ecorce de Cheyne, (Fr.) Prep.  By evaporating
an aqueous decoction.   Astringent.  Dose. 3ss to
3ij.   Seldom used.
  EXTRACT  OF OPIUM.  Syn.  Ext Opii, 
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296
EXT
 (P. E.)   Ext.  Opii  Aquosum, (P. D.)   Opium
 Colatum.  Ext.  Thebaicum,  (P. L. 1720-1715.)
 Opium purificatum,  (P.  L.  1788.)   Ext. Opii,
 (P. L. 1809-1*^24.)   Ext.'Opii purificatum, (P.
 L.  1836.)  Extrait d'Opium, (Fr.)  Opiums-ex-
 trakt, (Ger.)   Estratto  d'Oppio, (Ital.)  Prep.
 (P. L.)   Opium, sliced, ^xx ; water (temperate) 1
 gallon; macerate in a little of the water for  12
 hours, triturate  with the rest added gradually, un-
 til perfectly mixed, allow  it to repose to deposite
 impurities, decant, strain, and evaporate.
   Remarks.  The Edinburgh  formula  is similar,
 but the Dublin  College orders  boiling water, and
 the exposure of  the infusion for two days to the air
 before evaporation.  Good  opium yields from 60 to
 70°  of its weight of  extract,  but  much depends
 upon the  variety of  opium-  Dose, i gr. to 3 grs.,
 as an anodyne,  sedative, and  hypnotic.  It is less
stimulant than ordinary opium.  It is kept both in
the hard and soft state.  A solution of the former,
in distilled water, with the  addition of a little spirit
to keep it, forms Battley's liquor  opii sedativus.
  EXTRACT OF OPIUM, EXHAUSTED OF
NARCOTINE.  Syn. Extractum Opii absque
Narcotina.  Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Reduce the last
extract with  hot  water to the consistence  of  a
sirup, cool, and  agitate with  repeated portions of
ether, then evaporate to a proper consistence.
  Remarks.  The above form was first proposed
 by M. Robiquet, in lb21.  It is said  that the ex-
 tract so prepared consists entirely of impure meco-
niate of morphia, gum, and extractive.  It is less
 exciting than the  last.
  EXTRACT  OF OX-GALL. Syn. Ext. Fel-
 lis Bovini.   Prep. (P. Cod.)  Strain fresh or-gall,
 and e\ aporat**   i a water-bath.
  EXTRACT  OF  f AREIRA.  Syn.  Ext. Pa-
 reiras, (P. L.  and  E.)  Ext.  Pareiras Bravas.
 Prep. As Extract of  Dandelion,  from  the  root.
 Dose. 10 to  30 grs.   In vesical catarrh, and ob-
 structions of the urinary organs.
   EXTRACT  OF PEACH BLOSSOMS. Prep.
 Essence of lemon 1 oz. ; pure balsam of Peru and
 essence of bitter almonds, of each  1 dr.; bitter al-
monds 1A lb.;  rectified spirit of  wine 3 pints;
spirits of orange flowers 1 pint; spirit of jasmine \
pint; macerate.  Very odorous.
  EXTRACT  OF PEPPER.  Syn. Ext. Piperis
nigri.  Prep. From bruised black pepper  by decoc-
tion and evaporation.  Stimulant.  Stronger tasted
than pepper.  Sometimes given in  ague.
  EXTRACT  OF  POPPIES.   Syn.  Ext.  of
White Poppies.  Ext. Papaveris, (P. L. and E.)
 Ext Papaveris albi.  Ext.  Capitum  Papaveris
 Sommferi.   Extrait de Pavot, (Fr.)  Prep.
 From the bruised ripe capsules of the papaversom-
 niferum,  (white poppy heads,) without  the seeds,
 as Extract of Dandelion.
   Remarks. The medicinal action of this extract
 resembles opium, but in a considerably weaker de-
 gree.  It is less  prone to produce headache and de-
 lirium.  Dose.  2 grs. to 9j. It is usually prepared
 by the large manufacturers,  by  exhausting the
 capsules, by coction with water; hence  the  infe-
 rior quality of the extract of the shops.
   EXTRACT  OF  PYROLA.   Syn.  Ext. Py-
 rolas  Umbellatas.  Prep.  From the  leaves,  as
 Extract of Dandelion.  It is strongly diuretic.
   EXTRACT OF QUASSIA.  Syn.  Ext.
Quassias,  (P. E.)  Ext. Quassia*. Lic.ni.  Prep
From the  wood, (chips,) as Extract of Dandelion.
  Remarks.  This extract is usually prepared by
decoction,  and is principally consumed  by the
brewers, who employ it as a  substitute  for hops
The wood yields about 5 or (>g of it' weight of ex-
tract.  The bark is frequently substituted for the
wood, but is  considerably  less bitter.  Dose.  5 to
15 grs.
  EXTRACT  OF  QUINCE   SEEDS   Syn
Ext. Cydonias.  Ext. Cydonias Seminum.  Prep
As Extract of Dandelion.
  EXTRACT  OF  RHATANY.   Syn.  Ext.
Rhatanias.   Ext.  Kramerias,  (P.  E.  and D.)
Prep. From rhatany root, like Extract of Dande-
lion.
  Remarks.  This extract is astringent and tonic.
Dose. 10 grs. to 9ij.   A large quantity of this ex-
tract, of very inferioi .-/uality,  is imported from
Brazil, &c.  It is kept in  two  states, hard and
soft: the  former  resembles kino, and is often sold
for it; the latter is chiefly consumed by the manu-
facturers and improvers of port wine.  The Edin-
burgh College evaporates a cold  infusion, obtained
by percolation.
  EXTRACT  OF  RHUBARB.    Syn.  Ext.
Rhasi.   Extrait  de  Rhubarbe, (Fr.)   Rhabar-
ber-extrakt, (Ger.)   Prep.   (P. L.)  Rhubarb
(bruised or sliced) §xv; proof spirit 1 pint; water
7 pints; macerate for 4 days, with a  gentle heat,
strain, and evaporate.  The Dublin  form is simi-
lar, but  the Edinburgh omits the  spirit.
  Remarks.  This extract is usually prepared by
decoction  from inferior  and  damaged  rhubarb,
picked out from the chest on purpose; hence the
inferior quality of the extract of the shops.  When
made of good Turkey, or even  East India rhu-
barb, it  is a very valuable  preparation.  It should
be evaporated as rapidly as possible, at a  low heat
in vacuo,  or by  means of  a current of dry air.
Dose. As  a stomachic 5 to 10 grs.; as a purgative
10 grs. to  3ss.  It is  seldom  exhibited alone.  By
the London  process,  good  rhubarb  yields about
half its weight of extract.
  EXTRACT OF RHUBARB, (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Ext. Rhasi  compositum.  Prep. (Prus. Ph.)
Extract of rhubarb 3iij ; extract of aloes, and soap
of jalap, of each 3j ; mix.
  EXTRACT  OF  RUE.   Syn.   Ext.  Rut*.
Ext.  Foliorum  Rutas, (P. D.)   Ext. Foliorum
Rutas  Graveolentis.   Prep.  From rue leaves,
like Extract  of Dandelion.  It is stomachic, car
minative,  and emmenagogue.  Dose.  10 to 20 grs
twice a  day.  It is usual to  add  a little of the es-
sential oil  to the  extract, just  before taking it out
of the evaporating-pan, and  when nearly cold.
  EXTRACT  OF  SABADILLA,  (ALCO-
HOLIC.)  Syn.  Ext. of  Cebadilla.  Ext. Sab-
adillas Alcoholicum.  Prep. Evaporate a satu-
rated tincture of the seeds.  Dose. ^ of a grain in
rheumatism,  neuralgia, &,c.   Poisonous.
  EXTRACT  OF  SAFFRON.   Syn.  Ext.
Croci.  Polychroite.  Prep. Infuse hay-saffron
in hot water, strain, and repeat  the  process until
it ceases to give color.   Used principally as a col-
oring and  flavoring  substance by cooks, confec-
tioners,  wine and cordial brewers, &,c.
   EXTRACT  OF  SAMBUCUS   NIGRA
Syn. Elder Rob.  Ext. Sambuci.   Prep. I. (P 
EXT                   297                   EXT
L. 1788.)   The  expressed and depurated juice of
wider berries, evaporated to  the  consistence of
tone v.
  II." (P.  E. 1744.)   Add to  the  above £ of su-
gar.
  EXTRACT  OF  SARSAPARILLA.   Syn.
Ext. Sarsaparillas,  (P. D. & P. L. 1809 & 1824.)
Ext. Sarzas,  (P. L. 1836.)   Extrait de  Salse-
pareille, (Fr.)   Prep.  (P. L.)  From sarsaparilla
root, sliced, as Extract of Dandelion.  The direc-
tions  of the Dublin Ph.  are the same as for the
other simple extracts.  For the method of man-
aging this process  on the large scale, see Decoc-
tion  of  Sarsaparilla.  Dose.  10 grs. to 3j, in
pill, or dissolved in water, or decoction of sarsa-
parilla.
  EXTRACT  OF  SARSAPARILLA,  (FLU-
ID.)  Syn.  Ext.  Sarzas fluidum, (P. E.)   Ext.
Sarsaparillas fluidum, (P. D.)   Prep.  Sarsapa-
rilla  root  lb. j ;  water 9 or 10  pints.  Boil  for 1
hour, express the liquor, and repeat the  process
with fresh  water; mix  the decoctions, and  after
defecation, strain,  and evaporate to the consistence
af  a  thin  sirup, (P.  E.; " to gxxx" P. D.,)  and
When cold  add  enough  spirit to make f §xvj, (P.
E.; " §ij  of rectified spirit"  P. D.)  See  Sarsa-
parilla.
   EXTRACT  OF SARSAPARILLA, (COM-
POUND.)   Syn. Ext.  Sarzas comp.  Ext.  Sar-
saparillas  comp.   There  is no  form for  this
preparation in the Pharmacopoeias, but it  is  nev-
ertheless  in immense demand  in the wholesale
trade, from  its  great convenience in dispensing.
3vj, dissolved in a pint  of  water, form a  similar
preparation to the Compound  Decoction of Sarsa-
parilla of the London College.  The dose,  in sub-
stance, is the same  as  that of the simple extract.
The following formula? are employed by one of the
wholesale houses that does largest in this prepara-
tion.
  I.  Guaiacum  shavings, from which the small
has been sifted,  30 lbs.;  Italian juice 24 lbs.; me-
zereon root 6 lbs.  Boil with water for 1 hour,
strain, and  repeat the process with  fresh water a
second and a third time; mix the decoctions, and
allow them to deposite for 12 or 15 hours, then de-
cant  the  clear,  strain through flannel, evaporate,
and when the  consistence of treacle is reached,
add extract of  sarsaparilla 9 lbs.;  continue the
evaporation, and just before removing the  extract
from  the pan, and when nearly cold,  add essential
oil  of sassafras  2  drs., dissolved  in rectified  spirit
1 quart.   Prod. About 45 lbs., depending  on the
quality of  the juice  employed.   This produces a
very showy article if well managed.   It is labelled
Ext. Sarzas comp.  The product of the following
formula is labelled and  sent  out  as Ext.  Sarzas
comp. Opt.
  II. As  the last, but only using 15 lbs. of juice,
and that Solazzi.  Prod. About 35 lbs.
  Remarks.  Each of the above extracts of sarsa-
parilla, (simple,  fluid, and  compound,) when  of
good  quality, dissolves in water, forming  a  deep
reddish-brown solution, perfectly transparent, and
depositing but little  sediment, even  by standing
seme  days.  See Sarsaparilla.
  EXTRACT  OF  SAVINE.   Syn.  Ext. Sa-
binas.  Ext. Foliorum  Sabinaj.  Prep.   (P.  L.
1788.)  From the plant,  as Extract of Dandelion.
                      38
Sometimes prepared in small quantities, but it il
very seldom asked for.   It is usual  to add a little
essential oil of savine  in " finishing it off," to give
it an odor of the recent herb.
  EXTRACT OF SCAMMONY.  Syn.  Resik
of Scammony.  Ext. Scammonii.  Ext. Sive Re-
sina Scammonii, (P. E.)   Prep. Boil  finely-pow-
dered scammony,  in successive portions of proof
spirit, till  all  the soluble matter is dissolved, filter,
and  distil  the liquid until little but water passes
over ; then pour off the remaining water from the
resin at the bottom of the vessel, and wash it with
successive portions of boiling water ; lastly, dry at
a temperature under 240° F.  (P. E.)
  Remarks.  As  thus  prepared it is translucent,
brownish,  fusible, and combustible ;  soluble  in  al-
cohol,  ether, and  oil  of  turpentine.   It may  be
rendered white by means of animal charcoal.  It
is a drastic purgative.   Dose. 8 to 12 grs.  " When
pure or virgin  scammony can  be  procured, it is
an unnecessary preparation."  (Pereira.)
  EXTRACT OF  SENNA.  Syn. Ext.  Sen-
nas.   Ext. Foliorum Cassias Sennas.  Prep.  (P.
Cod.)  By percolation with temperate  water, as
Extract of Rhatany, P. E.  It  is principally used
as a basis for purgative pills.  When prepared  by
decoction  it is nearly inert.
  EXTRACT  OF   SMOKE,  (AQUEOUS.)
Syn. Ext. Fuliginis.  Ext. Fuliginis Aquosum.
Prep. Wood-soot ^ij ; water 1 pint  Boil to f ^xvj,
filter, and evaporate.
  EXTRACT OF SMOKE, (ACETIC.)  Syn.
Ext. Fuliginis Aceticum.  Prep. Wood-soot §ij;
water  and distilled vinegar, of  each,  *• pint   As
last.
  EXTRACT OF SPRUCE.  See  Essence of
Spruce.
  EXTRACT OF SQUILLS. Syn. Ext. Scil-
la:.  Prep. (P. Cod.) Squill root, dried, lb.j ; proof
spirit lb. iv.  Digest for some days, express the spi-
rit,  add proof spirit lb. ij, again macerate, mix the
two tinctures, filter, distil off the spirit, and evap-
orate to an extract.
  EXTRACT  OF   STRAMONIUM.    Syn.
Ext. of Thornapple.  Ext.  Stramonii, (P., L.
E. &. D.)   Prep.  (P. L.)  Stramonium seeds §xv;
boiling distilled water  1  gallon.   Macerate  for 4
hours in a  lightly-covered vessel, then take out
the seeds, bruise them in a stone mortar,  return
them to the liquor and  boil to one  half,  strain
while hot, and  evaporate.  The Dublin form is
similar.  Prod. About 12°j.  (Barker.)
  II. (P.  E.)  Rub stramonium seeds (ground in a
coffee-mill) to a thick  mass with  proof  spirit, put
the pulp into a percolator, and exhaust it of solu-
ble matter by transmitting proof spirit through it;
filter the  tincture thus obtained, and evaporate.
The Paris form is similar.   1  lb. avoirdupois  of
seeds yields about 2\ oz. of this extract.  (Recluz.)
  Remarks.  On the  large scale, this extract is
prepared  by expressing  the juice  of  the  fresh
herb, boiling  the remainder  in water, mixing the
juice  and  decoction,  filtering  and  evaporating.
1$ cwt. of stramonium  yielded 37 lbs. of juice, and
this, with  the decoction, gave 31 lbs. of extract.
(Gray.)   Stramonium has been used in neuralgia,
mania, epilepsy, &c.   Dose. Of the extract \ gr.,
cautiously and  gradually increased to 2 or  3 gra
It is inferior to the tincture. 
EXT                   298                    FAR
  EXTRACT OF STYRAX.   Syn. Ext. of
Storax.   Ext.  Styracis, (P. E.)   Prep.  Boil
powdered storax in successive portions of rectified
spirit till  exhausted, filter the  mixed tinctures, dis-
til off the greater part of the  spirit, and evaporate
the remainder to the consistence of a thin extract.
(P.E.)
  EXTRACT OF TANZY.  Syn. Ext. Tana-
ceti.   Prep.  From the herb, as Extract of Dan-
delion.  It  is  said to be tonic, stomachic, anthel-
mintic, emmenagogue, and febrifuge.  Dr. Clark
says that in  Scotland it was  found to be service-
able in various cases  of  gout.  The infusion  is
preferable.
  EXTRACT OF  TEA.   Syn.  Ext.  Theas.
Prep.  Evaporate  an  infusion of any of the rough-
er kinds  of black tea.  Astringent   Has  been
recommended  in  diarrhoea, formed  into pills.  A
hard black-looking substance, smelling and tasting
faintly of tea, is imported under the same name
from China.
  EXTRACT OF  VALERIAN.   Syn.  Ext.
Valeriana;.   Prep.  From valerian root, as  Ex-
tract of Dandelion, but in a covered vessel.   It  is
usual to add to this extract a little of the essential
oil of valerian, dissolved in  a small quantity of
rectified  spirit, just before removing it from the
evaporating pan, and  when  nearly  cold.   Dose.
10 grs. to £ dr.   Antispasmodic.  Valerian yields
about 40°; of soft extract.
  EXTRACT OF WALNUTS.   Syn.  Ext.
Juglandis  immaturi.  Rob diacaryon sine Mel-
LE.  Prep. Evaporate  the expressed juice of un-
ripe walnuts to a soft extract.  Vermifuge.   Ta-
ken in cinnamon  water.
  EXTRACT OF  WHITE BRYONY.   Syn.
Ext.  Radicis Bryonias albas. Prep. From the
bruised root, as Extract of Dandelion.  Dose. 3j
to 3j, as  a purgative, diuretic, and  emmenagogue.
Once a  common remedy in  asthma, dropsy, epi-
lepsy, &.C.
  EXTRACT OF WHITE  HELLEBORE.
Syn.  Ext.  Hellebori  albi.   Prep.  As  Extract
of Dandelion; from the root.  Emetic  and pur-
gative.
  EXTRACT OF WHORTLEBERRY.  Syn.
Ext. of Bear's Whortleberry.   Ext. of Bear-
berry.  Ext.  Uvas Ursi, (P. L.) From the leaves,
as  Extract  of Dandelion.  Dose.   5 to  15  grs.,
twice or thrice a day,  in ch-Miic  diseases of the
bladder and kidneys, attended with increased se-
cretion of mucus, without inflammation.
  EXTRACT OF  WILD  LETTUCE.   Syn.
Ext.  Lactucas Virosas.  Succus  spissatus Lac-
tucas Virosas. Prep.   From  strong-scented  wild
lettuce,  as the last.  It is laxative  and diuretic.
 Dose.  3  to 15 grs., in dropsies.
   EXTRACT OF  WORMWOOD.  Syn. Ext.
Absinthu.   Ext. Cacuminum  Absinthii.   Ext.
Artemisia* Abbi-stiiii, (P. D.)  Extrait  d'Ab-
sinthe, (Fr.l   Estratto  Assenso, (Ital.)   Wer-
huth-extraxt, (Ger.)   Prep. As the other simple
extracts  of the Dublin  Pharmacopoeia.  (See page
2b8.)  Bitter  and stomachic.   Dose. 10 grs. to 3j,
2 or 3 times daily.   It is usual to add a few drops
of  oil of wormwood to the extract before taking it
from  the pan.
   EXTRACTS.   (In Perfumery.)  These are
mostly spirituous solutions of the essential  oils, or
odorous principles of plants, andof-other {.vfum**
They are generally termed  Uxtraits  by the por-
fumers, in imitation of the  French, who commonly
called their concentrated perfumed spirits by thtt
name.  See Extract of Nosegay. Iv\t.of Pekch-
BLOSSOMS.  ESPRITS.   ESSENCES.  SPIRITS, &,C.
  FALLTRANCK.   (Ger., from fall, a fall, and
tranck, drink.)  Syn. Vulneraire Suisse. Especes
Vulneraire.  The Suisse.   An  infusion, or tea,
prepared with a mixture of the herbs  alchemilla,
creeping bugloss,  betony,  periwinkle,  philosella,
golden rod, vervain, artemisia, mint, and veronica,
gathered among the Alps.  It is believed to be of
great efficacy for removing the effects of falls and
blows.
  FARM. (In Agriculture)  A portion of land,
with suitable buildings, fences,  hedges,  and  other
arrangements necessary for its cultivation, and the
rearing of live stock,  let or leased to the occupier
for a valuable consideration termed rent.
  FARMERY.  (In Agriculture.)   The build-
ings and yards necessary for carrying on the trade
or occupation of the farmer.  Among the first are
the barns, stables, &c.; and among the second the
principal are the rick yard, yard for watering live
stock, and  for poultry, &c.  The spot and build-
ings constituting the  farmery, should be conve-
niently and centrally  situated,  for the purpose of
abridging, as much as possible, the labor of cart-
age to  and from  the  more  remote portions  of the
farm.
  FARMING.  (In  Agriculture.)   The busi-
ness of the farmer.  The cultivation of lands held
on lease, or for  a valuable consideration.  Under
the  head Agriculture the reader has been pre-
sented with a compendious general outline of tho
history, principles,  and practice of cultivating the
soil, and rearing live  stock, which constitute the
operations  of farming;  the  present   article will
therefore be confined to a short notice of some of
the  details.  Our  remarks may  be  conveniently
distributed  under the  divisions  of—Implements—
Preparation of Lands—Fertilization of the
Soil—Cultivation of Vegetables—Rearing of
Animals—and the Rotation of Crops.
  I. On the perfection of agricultural implements
and machines depends much of the improvement
of which this art is susceptible.  Among the prin-
cipal  of these are the carr, wagon,  and wheel-
barrow, employed for the purposes of transportation;
the axe and saw, employed for felling and cutting
trees;  the shears for  clipping hedges;  the plough
for turning up the  ground, as an economical and
expeditious  substitute for the  spade ;  the harrow
for pulverizing the soil and smoothing its surface :
the hoe and spade for planting, weeding, and dig-
ging ;  the  shovel,  for removing  earth  and other
loose substances, as in carting, clearing, &c ; the
drill, a machine for  sowing seed; and the culti-
vator, a similar machine employed  for weeding,
harrowing, &c.  Most of the preceding are  used
in the clearing and tilling of land, and preserving
it in a proper state ; the  following are principally
used in the immediate collection of the produce oi
harvest, and its preparation for the marke\   The
scythe and rake are employed in hay-mak—-**. the
sickle and cradle in harvesting corn ;  the  '.«•-' for
thrashing, anc ihe fan for winnowing graii   ' ^»e 
FAR                    299                   FAR
horse-rake and mowing, reaping, winnowing, and
thrashing machines, are mostly worked by horse-
power, and are intended as  substitutes for manual
labor.
   II.  The preparation of the land for tillage
consists principally in clearing it of superfluous
trees; in fencing and  hedging it into convenient
portions, or,  when this  has  already been done,  in
keeping the fences and  hedges ill a state of repair;
in draining  it of water  when  too wet; and in irri-
gating it when too dry, and water is accessible for
that purpose.  Clearing forms the first and one of
the  most important  operations of the  farmer  in
newly-settled and thickly-wooded countries, but in
those that have been long under cultivation is sel-
dom required: it is intended to permit the free ac-
cess of air and sunlight to the soil.  The object of
fencing and hedging is either to prevent the en-
croachment  of the  larger  animals, or to confine
them within  given limits ; and boundary fences and
hedges are  also intended to  prevent trespassing,
and to preserve the land to  the use of the owner or
occupier.  The object of draining is the removal
«f superfluous water, which lessens the fertility  of
the  soil; and  of irrigation to supply plants and
vegetables with  sufficient water to  promote  their
growth.   The draining of  marshy or wet  land is
commonly effected by blind drains, or such as are
beneath the soil, and  filled with  loose stones;  or
box drains, which are covered drains, having a
free passage, and surrounded  with permeable ma-
terials ;  or  by open drains,  or mere troughs  or
trenches, ploughed or dug along the surface of the
ground.    On  sloping  lands, drains  should run
obliquely.along the sides, that their descent  may
not  be too rapid.
   III.  The fertilization  of soils  is  suggested
partly by chemical analysis,  practical experience,
and geological observations.  The soil is the up-
permost  stratum of the earth's surface, and con-
sists principally of pulverulent  earthy matter, re-
sulting from  the  decomposition of the under strata,
mingled with organic  substances chiefly derived
from the vegetable kingdom.   Gravel, sand, clay,
silica,  chalk, and oxide of iron, are  the principal
mineral constituents of soils. The most fertile soils
are  those which consist of an admixture of clay
and sand, with a due proportion of chalk and other
mineral ingredients, along with a large supply  of
decomposed  animal  and vegetable matter.  Such
soils are  commonly termed  "  loam."
   Soils are classified by agriculturists according to
their chief ingredients; as  loamy, clayey, sandy,
chalky, and  peaty soils.  Of  these the  first is the
best, but the others may be  improved by the addi-
tion  of the mineral constituents of which they are
deficient.  Sand and lime, or chalk, are the proper
additions  to  clayey soils, and  clay,  gypsum,  or
loam,  to sandy  and  gravelly ones.   Clayey soils
are expensive to  bring into a fertile state, but when
this is once effected,  and they are well  manured,
they yield immense  crops  of wheat,  oats, beans,
clover, most kinds of  fruits  and flowers of the
rosaceous kinds.  The  most  fertile soils in Great
Britain and on the Continent,  especially for wheat,
are calcareous clays.   The fertility of the soil  is
also  powerfully  promoted  by comminution  and
Jabor,  and by  the  addition of  manure.  Among
the first  may be menlioned ploughing, rolling,
harrowing, &c.,  all of which render the soil more
porous, and easily permeable to the roots of plants,
and more susceptible of the  action  of the atmo-
sphere.    Of manures it may be  remaiked  that
their nature varies with the constitution of the soil.
Lime and sand are the best  manures  for clayey
soils, gypsum and marl for sandy ones.   Besides,
every kind  of soil  requires  a proper quantity of
vegetable or animal manure, without which it will
soon become exhausted  and infertile.   Among
manures'of this class the principal are rotten dung
and  other organic matter, bone  dust,  nitrate  of
soda» and sulphate of ammonia.   The first is  ap-
plicable to all soils, the second is  especially valua-
ble for wheat, and the third and fourth  have been
used in various cases with  apparent advantage, but
require further experiments  to establish their pre-
cise value.  In the application of manures,  refer-
ence must be always had to the  intended crop, as
certain plants are found to require nourishment of
a different description to what is  fitted  for others,
and will  grow feebly or not at  all, when this  is
absent.  Wheat, for example, will not  produce a
full kernel on soils destitute  of lime.
   IV.  The cultivation of  vegetables  consists  in
sowing or planting the  seed in properly prepared
ground, and in fostering its growth, and that of the
resulting young plants, hy hoeing, weeding, &c.;
and finally, in  the collection and preservation of
the mature  plants,  seeds, or fruits.  The plants
mostly cultivated by farmers, are the cereal grasses,
or such  as produce  bread corn, esculent  roots,
grasses for the food of domestic animals, and flux,
hemp, and other plants employed in the  arts, or
used as food, or in pharmacy.  Wheat, rye,  bar-
ley, and oats, which constitute the most important
of the cereals,  are cultivated by  ploughing, mow-
ing, and harrowing the land ; then  scattering the
seed over the whole  surface, and lightly  covering
it with the soil  by harrowing.   When ripe it is
harvested by cutting with the sickle, tying in bun-
dles, drying, and storing in barns or stacks. Among
the esculent roots the potato and  turnip are the
most useful and generally cultivated.  The former
is cultivated by setting the buds or eyes of the tu-
bers, a short distance apart in rows, in holes made
by a small stick, or in furrows.   The seed of the
turnip is commonly set  by merely scattering it
over the surface  of well-tilled ground, and cover-
ing it over.  In the cultivation of grasses, the sort
chosen must be adapted to the nature  of the soil
and its situation.  Grass  is harvested by mowing
with a scythe,  drying by spreading it out  so as  to
expose it to the joint action of the sun  and  air,
and storing it in ricks or barns.   In this state it is
called  " Hay."   Flax and hemp are generally
sown " broadcast," and without further  tillage are
left to mature,  when the plants are pulled up by
the roots, and allowed to undergo a species of rot-
ting, previously to being handed over to the  man-
ufacturer.
  V. The rearing of live-stock,  or  domestic ani-
mals, is chiefly confined to horses, cattle, sheep,
and swine.  Among the first, the  Arabian may be
mentioned as  the  fleetest,  and  the Dutch and
Scotch as the hardiest and most suited to draught
Among  cattle, the  Dutch, or short-horned,  the
Lancashire, or  long-horned, the  Galloway,  or
hornless, and the Highland breed, may be named 
FEB                    300                    ver
a8 the most useful.  Among horned cattle those
should be preferred that produce the most milk,
and that fatten well and produce  the best  beef,
and that are suited to the climate and situation of
the land.  Among sheep the two grand  divisions
are short-wooled and long-wooled, both of which
include numerous  other  breeds.   The   Merino
breed, introduced into England from Spain in 1787,
have the finest wool and are most valued.  Sheep
are sheared in the spring  when the weather is
settled and warm.   Both sheep and cattle do best
and fatten quickest when well  sheltered from the
weather, provided  there be  a proper amount of
ventilation.   Of  swine a  preference  should be
given to those  breeds which fatten  best, and  pro-
duce the finest flavored pork.  The common prac-
tice of confining pigs  in dirty sties cannot be too
much  avoided; they  should be kept clean,  and
permitted to  take sufficient  exercise to  promote
their health, without allowing them to run  at large,
as in the latter case they are difficult to fatten. In
some  farms the rearing of poultry constitutes a
most profitable object of attention.   The  Spanish
fowls, commonly called Minorcas, are the largest
and hardiest,  and  are  good  layers.  To  promote
their power in  this respect, they should be supplied
with a proper quantity of azotized food, as grain,
&c, and should be kept dry and well sheltered
from the weather.   The management of cows has
been already noticed.
  VI.  The rotation or succession of crops is abso-
lutely necessary for the successful and economical
cultivation  of  the  soil.  Crops have been divided
by agriculturists into exhausting ctops—restoring
crops—and cleaning crops.   The most exhaust-
ing crops are usually considered to be those of
corn, but all those  that  are  allowed to ripen their
seed, and which are carried off the ground, are also
exhausting, but in different degrees.   Even clover,
tares, and grass cut green,  are considered as ex-
hausting, but in a less degree than those that are
allowed to ripen.  Restoring crops are such as are
allowed to decay upon  the  ground, or are con-
sumed upon it by domestic  animals.  Cleaning
crops are such as are grown  in drills, and undergo
the usual operations of weeding, hoeing, &c.; the
majority of these may also be regarded as exhaust-
ing crops.  An exhausting crop should always be
followed  by a restoring or a  cleaning crop; or
where  possible, by both combined.  Crops should
also succeed each other in  such a way  that the
Boil may not be exhausted of any one particular
kind of nutriment.  This is best effected by so ro-
tating the crops that plants which are nearly allied
should not  succeed each other, as the same or
similar kinds of plants cultivated successively on
the same soil, soon  become sickly.  This may,
however, be  obviated  by supplying such plants
with a proper quantity of the substances which
enter  into their composition, by applying  it to the
Boil in the shape of manure ;  but the expense of so
doing  so greatly  exceeds that of the  ordinary
method of manuring with the proper rotation of
crops, as to preclude the introduction of this plan
on  the large  scale.  See  Agriculture, Cows,
Dury, Butter, Cheese, Cream, Manures,  &c.
  FAT, CURRIERS'. Fat or tallow boiled until
it is very hard and blackish when cold.
  FEBRIFUGE.  Syn. Fibrifugus. (Lat, from
febris, a  fever,  and fugo, I drive away.)   That
which possesses the power of  mring or alleviating
fever.  The term is principally  upplied to medi-
cines used against the  ague,  as bark, arsenical
acid, and their preparation*
  FEET, the.  To preserve the feet in a proper
condition, they should be  frequently soaked, and
well washed in warm or tepid  water.  The nails
of the toes should  be  pared to prevent their be-
coming inconveniently  long, and from growing
into the flesh.   Many persons suffer severely from
tender feet.  This generally  arises from the use
of thin cotton or silk stockings, and tight boots or
shoes, that are not sufficiently porous to permit of
the escape of the  perspiration.   The  best treat-
ment is the immediate adoption of worsted stock-
ings or socks, and  light easy shoes  of buckskin,
goatskin, or some other equally soft kind of leather.
It is highly necessary, for the preservation of health,
to preserve the feet dry ;  persons who are, there- '
fore, exposed to the  wet,  or who are frequently
passengers through   the   public streets  in  bad
weather, should regard sound and good boots sad
shoes as the most essential portion of their clothing.
In fact, in a hygienic  point of view,  a wet back
should be less shunned than wet feet.  Many per-
sons frequently experience extreme  coldness and
numbness of the feet; the best remedies for such
are exercise and friction. In these cases stockings
of flannel or worsted  alone should be worn, and
should be kept on throughout the night if required.
The peculiar and disagreeable odor  which  is
evolved by  the  feet  of some individuals  in hot
weather, may be removed by the observance of ex-
treme cleanliness,  and by occasionally soaking the
feet in warm water, to which a small quantity of
chloride of lime has been added.
  FERMENTATION.   Syn.  Fermentation,
(Fr.) Gahrung, (Ger.)  Fermentatio, (Lat, from
fermento, to ferment.)  The spontaneous decom-
position of the proximate principles of organic sub-
stances, under the  joint influence of warmth, air,
and moisture,  and the  reunion  of their elements
forming new compounds.   Fermentation, accord-
ing to Liebig, is nothing else but  the  putrefaction
of a substance containing no nitrogen; or a meta-
morphosis, by which the elements of  a complex
molecule group themselves so as to form more in-
timate and stable compounds.   It is excited by the
contact of all bodies, the elements of which are  in
a state of active decomposition  or fermentation.
" In nitrogenized  substances of a very complex
constitution, putrefaction or fermentation is  spon-
taneously established  when water is  present, and
the temperature sufficiently high, and it continues
till the original  compounds are  wholly destroyed.
Substances destitute of nitrogen, on the contrary,
require, in order to their undergoing this metamor-
phosis, the presence of  a  nitrogenized substance,
already in a state of putrefaction, (fermentation.")
The substances  which  promote  this change are
termed ferments;  and among these, the principal
are gliadine, gluten, vegetable albumen, and all
substances in a state of spontaneous decomposition
or fermentation.   Yeast, the  ferment  most com-
monly employed  for inducing the vinous ferrr enta-
tion, is such a substance in an active  state of pu-
trefaction, and whose atoms  are in continual mo-
tion.  Putrefying animal  substances  are equally 
FER                   301                    FER
 capable of exciting the same action.  It is only in
 complex organic molecules of a higher order that
 fermentation or  putrefaction takes  place.  The
 immediate cause  of fermentation in such bodies as
 are not sufficiently  complicated  to undergo  this
 change by the mere action of water and caloric, is
 most rationally presumed to arise from  immediate
 contact with the atoms of these bodies,  which are
 undergoing this  change.  Thus,  the motion, or
 conflict of the elements of the body  in a state of
 decomposition, as those of  yeast,  when employed
 to excite   the  vinous fermentation,  destroys the
 equilibrium of the atoms  of the sugar,  and these,
 grouping themselves  according to their  special at-
 tractions,  enter into  new combinations, and form
 new compounds.  The  charcoal  (carbon)  of the
 sugar  partly unites  itself to the  oxygen, forming
 carbonic acid, and partly to the hydrogen, forming
 alcohol.  A similar kind of decomposition and in-
 terchange of elements takes place in  all organic
 substances during the state of fermentation; the
 proportions of the t>' tments liberated, and the com-
 pounds formed by their reunion, varying, of course,
 according  to the precise composition of such sub-
 stances.
    Chemists have distinguished fermentation  into
 five kinds, viz.:  1. The saccharine fermentation,
 by which  starch and gum are converted into sugar.
 2. The alcoholic or vinous fermentation, by which
 sugar is converted into alcohol. 3. The viscous or
 mucilaginous fermentation, which converts sugar
 into slime or mucilage, instead of alcohol.  4. The
 acetous fermentation, by which alcohol  is convert-
 ed into vinegar.  5. The putrid fermentation, or
 putrefaction, which is exhibited in its most marked
 form in the putrefaction of animal substances.
    1.  The   saccharine fermentation occurs during
 the germination  and kiln-drying  of grain in the
 operations of malting, and  in the  mashing of malt
 in brewing, and the sweetening of bread during its
 exposure to heat in th * oven. The substance which
 most powerfully excites the sugar fermentation has
 been discovered by Payen  and Persoz to be a pe-
 culiar principle, to which they have given the name
 of diastase. It forms about one per cent, of good
 barley  malt, and possesses the singular property of
 converting starch into gum (dextrine) or sugar, at
 the temperature of from 149° to  168° Fahr.  When
 in  a state of absolute purity,  1  part of  diastase
 will, in a few hours, effect  the conversion of 2000
 parts of starch into sugar, provided the temperature
 be not higher than 158° F.   During the action of
 this substance on starch, it is itself decomposed ;
 and when  the sugar fermentation ceases, it  has
 entirely disappeared.   It is  the presence of diastase
 in malt, which  alone converts  the starch of  the
 grain into  sugar during the operation  of mashing
 with hot water ; and hence will be seen the neces-
 sity of employing water of  a  proper temperature,
 as on this depend  the strength  and sweetness of
 the wort, and consequently  its fitness for undergo-
 ing the  vinous fermentation, and for making beer.
 Vegetable  albumen  and  gluten also  possess  the
 property of  exciting  the saccharine fermentation,
 bu  in  a considerably inferior degree  to diastase.
A  decoction of  2 parts of potato starch  in 20 of
w titer, mixed with I  part of wheat gluten, and  set
aside for b or 9 hours at a temperature of about
150°. wi1'  be found ti have  become  thin, trans-
 parent, and  sweet, and  to  consist of sugar, gum,
 and some unchanged starch, and sour gluten which
 has lost the  power of acting on fresh starch   A
 decoction of 1 oz. of  starch  in 1  lb. of water ex-
 hibits like phenomena by mere exposure to the air
 for 6 or 8 weeks in warm weather, provided fresh
 water be occasionally stirred in to supply the loss
 occasioned by evaporation.   In all these cases, the
 starch is first transformed into gum before its con-
 version into sugar ; and if the process be stopped at
 the proper point, a solution  of that substance may
 be obtained.  For this purpose 10 to 25  parts of
 starch  should  be mixed  with about  400 parts of
 water u  77D to 86°  F., and the temperature raised
 to 140°, when 100 parts  of starch must be added,
 and  the heat  increased to  158°,  and kept  about
 that point for 20 or 30 minutes, or until the turbid
 fluid becomes limpid  and  transparent.  The starch
 is now  converted into mucilage, and  by rapidly
 raising the heat to the boiling point, any further
 change  will be prevented.  A solution of gum or
 dextrine will be thus  obtained.
   The  sugar formed during the germination of
 seeds containing starch results from the action of
 diastase, and disappears as soon as the woody fibre,
 (lignine,) which  has  a similar constitution, is  de-
 veloped, forming the  skeleton of the young plant.
 (Liebig.)  See Diastase, Dextrine, &c.
   2. The alcoholic or vinous fermentation is  the
 peculiar decomposition which sugar in solution  un-
 dergoes, under certain circumstances, and by which
 carbonic acid is eliminated, and alcohol obtained.
 The presence  of a  ferment is essential to excite
 this fermentation, as  a solution of perfectly pure
 sugar will remain unaltered, even though exposed
 to a temperature of from 70° to 75°  F., which is
 that most favorable  for  its  production.  Bui if a
 small portion of yeast, or of a similar saccharine
 solution, whose molecules are in a state of motion,
 be added, the usual symptoms of fermentation will
 rapidly occur, and will continue until nearly  the
 whole of the sugar is  decomposed, when the liquid
 will become clear, and will be found to consist of
 diluted alcohol, while the yeast will have precipi-
 tated to  the bottom of the vessel, and have lost its
 power of exciting fermentation in fresh sirup.
   In the juices of sweet fruits, and in those vegeta-
 ble solutions that spontaneously run into the state
 of fermentation, the ferment is supplied by nature,
 and is intimately associated with  the saccharine
 matter.  In such  cases, the  nitrogenous  matters
 present are the first to suffer decomposition or fer-
 mentation, and this peculiar motion of their atoms
 is communicated to the sugar, and contiuues  till
 the latter has entirely disappeared from the liquid,
 or the former are wholly precipitated in the shape
 of decomposed yeast or ferment.  In those vegeta ■
 ble solutions which scarcely  pass into the state of
 fermentation,  or  among whose  molecules  such
 changes  progress slowly and irregularly, there is a
 deficiency of nitrogenized matters, or  exciters of
 fermentation, and it becomes necessary to add a
 ferment.  Recently-expressed grape-juice (Must)
 offers a lively instance of  the former class of sub-
 stances, and infusion of malt (Wort) of the lattei
 When grapes are squeezed  in the air, the limpid
juice soon manifests  the  usual symptoms  of fer-
mentation, the liquid becomes turbid, carbonic acid
gas  is evolved,  and  the nitrogenized  principles 
FER                     302                    FER
      which  the juice previously contained are decom-
      posed and precipitated under the form of a ferment,
      (yeast,) which immediately induces the decompo-
      sition of the sugar; and this state continues until
      either the whole of the yeast is precipitated in an
      insoluble and inert form, or the whole of the  sugar
      is decomposed.  In the juice of those grapes that
      produce the more perfect wines, the relative pro-
      portions of  the exciters of fermentation and the
      sugar,  are so  accurately  apportioned by nature,
      that the whole of  the former are decomposed, and
      nearly  the whole of the latter converted into alco-
      hol ;  so that the liquid (wine) is left in a state not
      liable to future change. When an infusion of malt
      is exposed to  the  atmosphere at  a temperature
      suitable for fermentation, no such a change  takes
      place  in its constitution  as  that  just  described.
      Here the nitrogenized matters (gluten,  gliadine,
      vegetable albumen, &c.)  are  absent, or at  least
      present in too small quantities  to excite the vinous
      fermentation ;  the  result is, that this infusion ulti-
      mately undergoes a mixed species of fermentation
      or decomposition, with the Droduction of products
      widely  different from tnose  that result  from the
      true vinous fermentation ; or,  in other  words, the
      liquid becomes spoiled.  But if a ferment (yeast)
      be added to this infusion of malt under  the above
      circumstances, and in the proper proportion to the
*^V  sugar  present, the true vinous fermentation will
      speedily commence, and  the  liquid will  become
      converted into beer.  This is what actually  takes
      place in the process of brewing ;  and'the scientific
      brewer  endeavors to employ a proper quantity of
      ferment to decompose  the  whole of the saccharine
      matter  of his  wort, but, at- the  same  time, as
      equally endeavors to avoid the use of an excess.
        The. chief product of the vinous fermentation is
      alcohol, but there are other substances simultane-
      ously produced, and which remain  associated with
      the fermented liquor.  Among the principal of these
      are  oenanthic  acid, cenanthic  ether, oil of potato
      spirit, oil of grain, &c.; none of which exist previ-
      ously to fermentation, and are generally supposed
      to result from the action of the nitrogenized matters
      of the  solution on  the sugar.  Under certain cir-
      cumstances these extraneous products are formed
      in much larger quantities than under others  ; and
      as these substances injure  the value of the alcohol
      with which they are associated, a  knowledge of
      the peculiar circumstances favorable and unfavor-
      able to  their production,  is a  desideratum to the
      brewer and distil' *r.
        It  has been  Si., vn, by the  researches of  MM.
      Colin and Th<5nard, and more  recently by those of
      Boutron-Chalard, Fremy,  and Rousseau, that the
      peculiar condition of the  nitrogenous matter con-
      stituting the  ferment, materially  influences the
      nature  of the fermentation.   The essential condi-
      tion ot  a ferment, to be able to excite  the vinous
      fermentation, is to be  sufficiently acidulous to act
      on colored papers; and this acidity should  arise
      from the presence of  certain  vegetable  acids and
      salts, capable of conversion into carbonic acid and
      carbonates  by  their  spontaneous  decomposition.
      Those acids and salts which  are found to pre-exist
      in fermentable fruits  and iiquors, as the tartaric,
      citric, malic, and lactic acids, and their salts, should
      be chosen ;  and of these the preference  should be
      given to the bitartrafe ot potassa, from its Dresence
in the grape.  The addition of any of these sub-
stances to a saccharine solution  renders its fer-
mentation both more active and  complete.   Tin
favorable influence of cream of tartar on fermenta-
tion was first pointed out by Thenard and Colin;
and the addition of a little of this article  has o»ei:
adopted  in practice, with manifest advantage, by
the  manufacturers of  British  wine.   When the
acidity caused  by these acids, or  their acidulous
salts, in a ferment, is considerable, the animal and
mineral poisons, the essential oils, and various other
substances,  cease  to modify the  fermentation;
while, at  the  same  time, the  resulting alcohol is
obtained in  a purer state, as the  extraneous pro-
ducts which we have just mentioned are either not
formed  at all, or only  in small and unimportant
quantities : but the contrary takes place if the fer-
ment be rendered neutral by washing with water.
   When the ferment has partially undergone spon-
taneous decomposition, and exercises an alkaline
reaction on test paper, it ceases to excite  the alco
holic fermentation  in solutions <if cane-sugar, bu|
instead thereof, induces the  development of lactine
(sugar of milk) and lactic acid, and in this respect
exercises a similar action on solutions of sugar to
that of  caseine, diastase, and animal membrane.
This difference of  action has been shown by MM.
Rousseau, to be nothing more than rational, for
when yeast has  become alkaline, it is converted
into a sulistance presenting all the properties of
caseine.
   I have stated that sugar is alone capable of di-
rect conversion  into  alcohol by fermentation ; it
may be  therefore proper to state that  there are
several varieties of sugar, all of which possess simi-
lar properties in this respect.  In a late classifica-
tion of  the  sugars, Liebig  has included lactine
(sugar of  milk) among these bodies, because this
substance disappears in milk exposed to a proper
temperature, with the same phenomena that ac-
company the fermentation of the other sugars, car-
bonic acid being disengaged,  and alcohol left in
the  liquid.  Araka, which  is an  alcoholic liquor,
distilled in Tartary from fermented mare's  milk,
and arika, a similar liquor, distilled from fermented
cow's milk, in Iceland, are   practical instances of
the conversion of lactine into alcohol by fermenta-
tion.  There is good reason  for supposing that each
variety of sugar is first converted into grape sugar,
by contact with  the ferment, and that this variety
of sugar is alone capable of  yielding carbonic acid
and alcohol  by fermentation.  (Liebig.)  For this
conversion of grape sugar, it is presumed that one
of its atoms, (represented, in the crystallized  state,
by  C13 H,4 014,)  loses  two  atoms of water, and
yields (according  to theory)  44*84$  of  carbonic
acid, 47-12g  (49*38,  Thenard)  of  alcohol, and
9*04$ of water, which nearly agrees with the ex-
periments of Guerin-Varry.   According to  Gay
Lussac, 45 lbs. of sugar are converted into 23 lbs.
of alcohol, and 22 lbs. of carbonic acid.   This ex-
planation will be simplified by reference to the fol-
lowing diagram:

4 atoms of carbonic acid contain  -   C4  .   06

2 atoms of alcohol contain    -    -  C„   H,„ 04

1  atom of  grape-sugar, dried at ) Z   7,   7T~
  212°, contains -     -         . £ ^«  11« U*-J 
FER                    303                    FER
   From the above it will be readily seen, that by
a  new  grouping of the  elements of grape-sugar,
alcohol  and carbonic  acid  are  produced, without
the  elements of the body which  excites the fer-
mentation taking any part in the conversion.
   In the practical production and proper regulation
of the vinous  fermentation  consists  the art of the
brewer, wine maker, and distiller.  The circum-
stances  most favorable to this fermentation, are—
a certain degree of warmth and a sufficient quan-
tity of active  ferment, and its  due distribution
through the liquor.  The temperature of from 68°
to 77°  is usually regarded  as most propitious for
the commencement and  progress of fermentation,
but it has been ably shown by Liebig, that, at this
temperature, the newly formed  alcohol slowly un-
dergoes the acetou3 fermentation, forming vinegar,
by which the value of the liquor is lessened.  This
conversion of alcohol  into vinegar proceeds most
rapidly at a temperature of 95° Fahr., and grad-
ually becomes more  languid, until, at about 46°
to 50°   Fahr., (8  to  10 C.,) it  ceases altogether,
while the tendency of the nitrogenous substances to
absorb  oxygen at this low temperature is scarcely
diminished in a perceptible degree.  " It  is there-
fore evident, that if wort (or any other saccharine
solution) is fermented in wide,  open, shallow ves-
sels, as is done in  Bavaria, which afford  free and
unlimited access to the atmospheric oxygen, and
this in  a situation where the temperature does not
exceed 46° to 50° Fahr., (8° to 10° C.,) a separ-
ation of the  nitrogenous constituents,  i. e., the ex-
citers of acidification, takes place simultaneously
on the  surface, and within the whole body of the
liquid."  (Liebig.)   By this method  wine or beer
is obtained, which is invariably far superior in qual-
ity to that fermented in the usual manner.
   The  quantity of the  ferment, equally with  the
temperature  at which  the fermentation  is  con-
ducted,  materially influences  the quality of the
resulting liquor.   We  have already noticed, that
the most perfect wines are produced from " must,"
which contains the proper proportions of nitrogen-
ized matter and sugar to occasion mutual decom-
position during fermentation, so that no  nitroge-
nous constituents, or exciters of fermentation, re-
main in the liquor,  to occasion the acidification of
the newly-formed alcohol.  When, however, either
the one or the other is in excess, a large portion of
the  sugar remains undecomposed, or  the  remain-
ing undecomposed nitrogenous matters continue to
operate the same effect  upon the alcohol  as they
previously  did  upon the sugar, but, in this case,
with the production of acetic acid instead of spirit.
   " So  long as sugar and a nitrogenous substance,
in a state of continuing  decomposition, exist 6ide
by side  in a fluid, fermentation proceeds.   While
oxygen  is excluded  both  these processes of trans-
formation, namely, that of the sugar  and that of
the  nitrogenous substance, or ferment, complete
themselves side by side and  limit each other mu-
tually ;  so that if the  transformation of the sugar
is completed  before that of the  ferment, as hap-
pens, for example, in the juice  of grapes  poor  in
sugai, there remains, after  the  completion of the
process of fermentation, that is, after the resolution
of the sugar into carbonic acid and alcohol, a con-
siderable amount of nitrogenous constituents,  re-
taining  the same properties which they possessed
in the juice previous to fermentation.   This does
not happen with the juice of the grapes of southern
climates.  These grapes are rich  in sugar, and a
considerable amount  of this substance remains un-
decomposed after all  nitrogenous  matters  have
completely separated in an insoluble state, as yeast
Such wines  alter very little when  exposed to the
air; the  red wines of this kind, however, acidify,
because their coloring matter is of ready mutability,
and performs, when  in contact  with  the air, the
part of the nitrogenous constituents.
  " The nitrogenous constituents of the grape-juice,
which remain  in wine after  fermentation, or those
ferments or exciters of fermentation in  the sugar,
of which I have already spoken, after the complete
transformation of the sugar, are the exciting causes
c<" the ensuing process of the acidification of the
alcoiiol."  (Liebig's Lectures.)
  It is obvious that the vinous fermentation is con-
ducted with the greatest success, when the whole,
or nearly the whole of the saccharine  matter is
converted into alcohol, and all those substances
that tend to excite acidification  are thrown  down
in an insoluble form.  When this is the case, the
liquor may be  preserved for an  unlimited period,
and will  rapidly acquire a  degree  of  maturity,
which, under  the usual circumstances, occupies
some years.   To produce this  effect  in practice,
we  have  only  to observe that the ferment  and su-
gar are present in the proper proportions, and  to
supply the deficiency of the one or the other when
this is not the  case.  The  nitrogenized matters
constituting the ferments in grape-juice,  and  vege-
table juices generally, have a similar composition
to that of the blood, or to the caseine of milk ; and
the proportions in which they are present appear
to depend not only upon the climate, but also upon
the  nature of the soil  in which the vine grows.
" The amount of these constituents of blood pro-
duced in plants, as in the vine, for instance, may
be increased by supplying them with  animal ma-
nures. Cow-dung is rich in alkalis, which exercise
a certain influence upon the increase of the amount
of saccharine matter  produced by plants  ; it i.-s poor
in nitrogen and the phosphates; that is  to suy, in
substances which minister to the formation of the
constituents of blood.   The excrements of man
contain but a small amount of alkalis'* but they
act especially  and favorably upon the production
of the blood constituents ;  or, if you like the phra-
seology better,  in  producing  ferments,—agents
capable of exciting fermentation in  the juices  of
plants.
  " It may therefore be easily understood, that we
can exercise a most decided influence  upon the
quality of the  juice of the grape by our manner of
cultivation—by a judicious  choice of manure. H e
may rationally improve a  must, rich in ferment,
i. e. blood constituents, by  the addition of sugar,
and it is a matter  of perfect indifference that
this sugar has been  produced in the organism oj
some other species of  plant; or we may add  to
the expressed juice of our unripe grapes, tne
dried ripe grapes of southern climes.  In a scien-
tific point of  view",  these are real improvements
which have  nothing  in  them very recondite, very
difficult of comprehension, or objectionable   (Lie-
big's Lectures.)                              .
  The preceding remarks of the illustrious chemist 
FER                    304                    FER
of Giessen, though specially alluding to the juice
of grapes, and  to wines, are  equally applicable to
every other vegetable juice or solution employed
in the production of fermented liquors.   The Brit-
ish wine-maker, who employs the juice of fruits
less saccharine, and less abundant in natural  fer-
ment than the grape, may easily supply a sufficient
quantity of sugar  to produce a  liquor equal in
strength to  the strongest foreign wine; while, at
the same  time, he may  add such  a proportion of
ferment, if  any is required, as will convert  the
whole of  this sugar into  alcohol, which he may
preserve in the liquor undecomposed, by carrying
on  the  fermentation  at  a  temperature that  will
oppose its acetirication or transformation into vine-
gar.   But perhaps no kind of liquor in general use
would be more improved by the practical applica-
tion of these principles than cider.   We have al-
ready noticed  the  careless and imperfect way in
which the fermentation of apple-juice  is usually
conducted, and the superiority of the cider of  one
county  over that of another;  it is by a partial
application of this knowledge in the one case,  and
its neglect in the other, that this difference  exists.
  In the fermentation of malt wort, the application
of these principles has been productive of the great-
est  advantages.   The  superiority  of Bavarian
beer,  which is brewed  on  the  above plan, over
other  beer, has been already noticed ; and, in  this
country, the superior quality of  the Scotch  and
Burton  ales  (East India) over those of our ordi-
nary brewers may  be mainly referred to the  low
heat of  the fermentation, and the employment of
a proper proportion of ferment, (yeast.)
  The exact quantity of yeast required to produce
the entire decomposition of the sugar in wort of
any given gravity, is a problem which can scarce-
ly be  correctly  solved, from the varying powers of
exciting fermentation possessed by different sam-
ples, dependent  upon age, &c, and also upon the
temperature of the liquor with which they are to be
mixed.  It has been stated that a quantity of yeast,
whose moleculf ? are  in a  state of active motion,
equivalent to 1£ parts of  dried  yeast, are suffi-
cient to  effect the perfect fermentation of 100 parts
of sugar ; but this assertion requires confirmation.
The Scotch ale brewer usually employs but 1 gal-
lon of yeast to every 240  gallons of wort, of  the
average gravity of  about 40 lbs. per barrel,  and
never adds more during the subsequent parts of the
process, unless  absolutely required.  In England
about 1 per cent of yeast is the  usual dose for
worts of the ordinary strength.   For a wort of
about 30 lbs. per barrel, 2 to 3 lbs. of yeast are
usually  employed.   An  excess of yeast should be
avoided, as  it  not  only makes the fermentation
proceed too rapidly for  the production of good li-
quor,  but also greatly increases the temperature of
the wort, and  renders the process less easily con-
trolled.
  In the brewing of beer, the complete conversion
of the sugar into alcohol is not permitted  by the
brewer; but as soon as the daily attenuation of
the liquor becomes but trifling, it is " cleansed," to
prevent the head of the barm mixing with  the
beer,  which would then become " yeast-bitten."
In worts  that  are  fermented for the  purpose of
distillation, this plan is not adopted ; but the  fer-
mentation is allowed to proceed until the whole of
the matter capable of conversion into alcohol  has
disappeared from the liquor, when  it is  submitted
to the still.
   The symptoms of a perfect fermentation of malt
wort  have  been thus  described by a  writer on
brewing.—1. A cream-like substance  forms round
the edges of the gyle tun, which gradually extends
itself, and ultimately covers the whole  surface of
the liquor.  2.  A  fine curly, or cauliflower-head,
in a  similar way  extends itself over the surface,
and indicates to the experienced brewer tho proba-
ble quality of the fermentation.  3. The " stomach,"
or vinous odor, is  next evolved, and continues to
increase with  the attenuation  of the wort.  The
peculiar nature of this odor is also an indication of
the state of the fermentation.  4. The cauliflower-
head  changes or rises to a fine  " rocky" or " yeas-
ty" head, and  ultimately falls  down.   5. In this
stage the head  assumes a peculiar  yeasty appear-
ance, called by brewers " close-yeasty," and  the
gas is evolved in sufficient quantity to  blow up lit-
tle " bells" or  " bladders,"  which immediately
burst, and are  followed by others, at intervals  de-
pending on the activity  and  forwardness  of  the
fermentation.   These  bells should  be bright and
clear; as, if they appear  opaque or dirty, there is
something the matter with the  wort.   (Black.)
   The maturation or ripening of beer and wine
by age depends upon the slow conversion of  the
sugar into alcohol which escaped decomposition in
the gyle tun, or fermenting vessel.  This conver-
sion proceeds most perfectly in vessels which  en-
tirely exclude the air, as  in the case of wine in
bottles; but when air is present, it  is usually  ac-
companied by slow acetification.   This is the case
of wine in casks ;  the porosity  of the wood allow-
ing the very gradual permeation of the air.  Hence
the superiority of bottled wine over draught wine,
or that which has matured in wood.  Good wine,
or well-fermented beer, is vastly improved by age,
when  properly preserved; but inferior  liquor, or
even superior liquor, when preserved  in improper
vessels and  situations, becomes acidulous, from  the
conversion of its alcohol into vinegar.  Tartness or
acidity is consequently  very  generally, though
wrongly, regarded by the ignorant as a sign of age
in liquor.   The peculiar  change by  which fer-
mented  liquors  become mature or ripe  by age, is
termed the  " insensible fermentation."   It is  the
alcoholic fermentation impeded by the presence of
the already-formed spirit in the liquor, and by  the
lowness of the temperature.
   We have seen that other products besides alco-
hol are formed, under certain  circumstances,  du-
ring the fermentation of the saccharine solutions of
vegetables,  and that  these substances lessen  the
value of the alcohol with which  they  are associa-
ted.  The principal of these are the oils which pass
over in distillation from fermented potato and grain
worts.  The first has been called potato spirit oil
fuselol,  &c.; the second corn-spirit oil,  oil oj
grain,  &c.  According  to  Messrs. Bowerbank,
the distillers, quoted by Dr. Pereira,  500 gallons
of corn-spirit yield about one gallon of oil.  Both
the above oils are limpid and colorless, and possess
a  nauseous odor and taste, and  are soluble in dilute
alcohol in sufficient quantity to render it disagree-
able, and unfit for the purposes of  a  beverage.
These peculiar substances abound in all grain spirit, 
FER
305
FER
 but occur in greater quantity when damaged giain
 is employed to make the mash.   It has been pro-
 posed to prevent, or at least to lessen the produc-
 tion of  this oil, by not  pushing the attenuation of
 the wort too  far, or  by the addition of a  certain
 quantity of tartaric acid or bitartrate of potassa to
 the wort before submitting it to fermentation. The
 best means of depriving spirits of these, or other
 substances  of a similar nature, is to  largely dilute
 them with water, and to draw them over at a
 gentle heat.  Agitation with olive oil, decantation,
 dilution  with a  large quantity of water, and re-
 distillation at a moderate  heat, have also been re-
 commended.   An  excellent  method,  frequently
 adopted to purify nauseous whiskey distilled from
 corn-spirit, is filtration  through  a series of 6 or 8
 vessels, filled with newly-burnt and coarsely-pow-
 dered charcoal.  This plan succeeds perfectly with
 moderately diluted spirits.
   On fhe Continent the peculiar taste which grain
 and potato oils impart to spirit is termed "fusel."
 To remove this, about 10  per cent, of common vin-
 egar, and  a very little sulphuric acid are added,
 and well mixed  by  agitation.   The  spirit is next
 allowed to repose  for a few days, and then distilled.
 A solution of chloride of  lime is also employed for
 the same purpose, and in  the same way.   In both
 the above cases, a species of ether is  formed which
 possesses a very agreeable odor.   In the first case,
 toeiate of oxide  of amylol is produced, which has
 so p.easant a taste and smell of fruit, that " it may
 be employed  for perfuming apartments and making
 ratifias."  The chloride of amylol has also a pleas-
 ant  ethereal smell and  taste.  The affinity of the
 hydrated oxide  of amylol (fuselol) for acetic  acid
 is so great, that  they  readily unite  without the
 intervention  of  a  mineral acid.  (Doebereiner.)
 Thus, the   oi! of  vitriol mentioned above, though
 always used in practice, might be omitted  without
 any disadvantage.
   It is often of  the utmost importance to brew-
 ers, wine-merchants,  sugar-refiners, <J-c,  to be.
 able to lessen the activity  of the vinous fermenta-
 tion, or to stop it  altogether, or to prevent its ac-
 cession to  sirups  or sacoharine and vegetable
 solutions.   The nature of the animalized matter
 forming ferment, the presence of which  is neces-
 sary to fermentation, will readily suggest the proper
 means to be employed in  such cases.   Whatever
 will  still the motion of the molecules of ihe nitro-
 genous  matter  forming the  ferment, will render
 them  inoperative  as  exciters   of  fermentation.
 Among the simplest means of effecting this object,
 and  such as  admit of  easy practical  application,
 may be mentioned exposure to either cold or heat.
 At a temperature  below about 50° F., the  acetous
 fermentation  ceases altogether, and  the alcoholic
 fermentation  proceeds with  diminished activity as
 he temperature falls, until at  about  38° F. it en-
 tirely ceases.  In  like  manner, the rapid increase
 of the temperature of a fermenting liquid  will ar-
 rest its fermentation, and is preferable to the action
 of cold, as  it is of easier application,  and perfectly
 precipitates the ferment in an inert state.  For this
purpose,  a  temperature of  about 180 or  200° is
preferable,  or even that of boiling water may be
employed with advantage.   In practice, fluids are
commonly  raised to their boiling point for this pur-
 Jose, or are submitted to the heat of a water-bath,
                          39
(207 i° F.)  In this way the fermentation of sirups
and vegetable  solutions and juices  is usually ar-
rested^in the pharmaceutical laboratory.
  Among  substances  that   may  be  added to
liquids to arrest  fermentation^ the most  active
are—the volatile oil of mustard, coarsely-powdered
mustard seeds or pure flour of mustard, sulphurous
acid or the fumes of burning sulphur,  sulphuric
acid, sulphite of lime, tinctuie of  catechu, alcohol,
strong acetic  acid,  chlorate  of potassa, bruised
horseradish, garlic, and cloves, and  their essential
oils, and all the other volatile  oils that contain sul-
phur, and most of the salts that  readily part with
their oxygen.   All the  above arrest fermentation,
and render yeast inoperative, and they possess this
power nearly in  the order in which they stand
above.  In  practice, mustard, the fumes of burn-
ing sulphur, and  sulphite of lime, are those most
adapted  for beer, cider, wines, sirups,  &c.; but
some of the others are occasionally used, though
less active.  For  arresting or preventing the fer-
mentation of  the  vegetable juices  and  solutions,
and the medicated sirups- employed  in pharmacy,
mustard seed, or this with a little bruised cloves,
should alone.be used, as the  addition of acids oi
salts would  lead to the decomposition of  their ac-
tive principles. For this reason such liquids should
be kept in i sufficiently low  temperature to  pre-
vent fermei tation,-and  should they  pass  into  that
state, it sho ild be preferably arrested by the appli-
cation of  ht at or cold,  as above  explained.   (See
Bread, Brewing, Yeast, &c.)
  3. The viscous or mucilaginous  fermentation,
is that peculiar change which produces the " ropi-
ness" of  wine, beer, and other liquors.   This  spe-
cies of decomposition is exhibited in the most com-
plete  state, when the  juices of  carrots, onions,
beet roots, &,c, are fermented  at a temperature
of from 100° to 120° Fahr.   At ordinary temper-
atures alcohol is formed, but in this case  the sugar
is converted into mannite, lactic acid, and a pecu-
liar substance  which is precipitated as a species of
slimy mucilage on the  addition of  alcohol.  Weak
solutions of sugar  (1  to 20)  boiled  with yeast oi
gluten, and kept  at a  temperature of from  85°
to 105° Fahr., readily  pass into this kind of fer-
mentation.  The  best means  of arresting this dis-
position in  fermented liquors, is the  addition  of  a
little alum or catechu, dissolved in water, or an in-
fusion or decoction of nut galls.   A small quantity
of sulphurous  or sulphuric acid will  produce a like
effect.   When weak sirups are  attacked in this
way, the best  remedy is to heat  them to the  boil-
ing point.
  4. The acetous fermentation, or  the production
of vinegar by the oxidation of alcohol,  has been
already briefly touched on, under the head Ace-
tification.   It may be here remarked, that this
species of fermentation differs  from those previously
noticed ; for whereas they  are capable of continu-
ing in vessels without access of air, when once
excited, this is immediately stopped when the air
is excluded,  and  under ordinary  circumstances
proceeds with  a degree of rapidity proportionate to
the amount of surface exposed to the action of at-
mospheric  oxygen.  It also differs from  the alco-
holic fermentation by the products  being formed,
not only by a  new grouping of the elements of the
substance undergoing decomposition, but by means 
FER                    300                    FER
of oxygen not previously  contained  in that sub-
stance.
  Pure alcohol diluted with water does not acidify
by  mere  exposure  to the  atmosphere,  but wheu
mixed with organic matters, as in the state it ex-
ists in fermented liquors, it  readily absorbs  oxygen,
and passes into vinegar.  This change takes place
most  rapidly at a temperature of 95° Fahr., and
gradually lessens in activity as the  temperature
falls,  until at about  50°  it ceases altogether.  The
acetous  fermentation  spontaneously  follows  the
vinous fermentation, when  the fermented  liquor is
left exposed at ordinary temperatures,  and in some
cases the  two fermentations simultaneously occur
in the same liquid ; the newly formed alcohol pass-
ing slowly into vinegar, while the undecomposed
sugar is being  converted  into alcohol.   From  the
simultaneous existence of the two fermentations in
the same  liquid, some persons who have only im-
perfectly investigated the subject, have been led to
suppose  that the saccharine matter is capable  of
direct conversion into vinegar; but the falseness
of this supposition is fully demonstrated by careful
observation.
  According to the  researches of Doebereiner and
E. Davy,  1 equivalent, or 46 parts of alcohol, ab-.
sorb 4 equivalents, or 32 parts of atmospheric oxy-
gen during the process of acetification, and hence
are  formed 1 eq. or 51 parts of dry acetic acid, and
3 eq. or 27 parts of water ; or, which is the same
thing, 1 eq. or 60 parts of glacial acetic acid, and
2 eq. or 18 parts of water.   This will be rendered
familiar by reference to the following diagram:—
  1 eq. of dry acetic acid  . .  .  = G, H3 03
  3 eq of water......=   H3 03
  1 eq. of alcohol C4 H6 02  )     _ r* h n
  4 eq. of oxygen   .  .  04  \  '  -t(HfU|
  This  transformation has been  lately shown  to
result from the oxidation of a portion of the hydro-
gen of the alcohol, forming water and  aldehyde,
and from the absorption  of  atmospheric ogygen  by
the  latter, by  which it becomes converted into
acetic acid. (Liebig.) See Acetification,  Acetic
Acid, and Vinegar, and the preceding article  on
the  Vinous Fermentation.
  5. Putrefactive fermentation.  (See Putrefac-
tion.)
  To the preceding it may be added, that if a little
white cheese curd be mixed with a solution of su-
gar, and the mixture be preserved at from 76° to
86° Fahr., and kept neutral with chalk, the sugar
will  entirely  disappear, hydrogen  and  carbonic
j.cid will be given off, and  a considerable  amount
of butyric acid will be found in the fluid.  This has
leen  called the " butyric  fermentation,"   and  is
"lighly interesting and important, from the explana-
tion it affords of the production of fat in animals.
  FERRIC ACID.  This acid has only been ob-
tained combined with potassa, forming a ferrate
or perferrate of that alkali.  Fremy, the discov-
erer of  this new compound, prepared it by calci-
ning a mixture of the peroxides of iron and potas-
sium, or by igniting a mixture of potassa and oxide
of iron,  or by injecting nitre on iron in  fine  powder,
and heated to redness in a crucible.   The follow-
ing form,  published by Trommsdorff, will, however,
be found more convenient and certain:—Finely-
pulverized iron filings 2 dr.; pulverized saltpetre 4
dr.;  mix, place it in an 8 or 10 oz. crucible, heated
to a glowing red, still standing on red-hot coals, and
when combination takes plac? c?  one side, shown
by the evolution of light and white fumes,  remove
it from the fire.  As soon as the deflagration of tho
mixture has ceased, scrapo out the mass  on to a
cold plate, by means of  an iron spatula.  Tiik
product is a  dark reddish-black  mass, forming a
superb  cherry-red solution   with  water, which
quickly undergoes decomposition, depositing  ses-
quioxide of iron, and evolving pure oxygen.   It is
the substance  employed  by  Dr. Payerne. to keep
up the vitality of  the air  in diving-bells,  uncon-
nected with the atmosphere.  For this purpose, it
is only necessary to  drop a piece  occasionally into
a vessel of water.
  FERRIDCYANIDE OF IRON.  Syn. Hy-
dro-ferridcyanate  of Iron.  Turnbull's Blub.
Prep. Precipitate  a  solution  of pr">to-stilphate if
iron  by another of red prussiate of t oiash.  (Fer-
ridcyanide of potassium.)
  Remarks. This is a variety of Prussian blue, of
remarkably  beautiful  color, and  may be  distin-
guished from  the  ordinary Prussian blue of  com-
merce by its action on the  yellow prussiate of pot-
ash.   When boiled in a solution of the latter it is
decomposed, a portion is dissolved, and a gray res-
idue  remains.
  FERRIDCYANIDE   OF   POTASSIUM.
Syn. Red Prussiate of Potash.   Hydro-ferrid-
CVANATE OF PoTASSA.  RED FERROCYANIDE OF PO-
TASSIUM.   Prep. Pass chlorine gas through a very
dilute solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, evapor-
ate it when the oxidation  is  complete, and add to
the boiling liquor, when it is  near  its crystallizing
point, a few drops  of solution of potash ; the screen
substance is then decomposed, and flocks of perox-
ide of iron separate.  It is very easy to observe the
moment at which  the object is attained, and care
must be taken not to add too much potash, because
an excess of it would convert the ferridcyanide of
potassium into ferrocyanide.   The solution  is  to be
filtered hot to separate the  peroxide of iron ; it pos-
sesses a deep purplish red color, is to be cooled very
slowly, and then fine crystals of  the salt  are ob-
tained.   (M. Posselt)
  FERRID-CYANOGEN.  A compound formed
by treating ferrocyanide of potassium  with  chlo-
rine.  It unites with 3 eq.  of hydrogen, forming a
tribasic acid, termed hydro-ferrid cyanic acid.
  FERROCYANIC ACID. Syn. Ferrochyazic
Acid.  Hydro-ferrocyanic  Acid.  Prep. I. Dis-
solve yellow prussiate of potash in water, and add
a solution of hydrosulphuret  of baryta, as  long as
a precipitate falls, filter,  wash the  powder with
cold  water, dry, dissolve 100 parts in cold water,
add 30 parts  of concentrated sulphuric acid, mix
well, and after repose decant the clear.  (M. Por-
rett.)
  II.  Diffuse  recently precipitated  ferrocyanide
of lead or copper  through  water, decompose it by
passing a stream of sulphureted hydrogen through
the liquid, and filter.  (Berzelius.)
  III. Agitate with ether  a  concentrated aqueou?
solution of ferrocyanic acid as obtained by t lie de-
composition of ferrocyanide of lead by means of
sulphuric or hydrosulphuric acid ;  the acid separ-
ates immediately,  and may be obtuined by filtra-
tion  ; this remarkable separation of the acid from 
FER                    307                   FEV
 the water which holds it in solution, requires but
 litt.e ether.  If the solution is moderately concen-
 trated, the whole forms a thick mass by  agitation,
 and after some time the ferrocyanic acid suspend-
 ed in the ether separates from the water  saturated
 with ether, and swims on the surface.  The water
 is to be removed by a pipette ; the thick mass is to
 be put on a filter and washed repeatedly with a mix-
 ture  of alcohol and ether,  containing a considera-
 ble portion of the latter;  it is  then  to be  pressed
 between the folds of absorbent paper to remove the
 moisture, and  afterwards to be perfectly dried over
 Bulphuric acid in the air-pump.—
   Or prepare concentrated solution of ferrocyanide
 of potassium with boiled water, cool without con-
 tact  with the  air, add an  excess of hydrochloric
 acid, also deprived of air, and agitate with ether as
 before ; dissolve the separated acid in alcohol, to
 which a little sulphuric acid has been added, filter
 if not clear, and agitate with ether ;  the separated
 acid is to be dried as before described.  (M. Pos-
 selt)
   Remarks. The lemon-colored solutions obtained
 by the  first two processes, should  be  cautiously
 evaporated over  sulphuric  arid,  in vacuo, when
 ferrocyanic acid will  be  obtained under the form
 of a  crystalline  mass.  By the  last method it  is
 procured in the state of a white powder, frequently
 with a slight blue or yellow tint.  This acid is de-
 composed by heat  and moisture,  when in contact
 with the air. With the metallic oxides it forms the
 compounds  termed  ferrocyanides,  ferrocyanates,
 hydroferrocyanates, or prussiates.   The insolubles,
 ferrocyanides,  may all be  formed by the mixture
 of a soluble salt of the metal with a solution of the
 prussiate of potash.   (See Prussian Blue and
 Prussiate of Potash.)
   FERROCYANIDE OF AMMONIUM. Syn.
 Hydro-ferrocyanate  of  Ammonia.    Ferro-
 cyanate of do.   Prussiate of do.   Prep. Digest
 ferrocyanide of lead in a solution  of  sesquicarbon-
 ate of ammonia at a gentle heat,  filter, evaporate,
 and  crystallize.
   FERROCYANIDE OF  BARIUM.   Prep.
 Digest pure Prussian blue in powder, in baryta wa-
 ter.    It forms efflorescent prismatic crystals by
 evaporation.   Soluble in 4£ parts  of  water.
   FERROCYANIDE  OF  COPPER.    Syn.
 Prussiate of  Copper, &c.  Prep.  Precipitate  a
 solution of a salt of copper with another of prus-
 siate of potash ;  collect the powder, wash it with
 water and  dry.   Has a  beautiful  reddish brown
 color.
   FERROCYANIDE OF IRON is only known
 in the double ferrocyanides of iron.
   FERROCYANIDE OF LEAD.   Syn. Prus-
 siate  of Lead, &c.  Prep. From  a soluble salt
 of lead by the addition of a solution of prussiate of
 potash.  A yellowish white powder.
   FERROCYANIDE OF MERCURY. Prep.
 From a salt of mercury,  as the last.   A  white
 powder, which  undergoes decomposition as soon as
 precipitated.
   FERROCYANIDE  OF  ZIXC.   A white
 powder precipitated from a solution of a soluble salt
of zinc, by adding ferrocyanic acid, or a solution of
prussiate of potash.  The  latter solution also  pre-
cipitates white  ferrocyanides from  solutions of
the salts of silver and  bismuth, a greenish white
 one from those of nickel, a green one  turning red
 from the salts of cobalt, and a white one, chang-
 ing to  a peach-color, from the salts  of the pro-
 toxide of manganese.*
   FEVER.   Syn. Fievre,  (Fr.)   Febris ; Py-
 rexia,  (Lat.; the former from ferveo, I  burn,
 whence the English word ; the latter from *vp,fire.)
 The name of an extensive and important class of
 diseases, one  of the  most general  symptoms  of
 which is an increased heat of the body.  Fevers
 have  been  divided by nosologists into intermittents,
 (intermittentes,) and continued fevers, (continua?.)
 The  first  of  these are  generally  known by the
 name of agues, and the latter have been divided into
 synocha, or inflammatory fever; typhus, putrid or
 low fever;  and synochus, or the common continued
 or mixed fever, which  commences with symptoms
 allied  to the former, but terminates with those  of
 typhus.  The terms  hectic, nervous,  bilious, in-
flammatory, &c., have also been applied to partic-
 ular varieties of fever, and  names  indicative  of
 certain  cutaneous appearances connected  with
 them have been given  to others ; as  scarlet fever,
 yellow  fever, &c, from the color of  the skin in
 those diseases.
   The  usual symptoms of incipient fever are chilli-
 ness, quick pulse, hot and dry skin, languor, de-
 pression of spirits, alternate fits of shivering and
 heat, hurried  and uneasy respiration, flying pains
 in  various  parts of the body, as the  head, back,
 and loins ; loss  of appetite, nausea or vomiting ;
 dry mouth, furred tongue,  costiveness, urine small
 in  quantity,  and  usually  of  a deep  color, &c
 When any of these  symptoms  appear, their pro-
 gress may  often be arrested by the timely exhibi-
 tion of  an  emetic, followed by a saline purgative,
 and diaphoretics ;  at the same time promoting the
 action of these remedies by a low diet and drink-
 ing copiously of diluents,  and  carefully avoiding
 animal food, spirits, fermented  liquors, or any thing
 at all stimulant. Whenever symptoms  of fever be-
 come established, medical advice should be sought
 and implicitly followed.
   In visiting or attending  persons laboring  under
 fevers, it is advisable  to  avoid  immediate contact
 with themselves or clothing, or standing near them
 in such a position as to inhale their  breath,  or the
 effluvia evolved (in some cases) by their bodies;
 and when  remaining for some time in the apart-
 ment, it is  preferable to sit or stand near the fire-
 place, or between  the window and  door, as in such
 parts  ventilation is most perfect.    The greatest
 purifier of the atmosphere of a room is a good fire,
 because it occasions a continual current of the im-
 pure air up the chimney, and a corresponding in-
 flux of  fresh air from without.   Chloride of time,
 or its solution, is also a good purifier  of the atmo-
sphere of a sick chamber, but should not be used in
quantity, as the evolved chlorine  might, in  that
case, impede the respiration of the patient. A small
quantity of the powder spread on a flat dish  or
plate^and placed on the chimney piece, and a like
quantity in an opposite part of the  room, will con-
tinue to  evolve sufficient chlorine  to disinfect the
air  of an apartment for a week or longer.   The
evolution of chlorine  is promoted  by occasionally
renewing the  exposed surface, by  stirring it with
a piece of  stick, and after it becomes scentless,
by, the addition of a little acid, as.  strong vinegar, 
FIL                    308                     FIL
or spirits of salts  or oil of vitriol, largely diluted
with water.   It is advisable to  avoid  entering the
room of  a patient laboring  under contagious dis-
eases, when the stomach  is empty, or the spirits
depressed ; and it has been recommended to clear
the mouth of the saliva immediately after quitting
the chamber.
  FIBRINE.   A peculiar  proteine substance,
forming  the  coagulable  portion of  fresh-drawn
blood,  and the principal constituent  of the mus-
cular or fleshy parts of animals.   It also occurs
in vegetable  juices, the gluten  of wheat, and in
the seeds of the cereals  generally.  It is eminently
nutritious, and  capable  of yielding  in the animal
body, albumen, caseine,  and  the tissues derived
from them. (Liebig.)   It  is  a modification of pro-
teine, and as **.uch contains in itself the elements
of all the softer portions of animals, and is hence
capable of supporting life  without the addition of
any other aliment.  This is what  no other sub-
stances but  albumen and caseine (also modifica-
tions of proteine)  can do.
  FILICINA.   Syn.  Filicia.   A  peculiar sub-
stance,  possessing alkaline  properties,  discovered
by Batso in the rhizomes of the male shield-fern,
(Aspidium filix mas.)
  FILTER.   Syn.  Filtrum, (Lat.)    Filtre,
(Fr.)  An instrument for filtering or  straining.
  FILTRATION.    Syn.   Filtriren,  (Ger.)
Filtration,  (Fr.)  Filtratio,  (Lat.,  from fil-
trum,  a filter.)  The separation of  liquids  from
substances mechanically  suspended  in them, by
passing  them  through  the  pores of  media  suffi-
ciently  fine  to  retain or keep back the solid mat-
ter.   Filtration is one  of the most common and
useful chemico-mechanical  operations of  the arts,
but  under some  circumstances, requires consider-
able address  for its successful performance.  It is
usually resorted to for the purpose of  freeing fluids
from feculence, dirt, and other foreign matter, and
for obtaining them in a clear or  transparent state ;
but,, in  some cases, it has for its object the collec-
tion of the suspended  substances, as precipitates,
&c, and in  others both these intentions are  com-
bined.   The  word filtration is absolutely synony-
mous with straining, but, in the language of the
laboratory, the former is usually  applied to  the
operation of rendering liquids transparent, or near-
ly so, by passing them  through fine  media, as fil-
tering paper, for instance; the latter to the  mere
separation of the grosser portion, by running them
through coarse media, as flannel, horse-hair cloth,
 &,c, through which  they flow with considerable
rapidity.  Filtration is distinguished from clarifi-
 cation, by the  former  removing the solid matter,
 or cause of opacity or foulness,  by  mere mechani-
 cal means, whereas the latter consists in the clear-
 ing of a liquid by depuration, or the subsidence of
 the suspended substances or faeces, arising  from
 their gravity being naturally greater than the fluid
 with which  they are mixed, or  being rendered so
 by the application of heat, or the addition oLsome
 foreign substance.
   The  apparatus, vessels, or media,  employed for
 filtration,  are  called  filters, and  are commonly
 distinguished from strainers by the  superior fine-
 ness of their pores, as above noticed.
    Both strainers and filters act on the same prin-
 ciples ai the common sieve on  powders; they all,
in like manner, retain  or  hold  back the  conrsei
matter, but pennit the liquid, or smaller  and more
attenuated particles to  pass  through.   The term
medium has been applied to the  substance thiough
the pores of which the liquid percolates.
  The forms of filters, and the substances of which
they are composed, are  various, and depend upon
the nature of the liquids for  which they  are in-
tended.  On  the small scale, funnels of tin, zinc,
copper, Wedgewood  ware, earthenware, glass, or
porcelain, are commonly employed
as the  containing vessels. (See en-
graving.)   The  filtering  medium
may be any  substance  of  a  suffi-
ciently spongy or porous nature to
allow of the free percolation of the
liquid, and whose pores are, at the
same time, sufficiently fine to ren-
der it  limpid or  transparent.   Un-
sized paper, flannel, linen, calico, cotton-wool, felt,
sand, coarsely-powdered charcoal, porous ston«? or
earthenware, and numerous other substances of a
similar kind, are employed for this purpose.
   For many liquids  that easily filter, and whose
suspended matter is  of a  coarse and porous  na-
ture, it is sufficient merely to place a little cotton
wool or  tow,  or a small  piece  of sponge in  the
neck of  a funnel,  as at (a)  in the above  engra-
ving ;  but such  materials, from the  small extent
of the filtering surface, soon  get choked up.   Fil-
ters of unsized paper are well suited for all liquids
that are not of  a corrosive or viscid
nature, and are  universally employed
for filtering small quantities of liquids
in  the laboratory.   A  piece  of  the
paper is taken of a size proportionate
to  the quantity of the substance to
be  filtered, and  is first  doubled from
corner to corner into a triangle, (see
eng.,)  which  is again  doubled into
a smaller triangle, and the  angular
portion of the margin being rounded
off with a pair of scissors,  constitutes
a paper cone, which is placed on a
funnel, and nearly filled with the li-
quid.  A piece of paper so cut, when
laid flat upon a table, should be near-
ly circular.  Another method of form-
ing a paper filter, preferred by  some
persons, is to double the paper once, as above,  (see
fig. 2,) and then to fold it  in a similar
way to a fan, observing so to open it
and lay it on the funnel, that a suffi-
cient interval be left between the two,
to  permit of the free percolation of the
liquid. (See eng.)
   To promote the same object, a funnel should be
deeply ribbed  inside, or small  rods  of wood oi
glass, or pieces  of straw, or quills, should be placed
between it and  the paper.   The neck of a funnel
should also be  deeply  ribbed or  fluted  outside, to
permit of the free passage of the air,  when  it is
placed in a  narrow-mouthed  bottle  or receive.
Without  this is  the case, the filtration will proceed
 but slowly, and  the filtered liquid will be driven up
the outside of the  neck of the  funnel by the  con-
 fined air, and will be continually hissing and flow-
 ing over the mouth of the  vessel.  The breadth
 of a funnel, to filter well, should be about thre«
 
FIL                    309                     FIL
fourths of its height, reckoning fi om the throat a.
When deeper, the paper is liable to be continually
ruptured from the pressure of the fluid ; and when
shallower, filtration proceeds slowly, and an un-
necessarily large surface of  the liquid  is exposed
to evaporation.   To lessen this as much as possi-
ble,  the upper  edge  of  the  glass is  frequently
ground  perfectly smooth, and a piece of smooth
plate-glass is laid thereon.  When paper filters are
of large  dimensions,  or  for aqueous  fluids  that
soften the texture  of  the  paper, or for collecting
heavy powders, or metallic precipitates, it is usual
to support them on linen or calico, to prevent their
breaking.  This is best done  by folding the cloth
up with the paper, and cutting the filter out of the
two,  in the  same way  as  would  be  done with
doubled paper, observing so to place it  in the fun-
nel that  the paper and calico may remain close
together, especially towards  the bottom.
   The  filtration of small quantities of liquids, as
              in chemical experiments, may often
              be conveniently performed by mere-
              ly placing the paper on the circular
              top of a recipient, as in  the  engra-
              ving ; or on a ring of glass or earth-
              enware laid on  the top of any suit-
              able vessel.   A  filter of this kind
              that will hold one fluid  ounce, will
              filter many ounces of some liquids
              in an hour.
   Good filtering paper should contain no  soluble
matter, and should not give more than  ^-i^ to ^^
of its weight of ashes.  The soluble matter may
be removed  by washing it, first, with  very dilute
muriatic acid, and secondly, with distilled water.
   For filtering  a larger quantity of a  liquid than
can be conveniently managed with a  funnel, and
            also for substances that are either too
            viscid  or  too much loaded with fecu-
            lence  to  allow  them  to pass freely
            through paper, conical bags made  of
            flannel, felt, twilled cotton cloth or
            Canton flannel, linen,  or  calico, and
            suspended to  iron  hooks by rings or
            tapes,  are commonly employed.  The
            first two of the  above substances are
            preferable  for  saccharine, mucilagi-
            nons, and acidulous liquids; the third
            for  oily ones; and the  remainder for
tinctures, weak alkaline  lyes, and  similar solu-
tions.  These bags have the  disadvantage of suck-
ing up a considerable quantity of the fluid  poured
into them, and  are therefore objectionable, except
for large  quantities, or when 'continued in actual
use as filters for some  time.  On the large scale,
a  number of them are usually worked  together,
and  are generally enclosed  in cases  to  prevent
evaporation, and to exclude  dirt from  the  filtered
liquor that trickles  down  their  outsides; some of
these arrangements will be noticed farther on.
   A very simple mode of filtering aqueous fluids,
which are not injured  by exposure to the air, is to
           draw them off from one vessel to an-
           other, by means  of a number of threads
           cf loosely twisted cotton or worsted, ar-
           ranged in the form of a syphon.  (See
           the figure in the  margin.)  The little
           cotton rope at once performs the oper-
ations of decantation and filtration.   This method
is often convenient for sucking off the water from
small quantities of precipitates.
  When solid substances, as porous stone or earth.
enware, are used as the media  for filtration, ves-
sels of metal, wood, or stoneware, are employed to
contain them and the supernatant liquid.  In thesfl
cases, the filtering medium is usually arranged as
a shelf or diaphragm, and divides the vessel into
two compartments ;  the  upper one being intended
to contain the  dirty liquid, and the under one tc
receive the same when filtered.   Such an  appara-
tus is set in operation by merely filling  the upper
chamber, and may at any time be readily cleaned
out by reversing it, and passing clean water through
it in  an opposite direction.  When pulverulent sub-
stances, as sand, coarsely-powdered charcoal, &,c.,
are employed, a similar arrangement  is followed;
but in this case, the  shelf or diaphragm  must con-
sist of any convenient substance pierced with nu-
merous holes, over which must  be placed, first a
stratum  of  coarse pebbles, next some  of a  finer
description, and on  this a proper quantity of the
sand, charcoal, or other medium.  Over the whole
should be placed  another layer of pebbles,  or a
board  or  plate  of metal or earthenware, pierced
with a number of  holes, to allow the liquid to be
poured into the filter without disturbing its arrange-
ment.   Apparatus of this kind of a permanent de-
scription, and arranged for filtering large quantities
of liquids, are properly denominated  "filtering
machines."
   Among the liquids usually submitted to filtration,
the following may be mentioned as the  principal:
water,  oils, sirups, tinctures,  vegetable juices,
infusions, and decoctions.
   The water of our wells is presented  by nature
ready filtered to the hand of man, and often ex-
hibits a desirable degree of transparency and pu-
rity.   It acquires this state by percolating through
the mineral strata of the  earth, which deprive it
of the organic matter it derives  from the  soil  and
subsoil, but, at the same time,  it dissolves a por-
tion of the saline and earthy media through which
it passes,  and hence  acquires that peculiar " hard-
ness" which  is  constantly found in  spring water.
On the large scale,  this natural system of filtra-
tion has been imitated by some of the commercial
companies that  supply  our cities  and towns with
water.  Extensive beds of sand and gravel  have
been employed, with variable success, as the filter-
ing media, and were it  not that filters gradually
lose their porosity by the accumulation  of the  re-
tained matter in their pores, such a method would
be excellent  But the  great expense of such  fil-
ters precludes the possibility of frequently cleaning
or renewing them, by which means they can alone
be kept in an efficient state.  A filter that appears
to possess the  advantages of   being easily  and
cheaply cleaned when dirty, and which  filters wa-
ter in the most perfect manner, and with immense
rapidity, may be  formed by placing a stratum or
sponge between two perforated metallic  plates,
united by a central screw,  and arranged u such a
manner  as to  permit  of the sponge being com-
pressed to any  required  degree.   Water, under
gentle pressure, flows with such rapidity  through
the pores of compressed  sponge, that it is said that
a few square feet of this  substance will perfectly
filter several  millions of gallons  of water per day 
FIL
310
FIL
This method of filtration has been  made the  sub-
ject of a patent, and  has  been favorably noticed
by the legislature.
  A few  barrels  or  hogsheads of water  may be
easily  filtered  daily,  by the arrangement repre-
sented in the engraving.
  A, A common water-pipe, or cask.
  b, A fiiNe bottom, fitting in perfect-
ly water-tight.
  c, A perforated wooden or metallic
vessel or box, covered with a bag of
felt, or other filtering substance, (not
shown in the engraving.)  d, A small
tube, fitting water-tight into the false
bottom, and uniting the interior of the
filter with the lower portion  of the
cask.
  It is evident that when water is poured into the
upper  portion B, of a  vessel so arranged, it will
sink through the filter c, and pipe d, into the lower
chamber C, and this filtration will  go on  as long
as the supply continues, and water is drawn from
the cock e.  By uniting  the  cock e with a tank
or casks, and by keeping the upper  portion B al-
ways full by means of a  ballcock,  a considerable
quantity of water may be thus filtered.  The  ad-
vantage of this  plan  is, that the filter c can be
always readily got at,  and easily cleaned  or re-
newed.  For filtering water on the small scale, or
for  domestic use,  alcarrhazas or porous  earthen-
ware, filtering-stone, and layers of sand and char-
coal, are commonly employed as the filtering me-
     _______     dium.  The  filtering power of
                 the first two may be greatly in-
                 creased by adopting the arrange-
                 ment represented in the margin,
                 which  consists  in making  the
                 diaphragm  of the shape  of  a
                 disc,  (d,)  supporting  plates of
                 the same  material, the  whole
forming but one piece.   The platylithic  water-fil-
ters, which are formed  of porous stone cut on this
plan, present 200 to 300 square inches of filtering
surface, and may be purchased at from 9«. to 13s.
6d. each.  They are perhaps the best portable fil-
ters made ; they impart great  brilliancy to  the
water, and filter rapidly.  The portable  artificial
filters, set  up in stone-ware, that  are commonly
sold in the shops, contain  a stratum of sand, or
coarsely-powdered charcoal; before, however, hav-
ing access to this, the water has to  pass through  a
sponge, to remove  tho  coarser portion of the  im-
purities.
                ■-     Oils  are filtered,  on  the
                | ^ small scale, through cotton-
                v s wool, or unsized paper,  ar-
                |j g ranged in a funnel;  and on
                s.x the large  scale, through long
                sl bags, made of  twilled cotton -
                | j cloth, (Canton flannel.) These
                = .2 bags are usually made  about
                 = 1 12  or 15 inches in diameter,
                 tag and from 4 to 8 feet long, (see
                 S? engraving,)  and are enclosed
                s 5 in  bottomless casings, or bags,
           (QT%  I - of coarse canvass, about 5 or
                §   6 inches iff diameter, for the
pur] ose of condensing a great extent of filtering
surface into the smallest possible space.  A num.-
u
ber of these double bags  (from 1 to 50 or 60) are
connected, with corresponding holes, in the bottom
of a block-tin, or tinned-copper cistern, into which
the oil to be filtered is poured.  The mode in which
these bags are fastened to the cistern is of the ut-
most importance, as on the joint  being  close and
secure depends  the  integrity of  the  apparatus.
Three methods of doing this are figured in the
engraving, which, with the  references, will explain
themselves, the same letters  referring to .he  same
parts of each.
  a, Bottom of cistern.
  b, Filtering bag.
  c. Screw of the conical nozzle fitting into the cistern.
  d, Binding cord connecting the bag and nozzle.
  e. Binding cord connecting bag and lower nozzle.
  /, Bayonet-catch, connecting the lower portion of the
nozzle fastened to the bag with the upper and fixed part,g.
  i, The thick hem at the top of the bug, (purposely made
large by enclosing a piece of thick cord therein,) resting
on the shoulders, k.
  I, A metallic cylinder, loosely fitting the hole in the cis-
tern, and over which the top of the hag is drawn, before
being put into its place; when fitted, as in the engraving,
it retains the hem i securely in its place above the shoul-
der k.
   The second is the least expensive, and certainly
the most convenient  method,  and when the cylin-
der I fits the hole closely, (allowing for  the  bag,) e
as safe, or safer, than an ordinary screw.
   The  bags are surrounded  by a wooden scr?en
furnished with doors for the purpose of  keeping '■&
the dust, and the bottom of the  apartment is fur-
nished with large steam-pipes, by which a proper
temperature may be kept  up  in cold  weather.  In
practice it is more convenient to  have a number
of small  cisterns  at work, (say 50 or  100 gallons
each,) than one or two  larger ones; as any  acci-
dent that may occur is more  easily remedied, and
that without stopping the whole operation.
   When cotton cloth bags are employed  without
being creased, or enclosed in others  of canvass,
they should not be longer than about 3 or  4 feet,
and not wider than about 5 or 6 inches  when filled.
When larger they are dangerous.
   A convenient  method of filtering a single cask
of oil is to insert  the pipe  of
one of  Beart's patent  filters
into the cork-hole, by which
means the whole will be  fil-
tered as  drawn  off, without
any trouble on the part of the
operator.   The filter consists
of a porous bag stretched over
a perforated metallic vessel,
nearly the shape and size of
the exterior casing, and  its
edge  is tightly screwed be-
tween the sides and bottom of the latter,  so as to
be quite  water-tight.   The  cock  communicates
with the interior of  the  perforated plate and  filter,
and the  supply-pipe and the  exterior.  By this
means the interior chamber,  which occupies five-
sixths of  the  vessel, rapidly  fills  with  filtered oil,
and continues full as long as any liquor remains in
 
FIL
311
FIL
 the cask.   This arrangement is also well adapted
 to the filtration of wines,  beer, cordials, porter,
 and various other liquors.  It is unequalled in sim-
 plicity
    The filtration of sirups is now generally effect-
 ed Oil the large scale by passing them through the
 " creased bag filter" just described. On the small
 scale, as by  confectioners and druggists, they are
 usually passed through conical flannel bags.  The
 filtration of thick sirups is, however, attended with
 some difficulty, and it is  therefore a good plan to
 filter them in a somewhat dilute state, and after-
 wards to reduce them to  a  proper  consistence by
 evaporation in clean vessels of tinned  copper, by
 steam heat.  Sirups, when filtered in  a heated
 state, run  well for a time, but the pores of the bag
 rapidly  get choked, from  the  thickening of the
 sirup and partial crystallization of the sugar, occa-
 sioned by  the evaporation of the aqueous portion
 from  the  surface  of the  bag.   This may be par-
 tially  prevented by enclosing the bag in a metallic
 casing.  On  the whole, clarification is preferable
 for sirups to filtration, on the small scale.  They
 need only to  be well beaten up while  cold with a
 little white of egg, and then heated ; a scum rises
 which must be removed as soon as it becomes con-
 sistent,  and  the  skimming continued  until  the
 liquid becomes clear.  Any floating portions  of
 scum  that may have escaped notice are easily re-
 moved by running the sirup  through a coarse flan-
 nel strainer,  while hot.   The most extensive  ap-
 plication of the process of filtration  in the arts is in
 the refining of sugars.
    Tirctures and dilute spirits are  usually filtered
 through bibulous  paper  placed on a  funnel, or
 through thin and  fine cotton  bags.  In general,
 tinctures clarify themselves  by the subsidence of
 the suspended matter, when allowed to  repose for
 a few days.  Hence it is the  bottoms alone that
 require  filtering;  the  supernatant clear  portion
 need only  be run thiough  a small hair sieve, a
 piece of tow  or cotton  placed in the throat of a
 funnel, or some other coarse medium,  to remove
 any floating  substances,  as  pieces of straw,  &c.
 Spirits largely loaded with  essential oil, as those
 of '■niseed,  &,c, run rapidly  through paper or cali-
 co  ^ut usually require the addition of a spoonful or
 two J magnesia before they will flow quite clear.
 When possible, tinctures, spirits,  and  all similar
 volatile fluids, are better  cleared by subsidence or
 clarification  than  by filtration, as, in the latter
 way, a portion is lost by evaporation.
   Vegetable juices should be allowed to deposite
 their feculous portion before  filtration.  The su-
 pernatant liquid will then be often quite  clear,  but
 if not so, may be readily filtered.  If the quantity
 be small, paper supported on a piece of coarse cali-
 co placed on a funnel is the best medium ; if large,
 one of the conical bags  before described. The
 bottoms  from which the  clear portion  has been
 decanted, should be placed on a separate filter, or
 else added  afte*- the whole of the latter  has drain-
 ed through.   Vegetable juices are  often rendered
 clear by simply heating them to about 180° or 200°
 Fahr., by which their albumen is coagulated ; they
 are also frequently  clarified  by the addition of a
little white of egg  and heat, in the same way as
■irups; but many of them (as those of  hemlock,
henbane,  aconite,  &c.) are  injured by  heat, and
 must consequently be filtered   In all cases they
 should be exposed to the air as little as possible, as
 they rapidly suffer decomposition.
   Vegetable  infusions and decoctions  may be
 cleared by defecation followed by filtration.  The
 conical bags of flannel before described are usually
 employed for this  purpose.  When the liquid is to
 be evaporated to an extract, they are commonly
 suspended by a  hook over the evaporating pan. A
 convenient method of  straining these fluids is to
 stretch the square of flannel on
 a  frame or ' horse,' securing it
 at  the  corners  by pieces  of
 string, (see  eng.)  Such a frame
 may be laid across the  mouth
 of a pan, and  is more easily  fed
 with fresh  liquid  than a bag,
 whose mouth is 30 or 40  inches higher.  The
 same purpose  is  effected by  laying the  flannel
 across the mouth of a coarse  hair sieve.  The con-
 centrated infusions and decoctions, being usually
 weak tinctures, may be filtered in the same way
 as  the  latter.   (See  tinctures,  above.)    Many
 vegetable solutions, that from the  viscidity  of the
 suspended matter  can scarcely be  filtered, may be
 readily clarified  with white of  egg in the  cold, or
 pass the filter rapidly, if a very small quantity of
 sulphuric, or other strong arid, be previously add-
 ed.  (See the latter part of the article Brxwing.)
   Corrosive liquids, as strong acids, are filtered
 through  powdered glass, or silicious sand, sup-
 ported on pebbles  in the  throat of a  glass funnel,
 or through asbestos placed in  the same manner.
 Charcoal has also been  employed for the same
 purpose, but is  not fit for  some • acids.   Strong
 caustic alkaline  lyes are also filtered through pow-
 dered glass or sand.  Weak  alkaline lyes  may be
 filtered  through fine calico,  stretched across the
 mouth of a funnel.   Many corrosive liquids,  as
 liquor of potassa, &c, require to be excluded from
 the air during filtration. The simplest
 apparatus that can be employed  for
 this purpose is  that  figured in the
 margin : a is a  globular  bottle fitted
 with the ground stopper d, and hav-» Oil
 ing a perforated neck/ground to  the
 bottle b ; c is a small tube, wrapped
 round with  as  much asbestos, linen,
 or calico as  is required  to make it fit
 the under-neck of the  bottle through
 which it passes.  The tube c may
 also be fixed by placing pebbles and
 powdered glass  or sand round it, as
 before described.   For use, the solu-
 tion  to be filtered is poured into the bottle a nearly
 as high as the top  of the tube c, and the stopper
placed in.  The liquid then descends into b, and a
similar quantity  of air  passes up  the tube into a.
The liquor potassa? P. L. may be always  obtained
fine  by depuration and filtering tne sediment of
lime through calico fixed  across the  mouth of a
funnel.
  When precipitates, or the  suspended matter, is
the object of the  filtration, the filter should be of
such a nature that the powder may  be easily separ-
ated from it when dry, and that withdtat  much
loss.  Linen filters are  for, this  reason preferable
for large quantities, and smooth bibulous paper for
small ones.  The powder  should be washed down.
 
FIL                    312                     FIL
the sides of the filter, and collected, by means of
a small stream of water, in one spot at the bottom,
and, when dry, should be  swept  off the  paper or
cloth with a camel-hair  brush, and  not  removed
by a knife, as is commonly done, unless it be of a
very adherent kind.
   The first portion of liquid that runs through a
filter is  commonly foul, and should be pumped
back or returned until it runs clear, when it may
be caught  in a proper receiver.  In many cases,
the liquid  will not readily  become transparent  by
simply passing through the filter ;  hence has arisen
the use of filtering powders, substances which rap-
idly choke up the pores of the media in a suffi-
cient degree to make the fluid  pass clear.  See
Powder.   These powders should not be  in too
fine a state of division, nor used in large quantities,
as they then wholly choke up the  filter, and absorb
a large quantity of the  liquid.  For  some liquids,
these substances are  employed  for the purpose of
decoloring or  whitening them.   In such cases, it
is preferable, first to pass the fluid through a layer
of the substance  in coarse  powder, from which it
will run but slightly contaminated into the filters;
or, if the substance be mixed with the whole body
of the liquid, to pass  it through some coarser me-
dium, to remove the cruder portion before allowing
it to run into the filter.  Granulated  animal char-
coal  is used, according to the first method, to de-
color sirups, oils, &c.; and  filtering powder by the
seco.id, to  remove a portion of the color, and  to
clarify castor  oil.  The  common plan of mixing
large quantities of filtering powder with this oil,
and throwing the whole into the filter, as adopted
by the  druggists,  is  injudicious.   When simple
filtration  is required,  it is better  to use but little
or no powder, and to continue returning the oil
that runs through until it filters quite clear.  By
this plan the same filters may be  used  for  a long
period  of time, and will  continue to  work  well;
but by the usual  method, they rapidly decline  in
power, and soon scarcely deliver their contents at
all.
  It is often of great  advantage to render a filter
self-acting, or  to construct  it in such a way that
it may feed itself, so that it may continue full and
at work withont the constant attention of the oper-
                 ator.  On the small scale, this
                 may be readily effected on the
                 principle of the common fountain
                 lamp,  (see eng.;)  and on the
                 large scale, by placing the ves-
                 sel  containing the  unfiltered  li-
                 quid on a higher level  than the
                 filter, and by having the end of
                 the  supply-pipe fitted  with  a
                 ballcock, to keep the  liquid  in
                 the filter constantly at the same
                 height.
   The rapidity of filtration depends upon the po-
rosity of the filtering medium—the extent of fil-
tering surface—the relative  viscidity or limpid-
ness of the filtering liquid, and the porosity and
fineness of the substances  it holds in suspension.
The most  efficient filter is produced, when the
first two are so graduated to the  latter,  that the
liquid  filters rapidly,  and is  rendered perfectly
transparent.
   To the preceding causes that influence filtration
 may be added the pressure or force by which the
 liquid is impelled through the pores of the filter
 In the common method of filtration no pressure is
 exerted beyond that of the weight of the column of
 the liquid resting on the filtering medium, but in
 same cases additional pressure is employed.   This
 is done for the purpose of producing more rapid
 filtration, or for  filtering liquids  that, from  their
 viscidity, will scarcely  pass through the  pores of
 substances  sufficiently  fine to remove their  foul-
 ness  in the  ordinary way.   One of the  easiest
 means of employing pressure  in  filtration  is to in-
 crease the  height of the column of the  filtering
 liquid.  From the peculiar properties of fluids, by
 which they transmit  pressure in  all directions, this
 column need not be of  equal diameter throughout,
 but may be conveniently contracted to the size of
 a small pipe, as  in the accompanying engraving,
 which represents a small filter on this construction
 at work, a is the funnel or reservoir of foul liquid;
 6 a small pipe conveying  the liquid     (Z2^<
 to the filter ; c c a chamber, of which
 the upper portion d is filled with  the
 descending liquid, and the lower por-
 tion e with the filtering media; i i
 are screws by which the bottom plate
 is fastened  on; which  plate  is  re-
 moved to clean out or renew the fil-
 ter.  For use, the cocks k and / are
 closed, and the liquid poured into the
 funnel a; the cock k is next opened,
 and, in a few minutes after, the cock
 I, when an uninterrupted flow  of
 filtered liquor  will be  obtained  as
 long as any fluid  remains in the fun-
 nel a, and  the tube 6.  The length
 of the latter determines the degree
 of pressure.   Care must be taken to
 pass the foul liquid through a hair
 sieve, or some  other strainer,  to remove any  sub-
 stance that might choke up the pipe b.   Another
 mode of employing pressure in filtration is the with-
 drawal of the air from  the receiving vessel, as in
 the vacuum filter, by  which a pressure of about
 14£ lbs. to the inch becomes exerted on the surface
 of the liquid by the atmosphere.   The vacuum in
 the receiving vessel may be produced by the air-
 pump or by steam.  <vSee Congelation.)  A com-
 moner  method of applying pressure than  the last
 is to condense the air over the surface of the liquid
 by means of a forcing-pump, or by steam.  On
 the small scale, pressure may be applied to filtra-
 tion,  by employing a syphon, whose shorter  leg
 has its  mouth blown  into the shape of a  bell or
 funnel, over which  filtering paper  or  fine calico
 may be stretched.
   The  application of pressure to filtration is not
 always advantageous, and  beyond a certain limit,
 becomes objectionable.   It is found  in practice
 that fluids  under pressure take a longer period to
 run clear than without pressure, and that ruptures
 of the media more frequently take place with the
former than  the  latter.  Great  pressure  is in no
 case advantageous.
   The  filters already noticed are those that act by
 the fluid descending through  the media; but in
 some cases, the reverse  method  is employed, and
 the liquid filters  upwards, instead of downwards.
 These are called  ascending filters, and are often 
FIR
313
FIR
a, Cask of oil.
 preferable to  those  on the  descending principle,
 because the suspended matters that require removal
 by filtration usually sink, and  thus a portion  es-
 capes being forced into  the pores of the  filter.
 They are also more convenient, when pressure is
 employed.  Their  construction depends upon  the
 same principles as the common filter, and merely
 requires that  the feeding vessel  should be higher
 than the  upper surface  of the  filtering  media.
 Oils are conveniently filtered in this way, because
               of their little specific gravity.  By
               fixing a small filter on this principle
               into the head of a cask, and pouring
               in water through a  funnel, whose
               neck reaches nearly to  the  bottom
               of the cask, the oil will float  up and
               pass the filter, leaving the sediment
               behind.  In cold weather, hot wa-
               ter may be employed.
               b, Stand, c, Funnel for water,  d, Filter.

   In some cases, the upward and downward sys-
 tems of filtration are united in the same apparatus,
 and this method is advantageous where  room is
 an object.  For this purpose, it is merely necessa-
 ry to connect the bottom  of  an ascending filter
 with the top of  a descending one, or the reverse ;
 the proper pressure being in either case  applied.
 (See Clarification, Defecation, &c.)
   FININGS. A solution of gelatin, used  to clar-
 ify beer, wine, &c.
   Prep.  Isinglass  (ordinary)  1  lb.;  stale beer,
 cider, or vinegar, 3 or 4 pints.  Mix, and macerate
 until the former becomes gelatinous, then  reduce
 it to  a proper consistence with weak, mild beer,
 cider, or any other liquid that the  finings  are in-
 tended for.
   Remarks.  A pint, or more, is the  usual dose
 for a barrel of beer or porter, and a  quart for a
 hogshead  of  wine.   (See the latter  part  of  the
 article Brewing.)
   FIRE EATING.  The power of resisting  the
 action of fire  is given to the  skin, by frequently
 washing it with diluted sulphuric acid, until  the
 part becomes sufficiently callous.   It is said that
 the following mixture is  very efficacious:—dilute
 sulphuric acid  3 parts;  sal ammoniac 1 part;
 juice of onions 2 parts; mix.  It is the acid, how-
 ever, that produces the effect.
   FIREPROOF STUCCO.  Prep.  Moist grav-
 elly earth, (previously washed,) made  into  stucco
 with  the following composition: — pearlashes 2
 parts;  water  5  parts;  common  clay  1  part;
 mix.
   Remarks. This is said  to cost  about Is. 6d. per
 hundred square feet.   It has been tried on  a large
 scale and  found to  answer  well.   It is used  for
 wood,  &c.
   FIRES.  Our notics of this subject must ne-
 cessarily be limited, for want of space.   Fires are
 but tor frequently said to  arise by accident, which
 is merely a condensed  phrase, equivalent to care-
 lessmss  and recklessness.   There  are few fires
 that might not have been prevented by the exer-
 cise of common prudence, and a vast number that
 have been caused by negligence, arising from sheer
 laziness.   As  familiar instances  may be  men-
tioned, the  permitting of sparks to fall  on the
ground and remain there,  without extinguishing
                      40
them ; carrying a naked candle into rooms con-
taining inflammable substances,  &.c.
   Prev. 1. Avoid  leaving your  candle burning at
the side of your bed, but place it on a table or the
floor, at a respectable distance from any article of
linen,  or  other equally inflammable substances.
Rush, wax, or floating lights are the safest for
night burning.  The  practice of reading in  bed
cannot be too much censured;  it is a  common
cause  of  fires.  2. Never  set aside a bucket or
box  containing  hot ashes, or cinders, in  a closet
3. Never  throw a  piece of  lighted paper, cigar, or
other ignited  substance, on the  floor; and should
such fall by accident,  immediately extinguish then
by treading on them.  4.  Never blow  gas-lightii
out, but always extinguish them by turning off
the supply.  5.  Should the smell of gas be strong-
ly perceived, immediately turn off the cock at the
meter, and avoid  carrying a lighted caudle  into
the part where the escape has taken place, before
the gas has been removed by thorough ventilation;
attention  to this point  will prevent the possibility
of an explosion.  6. Have  your  chimneys kept in
a clean state by frequent sweeping.
   Fires  might often  be  readily extinguished
when first discovered  by the timely application of
a few buckets of water.  When an apartment  is
discovered on fire, the door, chimney,  and win-
dows should  be immediately closed, if possible,
and  only opened for the purpose  of projecting wa-
ter on the flames. By this means the  supply of
air will be cut off,  and rapid combustion prevent-
ed.  The  neglect of this  precaution, has  often
caused a  mere  smouldering fire, that might have
been easily put out, to burst into an inextinguish-
able mass of flame.   It has been proposed to  add
common salt  or pearlash to the water thrown on
fires, as even  a weak  solution of those  substances
speedily stops combustion.  Such a plan is very
plausible,  and may easily be applied, by adding
the saline matter to the buckets of water used to
feed the  engine for the first few minutes of its
working;  but  when a  fire  has  acquired any ex-
tent, the action of such substances becomes scarce-
ly perceptible.
   Fires on board ships.  The  extinction of fires
at sea, by means  of  carbonic acid gas, has been
suggested  to  the  Admiralty by  Mr. J.  R.  Han-
corn, surgeon.   He says—" The antidotal effects
of carbonic acid  gas upon combustion  are  well
known to every experienced chemist; and I  am
convinced, by  practical  experiments, that a simple
and economical  apparatus might be attached with-
out inconvenience to  every decked vessel.  Car-
bonic acid gas is  a well-known non-supporter of
combustion, and will extinguish fire at  the very
instant of coming in contact with burning mat-
ter.  Chalk will yield, with sulphuric acid, (vine-
gar,  or any other acid will do,) 44»per cent, of  the
gas: hence, a ton  of chalk, and  a fourth  part of
that  quantity of sulphuric acid, will be found  suf-
ficient to  extinguish  any  fire on board  a  ship.
The plan is peculiarly adapted to a  ship,  be-
cause she  can  be battened  down so as to exclude
the atmosphere.  A small leaden gasometer is all
the apparatus  required, having a curved tube, and
which, being  portable,  may be  placed  over the
burning part, while a  hole may be cut in the deck
sufficiently large  to  admit the  tube.   Carbonic 
FIR                    314                    FIS
acid gas expands with heat, and being heavier
than the atmosphere or smoke, immediately de-
scends, by its own gravity, upon  the burning
mass.  I may further mention the utility of the
apparatus in  destroying vermin in ships, sv»ch as
rats  and cockroaches, being more easily applied,
and  more  effectual, than  the  usual  method."
(Chemist, iii. 279.)   This plan  has been rejected
by the  Admiralty because of the destructive ac-
tion of the  gas on human  life, as well  as on fire.
But " it surely is possible by mechanical means to
expel the gas before again entering the ship's hold.
At any rate, the  grand point would be obtained of
extinguishing  the  fire—though  the  crew  might
have only the  deck  to stand on.   The frequency
of these  disasters has become distressing."  (Ed.
of the  Chem.)
  Escape from apartments on fire may generally
be readily effected by creeping on the  hands and
knees.   In  this  way the window or door may be
reached.  It  is found  that  the atmosphere of a
room so full of smoke as to produce suffocation to
a person standing upright, may generally be safe-
ly breathed,  on  nearly  a level  with the  floor.
Should descent by the staircase be found impos-
sible, then  the  window should  be  immediately
sought.  Here presence of mind  is of  the utmost
importance.  If a ladder or fire-escape be not pro-
vided by those without, a rope should be made by
tying the sheets  and blankets of the bed together,
one  end of which should be firmly secured to a
chair, table, or preferably one of the bedposts, and
with this apparatus descent should be cautiously
attempted.   Jumping out of the window should be
avoided,  as persons who have not  been brought up
as clowns or harlequins, run just  as much danger
in performing such  an  exploit as they do  by re-
maining  in'the  burning building. Persons have
frequently  lost  their lives  by hastily throwing
themselves out of window, under the dread of
being burnt alive, who would  have been rescued
by those without, haJ they waited but a few mo-
ments  longer.  When it is impossible to escape
from a burning building by the stairs or windows,
retreat may be  sometimes secured by a trapdoor
opening on to the roof, or  by a skylight, when,
unless  it be an  isolated house, the roof of one of
the adjoining  buildings  may probably be gained
with safety,  provided  common  caution  be ob-
served.
  Fire-escapes  of  various kinds  have been in-
vented of late years, and employed with indiffer-
ent success at many fires in the metropolis.  Of
these, the one that  has been most generally ap-
proved of,  is  that invented by Captain Manby,
consisting of a stout rope furnished  with  nooses,
distended by flat  rests for the feet, at  convenient
distances for stepping from one to the other.  The
one end of  this rope is provided with a stout hook,
or grappling-iron, by which  it may be  fastened to
the sill of a window, post of the bedstead, or any
other convenient object.  By means of this ap-
paratus a  descent  may bo  safely made  from  a
considerable  height.  To avoid  the risk  of this
escape catching  fire, it has been proposed to make
it of iron chain; but it thus becomes heavy and
inconvenient.  The  best plan is to imbu6 the rope
with 6ome substance that will render  it incombus-
tible ;  mere water would be sufficient.
  It is said that there is no  instance on record of
a person being  burnt to death in dwelling-houses
in Edinburgh,  where the houses are usually high ;
yet in London,  where fire-engines and fire-escapes
are provided in greater numbers, deaths  are  fre-
quent from this cause.   The reason of this differ-
ence is, that in the former  city, the stairs are all
of stone, by which means a road of escape  is se-
cured.
   The clothes  of females and children, when on
fire, may be most  readily extinguished by rolling
the sufferer in the  carpet, hearth-rug, table-cover,
a great-coat, cloak, or  any other  woollen article
at hand.  If this be expertly done, the flames will
be rapidly put  out.  Should  assistance  not  be at
hand, the person whose clothes  are on fire should
throw herself on the ground, and  roll the carpet
round her, as before described ; or if such a thing
is not in the room, she should endeavor  to extin-
guish the flames with her  hands, and by rapidly
rolling round and round on the floor.   In this way
the fire will  be  stifled, or at least  the combustion
will  proceed so slowly that less  personal injury
will be experienced before assistance arrives.   But
if, on the contrary, the party whose clothes are on
fire remains in  an  upright position, the flames will
naturally ascend, and  scorch  the  face, and other
unprotected  parts  of the body.  The advantage
of assuming the horizontal  position is also mani-
fest from the fact,  that nine times out of ten it is
the lower parts  of  the dresses of females that first
catch fire.  A  lady's muslin dress taking fire at
the skirt would  burn from bottom to top, and  pro-
duce a fatal density of  flame in  half  a minute,
while she is standing upright; but  when lying
down, even though she  took no pains leisurely to
extinguish the flames, ten minutes would probably
elapse before it  would be consumed, and the flame
might at any instant be extinguished by the thumb
and  fingers.  It merely requires the exercise of
ordinary presence of mind.   (See Accidents.)
  The  addition of £ oz. or 1 oz.  of  alum  or sal
ammoniac to the last water  used to rinse  a  lady's
dress, or a less  quantity added to the starch used
to stiffen it, would  render it uninflammable, or at
least so little combustible that it would not readily
take fire; and  if it  did, would be slowly consumed
without flame. Had this precaution been adopt-
ed, the late  lamentable accident at  one of our
national theatres might have been avoided.   (See
Cloth, incombustible.)
  It is often difficult to get horses out of  build-
ings on fire, but it is  said  that they will readily
come out if the saddle and bridle, or harness to
which they are accustomed, be thrown over  them
as usual.
  FISH.  Syn.   Piscis,  (Lat.)  Poisson,  (Fr.)
Fish are a wholesome species of food, but are less
nutritious than  the flesh of animals, or the  grains
of the cereals.  Of all the various  substances  used
as aliments by  man, fish are the most liable to run
into a state of putrefaction, and should therefore be
only eaten when perfectly fresh.   Those  that are
the whitest and most flaky  when cooked, as whi-
ting, cod, flounders, soles, haddock, turbot, hake,
&.c,  are the   most easily  digestible;  and  those
abounding in oily matter, as salmon, eels, herrings,
&c, are most nutritious, though more likely to of-
fend the stomach.   Salt-water fish has  been said 
FIS
315
FIS
to be more wholesome than river fish, but without
sufficient reason.   Salted fish is very hard  of di-
gestion, unless well  cooked.  The frequent  use of
fish as an aliment is said to promote the  sexual
feelings,  but not the increase of population, unless
a sufficiency of other food (animal) be taken at the
same time.   Skin diseases are also said to be more
ccmmon among those who live continually on fish,
but this probably  arises  from tfieir use not  being
accompanied by a proper quantity of fresh vegeta-
bles.   Fish consist of about 80-g of water, 14§ of
albumen  and fibrine, and  6°; of gelatin, making
about  20$ of nutritive  matter.  (Brande.)   Acid
sauces and pickles are the proper additions to fish,
from their power of retarding the progress  of putre-
faction, and of correcting the relaxing tendency of
large quantities of oil and butter.
   Caution. It sometimes happens that a fish-bone
accidentally swallowed will remain in the oesopha-
gus, and occasion serious  inconvenience; in fact,
instances have been known where  so much irrita-
tion has arisen that death has followed.  In such
cases it is advisable,  as soon as possible, to take
four grains of tartar emetic, dissolved in  i pint of
warm water, and  immediately afterwards  the
white of  six eggs.  The coagulated  mass will not
remain in the stomach more than  two  or three
minuteti, and the remedy has been  known to " re-
move no less than 24 pins at  once."
   Choice, dressing, ^f-c.  " The flesh  of any fish
is always  in  the  highest perfection, or in season,
as it is called, during the period of the ripening of
the milt and  roe.   After the fish has deposited the
spawn, the flesh  becomes  soft,  and  loses a great
deal of its peculiar flavor.  This is  owing to the
disappearance of  the  oil or fat  from the flesh,  it
having been expended in the  function of reproduc-
tion."  (Fleming's Phil,  of  Zoology.)  Fish should
be dressed as soon after being caught as possible, as
much of their peculiar delicacy and flavor is lost by
keeping, even for  a  few hours. Turbot and salmon
are said by the fishmongers to be improved  in fla-
vor when two or three days old, but this is  surely
a mistake, as  the former,  when dressed immedi-
ately after being  caught, possesses a fine creamy
taste  which it afterwards loses; while the  latter,
by the loss of a single tide, loses a portion  of the
fine  white  curd  which  intervenes  between  the
flakes, and  by ldnger keeping, this curd and the
larger flakes disappear altogether.  In the eyes of
some epicures, the richness is, however, increased
by  this change.   Mackerel and some other fish
suffer so much from keeping only a few hours, that
they become quite unwholesome. On this account
the former are permitted to be publicly vended on
Sundays.   Herrings offer  a remarkable  example
of the  advantage  of  dressing  fish  as  fresh as
possible.   When cooked  soon  after being caught,
they possess considerable delicacy and flavor, but
by keeping for only a few hours, the oil separates
from the flesh, and they become soft, greasy, and
strong-flavored.
  In the  choice of every  kind offish,  stiffness,
brightness of the eyes, and redness of the gills may
be regarded  as invariable signs of freshness.  A
peculiar elasticity will also be perceived in fish re-
cently caught; little or  no  permanent impression
being made by the ordinary pressure of the fingers,
from the flesh immediately rising when the pres-
sure is withdrawn.  Fresh fish  also lie in a partly
curled position, and never  quite straight, as is the
case when they  have been  kept for some time
Thickness and fleshiness are deemed marks of the
good condition of all fish.
  On the proper  cleaning of fish preparatory  to
dressing it, depends much  of  its delicacy and fla-
vor.   Ordinary cooks seldom do this  well, from
not slitting the fish  sufficiently open to permit the
inside to  be thoroughly washed, and seldom using
sufficient water. The superior flavor of fish cleaned
by  the  fishmongers arises from  their  performing
the ODeration more completely, and from the large
quantity  of water they employ  about them.   The
flavor of all fish is improved by adding a little salt
or vinegar to the  last water in which they are
washed.  The sound,  milt, and roe should be care-
fully cleaned and preserved.
  Fish is preferably cooked by simple boiling,
broiling, or frying; in fact, the finer kinds of fish
are often injured by the excessive interference  of
the cook.  When boiled, the fish should be put  on
the fire in cold water, and as soon as  a scum rises
from boiling,  it should be removed by the skimmer.
The addition of a little salt or vinegar to the water
improves the  flavor of most  fish, and renders the
flesh firmer.   Fish is known to be  sufficiently
dressed by the flesh in the thicker parts separating
easily from the bone.  When  this is the case, it
should be removed  from the  kettle, as by soaking
in the water  it loses its firmness.  Sole, skate, and
mackerel are usually  put into boiling water.   Fish
for broiling should be well washed in  strong vine-
gar, wiped dry with  a towel, and  floured before
placing them on the gridiron ; and the  bars of the
latter should  be hot, and well buttered.  Fish for
frying should be prepared as for broiling; and the
butter, oil, or lard  should be allowed to boil for a
minute or two before putting them into the frying-
pan.  The latter should  be perfectly smooth and
bright, and the butter or oil in  abundance, to pre-
vent the  fish sticking to  it and burning.  When
removed from the pan, the superfluous fat should be
drained from them, preparatory to serving.  When
fish is divided  into fillets or cutlets before  being
cooked, it  is  usual to take  out the bones, and to
dress it with forced meat, &c.
  In serving fish of  the finer kinds, no other ad-
ditions are required than melted butter and the or-
dinary fish sauces and pickles.   The  dish should
be garnished  with raw parsley for the sake of ap-
pearance, but boiled parsley, chopped small, should
accompany it.  All kinds  of fish should be served
on a napkin.
  Pres.  Fish may be  preserved in several ways :—
  I. By  either wet or dry salting.
  II. By simply  drying after cleaning them.
  Ill  By salting them and then drying them.
  IV. By placing them in jars,  pouring salad oil
over them, and tying  them over air-tight.
  V.  By dipping them into, or brushing them over
with pyroligneous  acid,  and then drying them.
This gives a  smoky flavor, but if pure  acetic acid
(P.  L.) be used, no  taste will be imparted.  It may
be applied by  means of a  clean painter's brush, or
even a stiff feather.  A tablespoonful  is sufficient
to brush  over a large  surface.  Fish and flesh  so
prepared will bear a voyage to the East Indies and
back uninjured. 
FLA                     316                    FLA
  VI. Fish may be preserved in a living state for
14 duys or longer without water, by stopping  their
mouths  with crumb of bread steeped in  brandy,
pouring a little brandy into them, and then placing
them in  straw  in a  moderately cool situation.
(Prechtl. Encycl. Techn.)
  VII.  Immersion  of the cleaned  fish in water
holding in solution jig. or ^i^ part of creosote, and
then drying them.
  VII.  Fish may be preserved in a diy state, and
perfectly fresh, by means of sugar  alone.  Fresh
fish may  be thus kept for some days, so  as  to be
as good  when boiled as if just caught.  If  dried
and  kept free  from mouldiness, there seems  no
limit to  their  preservation; and  they  are much
better in  this way than when salted.   The sugar
gives no disagreeable taste.   This process is par-
ticularly valuable in making what  is  called  kip-
pered salmon; and the fish  preserved in this man-
ner are far superior in quality and flavor to those
which are salted or smoked.  A few tablespoonfuls
of brown sugar are sufficient for a salmon of five
or six pounds weight; and if salt be desired, a tea-
spoonful may be added.  Saltpetre may  be  used
instead, in the same proportion, if it be wished to
make the kipper hard.   (See Animal Substances
used as Food.)
   FIXATEUR.   Syn.  Bandoline.  Prep.  Soak
Iceland  moss in cold water for  an hour or two,
drain and dissolve in boiling water.
   Remarks. A solution of gum arabic in water is
also commonly called by the same name.   It is
used by ladies to make their hair curl  firmly, and
remain in any required  position.  It is applied  by
moistening the fingers, and passing the hair through
them.   Beer has a similar effect
   FLANNEL.  It has been  shown  by the ex-
periments of  Count Rumford that the conducting
power  ' * the different materials  employed  for
clothing  aries  considerably.   A thermometer,
surrounded  with  cotton-wool, and  heated by im-
mersion in  boiling water,  took  1046  seconds to
lose 135°, when  plunged into  a  bath of melting
ice; but, under  the same circumstances, when
sheeps' wool was employed, 1118 seconds elapsed
before a like sinking of the thermometer took place,
(Phil.  Trans. 1792;)  thus  showing the greater
conducting  power of the former, and consequently
the superiority of the latter substance for the man-
ufacture of  warm clothing.  But the chief advan-
tage of wool as an article  for under-clothing de-
pends less upon its actual power of conducting heat
than its peculiar texture.  Flannel acts as a gentle
stimulus on the skin, and exercises the most bene-
ficial action, by keeping the  pores dean, and in a
state most favorable to  perspiration.   It  has also
the  advantage of  absorbing  the  perspiration  as
soon as emitted, and allowing its watery portion
to pass off into the atmosphere almost  as soon as
formed, but this  is not  the case with  coiton and
linen fabrics.  The different effects of flannel and
linen are particularly perceptible during brisk ex-
ercise.   When the body is covered with the for-
mer, though perspiration be  necessarily increased,
the  perspired matter freely  passes off through the
flannel, and the skin remains dry and warm.  If
the  same exercise be taken in linen shirts, perspi-
ration, as in  the former case, is indeed aUo  in-
 creased, but th9  perspired matter, instead of  being
dispersed into the  atmosphere, remains upon the
linen, and not only clogs the pores of the skin, but
gives a disagreeable sensation. From this property  '
of flannel, persons who wear it next the skin sel-
dom catch cold from changes of temperature, even
though perspiring  profusely; but in similar cases,
when linen or calico shirts are worn, chilliness im-
mediately comes on, followed by " sniffling, sneez-
ing, and cough," and all the  other symptoms  of
severe catarrh.
  The common objections  raised against the use
of flannel are founded on vulgar prejudices, arising
from  ignorance,  obstinacy, or bravado, and are
undeserving of the notice of sensible people.  In a
fickle and moist climate like that of England, eve-
ry person should wear a robe of flannel next the
skin, or at all events a waistcoat of flannel reach-
ing below the  loins; and this should  not  be dis-
carded as soon as the cold weather has passed, but
its use should be continued all the  year round;  for
in reality, flannel is, if possible, even more required
in summer  than in winter, because persons p»*
spire more freely in hot than in  cold weather, and
are consequently more susceptible of cold, while at
that period of the  year  their clothing is less capa-
ble of protecting them from the  effects of  sudden
changes  of temperature, and draughts of cold air,
moisture, &c.  Females, children, persons of deli-
cate constitutions, and all others,  who, from their
habits of body or life, perspire freely, or are much
exposed, should wear flannel.
  In washing flannels, it is  said they should  be
always put into scalding hot water, by which meth-
od their  color will  be preserved, and they will be
prevented from shrinking.
  FLASH  Prep. Burnt-sugrir  coloring  1 gall.;
fluid extract of capsicum, or essence of cavenne,
if pint, or enough to give a strong  fiery taste.
   Use.  It is employed to color spirits,  and to give
them a false strength.   It is made by the brewers'
druggists, and vended under the name of " isin-
glass and burnt sugar."
  FLATULENCY.  (From flatus, a blast.)  A
morbid collection of gas in the stomach and bow-
els.   The  most  common  cause  of flatulency is
indigestion.   When the natural fluids of the stom-
ach are secreted  in a healthy state, they exercise
an  antiseptic and digestive action on the food,  by
which it is  speedily reduced to  a magma  that is
little liable to spontaneous change while in the body;
but when the reverse is the case, fermentation rap-
idly commences, and the stomach and associated
viscera become  distended with gas, giving rise to
frequent eructation and crepitation.  The quantity
of gas thus accumulated is  often enormous.  It is
asserted  that an ordinary apple during fermenta-
tion yields  about  600  times its bulk  of gas, and
many vegetables much  more.  (Dr. Hales.)  It is,
therefore, not at all surprising that so much incon-
venience should be felt from flatulency.
   Treat. The  treatment of  flatulency  consists
mainly in the selection of proper articles  of food.
Oleraceous  vegetables, peas, beans, and indigest ble
fruits, should be  especially avoided, as well as the
use of large quantities of washy liquids.  The diet
should consist principally of animal food, well cook-
ed, with a  sufficient quantity of good potatoes and
wheaten bread, moderately seasoned  with spices;
and the  most suitable beverages are toast and wa- 
FLO                     317                   FLO
 ter, and good brandy largely diluted with water.
 The healthy tone of the stomach may be re-estab-
 lished by the  proper use of tonics, bitters, and mild
 aperients.  (See Dyspepsia.)
   To relieve the_/if of flatulency, carminatives and
 aromatics,  as peppermint, ginger, cinnamon, lav-
 ender, and  the peppers, may be had recourse to.
 A glass of  peppermint cordial, or brandy strongly
 flavored with  essence of peppermint, or mixed with
 a spoonful  of powdered ginger, is  a  popular and
 efficient remedy.
   FLIES often cause considerable annoyance to
 the person  in  hot weather, and frequently do con-
 siderable damage to handsome furniture, especially
 picture-frames, gilding,  &c, by alighting on them.
 The best way to remove  them is  to expose in a
 plate a mixture  of 1 teaspoonful of black pepper,
 2 teaspoonfuls of brown sugar, and  1 tablespoonful
 of cream ;  or a solution of sugar in a strong decoc-
 tion of  quassia, may be  used  instead.   It is said
 that either  of these mixtures will cause them rap-
 idly to disappear.
   Flies and  other insects may be kept from  at-
 tacking meat by dusting it over with pepper, pow-
 dered ginger, or any other spice, or by  skewering
 a piece of paper to it on which a drop of creosote
 has been poured. The spices may be readily wash-
 ed off with water before dressing the meat.
   FLOUNDERS are a wholesome species offish.
 They are both a sea and river fish ; the latter are,
 however, preferred.   They should be chosen  by
 their thickness and firmness, and the brightness
 of their eyes.  They are  in season from January
 to March, and from July to September.   They are
 nicest when dressed by frying in oil.
   FLOUR.  Syn. Fleur de Farine, (Fr.)  Fa-
 rina, (Lat.)  The meal of bread corn.   Of farinas
 the  principal  is wheat flour, or the ground seed of
 the  Triticum  hybernum vel vulgare, of which there
 are  several varieties,  chiefly  depending on  the
 amount of  bran  they contain, and the fineness of
 the  sieves through which they are passed.
   Fine  wheat flour.  (Ador,  Farina, F. tritici,
 F. seminis  tritici.)   The  finest flour obtained  by
 sifting the meal  produced in  the  first grinding of
 wheat between sharp stones,  by a sieve of 64 wires
 to the  inch ;  u»j?d for pastry.—Middlings.   The
 remainder of the flour of the first grinding that will
 pass through  a  coarser sieve ;  used  for making
 household bread, but is mostly  reground.—Seconds.
 The finest part of the flour, obtained  by grinding
 middlings over again, between blunt stones ; used
 for making  bakers' fine wheaten bread.—Pollard.
 The coarse flour,  from whence the seconds has
 been sifted ; used for making sea biscuits and gin-
 gerbread, and to  fatten poultry and  hogs.—Coun-
 try household flour.   Is usually ground only once,
 and sifted to four-fifths of the weight of the wheat.
 —Ammunition flour. Is required to be ground and
 sifted to ^gif, or very nearly five-sixths the weight
 of the wheat   Thirty-two pecks of wheat in the
 London mills  yield 38J of  flour, 8 of pollard, and
 12 of bran, (furfur tritici;) the bulk of the wheat
 being doubled  by grinding.  (Accum.)
  Pur.  This article of food is very fr< quently adul-
terated both by the miller  and the 1 aker, as has
been before alluded to  in the  article  on Bread.
This fraud may, however,  be  readily detected  by
the following tests, which refer to wheat flour.
   1. Wheat flour is distinguished by its cohesive-
 ness, which is so great, that on  being squeezed in
 the  hand, the lump  will be some time before it,
 loses its shape.
   2. Plaster of Paris, ground  bones, chalk, tnd
 potato flour, when added to wheaten flour,  may
 be detected by the specific  gravity of the  sample
 being considerably greater than  that of pure flour.
 This may be readily ascertained by any person, by
 filling  a  small vessel with  some  pure flour, and
 then with the given sample.  " A vessel which will
 contain 1 lb. of wheat flour  will  contain 14 lbs. of
 fecula,"  (potato  flour ;)  and hence " the  propor-
 tion of this adulteration may be  easily estimated."
 (Ure.)
   3. Liquid ammonia (aqua ammonia? pura?) turns
 wheat flour yellow;  and if any  other corn has
 been ground with it, pale  brown ; or  if peas or
 beans have been ground  with it, a darker brown.
   4. Nitric acid turns wheat flour of an  orange
 yellow color, but forms a stiff and tenacious jelly
 with potato fecula, the color of which  it does not
 alter.  (See Arrow-root, British.)
   5. Pure muriatic acid, when  poured on potato
 flour, develops a smell of rushes';  it also dissolves
 starch, but changes the color of  wheat  flour to a
 deep violet.
   6. Bean  and  pea  flour  may be  detected  by
 pouring boiling water on  the sample, or by making
 it into bread and  toasting  it, when the peculiar
 odor of those substances will be evolved.
   7. The value of  wheat flour  as an aliment de-
 pends upon the quantity of gluten, sugar, starch;
 and phosphate of lime it contains ;  and its superi-
 ority over the flour of  the grains of the other ce-
 reals, depends on its containing a larger proportion
 of  the  first  and  last  of these  substances.  The
 qualitative analysis of flour is  very  simple, and
 may be easily made by persons unacquainted with
 chemistry.  The following plan will be found to be
 a ready method of  determining  the proportion  of
 the principal ingredients just named :—
   a. Make  1000 grs. of flour into a dough  with a
 little water, let it  rest an hour, and then  gently
 knead  it  in  successive waters,  until  the  starchy
 particles  are perfectly removed.  Collect the por-
 tion (gluten) left  in the hand, drain off the water,
 place it  on  a piece of filtering  or  blotting  paper,
 several times doubled, and set it  aside.
   b. Mix the several waters employed in the pre-
 ceding process, and set them aside  in a tall vessel,
 to deposite the suspended  portion, (starch.)  After a
 sufficient time, pour off the clear liquid, and throw
 the whole of the sediment on a weighed paper fil-
 ter, placed in a funnel,  observing to remove the
 portion adhering to the  bottom  of the vessel by
 means of a little clean water, that none may be lost.
   c. Evaporate  the decanted liquid, as well  as
 what runs from the filter, until  it becomes curdy,
then filter through a piece of weighed blotting pa-
per, and preserve the  sediment, (albumen ;) next
evaporate to the consistence of a  sirup, agitate with
 10 times  its  weight of alcohol, and filter, observing
to wash the paper clean with a little alcohol, after
the solution has passed through it.  The substance
on the paper is phosphate of lime and gum,* and
must be set aside.
  * By digestion in water, filtration, and evaporation, the
two may be obtained separately. 
FLO                    318                    FLO
   d. Evaporate or distil off the spirit from the so-
 lution and washings as above; the residuum  is
•sugar.
   e.  Dry the substances educed by  the preceding
 operations by a gentle heat, and weigh them. The
 weight of the albumen may be taken with that of
 the gluten, as it possesses about the same nutritive
 value, and also because it has been asserted by
 some persons that the former substance is in reality
 gluten, and not albumen.  By dividing the given
 weights by 10, the percentage value of the sample
 will  be  obtained.  The pieces of filtering  paper
 employed should be dried and weighed before using
 them ;  and the same degree of heat should be em-
 ployed  for this purpose, as  that to which they will
 be afterwards exposed in the drying of the sub-
 stances resulting from the operation.
   Remarks.  This method of ascertaining the actual
 value of any sample of flour as an article of food,
 though not strictly accurate,  approximates suffi-
 ciently to the truth for  all  practical  purposes, and
 is well  adapted to the wants of the baker and large
 purchaser.  In  many cases it will only be neces-
 sary to  perform  the  first  part of the process, a,
 which will give the amount of tho most important
 constituent of the flour; the rest being  of minor
 consequence.
   According  to  Vauquelin,  French  wheat  flour
 contains about 10}} of water, llg of gluten, 71$ of
 starch, 5$ of sugar, and 3§ of gum ; and the water
 of the dough amounts to 50*3°;.
   FLOUR,  BAKED.   Syn.  Farina tosta.   F.
 Tritici Tosta.   Astringent; used  to make food
 for infants troubled with diarrhoea.
   FLOWERS.   Syn.  Flores, (Lat)   Fleurs,
 (Fr.)  Blumen, (Ger.)  These beautiful and fra-
 grant ornaments of our gardens, our sitting-rooms,
 and our chambers, are  too well known to require
 description ;  but some remarks on their preserva-
 tion, &c,  may not be out of place here.
   Flowers may be preserved in a fresh state for
 a considerable time, by keeping them in  a moist
 atmosphere.   When growing  on  the parent stem,
 the large amount of evaporation from  the surface
 of their leaves., is compensated for by an equivalent
 proportion of moisture supplied by  the roots ; but
 when they are plucked, the evaporation  from the
 surface continues, while the supply of moisture  is
 cut off  Hence t'-^y fade, and that with a degree
 of rapidity exactly p.iportionate to the dryness  of
 the air that surrounds them.   It is on this account
 that recently-plucked flowers fade more rapidly in-
 doors than in the open garden ;  for the air of a
 sitting-room is considerably drier and warmer than
 the external  atmosphere.   This is perfectly natu-
 ral ; for with  diminished sources of nourishment,
 they are exposed to an augmented perspiration,
 and the water which forms the larger portion  of
 their bodies  is lost.  In fact, they fade  from the
 volatilization of one of their component parts, which
 is an essential constituent of every living flower.
 The flowers  of plants also feed  on the viewless
 oxygen of the air, and  form carbonic acid  with
 great rapidity.  Thus those of the passiflora ser-
 ratifolia consume of oxygen in this way 16 J times
 their bulk in  24 hours, when sheltered from the
 direct rays of the sun,  at  a temperature  between
 18°  and 25° C.; the male flowers of the cucum-
 ber, 12 times then bulk ; the female only 3 J ; the
single  red  gilliflower  (cheiranthus  incanus) 11 ;
the single tuberose 9; and the lypha latifolia 9*8.
(T. de  Saussure, Ann. de Chim. xxi. 279.)   To
supply in part the loss of moisture by evaporation,
has arisen  the universal practice  of placing them
in water; but the mutilated stems possess a  far
inferior power of sucking  up fluids to that of  the
roots, and though their decay may thus be slightly
impeded, yet, as the balance of gain on  the one
hand  by the roots, and loss on the other hand  by
evaporation from their whole surface, cannot be
maintained, they fade  as  a natural  consequence.
To preserve them, or at least to render their exist-
ence  less  ephemeral, we have therefore  only to
restore this balance-  *o surround them with a me-
dium that will rob them of no water ; or, in other
words, to place them in a moist atmosphere. " It
is now eighteen years ago since  we first  saw, in
the drawing-room of a gentleman, in the hot  dry
weather of the dog-days,  flowers preserved day
after day in  all  their freshness by the following
simple contrivance :—A flat dish of porcelain had
water  poured into  it   In the water  a  vase of
flowers was set; over the whole  a  bell-glass was
placed  with  its  rim in the  water.  This was a
' Ward's case' in principle, although different in its
construction.  The air that surrounded the flowers
being confined beneath  the  bell-glass,  was con-
stantly moist with the water that rose into  it in  the
form of vapor.  As  fast as  the  water  was con-
densed, it ran down the sides of the bell-glass back
into the dish ; and if means had been taken to  en-
close the water on the outside of  the bell-glass, so
as to prevent its evaporating  into the  ail  of  the
sitting-room, the  atmosphere around the  flowers
would have remained continually damp.  The only
difference  between plants  in  a ' Ward's case' and
flowers  in the little apparatus just described is this
—that the former is intended  for plants to grow in
for a considerable spaw of  time, while the latter is
merely for  their preservation for a few days ; and
that the air which surrounds the flowers is always
charged with the same quantity of vapor, and will
not vary with the  circumstances, and at  the will
of him who  has  the  management of it.   We
recommend those who love to see plenty  of Iresh
flowers  in  their sitting-rooms in  dry weather, to
procure it.   The experiment can be tried by invert-
ing a tumbler over a rose-bud  in a saucer of wal er."
(Gardener's Chronicle.)
   Faded flowers may  be generally restored  by
immersing  them half-way  up their stems in very
hot water,  and allowing them to remain in it until
it cools, or they have recovered.   They must then
be removed, the ' coddled' portion of the stems cut
off, and placed in  clean cold water.   In this way
a great number of faded flowers  may be restored,
but there are some of the more fugacious kinds on
which it proves useless.
   To hasten the blowing of flowers the folio ving
liquid has been used with great advantage :—Sul-
phate or nitrate of ammonia 4 oz. ; nitrate of pot-
ash 2 oz.;  sugar 1 oz.; hot water 1 pint; dissolve
and keep it in a well-corked bottle.  For  use, put
8 or 10 drops of this liquid into the water of a liya
cinth-glass or jar for bulbous-rooted plants, chang-
ing the water every 10 or 12  days.  For flowering
plants in pots a few drops must  be  added to  the
water employed to moisten them.  The preference 
FLO                    319                   FLU
 should be given to rain water for this purpose.   A
 similar fluid, sold by Mr. Potter under the name of
 " liquid guano," is an  excellent article  to promote
 the growth and early  flowering of plants.
   Flowers may be produced in winter by taking
 up the plants, trees, or shrubs  in the spring, at  the
 time when they are about to  bud, with  some  of
 their own soil carefully preserved among the  roots,
 placing them upright  in a cellar till Michaelmas;
 when, with the addition of fresh earth, they are to
 be put into proper tubs or vessels, and placed in a
 stove  or hothouse, where they must every morning
 be moistened or refreshed with rain-water, to which
 a little of the  solution above mentioned has been
 added.  Thus in the month of February, fruits or
 roses will appear, and with  respect to flowers in
 general,  if they are  sown  in pots, at or before
 Michaelmas,  and  watered in a similar manner,
 they will blow at Christmas.
   Flowers for medicinal purposes should be  ga-
 thered as soon as  unfolded, and dried as speedily
 as possible, at a  gentle heat, the  calices, claws,
 &c, being previously  taken  off;  when the flowers
 are small the calix may  be  left  on,  or even  the
 whole flowering  spike  dried  without  mutilation.
 Labiate  flowers  are  usually  dried in the  latter
 state.  Blue flowers,  as those of  violets, bugloss,
 &c, should be dipped for a moment into boiling wa-
 ter, before drying them, to prevent their becoming
 yellow' or discolored.  The color of the petals of
 red roses is best  preserved  by quick drying, after
 which the yellow anthers  may be removed by sift-
 ing.   The odor of roses and pinks is improved by
 this treatment   Compound flowers, with pappous
 seeds, ought to be gathered before they are entirely
 opened, and should be dried very high, to prevent
 the moisture developing the pappi, which by keep-
 ing would unfit them  for medical use.
   The best method of drying flowers  is to spread
 them  thinly on paper  t-nys and  place them in a
 stove-room, or a current 01" dry air, (preferably  the
 latter,) or in the sun.  For odorless  flowers  the
 temperature may  be  between 75° and  120° F.,
 observing, however, not to employ sufficient heat
 to destroy their color.   For fragrant and aromatic
 flowers the heat  should  not  exceed   75°.  The
 flowering tops  of  plants, as those of  lavender,
 wormwood, melilot, &.C., are usually tied  in  small
 parcels or bundles, loosely wrapped in paper, and
 then hung up, that they may not get discolored or
 broken.  The  succulent  petals  of suine plants,
 whose odor is very fugacious, as some of the lilia-
 ceous  kinds, cannot be well dried, as their fra-
 grance is lost, and at  the  same time they rot and
 become discolored.   (See Vegetables.)
   FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL.  The  beauty and
 value of these pleasing imitations of the vegetable
 kingdom mainly depend  upon the taste and  inge-
 nuity of the maker. The  delicate fingers of woman
 and  her ready powers of imitation  and  invention,
 combined with her  natural affection for  the floral
 world, and her ready  perception of the true and
 beautiful  in nature and  art, have enabled her  es-
pecially to excel in this manufacture. At the pres-
ent time,  this art is carried to the greatest perfec-
tion by the female artificial florists  of the French
capital.
  The French employ velvet, kid, and fine cam-
bric for the petals,  and taffeta for the leaves. Very
 recently thin plates of bleached whalebone have
 been used with great success for some portions of
 artificial flowers.
   As colors and stains, the following are employ-
 ed in Paris :—Red, carmine dissolved in a solution
 of salts of tartar, or in spirits of hartshorn ; yellow,
 tincture of turmeric ; green, a solution of distilled
 verdigris; blue, indigo dissolved  in  oil of vitriol,
 and the acid partly neutralized with  salt of tartar
 or whiting;  violet, liquid  archil, mixed  with  a
 little salts of tartar ;  lilac, liquid archil.  These
 colors are  usually applied to  the petals with the
 finger.
   FLOWERS, (In Chemistry.)  Pulverulent or
 flower-like substances obtained by sublimation,  as
 flowers of benzoin, zinc, sulphur, &c.  The  term
 has  been discarded from modern chemical nomen-
 clature, but is still commonly employed in familiar
 language.
   FLOWERS  OF  CALOMEL.   Calomel re-
 sublimed from  a retort, with  a very short,  wide
 neck, kept too hot for it to condense  on, into a re-
 ceiver half filled with water,  and sufficiently hot
 to steam.  A fine  white  powder, possessing the
 same properties as ordinary calomel.
   FLOWERS OF ZINC.   Syn. Flores Zinci.
 Zincum Calcinatum.  Zinci  Oxidum.  (P. L. be-
 fore 1824.)   Oxide of  zinc obtained  by the rapid
 combustion of metallic zinc in a deep crucible,
 placed sideways in  a furnace, so  that the flowers
 may be collected as they form.   Antispasmodic.
 Dose. 5 to 10 grs. in epilepsy,  &c.   Also  used  as
 a white pigment,  but dries badly.
   FLUID, ETCHING.   I. (For copper.) Prep
 a. Aquafortis 2 oz.; water 5 oz.;  mix.
   b.  To the last  add verdigris  1  oz., and water 3
 oz.;  dissolve.
   c. Verdigris,  common salt,  and  sal ammoniac,
 of each 4 oz.; alum 1  oz., (all in  powder ;) strong
 vinegar 8 oz.; water 1 lb.«; dissolve by boiling for
 a moment, cool, and decant the clear.  This is the
 eau forte of Callot and Piranesi.
   II. (For steel.)  a. Iodine 1  oz.;  iron filings }
 dr.; water 4  oz.; mix and dissolve.
   6. Pyroligneous acid 4  oz.; alcohol 1 oz.; mix
 and  add nitric  acid 1  oz.  ; all by measure.   This
 menstruum was employed and recommended by
 Mr.  Turret   For the method  of  using the above
 fluids, see Etching.
   FLUID MAGNESIA.  Prep. Place recently
 precipitated carbonate of  magnesia  in a bottle  or
 other suitable vessel, and  fill it by means of a so-
 da-water apparatus with water fully  charged  with
 carbonic acid gas.  With slight  and cautious agjra-
 tion  the aerated water will become saturated  with
 magnesia.  A scruple of  carbonate  of magnesia
 put into a bottle, and thus treated, will be all taken
 up in from 20 minutes to  half an hour, and the
 beverage left beautifully  clear.   (Geo. Raistrick.
 Chem. v. 42.)
   FLUMMERY,  (In Cookery.)   A species of
 thick hasty-pudding, made with oatmeal or rice,
 flavored with milk, cream, almonds, orange-flowers,
 lemons, &c,  according to fancy.  French flum-
mery is made with equal parts of blanc-mange and
 cream, sweetened and flavored. Dutch flummery
 is blanc-mange  and eggs, flavored with lemon and
sweetened.  All these  are  poured  into firms  and
served cold, to eat with wine, spirits,  cider, &c. 
FLU                    320                   FOI
  FLUOBORATES.   Syn. Fluoborides Boro-
FLUorides.  Hydrofluorborates.  Compounds of
fluoboric acid, with the  salifiable bases.  See  the
next article.
  FLUOBORIC ACID.  Syn. Terfluoride of
Boron.  A peculiar gaseous compound of fluorine
and  boron,  discovered  by Gay Lussac  and The-
nard.
  Prep. Vitrified boracic acid  1 part; fluor spar 2
parts;  mix, and expose  the mixture to heat in  a
leaden  retort.  A colorless gas is  evolved, which
is  rapidly absorbed by water, forming liquid fluo-
boric acid, (Gay Lussac, Thenard, Dr. Davy,) or
boro-hydrofluoric acid,  (Berzelius.)   It  does  not
attack  glass,  but  rapidly destroys  organic sub-
stances.   Water  absorbs 700 times its volume  of
this  gas.  (Davy.)   See  Borofluoride of Hy-
drogen.
  FLUORIDES.  Compounds of fluorine with
the metals.   (See Fluorine.)
  FLUORIDES OF CHROMIUM. I. (Sesqui-
fluoride.)  Prep. Dissolve hydrated oxide of chro-
mium  in hydrofluoric   acid and  evaporate.   A
crystalline green mass.
  IT. (Perfluoride.  Fluochromic Acid.)   Fluor
Bpar 3  parts; chromate of lead 4 parts ; fuming
(or the strongest) sulphuric acid 5 parts; mix cau-
tiously in a silver or leaden retort.   A red colored
gas is evolved, which acts rapidly on gas, forming
fluosilicic acid gas, and upon water, forming  hy-
drofluoric acid and chromic acid.  The moisture
of the atmosphere is sufficient to effect this decom-
position, the former substance escaping under  the
form of gas, and  the latter being deposited in small
crystals.  (See Chromic Acid.)
   FLUORINE.  The  electro-negative  elements
of hydrofluoric acid and the fluorides.   This sub-
stance, though long known in combination,  has
only been lately obtained in a separate state. The
honor  of having first obtained it  in an  insulated
form is due to Baudrimont, who  procured it  by
passing fluoride  of  boron over minium  heated to
redness, and receiving the gas in a dry vessel.  As
thus obtained, it is not absolutely pure, being con-
taminated with small quantities of hydrofluoric  and
silico-fluoric acids.   It  has a yellowish color,  and
an odor between  that of chlorine and burnt  sugar.
In this state it does not  act on glass, but combines
directly with gold. With hydrogen  it forms hydro-
fluoric acid, and with the metals fluorides.   The
word fluorine was given to this substance from its
existing in fluor or Derbyshire spar.  The adjecti-
tious term fluor, (from fluo, I flow,) was applied to
this  spar or mineral from its ready fusibility,  and
being sometimes  used as a flux to promote the fu-
sion of certain refractory minerals.
   FLUOSILICIC ACID.  Prep.  Powdered fluor
spar and silicious sand,  or powdered  glass, 1 part;
concentrated sulphuric acid 2 parts ; mix in a glass
retort, apply a gentle heat, and collect the evolved
gas  over mercury.
   Remarks. A colorless incombustible gas, highly
corrosive, and poisonous, but does not act on glass
vessels, when they are quite dry.   Water absorbs
365 times its volume of this gas, (Dr. Davy ;)  but
decomposition ensues, pure hydrated silicic acid
being deposited in a gelatinous state, and a solu-
tion of hydrofluoric acid, containing only two-thirds
of the silicic acid originally present in the gas, be-
ing formed. (Berzelius.)   This solution  is called
silicated fluoric acid, or silico-hydrofluoric acid.
It is acid and corrosive.   By  the  action  of water
of ammonia fluosilicic acid gas is completely de-
composed, depositing its silica.  In this  way Dr.
Davy  obtained T8^4ff of  its weight of the 'alter
substance.
   FLUX. Syn. Fluss, (Ger.) Flux, (Fr.) Fit,on
(Lat, from fluo, I flow.) In Pathology,  this term
is occasionally applied to diarrhoea, cholera, and
dysentery, but is nearly obsolete.   In  Chemistry,
fluxes are substances of  easy fusibility, which aro
added to others more refractory,  to promote their
fusion.  The principal fluxes  are the following:—
   1. (Black flux.)  Cream of tartar 2 parts; nitre
1  part ;  powder, mix,  and  deflagrate,  by small
quantities at a  time, in a red hot crucible.  This
is  merely carbonate of  potash, mixed with char-
coal in a finely-divided state. It is used for smelt-
ing metallic ores, and exercises a  reducing action,
as well as promoting the fusion'.
  2. (White'flux. Cornish refining flux.) Cream
of tartar and nitre, equal parts; deflagrate as last.
  3. (Morveau's reducing flux.)   Powdered glass
(containing  no lead) 1 lb.; calcined borax 2 oz.;
powdered charcoal 1 oz.; mix.  Used for the same
purposes as black flux.
  4. (Cornish reducing flux.)   Cream of tartar
10 oz.;  nitre 4 oz.; borax 3 oz.;  mix.
   5. (Crude flux.)  Nitre mixed with  twice its
weight of tartar, without deflagration.   Reducing.
   6. Borax, tartar, nitre, sal ammoniac, common
salt, limestone, glass, fluorspar, and several other
substances are used as fluxes in metallurgy.
   Remarks.  On  the  large  scale crude tartar ie
employed.
   FOILS.  (From feuille, Fr., or folium, Lat, a
leaf.)  Thin leaves  of polished metal, put under
stones  or pastes,  to heighten the  effect.  Foils
were formerly made of  copper, tinned copper, tin,
and silvered copper, but  the  latter is that wholly
used for superior work at the present day.  There
are two descriptions of foils employed, viz., white,
for diamonds and mock diamonds, and colored,
for the colored gems.   The latter are prepared by
varnishing the former.   By their  judicious use the
color of a stone may  be often modified.  Thus,
by placing a yellow foil under a green stone that
turns too much on the blue, or a  red one turning
too much on the crimson, the hues will  be bright-
ened.
   Prep. I.  (White or common foil.) This is made
by coating a plate of copper  with a layer of silver,
and then rolling it into sheets m  the flatting milL
The foil is then highly polished or varnished.
   II. (Colored foils.)  These are made by color-
ing the preceding foil, highly  polished, with certain
transparent solutions or varnishes.  The following
produce beautiful colored effects,  when judiciously
employed:—
   a. (Blue.) Prussian blue, (preferably.Turnbull's,)
ground with pale, quick-drying oil. Used to deep-
en  the color of sapphires.  It may be diluted with
oil.
   6. (Green.)  1. Pale  shellac, dissolved in  alco-
hol, (lacker,) and tinged  green by dissolving verdi-
gris or acetate  of  copper in  it.   2. " Sesquiferro-
cyanuret of iron" and bichromate of potassa, of
each i oz.; grind them with a stone an*1 vnuUer to 
FOI                    321                    FOR
a fine powder, add gum mastich (clean and also in
fine powder) 2 oz.; grind again, add a little pyrox-
ilic spirit, and again grind until the mass becomes
homogeneous and of a fine transparent green ; the
beauty increases with the  length of the grinding.
The predominance of the bichromate turns  it on
the yellowish green ; that  of the salt of iron, on
the bluish green.   For use it is to be thinned with
pyroxilic spirit"  (Chemist, iii. 238.)  This is used
for emeralds.  It may be brightened by adding a
little yellow varnish.
   c. (Yellow.)  1. Various shades of yellow may
be produced  by tinging a weak alcoholic solution
of shellac  or mastich, by digesting turmeric, an-
natto, saffron, or socotrine aloes therein.  The
former  is the  brightest and most fit for topazes.
2. Digest hay saffron in 5 or 6 times its weight of
boiling water, until the latter becomes sufficiently
colored, filter, and add a little solution of gum or
isinglass.   When dry, a coating of spirit varnish
should be applied.
   d. (Red.)  Carmine dissolved in spirits of  harts-
horn, or a weak solution of salt of tartar, and gum
added as above.
   e. (Garnet.)  Dragon's blood dissolved in recti-
fied spirit of wine.
   /. (Vinegar garnet.) Orange lake finely tem-
pered with shellac varnish.
   g.  (Amethyst.) Lake and prussian blue, finely
ground in pale drying oil.
   h.  (Eagle marine.)  Verdigris tempered in shel-
lac  varnish, (alcoholic,) with  a little  prussian
blue.
   i. (Ruby.) 1. Lake or carmine, ground in isin-
glass.  2.  Lake ground in shellac  varnish.   Used
when the color  turns on  the purple.   3. Bright
lake ground  in oil; used when the  color turns on
the scarlet or orange.
   k. (Diamond.) 1. Cover the inside of the socket
in which the stone or paste is  to be set with tin
foil, by means of a little stiff gum or size ; when
dry, polish the surface, heat the socket, fill it with
warm quicksilver, let it rest for two or three min-
utes, then pour it out and gently fit in the stone ;
lastly, well close the work round the stone, to pre-
vent the alloy being shaken out.  2.  Coat the bot-
tom of the  stone with a  film  of real  silver, by
precipitating it from a  solution of the  nitrate in
spirits of ammonia, by means of the  oils of cassia
and cloves.   (See Silvering.)   Both these meth-
ods vastly increase the brilliancy both of real and
factitious gems.
   Remarks.  By the skilful use of the above var-
nishes, good imitations of the gems may  be cheap-
ly made from transparent white glass or paste, and
when  applied  to  foils set  under  colored pastes,
(factitious gems,) a superior effect may  be produ-
ced.  The colors  must be  reduced to  the  finest
state  possible by patient grinding, as without this
precaution, transparent and  beautiful shades can-
not be formed.  The palest and cleanest mastich,
and lac dissolved in alcohol, and  also the  palest
and quickest  drying oil should alone be employed,
when these btibstances are ordered.  In every case
the colors must be laid on  the foils with a broad
soft brush, and the operation should be performed,
if  possible, at once, as no part should be crossed,
or twice gone over while wet   If the oolor be' not
deep enough, a second coat may be given when
the first one has become quite dry, but this prac«
tice is not to be recommended.
  FOMENTATION.  Syn. Fomentum, Fcmen-
tatio, Fotus, (Lat.)  Fomentation, (Fr.)  I. Lo-
cal bathing, with  heated water, simple or medi-
cated.
  II. The liquid used for the above purpose.  Fo-
mentations are chiefly employed to allay  pain and
irritation,  and  to promote suppuration  and the
healthy action of the parts.
  FOMENTATION.   Syn. Common Fomenta-
tion. Fotus communis,  (P. L. 1746.)  Compound
decoction  of mallows.
  FOMENTATION, ANODYNE. Syn. Fotus
anodynus.  Prep. (E. H.)  Poppies 1 oz.; elder
flowers £ oz.; water 2k, pints ; boil to 1^ pints. To
relieve pain.
  FOMENTATION,   ANTISEPTIC.   Syn.
Fotus antisepticus.  Prep. (Ger. II.) Decoction
of bark lb. ij ;  infusion of chamomile Ib.j ; spirits
of camphor f ^ij ;  muriatic acid f 3j ; mix.
  FOMENTATION, AROMATIC. Syn. Fo-
tus aromaticus.  Prep.  Sea wormwood, abrota-
num and chamomiles, of each 1 oz.; laurel leaves
£ oz.;  water 5  pints ; boil to £ gallon.
  FOMENTATION,   ASTRINGENT.   Syn.
Fotus astringens.  F.  roborans.  Prep. (P. H.)
Bistort and pomegranate peel,  of each 2 oz.; sal
ammoniac -j oz. ; red wine 1 pint; infuse at a
gentle heat.
  FOMENTATION FOR WORMS. Syn. Fo-
tus  anthelmintics.  Prep.  (P.  Cod.)   Leaves
and flowers of tansy, wormwood, and chamomile,
of each ^iij ; water lb. iij;  boil to lb. ij.
  FOMENTATION OF DIGITALIS.   Syn.
Fomentum Digitalis.   Prep. (Guy's H.) Leaves
of deadly nightshade, ^j; boiling  water lb. ij; in-
fuse.
  FOMENTATION  OF  HEMLOCK.   Syn.
Fomentum Cicut^.   F. Conii. Prep.  (St.  B. H.)
Fresh hemlock  leaves, §ij ; (or dried leaves, §j ;)
water 1J pints ; boil to a pint.
  FOMENTATION OF ELDER  FLOWERS.
Syn. Fotus sambuci.   Prep.  (P. Cod.)   Elder
flowers  3iij; boiling water 1 quart; macerate 1
hour.
  FOMENTATION OF SAL  AMMONIAC.
Syn. Fomentum Ammonle Muriatis.  Prep. (P.
C.)  Compound decoction of mallows §xxxij ; sal
ammoniac f j ; dissolve, and add spirit of  camphor
5*j-
  FOMENTATION,    RESOLVENT.   Syn.
Fotus resolvens.  Prep. (Richard.) Fomenta-
tion of elder flowers  ^viij; liquor of diacetate  of
lead  3ss;  mix.
  FOMENTATION,   VINOUS-  Syn.  Fotus
Vinosus.  Prep. (P.  Cod.)  Red  wine 1  quart;
honey ^ivss; dissolve.
  FORCEMEAT.   Syn. Farce.   (In Cooke-
ry.)   A species of sausage meat, either served up
alone, or employed as an ingredient in other dishes
Our  notice of this article must be confined to the
following extracts from a popular System of Cook-

  "According to  ..hat ft  is wanted  for should be
the selection from the following list, observing that
of the most pungent  articles, least must be used
No one flavor should  predominate greatly ; yet if
several dishes bo served the same day, there ihould 
FOR                    322                    FOR
be a  marked variety in the tastes of the force-
meats, as well as of the gravies.   A general  fault
is, that the tastes of lemon-peel and thyme over-
come all others; therefore they should only be used
 n small  quantities.   They should be  consistent
enough to cut  with  a knife,  but not  dry and
heavy.  Herbs  are  a  very essential ingredient;
and it is the copious and judicious use of them that
chiefly gives  the cookery of the French  its supe-
rior flavor. To  force fowls, meat, &c, is to stuff
them."   (Mrs. Rundel.)
  " Forcemeat ingredients. Cold fowl, veal,  or
mutton ; scraped ham  or gammon ; fat  bacon,  or
the fat of ham ; beef-suet; veal-suet;  butter;
marrow ;  crumbs of bread ; parsley ; white  pep-
per ; salt;  nutmeg; yelk and white of eggs,  well
beaten to bind the mixture.
  " Cold sole ;  oysters ; anchovy ; lobsters ;  tar-
ragon ;  savory ;  pennyroyal; knotted marjoram ;
thyme and lemon-thyme;  basil ; sage ;  lemon-
peel ;   yelks  of hard  eggs; mace  and cloves;
cayenne ; garlic ; shalot; onion ;  chives ; chervil;
Jamaica pepper in fine powder, or two or three
cloves."
  The first paragraph contains the articles of which
the forcemeat may be made, without any striking
flavor;  and to  these may  be added  some of the
different ingredients in  the second paragraph,  to
vary the taste.
  I.  (For fowls or meat.)   Shred a little ham  or
gammon,  some cold veal or fowl, some beef-suet,
a small quantity of onion, some parsley, very little
lemon-peel, salt, nutmeg, or pounded mace, and
either white pepper or cayenne, and bread-crumbs:
pound it in a mortar, and  bind it with one or two
eggs,  beaten  or strained.  For forcemeat patties,
the mixture as above.
  II.  (For hare, or any thing in imitation of it.)
The scalded liver, an anchovy, some fat bacon, a
little suet, some parsley, thyme, knotted marjoram,
a little shalot, and either onion or chives, all chop-
ped fine; crumbs of bread, pepper, and  nutmeg,
beat in a mortar with an egg.
  III. (For fish soups, or fish stewed on maigre
days.)  Beat the flesh and  soft parts of a middling
lobster, half an  anchovy, a large  piece of boiled
celery, the yelk  of a hard  egg, a little cayenne,
mace, salt, and white pepper,  with two  table-
spoonfuls  of bread-crumbs, one  ditto of  oyster  li-
quor,  two ounces of butter,  warmed, and two eggs
long beaten: make  into balls, and fry of a  fine
brown in butter
  IV. (For fish.) Chop, and afterwards pound  in
a mortar, any kind of fish, adding an anchovy  or
two, or a teaspoonful of the essence of anchovies,
(but do not allow the taste to prevail,)  and the
yelk of a hard-boiled egg:  if for the maigre, pound
butter with it;  but  otherwise,  the fat  of bacon
pounded separately, and then mixed: add a third
portion of bread, prepared by, previously pounding
and soaking,  and mix the whole up with raw eggs.
  V.  (Common  veal-stuffing.) Take equal quan-
tities  of beef-suet and crumbs of bread, chop the
suet very finely : chop together a bundle of sweet
herbs ;  add to them a tea or salt spoonful of grated
•emon-peel, and pepper and salt.  Ude, who  is
good  authority, observes that " it would not  be
amiss  to  add a piece of   butter, and  ponnd the
whole in a mortar;" mix it up with eggs.
   Obs. Grated ham or tongue  may be  added U
 this stuffing.
   By mixing  with any potted  meat or  game an
 equal proportion  of soaked bread, (which will al-
 ways be lighter than bread-crumbs,) the  cook will
 have at once a very fine species of farce,  to 'ie em-
 ployed in stuffing olives, fillets of fowl, &c. Bacon
 or butter must always be substituted for suet when
 the forcemeat is to be eaten cold.
   At many tables, where  every thing else is well
 done, it is common to find  very bad stuffing.
   FORMIC  ACID.  (From  Formica, an  ant.)
 The sour liquid ejected by  ants when irritated.  It
 was fornurty solely obtained from  these insects by
 distilling them along with  water.   This  acid was
 discovered by Gehlen, but first prepared artificially
 by Doebereiner.
  Prep. I.  (Doebereiner.)  Tartaric acid 2 parts,
 peroxide of manganese and concentrated  sulphuric
 acid, of each  3 parts; water  5 parts;  distil in a
 capacious retort into a well-cooled receiver.
  II.  (Ure.) Tartaric acid  10 parts ; concentrated
sulphuric acid  15 parts ; black oxide of manganese
 14 parts ; water 20 to 30 parts ;  distil as  last.
  III.  (Mr. C. Watt, jun.)  Coal naphtha (or py-
roxilic  spirit) 1 part; bichromate  of potassa and
sulphuric acid, of each 3 parts ; place the naphtha
in a flask fitted with a funnel  tube; the bichro-
mate of potassa  is then to  be added, and the sul-
phuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water,
gradually poured down the  funnel; while the acid
is being  added, heat  is to be  applied, when the
formic acid will distil over,  and  may be condensed
in a vessel  kept cool.   A portion  of naphtha will
distil over with the  formic acid,  which may be
again treated with bichromate of potassa and sul-
phuric  acid, when a fresh  portion  of formic acid
will be produced.   If this acid be required perfectly
pure, it  must be saturated with  pure carbonate of
soda or potassa, and subjected to a gentle heat to
volatilize any small portion  of naphtha with which
it may be contaminated.  The formic acid is then
to be  liberated from the salt by means  of dilute
sulphuric arid, and subjected to distillation, when
 the acid will  be  obtained  perfectly pure.   This
process yields a large product.   (Chemist, iii. 233.)
  IV.  (Liebig.)  a. Starch 1  part; peroxide of
 manganese, in fine powder, 4 parts ; water 4 parts;
mix in  an  alembic, or retort;  heat to 104° F.;
 then add 4 parts of oil of  vitriol,  by degrees, and
 after the frothing  is over, apply heat and distil off
4£ parts of liquid.   The retort should have a capa-
city equal to 10 times the bulk of the ingredients.
  6. (On the small scale.) Starch 10 parts; per-
 oxide  of manganese  37 parts; oil of vitriol and
 water, of each, 30 parts ; as last.   Product. 3*35
 parts of an  acid capable of neutralizing 15°; of dry
 carbonate of soda.
  c. (Pure  hydrated formic  acid.) I. Introduce
 formiate of lead, in fine powder, into a  long glass
 tube, connect one end with an  apparatus evolving
sulphureted hydrogen, and the other  with  a re-
 ceiver.  When the  salt is entirely  decomposed
 (blackened) apply a very gentle heat, and collect
 the distilled liquid;  lastly, boil  the  pioduct  for a
 minute or less, to expel any adhering sulphureted
 gas.  This hydrate contains 1  atom or 20$ of wa-
 ter.   2. Dry  formiate  of  lead, 18 parts ;  oil of
 vitriol 6 parts; water 1 part; distil in a muriate of 
FRE
323
FRI
 lime  bath.   This  hydrate contains 2- atoms  of
 water.
   d.  Formiate of lime  10 parts ; oil of vitriol 8
 parts ; water 4 parts;  distil.  Product. Nine parts
 of pure but dilute acid ;  sp. gr. 1*075.
   Remarks.  The processes c.  1  and 2, yield per-
 fectly pure hydrated  formic acid, the others, mere
 solutions of this acid in water.  They are all limpid
 and colorless.   The first hydrate (IV, c,) boils at
 212°, crystallizes in brilliant scales below 32°, and
 has the sp. gr. 1*2353.  The second hydrate (IV,
 c, 2,) boils at  223°, does not solidify at —5°, and
 has the sp. gr. 1*11.  Both the above are extreme-
 ly corrosive, and rapidly destroy the texture of liv-
 ing organic substances.  The products of the other
 processes are very dilute.
   Formic acid reduces the salts of mercury and
 silver, and forms salts with the  bases termed for-
 miates.   Most of these may be formed by either
 saturating the acid with the hydrate, carbonate, or
 oxide of the base, or by double  decomposition, by
 adding a  solution of a soluble  salt of the base to
 another of an alkaline formiate.   They are all
 soluble in water.
   FORMIC  ETHER.  Syn. Formiate of Ox-
 ide of Ethule.   Prep. Dry formiate of soda  7
 parts;  oil of  vitriol  10 parts; alcohol of 90g,  6
 parts;  mix in a retort connected with a well-cool-
 ed receiver.   The  greater part will distil over by
 the heat  spontaneously  developed.   Purify by
 agitation, first with milk of lime, and afterwards
 with chloride  of calcium.   It is  limpid, smells
 aromatic, is lighter than water, soluble in  10 parts
 of  that fluid,  and boils  at  128° F.  (See Ether,
 and Ethers,  organic)
   FORMO-BENZOIC ACID.  Syn.  Formiate
 oi  Hydruret  of Benzule.  A peculiar acid dis-
 covered by Winkler, and obtained by dissolving oil
 of  bitter  almonds  in water, adding muriatic  acid,
 evaporating, and treating the dry mass with ether,
 which dissolves out the new acid: it may be de-
 colored by animal  charcoal, and obtained in  crys-
 tals by evaporation.   It readily combines with the
 bases, forming salts called formobenzoates.
   FORMOMETHYLAL.   Syn.  Formiate of
 Methule, (tribasic.)   A very volatile liquid, ob-
 tained by Kane, by distilling a mixture of 2 parts
 each of pyroxilic spirit and peroxide of manganese,
 and 3 parts each of oil of vifriol  and water.   Sev-
 eral products first distil  over, and after the boiling
 point of the distilled liquor reaches 177°, the for-
 miate of methule begins to collect in the receiver.
   FORMULE.  A hypothetical organic  radical,
 supposed to consist of 2 eq. of carbon and  1 eq. of
 hydrogen,  of which formic acid  is the oxide.  Its
 existence  is inferred from the constitution of cer-
 tain known  compounds.  (Liebig.)  Iodide,  bro-
 mide, chloride, and  sulphuret of formule, have been
 obtained,  but  are only  interesting in a scientific
 point of view.
  FOXIXG.  The spontaneous souring of worts
 or beer during fermentation or ripening.  It is gen-
 erally  occasioned by want  of  proper  attention or
 skill on the part of the brewer.   (See Brewing.)
  FRAXININE.   A peculiar, soiuble, bitter, neu-
tral, and crystallizable substance, extracted  from
the bark of fraxinus excelsior.
  FRECKLES may be removed by the frequent
application of dilute spirits, acids, or alkaline solu-
tions ; the latter two just strong enough  to prick
the tongue.   (See Cosmetics.)
  FREEMAN'S BATHING SPIRITS.  Opo-
deldoc, colored with  Daffy's elixir.
  FREEZING.  Syn. Congelation, (Fr.) Con-
gelatio, (Lat)   Gefrierung,  (Ger.)  The con-
version of a liquid into the solid state, by the ab-
straction of  a portion of its caloric.  (See Conge-
lation.)
  FRENCH BERRIES.  Syn.  Persian Ber-
ries.  Avignon  do.  Graines d'Avignon.   The
berries or fruit of the rhamnus infectorius.  They
are imported from France and Persia ; those from
the latter country being esteemed the best  Their
decoction dyes cloth, mordanted with alum, tartar,
or protomuriate of tin, of a yellow color;  with sul-
phate of copper, an olive, and with red sulphate of
iron, an  olive-green  color.
  FRENCH POLISH.  Prep.  I. A solution of
shellac in wood naphtha, (pyroxilic spirit)
  II. Pale shellac 3 lbs.; mastich 6 oz.; alcohol
of 90g, 3 quarts.
  III. Shellac 2 lbs.; mastich and sandaric, (both
in powder,) of each  1  oz.; copal varnish 12  oz.;
alcohol 1 gallon.
  Remarks.  All. the above are made in the cold
by frequently stirring  or  shaking the ingredients
together  in  a well-closeM  bottle or other vessel.
French polish is used without filtering.  (See the
next article.)
  FRENCH POLISH, (TO.)  The varnish be-
ing prepared, (shellac,) the article to be polished
being finished off as smoothly as possible with glass
paper, and your  rubber being made as directed be-
low,  proceed to the operation  as follows:—The
varnish,  in a narrow-necked bottle, is to be applied
to the middle of the  flat face of the rubber, by
laying the rubber on the mouth of the bottle and
shaking  up the varnish once, as by this means the
rubber will imbibe the proper quantity  to varnish a
considerable  extent of surface.  The  rubber is then
to be enclosed in a  soft linen cloth, doubled, the
rest of the cloth being gathered up at the back oi
the rubber to form a handle.   Moisten the face of
the linen with a little raw linseed oil, applied with
the finger to the middle  of it.  Place your work
opposite  the light, pass your rubber quickly and
lightly over  its surface  until the varnish  becomes
dry, or   nearly so ;  again charge  your rubber as
before with varnish,  (omitting the oil,) and repeat
the rubbing,  until three coats are laid  on, when a
little  oil  may be applied  to the rubber, and two
coats more given to  it.  Proceed in this way until
the varnish  has acquired some  thickness;  then
wet the  inside of the linen  cloth, before applying
the varnish,  with alcohol,  or  wood  naphtha, and
rub quickly, lightly,  and uniformly the whole sur-
face.  Lastly, wet the  linen cloth with a little oil
and alcohol without varnish, and rub as before till
dry.
  To make  the rubber, roll up a strip of thick
woollen  cloth which has been torn off, so as to
form a soft  elastic  edge.   It  should form a coil.
from 1 to 3  inches  in diameter,  according  to the
size of the work
  FRICTION.   (From  frico, I rub.)   In Me-
chanics,  the resistance produced  by the rubbing
together  of   the surfaces  of  solid bodies.   The
amount of friction is proportionate to the rough- 
FRU                     324                    FRU
ness of the surfaces.   Bodies absolutely smooth
offer no resistance  to each other of this  kind;  but
perfect smoothness is  unattainable by  the most
careful  polishing.  Even  the  brilliant surface  of
the diamond  possesses  asperities which exercise  a
similar effect, but in an immensely less degree to
the rougher surfaces of the metals employed for
machinery.   To lessen  the  amount of resistance,
various unctuous substances, as oil, tallow, soap,
blacklead, &,c.,  are used by engineers.  Each  of
these acts by imparting smoothness to the points of
contact, and  thus  lessens  the amount of  friction.
(See Anti-Attrition.)
   FRICANDEAU. (Fr.) In Cookery, a ragout,
or fricassee of veal.  The same term is sometimes
(improperly) applied by cooks to stewed beef, high-
ly seasoned.
   FRICASSEE.  (Fr.) In Cookery, a  ragout, or
fricassee.  Any stew, highly flavored  with herbs,
spices, or sauce.  Small things, as chickens, lamb,
&.c, and cold meat, are  usually formed  into fri-
cassees.
   FRITT.   The  pulverent  materials of glass,
heated until they coalesce without  melting.  (See
Enamels, Glass, and Pastes.)
   FRITTERS.  (In Cookery.)  Fried  batter.  A
species of pancake containing fruit or  sweetmeats.
Spanish fritters  are made of  slices of  French
rolls soaked in a mixture of  cream,  eggs, sugar,
and spices, and  fried brown.  French fritters are
made by beating up common pancakes with eggs,
almonds, and flavoring, (sugar, orange-flower wa-
ter, and nutmeg,) and  dropping the  paste into a
stew or frying-pan half full of boiling lard, so as to
form cakes the size of large nuts, which are cooked
till brown.   Curd fritters are made of dried curd,
beaten with yelk of egg and a little flour, and fla-
vored with nutmeg.  Souffle fritters  are  nothing
but rich pancakes, flavored with  lemon.   Apple
and other fruit fritters are made by mixing up
the sliced fruits with rich batter, and frying. Buck-
wheat fritters, or  bookings, are made by beating
up buckwheat flour to a batter with  some warm
milk, adding  a little yeast, letting it rise  before the
fire for 30  or 40 minutes, then beating in some
eggs and  milk or warm water, as required, and
frying them  like pancakes.   Buckwheat  fritters,
when well prepared, are excellent.
   FROST-BITES.  When  those parts  of  the
body  in which the circulation of the blood is most
languid are exposed to  extreme cold, they become
frozen, or as it is called, frost-bitten.  The fingers,
toes, ears, and nose are  most liable to this attack.
The remedy is  long-crntinued  friction  with  the
hands or cold flannel, avoiding the fire, or even a
heated apartment.
   FRUIT.   Syn. Thuctus, (Lat.)  Fruit, (Fr.)
In Botany, the ovBrium or the pistillum  arrived at
a  state of  maturity.  In  common language  the
term fruit is applied to any product of a  plant con-
taining the seed, more  especially  those that  are
eaten.  The  fruits of some  plants are improperly
called seeds,  as those  of the cereals, caraway,
parsley, &c.
   Fruits are extensively  employed as articles  of
die  y  man, both  as luxuries and nutritives.  The
acidulous fruits are antiseptic, aperient,  attenu-
ant, diuretic, and refrigerant.  As  articles of diet,
Uiey afford but little nourishment, and promote di-
arrhoea and flatulency.  They are, however, occa-
sionally exhibited medicinally, in putrid affections,
and are often  advantageous in bilious and dyspep-
tic complaints.   The  saccharine fruits, o*- those
abounding  in  sugar,  are  nutritious  and laxative,
but are apt to ferment  and disagree with delkate
stomachs when  eaten in  quantity   Stone fruits
are the most  difficult  of digestion, and arc apt to
disorder the stomach and bowels.   Fruit should
never be eaten in large quantities at a time, and
only when  quite  ripe.   It  then appears  to  be
wholesome, and to be a suitable corrective to the
grossness of animal food ;  and to exercise a power-
ful action on  the skin.  Many cutaneous diseases
may be removed by the daily use of  a moderate
quantity of fruit, or other  fresh vegetable food.  It
is said to be a specific in scurvy.
  Fruits sAi ild be gathered in dry weather, and
preferably about noon, because the dew and mois-
ture deposited on them during the night and earlier
part of the morning will have evaporated.   They
should be quite ripe when gathered, but the sooner
they are removed from  the tree, after this point is
arrived at, the better.  Immature fruit never keeps
so well as that which  has ripened on the tree ; and
over-ripe fruit is liable to be bruised and to lose fla-
vor.  Plums may be  known to be ripe, by parting
readily from the  twigs,—Apricots when the side
next the sun feels soft to the finger,—Peaches and
nectarines  by readily parting from the twig when
lifted up and allowed to  descend with a slight jerk,
—Figs when the  small end of  the fruit acquires
the same color as the larger  one,—Grapes by
their transparency, and—Apples and pears when
they begin  to fall from the  tree*.   The less fruit is
handled in  gathering the better.  Peaches and nec-
tarines should be received  as they fall, in a small
tin funnel lined with velvet, held beneath them, to
avoid their  being rubbed or bruised, or even touch-
ed by the fingers.  Plums should also be handled
as little as possible, to avoid rubbing off the bloom
on them.
  Ripe fruits are preserved in  the fresh state
by placing them in a cool, dry situation on shelves,
so that they do not touch each other; or by pack-
ing them in clean dry sand, sawdust,  straw, bran,
or any similar substance,  so as  to prevent them
touching, and to preserve them from the action of
air and moisture.   (See Apples and  Pears, page
71.)
  Green fruits  are usually preserved  by  salting
or pickling, or by bottling them. The latter is
performed by filling bottles with them,  either alone,
or with the addition of a Lttle sugar.   The Lotties
are placed on  some straw, in a kettle of cold wa-
ter, and heat applied  until the water boils, when,
after about 5 minutes, they are taken  out one by
one, and immediately corked down,  perfectly air-
tight, and tied over with wet bladder, and, as soon
as they are sufficiently  cool, sealed  over, by dip-
ping their mouths into bottle wax or cement, melt-
ed in an iron ladle. They are next  stowed away
in a cool place. The confectioners commonly em-
ploy the heat of the oven, instead of that of boiling
water.
  Fruits are preserved in sugar by simply pack-
ing them in it,  previously reduced to a state of
powder, and keeping them in a very cool situation;
The more succulent varieties are commonly first 
FUE                   325                     FUL
soaked in  weak alum-water for  a few hours to
harden them, then drained, and dried.
  Fruits are preserved in sirup, by pouring sirup,
boiled to a  weak candy height, upon them, so as
just to cover them.  The next day the sirup  is
-mired off,  rehoiled to a weak candy height,  and
again poured on the fruit; and  this operation  is
repeated r.  *£..rd and a fourth time, if the fruit be
very jtr.jy, and continue to weaken  the  sirup.
When the sirup does not appear to become sensibly
weakened,  the  fruit must be taken out, and placed
in a sieve to drain and dry.   Such fruit is said to
be candied.  It may be left in the sirup if prefer-
red, when the vessel must  be stored in a cool place.
  The beautiful white efflorescent appearance of
the candied fruits  and peels  of the confectioners,
is given by sifting over them i^neZy-powdered loaf
sugar, after they have drained and become almost
dry, or have acquired such a state that the powder
will adhere to  them without running.   (See  Su-
gar.)
  Fruits are preserved in brandy or other spirits
by simply placing them in bottles, and pouring  it
over them.   It is advantageous to dissolve about
i lb. of sugar  in  every quart  of spirit employed.
The latter  should not be underproof, (sp. gr.*920,)
as the juice of the fruit contributes to weaken it:
spirit 40 u.  p. will, however,  preserve some varie-
ties.   Juicy fruits, as  plums, apricots, peaches,
cherries, &c, are  usually  soaked for some hours in
weak alum-water before immersion in the spirit
  Fruits are also preserved  by  drying them in
the sun or  in  a stove, either without preparation,
or by first  dipping them into a lye of wood ashes,
oil, and water,  or a weak solution of common  salt.
The imported prunes, plums, raisins, and currants,
are all sun-dried.
  FRUMENTY.  Wheat  boiled  in water unti
quite soft,  then taken out,  drained, thinned with
milk,  sweetened with sugar,  and flavored with
nutmeg.  When currants and eggs are added, it is
called " Somersetshire frumenty."
  FUEL.  (From fuayl, N. Fr.)  Syn. Combus-
TIBle, (Fr.) Brennstoff, (Ger.)   Any substance
used for the production of heat by burning.   The
following table by Dr. Ure presents at one view
the relative heating powers of different fuels:—
	*--o		"S *- 5
	Sep.	t >>	S«S
			
SPECIES or COMBUSTIBLE.	> 0.**--3 "o « ~ e* ■S*S-S«	mnds o ing Witl poriited pound.	„ o.tu a.
	Poun wh cnn Ot	CLi '"-' ~ ,-t C > .2 «	2=8 *-**3
Perfectly dry wood	35*00	6*36	5*96
Ordinary wood .	26*00	4-72	4*47
Wood charcoal .	7300	13-27	11*46
Pit coal ....	60*00	10-90	9*26
Coke ....	65*00	11*81	11*46
Turf ....	3000	5*45	4*60
Turf charcoal	64-00	11-63	14*58
Oil, wax, and tallow	78-00	14*18	1500
Alcohol of the shops	52-60	9-56	11*60
  1 he above results can never be obtained in prac-
tice, as a large portion of the heat (probably \ to
}) passes up  the  chimney, and is wasted.  1 li.
of coal is usually reckoned sufficient to convert 1\
lbs.  (9 lbs. Watt.) of boiling water  into steam, oi
to heat 41$ lbs. of water from 32° to 212°.  1 lb.
of fir wood will evaporate 4 lbs. of water, or heat
22 lbs. to 212°.
   FUEL,  ECONOMICAL.  Prep. I. Mix coal,
charcoal, or sawdust, 1 part; sand, of any kind, 2
parts; marl or clay, 1 part, in quantity as thought
proper.  Make the mass up wet into balls of a con-
venient  size ; and when the  fire  is  sufficiently
strong, place these balls according to its size a lit-
tle above the top bar, and they will produce a heat
considerably more intense than common fuel, and
ensure a saving of one-half the  quantity of coals.
A fire thus made up will require no stirring, nor
fresh fuel for ten hours.
   II. In places where coal is scarce and dear, a
tolerably good fuel may be made,  by mixing the
culm or  refuse dross of coal with c jcy, and moist-
ening the whole with water; masses in the form
of bricks or balls may be made, which, when dry,
will  burn with an intense heat.  Where peat pre-
vails, that  article may be easily charred by burn-
ing in a  covered pit or stove ; and this charred peat
will  be found to give a great heat when used in an
open fire ;  the Dutch make much use of their turf
in this manner.   Another economical fuel, easily
procurable wh_ere then, are woods of Scotch firs,
consists of fir cones or tops, which contain a great
quantity of solid woody matter,  in  addition  to the
resinous, and are excellently adapted for domestic
fires.
   FUEL.   (Dominic Frick Albert's Patent.)
Materials:—bituminous schist, which  is a slate
or dark-colored stone, partaking of  the  nature  of
both coal and charcoal; aluminous clay—a refuse,
or the bottoms of the  acetate of alumina,  in red-
liquor  works;  ground  coal—a  refuse from  coal-
pits, which should be quite free  from  sulphur;
vegetable gelatin, or tar—a refuse from pyroligne-
ous acid  works, or wood distilleries ; mineral  gela-
tin or tar—a refuse from coal-tar distillation ; and
mineral oil—a refuse from naphtha  distillation.
   In manufacturing fuels from these materials, the
patentee proceeds as follows:—5 parts of the vege-
table gelatin, and the like quantity of mineral gel-
atin, are heated in a pan until they  are brought to
a proper consistence ; and then 10 parts of schist,
ground to a powder;  10 parts of ground coal, and
5 parts of  aluminous clay, well dried, and mixed
with 4 per cent, of mineral oil,  are  added to the
gelatin.  The ingredients  are worked into a paste,
which is deposited in a hole in the ground, near
the  pan, and, when cold, forms a  cake or flag,
without the employment of a press or mould. (Lon-
don Journ. & Repert of Arts, April,  1843.)
   FULIGOKALI.    A preparation of soot and
potassa, invented by Dr. Polya.
   Prep.  Caustic  potassa 20 grammes ; soot 100
grammes ;  boil with  a little water for 1 hour, di-
lute with more water, filter, evaporate to dryness,
and put the product into warm, dry  bottles.
   FULIGOKALI,  SULPHURETED   Prep.
Fuligokali   60  grammes;   caustic  potassa 14
grammes ;  sulphur 4 grammes ;  heat the last two
with a little water, and when combined, add the
fuligokali, evaporate  to dryness, and preserve it in
dry, well-corked bottles.
  Remarks. M. Gibert has tried fuligokali on hw 
FUM                   326                   FUN
patients at the hospital Siint-Louis, both internal-
ly and externally.  He made a  pommade  of  30
grammes of lead ointir snt, and 1 or 2 grammes of
fuligokali, in which he recognised resolutive, de-
tersive, and stimulant properties.   (Gaz. des Ho-
pitaux, June,  1842.)   See Anthrakokali.
   FULMINATING POWDER.  Prep.   Nitre
3 parts ;  carbonate of potash  2  parts; flowers of
sulphur 1 part; dry, and reduce  them separately
to fine powder, then carefully mix  them.  About
20 or 25 grs., slowly heated on a shovel  over the
fire, first fuses and becomes brown, and  then ex-
plodes with a deafening report.
   FULMINATION.  Syn.  Fulminatio, (Lat.)
Fulmination, (Fr., from fulmen, a thunderbolt.)
Detonation.   The  term is applied in chemistry to
the violent explosion of a fulminate.
   FLUMINIC ACID.  A peculiar  acid known
only  ;n a state of combination, composed of 2 eq.
or 52 parts of cyanogen, and 2 eq. or 16 parts of
oxygen;  thus having exactly the  same  ultimate
composition  as  cyanic acid.  Its  existence was
first pointed out by Gay-Lussac and  Liebig.  Its
salts  are the  metallic fulminates.  (See  Gold,
Silver, MercurTv, and Zinc)
   FULMINATE  OF COPPER.  Prep.  Digest
fulminate of mercury or silver with metallic cop-
per.   It  forms  soluble green  crystals,  that  ex-
plode with a green flame.
   FULTON'S DECORTICATED  PEPPER.
Black pepper deprived of its husks  by mechanical
trituration, or bleached with chlorine.
   FUMARIC ACID. A peculiar arid  produced
by the action of heat  on malic acid.   It was dis-
covered by  Lassaigne.  Malic acid is kept heated
a little higher than its melting point for some time
until  it forms a crystalline mass, which is then
powdered, and washed with cold water, to remove
any  undecomposed malic acid.    It forms  salts
with the bases termed fumarates.
   FUMIGATION.   Syn.   Fumigation,   (Fr.)
Suffumigatio ;  Fumigatio, (Lat., from fumigo, I
smokej  1.  The  diffusion of gaseous matter or
vapors through the atmosphere, for *he purpose of
destroying contagion  and infection.  2.  The ex-
posure of solid bodies  to such fumes  or vapors to
remove the miasm of contagion  from their pores.
3. The substances employed for fumigation.   Chlo-
rine  is the  most powerful and certain agent for
the destruction of miasmata, both in the  atmo-
sphere and the pores of solid bodies, and admits of
ready  and easy  application.  The hypochlorites
(chlorides of  lime, soda, and  potassa) are  the
most  convenient  forms of employing it  in in-
habited apartments, as they evolve  the gas slowly,
and in quantity insufficient to  affect the organs of
respiration, unless large quantities of them  are
employed.  Chloride  of lime is the  most  com-
monly used of the hypochlorites, and  is  either
sprinkled about the floor, or  exposed in shallow
vessels, as earthen  dishes  or plates, in various
parts of the  apartment.  It is  used  both  in the
state of powder and solution  in  water.  Gaseous
chlorine, evolved  from a vessel   containing  the
materials for its  production,  is generally formed
too fast  to  admit of its application  to  inhabited
apartments, but is the most  efficient fumigation
that can be employed, either for  disinfecting the
atmosphere, walls, and floors of rooms,  or  goods
and furniture placed in them.  It will al»o destioy
every species of vermin  contained  therein.  For
this purpose, the  chimney,  door,  and windows
should be closed up, to prevent the  escape of the
gas.   The vapors of nitric acid and  muriatic acid,
and the  fumes of  burning  sulphur, are also em-
ployed as disinfectants in the same way as chlorine,
but are less to be depended on.  The smoke  of
gunpowder,  and the  fumes of  vinegar, camphor,
benzoin,  A:c.,  are popular  disinfectants, but de-
serve  little confidence.  Of  all common diseases,
scarlet fever appears to be  the one most requiring
fumigation.  For this purpose, chlorine gas or heat
should be employed.   The  infectious  matters of
certain diseases, especially scarlet fever, are either
dissipated, or destroyed, at  a heat  about  that of
boiling  water.   (Dr.   Henry.)  Contagious dis-
eases  are very commonly propagated in the me-
tropolis by persons having  their linen washed  by
laundresses who perform  their operations  in the
same  sinks of dirt and misery in which they live.
(See  Chlorine,  Disinfectants, Muriatic and
Nitric Acids,  Pastilles,  and the following ar-
ticles -1
  FUMIGATION,  BALSAMIC.  Syn.  Fumi-
gatio  Balsamica.  Prep.   (Dr. Dohrn.)  Gum
olibanum lb. ij ; gum benzoin and storax, of each
lb. ss ; flowers of  roses and lavender, of each §vj;
mix.   Used in hooping-cough.
  FUMIGATION, CHLORINE.   Syn.  Disin-
fecting Fumigation.   Guytonmorveau's do. Fu-
migatio  Oxymuriatica.  Suffumigatio Guyton-
iana.   Prep. (P. Cod.)  Common  salt 3  parts;
water and  oil of  vitriol, of each 2 parts; black
oxide  of  manganese  1 part; mix  in a shallow
vessel, placed in  the  centre of the  apartment
This must onlv  be  used for unoccupied looms.
  FUMIGATION,  NITROUS.   Syn.  Nitric
Fumigation.  Nitric  Acid do.  Fumigatio Ni
trosa. Suffumigatio cum Acido Nitrico.  Prep
(P.  Cod.)  Put sulphuric  acid diluted with  ar
equal  weight of water into  a porcelain cup, (any
shallow vessel of  glass or earthenware will do,)
and add to it from  time to time small quantities ol
powdered nitre.
  Remarks.  Heat causes the  gas  to be evolved
more  rapidly, and thus renders the fumes more
offensive, without increasing their efficacy,  i  oz.
of nitre  is said to be sufficient for  a small room.
(Dr. Bateman.)  The  vessel  containing the  in-
gredients should be  placed in the  centre  of the
apartment.
  FUMIGATION,  TAR.   Syn.  Suffumigatio
Picea.  Prep.  (Sir A. Crichton.)   Norway tar 1
lb.; powdered carbonate of potash  i oz. or 1 oz.:
mix, and heat it by a spirit  lamp.   The potash is
added to neutralize the acid.   (See  Inhalation.)
  FUNGIC ACID.   A peculiar acid obtained by
Braconnot from certain fungi—the boletus juglan-
dis, boletus   pseudoigniarius,  phallus  impudicns,
merulius cantharellus, peziza nigra.   It may  be
prepared by boiling the expressed  juice, filtering,
evaporating  to  the consistence of  sirup,  and  di-
gesting in alcohol.  The  residuum  must be dis-
solved in water, and  precipitated with acetate of
lead ; and  the  precipitate,  after being washed.
must  be decomposed  with  dilute sulphuric  arid at
a gentle heat; the  remaining solution must   be
filtered and evaporated.  It is a sour deliquescent 
FUS
327
GAL
mass,  forming salts with  the  bases, termed fun-
gates.  The  fungate  of  ammonia crystallizes  in
prisms.
   FUNGIN.  (From fungus, a mushroom.)  The
fleshy portion of mushrooms, deprived of soluble
matter by digestion in both water and alcohol.
   FURNISHING.  " When you design to furnish
a house, take care to  set out on a right principle
in the selection of  articles.   It is essential, for the
sake of neatness, and for a pleasing effect to the
eye, that there should be a harmony  of colors,
and also a similarity of style  in the main articles
of furniture.   Therefore, if you do  not exercise a
little taste and  judgment in your first selections,
you may find that you have  committed a blunder
which will cost you much  subsequent annoyance.
 For example, let the tints of the carpet, of the
paper or paint of the walls, and of  the  window
curtains, be  all in harmony in each room, that  is,
either possess a general resemblance of color, or
various colors  in pleasing  contrast  and harmony
with each other.   If the color of  your curtains  be
scarlet, and  the color of your walls or carpet blue,
 a most inharmonious and unpleasing effect will  be
 produced ;  but brown and green,  or green and
 gold,  will be in harmony, and may  therefore  be
 placed together.   Carpets being the  most ex-
pensive  articles, it is safest to buy them first, and
then to  let their color lead the tone  and style of
 curtains,  paper-hangings, chair-covers,  hearth-
 rugs,  and all  other  articles. It is  also a  good
 economical plan to buy carpets of the same pat-
 tern for  several rooms, because,  in  the  event  of
 removal  to  a  house  with different  sized apart-
ments, a piece  of one carpet  may be taken to eke
out  another."
   FURNITURE,  VARNISHED.  This  may
be finished off so as to look equal to the best French
polished  wood, in the following manner, which is
also suitable  to other  varnished  surfaces.—Take
two ounces  of tripoli  powdered, put it  into  an
earthen  pot, with just enough water to  cover  it;
then take a  piece of white flannel, lay it ovei a
piece of cork or rubber, and  proceed  to polish the
varnish, always wetting it with  the tripoli and
water.  It  will be known when the process is
finished  by  wiping a  part of  the  work with a
sponge,  and  observing whether  there  is a fair
even gloss.   When this  is the  case,  take a bit of
mutton suet and fine flour,  and clean the work.
   FURS may be  preserved  from moths  and in-
sects  by  placing a  little  colocynth  pulp, (bitter
apples,) or spices, as cloves, pimento, &c, wrapped
in muslin among them ; or they may be washed
in a very weak solution of  corrosive  sublimate  in
warm water,  (10 or 15 grs. to the  pint,) and after-
wards carefully dried.   Furs, as well  as every
other species of clothing, should be kept in a clean,
dry place.
   FUSIBLE  METAL.   Prep. I.  Bismuth  8
parts ; lead 5 parts ; tin 3  parts ; melt together.
Melts below 212° Fahr.
   II. Bismuth 2 parts ; lead 5 parts ;  tin  3 parts.
Melts  in boiling water.
   Ill  (Onion's.) Lead 3 parts ;  tin 2 parts ; bis-
muth 5 parts ; mix.   Melts at 197° F.
   Remarks.   Tho  above  are used to make toy-
spoons, to surprise children by their melting in hot
liquors ; and to form pencils for writing on asses'
skin, or paper prepared by rubbing burnt hartshorn
into it.
  FUSION.  Syn.  Fusion, (Fr.)  Fusio, (Lat,
from fundo, I  pour out.)  In Chemistry, the lique-
faction of solid bodies by the action of heat.  The
term aqueous fusion has been applied to the melt-
ing of salts in  their combined water when heated *
and the term igneous fusion to the liquefaction of
bodies by heat alone.
  The vessels in which substances are  fused  are
formed of various materials and shapes,  according
to the properties of the solid operated on, and prin-
cipally with reference to the  heat required  for its
fusion.  In every case the containing vessel should
be capable of sustaining the proper degree of heat
without melting or cracking, and should  also be
capable of  resisting the action of the  substances
melted in them.  Crucibles,  made of very refrac-
tory  clay,  are employed for high  temperatures,
and metallic or earthenware vessels for lower ones.
  FUSTIC.   Syn.  Old Fustic.  Lignum Mori
TiNCTORiiE,   (Lat.)    Gelbholz, (Ger.)   Bois
jaune, (Fr.)   The wood of  the  "norus tinctoria.
Its  decoction  dyes woollens yel. ow  of different
shades, according to the mordant.  Alum, tartar,
and spirits of tin  brighten  the tint;  acetate and
sulphate  of iron and  common salt darken it; with
sulphate  of iron it gives olives and browns ; with
the indigo vat  and sulphate of indigo green.  These
colors  are very  permanent.   Its  yellow turns on
the lemon  when pale, and  orange  when darker.
1 lb. of fustic  will dye  3  to  5 lbs. of  wool.  The
fustet, or yellow fustic of the dyers, does not give
permanent colors.
   GALL.   Syn.  Bile.   Bilis ;  Fel ;  (Lat.)
 Fiel ; Bile ; (Fr.)  A bitter fluid secreted by the
 liver; in  part  flowing  into the intestines,  and in
 part regurgitating into the gall-bladder. Ox Gall
 (fel bovis) is largely employed in the arts.  White
 Bear Gall  (fell ursi)  has been occasionally ex-
 hibited  as an  anti-epileptic ;  Hare's  Gall, (fel
 leporis,) and the Gall of the  JSiluris, have been
 used as collyria in cataract; the Gall of Eels
 (fel anguillarum)  has been  given to facilitate
 labor.  The virtues ascribed to the above are chief-
 ly imaginative.  Crude ox-gall is largely employed
 by the scourers of cloth, &c.
   GALL, REFINED, (OX-.)   Syn. Fel Bovis
 purificatum.   Prep.  I.  Allow fresh ox-gall to
 repose for 12 or 15 hours,  decant the clear, and
 evaporate to the consistence of a thick sirup, in  a
 water-bath ; then spread it  thinly on  a dish, and
 expose it before the fire, or to a current of dry air,
 until nearly dry.   It will then  keep for years  in
 wide"-mouthed  bottles  or pots,  covered over  with
 bladder.   For use, a little is dissolved in water.
   II. Fresh  gall  1 pint; boil, skim, add pounded
 alum 1 oz. ; boil again, until the alum is dissolve*.,
 and  when sufficiently cool, pour it into a  bottle,
 and  loosely cork it down ; in a similar manner boil
 and skim  another pint of gall, and add to it 1 oz.
 of common salt, boil till  dissolved, and cool  and
 bottle as above.   In three months decant the clear
 from both bottles, and mix them iu  equal quanti-
ties ; the clear portion must then be separated from
the coagulum by subsidence or filtration.  Use. It
is employed by artists to fix chalk and pencil draw-
ings  before tinting them, and to remove the greasi 
GAL                   328                   GAR
ness from ivory, tracing paper, &c.  It is also used
to extract grease and oil from clothes :  for the latter
purpose it answers admirably.
  GALLATES.  Salts formed of the gallic acid
with the bases.
  GALLIC  ACID.   Syn.  Acidum Gallicum.
(Lat, from galla, galls.)   Prep.  I.  Bruised galls
1 oz.;  water 1 lb.; boil to 8 oz.  and strain; dis-
solve 2 oz. of alum in water, precipitate the alumina
with carbonate of  potassa, and after edulcoration,
mix it with  the decoction, frequently agitate with
a glass rod, and  the  next  day  filter ; then wash
the precipitate with water, until the  latter  ceases
to blacken sulphate of iron ; mix the  washings
with the filtered liquor and evaporate, when gallic
acid, in fine  needles, will be obtained.
  II.  Expose  a  filtered decoction of galls  in  an
open vessel; it will grow mouldy,  and become
covered with a thick glutinous pellicle, and glutin-
ous flocks will fall down.   In two  or three months,
the sides of the vessel and the under  portion of the
pellicle will be covered with small yellow crystals
of gallic acid.
  III.  Add  a strong  aqueous solution  of  tannic
acid (tannin) to sulphuric acid, as long as a pre-
cipitate falls ; collect the  powder, wash, and dis-
solve it by the aid of  heat in  diluted  sulphuric
acid ; boil for a few minutes, cool, and collect the
crystals of gallic acid which will  form in  consid-
erable quantity.  (Liebig.)
  Remarks. Gallic acid, as obtained by either of
the above forms, is never quite pure ; but  it may
be purified by combining it with oxide .of lead, and
decomposing the compound (gallate of lead)  by
sulphureted hydrogen.  The sulphuret of lead acts
like animal charcoal in removing the color. (Liebig.)
The principal  use of pure  gallic acid is in the art
of photography.
  Props., 6fC.  Brilliant prismatic crystals, of a
pale yellow color, soluble in both water and alco-
hol.  Its aqueous solution decomposes by exposure
to  the air.  It blackens  the salts of iron.  Dis-
solved  in hot oil of vitriol,  it forms  a deep, rich,
red solution,  which when thrown  into  water,
drops the gallic acid, deprived of some of its water.
(C7 H2 O 4, Robiquet)  This  substance  is soluble
in the alkalis, and dyes cloth like  madder.   When
strongly heated, gallic acid is converted into meta-
gallic acid, pyrogallic acid,  <$-c.
  With the bases, gallic  acid forms salts, called
gallates:—Super-gallate of Ammonia is  made
by neutralizing 1 part of gallic acid with ammonia,
then adding 1 part of acid  more, and  crystallizing;
Gallate of Lead is obtained by either  adding
acetate of lead to  a warm solution of gallic acid
in excess, or by adding the former to the latter  at
the boiling point.   The first is a supergallate, the
latter  a basic salt.  The  alkaline  gallates, and
those of cobalt, iron, manganese, nickle, and zinc,
are soluble, the rest insoluble.
   The  following summary of  some recent and
valuable researches on  gallic  acid may  prove  in-
teresting to the reader:—
   " 1. Tannin may be converted into gallic acid
under several influences ;  first, as M. Pelouze ob-
served, under that of oxygen, and under that of a
ferment.
   " 2. Certain chemical  bodies prevent, for a cer-
tain time, the conversion of tannin into gallic acid.
  " 3. It is not to the phenomenon of eremacausii
that this conversion must be attributed.
  " 4. The ferment  of  nutgalls  converts  sugar
into  alcohol and carbonic acid, as does that  of
beer.
  " 5. Beer, yeast,  muscular flesh, and caseous
matter, change tannin into gallic acid.
  " 6. Finally, in the  conversion  of tannin into
gallic  acid, the quantity  of gas  disengaged  is
scarcely  perceptible."   (M.  Antoiue  Larocque,
Chem. ii. 195.)
  GALLS.   Syn.  Gallnuts.   Galla:, (I.at)
Gallatff.l, (Ger.)   Noix de Galle, (Fr.)   The
best galls are those  imported  from Aleppo, known
in commerce as black or blue galls, (Galla ni-
gra seu coerulea,) and after them Green Galls,
(Gallavirides.)  Both these are gathered before
the insect has  escaped, are styptic and powerfully
astringent.   White  Galls  (Galla  alba)  are
lighter, less astringent, and inferior.  Galls are ex-
tensively used  in the art of dyeing, as they consti-
tute  one of the principal  ingredients  in all  the
shades of blacks, and are also employed to  fix  or
improve several other colors.  A decoction of galls,
to which a little green copperas  and gum arabic
has been added, forms common writing ink.
  GALLSTONE.   Syn. Calculus cysticus bo-
vinus.   Formed in the gall-bladder of neat  cattle
in winter, when they are fed upon dry Mod.  Used
as a yellow pigment, and  in medicine.  Dose, 1
gr. in dyspepsia and flatulency.
  GAMBOGE.   Syn.  Cambogia.   Gambogia,
(Lat.) Gomme Gutte, (Fr.)  Gutti, (Ger.)  This
drug is a drastic purgative, and  in quantity  a vio-
lent poison. " The  deaths which have occurred
from the use of enormous quantities of  Morrison's
pills, are mainly ascribable to the  gamboge con-
tained in those medicines."  (Pereira.)   It is  hence
of much importance, in medico-legal researches, to
be able readily to recognise  the presence of this
drug.  This may  be done in the  way described
under the head, Extract of Colocynth, (comp.)
  GAMBOGIC ACID.   Syn. Gambodic  Acid.
Gamboge Resin.   Prep. Digest gamboge in ether
and evaporate.  An orange or  red-colored  resin,
very soluble in ether and  alcohol, giving an  ap-
preciable yellowness  to  10,000 times  its weight
of the latter.  With the caustic alkalis  it  forms
dark  red  solutions, which are alkaline  gambogi-
ates, from which the acid is precipitated unchanged
by alkalis.   Added to a solution  of acetate of lead,
it throws down a yellow gambogiate of lead, and
from solutions of the salts of iron and copper, gam-
bogiates of those metals.
  GARGLE.   Syn.  Gargarism.   Gargarisme,
(Fr.)  Gargarisma, Gargarismus, Gargarismum,
(Lat, from yapyapfyiv, to gargle.)  A gargle, or wash
for the throat.  Gargles are applied by  allowing a
small mouthful to run  as much as possible over
the affected parts,  by holding the head backwards,
and breathing through  it,  by which  means  the
liquid is agitated and its action  promoted.  They
should not be  swallowed.
  GARGLE, ANTISCORBUTIC.  Syn. Gar-
garisma Antiscorbuticum.   Prep. (P.  Cod.) Bit-
ter species 3j  ; boiling water §viij; macerate 1
hour, strain, and add sirup of honey ^ij  J antiscor-
butic tincture  Jj.
  GARGLE, ANTISEPTIC.  Syn. G. Antisep- 
GAR                  329                    GAS
ticum.  Prep.  (Fr. H.)  Decoction of bark ^vj;
camphor 20 grs.; sal ammoniac 5 to 15 grs.; mix.
For putrid sore throat, &c.
   GARGLE,  ASTRINGENT.  Syn.  G.  As-
tringens.   Prep.  I.  (Collier.)  a. Tincture of
galls f 3ij; honey ^ss; water f §vj ; mix.   In  re-
laxation of the  uvula and fauces.
   b. Honey 3iv ; tincture of myrrh 3iij; powder-
ed alum 3ij ; injusion of roses  (co.)  f gvss; mix.
Antiseptic and  astringent.  As  last.
   II. (Dr. A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of roses ^vij;
dilute sulphuric acid f 3j; tincture of catechu f3vj;
laudanum f 3iss;  mix.   For  relaxation  of  the
uvula.
   III.  (Sir A.  Cooper.)  Alum  3ij;  decoction of
bark §xij ; honey of roses §iss; mix.
   IV.  (U. C. H.)  To the last add alum 9j
   GARGLE,  COMMON.  Syn. G.  commune.
Prep.  I.  (E. H.) Water ^vj; nitre 3j ; honey of
roses ^j ;  mix.   For ordinary sore throat
   II. Instead of nitre use borax 3ij.
   GARGLE, DETERGENT.  Syn. G. Deter-
gens.   Prep.  (Dr.  A. T. Thomson.)  Nitre 3ij ;
honey of  roses f 3iv ; infusion of roses f §vss ;  mix.
In inflammatory sore throat.                   '
   GARGLE,  EMOLLIENT.   Syn.  G. emol-
liens.  Prep.  (Buchan.)  Althaea root 1 oz.; figs
2 oz.; water 1  quart; boil to  a pint and strain.
Demulcent; soothing.
   GARGLE,   MERCURIAL.   Syn.  G.  Hy-
drargyri.  G. Hydrargyri Bichloride G. Sub-
limati Corrosivi.   Prep. (P.  C.) Corrosive  sub-
limate 2 grs. ;  barley water 1 pint; honey of roses
§ij ; mix.  For syphilitic ulcers in the throat.
   GARGLE  OF  ALUM.   Syn. G.  Aluminis.
Prep.  I.  (P. C.) Alum 3ij ; infusion of roses jfvj ;
honey of roses  §j ; mix.
   II. (Grant)  Alum §j ; tincture of myrrh  §ss •
peppermint water f §vij ; mix.  Both the above are
astringent, and used in  relaxation of the  uvula,

   GARGLE OF BORAX.  Syn.  G.  Boracis.
Prep.  (Fr. H.)  Borax 3ij ; rose water f Jvij;  ho-
ney §j.  In thrush,  &c.
   GARGLE OF CAPSICUM.  Syn.  G. Cap-
sici.  Prep.  I. (St B. H.) Capsicum 3iij  ; com-
mon salt  §j ; boiling water  1  pint; macerate for
12 hours, strain, and add distilled vinegar 1 pint.
   II. (U. C. H.) Tincture of capsicum f3j;  wa-
ter f Jyj;  vinegar ffj;  mix.   Used in ulcerated
sore throat and scarlet fever.
   GARGLE OF CHLORIDE OF SODA. Syn.
G. Sod.«  Chlorinate.  Prep. (Copland.)  Liquor
of chloride of soda f 3xij;  honey ^ss; water f §vj;
mix.  In putrid sore throat and scarlet fever.
   GARGLE OF CHLORINE.  Syn. G.  Chlo-
rinii.  Prep. (Fr. H.) Chlorine water f ss; sirup
?j ; water f giv  to f §yj; mix.  Used as the last.
   GARGLE OF  CINCHONA  BARK.   Syn.
G. Cinchona.   (For. H.)  Decoction of cinchona
f gvij ;  simple oxymel §j; mix.  Antiseptic  and
astringent.
   GARGLE OF  CYANURET OF MERCU-
RY.  Syn. G.  Hydrargyri Cyanureti.  Prep.
(Cullerier.) Cyanuret of mercury 10 grs.; linseed
tea f 5 xx ; mix.   In the same cases as mercurial
gargle, above.
   GARGLE OF HORSERADISH.   Syn. G.
Armor acie.   Prep. (Collier.)  Compound spirit
                      42
of horseradish ffj ; honey gij ; water f§iv ; mix
A good gargle for scurvy of the fauces  and pha«
rynx, vulgarly called the inward scurvy.
   GARGLE OF MURIATIC ACID.  Syn. G
Acidi Muriatici.  G. Acidi Hydrochlorici.  G.
Spiritus Salis.   Prep. I.  (Guy's H.) Muriatic
acid 30 drops; honey of roses |ij ; barley water
fgvj ; mix.
   II. (St. B. H.)  Red rose leaves 3ij ; boiling wa-
ter 1 pint; muriatic acid f 3iss; digest for 1 hour.
In inflammatory sore throat
   GARGLE OF  MYRRH   Syn. G  Myrrhas.
Prep. (P. C.) Tincture of myrrh §ss; honey of
roses ?;iss ; lime water f ^vj ;  mix.
   GARGLE OF  NITRE.   Syn. G.  Salis Ni-
tri.  G.  Nitri.  G.  Potasse Nitratis.  Prep.
Nitre 3ij ; honey or sirup 3iv or  3v ; rose-water
f §vj ; mix.   In inflammatory sore throat.
   GARGLE OF OAK BARK. Syn.  G. Quer-
cus.  G. Corticis Quercus.   Prep. I. Oak bark
3ij; boiling  water  f ^vj ; mi cerate  1  hour and
strain.
   II. To  the last add alnm  9ss, and oil of vitriol
15 to 30 drops. Both are used in relaxation of the
uvula.
   GARGLE  OF PELLITORY  OF SPAIN.
Syn. G.  Pyrethri.  Prep.  I. (P. C.)  Pellitory
root 3iv;  water §xvj; boil to f§viij, and add liquor
of ammonia 3ij.
   II. (Swediaur.)  Infusion  of pellitory  1  pint;
vinegar §iij ; sal ammoniac ^iij ; mix.
   GARGLE OF  ROSES.   Syn. G. Rose.  G.
Rosarum.  Prep.  (Kendrick.) Conserve of roses
§iij ; boiling  water  §xvj ; infuse 1 hour;  add di-
lute sulphuric acid 3ij, and  strain.  Antiseptic;
astringent.
   GARGLE OF VERDIGRIS.  Syn. G. Mkv-
ginis. Prep. (Guy's H.)  Oxymel of verdigris 3iv;
honey of  roses §ij ; barley water  f §iiiss; mix.
Used as a detergent for ulcers in the throat  If
swallowed it will produce violent vomiting.   The
addition of 2A, oz. of water to the  above, forms a
gargle sufficiently strong for most cases.
   GARGLE  OF  VINEGAR.   Syn. Oxymel
Gargle.  G. Aceti.   G. Acidi acetici.  Prep.
(St. B. H.) Barley water f §xij ; acetic acid f ^iss ;
honey 3vj ; mix.  Antiseptic.  For ordinary sore
throat.
   GASCOIGNE'S  POWDER.   Syn.  Pulvis
Gascoigni.  Prep. Powdered  crabs' claws 1 lb.;
oriental  bezoar 1 oz. ;  mix. When made into balls
it forms Gascoigne's  Balls.  This powder was
once held in great repute  as an absorbent,  &c.; it
is, however, no better than the less costly prepared
chalk of modern pharmacy.
   GARNET.  Syn. 'Granat, (Ger.)  Grenat,
(Fr.)  The finest specimens of noble  garnet  are
brought from Pegu, and according to chemical
analysis consist of 42g of silica, 20g of alumina, 34}}
of lime,  and 4% of protoxide of iron.
   GARNET,  FACTITIOUS.   Prep.  Purest
white glass or paste 2 oz.; glass of antimony 1 oz.;
powder of cassius and black oxide of  manganese,
of each 1  gr.;  mix and  fuse.   (See Gems, Fac-
titious ; Paste,  Enamels, and Foils.)
   GAS. Syn. Gas ; Gaz, (Fr.) Gaz, (Ger., fom
Geist, Teutonic, air or spirit.)  Any aeriform or
permanently elastic fluid,  excepting the compomid
of oxygen and nitrogen, constituting atmospheric" 
GEL                    330                    GEL
 air.   The  principal gases are oxygen, hydrogen,
 nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, carbureted
 hydrogen,  ammonia,  and sulphureted  hydrogen.
 All of these are noticed in their alphabetical order,
 as well as several others of less importance.  (See
 Index.)
   GAS, "^AL.  Syn. Light Gas. Obtained from
 coal '-rf u.stillation in iron cylinders or retorts. This
 g<to is a compound of carbureted  and  bicarburet-
 ed  hydrogen, more or less pure ;  its value  for the
 production of light depending on the latter.  Good
 coal gas ought to contain 13$ by measure of bicar-
 bureted  hydrogen, and have  a sp. grav. of *650,
 air being 1;  but, as prepared at the gasworks, it
 varies from  about *550 to -420.  The poorest  gas
 made in England is that of the metropolis, which
 has  the sp. grav. -412, and the best is that made
 by the  " Liverpool New  Gas Company," which
 has the sp. grav. -580.  (Hedley.)  It has been pro-
 posed to increase  the  illuminating power  of ordi-
 nary coal gas, by passing it  through sponges, or
 over trays containing mineral naphtha ; and a pat-
 ent has been taken out for this purpose.   It thus
 imbibes a portion of the liquid, and burns with in-
 creased brilliancy.  The method of saturating the
 gas with the  liquid hydrocarbon  is  as follows:—
 " The apparatus  consists of  a brass reservoir or
 chamber attached to the end of the gas-pipe, near
 the burner.   This reservoir may be in the shape
 of an oil-flask, made air-tight, with a screw-joint,
 or other means of supplying any highly  volatile
 oil, turpentine, or mineral naphtha, and should be
 kept about half full.   Into this reservoir  the gas-
 pipe ascends  a little above the surface of the oil; a
 very small jet-pipe of gas, regulated by a stopcock,
 is branched off below this chamber, to supply a mi-
 nute flame, so as to cause a sufficient evaporation
 from the oil to unite with the gas in the flask re-
 ceiver.   The whole is  of course  surmounted with
 the usual burner and lamp glass."   (W. T. Nay-
 lor.)
  GELATIN.   Syn.  Gelatina,  (Lat.)  Gal-
 lert,  Leim,  (Ger.)   Gelatine,  (Fr.)   Animal
jelly or  gelly. When the  organic tissue of the
bones, tendons, and ligaments, the cellular tissue,
the skin, and  the serous membranes are boiled in
water, they are converted into gelatin.
  Glue and  size  are  coarse varieties of this sub-
stance, prepared from hoofs, hides, skins, &c.; and
 isinglass is a  purer kind, prepared from  the air-
bladders and  some other membranes of fish.  Gel-
atin is soluble in water, and its solution, on cooling,
forms  a  tremulous and transparent jelly;  hence
the name, from gelu, ice.  With  tannin it forms
leather, and  when  acted  on by sulphuric acid,
it yields glycicoll, or gelatin sugar, and when
treated with  alkalis it yields glycicoll and leu-
cine.
  As an article of diet, gelatin is highly nutritious
 when combined with other food abounding  in pro-
teine  matter, but alone, it appears that, notwith-
standing the  opinion of ages to the contrary, it is
 incapable of supporting life.  The commenda-
tion of it as an alimentary substance has been too
 general and lavish, and has  led to its employment
 as an article  of diet for the sick, in cases in which
it is manifestly improper.  '* Gelatin may be con-
sidered as the least perfect kind of albuminous (?)
 matter existing in animal  bodies;  intermediate,
as it were, between the saccharine  principles of
plants,  and thoroughly developed albumen.   In-
deed, gelatin  in  animals may he said to be  the
counterpart of the  saccharine principle of plants;
it being distinguished from  all other animal sub-
stances by  its ready conversion  into a sort of  su-
gar, by a  process similar to that  Dy  which starch
may  be so converted." (Prouti  The  ultimate
composition of gelatin  is 47-^i-", of carbon, 791J
of hydrogen, 27-21°; of oxygen, and  16-90°; of  ni
trcgen,  (Gay Lussac and Thenard ;) that  of su gat
is 43-265g of carbon, (i^7.")g hydrogen, and 49*856g
of oxygen,  (Berzelius;) that of albumen 5161 jj
of carbon, 7*530°; of hydrogen, 25*818 of oxygen.
and  15.05°; of nitrogen, (Brande.)   The similarity
of composition between the first  and third of  the
above substances,  will be  readily recognised  by
the reader, but this similarity does not convey like
properties; gelatin, in reality, more nearly resem-
bling sugar than albumen.  It has  none of  the
properties of a compound of proteine.  It neither
yields proteine, when  acted  on by  potassa, nor
does it  produce a  purple color with hydrochloric
acid.  It therefore does not contain proteine. (Lie-
bijj.)  Animals fed exclusively  on gelatin die of
starvation.  For as gelatin contains no proteine, it
cannot  yield  albumen, fibrine,  or  caseine, sub-
stances  necessary to the composition and support
of animal bodies.   Blood cannot be produced from
gelatin alone ; for it does not contain its  most  es-
sential ingredient.  But when mixed with other
food, especially  compounds of proteine, or sub-
stances  abounding in albumen, caseine, or fibrine,
gelatin  may be useful  as  an aliment, and serve
directly to nourish  the  gelatinous tissues. (Liebig,
Animal Chem.)  Hence gelatin is a fitting sub-
stance to form part of the diet of convalescents,
as it conveys nutrition directly  to  these tissues,
without tasking the diminished powers of life for
its conversion ; but  its use should be  accompanied
by a proper quantity of azotized animal food, to
supply the elements to the blood, for the support
and increase of the muscular tissue, or fleshy por-
tion of the body.   In France the  gelatin  of bones
is extracted and employed as a part of the diet in
hospitals with  the  best effect, materially abridg-
ing the  period of convalescence;  but when given
alone all  animals soon become disgusted with it,
and  die if not supplied with other food. (D'Ar-
cet.)
  Tests.  Gelatin is easily recognised by  its solu-
tion  when  moderately strong,  gelatinizing as it
cools, and  by tannin  (infusion or decoction  of
galls) precipitating  it from  its dilute solutions in
an insoluble form, which, when dried, assumes  the
appearance of over-tanned leather.
  GELATIN,  ANIMAL.   The substance sold
under this name is made of the inferior  knds of
isinglass,  the  gelatin of bones, or that  obtained
from the skins of animals.
  GELATIN,  BONE.    Obtained from bones
by coction with  water, under pressure;  or from
crushed bones, by  macerating them in  muriatic
acid to  extract the phosphate of lime,  washing
the remaining gelatinous mass in  cold water, and
solution  in  water  by  boiling.    Very excellent
" Gelatin  has  even been  extracted from fossil
bones.  A  soup  was  prepared  from one of  the
bones of the great mastodon, by the prefet of one 
GEM                   331                   GEM
of the  departments of France."  (Pereira,  Mat.
Med., ii. 1863.)
  GELATIN,  FRENCH.   Syn.  Cake Gela-
tin.   Gelatin done up into small thin cakes, like
the finer  sorts of glue.  The red  is colored with
the juice of beet-root,  the green with the juice of
spinage, and the blue with sulphate of indigo or
the juice of blue berries.
  GELATIN,  PATENT, (NELSON'S.)   Ac-
cording to Mr. Nelson's specification, this article
is obtained from glue-pieces, freed  from hair, wool,
flesh, and fat;  but from the large quantities of
inferior isinglass which that gentleman buys, it
is a natural conclusion that it is  principally, if not
wholly  formed of the latter substance.   There are
two  qualities of this article manufactured by Mr.
Nelson, viz., first quality,  or  opaque gelatin,
and  a second quality, or transparent gelatin.
  GELATIN BRUT.  From the skulls of oxen,
the spongy insides of the horns and ribs, and from
several  other soft  bony parts, by washing them in
water,  digesting in  an equal weight of  muriatic
acid of  6° Baume, in  cold, weather, and 4 or 5°
in summer, for 10 days, then  in acid of only 1° B.
for 24 hours longer; afterwards soaking and wash-
ing in  successive portions of cold  water until all
the acid is washed out, adding an ounce of carbon-
ate  of  soda to the last  water.   Product. 25 to
27$  of  gelatin brut.   Used  to make glue,  and
when prepared  by solution in water, clarification,
and skimming, for soup.  Any kind of bones may
be treated in the same way.
   GELATIN  BRUT  FIN.  From the skulls,
blade-bones, and shank-bones of sheep, (the ends
being cut off, and the bones* cut down the middle
to remove the fat,) by steeping them in muriatic
acid, as above, (see Gelatin Brut,) then  in boiling
water for  a few minutes, wiping  them carefully,
drying  them, shaking  them  together in a bag to
remove the  internal pellicle, cutting them across
or into  dice to  disguise  them, and finally dipping
them in a hot solution of gelatin to varnish them.
Used to make soup, keeps better than the cakes
of portable  soup ;  and when less carefully  pre-
pared, used also to make carpenters' glue  for fine
work.   The muriatic  acid  obtained by distilling
salt  with  oil of vitriol  in iron cylinders is less fit
for this  purpose than that of  the manufacturers of
carbonate of soda, as  being  apt to  give it a bad
taste.
  GEMS.   Syn. Jewels.  Gemmes, (Fr.)  Gem-
mae,  (Lat.)   " Gems  are precious stones, which,
by  their  color,  limpidity,  lustre,  brilliant  polish,
purity,  and  rarity, are sought after as objects of
dress and  decoration.  They form the principal
part of  the  crown jewels of  kings, not only from
their  beauty, but because  they  are supposed to
comprise the greatest value in the smallest bulk;
for a diamond, no  larger than a nut, or an acorn,
may be the representative  sign of the territorial
value of a whole country, the equivalent in com-
mercial  exchange for a hundred fortunes, acquired
by severe toils and privations.  Among these beau-
tiful  minerals mankind have agreed in forming a
select class, to which the title of gems or jewels
has been  appropriated ;  while the term precious
stone is more  particularly  given to substances
which  often occur under a more considerable vol-
ume ttein fine stones  ever do.  Diamonds, sap-
phires, emeralds, rubies, topazes,  hyacinths, and
chrysoberyls,  are reckoned the  most  valuabia
gems; crystalline quartz, pellucid, opalescent, o»
of various hues, amethyst, lapis lazuli, malachite
jasper,  agate,  $-c, are ranked in the much more
numerous and inferior class of ornamental stones."
(Ure's Diet of Arts, &c.)
  Tests.  I. (By electricity.) The diamond, when
rubbed either in  the  rough or polished  state,  ex-
hibits positive  electricity;  quartz,  the only sub-
stitute that possesses  much hardness, on  the con-
trary, becomes  negative.   When  exposed  to  the
sun  or the electric spark,  the diamond  becomes
phosphorescent   The  topaz  also acquires positive
electricity by friction.
  II. (By the hardness.)   From the difficulty of
applying this test it is of  less value to  ordinary
persons than appears  at first sight.   Paste or fac-
titious gems may however be readily distinguished
in this way.  (See the table below.)
  III. (By the specific gravity.)  This is the only
simple method of testing gems that may be termed
accurate, but  it is  inapplicable  to them when
mounted.  As,  however, most of  them  are dis-
mounted when  offered for sale, or  are so set that
they may be readily dismounted, it should  be al-
ways had recourse to before making a considerable
purchase.  For  this purpose, it is only necessary to
take the weight, first in air and then in water, by
means of a small and accurate hydrostatic balance.
(See Specific Gravity.)
Table of the relative  Hardness and Sp. Gr. of the
  principal Gems and Precious Stones, as well as
  some  other Minerals.
Substances.
Diamond from Ormus.
   "     (pink).......
         (bluish).....
   "     (yellowish) ..
         (cubic)......
Ruby.
  "   (pale, from Brazil).
Sapphire (deep blue)___
    "   (paler).........
Topaz..................
  ''  (whitish).........
  "  (Bohemian) ......
Ruby (spinelle)..........
Emerald................
Garnet..................
Agate...................
Onyx...................
Sardonyx...............
Amethyst (occidental) ..
Crystal.................
Cornelian...............
Jasper (green)...........
      (reddish yellow)..
Schoerl.................
Tourmaline.............
Quartz..................
Opal....................
Chrvsolite...............
Zeolite..................
Fluor..................
Calcareous spar..........
Gypsum.................
Chalk...................
Glass....................
  "  (plate).............
  "  (crystal or flint)—
Hard.	Specific
ness.	gravity.
20	3*7
19	3*4
19	3*3
19	3-3
18	3-2
17	4*2
16	3*5
16	3*3
17	3-8'
15	4*2
14	3*5
11	2*8
13	34
12	2-8
12	4*4
12	2*6
12	2*6
12	2-6
11	2-7
11	2-6
11	2-7
11	2-7
9	2-6
in	3-6
10	3-0
10	2-7
10	2-6
10	3*7
8	2*1
7	3*5
6	2'7
5	2*3
3	2*7
	2*3 : 3*62
	2*5 : 2T)
	3-0: 3 616
  This table is taken from Dr. Ure's ' Dictionary
of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines.'   The relative 
GIL                     332                     GIL
hardness of the different substances is measured by
the power they possess of cutting or scratching
other substances.
  GEMS, FACTITIOUS.  These are made of
very pure, fusible, transparent  and dense  glass,
usually termed paste or strass, which is mostly
formed of oxide of lead,  potassa and silica, with
Bmall  quantities of other ingredients to  increase
the brilliancy and clearness.  The tints are im-
parted by the addition of metallic oxides.  The
beauty of artificial stones and gems, depends upon
the tint of the  real stones being exactly imitated,
and upon proper care and skill being exercised in
the cutting, polishing, and setting of them in their
cases.   All the colored glasses, and enamels, may
be worked up into artificial gems.  (See Enamels,
Foils, Pastes,  &.c.)
  GENEVA.  (From genievre, juniper.)  Hol-
lands gin.  (See Hollands.)
  GENTIANINE.   A  peculiar substance  ob-
tained  by MM. Henry and Caventou from the root
of the common officinal gentian, (gentiana lutea.)
  Pr( p.  I. Digest powdered gentian root in ether
for 2 or 3 days  with  agitation,  filter,  evaporate,
dissolve in alcohol, filter, and again evaporate ; re-
dissolve in alcohol or ether, filter, and crystallize.
  II. Digest  gentian root (in powder) in ether for
two days and nights, filter, evaporate nearly to
dryness;  add  alcohol to the yellow  crystalline
mass  thus obtained  until it  no  longer  becomes
colored ; evaporate to dryness, redissolve  in  weak
alcohol, filter, evaporate again to dryness ; dissolve
in water, add some calcined magnesia, boil, filter,
digest the sediment in ether, and evaporate.
  Remarks.  Gentianine forms golden yellow crys-
tals, scarcely soluble in water, very soluble in al-
cohol and ether.  It  is a strong'aromatic bitter, in
doses of gr. ij; the tincture is mostly used.  Ac-
cording to the researches of Trommsdorff and Le-
conte, the above substance is composed of gentisin,
gentianite, and sugar.
  GENTIANITE.   The bitter  principle  of
Gentian. It has not been obtained in a state of
purity.  It may be procured combined with a por-
tion of sugar, by digesting the alcoholic extract of
gentian in water, throwing down the gentisin with
lead,  passing sulphureted  hydrogen through  the
liquid to remove any traces of lead, filtering and
evaporating.  It may be further purified by diges-
tion in ether.
  GENTISIN.  Syn. Gentisic Acid.  This is
obtained from the alcoholic extract of gentian by
digestion in water, and in  alcohol, evaporating the
tincture, and treating the residuum with  ether.
By repeated  re-solutions in alcohol it may be  ob-
tained under  the form of pale  yellow needles.   It
forms salts with the bases.
  GILDING.  Syn.  Dorure, (Fr) Vergoldung,
(Germ.)  The art of covering the  surfaces of
bodies with a thin film of  gold, for the purpose of
increasing then* durability or improving their  ap-
pearance.
  GILDING, BOOK.   The gilt  letters  and
figures on the leather, cloth, and silk covers  of
books, are formed by sprinkling  or  dusting  finely
powdered gum mastich over the surface to be gild-
ed : an iron or brass tool bearing the design upon
its face  is then heated  to  a  proper temperature,
and pressed upon a piece of leaf gold, which slight-
ly adheres to it; the two are  then transferred to
the cover, and the tool is gently pressed on  it,  by
which means the mastich softens, and retains the
gold.  The loose  gold and powdered  mastich are
then dusted off with a brush.  The gold will ad-
here to leather without the use of mastich, but the
gilding is conceived to be more durable when it is
employed.
   The edges of the leaves of books and reams of
paper are first cut perfectly smooth in the cutting
press, and then thinly washed with a solution  of
isinglass in weak spirit, or with a varnish made of
4 parts of Armenian bole and 1 part  of powdered
sugar-candy, mixed up  to a  proper consistence
with white of egg.  The coating is allowed to dry,
and is then smoothed  with a wet rag, after  which
the gold leaf is applied and polished with the bur-
nisher.
  GILDING,  BUTTON.   This species of gild-
ing has been  already noticed.  (See p. 149.)   I
shall, therefore, only remark here,  that when the
process  is properly conducted, 12 dozen (1  gross,
of buttons, of one inch  in diameter,  may be per-
fectly gilded on both sides with only  5 grains  of
gold.  By an Act  of Parliament,  which I believe
is still unrepealed,  this is the  smallest portion  of
gold permitted to be used for a gross of buttons of
the above size, but a less quantity than 5  grains is
frequently employed.  The mass of the finest kind
of buttons, and other small  articles, have, however,
during the last few years been gilded  by means of
a solution  of chloride of gold in bicarbonate  of po-
tassa.  (See Elkington's Patent Gilding.)
  GILDING,  BURNISHED.   This is  princi-
pally applied to the frames  of pictures and mirrors.
and to similar  objects.  It  is performed by  giving
the wood, first, a coating of good size,  and  next,
several  successive  coats of size  thickened with
finely-powdered whiting, Spanish white, or plaster
of Paris, until a good face is produced ; observing
to let each coat  become quite dry, and  to rub it
perfectly smooth with fine  glass-paper, before the
application of the following one. When the proper
' face' is obtained,  the surface is thinly and evenly
gone over with gold size, and when this is nearly
dry, the gold  leaf  is applied and afterwards bur-
nished.
  GILDING,  CHEMICAL.   This term  is ap
plied to those methods of gilding in which the gold
adheres to the surface from chemical  affinity, and
not from the intervention of some glutinous sub-
stance.  The  latter method is  called, by way of
distinction, " mechanical gilding."
  GILDING,  COLD.  This  is  performed  by
softening,  annealing,  and  polishing  the articles
(copper or brass) to be gilded, and then applying
the following powder  by friction with a  piece of
cork moistened with a solution of salt  in water;
after which the work is burnished with a  piece of
hematite or polished steel.—Powder:  Pure  gold 5
drs.; pure copper 1 dr.; nitro-muriatic acid 10 oz.;
dissolve, imbue clean  linen rags with  the  solution,
dry, burn them and  carefully collect the  ashes,
which contain the gold in a state of minute division.
   GILDING, DISTEMPER.  This is a method
practised by the French,  that resembles Burnished
Gilding, excepting in being vastly more compli-
cated.  This, as well as  Burnished Gilding, is  ap-
plied  to wood, plaster, and  marble. 
GIL
333
GIL
    GILDING, ELKINGTON'S PATENT. Syn.
  Bonnet's   Process.   Anglo-German   Gilding.
  Proc. 1.   (The Gilding liquid.)  Fine gold 5 oz.
  (troy ;) nitro-muriatic  acid  52 oz. (avoirdupois;)
  dissolve by heat, and continue the heat  until  red
  or yellow vapors cease  to  be evolved; decant the
  clear liquid  into a  suitable vessel;  add distilled
  water 4 gallons; pure bicarbonate of potassa 20
  lbs.;  and boil for two hours.  %* The nitro-mu-
  riatic acid is  made  with pure  nitric  acid (sp. gr.
  1*45) 21 oz.; pure  muriatic acid (sp. gr. 1*15) 17
  oz. ; and distilled water 14  oz.
    2.  (The Gilding.) The articles, after being per-
  fectly cleaned from scale  or grease, and receiving
  a proper face, are to be suspended on wires, dipped
  into the  liquid boiling hot and moved about there-
  in, when, in from a few seconds to a minute,  de-
  pending on the newness and strength of the liquid,
  the requisite coating of gold will  be deposited on
  them.  By a little  practice the time to withdraw
  the articles is readily known;  the duration of  the
  immersion  required to produce any  given effect
  gradually  increases  as  the liquid weakens by use.
  When properly gilded,  the articles are  withdrawn
  from the solution of gold, washed  in clean water,
  and dried ; after  which  they undergo the usual
  operation of coloring, &c.   (See Gilding, wash.)
  A dead appearance is produced by the application
  to the articles of a weak solution of nitrate of mer-
  cury previously to the immersion ; or the deaden-
  ing may be given by applying a solution  of the
  nitrate to  the gilded surface  and then expelling
  the mercury by heat.   (This process, though pat-
  ented by Mr. Elkington in England, and claimed
  as  his own invention, was  in reality discovered
  and first practised  by M. Bonnet,  a foreigner.)
  Articles  thus gilded do not  bear friction and the
  operations  of being put in color, (mise en couleur,)
  so well as those gilded by the mercurial process, or
  even by electricity.
   GILDING, FRICTION.   This consists in the
  application, by friction, of gold  in  a  minutely  di-
 vided state, to the surface of the  copper  or brass,
 previously cleaned and brightened.  (See Gilding,
 Cold.)
   GILDING, GRECIAN.  Proc. Sal ammoniac
 and corrosive sublimate, equal  parts,  are dissolved
 in nitric  acid, and.a solution of gold made with
 this menstruum;  after slight  concentration  the
 liquid is applied to the surface of silver, which im-
 mediately becomes black, but on being heated ex-
 hibits  a gilded surface.
   GILDING, JAPANNER'S:  This  is done  by
 covering  the surface with oil  size thinned with
 spirits of turpentine, and  then gently daubing  on
 gold powder  with a  puff of wash-leather.  This
 gives the appearance of frosted gold.  (See Gild-
 ing Powder.)
   GILDING,  LEAF.   This term is applied  to
 the gilding of  paper, vellum,  &c, by applying
 leaf gold  to the surface, previously prepared with
 a coating of gum-water, size, or white of egg.   It
 is usually finished with an agate burnisher.
   GILDING, LETTER.  The letters  of  sign-
 boards and  similar ornamental  gilding for outdoor
 work, is done by first covering the design with yel-
 low or gold-color paint, then with oil gold size, and
 when this is  nearly  dry applying the  leaf-gold,
observing  to shield it properly from  the wind, lest I
 it be blown away or become crumpled before be-
 ing properly attached.   This gilding is usually
 varnished.
   GILDING LIQUOR. Syn. Gilder's Pickle
 Prep.  Alum  and common  salt, of each  1 oz.;
 purified nitre 2 oz.;  water 4, pint;  used  to impart
 a rich  color to gold surfaces, principally trinkets.
 Its application should  not be too long continued,
 as it  dissolves a small portion of the  gold.   For
 common purposes it is best used diluted with water
   GILDING METAL.  The  metal  employed
 for  gilding is usually brass, or a mixture of brass
 and copper.  The following  alloys have been re-
 commended :—
   I. Copper 6 parts; brass 1 part.
   II. Copper 4 parts ; Bristol brass 1 part.
   III. Copper 13 parts; old  Bristol brass 3 parts;
 tin 14  parts.
   GILDING OF LEATHER.   The finer class
 of leather gilding has been au-iady noticed under
 Book Gilding.  For common work, silver leaf  is
 usually applied to the surface, previously covered
 with size or white of egg, and after  being burnish-
 ed down  and  dried  is covered with gold-colored
 lacquer.   Tinfoil  is  frequently employed for in-
 ferior work, or such as  is not required to be  elastic.
   GILDING, OIL.   This species of gilding may
 be divided into several operations.—1. The surface
 is prepared by a coating of whitelead in drying oil.
 —2.  Another coat is  given, made  with calcined
 whitelead  or masiscot ground in linseed oil and tur-
 pentine ; 3 or  4 coats of this mixture  are often
 given, observing to carefully smooth off each coat
 with pumice or shave grass before the application
 of the  following ones.—3. The  Gold Color, or
 paint, is next applied.  It is usually very  adhesive
 gold size, or the bottom of the pot or dish  in which
 painters wash their brushes.   For this purpose it
 is thoroughly ground  and strained.—4. When  the
 gold  color becomes partially dry and sufficiently
 tenacious,  the gold-leaf is applied and pressed on
 with a  wad of cotton,  wood,  or a soft brush.—5.
 A thin  coat of spirit varnish is now given, and the
 object is cautiously passed over a chafing  dish of
 charcoal, observing to  avoid stopping the motion
 of the piece while  doing so, as it would  then be-
 come discolored and blistered.   The  work is usual-
 ly finished off with a  coat of pale oil varnish.  For
 outdoor gilding, the whole  of  the varnishing pro-
 cess is generally omitted.  This species of gilding
 is applied to woodwork, plaster, metal, &.c.
   GILDING OF POLISHED  METALS.  I.
 Polished iron and steel may  be readily gilded by
 applying an ethereal solution of gold to the surface
 with a camel-hair pencil.  The ether flies off and
 leaves the surface coated with gold; it must then
 be polished with a burnisher. In this way, any
 fancy device or writing may be executed  on steel
 or iron.   This species of gilding is not, however, so
 durable as  the following:—
   II. Apply gold  leaf  to the  surface of  polished
 iron, steel,  or copper,  heated to a bluish tint, press
 it on gently with the  burnisher, avoiding breaking
 or injuring  the gold ;  again expose it to a gentle
 heat, and repeat  the  process with fresh leaves of
 gold, until the gilding has acquired a proper thick-
ness ; then let it cool and polish it with the bur
nishe'r.  (See Gold, Liquid.)
   GILDING  OF PORCELAIN, GLASS, &c 
GIL                    334                   GIL
This is performed by blending powdered gold with
gum water and a little borax, and applying  it by
means of  a camel-hair pencil; the article  is then
heated sufficiently hot in an  oven or furnace, by
which means the gum  is burnt, and the  borax
vitrifying cements the gold to the surface.   When
cold it is polished off with a  burnisher.  Names,
dates, or any fancy device may thus  be perma-
nently and easily fixed on glass, china,  earthen-
ware, &.C.
  GILDING OF  SILK,  &c.   Silks,  satins,
woollens,  ivory, bone,  fyc, may be readily gilded
by immersing them in a  solution  of nitro-muriate
(terchloride) of gold, (1 of the salt to 3 or 4  of wa-
ter,) and then exposing them to the action of hydro-
gen gas.   The latter part of the process may read-
ily  be performed by pouring some diluted sul-
phuric acid, or zinc  or iron  filings, in a bottle, and
placing it under a jar or similar vessel, inverted,
at the top of which  the articles to be gilded are to
be suspended.
  The foregoing experiment  may be very prettily
and  advantageously varied  as  follows : — Paint
flowers or other ornaments with a very fine camel-
hair pencil, dipped in the  above-mentioned solution
of gold, on pieces of silk, satin, &c, and hold them
over a Florence flask, from which hydrogen gas is
evolved, during the decomposition of the water by
sulphuric acid and iron filings. The painted flow-
ers, &.c. in a few minutes will shine with all  the
splendor  of the  purest  gold. A coating of this
kind will  not tarnish on  exposure to  the air, or in
washing.
  GILDING OF SILVER.  Silver  is usually
gilded by brushing it evenly over with an amalgam
of gold, submitting it to heat and burnishing.  (See
Gilding, Wash.)
  GILDING POWDER.   Syn. Gold Powder.
Gold Bronze.  Prep. I. Heat  an  amalgam of
gold until  the mercury be all volatilized.   If the
quantity be considerable,  the  process should be so
conducted as to save the  mercury.
  II.  Dissolve gold  in nitro-muriatic acid,  then
precipitate it with a solution of pure protosulphate
of iron; wash and dry the powder.   A good  pro-
cess.
  III. Grind gold leaf with honey by means of a
stone  and  muller, until reduced to an impalpable
powder, then wash  away the  honey and dry the
gold.
  Uses, <J-c.  Powdered gold is employed in gilding
by the japanners and by  artists.   It is  either sold
in powder or made up  into shells.  (See  Gold
Powder.)
  GOLD  SHELLS.  The previous article ground
up with gum  water, and spread upon the insides of
shells.  Used by artists.
  GILDING SIZE.  Syn. Gilder's Size. Gold
Size.  Gold Color. Prep. I (Oil size.) Drying or
boiled oil thickened with  yellow ochre, or calcined
red  ochre, and carefully reduced to the  utmost
smoothness by grinding.  It may be thinned  with
oil of  turpentine.  Improves by age.  Used for oil
gilding
  II.  (Water size.)   Parchment  or isinglass size,
mixed with finely-ground yellow  ochre.   Used in
burnished or distemper gilding.
  GILDING, TALBOT'S  PATENT.   By this
process, gilding, silvering, and platinizing are per-
formed by adding a solution of gallic acid in water
ether, or alcohol, to  a solution of gold, silver oi
platina, and  immersing therein the metallic sub-
stances to be gilded, which must be allowed to re-
main immersed until  sufficiently coated.  The ar-
ticles  must be  well  cleaned  and polished  before
being placed in the solution.
   GILDING, THREAD.  Gold thread is mere-
ly a thread of yellow silk  covered with a very thin
flatted wire  of gold, by means of a properly ar-
ranged revolving wheel.
   GILDING, VARNISH.   This  is  oil  gilding
applied to equipages, picture-frames, furniture, &c.,
the surface being highly varnished and polished
before it receives the size  or gold color ; and after
the gilding  has  become quite dry, a coat of spirit
varnish, fumed with the chafing-dish as above, is ap-
plied, followed by 2 or 3 coats  of the best copal var-
nish, after which the work is carefully polished with
tripoli and water.  (See Furniture, Varnished.)
   GILDING VARNISH.  Syn. Gilder's Var-
nish.   Gilder's  Wax.   Prep.  Beeswax 4  oz.;
verdigris and sulphate of copper, a" ?ach 1 oz.; mix.
   II. Beeswax 4 oz.; verdigris,  red ochre,  and
alum,  of  each 1 oz.; mix.   Used to give  a red
gold color to water-gilding.
   GILDING, VOLTAIC.   Gilding by the moist
way ;  or  by  communicating  a negative electric
state, by means of a feeble hydro-electric current
to the metal which is sought to be gilded, and which
is immersed in a dilute solution of gold.
   Proc.  I. Pour a  neutral solution of chloride of
gold, containing  not  more than  from £ to 1 J- of
gold into a glass cylinder, whose lower extremity
is hermetically closed with moistened gut-skin, and
introduce the cylinder into a vessel which contains
some  water very  slightly acidulated with  a  few
drops of sulphuric  acid.  The cylinder should be
supported so  as to  prevent its lower surface from
resting immediately on the bottom of the  larger
vessel.  It is necessary to carefully clean, or even
polish, the surface  of  the  metal, whether of silver
or brass, that we desire to gild, lest a portion of  it
should be  left ungilt.  To attain this end, it  is
sometimes advisable to  place  the  metal for a few
moments in contact with  zinc, in dilute sulphuric
acid, so that hydrogen may be disengaged on its
surface ;  after which it must be well washed.   In
order to gild an object, it must be fixed or suspend-
ed by a  platina  wire, to  the other extremity of
which is attached a plate of zinc ; this done, plunge
the article to be gilt in the solution of gold, and the
zinc plate into the acidulated  water.  The  power
of the electric current may be moderated at will,
by  immersing more or less of the  zinc plate, so
that no hydrogen  may be disengaged, and  in this
case  the  chloride of gold is alone  decomposed.
After a minute, the article to be gilt is withdrawn,
wiped  dry with a fine  linen cloth, rubbed a little,
and again immersed.   After two or  three immer-
sions  the  metal will be  found  to  be sufficiently
gilded.  (M. de la  Rive.)
   II. (Process of M.  Louyet.)   This  consists  in
employing a strong solution  of bisulphuret of gold
in cyanuret of potassium  and a powerful electric
current.   The bisulphuret is  prepared by  either
passing sulphureted hydrogen through  a solution
of bichloride of gold, or by adding to a solution of
the latter anot. .sr  of hydrosulphuret of ammonia. 
GIL                     335                     GIL
 The  precipitate is  collected in  a filter, washed
 seveial times with warm water, and  is then dis-
 solved in a concentrated  solution of cyanuret of
 potassium,  by  passing   the  solution  through it,
 spiinkled on a paper filter, until  the whole  is dis-
 solved, which is known by the paper becoming de-
 colored.  The  filter should then  be washed with
 water to extract the adhering solution  of gold, and
 this water may be kept for a  future operation.  The
 solution of gold  should  be  kept  in a well-closed
 vessel when not intended for  immediate use. This
 solution  is not decomposed  by silver, copper,  or
 brass, by simple  contact. The electric current is
 produced by the  use of voltaic couples, varying in
 dimensions  according to  the surface  to be gilded.
 A plate of copper, 12 to 16 centimetres  square, is
 bent into the form of one of the  double  plates of
 Wollaston's pile,  in  the  central space of which is
' placed a plate of  amalgamated  zinc of only half the
 size of the copper plate,  and  entirely covered with
 a piece of coarse  cloth, to prevent contact between
 the two  metals.  Two copper wires  are soldered
 to the two  superior angles  of the zinc plate, and
 two similar wires are also soldered to the  middle
 of each of the  faces of the  copper  plate.  The
 wires from the negative  element (which are rather
 long) are connected with the copper, brass,  bronze,
 or silver article, which it is desired to gild, placed
 in a  glass or porcelain decomposition cell, in a sim-
 ilar manner to the connection at the other end, and
 the  extremities  of  the  positive wires are so ar-
 ranged as to make  them alternate with the pre-
 ceding.   The decomposition  cell is  then  nearly
 filled with the solution of gold, and the battery ex-
 cited by water strongly acidulated with equal parts
 of nitric and sulphuric acids.   At the  end of 5, 10,
 20, or 30 minutes, the article is withdrawn, washed
 in pure  water, and dried.   It is  then  again  im-
 mersed,  and the withdrawal, washing,  and reim-
 mersion repeated, until it has received a sufficiently
 thick coating of  gold.  To increase the solidity of
 the gilding, the  article when  withdrawn the first
 tune, and after  being washed and dried, may be
 submitted to a heat of 250° to 300° C, and after
 having again  become cold, reimmersed in  the de-
 composition cell as before.
    According to M. Louyet, articles are more beau
 tifully gilded in  this way, when  the  electricity  is
 equally distributed over their surface.   This he ef-
 fects by terminating the poles of the voltaic couple
 by several reophori, of which  all those  from the
 negative element are placed  in contact with differ-
 ent points of the  perimeter of the object to be gild-
 ed ; the positive  reophori being equal in number,
 are at the same time arranged to correspond with
 the negative ones ; but a small  interval is preserved
 between them.   After the pieces are gilded  they
 are " put in color," by which  their lustre and beauty
 are brought out.  This is done by either steeping
 them in the gilding liquor  or pickle, before de-
 scribed, or  by covering them with a layer of gild-
 er's wax and  heating them.   In the above way,
 copper, brass, bronze, silver, iron, lead, tin, steel,
 and platinum may be gilded.
   HI. (Process of M. Ruolz.)  This  process con-
 sists  in decomposing, by  means of a constant bat-
 tery, a solution  of cyanide,  chloride,  or  potassio-
 chloride of gold in cyanide of potassium, or red or
 yellow prussiate of  potash, a solution of soda-chlo-
ride of gold in carbonate of soda, or of sulphuret of
gold in neutral cyanide or sulphuret  of potassium.
M. Ruolz also silvers in the same way.
  IV. (Process of Mr. Elkington.)   31  grammes
and 25 centigrammes of gold converted into oxide ;
5 hectogrammes of cyanuret of potassium;  water
4 litres ;  boil for half an hour in glass or  porcelain.
This solution is used with a constant battery. It gilds
very quickly, especially when boiling. (M. Dumas)
  V.  (Process of Mr. Walker.)   Gilding and sil-
vering have been hitherto accomplished by the use
of a single cell, and, therefore, at  the expense of a
salt of gold or silver.   These salts are troublesome
to prepare, and are expensive ; and therefore if the
anions would combine with gold and silver anodes,
the operations of plating and gilding might be ren-
dered more simple, more sure, and more  economi
cal.   This may be effected  by dissolving the neu-
tral oxides of silver and of gold, or the chloride of
gold, each in a solution of  cyanide  of  potassium,
and electrolyzing the solutions respectively  with a
silver and a gold anode.  After  a  few seconds of
action deposites are obtained; the articles are re-
moved and  polished, and reimmersed, according to
the  thickness required.  The cyanogen, released
at the anode, combines with it, whether it be silver
or gold, and destroys  a portion, equivalent to that
deposited at the cathode ; and thus the strength of
the solution is maintained, and the expense of the
operation is reduced to a  minimum.  The deposi-
tion is effected in glass cells, and thus the eye can
detect the  regularity of the process. The anodes
are gold and  silver wire, or plate, which are sus-
pended  in the decomposition cell, and  connected
with the positive element  of the  battery, like the
pieces of copper, d d, in  the engraving  at  p. 262
 (Proceedings of the  Lond. Elect. Soc, Sept. 21,
 1841.)   The solution of  gold  mentioned  in the
other processes, may also  be employed with gold
anodes, and will  thus be rendered  more constant
and convenient.
   Remarks.  It is necessary to carefully scour the
surfaces of the articles to be gilded,  as the slightest
 layer of oxide or grease would  prevent  the  adhe-
sion and equal distribution of the gold over the sur-
face.  M.  Becquerel amalgamates  the  pieces  for
this purpose, by whieh the  best effects  of gilding,
with respect to durability and solidity, are produced.
The  objects  are simply immersed in a solution of
protonitrate  of mercury, and washed with a large
quantity of water, then rubbed with leather, in or-
der  to  diffuse the mercury; and the  immersions
are repeated until the metal is equally diffused over
the surface.   If it be slightly spread without rub-
bing, the surface  remains  tarnished; but if it be
brushed it  assumes a brilliant appearance.   If the
pieces thus prepared be steeped  in the bath of cya-
nide of  gold and potassium, at a temperature of
77° to 86° F., and connected with a constant bat-
tery in operation, in less than a quarter of an hour
they will be gilded, either dead (matt) or shining,
but of a matt equal to that of clocks," a quality dif-
ficult to  obtain by the ordinary process.  If it be
wished to give value  to electro-chemical gilding,
we must jointly  employ both  methods, and take
mercury as a medium, but  not in  so great a quan-
tity as in gilding  by mercury.  The temperature
of the operation for bringing up the color is suffi-
cient to drive off the mercury, so  that the advan- 
GIL
336
GIL
tages are  united of the combination of the gold
with the copper, and of an almost unlimited thick-
ness of gold.  (Comptes Rendus, July, 1843.)
  The decomposition cell should be made of glass
or porcelain,  and  preferably of the former, be-
cause  it admits  more  easily of the inspection of
the process.  It should also, for economy's sake, be
of such a form  as to permit  the objects to be
gilded,  to  be  covered with  the smallest possible
quantity of the  solution of gold.  In reference to
the battery it  may be  remarked, that  the  feebler
and more  constant its action, the greater is the
solidity of  the  gilding, and its degree of adhesion
to the  gilded surface.  In many cases, however,
comparatively powerful  electro-currents are  em-
ployed, for the sake of expedition; but the  process
thereby becomes  more difficult to  manage with
success.  (See Electrotype, &c.)
   GILDING, WASH.  Syn.  Water Gilding.
Mercurial do.  Amalgam do.  This  consists in
the  application of  a thin coating of amalgam of
gold to the metallic surface to be gilded,  and in
the  volatilization of the mercury  by heat.  It  is
the  usual method of gilding articles of copper and
its alloys, and possesses great beauty and durabili-
ty, when properly executed.  The process consists
of several operations ; viz.—
   1. (The amalgam.)  Put 1 part of fine  gold
into an iron crucible, apply heat, and when  faintly
red  add 8 parts of mercury, agitate with an  iron
rod, and when the whole of  the gold is dissolved,
pour it (cautiously) into an earthen vessel, con-
taining  water.  The amalgam  must be next
squeezed in chamois leather to separate the run-
ning mercury, and the latter must be  preserved
 for  a future operation, as it  contains a  portion of
gold.   The solid or semi-solid amalgam is then
preserved  for use.
   2. (The mercurial solution.)   Dissolve 10 parts
 of mercury in  11 parts of aquafortis, (sp. gr. 1-33,)
 and dilute the  solution with 25 times its weight of
 water.
   3. (Annealing.)  The article of bronze,  copper,
 or brass is prepared by setting it  among burning
 charcoal or pe*at, observing to heat it equally until
 it acquires a cherry red Color in the dark, when it
 is allowed to cool slowly in the air.
   4. (The decapage or scouring.)   The article is
 next soaked in water, strongly soured with oil of
 vitriol, and to which a little  salt has been  added,
 until the film of oxide is dissolved off or loosened;
 it is then rubbed bright with a stiff brush, washed
 in clear water, and rubbed dry with clean sawdust
 or bran, when a very smooth dull  surface  is ob-
 tained, if the process has been well conducted.
   5. (Application of the amalgam.)  A fine brass
 wire brush (scratch-brush) is now dipped into the
 mercurial solution, next drawn  slopingly over a
 lump of amalgam of gold, and then over the sur-
 face of the article to be gilded, and this process is
 repeated until  a sufficient coating of the amalgam
 has been thus  given to the alloy.
   6. (The firing.)   The article  is now  gradu-
 ally heated by exposing it  to burning charcoal,
 during which time it is kept  turning about to
 distribute  the  heat equally.  When the amalgam
 is properly fused on the surface, the piece is with-
 drawn from the fire and rapidly brushed and  rub-
 bed over in every direction with a stiff long-haired
 brush, to equalize the  surface *, it is then again
 slowly heated  as before, until  the  whole of tho
 mercury  is volatilized.   During this time should
 any defects be  observed  in  the  gilding,  it is re-
 paired by additional applications of  the amalgam
 to such  parts, without removing the piece  from
 the fire.   When the whole of the mercury is driven
 off, the piece is washed in vinegar and water, and
 then in pure water.
   7. (Epargner.)  The parts of the  piece that are
 to be burnished  are protected with a  mixture of
 Spanish  white, sugar-candy, and  gum, mixed up
 with water; it is next dried and heated to expel
 any remaining  particles of mercury, and  then
 plunged  while  hot  into  water,  acidulated  with
 sulphuric acid, washed, and dried.
   8. (Burnishing.)   This is done with burnishers
 of bloodstone or hematite, dipped into vinegar and
 water, and skilfully rubbed backwards  and for-
'wards, until a sufficient polish  is  produced.  The
 piece is  then washed  in  pure  water, wiped  with
 soft linen, and dried over a chafing-dish of charcoal.
   9. (Deadening.)  The  parts  to  be burnished
 are covered or protected as above, and then heat-
 ed until the protection becomes partially carbonized
 and brown ; the remaining surface is then covered
 over with a mixture of alum, salt, and nitre, and
 the piece is again heated  until the latter mixture
 runs and becomes  glassy; it is then withdraw^
 plunged  into water,  and the coating cleaned off;
 it is next washed in  very weak nitric acid, then In
 pure water, and  lastly wiped, and dried in a stove
   10.  (Coloring.)  a.   (Red  gold  color.)  The
 article to be gilded, after being coated  with the
 amalgam, as in  the 5th operation, is to be gently
 heated,  and  while hot, covered with  gilder's
 wax ;  it is then " flamed" over a wood fire and
 strongly heated, during all which time it is kept in
 a state of continual motion, to equalize the action
 of the fire on the surface.   When all the compo-
 sition has  burned away the piece is plunged into
 water, next cleaned with the  scratch-brush and
 vinegar,  and then  washed and burnished.  To
 bring up the beauty of the color, the  piece is some-
 times washed with a strong solution of verdigris in
 vinegar, next gently heated, plunged  while hoi
 into water, and then washed,  first  in vinegar, ot
 water  soured with nitric acid,  and then in pure
 water; it is lastly  burnished,  and  again washed
 and dried.—b.  (Or molu color.)   This is  given by
 covering  the  parts  with  a  mixture of powdered
 hematite, alum,  common  salt,  and vinegar, and
 applying  heat until the  coating  blackens, when
 the piece is plunged into cold  water, rubbed witn
 a brush  dipped in vinegar, or  water  stronglv
 soured  with nitric  acid, again  washed  in  pure
 water, and dried.   During  this process the  parts
 not to  be in " or molu color" should be protected
   Remarks.  Great care should be taken by tho
 workmen at mercurial  gilding  to avoid the fumes,
 as they exercise a*most pernicious effect  upon the
 health.  By the  adoption of the furnace invented
 by M. D'Arcet  this evil is  obviated, as the whoi*
 of the volatilized mercury is carried off, and ag*un
 condensed for further use.   In this way the occu-
 pation of the water-gilder is rendered as healthy
 as most other trades.  It is to be regretted, how-
 ever, that owing to the prejudices of the workmen
 against these furnaces, and the indifference of the 
GIN
337
GIN
 masters on  the subject,  but few  are  employed,
 though  their adoption offers considerable  advan-
 tages as regards economy and health.
   GILDING, WIRE.   Rods of silver are covered
 with gold  leaf, of a thickness proportionate to the
 quality  of the  intended  wire, and  the  compound
 bar is  then drawn into  wire  in the usual way.
 One hundred grains  of  gold  was formerly the
 lowest  legal quantity that could be employed for
 1 lb. (troy)  of  silver.  The silver employed  for
 gilding  in, this  country is usually alloyed with 10
 to 12 pennyweights, and that in France with from
 5 to 6 pennyweights of copper.
   GIN. (From Genievre, juniper.)  Gin is flavored
 corn spirit.  This liquor was originally wholly im-
 ported   from Holland,  and hence received the
 name of Hollands, or Hollands Gin, and was a
 rich, smooth spirit, chiefly flavored with juniper
 berries: hence  the term Geneva,  frequently ap-
 plied to it, of which the English monosyllable gin
 appears to  be  a corruption or diminutive.  The
 liquor at present known  by this name, of British
 manufacture,  is, however, a very different article
 to that imported, and consists of plain spirit, flavored
 with turpentine, and very small quantities of cer-
 tain aromatics.  The thousand and one  receipts
 for this article, which  have from time to time
 been printed in books, produce a  flavored spirit,
 bearing no resemblance to  the  most  esteemed
 samples of English gin, and if possible,  even more
 unlike  genuine Hollands.   Any person may easily
 satisfy  himself of the truth of this  assertion by
 actual  experiment   The cause of this incongruity
 has arisen, chiefly from the  writers not being prac-
 tically  acquainted with the subject, and from the
 disinclination of  well-informed practical men to
 divulge, gratuitously, what they conceived to be
 valuable secrets.   Hence the utter failure of any
 attempts to produce  either  gin or  Hollands from
 the receipts usually published.  The authors ap-
 pear to have all imbibed  a  juniper-berry mania,
 probably from the imbibition of their favorite bev-
 erage.   Oil  of juniper,   in  the  hands  of  these
 gentlemen,  appears  to be  a  perfect aqua mira-
 bilis; it readily converts whiskey into gin, and
 imparts the rich creamy flavor of Hollands to
 corn or molasses spirit.   But  theory and experi-
 ment sometimes disagree.  In practice,  it is found
 that the true flavor of foreign Geneva  cannot be
 imparted to spirit by juniper alone, and that Eng-
 lish gin depends for its flavor on no such a sub-
 stance.  The following formula? may be regarded
 as good  specimens, but it is proper to remark, that
 every distiller  has  his own  receipt;  hence the
 slightly different flavor of the gin of different dis-
 tillers.   This arises from the use of more or less
 flavoring,  or the  addition of a  small quantity of
 some aromatic,  which exercises a modifying influ-
 ence on  the chief flavoring ingredient  One point
 must be particularly observed, and that is, to avoid
 an  excess  of any flavoring.   The most esteemed
 samples  of gin are those that consist of very pure
 spirit,   lightly  flavored.   A creaminess  and
 smoothness is given to gin by age, or the addition
 ef a little  sugar; and a small quantity of caustic
potassa  is sometimes added to it, to render it biting
opon the palate.
  Prep. I. Clean corn spirit, at proof, 80 gallons ;
newly rectified oil of turpentine 1 pint; mix well j
                       43
 by violent agitation,  add culinary salt 7 or 8 lbs.,
 dissolved in water, 30  or 40 gallops;  again well
 agitate and  distil over  100 gallons, or until the
 "feints" begin to rise.  Product,—100  gallons,
 22 u. p., besides 2 gallons contained in  the feints.
 If 100 gallons, 17 u. p., be required, 85 gallons of
 proof spirit, or its equivalent at any other strength,
 should be employed.
   II.  Proof  spirit, as above, 8 gallons; oil of tur-
 pentine  1 to  1£ oz.; salt 1  lb., dissolved in water
 3 or 4 gallons;  draw 10  gallons,  as  before.  22
 u. p.
   III. Clean corn spirit 80 gallons ; oil of turpen-
 tine | to 1 pint;  pure oil of juniper 1 oz. to 3 oz.;
 salt 7 lbs.; water35 gallons; draw 100 gallons, as
 above.  22 u. p.
   IV. To the last add oil of caraway J oz.; oil of
 sweet fennel \ oz.; distil as before.
   V.  To No. III. add  essential oil of  almonds 1
 drachm, or less;  essence of lemon 3 or 4 drachms;
 distil as before.
   VI. To No. I.  add creosote 1 to 2 drachms be-
 fore distillation.
   VII. To No. III. add creosote  1 to 2  drachms
 before distillation.
   VIII. Proof spirit 80  gallons; oil of turpentine
 i pint;  oil of juniper 3 oz.; creosote 2 drachms ;
 oranges and  lemons, sliced, of each 9  in number;
 macerate  for a week, and  distil 100 gallons.  22
 u. p.
   Remarks.  The oil of turpentine for this  purpose
 should be of the best quality,  and  not that usually
 vended for painting, which contains resin and fixed
 oil.  Juniper berries,  bitter almonds, and the  aro-
 matic seeds, may be used instead of the  essential
 oils; but the latter  are most convenient.   Tur-
 pentine conveys a plain gin flavor,—creosote im-
 parts a certain degree of smokiness,—lemon, and
 other  aromatics, a creaminess, fulness, and rich-
 ness.  Gin may also  be prepared by simple solu-
 tion of the flavoring in the spirit, but is of course
 better for distillation.   If made in the former way,
 no salt must  be employed.  The  gin produced by
 the above formulas is that denominated in the trade
 unsweetened gin, grog gin, &,c.;  but the  gin as
 usually sold in the metropolis is a sweetened spirit,
 and hence is technically distinguished by the terms
 sweetened, or made up.  In fact, the generality
 of gin-drinkers prefer the latter article, even though
 it be weaker and inferior, which  it usually is ; as
 the addition of sugar permits adulteration and wa-
 tering with greater ease.   Sweetened  spirit can-
 not be easily  tested for  its strength, and  is taken
 by the Excise at the strength which it is declared
 to possess by the dealer.   To ascertain  whether
 gin be sweetened or not,  a little may be evaporated
 in a spoon, over a hot coal or a candle, when, if it
 be pure, it will fly off, and leave the spoon but little
 soiled ; but if, on the contrary, it has been sweet-
 ened,  a  small  quantity  of sirupy liquid, or sugar,
 will be obtained,  the sweetness of which will be
 easily recognised by tasting it.
   The whole of the casks and utensils employed
 for gin should be perfectly clean, and properly pre-
pared, so as not  to  give  color; as if this s*. i t
merely acquires the  palest  colored tint, its value
is  lessened, and if much colored, it is rendered un-
saleable.  (See Casks.)   When gin  ha* Jnce be-
come much stained, the  only  remedy is to redistil 
GIN
338
GIN
it; when it is only slightly stained, the addition of
a few lbs. of acetic acid (P. L.) to a pipe, a spoon-
ful or two to a gallon, or a few drops to a decan-
terful, will usually decolor it, either at once,  or as
soon as it is mixed with water to make grog. (See
Alcoholometry, Distillation,  Hollands.)
  GIN, CORDIAL.   This is gin sweetened with
sugar, and slightly aromatized.
  Prep.  Good  gin  (22 u. p.)  90  gallons; oil  of
almonds  1 drachm; oils  of cassia, nutmeg, and
lemons, of each 2 drachms; oils of juniper, cara-
way, and coriander,  of each  3 drachms; essence
of orris root 3 or 4 oz.; orange-flower water 3
pints ; lump sugar 56 to 60 lbs.; dissolved in wa-
ter 3 or 4 gallons.  The essences  must be dissolved
in a  quart of spirit of wine, and added gradually to
the gin, until the requisite flavor  is produced, when
the dissolved sugar must be mixed in, along with a
sufficient quantity of soft water holding 4 oz.  of
alum in solution, to  make up 100 gallons. When
the whole is perfectly mixed, 2 oz. of salt of tartar,
dissolved in 2 or 3 quarts of watei, must be added,
and  the  liquor again  well rummaged  up, after
which it  must be  bunged down, and allowed to re-
pose.  In a week or 10 days it will have become
brilliant, and may be racked if required.  Product.
100  gallons, about 30 u. p. It is usually permitted
in the trade as 22 or 24 u. p.
   GIN,  SWEETENED.  Prep.  Unsweetened
gin (22 u. p.) 95 gallons ;  lump sugar 40 to 45 lbs.,
dissolved in clear water 3 gallons ; mix well; add
alum ^ lb., dissolved in  water 3 or 4 quarts ;  rum-
mage well for 15 minutes, then  add salt of tartar
2 oz., dissolved in water, 1 or2 quarts: again rum-
mage well, and bung down close. In a day or two
it will be fine, and ready for sale or racking.  Pro-
duct. 100  gallons,  at 26 u. p.   This  is usually
"permitted"  at  22 or 24 u..p., and this is also
commonly done when  the gin  has  been further
lowered with water to 30  or 35 u. p.  (See pp. 36
and  37.)
   GINGER BEER.  Prep. I. Lump sugar 1 lb.;
bruised ginger (from which the dust has been sift-
ed)  | to 1 oz.; cream of tartar 4, oz.;  1 lemon,
sliced ; pour on them boiling water 1 gallon ; cover
up,  and  macerate  until  barely  lukewarm, then
strain, add yeast  2 oz.; work for 2 to 4 days,  ac-
cording to the weather  ; skim, strain through clean
flannel, bottle, and  wire down the corks.  Excel-
lent  ; will keep well.
   II.  As last; but use moist  instead of  lump
sugar.
   III. " For the following excellent  formula for
ginger beer I am  indebted to Mr. Pollock, of Fen-
church-street :—white sugar lb. xx ; lemon or lime
juice f 5XV"J ; honey lb. j ; bruised ginger %xvij  !
water 18 gallons.  Boil the ginger in 3 gallons  of
the water for half an hour; then add the sugar,
the  juice, and the honey, with  the remainder of
the water, and strain through a cloth.  When cold,
add  the white of 1  egg,  and  f ^ss  of essence  of
lemon ; after standing  4 days, bottle.  This yields
a very superior beverage, and one which will keep
for many months."   (Pereira's Elem. Mat. Med.,
2d Ed., ii 1018.)  Used as a refreshing drink in
tvarm weather.
   GINGERBREAD.  Prep. I. (Dr. Colquhoun.)
Flour 1 lb. ;  carbonate of magnesia $ oz. ;  mix  ;
add  treacle £ lb.; moist sugar \  lb.; melted butter
 2 oz.; tartaric acid, dissolved in a little water, 1
 drachm ; make a 6tiff dough, then add powdered
 ginger and cinnamon,  (cassia,) of each 1 drachm;
 grated nutmeg 1 oz.; set it aside for half an hour
 or an hour, and p i>. it in the oven.   It should not
 be kept longer than two or three hours at the ut-
 most,  before being baked.  This receipt produce!
 superior thin gingerbread.
   II.  Flour and treacle, of each 1 lb.; butter 1
 oz.; carbonate  of magnesia  1 oz. to 1$ oz.; add
 spices,  (ginger,  cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, Cay-
 enne, corianders, &c, to taste ;)  mix as last.  Fit
 for baking in from four to six hours.
   III.  Flour 2 lbs.; carbonate of magnesia J oz.;
 mix ; treacle 1£ lb.; butter 2 oz.;  spice to palate;
 tartaric acid i oz.; mix as above.   Ripe for the
 oven in half an hour to one hour.
   IV. Instead of tartaric acid in the last form, use
 cream of  tartar dissolved in water, 2 oz.; mix as
 last.   Ripens in 40 or 50 minutes.
   V. Flour  or  fine pollard 1 lb.; treacle J lb.;
 potash, dissolved in a little water, i  oz.;  butter 1
 oz.; spice to palate; mix as before.   Takes sev-
 eral days to ripen; sometimes a fortnight.
   VI. To the last, after it has stood 1 or 2 days,
 add volatile salt, (carbonate of ammonia,) Jissolved
 in a little water, \ oz.   May be baked at once.
   VII.  Flour  6 lbs.; powdered ginger 2 oz. or 3
 oz.; caraway seeds  1  oz.; (and  other spices to
 palate ;) candied lemon and orange peels, of each
 1 to 2 oz.; moist sugar  and melted butter, of each
 i lb.; treacle 4 lbs.; volatile 6alt, dissolved in a
 little water, IJ  oz. to 2 oz. ; mix as  above.  May
 be baked at once.  The  upper surface of this bread
 is very dark and glossy.
   Remarks. The preceding may  be either rolled
 out into thin sheets and  cut into cakes or puts
 (gingerbread nuts) with the top of a wine-glass or
 canister, or may be formed into thick cakes. They
 require  a pretty brisk  oven;  the thin  varieties
j (nuts, &c.) must be baked crisp, without being
 burnt.   The varieties called lemon  gingerbread,
 caraway do., &c, have a perceptible predominance
 of those flavoring ingredients.  The  addition of a
 little alum, dissolved  in  water, makes the bread
 both lighter and crisper, as well as ripen quicker.
 This should not, however, be added until the whole
 of the  other ingredients  are made  into a dough,
 when it may be well kneaded into the  mass.
   GINGER CANDY.   Prep. Coarsely powder-
 ed ginger  2 oz.; boiling water l\ pints; macerate
 in a warm place for 2 hours, strain,  and add it to
 lump and  brown sugar,  of each 7 lbs.
   Remarks. Ginger Drops are made in the same
 wav, only using all lump sugar.
   GINGER, MOCK,  (Preserved.)  Pret  CvS.
 off the  stalks of lettuces just going to seed, and
 peel  off the  strings.  Cut them in pieces 2 or 3
 inches  long, and throw  them into water.  After
 washing them,  put them into sugar  and water,
 mixed in the proportion  of 1 lb. of sugar to 5 pints
 of water;  add to this quantity 2 large spoonfuls of
 pounded ginger.  Boil  the whole together for 20
 minutes, and set it by  for 2 days.  Then boil it
 again for half an hour, and renew this 5 or 6 times
 in the same sirup.  Then drain the  stalks upon a
 sieve and wipe them dry ; have ready a thick sirup
 boiled,  and made strong with whole ginger.  Pour
I it upon the stinks boiling hot; boil them in it twice 
GLA                    339                   GLA
or thrice, or until they look clear and taste like the
West India ginger.
   GLASS.  -Syn.  Vitrum, (Lat.) Verre, (Fr.)
Glas, (Ger.)  A transparent, insoluble, and brittle
substance,  formed by the union of the silicic acid
with a rrretallic oxide.
   Hist. The date of the invention and the early
history of the manufacture of glass are involved in
considerable  obscurity.   According to Pliny, it
originated from the  following accident:   A mer-
chant ship, laden with natron, being  driven upon
the coast of the mouth of the river Belus, in tem-
pestuous weather, the crew  were  compelled to
cook  their  victuals ashore;  and having placed
mmps of the natron on the sand, as supports to the
kettles, found, to their surprise, masses of transpa-
rent stone among  the  cinders.   Considering  the
trifles that have led to the most important discov-
eries, this  anecdote is  very probably founded in
truth.   The Phoenicians were the  earliest manu-
facturers of glass, and long held an exclusive com-
merce of this article; afterwards Alexandria  and
Sidon became celebrated for the same manufac-
ture.   (Pliny,  Strabo.)   Glass  was employed by
the Romans for  windows, and  for  various other
purposes, as specimens discovered among the ruins
of Herculaneum amply testify.  " The Phoenician
processes seemed to have  been learned by  the
Crusaders, and transferred  to Venice in the 13th
century, where they were long held  secret,  and
formed a lucrative commercial monopoly." (Ure's
Diet of Arts, &c.)   The manufacture of  window
glass was  not  introduced into England until  the
middle of the 16th century,  and was soon  followed
by that of Flint Glass.   During the ensuing 80
or 90 years, this  art  acquired great perfection in
this country; and at the present day, the  different
varieties of glass  of English manufacture are equal
to any in  the world.  Even plate glass is now
made in England  that is  fully equal to  the  best
foreign.
   GLASS, BOTTLE.  Prep.  I. (Dark green.)
Fused glauber salts  11 lbs.;  Soaper's salts 12 lbs.;
waste  soap ashes £ bushel; silicious sand £ cwt.;
glass skimmings 22 lbs.; broken green glass 1 cwt
to 1$ cwt.; basalt 25 lbs. to \ cwt.
   II. (Pale green.)  a. Pale sand  100 lbs.; kelp
35 lbs.; lixiviated wood ashes  1 i cwt.; fresh do.
40 lbs.; pipeclay | cwt.; cullet  or broken glass 1
cwt.
   o. Yellow or white sand 120 parts ; wood ashes
80 parts;  pearlashes 20 parts; common salt 15
parts ; white arsenic 1 part.  Very pale.
   GLASS, CROWN.  Syn.   White Window
Glass.  Prep. I. Sand 300 parts ; soda ash  200
parts; lime 30 to 35 parts; 200 to 300 parts of
broken glass.
   II.  (Bohemian.)  Pure silicious sand  63 parts;
potash 22 parts ;  lime 12 parts ;  oxide of  manga-
nese 1  part.
   III.  (Professor Schweigger.)   Pure  sand  100
parts;  dry  sulphate of soda  50 parts ; dry quick-
lime in powder 17 to 20 parts ; charcoal 4 parts.
Product.   White and good.
   IV. White sand 60 lbs.; good pearlashes 30 lbs.;
saltpetre 15 lbs.;  borax  1 lb  ;  white arsenic £  lb.;
if it is tinged at all, add a little manganese.
   GLASS, CRYSTAL.  Prep. I.  Refined pot-
ashes 60 lbs. ; sand 120 lbs.; chalk 24 lbs.; nitre
and white arsenic, of each 2 lbs.; oxide of manga-
nese 1 to 2 oz.
  II. Pure while sand 120 parts;  refined ashes 70
parts; saltpetre  10 parts;  white  arsenic £ part;
oxide of manganese $ part.
  III. Sand  120 parts ; red  lead 50 parts ;  puri-
fied pearlash 40 parts; nitre 20 parts; manganese
J part.
  IV.  White sand  15 parts; red lead 10 parts;
refined ashes 4 parts ; nitre 1 part;  arsenious acid
and manganese,  of each a very little.
  GLASS,  FLASK.   (Of St. Etienne.)   Purs
silicious sand 61  parts ; potash 3£ parts; lime 21
parts; heavy 6par  2  parts; oxide of manganese
q. s.
  GLASS, FLINT.  Syn. Crystal Glass.  Prep.
I. (Korner.)  Quartz  (first treated with muriatic
acid) 100 parts;  litharge, or  red  lead, 80 parts;
cream of tartar 30 parts.  Excellent.
  II. White sand 120 parts ;  purified  pearlash 40
parts; litharge, or  red lead,  35 parts; nitre  13
parts ; oxide of manganese, a little, if required.
  HI. Good Lynn sand 100  parts; oxide of lead
60 parts ; purified pearlashes 30 parts ;  manganese,
as before.
  IV.  (Geddes.)  White sand 300  parts ; red lead,
or litharge, 200 parts ; refined pearlashes 80 parts;
nitre 20 parts ; arsenic and manganese, of each a
little.
  V.  (M. Payen.)  Silicious sand 3 parts ; red lead
2 to 2\ parts; carbonate of potash 1 £ to 1 § parts.
Both this and the last contain too much lead.
  VI.  (Guinand's.)  Ground quartz  and pure red
lead, of each 100  parts; refined  potash 35 lbs.;
nitre 2 to 3 lbs.  Heavy ;  used by opticians.
  GLASS, PLATE. Prep. I. Pure sand 40 parts;
dry carbonate of soda 26£ parts; lime 4 parts;
nitre 1£ part; broken  plate-glass 25 parts.
  II. (Vienna.)   Sand  100  parts; calcined sul-
phate of soda 50 parts; lime 20 parts; charcoal
2J parts.
  III. (Kirn.) Sand 61  parts; calcined sulphate
of soda 27  parts;  lime lOf  parts;  charcoal 2\
parts.
  IV.  (Ure.)  Quartz  sand  100  parts; calcined
sulphate of soda 24  parts ; lime 20 parts ; cullet of
soda glass 12 parts.
  V.  (Kirn.)  Quartz sand 60 to 65 parts ; calcined
carbonate of potash  18 parts ; common  salt 9 parts ;
lime 13 to 13£ parts.
  VI.  (French.)  White quartz sand and cullet, of
each 300 parts ;  dry carbonate of soda 100 parts ;
slaked lime 43 parts.
  VII. Pure sand 72 parts ; refined soda 45 parts:
quicklime 8 parts ;  nitre 2£ parts ; cullet 45 parts.
  GLASS,  WINDOW.   Syn.  Broad  Glass.
Prep.  I. Dried sulphate of soda  11 lbs.;  Soaper
salts 10 lbs.;  lixiviated soap waste £ bushel ; sand
50 to 56 lbs.; glass pot skimmings 22 lbs.; broken
pale green glass 1 cwt
  II. (Paler.) White  sand 60 lbs.;  pearlashes 30
lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs.;  arsenic 2 lbs.; oxide of
manganese 2 to 4 oz.
  III. (Very pale.) White sand 60 lbs.; good pot-
ashes 25 lbs. ; common salt 10 lbs. ;  nitre 5 lbs.;
arsenic 2 lbs. ; manganese 2 to 4 oz., as required;
broken pale window plass 14 lbs.
  Remarks. The limits of this work will not per-
mit of the operations of glass-making  being enter- 
GLA
340
3LI
ed into  The method of employing the preceding
formulae will, however, be evident to every person
practically acquainted with  this branch of the
manufactures ; and  by such  alone is  information
of this kind required.
   The quality of glass is denoted by its trans-
parency, strength, and power of resisting* the action
of water, air, light, and the strong acids and alka-
lis.   Those glasses which  contain a predominance
of alkali are acted on by water, and when this  is
in great excess, are perfectly soluble  in that fluid.
Hence ordinary crystal glass  is  affected  by long
coction in  water, while crown glass, which  con-
tains less alkali, is unaltered by that trial.  Glasses
that contain any  considerable quantity of lead, are
acted  on by sulphureted hydrogen ;  this is  the
3ause of the surface  of flint glass, under certain
rircumstances,  becoming opaque and iridescent.
It is also said that glasses made of siliea and alkalis
alone,  are incapable of resisting the  action of wa-
ter, but that the  addition of lime or oxide of lead
is necessary for that purpose.  The power of glass
to resist the action of menstrua  is readily  tried by
exposing it to boiling oil of vitriol, and hot, but di-
lute solution of caustic potassa.  Neither of these
tests should cause the glass to lose its transparency,
or to become dim.   Glasses that have a slight
greenish or bluish tint, may be often whitened, or
rendered colorless, by exposure  to light and air;
" in consequence, undoubtedly, of the  peroxidize-
ment of the iron, to whose protoxide they owe their
Lint; other glasses become purpled from  the  pe-
-oxidizement of the manganese."  (Ure.)
   The extreme brittleness of glass arises  from its
not having been  annealed.   This defect may be
remedied on the small scale, by immersing such
glass in a bath of oil, or a concentrated solution of
chloride of calcium, or common  salt, and  heating
the whole  gradually  and cautiously to the boil-
ing point, and  letting it cool very gradually ;  the
slower the better.  By this treatment, the glass
will be enabled to bear any alternations of tem-
perature between the two extremes to which it  has
been exposed.
  GLASS-CLEANING. Glass Windows, Look-
ing-Glasses, &c, may be  cleaned as  follows:—
Dip a moistened rag or flannel into indigo, fuller's
earth, ashes, or rotten-stone, in impalpable powder,
with which smear the glass, and wipe it off with  a
dry soft cloth.  Powder-blue or whitening, tied up
hi muslin and dusted  upon the glass, and  cleaned
off with  chamois-leather, also  gives glass a fine
polish.   The spots in  the silvering of old looking-
glasses are caused by damp at the back.   The
Vauxhall plates are no longer prized, for the glass
made  in the present  day is  whiter and better.
Window-panes may be made  to resemble ground
glass by daubing them with putty, or a brush with
a little thin paste.
  GLASS-CUTTING, &c.  A description of the
various operations of  glass-cutting  and grinding
belongs entirely to a work on the mechanical arts;
but it may not be out  of place  here to mention,
that glass may be easily cut with a common well-
hardened steel file, provided it be moistened with
turpentine, or  plunged under water.   It may also
be perforated with a common steel brad-awl in the
same way.  Glass vessels,  as  bottles  ar.d tubes,
may be readily  cut  or shortened, by placing  a
 heated iron  ring over the spot, or a piece of Ioos«
 Btring or cotton dipped in  turpentine  and set on
 fire, and immediately on the withdrawal of either,
 applying cold water to the part.  Glass vessels or
 tubes thus treated will crack  round, and may be
 readily divided into two parts.
   GLASS. GROUND.   The frosted  appearance
 of ground  glass may be very nearly  imitated by
 gently dabbing the glass over with a piece of gla-
 zier's  putty,  stuc<  on the  ends of  the  fingers.
 When  applied with a light and  even touch, the
 resemblance is considerable.  Another method  is
 to dab the glass over with thin white paint, or flour
 paste, by means of a brush ; but this is much infe-
 rior to the former.  Used for windows.
   GLASS, POWDERED.  Syn.  Vitrum pul-
 verisatum.   Prep. Heat the glass red hot, throw
 it into cold water, dry and powder.  Used to filter
 acids ; also  glued upon paper as a polishing pow-
 der,  and to wear down corns  upon the feet, after
 the feet have been well soaked and dried ;  like-
 wise to blow into the eyes to wear  down  excres-
 cences.
   GLASS.  (In Chemistry.)  This term was for-
 merly very commonly applied to preparations to
 which a vitreous appearance is given by heat  It
 is now obsolete.
   GLASS  OF  ANTIMONY.  Syn.  Vitrum
 Antimonii.  Antimonium vitrificatum.  Oxydum
 Antimonii vitrificatum.  Oxydum Antimonii cum
 Sulphure vitrificatum.  Prep.   Roast powdered
 common antimony in a shallow vessel  over a gen-
 tle fire, until it turns whitish gray, and ceases to
emit fumes at a red heat;  then heat it in a cruci-
ble until it  fuses  into a clean brownish red glass.
 If calcined  too much, a little more common anti-
 mony must be added to make it run well.  It is e
crude oxysulphuret, (Liebig,) and violently emetl:
 in doses of 1 to 2 grs.: it is now but seldom used.
  GLASS,  STORM.  Prep. Camphor 3ij; ni
tre 3iss ; sal ammoniac 3ss ; rectified spirit of wine
§ij ;  dissolve, and  keep it in a long bottle or  glass
tube covered with bladder. Used to foretell changes
of the weather.
  GLAUCIC ACID. A peculiar acid discovered
by Dr. Runge in  several species of dipsacus and
scabiosa.  It  is obtained  by  adding ether to the
tincture of the dry plant, dissolving the precipitated
flocculi in water, treating the solution with acetate
of lead, decomposing the  precipitated  glaucate of
 lead  with sulphureted hydrogen, and  evaporating
to expel the water and acetic  acid.  A brittle yel-
 low mass, forming salts with the bases.
  GLAUCINE.    Syn.   A peculiar substance
 forming pearly scales, soluble in hot water,  alco-
 hol, and ether ; discovered  by Probst in glauceum
 luteum.  It forms neutral salts with the acids.
  GLAUCOPICRINE.  White scales, soluble in
 hot water, alcohol, and ether, and having a bitter
 taste; also discovered  by Probst in glauceum lu-
 teum.   It forms  neutral crystallizable salts with
 the acids.
  GLAZE. (In Cooking.)   Gravy or soup boiled
 until it becomes gelatinou-,  on cooling.   It  is used
 as a species of varnish to cover various dishes for
 the table.  It may be spiced and flavored  accord-
 ing to the fancy of the cook.  (See  Soup,  Porta-
 ble.)
   GLIADINE,  (from y\ia, glue)  A peculiai 
GLU                   341                   GLTJ
 substance contained in the gluten of wheat, and so
 named by M. Taddei, an Italian chemist.  Prep.
 Rub fresh-made gluten of wheat flour with alcohol,
 and evaporate to dryness ; the  gliadine  thus  ob-
 tained may be purified by extracting the coloring
 matter by means of  sulphuric ether, which does
 not dissolve  the gliadine.   Used  to form a test
 liquor.
   GLOBULINE.  A species of albumen consti-
 tuting the principal  portion of the blood-globules.
 It exists in the clot, in combination with  hamato-
 sine.
   GLUCIC ACID.   Prep. Saturate grape sugar
 with lime or baryta, and set it aside.  After some
 weeks, precipitate the solution with acetate of lead,
 filter, wash the  precipitate with water, diffuse it
 in water, and decompose it by sulphureted hydro-
 gen.
   GLOVES, TO CLEAN.  I.  (Dry cleaning.)
 Lay them out flat;  then rub into  them a mixture
 of finely-powdered fuller's earth  and alum ; sweep
 it off with a brush, sprinkle them  with dry bran and
 whiting ; lastly,  dust them well.   This will not do
 if they are very  dirty.
   II.  Wash  them  with soap and water; then
 stretch them  on wooden hands, or pull them into
 shape without wringing them;  next rub  them
 with pipe-clay, or yellow ochre, or a mixture of the
 two in any required shade,  made into a paste with
 beer; let them  dry  gradually, and when about
 half dry, rub them well, so as to smooth them and
 put them into shape ; then dry them, brush out the
 superfluous color, cover them with  paper,  and
 smooth them with a warm iron.  Other colors may
 be  employed to mix with the pipe-clay beside yel-
 low ochre.
   GLOVES, TO DYE.  Leather gloves, if not
 greasy, may be dyed with any of the ordinary dyes
 by  brushing the latter over the gloves stretched out
 smooth.   The surface alone should be wetted, and
 a second or third coat may  be given after the for-
 mer one has become dry. When the last coat has
 become   thoroughly  dry,  the superfluous  color
 should be well rubbed out, a smooth surface given
 them by rubbing with a polished  stick or piece of
 ivory, and the  whole  gone over  with a sponge
 dipped in white of egg.
  GLUCINA.   Syn.  Glucine, (Fr.)  Beryll-
 erde,  (Ger.)   Oxide  of Glucinum.   (From
 y\vKvs, sweet, because the salts it  forms with the
 acids have a  sweet taste.)  A pulverulent white
 substance, discovered by M. Vauquelin in 1798, in
 the  aqua marina and  the emerald.  It is classed
 with the  earths.
  Prep.  Finely pulverize the beryl, and expose it
 to a strong red heat for half an hour along with 3
 times its weight of carbonate of potassa, dissolve  in
 muriatic  acid, evaporate to dryness, redissolve  in
 very  dilute muriatic  acid,  and precipitate with
 pure ammonia;  wash the precipitate well, digest
 with a large quantity of carbonate of ammonia, fil-
 ter, and boil;  carbonate of glucina subsides.  By
exposure to a  red heat  the carbonic acid may be
expelled.
  Prep., fyc.  1.  It forms salts with the acids.   2.
Caustic potassa and  soda precipitate it from  the
solutions  of its salts, and redissolve it when added
in excess.  3.  Pure ammonia throws it down as a
hydrate,  and the carbonates  of potassa and  soda
 as a carbonate; neither of which redissolve in ex-
 cess of the precipitant.  4. Carbonate of ammonia
 water dissolves it when cold, and from  this solu-
 tion it is precipitated by boiling.   In this respect it
 differs from alumina, and hence these earths may
 be  readily separated.  The beryl contains 14 per
 cent, of glucina, combined with silicic acid and
 alumina.
  GLUCINIUM.   The metallic base of the earth
 glucina.   It was first obtained by Wohler in 1828,
 by a similar process to that adopted for Aluminium.
 It forms a grayish black powder,, which  acquires a
 metallic gloss under the burnisher.  It is but little
 known.   Its oxide is Glucina.   See Aluminium.
  GLUE.   Syn.  Colle  forte,  (Fr.)   Leim ;
 Tischlerleim, (Ger.)  Gluten; Glutinum, (Lat.,
 from y^ia, glue.)  Inspissated animal jelly or gela-
 tin.  Glue is principally prepared from the parings
 and waste-pieces  of hides and skins, the refuse  of
 tanneries, and the tendons and other  offal of slaugh-
 ter-houses.  All these should be preferably obtain-
 ed and kept in  the dry state, to prevent decomposi-
 tion.   For use, they are first  steeped  for 14 or  15
 days in milk of lime, then drained and dried ; this
 constitutes the  " cleaning," or the "preparation."
 Before conversion into glue, they are usually again
 steeped in weak milk of lime, well washed  in wa-
 ter, and exposed to  the air for  24 hours.  They are
 then placed in a copper boiler § filled with water,
 and furnished with a perforated false bottom,  to
 prevent them from  burning, and as much is* . 'led
 on as will fill the vessel and rest  on the top of  it.
 Heat is next applied, and  gentle boiling continued
 until the liquor  on cooling  forms a firm  gelatinous
 mass.  The clear portion is then run off into an-
 other vessel,  where  it is kept hot by a water-bath,
 and allowed to  repose for some hours  to deposite,
 when  it is run into  the  congealing boxes, and
 placed in  a cgol situation.   The  next morning the
 cold gelatinous  masses are turned out upon boards
 wetted with water, and are cut horizontally into
 thin cakes with a  stretched piece  of brass wire,
 and then into smaller cakes with a  moistened flat
 knife.  These cakes are next placed upon nettings
 to dry, after which they are dipped one by one in-
 to hot water, and slightly  rubbed  with a brush
 wetted with  boiling water, to  give them a gloss ;
 they are lastly  stove-dried  for sale. During this
 time the undissolved portion of skins, &c., left  in
 the copper is treated  with fresh water, and the
 whole  operation is  repeated again  and again,  as
 long as any gelatinous matter  is  extracted. The
 first runnings produce the  palest and  best glue.
 The refuse matter from the tanners and leather
 dressers yields on the average, when dried, 50$ of
its weight of glue.   The following are varieties:—
  1. (Cake glue,  Colle  forte, Gluten commune.)
 Prepared  from  the  skins of animals, by soaking
 them for two or three weeks in lime water,  boiling
 them with water (sometimes adding a little alum)
 down to a thick jelly, as before  described.   Used
 as a cement by carpenters, &.c.
  2. (Flemish glue, Dutch glue.)  The skins are
rinsed  in several waters, and left to soak for some
time, that  they may require less boiling to  be dis-
solved ; cakes very thin, transparent; used by cab
 inet-makers for fine work.
  3. (French glue.)  Simmered for a  long time
 with a small fire, until the skins are dissolved; then 
GLY                     342                    GOL
made to boil, and alum, gr. ij to*the pint added, to
clear it for moulding; transparent and very brittle.
  4. (Hatmaker's glue.) From the tendons of the
legs of  neat cattle and horses ; brown,  opaque,
soft; grows  moist in damp weather, but it does not
render the felt brittle.
  5. (Fish  glue, Colle de  poisson.)  Is made in
like  manner from various membranous and  solid
parts of cetaceous animals.
  6. (Parchment glue.)  Shreds  or shavings of
parchment, vellum, white leather,  &.C., dissolved
by  boiling  in water, forming  a nearly colorless
glue.
  GLUE, PORTABLE.  Prep. Best glue 1 lb.;
water sufficient; boil it  in  a double gluepot, and
strain ;  add  fine brown sugar J  lb., and boil it
pretty thick  ; then pour it into moulds ; when cold
cut into small pieces and dry them. This glue is
very useful  to draughtsmen,  architects,  &c,  as it
immediately dilutes in warm water, and  fastens
the paper, without the  process of damping, and
may be  softened  for  many purposes  with  the
tongue.
  GLUTEN.   Syn.  Colle Vegetable, (Fr.)
Kleber, (Ger.) Vegetable Gluten. (From gelo,
to congeal,  and gluten, glue.)  A peculiar  sub-
Btance found in  bread  corn ; and principally  in
wheat.   M.  Taddei has divided this substance into
two others, differing from each other in their prop-
erties.    One of  these  is  Gliadine, which   has
been already noticed;  the  other, Zimome, will be
found in its  alphabetical situation.  By more re-
cent analysis it appears that wheat gluten consists
of albumen,  mucin, (a substance soluble in alcohol
while boiling,) and gluten.
  Gluten is  believed to  be highly nutritive, and to
impart to wheat its superiority as an aliment over
the  grains of the other cereals.   " It is the pres-
ence of gluten in wheaten flour that renders it pre-
eminently nutritious, and its viscidity or  tenacity
confers  upon that species of flour its peculiar ex-
cellence for  the manufacture of macaroni, vermi-
celli, and similar pastes, which are made  by  a
kind of wire-drawing, and for which the wheat of
the south of Europe (more abundant in gluten than
our own) is  particularly adapted.   The superiority
of wheaten  over other  bread  depends upon the
greater  tenacity of its dough,  which in panary fer-
mentation  is puffed up by the evolved  carbonic
acid, and retained in its  vesicular  texture, so as to
form a very light loaf."  (Brande.)
   Prep.  Mix flour with  a little water  into a stiff
paste, as for pastry, and knead this paste in water,
 until the starch and saccharine matter are washed
 out.  Gray, extensible while fresh  and  moist, like
 elastic  gum: turns blue when mixed with guaia-
 cum.
   GLYCERINE.   (From yXvKvs, sweet.)  A
 sweet substance formed  in the process of saponify-
 ing oils and fats.  It is the hydrated oxide of the
 theoretical  organic radical glycerule.  (Liebig.)
   Prep. Digest equal parts of ground litharge and
 olive oil, along with a  little  water at  the boiling
 temperature, constantly stirring and replacing the
 water as it evaporates.  When the compound has
 acquired the consistence of  a plaster, wash it well
 with hot water, decant  the  latter and filter ; then
 pass sulphureted hydrigen  through it,  to throw
 down the lead;  again filter  and evaporate to a si-
rup, in a water-bath.  It may be decolored witfc
animal charcoal.  The product  much resembles
sirup in taste and appearance.
  Remarks.  This substance may now be procured
in solution, by  hogsheads  at  a time, from  the
stearine makers, who obtain it by the saponification
of tallow.  It is evaporated and largely employed to
adulterate moist sugar.
  GLYCYRRHIZIN.  Syn.  Glycion.   Licor-
ice Sugars.  An uncrystallizable sugar, unsuscep-
tible of vinous fermentation,  contained in liquorice
root.  (Glycyrrhiza glabra.)  It is soluble both in
water and alcohol, and possesses basic properties.
  GOLD.  Syn. Aurum, (Lat.) Or, (Fr.) Gold,
(Ger.)   This metal appears  to have been  known
to the remotest ages of antiquity, and to have been
then as much  esteemed  as at the present day.
According to the writings of Moses, the art of work-
ing both in gold and silver must have  reached a
considerable degree of advancement at that peri-
od ; for these metals were commonly worked up
into ornaments  to decorate  the  person.  " Speak
now in the ears of the people, and  let every man
borrow of his neighbor, and every woman  borrow
of her neighbor, jewels of silver and jewels of gold."
(Exodus, xi. 2.)   The date of this injunction, ac-
cording to the best authorities,  must have  been
about 1500 years before Christ, or fully 3300 years
ago.  A description of the uses of gold in the arts,
and  its influence on society in all ages, as a sym-
bol of wealth and an article of ornament and utili-
ty, would embrace the whole history of mankind.
At the present day it alike contributes to the con-
veniences, comforts, and luxuries of life ;—as often
exciting the baser passions of the human heart as
promoting the cause of benevolence  and virtue.
  Prep.  The preparation of gold consists merely in
its purification.   It  is usually found alloyed with
silver.  The latter metal is  removed  by the pro-
cess termed "parting," either  in the dry way, by
fusion along with sulphur or sulphuret of antimo-
ny, or in the wet way, by quartation.   (See As-
baying and Ores.)
  Prop.  The most marked  properties of  gold are
its  ductility, malleability, and  insolubility in  all
menstrua, except aqua regia  and aqueous chlorine,
and its slight affinity for oxygen.   It  is the only
simple metal that  possesses a yellow  color.   Its
sp. gr. is 19*2 to 19*4.
   Tests.  Gold is characterized by its yellow color,
its insolubility in nitric acid, and ready solution in
nitromuriatic arid,  forming a yellow  liquid  that
stains the skin purple.  Protosulphate of iron throws
down  metallic  gold from this solution, and  pro-
tochloride of tin and protonitrate  of mercury, dark
or black precipitates.
   Uses.  In medicine, has been given  in the form
of powder, in scrofula and  syphilis, by Chrestien,
Niel, and others, with apparent advantage, \ gr.
to 1 gr., 3 or 4 times a day, in pills.   An ointment
made of 1 gr. of powdered gold and  30 grs. of lard,
has been applied by Niel  to the skin  deprived of
the epidermis,  (endermically.)
   GOLD-BEATER'S  SKIN,  is   prepared from
the peritoneal membrane of the efficum, which, as
soon as  it is detached, is pulled out to the extent
 of 2 feet or upwards, then dried.  The dried mem-
 brane, which  has  the appearance  of a piece of
 packthread, is then soaked in  a very weak solu- 
GOL
343
GOL
 tion of potash, and spread out flat  on a frame ;
 another  membrane is then taken and applied to
 the other, so that the  two surfaces which adhered
 to the muscular membrane of the intestine may
 adhere together; they unite  perfectly, and soon
 dry.  The skins are then glued on a hollow frame,
 washed with alum water, dried, washed with a
 solution of isinglass in white wine, to  which spices,
 such as cloves, nutmegs, ginger, or camphire, have
 been added, and varnished with white of egg.  Used
 to separate  the leaves of gold while  being beat
 thinner, and as a defensive for cuts.
   GOLD, CHLORIDE OF.  Syn. Terchloride
 of Gold.   Muriate of Gold.  Chloride  d'Or.
 Aur^iChloridum.  Auri terchloridum.   Auri
 CHLoi*ii$ETUM.   Auri murias, &c.   Prep.  (P.
 Cod.)   Gold 1  part; nitromuriatic acid 3 parts;
 dissolve ;  evaporate till vapors of chlorine  begin
 to be  disengaged, then set the solution aside to
 crystallize.
   Prop., Uses, <J-c.   Orange red crystalline nee-
 dles, or ruby red prismatic crystals;  deliquescent,
 soluble in water, ether, and alcohol; at the heat
 of 400° it is decomposed.  Protosulphate of iron,
 oxalic, sulphurous, and  phosphorous  acids, and
 most of the  metals,  decompose its  solution with
 the  precipitation of metallic  gold.  It has been
 employed by Duportal, Chrestien, Niel, Cullerier,
 Legrand, and others, as a substitute  for mercury,
 in scrofula, bronchocele, chronic skin diseases, &c.
 It has also been employed as a caustic.   Dose.
 one-twentieth gr., dissolved in distilled water, or
 made  into a pill with starch.
   There  is  also a yellow insoluble protochloride
 of gold,  which is formed by heating the terchlo-
 ride to about 600° F.  At a red heat, both  these
 chlorides  give up their chlorine, and pure gold re-
 mains behind.
   GOLD,   CHLORINE  OF,  (SOLUTION.)
 Syn. Solution of Muriate of Gold.  Hydro-
 ciilorate d'Or en Solution.  A weak solution
 of chloride of gold in distilled water.   Used to dis-
 cover  the presence of oils in  distilled waters and
 alcohol.
   GOLD,  CYANIDE OF.  Syn.  Tercyanide
 of Gold.  Cyanuret of Gold.   Tercyanuret
 of Gold.   Auri  tercyanidum.   Auri cyanure-
 tum, &c.  Prep. (P.  Cod.)   Add a  solution of
 pure cyanide of potassium to a neutral solution of
 pure chloride of gold,  as long  as  a precipitate
 forms ; carefully wash and dry.   A  yellow, inso-
.luble powder.  It has been used in  medicine in
 the same cases as the last.   Dose. One-fifteenth
 to one-tenth of a gr., made into a pill.
   GOLD  DETERGENT,  PARISIAN,  (UP-
 TON  and   CO'S.)   Prep.  Quicklime  1  oz.;
 sprinkle with a little water to slake it, then gradu-
 ally add water  1  pint, so as to form a milk ; dis-
 solve pearlash 2  oz. in water  1  quart; mix  the
 two solutions, cover up, agitate occasionally for an
 hour, allow it to settle, decant the clear, put it into
 flat  half-pint bottles, and  well  cork them down.
 Use. To clean gilding, &c., either alone or diluted
 with water.-  It  is applied with a  soft 6ponge, and
 then washed off with clean water.   (See Gilding
 Liquor.)
   GOLD,  FACTITIOUS.  Prep.  Zinc 1  part;
 platinum  7  parts; copper  16 parts ;  fuse together.
   Remarks.  This alloy resembles gold of 16 car-
ats fine, or §, and will resist the action of nitric
acid, unless very concentrated and boiling.
  GOLD, FULMINATING.   Syn. Aurate oi
Ammonia.  Ammoniuret of teroxide of Gold.
AURUM  FULMINANS.  AuRI  OxiDUM  AMMOSIATUM.
Prep. I. Digest recently precipitated peroxide of
gold in strong liquor of ammonia for 24 hours ; dry
in the  open  air or at a  low temperature, vbeloW
212°,) and avoid the slightest friction lest it should
explode.  A deep olive-colored powder.
  II. Digest  terchloride  of gold, in  ammonia in
excess.   Brownish yellow.
  III.  Dissolve gold in aqua regia, (made by dis-
solving 4 oz.  of sal ammoniac  in  12 or 16 oz. of
nitric acid,) and precipitate with a  solution of car-
bonate of potassa.
  Remarks.  Fulminating gold should be made in
very small quantities at a time, to avoid risk, as
without great care it explodes with  extreme  vio-
lence.   This  is caused by the slightest friction or
sudden increase of heat.  Its fulminating property
may be destroyed  by boiling it in pearlash lye, or
oil of vitriol; and by heating the powder  after
washing it '  * water, pure gold will   be obtained.
Fulminating ^ lid is  said  to be  sedati.ve, antispas-
modic, and  carminative.   It  has  been given in
doses  of 1  to 5 grs., in  fevers, nervous diseases,
colic, and in  similar cases to those  mentioned un-
der Chloride  of Gold.  Its use has, however, " in
some cases produced very serious, and even fatal
results."  (Pereira.)
  GOLD, GRAIN.  Syn.  Aurum granulatum.
Cupelled gold 1 part, silver 3 parts, melt and pour
in a small stream into water, dissolve  out the silver
with nitric  acid, and heat the  grains to redness.
Used to make preparations of gold.
  GOLD, IODIDE OF.   Syn.  Auri Iodidum.
Prep. (P. Cod.)   To a  solution of terchloride of
gold, add another of iodide of potassium, (in excess;
Johnston;)  wash the precipitate in  alcohol,  and
dry it.
  Remarks.  This is  the protiodide  of gold.
(Johnston, Liebig.)   It is a greenish  yellow pow-
der, soluble in dilute hot solution of iodide of potas-
sium, from which it crystallizes on cooling in golden
yellow  scales.  M.  Meillet recommends the use
of hydriodate of ammonia as the precipitant, in
preference to  the  iodide of potassium, as thereby
the whole of  the chloride of gold is  decomposed,
which is not the  case when  the  latter is used.
Iodide of gold loses  iodine at common temperatures,
and should  therefore be  kept in a cold place, and
in well-stopped vials.  Dose. One-fifteenth to one-
tenth of a grain in pills.  It is  also made  into an
ointment.
   The  teriodide  of gold  is formed when  the
previous process is  reversed, and  the terchloride of
gold is added  to a  solution of iodide of potassium.
(Johnston.)   It is a dark-green powder, soluble in
solutions of hydriodic acid, and the iodides of po-
tassium  and sodium.  From the latter,  dark-brown-
ish  red  crystals of auroiodide  of  potassium are
deposited by standing.
  GOLD LEAF.   Syn. Aurum foliatum.  Au-
rum in libellis.   Gold reduced to  leaves by ham-
mering  between goldbeaters' skin.  These leaves
are only 1-282,000th of an inch thick.  Gilt silver
is hammered  in the same way, but the leaves are
thicker.  The latter is called ' party gold.'  Used 
GOL                   344                    GOU
 in gilding by artists and gilders, and  by druggists
 to gild pills, &c.
   GOLD,  LIQUID.   Syn.  Potable  Gold.
 Aurum potabile.  Prep.  Agitate  ether with  a
 solution of terchloride of gold for some time, allow
 it to repose, and decant the supernatant portion.
   Remarks. Naphtha and  essential  oils possess
 the same property as ether of  taking gold from its
 solutions.   This liquid was  formerly held  in great
 esteem as a cordial medicine.  It is now only em-
 ployed  for writing on steel, gilding,  &c.  As it
 dries, it leaves a coating of pure gold.
   GOLD, OXIDES OF.  Prep.  I. (Protoxide
 of gold.)   Precipitate a solution of terchloride of
 gold with  a cold solution of pure potassa.  A green
 powder, partially soluble in  liquor of potassa, and
 spontaneously changing into  metallic  gold and
 peroxide of gold.
  II. (Binoxide of gold.)   This is supposed to be
 the purple powder formed  by the  combustion of
 gold.
  III. (Peroxide  of gold.  Oxide of do.  Ter-
 oxide of do.  Auric acid.   Auri  oxydum. Auri
 teroxydum.  Crocus of gold.   Crocus solis.)   a.
 (P. Cod.)   Calcined magnesia  4 parts; terchloride
of gold 1 part; water 40 parts; mix, boil;  wash
the precipitate first with water,  next  with  dilute
nitric arid, and lastly again with water.  Dry in
the shade.
  /J.  (Pesth.) Neutral chloride of gold, containing
 1  part  of gold;  water 12 parts; carbonate  of
potassa 1 part, dissolved in  water 2 parts; digest
at 170°, well wash  the precipitate with water,
dissolve in colorless nitric acid sp.  gr. *1*400, and
decompose the solution by admixture with water.
The  precipitate is the pure  hydrated peroxide of
gold;  it may be rendered anhydrous by drying it
at a  heat of 212°. (Liebig.)
  Remarks.   In the state of  hydrate, teroxide of
gold  is  yellow,  but dark-brown or black, when
free  from  water.   It  is  insoluble  in  water, and
completely decomposed by solar light and a  red
heat.   It dissolves in muriatic acid, forming ter-
chloride of gold, and  also in some of  the  oxygen
acids, but  is again precipitated on  the addition of
water.  It  unites with the  alkalis  and  earths
forming salts, which  have  been termed  aurates,
from the  oxide  playing  the part  of  an  acid in
their composition.  It has been given as a medi-
cine  in scrofula, &c, in doses of one-tenth to
1 gr., made into a pill with extract of mezereon.
  GOLD POWDER. Syn.  Pulvis Auri. Aurum
Pulveratum.  Prep.   (P.  Cod.)   Triturate leaf
gold  with  sulphate of potassa, (in  crystals,) and
wash out the  latter with boiling water.  Used in
medicine,  painting, gilding, &c.  (See  Gilding
Powder.)
  GOLD,  RING.  Prep.  I.  Spanish copper 6$
pennyweights; fine silver 3£ do.; gold coin 29 do.;
fuse  together.  Worth about 3/. per oz.
  II. Spanish copper  8 oz. 8  pennyweights; fine
silver 10 pts.; gold coin 1 oz.; fuse.   Worth 35s.
 to 40s. an ounce.
  GOLD, SODA-CHLORIDE OF.  Syn. Soda
 Muriate  of  Gold.   Chloride  of Gold and
 Soda.   Auro-terchloride of  Sodium.   Sodii
 auro-chloridum.   Sodii   auro-terchloridum.
 Auri et Sodii chloruretum.  Aurum  muriaticum
 HA-tronatum.  Prep.   (P. Cod.)   Terchloride  of
 gold  85 parts;  chloride of sodium 16 parts; din*
 solve in a  little distilled  water, evaporate  till «
 pellicle forms, then  put  it  aside to crystallize.
 Dose. One-twentieth  to one-tenth gr., made into
 a pill with starch or lycopodium, it'the same  cases
 in which the terchloride is  ordered.   Mixed with 2
 or 3 times its weight  of orris powder, it is used in
 frictions on the tongue and  gums; and an ointment
 is made with 1 gr.  mixed with  36 grs. of  lard.
 The latter is applied to the  skin, deprived of the
 epidermis by a blister.
   GOLD SOLDER.   Prep. Pure gold 12 penny-
 weights; silver 2 do.; copper 4 do.; fuse together.
 Used by jewellers to solder gold.
   GOLD, SULPHURET OF.  Prep.  Thifwmit
 a current of  sulphureted hydrogen gas tfiwtfgh a
 solution of chloride of gold in water; or add  a so-
 lution of hydro-sulphuret of ammonia to the  same
 solution;  collect the precipitate,  wash  with cold
 distilled water, and dry in  the shade.
   GOOSEBERRIES.   Ripe  gooseberries  are
 wholesome,  but the skins and seeds  should not be
 eaten, as they are very indigestible.  They may
 be preserved by bottling.   (See Fruit.)
   GOOSEBERRY  CHEESE.  Prep. Gather
 the rough red gooseberries  when quite ripe;  bake
 them until they are  a perfect mash; pass  them
 through a hair-sieve, then put them into a preserv-
 ing-pan, and boil them gently.  To  every pound
 of gooseberries put three ounces of sugar, which
 should be 6trewed in every now and  then, a little
 at a time.   It will take several  hours to boil, is
 order to obtain the proper thickness.
  GOOSEBERRY  FOOL.  Prep.   Put  the
 fruit  into a  stone  jar, with some  good Lisbon
 sugar; set the jar on a stove, or  in a saucepan of
 water over the fire; if  the former, a large spoon-
 ful of water should be  added to the fruit.  When
 it is done enough to pulp, press  it  through a colan-
 der: have ready a sufficient quantity of new milk,
 and a teacupful of raw cream  boiled together, or
 an egg instead of the latter, and leave it to  cool:
 then sweeten pretty well with  fine Lisbon sugar,
 added to the pulp by degrees.
  GOOSE  GREASE.  Syn.   Adeps  Anseris.
 From  roasted goose.  Yellowish white, strong
scented, emollient,  used in  clysters, and  when
scented, as  a pommade to make the hair grow,
 for which purpose it is said to be superior to bear's
grease.  In quantity it is an emetic of very easy
action.
  GOUT.    (From  goute,  Fr. -the  origin  of
 which is uncertain.   Dr. Good./  A painful dis-
 ease that chiefly attacks the male sex, particularly
 those of  a   corpulent  habit  and  robust frame.
 Persons who live temperately and take much ex-
 ercise are seldom troubled  with gout.  Indolence,
 inactivity, luxurious habits of life, and free living,
 are the chief exciting  causes of  this disease, but
 excessive study, grief,  watchfulness, exposure to
 cold,  and the  too free use of acidulous liquors,
 also  occasionally bring  it  on.  In some persons,
 gout is an hereditary disease.
  Symp.  Gout is generally preceded by unusral
 chilliness of the feet and legs, and a numbness, or
 a sensation of prickling along the lower extremi-
 ties;  the appetite  fails,  flatulency,  indigestion,
 torpor, and languor ensue, and extreme  lassitude
 and  fatigue follow  the least bodily exercise; the 
GOU                   345                   GRA
bowels become costive and the urine pallid.   The
fits usually come on  in the night; the patient is
awaked by the severity of the pain,  generally in
the first joint of the  great toe, or occasionally in
the heel, whole foot, or calf of the leg.  The pain
resembles that of a dislocated joint, accompanied
by a sensation  resembling the  affusion  of cold
water;   the   pain  increases,  rigors  and  febrile
symptoms  ensue,  accompanied with  local throb-
bing  and inflammation.   Sometimes  both feet or
legs are  attacked; at others, only one.  Towards
morning the  patient generally falls  asleep, and
sinks into  a  state of copious perspiration,  from
which he awakes  comparatively recovered.   This
constitutes what is called a fit of gout.   These
fits or paroxysms are apt to  return  at intervals,
commonly every evening, with more  or less vio-
lence, and when frequent, the disease usually ex-
tends its action, the joints become affected, and
concretions of a chalky  nature (gout-stones) are
formed  upon  them,  and they become stiff and
nearly immoveable.
   Treat.  A plain or vegetable diet, moderate ex-
ercise, and the use of warm laxatives, gentle tonics,
diaphoretics, and  diuretics, are  among the best
preventives.   The moderate use of alkaline rem-
edies has  also been  recommended.  To  remove
the fit  of gout, or to check it at its  commence-
ment, the affusion of cold water will be  usually
found effective.   The use of the eau  medicinale,
or the  vinum colchici  of  the  Pharmacopoeia,
should  also be had  recourse  to; a  due  dose of
which taken  at bedtime will  frequently carry off
the  paroxysm,  and  nearly always mitigate  the
symptoms.  The effects of the above remedies do
not  greatly differ  from  each other; for  " after
taking  about  60  drops of either,  the  pulse  be-
comes slower, and  at length sinks in about 12
hours, from 10 to 20 strokes per minute below its
natural number, at which time the inflammation
subsides.  The action of both medicines is accom-
panied with great  languor, and a  deadly nausea or
sickness, which terminates in vomiting or a dis-
charge  from the bowels,  or both."  These symp-
toms have often reached  an alarming extent, and
in some constitutions follow even a moderate dose.
This method  of cure should not  therefore be un-
advisedly and  incautiously  adopted.  It  must,
however, be confessed, that  colchicum properly
administered,  will almost always alleviate  the
symptoms, and lessen the frequency of  the at-
tacks ;  and numerous instances  are on  record,
where the inroads on the  constitution were in-
creasing to an  alarming  extent,  and that  at an
advanced period of life, in which colchicum, care-
fully administered, seems  at least  to have lessened
the severity of the disease, if not to have been the
active agent  in its  removal.   (See  Colchicum,
Eau medicinale, &c.)
   GOUT PILLS, LARTIGUES.  Prep.  Com-
pound extract of colocynth 20 gr.; alcoholic ex-
tract  of colchicum seeds,  and  alcoholic  extract of
digitalis, of each 1 cr.;  mix and  divide into pills
weighing 15 centigrammes each.  The compound
extract of colocynth used above,  is to be made as
follows:—Pulp of colocynth 185 grammes; ex-
tract of aloes 370 do.; bruised  scammony 125 do.;
cardamom  seeds 30 do.;  hard  soap 90 do.;  spirit,
at 25° or sp.  gr.  *906, 4 quarts;  macerate the
              44
colocynth in the spirit for 3 days, strain, add the
aloes, scammony, and soap, evaporate to a propel
consistence, then  add  the  cardamoms  in line
powder.   (Bouchardat.)
  GOUTTES AMERES, (Fr.)  Bitter  Drops.
Prep. Nux vomica, rasped, lb. j ; liquor of potassa
§ss;  bistre  3j;  compound  spirit  of  wormwood
gxxxij;  digest for 10  days.  Stomachic.   Dose.
1 to 8 drops in water, or any bitter infusion.
  GRAINS  OF  PARADISE   Syn.  Guinea
Grains.  Malaguetta Pepper.   The seeds of the
amomum grana-paradisi.  Grains of paradise pos-
sess similar aromatic properties to the other pep
pers.  In some parts of the world  they are used
as a condiment.  They are principally employed
in England to impart a false strength to wine,
beer, spirits, and vinegar.  There  is a penalty of
200Z. on the brewer for using them, and 500/.  on
any druggist who sells them to a brewer.
  GRANADINE.   Syn. Grenadine.  A sweet
substance found  by Latour de Trie in the bark of
the pomegranate root.   It has since been shown
to be mannite.
  GRANULATION.   The reduction of metals
into grains  or drops.  This is done  by pouring
them, in  the melted state, into water.  In many
cases they are allowed to run through the holes of
a species  of colander or sieve, to produce minute
division; and  in order to render the drops  spheri-
cal, they are  allowed  to fall  from a  sufficient
height to permit of their acquiring the solid state
before striking the water. Lead shot is granulated
in this way.  Shot towers are often upwards  of
100 feet in height.
  GRAPE  SUGAR.   Obtained  from the juice
of grapes by saturating the acid with chalk, de-
canting  the clear  liquid, evaporating  to  a sirup,
clarifying with white of egg, or  bullock's  blood,
and then carefully  evaporating to dryness.  It
may be  purified for chemical purposes, by solution
in boiling alcohol.   Like other sugar,  it may be
decolored  by animal charcoal.  Less sweet than
cane sugar.   It yields by refining, 75$ of a white
granular sugar,  and  24$ of a  kind  of treacle.
(Gray.)
  GRAPES.  Grapes  may be  kept by packing
them  in jars,  (each bunch being first wrapped up
in silver paper,) and covering  every layer with
bran, well dried,  laying a little of it in the  bottom
of the jar; then a  layer of grapes, and so on, a
layer  of bran  and of grapes alternately,  till the
jar is filled: then shake it gently, and fill it to the
top  with bran, laying some paper over it, and cov-
ering the  top with a bladder, tied firmly on to ex-
clude the air;  then  put on the top or cover of the
jar, observing that it fits close.   These jars should
be kept  in a dry situation.  (See Apples, Fruit,
and Fermentation.)
  GRAVES.  Syn. Greaves.  The sediment of
melted tallow, consisting chiefly of animal mem-
branes mixed with fat,  made up into cakes.  Used
as a coarse food for dogs.
  GRAVY. (In Cookery.)  Strong soup  or the
juice of meat, spiced and flavored. (See Sauces.)
  GRAY DYE.   Syn.  Teinture grise, ('•>.)
Graufarbe, (Ger.)  Proc.  I.  Sumach 2  lbs.;
logwood 1 lb.; make a decoction with water, pass
the stuff  through  it,  and afterwards  through  a
weak  iron water, (sulphate or acetate ;) lastly, add 
GRE                    316                    GUA
a littlu iron liquor to the decoction, and again turn
the stuff through it.  This gives a pearl gray.
   II. Dissolve  1  lb. of tartar in 4 gals, of water,
turn the stuff through  the liquor for half an hour;
add a decoction of galls -} lb., and sumach 1A lb.;
put in the stuff and  boil for half an hour; then
take out the stuff, add sulphate of iron 1 lb., and
when dissolved again, put it  in, and work it well
for half an  hour  longer.  Ash  gray.   This will
dye 15 to 25 lbs. of wool.
   III.  Galls bruised 2  lbs.; winestone  1 lb.; wa-
ter 16 gallons; boil for 30 minutes.then put in the
stuff, and work  it  well for half  an hour; take it
out,  add 3 lbs. of  green copperas, and when dis-
solved  again, put  in the goods and work  them
well.  Ash gray.   This will  dye 60 to 70 lbs. of
wool.  The addition of a little alum converts this
into a mouse gray.
  IV. Pass the stuff through a weak fustic  bath,
and next through a very weak decoction of galls,
to which a little alum has been  added; then re-
move the goods, refresh the bath with a little log-
wood, boil half an  hour, add some blue and green
vitriol, and when dissolved, finish the stuff therein.
Yellowish gray.
  V. Give the stuff a  pale blue tint in the indigo
:ath, then pass it through  a weak  decoction of
galls and  sumach, take it out, add a  little iron
liquor to the bath, and work the stuff well through
it.  In this way may be given every shade of iron
gray, slate gray,  and  the other shades that turn
upon the blue.
  GREEK  FIRE.  This  is supposed to  have
consisted of a mixture of asphaltum or pitch, nitre,
and sulphur.
  GREEN  DYES.   Proc.   First dye the  stuff
blue, observing to regulate the shade according to
that of the intended green;  dry and rinse ; then
give  it  a  bath  of yellow dye, until the  desired
shade is produced.  (See  Blue  Dyes, Indigo,
Yellow Dye.)
  GREEN  PIGMENTS.   Syn. Couleurs ver-
tes, (Fr.)   Grune Pigments, (Ger.)  Any shade
of green may be  produced by the mere mechan-
ical admixture of blue and yellow pigments.  The
bright  blues  and  yellows produce  the liveliest
greens;  orange, or red and blue, and the yellow-
ish browns  and  blue,  the  more dingy  greens.
Among  the  green pigments of the shops, may be
mentioned the following:
  Green bice, or mountain  green, is the mineral
substance called Malachite.   It is a green carbon-
ate of copper.  It is also prepared artificially.
  Brunswick green, or Bremen green.  Several
preparations are sold  under  this  name.  When
prepared according to the formula given at  page
218, it is an oxychloride of  copper,  but as com-
monly  made, it  is a carbonate of copper, mixed
with variable quantities of chalk, white lead, alu-
mina, magnesia, or ammonia.  The following is a
good and cheap form  for this  article:—Dissolve
blue vitriol and alum in a large quantity of water,
and precipitate with a solution of carbonate of am-
monia, or bone spirits  ; collect the powder,  wash
it with water, and dry  it.  The clear liquor may
be used to  make sal ammoniac.   Brunswick
green, prepared as above, is a mixed  carbonate of
copper and alumina.   The proportion of alum em-
ployed modifies the shades  of green, and  also
cheapens it.  Bremen green is properly green ver*
diter, but the names are usually confounded.  Th«
same may be said of  Brunswick green, which is,
properly a crude oxychloride of copper, prepared
according to the formula in page 218.
  Friese green,  or  Friesland  green, is an oxy-
chloride of copper.  (See p. 218.)
  Iris green, prepared by grinding tho juice of
the petals of the blue flag (iris nostras) with quick-
lime.   This green is not gene*-ally kept, and is fu-
gitive.
  Mitt is green, or Scheele's, is an arsenite of cop-
per, made by mixing a solution  of sulphate of cop-
per with  arsenite of  potassa.   (See  Scheele'b
Green.)
  Mineral green, the same as mountain green, or
green bice, just noticed.  (See page 217.)
  Prussian green, the sediment of the  process of
making prussian blue  from  bullock's blood or
horns, before  it has had the muriatic  acid added to
it.  It is also prepared by  pouring liquid chlorine
upon freshly precipitated prussian blue.
  Sap green,  prepared from  the juice of buck-
thorn berries.  The berries are allowed to ferment
for  a week or eight days  in a wooden tub.  The
juice is then pressed out, strained, a little alum
added, and the whole evaporated to a proper con-
sistence ; it is then  run into pigs' bladders, and
hung up in a dry situation, to  harden.   An infe-
rior article  is also made  from the juice of black
alder, and of evergreen privet.   It is  a comiron
practice to add J pint of lime-water and £ oz. of
gum arabic, to every pint  of either  of  the above
juices.
  Schweinfurt green  is a superior description of
Scheele's green,  or an arsenite of copper.  (See
Schweinfurt Green)
  Verditer (green,) is a mixture of  oxide of cop-
per and whiting.  (See Verditer.)
  Verona  green.   The   mineral  called  green
earth.
  GREGORY'S SALT.   The crude hydrochlo-
rate of morphia, prepared by Gregory's process.
It is a double hydrochlorate of  morphia and  co-
deia.
  GRINDSTONES,  ARTIFICIAL.   Prep.
Washed  silicious sand 3   parts; shellac  1  part;
melt,  and  form  it into the  proper  shape  while
warm.   The  fineness of the sand must  depend on
the work  the  stone  is intended for.   Powdered
emery  may be  substituted for  sand.   The same
composition is formed upon pieces of  wood, for the
purpose of  sharpening knives, and cutting stones,
shells, &c.
  GRUEL.  (In Cookery.)   Oatmeal or groats
boiled with water to  a proper consistence, and
strained.  It is variously flavored to suit the palate ;
but the addition of a  little  white sugar,  and finely
powdered  Jamaica ginger,  with or without a glana
of wine,  is least likely  to offend the  stomach.
Nutmegs,  cinnamon, &c,  frequently disagree
with invalids.
  GUAIACINE.  Syn. Guaiacic Acid.  A pe-
culiar substance, discovered by Trommsdorff in the
wood and bark  of  guaiacum  officinale.  Prep.
Treat tincture of guaiacum with hydrate of lime,
when a guaiacate of lime  is formed, from which
the acid may be obtained by sulphuric acid.
  GUAIACUM.  Syn. Gum  Guaiacum.   This
rt 
GUT                    347                   ILEM
■ubstance is  sometimes  adulterated.   The  Edin-
burgh  College states that its  " fresh fracture  is
red, slowly passing to green; the tincture slowly
strikes a lively blue color on the inner surface of a
thin paring of a  raw potato." (P. E.)  Adultera-
tion with resin  may be generally discovered  by
the odor evolved  when  the  guaiacum is heated.
An alcoholic  tincture of guaiacum, rendered milky
with water, recovers its transparency on the addi-
tion of caustic potassa in excess; but this  is not
the case when resin is present.
  One of the  most marked properties of guaiacum
is  its turning blue by  contact  with gluten, and
several  other substances in  the air; nitric acid
and aqueous  chlorine turn  it successively  green,
blue,  and brown.  A delicate  photogenic  paper
may be formed by first washing with an alcoholic
solution of guaiacum resin,  and afterwards with
one of neutral acetate of lead.   (Johnston.)
   GUT,  FISHING.   Syn.   Silkworm  Gut.
Prep.  Steep silkworms, when just ready to spin,
in strong vinegar for  12 hours, in warm weather,
or 2 or 3 in cold ;  then take them out, break them
in half, stretch them out as  far as possible on a

  * It is right to caution the reader of the dangerous na-
ture of all  cnmpmnds contMining either  gunpowder, or
nitre, or chlorate of  potash, in contact with combu t:ble
■ulj-Mnres, as seriou-i accidents h tve arisen from handling
them c  relessly  The use of metallic implements or uten-
g'.ls should  be avoided, and  the  ingredients should  be
mixed and kept at a distance from a fire or candle.
  j These powders also contained frou. -5 tr.  1*1 of water.
  GUM.   Syn.  Gummi,  (Lat.)   Gomme,  (Fr.)
Gummi ;  Pflanzenschleim,  (Ger.)   Inspissated
vegetable mucilage.  The purest substance of this
kind is that called gum arabic,  or gum acacia.
The gums  are employed as demulcents in medi-
cine, and are used as cements.
  GUM-RESINS.  .Syn.  Gummi resina*., (Lat)
GOMME-RESINES,  (Fr.)   SciILEIMHARZE,  (Ger.)
Inspissated vegetable juices, consisting of extrac-
tive and resinous matter.  They are partly soluble
in water and in alcohol. The principal gum-resins
are  frankincense,  scammony, asafcetida,  aloes,
euphorbium, galbanum, myrrh, olibanum, opopo-
nax, ammoniacum, and gamboge.
  GUNPOWDER.   Under this  head  will be
given the proportions of the  ingredients employed
in the manufacture of the most  celebrated pow-
ders,  reserving a description of their preparation
for the article  Pyrotechny.*
board, furnished with slits or pegs to  hold  them,
and dry them in the sun.   Used by anglers.  The
worms may be known to be going to spin by re-
fusing food,  and by  having a fine silken thread
hanging from their mouths.   (Nobb's Art of Troll-
ing.)                ______

  H^EMATOSINE.  A species  of albumen on
which the color of the blood is supposed to depend.
It may be  obtained from blood, previously well
stirred to separate the fibrine, by mixing it with  6
times its volume of a saturated solution of sulphate
Table showing the Relative Proportions of Charcoal, Nitre, and Sulphur, contained in some of the
                                  most celebrated Gunpowders:
Authorities, or place of manufacture.	Nitre.	Charcoal.	Sulphur.
English :			
Royal Mills, Waltham Abbey	75	15	10
Sporting powder, (Marsh)....	78	12	10
do. (Marsh) ....	76	15	9
tdo. Hall, Dartford, (Ure) .	76-2	14	9
tdo. Pigou & Wilks, (Ure)	77-4	13*5	8-5
tdo. Curtis &, Harvey, (Ure).	76-7	12-5	9
tBattle powder, (Ure).....	77	13-5	8
Miners' do. (Marsh) ....	65	15	20
Common do. (Marsh)	75	12-5	12*5
French:			
Government powder.....	75	12-5	12*5
Sporting do......	78	12	10
	65	15	20
Gunpowder of Bale.....	76	14	10
do. of Grenelle ....	76	12	12
do. of M. Guyton Morveau	76	15	9
do. do.	77-33	13-44	9*24
do. of M. Riffault ....	77-5	15	7*5
United SS. Government powder .	75	12-5	12*5
Russia do.	73-78	13-59	12-63
Prussia do.	75	13-5	11-5
Austria do. ...	72	17	16
Spain do.	76*47	10-78	12-75
Sweden do.	76	15	9
Switzerland do.	76	14	10
China do. ...	75	14-4	9*9
Theoretical proportion for the best gunpowder	75	13-23	11-77
 
HAI                    348                   HAN
of soda, filtering, boiling the globules with alcohol
acidulated  with sulphuric acid,  again filtering,
adding carbonate of magnesia to separate the sul-
phuric acid, and after filtering, evaporating to dry-
ness.   A dark reddish-brown  mass.
   HAEMOPTYSIS,  (from i,M, blood, and xrvo,,
I  spit.)  Spitting  of  blood.   It generally arises
from  extreme fulness of the  blood-vessels  of the
lungs, or the jupture of blood-vessels, as a conse-
quence of ulceration.   Bleeding, aperients, acidu-
lous and astringent drinks, and nauseants,  are the
usual remedies.  Sugar of lead, in small doses, has
been  recommended for this affection.   It  should
be  accompanied with a sufficient quantity of free
acetic acid, to prevent its being converted into the
poisonous carbonate of lead in the system.
   HEMORRHAGE.  Syn. Hasmorrhagia,
(from iipa, blood, and fcayv, rent.)   A bleeding or
flow of blood.  Bleeding may be divided into ac-
tive,  passive, and accidental.   Active  hamor-
rhage is that arising  from  a full state   of the
vessels, or plethora;  passive hamorrhage from
general debility of  the system, and the blood-ves-
sels in particular; accidental hamorrhage from
external violence,  as  blows,  wounds,  &c.  The
first  generally requires depletion, and the  second
the usual treatment to establish the general health
and vigor of the body.  The bleeding from wounds,
if  extensive, should be arrested by tying the rup-
tured  blood-vessels, or where  this cannot be done,
and in less  important cases, by the application  of
styptics, as creosote, sulphate of iron, infusion  of
galls,  compound tincture of benzoin, &c.
   HAIR  DYES.   Prep. I.  (Dr. Hanmau.)  Li-
tharge 275 grs.; quicklime  1875 grs.; hair pow-
der (starch)  930 grs.;  all in fine  powder;  mix.
For use, this  powder is  made into a  paste  with
warm water  or milk, and immediately applied to
the hair by means of the fingers, observing to rub
it  well into the roots.  The  whole must  be then
covered with a moist leaf of  cotton wadding, sev-
eral times doubled, and allowed to remain so for 3
hours, or preferably all night.  The powder  may
then be removed by rubbing it off with the fingers,
and afterwards washing it with warm soap and
water.  A little  pomatum or hair oil will  restore
the usual  gloss  to the hair.   This is  one of the
most  innocent preparations of the  kind.   Like  all
other  hair dyes, it must be  reapplied  as  soon  as
the hair by growing  begins to expose  an  undyed
surface underneath.   A piece of oil skin,  or  even
a  cabbage leaf, may  be used instead of cotton
wadding.
   II.  (Orfila's.)   Litharge 6  parts; quicklime 5
parts; starch 1 part.   As last.
   III. (Delcroix's.)   Acetate of lead  2 oz.; pre-
pared i.halk 3 oz.; quicklime 4 oz.  As before.
   IV. (Spencer's.)   Sap green  £ dr.;  nitrate  of
silver 1 dr.;  hot water 1 oz.; dissolve.   Applied
to the hair by means of a comb moistened  with it.
Stain>; the skin as  well as the hair.
   V.  (Hewlet's.)  Similar to the last.
   VI. (Pomade dye.)  Nitrate  of  silver  1 part;
nitric acid 2 parts; iron filings 2 parts; mix, and
let them stand together for 4  or 5 hours, then pour
them on oatmeal, 2 parts; next add lard 3 parts;
»nd mix well together.   Stains the skin without
great care.
   VII. (Instantaneous)   Moisten the hair first
 with  a solution of nitrate of silver  in water, (1 U
 7 or 8 ; and  then with a weak solution of hydro-
 sulphuret of  ammonia.   The  color  of  the hair,
 before unaltered, instantly turns black.
   VIII. The juice of the bark of green walnut*
 (Paulus jEgineta.)
   IX. Employ a leaden  comb.
   Remarks.  All the preceding are for dyeing livhif
 hair,  (human ;)  horse-hair and other dead  hair
 may  be colored by steeping them in any  of the
 ordinary dyes.
   HAMS.   (In Domestic Economy.)  These are
 usually prepared from  the legs of pigs, but those
 of the sheep are also sometimes used for the same
 purpose.  Smoked ham  is strong  eating, and ra-
 ther fit for a relish than for diet.
   Choice. Stick a sharp knife under the bone, if
 it has a pleasant smell when withdrawn, the  ham
 is good; but if the contrary, it should be rejected.
 The  recently cut fat should  be hard and  white,
 and the  lean fine-grained, and of  a  lively red.
 Legs of pork short in the hock should  alone ba
 chosen for making  into  hams, as the  lanky sort
 not  only look less  sightly,  but are deficient  in
 flavor.
   Curing. Hams are  prepared  in the usual way
 for salting, either by immersion in the pickle, or
 by rubbing the salt over them.  A little powdered
 saltpetre should be well rubbed over them an hour
 before  salting them:  moist  sugar  is frequently
 mixed  with  the salt, or treacle is  put into the
 brine  to improve the flavor; a  little spice (pow-
 dered allspice)  and  black pepper are also occa.
 sionally used for  a like purpose.  An ordinary
 sized ham will require nearly three weeks, if wet
 salted, and about a  month if dry salted, to  cure
 it perfectly.   At the expiration of this time, they
 are  ready for smoking.  Mutton  hams are pre-
 pared in a similar  manner, but should not lie in
 pickle  longer than  12 days  or a fortnight.  (See
 Animal Substances used as  Food,  and Salt-
 ing.)
   Cooking.  Preparatory to the  cooking of hams,
 they should be well soaked in water,  to which a
 little vinegar or milk  may be  added.   They are
 also preferably boiled in milk and  water, or water
 alone, along with some heads of celery, 2 or 3 tur-
 nips, 5 or 6 onions,  and a handful of sweet  marjo-
 ram, thyme, and basil.  Hams  should be put into
• the water cold,  and  should be  gradually  heated.
 A ham of 16 lbs. will take 4£ hours, and  one of
 20 lbs. 5J hours to dress it properly. (See Baking.)
   HAMS, PRESERVATION OF.   Most  gro-
 cers, dealers in hams, and others, who are particu-
 lar in their meat, usually take  the  precaution to
 case each one,  after it is smoked, in canvass, for
 the purpose of defending it from the attacks of the
 little  insect,  the dermestes lardarius,  which, by
 laying its eggs in it, soon fills it with its  larvae, or
 maggots.  This troublesome and expensive process
 may be altogether superseded by the use of  pyro-
 ligneous acid.  With a painter's brush,  dipped in
 the  liquid, one man, in the course of a day, may
 effectually secure two hundred hams from all dan-
 ger.   Care should be taken to insinuate the  liquid
 into all the cracks, &c, of the under surface. This
 method is especially adapted to the preservation of
 hams is. not climates.
   HANDS.  Dirty and coarse hands are no less 
HAR                   349                   HEA
 the marks of slothfulness and low breeding, than
 clean and delicate hands are those of cleanliness
 and gentility. To promote the softness and white-
 ness  of the  skin, mild emollient soaps,  or those
 abounding in oil, should alone be used, by which
 means  chaps  and chilblains will  generally be
 avoided. The  coarse, strong kinds  of  soap,  or
 those abounding in alkali, should for a like reason
 be rejected,  as they tend to render the skin rough,
 dry,  and brittle.   The immersion of the  hands in
 alkaline lyes, or strongly acidulated water, has a
 like effect   When the hands are very dirty, a lit-
 tle good soft soap may be used with warm water,
 which will rapidly remove oily and greasy matter.
 Fruit and  ink  stains may be  taken out by im-
 mersing the hands in water slightly acidulated with
 oxalic acid,  or a few  drops of oil of  vitriol, or to
 which a little pearlash or chloride of lime has been
 added, observing afterwards to well rinse them in
 clean water, and not to touch them with soap for
 some hours, as any alkaline matter will bring back
 the stains, after their  apparent removal by all the
 above substances,  except the last.  The use  of a
 little  chloride  of lime and warm water,  or Gow-
 lamd's  Lotion, will impart a delicate  whiteness to
 the skin ; but the former should  be  only occasion-
 ally  used, and should  be well washed off with a
 little clean water to remove its odor.   The use of
 a little  sand, or powdered pumice-stone,  with  the
 soap, will generally remove  the  roughness of the
 skin, frequently induced by exposure to cold.  The
 hands may  be preserved  dry for  delicate work, by
 rubbing a little  club  moss, (lycopodimn,) in  fine
 powder, over them.  A small quantity of this  sub-
 stance sprinkled over  the surface of a  basin of wa-
 ter, will permit the hand to be plunged to the bot-
 tom  of the  basin  without becoming wet.  (See
 Cosmetic, simple.)
   HANNAY'S LOTION.   Syn. Hannay's pre-
 ventive Wash.   A solution  of  potash in water.
 Used to prevent infection.
   HARDNESS.  Syn.  Durete, (Fr.)  Hartf. ;
 Festigkeit, (Ger.)   Duritia ;  Durities,  (Lat)
 In Physics,  the power possessed  by bodies of re-
 sisting abrasion.  In  Mineralogy, mineral sub-
 stances are frequently distinguished  and identified
 by their relative hardness. This is ascertained by
 their power  to scratch or be scratched by one an-
 other.   A valuable table on' this subject will be
 found under the article Gem, p. 331.
   HARMALINE.   A basic substance,  forming
 yellow-brown crystals, discovered by Gobel in the
 seeds of peganum harmala. It has a bitter astrin-
 gent  and acrid taste, and forms yellow soluble
 salts with the acids.   It  has  been proposed  as a
 yellow dye.   By oxidation it yields a magnificent-
 ly red dye-stuff, which is  easily prepared and ap-
 plied.  (Gobel.)  The seeds are produced abundantly
 in Russia, so that it  appears  probable that,  ere
 long,  they may become an article of commerce.
   HARTSHORN, BURNT.  Syn.  Cornu  Us-
 tum,  (P. L.)   Pulvis Cornu Cervini  Ustum,
 ^P. D.)  Cornu  Ustum  Album.  Prep. (P.  L.)
 Burn  pieces  of harts' horns until perfectly white,
 then grind and prepare them  in the  same way as
 directed for Prepared  Chalk.
   Remarks.  Finely-powdered bone-ash is usually
•sold for burnt hartshorn, and possesses  exactly the
same   properties.    Dose.  10  grs. to  3ss 2 or 3
 times  a day, in rickets, &c.  (See Phosphate of
 Lime.)
   HARTSHORN SHAVINGS.  Syn.  Harts
 horn Raspings. Rasura Cornu Cervi.  Ramen-i *
jCornu Cervi.  Obtained  from the turners.  By
 boiling in water they yield a nutritive jelly.  Used
 by straw-plait workers to stiffen bonnets, &c.
   HATS.   In purchasing a hat, choose one pos-
 sessing a short, smooth, fine nap, and a good black
 color;  and that is  light and sufficiently elastic t3
 resist ordinary wear and tear, without breaking or
 giving way.   The  hat  brush  for daily  use should
 be made of long soft  hairs, but a stiffer one should
 be employed occasionally, to  lay the nap smooth
 and close.
   HEADACHE.  Syn. Cephalalgia, (Lat.) The
 symptoms of this very general complaint are too
 well known to require any description.   According
 to pathologists, headache arises, either from a sym-
 pathy with the stomach and chylopoietic (chyle-
 forming)  viscera, or from a weakness or exhaus-
 tion of the power of the encephalon.  The former
 may be called sympathetic, and the latter nervous
 headache.  The treatment of the first should con-
 sist in  restoring the healthy action of the stomach
 by the administration of aperients, and the  use of
 proper food and exercise,  or when that viscus is
 overloaded with undigested food, by the  exhibition
 of an  emetic.  For this purpose  \ to J an oz. of
 ipecacuanha wine  may be taken  in a  cupful of
 warm   water, which will  generally relieve  the
 stomach, especially if  its action be assisted by
 drinking copiously  of warm water.  (See Emet-
 ics.)   Headache is a common accompaniment of
 indigestion and stomach diseases, and in  general
 it will  be  found that whatever will  remove the lat-
 ter will also  cure  the former.  (See Dyspepsia.)
 Nervous headaches are relieved by nervous tonics
 and stimulants ; as bark, cascarilla, calumba, gen-
 tian, camphor, ammonia,  ether,  and  wine;  the
 latter in a state of considerable dilution.  A cup
 of strong coffee or strong green tea often acts like
 a charm in  removing  this species of  headache.
 Small  doses of tincture  of henbane will  also have
 a like  effect.  20  or 30 drops of laudanum, or
 preferably, half that  number of liquor  opii  seda-
 tivus, may be taken with advantage as an ano-
 dyne, and to induce sleep.   Among popular rem-
 edies  may be mentioned " nasal  stimulants," as
 snuff,  (cephalic,)   smelling salts,   and aromatic
 vinegar, the use of which is familiar to every one ;
 and  local applications,  as very cold water, ether,
 vinegar, strong spirits, Cologne water, &c, all of
 which  are rubbed over the part of the head af-
 fected, with the fingers ; or a linen rag dipped in
them is laid thereon instead.  Pressure on the head
has  also  been used  with advantage.   Silence,
darkness, and repose,  are also powerful  remedies,
alike suitable to every variety of headache ;  and
change of air, scene, and occupation,  are espe-
cially beneficial to  those resulting  from  excessive
mental anxiety or exertion.   Blisters  are some-
times applied behind  the ears  in cases of violent
headache.
   Headache  is often symptomatic of ot.ier diseases,
especially those of  the inflammatory and nervous
kind,  rheumatism,  &c.  In  all these cases, the
primary disease should be sought out and attempt-
ed to  be  cured.   Headache  in pregnancy may 
HEM                   350                    HIE
generally be  removed  by proper attention to the
bowels;  observing to  assist their  action, should
they require it, by the use of some mild aperient,
as castor oil, lenitive electuary,  seidlitz powders,
&c.   Where the constitution is very robust, blood
may be taken.   Headache in bed may frequently
be relieved by washing the head with  cold water,
and discontinuing the use of a nightcap ; at the
same time preserving the feet warm by  wearing
worsted socks or stockings.
  HEADING.   Syn  Beer Heading.  Cauli-
flower  do.  Prep.  I. Alum and green copperas
equal parts, both in fine powder ; mix.
  II. Alum, copperas, and common 6alt, of each
equal parts; mix.
  Used  by brewers ;to make their beer  keep its
head.
  HEARTBURN.  Syn. Cardialgia ;  Cordo-
lium, (Lat)  Anxiety and pain  about  the region
of the stomach,  generally attended by  a  sense of
gnawing and heat; hence called heartburn. Faint -
ness, nausea, and eructation of a thin, acidulous,
watery liquid, especially in the morning, are com-
mon  symptoms  of this  complaint.   The usual
causes of heartburn are excess in eating or drink-
ing, the use of improper food, and sedentary habits.
A good  remedy is a  teaspoonful of carbonate of
magnesia, or carbonate of soda, in  a glass of pep-
permint or  cinnamon water,  to which a little pow-
dered ginger may be  added with advantage.  This
dose  may be taken  2  or 3 times  daily until the
disease is removed.  Articles of food  that easily
undergo fermentation should at the same time be
avoided,  and  a dry diet had recourse to as much
as possible.  Soda-water, toast  and water,  and
weak spirits and water, are the most suitable bev-
erages in this complaint.
  HELENINE.  Syn.   Elecampane Camphor.
A peculiar  substance obtained from the fresh root
of inula  Helenium, by digestion in hot alcohol or
distillation along with water.  It is crystalline, so-
luble in  alcohol, ether, and essential oils, melts at
162°, and boils about 530° F.
  HEMATINE.  Syn.  HiEMATiNE.   Hematox-
ylin.   A peculiar principle  obtained by Chevreul
from common logwood, (Haematoxylon campechi-
anum,) and on which its color appears to  depend.
  Prep.  I. Infuse logwood chips  in  water, at a
temperature of about 130° F., for 12 hours, filter,
evaporate to dryness in a water-bath, digest in al-
cohol  of 0-835 for 24  hours, again filter  and evapo-
rate ;  then  add a little water, again gently evapo-
rate and  set aside the solution in a  cold place that
crystals may  form; these must be washed in alco-
hol and dried.
  II. Digest powdered hard extract of  logwood in
alcohol of 0835 and proceed as last.
  Prop., <$-c. It forms brilliant reddish-white crys-
tals,  soluble in boiling water, forming  an orange-
red solution which turns yellow as  it cools, but re-
sumes its former color on being heated.   Alkalis
in excess change its color successively  into purple,
Violet, and  brown ; with the metallic oxides it forms
compounds, having a blue, purple, or violet color.
  HEMIDESMIC  ACID.   Syn.  Smilasperic
Acid.  A volatile and crystallizable substance ob-
tained by Mr. Garden from the root of hemidesmus
indicus.  It possesses  the taste  and odor of the
root.
  HEPAR, (Lat, from 'Hirap, the liver.) A nam*
given by the older  chejrnists to  various combina-
tions of sulphur, from their brown color; as hepar
sulphuris, (sulphuret of potassium,) hepar anlimo.
nii, (crude oxysulphuret of antimony,) &c.
  HERBS for medical purposes should  be  col.
lected as soon as they begin to flower, and on a
dry day, after the dew and moisture deposited on
them during the night have evaporated.  The bien-
nial narcotic  plants should not  be  collected untl
the second year of their growth,  as, during the
first year, they are mucilaginous and nearly inert.
The younger plants possess, however, the brightest
green color, and  make the most showy extracts,
for which reason they are frequently purchased by
the druggists  of the  herb collectors,  without an ex-
amination being made  into their  value as remedies.
This is one of the causes of the general inferiority of
the extracts of the shops which  are prepared from
the expressed juices of narcotic plants.  Color alone
is cared fori   Chlorophyle, which  constitutes the
green portion of vegetables, is a resinous substance,
which has been fully proved to be wholly destitute
of medicinal virtue.
  Herbs are dried by spreading them thinly on
trays, and exposing them to the heat of the sun,
or a current  of  dry air, or by placing them in a
stove-room ; observing in  either  case to turn them
repeatedly.  When dried in the sun they should be
covered with thin paper to prevent their color being
injured  by the light.    The quicker they are dried
the better, as " heating" or  " fermentation" will
be  thereby prevented.  When  sufficiently dried,
they should be shaken  in  a coarse sieve to  remove
any sand or the eggs of insects that may be mixed
with them.   Aromatic herbs should be dried very
quickly, and by a gentle heat, that  their odor may
be preserved.  Tops and  leaves are dried in the
same way as whole plants.  In every case  discol-
ored and rotten leaves  and branches should be re-
jected, and earth and dirt should be screened off
before proceeding to dry them.
  HESPERIDIN. A peculiar substance obtained
from the white portion of the rind of oranges, lem-
ons, &c.  It forms crystalline silky needles, is
odorless, tasteless, fusible, soluble in alcohol, and
reddened by oil of vitriol.
  HICCOUGH. Syn. Hiccup.  Singultus, (Lat.)
A convulsive  motion  of the  diaphragm and parts
adjacent.  The  common causes  are  flatulency,
indigestion, acidity, and  worms.  It may usually
be removed  by the exhibition of warm carmina-
tives, cordials, cold water, weak spirits, camphor
julep, or spirits of sal volatile.  A sudden fright or
surprise will often produce the like  effect.  An in-
stance is recorded of a  delicate young lady  that
was troubled with hiccough for  some months, and
who was reduced to  a  state of extreme  debility
from the loss of sleep occasioned thereby, who was
cured by a fright, after medicines and  topical ap-
plications had failed.   A pinch of snuff, a  glass of
cold soda-water, or an ice-cream, will also fre-
quently remove this complaint.
  HIERA  PICRA.    Syn.  Powder of aloes
and canella. Pulvis aloes cum canella.   (From
icpos, holy, and ir«cpoj,  bitter.)  Holy bitter.  This
name was formerly applied to an aloetic electuary,
made of honey.  It is now kept in the form  of a
dry powder. 
HOL                    351                    HOL
  Prep  Hepatic aloes 4 lbs.: white canella 1 lb.;
reduce to fine powder.
  Remarks. Inferior aloes are commonly used for
this preparation.  It is cathartic in doses of 10 to
20 grs.
  HIPPOCRAS. Prep. Lisbon and canary wine,
of each 12 pints ; cinnamon 2 oz.; white canella,
)f oz.; cloves, mace, nutmeg, ginger, and galgan-
gal, of  each 1 dr.;  bruise  the  spices, and digest
them  in the wine for 3 or 4 days; strain, and add
lump  sugar 2£ lbs.  An  aromatic wine formerly
much used in  England.
  HIPPURIC ACID.   (From  iTr-roj, a horse, and
ovpov,  urine.)  A new  arid, discovered by Liebig,
in the urine of the horse, cow, and other gramini-
vora.
  Prep.   Concentrate the urine by a gentle heat,
acidulate with muriatic  acid, and set it aside to
crystallize.  It may be decolored by re-solution in
boiling water, and treating it with animal charcoal,
or chloride of lime, along with a little  muriatic
acid,  and recrystallizing.
   Remarks.  This  acid  is soluble in 400 parts of
cold water, but is easily dissolved by boiling water.
When strongly heated, benzoic  acid and benzoate
of ammonia distil over in a liquid state,  accompa-
nied by a strong odor of Tonka beans, and after-
wards by hydrocyanic acid.  " The urine of horses
or cows, left to itself for some time, or evaporated
at a boiling temperature, yields  not a trace of hip-
puric acid, but only benzoic acid."  Nitric  acid
converts  hippuric into  benzoic  acid.  (See Ben-
zoic Acid.)
   HIRCIC ACID.  A name  given by Chevreul
to an oily liquid, obtained by saponifying the fat
of goats.  It is prepared in the same way  from goat
fat, as capric, caproic, and butyric acids are from
butter.   It is  soluble  in  alcohol, and possesses a
mixed smell of vinegar and goats. With the bases,
it forms  salts called hircates.
  HIRCINE.   (From  hircus, a he-goat)   An
oily fluid extracted by Chevreul from goat-fat, and
which may also be obtained from mutton suet. It
smells strongly of the  male goat.  By saponifica-
tion it yields Hircic Acid.
  HOLLANDS. Syn. Hollands Gin.  Geneva.
Jennever  Branpewyn,  (Ger.)   Spirit  of Juni-
per.  Spiritus Juniperi.   Prep. I. The following
description of  the manufacture of hollands  comes
on the authority of  Robert More, Esq.,  formerly
of Underwood, distiller,  " who,  after studying the
art at Schiedam, tried to  introduce that  spirit into
general consumption in this country, but found the
palates of our gin-drinkers too much corrupted to
relish so  pure a beverage."
  " The materials employed in  the distilleries of
Schiedam  are, two parts  of urtmalted  rye  from
Riga, weighing about 54 lbs. per bushel, and one
part of malted bigg, weighing about 37 pounds per
bushel.   The  mash tun, which  serves also as  the
fermenting tun, has a capacity of nearly 700  gal-
lons, being about 5 feet in diameter at the mouth,
rather narrower at the bottom,-and 4£ feet deep;
the stirring apparatus is an oblong rectangular iron
grid, made fast  to the end  of a wooden pole. About
a barrel (36 gallons) of water, at a temperature of
from 162° to 168°, (the former being the  best heat
for the most highly-dried rye,) is put into  the mash
tun for every 1£ cwt. of meal, after which the malt
is  introduced and stirred,  and lastly the  rye  ■
added.  Powerful agitation is given to the magma
till it  becomes quite uniform; a process  which a
vigorous workman piques himself  upon executing
in the course of a few minutes.  The mouth of the
tun is immediately covered over with canvass, and
further secured  with a coarse wooden lid, to con-
fine the heat; it is left in this state for two hours
The contents being then stirred up once more, the
transparent spent wash of a preceding mashing is
first added,  and  next as  much cold  water  as will
reduce the temperature of the whole  to about 85°
F.   The best  Flanders yeast,  which  had been
brought, for the sake of carriage, to a doughy con-
sistence by pressure, is now introduced  to the
amount of 1 lb. to every  100 gallons of the mashed
materials.  The gravity of the wort is usually from
33 to  38 lbs. per Dicas' hydrometer;  and the fer-
mentation is carried on for from 48 to 60 hours,  at
the end of which time the attenuation is from 7 to
4 lbs.; that is, the sp. gr. of the supernatant wash
is from 1*007 to 1*004.  On the third day  after the
fermenting tun  is set, the wash  containing the
grains is transferred to  the still,  and converted
into low wines. To every 100 gallons of this liquor,
2 lbs. of juniper berries, from 3 to  5 years old,
being added, along with \ lb. of salt, the whole are
put into the low-wine still, and the fine  Hollands
spirit is drawn off by a gentle and well-regulated
heat till the magma becomes exhausted ; the first
and last products being mixed together, whereby a
spirit 2 to 3 per cent above our hydrometer proof
is obtained, possessing the peculiar fine  aroma of
gin.   The product  varies from 18 to 21 gallons
per quarter of grain;  this  large  quantity  being
partly due to the employment of the spent wash
of the preceding fermentation ; an addition which
contributes at the same time to  improve  the fla-
vor."  (Ure's-Diet of Arts, &c, pp. 571—2.)
  To the preceding it may be added that the yeast
is skimmed off the fermenting tuns and sold to the
bakers ; which is said to lessen the production of
spirit, but to improve its quality.   The ingredients
are also reduced to the state of coarse meal before
mashing them.
   Remarks.  It will be seen from the preceding
statement, to the accuracy  of which the writer of
this article bears willing testimony, that the supe-
rior flavor of hollands spirit depends  more on the
peculiar  mode  of its manufacture than  on the
quantity  of juniper  berries  employed ;  2  lbs. of
that substance, when new, being equivalent to less
than 5 drachms  of the essential oil, and when old,
only to about 2 drachms-; a quantity wholly insuf-
ficient to  flavor 100 gallons of spirit.  Besides, as
already noticed,  the flavor of hollands differs con-
siderably from  that of juniper ; the latter being
merely employed as a modifying ingredient.  Most
of the Dutch distillers add a little pure Strasburgh
turpentine, and a handful  or two of hops  to the
spirit, along with the juniper berries, before  rectifi-
cation.  The former substahice has a pale yellow-
ish brown color, and a very fragrant and agreeable
smell, and tends materially to  impart that fine
aroma for which the best Geneva is so much dis-
tinguished.  The principal part of  the secret lies,
however, in the careful management of the process.
The numerous published receipts for  hollands gin,
in which 2 or 3 oz. of oil of juniper, and as  many 
HON                    352                    HON
pounds of juniper berries, are ordered to only 20
or 25 gallons of proof spirit, tend only to deceive
those who adopt them.  At Rotterdam sweet fen-
nel seeds are occasionally  added as a flavoring ;
and  at Weesoppe, Strasburgh  turpentine,  fennel
seeds, or the essential oil, are frequently wholly
substituted for juniper berries.
   Schiedam  hollands is considered the  best;  the
next quality is that of Rotterdam ;  and afterwards,
that of Weesoppe.   Hollands spirit pays a duty of
22s. &d. per proof gallon, which is the same as that
on French brandy.   See Gin.
   II. (Best  hollands.   Brandewyn von  Koorn
voorloof drie quart.)   Hollands rectified  to  the
strength of 24°  Baume,  (sp.  gr. 09125.)   The
strength of this spirit alone is no proof of its supe-
rior quality.
   III. Digest 2 or 3 lbs. of good old juniper berries
in 1  or 2 gallons of rectified spirit of wine  for a
week or 10 days, then express  the liquor, filter it
through blotting paper, add it to 90 or 100 gallons
of good corn spirit at 2 or 3% over proof, and mix
them by thorough agitation.
   IV. Juniper berries  2 to 4  lbs.; sweet fennel
seeds 4  or 5 oz.; caraway seeds 3  or 4 oz.; spirit
of wine I or 2 gallons ; corn spirit 90 or 100 gal-
lons.  As last
   V. Juniper berries, fennel seeds, caraways, and
spirit, as last; Strasburgh turpentine, a little.  Pro-
ceed as in No. III.
   Remarks.  The last  three forms produce  very
pleasant spirits, if kept  for some time to mellow ;
age  is one of the reasons of the creaminess of for-
eign gin, which usually lies in bond for some  time
before being consumed.   The product is, however,
much superior if the ingredients are put into a still
along with 20 gallons of water, and  the spirit
drawn over by a moderate heat.  In this case, it
will  be an improvement to employ some good plain-
flavored English gin. instead of plain corn spirit, if
the expense is no object.   I have  mentioned  cer-
tain quantities of the flavoring ingredients to be
employed, as a guide to the reader ; but the actual
quantities required in practice depend  on their
quality, and the taste of the consumer. The same
remark also  applies to the following.  The imita-
tion  of hollands, like that  of brandy, chiefly  de-
pends on the experience and discretion of the work-
man.
   VI. Oil  of juniper 4  oz.;  oil of turpentine 5
oz.; oils of caraways and sweet fennel, of each 1
oz., (all quite pure ;) rectified spirit of wine 1 gal-
lon ; dissolve by occasionally agitating them well
together in a corked bottle for 2 or 3 days,  then
add  it gradually to clean corn  spirit or plain gin
until the required flavor is produced, observing not
to use too much.  Product. Good, if kept for some
time.
   HONEY.  Syn. Mel, (Lat. and Fr.)  Honig,
(Ger.)   The sweet  substance  elaborated by the
bee from the juices of the nectaries of flowers, and
deposited in the cells of wax  forming the honey-
comb.  Pure  honey consists  of a sirup of  uncrys-
tallizable sugar and crystalline saccharine grains,
resembling  grape  sugar.   Virgin honey is  that
which flows spontaneously from the comb ; ordi-
nary honey, that obtained  by heat and  pressure.
The former is pale and fragrant; the latter darker,
and possessing a  less agreeable taste and smell.
English honey (Mel Anglican) is chiefly collected
from furze and broom flowers, and is more waxy
than that from the South of  Europe ;—Narbonnt
honey, (Mel Narbonense,) chiefly from rosemary,
and  other labiate  flowers,  very fine ;—Minorca
honey, (Mel Minorcense  ;)—East country honey,
inferior and bad tasted ;—Poisonous honey, found
near Trebisond, in Asia,  narcotic and poisonous.
  Uses,  6fC.   Honey is nutritive and laxative, but
very apt to gripe.   It is employed in the prepara-
tion of oxymels and gargles, and also to cover the
taste of nauseous medicines,  which it does  better
than sugar.   Clarified honey is alone ordered to be
used in medicine.
  Pur.  Honey is frequently adulterated with trea-
cle, starch, and wheat flour.  The first  may  be
detected by the color and odor, and the others  by
the honey not forming a nearly clear solution with
cold  water, and striking a blue color with iodine.
  HONEY,  CLARIFIED.   Syn.  Mel despu-
matum.   Prep. I.  (P. L. and D.) Melt the  honey
in a water-bath, remove the scum, and pour off the
clear.  Less agreeable than raw honey, but  not so
apt to ferment and gripe.
  II. (Siller.) Any quantity  of honey is dissolved
in an equal part by weight of water.   The liquid
is allowed to boil up 4 or 6  times  without  skim-
ming ; it is then removed from the  fire, and after
being cooled, brought on several strong linen strain-
ers,  stretched  horizontally, and  covered with a
layer of  clean  and well-washed sand an inch in
depth.   When the solution has passed through the
strainers, it is found to be of the color of clear white
wine ; the sand being allowed to remain on the
strainers, is rinsed  with cold water,  and the  whole
of the liquor is finally evaporated to the thickness
of sirup.
  III.  Dissolve the honey in  water, clarify with
the white of egg, and evaporate to a proper con-
sistence.
  IV. Dissolve  in  water, add IJ  lb. of animal
charcoal to every \ cwt of honey,  gently simmer
for 15 minutes, add a little chalk to saturate  excess
of acid, if required  ; strain or clarify, and evaporate.
  Remarks.   Honey acquires a darker  color if
heated in copper  or  iron vessels; the above pro-
cesses should therefore be conducted in earthen or
well-tinned copper pans.
  HONEY, HELLEBORE. Syn. Mel IIelle-
boratum.  Prep.  (P. L.  1746.)  Hellebore root,
bruised, lb. j ; water  4 pints;  digest for  3  days;
boil,  strain, and add honey lb. ij ;  boil to a sirup.
Cathartic, in  mania.
  HONEY,  LIQUORICE.   Syn.  MelGlycy*-
rhizatum. Prep.   (Hamb.-Ph.)   Honey  and a
strong infusion of liquorice boiled to a proper con-
sistence.
  HONEY,  MERCURIAL.  Syn.  Mel  mer
curiale.  Prep. (P.  L. 1746.)  Juice of the her*
mercury and honey, of each equal parts;  boil to t
proper consistence.
  HONEY OF BORAX.   Syn.  Mel Borvcis
(P. L.)  Mel Subboracis.  Prep.   (P. L.)  Pow
dered borax 3j; clarified honey Jj', mix.  Astrin-
gent, detersive, and  cooling.   It is  employed in
aphthae  of the mouth  and excessive  salivation.  It
is incompatible with acids, and is decomposed by
compound infusion of roses, with which it is com-
monly ordered. 
HOR                   353                    HUI
   HONEY  OF MERCURY.  Syn.  Mel Hy-
 drargyri.  Prep.' (Bell.)  Quicksilver 3j;  honey
 Jj; triturate till  the  globules disappear.  Proper-
 ties similar to mercurial pill.
   HONEV  OF  MERCURY,  COMPOUND.
 Syn. Mel Hydrargyri compositum. Prep. (PC.)
 Quicksilver 3ij;  clarified honey ^ij; oil of  cloves
 3ij; as last.
   HONEY  OF  ROSES.    Syn.  Mel  Rosas.
 Prep.  (P. L.)   Dried petals of the red rose %\v ;
 boiling water  2£  pints;  macerate for 6  hours,
 strain, add honey lb. v; and evaporate in a water-
 bath  to a due consistence.   Used to make astrin-
 gent  gargles.  It mu#t not be boiled in a copper or
 iron vessel, as they will spoil the color.
   HONEY OF SQUILLS.  Syn. Mel Scillas.
 Prep.  Clarified honey lb. iij ; tincture of  squills
 lb. ij; mix well.   Properties and uses the same as
 oxymel of squills.
   HOP.   Syn.  Houblon, (Fr.)  Hopfen,  (Ger.)
 Humulus Lupulus, (Lat.)   The hop or hops of
 commerce, are  the strobiles or catkins of the hop
 plant.  In the choice of hops, care should be taken
 to select those  that  have large cones or strobiles,
 that  are  the most powerfully odorous, and most
 free  from  leaves, stems,  scaly fragments,  and
 sticks, and  which,  when rubbed between  the
 hands, impart a  yellowish tint and glutinous feel-
 ing to the skin.  The tightness  with  which they
 are packed should also be noticed; as without  be-
 ing very  firmly pressed together, and quite solid,
 they soon spoil  by keeping.   The finest flavored
 hops are  those grown in East Kent,  and termed
 the " golden bine;"  these possess a lively golden
 yellow color, and are principally employed for  the
 finer class of ales. Mid  Kent and Sussex hops
 are also used for ale, but have an inferior color and
 flavor.    Countrys and  Farnham  hops have a
 greenish yellow color, and are more expensive than
 any  other variety;  but  are  only used for malt
 liquor that  it is  intended to keep for a long time,
 as they do not  impart their flavor to the beer  be-
 fore it has been kept  at least  a year.   They  are
 chiefly used for ale.  The best hops are packed in
 sacks of fine canvass, termed "pockets," weighing
 from 14;  cwt to 1J  cwt. each ; and  the inferior
 qualities  in  coarse " bags," of  about  double  the
 size.   The  former are mostly  purchased  by  the
 ale, and the latter by the porter brewers.   When
 hops  are older  than  of the  last season's growth,
 they  are termed  " yearlings,"—when of the sec-
 ond season's  growth, " olds,"—and when three
 years, or older,  " old olds."   (See Extract of
 Hors, and Brewing.)
   HORDEINE. (From hordeum, barley.)   This
 name was given  by Proust to the peculiar starchy
 matter of barley meal; but according to Raspail,
 it is merely bran more minutely divided than that
 which remains in the sieve.
   HOREHOUND.  Syn.  White Horehound.
 Marrubium vulgare.  This herb is a popular rem-
 edy in  chronic  pulmonary complaints, especially
 catarrh, and in uterine and liver affections.  Hore-
 hound  ea (thea  vel infusum marubii)  is prepared
 by infixing 1 oz.  of the herb in boiling water  for
 an hour;  sirup of horehound,  (syrupus marubii,)
 by thickening the infusion or tea with sugar; can-
died horehound,  (marrubium conditum,) by mix-
ing horehound juice 1 pint, with white sugar 4 lbs.,
                       45
and moist sugar 6 lbs., or white sugar alone 10 lbs.,
boiling  to  a candy height,  and pouring it, while
warm, into moulds or small paper cases, well dust-
ed  with finely-powdered lump sugar;   »r it  is
poured  out  on  a  dusted  slab,  and  cut  into
squares.
  HORN  is dyed  with the same  dyes, and in a
similar manner to bones and ivory.  (See page 125.)
Horn is softened, bent, and moulded by means cf
heat and pressure.
  HUILE  ACOUSTIQUE.   Prep.   Bullock's
'garlic and bay leaves, of each 3iv ; olive oil lb. ss ;
boil for 15 minutes, and strain.   Used for  earache
and deafness ; a little dropped on cotton wool and
placed in the ear.
   HUILE  D'ANIS.  Aniseed,  bruised,  4,  lb.;
spirit of wine  1 gallon ;  digest a week, strain, and
add sugar Ik, lb.  It  may be made of star  anise
seed, and proof spirit may be substituted for spirit
of wine.  Cordial and pectoral.
   HUILE  ANTIQUE. Prep.  I. (Plain.) a. Ol-
ive oil  1 pint; oil  of vitriol \  oz. ; mix, agitate
well in a corked bottle for 1 hour,  then allow it to
repose in the sun, or a moderately  warm situation,
for 12  or 14 days,  after which  time decant the
clear portion  from  the  sediment  6. Oil of ben
nuts filtered;  this never gets rank.  c.  Olive oil
filtered.  All the above keep the  hair moist, and
may be scented at pleasure.
   II. (Huile antique a la rose.)   a. Either of the
above  scented with otto of roses.  6.  Rose leaves
and blanched  sweet  almonds, equal  parts; grind
them together,  then  express the  oil,  and either
filter it through  blotting paper, or allow it to de-
posite in a  closely-corked bottle,   c. Use blanched
bitter almonds instead of sweet  ones.  Remarks.
The first two keep  the  hair moist;  the  last one
dries it.  The same is the case with all those that
follow  where bitter almonds are  used.
  III. (Huile  antique  a la  tuberose.)   As the
last
  IV.  (Huile antique a la fleur d'orange.) Plain
Huile  antique  scented with Neroli, or orange
flowers  and  almonds  pressed  together, as   in
No. II.
  V. (Huile antique au jasmin.)  From oil of
jasmin, or jasmin flowers, as the last.
  VI.  (Huile  antique a la violette.)   Plain huile
antique, scented with  powdered orris root, by keep-
ing them together at  a  gentle heat in a  covered
vessel for 24 hours,  and filtering when cold.
  VII.  (Huile antique aux  mille  fleurs.)  Plain
huile antique, scented with several  perfumes, so
that none may predominate.
  VIII. (Huile antique verte.)   Plain huile an-
tique 1 pint; gum guaiacum, bruised,  \ oz.; dis-
solve by placing the bottle in a water-bath ; when
cold, filter through paper, and scent to your pleas-
ure.
  IX.  (Huile  antique rouge a la rose.)  Plain
huile antique 1 pint;  alkanet root  1 dr.; digest in
a gentle heat until sufficiently colored, then strain.
and add otto of roses 20 drops, oil of rosemary and
oil of neroli, of each 5 drops.
  HUILE  LIQUEREUSE  DE LA   ROSE,
Prep. Rose water and simple sirup, equal partf,
A pleasant and fragrant sweetening for grog,
liqueurs, &c.
  HUILE  LIQUEREUSE  DES   FLEURS 
HYD                   354                   HYD
D'ORANGES.   Prep. Orange-flower water and
simple sirup,  equal  parts.   More  fragrant  and
agreeable than the  last.  Gives  a delicious fla-
vor to grog, liqueur,  &c,  and to perfume the
breath.
  HUILE  DE  VANILLE.  Prep.  Spirit  of
wine  and simple  sirup, of each 1 quart; essence
or tincture of vanilla, a sufficient quantity  to fla-
vor;  mix.   This  should be  kept in a decanter.
Used to flavor liqueurs, &c.
  HUILE  DE VENUS.   Prep. I. Flowers of
the wild carrot 5 oz.; spirit of  wine  1 gallon ;
water 1 pint; macerate 24 hours, then distil  1 gal-
lon, and add an equal measure of capillaire or sim-
ple sirup.
  II. Wild  carrot flowers 4 oz.;  spirit of wine 1
gallon ;  macerate  for 1  week, strain, and add cap-
illaire 1  gallon.  If preferred colored, steep \  oz.
of cochineal  in it.   A pleasant cordial.
  HUMUS.  When wood, or woody fibre,  is ex-
posed to the joint action of  air and moisture, it
suffers decay or eremacausis,  and  moulders down
into a dark-brown  or black powder,  commonly
called Mould, and to which chemists have given
the name Humus.  By the action of alkalis, it is
converted into humic  acid,  which is soluble, and
forms salts called  humates.
  HUSBANDRY.  This term is applied  to the
joint operations of farming and gardening  on the
small scale, and it is also sometimes used synony-
mously   with  agriculture.    (See Agriculture,
Farming, Manures,  and Soil.)
   HYDRARGYRO-CHLORIDES.   Salts  in
which the bichloride  of mercury plays the part, of
an  acid.   The only one that  has  been  applied to
any useful purpose, is  the hydrargyro-chloride of
ammonia, or the sal  alembroth of pharmacy. Per-
haps  white  precipitate  may also belong  to the
same class.  Similar salts have been  formed with
the chlorides of other metals, to which the  names
auro-chlorides, cupro-chlorides,  ferro-chlorides,
cobalto-chlorides, &c.  &c, have been applied.
    HYDRARGYRO-IODO-CYANIDE   OF
POTASSIUM.   Prep. Add a concentrated solu-
tion of bicyanide of mercury to a solution  of iodide
of potassium, as long as a white, pearly, crystal-
line precipitate is  formed.  Used to ascertain the
purity of prussic  acid; if a  small portion  be put
into this acid, in a  dilute state, red biniodide ot
mercury will immediately be formed, if any foreign
acid be present.
  HYDRARSINE.   An ethereal,  volatile sub-
stance, having an intolerably fetid odor, formed by
the action of air on alkarsine.
  HYDRAT.E.   (From Map, water.)  In  Chem-
istry ; a compound  containing water, in definite
proportion.  Thus, slaked lime is a hydrate of
lime; caustic potassa, a hydrate of potassa; and
oil of vitriol, a hydrate of sulphuric acid.
  HYDRATED. (In Chemistry.)   Chemically
combined with water.  Thus, the crystallized  ve-
getable acids, (citric,  tartaric, oxalic,) and salts
(epsom salts, carbonate of soda, &c.) that contain
combined water,  are called  hydrated  acids and
hydrated salts.   The  term  hydrated is used as
an  adjective, in  the  same way as hydrate  is as  a
substantive.   The former is,  however, usually ap-
plied  to compound  names,  as  hydrated  acetic
acid, hydrated oxide of iron, &c., and the latter.
for the sake of euphony, to simple names, as Ay.
drate of lime, hydrate of potassa, &c.
  HYDRIODATE.   Syn.   Hydriodas,  (Lat.)
A compound formed of the hydriodic acid with a
base.   The  hydriodates may be easily formed by-
saturating the acid with the oxides or hydrates oi
the bases, or more economically, by acting  on the
bases in water, with iodine. (See Iodine, Iodides,
and Hydriodic Acid.)
  HYDRIODIC ACID.  Syn. Acidum Hydrio-
dicum.  Prep. Pour a little water over some per-
iodidi of phosphorus,  previously put into a small
glass  retort, and  apply a gentle heat, when hy-
driodic acid will be  evolved, and phosphoric acid
remain behind.  The gas may be either collected
over mercury or  passed into water, when liquid
hydriodic acid will be formed.
  II.  (F.  D'Arcet.)   Evaporate  hypophosphoric
acid  until it begins to yield  phosphoreted  hydro-
gen,  then  mix it  with an  equal weight of iodine
placed in a retort; apply a gentle  heat as  before,
and collect the evolved gas.  The products  of both
this and tho former process possess great purity.
  III. (Dr.  Glover.)  Place iodide of barium in a
retort, and decompose it with sulphuric acid, when
pure hydriodic acid will be evolved.
  IV. (Liquid.) Pass sulphureted hydrogen through
a mixture of iodine  and water, in a YVoolf's bottle,
until  saturated, then  gently heat  the  liquid  until
the excess  of  sulphur  flies off.  An  economical
process, but does not yield the pure acid.
  V.  (Dr. Buchanan's medicinal hydriodic acid.)
Tartaric acid 264 grs.; pure  iodide  of potassium
330 grs.;  dissolve each separately in water f §iss,
mix  the solutions, and when settled,  decant the
clear liquid and  add water to make up f Jvj 3ij.
This liquid acid retains a little bitartrate of  potassa
in solution, but which does not interfere with its
medicinal properties.   (See  Iodine  and Hydrio-
date.)
  HYDRO.  (In Chemistry.)  A prefix employed
to designate the  compounds  of hydrogen; as Ay-
drochloric acid, hydrobromic  acid, acids  formed
of chlorine, bromine,  and hydrogen.   It is some-
times, though improperly, used synonymously with
the  word  hydrated.  (See  Hydrate and  Hy-
drated.)
  HYDROBENZAMIDE.   A substance  discov-
ered by Laurent, and  prepared by mixing  pure
hydruret of benzule with 20 times  its volume of
concentrated  water of ammonia, in a stoppered
bottle, a/'.l keeping the mixture for some hours at
a heat oi  .00 to 120°.  The  crystalline mass thus
formed is washed with cold ether, when pure hy-
drobenzamide is left, and may be obtained in crys-
tals  by re-solution in  alcohol, and spontaneous
evaporation.
  HYDROBROMATE. Syn. Hydrobromas. A
compound of  hydrobromic acid and a base.
  HYDROBROMIC ACID.  Syn. Acidum Hy-
drobromicum. An acid compound of  hydrogen
and  bromine.   It may  be prepared  from the bro-
mide of phosphorus  in a similar way  to that foi
forming hydriodic acid from periodide of phospho
rus.   It may also be prepared  by decomposing
bromide of barium with sulphuric acid, when pure
hydrobromic acid will  be  evolved.  (Dr. Glover.)
It should either be collected in dry glass bottle3, in
the manner directed for chlorine, or over mercury, 
HYD
355
HYD
in the pneumatic trough.  When passed into wa-
ter  it forms liquid hydrobromic acid.  The pure
liquid acid cannot be made by passing sulphureted
hydrogen through water mixed with bromine, as is
commonly practised.
  Prop., fyc.  A colorless, acidulous, and pungent
gas, or  a  limpid  fluid.   With the bases it forms
salts called  hydrobromates.  These are formed in
a similar  way to  the  hydriodates.   (See Bro-
mine.)
  HYDROCARBURETS.  Syn. Hydrocarbons.
Compounds  of hydrogen and carbon.  The princi-
pal of these are—1. Light carbureted hydrogen,
or the fire-damp of miners, consisting of two equiv-
alents of hydrogen, and one  equivalent of carbon,
and burning with a pale blue flame.   2. Olefiant
gas, consisting of two equivalents of hydrogen and
two equivalents of carbon.  It burns with a very
white and luminous flame.  3. Light gas or  coal
gas,  consisting of a mixture of the  preceding in
no  definite proportions.   4. Quadricarbureled hy-
drogen, quadrihydrocarbon, or etherin, consisting
of 4 equivalents each of carbon and hydrogen, and
produced  during the destructive distillation of oil.
It  burns  with a dull  fuliginous flame.  5.  Bi-
carbureted  hydrogen,  also  obtained  by the de-
structive distillation of  oil, and  consisting of 3 eq.
of  hydrogen and 6  eq. of carbon.   (See Hydro-
gen, Carbureted Hydrogen, Etherin, Naph-
tha, &c.)
   HYDRO-COBALTO-CYANIC  ACID.
Pr-.p. Pass sulphureted hydrogen through a solu-
tion of  cobalto-cyanide of lead, separate the  lead
by filtration,  evaporate  and crystallize.  White,
fibrous, acidulous, deliquescent crystals,  soluble
in  water.   With the metals it forms compounds
termed cobalto-cyanides.   The cobalto-cyanide
of  potassium  is  formed  by gently heating the
carbonate, or  pure protoxide  of cobalt, in  a solu-
tion of caustic potassa,  which has been  treated
with an excess of hydrocyanic acid, until dissolved,
evaporating and crystallizing.  It forms soluble,
reddish yellow crystals, which are rendered color-
less, or only slightly yellow, by recrystallization.
The cobalto-cyanide of lead is made by treating
a solution of acetate of lead with cobalto-cyanide
of potassium,  and adding ammonia, when a white
granular precipitate is  formed.   Cobalto-cyanide
of  silver  is prepared by mixing a solution of ni-
trate of silver with another  of cobalto-cyanide of
potassium;  a  white granular precipitate subsides.
In  a similar way several other cobalto-cyanides
may be formed.
  HYDRO FERRIC  ACID.   (See Ferric
Acid.)
   HYDRO-FERRIDCYANIC  ACID.  Pre-k
pared by decomposing recently precipitated ferrid-
cyanide of lead by  sulphureted hydrogen, or by
sulphuric acid carefully added.  A yellow solution
is thus obtained, which  yields a deep  brown pow-
der when evaporated by heat, or  yellow crystals
by spontaneous evaporation.   With the  oxides of
the metals  it  forms ferridcyanides.   These  may
be made by  adding a solution of the ferridcyanide
of potassium to another of a soluble salt of the
base.  (See the Ferridcyanide of Potassium  and
Iron.)
  HYDROFLUORIC   ACID.   Syn.  Fluoric
Acid.   Stygian Water.   Acidum fluoricum.
Acidum  hydrofluoricum.  Aqua Stygis.  An
acid compound of hydrogen and fluorine.   It was
first procured  in a  pure state by Gay Lussac and
Thdnard in 1810.
  Prep.  Pour concentrated sulphuric acid on half
its  weight of  fluor  spar, carefully separated from
silicious earth, and  reduced to fine powder.  The
mixture must  be made in  a capacious leaden re-
tort, and a gentle heat applied, when  hydrofluoric
acid gas will be evolved, and must be collected in
a leaden receiver, surrounded with ice.
  Props., Uses, <$•£.   A colorless  fluid below 59°
Fahr., when preserved from the  air,  but speedily
evaporating in dense white fumes when exposed.
Its affinity for  water exceeds that of  sulphuric
arid,  and its combination with that fluid is accom-
panied with a hissing noise,  and a  considerable
increase  of its sp.  gr. up  to a certain  point  It
readily dissolves glass and silica, forming fluosili-
cic acid, for which reason it cannot be preserved
in glass vessels.  Bottles of lead are hence gener-
ally used for  this purpose, but silver and platinum
are more suitable  materials.  It  is highly corro-
sive, instantaneously destroying the skin  on con-
tact,  and producing deep and serious  ulcerations ;
its  vapor is pungent, irritating, and  irrespirable.
With the metals it  unites  to form hydrofluorates,
fluorates, or  metallic fluorides.  Hydrofluorate
of  ammonia  is obtained by heating together, over
a lamp, 1 part of dry sal ammoniac, with  a  little
more than 2  parts of hydrofluorate of soda, in  a
platinum crucible, with its  lid turned upward, and
filled with cold water.  The hydrofluorate sublimes
and adheres  to  the lid, forming  a mass of small
prismatic crystals.  It peadily acts on glass.  The
hydrofluorates of the alkalis, earths, and metals
may mostly be prepared by saturating hydrofluoric
acid with the recently precipitated oxide, or car-
bonate of the  base.
   In the arts,  hydrofluoric acid is used for etching
on glass.
   HYDROGEN.  Syn.   Hydrogenium,  (Lat.)
Wasserstoff, (Ger.)  Hydrogen, (Fr.)   Inflam-
mable air.  (From  SSiop, water, and ytvvau,  1
generate.)  A chemical  element, first  correctly
described by Cavendish in 1766, having previously
been confounded with other gases, and  by some
called phlogiston, from being supposed  to be the
matter of heat.  The term hydrogen was first ap-
plied  to it by Lavoisier, because it is the radical or
base of water.   In  the pure state it only exists as
a gas, and is the lightest substance known.  New
opinions have lately been* promulgated by  one  of
the most celebrated continental chemists respect-
ing hydrogen.  At the termination of his fourth
lecture at the  Sorbonne, M. Dumas announced the
following striking views:—" Whatever it  may cost
me, gentlemen, in thus giving my opinion, I ought
to express it fully.   We ought no longer to  con-
sider hydrogen as a metalloid, or as merely  ap-
proaching to a metal in any form—it  ought to  be
classed by the side of metals, or among metals.  It
is a gaseous metal, even as mercury is  a liquid
metal.  If we suppose  that  it  is impossible  to
liquefy the vapor of  mercury—that it is  colorless,
inodorous, and transparent as hydrogen—we shall
have  a correct idea of the  views I wish  to estab-
lish.  By degrees you will learn to appreciate the
correctness of this new theory—when,  for instance, 
HYD                    356                    HYD
you study the different compound bodies of which
hydrogen is  a  constituent.  The ensemble of its
properties approaches,  in fact,  to  mercury  and
potassium."   (Echo du Monde  Savant,  Nov. 20,
1842.)
  Prep. I. Place iron wire in  a gun-barrel,  or a
porcelain tube,  open at both ends, to one of which
attach a retort containing water, and to the other
a bent tube, connected  with a pneumatic trough.
The gun-barrel must now  be heated  to redness,
and the water in the retort  brought into a state of
brisk ebullition, when  the vapor will  be decom-
posed, the oxygen being absorbed by the  iron, and
the hydrogen escaping into the gas receiver.
  II. Oil of vitriol 1 part;  water 5  parts;  mix,
and pour the dilute acid on  iron or zinc wire, or
filings placed in a retort or gas bottle.  Hydrogen
will be evolved  as before.  This  is the more con-
venient method of the two, and the  one usually
adopted in practice.
  Remarks.  To render the gas quite pure, distilled
zinc should be  employed, and the  gas should be
passed, first through alcohol,  and then through a
concentrated solution of pure potassa.
  Prop., Uses, dfc.  A colorless, tasteless, odorless
(when pure) combustible  gas, having the  sp.  gr.
0-0694 ; being  16 times lighter than oxygen gas,
and nearly 14J times lighter than atmospheric air.
Combined with oxygen it forms water; with chlo-
rine, muriatic acid; with iodine, hydriodic acid;
with  bromine,  hydrobromic acid;  with fluorine,
hydrofluoric acid; with cyanogen, prussic acid;
with carbon, several hydrocarburets or hydrocar-
bons; with  nitrogen, ammonia; with phosphorus,
phosphoreted hydrogen ; .with sulphur, sulphuret-
ed  hydrogen;  and with  arsenic, tellurium,  and
potassium, arseniureted,  tellurcted,   and  potas-
siureted hydrogens.  It also enters into  the com-
position of all compounds containing water, (hy-
drates, &.c.,) numerous  acids  and salts,  and the
various proximate organic principles  both  of the
animal and vegetable kingdoms.  It forms  one of
the ingredients  of coal gas, and of all  bodies that
possess the power  of burning  with flame.   From
its extreme lightness it 's used  to fill balloons, but
its carburet,  (coal gas,, from  being  cheaper  and
more easily procured in large quantities, is general-
ly employed for this purpose.   100 cubic inches, at
60°  F.,  and 30 inches of the  barometer, weigh
2-1371 grs. Mixed with atmospheric air or oxygen
it explodes with extreme violence on the  approach
of flame, or sudden compression.  (Biot.)  When
brought  into contact with spongy  platinum, the
latter instantly  becomes red hot, and the gas  is
kindled.   A small  apparatus,  arranged upon this
principle, constitutes the popular little instrument
for the instantaneous production of light, 6old by
the philosophical instrument makers.   One meas-
ure of hydrogen and 5 or  6  of air, or 2 of  hydro-
gen and 1 of oxygen, are  the  proportions that ex-
plode  with the greatest violence. (Doebereiner.)
A mixture of 1  volume of hydrogen and 9 volumes
of air explodes feebly,  and one of 4  volumes of
hydrogen and 1 volume of air does not explode at
all.    (Cavendish.)   The  electric  spark,  spongy
platinum, the black powder of platinum, (Garden,)
clean  platinum foil, (Faraday,) and  some other
substances,  produce combination, and generally
explosion, of  the mixed  gases.  A jet of hydrogen,
burnt in oxygen gas, or a jet of these gases (mixed)
burnt in the air, with proper precautions, produce*
the most intense heat known.   On this property is
formed the  oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.  This instru-
ment can only  be used with safety when furnished
with Ilemming's safety jet, or other arrangement
to prevent an explosion.  (See Blowpipe.)   Prof
Daniell's method of  fixing  a jet of oxygen within
another jet of hydrogen, or coal-gas, so that a cur-
rent of oxygen  may  be  mtroduced into the middle
of the flame, is very safe  and convenient.  (The
figures 1 and 6, at page 122, are wrongly number-
ed ;  they should be reversed.)
   HYDROGEN, BINOXIDE.  Syn. Deutoxidr
of  Hydrogen.   Peroxide of do.   This singular
fluid was discovered by M. Thenard in 1818.
   Prep.  I.  Mix deutoxide of barium, with about
twice its weight of water, then graddally add sul-
phuric acid until all the deutoxide is converted into
sulphate of baryta,  observing to avoid  excess of
acid.
   II. Water 6  or 7 oz.;  deutoxide of barium 230
grs.; mix, and add  gradually as much pure con-
centrated hydrochloric acid as is required to ren-
der the deutoxide soluble ;  then place the contain-
ing vessel, which should be of glass, in  a freezing
mixture, or vessel  of ice, and add gradually and
cautiously 185  grs. of powdered deutoxide of ba-
rium, stirring with a glass rod, after each addition;
as soon as dissolved, add sulphuric acid to precipi-
tate the whole  of  the  baryta, and then a second
portion of 185  grs. of deutoxide of barium, as be-
fore.  This must also be precipitated with sulphuric
acid, the solution filtered, and the same process re-
peated, until about 3 oz. of deutoxide  of barium
have been employed. The hydrochloric acid must
then be separated  by means of sulphate of silver,
cautiously  added,  and  the sulphuric  acid  after-
wards separated by  pure solid baryta.  (Ann. de
Chim. et  de Phys.  and M. Thenard's Traite  de
Chimie.)
   Remarks.  The liquid prepared by the  last for-
mula contains 25 to 30 times its volume of oxygen,
and also much  simple water.  To remove the lat-
ter it must be placed over sulphuric acid, under the
exhausted receiver of an air-pump, where it must
be  kept  until the sp.  gr. becomes 1-452, beyond
which it cannot be concentrated ; as at this point
it begins itself  to  volatilize slowly.  In  this state
it is a colorless  and limpid  fluid, having a metallic
taste, and is stable  at  low  temperatures, but  re-
solved into oxygen and water, at  59° F.   It mixes
with water  in  all proportions, and  becomes  more
permanent   The  same may also be said of the
acids.  It bleaches  organic substances.  All the
metals, except  iron,  tin, antimony,  and tellurium,
decompose it with more or less  facility,  and this
action is promoted by the substances being in a
state of minute division.   A similar decomposition
is produced by  many of the metallic oxides.  The
peroxides of  lead, mercury, gold, platinum, man-
ganese, and cobalt, .effect this change instantane-
ously, and  accompanied with extreme violence,
during which the glass tube holding the liquid  be-
comes red hot  Its action  on  oxide of silver is also
exceedingly violent.   Every drop of the liquid let
fall  on  the dry oxide produces a real  explosion;
and so much heat is evolved, that if  the experi-
ment be made in a dark place, there is a very sen- 
HYD                   357                    HYD
sible disengagement of light.  Gold, in a  state of
extreme  division, acts with great force on  pure
oxygenated water; yet it  has  no action  on that
liquid if it be  mixed with a little sulphuric acid.
Fibrin,  (recently extracted from the blood,) the
tissue of the  lungs, kidneys, and spleen, and the
skin and veins, also deoxydize the liquid.
   Peroxide of hydrogen  has been applied in the
arts to  restore the blackened  lights of  paintings,
which have become  darkened, from the lead they
contain being acted on by the  sulphureted hydro-
gen frequently  present in the atmosphere.   It has
been lately proposed by M. de Sondala, as a means
of supplying oxygen to the confined air of diving
bells  and other limited places; the carbonic acid
formed by the lungs being at the same time ab-
sorbed by passing the air through hydrate  of  lime.
   HYDROLEIC ACID.  A  peculiar compound
obtained  by  evaporating  the alcohol used in the
preparation of hydromargaritic  acid.
   HYDROMARGARIC ACID.  A compound
formed  by melting together one equivalent  each
of  meta-margaric and hydromargaritic  acids, and
crystallizing the mass from alcohol.
   HYDROMARGARITIC  ACID.   Obtained
by boiling the mother liquor of meta-margaric and
metoleic acids, when a mixture of hydromargaritic
and hydroleic acids rises to the surface, which, af-
ter being washed with  cold  alcohol,  leaves the
former  pure.   By heat it  is converted into meta-
margaric acid and water.  Soluble in alcohol and
ether.
   HYDROMELLONIC ACID.   Prepared  by
dissolving mellonide of potassium in boiling water,
adding muriatic, sulphuric, or nitric acid, and col-
lecting  and  drying  the  precipitate.   A  yellow
powder,  soluble in  water.   It  forms mellonides
with the metallic oxides.
   HYDROMEL.   Prep.  (P.  Cod.)   Honey  2
oz.; boiling water  32 oz.; dissolve and strain.
   HYDROMETER.  (From  «S<W,  water,  and
(lirpov, a measure.)  An instrument for ascertain-
ing the  specific gravities of liquids, and hence their
strengths ; these being either in inverse or direct
proportion to  their specific gravities.   Spirituous
liquors and ammonia water are examples of the
former, and  malt  wort, and sirups of the latter.
The hydrometer employed by the revenue officers
for levying the duties on  spirits has been already
described at pages 35 and 36.
   Baume's hydrometer or areometer is very gen-
erally employed on the continent for ascertaining
the specific gravities of various liquids.   As now
made, it either  consists of a single spindle  about
18  inches long, graduated from —80° to 4-80°,
or of  two spindles of about half that length ; the
one for light liquids ranging from 10° to 80°, and
the other for heavy liquids ranging from 0° to 80°.
These are employed with a  long glass  tube, in a
similar way to Sike's hydrometer before  noticed,
but the thermometer  for ascertaining the temper-
ature must be  covered with a glass case, or ar-
ranged with a folding scale to allow of  its immer-
sion in corrosive, liquids.
  In Baume's hydrometer for liquids lighter than
water, the instrument is poised,  so that the  0 of the
scale is at the bottom of the stem, when it  is float-
ing in a solution of 1 oz. of common salt  in 9 oz.
of water, and the depth to which it sinks in distil-
led water shows  the  10th° ; the space between
these fixed points being equally divided.  His grad-
uation was continued  upwards to the 50th°, but
is now continued further.

Corresponding Degrees  of  Baume's  Hydrometer
  and real Specific Gravities.—I.  Hydrometer for
  Light Fluids, or  Pese-Esprit.  Temperature
  56 to 60° Fahr.
Baume.	Spec. Gra.	Baume.	Spec Gra.
50 .	. 0*782	29 .	. 0-884
49 .	. 0*787	28 .	. 0-889
48 .	. 0*792	27 .	. 0*895
47 .	. 0*796	26 .	. 0-900
46 .	. 0*800	25 .	. 0*906
45 .	. 0*805	24 .	. 0-911
44 .	. 0*810	23 .	. 0-917
43 .	. 0*814	22 .	. 0-923
42 .	. 0*819	21 .	. 0-929
41 .	. 0*823	20 .	. 0-935
40 .	. 0*828	19 .	. 0*941
39 .	. 0*832	18 .	. 0*948
38 .	. 0*837	17 .	. 0*954
37 .	. 0*842	16 .	. 0*961
36 .	. 0*847	15 .	. 0*967
35 .	. 0-852	14 .	. 0*974
34 .	. 0-858	13 .	. 0*980
33 .	. 0-863	12 .	. 0*987
32 .	. 0*868	11 .	. 0*993
31 .	. 0*873	10 .	. 1-000
30 .	. 0-878	0 .	. 1-075
  In the hydrometer for liquids heavier than wa-
ter, the position of the fixed points is reversed ; for
the 0  is at the top of  the stem, and  denotes the
level to which  the  hydrometer sinks in distilled
water: the l0th° is lower down, and shows the
level to which it sinks  in the saline solution, and
the graduation was continued downwards to the
75th°, but is now continued further.

Corresponding Degrees of  Baume's  Hydrometer
  and  real  Specific Gravities.—II.  Hydrometer
  for Heavy Fluids, or Pese-Acid.  Temperature
  56 to 60° Fahr.
Baume	Spec Gra.	Baume.	Spec. Gra
1 .	. 1-007	23 .	• 1*190
2 .	. 1-014	24 .	. 1199
3 .	. 1-022	25 .	. 1*210
4 .	. 1*029	26 .	. 1*221
5 *	. 1*036	27 .	. 1*231
6 .	. 1*044	28 .	. 1*242
7 .	. 1*052	29 .	. 1*252
8 .	. 1*060	30 .	. 1*261
9 .	. 1*067	31 .	. 1-275
10 .	. 1*075	32 .	. 1*286
11 .	. 1*083	33 .	. 1*298
12 .	. 1*091	34 .	. 1*309
13 <	. 1*100	35 .	. 1*321
14 ■	. 1*108	36 .	. 1*334
15 •	. 1*116	37	. 1-346
16 .	. 1*125	38	1*359
17 •	. 1*134	39 .	. 1*372
18 •	. 1143	40 .	. 1-384
19 •	. 1*152	41 .	. 1*398
20 •	. 1*161	42 .	. 1*412
21 •	. 1171	43 .	. 1*426
22 •	. 1*180	44 ,	. 1-440
 
HYD
358
HYD
Baume.	Spec. Gra.	Baume.	Spec. Gra
45 .	. 1*454	61 .	. 1*736
46 .	. 1-470	62 .	. 1*758
47 .	. 1.485	63 .	. 1*779
48 .	. 1.501	64 .	. 1*801
49 .	. 1.516	65 .	. 1*823
50 .	. 1.532	66 .	. 1*847
51 .	. 1.549	67 •	. 1*872
52 .	. 1-566	68 <	. 1*897
53 .	. 1-583	69 •	. 1*921
54 .	. 1-601	70 •	. 1*946
55 .	. 1-618	71 •	1*974
S3 .	. 1-637	72 ■	. 2*002
57 .	. 1*656	73 .	. 2031
58 :	. 1*676	74 .	. 2-059
59 .	. 1*695	75 .	. 2-087
60 .	. 1*714		
  The areometers  and  alcoholometers of Gay
Lussac, Tralles, and Richter, at once indicate on
their stems the strength of the liquid, which mere-
ly requires  correction  as to temperature.   (See
page 37.)
  The hydrometer of Fahrenheit consists of a
hollow ball, with a counterpoise below, and a very
slender stem above, terminating in a small dish.
The middle, or  half length of the stem, is  distin-
guished by a fine line across.  In this instrument
every division of the stem is rejected, and it is im-
mersed  in all experiments to  the middle of the
stem, by placing proper weights in the  little dish
above.  Then as the part immersed is constantly
of the same magnitude, and the whole weight of
the hydrometer  is known, this  last weight, added
to the weights in the dish, will  be equal  to the
weight of fluid  displaced  by the instrument,  as all
writers on hydrostatics prove.   And accordingly,
the sp. gravities for the common form of the tables
will be had by the proportion :—
  As the  whole weight of the hydrometer and its
load, when  adjusted in distilled water: is  to the
number 1000, &c.:: so is the whole weight when
adjusted  in any other fluid : to the number ex-
pressing its specific gravity.
  Nicholson's  hydrometer for taking the sp. gr.
of minerals, is a very convenient instrument.
   Twaddell's  hydrometer is  much used  in the
bleaching  establishments  of Scotland and  some
parts of England.  According to this  scale 0 is
equal to 1000, or the sp. gr. of distilled water, and
each degree is equal to *005, so that ty multiplying
this number by the number of degrees marked on
the scale, and adding 1* the real specific gravity is
obtained.

Table of Specific Gravities indicated by Twad-
                  dell's  Scale.
Twaddell.	Sp. Gr.	Twaddell.	Sp. Gr.
0	1000	100	1500
10	1050	110	1550
20	1100	120	1600
30	1150	130	1650
40	1200	140	1700
50	1250	150	1750
60	1300	160	1800
70	1350	170	1850
80	1400	180	1900
90	1450	190	1950
  Hydrometers, unless  manufactured with great
eare and skill, merely afford  approximate results,
but which are nevertheless sufficiently correct foi
all  ordinary purposes.  They also require seven!
ounces of liquor to  float them,  und hence cannot
be used for small quantities of  liquid.  (See Spe-
cific Gravity.)
  HYDRO-PERSULPHOCYANIC ACID.  A
yellow reddish crystalline mass, obtained by fusing
sulphocyanide of potassium  in a stream of dry
muriatic acid gas,  in a vessel  connected with a
suitable receiver.   It is  purified by a solution in
hot alcohol, which deposites it on cooling in a semi-
crystalline form.
  HYDROPHOBIA, CURE  FOR.  At Udina,
in Friule, a  poor man lying under the frightful
tortures of  hydrophobia  was  cured  with  some
draughts of vinegar, given him by mistake, in-
stead of another potion.  A physician at Padua
got intelligence of this event at  Udina, and tried
the same remedy upon the patient in the hospital,
administering  to  him a pound  of vinegar in the
morning, another at noon, and  a third  at sunset,
and the man  was speedily and  perfectly cured.
  HYDRO-SULPHOCYANIC ACID.  A pe-
culiar acid occurring in the seeds and blossoms of
the cruciferiB, and jn the saliva of man and sheep.
It may be obtained by decomposing sulphocyanide
of lead by dilute  sulphuric acid, avoiding excess,
and throwing down the last portion of lead by sul-
phureted hydrogen.  It may also be prepared by
decomposing  a mixture of 1 part of sulphocyanide
of silver and  100 of water, by  sulphureted hydro-
gen.  It forms a colorless  fluid, readily undergoing
decomposition by the action of air and heat.  With
the bases it forms compounds  termed sulphocya-
nides, most of which may be formed by saturating
the acid with the oxide, or hydrate of the base, or
from the sulphocyanide of potassium, and a soluble
salt of the  base,  by double decomposition.—Sul-
phocyanide  of potassium is  formed by  drying
prussiate of potash  to expel its water, powdering,
adding £ its  weight  of sulphur, and  fusing in  an
iron vessel at a  low red heat,  until the escaping
bubbles of gas inflame in  the air, and burn with a
red light; the mass must  be theii cooled, dissolved
in boiling water, treated with a solution of carbon-
ate of potassa until  it  ceases  to become turbid,
next boiled for a quarter of an hour, filtered, evap-
orated,  and  crystallized.   The crystals must  be
redissolved in alcohol, and the solution refiltered
and recrystallized.   Forms colorless, deliquescent,
prismatic crystals, soluble, in alcohol and water.—
Sulphocyanide of lead is  prepared by mixing con-
centrated solutions  of acetate of lead and sulpho-
cyanide  of  potassium.   Lustrous yellow  opaque
crystals, decomposed by boiling water, into hydro-
sulphocyanic acid and a basic  salt.  If subacetate
of lead be used instead of the acetate in the above
formula, a basic  sulphocyanide of  lead will be
formed.—Sulphocyanide  of copper is prepared by
precipitating  a mixture  of sulphate of copper and
sulphocyanide of potassium with a solution of pro-
tosulphate of  iron.   An insoluble granular powder.
—Sulphocyanide of silver is formed by precipita-
ting neutral  nitrate of silver by sulphocyanide of
potassium.  White, insoluble.   By solution in am-
monia it may be obtained in  brilliant crystalline
white plates.
   HYDROTELLURIC  ACID.    A  peculiar
gaseous  body discovered  by Davy in 1809, and 
HYP                   359                    HYP
 formed in a similar manner to hydrogen by digest-
 ing  muriatic acid on  an alloy  of tellurium with
 zinc  or iron.   It  possesses  feeble  acid properties,
 and precipitates tellurets from  metallic solutions.
 It is absorbed by water, and then forms liquid hy-
 droielluric acid, or  tellureted hydrogen.
   HYDROUS.   Containing chemically combined
 water.   (See Hydrate.)
   HYDROXANTHIC ACID.  The name ori-
 ginally given by Zeise to xanthic acid.
   HYDRURET.  Syn. Hydroguret.  Hydru-
 retum, (Lat.)   A compound of hydrogen with a
 metal.
   HYGRUSIN.  A name given  by Bizio to the
 eleoptene of Berzelius, or the liquid and more vol-
 atile portion of essential oils.
   HYOSCYAMIA.   Syn. Hyoscyaminum.  Hy-
 oscyamine.  Hyoscyama.  Hyoscyamina.  An al-
 kaloid  discovered  by Brande in common henbane,
 (hyoscyamus nigra.)   It is  powerfully  narcotic.
 Chevallier, Brault, and Poggialo, eminent and skil-
 ful chemists, have failed to procure  it.  (Jour, de
 Pharm.)   It may be obtained in prisms, and with
 the acids forms salts.
   HYPNOTICS.   (From invos, sleep.)   Medi-
 cines that induce sleep.   Opium, morphia, and
 henbane, are the  principal hypnotics.  (See Ano-
 dyne.)
   HYPOCHLOROUS ACID.   Syn. Euchlo-
 rine.  A  gaseous compound, discovered by Davy
 in  1811.   It is most conveniently prepared by agi-
 tating together a  mixture of 1 part of peroxide of
 mercury and 2 parts of water, in a bottle  filled
 with chlorine gas.  The filtered liquid is fluid hy-
 pochlorous acid.   It may be purified by distillation
 at a  temperature  considerably below 212°,  as at
 that heat it suffers rapid decomposition.  It bleaches
 powerfully, and is readily decomposed by light and
 contact with various substances,  especially  pow-
 dered glass  or  angular bodies.  The compounds
 popularly called chloride of lime,  soda, and  pot-
 ash, are supposed  by some to be hypochlorites, but
 the point is undetermined.
   HYPOCHONI RIASIS.  (From b*oXov6piaKo{,
 one who is hipped.)   The vapors, Iowness of spir-
 its, blue devils.   This disease chiefly affects per-
 sons of the melancholic temperament, and is com-
 monly  induced by hard study, irregular habits of
 life, want of proper social intercourse, and exercise.
 The treatment may in most  cases be similar to that
 mentioned under  dyspepsia,  observing, however,
 that success depends more on amusing and enga-
 ging the mind, and  in gradually weaning it from
 old conceits, than in the mere  administration of
 medicine.  When  the  patient is tormented with a
 visionary or exaggerated sense of pain, or of some
 concealed disease,  or a whimsical dislike of certain
 persons, places, or  things, or groundless apprehen-
 sions of personal danger or poverty, or the convic-
 tion of  having experienced some dreadful accident
 or misfortune, the  better way is to avoid any direct
 attempts to alter his  opinions, but  to endeavor to
 inspire confidence  in  some method of relief.   Gre-
 dingmentions the case of a medical man who con-
 ceivo-i that  his stomach was full  of frogs, which
 had been successively spawning ever since he had
 bathed, when a boy, in a pool in which he had per-
ceived some tadpoles ; and he had  spent his life in
endeavoring to get them removed.  Another  pa-1
tient  perhaps conceives  himself to be a giant; a
second as heavy as lead ;  a third a feather, in con-
tinual danger of being blown  away by the wind ;
and a fourth a piece of glass, and is hourly fearful
of being broken.   Marcellus Dentatus mentions a
baker of Ferrara,  who thought himself a lump of
butter,  and durst not sit in the sun, or come near
the fire, for fear of  being melted.   The writer of
this article once knew a man who always put on
his coat the wrong side in front, because he  con-
ceived his face looked behind him.   In such  cases
it is  useless  to argue with the patient, as it  only
causes irritation, and increases the ma'lady.
   HYPONITROUS ACID.   A highly volatile
liquid, gaseous at  common temperatures, first ob-
tained by Gay Lussac, by confining a mixture of
binoxide of nitrogen in excess and oxygen gas, in
a glass tube over a  concentrated solution of pure
potassa, in the  mercurial pneumatic  trough.  It
may  also be obtained from a mixture of 200 meas-
ures  of binoxide of  nitrogen and 50 measures  of
oxygen, both quite dry, by  exposing the resulting
orange fumes to  intense cold,  which  condenses
them into a liquid.   When 10 parts of nitric acid
sp. gr. 1*3 are poured on 1 part of starch in a ca-
pacious retort, and a gentle heat applied by means
of a water-bath, " pure  hyponitrous acid is disen-
gaged."  (Liebig and Gregory, Turner's Chem., 7th
ed. p. 848.)  At 0° F., hyponitrous acid is a color-
less liquid, but green at higher temperatures, rap-
idly  volatilizing in  orange-colored vapors.   It is
decomposed by contact with water and the bases,
but the earthy and alkaline  Kyponitrates may be
indirectly formed  by exposing the corresponding
nitrates to a gentle red heat.
  HYPO-PHOSPHOROUS ACID.  A peculiar
viscid liquid discovered by  Dulong in 1816, and
obtained by  treating phosphuret of barium   with
water, and as soon as the phosphureted hydrogen
has escaped,  filtering, throwing down the baryta
with  dilute  sulphuric acid,  again filtering and
evaporating.   It is a powerful  deoxidizing agent,
and forms salts with the  bases  called hypophos-
phites.   The hypophosphites of the alkalis  may
be prepared by precipitating an  earthy hypophos-
phite  by an alkaline carbonate, or by directly neu-
tralizing the  acid  with  those carbonates.   The
earthy hypophosphites may be formed by boiling
the earths in a caustic state  along with water and
a few fragments of phosphorus, filtering, and evap -
orating.   All the hypophosphites  are  soluble  in
water, and those of the alkalis, both in alcohol and
water;  they are all decomposed by heat.
  HYPOSULPHOBENZIDIC ACID.  A sour
liquid, or crystals, obtained by decomposing hypo-
sulphobenzidate of copper by sulphureted hydrogen.
It forms salts with the bases termed hyposulpho-
benzidates.  The  salt of baryta may be formed
by saturating fuming oil  of vitriol  with  benzole,
adding water, filtering, neutralizing the liquid with.
carbonate of baryta,  again filtering, evaporating,.
and crystallizing.  Hyposulphobenzidate of cop-
per may be obtained by precipitating the  last salt
with sulphate of copper, filtering, evaporating, and.
crystallizing.
   HYPOSULPHOBENZOIC  ACID.    Syn.
Sulfhoben/oic Acid.  Prep. Accurately precipi-
tate a solution of acid hyposulphobenzoate of ba-
ryta with sulphuric acid, filter, evaporate first over- 
HYP                    360                     JND
the open  fire, and then in vacuo over sulphuric
acid.   Crystalline,  deliquescent,  sour;  forming
salts called hyposulphobenzates or sulphobenzates.
The acid salt of baryta may be made by conduct-
ing the vapors of anhydrous sulphuric acid into  a
dry receiver, containing  crystals of  benzoic acid,
and placed  in a freezing mixture.  As soon as  a
translucent  mass is formed, dissolve  it in water,
decant the clear, neutralize with carbonate of  ba-
ryta, evaporate,  and add some muriatic acid, when
crystals will form as the solution  cools.  It may be
decolored  by animal charcoal,  and purified from
muriatic  acid by repeated re-solutions.
   HYPOSULPHO-INDIG01C ACID. A name
given by Berzelius to one of the acids obtained by
precipitating sulphate of indigo with  carbonate of
potassa.
   HYPOSULPHURIC  ACID.  An acid com-
pound  of  sulphur  and  oxygen,  discovered  by
Welter and Gay Lussac.   It is prepared by pass-
ing sulphurous acid gas through water, holding in
suspension black oxide  of manganese, in fine pow-
der.  The manganese is then precipitated by baryta
in excess,  and a  current of carbonic arid is passed
through the liquid, which is next filtered and evapo-
rated, when crystals of hyposulphate of baryta will
be obtained.  These, when dissolved,  and carefully
neutralized with sulphuric acid, will yield  a solu-
tion of hyposulphuric  acid.  It may be concen-
trated  until its sp. gr. becomes 1*35.  It neutral-
izes the alkalis and earths, forming salts called  hy-
posulphates, which are soluble.
   HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA.   Prep. (Ca-
paun's process.)  Boil a dilute  solution of caustic
6oda with sulphur until saturated.  Then pass  sul-
phurous acid gas into the  solution  until  there  re-
mains but a very small portion of Na S6 undecom-
posed.  This may  be  ascertained by filtering  a
small portion of  the solution, which ought to have
a very pale yellow color.  If this is found to be the
case, the whole of the solution is filtered and evapo-
rated by boiling to a sirupy consistence.  The am-
bient air, during evaporation, acts upon the Na S6
which  remains in the  liquor, and converts it  into
hyposulphite soda.  This last-mentioned salt crys-
tallizes from the  sirupy  solution.   When the salt  is
dry, it  is unalterable in the air.   If there still  re-
mains some sulphuret of soda in the  sirup, with  a
view to its  removal, it  is  simply necessary to  mix
it with one half of its weight of alcohol, and shake
it well. The alcohol takes up the sulphuret of soda,
and swims on the surface of the aqueous solution,
which  latter is set aside to crystallize, without  re-
moving the supernatant alcoholic layer.
   " It  appears to me that  it would  be more advan-
tageous to modify this operation in  such a manner
as to procure the bisulphite by saturating  a solu-
tion of carbonate of soda with sulphurous acid  gas,
disengaged  from bruised  charcoal  by sulphuric
acid.  Then mix with  this  solution  (of bisulphite
soda) the sulphuret of sodium, prepared  in  the
moist way above mentioned, in slight excess ; fil-
ter, evaporate, and set aside to crystallize." (Ber-
telius.)
   HYPOSULPHUROUS ACID. The hyposul-
phites, or salts formed by the union  of this  acid
with the bases, may either be obtained by digest-
ing sulphur in solutions of the sulphites, or by pass-
ing the sulphurous acid gas into  alkaline solutions.
The hyposulphites of potassa and soda  possess
the remarkable property of dissolving a lur^e quan-
tity of chloride of silver, and some  other  metallic
compounds, hence their  use in the  art of photo-
graphy.
  HYSTERICS.  Syn. Hysteria, (from banpa,
the womb.)   The treatment of this disease varies
with the causes and the symptoms.  Bleeding and
depletives are generally had recourse to in robust
and plethoric habits, and  stimulants and tonics in
those of  a weakly or  relaxed  constitution.  Affu-
sion of cold water, and nasal stimulants,  will fre-
quently remove the fit, in mild cases.  Exercise,
proper amusements, and regular hours and diet,
are  the  best preventives.    (See Antiiiysteric
Draught.)

  IGASURIC  ACID.   Syn. Acidum  Igasuri-
cum.  An acid discovered by Pelletier and Caven-
tou, associated with strychnine in  the faba santa
ignatii and nux vomica.   It  may be obtained by
digesting the rasped or ground beans first  in ether,
and then in boiling alcohol, evaporating the latter
decoction to dryness, diffusing the residuum through'
water, adding a little carbonate of magnesia, again
boiling for some minutes, filtering,  washing the
powder with cold water,  again digesting it i:i alco-
hol,  and filtering.  The  igasurate of magnesia
thus obtained is then dissolved in boiling water, the
solution  decomposed  by acetate  of lead, and the
precipitate, (igasurate of lead,) after being wash-
ed and diffused through  distilled  water, is decom-
posed by sulphureted hydrogen.  The solution thus
obtained  yields  crystals on being evaporated.
  IMPERATORINE.   A  neutral, fusible,  and
acrid-tasted substance,  extracted  by means  of
ether from the roots of imperatoria ostrutium.  It
is insoluble in water.
  IMPERIAL.  Syn. Imperial Drink.  Potus
imperialis.  Prep. I.  Cream of tartar £ oz.; fresh
orange or lemon-peel 3 oz.; lump sugar 4 oz.; boil-
ing water 3 pints; digest  in a close  vessel until
cold, then pour off the  clear.
  II. (Collier.)  To the last add cream of  tartar J
oz., and  sweeten to palate.   Refrigerant; a com-
mon drink in fevers, and in hot weather.
  INDIAN  RUBBER  BLACKING.   Prep. I.
(Bryant  and James's paste.) Ivory black 60 lbs.;
treacle 45 lbs.; good vinegar and oil of vitriol, of
each 12 lbs.; Indian rubber oil 9  lbs.; mix.
  II. (Bryant  and James's liquid.) Ivory black
60 lbs.; treacle 45 lbs.; gum (dissolved) 1  lb.; vin-
egar  (No. 24)  20 gallons; oil of vitriol  24 lbs.;
Indian rubber oil 9 lbs.;  mix.
  Remarks.  The Indian  rubber oil is made of
caoutchouc  18 oz., dissolved in rape  oil  9 lbs. by
means of heat.  The ingredients are  mixed  together
in the same order and manner as common blacking.
  INDIGESTION,  (POPULAR REMEDIES
FOR.)   Prep.  I. (Abernethy's  pills.)   Calomel
and oxysulphuret of antimony, of  each  20  grs.;
powdered gum  guaiacum 40 grs.;  Castile soap q.
s., (about 25 grs.;) beat into a mass, and divide in-
to 20 pills.   Dose. 1 or 2 night and morning oc-
casionally.
  II. (Dr.  Babington's mixture.)  Infusion of
calumba 6 oz.; carbonate of potassa 1 dr.; com-
pound tincture of gentian 3 dr.; mix.  Dose.  2 oi
3 tablespoonfuls daily at noon. 
IND                    361                    IND
   III. (Dr.  Bailey's mixture.)  Epsom salts 3
dr.; infusion of roses £ pint; tincture of cascarilla
£ oz.  Dose. 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls at noon and in
the evening.
,   IV. (Dr.  Gregory's mixture.)   Carbonate  of
potassa i oz.; cinnamon water and distilled water,
of each 6 oz.;  compound tincture of gentian 1 oz.;
mix.   Dose. As  last.
   V. (Dr J. Hutchinson.)  Quicklime J oz., slaked,
by sprinkling on  it a little water, and when* it has
fallen to  powder, add water  1J pint, and bruised
cinchona bark 1 oz. ; macerate with  occasional
agitation for 3 hours, in a covered vessel, then de-
cant the clear liquor, and further add tincture of
cinchona bark 2 oz.; sweet spirits of nitre 3 drs.;
sirup of orange-peel 1 oz.; mix well, and keep it
in  a corked bottle.   Dose. A  wineglassful 2 or 3
times a day, accompanying its use with an occa-
sional dose of  a  saline aperient.   " Such were the
renovating effects of  this medicine on me, that it
may with truth  be denominated the  true  aqua
vita ; for it laid  the foundation  of a state of health
 and  strength which has seldom been surpassed."
 (Sir J. Jervis,  Bart.)
   VI. (Dr. Reece's mixture.)  Carbonate of soda
 1 dr.; compound tincture of rhatany 1 oz.;  tinc-
 tures of ginger and chamomiles, of  each 3 dr.;
 camphor julep 7 oz.; mix. Dose. 3 tablespoonfuls
 twice a day.   (See Dyspepsia.)
   INDIGO.  Syn.  Anil. Bleu d'Inde ; Indigo,
 (Fr.) Indicum; Pigmentum Indicum, (Lat.) IvSikov,
 (Gr.)  A blue substance obtained from the leaves
 and young shoots  of several species of indigofera
 and nerium, by soaking them either in cold water,
 or, still better, in water  kept warm, and at about
 106° Fahr., till the liquor becomes deep green; it
 is then drawn off, and beat or churned till blue
 flakes appear, lime-water is next added, the yel-
 low liquor drawn off, the blue sediment dried, and
formed into small lumps.  Used as a blue dye and
 pigment, and occasionally in medicine for epilepsy.
   Indigo, though  apparently  a very simple sub-
stance, is composed of several distinct principles,
 and by the action of acids, alkalis, oxygen,  chlo-
rine, &.C., yields other substances possessing consid-
erable interest  The following are the chief of
 these compounds, of which the  word indigo consti-
tutes a portion of the name:—
   Pure  indigo, or indigo blue.  I.  Powdered in-
digo 5 parts ;  green vitriol 10  parts ;  hydrate of
lime 15  parts;  water 60 parts; mix, agitate oc-
casionally until the color is destroyed, then decant
the  clear portion, precipitate  with  hydrochloric
acid, and wash the powder, first with water, and
then with boiling alcohol, until the latter ceases to
acquire a yellow color.
   II. Caustic  soda  and grape  sugar,  of each 1
part; water 20  parts ; powdered indigo 5 parts ;
mix, and proceed as above.
   III. (Thos.  Taylor.)   Powdered indigo 2 parts;
plaster of Paris 1 part;  water, sufficient to reduce
the  mixture to  a thin  paste;  spread the  mass
evenly upon an oblong iron plate to the depth of J
inch, and dry it  by a gentle heat.  It must  then
be  held  over the flame of a spirit  lamp, when a
disgusting odor  will  be evolved, the  mass will
begin to  smoke, and in a few  minutes will  be
covered  with  a  dense purple  vapor,  which will
condense into brilliant flattened prisms or plates of
                       46
an intense copper color, forming a thick velvety
coating over the surface  immediately exposed to
the heat;  should the mass catch fire, it may in-
stantly be extinguished by a drop of water let fall
upon it.  Prod. 15 to 18g.
  IV.   (Fritsche.)   Indigo and grape sugar, of
each 1 part ; put them into  a bottle  capable oi
holding 40 parts of liquid ; half fill the bottle with
boiling  alcohol, and  the  other half  with  alcohol
holding Ik,  part  of  a very  concentrated lye oi
caustic soda in solution, agitate well, and, after
repose, decant the clear.   The liquid thus obtain-
ed possesses an  intense yellowish red color, but
quickly passes, by exposure to the air, through the
various shades  of red, violet, and  blue, at the
same time depositing indigo blue, in scales.  These
must be well washed, first in  alcohol, and lastly
in water.   Product  More than 50$ of the indi-
go employed.  This  offers the easiest and most
correct means of testing commercial  indigo, and
is well calculated, from its simplicity, for the use ol
dyers.
   Indigogen,  indigotine, indigo  white, or re-
duced indigo.   Prep.  The yellow alkaline solu-
tion  obtained by one of the  above  processes is
carefully protected from  the air, both before and
after precipitation with  muriatic  acid;  and the
precipitate,  after being  rapidly washed with re-
cently  boiled distilled water, or with dilute sul-
phurous acid, is drained  on a  filter, and  dried in
vacuo.  The product consists of a grayish  mass
of minute crystals,  generally light-blue  on the
surface, and rapidly turning  blue  on exposure to
the air.   White indigo is soluble in alkalis, alco-
hol,  and ether, to which  it imparts a yellow color.
These solutions deposite indigo blue on  exposure to
the air.
   Indigo  gluten is obtained by  the action of
dilute acids on indigo.  It possesses little interest.
   Indigo brown is  obtained from powdered  in-
digo by treating it first with dilute acid, and then
with a hot  strong caustic lye, which  must after-
wards be neutralized with acetic acid, evaporated
to dryness,  and treated  with alcohol, to dissolve
out acetate of potassa.   A dark brown substance
resembling humic acid.
   Indigo red  is obtained by boiling alcohol on
powdered indigo exhausted of the two  previous
substances, by  dilute acids  and strong  alkaline
lyes.   When heated, indigo red is converted into
a white sublimate, (deoxydized indigo red,) but re-
covers its color by the action of nitric  acid.  This
substance has also been called the  Red  Resin of
Indigo.
   Indigo purple or phenecine, the  purple pre-
cipitate obtained by filtration from a solution of
indigo in fuming sulphuric acid, when largely di-
luted with water.
   INDIGO DYES.  There are two methods of
preparing solutions of indigo  for dyring.   1.  By
deoxydizing  it  and  dissolving  it in alkaline men-
strua.   2. By dissolving it in sulphuric acid.  The
former constitutes the ordinary indigo vat of the
dyers.
   Prep. I.  a.  (Cold vat)   Finely-powdered  in-
digo  1  lb.;  green  copperas (as free  as  possible
from red oxide)  2£ to 3 lbs.;  newly-slaked quick-
lime 3£ to  4 lbs.; triturate  the powdered indigo
with a little water or an alkaline lye, then mix it 
IND                    362                     INF
with  some hot water, add  the l::ne,  again  well
mix, after which pour in the solution of copperas,
and agitate thoroughly.   A  little potash or soda is
frequently added, and a  corresponding portion of
lime omitted.  For use,  a portion of this prepara-
Hon vat is ladled  into the dyeing vat, as wanted.
After using for some time  the vat must be re-
freshed  with  a little  copperas and fresh-slaked
line,  when the sediment must be well stirred up,
and the whole mixed together.
   b. (Potash  vat.)  Indigo, in fine powder, 12
lbs.;  madder 8 lbs. ; bran 9 lbs.; potash 24  lbs.;
water at 125° F. 120 cubic feet;  mix well; at
the end of 36 hours add 14 lbs. more potash, and
after  10 or 12  hours longer, further  add 10 lbs. of
potash, rouse well, and as soon as the fermentation
and reduction of the  indigo are well  developed.
which generally takes place in about 72 hours,
add a little freshly-slaked  quicklime.  This vat
dyes very quickly, and the goods lose less of  their
color  in alkaline and soapy solutions than when
dyed in the common vat.
   Remarks.   Wool, silk, linen, and cotton,  may
all  be dyed in the indigo  vat by  passing them
through a weak alkaline solution, and then through
the indigo vat  for about fifteen minutes ; the  stuff
should be exposed to the air, and the immersion in
the vat  and exposure repeated till  the color be-
comes sufficiently deep.   The  addition of  a  little
woad  and madder to the vat  improves the  dye.
Other deoxydizing substances, beside those above
mentioned, may be used to effect the deoxydation
of the indigo; thus a  mixture of  caustic soda,
grape sugar, indigo, and water, is often employed
on the Continent for this purpose, and orpiment,
lime,  and  pearlash  are also  occasionally  used.
When properly prepared, the  indigo vat  may be
kept in action for  several months by  the addition
of one or other of its constituents, as required.
An excess of either copperas or lime should be
avoided.
   II.  Dissolve indigo 1  lb.  in smoking sulphuric
acid 4£ lbs., or oil of vitriol 7 or 8 lbs., in the  way
directed  under liquid blue,  page  122, and,  after
standing 48  hours, add water 2  gallons.   This
liquid is added to water as required,  and the cloth,
previously boiled with alum,  is immersed in it, and
the boiling and  immersion  are repeated until the
wool becomes sufficiently dyed.
   Remarks.   With the above dye every shade of
blue may be  dyed, but it is most commonly em-
ployed to give a  ground to  logwood blues ; in
which case the stuff is usually prepared by a boil
with  a  mixed mordant of  alum, tartar, the sul-
phates of copper  and iron, and the blue solution,
and then dyed in a logwood bath, to which a  little
potash has been  added.  When the  above  sul-
phuric solution of indigo is diffused through water,
at a boiling temperature, and wool plunged there-
in, and allowed to remain as it cools for 24 hcurs,
and then taken  out, drained, washed in water
until  the latter ceases  to  be  colored, and  then
boiled for about 15 minutes  in water containing 1
or 2°r of carbonate of potassa, soda, or ammonia,
or  a  weight  equal tc  tbout J of the  indigo em-
ployed, the blue  color will  forsake  the wool, and
become dissolved in the water.  This liquid, when
slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid, imparts a
fine blue to cloth.   The names soluble blue, dis-
tilled blue, blue carmine, &.c, &c, have been ap-
plied  to  it; it  is in reality a cmruleo-sulphate of
potassa, or a double sulphate of indigo and potassa.
It may  be  purified  by evaporation  to  a sirup,
and  agitation, first with  alcohol, and then with a
mixture of alcohol  and acetic acid ;  it may then
be evaporated  to dryness,  when it forms  a dark
blue powder.
  INDIGOIC  ACID.   Syn. Anilic Acid.  An
acid obtained by Chevreul  by th6 action of dilute
boiling nitric acid  on indigo.   It is  prepared  by
gradually adding indigo in  powder to boiling nitric
acid,  previously diluted  with 12 or  15 parts of
water, as long as effervescence  ensues;  a little
water being dropped in  from time to time to pre-
vent the  formation  of carbazotic acid.  The clear
yellow liquid  is then  decanted while  hot, and the
crystals deposited as it cools, redissolved in boiling
water, and acetate of lead  added as  long as  it
causes a  brown precipitate.  The filtered liquor
deposites  crystals  of  anilate  of lead  on cooling,
which by resolution in boiling water, and  decom-
position with sulphuric acid, yield crysta* of anilic
acid.  Colorless, fusible, yellowish white needles,
scarcely soluble in  cold  water,  but freely soluble
in boiling water.   It forms soluble and crystalliza-
ble  salts, called Anilates or Indigotates, with
some of the bases.
  INFANT'S   PRESERVATIVE,  (ATKIN-
SON'S.)  Prep.  Bicarbonate of magnesia 3vj ;
white sugar  §ij ;  oil of  aniseed 20 drops ;  com-
pound spirit of ammonia 3iiss ; laudanum 3j ; sirup
of saffron ^j ;  caraway  water q. s. to make the
whole measure 1 pint.  (Haggard.)
  INFUSION.  Syn.   Infusion, (Fr.) Infusum ;
Infusio,  (Lat., from  infundo,  to pour  in.)  In
Pharmacy, a liquid preparation  obtained by pour-
ing  water of  any required temperature  upon
vegetable or animal substances,  and suffering it to
stand a certain time. Shavings, leaves, and  flowers,
require no previous preparation ; but  roots, woods,
and  other solid substances  must be  bruised or
sliced, if in the  green  or recent state, or bruised, or
coarsely  pulverized, if dry, for the purpose of ex-
posing as large  a surface as possible to the action
of the menstruum.
  The substances extracted by water from vegeta-
bles by  infusion  are chiefly  gum,  mucus, ex-
tractive,  tannin, certain vegetable acids, the bitter
and  narcotic principles, gum-resin,  essential  oil,
and  alkalis.  Some of these  substances are only
sparingly soluble in  water at  ordinary tempera-
tures ; but  more  readily  so in  hot  water, and
freely soluble in boiling water.   The temperature
of the water should  be  therefore proportioned  to
the nature of the  vegetable matter  operated  on.
For mere demulcent infusions, in which fecula
and  gum are  the  chief substances sought to be
dissolved  out,  and when  the active  principle is
scarcely soluble in water, unless nearly  at  the
boiling temperature, boiling water alone should be
employed;  but when  the  medicinal virtues  of
vegetables are soluble  in water  at  lower tem-
peratures, it is  better to  employ hot water, and to
allow a little longer period for  the digestion.   In
many cases temperate water, (from 60 to  7(1°.) or
tepid water, (from 80 to 90°,)  may be used with
advantage,  especially in  the preparation of aro-
matic bitter infusions, and in most cases, where it 
INF                    363                    INF
is wished that the product should contain as little
inert  matter as possible ; but when water at low
temperatures is employed, the period of the macera-
tion must be proportionately increased.   By adopt-
ing the method of maceration in vacuo, the men-
struum may be allowed to lie in  contact with the
vegetable matter for an unlimited period, without
decomposition takkig place.
   Infusions, like decoctions, are liable to undergo
spontaneous decomposition by keeping, especially
in warm weather, when a few hours are often suf-
ficient for their passage into a state of  active fer-
mentation ;  they should therefore be  prepared for
use daily, as beyond 24 hours they cannot be de-
pended  on.   The  London  College directs a pint
only to be made at  a time, thus  very properly re-
garding them as extemporaneous preparations. See
Decoctions.
   *** As many infusions which are  occasionally
employed in medicine must necessarily  escape no-
tice in the  following list, it  may  be as  well to re-
mark, that  the Infusions of all vegetables that do
not exert  a very powerful  action on  the human
frame, may be made by pouring  1  pint  of boiling
water on 1  oz. of the vegetable matter,  and allow-
ing it to macerate for half an hour to an hour; and
the Decoctions of the same  vegetables  may be
made by boiling the above ingredients in the same
proportions  for 10 or 15 minutes,  instead of opera-
ting by mere  infusion.   The ordinary dose of such
infusions and decoctions is  1 to 2 oz.  three or four
times a day.
   INFUSION, ANTISCORBUTIC.   Syn. In-
fubum antiscorbuticum.  Prep. (E.  H.)   Water
trefoil (menyanthes aquaticum)  ^'j j  orange ^ss;
boiling water 4 pints ; infuse for a night, strain, and
add compound spirits of horseradish half a pint.
   INFUSIONS,   ASTRINGENT.   Syn. Inf.
astringens.  Prep. I. Oak bark §ss ; boiling wa-
ter £  pint;  infuse  1 hour, and to each  ^iss of the
strained liquor add powdered galls 10 grs.; tincture
of catechu,  compound tincture of cardamoms, and
sirup  of orange peel, of each 3ss,  for a dose.
   II. Infusion of cusparia §j ; tincture of catechu
or kino 3j ;  powdered ipecacuanha 3 grs.; powder-
ed opium ^  a  gr.; mix for a dose.  In diarrhoea, &c.
   INFUSION,  BITTER PURGING.   Syn.
Inf. am arum purgans   (P.  L. 1746.)   The same
as compound  gentian mixture.
   INFUSION, CATHARTIC.   Syn. Inf.  ca-
tharticum.   Prep.  I. Infusion of senna §j ; tinc-
tures  of senna and  jalap, tartrate of  potassa, and
sirup  of senna, of each 3j;  mix, for a dose.
   II.  Infusion of  senna §iss; Epsom  salts 3vj;
tinctures of jalap and castor, of each 3j ; lauda-
num  and  tincture  of ginger, of each  10 drops;
mix, for 1 dose.
   III. Infusion of senna  fij; potassio-tartrate of
soda 3vj;  cinnamon water §ss; mix, for 2 doses.
  IV. Senna  leaves £  oz.;  Glauber  salts 2 oz.;
boiling water £ pint; macerate for 2 hours, strain,
and add tincture of  ginger \ oz.; compound tinc-
ture of cardamoms 1 oz.; for 4 doses.
  INFUSION, CEPHALIC.    Syn.  Inf. ce-
phalicum.   Prep. (E. H.) Valerian root ^'j; rose-
mary  3iv ; boiling water 1 quart ; infuse 12 hours,
strain, and add aromatic water §iv. Dose. A wine-
glassful 3 or 4 times a day, as antispasmodic, and
in various affections of the head.
  INFUSION, DIURETIC.  Syn. Inf. diuret-
icum.   Prep. I.  Broom tops  §ij; boiling  water
§xvj ; infuse 1 hour, strain,  cool, and add sweel
spirits of nitre 3iv.   Dose. |j every other hour.
  II. Infusion  of foxglove §iv;  tincture  of fox-
glove 3ss; acetate  of  potassa 3j; laudanum  10
drops.   Dose.  1 tablespoonful  twice  or  thrice a
day.
  III. Juniper berries §ij ;  aniseed 3ij; boiling
water lb.j; infuse 1 hour; strain, and when cold,
add compound spirit of juniper  §ij;  tincture  of
squills and nitre, of  each 3j.   Dose. £ a teacupful
frequently.  All the above are common diuretics
in dropsies.
   INFUSION OF  ALOES.   Syn.  Inf. Aloes.
Prep.  Socotrine  or hepatic  aloes, bruised, 3iv ;
boiling water 1 pint; digest with agitation for 1 hour,
and when cold pour off the clear.  Dose.  £ oz. to
1 oz., alone  or combined with £ oz. of tincture of
rhubarb;  laxative.
   INFUSION  OF ALOES,  (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Inf. Aloes compositum.  Prep. (Dr. Foth-
ergill.)  Aloes  3j; rhubarb and  calumba, of each
3iv ; lime water f §viij ; spirit of horseradish f 3iv;
infuse for 12 hours.   An excellent stomachic pur-
gative.
   INFUSION  OF ANGELICA.   Syn. Inf.
Angelica.  Angelica  root 3vj;  boiling water 1
pint; macerate 2 hours and strain. Aromatic and
stomachic.
   INFUSION OF ARNICA.  Syn. Inf. Arni-
cje.  Prep.   I.  (Dr. Joy.)  Flowers of leopard's
bane (arnica montana) 3j ;  boiling water 1 pint;
macerate half an hour.
   II. (A. T. Thomson.)  Leaves or flowers 3iss oi
root 9ij ; boiling water f ^xij.
   III. (Pereira.)  Arnica (flowers or leaves ?) §ss ;
boiling water 1 pint.  Stimulant,  diaphoretic, and
diuretic.  Dose. f§ss to f§j.   The  operation of
arnica appears to resemble that of senega.  (Sun-
del in.)
   INFUSION OF  BARBERRY. Syn. Inf. Ber-
beris.  Prep.  (Dr. Copland.) Bark of the barberry
shrub §ss;  boiling  water £ pint; macerate  two
hours, and strain.  Dose. 1 to 2 oz. either alone or
combined with a little carbonate of soda or potassa
and tincture  of  calumba;  in  jaundice,  biliary
fluxes, and other cases where heat and  acrimony
prevail.
  INFUSION OF BARK.   Syn. Inf. Cincho-
nas, (P. L. E. and D.)   Inf. Corticis Cinchona.
Infusion de Quinquina, (Fr.)  Infuso  di China,
(Ital.)  Chinainfusum, (Ger.)   Prep. I.  (P.  L.)
Lanceleaved (pale)  cinchona,  bruised, fj j boiling
water 1 pint; macerate for 6 hours in a lightly cov-
ered vessel, and strain.
  II. (Inf. cinchona sine colore!) Prep. (P. D.)
Triturate  the  bark  with a little of the water, and
add  the remainder  (cold) during the trituration;
macerate for 24 hours, and decant the clear liquor.
  III. (P. E.) From any species of cinchona, in a
similar way to the infusion of cinchona, P. L.
  Remarks.  The addition of f3j of  diluted sul-
phuric acid to the water before pouring on the bark
increases its solvent power, and, consequently, the
strength of the infusion.  Dose,  fjj to f g tj three
or four times daily, as a tonic in dyspepsia and con-
valescences.  (See Decoction of Bark.)
  INFUSION OF  BARK  AND MAGNESIA 
INF                    364                    INF
S3 **.  Inf. CiNciioNiB cum Magnesia.  Prep.  (P-
U. S.)  Bruised bark 3-j; calcined  magnesia  3j;
boiling water f 5x'j;  boil, digest 1 hour, and strain.
  INFUSION OF  BARK WITH  LIME WA-
TER.   Syn. Inf. Cinchona:  cum Ao.ua  Calcis.
Prep.  (P. U. S.)  Bruised  cinchona  bark Jj; lime
water  (cold) 1 pint; macerate 12 hours in a cov-
ered vessel
  INFUSION OF BARK, COMPOUND. Syn.
Inf. Cinchona  compositum.  Prep.  (St.  B.  H.)
Cinchona bark §j;  red rose  leaves  3iij ; orange
peel (dried)  3ij ; boiling water 1  pint; macerate 2
hours in a covered vessel, strain, and add diluted
sulphuric acid 3iss.
  INFUSION OF BARK, CONCENTRATED.
Prep.  I. Coarsely-powdered bark 4  lbs.; boiling
water  8 lbs.: macerate for 10 or 12  hours,  express
the liquor, add rectified spirit of wine 2 lbs.; mix
well, let it repose for 24 hours, and filter the clear
portion.
  II. To the water employed  in the  last  portion,
add diluted sulphuric acid 2 or 3 fluid ounces, and
proceed as before.
  III. Coarsely-powdered bark 4 lbs.; cold water
8 lbs.; rectified spirit 2 lbs.;  diluted  sulphuric acid
3 or 4 oz.;  mix the fluids, and either macerate  the
bark in them for a week in a closed  vessel, or pro-
ceed  by the method of displacement.  Product
very superior.
  Remarks.  One  fluid drachm of  either of  the
above, added to 7 fluid drachms of water, produces
an  extemporaneous  infusion of  cinchona  resem-
bling that of the pharmacopoeia.
  INFUSION OF BLUE  FLAG.  Prep. Blue
flag flowers 1 to 2 oz.;  boiling water 1 pint; ma-
cerate.  Used for the color.
  INFUSION  OF  BRAZIL  WOOD.   Prep.
From ground Brazil wood  as  the   last.   When
wanted to keep, 3 oz. of rectified spirit are added to
e/31-1'  pint.   Used as coloring.
  INFUSION OF BROOM.  Syn.  Inf. Sco-
parii.   Prep. (P. L.)   Fresh broom tops §j ; boil-
ing distilled water 1 pint; macerate for 4 hours in
a lightly-covered vessel, and strain.  Diuretic or
purgative.   Dose.  1  to 4 oz.
  INFUSION OF BUCHU.  Syn.  Inf.  Buchu,
(P. D.)  Inf.  Bucku,  (P. E.)   Inf. Diosmaj,  (P.
L.)  Prep.  (P. L.)   Buchu  leaves §j ',  boiling
water 1 pint; macerate 2 hours.   Tonic, stimu-
lant, and diuretic.   Dose. 1£ oz. to 2 oz.
  INFUSION  OF  CALUMBA.   Syn.  Inf.
Radicis Calumb.*.  Inf. Calumba, (P. L. &  E.)
Inf. Colombo, (P. D.)  Prep. I. (P. L.)   Calum-
ba  root, sliced, 3v; boiling distilled  water 1 pint;
macerate for 2 hours  in a lightly-covered vessel,
and strain.  The Dublin form is similar, but orders
only 3ij of calumba root.
   II.  (Infusum  calumba  cum aqua frigida.)
Prep.  (P. E.)   Calumba, in coarse powder, ^ss ;
cold  water  1 pint;  triturate with a  little of  the
water so as to moisten  it thoroughly, then put it
into a percolator, and pass cold  water through it
until f ^xvj of infusion have  been obtained.
   Remarks. The infrtsion prepared  by the first of
the above formulae soon spoils, but that prepared by
the second will keep for 6ome days.  Infusion of
calumba is a good tonic  and  stomachic bitter.
Dose. 1 to 3 ounces in dyspepsia, &.C., and for  re-
straining vomiting and diarrhoea during pregnancy
or dentition.   It is preferably joined with small
doses of carbonate  of soda or potassa.
  INFUSION  OF  CALUMBA,  (CONCEN-
TRATED.)   Prep. I.  Calumba, in coarse  pow-
der, %v ; boiling water  §xvj ; macerate 2 hours;
strain, add rectified spirit Sjiv; and  the  next day
filter.
  II. Coarsely-powdered calumba root 5 lbs.; rec-
tified spirit of wine 5£ pints ; cold water 11 pints ;
macerate in a closed vessel with frequent agitation
for 5 days ; express the  liquor, add the  whites of
4 or 5 eggs, previously mixed with 4, pint of cold
water, agitate well for 10 minutes, allow it to re-
pose for 1 week, and decant the clea».   Should it
not be  perfectly  transparent, it may  be filtered
through blotting paper.   Product.  20 lbs.
  III.  From theqsame ingredients as the last, but
by the method of displacement.
  Remarks. The  concentrated infusion produced
by the last two formula? «s of very superior quali-
ty, and  has acquired a gret.t sale in the wholesale
trade.   f3j added  to  f 3vij of water makes a per-
fectly transparent liquid, possessing exactly similar
virtues to the infusion of calumba, P. L.
  INFUSION  OF  CAPSICUM.  Syn.   Inf.
Capsici.   Prep.  (Pereira.)   Powdered  capsicum
3iv ; boiling water 1 pint; macerate in a covered
vessel for 2 hours.   Dose, ij  oz. and  upwards in
malignant sore throat and scarlatina.
  INFUSION OF CASCARILLA.   Syn. Inf.
Corticis Cascarilla?.   Inf. Cascarilla, (P. L.
E. & D.)   Prep. (P. L.) Cascarilla bark, bruised,
§iss ; boiling water 1 pint;  macerate 2 hours, and
strain.   A light and aromatic bitter tonic.  Dose.
1 to 3 oz., usually combined with carbonate of soda
and tincture of cascarilla.  It is an excellent medi-
cine in various stomach complaints, debility,  diar-
rhoea, &c.
  INFUSION OF CASCARILLA, (CONCEN-
TRATED.)   Prep.  Cascarilla, (good and fra-
grant,)  bruised, 6  lbs.;  rectified spirit of wine 3
pints ; cold Water 6 pints ;  macerate in a  close
vessel for 14 days, express the liquor, and filter.
  Remarks. The product, if the  preceding process
be well  managed, resembles brandy in  color and
transparency,  and is delightfully  fragrant  Should
it, however, prove slightly opaque, it may be ren-
dered brilliant by shaking it up, first with about a
drachm of dilute sulphuric  acid, and afterwards
with the whites of 3 or  4 eggs, previously mixed
with a few ounces of water ; it will  then either
become  fine  by repose  or by filtration.   Concen-
trated infusion of cascarilla may  also be advan-
tageously made from the 6ame ingredients by the
method  of displacement. (See  Infusion  of Ca-
lumba, concentrated.)  f 3j of this infusion, mixed
with f 3vij of water, makes a preparation  exactly
resembling the infusion of calumba, P. L.
  INFUSION  OF  CATECHU.  Syn.   Com-
pound  Infusion of Catechu.   Inf. Catechu, (P.
E.)   Inf.  Catechu  compositum, (P.  L. & D.)
Infusion de Cachou, (Fr.)  Katechu-Infusum,
(Ger.)   Prep. (P.  L.)  Catechu  3vj ; bruised cin-
namon 3j ; boiling water 1 pint; macerate 1  hour.
  Remarks. The Edinburgh college orders f ^xvij
of water, and  the addition of f giij  of sirup to the
strained liquid. Astringent   Dose. 1 to 3 oz.  in
diarrhoea, 3 or 4 times a day, or  after every liquid
dejection. 
INF                    365                   INF
   INFUSION  OF CENTAURY.   Syn.  Inf. I
 Centaurii.   Prep. I.   (A. T. Thomson.)   Sum-
 mits of (common  or lesser) centaury 3vj; boiling
 water £ pint.                              *
   II.  (P. Cod.)   Leaves 3j; water f^xvj.  Bitter,
 stomachic;  has been proposed as a substitute.for
 infusion of gentian.
   INFUSION   OF  CHAMOMILES.   Syn.
 Chamomile Tea.   Inf. Anthemidis, (P. L. & E.)
 Inf.  Chamameli,  (P.  D.)  Infusion de  Camo-
 mille Romaine,  (Fr.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Chamo-
 mile  flowers 3v ; boiling water 1  pint; macerate
 10 minutes, (20 minutes, P. E.,) and strain. Tonic,
 bitter, and stomachic.   Dose.  1 to 2 oz.  two or
 three times a day.  It should be drunk cold, as  it
 is emetic when  warm.
   INFUSION  OF  CHAMOMILES,  (CON-
 CENTRATED.)   Prep.   Chamomiles  5 oz.;
 water 1  pint; boil till the mixture weighs  exactly
 21 oz.; express the liquor by means of a tincture-
 press, cool, and add essential oil of chamomile 15
 drops, dissolved in rectified spirit  of wine 5 oz.;
 agitate well, let it repose until the  next day, then
 decant the clear, and filter.  Product.  Strongly
 bitter and odorous, and beautifully transparent.  8
 times as strong  as the infusion, P. L.
   INFUSION OF CHERRY-LAUREL. Syn.
 Inf.  Lauro-cerasi.  Prep. (Dr. Cheston.)  Fresh
 cherry-laurel leaves  §iv ;  boiling  water f ^xxxij ;
 infuse an hour,  strain, and add clarified honey §iv.
 This  infusion  is  employed externally;  in large
 doses it is poisonous.
   INFUSION  OF CHIRETTA.   Syn.  Inf.
 Chirayta.  Inf. Chiretta.  Prep.  (P. E.)  Chi-
 retta §iv ; boiling water 1 pint; macerate 2 hours.
 A tonic bitter.   Dose.  1  to 2 oz. combined with
 carbonate of soda  or tincture of sesquichloride of
 iron in dyspepsia and debility.
   INFUSION  OF CLOVES.  Syn. Inf. Cary-
 ophillorum.  Inf. Caryophilli, (P. L. E. & D.)
 Prep. (P. L.)   Bruised cloves 3iij,  (3i,  P. D.;)
 boiling water 1  pint; macerate for  2 hours, and
 strain.  A grateful stomachic.  Dose. 1 to 2 oz.
 three or four times a day.
   INFUSION  OF CLOVES, (CONCENTRA-
 TED.)  Prep.  I.  Bruised cloves fiij ; boiling wa-
 ter f 3xv ; infuse as above and strain ; when cold
 add rectified spirit \ pint, f :d filter.
   II.  Bruised   cloves  IJ lbs.; rectified spirit  1
 quart; cold water 3 quarts ;  macerate for 7 days,
 express the liquid, and  filter.  Product.  Very
 fine.
   Remarks.  The above is 8 times the strength of
 the infusion of cloves, P. L.
   INFUSION OF CUSPARIA.  Syn.  Infusion
 of Angostura.   Inf. Cusparia, (P. L. &. E.)  Inf.
 Angustura,  (P. LX)   Prep. (P. L.)   Angustura
 bark 3v ;  boiling water 1 pint; macerate 2 hours.
 Stimulant and   tonic.  Dose.  1 to  3 oz. three  or
 four times a day, in typhus fever, bilious diarrhoea,
 dysentery, &c.
   INFUSION OF DAHLIA PETALS.   From
 the violet  blue variety, 1 oz. to a  pint of  boiling
 water.
  INFUSION OF DEADLY NIGHTSHADE.
 Syn.  Inf.  Belladonna.   Prep. I.  (Dr.  Paris.)
 Dried belladonna leaves 4 grs.; boiling water f ^ij ;
for a dose.
  II.  (Dr. Saunders.)  Leaves 3ss ; boiling water
fgxij ; infuse, strain, and to every f gvij of the in-
fusion add compound tincture of cardamoms §j.
   INFUSION  OF  DIGITALIS.   Syn.  Inf
of Foxglove.   Inf. Digitalis.  (P. L.  E. & D.)
Infusion de Digitale Purpurine,  (Fr.)   Finger-
hut Aufguss, (Ger.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Dried fox-
glove leaves 3j ; spirit of cinnamon f §j; boiling
distilled water 1 pint; macerate the leaves in the
water for 4 hours ; strain, and add the spirit.
   Remarks.  The Dublin form is similar, but the
Edinburgh college orders 3ij  of the dried leaves.
Diuretic and narcotic.  Dose. £ oz. to 1  oz. every
8 or 10 hours, till it exerts a  sensible  effect  upon
the body.
   INFUSION  OF  ERGOT.  Syn. Inf. Ergo-
ta.  Inf. Secalis "Cornuti.   Prep.   (Pereira.)
Ergot 3j ; boiling water  f fiv ;  infuse   till  cold.
Dose. One third every half hour until the whole
is taken ; in labor.
   INFUSION  OF  EUPAIl'RIUM.  Syn. Inf.
Eupatorii.  Prep. (P. U. S.)  Eupatorium  (per-
foliata)  §j ;  boiling  water 1  pint;  macerate  2
hours.
   INFUSION  OF  FUMATORY.  Syn.  Inf.
of Fumaria.  Inf.  Fumaria.   Prep.   Fumaria
(officinalis) 1 handful; boiling water 1 quart ; in-
fuse one hour.   For skin diseases.
   INFUSION OF GALLS.  Syn. Inf. Galla.
Prep. (Pereira.)  Bruised galls 3iv ; boiling water
f §vj ; infuse.  Dose.  J  oz. to 2 oz. in   intermit-
tents, or 3 to 4 oz. in cases of poisoning by the al-
kaloids.  It is also used in gargles, injections, and
embrocations.
   INFUSION OF GENTIAN, COMPOUND.
Syn. Inf. Gentiana,  (P. E.)  Inf. Gentiana
compositum, (P. L. & D.)   Prep. I. (P.  L.)  Gen-
tian root, sliced, and dried orange-peel, of each,
3ij; fresh lemon-peel 3iv ; boiling distilled water
1  pint;  infuse for one hour, and strain.
   II. (P. E.)  Sliced  gentian root  ^ss;  bitter or-
ange-peel, dried and  bruised,  and coriander seeds,
of each 3j; proof spirit f ^iv ; digest 3 hours, then
add of cold water f ^xvj,  and in  12 hours more,
strain.
   III. (P. D.) Gentian 3ij; fresh lemon-peel §ss;
dried orange-peel 3iss ; proof spirit f §iv ; macerate
3  hours, then add of  boiling water ffxvj, and di-
gest for 2 days in a closed vessel.
   Remarks.  The above are elegant tonics and
stomachics.   The dose of  the infusion (P. L. and
D.) is 1 to 2 oz., that of the infusion (P. E.)  £ oz.
to 1 oz.   The first speedily spoils, but the infusions
of the Edinburgh and  Dublin colleges will  keep
for some time in close vessels.
   INFUSION OF GENTIAN, COMPOUND,
(CONCENTRATED.) Prep. I. Bruised gentian
root 4 lbs.; boiling water sufficient to cover it; in-
fuse with occasional  agitation for 2 hours, express
the liquor, wash the root with a little  boiling wa-
ter,  and evaporate  to  13  quarts;  when  cold,
strain through flannel, add rectified spirit of  wine
1 gallon, and pour the mixed fluids on dried or-
ange-peel 4  lbs., and fresh  lemon-peel 8  lbs.;
macerate for 1 week, then express the liquor, and
filter through paper.
   II. Bruised gentian and dried orange-peel, of
each 4 lbs.; fresh lemon-peel 8 lbs.;  cold distilled
water 13 quarts; rectified  spirit of wine 1 gallon ;
pour  the  mixed  fluids on  the other  ingredients 
INF                    366                    INF
placed in a stoneware jar, bung close, 1'e over the
vessel with bladder and canvass, and macrrsrate for
14 or 15 days, observing to let the vessel remain
upright during the night, but inverted during the
day.  At the end of the time express  the liquid,
add 1 drachm each of the essences of lemon  and
orange, agitate well,  and filter; it runs rapidly
through paper.  Product of very  superior qual-
ity.
  III. Bruised  gentian 4J lbs.; essence of lemon
i oz.;  essence of orange \ oz.; essence of cedrat
1 dr.;  rectified spirit of wine 1 gallon ;  cold water
3 gallons;  infuse with  agitation  for a  fortnight,
press, and  filter.  Product. Very fine  and odor-
ous.
  Remarks. The above formulae are actually em-
ployed at  tho  present time  by  houses who do
largely in concentrated  infusion of gentian, and
with proper management the products, especially
of the last two, possess all the brilliancy of brandy,
and are powerfully bitter, odorous, and aromatic;
they also keep  well: f 3j added to f 3vij of water,
produce a  liquid resembling the infusion of the
Pharmacopoeia in every particular.
  INFUSION  OF GINGER.  Syn. Inf.  Zin-
gibers.  Prep. (Pereira.) Ginger,  bruised, 3ij to
3iij; boiling water f §vj ; macerate for  2 hours.
Dose.  1 or 2 tablespoonfuls in flatulence and indi-
gestion.
  INFUSION  OF GRATIOLA.   Syn.  Inf.
Gratiola.  Prep.  (A.  T.  Thomson.)  Gratiola,
dried, 3ij; boiling water f^viij.
  INFUSION of GUAIACUM, COMPOUND
Syn. Compound Lime-water. Aqua Calcis com-
posita, (P.  D.)  Inf. Guaiaci comp.  Prep. (P. D.)
Guaiacum  shavings lb. ss;  bruised liquorice root
|j ; sassafras ^ss; coriander seeds 3iij ; lime-water
3 quarts; infuse for 2 days, and strain.  Dose.  3
to 4 oz. twice or thrice a day, in scrofula, rheuma-
tism, eruptions,  &c.
  INFUSION OF GUM.  Syn.  Inf.  Acacia.
Prep. Gum acacia and lump sugar, of each 2 oz. ;
boiling water 1  pint;  macerate until  dissolved,
then cool, and add orange-flower water £ oz.  A
pleasant demulcent in coughs, hoarseness, &c.
  INFUSION   OF  (STINKING)  HELLE-
BORE.  Ayn.  Inf.  of Bearsfoot.   Inf. Helle-
bori fcetidi.  Prep. (Woodville.)  Fresh leaves of
stinking hellebore 3ij, or dried leaves 3ss; boiling
water f §viij ; infuse  1 hour.   Cathartic, emetic.
  INFUSION   OF HEMEDESMUS.  Syn.
Inf. Hemedesmi.  Prep. (Ashburner.)  Root of
hemedesmus  indicus §ij; lime-water  1 pint; in-
fuse 12 hours.
  INFUSION   OF HEMLOCK.   Syn.  Inf.
Conii.  Inf. Conii maculati.   Prep.  (Guy's  H.)
Dried leaves of  hemlock and coriander seeds, of
each  3ij; boiling water fviij; infuse for 2 hours.
Combined  with  acetate of ammonia, tincture of
henbane, and sirup of poppies, in pulmonary com-
plaints.
  INFUSION OF HOLY  THISTLE.  Syn.
Inf. Cardui Benedicti.  Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Holy
thistlo 3j; boiling water f ^viij; macerate 2 hours.
Bitter, tonic,  and  astringent;  in  stomach  dis-
eases.
  INFUSION OF HOP.  Syn.  Inf. Lupuli,
(P.  L.)   Inf. Humuli.  Prep.  (P. L.)  Hops 3vj;
boiling water 1 pint; infuse  for 4  hours. Tonic
and anodyne.  Dose,  f $j to f 5'j-  Well-hopped
mild ale in a good substitute.
  INFUSION OF HOREHOUND.   Syn. Inf
Marubii.   Prep. (Pereira.) Horehound leaves 5j J
boiling water 1 pint; infuse for an hour.   Dose. £
to • whole  teacupful in coughs, colds, &c.
  INFUSION OF HORSERADISH. Syn. Inf.
Armoracia.   Prep.  Horseradish,  sliced,  ^iss;
boiling water 1 pint;  infuse one  hour.  Diuretic
and stomachic.   Dose. 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls  every
3 or 4 hours.
  INFUSION  OF  HORSERADISH, COM-
POUND.   Syn.  Inf. Armoracia  compositum.
Prep. (P. L.) Sliced horseradish and bruised mus-
tard  seed, of each  §j » compound spirit of horse-
radish f Jj; boiling  water 1 pint;  infuse the root
and seeds  in the  water  for 2 hours,  strain, cool,
and add the spirit.  Stimulant and diuretic.  Dose.
1 to 3 oz. every second or third hour, in paralysis,
dropsies, &c.
  INFUSION OF JUNIPER BERRIES.  Syn.
Inf. Juniperi.  Inf. Bacca Juniperi.  Prep. (Pe-
reira.) Juniper berries §j',  boiling  water 1  pint;
infuse 1 hour.  Diuretic.  Dose. \ to a "hole tea-
cupful, ad libitum.
  INFUSION OF LINSEED, (CATHARTIC.)
Syn. Inf. Llni cathartici.  Prep. (A. T. Thom-
son.) Cathartic linseed (purging flax) 3ij ; boiling
water f 3jxvj; infuse .1 hour, and strain.
  INFUSION OF LINSEED,  COMPOUND.
Syn. Linseed Tea.  Inf. Lini, (P. E.) Inf. Lini
compositum, (P. L. and D.)  Infusion de Semence
de Lin, (Fr.)   Leinsamen Aufguss, (Ger.)   In-
fuso di Semi di Lino, (Ital.)  Prep.  (P. L.) Lin-
seed  3vj ;  bruised liquorice root 3ij ; boiling  water
1 pint; macerate for  4  hours near the fire, and
strain.   A  cheap and useful demulcent.   Dose.
f^ij ad libitum.   In pulmonary and urinary  irrita-
tion.
  INFUSION  OF  LIQUORICE.   Syu. Inf.
Glycyrrhiza.   Prep. (St. B. H.) Fresh liquorice
root ^j; boiling water 1  pint;  macerate 2 hours.
Demulcent; taken ad libitum.
  INFUSION OF LITMUS.   See Infusion op
Archil, page 72.
  INFUSION OF LOBELIA.   Syn. Inf. Lo-
belia.   Inf. Lobelia inflata.   Prep. (Collier.)
Lobelia (Indian  tobacco) §j ;  boiling water J .a
pint; infuse half an hour, and strain.   Dose, f §ss
every half hour until it nauseates.   In asthma.
  INFUSION  OF  LOGWOOD.   Syn.  Inf.
Hamatoxyli.  Prep. Logwood 1 oz.; boiling wa-
ter 1 pint; infuse 1 hour.  Used  as a color and
test
  INFUSION  OF  MALLOW   FLOWERS.
As the last
  INFUSION  OF NARCISSUS.  Syn. Inf.
Narcissi.   Prep. (Dufresnoy.) Flowers 3 to 16 in
number; boiling  water 1  pint;  infuse.
  INFUSION  OF  ORANGE-PEEL, COM-
POUND.   Syn.  Inf. Aurantii.  Inf. Aurantii
compositum, (P. L.)  Prep. (P. L.) Dried orange-
peel  ^ss ;  fresh lemon-peel 3ij; bruised cloves 3j ,
boiling water 1 pint;  infuse for 15  minutes, and
strain.   A pleasant stomachic.   Dose. 1  or 2 oz.
twice or thrice a day.
  INFUSION  OF  ORANGE-PEEL, COM-
POUND, (CONCENTRATED.)  Prep. I. Dried
orange-peel 3 lbs.; fresh  lemon-peel  1£  lbs.; 
INF
367
INF
 bruised cloves f lb.; boiling water 9 pints;  infuse
 for 20  minutes, press out the liquor, and  when
 cold, add rectified spirits 1 quart;  filter.
   II. Dried  orange-peel  3 lbs.; fresh lemon-peel
 1} lb.;  bruised cloves J lb.; rectified spirit 3  pints;
 cold water 9 pints; macerate for  1 week,  press,
 and filter. Product very superior.
   Remarks,  f 3j of either of the  above, added to
 f3vij of water, makes a similar (preferable) prepar-
 ation to  the  compound  infusion  of orange-peel,
 P. L.
   INFUSION OF  PEACH LEAVES.   Syn.
 Inf. Persica.  Prep. (Pereira.) Dried peach leaves
 fss;  boiling water 1 pint.   Dose.  £ oz. 2 or  3
 times a day.    As  a vermifuge, and to allay irrita-
 tion of  the bladder and urethra.
   INFUSION OF PEPPERMINT.  Syn.  Inf.
 Mentha Piperita.  Prep. 1 oz. of the herb to 1
 pint of boiling  water.  Dose.  A teacupful ad  libi-
 tum, as a stomachic.
   INFUSION OF  PAREIRA.   Syn.  Inf. Pa-
 reira.   Prep. (P. L.) Pareira brava 3vj; boiling
 Water 1 pint; macerate 2 hours.  Dose. 1 to 2 oz.,
 in irritation of the urinary organs.
   INFUSION OF PERIWINKLE.  Prep. Pe-
 tals 1 oz. to boiling water 1 pint.
   INFUSION OF  PYROLA.   Syn.  Inf. of
 Winter Green.  Inf. Chimaphila. Inf. Pyrola.
 Prep.  (Collier.) Pyrola leaves fj ; boiling water 1
 pint; infuse.   Astringent, diuretic.   Dose.  1 to 2
 oz.   It blackens the urine, like uva ursi.
   INFUSION   OF   QUASSIA.  Syn.   Inf.
 Quassia.  Prep. (P.  L.)  Quassia  wood chips 3ij ;
 boiling distilled water 1 pint;  macerate for 2 hours,
 and 6trai».  Dose.  1 to 3  oz. twice or thrice a day,
 in dyspepsia, &c.   It is not turned black by cha-
 lybeates.
   INFUSION OF  QUASSIA  AND  ZINC.
 Syn. Inf. Quassia cum  Zinci Sulphate.  Prep.
 (P. U.  S.)  Quassia 3j ; sulphate  of zinc 8 grs.;
 boiling  water £ pint.
   INFUSION OF RED CABBAGE.  1  oz. of
 the dried leaves to boiling water 1 pint.   Use. As
 a color  and test.   It will not keep without the ad-
 dition of 1J to 2 oz. of spirit to the above quantity.
   INFUSION OF   RHATANY.   Syn.  Inf.
 Rhatani.e.  Inf. Krameria.  Prep. (P. L.) Rha-
 tany root ^j; boiling water 1 pint; infuse 2  hours.
 Astringent. Dose.  £ oz- to  2 oz. in chronic diarrhoea.
   INFUSION OF RHUBARB.  Syn. Inf. Rhei.
 (P. L. E. &, D.) Prep. (P. L.) Sliced rhubarb 3iij;
 distilled water 1  pint; macerate 2  hours,  and
 strain.
   II. (P. E.)  Rhubarb, in coarse powder, ^j ' boil-
 ing water §xviij ; infuse for 12 hours, add spirit of
 cinnamon ffij, and strain  through linen or calico.
 Stomachic and purgative.  Dose. Of the infusion
 P. L.  f 5j to f^iij, and that of the P. E. about half
 that quantity,  along with  neutral  salts  or aro-
 matics.
   INFUSION  OF RHUBARB, ALKALINE.
 Syn. Inf. Rhei alkalinum.  Prep. (Dr. Copland.)
 Rhubarb 3ij;  carbonate of potassa 3j ; boiling wa-
ter £ a pint;  infuse for 4  hours, strain,  and add
tincture of cinnamon §ss.
  INFUSION OF RHUBARB AND BORAX.
Syn.  Inf. Rhei  Boraxatum.  Prep.  (P.  Pol.)
Rhubarb 3vj ;  borax 3j ; boiling water ^vj ; infuse,
 train, and add of cinnamon water §j.
   INFUSION  OF  RHUBARB,  CONCEN-
TRATED.  Prep.  Rhubarb reduced to coarse
powder 3 lbs.;  cold distilled  water 11 pints; rec-
tified spirit of wine 5 J pints;  mix, let it stand  for
8 days, employing frequent agitation,  then press
out the liquor, and filter.
   Remarks.   The product of the above process is
8 times as strong as the infusion of rhubarb, P. L.
This is the only  way a fine, rich-colored,  and
transparent concentrated preparation can be made,
that will keep.  Should it not prove perfectly lim-
pid it may be clarified with a little white of egg, as
directed under  Infusion of Calumba, Concen-
trated.
   INFUSION  OF  ROSES.  Syn.  Inf. Rosa
I  oz. of petals to a pint of boiling water.
   INFUSION   OF  ROSES,  COMPOUND
Syn. Inf. Rosa, (P. E.)   Inf. Rosa compositum,
(P. L.) Inf. Rosa acidum, (P. D.)   Inf. Rosarum.
Inf. Rosarum comp.   Tinctura Rosarum, (P. L.
1746.)   Infusion  des Roses, (Fr.)  Rosen Auf-
guss, (Ger.)  Infuso  di Rose, (It.) Prep. (P. L.)
Dried  petals of the red rose 3iij ; diluted sulphuric
acid f 3iss ; (^ss, P. D.;)  boiling distilled water  1
pint, (lb. iij by  measure,  P. D.;) white sugar 3vj ;
(§iss, P. D.)  Pour the water on the petals, placed
in  a vessel of glass  or  earthenware,  stir in  the
acid, and infuse for 6 hours,  strain, and  add  the
sugar.
   Remarks.  The Edinburgh College  orders  the
acid not to be  added until  after  the  infusion is
strained from the leaves,  and the period of  the
maceration to be only  1  hour.   Infusion  of roses
is  principally used as a  vehicle for sulphate of
quinine, saline purgatives, and other medicines. It
is  astringent and  refrigerant, and, when diluted
with water, forms a pleasant  drink  in  febrile dis-
orders, phthisical sweats,  hemorrhages, diarrhoea,
&.c.  Dose. f§j to f^iv,  either alone or diluted
with water.  It is incompatible with  the alkalis
and earths.
   INFUSION  OF  ROSES,  CONCENTRA-
TED.   Prep. I. Rose petals or leaves 3 lbs.; boil-
ing water 2 gallons ;  infuse 2 hours, with constant
agitation, then press out the liquor in a very clean
tincture press, strain  through  flannel or a  hair
sieve, add diluted sulphuric acid 24 oz., (by meas-
ure,) agitate well, and filter through paper sup-
ported  on coarse calico; lastly,  add 6  lbs. of  the
finest white sugar  broken up into small lumps,  but
perfectly free from dust and dirt When dissolved,
put the infusion  into clean, stoppered  green glass
bottles, and keep it from the light in a cool place.
Product very superior.
   II. Take rose leaves, acid, and cold water, as
last, mix, and  infuse  for 48 hours in a clean, cov-
ered, earthenware vessel, then press out the liquid
with the hands, filter, and add  the sugar, as be-
forA  Product very fine, and keeps well.
   Remarks.  The above infusion  is  8 times as
strong  as that of the London Pharmacopoeia.   In
employing the first formula,  care should be taken
that the utensils be perfectly clean, especially  the
press, and earthenware glazed with lead should be
avoided. The "pressing" should also be conduct-
ed as rapidly as possible,  to avoid the color being
injured by the  iron, though I find that  clean iron
does not readily injure infusion of roses 6e/ore the
addition of the acid.  Should not the infusion filtef 
INF                    368                    INF
quite  clear through  paper, the addition  of the
whites of 2 or 3  eggs, diluted with 2 or 3 ounces
of water, followed by violent agitation of the liquid
for a few minutes, and repose for an hour or two,
will usually render it fine, when it  may either be
decanted  or filtered should it  require  it.  It will
now pass rapidly through ordinary  filtering paper,
and at once run clear.
  INFUSION OF  SAGE.   Syn.- Inf. Salvia.
Prep. (A. T. Thomson.)  Sage leaves,  dried, §j  ;
boiling water 1 pint;  infuse £ an hour.  Aromatic.
  INFUSION  OF  SARSAPARILLA.   Syn.
Inf. Sarza.  Inf. Sarsaparilla.   Prep. Sarsa-
parilla, sliced, ^j; boiling water 1 pint;  macerate
2 hours, and strain.
  INFUSION OF  SARSAPARILLA, COM-
POUND.  Syn.  Inf. Sarza comp.  Inf. Sarsa-
parilla compositum, (P. D.)   Prep. Sarsaparilla
washed in cold water, and sliced, §j ; lime water 1
pint;  macerate in a close vessel for 12 hours, with
frequent agitation. Alterative, in skin diseases, or
with or after a course of mercurials.  Lime water
extracts less from sarsaparilla than cold distilled
waler.  (Battley.)
  INFUSION OF SENNA.   Syn. Inf. Senna.
Prep. Senna leaves  §iss;  boiling  water 1  pint;
macerate  2 hours.  Purgative.  Dose.  1 oz. com-
bined with 3 to 6  drs. of Epsom salts, or other sa-
line purgative.
  INFUSION  OF  SENNA, COMPOUND.
Syn.  Senna Tea.  Inf. Senna compositum, (P.
L. &  D.)  Inf. Senna, (P. E.) Infusion de Sene,
(Fr.)   Senna Aufguss,  (Ger.)  Infuso di Senna,
(It.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Senna leaves  3xv;  bruised
ginger 3iv ; boiling water 1  pint; macerate 1  hour,
and strain.  Purgative.  Dose. 2 to 4  oz., usually
combined with some aperient salt.
  INFUSION  OF  SENNA,  COMPOUND.
(CONCENTRATED.)   Prep.  I.   Alexandria
senna (Opt.) 6 lbs.; bruised unbleached Jamaica
ginger 2| lbs.; rectified  spirit, and water, of each
1 gallon ;  macerate  for  14 days,  press out the
fluid,  filter, and set it aside in a well-corked bottle  ;
then take 24 lbs. of good East  India  senna, and
the pressings from the tincture, (above,) and mace-
rate in the least possible  quantity (10 or 12 gallons)
of cold water, for 12 or 14 hours, employing fre-
quent agitation; press out  the  liquid,  and again
macerate the residue  in cold water (5 or 6 gallons)
for 2 hours ; press, mix the two liquors, strain, heat
gradually to the  boiling point, carefully separate
the coagulated albumen, and evaporate as quickly
as possible to exactly 9 quarts; put the liquid into
a vessel capable of holding 5 gallons, bung close to
exclude the air, and when cold add the " tincture"
obtained from the Alexandria senna and ginger;
mix well, allow it to stand for a week, and decant
the clear portion.   This process, if skilfully man-
aged, yields a beautiful article.               ;-
  II. The same as the last, but employ hot water,
and limit the period of the infusions to 2 hours and
1 hour.   Prod. Good, but there is a large deposite,
from which the last portion of the infusion cannot
be readily procured.
  III. Take 8 times  the pharmacopoeia quantity
of senna and ginger, put them  into a  percolator,
either alone, or mixed  with  clean washed  sand,
and pass water,  mixed  with }th  rectified spirit,
through the mass, until  the proper  quantity of in-
fusion is obtained.  Product very superior, but tns,
process requires considerable address to manage it
satisfactorily.
  Remarks. All the preceding forms  are at pres-
ent actually employed in the wholesale trade, and
with proper management cannot possibly fail of
producing superior products.   They each  give an
infusion possessing 8 times the strength of that of
the pharmacopoeia.
  From the extreme bulkiness of senna, it has be-
come a practice with some unprincipled  persons to
employ only £ or \ of the proper quantity of that
drug, and to add burnt sugar or treacle to bring
up  the consistence  and color, and an alkaline so-
lution of gamboge to impart the necessary purga-
tive quality; but  this fraudulent practice may be
detected  in the way described at p. 292,  (Art. Ex-
tract of Colocynth, comp.)  Pure  infusion of
senna reddens litmus paper.   Concentrated infu-
sion of senna, as generally met with, is  next to
worthless.  This  arises  either from the employ-
ment of inferior senna,  or the destruction  of its
active principle, by lengthened exposure  to heat
and atmospheric oxygen, during its manufacture.
  INFUSION  OF  SENNA  AND  TAMA-
RINDS.  Syn.  Inf. Senna  compositum, (P. E.)
Inf. Senna cum Tamarindis, (P. D.)   Prep.  (P.
E.) Senna 3iij ; tamarinds §j; coriander seeds 3j;
sugar ^ss, (if brown ^j ;) boiling water f §viij ;  in-
fuse for 4 hours, with agitation, then strain through
calico.  Pleasanter than  the  ordinary infusions of
senna.
  INFUSION  OF  SENNA  AND  CREAM
OF TARTAR.   Syn.  Inf.  Senna  Tartariza-
t0m.  Prep. (P. L. 1788.)  Senna  §iss; coriander
seeds §ss; cream of tartar 3ij; boiling water Ib.j;
infuse 1 hour.  Purgative-
  INFUSION  OF SENNA, LEMONATED.
Syn.  Inf.  Senna Limoniatum.   Prep.  (P. L.
1746.)  Senna §iss; fresh lemon peel jj; lemon
juice f ^j ; boiling water f ^xvj ; as last.
  INFUSION OF  SENEGA.  Syn. Inf. Se-
nega.  Prep. (P. E.)  Senega (rattlesnake) root
3ij ; boiling  water 1 pint; infuse for 4 hours.
  INFUSION OF SERPENTARY.  Syn. Inf.
Serpentaria.   Prep.  (P. L. & E.)  Serpentary
(Virginian snake) root 3iv; boiling water 1 pint;
macerate for 4 hours.  Tonic, stimulant, and dia-
phoretic.  Dose. ^ oz. to 2 oz., in low fevers.
  INFUSION OF  SIMAROUBA.   Syn. Inf.
Simarouba, (P. L. E. & D.)   Prep. (P. L.)  Si-
marouba bark 3iij;  boiling water  1 pint; mace-
rate 2 hours.  Dose.  1 to 2 oz., as a tonic;  emetic
in larger doses.
  INFUSION  OF SPIGELIA.  Syn.  Worm
Tea.  Inf. of Pink Root.  Inf. Spigelia.  Prep
(P. U.S.) Pink root §ss; boiling water f%xv; in-
fuse for 2 hours.   Vermifuge.   Dose, k, oz. to 1 oz.,
for  a child 3 years of age ; for an adult  4 to 8 oz.,
morning and evening. It is usually combined with
an  equal quantity of infusion of senna,  and,  in
America, with manna and savine as well.
  INFUSION OF SPIGELIA AND SENNA.
Syn.  Inf. Spigelia cum Senna.   Prep. Pink
root and senna, of each, 3iv;  boiling water 1 pint;
as last.
  INFUSION OF SPIGELIA, COMPOUND
Syn. Inf. Spigelia compositum. Prep. (Sprague.)
Pink root §ss; senna 3ij ; orange peel, worm seed, 
INF                    369                    INH
and sweet fennel seed, of each, 3j ;  boiling water,
f ^xij; infuse 2 hours.  Vermifuge.  Dose. A wine-
glassful or more every morning, fasting.
  INFUSION OF SPEARMINT.  Syn.  Inf.
Mentha  simplex.   Prep. (P. D.)  Dried  leaves
3ij;  boiling water  f ^viij; infuse half an  hour.
Stomachic.  Dose.  A wine-glassful ad libitum.
  INFUSION   OF  SPEARMINT,  COM-
POUND.  Syn.  Inf. Mentha comp.  Prep. (P.
D.) To  the last,  as soon as cold, add oil of  mint
3 drops, and lump sugar 3ij, previously rubbed to-
gether, and dissolved in  compound tincture of car-
damoms  f§ss.  Dose.   As last.  A grateful sto-
machic, in flatulency, &c.
  INFUSION OF SWEETFLAG.  Syn. Inf.
Acori Calami.   Prep. I.  (Brande.)   Calamus
aromaticus §j; boiling  water  1 pint; macerate 4
hours.
  II. (Paris.)   Dried root 3vj, to water f §xij.
  III. (Pereira.)   §j  to fgxij of water.  Stoma-
chic, tonic, febrifuge.
  INFUSION OF TANSY.  Syn. Tansy Tea.
Inf. Tanaceti.   Prep. I.  (Pereira.)  Green  herb
§ij ; boiling water 1 pint; infuse.
  II. (Nieman.)  Tansy §j;  boiling water 1  pint.
AromaUc, bitter, tonic, and  vermifuge.  Dose. 2
to 4 oz.
  INFUSION  OF TOBACCO.  Syn. Inf. Ta-
baci.  Prep.  (P. D.)  Tobacco leaves 3j ; water 1
pint; infuse for  half  an hour.  (See Enema  of
Tobacco.)
   INFUSION  OF TREFOIL.   Syn. Inf. Me-
nyantiiis.   Prep. (Pereira.)  Marsh trefoil leaves
2jss;  boiling- water  ffxvj;'  infuse 1  hour.
  INFUSION  OF  TURMERIC.   Syn.  Inf.
Curcuma.  Prep.  Turmeric  ^iss; boiling water
1 pint;  infuse 1 hour.  Used as a  test, and  to
prepare a test-paper.  Alkalis turn it brown.  If
wanted to keep, add spirit of wine  f^iij, to the
cold infusion.
  INFUSION  OF  VALERIAN.   Syn.  Inf.
Valeriana,  (P. L. &  D.)   Prep. (P. L.)  Vale-
rian root §ss ;  boiling water 1 pint;  macerate half
an  hour,  in a covered  vessel.  Dose. IJ oz. to 2
oz., two or three times a day, in nervous and hys-
terical complaints.
  INFUSION OF WHORTLEBERRY.   Syn.
Inf. Uva Ursi.   Prep. Leaves 3iv; boiling wa-
ter 1 pint; macerate 3 hours.   With  alkalis, hen-
bane or opium, in diseases of the urinary organs;
and with sulphuric  acid and foxglove, in affections
of the lungs.
  INFUSION OF WORMWOOD.  Syn. Inf.
Absinthii.   Prep.  (Brande.)  Fresh leaves  of
wormwood 5U \ boiling  water 1 pint;  macerate 4
hours.  Bitter, stomachic.
  INFUSION,   PECTORAL.  Syn. Inf.  pec-
torale.   Prep.  (E. H.)  Linseed ^'ssj  liquorice
3iv; coltsfoot leaves Jj; boiling water 3 pints; di-
gest 4 hours, and strain.
  INFUSION,  STIMULANT.   Syn. Inf. sti-
mulans.   Prep.  (Dr. Paris.)  Black mustard seed,
bruised,  and dittander, of each, %<sa', boiling water
fxvj; macerate  for 1  hour, strain, and when cold
add spirits of sal volatile 3j; spirit of  pimento §ss.
Dose. 2 tablespoonfuls 3 times a day in palsy.
  INFUSIONS,  TONIC.  Syn.  Strengthen-
ing Infusions.  Prep. I.  Compound  infusion of
rentian  1  oz.;  bicarbonate  of potassa or  soda
                      47
20 grs.;  tincture  of cascarilla f 3j;  mix  for a
dose.
  II.  Infusion of cascarilla  1£ oz.;  tinctures of
cascarilla and ginger, of each, 1 dr.;  mix for a
dose.
  III. Infusion of calumba  1 oz.; bicarbonate or
carbonate of soda 25 grs.; tincture of ginger and
compound  tincture of cardamoms, of each,  3j;
mix for a dose.   The  above  are all taken in dys-
pepsia, and in loss of appetite  arising from hard
drinking.
  INFUSIONS, (CONCENTRATED.)  These
are now very generally met with  in  trade,  and
are made of 8 times the pharmacopoeial strength.
They are  mostly prepared by employing 8 times
the usual quantity of ingredients, and only f ths of
the proper quantity of  water, and  adding  to the
strained liquor, when cold, sufficient spirit of wine
to bring the  liquid up  to  the proper strength,
(about £ of the  weight of the strained infusion.)
A still better plan is to treat  8  times the usual
quantity of the ingredients with a mixture of rec-
tified spirit 1 part,  and cold water 3 parts ;  in the
usual way for making  tinctures, either by mace-
ration for  7 to 14  days, or by  percolation.  Con-
centrated infusions made in  this way keep well,
and deposite scarcely any sediment.   Many houses
that are remarkable for the brilliancy and beauty
of these preparations, employ J spirit of wine  and
§ water as the menstruum.  It may, however, be
taken as a general rule, that  for vegetable sub-
stances that  abound in woody fibre, and  contain
but little extractive matter soluble  in water, (as
quassia  for instance,) £ to 1 part of spirit  is suffi-
cient for their preservation ; while for those abound-
ing in mucilage or fecula, or that readily soften
and become pulpy and glutinous in weak spirit (as
rhubarb) ^ to ^  is required.   By macerating in
the infusion as much bruised mustard seed as can
be added without flavoring the liquor, along with
a little bruised cloves, I find  that most vegetable
infusions may be preserved without either ferment-
ing or becoming mouldy with very little spirit, (^
or jg  ;)  in  fact,  I  have now by  me infusions of
quassia and orange-peel, and compound decoction
of sarsaparilla, which were prepared without  any
spirit  18 months  ago, and which are now as trans-
parent and full-flavored  as when first made.  (See
Concentrated Decoctions.)
  INHALATION.  Inhalatio, (Lat, from in-
halo,  to breathe in.)  In Medicine, the  drawing
in of vapors  or  gases along  with the breath, for
the purpose of their acting on  the  mucous mem-
brane of the air-passages.   The  substances that
are to furnish the vapors or fumes are put into a
vessel called an * inhaler,' which is merely a small
covered pot or mug of metal  or glass, furnished
with  a short flexible  tube, terminating in a small
mouth-piece.  The following are the principal sub-
stances that  are  employed for the above purpose
at the present day:—1.  The  steam of hot water,
in bronchitis, and  to allay the cough in phthisis;
small quantities  of the  seeds of henbane, opium,
poppy-heads, &c, are frequently added to produce
an  anodyne  effect.  2.  Tar vapor, obtained  by
heating tar, mixed with a little carbonate of pot-
ash, over a spirit lamp.  Occasionally employed in
bronchitis,  and recommended by  Sir A. Cnghtor
in phthisis, but is useless in the latter.  3. Chlo- 
INJ                    370                   INJ
tine gas,  exhibited  by adding 5 or 6 drops of
aqueous chlorine to  the water (tepid) of the  in-
haler, which  should be of glass.  Employed in
France for phthisis,  but seldom used in England.
4.  Vapor of iodine,  administered as  the last, and
occasionally used in phthisis.   5. Oxygen and hy-
drogen gases, alone or diluted with air, employed
in  asthma  and  phthisis,  by  means  of a  bladder
and mouth-piece.  6. Carbonic acid gas and  ni-
trous oxide,  occasionally used  as  the  last in
phthisis.
  INJECTION.  Syn.   Injectio,  (Lat.,  from
injicio, to cast  into.)  Liquid medicines  thrown
into the cavities of the body by means of a syringe
or elastic bag.  Those thrown into the rectum are
commonly  called  clysters,  or enemata.   (See
Enema.)  The following are  the principal injec-
tions employed in medical practice at the present
day:—
  INJECTION  FOR DEAFNESS.  Syn. In-
jectio acoustica. Prep. I.  Ox gall 3 dr.,  ; bal-
sam of Peru 1 dr.; mix.
  II.  Oil of almonds or olives 2 oz.; oil of amber
20 drops; tincture of castor 1 dr.; spirit  of  cam-
phor J dr.;  laudanum 3 drops; mix.
  INJECTION,  LITHONTRIPTIC.    Syn.
Inj.  lithontriptica.  Prep.  (Chevallier.)  Car-
bonate of soda 3j ; Castile soap §ij ; water f §xij;
dissolve.  For calculus.
  INJECTION OF ACETATE OF AMMO-
NIA.   Syn. Inj.  Ammonia acetatis.   Prep.
(P. C.)  Liquor of acetate of ammonia ^j  ; water
^iij; mix.
  INJECTION OF  ALUM.  Syn. Inj.  Alu-
minis.  Prep. I.  (Collier)  a.  Alum 18 grs.;  rose-
water ffyj; for the  urethra.—b.  Alum 3iij; wa-
ter 1 quart; for  the vagina.
  II. (Brande.)  Compound  liquor of alum 3vj ;
water f^viss; mucilage ^ss.
  III. (P. C.) Alum 4 grs.; rose-water § iv.  All
the above are astringent
  INJECTION OF  AMMONIA.  Syn.  Inj.
Ammonia.  Prep. (Lavagna.)  Liquor of ammonia
8 to  12  drops;  milk  § ij; mix.   Stimulant and
emollient.
  INJECTION OF BICHLORIDE OF MER-
CURY. Syn. Inj. Hydrargyri Bichloridi.  Inj.
Corrosivi Sublimati.  Prep. I. (P. C.) Corrosive
sulimate 8 to 12 grs.; water  1 quart.
  II. (P. H.) To the last add wine of opium f 2j.
  III. Corrosive sublimate 5 grs.;  rose-water 2
oz.   Used to promote  a healthy action,  and to
prevent infection.
  INJECTION OF  CALOMEL.   Syn.  Inj.
Calomelanos.  Prep.  (P.  C.)   Calomel  3ss;
quince mucilage ^iv-
   INJECTION OF  CHLORINE.  Syn. Inj.
Chlorinata.  Prep.  Liquor  of  chloride  of soda
3j ; water §ij. As above.
   INJECTION OF  COPAIBA.   Syn.  Inj
Copaiba,   Prep. (P. C.)  Balsam of copaiba 3ij;
mucilage §ss ; lime water  §iv; make an emulsion.
Used in diseases of the mucous membranes of the
urethra and vagina.
   INJECTION OF ACETATE OF COPPER.
Syn. Inj. Cupri acetatis.   Prep.  (P. C.)  Ver-
digris 10 grs.; oil of almonds %iv; triturate until
dissolved, then strain.
   INJECTION OF  ACETATE OF  LEAD.
Syn.  Inj.  Plumbi  acetatis.   Prep-  (Collier.)
Sugar of lead 40 grs.;  rose-water ^viij.
  INJECTION OF  AMMONIATED  COP
PER.  Syn.  Inj. Cupri ammoniati.  Inj. Cupri
ammonio-sulphatis  Prep.  I. (P. C.)  Liquor of
ammonio-sulphate of copper 20 drops; rose-water
3*v-
  II. (Swediaur.) Ammonio-sulphate of copper 5
grs.; rose-water ^v''j-
  INJECTION OF  SULPHATE  OF  COP-
PER.  Syn.  Inj. Cupri sulpiiatis.  Prep. Sul-
phate of copper 5 grs.; roso-water §iv.
  INJECTION OF  SULPHATE  OF  COP-
PER, (COMPOUND.)  Prep. To the last add
solution of diacetate of lead 20 drops.  The above
cupreous injections are all  mildly detergent and
escharotic.
  INJECTION OF CUBEBS.   Syn.  Inj. Cu-
beba.  Prep.  Cubebs, in powder, 3t*j', extract  of
belladonna 3j ;  boiling water f^xvj ; infuse in a
covered  v.^ssel, and strain.  In  diseases  of the
mucous membranes.  Irritant and narcotic.
  INJECTION OF LEAD.   Syn. Inj. Plumbi.
Prep. Liquor of diacetate of  lead 3ss; rose-water
5J*
  INJECTION  OF   LEAD  AND  QPIUM.
Syn.  Inj.  Plumbi  opiata.  Prep.   (Wendt)
Aqueous extract of opium 1£ gr.; mucilage 3ij;
solution  of  diacetate of lead 4 drops; water ^ij
The above are cooling, sedative, and anodyne.
  INJECTION OF  MERCURY.  Syn.  Inj.
Hydrargyri.   Prep.  I. (P.  C.)  Quicksilver  3j;
gum ^iss ; rub till combined, then add water §iss.
  II. (E. H.)  Quicksilver and balsam of copaiba,
of each  3iv; yelk of 1 egg; rose-water £ a pint.

  INJECTION  OF  MORPHIA.  Syn.  Inj.
Morphia.  Prep. (Brera.)   Morphia 2  grs.; oil
of almonds §j; dissolve.  Anodyne and emollient
  INJECTION OF MURIATIC ACID.  Syn.
Inj. Acidi  muriatici.   Prep.  (P.  C.)  Muriatic
acid 8 drops ;  water ^iv.
  INJECTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER.
Syn. Inj. Argenti nitratis.   Prep. I.  (Collier.)
Nitrate of silver 2 grs.;  rose-water 1 oz.; dissolve.
  II. (Jewell.)  Nitrate of silver 12 grs.; distilled
water f §vj.  For fistulous sores.
  INJECTION OF OIL OF ALMONDS. -Syn.
Inj. Oleosa.   Prep. (P. C.)  Oil of almonds 3iv;
solution of diacetate of lead 8 drops;  mix.  Emol-
lient and sedative.
  INJECTION OF OPIUM.  Syn. Inj. Opiata.
Prep. I.  (P. C.) Laudanum  40 drops ; water §iv.
  II. (Fr. H.) Wine of opium 3j; barley water 1
pint.  Anodyne.
  INJECTION  OF  TANNIN.   Syn.  Inj.
Tannini. Inj. Acidi Tannici.   Prep. (Richard.)
Tannin 3j ; water §viij ; dissolve.  Astringent.
  INJECTION OF  TEA.  Syn.  Inj.  Thea
Prep (P. C.)   Green  tea 3j ; boiling water fviij;
infuse.  Astringent; frequently used in fluor albus.
  INJECTION  OF   TURPENTINE.   Syn.
Inj.  Terebinthina.  Prep.  (St. B. II.) Olive oil
f^xij ; oil of turpentine ffiss.  Vermifuge.
  INJECTION OF  WINE.   Syn. Inj. Vim
Prep. (Earle.)   Red wine  3;xij ; water  3-iv; mix
Astringent; in hydrocele.
  INJECTION  OF  WHITELEAD.   Syn.
Inj. Cerussa comp.   Prep. (P. C.)  Compound 
INK                    371                    INK
powder of carbonate of lead 3j; sulphate of zinc
6 grs.;  rose-water ^iv.
   INJECTION OF  ACETATE  OF  ZINC.-
Syn. Inj.   Zinci  acetatis.  Prep.  Sulphate of
zinc 3j; acetate of lead 3iv; water  1 pint; mix,
and filter.
   INJECTION OF  SULPHATE OF  ZINC.
Syn. Inj. Zinci sulphatis.  Prep.  (P. C.) Sul-
phate of zinc 4 to 10 grs.;  water f giv.
   INK.  Syn.  Writing  Fluid.  Atramentum,
(Lat.) Encre, (Fr.) Tinte, (Ger.) Colored liquid
employed for writing with  a pen.   Ink is made of
various substances and colors, of which the follow-
ing are the  principal:—
   INK, BLACK.  Prep.  I. Bruised Aleppo nut-
galls 12 lbs.;  water 6 galls.; boil in a copper ves-
sel for 1 hour, adding water to  make up  for the
portion  lost  by evaporation ; strain and again boil
the galls with water 4 gallons, for £ an hour, strain
off the  liquor and  boil a third time with water 2^
gallons, and strain ; mix the several liquors, and
while still hot  add green  copperas, coarsely pow-
dered, 4 lbs.; gum  arabic bruised  small  3£ lbs.;
agitate  until dissolved, and after defecation, strain
through a hair sieve, and  keep it in  a bunged-up
cask for use.  Product.  12 gallons, very fine and
durable.
   II. Campeachy  logwood  chips  3  lbs.; bruised
galls 9 lbs.;  boil  in  water as  above, and to  the
mixed liquors add gum arabic and green copperas,
of each 4 lbs.; to produce  16£ galls, of ink. Qual-
ity.  Very  good.
   III.  (Lewis.)  Bruised galls, 3  lbs.; gum  and
sulphate of iron, of each  1 lb.; vinegar 1 gall.;
water 2 galls.; macerate  with  frequent agitation
for 14 days.  To produce 3 galls.  Fine quality.
   IV. (M.  Ribaucourt) Bruised galls  1 lb.;  log-
wood, in thin  chips, and sulphate of  iron, of each
£ lb.; gum  6  oz.; sulphate of  copper and sugar
candy,  of each 1 oz.   Boil the  galls  and  logwood
in 24 galls,  of  water for 1 hour, or until reduced
to one half,  strain, add  the other ingredients, and
stir  until dissolved, then decant and preserve in
stone or glass bottles, well  corked.  Fuji colored.
   V. (M. Desormeaux,  jun.)   Logwood chips 4
oz.; water  6 quarts; boil 1  hour  and  strain 5
quarts; add bruised galls  1 lb.; sulphate  of  iron
calcined to  whiteness  4 oz.; brown  sugar 3 oz.;
gum 6 oz.;  acetate of copper \  oz. ;  agitate twice
a day for a  fortnight, then  decant the clear, bottle
and cork up for use.
   VI.  Bruised galls 2  lbs.; logwood, green cop-
peras, and gum, of each 1 lb.; water 6 gallons ;
boil the whole  of the ingredients in  the water for
\\ hours, and strain 5 galls.  Good,  but not fine.
  VII.  Bruised galls  1 lb.; logwood  2 lbs.; com-
mon gum |  lb.; green  copperas k,  lb.;  water 5
gallons; boil.   Common, but fit for ordinary pur-
poses.
  VII.  (Patent.) Logwood shavings and powdered
galls, of each 2 lbs.; green  vitriol I  lb.; gum 4 lb.;
pomegranate bark  \ lb.;  water 1 gallon; infuse
14 days, with frequent agitation.
  VIII. (Asiatic.) The  same as the last. Both
write pale, but turn very black by keeping,  and
flow well from the pen.
  IX. (Used in the Prerogative Office.)  Bruised
galls 1 lb.; gum arabic 6  oz.;  alum  2 oz.; green
vitriol 7 oz.; kino 3 oz.;  logwood raspings or saw-
dust 4 oz.; water 1 gallon; macerate as last. Said
to write well on parchment.
*   X. (Japan.) This is a black and glossy kind of
ink, which  may be prepared  from either of the
above receipts by calcining the copperas until white
or yellow, or  by sprinkling it (in powder)  with a
little nitric acid before adding  it to the decoction,
(preferably the former,) by which the ink is ren-
dered of a full black as soon as made. The glossi-
ness  is given  by using  more gum.  Flows  less
easily from the pen, and  is less durable than ink
that writes paler and afterwards turns black.
   XI. (Exchequer.)   Bruised  galls 40 lbs.; gum
10 lbs.;  green sulphate of iron 9 lbs.;  soft water
45 gallons ; macerate for  3  weeks, employing fre-
quent agitation.  " This ink will endure for centu-
ries."
   Remarks. The ink prepared by the first formula
is the most  durable, and will bear  dilution with
nearly its own weight of  water, and still be equal
to the ordinary ink of the shops.   I  have writing
by me that was executed with this kind of ink up-
wards of 50 years ago, which still possesses a good
color.   The  respective  qualities of the others are
noticed at the foot of each.
   According to the most  accurate experiments on
the preparation of  black  ink, it appeals that the
quantity of sulphate of iron should not exceed one-
third part of that of the galls, by which an excess
of coloring matter, which is  necessary  for the du-
rability of the black,  is  preserved  in  the liquid.
Gum, by shielding the writing from the action of
the air, tends  to preserve  the color, but if much is
employed, the ink flows languidly from quill pens,
and scarcely at all from  steel pens.   The latter
require a very limpid ink.  The addition of sugar
increases the flowing property of ink, but makes it
dry  more slowly, and frequently passes into vine-
gar, when it acts injuriously on the pen.  Vinegar,
for a like reason,  is not  calculated for the men-
struum.
   The addition of a few bruised cloves, or a little
oil of cloves ; or still better, a few drops  of creo-
sote, will effectually  prevent  any  tendency to
mouldiness in ink.  The best blue galls should
alone be employed in making ink.
   Sumach, logwood, and oak bark, are frequently
substituted for galls in the preparation of common
ink.  When such is the case, only about one-sixth
or one-seventh of their weight of copperas should
be employed.
   The  most permanent  (tanno-gallate) inks  are
those which contain the  proper quantity of oxide
of iron, at the minimum of oxidizement, in a state
of solution or  minute suspension, by which means,
not only does a larger quantity of the fluid flow
from the pen  on to a given space, but it also sinks
into the substance of the paper, by which the stain
is rendered  more  permanent and  less easily  re-
moved by attrition.  Such inks are uniformly pale
until exposed  to the air for some days, when they
acquire their  full color.   When the iron is at the
maximu-n of oxidizement, as is the case when  cal-
cined copperas is employed, the ink writes of a full
black at first, but from its  coloring matter being
merely a suspended precipitate, it  rests upon the
surface of the paper without sinking into it, and
may consequently be more easily erased than the
former.   Its black color is also more liable to fade. 
INK                     372                     INK
  The very general use of steel pens has caused a
corresponding demand for easy flowing inks, many
of which have been of late years introduced undsjj
the title of " writing  fluids," or " steel-pen ink."
These are mostly prepared from galls in the prece-
ding manner, but  a less quantity  of gum is em-
ployed. The blue writing fluids which either main-
tain their color or turn black by exposure, are pre
pared from  the ferrocyanide of potassium, or from
indigo.  (See Writing Fluids.)
  INKS, BLUE.  Syn. Blue Writing Fluids.
Prep.  I. Indigo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and added
to water until a proper shade of color is produced,
as much potash or soda being also added as the
liquid will bear without dropping its color.
  II. Powdered Prussian blue 1 oz.; concentrated
muriatic acid 14 to 2 oz. ; mix in a matrass or glass
bottle, and  after 24 or  30 hours, dilute the mass
with a sufficient quantity of water.
  III. (Mohr.) Pure Prussian blue  6 parts ; oxalic
acid 1 part; triturate  with  a little  water to a per-
fectly smooth  paste, then  dilute  with a proper
quantity of soft water.   Both this and the  last pro-
duce a superb liquid blue, admirably calculated for
writing with, when the process is  properly man-
aged and the  Prussian  blue pure; but it will not
succeed with every sample of that pigment. A lit-
tle gum may be added, if required,  to prevent the
fluid spreading on the paper.
  INKS, COLORED,   inks  of  various colors
may be made from  a strong decoction of the ingre-
dients used in dyeing, mixed with a little alum and
gum  arabic.   Any of the  ordinary  water-color
cakes employed in  drawing, diffused through wa-
ter, may also be used  for colored inks.
  INK, COPYING.   This is prepared by adding
a little sugar to ordinary black ink.   Writing exe-
cuted with this ink  may be copied within the space
of 5 or 6 hours, by passing  it through a  press in
contact with thin  unsized paper, when a reversed
copy will be obtained, but which will read in proper
order by holding the  back of the copy  towards
you.  Writing executed with this ink may be co-
pied after any lapse of time, by employing damp
copying paper.   A  warm flat-iron  passed over the
latter laid upon the writing, may be substituted for
the use of the copying press.
  INK, GOLD.   Prep. Honey  and  gold  leaf
equal parts; grind  together upon a painter's por-
phyry slab with a muller, until the gold is reduced
to the finest possible state of division, and the mass
becomes perfectly homogeneous, when it  must be
agitated with 20 or 30 times its weight of  hot wa-
ter, and then allowed to settle and the water poured
off; this process must  be repeated with  fresh water
2 or 3  times, when  the gold must be dried and then
mixed up with a little weak gum  water  for use.
The brilliancy of writing performed with  this ink
is considerable, and may be increased by burnish-
ing.  Gold  ink may also be  made  by mixing pre-
cipitated gold powder with a little gum water.
  INK, GREEN.   Prep.  I. (Klaproth.)  Ver-
digris 2 oz.; cream of tartar 1 oz.; water £ a pint;
boil to one half and filter.
  II. Make a strong  solution of binacetate of cop-
per in water, or of verdigris in vinegar.
  INK, INDELIBLE.   -Syn.   Marking  Ink.
Permanent Ink.  Prep. I. Nitrate of silver \ oz.;
hot distilled water \ oz.; when cooled a little, add
 mucilage \ oz., and sap  green or sirup^of buck
 thorn to color;  mix well.  The linen must be first
 moistened with " liquid pounce," or " the prepar-
 ation," as it is  commonly called, dried,  and then
 written  on with a  clean quill  pen.   This ink will
 bear dilution if  not wanted very black.
   The pounce  or preparation.  Carbonate of soda
 1 oz. to  14 oz.,  water 1 pint; color with a little sap
 green or sirup of buckthorn.
   II. (Without preparation.)  Nitrate of silver I
 to 2 dr.;  water | oz.; dissolve, add as much of the
 strongest ammouia water as will  dissolve the pre-
 cipitate  formed on its first  addition, then  further
 add mucilage 1 or  2 drachms, and a little sap green
 to color.    Writing executed  with this  ink  turns
 black on being  passed over a hot  Italian iron.
   III. Terchloride of gold  14 drachms; water 7
 drs.; mucilage  1  dr.; sap green to color;  mix.
 To  be written  with  on  a ground prepared with a
 weak solution of protomuriate of tin, and dried.
   Remarks.  The products of the first two of the
 above forms  constitute  the  marking inks of the
 shops.  They have, however, no  claim  to the title
 of " indelible ink"'—" which no  art can extract
 without injuring the fabric"—as is gem-ally rep-
 resented.   On  the contrary,  they may   e dis-
 charged with almost  as much facility as common
 iron-moulds.  This may  be easily and cheaply
 effected with  either chlorine or ammonia, without
 in the least injuring  the  texture of the fabric to
 which it  may be applied.  From a great number
 of experiments  which I  have  lately made on the
 subject, I find  that this  kind  of ink may be dis-
 charged from even the finest muslins, without im-
 pairing their  quality.   The  only  precaution re-
 quired, is that  of rinsing them in  clean water
 immediately after  the operation.  (See  Chem., ii.
 210.)  The " marking ink without preparation,"
 is also more easily extracted than that "with prep.
 aration;" and the  former has also the disadvantage
 of not keeping so well as the latter, and of deposit-
 ing  a portion  of  fulminating silver, under  some
 circumstances,  which renders its use  dangerous. |
 The best marking  ink made at the present day is
 the  heraldic ink.   This ink is either applied with
 a stamp or pen, and  by the former linen may be
 marked with great facility and neatness.
   INK,  INCORRODIBLE.   Prep.  I.  (Mr.
 Close.)  a. Powdered copal 25 grs.; oil of laven-
 der  200 grs.;  dissolve by a gentle heat, add lamp-
 black 3 grs., indigo 1 gr.—6. Powdered copal  1
 part; oil of lavender 7  parts; vermilion 4  parts;
 as last.
   II. (Mr. Hausman.) Genuine asphaltum 1  part;
 oil of turpentine 4 parts ;  dissolve, and add lamp-
 black or blacklead to bring  it to a proper consist-
 ence.  Resists the action of iodine, chlorine,  alka-
 lis, and acids.
   III.  (Sheldrake.)  Asphaltum  dissolved  in am-
 ber  varnish and oil of turpentine, and colored with
 lampblack.
   IV. (Cooley.) Asphaltum 1 part; oil of turpen-
 tine 4 parts;  dissolve, and color with printers ink.
 Very permanent.
   Remarks. The above are frequently called  " In-
 delible inks."  They are  employed for writing la-
| beU on bottles containing  strong  acids and  alka-
 line solutions.   The second  and last are very per-
I manent,  and  are capaMe of resisting all the opera- 
INK
373
INO
 tions of dyeing and bleaching, and at once offer a
 cheap and excellent  material  for marking linen,
 &c., as  they cannot  be dissolved off by any men-
 strua that will not destroy the fabric.  They must
 be employed with  stamps  or types, which  is a
 neater method than that with a brush or pen.
   V. (M. Bezanger.) This patent ink consists of
 lampblack and caustic soda, mixed with gelatin
 and caustic soda.   It is said to be indelible, and to
 resemble China ink.   (Moniteur Industriel.)
   VI. Indian ink, ground up with ordinary black
 writing ink, forms a cheap indelible ink for common
 purposes.   It will  resist  the  action of chlorine,
 most acids, and even ablution with a brush or sponge.
   INK,  INDIAN.  Syn. China Ink.   Indicum.
 Atramentum Indicum.  Prep. I. (Proust.)  Purify
 real lampblack by washing it with potash lye, dry,
 make it into a thick  paste with a solution of glue,
 mould and dry.
   II. (M. Merime"e.) Dissolve glue  in waler. add
 a strong solution of nutgalls, and wash the precipi-
 tate in hot water ;  then dissolve it in a spare solu-
 tion of glue, filter, evaporate to a proper thickness,
 and form it  into a paste  as before, with  purified
 lampblack.
   III. (Cooley.) Boil a weak solution of glue at a
 high temperature in a Papin's  digester for 2 hours,
 then boil it in an open vessel for 1 hour more, filler
 and evaporate to a proper consistence, then make
 a paste as before with purified  lampblack, adding
 a few drops of essence of musk and about half as
 much essence of ambergris to  perfume ;  lastly,
 mould into  cakes, and when dry, ornament them
 with Chinese characters and devices. Quality very
 superior ; does not gelatinize in cold weather like
 ordinary imitations.
   IV. (Gray.)  Pure lampblack  made up  with
 asses' skin glue, and  scented with musk.
   V. Seed  lac 4  oz.; borax 1 dr.;  water 4 pint;
 boil to* 8 oz., filter, and make  a  paste  with  pure
 lampblack as  before.  Good ; when dry it resists
 the action of water.
   Remarks. The Chinese do not use  glue in the
 preparation of their ink, but a glutinous vegetable
 juice or solution, which at once imparts brilliancy
 and durability.  Starch converted  into gum by
 means of sulphuric acid, or British gum, has been
 recommended as a substitute, (M. Merim^e.)  But
 from  information  afforded  me  by  a  gentleman
 who has resided some years in China, I am led to
 believe that the liquid emphtyed* by the Chinese to
 convert their black pigment into a paste, is either an
 infusion or decoction  of some seeds   abounding in
 mucilage, and not the juice of  a plant  as usually
 supposed.  Indian ink is chiefly employed by art-
 ists, but it has been occasionally given as a medi-
 cine, dissolved in water or wine, in  hemorrhages
 and stomach  complaints.  Dose.  1 to 2 dr.
   INK,  MARKING.   Ink bottoms.   Used by
 packers for marking bales, boxes, &c.
   INK,  PERPETUAL.  Prep. Pitch 3 lbs.; melt
 over the fire, then add lampblack 1 lb.;  mix well.
 Used in a melted state to fill the  letters on tomb-
 stones, marbles, &c.   Without  actual  violence it
 will endure as long as the stone itself.
   INK,  RED.  Prep.  I.  Ground Brazil wood 8
oz.;  vinegar  10 pints; macerate for 4 or 5  days;
boil in a tinned-copper vessel to one half, then  add
roach alum 8 oz., and gum 3 oz.; dissolve.
   II. As the last, but use water or beer instead of
vinegar.
   III.  Stale beer 1 pint; cochineal, bruised, 1 dr.;
gum arabic 1 oz.; ground Brazil and alum, of each
2 oz.; boil or macerate with agitation for 14 days,
and strain.
   IV. Pure  carmine 12 grs.; water of ammonia
3 oz.; dissolve,  then add powdered gum 18 grs.
Half a  drachm of powdered drop lake may be sub-
stituted for the  carmine where expense is an ob-
ject.  Color superb.  (Buchner's Repert.)
   V.  Cochineal, in  powder,  1 oz.; hot water 4
pint; digest, and when  quite  cold, add spirit  of
hartshorn \ pint, or  liquor of ammonia 1 oz.;  di-
lute with 3 or 4 oz. of water ;  macerate for a few
days longer, then decant the clear.   Color, very
fine.
   INK, SILVER  This is  prepared like gold ink.
   INKS,  SYMPATHETIC.    Fluids  which,
when employed for  writing on paper,  do not ren-
der the marks visible till acted  on by some  re-
 agent  Sympathetic inks are commonly employed
as  the  instruments of secret  correspondence, and
frequently escape detection, but by heating  the
paper before the fire until it  is nearly seethed, the
whole of them  may be rendered visible.
   The  following are the most common and amu-
sing sympathetic inks:—1. Sulphate of copper and
sal ammoniac,  equal  parts, dissolved   in water ;
writes colorless but turns yellow when  heated.—2.
Onion juice, like the last.—3.  A weak infusion of
galls; turns black when moistened with weak cop-
peras water.—4. A weak solution of sulphate  of
iron ; turns blue when moistened with  a weak so-
lution of prussiate of potash, and  black with infu-
sion of  galls.—5. The diluted solutions of  nitrate
of silver and terchloride of gold ; darkens when ex-
posed to  the sunlight.—6.  Aquafortis, spirits  of
salts, oil of vitriol, common  salt or saltpetre dis-
solved in a large quantity of water ; turns  yellow
or brown when  heated.—7.  Solution of nitromu-
riate of cobalt;  turns green  when heated, and dis-
appears again on  cooling.—8. Solution of acetate
of  cobalt, to which a little nitre has been added;
becomes rose-colored when heated, and disappears
on cooling.
   INK, YELLOW.  Prep.  I. Boil French ber-
ries 4 lb., and  alum 1 oz., in  Water 1  quart,  for
half an hour or longer, then  strain and dissolve  in
the hot  liquor, gum arabic 1  oz.
  II. Gamboge in coarse powder 1 oz.; hot water
5 oz.; dissolve, and when cold, add spirit 4 oz. or
1 oz.
  INK, TO RESTORE FADED. Writing ren-
dered illegible by age may be restored by moisten-
ing it by means of  a feather with an  infusion  of
galls,  or a solution of prussiate of potash slightly
acidulated with  muriatic  acid, observing so to ap-
ply the  liquid as to prevent the ink spreading.
  INK STAINS may be readily removed from
white articles by means of a little salt  of lemons,
diluted  muriatic acid, oxalic acid, or tartaric acid,
and hot water ; or bv means of a little  solution of
chlorine or chloride of lime.  The spots should be
afterwards thoroughly rinsed in warm  water, be-
fore touching them with soap.   Marking ink may
be removed  by ammonia water, solution of  chlo-
ride of lime, liquid chlorine, or iodine.
  INOCULATION. (In Surgery.)   The inser- 
IOD                    374                    IOD
tion of poisonous or infectious matter into any part
of the body for the purpose of propagating a mild
form of disease, and thus preventing or  lessening
the virulence of future attacks. The word is gener-
ally  applied  to the  insertion of  the virus of the
common smallpox, by which  a milder form of the
disease is produced, than when it  is caught in the
natural way.  Vaccination has now very generally
superseded inoculation.
   Oper. Inoculation is performed by inserting the
point of a lancet wetted with smallpox matter un-
der the cuticle, and afterwards gently rubbing the
moistened point over the scratch.
   INULIN.  Syn. Alantin.  Menyanthin.  Ele-
campin.  Dahlin.  Datiscin.  A peculiar starch-
like substance first obtained by Rose from the inula
helenium or elecampane.  It may be obtained by
boiling elecampane in 4 times its weight of water,
and  allowing the  decoction  to  repose for a short
time.  It is distinguished from  starch by the pre-
cipitate formed in the cold decoction by an  infu-
sion  of gall nuts, not disappearing until the  liquid
is heated to  above  212°, while  the precipitate
from starch redissolves at 122° F.  Inulin is solu-
ble in boiling  water, but separates as  the  liquid
cools.
   IODATE.  Syn.  Iodas, (Lat.)   A compound
formed of  iodic acid and a  base in definite pro-
portion.  The iodates resemble  the  chlorates of
the  corresponding bases.  They may be  easily
recognised  by the  development of  free iodine
when treated  with  sulphurous,  phosphorous,  and
hydrochloric acids, and other deoxydizing agents,
and by their solutions being converted into iodides
when treated with sulphureted  hydrogen.  They
are all of sparing solubility, and many are quite in-
soluble in water.  All the insoluble iodates  may
be obtained from the iodate of potassa, by decom-
posing it in solution  by a solution of a soluble salt
of the base.
   IODATE OF MERCURY. Syn. Hydrargyri
Iodas.  Prep.  Precipitate a solution of mercury
in nitric acid with another of iodate of potassa.  A
 yellow powder resembling Turpeth's mineral.
   IODATE OF POTASSA.   Syn.  Potassa
 Iodas.  Prep. I. Neutralize  a hot  solution of
 potassa  with iodine, evaporate to dryness  by a
 gentle heat, powder, and digest in alcohol, to dis-
 solve out the iodide of potassium, then dissolve the
 residue in hot water and crystallize.
   II. (M. Henry, jun.)  Iodide of  potassium  2
 parts; chlorate of" potassa 3 do.;  fuse the iodide of
 potassium in a large Hessian crucible;  remove it
 from the fire, and add, while still fluid, successive
 portions of  the powdered chlorate of potassa, stir-
 ring well after each addition.   When the matter
 ceases to  froth up, cool, powder,  and  digest in
 tepid water  to dissolve out  the chloride of  potas-
 sium, when the residue may be dissolved  in hot
 water and crystallized
   Remarks. Iodate of potassa  has been recom-
 mended in bronchocele. A biniodate and teriodate
 of potassa may also be formed, but  possess little
 interest.
   IODATE  OF  SILVER.   Syn.    Argenti
 Iodas.  Prep. From a solution of nitrate of silver,
 as Iodate of Mercury.  A white powder, soluble in
 ammonia.
   IODIC   ACID.    Syn.   Oxiodine.  Acidum
Iodicum.   An  acid  compound  of  iodine  and
oxygen discovered by Gay Lussac and Davy.
  Prep.  I. Dissolve  iodate of soda  in sulphuric
acid in considerable excess, boil for 15 m nutes, and
set  the solution aside to crystallize.  Pure.
  II. (M.  Boursen.)  Iodine  1 part;  strongest
(monohydrated)  nitric acid 4 parts;  mix, and
apply a gentle  heat until the  color of the iodine
disappears, then evaporate to dryness and leave
the residuum in the open  air at a temperature of
about  15° C.   When by attracting  moisture it
has acquired the consistence of a sirup, put it into
a place where  the  temperature is higher and the
air  drier, when in a few days very fine white crys-
tals of  rhomboidal shape  will  form.   (Compt
Rend, xxiv.)   Pure.
  III. (J. L.  Lassaigne.)  Treat a solution of
nitrate of silver  with an excess of  iodine, filter,
evaporate to dryness, and proceed as last  Pure.
  IV.  Diffuse  iodine in  powder through distilled
water, then pass a current of chlorine through the
liquid; evaporate.
  Remarks. Iodic acid is decomposed into oxygen
and iodine by a heat of  about 4.30 to 500° F.   It
is very soluble in water and deliquescent; it deto-
nates with inflammable bodies  like the nitrates and
chlorates;  with  the  bases it  forms salts called
Iodates.  The Iodate of soda above alluded to
may be made  in the same way as  the iodate of
potassa.   Iodic acid is used as  a test for  morphia
and sulphurous acid.  (See Iodate.)
  IODIDE.    Syn.  Iodure.   Ioduret.   Hy-
driodate.  Iodidum ; Ioduretum ;  Hydriodas,
(Lat.)  A compound of  iodine and a base.
  IODIDE  OF  ARSENIC.   Syn.  Arsenic*
Iodidum.  Prep. (Wackenroder.)   Sublimed me-
tallic arsenic 1 gr.; pure iodine 6 grs.;  water 2
drachms; digest  together, evaporate by  a gentle
heat, and as  eoon  as the mass begins to solidity,
the temperature  must not exceed 86° F.  A red
crystalline mass is obtained.   (See p. 74)
  IODIDE OF ARSENIC, SOLUTION OF.
Prep.   (Wackenroder.)   Dissolve the product of
the above process in water 6 oz.; every drachm of
which will contain  one-forty-eighth gr. of metallic
arsenic, and one-tenth gr. (nearly) of iodine.
  IODIDE OF  CYANOGEN.  Prep.  (Mits-
cherlich.)  Gently heat a mixture of bicyanide of
mercury, iodine, and water,  in  a   retort, when
iodide of cyanogen will sublime and  collect in the
neck of  the retort, undsr the  form of a crystalline
snow or  needles.  It volatilizes at 100° F., and is
soluble in water, ether, and alcohol.
   IODIDE OF NITROGEN.  Syn. Teriodide
of  Nitrogen.  A dark  powder, which subsides
when  iodine  is put into liquor of  ammonia.   It
may be more safely and conveniently made by
saturating alcohol of sp.  gr. -852 with iod.ne, ad-
ding a large  quantity of ammonia, and  agitating
the mixture ;  water must  now be  added, when
the iodide will be precipitated, and  must be care-
fully washed  with cold distilled water.  %* It
detonates violently as soon as it becomes dry, and
by slight pressure, or friction,  even when moist
 It  should only be prepared in very small quantities
at  a time.
   IODIDES  OF PHOSPHORUS.   Prep.  I.
 (Protiodide.)   Phosphorus 1  part ; iodine 7 parts;
 mix in a close vessel, placed in a freezing mixture 
IOD
375
IOD
 Orange colored ;  melts at 212° ; volatile, and de-
 composed by water.
   II. (Sesquiodide.)  Phosphorus 1 part; iodine 12
 parts ; as last.  A dark gray semi-crystalline mass,
 liquid at 84° F.
   III. (Periodide.)  Phosphorus 1 part;  iodine
 20 parts ; as last.  A black mass, fusible at about
 115° F.  All the above yield hydriodic acid and
 phosphorous  or phosphoric acid,  by contact with
 water.
   IODIDE  OF SULPHUR.  Syn.   Sulphuris
 Iodidum.   Prep.  Iodine 4 parts; sulphur 1 part;
 place the mixture in a loose-corked flask, immerse
 it in a water bath, and, as soon as it melts, stir it
 with a glass rod,  then place in  the cork, remove
 the  bath from  the  fire,  and let the  two  cool
 together.   When  cold, break  the   iodide  into
 pieces, and place it in a wide-mouthed stoppered
 bottle.  In this way  a beautiful semi-crystalline,
 dark gray mass, resembling antimony, is obtained.
   Remarks.   An  ointment made with  5 parts
 of iodide of sulphur, and 96 of lard,  or 8 of the
 iodide and  144 of lard, has been recommended by
 Biett in tuberculous affections of the skin.  Iodide
 of  sulphur stains the skin  like iodine,  and  is
 readily decomposed by contact with organic sub-
 stances.
   IODIDE  OF STARCH.  Syn.   Amyli  Io-
 didum.   Prep. (Dr.  Buchanan.)  Iodine 24 grs.;
 water q. s.; triturate ; then add  starch §j ; again
 triturate, until the  mass assumes a uniform color.
 One of the most worthless of the preparations of
 iodine.
   IODIDES, DOUBLE.   Several of these com-
 pounds have been described by Bonsdorff, Boullay,
 and  Liebig,  many of which  are formed  by  dis-
 solving the iodides in  a solution of iodide of potas-
 sium, when  crystals of the double salt  are  de-
 posited  as  the liquid cools,  or  on evaporation.
 They possess  but little interest in a practical point
 of view.
   IODINE.   Syn. Iode, (Fr.) Iod, (Ger.) Iodium ;
 Iodinium ; Iodina, (Lat, from iwSes, violet colored,
 on account of the color of its vapor.)   A chemical
 element, accidentally discovered in  1812, by De
 Courtois, a saltpetre  manufacturer  at Paris, but
 was first described by Clement,  in  1813, and its
 precise nature was soon afterwards determined by
 Sir  H. Davy  and  M. Gay Lussac.   It is found
 both in  the animal, vegetable, and mineral king-
 doms, but  exists  in  greatest abundance  in  the
 vegetable  family  algae.  It is principally  manu-
 factured  in the  neighborhood of  Glasgow, from
 the mother waters of kelp.
   Prep. I.  Extract all the  soluble part of kelp by
 water, and crystallize the soda by evaporation  ; to
 the mother lye add  oil of vitriol in excess and boil
 the liquid, then strain it to separate some sulphur,
 and mix the filtered liquor with as much manganese
 as there was oil of vitriol used : on applying heat,
 the iodine  sublimes in the  form of grayish black
 scales, with a metallic lustre.   The boiling is con-
 ducted in a leaden  vessel; and a cylindrical leaden
 ■till, with a very short head, and connected with
 2 or 3  large  globular glass receivers,  is used for
 the subliming  apparatus.  Care must be taken to
 watch the process,  and prevent  the  neck of the
still becoming choked with condensed iodine.
  II. (Ure.)  Saturate the  residual liquor of the
 manufacture of  soap  from 'kelp, of the sp.  gr. of
 1*374,  heated to 230° F., with  sulphuric  acid
 diluted with half its weight of water, cool, decant
 the clear, strain, and to every  12 fluid ounces add
 1000 grs. of black oxide of manganese, in powder;
 put the  mixture into a glass globe, or matrass
 with a wide neck,  over  which  invert another
 glass  globe, and apply  heat with  a  charcoal
 chauffer; iodine will  sublime  very copiously, and
 condense in  the  upper vessel, which as soon  as
 warm  should be replaced  by  another;  and the
 two globes  thus applied in succession, as long  as
 violet vapor arises.  It may be washed out of°the
 globes  with a little cold water.   A thin disc  of
 wood,  having a hole  in   its  centre,  should  be
 placed  over  the shoulder of the  matrass, to pre-
 vent the heat  from  acting on the globular re-
 ceiver.   On the large scale, a leaden still, as be-
 fore described, may be employed, and receivers of
 stoneware  economically substituted for glass ones.
 The addition of the sulphuric acid should be  made
 in a wooden or stoneware basin or  trough.  Prod.
 12 oz. yield 80 to 100  grs.
   III.  (SoubeirMi.)  Add  a mixed solution of 1
 part of sulphate  oi copper  and 2\  parts of proto-
 sulphate of iron  to the mother liquors of the soda
 works,  as  long as a white precipitate is thrown
 down;  the  precipitate  (diniodide of copper)  must
 be then collected, dried, mixed  with its own weight
 of finely-powdered black oxide of manganese, and
 distilled by a strong heat  in a retort; dry iodine
 will pass over.  By the  addition of sulphuric  acid
 with the manganese, a less heat is required.
   Remarks. The top of the leaden still employed
 for the  preparation of iodine, is usually furnished
 with a moveable stopper,  by  which  the process
 may be watched, and additions of manganese  or
 sulphuric acid made,  if required.   To  render  it
 pure, it should be dried  as  much as  possible, and
 then resublimed in glass or  stoneware.
   Prop. Iodine is usually met with  under the form
 of semicrystalline lumps, having a metallic lustre,
 or in micaceous,  friable  scales,  somewhat resem-
 bling gunpowder.  It has a grayish-black color, a
 hot acrid taste, and a disagreeable  odor, not much
 unlike that  of chlorine.  It fuses at 225° F., vo-
 latilizes slowly at ordinary temperatures, boils  at
 347°,  and when mixed with water  rapidly rises
 along with its vapor at 212°.   It dissolves in 7000
 parts of water, and freely in alcohol and ether.   It
 may be crystallized in  large rhomboidal plates, by
 exposing to  the air a solution of it in hydiodic acid.~
 Iodine,  like chlorine,  has  an  extensive  range of
 affinity ; with the salifiable bases, it forms  com-
 pounds termed Iodides, Iodurets, or Hydriodates;
 and it  destroys  vegetable  colors.   Many of the
 iodides are used in medicine.
   Pur.  The iodine of commerce is  usually that of
 the first sublimation, and  commonly contains 12
 to 20g of water.  Some of  the  foreign iodine, ob-
 tained by  precipitation  with chlorine, without sub-
 sequent sublimation, frequently  contains ith water,
 has a leaden-gray color, and a sensible  odor of
 chlorine.  Coal,  plumbago, oxide  of manganese,
crude antimony, and charcoal,  are  also frequently
mixed with  it.   Water  may be detected  by the
loss of weight it suffers when  exposed to strong
pressure between the  folds of  bibulous  paper,—
chlorine, by the  odor,  and the other substance* 
IOD
376
IR1
 mentioned above, by digestion  in spirits of wine,
 when the iodine will dissolve, leaving the impuri-
 ties behind.  Before use as a medicine, " it must
 be dried, by being placed in a shallow  basin  of
 earthenware, in a small confined space of air, with
 10 or 12 times its weight of fresh-burnt lime, till it
 scarcely adheres to the side of a dry bottle." Pure
 iodine " is entirely vaporizable ;  39 grs., with 9 grs.
 of quicklime, and fiij of water,  when heated short
 of ebullition, slowly form a perfect solution, which
^is  yellowish or brownish, if the  iodine  be pure,
'but colorless, if it contains more than 2% of water,
 or other impurity." (P. E)
   Uses, Dose,  <J-c.  Iodine is chiefly used as a med-
 icine, and a chemical test.  Its physiological ac-
 tion,  when applied externally, is that of an irritant,
 and,  when swallowed  in large  doses,  it  produces
 powerful gastric irritation.   In small doses, it ap-
 pears to be both alterative and tonic, rapidly diffu-
 sing itself through the body, and exerting a stimu-
 lating action on the organs of secretion.   It is also
 said to be diuretic,  and in  some cases to have pro-
 duced diaphoresis and salivation.  It exerts a pow-
 erful  anti-aphrodisiac  action,  and instances are
 recorded  where absorption  of the mammae and
 testae have  followed  its  exhibition.  (Hufeland's
 Journal.)  Dose. 4 gr. dissolved in spirit,  or in wa-
 ter, by means of an equal weight of iodide of po-
 tassium.  It is seldom exhibited alone, being usu-
 ally  combined with the latter  substance,  and  in
 fact this salt is now generally preferred by practi-
 tioners.   Iodine,  in medicinal  doses, has been
 exhibited in  the following diseases,  as well as  in
 most others depending on  an imperfect action  of
 the absorbents, or accompanied by induration  or
 enlargement of. individual  glands or organs:—In-
 ternally, in bronchocele, goitre, Derbyshire neck,
 scrofula, ovarian tumors, enlargement  or indu-
 ration of the  lymphatic, prostate, and  parotid
 glands, amenorrhaea, leucorrhcea, diseases of the
 muco-genital  tissues,  phthisis, chronic  nervous
 diseases, lepra, psoriasis,  chronic rheumatism,
 dropsies, hydrocele, <J-c. .*—Externally, in scrof-
 ula, numerous skin diseases, (especially the scaly,)
 erysipelas,   diseased  joints,  chilblains,  burns,
 scalds, various wounds, to  check ulceration,  to
 promote absorption, <£c.   It is  applied externally
 in the form of ointment, solution, or tincture.
   Tests.  Free iodine  may  be  recognised by—1.
 The  violet color of its vapor.—2. Striking a blue
 color with starch: this  test is so delicate that wa-
 ter containing only ^.^J^^ part of iodine, acquires
 a perceptible blue tinge on the  addition of starch.
 (Stromeyer.)—3. Nitrate of silver causes a white
 precipitate in solutions containing iodine.—4. Chlo-
 ride of palladium causes a black, flaky precipitate ;
 equal in sensibility to starch.   (M. Bauman.)—
 5. It strikes a blue color with  opium  and nar-
 ceine.
   Iodine in combination, as it  exists in iodic acid
 and the iodates, does not  strike a blue color with
 starch, without the  addition of some  deoxydizing
 agent, as sulphurous  acid or morphia; and  as it
 exists in the iodides, not until the base  is  saturated
 with an acid,  (as  the sulphuric  or nitric,) when
 iodine being set free, immediately reacts upon the
 starch  An excess of either acid or alkali destroys
 the action of the test.   By mixing the liquid con-
 taining the  iodine with the starch and  sulphuric
acid,  and lightly pouring thereon a small quantity
of aqueous  chlorine,  a very visible blue zone will
be developed at the line of contact. (Balard.)
  Solutions containing iodates yield, with nitrate
of silver, a white precipitate soluble in ammonia;
the iodides, under the same circumstances, give a
pale yellowish  precipitate  with  nitrate of silver,
scarcely soluble in ammonia; a bright yellow one
with acetate of lead ; and a scarlet one with bi-
chloride of mercury.  The iodates deflagrate when
thrown on burning coals, but the  iodides do not.
The iodates may also be tested as iodides, by first
heating them to redness,  by which they lose their
oxygen, and are converted into iodides.
  IODINF,  CHLORIDES  OF.   When  dry
chlorine is passed over dry iodine, at common tem-
peratures, heat is evolved, and a solid chloride re-
sults.   It is orange-yellow when the iodine is fully
saturated,  and reddish orange when  the  iodine is
in excess.   It deliquesces in the air, is volatile, and
very soluble in water, forming a colorless solution,
which exhibits  acid properties.  It is the chloriodic
acid of Sir H. Davy.   The protochloride of iodine
is formed when chlorine is passed into svater hold-
ing iodine in suspension,  and the perchloride  by
repeatedly distilling the protochloride, or by adding
to a solution of the latter a strong solution of cor-
rosive  sublimate.   The latter is also called  the
tGTChiOTXCLC •
  IODOSALICULIC ACID.   A  dark brown
fusible mass,  obtained by distilling a mixture  of
iodide  of potassium  and  chloro-saliculic acid; or
by dissolving iodine in saliculic acid.
  IODO-SULPHURIC   ACID.    Prep.  Drop
sulphuric acid into a hot concentrated aqueous so-
lution of iodic acid,  as long as a  precipitate falls.
When strongly heated, it sublimes, and is decom-
posed, but  by means of a gentle heat, gradually
applied, it melts, and crystallizes  in  yellow rhom-
boids as it  cools.  In  a  similar  manner may be
formed iodo-phosphoric and iodonitric acids.   All
these act with great  energy on the  metals, and
dissolve gold and platinum.
  IODOUS ACID.  Prep. (Sementini.)  Chlo-
rate of potassa and iodine,  equal parts;  triturate
together,  until  reduced to a homogeneous yellow
mass; then heat the mixture over a spirit-lamp, in
a glass retort connected with a spacious receiver,
until vapors cease to arise.   The  oily liquid in the
receiver is the iodous acid.
  II.  (Pleischl.)   Chlorate of potash  3 parts;
iodine 1 part ;  as last.
  Remarks. Iodous  acid, or oxide  of iodine, red-
dens test papers, is  volatile at 112°  F., and freely
dissolves iodine.  Little  is  known  respecting its
precise composition.  (See  Iodic Acid.)
  IODURETED  IODIDE OF POTASSIUM.
Iodine dissolved in a solution of iodide of potassium.
Various strengths are  employed  by different  au-
thorities.   (See Solutions.)
  IRIDIUM.   (From Iris, the  rainbow, because
of the variety of colors exhibited by its solutions.)
A rare metal, discovered by Descotils in 1803, and
by Tennant in 1804, in the black powder left in
dissolving platina.  It is  obtained in combination
with osmium.
  Prep.  (Wollaston.)  Reduce  the pulverulent
residue of the ores of platina to fine powder, along
with 4 of its weight of nitre, and heat the mixture 
IRO                     377                     IRQ
 to redness in a  silver crucible, until reduced to a |
 pasty state, and the  odor of oxide of osmium be-
 comes perceptible ; cool, powder, agitate with the
 smallest possible quantity of water, place the solu- I
 tion in a retort, acidulate with oil of vitriol diluted j
 with an equal weight of water,  and distil rapidly
 into a clean receiver, as long as fumes of osmic
 acid pass  over  and  condense as a white  crust on
 the sides of the vessel,  afterwards  liquefying, and
 (inking  beneath the water, forming  a flattened
 trlobule.  By solution in water, agitation with mer-
 jury, and the addition of muriatic acid, osmium is
 obtained as a black porous powder, which exhibits
 a metallic  lustrewhen rubbed.   The  undissolved
 portion must now be digested in  muriatic acid, and
 the solution treated with  any metal  but  gold  or
 platinum, when the  iridium will be precipitated.
   Prop., <Src.   Brittle, pulverulent, and when pol-
 ished, resembling platinum.  It is the  heaviest,
 hardest, most infusible, indestructive, and least af-
 fected by acids, of all the metals.  With  chlorine,
 iridium forms four compounds:—the protochloride,
 formed  by transmitting chlorine  over powdered
 iridium, heated to a dull red, or by digesting the
 hydrated  protoxide in muriatic acid ;—the sesqui-
 chloride, by calcining iridium with nitre,  digesting
 in nitric acid, washing with water, and solution in
 hydrochloric acid;—the  bichloride, by digesting
 the sesquichloride in hot nitro-muriatic arid ;—the
 terchloride, obtained as a double chloride of potas-
 sium.  With oxygen, iridium forms a protoxide,
 sesquioxide, and teroxide, each of which may  be
 obtained by precipitating a solution of the corre-
 sponding chloride with an alkali.
    IRIDIO-CHLORIDES.   Double salts, formed
 of the chlorides of iridium  with other chlorides.
 Some of them  are crystallizable and soluble.
   IRON.  Syn. Ferrum, (Lat.) Fer,  (Fr.) Eisen,
 (Ger.) Fkrro, (It.)  Ferro, (Port.) Hierro, (Sp.)
 Jern, (Dan.  <$•  Swed.)  Ijzen,  (Dut)  Mars,
 (Alch.)   The early history of iron is lost in its an-
 tiquity.   It is  said to have been employed  as a
 medicine upwards of 3200 years ago.  As a reme-
 dial agent, when properly exhibited, it acts  as a
 genial stimulant and  tonic, and generally proves
 beneficial in cases of chronic debility,  unaccompa-
 nied with  organic congestion or inflammation. For
 this purpose, the protoxide or its salts should  alone
 be employed, as the peroxide and its salts act, al-
 most universally, as irritant stimulants, occasioning
 heartburn, febrile symptoms, and accelerated pulse.
 The powers of the protocarbonate, as  it  exists  in
 mineral waters, held in solution by carbonic acid
 in excess, appears to be the form  most congenial
 to the human body; and from its state of dilution,
 "is rapidly absorbed  by the lacteals, and speedily
 imparts a  ruddy hue  to the wan countenance."
 Iron is undoubtedly one of the most valuable  arti-
 stes of the materia medica, and appears, from the
 antiquity of its  introduction into medicine, and the
 number of its preparations, to have been deserved-
 ly appreciated.   It bears the recommendation  of
 upwards of 3000 years upon its brow, and surely a
 medicine that  hath withstood  such  vicissitudes,
 cannot be destitute of virtue.
   Prep.  Iron  is only prepared on the large scale.
 In  Sweden it is extracted from magnetic iron, and
.micaceous  iron  ore; and in  England, principally
 from clay iron ore.   It is obtained by smelting the
                       48
ore along with coke and  a flux,  (either limestone
or clay.)  The crude iron thus obtained is run into
moulds,  and then  constitutes  cast  iron or pig
iron, (ferrum fusum.)  By the subsequent pro-
cess of refining, (puddling, welding,) it is convert-
ed into  soft iron or wrought iron, (ferrum cu-
sum.)
   Prop. <$* Uses.  The properties and uses of iron
are too well known to require description.   Its ap-
plications in almost every branch of human indus-
try, are almost  infinite.  It is remarkably ductile,
and possesses great tenacity, but it is less mJlea-
ble than many of the  other metals.   Its sp.  gr. is
7*788.  It is the hardest of all of the malleable and
ductile metals, and when  combined  with carbon
or silica, (steel,) admits of being tempered to  al-
most any degree of hardness or elasticity.  Iron-
filings,  (ferri limatura,) iron-turnings, (ferri
ramenta, ferri  scobs,)  and iron-wire, (ferri
filum,) are the  forms under which iron is ordered
in the pharmacopoeias.   The last is only used in
preparations, but the others are also taken.  Dose.
Of the  filings 5 to 10 grs., in chlorosis, &c.  For
medical purposes, iron-filings and turnings should
be  purified  by  washing, drying, and  separating
them from particles of copper and other metals, by
laying  a sieve  over  them, and drawing  them
through it with a magnet.
   Tests. 1. Metallic iron is attracted by the  mag-
net.  2. It  dissolves  in muriatic and sulphuric
acids, with the evolution of hydrogen gas.   3.  Its
oxides are  also  soluble in the acids.   4. The solu-
tions of iron (ferruginous  salts)  yield a  greenish
white precipitate, subsequently  turning  red  or
brown, when treated  with alkalis.  5. Aurochlo-
ride of sodium gives a purple precipitate with solu-
tions of the  protosalts of  iron, and red prussiate of
potash a blue one.  6. Prussiate of potash, under
like circumstances, gives a pale blue one, or  a full
blue, if a little nitric acid has been previously add-
ed.  The protosalts may  thus be all converted into
persalts, and tested  accordingly.  7. The persalts
of iron  yield a  blue precipitate with yellow  prus-
siate of potash, but are unaffected by the red  prus-
siate ; sulphocyanic  and meconic acids  strike a
red color;  gallic acid, tannic acid, and infusion or
tincture  of galls, a  bluish black; succinate and
benzoate of ammonia,  a yellowish one ; citric acid
or a  citrate, a  pale red color,  (transparent.)  8.
Cochineal freed  from  fat  by ether, and then di-
gested in water, (or very weak spirit,) gives  a  so-
lution which is  colored violet by the protosalts of
iron.  (Kastner.)  9.  Hydrosulphuret of ammonia
gives a black precipitate.  10. Phosphate of soda
precipitates  the  persalts  white, and  the protosalts
blue.
   IRON, ACETATE  OF.  Acetate  de fer,
(Fr.)  Acetato di  Ferro,  (Ital.)   Ferri  ace-
tas, (Lat.)   Prep. I.  (P.  D.) Sesquioxide of iron
1 part;   acetic  acid 6 parts; digest 3 days and
filter.  Tonic.  Dose.  10 to  25 drops in water or
wine.  This preparation  is a mixture of the proto-
and per-acetate  of iron.
   II. (Pyrolignite of iron.  Iron liquor.  Dyer s
acetate  of iron.)  Prep. a. (Prof. Runge.)  Eight
suitable vessels  are arranged one above  another,
like a staircase,  so that the top of the  upper one
may rest over the one immediately below it, and
so on of the others to the bottom one.  The  eight 
IRO
378
IRO
 vessels  are  now filled with old scraps of iron, and
 the upper one with pyroligneous acid; after half
 an hour this is drawn off into the vessel next be-
 low  it, and  this again, after  the lapse of  another
 half hour, into the third, and so on until  the last
 is emptied.  The acid is now passed a second time
 through the vessels in the same way as before,
 and  thus becomes more strongly impregnated with
 iron  in a less time than by any other means, except
 the ioilowing:—
   b. (Dr.  VV interfield.)  This consists in employ-
 ing  several  wooden cylinders, resembling those
 used in  the quick  process of making vinegar; the
 space between the two perforated bottoms, usually
 filled with wood  shavings, being  occupied  with
 scraps of iron.  Pyroligneous  acid  is then passed
 through them, and the same system of ventilation
 observed as in the manufacture of vinegar. (Ge-
 werbe-Blatt  f. Sachsen.)
   c.  Leave old scraps of iron in a cask of vinegar,
 ct pyroligneous acid, and  employ occasional agi-
 tation, until  a sufficiently strong solution is  ob-
 tained.  When the deposite of  tar on the iron
 hinders the solution, it may be burnt off.
   d.  Add  a solution of acetate of lime to another
 of  green  copperas, as long  as  a  precipitate  is
 formed; decant.
   HI. (Protacetate.)  Dissolve  freshly precipita-
 ted  protoxide or carbonate of iron in acetic acid,
 or add a solution of  acetate of lime  to another of
 protosulphate of iron, and evaporate out of con-
 tact  with  the air.  Small  green prismatic crys-
 tals.
   IV. (Sesquiacetate. Peracetate.)   Dissolve hy-
 drated peroxide of iron in  acetic acid, or precipi-
 tate a solution of acetate of baryta by another  of
 persulphate of iron.   Uncrystaliizable.
   Remarks.  All the above, prepared with crude
 materials,  are used as mordants by the dyers.
   IRON,  ARSENITE  OF.   Prep. I.  (Protar-
 senite. Ferri arsenias.)  Precipitate a solution of
 protosulphate of iron with  another  of arsenite  of
 soda  or  ammonia;  wash and dry.   A yellowish
 brown powder, used in medicine as a tonic, alter-
 ative, and  febrifuge.
  II.  (Perarsenite.  Sesquiarsenite.)  Prepared
 by precipitating peracetate of iron  with arsenite
 of ammonia, or by boiling nitric acid on the prot-
 arsenite.
  Remarks.  The arseniates of the  iron mav  be
 formed in  a  similar way,  from the  arseniate  of
 soda or ammonia.
  IRON,  ALBUMINATE.  Prep. I.  (Las-
 saigne.)  Precipitate a filtered solution of white  of
 egg with another of  persulphate of iron, wash the
 deposite in  water, and dissolve it in alcohol, hold-
 ing oaustic potassa in solution.
  II. (Cooley.)  Dissolve well washed hydrated
 protoxide or  peroxide of iron in white of egg, di-
 luted with  twice its weight of water, and filtered.
  Remarks.  As a therapeutic agent, the albumi-
 nate of iron  is highly spoken of by M. Lassaigne
 and other high authorities, who recommend it  as
 a preparation especially adapted by its nature, on
theoretical  grounds, for combining with the  tissues
of the body.   It will no doubt, ere long, take a
prominent  situation  among the most esteemed of
our chalvbeates.
  IRON, AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF.  Syn.
 Ferro-chloride of Ammonia.  Ammoniated Iron.
 Ens Veneris Boylei.  Ens Martis, (P. L. 1720.)
 Flores martiales, (P. L. 1775.)   Ferrum ammo-
 niacale, (P. L. 1788.)  Ferrum ammoniatum, (P.
 L. 1809 and 1824.)   Ferri  ammonio-ciiloridum,
 (P. L. 1836.)  Flores Salis Ammoniaci martia-
 lis.  Murias  Ferri  et  Ammonia.  Prep. I. (P.
 L) Sesquioxide of iron fiij ;  muriatic acid 4 pint;
 digest in a proper vessel in a sand-bath for 2 hours,
 then add sal ammonia lb. iiss, dissolved in water 3
 pints; filter, evaporate to dryness, and reduce the
 mass to coarse powder.   Orange-colored crystal-
 line grains.
   II. Rub sal  ammoniac with twice its weight of
 colcother or rust of  iron,  sublime with a quick
 sudden heat, and repeat the sublimation with fresh
 sal ammoniac  as  long as the flowers are well col-
 ored.  Difficult to manage.
   Remarks. Ammonio-chloride of iron " is totally
 soluble in proof spirit  and in water.  Potassa add-
 ed to the solution  throws  down sesqukxide r.f iron,
 and when  added  in  excess,  evolves  ammonia."
 (P.  L.)   Tonic.   Emmenagogue  and  aperient
 Dose. 5 to 15 grs. in glandular swellings, obstruc-
 tions, &c.
   IRON, AMMONIO-TARTRATE OF.  Syn.
 Aikin's  Ammonio-tartrate of Iron.   Tartrate
 of Iron  and Ammonia.  Ferro-tartrate of Am-
 monia.   Ammonia Ferro-tartras,  &c.   Prep.
 Tartaric acid 1 part;  iron  filings 3 parts; digest
 in  a sufficient quantity  of hot water to barely
 cover the  mixture for 2  or 3 days, observing to
 stir it frequently, and to add just enough water to
 allow the evolved  gas to escape freely; then  add
 some liquor of ammonia, and continue the stirring;
 dilute with water, decant, wash  the  undissolved
 portion of iron, filter the mixed liquors, and evapo-
 rate to  dryness;  redissolve in water,  add a little
 more ammonia, filter,  and again gently evaporate
 to dryness, or to the consistence of a  thick 6irup,
 when it  may be spread upon hot plates  of glass,
 or on earthenware dishes,  and dried  in  a stove-
 room, as directed for citrate of iron.
   Remarks.  Glossy, brittle lamella?, or irregular
 pieces, deep garnet-colored,  almost  black,  very
 soluble in  water,  and possessing  a sweetish  and
 slightly ferruginous taste.   By repeated re-solution
 and evaporation its sweetness is increased, prob-
 ably from the conversion of a part of its acid  into
 sugar.   It contains more iron  than a given weight
 of the sulphate of the  same base.   It  is the most
 pleasant-tasted of  all the  preparations  of  iron, ex-
 cept the  ammonio-citrate.   (Aikin,  Lond. Med
 Gaz.)
   IRON, BENZOATES OF.  Prepared by di-
 gesting the  hydrated  oxides in a  hot solution of
 the acid, or  from the  benzoate of an alkali and a
 salt of iron by double decomposition.
   IRON, BRONZING  OF.  (See Browning of
 Gun Barrels,  and Bronzing.)
   IRON,  CARBONATE   OF.    Syn.  Ferri
 Carbonas.   This preparation is found  in  a crys-
 tallized state in the mineral called Spathose iron,
 and in some chalybeate waters.
   Prep.  Precipitate protosulphate  of iron by lidd-
ing a solution of carbonate of soda, well wash the
green powder with water and  dry it out of contact
with the  air.  Op.  the  slightest exposure it is con-
verted into sesquioxide of iron. 
IRO                     379                    IRO
  IRON,  CARBONATE,  (SACCHARINE.)
Syn. Klauer's  Ferrum carbonicum sacchara-
tum.   Ferri Carbonas saccharatum.   Prep. (P.
E.)  Sulphate  of iron §iv;  carbonate  of soda §v;
dissolve each separately in water 1 quart, mix the
solutions, collect the precipitate, well wash  it with
cold water, drain on a cloth, squeeze out as much
of the water as possible, and  add powdered lump
sugar ^ij ;  mix and dry at a temperature not much
above  120° F.  The whole  operation  should  be
performed  as quickly as possible.   A sweet-tasted
greenish mass or powder, consisting chiefly  of car-
bonate of iron.   It is one of  the best of the cha-
lybeates.   Dose. 5 to 10 grs.  When pure it should
be " easily soluble in muriatic acid with brisk ef-
fervescence."  (P. E.)
   IRON,  CHLORIDE OF.  Syn. Ferri Chlo-
ridum.   Prep.  I. (Protochloride.) Dissolve iron
filings or  scales in  muriatic  acid,  evaporate  and
crystallize. Soluble, green crystals.
   II.  (Perchloride.  Sesquichloride.)   Dissolve
sesquioxide or rust of iron in muriatic  acid, evapo-
rate to the consistence of a sirup, and crystallize.
Red crystals.
   Remarks.  Neither of the preceding is abso-
lutely pure ; but by transmitting dry  hydrochloric
acid gas over iron heated to redness, a pure white
crystalline protochloride of iron  is obtained;
and by the combustion  of iron wire in chlorine
gas, or by passing chlorine over heated iron, the
pure perchloride of iron  is  formed.   The proto-
chloride is volatile at high temperatures, and the
perchloride is  dissipated by a heat a little  above
212° F.   The  latter is soluble in  water, alcohol,
and ether, and is deliquescent.  (See  Tinct. of
Sesquichloride of Iron.)
   IRON,  IODIDES OF.  Prep.l.  (Protiodide
of Iron.   Iodide of do.   Ioduret of do.   Ferri
Iodidum,  P. L.  Ferri Ioduretum.)    a.  (P. L.)
Iodine f vj ; iron filings  ^ij ; water 44 pints ; mix,
boil in a sand-bath until  the  liquid turns to a pale
green, filter, wash the  residue with a little water,
and evaporate the mixed liquors in an iron vessel,
at 212°, to dryness.
   6. (P. E.)  The Scotch college  orders the solu-
tion not to be filtered until  evaporated to £, with-
out  removing the excess of iron, and then to be
filtered as  quickly as possible  and put  into a basin,
which must be surrounded with 12  times its weight
of quicklime,  and placed in some  convenient ap-
paratus in which it  may be  accurately shut in a
small space not communicating with the  general
atmosphere.  The whole must then be heated in
a hot-air press, in a stove or otherwise, until the
water  be entirely evaporated, when the iodide of
iron must  be  put into  small dry-stoppered vials.
Product excellent.
  Remarks. A great deal  has been  written and
said about  the preparation of  iodide of iron, much
of which is more amusing than instructive.  There
is  in reality very little difficulty in the process.
As soon as iodine and iron are mixed together un-
der water,  much heat is evolved, and if  too  much
water  be not  used the combination is soon com-
pleted, and the liquor merely requires to be evapo-
rated to dryness, out of  contact with the air, at a
heat not exceeding 212°.   This is most cheaply
and  easily  performed by employing  a  glass  flask,
With a thin broad bottom and a narrow mouth, by
which  means  the  evolved  steam will exclude ail
from the  vessel.   I have  adopted the following
formula with  excellent  results:—Iodine  18 oz.;
iron  wire or filings 6 or  7 oz.;  water about 1
quart; mix  in  a  glass or  stoneware  jug, agitate
with an iron rod,  (cautiously;)  when  the temper-
ature of the liquid will rise considerably, and the
combination be completed in 20  or  30 minutes,
without the application of external heat.  When
the liquor assumes a pale  green  color, decant it
into  a  glass flask with a  thin bottom, wash the
remaining iron with a little water, filter, and add
it to that already  in the flask.   Apply the heat of
a  sand-bath,  or  a rose  gas jet,  (preferably the
former,)  and  evaporate  to the consistence  of  a
sirup as quickly as possible, then remove the  flask
into a  water-bath  containing \ salt and evaporate
to dryness, observing  not to stir the  mass during
the  latter part of  the process.  The whole of the
uncombined water may  be known to  be  evapo-
rated when vapor  ceases to condense on a piece
of cold glass held over the mouth of the flask ;  a
piece of moistened starch  paper occasionally ap-
plied in the same  way, will indicate whether free
iodine  be evolved; should such be the case, the
heat should  be immediately lessened.   When the
evaporation  is completed, the mouth  of the  flask
should be stopped  up  by laying a piece of sheet
Indian rubber on it, and  over that  a  flat weight;
the flask  must be then  removed, and  when  cold
broken to pieces, the iodide weighed, and put into
dry and warm stoppered wide-mouth glass vials,
which  must be immediately closed, tied over with
bladder, and the stoppers dipped into melted wax.
   Iodide of iron  " evolves violet vapors by  heat,
and  sesquioxide of iron  remains.   When  freshly
made  it  is totally soluble in water, and from this
solution when  kept in a badly stoppered vessel,
sesquioxide of iron is very soon precipitated; but
with iron wire immersed  in  it, it may be kept
clear in  a well-stoppered vessel." (P. L.)   " En-
tirely  soluble  in  water,  or nearly so,  forming  a
greenish  solution." (P.  E.)  Its  dilute  solution
should be colorless. (A. J. C.)
   Dose.  1 to 3 grs. or more.   It  is tonic, stimu-
lant, and resolvent, and has been given with ad-
vantage in debility, scrofula, and various glandular
affections.
   II.  (Periodide.) Freely expose a solution of
protiodide of iron to the air ; or digest  iodine in ex-
cess on iron  under water,  gently evaporate, and
sublime.   A deliquescent, volatile red compound,
soluble in water and alcohol.
   IRON, LACTATE.  Syn.  Protolactate of
Iron.  Ferri lactas.  Prep. I.  (Rassman.)  Boil
iron filings in lactic acid diluted with water till gas
ceases  to be evolved, filter while hot into a suitable
vessel, which must then be closely stopped ; as the
solution cools,  crystals will be deposited, and these
must be washed with a little cold water, then with
alcohol, and lastly dried.  The mother-liquor di-
gested  as before  with fresh iron will yield  more
crystals.   (Buchner's  Rep.)
   II. (Pagenstecher.)  Lactate of lime prepared
from sour milk is dissolved in water, and carbonate
of ammonia added till it ceases to produce a pre-
cipitate; the liquid is  now filtered, and concen-
trated  by heat till  it acquires the consistence of a
sirup ;  it is then mixed with 6 times its weight of 
IRO
380
IRO
alcohol of sp. gr. *879, and a concentrated solution
of protochloride of iron added, containing a quan-
tity of the salt equal to 38$ of the lactate of lime
employed.   In about 36 hours  the  mixed liquid
will have deposited all its lactate of iron in minute
crystals, which may be obtained by straining  and
pressure  between  the  folds of bibulous paper.  It
is a mild chalybeate, nearly insoluble in cold water.
  IRON, OXIDES OF.  Prep. I.  (Protoxide.)
This oxide is precipitated from solutions of the pro-
tosalts of  iron, as a white hydrate by pure  alkalis,
and  as a white carbonate by the alkaline carbon-
ates ; both of which turn first green and  then red
by exposure to the air.   It readily dissolves in the
acids forming protosalts of iron.
  II. (Sesquioxide.  Peroxide.  Red oxide.)—
1. By precipitation.   (Carbonate of iron. Sub-
carbonate  of  do.   Precipitated carbonate of
do.   Ferri  sesquioxidum,  P.  L.   Ferri  oxy-
dum  rubrum, P.  E.    Ferri  carbonas, P. D.
Oxyde de Fer rouge;  Carbonate  de  Fer, Fr.
Kohlensaures  eisen Rost,  Ger.)    By  precipi-
tating a  solution of sulphate of iron with another
of carbonate of soda, washing thoroughly the pre-
cipitate with water, and drying it.  The London
College orders of sulphate of iron lb. iv ; carbonate
of soda lb.  iv  ^'j j boiling water 6 £salons;—the
Edinburgh, sulphate  of iron' § iv; carbonate of
soda 3jv ;  water 4 pints ;—the Dublin, sulphate of
iron 25 parts ;  carbonate of soda 26 parts ; water
800 parts.   A  greenish brown powder, reddening
by exposure to air and  to heat.
  2.  By  calcination.   (Crocus.   Crocus martis.
Colcothar.   Trip.   Brown  red.   Indian red.
Rouge.  Jewellers' do.  Caput  mortuum vitrioli.
Crocus martis astringens.   Do. do. sulphuratus.
Portee d'acier.  Terra  dulcis vitrioli.   Ferrum
oxydum rubrum, P.  D.  Rouge d'Angleterre;
Oxyde de Fer rouge, Fr.  Rothes eisenoxyd, Ger.)
  a.  (P. D.) Calcine sulphate of iron, then  roast
it with a strong fire until acid vapors cease to rise,
cool,  wash with water till the latter ceases to affect
litmus, and  dry.
   b.  (Berzelius.)  Green sulphate of iron 100 parts *
common salt 42 parts; calcine, wash well with
water, dry,  and levigate the residuum.  This pro-
cess yields a cheap and beautiful product, which  is
frequently sold for the sesquioxide, P. L., but is less
soluble.
   3.  From  metallic iron. (Rust of iron.  Crude
carbonate, or hydrated sesquioxide of iron. Ferri
rubigo, P. D.)  Moisten iron wire cut into pieces
with  water, and expose it to the air until corroded
into  rust, then grind,  elutriate,  and dry.  Iron
filings may  be used for wire.  It is usually made
 lp into small conical loaves.
   Remarks. Sesquioxide of iron, prepared by pre-
cipitation, is an impalpable powder, of a brownish
red color, odorless, insoluble in water, and possess-
ing a slightly styptic taste, especially when recently
prepared.   When  exposed  to  heat,  its  color  is
brightened, its sp. gr. increased, and it is rendered
less easily soluble  in acids.   The  sesquioxide  pre-
pared by calcination is darker and brighter colored,
less soluble, and quite  tasteless.   It  has either a
scarlet  or purplish cast, according to  the  heat to
which it has been exposed.  The finest Indian red
or  crocus usually undergoes a second calcimtion,
in which it is exposed  to a very intense heat  The
best jewellers' rouge is prepared by calcining the
precipitated oxide until it  becomes  scarlet  The
rust of  iron contains some combined water, and is
more soluble  than the oxide prepared by calcina-
tion.
   Uses, <J-c.  The precipitated oxide is  employed
in medicine as a tonic and emmenagogue  in doses
of 10 to 30 grs.; and in tic douloureux, in doses ci'
3j to 3iv, mixed up with  honey.  It  Is also em-
ployed to make  some preparations of  iron.  Rust
of iron  is likewise used in the  same way.  The
calcined oxide is employed as a pigment, as an in-
gredient in a plaster, &c.
   III.  (Black oxide.  Magnetic oxide.  Martial
Ethiops.   JEthiops martialis.   Ferri oxidum
nigrum, P. E.   Oxydum ferroso-ferricum, Ber-
zelius.  L'Oxide noir defer, Fr.  Schwarzesges
auertes eisen, Ger.)   Prep. I.  (P.  E.)  Sulphate
of iron  Sjvj ; oil  of vitriol f3ij f9ij; nitric  acid
f 3iv ; liquor of ammonia (fort.) f ivss ; boiling wa-
ter 3 pints; dissolve  half the sulphate in  half of
the water, add the oil of vitriol, boil, add the nitric
acid gradually, boiling after each addition for a few
minutes ; dissolve the remaining half of the sul-
phate of iron in the rest of the boiling water ; mix
the two solutions and add the ammonia, stirring
a-ell all the time ; collect the precipitate on a cal-
ico filter, wash with water till the latter ceases  to
affect nitrate of baryta water, and dry  at a heat
not exceeding 180° F.  The  formulae of Gregory
and Dr. Jephson are similar.
   II. The Dublin College orders it to be prepared
by washing the  black scales of iron (Ferri  oxydi
squamae) that fall around the smith's anvils, drying,
detaching  them from impurities by  means of a
magnet, then grinding,  elutriating,  and  drying.
This process  is  the  cheaper of the two,  but  the
product is inferior as a medicine, being  less easily
soluble.
   Remarks. When pure it  is attracted by the mag-
net,  and entirely soluble in muriatic acid ; and
ammonia added to the solution throws down a black
precipitate, (P.  E.)   Dose. 5 to 20 grains two or
three times a  day.
   IV.  Hydrated  peroxide.    Do.  Sesquioxide.
Ferrugo, P. E.  Hydrate de peroxide  de  Fer,
Fr.   Eisen oxydhydrat,  Ger.  Prep.  (P.  E.)
Sulphate of iron §iv ; oil of vitriol f ^iiiss ; water 1
quart ;  mix, dissolve, and boil, then  gradually add
nitric acid  f 3ix ; stirring  well and boiling for  a
minute or two after  each addition, until  the liquor
yields a yellowish-brown  precipitate with ammo-
nia, when it must be filtered and precipitated with
liquor of ammonia (fort.) QWsa, rapidly added and
well  mixed in  ;  collect,  wash  well  with water,
drain on a calico filter, and dry at a heat not ex-
ceeding 180° F.; when  intended as an  antidote
for arsenic it should not be dried, but kept in the
moist or gelatinous state.
   Remarks. Very soluble in acids.  As an antidote
for arsenic 1 tablespoonful of the moist oxide may
be given every  5 or 10 minutes,  or as often as the
patient can swallow it.   (Pereira.)   When  this
preparation cannot  be obtained, rust of iron, or
even the  dry carbonate,  (sesquioxide,)  may be
given along with water instead.  12 parts  of the
hydrated oxide  of iron are required  to neutralize 1
part of arsenious acid.  (Dr. Maclagan.)  We are
| indebted to Messrs.  Bunsen  and Berthold for the 
IRO                     381                     ISA
introduction of this substance  as  an antidote  to
arsenic.  Dose. As a tonic, 5 to 20 grs.  The rust
of iron is also a hydrated oxide, but is less soluble
than that recently precipitated  from its solution in
an acid.
   IRON, PERNITRATE.  Syn. Ferri perni-
tras.  Ferri persesquinitras.  Prep.  Digest iron
in nitric acid diluted with water, until saturated.
It has been given  in diarrhoea.
   IRON, PERSULPHATE.   Syn.  Tritosul-
FATE DE FER. PeRSESQUI-SULPHATE OF IRON. FeRRI
perrulphaS;  Prep. The liquor, before the addition
of the ammonia in the last article but  one, is a
Bolution of  persulphate of iron, which  may  be
evaporated.  This salt is also formed when proto-
sulphate of iron is calcined with free exposure to
the air.  Dissolved in water it  is used as a test  for
pru*3sic, gallic, tannic, and boletic acids.
   IRON, PHOSPHATE.  Syn.  Ferri phosphas.
Prep. Precipitate a solution of sulphate of iron by
another of phosphate of soda ;  wash and dry.  A
blue  powder, frequently  called the Proto-phos-
Phate of iron.  The Perphosphate of  Iron, (Ses-
qui-phosphate of iron,  Oxyphosphate of  iron,
Ferri phosphas tritoxydi, Ferri  sesquiphosphas,)
is a white powder, obtained  by precipitating sesqui-
chloride ot  iron by phosphate  of soda.   Both the
above are given in scrofula  and cancer.  Dose, 10
to 15 grs.
   IRON,  POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF.  Syn.
Tartrate  of Potash  and  Iron.  Tartrate of
Iron.  Ferro-tartrate of  Potassa.   Cremo-
tartrate  of iron.  ferri potassio-tartras,  (p.
L.)   Ferrum tartarizatum, (P. E.)   Ferri tar-
tarum, (P. D.) Tartrate de Fer et de Potasse,
(Fr.)   Eisenweinstein, (Ger.)  Prep. I. (P.  L.)
Boil freshly precipitated sesquioxide of iron with a
solution  of cream of tartar, till it ceases to be dis-
solved ; then filter, and if the liquor reddens litmus
paper, add a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammo-
nia to saturation; again strain, and evaporate to
dryness.
   II. (P. D.) Iron wire (filings) 1 part;  bitartrate
of potash, in fine powder, 4 parts ; distilled water
8 parts, or q. s.;  mix, expose the mass to the  air
in a shallow vessel for  15 days,  occasionally stir-
ring, and adding enough water to keep  the  mass
moist; lastly, boil the magma  in  water, filter, and
evaporate.
   Remarks. This preparation  is  a double salt of
iron and potassa ; it is therefore wrongly called
tartrate of iron.   It should  be  "  totally soluble in
water, neutral to  litmus,  unaffected  by yellow
prussiate of potash, and not precipitated by  acids
nor alkalis,  nor  acted on by the magnet." (P. L.)
" Entirely  soluble in   cold  water; taste, feebly
chalybeate."  (P.  E.)   An  excellent  ferruginous
tonic.  Dose. 10 to 30 grs. made  into a bolus with
aromatics.
   IRON,  SULPHATE OF.   Syn.   Copperas.
Green Vitriol.   Protosulphate of Iron.  Vit-
riol  of Mars.   Salt  of  Mars.  Vitriolated
Iron.   Vitriolum viride.   Vitriolum  Martis.
Sal Martis.  Ferrum  vitriolatum.  Vitriolum
vulgare anglicanum.  vltriolum ferri.   vlt-
riolum Ferratum. Ferri Sulphas, (P. L. E. and
D.)  CoUI'EROSE VERTE  ; SULPHATE DE FfiR, (Fr.)
SCHWEFELSAURES ElSEN-OXYDUL,  ElSEN VITRIOL,
Y?er.)  Chalcanthum, (Pliny.)
  Prep. (Ferri sulphas, P. L., medicinal sulphate
of iron.)  Iron filings ^viij ; sulphuric acid %x\v',
water 4 pints ; dissolve by heat, filter, set aside to
crystallize, and evaporate for more crystals.  The
Dublin College orders iron wire to be employed,
and the Edinburgh College directs the transparent
green crystals of the copperas of commerce, to be
dissolved in their own weight of boiling water,
acidulated with sulphuric acid, and recrystallizld.
  Remarks.  It should be perfectly soluble  in  wa-
ter, and a piece of iron put into the solution should
not precipitate metallic copper. (P. L.)  Sulphate
of iron prepared by dissolving iron wire or filings
in the acid, should alone be used in medicine.  It
is very astringent.  Dose. From  4 gr. to 5 grs., in
pills or solution.  Commercial  sulphate  of  iron
(copperas)  is used in dyeing, and  for various other
purposes in the arts.   (See Copperas.)
  IRON,  SULPHATE  OF, (DRIED.)  Syn.
Ferri Sulphas exsiccatum, (P. E.)   Prep. See
Copperas,  calcined, p. 219.  It is used to make
pills.   5 parts of the crystallized sulphate lose very
nearly 2 parts by drying.
  IRON,  SULPHURET  OF.   Syn. Chalybs
cum Sulphure.   Sulphuretum Ferri, (P. E. and
D.)  Prep. Expose a bar of iron to a full  white
heat, and instantly apply a t^d  mass of  sulphur
to it, observing to let the melted  product fall into
water; separate  the  sulphuret from  the sulphur,
dry, and preserve it in closed vessels. (P. E. & D.)
It may also be made for pharmaceutical purposes,
by heating a mixture of 1 part of sublimed sulphur
and 3 parts of iron filings in a common fire, till the
mixture begins to glow, and then removing  the
crucible and covering it, until the action shall come
to an end.   (P. E.)
  Remarks.  Several other sulphurets of iron are
prepared by chemists.   The tetrasulphuret is
made by transmitting hydrogen gas over dry disul-
phate of peroxide of  iron ;—the disulphuret by  a
like treatment of the dry protosulphate  of  iron.
(Arfwedson.)—The  protosulphuret of  iron is
made by  heating 28 parts of iron filings with 16
parts of sulphur  in a crucible, in the way above
described; or by precipitating a solution of proto-
sulphate of iron by hydrosulphate of  ammonia.—
The sesciuisulphuret is made by dropping a solu-
tion of perchloride of iron into another of hydro-
sulphate of ammonia, when this compound falls as
a black precipitate.—The  bisulphuret of iron
(iron pyrites) is found in large quantities  in  the
mineral kingdom.—Magnetic iron pyrites is a mix-
ed sulphuret of iron found in nature.  All the com-
pounds of iron and sulphur, except the bisulphuret,
yield  sulphureted hydrogen,  when  treated with
sulphuric  or muriatic acid ;  hence their frequent
employment in chemistry for that purpose.  Equal
parts of sulphur and iron filings melted together in
a covered crucible, form  a  compound frequently
used for copying medals, &c.  It melts easiiy, and
takes sharp casts, and  may be colored red with
vermilion.   Native iron pyrites is also called Brass-
balls,  Horse gold,  Copperas-balls,  Pyrites
Ferri, &c.                       .   .
  ISATIC ACID.   Prepared from isatine by so-
lution in caustic potassa, the  application of heat
till the purple color passes into yellow, evaporation,
and crystallization.   The Isatate of Potassa thus
obtained is then dissolved in alcohol, recrystalhzed, 
ITC
382
JAL
the crystals dissolved in water, the solution pre-
cipitated with acetate of lead, and the white pow-
der (Isatate of  lead) diffused  through water,
and sulphureted  hydrogen  passed through  the
liquid, when a solution of isatic acid is obtained,
which by spontaneous  evaporation yields a white
semi-crystalline powder.  Isatic acid is soluble in
cold water, but is decomposed when the solution is
heated. It forms salts with the bases called Isatates.
   ISATINE.  A product of the oxidation of indi-
go, discovered by Erdman and Laurent.   It is ob-
tained by  heating finely-powdered indigo with a
mixture of equal parts of sulphuric acid and bichro-
mate of potash in 25 parts of water; a deep brown
liquid is formed, which, on cooling, deposites crys-
tals of isatine.  These are purified by recrystalliza-
tion, first, in water, and then in alcohol.   It forms
lustrous orange red crystals, soluble in water  and
alcohol.  Alkalis convert it  into  isatic acid, and
chlorine into Chlorisatine and Biciilorisatine.
   ISATYDE. This name has been given by Erd-
man to a yellowish powder obtained by dissolving
isatine in hydrosulphuret of ammonia: it is deposit-
ed as the liquor cools.
   ISETHIONIC  ACID,   AND  ETHIONIC
ACID.  Two new acids obtained by Magnus, by
treating alcohol with a hydrous sulphuric acid in
the cold, diluting with water, neutralizing  with
carbonate  of baryta,  filtering,  evaporating  to a
sirup, adding alcohol, and cautiously decomposing
the whole   precipitate (ethionate  of baryta) with
sulphuric acid, when a solution of ethionic acid is
formed ; when this solution is boiled, it is convert-
ed into sulphuric acid and isethionic acid.  The
latter acid  may also be formed by saturating pure
ether with  dry sulphuric acid, adding  water, sep-
arating the stratum below the ether, neutralizing
with baryta, evaporating (below 212°)  till crystals
begin to appear, adding absolute alcohol, dissolving
in water, again precipitating by alcohol, dissolving
a third  time in water,  and then precipitating the
baryta with sulphuric acid.  The  first  acid forms
salts termed Isethionates with the bases; the lat-
ter Ethionatls.   By cautious evaporation, isethi-
onic acid forms a viscid oily liquid.
   ITACONIC  ACID.  Pyrocitric acid, obtained
by the action of heat on aconitic acid.
   ITCH.  Syn.  Scabies,  Psora, (Lat.)  Gale,
(Fr.)  There are four varieties of itch, distinguish-
ed by nosologists by the names scabies  papulifor-
mis, or rank itch ;  scabies lymphatica, or  watery
itch ; scabies purulenta,  or  pocky  itch ; scabies
cachectica, a species  exhibiting appearances resem-
bling each  of the previous  varieties.  Our space
will not permit more than a general notice of the
common symptoms, and the mode of cure which
is equally applicable  to each species, and  will not
prove  injurious  to other skin-diseases  simulating
the itch.
   The  common itch  consists of  an eruption of
minute vesicles, principally between the fingers,
bend  of the wrist, &c, accompanied  by  intense
itching of the parts, which is  only aggravated by
scratching.   It  is most readily cured  by  the  re-
peated application of sulphur ointment, (simple or
compound,) which should be well rubbed in, once
or twice a  day, until a cure is effected ; accompa-
nying its use by the  internal exhibition  of a spoon-
ful or more of flowers of sulphur, mixed with trea-
cle or milk, night  and morning.   Where the ex-
ternal use of sulphur is  objectionable, on account
of its smell, a lotion or bath of sulphuret of potas-
sium, or of  chloride of lime, may be employed in-
stead.   (See Baths, Lotions, and Ointments.)

   JAGGERIES. 1. Cocoa jaggery;  Tenne v61-
lum.)   Raw sugar made from cocoanut toddy by
evaporation.—2. Palmyra jaggery, (Pannay vel-
lum,) from  Palmyra toddy, as last; 6 pints yield
1 lb.—3. Malabar jaggery, (Koondee  panei vel-
lum,) from  Malabar toddy.—4. Mysore jaggery,
from Mysore toddy ;  17  gallons yield 46 lbs.  All
are used as raw sugar.
   JALAP. The jalap ipomeea (ipomaa purga vel
jalapa) contains  the following substances, which
have been  proposed as remedies:—
   JALAPIC ACID.   Prep. Add  an alcoholic
solution of acetate of lead to a similar solution of
jalap resin,  collect the precipitate, and throw down
the lead by means of sulphureted hydrogen.  Solu-
ble in alcohol and alkalis, and slightly so in ether.
Jalap root contains 13& of jalapic acid.
   JALAPIN.  Syn.  Jalapina.   Prep.  I. Add
an alcoholic solution of acetate of lead to an alco-
holic solution of jalap resin as long as a precipitate
(jalapate of lead) is formed; filter; the liquid is
a solution of acetate of jalapine, which, after the
removal of the acetic acid and excess oi lead, and
evaporation to dryness,  yields jalapin.  A trans-
parent,   colorless resin,  very soluble  in alcohoL
Purgative.
   II.  (Hume.) Digest coarsely-powdered jalap in
strong  acetic  acid  for 14  days, add  ammonia in
excess, agitate strongly, filter, wash the deposite in
cold water, redissolve in acetic acid, reprecipitate
by ammonia, wash, and  dry.
   JALAP  RESIN.  Prep.  I.   (M.  Planche.)
Digest bruised or coarsely-powdered jalap in alco-
hol or rectified spirit of wine  for some days, then
express  the  tincture, add water, wash the precipi-
tated resin with warm water, dry in a water-bath,
dissolve  the resin in alcohol, add  a  little  animal
charcoal, agitate, filter, and evaporate to dryness.
   II.  (M.   A.  Nativelle.)   Digest  jalap  root in
boiling water  for 24 hours, then  reduce it to thin
slices, add  more water, and boil for 10 minutes,
agitating the mixture occasionally; express the
liquid in a  tincture  press, and repeat the  boiling
and pressing a second and a third time.   These
decoctions by evaporation yield aqueous extract of
jalap.   The pressed root  is now placed in an alem-
bic, and alcohol at  65° C. added, the whole boiled
for 10  minutes,  and then allowed to cool ;  the
tincture  is  next pressed  out, and the boiling with
fresh alcohol and expression is repeated twice; a
little animal charcoal is  then added to the mixed
tinctures, and, after thorough agitation, the  latter
are filtered; the spirit is then distilled until nothing
passes over, the supernatant liquor is next poured
off the fluid resin, and the latter dried by spreading
it over the  surface  of the capsule, and continuing
the heat.   The product  is a  friable  and  nearly
colorless resin, which forms a white  powder  re-
sembling starch. 1 kilogramme of jalap root yields
100 grammes of pure resin.
   %*' Earthenware, or well-tinned copper vessels
must alone be used in the above piocess, as con
tact with copper oi iron turns the resin black and 
JAM                     383                   JEL
 this  tinge can  only be  removed  by re-solution in
 alcohol, the addition of animal charcoal, and re-
 evaporation.
    Remarks.  Jalap resin is soluble in alcohol.  It
 is a  Jalapate of Jalapin  (Buchner and  Herber-
 ger.)  The jalap resin  of commerce is generally
 adulterated with scammony, gum  guaiacum, or
 rosin.  When in a state of purity, it does not form
 an emulsion with milk, but runs  into a solid mass,
 which is not  the case with scammony resin.  It is
 also insoluble in fixed oils and turpentine ;  whereas
 the common resins are freely soluble in those men-
 strua.   Its alcoholic  solution dropped on a piece
 of absorbent  white  paper, and  exposed  to the ac-
 tion of nitrous  gas, does not acquire  a green or
 blue color ; if  it does,  guaiacum resin is present.
 2°; of this adulteration may be  thus detected.  (M.
 Gobley.)   Jalap resin  is insoluble  in ether ; but
 guaiacum  resin, common  resin,  and some others
 are  so ; the decanted ether should not become
 opalescent when  mixed with  water,  and should
 evaporate without leaving any  residuum.  Powder-
 ed jalap resin  placed  in cold water does not dis-
 solve,  but forms a semi-fluid, transparent  mass, as
 if it had been  melted; this characteristic distin-
 guishes it from other resins.   An energetic cathar-
 tic.  Dose. 1 to 5 grs.
    JALAP  RESIN,  (FACTITIOUS.)   A sub-
 stance frequently sold  for jalap resin  is made by
 fusing a mixture of pale yellow rosin (white rosin)
 and scammony resin, and adding, when  cooled a
 little, but still 6emi-fluid, a few drops of balsam of
 Peru or tolu  ; the mixture is then poured into small
 paper  capsules or tin moulds.   Its effects resemble
 those of jalap resin, but it inflames less.   (X. Lan-
 derer.)
    JAMAICINE.  Syn. Jamacina. A  peculiar
 alkaloid obtained by Huttenschmidt  from cabbage-
 bark, (cortex ardira inermis.)  It is a brownish
 yellow, crystalline substance;  soluble in water
 and  alcohol; fusible, and  very bitter tasted.  It
 forms salts with the acids, which, in small doses,
 produce restlessness and trembling ; and in larger
 ones, purging.   It is said to be  vermifuge.
    JAMS.  (In  Confectionary.)   Conserves of
 fruit and sugar.  They are all  made by boiling
 either the pulped or bruised fruit over the fire along
 with 4 its weight to an equal weight of loaf sugar,
 until the mixture jellies, when  a little is placed on
 a cold  plate.   When  sufficiently thick, the semi-
 fluid mass should be passed through a coarse hair-
 sieve while hot, to remove the  stones and skins of
 the  fruit, and  then poured  into pots  or glasses.
 It is usual to  tie paper  over  the  latter dipped
 in brandy.   The  following are  the  principal
 jams:—
   Apricot jam. 6 dozen apricots, stoned and pared,
 or flesh of apricots, 24 lbs.; white sugar 2 to 3 lbs.;
 yields about 44 lbs. of jam.
   Cherry jam.  Stoned cherries  4 lbs.; white sugar
 2  lbs.;  about  2 lbs. of  red  currants, or  a pint of
 currant juice improves it.
   Gooseberry jam. Picked and stalked gooseberries
 (red or yellow) 22 lbs.; white sugar 12 lbs. Pro-
 duct. 26 lbs.
   Orleans plum jam. Equal  weight of fruit and
sugar;  the addition of a few ripe gooseberries and
raspberries improves it.
   Raspberry  jam. Picked  raspberries  and white
 sugar, of each 14 lbs.   Product. 26 lbs.  A little
 white or red currant juice improves this jam.
   Strawberry jam. As the last, either with or
 without the addition of currant juice.
   JAPAN,  BLACK.  Prep.  I.  Burnt umber 8
 oz.; true asphaltum 3 or 4 oz.;  boiled  linseed oil
 1  gallon; grind the  umber with a little of the oil;
 add it to the asphaltum, previously dissolved  in a
 small quantity of the oil by heat; mix, add the re-
 mainder of the oil, boil, cool, and thin with a suffi-
 cient quantity of oil of turpentine.  Flexible.
   II. Shellac 1 oz.; wood naphtha 4oz.;  lamp-
 black to  color;  dissolve.  Inflexible.   Both are
 used for leather.
   JAPAN,  TRANSPARENT.   Prep.  Oil of
 turpentine 8 oz.; oil of lavender 6 oz.; camphor
 1  dr.; bruised copal 2 oz.; dissolve.   Used for ja-
 panning tin ; quick-drying copal varnish is usually
 substituted.
   JAPANNING.   (From Japan,  the country
 where this art originated.)  The  art  of covering
 paper, wood, or metal with a coating  of hard, bril-
 liant, and durable varnish.
   Proc. The material  is colored  or  painted with
 various devices, as  may be des«red,  next covered
 with a highly transparent varnish, (copal,) dried at
 a  high temperature, and  then  polished.   Wood
 and  paper  are  first sized, polished, and  var-
 nished.
   JAPONIC ACID.   When catechine is exposed
 to the air  in contact with caustic alkalis, black
 solutions (alkaline japonates) are formed ;  with
 carbonated alkalis,  red solutions, (alkaline rubi-
 nates ;) the acid of the former  may be separated,
 and forms  a black powder.   (See Catechine.)
   JATROPHIC ACID.  Syn.  Crotonic  Acid.
 A peculiar fatty acid, constituting the cathartic
 and poisonous ingredient of croton oil and  seeds.
 It is volatile, very acid,  has  a  nauseous odor,
 solid at 23° F., and vaporizes at 35° F.   It forms
 salts called Jatropates, or Crotonates with the
 bases.
   JAUMANGE.   Prep. Isinglass 1 oz.; boiling
 water 10 or 12 oz.; dissolve ; add any white sweet
 wine 4 pint, the yelks of 2 eggs beaten to a froth,
 and the grated  yellow  peel of 2 lemons;  mix
 well, and boil over  the  fire to thicken, stirring all
 the time.
   JAUNDICE.  Syn. Icterus. In  Pathology,
 a  disease characterized by a yellow  color of the
 eyes and skin, deep-colored urine, and pale alvine
 evacuations.   It appears to arise from a disordered
 action of the biliary organs.  Saline aperients,  and
 small doses of blue-pill, followed by tonics, are the
 best remedies.   Their action should  be promoted
 by the copious use of diluents, (as saline waters,)
 and exercise in the open air.   When there is much
 pain and vomiting, anodynes  (as opium, morphia,
 &.c.) may be administered.
   JELLIES.  (See Gelatin,  and the following
 articles.)
   *** Jellies may be colored  in  the same way as
cakes, (see page  153,)  and rendered transparent
by clarification with  white  of egg.  See Calves'
feet Jelly.
   JELLY, ALMOND.  Syn. Gelatina  amyq-
dalarum.   Prep.  Blanched  sweet almonds and
white sugar, of each 1 oz.;  water 4 oz.:  make an
emulsion, strain, and add melted hartshorn jelly £ 
JEL                    384                   JEL
lb.; orange-flower water  1  dr.;  and essence  of
lemon 2 or 3 drops; mix well.
  JELLY, ARROW ROOT.  Syn.  Made Ar-
row Root.   Gelatina maranta.  Prep. Arrow
root 1 oz.; rub to a smooth  paste with a  spoonful
or two of cold water, then gradually add of boiling
water half a pint, stirring all the while.   It may
be thinned with more water, if required, and fla-
vored with milk, wine,  sugar, and spices,  accord-
ing to the palate of the consumer.  Tous les mo:s
jelly is made in the same way.
  JELLY,  BISCUIT.   Prep.  White  biscuit,
crushed beneath the rolling-pin, 4 oz.; cold water
2 quarts ;  soak for  some  hours, boil to  one half,
strain, evaporate to  1 pint, add white sugar 1 lb. ;
red wine  4 oz., and cinnamon  1 oz.  Given  in
weakness  of  the  stomach, and in dysentery and
diarrhoea.
  JELLY, BREAD.  Syn.  Panada.  Gelatina
Panis.  Prep. Cut a French roll into slices, toast
them  on each side, and boil in one quart of water,
until the whole forms a jelly, adding more water
if required ; strain, aud flavor as above. Very nu-
tritious.   It may  be made with broth  from which
the fat has been skimmed, instead of water.
  JELLY, BROTH.  Syn.  Soup Jelly. Broth,
or soup  from which  the fat  has  been skimmed,
evaporated until it becomes gelatinous on cooling.
See Soup, portable.
  JELLY, CALVES' FEET.  (See p. 156.)
  JELLY, CEYLON MOSS.   Syn. Gelatina
Fuci Amylacei. Prep. (Dr. Sigmond.) Boil Ceylon
moss ^ss in water one quart, for 25 minutes, or till
the liquid jellies on cooling; strain and flavor.
  JELLY, CORSICAN  MOSS.  Syn. Gela-
tina Helminthocorti.  Prep. (P. Cod.)   Corsican
wormweed or moss  fj ;  water q. s. to  yield ^viij •
boil for one hour; strain, add isinglass previously
soaked in a  little water,  3j ; refined sugar  §ij ;
white wine f ^ij-  Vermifuge.
  JELLY, GRAVY.   By evaporating meat gra-
vies.
  JELLY, HARTSHORN.   Syn.  Gelatina
Cornu Cervi.   Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Hartshorn sha-
vings ^viij ; wash  in water, then boil  in clean water
3 pints, till reduced  to one half; strain, press, add
Bugar ^iv, the juice of one lemon, and the white of
an egg beat up with a little cold water ; mix well,
clarify by heat, evaporate  till it jellies on  cooling,
then  add  the peel of the lemon, and set in a cool
place.   It may be flavored with wine, and any of
the spices.  Very nutritious.
  JELLY, ICELAND MOSS.  Syn. Gelatina
Lichenis.  Prep.  (P.  Cod.)  Iceland moss  ^'j j
soak for 1 or 2 days in cold water, then boil for one
hour  in  water q. s. to yield a strong  solution;
Btrain, decant the clear after repose, apply heat,
dissolve therein isinglass 3j,  evaporate to a proper
consistence, put it into  pots, and set  them in a cool
place.  Nutritious.   Recommended  in  phthisis.
The j ?Ily of Iceland moss and cinchona (Gelatina
lichenis cum  cinchona, P. Cod.) is made by adding
Syj of sirup of cinchona to the above.
   JELLY,  IRISH  MOSS.   Syn.  Gelatina
Chondri.  Prep. Soak Irish moss  (carrageen) in
cold water, then boil in water one quart to a proper
consistence ; strain, and flavor.  Nutritious.
   JELLY,  ISINGLASS.    Syn.  Confect!on-
er's  Jelly.    Gelatina  Icthyocolla.  Prep.
Isinglass dissolved in water by boiling, and evapo-
rated till it jellies on cooling.  To render it quite
transparent, it should be clarified with white of
egg.  (See  Calves' Feet Jelly.)  Mi'k, wine,
and spices may be added, according to taste.  1|
oz.  of  good isinglass makes a pint  of very strong
jelly.  (See Bi wc.mange.)
  JELLY,  RESTORATIVE.  (Dr.  Radcliffe.)
Prep.  Boil a leg of pork in water 3 gallons, till
reduced to 1 gallon, pour off the liquid, when cold
remove the fat, add 4 oz. each of mace and  nut-
megs, again boil, and strain.
  JELLY,  RICE.  Syn.  Creme  de Riz.  Rice
3 spoonfuls ; boil in water, add 10 sweet and 5 bit-
ter almonds, and  enough sugar;  make  an emul-
sion, and flavor with cinnamon  or  orange-flower
water.
  JELLY,  SAGO.  Soak sago in  cold water one
hour, strain, and boil in fresh water till  it becomes
transparent; then  add wine,  sugar, clear broth,
milk, or spices, to  flavor.   1 oz. of  sago makes a
pint of jelly.
  JELLY,  TAPIOCA.  As the last.   It may be
flavored with lemon juice and peel,  wine, or spices
at pleasure.  1 oz.  of tapioca makes  a pint of
jelly.
  JELLIES, FRUIT.   These  are all prepared
by boiling the strained juice of the fruit mixed with
about half its weight of  refined sugar, until it jel-
lies on  cooling, observing to  carefully remove the
scum as it rises.  The process should be conducted
by a gentle heat, and it is preferable not to add the
sugar until  the juice is somewhat  concentrated, as
by lengthened boiling the quality of the sugar is
injured.
  Jellies are placed in pots or glasses,  like jams.
The following are the principal fruit jellies :—
  Apple jelly.   Strained apple juice 1 quart;  su-
gar 1 lb.; boil to a jelly.   When  apple juice  can-
not be  obtained, the fruit may be  boiled  with suffi-
cient water to cover it, and the liquor pressed out
and used as juice.
  Barberry jelly. (Gelatina berberorum, P. E. 1744.
Rob de  berberis.)  Barberries and refined sugar
equal parts ; as last.  One pint of the  strained
juice to sugar 6 or 8 oz. makes a better jelly.
  Cherry jelly.  1. Cornelian cherry jelly, (Rob de
cornis.)  Cornelian cherries  1  lb.; water \ pint;
bruise,  boil, strain ;  add  sugar 6  oz.,  and boil till
the liquid jellies.—2. Kentish cherry jelly, (Rob de
cerasis.)  Strained  juice 1 pint; refined sugar 6
oz.; boil down as before.
  Currant jelly, (Rob de ribes.)  1. Juice of any
variety of currants 1 pint;  white  sugar 6 to 8 oz.;
as before.  Black currant juice requires the  most
sugar; some add twice the above  quantity of sugar
to either sort.—2. Strained juice and powdered re-
fined sugar equal parts; mix, stir for 3 or 4 hours,
and put it into glasses; in about 3 days it will con-
crete into a jelly. Other fruit juice  may be treated
in the same way, especially gooseberry juice.
  Elderberry jelly, (Rob of elderberries with su-
gar.  Rob baccarum sambuci cum saccharo.) 1.
Juice of elderberries 4  lbs.; sugar 1 to 2  lbs.—2.
Juice 1 gallon ; sugar 5$ lbs.; produces about one
half the weight of jelly.
   Gooseberry jelly. Dissolve sugar in one third of
its weight of water, by boiling;  it  will  be nearly
solid when cold; add an  equal weight  of goose- 
JUL                    385                    KAD
berry juice, and boil as before.  Much boiling pre-
vents it gelatinizing.   (See Currant Jelly.)
  Hybiscus jelly.  Juice and sugar equal parts.
  Lemon  jelly.   Isinglass 2 oz.;  water 1  quart,
boil, add  sugar  1  lb.; clarify,  and when  nearly
cold, add the juice of-5 lemons, and the grated yel-
low rinds  of 2 oranges and  2  lemons; mix well,
strain off the peel, and put it into glasses.
  Orange jelly.  Orange juice  1 pint;  let it stand
over the grated yellow rind of 3 or 4 of the oranges
for a few hours, then strain, and add loaf sugar 4
lb.  or  more ; isinglass 2 oz.,  dissolved  in water 1
pint; mix, and put it into glasses before it cools.
  Plum jelly, (Rob prunorum acidorum.)  Unripe
plums  8 lbs.; sugar  6 or 7 lbs.  Ripe plums  take
less sugar.
  Punch jelly. Isinglass 2 oz.; sugar If lbs.; wa-
ter  1 pint; dissolve,  add lemon juice 4 pint; the
peels of 2 lemons and 2 oranges,  and \ pint  each
of rum and  brandy ;  keep it in a covered vessel
until cold, then liquefy it by a very gentle heat,
strain, and pour  it into  moulds.   A pleasant and
deceptive  way of swallowing  alcohol.
   Quince jelly, (Gelatina cydoniorum.  Rob cy-
doniorum, P. E.  1744.)   Quince  jelly 3 lbs.; re-
fined sugar 1 lb. ;  boil to a jelly.
  Raspberry jelly. Juice 2 lbs.; sugar 1 lb. ; boil
down.
   Strawberry jelly is made the same way.
  *** The  preceaing fruit jams and jellies are re-
frigerant and laxative; they  are mostly employed
as relishes, &c.
  JERVIN.  A peculiar alkaloid,  found by Simon,
associated with  barytiu, in the rhizomes of white
hellebore.  It forms salts with the  acids.
  JUICE   Syn.  Succus,  (Lat.)   Sue;  Jus,
(Fr.)   The reader is referred to the article Vege-
table Juices for the method  of obtaining and pre-
serving these  liquids, especially  the  expressed
juices employed in medicine, and  termed alcoola-
tures by the French.  The principal juices of  com-
merce are—Citron Juice, (succus citri, acetositas
citras,) chiefly imported from Italy in large casks;
—Lemon Juice,  (succus  limonis,) from  lemons
that spoil  before they can be sold ; also imported ;
—Orange Juice, (succus aurantii,) obtained  from
the same  sources  as that of lemons.—Concentra-
ted Orange  Juice, (succus spissatus  aurantii,
vel  aurantiorum,)  and  Concentrated  Lemon
Juice, (succus spissatus limonum,) are prepared
by  evaporating  the  fresh  juices   of oranges and
lemons, either alone or mixed with sugar, and are
employed as substitutes for  the  fruit, where the
latter cannot be obtained.
  JUICE,  REFINED.   Prep.  Italian juice 4
lbs.; gum arabic 1 lb.; waterq. s.; dissolve, strain,
gently evaporate to a pilular  consistence, then roll
into small cylinders, cut  into  lengths, and after-
wards  polish  them by rubbing them together in a
box.   An inferior kind is  made of equal parts of
liquorice and common ghie, but  may readily be
discovered by its less grateful taste. Expectorant;
used as a  lozenge to  allay coughs.   (See Extract
of Liquorice.)
  JULEP.   Syn. Julap.   Julapium;  Julepus,
[Lat.)   Julep, (Fr.)  This term was formerly
applied to thnse preparations at  present called  mix-
tures.   (See  Mixtures, and the following.)
  JULEP, ACID. Syn. Julapium acidum. Prep.
                       49
(Fr. H.)   Muriatic arid 3j ; simple sirup fj ; wa-
ter i pint; mix.   Done. 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls 3 or
4 times a day, after a course of mercury.
  JULEP, ANODYNE.  Syn.  Jul.  Calmans
Potio  anodyna.   Prep. (P. Cod.)  Lettuce wa-
ter giv ; sirup  of  opium 3ij ; orange-flower water
3vj ; to lull pain.
  JULEP, CAMPHOR.  Syn. Jul. Camphora.
Prep.  (Collier.) Camphor 25 grs.; powdered gum
§ss ; simple or spearmint water §viij ; make  an
emulsion.   Anodyne,  sedative.  Dose. 2 or 3 ta-
blespoonfuls or more, in hysteria, chorea, stran-
gury. &.C.
  JULEP, DIAPHORETIC.  Syn. Jul.  dia-
piioueticum.   Prep. (E.  H.) Compound mint wa-
ter §iv; solution of  acetate of ammonia §ij; ses-
quicarbonate of ammonia  3'ij ; white sugar 3vj to
^j.   Dose. 1 tablespoonful in fevers, &c.
  JULEP, GUM.   Syn. Jul. Gummosum. Potio
gummosa.   Prep.  (P. Cod.) Gum 3ij; sirup of al-
thea §j ;  orange-flower  water §ss ;  water ^iij;
mix.   Demulcent.  Dose.  A tablespoonful ad li-
bitum.
  JULEP, LEMON.  Syn. Jul.  Limonum. Prep.
(Germ. H.)  Barley-water 14  pints; lemon  sirup
^ij ;  sweet spirits  of nitre 20 drops ; mix.  Demul-
cent and diaphoretic.
  JULEP, ROSE.   Syn. Jul. Rosatum.  Prep.
(P. Cod.)   Sugar lb. ij ; rose-water lb. j ; dissolve
and  filter. A pleasant demulcent, especially if
mucilage  fiv  be  added.   Violet, Elder,  and
Orange-flower  Juleps, as well as several others
from  demulcent  or odorous flowers, may be pre-
pared  in  the  same  way, regulating  the flavor  by
properly apportioning the quantity of distilled wa-
ter ;  simple  water being added, if required, to
make  up the deficiency.
  JULEP, SQUILL.  Syn. Jul. Scilla.  Jul.
Scilliticum.  Prep.  Sirup of squills  ^ij ;  sweet
fennel, aniseed, or pennyroyal-water §iv ; mix. In
coughs and hoarseness.  Dose. 1 or 2 tablespoon
fuls every 3 or 4  hours.
  JULEP,  SEDATIVE.  Syn.  Jul.  Sedati
vum.   Prep.  (Pierquin.)  Camphor  6 grs.;  com
pound spirit of sulphuric ether 3iss ; nitre 12 grs.;
orange-flower water 3»j 5  sirup of aU.-ea 3iij ; si-
rup of poppies 3ij ;  mix.
  JULEP, TONIC.  Syn. Jul. Tonicum. Prep.
(Fr. H.)  Sulphate of quinine 12 grs.; water ^iv ;
add a  few drops of  dilute sulphuric  to effect solu-
tion ; when dissolved, further add compound tinc-
ture of gentian §j', a»d sirup  of orange-peel or
roses q. s. to  make  a six-ounce  mixture.  Dose.
A tablespoonful 2 or 3 times a day.
  JUNKET,  DEVONSHIRE. Prep. Put warm
milk into  a bowl; turn it with a little rennet; then
add  some scalded cream, sugar, and cinnamon on
the top, without breaking the curd.

  KADODULE.  (From icaKbs,  bad, and Heir,,.
smell.) The theoretical radical of a series of com-
pounds, the best known of which is Cadet's fuming
liquor. The following is a brief notice of the prin-
cipal of these substances:—
  Oxide  of  Kadodule.   (Alkarsine.   Cadets
fuming liquor.)   Acetate of potassa and arsenious
acid, equal parts; mix; slowly heat to redness m
a glass, retort, placed in a sand-bath, and connect-
ed with  a receiver placed in a freezing mixture 
KAL                    386                   RET
Separate the heavier liquid  that distils  over, agi-
tate it with water, and rectify it along with caustic
potassa, in an atmosphere of carbonic acid.  By a
second rectification over lime or baryta it may be
obtained anhydrous.   A colorless liquid, boiling at
300°, congealing at—10° F., and evolving a very
offensive odor, resembling arseniureted  hydrogen.
" It is highly poisonous in every shape."   It pos-
sesses feeble basic properties, is  soluble in alcohol
and ether, sparingly soluble in water, and inflames
spontaneously by exposure to the air.—Sulphuret
of  Kadodule is formed by distilling a mixture of
chloride of kadodule and hydrosulphuret of sulphu-
ret  of barium ; a colorless fetid liquid, heavier than
water, and very poisonous.—Cyanide of Kadodule
is obtained by distilling a concentrated solution ol
bicyanide of mercury, along with alkarsine ; fusible,
volatile crystals.—Chloride  of Kadodule is pre-
pared by distilling alkarsine and bichloride of mer-
cury ; a colorless liquid, depositing crystals of oxy-
chloride of kadodule, when exposed to the atmo-
sphere.—Iodide, Bromide, and Fluoride of Ka-
dodule resemble the last, and  are  prepared in  a
similar manner.—Kadodylic Acid  (Alkargen)  is
obtained  when alkarsine is gradually exposed to
the  air, in the cold.  As soon as a semi-solid mass
is formed, it must be treated with cold water, the
solution evaporated till it solidifies, and then press-
ed  in bibulous paper, to remove hydrarsine;  the
residuum is dissolved in boiling  absolute  alcohol,
and is again obtained  in  crystals  as  the  liquid
cools ; by repeating the process several times with
alcohol, or by evaporating the aqueous solution in
a water-bath, and subsequent treatment with  hy-
drated peroxide of iron, and a final  crystallization
from  alcohol, pure  kadodylic  acid is obtained.
Brittle,  glossy,  prismatic crystals,  deliquescent,
inodorous, tasteless, and soluble  in water  and  al-
cohol.
  *** All the preparations of kadodule are exceed-
ingly poisonous, and therefore great  caution should
be  exercised in  experimenting on  them.   Even
very small quantities of their vapors cause vomit-
ing, numbness of the  extremities,  fainting, and
other alarming symptoms.  They all  evolve a most
offensive odor, and this property has led Bunsen to
propose  the following  test  for  arsenic and  the
acetates :—A metallic  sublimate boiled with water
containing air until dissolved, the solution mixed with
potash and acetic acid, evaporated to dryness, and
the  residuum heated in a test tube, vvl  evolve the
horrible odors of alkarsine,  if arsenic oe present.
This odor is rendered even more  offensive  by the
addition of protochloride of tin to the ignited mass.
As  a test for the acetates, the addition of potassa
and arsenic must be added. (Vide Turner's Chem.,
7th ed., and also the Researches of  Berzelius, and
the more recent  ones of Bunsen.)
  KALEIDOSCOPE.  (From xaXoj,pretty;
eiiot, form;  and axonta,  I  view.)    A pleasing,
philosophical toy, invented by Sir David Brewster,
which presents to the eye a series of symmetrical
changing views.  It is formed as follows:—Two
Blips  of  silvered glass, from  6 to 10 inches long,
and from an inch to an inch  and a half wide,  and
rather narrower at  one end than  the other, are
joined together  lengthwise, by one of their edges,
by  means of a piece of silk or cloth, glued on their
backs ;  they are then placed in  a  tube  (tin or
 pasteboard)  blackened inside, and  a little longer
 than is necessary to contain them,  and are fixed,
 by means of small pieces of cork, with their faces
 at any angle to each*bther, that is an even aliquot
 part of 4 right angles,  (as  the one-sixth,  one-
 eighth, one-tenth, &.c.)   The one end of  ihe tube
 is then closed  with an opaque  screen, or cover,
 through which a small eyehole is made in  the cen-
 tre, and the other end fitted, first with a  plate of
 common glass, and  at the distance of about 4 of
 an  inch, with  a plain  piece of  slightly  ground
 glass, parallel to the former ; in the  intermediate
 space or cell are placed  the objects to form  the
 images.   These consist of  colored pieces of glass,
 glass beads, or any other colored diaphonous bodies,
 sufficiently small to move freely in the cell,  and
 to assume new positions when the tube is shaken
 or turned round.  A tube  so prepared presents an
 infinite number of changing and symmetrical pic-
 tures, no one of which can be exactly reproduced.
 This toy is  easily  constructed, and is very inex-
 pensive ; as any common tube of tin or pasteboard
 may be used, and strips  of glass smoked on  one
 6ide  will  answer for  mirrors.  Kaleidoscopes  are
 commonly called flower-glasses.
   KERMES MINERAL.  Syn. Kermes Miner-
 als.  Prep. I.  Black sesquisulphuret of  antimo-
 ny 4 lbs.; carbonate of potash 1 lb.; boil in water
 2 gallons, for half an hour, filter, and cool slowly;
 the  kermes will be deposited as the solution cools,
 and must be washed with water and dried.   The
 undissolved portion of sesquisulphuret of antimony
 may be boiled again several times with fresh pot-
 ash  and water.  The liquor decanted off the kermes
 will yield the Golden Sulphuret  of Antimony,
 on the addition  of an acid; the acetic being gener-
 ally used for this purpose.
   II.  Sesquisulphuret of antimony  1 lb.;  carbon-
 ate  of potash 4  lb.;  flowers of sulphur 1 oz.; mix,
 melt, cool, powder,  boil in  water q.  s.; filter while
 hot; the kermes is  deposited as the liquid cools,
 and must be well washed with water.
   III.  (Cluzell's kermes.) Sulphuret of antimony
 4 parts ; crystallized carbonate of soda  90 parts ;
 water 1000 parts; boil for 30 to 45 minutes, filter
 while hot into a warm vessel, and cool very slow-
 ly ;  in 24 hours collect  the kermes, moderately
 wash with cold water, and dry at  70 or  80° F.,
 folded up in paper, to  exclude the air and  light.
   Remarks.  The first two formula?  yield an or-
 ange-red powder ; the third a very dark  crimson
 powder, of a smooth velvety appearance.   It is a
 hydrated  oxysulphuret  of antimony, (Gay Lus-
 sac  ;) a  hydrated  sesquisulphuret, (Berzelius.)
 Dose. 4 gr. to 4 grs. as a diaphoretic, cathartic, or
 emetic.   It occupies in  foreign practice the place
 of our James's Powder.
   KETCHUP.   Syn. Catsup.  Katciiup.  Prep.
 I.  (Camp  ketchup.)   Old strong beer 2 quarts;
 white wine 1 quart; anchovies 4 oz.; mix, boil for
 10 minutes,  remove it from the fire, and add of
 peeled shalotes 3 oz.;  rnace, nutmegs, ginger, and
 black pepper, of each  4 oz.; macerate for 14 days
 and bottle.
   II. (Cucumber ketchup.)   From  ripe  cucum-
 bers, in the same  way  as mushroom   ketchup
1 Mixed with cream,  or melted butter, it forms an
| excellent white sauce for fowls, &c.
|   III. (For sea stores.)   Stale strong beer 1  gal- 
KET                    387                    LAB
    Ion ;  anchovies  14  lbs.;  peeled  shalotes 1 lb.;
    bruised mace, mustard seed,  and cloves,  of each
    | oz.; bruised pepper and ginger,  of each \ oz.;
    mushroom ketchup and vinegar, of each 1 quart;
    heat to the boiling point, put it into a bottle, cork,
    and macerate  for 14 days,  frequently shaking;
    then strain through  flannel, and  bottle  for use.
    This, like the last, makes good white  sauce, and
    keeps well.
      IV. (Mushroom ketchup.)—a. Sprinkle mush-
    room flaps, gathered in September, with common
    salt, stir them  occasionally for 2  or 3 days,  then
    lightly squeeze out the juice,  and add to each gal-
    lon, bruised  cloves and mustard seed, of each 4
    oz.; bruised allspice, black pepper, and ginger, of
    each 1  oz.; gently heat to the boiling point in a
    covered vessel, macerate for  14 days, and strain ;
    should  it  exhibit any indications  of change in a
    few weeks, bring it again to the boiling point, with
    a little  more spice.—b. Mushroom juice 2 gallons ;
    pimento 2 oz.; cloves, black pepper, mustard seed,
    and ginger, of each,  bruised,  1 oz.; salt 1 lb., or to
    taste ; shalotes 3 oz.; gently simmer for 1 hour in
    a covered vessel, cool, strain, and bottle.—c. Juice
    100 gallons ; black pepper 9 lbs. ; allspice 7 lbs.;
    ginger  5 lbs.; cloves  1 lb. ;  salt  as required ;  all
    bruised ; gently  simmer in a  covered tin boiler for
    1 hour.   *m* A glazed earthenware, or well-tin-
    ned copper pan, should alone be used for heating
    this or any other ketchup in,  as the salt and juice
    rapidly corrode the copper, and render the ketchup
    poisonous.
      V.  (Oyster  ketchup.)   Pulp the fish, and to
    each pint add sherry wine, or very strong old ale,
    1 pint;  salt  1 oz.; mace $  oz.; black pepper 1 dr.;
    boil 10 minutes, strain, cool, bottle, and to  each
    bottle add a spoonful or two  of brandy.   Cockle
    Ketchup and Mussel Ketchup are made in the
    same way.  Used to  flavor sauces when  the  fish
    are  out of season.
      VI.  (Pontac  ketchup.)  Elderberry juice and
    strong vinegar,  of each 1 pint; anchovies 4 lb. ;
    shalote and spice to flavor;  boil  for 5 minutes, cool,
    strain, and bottle.  Used to make  fish  sauce.
      VII. (Tomato ketchup.)   Prepared like mush-
    room ketchup, except that a  little Chili vinegar is
    commonly added.
      VIII. (Walnut ketchup.)—a.  Expressed juice
    of young  walnuts, when  tender,  1 gallon; boil,
    skim, add anchovies  2 lbs.; shalotes 1 lb.; cloves
    and mace, of each 1  oz.; 1 clove of garlic, sliced;
    simmer in a covered  vessel  for 15 minutes, strain,
    cool, and bottle,  adding a little fresh spice  to each
    bottle, and salt "as required.  Will  keep in a cool
    place for 20 years.—6.  Green walnut shells 16 gal-
    lons ; salt 4 lbs.; mix, and beat together for a week,
    press out the liquor, and to every  gallon add all-
    spice 4 oz.;  ginger 3 oz.;  pepper  and cloves,  of
    each 2 oz.; all bruised; simmer for half an hour.—
    c. Walnut-juice  1 gallon ; vinegar  1 quart; Brit-
    ish anchovies (sprats)  3 or 4 lbs.; pimento 3 oz.;
<    ginger \  oz.; long pepper 4 oz.;  cloves  1  oz.;
'    shalotes 2 oz.; boil and bottle.-r-d. Juice of walnut
    shells 30 gallons; salt 1 bushel;  allspice and sha-
    lotes, of  each 6  lb3.; ginger, garlic, and horse-
    radish, of each 3  lbs.; essence of anchovies 3 gal-
    Ions ; simmer as  before.
     IX.  (Wine  ketchup.)   Mushroom  or  walnut
   ketchup  1 quart; chopped  anchovies |  lb.; 20 i
shalotes ; scraped horseradish 2 oz.; spice as usual;
simmer for 15 minutes;  cool,  add white and red
wine, of each 1 pint;  macerate for  1 week, strain
and bottle.
■  KINIC ACID.   Discovered  by Hoffman  in
cinchona bark, in 1790.  It may be obtained  from
kinate  of lime,  by the action  of dilute sulphuric
acid, filtration, and evaporation,  to the consistence
of a sirup, when  crystals  will be gradually deposit-
ed.   It is soluble in water  and alcohol, and forms
salts called Kinates.  Kinate of lime  is obtained
from an acidulated infusion of cinchona bark,  by
adding an excess of lime, filtering,  evaporating to
a sirup, and setting the liquid aside, when  crystals
will form.
  KING'S  YELLOW.   Syn. Hartal.  Sesqui-
sulphuret of Arsenic  A beautiful  golden  yel-
low pigment, prepared from orpiment by sublima-
tion.   The  finest kind is  imported from  China,
Japan,  and Burmah.  See Arsenic
  KINO, FACTITIOUS.  Logwood 48 lbs.; tor-
mentil root 16 lbs.; madder root 12 lbs.; water q. s.;
make  a decoction; add catechu 16 lbs.; dissolve,
strain,  and  evaporate to dryness.  Prod. 24 lbs.
Extract of  mahogany is also commonly  sold  for
kino.
  KIRCHWASSER.   Syn.   Kirschenwasser.
A spirituous  liquor  distilled  in Germany  from
bruised cherries.   From the rude manner in which
it is obtained, and from the distillation of the cher-
ry-stones (which  contain prussic acid) with the
liquor,  it usually has a very nauseous taste, and is
frequently poisonous.
  KffiCHLIN'S LIQUID.  Prep. Copper filings
96 grs.; liquor of  ammonia § ij ; digest till the li-
quor turns of a  full blue, filter,  add muriatic acid
3v 12  grs.;  distilled water  5 lbs.;  mix.   Dose. 1
to 2 teaspoonfuls daily in scrofula.
  KOMENIC ACID.   A peculiar acid  discov-
ered by Robiquet, and most  easily obtained  by
boiling  meconic  acid with  strong  muriatic  acid.
It forms crystalline grains, and strikes a blood-red
color with the persalts of iron.   With  the basis it
forms salts called Komenates.
  KOUMISS. A liquor prepared by the Calmucs,
by fermenting mare's milk, previously kept  till
sour,  and then skimmed.   By distillation it yields
a spirit called rack, racky,  or  araka; 21 lbs.  of
fermented milk  yield about | of  a pint  of  low
wines, and this,  by rectification, fully \ of a pint
of strong alcohol.
  KRAMERIC  ACID.   A  peculiar substance
found by M. Peschier, of Geneva, in rhatany  root,
(Krameria triandria,) and to which  he ascribes its
stypticity.
  KUSTITIEN'S METAL.  Prep. Malleable
iron 1 lb.; heat to whiteness, and add of  antimo-
ny 5 oz.; Molucca tin 24  lbs.;  mix under char-
coal, and cool.  Used  to tin iron and other metals ;
it polishes without a blue tint, is hard, and is free
from lead and arsenic.
   LABDANUM,  FACTITIOUS.   Prep.  I.
Gums  anime, copal, lac, and mastich, of  each 2
lbs.; gum  arabic  3 lbs.;  catechu and common
Spanish juice, of  each 1 lb.; sirup of tolu  8 oz.;
essences  of ambergris  and musk, of  each 2 oz.
melt together. 
LAC                     388                    LAC
  II. Yellow  wax, rosin,  and lard, equal parts ;
melt, and color with powdered ivory black.
  LABELS,  INSOLUBLE.   Lay  a coat  of
strained white of egg  over the  label,  and imme-
diately put the vessel into the upper portion of a
common steampan, or otherwise  expose it  to  a
gentle heat till the  albumen coagulates and turns
opaque, then take it out and dry it in an oven, at
a heat of about 212° ; the opaque white film will
then become hard and transparent, and resist the
action of oils,  spirits, and water. (Chem., iii.  158.)
The labels on  bottles  containing acids  or alkaline
solutions, should be either  etched upon  the  glass
by fluoric acid, or be written with incorrodible ink.
(See  Inks and Etching.)
  LABORATORY.   Syn.  Elaboratory.  La-
boratoire, (Fr.)   Laboratorium, (Lat.,  from
laboro, I labor.)   A place fitted  up for the per-
formance of chemical  operations.   It was  our in-
tention to have described the best mode of fitting
up a  chemical and a  pharmaceutical  laboratory,
both on the small and large scale, and also to have
presented the reader with a copper-plate engraving
of the laboratory of Gicssen, but  from want  of
room we are  compelled to withdraw the article
and  illustrations.  We must therefore content our-
selves with recommending the  reader  to  consult
the last edition of Faraday's " Chemical Manip-
ulation," a work replete with correct and valuable
information.   Among Portable   Laboratories,
the  cheapest and best  arranged are those of Mr.
Robert Best Ede, of Dorking, which may be pur-
chased at  prices  varying from  16s. to  £6  or £8.
That at the former price  contains more than  40
chemical preparations  and appropriate apparatus,
and is well adapted to amuse the  juvenile  experi-
mental^   and at the  same time to afford him a
ready intio'uction  to  chemical  knowledge.  The
chemical laboratory, or portable chemical cabinet,
at the higher price, contains upwards of 130 select
chemical preparations and  newly-invented appa-
ratus, and  is calculated for  performing experiments
both of demonstration and research, with  perfect
readiness and safety, either in the drawing-room
or class-room.  It is also very elegantly and com-
pactly got up, and forms a suitable object for the
side-table of every student.  This  cabinet  has re-
ceived the approval of Prof. Graham, which is no
ordiuary recommendation.
   LAC.   Syn.  Laque, (Fr.) Lack, (Ger.)  Lac-
ca, (Lat.)  Stick lac, (lacca in ramulis, lacca in
baculis;)  seed lac,  (lacca in  granis, lacca in
seminis;)  lump lac, (lacca in massis;) shell lac,
(lacca in tabulis.)   All  the preceding differ only
in color and  form.  Shell lac  is most  generally
used ; the palest  is  the best. They are all said to
be  calefacient,  attenuaut, aperient, diaphoretic,
and  diuretic.   Lac  is used in dentifrices, in var-
nishes, lacquers, and  sealing-wax, and to make
toys  and trinkets.
   LAC  DYE.   A coloring substance used to dye
scarlet,  imported from the East  Indies in  small
cubical cakes.  It is prepared by digesting ground
stick lac in water, and evaporating the colored in-
fusion to dryness.
   LAC  LAKE.  Syn.  Lac  Color.   East In-
dian Cochineal.   A superior  kind of lac dye,
also  imported, and prepared by dissolving  out the
color of ground sri':k  lac by means of a weak al-
kaline solution,  and then precipitating it  along
with  alumina by adding a solution jf alum.  Ei-
ther of the above dissolved in an equal woight of
muriatic arid, (sp. gr.  1*19, and holding in solu-
tion about -1,, of grain  tin,) by digestion  for about
6 hours, and then added to hot water, along with
about as much  tartar as lac dye, 4 that quantity
of ground sumach, and about J of solution  of tin,
dyes cloth of a brilliant scarlet color ;  1 lb. of good
lac dye is sufficient for 10 lbs. of cloth.  In some
cases the stuff is first yellowed with quercitron.
  LAC VARNISH, (AQUEOUS.)   Prep. Pale
shellac  5  oz.; borax 1 oz.;  water 1 pint;  digest
at nearly the boiling  point until dissolved; then
strain.  Equal to the more costly spirit varnish for
many purposes; it is an excellent vehicle for wa-
ter colors, inks, &c.; when dry  it is waterproof.
  LAC, WHITE.  Dissolve shellac in a  lye of
pearlash or caustic potassa by boiling ; filter, pass
chlorine through it in excess, wash the precipitats
and digest.  P'orms an excellent pale varnish with
alcohol.
  LAC FERRATUM.  Prep. (P.E. 1744.)  Re-
peatedly quench red hot iron in  fresh milk.
  LACCIC  ACID.   A  crystalline,  wine-yellow
colored, sour substance, soluble  in water, alcohol,
and  ether, extracted by Dr.  John from  stick lac.
It forms salts called  Laccates with the bases.
  LACCINE.  A substance discovered in shellac
by  Unverdorben.  It is  the  portion  left after all
the matters soluble  in water, ether,  and alcohol,
have  been dissolved  out.   Brittle, yellow, translu-
cent, soluble in caustic  potassa and in sulphuric
acid.
  LACQUER.   Syn.  Lacker.  Laque,  (Fr.)
A solution  chiefly  of shellac  in alcohol,  tinged
with  saffron,  annotto,  aloes, and  other coloring
matters.  It is applied to wood and metals to im-
part a golden color.  (See Varnish.)
  LACTIC  ACID.  (From  lac,  milk.)   Syn.
Acid  of  Milk.   Nanceic  Acid,  (Braconnot)
Acid Lactique, (Fr.)  Milchsaure, (Ger.) Aci-
dum  Lacticum, (Lat.)  A sour sirupy liquid dis-
covered by Scheele in whey.   Also found in some
other animal fluids, and in several vegetable juices,
especially in that of beet-root
  Prep. I.  Dissolve lactate  of baryta in  water,
and  precipitate  the  baryta  with dilute sulphurio
acid,  carefully avoiding excess;  evaporate.
   II. (Scheele.)  Evaporate sour whey to J, satu-
rate with slaked lime, filter, add 3 or 4 times the
quantity of  water, cautiously precipitate the  lime
with  oxalic acid, filter, and  evaporate to dryness
in a  water-bath ; digest  the residuum in strong
alcohol, filter, and  again  evaporate.   It may be
then  further  purified  by saturation  with  baryta,
evaporation, crystallization,  re-solution in  water,
and the careful addition of dilute sulphuric acid
as before ;  lastly evaporate.
   III. (Boutron and Fremy.) Milk 3 or 4 quarts;
sugar of milk 200 to 300 grs.; mix, and  expose
for 2 or 3 days in an open vessel at 20 to 25° C.;
saturate with bicarbonate of soda, again expose at
a moderate temperature,  saturate with more bi-
carbonate  of soda,  and repeat  the  process  until
the whole of the sugar of milk be  decomposed;
then  coagulate the  caseine by heat,  filter, evapo-
rate, extract the acid lactate of soda by  alcohol
of sp gr. 0*810, and decompose it by the cautious 
LAC
389
LAK
 addition of dilute sulphuric acid ;  again  filter, dis-
 til off the alcohol, and evaporate.  The acid may
 be further purified as last, if required.
    Remarks.  The evaporation should be conducted
 at a very gentle heat, and finished over sulphuric
 acid, or in vacuo.   When required very pure, the
 product of this evaporation  may be dissolved  in
 ether, filtered, and  the  ether removed  by a very
 gentle heat.
    Prop.  The sirupy fluid obtained  as  above,  is
 hydrated,lactic acid;  it is a little heavier than
 water, tastes strongly acid, attracts moisture from
 the air, and is decomposed at a heat of 480°, with
 the production of concrete  or  sublimed lactic
 acid, which  consists  of small shining white crys-
 tals, possessing different  properties to lactic acid.
 This  new  acid  may be  purified  by pressure be-
 tween bibulous paper and solution in boiling alco-
 hol,  from which it separates in dazzling white
 crystals on cooling.  By solution in hot water and
 evaporation to a sirup, it becomes converted  into
 pure hydrated lactic acid.   With the bases lactic
 acid forms salts  called Lactates, most of which
 may be directly formed by the solution of the hy-
 drates, hydrated oxides, or carbonates of the bases
 in the dilute  acid.   Lactates of ammonia potas-
 sa, soda,  lime,  baryta, alumina,  zinc, nickel,
 lead, mercury, magnesia, iron, copper, silver,
 and  of some other bases, have been formed, but
 only  those of iron and  zinc have  been used  in
 medicine.
    Uses.  Lactic  acid  has been given  in dyspepsia,
 in gout, phosphatic  urinary deposites,  &c.  &c.
 From its being one  of the natural constituents of
 the gastric juice, and *!vm its power of  dissolving
 a considerable  quantity  of phosphate of lime,  it
 appears very probable that it may prove  beneficial
 in the above complaints.  It is  usually exhibited
 in the form of lozenges  or solution  in  sweetened
 water.
   LACTOMETER.   Syn.   Galactometer.
 (From lac or yaXa, milk, and metrum or utrpov, a
 measure.)  An  instrument  for  ascertaining  the
 quality of milk.   The best way of testing  milk  is
 to place it in  a  rng graduated tube, and to allow
 it to remain  urn,! all the cream has  separated,
 then to  decant off the  clear whey,  and to take
 its specific  gravity;  the  result of the two opera-
 tions, when compared with the known quantity of
 cream and density of the whey of an  average
 sample of milk, will give the value of the sample
 tested.
   LACTUCARIUM.    Syn.  Lettuce Opium.
 Thridace.   The inspissated milky  juice  of the
 lactuca sativa or common garden lettuce, obtained
 by incision from  the flowering stems,  ft was in-
 troduced into medical use by Dr. Duncan of Edin-
 burgh as a substitute for opium, as it  exercises the
 anodyne  power without  producing the  injurious
 effects of  the  latter  drug.   Various methods have
 been recommended for obtaining /actucarium from
 the plant.  M. Auberger has proposed  the cultiva-
 tion of the lactuca altissima for this  purpose.
 This variety grows  to  the height of upwards of 9
 feet, with a stalk 14 inches in diameter, and af-
 fords  plenty of juice, which yields 28 or 29$  of
 dry matter, (lactucarium.)  M. Arnaud of Nancy
recommends cabbage or Batavian lettuces for the
production of lactucarium.  He adopts the follow-
 ing method, which appears to be the most produc-
 tive and simple of any yet published:—Before the
 development of the lateral branches, the stems of
 twelve plants must be cut a little below the com-
 mencement of these branches; the twelve plants
 being cut, and returning to the first, a milky exu-
 dation is found  on the cut portion, and  on that
 which remains fixed in the earth ;  this milky exu-
 dation must be  adroitly collected  with the end of
 the  finger,  which is afterwards  scraped  on  the
 edge of a small  glass; the same operation is per-
 formed on twelve other heads, and so on.  On the
 third day it is repeated on every  portion of plant
 remaining  in the  ground, a  thin  slice being first
 cut  off the  top: this is done every day until  the
 root is reached.   As soon as the  lactucarium is
 collected, it coagulates;  the  harvest of each day
 should  be divided into small pieces, which should
 be  placed  on plates, very  near each other,  but
 without touching, and allowed to dry for two days,
 after which they may be set  aside in a bottle.  In
 this way 15 or  20 times the ordinary product is
 obtained.  (Jour, de  Pharm. et  de  Chim., and
 Chem., iii. 360.)
   Dose. 2 to 5  grs.  and upwards, as an anodyne,
 hypnotic, antispasmodic, and sedative, in chronic
 rheumatism, colic, diarrhoea,  asthma, troublesome
 coughs, &c.
   LACTUCIC  ACID. Obtained  from the strong-
 scented lettuce,  (Lactuca virosa.)   It resembles
 oxalic acid,  but differs from it in precipitating the
 protosalts of iron green,  and sulphate of copper
 brown.
   LACTUCIN.   The active principle of lactuca-
 rium.  It exists in the juice of several species of
 lettuce.  It  is dissolved out of lactucarium  by  al-
 cohol.  It is scarcely soluble in water, has a saffron-
 yellow color, is  almost odorless, very  bitter, and
 combustible.
   LAENNEC'S  CONTRA-STIMULANT
 DRAUGHT.  Prep.   Potussio-tartrate  of anti-
 mony 2  grs.; orange water f ^iss  ; sirup  of pop-
 pies f3ij ; mix. Evert two hours in pneumonia, &c.
   LAKE.   Animal or vegetable coloring  matter,
 precipitated  in combination  with oxide of tin or
 alumina ; usually the latter.  The term was for-
 merly restricted to red preparations of this kind,
 but  is  now  indiscriminately applied to all com-
 pounds of alumina and coloring matter.   Lakes
 are made—1, By adding a solution of alum, either
 atone or saturated with potash, to  an infusion or
 decoction of  the coloring substance, and after agi-
 tation, precipitating the mixture with a solution of
 carbonate of potash.—2, By precipitating a decoc-
 tion  or infusion  of the coloring  substance made
 with a weak alkaline lye, by adding a solution of
 alum—3, By agitating recently-precipitated alu-
 mina with a solution of the coloring matter, until
 the liquid becomes nearly decolored, or the alumi-
 na  acquires  a sufficiently dark  tint.  The first
 method is usually employed for acidulous solutions
 of coloring matter, or for those whose tint is injured
 by alkalis ; the second,  for those  that are  bright-
 ened, or at least uninjured  by  alkalis ; the third,
for those coloring matters that  have  a great affinity
for gelatinous alumina, and readily combine with
it by mere agitation.  By attention  to  these gen-
eral rules, lakes may be prepared  from almost all
animal and vegetable coloring substances that yield 
LAK                     390                   LAK
their color to watei ;  many of which will be found
to possess great  beauty  and permanence.   The
precise process adapted to each particular substance
may be easily ascertained, by taking a  few drops
of its infusion or decoction, and observing the ef-
fects of alkalis and acids on the color.  The quan-
tity of alum or alumina employed, should be nearly
sufficient to decolor the dye liquor, and the potash
should be so  proportioned to the  alum as exactly
to precipitate it, without leaving free or carbonated
alkali in the liquid.  The first portion of the  pre-
cipitate has the deepest color, and the shade gradu-
ally becomes paler.  A beautiful  tone  of violet,
red, and even purple, may be communicated to the
coloring  matter of cochineal  by  the  addition  of
nitro-muriate or permuriate of tin ;  the addition of
arseniate of potash (neutral arsenical salt) in like
manner, gives shades which may be sought for in
vain with alum or alumina.  Lake should bo care-
fully dried, and when  intended  fot  sale, made up
into conical or pyramidal drops,  which is done  by
dropping the moist lake through a small funnel on
a clean board.
   LAKE,  BLUE.   Prepared  from some of the
blue-colored flowers ; fugitive.   The name is also
applied to lump  archel, (lacca coerulea,) to moist
alumina colored  with indigo, and to mixed solu-
tions of pearlash and prussiate of potash, precipi-
tated with another solution of sulphate of iron and
alum;  permanent and  beautiful.   (See  Blue,
Saxon.)
   LAKE, BRAZIL WOOD.  Syn. Drop Lake.
Lacca in Globulis. Prep. I.  Ground  Brazil wood
1  lb.; water 4 gals.; boil  for 20 minutes ; add 14
lbs. of alum dissolved in water ; mix well, decant,
strain, add 4 lb. of solution of tin to brighten the
color, and then precipitate with a solution of pot-
ash or carbonate of soda, carefully avoiding excess.
Product.  Deep red.   An excess of alkali turns it
on the violet, and the addition of cream of tartar,
on the brownish  red.   The tint turns more on the
mellow violet red when the solution of tin is omit-
ted.  Some persons use less, aime more alum.  The
first portion of the precipitated lake has the bright-
est color.
   II.  Add washed and  recently-precipitated  alu-
mina to  a strong and  filtered decoctVin of Brazil
wood. Both the above must be carefully collected,
dried, and made up into drops.
   LAKE,  CARMINATED.  Syn.   Florence
Lake.   Florentine do.  Paris  do.  Vienna  i>o.
Lacca Florentina.   Prep. I.  Boil the residuum
of cochineal, left in making carmine, with repeat-
 ed portions of water  till n\ ceases to  yield color ;
 filter ; mix it with the liquor decanted off the car-
 mine ; filter ; add some recently-precipitated alu-
 mina, apply a  gentle heat, and agitate well.   As
 soon as  the alumina has absorbed  sufficient color,
 allow the mixture to settle ; decant the clear liquid,
 collect  the lake on  a filter, and carefully dry it.
 The decanted liquor, if still colored, may now be
 treated  with fresh  alumina until exhausted, and
 thus a lake of a see.id quality may be obtained.
 Very fine.
    II. To the colored liquor obtained from the car-
 mine and cochineal as above, add a solution of alum,
 mix  well, filter, and precipitate with a solution of
 potash ; collect the lake and dry it as before.  Not
 quite so good as the  last.
  Remarks.  Some makers add a little solution of
tin to the colored liquor before adding the alum or
alumina; this brightens  the color.   The above
lake is a good glazing color with oil, but has little
body.
  LAKE, GREEN.   Made by mixing bin- and
yellow lakes  together.   Seldom used.
  LAKE, MADDER.   Syn. Lacca Con. m bin a.
Prep.  I.  (Sir H.  C.  Inglefield.)  Dutch grappe
or crop madder 2 cz.;  tie  it up in a cloth, beat it
well in a pint of water in  a stone mortar, and re-
peat the process with fresh water (about 5 pints)
till it ceases to yield color ; boil the  mixed  liquors
in an  earthen vessel, pour it into a  large  basin ;
add  alum 1 oz.;  dissolve   in boiling water 1 pint;
stir well, and while stirring pour in  gradually of
saturated solution of carbonate  of potash  (oil  of
tartar)  about 14 oz.;  let  it stand to settle until
cold, then pour off the  supernatant  yellow liquor,
drain,  agitate  the residue with  boiling water 1
quart; decant, drain,  and dry.  Product,  4 oz.
The Society  of Arts voted their gold  medal to the
author of the above formula.
  II.  (Ure.)  Ground madder 2 lbs.; water 1
gallon ; mix, macerate with agitation for 10 min-
utes, strain off the water,  and press the remainder
quite dry ; repeat the same process a second and
a third lime ; then add water 3 qts., and alum 4
lb., arid heat  in a water-bath for 3 or 4 hours, add-
ing  water as the  liquor   evaporates;  filter, first
through  a flannel, and   when  sufficiently cold,
through paper ;  then add a solution of  carbonate
of potash as long as a precipitate falls, which must
be washed, till the water  comes off colorless, and
then dried.   If the alkali  be added in 3 successive
doses, 3 different lakes will be obtained, successively
diminishing in beauty.
  III. Add acetate of lead to a decoction of mad-
der, to throw down the brown coloring matter, fil-
ter, then add a solution of tin  or alum, and pre-
cipitate with a solution  of carbonate of soda or
potash.
  LAKE, ORANGE.   Prep.  Best Spanish an
notto 4 oz.;  pearlash lib.  or less ; water 1 gallon;
boil for half an hour, strain, precipitate with alum
14  lbs., dissolved in water 1 gallon, observing not
to add the latter 'solution  when it ceases to pro-
duce an effervescence  or a precipitate ; strain, and
dry the sediment in small  squares or lozenges. The
addition of solution of tin  turns  this lake  on the
lemon yellow; acids redden it.
  LAKE, RED.   Prep. I.  Coarsely-powdered
cochineal 1 oz.;  water and rectified spirit of wine,
of *--*ich  2  oz.; digest  for  a week, filter, and pre-
cipitate with  a few drops  of solution of tin, added
every (4 hours, till the  whole of the color is thrown
down; wbsh in distilled  water, and dry.   Very-
fine.
   II.  Coarsely-powdered cochineal 1 lb.; water 2
gallons ; boil 1 hour, decant, strain, add a solution
of  pearlash  1 lb. or more, and  precipitate with a
solution of alum.   If the alum be added first, and
the lake precipitated with the alkali, the color will
be slightly varied.   Some persons use a solution of
cuttlefish-bone in muriatic or nitric acid ;  but this
increases the expense, and yields an inferior pro-
duct.
   III. Pearlash  1 lb.;  clean  shreds  of scarlet
cloth  3 or 4 lbs.; water 4 or 5 gallons;  boil til! 
LAU                    391                    LEA
the cloth is decolored, filter, and precipitate with a
solution of alum.
  LAKE, YELLOW.   Prep.  Boil French ber-
ries, quercitron, or turmeric 1 lb. and potash 1 oz.;
in water 1 gallon, till reduced to one half, strain,
and precipitate with a solution of alum.—Or boil
1 lb. of the dye-stuff with  alum 4 lb.;  water 1
gallon, as before, and precipitate with a solution of
carbonate of potash.   (See Lake, Orange.)
   LAMPIC ACID.  When the  wick of a spirit-
lamp is surrounded with  a spiral  coil of platinum
wire, and after burning  for a short time, is blown
out, combustion still  goes on, and a peculiar acid
product  results, which  has  been  called lampic
acid.   It was first examined by Prof. Daniell.  It
may be more  easily collected by placing a  small
bottomless retort over a  heated platinum capsule,
and  gradually dropping in,  from time to time, a
little  alcohol or ether.   (R.  F.  Marchand.)   It
consists of  a mixture of acetic, formic, and  alde-
hydic  acids, in variable  proportions.   (MM. Stass
and Marchand.)   Its most remarkable property is
its power of  reducing certain  metallic solutions.
With  the  bases  it  forms salts  called lampates,
which may be  prepared by  saturating  the acid
with  the hydrated  oxides or carbonates.    (See
Aldehydic Acid.)
   LAMPS.  To prevent or lessen the smoking of
lamps, the^wicks should be well  soaked, either in
dilute  muriatic  acid, well washed in water, and
dried,  or in strong vinegar, when they will merely
require drying.    Large lamps,  that emit  much
smoke, should be burnt  under a funnel, to carry it
off;  or a large sponge,  dipped in water, may be
suspended  over  them ; in  all  cases, the  wicks
should not  be put up too high.
   LANTANIUM,  (from Xavdavu,  I lurk.)  A
rare  metal, recently discovered by  Mosander,
associated with the oxide of cerium. (See Cerium.)
   LAPIS  DIVINUS.   Syn.  Lapis ophthalmi-
cus.  Prep.   Blue vitriol, nitre,  alum, and cam-
phor,  equal parts, melted  together, adding the
camphor last.  (Woolfuss.)   Verdigris, nitre, and
alum, equal parts, melted together.  (Beer.) Alum,
nitre,  and  blue vitriol  3 oz.; camphor  1 dr. ; as
last.   (P. Cod.)   Used  to make  an eyewater ;  1
oz. to  water 1 pint.
   LAPIS  MEDICAMENTOSA.  Prep.  (P.
L. 1746.)  Alum,  litharge,  Armenian bole, and
colcothur, of each 3 oz.; vinegar 4 oz. ; mix and
evaporate.   Used to make a lotion : 1 oz. to water
1  pint.  Astringent, detergent;  once a popular
application to ulcers.
   LARD.   Syn.  Hogs' Lard.  Auxunge.  Aux-
ungia.  Adeps.   Adeps Suillus.  Adeps Porci.
Adeps praparatus.  The fat of the pig, melted
by a gentle heat, and  strained through a hair
sieve  or  flannel.   The  fat about the  loins yields
the whitest and hardest lard.  Used to make oint-
ments, and in cookery.
   LARD,  OXYGENATED.   See Nitric Acid
Ointment.
   LAUDANUM, QUINCE.  Syn.  Extractum
Opii sku Laudanum  Cydoniatum.   Prep. Opium
4 lb.; quince juice 6 lbs. ; digest, filter, evaporate
to an extract, and add  **hile warm, oils of cinna-
mon, cloves, and mace  of each 10 drops.  Milder
than crude opium ; seldom used.
  LAUDANUM, FORD'S.  Prep.   Opium £j;
cinnamon and  cloves, of each 3j ; rectified ppirit
of wine  and water, of each, ^viij ;  digest for  a
week, and  filter.   This  is merely an aromatized
tincture of opium.  Dose. 10 to 80 drops.
  LAUDANUM, LIQUID.   Prep.  1. (Liquid
quince laudanum.  Laudanum liquidum  cydo-
niatum.  Laudanum liquidum cydoniatum para-
tum fermentatione.)  Opium  §iv ;  saffron ^ij ;
quince juice 1 quart; yeast 4 spoonfuls ; ferment,
express the  liquor, filter, and add cinnamon §ij ;
cloves, aloes wood, and  yellow sandal wood,  oi
each, 3ij  ; digest for 14 days, filter, and evaporate
to one half.   Narcotic, anodyne ; similar to black
drop.  Dose. 10 to 30 drops.  Seldom used.
  2. (Neuman's.)  Opium fermented with water,
and evaporated  to  the  consistence  of  honey.
Similar to the aqueous extract of opium.
  3. (Sydenham's.  Laudanum liquidum Syden-
hami.)  Opium ?ij ;  saffron |j ; cinnamon and
cloves, of each,  3j ;  white wine  f§xvj ; digest
Contains J  of  opium.   See Wine of  Opium,  P.
L.,  which is always substituted.
  4. (Laudanum tartarized. Laudanum liquidum
tartarizatum.)   Opium f ij ; saffron Jj; cinnamon,
cloves, mace, nutmegs,  and aloes wood, of each,
3j ; tincture of salt of tartar f^xxxij ; digest, strain,
and evaporate to one half.  Seldom used.
  LAVENDER,  SMITH'S  BRITISH.  Syn.
Smith's Lavender Water.  Prep.  English oil  of
lavender 2  oz.;  essence  of ambergris 1 oz.; eau
de Cologne  1 pint; rectified spirit 1 quart; mix.
Very fragrant.
  LEAD.   Syn.  Plomb,  (Fr.)  Blei,  (Ger.)
Plumbum,  (Lat.)  /i<5Ai/3io?, (Gr.) Saturn,  (Ale.)
This  metal, like gold, silver, and iron, appears  to
have been known  in the most remote ages of an-
tiquity : " Oh that my words were  now written !
Oh that  they were printed in a book ; that they
were graven with an iron pen  and lead in the
rock for ever !"   (Job, xix. 23-4.)
  Prep.   Lead is only prepared on the large scale.
It is usually extracted from galena, a natural sul-
phuret of lead, by roasting the ore in a reverbera-
tory furnace, and afterwards  smelting it along
with coal and lime.
  Prop.   The  common  properties of lead are too
well known to require  notice.  Its  sp. gr., in  a
state of absolute purity,  is 11-38 to 1144, but or-
dinary lead  seldom exceeds 11-352 to 11-353.   It
melts at  612° Fahr.,(Crighton,  634°  Kupfer,) and
when very  slowly cooled, crystallizes  in octohe-
drons.  It is malleable  and ductile, but devoid  of
elasticity.   Lead is not dissolved by muriatic, sul-
phuric, or the vegetable acids, unless by free con-
tact with air,  and then very  slowly ; but nitric
acid rapidly oxidizes it, forming a solution of nitrate
of lead.   Pure water, put into a leaden vessel,
and exposed to the air, soon corrodes  it, and dis-
solves the  newly-formed oxide; but  river and
spring water exerts no such influence, the carbon-
ates and sulphates in such water destroying  its
solvent power.   Many other neutral salts act   in
the same way.   Among  these, the most powerful
preservatives are the phosphates, sulphates, chlo-
rides, and iodides ; their power being in proportion
to the relative insolubility of the compound which
their acid is capable of forming  with  lead.   It has
been  found  that  l-30,000th part  of phosphate
of soda  or  iodide of potassium,  dissolved  in dis- 
LEA                     392                   LEA
tilled water, prevents its corrosive action.  (Chris-
tison.)   The lead  in  contact with such water,
gradually becomes  covered with a superficial film
of  an  insoluble  salt of lead, which  adheres te-
naciously, and  all  further clnro-e ceases.  Thus
ordinary water, which  abounds m  mineral suits,
may be safely  kept in  leaden cistern* ; but dis-
tilled and rain water, and  water that contains
scarcely any saline matter, speedily corrode, and
dissolve a portion of lead, when kept in vessels of
that  metal.   When,  however, leaden  cisterns
have iron or zinc fastenings or braces, a galvanic
action  is set up, the preservative power of saline
matter  ceases,  and the water speedily becomes
contaminated with  lead.  Water containing free
carbonic acid*«also  acts on lead ;  and this is the
reason  why the water of some springs, kept  in
leaden cisterns, or  raised by leaden  pumps, pos-
sesses  unwholesome  properties.   Free  carbonic
acid is evolved  during the  fermentation  or decay
of vegetable  matter, and hence the  propriety of
preventing the  leaves of trees falling into water-
cisterns formed  of lead.   The neglect of this pre-
caution gave rise to the  violent ravages of colic
that are recorded to have visited Amsterdam about
the middle of the last century.  (Dr.  Frouchin.)
The eau  de  rose and the eau d'orange of com-
merce, which are pure  distilled water,  holding in
solution small quantities of essential oil, and  are
imported  in  leaden canisters, always  contain  a
small quantity  of lead, and deposite a sediment,
which  is not the case when they are kept in glass
or incorrodible vessels.   Lead and  all its prepara-
tions are poisonous.
   Uses.   The  uses of  lead in the arts are  well
Known.  Some of  its preparations are employed
in medicine, generally externally.
   Ant.  Administer an emetic of sulphate of zinc
or copper, and  tickle the fauces with the finger or
a feather to induce vomiting.   Epsom or glauber
sa^'.s, or alum, dissolved  in water, tea, water gruel,
01  barley  water, are  the proper  antidotes, and
should be taken as soon after the poison has been
swallowed as possible.   When the symptoms are
those of  lead colic, the treatment  recommended
at  page 206 should be  adopted.  In  paralysis
arising from lead, small doses of strychnia, brucia,
and their preparations, should be  cautiously ad-
ministered.  A symptom  of  poisoning by lead  is
the formation of a  narrow leaden blue line, about
one-twentieth  of  an inch thick,  bordering  the
edges of the gums,  attached to the neck of two or
more teeth of either jaw.   (Dr. Burton.)
   Tests.  1. The salts of lead placed  on charcoal
all yield, by the blowpipe, a butter of lead.—2.  So-
lutions of the salts of lead may be recognised by the
color of the precipitates produced by the following
tests:—o. Alkalis, alkaline carbonates,  sulphatee,
prussiate  of potash, infusion of galls, gallic  acid,
and sulphuric  acid, produce  white precipitates.—
6. Chromate of potash, and iodide of potassium,
yellow  precipitates.—c.  Hydrosulphates, sulphu-
rets, and sulphureted hydrogen, black precipitates.
—d. A piece of polished zinc precipitates metallic
lead in  an arborescent form, hence  called  the
" leaden  tree."  *** A solid supposed  to contain
lead should be dissolved in, or treated with nitric
acid, evaporated  to dryness,  and redissolved  in
water,  when it may  be  tested as above.   The
susceptibility of sulphureted hydrogen as a tesl
for lead ceases when the dilution reaches 500,000
times,—chromate of potash at  100,000  times,—
carbonates of soda and  potassa at  60,000 times,
—potassa at 20,000 times,—prussiate of potash
at 18,000 times,—iodide of potassium at 10,000
times,—and  sulphate  of  soda  at  5000  times.
(Devergie, MeU  Leg. ii. 779.)   (See Ores.)
   LEAD, ACETATE.  Syn.  Neutral Ace-
tate  of  Lead.   Sugar of Lead.   Acetated
Ceruse.  Superacetate of Lead.   Acetate df.
Plomb ;  Sel de Saturne,  (Fr.)   Essigsaures
Bleioxyd ;  Bleizucker, (Ger.)  Saccuarum Sa-
turni, (P.  L. 1720.)   Cerussa  Acetata, (P. L.
17c-.*--.)  Plumbi Superacetas, (P. L.  Ib09.) Plum-
bi Saccharum.   Plumbi Acetis.   Plumbi Ace-
tas, (P.  L. E. and D.)  Prep.  (P.  L)  Oxide of
lead in powder (litharge) lb.  iv ^'j ! acetic acid and
distilled water, of each 4 pints ; mix the fluids, add
the oxide, dissolve by a gentle heat,  strain, evapo-
rate,  and crystallize.   The  Edinburgh  form is
similar.
   II.  (P. D.)  Carbonate of lead 1  part; distilled
vinegar 10 parts ; as last.
   Prop.,  Use,  fyc. Acetate of lead  should be
completely soluble in  distilled water,  and when
the lead is  exactly  precipitated with dilute  sul-
phuric acid,  or by sulphureted hydrogen, the clear
supernatant  liquid should be wholly volatilized by
heat without residue.  Sulphuric  acid poured on
acetate of lead evolves acetic  vapors. (P.  L.)   Its
tests have been already noticed.  Acetate of  lead
is  powerfully  astringent.  Dose. 4  gr. to 2  grs.,
(Collier;) 1 or 2 grs. to 8 or  10 grs., twice or
thrice a day, (Pereira;)  3 grs. to 10 grs. every 6
or 8 hours.   (A.  T. Thomson.)  In  pulmonary,
uterine,  and intestinal  haemorrhage,  colliquative
diarrhoea, and phthisical sweats.   It  is usually
combined with morphia or  opium, or with  acetic
acid,  to  prevent it passing into the state of the
poisonous carbonate in the 6tomach.   Externally,
as a  collyrium,  10 grs. to  water 8  oz., (A. T.
Thomson,) as a  lotion 20 grs.,  (A.  T. Thomson,)
3j (Collier)  to water 8 oz.; as  an  injection 40
grs. to rose water 8 oz.   The lotion is cooling, and
is  common^  used in excoriations,  &c.  Acetate
of lead is employed in calico printing.
   Remarks.  Acetate of lead is  usually prepared
on the  large  scale by gradually sprinkling oxide
of lead into  strong vinegar,  heated in a copper
boiler rendered negative-electric by having a large
flat piece of lead soldered within it, constant  stir-
ring  being employed until the  acid is saturated,
when the mother liquors of  a former process may
be added, the whole heated to  the  boiling point,
allowed to settle till  cold, decanted,  evaporated to
about the sp. gr. 1*266 or 1*267, and then run into
salt-glazed stoneware vessels to crystallize.   The
best  proportions  are, finely powdered litharge 13
parts, and acetic acid sp. gr. 1*0482 to 1*0484, 23
parts.   These ingredients  should  produce about
384 parts of crystallized sugar of  lead.   A  very
slight  excess  of  acid should  be preserved  in the
liquid  during  the boiling and  crystallization, to
prevent the formation of any  basic acetate, which
would impede the formation of regular crystals.
   Subacetate of Lead, (Trisacetate of  Lead,
 Tersubacetate of Lead, Diacetate of Lead,) is
formed when a cold saturated solution of neutral 
LEA                    393                    LEA
acetate of lead is mixed with  one-tenth of its
volume of liquor of ammonia, and set aside ; anhy-
drous crystalline needles are deposited.  A solution
of this salt  is formed when a solution of the neutral
acetate is digested on finely powdered litharge, till
the undissolved oxide turns white.   By evapora-
tion out of contact with air, small crystals may be
obtained.   Goulard's extract,  and  the  liquor  of
diacetate of lead of the pharmacopoeia, are solu-
tions of this salt.
  Sesquibasic Acetate of Lead  is prepared by
gently  fusing  the  neutral acetate  of lead till it
spontaneously  forms a white  porous mass.   By
solution in water,  evaporation to a sirup, and cool-
ing slowly, crystals may be obtained.
  Sexbasic Acetate of Lead (sexsubacetate of
lead) is a white crystalline precipitate, which forms
when  a solution of subacetate of lead  is treated
with liquor of ammonia.  A hot saturated solution
in water crystallizes on  cooling.  All the prece-
ding acetates are  soluble in water.  The  last two
are neither employed in the arts nor in medicine.
   LEAD, ARSENIATE OF.  Syn. Triarse-
niate of Lead.  Plumbi Arsenias.   Prep. Grad-
ually add  a solution of acetate of lead to another
of arseniate of soda.  A white insoluble powder.
   LEAD, BROMIDE.  Syn.  Plumbi Bromidum.
A  white crystalline  powder, sparingly soluble  in
water, formed  by precipitating a solution of neutral
acetate or nitrate  of lead, with a solution of bro-
mide  of potassium.  It fuses  by heat into a  red
liquid, which turns yellow when cold.
   LEAD, CHLORIDE OF.   Syn.  Muriate of
Lead.  Patent Yellow.  Horn Lead.  Plumbi
Corneum.   Plumbi Murias.  Plumbi  Chloridum,
(P. L.)  Prep. Precipitate a  solution of §xix of
acetate of lead in  3 pints of boiling distilled water,
with a solution of §vj  of chloride of  sodium in 1
pint of boiling water ; when  cold  wash and dry
the precipitate, (P. L.)
   Remarks.   Employed in the  preparation  of
muriate of morphia.  It is totally dissolved by boil-
ing water, the chloride  concreting almost entirely
into crystals as the solution cools. (P. L.)
  LEAD, CHROMATE OF.  In addition to the
remarks on this article  at page 192, it may be in-
teresting to add that Anthon has found that wh*n
hot solutions of equal equivalents of  acetate of lead
(190 parts) and chromate of potash (100 parts, both
neutral and in crystals) are  mixed, the yellow
precipitate when  dried is anhydrous;  but  when
the mixture is  made at ordinary temperatures, the
precipitate has a paler yellow, and when dried con-
tains 1 eq., or nearly b\ per cent, of water. (Buch.
Rept.)   It thus appears that the shades of color
of chrome yellow may be varied without  any for-
eign addition.
  LEAD  DUST.   Syn.  Pulvis  Plumbi.   By
melting  new  lead, adding  bruised  charcoal, and
diffusing the lead among it, then  pounding and
washino- awav the charcoal; used by potters.
  LE  YD,  FLUORIDE.  A white powder form-
ed by precipitating a solution of neutral acetate of
lead with  hydrofluoiic acid.  It is  very sparingly
soluble in water.
  LEAD,  GRANULATED.   By melting new
lead, pouring it in  small stream, from an iron ladle
with a hole drilled in its bottom, into a pail of wa-
ter.  Used to make solutions and alloys.
                       50
  LEAD, IODIDE  OF.   Syn.   Ioduret  ot
Lead.  Plumbi Iodidum, (P. L.)   Plumbi  Iodu-
retum.   Prep.  I. (P. L.) Acetate  of lead fix
water 6 pints ; dissolve ; iodide of potassium  (pure)
§vij;  water 2 pints, dissolve.   Add the latter solu-
tion to the former, wash and  dry the precipitate.
  II.  (P. E.)  Iodide  of potassium and nitrate of
lead, of each f j ; dissolve each separately in  J pint
of water, mix. collect the precipitate in a calico or
linen  filter, and wash  it with water ; then  boil  it
in 3 gallons  of water, soured with  pyroligneous
(acetic) acid f f iij, let the solution settle (still keep-
ing the  liquid  near the boiling point,) and decant
the clear; as  the water cools, the iodide will sub-
side in brilliant  golden yellow lamellae, or minute
crystals.
  Remarks.  The latter is the best process, as any
adhering oxide of lead is dissolved out by the acid.
" It is totally dissolved by boiling water, and, as it
cools, separates in shining yellow scales.  It melts
by heat, and  the greater part is first dissipated in
yellow, and afterwards in violet vapors." (P. L.)
The residuum is quite soluble in nitric acid.  " 5
grs. of iodide of lead  are entirely  soluble (by boil-
ing) in f3j of pyroligneous acid, diluted with f^iss
of water ; and golden crystals are  abundantly de-
posited as the solution cools." (P. E.)  Dose. \ gr.
to 4 grs. or more, made into a pill, in enlargements
of the cervical,  axillary,  and mesenteric glands,
and in scrofulous affections and scirrhous tumors,
as a deobstruent and resolvent.   (See Ointment,
Iodide  of Lead.)
  LEAD, NITRATE  OF.  Syn.  Plumbi ni-
tras.   Prep.  (P. E.)  Litharge  fivss; diluted  ni-
tric acid 1 pint; dissolve by a gentle heat, and  set
the solution  aside to crystallize.  Used to  make
the iodide of lead, P. E.
  LEAD, OXIDES  OF.   Prep.  I. (Dioxide.
Suboxide. Gray oxide.)  Prepared  by heating
dry oxalate of lead to a low red in a glass tube out
of contact with the air.   Dark-gray, nearly black,
It is also formed on  the  surface  of  metallic lead
long exposed to  the air.
  II.  (Oxide.  Protoxide.  Yellow oxide.)   This
oxide  is prepared on the commercial scale by heat-
ing the  gray film or dross that forms on the surface
of melted lead exposed to the air, until it acquires
a uniform yellow color, when it is called "  massi-
cot;" when the heat  is still further increased until
it fuses  or partially vitrifies, the term " litharge"
is applied to  it.   It  is obtained perfectly pure by
expelling the acid from nitrate of lead, by exposing
it to heat in a platinum  crucible; or, still  better,
by adding ammonia to a cold solution of nitrate of
lead  until the  liquid becomes  faintly alkaline,
washing the precipitate with cold water, drying,
and heating it to moderate redness for one hour,
as above.  Pure protoxide of lead has a lemon-
yellow color, and is the base of all the salts of lead.
It may  be obtained in a crystalline state by expo-
sing a concentrated solution of it in caustic soda to
the air for some months, (M. Houton Labadilliere ;)
or, still  easier, by mixing an aqueous solution of
neutral acetate  of lead with a great excess  of
liquor  of ammonia,  filtering, and  exposing the
liquid for a few hours in a well-corked bottle to the
sun's  rays.  If the same  solution be  kept  in the
dark for some days, stellated  crystals of basic ace-
tate of lead, with five atoms of base,  are deposited 
LEE                    394                    LEM
instead  of oxide. (W. Behrens.)  See  Litharge
and Massicot.
  III. (Red oxide.  Plumbeous suroxide.   Red
lead.   Minium.)   See Minium.
  IV. (Sesquioxide.)  An insoluble reddish-yellow
powder, formed by adding a solution  of  hypochlo-
rite of soda to another of protoxide of  lead in liquor
of potassa. (Wiukelblech.)
  V.  (Peroxide.  Puce oxide. Plumbic suroxide.)
Obtained  by putting red  lead into chlorine, or di-
lute nitric acid ; or by fusing a mixture of protox-
ide of lead and chlorate of potassa, at a  heat a lit-
tle below redness, and washing the powdered mass
in water; or by transmitting a current of chlorine
gas through a solution of neutral acetate of lead.
  LEAD,  OXIDE,   (HYDRATED.)   Syn.
Plumbi oxydum hydratum.  Prep. (P. L.) Solu-
tion of diacetate of lead 6 pints;  distilled water 3
gallons; mix, and add  liquor of potassa  as long as
a precipitate forms,  avoiding excess ; wash  well
with water.
  Remarks.  This is dihydrated oxide of lead.
(Mitscherlich.)   It is used in preparing  disulphate
of quinine.  It is totally soluble in dilute  nitric
acid,  (P. L.,) and in  an excess of liquor of potassa.
  LEAD, OXY-IODIDE.  Prepared  by precip-
itating subacetate of lead by iodide of potassium.
  LEAD, TANNATE.  Syn.  PurtviBi tannas.
Prep. Precipitate a solution of acetate of lead with
an infusion of galls ;  wash and dry the precipitate.
Astringent.   Dose. 1 gr. and upwards made into a
pill.
  *¥* Besides the preceding, various other prepara-
tions  of lead have been formed  by  chemists, but
possess little importance in a  practical point  of
view.   (See Salts.)
  LEECHES.   App. Leeches are most conveni-
ently applied  by means  of  a common  pill box or
a wine-glass.    The  part should be  previously
washed perfectly clean, and if  covered with hair
should be closely shaved.   Sometimes leeches will
not/readily bite: in  such cases, allowing them to
crawl over a piece  of dry linen or  calico, rolling
them in porter, moistening the part with a  little
milk  or sweetened milk, or drawing a little blood
by a  slight puncture or scratch, will  usually make
them bite freely.  To stop the bleeding from leech-
bites, various  plans are  adopted, among which
cauterizing with  nitrate  of silver, tne application
of creosote, and gen*le pressure for some hours, are
most successful.  (See Mattico.)
   Pres. Leeches are best preserved in water ob-
tained  from a pond, and occasionally  changed ;
 when kept in spring water they soon die.  The  in-
 troduction of a hand, to which an ill-flavored med-
 icine or odor adheres, into the water in which they
 are kept, is often sufficient  to poison them.  The
 application of saline matter to the skin of leeches,
 even  in  very small quantities, immediately occa-
 sions the expulsion of the contents of the stomach:
 hence, a  few grains of common salt are frequently
 sprinkled over  them to make  them disgorge the
 blood  they have swallowed.   According to Dr.
 Wagner, the taste of blood is  necessary to render
 them fit for the purposes of reproduction.  He  re-
 commends the employment of two tanks, with  the
 bottom of loam, clay, or turf, surrounded by an in-
 ner border of a similar substance, and an outer one
 of sand.   Two such  tanks should  be kept—the
one for leeches fit for medical use,—and the othei
for breeding, or for such leeches as have been ap-
plied.  No leeches are to be taken fr< m the breed-
ing tank until a year has elapsed after their having
been applied and fed with human blood ; and their
removal to the first tank should take place  in Sep-
tember  or  October, as  by this  time  the  breeding
season is over.  By this plan all leeches that have
been  applied are  to be carefully restored to the
breeding tank, without  making  them disgorge the
blood they have swallowed.  Leeches, to  be able
to grow and propagate,  must, at least once  a yar,
receive a plentiful  supply of living blood.  These
conditions can only be  fulfilled  by restoring those
that  have  been  already employed.   All artificial
methods of feeding by bladders or sponges of blood
have been found to fail.   (Allgemeine Anzeiger der
Deutschen.)
   II. (J. R. Kenworthy.)  Make pure clay, ren-
dered plastic with water, into balls, or preferably,
irregularly-shaped  lumps, about 24  inches in di-
ameter ; place them  in a deep,  square,  wooden
box, or a clean five-gallon keg.   The leeches on
being put in will creep down  the sides of the balls,
and there remain.   No cover is necessary.  Chang«
the balls once a week.   This method is simple and
successful.  (Ann. of Chym. and Pract Phar.)
   III. (Fee.)  Lay 7 inches of a mixture of moss,
turf, and charcoal in a marble or stone trough, over
which place some small pebbles.  At one end of
the trough, and about  half way up, place a thin
shelf of stone or marble, pierced with small holes,
on which put  first some  moss, or portions of the
equisetum  palustre, or  horse tail, and on this a
layer of pebbles  to keep it down ;  then  pour in
water sufficiently high just to moisten the moss and
pebbles, put in the  leeches, and  tie over the mouth
of the trough with  a cloth.
   %* The  frequent  changing of  the  water in
which leeches are kept is  injudicious.    Once a
month  in winter, and  once a week  in summer, is
deemed sufficiently often  by the large dealers, un-
less the water becomes discolored or bloody, when
it should  be changed  every day, or every  other
day.   Clean pond water is preferable ; but where
this  cannot be got, clean rain water, that has been
well exposed to the air, should alone be employed.
   LEMON JUICE, ARTIFICIAL. Syn. Suc-
cus  Limonum factitius.  Prep.  I.  Citric or tar-
taric arid 2\ oz.;  gum  4 oz-; pieces of fresh lemon
peel \ oz.;  loaf sugar 2 oz.; boiling water 1 quart;
macerate with occasional agitation  till  cold, and
strain.  Excellent
   II. Water 1 pint; sugar 1  oz.; essence of lemon
30 drops;  pure acetic  acid  to acidulate.   Inferior.
Both are used to  make lemonade.   (See  Ginger
Beer.)
   LEMONADE. Syn. Lemon Sherbet. King's
Cup.  Prep. I. 2  lemons, sliced ; sugar 2 oz.; boil-
ing water  1 pint.   Very fine.
   II.  White sugar 5 oz. ; yellow peel of 1 lemon;
water 1 quart; squeeze in  the juice of 3 lemons,
 macerate 2 hours, and  strain.   Used as a  pleasant
cooling beverage and astringent drink in fevers and
putrid diseases.
   III.  (Lemonade for icing.    Lemon S'/erbet.)
 Yellow peel of 3 or 4 lemons, rubbed off with hard
 sugar,  as described at  p. 199,  (art. Citrons;) loaf
 sugar 4 oz.; juice of 3 or 4 lemons;  water 1 quart; 
LIG                     395                    LIM
ice as wanted.  Orangeade, or Orange Sherbet
for icing, is made in the same way with oranges.
   LEMONADE, AERATED.  Syn. Lemon-
ade gazeuse.   Limonadum aeratum.   Prep.  (P.
Cod.)   Water, charged with 5 times its volume of
carbonic acid gas, 1 pint;  sirup of lemon ^ij 5 mix.
Delicious.
   LEMONADE, LACTIC.    Syn.  Limonadum
lacticum.  Prep. (Magendie.)  Lactic acid 3j to
3iv ; snip ^ij; water 1 pint; mix.
   LEMONADE, PORTABLE.  Prep.  I. Tar-
taric or citric arid 1 oz.; finely-powdered loaf su-
gar 4 lb.;  essence of lemon 20 drops;  mix ; 2 or 3
teaspoonfuls make a very pleasant glass of extem-
poraneous lemonade.
   II.  Powdered  sugar 4  lbs.; citric or  tartaric
acid 1 oz.; essence of lemon 2 dr.;  mix well.  As
last.  Very sweet and agreeable.
   LENSES.  A description of  these  articles be-
longs  to  a work  on optics.  It may,  however, be
useful to the chemical  student to remark, that the
Coddington  or Stanhope lenses, which  may now
be bought at any of the opticians, neatly mounted
and  of  great power, for a few  shillings, will  be
found of the greatest service in examining minute
crystals, precipitates, &c.; and for all ordinary pur-
poses offer a cheap and efficient substitute for more
complicated microscopes.
   LEROY'S VOMITIF-PURGATIF.   Prep.
Tartar emetic, in fine  powder, 3j ; white wine 4
pint; sugar candy to color;  dissolve, and label the
bottle" Vomifif." Next dissolve 3vij of resin of jalap,
in alcohol 4 P'nt; and  label  the bottle " Purga-
tif."  A popular  nostrum  in France, but its  use
requires caution.
   LEUCIN.  (From Wof, white.)   M. Bracon-
not has given  this name to a white pulverulent
substance, obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric
acid on  muscular fibre.  It combines with  nitric
acid, forming nitro-leucic acid.
   LEV1GATION.  Syn. Levigatio, (Lat, from
lavigo, to make smooth.)   The process of  redu-
cing substances to fine powder, by  making them
into a paste with water, and grinding the mass up-
on a hard smooth  stone or slab, with  a  conical
piece of stone having a flat, smooth under-surface,
called a " mutter."  Levigation is resorted to in
the preparation of paints on the small scale, and in
the elutriation of powders.
   LICHENIC ACID.  A variety of malic acid
found in some species of lichens.
   LICHEN IN.   A species of starch extracted
from Iceland moss.  (Citraria Islandica.)
   LICHEN  GUM.  A strained infusion or de-
coction of  several species of lichen, evaporated to
dryness.  It resembles gum arabic: 1 cwt. of lichen
coralloides yields 14 lbs. ; lichen esculentus, about
13 lbs.   (Grav.)
   LIGHT,  INSTANTANEOUS.   (See Chlo-
rate Matches, Congreves, Lucifers, &c.)
   LIGNINE.  Pure woody fibre.  It  forms about
95°; of baked wood, and constitutes the woody por-
tion  of  all vegetables ;  its composition  resembles
starch, and by the action of oil of vitriol it is con-
verted into dextrine, or sugar, and a new  acid,
(ligno-sulphuric acid.)   Strong nitric acid dis-
solves  sawdust,  and when  the solution  is  diluted
with water, a white insoluble powder  is deposited,
UFhich explodes when heated.   (Robiquet)
   LIGNONE.  A light inflammable fli...., t'-ju-JBi-
ed with other products during the destructive dis-
tillation of wood.  It is a mixture of pyroxilic spirit
and acetate of methule.  (Berzelius.)
   LILACINE.  Prep. (M.  Meillet) The leaves,
or, preferably, the seed vessels, of syringa vulgaris,
are bruised, boiled twice with water, the decoction
is evaporated to one  half, basic acetate of lead ad-
ded, the liquor evaporated to a sirup, and treated
with  calcined magnesia in  excess; the whole  is
then dried, pulverized along with a little carbonate
of magnesia, digested in water at from 86° to 104°,
and the undissolved portion  treated  with boiling
alcohol, sp. gr. 0-8295. The solution thus obtained
is decolored with animal charcoal, filtered, evapo-
rated to one half, and placed aside ; the lilacine
crystallizes out as the spirit cools.  Lilacine forms
white fasciculi  of acicular crystals, or  prisms;  it
has a bitter taste, and is insoluble in water and
many acids.   (Jour,  de Pharm., 1842, p. 25.)
   LIME.  Syn. Oxide of Calcium.  Calx, Calx
viva, Calx recens usta, (Lat., from  kalah,  Ara-
bic, to burn.)  An oxide of  calcium, obtained by
exposing limestone or chalk,  which are carbonates
of lime, to a red  heat. The substance thus obtained
is called " quicklime," or "  stone lime."   When
water is sprinkled on quicklime  it becomes very
hot, and crumbles down into a dry white powder,
which is '* hydrate of lime," popularly  known as
" slaked" or " slacked lime."  Oyster-shells, and
other fish shells,  are  also converted into quick-
lime by burning, which is then called " shell-lime,"
(calx e testis.)   Milk of lime is slaked lime mixed
up with water.
   Prop. Pure lime  has a sp. gr. of about 2-3, and
is soluble in 635 parts of water at 32°, but requires
77^ parts at 60°, 972 parts at 130, and 1270 parts
at 212°, for its solution.  (Wollaston.)   A pint of
water at  32° dissolves 13*25 grs.; at  60°,  11*6
grs; and at 212°, 6-7 grs.  (Phillips.)  Hence will
be seen the propriety of employing cold water for
the solution of lime.   Its aqueous solution is caus-
tic and alkaline.   When strongly heated, lime be-
comes phosphorescent, and emits a brilliant light;
and on this account  is sometimes employed for il-
lumination, as in the Gurney, or  Lime Light.
   Lime readily  unites with the  acids, and  forms
salts, nearly all of which may be  made by directly
neutralizing the  acid with the hydrate or carbon-
ate (chalk) of lime.   They may also  be made by
double decomposition.
   Tests.  1. The  alkaline carbonates, phosphates,
oxalates, and sulphates, occasion  white  precipi-
tates in  solutions of lime.   The precipitates occa-
sioned by the first three tests are soluble in dilute
nitric or muriatic acid ;  that by the last  is  insolu-
ble in those  menstrua, but soluble in solution of
salt, and  not reprecipitated  by  dilute  sulphuric
acid.  (Wackenroder.)  Oxalate  of ammonia or
potassa  is the most  delicate  test of lime.  If the
substance under examination be a solid, dissolve  it
in muriatic acid, filter, evaporate to  dryness, re-
dissolve in water, and test as  above.  All the solu-
ble salts of lime  tinge the flame of alcohol of an
orange color.
   Uses. Lime is corrosive, antacid, and  depilato-
ry.  It  is employed  to make lime water ; to ren-
der the  alkalis  caustic, and to make several cal-
careous salts. It  is largely used to make  moitnrs 
LIN                    396                   LIN
and cements, in farming, &c.  In large doses it is
poisonous.  The London College orders  the lime
of commerce in its Materia Medica, (calx recens
usta,) but under the head of preparations of calci-
um, (Preparata e calcio,) directs it to be prepared
by burning chalk broken into pieces for 1 hour.
  LIME,  CHLORIDE OF.  Syn. Oxymuriate
of Lime.  Chloruret  of  Lime.   Chloride  or
Chlorurf.t of Oxide of Calcium.   Chlorite of
Lime.   Chlorinated Lime.  Hypochlorite  of
Lime.   Tennants' bleaching Powder.   Calx
Chlorinata, (P. L. and  E.)  Calcis Hypochloris.
Prep.  (P. L.) Hydrate  of lime lb. j ; spread it in
a proper vessel and expose  it to an atmosphere of
chlorine gas until it is saturated.
  Remarks.  The above  are the instructions of the
London  College ;  but chloride of lime  is never
made on the small scale, as it can be purchased of
the  large  manufacturer of better quality and
cheaper  than it could  possibly be  made  by the
druggist. On the large scale the chlorine is gener-
ated in leaden vessels, heated  by steam, and the
gas, after passing through water, is conveyed by a
leaden tube  into  an apartment built  of silicious
sandstone, and arranged  with shelves or trays, con-
taining fresh-slaked lime, placed one above an-
other, about an inch asunder.  The process  must
be continued for 4 days  to  produce a good article
of chloride of lime.   During this time  the  lime is
occasionally agitated by means of  iron rakes, the
handles of which pass through boxes of lime placed
in the walls of the chamber, which act as valves.
Tennants,  of Glasgow,  are  the  largest manufac-
turers of this article in the United Kingdom.  The
exact chemical constitution of chloride of  lime is
undetermined.
   Qual. " Pale  grayish white; dry ; 50 grains
are nearly all soluble in f ^ij of water, forming a
solution  of the density  1*027,  and of  which  100
measures, treated with an excess of oxalic  acid,
give off' much chlorine,  and  if then boiled,  and al-
lowed to rest for 24 hours, yield a precipitate which
occupies 19 measures of the liquid." (P. E.) Good
chloride of lime should contain 25 to 30§ by weight
of chlo.ine.
   Uses.  It is principally employed as an antisep-
tic and disinfectant.  An ointment of  chloride of
lime has been used  in scrofula, (Cima,) and  a  lo-
tion or bath, moderately  dilute,  is one of the clean-
est  and readiest ways of removing the  itch, and
several other skin diseases.   (See Chlorine, Dis-
infectants, Fumigation, &c.)
  LIME,  SULPHURET  OF.   (See  Calcium,
SuLrHURET OF.)
  LINEN.  Fruit stains, iron-moulds, and other
spots on linen, may be removed by applying to the
part, previously washed  clean, a weak solution of
chlorine, chloride  of lime, spirits of salts, oxalic
acid, or salts of lemons, in warm water, and fre-
quently by merely using a little lemon juice.  The
part should be again thoroughly rinsed in  clear
warm water (without soap) and dried.  Linen that
has  acquired a yellow  or  bad color  by careless
washing, may be restored* to its former whiteness
by working it well in water to which some strained
solution  of chloride of  lime has been added, ob-
serving to well rinse it in clean water, both before
and after the immersion in the bleaching liquor.
Never  attempt to bleach unwashed linen, and
 avoid using the liquor too strong, as in that  case
 the linen will be rendered rotten.   (See Ciiloro-
 metry.)
   The presence of cotton in linen fabrics may
 easily be ascertained  by  immersing  for 2  or 3
 minutes a small strip (a square inch, for instance)
 of the suspected cloth in a mixture  of  equal parts
 of hydrate of potassa  and water, when strongly
 boiling,  after which it  must be  taken out and
 pressed between  the foldsiof blotting  paper.   By
 separating 8 or 10 threads in  each direction, their
 color  may  be readily seen.   The dark  yellow
 threads  are linen, the white or bright  yellow ones
 are cotton.   A vessel of silver, porcelain, or  hard
 glass, must  be  employed to  contain  the alkali.
 This process is simple and certain.  (Dr. Boettger.)
   LINCTUS.  (From lingo, I lick.)  Syn. Loch.
 Loiiocii. Lambative. Eclegma. Elegma. Elexis.
 Eclectos.  Ecleitos.  Illinctus. (In  Pharmacy.)
 A medicine of the  consistence of honey, intended
 to be licked off a spoon.   This form of medicine is
 well  adapted to females and  children, but is not
 much used in England.   (See Lohoch.)
   LINCTUS, ACID.   Syn.  Linctus Acidus. L.
 Acidi Muriatici.   Prep. (Dr.  Copland.)  Honey
 of roses 3x ; sirup of red poppies 3ij ; muriatic acid
 20 drops ; mix.  Refrigerant.  In putrid fever, sore

   LINCTUS, DEMULCENT.   Syn.  L.  De-
 mulcens. Prep.  Spermaceti and powdered traga-
 canth,  of each ^ss; sirup of poppies,  q. s.   Dose.
 As last.
   LINCTUS, EXPECTORANT.  Syn. L. Ex-
 pectorans.   Prep.  Oxymel of squills, sirup of al-
 thea, and mucilage of gum arabic, (thick,) of each,
 ^ss.  In coughs, &c.  Dose. A spoonful occasion-
 ally.
   LINCTUS OF  BORAX.  Syn. L. Bohacicus
 Prep.  (Dr.  Copland.)  Spermaceti 3iiss; com-
 pound powder of tragacanth 3iij ; sirup of tolu §j ;
 borax, in fine powder, 3iiss ; conserve  of roses 3v ;
 sirup of althea, to mix.  In sore throat. Dose. As
 last
   LINCTUS  OF  CACAO.  Syn.  Creme de
 Tronchin.   Prep.   Cocoa-nut butter  Jij;  white
 sugar and sirups of capillaire and tolu, of each, 5j-
 Mix.
   LINCTUS OF  IPECACUANHA.  Syn.  L.
 Ipecacuanha.  Prep.   (Dr.  Copland.)  Oil of
 almonds and sirup of lemons,  of  each, f 5j ;  pow-
 dered ipecacuanha  6 grs. ; confection of hips §j i
 compound  powder  of  tragacanth  3iij ;  make  a
 linctus.  Expectorant.   In irritating coughs,  &c.
   LINCTUS OF  NITRE.  Syn. L. Potass*
 Nitratis.   Prep. (Dr. Copland.)  Powdered nitre
 3iss ; honev of roses f Jj; oxymel f ^iss.  Mix.
   LINCTUS, OILY.   Syn. L. Oleosus.  Prep.
 Oil of almonds  or  olives, oxymel  of  squills,  and
 sirup of poppies, equal parts.   Demulcent   Dose.
 A teaspoonful ad libitum,  in troublesome coughs,

   LINCTUS OF  OPIUM.   Syn.  L. Opiatus.
 Prep. Sirup of poppies f^ij ; thick mucilage fjj;
 confection of hips jfiss ; laudanum 30 drops ; dilu-
[ ted sulphuric acid 3j.  Mix.   To allay irritation.
|   LINCTUS OF ROSES. Syn. L. Rosa. Prtp.
 Confection of red roses  ^'ij : diluted sulphuric acid
 3j:  compound  tincture  of camphor  ^iss.   Mix
 Anodyne and refrigerant.   A spoonful occasionally 
LIN                   397                   LIN
  LINCTUS OF  SQUILLS.  Syn. L. Scilla.
Prep. Oil of almonds §ij; oxymel of squills and
honey, of each §j ;  mix.   Expectorant.  As last.
  LINCTUS  OF  TURPENTINE.  Syn.  L.
Stimulans.  L. Terebinthina.  Prep. (Recam-
bier.)   Oil  of turpentine 3ij ;  honey of roses §j to
§iv ; mix.  Dose.  A teaspoonful night and morn-
ing, followed by a draught of any weak drink.  In
worms.
  LINIMENT.  Syn.  Linimentum. (Lat, from
lino,  I  anoint.)  A semifluid  ointment, or soapy
application to painful joints, swellings, burns, &c.
The term is also extended to various spirituous and
stimulating  external applications.  A medicine of
a thinner consistence, but similarly  employed, is
called an " embrocation."  These terms are, how-
ever, frequently  confounded  together, and are
often misapplied.   Liniments are  applied by fric-
tion with the fingers, or by laying a piece of linen
rag dipped in them on the part.
   LINIMENT, ANODYNE. Syn. Linimentum
Anodynum.  Prep.  (P.  D.) Soap  liniment  f §iv;
tincture of opium f §iij. (See Liniment of Opium.)
   LINIMENT, ACID. Syn. Lin.  Acidum. Lin.
Acidi Muriatici.   Prep. (P. C.)  Honey of roses
 §j ; muriatic acid 20 drops ; mix.
   LINIMENT,  ALKALINE.  Syn. Lin. Al-
 kalinum.   Prep.  (Plenck.)   Liquor of carbonate
 of potassa  §ij; olive oil %iv; yelks of 2  eggs;
 make a liniment.
   LINIMENT, DIURETIC.  Syn. Lin. Diu-
 reticum.  Prep. I.  (Dr.  Guibert.)   Tinctures of
 squills, digitalis, and colchicum seeds, of each §ss;
 liquor of ammonia §ss ;  camphorated oil Jj ; mix.
   II. (Dr. Calini.)  Powdered  squills 3j;  gastric
 juice of a calf §ij ; vinegar of squills §ss ; mix.
   LINIMENT, ESCHAROTIC.  Prep.  Honey
 4 oz. ;  spirit of salt and verdigris, of each 1 oz.;
 mix.  Used by farriers.
   LINIMENT for AMAUROSIS, (WARE'S.)
 Prep. Camphor liniment fj;  solution of carbonate
 of potassa 3j ; mix.
   LINIMENT FOR BURNS.  Syn.  Liniment
 of Lime.  Carron  Oil.  Lin. Calcis. Prep. (P.
 E.)  Linseed (olive P. D.) oil and lime water,
 equal parts; mix, and  agitate  well.  For  severe
 burns.
   LINIMENT FOR  INFLAMED GLANDS.
 Prep.  Spermaceti ointment 8 oz.; camphor 1  oz.;
 oil of origanum 4 oz. ; mix.  Used by  farriers to
 promote the suppuration of inflamed glands.
   LINIMENT FOR THRUSHES AND CAN-
 KER.  Prep. Tar 4 oz.; melt, and  add verdigris 4
 oz.;  dissolved in spirits of salts f oz.  Used by  far-
 riers.
   LINIMENT,  HUNGARIAN.   Syn,  Lin.
 Hungaricum.   Prep.  (Soubeiran.)   Powdered
 cantharides and sliced garlic, of each 3j ; camphor,
 bruised mustard seed, and black  pepper, of. each
 3iv;  strong vinegar fvj;  rectified spirit %x\) ;
 macerate a week, and filter.  Stimulant; irritant.
   LINIMENT OF AMBER, (OPIATE.) Syn.
 Lin. Succi.m Opiatum.   Prep. (P.  C.)  Rectified
 oil of amber and tincture of  opium, of each  §ij ;
 lard ?;j ; mix.  Anodyne and stimulant.
   LINIMENT OF AMMONIA.  Syn. Ammo-
 mated Oil.  Ammoniacal Liniment.  Volatile
 Liniment.  Oil and Hartshorn.  Lin. Ammonia,
 (P. L. E. &, D.)  Lin. Ammonia Fortius. Oleum
Ammoniatum.  Prep. (P. L.) Liquor  of ammonia
f i) (f 3ij» P- D.;) oil of olives f §ij; mix and agitate
well.  Stimulant and rubefacient  Used in  rheu-
matism, lumbago,  neuralgia, sore throat,  spasms,
bruises, &c.  When the  skin is irritable, more oil
should be added, or it should be diluted with a little
water.   (See Liniment  of  Sesquicarbonate of
Ammonia.)
  LINIMENT OF AMMONIA, (CAMPHOR-
ATED.)  Lin.  Ammonia Camphoratum.   Prep,
(P. C.)  Camphorated oil "%\x ; liquor of ammonia
|iij ; mix well.   Used as the last.
  LINIMENT OF AMMONIA, (COMP.) Syn.
Dr. Granville's Counter-Irritant or Antidy-
nous Lotion.  Lin. Ammonia compositum.  Prep
(P. E.)  Liquor  of ammonia (sp. gr.  0-880) ffv;
tincture of camphor f §ij ; spirits of rosemary f §j
mix well.   Counter-irritant, rubefacient, vesicant
and cauterizing, according to the length of  its ap
plication; in rheumatism,  cramp, neuralgia, dis
eased  joints, headache, &c.  A powerful and
speedy remedy.  It may be diluted with a mixture
of  equal parts of  the spirits of  camphor and rose*
 mary.
   LINIMENT  OF  AMMONIA  AND  TUR
 PENTINE.  Syn. Lin. Ammonia cum Terebin-
 thina.  Prep. (Dr. Copland.)   Liniment of am-
 monia (P. L.) ?iss ; oil of turpentine  §ss ; mix.
   LINIMENT  OF   SESQUICARBONATE
 AMMONIA.  Syn.  Lin.  Ammonia sesquicar-
 bonatis.  Lin. Ammon. carbonatis.   Prep. Solu-
 tion of the  sesquicarbonate  of ammonia, P. L. f §j ;
 olive oil §iij; mix, and agitate well.  This  resem-
 bles the liniment of ammonia, P. L., in its general
 properties, but it is much less active, owing to the
 alkali being carbonated. It is the  "oil and harts-
 horn" and the " volatile liniment" of the sht 38.
   LINIMENT  OF ARCEUS.  Syn. Lin. Ar-
 cai.  Compound elemi  ointment.
   LINIMENT OF BELLADONNA. Syn. Lin.
 Belladonna. Prep. I.  (Guy's  H.)  Soap liniment
 f gviij ; extract of belladonna §j ; mix.
    II.  (Lin. belladonna cum calce.  Cazenave.)
 Lime-water gviij ; oil of almonds §iv ; extract  of
 belladonna 3ij ; mix.  Both the above are excel-
 lent narcotics, stimulants,  and  resolvents, in vari-
 ous rheumatic  complaints,  affections of the skin
 and joints, tumors, &c.
    LINIMENT  OF  BITUMEN.  Syn. Tar
 Liniment.  Lin.  Bituminis.  Prep. (P. C.)  Barba-
 does tar §iss; melt, and add liquor of ammonia
 Sss; mix well.  Stimulant, irritant, and dispersive.
    LINIMENT OF CAJEPUT OIL. -Syn. Lin.
 Cajeputi.   Lin.  Cajeputi stimulans. Prep. (Dr.
 Copland.)  Soap  and compound camphor liniment,
 of each f §iss; oil of cajeput  f §j ;  mix.   Stimu-

  "lINIMENT  OF  CAJEPUT,   (ETHERE-
 AL.)   Syn.  Lin. Cajeputi  ethereum.  Prep.
 (Tortuel.)  Camphor 3j; oil of cajeput  3ij ; sul-
 phuric ether Jj;  mix, and keep it in a stoppered
 bottle in the cold.  Very volatile.
    LINIMENT  OF  CAMPHOR. Syn. Cam-
 phor  Liniment.   Camphorated  Oil.    Oleum
 camphoratum, (P. D.)  Lin.  Camphora,  (PL.
 & E )   Prep. (P- L.) Camphor 3j;  olive oil ffiv;
 (jentiy heat the  oil, add the camphor, cut small,
 and agitate until dissolved. The Dublin College
 orders only 4 the above camphor  Stimulant, an- 
LIN
398
LIN
odyne,  and resolvent;  in sprains, bruises, and
rheumatic pains, glandular enlargement, &c.
  LINIMENT  OF  CAMPHOR,  (COM-
POUND.)  Ward's Essence for the  Headache.
Lin. Camphora compositum, (P.  L. &  D.)   Prep.
I. (P. L.)  Liquor of ammonia f^viiss; spirits  of
lavender 1 pint; distil  off 1 pint, add  camphor
^iiss, and dissolve.   On  the  large scale this prep-
aration  is more conveniently made as follows:—
  II. Camphor (clean) 21 oz.; English oil of lav-
ender 3$ oz.;  liquor of ammonia 2| lbs.; mix,
.close the vessel, and agitate  occasionally until the
camphor is dissolved.  Powerfully stimulant and
rubefacient.
  LINIMENT OF  CANTHARIDES.  Syn.
Lin. Lytta.   Lin. Cantharidis.   Prep. I.  (P.
U. S.) Powdered  Spanish flies 3j ; oil of turpen-
tine f 3jj; digest 2 hours, and filter.
  II. (Collier.) Tincture of cantharides and soap
liniment, equal parts; mix.   Both the above  are
irritant  and stimulant,  but  should be used cau-
tiously,  lest they produce strangury.
  LINIMENT OF  COD-LIVER OIL.  Syn.
Lin. Olei  aselli.   Prep. (Dr. Brach.) Cod-liver
oil  Jj;  liquor  of ammonia §ss;  mix.  Resolvent,
dispersive ; applied to  glandular tumors.
  LINIMENT OF CROTON  OIL.  Syn. Lin.
Crotonis.  Prep.  I.  (Pereira.) Croton oil 1 part;
olive oil 5 parts ; mix.
  II. (Collier.) Croton  oil 3j; olive oil 3ij ; mix.
Both the above are used as  counter-irritants ; re-
peatedly rubbed on the  skin, redness and  a pustu-
lar eruption ensue.
  LINIMENT,  GREEN.  Syn. Lin. of Hem-
lock.   Lin.  Viride.  Lin.  Conii.  Prep.  (Dr.
Campbell.) Powdered  camphor  and  extract  of
hemlock, of each, §j', compound spirit of ammo-
nia §ij; oiive  oil  and liquor of ammonia,  of each,
§vj ; mix.
   LINIMENT OF  IODINE.   Syn. Lin. Iodi-
nii.   Prep. I.  ^Dr. Manson.)  Tincture  of opium
f§j ; tincture of iodine f3j.
   II. (Dr. Copland.)  Soap  liniment §j;  iodine 8
to  10 grs.; dissolve.  In scrofula, glandular en-
largements, rheumatism, &c.
   LINIMENT OF  LEAD. Syn. Lin. Plumbi.
Prep. (Gaozey.)  Acetate of lead  40 grs.;  soft
water lb-j ; olive oil lb. ss; mix,  and agitate well.
Astringent, refrigerant   Useful in  excoriations,
especially when accompanied with inflammation.
   LINIMENT OF  LIME.  Syn.  Lin. Calcis
 camphoratum.  Prep. (VV.Cooley.) Camphorated
oil  §ij;  lime water §j; mix, and agitate well.  For
burns, chiiblains, &,c.
   LINIMENT  OF  LIME   AND  OPIUM.
 Syn. Lin. Calcis Opiatum.  Prep. (W.  Cooley.)
 Lime-water and camphorated oil, of each, ^j ; ex-
tract of opium 5 grs.; mix.   For severe burns, to
 allay pain, &c.
   LINIMENT OF  MERCURY.   Syn. Mer-
 curial Liniment.   Compound do.  Lin. Hydrar-
 gyri,  (P.  L. 1809.)  Lin. Hydrargyri composi-
 tum, (P.  L.  1824, and  since.)   Prep.  (P.  L.)
 Camphor Jj;  spirit of wine 3j ; sprinkle the latter
on  the  former, powder, add lard and stronger mer-
 curial ointment, of each, %\x ; rub well together,
 then further  add  liquor  of ammonia f giv; mix
well.   Excitant;  resembles mercurial ointment,
but is quicker in its operations.
  LINIMENT  OF MURIATIC ACID.  Syn
Lin. Muriaticum.  Lin. Acidi Muriatici.  Prep.
I. (Fr. H.) Olive oil ^ij; white wax 3ij ; dissolve
by  heat, cool, add  balsam of Peru 3j ; muriatic
acid 3ij ; mix well.  An excellent application to
chilblains before  they break.
  II. (W. Cooley.)  Olive oil  ^iij; white wax  and
camphor, of each, 3ij; mix as last, then add mu-
riatic acid f 3iij; mix well.   Quite equal  to  the
last and cheaper.
  LINIMENT   OF MUSTARD.   Syn.  Lin.
Sinapis.   Whitehead's  Essence of  Mustard.
Prep.  I. (P.  C.)  Bruised mustard seed lb.ss; oil
of turpentine lb. j ;  camphor %iv ; digest  Stimu-
lant.   A popular application in rheumatisms, chil-
blains, &c.
  II. Flour of mustard 2 oz.; liquor of  ammonia
1 oz.;  mix, and  add enough water to reduce it to
a cream.  Used by farriers to rub on the bellies
of horses, &c, in inflammation of the bowels.
  LINIMENT   OF  NUX  VOMICA.   Syn.
Lin. Nucis  Vomica.   Prep.  (Majendie.)  Tinc-
ture of nux vomica f §j ; liquor of ammonia f 3ij;
mix.
  LINIMENT   OF OPIUM.  Syn.  Anodyne
Liniment.  Lin. Opii, (P. L. & E.)  Lin. Saponis
cum Opio, vel Lin. Anodynum, (P. D.) Prep. (P
L.) Soap  liniment f ^vj ; tincture of opium f ^ij;
mix.   An excellent anodyne in local pains, rheu-
matism, neuralgia, sprains, &c.
  LINIMENT  OF PHOSPHORUS. -Syn. Lin.
Phosphoratum.   Prep. (Hamb. Ph.)  Camphor 10
grs.;  phosphorus 6  grs.; oil  of almonds §j;  dis-
solve with a gentle heat, cool, and add liquor of
ammonia 10 drops; mix.
  LINIMENT   OF SOAP.  Syn.  Soap Lini-
ment.   Opodeldoc  Balsam of Soap. Compound
Tincture of Soap.  Balsamum Saponis.   Tinc-
tura Saponis composita.   Tinctura Saponis cam-
phorata.  Lin.  Saponaceum,  (P. L.  1745.)   Lin.
Saponis compositum,  (P. L. 1788 to 1824.)   Lin.
Saponis, (P.  L.  1K16, P.  E. & D.)  Prep. I. (P.
L.) Castile soap §iij ; camphor ^j ; spirit of rose-
mary f fxvj ; mix and digest till dissolved.
  II.  (P.  E.)  Castile soap ^iv;  camphor ^ij  ' oil
of  rosemary  f3v; rectified spirit of wine 1 pint,
and f§xij; mix and dissolve.
  Remarks.  When Castile soap is employed, the
liniment is apt to become gelatinous in cold wea-
ther, it is therefore a*general plan with the drug-
gists to substitute soft soap.   The following for-
mula is adopted  by some  wholesale druggists, and
produces a very  good article, though weaker than
that of the pharmacopoeia:—Camphor, cut small,
H  lb.; soft  soap 6 lbs.; oil  of rosemary 2  oz.;
rectified spirit of wine and water, of each, 34 gal-
lons ; digest with occasional  agitation for a week
and filter.
  Soap liniment is stimulant, discutient, and lubri-
cating, and  is used in rheumatism,  local  pains,
swellings, bruises, sprains, &c.
  LINIMENT OF SOAP AND LEAD.  Syn.
Lin. Saponis cum Plumbo, (P. C.)  Soap liniment
§ij  ; liquor of diacetate of lead 3j ; mix.
  LINIMENT  OF  SOAP,  (IODURETED.)
Syn. Lin. Ioduretum Saponaceum.  Prep. (Gui-
bourt.) White soap 3x ; oil of almonds 3v ;  melt
together and add iodide of potassium 3j, dissolved
in water 3j. 
LIQ                    399                    LIQ
   LINIMENT  OF  SOAP, (STIMULANT.)
 Syn. Lin. Saponis Stimulans.   Prep. Soap lini-
 ment §iiss ; tincture of lytta §ss ; mix.
   LINIMENT  OF  SOAP,  (SULPHURET-
 ED.)   Syn. Lin. Sulphuro-saponaceum.  Prep.
 (Jadelot.) Sulphuret of potassium 3-iij; soap lb.j;
 water q. s.; melt together, and add, olive oil lb.j;
 oil of thyme f 3j ; mix well.  An  excellent remedy
 for the  itch and some allied skin diseases.
   LINIMENT  OF  SULPHUR  AND SOAP.
 Syn. Lin.  Sulphuris cum Sapone.  Prep. (Lu-
 gol.)  Soap  giij; water §vj; dissolve  by heat, and
 add flowers of sulphur  Jiij.  (See Lin. of Soap,
 Sulphureted.)
   LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE.   Syn.
 Lin. Terebinthina.   'Prep. (P. L.)  Soft soap f\j ;
 camphor Jj *, oil of turpentine f ^xvj; shake them
 together  until  mixed.   Stimulant in  lumbago and
 cholera.
   II. (P. L 1824.) Resin cerate lb.ss; oil of tur-
 pentine f giv;  mix   An excellent application  to
 burns.
   LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE, (VITRI-
 OLIC.)  Syn. Lin. Terebinthina Vitriolicum.
 Prep. (P. C.) Olive oil fx ; oil of turpentine f§iv ;
 oil of vitriol 3iij; mix well.  In chronic affections
 of the joints and old sprains and bruises.
   LINIMENT OF  VERATRINE.   .Syn. Lin
 Veratria.  Prep. (Brande.) Veratria 8 grs.;  al-
 cohol ffss; dissolve  and add, soap  liniment f^ss.
 In neuralgic and rheumatic pains, gout, &c.
   LINIMENT OF  VERDIGRIS.   Syn. Mel
 jEgyptiacum,  (P. L.  1746.)  Unguentum jEgyp-
 tiacum, (P. L. 1720.)  Oxymel  ^Eruginis. (P. L.
 1788.)   Oxymel Cupr. Subacetatis, (P. D.)  Li-
 nimentum  JEruginis,  (P.  L. 1809, and since.)
 Prep.  (P.  L.)  Powdered  verdigris  ^j j vinegar
 f^vij;  dissolve, strain, add  clarified honey  %x'\v,
 and boil  to a  proper consistence.  Stimulant, de-
 tergent, and escharotic.  Applied to indolent  ul-
 cers, especially of the throat, by means  of a camel
 hair  pencil, and  diluted with  water  used as a
 gargle.
   *** Avoid swallowing it, as it will induce vomit-
 ing and excessive purging.
   LINIMENT, SIMPLE.  Syn. Lin. Simplex.
 Prep.  (P. E.) White  wax §j; olive oil f §iv ; melt
 together and stir till  cot   Emollient;  resembles
 spermaceti ointment in all except its consistence.
   LINIMENT, VERMIFUGE. Syn. Lin. An-
 thelminticum.  Prep. Castor oil 32  grammes ;
 essential oils of wormwood and tansy, of each 15
 grammes ;  Dr. Peschier's ethereal tincture of pen-
 nyroyal  buds 20 drops ; mix.  Employed in fric-
 tions on the abdomen  in  cases of worms in chil-
 dren.  Its activity may be  still  further increased
 by macerating  a little  bruised garlic  in  the oil of
 tansy   (Jour, de Me"decine.)  An excellent medi-
 cine.
   LINIMENT, WHITE.   Syn. Lin. Album.
   LINIMENTUM TRIPHARMACUM.  Prep.
 (P. L. 1746.)  Lead plaster and  olive oil, of each
 |iv ; melt, and add vinegar Jj; stir till cold.  Cool-
 ing ; desiccative.
   LI PIC ACID.   One of a new series of  acids,
discovered by Laurent, and obtained by  the action
of nitric acid on oleic  acid.  See Adipic Acid.
   LIQUEUR  DE  PRESSAVIN.   Prep. Oxide
at mercury freshly precipitated  from  a solution
 of nitrate  of  mercury, and  cream  of  tartar,  of
 each 1 oz.; hot water 1 quart; dissolve.  For use
 add 2 spoonfuls of this liquor to 1 quart of wateB
 and take a wine-glassful (2 oz.) 3  or 4 times a day
 avoiding the use of common salt at the same time
 This is simply a solution  of potassio-tartrate of
 mercury, and may be taken where the use of mer
 cury is indicated.
   LIQUEURS, (Fr.)  Dilute alcohol, aromatized
 and sweetened.  The  French liqueuristes are pro-
 verbial for the superior quality, creamlike smooth-
 ness, and  delicate  flavor of their cordials.  This
 chiefly arises from the employment of very pure
 spirit and sugar, and the judicious  application  of
 the flavoring ingredients.  The French liqueuristes
 distinguish their cordials into two classes, viz.—
 waters, or liqueurs which, though sweetened, are
I perfectly devoid of viscidity—and creams, oils, and
 balms, which contain sufficient sugar to impart to
 them a considerable degree  of consistence.  The
 first part of the process is  the  preparation of the
 aromatized or flavoring essences.   These are usu-
 ally  prepared  by infusion  or maceration in very
 pure spirit, at about 2  to 4 u. p., (sp. gr. 0-922 to
 0-925,) placed  in well-corked glass carboys,  or
 stoneware bottles.  The maceration is  continued,
 with occasional agitation,  for 4 or 5 weeks, when
 the aromatized spirit is drawn off, and  either dis-
 tilled or filtered ; usually the former.  These spirits
 are  called, by  the  French, " infusions."   The
 outer peel of cedrats, lemons, oranges, limettes,
 bergamottes, &c, is alone used, and  is obtained
 either by carefully peeling  the  fruit  with a knife,
 or by rubbing it off with a lump of hard white
 sugar.  (See Citrons.)  Aromatic seeds and woods
 are bruised by pounding before being submitted to
 infusion.   The substances employed by the French
 to color their  liqueurs  are,—for  blue, sulphate c.
 indigo nearly neutralized with chalk, or the juice
 of blue flowers  or berries ;—fawn and brandy
 color, burnt  sugar ;—green, spinage or parsley
 leaves digested in spirit; also by mixing blue and
 yellow ;—red, powdered cochineal, either alone or
 mixed with a little alum ;—violet, blue violet  pe-
 tals, or litmus ;—yellow, an aqueous  infusion  of
 safflowers or French berries, or a spirituous tincture
 of turmeric.   See Cordials.
   LIQUID COLORS, (Lacca fluida.)  Prep. I.
 (Blue.) a.  Dissolve litmus  in water, and add 4 of
 spirit of wine.—b.  Dilute Saxon  blue or sulphate
 of indigo  with water.  If  required for delicate
 work, neutralize  the acid with chalk.—c.  To  an
 aqueous infusion of litmus add a few drops of vine-
 gar, till it turns full blue.
   II.  (Purple.) a. Steep litmus  in  water and
 strain.—b.  Add a little alum to a strained  decoc-
 tion of logwood.—c. Add  a  solution of carmine
 (red) to a little blue  solution of litmus or Saxon
 blue.
   III.  (Green.) a.  Dissolve  crystallized verdigris
 in water.—6. Dissolve sap green in water, and add
 a little alum.—c. Add a little salt of tartar to a blue
 or purple solution of litmus, till it turns green.—d.
 Dissolve equal parts of crystallized  verdigris and
 cream of tartar in water, and add a  little gum
 arabic.  Used as an ink for writing.
   IV. (Yellow.)  a.  Dissolve gamboge in  water,
 and add a  little gum arabic and  alum.   Used for
 ink,  to  stain paper, color maps, &c.—6. Dissolve 
LIQ                     400                    LIQ
gamboge in equal parts of proof spirit and water.
Golden colored.—c.  Steep French berries in hot
water, strain, and add a little gum  and alum.—d.
Steep  turmeric, round  zedoary, gamboge, or an-
notto, in spirits of wine.—e.  Dissolve annotto in a
weak lye of subcarbonate of soda  or potash.  All
the above are used by artificial florists.
  V.  (Red.) a.  Macerate ground Brazil in vine-
gar, boil a few  minutes, strain, and  add a  little
alum and gum.—6. Add vinegar to an infusion of
litmus till it turns red.—c. Boil or infuse powdered
cochineal in water ;  strain, and add a little alum
and gum.—d.  Dissolve  carmine in liquor of am-
monia,  or  in  weak carbonate of potash water;
the former  is superb.
  Remarks. All  the preceding, thickened with a
little gum,  are used as inks for writing, as colors to
tint maps,  foils, paper, artificial flowers, &,c, and
to paint on velvet.  Some of them are very beau-
tiful.   It must be observed, however, that those
made with  strong spirit do not mix well with gum,
unless diluted with water.
  LIQUID COLORS,  (for  druggists' show-
bottles.)  Prep. I.  (Blue.)  a.  Blue" vitriol 1 lb.  ;
water 1 gallon; dissolve.—b. To the last add alum
1 lb., and oil of vitriol to  strike the color.  Very
dark.—c. Dissolve indigo in sulphuric acid, and
dilute with water.—d.  Dissolve pure Prussian blue
in oxalic or muriatic acid,- aud dilute with water.
(See Blue Inks and Writing-Fluids.)
  II.  (Purple.) a. Verdigris 1 oz.; spirits of harts-
horn 1 lb.; water 6 lbs.; dissolve.—b.  Infusion of
logwood 1  gallon ;  spirits of   hartshorn q.  s.—c.
Sugar of lead 3  oz.;  powdered cochineal 1 dr.;
water  q. s.—d.  Add  sulphate of  indigo, nearly
neutralized with chalk, to an infusion of cochineal,
till  it turns purple.
  III.  (Green.)  a.  Verdigris  4 oz.;  water 2
quarts ; mix, and add oil of  vitriol or nitric acid q.
s.—6. Crystallized verdigris  4  oz.; strong vinegar
4 pint; dissolve,  and dilute with  water.—c. Add
distilled verdigris and blue vitriol to a strong decoc-
tion of turmeric.—d. Dissolve blue vitriol in water,
and add nitric acid till it turns green.
  IV.  (Red.)  a. Dissolve  carmine  in  liquor  of
ammonia, and dilute with water.—b.  Digest pow-
dered cochineal  in spirits of hartshorn or solution
of sal  ammoniac ; and when colored, dilute with
water.
  V. (Yellow.)  a.   Sesquioxide or rust of iron 4
lb.; muriatic  acid 1 quart;  dissolve and  dilute
with water.—6. To a  strong decoction of Freuch
berries add a little alum.—c. Dissolve gamboge or
annotto in liquor of potassa ;  dilute  with water,
and add a little  spirit  Orange or deep orange,
depending on the quantity of alkali present.
  Remarks. All the above require filtering through
paper placed in a glass funnel,  and usually need a
second filtration after being exposed to the light for
some weeks.
  LIQUID, SHAVING.  Syn.  Liquid  Soap.
Prep.  Best soft soap 1 lb.;  rectified spirit of wine
li  pint.; mix.  Used to raise a lather in shaving,
by  merely  rubbing a few drops on Ine beard, and
applying a little hot water with the finger or sha-
ving-brush.  Stronger than the esprit  de  savon
and essence royal pour la barbe, sold for tRe same
purpose.  Some persons substitute proof spirit  for
•spirit of wine, and others use equal parts of water
and spirit of wine as the menstruum.   All  answer
well.
   LIQUODILLA.   Prep.   Yellow peel  of  6
oranges and  6 lemons; brandy or plain  spirit 1
gallon ; digest a week,  filter, and add loaf  sugar 4
lbs., dissolved in water  1 gallon, and  the juice of
the oranges and lemons which were  peeled.  Let
it stand a month, and then bottle.  A pleasant and
refreshing cordial.
   LIQUOR.   -Syn.  Liqueur,  (Fr)  Liquob,
(Lat, from liqueo, I become liquid.) This term
is upplied in  the London  Pharmacopoeia to those
aqueous  solutions  commonly, though improperly,
called waters ;  as, liquor of ammonia, (liquor am-
monia,)  liquor of potassa, (liquor potassa,) &.c,
which are simple  solutions of pure  potassa and
gaseous ammonia,  and would therefore be more
correctly and intelligibly called " solutions."  (See
Solution.)
  The term " liquor" has also been applied of late
years to some concentrated preparations, more cor-
rectly termed "fluid extracts,"  as  they  merely
differ  from good extracts  in their  less consistence,
and from  ordinary extracts  in  containing  less
starchy matter, albumen, and gum.   There is also
usually a  little spirit added to them, to prevent de-
composition.  Liquors of this kind may be made
of the finest  quality, by the  same processes that
are required for the preparation of good soluble ex-
tracts ; observing to stop  the evaporation  as soon
as the consistence of treacle is acquired,  and when
cold, to add l-4th or l-5th, part of their then weight
in rectified spirit of wine.   The  addition of 3 or 4
drops  of the  oils of cloves and mustard seed, dis-
solved in the  spirit, will  secure them from any risk
of moulding or fermentation ; in fact, with this addi-
tion many of them  will  keep well without spirit,
provided  they be evaporated sufficiently, and kept
in a cool  place.  The  liquors which are  merely
concentrated infusions or decoctions,  and which in
their consistence do not even approximate to ex-
tracts, may be made in  the same manner as those
preparations.    (See Infusions  and  Decoctions,
concentrated,  and Essences.)    The  following
formula? are introduced  to illustrate the preparation
of this class of medicines :—
  LIQUOR   OF  PALE  CINCHONA.  Syn
Liquor Cinchona  pallida.   Prep.  I.  Pale cin-
chona bark, bruised, 56  lbs.; boiling water, holding
in solution 1 lb. of sulphuric acid,  q. s.;  macerate,
with  occasional agitatnon in a covered  earthen
vessel for 48  hours;  press out the  liquid, wash the
residue with water, mix the liquors, strain, evapo-
rate as rapidly as possible in  earthenware, to ex-
actly  6 lbs.;  add rectified spirit 1 lb.; set it aside
for a  week, and  decant the  clear.   Very rich in
cinchona.  It is 96 times as strong as the decoc-
tion of cinchona, P. L., and  12 times as strong as
the concentrated infusion  or decoction of cinchona.
This  preparation resembles  the  liquor  cinchonas
pallidse  sold  by Battley, at 24s.  per lb.,  whole-
sale.
  II.  Exhaust the bark  as above, by maceration
in 3 successive waters without acid,  filter, evapo-
rate the mixed liquors to 7 lbs., and proceed as be-
fore.  Inferior  to  the last, and loss rich  in cin-
chona. .Very thick ; scarcely liquid.
   LIQUOR  OF ERGOT OF RYE.   Syn. Es-
sence of Ergot.   Liquor Ergota.    Liquo« 
LIT                    401                    LIT
 Secalis cornuti.   Concentrated  Infusion of
 Ergot of Rye.  Prep. Ergot 3 lbs.; grind in a
 pepper-mill,  add water 8 lbs.; macerate for 12
 hours, add rectified spirit  2 quarts;  macerate for
 a week in  a corked  bottle, press  out the liquor,
 and filter.  Contains ^th ergot, is 8 times as strong
 as the ordinary  infusion, and 24 times as strong as
 the tincture of ergot of Apothecaries' Hall. *»* In
 the formula given at Ergot, the quantity of ergot
 is wrongly stated.
   LIQUOR   OF   SARSAPARILLA.   Syn
 Fluid Extract of Sarsaparilla.  Liquor Sar-
 za, &,c.  Either the simple or the compound li-
 quor of sarsaparilla may be prepared by evapo-
 rating the corresponding  decoction, carefully pre-
 pared, to a proper  consistence, straining  through
 flannel, and adding a little spirit.  Jamaica sarza
 should  be alone employed, as the other varieties,
 especially  the  Honduras,  not only  possess  less
 virtue, and yield less extract, but are very liable
 to ferment, and get mouldy.
   LIQUOR  OF TARAXACUM.  Syn. Fluid
 Extract of Taraxacum.  Do. do. of Dandelion.
 Liquor Taraxaci.   Prep.  I.  Dried dandelion
 roots 28 lbs.; rinse them  in  clean  cold water, to
 remove  dirt, slice them small, macerate in enough
 cold watei  to cover them, for 24  hours, press out
 the liquid, allow the fecula to subside, decant the
 clear, heat it to ltfO0 or 190°, to coagulate the al-
 bumen, filter while  hot, and evaporate by steam,
 or preferably by a current of warm air, or in vacuo,
 till  the  liquid  be reduced to  22 lbs. ; to this add
 rectified spirit of wine 6 lbs.; mix well, set it aside
 in a corked  bottle for a week or a fortnight, and
 decant the clear from any sediment that may have
 formed.  A  very  fine article.  It  represents an
 equal weight of the roots.
   II.  lloat the expressed  juice of  dandelion to
 near the boiling point, strain, evaporate as last, to
 a proper consistence, then  add \ or I of spirit of
 wine, and proceed  as before.  Very odorous, and
 pale colored;  stronger, and preferable to  the pre-
 ceding.  (See Extract of Dandelion.)
   LIRIODENDRINE.    A   white  crystalline
 substance, resembling  boracic acid,  found in  the
 bark of  the root of liriodendron tulipifera.   It has
 a bitter taste, and is soluble in alcohol, and slightly
 so in water.
   LISBON DIET DRINK.  Prep. Sliced  sar-
 saparilla and china roots, of each  ^j j the  dried
 peels of 20 walnuts coarsely powdered ; antimony
 ^ij ; powdered  pumice stone §j;  water 10 pints;
 the antimony and pumice are to be tied in a cloth
 and boiled with  the other ingredients, till the liquid
 be reduced to one  half, when it must be strained.
 The above is said  to be the  original  receipt for
 the Lisbon diet  drink, but  compound decoction of
 sarsaparilla is now universally used instead.
   LITHARGE.   -Syn.  Lytharge.   Oxide of
 Lead.   Protoxide  of Lead.   Semi-vitrified
 Oxide  of  Lead.    Litharge,  (Fr.)  Glatte,
 Bleiglatte, (Ger.)  Litargiro,  (Ital.)   Litar-
 gireo,  (Span.)  Lithargyrum,  (P.  E.)   Plumbi
 Oxydum, (P. L.) Plumbi Oxydum Semi-vitreum,
 (P.  D.)   LlTHARGYRUS.   MoLYBDENA,  (Pliny.)
 AiSdpyvpov, (Hippocrates.)  Litharge is prepared by
 scraping off the  dross that forms on the surface of
 melted lead  exposed to a current of air, (dross of
lead, plumbum  ustum,) and heating it to a full red
 to melt out any undecomposed metal.   The fused
 oxide in cooling forms a yellow or reddish semi-
 crystalline  mass,  which' readily separates into
 scales; these when ground constitute the powder-
 ed litharge of the shops.  Litharge is also prepared
 by exposing red lead to a heat sufficiently high to
 fuse it, and English litharge is obtained as a sec-
 ondary product by liquefaction, from argentiferous
 lead ore.   The litharge of commerce is distinguish-
 ed by its color  into Litharge of Gold, (Lithar-
 gyrum Auri,) which is dark colored and impurei
 and  Litharge of Silver, (Lithargyrum Argenti,)
 which is purer, and paler colored.   The dark co-
 lor of the former is chiefly owing to the presence
 of red lead.  In grinding  litharge  about 1 lb. of
 olive oil  is  usually added to each 1 cwt, to prevent
 dust.
   Use. Litharge is  employed in pharmacy,  to
 make  plasters  and sevenl  other preparations ot
 lead ;  by painters  as a ' drier' for oils, and for
 various other purposes in the arts.
  Pur. " Almost entirely soluble  in dilute nitric
 acid.  The matter thrown down from this solution
 by liquor of potassa is white, and is redissolved by
 excess of it." (P. L.)  "50 grs. dissolve entirely,
 and  without effervescence, in f^iss of pyroligneous
 acid; and  the  solution precipitated by 53  grs. of
 phosphate of soda, remains precipitable by more of
 the  test."  (P. E.)   Both of the above  solutions
 should be colorless.   It  is of great importance to
 the  pharmaceutist to obtain pure litharge, as  the
 slightest  impurity will often color and spoil his lead
 plaster, (emp. plumbi,) and solution of diacetate of
 lead, (liq. plumbi diacetatis.)
  LlTHIA, (from Xtdttos, lapideus.) Syn.  Oxide
 of Lithium.  An alkali or alkaline earth, discov-
 ered in  1818,  by M. Arfwedson,  in a  mineral
 called petalite.   It has  since been found in a few
 other minerals.
  Prep.  (Berzelius.) Finely powdered petalite  oi
 spondumene 1 part; fluor spar 2 parts; mix, add
 oil of vitriol 10 parts, and heat the mixture as long
 as acid vapors  are evolved.   The residuum must
 be dissolved in pure water of ammonia, boiled, fil-
 tered, the solution evaporated  to dryness, and  the
 dry mass heated to redness.  The  matter left is
 pure sulphate  of lithia, from which pure lithia
 may be obtained by decomposing it  by acetate of
 baryta, and by expelling the acetic acid  from the
 filtered solution  by heat.
  Prop., fyc. Lithia is caustic, alkaline, and spa-
 ringly soluble in water.  It is distinguished from
potassa and soda by its phosphate and  carbonate
being scarcely  soluble  in  water,—from  baryta,
strontia, and lime,  by forming soluble salts with
sulphuric and oxalic acids,—and  from magnesia,
by the solution of its carbonate exhibiting  an  al-
kaline reaction.   Heated on platinum it tinges the
 flame of the blowpipe red.   With the acids, lithia
forms salts, most of which may be  made by its
direct solution in the former.
  LITHIC ACID.  (See Uric Acid.)
  LITHIUM.   The  metallic base  of  lithia,
obtained  by  Sir II.  Davy  by  exposing  lithia, oi
oxide of lithium, to galvanic action.   Its existence
as a metal was so  transient,  that its  properties
could not be examined.   It  is white colored, like
Sodium.
  LITHOCHOLIC  ACID.   A new  acid  di* 
LIT                     402                    LOB
covered by  Wohler in a biliary concretion.   It
possesses no practical interest.
  LITHOFELLIC  ACID.   An  acid recently
discovered  by Gobel, in  a biliary  concretion.  It
forms the chief portion  of the substances called
be.zoar stones.  It was obtained  by digesting the
calculus in boiling alcohol of 98$, evaporating, and
redigesting the residue first  in cold and  then in
boiling alcohol; from  the latter solution the acid
was obtained by 6low evaporation.  Colorless and
crystalline when pure, forming salts with the bases.
  LITHOGRAPHIC INK.   Prep.  I. Mastich
in tears 8 oz.; shellac 12 oz.;  Venice  turpentine
1 oz.; melt together, add wax  1 lb., tallow 6 oz.;
when dissolved, further  add  hard tallow  soap, in
shavings, 6 oz.; when the whole is combined, add
lampblack 4 oz.; mix well, cool a little, and  then
pour it into moulds or on  a slab, and when cold cut
it into square pieces.
  II.  (M. Lasteyrie.)  Dry tallow soap, mastich
in tears, and common soda in fine powder, of each
30 parts; shellac  150 parts;  lampblack 12 parts;
mix as last.   Both the above are used for writing
on lithographic stones.
  III. (Autographic.) a. White wax  8 oz., and
white soap 2 to 3 oz.; melt,  when well combined
add lampblack 1 oz.; mix well, and heat it strong-
ly ; then add shellac 2 oz.; again heat it strongly ;
stir well together, cool a  little,  and pour it out as
before.  With this ink lines may be drawn of the
finest to the fullest class, without danger of its
spreading, and the copy may  be kept for years be-
fore being transferred.
  6. White soap  and white wax, of each  10 oz.;
mutton suet 3 oz.; shellac and mastich, of each 5
oz.; lampblack 34 oz.; mix as above.  Both  the
above are used for writing on lithographic paper.
When the last one is employed, the transfer must
be made within a week.
  Remarks.  The above inks are rubbed down
with a little water in a cup  or saucer for use, in
the same way as common water-color cakes, or
Indian ink.  In  winter, the operation  should  be
performed  near  the fire, or the saucer should be
placed over a basin  containing a little warm or
tepid water.   Either a steel-pen or camel's hair
pencil may be employed with the ink.  (See Lith-
ography.)
  LITHOGRAPHIC PAPER.  Prep. I. Starch
6 oz.; gum arabic 2j3z.; alum 1 oz.; make  a strong
solution of each separately, in hot water, mix, and
apply it while still warm to one side  of leaves of
paper, with a clean painting-brush.  When dry, a
second and a third coat may be given ; lastly, press
it, to  make it smooth.
  II. Give the paper three coats of thin size, one
coat of good white starch, and one coat of a solu-
tion of gamboge in water; the whole to be applied
with a sponge, and each  coat to be allowed to dry
before the other is applied.  The  whole of the so-
lutions should be  fresh made.
  Remarks. Lithographic paper is used  to write on
with lithographic ink.  The writing may be trans-
ferred by simply moistening the back of the paper,
and evenly pressing  it on the stone, when a re-
versed copy is obtained, which may be  used to
print  from, and will yield corrected copies, resem-
bling the original writing or drawing.
  LITHOGRAPHY.   (From Mos, a  stone, and
ypafttv, to write or draw.)   The art of engraving
on stone.  Want of space must limit our notice of
this beautiful art to the  following remarks, which
are inserted to explain the method  of using litho-
graphic crayons, ink, and paper.
  There are two modes  of lithography  in  general
use.   For the one a drawing is made on the litho-
graphic stone,  with a lithographic crayon,  (see
Crayons, Lithographic,) or  with lithographic
ink, and when  the  design is  dry, a very weak so-
lution of oil  of vitriol, or muriatic  acid, is poured
upon the stone, which acts by removing the alkali
from the chalk or ink used to draw the design, and
thus leaves them in a  permanent  and insoluble
form.   The acid also removes a very small portion
of the surface of the  stone occupied by the lights
of the drawing, and renders it more absorbent.  In
the other method, the  design  is made on litho-
graphic paper, (see the last article,) which paper,
on being moistened, laid  on the  stone, and passed
through the press, leaves its  design on  the stone,
which is then acted on by acid  as before described.
To print from stones so prepared, water is  thrown
on them, and the roller, charged with printing ink,
passed over  them, when  the  paper is applied,  and
a copy is obtained by the action of the press.  The
same  process must be had  recourse to for each
copy.   The nature of the stone is such  that it re-
tains with great  tenacity  the resinous and oily sub-
stances contained in the ink or crayon employed to
form the  design, and  also absorbs water  freely;
this, combined with the  peculiar affinity between
resinous  and oily substances,  and  their  mutual
power of repelling water, occasions the  ink on the
printing roller to adhere  to the design,  or resinous
portion, and to  leave untouched the lights or wa-
tered parts of the stone.   The stones are prepared
by polishing in the ordinary way ; the style of work
for which they are intended determining the de-
gree of labor bestowed upon them.  For  crayon
drawings, the surface should  have a fine grain, but
the finish of the stone  must depend upon  the de-
sired softness of  the intended drawing;  for writing
or drawing on in ink, the surface must receive a
higher polish, and must  be finished  off with pum-
ice stone and water.   The best lithographic stones
are obtained  from Solenhofen,  near Munich, and
from Pappenheim, on  the  banks of the Danube.
The white lias which lies immediately under the
blue,  near  Bath, also yields  good  lithographic
stones.
  LIVER OF ANTIMONY.   Syn. Hepar An-
timonii.   A crude oxysulphuret of  antimony, pre-
pared by roasting crude  antimony to a dull gray,
and then melting  it.   Another preparation, made
by  mixing and  melting  common antimony with
twice its weight of potash, is also called liver of
antimony, and is used by farriers as a strong purgsr
for grease in horses' heels.
  LIVER OF SULPHUR.  Fused s.ilphuret of
potassium.
  LOBELIANIN.   This name  has been given
by Dr. Pereira  to the  butyraceous volatile oil ob-
tained by distilling Indian tobacco 'lobelia  inflata)
along with water.
  LOBELIC ACID.  This name has  been given
to the acid existing in decoction of lobelia.   The
decoction reddens litmus,  and  is precipitated bf
several metallic  salts. 
LOH                    403                   LOT
   LOBELINA.   Syn.  Lobelin.  A soft brown
substance, found by Colhoun in lobelia inflata.   It
is soluble in alcohol, and forms salts with the acids,
and is said to resemble the nicotin of Berzelius.  It
may be obtained by the action of alcohol, evapora-
tion, digestion of the residue  in an arid, and subse-
quent precipitation.
   LOBSTERS.   The heavier fish are the best.
When fresh, they  have a lively color and pleasant
smell.   When boiled, the tail will be stiff, and pull
up with a spring, if fresh.  The cock lobster is pre-
ferred, though smaller than  the  hen,  and may be
known by the  narrow back part  of  his tail, and
the  two uppermost fins  within  it being stiff and
hard ;  those of the hen are softer and  broader.
   LOCKSOY.  Rice boiled to a paste and drawn
into threads.  Used  to  thicken  soups.  It  is im-
ported from China.
   LOCOFOCOS, (from loco foci, instead of a fire.)
The American name for Congreve matches. From
the  following accident, these matches have given
their name  to  the  ultra-democratical  party of
America :—During a meeting of some of that party
in 1834, at Tammany Hall, New York, the lamps
suddenly  became  extinguished, when several per-
sons present drew boxes of locofocos from their
pockets and relighted them; since which time the
word  has  been equally  applied to  matches and
ultra-democrats.
   LOGWOOD.   Syn. Bois de Campeche ;  Bois
Bleu,  (Fr.)   Blauholz,  (Ger.)  H.ematoxyli
lignum ;  Lignum  Campechense ; Lignum Campe-
chianum ;  Lignum Campescanum ; Lignum Indi-
cum ;  Lignum Sappan, (Lat.)  The wood of  hama-
toxylon campechianum, (Linnaeus.)   Logwood is
largely employed in dyeing and  calico printing for
the  production  of reds, violets,  purples,  blacks,
drabs, &,c.  It readily yields its color both to spirit
and boiling water.   The color of  its  infusion is a
fine red, turning on the purple or violet;  acids turn
it yellow, and alkali? deepen it.  It dyes stuff pre-
viously mordanted with alum, of various shades of
violet and purple, according to the proportions of
the materials. By using solution of tin as the mor-
dant, various shades of red,  lilac, and violet,  may
be obtained.  The addition of a  little  Brazil wood
is commonly made to brighten  the red.  With a
mordant of sulphate  or  acetate  of iron,  it  dyes
black ;  and with the addition of a little sulphate of
copper, grays of various  shades.  It  is, however,
chiefly employed in conjunction  with  gall nuts for
dyeing black, to which it  imparts a lustre and vel-
vety appearance.  Silk is usually turned through
the  cold decoction, but for  wool  the  decoction is
used either hot or boiling.  Logwood is one of the
cheapest and most easily managed  of the  dye
stuffs.                               *
   LOHOCH, (ARAB.)   -Syn. Lohock. Looch.
Loch.   Linctus.   A medicine licked  off a spoon.
(See Linctus.)
   LOHOCH, COMMON.  Syn. Lohoch com-
mune.   Prep. (P.  E. 1744.)   Oil  of almonds  and
sirup of tolu, of each, Jj 5 powdered white sugar
3ij;  mix.    Demulcent;  in  coughs and hoarse-
ness.
  LOHOCH,  DEMULCENT.   Syn.  L. De-
mulcens.  Prep. I.  (L. Tronchin.) Oil  of almonds,
sirup of capillaire, manna, and cassia pulp, of each
5ij ;  powdered gum tragacanth  16 grs.; orange-
flower water f fij ; mix.  For coughs, &c.   The
above is the quantity for 2 days, which  is as long
as it will keep.
   II. Yelk of one egg ; oil of almonds 2 oz.; sirup
of althasa 1 oz.; rose water 3 oz.; mix.  In coughs
and hoarseness.
   LOHOCH, EXPECTORANT.  Syn. L. Ex-
pectorans.   Prep.  (Zanetti.)   Kermes  mineral
4 grs.; manna ^yj; oil of almonds, sirup of squills,
and sirup of senega, of each 3ij ; mix.  Laxative,
demulcent, and expectorant; in coughs, &c.
   LOHOCH, GREEN.   Syn. L. Viride. White
lohoch,  colored with the  sirups of  saffron and
violets.
   LOHOCH OF LINSEED.  Syn. L. de Lino.
Prep. (P. E. 1744.)   Fresh linseed oil, and sirup
of tolu,  of each §j j  sulphur and white  sugar, of
each 3ij; mix.                             ^
   LOHOCH OF MANNA.  Syn.  L. de  Man-
na.  Linctus  demulcens  et  aperiens.   Prep.
(P. E. 1744.)   Manna,  oil of aln -Mids, and sirup
of violets, equal  parts;  mix.  Lax* Ave and de-
mulcent.  A good medicine in the coughs of chil-
dren.
   LOHOCH OF OIL  OF ALMONDS.  Syn.
L. Oleosum.  Prep. I. (P. Cod.)  Oil of almonds,
powdered gum, and orange-flower water,  of each
3iv ; sirup of althoea  Jj ; mix.
   II. Oil of almonds, powdered gum, sirup  of al-
thasa, and rose water, of each 1 oz.; mix.  Both
are demulcent; in coughs, &c.
   LOHOCH OF SOAP.  -Syn. L. Saponis.  Prep.
(P. E. 1744.)  Castile soap 3j ; oil of almonds Jj ;
sirup of  tolu 5'ss '- niix.   Demulcent.  In coughs
and hoarseness attended  by indigestion.
•  LOHOCH OF SPERMACETI.  Syn. L. Ce-
tacei.  Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Spermaceti 3ij  ; yelk
of one egg ; triturate together, then add oil of
almonds %ps; sirup of tolu §j.  A bland demul-
cent.
   LOHOCH, PECTORAL.   Syn. Fox lungs.
Lou. e pulmonf. Vulpium.  L. Pectorale.   Prep.
Spermaceti and Spanish  juice, of each 8 oz.; wa-
ter q. s.  to soften the liquorice ; make a thin elec-
tuary, and add honey 3 lbs.; oil of aniseed  1 oz.;
mix well.  A popular and excellent demulcent in
coughs.   It  formerly contained fox lungs,  but
spermaceti is now substituted.
   LOHOCH, WHITE.   Syn. L. Album.  Prep.
(P. Cod.)  Jordan almonds 3ivss ;  bitter almonds
3ss ; blanch by steeping  in hot water and removing
the skins,  add white sugar §ss; gum tragacanth
15 grs. ; beat to a smooth  paste,  and further add,
oil of almonds  and orange-flower water,  of each
3iv ; pure water f giv ; make a lohoch.  A very
pleasant demulcent in coughs, &c.
  Remarks. A spoonful of any one of  the prece-
ding lohochs may be  taken ad libitum.
  LOTION.  Sun. Lotion, (Fr.)   Lotio, (Lat,
from lavo, I wash.)   In  Medicine, a solution of
medicinal  substances in water, employed as an
external application.  Lotions  may be made of
any soluble medicaments that are capable of exert-
ing their action by contact with the skin.  Lotions
have been divided into classes, as sedative,  ano-
dyne, stimulant,  &c.  Sedative and refrigerant
lotions are commonly employed to alhiy inflamma-
tion,__anodyne and narcotic  lotions   to relieve
pain,__stimulant  lotions to induce the maturation 
LOT                    404                    LOT
of tumors, &c,—detergent lotions,  to  clean foul
ulcers, &c,—repellent  and resolvent  lotions, to
discuss tumors, remove eruptions, &c.  Lotions
are usually  applied by  wetting a piece of linen
with them, and keeping it on the part affected, or
by moistening the part with the fingers  previously
dipped into them.   Lotions are more agreeable if
made with rose water.
  LOTION, ACID.  Syn. Lotio Acida.  Prep.
I.  (Collier.)  Strong nitric acid f^ss* water 1 pint;
mix.  Dr. Collier says that he has cured lepra of
14 years' standing by the use of this lotion,  ac-
companied by proper doses of the  solution of cor-
rosive sublimate, P. L.
  II. (Guy's H.)  Nitric acid 38 drops ; water 1
pint.  Used  in  mortification.
  III. (Copland.)   Nitromuriatic acid 3j ; water
f fxvj ; mix. In mortification and liver complaints.
  LOTION, ALKALINE.  Syn.  L.  Alcalina.
Pbep.  (P. Cod.)   Carbonate of potash 3'j '■> rose
water 1 quart ; mix.   Detergent, stimulant
  LOTION,  ANTIPHLOGISTIC.  Syn.  L.
Antiphlogistica.   Prep.  (Copland.)   Solution of
diacetate of  lead (P. L.) 3vj ; liquor of  acetate of
ammonia §iv ;  water 1 quart;  mix.   Refrigerant,
sedative,  repellent.  Used to allay inflammation.
  LOTION,,  ANTIPSORIC.   Syn.  L. Anti-
psorica.  Prep.  (Cazenave.)  Sulphuret of potas-
sium 3j ;  soap  (soft) 3ij; water §viij; dissolve.  An
excellent remedy for the itch.  It leaves but little
smell behind, and does not soil the linen.
   LOTION, ASTRINGENT.   Syn.  L. astrin-
gens.  Prep. I.  Alum  4 oz- i water 1 pint;  dis-
solve.
   II. Muriate of iron, or blue vitriol, 1 oz.; water
4 pint.   Some use less water.  The last is  used
for horses and  cattle.
   LOTION, CAMPHORATED.  Syn. L. Cam-
phora***a. L.  Plumbi  diacetatis  camphorata.
Prep. L.luted solution of diacetate of lead, P. L.,
^viij; spirit  of camphor 3ij;  mix,  and shake  well.
Refrigerant  and  anodyne, employed  in erysipela-
tous inflammations, burns, contusions, sprains, ex-
coriations, &c.
  LOTION,  DISINFECTING.  L.  Disinfec-
tans.  L. Chlorinii.  Prep.  (Majendie.)  Liquor
of chloride of soda f §j ; water 4 pint
  II. Chloride of  lime  3iij ;  water  1  pint;  dis-
solve.  Both are good washes for  foul ulcers, the
itch, the  teeth, to sweeten the breath, and remove
the smell of tobacco smoke, and for various similar
purposes.
   LOTION, EVAPORATLNG.   Syn. L. E*vap-
orans.   Prep. (Copland.)  Sulphuric ether,  rec-
tified spirit  of wine, and solution of  acetate of
ammonia, of each f^'*58! rose water f ^iiiss; mix.
Some add  solution of diacetate of lead (diluted)
3vj.  Refrigerant,  if  allowed to evaporate by  free
exposure ; stimulant, if the evaporation is prevent-
ed by covering the part with the hand.  Useful in
nervous  headache, &c.
   LOTION  FOR  TENDER-MOUTHED
HORSES.  Prep. Powdered alum or borax 1 oz.;
honey \  lb.; infusion of  roses  1 lb.   To be  used
with a syringe.
   LOTION FOR GREASE.  Prep.  1. Sugar
of  lead  \  lb.; vinegar  4 P'nt > water 14  pints;
mix.—2. Alum 6  oz.; blue vitriol 1 oz.; water 1
quart.—3.  Alum 1 oz.; oil of vitriol 1  dr.; water
1 pint.—4. Corrosive  sublimate  4 oz* 5 spirits 0!
salts 1 oz.; water  1  quart.   The first three ara
used when the horses'  heels are  inflamed  and
irritable;  the last, when the  discharge  is very
fetid.
  LOTION  FOR  INFLAMMATORY  TU-
MORS, &c.  Prep.  (A. T. Thomson.)   Sal am-
monia 3j ; rectified spirit f^j; soft water f^v ; mix,
and dissolve.
  LOTION  FOR  SWELLED JOINTS, &c.
Prep.  (A. T.  Thomson.)   Opium 3ij;   distilled
vinegar f ^vj; triturate together.  To allay pain.
  LOTION  FOR OPHTHALMIA.  Prep. (A.
T. Thomson.)  a.  Sulphate of zinc and acetate of
lead, of each 10 grs.; rose and elder-flower water,
of each f ^iij ; mix.  To  be applied  either alone or
diluted with water, after  locaP bleeding.—b. Sugar
of lead 9  grs.; distilled vinegar f 3iij ;  rectified
spirit f3j; rose water f^vss; rrfix.  Used in the
acute stages.
  LOTION FOR  GALLS, &c.  Prep. 1. Vin-
egar and spirit  of  wine,  of each  4 oz.; sugar of
lead 4 oz.; water 4 pint ; mix.—2.  Soap liniment,
and solution of  acetate of ammonia, equal parts.—
3. Sal  ammoniac 1 oz.;  muriatic acid 3 dr.; wa-
ter  1  pint.   Used by farriers for saddle  galls  or
warbles.
  LOTION FOR MANGE.  Prep.  1. Corro-
sive sublimate \ oz.; spirits of salt 4 °z- j  water 1
quart.—2.  Corrosive sublimate 1 dr.; sal ammo-
niac 4 oz.;  water 1 pint.—3. To the last add strong
decoction of white hellebore 4 pint Used for mange
in horses, cattle, and dogs, when sulphur ointment
fails.
  LOTION FOR  STRAINS.   Sugar of lead
1 oz.;  vinegar  and water, of each 4 pint; cam-
phorated spirit \ oz.;  mix.  Used by farriers.
  LOTION, GOWLAND'S.    Prep.  Blanched
bitter almonds  1 oz.;  blanched  sweet almonds 4
oz.; beat to a  paste, add pure water 1 pint, mix
well, strain through a piece of coarse muslin, put
it into  a bottle, add corrosive  sublimate in powder
10 to 12 grs., dissolved in a teaspoonful or two  of
spirit of wine, and shake  well. Used as a cosmetic
to improve the complexion; also  as a wash for
obstinate eruptions.   For the latter purpose, the
quantity of corrosive sublimate  may be  doubled;
hut the weight  given above should not be exceeded
when the lotion is intended for a cosmetic.  As a
beautifier of the  complexion, it is employed  by
wetting the skin with it, either  by means of the
corner of  a napkin, or the fingers dipped into it,
and it is  then  gently wiped off  with a dry cloth.
(See Cosmetics, and Lotion of Bichloride  0?
Mercury.)
  LOTION, MERCURIAL.  Prep.  I. (Black
wash.   Black  lotion. Lotio nigra.  Aqua  mer-
curialis  nigra.   L.  hydrargyri nigra.   Mild
phagedanic lotion.  Aqua  phagedanica mitis.)
1. Calomel  3j;  lime water 1  pint;  mix,  and
shake  well.  These are  the usual proportions,—2.
 (Guy's H.)  Calomel 3j ;  lime  water %vu]; mix
as last.  The bottle should be well shaken  before
the lotion is applied.  Black wash is a favorite ap-
plication to all kinds of syphilitic sores.
   II.  (Yellow  wash or lotion.  Red do.   Pha-
gedanic do.   Lotio flava.   Lotio or aqua pha-
gedanica.   L. hydrargyri flava.)  1.  Corrosive
sublimate  in powder 3ss; lime water 1 pint; mil, 
LOT                   405                    LOT
 and shake  well.  2.  (Guy's H.)  Corrosive sub-
 limate 15 grs.;  water 1 pint.   As last.   It should
 be well shaken before use.  A common  applica-
 tion to syphilitic and scrofulous sores.
   LOTION  OF  ALUM.  Syn.  L.  Aluminis.
 Prep. I.  (St.  B.  H.)  Alum  3ss ;  water 1 pint;
 dissolve.  Astringent.  Used for sore gums, nip-
 ples, &c.
   II. Alum and white vitriol,  of each  3ij; vine-
 gar f §j ;  water 1  pint; mix, and  dissolve.  Used
 for chilblains.
   LOTION OF   AMMONIA,  (ACETATE.)
 Syn.  L. Ammonia   acetatis  Prep.  (P.  C.)
 Liquor of acetate of  ammonia, rectified  spirit of
 wine, and water, equal parts.   Used  in phlegmo-
 nous inflammation.
   LOTION  OF AMMONIA,  (MURIATE.)
 Syr. L. Salis ammoniaci.   L.  Ammonia muriatis.
 Prep.  I. (Pereira.)   a.  Sal ammoniac ^j to §ij ;
 water  f §xij ;  dissolve.   Spirit of  wine f §iv is
 sometimes  added.  Used in  contusions, ecchy-
 mosis, and  cirsocele,  when  the skin is sound; in
 chronic tumors of the  breast, white  swellings,
 chronic affections of  the joints, hydrocele, chil-
 blains,  &c.—b.  Sal ammoniac 3j  to 3iv; water 1
 pint; dissolve.   In itch, ulcers, &c, and as  an in-
 jection and eye-water.
   II. (Justamond.)  Sal  ammoniac  §j;  spirit of
 rosemary 1  pint.  As above.
   III.  (St. B. H.)  Sal ammoniac fss ;  water
 and spirit of wine, of each 1 pint.  As above.
   LOTION  OF AMMONIA,  (OPIATED.)
 Syn. L. Ammonia opiata.  Prep.  (Dr.  Kirkland.)
 Compound  spirit  of ammonia  §iiiss ; tincture of
 opium  Jss;  water  $iv;  mix.   Anodyne and
 stimulant.
   LOTION  OF  BELLADONNA.  Syn.   L.
 Belladonna.  Prep.  (Graefe.) Extract of deadly
 nightshade  3j ; diluted  solution of  diacetate  of
 lead (P. L.) 1 pint; dissolve.   Applied to tui *?rs,
 and glandular enlargements.
   LOTION OF  BORAX. Syn.  L.  Boracic*.
 Prep. (Copland.)   Powdered borax 3j; rose and
 orange-flower  waters, of  each ^iij j dissolve.   A
 fragrant and effective application to sore gums,
 sore nipples, excoriations,  &c.
   LOTION OF   BICHLORIDE   OF MER-
 CURY.  Syn.  L. Hydrargyri Bichloridi.   L.
 Hydrargyri muriatis.  Prep.  I. (P.  C.)  Cor-
 rosive sublimate 16 grs.; muriatic acid 8 drops ;
 water f ^xvj; mix.
   II. (St. B.  H.)   Corrosive  sublimate 24 grs.;
 water 1 pint; gum acacia %aa ;  mix.
   III. (Lotio hydrargyri amygdalina,  St. B. H.)
 Corrosive  sublimate 10 grs.; blanched bitter al-
 monds fj; water 1 pint.   All the  above are used
 in obstinate  eruptions.   This resembles Gowland's
 lotion, and may be used  for it.  The ingredients
 are mixed in the same way.
   LOTION OF CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM.
 L. Potassii  Cyanidi.   Prep.   (Cazenave.)  Cy-
 anide of potassium 9ss: emulsion of  bitter al-
 monds Jvj ; dissolve.   (See Lotion  of Prussic
 Acid.)
  LOTION OF  ELDER-FLOWERS.   Syn.
 L. Sambuci.  Prep. (Ryan.)   Infusion  of elder-
flowers  1  pint; spirit of camphor  5V"J j  m'x-
Emollient and anodyne.
  LOTION OF  GALLS.   Syn.   L. Galla.
 Prep.   (St. B.  H.)   Bruised  galls 3ij; boiling
 water  1  pint; infuse an hour, and strain.  As-
 tringent.  An excellent application to sore nip.
 pies, or  to strengthen  them  before  suckling
 spirit of wine  Sgiij  may be advantageously added.
 and a like portion of water omitted.
   LOTION OF LIME. Syn. L. Calcis spirit-
 uosa.   Prep.  (P.  C.)  Spirit of wine giv;  lime
 water ^viij ; mix
   LOTION  OF  LEAD,  (ACETATE.)  Syn.
 L. Plumbi  acetatis.  Prep.  (Collier.)   Sugar of
 lead 3j ;  pure water, or rose water gviij ; dissolve.
 Astringent, refrigerant.  Applied  to excoriations,
 burns,  sprains, contusions, &c.  (See Solution of
 Diacetate of Lead.)
   LOTION  OF MYRRH.   Syn. L. Myrrha.
 Prep.   (Dr. Kirkland.)   Tincture of myrrh and
 lime water, equal  parts ; mix.  Applied to scor-
 butic ulcers and gums.
   LOTION  OF   MYRRH,  (COMPOUND.)
 Syn.   L.  Myrrha  composita.  Prep.  (P.  C.)
 Honey of roses and tincture of myrrh, of each 3ij ;
 lime water §iiss ; mix.   As last; also  *.sed  as *
 dentifrice.
   LOTION  OF  PRUSSIC  ACID.  Syn.  I,.
 Acidi hydrocyanici. Prep. I. (Majendie.)  Med-
 icinal prussic acid 3j to 3iv ; lettuce water f fxxxvj ;   •»
 mix.
   II.  (A.T.Thomson.) Medicinal prussic acid and
 rectified spirit, of each f 3ij ; distilled water f |viiss ;
 sugar of lead 16 grs. ; mix.
   III.  (Sneider.)   Medicinal  prussic  acid  3iss ;
 rectified  spirit and  water, of  each  f ^vj ;  mix.
 Lotions of  prussic  acid  have  been employed  to
 allay pain and irritation in various chronic  skin
 diseases, especially scaly and itchy eruptions, and
 in cancer, with variable success.
   LOTION OF OPIUM.  Syn.  L. Opii. Prep.
 (St. B.  H.)  Opium 3iss ;  boiling water  1  pint;
 triturate and strain.  Used for painful and irritable

   LOTION OF SOAP.  Syn. Liquid Soap. L.
 Saponis.  L.  Saponacea.  Prep.  (P. L.  1746.)
 Liquor  of carbonate of  potash 5SS j olive oil ^iv ;
 rose water §xij ; mix, and agitate well. Emollient.
 Chiefly used as a cosmetic.
   LOTION OF SPIRIT, (CAMPHORATED.)
 Syn. L. Spirituosa camphorata.  Prep. (Ware.)
 Elder-flowers ^ss; camphor 3ss ; rectified spirit
 §iv ; macerate 24 hours, then  press out the liquor.
 Stimulant and fragrant
   LOTION OF  SULPHATE OF COPPER
 Syn. L. Cupri sulphatis.  Prep.  Blue vitriol 3j;
 powdered camphor  §j; boiling  water 2 quarts ; in-
 fuse in a close vessel 1 hour.  For phagedenic ulcers.
   LOTION OF  SULPHATE OF ZINC.  Syn.
 L. Zinci.  L. Zinci sulphatis.   Prep.  I.  (P. C.)
 Sulphate of zinc 3ss ; water §viij; dissolve.   A"
 tringe^pt  Used in some chronic skin diseases, as
 a  wash  for loose  flabby granulations, and for
 ulcers that discharge profusely, &c.
   II. (Collier.)  Sulphate of  zinc  3ij; water  1
 pint; dissolve.  As a counter-irritant in pains of
 the joints, periosteum, old sprains, &c.
   LOTION, RUBEFACIENT. .Syn. L. Rube-
 facient L.  Antimonii Potassio-tartratis. Prep.
 I.  (Pereira.)  Emetic tartar  3j ; boiling water
^iss ; dissolve.  Employed as  a local  irritant in-
stead of the  ointmei t 
LOZ
406
LOZ
  II. (Sir Wm. Blizard.)  Emetic tartar 20 grs.;
boiling water 5j j dissolve.  Used to cleanse foul
ulcers, to repress fungous growths and warts, in
ringworm, &c.
  III. (Ger. H.)   Emetic tartar 3j; water  1
pint;  tincture  of  camphor §ss;  mix.  All  the
above are rubefacient and irrjtant  The last one,
diluted with twice or thrice its weight of water, is
employed as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia,
and in specks on the cornea.
  LOTION,  TAR   Syn.  L. Picis  liquida.
Prep. (Saunders.) Quicklime Jvj;  water f gxlviij;
slake,  add  tar §iv,  and boil to one  half.   This
liquid consists of a solution of  pyrolignite of lime,
and pyrogenous oil and  resin.   It may be  ad-
vantageously employed in  various  chronic  skin
diseases,  especially  those affecting  the  heads of
children.
  LOZENGE.  -Syn.   Tablette, (Fr.)   Tro-
chiscus, (Lat)   In  Pharmacy  and Confection-
ary, a small round  tablet,  or flattened  cylinder,
chiefly composed  of sugar, starch, or gum, and
employed either as  a simple demulcent or sweet-
meat, or  for the commodious exhibition of certain
medicines.   In  the  preparation of lozenges,  the
ingredients are first  mixed, and well beaten into a
stiff paste, which is next rolled out to  a  proper
thickness, and cut into pieces of the desired shape
by means of a small cylinder or punch of steel or
tin.  The newly-formed lozenges  are then dried
by placing them on an  inverted  sieve  in  a dry
and airy situation,  and frequently  turning  them,
until they  become  hard and  brittle;  observing
carefully to  preserve  them from  the dust.   To
prevent the  mass  from  sticking  either to the
fingers or utensils, a little powdered starch, or a
very little  olive oil scented with the same  aro-
matic  as that contained  in the lozenges, may be
used.  Mucilage of gum arabic, or gum tragacanth,
or the  strained white of  eggs, are  the substances
usually employed to make the pulverulent materials
adhere together.  All the ingredients should be re-
duced to  a fine powder before mixing.
  Lozenges made  by  melting  one half of the
sugar in a brass or iron pan, lipped to the right,
with a little flavored water, then adding the other
half of the  powdered  sugar, previously warmed,
and dragging small portions of the grouty mass
out  by a wire, so as to  fall on  a stone  or  metal
slab or plate, rubbed with a  little powdered starch
or sweet  oil,  are  called " drops"  by the con-
fectioners, and " pastilles" (pastilli) by the French.
(See Drops, Confectionary.)
  Ambergris is the most suitable perfume for lozen-
ges and tablettes for the mouth.
  LOZENGES, ANTIMONY.  Syn.  Morsuli
Stibii  Kunkelii.  Trochisci Antimonii.  Prep.
(P.  Cod.)  Prepared sulphuret  of  antimony and
powdered cardamom seeds, of  each ^j;  blanched
almonds §ij; powdered white sugar ^xiij; powder-
ed cinnamon 3iv *, mucilage of  tragacanth q. s.;
mix as above, and divide into  lozenges of 15 grs.
each.  One of the  best modes  of  exhibiting sul-
phuret of antimony  as an alterative.
  LOZENGES,  BARK.  -Syn. Tro. Cinchona.
Prep.  (P. Cod.)  Powdered cinchona §ij; do. cin-
namon 3ij; do. white sugar ^xiv  ; mucilage of gum
tragacanth q. s.; mix as above, and divide into  16
gr. lozenges.  Tonic.
   LOZENGES, BISMUTH. Syn.  Tro. Bibmd
thi. Prep  (Trousseau.)  Trisnitrate of bismuth
3ij ; white sugar Jiss; mucilage to mix.  For 120
lozenges.  Tonic and antispasmodic. 1 to 3, sucked
2 or 3 times daily, in dyspepsia, &.c.
   LOZENGES, BORAX.  -Syn.  Tro.  Boracis.
Powdered borax ^ss ; do. white sugar  ^j ; mucilage
of gum tragacanth to mix.   For 60 lozenges.
   LOZENGES, CALOMEL. Syn. Tro.  Calo-
melanos.  Prep. (P. Cod.)  Calomel 3j; powdered
sugar 3xj; mucilage of tragacanth to mix ;  divide
into 12 gr. lozenges.   Alterative.   A simple way
of introducing mercury into the system.  During
their use, salt  food and  acid  liquors  should  be
avoided.
   LOZENGES, CATECHU.  Syn. Tro. Cate-
chu.  Prep.  I.  (Tro.  de terra Japonica,  P.  E.
1744.)  Powdered catechu ^ ij ; do. tragacanth ^ss;
do. white sugar §xij ; rose water to mix.
   II. (Tro. Catechu et Magnesia, P. Cod.) Mag-
nesia §ij ; powdered catechu 5J >  do. sugar §xiij;
mucilage of gum tragacanth made with cinnamon
water, q. s. to mix.
   III. (Cachou Lozenges.)—a. Powdered catechu
3 oz.; sugar 12  oz.;  mucilage of gum tragacanth
to mix.—b.  (Cachou  a I'Ambre  gris.)  To the
last add ambergris 8  grs., or a sufficient  quantity
of the  essence or tincture.—c. (Cachou Musque.)
The same, with musk 8 grs.; or essence q. s.—d.
(Cachou a lafleur d'Oranges.)   The same, with
essence of neroli 8 drops.—e. (Cachou a la Rose.)
The same, with  otto of roses 6 drops.—■/. (Cachou
a la Violette.)   The same, with  powdeied orris
root (best) \ oz.; or  essence of violets 1 oz.;—g.
(Cachou d la reglisse.)  Catechu  2 oz.;  pure ex-
tract of liquorice 1 oz.; sugar 10 oz.;  mucilage of
tragacanth to mix.—h. (Cachou  a  la  Canelle.)
Catechu 3 oz.;  powdered cinnamon \ oz.; sugar
1 lb.; mucilage of tragacanth to mix.—i.  (Cachou
Aromatique.   Cachou  Aromatise.)   Powdered
catechu 3 oz.; oil of cinnamon 15 drops;  oil  of
cloves 2 drops ; essence of ambergris 4 dr.; pow-
dered sugar 1 lb.;  mucilage of tragacanth made
with rose or orange-flower water, q. s. to mix.
  Remarks. All the  above are taken in diarrhoea,
in  relaxation of the uvula, in  irritation of  the
larynx,  and as cosmetics to fasten the teeth, and
disguise  a stinking breath.  The  one  containing
magnesia (No. II.) is also sucked in dyspepsia and
heartburn.
  LOZENGES, CAYENNE.  Syn.  Tro. Cap-
sici. Prep. I. Powdered sugar 1 lb.; mucilage of
tragacanth q. s. to mix; add essence, tincture, or
vinegar  of cayenne, or  a little soluble  cayenne
pepper dissolved  in water to flavor.
  II. (Acidulated.)  To the last add  tartaric acid
4 oz. Both are  used in dyspepsia, and to promote
digestion and create an appetite.
  LOZENGES, CHALK.   Syn.  Heartburn
Lozenges. Tro.  Creta. Tro. Cardialgici. Prep.
(P. E.)  Powdered prepared chalk ^iv;  do. gum
arabic §j; do.  nutmeg 3j; do.  white sugar §vj;
beat to a mass with water (rose or  orange flower)
and  cut into lozenges.   Antacid, absorbent, and
astringent.  3 or 4 sucked ad libitum in  heartburn,
dyspepam, diarrhoea, acidity of the  stomach and
bowels,«&c.   A  simple and excellent  remedy.
  LOZENGES, CHARCOAL. Syn. Tro. Cah-
bbnib.  Prep.  I. (P. Cod.)  Finely powdered pre- 
LOZ                    407                   LOZ
 pared charcoal %\v ; do. white sugar ^xij ; mucilage
 to mix.  Have been given with advantage in diar-
 rhoea, cholera, and dyspepsia.
   II. (Tro. Carbonis cum Chocolata. M. Cheval-
 lier.) Charcoal as above, and white sugar, of each
 ^j;  chocolate § iij ; mucilage of gum tragacanth to
 mix. Nutritious.
   LOZENGES  OF  CHLORIDE OF LIME.
 iSyn. ^ro. Calcis chloridi.  Tro. Calcip chlo-
 rinata.  Prep.  Chloride of lime, dry and  in fine
 powder, \ oz.; white sugar £ lb.; mucilage  of tra-
 gacanth to mix.   Used to sweeten the breath and
 whiten the teeth.  They will not keep long.
   LOZENGES, CHING'S.  Prep. I. (Yellow.)
 Saffron 4 oz.; boiling water 1  pint; infuse,  strain,
 add calomel  1 lb.; powdered white sugar 28 lbs.;
 mix well, then make a mass with tragacanth mu-
 cilage,  and divide into 7000  lozenges.  %* Too
 much care cannot be taken to thoroughly incor-
 porate the  ingredients, so that  the calomel may be
 equally diffused through  the mass.  Dose.  1 to 6
 over night, as a vermifuge, followed by an equal
 number of the brown lozenges  (see below) next
 morning, fasting.  Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of
 calomel.
   II. (Brown.)   Calomel 7 oz.;  resinous extract
 of jalap 34 lbs.;  white sugar 10 lbs.; mix as last,
 with 'mucilage of tragacanth, and divide into 6125
 lozenges.  Each lozenge contains 4 gr. of calomel.
   LOZENGES, CINNAMON. Syn. Tro. cin-
 Namoni.  Prep. I. Finely  powdered cinnamon 4
 oz.; do. sugar 12 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth
 to mix.
   II. Finely powdered lump sugar 7 lbs.;  oil of
 cinnamon (cassia) J oz.; mucilage of gum  traga-
 canth q. s.  Stomachic. Cassia lozenges are made
 Sn the same way.
   LOZENGES,  CITRATE OF IRON.   Syn.
 Tro. Ferri citratis.  Prep.  (Beral.)  Ammonio-
 citrate  of iron 3j ; water ^ss ; dissolve, add sugar
 Jiiss ; evaporate to dryness, powder, make a mass
 with mucilage q. s., and  divide into  15-gr.  lozen-
 ges.  Tonic.
   LOZENGES,  CLOVE. Syn. Tro. Caryo-
 PHYLLi.  Prep.  I. Powdered cloves  2 oz.; sugar
 3 lbs.; mucilage of gum tragacanth to mix.  Divide
 into 150 lozenges.
   II. Powdered white sugar 7 lbs.,  do. gum tra-
 gacanth 2 oz.; oil of cloves 4 oz- > m'x with rose
 water.  Stomachic.   Both are used as restoratives
 after fatigue, added to chocolate to improve  its fla-
 vor or render it stomachic, and sucked to sweeten
 the breath.
   LOZENGES,  COPAIBA.   Syn.  Tro. Co-
 paiba.  Prep. Lump sugar 1  lb.; balsam  of co-
 paiba 1  oz.; oil of peppermint 20 drops ; mix with
 mucilage.
   LOZENGES,   COUGH.   Syn. Tro.   Anti-
 catarrhales. Tablettes de Tronchin.   Prep.
 (P. Cod.)  Powdered gum arabic ^viij ;  oil of ani-
 Beed 6  drops ; extract of opium 12 grs.; Kerme's
 mineral  3j ; pure extract of liquorice  §ij;  white
 sugar ^xxxij ; mix with water, and divide into small
 lozenges.
  LOZENGES,  CROTON  OIL.  Syn.  Tro.
Crotonis. Prep.  (Soubeiran.)  Croton oil 5 drops ;
powdered starch 3j ; do.  white sugar 3j; choco-
late 3ij; mix  and divide  into  30 lozenges; 5 or
more generally prove cathartic.          .
   LOZENGES, EMETIC. Syn. Tro. Emetine
 emetici.  Prep. (Majendie.)   Impure or colored
 emetina 32 grs.; or pure emetina 8 grs.;  whit*.
 sngar  ?ij ; mucilage to mix; divide into 64 loz-
 enges,  1 for a child, and 4 for an adult, as an
 emetic.
   LOZENGES, GINGER.   Syn. Tro.  Zingi-
 bers.   Prep. I. Finely powdered Jamaica ginger
 1 oz.;  white sugar 1 lb.; mucilage of  tragacanth
 to mix.
   II.  (Soubeiran.)  Powdered  ginger  Jj ;   white
 sugar  gvij ; mucilage to mix;  divide  into  15-gr.
 lozenges.  Both the above are stomachic.  Useful
 in flatulency and dyspepsia, and to create  an ap-
 petite.
   LOZENGES, GOLD. Syn.  Tro. Auri. Tro
 Sodii auro-chloridi.  Prep.   (Chrestien.)   Soda
 muriate of gold 4 grs.; white sugar ^j;  mucilage
 of  tragacanth  to mix.   For  60  lozenges.   In
 scrofula, cancer, &c, 1, or at most 2 lozenges for
 a dose.
   LOZENGES, GUM.   Syn.  Tro.  Acacia,
 (P. E.) Tro. Gummosi. Prep.  (P. E.)  Powdered
 gum arabic §iv ; do. starch §j; do. white  sugar
 lb.j ; mix with rose water, and  divide  into lozen-
 ges.  The Paris Codex substitutes orange flower
 for rose wafer.   Pectoral; demulcent.   Useful  to
 allay tickling coughs.
   LOZENGES,  GUM TRAGACANTH. -Syn.
 Tro. Gummi Tragacantha.  Prep.  (P.  E. 1744.)
 Sugar  lb.j; compound tragacanth powder §iij ; rose
 water  §iv ; mix.  Similar to the last.
   LOZENGES, HEARTBURN.  Syn.  Tablet-
 tes cardialgie. See Lozenges, Chalk and Mag-
 nesia.
   LOZENGES, ICELAND MOSS.  Syn. Tro.
 Lichenis. Prep.  Iceland moss gelatin, dried and
 powdered, ^ij ;  sugar §iv ; gum acacia 3iss ; water
 q. s. to mix.   Resemble gum lozenges.
   LOZENGES,  INDIAN HEMP.   Syn. Tro.
 Cannabis.   Prep.  (M. Ebriard.)  Extract  of In-
 dian hemp 12 grs.; sugar §iij ;  mucilage  of traga-
 canth to mix ; divide into 144 lozenges.   (See Ex-
 tract  of Indian Hemp.)            /
   LOZENGES,  IPECACUANHA.    Prep.  I.
 (Tro. Ipecacuanha, P. Cod.)  Powdered ipecacu-
 anha ^j 5  white sugar lb. iv.;  mucilage of  gum
 tragacanth to mix; divide  it into  12-gr.  lozenges.
 Each  lozenge  contains \ gr. of  ipecacuanha.
 Produces, if properly made, 1920 lozenges.
   II. (T. Ipecac, cum  chocolata, P. Cod.)  Choc-
 olate (a la vanille) fxij; liquefy by a gentle heat,
 add powdered ipecacuanha §j ;  mix perfectly, and
 form it into 12-gr. lozenges, while warm.   Both
 the above are pectoral and expectorant, and useful
 to allay tickling coughs, hoarseness, Sec.
   LOZENGES,  KERMES.   Syn. Tro.  Ker.
 metis.   Prep. (P. Cod.) Kermes mineral 3ij; pow-
 dered white sugar §xvij ; do. gum  acacia Jj; or-
 ange-flower  water f f j;  mix, and divide into 12-gr
 lozenges.  Each lozenge contains one-sixth of a
 gr.  of Kermes mineral.  Diaphoretic and expec-
 torant
  LOZENGES, LACTATE OF IRON.  Syn
 Tro. Ferri  Lactatis.  Prep- (M. Cap.)  Lactate
 of iron  3ss; white sugar 3vj ;  mucilage of gum
 tragacanth q. s.; mix, and divide into 30 lozenges.
Tonic.   Useful in debility  accompanied with  a
diseased state of the organs of digestion. 
LOZ                    408                   LOZ
  LOZENGES,  LACTIC  ACID.   -Syn. Tro.
Acidi  Lactici.   Prep.  (Majendie.)  Lactic  acid
3ij; powdered sugar fj; oil of vanilla 4 drops, (or
essence 3ss;)  mucilage  of tragacanth q. s.; mix,
and divide into 3ss lozenges.   (See Lactic Acid.)
  LOZENGES,  LACTUCARIUM.  Syn. Tro.
Lactucarii, (P. E.) Prepared with  lactucarium
in the same manner as the opium lozenges, P. E.
Each of these lozenges contains one-sixth to one-
seventh of a  grain of  lactucarium.   Anodyne.
Used to allay tickling coughs.
  LOZENGES,  LEMON.   -Syn. Tro. Limonis.
Prep.  I. (P. Cod.)  Essence  of lemon 3j; white
sugar §xij ; make them into  drops, (pastilles,) as
before directed, or into lozenges with mucilage of
gum tragacanth.
  II.  Acidulated,  a. (Tro. Acidi Citri, P. Cod.)
Citric arid 3iij; white sugar fxvj;  essence of lem-
on 16  drops;  mucilage of tragacanth q. s.; mix,
and divide into 12-gr. lozenges,   b. (Tro. Acidi
Tartarici, P. E.)  Tartaric acid 3ij ; white sugar
3;viij ;  essence of lemon 10  drops;  mucilage to
mix.  The last two may be made into drops in-
stead of lozenges, when  they  will  form ' acidula-
ted lemon drops'   Lemon lozenges and drops are
agreeable sweetmeats, and those that are acidu-
lated, very useful  to promote expectoration, (" cut
the phlegm," as it is commonly called,) in coughs,

  LOZENGES,  LIQUORICE.   Syn. Black
Lozenges.  Tro. Glycyrrhiza,  (P. E.)   Tro.
Glycyrrh. Glabra. Tro. Bechici Nigrl. Prep.
(P. E.) Extract of liquorice  and  gum acacia, of
each,  5vj 5 white sugar lb.j ; dissolve in water,
evaporate to  a  paste,  and  form into  lozenges.
Pectoral; demulcent   Useful to  allay  tickling
coughs, and remove hoarseness.
  LOZENGES,  MAGNESIA.   Syn.  Tro.
Magnesia, (P. E.)  Prep. Carbonate of magne-
sia §vj; powdered white sugar fiij ; oil of nutmeg
20 drops ; mucilage of tragacanth to mix.   Useful
in heartburn  and indigestion.  The  confectioners
generally omit the nutmeg, and use only half the
above quantity of  magnesia, and make  their mu-
cilage  with  rose  or orange-flower water.  It is
also  an improvement to use calcined  magnesia,
which  is about twice as strong as the carbonate,
and consequently  less need be employed.
  LOZENGES,  MANNA.  Syn. Tro. Manna.
Prep.  (Van Mons.)  Powdered tragacanth 3j ; do.
white sugar fxij ;  manna §iij ; orange-flower wa-
ter to mix.
  LOZENGES,  MARSHMALLOW.  Syn.
Tablettes de Guimauve.  Tro. At.thaa. Prep.
(P. Cod.)  Powdered marshmallow root ^ij ;  do.
sugar  f xiv >  mucilage of  tragacanth made with
orange-flower  water q. s.;  mix,  and  divide into
lozenges.  Demulcent and  expectorant.  Useful to
allay the irritation in cough, &c.
   LOZENGES,  MORPHIA.  Syn. Tro. Mor-
phia.   Prep.  (P. E.)  Muriate of morphia 3j ;
tincture of tolu ffss; powdered white sugar fxxv;
dissolve the muriate in a little warm water, mix it
with  the tincture and  the sugar, make a mass
With mucilage of  gum tragacanth, and divide into
15-gr. lozenges, each of which will contain  about
one-fortieth of a grain of muriate  of  morphia.
Used as opium lozenges, but are pleasanter.  The
Inorphia lozenges of the shops generally contain
one twenty-fourth of a gr. of muriate of morplihv
(Pereira.)
  LOZENGES,  MORPHIA  AND  IPECAC-
UANHA.  -Syn.  Tro. Morphia  ft Ipecacuan-
ha.  Prep  (P. E.) To the last, udd ipecacuanha
3j ; each  lozenge  contains  about  one-fortieth of
a gr.  of muriate  of morphia, and one-thirteenth
of a gr. of ipecacuanha.  Very  u^ful  to allay
tickling coughs.
  LOZENGES,   NITRE.   Syn.  Tro.  Nitrl
Tro. e Nitro, (P. E. 1783.)   Prep. Nitre fiij,
white sugar fix ; mucilage of tragacanth  to mix.
Diuretic.  Commonly sucked without swallowing,
to remove incipient sore throat
  LOZENGES,  NUTMEG.  Syn.  Tro.  My-
ristica.  As Cinnamon Lozenges.
  LOZENGES,   OPIUM.   Syn.  Tro.  Oph.
Prep.  (P. E.)   Opium (strained) 3ij; tincture of
tolu fss ;  tritura'e together,  add powdered  sugar
§vj ; extract of L. uorice (soft) and powdered gum
acacia,  of each, %v; mix, and divide into  10-gr.
lozenges ;  each of  which will contain one-sixth or
one-seventh of a  gr. of opium.  Used  to allay
tickling cough, and irritation of the fauces.
  LOZENGES,   ORANGE.   Syn.  Tro. Au-
rantii.  Prep.  I.  As lemon lozenges, substituting
essence of orange for essence of lemon.
  II.  (P. Cod.) Powdered sugar lb.j; neroli ^5j;
orange-flower  water q.  s. ;  make it  into  drops,
(pastilli,)  or omit  the water  and make  it into
lozenges with mucilage of tragacanth made with
orange-flower water.  Very agreeable.
  LOZENGES,   ORRIS.   Syn.  Tro.  Iridis
Prep.  Powdered orris 1 oz.; powdered sugar 1 lb.:
mucilage of tragacanth to mix.  Used to perfume
the breath.
  LOZENGES,  PECTORAL,   -Syn. Tro. Pec
torales.  Prep. I. (Dr. Grunn.) Powdered squills
4 parts ; do. ipecacuanha 18 parts; extract of let-
tuce 8  parts; manna 125 parts ; sugar 250 parts;
mucilage of tragacanth to mix.
  II.  (Majendie.)  Pure emetine 8 grs., or impure
do. 32 grs.; powdered sugar §iv ;  mucilage q. s.;
mix, and divide into 256 lozenges.
  III.  (Yellow. Tro. Bechici Flavi.)  Powdered
orris  root 3vj ; starch 3iv;  liquorice  powder 3iij;
saffron 3ij ;  sugar fviij; mucilage of tragacanth
to mix.  Each of the above is used in coughs,
&c.
  LOZENGES,  PEPPERMINT.   -Syn.  Tro.
Mentha Piperita.  Prep.  I. (Best.)  Lump su-
gar, in fine powder, 14 lbs.;  Mitcham oil of pep-
permint (best) 1 oz.; mucilage of gum tragacanth
to mix.  Very fine.
  II.  (2d Quality.)  Sugar 12 lbs.;  starch 2 lbs.;
oil of peppermint J oz. ;  mucilage  to mix.
  III.   (3d  Quality.)  Sugar  7 lbs.;  powdered
starch  4 lbs.; oil  of peppermint 4 oz.; mucilage
to mix.
  IV.  (Common.)   Sugar 8 lbs.; starch 4 lbs.;
plaster of Paris 2 lbs.; oil of peppermint to flavor;
mix..,
  V. (Trochisci mentha piperita, P. Cod.) Pow-
dered sugar fxvj ;  oil of peppermint 3j ;  mix, and
divide into 12-gr. lozenges. The peppermint drops
(pastilles)  of the French Pharmacopoeia are made
with sugar ?xij ;  oil of peppermint  3j ;  and pep-
permint water q. s.
  Remmrks.  The  best  peppermint locenges ara
I 
LOZ                    409                  LUT
 made  of the  very finest double  refined sugar,
 and of English oil of peppermint,  carefully mixed
 up with  very clean mucilage.  The commoner
 qualities are made by employing inferior lump su-
 gar and foreign oil of peppermint,  or what is bet-
 ter, English oil of peppermint, but in  a less pro-
 portion than for the better sorts.   The addition of
 a very small quantity of blue smalts, reduced to
 an impalpable powder, is commonly made to the
 sugar,  to  increase  its whiteness.   Transparent
 peppermint lozenges are made  from the  same
 materials as the opaque ones,  but  the  sugar is not
 reduced to quite so fine a powder,  and the cake is
 rolled thinner before  cutting it.  A  little  oil of
 almonds  or olives is also occasionally mixed with
 the ingredients, to promote  the transparency, but
 tends to render the lozenges  less white. Pepper-
 mint lozenges and drops are useful in flatulency.
   LOZENGES,   PONTEFRACT.   (See Ex-
 tract of Liquorice.)
   LOZENGES,  POPPY.   Syn. Tro. Papave-
 ris.   Prep. Extract of poppies 3 oz.;  sugar 15
 oz.; powdered gum tragacanth 2 oz.;  rose  water
 to mfc.   Used in coughs.
   LOZENGES,  QUININE.  Syn.  Tro.  Qui-
 nia  sulphatis.  Prep.  (Soubeiran.)  Sulphate of
 quinine 32 grs. ;  white  sugar 1 lb.; mucilage of
 gum tragacanth q. s.; divide  into 15-gr. lozenges.
 Tonic, febrifuge, and stomachic.
   LOZENGES,  RHUBARB.  Syn. Tro. Rhei.
 Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered rhubarb fj ; do. sugar
 §xj ; mucilage of tragacanth q. s.; mix, and di-
 vide into  12-gr.  lozenges.  Stomachic and  laxa-
 tive.  Sucked before dinner they  excite the  appe-
 tite.
   LOZENGES,  ROSE. Syn. Tro. Rosa.  Prep.
 I.  (P. L. 1746.) Powdered red rose leaves §j ; su-
 gar lb. j ; mix with weak mucilage.
   II.  (Pate de rose lozenges.  Pati-rosa lozenges.)
 Sugar 2 lbs.; otto of roses  10 drops; mix with
 mucilage. Very  fine.   Some add starch  4 oz.,
 substitute oil of rhodium for otto of roses, and use
 mucilage made with rose water.   If wanted red,
 make the mucilage with an infusion of cochineal,
 or red rose leaves.
   LOZENGE*. SAFFRON. Syn. Tro. Croci.
 Powdered hay saffron 1 oz.; do. white  sugar 1 lb.;
 mucilage of  gum tragacanth to  mix.  Anodyne,
 pectoral, and  emmenagogue.
   LOZENGES,  SODA.  Syn. Tro. Soda bi-
 carbonatis.   Prep. (P.  E.)   Bicarbonate of soda
 5j ;  powdered sugar ^iij ;  do. gum  arabic §ss ; mix
 with mucilage.  Antacid.  Useful in heartburn,
 &c.   (See Chalk Lozenges.)
   II.  (Pastilles de Vichy, P. Cod.)  Bicarbonate
 of soda §j; powdered sugar fxix • mucilage of gum
 tragacanth q.  s.; mix, and  divide into 20-gr. loz-
 enges.
   LOZENGES, SPONGE.  Syn. Tro. Spongia.
 Tro. Spongia usta.  Prep.  (P. Cod.) Powdered
 burnt sponge $iv ;  sugar  3;xij ;  mucilage of traga-
 canth q. 8.; mix, and divide into  12-gr. lozenges.
 Taken in scrofula, &c.
  LOZENGES,  STARCH.   Syn. Tro. Amyli.
 Tro.  Bechici  albi.  Prep.  (P. L.1788.)  Pow-
dered  starch ^iss;  do. liquorice 3vj ; do. orris root
3iv; do. sugar  lb.  iss;  mucilage of tragacanth to
mix.   Demulcent.
  LOZENGES,   STEEL.    Syn. Tro. Ferri.
                      52
 Prep. I. (P. Cod.)  Finely powdered iron  filings
 5J *, do. sugar §x ; do. cinnamon 3ij ; mucilage of
 tragacanth q. s.; mix, and divide into 480  lozen-
 ges.  Tonic.
   II.  (Aromatic.)  Sulphate  of iron 3iij;  sugar
 gxvj ; tincture of cantharidis §j; essence of orange
 30 drops; mucilage of tragacanth q. s.; mix, and
 divide into 280  lozenges.
   LOZENGES, SULPHUR.  Syn. Tro. Sul-
 phuris.  Prep. (P. Cod.)  Sulphur (pure precipi-
 tated) ^ij;  sugar 3-xvj ; mucilage of tragacanth
 made with rose water to mix.  Useful in piles and
 some skin diseases.
   LOZENGES, TOLU.  Syn. Tro. Tolutani.
 Prep. (P. Cod.) Dissolve balsam of tolu^j, in rec-
 tified  spirit  ^j 5 add  water gij ;  mix and  filter,
 make a mucilage with the filtered liquid, and gum
 tragacanth  9iv; add sugar %xvj ; make a  paste
 and cut it into  lozenges.  Pectoral.  The confec-
 tioners usually  employ only half the above propor-
 tion of balsam of tolu.
   LOZENGES, VANILLA.  Syn. Tro. Vanil-
 la.  Prep.  (Guibourt.)  Sugar  gvij ; vanilla ^j ;
 mix, powder together, and make it up with muci-
 lage  of  gum tragacanth.   Odorous ; stomachic.
 Used to  sweeten the  breath,  to  flavor choco-

   LOZENGES, VIOLET.   Syn.  Tro. Viola.
 (See Lozenges, Orris.)
   LOZENGES, ZINC. Syn. Tro.  Zinci.  Prep.
 Sulphate of zinc 3iv; powdered sugar lb. ij ;  mu-
 cilage of tragacanth  q. s.; mix, and divide into
 12-gr. lozenges.  Tonic, and in quantity emetic.
   LUPININ.   A gummy substance, obtained by
 M. Cassola from lupines.
   LUPULINE. Syn. Lupulite.  The aromatic
 bitter principle  of hops, (humulus lupulus.) It may
 be obtained  by  treating the aqueous extract of the
 yellow powder, or lupulinic grains of the strobiles,
 along with a little lime, with alcohol, evaporating
 the filtered tincture  to dryness, redissolving in wa-
 ter, filtering, again evaporating to dryness, and di-
 gesting in ether.  It  is  a  yellowish-white, bitter,
 uncrystallizable substance, soluble  in 20 parts of
 water, very soluble in alcohol, and slightly so in
 ether.  The yellow  powder  above alluded  to  is
 also,  though improperly, called lupulin.
   LUCIFERS.  Matches tipped  with  a mixture
 of sulphuret of  antimony and  chlorate of potash,
 (both  in fine powder,) made  into a paste with a
 solution  of  gum.  They are  inflamed by friction
 against a piece of  emery, sand, or glass paper.
 (See Chlorate Matches and Congreve.)
   LUTE.   -Syn. Lut, (Fr.)  Kitte ; Beschlage,
 (Ger.)  Lutum ; Camentum, (Lat.)   A composi-
 tion employed to secure the joints of chemical ves-
 sels, or as a  covering to protect them from the vio-
 lence  of the fire.  For  the joints of vessels, as
 stills, &c,  not exposed to a heat much higher
 than 212° F., linseed meal, either alone or mixed
 with an equal weight of whiting, and made into  a
 stiff paste with water, may be  employed.  Ground
 almond cake, from which tho oil has been pressed,
 may also be used for the same purpose.   For the
joints of small vessels,  as tubes, &c, "specially
 of glass or earthenware, small rings of Indian rub-
 ber slipped over and  tied  above and below the
joint, are very convenient substitutes for lutes, and
 have  the  advantage of lasting a long time, and 
MAD                   410                   MAG
bearing uninjured the heat at which oil of vitriol
boils.   For joining crucibles to be exposed to a
6trong heat, a mixture  of  fine clay and ground
bricks, mixed up with water, or preferably with a
solution of borax, answers well for most purposes.
As a coating for vessels, to preserve them from in-
jury from exposure to the fire, nothing  is better
than  a mixture of ordinary pipeclay  and horse
dung, made into a paste with water. This compo-
sition is used by the pipe-makers, and will stand
unharmed the extremest heat of  their kiln for 24
hours.   It is applied by spreading it on paper.
   LUTEOLINE.  This name has been given to
a yellow coloring matter, discovered  by Chevreul
in weld.  It is crystalline and volatile.

   MACARONI.  This only differs from vermi-
celli in the size of the pipes, which are about as
large  as a goose quill.  A pleasant dish  may be
made  by boiling macaroni in  water  until soft,
either with or without salt, draining off the water,
and then stewing it with a little butter, cream, and
grated cheese, adding spice to palate.   It may be
made into a form and browned before the fire.
   MACARONS, CREME  DE.   Prep.  Clean
spirit at 24 u. p.  (about 0-945) 2 gallons ; bitter al-
monds, blanched and bruised, 1 lb.; cloves, cinna-
mon, and mace,  in coarse powder,  of each 14 dr.;
infuse  for 10 days, filter, and add white sugar 8
lbs.; dissolved in pure water 1 gallon. Color violet,
with infusion or tincture of litmus  and cochineal.
An agreeable nutty flavored cordial, but from con-
taining so much  bitter almonds, should  be drunk
with caution. The English use only half the above
quantity of almonds.
   MACAROONS,  ENGLISH.   Prep. Sweet
almonds 1 lb. ; blanch, beat to a paste, add lump
sugar \\ lb.; whites of 6 eggs; the grated yellow
peel of 2  lemons; mix well, make  into forms,
cover with wafer paper, and  bake in  a moderate
heat.
   MACERATION.  Syn. Einweichen, (Ger.)
Maceration, (Fr.)   Maceratio,  (Lat, from ma-
cero,  to soften  by water.)   In  Chemistry  and
Pharmacy, the infusion  of a substance in water,
for the purpose  of extracting the portion soluble
in that menstruum.  The word is also frequently
applied to the infusion  of  organic substances in
alcohol, ether, or water, either alkalized or acidu-
lated.
   MACKEREL.  This fish is very apt to  disa-
gree with the stomach, and  occasionally induces
symptoms resembling those of poisoning.  It keeps
worse than any other fish.   It is in season in May,
June, and July.  (See Fish.)
   MADDEN'S   VEGETABLE  ESSENCE,
(CONCENTRATED.)   Compound  infusion of
roses, made strongly acidulous by  the  addition of
more acid.  It is astringent and refrigerant.
   MADDER.   Syn.  Dyer's  Madder.  Radix
Rubia.   Radix Rubia Tinctorum, \Lat.)  Gar-
ance,  (Gr.)  Farberrothe, (Ger.)  The root of
the rubia tinctorum, (Linn.)  The best madder
has the size of a common goose quill, a reddish ap-
pearance, and a strong odor.  As soon as the roots
are taken from  the ground they  are  picked  and
dried ; and before  use, they are ground in a mill.
Levant, Turkey, and Smyrna madder, is imported
whole,—French,  Dutch,  and  Zealand madder
ground.  The finest quality of ground madder ia
called  " crop" or " grappe;" " ombro" and  " ga-
mene" are inferior sorts, and " mull" the worst
   Madder contains several distinct principles ;  as
madder  red, (see Alizarine,  madder  purple,
(see Purpurin,)  madder orange, a substance very
soluble in  ether and in hot alcohol ; madder yel-
low, very  soluble in  water and alcohol ; madder
brown, a substance but little known.
   Uses. Madder has  been given in jaundice and
rickets, and as an emmenagogue.   Dose. 4 dr. to
2 dr. twice or thrice a day.  It is  principally em-
ployed as  a dye  stuff.  (See Red Dyes.)
   MAGISTERY.   Syn.  Magisterium,  (Lat.,
from magister,  a master.)  A term formerly ap-
plied to precipitates  obtained  by diluting certain
solutions with water; as  magistery of  bismuth,
trisnitrate  of bismuth, which is prepared by adding
water to a solution of bismuth  in nitric acid   The
following are the principal  substances to which this
term has been applied:—Magisterium marcasita,
trisnitrate  of bismuth.—Ludolph's magistery of
opium, (magisterium  opii  Ludovici,) prepared by
precipitating an  acetic solution of opium with sub-
carbonate  of  potash, filtering, and drying the pre-
cipitate ;—magistery  of alum, hydrate  of alumi-
na ;—magistery of diaphoretic antimony, (mate-
ria perlata,) the  precipitate obtained by adding an
acid to the water used  to wash diaphoretic anti-
mony ;—magistery of lapis calaminaris, hydrated
oxide of zinc.
   MAGNES ARSENICALIS.   Arsenical mag-
net.  Prep.   Common  antimony, sulphur, and
white arsenic, equal parts  ; mix and fuse together
till they form a  kind  of glass.  Corrosive.   Once
used as a caustic.
   MAGNESIA.  -Syn.  Oxide  of Magnesium.
Calcined Magnesia.  Burnt  do. Caustic do.
Talc earth.  Bitter do.  Magnesie ; Magne-
sie caustique, (Fr.)  Talkerde ;  Bitter erde ;
Gebrannte Magnesia,  (Ger.) Magnesia calci-
nata.  Do.  usta. (P. L.  1788.)   Magnesia. (P.
L. E. & D.)  A  light, white  substance, classed
with the  earths.  It  occurs both in the organic
and inorganic kingdoms.   It was discovered, or at
least first  chemically distinguished from  lime, by
Dr. Black, in 1755.  The  ancient chemists applied
the term  magnesia to substances that they con-
ceived  to have the power of abstracting any prin-
ciple from the air.  Thus  an earth, which on ex-
posure  to  the air increased in  weight and yielded
vitriol,  they  called magnesia vitriolata.  For a
similar reason, because nitrous acid was separated
during the old process for obtaining magnesia, it
was called magnesia nitri, and afterwards from
its color, magnesia alba.   Pure magnesia (calci-
ned) is properly the oxide of the metal magnesium,
—carbonate of magnesia, the same oxide combi-
ned with carbonic acid, and sulphate of magnesia,
(Epsom salts,) the same oxide  combined with sul-
phuric  acid or oil of vitriol.
  Prep. (P.  L.  E. & D.)  Expose carbonate  of
magnesia  in  a crucible to a full  red heat  for 2
hours, or till the  powder suspended in water does
not effervesce on the addition of muriatic  acid.
   Remarks. On the large scale, covered crucibles
made of porous earthenware, are employed as the
containing vessels, and the heat is applied by pla-
cing them in a  sort  of furnace, or rather  oven, 
MAG                    411                    MAG
 heated with coke.  The process is known to be
 complete when the magnesia presents a peculiar
 luminous appearance.  Product. About 50g.
   Prop., Uses, <Scc.  A very light, white, odorless,
 tasteless powder;  sp. gr. 2-3; when  moistened it
 slightly acts on turmeric paper; soluble  in 5,142
 parts of cold water, and in 36,000 parts of hot wa-
 ter.   It slowly absorbs carbonic acid from the at-
 mosphere.  With the acids it forms salts, most of
 which may be made by the direct solution of the
 earth, or its hydrate or carbonate.  As a medicine
 it is antacid and laxative, and is exhibited  in heart-
 burn, diarrhoea, constipation  of children, &c.   Its
 continued  use is not unaccompanied with danger,
 as instances are recorded in which it has accumu-
 lated in the intestines, and produced serious incon-
 venience.  Dose.  As an  antacid, a  teaspoonful;
 as a purgative, 4 dr. to 2 dr. or more.  Combined
 with rhubarb it is a favorite purge for infants.
   Pur. " It dissolves in hydrochloric acid without
 effervescence.  Neither bicarbonate of potassa, nor
 chloride  of barium, throws down any thing from
 the solution.   It turns turmeric paper brown" (P.
 L.) when moistened.  " Fifty grains are entirely
 soluble in muriatic arid f §j ; an excess of ammo-
 nia occasions  in the solution only a scanty precip-
 itate of alumina : the filtered liquid is not precip-
 itated by oxalate of ammonia."  (P. E.)
    Tests.  Magnesia is precipitated—1. As a bulky
 white hydrate, by pure  alkalis.—2. As  a bulky
 white carbonate, by  the carbonates of potassa and
 soda.   Both  the  above  precipitates dissolve in
 nitric and muriatic acid, forming salts which  are
 very deliquescent, and soluble in alcohol.—3. So-
 lutions  of magnesian salts  are not precipitated
 by the alkaline sulphates  or sulphuric acid,  and
 when dilute by oxalate  of ammonia.  By these
 tests  it may be distinguished, and separated from
 lime.
   MAGNESIA,  CARBONATE  OF.   Syn.
 Subcarbonate of  Magnesia.   Magnesia  Alba,
 (P.  L. 1788.)   Magnesia Subcarbonas, (P. L.
 1824.)  Magnesia Carbonas, (P. L.  E. & D.)
 Comitissa Palma Pulvis.  Carbonate de Mag-
 nesie, (Fr.)   Kohlensaure  Magnesia,   (Ger.)
 Prep. I. (P. L.) Epsom  salts 1b. iv;  carbonate of
 soda lb. iv, 3v'ij > water  4 gallons; dissolve the
 salts and soda, each separately in one half the wa-
 ter, strain, mix and  boil the liquors, constantly
 stirring for 15  minutes; after  subsidence decant
 the clear, wash the precipitate with boiling water,
 and dry it.  The formula of the P. E. is essential-
 ly the same,  but  the P. D. orders carbonate of
 potash instead  of soda.
   II.  Add  a solution  of  carbonate of potassa or
 soda to the bittern of the sea salt works, and well
 wash and dry the precipitate as before.  Both the
 preceding  processes yield the  light  carbonate of
 magnesia of commerce.
   III. (Heavy carbonate of magnesia.  Magne-
 sia ponderosa.)—a. Saturated solution of Epsom
 salts 1 part; water 3 parts; haat  to the boiling
 point, then add cold saturated solution of carbonate
 of soda 1 part, (all by measure ;) boil, with constant
 agitation, till effervescence ceases, then add boiling
 water  100 parts, agitate well, decant off the clear
liquid, drain and  wash the precipitate with  hot
water, in  a linen cloth, and finish the drying by
heating it in an iron pot.  Producf, very superior.
   b. Epsom salts 12 parts; crystallized carbonate
 of soda 13  parts; dissolve each separately in  as
 little cold water  as  possible, then heat separately
 each solution to the boiling point, mix and boil till
 effervescence ceases;  wash  and dry, as  before.
 Product, superior.
   Remarks. The carbonate of  magnesia of com-
 merce is usually made up into cakes or dice, while
 drying, or is permitted to drain and dry in masses,
 which are then cut into shapes with a thin  knife.
 It is powdered by rubbing it through a wire sieve.
   Prop., Uses,  <£c. Carbonate of magnesia is a
 white, inodorous, tasteless powder, possessing similar
 properties to calcined  magnesia.  Dose.  As an
 antacid, 4  to  a whole  teaspoonful  3 or 4 times
 daily ;  as a laxative, 4 dr. to 2 dr.  It is common-
 ly taken in milk.  It is apt to produce flatulence,
 but in other respects is preferable to calcined mag-
 nesia.  An  ounce measure is filled  by 48 grs. of
 the light, and  160 grs.  of the  heavy carbonate,
 lightly placed in it
   Pur. " The distilled water it has been boiled in
 should not discolor turmeric paper.  The addition
 of chloride of barium, or nitrate of silver, effects no
 precipitation.  By solution in  dilute sulphuric acid,
 100  parts lose 36*6 parts, by weight.   When the
 effervescence has ceased, bicarbonate of potassa
 produces no  precipitate."  (P. L.)
   MAGNESIA, CITRATE OF.   Syn.  Mag-
 nesia Citras.  Prep. Saturate a solution of citric
 acid with carbonate of magnesia, (about 20 grs. of
 acid to 14 grs. of the base.)  It is usually drunk
 while effervescing.  A pleasant saline draught.
   Remarks. The dry white powder sold as citrate
 of magnesia in the shops, is quite a different prep-
 aration to the above, and does not contain  1 par-
 ticle of citric acid.   The following formula is that
 of a wholesale London drug house that does large-
 ly in this article:—
   Calcined magnesia 1 \ lbs.,  (or carbonate 2 lbs.;)
 powdered tartaric acid 14 lbs.; bicarbonate of soda
 1 lb.; dry each article by a gentle heat, then mix,
 pass the mixture through  a sieve, and keep it  in
 well-corked  bottles.   Some  persons  add  a few
 drops of essence of lemon, and 3  lbs. of finely-pow-
 dered sugar to  the above quantity.   This addition
 renders it more agreeable.
   MAGNESIA, HENRY'S.  This  is ordinary
 carbonate of magnesia, the washing of which has
 been finished with a little rose water.
   MAGNESIA, SULPHATE OF.   -Syn.  Phy-
 sical Salt.  Epsom Salts.  Vitriolated Mag-
 nesia.  Bitter  purging Salt.  Sal  Epsomensis.
 Sal Catharticus amarus.  Sal Anglicum.  Sal.
 Seidlitzense.    Sal Catharticum.    Magnesia
 vitriolata.  Magnesia sulphas, (P. L. E. & D.)
 Sulphate de Magnesie, (Fr.) Bittersalz ; El-
 samersalz ;  Schwefelsaure  Magnesia, (Ger.)
 This salt is only prepared on the  large scale, either
 from magnesian limestone or  bittern.
   Prep. I. (From Dolomite or  magnesian lime-
 stone.)—a. Heat the mineral with sufficient dilute
 sulphuric acid to convert all its carbonate into sul-
phate of lime, wash out all the sulphate of mag-
nesia with hot water, and, after defecation, evapo-
rate  and crystallize.—b.  Dissolve out all the car-
bonate of lime with muriatic acid, then well wash
with water, and dissolve  the remaining carbonate
of magnesia  in dilute sulphuric adid, and  proceed 
MAG                    412                   MAL
as before.  This method is very economical where
muriatic acid can be obtained almost gratuitously,
as in the neighborhood of soda works.—c. Instead
of sulphuric acid employ sulphate of iron to neutral-
ize the magnesia.
   II. (From bittern.)  a. Boil the residual liquor,
or mother-water of sea salt, for some hours, skim,
and decant the clear, then concentrate by evapo-
ration, and run the solution into wooden coolers;
in  1 or  2  days | part of Epsom  salts will  have
crystallized  out.   This js called " singles."  By
re-solution in water, and recrystallization, " dou-
bles," or Epsom salts,  fit for the  market, are ob-
tained.   Bittern yields about 5 parts  of sulphate of
magnesia for every 100 parts of common salt that
have been previously obtained from it.
   b. Boil a sufficient quantity of calcined magne-
sian limestone in bittern, to displace the muriatic
acid from the magnesia ;  evaporate as before. This
is the most economical process.
  Prop., Uses, $-c. Sulphate of  magnesia is  an
excellent cooling purgative, and sometimes proves
diuretic and diaphoretic.  Dose. 4 oz. to 14 oz. as
a purgative or antidote in poisoning by lead.  Large
doses should  be avoided.   Dr. Christison mentions
the case of a boy 10 years old, who swallowed 2
oz.  of salts, and died within 10 minutes.  (Treatise
on  Poisons.)  A  small quantity  of  Epsom salts,
largely diluted with water, (as a drachm to  4 P'ut
or | pint,) will usually purge as much as the com-
mon dose.  This increase  of  power has been re-
cently  shown by Liebig  to result rather from the
quantity of water than the salt.  Pure water  is
greedily taken up by the absorbents; but water
holding  in solution saline matter is rejected  by
those vessels, and consequently passes off by the
intestines
  Pur. Pure Epsom salts are  soluble in their own
weight of water at 60° F., by which they may be
distinguished from Glauber salts, which are  much
less soluble.  Shaken in the cold with water and
carbonate of  baryta or lime, an alkaline solution
of carbonate of soda  will be  obtained if Glauber
salts be present in the sample.  When digested in
alcohol, the  filtered liquid  should not yield a pre-
cipitate with  nitrate of silver, and should evaporate
without residue.  " Sulphuric acid dropped into the
solution should not expel  any fumes of hydrochlo-
ric  acid.   100 grs.  dissolved in water, and mixed
with a  boiling solution of carbonate of soda, yield
34  grs. of carbonate of magnesia when  dried."
(P. L.)
   Caution.   Epsom salts and oxalic acid may be
readily distinguished from  each other by the  fol-
lowing properties :-—
      epsom salts.
Taste bitter.
Odorless.

Turn opaque and white
  when  dissolved  and
  mixed with carbonate
  of soda or potassa.

Do not  alter vegetable
  blues
Have no action  on ink
  spots or iron-moulds,
     OXALIC ACID.
Tastes sour.
Smells  slightly  nitrous,
  (generally.)
Effervesces  when mixed
  with carbonate of  soda
  or potassa, and the  li-
  quid  afterwards  be-
  comes transparent.
Turns  vegetable  blues
  red.
Removes  ink spots  and
  iron-moulds.
   MAGNESIAN  APERIENT.  Prep.  Epsom
salts 2 lbs.; dry by a gradually increased  heat,
powder, add tartaric acid (also dried)  1J. lb.; cal-
cined magnesia 4 lb.; finely-powdered white sugar
3  lbs.; bicarbonate  of soda  (dried without  heat)
1 lb.;  essence of lemon  1  dr.;  mix  well, rub it
through a sieve, in a dry situation, put it into bot-
tles, and  cork  down immediately.  Dose. 4 to 8
dessert-spoonfuls thrown into  a  tumbler  3  parts
filled with water, rapidly stirred, and  drunk  while
effervescing, early in the morning fasting, or be-
tween breakfast and dinner.   An excellent medi-
cine for habitual constipation  and stomach  com-
plaints.
   MAGNESIUM.   The  metallic  base  of the
earth magnesia.  The existence  of this metal was
demonstrated by Sir H. Davy in  1808, but   was
first obtained in  sufficient quantity to examine its
properties, by Bussy in  1830.
   Prep.  Introduce 5  or 6  pieces  of potassium
about the  size of peas, into a glaas tube retort, and
over the  potassium lay  a  sufficient  number of
small fragments of chloride of magnesium to  cover
it.  The latter must then  be heated to near its
point of fusion, when the flame of the lamp must
be applied to the potassium, so that its vapor may
pass through the stratum of heated chloride.  As
soon as the  vivid incandescence that follows is
over, throw the mass into water, and collect the
insoluble metallic portion.
   Prop.,  Sec.  Color and lustre resemble  silver,
malleable  and fusible at a red heat, unaffected by
dry air and water; burns with brilliancy in oxygen
gas, yielding oxide  or  protoxide of magnesium,
or magnesia, and inflames  spontaneously in chlo-
rine, yielding chloride of magnesium.  It dissolves
in the acids with the evolution of hydrogen gas,
and pure  salts  of magnesia result.   Chloride oj
magnesium is best prepared by dissolving magnesia
in muriatic acid, evaporating  to dryness, adding
an equal weight of  muriate  of ammonia, project-
ing the mixture  into a red-hot platinum crucible,
and continuing the heat till  a state of  tranquil fu-
sion be attained. (Liebig.)   On cooling it forms a
transparent, colorless, and very deliquescent mass.
Iodide, fluoride, and bromide of magnesium may
be prepared by dissolving magnesia in hydriodic,
hydrofluoric, and hydrobromic acids.
   MAHOGANY  STAIN.   Prep.  I. Pure So-
cotrine aloes 1 oz.;  dragon's blood 4 °z- j rectified
spirit 1 pint; dissolve,  and  apply 2 or 3 coats  to
the surface of the wood; finish off with wax or oil
tinged with alkanet.
   IL Wash over the wood with  strong aquafortis,
and when dry, apply a coat  of the above varnish;
polish as last.
   III. Logwood 2 oz.;  madder 8 oz.;  fustic 1 oz.;
water 1 gallon;  boil 2  hours, and apply it several
times to the wood boiling hot; when dry,  slightly
brush it over with  a solution of pearlash 1 oz.,  in
water 1 quart; dry and polish as before.
   MAHOGANY  FURNITURE.   Stains and
spots may be taken out of mahogany furniture by
the use of a little  aquafortis, or oxalic acid and
water, by rubbing  the part  with the liquid, by
means of  a cork, till the color is restored ;  observ
ing afterwards to well wash the wood with water
and to dry and polish as usual.
   MALEIC ACID.  A peculiar acid obtained 
MAL                     413                     MAL
by distilling malic acid with a quick fire; a solu-
tion  of maleic acid passes  over into  the  receiver,
from which crystals may be obtained by evapora-
tion.  It  is soluble  in water,  alcohol, and ether,
and  possesses a  sour taste.   Heat  resolves it into
water  and anhydrous maleic  acid.  If kept long
fused at a low temperature,  it passes into a crys-
talline mass of fumaric acid.  It forms salts with the
bases termed maleates, which are mostly insoluble.
   MALIC ACID.   Syn.  Acide malique, (Fr.)
Aepfelsaure,  (Ger.)  Acidum  malicum,  (Lat)
Prep.  (Wi.ikler.)  Juice of the fruit of the moun-
tain ash, (sorbus aucuparia,) immediately after it
has  turned red, but still unripe, q.  s.; heat it to
the  boiling point,  skim, filter, nearly  neutralize
with ammonia,  and precipitate with a solution  of
1 part of acetate of lead to every 72 parts of juice ;
filter, and again  precipitate with  nitrate of lead ;
allow the whole to stand until it  forms a mass  of
crystals,  then well wash, dry, powder, suspend in
water, and decompose by a current of sulphureted
hydrogen ; again filter, neutralize with ammonia,
decolor with animal charcoal, a second  time pre-
cipitate with nitrate of lead,  and decompose the
resulting nitrate of lead by sulphureted hydrogen ;
lastly,  filter, evaporate, and crystallize.  Product.
6 oz. of crystallized malic acid from 296 oz. of juice.
   Remarks. Liebig first converts the impure solu-
tion of the acid  into acid malate of ammonia  by
neutralizing one half, and mixing it  with the other
half unneiitralized.   This salt forms larger crys-
tals tjian the neutral malate, and is easier decol-
ored   Mb. Everett  has lately proposed the juice
of the leaf-stalks of garden rhubarb as a source of
malic  acid.  One imperial gallon  of this juice con-
tains 11,1394, grs. of dry malic acid.  The stalks
should be peeled before pressing out the  juice, as
the  cuticle contains  much color.  20,000 grs.  of
the  peeled stalks yield 12,500 grs.  of juice.   Mr.
Everett's  process is as follows:—neutralize  with
hydrate of lime, boil, filter, precipitate with nitrate
of lead,  allow it to stand for a few hours, boil,
cool, filter, decompose  the  precipitate  with sul-
phuric acid, avoiding excess,  throw down the ex-
cess of lead from  the  supernatant portion  with
sulphureted hydrogen,  evaporate, and crystallize.
(Proc. of the Chem. Soc.)
   Prop., fyc. Malic acid is very soluble in water,
has  a pleasant acidulous taste, and,  when neutral-
ized with the bases, forms  salts called  malates.
When kept fused for some time at  a low heat, it
is converted into paramalic or fumaric acid ; and
when quickly distilled, it yields malic acid, while
fumaric acid is left in the retort.   Malic acid may
also  be obtained from the juice of  apples, and sev-
eral  other sorts of fruit
   MALT.  -Syn.  Malt,  (Fr.)    Malz,  (Ger.)
Bvne.   Boasium ; Maltum,  (Lat.)   Bvvri,  (Gr.)
Grain which has become sweet in consequence of
incipient germination.  Barley is the grain usually
malted, and the process consists in exposure  to
warmth and moisture.   The grain  is steeped in
water contained in large wooden or stone cisterns,
for a period of from 40 to 60 hours,  depending on
the temperature of the weather, or until it becomes
sufficiently swollen  and  soft enough to  bo easily
pierced with a  needle,  or  crushed  between the
thumb and finger without yielding a milky juice.
As soon as the grain has been  suniriently soaked,
the wuter is drawn off, and the swollen barley is
laid upon the stone floor of a suitable apartment
called the couch, to the depth of 12 to 16 inches,
where it is allowed to remain till the acrospire, or
rudiments  of the  plumula, shoot forth.   During
the period the grain  remains in the couch, it is at
first turned every 24 hours, and  afterwards 2 or 3
times a  day,  and at  each turning the  layer  is
spread out  more and more till it is  reduced to the
depth of about 3 or 4 inches.   The  sprouted grain
is next removed to the malt kiln, and  dried in  a
thin layer,  at a temperature of from 90 to 100° F.,
until quite  hard.   It now constitutes pale malt;
when all the moisture  has exhaled, and the heat
is raised to from  120 to 125°, yellow, or amber
malt, is formed;  and when the heat is  further
raised to from 145 to 165°, amber brown, or pale
brown malt, is obtained.   When the grain is dried
at a still higher temperature, it forms brown malt;
and when  the heat is sufficient  to blacken or dis-
color it, it is known as  patent malt.  In the prep-
aration of the last variety, the heat is sometimes
pushed as high as  430 to 435° F.  By the process
of drying,  the  vitality of the  seed is  destroyed.
Both brown and patent malts are merely employed
to color the worts  produced from pale malt.  1 lb.
of patent malt, mashed with 79 lbs. of  pale malt,
will impart to  the liquor  the  color and flavor  of
porter.   The paler varieties  of  malt contain the
largest quantity of saccharine matter.   After the
malt has been kiln-dried, the acrospire and roots
may be removed by means of a sieve. Before malt
is mashed for beer, it is ground in a mill.  Product.
Good barley yields 80$  by weight, and 109$ by
measure, of dried and sifted malt.
  Choice.   Good malt should have an agreeable
smell, and  a sweet taste, should be round  and full
in the grain, and should  be  moderately brittle be-
tween  the teeth.   The  admixture of unmalted
with malted grain may be discovered by throwing
a little into water ;—malt floats on water, but raw
barley sinks.
   Uses,  fyc. Malt is chiefly employed in the arts
of brewing and distillation.  An  infusion or decoc-
tion of malt (sweet wort) is laxative, and has been
recommended as  an antiscorbutic  and tonic.  It
has been given with advantage in  scurvy.  (See
Brewing, Distillation, Fermentation,  &c.)
  MALT  LIQUORS.   The  qualities  of ale,
beer, and  porter,  as beverages, and the methods
of preparing them, have  been already described,
(see Ale, Beer, Brewing, Mum, Porter, &c. ;)
the present article will  therefore  be confined to  a
short  notice of the cellar management, and the
diseases of malt liquors generally.
  Bottling.  Clean, sweet,  and dry bottles, and
sound and good corks, should be had in readiness.
The liquor  to be bottled should be perfectly clear ;
and if  it be not so,  it  must  be  submitted to the
operation of "fining."  When quite fine, and in
good condition, the bung of the cask should be left
out all  night, and next  day the liquor should be put
into bottles, which, after remaining 24 hours mere-
ly covered  with sheets of paper to keep out flies
and dust, must  be securely corked down.  Porter
is generally wired  over.  If the  liquor Is intended
for exportation to a hot climate, ths bottles should
remain filled for three days or more  before corking
them.  The stock of bottled liquor should be stored 
MAL                    414                   MAN
in a cool situation, and a small quantity to meet
present demands should also be set  on their sides
in a warmer place  to ripen.  October beer should
not be bottled before midsummer, nor March beer
till Christmas.
   Ripening.  The addition of a small lump of
white sugar to  each  bottle of ale or  beer, and a
teaspoonful of moist sugar to each bottle of porter
at the time of corking, will render it fit for drink-
ing in a few days in ordinary weather. A raisin
or lump of sugar candy is often added to each bot-
tle with a  like intention.  The  Parisians bottle
their beer one day, and sell it the next.  For this
purpose, in addition to the sugar as above, they add
2 or 3 drops of yeast   Such bottled liquor must,
however, be drunk within a week, or else stored in
a very cold  place, as  it will otherwise burst the
bottles, or blow out the corks.
   Age.   The addition of a very little diluted sul-
phuric acid to new beer will give it the appearance
of being 1 or 2 years old.   Copperas, alum, sliced
lemons, Seville oranges, and cucumbers, are also
frequently employed by brewers for the same pur-
pose.  These additions subject the public  brewer
and seller to a fine, but private persons may em-
ploy them at pleasure.
   Heading.  This is added to  thin and vapid beer
to make it  bear a frothy  head.  (See Heading,
p. 350.)
   Preservation. See the end of the article  Brew-
ing.
   Improving. Cut half a quartern loaf into slices,
toast them  brown, place them in a coarse  linen
bag, along with  2  oz. of hops, and 1 oz. each of
bruised ginger, cloves, and  mustard  seed, suspend
the bag by means of a string  a few inches below
the surface of the beer, and  bung  close.  For a
hogshead.
   Cloudiness.   Add a handful of hops, boiled in
1  gallon of  the  beer, and in  a fortnight fine it
down.
   Sourness. Add a little powdered chalk  or car-
bonate of soda  to the beer, until the acidity  is
nearly removed, then  rummage in 4 or 5 lbs. of
moist  sugar or treacle to every hogshead.   Such
beer should be soon put on draught, as it is apt to
get flat by keeping.   Oyster  and egg shells are
also frequently used by brewers for the same pur-
pose.
   Vamping.  Half fill casks with the old liquor,
fill them up with some newly brewed, and bung
close for 3 weeks or a  month.
   Mustiness.  To each hogshead add 1 lb. of new
hops boiled in a gallon of the liquor, along  with 7
lbs. of newly-burnt charcoal coarsely bruised, and
a  4 lb.  loaf of bread cut into  slices and toasted
rather  black ; rouse well every day for one week,
then rummage in moist sugar 3 or 4  lbs., and bung
down for a fortnight.
   Flatness.  Rummage a few pounds of moist
sugar or treacle (foots) into each hogshead; fer-
mentation will ensue in a few days, and the liquor
become brisk.  On the small scale, the addition of
a few grains of carbonate of soda or prepared chalk
to each glass will make the liquor brisk and carry
a head ; out it must be drunk within a few minutes,
else it becomes  again flat.  This is  an excellent
method when home-brewed beer becomes sour and
vapid
   Recovering. This is said of unsaleable beer when
l rendered saleable, by giving it " head" or removing
 its " tartness."
   Frosted  beer  is best recovered by the addition
 of a few hops boiled in a little sweet wort ; or by
 adding a little moist sugar or treacle to induce a
 fresh fermentation.
   Foxing or bucking.  Add some fresh hops, along
 with some bruised mustard seed, to the beer. Some
 persons add a little made mustard, or  solution of
 alum or catechu, or a little diluted sulphuric  acid,
 and rummage well ;  and in a week or  10  days
 afterwards, further add some bean-flour, treacle,
 or moist sugar.
   Ropiness.  Add a  little infusion of catechu and
 some fresh  hops  to the beer, and  in  a fortnight
 rummage well, and the next day fine it down.
   MANDARINS, THE DELIGHT OF THE.
 Prep.  Spirit, 22 u. p., 1 gallon ;  wat - 4 gallon ;
 white sugar 4 lbs.; anisum chime and ambrette or
 musk seed, (hibiscus abelmoschus,) of each, bruised,
 4 oz.; safflower \ oz.;  place the whole in a car-
 boy or stone bottle capable of holding double, cork
 close, and  agitate well every day  for a fortnight,
 then decant and strain.  A pleasant  cordial li-
 queur.
   MANGANESE.  -Syn.  Manganium ;  Manga-
 nesium,  (Lat.)    Manganese, (Fr.)   Mangan ;
 Braunsteinmetal, (Ger.)  A hard, brittle, gray-
 ish-white metal, having the sp. gr. 8*013, discover-
 ed by Gahn  in the black oxide of  manganese of
 commerce.
   Prep. Reduce oxide of manganese to fine pow-
 der, make it into a paste with oil, place the mix-
 ture in a Hessian crucible lined with charcoal, lute
 on the cover, and expose it to trie  strongest heat
 of a smith's forge for 2 hours.
   Prop., Uses,  Sfc.   Manganesium unites  with
 oxygen, forming  5 oxides and 2 acids, and  with
 chlorine, fluorine, and sulphur, forming  chlorides,
 fluorides, and  sulphurets.   The  protoxide or
 green oxide (Mn -f- O)  is formed when either of
 the other oxides of manganese is mixed with char-
 coal, and exposed in a covered crucible to a white
 heat for some time. It possesses strong basic prop-
 erties,  and  readily dissolves  in the liquid acids,
 forming  salts.  The sesquioxide, or second oxide,
 (2 Mn -f- 30,) is brown or brownish-black, and is
 found ready formed in the mineral kingdom.   It is
 the  residuum left in  the retort when  the black
 oxide is heated to moderate redness in  the process
 of making  oxygen gas.  The peroxide, or  third
 oxide, (Mn -f- 20,) is the well-known black oxide,
 or binoxide of commerce, and is also found in tho
 mineral kingdom.   (See Manganese, Black  Ox-
 ide of.)   The red, or fourth oxide, (oxidum man-
 ganoso-manganicum, 3  Mn -4- 40,)  is  another
 natural oxide of manganese.   It may be prepared
 artificially, by exposing the peroxide or sesquioxide
 to a white heat.  Varvacite (4 Mn -f- 70) is an-
 other oxide which occurs as a mineral  production.
 Manganic,  or  Manganeseous  acid, (Mn -f- 30,)
 is formed when nitre, potassa, or carbonate of po-
 tassa, is  heated to  redness along with black oxide
 of manganese, either in close or open vessels.  It
 has  never been isolated.  Manganesic, or perman-
 ganic  acid, (2 Mn -f- 70,) may be obtained by
 mixing 8 parts of peroxide of manganese with 7
 parts of  chlorate of potassa, both in fine powder, 
MAN                    415                   MAN
adding 10 parts of hydrate of potassa, dissolved in
a small quantity of water, evaporating to dryness,
powdering, exposing the powder to a low red heat
in a platinum  crucible, dissolving the mass in a
large quantity  of water, decanting, evaporating,
and crystallizing.  These crystals are permanga-
nate of potassa, from which the  acid may be ob-
tained by conversion into permanganate of baryta,
and  by careful decomposition by  dilute  sulphuric
acid, (Gregory.)   It has a fine red color, bleaches,
and  is rapidly  decomposed  by organic matter.—
Protochloride of manganese  is made by  heating
the chloride to  redness in a  glass tube, surrounded
by an  atmosphere of muriatic acid.—Perchloride
may be obtained  by mixing permanganic  and mu-
riatic acid, and conducting the evolved gas through
a tube cooled to —4° F. It is gaseous at a higher
temperature, and is decomposed by moisture.—
Sulphuret of manganese is a natural mineral pro-
duction,  but  may also be procured by igniting a
mixture  of 1 part of sulphate of manganese and 1
part of  charcoal.—Fluoride  of  manganese  has
been formed by Dumas and Wohler.
   The salts of manganese may  all be prepared
from the black oxide of commerce by dissolving
the  latter  in muriatic acid, evaporating the solu-
tion to dryness, redissolving in water, adding car-
bonate of  soda sufficient to  precipitate  the iron
present,  digesting the mixed  precipitate in the  re-
mainder of the liquid, filtering, adding  hydrosul-
phuret of  ammonia till it produces a flesh-colored
precipitate, and  then  precipitating the  solution
with carbonate of soda.  The carbonate of manga-
nese  thus  obtained,  after  being  well washed in
water, may  be redissolved in the  acids to form
Baits, most of which  are  soluble,  and many crys-

   MANGANESE, BLACK OXIDE OF. Syn.
Manganese.  Binoxide of  Manganese.  Tritox-
Ide  of  do.    Peroxide  of  do.   Oxide of   do.
Magnesia  nigra.  Manganesii binoxyduvi, (P.  L.)
Do. oxidum, (P. E. &. D.)   Oxide de Manganese,
(Fr.)  Braunstein, (Ger.)  This is the only oxide
of manganese  that  is directly  employed in  the
arts.   It is a  very plentiful  mineral production,
and  is found in great abundance  in  some parts of
the  West  of  England.   The manganese of  the
shops  is prepared by  washing,  to remove  the
earthy matter,  and grinding  in rn»HIs.  The blackest
samples  are esteemed the best.   It is chiefly used
to supply oxygen gas, and  in the manufacture of
glass and  chlorine ;  in dyeing, and to  form  the
salts  of  manganese.  It has been  occasionally
employed in medicine, chiefly externally, in itch
and porrigo, made into an ointment with lard.  It
has  recently been highly  recommended  by  Dr.
Erigeler  in scrofula.
   Pur. and  tests.  Heat disengages oxygen.  It
is  almost entirely  soluble in muriatic acid.  The
per centagp value of commercial manganese may
be readily found by digesting 50 grs. of the sam-
ple in muriatic  acid  14 oz., diluted with  4 oz. of
water, adding  portions  of  protosulphate  of iron
from  a weighed  sample, at  first in excess, and
afterwards  in smaller doses,  till the liquid ceases to
produce  a  blue precipitate  with red prussiate of
potash, and to evolve the odor of  chlorine.  Heat
ihould be employed towards the end.  The quanti-
ty of protosulphate used must now be ascertained
by  weighing the  unconsumed  portion.   If the
binoxide  be  pure,  317 grs. will  have  been con-
sumed, but if otherwise,  the  per  centage of pure
oxide may be obtained by the rule of  three ;  as,
suppose only 298 grs. of  the sulphate  were con-
sumed,
          then—as 317:100:: 298:94,
and the richness of the sample in pure black oxide
would be 94°;.  The per centage  value  of the
oxide for evolving chlorine  may be obtained by
multiplying the weight of the consumed sulphate
of iron by 0-2588, which, in the above case, would
give 76§ of  chlorine.  Both for  this purpose and
chlorimetry the sulphate  of  iron is  best prepared
by precipitation from its solution  with alcohol, and
drying it till  it loses  its alcoholic odor.   (Prof.
Otto.)  See Oxygen and Chlorimetry.
  MANHEIM  GOLD.   Syn.  Similor.   Prep.
Copper 7 oz.; brass 3 oz.; melt  together.   Some
add tin 4 dr.   (See Brass.)
  MANNA.  A factitious article of manna, made
of a  mixture of sugar, starch, and honey, with a
very small quantity of scammony to give  it odor
and  flavor, and  to render it purgative, has been
lately very extensively offered in  trade.
  MANNITE.   Syn.  Manna  Sugar.  Grena-
dine.  Prep. Digest manna in boiling alcohol ; as
the solution  cools, crystals of mannite will form.
White,  odorless,   sweet,   soluble in water  and
alcohol.  It  is laxative.   Dose.  1 to 2 drs. for a
child ; 4 °z- to 1 oz.  for an adult.  It  is found in
several othet vegetable productions besides manna.
Mannite differs from the  other sugars in being in-
capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation.
  MANURES.   (In Agriculture.)  Substances
added to soils to  increase their fertility.   " The
food of vegetables, as far as their organic structure
is concerned, consists entirely of inorganic com-
pounds ;  and no organized body  can serve for the
nutrition of  vegetables,  until it  has been, by the
process of decay,  resolved into certain inorganic
substances.  These are carbonic acid,  water, and
ammonia, which are well known to be the final
products of putrefaction.   But, even when these
are supplied to vegetables, their growth will not
proceed  unless  certain   mineral substances   are
likewise  furnished in small  quantities, either by
the soil, or the water used to moisten it.   Almost
every plant,  when burned,  leaves  ashes,  which
commonly contain silica,  potash,  and phosphate of
lime ; often, also,  magnesia, soda, sulphates, and
oxide of iron.  These mineral bodies appear to be
essential to the existence  of the vegetable tissues ;
so that  plants will not grow in  soils  destitute of
them," however abundantly supplied with carbonic
acid, ammonia, and water."   According to Liebig,
the carbon of plauts is wholly derived from car-
bonic acid,  which is either absorbed  from  the
atmosphere  and rain water, by the  leaves, or
from  the moisture and air in the soil by the roots.
Its  carbon is  retained and  assimilated with the
body of the  plant, while  its oxygen is given out in
the gaseous  form ; this  decomposition being  al-
ways effected under the action of light  at  or-
dinary temperatures.  The hydrogen and  oxygen
of vegetables, which, when combined with carbon,
constitute  the ligneous,  starchy, gummy, sac-
charine,  oily, and  resinous matters of  plants, are
derived from water  chiefly absorbed by the roots 
MAN                    416                    MAR
from the soil.  The nitrogen of vegetables is de- !
rived  chiefly, if  not exclusively,  from ammonia,
which is supplied to them in rain,  and in manures,
and which remains in the soil till absorbed by the
roots.  Ordinary manures may be regarded  more
valuable according to  the  quantity of  azotized \
matter which they contain ;  and also in proportion
as the  decomposition  of  quaternary substances
acts  gradually,  and agrees  with  the progress  of
vegetation.  Thus, it is  the  azote in combination
contained  in manures which is especially useful; i
and the proportion of this, when  ascertained,  in-
dicates  the richness of such  substances  as fer-
tilizing agents.   In reference to the  mineral con-
stituents of soils, it appears  that a soil is fertile or
barren for any given plant  according as  it con-
tains  those mineral substances that enter into  its
composition.  " Thus the ashes  of  wheat-straw
contain  much silica and potash, while the  ashes of
the seeds contain phosphate of ammonia and  mag-
nesia.  Hence, if a soil be deficient in any one of
these, it will not  yield wheat.  On the other hand,
a good crop of wheat will exhaust the soil  of these
substances, and  it will not yield a second  crop till
they have  been  restored,  either by manure  or  by
the gradual action of the weather  in disintegrating
the subsoil.  Hence the benefit derived from fal-
lows and from the rotation of crops.
   " When, by  an  extraordinary  supply  of any
one  mineral ingredient, or  of  ammonia,  a  large
crop has been obtained, it is not to be expected
that a repetition of the same  individual  manure
next year will produce the same  effect.   It must
be remembered, that  the unusual  crop  has  ex-
hausted the soil  probably  of all the other mineral
ingredients, and  that  they also must be  restored
before a second  crop can be obtained.
   " The salt most essential  to  the growth of  the
potato is  the double phosphate of ammonia and
magnesia; that  chiefly required for  hay  is  phos-
phate of  lime ;  while for almost all plants potash
and ammonia are highly beneficial.
   " From the principles above mentioned  we may
deduce  a few valuable conclusions in regard to the
chemistry of agriculture.  First, by examining the
ashes of a thriving plant, we discover the mineral
ingredients which must exist in a  soil  to render it
fertile for  that plant.  Secondly,  by examining a
soil, we can say at once whether  it is fertile  in re-
gard to any plants the ashes of which have been
examined.  Thirdly, when  we know the defects
of a soil, the deficient matters may be easily  ob-
tained and added to it, unmixed with  such as  are
not required.  Fourthly, the straw, leaves, &c, of
any plant, must be the best manure for that.plant,
since every vegetable extracts from  the soil such
matters alone as are essential to it. This important
principle has been amply  verified by the success
attending the use of wheat-straw, or its  ashes, as
manure for wheat, and of the clippings of the vines
as a manure for the vineyard.  Where these  are
used, no other manure is required.  Fifthly,  in the
rotation of crops, those should be made  to  follow
which require different materials ; or a crop  which
extracts little or no mineral  matter, such  as peas,
should come after one which exhausts the soil of
Its phosphates and potash.
   " Of the chemical manures now so much used,
bone-dust supplies the phosphates which have been
extracted by successive crons  of  grass and corn,
the whole of the bones of the cattle fed  on these
crops having been derived from the soil; its gelatin
also yields ammonia by putrefaction.  Guano acts
as a source of ammonia, containing much oxalate
and urate  of ammonia,  with some phosphates,
Nightsoil and urine, especially  the  latter,  are
most valuable for the  ammonia they  yield, as well
as for phosphates and  potash ; but are very much
neglected in this country, although their  impor-
tance is fully appreciated in  Belgium  and China.
Bran is a very valuable manure, especia'ly for po-
tatoes, as it contains much of the ammoniaco-mag-
nesian phosphate.
  " Nitrate of soda probably acts by its alkali re-
placing potash, but  it  is possible that its acid may
also yield nitrogen  to  plants,  although we possess
at present no evidence of this, and, indeed,  no evi-
dence that plants can derive  their nitrogen from
any other source than from ammonia."
  Manures may be made of all organic substan-
ces, preference  being, however,  given  to those
abounding in nitrogen, and which  readily decay.
  The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes of
plants, for the purpose of ascertaining their com-
position and comparative value, is not easily per-
formed by the inexperienced chemist; but  a rude
approximation to their contents, sufficiently accu-
rate for  all practical  purposes, may be generally
made with proper care and attention. See Liebig's
Agricultural Chemistry;  7th Edit, of  Turner's
Chem.; the  Memoirs of MM. Boussingault  and
Payen;  and  the  articles Soils, Agriculture,
Farming.
  MANUS CHRISTI. Prep. 1. (Manus christi
perlata.) Drops, or pastilles, made of pearls, sugar,
and rose  water.—2.   (Manus christi simplices.)
Rose drops,  or pastilles, made  into flat cakes.
  MAPLE SUGAR. Prepared from the juice of
the sugar maple, like birch sugar.  Average pro-
duct from each tree about 6 lbs. per season.
  MAPS may be tinted with any  of the  simple
liquid colors mentioned at page 400.  To prevent
the colors sinking and spreading, which they will
usually do on common paper, the latter should be
wetted 2 or  3 times with a sponge dipped  in alum
water, (3 or 4 oz. to the pint,) or a solution of white
size ; observing to dry it  carefully after each coat
This will tend to  give  lustre and  beauty to the
colors.  The colors themselves should also be thick-
ened with  gum.   Before  varnishing maps after
coloring them, 2 or 3 coats of clean size should be
applied  with  a brush.  (See Card  Work  and
Paper j
   MARASQUIN  DE  GROSEILLES.  Prep.
Ripe gooseberries 1 cwt.; black  cherry leaves 14
lbs.; bruise, ferment, distil, and  rectify the spirit;
and to each pint of  the product add sugar 1 lb.;
dissolved in water 1 pint.  A pleasant liqueur.
   MARBLE.  -Syn.  Limestone.  Hard Carbon-
ate of Lime. Marmor; Carbonas  Calcis durus,
(P. L.)   White Marble, (P.  E.)  Marmor album,
(P. D.)  Marbre ;  Pierre a chaux *. Chaux car-
bonates, (Fr.) Kalstein; Weisse Marmor, (Ger.)
White marble is employed for the preparation of
carbonic acid, and  some of the salts of lime.
   Marble  is best cleaned with a little clean soap
 and water,  to which  some ox-gall may be adiied.
 Acids should be avoided.  Oil and grease may be 
MAR                    417                    MAR
generally removed by following a similar  plan  to
that mentioned at art. Boards.
  Marble may be stained or dyed of various colors
by applying their solutions to the stone made suffi-
ciently hot to make the liquid just simmer on the
surface.   The following are the substances usually
employed for this purpose :—
  Blue.  Tincture or  solution of litmus, or an alka-
line solution  of indigo ;—Brown, Tincture of log-
wood ;—Crimson, A  solution of alkanet root in oil
of turpentine ;—Flesh color, Wax tinged with al-
kanet root, and applied to the marble hot enough
to melt it;—Gold color, A mixture of equal parts
of white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and verdigris, all in
fine powder, carefully applied ;—Green, An alka-
line solution or tincture of sap green, or wax strong-
ly colored with  verdigris,  or stain the stone first
blue, and then yellow ;—Red, Tincture of dragon's
blood, alkanet  root, or cochineal ;—Yellow, Tinc-
ture of gamboge, turmeric, or saffron.   Remarks.
Success in the application of the  above colors re-
quires considerable  experience.   By their skilful
use a pleasing  effect, both of color and grain, may
be produced.
   MARBLING OF BOOKS.  This is performed
by laying the color on the covers  or edges with  a
brush, or by means of a wooden trough and gum
water as follows:—Provide a  wooden  trough,  2
inches deep, 6  inches wide,  and  the length of a
super-royal sheet; boil in a brass or  copper pan
any quantity of linseed and  water until  a thick
mucilage is formed ;  strain it into  the  trough, and
let it cool; then grind on a marble slab any of the
following colors in small beer.   For blue, Prussian
blue or indigo ;—red, rose-pink, vermilion, or drop
lake ;—yellow, king's yellow,  yellow  ochre, &c.;
—white, flake  white ;—black,  ivory  or  burnt
lampblack;  brown,  umber,  burnt do., terra  di
sienna, burnt do. ; black, mixed with  yellow  or
red,  also makes brown ;—green, blue and yel-
low  mixed ;—orange, red and yellow mixed ;—
purple, red and blue  mixed.  For each  color you
must have two  cups, one for the color after grind-
ing, the other to mix it  with ox-gall, which must
be used  to  thin  the  colors at  discretion.  If too
much gall is used, the colors  will spread ;  when
they keep their place on the surface of the trough,
when moved with a quill,  they are fit for use. All
things being in readiness, the colors are  successive-
ly sprinkled on the surface of  the mucilage in the
trough  with a brush,  and are  waved or drawn
about with  a  quill  or stick,  according to taste.
When  the  design  is thus formed,  the  book, tied
tightly between cutting boards of  the same size, is
lightly pressed  with its edge on  the surface of the
liquid pattern,  and  then  withdrawn  and  dried.
The covers may  be marbled in the same way, only
letting the liquid colors run over them.   The film
of color in the  trough may be as thin  as possible,
and  if any remains after the marbling, it may  be
taken off by applying paper to it before you  pre-
pare  for marbling again.  This process has been
called French  Marbling.
  To diversify the effect,  colors are  often mixed
with,a little sweet oil before  sprinkling them on,
by which means a light halo or circle appears round
each 6pot   In like manner, spirits of turpentine,
sprinkled on the surface of the trough, will make
white spots.  By staining the book covers with any
of the liquid dyes, and then dropping on them, or
running over  them, drops of liquid mordants,  a
very pleasing  effect  may be produced.   Thus
vinegar black, or a solution of green copperas, let
fall or run  over common leather, produces black
spots or streaks, and  gives a similar  effect with
most of the light dyes.   A solution of alum or tin
in like  manner produces bright  spots or streaks,
and soda and potash water dark  ones.   This style
has been called Egyptian marble.—-Soap marbling
is done by throwing on  the  colors, ground with  a
little white soap to a pliable consistence, by means
of a brush.  It is much used for  book edges, sta-
tionary, sheets of paper, ladies' fancy work, &c.—
Thread marble is  given by first covering the edge
uniformly of one color, then laying pieces of thick
thread irregularly on different parts of it, and giv-
ing it a fine dark sprinkle.  When well managed
the effect  is very pleasing.—Rice marble is given
in a similar way to the last by using rice.—Tree
marble  is  done on leather,  book covers, &,c, by
bending the board  a little in the centre, and run-
ning the marbling liquid over it in the form of vege-
tation.   The knots  are  given  by rubbing the end
of a candle on those parts of the cover.—Wax
marble is  given in a similar way to thread marble,
but using melted wax, which is removed after the
book is sprinkled  and dried, or a sponge  charged
with blue, green, or red, may be passed over.  This
is much used  for stationary work, especially  folios
and quartos.   The vinegar black of the bookbind-
ers is merely a solution of acetate of iron, made by
steeping rusty nails or iron filings in vinegar.  All
the ordinary liquid colors that do not contain strong
acids or alkalis may be used, either alone or thick-
ened with a little gum, for marbling or sprinkling
books.—Sprinkling is performed by dipping a stiff-
haired painter's brush into the color, and suddenly
striking it  against a  small stick  held in  the left
hand over the work.  By this means the color  is
evenly scattered without blotting. (See Bookbind-
ing,  Inks, Liquid Colors, and tho various dyes.)
  MARGARIC ACID. Syn. Margarulic Acid,
(from iiapyapirt), a pearl.)  A fatty acid obtained by
the saponification of oils.  Prep.  I. Dissolve olive
oil soap iu  water, precipitate with a  solution of
neutral  acetate of lead, filter, wash, and  dry the
precipitate,  (margarate  of lead.) digest in  ether,
and  decompose the residuum by boiling-hot muri-
atic acid ; lastly, wash the acid, dissolve in boiling
alcohol, and evaporate.
  II. Heat hydrated stearic  acid with  its  own
weight of nitric acid  for some minutes; press the
fatty acid which separates between folds of paper,
and purify by  repeated  crystallizations from  alco-
hol, till its melting point becomes 140° F.
  Remarks. Margaric  acid  forms pearly scales,
soluble in ether and  alcohol.   With  the  b«ses, it
forms salts called margarates.
  MARGARINE.   -Syn. Margarate of Oxide
of Glycerule.  The solid fatty .natter of certain
vegetable oils, and the principal ingredient of hu-
man and  goose fat.   A hot  alcoholic  solution of
either of these fats, or of the concrete portion of
olive oil, deposites, as  it  cools, a mixture of marga-
rate and oleate of glycerule.
  MARGARITIC ACID.   Obtained by the sa-
ponification of castor oil, along with  another oily
arid.   The former melts at 266°, and forr^s soapy 
MAR                   418                    ME A
■alts with the alkalis, (margaritates;) the latter is
an oily liquid at ordinary temperatures.
  MARGARONE.   A  peculiar fatty substance
obtained by distilling a mixture of quicklime and
margaric  acid.   It forms pearly crvstalline scales.
  MARRIAGE.  Dr. Casper, of Berlin, has cal-
culated that the mortality among bachelors, from
the age of 30 to 45 years, is 27 per cent, while
among married men of the same age it is only 18
per cent.  For forty-one bachelors who attain the
age of 40 years, there are seventy-eight married
men who attain the same age.   The advantage in
favor of married  life is still more striking in persons
of advanced age.  At 60  years there remain but
twenty-two bachelors for forty-eight married men ;
at 70  yea-re, eleven  bachelors  for  twenty-seven
married; and a"t 80 years, three bachelors against
nine married men.   (Jour, de Chimie Med.)
  MARMALADES.  (From  marmello,  Portu-
guese, a quince.)  Properly  a conserve made of
quinces aiid sugar.   The  term is  now, however,
commonly applied to  other fruit conserves made by
cooks and confectioners.   Marmalades are either
made by pounding the pulped fruit in a mortar with
an equal or a larger  quantity of powdered white
sugar,  or  by mixing  them  together by heat and
passing them through a hair sieve  while  hot, and
then putting them into pots or glasses.   The fruit
pulps are obtained  by rubbing the fruit through a
fine hair sieve either  at once, or after  it has been
softened by boiling.  When  heat  is employed in
mixing the ingredients, the evaporation should be
continued until  the marmalade  jellies  on cooling.
(See  Conserves,   Confections,  Electuaries,
Jams, and Jellies.)  The following are the chief
marmalades met with in the shops:—
  Apricot marmalade, from  equal parts of pulp
and sugar.
  Barberry marmalade, from equal parts of pulp
and sugar.
  Citron marmalade, made as orange do.
  Marmalade of hips, from the pulp  of the  hips
of rosa systyla or arvensis, and sugar, in the same
way as the confection.
  Mixed  marmalade, from plums, pears, and ap-
ples, variously flavored to palate.
  Orange marmalade, from  oranges, (either Se-
ville or St. Michael's,) by boiling the peels in sirup
until soft, then pulping them through a  sieve, add-
ing as  much white sugar, and  boiling  them with
the former sirup and the juice of the fruit to a
proper consistence.    A still  finer marmalade  is
made by  melting the  confection  of orange peel,
P. L., either with or without the addition of orange
juice, and passing it through a sieve.
  Candied orange marmalade, from  candied or-
ange peel, boiled in an equal weight each of sugar
and  water, and  then passed through a sieve.
   Quince marmalade, (diacydonium,) from quince
flesh, or pulp and sugar equal parts;  or from the
juice, (miva cydoniorum, gelatina do.,) by boiling
it to one-half, adding an  equal  quantity of white
wine, and two-thirds of sugar, and gently  evapo-
rating.
   Scotch marmalade.  1. Seville  orange  juice  1
quart; yellow peel  of the fruit, grated; honey 2
lbs.; boil  to a  proper consistence.—2. Seville or-
anges 8 lbs.; peel them as thinly as possible, then
squeeze out the juice, and  boil it on  the yellow |
 peels for 1 hour, strain, add white sugar 7 lbs., and
 boil to a proper consistence.
   Transparent marmalade.   Orange marmalade,
 well 6trained or clarified while hot.
   Marmalade  of sloes.   Conserve of sloes.   As-
 tringent.
   Tomato marmalade.  Like apricot marmalade,
 adding a few slices of onions and a little parsley.
   Wood sorrel marmalade.  (Conserva  foliorum
 lujelte.)  Wood sorrel leaves  1 lb.; powdered white
 sugar 3 lbs.;  beat together in a mortar.   Pleasant,
 cooling, and acidulous; has a fine red color.
   MARSHALL'S  CERATE.  Prep. (Collier.)
 Palm oil §v; calomel §j  ; sugar of lead ^ss ;  oint-
 ment of nitrate of mercury 5'j 5 m'x*
   MASSICOT.   -Syn.   Masticot.   Protoxide
 of Lead.   Ochra Plumbaria factitia.  The dross
 that forms on melted  lead exposed to a current of
 air, roasted until it acquires a uniform yellow color.
 Used as a pigment.   (See Lead, Oxides of.)
   MASTICATORIES.  Syn.  Pila Mastica-
 toria.   Medicines taken by chewing.  They are
 chiefly used as cosmetics or stimulants.
   Prep.  1. (Indian.)  A mixture  of betel  leaf,
 areka nut, and lime.—2. (Hartman.)  Mastich and
 pellitory  of Spain,  equal parts.—3.   (Augustin.)
 Mastich, white wax,  and ginger, equal parts.—4.
 (Quincy.)  Mastich  §iij  ; pellitory  of Spain  and
 stavesacre seeds,  of each 3ij ;  angelica root  3ss;
 cubebs and nutmegs,  of each 3j ; make into small
 bal'ls with white wax  q. s.—5. Opium, ginger, rhu-
 barb, mastich, pellitory of Spain, and orris root, of
 each 3j;   musk  and  ambergris, of  each 1  gr.;
 melted white wax or spermaceti to mix.
   MASTICHIC  ACID.   Syn.  Soluble Mas-
 tich Resin.  The portion of mastich soluble in al-
 cohol.  It forms about 90$ of the resin.  According
 to Johnstone, it forms salts with the acids.
   MASTIC1NE.  Syn. Neutral or  Insoluble
 Mastich Resin.   The insoluble  portion left from
 preparing the last article. It is soluble in the  alco-
 holic solution of the preceding resin.
   MATTHEW'S PILLS.   Prep.  Extract of
 black  hellebore,  powdered  myrrh,  Castile  soap,
 opium, saffron, and oil of turpentine, equal parts;
 beat into a mass with sirup  of buckthorn.  Ano-
 dyne ; alterative.  Dose. 3 to 10 grs.
   MATHIEU'S  VERMIFUGE.   This consists
 of two electuaries; the one for killing the worms,
 and the other for expelling them.
   Prep. 1. Tin  filings  §j;  fern root 3vj; worm
 seed 3iv; resinous extract of jalap and sulphate of
 potash, of  each 3j;  honey to mix.   Dose. A tea-
 spoonful  every  3  hours, for 2 days.
   2. Jalap and sulphate of potash, of each  9ij;
 scammony 3j; gamboge 10 grs.;  honey  to  mix.
 Dose.  A teaspoonful every three hours, until  it op-
 erates well;  the  preceding  electuary having been
 previously taken  as directed.
   MATTICO.   The leaves have been employed
 with considerable success as an  external styptic;
 applied  to  leech-bites,  and pressed  on with  the
 fingers,  they  seldom  fail to arrest the bleeding.
 (Prov. Med. and  Surg. Jour., June, 1842.)
   MAYDEW.  Syn Ros Majalis.  Collected by
 sponges off the grass.  Used as a cosmetic.
   MEAD.  Syn. Vinum   Hydromell   (From
 meede, Dut.)  An old English liquor, made  from
I the combs from which the honey has been drained 
MEA
419
MEA
out,  by boiling in water  and  fermenting.  It is
commonly confounded with metheglin.   (See Me-
theglin.)  Some persons add 1 oz. of hops to each
gallon; and, after fermenting,  a little brandy.   It
is then called Sack Mead.
  MEALS, RESOLVENT.   (Quatuor Fari-
na rfsolventes, of old pharmacy.)  Barley, bean,
linseed, and rye meals.
  MEASLES, THE.  Syn. Rubeola.  Mor-
billi.   Symp. Feverishness, chilliness, shivering,
head-pains, swelling and inflammation of the eyes,
defluxion of sharp tears, with painful sensibility to
light,  oppressive cough, difficulty of breathing,
and sometimes vomiting or diarrhoea.  These  are
followed about the fourth  day by an eruption  of
small red points or spots, perceptible to the touch,
and which, after four or five days, goes off with
desquamation of the cuticle ;  but the fever, cough,
&c, continue for some time.
  Treat. When there are no urgent local symp-
toms, mild  aperients, antimonial diaphoretics and
diluents should be had recourse to ;  but when the
inflammatory symptoms  are  emergent, and the
lungs are  weak, especially in plethoric  habits,
blood may be  taken.  The  cough may  be re-
lieved  by  expectorants,  demulcents,  and  small
doses of opium ;  and the  diarrhoea  by the ad-
ministration of  the compound  powder of  chalk
and opium ; the looseness of the bowels, however,
had  better  not  be interfered with, unless it be ex-
treme.
  MEASURE.  Syn.  Mensura,  (Lat.)  The
unit  or standard by which we estimate extension,
whether of length, superficies, or  volume.  Our
notice  must be  confined to the imperial measure
of England, and the usual French  measures that
are mentioned in works on  the  arts and sciences,
or are used in prescribing.
I.  French Decimal Measures of Length.
Names.	Eq. in Metres.	Inches.	Eq. in English Measures.
	0-001 0-01 0-1 1-10-100-1000-10000*	•03937 •39371 \ 3-93708 39-37079 393-70790 3937-07900 39370-79300 393707-90000	Miles. Fur. Yds. Feet. Inches. 0 0 10 2 9-7 0 0 109 1 1078 0 4 213 1 10-3 6 1 156 0 9*17
			
			
			
			
			
			
			
  Remarks.  The  unit of the above table  is the
metre, which has been determined to be 39*37079,
at 32° F., (Capt Kater;)  the English foot is ta-
ken at 62° F.  It  may be observed that all the
divisions  and multiples are decimals, and  hence
the term decimal system  has been given to these
measures, as well as to those of a similar descrip-
tion below.  It will be perceived that the principle
of nomenclature adopted in applying the names,
was to prefix the Greek numerals to the decimal
multiples, and the Latin numerals to the decimal
subdivisions.
II. Measures of Volume.-
-1. Imperial Standard, and the relative value of its Divisions, including
           those used in Medicine.
•n	f3	*1	O.	Oij.	C.			
Minims	Fluid	Fluid						
or drops.	Drachms.	Ounces.	Pints.	Quarts.	Gallons.	Pecks.	Bushels.	Quarters.
1	0-01666666	0-00208333	0-00010416	0-00005208	0-00001302	0	0	0
60	1-	0-125	0-00625	0-003125	0-00078125	0	0	0
480	8*	1-	005	0-025	0-00625	0	0	0
9600	160*	20-	1-	0-5	0-125	0-0625	0*015625	0-001953125
10200	320-	40-	2-	1*	0-25	0-125	0-03125	0-00390625
76800	1280*	1C0-	8-	4*	1*	0-5	0-125	0-015625
0	2560*	320-	16*	8*	2*	1-	0-25	0-03125
0	0	1280-	64-	32-	8*	4-	1*	0-125
0	0	0	512-	256*	64*	32*	8-	1*
  Remarks. The standard unit of the above table
is  the ga'lon,  which  has  a capacity equal to
277*274 cubic inches,  and  is capable  of  holding
exactly 10 lbs. (avoird.) of distilled  water at 60°
F.,  and 30 inches of the barometer.   It  is one-
fifth larger than  the old  wine gallon, and one-
sixtieth smaller than the old beer gallon.

•>*   A tea or  coffee-spoonful  (cochlearium
             pamium) of
  sirup contains 3j to 3ij;
  ordinary aqueous fluids 3iss to 3ij :
  spirits or tinctures 3j to  3iss;
  light powders (as magnesia) 9ss to 9j;
  heavy do. (as sulphur) 9iss to 9ij;
  metallic oxides 3j to 9iiij.

A dessert-spoonful (cochlearium mediocre) of
  water 3ij.
A tablespoonful (cochlearium magnum vel am-
             plum) of
  sirup  ^ss;         .
  ordinary aqueous fluids 3nj to 3mj ;
  spirits or tinctures 3ij to 3iij
A teacupful (vasculum pro thea) §iij to 5»v. 
MEC                    420                   MED
A wine-glassful (scyphus vel cyathus pro vino)
             |iss to |ij.
A thimbleful (clypeola metalHca pro digitis)  a
             teaspoonful.
A cubic inch of water weighs 252*456 grs.
A cubic foot of water weighs 62*3206 lbs. (av)

A fluid ounce "» water contains
                           1-73298 cubic inches.
                     A troy ounce   ....  1*9013214 do.

2. French Decimal Measures of Voh me.
Names	Eq. in Litres.	Eq. in Cubic In.	Measure.
	0-001 0-01 01 1-10-100* 1000* 10000-	0*06112 0-6U20 6-11208 61-12079 611-20792 6112*07920 61120*79208 611207 92080	Gallons. Pints. = 0 1-76377 = 2 1-4464 = 22 0*2640 = 220-47 — 2204-71
			
			
			
			
			
  Remarks. The standard unit in the above table
is the  litre,  or the cube  of the one-tenth of  a
metre.   The  cubic inch is calculated at 252*5 grs.
of water at 62° F.
  ***  The French centiare contains 1  square
metre ;  the are, 100 do.; the hectare, 10,000 do.
  t|t The capacity of solids and aeriform fluids
is taken in cubic inches, or feet, in England.  In
France, the stere, or metre cube, equal to 35-31658
English cubic feet, is the standard unit.
  MECHLOIC  ACID.   This name  has been
given by Couerbe to the crystalline  mass obtained
by passing chlorine  gas over fused  meconine.   It
is purified by removing the chlorine by oxide of
silver.   Before being purified,  blood  red;  when
pure, white crystals, strongly acid.
  MECONIC ACID.   Syn. Acidum meconi-
cum, (Lat, from  pt}Ku>v,  a poppy.)  A peculiar
acid discovered in  opium.  Prep.  Dissolve pure
meconiate of potassa 1 part, in  21 parts of hot
water,  add 3  parts  of strong muriatic  acid, and
mix well.   Acid meconate of potassa  is deposited
as the solution cools, which being treated a second
time in the same way, yields pure  meconic acid.
Meconate of  lime may be substituted  for the pot-
ash salt.  Its purity may be  ascertained by its
leaving no residue when heated in  a  platinum or
glass capsule.
  Remarks. Meconic acid forms  beautiful pearly
scales,  possessing a  sour  astringent taste, and  i
soluble in water and alcohol.  Its  solution is de-
composed by boiling, and by animal charcoal.  At
a heat  of  248° it is decomposed, and pyromeconic
acid formed  along  with other products.    It  is
characterized by—1. Precipitating the sesquisalts
of iron  red, and the color not being destroyed by
the action of corrosive sublimate.—2. Precipitating
a weak solution of  ammonio-sulphate  of copper
green.—3. With acetate of lead, nitrate of silver,
and chloride of barium, it gives white precipitates.—
4.  It is not reddened  by chloride of gold. The
above  precipitates are all meconates of the given
bases.   Meconate of Lime is obtained by heating
a solution of chloride of calcium with an  infusion
of opium made with  cold water, and collecting the
precipitate.  By dissolving  1 part of  this impure
Bait in  a mixture of 20 parts of  water, and 3 parts
of strong muriatic acid at near 212°, silvery crys-
tals of  monobasic meconate of lime will be depos-
ited  as  the  liquid cools. (Gregory.)   The  meco-
nate of potassu may be prepared by direct solution
of the base in the  impure acid obtained from me-
conate of lime till the liquor turns green,  heat be-
ing applied,  when the  salt crystallizes out as the
liquid cools; it may be purified by pressure, and
recrystallization.
   MECONINE, (from pikm, a poppy.)  A white
crystalline,  odorless  solid,  discovered  by Couerbe
in opium. It remains in solution when an aqueous
infusion of opium is  precipitated by ammonia.  It
may be obtained by evaporation, and may be puri-
fied  by alternate solution  in alcohol,  water, and
ether.   It forms white prisms.   It is distinguished
from codeia  and morphia by the absence  of alka-
line properties, and also from the latter by its fusi-
bility, its greater solubility in water, and not being
turned blue  by the  sesquisalts of iron.  Chlorine
gas passed over fused meconine  turns it blood red.
Neither meconine nor meconic acid appears to ex-
ercise any important physiological action on the
human frame.
   MEDALS, and similar objects  are very conve-
niently and  accurately copied  by  electricity, (see
Electrotype,) but still more quickly by the fol-
lowing means:—Reduce recently-precipitated and
well-washed oxide of copper by means of hydrogen
passed over  it at a gentle  heat; the operation be-
ing conducted in a glass tube, the one  end being
left partially open to permit of the escape of the
newly-formed water.  The process should be con-
tinued till the oxide be wholly decomposed, and the
powder assumes a fine copper-red color, when it
must be immediately removed, and kept in a well-
stoppered bottle.   For use, the medal is placed on
a  layer  of  smooth sand,  at the bottom  a small
white iron cylinder, and the sifted copper powder
poured on to the depth of about  10 or 12 lines, and
then gently  compressed with a massive iron cylin-
der,  after which the  whole must  be placed  on  an
anvil, and struck with a  heavy hammer till the
powder is no farther  compressible.   The icwly-
formed cast  is  then removed from Hlz  cylinder,
and  heated  to a red-white heat in a small copper
box, well luted with  clay to exclude the air, after
which  the whole is  left to cool.   A solid copper
medal  is  thus  vsry quickly obtained.    The  re-
cently reduced o -Jiles of other metals may be sub-
stituted for  coppc*   G. Osann, the discoverer  of 
MEL                    421                    MER
 this method,  succeeded well with copper, silver,
 and lead, which were the only ones he tried.  (Bib-
 liotheque Universelle de Geneve, No. 82.)
   MEDECINE  NOIR.   A celebrated  French
 nostrum, consisting of a mixture of tamarinds, man-
 na, glauber salts, and senna.
   MEDULLIN.   The porous  pith of the sun-
 flower.  It is soluble in nitric acid. (Dr. John.)
   MEERSCHAUM, (Ger.'foam of the sea.) Syn.
 Ecume  de Mer ;  Magnesie carbonatee silici-
 fere, (Fr.)   A silicated magnesia mineral.  The
 finest qualities are  found in Greece  and Turkey.
 It  is  used by the Tartars for washing  linen.  Its
 principal consumption  is,  however, in the manu-
 facture  of tobacco-pipes.  The Germans  prepare
 their pipes for sale by first soaking them in tallow,
 then in white wax, and finally polishing them with
 shavegrass.   Genuine  meerschaum pipes are dis-
 tinguished from mock ones by the beautiful brown
 color which  they assume  after  being smoked  for
 some time.
   MEGGELLUP.  Syn.  Magilp. Prep. Mastich
 varnish  1  lb.; pale  drying oil 2  lbs.;  mix.  Used
 by painters to apply their  glazings with.   It may
 be thinned by  adding turpentine.  Artists  often
 vary the proportions according to their work.
   MELAM.  A white insoluble powder discover-
 ed by Liebig.  It is prepared by fusing sulpho-
 cyanide of ammonia, or a mixture of 2  parts of
 sal ammoniac, and 1 part of sulphocyanide of po-
 tassium.   The residuum in the retort, after  being
 washed  with  water, is melam.
   MELAMINE.  A basic  substance  discovered
 by Liebig.  It is prepared by dissolving melam in
 a mixture  of hydrate of potassa 1 part, and water
 20 parts, evaporating  till crystalline  scales begin
 to form, and slowly cooling.  The resulting crys-
 tals must be purified by re-solution and recrystal-
 lization.   Yellow  transparent crystals, soluble in
 hot water.  It combines with the acids, and forms
 crystallizable  acidulous salts.
   MELAMPYRINE. A tasteless, neutral, crys-
 tallizable substance, extracted by Htinefeldt from
 tne melampyrum nemorosum.
   MELANGALLIC ACID.  Syn.  Metagallic
 Acid.   Obtained  by distilling tannic  acid  by a
 quick fire till  it froths,  melts, and becomes black
 and solid,  then dissolving  in an alkali,  filtering,
 and precipitating by an acid.  A black powder.
   MELANIC ACID.  A black  powder discover-
 ed by Piria, and formed when saliculite of potassa
 is exposed  to  the air till it  turns  black.   In this
 state the mass  consists of  acetic  and  melanic
 tecids.
   MELASSIC ACID.  Prep. Pour a hot  satu-
 rated solution of baryta, or caustic potassa or soda,
 on melted  grape sugar, dissolve, and continue the
 heat till the mixture turns deep brown, then precip-
 itate with  an excess of muriatic acid, and wash
 the resulting black powder, first with dilute muri-
 atic acid, and then with water.
  MELLITIC  ACID.   Discovered by Klaproth
in melilite or honey stone.  It may be obtained by
boiling the powdered stone in 70  times  its weight
of water, filtering, evaporating, and crystallizing.
 It forms  salts  with the  bases termed melilates.
  MELLON.  A compound of carbon and nitro-
gen, discovered by Liebig.  It remains at  the bot-
tom of the retort, under the form of a yellow pow-
der, when  bisulphocyanide of mercury is exposed
to heat.  It may in  like manner be obtained by
exposing melam, ammeline, ammelide, or dry sul-
phocyanogen to a red heat.   It is insoluble  in al-
cohol, water, and dilute acids.  It is  decomposed
by concentrated acids,  alkalis, and  a strong  red
heat.
   MELTING-BAG. (Dr. Breslau.) Prep. Iodide
of potassium 10 grammes ; sal ammoniac 80 gram-
mes ; dry,  reduce each  separately to fine powder;
mix by  trituration,  and enclose  them  in a small
bag.  As a resolvent to indolent tumors.  It should
be worn on the part for  some time.
   MENISPERMIC ACID.  Boullay has applied
this name to a crystalline substance found in coc-
culus indicus.
   MENISPERMINE.  Syn. Menispermia, Me-
nispermina.  A neutral  basic substance discovered
by Pelletier and  Couerbe in cocculus indicus.   It
may be  obtained by the action of alcohol.  It is
insoluble in water.  Paramenispermine is another
similar  substance, but differs from  the preceding
by not  forming  salts witu  the  acids.   Neither of
the above exercise  any marked physiological  ac-
tion.
   MERC APT AN, (from its energetic action on
mercury.)   Syn. Hydrosulphuret of  Sulphuret
of Ethule.  An ethereal liquid, smelling strongly
of  garlic, discovered  by Zeise.   Prep.  Saturate
liquor of potassa, sp. gr.  1*28, with sulphureted  hy-
drogen, then mix it with a solution of the same
density of sulpliovinate of lime.  The distilled liquid
must be digested, first on a little  chloride of cal-
cium, and  then agitated and rectified with a little
red oxide of mercury.
   MERCURY.  Syn.  Quicksilver.   Quik. Hy-
drargyrus. Mercurius. Argentum vivum. Aq.ua
Argentea.  Aq.ua Metallorum.  Hydrargyrum,
(P. L. E. and  D.)  Mercure, Mercure coulant,
Vif-argent, (Fr.)   Quecksilber, (Ger.)  'Tipdp
yvpos, "\pynpos xvt6s, (Gr.)  A liquid metal having
a tin white color.  Mercury was known to the  an-
cients.  It  is  mentioned by Aristotle, Theophras-
tus, Pliny,  and Dioscorides, but it is  not alluded
to, either in the Old Testament or in the writings
of Herodotus.   TI; i principal sources of this metal
at the present  time are the  mines of Idria, in Car-
niola, and Almaden, in  Spain, where it exists un-
der the  form  of cinnabar, from  which  the pure
metal is obtained by distilling that ore with lime or
iron filings  in iron retorts, by  which the sulphur it
contains is seized and retained, while the mercury
rises in the state of vapor, and  is  condensed in
suitable receivers.  Quicksilver is imported in cy-
lindrical  iron  bottles, containing from  J cwt. to 1
cwt. each.   An importation of quicksilver was  re-
cently made from China.
   Prep.  Mercury,  as imported, is  usually  very
pure.  The Dublin  College  orders  it  to be pre-
pared for medical purposes by putting  6 parts  in-
to  a  retort and distilling off  four  parts.  The
whole of the  mercury  may, however, be safely
drawn over.  A strong earthenware or iron retort,
with a low  neck or tube dipping  into  a  basin  of
water, may be used for  this purpose.  One of the
quickest and best means of purifying mercury is
to agitate it with a concentrated solution of nitrate
of mercury, at a heat of 104° F.
  Prop.  Sp.  gr  about  13*6; freezes  and crvs- 
MER                    422                   MER
tallizes at —39° Fahr.; when solid  it is ductile,
malleable, and tenacious;  boils  at  662° Fahr.;
but volatilizes slowly at the ordinary temperature of
the atmosphere, and when mixed with  water  at
from 140° to 160°, it is volatilized in considerable
quantities.   (Stromeyer.)   It unites  with oxygen,
forming two oxides;  and with chlorine, forming
calomel and corrosive sublimate ;  with the metals
it  forms  amalgams.  Its  oxides  form salts with
the acids.  The only acids that  act on metallic
mercury are the sulphuric and nitric  ; but for this
purpose the former must be heated.
   Uses. Mercury is applied to various purposes in
the arts ;  as the amalgamation of gold and silver,
wash gilding, the silvering of looking-glasses, the
manufacture of  barometers and thermometers,
and in the preparation  of  several valuable medi-
cines.  In its metallic state it appears to be inert
when swallowed, unless there be  much acidity  in
the alimentary canal ; its salts are,  however, all
of them more or less poisonous.
  Pur.  It is totally dissipated by heat,  and dis-
solved  by diluted nitric acid,  but is insoluble  in
boiling muriatic acid.  The acid  poured off, and
allowed to cool, is  neither colored,  nor  yields a
precipitate with sulphureted hydrogen;  sp.  gr.
13*5.   (P.  L.)   " A globule moved about  on a
sheet of paper yields no trail;  pure sulphuric acid
agitated  with  it (in the cold) evaporates when
heated, without leaving any residuum."   (P. E.)
   Tests.  1. Metallic  mercury may be  detected
by its volatility, and when in  a finely-divided  or
pulverulent state, by the microscope, or  by stain-
ing a piece of  copper white when rubbed on it, or
when  heated   beneath  it.—2.  Solutions of the
persalts of mercury yield—with  caustic alkalis,
yellowish  or  red precipitates—with  alkaline car-
bonates, a brick-red one—with iodide  of potassium,
a  scarlet  one.—3.  The protosalts of  mercury
yield a gray or black  precipitate  with  alkalis,—a
yellowish  or  greenish-yellow one with  iodide  of
potassium,—a white one with muriate of soda.—4.
The salts of mercury are all volatilized at a dull
red heat—give a white precipitate with  prussiate
of potash,—a black  one with sulphureted hydrogen
and hydrosulphurets,—an orange yellow  one with
gallic acid, and—with a plate of polished copper, a
white  coat of metallic  mercury.   Solid bodies
may be tested by treating them with nitric acid,
evaporating, redissolving in water, and then pro-
ceeding as above.
   MERCURY, ACETATE. Syn.  Hydrargyri
Acetas, (P. D.)  Do. Acetis.  Prep. I. (P. D.)
Mercury  9 parts;  diluted nitric  acid 11  parts;
dissolve, then  add it to  a boiling solution  of
acetate of potash 9 parts, dissolved in water 100
parts, and acidulated with distilled vinegar ; filter
while  hot, let  it coll, and wash  and dry the
crystals that are deposited.
   II  (P. L. 1788.)  Dissolve protoxide of mer-
cury  in  6trong acetic acid, concentrate so that
crystals may form as it cools.
   Remarks. The above is the protacetate of mer-
cury,—the peracetate is formed by dissolving  the
red oxide in strong  acetic acid.   They both form
white scales:  said to be one of the mildest of  the
mercurials.  Dose. 1  gr.  night  and   morning,
gradually increased.  The peracetate is the active
ingredient in the celebrated Keyset's pills. (Robi-
quet.)  A lotion is made with 3j of the protacetate
to a pint of water; and  an ointment  is orepared
by dissolving 2 or 3 scruples in an ounce of olive
oil.  (Pereira.)
  MERCURY,  BROMIDES OF.  The proto-
bromide  (hydrargyri bromidum) is a white  in-
soluble powder, obtained by precipitating  a solu-
tion of  protonitrate  of  mercury by  bromide of
potassium.  The bibromide  (hydrargyri bibromi-
dum) is formed by dissolving peroxide of mercury
in hydrobromic acid.
  MERCURY,  CHLORIDES OF.  Prep.  L
(Chloride of Mercury.   Mercurius dulcis.  Hy-
drargyrum Muriaticum mite.  Drago Mitigatus.
Aquila alba.  Manna Melallorum.  Panchyma-
gogum minerale.   Calomelas, P. E. and D.)  See
Calomel.
  II. (Bichloride of Mercury.  Perchloride of
do.  Oxymuriate of do.  Corrosive muriate of
do.  Chloride of do. ?  Muriate  of  do. ?  Hy-
drochlorate of do. ?  Corrosive  Sublimate. White
Mercury.   Mercurius  Corrosivus Sublimatus,
P. L.  1720,  1745.  Hydrargyrus Muriatus, P.
L.  1788.   Hydrargyri Oxymurias, P. L. 1809,
1824.   Hydrargyri  Bichloridum, P.  L. 1836.
Sublimatus   Corrosivus,  P.   E.   Hydrargyri
Murias Corrosivus, P. D.   Hydrargyri Murias?
Do. Hydrochloras ?  Acidum  Chloro-hydrargy-
ricum.   Deuto-Chlorure  de mercure; Muriate
de mercure corrosif, Fr.  Doppelt-chloric  Queck-
silber; Aetzendes  quecksilber sublimat, Ger.)
  Prep.  1.  (P. L.)   Mercury lb. ij; sulphuric acid
lb. iij ;  boil together in an iron  pot to dryness, and
when cold, triturate in  a mortar  with common
salt (dry) lb. iss ; then sublime with a heat gradu-
ally raised.   The Edinburgh form is similar.
  2. (P.  D.) Persulphate of  mercury  5  parts;
dried muriate of  soda 2 parts;  triturate  and sub-
lime as above.
  Remark. The  solution of the mercury is usually
made in  an iron pot set in a  furnace  under  •»
chimney to carry off the  fumes;  and the sublima
tion is conducted in an earthen alembic  placed in
a sand bath; or in an  iron pot, covered with  a
semispherical  earthen  head.  Corrosive sublimate
may also be made by the direct solution of the
red oxide in muriatic acid,  or by bringing its con-
stituents together  in  the  state of vapor.  The
latter plan has been recently patented.
  Prop.,  Uses,  <J-c.  The  corrosive sublimate of
commerce occurs in semitransparent white masses.
It possesses a strong coppery taste; is soluble in
about 19 parts of cold and 3 parts of boiling water,
and in 7 parts of cold and 3£ parts  of  boiling al-
cohol.   It  is also very soluble in ether.  The ad-
dition of muriatic acid, sal ammoniac, or camphor,
increases its solubility in all these  menstrua.  It
is decomposed by  contact with  metals,  and in
solution by various organic substances, and by ex-
posure to light.  Dose.  J  to 1 gr. twice  a day.
It acts quickly, but (it is said) not permanently.
It is also used externally as a lotion in  some skin
diseases.  It is  given  in pills  or solution.  It is
powerfully poisonous.
   Pur.  " It  sublimes entirely  by  heat;  and its
powder  is completely and easily soluble  in  sul-
phuric ether."   (P.  E.)  " The  yellow  or red
powder precipitated from  its aqueous solution by
potash or  lime water, emits oxygen by heat, and 
MER                    423                    MER
tuns into globules of mercury.   It is totally solu-
ble in water." (P. L.)
   T:sts. 1. Mixed with potash  and heated in a
glass, tube  over a  spirit-lamp,  metallic mercury
sublimes and condenses in globules on the cooler
portion  of  the  tube.—2.  Lime  water and the
alkaline carbonates occasion a  brick-red precipi-
tate  in its solution.—3.  Pure alkalis an orange or
red one.—4.  Iodide of potassium a scarlet one.—5.
Sulphureted hydrogen and hydrosulphates a black
one.—6.  Prussiate  of potash a  white one.  Pro-
tochloride  of  tin a white one,  changing into  a
grayish powder or minute  mercurial globules.—7.
The alkaline bicarbonates either do  not  disturb
the  solution,  or only  cause  a  slight degree of
opalescence.—8.  Drop  the suspected solution on a
clean piece of gold or copper,  (as a coin,)  and
apply a bright key, so that it may at once touch
the  edge of   the coin  and the  solution, when  a
hydro-electric current  will be  produced,  and  a
white spot  of  reduced mercury will appear on the
Burface of the metal.   (See Engraving.)
            a.. A coin.
            6. Drop of suspected solution.
            c. A bright key.
   *«* The preceding tests determine the substance
 examined to be  a persalt of mercury ; but by fil-
 tering the  solution, acidulating with dilute uitric
 acid,  and  testing with  nitrate of silver, we may
 readily  ascertain whether it contained chlorine.
 If a cloudy white precipitate be formed, and this
 precipitate  be soluble in  ammonia water, but insol-
 uble in nitric acid, corrosive sublimate  was present
 in the original compound.
   Ant.  White of egg, hydrated protosulphuret of
 iron, and gluten, are all powerful antidotes.  White
 of egg has proved efficacious in  numerous cases.
 (Christison, Ure, Thenard, &c.)   It  requires the
 white  of one egg to decompose 4 grains of corro-
 sive sublimate.  (Peschier.)   The recently precip-
 itated  protosulphuret of iron is, however, according
 to M.  Mialhe, the antidote par excellence, not only
 to corrosive sublimate, but to the salts of lead and
 copper.  The gluten of wheat has  also been rec-
 ommended, (Taddei,) or what is  equally effica-
 cious,  wheat flour mixed  up with water.  When
 any of the above are not at hand, copious draughts
 of milk may be substituted.  Iron filings have been
 occasionally used as  an antidote.  All these sub-
 stances should be taken  in considerable quantities,
 and the dose should be frequently repeated.  Vom-
 iting should in all cases  be induced, to remove, if
 possible, the poisonous matter from the stomach.
   MERCURY,  FULMINATING.   Syn. Ful-
 minate.   Fulminate of Protoxide of Mercury
 Fulminate of  Mercury.   Prep.  I.  (Howardj
 Mercury 1 part; nitric arid (1*36) 12  parts; dis-
solve,  and pour the solution  gradually and cau-
tiously into  alcohol of 80 to 85$, 11 parts ; a genth* i
heat being applied ; cool, filter,  dissolve in boiling j
Wate ,  and again filter ; as the solution cools, crys- |
tals of  fu'miuate are deposited.                   I
   II.  (Berzelius.)   Mercury 1  part; n'tric  acid
 (1-375) 12 parts ; dissolve, add to this solution al-
 cohol (0-850) 16-3 parts, (at intervals ;) apply  heat
 till the effervescence and cloud of ga? disappear,
 adding gradually on  the  action  becoming violent
 16-3 parts more of alcohol.  Product.  112°. of the
 mercury employed.
   111.  (Ure.)  a. Mercury 100 parti; nitric  acid
 (sp. gr. 1-4) 1000 parts, (or 740 by measure;)  dis-
 solve by a gentle heat, and when the solution has
 acquired the temperature of 130° F., slowly  pour
 it through a glass funnel tube into alcohol (sp. gr.
 0-830) 830 parts, (or 1000 by measure;) as  soon
 as the effervescence  is  over,  and white  fumes
 cease to be  evolved,  filter through double paper,
 wash  with  cold  water, and  dry by steam,  (not
 above 212°,) or hot water.   The fulminate is  then
 to be  packed in  100 gr. paper parcels, and these
 stored in a  tight  box or corked bottle.   Product.
 130°: of the weight of mercury employed.
   6. Quicksilver 1  oz. ; nitric acid  (1-4) 7^ oz.,
 (fluid ;)  alcohol  (0-830) 10  oz.,  (fluid.)   Proceed
 as last.
   Remarks. Dr. Ure's form is not only the cheap-
 est but the  best.  That of Berzelius is  more ex-
 pensive  and dangerous.  There  is also " no  little
 hazard in pouring the  alcohol into the nitric solu-
 tion ; for at each effusion one explosive blast takes
 place ;  whereas,  by pouring the  solution into the
 alcohol, as  originally enjoined  by the Hon.  Mr.
 Howard, the inventor, no danger whatever is in-
 curred." (Ure.)  This  preparation is used for pri-
 mng the copper percussion caps for fowling-pieces,
 muskets, &c.  Dr. Ure, in his first  report to the
 Board  of Ordnance, recommended the use  of a
 spirituous solution of gum sandarach, as the  best
 substance for diluting the  fulminate,  and fixing it
 in the caps ; but in a subsequent report to the same
 board, he states that a solution of mastich in spirit
 is to be preferred.  Less than 4, gr. of the  fulminate
 is sufficient  for each cap.   The French use a mix-
 ture of fulminate 10 parts,  and gunpowder 6 parts,
 made into a dough with water, by grinding them
 on a smooth marble table with a wooden muller.
 2£ lbs. are employed to charge upwards  of 40,000
 of the  French caps.
   *** The fulminate should only be dried in small
 parcels at a time, and those should be placed  at a
 distance from each other.  The dreadful explosion
 at Apothecaries' Hall,  by which Mr. Hennel, a
 talented chemist, lost his life, was occasioned by
 the spontaneous  detonation of  fulminating mer-
 cury.  (See the article Fulminates, in Ure's Diet
 of Arts, &c, which is the most practical and  val-
 uable paper or. this subject in our language.)
   MERCURY, IODIDES OF.  Prep. I.  (Io-
 dide of mercury.  Protiodide  of do.   Ioduret of
 do.  Hydrargyri iodidum, P. L.  Do. ioduret urn.
 Proto-iodure de mercure, Fr.  Quecksilber iodure,
 Ger.)   1. (P. L.)  Mercury f);  iodine 3v ; alco-
 hol q. s.; triturate together ; dry  in the  dark,  and
 keep it in a  well-stoppered bottle, (in  the shade.)
 (See Biniodide of Mercury.)
   2. Precipitate a solution  of protonitrate of mer-
cury by another of iodide of potassium ; wash  and
dry in  the shade.  Both the above are  greenish
yellow powders, soluble in ether.  Dose   J to 1 gr
and upwards in pills, in  scrofula,  &c.  It is  als*
used externally.  It is very poisonous. 
MER                    424                   MER
  II.  (Biniodide of mercury.  Deutiodide of do.
Red iodide of do.   Hydrargyri biniodidum,  P.
L. &  E.   Deuto-iodure de mercure,  Fr.   Dop-
pelt iodi-quecksilber,  Ger.)  Prep.  1. (P.  L.)
Mercury §j;  iodine 3x; alcohol q. s., (2 to 3  drs.;)
triturate  till  the  globules of mercury  disappear,
and the mixture assumes a scarlet color, then dry
in the shade, and place it  in  a well-stoppered
vessel.
  2. (P.  E.)  Mercury §ij ; iodine ^iss;  spirit q. s.;
triturate  together as last, and dissolve the product
in concentrated solution of muriate of soda 1 gal-
lon, by brisk ebullition, filter while boiling hot, and
wash and  dry the  crystals  that are deposited  as
the solution cools.
   3. Precipitate a solution of corrosive  sublimate,
or pernitrate  of  mercury, by another of iodide  of
potassium,  avoiding excess of either  precipitant;
wash and dry as before.
   Remarks.  The last is the more convenient pro-
cess ;  but  the Edinburgh  form gives the most
sightly preparation.   When large quantities  of
mercury and iodine are triturated together,  how-
ever carefully, so much heat is evolved that a con-
siderable portion of the iodine  is volatilized, and
the operator nearly suffocated with the  fumes, by
which means the proportions of the ingredients be-
come altered, and the color of the product is con-
sequently inferior.   This method should therefore
be only adopted  on  the  small scale.  It is a  bright
scarlet powder, soluble in alcohol, and in several of
the iodides and chlorides.  Dose. One-sixteenth to
i gr., dissolved in alcohol, or made  into a pill, in
scrofula, syphilis, &,c.   It is also used externally.
   III. (Sesquiodide.)  The bright yellow powder
that forms when a mixed solution of protonitrate
and pernitrate of mercury (the latter in excess) is
precipitated  by  another of  iodide of  potassium.
The precipitate  should  be purified by digestion in
a concentrated solution of common salt, and then
washed and dvied.
   MERCURY,  IOD  RETED BICHLORIDE
OF.  Syn. Hyurargyr. Bichloridum ioduretum.
Prep. (Lassaigne.)  Add a solution  of corrosive
sublimate to  an alcoholic solution of iodine till the
color disappears, gently evaporate, and  crystallize.
   MERCURY, IODO-BICHLORIDE OF. Syn.
Hydrargyri iodo-bichloridum. Prep. (Boullay.)
Dissolve biniodide of mercury in a solution of cor-
rosive sublimate, and  crystallize.  *m* Both the
above preparations possess  considerable remedial
powers in certain complaints, but their precise ac-
tion and doses have not yet  been determined.
   MERCURY,  NITRATES  OF.   Prep. I.
 (Protonitrate of mercury.) Digest  mercury, in
 excess, in nitric acid diluted with 4 times its weight
 of water until the acid  is saturated, evaporate and
 crystallize, leaving a globule of mercury  in  the
 liquid.   By  re-solution in water acidulated with
 nitric acid and spontaneous  evaporation, the salt
 may be obtained perfectly pure.
    II. (Pernitrate  of mercury.)   By dissolving
 mercury in nitric acid in excess, by a gentle heat,
 and allowing the solution to cool slowly, prismatic
 crystals of this salt are obtained.
    III. (Subnitrate of mercury.  Dinitrate of do.
  Hydrargyri subnitras.)   Prepared by saturating
 nitric acid with mercury by heat, and then  throw-
 5ag the  solution into water, and collecting and dry-
ing the precipitate.   It is also  formed when the
crystallized pernitrate  of  mercury is  put into hot
water.
  Remarks.  This preparation is a yellow powder,
but the shade varies according to the heat of the
water employed to effect  the precipitation.  It is
largely sold  by a certain metropolitan wholesale
drug house, at an exorbitant price, and is  recom-
mended for the extemporaneous preparation of the
ointment of nitrate of mercury, according to the
formula on the following label which accompanies
each bottle:—" Hydrarg. subnitras.   Two scru-
ples of the subnitrate of mercury mixed with one
ounce of simple cerate, make  the ung. hydrarg.
nitrat. of the London Pharmacopoeia."
  The difference, however, between such  a prep-
aration, and the ointment of the college, must be
very evident, not only as to its  appearance, smell,
and general  properties, but also as to its actual
strength, arguing, merely, from the weight of the
metal contained in each.  In the one, the mercu-
ry is combined with a large excess of nitric acid,—
in the  other, the  mercury exists  in the  state of a
subsalt  In fact, this newly-invented unguentum
hydrargyri nitratis, P. L. (?) possesses  neither the
quantity of mercury, nor  of nitric acid, employed
in the  preparation of  the latter, besides  wanting
many  of its most sensible and  valuable properties.
(Cooley, Chem., iv. 374.)
   MERCURY, OXIDES OF.  Prep. I.  (Oxide
of  Mercury.  Protoxide of do.  Suboxide of do.
Black oxide  of  do.   Gray do. do.  Ash do. do
Pulvis Hydrargyri Cinereus.   Hydrargyri Oxy-
dum Cinereum, P. L. 1809 and 1824.  Hydrar-
gyri Oxydum, P. L.  1836.  Hydrargyri Oxydum
Nigrum, P.  D.    Oxide gris  de  Mercure,  Fi
Schwarzes gesauertes Quecksilber, Ger.)   1. (P
L.) Calomel ^j ', lime water 1 gallon ; mix, agitatt
well,   decant the clear  after  subsidence,  wash
with  distilled water, drain, and  dry ; wrapped in
bibulous paper, in the  air.
   2. (P. D.)  Sublimed calomel 1 part; water of
caustic potash 4 parts;  triturate together, wash
and dry as above.
   3. (Donovan and Liebig.)  Briskly triturate calo-
mel in a mortar with pure potassa in excess ; wash
with cold water, and dry  in the shade.
   Remarks. The above oxide  is a very dark gray
or  black  powder, rapidly suffering  decomposition
when  exposed to light,  becoming  olive  colored,
from a portion being resolved into metallic mercury
and binoxide.  When it has a gray color  (as that
of the shops usually has) it contains undecomposed
calomel.  The beautiful 6Zue-black  or dark  slate-
blue  powder prepared by decomposing  calomel
with liquor of ammonia, or a mixture of the liquors
of ammonia and  potassa,  as recommended by  Mr.
Tyson in the Pharmaceutical Journal,  is not pure
protoxide of mercury, but a mixture of that oxide
in variab'e proportions with proto-ammonio-chloride
of mercury, and possesses much more power than
the pure oxide.   Pure protoxide  of mercury,
 "digested for a short time in dilute muriatic acid,
 remains undissolved,  and  the filtered liquor  is not
 affected by solution of potassa  or by oxalate of am-
 monia.  It is totally soluble  in  acetic acid,  and
 entirely dissipated by  heat."   (P. L.)   As a medi-
 cine, pure protoxide of mercury is one of the mild-
 est of the mercurials, and is used both internally 
MER                     425                   MER
and externally, but chiefly as a fumigant, or made
into an ointment.  Dose.   £ gr. to 3  grs. twice  a
day.
  II. (Binoxide of  Mercury.   Deutoxide of do.
Peroxide of  do.  Red  oxide of do.)   Prep.  1.
By precipitation.   (Hydrargyri Oxydum Ru-
brum, P. L. 1824.   Hydrargyri Binoxydum, P.
L. 1836.)   Bichloride of mercury  §iv; water  6
pints; dissolve and  precipitate with liquor of po-
tassa f ^xxviij; decant, drain,  wash in distilled
water, and dry by a gentle heat. (P.  L.)
   Remarks.  Binoxide of mercury  prepared as
above has a  bright orange red color, and usually
contains a little combined water ; hence  its readier
solubility in acids than the oxide prepared by heat.
" When  heated sufficiently, it yields oxygen, and
the mercury either runs into globules, or is totally
dissipated.  It is entirely soluble in muriatic acid."
(P.  L.)   The preparation of the shops has fre-
quently  a brick-red color, arising from too little
alkali being used.   In medicine, binoxide of mer-
cury is occasionally used  as an escharotic, either
in powder or  made into an ointment.  Dose.  To
induce salivation, -J gr. to 1 gr., combined with
opium.
   2. By calcination.  (Red precipitate per se.
 Calcined Mercury.  Coagulated do.   Oxide de
 Mercure rouge par le feu, Fr.  Rothes Queck-
silber oxyd, Ger. Mercurius pracipitatus per se.
 Mercurius calcinatus,  P.  L. 1745.   Hydrargyria
 calcinatus,  P. L.  1788.   Hydrargyri Oxydum
 Rubrum, P.  D. and P. L. 1809 and 1824.)   Place
 mercury in a glass vessel having a narrow mouth
 and  a broad bottom, and expose it to   a heat  of
 about 600° F., until it  is converted into  red scales.
   Remarks.   The  above process is very  tedious
 and unsatisfacto*    as  it  requires considerable at-
 tention, ami  generally  occupies several weeks  to
 complete it.  The product has the  form of small
 brilliant scales of a  ruby red color.
   3.  By calcination  of Nitrate of  Mercury.
 (Nitric oxide of Mercury.  Red precipitate.  Red
 precipitated  Mercury.   Mercurius  pracipitatus
 ruber.  Do. do. Corrosivus, P. L. 1720.  Mercu-
 rius corrosivus ruber,  P. L. 1745.   Hydrargyrus
 Nitratus Ruber,  P. L. 1788.   Hydrargyri Nitri-
 co-oxydum, P. L. 1809, 1824, 1836.  Hydrargy-
 rum oxydum Rubrum, P. E.   Do. do.  Nitricum,
 P. D.   Oxyde Mercure rouge par VAcide Ni-
 trique,  Fr.  Rother pracipitatat, Ger.)   Prep.
 (P.  L.)   Mercury lb. iij ; nitric acid lb. iss ; distilled
 water 2 pints ; mix, dissolve by heat, evaporate to
 dryness, powder,  and calcine in a shallow vessel,
 with a  gradually-increased  heat, until  red vapors
 cease to arise.
   Remarks.  The processes of the P.  E.  and D. are
 similar, except that the Dublin College directs the
 evaporation and calcination to be performed in the
 same vessel,  without  powdering or stirring  the
 mass.   The latter process is said by  Mr Barker to
 yield the finest-colored product; but Mr.  Brande
 states, that " the  nitrate requires to  be  constantly
 stirred during  the  process, which  is usually per-
 formed in a  cast-iron  pot."  (Manual  of Chem.)
 On  the  large scale the  evaporation is generally
 conducted in a shallow earthen dish, and as soon
 as the mass becomes dry, a second dish is inverted
 over it, and the calcination continued without dis-
 turbance until the process is concluded.  The heat
                       54
of a snnd-bath is employed.   100 lbs. of mercury
and 48 lbs. of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*48, yield 112 lbs.
of red precipitate.  (Brande.)
  Prop., Uses, tyc.  Red precipitate forms bright
red crystalline scales, and usually contains a little
undecomposed pernitrate of mercury ; in other re-
spects it resembles the last two preparations.   It is
more generally used  as an escharotic, and  in oint-
ments, than the precipitated oxide.   " Entirely
soluble in muriatic acid." (P.  E.)   It is volatilized
by  heat  without the evolution of nitrous vapors.
" Neither lime water  nor sulphureted  hydrogen
produce any change  in water in which it has been
boiled."   (P. L.)  According to Mr.  Brande, it
must contain about 2 £ per cent, of nitric acid.
   MERCURY, PHOSPHATE OF.  Syn.  Hy-
drargyri Phosphas.   Prep.  (Prus. Ph.)  Precipi-
tate a solution of nitrate of mercury with  another
of phosphate of soda, acidulated with nitric acid;
wash and dry the precipitate.
   MERCURY, SULPHATES  OF.   I. (Sub-
sulphate of Mercury.  Yellow do. io.   Turpeth's
mineral.  Turbith's do.  Queen's yellow.  Tur-
pethum minerale.  Hydrargyri subsulphas.  Do.
do. flavus.   Hydrargyri  oxydum sulphuricum,
P. D.  Mercurius emeiicus flavus.  Hydrargyrus
vitriolatus.  Subsulphate de  mercure, Fr.   Gelbes
Schwefelsaures  Quecksilberoxyd, Ger.)   Prep.
 1. (P. D.)  Persulphate of mercury 1 part; warm
water 20 parts ; triturate together in an  earthen
mortar, wash well with distilled water, drain and
dry.
   2. Dissolve mercury in an  equal weight of oil of
 vitriol by boiling to dryness, fling the mass into hot
 water, and wash and dry the  resulting yellow pow-
 der.
   Remarks.  The  heat of the water used to de-
 compose  the  persulphate,  influences the shade of
 color.   It has usually a lemon yellow color, and is
 used both as a pigment and in medicine.  Dose.
 As an alterative £ gr. to 1 gr.; as an emetic 3 to
 5 grs. ; as  an errhine 1 grain, mixed with a pinch
 of liquorice powder  or  mild  snuff, and  sniffed  up
 the nose.   It is a powerful poison.
   II.  (Persulphate of Mercury.  Bipersulphate
 of do.  Hydrargyri Persulphas, P. D.  Do. Bi-
 sulphas.)  Prep. (P.-D-)  Dissolve mercury 6 parts
 in a mixture  of sulphuric acid 6 parts and nitric
 acid 1 part, by boiling in a  glass vessel, and con-
 tinue the heat  until the  mass becomes perfectly
 dry and white.  Used to make calomel.
   Remarks.  When 2 parts of mercury are gently
 heated in 3 parts of sulphuric acid,  protosulphate
 of mercury is formed ; but if the solution  be  ef-
 fected by a strong heat, and  the liquid be evapo-
 rated  to drvness, a bisulphate  of the peroxide
 (bipersulphate) results.    When  this sulphate is
 thrown  into hot water, decomposition ensues, and
 the yellow  subsulphate of mercury is precipitated,
 and a portion of the bisulphate, together with some
 free sulphuric acid,  remains  in solution    (Liebig.)
 Either of the  above sulphates should be entirely
 volatilized by heat.
   MERCURY, SULPHURETS OF.   I. (Pro-
 tosulphuret.)  Prep. Transmit sulphureted hy-
 drogen through a dilute solution of nitrate of mer-
 cur|, or  through water in which calomel is sus-
 pended.  A black powder.   This is the pure black
 sulphuret or protosulphuret. 
MES                    426                   MET
  II. (Bisulphuret of mercury.  Red sulphuret
of do.  Factitious cinnabar.  Vermilion.  Cin-
nabaris factitia, P. L. 1745.  Hydrargyrus eul-
phuratus  ruber, P. L. 1788.   Hydrargyri bisul-
pkuretum rubrum, P. L. 1809 &  1824.   Hydrar-
gyri  sulphuretum,  P. L. 1836.   Ktwdfiapt,  Gr.
Deulosulphure de mercure ; sulphure de mercure
rouge, Fr.  Zinnober, Ger.)  Prep.  (P. L.) Mer-
cury lb. ij ;  sulphur 5jv ; melt together, and con-
tinue the heat till the mixture swells up, then cover
the vessel, remove it from  the  heat,  and  when
cold, powder  and sublime.  The formula} of the
other colleges are similar.
   Remarks. Bisulphuret of mercury has a dark-
red semi-crystalline appearance in the mass,  but
acquires a brilliant scarlet color by powdering.  It
is tasteless, odorless,  and insoluble.  It  is chiefly
used as a pigment; but it is occasionally used in
medicine  as a diaphoretic and vermifuge,  and in
some cutaneous diseases, and gout.   Dose. 10 to
30 grs.; as a fumigative 3j  or  3ij thrown on a
red-hot iron.  When pure, " it is  totally dissipated
by heat;  and on  potash  being added to it, runs
into globules of mercury.  It  is  insoluble in nitric
or muriatic acid, but dissolves in a mixture of them.
Spirit, water, or acetic acid digested on it, acquires
no color, nor is either of these menstrua afterwards
affected by iodide of potassium."   (P.  L.)   See
Vermilion.
   MERCURY,  BLACK SULPHURET.  Syn.
Bisulphuret of Mercury with Sulphur.  Ethi-
ops  Mineral.   ./Ethiops mineralis, (P. L. 1745.)
Hydrargyrus cum Sulphure, (P. L. 1788.)  Hy-
drargyrum Sulphuretum nigrum, (P. L. 1824 &
P. D.)  Hydrargyri Sulphuretum cum Sulphure,
(P. L. 1836.)  Sulphure de Mercure noir, (Fr.)
Schwarzes Schwefelquecksilber, (Ger.)  This
is properly a mixture of bisulphuret of mercury and
sulphur, in  variable quantities. The  London  and
Dublin Colleges order it to be  prepared by  tritura-
ting together in a mortar equal parts of mercury
and sulphur until globules  are  no longe. visible.
On  the large scale, it is generally made by melting
the  ingredients together, and  afterwards reducing
the  mass  to fine powder in a mill or mortar.
   Pur., Uses, SfC.  Ethiops mineral is  a  heavy
black powder.  It is  frequently imperfectly pre-
pared, and  sometimes adulterated.  If it  contain
free mercury, it will stain a piece of bright copper
or gold white when  rubbed  on  it; if it  contain
charcoal, blacklead,  or  bone  black, these will re-
main behind when it is heated.  Its sp. gr. will in-
dicate whether it contains the proper quantity of
mercury.   When pure it is totally dissipated by
 heat, (without incandescence,) no charcoal or phos-
 phate of  lime being left.  (P. L.)   It has been said
 to be vermifuge and  alterative, and has been used
 in some cutaneous and glandular diseases,  but ap-
 pears to be inert.  Dose 5 to 30 grs.
   MESITULE.  This name has been applied by
 Kane to  the theoretical  organic radical  of which
 acetone  is  presumed  to be  the  hydrated oxide.
 Chloride of mesitule is made by actirg on acetone
 with  perchloride  of phosphorus; and  this  com-
 pound, by the action &f pure potassa water, yields
 chloride of potassium and oxide of mesitule.  Me-
 thylene  is obtained  with other products when
 acetone  is  distilled  with fuming sulphuric acid.
 (Kane.)
  MESOXALIC  ACID.   A  new acid fonned
with other products when a saturated solution of
alloxanate of baryta or strontia is heated to the
boiling point.  It possesses  but little practical im-
portance.
  METACETONE.  A colorless, ethereal liquid
obtained by distilling a mixture of 1 part of sugar
and 8 parts of finely-powdered quicklime at a heat
of about 285°, and  adding water to the product
  METALDEHYDE.   The volatile  prismatic
crystals that form  in  aldehyde when kept at ordi-
nary temperatures.   It is soluble in alcohol.
  METALLOIDS. (From /itraXUv, a metal, and
ttiot, form.)  In Chemistry, non-metallic inflam-
mable  bodies, as sulphur,  phosphorus,  &c.  The
metallic bases of the alkalis and earths have also
been  called  metalloids,  but  are  more properly
termed metals.
  METALS.  Syn.  Metaux,  (Fr.)   Metalle,
(Ger.)  From metallum, or ftcraWov, a metal. In
Chemistry,  metals  are   electro-positive  bodies,
which  are  distinguished by their  weight, lustre,
fusibility, and power of conducting electricity. All
the metals are chemical elements.  Their individ-
ual or distinctive characters will be found described
in their alphabetical places.
   METAMARGARIC ACID. A new acid form-
ed along with metoleic acid by the action of sul-
phuric acid  on twice its weight of olive oil.
   METAPHOSPHORIC ACID.  Prepared by
burning phosphorus in dry air or oxygen  gas, or
heating to redness a concentrated solution of phos-
phoric, or pyrophosphoric acid.  The latter mode
of preparation yields a hydrated  acid.   It produ-
ces precipitates  in  solutions of most of the bases,
which are  metaphosphates.  The  metaphosphate
of soda is formed  when pyrophosphate of soda is
heated to low redness.  It is deliquescent.
   METHEGLIN.  (From meth, Ger.,  mead.)
Syn. Hydromel vinosum.  Prep.  Honey 1 cwt.;
water 24 gallons ; mix  in  a cask, and stir daily
until dissolved, then add yeast 1 pint, and hops  1
lb., previously boiled  in water 1 gallon, along with
water sufficient to make the whole 1 barrel; mix
well, and ferment  Contains on the average about
7 to 8°f of alcohol.   Mead and metheglin are fre-
quently confounded together.
   METHIONIC ACID.  A sour liquid, obtained
from raethionate of baryta, in the same way as
isethionic acid is from isethionate of baryta.
   METHIONATE OF BARYTA. Prep. Satu-
rate ether with  anhydrous  sulphuric acid,  at the
ordinary temperature of  the  atmosphere,  dilute
with water, neutralize with  carbonate of baryta,
and when nearly about to  crystallize add an equal
bulk of alcohol ; methionate of baryta will be pre-
cipitated, and may be purified by re-solution and
crystallization.  Resembles chlorate of potash, and
is soluble in water.
   METHULE.  The hypothetical radical of py-
roxilic spirit.  Iodide, chloride,  bromide, fluoride,
and sulphuret of methule have been formed.  (See
Pyroxilic Spirit.)
   METHULE, OXIDE  OF. Syn. Hydrate ot
Methyline.  Methylic Ether.   Prep.  Distil a
mixture of equal  volumes of pyroxilic  spirit and
oil of  vitriol,  and pass the evolved  vapors first
through milk of lime, and  then through a series of
Woolf s bottles,  containing  water.  The  water 
MIL                     427                     MIN
must then be gently heated, and the gas collected
over mercury.  It may be dried  and deprived of
undecomposed  pyroxilic spirit by  pure  potassa.
Water absorbs 37  times  its volume of this gas.
When this gas !s brought into contact with the va-
por of anhydrous sulphuric acid, it unites with the
latter, forming sulphate of methule.
  METHYLAL.  A peculiar ethereal liquid ob-
tained along  with other  products  by  distilling a
mixture of pyroxilic spirit, water, oil of vitriol, and
manganese.
  METHYLENE.  A peculiar liquid hydrocar-
bon, obtained  from pyroxilic spirit.
  MICROCOSMIC   SALT.  Prep. Mix  equal
parts of phosphate of soda, and phosphate of am-
monia in solution, evaporate  and  crystallize.  A
slight excess of phosphate  of ammonia  aids the
crystallization.  Used in blowpipe assays.
  MICROSCOPE.  The use of a brilliant port-
fire has been lately adopted with considerable suc-
cess as a substitute for the lime-light of the oxy-
hydrogen microscope.   A clear and powerful light
may be thus produced at very little  expense  and
trouble.   A single  microscope may be very easily
obtained by piercing  a small  round  hole in a slip
of metal, and introducing into it a drop of  water,
which will immediately assume a globular form on
each  side of the metal, and  possess considerable
magnifying power. The crystalline lens of the eye
of a minnow may  also be  used.
   MILK. Syn. Lac,  (Lat.)  Lait, (Fr.) Milch,
(Ger.) The value of milk as an  article of food is suffi-
ciently evident from its being alone sufficient to sup-
port and increase the growth of the young of every
species  of mammalia ; at once supplying materials
for the formation of the osseous,  fleshy, and liquid
portions  of the body. Cow's milk,  of  average
quality, contains from 10  to  12$  of solid matter
when evaporated  to dryness by  steam heat,  and
has the  mean sp. gr. 1-030 ; while that of the
skimmed  milk is  about 1-035; and of the  cream
1*0244.  (Ure.)  The average cream of cow's milk
contains 45$ of butter, 3-5$ of curd, and 92$ of
whey.  (Berzelius.)  The skimmed milk consists
of water 929§, curd 2-8$, sugar of milk 3-5$, lac-
tic acid, lactate of potash, and a trace of lactate
of iron 0*6$, muriate and phosphate of potash and
earthy phosphates (lime) 02$.  (Berzelius.)
  Milk  may be preserved in stout well-corked and
wired bottles by heating them to the boiling point
in a water-bath, by which the small quantity of
enclosed air becomes decomposed.   Milk,  or green
gooseberries, or peas, thus treated, will  keep for 2
years.  Some persons add a few grains of calcined
magnesia to each  bottle of milk before corking it
(See Cows,  Cream, Dairy, Cheese, &c.)
  %* Milk should not be kept in lead or zinc ves-
sels,  as it speedily dissolves  a portion of those
metals.
  MILK, ELEPHANT'S.   Syn.  Urine d'Ele-
phant.  Prep. Gum  benzoin 2 oz.; rectified spir-
its of  wine 1 pint;  dissolve; add boiling water 2$
pints,  agitate for 5 minutes in  a strong corked bot-
tle, and  when  cold, strain, and  add lump sugar
14 lb
  MILK OF ROSES.  Syn. Lac Rosas.  Prep.
I. (English.)  a. Liquor of potassa,  oil of almonds,
and hot water, of  each 1 oz.;  agitate till perfectly
mixed ;  then add rose water 3 oz.;  and again agi-
tate well.—6. To the last add orange-flower watei
J oz.—c. To either the first or second add essence
of bergamot 1 dr.—d. Blanched Jordan almonds 4
oz.; oil  of almonds,  Castile  soap, and white wax,
of each 4, oz.; spermaceti 1 dr.;  make  an emul-
sion with rose water  1£ lb.; strain, and  add oil of
lavender 15 drops, dissolved in rectified spirit 8 oz.:
mix.  This keeps well.—e. Either of the last may
be diversified by adding a little tincture of benzoin,
or bitter almonds, or by substituting elder-flower
water for rose water.
  II. (French.) Rose water 1 quart; tinctures of
benzoin and storax, of each 1 oz.;  spirit  of  roses i
oz.;  rectified spirit 2 oz.;  mix.
  III. (German.)  Solution  of diacetate  of  lead
(P. L.) and spirits of lavender, of each 1 oz. ; rose
water 6 oz.; soft water 1  pint; mix.
  Remarks. All  the above are used as cosmetic
washes.
  MINCE MEAT.  (In Cookery.)  Prep.  Stoned
raisins,  currants, sugar, and suet, of each 2  lbs.;
sultana raisins,  boiled beef, (lean and tender,)  of
each 1 lb.; apples 4  lbs.; juice of 2 lemons;  the
rind of one lemon chopped very fine ; mixed spice
i lb.; candied citron  and lemon peel, of each 2 oz.;
brandy  a glass or two ; chop the whole  very fine.
It may  be varied by adding other spice or flavor-
ing, and the addition of eggs, or the substitution of
chopped fowl or veal for beef, according to fancy
  MINERAL   MARMORATUM.  I.  Anhy-
drous phosphoric arid 48 grs.;  pure caustic lime 52
grs.; both finely pulverized ; mix rapidly in a mortar.
  *** This powder  soon  becomes moist; it must
therefore be brought  as quickly as possible into the
cavity of  the tooth,  which has been cleaned and
dried; the powder is to be well  pressed into  the
cavity, smoothed off, and moistened on its surface.
It is white and durable, and soon  acquires great
hardness.   In its composition it resembles the nat-
ural  earthy matter of the teeth. (Lancet.)
  II. Mix a little finely-powdered glass with some
mineral succedaneum.  (No. II.)   Inferior to the
last, and dark colored.
   MINERAL  METALLIC  CEMENT.  Prep.
Add finely-levigated steel filings  to some mineral
succedaneum. (No. II.)  Used to fill hollow teeth-
Dark colored;  inferior  to the mineral  marmora-
turn.
  MINERAL  SUCCEDANEUM.  Prep.  I.
Heat gold in a  bright iron ladle,  and add enough
pure mercury to render it of a doughy consistence
at the heat of hot water.  For use, a little must be
kneaded as hot as possible in the hand and wedged
into  the  cavities of the  teeth.   Keeps its color
well.
  II. A mixture of tinfoil and quicksilver. As last.
Turns dark.  All the above are used by  dentists.
  MINIUM.   Syn. Red Lead.  Red Oxide of
Lead.  Minium, (Fr.)   Mennage, (Ger.)  Plumbi
oxydum Rubrum, (Lat.) Prep. The best red lead
is prepared by exposing ground and elutriated mas-
sacot, or dross of lead, in shallow iron trays, (about
12 inches square, and  about 4 or 5 inches deep,)
piled up on the  hearth  of  a reverberatory furnace,
to a heat, of about 600  to 650°, and occasionally
stirring  about till it acquires the proper color.  The
furnace employed for the preparation of massicot
during the day, usually possesses  sufficient residu-
ary heat dunjg the night for this process, by which 
MIX                     428                    MIX
fuel is saved.   Lead for the  above  purpose should
be as pure as possible.  Used as a pigment, and
to make plasters.
   MITHRIDATIUM.  Syn. Confectio Damo-
cratis, (P. L. 1746.)  This consisted of no fewer
than forty-five ingredients, and contained 1  gr. of
opium in each ^ss.
   MIXTURE.   Syn.  Mistura,  (Lat)    (In
Pharmacy.)  A compound liquid medicine, taken
in divided doses.  Mixtures are usually extempo-
raneous preparations, and in prescribing them, care
should be taken not to bring together substances
that decompose each other, nor to order heavy
powders  that speedily separate  by  subsidence.
Emulsions, juleps, and mucilages, are included un-
der this  head in  the  last edition of the London
Pharmacopoeia.  Mixtures are usually dispensed in
flat octagonal 6 or 8 oz. bottles, with long necks,
or in regular octagons, with short  necks, having
the doses marked on the glass, to which the strength
af the medicine  is made  to  correspond.   (See
Draughts, Emulsions, Juleps.)
   MIXTURE,  ALKALINE.   Syn.  Mistura
Alkalina.  Prep. Liquor of potassa 3iss ; tincture
of opium 3j ; spirit  of nutmeg 3ij ; water 5VSS j
mix.  Anodyne and antacid.   Dose.  1  to 2 table-
spoonfuls 2 or 3 times  a day in flatulence, dyspep-
sia, heartburn, &c.
   MIXTURE, ALMOND.   Syn. Milk of Al-
monds; Emulsion of  do.  M. Amygdala, (P. L.)
M. Amygdalarum,  (P. E. and  D.)   Lac Amyg-
dala.  Prep. I.  (P.  L.)  Confection  of almonds
§iiss ; distilled water  1 pint; gradually mix, tritu-
rating all the time in  a mortar, then strain through
linen.
   II. (P. E.) Sweet almonds ^ij 3ij;  blanch, add
white sugar  %v;  beat to a smooth paste, further
add mucilage f §ss, (or powdered gum 3iij ;) mix
well, then triturate with water 1 quart, gradually
added, and strain.
   III. (P. D.) Blanched sweet almonds 3iss; do.
bitter almonds 3ij;  sugar ^ss; water %xxxij.
   IV. (Pereira.)  Blanched sweet  almonds  3iv;
powdered gum 3j ;  white sugar 3ij ; water f §viss.
   Remarks  The last formula produces the article
usually empn-yed in dispensing in the shops.  The
addition  of a little more sugar renders it pleasanter ;
and a small  quantity of bitter almonds, as in the
Dublin form, or a drachm or two of rose or orange-
flower water, may occasionally be added to diver-
sify the flavor.  Dose. 2 or 3  tablespoonfuls ad li-
bitum, as a demulcent and emollient in coughs and
colds, or as a vehicle  for more active medicines.
   MIXTURE,  AMMONIA.  Syn.   M. Ammo-
 nia  carbonatis.  Prep.  (St. B. H.)  Carbonate
 of ammonia  3'ij;  pimento water f ^iv ;  pure water
 f ^vj; mix.  Dose.  1  or 2  tablespoonfuls 3  or  4
 times a  day, in  heartburn, dyspepsia,  headache,
 &c, accompanied by lowness of spirits.
    MIXTURE,  ACETATE OF  AMMONIA.
 Syn.  M. Ammoni * Acetatis.  Prep. A solution
 of acetate of ammonia §iss;  nitre  3ij; camphor
 mixture ^vj; rose sirup fss;  mix.  Dose.  1 to  3
 tablespoonfuls every third or fourth hour, as a dia-
 phoretic in inflammatory fevers, &c.
    MIXTURE, AMMONIACUM.   Syn.  Milk
 of Ammoniacum.   Emulsion of do.  Lac Ammo-
 kiaci.   M. Ammoniaci, (P. L. and D.)   Prep. (P.
 L.) Ammoniacum 3v; water 1 pint; gradually
mix, by trituration, and strain through linen. Dose.
f ^ss to f^j, either alone or  combined with squills
or ipecacuanha, as an expectorant and demulcent
in chronic coughs, humoral asthma, &c.
   MIXTURE, ANODYNE.  Syn.  M. Anodv-
na.  Julep Calmans.  Prep. I. (P.  Cod.)  Simp
of opium 3ij ; sirup of orange flowers 3vj; lettuce
water f iv ; mix.  To allay pain, induce sleep, &c.
   II.  Prepared chalk  3ij ;  sirup  of poppies 3jj;
fetid spirit of  ammonia 3iss ; oils of dill and  ani-
seed,  of  each 3 drops; water ^ivss ;  mix.   Dose.
A teaspoonful 3 or 4 times a day, in the diarrhoea
of infants accompanied with pain.
   MIXTURE, ANTACID.   Syn.  M. Antaci-
da.  Prep. I. (Ryan.) Solution of potassa f3ij;
lime water f ^viij ;  calcined  magnesia 3j; oil of
peppermint  5 drops; tinct of  opium f3j;  mix.
Dose.  1 to 2  tablespoonfuls  3 or 4 times daily in
dyspepsia, heartburn, acidity, &c.
   II.  (Collier.)—a. Prepared chalk 3ij; compound
tincture of cardamoms fiss ; tincture of ginger f 3ij;
pimento  water §vj ;  mix.   Stimulant, antacid.
Dose.  2 tablespoonfuls  every second or third hour,
in diarrhoea accompanied with acidity, after  sur-
feits, &c.—b. Chalk mixture f^v; tinctures of Cv
techu  and cinnamon,  of each  §ss; mix.  Dose.
1 or 2 tablespoonfuls after every liquid dejection in

   MIXTURE, ANTICROUPAL.  Syn.  M. Se-
nega.  Prep. (Jadelot) Infusion  of senega  §iv;
sirup of ipecacuanha 3j ; oxymel  of squills 3iij;
tartarized antimony 1£  grs.;  mix.    Dose.  By
spoonfuls in croup.
   MIXTURE, ANTI-EPILEPTIC.   Syn. M,
Anti-epileptica.  Prep.  (M.  Lemoine.)  Liquor
of ammonia 12 drops ;  sirup of orange flowers ^j;
distilled water of Linden flowers §ij ;  do. of cherry
laurel  §ss ; mix.  Accordiug to M. Lemoine, this
is a specific in epilepsy.
   MIXTURE, ANTIHYSTERIC.   Syn. M.
Antihysterica.   Prep.  I.  (P. Cod.)  Sirup of
wormwood §j ;  tincture  of castor 3ss;  valerian
water and orange-flower water, of each ^ij > ether
3j; mix.
   II.  Asafcetida 3j; peppermint water §vj; tritu-
rate together, then  add  ammoniated  tincture of
valerian 3ij;  tincture of castor 3iij ; sulphuric ether
3iss ; mix.  Dose. §ss, 3  or 4 times daily.
   MIXTURE,  ANTISCROFULOUS.   Syn.
 M. Antisorofulosa.  Prep. Tincture of bichloride
of gold  30 drops; tincture of iodine 40  drops;
tincture of gentian 3j ;  simple sirup  3vij;  rose
 water §v ; mix.  Dose. A dessert-spoonful 2 or 3
times  daily,  observing to shake the bottle before
pouring  out  the  liquid.   %* The writer of this
article has seen repeated instances of the excellent
 effects of this  medicine in  scrofula, syphilis, and
 various glandular diseases.
   MIXTURE, ANTISPASMODIC. Syn. M.
 antispasmodica.  Prep.  I. (Collier.)  a. Asafcetida
 and camphor mixture**, of each f ^iiss ; tincture of
 valerian f 5j 5 mix.  Dose.  1 tablespoonful  every
 third or fourth  hour.   b.  Fetid spirit of ammonia,
sirup of saffron, and tincture of valerian, of  each
 f3iij ; camphor mixture f^viss; mix.  Dose. 2 ot
 3 tablespoonfuls as above.
   II.  Tincture of castor 3j; sulphuric ether and
 laudanum, of  each 10  drops;  cinnamon  water
 f §iss; mix for a dose, to be taken thrice a day. 
MIX                    429                    MIX
   IH. Volatile tincture of valerian, and tincture
 Df castor, of each 3v ; tincture of henbane  3ij ;
 peppermint water  and camphor mixture, of each
 j^iiss ; mix.  Dose 1 tablespoonful 3 or 4 times a
 day.
   MIXTURE,  APERIENT.   Syn.  M. Ape-
 riens.  Prep. I  (Abernethy.)   Epsom salts 3iv ;
 manna  3ij;  infusion  of senna f3vj;  tincture of
 senna f3ij ; spearmint water fjj ; pure water f^ij ;
 mix.  Dose.  A wine-glassful or more.  (See Black
 Draught.)
   II. (Collier.) Sulphate of iron 3j; Epsom salts
 ^j; pennyroyal water  1  pint; dissolve.  Dose. A
 wine-glassful twice a day in atonic amenorrhcea.
   MIXTURE,  AROMATIC.   Syn.  M. Aro-
 matica.   Potion a^omatique, (Fr.) Prep. I. (P.
 Cod.)   Sirup of clove-gillyflower  §j ; spirits of
 cinnamon 3iv ; confection of hyacinth 3ij ; pep-
 permint and  orange-flower water, of  each  §ij;
 mix.
   II. (St. B. H.)  Aromatic confection 3iiss ; pure
 water f ^v ;  pimento water f ^iij ; mix.  An ex-
 cellent aromatic in diarrhoea, heartburn, flatulence,
 acidity, &c.   Dose.  A tablespoonful or two every
 2 or 3 hours.
   MIXTURE,  ARSENICAL.  Syn. M. arse-
 nicalis.  Prep. Liquor of arsenite of potassa, P.
 L. 3iij ; compound tincture of cardamoms 3v ; cin-
 namon water 3"j ; pure water  §iv ; mix.  Dose.
 §ss twice a  day after a full meal, in  agues, peri-
 odic headaches, lepra, psoriasis, chronic rheuma-
 tism. &c.  %* It should  be exhibited with cau-
 tioi>. and its effects watched.
   MIXTURE,  ASAFCETIDA.  Syn. Milk of
 Asafcetida.   M. AsafcetidjE, (P. L.  & D.)  Lac
 do.   Prep.  (P. L.)  Asafcetida 3v ; water 1 pint;
 mix gradually,  tritura'ting all  the while.   The
 Dublin College orders only half the above quantity
 of asafcetida, and pennyroyal instead of pure  wa-
 ter.   Stimulant  and antispasmodic.   Dose. £ to
 IJ oz., chiefly in hysteria.  It is also  used as an
 enema  in flatulent colic, worms, hooping-cough,
 and convulsions of children.
   MIXTURE,  ASTRINGENT.  Syn.  M.  as-
 tringevs.  Prep.  I.  (Thomson.) Extract  of ca-
 techu 3ij, (or tincture § j;) cinnamon  water ^viij ;
 dissolve.  Dose. 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls after every
 liquid dejection, in diarrhoea or dysentery.
   II. (Pradel.) Tannin 12 grs.; tincture of rha-
 tany 3j ; simple sirup 3vij ; mucilage Jj ; camphor
 mixture %\v ; mix.  As last.
   MIXTURE,  ATROPHIC.  Syn.  M.  atro-
 phica.  Prep.  (Majendie.) Iodide of potassium
 3iv ; lettuce water ^viij ;  peppermint water  3ij ;
 sirup of marshmallow ^j;  mix.
   MIXTURE,  BALSAM OF  PERU.    Syn.
 M. Balsami  Peruviam.   Prep.  Strained  honey
 and balsam of Peru, of each 3ij ; mix by tritura-
 tion, and add gradually decoction of liquorice ^vj,
 aromatic  sulphuric acid 20  drops,  tincture  of
 orange-peel  §ss;  mix well.  Dose.  1  to 2  table-
 spoonfuls 2 or 3 times a day in-debility.
   MIXTURE, BARLEY.  -Syn.  M. Hordei,
 (P. E.)   The same as the  compound decoction of
 barlev. P- L.  (See Decoctions.)
   MIXTURE, BRANDY.  Syn. M. Spiritus
 Vim Gallici, (P. L.)   Egg Flip, (vulgo.)   Prep.
 Brandy and  cinnamon water, of each f ^iv ; yelks
of 2 eggs; white  sugar |ss; oil of cinnamon 2
drops;  mix.   A valuable stimulant and restorative
in low fevers, and extreme exhaustion from hemor-
rhages,  &c.  Dose. 1  to 3  tablespoonfuls occa-
sionally.  " Did  the  College  practically test the
quality of their < egg-hot' before deciding, on the
formula?"
  MIXTURE, BRUCINE.  Syn. M.  Brucia
Potio   stimulante.    Prep.  (Majendie.)   Pure
brucia 5  grs.; white  sugar  3ij ; water f^ij ; mix
carefully.  Dose. £ to a whole tablespoonful night
and morning.
  MIXTURE,  CAMPHOR.   Syn.  Camphor
Julep. Do. Water.  M. Camphors, (P. L.  E. &
D.) Prep. (P. L.) Camphor 3ss; rectified spirit 10
drops ; triturate together, then gradually add wa-
ter 1 pint; triturate and  strain.  The Edinburgh
College orders camphor 3j ;  sugar  and sweet al-
monds, of each Sjss ;  water 1  pint.   Dose. 2 to 4
tablespoonfuls.  It  is chiefly used as a vehicle for
other medicines.
  MIXTURE,  CAMPHOR  AND  MAGNE-
SIA. Syn. M. Camphors cum Magnesia. Prep. (P.
E.) Camphor 10 grs.,  (12 grs. P. D.;)  carbonate
of magnesia 25 grs., (3ss P. D.;) triturate together,
then add gradually water f §vj, still  continuing the
trituration.  Antacid, antispasmodic, and  anodyne.
Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls.  Used without strain-
ing.
  MIXTURE, CAPSICUM.   Syn. M. Capsici.
Prep. (Collier.}  Tincture of capsicum f3ij ; infu-
sion of roses f^vj ;  mix.  Stimulant in dyspepsia,
&c.   Dose.  1 to 2 tablespoonfuls half an hour be-
fore dinner.
  MIXTURE,  CARMINATIVE.   Syn.  M.
Carminativa.  Prep.  (Dr. Paris.)  Calcined mag-
nesia 3ss ;  peppermint water f 3iiss ; compound
tincture of lavender f 3ss ; spirit of caraway f 3iv ;
sirup of ginger  f3ij ; mix  for 1 or 2 doses.  An-
tacid and carminative.
  MIXTURE, CASCARILLA.  Syn.  M. Cas-
carilla composita,  (P.  L.)  Prep.  Infusion of
cascarilla  f ^xvij ;  vinegar  of squills  f^j;  com-
pound tincture of camphor f §ij; mix.   Dose, ffj '
to f §iss 2 or 3 times a  day in chronic cough and
asthma, and in the catarrh of elderly people.
  MIXTURE, CASTOR  OIL.   Syn. M. Ri-
cini. Emulsio purgans.  Prep. (P. Cod.) Castor
oil ^j ; yelk of 1 egg; peppermint water ^ss ; sirup
^j;  pure water  ^'j  5 make an  emulsion.  One of
the best ways of exhibiting castor  oil to persons
who  dislike it.
  MIXTURE, CATHARTIC.  -Syn.  M.  Ca-
thartica.  Prep.  (A. T. Thomson.)  Sulphate of
potash  3ij; water  f ^vss; tincture of jalap f 3iv ;
mix.  Dose. 2 tablespoonfuls every 2 hours.
  MIXTURE,  CHALK.    Syn.   Cretaceous
Mixture.  M. Creta:, (P. L. E. &.  D.)  Prep.
(P. L.) Prepared chalk  ^ss ; sugar 3iij ; gum mix-
ture  (mucilage) f ^iss;  triturate, then add cinna-
mon  water f^xviij;  mix.  The Ed.  Ph.  orders
spirit of cinnamon f §j to the above quantity. An-
tacid, absorbent.   Dose.  1  to  3  tablespoonfuls,
either alone or combined with aromatic confection,
in heartburn,  and  in diarrhoea after  every liquid
motion.
  MIXTURE, CINCHONA.  Syn. Bark  Mix-
ture.  M. Cinchonas.  Prep. I. (Copland.)  Con-
fection of red roses gss; boiling decoction of bark
f Sviij • triturate, in 10 minutes strain, and add di- 
MIX                     430                   MIX
luted sulphuric  arid  3iss; spirit of nutmeg 3iv;
shake  well.   Febrifuge, tonic,  and  stomachic.
Dose. 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day.
  II. To the last add  Epsom salts §ss; Dose and
uses as 'last  Slightly aperient.
  MIXTURE, COPAIBA.  Syn. M. Copaiba.
Prep. I. (Guy's H.)  Balsam of copaiba 3iij ; li-
quor of  potassa 3iss ;  triturate together, and grad-
ually add barley-water, %\\\\.   One of the  best
ways of exhibiting this drug.
  II. (St. B. H.) Balsam of copaiba f3iij; muci-
lage f ^iij ; triturate together, and make an emul-
sion with  pimento water f ^ij;  pure water f ^iv.
Dose. Of either of the above, 1 to 3 tablespoonfuls
3 or 4  times a day, in diseases of the urinary or-
gans, &c.
  MIXTURE, COPAIBA AND OLIBANUM.
Syn. M. Copaiba  cum  Olibano.  Prep.  (P.  C.)
Balsam of copaiba 5SS j olibanum  3ij  ; mucilage
§iss; honey Jj; cinnamon water %v.   As last.
  MIXTURE, COPAIBA, (VINOUS.)   Syn.
M.  Copaiba vinosa.  Prep. (Fuller.)  Copaiba
§ij ; yelks of 2  eggs;  triturate together, add sirup
of tolu ^ij ; again mix well, then further add white
vine f f iv.   Dose.  A dessert-spoonful 3 or 4 times
t day.
  MIXTURE, COSMETIC.   Syn.   M.  Cos-
metica.  Prep. Oil of almonds, and oil of  tartar,
of each 5'j» (or liquor of potassa  §iij ;) rose water
§v ; mix well.  Used to clear the aomplexion.
  MIXTURE, CREOSOTE.   Syn.   M. Cre-
asoti.   M. Creazoti, (P. E.)  Prep.  Creosote
and acetic acid, of each 16 drops; mix, then add
compound spirit of juniper and sirup, of each f Jj ;
water  ffxiv; agitate well  together.  Dose,  f 5j
to f 5 'j '" vomiting, especially to relieve or prevent
sea-sickness.                |
  MIXTURE,  CREOSOTE,  (ALKALINE.)
-Syn. M.  Creasoti alkalina.  Prep.  (Allnatt)
Creosote  and  solution  of potassa,  of each  3j;
white  sugar  3ij ;  triturate together, then  add
camphor mixture f f vj ;  mix well.
  MIXTURE, CUBEBS.  Syn.  M. Cubeba.
Prep.  (Fr. H.)  Powdered cubebs §j,  (or essence
^ss;) sirup and mucilage, of each fiss ; triturate,
then add  cinnamon water f ^vj.  Dose. 2 table-
spoonfuls in certain diseases of the urinary organs.
  MIXTURE, CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM.
Syn.  M.  Potassii Iodidi.  Prep.  Cyanide of
potassium 1 gr.; sirup §j; water %v ; mix.  Dose.
1 dessert-spoonful.
  MIXTURE, DEMULCENT.  Syn. M. De-
mulcens.   Prep.  I.  (Collier.)   Mucilage ^j'; oil
of almonds and  sirup of tolu, of each ^ss ; triturate,
and add water f §vj ; mix well.
   II.  (Thomson.)  Decoction  of  marshmallow
f^vj; sirup ffj; mix.
   III.  Spermaceti 3ij;  yelk of 1 egg; triturate,
add sirup  §j *, mucilage %ss ; cinnamon water §ij ;
pure water 5'v ; mix well.  Dose. Of  each of the
above  1 to 2 tablespoonfuls ad libitum ; in coughs,
hoarseness, calculus, irritation  of  the  urinary
organs, &.c.
   MIXTURE, DIAPHORETIC.   Syn.   M.
 Diaphoretica.  Prep.  Solution of acetate of am-
 monia  ^iij ; antimonial  wine 3ij;  laudanum 3j ;
 camphor  mixture  §iij »  mix. Dose. 1 to 2 table-
 spoonfuls, in fevers, &c.
   II.  To the last add sweet spirits of nitre §ss.
  MIXTURE,  DIARRIKEA.   Syn.  M.   pro
Diarrhcea.   Prep.  Aromatic  confection  589 j
tincture of opium  3iss;  tincture of cardamoms
(comp.) 3iiss ; peppermint or cinnamon water ^v;
mix.  Dose.  1  tablespoonful  Lfter every liquid
stool.
  MIXTURE, DIURETIC. Syn. M. Diuretica.
Prep.  I.  (Guy's  H.)   Nitre 3iij;  peppermint
water  ^xss "> sweet spirits of  nitre  f 3iij; lemon
sirup ^j ! mix.
  II.  Infusion of  digitalis ^vss;  tincture of di-
gitalis 3ss; acetate of potassa 3ij; spirit of juniper
§ss; laudanum  9j; mix.   Dose.  1  to 2 table-
spoonfuls ; in dropsy.
  MIXTURE,  ELATERIUM.  Syn.   M.
Elaterii.  Prep.   (Collier.)  Elaterium  1  gr.;
soft extract of  liquorice 3j;  triturate,  and  add
gradually  water (warm)  f^vj.   Dose.  1 to 2
tablespoonfuls every 2 hours ; in dropsy, &c.
  MIXTURE,  EMETIC.  Syn.  M. Emetica.
Prep.  I.—a.  (Thomson.)   Tartarized  antimony
8 grs.;  sirup of  mulberries  3j; water f ^vj,  -.lix,
and dissolve.—b.  Ipecacuanha 3ss;  tartarized
antimony  1 gr.;  tincture  of squills f 3j ; water
f §vj; mix.  Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls, repeated
every i of an hour till vomiting be  induced; in
dropsy, before exhibiting fox-glove.
  II.   (Copland.)   Sulphate  of  zinc  3ij;  ipe-
cacuanha  wine  and  tincture of  serpentary,  of
each  f3iv; tincture of capsicum 40 drops; oil of
chamomile 12  drops;  peppermint  water f ^ivss;
mix.  An excitant emetic.
  MIXTURE,  EMETINE.  Syn.   M. Eme-
tina.   Melange  Vomitif.   Prep.  (Majendie.)
Pure  emetine 1 gr.,  (or colored 4 grs. ;) acetic
acid 8 drops; sirup of marshmallow and orange-,
flower water, of each f Jj; pure water f Jiss ; mix.
Emetic.  Dose. A dessert-spoonful, repeated at
short intervals, till  it operates.
  MIXTURE,  EMMENAGOGUE.  -Syn.  M.
Emmenagoga.    Prep. I. Compound steel mixture
^iij; cinnamon  water ^vj ;  mix.  Dose.  2 table-
spoonfuls 2 or 3  times a day.
  II.  Tinctures of sesquichloride of'iron and aloes,
(comp.,) of each §ss; tincture of castor 3ij;  spirit
of  pimento  3ij; chamomile  infusion  3V j  mi*
Dose.  1 to 2 tablespoonfuls.
  MIXTURE, ETHER AND TURPENTINE.
Syn.   M. ^Etheris cum  Terebinthina. Prep.
(Orfila.)  Sulphuric  ether  3j; oil of  turpentine
3ij; white sugar 3iv *, triturate and add gradually
water ^'j-  Dose, f 3ij every  15 minutes;  in
poisoning by nux vomica.
   MIXTURE,  EXPECTORANT.   Syn.   M.
Expectorans.   Prep.  I.  (Thomson.)   Almond
mixture f^v; ipecacuanha and tincture of squills,
of  each f 3j;  sirup of tolu  f 3vj; mix.  Dose. 1
tablespoonful; in  humoral  asthma, catarrh, &c.,
when the  cough is urgent.
   II.  (Collier.)  Oxymel of squills  and  mucilage,
of  each Jj; sirup of marshmallows ^ij,  (camphoi
julep Sjiij  ;) mix.  Dose. 1  to 2  tablespoonfuls 2
or  3  times a day; in coughs, hoarseness,  asth-
ma, &.C.
   MIXTURE,  FEBRIFUGE.  Syn.   M. Feb-
 rifuga.  (See Mixture, Diaphoretic.)
   MIXTURE, GENTIAN,  (compound.)  Syn.
 M. Gentiana Composita.   Prep. (P. L.)  Cim-
| pound  infusion  of gentian  f ^xij;  compound  in- 
MIX                     431                    MIX
 fusion of senna f §vj; compound tincture of carda-
 moms f 5'j 5 mix.  Tonic, stomachic, and aperient.
 Dose. 2  to 3  tablespoonfuls,  in  dyspepsia  ac-
 companied with constipation.
   MIXTURE, GUAIACUM.  Syn. M. Guaiaci.
 (P. L. & E.)   Prep. I.  (P. L.)  Gum guaiacum
 3iij;  sugar  ^ss ; triturate together, add mucilage
 fgss, again  triturate  and further  add cinnamon
 water r%xix;  mix  well.  Dose.  1  to  3 table-
 spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times a day; in chronic rheu-
 matism,  gout, &c.
   II. (Alkaline.)  Guaiacum  and quicklime, of
 each 1 oz.; triturate together,  and add water  1
 pint
   III. (Ammoniated.)  Guaiacum  3ij; carbonate
 of ammonia 3iiss ; barley water §viij.  Dose.  1 to
 2 tablespoonfuls 2 or 3 times a day.
   MIXTURE, GUM.  Syn.   Mucilage.  Mu-
 cilage DE GOMME ARABIQUE, (Fr.)  SCHLIEIM DE
 Arabiche  Gummi, (6?er.)   Mucilago,  (P.  E.)
 Mistura Acacia, (P. L.)   M. Gummi  Arabici,
 (P. D.)   Prep. I.  (P. L.)   Powdered gum acacia
 §x; boiling water 1 pint;  rub together till  dis-
 solved.   The P.  E. &  D.  order the gum  un-
 powdered.  Used to render oily and resinous sub-
 stances  iniscible with water.   "  Oils require  f
 their weight;   balsams  and  spermaceti, equal
 parts; resins  2 parts;  and musk,  5 times its
 weight," for this purpose.  (Montgomery.)
   II.  (M.  Acacia.   P. E.)   Mucilage  f 3iij ;
 sweet almonds (blanched) ?jj 3ij; white sugar 3v ;
 water a  quart; make  an  emulsion or  mixture,
 and strain  through calico.   Dose. 2  to 3 table-
 spoonfuls,  as  a demulcent   and   emollient,  ad
 libitum,  in coughs, &c.  See Almond Mixture.
   MIXTURE, HARTSHORN.   Syn.   Harts-
 horn  Drink.   M.  Cornu  usti.   Prep.  Burnt
 hartshorn f ij ;  gum ^j j  water  2J  pints;  boil to
 ^xxxij,  and strain.   Demulcent.   Dose.  2 to 3
 tablespoonfuls  ad libitum, in coughs,  hoarseness,
 &c.
   MIXTURE, HEMLOCK.  Syn.  M. Conii
 Comp.  Prep.   (Copland.)   Extract  of  hemlock
 3ss ;  carbonate  of soda 45 grs.; decoction of li-
 quorice f ^vss ; spirt of pimento f3iij;mix. Dose.
 1  to 3 tablespoonfuls, in  hooping-cough and  pul-
 monary irritations.
   MIXTURE, HOOPING-COUGH.  Syn. M.
 Cupri Sulphatis.  Prep.  (Chevasse.)  Sulphate
 of copper 1 gr.; aniseed  water fiij;  sirup of pop-
 pies Jfj ;  mix.   Dose.  40 drops to 3ij.
   MIXTURE, IODINE.   Syn.    M.   Iodinii.
 (Cum Decoct.  Graminis.   Iodureted   Dog's
 Grass.)   Prep.  I.  (Majendie.)   Decoction of
 dog's  grass fxxxij ; iodide of potassium 3j; orange
 sirup  §ij; mix.
   II.  (Cam  Sarza.)  Prep.  (Majendie.)  De-
 coction of sarsaparilla fxxxij ; iodide of potassium
 3j,; orange sirup ^ij > mix.  Both the above may
 be taken in  doses of 2  to 4  tablespoonfuls  3 or 4
 times a day, in the usual cases in which  iodine is
 administered.
   MIXTURE,   MAGNESIA,  (BICARBON-
 ATE.)    -Syn.   M.  Magnesia  Bicarbonatis.
 Prep    Liquid   magnesia (Dinneford's or Mur-
 ray's) Jvj ;  orange sirup, sirup of  ginger,  and
 compound tincture of  cardamoms,  of each 3ij ;
aromatic  spirit of ammonia f 3vj ; mix. Dose.  1
to  3 tablespoonfuls every 2 or 3 hours in  acidity,
 dyspepsia, heartburn,  lowness of spirits, &c.   An
 excellent medicine.
   MIXTURE, MARSHMALLOW.  Syn.  M,
 Althaa.   Prep.  (P. E.)  Marshmallow  root
 £iv; stoned raisins §ij ; water  5 pints ; boil to 3
 pints,  and  strain  through linen.   Demulcent
 Dose.  A few spoonfuls ad libitum, so as to take I
 to 3 pints in the 24 hours ;  in strangury, calculus,
 coughs, &c.
   MIXTURE,  MUSK.  Syn.  M. Moscm
 Prep.  (P. L.)   Musk, powdered gum, and sugar,
 of each 3iij ;  triturate well  together,  then add
 gradually,  rose water  1 pint, still continuing the
 trituration.  Each  fluid ounce  contains 9 grains
 of musk.   Dose.  2  to 4 tablespoonfuls, as a stimu-
 lant, antispasmodic, and  anodyne;  in hysteria,
 epilepsy, chorea,  tetanus, low fevers, &c.
   MIXTURE, MYRRH.  Syn.  M.  Myrrha.
 Prep.   (Copland.)  Myrrh  3iss; add  gradually,
 triturating all the  time, decoction of liquorice f ^vj ;
 strain.   Dose. 1  to 2  tablespoonfuls twice  or
 thrice  a day, combined with carbonate of soda,
 dilute  muriatic acid, or paregoric, in debility, and
 diseases of the digestive organs.
   MIXTURE, NARCOTIC.   Syn.  M.  Nar-
 cotica.  Prep. (W.  Cooley.)  Laudanum 3iss;
 sirup of poppies, sulphuric ether, and spirits of cin-
 namon, of each  ^j i  tincture of henbane,  3iiss ;
 water  §iiss; mix.    Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls at
 the commencement of the hot fit of ague.
   MIXTURE, OIL.   Syn. M. Olei Amygdala.
 Prep.  (St.  B. H.)  Oil of almonds and mucilage,
 of each §iss;  triturate, and add gradually water
 §v.  Demulcent,  emollient.  Dose. 2 or 3 table-
 spoonfuls occasionally.  The  M. Olei cum  Man-
 na  is  made by substituting manna  §iss, for the
 gum.
   MIXTURE,   OPIATE.  Syn.  M.  Opiata.
 Prep.  Laudanum f3ij ; solution of acetate of am-
 monia  and  water, of each f iij ; mix.  Dose.  1 to
 2 tablespoonfuls to relieve pain,  and procure sleep
 in fevers, &c.
   MIXTURE,  PHOSPHORUS.    Syn.  M.
 Phosphori.   Prep. (Soubeiran.)   Phosphorized
 oil 3ij; mucilage 3iv; triturate together,  adding
 gradually sirup §ij;  and peppermint water §iij.
  MIXTURE, PRUSSIC ACID.  Syn. M. Acidi
 Hydrocyanici.  Prep. Medicinal prussic acid 15
 minims ; simple sirup  §j ; water ^v ;  mix.   Dose.
 1 tablespoonful 2 or  3 times daily.  Each  dose
 contains 1| drops  of medicinal  prussic  acid.—
 *#* Shake  the bottle before pouring out the,dose.
  MIXTURE, PURGING.  Syn. M. Purgans,
 Prep.  Any of the purging salts §ij; infusion of
 senna  %v;  sirup  of orange-peel Jj i tincture of
 ginger  §ss ; spirit  of pimento 3ij ; mix.  Dose.  1
 to 3 tablespoonfuls early in the morning  ; in stom-
 ach complaints, &c.
  MIXTURE,  REFRIGERANT.    Syn.  M.
 Refrigerans.   Prep.  Borax 3ij ; solution  of ace-
 tate  of ammonia  § j; lemon-juice § ivss ;  sweet
spirits  of nitre 3iij ; mix  and dissolve.  Diuretic,
diaphoretic,  and  cooling,  in  colds  accompanied
with fever,  &c.  Dose. 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls 2 or
3 times a day.
  MIXTURE, RHUBARB.   Syn. M.  Rile.
Prep.  I. (M. Rhai Comp.  Gregory's Mixture.)
Compound powder of rhubarb (P. E.) 3iij; pepper-
mint water f §rvj ; mix. 
MIX                    432                   MIX
  II. (Sprague.)  Powdered rhubarb and carbon-
ate of soda, of each 3iss ; decoctiou of liquorice
f §viss ;  tincture of orange peel (or orange  sirup)
3vj ; mix.  Both the above are excellent stomach-
ics and mild aperients.  Dose.  1  to 3 tablespoon-
fuls 2 or 3 times a day.
  MIXTURE,  SALINE.   (Febrifuge.)   Syn.
M. Salina febrifuga.  Prep.  Bicarbonate of po-
tassa 3ij ;  nitre 3ij;  sirup 3iij ; lemon-juice  f §ij ;
sweet spirits of nitre 3iss; water ^iiiss ;  mix.  Dose.
1 to  3 tablespoonfuls in fevers, &c.
  MIXTURE, SCAMMONY.  Syn. M. Scam-
monii.   Prep.  I.  (P. E.)   Resin  of scammony 7
grs.; unskimmed milk f ^iij ; gradually mix,  tritu-
rating  all the  time,  so  as to  form an emulsion.
Purgative.  Dose.  One half.
  II. (Planche's Purgative Potion.)  To the last
add white sugar 3ij, and cherry laurel (or  bitter
almond) water 4 drops.  This is the most tasteless
and pleasant purgative that can be taken.
  MIXTURE, SEDATIVE.  Syn.  M. Seda-
tiva. Prep.  Aromatic confection 3iij ; mucilage
and spirit of sal volatile, of each 3ij ;  tincture of
asafcetida and sirup of poppies, of each %ss ; lauda-
num and tincture, of henbane, of each 3iss ;  water
f ^iiiss ;  mix.   Dose. 1 to  2 tablespoonfuls 2 or 3
times a day.
  MIXTURE, SENNA.  Syn. Black Draught.
M. Sf.nVia. M. Si;nna Composita.   Prep.  (Guy's
H.)   Senna and mint,  of  each §j ; boiling water
§xxxij ;  infuse for 2 hours, strain,  and add Epsom
salts ^vj; shake  till dissolved. Dose. 1 to  2 oz.
Purgative.  See Black Draught.
  MIXTURE,  SQUILL.   Syn. M. Scilla.
Potion  Scillitique.  Prep.  (P.  Cod.)  Oxymel
of squills 3iv ;  hyssop water f iij;  peppermint wa-
ter  ^j >  sweet spirits of  nitre ^ss.  Expectorant.
Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls 3 or 4 times a day, in
coughs, asthma, &c.
  MIXTURE, STEEL.  Syn. Griffith's  Mix-
ture.   Compound  Iron  Mixture.    M.  Ferri
Composita, (P. L. E. and  D.)   M. Ferri Protox-
ydi.   Prep. I.  (P. L.)  Carbonate of potash 3j ;
powdered myrrh 3ij ; spirit of nutmeg §j; triturate
together, and while rubbing, add  gradually sugar
3ij ;  rose water f ^xviij ; mix well; then add sul-
phate of iron  (powdered) 9iiss, and  place  it at
once in  a bottle, which must be kept closely  cork-
ed.   Dose. 1 to 2 oz., 3  or 4  times a day, as a
mild and genial tonic and stimulant, when there is
no determination of blood to the head.
  II. (Donovan.)  Sulphate of iron 3iv ; calcined
magnesia 3ij;  water ^vj ; tincture of quassia  f 3ij ;
mix  in a bottle, cork close, and agitate.  It must
be kept from the air.  Dose. 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls,
as last.
  III. (M. Ferri Aromatica, P. D.  Heberden's
Ink.  Atramentum  Heberdii.)   Powdered cin-
chona ^j j bruised calumba root 3iij; bruised cloves
3ij ;  iron filings  588 > peppe-mint  water ^xvj;  di-
gest  in a close  vessel for 3 days, agitating frequent-
ly,  then strain,  and add tincture of  cardamoms
(comp.) §iij;  tincture of orange-peel 3iij.  Bitter,
stomachic, and aromatic.  Dose.   1 or 2 table-
spoonfuls, or more, 3 or 4 times a day.
  MIXTURE, STIMULANT.   Syn. M. Stim-
dlans.  Prep. I. Carbonate of ammonia 3ss ; pep-
permint water %v; orange  sirup 3vj;  tincture  of
cardamoms  (comp.) 3ij; mix.  Dose. 1 table-
spoonful  for lowness of spirits, vapors, and when
the patient is faint
   II. Camphor julep ^iv ; ether, spirit of aniseed,
and tincture of cardamoms, (comp.,) of each 3iij ;
sirup fj; tinctures of tolu and ginger, of each 3j;
peppermint water ^iss ;  mix.   Dose.  As last.  In
lowness  of spirits, &c,  accompanied with heart-
burn, colic, or flatulence.
   MIXTURE,  STRYCHNINE.   Syn.   M.
Strychnia.  Prep.  (Majendie.)  Pure strychnine
1 gr.;  white  sugar 3ij ; acetic acid 3 drops;  wa-
ter f^ij; mix.   Dose.  A teaspoonful night and
morning: in  palsy.   Each f3 contains  one-six-
teenth gr. of strychnine.
   MIXTURE,  TARTAR EMETIC.   Syn. M.
Antimonii  Potassio-tartratis.  Prep.  Antimo-
nial wine and simple sirup, of each §ss j njtre g-j.
camphor julep  §v ;  mix.  Diaphoretic.  Dose. 1
dessert-spoonful every 2 hours.
   MIXTURE,  TONIC.  Syn. Strengthening
Mixture.  M. Tonica.  Prep.  I. (Collier.)   De-
coction of bark ffvss;  tincture  of do. fS-iij ; aro-
matic confection 3j ;  aromatic spirit of ammonia
f 3j; mix.
   II.  (Thomson.)  Infusion of calumba f^vss;
compound tincture of cinnamon and orange sirup,
of each f 3ij; mix.
   III. Infusion  of cascarilla  %v; tincture of or-
ange peel 3vij ; aromatic  sulphuric acid 3ij; mix,
Dose.  1  to 3  tablespoonfuls 2 or 3 times a day; in
debility of the digestive organs,  to check severe
vomiting, &c.
   MIXTURE, TURPENTINE.  Syn. M. Ter-
ebinthina.   Prep.  (Carmichael.)  Oil of turpen-
tine ^j 5  yelk of one egg ; triturate together; add
confection of almonds jj; again triturate, and fur-
ther add, gradually, orange  sirup  §ij ; compound
tincture of lavender f 3iv ; oil of cinnamon 4 drops;
water f §iv.   In iritis.
   MIXTURE,  VALERIAN.   Syn. M. Vale-
riana.   Prep.  (St B. H.)  Bruised valerian root
3ij;  boiling water  £ pint;  macerate  2 hours;
strain, and add, powdered valerian  3iv.   Anti-
spasmodic.
   MIXTURE, WHORTLEBERRY.  Syn. M.
Uva  Ursi.  Prep.  I.  Infusion  of  whortleberry
leaves  ^viiss ; carbonate of potash 3ij ; extract of
hemlock 20 grs.; sirup of poppies 3;j ; tincture of
ginger 3iij; mix.  Dose.  2  to 3 tablespoonfuls in
chronic diseases of the urinary organs.
   II. Infusion of whortleberry leaves ^viiss ; dilute
sulphuric acid 3ij ;  tincture  of digitalis 3j; sirup
of poppies 3iij ;  mix.   Dose. As  last.   In chronic
inflammation of  the  larynx, trachea, and mucous
membranes of the urinary organs.
   MIXTURE,  WORM.  Syn.  M.  Vermifuga
Prep.  I. (Collier.)  Sulphate  of iron  9j ;  infusion
of quassia  f ^viij ; mix.   Dose.  Two tablespoon-
fuls every morning fasting.
   II.  (Richard.)  Root  of  male fern Jj ', water
3jx ; boil to ^vj, strain, and  add sulphuric  ether
3j ; sirup of tansy ^j-
   III. (Copland.)   Valerian 3ij; wormseed 3iv;
boiling water ^viij ;  macerate  1 hour ; strain, and
add, asafcetida 3j,  previously triturated with the
yelk of one egg.
   MIXTURE,  ZINC.   Syn. M. Zinci  Sulpha-
tis.  Prep.  (Collier.)   Sulphate of zinc  5  grs.;
sulphate of quinine  10  grs.; compound  infuxion 
MOL                    433                   MOR
of roses f ^ij; mix.  Tonic.   %» " I have  found
this mixture very efficacious in  the  cure of  bark-
ing  (gastric ?) coughs  manifestly of a  spasmodic
character."  (Collier's  Pharm., p.  178.)    Dose.
A teaspoonful 2 or 3 times a  day in a glass of
water.
   MOCHLTQUE  DES   FRERES  DE LA
CHARITE.  Prep. Finely-powdered glass of an-
timony 1  oz.; white sugar 2 oz.; triturate together.
Dose.  20 to 30 grs.; said to  be a specific in lead
colic.
   MOIREE METALLIQUE.  Syn. Crystal-
lized  Tin.  This is produced by the action,  for  a
few seconds,  of  dilute  nitro-muriatic acid on tin
gently heated, then washing in hot  water, drying,
and  lacquering.   The degree  of  heat and  the
strength of the acid modify the  appearance.   The
following is the  most approved  method of produ-
cing this effect:—The plate iron to be tinned  is
dipped into a tin-bath, composed of 200 parts of
pure tin, 3  parts of copper, and 1 part of arsenic.
Thus  tinned, the sheet iron is  then submitted to
the seven following  operations:—1.  Immersing in
lye of caustic potassa, and washing.—2. Immersing
in diluted aqua regia, and washing.—3. Immersing
in lye  of caustic  potassa, and washiug.—4. Quick-
ly passing through nitric  acid,  and  washing.—
5. Immersing in a  lye of  caustic  potassa, and
washing.—6. Immersing in aqua regia,  and wash-
ing.—7. Immersing in a lye of caustic  potassa,
and  washing.  The coat of oxide must be entirely
removed at each washing,  and the  last washing
should be in hot  water.  The varnish recommend-
ed is copal in spirit.  (Herberger.)
   MOLUCCA,  BALM  OF.   Prep. Clean spirit
(22 u. p.) 1 gallon;  bruised cloves £ oz.; bruised
mace | dr.;  infuse for a fortnight in a corked bot-
tle or carboy, then filter,  color  with burnt sugar,
and  add  lump  sugar  4£ lbs., dissolved  in pure
water  £ gallon ;  mix well and bottle.   A pleasant
cordial.
   MOLYBDENUM.  Syn.  Molybdena.  Mo-
LYBDENE, (Fr.)  MoLYBDAN,  (Ger.)  MOLYBDENUM,
(Lat, from i*o\v6ios, lead, because its ore was first
supposed  to be  plumbago.)   A very rare metal,
having a white color, and the sp. gr.  of about 8*625.
It is brittle and very infusible.   It was  discovered
by Hielm in 1782.  It is obtained by exposing mo-
lybdic acid, mixed with charcoal and  placed in  a
covered crucible, to the strongest heat of a smith's
forge.   With oxygen  it  forms  a protoxide and
binoxide,  and molybdic  acid.   With chlorine  it
forms  a protochloride and bichloride.   With sul-
phur it unites to form 2 or more sulphurets.  The
only one of the above that possesses any practical
interest is molybdic acid.
   MOLYBDIC  ACID.  Syn.  Acidum Molybdi-
OUM.   Prep. I.  Digest finely-powdered sulphuret
of molybdenum  ore in nitromuriatic   acid  until
completely  decomposed,  then  briskly  heat the
residue.  A white heavy powder.
   II. Well roast  native sulphuret of molybdena ;
powder, dissolve in water of ammonia, and precip-
itate with nitric acid.   Small white scales.
  Prop., <$*c Soluble in 570 parts  of water, and
Ihe solution reddens  litmus paper ; dissolves in the
alkalis forming alkaline molybdates, from which
it is again precipitated  by strong acids.   It is used
In the preparation of molybdenum blue.
   MONOCHROMATIC  LAMP.  A lamp fed
with a mixture of a solution of common salt and
spirit of wine.  It gives a yellow light, and makes
every object illuminated by it, appear  either yel-
low or black. (Brewster.)
   MONTANIN.  The bitter principle of St. Lu-
cia bark.
   MORDANTS, (IN  DYEING.)   Substances
employed to fix the coloring matters of dye-stuffs
oil organic  fibres.   The principal mordants are
alumina, and the  oxides of iron and tin. See Dye-
ing and Calico Printing.
   MOROXYLIC ACID.   A sour principle ob-
tained by  Klaproth from the bark of the white
mulberry, (morus alba.)  It is found under the form
of moroxylate of lime.
   MORPHIA. Syn. Morphina. Morphium. Mor-
phine, (Fr.) Morphin,  (Ger.)  Morphia,  (Lat,
from Morpheus, the god of sleep.)  The hypnotic
principle of opium.  It was discovered by Ludwig
in 1688, but it was first obtained pure,  and its pre-
cise nature pointed out by  Sertuerner in 1804.
Morphia is peculiar to  the poppy tribe.
   Prep. I.  (P. L.) Muriate of morphia §j', water
1 pint; dissolve and precipitate with liquor of am-
monia f3v, (or q. s.,) previously diluted with water
§j, employing agitation; wash the precipitate in
distilled water, and dry at a gentle heat.
   Remarks. By a similar process  morphiate may
be  obtained from its  other   salts.  Good opium
yields from  10 to  13$ of morphia.
   II. (Merck.)  Precipitate  a cold aqueous infusion
of opium  by carbonate  of soda in excess, wash
the precipitate first with  cold water and then with
cold alcohol of 0-85 ; dissolve  in  weak acetic acid,
filter through animal  charcoal, precipitate  with
ammonia, again wash  with cold water, dissolve in
alcohol, and crystallize.  A good process where al-
cohol is cheap.  (See Opium.)
   Prop.  As prepared  above,  it is a  snow-white
crystalline powder; but when crystallized in  alco-
hol,  it forms brilliant  prismatic crystals of ada-
mantine lustre.   It exerts an  alkaline  reaction on
test paper, and imparts a perceptible bitter taste to
water.  It is scarcely soluble  in water and ether,
but freely so in alcohol; it also  dissolves in the
fixed and volatile  oils, and in solutions of the alka-
lis. With the acids it forms salts, which are most-
ly soluble.   These may  be made by the direct ro-
tation of the alkaloid in the dilute acid.  The only
ones of importance are the acetate, sulphate, and
muriate.
   Uses.  Morphia and  its salts are exhibited either
in substance, made into pills, or in  solution; or ex-
ternally, in fine powder applied to  the  dermis, de-
nuded  of the cuticle.  They  are  principally ern-
ployed  as  anodynes and  hypnotics  in cases  in
which  opium is inadmissible.   Dose.  i. to \ gr.;
externally  £ to 1 i  grs.  Pure morphia is chiefly
used to make the acetate and  its other  salts.
  Pur. Pure morphia  is scarcely  soluble in cold
water, sparingly so in boiling water, and readily so
in alcohol.   This  solution is alkaline to test paper,
and  by  evaporation leaves crystals,  which  are
wholly dissipated  by heat.   It is  soluble m  pure
potassa. (P. L.)
   Tests. Morphia and its salts are,—1. Reddened
by  nitric  acid, and  form  orange  red solutions,
darkened  by ammonia in excess,  and  ultimately 
MOR                     434                    MOR
turning yellow, with the production of oxalic acid.
—2. They are turned  blue  by sesquichlonde of
iron, either at once, or on the addition of an alkali,
and this color is destroyed by water,  and by alka-
lis, or acids in excess.—-3. Iodic acid added to their
solutions, turns them yello vish brown, by setting
iodine free, and the liquid forms a blue compound
with starch.—4.  Alkaline carbonates  produce a
white  precipitate soluble in  acetic acid.—5. The
pure alkalis also  produce a white precipitate solu-
ble in acetic and in excess of the precipitant.
  MORPHIA, ACETATE OF.  Syn. Morphia
Acetas, (P. L. and E.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Morphia
3vj ; acetic  acid  f 3iij ; distilled water f^iv;  dis-
solve the morphia in the mixed fluids, filter, gently
evaporate, and crystallize.
  Remarks. The acetate of morphia of commerce
is usually in the form of a whitish powder, and is
prepared by the mere evaporation  of the solution
to dryness by a gentle heat.  During the  process
a portion of the acetic acid is dissipated, and hence
this preparation is seldom perfectly soluble  in  wa-
ter, unless it  be slightly acidulated with acetic
acid.   Anodyne, and hypnotic.  Dose.  J to £ gr.,
in fevers and  other inflammatory disorders where
opium  is inadmissible.
  Pur. '• 100 measures of a  solution of 10 grs. in
f ^ss of water, and 5 minims of acetic acid, heated
to 212° and decomposed by  a  very  slight excess
of ammonia, yield by agitation a precipitate which,
in 24 hours, occupies  15$ measures of the  liquid."
(P.E.)
  MORPHIA, HYDROCHLORATE OF. Syn.
Muriate of Morphia.  Morphia Hydrochloras,
(P.  L.)   Morphia Murias, (P. E.)  Prep. (P. I-.)
Macerate sliced opium lb.j, in  water 4 pints for 30
hours,  then bruise it, digest for 20 hours more, and
press it; macerate what remains a second and a
third  time in  water until  exhausted; mix   the
liquors, evaporate at 140° to the  consistence of a
sirup, add water 3 pints, and after defecation  de-
cant the  clear; gradually add to this liquid crys-
tallized chloride of lead ^'j, (or Q* s->) dissolved in
boiling water 4 pints, till it ceases to produce a pre-
cipitate ; decant the clear, wash the residuum with
water, and evaporate the mixed  liquids as before,
that crystals may form.  Press the crystals thus
obtained in a cloth, then dissolve them in water 1
pint, add freshly-burnt animal charcoal  ^iss, digest
at 120°, filter, wash the residue of charcoal,  and
cautiously evaporate  the  mixed liquors, that pure
crystals may form.   To the decanted liquor, from
which the crystals were first  separated, add water
1 pint, and drop in solution of ammonia, frequent-
ly shaking, till all the morphia  is  precipitated;
wash the precipitate with distilled water, saturate
it with muriatic acid, digest with animal charcoal
^ij, filter, wash the filter as before, and evaporate
the mixed liquors, cauti:;j sly, as  above, that pure
crystals may be produced.
  II.  (P. E.)   Exhaust opium ^xx, with water 1
gallon, in the  quantity of a quart at  a time, as
above  ; evaporate the mixed liquors over the vapor
bath to 1 pint, add muriate of lime ^j. dissolved in
water f fiv, mix, and set  the liquid aside to settle ;
then decant the clear, wash the sediment with wa-
ter, add the washings to the other liquid, and evap-
orate sufficiently as before, that it may solidify on
cooling ;  subject the cooled mass to very strung
pressure in a  cloth, redissolve  the  cake  in warm
water, add a  little  powdered white  marhle, filter,
acidulate with muriatic acid, and  again concen-
trate in the vapor bath for crystallization ; subject
the crystals as before to  powerful pressure, redis-
solve, and clarify with powdered marble and  muri-
atic acid, and concentrate  and crystallize until  a
snow-white mass be  obtained.   The above is the
process of Gregory and Robertson, and  is one of
the easiest and most productive on the large scale.
To procure the salt quite white, 2 to 4 crystalliza-
tions  are required, according to the power of the
press  employed.  The Edinburgh College recom-
mends, on the small scale, the  solution after  2
crystallizations to be decolored by means of ani-
mal charcoal, but, on the  large scale, to purify the
salt by repeated crystallizations alone.
   III. (Mohr.)  Quicklime 1 part;  reduce it to  a
milk with water, and add it to a concentrated in-
fusion  of opium  made with opium 4 to 6 parts;
boil for a short time, filter while hot through linen,
gently evaporate till  the solution becomes of only
double  the weight of  the obium  "mployed, and
while still  hot,  add  powdered  sal  .jnnioniac in
slight excess,  (about 1 oz. to eachpojnd of opium;)
on cooling, colored  crystals of muriate of morphia
will be deposited, and must be purified by a second
solution in lime and precipitation by sal ammoniac.
This  process  is remarkably simple, and in many
points is preferable  to either of the preceding, es-
pecially on the small scale.
  Pur., Uses, <$-c.   Pure muriate of morphia  is
"snowy white;  entirely  soluble; solution  color-
less;  loss of  weight at 212° not  above 13g; 100
measures of  a solution of  10 grs., in water f ^ss,
heated to 212°, and decomposed with agitatioii by
a faint  excess of ammonia,  yield  a precipitate
which, in 24  hours, occupies 12£ measures of the
liquid."  (P.E.)  Dose. One-sixth to one-half gr.,
as an anodyne and narcotic.
   Remarks.  The opium which yields the  largest
quantity of precipitate by carbonate of soda, yields
muriate of morphia, not only in the  greatest pro-
portion, but also with the  fewest  crystallizations.
Smyrna opium contains most morphia.   The mu-
riate of morphia of the shops is usually, like the
acetate, under the form  of powder.  Of all the
salts of morphia, the muriate  appears to be the
most suitable  for medical  purposes.
   MORPHIA,  MECONIATE  OF.   Prep.  I.
(Neutral.) Saturate  meconic  acid with  morphia,
evaporate, and crystallize.
   II. (Bimeconate.)  Dissolve 288-J grs. of morphia
in an aqueous solution of 202 grs. of meconic acid,
evaporate and crystallize ; or merely gently evap-
orate to dryness.
   Remarks.   Tho  meconic acid  for this purpose
may be obtained by precipitating a cold  and filter-
ed infusion of opium by acetate of lead, washing
the precipitate with water, suspending in pure wa-
ter, decomposing it by sulphureted hydrogen, fil-
tering,  evaporating,  and  crystallizing.   Morphia
exists in opium under the form of bimeconate, and
hence this preparation has been preferred by some
practitioners.   A solution of this  salt for medical
purposes may be directly prepared from opium, by
treating its infusion in cold water with a little ani-
mal charcoal, filtering, gently evaporating to dry-
ness, redissolving in cold water, filtering, and re- 
MUC                    435                    MUR
peating the treatment with animal charcoal.  The
dose of the dry bimeconate is 4, gr. or more;  and
of the  meconate rather less
   MORPHIA, SULPHATE OF.  Syn.  Mor-
phia Sulphas.  Prep.  Saturate very dilute  sul-
phuric acid with morphia, evaporate to one half, add
a little animal charcoal, continue the evaporation
for a short time longer at a gentle heat, filter while
hot, and abandon it to spontaneous evaporation. It
is decomposed  by  driving off the water of crystal-
lization.  Anodyne and narcotic.  Dose,  i to £ gr.
   MORSULI  ACETI.   Prep. White sugar 1
lb.; form into lozenges  with acetic arid 2 oz.
   MORSULI  AROMATICI.  Prep. White su-
gar 1 lb.;  dissolve  in a little water, boil to a full
candy height,  and when half cold, add blanched
sweet  almonds and  orange peel, of each 1  oz.;
cinnamon i oz.;   ginger 9j ; all cut into small
 pieces ; form into drops or iozenges.
   MORSULI  CITRI. Prep.  White sugar 1 lb.;
lemon juice  2$ oz.; oleosaccharum of  lemons 4
oz.; mix, divide, and dry.
   Remarks. The  above morsuli  are used  as  loz-
enges  or masticatories.  The word morsulus signi-
fies a little mouthful.
   MOSAIC  GOLD.   Syn. Or Molu.   Prep.
 (Parker  and Hamilton's patent.)   Copper  and
zinc equal parts ;  melt together at the lowest  pos-
sible temperature  at which copper will  fuse, and
stir so as  to  produce a perfect  admixture of the
metals ; then add gradually, small portions of zinc
at a time, until the alloy acquires the proper color,
which is perfectly white, while in the melted state.
It must then be at once cast into figured moulds.
This alloy should  contain from 52 to 55§ of zinc.
   MOUTH GLUE.  Syn.  Indian Glue. Colle
a  Bouche.  Prep. Best cake glue  q. s. ; dissolve
in a little water, add brown sugar a small quantity,
and some essence or juice of lemons, pour it into
greased moulds, and dry it.   When used, it is
wetted with the tongue, and rubbed on  the paper
to be joined.   (See Glue, Portable.)
   MOXAS.   Substances burnt upon the body, for
the purpose of acting as counter-irritants,  and al-
laying deep-seated pains, and inflammation. They
have been used in  gout, rheumatism, &c.  The
small cone constituting the moxa, is placed upon
the  part,  lighted, and allowed to burn to its base.
The Chinese moxas  are made of the downy por-
tion of the leaves of a species of wormwood, (arte-
misia  sinensis ;) but  various  other  substances, as
the pith of the  sunflower, cotton, or paper, soaked
in a weak solution of  nitrate, chlorate, or chro-
mate of potash, will answer as well.  The actual
cautery is said  to be preferable.
   MUCIC ACID.   Syn.   Saccholactic Acid.
An  acid discovered by  Scheele, and obtained in a
state of purity by digesting 1 part of sugar of milk
in 4 parts of nitric acid, (sp. gr. 1-42,) diluted with
1 part  of water, and  applying heat till  the effer-
vescence ceases ; on cooling, the acid is  deposited.
Gum may be  substituted for sugar of  milk, but
yields a less pure  acid. Mucic  acid  is a white,
crystalline powder, soluble in  boiling water and in
oil of vitriol, to which it imparts a crimson color.
By dry distillation  it yields pyromucic acid, and
other products ; with the bases it forms salts called
mucates.   The alkaline mucates are soluble,—
the earthy and  metallic mucates  insoluble.
   MUCILAGE.   Syn.  Mucilago,  (Lat)  An
 aqueous solution /of  gum,  or any  similar sub-
 stance.
   MUCILAGE, GUM.  (See Gum Mixture.)
   MUCILAGE, QUINCE.  (See Decoction of
 Quince Seeds.)
   MUCILAGE, STARCH.  (See Decoction of
 Starch.)
   MUCILAGE  OF  TRAGACANTH.   Syn.
 Mucilago tragacantha.   Prep. (P.  E.)  Traga-
 canth 3ij ; boiling water f ^ix ; macerate 24 hours,
 triturate, and press through linen.   Used to make
 up pills, to  suspend heavy powders in  liquids, as
 an application to  burns, &,c.
   MUDARINE.  A peculiar substance possess-
 ing powerful emetic properties, found in the bark
 of the  root of calotropis  mudarii,  (Mudar.)   It
 is soluble  in water and alcohol, and its aqueous so-
 lution gelatinizes  when heated.
   MUFFINS.  Prep.  Flour  1 quartern ; warm
 milk  and water 1£ pint; yeast 4/ pint; salt 2 oz.;
 mix for 15 minutes, then further add flour \ peck,
 make a dough, let it rise 1 hour, roll it up, pull it
 into pieces, make  them into balls, put  them in a
 warm place, and when the whole dough is made
 into balls, shape them into muffins, and bake them
 on tins ; turn them when half done, dip them into
 warm milk, and bake to a pale brown.
   MULTUM.  A mixture  of extract of quassia
 and liquorice used by fraudulent  brewers instead
 of malt and hops.
   MUM.  A beverage prepared from wheat malt,
 in  a  similar way to ordinary beer from  barley
 malt.   It was formerly much drunk in  England ;
 but its use at  the present  day is chiefly confined
 to Germany.
   MUMMY.   The mixed resinous  mass with
 which the Egyptian corpses have been preserved,
 reduced  to  powder.    Used  by  artists ;  a good
 glazing color, but dries slowly.  Burnt  Prussian
 blue,  or a mixture of asphaltum and burnt sienna
 melted together, are good substitutes.
   MUREXIDE.  Syn. Purpurate of Ammonia.
 Prep. Hydrated alloxan 7 grs.; alloxantine 4 grs.;
 water 240 grs. ;  dissolve by boiling, and add the
 solution to 80  grs. measure of a  cold and  strong
 solution of carbonate of  ammonia ; crystals  of mu-
 rexide will deposite as the liquid cools.  It forms
 iridescent  crystals, having a metallic lustre.  It is
 soluble  in  boiling water,  (Gregory and Liebig.)
 When murexide is dissolved in a solution of caustic
 potassa, heat applied till the blue color disappears,
 and dilute sulphuric  acid  added in excess, silky
 crystalline scales are deposited, which are called
 Murexan or Purpuric Acid.   It is soluble in am-
 monia and the fixed alkalis, and its solution in the
 former by exposure to the  air becomes purple, and
 deposites brilliant crystals of murexide.
   MURIATE.  Syn.  Hydrochlorate.   Mu-
 rias ;  Hydrochloras, (Lat.)   A  compound of a
 base  and  muriatic acid.  From the discoveries of
 Davy, and the more  recent researches of various
 continental chemists, it appears probable that the
 muriates or  hydrochlorates are direct  compounds
 of the bases and chlorine, or  are in reality chlo-
 rides, of which hydrogen or water is not  an  essen-
 tial part  Most of the Muriates may be made by
directly saturating the acid with the base, or with
its  hydrate, oxide, or carbonate, and evaporating 
MUR
436
MUR
and  crystallizing.    (See Chlorides, Chlorine,
and  Muriatic Acid.)
  MURIATIC  ACID.   Syn.  Hydrochloric
Acid.   Chlorohydric do.  Marine Acid.  Acid
of Salt.  Spirit of Salt.  Acidum Hydrochlo-
ricum, (P. L.)   Do. Muriaticum,  (P. E.  &  D.)
Spiritus Salis.   Acide  muriatique ; Acide  hy-
DR0CHL0RI0.UE ;  AdDE  CHLOROHYDRIftUE, (Fr.)
Salzsaure,  (Ger.)  An acid compound of chlorine
and  hydrogen, long known in the state of solution,
under the name of  marine acid or spirit of salt ;
but first obtained in  the pure or gaseous form by
Priestley, in 1-772.
  Prep. I.  (P. L.)  Sulphuric acid %xx ; water
§xij  ; mix in a retort, and when cold add to it dried
chloride of sodium lb. ij ;  and gradually distil in a
sand-bath into a receiver containing water f §xij.
Sp. gr. 1*160.
  II. «(P. E.)  Dried purified  muriate of soda  and
pure sulphuric acid, of  each 3 parts ;  water 1
part ; mix as  last,  and  distil with  a gentle heat
into  a well-cooled  receiver  containing  water  2
parts, as long as any  liquid  passes over.   Sp. gr.
1*170.
  III. (P. D.)  Sp. gr. 1160.
  IV.  (Winckler.)  Dry and pure chloride of so-
dium 24 parts ; pure oil of vitriol 44 parts ; diluted
with water 7 parts, and allowed to  cool; mix  in a
large retort, and connect it by a rectangular bent
glass tube, at  least 3 feet long, with a capacious
receiver, containing 20  parts of water, and well
cooled.   Distil 44 oz. of 30$ by weight.
  V. (Gregory.)  Dry and pure salt 60 parts ; pure
sulphuric acid 98 parts, diluted with water to the
sp. gr. 1-6 ;  mix  in  an  alembic furnished  with a
double-bent  tube, the end of which  is plunged
about  $ of  an inch beneath  the surface  of the
water in the receiver, (about 35 parts ;) the latter
must be well cooled.    Prod.  The first  §  is a
fuming acid, sp. gr. 1*21—the last  £  about sp. gr.
1*12.
  Remarks.  The muriatic acid of commerce  is
now  chiefly  obtained from the  manufacturers of
carbonate of soda, who procure it as a secondary-
prod uct   When, however, it is directly prepared
from sea-salt, an iron  or stoneware boiler, set in
brickwork  over  an open fire,  furnished  with a
stoneware head, and connected with a series of
capacious double-necked stoneware  bottles, usu-
ally constitutes the  distillatory and condensing ap-
paratus.   The  arrangement  resembles that em-
ployed in the preparation of  liquor of ammonia,
(see  page 58.)  The formula of  the London Col-
lege  is defective in ordering too little acid, by which
means the product becomes contaminated  with  a
portion of sulphuric acid, and  the  residue of the
process rendered so hard and insoluble as  to pre-
vent its removal from the retort by ordinary means.
The products of the other formulae (II, IV, and V)
are pure liquid hydrochloric acid, provided the ma-
terials  employed be quite free from foreign admix-
ture.   Commercial  muriatic acid may be purified
by diluting it with an equal weight of water, gently
heating it in  a retort, and receiving the  evolved
gas  into a fresh quantity of pure water.   Iodine
and arsenic may be removed by agitating it for a
few minutes with some small pieces of bright cop-
per foil previously  to rectification.  Commercial
muriatic acid of the ordinary strength may b»
bought for 0|d. per lb. in quantity.
   Prop. Pure muriatic  acid is a colorless invisible
gas, having a pungent odor and an acid  taste, and
fuming on coming into contact with air.  It is irre-
spirable and uninflammable.  Its sp. gr. is 1*2695,
(Berzelius.—1-2847 Thomson.)   Under  a pressure
of 40  atmospheres it is liquid.  Water at 40° F.
absorbs 4ti0 times its  volume of  this  gas, and  ac-
quires the sp. gr. 1*2109, (Davy.)   One cubic inch
of water  at 69°  F. absorbs 418  cubic inches, and
the sp. gr. becomes 1*1958, (Thomson.)  The  gas
is obtained by gently  heating the  liquid acid.   It
must be collected over mercury.
   Pure liquid muriatic  acid is colorless, fumes in
the air, evolves a strong odor of muriatic acid gas,
is intensely  60ur, reddens vegetable blues, and
erodes organic substances.   It is  entirely separated
by heat from the water  that  holds it in solution.
It dissolves many of the metals with the evolution
of hydrogen gas; it also dissoi -?s  metallic oxides,
and the majority  of the  bases,  tneir hydrates, and
carbonates ; in each  case forming the compounds
termed  chlorides,  muriates,  chlorohydrates, or
hydrochlorates.   The acid of  the  L. Ph. has  the
sp. gr. 1*160, and consists of 3232°;  of real muriatic
acid, and  67-68°;  of water.  100 grs. of it  should
exactly saturate 132 grs. of crystallized  carbonate
of soda.  The muriatic acid of commerce has gen-
erally a straw yellow color.
   Uses. Muriatic acid is used for various purposes
in the arts, in chemistry, and  in medicine.  It is
refrigerant,  tonic, and  antiseptic,  in small  doses
diluted with water ; but  corrosive and poisonous in
larger doses, or undiluted.   Dose.  10 to 20 drops
in a sufficient  quantity  of any  bland  diluent, in
stomach complaints, typhus fever,  syphilitic  affec-
tions, worms, scrofula, &c.  It is also used in gar-
gles and lotions.
  Ant.  Chalk, whiting, or magnesia, mixed with
water, or milk, white of eggs, and demulcents.
  Pur. Pure muriatic acid is " colorless, and to-
tally dissipated by heat.  Largely diluted with dis-
tilled water, the solution is unaffected by chloride
of barium, (or calcium,) ammonia, or  its sesqui-
carbonate.  It does  not dissolve  gold  leaf even
when heated.   It does not bleach the solution of
sulphate of indigo." (P. L.) Commercial muriatic
acid usually contains  iron  and  sulphuric acid, and
frequently  chlorine,  nitrous acid, bromine, and
sometimes selenious acid.  The first may be  de-
tected by the precipitate it forms when the acid is
supersaturated by ammonia,—the second, by giv-
ing a white precipitate  with chloride of calcium
or barium, or with the nitrate of lime or baryta,—
the third, fourth, and fifth, by the power the acid
possesses of dissolving gold leaf,  and  decoloring
solution of indigo,—and  the last, by  the acid  de-
positing a reddish powder  (selenium) when long
kept
  Estim.  The strength of muriatic acid is usually
estimated  from its specific gravity ; but  it may be
more correctly  ascertained by the power it jios-
sesses to saturate the  bases.  See Acidimetry. 
MUS
437
MUS
Table of Muriatic Acid, by Dr. Ure.
Acid of 1-20 in 10U.	Specific gravity.	Chlorine.	Muriatic Gas.	Acid of 1-20 in 100.	Specific gravity.	Chlorine.	Muriatic Gas.	Acid of 1-20 in 100.	Specific gravity.	Chlorine. 12-697	Muriatic Gas.
100	1*2000	39*675	40-777	66	1*1328	26*186	26-913	32	1-0637		13-049
99	1*1982	39*278	40*369	65	1*1308	25*789	26-505	31	1-0617	12-300	12-641
98	1*1964	38-882	39*961	64	1*1287	25-392	26*098	30	1-0597	11-903	12-233
97	1*1946	38-485	39-554	63	1*1267	24-996	25*690	29	1-0577	11*506	11-825
96	1*1928	38*089	39*146	62	1*1247	24-599	25-282	28	1*0557	11*109	11*418
95	1*1910	37*692	38*738	61	1*1226	24*202	24-874	27	1*0537	10*712	11*010
94	1*1893	37-296	38*330	60	1*1206	23*805	24-466	26	1*0517	10*316	10*602
93	1*1875	36-900	37*923	59	1*1185	23*408	24-058	25	1*0497	9*919	10-194
92	1*1857	36-503	37*516	58	1*1164	23*012	23*650	24	1*0477	9*522	9-786
91	1*1846	36-107	37*108	57	1*1143	22*615	23*242	23	1*0457	9*126	9-379
90	1*1822	35-707	36*700	56	1*1123	22*218	22-834	22	1*0437	8-729	8-971
89	1*1802	35-310	36*292	55	1*1102	21-822	22-426	21	1*0417	8-332	8-563
88	1*1782	34-913	35*884	54	1*1082	21-425	22-019	20	1*0397	7-935	8-155
87	1*1762	34*517	35*476	53	1*1061	21*028	21-611	19	1*0377	7-538	7*747
86	1*1741	34*121	35-068	52	1*1041	20-632	21*203	18	1*0357	7*141	7-340
85	1*1721	33*724	34*660	51	1*1020	20-235	20*796	17	1*0337	6*745	6-932
84	1*1701	33*328	34-252	50	1*1000	19-837	20-388	16	1-0318	6*348	6*524
83	1*1681	32*931	33*845	49	1*0980	19*440	19-980	15	1*0298	5*951	6*116
82	1*1661	32-535	33-437	48	1*0960	19-044	19-572	14	1*0279	5*554	5*709
81	1*1641	32*136	33*029	47	1*0939	18-647	19-165	13	1*0259	5*158	5*301
80	1*1620	31*746	32-621	46	1*0919	18-250	18-757	12	1*0239	4*762	4*893
79	1*1599	31*343	32-213	45	1-0899	17-854	18-349	11	1*0220	4-365	4*486
78	1*1578	30*946	31*805	44	1*0879	17-457	17-941	10	1*0200	3*968	4*078
77	1*1557	30*550	31*398	43	1*0859	17-060	17-534	9	1-0180	3-571	3*670
76	1*1536	30153	30*990	42	1*0838	16-664	17126	8	1-0160	3-174	3-262
75	11515	29*757	30-582	41	1*0818	16-267	16*718	7	1-0140	2-778	2-854
74	1*1494	29-361	30-174	40	1-0798	15-870	16*310	6	1-0120	2-381	2*447
73	1*1473	28*964	29*767	39	1*0778	15-474	15*902	5	1-0100	1-984	2*039
72	1*1452	28-567	29-359	38	1*0758	15-077	15-494	4	1-0080	1-588	1-631
71	1*1431	28-171	28-951.	37	1-0738	14-680	15-087	3	1*0060	1*191	1-224
70	1*1410	27-772	28-544	36	1-0718	14-284	14-679	2	1*0040	0*795	0-816
69	1*1389	27-376	28-136	35	1-0697	13-887	14-271	1	1-0020	0-397	0-408
68	1-1369	26-979	27-728	34	1*0677	13-490	13-863				
67	1*1349	26-583	27-321	33	1*0657	13094	13-456				
   MURIATIC ACID, DILUTE. Syn. Acidum
 Hydrochloricum  dilutum,  (P. L.)   Acidum
 Muriaticum dilutum, (P-  E.)   Prop. Muriatic
 acid f Jiv ; distilled  water f Jxij ;  mix. Used for
 convenience in dispensing.  Dose. 30  to 60 drops
 in simple infusion  of roses or water.  " The den-
 sity of this preparation is 1*050." (P. E.)
   MURIATIC ACID, HENRY'S.  Prep. Mu-
 riatic acid  diluted to sp. gr. 1*074.  One measure
 will exactly saturate an equal quantity of his car-
 bonate of potash-water, or pure ammonia-water,
 or two measures of pure potash-water, pure  soda-
 water, or carbonate of ammonia-water.  Used in
 assaying mineral water, &c.
   MUSCLE POWDER.  Oyster  do.   Made
 like cockle powder.  Used to make sauces.
   MUSHROOMS.   Edible fungi.  The  species
 commonly eaten in England are the agaricus cam-
pestris, (common field  or garden mushroom,) used
to make ketchup, and eaten either raw, stewed, or
broiled;—the morchella esculenta, (common mo-
re!,) used to flavor soups  and gravies ;—and the
tuber cibarium, (common truffle,) also used as a
seasoning.  The following are said to be tests of
the wholesomeness of mushrooms:—
   1. Sprinkle a little  salt on the spongy part or
gills of the sample to be tried: if they turn yellow,
they are poisonous ; if black, they are wholesome.
—2. False mushrooms have a warty cap, or else
fragments of membrane  adhering  to  the upper
surface, are  heavy, and  emerge  from a vulva or
bag; they grow in tufts or clusters  in  woods, on
the stumps of trees, &c.; whereas the true mush-
rooms grow in pastures.—3. False mushrooms have
an astringent, styptic,  and disagreeable  taste.—4.
When cut they turn blue.—5. They are moist on
the surface, and  are generally of a rose or orange
color.—6. The gills of the true mushroom are of a
pinky red, changing to a liver color.—7.  The flesh
is white.—8.  The stem is white,  solid, and cylin-
drical.—9.  " Introduce  a silver  spoon,  or a new
shilling or sixpence, or an onion, into a vessel  in
which mushrooms are seething ; if, on taking either
of them  out, they assume a dark discolored ap-
pearance, the circumstance denotes the presence
of poison existing among  them ; if, on  the other
hand, the metal or onion on being withdrawn from
the liquor wears  its  natural appearance, the fruit
may be regarded as genuine, and of the right sort."
  The  best antidote to  poisonous mushrooms is
V 
MUS                    438                    MYR
tannin, or an infusion or decoction  of  galls.   A
strong emetic should also be given to remove them
from the stomach.
  MUSK.  Syn. Mubc, (Fr.)  Moschus, (Lat.
and Ger.)   An odorous substance obtained from
the musk deer, (moschus moschiferus,) an animal
inhabiting the mountains of eastern  Asia.  It is
imported from China, Bengal, and Russia.  The
Tonquin  musk  is  most  esteemed.   Pod musk
(Moschus in vesicis, Tonquin pods, China  do.,
Moschos  Chinensis, Do.  Tonquinensis)  is  the
bag  in  its  natural  state containing the  musk.
Grain musk (Moschus  in  granis) is the matter
contained in the pods, and which constitutes true
musk.  The average weight of one of the pods is
about 3vj ; that of the grain musk it contains about
3ij 3ij.   Musk is said to be antispasmodic in doses
of 3 grains and upwards.
  Pur.  The musk of the shops is generally adul-
terated.   Dried  bullock's blood, or  chocolate, is
commonly employed for this purpose.   The blood
is rendered  dry by heat, then reduced  to  coarse
powder, and triturated with the genuine musk  in
a mortar along with  a few drops of liquor of am-
monia ;  it is then placed in the empty pods, or put
into bottles,  and  sold  as grain  musk.   The writer
of this article has seen many pounds of  dry blood
thus  employed,  and  sold for  musk.  There  are
only two ways  of  detecting this fraud, viz.—by
the inferiority of  the  odor, or by an assay for the
iron contained in  the blood.  Genuine musk often
becomes nearly inodorous by keeping, but recovers
its smell  on being exposed to the fumes of ammo-
nia, or by being moistened with ammonia  water.
The  perfumers sometimes  expose it to the fetid
ammoniacal effluvia of privies for the same pur-
pose.   The following forms are current in trade
for reducing musk, (moschus reductus .*)—1. Musk
3 oz. ; chocolate  2  oz.; ivory black 1 dr.;  gently
rub together in a  mortar with a few drops of liquid
ammonia.—2. Musk  and dried goats' or bullocks'
blood, equal parts;  mix  as  last.—3.  To the  last
add an equal part of angelica root.—4. Storax and
aloes  wood, of each 4 oz.; musk and civette,  of
each 4 dr.;  mix as last.—5.  Nutmegs, mace, cas-
sia, cloves, and  Indian nard or spikenard, of each
1 oz.; dried blood  or chocolate  4 oz.; make a
paste, dry, bruise to a proper fineness, and triturate
it gently with ith of its  weight of musk, adding a
few drops of essence of musk, and ammonia wa-
ter.—6.  Hard toasted bread, dried blood, chocolate,
and musk, equal parts; as last.   *** The Chinese
are said  to be  the most  skilful adulterators  of
musk.
  MUSK, FACTITIOUS.  Syn. Moschus fac-
TITIUS.   Do.  ARTIFICIALIS.    ReSIN   OF AmBER.
Resina Succini.   Prep. Pour f 3iiiss of the strong-
est nitric acid upon f 3j of oil of amber placed in a
glass  tumbler;  digest;  an  orange yellow  resin
remains, which is to be washed in water,  and care-
fully dried.
  Remarks. Eisner recommends the  addition of 1
part of rectified oil of amber to 3 parts of fuming
nitric  acid, in a glass or porcelain vessel, kept cold
to prevent  the oil  being carbonized.   It  smells
strongly of musk, and is said  to be antispasmodic
and nervine. A tincture is  made by dissolving 3j
in rectified  spirit f3x.  Dose.  f3jr in hooping-
cough, low fevers, &c
  *** Dr. Collier mentions aii artificial musk, pre-
pared by digesting for 10 days  nitric arid 3*, on
" fetid  animal oil, obtained by distillation, §j ; and
by then adding rectified spirit 1  pint, and digesting
the whole for  a month." (Collier's  Phar., p. 1S4.)
  MUST.  The expressed juice of grapes before
fermentation.
  MUST,  FACTITIOUS.  Prep. White sugar
2^ lbs.; cream  of  tartar 1  oz.; raisins chopped
small, i lb.; boiling water 1 gallon  ; mix, and di-
gest for 2 hours, and strain.
  MUSTARD.  Syn. Flour  of Mustard.   Si-
napis  Farina.  The  powdered  mustard  of the
shops  is  very frequently adulterated  with  wheat
flour.   When  this is the case, it does not readily
make a smooth paste with water, but exhibits con-
siderable  toughness, and somewhat of a stringy
appearance.   The common proportions employed
by some grocers are,—dried  common salt, wheat
flour, and superfine* mustard, equal parts, colored
with turmeric, and sharpened with cayenne. Pure
flour of mustard is  used in medicine, to  make
poultices, &c.
  MUSTARD for the table, (ready made mus-
tard,) is prepared as follows:
  1.  (M. Spyes.)  Steep mustard seed in twice its
bulk of distilled vinegar for  8 days,  then grind the
whole to a paste  in a  mill; put it  into pots, and
thrust a red-hot poker  into each of them.   Pat-
ented.
  2.  (M. Lenormand.) Best flour of mustard 2
lbs.; fresh parsley,  chervil,  celeiy,  and tarragon,
of each £ oz.; garlic,  1 clove ;  12 salt anchovies;
(all well chopped;) grind well togetner, add salt 1
oz.; grape juice or sugar to sweeten, and sufficient
water to  form the  mass into a thinnish paste by
trituration in a mortar. When put into pots, a red-
hot poker must be* thrust in as above, and after-
wards a little vinegar poured upon the surface.
  3.  (Moutarde a  I'estragon.)  Black mustard
seed dried till  friable, and then  finely powdered, 1
lb. ; salt 2  oz.;  tarragon  vinegar  to mix.   In a
similar way the French prepare several other mus-
tards, by employing different vinegars.
  4. (Patent.)  Black  ginger,  bruised, 12  lbs.;
common  salt  18 lbs,; water  15  gallons;  boil,
strain,  and add to each gallon, flour of  mustard 5
lbs.
  5. (Moutarde superbe.)   Salt  1£ lb.;  scraped
horseradish 1  lb.; garlic 2 cloves;  boiling vinegar
2 gallons;  macerate  in a  covered vessel  for 24
hours, strain, and add flour of mustard q. s.
  6. To the last add a little soluble cayenne pep-
per, or essence of cayenne.
  7. Mustard 3 lbs.;  salt  1 lb.; vinegar,  grape
juice, or white wine to mix.
  MYKOMELINIC ACID.  A new acid discov-
ered by Wohler and Liebig, and obtained by heat-
ing to 212° a solution of alloxan with an excess of
ammonia, adding dilute sulphuric acid,  also in ex-
cess, and boiling for  a few minutes.  The new
acid falls as a yellow gelatinous precipitate, which
dries to a yellow porous powder.
  MYRICINE.  The portion of wax which is in-
soluble in alcohol.
  MYRISTICINE.   The  stearoptene  deposited
by oil of nutmegs by keeping.
  MYRONIC ACID.  Bussy has given this name
to an inodorous, bitter, non-crystallizable acid found
tf 
NAP                    439                    NAR
by him in black mustard. It is soluble in water and
alcohol.
  MYROSYNE.   Syn.   Emulsion of Black
Mustard.   A name given by Bussy to a peculiar
substance soluble in water, and which possesses the
power of converting myronic acid into the volatile
oil of mustard.
  MYROSPERMINE.  The portion of the oil of
balsam of Peru which is soluble  in alcohol.
  MYROXILINE.  The portion of the  oil of bal-
sam of Peru insoluble in alcohol.
  MYRRH.  Syn. Myrrha,  (Lat.)  The gum
resin of balsamodendron myrrha.  To ascertain the
purity of myrrh, triturate a  small quantity of the
powder  of  the  suspected myrrh with  an equal
amount of muriate of ammonia, adding water grad-
ually ; if the whole is readily dissolved, the myrrh
is true;  otherwise it  is  sophisticated with some
other substance.  (Giovanni Righini.)
   MYRRHIC ACID.   The hard resin of myrrh.
It is soluble in the caustic alkalis, forming alkaline
myrrhates.
  NAILS (THE) should be kept clean by the
daily use  of the  nail brush  and soap and water.
After wiping the hands, but while  they are  still
soft from the action of the water, gently push back
the skin which is apt to grow over the nails, which
will not only preserve them neatly rounded, but
will prevent the skin  cracking  around their roots,
(nail-springs,) and becoming sore.  The points of
the nails  should be pared  at least  once a week;
biting them should be avoided.
   NANKEEN DYE.   Prep.  Annotto and  pot-
ash, equal parts; water q.  s.;  boil till  dissolved.
The proportion of potash is varied according to the
shade  required; the  alkali darkens it   Used  to
dye nankeen color, but  chiefly to restore the color
of faded nankeen clothing.
   NAPHTHA.   Syn. Mineral Naphtha. Rock
Oil.   Huile Petrole,  (Fr.)   Steinol,  (Ger.)
Naphtha, (Lat, from Na00a.)   A limpid bitumen
which exudes from the surface of the earth in va-
rious parts of the world.  It possesses a penetrating
odor and  a yellow color, but may  be rendered col-
orless by  distillation ;  it boils at  about 160°, and is
very inflammable.  Sp. gr. 0-753 to 0-836. It does
not mix with water, but imparts  to that fluid its pe-
culiar taste and smell.  It mixes with alcohol and
oils, and  dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, camphor,
iodine, most  of  the  resins,  wax,  fats, spermaceti,
and forms with caoutchouc a gelatinous varnish.
It is frequently adulterated with oil of  turpentine,
but this fraud may be detected  by the addition of
some oil  of vitriol, which will in that case thicken
and darken it.  Naphtha  is chiefly employed for
the purposes of illumination, as a solvent for Indian
rubber, and in the preparation  of a very superior
black pigment.
   Remarks.  According to the researches of Lau-
rent, Pelletier, Walter,  and others,  mineral naph-
tha is a  aompound  of several  hydro-carbons,  to
which the names paraffine, naphtha, naphthene,
naphthoic, &c, have been given.  A similar fluid
to mineral naphtha is obtained  by  the  distillation
of cc>al tar, (coal naphtha,) and is largely employed
in the arts, in the preparation of coarse paints and
■famishes, and for the  solution of  Indian rubber.
The term has  also been very improperly extended
to the pyroxilic spirit of commerce, (wood naphtha,)
and  also  occasionally  to pyroacetic  spirit;  but
these liquids differ from naphtha, both in their com-
position, odor, and boiling points, and in being mis-
cible writh watei, and incapable of dissolving Indian
rubber.    The  confusion arising  from the above
misapplication of names, may be readily imagined,
when the reader is  informed, that a certain physi-
cian who lately made  himself conspicuous by the
assertion that he had cured consumption with wood
naphtha, and publicly stated that  the kind he em-
ployed was pure pyroacetic spirit, was in reality
dosing his patients with  commercial  pyroxilic
spirit, which is quite a different article.  Thus the
doctor was using one compound, and from want of
a practical knowledge  of he matter, was directing
the profession to use another.
   NAPHTHALAMIDE.  A  compound  obtained
by the distillation of naphthalate of ammonia.
   NAPHTIIALIC ACID.   A  crystalline sub-
stance resembling benzoic acid,. btained by Laurent
from naphthaline.
   NAPHTHALINE.   A white,  crystallizable,
odorous, volatile substance, obtained by redistilling
coal tar.   It melts  at 180° F.,  is soluble in alcohol
and ether, and  forms with sulphuric  acid sulpho-
naphthalic acid.
   N A R C E I A.  Syn. Narceina.   Narceine.
(From vapxi, stupor.)   A peculiar vegeto-alkaline
base discovered by Pelletier in opium.   It  is  ob-
tained from the aqueous solution of opium, after it
has been freed from morphia and narcotine by am-
 monia, and from the resulting meconate of ammo-
 nia by baryta.  On boiling  the filtered solution to
 expel the ammonia, and evaporating, crystals of
 narceia are gradually deposited.   It  may be puri-
 fied by solution in  hot  alcohol  and crystallization.
   *#* White acicular prisms, inodorous, bitter, pun-
 gent ; soluble in 375 parts of water at 60°, and 230
 parts at 212°; insoluble  in  ether; imperfectly
 neutralizes the  acids.  It is distinguished from mor-
 phia by its easier fusibility,  (198°,) and by its salts
 in a certain degree of concentration being blue,
 but on gradual dilution changing to violet,  and rose-
 red, and  ultimately becoming colorless.  It does
 not strike a  blue color with sesquichloride of iron,
 like morphia, but  forms a  blue compound  with
 starch.   In opposition to its name, it appears to be
 nearly inert.
    NARCOTIC.   Syn. Narcoticus.  (Lat, from
 vapKow,  to stupify.)   A medicine that  produces
 drowsiness,  sleep,  and stupor.   In small  doses,
 narcotics mostly act  as  stimulants,  but in large
 ones they produce calmness of mind, torpor,  and
 even coma  and death.  Opium, henbane,  hem-
  lock, tobacco,  camphor, alcohol,  ether, &c, are
 narcotics.                                  ,
    NARCOTINA. Syn.  Narcotine.  Sel d opi-
  um ; Matiere  de  Derosne, (Fr.)  (From »«•«.«-
  rtf. narcotic.)   A peculiar crystalline substance
  found by Derosne  in opium, and  on which its stim-
  ulant property was at first supposed to depend.  It
  may be easily  obtained from opium  exhausted of
 soluble  matter by cold water, by treating  ,t with
 water acidulated with acetic or  hydrochloric acid,
  filtering neutralizing  with  ammonia, and d.ssolv-
  ine the washed precipitate in boiling alcohol, which
  will again deposite it as it cools.   It may be fur- 
NIC
440
NIG
ther purified by solution in ether.  Narcotine may
likewse be directly obtained by the action of ether
on  opium, previously exhausted  by  cold  water.
With the acids it  forms salts.   Narcotine is spa-
ringly soluble in boiling water, but freely soluble in
boiling alcohol, and in ether.  It is  distinguished
fron* .morphia by its insipidity, solubility in  ether,
insolubility in alkalis, and by giving an orange tint
to nitric acid, and  a greasy stain  to  paper, when
heated on it over a candle.  The physiological  ac-
tion of narcotine is differently stated  by  different
authorities.   1  gr. dissolved in olive  oil, killed a
dog in 24 hours ; but  24 grs. dissolved  in  acetic
acid were given with impunity. (Majendie.)  In  the
solid state it  is inert;  129 grs. at a  dose  scarcely
produce  any obvious  effects.  (Bally.)   Scruple
doses have been given  without injury.  (Dr. Roots.)
It has been recently  proposed as a  substitute for
quinine in the cure  of agues.   For this purpose  the
sulphate is preferable.   200 cases of intermittent
and remittent fevers have been thus successfully
treated in India. (Dr. O'Shaughnessy.)
   N ECTAR.  Prep.  I.  Chopped raisins 2 lbs.;
loaf sugar 4 lbs  ;  boiling  water 2 gallons; mix;
when  cold,  add 2 lemons,  sliced;  proof spirit
(brandy or rum)  3 pints; macerate  in a covered
vessel for 4 or 5 days,  occasionally shaking, strain,
let it stand in a cold place for a week to clear,
and then bottle.  In ten days, or less, if kept in a
very cold place, it will be excellent.
   II.  Red ratifia  3  gallons;  oils of cassia  and
caraway, of each, 25 drops; previously dissolved
in  brandy £ pint; orange  wine 1  gallon ; sliced
oranges 6 in  no.; lump sugar 2 lbs.; macerate for
a week,  decant and  bottle.   Both are used  as
pleasant cordials.
   NEGUS.   Prep. I. (Red.) Port wine 1 bottle,
(1£ pints;) $ nutmeg, grated; the  juice of two
lemons, and  the  yellow peel  of one; lump sugar
£ lb.; put the whole into a bottle, add boiling wa-
ter 3 pints, cork down close, and  macerate with
agitation.  *** Very excellent.  The addition of
a single drop of  essence of ambergris, and 6 or 7
drops of essence of vanilla, improves  it.
   II.  (White.)  From white  wine, as the  last
%* A single glass of  the  above may be made by
observing the same proportions.
   NERVOUSNESS.  The cure of nervousness
is best effected by restoring the healthy action of
the stomach  and bowels, and by the  use of proper
exercise, especially in  the open air.   The stomach
should not be overloaded with  indigestible food,
and the bowels should be occasionally relieved by
the use of some mild aperient.  Abernethy's in-
junction to a nervous and dyspeptic lady, " Dis-
miss your servants, madam, and make your own
beds," should be recollected by all  as a proof of
the importance that eminent surgeon attached to
exercise.  (See Dyspepsia, Flatulency,  Hypo-
chondriasis, Hysterics, &c.)
   NEUTRALIZATION.  Syn. Neutralisatio,
 (Lat)   The admixture of an  acid  and  alkali in
Buch proportions  that neither shall  predominate.
 A neutral compound neither  turns turmeric paper
brown, nor litmus  paper red.
   NICKEL.  A  white,  hard, malleable  metal,
capable of receiving  the lustre of silver.   Its sp.
gr. when hammered is about 8*82.   It is  chiefly
employed in the manufacture of German silver.
  Prep. Roast powdered speisc first by itself and
then with charcoal powder, till all  tho  arsenic is
expelled, and  a garlic odor ceases to be evolved;
mix the residuum with  3 parts of sulphur and 1
part of potash, melt  in  a crucible  with a gentle
heat, cool, edulcorate with water, dissolve in sul-
phuric acid mixed with a little nitric acid, precipi-
tate with carbonate of potash, wash, dry, mix  the
precipitate with powdered charcoal, and reduce it
by  heat.  For chemical purposes pure  nickel is
best obtained by moderately heating its oxalate in
a covered crucible.
  Props., 6rc.   Nickel is very infusible.  Muria-
tic and sulphuric acid act on  it with difficulty un-
less mixed with nitric acid.  It is freely soluble in
the latter menstruum.  With  oxygen it forms two
oxides.  The protoxide  (gray oxide) may be  ob-
tained by heating the  nitrate, carbonate, or oxa-
late to redness in open vessels.  This oxide forms
salts with the acids, most of  which have a green
color.  The peroxide (black oxide) is formed when
chlorine is transmitted through water holding  the
hydrated  protoxide in  suspension.   Chloride cf
nickel is formed by the direct solution of the metal
or its  oxide in muriatic acid, from  which it may
be obtained in green crystals by evaporation.  The
salts of nickel are characterized by being precipi-
tated white by prussiate of potash ; grayish white
by  infusion  of  galls ;  black  by  hydrosulphurets
and sulphureted  hydrogen ;  pale green by pure
alkalis and alkaline carbonates, but  redissolved by
ammonia or its carbonate in excess.
  NICOTINE.  Syn. Nicotina.  A volatile base
discovered by Reiman and Posselt in tobacco.
  Prep. (Ortigosa.)  Infuse tobacco leaves for 24
hours  in  water  acidulated with sulphuric  acid,
strain, evaporate to a sirup,  add one-sixth  of its
volume of strong solution of potassa, and distil in
an  oil bath at 288°, occasionally adding a little
water  to assist the process.  Saturate the distilled
product with oxalic acid, evaporate  to dryness, di-
gest in boiling absolute alcohol, evaporate to a
sirup, decompose the oxalate of nicotine thus ob
tained, by adding caustic  potassa to it in a close
vessel, and agitate the mass with ether, repeating
the process with more ether till all  the nicotine is
dissolved out.   Distil the mixed  ethereal solutions
in a water-bath.   At first ether comes over, then
water, and lastly nicotine, which towards the  end
of the process assumes a yellowish tint.
   Remarks.  Nicotine is a colorless volatile liquid,
smelling of tobacco,  boiling   at 375°,  soluble in
water,  ether,  alcohol, and  oils, and  combining
with the  acids  forming salts, many of  which  are
crystallizable.   It is  a frightful  poison; 4,th of a
drop will  kill  a rabbit, and a single drop a large
dog.   Good Virginia tobacco  yields  lg of nicotine.
(Thomson, Org. Chem.)
   NIGELLIN.   A  yellowish liquid obtained by
Rensch from the seeds of the nigella sativa.  It
is obtained by digestion in alcohol at 80°, distilling
the  tincture,  separating  the  reddish brown  from
the  lighter  portion of  the product, agitating the
latter with ether, and then with  water, adding to
the  liquid when decanted, a little  subacetate of
lead, filtering and treating it  with sulphureted hy-
drogen.   The  aqueous liquid is then filtered  and
evaporated.
   NIGHTMARE   Syn. Ephialtes, (Lat, from 
NIT                    441                   NIT
t$a\Aoiiai, to leap upon; because it was thought a
demon  leaped  upon the chest.)   The prevention
of nightmare consists in the selection of  proper
food, and  in duly  attending to  the state  of the
stomach  and  bowels.   Heavy and late suppers
should  be  particularly avoided, as well as all arti-
cles of  diet that are of difficult  digestion,  or apt
to induce  flatulency.   A spoonful of spirits of sal
volatile, magnesia, or bicarbonate of soda, taken
in a glass of cold water on going to  bed, is a good
and simple preventive.
   NIPPLES,  SORE.  Prep. Moisten them 2 or
3 times a  day  for some  weeks  before suckling,
with brandy or spirit, gently acidulated  with di-
lute sulphuric   acid;  or instead  thereof employ-
tincture of balsam of tolu, or compound tincture
of benzoin.
   Cure. Chapped  nipples  are  most quickly and
safely cured by moistening them 2 or 3 times  a
day with tincture of catechu, by means of a camel
hair pencil.  %* All  applications of an active  or
poisonous nature should be  carefully avoided,  as
even though the part be washed,  yet a  portion
will still remain concealed within  the  pores of the
skin and be sucked off by the infant.
   NITRATE.  Syn.  Nitras, (Lat.)  A salt of
nitric acid.   The nitrates are very easily  made by
the direct solution of the base, or  its oxide or car-
bonate in  nitric acid, which in most cases  should
be previously diluted  with water; by evaporation
they may be obtained either in the  pulverulent or
crystalline state.  The  nitrates are characterized
by deflagrating when thrown  on  red-hot coal, or
when  heated  in contact  with inflammable sub-
stances.  (See Nitric Acid.)
   NITRATE  OF CAMPHOR.  Syn. Oil of
Camphor.   Prepared by dissolving camphor in ni-

   NITRATE OF POTASH.   Syn. Saltpetre.
Nitre.  Nitrum.  Sal Petrab.  Sal Nitri.  Ka-
li Nitratu.m.   Potass.* Nitras,  (P. L. E. and D.)
Nitrate de potasse, (Fr.)   SalpetersjIures Ka-
li, (Ger.)   This salt is spontaneously generated in
the  soil, owing to  the action of  the  atmosphere,
and crystallizes  upon  its surface in various parts
of the world, especially  in the East Indies.  It is
also produced  artificially by exposing a mixture
of calcareous soil and animal matter to the  at-
mosphere, when nitrate of lime is slowly formed,
and is extracts/!  by lixiviation.   The liquid  is then
decomposed  by  adding  carbonate of  potash, by
which  carbonate of lime is precipitated and  nitrate
of potash remains  in solution.  The British mar-
ket  is  wholly  supplied  from India.  The crude
nitre (rough saltpetre)  is  extracted by lixiviation
in the way above mentioned, but the alkaline base
is supplied under the  form of wood ashes, which,
as is well known, contain a large  quantity of pot-
ash.  It is  purified by solution in boiling  water,
skimming, and  after  a short time being allowed
for defecation, straining (while  still hot) into crys-
tallizing vessels.  The crystals thus obtained are
commonly called single  refined nitre; and when
the process is repeated, double refined nitre.
   Use,  <J*c. Nitre is chiefly employed in the man-
ufacture of gunpowder and nitric acid.  It is also
used in medicine as a refrigerant, diaphoretic, and
cooling diuretic.  Dose.  5 to  15  grains, every 2
hours.   A  small piece  dissolved slowly  in the
mouth, frequently stops a sore throat at the com.
mencement   In large doses, it is poisonous.   The
best antidotal treatment is  a powerful emetic, fol-
lowed by opiates.
  Pur. The Dublin College orders purified nitrate
of potash  (potassa nitras purificata) to be made
by dissolving nitre in twice  its weight of  hot wa-
ter,  filtering,  and setting  the liquor  aside  that
crystals may  form.   Nitre occasionally contains
muriates, sulphates, or calcareous salts.  The first
may be detected by its solution  giving a cloudy
white precipitate with nitrate of  silver,—the sec-
ond, by the muriate  or nitrate of baryta  or lime
giving a white precipitate,—and the third, by ox-
alate of ammonia, which  also gives a white pre-
cipitate.
  NITRATE OF SODA.  Syn. Cubic Nitre.
Sod*  Nitras.  This salt  is obtained in a similar
way to the last, and is  chiefly imported into Eng-
land from America.   It is  largely employed as a
manure, and in the preparation of nitric acid.
  NITRIC  ACID.    Syn.  Solutive   Water.
Aquafortis.  Spirit of Nitre.   Acidum Nitri-
cum,  (P.  L. E.  & D ^ Acide  Nitrique, (Fr.)
SalpetersiLure, (Ger.   An acid compound  of
nitrogen and oxygen.   Nitric  acid  was known to
Geber in the 7th century, but its constituents were
first shown by Cavendish in 1785, and subsequent-
ly their proportions by Davy and Gay-Lussac.
  Prep. (P. L. & E.) Dry purified nitrate of pot-
ash  and sulphuric  acid, equal  parts;  mix  in a
glass retort, and distil with  a moderate heat  into a
cool receiver, so long  as the fused materials con-
tinue to evolve  vapor.  " The   pale-yellow acid
thus obtained may be rendered colorless, should it
be thought necessary, by heating it gently in a re-
tort." (P. E )
  Remarks. On the large scale nitric acid is com-
monly made by distilling a  mixture of 168 lbs. of
nitre and 93 lbs. of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1*845, in
an iron cylinder, connected with a series of 5 or 6
double-necked stoneware bottles,  about one-sixth
part filled  with  water.   The arrangement of the
apparatus resembles that figured at page 57.  The
product of  this process  is the brown and fuming
nitrous acid of  commerce, (aquafortis,  fuming
nitric acid ; acidum nitrosum ;  acidum nitricum
fumans,) and has usually the sp. gr. 1*45.   It is
converted into colorless  nitric acid by gently heat-
ing it in a glass retort, when it forms commercial
nitric acid, (sp. gr. 1*37  to 1*4.)  The residuum of
this process (sal enixum)  is employed  as a flux
by the glass-houses,  and in  the  manufacture  of
alum.  Nitrate of soda is  frequently used instead
of nitrate of potash,  and  is more convenient in
some respects, as the  residuum is more easily dis-
solved out of the  retort  or cylinder.  The  formula
of the London or Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia  is the
best process for obtaining a pure acid.  By proper
management nitre yields more than two-thirds  of
its weight of pure nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*500; and
nitrate of soda its own weight of acid, sp. gr. 1*4.
  The nitric acid of commerce frequently contains
chlorine, muriatic and sulphuric acids, and some-
times iodine, from which it  may be purified by the
addition of a  little nitrate of silver, as long as it
produces any cloudiness, and after repose, decant-
ing  the clear acid, and rectifying  it at a heat un
der  212°.   A perfectly colorless product cannot be 
NIT                     442                    NIT
obtained, unless a small portion of pure black ox-
ide of manganese be put into the retort. (Murray.)
Nitric acid may also be purified by rectification at
a gentle heat, rejecting the first liquid that comes
over, receiving the middle portion as genuine acid,
and  leaving a residuum in the retort. (Ure.)  An-
other method is to  agitate it with a little red-lead
before rectification.
   Props.   Pure nitric acid is a colorless, corrosive
liquid, and possesses powerful acid properties.  At
the sp. gr. 1*50, it contains 25$ of water, (Phillips ;
—20*3°r, Ure.)  The sp. gr. of the strongest liquid
acid  is  variously stated by different  authorities.
According to some, it may be obtained as high as
1*55, (Davy, Kirwin, &c.,)  or  1-62,  (Proust;)
while, according to others,  1-503  to 1-510 is the
greatest  density  at which  it  can  be  procured.
(Phillips,  Gay-Lussac, &c.)  At 248° F. it boils,
and  when of less density  than 1*42,  parts with
water and becomes stronger at lower  tempera-
tures ; but acid of  higher  sp. gr. is weakened by
exposure to heat  It freezes when exposed to ex-
treme cold.  It rapidly oxidizes the metals, and
unites with  them  and the other bases, forming
salts called Nitrates.
   Uses.  Nitric acid  is employed in assaying, to
dye  silk and woollens yellow, and to form various
salts.  In medicine, it is used as a caustic to corns
and  warts; and  in  doses  of 1 to 10  drops in  a
tumbler of water, in liver complaints,  fevers, dys-
pepsia, syphilis, to  remove the effects of mercury,
or as a substitute  for that drug  in certain com-
plaints,  &c.
   Pur.  Pure nitric acid is  " totally dissipated by
heat.  When diluted with  distilled water, neither
nitrate of silver, nor chloride of barium, (or  cal-
cium,) produces a precipitate ;  sp. gr.  1*50.   100
grs. of this acid will  saturate about 217  grs. of
crystallized carbonate of soda." (P. L.)   The dou-
ble aquafortis of the shops  (aquafortis duplex)
has usually the sp. gr. 1*36 ;  and the single aqua-
fortis, (aquafortis simplex,} the sp. gr. 1*22.
   Tests.  1. It stains the skin yellow.   2. When
mixed with a little muriatic acid or sal ammoniac,
it  acquires  the power of  dissolving  gold   leaf.
3.  When mixed  with  dilute sulphuric  acid, and
poured on a few fragments of zinc or iron  in a
tube,  the evolved gas burns with a greenish white
flame. (Balmain.)   4. Substitute alcohol for  zinc
in  the last test. (Maitland.)  5.  Morphia, brucia,
and strychnia give it a  red color, which is height-
ened by ammonia in  excess.  6. When placed in
a tube, and a solution of protosulphate of iron cau-
tiously added, a dark color is developed at the line
of junction,  which  is distinctly visible when  only
""Tiron Part °f nitric acid is present.  (Derbanius de
Richemont) ' 7. When mixed with a weak solu-
tion of sulphate of indigo, and heated, the color is
destroyed.  8. When saturated with carbonate of
potash or soda, and evaporated to dryness, the re-
siduum deflagrates when thrown on burning coals.
9.  The nitrates may all be tested as  above, by
first  adding a  small quantity of  pure sulphuric
acid, which will liberate the nitric arid of the salt.
   Estim. The strength of nitric acid is usually es-
timated by its sp. gr.; but where very great accu-
racy is required, it may be more correctly ascer-
tained by the amount of carbonate of soda, or other
salt of known  composition,  which  is required to
neutralize it.  See Acidimetry.
			Table of Nitric			Acid, by	Dr. Ure.				
Specific	Liq. Acid in 100.	Dry Acid	Specific	Liq. Acid in 100.	Dry Acid	Specific	Liq. Acid in 100.	Dry Acid	Specific	Liq. Acid in 100.	Dry Acid
Gravity.		in 100.	Gravity.		in 100.	Gravity.		in 100.	Gravity.		in 100.
1.5000	100	79.700	1.4189	75	59.755	1.2947	50	39.850	1.1403	25	19.925
1.4980	99	78.903	1.4147	74	58.978	1.2887	49	39.053	1.1345	24	19.128
1.4900	98	78.106	1.4107	73	58.181	1.2826	48	38.256	1.1286	23	18.331
1.4940	97	77.309	1.4065	72	57.384	1.2765	47	37.459	1.1227	22	17.534
1.4910	96	76.512	1.4023	71	56.587	1.2705	46	36.662	1.1168	21	16.737
1.4880	95	75.715	1.3978	70	55.790	1.2644	45	35.865	1.1109	20	15.940
1.4850	94	74.918	1.3945	69	54.993	1.2583	44	35.068	1.1051	19	15.143
1.4620	93	74.121	1.3882	68	54.196	1.2523	43	34.271	1.0993	18	14.346
1.4790	92	73.324	1.3833	67	53.399	1.2462	42	33.474	1.0935	17	13.549
1.47G0	91	72.527	1.3783	66	52.602	1.2402	41	32.677	1.0878	16	12.752
1.4730	90	71.730	1.3732	65	51.805	1.2341	40	31.880	1.0821	15	11.955
1.4700	89	70 933	1.3681	64	51.068	1.2277	39	31.083	1.0764	14	11.158
1.4670	88	70.1.10	1.3630	63	50.211	1.2212	38	30.286	1.0708	13	10.361
1.4640	87	69.339	1.3579	62	49.414	1.2148	37	29.489	1.065.1	12	9.564
1.4600	86	68.542	1.3529	61	48.017	1.2084	36	28.692	1.0595	11	8.767
1.4570	85	67.745	1.3477	60	47.820	1.2019	35	27.895	1.0540	10	7.970
1.4530	84	66.948	1.3427	59	47.023	1.1958	34	27.098	1.0485	9	7.173
1.4500	83	66.155	1.3376	58	46.226	1.1895	33	26.301	1.0430	8	6.376
1.4460	82	65.354	1.3323	57	45.429	1.1833	32	25.504	1.0375	7	5..)79
1.4424	81	64.557	1.3270	56	44.632	1.1770	31	24.707	1.0320	6	4.782
1.4385	80	63.760,	1.3216	55	43.835	1.1709	30	23.900	1.0267	5	3.1)85
1.4346	79	62 963	1.3163	54	43.038	1.1048	29	23.113	1.0212	4	3.188
1.4306	78	62.166	1.3110	53	42.241	1.1587	28	22.316	1.0159	3	2.391
1.4269	77	61.369	1 3056	52	41.444	1.1526	27	21.519	1.0106	2	1.594
1.4228	76	60.572	1.3001	51	40.647	1.1465	26	20.722	1.0053	1	0.797
  NITRIC ACID, (DILUTED.) Syn. Acidum
nitricum dilutum, (P. L.)   Prep. Nitric acid (P.
L.)  f §j;  water f gix ; mix.  Kept for convenience
in dispensing.   Dose. 20 drops to f 3ij.
  NITRIC ACID, (HENRY'S.) Nitric acid dilu-
ted to the sp. gr. 1-143 ; equal in saturating power to
muriatic  acid at 1-074, and sulphuric acid  1*135.
Used for assaying.   See Henry's Muriatic Acid.
   NITRO-MECONIC  ACID is  formed by the
 action of strong nitric acid on meconine at a gen-
 tle heat  By solution in  hot water, it is obtained
 in yellow crystals as the liquid cools.
I   NITROGEN. Syn. Azote, (Fr. and  Eng.)
 Mephitic Air.  Phlogisticated do.  Stickstoff-
 gas,  (Ger.)  Nitrogenium;  azotum,  (Lat, the
I first from vtrpov, nitre, and ytwdut, I generate; U 
NIT                    443                     NIT
 second  from  a privative,  and  5«q,  life.)   A
 gaseous substance  discovered by Rutherford  in
 1772, and found to be a constituent of the atmo-
 sphere by  Lavoisier and Scheele in 1775.   It has
 hitherto resisted all attempts  at decomposition,
 and must  therefore be considered as a chemical
 element.  (See Chem. V. 3.)  It is found  both  in
 the organic  and  inorganic  kingdoms;  it  forms
 about 79$ of the bulk of the atmosphere,  and en-
 ters largely into the composition of most animal
 substances, and is a constituent of gluten,  the al-
 kaloids, and other vegetable principles.
   Prep.  I. Burn phosphorus in  a jar  filled with
 air, and standing  over water  in the  pneumatic
 trough,  and after the fumes have subsided, agitate
 the residual gas with water, or a solution  of pure
 potassa.
   II.  Expose nitrite of ammonia to heat  in a re-
 tort,  and collect the evolved gas.
   III. Transmit chlorine through pure ammonia
 water.
   IV.  Digest lean  flesh  in  nitric acid, gently
 heated.
   Remarks.  Pure  nitrogen is a colorless, odorless,
 tasteless gas, neither combustible nor  capable  of
 supporting combustion  or respiration. It is neutral
 to test paper, does not affect lime water, and is
 only slightly absorbed  by  pure water.   Its sp. gr.
 is 0-9722,  (Liebig;  0-976 Berzelius.)  In  "analysis
 it is recognised by  its purely negative qualities, and
 by its forming nitric acid when  mixed with oxy-
 gen,  and exposed to the electric spark ; or when a
 jet of hydrogen is  burnt in the mixed gases.   The
 nitric  acid thus formed may be tested  in the way
 described under that article.
   NITROGEN, CHLORIDE OF. Syn. Quad-
 rochloride of Nitrogen.  A compound of nitro-
 gen and chlorine, remarkable for the feeble affinity
 by  which its elements are united.  It was discov-
 ered by  Dulong in  1811, but its  nature was first
 accurately determined  by Sir H. Davy.
  Prep. Dissolve muriate of ammonia 1 oz. in hot
 water 12 or 14 oz., and as soon as the temperature
 has fallen  to  90° F., invert a wide-mouthed glass
 bottle  full of chlorine over it.  The gas is gradual-
 ly absorbed, and the solution acquires a yellow
 color, and  in the course of 15 to  20 minutes, yel-
 low oil-like globules form upon the  surface of the
 liquid, and ultimately  sink  to the  bottom.   The
 globules as they descend should  be received in a
 small  leaden  saucer, placed  under the mouth of
 the bottle for the purpose.  (Liebig.)
  Remarks. Chloride of azote is one of the  most
 explosive compounds known, and should conse-
 quently be only prepared in very small quantities
 at a time.  Both its discoverer  and Sir H. Davy
 met with severe injuries while experimenting on it.
 Its  sp  gr. is 1-653 ; it volatilizes at  160° F., and
 at 200° explodes violently.  Contact with combus-
 tible bodies at ordinary temperatures immediately
 causes detonation.   The explosive power  of this
 compound  seems to exceed that  of every known
 substance,  not even excepting fulminating silver.
 A minute globule no larger  than  a grain of mus-
 tard-seed, placed on a platina spoon, and  touched
 with a piece of phosphorus  stuck  on the point of a
penknife, immediately  explodes,  and shivers the
blade  into  fragments,  at the same time that the
vessel that contained it  is broken to pieces.   Olive
oil, naphtha, and oil of turpentine, have a  similar
effect.  It has been suggested that this compound
is the substance employed by Captain Warner in
his destructive machines, but such a supposition
must necessarily be incorrect, from  the uncontrol-
lable nature of the chloride, and the  impractica-
bility of safely procuring it in sufficient quantity
by any known process.  I conceive that Captain
Warner employs  fulminating  antimony,  either
alone, or as an instrument for the ignition of com-
mon gunpowder.  At all events, if  this is not the
Captain's secret, it is capable of producing exactly
the same effects.  (See Iodide of  Nitrogen, for
another dangerous explosive compound.)
   NITROGEN, OXIDES  OF.   Prep.  I.  (Ni-
trous oxide.  Protoxide of  nitrogen.  Dephlo-
gisticated nitrous air.  Laughing gas.  Protox-
ide d'azote, Fr.   Stickstoffoxydul, Ger.)   Evap-
orate a solution of nitrate of ammonia until a drop
of the  fused mass placed on a cold plate instantly
solidifies ;  cool, break the lump into  pieces,  and
place it in a stoppered bottle.  For  use, a  portion
is introduced into a glass retort, and heat  applied
by means  of a  spirit  lamp or charcoal  chauffer.
As soon as the  heat  reaches 480°,  protoxide of
azote is evolved, and may be collected in bladders,
gas bags, a gasometer, or in the pneumatic trough.
*#* Should white fumes appear within the retort
after the evolution of the gas has commenced, the
heat should be lowered, as when heated to about
600°, nitrate of ammonia explodes  with  violence.
Nitrous oxide may also be made in the same way
from crystallized nitrate of ammonia, or  by ex-
posing  nitric  oxide  for some  days  over  iron
filings.                      ,
   Remarks.  The above  compound,  familiarly
known as laughing gas, is colorless, possesses an
agreeable odor, and a sweetish taste.  At 45°, and
under a pressure  of 50  atmospheres,  it is liquid.
Its sp. gr. is 1-5241, it  supports combustion, and is
absorbed by water.  Its most remarkable property
is its action on the system when inspired.   A  few
deep inspirations are usually succeeded by a pleas-
ing state of excitement, and a strong propensity to
laughter and muscular exertion, which soon sub-
side, without being followed by languor or depres-
sion.  Its effects,  however, vary with different con-
stitutions.  A sailor that lately took this1 gas at a
public exhibition  immediately drew his knife, and
stabbed one of the company. From 4 to 12 quarts
may be breathed with  safety.
   II. (Binoxide of nitrogen.  Deutoxide of do.
Nitric oxide.  Nitrous gas.  Deutoxide d'azote,
Fr.  Stickstoffoxyd, Ger.)   This is most  conve-
niently prepared by pouring nitric acid, sp. gr. 12,
on metallic  copper.   Effervescence ensues, and
nitrous  gas is evolved,  and may be collected over
water or mercury in the pneumatic trough.  The
residual liquid yields crystals of nitrate of  copper
on evaporation.  •
   Remarks.  A colorless, tasteless, inodorous, ir-
respirable, and incombustible gas. In contact with
free oxygen, it produces dense orange  or red  va-
pors of  nitrous acid, which are freely absorbed by
water.  Its sp. gr. is about 1*04.
   NITROGEN,  PHOSPHORET.   A  snow-
white powder formed by heating chloride of phos-
phorus, previously saturated with dry ammoniacal
gas. (Rose.) 
NOY                    444                    OIL
  NITROGEN,  SULPHURET.   A  greenish
yellow mass, obtained by the action of water on a
compomid  of chloride of sulphur and ammonia.
(Soubeiran.)
  NITROMURIATIC  ACID.  Syn.  Nitrohy-
DROCHLORIC AdD.  AQUA REGIA.  A.CIDUM NITRO-
muriaticum, (P. D.) Eau regale ; Acide nitro-
muriatique, (Fr.)  Salpeter-salzsiLures ;  K6-
nigswasser, (Ger.) Prep. I. Nitric acid f 5j; mu-
riatic acidfSjij; mix.   Used to  dissolve gold and
platinum, and in medicine, in  liver  complaints,
syphilis,  exanthemata, &c,  either  internally, in
doses of 5 to 15 drops in water, or externally, as a
foot or knee-bath.  See Bath.
  II. (Aqua regia with sal ammoniac.)  Nitric
acid (sp.gr. 1*2)  f^xvj; sal ammoniac %iv; dis-
solve.  Occasionally used by dyers ; does not keep
well.   Nitre is sometimes substituted  for sal am-
moniac.  Dissolves gold and platina.
  III. (Dyer's  aquafortis.)   Colorless nitric acid
(sp. gr. 1-17) 100 lbs.;  muriatic  acid (sp. gr. 1-19)
5 lbs.; mix.   Used by dyers.   " It  dissolves tin
without oxidizing it." (?)
  NITROUS  ACID.  Syn.  Acidum  nitrosum,
(Lat.)  Acide nitreux, (Fr.)   Salpetrige Sal-
PETERsauRE, (Ger.)  Prep.  Distil perfectly  dry
 litrate of lead in a coated  glass retort, connected
with a glass receiver placed in a freezing mixture,
and furnished with a safety tube. A pungent, acid,
corrosive liquid, colorless below zero, but yellow,
or orange-colored  at higher temperatures; sp. gr.
1*42 ; boiling point 82° F.   It is a powerful oxidi-
zing agent.   When mixed with water, it is decom-
posed. A mixture of nitrous and nitric acids forms
the fuming  nitric  acid (aquafortis)  of commerce.
Its compounds with the bases are called Nitrites.
Nitrite of potassa may  be obtained by heating
nitre to redness, and removing it from the fire be-
fore the decomposition is complete.   Both nitrous
and hyponitrous acids  contain no water, and are
therefore dry liquids. (Ure.)
  NITROSALICULIC ACID.  Small golden-
colored crystals, obtained by gently heating sali-
culous acid  with  moderately strong  nitric acid,
washing the mass with water, dissolving in alco-
hol, and crystallizing.  It forms crystallizable ni-
trosaliculates with the alkalis.
  NITROSACCHARIC   ACID.   A peculiar
crystallized acid,  formed by the union of nitric
acid with the saccharine matter obtained by the
action of sulphuric acid on gelatin.
  NORFOLK  FLUID.   Prep.  Linseed oil  3
pints; yellow rosin 4 oz.;  fir rosin 2 oz.; yellow
wax 12 oz.;  melt, add neat's foot oil 1 quart;  oil
of turpentine 1 pint  Used to preserve and soften
leather.
   NOVARGENT.  Freshly-precipitated muriate
of  silver dissolved in  a solution of hydrosulphite
of soda.   Used to silver metals, especially to re-
store old plated goods.
   NOV AURUM.  A solution of neutral  terchlo-
ride of gold.  (See Gold, liquid.)
   NOYEAU.  Syn.  Creme de Noyeau, (Fr.)
Prep. I.  Blanched bitter  almonds 1 oz.;  proof
•spirit 1 quart; lump sugar 1 lb.; dissolved in wa-
ter J pint;  digest and filter.
   II.  Bitter almonds, blanched, 3 oz.; cor'ander
■eed $ oz.; cinnamon, ginger, and mace, of each,
 1 dr.; proof spirit or plain gin 2 quarts; white su-
gar 2 lbs.;  dissolved in  water 1J pints ;  macerate
for a week, and fine down with alum (dissolved)
\ oz.
   III. (Crime de noytau de Martinique.) Loaf
sugar 24 lbs.;  water 2£  gallons;  dissolve,  add
proof spirit 5  gallons;  or  orange-flower water 3
pints; bitter  almonds 1  lb.; essence of  lemons 2
dr.;  as  above.  A pleasant nutty-tasted  liqueur,
but should not be taken  in large  quantities.  (See
Cordials.)          _______
  OATS.  A large portion of the  oats given to
horses  passes  off  undigested.  It has  been pro-
posed  to  prevent this loss,  by either coarsely
bruising  them  in  a mill,  or by pouring  boiling
water  over them,  and allowing them to macerate
till cold, when they  are to  be given to the horses
without straining  off the water.  It is stated  on
good authority, that oats thus treated will not only
fatten  quicker,  but  go twice as far  as without
preparation.
  ODORS.   (See  Disinfectants  and Fumiga-
tion.)
  ffiNANTHIC  ACID.   This  acid passes over,
in small quantity,  towards  the end of the  proc»ss
when  wine is distilled.  By digestion with potash
and decomposition with sulphuric arid, it may be
obtained  under the  form of an oily liquid.  (See
Ether, GSnanthic)
  CENANTHYLIC  ACID.  A  peculiar  sub-
stance obtained  by  Mr. Tilley, by the action  of
nitric acid on castor  oil.
  CENOTHIONIC ACID.   (From otvos, wine,
and Setov, sulphur.)   Sulphovinic acid.
  OIL COLOR CAKES.  Prep. Grind the col-
ors with oil of turpentine, in which  has been dis-
solved  in  the  cold, about  one-sixth of its weight
of powdered mastich ;  let them dry, then place the
stone over a slow charcoal fire, so as to soften the
color, and add of  a  warm  solution  of spermaceti
in half its weight  of poppy oil, q. s. to make the
mass into a proper paste ;  remove the heat, work
till it begins  to  harden, then form the mass into
pieces  and mould them into cakes.   Used by ar-
tists, rubbed down with poppy, nut, or linseed oil,
and turpentine as required.
  OIL COLORS, (in bottles or bladders.)  Pre-
pared  with  the same  mixture  as  the last, but
thinned sufficiently  with any pale drying oil be-
fore  putting  them into the cases.  Used by ar-
tists.
  OIL GAS.  A mixture of several gaseous hy-
drocarbons obtained  by passing oil through red hot
tubes,  or dropping it on red hot stones or bricks
1 gallon of whale  oil yields 90 to 100 cubical feet
of gas, which gives a more brilliant light than coal
gas,  and burns about 3 times as long.
  OILS.   Syn.  Huiles,  (Fr.)   Oele,  (Ger.)
Olea, (Lat., from olea, the olive.)   Oils are com-
pounds of  carbon and hydrogen, (hydrocarbons,)
or of carbon,  hydrogen, and oxygen, (oxyhydro-
carbons,) derived  from the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, and chiefly distinguished by a certain
degree of consistence, (unctuosity,) insolubility in
water, and power of supporting combustion with
flame.  Oils  are divided  into two great  classes;
viz.: fixed or fat oils, and volatile or essential
oils.   Olive, rape, almond, and castor oils, are ex-
amples of the former; and the oils of lavender, 
OIL                    445                    OIL
lemons, bergamotte, and turpentine, of the latter.
The term oil is also applied to various empyreu-
matic products of the distillation of organic bod-
ies, and to several unctuous mixtures in perfumery
and pharmacy, as  well as by liqueuristes to their
richer cordials.
  OILS, CORDIAL. (In the art of the liqueur-
iste.)   Dilute aromatized alcohol, holding in solu-
tion a sufficient quantity of sugar  to  impart  an
oily consistence.  The following is an example of
this class of liqueurs:—
  Oil of Cedrat.  (Crime de Cedrat.)  Spirit of
cedrat 1 quart; spirit of citron 1 pint;  proof spirit
3 pints; lump sugar 5 lbs.; dissolved in  water 6
pints ; mix, allow  it to stand together  for a week,
then filter  if required.   (See Cordials, Cremes,
Liqueurs,  &c.)       ♦
  OILS,   COMPOUND.   Syn.   Mixed   Oils.
This  term  is commonly applied to  various mix-
tures  of oils  or other ingredients that  possess  an
unctuous appearance.  Where  not  otherwise  di-
rected,  they are prepared by simply agitating the
ingredients  together, and after  a sufficient time
decanting  the clear,  and  filtering  if necessary.
The following are  some of the principal compound
oils:—
  Oil,  Acoustic.  (Oleum terebinthina  acousti-
cum.   Mr.  Maule.)  Almond oil  3iv;  oil of tur-
pentine 3ij ;  mix.    Used for deafness.
  Oil, Black.  Oil of turpentine 4 lbs.;  rape  oil
1 gallon ; oil of vitriol i lb.; British  oil £ lb.; mix
well,  and in  14 days decant the clear.
  Oil,  British.  (Common oil of petre.  01. pe-
tra  vulgare.)  Oil of turpentine 2 lbs.;  Barba-
does tar 1 lb.; oil of rosemary 2 oz.; mix well.
  Oil  of  Camphor.   (OI.  camphora nitricum,
Fee.)   Nitric acid  460 grs.; camphor 200 grs.;
dissolve without»heat and decant the oil.
  Oil,  Camphorated.   (Camphor liniment, lini-
mentum camphora, P. L. and  E.  OI. campho-
ratum, P. D.)  Camphor Jj' olive  oil %\v ; dis-
solve  by a gentle  heat.   Anodyne ;  discutient;
used for sprains, bruises, &c.
  Oil,  Chabert's.  Oil  of turpentine 3  parts;
Dippel's oil 1 part;  mix and distil 3 parts.   Used
in tapeworm.
  Oil,  Darby's. Oil of amber, balsam of sulphur,
and Barbadoes tar,  equal parts.
  Oil,  Exeter.  (01. excestrense.)   Green oil 2
gallons; euphorbium,  mustard  seed,  castor, and
pellitory, of each bruised, fj ; macerate with occa-
sional agitation for 10 days, and strain.
  Oil,  Furniture.  (Oil stain.  Mahogany do.)
Linseed oil  1 gallon ;  black rosin 1 lb.;  alkanet
root 12  oz., or less; heat together until sufficiently
colored.  Some persons use  boiled oil, and others
add a little  beeswax, and rose pink.
  Oil.  Macassar.   Olive oil 1  lb.;  oils of origa-
num and rosemary, of each, 1 dr.; mix.  Used to
make the hair grow and curl.
  Oils, Mixed.  (01. mixta.)  Essences of berga-
motte and  lemons, of each, §j;  oils  of lavender
and pimento, of each, _^ss ; used to scent sal vola-
tile drops, smelling bottles, &c.
  Oil,  Neat's foot.  (Nerve  oil.  Trotter's do.
01.  nervinum.  Auxungia pedum tauri.)   From
neat's feet  and tripe by boiling; does not harden
by age; used to soften leather and  to fry frit-
ters.
  Oil, Newmarket.   Oils of linseed, turpentine,
and  St. John's wort, of each, 3 lbs.; oil of vitriol
1 oz.; mix.   For sprains in horses.
  Oils, Nine.  (Mixed oils.  01. ex omnibus.)
Train oil  1 gallon ; oil  of turpentine  1 quart; oil
of bricks and amber, of each, 5 oz.; camphorated
spirit of wine 10 oz.;  Barbadoes tar  2£ lbs.; oil
of vitriol 1 oz.; mix.  Used by farriers.
  Oil,  Phosphorated.   (OI. phosphoratum.)—1.
(Ph. Bor.) Phosphorus 12 grs.; almond oil jj; dis-
solve by a gentle heat.   Dose. 5 to 10 drops made
into  an emulsion.—2. (Majendie.) Phosphorus 3j ;
almond  oil f ij ; macerate in the dark  for 14 days,
and  scent with bergamotte.   Stronger  than the
former.   %* A bottle  partly filled with oil satu-
rated with phosphorus,  will emit  enough light  in
the dark, on  the cork being taken out, to see the
time by a watch.
  Oil for Quitters.   Aquafortis 1 oz.; spirit of
wine, and oil of turpentine,  of each, 3 oz.: red
precipitate -} oz.;  mix.   Used by farriers.
  Oil of Roses.   1.  Olive  oil   !■ pint; otto of
roses J to 1 dr.; mix.—2. To  tl b .ast add oil of
rosemary  £  dr.   Either may be colored  red by
steeping a little alkanet root in the oil (with heat)
before scenting it.   Used for the hair.
  Oil, Shaving.   Soft soap 6 lbs.;  rectified spirit
of wine  1 gallon.
  Oil,  Sheldrake's.  Nut oil 1 pint; ceruse 2
oz.;  boil; when  dissolved, add  copal varnish 1
pint, and stir till  the  oil of turpentine has  evapo-
rated.   Used to grind colors in, to brighten them.
  Oil of Spike.  (Factitious.)  1. Oil of turpen-
tine 3 pints ;  oil of lavender  1 pint;  mix.   Used
by enamellers to mix their colors in.—2. Oil  of tur-
pentine  1 gallon ;  Barbadoes tar 4 oz.; alkanet
root 2 oz.; digest a week.  Used  as a liniment for
horses.
  Oil,  Sulphurated.  (OI. Sulphuratum.)   (See
Balsam of Sulphur.)
  Oil,  Toothache. (Toothache  Drops.)  1.  Oils
of origanum  and cloves, of each f 3iij; camphor
3j; dissolve.—2. To the last add creosote  3j.—3.
Tinctures of  pellitory of Spain and  colchicum, of
each ^j 5 creosote  and  oil of cloves,  of each 3j;
mix.  Dropped on a piece of lint and stuffed in the
tooth, previously wetted with the drops by a camel-
hair  pencil.
  Oil, Wedel's.  (OI. Bezoardicum.) Almond  oil
^ij;  camphor 3ij;  essence of bergamot 3ss; alka
net root to color;  mix.
  Oil, Worm.  (OI. Vermifugum.)—1. (Chabert.)
Rectified oil of turpentine 3iv ; do.  animal oil 3j ;
mix.  To  be  followed  by a  purgative.—2. (For
dogs.)  Turpentine 3 to 4 dr.;  castor oil 1 oz.; for
1 dose.
  Oil,  Watchmaker's.   Prepared by  placing a
clean strip of lead in  a small white  glass bottle
filled with olive oil, and exposing it to the sun's rays
at a  window for  some time,  till a curdy  matter
ceases to deposite, and  the oil has become quite
limpid and colorless.   Used  for  fine  work;  does
not get thick  by age.   (See Olein.)
  OILS,  EMPYREUMATIC.  Oily  fluids ob-
tained by the dry distillation of various animal and
vegetable substances.   If the  ingredients are of a
liquid or pasty nature, or become so when heated,
they are usually  mixed with about  twice then-
weight of sand, to divide them,  and  thus  expose 
OIL                    446                   OIL
 them more  effectually  to the action of the fire.
 They are purified by rectification, either aloue or
 along with water.  The following are the principal
 empyreumatic oils:—
   Animal Oil.  (Empyreumatic animal oil. Dip-
 pel's do.   01. Animate.  Rectified oil of harts-
 horn.  O. Dippelii. O. cornu cervi Rectificatum.)
 Chiefly obtained as a secondary product  in  the
 manufacture  of  boneblack;  fetid black.   A finer
 kind is made by slowly distilling oil  of hartshorn
 and collecting only the first portion  that comes
 over; pale  and  thin ; discolored by  light   Anti-
 spasmodic, anodyne, and diaphoretic.  Dose. 10 to
 30 drops in water.
   Oil of Benjamin.  (01. Benzoini.)  From the
 residuum of the process  of preparing benzoic acid.
 Used to make mock Russia leather.
   Birch  Oil.  (01. Betula.)   From birch-bark,
 by heating it in an  earthen pot with a hole in the
 bottom to allow the oil to flow through into another
 jar sunk  in the ground  and  luted to it   Thick,
 balsamic, odorous ;  chiefly  used  to  dress  Russia
 leather.
   Oil of Bones. (01. Ossium.) Black, fetid ; pro-
 cured from the makers of boneblack: used to make
 lampblack.
   Oil of Box. (OI. Buxi.)   From boxwood with-
 out addition."  Resolvent.
   Oil of Bricks. (01. Lateritium.)   From olive
 oil  mixed with brickdust, and distilled ; resolvent,
 in palsy and gout.—Factitious oil of Bricks. Lin-
 seed oil 1  lb.; oil  of turpentine i lb.; oil of harts-
 horn, or bones, and Barbadoes tar, of each 1 oz.;
 mix.
   Oil, Coal.   (See Naphtha.)
   Oil of Hartshorn.  (OI. Cornu Cervi.)   From
 harts'  horns, by distillation.
   Oil of Hemlock. (Pyroconia.)  By the destruc-
 tive distillation of hemlock.
   Oil of Lettuce. (Empyreumatic.)  From gar-
 den lettuce.
   Oil of  Soot. (01. Fuliginis.)  From wood soot;
 fetid.  Used in epilepsy.
   Oil of Tar. (Jeran.  OI.  Pini.  O.  Pini Ru-
 brum.   O. Tee da.  O. Pirisliquida.)  From tar ;
 reddish ; colorless when rectified ;  soon  gets thick.
 Used as an application to ringworm ; contains cre-
 osote.
  OILS,  FIXED.  Syn.  Fat Oils.    Unctuous
 po.  Huiles grasses, (Fr.)   Fette Oele, (Ger.)
 Olea  expressa,  (Lat.)   Compounds of carbon,
 hydrogen, and oxygen,  (hydrocarbons,) obtained
 from the organic kingdom, and chiefly distinguish-
 ed  by their insipidity, unctuosity,  insolubility  in
 water, and being lighter than  that fluid.  Olive oil,
 obtained from  the vegetable, and spermaceti oil,
 from the animal kingdom, may be taken as types
 of the  rest.  The fixed oils are chiefly  found in the
 fruit and seeds of plants, and  in thin membranous
 cells, in various  parts  of the bodies  of animals.
 Some of these oils are  solid at ordinary tempera-
 tures ; as palm oil, cocoa-nut oil,  &c.;  but the
 majority are fluid, except when considerably cool-
 ed, when  they separate into two portions ; the one
solid, consisting mostly of stearine, and the other
liquid, consisting chiefly of  oleine.   Nearly all the
fixed oils,  when freely exposed to the air, absorb
oxygen, and  either gradually harden, or become
rancid  The  former are termed drying oils, and
 are used by painters ; the latter are used in cook-
 ery, for  machinery,  lamps,  &c.  The  whole of
 these oils suffer decomposition at high temperatures,
 yielding  various  hydrocarbons;  when  suddenly
 exposed to a red heat, they yield a gaseous product,
 (oil gas,) which is used for illumination.  It  is on
 this property that candles and  lamps furnish  their
 light   The tallow or oil is first converted into gas
 in the pores of the wick, am* this gas, immediately
 on its formation, enters into  combustion, with the
 production  of heat  and  light.   With caustic al-
 kalis and water the  fixed oils form  soap.  When
 some  of  these oils are absorbed by porous bodies,
 and thus expose a vastly increased  surface to the
 air, they  absorb oxygen with such  rapidity as to
 generate  a considerable  degree of heat.  Paper,
 tow, cotton,  wool,  straw, shavings,  &c, slightly
 imbued with  oil, and left in a heap, freely exposed
 to the air or sun, will often spontaneously inflame.
 In this way many extensive fires have arisen.  The
 above is especially the case with linseed, rape, and
 olive oils.  The former made into a paste with man-
 ganese, rapidly becomes hot, and ultimately takes
 fire.
   Purification.  Several  fat  oils, especially when
 recently expressed, are purified by vioK *?t agitation
 with 1 to 2j} of concentrated sulphuric acid, when
 they assume a greenish color,  and after about a
 fortnight, deposite  a coloring matter and become
 paler,  and  burn with greater brilliancy, particu-
 larly if well washed with  steam  or hot water, and
 clarified by repose  or filtration.—Another method
 is to mix  the acid  with  hot water, and to blow
 steam  through the mixture for some time.  The
 above  are generally employed  for the  glutinous
 vegetable oils.—Whale, seal, or  other fish oil, is
 best purified by violent agitation with hot water or
 steam, by placing it in a deep vessel, and blowing
 steam into it at the bottom for some time.—Another
 method is to  agitate it with a hot infusion of oak
 bark to remove the albumen and gelatin, next with
 steam  and hot water, and  then to filter it through
 animal  charcoal.—Davidson treats whale oil, first
 with a solution of tan, next with water and chlo-
 ride of lime, and then with dilute sulphuric acid
 and warm water.—A very good  method  is to  agi-
 tate the oil with a solution of blue vitriol and com-
 mon salt,  and then to filter it through charcoal —
 Olive, almond, castor, rape, nut, linseed, and some
 other oils, are readily bleached by exposure to the
 sun's rays in glass bottles, or by  heating them  in a
 wood or tin vessel along with filtering powder, 1
 to 2 lbs. to the gallon, (see  Powders,) agitating for
 some time, and then filtering them.  Animal char-
 coal is  also  used  in  the  same  way.   The first
 method is  commonly employed  by the druggists
 and  colormen to whiten their castor and linseed
 oils; and  the second, by  the perfumers for  the
 preparation  of their  White Almond and Olive
 Oils, (01. amygdala album.   01. oliva album.)
 14 to 21 days' exposure to  the sun in fine weather,
 is usually sufficient for castor oil, when placed  in 2
 to 4 quart pale green glass bottles, and covered by
 Ijallipots  inverted over them.   The oil should be
 filtered before  exposing it  to the light, as, if only
slightly opaque, it does not bleach well.   Almond
and olive oils are apt to acquire a slight sulphurous
smell when treated  as above ;  but  this may be
 readily removed by filtration through a little animal 
OIL
447
OIL
 charcoal, or by washing it with warm water.  Not
 only the above, but all other oils, may be rendered
 perfectly colorless  by the use of a little  chromic
 acid, or by a mixture  of  a solution of bichromate
 of potash and sufficient sulphuric, muriatic, or ni-
 tric  acid, to seize  on all the alkali.—Mr. Watt's
 method for  purifying fats and oils answers admira-
 bly for those intended for illumination.  He em-
 ploys a mixture of dilute sulphuric acid with a lit-
 tle nitric acid and bichromate of potash, and some
 oxalic acid, which  are  added  to the  oil  or fat
 in the steaming tub;  and  after thorough admix-
 ture, by blowing steam through the mass, 1 lb. of
 strong nitric acid mixed with 1 quart of water, is
 added for every ton of fat, and the boiling contin-
 ued for  half an hour ; when a small quantity of
 naphtha or spirits  of turpentine is mixed in, and
 the  whole  is finally  well washed with water.—
 Rancid  oil is  easily purified  by  boiling it  for 15
 minutes with a little water and calcined magnesia,
 or by filtering it through  charcoal.
   Purity. The purity of the fixed oils is  best as-
 certained from the sp. gr.,  and  by  the odor and
 taste.  If pure olive  oil be  shaken in a vial only
 half filled, the " bead," or  bubbles, rapidly disap-
 pear; but if adulterated with poppy or other oil,
 they continue longer  before they  burst.—Olive  oil
 is also  completely solidified  when cooled by ice;
 but  poppy oil  remains partly liquid,  even  when  it
 forms less than one-fourth of the  mass.—One part
 of nitrate of mercury (prepared  by  dissolving  12
 parts of mercury in 15 parts of nitric acid, sp.  gr.
 1*36)  mixed with  12 parts  of pure  olive oil, and
 well agitated for some time, will form a solid mass
 in 24 hours, or less;  and the degree of hardness
 thus assumed may be taken as a measure of the
 purity of the  oil.—When  olive oil  is " carefully
 mixed with one-twelfth part of its volume  of a so-
 lution of §iv of mercury in f f viij,  3vj  of nitric acid
 sp. gr. 1*500, it becomes in 3 or 4  hours like a firm
 fat,  without any separation of liquid  oil." (P. E.)
 —Almond oil is frequently adulterated with poppy
 or nut oil, when its density is increased ; or by rape
 oil, when its density is lessened.—Pure castor oil
 is wholly soluble in strong alcohol.
   Prep. The  fixed oils, except  where otherwise
 directed, are obtained from the bruised or ground
 fruit  or  seed, by means  of powerful  pressure,  in
 screw or hydraulic presses, and are either allowed
 to clarify themselves by subsidence, or are filtered.
 The following are the principal fixed  oils met with
 in commerce, or which are  objects of interest  or
 utility:—
  Oil of Almonds.  (Oleum Amygdala,  P.  L.
 0. Amygdalarum, P. D.)    By  expression from
 either bitter or sweet  almonds,  usually the for-
 mer  ; sp. gr. 0-916 to 0-918.  Prod.  45§.   De-
 mulcent  ; emollient.
  Oil of Bays.   (01. Laurinum.  O. Lauri.)—1.
 By expression from bay berries ;  fluid, insipid.—2.
 (Boiled Oil of Bays.  Butter of  do.   01. Lauri
 Nobilis.   Do. do. Verum.)    From bay berries by
 boiling ;  green, buttery ; from Italy.
  Oil, Beech.   (01.  fagi.)   From  the nuts of
 fagus silvatica ;  sp. gr. 0*9225 ; clear,  keeps well;
 Used for salads.
  Oil of Belladonna Seeds.  Bland ; used for
lamps in  Swabia and  Wurtemberg.
  Oil of Ben.  (Oil of Behen.)   From the nuts
 of  Moringa aptera;  scentless,  colorless;  keepa
 long without growing rank.  By standing, it sepa-
 rates into two parts, one of which freezes with dif-
 ficulty.  The latter is used in perfumery.
   Boiled Oil.  (Drying Oil.   OI. Desiccativum.)
 —1.  Nut or linseed oil 1 gallon ; litharge 12 oz.;
 sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each 1 oz.; sim-
 mer and skim until a pellicle forms, cool, and when
 settled decant the clear.—2. Oil 1 gallon ; litharge
 12 to 16 oz. ;  as last.—3. Old nut or linseed oil 1
 pint; litharge 3 oz.; mix, agitate occasionally for
 10 days,  then decant the clear.:—4. Nut oil  and
 water, of each 2 lbs.; white vitriol 2 oz.; boil to
 dryness.—5. Mix oil with  powdered snow or  ice,
 and keep it for 2 months without thawing.  Used
 for paints when wanted  to dry quickly.
   Oil, Castor.  (OI. Castorei.  O. Ricini, P. L.
 E. D.)    The best (cold drawn) is prepared by
 pressing the shelled  and crushed fruit (seeds) in
 hemp bags, in a hydraulic press, and heating the
 oil thus obtained with water in well-tinned vessels
 till the  water boils,  and the albumen and gum
 separate  as a scum, which is removed, the  oil fil-
 tered through flannel, and  put into canisters.  The
 commoner  kinds are prepared by  gently heating
 the shelled seeds,  and pressing  them  while  hot
 Another method is to put  them  into bags, and to
 boil them in water, when the floating oil is skimmed
 off.   Sp. gr. 0-9611 to 0*969.  Prod.  25 to 30§.
 Chiefly used as  a purgative.  The best is imported
 from the  East Indies in square tin canisters.  It is
 frequently adulterated with rape oil; but this may
 be detected by its not dissolving in  strong alcohol,
 and also by its less density.  Pure castor oil  is
 soluble in an equal weight of alcohol, sp. gr.  0-820.
   Oil,  Cod's  Liver.   (OI. Aselli.  O. Jecoris
 Aselli.   O.  Morrhua.  Huile de  Morue.)  Drains
 from the livers of codfish, when exposed to  the
 sun,  and beginning to  putrefy.   Imported from
 Newfoundland.   Mr. Donovan  recommends  the
 fresh livers  to be heated to  192°, and then pressed,
 and the oil separated from  the water, and filtered.
 Brownish yellow.   Dose.  1 or 2 tablespoonfuls 2
 or 3 times  a day,  in gout, rheumatism, scrofula,
 &c.  It contains  a small quantity  of iodine  and
 bromine.
   Oil of Colza, from the seeds of  brassica cam-
 pestris oleifera.  Sp.gr. 09136. Prod.  39$ ; burns
 well in lamps.
   Oil, Croton.  (OI. Crotonis, P. E.  O. Tiglii,
 P. L.)  From the shelled  seed of croton  tiglium,
 (Molucca grains ;)  chiefly  imported  from the East
 Indies.   Yellow or brownish ;  strongly cathartic.
 Dose. 1 drop.
   Oil, Cucumber.   From the seeds of cucurbita
 pepo and melapepo, sp. gr.  09231 ;  used in lamps.
   Oil, Garden  Spurge.   (OI. Lathyris.)   From
 the seeds of euphorbia lathyris ; cathartic.  Dose.
 4 td 8 drops.  Prod. 42g.  Croton oil, mixed with
 5 or 6 times its  weight of nut oil, is usually sold
 for it.                      *
  Oil, Gingilie. (Benne Oil*. OI. Sesami.) From
 the seeds of sesamum orientale ; used  in salads, and
 in painting.
  Oil, Hemp.  (OI. Cannabis)  From hemp seed,
 (cannabis sativa.)    Mawkish;  used  for frying,
 mixing paints, making soap, (Sr,c.  Sp. gr. 0-9276.
  Oil, Lard.   (OI. Adipis.)  By separating the
oleine from  the stearine of lard by  means of hot 
OIL
448
OIL
alcohol.  Largely made  in America, where alco-
hol is cheap.
  Oil, Linseed. (01. Lini, P. L. E. D.)—1. (Cold.
drawn Linseed Oil.  01. Lini sine igne.)   From
the seeds of linum  usitatissum et perenne, bruised
or crushed, and then ground and pressed without
heat.  Pale,  insipid, viscous ; 6p. gr. 09347 ; does
not keep so well as  the next.  Prod. 18 to 20$.—
2. As last, but at a steam heat of 200° F.  Am-
ber-colored.  Prod.  22  to 27$.  Both are drying
and  cathartic. Used for painting, in varnishes, &c.
   Oil of Mace, expressed.  (Myristica Adeps,
P. E.  01. Myristica Expressum,  P. L.)   From
nutmegs beaten to a paste, exposed to the steam of
water, and pressed between heated plates. Orange-
colored, fragrant, spicy ; buttery  or  solid.   Prod.
18 to 20$.  When  the last has grown  discolored
and  hard by age, it  is called Banda soap, (ol. maris
in massis.)
   Oil, Mustard.   (Ol. Sinapis.)  From the hulls
of black mustard seed  ; viscid, stimulant.  Used in
rheumatism.   The oils  from sinapis dichotoma,
ramosa, linensis, glauca,  and tori, are  sweet, and
used for the table ;  sp. gr. 0-9160.  Prod.   Black
mustard 18$,—white or yellow do. 36$.
   Oil of Myrtle.  (Myrteum.) From the berries.
Butyraceous, odorous.
   Oil, Nettle-tree.   From  the seeds of celtis
Australis.  Used in lamps.
   Oil, Nickar. From  guilandina bonducella. Irri-
tant ;  used in convulsions and palsy.
   Oil, Nut.   (Ol. Nucis.)   From  hazel  nuts,
(conglus  avellana.)   Pale,  drying; superior  to
linseed oil; sold for oils of ben and  almonds ; sp.
gr. 0-9260.
   Oil, Olive. (Sweet Oil.  Salad Oil. Ol. Oliva.
Ol.  Olivarum.)—1. From olives by cold pressure,
(virgin oil.)—2.  With the  heat  of boiling water.
—3. By boiling the residuum  or marc in water.
—4. By allowing the  bruised fruit to ferment be-
fore  pressing.  The former are used for salads, but
the  last two for lamps, making soap, &.c.—Prov-
ence Oil  (ol.  Provinciale) is the most esteemed ;
Florence and Lucca  Oils are also of  very fine
quality ; Genoa Oil comes  next, and then Galli-
poli Oil, which forms the mass of what  is used in
England ;  Sicily Oil is inferior, and Spanish Oil
the  worst imported; sp.  gr. 0.9176.   Prod.  32$.
Sweet Oil droppings are the foots or deposites,
and  the drippings; it is used for soap  and ma-
chinery.  (See Oils, Fixed.)
   Oil, Palm.  (Ol. Palma.  Palm Butter.)  Sp.
gr.  0-968.  Orange or red ; butyraceous ; smells
of violets ; unchanged  by alkalis ; bleached by the
solar rays, age, exposure, sulphuric  acid, chlorine,
and  chromic  acid.   Demulcent; used  to  make
soap, candles, and ointments ; for the latter chiefly
because of its fine color.
   Oil of  Pine Nuts.   (Ol. Nucis Pini.)   From
utone-pine kernels,  (pinus pinea ;) inferior.   Prod.
30$.
   Oil, Pistachia Nut.  Sweet; used for salads.
   Oil of Plum Stones.  From  prunus domesti-
cus  ; sp. gr. 09127. Burned in lamps in Wurtem-
burg.
   Oil, Poppy. (Oliete. Ol. Papaveris.)  From the
seeds of papaver somniferum ; sp. gr. 0-9243.  Used
for salads, in painting, and for making soap ; dries
and  keeps well; sold for almond oil.
  Oil, Rape.  (Ol. Rapa.)  From brassica napria
and  campestris; sp.gr. 09128 to 0*9136.   Dries
slowly, makes soft soaps, good ointments, but bad
plasters ; smokes  in burning.—Summer Rapeseed
Oil,  from brassica prrecox ; sp. gr. 0*9139.
  Oil, Pale Rape.  (Rejined Rape Oil.)  From
common  rape oil, by violent agitation  with 2$ of
oil of vitriol, and 4 or 5$ of water, and after  8 or
10 days' repose,  decanting the oil,  and filtering
through flannel or felt. Used for lamps and black-
ing.
  Oil, Seal.   (Ol. Phoca.)  Used in lamps.
  Oil,  Spermaceti.   (Ol.  Cetacei.)  From  the
head matter of the fish ; smells little, and burns
well; other pale fish  oils, filtered through char-
coal, are commonly mixed with it, or sold for it.
  Oil, Walnut.   (Ol. Nucis Juglandis.)  From
Juglans  regia; soon  gets  rank.   Used  to make
plasters and paints ;  dries  well; 6p.  gr. 09260.
Prod.  50$; when  cold  drawn,  it is  eaten with
salads.
  Oil, Whale.   (Train  Oil.   Ol.  Cetaceum.)
From several varieties of the  fish ; coarse, stink-
ing ; sp.  gr. 0-9231.  Used for  machines,  in lamps,
&c.   The  southern whale oil is the best.
  Oil of Wine Stones. From the seeds of grapes;
sp. gr. 0*9202 ; bland, emollient, pale yellow. Prod.
10 to 11$.
  Oil of Yelk of  Eggs.  (Ol. Ovi.)   From yelks
of eggs, boiled or fried  hard, and  then pressed ;  or
broken up, digested in  hot alcohol, the tincture fil-
tered, and the spirit distilled off.   Commonly used
to " kill" quicksilver on the Continent.
  OILS.  (By  infusion.)  Syn.  Olea infusa.
Ol.  cocta.   These  are  generally  prepared by
e-ther digesting or gently boiling the ingredients in
3 or 4 times their weight of olive oil  till they
become dry and crisp,  when they are either press-
ed or drained  dry, and the oil  either filtered or al-
lowed  to clarify by  subsidence.  The  following
are the  principal  oils that are  prepared by in-
fusion :—
  Oil of  Belladonna.    (Ol.  Belladonna,  P.
Cod.)  Fresh leaves 1 lb. ; olive oil lb. ij.
  Oil of Chamomile.   (Ol. Anthemidis, P. Cod.)
Leaves and flowers 1 lb.; olive oil 3 lbs.; as last.
  Oil of Cantharides. (Ol. cum Cantharidibus,
P. Cod.)   Powdered  flies  §iv ; olive  oil §xxxij;
digest  6  hours in a water-bath, and  strain  with
pressure.   Stimulant.
  Oil of   Earthworms.   (Ol.  Lumbricorum.)
From earthworms.
  Oil, Green.  (Green Elder Oil.   Ol. Viride.
O. Sambuci viride.)—1. Green elder leaves 1 lb.;
olive  oil  1 quart;  boil till  the  leaves are  crisp,
press out the oil, and again  heat it  till it turns
green.—2.   As  last,   but  by  maceration  under
212°.—3.  Elder leaves 1 cwt;  linseed oil 3 cwt
Tihe last is the  form usually employed on  the
large scale.  It is generally colored with verdigris
i lb. to the cwt, the  last thing  before putting it
into casks ; as, without great skill  and the  full
quantity  of leaves,  a very  deep green color  can-
not be obtained.  The oil is got from the leaves
by allowing them  to drain  in the  pan or boiler,
(with  a  cock at the  bottom,)  and well heated.
Emollient;  used as a liniment.
  Oil of Hemlock.   (Ol. Conii, P. Cod.)  As oil
of belladonna. 
OIL                     449                     OIL
  Oil of  Henbane.  (Ol. Hyoscyami,  P. Cod.)
As oil of belladonna.
  Oil of  Mucilages.  (Ol. Mucilaginum.)—1.
(P.  L. 1746.)   Marshmallow root lb. ss ; linseed
and fenugreek seed, of each §iij ;  water 1 quart;
boil 1 hour, add olive oil 2 quarts, and boil till the
water  is consumed.—2. Fenugreek  seeds 8 oz.;
linseed oil   1  quart;  infuse a week, and strain.
Emollient.
  Oil of Opium.   (Ol. Opiatum.)   Olive oil gvj;
opium 3j ;  digest at a moderate heat for 2 hours.
  Oil of  Roses.   (Ol. Rosa.  Ol.  Rosaceum.)
Rose petals, beat to a pulp, 4 or 5 oz.; olive oil 1
pint; macerate in  the sun or a warm place, in a
covered  vessel for a week, and press out the oil;
repeat the process with fresh roses till the  oil
smells sufficiently  strong,  then filter.   For the
hair.
   Oil of St. John's Wort.  (Ol. Hyperici. Bals.
do.)  Flowers 4 oz.;  sweet oil 2 lbs.; infuse till
well  colored.   A mixture of equal parts of rape
and green oils is usually sold for it
   Oil of  Rue.  (Ol. Rata, P. Cod.)  From  the
leaves, as  oil of chamomile.
   Oil  of  Scorpions.   (Ol. Scorpionum.)  Live
scorpions 30 in  No.; almond oil 2 lbs. ; expose to
the sun  or warmth for 40 days, and  strain.  Cen-
tipedes are usually substituted for scorpions.  Emol-
lient, diaphoretic, and stimulant.
   Oil of  Stramonium.  (Ol. Stramonii, P. Cod.)
As oil of belladonna.
   Oil  of  Tobacco.  (Ol. Tabaci,  P. Cod.)   As
the  last.
   Oil of  White Lilies.   (Ol. Liliorum, P. Cod.)
As  oil of  chamomiles.  Emollient.  Olive oil is
usually sold for it.
   OILS,  VOLATILE.  Syn.  Essential Oils.
Distilled do.  Olea  Distillata.  Olea vola-
tile,  (Lat)   Huiles volatiles, (Fr.)   Fluch-
tige ; Aetherische  oele, (Ger.)   Volatile  oils
are chiefly obtained from the flowers, leaves, fruit,
seeds, bark, and roots of plants, by distilling them
with water.  They are usually more limpid and
less unctuous than  the  fixed  oils ; but some of
them  are  butyraceous or  crystalline.  The ma-
jority, when  perfectly pure, are colorless, though
before rectification nearly  the whole of them have
a pale yellow tint,  and some of them are brown,
blue, or green.  Their density fluctuates a  little
on  either  side of water, and  they  are  sparingly
soluble in  that fluid, forming perfumed or medica-
ted  waters.  The  lightest oil  is that of citrons,
(sp. gr. (I-H47,) and the heaviest that of sassafras,
(sp.  gr.  1-096.)  They  possess various degrees of
volatility,  and evolve  the odor of  the plants from
which they are distilled.   By exposure to the  air
they rapidly absorb oxygen, and become partially
converted  into  resin.  This is the  cause  of  the
deposite  that usually forms in them, especially in
the expressed oil of orange when kept  in  an ill-
corked vessel.  The essential oils are often called
essences, and the same term is commonly applied
to their  alcoholic  solutions.   (See  Essences.)
Some volatile oils, as  those of  turpentine, lemons,
and copaiba, are compounds of hydrogen  and car-
bon  only,  (hydrocarbons;) but  the majority con-
tain  oxygen as one of their constituents.  They
are chiefly used by perfumers  and rectifiers, and
in medicine ;  and some of  the  cheaper kinds are
largely  employed  as vehicles for colors, and in
the manufacture of varnishes.  The dose of the
aromatic  and carminative oils, is  from l'to 10
drops, on sugar.
  Purity.  The essential oils of  commerce  are
often adulterated with fat oils, resins, spermaceti,
balsam of copaiba, alcohol, or cheaper  essential
oils.   Any of these, except  the  last two, may be
detected by placing a drop of the suspected oil on
a  piee'e of  paper,  and  exposing it to heat.  If
pure, the oil will be  entirely evaporated;  but  if
adulterated,  a greasy  or translucent stain will be
left on the paper.  These substances will also re-
main undissolved  when  the oil  is agitated with
thrice its volume of rectified spirit of wine.  The
presence of  alcohol  may be detected by agitating
the oil with  a few small  pieces of dry chloride of
calcium, which  will remain unaltered in  a pure
essential oil,  but  will mix with one  containing
alcohol, and  separating  the latter, dissolve in it,
forming  a liquid  stratum at  the bottom  of  the
vessel.  When only a  very little alcohol is present,
the  pieces  change  at least their  form.   (Bor-
sarelli.)   Another test is the milkiness occasioned
by the addition of a  little water, as well as the
loss of volume of  the  oil when it separates.  This
species of adulteration is very common, especially
in cold weather, when it is a general practice  of
the  druggists to add spirit  to  their oils to render
them transparent.  Oil of cassia is very commonly
treated in this  way.  The admixture of an  in-
ferior  essential  oil with  one more costly, may be
best  detected by  pouring  a drop or  two  on a
piece of porous paper or cloth, and shaking it in
the  air, when, if occasionally smelled  to, the dif-
ference of the odor at the beginning and the end,
will show the  adulteration,  especially  if it  be
turpentine.   The  latter  may also be detected by
agitating  the oil with  spirit of wine as  above,
when  it will remain  undissolved.  The purity of
essential  oils  may likewise  be  determined  by
taking their  sp.  gr. ; or,  still more  accurately, by
measuring their index of refraction, as suggested
by Dr. Wollaston.   The  adulteration of a  heavy
oil with  a light one, or  the reverse, may be de-
tected by agitating  the  suspected oil with water,
when the one will sink, and the other float.
   Prep.  The  volatile oils  are generally obtained
by distilling  the  articles  along with  an equal
weight of water; but some substances that  give
out their oil  with difficulty, are first soaked for 24
hours  in  twice  their  weight of water,  to each
gallon of which 1 lb. of common salt has been
added,  by which its  boiling  point is  raised, and
consequently the oil comes over more easily.  In
such cases   a quick fire is  used, and when one
half the water  has come over, it is returned  into
the still, and this  cohobation is repeated until the
distilled water  ceases to come over mixed with
oil.   The heat of steam  or a salt  water-bath
should  be preferably  employed ; but if a  naked
fire be used, the still should be deep and  narrow,
by which means  the  bottom will  be more per-
fectly covered with a small quantity of water, and
empyreuma  prevented.  When the distilled water
is to be repeatedly cohobated on the ingredients,
a very convenient plan is to  so arrange  the ap-
paratus that, after the water  has separated frcm
the oil, it shall  How back again  into the still, by 
OIL                   450                     OIL
which much time and trouble will be saved.  The
separation of the oil and water is e Fected by al-
lowing the mixed liquids to drop into a Florentine
receiver, (see engr.,) when the oil is the lighter of
the two, by which means the latter accumulates
at a, and the water flows over by the spout 6.
  The same  receiver may be employed for  oils
heavier than  water,  by reversing  the arrange-
ment ; but a glass  separator  (see engr.) will  be
found  more  convenient.   In  this case the  oil
accumulates  at  the bottom  of  the vessel, and
may be drawn off by  the cock.   The essential
oils of lemons, oranges, and some other fruits, are
chiefly obtained by  submitting the yellow rind to
powerful pressure ;  hut  in  this way they are not
so white, nor do they  keep so well as when dis-
tilled.
  The rectification of volatile oils is  performed
without water, by the careful application of a heat
just sufficient to make them flow over pretty rap-
idly, so that they may be kept heated for as short
a time as  possible.  One-half, or  at  most,  two-
thirds only, is  drawn off; that  left in  the  retort
being usually mixed with raw oil, intended to be
■old in that state.
  The following are  the principal volatile  oils
that  are  articles of commerce, or objects of in-
terest :—
  Oil of  Acorus.  (Oleum Acori.   O. Calami
Aromatici.)  From the fresh  rhizomes  or roots;
yellow; used to scent snuffs,  aromatic vinegar,
&c.   Product. ^ to ^ of 1$.
  Oil of  Amber.   (Ol.  Succini.   P.  L. & D.)
From coarse pieces of amber  in an  iron retort,
either alone, or  powdered and  mixed with sand.
The  oil  is separated from  the  succinic  acid  and
fetid liquor that passes over,  and rectified  by a
gentle heat.  Prod.  20$; sp.  gr. 0*758 at 75°;
pale yellow ; stimulant, antispasmodic, and rube-
facient.   Used  in  rheumatism  hooping-cough,
&.c.   Scrapings of  copal and  (ammar  resin are
frequently substituted  for amber,  and it is com-
monly adulterated with mineral naphtha.
  Oil of Aniseed.  (Ol.  Anisi, P. L. E. & D.)
From  the fruit, (seeds;) nearly  colorless;  when
pure it congeals at 50°, and does not melt again
below  63°;  sp. gr.,  English,  0*9768—foreign,
0-9903 ; alcohol of 0-84 dissolves 0*42 of its weight.
Prod.  Less  than 2$.  Carminative, much used in
coughs, colds, &lc.  It is  frequently  adulterated
with oil of almonds, when  spermaceti  or camphor
is added to make  it candy.  (See  above.)   The
water in the refrigerator should not  be  colder than
65° F.
  Oil of Star-anise.   (Ol. Badiani.   Ol.  Anisi
stellati.)  From the capsules.   Used to adulterate
the last.   Dose of  both   the  above,  6  to 15
drops.
  Oil of Balm.  (Ol. Melissa.)   From the herb •
pale yellow ; odorous ; sp gr. 0*975. Prod, ,-g of 1$.
Oil of lemons is  usually sold for it
  Oil of Bergamotte.   (Essence of Bergamotte.
Ol. Bergamii.   Ol. Bergamotta.)   By expression
from the yellow rind of the  bergamotte orange.
Pale  greenish  yellow; fragrant;  sp. gr.  0*885.
From Italy.  It may be obtained purer  by  distil-
lation.   Used as a perfume.
  Oil of Bitter  Almonds.  (Essential Oil of
Almonds.   Ol. Amygdala  Amara.)     From
ground bitter almond cake, from which the oil has
been pressed out, soaked for '24 hours with twice
its weight of water, and i or ^ its weight of salt,
and the whole distilled,  allowing the first half of
the water that comes over  to  deposite its oil, and
then run back into  the  still.  Or by exposing the
bruised almond cake on a sieve or frame over the
water in  the still, when  the steam passes through
it and carries off the volatile oil, which condenses
along with  the  water  in .the refrigerator.   Pale
golden yellow;  colorless when rectified;  tastes
powerfully nutty; sp. gr. 1*0836; mixed with oil
of vitriol, it strikes a fine red  color.  Prod. Less
than i of 1$.  Poisonous.  Used instead of prussic
acid  in some diseases, and dissolved in spirit, by
cooks, confectioners, and perfumers, to  impart a
nutty taste or flavor.  Dose.  \ to l\ drops.   It is
4 times as strong as ordinary prussic acid.
  OilofCajeput.  (Ol. Cajeputi.  Kyapootieoil.)
From the dried leaves of the melaleuca leucadron.
Usually green,  but  white  when pure;  odorous;
aromatic; sp. gr. 0*925; when  rectified,  two  oils
come over,—the first colorless, sp. gr.  0*897 ;  the
second green, sp. gr. 0*920.   Its green  color is de-
rived from chloride of copper, which  may be recog-
nised  by the red precipitate occasioned by  agita-
ting the oil  with a solution of  prussiate of potash.
(Guibourt.)  Dose.  3 to 5 drops on sugar, in rheu-
matism and  cholera.  A spurious kind  is  made of
oil of  rosemary, flavored with camphor,  and the
oils  of peppermint  and cardamoms: and colored
with verdigris.   From the East Indies.
  Oil  of Camphor.   (Ol. Camphora Volatile.)
From the wood of the camphor tree of  Borneo and
Sumatra.  Colorless when rectified ; sp. gr. 0*91.
  Oil  of Caraway.  (Ol. Carui,  P. L. L. D.)
From caraway seeds.   Nearly colorless; aromat-
ic ;  carminative ; sp. gr. 0-950.   Prod. 5$.   Fre-
quently adulterated with oil of cumin.
  Oil of Cardamoms.   (Ol. Cardamomi Eisent)
From the seed; sp. gr. 0-943. Prod. 5$. Colorless;
fragrant; carminative.
  Oil  of Cassia.  (Ol. Cassia, P.  E.)   From 
OIL
451
OIL
  cassia  buds or bark ; golden yellow;  aromatic;
  odorous; sp gr. 1*071 to 1095.  Prod.  Buds, less
  than 1$   Nitric acid converts it into a crystalline
  mass.  Frequently sold for oU of cinnamon. Chief-
  ly imported.
    Oil of Cedrat.   (Essence of Cedra.  Do. of
  Cedrat  Oglio del Cedro.  Ol. Citrifinum.  Ol.
  tedri.)  From the external yellow rind of citrons,
  either  by expression or distillation ; preferably the
  latter.   The first  portion of oil that  cornes over is
  colorless; the  latter greenish.  100  citrons yield
  1 oz. of white and £ oz. of green oil.   Very fra-
  grant.
    Oil  of Chamom;le.   (Ol. Anthemidis, P. L. E.
  O. Chamameli. Do. do. Romani.)  From the flow-
  ers ;  blue, turning yellow and brown  by exposure ;
  fragrant; sp.  gr.,  English,  from  the  flowers,
  0-9083 ; foreign, 0-9289.  Prod.  1  to 2$.  Stimu-
  lant and antispasmodic.
    Oil  of Cherry-laurel.   (Ol.  Lauro-cerasi.)
  From cherry-laurel  leaves.   Resembles oil of bit-
  ter almonds.  Poisonous.
    Oil  of Cinnamon.  (Ol. Cinnamoni, P. L. E.
  D.)  From the bark macerated for  several days
  in  salt water.  Yellow or reddish;  sp.  gr. 1035.
  Prod.  1$.  Very aromatic.   It is chiefly imported
  from  Ceylon, where it is distilled from bark that is
  unfit for exportation.  The dark is usually rectified
  when two pale oils are obtained ; one lighter, and
  the other heavier than water; but  10$ is lost  by
  the process.  " Odor purely cinnamic ; nitric acid
  converts it into a nearly uniform crystalline mass."
  (P. E.)
    Oil  of Citrons.  (Essence of Citrons.   Ol.
  Citri.)   From the lees of citron juice  ; or from the
  whole peels, either  by  distillation  or expression.
  The latter does not keep well.   Fragrant.
    Oil of Cloves.   (Essence d'ceilettes.   Ol. Ca-
  ryophylli, P. L. & E.  O. Eugenia  Caryophyl-
  lata,  P. D.   Ol. Caryophyllorum.)   From cloves
  well soaked in and distilled  with salt water; the
  distilled water, after depositing its oil, being re-
  turned  3  or  4 times into the still on the same
  cloves.    Colorless or pale  yellowish;  strongly
  odorous and  aromatic;  sp.  gr.  1055  to 1061.
 Prod. 16 to 23$.   A heavy oil, sp. gr.  1079, (Clo-
 vic acid, Eugenic acid, Caryophyllic acid,) comes
 over first, followed by  a light oil, sp. gr. 0-918,
  (clove  hydrocarbon;)  by rectification,  much of
 the light  oil  is  lost, and  the product  becomes
 denser.  (1-361,  B<*£astre.)  Oil of  cloves is  fre-
 quently  adulterated With  inferior essences, espe-
 cially  those of pinks  and clove-gillyflowers,  and
 often with castor oil.
   Oil of  Copaiba. (Ol. Copaiba.)  Copaiba 3jj ;
 water  Oiss ; distil,  returning  the water  into the
 still, until oil ceases to come over. (P. E.)   On the
 large scale the oil is  usually obtained  by distilling
 the crude oil that separates during the manufac-
 ture of the specific solution of copaiba.   Colorless ;
 sp. gr., when free from water, 0 878.   Prod. 50 to
 55$.  Dose. 10 to 20 drops, on sugar,  in the usual
 cases where copaiba is ordered.
  Oil of Coriander. (Ol. Coriandri.)  From the
 seeds ;  fragrant; aromatic ;  yellowish.
  Oil of Cumin.  (Ol. Cumini. O. Cymini.)  From
the fresh fruit, (seed ;) pale vellow ;  smells of the
seeds.  Prod.  2k to 3$.
  Oil  of  Cubebs.   (Ol.  Cubeba, P.  E.)  From
  coarsely  ground cubebs ;  nearly colorless;  hot;
  a.omatic; sp.gr. 0-929.  Prod. 10 to 11$.  Dose.
  10 to 20 drops or more, where the use of cubebs is
  indicated.
    Oil  of Dill.  (Ol. Anethi, P. E.)   From the
  bruised fruit or seed.  Pale yellow ; sp. gr. 0881 ;
  odorous;  carminative.  Prod. 4$.
    Oil of Elder.  (Otto of Elder Flowers.  Ol
  Sambuci, P.  L.)   From elder flowers; buttery ;
  odorous.
    Oil  of  Ergot.  (Ol Ergota.)  Prepared  by
  evaporating the ethereal  tincture  at a very gentle
  heat.  Brownish yellow; lighter than water.  Dose.
  10 to 50 drops, where the use of ergot is  indi-
  cated.
    Oil of Fennel. (Ol. Fceniculi vulgare.)  From
  the fruit or  seeds of the common or wild fennel.
  Pale yellow ;  sp. gr. 0-997 ; congeals by cold.
    Oil of Grape Spirit.  (Brandy  oil.)  Obtained
  after the spirit has passed over, during the distilla-
  tion of the fermented residuum of expressed grapes.
  Odorous; acrid; soon turns yellow in the air;  6
  or 7 drops will spoil a hogshead of spirit.
    Oil of Grain Spirit.  Butyraceous. (See Fer-
  mentation.)
    Oil of Hops. (Ol. Lupuli.)   From hops by dis-
  tillation ; also  collected during the brewing of beer.
  Odorous;  acrid;  narcotic ; soluble in water; sp.
  gr. 0-910; chiefly used to increase the  flavor of
  poor hops.
    Oil of Hyssop.  (Ol. Hyssopi.)  From hyssop
  leaves.  Prod. ",- to £ of 1$.
    Oil of Jasmin.  (Ol. Jasmini.)   By placing al-
  ternate layers  of the flowers and cotton wadding,
  imbued with olive oil, in any suitable vessel, and
  renewing  the  flowers till the fixed  oil becomes
 strongly odorous, and then distilling the wadding
 along with water.  The  oils of violets,  tuberose,
 hyacinths, fyc, are also obtained in the same way.
 Used in perfumery.
   Oil  of Juniper.   (Ol. Juniperi,  P. L. E. D.)
 From either the wood, tops, or berries ; the latter
 should be chosen fully grown, but still green, and
 should be bruised.  Colorless, or nearly so ; sp. gr.
 0-875  to 0-911.  Prod.  German berries  \ to 1$.
 Diuretic.  It is frequently adulterated with oil of
 turpentine, but then its density  is lessened.
   Oil, Krumholz.  (OLTemplinum.)  From Hun-
 garian balsam.  Fragrant;  golden yellow ; tastes
 oily acidulous.
   Oil of Lavender.  (Essence of Lavender.  Ol.
 Lavandula, P. L. E. D.   O. Lav. Spica.)  From
 the flowers; pale yellow ; very fragrant:  sp. gr.
 0-877 to 0-905 ; the lightest is the best.  Prod. 1£
 to 2$.   English oil of lavender is  the best;  the
 foreign  oil (O. Lav. latifola)  is  inferior.   When
 rectified by drawing off only §,  its sp. gr. is 0-877;
 very fine.
   Oil of  Lemons.   (Essence  of  Lemons.   Ol.
 Limonis, P.  L. E.)   Obtained by exposing  the
 yellow rinds to  powerful pressure in  hair bags.   It
 may also be prepared by distillation.  Nearly color-
 less ; very  fragrant ; sp. gr. 0-878 ; or 0-847 at  72°.
 Carminative and diaphoretic.   Chiefly from Italy.
   Oil  of Ljmon   Grass.   From Andropogon
Schaenanthus.  Very fragrant.   The grass oil of
Namur is  obtained  from Andropogon Calamus
Aromaticus.  Both are used in perfumery.
  Oil  of Lemon Thyme.  (Huile de Tain.   OL 
OIL                     452                    OIL
Serpylli.)  Very odorous.  Used to scent soaps.
Product. J to J of 1$.
  Oil of Mace, Essential.  (Ol.  Macidis.  O.
Macis Stillatitium.)   Nearly colorless ; lighter
than water; very odorous.
  Oil of Marjoram.  (Ol. Marjorana.)  From
sweet  marjoram;  pale yellow ; odorous.  Prod.
h to 4 of 1$.
  Oil of Mustard, Volatile.  (Ol. Sinapis Es-
sent.)  As oil of bitter  almonds ; nearly colorless ;
very  pungent and  acrid; sp.  gr. at  68°, 1*015.
Rubefacient; vesicant; in  palsy, &.c.  The dis-
tilled water is a good cure for the itch.
  Oil of Narcissi s. (Essence of Jonquil.  Ol.
Narcissi.)   As oil of jasmine.   Odorous.
  Oil of Nutmeg.  (Ol.  Myristica, P. L. E.  O.
Nucis moschata.)  From nutmegs.  Nearly color-
less ;  odorous;   sp.  gr. 0948 ;  by agitation with
water it is separated into 2 oils; one lighter, the
other heavier than water; the last is butyraceous.
Imported.
  Oil of Orange.  (Essence of  Orange.  Ol.
Aurantii.)   From the  yellow  rind  of the sweet
orange, (Citrus  Aurantiuire.)
  Oil of Orange Flowers. (Ol. Neroli.  O. Na-
pha.)  From the flowers  of the sweet orange tree.
Very fragrant.   6 cwt.  only yield 1 oz.  A similar
oil is obtained from the  flowers of the bigarade, or
bitter orange.
  Oil of Bitter Orange.  (Essence of Bitter Or-
ange.)  From the  rind  of the bigarade orange.
Slightly differs from the oil of the peel of the sweet
orange.
  Oil of Orris. (Essence of Violets. Ol. Iridis.)
From Florentine orris root.   Fragrant
  Oil of Pennyroyal.   (Ol. Pulegii. O. Mentha
Pulegii.  P.  L. E. D.)   From the herb: pale ; car-
minative ; sp. gr. 0-925  to 0930. Prod. \ to 1$.
  Oil of Pepper.  (Ol. Piperis.)   From  black
pepper.  Colorless; odorous ; not so hot as pepper,
sp. gr. 0-9932.
  Oil of Peppermint.  (Ol. Mentha Piperita,
P. L. E. D.)   From the fresh herb.   Nearly color-
less ; odorous ; carminative ; cooling  ; sp. gr. 0-902
to 0-907.   Prod. $ to \\%.   English oil of pepper-
mint  is the  best; and that  -'stilled at Mitcham,
Surrey, is most  esteemed:  it has usually a very
pale greenish color ; foreign oil of  peppermint  is
very inferior.  It is improved by " redrawing" it.
The oil  of the shops is  usually reduced with  $
spirit of wine.
  Oil of Pimento.  (Oil  of Allspice.   Ol. Pi-
menta, P. L. E. D.)  From bruised allspice, pale
yellowish ; has a mixed odor of cloves and cassia ;
sp. gr. 1*021.  Prod. 5 to 8$.   It contains 2 oils ;
.me (light) which distils over first, and another (Pi-
mentic Acid) which comes over afterwards.
  Oil of Potato Spirit.  Obtained  by continuing
the distillation after most of the spirit has passed
over.  Colorless; sp. gr. 0*823 ; burns well.  (See
Fermentation.)
  Oil of Rhodium.  (Ol. Rhodii.) From the wood
of convolvulus scoparius ; fluid ; yellow ; fragrant.
Prod. | to J of 1$; chiefly used to adulterate otto of
roses ; oil of sandal wood is  frequently sold for it;
from the Levant
  Oil of Roses. (Ol. Rosa.)—1.  From the flow-
ers of the  musk rose, as oil  of cloves.  Prod.
^5 to Jg. of  1$.  Oii of sandal  wood is commonly
sold for it—2. (Otto of Roses.  Attar of do.  Ol
Rosa, P. E.)  From the  petals of rosa ceutifolia
and sempervirens,  by saturating the water, by re-
turning it repeatedly on fresh  flowers, and  then
exposing it to a  low temperature.  In the  East it
is obtained by stratifying gingilie seeds in alternate
layers with rose  leaves, for some days, and repeat-
ing the arrangement with fresh roses  till the seeds
are saturated, when the oil is expressed and distilled
along with water.   In  the neighborhood of Mecca
the rose leaves  are macerated in salt and water
for 2 or 3 days, and then distilled, the water being
received in separate receivers at different parts  of
the process.   The  water is afterwards exposed in
porous earthenware vessels,  tied  over with linen,
in trenches dug in  the earth, and over which moist-
ened straw is thrown,  when  in a short time  the
otto separates and  floats on the surface.  Pure otto
congeals below  80°, and  melts again at  85° F.;
sp. gr. at 90°, 0-832 to water 1*0 at 60° F.; alco-
hol at 0*806  dissolves less  than 1$; imported
Otto  of roses is frequently  adulterated with  the
oils of rhodium  and sandal wood, both of which
render its  taste biting, and with camphor  and
spermaceti.
  Oil of Rosemary. (Ol. Rorismarini, P.  L. E. D.
O. Anthos.)    From  rosemary tops ; colorless;
sp. gr. 0-897 to 0-910 ;  odorous.  Prod. About 1$.
It is  frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine,
but is then only  partially soluble in alcohol.
  Oil of Rue.  (Ol. Ruta, P. E. D.)  From the
herb; pale yellow; acrid;  bitter; sp. gr. 0*911.
Prod, i to 1$.
  Oil of Sandal Wood.  (Ol. Santali albi.) 4 lbs.
yield  1 oz.; sold for oil of rhodium  and  otto of
roses.
  Oil of Sassafras. (Ol. Sassafras,  P. D.) From
the wood of the lauras sassafras, as  oil of olives;
pale  yellow ;  hot; odorous ;  sp. gr. 1*094 to 1*096.
Prod. 2 to 2£ $; nitric acid turns it  orange red,
and water separates it into a light and heavy oil.
Imported.
  Oil of Savin.  (Ol. Sabina, P. E. D) From the
fresh  tops or leaves ;  nearly colorless ; acrid; sp.
gr. 0915; yields much oil; emmenagogue; rube-
facient.
  Oil of Spearmint.   (Oil  of Green-mint  Ol.
Mentha Vulgaris.  O. Mentha Sativa.  O. Men-
tha Viridis,  P.  L. E.  D.)   From the herb;  pale
yellow; odorous ;  carminative; stimulant; sp. gr.
0-914, (0-9394 Brande.)  Prod. JL to \ of 1$.
  Oil of Spike, True.  (Ol. Lavandula stacha-
dis.  O. Spica Verum.  Huile d'aspic.)  From the
flowers and seeds  of Lavendula stcechas,  (French
lavender,)  inferior to  English  lavender.   From
France.  Used by artists, and to make varnishes.
  Oil of Sweet Fennel. (Ol. Faniculi,  P. E. D.
O. Faniculi Dulcis.)   From the bruised seeds;
odorous; carminative; sp. gr. 0-997.  Prod.  3
to 4$.
  Oil of Tansy. (Ol. Tanaceti.)   From the herb;
pale  greenish yellow ; odorous; aromatic ; sp. gr
0-946 to 0-952 ;  bitter.
  Oil of Thyme.  (Ol.  Thymi.  Ol.  Origani,
P. L.  E. D.)  From the herb  origanum  vulgare,
(common  marjoram;)  reddish ;  colorless when
rectified;  fragrant;  sp. gr. 0*867  to 0877, (0-940
Baume.)  Prod.  J to J of 1$.  Used to relieve
toothache, to make the hair grow, and as a stunu- 
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 lating liniment.  The oil of the shops is usually
 mixed with | oil of turpentine.
   Oil of Tobacco.  (Ol. Tabaci. Nicotianin.  To-
 bacco Camphor)   From  tobacco leaves ; 6 lbs.
 yield 11 grs.;  concrete.
   Oil  of Turpentine.  (Spirits of Turpentine.
 Essence  of do. Turps. Camphene, Camphogene.
 Spiritus Terebinthina.  Ol.  do., P. L. E. D.  6.
 pini volatile.)   From a mixture of strained Amer-
 ican turpentine and water.  The residuum in the
 still is rosin.  Prod.  14 to 16$.   The colleges or-
 der it to be  rectified  along with 3 or 4 times as
 much water, and not to draw over quite the whole ;
 but a better way is to agitate  with an equal meas-
 ure of liquor of potassa, and then to distil the mix-
 ture.  Dr. Nimmo recommends it to be purified by
 agitation with hth part of alcohol, to decant the
 spirit, and to repeat  the process 3 or 4 times. Pure
 oil of turpentine is neutral to test paper ; dissolves
 one-fifth  of alcohol,  sp. gr. 0830, and is  soluble in
 8 parts of  alcohol of 0*840;  sp. gr. 0*872 at 60°,
 or 0*86 at 70° F.   Used to  make varnishes  and
 paints; under the name of Camphene, to burn in
 lamps; and in medicine as a vermifuge, diuretic,
 in rheumatism, &c.   Dose. 6 to 60 drops ; or for
 tapeworm,  f^ss to  f^iss.   Gives a violet odor to
 the urine.
   Oil of Wax.  From butter of wax.
   Oil  of Wine.  (Ethereal Oil.  Sweet Oil of
 Wine.  Do. do. of Vitriol.  Sulphatic Ether. Sul-
 phate of Hydrocarbon.  Sulphate of Oxide of
 Ethule and Etherole.  Ol. Vini.  Ol. Mthereum.
 P. L. Liquor  Mthereus  Oleosus, P. D.)   Recti-
 fied spirit, lb. ij ; sulphuric acid, lb. iv ; mix (cau-
 tiously) and distil till a black froth arises ;  then
 remove the heat, collect the light  supernatant li-
 quor, expose it to  the air for 24 hours,  agitate it
 with a mixture of f ^j  each of distilled water and
 liquor of potassa, and after subsidence separate the
 ethereal oil. (P. L.)   The Dublin College orders it
 to be prepared  from  the residuum of the distillation
 of ether,  which must  be  distilled to one half, and
 the oil next be collected as before.  33 lbs. oi  rec-
 tified spirit, and 64 lbs. of oil  of vitriol, only yield
 17 oz. of this oil.  (Hennel.) An oily liquid ; nearly
 colorless ; aromatic ; neutral; sp. gr. 1*05,  (Hen-
 nel,) 1*13, (Serullas;)  boiling  at 540° ; soluble in
 alcohol and ether. Anodyne.
   Oil of Wormwood.  (Ol.  Absinthii.)   From
 the  herb;  green, or  brownish green;  odorous  ;
 acrid ; bitter;  sp. gr.  09703,  (Brisson ;) 0-9725,
 (Brandes.)  Prod. \ to $ of 1$.  Nitric  acid sp.
 gr. 1-25, colore it first green, then blue, and lastly
 brown.
   OINTMENT.   Syn. Unguentum, (Lat, from
 Ungo, I anoint)  Ointments are unctuous prepar-
 ations, that  merely differ from cerates in consist-
 ence, being made and  used  in a similar manner.
 Their solidity should  not exceed that of good but-
 ter, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere.
 When  the active  ingredients  are pulverent sub-
 stances, nothing can be more  suitable to form the
 mass of the ointment than good  lard, free from
 Bait; but  when they are  fluid, or semifluid, pre-
 pared suet, or a mixture of suet and lard, will be  ne-
 cessary to give  a proper consistence to the  com-
pound ;  in some few instances, wax is ordered  for
this purpose.  Unctuous preparations may be pre-
vented from getting rancid, by dissolving in the fat
 a little gum-benzoin or benzoic  acid.  (See Ce-
 rates.)
   OINTMENT, ACETATE OF LEAD. Syn
 O. of Sugar of Lead.  Ung. Saturninum.  Ung.
 Plumbi Acetatis, (P.  E. & D.)  Prep.  (P. E.)
 Finely-powdered sugar of lead £j; simple ointment
 §xx ; triturate together.  (See Cerates.)
   OINTMENT,  ACONITINA.   Syn. Ung.
 Aconitina5.   Prep. (Paris.)  Aconitina 1 gr.; lard
 §j ; mix.  (See page 25.)
   OINTMENT, ALKALINE.  Syn.  Ung. Al-
 kalinum.  Prep. (Cazenave.)  Subcarbonate of pot-
 ash 1 part; lard 8 parts ; mix.  Used in some skin
 diseases.  Soubeiran adds wine of  opium,  ^ to 1
 part.
   *** In the same way is made  the  ointment  of
 balsam of Peru.  (Ung. Peruviani.)
   OINTMENT, ALTHAEA. Syn. Marshmal-
 low Ointment.   DialthtEjE.   Ung.  Alth.*.*.
 Prep. I.  (P. L. 1746.)  Oil of  mucilages lb. ij ;
 beeswax  lb. ss ; yellow rosin  §iij ; Venice turpen-
 tine §ss;  melt together, and stir till cold.
   II. Linseed oil 8 lbs.;  beeswax 2  lbs.;  yellow
 rosin 1 lb. ;  palm oil f, lb.; as last.  Emollient and
 stimulant.
   OINTMENT, AMMONIACAL. Syn. Pom-
 made DE GONDRET. LlPAROLE d'AmMONIQUE. UnG.
 Ammonia.  Prep.  (P.  Cod.)  Prepared suet and
 lard, of each  ^j ; melt in a wide-mouthed bottle,
 add liquor of  ammonia §ij, cork close, and  agitate
 till cold.  Rubefacient, vesicant,  and counter-irri-
 tant  Rubbed on the skin and covered so as -to
 prevent evaporation, it speedily  raises a blister.
   OINTMENT, AMMONIA.  Syn.  Ung. Am-
 MONiiE Sesquicarbonatis.  Prep.  Sesquicarbonate
 of ammonia  3ss; simple cerate  ^ss ; mix.  For
 scrofulous sores.
   OINTMENT, ANTIMONIAL.  Syn. Tar-
 tar Emetic Ointment.   Ung. Antimoniale, (P.
 E.)   Ung. Tartari Emetici,  (P. D.)   Ung. An-
 timonii Potassio-Tartratis,  (P.  L.) Prep. (P. L.
 &. E.)  Finely-powdered potassio-tartrate of anti-
 mony 1 part;  lard 4 parts;  mix.   The  Dublin
 ointment  is only half as  strong ;  counter-irritant,
 in  phthisis,  chronic  rheumatism,  &c.   A  portion
 the size of a nut is rubbed on the skin  night and
 morning,  until a crop of pustules is produced.
   OINTMENT,  ANTI-HERPETIC.    Syn.
 Ung. Anti-herpeticum.  Prep.  I. (Chevallier.)
 Chloride of lime 3iij; subsulphate of mercury 3ij ;
 almond oil 3vj ; lard ^'j ;  mix.
   II. (Alibert) Red sulphuret of mercury 3iss;
 powdered camphor  3ss; lard §iss; mix.   For
 heroes or  tetters
   OINTMENT, ANTI-PERIODIC. Prep. Lard
 95 grammes; sulphate  of quinine  15 grammes;
 sesquioxide of iron 60 centigrammes;  powdered
 opium 15 centigrammes ; mix. Well rubbed  on the
 vertebral  regions every two hours for 3 or 4 days,
 in periodic fevers, especially those  accompanied
 with vomiting. (Jour, de Chimie Med.)
   OINTMENT,  ANTIPSORIC.   Syn.  Ung.
 Antipsoricum.  Prep. (P. E. 1744.) Elecampane
 root and sharp-pointed wild dock leaves, of each
 5iij ;  water  2£  pints ; vinegar §xvj ; boil to  J,
 press, add liquor of water-cresses  ^x ; lard  lb. iv ;
 boil to dryness, and  further add,  beeswax and oil
of laurel berries, of each %iv ; mix  well.  For itch,
the ung. antipsoricum comp. was made by adding 
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454
OIN
§viij of strong mercurial ointment to the above.
(See Itch Ointment.)
  OINTMENT,  ARSENICAL.    Syn,  Ung.
Arsenici.  Prep. I.  (P. U. S.) Arsenious acid in
fine powder 3j ;  simple cerate Jj; mix.   Used for
dressing cancerous sores.  Poisonous.
  II. (Carmichael.)  Arsenite of iron 3ss; phos-
phate of iron 3ij ; spermaceti ointment 3vj; mix.
  HI. (Sir A. Cooper.)  White arsenic and sulphur,
of each 3j; spermaceti ointment §j.   *#* All the
above must be used with caution.
  OINTMENT, ASTRINGENT.   Syn.  Ung.
Astringens.  Prep.  Lard 5 oz.; finely-powdered
alum 1 oz.; mix.  (See also the several lead oint-
ments, and ointment of galls.)
  OINTMENT, BALSAM OF PERU.  Syn.
Ung. Peruvian!  comp.   Prep.  (Copland.)  Lard
§ij ; white wax  §ss ; melt in a water-bath, add
balsam of Peru 3ij, and  oil  of lavender 12 drops,
and stir till stiff.  Both this, and the  simple  oint-
ment, are used to restore the hair.
  OINTMENT, BASILICON.  (Green.)  Syn.
Ung. Basilicum  Viride.   Prep. (P. L. 1746.)
Powdered verdigris 1  oz. ; olive oil ijiij ; resin oint-
ment § viij ; mix.  Detergent; used to keep down
fungous flesh.
  OINTMENT, BELLADONNA.  Syn.  Ung.
Belladonna.  Prep. (Pereira.) Extract of deadly
nightshade 3j to 3ij;  lard §j ; mix.  To allay pain
and nervous irritation.
  OINTMENT, BELLADONNA.  (Comp.)  Io-
dine ointment (comp.) 3vij ; extract of belladonna
3j ; mix.  Dispersive.  A most excellent applica-
tion  to all glandular swellings, especially when  ac-
companied with pain.  The  mixture of chloride of
gold should also be taken at the  same time.   See
Mixture, Antiscrofulous.
  OINTMENT,  BICHLORIDE  OF  MER-
CURY.  <Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri Muriatis. Prep.
[. (P. C.) Corrosive sublimate 10 grs.; yelk of 1
3gg; lard §j; mix.
  II.  Corrosive  sublimate  3j to 3ss;  lard §j j
mix.
  OINTMENT, BINIODIDE OF MERCU-
RY-  Syn. Pommade de Deuto-Iodure de Mer-
cure. Ung. Hydrargyri  Biniodidi. Prep. (P.  L.)
Biniodide of mercury  §j; white wax §ij ; lard ^vj ;
mix well.  Applied to ill-conditioned sores, scrofu-
lous ulcers, &c. ; and when diluted  with lard or
almond oil, to the eyes in like cases.
  OINTMENT,  BINOXIDE  OF  MERCU-
RY.  Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri Binoxydi.   Prep.
(Cazenave.) Binoxide of mercury 3ss ; camphor 4
grs.; lard jj.   (See Ointment, Nitric Oxide of
Mercury.)
  OINTMENT, BORAX.  Syn. Ung.  Boracis.
Prep.  Borax 3j; spermaceti ointment 3vij.   For
excoriations, chaps, &c.
  OINTMENT,  BLISTERING.   Syn.  Ung.
Epipasticum  Equinum.   Prep. I. Lard or tallow
5"j  lbs.; powdered euphorbium £ lb.;  powdered
cantharides 1£ lb.; ./ineiy-powdered corrosive sub-
limate 6 oz.;  linseed oil 1|  lb.;  oil of origanum 3
oz.; mix well.
  II. Cantharides 1 oz.; oil of turpentine 2 oz.;
lard 8 oz.; mix.
  III. Lard 6 oz.; oil of origanum 2 dr.; corrosive
sublimate 1 dr.,  (dissolved in spirits of salt 2 dr.;)
powdered flies 1 oz.; mix
  IV. Yellow basilicon J lb.; oil of origanum 4 oz. j
strong vinegar and linseed oil, of each 2 oz.; pow-
dered flies 4 oz.; mix.  All the above are used by
farriers.
  OINTMENT, BISMUTH.   Syn. Ung. Bis-
muthi.   Prep.  (Pereira.)  Trisnitrate  of  bismuth
3j ;  simple ointment 5iv ; mix. Used in some chro-
nic  skin diseases.
  OINTMENT, BROMIDE  OF  POTASSI-
UM.   Syn. Ung. Potassii Bromidi. Prep. (Ma-
jendie.)  Bromide of potassium  3ss;  lard Jj;
mix.
  OINTMENT, BROMINE.   Syn. Ung. Po-
tassii Bromidi cum Brominio.  Prep. (Majendie.)
Bromide of potassium 5j ; lard §j ; bromine 6 to
12 drops ; mix well. Both  the above are resolvent.
Used in bronchocele, scrofula, &c.
  OINTMENT,  BROWN.   Syn.  Ung. Fus-
cum.   Prep. (P. Cod.) Resin ointment ^ij ; levi-
gated red precipitate 3j ; mix.  An excellent ap-
plication in ophthalmia after the  inflammatory
stage is over, and to sore legs, &c.
  OINTMENT, CADMIUM.  Syn. Ung.Cad-
mil  Prep. (Rudius.) Sulphate of cadmium 1 to
2 grs.; lard 3j; mix.  For removing specks from
the cornea, &c.
  OINTMENT, CALAMINE.   Syn. Turner's
Cerate.  Ung. Calamine,  (P. D.)  Ung. Zinci
Carbonatis Impure  Prep. (P.  D.) Prepared cal-
amine  lb.j;  ointment of  yellow wax lb.v; mix.
(See Cerate, Calamine.)
  OINTMENT, CALOMEL.  Syn. Ung. Ca-
lomelanus.  Ung. Hydrargyri  Chloridi.  Prep.
(Guy's H.)  Calomel 3j ; lard §j ;  mix.   Dr. Un-
derwood uses elder-flower ointment.  " Were I
required to name a local agent pre-eminently use-
ful in skin diseases generally, I should fix  on this.
It is well deserving a place in the Pharmacopoeia."
(Pereira.)
  OINTMENT, CAMPHOR.  Syn. Ung. Cam-
phors.  Ceratum do.  Prep.  Spermaceti oint-
ment 5j; camphor 3ij; dissolve by a gentle heat,
and stir till cold.  Used  in psoriasis, &c.
  OINTMENT,  CANTHARIDES.  Prep.  I.
(Ung.  Cantharidis,  P.  E.)  Resinous  ointment
§vij; cantharides in  fine powder ^j > mix. (See
Cerate, Blistering.)
  II.  (Ung. Cantharidis,  P.  L.   Ung. Infusi
Cantharidis, P. E.)  Powdered cantharides ^j;
water  %i\;  boil to one-half, strain, add  resin ce-
rate 5'v> and evaporate to  a proper consistence.
This ointment is  milder, and usually preferred to
the preceding.  Both are  used  to keep  blisters
open, and to stimulate indolent ulcere.
  III.  (Dupuytren.) Tincture of cantharides (made
with flies 1, to  proof spirit 8) 3j;  lard 3ix; mix
well.  Used as a pommade to make the hair grow,
for which purpose it  may  be colored or scented at
pleasure.
  IV.  (M. Cap.)  Beef marrow  ^ij; alcoholic ex-
tract of cantharides 8 grs.; rose oil 3j; essence of
lemons 40 drops ; mix.  For the hair.
  OINTMENT,  CARBONATE OF  LEAD.
Syn.  White Ointment.    Ung.  Album.  Ung.
Plumbi Carbonatis, (P. E. & D.)   Prep. (P. E.)
Carbonate of lead §j; simple ointment  5V j mix.
Used in excoriations. The  ung. album campho-
ratum, P. L. 1745, (Ung. plumbi camph.,) is mada
by  adding to the above camphor 3j. 
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455
OIN
  OINTMENT, CATECHU.   Syn. Ung. Ca-
techu.  Prep.  Finely powdered catechu and yel-
low rosin, of each ^iv;  alum 3ix; olive oil ^x;
water q. s.;  mix.   An  excellent application to ul-
cers  in hot  climates, where the  ordinary fat oint-
ments are found objectionable.
  OINTMENT, CHLORIDE  OF CALCIUM.
Syn.  Ung. Calcis Muriatis.  Prep. (Sundelin.)
Muriate of lime (dry) 3j; powdered digitalis 3ij;
distilled vinegar £ij ; lard fj ; mix.  In broncho-
cele, scrofula, &c.
  OINTMENT,  CHLORIDE  OF LIME.
Syn.  Ung.  Calcis Hypochlorite.  Prep. (Ci-
ma.) Chloride of zinc 3j; lard Jj; mix.  For itch,
putrid sores, &,c.
  OINTMENT,  CHLORIDE  OF  GOLD
AND  SODA.   Syn.  Pommade  de  Muriate
d'Or et de Soude.  Ung. Auri Sodio-Chlori-
di.   Prep.  (Majendie.)  Sodio-chloride of  gold 10
grs.; lard 3iv ;  mix.   In scrofulous and syphilitic
swellings, ulcers,  &c.
  OINTMENT,  CHLORINE.   Syn.  Ung.
Chlorinatum.   Prep.  Chlorine water §j ;  lard
§iv ; mix.   Used for itch, fetid ulcers, &c.
  OINTMENT, COCCULUS INDICUS. Syn.
Ung. Cocculi.   Prep. (P. E.) Kernels of coccu-
lus indicus 1 part ; beat  to a paste, then add lard
5 parts.  Used to destroy insects in children's hair,
and in porrifjo.
  OINTMENT,  COD'S  OIL.  Syn. Ung.Olei
Aselli.   Prep. (M. Carron.) Cod's liver  oil and
extract of smoke, of each, 3ij;  nitrated ointment
of mercury 3j ;  beef marrow ^vj ; mix.  In tinea
favosa,  impetigo, and  chronic eczema and oph-
thalmia.
  OINTMENT,  COLOCYNTH.   Syn.  Ung.
Colocynthidis.  Prep. (Chrestien.) Powdered col-
ocynth 3j ; lard §j; mix.  Used in frictions on the
abdomen, and insides of  the thighs, in mania, &c.
Diuretic.
  OINTMENT, COSMETIC. Syn. Ung. Cos-
meticum.   Pommade  de  la  Jeunesse.   Prep.
(Quincey.) Almond  oil ^'j',  spermaceti 3iij;  tris-
nitrate of  bismuth 3j;  oil  of  rhodium 6 drops.
Turns the hair  black.
  OINTMENT,  CREOSOTE.  Syn. Ung.
Creasoti, (P. L.)  Ung. Creazoti, (P I'.)  Prep.
(P. L.)  Creosote f 3ss;  lard Jj5 mix.  In skin
diseases, especially ringworm ; also a good appli-
cation to burns  and chilblains.
  OINTMENT,  CROTON.  Syn. Ung. Cro-
tonis.  Prep. (Ainslie.)  Croton oil 10 drops;  lard
^ss;  mix.   Counter-irritant; rubbed  repeatedly
on the skin, it produces redness  and a pustular
eruption.
  OINTMENT, CYANIDE OF MERCURY.
Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri Cyanidi. Prep. 1. (Ray-
er.)  Cyanide of mercury  (bicyanide) 30 grs.; lard
§j;  mix.—2. (Pereira and  Biett)  10 to 12 grs.  to
the oz.  In scrofula, &c.
  OINTMENT,  CYANIDE  OF POTASSI-
UM.  Syn. Ung. Potassii Cyanidi.  Prep. (Lom-
bard )  Cyanide of potassium 2 to 4 grs.; lard ^;
mix.
  OINTMENT, DELPHINE.  Syn. Ung. Del-
miniat..   Prep.  (Turnbull.)  Delphine  10  to  30
grs.; olive oil 3j;  rub together, then add lard §j;
mix welL   In neuralgia, rheumatic affections, in-
Teterate itch, &c.
  OLVTMENT, DEPILATORY.  Syn.  Lini-
mentum Depilatorium.   Prep. Finely powdered
quicklime  §j ;  do.  orpiment  3j ;  white of egg to
mix.
  OINTMENT, DESICCVTIVE.  Syn. Ung.
Desiccativum.   Prep. (Jondelotte.)  Simple oint-
ment gxvj ; colcothar, lapis calaminaris, and white
lead, of each,  §j ;  camphor 3ij ; mix.   Drying,
cicatrizing.
  OINTMENT,  DETERGENT.  Syn.  Ung.
Detergens.  Prep. Yellow basilicon 2 lbs.; Ve-
nice turpentine  4  oz.; red  precipitate, verdigris,
and euphorbium, of each, ^ oz. ; mix well.
  OINTMENT, DIGESTIVE.   Syn. Ung. Di-
gestivum.  Prep.  I. (P. Cod.) Venice  turpentine
§ij  ; yelks of 2  eggs ; oil of St. John's wort §ss ;
mix.  With an  equal quantity of mercurial oint-
ment, the above forms  digestif mercuriel;  and
with liquid storax, digestif anime.
  II. (Ung. Digest.  Viride, Kirkland.)  Yellow
resin, beeswax, and elemi, of each, ^j i green/oil
f yj ; melt together, and when nearly cold, add oil
of turpentine 3ij.
  III. (For horses.)—a. Lard, yellow basilicon,
and Venice turpentine, of each, 5 oz.;  finely pow-
dered verdigris  2 oz.;  mix.—b.  Yellow  basilicon
15  oz.;  red precipitate 1 oz.;  mix.
  OINTMENT,  DIGITALIS.   Syn. Ung. Di-
gitalis.   Prep. Foxglove leaves lb. ij; lard  lb.iiss;
boil till crisp, and strain  with pressure.
  OINTMENT,  EDINBURGH.  Prep.  Black
basilicon 3 lbs.;  milk of  sulphur 2 lbs.; mix.  Used
for itch.  Collier says  that  this ointment  is the
same as the  ung. veratri of the P. L.,  with the
addition of a little sal ammoniac.
  OINTMENT, ELDER, (FLOWERS.)  Syn.
Ung. Sambuci.   Prep. (P. L.) Elder  flowers and
lard, of each,  lb.ij;  boil until crisp,  then  strain
through a cloth.  Emollient.  A much better oint-
ment may with  proper care be prepared  from the
distilled water, and this is generally done on the
large scale. The following  formula is  commonly
used:—Lard, (hard, white, and sweet,)  25 lbs.;
prepared mutton suet 5 lbs.; melt in a well-tinned
or  earthen vessel, add  elder-flower water  3  gal-
lons ; agitate for half an hour, and set  it  aside;
the next  day  gently  pour off the  water,  remelt
the ointment, add benzoic  acid 3 dr. ;  otto of
roses 20  drops;  essence of bergamotte  and oil
of  rosemary, of each,  30  drops ;  again agitate
well, let it settle for  10 minutes,  and then pour
off the  clear  into pots.  Very  fine,  and  keeps
well.
  OINTMENT,  ELDER,  (LEAVES.)   Syn.
Green Ointment.  Ung. Viride.  Ung. Samiiuci.
Ung. Samb. Viride. Prep. I.  (P. L. 1746.)  Green
oil  lb. iij ;  wax  §x; melt, and stir till cold.  Does
not grain.
  II. Lard 1  cwt.; prepared suet  14  lbs.; fresh
elder leaves 56 lbs.;  boil till  crisp, strain off the
oil, put it  over a slow fire, and gently stir it till it
acquires a bright green color.
  III.  Leaves  lb. iij ;  lard  lb.  iiij ;  suet  lb. ij.
Both -the  above are emollient and cooling.  The
last tw'o formula; are those employed in  the whole-
sale trade.  The ointment  should be  allowed to
cool slowly, with very little  stirring, that it may
" grain" well, as a granular appearance  is much
admired.  It  is  a  common practice to add pow- 
OIN                   456                    OIN
dered verdigris to deepen the color, but then the
ointment do»s not keep well.
  OINTMENT, ELEMI.  Syn.  Ung. Elemi,
(P.  L.)   Linimentum Arcei.  Ung. do.  Do. do.
comp.  Prep.  (P. L.)  Gum elemi lb.j; suet lb. ij;
melt together, then add  common turpentine 5X j
olive oil f 3(j; mix, and strain.  Stimulant and di-
gestive.  Used to  old  and  ill-conditioned  sores.
The ung.  elemi  cum  arugine  of St. George's
Hospital is made by adding finely powdered ver-
digris 3j, to every lb. ss of the above.
  OINTMENT, ESCHAROTIC.  Syn. Ung.
Escharoticum.  Prep.  (Sir  B.  Brodie.)  Finely
levigated verdigris, sulphate of copper, and nitric
oxide of mercury, of each 3ij ; corrosive sublimate
3j ; lard q. s.
  OINTMENT, EYE.   Syn. Eye-salve. Ung.
Ophthalmicum.   Prep.  I.  (Dupuytren's.)  Red
oxide of mercury 10 grs.; sulphate of zinc 20 grs.;
lard ^ij j mix.  For chronic inflammation of  the
eyelids, &c.                          »
  II. (Dessault's.)  Red  precipitate, carbonate of
zinc, acetate of lead, and dried alum, of each 3j ;
bichloride of mercury 3j ; rose ointment §j ; mix.
Mostly used diluted with some  lard.  In chronic
ophthalmia, profuse  discharges, &c.
  III.  (Spielmann's.)  Acetate of lead 3j; sper-
maceti cerate 3v; tincture of benzoin (comp.) 3ij;
mix. Cooling.  In inflammation, excoriations, &,c.
  IV.  (St. Yve's.)  Red precipitate 3ss ; oxide of
zinc 3j; fresh  butter  §j; wax 9iv; camphor  15
grs.  As No.  I.
  V. (Pellier's.) Red precipitate, and carbonate of
zinc, of  each 3iss; tutty 3ss;  red sulphuret of
mercury 3j ;  balsam of Peru 15 drops; lard §ij.
In speck of the eye, arising from small ulcers that
have healed up.
  VI.  (Janin's.) Tutty, and levigated bole, of each
3ij ; white precipitate  3j; lard  f ss.  In chronic
inflammation, with excessive secretion,  &c.
  VII.  (Fricke's.) Nitrate of silver 10 grs.; bal-
sam of Peru 3s8 ;  zinc ointment 3ij.  In ulcers of
the cornea, acute, purulent, and  chronic ophthal-
mia, &.C.
  VIII.  (Guthrie's.) Spermaceti ointment 3j ; so-
lution of diacetate of lead 15 drops ; nitrate of sil-
ver 2  to  10  grs.; mix.  As  last.   Both this and
the preceding often occasion great pain.
  IX.  (Singleton's Golden.)  Orpiment 3j; lard
q. s.
  X. (Smellome's.)  Verdigris 3ss; olive  oil  30
drops; yellow basilicon Jj j mix-  In  inflamma-
tion of the eyelids, &c.
  XI.  (Collier's.)   Dried  alum   3ss;  powdered
opium 3j;  olive oil f 3j; spermaceti ointment 3ij;
mix.  For  inflammation  of  the  eyelids, purulent
ophthalmia, &c.
  ,Remarks. All the above  ointments  should  be
used in very small quantities at a time, and care-
fully applied with a camel hair pencil or a feather,
and not till acute inflammation has subsided.  The
ingredients entering into  their composition should
be reduced to the state of very fine  powder before
mixing, and the incorporation should be made by
long trituration in a Wedgewood-ware mortar, or
preferably, for those that contain substances that
are very gritty, by levigation on  a  porphyry slab,
with a muller.
  OINTMENTS,  FLOWER  OF.  Syn. Flos
Unguentorum.  Prep.  Resin,  th-ints  wax,  and
suet,  of  each lb. ss; olibanum. and Venice tur-
pentine,  of each ^''sa ; myrrh  %j;  wine £  pint;
boil together, and add camphor 3ij.   Suppurative,
warm.
  OINTMENT OF GALLS.   Syn. Ung. Gal-
larum.   Ung. Gallae.   Prep.  (P.  D.)   Galls in
very fine powder §j  ; lard  ^'v» m'x-  An  excel-
lent application to piles, either alone or mixed with
an equal quantity of zinc ointment.
  OINTMENT OF GALLS, (COMPOUND.)
Syn.  Ung.  Gali^b  compositum,  (P.  L.)   Ung.
Galla?.  et  Opii,  (P.  E.)   Prep.  (P.  L.) Galls
finely powdered  3ij ; powdered  opium 3ss,  (3j, P
E.;•) lard §ij, (^j, P- E. :) mix.   Anodyne, astrin-
gent.  An excellent  application to blind  piles, and
prolapsus ani.  Some persons add camphor 3j.
  OINTMENT,  GALLS AND   MORPHIA.
Syn.  Ung. GalljE cum Morphia.  Prep. (Paris.)
Morphia 2 grs.;  olive oil f 3ij;  triturate, and add
finely powdered galls 3j;  zinc oin.ment Jj.  In
piles,  to allay pain.
  OINTMENT, GOLD.   Syn.  Pommade d'Or.
Ung.  Auri.   Prep. I. (Legrand.) Powdered gold
12 grs.; lard ^j 5 mix.   For frictions.
  II.  (Majendie.) Amalgam of gold 3j; lard §j.
For endermic use.   (See Gold.)
  OINTMENT,  HELLEBORE.   Syn.  Ung.
Veratri, (P. L. &  D.)   Ung. Hellebori albi.
Prep. (P. L.)  Powdered white hellebore ^ij ; lard
^viij ; oil of lemons 20 drops ; mix.  In itch, lepra,
ringworm, &,c.;  and to destroy  insects in the hair
of children.   It should be used with caution.
  OINTMENT,  HELLEBORE,  (COM-
POUND.)   Prep. (Rayer.)  White hellebore §j;
sal ammoniac 3iv ; lard ^viij ' mix.
  OINTMENT, HEMLOCK.  Syn. Ung.  Co-
nii.   Prep.  (P. D.)  Fresh  leaves of hemlock, and
lard, equal  parts; boil till  crisp, and strain with
pressure  through linen.  For glandular and scir-
rhous swellings, painful piles, cancerous sores, &c.
  OINTMENT,   HENBANE.    Syn.   Ung.
Hyoscyami.   Prep.  As the last.   As  a sedative
and anodyne application to painful  swellings and
piles,  and irritable ulcers ;  and in neuralgic pains,
&.C.
  OINTMENT FOR HORSES.  Prep. I. (For
canker.)   Tar 8 oz.; lard 4 oz.; oil of vitriol, or
verdigris, 1 oz.
  II. (For fistula.)—a. Yellow basilicon 8 oz.; oil
of turpentine and verdigris, of each 1 oz.; mix.—
6. Ointment  of  nitrate  of  mercury  4 oz.; oil of
turpentine, and lard, of each 1 oz.;  mix.
  III. (For grease.) Lard 4 oz.; white lead I
oz.;  mix.
  IV. (For cracked hoofs.) Tar and tallow equal
parts, melted together.
  V.(Heel  ointment.) To the last add verdigris
2 oz. to  each pound.
  VI. (For foot rot.) Lard and Venice turpentine,
of each  4 oz.; melt, and add blue vitriol 1 oz. For
horses, cows, or  sheep.
  VII.   (For mange.)—a.  Lard   and  sulphur
vivum, of each 4 oz.; yellow basilicon, and oil of
turpentine, of each  3 oz.; mix.—6. To the last
add tar  and suet, of each 4 oz.—c.  Soft soap, oil
of turpentine, lard,  and flowers of sulphur,  of
each  4 oz.;  mix.
   OINTMENT, HYPOCHLORIDE  OF SUL- 
OIN                     457                   OIN
 PHUR  Syn.  Ung.  Sulphuris Hypochloridi.
 Prep.  (Copland.)  Hypochloride of sulphur 3j;
 lard §j.
   OINTMENT,  HYDRIODATE  OF  AM-
 MONIA.  Syn.  Ung.  Ammonia Hydriodatis.
 Prep.  (Ellis.) Hydriodate of ammonia  9j; lard
 §j >  mix.
   OINTMENT,  IODATE OF ZINC.  Syn.
 Ung.  Zinci  Iodatis.   Pommade avec l'Iodate
 de Zinc.  Prep. Iodate of zinc 3j ;  lard Jj ; mix.
 Used in scrofula, &c.
   OINTMENT, IODIDE OF BARIUM. Syn.
 Ung. Barii Iodidl  Prep.  (Majendie.)  Iodide of
 barium 4 grs.; lard §j-
   OINTMENT,  IODIDE OF LEAD.  Syn.
 Ung. Plumbi Iodidl Prep. (P.  L.) Iodide of lead
 §j ;  lard ^viij ; mix. Applied by friction to scrofu-
 lous and other indolent glandular swellings.
   OINTMENT,  IODIDE  OF MERCURY.
 Syn. Pommade de proto-iodure de Mercure.
 Ung. Hydrargyri Iodidl  Prep. (P. L.) White
 wax §'j ; lard 3jvj ; melt, and when nearly cold
 triturate with iodide of mercury ^j- Used in tuber-
 cular skin diseases, and as a dressing for ill-condi-
 tioned  sores,  scrofulous ulcers, &c.; it should be
 used with caution.
   OINTMENT, IODIDE  OF  POTASSIUM.
 Syn. Pommade avec l'Hydriodate de  Potasse.
 Ung. PotassjE Hydriodatis.  Prep. (Majendie.)
 Iodide of potassium 3j ; lard 3xij ; mix.  In scro-
 fula, bronchocele, glandular swellings, &c.
   OINTMENT, IODINE.  Syn.  Ung. Iodinii.
 Prep.  (P.  D.)  Iodine  3j ; lard 5j '■> mix.  For
 scrofulous sores, glandular swellings, &c.; either
 alone, or mixed with lard.
   OINTMENT,  IODINE,   (COMPOUND.)
 Syn. Pcmmade  d'Hydriodate   Iodure  de  Po-
 tasse.    " NTMENT  OF  IoDURETED IODIDE  OF PO-
 TASSIUM.   Tng. Iodinii compositum, (P. L.) Ung.
 Iodinei, (P. E.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Iodine 3ss ; iodide
 of potassium 3j ; rectified spirit  f 3j; triturate to-
 gether, then  add lard  §ij.   In glandular enlarge-
 ments.  &c.:  stronger than the simple ointment.
   OINTMENT,    IODOHYDRARGYRATE
 OF  IODIDE OF POTASSIUM.  Syn.  Ung.
 IODOHYDRARGYRATIS   POTASSH   IoDIDI.   Prep.
 (Puche.)  Biniodide of  mercury,  and iodide of po-
 tassium, of each 8 grs.; lard §j.
   OINTMENT,  ITCH.   Syn.  Ung. Antipso-
 ricum.  Prep. I. (De  La Harpe.) Flowers of sul-
 phur  ^ij; sulphate  of  zinc 3ij ;   powdered helle-
 bore 3iv ; soft soap  %iv; lard §viij; mix.
   II. (Bateman's.)  See page 100.
   III. (Bailey's.) See  page 88.
   IV. (Jackson's.)  Lard, palm oil, flowers of sul-
 phur, and white hellebore, equal  parts.
   V.  (Common.)  Palm oil 1 lb.;  lard 5 lbs.; white
 lead  J lb. ; corrosive sublimate 4 oz.; mix well.
   OINTMENT,  LARD.   Syn.  Ung.  Adipis.
 Lard washed with rose water.
   OINTMENT, LAUREL.   Syn. Ung. Lari-
 num  vulgare.  Common  Oil  of  Bays.  Prep.
 Laurel leaves  1 lb.; laurel berries £  lb.; cabbage
 leaves  4 oz.; neats' foot oil  5  lbs.; suet 2 lbs.;
 boil, express, and cool slowly, to let it "grain."
   OINTMENT, LEAD.   Syn.  Ung.  Lythar-
gyri  Acetati. Prep.  (P. C.) Wax ointment fj;
solution  of diacetate of  lead 3ss.
   OINTMENT, LEAD,' 'COMPOUND.) Syn.
                      58
 Higgin's Neutral Ointment.   Kirkland's Ned
 tral Cerate.   Ung. Plumbi  compositum.  Prep
 (P- L.)   Prepared chalk  gviij ;  distilled  vinegar
 f 5VJ ! mix,  and when  the  effervescence ceases,
 add lead plaster lb. iij, previously melted with olive
 oil 1 pint, and stir till cold.  Used as a dressing to
 indolent ulcers.  See Cerate,  Kirkland's.
   OINTMENT,  LEAD  AND  MORPHIA.
 Syn. Ung. Plumbi cum Morphia.  Prep.  (Ged-
 dings.)   Carbonate of lead §ss ;  sulphate of mor-
 phia  15  grs.; stramonium ointment §j; olive  oil
 q. s.
   OINTMENT,  LE   MORT'S.   Lard 7 oz.;
 Venice  turpentine, litharge, corrosive  sublimate,
 and carbonate of lead, of  each 1 oz.; alum  3 dr.;
 vermilion to color.
   OINTMENT, LUPULINE.  Syn. Ung.Lupu-
 lina:.  Prep. (Freake.)   Lupulina  3j;  lard 3iij.
 To  relieve  cancerous pains.  The  Ointment  of
 Hops  (Ung. Lupuli, Van  Mons) is made with
 hops §ij ; lard ^x; in the same way as ointment
 of belladonna.
   OINTMENT,  MANGANESE. Syn.  Ung.
 Manganesii  Binoxydi.   Prep.  Black  oxide  of
 manganese 3j ; lard  §j.   For scrofulous swellings,
 itch, scaldhead,  &,c.
   OINTMENT, MERCURIAL. Syn. Unction.
 Blue Ointment. Neapolitan do.  Strong  Mer-
 curial do.  Ung. C^eruleum.  Ung. Hydrargyri,
 (P. E. &, D.)   Ung.  Hyd. Fortius,  (P. L.)  Prep.
 I. (P. L. & E.)  Suet §j; mercury lb. ij; lard
 ^xxiij ; triturate the  metal with the suet  and a
 little of the lard, till the  globules are extinguished,
 then mix in the remainder of the lard.
   Remarks.  The Dublin College  orders  eaual
 parts of mercury and lard. The stronger mercurial
 ointment of the shops is  usually made with less
 mercury,  and the color is brought up with finely-
 ground blue black, or wood charcoal.  This fraud
 may be detected by the decrease in the sp. gr., and
 by a portion being left undissolved when a little of
 the ointment is treated, first with ether to remove
 the fat, and then with dilute  nitric acid to remove
 the mercury.  The following is the  form which is
 very generally substituted for that of the pharma-
 copceia:—mercury 12 lbs.; suet IJ  lb.; lard 16J
 lbs.  The Ung. Hydrargyri partes ^equales  of
 the shops is usually made of  mercury and lard,  of
 each 12 lbs.; suet IJ lb.   ***  Mercurial ointment
 " is not well prepared so long as metallic  globules
 may be seen in it with a magnifier of 4 powers."
 (P. E.)   Its sp.  gr. should not  be less than  1*781,
 at 60°.   When rubbed on a piece of bright cop-
 per or gold, it should  immediately give it a coating
 of metallic  mercury.  This ointment  is chiefly
 used to introduce mercury into  the system,  when
 the stomach  will not bear it.  £ to  1 dr. is  com-
 monly rubbed into the  inside of the thigh  night
 and morning.  (See Sevum.)
   II. (Mild  Mercurial   Ointment.  Ung.  Hyd.
 Mdius, P. L. & D.)  Stronger  mercurial ointment
 lb.j ; lard lb. ij *, mix. Used in cutaneous diseases,  as
 a dressing to ulcers, and to kill insects on the  body
 The ointment of the  shops usually contains only
 half the above quantity of  mercury.
  III. (Donovan.) Gray oxide of  mercury 3j;
 lard £j ;  heat them to 350° for 2 hours, constantly
stirring.  Gray colored.  It may also be made from
the red oxide in  the  same way,  by  keeping the 
OIN                    458                    OIN
ointment heated to about 300°  for  some  hours.
Cleauer  and  stronger  than  Ung.  Hyd. Fort.
P. L.
  IV. (Tyson.) Black oxide of mercury (prepared
by decomposing  precipitated calomel  with liquors
of potassa and  ammonia) §ij;  lard lb.j; mix.
About as active as the last.
  OINTMENT,  MACE.   Syn.   Ung.  Macis.
Common Oil of  Mace. Prep. Mace and palm oil,
of each  1 lb.; beat to a paste,  and add melted beef
marrow 3 lbs.
  OINTMENT,  MEZEREON.    Syn.   Ung.
Mezerei.  Prep.  (P. Cod.)   Mezereon bark §iv,
(bruised  and moistened with spirit;) white wax
§iss; lard §xivss;  digest  at  212°  for 12  hours,
press and strain.
  OINTMENT, NERVINE.   Syn. Ung. Nf.r-
vinum.  Balsamum do.  Baume's Nerval. Prep.
(P. Cod.)  Expressed oil of mace, and  ox-marrow,
of each §iv; melt, and add  oil  of rosemary 3ij;
camphor and oil  of cloves 3j; balsam of tolu 3ij,
dissolved in rectified spirit 3iv.
  OINTMENT,  NITRATE OF MERCURY.
Syn. Citrine- Ointment.  Yellow do.  Mercu-
rial  Balsam.    Ung. Citrinum, (P.  E.  &  D.)
Ung. Hydrargyri  nitratis, (P. L.)   Prep.  Dis-
solve mercury fj in  nitric acid  sp. gr. 1*5 f 3xj ;
and  add the solution  to  lard §vj and olive  oil
f §iv, melted in a capacious Wedgewood-ware, or
well-glazed earthen vessel, placed in a water-bath,
at a  temperature of from 180 to  200° Fahr.; mix
well, remove  the  heat, and  stir till  the  mixture
ceases to evolve  gas, and  acquires  a considerable
degree of consistence.
  Remarks. The above are the proportions of the
P. L.;—the  P. E.  orders nitric acid  (1-5) ffviij,
f 3vj ; mercury §iv ; lard ^xv ; olive oil f ^xxxij ;—
the P. D. orders  mercury §j ;  acid 3xj; lard ^iv
olive oil 1 wine pint;—the P.  U.  S. orders mercur;
§j; acid 3xj ;  lard ^iij ; neats' foot oil f ^ix ;—the
P. Cod. orders mercury 30 parts ; acid (sp. gr. 1*321)
60 parts; lard and olive  oil, of each 240 parts.
Good citrine ointment may be procured from any
of the above formulae by proper management. The
great art  consists  in employing  pure  ingredients,
and mixing them at the proper temperature-.  The
acid  should be of the full  strength, or if  weaker,
an equivalent quantity  should be employed.  This
may be ascertained from the table of the sp. gr. of
nitric acid, page  442.   If the  mixture do not froth
up, the heat should be  increased a little, as with-
out a violent frothing and reaction take place, the
ointment will not turn out of good quality, but will
rapidly harden.  This is the whole difficulty of the
process, and it is surprising that the preparation of
this ointment,  which is not at all difficult, should
have so long engaged the attention of the pharma-
ceutical periodicals.  The  London  form produces
a most beautiful  golden colored ointment, having a
buttery  consistence, and keeps well, but more acid
may be used with  advantage.
   Use.  In ringworm, and various chronic skin dis-
eases ; as a dressing to ulcers, and in various dis-
eases of the eyes,  especially chronic inflammation
of the eyelids, &c.  For most purposes,  particu-
larly the latter, it must be largely diluted with lard
or oil.
  *#* This ointment, made with 3 times the above
 weights of lard  and oil, forms the  milder citrine
ointment, (Ung.  Hydrargyri Nitratis  mithti.)
The best substance to dilute the stronger ointment,
is fresh butter, or palm, poppy, or almond oil.
  OINTMENT, NITRATE OF SILVER. Syn.
Ung. Argenti nitratis.  Prep. 1. (Velpeau.) Ni-
trate of  silver  1 gr.;  lard  3j.—2.  (Mackenzie.)
Nitrate of silver 5 grs.;  lard  §j,.  In purulent and
chronic ophthalmia, ulcers on the cornea, Aic.  It
should be used with great caution.
  OINTMENT, NITRIC OXIDE OF MER.
CURY.  Syn. Red precipitate Ointment.  Ung.
Hydrargyri nitrico-oxydi,  (P. L.)  Ung.  Hyd.
oxydi, (P. E.)   Do. do. do.  nitrici, (P. D.)   Do.
do. do.  rubri.    Ung.  Hyd.  subnitratis.  Prep.
(P. L.)   Finely-powdered nitric oxide of  mercury
5J; white wax 3'j',  lard 3VJ » melt,  and stir in the
oxide.  The P. E. orders ^viij of lard instead of
the wax and lard above.  As a stimulant applica-
tion to indolent sores and ulcers, to inflamed eyes,

  OINTMENT, NITRIC ACID.  Syn.  Oxy-
genized  Lard.   Pommade d'Alyon.   Ung. acidi
nitrici.   Do. do. nitrosi.   Prep. (P. D.)   Olive
oil lb. j;  lard §iv ; melt  together, and add  nitric
acid (sp.gr.  1*5)  f3vss; stir  till  stiff.   This oint-
ment has a yellow color, and is frequently sold for
ointment of nitrate of mercury, but  the fraud may
be detected by  its  not  turning  gray when kept
heated for some  time.  Stimulant; used to dress
foul ulcers.
  OINTMENT,  OBSTETRIC.    Syn.  Ung.
OBSTETRICUM.   PoMMADE  OBSTETRICALE.   Prep.
(Chaussier.)—1.  Extract of belladonna 3ij ; water
and lard, of each Jij; mix.   For dilating the ute-
rus.—2.   (Pommade pour le toucher)   Yellow
wax, and spermaceti,  of each §j ; olive oil  §xvj;
melt, strain, add solution of pure soda f Sy, and stir
till cold.
  OINTMENT, OPIUM.   Syn. Ung. Opiatum
Ung. opii,   Prep.—1. Powdered opium 3j ; sper-
maceti ointment ^'U i  mix.   To allay pain.—2.
(Augustin.)  Opium 3ij ; ox gall 5jij ; digest 2 days,
strain, and add lard 3ij ;  essence  of bergamot 10
drops—3. (Brera.)   Opium 3j;  gastric juice of a
calf q. s.; digest 24 hours, and add lard Jj> or q- s,
  OINTMENT, OXIDE OF LEAD. Syn. Ung.
Lythargyri.  Ung. nutritum.  Prep.  (P.  Cod.)
Litharge §iij;  vinegar  §iv; olive  oil %'tx; heat
gently, and stir till they combine.
  OINTMENT,  OXIDE   OF  MERCURY.
Syn. Ung. Hydrargyri oxidi.   Do. do. do. cinj
erei. Prep. Protoxide  of mercury ^j ;  lard §iij;
mix.  Substituted for mercurial  ointment.  (See
Donovan's and Tyson's  Mercurial Ointments.)
  OINTMENT, OXIDE OF SILVER.  Syn.
Ung. Argenti oxydi.   Prep.  (Serre.)  Oxide of
silver 16 gre. ; lard §j; mix.   For scrofulous and
syphilitic sores, &c.
  OINTMENT,  OXIDE  OF   ZINC.   Syn
Ung. Zinci, (P.  L. & E.)' Ung. Zinci oxydi, (P.
D.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Oxide of zinc  ^j '  lard 5VJ 5
mix.  Desiccative ;  in  various  skin  diseases  at-
tended with profuse discharges, in  burns, blisters,
excoriations, &,c, and in chronic inflammations of
the  eye.  The ointment of  crude  oxide of zinc
(Ung. Tutia, Ung. Zinci Oxydi impuri) is made
of prepared tutty I part;  lard 5 parts.
  OINTMENT,  PHOSPHORUS.   Syn. Uno.
Phosphoratum.   Prep.  (P. Cod.) Phosphorus 3j ; 
OIN                   459                    OIN
lard  Ivj 3iij ; mix  in  a bottle,  melt  in a  water-
bath, and shake till cold.
  OINTMENT, PHOSPHORIC ACID. Syn.
Ung. Acidi  Phosphorici.   Prep.  (Soubeiran.)
Phosphoric acid  3j ;  lard §j ; mix.  In caries of
the bones, &c.
  OINTMENT, PEPPER.  Syn. Pepper Salve.
Ung. Piperis nigri.   Prep. (P. D.)  Finely-pow-
dered black pepper ^iv; lard lb.j; mix.   Stimu-
lant ; irritant; used in ringworm, &c.
  OINTMENT, PITCH.   Syn.  Black Basili-
con.   Ung. Tetrapharmacum.   Ung. Basilicum
nigrum.  Ung. Picis nigr*:, (P.L.)  Prep. Black
pitch, wax, and resin, of each, §ix ; olive oil f §xvj ;
melt together,  and stir till cold.  Stimulant and
digestive ; used in eruptions, scald-head, &c.
   OINTMENT,   PITCH,   (COMPOUND.)
Prep.—1.  (Ung. Picis compositum, St.  B.  H.)
Pitch ointment and ointment of acetate  of lead,
equal parts.  Stimulant and desiccant—2. (Ung.
Picis cum Sulphure, Guy's*H.) Tar lb. ss ; wax
3SS> (5j 0 flowers of sulphur f ij; mix.  In itch, pso-
riasis, and other scaly skin diseases, ringworm, &c.
   OINTMENT,  PICROTOXINE.  Syn. Ung.
PiCROToxiNiE.  Prep.  (Jager.). Picrotoxine 10 grs.;
lard  ^j;  mix.   In obstinate porrigo,  (ringworm ;)
and  diluted with olive oil, to destroy vermin on the
body.
   OINTMENT FOR PILES.  Syn. Ung. H.e-
morrhoidale.  Prep.  I. (Dr. Gedding.) Carbon-
ate of lead 3iv ;  sulphate of morphia 15 grs.; stra-
monium  ointment Jj;  olive oil q. s. To allay pain
and  inflammation.
   II. Spermaceti  ointment 8 oz.; powdered galls
I oz.;  do.  opium 1 dr.; solution of  diacetate  of
 ead  Ik oz.  (See Piles.)
   OINTMENT, PLATINUM. Syn. Ung. Pla-
 INi.  Prep. (Haefer.) Perchloride. of platinum 3j ;
 xtract of belladonna 3ij ;  lard §iv ; mix.
   OINTMENT,  POMATUM.  Syn. Ung. Po-
 iatum,  (P. L. 1746.)   White Lip Salve.  Lard
vashed with rose water.
   OINTMENT,  POPLAR  BUDS.  Syn. Ung.
Populeum.  Prep.  Bruised poplar buds  1 part;
lard  3 parts; boil and strain.   The old Ung. Po-
puleum  consisted of  a number of  green herbs
boiled as above.   Emollient and stimulant.
   OINTMENT,  POPLAR  BUDS,  (COM-
POUND.)  Prep. (P. Cod.)  Bruised poplar buds
§xij ; fresh leaves of  poppies, henbane, belladon-
na, and common nightshade, of each, gviij; lard
lb. ivss.   As last
  OINTMENT, PLUNKET'S.  Prep.  Crows-
foot  1 handful; dog's  fennel 3 sprigs; pound well,
add flowers of sulphur and white arsenic, of each,
3 thimblefuls; beat well together, form into  bo-
luses, and  dry in the sun;  then  powder them ;
and  tor use mix with yelk of egg, spread  a little
on a small piece of pig's  bladder,  (size of half a
crown,)  and apply to  the sore, and allow it to re-
main till it falls off by itself.  In cancer: poison-
ous ; requires great caution.
  OINTMENT, QUININE.   Syn. Ung. Qui-
nine fortius.  Prep.  Sulphate of quinine 3j ; lard
3ij ;  mix.  Rubbed into the  axilla,  to cure  the
igue of  children.
  OINTMENT,  RED SULPHURET  OF
HERCURY.  -Syn. Ung.  Hydrargyri bisulphu-
rktl   Prep. (Collier.)  Bisulphuret  of  mercury
3iss ;  sal  ammoniac 3ss ;  rose water f 3j ; lard
^ss ; mix.   In several skin diseases.
  OINTMENT, RESIN.   Syn. Yellow Basi-
licon.   Ung. Resinosum, (P. EN   Ung. Resin*
albas,  (P. D.)  Prep.—l. (P. E.) Yellow resin
f v ; beeswax §jj;  lard gviij ;  melt, and  stir  till
cold.—2. (P. D.)  Yellow wax lb.j;  white (yel-
low) resin  lb. ij ; lard lb. iv ; as above.
  OINTMENT,  RINGWORM.   Syn.  Ung.
Contra-tineam.   Prep. 1.—Soda  6 parts ;  blaked
lime 40 parts ; lard 1200 parts ; mix.—2. Lard
and ointment of black  pitch, of each, §ij ; oint-
ment  of nitrate of mercury  §j ;  mix.  The h*air
must be cut off close, and the  part washed clean
before each application.
  OINTMENT, ROSE.   Syn. Rose Lip-salve.
Ung. Rosatum. Ung. Adipis, (P. L. 1788.)  Prep.
(P. Cod.)  Washed lard  lb. ij ;  roses (centif.) lb. ij ;
bruise  the leaves, melt with the lard, and in 2
days again melt, and press;  add roses lb. ij, and
repeat the process ; lastly strain, press, and color
with alkanet root, if required red.
  OINTMENT, RUBEFACIENT.  Syn. Ung.
Rubefaciens.  Prep. (Richard.) Finely-powdered
cantharides  and camphor, of each, 3j ; lard  §j ;
mix.
  OINTMENT, RUE. Syn. Ung. Rutas. Prep.
(Sp. Ph.)  Leaves of rue, wormwood, and  pepper-
mint,  of each, §ij ; lard §xvj ;  boil and strain.
  OINTMENT,  SAVINE.  Syn.  Ung. Sabi-
ne.   Prep.  (P. D.)  Fresh  savine leaves lb. ss ;
lard lb. ij ; boil till crisp, strain, and add beeswax
lb. ss.
  OINTMENT,  SCROPHULARIA.  Syn.
Ung. ScROPHULARiiE.  Prep. (P. D.) Green leaves
of knotted-rooted fig-wort and lard, of each, lb. ij ;
prepared suet lb. j ;  boil till crisp, and strain with
pressure.  In ringworm, " burnt holes," and some
other cutaneous affections.
  OINTMENT, SIMPLE.   Syn. Ointment of
White Wax, simple Dressing.  Ung. Simplex,
(P. E.)  Ung. Cera:  alba:, (P.  D.)   Prep.—l.
(P. D.)  Lard lb. iv ; white wax lb. j ; melt togeth-
er, and stir till cold.—2.  (P. E.) Olive  oil f fvss ;
white wax ^ij ; as last   A simple unguent. The
Ung. Simplex, P. L. 1746, was lard washed with
rose water.  (See Cerate, Simple.)
   OINTMENT, SPERMACETI.  Syn. White
Ointment.  Ung. Album,  (P. L. 1746.)   Ung.
Spermatis ceti.   Ung. Cetacei, (P. L.)  Prep.
(P. L.)  White wax 3ij  ; spermaceti 3vj ;  olive oil
f f iij;  melt together.   The  Ung.  cetacei of  the
Dublin  Pharmacopoeia  is  made with white wax
lb. ss;  spermaceti lb.j;  lard lb. iij ;  and  in  consis-
tence resembles the spermaceti cerate, P. L.  In
trade, the Dublin  form, with double  the  amount
of lard, is commonly adopted.  (See Cerates.)
  OINTMENT,  STAVESACRE.  Syn. Ung.
Staphisagrias.    Prep.  (Swediaur.)   Powdered
stavesacre 3j ; lard ^iij;  melt together, digest 3
hours,  and strain.  In  itch, and  to destroy ver-
min on the body, (pediculi.)   A similar ointment
is used by farriers.
  OINTMENT, STRAMONIUM.   Syn. Ung.
Stramonii.   Prep.—l- (P. U. S.) Fresh  thorn-
apple  leaves  f ij;  lard f v;  digest as last, and
strain.—2. (Pereira.) Powdered  leaves §j; lard
?iv * mix.  Anodyne.   Used to dress irritable  ul-
cers', and as an application to painful piles. 
OIN                    460                    OLE
  OINTMENT, SUBSULPHATE OF MER-
CURY.  >S'yn.  Ung.  Hydrargyri subsulphatis.
Prep.—1. (Alibert) Turpeth's mineral 3ij ;  lard
§iv; mix.—2. (Biett)  Turpeth's  mineral 3j; sul-
phur 3ij; lard  3'j' essence  of  lemon 15 drops.
Used in some scaly skin diseases, &c.
  OINTMENT, SULPHURIC ACID.   Syn.
Ung. Acidi Sulphurici.   Prep.  (P. D.) Sulphu-
ric acid 3j, (f 3ss ;) lard £j ; mix.  Stimulant; used
in paralvsis, hemorrhages, itch, &c.;  more cleanly
than the  sulphur  ointment.  For children it is
made with only £ or J as  much acid.
  OINTMENT, SULPHATE OF ZINC. Syn.
Ung. Zinci Sulphatis.  Prep. (Scarpa.) Sulphate
of zinc 3j ;  lard §j ; mix.  Astringent  In some
chronic skin diseases.
  OINTMENT, SULPHUR.  Syn. Ung. Sul-
phuris, (P. L. E. &, D.)  Prep. (P. L.) Sublimed
sulphur ^iij ; lard 3;vj;  essence of bergamotte 20
drops; mix.  The  P. E.  and D. order  1 to 4, and
omit the  bergamotte.   In  itch,  scald-head, and
several other skin diseases.
  OINTMENT, SULPHUR,  (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Itch Ointment.  Ung.  Sulphuris composi-
tum.   Prep. (P. L.)  Sulphur and soft soap, of
each,  f vj ;  white hellebore  5'j '■> 11,tre  3j '  lard
lb. iss; essence  of bergamotte 3ss; mix.  As  the
last, but  stronger,  and  more irritating, though
more efficacious.
  OINTMENT, SULPHURET OF POTAS-
SIUM.  Syn. Ung. Potassii  Sulphureti.  Prep.
(Alibert.)  Subcarbonate of soda  and sulphuret of
potassium, of each, 3iij;  lard  5'j > mix.  In chro-
nic skin  diseases, especially itch, psoriasis, lepra,
eczemsL o&c
  OINTMENT, TANNIN.  Syn. Ung.  Tan-
nini.   Prep. (Richard.)  Tannin 3ij ; water f3ij ;
triturate together, and  add  lard ^iss.   Astringent.
An excellent application to piles.
   OINTMENT,   TAR.  Syn.  Ung. Picis
liquids.   (P. L. E. & D.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Tar
and mutton suet equal parts; melt together, and
stir till cold.  As an  application to scald-head,
ringv/orm, foul ulcere, &c.
  OINTMENT,  TOBACCO.   Syn.  Ung.
Tabaci.   Prep. (P. U. S.) Fresh tobacco leaves
chopped  small  §j ; lard  lb. j; boil till  crisp, and
strain  through  linen.   Used  for  irritable  ulcers,
ringworm, and other  diseases of  tho skin.   It
should be used with caution.
   OINTMENT, TRIPHARMIC.   Syn.  Ung.
Tripharmacum.   Prep.   (P. L. 1745)   Lead
plaster §iv; olive oil  f§iv;  vinegar  f 3-j;  melt,
and  stir  till they combine.   Cooling  and desic-
cativo.
   OINTMENT, VERATRINE.   Syn.  Ung.
VERATRINiE.  POMMADE DE VERATRINE. Prep.--1.
(Turnbull.)  Veratrina 10 to  20  grs.; olive oil a
few drops; triturate and add lard §j.—2. (Majen-
die.) 4 grs. to the ounce.—3.  (Pereira.) 20 to 40
grs. to  the ounce.  In neuralgia, neuralgic rheuma-
tism, gout, &.C.
   OINTMENT, VERDIGRIS.   Syn.   Ung.
JEruginis,  (P.  E1  Ung. Cupri  Subacetatis,
(P. D.)   Prep.—1. (P.  E.)   Resinous ointment
|xv ; verdigris in fine powder §j ;  mix.—2. (P.  D.)
Verdigris ^ss ; olive oil §j 5 triturate and add resin
ointment  lb.j.—3. Verdigris  $j 5  lard §xv ; mix.
All the  above are escharotic  and detergent, and
are used as occasional dressings to foul and tlabby
ulcers, to  keep down fungous flesh, and  diluted
with oil or  lard in scrofulous ulceration and in-
flammation of the e\••■lids.
  OINTMENT, VINEGAR.   Syn.  Ung.
Aceti.  Prep.   (Dr. Cheston.)   Olive oil lb.j;
white wax  5'v! melt, cool  a little, add vinegar
^ij, and stir till cold.  A cooling astringent dres-
sing, and as a salve in chronic ophthalmia.
  OINTMENT,  WAX,  (YELLOW.)   Syn.
Ung.  Cer* flavje.  Prep.  (P. D.)   Beeswax
lb. j ;  lard  lb. iv;  melt  together.   A  mild and
cooling dressing.  (See Cerate,  Simple.)
  OINTMENT,   WHITE,   (CAMPHORA-
TED.)  Syn. Ung. Album Camphoratum. Prep.
(P. L. before 1745.) Simple ointment §v ; camphor
3ij ; dissolve by  a gentle  heat, add finely-powdered
carbonate of lead §j, and stir till cold.
  OINTMENT,  WHITE   PRECIPITATE.
Syn.  Ointment of Ammonio-chloride of Mer-
cury.   Ung.  Hydrargyri  Ammonio-chloridi,
(P. L.)  Ung. Pr^cipitati Albi, (P.  E.)  Ung.
Hydrargyri Submuriatis  Ammoniati, (P.   D.)
Prep.  (P. L.)   White  precipitate 3j;  lard §jss ;
mix.  Stimulant, alterative, and detergent; in the
itch, scald-head, and various other skin diseases;
in inflammation of the eyes, and to destroy vermin
on the body.
  OINTMENT, WORM.   Syn.  Ung. Vermi-
fugum.  Prep.  (Bat. Ph.)   Aloes 3j; dried  ox-
gall 3iss ; lard Jiss ; mix.
  OINTMENT, YELK OF EGG-  Syn. Ung.
Ovorum.   Prep.  (Soubeiran.)   Oil of almonds
§iss ;  yellow wax §ss j me|t  together,  and when
nearly cold,  add the yelk of one  egg and mix
well.  Applied to sore nipples.
  OINTMENT, ZINC, (COMPOUND.)  Syn.
Ung. Zinci cum Lycopodio.  Prep.  (Hufeland.)
Oxide of zinc and lycopodium, of each 3j ;' simple
cerate §ss ; mix.  In excoriations and ulcerations,
especially of the eyes, either alone or diluted with
almond oil.
  OLEFIANT GAS. Syn. Heavy inflammablk
Air.   Carbureted Hydrogen.   Hyduret  of
Acetule.   It may be obtained by heating a mix-
ture  of  1  part  of  alcohol  and 6  parts of oil of
vitriol, and  as soon as sulphurous gas begins to
come  over,  passing  the product first through milk
of lime and then through oil of vitriol.   This gas
is a little lighter than atmospheric air,  and burns
with a bright white flame.  When mixed with an
equal volume of chlorine over water, it soon con-
denses into  an oily  looking liquid  ; hence the name
olefiant  gas was given it by the  Dutch chemists.
It 6mells like oil of caraway.   It is the presence
of olefiant gas in coal gas that principally gives to
the latter its illuminating properties.   This  gas
was  formerly called  per- or bi-carbureted  hy-
drogen.
  OLEIC  ACID.  An oily acid,  discovered by
Chevreul in fat.
  Prep. Saponify the pure oil of  almonds, decom-
pose the  6oap with a dilute acid, and  digest  the
resulting  oily acid  in a  water-bath with half its
weight of oxide of  lead for 6ome  hours,  constantly
stirring; then agitate the mixture with twice its
volume of ether in a close vessel, and in 24 hours
decant the  clear  ethereal solution;  decompose
with dilute  muriatic acid, collect the acid that 
OPH                    461                     OPI
 separates, and remove the  ether by evaporation.
 To render it still purer it must be again saponified
 with caustic  soda, and  the soap repeatedly  dis-
 solved  in a solution of soda,  and as often separated
 by adding  common salt, until it becomes nearly
 colorless, when it must  be  decomposed by dilute
 muriatic acid as before.
   Props., §c.  An oily  acid, insoluble in water,
 soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil, and forming salts
 with the bases called oleates.
   OLEIN. Syn. Elain. Huile absolue. (From
 eXawv,  oil.)  The liquid portion of  oil and fat ;  by
 saponification it yields  oleic  acid.
   Prep.  I.  Digest the oil with  a quantity of
 caustic soda in  solution, only sufficient to saponify
 half the oil, and  separate the  undecomposed oily
 portion from the soap and alkaline solution.  Suc-
 ceeds well with recently expressed and  fresh oils.
   II. Almond or olive oil 1 part ;  strong alcohol
 8 parts ; mix in  a flask, heat nearly  to boiling,
 agitate, decant the clear upper stratum, and allow
 it  to cool; filter, and gently distil  off the spirit.
 Both the above are  used by watchmakers for fine
 work, as they will not freeze nor thicken at  or-
 dinary temperatures.  Some years  ago the  last
 was  sold,  by a  certain  metropolitan  house, as
 watchmaker's oil, at Is.  6d. a drachm.
   OLEOMETER.  (From oleum, oil ; and me-
 trum, a measure.)   An  instrument for ascertain-
 ing the specific  gravity of oil.   (See Hydrometer
 and Oil.)
   OLEON.  A  peculiar liquid obtained by  the
 distillation of oleic acid and lime.
   OLEO-PHOSPHORIC  ACID.   A peculiar
 arid  found by  Fremy in the brain  and nervous
 matter.
   OLEO-SACCHARUM.    Syn.   Ela;o-Sac-
 Cn^nuM.   A  mixture  of sugar and essential oil.
 The oleo-sacchara of  aniseed, caraway, pepper-
 mint, pennyroyal,  cinnamon, and  other essential
 oils, are made  by rubbing 15 or 16  drops of the
 respective oils with white sugar 1 oz. ; and  when
 intended  for  making  extemporaneous  distilled
 waters,  1 oz. of magnesia is  also  added.   The
 oleo-sacchara of lemons, oranges, &c, are  made
 from the peels, as described  at page 199.
   OLIVILE.   A  white crystalline  substance,
 obtained by Pelletier from  the gum of the olive
 tree,  (Olea Europaea.)   It is soluble  in  hot water
 and alcohol.
   OLIVINE.  A white, crystalline,  bitter sub-
 stance, obtained by Landerer from the leaves of
 the olive tree.   It dissolves in acids.
   OMELETTE.   A pancake or fritter made of
 eggs ;  much used on the  Continent
   OMYCHILE.   A brown, resinous substance,
 obtained by Scharling from inspissated urine.
   OPHTHALMIA.   Syn.   Ophthalmitis.
 (From  oajBaXpos,  the eye.)  Inflammation  of  the
 eye.  In  ordinary cases this disease is confined to
 the external membrane of the globe of the eye, or
 to the  eyelids ;   but it  occasionally attacks the
 sclerotica,  cornea,  choroid coat, and retina.  In
 general it may be relieved by fomentations  of
 warm water, or  decoction of  poppy-heads, and the
 use of aperient medicines ; to which  leeches and
 cupping may  be  added with  advantage.   In
severe cases, general depletion and blisters to the
nape of the neck must be had recourse to.  When
 the  inflammation has  subsided, mild astringents
 and  cooling  eye-waters and ointments will  be
 found useful;  but  all  applications  of  this kind
 should be used with caution.  The purulent oph-
 thalmia of new-born infants, and that which often
 follows the smallpox, measles, and fevers, gener-
 ally  yields  to  the use of  mild  astringent eye-
 waters  and salves, and to the application, at bed-
 time, of  a drop of wine of opium diluted with 5 or
 6 drops of  water.   A t*ery weak solution of sul-
 phate of zinc,  or the ointment  of nitric  oxide of
 mercury, will be found  a good application in the
 latter cases.  In every variety the eye should be
 kept clean  by careful ablution with warm milk
 and water.
   OPIANIC  ACID.   A  crystalline substance,
 possessing acid properties, resulting from  the oxi-
 dation of narcotine, discovered by  Wohler and
 Liebig.  It is  obtained by dissolving narcotine in
 dilute sulphuric  acid  in  considerable  excess;
 adding finely-powdered oxide of manganese, also
 in excess ; and boiling till carbonic acid ceases to
 be evolved, when  the liquid  is filtered, and  on
 cooling forms a  crystalline mass of  opianic acid.
 This is drained on  a filter, pressed,  washed with
 cold  water, and  frequently recrystallized from a
 saturated  solution  in  boiling  water.   Scarcely
 soluble in cold water; soluble in alcohol.
   OPIATE EN  POUDRE.   Prep. Bath brick
 8 oz.; China ware 4 oz.; red coral 1 oz.; cinna-
 mon  and cloves,  of each 1 dr.; mix. and reduce
 to a very fine powder.  Used as a dentifrice ; rap-
 idly whitens the teeth.
   OPIATE, ANTI-TUBERCULAR.   (Lepecq
 de  la Cloture.)  Prep.   Spermaceti, crab's eyes,
 and sulphur, of each 3ij; conserve  of  roses §ss;
 pepper mushroom 3iij ;  honey  q. s.  to  make  an
 electuary.   In pulmonary consumption.   Dose.
 3'iiss to 3iss, 3 or 4 times  a day.
   OPIUM.  Smyrna or  Levant opium should be
 chosen, especially for the manufacture of the salts
 of morphia, as it contains on the average from 7
 to 9$ of that alkaloid, and usually yields about 12
 to 12J$of muriate of morphia, which is more than
 can be obtained from any other variety of opium.
 The following  process of Morphometry is given
 by the Edinburgh College :—Macerate 100 grs. of
 opium for 24  hours in ffij  of  water,  filter, and
 strongly squeeze the  residue  ; then precipitate with
 carbonate of soda ^ss, dissolved in cold water f fij  ;
 heat the precipitate till  it shrinks and fuses, then
 cool and weigh it; it should weigh at least 11 grs.;
 and when powdered  be entirely soluble in a solu-
 tion of oxalic acid.—Another excellent process for
 ascertaining the quality of opium is,  to boil an in-
 fusion of 4 parts of opium with 1  part of quicklime,
 made into a milk with water, to filter while hot,
 saturate with a dilute acid,  (hydrochloric,) and to
 precipitate the morphia by ammonia.  (Couerbe.)
  There  have been several modes of purifying opi-
 um adopted  by various persons,  among which the
 following may be  mentioned :—
  Soft  Purified Opium.  (Opium  purificatum
 Molle.)   Picked opium softened with water to a
pillular consistence.
  Hard Purified Opium. (Opium purif. durum.)
 Picked opium  dried  in  a water-bath  for  pow-
dering.                           .
  Strained Opium.   (Ext.  Thebaicum.  Opium 
OPO                       462                    OXA
Colatum. Opium Purificatum.  Laudanum Opi-
atum.)   Opium dissolved, or softened, in an equal
weight of water,  pressed through  canvass,  and
evaporated to a pillular consistence.
  Homberg's Purified Opium.   Opium exhausted
by repeated coction in 10 or 12 times its weight of
water, and the mixed liquors evaporated to $, and
kept boiling for 2 or 3 months, adding water from
time to time,  then straining and evaporating to a
pillular consistence.
  Baume's Purified Opium.  The  same  as the
last.
  Cornette's Purified Opium.  The common
extract dissolved in cold water, strained, and evap-
orated to an extract, and the process repeated sev-
eral times.
  Josse's Purified Opium.  Crude opium  worked
under water as long as any thing is dissolved, the
solution strained, and evaporated to an extract.
  Accarie's Purified Opium.   Infusion of opium
digested with powdered charcoal for some days,
strained,  clarified  with white of  egg,  and   evapo-
rated to an extract
  Powel's Purified Opium.   Opium exhausted
by  coction with water, the residuum treated with
spirit  of  wine, and the  mixed tincture and decoc-
tion evaporated to an extract.
  Neumann's Opium.  Infusion of opium, strained,
fermented with  a little sugar,  set  it in a warm
place, and when  the fermentation slackens,  it is
again  excited by stirring up the  lees; continue
this for some months, or as long as it can be made
to ferment.  It is either evaporated to an  extract
or kept in the  liquid form.
  Lancelotte's Prepared Opium.   Opium lb.j;
quince juice 1  gall.; pure potassa f j ; sugar 5'V ;
ferment for some time, evaporate to a sirup, digest
in spirit of wine, filter, and distil  off the spirit.
  Quercetan's Opium.   Vinegar of opium evapo-
rated to an extract
  Glaser's  Prepared  Opium.  An  infusion  of
opium made with  may-dew, filtered and  evapo-
rated.
  Glauber's Pre *ared Opium.  Opium %\v ; spirit
of salt fiss ; crea.-i of tartar §j ; mix, digest  in
spirit of wine 1 quart, filter, and evaporate.
  *** Of the above, those that are made with cold
water, or by fermentation, are  considered  milder
than crude opium ;  the latter resemble "The black
drop."
  OPODELDOC.  Syn. Soap Liniment.  This
article, prepared according to the directions of the
Pharmacopceia, is apt to gelatinize, or to deposite
crystals  of elaidate and  stearate of lime.  This
may be avoided where expense is not an objection,
by  well drying the soap, employing a spirit of 85$,
and keeping it in  well-closed vessels.
  OPODELDOC, STEER'S.   Prep. I. White
Castile soap, cut very small, 2 lbs.; camphor 5 oz.;
oil of rosemary 1 oz.; oil of origanum 2 oz.; recti-
fied spirit 1 gall.; dissolve in' a  corked bottle  by
the heat  of a  water-bath, and when considerably
cooled, strain ; add liquor of ammonia 11 oz.; im-
mediately put it into bottles, (Steer's,) cork close,
and tie over with bladder.  Very fine, solid and
transparent when cold.
  II.  Soap 4 oz.; camphor 1 oz.; oils of rosema-
ry and origanum, of each 1 dr.; rectified spirit 1
pint; liquor of ammonia 1$ oz.; mix.
  III. To  the last  add water J pint.  Used  as  a
liniment.
  ORANGEADE.   Syn.   Orange   Sherbet.
Prepared with oranges in the same way as lemon-
ade.
  ORANGE DYE.  This may be given by  mix-
ing red and yellow dyes in various proportions.  A
very good fugitive orange may be given with an-
notto, by passing the goods through a solution made
with equal  parts of annotto and pearlash ; or still
better, through a bath made of 1 part of annotto
dissolved in a lye of 1 part each of lime and pearl-
ash, and 2 parts of soda.  The shade may be  red-
dened by passing the  dyed goods through water
acidulated with vinegar, lemon-juice, or citric acid;
or through  a  solution of alum.  The goods are
sometimes passed through a  weak alum mordant
before immersion in the bath.
  ORANGE  PEEL, CANDIED.  This is pre-
pared in the same way as candied citron or lemon
peels.
  ORCEINE.  Syn.  Lichen  Lake.  A brown-
ish-red  powder, obtained by dissolving orcine in
liquor of ammonia, exposing the solution to the
air, and precipitating with an acid.
 ' ORCINE.  The coloring principle of the lichen
dealbatus.  It may  be obtained by treating the
powder with boiling alcohol, filtering while hot, cool-
ing, again filtering, distilling off the alcohol, evap-
orating to a sirup, triturating with water, filtering,
again evaporating to a sirup, and leaving the liquid
for some days in a cool place, when crystals of orcine
will form.  It is volatile, and soluble in water and
alcohol.  By solution  in ammonia it yields orceine.
  ORGEAT   Syn.  Sirop  d'Orgeat.   Barley
Sirup.  Prep.  I. Sweet almonds 1  lb.;  bitter al-
monds 4, oz.; blanch, beat to a paste, and make
an emulsion with barley water 1 quart ; strain, and
to each pint add sugar 1^ lb.; and a tablespoonful
of orange-flower water.
  II. Sweet almonds 3 oz.;  2 bitter almonds; or-
ange-flower water 1 tablespoonful ; milk 1 quart;
sugar  1 lb. ; make an emulsion.   Some persons
add a little brandy.
  ORES.   The mineral bodies from which metals
are extracted.  (See Testing and  Metals.)
  OSMIUM.  (From oops,  odor.)    A rare metal
found associated with the ore of platinum.  Its sp.
gr.  is 7.  It forms severa'l compounds with oxygen,
chlorine, and sulphur, of which the most remark-
able is osmic acid.  This compound is very vola-
tile, and evolves a pungent and disagreeable  odor,
which has given the name  to  the metal.   (See
Iridium.)
  OXALATES.  Syn. Oxalas, (Lat.)   A com-
pound of  oxalic acid and a base.   (See Oxalic
Acid.)
  OXALATES OF POTASH.   Prep. I.  (Ox-
alate of Potash.  Potassa  Oxalas.)  Neutralize
a solution  of oxalic acid, or the acid  oxalates of
commerce, with carbonate of potash, evaporate and
crystallize.
  II. (Binoxalate of Potash.   Potassa Binox-
alas. Salt of Sorrel.   Sal acetosella.)   By sat-
urating a  solution  of  1 part of oxalic acid  with
carbonate of potash, and adding it to a similar so-
lution of 1 part of the acid unneutralized ; evapo-
rating and  crystallizing.  It may ajso  be obtained
from the expressed juice of wood or sheep's sorrel 
OXA                    463                    OXI
 by clarifying with  eggs or milk, evaporating and
 crystallizing.  In commerce the  quadroxalate of
 potash is  usually substituted for it.
    III. (Quadroxalate oj'Potash.  Potassa Quad-
 roxalas.)   By  neutralizing 1 part of oxalic  acid
 with carbonate of potash, adding to the solution 3
 parts more of acid, evaporating and crystallizing.
 Or by dissolving the binoxalate in dilute hydrochlo-
 ric, and crystallizing.   This salt is commonly sold
 in commerce  as Binoxalate of Potash. Sal Ace-
 tosella, Salt of Sorrel,  and Essential  Salt of
 Lemons.  Both this and the binoxalate  are used
 to remove ink and iron stains from linen, to bleach
 the straw used for making bonnets, and occasion-
 ally  in medicine as  a  refrigerant.   When pure,
 each of the above yields nothing but carbonate of
 potash by heat.  *** All the oxalates  of potash
 are poisonous.
    OXALIC ACID.  Syn. Acid of Sugar. Acid-
 dm Oxalicum,  (Lat)   Acide  Oxalique,  (Fr.)
 SauerkleeseLure, (Ger.)  This acid was discov-
 ered by Scheele  in 1776.  It occurs both in the
 mineral and organic  kingdoms,  and is  produced
 artificially by the action of nitric acid on sugar,
 starch, woody fibre, &c.
    Prep. I.  (Liebig.)   Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*42)  5
 parts ; water 10 parts ; mix, add sugar, or prefer-
 ably potato starch 1 part, and digest  by  a gentle
 heat  as long  as gaseous products are  evolved ;
 evaporate and crystallize ; dry the crystals, redis-
 solve, and crystallize.  12 parts of potato starch
 yield 5 of acid.   The  mother water,  treated with
 more  nitric  acid, and  again warmed, will  yield  a
 second crop of crystals ; and this should be repeat-
 ed till the solution is exhausted.
   II.  (Ure.)  Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*4) 4 parts ; su-
 gar 1  part ; digest together in a water-bath.
   III.   (Schlesinger.)   Sugar 4 parts,  (dried at
 257° F. ;)  nitric acid (1-38) 33 parts ; the mixture,
 as soon as the evolution of gas ceases, is to be
 boiled down to one-sixth its original volume,  and
 allowed to crystallize.  The whole process may be
 executed in 2 hours, and in 1 vessel, and  yields of
 beautifully crystallized oxalic acid from 56 to  60$
 of the sugar employed.
   Remarks. On the large scale, the first part of
 the process  is usually  conducted in  salt-glazed
 stoneware  pipkins, about two-thirds filled and set
 in a water-bath ; but on the small scale, a glass
 retort  or capsule may be used.  The evaporation
 should  be  preferably conducted  by steam.  The
 evolved nitrous vapors are usually allowed to es-
 cape, but if conveyed into a chamber filled with
 cold damp air, and containing a  little water, they
 will absorb oxygen, and be recondensed into fuming
 nitric acid.  In England an equivalent proportion
 of molasses is usually substituted for sugar. Messrs.
 Davy, Macmurdo &. Co.'s patent  process, consists
 in  first converting potato fecula into grape sugar
 with sulphuric acid, and then decomposing  the
 sugar  thus obtained by nitric acid, in the usual
 way.   Dr.  Ure recommends the use of a little sul-
 phuric acid along with the nitric  acid, which, he
 says, contributes to increase the product   " 15  lbs.
 of sugar yield fully  17 lbs. of crystallized oxalic
 a*cid."  (Ure.)  Chemically pure oxalic acid is best
prepared by precipitating a solution of binoxalate
of potash with acetate of lead, washing the pre-
cipitate with water, and decomposing it while still |
 moist with dilute sulphuric acid or sulphureted hy-
 drogen.
   Prop., Uses, $c.   Pure oxalic acid forms odor-
 less, colorless, prismatic crystals, possessing a pow-
 erful sour taste, and  forming salts with  the  bases
 termed Oxalates.   It effloresces in warm dry air,
 fuses and sublimes at 350°, dissolves in 8 parts of
 water and 4 parts of alcohol  at 60°, and in its own
 weight of boiling  water.  Oxalic acid  is chiefly
 used in the arts of calico printing  and bleaching ;
 to remove ink-spots  and iron-moulds  from linen,
 and to clean boot-tops.  It is poisonous.
   Tests. 1.—Oxalic acid gives a white precipitate
 with nitrate of silver, soluble  in  nitric  acid, and
 which, when heated, yields pure silver.—2.  With
 lime water or muriate of lime a white precipitate,
 soluble in nitric acid.
   Ant. Promote vomiting, and administer chalk,
 whiting,  or  magnesia, mixed  up  with  water, in
 considerable quantities.
   OXALURIC ACID.  A new acid discovered
 by Wohler and Liebig, and obtained by heating a
 solution of parabanic acid with ammonia, and de-
 composing a hot saturated  solution  of the resulting
 oxalurate of  ammonia with dilute  sulphuric  acid,
 and rapidly cooling the liquid, when oxaluric  acid
 falls as a white crystalline  powder.
   OX A METHANE.   Syn.  Etheroxamide.
 Oxalate of  Ether and  Oxamide.  A  colorless
 crystalline substance, prepared by dissolving oxalic
 ether  in  alcohol,  and  gradually  adding alcohol
 saturated with dry  ammoniacal gas, till a  white
 powder begins to fall, when after some hours the
 solution is filtered, evaporated, and crystallized.
   OXAMIDE.  Syn.  Oxalamide.  A snow-
 white, tasteless, crystalline powder, obtained du-
 ring the destructive distillation of oxalate of ammo-
 nia.
   OXIDE.  (Oxydum,  Lat, from 0<)t>s, acid, and
 eiios, form.)  A compound  of oxygen and a metal.
•The  oxides unite  with the  acids,  forming  com-
 pounds called  salts.   To designate the  different
 oxides of  the same base, and to mark the number
 of equivalents of oxygen combined with one equiva-
 lent of metal, derivatives from the Greek or Latin
 are generally employed.  Thus the terms oxide or
 protoxide, the deutoxide,  tritoxide, &c, are ap-
 plied to-the first, second,  third, &c. oxide of the
 same base ; and the  last oxide, in which  the base
 is saturated with oxygen,  without  being acid, is
 called the peroxide.   In like  manner the terms
 oxide or  protoxide, sesquioxide, binoxide, terox-
 ide, &c,  denote that the oxygen is in the ratio to
 the metal of 1 to 1,-1 i to 1  or 3 to 2,-2 to 1,—
 3 to 1, &c.   The Greek numerals dis, tris, tetra-
 his, &.c, are prefixed in a similar way, to denote
 oxides formed of 1  equivalent of oxygen with 2, 3,
 or more equivalents of metal.  More complex ratios
 are denoted by a fraction, the numerator of which
 represents the eq. of oxygen,  and the denominator
 the eq. of metal.  The terminations ous and ic are
 occasionally employed in the  same way as noticed
 under acids, the former being applied to the lower
 and  the latter to the higher state of oxidizement,
 as cuprous oxide, cupric  do., ferrous oxide, ferric
 do., applied to the respective oxides of copper and
 iron.  Oxides containing less  than  1 eq. of oxygen
to 1 eq. of metal, are commonly called suboxides.
The same system of nomenclature  is also applied 
OXY                    464                    OXV
 to 6aline compounds; as—protochloride, sesqui-
 ckloride, bichloride, terchloride, oxalate, binoxa-
 late, sulphate, bisulphate, $-c.
   OXYCHLORIDES.  Compounds formed  by
 the union of a metallic oxide with the chloride of
 a metal.   They are  commonly called  subchlo-
 rides, or submuriates.   (See Index.)
   OXY FLUORIDES.   Double compounds  of
 fluorides and oxides.   They possess no practical
 importance.
   OXYGEN.  Syn.  Oxygen Gas.  Vital Air.
 Empyreal  do.  Dephlogisticated do.  Oxygene,
 (Fr.)    Sauerstoff, (Ger.)  Oxygenium,  (Lat.,
 from i|t>s, acid, and yewdta, I generate.)  An ele-
 mentary gaseous body, discovered by Priestley in,
 1774.
   Prep. I.  Place chlorate of potash in a green
 glass retort, and heat it nearly  to redness over a
 spirit-lamp.  Pure.   Prod.  100 grs. yield nearly
 100 cubic  inches.   (Brande.)   100  grs. yield 115
 cubic inches.  (Ure.)
   II.   Expose  red  oxide of mercury to heat as
 above.   Pure.
   III.   (Faraday.)   Coarsely-powdered chlorate
 of potash 3 parts ; powdered  binoxide of manga-
 nese 1  part;  (both by  measure ;) mix,  put them
 into a flask or retort, and place  it over the flame
 of a spirit-lamp, or a few pieces of ignited charcoal,
 when in a few minutes oxygen will be evolved with
 a rapidity entirely at the command of the opera-
' tor, by  either increasing or lessening  the heat. The
 residue  in.  the retort  may be kept for another
 operation, if  not exhausted, or  may at once be
 washed out with a little warm water, and the man-
 ganese reserved for another time, as it is uninjured
 by the  process.  Red lead, black oxide of copper,
 and several other substances, will answer nearly as
 well  as oxide of manganese.  " 100  grs. of the
 mixture yield 110 cubic  inches  of pure oxygen."
 (G. F. Fisher.)  This  is a very convenient  and
 simple process.
   IV.  (Balmain.)  Bichromate of potash 3 parts ;
 oil of vitriol 4  parts ;  mix, and heat as above.
 Yields  pure oxygen with a rapidity entirely at the
 command of the operator.
   V. Expose  nitre to a red heat in an iron retort.
 1 lb. yields 1200 cubic inches slightly contaminated
 with nitrogen.
   VI. Expose black oxide of manganese to a red
 heat as last. Prod.  1 oz. of pure binoxide of man-
 ganese  yields 44 grains or 128 cubic  inches of gas.
 (Liebig.)  1 lb. of common oxide of manganese
 yields from 30  to 40 pints, and fine samples from
 40 to 50 pints of gas sufficiently pure for ordinary
 purposes.  This is the most economical process on
 the large scale.
   VII.  Binoxide of manganese  and oil of vitriol,
 equal  parts ;  mix them well together in a glass
 retort, and  apply heat.   Prod.   Every 44 grs. of
 pure binoxide  of manganese  yield 8  grs. or 24
 cubic  inches  of oxygen.  1 oz. yields 88 grs., or
 256 cubic inches.  (Liebig.)
   Remarks.  The gas  procured by any of  the
 above  processes must  be collected  in the usual
 way, either over water, mercury, or  in bags.  The
 gas procured from manganese or nitre may be pu-
 rified by passing it through milk of lime,  or a solu-
 tion of caustic potassa.
   Props., Uses, fyc.  Colorless, odorless, tasteless,
and incombustible ; sp. gr. 1*111, (1026 Berzelius,
Dulong, &c.;) 100 cubic inches weigh  33*6 gre.;
it  is a  powerful  supporter of combustion, and  its
presence is essential to the existence of both ani-
mal and vegetable  life;  it forms 21 %  by volume
of the atmosphere.   It is distinguished from other
gases by yielding  nothing  but  pure water when
mixed with twice its volume of hydrogen and  ex-
ploded,  or when a jet of  hydrogen is burned in it
A recently-extinguished  taper, with the wick still
red hot, instantly inflames when plunged into this
gas.  A small  spiral piece of iron wire ignited at
the point, and  suddenly plunged  into a  jar of oxy-
gen,  burns with  great  brilliancy and rapidity.
Water  dissolves about 5$  by volume of oxygen,
but by pressure a much larger quantity.  It is said
to be a valuable remedial  agent in asphyxia arising
from the inhalation of carbonic  acid  or carbonic
oxide.
   OSMAZOME.  A  brownish  yellow substance,
having  the smell of soup,  obtained  by digesting
raw muscular  fibre in cold  water, filtering, evapo-
rating, treating the residue with alcohol, and again
filtering and evaporating.
   OXYMEL.  (From ofys, acid, and ■JtAi, honey.)
An acidulous  sirup made of honey and vinegar.
(See Filtration, Clarification, and Sirup.)
   OXYMEL  OF COLCHICUM.  Syn. Oxymel
(cormi)  Colchici.   Prep.  (P.  D.) Fresh corms
(roots)  of  meadow saffron ^j > distilled vinegar 1
pint, (wine measure;)  macerate for 2 days, press
out the  liquor, filter,  add clarified honey lb.  ij,
and boil down  to  the consistence of a sirup, fre-
quently stirring.  Dose.  1 to 3 dr. twice a day, in
gout, rheumatism, dropsy, &c.
   OXYMEL  OF CREAM OF TARTAR. -Syn.
Oxymel Potassa bitartratis.  Prep.  Powdered
cream of tartar §ij ; hot water \  pint; honey  lb.
ij ; boil  for 10  minutes, and strain.  Cooling ; laxa-
tive ;  used  to " cut the phlegm," &.c.
   OXYMEL  OF GARLIC.  Syn. Oxymel Alii.
Prep. (P. L. 1746.)  Sliced garlic  giss ; caraway
seed, and sweet fennel seed, of each 3ij ;  boiling
vinegar f^viij  ;  infuse, strain, and  add clarified
honey §x.
   OXYMEL, PECTORAL.  Syn. Oxymel pec-
torale.  Prep. (Brun's  Ph.) Bruised elecampane
§j  ; do.  orris  root  ^ss ',  water  f ^xxxvj;  boil  to
§xxiv; strain,  add  honey §xvj,  ammoniacum Jj,
(dissolved in) vinegar  f ^viij ; boil  to  an oxymel.
In coughs,  &,c.
   OXYMEL  OF SQUILLS.  Syn.  Honey  of
Squills.   Oxymel Scill^e. (P. L. & D.)  Do.
scilliticum.   Prep. (P. L.) Clarified  honey  lb.
iij; vinegar of squills  1£ pints; boil to a proper
consistence.  Expectorant.  Dose  f3j to f3ij, in
chronic  coughs and asthma.
   OXYMEL,  SIMPLE.  Syn. Oxymel, (P. L
& D.)   Do. simplex.  Vinegar Sirup.   M el ace-
tatum.  Syrupus aceti. Syr. acidi acetici.  Prep.
(P. L.)  Clarified  honey lb. x ; acetic  acid  (P. L.)
1£ pints; mix  with heat.  Expectorant and refri-
gerant.   Dose. 3j to %sa, diluted  with water, in
coughs, &c.; diffused through some demulcent li-
quid, it  is  used as a drink in fevers, and added to
gargles  in sore throat.  ***  The following are the
proportions I have seen used in trade:—Honey 12
lbs.; distilled vinegar (of 5$) 2 quarts ; evaporate
if required. 
PAI                    465                    PAL
  OXY MEL OF VERDIGRIS.  (See Liniment
of Verdigris.)
  OXYSACCHARA.    Sirups acidulated with
vinegar.
  OYSTERS are nutritious, and easy of diges-
tion.  They are  in season in each  month  of  the
year, the name  of  which  contains the letter R.
The best British  oysters are found at Purfleet;
the worst near Liverpool.
  OZONE.   This term  has been  applied to  the
odor perceived in  the immediate vicinity of elec-
trical machines in good action.
   PAINTINGS. Pres. and Restor.  Many valua-
 ble paintings suffer premature decay, from the at-
 tacks of a  microscopic insect of the  mite class.
 This  is especially  the  case with "  Christ's Pas-
 sion," by Northcote, in the Hanover  chapel, Re-
 gent-street,—the " Raising of Lazarus," in the
 National  Gallery,  and several  pictures in  the
 Louvre.  The best method of preventing this spe-
 cies of decay, is  to add a few drops  of  creosote to
 the paste and glue used to line the picture, as well
 as to  make a similar addition to the varnish.  If it
 has already  commenced, the painting should be at
 once  carefully  cleaned and relined, observing to
 employ a little creosote  in the way just mentioned.
 Paintings should  be kept in as pure an atmosphere
 as possible,  and  in a moderately dry situation ;  as
 it is the presence of sulphureted hydrogen in the
 air that blackens the " lights," and causes most of
 the middle  tints  and shades to fade  ; and it is ex-
 posure to damp that produces mouldiness and de-
 cay of the canvass. For this reason valuable paint-
 ings should not be kept  in churches, nor suspended
 against heavy walls of masonry, especially in bad-
 ly-ventilated buildings. Excess of light, particularly
 the direct rays of the sun, also acts injuriously on
 paintings.  The  blackened lights of old pictures
 may be instantly restored to their original hue, by
 touching them with deutoxide of hydrogen, diluted
 with 6 or 8 times its weight of water.   The  part
 must  be  afterwards washed with a clean sponge
 and water.
   PAINTS, FISH OIL.  Prep. Dissolve white
 vitriol and litharge, of  each  14 lbs., in  vinegar 32
 gallons; add whale, seal, or cod oil 1 ton, and boil
 to dryness, continually stirring during the ebulli-
 tion.   The next day decant the clear portion, add
 boiled linseed oil 12 gallons, oil of turpentine 3  gal-
 lons, and mix well together.  The sediment left is
 well agitated with half  its quantity of lime water,
 used for some inferior paints,  under  the name of
 "prepared residue oil."   This oil is  used for vari-
 ous common purposes, as a substitute for linseed
 oil, of which the  following  paints  are  exam-
 ples :—
   1. (Green.)—a. Lime  water 6 galls.; whiting
 and road dust, of  each 1 cwt.; blue black 30 lbs.;
 yellow ochre 28 lbs.; wet  bine (previously ground
 in prepared  residue oil)  20  lbs.; grind well to-
 gether. For use, thin with equal parts of prepared
 residue  oil  and  linseed oil.   Pale.—b.  Yellow
ochre and wet blue, of each 1 cwt.;  road dust 1£
cwt.;  blue black  10 lbs.; lime water 6 gallons ;
prepared fish oil 4 gallons ; prepared residue and
linseed oils, of each 7£ gallons.  Bright green.
  2. (Lead color.) Whiting 1 cwt.; blue black 7
                      5.9
 lbs.; whitelead (ground in oil) 28 lbs.; road dust
 56  lbs.; lime water  5 gallons; prepared  residue
 oil 2$ gallons.
   3. (Reddish brown.)  Lime water  8 gallons ;
 Spanish  brown  1  cwt; road dust  2 cwt.; pre-
 pared fish, prepared residue,  and linseed  oils, of
 each 4 gallons.
   4. (Yellow.) Substitute yellow ochre for Span-
 ish brown in the last receipt.
   5. (Black.) Substitute lamp or blue black for
 Spanish brown in No. 3.
   6. (Stone color.) Lime water 4 gallons  ; whit-
 ing  1 cwt. i whitelead  (ground in oil) 28 lbs.'; road
 dust 56 lbs.; prepared fish, linseed, and  prepared
 residue oils, of each 3 gallons.
   7. (Chocolate.)  No. 3 and No.  5 mixed to-
 gether so as to form a chocolate color.
   Remarks.  AH  the  above paints require  a little
 " driers."  They are well fitted by  their  cheap-
 ness,  hardness, and durability, for  common out-
 door work.
   PAINTS, FLEXIBLE.  Prep.  Yellow soap
 cut into slices 1$ lbs.; boiling water 1 gall.; dis-
 solve  and  mix while  hot with oil paint 14, cwt.
 Used to paint canvass.
   PAINTS,  TO  MIX.    In  mixing paints, ob-
 serve, that for out-door work you must use  princi-
 pally or wholly boiled oil, unless it be for the deco-
 rative parts of houses, &c, then mix as  for in-
 door work.—For in-door work use linseed oil, tur-
 pentine, and a little " driers,"  observing, that the
 less oil, the less  will  be the  gloss,  and that for
 "flatted white," &c, the  color being ground  in
 oil, will  scarcely require  any  further addition of
 that article, as the object is to  have  it dull.  The
 best " driers" are, ground  litharge  and sugar of
 lead ;—the former  for dark and middle tints, and
 the latter for light ones.
   PALLADIUM.  A metal resembling platinum,
 discovered by Wollaston  in 1803.  It is  obtained
 by adding a solution of bicyanide of  mercury to  a
 neutral solution of the  ore of platinum in nitromu-
 riatic acid, and exposing the  precipitate to a red
 heat.  It resembles platinum in appearance.  Sp.
 gr. 11-3 to 11-8. It forms compounds with oxygen,
 chlorine,  and sulphur.—Protoxide of palladium
 is precipitated  as a brown hydrate by adding an
 alkaline carbonate in  excess to any of its.salts;
 and this precipitate, when heated to redness, forms
 the anhydrous black protoxide. It forms salts with
 the  acids.—Binoxide  of palladium  is best ob-
 tained by treating solid bichloride of palladium and
 potassium with a solution of potassa in excess, and
 heating the mixture to 212°.  Black.—Protochlo-
 ride of palladium is a brown crystalline mass, ob-
 tained by evaporating the nitromuriatic solution to
 dryness.    By  heat it  loses its water and  turns
 black.   Oxide  of palladium forms red salts with
 the acids.  The neutral solutions of palladium are
 precipitated in the metallic state by sulphate of
 iron,—dark brown by sulphureted hydrogen, olive
 by prussiate of potash, and yellowish w-hite by
 prussiate of mercury.   By the  last test it is  easily
 distinguished from platinum.
  PALMIC ACID.  Prep. Decompose soap pre-
pared from palmine and potassa, by tartaric acid,
dissolve the fatty acid  th?t separates  in cold alco-
hol, and evaporate.   Crystallizable ;  soluble in al-
cohol and ether ; melts at 122°.  It  may also be 
PAP                    4bb                    PAR
made from the solid mass obtained by passing sul-
phurous acid through castor oil.
  PALMINE.  A new  fatty substance  obtained
by treating castor oil with nitrous  acid.  It melts
at 143°, and when  saponified yields palmic  acid
and oxide of glycerule.
  PALMITIC ACID.  Prepared from  palm oil
in a similar way to palmic acid from palmine.   It
is purified  by pressure  between paper,  washing
with hot alcohol, and crystallization from hot ether.
It forms pearly scales, and melts at 140°, like mar-
garic acid.
  PALMITINE.  The  chief ingredient of palm
oil or butter.  It is purified in the same way as the
last.
  PANACEA.   (From  nav, all, and anto/iai, I
cure.)   A term applied  by the ancients to those
remedies supposed to be capable of curing all dis-
eases.   Unfortunately for  mankind, no  such a
medicine exists.  The name is still applied to some
quack medicines.—Panacea  of Antimony (Pan.
Antimonii) is  prepared by  deflagrating in a red-
hot crucible a mixture of sulphuret  of antimony
§vj, nitre §x, common salt  §iss, and charcoal dust
§j.   The uppermost spongy scoria is rejected, and
the remainder powdered and well washed.  Golden-
colored.  The active ingredient in Lockyer's Pills.
—Panacea  of  Mercury,   (Pan. Mercurialis.)
Mercurius dulcis (calomel) sublimed 9 times.
  PAPER, COPYING.   Prep.  Make  a  stiff
ointment with butter or  lard and lampblack, and
smear it thinly and  evenly over soft writing paper,
by means of a piece of flannel, then wipe off the
redundant portion with a piece of soft rag.  Placed
on paper and written on  with a style or solid pen.
By repeating the arrangement, two or three copies
of a  letter may be obtained at once.   This paper,
set up in a case, forms  the ordinary " Manifold
writer."
  PAPER  DYES.   Paper  and  parchment  may
be stained by any of the  simple dyes  or liquid
colors.
  PAPER, FIREPROOF.  This is prepared in
a similar way to fireproof cloth.  (See Incombusti-
ble Cloth, and Fires.)
  PAPER  OF SAFETY.  Syn.  Papier de
Surete.  White paper pulp  mixed with  an equal
quantity of  pulp tingec* with any  stain easily af-
fected by chlorine, acids, alkalis,  &c, and made
into  sheets as usual.
   PAPER, OILED.  Prep. Brush sheets of pa-
per over with " boiled" oil, and suspend them on a
line  till dry.   Waterproof.   Extensively employed
to tie  over pots and jars,  and to wrap  up paste
blacking, ground whitelead, &c.
   PAPER, TRACING.  Prep.  I.  Lay open a
quire of paper, of large size, and apply with a clean
sash tool a coat of varnish,  made of equal parts of
Canada balsam  and oil of turpentine, to the upper
surface of the first  sheet, then hang it on a line,
and repeat  the operation on  fresh sheets until the
proper quantity is finished.    If  not  sufficiently
transparent, a  second coat of varnish  may  be
applied  as  soon as the first  has become quite
dry.
   II. Rub the paper with a mixture  of equal parts
of nut oil and oil of turpentine, and dry it immedi-
 ately  by rubbing it  with  wheat flour, then hang it
 on a line for 24 hours.   Both the above  are used
to copy drawings, writings, &c.  If washed  ovei
with ox  gall and dried, they may be written on
with ink or  water colors.  The paper  prepared
from the refuse of the flax mill, and of which bank
notes are made, is also  called tracing paper, and
sometimes vegetable paper.
  PAPER,  WAXED.   Prep.  Place  cartridge
paper on a hot iron plate and rub it with  beeswax
Used to form extemporaneous steam or gas pipes,
and to cover the joinings of vessels.
  PAPERS, TEST.   Litmus, Turmeric, Cher-
ry-juice,  Mallow flower,   Elderberry, Brazil
wood, Buckthorn, Dahlia petal, Acetate of Lead,
Diacetate of Lead, Protosulphate of Iron, Starch,
SfC, papers,  are made by wetting sheets of unsized
writing paper with an infusion or  solution of the
respective substances.   They are all used as  tests
to discover acids, alkalis, sulphureted hydrogen,
iodine, &c.
  PAPIER-MACHE.    Pulped paper  moulded
into forms.  It possesses great strength and light-
ness.  It may be rendered partially waterproof by
the addition  of  sulphate of  iron,  quicklime, and
glue, or white of egg, to the pulp ; and incombusti-
ble by the addition of borax and phosphate of soda.
The papier-mache' tea-trays, waiters, snuff-boxes,
&c., are prepared by pasting or gluing sheets of
paper together, and submitting them to  powerful
pressure, by  which the  composition acquires  the
hardness of board when dry.  Such articles are af-
terwards japanned, and are  then perfectly water-
proof.
  PARABANIC ACID.  A  new acid, obtained
by Wohler and  Liebig  by treating 1  part of uric
acid or  alloxan with 8 parts of strong  nitric acid,
and  evaporating to a sirup,  when crystals form
after standing some time, which  are  purified by
resolution and crystallization.   Soluble in water.
  PARACYANOGEN. The brown solid matter
left in the retort, when cyanide of mercury is de-
composed by heat.  Cyanogen and paracyanogen
are isomeric compounds: hence the name.  Inso-
luble in water.
  PARAFFINE. (From parum, little, and affinis,
akin.)   Prep. Distil beech  tar to dryness, rectify
the heavy oily portion  of the  product till a thick
matter  begins to rise, then  change the receiver,
and  moderately  urge the heat as long as  any thing
passes over.  Next digest the product in the second
receiver, in an equal measure of alcohol  of 0*833,
and  gradually add  6  or 7 parts more of alcohol.
Crystals  of  paraffine  will  gradually fall down,
which, after being washed in cold alcohol, must be
dissolved in  boiling  alcohol,  which will deposite
crystals of pure paraffine as it cools.  White ; odor-
less; tasteless;  sp.  gr.  0*87; melts  at 112°,  and
dissolves in boiling alcohol and in oils.  It bums
entirely  away with a clear white flame, without
smoke.
  PARANAPHTHALINE.  Syn. Anthracink.
A substance found in coal tar.  Naphthaline, and
paranaphthaline, are  isomeric compounds;  nence
the name, from  trapa, near to.
   PARAPHOSPHORIC ACID.   (See Meta-
phosphoric Acid.)
   PARFAIT  AMOUR.  Prep.  The peels of 12
lemons ; rectified spirit of wine 2' gallons , digest 1
week ;  add water 1 quart, distil 2 gallons, and add
an equal weight of simple sirup, and a little -*oaise- 
PAS                    467                    PAS
 ly-powdered cochineal  to color.  A pleasant cor-
 dial liqueur.
   PARFUM.  (Pour parfumer les autres pou-
 dres.)  Poudre  d'Ambrette  12 lbs.; civet ljoz.;
 musk 1 dr.; reduce the last  two to powder by
 grinding them with some  dry lump sugar; then
 mix the whole together and pass it through a sieve.
 (See Poudres.)
   PASTE,  ALMOND.  Syn. Pasta Amygdali-
 na.   Pasta  Regia.   Prep.  I. Liquid.—a. (Ho-
 ney Paste.)  Clarified honey and white hitler paste,
 of  each 1  lb.; knead  together, and  when well
 mixed, add,  in alternate portions, oil of almonds 2
 lbs., and the yelks of 5 eggs.   Much esteemed.—
 6.  (Orange.) Blanched sweet  almonds and white
 sugar, of each 1 lb.; blanched bitter almonds £ oz.;
 beat to a perfectly smooth paste, with orange-flow-
 er water q. s., so that it may  be  sufficiently stiff
 not to stick  to the  fingers?  In a  similar way are
 made rose,  vanilla, nosegay, and  other almond
 pastes.
   II.  Pulverulent,  a.  (Gray.)  Prepared from
 the cake of  bitter almonds, from which the  oil has
 been thoroughly expressed,  by drying, grinding,
 and sifting.—b.  (Bitter White.)  As the last, but
 the almonds are  blanched  before being pressed.—
 c. (Sweet  White.)   As ,the last, but using sweet
 almonds.   *** All the above are employed as  cos-
 metics.   The honey, and  the sweet  and bitter
 white pastes are those  most esteemed.
   PASTE,  CHINESE.  Prep.  Bullock's blood
 10  lbs.;  finely-powdered  quicklime 1  lb.;  mix
 well.  For use, it is beat up with water.   This paste
 will seldom keep good longer than three weeks.
   PASTE,  FLOUR.    Syn.  Colle de  Pate.
'Wheat flour made into  a thin batter with cold
 water, and then boiled.   *** It must be stirred all
 the  time it  is on the fire,  to  prevent  its getting
 lumpy.  Paper-hangers, shoemakers, &c, usually
 add to the flour one-sixth to one-fourth of its weight
 of finely-powdered rosin.  The latter is sometimes
 called " hard paste." The addition of a few drops
 of oil  of cloves or  creosote, or a little powdered
 camphor or colocynth,  (especially  the  first  and
 second,) will prevent insects from attacking it, and
 preserve it  in covered vessels for years.   Should it
 get  too hard it may  be softened with water.
   PASTE,  FURNITURE.   Prep. I.  Turpen-
 tine 1 pint;  alkanet root £ oz.; digest until suffi-
 ciently colored,  then add beeswax, scraped  small,
 4 oz.; put the vessel into hot water, and stir until
 dissolved.   If wanted pale, the alkanet should be
 omitted.
   II. (White.)  White  wax  1 lb.;  liquor of po-
 tassa £ gallon ; boil  to a proper consistence.
   III.  Beeswax 1  lb.  ;  soap \ lb.;  pearlash  3
 oz.,  (dissolved in water £ gallon, and  strained;)
 boil  as last.
  PASTE, GERMAN.  Prep. Pea meal 2 lbs.;
 blanched sweet almonds 1 lb.; fresh butter or lard
i lb.; moist sugar 5  oz.; a shred or two of hay
saffron ; beat to a smooth paste, and granulate  it
by passing it through a colander.  The addition of
the yelks of 2 or 3 eggs improves it.   Used to feed
larks, nightingales, and other insectivorous  birds.
It will keep good for 6 months in a dry place.
  PASTE,  ORANGE.  Prep. Blanched  bitter
almonds 7 !bs.; orange flowers  2£  lbs.; beat to a
paste.   Used as a cosmetic.
   PASTE, ORGEAT.   Prep. Blanched Jordan
 almonds 1 lb.; do. bitter almonds \ lb.; beat to a
 paste with orange-flower water q. s., and  put it
 into pots.  For use mix an ounce with half a pint
 of water, and strain through a piece of flannel.
   PASTE, RAZOR.   Prep. I. Levigated  oxide
 of tin (prepared  putty powder) 1  oz.; powdered
 oxalic acid \ oz.; powdered gum  20 grs.; make
 it into  a stiff paste with water, and  evenly and
 thinly spread it over the  strop.  With very little
 friction  this paste gives a fine  edge to the razor,
 and its efficiency  is still further increased by moist-
 ening it.
   II. (Mechi's.)  Emery reduced to an impalpable
 powder 2 parts ; spermaceti ointment  1 part; mix
 together, and rub it over the strop.
   III. Jewellers' rouge, blacklead, and suet, equal
 parts; mix.
   PASTE,  SHAVING.   Prep.  White  wax,
 spermaceti, and  almond oil, of each  \ oz.;  melt,
 and while warm, beat in  2 squares  of Windsor
 soap previously reduced to a paste with rose water.
   PASTES.  Syn. Factitious Gems.  Pierres
 precieuses  artificielles,  (Fr.)   Glaspasten,
 (Ger.)   Vitreous compounds made  to  imitate the
 gems.  In addition to the  remarks at  page 331, it
 may be observed  that the beauty of pastes, or fac-
 titious gems, especially the brilliancy of mock dia-
 monds,  is mainly dependent upon  the setting up
 and the skilful arrangement of the  foil or tinsel
 behind them.  The following are the most approv-
 ed formulas for producing exact imitations of sev-
 eral of the gems:—
   I. Amethyst.—1.  (M.  Lancon.) Strass  9216
 grs.; oxide of manganese 15 to 24 grs.; oxide of
 cobalt 1  gr.—2.  (M.  Douault-WieTand.)   Strass
 4608 grs.; oxide of  manganese 36  grs.; oxide of
 cobalt 24 grs.; purple  of cassius 1 gr.
   II. Beryl, or  aqua marina.   (M. Douault-
 WieTand.)  Strass 3456 grs.; glass of antimony
 24 grs.; oxide of cobalt 1 £ grs.
   III. Chrysolite.   Strass 5 lbs.; calcined  per-
 oxide of iron 3 to  4 drs.
  IV. Cornelian.—1. (Red.) Strass "2 lbs.; glass
 of antimony 1 lb.; calcined peroxide of iron (rouge)
 2 o*.;  manganese 1  dr.—2.  (White.) Strass 2
 lbs.; washed yellow ochre  2 dr.;  calcined bones
 1 oz.
  V. Diamond. Syn. Strass. Paste. I. (M. Fon-
 tanier.)—a. Litharge 20 parts; silica 12  parts;
 nitre and borax, of each 4 parts ;  white arsenic 2
 parts; powder, mix,  fuse in a  crucible, pour the
 melted  mass  into water, separate any reduced
 lead, and again powder and  remelt.—6. (Mayenct
 base.)   Silica 8 oz.; salt  of tartar 24 oz.; mix
 bake, cool, wash with dilute nitric acid, and after-
 wards with water;  dry, powder,  add  12  oz. of
 pure carbonate of lead, and  to every 12 oz. of the
 mixture add borax 1 oz.;  triturate  in a porcelain
 mortar,  melt in a clean crucible,  and pour the
 fused compound  into  cold water ;  dry,  powder,
 and  repeat the process a second and  a third time
 in a clean  c-ucible, observing to separate any re-
 vived lead.  To the third fritt add nitre 5 drachms,
 and again  melt.  Very brilliant.—c. Carbonate of
 lead  8 oz. *, powdered borax  2 oz.;  rock crystal 3
 oz.;  manganese i gr. ; mix, and proceed as last.
__2.  (Loysel.) Pure silex 100 parts; red oxide of
lead  (minium)  150 parts; calcined potash  30 to 
PAS                    468                    PAT
35 parts; calcined borax 10 parts;  oxide of arse-
nic 1 part.  This produces a paste which has
great brilliancy and refractive and dispersive pow-
ers, and also a similar specific gravity to the orien-
tal diamond.   It fuses  at  a moderate heat, and
acquires  the  greatest brilliancy when  remelted,
and kept for 2 or 3 days in a fused state, in  order
to expel the superabundant alkali, and perfect the
refining.    (Polytech. Journ.)—3.  (M.  Douault-
WieTand.)—a.  Rock crystal 4056  grs.; minium
6300 grs.; potash 2154  grs. ;  borax 276 grs. ;
arsenic  12 grs.;—b. Sand 3600  grs. ; pure  car-
bonate of lead 8508 grs.; potash 1260 grs.; borax
360 grs.; arsenic 12 grs.—4. (M.  Lancon.)  Li-
tharge 100 grs.; silex  75 grs.;  white tartar  or
potash 10 gre.
  VI. Eagle  Marine.   Paste or strass 10  lbs.;
copper highly calcined with sulphur (copper-stain)
3 oz.; zaffre 1 scruple.
  VII. Emerald.—1. (M. Lancon.)  Paste 9612
grs.; acetate of copper 72 grs.;  peroxide of iron
11 grs.—2. (M.  Douault-WieTand.)  Paste  4608
grs.;  green oxide of copper  42 gre.;  oxide  of
chrome 2 grs.—3. Paste  1 oz.; glass of antimony
20 grs.; oxide of cobalt 3 grs.—-4.  Paste 15 oz.;
carbonate of copper 1  dr.; glass  of antimony 6
grs.
  VIII.  Lapis  Lazuli.   Paste 10 lbs.;  calcined
horn or bones 12 oz.; oxides of cobalt and manga-
nese, of  each  £ oz.; mix.   The golden veins are
produced by painting them  on with a mixture of
gold powder, borax,  and gum water, and  gently
heating till the borax fluxes.
   IX. Oriental  Garnet.   Syn.   Syrian  Do.
Ancient  CarbuncU.—1.  (M. Douault-Wieland.)
Paste 512 grs.;  glass of antimony :256 grs.;  purple
of cassius and oxide of manganese, of each 2 grs.
—2. Paste 359  grs.; glass of antimony 178 grs.;
oxide of manganese 2 grs.—3. (Vinegar Garnet.)
Paste 2 lbs;  glass antimony 1 lb.; calcined  per-
oxide of iron ^ oz.
  X. Opal.—1. (Fontanier.) Paste  1  oz.;  horn
silv*?< 10 grs. ; calcined  magnetic ore 2 gre.; ab-
sorbent  earth  (calcined  bones) 26 grs.—2. Paste
10 lbs.; calcined bones J lb.
  XI.  Ruby.—1.   (M.  Douault-Wiriand.Jk-a.
Paste 2880 parts; oxide of manganese 72 parts.—
b. Topaz-paste that has turned out opaque, 1 part;
strass 8 parts;  fuse  for 30  hours, cool, and  fuse
small pieces before the  blowpipe.  Very fine.—2.
Strass  16 oz.;  precipitate of cassius, peroxide  of
iron, golden sulphuret of antimony, and manga-
nese calcined  with nitre, of each 168 grs.;  rock
crystal 2 oz., or more.—3. Paste 1 lb.;  purple of
cassius 3 drs.—4. Paste and glass of antimony, of
each 8 oz.; purple of cassius 1 £ dr.; turns on the
orange.
   XII.   Sapphire. —1.   (M.  Douault-Wieland.)
Paste 4608 grs.; oxide  of cobalt 68 grs.; fuse in
a luted Hessian crucible for 30 hours.—2. Paste 8
oz.; oxide  of cobalt 49  grs.—3. To the last add a
little manganese.
   XIII.  Topaz.  (Douault-WieTand.)—a.  Paste
3456 grs.; calcined peroxide  of  iron 36 grs.—6.
Paste 1008 grs.; glass of antimony 43 gra.;  purple
of cassius 1 gr.
   XIV.  Turquois.  Blue paste 10 lbs.; calcined
bones £ lb.
   XV  Yellow Diamond.—1.  Strass 1 oz.; glass
of antimony 10 gre.—2. Strass 1 oz.; chloride of
silver 24 gre.
  Remarks.  In  the  preparation of pastes the in-
gredients should be separately reduced to the state
of fine  powder,  then well mixed  and sifted, and
next  carefully fused in a  clean  Hessian crucible,
and cooled very slowly, after having been left in
the fire for from 24 to 30  hours.  The more tran-
quil  and continuous  the  fusion  the greater is tho
density and beauty of the product.  For the finer
kinds of mock diamonds, rock crystal should alone
be employed ; and when  sand  is used, the purest
white variety should be selected, and it should be
first digested, and well washed with muriatic acid,
and  then with  water,  to remove any traces of
earthy matter.   The precise minutiss of the various
processes can only be learned by a little experience.
See Enamels.
  PASTILLES, FUMIGATING.   Syn.  Pas-
tilli odorati.   Prep.  I. (Henry and  Guibourt.)
Powdered  gum  benzoin 16 parts; balsam  of tolu
and  powdered  sandal wood, of each  4 parts; a
light charcoal (Linden) 48 parts; powdered traga-
canth and  true labdanum, of each 1  part; pow-
dered nitre and gum arabic, of each 2 parts; cin-
namon  water 12 parts ; heat to a smooth ductile
mass, form into small cones with a flat tripod base,
and dry in the air.
  II. (P. Cod.) Benzoin  §ij; balsam of tolu and
yellow  sandal wood, of each ^ss ? labdanum 3j;
nitre  3ij ; charcoal  §vj ;  mix with  a solution  of
gum tragacanth and divide into pastilles as above.
  III.  (A  la rose.)   Gum  benzoin,  olibanum  in
tears, storax  in tears, of each 12 oz.;  nitre 9 oz.;
charcoal 4 lbs.;  powder of pale roses 1 lb.; essence
of roses 1 oz.; mix with 2 oz. of gum tragacanth1
dissolved in rose-water 1 quart.
  IV. (.A  la fleurs  d'oranges.)  For powdered
roses in the last formula substitute  pure orange
powder, and for the essence  of  roses use  pure
neroli.
  V.  (A la Vanille.)  Gum benzoin,  storax, and
olibanum,  (as last,)  of each 12 oz.; nitre  10 oz.;
cloves 8 oz.; powdered vanilla 1 lb.; charcoal 4
lbs.;  oil of cloves £  oz.; essence of  vanilla 7 or 8
oz.
  VI. Benzoin  §ij ; cascarilla 3ij ;  nitre  3iss;
myrrh 3ss;  oils of nutmeg and cloves, of each 15
drops ;  charcoal §iij.
  Remarks.  The above are all of excellent quality,
and may be varied to please the fancy of the artist,
by the addition or substitution of other perfumes or
aromatics.   Cheaper pastilles  are made  by the
same formulae,  by increasing  the weight, of the
charcoal and saltpetre.  The whole of the ingre-
dients should be reduced to fine  powder  before
mixing them.  Musk and civet, so  often used in
pastilles, should be avoided, as they yield  a disa-
greeable odor when burned.  The addition of a
little  camphor renders  them more suitable  for a
sick chamber.   Pastilles are either burned to dif-
fuse  a  pleasant odor,  or to  cover disagreeable
smells.
  PASTILLES, EXPLOSIVE.  Fumigating
pastilles, containing a littlo gunpowder.  Used to
produce diversion.
  PATE DE DATTES. Syn. Paste of Dates.
Prep. Dates 1 i lbs.; water 30 pints ; boil, clarify,
add   washed gum senega!  6 lbs.,  dissolve; add 
PAT                     469                     PEP
 white sugar 5 lbs.; evaporate without boiling to the
 consistence of  thick honey, stir in orange-flower
 water 9 oz.;  and again gently evaporate ; pour it
 into moulds, finish the drying by a gentle heat in
 a stove, and (hen divide it.   Prod. 9£ lbs.  Pec-
 toral.  Pate  de gomme Senegal  is usually  sold
 for it.
    PATE DE  GUIMAUVE.   Syn. Pasta  Al-
 THiK^:-   Marshmallow  Paste.  Prep. (P. Cod.)
 Decorticated  marshmallow  root  (French)  §iv;
 water £ gal.; macerate 12 hours, strain, add white
 sugar and gum  arabic, of each  1  lb.; dissolve,
 strain, evaporate without boiling to the thickness
 of honey, constantly stirring, and add gradually
 the whites of 12  eggs, well beaten with orange-
 flower water, §iv, and strained ; continue the evap-
 oration and constant stirring till the mass is 60  firm
 as not to adhere  to the  fingers, then  proceed as
 last.   It  should be very white,  light, and spongy.
 The P.  Codex of  1836 omits the marshmallow
 root, and calls the compound  Pate de Gomme.
 The latter is usually sold in the shops for Pate de
 Guimauve.  Both are pectoral.
    PATE DE GOMME  ARABIQUE.   Syn.
 Gum Arabic Paste. Prep. As the last.  *#* Many
 persons use, however, twice the above quantity of
 gum and sugar, but this  renders the product  less
 whitdf
    PATE DE GOMME SENEGAL. Syn. Paste
 of Gum Senegal.  Prep. As Pate de dattes, omit-
 ting  the  fruit.  It  is frequently  acidulated  with
 citric or  tartaric acid,  and flavored with essence
 of lemons.  Pectoral.  Sold in the shops for pate
 de dattes and pate de jujubes.
   PATE DE JUJUBES.  Syn.  Jujubes.  Ju-
 jube Paste. Prep.  (P.  Cod.) Jujubes lb. j ;  water
 lb. iv; boil £ hour,  strain with  expression, settle,
 decant the clear* and clarify with white of eggs;
 add a strained solution of gum arabic lb. vj, in
 water lb. viij, and  to the mixture add white sugar
 lb. vj; gently evaporate, at first constantly  stir-
 ring, and afterwards without stirring, till reduced
 to the consistence of a soft  extract,  add orange-
 flower water ^vj, and place the pan in a vessel of
 boiling water.   In 12 hours  carefully remove the
 scum, pour the matter into slightly oiled tin moulds,
 and proceed as before.   Expectorant; in coughs,
 &c.  Pate de  gomme  Senegal  is  usually  sold
 for it.
   PATE  DE REGLISSE BLANCHE.  Syn.
 White Liquorice Paste.  Pasta Glycyrrhiz.e
 Alba.  Prep.  As pate de guimauve, substituting
 liquorice root for marshmallow root.
   PATE DE REGLISSE NOIRE.  Syn. Black
 Liquorice  Paste.  Liquorice  Jujubes.  Pasta
 Glycyrrhiz.* Nigra.  Prep.  (P.  Cod.) Refined
 juice and white sugar, of each  1 lb.; gum arabic
 2 lbs.; water 3 quarts ; dissolve, strain,  evaporate
 considerably, add finely-powdered orris  root £  oz.,
 oil of aniseed  or essence of cedrat a few  drops,  and
 pour into moulds as before. Pectoral.  %* When
 made with \ the above weight of refined juice it
 forms brown liquorice  paste, (pasta  glycyrrhiza?
 fusca,) and by the  addition of 15 grs. of  extract of
opium, the opiated liquorice  paste (pasta glycyr-
rhizas opiata) of the P. Codex.
  PATE DE TUSSILAGE A L'ANIS.  Prep.
Strong decoction  of coltsfoot  flowers  1 quart;
Spanish juice £ lb.;  dissolve,  strain, evaporate  as
 before, and towards the end add oil of aniseed J
 dr.  Pectoral; in coughs, &c.
   PEARLS. ROSE.   Syn.  Rose Beads. Prep
 Beat the petals of red roses  m an iron mortar for
 some hours, till they form a black paste, then roll
 into beads and dry.  Hard ; take a fine polish ; very
 fragrant.
   PEAS, ISSUE.  Syn.  Pisa pro  Fonticulis.
 Prep.—1. Orange berries, or the small unripe fruit
 of the  orange tree, dried, and smoothed by a lathe.
 —2. Beeswax 1 lb.; turmeric 8 oz.; orris  powder
 4 oz.;  Venice turpentine 3 oz.; mix, and form into
 peas.   Used to keep  issues open.—3. Beeswax 6
 oz. ; verdigris, and powdered white hellebore, of
 each 2 oz.; cantharides 1 oz.; orris powder IJ oz.;
 Venice turpentine, q.  s.; mix  as  last.  Used  to
 open issues.
   PECTIC ACID.   (From writ, a  coagulum,
 because of its jellying property.)  A peculiar ge-
 latinous acid substance obtained from carrot roots,
 from which the juice has been pressed out, by boil-
 ing them with one-twenty-fifth part of their weighs
 of carbonate of potash, and 6 times their weight  of
 water,  till  the liquid  becomes  gelatinous when
 neutralized with an acid.  A pectate of  potassa is
 formed, from which the acid may be obtained by
 exactly neutralizing the  alkali with a stronger
 acid; it forms compounds with the bases called
 Pectates.
  PECTINE.  Vegetable jelly, obtained by add-
 ing aJcohol  to the  juice of ripe currants or other
 fruit, till  a  gelatinous precipitate  forms, which
 must be drained, washed with, a little weak alco-
 hol, and dried.
  PEPPER, BLACK.  Syn.  Piper Nigrum.
 This is the dried berries of a  tree of  the same
 name.   The ground black pepper of the shops  is
 universally adulterated.  In fact, I  am informed
 by a most extensive and respectable spice  and tea
 house, that the public  taste and judgment are  so
 vitiated, that pure  ground  pepper  is unsaleable.
 The parties  alluded to, originally  supplied  their
 customers with  unadulterated ground pepper, but
 in 3 cases out of every 4, it was returned  and ob-
 jected to, on account of its dark color  and  pun-
 gency, which had induced  the  belief that it  was
 sophisticated.  The house alluded to, was there-
 fore compelled by  its customers to supply them
 with an inferior, but milder and paler article. The
 substances employed  to lower black  pepper are
 known in the trade as  P. D., H. P. D., and W.  P.
 D.   The first is the faded leaves of  autumn, dried
 and  powdered,—the second  is the ground husks of
 black mustard obtained from  the mustard mills,
 and  the third is common  rice  finely powdered.
 The letters are the  initials of pepper dust, hot do.,
 and white do.  I  am assured that equal parts of
 black pepper corns, H. P. D., and W. P. D., form
 the very best ground pepper sold, and that the or-
 dinary  pepper of the shops does not contain more
 than ith of genuine pepper, or 2 oz. in the pound.
 —Prepared black pepper is made by steeping the
 berries  for 3 days  in 3 times their weight of vine-
 gar,  and then drying  and grinding them.  It  ie
 mild-r  than common pepper.
  PEPPER,  CAYENNE.  Syn. Red Pepper.
 Piper Cayenne.   Prep.—l. Capsicums ground to
powder.__2.  Capsicum  and dry salt,  of each 1 lb.;
grind to "tlier.  *** The cayenne of the shops  is 
PER                    470                    PER
commonly a spurious article  made by grinding a
mixture of any of the reddish  woods or sawdust,
and enough capsicum  to  flavor.—Prepared Cay-
enne pepper is the residuum of Cayenne vinegar,
essence, or tincture,  dried and ground.
 ^ PEPPER,  CAYENNE, (SOLUBLE.)  Syn.
Crystallized Soluble Cayenne Pepper. Prep.
1.  Essence  of Cayenne 6 pints,  (see page 274;)
distil off 3 pints by the heat of a  water bath ;  add
dry salt 12 lbs. to the residual  liquor, mix well,
dry by a gentle heat, color  with  a little vermilion
or jeweller's rouge,  and  rub it through a sieve.—
2.  Capsicums 3 lbs.; red sanders wood in shavings
1 lb. ; rectified spirits of wine 1 gallon ; macerate
for 14 days, then  express  the tincture, filter, distil
off one half, add dry salt  15  lbs.,  mix wed, gently
evaporate  to dryness, and pass it through a coarse
sieve  as  before.—3.  For  red sanders in the  last
formula, use Brazil wood.   The last two are very
superior.—4. As the first  form, but color with a
strong  decoction  of saffron  instead of  vermilion.
Very fine, but expensive.   Gives a beautiful color
to soups, &c.  *** Tho spirit distilled off forms a
most suitable  menstruum for making essence of
cayenne.
  PEPPER, KITCHEN.   Prep. Ginger 1  lb.;
cinnamon, black pepper, allspice, and nutmegs, of
each 8 oz.; cloves 1 oz.;  dry salt 6 lbs.;  grind to-
gether.  Useful to flavor gravies, *&c.
  PEPSIN. Prep.  (M. Vogel.)  Digest the glan-
dular skin of a hog's stomach, cut into pieces, in
cold water  for 24 hours, strain and repeat  the
maceration with fresh water, mix the liquors, pre-
cipitate by  acetate of lead, diffuse the precipitate
through water, decompose by sulphureted  hydro-
gen, again filter, gently evaporate to a sirupy con-
sistence,  add absolute alcohol, collect the bulky
precipitate that gradually  forms, and carefully dry
it by exposure to dry air.   By the heat of  a salt-
water bath  it  forms a white powder, but  in  this
state it loses some of its power of  assisting diges-
tion.  A   very  small quantity of muriatic  acid
added to  its weak aqueous solution, renders it ca-
pable of artificial digestion.   (Jour, de Pharm. et
de Chim.)
  PERCHLORIC  ETHER.   Syn. Perchlo-
rate  of  Oxide  of  Ethule.  Prep. (Hare  and
Boye.)  Triturate a mixture of sulphovinate  and
perchlorate of baryta, in equivalent  proportions,
place the  powder in  a retort connected with a re-
frigerator  and receiver surrounded with ice, and
distil by the heat of  an oil-bath,  gradually raised
to  from 300°  to  340°.   *«* To prevent  an  ex-
plosion, the ether  should be  received  into a little
absolute alcohol; about twice  the weight of  the
sulphovinate employed.  It is heavier than  water,
and explodes by heat, friction, and percussion, and
often without any assignable  cause.  Its explosive
power appears to be fully equal to that of the chlo-
ride  or iodide of  azote; but  this property is  de-
stroyed by solution in alcohol as above.   The  ad-
dition of an equal volume of water to the latter so-
lution  immediately  separates  the ether,  which
sinks to the bottom of the mixed liquids.  It  has
been suggested that  this  is  the material used by
Cap). Warner.  Certain it is that an alcoholic so-
lution of a sufficient quantity of this substance to
blow up a line-of-battle ship, might safely be car-
ried  in the pocket, which is not the case with the
chloride or iodide of azote ;  and this might at any
time be exploded by the addition of water, and the
slightest  friction or  percussion,   t+t  Not  more
than 1 to 1 ij dr. of the sulphovinate should ever be
distilled at  a time, and even then the  operator
should be well protected with a mask and gloves.
  PERCOLATION.  Syn.  Metiiode  de  De-
placement, (Fr.)   Percolatio,  (Lat, from  per-
colo, to filter.)   A  method of extracting the solu-
ble portion  of any substance,  by passing the men-
struum through it, previously reduced to powder,
and packed into a cylinder or other suitable vessel.
The " sparging" of  the Scotch brewers is an ex-
ample of this process on the large scale.  In phar-
macy,  the " method of displacement" is frequently
adopted for the preparation of tinctures, infusions,
&c, and is in  some respects superior to digestion
or maceration.   " The  solid materials, usually in
coarse, or moderately fine  powder, are moistened
with a sufficiency of the solvent  to form a thick
pulp.   In  twelve hours, or frequently without de-
lay, the mass is put into a cylinder of glass,  por-
celain, or tinned iron, open  at both ends, but  ob-
structed at  the  lower end by a piece of calico or
linen, tied tightly over it as a filter ; and the pulp
being packed by pressure,  ranging as to degree
with different articles, the remainder of the solvent
is poured into the  upper  portion of the cylinder,
and  allowed gradually to percolate.   In  order to
obtain  the portion of the fluid which is absorbed by
the residuum, an additional quantity of the solvent
is poured into the cylinder, until the tincture which
has passed  through, equals in amount the spirit
originally prescribed ; and the spirit employed for
this purpose is then recovered for the most part, by
pouring over the residuum as much water as there
is spirit retained in it, which may be easily known
by  an obvious  calculation  in  each  case.  The
method of percolation is now preferred by all who
have made sufficient trial  of  it to apply it correct-
ly."  (P. E.)  A simple and useful  form of perco-
lator is represented  in tho  engraving.   The meth-

                                 **»     1

                                 [51
a. Percolator.
b. Stand.                       Mi
c. Receiver.                    Mu       b
d. Menstruum.                  Eg
e. Substance operated on.         H
/. Calico strainer.              rtfc
fll	o A	s
od of displacement has the advantage of expedi-
tion,  economy,  and yielding  products possessing
uniformity of strength ; but it requires considerable
experience to  adapt it to all substances.  The art
rests  in properly packing  the ingredients in  the
cylinder, some substances requiring consideralle
pressure to be  used, while others, when even light-
ly packed, scarcely permit  the  fluid  to   pass
through them.   An  excellent plan, applicable to
all substances, but especially  those of a glutinous
or mucilaginous nature, is to mix the powder  with 
PHL
471
PHO
an  equal bulk of well-washed silicious  sand, be-
fore rubbing it up  with  the  menstruum.  The
coarseness of the  powder must also be attended to.
Substances  that  readily become  soft  and pappy
when wetted by the  menstruum, should not be
used so  fine as those that are more  woody and
fibrous.    The  method of displacement  answers
well for  the preparation of all  tinctures that are
not of a  resinous nature, and for most infusions of
woody and  fibrous  substances, as  roots, woods,
barks,  leaves, seeds, insects, ,&c.  It is especially
adapted  for the preparation of concentrated infu-
sions and essences,  as they may thus be obtained
of any required strength, without loss, or requiring
concentration by heat, which  is so  destructive  to
their virtues.
   PERIODIC ACID.  A new acid, resembling
perchloric acid,  discovered by Ammermuller and
Magnus.  It is obtained by mixing pure  soda with
a solution of iodate of soda, saturating the solution
with chlorine gas, collecting the pulverulent  white
salt that falls,  either at  once or after concentra-
tion, dissolving in dilute nitric acid, and  precipita-
ting with nitrate  of  silver,  when a periodate of sil-
ver is formed, from  which  the  acid  may  be
obtained.  Its salts  are called periodates.
   PERRY.  Syn.  Pyraceum.  A fermented  li-
quor, prepared from pears in the  same way  as
cider is from apples.  The red  rough-tasted sorts
are principally used for this purpose.   The best
perry contains about 9°r of absolute  alcohol; ordi-
nary perry  from  5  to 7g.   It is  a  very pleasant
tasted liquor, especially when bottled a  la  cham-
pagne.
   PERUVINE.  A  light,  colorless,  oily  liquid,
produced along with cinnamate of potash, by boil-
ing cinnameine with alkalis.
   PEUCEDANINE.   A white  crystalline sub-
stance, discovered by Schlatter in the root of peu-
cedanum officinale.   It  is obtained by the action
of alcohol.
   PEW'S  CEMENT.   Prep. Powdered  quick-
lime 1  part  ; powdered baked clay  2 parts; mix,
then add 1  part of freshly-baked  and  powdered
gypsum  to 2 parts of powdered  baked clay, and
after weil  mixing, add them to the former pow-
der, and thoroughly incorporate  the two.   Used
to  cover buildings.   It  is mixed up with water,
and applied like mortar.  It acquires great hard-
ness, and is very durable.
   PEWTER.   Prep. I. (Aiken.) Tin 100 parts;
antimony  8 parts; copper  4 parts;  bismuth  1
part ; fuse together.  Very fine.
   II. (Plate pewter.) Tin 100  parts;  antimony
8  parts; bismuth  and copper, of  each 2  parts.
Very fine.  Used to make plates,  &c.
   III.  (Trifle.) Tin 83 parts; antimony 17 parts;
some lead is generally added.
   IV.  (Ley)  Tin  4 parts; lead 1 part   Used
for beer  pots, &c.
   Remarks. According to the report of the French
commission, pewter  containing more than 18 parts
of lead to 82 parts of tin, is unsafe for measures for
wine and similar  liquors. The legal sp. gr. of pew-
ter in France is 7*764; if it be greater, it contains
an  excess of lead.
   PHLORIDZINE.  Obtained by the action  of
boiling alcohol of 80$ on the fresh bark of the roots
of the apple, pear, and plum tree.   The alcohol is
distilled off, and the phloridzine crystallizes out of
the residual liquid.  It forms white colorless nee-
dles.   It  may also  be obtained by  cooling the
aqueous decoction of the above barks, but it has
then a red color.  It is said to be a more powerful
febrifuge than quinine   (M. Lebandy.)  When its
solution is boiled with  a  little dilute sulphuric or
muriatic acid, it is converted into grape sugar and
phloretine.
  PHOCENIC ACID.  An oily arid, prepared
from whale oil, in the same way as the volatile
acids from butter.  It dissolves in 18 parts of wa-
ter.  Its salts  are called phocenates.
 • PHOSPHATE  OF LIME, (PRECIPITA-
TED.)   Syn.  Calcis Phosphas  precipitatum.
Prep.   (P. D.)  Bones  calcined to  whiteness and
reduced to powder, 1 part;  diluted muriatic acid,
and water, of each 2 parts;  digest for 12 hours,
filter, and precipitate by liquor of ammonia; well
wash the precipitate, and dry it.  A white, taste-
less, odorless  powder.   Dose   10  to  30 grs.,  in
rickets, either alone, or joined with sesquioxide of
iron.   It is preferable to calcined bones or  harts-
horn, from being  more soluble.
   PHOSPHATIC ACID.  Obtained by the slow
oxidation or combustion of cylinders of phosphorus
wHten exposed to the air.   According  to Davy  it
is a mixture of phosphoric and phosphorous acids.
   PHOSPHO-MESITYLIC  ACID    Glacial
phosphoric acid  dissolved in acetone   It forms

   PHOSPHORIC ACID.   Syn.  Acidum Phos-
phoricum. Prep.  Bones calcined to whiteness 3
lbs.; oil of vitriol 2 lbs., diluted with  3 times  its
weight of water ; mix,  and digest with heat for 2
or 3 days, adding water to supply the loss by evapo-
ration  ; then  add a large quantity of water, mix
well, and strain  ; wash the  residual  matter with
hot water, mix the liquors, add ammonia in slight
excess, filter,  evaporate, and  ignite the dry mass in
a platinum crucible.
   Remarks.   Phosphoric acid properly exists only
in solution, for by the  heat applied as above, it  is
converted into metaphosphoric acid, but by solu-
tion in water  and ebullition for a few  minutes, it is
reconverted into  phosphoric  acid.   In the dry or
glacial state   it is a colorless, glassy-looking sub-
stance, soluble in water, yielding a solution which
exhibits strong acid properties.  It is remarkable
for its proneness  to form subsalts with the alkalis
and earths, in which 1  atom of arid is united with
3  at.  of  base.   Its salts are  called phosphates.
Phosphoric acid,  when neutralized with an  alkali,
is  characterized by giving with the soluble salts of
lead, lime, and  baryta, white  precipitates  soluble
in nitric acid, and with solution of nitrate of silver
a yellow precipitate.  It is distinguished from ar-
senious acid  by  not being affected by sulphureted
hydrogen. The insoluble phosphates may be tested
by first treating  them  with sulphuric acid, filter-
ing, and neutralizing the solution with  an alkali
before applying the reagents.  If a soluble phos-
phate be heated  to redness, it is converted  into  a
pyrophosphate, and will then give a white precipi-
tate with nitrate  of silver.
   PHOSPHORIC  ACID,   (DILUTE.)    Syn.
Acidum  Phosphoricum dilutum.  Prep.  (P. L.)
Nitric acid f§iv ; water ffx  ; mix, add phosphorus
^j, place the  retort in a sand-bath, and apply heat 
PHO                   472                    PIC
 till ffviij are distilled, which are to be rejected.
 Evaporate the remaining liquid in a platinum cru-
 cible to ^ij 3vj ; cool, and add as much distilled water
 as will make the whole quantity measure f §xxviij.
   Remarks.  This is a colorless, sour liquid, hav-
 ing  the sp. gr. 1*064.  By  heat it yields  glacial
 phosphoric acid.
   Dose.  10 drops to 3j; largely diluted with wa-
 ter,  in phosphatic urinary deposites, ossification  of
 the arteries, caries, &c.
   PHOSPHOROUS ACID.   Syn. Acidum
 Phosphorosum. Prep. Sublime phosphorus through
 powdered bichloride of mercury, contained in a
 glass tube.  Chloride of phosphorus  comes over,
 which, on being mixed with water and evaporated
 to a sirup, forms  a crystalline  mass of hydrated
 phosphorous acid on cooling.  It is a powerful de-
 oxydizing agent.   With the bases it forms salts
 called phosphites.
   PHOSPHORUS.  (From 0<3j, light, and $ipv>,
 I carry, because of its iuminous  appearance  in the
 dark.)   An elementary  inflammable substance,
 discovered by  Brandt in 1669.
  Prep. (Ure.)   Ground bone-ash 1  cwt.;  water
 2 cwt.; mix to a pap in a large tub, and add in a
 slender stream (still stirring) oil of vitriol 78 lbs.;
 work well together, adding more water if required ;
 in 24 hours thin with water, agitate  well, and if
 convenient heat the mixture in a leaden pan, and
 as soon  as the paste has lost  its granular character,
 transfer it into a series of tall casks ; largely  dilute
 with water, and after settling,  decant the  clear
 portion ; wash the residue  well with water, mix
 the clear liquids, and evaporate in a copper or lead
pan, till the calcareous deposite becomes considera-
ble, then cool, decant the  clear, and drain the sedi-
 ment on a filter; evaporate  the clear  liquid to the
 consistence of honey, add 9  lbs. of powdered  char-
 coal, and evaporate to dryness in  an  iron pot, or
 till the bottom of the latter  becomes red hot; the
dry mixture, when cold, is put into earthen retorts
well  covered  with luting and properly dried, and
heat is applied sideways rather than at the bottom,
by means  of an air furnace.   The beak  of the re-
tort is connected with a copper tube, the other end
of which is made to dip about \ of an inch beneath
the surface of lukewarm  water placed in a trough
or wide-mouthed bottle.  The distilled product is
purified by squeezing it  through chamois leather
under warm water, and is then  moulded for sale
by melting it under water, plunging the  wider end
of a  slightly tapering but straight  glass  tube into the
 water, sucking this up to the top of  the glass, so
 as to wa-ra and wet it, next immersing the end
 into  the .njjid phosphorus, and  sucking it up  to
 any  desired height.   The bottom of the tube being
 now  closed with  the finger, it is withdrawn, and»
 transferred to a pan of cold water to  congeal the
 phosphorus, which will then commonly fall out, or
 may be easily expelled by pressure with a piece of
 wire.  (See Ure's Diet of Arts, &c.)
  Remarks.   Phosphorus is a pale yellow, semi-
 transparent, and highly combustible  solid ; sp.  gr.
 1*77; melts  at  108° ; and unites with oxygen,
 forming acids, and with the metals, forming phos-
phurets.  It is soluble in ether, naphtha, and the
 oils.   From its great inflammability it can only  be
 safely kept under water.  In commerce it is always
 packed in tin  cylinders, soldered air-tight.   It is a
 powerful corrosive  poison ; but small doses of its
 ethereal or oily solution have been administered in
 some complaints.  *„*  Baldwin's  Phosphorus is
 ignited muriate of lime,—Canton do., oyster shells
 calcined with sulphur,—Bologna do., calcined sul-
 phate of  baryta,—Homberg's do., ignited chloride
 of calcium.   All  these  phosphoresce in  the dark,
 after exposure to the solar rays.
    PHOSPHORUS BOTTLES.  Syn. Briquets
 Phospiioriques.  Prep.  Phosphorus 1 dr.; white
 wax 15 or 20 grs.; cautiously melt  together in a
 vial, by the heat of warm water, and as  it begins
 to cool turn the bottle round, so  that the mixture
 may adhere to the sides.  Used as  instantaneous
 light bottles.  A sulphur match rubbed against the
 phosphorus  and Withdrawn  into the  air, imme-
 diately inflames.   *** The vial  should only  be
 unstoppered at the instant of introducing the match,
 and should be handled with caution.
    PHOSPHORUS, BROMIDE OF. When
 bromine and phosphorus are brought into contact
 in a vessel filled with carbonic acid gas, they unite
 with  the evolution of light  and heat, forming a
 crystalline yellow perbromide, which sublimes and
 condenses in the  upper part of the flask, and a
 liquid protobromide, which, remains at the bottom.
    PHOSPHORUS, CHLORIDES  OF—1
 (Perchloride.)  A volatile white substance, obtain-
 ed by the spontaneous combustion of phosphorus in
 chlorine.—2.  (Sesquichloride)  A limpid fluid, a
 little heavier than water, obtained  by passing the
 vapor of phosphorus through corrosive sublimate
 contained in a glass tube.
   PHOSPHORUS, IODIDES OF.—1. (Pro-
 tiodide.)   Obtained by mixing 1 part of  phospho-
 rus with 7 or 8  of iodine in a close vessel. Orange
 colored.—2.   (Sesquiodide)  As last, from 1 part
 of phosphorus and IS? of iodine.  A dark gray crys-
 talline mass.—3. (Periodide.) Phosphorus 1 part;
 iodine 20 parts ; as last.  Black.
   PHOSPHURETED  HYDROGEN.   Prep.
 —1.  Fill a small tubulated retort with water acidu-
 lated with muriatic acid, throw in some small lumps
 of phosphuret of lime, and receive the evolved gas
 in an inverted jar over water.  ^ oz. of phosphuret
 of lime yields  70 cubic  inches of gas.—2. Boil
 phosphorus in a solution of potassa, or in  milk  of
 lime.  ***  Phosphureted  hydrogen  is a colorlesj
 gas, spontaneously inflaming by contact with air.
 It has a remarkably fetid  odor.
   PICAMAR.   A bitter oil discovered in tar by
 Reichenbach.   (See Creosote.)
   PICCALILLY.   Syn. Indian Pickle. Prep.
 White cabbages sliced, cauliflowers pulled to pieces
 and scalded,  radishes topped  and  tailed, French
 beans, celery in three-inch lengths, shoots of elder
 peeled, clusters of elder-flowers unopened, all salted
 for 2 or 3 days, then mixed  with apples and cu-
 cumbers sliced, and a large proportion of ginger,
 garlic, turmeric, long pepper, and mustard 6ecd, as
 the pickle is expected to be very warm ;  the vine-
 gar must also be  the  strongest that can be pro-
 cured, and just  sufficient to float the articles ; any
 other vegetables may be used at pleasure.
   PICKLE, LEMON.  Prep.  I.   Lemon juice
 and vinegar, of each 3 gallons ; bruised  ginger 1
 lb.;  allspice, pepper,  and grated lemon  peel,  of
 each 8 oz.; salt 3£ lbs.; cayenne 2 oz.; mace and
| nutmegs, of each 1  oz.; digest 
PIC
473
PIL
   II. Lemons sliced, 1 dozen; salt 2  lbs.;  garlic
12 cloves ; scraped horseradish, and flour of mus-
tard, of each 4  oz.;  cloves, mace, nutmegs, and
cayenne pepper, of each £ oz.; vinegar  1 gallon ;
as before.  Used as a sauce.
   PICKLE, MEAT.  Prep. Moist sugar 2 lbs.;
bay  or common  salt 4 lbs.;  saltpetre  £ lb.; fresh
ground allspice 2 oz.; water 6 to 8 quarts; dis-
solve.   Used to pickle meat, to which it imparts a
fine  red color, and a superior flavor.
   PICKLES.  In the preparation of pickles, it is
highly necessary to avoid  employing metallic ves-
sels ; as both vinegar and  salt corrode brass, cop-
per,  lead, &,c., and thus become poisonous.  When
it is necessary to heat or  boil vinegar, it  should be
done by placing  it in  a stoneware jar in a water-
bath, or on  a stove.  Glazed earthenware should
be avoided either for making or keeping the pickles
in, as the glazing usually contains lead.  Pickles
should be kept from the  air as much as possible,
and  only touched with wooden spoons.  They are
also better preserved in small jars, or bottles, than
large ones, as the more  frequent opening of the
latter exposes them  too much.   Copper or  verdi-
gris  is frequently added to pickles  to impart a green
color, but  this poisonous  addition may be readily
detected.   If a green color be desired, it may be
imparted  by steeping vine leaves, or the  leaves of
parsley or spinage in the  vinegar.  A  teaspoonful
of olive oil is frequently  added to each  bottle  to
keep the  pickles white.   The following  is an ex-
ample of pickling:—
   PICKLED  GHERKINS.   Steep  them   in
strong brine  for a week, then pour it off,  heat it  to
the boiling point, and again pour it on the gherkins ;
in 24 hours drain the fruit  on a  sieve, put it into
wide-mouthed bottles or  jars,  fill them  up with
Btrong pickling vinegar, boiling hot, bung down im-
mediately,  and  tie  over  with  bladder.   When
cold, dip the corks into melted bottle wax.  Spice
is usually added  to  the bottles, or else steeped  in
the vinegar.
   *^* In  a similar way are pickled, onions, mush-
rooms,  cucumbers,  walnuts,  samphires,  green
gooseberries, cauliflowers,  melons,  barberries,
peaches,  lemons, tomatoes,  beans, radish  pods,
codlins, red  cabbage, (without salt, and with cold
vinegar,)  beet-root,  (without salting,) garlic, peas,
&c, &c, observing that the  softer and more deli-
cate articles do not require so fong soaking in brine
as the harder and coarser kinds, and may be often
advantageously pickled by simply  pouring very
strong pickling vinegar over them,  without applying
heat.
   PICROLICHENINE.  A bitter, crystallizable
substance, found by Alms in the  lichen  variolaria
amara.   It is extracted by alcohol, and purified by
washing with a weak solution of carbonate of pot-
ash.   It is said to be a powerful febrifuge.
  PIC ROM EL.  A name given by Thenard to a
black bitter substance obtained from fresh bile,  by
adding sulphuric  acid diluted with 5 parts  of water,
applying a gentle heat, and after repose, decanting
the clear, edulcorating the sediment (resin of bile)
with  water,  digesting with carbonate of baryta,
and evaporating.
  PICROTOXINE.  Syn. Picrotoxia.  Picro-
Toxic Acid.  A bitter, crystallizable, and poisonous
substance, discovered by Boullay in cocculus indi-
                       60
cus.   It is soluble  in boiling water, alcohol, ether,
and acetic acid.   It may be obtained by precipita-
ting the decoction of cocculus indicus by acetate of
lead, evaporating to dryness, and frequently redis-
solving in alcohol of 0-817.
  PILES.  Syn.  H.emorrhoides.  A painful dis-
ease occasioned  by the morbid dilatations of the
veins at  the lower part of the rectum, and sur-
rounding the anus.  Piles are principally occasion-
ed by costiveness and cold.   They have been dis-
tinguished into—blind piles, or a varicose state of
the veins without bleeding,—mucous piles, when
the tumors  are  excoriated, and mucus or  pus is
discharged,—bleeding piles, when accompanied
with loss of blood,—excrescential piles, when there
are loose, fleshy excrescences about the verge of
the anus and within the rectum.  The treatment
consists in the administration of mild aperients, as
castor oil, or an electuary of sulphur and  cream
of tartar; when there is much inflammation or
bleeding, cold and astringent  lotions, as those of
sulphate of zinc or  alum, should  be applied, and
when the pain is considerable, fomentations of  de-
coction of poppy heads may be used  with advan-
tage. To arrest the bleeding, ice is also frequently
applied,  but continued pressure  is more certain.
When the tumors are  large and flaccid, the com-
pound ointment  of galls is an excellent application,
and  if there is a tendency to inflammation, a little
liquor of diacetate of lead may be added.  In con-
firmed piles, the internal use  of copaiba, or still
better, of the confection of black pepper, should be
persevered in, together with local applications.  In
severe cases, the protrudea tumors are removed by
surgeons, by the knife or ligature.
  PILLS.  Syn.  Pilule, (Lat)  Pills  are  too
well known to require description.  This form of
medicine is  particularly adapted  to the exhibition
of nauseous substances, and  such as operate in
small doses.  Extracts may  be  made into pills
either alone or with  the addition of  any  simple
powder, as that of liquorice, to increase their con-
sistence.   Powders are  usually  beaten up with
sirup, treacle, mucilage, conserve of roses, or  ex-
tract of  liquorice.   Castile  soap  is  frequently
used for substances that are not decomposed by
alkalis.   When the mixed ingredients are made
into  a mass, it should be preserved in a  bladder
placed in a covered stone pot, and should be occa-
sionally moistened with a little  spirit, or spirit and
water, to prevent it  getting hard.  In all cases,
the dry  ingredients should be reduced to fine pow-
der,  and the whole beaten into a  uniform mass of
a proper consistence for rolling into pills.  *#* Pills
are  gilded and  silvered  by rolling them  between
the fingers slightly moistened with mucilage, and
then shaking  them up in a small  gallipot covered
with a piece of paper, along with a little gold or
silver leaf, or  a little  powdered gold or silver.  In
ordinary cases,  rolling  the  pills  in  carbonate  of
magnesia, or  powdered starch, is  usually adopted
to prevent them sticking together while moist.   As
pill masses are liable to  get hard and brittle by
keeping, an  excellent plan is to keep the dry ingre-
dients powdered and mixed together in well-corked
bottles or jars, when a portion may at any time be
beaten up vith sirup, conserve, soap, &c, accord-
ing- to the formula, and as wanted for use.
  PILLS, ACETATE OF LEAD.  Syn. Pilu- 
PIL                   474                   PIL
j.x plumbi  opiate.   Prep. (P.  E.)  Acetate  of
lead 6 parts ; opium and conserve of red roses,  of
each 1 part;  mix,  and divide into 4-gr. pills.   In
spitting of blood, obstinate diarrhoea, dysentery, &c.
Dose.  1 to 3 pills two or three times a day, washed
down with water soured with vinegar.
  PILLS, ALOES.  Syn.  Pilule Aloes. Prep.
(P. Ev   Powdered  Socotrine aloes and Castile
soap,  equal  parts; conserve of red roses q.  s.  to
make a mass.
   PILLS, ALOES,  (COMPOUND.)   Syn. Pil.
Aloes composite.   Prep.   (P. L. and  D.)  Pow-
dered  Socotrine aloes (hepatic, P. D.) §j; extract
of gentian § ss ;  oil  of caraway 40 drops ; sirup  (if
required) q. s.; beat to a mass. Dose. 5 to 10 grs.,
as a purgative in habitual costiveness.
   PILLS, ALOES AND  ASAFCETIDA.  Syn.
Pil. Aloes et Asafcetida.  Prep. (P. E.)  Pow-
dered  aloes,  asafcetida, and  Castile  soap,  equal
parts ;  conserve of  red roses q. s.; beat into a mass.
Dose. 5 to 10 grs., as a purgative in dyspepsia,
flatulence, &c.
   PILLS, ALOES AND IRON.   Syn.  Pil.
Aloes et Ferri.   Prep. (P.  E.)  Sulphate of iron
3 parts ;  Barbadoes aloes 2 parts ; aromatic pow-
der 6 parts:  conserve  of red roses 8 parts;  mix,
and divide into 5-gr. pills.  Emmenagogue.  Dose.
1 to 3  pills in chlorosis  and atonic amenorrhcea.
   PILLS, ALOES AND  MYRRH.  Syn. Pil.
Aloes  et Myrrha,  (P.   E.)   Pil. Aloes cum
Myrrha,  (P. L. and  D.)    Pil. Rufi.   Rufus's
Pills.  Pil. communes.  Common Pills.  Prep.
—1. (P. L.)  Aloes  §ij ; saffron  and  myrrh,  of
each  ^j;  sirup  to  mix.—2. (P. E.)  Socotrine  or
East Indian aloes 4 parts ;  myrrh 2 parts ; saffron
1  part; conserve of red roses q. s.  A most excel-
lent stomachic, purgative, and emmenagogue,
where there are no febrile symptoms.  Dose. 10 to
20 grs.
   PILLS, ALOES AND   ROSE JUICE.   Syn.
Pil. Aloes Rosata.  Pilules angeliques. Grains
de Sante.  Prep. Aloes and rose juice, of  each
^iv; juices of borage  and  chicory, of each ^'j j
dissolve, evaporate to an extract, add rhubarb 3ij ;
agaric 3j ; and  divide into 1^-gr. pills.  Dose. 4 to
12, as  a pur^e.
   PILLS, AMMONIATED COPPER   Syn.
Pil. cupri ammoniati.  Prep. (P. E.)  Ammonio-
sulphate of  copper 1 ^wt; bread-crumb 6 parts ;
solution of carbonate ot ammonia q. s. to make a
pill mass; divide so that each pill may contain ^
gr. of ammoniated  copper.   Dose. 1 pill night and
morning, gradually increased to 5 or 6, in epilepsy,
and some other spasmodic diseases.
   PILLS, ANTIBILIOUS.  See the various pur-
gative and stomachic Pills.
   PILLS, ANTI-EPILEPTIC. Prep.  1.—(Re-
cambier.) Aqueous extract of opium 5 centigram-
mes ; acetate of lead 20 do.;  powdered  henbane
40 do.; gum sirup q.  s.;  mix, and divide into 8
pills.   Dose. 1  night and  morning.—2.  (Leuret)
Extracts of stramonium and belladonna, of each 1
gramme ; camphor and opium,  of each 50  cen-
tigr.; divide into pills of 10  decigr. Dose. 1 a day,
gradually and cautiously increased to 10 or 12, or
more.
   PILLS, ANTISPASMODIC. Prep. (Thom-
son.)   Opium 1 gr.; castor 13 grs.; powdered  di-
gitalis 2 grs.;  sirup to mix ; divide into 4 pills.
Dose. 1 or 2 two or three times a day in spasmod-
ic asthma, &c.
  PILLS, ASAFCETIDA.  Syv. Pil. apafck-
tida.  Prep. (P. E.)  Asafcetida, galbanum, and
myrrh, of each 3 parts;  conserve  of  red  roses 4
parts, or q. s.; beat  into a  mass.  Stimulant  and
antispasmodic.  Dose.  10 to 20  grs., in hysteria,

  PILLS, ASTRINGENT.  Prep. 1. (Collier.)
Nitrate  of silver 3  gre.;  extract of opium 3ss;
musk 9j; camphor  3ij; mix  for 48 pills.   Dose.
1 pill 2 or 3 times a day,  as a stimulant tonic ; in
epilepsy,  &c.—2.  (Cavarra.)  Pure tannin 6 grs.;
powdered gum  12  grs.; sugar 3j; sirup to mix;
divide into 4-gr. pills. Dose. 1 to 3 in diarrhoea.—
3.  Acetate of lead 3 grs.; opium 1 gr.;  divide into
3 pills.  Dose. 1 twice a  day, followed by a glass
of water acidulated with vinegar; in  colliquative
diarrhcea, chronic  dysentery,  phthisical  night-
sweats, internal hemorrhages, &,c.
  PILLS,  CALOMEL  AND  OPIUM.   Syn.
Pil. calomelanos et opii. Prep. (P. E.) Calomel
3 parts;  opium  1 part; conserve of red roses to
mix.  Divide so that each  pill may contain 2 grs.
of calomel. Dose. 1 or 2 in rheumatism, and «otn9
inflammatory affections; if continued, they induce
salivation.
  PILLS, CALOMEL,  (COMPOUND.)   Syn.
Pllmmer's Pills.   Red  Pill.   Pil. hydrargyri
Chloridi comp.,  (P. L.) Pil. Calomelanos comp.,
(P. E. & D.)  Pil. hydrargyri submuriatis, (P.
L. 1809.)  Pil. Plummeri.  Prep. (P. L.)  Calo-
mel, oxysulphuret  of  antimony,  and treacle, of
each 3ij ; powdered  guaiacum resin 3ss; mix.  An
excellent alterative pill in chronic skin diseases and
liver affections ; in dyspepsia, syphilis, &c.  Dose.
5 to 10 gre.
  PILLS, CATHARTIC.  Prep. 1.  (Thomson.)
—a. Scammony 4 grs. ; extract  of taraxacum 16
grs.; divide  into 6  pills.   Dose. 3  twice  a day,
in hypochondriasis,  and chronic inflammation of
the  liver.—b. Calomel 3 grs.;  powdered jalap  9
gre.; mucilage to mix ; for 3 pills.  Dose. 2 or  3
at night to empty the bowels, in  bilious affections.
—2. (Collier.) Calomel 10 gre.;  powdered jalap
and rosepink, of each 3iv; oil of caraway 10 drops;
sirup of buckthorn to mix ; divide into 5-gr. pills.
Dose. 1 to 3, as  a  purgative.—3. Compound ex-
tract of colocynth 3j; powdered opium 3 grs.; pow-
dered scammony 15 grs.; oil of nutmeg 8 drops;
divide into 18 pills.   Dose.  2  to 4, as a purge.—4.
Socotrine aloes 3j ; rhubarb 0ij ; scammony 3ss;
capsicum 10 grs ; oil of cloves 10 drops ; mix, and
divide into 48 pills.   Dose.  2 to 4 at bedtime.
  PILLS, CATHARTIC, (COMPOUND.) Syn.
Pil. cathartica composita.  Prep. (P.  U. S.)
Compound extract of colocynth ^ss ; powdered ex-
tract of jalap and calomel, of each 3iij ; powdered
gamboge 3ij ; mix,  and divide into 180 pills.  An
excellent purgative  pill, especially in bilious affec-
tions.  Dose. 1 to 3 pills.
  PILLS, COLOCYNTH.  Syn.  Pil. colocyn-
thidis, (P. E. & D.)  Pil.  cochia.   Pil. coccia.
Pil. cochia minores.  Prep.  (P. E.)  Socotrine
or  East  Indian  aloes  and  scammony, of  each 8
parts ; colocynth 4 parts ; sulphate of potash and
oil of cloves, of each 1 part; rectified  spirit (mu-
cilage, P. D.) q. s. to form a mass ; divide into 5-gr
pills. An excellent purgative pill.   Dose.  5 to U 
PIL                      475                   PIL
grs.  4 grs. of this pill, combined with  2 or 3 grs.
of mercurial  pill, and taken  over night, is an ex-
cellent remedy in bilious  attacks.  *** The pil.
cochiae of  Apothecaries' Hall  is the above  pill,
without the sulphate of potash, and beaten up with
sirup or treacle, instead of mucilage.  The com-
mon pil.  cochise of the shops is generally made as
follows:—Powdered  aloes 1£ lb.; do. colocynth £
lb.; do. jalap 6 oz.;  oil of cloves 1^ oz.; sirup- or
treacle to  mix.  Prod. About 4| lbs.  The more
conscientious sometimes add  to the  above  scam-
mony 6 oz.
   PILLS, COLOCYNTH  AND  HENBANE.
Syn.  Pil. colocynthidis et  hyoscyami.  Prep.
(P. E.)   Compound  colocynth pill mass 3ij ; ex-
tract of henbane 3j  ; mix, and divide into 36 pills.
Dose.  5  to 15 grs., as an anodyne purgative.
   PILLS, COPAIBA.   Syn. Pil.  copaiba cum
Magnesia.   Prep. (Mialhe.)  Pure balsam of co-
paiba §j;  calcined magnesia 3ss ; mix, and stir for
some days till sufficiently thick.  For  present use
copaiba requires its own weight of magnesia ; Dr.
Pereira  orders  copaiba Jj; magnesia 3vj or  3vij.
 Dose. 10 to  30 grs., frequently in diseases of the
mucous membranes  of the urinary organs.
   PILLS, DIAPHORETIC.  Prep. 1.  Anti-
 monial powder 3ss  ; opium 3ss ; calomel  5  grs.;
 confection of  opium to mix ;  divide into 10 pills.
 Dose. 1 at bedtime.—2. Guaiacum 10 grs.; emet-
 ic  tartar and  opium, of each  1 gr.; simple  sirup
 to mix;  divide into 3  pills.  Dose. 1 or 2.—3.
 Camphor  and  antimonial powder,  of each 3ss ;
 opium  10 grs.; aromatic  confection q. s. to mix ;
 divide into  12 pills.  Dose. 1 pill.—4. Powdered
 guaiacum 10 grs.;  compound  powder of ipecacu-
 anha  5 grs.;  confection  of roses to  mix; for
 dose.  All the above are taken as diaphoretics in
 inflammatory affections.
   PILLS,  DINNER.  Prep. 1.  (Lady Cres-
 pigny's Pills.  Lady Webster's Pills.   Grains
 de vie.  Grains de  mesne.  Stomachic Pills. Pil.
 Aloes cum  mastiche)  Aloes 3vj ; mastich and
 red roses,  of each 3ij ; sirup  of wormwood to mix ;
 divide into 3-gr. pills.   They produce a bulky and
 copious evacuation.—2. Substitute rhubarb for the
 roses  in the last.—3.  (Pil.  stomachica mesues.
 Pil. dicta antecibum,  P. Cod.) Aloes 3vj; extract
 of bark  3iij ; cinnamon 3j ; sirup of wormwood  to
 mix.  Dose. Of either of the  above 5 grs., 1 hour
 before dinner, to promote the appetite ; as a purge,
 10 to 15 grs.
   PILLS, DIURETIC.  Prep. (Thomson.)—a.
 Powdered digitalis 12 grs.; calomel  and opium, of
 each 4 grs.; confection of roses q. s. for 12 pills.—
 b. Mercurial pill 3j ; powdered squills 3j ;  confec-
 tion of roses q. s. for 20 pills.  Dose. 1 of either of
 the above twice a day in dropsy.
   PILLS,  DIXON'S  ANTIBILIOUS.  Prep.
 Aloes, scammony, rhubarb,  and a  little tartar
 emetic,  beat up with sirup.
   PILLS, EXPECTORANT.  Prep.—l. Myrrh
 3iss;  powdered squills  3ss; extract  of  henbane
 3ij; sirup q. s.; divide  into 30 pills.  Dose. 2 night
 and  morning__2.  (Thomson.)  Powdered  squills
 and extract  of hemlock, of each 3ss; ammoniacum
 3iss; divide into  30 pills.   Dose. 2 twice a day.
 In chronic coughs, asthma, &c.
    PILLS, FAMILY.  Syn. Aloe Pills.  An-
 TlBUiious  do.  Aloe  Rosata.   Prep. Socotrine
or hepatic aloes 4 oz.; juice of roses 1 pint; dis-
solve  by heat, strain through  a piece  of  coarse
flannel, evaporate, and form into pills.  Purgative,
in doses of 5 to 15 grs.
  PILLS, FOTHERGILL'S.  Aloes, scammo-
ny, colocynth, and diaphoretic antimony.
  PILLS, FOXGLOVE AND SQUILLS. Syn.
Pil. Digitalis  et Scilla.  Prep.  (P. E.) Pow-
dered foxglove and squills, of  each 1 part; aro-
matic  electuary (P. E.) 2  parts ; conserve  of red
roses  q.  s.; divide  into 4-gr.  pills.  A valuable
diuretic in dropsies.   Dose. 1 to 2 pills.
   PILLS, FULLER'S.   Prep. Aloes 3ss; sen-
na and myrrh, of each 3j;  asafcetida and galba-
num, of each 10  grs.; saffron and mace, of  each
5 grs.; sulphate  of iron 3'ij; sirup q. s.  Dose.  5
to 20 grs.; as an antispasmodic and aperient.
   PILLS, GALBANUM, (COMPOUND.)  Syn.
Pil. Gummosa.  Pil. Galbani comp., (P. L. & D.)
Prep. (P. L.)  Galbanum  §j; myrrh and sagape-
num, of each §iss ;  asafcetida §ss ;  sirup (treacle,
P.  D.) q. s.; beat to a mass.   Stimulant and an-
tispasmodic.  Dose.  10 to 20  grs.; in hysteria,
amenorrhcea, &c.
   PILLS, GAMBOGE.   Syn.  Pil. Cambogia,
 (P. E.)  Pil. Cambogia comp. (P. L. & D.)  For-
 dyce's Pills.  Prep. (P.  L.) Gamboge 3j ;  aloes
 3iss ;  ginger 3ss; Castile soap 3ij  ; beat to  a mass.
 An active cathartic.  Dose. 10  to 15 grs. in ob-
 stinate constipation.
   PILLS, HEMLOCK,  (COMPOUND.)  Syn.
 Pil. Conii comp.  Prep.  (P. L.)  Extract  of hem-
 lock 3v ;  ipecacuanha 3j; mix.   Antispasmodic,
 expectorant, and narcotic.  Dose. 5  to  10 grs.
 twice or thrice a day, in spasmodic coughs, bron-
 chitis, incipient consumption, &c.
    PILLS,  HOFFMAN'S,  (MAJOR.)    Syn.
 Pil.  Hydrargyri  Bichloridi.  Pil.  Hoffmanii
 Majores.  Prep.  (Paris.)   Corrosive  sublimate
 and muriate of  ammonia, of  each 5 grs.; water
 f 3ss ; triturate till dissolved, add honey 3ss, liquor-
 ice powder 9yj; mix, and divide into 40  pills.
 Each pill contains J gr. of corrosive sublimate.
    PILLS, HOOPER'S.  Prep.  Sulphate of iron,
 and water, of each 8 oz.; dissolve, add Barbadoes
 aloes 21 lbs.; white canella  6 oz.; myrrh 2 oz.;
 opopanax $ oz.; make a mass ; divide each drachm
 into 18 pills, and put 40 into each box.
    PILLS, HYDRAGOGUE.   Syn. Bontius'
  Pills.  Pil. Hydragoga.   Prep. (P. Cod.) Aloes,
  gamboge, and ammoniacum, of each f j ;  vinegar
  3jyj ;  dissolve,  strain, evaporate,  and divide into 4
  gr. pills.  Strongly cathartic.   Used in dropsy.
    PILLS,  IODIDE  OF  MERCURY.   Syn.
  Pil.  Hydrargyri  Iodidi.   Prep. Protiodide  of
  mercury, and ginger, of each 3j ; confection  of
  hips  3iij; mix.  Dose. 5 to 15  grs., in scrofula,

    PILLS, IPECACUANHA,  (COMPOUND.)
  .Syn. Pil. Ipecacuanha  comp., (P. L.)  Pil. Ipe-
  cac et Opii, (P. E.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Compound
 powder of ipecacuanha 3iij ; powdered squills and
 ammoniacum, of each 3j;  mucilage q. s.  to mix.
  Narcotic, sudorific, and  expectorant.  Dose. 5 to
  15 grs., in chronic c°uKh!\^m*  <Sff>,    „
    PILLS,  JAMES'S   ANALEPTIC.    Prep.
 Antimonial powder, guaiacum, and pills  of  aloes
 and myrrh, equal parts ;  sirup q. s.; mix, and di
 vide into 4-gr. pills.   A diaphoretic purgative. 
PIL                    476                     PIL
  PILLS,  IRON,  (COMPOUND.)   Syn.  Fe-
male Pills.  Pil.  Ferri comp., (P. L.)   Pil.
Ferri Carbonatis, (P. E.)   Pil  Ferri  cum
Myrrha,   Prep.—1.  (P. L.)   Myrrh 3ij; carbon-
ate of soda 3j; triturate, add sulphate of iron 3j;
again triturate, then add treacle 3j ;  and beat to-
gether in a warm mortar.—2. (P. E.)  Saccharine
carbonate of iron 4 parts ; conserve of red roses 1
part; mix,  and divide into 5-gr.  pills.  Both the
above are  mild chalybeate  tonics.   Dose. 10 to
20 gre.
  PILLS,   IRON,  (SULPHATE.)  Syn.  Pil
Ferri Sulphatis.   Prep. (P. E.)  Dried sulphate
of iron 2 parts ; extract of dandelion 5 parts ; con-
serve of red roses 2 parts; liquorice powder 3 parts ;
mix, and divide  into 5-gr. pills.   Tonic.  Dose. 1
to 3 pills.
  PILLS,  KEYSER'S.  Prep.  Acetate of mer-
cury 12 grs. ; manna 3iss ; starch 6  grs. ;  mucil-
age of gum tragacanth to mix; divide into 6-gr.
pills.  Alterative.  Dose.  2 night and  morning,
gradually increased, in syphilis, &c.
  PILLS,  KITCHENER'S.   Syn. Pil. Rhei et
Carui.  Kitchener's  Peristaltic  Persuaders.
Prep. Turkey rhubarb 3ij ; sirup 3j ; oil of cara-
way 10 drops :  mix, and divide  into 40 pills. Sto-
machic, aperient.  Dose.  3 to 6.
  PILLS,   LOCKYER'S.   Prep.  Panacea of
antimony 10 grs. ;  white sugar Jj > mucilage to
mix ; divide into 100 pills.  Cathartic and  emetic.
Dose. 1 to  3 pills.
  PILLS,  MERCURIAL.   I. (Blue Pill.  Pil.
Carulea. Pil. Hydrargyri, P. L. E. and D.  Pil.
Mercuriales, P. L.  1745.)  Prep. (P. L.)   Mer-
cury 3ij ; confection of red roses 3iij ; triturate till
the globules are perfectly extinguished, then  add
liquorice  powder, 3j,  and beat into  a pill mass.
The Edinburgh and Dublin forms are similar ; the
formf orders  it to be  divided  into 5-gr. pills.
*#* This pill, if well prepared, presents no globules
of mercury when moderately rubbed on a piece of
white paper,  but  immediately communicates  a
white stain to gold.  It should possess considerable
density, and have a dark blue or slate color.  It
should contain  $ mercury, which may be  ascer-
tained from its sp. gr., or more exactly by an assay
for the metal.  (See  Sevum.)   Dose.  As an altera-
tive, 1 to 3 grs., combined with opium ; as  a pur-
gative, 5 to 15 grs.  A blue-pill over night, and  a
black draught in the morning, is a popular remedy
in bilious complaints.   (See  Abernethy  Medi-
cine.)
  II. (Collier.)  Mercury and sesquioxide of iron,
of each 3j ; confection of  red roses 3iij ; triturate
as before.   This has been proposed as an excellent
substitute for the  common  mercurial pill.  The
addition of only a few  grs. of the  above oxide of
iron to 1 oz. of conserve, renders it capable of rap-
idly killing a large quantity of mercury.
  III. (Tyson.)  Blue oxide of mercury (prepared
by decomposing calomel with liquor of potassa, to
which a little liquor of ammonia has been  added)
3ij; confection of roses 3vj; powdered chamomiles
3j; mix.   Also  proposed  as  a substitute  for the
College pill. (Pharm. Jour.)
  IV. Stearine 3j; rub  in a warm mortar till it
assumes the consistence of thick cream, then add
mercury  3iv ; rub till  " killed," and further  add
confection of roses and wheat flour, of each 3iij;
 powdered gum 3j.  (Pharm. Jour.)  Another pro.
 posed substitute for the College pill.
   V.  (Pil-  Hydrargyrosa, P.  Cod.)  Mercury
 and honey, of each 3vj ;  triturate till the globules
 are extinguished, then add aloes 3vj ; rhubarb 3iij ;
 scammony 3ij ; black pepper 3j ; make a pill mass.
 Contains -J  mercury.   Alterative  and aperient
 Dose. 5 to 10 grains. Belloste's, Barberousse's, and
 Morelot's pills, and  the Pil. Hydrargyri laxantes,
 (P. E. 1744,) and  the  Pil. Mercuriales,  (P. L
 1746,) are similar.
   PILLS,   MORRISON'S.  Prep.—l. (Morri-
 son's  Pills, No. 1.)  Aloes  and cream  of  tartar,
 equal parts ; mucilage q. s. to form  a pill mass.—
 2. (Morrison's Pills, No. 2.) Gamboge 3ij; aloes
 3iij ; colocynth 3j ;  cream  of tartar 3iv ; sirup to
 mix.  Both  the  above are  purgative; the  latter
 strongly so.   Dose of either, 5 to 15 grs.
   PILLS, NAPOLEON'S  PECTORAL.  Prep.
 Ipecacuanha 30 gre.; powdered squills and am-
 moniacum, of each 40 gre.;  mucilage to mix ; di-
 vide into 24 pills.   It is said that the above was a
 favorite remedy with  the late emperor of  France
 for difficulty of breathing, bronchitis, and various
 affections of the organs  of respiration.   Dose.  2
 pills night and morning.
   PILLS,  OPIUM.  Syn. Night  Pills.   Ano-
 dyne do.  Opiate do.  Pil. Opii sive Thebaica,
 (P. E.)   Opium and conserve of red rc/oes, of each
 1 part;  sulphate of potash 3 parts ; mix, and di-
 vide  into 5-gr. pills.  Dose. 1  or 2 pills, as an
 anodyne or soporific.  Each pill contains 1 gr. of
 opium.
   PILLS,  OPIUM AND  SOAP.    Syn.  Com-
 pound Soap  Pills.  Laudanum, (P. L. 1720.) Pn
 Saponacea, (P. L.  1745.)  P. Opii,  (P. L.  1788.;
 P. Saponis cum Opio,  (P. L. 1809, 1824, & P.D.)
 Pilula Saponis  composita, (P.  L. 1836.)   Prep.
 (P. L.)   Powdered  opium ^ss j  Castile  soap §ij  ;
 beat  together.  An excellent anodyne and sopo-
 rific.  Dose. 3 to 10 grs.  Contains one-fifth dry
 opium.
   PILLS,   PECTORAL.   Prep.  (Haggart)
 Powdered ipecacuanha," and squills,,of each 3iv;
[ acetate of morphia 16 gra. ;  Castile  soap §j ; mix,
 and divide into 192  pills.  A most excellent pec-
 toral.   Dose. 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily.
   PILLS, PETER'S.  Prep. Aloes, jalap, scam-
 mony, and gamboge, of each 3ij ; calomel 3j ; beat
 into a mass with rectified spirit  of wine.  A pow-
 erful cathartic.
   FILLS, RHUBARB.   Syn.  Pil. Rhai.  Prep.
 (P. E.)   Powdered  rhubarb 9 parts; acetate of
 potash 1 part ; conserve of red roses 5 parts ; mix,
 and divide into 5-gr. pills.  Stomachic ; purgative.
 Dose. 2 to 4 pills.
   PILLS, RHUBARB, (COMPOUND.)   Syn
 Pil. Rhei comp., (P. L. and E.)   Prep.—l.  (P. L.)
 Powdered rhubarb §j; powdered aloes 3vj; pow-
 dered myrrh 3iv ; Castile soap 3j; oil of caraway
 f 3ss;  sirup q. s. to make a  pill  mass.—2.  (P. E.
 1839.)   Rhubarb 12 parts;  aloes 9  parts;  myrrh
 and soap, of each 6  parts; confection of red roses
 5 parts ; oil  of peppermint 1 part;  mix, and di-
 vide into 5-gr. pills.—3.  (P.  E. 1817.  Edinburgh
 Pills.)  As  the  last, but beaten up with sirup of
 orange peel instead  of conserve of roses.  *** All
 the above are tonic, stomachic, and mildly purga-
 tive.   Dose. 10 to 20 gre. 
PIL
477
PIN
   PILLS OF RHUBARB AND  IRON.  Syn.
 Pil. Rhai et Ferri.  Prep.  (P. E.)  Dried sul-
 phate of iron 4 parts; extract of rhubarb 10 parts;
 conserve of roses  5 parts; divide  into 5 gr. pills.
 Tonic ;  stomachic. Dose. 2 to 4 pills.
   PILLS,  RUDIUS'S.  Prep.  Colocynth pulp
 3vj ; agaric, black hellebore, and turpethum root,
 of each  ^ss ; cinnamon, mace, and cloves, of each
 3ij  ; rectified spirit fx ; digest 4 days, express the
 tincture, and evaporate  to  a  proper consistence.
 Formerly  esteemed as one of the most certain ca-
 thartics, in  troublesome constipation. Dose. 6  to
 30 grs.
   PILLS, SADILLOT'S FEBRIFUGE. Prep.
 Disulphate of quinine 12 grs.; powdered opium 3
 grs. ; confection of opium  10  grs.,  or q. s. for  12
 pills.  Dose. 1 pill every hour or two, in the inter-
 mission  of an ague.
   PILLS,   SAGAPENUM,  (COMPOUND.)
 Syn. Pil. Sagapeni comp.  Prep. (P. L.)   Saga-
 penum Jj ; aloes 3ss ; sirup  of ginger q. s.  Dose.
 5 to 20 grs., as a stimulant purgative in dyspepsia,
 with flatulence.
   PILLS,  SCOT'S.   Prep.  I.   Aloes  9 lbs.;
 jalap 3  lbs.;  ginger  k lb.; oil of aniseed 1 oz.;
 treacle  21 oz.; mix.—2.  Aloes 1  lb.; colocynth
 4 oz. ; scammony  and gamboge, of each i oz.; oil
 of aniseed 2 dr. ; mix with sirup, and divide into 5
 gr. pills.  A good purgative pill.
   PILLS,  SCOT'S.   (Anderson's.)  Prep.   1.
 (Pil. Andersonis,  P. Cod.)  Aloes and gamboge,  of
 each 3vj; oil of aniseed 3j; sirup to mix.—2. Bar-
 badoes aloes 1 lb.; jalap 4 oz.; black hellebore 2
 oz.; subcarbonate  of potash 1 oz.; oil of aniseed ^
 oz ; sirup q. s.  The last is a good purge,  but the
 first is the most powerful.
   PILLS,  SPEEDIMAN'S.  Prep. Aloes 1 lb.;
 myrrh,  rhubarb,  and  extract of chamomile,  of
 each 4 oz.;  oil of chamomile \ oz.;  mix.   An ex-
 cellent tonic and stomachic purge.
   PILLS,  SQ'UILL.   Syn. Pil. Scilla, (P. E.)
 Pil. Scilla Comp. (P. L. & D.)   Prep.  (P. L.)
 Powdered  squills 3j ; ginger and ammoniacum,  of
 each 3ij ; soap 3iij ; sirup q. s. ; mix. An excel-
 lent expectorant and diuretic.  Dose. 5 to 20 grs.,
 in coughs,  chronic bronchial affections,  &c.   It
 soon spoils.
   PILLS,  STARKEY'S.   Prep.  Extract  of
 opium ^iv ; mineral bezoar and nutmeg, of  each
 ^ij ; saffron and Virginian snake root, of each §j ;
 Starkey's soap lb. ss ; oil of sassafras §ss; tincture
 of antimony  (old)  f §ij ;  mix.   Anodyne.   Dose.
 3 to 10 grs.
   PILLS,   STOERCK'S.   Prep.  Extract  of
 hemlock 3j;  powdered hemlock q.  s. to make a
 pill  mass;  divide into 2-gr.  pills.   Dose.  1  to  4
 twice a day, in various glandular and visceral en-
 largements, pulmonary affections, cancer, scrofula,
 neuralgia, &c.
  PILLS,  STORAX.  Syn. Pil.  Styracis, (P.
 E.)  Pil. Styracis Comp., (P. L.)   Prep.  (P. L.)
 Strained storax 3iij  ; powdered  opium and saffron,
 of each  3j ; mix.  Anodyne.   Dose.  5 to 10 grs.,
 in chronic coughs, &c.        f
  PILLS,  STRYCHNINE.  Syn.  Pil. Strych-
 nia.  Prep. (Majendie.) Strychnia  2 grs.;  con-
serve of roses 3ss; mix, divide  into  24  pills and
silver them.
  'ILLS,  TANJORE.  Syn.  East India Pills.
 Carnatic Snake do. Asiatic do.  Pil. Arsenicl
 Prep. (P. Cod.)  White arsenic 1 gr.;  black pep-
 per 12 gra.; triturate well, add powdered gum 2
 grs., and water q. s.  to make a  pill mass ; divide
 into 15 pills.  Dose. 1 or 2 after a meal.  Com-
 monly employed in  the East  Indies  in syphilis,
 elephantiasis, the bite of poisonous snakes, and as
 a preventive of canine madness.
   PILLS,  TONIC.  Prep.  1. (Thomson.)—a.
 Rhubarb  and  ginger, of each 3ss;  extract of
 chamomile  3j;  divide into  30  pills.  Dose. 2 or
 3 twice a day in dyspepsia and  chlorosis.—b. Ses-
 quioxide of  iron, and extract of hemlock, of each
 3j; divide into 20 pills.   Dose.  1 or 2 twice a day
 in fluor albus and scrofula.—2.  (Collier.) a.  Tar-
 trate of iron and extract of gentian, of  each 3j;
 oil  of cinnamon  2 drops ; for 30 pills.   Dose.  3 to
 6, 3 or 4 times a day.  A good stomachic tonic.—
 b. Oxide of zinc 3ss, (or sulphate 3j;)  myrrh 3ij;
 camphor 3j;  confection of hips to  mix; for 40
 pills.   Dose. 1 or 2 pills 3 times a day, in epilepsy,
 chorea, and other nervous disorders, debility, &.c.
 —3. Sulphate of iron, ginger, and  myrrh, equal
 parts ; conserve of roses to mix.  Divide into 4
 gr.  pills.   Dose. 1 twice a day ;  in debility, &c.—
 4. Powdered myrrh  and sulphate of iron, of each
 3j ; sulphate of quinine  3ss ; powdered capsicum
 15  grs.; conserve to mix; divide  into  60  pills.
 Dose.  1 or 2 twice or thrice  a day in debility, dys-
 pepsia, ague,  &c.—5. (Pil. Tonica Bacheri. P
 Cod.)  Alkaline extract of hellebore, and extract
 of myrrh, of each 3ij ; powdered holy thistle  3j ;
 mix and divide  into  4-gr. pills.—6.  (Pil. Tonica
 Stahlii) Powdered iron filings, gum ammoniacum,
 and extract of  lesser centaury, (chironia centau-
 rium,) of each 3j ; sirup of fumitory q. s. to mix.
  PILLS, VERATRIA.  Syn. Pil. Veratria.
 Prep.  (Turnbull.)  Veratria 1 gr.; extract of hen-
 bane and  liquorice powder, of each  12  gra.; mix,
 and divide into 12 pills.  Dose.  1 every  3 hours;
 in dropsy,  epilepsy,  hysteria,  paralysis, nervous
 palpitations, &c.
  PILLS,  WARD'S ANTIMONIAL.  Prep.
 Glass of antimony, finely levigated, 4 oz.; dragon's
 blood 1 oz.;  mountain wine q. s. to make a mass;
 divide into 1^-gr. pills.  Emetic.  *
  PILLS, WORM.  Syn.  Pil. Vermifuga vel
 Anthelmintica.  Prep. 1.  (Peschier.) Ethereal
 extract of malefern 30 drops ; extract of dandelion
 3j; powdered  gum  q. s. for  30  pills.  Dose. 6 to
 20 or more,  followed in half an hour by a strong
 dose of castor oil.—2. Calomel §j j sugar §iss;
 mucilage to mix; divide  into 240 pills.  Dose. 1
 or 2 over night followed by a strong dose  of castor
 oil early the next morning.—3.  Gamboge 8 grs.;
 calomel 5 grs.;  mucilage to mix.   For a morning's
 dose.
  PIMARIC  ACID, obtained  by Laurent from
 the  turpentine  of pinus maritima, by the action of
 hot  alcohol.  By distillation in vacuo it yields py-
 romaric acid, and under  ordinary pressure pima-
rone.   By the  action of nitric acid it yields azo-
maric acid.
  PIMENTIC  ACID.   Heavy oil of pimento.
  PINIC ACID.  The portion  of common white
resin soluble in cold alcohol of sp. gr. -883.
  PINK,  BROWN.  Prep. French berries and
pearlash, of  each 1 lb.;  fustic  chips £ lb.; water
l1, gallons;  boil in a tin or pewter vessel, and 
PIT                    478                    PLA
strain through flannel  while  hot;  then  dissolve
alum 1£ lbs., in hot water 2k gallons, and add the
solution to the strained decoction as  long as a sedi-
ment falls ;  wash the latter, drain and dry.  Some
persons omit the fustic.  Used as a yellow pigment.
Is a fine glaziug color when ground in linseed and
used with  drying oil.
   PINK,  DUTCH.  Prep. French berries 1 lb.;
turmeric £ lb.; alum  J lb.; water 1£ gallon ; boil
£ an hour, strain, evaporate to 2 quarts, add whit-
ing 3 lbs., and dry by a gentle heat.  Starch  or
white lead is sometimes employed instead of whit-
ing, to give  it a  body.  Golden yellow.  Used as
it pigment
   PINK  DYE.   Prep. Washed safflowera 2 oz.;
subcarbonate of potash 3 dr.;  spirit  of wine 7 oz.;
digest 2 hours, add water  1 lb.; digest for 3 hours
more, and add lemon juice q. s.  to strike a rose color.
Used as a cosmetic and to dye silk stockings.
   PINK,  ENGLISH.   Syn.  Light Pink. Pre-
pared like Dutch pink, but with more whiting.
   PINK,  ROSE.  Whiting colored with a decoc-
tion of Brazil wood and pearlash.  A very pretty
color, but  does not 6tand.  It is always kept in the
damp state.   The color may be varied by substi-
tuting alum  for pearlash, or by the addition of a
little spirits of tin.
   PINK  SAUCERS.   Prep. Well  washed saf-
flower 8  oz.; carbonate of soda 2 oz.; water 2
gallons; infuse, strain, add French chalk, scraped
fine with  Dutch rushes, 4 lbs.; mix well, and pre-
cipitate  the color on it by adding a solution of tar-
taric acid;  collect the  red powder, drain,  add a
very small quantity of gum, and apply the paste
to the saucers.   Less  chalk may be used for a very
fine article.
   PIPERINE.   Syn. Piperina. Prep. (P. Cod.)
Treat alcoholic extract of black pepper with a so-
lution of potash, (1 to  100 ;)  wash the residue with
water, dissolve in alcohol, filter, and  let  it evapo-
rate spontaneously.   White,  tasteless, inodorous,
fusible,  and  crystalline; reddened by oil of vitriol.
It has been  given in doses of  6 to 12  grs. in inter-
mittent  fevers.
   PITCH,   BURGUNDY.   Syn. Pix  Burgun-
dica.  Pix Abietina, (P. L.)  " The true Burgun-
dy pitch,  so often prescribed for plasters, intended
to produce a mild counter-irritation, is the resin of
the pinus abies.  It appears that the importation
of this  substance has for some  years past been
gradually lessening in amount, in consequence of
the substitution for it  of a factitious pitch, made by
melting common resin together with linseed-oil,
and coloring the mass with annotto.  Mr. Cooley,
in ' The  Chemist,'  July,  1844, says,  this  is well
known  among manufacturing druggists, the small-
est difference of price inducing those gentlemen to
substitute the spurious for the genuine  article.—
' The physiological  action of the  two articles is
considerably different, since  Burgundy pitch acts
upon the  skin as a powerful local irritant, exciting
a slight  degree  of inflammation, and not unfre-
quently producing a  pimply eruption, and an  ex-
udation of  purulent  matter  from  the cuticle on
which it  is  applied.   It is celebrated  for its effects
when employed  as a  plaster in all cases where
warmth,  support, and  long adhesion to  the skin
are desirable, and in the latter quality no substance
equals  it.  I have worn a  pure Burgundy pitch-
plaster on my chest  from November until the fol-
lowing April, and it  was still adhesive.   The fac-
titious Burgundy pitch  has  similar properties, but
in an immensely less degree.'   We cannot  suffi-
ciently express our abhorrence of such practices as
the manufacture  and  sale  of spurious drugs."
(Lancet.)
  The article  above  alluded to  is made by melting
good yellow resin 1 cwt, with  linseed oil 1 gallon,
and palm oil  (bright) q. s. to color.  The mass  is
next allowed to cool  considerably, and  then pulled
with the hands in  the same way as lead plaster is
treated, after  which it  is placed  in bladders or
" stands" for use. The pulling  or working destroys
the translucency of the  resin, and  imparts the
opacity of foreign Burgundy pitch.  Water may
be employed to cool it  down.  Annotto is  often
substituted for palm oil as a coloring.  The  addi-
tion of some of the droppings or bottoms of  Can-
ada balsam, Chio turpentine,  oil of juniper, &c.,
will render this article  equal to foreign pitch; but
in commerce this is  never attempted, the aim be-
ing only  the  production of a lively color with
moderate  toughness.   A common melting-pan and
fire (if clean and carefully managed) will succeed
sufficiently; but, of course, both  for safety and
convenience, steam is preferable, and, on the large
scale,  almost  indispensable.   A  good  workman
will pull and put into stands or casks about 5 cwt
daily, or from 1 cwt.  to 3 cwt. in bladders, the
latter quantity depending on the size of the blad-
ders ;  the small bladders occupying much longer,
from the greater loss of time in tying, cutting, &c.
  PITTACALL.   (From mrTa, pitch, and  *aXof,
beautiful.)  A  substance  resembling  indigo, ob-
tained by Reichenbach from a certain portion of
oil of  tar, by the action of baryta.   It gives  a fast
blue dye to cotton mordanted with  tin and alum.
  PLASTER.  Syn.   Emplastrum, (Lat., from
cpirXaaau,  to spread  upon)  Plasters  are external
applications that possess sufficient  consistence not
to adhere to the fingers when  cold, but which be-
come soft and adhesive at the temperature of the
human body.  They are chiefly composed of unc-
tuous substances united to metallic oxides, or pow-
ders,  or to wax,  or resin.  Plasters  are usually
formed while  warm into J lb. rolls, about 8 or  9
inches long, and wrapped in paper. When want-
ed for use, a little is melted off the roll by means
of a heated iron spatula, and spread upon leather,
linen, or  silk.   The less adhesive plasters, when
spread, are usually surrounded with a  margin of
resin  plaster to make them  adhere. In  the  prep-
aration of plasters,  the heat  of a water-bath  or
steam should alone be  employed.  On the large
scale, well cleaned  and polished copper, or tinned
copper pans, surrounded with iron jackets, supplied
with  high-pressure  steam,  are used  for this pur-
pose.   The resins and gum resins that enter into
their  composition, should be previously purified by
straining.   After  the  ingredients  are mixed and
the mass has acquired sufficient  consistence  by
cooling, portions  of it  are taken in  the  hands
anointed  with a little olive oil, and well pulled or
worked till it becomes  solid enough  to form into
rolls.   To promote  the cooling of  the plaster it is
usual to plunge it into cold water,  and to expose it
to  the action of the  fluid by working it  about,
after which it must  be well pulled in  the hands to 
PLA
479
PLA
 remove the water.  Many plasters, as  those of
 lead and resin, derive much of their whiteness and
 beauty from this treatment.  White plasters  are
 not, however, always the best, but they  are those
 which are most admired and sought after.
   BLASTER,  AMMONIACUM.   Syn.  Em-
 plastrum Ammoniaci, (P. L. E. & D.)  Prep.  (P.
 L.) Ammoniacum (strained) gv;  distilled vinegar
 5yiij ;  dissolve and evaporate.   The P.  D. orders
 vinegar  of  squills  £  pint.   Adhesive, stimulant,
 and resolvent.   In scrofula, indolent swellings,
 &c.
    PLASTER, AMMONIACUM AND MER-
 CURY.   Syn. Emp.  Ammoniaci cum Hydrargy-
 ro,  (P. L. & D.)  E.  Ammon.  et  Hydrargyri,
 (P. E.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Olive oil 3j ; heat it in  a
 mortar, add  flowers of sulphur  8 grs.;  triturate,
 add mercury §iij ; again triturate till the globules
 are  extinguished, then add it  to  ammoniacum
 (strained) lb.j, melted by a gentle heat, and mix
 well.  As the last, but more powerful.  *** This
 plaster cannot be rolled till considerably cooled,
 and must not be put into water.
    II. (Wholesale.) Mercury 38  oz.; prepared se-
 vum -J lb.; triturate as last, and add the mixture
 to strained ammoniacum 10 lbs.   Fine blue color
 and quickly made.
    PLASTER,  AROMATfC.    Syn.   Stoma*h
 Plaster.  Emp.  Aromaticum.    Prep.  (P.  D.)
 Strained frankincense (thus) §iij ; beeswax %ss ;
 melt, and when considerably cooled, add powdered
 cinnamon 3vj ; oils of allspice and lemons, of each
 3ij.  %* Must not be put  into  water.   Stimu-
 lant ; applied over the stomach in dyspepsia, pain,
 nausea, flatulence, &c.   Some add camphor 3j.
    PLASTER, ASAFCETIDA.  Syn. Emp. As-
 safcetida. Prep. (P. E.) Lead plaster and strained
 asafcatida, of each, §ij; strained galbanum  and
 beeswax, of each, gj ;  melt  together.  *** Must
 not be put into water.   Antispasmodic.  Applied
 to the stomach or abdomen in hysteria, or  to  the
 chest in hooping-cough.
   PLASTER,  BELLADONNA.   Syn.  Emp.
 Belladonna, (P. L. E.  &. D.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Ex-
 tract  of deadly  nightshade  5,ssj  resin  plaster,
 melted by a gentle heat, §iij j  mix.  A  powerful
 anodyne and antispasmodic;  m neuralgia  and
 rheumatic pains, and  as an application to painful
 tumors.  The plaster of the shops is usually defi-
 cient in extract.  The  following is a form I have
 seen used in the  wholesale trade:—Lead plaster
 and resin plaster, of each, 2£ lbs.; extract of bel-
 ladonna l| lbs.  This plaster must not be  pulled
 in water.
   PLASTER, BURGUNDY  PITCH.  Syn.
 Cephalic  plaster.   Emp.  cephalicum,   (P.  L.
 1745.)   Emp.  Picis Burgundica,  (P. L. 1788.)
 Emp. Picis comp.,  (P. L. 1809, 1824.)  Emp.  Pi-
 cis, (P. L. 1836, & P. E.)   Prep.  (P. L.)  Bur-
 gundy pitch lb. ij ; resin of the  spruce fir (thus)
 lb.j; yellow  rosin and  beeswax,  of each, §iv;
 melt, add  olive oil and  water, of each, Jij ;  ex-
 pressed oil of mace ^j  ;  and boil to a proper con-
 sistence.  Stimulant and  counter-irritant.  Applied
 to  the chest in pulmonary affections, to the  joints
 in  rheumatism, and to the loins in lumbago.  It is
 a good warm  plaster to  wear on the chest during
winter.   *#* The pitch plaster  of the shops  is
made as follows : Factitious Burgundy pitch, bright
 colored, 42 lbs.;  palm oil (bright) f lb.; beeswax
 (bright) 5 lbs.;  melt, and when nearly  cold, add
 oil of mace 6 oz.; oil of nutmeg 1 oz.
   PLASTER,  CANTHARIDES.  Syn.  Blis-
 tering  Plaster.   Emp. Lytta.  (P.  L. 1809.)
 Emp. Cantharidis, (P. L. E. &, D.)   Prep.—1. (P.
 L.) Wax plaster lb. iss ; lard lb. ss ; melt, and when
 considerably cooled, add finely powdered Spanish
 flies lb. j, and stir till stiff—2. (P. E.) Cantharides,
 resin, beeswax, and suet, of each, fij ; mix as last
 Used to raise blisters.  It should be spread on lea-
 ther with a  cold knife,  and surrounded with  a
 margin of resin plaster.   A piece of thin  muslin or
 tissue paper is usually placed between the plaster
 and the  skin to prevent  absorption.—3. (Whole-
 sale.)  Flies  and yellow rosin,  of  each, 6  lbs.;
 suet 10 lbs.; beeswax  and lard,  of each, 4 lbs.
 *** The above should be rolled in starch powder,
 and not with oil.
   PLASTER,  CANTHARIDES,   (COM-
 POUND.) Syn. Emp. Cantharidis comp. Prep.
 (P. E.)  Venice  turpentine ^ivss;  Burgundy pitch
 and cantharides, of each, fiij;  beeswax 3j; ver-
 digris § ss; black pepper and  powder mustard,  of
 each, 3ij ; mix.   Stronger than  the last.
   PLASTER,  COURT.  Syn. Sticking Plas-
 ter.   Emp.  adhesivum  Anglicum,  (Ph.  Bor.)
 Prep. 1. (Paris.) Black silk or sarsenet is strained
 and brushed over 10 or 12 times with  the follow-
 ing composition:—Balsam (gum) of benzoin J oz.;
 rectified spirit 6 oz.; dissolve.  In a separate ves-
 sel  dissolve 1 oz. of isinglass in  as little  water  as
 possible ; strain each solution, mix, and decant the
 clear.  It is applied warm.  When the last coat is
 quite dry, a finishing coat must be  given with  a
 solution of 4 oz. of Chio turpentine in 6 oz. of
 tincture of benzoin.—2.  Isinglass  1  oz.; dissolve
 in  proof spirit  12 oz.; add tincture  of benzoin  2
 oz.; give 5 or 6 coats, and finish off as last.—3.
 Isinglass 1 oz.; water 3 oz.; dissolve, add tincture
 of  benzoin  1 oz.; apply as  above, and  finish off
 with a coat of tincture of benzoin or  tincture of
 balsam of Peru.   *#* Goldbeaters' skin is now fre-
 quently substituted for sarsenet.
   PLASTER, CUMIN.  Syn. Emp. cymini. E.
 cumini.   Prep. (P. L. 1824.) Burgundy pitch  lb.iij ;
 beeswax ^iij ;  melt, and add cumin seeds, caraway
 do., and laurel berries, (all in fine powder,) of each
 §iij; water and olive oil, of each  f ^iss.—2. Yellow
 rosin 7  lbs.;  beeswax  and linseed  oil,  of each,
 k lb.;  powdered cumin and  caraway seeds, of
 each, 7 oz.;  mix.   Discutient;  applied to the
 stomach and  belly in dyspepsia and  flatulence,
 and also to indolent tumors.
  PLASTER,  GALBANUM.    Syn.  Yellow
 Diachylon.  Gum do.  Emp.  Galbani comp., (P.
 L. 1824.)  Emp.  Galbani, (P. L.  1836  & P. D.)
 E.  Gummosum, (P. E.)  Prep.—l.  (P. L.) Lead
 plaster lb. iij ;  resin of spruce fir giij ; melt,  add
 common turpentine (Venice) 3x; strained galba-
 num §viij.—2. (Wholesale.)  Lead  plaster 42 lbs.;
 yellow rosin  12  lbs.; strained galbanum 2  lbs.;
 strained  asafcetida 1  oz.   Stimulant and resol-
 vent.
  PLASTERS,  ISSUE.   Syn.  Sparadrapum
 pro  Fonticulis.   Prep.  Beeswax  lb. ss ; Bur-
 gundy pitch  and Chio  turpentine, of each  fiv;
 vermilion  and  orris powder, of each  £j ; musk 4
gre.; melt, spread upon linen, polish with a smooth 
PLA
480
PLA
 piece of glass  moistened with water, and cut into
 pieces.
   PLASTER, KENNEDY'S  CORN.   Prep.
 Wax lb. j; Venice turpentine Jiv; verdigris ^iss ;
 spread  on cloth, cut, polish, and put 12 bits into
 each box.
   PLASTER,  LEAD.  Syn.  Diachylon.
 White do.   Simple do.  Diapalme.   Diachylon
 simplex,  (P. L. 1720.)   Emp. commune,  (P. L.
 1745.)  E.  Lythargyri, (P. L. 1788, P. E. & D.)
 Emp. Plumbi,  (P.  L.  1809, and since.)    Prep.
 I. (P. L.)   Finely-powdered litharge lb. vj;  olive
 oil 1 gallon; water 1 quart; boil to the consistence
 of a plaster,  adding more water if required.
   II. (P. E.) Litharge §v ; olive oil f §xij;  water
 f §iij.   As last.
   III.  (Otto Kohnke.)  For each pound of litharge
 employed, add  4, pint of colorless vinegar,  (each
 ounce  of which is capable  of saturating 3ss of
 carbonate of potash ;)  boil  until all  moisture  is
 evaporated, and until only a few striae of  litharge
 rise  to  the  surface, then  remove the  heat,  add
 gradually k  to £ as much vinegar as before, and
 boil to a proper consistence.
   IV. (Wholesale.)—a. Genoa oil 60 lbs.; litharge
 30 lbs.; water 2 or 3 gallons.—6. Oil 70  lbs.;
 litharge 30 lbs.; water 2 or 3 gallons.
   Remarks.  The London College orders too little
 oil.  The second, fourth, and fifth forms produce
 beautiful plasters, and  so does  the third, provided
 enough oil  be  used.    The  proper proportion  of
 litharge is 1 lb. to every 2£ lbs. of oil, (C. Watt,)
 and without this is used, the plaster speedily gets
 hard and brittle, and loses  its adhesiveness.   The
 process consists in putting the water and litharge
 into a clean  and polished tinned-copper or copper
 pan, mixing them  well together with  a spatula,
 adding  the  oil, and boiling with constant stirring
 till the plaster is brittle, when thoroughly  cold.
 This  process usually occupies from 4 to 5 hours,
 but by  adopting  the  third formula,  an excellent
 plaster  may be made in 15  or 20  minutes.   To
 render this plaster very white, it  is  usual to  sub-
 mit it to laborious pulling.
   Use.  As a simple strapping, but principally as  a
 basis for other plasters.
   PLASTER, MELILOT.  Syn.  Emp. Meli-
 loti.   Prep. (P. E. 1744.)   Fresh melilot, chop-
 ped small, lb. vj ; suet lb. iij ; boil till crisp, strain
 with pressure, and add yellow rosin lb. viij ;  bees-
 wax lb. iv.   Stimulant.   Used to  dress blisters,
 &c.   The  greater  portion of this plaster in  the
 shops is colored with verdigris, and is frequently
 made without the herb.  I have seen the follow-
 ing form  used in the wholesale trade:—Yellow
 rosin  18 lbs.;  green  ointment 4£ lbs.;  yellow
 wax 3  lbs.; finely-powdered verdigris  to give  a
 deep-green color.
   PLASTER, MERCURIAL.  Syn.   Emp.
 Hydrargyri, (P. L. &. E.)   Prep. (P. L.)  Lead
 plaster  lb. j; melt,  add mercury ^iij, previously
 " killed" by  trituration with balsam of sulphur
 f 3j.—2. (Wholesale.)   Mercury 7 lbs.; prepared
 sevum £ lb.; triturate  till the globules disappear,
and add it  to  lead plaster,  melted  by a gentle
heat 36 lbs.; stir well together.   Very fine blue or
lead  color.  Used as a discutient in glandular en-
largements, and other swellings ;  and also applied
over the hepatic regions in liver complaints.
   PLASTER, OPIUM.  Syn.  Emp. Opii, (P. L.
 E. & D.)   Prep.  I.  (P. L.)  Lead plaster lb. j ;
 melt, add  powdered thus Jiij ; mix,  and further
 add powdered opium  ^ss ;  water f 3V*'J» and boil
 to a proper consistence.  The other Colleges omit
 the  water, and  use  Burgundy pitch  for  thus.
 Used as an anodyne.
   II. (Wholesale.)  Lead plaster 10 lbs.; yellow
 resin 30 oz.; powdered opium 4 oz.
   PLASTER, OXIDE OF IRON.  Syn.  Iron
 Plaster.   Frankincense   do.   Strengthening
 do.   Emp. Roborans.   E.  Ferri  Oxydi.   E.
 Ferri,  (P. E.)   E. Thuris,  (P.  D.)  Prep.  I.
 (P. E.)  Lead plaster SJiij;  yellow resin 3vj; bees-
 wax  3iij ;  melt together, then add  red oxide of
 iron ^j, previously triturated with olive oil f 3iiiss.
   II. (P.  L.  1788.)   Thus lb. ss ; dragon's blood
 ^iij ;  lead plaster lb. ij.
   III.  (Wholesale.)   Lead plaster  (dry) 72 lbs.;
 powdered  yellow  resin 12 lbs.;  crocus  martis
 (lively  colored) 14 lbs.; olive oil 1  quart.  Iron
 plaster  is strengthening and stimulant, and em-
 ployed  as  a mechanical support in muscular re-
 laxation, weakness of the  joints, &c, especially
 by public dancers.
   PLASTER, OXYCROCEUM.  Syn.   Emp.
 Oxycroceum.    Prep.—1.   (P.  E.  1744.)   Bees-
 \$1ax lb. j;  black pitqh and  strained galbanum, of
 each  lb. ss ;  melt;  and add Venice turpentine,
 powdered  myrrh, and  olibanum,  of each ^iij;
 powdered  saffron  §ij.—2.   (Wholesale.)   Black
 pitch 9  lbs.; black rosin 10£ lbs.;  beeswax and
 lard,' of each  2\ lbs.;  melt together.   Warm;
 discutient.
   PLASTER, PARACELSUS.   Syn.  Emp.
 Stypticum. Prep. Lead plaster 28 lbs.; galbanum
 plaster 2 lbs.;  powdered white  canella, and gum
 thus,  of each 1£ lb. ; melt together.        ^
   PLASTER, RED   LEAD.   Syn.  Emp.  e
 Minio.   Made as lead plaster, but  with red lead
 instead of litharge.  If boiled to perfect dryness it
 forms the  Emp. e minio fuscum.  Lead plaster,
 colored  with red lead, is usually sold for it.
  PLASTER, RESIN. Syn. Adhesive Plaster.
 Baynton's do.   Emp. Resina, (P. L.)   E. Resin-
 osum, (P. E.)   E. Lythargyri  cum Resina, (P.
 D.)   E. Adhesivum.  Prep.—1.  (P. L.)  Lead
 plaster  (dry) lb. iij ; melt,  and  add yellow resin
 (powdered) lb.  ss.   Principally used  as  a strap-
ping  for dressing ulcers,  retaining the lips of cuts
 and  wounds  in  contact,   &c.—2.  (Wholesale.)
 Lead plaster  (dry)  60  lbs.;  pale  yellow  resin
 (powdered)  10  lbs.
  PLASTER,  SOAP.    Syn.   Emp.  Saponis,
 (P. L. E. & D.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Litharge plaster
lb. iij ; soap (white)  sliced  lb. ss  ; melt  together,
and boil to a  proper consistence.  If it contains
water it will crumble. Discutient; in abrasions, &c.
  PLASTER,  SOAP,  (COMPOUND.)   Syn.
Emp.  Saponis comp. vel adharens.  Prep.  (P. D.)
Soap  plaster gij ;  resin plaster Sjiij ;  melt together.
 Used  in abrasions, &c.   *»* Neither of the above
must be put into water.
  PLASTER, VERDIGRIS.    Syn.  Corn
Plaster.   Emp.   jEruginis.   Prep.   (P. Cod.)
Wax  4 oz.;  Burgundy pitch 2 oz.;  melt,  add
Venice turpentine  and powdered verdigris, of each
loz.
  PLASTER, WARMING.  Syn. Emp. Calk- 
PLA
481
P01
 FAdENs.   Prep.   (P.  D.)   Burgundy  pitch  7
 parts; melt,  and add  plaster of  cantharides  1
 part   Some add  a little camphor.   Stimulant and
 rubefacient.   Used  in   chest  complaints, local
 pains, &c.
   PLASTER, WAX.   Syn.  Simple Plaster.
 Emp. Attrahens. E. Simplex, (P. E.)  E. Cera,
    u    .?reP- (P-L)  Yellow wax and suet, of
 each lb. iij ; yellow resin lb. j; melt and strain. A
 simple dressing.
   PLATINIZING.  Proc.  I.   (In the moist
 way)   Solid  chloride of platinum  1 part, is dis-
 solved  in water 100  parts, and to  this solution is
 added common salt 8 parts; or still better, 1 part
 ">f platino-chloride of ammonia and 8 parts of hy-
 ti ""-chlorate of ammonia are placed in a flat porce-
 lain vessel. 32 to  40 parts of water poured over it,
 the vhole  heated to boiling, and  the  vessels of
 coppe- or brass, perfectly bright, are placed there-
 'n-  Th->y will be covered  in a  few seconds with
 a brilliant and firmly-adhering layer of platina.
   II.  (By  the Electrotype.)—a.  Proceed as di-
 rected  under Voltaic Gilding, but make use of a
 dilute solution of  the double chloride of soda and
 platinum.    Th-*ee immersions  suffice ;  between
 each immersion It is necessary to dry the surface
 with fine linen, ruobing rather briskly, after which
 it  must  be thoroughly  cleaned   with  levigated
 chalk.   When copper  has been   gilded  in  the
 moist  way, the  gilt surface has  not  always a
 beautiful tint; but if the  copper be previously
 covered with a pellicle  of platina, a very beauti-
 ful  golden  surface may be  produced.  (M. Bo-
 ettger.)
   b. (M. Ruolz.)   As the third process of  voltaic
 gilding, (p. 335,) but using double chloride of pla-
 tinum and potassium, dissolved in caustic potassa.
 Thjs solution allows of platinizing  with  the same
 facility and  promptitude  as in gilding or silvering.
 *** Manufacturing and operative  chemists  will
 find, in this  process,  a means of procuring large
 capsules of platinized brass, which combine cheap-
 ness with the necessary resistance to saline  or
 acid solutions.   1 millegramme  of platinum  is
 capable of perfectly covering 50 square millimetres,
 which corresponds to  a  thickness of l-100,000th
 o» a millimetre.   Platinum, thus applied,  may be
 obtained from the crude solution of platinum ore,
 as the  metals which  accompany it do not injure
 the effect.   (Dumas.)
   PLATINUM.   Syn.  Platina, (from  plat a,
 Span,  silver.)   A heavy,  white-colored  metal,
 chiefly imported from South America, where it is
 found  in  a granular form, associated  with some
 other rare  metals.  It has the  sp. gr. 21-25  to
 21*5  after  forging,  being  the heaviest  metal
 known, and is remarkable for its  hardness, and
 power of  resisting heat,  and  acid  menstrua.
 Crude platinum is purified by solution in nitro-
 muriatic acid,  somewhat dilute, precipitation by
 muriate of ammonia, and exposing the precipitate
 to a violent heat.   The metal reduced in an ag-
 glutinated state, may be  rendered  more compact
 by pressure  while  red hot.  Platinum  undergoes
 no change by exposure to air and moisture, or the
strongest heat of  a smith's forge, and  is not at-
tacked by any pf the pure  acids, but is dissolved
 oy chlorine  and  nitromuriatic acid, though with
more difficulty than gold.   Spongy  and powdered
                      61
 platinum possesses the remarkable property of caus-
 ing  the  union of  oxygen  and hydrogen  gasesi
 Platinum is precipitated from  its solutions  by de-
 oxidizing  substances  under the form  of a  black
 powder, which has the power of absorbing oxygen,
 and  again imparting it to combustible substances,
 and  thus causing their oxidation.   In this  way
 alcohol and pyroxilic  spirit may be converted into
 the  acetic and  formic  acids,  &c.   (See Acetic
 Acid.)—Oxide or Protoxide  of Platinum is ob-
 tained by digesting protochloride of platinum in a
 solution of pure  potassa in very slight excess. It
 dissolves  slowly  in the acids,  forming salts of
 platinum.—The  Binoxide, Deutoxide, or Per-
 oxide, by exactly decomposing the sulphate of
 the  binoxide with nitrate of baryta, and adding
 pure soda to the filtered solution, so  as to precipi-
 tate   only  half  the  oxide.   (Berzelius.)—The
 Sesquioxide, by heating fulminating platinum in
 nitrous acid.  (E. Davy.)—The Protochloride,
 by heating the bichloride to about 450° ; greenish
 gray.—The Bichloride, by evaporating the nitro- '
 muriatic  sohition to dryness,  at a  gentle  heat;
 red.—The  Protiodide, by digesting  the  proto-
 chloride  in  a solution  of iodide  of potassium;
 black.   (Lassaigne.)—The Periodide,  by the
 action of iodide of potassium on a weak solution of
 the  bichloride ; black.  (Lassaigne.)—The Pro-
 tosulphuret, by heating  the  yellow ammoniacal
 chloride with i its weight of sulphur in a retort.—
 The  Bisulphuret, by dropping a solution of the
 bichloride into a solution of  sulphuret of  potas-
 sium.—Fulminating  Platinum, by acting on sul-
 phate  of  platinum with  ammonia  in slight ex-
 cess.—The  Platino-bichloride of Potassium,
 by mixing solutions of bichloride of  platinum and
 chloride of potassium, and evaporating ; a  yellow
 powder,   or small  octohedrons.—The  Platino-
 bichloride of Sodium, as the last.—The Platino-
 bichloride of Ammonia, by precipitating a strong
 solution of the bichloride by a solution  of sal am-
 moniac ;  an insoluble yellow powder.—The Pla-
 tino-protochlorides are prepared  in  a   similar
 way.—Platina-mohr is obtained by melting pla-
 tina  ore with twice its weight  of zinc, powdering,
 digesting first in dilute sulphuric acid, and next in
 dilute nitric arid, to remove the zinc, assisting the
 action of  the  menstruum  by heat;  it is  then di-
 gested in potash lye, and  lastly in pure  water.
 (Descotils.)   An  insoluble  grayish  black powder,
 consisting of crude platinum.  It  acts like pla-
 tinum black, converting alcohol into vinegar, &c.
 It explodes by heat.  *** The  salts of platinum
 are said to be alterative.  The  bichloride and the
 sodio-chloride have been employed both internally
 and  endermically in syphilis,  &c.   They are
poisonous.
   PLUMBAGINE.  A crystalline substance, ex-
tracted by M.  Dulong from the roots of plumbago
europea.   It is soluble in alcohol, ether, and water.
   POISON.  When  you  have  reason to suppose
that  you have accidentally swallowed a poisonous
substance, and proper medical advice is not at
hand, take an emetic.  This may be done almost
instantaneously, by swallowing a cupful of warm
water mixed with a teaspoonful of mustard.  If
you have  not dry mustard  in  the house, you are
almost sure to have a  mustard-pot, and a quantity
from  that put into  the  water will  very quickly 
POM                   482                    POR
 empty the stomach.  As mustard may thus prove
 of so much use, it should never be wanting in any
 house ; but even should there be no  mustard at
 .hand, warm water by itself forms a tolerably effi-
 cacious emetic.  (See the various Poisons for their
 antidotes.)
    POLYCHROME.  A  peculiar substance ob-
 tained from the  bark  of  the  horse-chesnut, and
 from quassia wood, by precipitating the infusion by
 acetate of lead, decomposing the preeipitate by
 sulphureted hydrogen, filtering, and evaporating to
 a sirup, when crystals of polychrome form after
 some time.  It is purified by repeated solutions in
 a mixture of alcohol and ether.  The solution ap-
 pears colorless by transmitted light, but blue by re-
 flected light, and exhibits a beautiful play of colors,
 visible when dissolved in 1.500,000 parts of water.
    POLVCHROMIC ACID.  Syn.   Artificial
 bitter of Aloes. Prep. Aloes 1 part; nitric acid
 (sp. gr. 1*25) 8 parts ; mix, and when the action is
•over, evaporate to a sirup, and  add cold  water to
 throw down the polychromic acid ; purify by wash-
 ing with water till the liquid passes off of a blue
 color.  A yellowish brown powder forming a pur-
 ple solution ; it explodes when heated.  It is a mix-
 ture of Aloetic and Aloeresinic Acids.  (Schunck.)
    POMMADE, (Fr. Pomatum.)  Pommades are
 divided by the French perfumers into three class-
 es ; viz.—Pommades by infusion—Pommades by
 contact, and—Pommades by addition.  The first
 are  made by  gently melting  in  a  clean pan, 2
 parts of hog's lard and  1 part of beef suet, both of
 the finest quality and carefully " rendered ;" and
 adding 1 part  of flowers, carefully picked, or if a
 solid substance, coarsely bruised, and  macerating
 for 24 hours,  occasionally stirring, and  observing
 tb keep the vessel  covered  as much  as possible.
 The next  day the mixture is remelted, and again
 well stirred for a short time, after which it is pour-
 ed into canvass bags, and these being next secure-
 ly tied, are submitted to powerful pressure, grad-
 ually increased, in a  barrel press.  This  operation
 is  repeated with the same  fat several  times, until
 the  pommade is sufficiently perfumed.   A  good
 pommade  aux fleurs,  requires twice to  six  times
 its weight of  flowers to be  thus consumed, and
 pommades of the aromatic barks  and seeds a cor-
 responding proportion.  ***  In the same way are
 made  the pommades of Cassia,  orange flowers,
 and  several others kept by the French perfumers.
    Pommades  by contact are made  by spreading
 with a palette  knife simple pommade (made with
 lard and suet as above) on panes of glass or pewter
 plates, to the thickness of a finger, and sticking the
 surface all over with  sweet-scented flowers, which
 must be renewed daily for 2 or 3 months, or till
 the pommade has acquired sufficient perfume.  On
 the large scale, the panes are placed in small shal-
 low frames made of 4 pieces  of wood nicely fitted
 together, and are then closely piled one upon an-
 other. On the small  scale pewter plates  are most-
 ly used, and  one is  inverted over the other.  In
 some of the perfumeries of  France,  many  thou-
 sands  of frames  are employed at once.  *** In
 this  way are  made  the Pommades Jasmin, Jon-
 quil, Orange-flowers,  Narcissus, Tuberose, Vio-
 let, &c.
    Pommades  by addition  are made by merely
 adding the fragrant  essences or oils in  sufficient
 quantity to the simple pommade of lard and suet
 to produce the proper odor; or by mixing togethei
 other pommades.  %*  In this way are rrade the
 Pommades of Bergamotte,  Cedrat,  Cinnamon,
 Lemons,  Lemon  thyme, Lavender,  Limettes,
 Marjoram, Portugal,  White  Rose,  Rosemary,
 Thyme, Verbena, and about 30 others, distinguish-
 ed by the Parisian perfumers.
   Mixed Pommades.  Of these a great  numbet
 are prepared by the French,  by the judicious com
 bination of the most esteemed perfumes or Pom-
 mades, of  which the following are a  few exam-
 ples :—
   Pommade  a la Vanille, or Roman pommade.
 Pommade  a la rose 12 lbs.; powdered vanilla 1 lb.;
 melt in a water bath, stir constantly for 1 hour, let
 it settle for another hour, decant the clear, and add
 oil a la rose 2J lbs.; bergamotte 4  oz.—Pommade
 de Casse.  Simple pommade  1 lb.;  palm oil k oz.;
 melt, pour off the clear, and  add oil of cassia and
 huile au jasmin, of each 1 dr.; neroli, 20 drops;
 oil of verbena, or lemon grass, 15  drops; otto of
 roses, 5 drops; stir till nearly cold.—Pommade di-
 vine.  Plain pommade, 1 lb.; essences of lemon
 and bergamotte, of each 2 dr.; oils of lavender and
 origanum,  of each 1 dr.; oils of verbena, cassia,
 cloves, and neroli, of each 12 drops; huile au jas-
 min, 3 dr.;  essence of violets,  $  oz.  *w* Pom-
 mades are  colored—Yellow,  by palm oil or annot-
 to—Red, by  alkanet  root—and Green, by guaia-
 cum, or the  green leaves of spinage or  parsley.
 White  pommades  are  made with mutton instead
 of beef suet.
   POMATUM.   (From pomum,  an  apple.) A
 fragrant unguent used  in dressing the  hair; so
 named  because it  was formerly made with lard
 and apples.  (See Pommades.)—Simple Pomatum.
 1. Lard 2 lbs.;  beef suet 1 lb.—2.  Lard 3 lt».;
| mutton  suet  l\ lb.—Common Pomatum.  Simple
 pomatum  1  lb.;  essence of lemon 1 dr.—East
 India Pomatum.  Suet 3 lbs.; lard 2 lbs.; beeswax
 (bright) ^ lb.; palm oil  2 oz.; powdered gum ben-
 zoin 3  oz.; musk 20 grs.; melt,  and digest two
 hours, decant, add essence of lemon 1 oz.;  oil of
 lavender i oz.; oils of cloves, cassia, and verbena,
 of each 1 dr.—Rose Pomatum.  Lard or simple po-
 matum washed with rose water, or scented with
 otto.  It may be reddened  with  alkanet.—Soft
 Pomatum.  Hard lard, scented like  East India po-
 matum.—Millefleur Pomatum. Simple pomatum,
 scented so that no one perfume shall predominate.—
 Roll Pomatum.  (Hard do.)  Mutton  suet  6 lbs.;
 white wax J lb.; spermaceti  \ lb.;  powdered ben-
 zoin  1  oz.;  melt,  and add  scent  at  pleasure.—
 Mareschal  Pomatum.  (Hard.)  To the last  add
 mareschal  powder 6 to  8 oz.
   PORPHYROXINE. A neutral crystalline sub-
 stance, discovered by Merck  in Bengal opium.  It
 is soluble in alcohol and ether.
   PORTER.  A fermented liquor, brewed from
 pale malt,  mixed with a sufficient portion of high-
 dried malt to impart the necessary color and Sa-
 vor.   In many  cases,  its color is imparted by
 parched malt or burnt sugar, subsequently  to the
 boiling.  (See Brewing.)  Porter  originated with
 a London brewer  named Harwood, in 1722, and
 was first called  " entire," or " entire  butt," from
 being drawn from one cask.  Previously  to that
I date, ale, beer, and two-penny were  the common 
POT
483
POT
beverages, either alone or mixed, under the names
of half-and-half, or « three  threads," for which
the publican was compelled to have recourse to 2
or j casks.   1 he term porter was given  from its
general consumption among porters and  laborers.
Ordinary porter contains 4 to 5g of alcohol.
  Prep. 1  (Draught.) a.  Pale malt 3* quarters ;
amber malt 3 quarters ; brown malt ij quarters
mash at twice with  28 and 24  barrels of water,
boil with brown  Kent hops 56 lbs.; set with yeast
Z  -T" c£r°d-  28 barrels> or 3i ^mes the malt,
besides 20 barrels of table-beer from a third mash-
ing.
  II.  (Bottling Porter.  Brown Stout.)  Pale
malt 2 quarters ; amber and brown malt, of  each
   1 ,      •       j  ---~~* "*«* "»«»« man, ui eaui
   li eta,;  mash  at  3 times with 12, 7, and  6  bar-
   rels oT water, boil with hops 50 lbs. ; set with yeast
     ttt   V"°d'  17 barrels> or H t'mes the malt.
     111.   tor either of the  above use pale malt
   mixed with one-seventy-ninth part of patent malt
   lor porter, and one-seventieth part for brown stout.
     IV.  (Brown Stout.)  To a butt of good porter
   add 4 gallons of treacle, 1 gallon  of coloring, and
   1 quart of finings ; rummage  up  well, and in a
   week rack it into  another cask.
    POSOLOGICAL  TABLE for proportioning
   the doses of medicines to the  age of the patient,
   originally drawn up by Gaubius.
    Under £ year 1-16th of a full dose.
       "    1  "  l-12th
       "    2 yrs. l-8th        "
       "    3  "  l-6th
       "    4  «  l-5th        "
       "    7  "  l-3d
       "  14  "   1-half       «
       "  20  "   2-3ds
   Above 21   "   the full dose.
       "  63  «   ll-12ths
       "  77  «   5-6ths
       " 100  «   2-3ds
    Dr. Young gives the following simple formula:
  —For children under 12 years, the doses of most
  medicines must be  diminished  in the proportion  of
  the age to the age increased by 12.   Thus, at 2
  years, the dose v/ill be  l-7th of that for an adult,

  VJZ:2Ti2 = 1-7th'
   *** Sex, temperament,  constitutional strength,
  and  the  habits  and  idiosyncrasies of individuals,
 must be taken into account.   Nor  does the same
 rule apply  to all medicines.  Calomel, for instance.
 is generally borne better by children than by adults ;
 while opium affects them more powerfully, and
 requires the dose to be diminished considerably
 below that indicated above.
   POTASH.  Syn.  Oxide or Protoxide  of Po-
 tassium.  Potassa,  (Lat.)  Potasse, (Fr.)  Kali,
 (Ger.)  The potash  of commerce is  a carbonate of
 pqtassa, or oxide of potassium, and has been already
 noticed at page 221.  Pure anhydrous potassa is  a
 white solid substance, highly caustic  and corrosive,
 fusible, and possessing a powerful affinity for wa-
 ter, intense  heat being evolved  during its combina-
 tion with that fluid.   The hydrate of potassa is the
potassa fusa of the shops.  Both these substances
exhibit alkaline and  basic properties in  the  most
marked degree, turning* vegetable yellows brown,
and blues green, and forming salts with the acids.
Most of the salts of  potassa may be  made by di- I
   rectly saturating a solution of the acid with a so.
   lution of the carbonate or hydrate of potassa, and
   in  some  instances advantageously, by double de-
   composition.  In either case, the filtered solution
   will generally yield crystals on evaporation.   (See
   Potassa, hydrate  of.)
     Tests, cj-c.—1. The  solutions  of potassa  or its
   salts are unaffected by  sulphureted hydrogen, hy-
   drosulphurets,prussiates, and carbonates.—2. Tar-
   taric acid  (in excess)  and  perchloric  acid  give
   respectively white precipitates of  bitartrate and
   perchlorate of potassa.-^. Carbazotic acid throws
   down  a yellow  crystalline  precipitate,  which is
   sparingly soluble.—4.  Chloride of platinum gives a
   pale yellow precipitate.—5. Free  potassa reddens
   turmeric, and turns reddened litmus blue
    POTASSA, ACETATE  OF.  Syn.  Diuretic
   Salt.  Foliated Salt of Tartar.   Sal diureti-
   cus, (P. L. 1745.)  Kali acetatum, (P. L. 1788.)
   Potassa  acetas, (P. L. 1809, and  since, and  P.
   E. & D.)   Prep.  (P. L.)  Acetic acid  f ^xxvj ;
   water f fxij ; mix, and add gradually carbonate of
   potash lb. j, or q. s.  to.saturate ; filter, and evapo-
   rate in a sand-bath to dryness.
    POTASSA, BISULPHATE OF.  Syn.  Su-
   persulphate of Potash.  Acid Vitriolated Tar-
  tar. Sal auri philosophicum.  Sal enixum.  Po-
  tass^  bisulphas, (P. L. E. & D.)  Prep. I.  (P.
  L.)   Salt left in distilling nitric acid lb. ij  ; boiling
  water 3 quarts ; dissolve, add sulphuric acid  lb. j,
  evaporate, and crystallize.
    II.   (P. D.)  Sulphuric  acid  1  part;  water 6
  parts ;  mix, and saturate with carbonate of potash
  q. s., then add 1 part more of sulphuric acid, and
  proceed as last.
    POTASSA, BITARTRATE  OF.   Syn.
  Cream of Tartar.  Supertartrate of  Potash.
  Acidulous Tartrate of Potash.  Potassa bitar-
  tras, (P. L. E. & D.)  This salt is obtained during
  the fermentation of grape juice, as a crust on  the
  sides of the casks or vats.   In its unprepared state
  it is  called white or red crude tartar, or argol,
  according to the wine from which  it has been ob-
  tained.   It is purified by boiling in water,  crystal-
  lization, re-solution in water, and  treatment with
  charcoal and aluminous clay  to remove the color ;
  the clear liquid is then decanted while hot, and al-
  lowed  to  cool slowly ; the resulting  crystals are
  cream of tartar.  *,*  " Entirely soluble in 40
 parts of water ; 40 grs. in solution  are neutralized
 with 30 grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda."  (P.
  E.)  " It reddens litmus.  At  a red heat, it is con-
 verted into carbonate of potash."   (P. L.)   Dose.
 1 to 2 drachms or more, as an  aperient; as a diu-
 retic, 20 grs. to a drachm.   It  is used to make  a
 pleasant cooling drink,  (imperial) and in tooth
 powders.
   POTASH, CITRATE  OF.   Syn.  Lemon-
 ated Kali.   The  preparation  sold in the  shops
 under this name is made as follows :—Finely-pow-
 dered white sugar 16 lbs. ; tartaric acid 4} lbs.;
 sesquicarbonate of soda 4 lbs.;  all thoroughly dried
 by a  gentle heat; mix, add essence of lemon 1
 oz. ; rub the powder through a  sieve in a dry situa-
 tion, put it into  bottles, and  cork down imme-
 diately.  Keeps well.  A dessert-spoonful thrown
 into a glass of water makes a pleasant effervescing
cooling beverage.
   POTASSA, HYDRATE  OF.   Syn.   Pua« 
POT                    484                     POT
Potassa.  Caustic do.  Cauterium potentials.
Kali causticum.  Lapis infernalis vel  septicum,
(P. L. 1720.)   Kali purum, (P. L. 1788.)  Potas-
sa fusa, (P. L. 1809, lt*24.)  Potassa: hydras, (P.
L.  1 -36.)   Potassa,  (P.  E.)   Potassa  caustica,
(P. D.)  Preij. (P. L.) Liquor  of  potassa 1 gal-
lon ;  evaporate in a clean  iron vessel over the fire
until  the ebullition being finished, the hydrate of
potassa liquefies ;  pour this  into proper  moulds.
%* A pale grayish or bluish solid, very soluble  in
water and  alcohol.  " Boiling water  commonly
leaves oxide of iron undissolved, which  should not
exceed 1*25}}."  (P.  E.)   "It should  be totally
soluble in alcohol."  (P. L.)   Its solution should
be scarcely  affected by the nitrates of baryta and
silver. It is  chiefly used as a caustic, and in chem-
istry.
   POTASSE D'AMERIQUE. Syn.  Petit Po-
tasse bleu.   Caustic soda, melted  with  salt and
lime, and tinged  with oxide  of  copper.   This is
said to be  commonly sold to  the  Parisian  laun-
dresses for  American potash, as they  object  to
using soda.  The potash of the shops in  England
is often mixed with a similar compound.
   POTASSIUM.  The metallic base  of potash.
It was discovered  by Sir H.  Davy  in  1807, who
obtained it  by the action  of  a powerful  galvanic
battery on  moistened hydrate of potassa.  It has
since been procured by easier methods.
  Prep. I.  (Curaudau.)  Perfectly  dry  carbonate
of potassa  2  parts;  powdered charcoal  1  part;
mix, place them in a  gun-barrel or iron bottle, fur-
nished with  a  short iron tube, and connected with
a copper receiver  containing a little naphtha and
surrounded with ice, and distil by a strong heat.
  II.  (Brunner.)  Fused  carbonate of  potassa  or
calcined tartar 1 lb.;  iron filings  J lb.; charcoal -J
lb.; proceed as above.  Prod. 280  grs.   It  may
be further purified by  distillation in an iron or green
glass retort.
  Props., tyc. Potassium is solid at  ordinary tem-
peratures, but  softens at 70°, and fuses at  150°.
It sublimes at  a low red heat; color  and lustre re-
sembles mercury.  Sp. gr. 0-865.   Its  most re-
markable  property is its affinity for oxygen gas,
which is so great that it takes it from  most sub-
stances containing it, and can  only be preserved in
naphtha, or other  fluid hydrocarbons.   It is de-
composed with the evolution of light and  heat by
contact with water, and a solution of pure potassa
results.  It unites with oxygen forming oxides, one
of which is  potassa, and the other  (peroxide) an
orange-colored substance  formed by burning po-
tassium in air  or oxygen gas, or by passing oxygen
over potassa heated to redness.
  POTASSIUM,  BROMIDE  OF.   Syn.  Hy-
DROBROMATE OF POTASSA.   PoTASSlI BROMIDUM, (P.
L.)  Potass* Hydrobromas.  Prep.  (P. L.)  Wa-
ter 1J pints ; iron filings ^j ; mix, add bromine §ij ;
stir, and in half an hour apply a gentle heat till the
liquor turns  green, then add carbonate  of potash
3xvij,  dissolved in  water  1^  pints; strain,  wash
the precipitate  with  hot water,  filter the mixed
liquors, evaporate,  and  crystallize.   White trans-
parent cubic or rectangular prisms ;  inodorous, and
soluble  in water.  It  should be neutral to  test pa-
per.   Dose.  4 to 10 grs. in pills or solution, 2 or 3
tunes daily;  in scrofula, bronchocele, &c.  It is
also made into ointment.
   POTASSIUM, IODIDE OF.  Syn. Hydrio-
date of Potash.   Potassii  iodidum, ;P.  L.  and
E.)   Potass* iiydriodas,  (P.  D.)  Prep. I.  (P
L.)   Iron filings §ij ; water  2 quarts ;  iodine ^vj ;
mix, heat till the  solution turns  green, then  add
carbonate of potash §iv, dissolved in water 1 quart ;
filter, wash the residue with water,  evaporate the
filtered mixed liquors, and crystallize.  The Edin-
burgh form  is similar.  Prod.  4 oz. of iodine yield
4 oz. 3  dr.
   II. (P. D.) By saturating with carbonate of pot-
ash  an aqueous solution of hydriodic acid, formed
by transmitting chlorine through  water in which
iodine is suspended.   Prod.  4 oz. of  iodine yield 4
oz. 7 dr. 20  grs.
   III.  (Turner.)  Add to a hot solution of caustic
potassa, sp.  gr. 1*19,  as much iodine  as it wit dis-
solve, then pass sulphureted  hydrogen through the
liquid  until it becomes  colorless,  apply a  gentle
heat to expel excess of acid, filter, exa^A.^ neutral-
ize with potassa, evaporate, and crystallize.  Prod.
4 oz. of iodine yield 4 oz. 4 dr. 24 grs.
   IV. (Gregory.)  Add iodine to a hot solution of
pure potassa until  the alkali  is neutralized, evapo-
rate  to dryness, and expose the dry mass to a gen-
tle red  heat in a  platinum or iron crucible, then
dissolve out the salt, evaporate, and crystallize
An excellent process.
   V. (Scanlan.)  As  the last, but mix a portion of
powdered charcoal with the mass before ignition.
An excellent process.
   VI. (Duflos.) Iodine  and  granulated zinc,  of
each 4 oz.;  water  8  oz.;  after the  action  has
ceased, neutralize  with a solution of  carbonate of
potash in slight excess, filter, neutralize  with a lit-
tle hydriodic acid,  treat  it with sulphureted  hy-
drogen  for  the sake  of  security,  evaporate, and
crystallize.  Prod. 4  oz. of iodine yield 5 oz. 17 gr.
   Remarks. According  to theory 4  oz.  of  iodine
should yield 5 oz. 1 dr. 55 grs. of pure iodide of po-
tassium ; but  such a  product  is never obtained in
practice, as will be seen by reference to the above
formulas, which are those most generally approved
of for the  preparation of a  pure salt.   The  old
method of acting on iodine with potash,  or carbon-
ate of potash water, yields a very impure product
   *** Pure  iodide  of  potassium in powder is " to-
tally soluble in water and in  alcohol.   It alters the
color of turmeric  either not at all, or  but very
slightly. It  does  not discolor litmus.   Subjected
to heat, it loses no weight.   Sulphuric  arid and
starch added together, turn it blue.   10 grs. of thk
salt should  decompose 10*24 grs. of (pure) nitrate
of silver ; the precipitate is partly dissolved by ni
trie acid, and partly altered in appearance, which
is not the case when ammonia is added."  (P. L)
" Its solution is not affected, or only rendered hazj
by solution of nitrate of  baryta.   A  solution of i
grs. in f § j of distilled water, precipitated by an ex-
cess  of solution of nitrate  of silver, and then agita-
ted in a bottle  with  a little  water  of  ammonia,
yields quickly j by subsidence, a clear supernatanl
liquor, which is not  altered by an  excess of nitric
arid, or is merely rendered hazy." (P. E.)   Dose
2 to 20 grs. or more, 2 or 3 times a day, in pills oi
solution, either alone or combined with  iodine ; in
bronchocele, scrofula, chronic rheumatism, dropsy,
syphilis, and various glandular diseases.   It is  alsc
used externally, made into a lotion or ointment. 
POU                   485                   POW
   POTASSIUM,  PHOSPHURET.   Obtained
 by gently heating phosphorus with potassium.
   POTASSIUM,  SULPHURET OF.   Syn.
 Liver of Sulphur.  Sulphuret of Potash.  He-
 par Sulphuris.  Kali Sulphuretum, (P. L. 1788.)
 Potass* Sulphuretum,  (P. L. 1809, 1824, and
 P- D.)   Potassii Sulphuretum, (P. L. and E.)
 Prep. (P. L.)   Sulphur §j; carbonate of  potash
 jiv ; mix, and heat them in a covered crucible till
 they unite.  *%* It  dissolves in water, yielding a
 fetid yellow solution, and in acids evolving strong
 fumes of sulphureted hydrogen.  Dose. 2 to 4 grs.
 in solution, or made into pills with soap ; in obsti-
 nate skin diseases.  It is chiefly used externally
 made into a lotion,  (1 to 2 drs. to the pint,) or an
 ointment, (30 grs. to the oz.)  It is poisonous in
 large  doses.  %* Besides  the  above, there  are
 other compounds of sulphur and potassium distin-
 guished  by chemists.
   POTESTATES SUCCINI. Prep. Oil of am-
 Der ?j 5  sesquicarbonate  of  ammonia ^ss; alcohol
 £ pint;  digest 4 days, and  decant.  Dose.  10 to
 40 drops, externally, in hooping cough.
   POTION.   Potus.
   POUDRE  A LA MARESCHALLE.   Prep.
 1. Oak  moss 2 lbs.;  starch  1 lb.; cloves and cala-
 mus aromaticus, of each 1 oz.; Cyprus and rotten
 oak wood, of each 2 oz. ;  all in fine powder ;  mix,
 and  pass through a sieve.—2. Starch  powder 28
 lbs.; powdered cloves J lb.; mix  as last.
   POUDRE  CLARIFICANTE.   Powdered al-
 bumen.
   POUDRE DE CHIPRE.  Prep. 1. Wash oak
 moss for 3  days in  running water ; dry, powder,
 and  perfume  it  once  or twice with jasmine or
 musk rose flowers, then add other scent.—2. (Pou-
 dre de Chipre de Montpellier)  Poudre de chipre,
 as last, 2 lbs.; musk 30  grs.; civet 18 grs.; the
 last two  ground  with a little sugar.
   POUDRE   DE FLEURS D'ORANGES.
 Prep. Starch powder  25 lbs.; orange flowers  1
 lb.; mix in a covered  chest;  stir 2 or 3  times
 a day, and repeat the process with fresh flowers a
 second and  a third time.
   POUDRE DE FRANGIPANE. Prep. Pou-
 dre de fleurs d'oranges  and poudre de chipre, of
 each 6  lbs.; essence of  ambergris  1  oz.; civet
 powdered with sugar £ dr.;  mix well.  Ash gray.
   POUDRE DE JASMINE.  As poudre  de
 fleurs d'oranges, using jasmine flowers.
   POUDRE DE JONQUILLE.  As  the last,
 using jonquilles.
   POUDRE KUSIQUE.  Prep. Nitre  and sul-
 phur, of  each  50 parts; powdered  charcoal  and
 antimony,  of each  1 part; mix  and divide  into
 doses of  2 grammes, and put three  doses in each
 packet.   Given to dogs in a ball of butter, to pre-
 vent the  disorders to which they are liable. A pop-
 ular French nostrum.
   POUDRE DE ROSES.   Prep. 1. (Poudre
 de  Roses communes.)  As poudre de fleurs d'or-
anges, but leaving the box open, and changing the
flowers in 24 hours.—2. (Poudre  de Roses Mus-
quees.)  As the  last, but using musk  roses  and
shutting the chest
   *%* All the above perfumed  powders  are used
as cosmetics for the hair.
   POULTICE.   Syn.  Cataplasm.  Cataplas-
m.  (Lat, from KarairXaaaria, to spread like a plas-
 ter.)   Poultices  are  external applications used to
 promote suppuration, allay pain and inflammation,
 resolve tumors, &c.  The following are the poul-
 tices of the pharmacopoeias:—
   POULTICE, CHARCOAL.  -Syn. Cat. Car-
 bonis  Ligni.   Prep. (P.  D.) Charcoal recently
 ignited and cooled in  a close vessel, mixed with
 simple  poultice.  In fetid  and gangrenous  sores,
 frequently renewed.
   POULTICE, HEMLOCK.  Syn. Cataplas-
 ma Conii.   Prep.  (P.  L.)   Extract of hemlock
 ^ij ; water 1 pint; dissolve and  thicken with lin-
 seed meal.  In painful  nipples, cancer, glandular
 tumors, irritable sores, &c.
   POULTICE,  LINSEED.   Syn.  Cat. Lini.
 Prep. (P. L.) Linseed meal made into a stiff paste
 with  water.   Used  to  promote  suppuration.   A
 little  oil should be added, and some smeared over
 the surface as well, to prevent  its getting hard.
 *#* For small gatherings, as  of the finger, a little
 chewed bread and butter is an efficient  and con-
 venient substitute.
   POULTICE,  MUSTARD.   Syn. Cat.  Si-
 napis.  Prep.  (P.  L)  Equal parts of  flour of
 mustard and linseed m«al, made into a poultice
 with hot vinegar.  As a powertul countei-irritant,
 stimulant, and rubefacient; in low fevers, &c.  It
 should not be left on long enough to raise a blister.
   POULTICE, YEAST.  Syn. Cat. Fermenti.
 Prep. (P. L.) Flour lb. j ; yeast i pint; mix and
 apply a gentle heat till they begin to swell.   In
 gangrenous or foul ulcers, &c.
   POUNCE.  Powdered  gum sandarach.   (For
 Liquid pounce see Indelible Ink.)
   POWDER, ALOES. The powdered Socotrine
 aloes of the shops is mostly  a  factitious  article
 made by grinding together equal parts of Cape and
 hepatic aloes.   (See Aloes.)
   POWDER, ALOES, (COMP.)  Syn. Pulvis
 Aloes  compositus.  Prep. (P. L.)  Aloes §iss;
 guaiacum resin Jj j compound cinnamon powder
 §ss; powder and mix.  Purgative and  sudorific.
 Dose.  10 to 20 grs.
   POWDER,  ANTIMONIAL.   Syn. Fever
 Powder.   James's  do.  Pulvis Antimonii  comp.
 (P. L.)  P. Antimonialis, (P.  E. & D.) P. Jacobi.
 P.  Febrifugus  Jacobi.  Prep.  (P. L.)   Sesqui-
 sulphuret of antimony lb. j ; hartshoru  shavings
 lb.  ij; powder, mix; throw them into  a red-hot
 crucible, and stir constantly until vapor no longer
 arises ;  cool, powder, put it into a crucible with a
 perforated cover, and calcine at a red heat for 2
 hours ; reduce the residue  to fine powder.  Dose.
 3 to 8 or 10 grs.  as a febrifuge and  diaphoretic, in
 fevers,  rheumatic   affections, and chronic   skin
 diseases.  It is a very uncertain and variable  prep-
 aration.  (See Antimonious  Acid.)   *#* A  fac-
 titious article, made by adding 1 oz. of tartar emet-
 ic to 18 or 19 oz. of burnt hartshorn, is frequently
 sold in the shops for antimonial powder.
  POWDER, AROMATIC.  Syn.  Pulv. Aro-
 maticus.  Prep. (P.  E.)  Cinnamon, cardamom
 seeds, and ginger, equal parts; powder and mix.
 Aromatic and carminative.  Dose. 10 to 30 grs.
  POWDER,  ASARABACCA.   Syn.  Pulv.
 Asari  Comp.  Prep. (P. D.)  Asarabacca leaves
 Z\; lavender flowers oj ;  both dried;  mix  and
powder.  Used as an errhiue in headache and oph-
thalmia.  (See Asarabacca Snuff.) 
POW                   486                   POW
  POWDER, BASILIC. Syn.  Royal Powder.
Pulv.  Basilicus.   Prep. Scammony,  calomel,
cream of tartar, and cerussa antimonii, (antimonic
acid.) equal  parts; powder and mix.  The  com-
pound powder of scammony is  now universally
substituted.
  POWDER, CHALK, (COMPOUND.)  Syn.
Pulv. Cret* Comp., (P. L. E. & D.)  Prep.  (P.
L.) Prepared  chalk lb. ss ; cinnamon §iv; tor-
mentil and gum  acacia, of each §iij; long pepper
S5SS ; powder and mix.  Aromatic, astringent, and
antacid ; in atonic diarrhoea.   Dose. 10 to 30 grs.
*#* The following form is used  by many whole-
sale  houses:  prepared chalk  4  lbs.;  powdered
cassia 2 lbs.; do. calamus aromaticus J  lb.;  do.
gum 1 £ lbs.;  long pepper \ lb.; mix.
  POWDER, CHALK, (WITH OPIUM.) Syn.
Pulv. Cret* Comp. cum Opio, (P. L. & D.) Pulv.
Cret* Opiatus, (P. E.)  Prep.  I.  (P. L.)  Com-
pound chalk powder §viss ; powdered opium 9iv ;
mix.—2. (Wholesale.)  Compound  chalk  powder
214,  oz., (avoird.;) powdered opium 3iv,  (troy ;)
mix.  Dose.  10 to 30 grs. in diarrhoea.
  POWDER, CINNAMON,  (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Aromatic Powder.  Pulv. Cinnamoni Comp.
(P. L.)  P. Aromaticus,  (P. D.)   Prep.  (P. L.)
Cinnamon 5'j ; cardamoms ^iss ; ginger §j ; long
pepper  %ss; powder and  mix.  Dose.  10 to 30
grs.;  as an  aromatic  and carminative.   ***  In
the powder of the shops cassia is almost universal-
ly substituted for cinnamon.
  POWDER, COLOCYNTH, (PULP.)  A fac-
titious article is met with in trade, made by grind-
ing bryony root 1 lb.;  with colocynth seeds 3 lbs.;
adding a very small quantity of gamboge.
  POWDER, CRYSTAL.   From quartz, like
Powdered Glass.   Used to make  glass and as a
dryer for paints.
  POWDER, CURRIE.  Syn. Indian Currie
Powder.  Prep.  1. Coriander seeds and black
pepper, of each 8 lbs.; turmeric and cumin seeds,
of each 4 lbs.; (all in powder,) mix.  *** This
receipt is employed by a wholesale house that does
very largely in currie powder.—2. Coriander  seeds
li lb.; black  pepper  3 oz.; cayenne do. 1 oz.;
turmeric and cumin seeds, of each \ lb. ; fenu-
greek seed £ oz.; mix.—3.  To No. 1, add cayenne
\ lb.   Used as a sauce and condiment.
  POWDER, FILTERING.  Pure clay or ful-
ler's earth, dried  by a  gentle  heat,  and ground to
powder.  Used to filter  and  bleach oils.  (See
Filtration.)
  POWDER, FLY.  Prep. White arsenic 4 oz.;
white sugar 6 lbs.; rose pink 1 oz.; mix, and put
6 drs. in each paper.   Used to kill flies.  %* It
is poisonous, and should be employed with  great
caution, especially where there are children.
  POWDER,  ESCHAROTIC.   Syn.  Pulv.
Escharotica  Arsenicalis.  Poudre Caustique
du Freres Cosme ou  de Rousselot.  Prep. (P.
Cod.)  Findy powdered cinnabar  and dragon's
olood, of each 16 grs.; do. arsenious acid 8 grs.;
mix    Used  to cauterize cancerous wounds, but
should be applied with great  caution, and  only to
a small surface.  It is made  into  a  paste with the
saliva when  used, and is hence called Arsenical
Paste, (Pasta Arsenicalis.)
  POWDERS, GINGER BEER.  Prep. Pow-
dered white  sugar 2 dr.; powdered  ginger 5 grs.;
carbonate of soda 26 grs.; mix, and wrap in blue
paper ; tartaric acid 30 grs.;  wrap in white paper
For use dissolve each separately in half a glass of
water, mix, and drink while effervescing.
  POWDER, HAIR.  Starch powdered and sifted
very fine, and  scented at pleasure.  (See Poudre.)
  POWDERS, INK.  Prep. Aleppo galls 3 lbs.;
copperas (dry but not calcined) 1 lb.; gum arabic
6 oz.; white  sugar  2  oz.; all in  powder;  mix.
*** 1 pint 0I" b°'l'ng water  poured on 1£ or 2 oz.,
makes a pint of ink.
  POWDER,  IPECACUANHA,   (COM-
POUND.)  Syn. Dover's Powder.  Pulv. Do-
veri.   P. Ipecacuanh* Comp.,  (P. L.  E. &  D.)
Prep.  1. (P.  L.)   Powdered ipecacuanha and
hard opium, of each 3j ; do. sulphate of potash §j;
mix.—2.  (Wholesale.)   Powdered ipecacuanha
and opium, of each 1 lb.; do.  sulphate of potash b
lbs.;  mix.  A powerful  and valuable sudorific.
Dose.  5  to  15 grs.; in inflammatory affections,
rheumatisms, colds, &c.
  POWDER,  JALAP,  (COMP.)  Syn. Pulv.
Jalap*  Comp. (P. L.  E. &.  D.)  Prep. (P. L.)
Jalap §iij ' cream of  tartar §vj ; ginger 3ij ; all in
powder; mix.   Dose. 20 to 60 grs. as a purgative
in habitual costiveness, dropsies, &.c.
  POWDER,  KINO,  (COMP.)  Syn.  Pulv.
Kino  Comp.   Prep.  (P.  L.)   Kino 3xv;  cinna-
mon §ss; hard opium 3j ; powder and mix well.
Dose.  5 to 20 grs. in  diarrhoea, &c.
  POWDER,  MERCURIAL.   Syn.  Quick-
silver with chalk.   Hydrargyrum cum crsta,
(P. L.  E. & D.)  Prep. I. (P. L.) Mercury §iij;
prepared chalk %v ; triturate till  the  globules dis-
appear.  Dose. 5 to  30 grs. as a mild mercurial.
*** " When pure, part  is  evaporated by heat;
what  remains  is  colorless, and totally  soluble in
acetic acid with effervescence ; this solution is not
colored by sulphureted hydrogen.   These  sub-
stances can scarcely be so diligently triturated that
no globules shall be visible."  (P.  L.) As common-
ly met with, this powder contains too little mercu-
ry.   When properly  prepared, it effervesces when
digested  in cold dilute  acetic acid, and the dark
undissolved portion when dried should be equal to
about § of the  weight of the powder employed; it
should also be  totally dissipated  by heat,  without
incandescence, and* readily and entirely soluble in
nitric  acid; when examined by the microscope it
should exhibit minute globules of mercury unmixed
with foreign matter.  The Dublin  Ph. orders pre-
cipitated chalk.
  II.  (Tyson.)  Calomel  %iv; liquor of  potassa
f §vj or q. s.; rub together, add liquor of ammonia
3ss, and again triturate; decant the clear, well
wash  and gently dry the bluish powder, and mix
it with twice its weight of prepared chalk.  Stronger
than the former.
  III. (Mercury  with  Magnesia,  Hydrargyrum
cum Magnesia, P. D.)   Mercury and manna, of
each 8 parts;  triturate  together (adding enough
water to make a paste) till the globules disappear,
then add carbonate of magnesia  1  part, mix, and
further add warm water 64 parts ; again well mix,
and after repose decant the  clear; repeat  the
washing  with fresh water a second and third time,
then add 3 parts more of carbonate of magnesia,
mix well, and  dry on bibulous paper.  Uses and
dose the  same  as of mercury and chalk. 
POW                   487                   POW
   IV. (Quicksilver and Sugar.  Mercurius Sac-
 charatus)   Quicksilver and white sugar, of each
 gj ;  oil of tansy 3ss; triturate till the globules dis-
 appear.  Dose. 3j, as a vermifuge.
   POWDER, PEARL, (COSMETIC.)   Prep.
 Pure pearl  white, (trisnitrate of bismuth)  and
 French chalk  scraped fine by Dutch rushes, equal
 parts ,  mix.   Some  add more French  chalk.  A
 skin cosmetic.  This  is preferable to pearl white
 alone, from being more adhesive.
   POWDER,  PLATE.  Prep.—l.  Quicksilver
 with chalk  1  oz.; prepared  chalk 7 oz.; mix.—
 2. Polisher's putty, and burnt hartshorn, of each
 £ lb.; prepared chalk  1 lb.   Used to  clean  and
 polish plate.
   POWDER, PLATE BOILING. Prep. Cream
 of tartar, common salt, and alum, equal parts; mix.
 A little of this powder, added to the water in which
 plate is boiled, gives it a silvery whiteness.
   POWDER,  PLUMMER'S.   Syn. ^Ethiops
 Plummeri.  Prep. Calomel,  and sulphuret of an-
 timony, equal parts.   Alterative.
   POWDER, PORTLAND, (DUKE OF.) Syn.
 Pulv. Ducis Portlandi*.  Prep. Roots of gen-
 tian and birthwort; tops and leaves of germander,
 ground  pine, and lesser centaury, of each equal
 parts ;  powder and  mix.   For gout.
   POWDER,  RHUBARB,  (COMP.)    Syn.
 Gregory's Powder.  Pulv.  Rh*i Comp.   Prep.
 (P.  E.)  Magnesia ftj. j ; rhubarb f iv ; ginger f ij  ;
 all in fine  powder; mix, and preserve it in a cork-
 ed bottle.   An  excellent antacid, stomachic, and
 mild purgative.   Dose. 20 to  30 grs.
   POWDER,  SCAMMONY, (COMPOUND.)
 Syn. Basilic  Powder.  Roval do.  Pulv. Ba-
 silicus.   P. Scammonii Comp., (P. L. E. and D.)
 Prep. 1. (P. L.)  Scammony, and hard extract
 of jalap, of each fij ;  ginger fss ;  powder and mix.
 Dose. 10 to 20  grs.—2.  (P. E.)  Scammony,  and
 bitartrate of potash, equal parts; triturate together
 to a very fine powder.  Dose. 15 to 30 grs  Both
 are  used as cathartics  in worms, especially for
 children.
   POWDERS,  SCENT.  Prep.  1. Corianders,
 orris root, rose leaves, and calamus aromaticus, of
 each 4 oz.; lavender flowers 8 oz.; rhodium wood
 1 dr. ; musk 20  grs.; mix, and reduce to coarse
 powder.—2.  Corianders, orris, calamus aromaticus,
 and  red roses, of each 1 oz.; lavender flowers 2
 oz.; mace  and cloves, of each 1  dr.; essential oil
 of almonds 10 drops ; mix as last-j-3. As last, but
 substitute musk 3 grs. for oil of almonds.   Used to
 fill scent bags, and for boxes, &c.
   POWDERS, SEIDLITZ.   Prep. 1. Tartrate
 of soda 3ij ;  carbonate of do. 3ij ; mix, and put it
 in a  blue paper ; tartaric acid  35 grs., to be put in
 white paper.  For £ pint of water, as ginger-beer
 powders. Laxative.—2.  (In one bottle.)   Tartrate
 of soda 12 oz.;  carbonate  of  do.  4  oz.;  tartaric
 acid  3£ oz.;  white sugar 1 lb.; all in fine powder ;
 dry each separately by a gentle heat, add essence
 of lemon 20 drops;  mix well, pass  it through a
 Bieve, and  put it  at  once  into clean dry bottles.
 Dose. A dessert-spoonful to a glass of water.
  POWDER, SENNA. (Battley's Green.) Sen-
na leaves uried and  heated till they turn yellow,
then powdered along with (blue) charcoal, q. s. to
«ve  a green color.
  POWDER,  SILVERING.  Prep.  1.  Silver
 dust (fine) 20 grs.;  alum 30 gre.; cream of tartar,
 and common salt, of each \ oz.; powder and mix.
 —2. Silver dust 1 oz.; common salt and sal am-
 moniac, of each 4 oz.; corrosive  sublimate i oz.;
 mix as  last.   Used to silver copper previously well
 cleaned, by friction,  adding a  little water to form
 a paste.
   POWDERS,  SODA.   Syn. Effervescing
 Powders. Saline do.  Aerated Soda do.  Prep.
 Carbonate of soda 30 grs.  in each blue paper ; tar-
 taric acid 25 grs. in each white paper ; dissolve
 each separately in £ of a  glass of water, mix, and
 drink immediately.  A cooling, wholesome  sum-
 mer beverage.   %* Midgeley's  Soda  Powders
 are made by adding £ of a grain of tartarized anti-
 mony to each paper of acid.  Refrigerant and dia-
 phoretic.
   POWDERS,  SPRUCE BEER.   As  ginger-
 beer powders, substituting essence of spruce 3 or
 4 drops, for the powdered ginger.
   POWDER,  TIN.  Syn. Tin Filings. Grain
 Tin.  Pulvis Stanni, (P. E.  and D.)  Prep.  1.
 (P. E.)   Melt tin in an iron vessel, pour it into an
 earthenware  mortar  heated a little above its melt-
 ing point, and triturate briskly as  the  metal cools,
 then sift the  product and repeat  the  process.—2.
 Pour melted  tin into a wooden box, the  inside  of
 which is  rubbed with chalk, and shake *• Gently
 till the  metal is reduced to powder, then sift as be-
 fore.   Dose.  2 to 4 drs., as a vermifuge.   %* Pol-
 ishers' putty, colored with  ivory black, is frequently
 substituted for  this  powder, and  hence  arise the
 ill effects that sometimes follow its use.
   POWDERS, TOOTH.   Prep. 1. Red bark,
 and Armenian bole, of each 1 oz.; powdered cin-
 namon, and bicarbonate of soda, of each £ oz.;  oil
 of  cinnamon 2 or 3 drops ; all in fine powder;
 mix.  (Lancet)—2.  Substitute cassia for cinna-
 mon, and cream of tartar, carbonate of magnesia,
 or  prepared  chalk,  for  bicarbonate  of  soda.—3.
 (Grosvenor's)  Rosepink  3 lbs.; orris powder  £
 lb.; oyster shells 2£ lbs.; oil of rhodium 25 drops ;
 as above.—4. (Asiatic  dentifrice)  Prepared red
 coral 8\ lbs.;  Venetian red J lb.;  ochre and pum-
 ice-stone,  of each  li  lb.;  China musk 30 grs. ; all
 in  fine  powder;  mix.—5.  (Hemet's  dentifrice.)
 Cuttlefish bones 6 oz.; cream  of tartar 1  oz.; or-
 ris root £ oz.; as last—6.  (Ruspini's  dentifrice.)
 Cuttlefish  bones 8 oz.;  roach alum and orris root,
 of each 1 oz.; cream of  tartar 2 oz.; oil of rho-
 dium 6  drops  ; as before.   (See Cosmetics.)
  POWDER, TRAGACANTH, (COMPOUND.)
 Syn. Pulv. Tragacanth* CoMr., (P.  L. and E.)
 Prep. (P. L.) Tragacanth, gum arabic, and starch,
 of each ^isa ; white sugar f iij ; powder and mix.
 Demulcent, and as a vehicle.
   POWDER, VERMIFUGE.   Prep.  1.  (Col-
 lier.)  Powdered jalap and scammony. of each 3j;
 cream  of  tartar 3ij ; Ethiop's  mineral 3iij ;  mix.
 Dose.   10 to 20  grs., for children.—2. (E. H.)
 Scammony and calomel,  of  each  3j ;  rhubarb
 3iij ; all in fine powder ; mix. Dose  15 to 30 grs.
 or more.
   POWDER,  VIOLET.   Prep. 1. Powdered
starch 28 lbs.; do. orris root 1 lb.; essence of ber-
gamotte i oz.; oil of rhodium £ dr.; mix and pass
 through a sieve.—2. Powdered starch scented with
 a little  bergamotte.   Used as a dusting powder in
 excoriations, and for children. 
PRA                   488                    PRI
   POWDER, WARWICK, (EARL OF.)  Syn.
 Pulv. Comitis Warwicensis.  Prep.  Scammony
 4 oz.; diaphoretic antimony 2 oz.; cream of tar-
 tar 1 oz.; all in fine powder; mix.
   POX, CHICKEN.   Syn. Waterpox.  Vari-
 cella.   (Dim. of Variola.)   An eruptive  skin
 disease,  consisting of smooth  vesicles  of  various
 sizes, which afterwards become white  and straw
 colored, and about the fourth day break and  scale
 off.  In hot weather the discharge sometimes be-
 comes purulent, and  at others  the eruption is at-
 tended  with considerable  fever.   The  treatment
 consists in  the  adoption of a light vegetable diet,
 and  in  the administration of mild aperients and
 cooling drinks.
  POX, COW.  Syn.  Vaccinia. Variola  Vac-
 cina.  This disease was proposed as a substitute
 and preventive of smallpox, by Dr. Jenner in 1798.
 The success which has followed its artificial pro-
 duction has nearly led to the extinction of small-
 pox  in  England.   The  process of vaccination is
 similar to that  of inoculation for the smallpox, be-
 fore  noticed.   About the third day the puncture
 usually becomes red and elevated, and continues
 to enlarge and become vesicular, until at about the
 8th or 9th day, it is at its height, and the vesicle is
surrounded with a florid areola.  About the  elev-
 enth or twelfth day these  symptoms decline  ; the
 centre of the pustule becomes  brown, and  a  dark
scale gradually forms and separates, leaving the
 arm as heretofore.  This disease seldom  requires
 medical  treatment;  but should febrile symptoms
 come on, an aperient may be given.
  POX, SMALL.  Syn. Variola.   (From va-
 rius, changing color, because of  its action on the
 skin.) This disease comes on with the usual symp-
 toms of inflammatory fever.  About the third day,
 red spots, resembling flea bites, make their appear-
 ance on the face  and head, and gradually extend
 over the whole body.  About the fifth day small
 circular vesicles, depressed in the centre, surround-
 ed by an areola,  and containing a colorless  fluid,
 begin to form,  when the feverish symptoms abate  ;
 about the sixth day the throat becomes sore ; about
 the eighth day the face is swollen, and about the
 eleventh day the pustules acquire the size of a pea,
 and cease to enlarge, the matter which they con-
 tain  becomes opaque and yellow, a  dark  central
 spot forms on each, the swelling of the face  sub-
 sides, and secondary symptoms of fever come on  ;
 the pustules become rough, break and scab  over,
 and  a dark spot remains for some days, often fol-
 lowed by permanent indentation.  At the  end of
 the  sixteenth  or eighteenth day, the  symptoms
 usually disappear.  In the confluent smallpox, the
 pustules coalesce, the  eruption is irregular in its
 progress, and the  inflammatory symptoms are  more
 severe.   The treatment of ordinary cases of small-
 pox resembles  that mentioned  above for chicken-
 pox.  When great irritability exists, small doses of
 morphia, opium, or camphor, maybe administered,
 and  obstinate vomiting arrested by effervescing sa-
 line  draughts.  The application on the third day
 of a  mask formed of thick  muslin, covered with
 mercurial ointment, and having holes cut  out for
 the nostrils, eyes, and mouth,  will effectually pre-
 vent " pitting."  (Dr. Stewardson.)   Gold leaf is
 also applied for the same purpose.
  PRADIER'S  CATAPLASM.  Prep.  Balm
of Mecca 3vj ; rectified spirit of wine $xvj ; dis-
solve ;  red  cinchona bark, sarsaparilla, and sage,
of each  ^j *>  saffron  ^as;  rectified spirit of wine
^xxxij ; digest for 4* hours, filter, mix  tho two li-
quors, and add twice their weight of lnne water. In
gout, f ^ij sprinkled on the surface of a hot linseed-
meal poultice sufficiently large to surround the af-
fected  part.  *** The  Emperor Napoleon gave
£2500 for this receipt.
  PRECIPITATE,  GREEN.   Syn.  Mercu-
rius Pr*cipitatus  Viridis.   Lacerta Viridib
Prep. Quicksilver §j; nitric  acidf^iss;  dissolve;
copper Jj;  nitric acid f Jj ; water f §iss ;  dissolve ;
mix the  solutions, evaporate  to dryness, and cal
cine till red fumes cease to arise.  Caustic.
  PRECIPITATE, WHITE.   Syn.  Cosmetic
Mercury.  Ammoniated Mercury.  Muriate of
Ammonia and Mercury.   Ammoniated Submuri-
ate of Mercury.  Ammoniacal Oxychloruret
of do.   Chloramide of do.  Chloro-amidide of
do.   Mercurius  Pr*cipitatus Albus,  (P. L
1745.)   Calx Hydrargyri Alba,  (P.  L. 1788.)
Hydrargyrus Pr*cipitatus Albus, (P. L. 1809.)
Hydrargyrum Pr*cipitatum Album, (P. L. 1824,
&, P. E.)   Hydrargyri Ammonio Chloridum, (P
L. 1836.)   Hydrargyri Submurias Ammoniatum,
(P. D.)   Prep.  I. (P. L.)   Bichloride of mercury
§vj ; distilled water  3  quarts;  dissolve,  and add
liquor of ammonia f gviij;  wash and dry the pre-
cipitate.
  II.  Corrosive sublimate  and  sal ammoniac, of
each §vij ;  dissolve in water 3 quarts, and precipi-
tate with liquor of potassa.  Some  use only 4 oz.
of sal ammoniac.
  Remarks.  A white, inodorous  solid or powder,
insoluble in alcohol, partially soluble  in boiling wa-
ter, and wholly dissolved by sulphuric, nitric, and
muriatic acids, without  effervescence.  It is " to-
tally dissipated by heat.  Digested with acetic acid,
it yields no yellow or blue  precipitate with iodide
of potassium.  Its powder triturated  with  lime wa-
ter does not become black.  When heated with so-
lution of potash it exhales ammonia, and assumes
a yellow color."  (P. L.)   Used to make  an oint-
ment, in various skin diseases, &c.
  PRESERVES AND  PRESERVING.  (See
Fruits, Jellies, Jams, Marmalades, Conserves,
&c.)
  PRINTING INK. Syn. Encre  dTmprimkm**,
(Fr.)    Buchdruckerfarbe, (Ger.)   Prep.—1.
The varnish. .10 or 12 gallons of linseed oil are
set over the fire in an iron pot, capable of contain-
ing at least as much more, to allow of its swelling
up without running over.   When it  boils  it is kept
stirred with an iron ladle, and if it  does  not take
fire of itself soon after the  smoke begins  to rise, it
is kindled by means of a piece of burning  paper,
stuck in the cleft end of a long stick.  The pot is
then shortly afterwards removed from the fire, and
the oil  is suffered to burn for about half an  hour,
or till a sample of the varnish cooled  upon a pallet
knife, may be drawn into strings of  about half an
inch long, between the fingers. The flame is now ex-
tinguished by the application of a closely-fitting tin
cover, and as soon as the froth of the ebullition has
subsided, black rosin is added, in the proportion of
6  lbs. to every 6 quarts of oil  thus treated; the
mixture  is  next stirred until the rosin is dissolved,
when If lbs.  of brown soap, cut into slices, is fur- 
PRO                     489                   PRU
ther added, (cautiously) and the ingredients are'
again stirred with the spatula until united, the pot
being once more placed over the fire to promote
the combination.  When this is effected, the var-
nish is removed from the heat, and after thorough
stirring, covered over and set aside.  ***  It is ne-
cessary to prepare two kinds of this varnish, vary-
ing in consistence, from  more or less boiling, to be
occasionally mixed together as circumstances may
require; that which answers well in hot weather
being too thick in  cold, and  vice versa.   Large
characters also require  a thinner ink than small
ones.  A good varnish may be drawn into threads
like glue, and  is very thick  and tenacious.  The
oil  loses from  10 to 13g by boiling.—2.   Making
the Ink.  a. (Black.) Finely-powdered indigo and
Prussian blue,  of each 2£ oz.; best mineral lamp-
black 4 lbs.; do. vegetable lampblack 3£ lbs.; put
them into any suitable vessel, and mix in gradually
the  warm varnish.   The  mixture must now be
submitted to careful grinding, either in a mill or
with a slab and muller.  Oil the large scale steam
power is employed  for this  purpose.—b.  (An ex-
temporaneous superfine  ink.)  Balsam of copaiba
(pure) 9 oz.;  lampblack 3 oz.; indigo  and Prus-
sian blue, of each 5  dr.  ; Indian red £ oz.; yellow
soap (dry) 3 oz.; grind to  an  impalpable smooth-
ness.  Canada  balsam may be substituted for bal-
sam of copaiba where the smell of the latter is ob-
jectionable, but it dries quicker.
   Remarks. Old linseed oil is preferable to new.
Yellow rosin soap is preferred for  black  and dark
colored inks,  and white curd  soap for  light ones.
Vegetable lampblack takes the most varnish. The
addition of indigo and Prussian blue is to correct
the brown color of the black.   The Indian red  is
added to increase the body and richness of the co-
lor.  Some persons find  much trouble in grinding
up the  indigo, from  its running into  a  mass  and
clogging the  mill ;  but  this may be avoided by
mixing  it as above,  or by first grinding it with a
sufficient quantity of Canada balsam or copaiba,
and using a proportionate quantity of varnish, and
that of a little  thicker cousistence.   The French
employ nut oil instead of linseed.  Mr. Savage ob-
tained the large medal of the Society of Arts for
his black ink  made as above.   It  is  unrivalled.
*#* Colored inks are made in a similar way. The
pigments used are—Carmine, lakes,  vermilion,
chrome red, red  lead, orange red, Indian red, Ve-
netian red,  orange chrome, chrome  yellow, burnt
terra di sienna, gall stone, Roman  ochre, yellow
do., verdigris, Scheele's green, Schweinfurth's do.,
blues and yellows mixed for greens, indigo, Prus-
sian blue, Antwerp  do., cobalt do., charcoal  do.,
lustre, umber, sepia, &c. &c. (See Savage's " Prep-
aration of Printing Ink," and  the " Encyclo-
p*dia  Britannica.")
  PRINTS, ACKERMAN'S  LIQUOR  FOR.
Prep. Best pale glue and white curd soap, of each
4 oz.; hot water 3 pints ; dissolve, then  add pow-
dered alum 2 oz.  Used to size prints and pictures
before coloring them.
  PROMETHEANS.   Prep. Chlorate of potash
ana loaf sugar, equal  parts; vermilion  to  color;
powder each  separately, mix, and  make  a stiff
paste with a weak solution  of gum arabic.  This
paste is divided  into  small pieces.  A number of
email oval glass beads are now made from a small
thin glass tube by means of a candle, one end of
which is closed while soft.  These are dipped while
still hot into sulphuric acid, and the open end is then
closed by having  the flame directed upon it by a
blowpipe.   A slip of paper 2  inches long and 1
wide is next taken, and one of the corners cut off.
A little  gum  arabic is applied, and the paper  is
rolled into  a small cylinder, leaving a hollow at
the gummed end.  Into this  hollow,  one of tho
glass beads, surrounded with a little of the red mix-
ture, is then gently squeezed with the fingers, and
finished off by smoothing the external surface with
the finger moistened with gum water.   The whole
is now dried.   Used to procure a light.   The bead
containing  the oil  of vitriol at the loaded end is
broken  by a smart blow, and on coming into con-
tact with the chlorate  mixture, causes  it to barst
into flame.  %* The bead and red paste togethei
should not be larger than a  barley corn.  (See
Chlorate Matches.)
  PROTEINE,  (from trpwrtuoi, /  take the first
place, because it is the original matter from which
albumen,  caseine, and fibrine are derived.)  A
compound of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxy-
gen, discovered by Mulder.  It is  obtained when
albumen, caseine, or fibrine is dissolved  in lr-^der-
ately strong liquor of potassa, the solution heated
for some time to 120°, and acetic acid added ; a
gelatinous  precipitate forms,  which, after being
washed and dried, is proteine.  It is insoluble in
water  and alcohol.  With sulphuric acid it forms
sulphoproteic  acid, and with chlorine, chloropro-
teic acid.   When digested  in  nitric acid xantho-
proteic  acid is formed along with  ammonia  and
oxalic acid.  *#* Proteine is produced  by vegeta-
bles alone, and cannot be formed  by animals, al-
though the animal organism possesses the power
of converting one modification of proteine into an-
other, fibrine into albumen, or rice versa, or both into
caseine.  Vegetable albumen, caseine, and fibrine,
are therefore  the  only sources of  proteine for ani-
mal life, and  consequently of  nutrition, strictly so
called, or the growth in mass of the body.   (Lie-
big, Animal Chem. p. 106.)
  PRUSSIAN  BLUE.   Syn.   Berlin  Blue.
Prussiate  of Iron.   Ferro-prussiate  of do.
Cyanuret  of do.   Ferro-cyanide of do.   Per-
cyanide of  do.    Sesquiferrocyanide  of do.
Cyanure ferroso-ferrique,  (Berzelius.)  Eisen-
blauseLures eisenoxyd ;  Berlinerblau, (Ger)
Bleu de Prusse ; Prussiate de Fer, (Fr.)  Fer-
ri percyanidum,  (P. L.)  Do. Cyanuretum, (P.
D.)  Do. ferro-sesquicyanidum.   Prep.  I. Pre-
cipitate the crude but clear solution of prussiate of
potash  (blood lye) by a mixed solution of 2  parts
of alum, and 1 part  of green sulphate of iron.
The dingy green precipitate that falls, gradually
becomes blue by absorption of atmospheric  oxy-
gen, which is promoted by exposure and agitation
of the liquor.   As soon as it  has acquired its full
color, the whole must be  allowed to  repose, the
clear portion decanted, and the sediment repeated-
ly washed with water, drained, and dried, at first
in a stove, but afterwards on chalk stones.
  II.  Partly saturate the free alkali in  the crude
lye, with dilute sulphuric acid, before precipitation.
Very superior.
  III.  Repeatedly digest and  wash the  precipitate
obtained by either of the above processes, in verj 
PRTJ                    490                     PRU
dilute  muriatic arid,  and then in pure  water;
drain and dry.   Superior.
   IV. (Paris  Blue)  Neutralize the  solution of
prussiate  of  potash  above, with dilute  sulphuric
acid, and precipitate with a solution of any persalt
of iron, (as the persulphate, nitrate, sesquichloride,
or peracetate;)  well  wash, and dry the precipi-
tate.   A very rich and intense color.
   V. (Hochstatter.)  Crystallized prussiate of pot-
ash  and  green vitriol, of  each 6  parts; dissolve
each separately in  water 15  parts; then add oil
of vitriol 1 part; fuming muriatic acid 24 parts;
agitate well.  After some  hours,, treat the  whole
with chloride of lime 1 part, dissolved in  water 80
parts, and strained, observing to stop the addition
of the  latter solution as soon  as an effervescence
from the escape of chlorine gas is observed ;  after
standing some  hours, thoroughly wash the precip-
itate, and dry it; or; instead of the  above, at once
wash the  precipitate in dilute nitric acid, till it ac-
quires a deep-blue color.   Product.  Of  the finest
quality.
   Remarks.  The object of employing alum  is to
prevent or lessen the precipitation of oxide of  iron
by the free  alkali in  the  blood lye, but a portion
of alumina  is  in  consequence thrown down with
the blue, and tends to render it paler, and increase
the product.  The same  purpose  is effected by
neutralizing the alkali with dilute sulphuric acid,
and omitting the alum from the  precipitating solu-
tion ; but in this case, if  green copperas is  em-
ployed, it will  be necessary to treat it with very
dilute muriatic  acid, to remove the  excess of  per-
oxide of iron, before the  precipitate acquires its
full richness of color.  The quantity of alum  em-
ployed may be varied according to  the shades of
the intended blue.   The quality of  Prussian  blue
may be estimated by its color, and  by the quanti-
ty of potash or soda required to destroy its  blue
color.  If it effervesces with acids,  it  contains
chalk ;  and if it  forms a paste with boiling water,
it is adulterated with starch.  It is  pure, if, " af-
ter being  boiled with dilute muriatic acid, ammo-
nia throws down nothing from the filtered liquid."
(P. L.)   It  has been occasionally  used  in medi-
cine, but is principally employed as a pigment It
is  purgative, and not poisonous.   *#*  Prussian
blue is distinguished  from  indigo by exhibiting a
coppery tint  when broken, but  which is removed
by rubbing with the nail.
  PRUSSIATE OF  POTASH.   Syn.  Ferro-
prussiate of Potash.  Triple do. do.-   Ferru-
reted hydrocyanate of do.   ferrocyanate of
do.  Ferrocyanide of Potassium.   Cyanure fer-
roso-potassique, (Berzelius.)   Ferrocyanure de
Potassium ;  Prussiate jaune  de Potasse,  (Fr.)
Kalium eisencyanur; Cyaneisen Kaliu.m, (Ger)
Potassii FERROCYANIDUM, (P. L. &  E.)   Prep. I.
Dried blood, horns, or hoofs, 5 parts ; good pearl-
ash 2 parts ;  both reduced to coarse  powder, mix,
and inject into an egg-shaped iron pot in a state
of moderate ignition ; stir well with  an iron spatu-
la, so as to prevent it running together,  and con-
tinue the calcination till  fetid  vapors cease  to be
evolved.   During  the  latter part of the process,
the pots should remain covered, and only occasion-
ally stirred.   The calcination is known to be  fin-
ished when  flame is no longer seen  on stirring the
mixture.  When this is the case, remove the pasty i
"mass with an iron ladle, and when cold, dissolve
 in water;  filter or defecate, and  evaporate, that
 crystals may form on cooling ; redissolve in hot
 water, and cool  very slowly, when large and beau-
 tiful yellow crystals will be deposited.   %* The
 greaves obtained from the tallow-chandlers are
 employed as an economical  substitute for horns or
 blood, by one of the largest  Scotch manufactur-
 ers ; but blood is  the  best  where  it can be pro-
 cured, and after that, horns and  hoofs.
   II.  (L. Thompson.)  Potash  or pearlash, and
 coke, cinders, or coal, of each 10 parts; iron turn-
 ings 5 parts ;  all in coarse powder; mix,  and  ex-
 pose for half an hour to a full  red heat in an open
 crucible, stirring occasionally till small jets of pur-
 ple flamo  are  no  longer seen, then cool, dissolve
 out the soluble  matter, and proceed as above.  If
 this solution be precipitated by sulphate of iron,
 and the precipitate brightened by muriatic acid, as
 before described,  25$ of the  weight of  the pure
 potash  employed,  will  be  obtained in  Prussian
 blue.
   III. (Pure.)  Fuse effloresced commercial prus-
 siate of potash in a glass vessel,  dissolve  in water,
 neutralize with acetic acid,  precipitate with strong
 alcohol, wash the precipitate with a little weak al-
 cohol, redissolve in water, and crystallize.
   Remarks. The yellow  -,-ussiate  of potash  is
 chiefly used in  dyeing and calico printing, and in
 chemistry, as a  test and a source of prussic acid
 When pure, it is totally dissolved by water; loses
 12*6$ of its weight by a gentle heat; scarcely, if
 at all, alters the color of turmeric ; is precipitated
 deep  blue  by the sesquisalts of iron, and white by
 zinc;  its ashes dissolved by  muriatic  acid, are
 again thrown down by ammonia ; it yields 18*7$
 of  sesquioxide  of iron. (P. L.)   *1f*  Ferrocya-
 nide  of Iron precipitates  solutions of antimony,
 bismuth, protoxide of mercury, and zinc, white—
 Cadmium, pale yellowish white—Protoxide of ce-
rium, white, soluble in acids—Protoxide of copper,
 white, changing to red—Protoxide of iron, white,
rapidly  turning  blue—Lead, white,  with a pale
yellowish cast—Protoxide of manganese, white,
rapidly passing into peach or blood-red—Peroxide
of mercury, white, turning blue—Oxide of nickel,
white, turning green—Silver, white, turning brown
in the light—Protoxide of tin, white, (gelatinous)
 Cobalt, green, turning reddish gray—Peroxide of
copper, brown-red—Peroxide of  iron, dark blue—
Deutoxide of manganese, greenish gray—Molyb-
denum,  dark brown—Protoxide  of palladium,
green, (gelatinous)—Tantalum,  burnt  yellow—
Peroxide of tin, yellow, (gelatinous)—Uranium,
reddish  brown,   t^t Red  PHussiate  of Potash
(ferridcyanide  of potassium) is distinguished by
precipitating solutions  of bismuth,  (pale,) cad-
mium, perofide of mercury, and  zinc, (deep,) of a
yellow  color—Protoxide  of  mercury—Cobalt,
(dark)—Protoxide of copper, molybdenum, silver,
and uranium, reddish brown—Peroxide of copper,
greenish yellow—Protoxide of iron, blue—Man-
ganese,  brown—Nickel,  yellowish and green—
and protoxide of tin, white.  It does not affect so-
lutions of peroxide of iron.
  PRUSSIC ACID.  Hydrocyanic Acid. Aci-
dum hydrocyanicum.   Prep.  I. Anhydrous,   a.
(Liebig.)  Pure  crystallized ferrocyanide of potas-
sium 15 parts;  water and sulphuric acid  of eacb 
PRU                     491                    PRU
9 parts; distil  in  a glass retort into a well-cooled
receiver, containing chloride of calcium in  coarse
fragments,  5 parts; stop the process as soon  as
the chloride in the receiver is perfectly covered by
the distilled fluid, and decant the acid into a bottle
furnished with a  good stopper.   Keep  it  in the
dark, with the bottle inverted.   6.  (Gay-Lussac.)
Treat bicyanide  of  mercury  with strong  hydro-
chloric acid, and pass the vapor first over carbon-
ate of lime, and then over chloride of calcium.
   II.  Dilute,   a. (Acidum  Hydrocyanicum di-
lutum)   Sulphuric  acid § iss ;  water  f ^iv;  mix
in a glass retort, cool, add ferrocyanide of  potas-
sium gij ; dissolved in water £ pint, and distil f §yj
uito  a well-cooled receiver, containing f ^vrij of
water ; lastly, add f ^vj of water more, or as much
as may be sufficient, so that a solution of 12*7 grs.
of nitrate of silver may be accurately saturated by
100 grs. of  the  acid.  Contains 2g of  real acid.
6. (Everitt.) Cyanide of silver 48£  grs.; distilled
water f §j ;  mix, add 39£ grs.  of muriatic acid,
agitate, and decant  the  clear  into  another  vial.
(P. L.)  Contains 2§ of pure acid.  c. (P. D.) Bi-
cyanide of  mercury ^j'  muriatic acid f 3vij ;  wa-
ter f ^viij;  distil f ^viij.   Sp.  gr.  0-998.  Contains
1-6°, of pure acid.   d. (Laming.) Cyanide  of po-
tassium  22 grs.;  water f 3vj ; dissolve,  add crys-
tallized tartaric  acid 50  grs., dissolved in rectified
spirit f3iij;  shake well  together, and decant the
clear: f3j  contains 1 gr. of pure acid.   e.  (P.E.)
Similar to  the P. L., but contains 3-23°; of pure
arid.  /.  (Dr.  Clark.)  Tartaric  acid 1  part;  wa-
ter 40  parts ;  dissolve, add 2§ parts of  pure cya-
nide of potassium, agitate, and decant.  Contains
3°- of  pure  acid, and  a little bitartrate of potash.
g. (Majendie.) Pure  anhydrous  acid  f ^j;  water
f §vj,  (or 1 to 8£  by weight.)   Contains  12$ of
pure  acid,  or  6  times as strong as that  of the
P. L.  h. (Winckler.) Powdered crystals of prus-
siate of potash (pure) 120 grs.; solution of pure
phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1-25)  240 grs.;  alcohol of
80g, 480 grs.; mix in a  retort  connected with a
receiver containing  120  grs. of rectified spirit of
wine,  infuse for  24 hours, with occasional agita-
tion, and then  distil,  adding to the distilled  liquid
sufficient alcohol to make it up  to exactly 1£ or
Contains 2g of pure acid.   i.  (Dr. R. D. Thomson.)
Dilute sulphuric  acid (P. L.) f3ij ; distilled water
f3vj;  mix,  cool,  add pure cyanide of  lead 43*36
grs.; agitate well,  and  decant  the  clear.  Con-
tains 2°; of pure acid.  k.  (Scheele.)  Prussian blue
(pure) ^ij >  red  oxide of mercury  §vj; distilled
water f Jyj; boil  till  the blue turns  green, wash
the sediment with hot water  f 3;x ; pour the liquid
upon clean  iron  filings 3iij; add oil of vitriol 3j;
pour the liquid from the quicksilver that  has sepa-
rated, and distil ^th.   The strength of the product
varies.  An acid of 4% is usually sold under  this
name ; but the acid prepared as above is  generally
much stronger.
  Remarks.  Pure anhydrous prussic  acid is  a
most deadly poison ; 1 or  2 drops, either swallowed
or applied  to the  skin, being sufficient  to  cause
speedy death: even  its  vapor has a  like  effect.
Dilute prussic acid has been  taken with apparent
advantage  in chronic coughs, phthisis, and some
other diseases.   The dose of  the acid (P.  L.)
may be from 2 to 5 minims 3  or 4 times a day,
made  into  a mixture with  water  flavored with
gum or sirup.  It is  also used externally in some
skin diseases.
   *** Prussic  acid, even when  dilute, is  very
liable  to  spontaneous  decomposition,   and this
speedily occurs when it  is exposed to  the light
To  promote its  preservation, it is usual to sur-
round  the bottles containing it with thick purple
paper, and to keep them inverted in an obscure
situation.  The addition of a very small quantity
of  muriatic arid renders it  much  less liable to
change, and is generally made by manufacturers
for that purpose.  But in testing  the strength of
such acid by nitrate of  silver, it  is necessary to
deduct the weight of the chloride of silver from
that of  the mixed precipitate.  The  cyanide of
silver  is  soluble in a  concentrated 6o)ution  of
nitrate of  silver, and also in boiling nitric acid;
but the chloride is  insoluble in  either of those
menstrua.  For  estimating the strength  of  the
commercial  acid the following plan, proposed by
Dr. Ure, will be  found very exact and convenient,
and may be used as a check to the above:—To
100 grains, or any other convenient quantity of
the arid contained in  a small vial, add in suc-
cession,  small  quantities of the peroxide of mer-
cury in fine powder,  till  it  ceases  to be dissolved
on agitation.  The weight of the  red precipitate
taken  up  being  divided by four, gives  a quotient
representing the quantity of  real  prussic  acid
present.   By weighing out beforehand, on a piece
of  paper or a watch-glass, 40 or 50 grains of the
peroxide, the residual weight of it  shows at once
the  quantity expended.  The operation may be
always completed in five minutes,  for the red pre-
cipitate  dissolves as  rapidly in the dilute  prussic
acid, with the aid of  slight agitation, as sugar dis-
solves  in water.  Should  the presence of muriatic
acid be suspected, then the difference in the vola-
tility of  prussiate and  muriate of  ammonia  may
be  had  recourse to with advantage ; the  former
exhaling  at a  very  gentle  heat,  the  latter re-
quiring a  subliming  temperature  of about 300°
F.   After  adding ammonia  in slight  excess  to
the prussic  acid, if we evaporate  to dryness at  a
heat of  212°, we may infer  from the   residuary
sal  ammoniac   the  quantity of  muriatic  acid
present
   Tests.—1. It  is distinguished by a strong odor
of bitter almonds.—2. Neutralized by potash, and
tested  with a  solution of sulphate or tincture of
iron, it gives a  blue  precipitate,  or one turning
blue on the addition of dilute sulphuric or muriatic
acid—3. Nitrate of silver gives a white precipi-
tate,  soluble in  boiling  nitric  acid.—1.  Super-
saturated with potash, it gives a  greenish  blue
precipitate with sulphate  of copper, which is turn-
ed  white by the cautious addition of  muriatic
acid.—5.  Tincture  of guaiacum  gives a  white
precipitate,  and  when a  few drops of solution of
sulphate of copper are  added, a blue color is pro-
duced, which  is  heightened  by adding alcohol.
(Pagenstecher.)—6. In cases of poisoning, if the
above tests cannot be applied, the contents of the
stomach  may  be introduced  along  with a little
sulphuric acid into a retort, and distilled, and the
reagents applied to the distilled liquor.
  Ant.__1.  Chlorine water, or solution of chloride
of lime or soda, in doses of 2 or 3 spoonfuls diluted
with water, frequently; also apply it externally.—2 
PUN
492
PUT
Small quantities of ammonia  water diluted with
10 or 12 parts of water; also the fumes inhaled.—3.
The joint  administration  of carbonate of potash
and sulphate of iron.  This has been lately very
strongly recommended.  %* Cold affusion should
be adopted in all cases, and is almost of itself a
certain  cure,  if employed before  the  convulsive
stage is  over; and it is  often successful  even
during the  stage  of  insensibility and  paralysis.
(Herbst)   Artificial respiration should also be at-
tempted.  Unfortunately the poisonous action of
prussic acid is so rapid that life is usually extinct
before antidotes can be applied.
  PUFF PASTE.  Take a quarter of a peck of
flour, and rub into it  a pound  of butter very fine.
Make  it up into a light  paste with cold water,
just  stiff enough to work  well.  Next lay it  out
about as thick as a crown-piece ; put a layer of
butter  all  over, then sprinkle on a little  flour,
double it up, and roll it out again.   Double and
roll it with  layers of butter three  times  or more,
and it will be  fit for use.   By  repeating  this pro-
cess 10 or  12 times, a very  light paste will  be
formed.  Bake in a moderately quick oven.
  PULVERIZATION  OF   SALTS.   Many
salts which  are pulverized with difficulty, and  do
not dissolve  in spirit of wine, are easily transform-
ed into a fine powder, by agitating their  concen-
trated aqueous solution with a  considerable quan-
tity of spirit of wine; the disengaged fine  crys-
tallized powder  may then be  dried,  and further
divided by  trituration.   (Du   Menil.)   A  large
number  of  salts may also be reduced to coarse
powder by  keeping their  solutions in a  state of
constant agitation during the evaporation.
  PUNCH.  Prep.—l. Juice of 3 or 4  lemons ;
yellow peel of 1 or 2 lemons; lump sugar | lb.;
boiling water  3£ pints ; infuse £ an  hour, strain,
add porter  £ pint; rum  and brandy, of each £ to
1 pint,  (or  either  alone  1£ to 2  pints,) and  add
more warm water and sugar, if desired weaker or
sweeter.—2. (Cold Punch.)   Arrack, port wine,
and water, of each  1  pint;  juice of 4  lemons ;
white sugar 1 lb.; mix.—3. (Gin Punch.)  Yel-
low peel and juice of 1 lemon  ; gin £ pint; water
1J  pints ;  sherry  1  glass ; mix.—(Iced  Punch)
Champagne or  Rhenish wine 1  quart; arrack 1
pint; juice and yellow peels of 6* lemons ;  white
sugar  1 lb.;  soda  water  1 or 2 bottles; ice as
cream.—4.  (Milk  Punch or  Verder)   Yellow
rinds of 2  dozen lemons ;  steep for 2 days in rum
or  brandy  2  quarts ;  then  add  spirit  3 quarts
more; hot water 3 quarts ; lemon juice  1 quart;
loaf sugar 4 lbs.; 2 nutmegs, grated ; boiling milk
2 quarts ; mix, and in 2  hours strain through a
jelly tag.—5. (Norfolk Punch.)   French brandy
20 quarts; yellow peels  of 30  oranges and  30
lemons; infuse  for  12  hours ; add 30 quarts of
cold water, 15 lbs. of lump sugar, and the juice of
the oranges and lemons ;  mix well, strain through
 a hair-sieve,  add new milk  2 quarts, and  in 6
weeks  bottle.  Keeps well.—6. (Orange Punch.)
As  No. 1, using  oranges,  and adding a  little
orange wine.   A little   Curacoa,  Noyeau,  or
 Mareschino, improves it.—7. (Raspberry Punch)
As  last, but  using raspberry  juice or vinegar  for
oranges or lemons.—8. (Regent's Punch) Strong
hot green tea, lemon juice, and capillaire, of each
1 £ pints ;  rum, brandy, arrack,  and Curacoa, of
each 1 pint; Champagne 1 bottle ; mix, and slice
a pine-apple into  it—9. (Tea Punch.)   Hot tea
1  quart;  arrack  £ bottle;  white sugar 6 oz.;
juice  of  8  lemons;  yellow  rinds of 4  lemons;
mix.—10. (Wine  Punch)  Sugar 1  lb.; yellow
peel of 3 lemons ; juice of 9  lemons;  arrack 1
pint;  port or sherry wine (hot)  1 gallon; cinna-
mon  i  oz.; nutmeg 1  dr.;  mix.   *%* All the
above are pleasant intoxicating beverages.   (See
Shrub.)
   PURL. Prep.  To warm ale or beer add bitters
1 wine-glassful, or q. s.  Some add spirit.
   PURPLE OF CASSIUS.  Syn. Purple Pre-
cipitate.  Cassius' do.  Gold Purple.  Pourpre
de Cassius, (Fr.)   Gold-purpur, (Ger.)  Aurum
stanno  paratum,  (P. Cod.)   Purpura  mineralib
Cassii.   Prep. I.  Crystallized protochloride of  tin
1 part;  crystallized perchloride of tin 2 parts ; dis-
solve each separately, mix, and add it to a solution
of  crystallized terchloride of gold 1 part;  wash,
and dry  the precipitate.  Very fine.
   II. (Frick.)   Dissolve tin in cold dilute aqua re-
gia, till the fluid becomes  faintly  opalescent, then
take the metal out and weigh it; dilute largely
with water,  and  add simultaneously a dilute solu-
tion of gold and dilute sulphuric acid, in such pro-
portion, that the tin in the one shall be to the gold
in the other, in the ratio of 10 to  36.
   III. Silver 150  parts;  gold 20 parts; tin 35*1
parts; fuse together under  charcoal  and borax,
cool,  laminate, and dissolve out the silver with ni-
tric acid.  Used  as a purple in porcelain painting,
and to communicate a  ruby  red color to glass,
when melted in open vessels.
   PURPURINE.  A coloring principle  found  by
Robiquet and Colin in madder.   It dissolves in  al-
cohol, ether, and water, and solutions of alum and
alkalis.    It is also called madder purple.
   PUTREFACTION.  Syn. Putrefactio. (Lat,
from putrefacio, I make rotten.)  The spontane-
ous decomposition of animal  and azotized vegeta-
ble substances, under the joint influence of warmth,
air, and moisture.  The solid and fluid matters are
resolved into gaseous compounds and vapors, which
escape,  and earthy matters which remain.  The
most striking characteristic of this species of fer-
mentation or decay, is,  the ammoniacal or fetid
exhalations that accompany it.   We have already
noticed some of the most useful antiseptic process-
es, (see  p. 62,) and shall therefore merely observe
here, that putrefaction may  be prevented by the
abstraction or exclusion of  any of  the conditions
essential to its occurrence.  This may be effected
by—reduction of temperature,—exclusion  of  at-
mospheric air, or—the abstraction  of  moisture.
 Frozen  meat may be  preserved for an unlimited
period,  while  the same  substance  will  scarcely
keep for more than a  few days at the ordinary
 heat  of summer.  Animal substances will also re-
main uninjured for a long  period   if kept in vessels
from which  the air  is entirely excluded, as in the
process  which is described below.  The  third con-
dition is fulfilled when azotized matter is preserved
 in alcohol or in any similar fluid, or is dried.   In
 either case water is abstracted from the surface,
 which  then loses  its propensity to  putrefy, and
 forms an impervious layer, which excludes atmo-
spheric oxygen from the interior  and softer portion
 of the substance.  Creosote, alcohol, tl*  tcids, and 
PYR                    493                    PYR
some of the salts, act in the latter  way.  One of
the commonest methods  of effecting this purpose,
is to immerse the substance in alcohol of 60 to 70$,
to which some camphor,  ammonia, or common
salt may be  added ; but  a cheaper and equally I
efficient plan, is to employ a weak spirit holding a I
little creosote in solution ; a solution of sulphurous
acid may  be substituted for  alcohol.   Meat im- '
mersed for 1 hour in water  holding T^th part of
creosote  in solution, may be preserved unchanged,
even  during summer.  In  Messrs.  Donkin and
Gamble's patent process, the substances, previous-
ly  parboiled,  are placed in small tin cylinders,
which are then filled up  with  rich soup; the lids
are next soldered on quite  air-tight, and a small
hole afterwards made in the centre ; the cylinders
are then placed in a bath of brine, and heated to
the boiling point, to complete the cooking process,
when  the hole in the lid is hermetically sealed, by
soldering while the vessel still remains boiling hot.
The ends of the tins on cooling assume  a concave
form  from the pressure of the atmosphere, without
which they cannot  be  air-tight.   The patentees
expose the canisters prepared as above for at least
a month to a heat of 100 to 110°,  when if the pro-
cess has failed,  putrefaction commences, and the
ends,  instead of remaining  concave, bulge and be-
come  convex.  This is called  the " test."   This
process  was  invented by M.  Appert   in France.
Fish,  flesh, and poultry  may be thus preserved for
years in any climate.   (See Fermentation, Ani-
mal Substances, Anatomical Preparations, &c.)
   PUTTY, GLAZIER'S. Whiting  worked up
with  drying oil.
   PUTTY, POLISHER'S. Syn. Potee d'Etain.
Calcine.  Cineres Stanni.  Prep.—1. Melt tin,
rake  off the dross  as it is formed, and calcine this
dross  till it becomes  whitish.—2. Melt tin 1 oz.
with  an  equal weight, or 1£ oz. of lead, and then
raise  the heat so as to render the mixed metal red
hot, when the tin will be immediately  flung out in
the state of putty.   Both are very hard, used for
polishing glass and japan work, and to color opaque
white enamel.
   PUZZOLANA.  A volcanic ash found at Pom-
peii, Vesuvius, &c.   Mixed with lime it forms an
excellent hydraulic cement. A good artificial puz-
zolene may be made by heating  a mixture of 3
bushels of clay and 1 bushel of slaked lime, for
some hours, to redness.  (M. Bruyere.)
   PYRETHRIN.  An  acrid  resinous principle
extracted by alcohol and ether from the bark and
root of pellitory of Spain, (anthemis pyrethrum)
 It is also soluble  in acetic acid.
   PYROACIDS.   (From ™p, fire.)   This term
is applied to several acids that are obtained  by the
action of heat on other acids.—Pyiiocitric Acid,
(Citricic do. Itaconic do.)—Pyrogallic do.—Py-
ROLITH1C DO.--PYROMALIC  DO.--PYROMECONIC DO.
—Pyromucic do.—Pyrophosphoric do., (formed
by exposing a concentrated solution of phosphoric
acid for some time  to a heat of 415°.)—Pyrotar-
tahic  and  Pyruvic do.,  (obtained together from
tartaric acid,) are examples of  the pyroacids. The
salts of the pyroacids are also distinguished  by the
prefix pyro.
   PYRODIGITALINA.  A  semi-solid, poison-
ous empyreumatic oil, obtained by Dr.  Morries by
the destructive distillation of the dried leaves of
foxglove.   Pyroconia  is  obtained  in  the same
way.
  PYROLIGNEOUS ACID.  Syn. Vinegar of
Wood. Spirit of do.  Smoking Liquor.  Essence;
of Smoke.  Acidum Pyrolignosum.  (From irvp,
fire, and lignum, wood.)  Impure acetic acid ob-
tained  by the destructive distillation of  wood in
close vessels.   It comes over  along  with tar and
gaseous matter.  In this state  it is very impure,
and contains  much empyreumatic matter in solu-
tion ; but  by  separation from the  tar,  saturation
with slaked lime or chalk, defecation, and evapo-
ration, an impure acetate of lime is obtained, which,
after being gently heated, to destroy part  of its
empyreumatic matter  without  injuring  its acetic
acid,  is again dissolved and  defecated,  and then
precipitated by a solution of sulphate of soda, when
a solution of acetate of soda and a precipitate of
sulphate of lime are formed  by double decomposi-
tion.   The solution is next evaporated to dryness,
the dry mass dissolved in water, and the new solu-
tion filtered and  recrystallized.  The crystals of
acetate of soda obtained by the last process yield
pure acetic acid by distillation along with sulphuric
acid.   (See  Acetic  Acid  and  Animal  Sub-
stances.)
   PYROPHORUS.   (From ™p,  fire,  and <ptp<*,
I bear.)  Syn. Luft-zunder, (Ger) A substance
that inflames spontaneously when exposed  to  the
air.  Prep.—1.  (Homberg's.)  Alum and brown
sugar, equal  parts ; stir the mixture in an iron ladle
over the fire  till dry, then put it into an earthen or
coated glass vial, and keep it at a red heat so long
as flame is  emitted; it  must  then be  carefully
stopped up and  cooled.—2.  (Dr. Hare.)  Lamp-
black  3 parts ; burnt  alum 4 parts ; carbonate of
potalh 8 parts ;  as above.—3. (Gay Lussac.) Sul-
phate  of potash 9 parts ; calcined lampblack 5
parts; as last.—4. (Gobel.)   Heat tartrate of lead
red hot in a glass tube, and then hermetically seal
it.—5. Alum 3 parts ; wheat flour 1 part; as  No
 1.  *** When the above are properly prepared, a
little of the powder becomes  glowing hot and in-
flames on exposure to the air.  The accession of
the combustion is promoted by moisture, as a damp
 atmosphere or the breath.  They all (except the
 fourth) owe their combustibility to the presence of
sulphuret of  potassium. (Gay Lussac.)
   PYROTECHNY.  (From *rvp, fire, and rexvi,
 art)   The art of making fireworks. " The three
 prime materials of this art are,  nitre, sulphur, and
 charcoal, along with  filings of iron, steel, copper,
zinc, resin, camphor,  lycopodium, &c.   Gunpow-
 der is used either in grainy half-crushed, or finely
ground, for  different purposes.  The  longer  the
iron filings,  the brighter  red and white spots they
give;  those being preferred which are  made with
a coarse file, and quite free  from rust.   Steel fil-
ings  and  cast-iron borings, contain carbon,  and
afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy  radiations.
 Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame ; those
of zinc, a fine  blue color; the sulphuret of anti-
mony  gives a less greenish blue  than zinc, but with
much  smoke ; amber affords  a  yellow fire, as well
as colophony, (rosin,) and common salt; but the
last must  be very dry.  Lampblack, produces a
very red  color with gunpowder, and a pink  one
with nitre in excess;  it serves  for marking golden
showers."  When lightly mixed with gunpowder 
PYR
494
PYR
and put into cases, it throws out small  stars re-
sembling the rowel of a spur; this composition has
hence been called " spur fire."  " The yellow sand,
or glistening mica,  communicates  to fireworks
golden  radiations.   Verdigris imparts a pale
green;  sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac give
a palm-tree green.  Camphor yields a very white
flame and aromatic  fumes, which masks  the bad
smell of other substances.  Benzoin and storax
are used also on account of  their agreeable odor.
Lycopodium burns with a rose  color and a mag-
nificent flame; but it is principally employed in
theatres to  represent lightning, or to charge  the
torch of a fury."    (Diet,  of Arts,  Manuf.,  and
Mines.)—Our space will only permit a brief  notice
of the process of making gunpowder, and the com-
position for rockets and  colored fires.
   Gunpowder is composed of saltpetre, charcoal,
and sulphur.  (See  page  347.)  The saltpetre hav-
ing been trebly refined, is melted into cakes, which
are then brushed to  remove  any adhering grit or
dirt, broken into pieces  with a mallet, ground to a
fine  powder  in a  mill,  and sifted through a fine
bolting sieve  of brass wire.  The charcoal is that
of# the dogwood, alder,  or willow, and is carefully
burnt, as described at p. 177, and is  then  reduced
to powder as above.   The  sulphur is refined  and
ground to the same  fineness  as the charcoal  and
saltpetre.   The ingredients are then weighed out
in the  proper proportions, and  mixed by placing
them gradually in a wooden vessel,  in alternate
and  equal layers, after which  the whole is tho-
roughly and perfectly mixed  together.  The mix-
ture is then sifted,  and carefully ground to a paste
with water, and pressed into a hard cake, which is
next broken into pieces, granulated by agitation in
parchment sieves, and after being glazed by fric-
tion, and  the dust separated, is dried with proper
precaution in a stove heated to about 100°.
   Colored  Fires.  I.  (Blue) Prep.—1. Saltpe-
tre 5 parts ; sulphur  2 parts ; metallic antimony 1
part; mix.—2. (Ruggieri.) Gunpowder 4 parts ;
sulphur and  zinc, of each 3 parts; saltpetre  2
parts.—3. Nitrate  of baryta 77  parts; sulphur 13
parts ; chlorate of potash 5 parts; charcoal 3 parts ;
realgar  2  parts; mix.—4.  (Marsh.)  Chlorate  of
potash 69 gre.; sulphur 24 grs.; sulphate of cop-
per 7 grs.—5. (Bird.) Black sulphuret of antimony
§iv ; nitre %x\j j sulphur §xvj;  charcoal and orpi-
ment, of each 3ij.
   II. (Crimson.) Prep. (Marsh.)—a. Chlorate of
potash 44, parts ; nitrate of strontia 67£ do.;  char-
coal (alder or  willow)  5| do.;  sulphur 22£ do.;
mix, lightly press it into teacups or small pots, and
prime with a quick-match.—b.  Chlorate of potash
17$ parts ; sulphur 18 parts ;  nitrate of strontia 55
parts;  charcoal  4$ parts; sulphuret of antimony
5£ parts; mix,  load  pill-boxes with it, and  prime
with a quick-match.   For stars.
   III. (Green.) Prep.—1. Nitrate  of baryta and
charcoal, equal parts.  Used  in  ghost scenes.—2.
Sulphur 13  parts; nitrate of  baryta 77 do.; chlo-
rate of potash  5  do.;  charcoal  3  do.;  metallic
arsenic  2 do. Very beautiful.  It shows best  when
burnt before a reflector.—3. (A.  Bird.) Nitrate  of
baryta %xx ;  sulphur fiss ;  black sulphuret of  an-
timony  ^ss;  chlorate of potash  §j 3ij ; charcoal
3ij to  3iv.—4. (Marsh.)  Nitrate  of  baryta 62£
parts; sulphur  10£  do.; chlorate of potash 23£
do.; charcoal and sulphuret of arsenic, of each l\
do.  Put it into small pill-boxes for stars.
   IV.  (Lilac.)  Prep. (Marsh.)—«.  Chlorate of
potash 49 parts;  sulphur 25 do.; dry chalk 20 do.;
black oxide of copper 6 do.  For  pans.—6. Chlo-
rate of potash 50  parts ;  sulphur 25 do.; dried
chalk 22 do.; black oxide  of copper 3 do.  For
stars.
   V. (Purple.)  Prep.—1.  Lampblack, realgar,
and nitre, of each 1 part; sulphur 2  parts;  chlo-
rate of potash 5 do.; fused nitrate of strontia 16
parts; mix.—2.  (Marsh.)  a. Chlorate of potash
42 parts ; nitrate of  potash and sublimed  sulphur,
of each 22f  do.; black oxide  of  copper  10 do.;
sulphuret of  mercury 2| do.   For pans.—b. Chlo-
rate of potash 77£ parts ; sulphur 13 do.;  sulphate
of copper 9f do.  For stars.
   VI.  (Red) Prep.—1. (Ruggieri.) Fused nitrate
of strontia 40 parts; sulphur  13 do.;  chlorate of
potash 5 do.; sulphuret of antimony 4 do.   A lit-
tle charcoal or lampblack will make it burn quick-
er.—2. (Marsh.)  Dried nitrate of strontia 72 parts;
sulphur 20 do.; gunpowder 6 do.; coal dust 2 do
—3. (Bird.)  Dried  nitrate of strontia %xx;  sul-
phur 5viss j  chlorate of potash 3''ss j black  sul-
phuret of antimony ^ij ; charcoal ^ss.—4. Sulphur,
sulphuret  of antimony, and nitre, of each 1 oz.;
dried nitrate  of strontia 5 oz.
   VII. (Yellow.) Prep. (Marsh.)  Nitrate- of soda
(pure and dry) 74£ parts;  sulphur 19£ do.; char-
coal 6  do.  For pans.
   VIII.  (White.) Prep.—l.  (Ruggieri.)—a. Ni-
tre 48 parts ; sulphur 13$  do.; sulphuret  of anti-
mony 17$ do.—b. Nitre 24 parts; sulphur 7 do.;
realgar 2 do.—c.  Nitre  75 parts;  sulphur 24 do.;
charcoal 1  do.—d. Gunpowder 100 parts; iron or
zinc borings 25  do.—2.  (Bird.)  Black antimony
§iv ; nitre  §xij ;  sulphur ^xvj j white  arsenic 3ij;
charcoal 3ij  ;  or more.—3.  (Marsh.)—a.  Saltpe-
tre 46£ parts; sulphur 23 do.; gunpowder  12$ do.;
zinc filings 18 do.   For pans.—6. Saltpetre 57
parts;  sulphur 28 do.; zinc  filings 15  do.   For
stars.
   Remarks.  In preparing  colored fires, the ingre-
dients should be separately reduced to fine powder,
and sifted  through lawn; and should be kept in
well-corked wide-mouthed  bottles  till the  time of
mixing them, when the requisite quantity of each
should be  weighed out, and  thoroughly but care-
fully mixed,  with a  bone  or wooden knife, on a
sheet of clean white paper.   The mixed ingredi-
ents are then lightly packed in small  cups or pans
for illuminations,  or into small  pill-boxes for stars;
in either case affixing a piece of quick-match.
   *** The process should be conducted with great
care to prevent  explosion.   They sometimes in-
flame  spontaneously  by keeping.   Colored fires
should not  be kept long before being  used.  (See
Chlorate of Potash.)
   Rockets. The cases are  made of stout cartridge
paper  rolled on  a mould  and pasted, and then
throttled a  little  below the mouth, like the neck
of a vial.  The (external ?)  diameter of a rocket
should be exactly equal to that of a leaden ball of
the same weight, and the  length  should be equal
to 3£ times the internal diameter.  (Marsh.)  They
are filled with the following mixtures tightly driven
in, and then " garnished," and affixed to willow rods
to direct their flight—I.  (Marsh.)—a. (For 2 ot. 
QUE                    495                    QUI
 rockets) Nitre 54£ parts; sulphur 18  do.; char-
 coal 27$ do.;  all in  fine  powder, and passed
 through lawn.—6. (For 4 oz. do.) Nitre 64 parts ;
 sulphur 16 do.; charcoal 20 do.;  as last—c.  (For
 £ lb. to 1  lb. do.) Nitre  62| parts;  sulphur  15|
 do.; charcoal  21 £ do.;  as  last.—II.  (Ruggieri.)
 a. For  rockets of  f inch diameter  use nitre 16
 parts ;  charcoal 7 do.; sulphur 4 do.—6. For £ to
 1£ inch, use  1 part more nitre.—c.  For 1£  inch,
 use 2 parts more  nitre.—d.  By using 1 part less
 charcoal, and adding respectively 3, 4, and 5 parts
 of fine steel filings, the above are converted  into
 brilliant fires.—e. By the substitution  of coarse
 cast-iron borings  for filings, and a further omission
 of 2 parts of charcoal from  each, the  latter  are
 converted  into Chinese  fire__Hand or ground
 rockets are usually loaded with nothing but  meal
 gunpowder  and  filings  or  borings.   After  sky-
 rockets are charged, a piece of clay is driven in,
 through which a  hole is pierced,  and  the head or
 garniture filled with stars, and a little cornpowder
 is then applied.
    Stars  for Rockets.  1.   Brilliant.  (Marsh.)
 Nitre 52£ parts ; sulphur and black antimony, of
 each 13 parts;  powder,  mix, and  make a  stiff
 paste with isinglass 1£ parts, dissolved  in vinegar
 6£  parts, spirits of wine 13 parts ; form into small
 pieces, and while moist roll them  in meal gunpow-
 der.—2.  White.  (Ruggieri.)  Nitre 16  parts; sul-
 phur 7  do.; gunpowder  4 do.; make  a paste as
 last.—3. Golden Rain. a. (Ruggieri.)  Nitre  and
 gunpowder,  of each  16 parts; sulphur 10  do.;
 charcoal 4 do. ;  lampblack  2 do. ; mix and pack
 it into  small paper tubes.—b.  (Ruggieri.)  Nitre 16
 parts ;  sulphur and gunpowder,  of  each 8  do.;
 charcoal and lampblack, of each 2 do.; as last.—
 c.  (Marsh.)  Mealed  gunpowder 66|  parts; sul-
 phur 11 do.; charcoal 22$ do.; as last.
   PYROTHONIDE.  (From ™p,fire, and iddvr,,
 linen)  A popular remedy for the tooth-ache and
 skin diseases, obtained by distilling rags, (rag oil)
 or by  burning a small  cone of paper  on a  cold
 plate, (paper oil)
   PYROXILENE.   Syn.   Pyroxanthine.   Eb-
 lanin.   An orange red  crystalline substance  ob-
 tained  by  Scanlan from raw pyroxilic  spirit by
* adding  potash water, pressing  the  precipitate,
 washing with  cold alcohol of sp. gr.  0840, and
 crystallizing from boiling alcohol.   With oil of vit-
 riol it gives a rich crimson, and with muriatic acid
 a deep purple.

   QUASS.  Syn.  Posca.  Prep. Mix rye  flour
 and warm water together, and keep it by the fire-
 side  till it  has turned sour.   Used  as vinegar in
 Russia.
   QUASSIA,  ROASTED.   Used when reduced
 to powder,  to embitter beer  and  give it color, but
 the liquor soon grows turbid.
   QUASSIINE.  A white crystalline  substance,
 intensely bitter, exfracted by alcohol from quassia
 wood, (quassia amara.)
   QUEEN'S  METAL.  A species  of pewter
 used to make teapots, &c, made by  fusing under
 charcoal a mixture of tin 9 parts; antimony,  bis-
 muth, and lead, of each, 1 part ; or tin  100 parts ;
 antimonv 8 do.; copper 4  do.; bismuth  1 do.
   QUERCITRINE.  The yellow coloring prin-
 ciple of quercitron bark.   It is crystallizable.
   QUILLS.   Prep. Suspend the quills in a cop«
| per, over water sufficiently high to touch the nibs;
 then close  it  steam-tight,  and apply four hours
i hard boiling;  next  withdraw  and dry them, and
! in 24 hours cut the nibs and draw out the pith;
j lastly, rub them with a piece of cloth  and expose
 them to a moderate  heat  in an oven or stove
 The quills  prepared in  this way are  as hard as
 bone, without  being brittle,  and as transparent as
 glass.
   QUININE. Syn. Chinine. Quina.  Quinina.
 Quinia.  Quininum.  A white, odorless, bitter, fu-
 sible and crystallizable alkaloid, discovered by Pel-
 letier and Caventou in cinchona bark.   It is most
 readily obtained by  precipitating a solution of the
 sulphate or disulphate by ammonia, and washing
 and drying the precipitate.   By solution in alcohol
 sp. gr. 0*815, and  spontaneous evaporation, it may
 be procured in crystals.   Crystals may also be ob-
 tained  from its solution in  hot water  with a little
 ammonia, (Liebig.)   Quinine is not used in medi-
 cine, but several of  its salts are largely employed
 on  account of their tonic  and febrifuge  powers.
 They may all be made  by saturating the dilute
 acids with the base, evaporating  and crystalli-
 zing.
   QUININE, FERRO-CITRATE  OF.  Syn.
 Quin*  Ferro-Citras.   Prep. To  a solution cf
 pure citrate of peroxide of iron add  as much pure
 quinine  as  it will dissolve ;  filter, evaporate, and
 spread it on hot plates, as  directed  under Ammo.
 nio-Citrate of  Iron.
   QUININE,  FERRO-SULPHATE.  Syn
 Quin* Ferro-Sulphas.  From a mixed  solution
 of the sulphates  of iron and  quinine in atomic
 proportions ; as last.
   QUININE, SULPHATE  OF.  Syn.  Sub-
 sulphate of  do.   Disulphate  of do.  Quin*'
 Sulphas.  Quin* Disulphas, (P. L.)  Prep. I. (P.
 L.) Heartleaved (yellow) cinchona  bark, bruised,
 lb. vij; sulphuric acid §iv 3ij ; diluted with water
 6 gallons ;  boil 1 hour and strain ; repeat the boil-
 ing a second time for 1 hour, with a like quantity
 of acid  and  water, and again strain;  next boil
 the bark in water  8 gallons, and  strain; to the
 mixed  liquors,  add  moist hydrated  oxide of  lead
 nearly to saturation, decant the supernatant  fluid,
 and  wash the sediment with distilled  water; boil
 down the liquor for 15  minutes  and  strain, then
 precipitate the quina by solution of  ammonia, and
 wash the precipitate (with  cold water) until noth-
 ing alkaline is perceptible ;  saturate what remains
 with sulphuric acid fss diluted with water, digest
 with animal charcoal §ij, and strain; lastly, the
 charcoal being well washed, evaporate the mixed
 liquors that crystals may form, t
   II. (P. E.)  This  process  varies from the former
 in first boiling the  bark (lb.j) in  water, (4 pints,)
 along with carbonate of soda, (fiv,) pressing, and
 moistening  the residuum with fresh Water  and
 pressing it a second  and a third time, for the pur-
 pose of removing the acids,  coloring matter, gum,
 and extractive, before proceeding to  extract the
 alkaloid.  Lime (Stolze) and caustic potash  (Ba-
 dollier and  Scharlau) have  been proposed  for the
 same purpose.   An  excellent process.
   III. (Wholesale.) Boil coarsely-powdered  cali-
 saya, or  yellow bark, in water  acidulated  with
 sulphuric or muriatic  acid,  strain with pressure, 
QUI                    496                     RAT
and repeat the process with fresh water, a second,
third, and fourth time ; filter the mixed liquors,
and  when cold, add finely-powdered slaked  lime
or milk of lime till the fluid becomes distinctly al-
kaline and acquires a dark color;  collect the pre-
cipitate, drain on a  linen filter, and then submit
the mass  to a powerful hydraulic press ; dry the
cake, powder, and digest in rectified spirit; filter,
distil off the spirit till  the liquor acquires the  con-
sistence of sirup or honey, carefully saturate  with
very dilute sulphuric acid, filter, and set it aside to
crystallize; drain the  crystals on  a linen filter,
submit  them to pressure, dissolve in boiling water,
decolor with  animal  charcoal, recrystallize,  and
dry the resulting salt.   In  some  laboratories, the
sulphuric  acid is  added before distilling off the
spirit.
   Remarks. The use of spirit of wine  does not
increase the expense above | to Id. per oz., which
is more than counterbalanced by the saving  of
time  and  the superiority of the product.  Disul-
phate of quinine is extensively employed as a sto-
machic in doses  of  $ to 1 gr.;  as a tonic 1 to 3
grs.;  and as a febrifuge 2 to 20 grs.   When  pure
it forms light, delicate, white needles.   " It is en-
tirely soluble  in water, (hot,) and more readily so
when an acid is present.  Precipitated by ammo-
nia,  the residuary liquid after evaporation  should
not taste of sugar.  By a gentle heat it loses 8 or
10$  of water.  It is wholly  consumed  by  heat.
If chlorine be first added,  and then ammonia, it
becomes green." (P. L.)   " A solution of  10 grs.
in f 5J °f  distilled water, and 2 or 3 drops of. sul-
phuric acid, if decomposed by a solution of fss of
carbonate of soda, in two  waters, and heated  till
the precipitate shrinks and fuses, yields on cooling
a solid mass, which,  when dry,  weighs 7*4 grs.,
and  in powder, dissolves entirely in a solution of
oxalic acid."  (P E.)   It is often  adulterated with
starch, magnesia,  gum, sugar,  cinchonine, &c.
The  first three remain undissolved when the salt
is digested in spirit;  the fourth is dissolved out by
cold water, and the last may be detected by pre-
cipitating  the quinine  by liquor  of potassa, and
dissolving  the precipitate in boiling alcohol;  cin-
chona  crystallizes out as  the solution cools, but
the quinine remains  in the mother liquor. (Perei-
ra.)   '*#*  The Neutral Sulphate of  Quinine is
.formed by  dissolving  disulphate of quinine §j, in
water  acidulated  with  sulphuric acid  f3ss, and
crystallizing.
   QUINOMETRY.   The art of estimating the
quantity of quinine in cinchona bark.
   Proc. (P. E.)  " A filtered decoction of 100 grs.
in f§ij  of distilled water, gives with ffj of  a  con-
centrated  solution of carbonate of soda, a precipi-
tate, which when neated  in  the  fluid, becomes a
fused mass, weighing, when cold, 2 gre. or  more,
and is easily soluble in solution of oxalic  acid."
Quinine may be separated from  cinchonine by di-
gestion in ether.   (Scharlau.)
   QUINOVINE.   Syn.  Cinchovine.   An  alka-
loid obtained from the  bark  of quina ovata by a
like process to that by which quinine is obtained
from yellow bark.
   QUINTESSENCE.  A term used by the al-
chemists  synonymously with essence.
  RACEMIC ACID.  Syn.Paratartaric Acin
An acid found in the juice of the grape, replacing
tartaric acid.  It is distinguished from tartaric acid
by being less  soluble in water, and by not giving
indications of  electricity when one of its crystals,
held by a pair of platinum tongs, and gently heated
in the flame of a spirit lamp, is brought into con-
tact with the plate of  an electroscope, whereas a
crystal of tartaric acid causes  electrical  excite-
ment.  (Boettger's Beitrage.)  By the action  of
heat it yields paratartralic, paratarirelic, and an-
hydrous  racemic acids.  It  is principally found in
the grape juice of the district of the Vosges.  Ra-
cemic and tartaric acids are  isomeric compounds.
  RADCLIFFE'S  ELIXIR.  Prep. Socotrine
aloes 3vj ; cinnamon, cochineal, and zedoary root,
of each, 3ss;  rhubarb 3j;  sirup of buckthorn f 3ij;
proof spirit 1  pint;  water  f§v ; digest a  week.
Aromatic, stomachic, and purgative.   Dose. 1 to
4 dr.
  RATAFIA.  A liquor prepared by imparting to
sweetened spirit the flavor of various kinds of fruit
The following are examples :—
  1.  (Ratafia de  Cassis.)  Prep.—a.  Black cur-
rants, stoned  and crushed,  3 lbs.; cloves 1 dr.;
cinnamon 2 drs.; spirit at 18° B. 4 quarts ; white
sugar 2£ lbs.; digest in a corked bottle for a fort-
night, occasionally shaking,  then strain through  a
cloth and filter through paper.—b. Black currants
6 lbs.; cloves £  dr.; cinnamon 1 dr.;  proof spirit
2$  gallons; sugar 4 lbs.;  as last.    A delicious
liquor. 2.  (Curacoa. Ratafia de Curacoa) Spirit
of 18° B. 5 quarts ; yellow peels of 5 or 6 smooth
Portugal  oranges ; infuse for  14 days, add white
sugar 4 lbs., dissolved  in pure water £ a gallon;
cinnamon and mace, of each, well bruised, 48 grs.;
ground Brazil wood 1 oz.; infuse with frequent
agitation  for 10  days longer,  bring  up the color
with burnt sugar, and filter.  Very fine.—b.  Proof
spirit 1 gallon ;  Seville  orange peel cut thin, dried,
and coarsely powdered, or cut small,  $  to  £  lb.j
digest 14 days, press out the liquor, filter, and add
an  equal measure of simple sirup or capillaire, and
coloring  q. s.   Stomachic.  3. (Ratafia d'Ange-
lique)   Angelica  seeds  1  dr.; do.  stalks 4 oz.;
blanched bitter almonds, bruised, £ to 1 oz.; proof
spirit 6 quarts ;  white sugar  2 to 3 lbs.; digest for *
10  days, and filter.   4. (Ratafia d'Anis) Bruised
aniseeds 2 oz.;  proof spirits  2 quarts ;  sugar £ lb.,
dissolved in water  1 pint; as last  5.  (Ratafia de
Caffe)  Coffee, ground and roasted,  1 lb.; proof
spirit 1 gallon;  sugar 1£ lbs., dissolved in water 1
qttart: as last.   6. (Ratafia de Cerises.) Morello
cherries, with their kernels  bruised, 7 or 8 lbs.;
proof spirit 1 gallon ;  sugar 1£  lbs.; as last.   7.
(Ratafia de Grenoble.) Small wild black cherries,
with their  kernels bruised,  2 lbs.;  proof  spirit 1
gallon;  white sugar 2£ lbs.;  citron  peel  a  few
grains;  as last.   8. (Ratafia de Cacao.   R. de
Chocolat)  Caracca cacao nuts 1 lb.; West In-
dian do.  £ lb.;  both roasted and bruised; proof
spirit 1 gallon ; digest  for 14 days, filter, and add
white sugar 2£  lbs.; tincture of vanilla £ dr.; or a
shred of vanilla may be infused with  the  nuts in
the spirit instead.  9. (Ratafia de Coings)  Quince
juice 6  pints ;  bitter almonds 4 drs. ;  cinnamon 3
drs.; coriander seeds  2  drs.; mace £ dr.; cloves
 15 grs.;  all bruised ; rectified spirit 3 pints ; digest
for a week, filter,  and  add  sugar 2£ to 3 lbs   10 
RED                     497                   RES
  (Ratafia de framboises)—a. Raspberries 8 lbs.;
  proof spirit 2 quarts ;  sugar 1 lb.; digest, press, and
  filter.—6. Raspberry  juice and proof spirit, of each
  2 quarts ; sugar  3 lbs.; as last.  11. (Ratafia de
  genievre)  Juniper  berries (whole) 1  oz.;  proof
  spirit 1 quart ; sugar 5 oz.; digest.   12.  (Ratafia
  de Brou de noix) Young walnuts with soft  shells
  60  in no.;  brandy  2 quarts; sugar £ to 1 lb.;
  mace, cinnamon, and cloves, of each 15 grs.; di-
  gest for 8 weeks ; press, filter, and keep  for some
  months before use.   Stomachic.   13. (Ratafia de
  Noyeau.)—a.  Peach  or apricot  kernels, bruised,
  120 in no. ; proof spirit 2  quaTts ; white sugar £
  lb.; digest  for a week, press and  filter.—b. For
  proof spirit use juice of apricots or peaches 3£ pints ;
  rectified spirit of wine 4£ do.  14. (Ratafia de
  ceillets)   Clovepinks without the  white buds, 4
  lbs. ; cinnamon and cloves, of each  15 grs.;  proof
  spirit 1 gall.; white sugar 1 to 1£ lbs. ; digest for
  10 days, press and filter.   15.  (Ratafia a la Pro-
  vencale)  Striped pinks 1  lb.;  proof spirit 1 quart;
  sugar 7 or 8 oz.; juice of strawberries £ lb.; saf-
  fron  15 grs.;  as last.   16.  (Ratafia d'ecorces
   "Oranges)  Fresh yellow peel of Seville oranges
  4 oz.; proof spirit 1  gallon ;  white sugar 1 lb.;
  digest for 6 hours.  17.  (Ratafia  de fleurs  d'or-
  anges.)—a.  Fresh orange flowers  2  lbs.;  proof
  spirit 1 gallon ; sugar 1£ to 2 lbs.; as last—b. In-
  stead of orange flowers use neroli 1  dr.   18. (Rat-
  afia a la  Violettes)   Orris powder  1£  oz.; archil
  4 oz.; rectified spirits of wine 2 gallons ; digest for
  10  days, strain, and  add white sugar  9 lbs., dis-
  solved in water 1  gallon.   19.  (Ratafia de baume
  de Tolu.)  Balsam of  Tolu 1 oz.; rectified spirit 1
  quart ; dissolve, add water 3 pints ; filter, and fur-
  ther add sugar 1£ lbs.  Pectoral.   20. (Red  Rat-
  afia.)    Juice of black  cherries 3 quarts; do.
  strawberries and  raspberries, of each 1 quart  ; cin-
  namon 1 dr.; mace  and  cloves, of  each 15  grs.;
  proof spirit 2  gallons ;  sugar 6 lbs.;  macerate.
  21.   (Dry Ratafia.)  Juice of gooseberries 5 pints ;
  do. of cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, of each
  1 pint; proof spirit 6  quarts ; sugar  6 lbs. ; as last
 22.  (Cream Ratafia.) Noyeau, sherry wine, capil-
 laire, of each $ pint;  cream 1 pint;  beat together.
 23.  (Ratafia des quatre fruits.) Cherries 30 lbs.;
 gooseberries 15 lbs.; raspberries 8 lbs.;  black cur-
 rants 7 lbs.;  express  the  juice, and to each  pint
 add white  sugar 4 to 6  oz.;  cinnamon 6  grs.;
 cloves and mace, of each 3 grs.   ***  The  addi-
 tion of a few drops of essence  of ambergris,  or  a
 grain of ambergris infused  in the spirit, imparts a
 delightful  flavor  and  boquet which  is  much ad-
 mired.
   RATS  AND MICE  may be most easily  and
 safely exterminated by mixing powdered nux vom-
 ica with oatmeal, and laying it in  their haunts,
 observing to use the proper precautions to prevent
 accidents.   White arsenic  is also  employed  in a
 similar  manner.  Dr.  Ure has  recommended  the
 use of oatmeal mixed  with a little powdered phos-
 phorus for this purpose.
   RECTIFICATION. Syn. Rectificatio,
 (Lat.)  (From rectus,  right, and fio, to be made.)
 A second distillation of a fluid  for the purpose of
 rendering it purer.
   RED DYES.—1. Give the goods  a mordant of
 alum, rinse, dry, and  boil them  in a bath of mad-
der.   If acetate of iron be used instead of alum,
                       63
 the color will be purple, and by combining the tw«
 any intermediate shade  may be  produced.—2,
 (Adrianople or Turkey red)  This  is given by
 many  distinct  operations.   The  first consists  in
 cleansing or scouring the goods by alkaline baths,
 after which they are steeped in oily liquors brought
 to a creamy state by a little carbonate of soda solu-
 tion.   Infusion of sheep's dung is often used as an
 intermediate or secondary steep.  The operation
 of oiling, with much manual  labor, and then re-
 moving the superfluous or loosely-adhering oil with
 an alkaline bath, is repeated  two or  three times,
 taking care to dry hard after each process.  Then
 follows the  galling,  aluming,  maddering,  and
 brightening, for removing the  dun-colored  princi-
 ple, by boiling at  an elevated  temperature with
 alkaline liquids and soap.  The whole is often con-
 cluded with a rosing b)*>salt of tin.—3.  The yarn
 or cloth is put  into  a very weak  alkaline  bath  at
 the  boiling temperature, then washed, dried, and
 galled ; or, when the calico is to be printed, for this
 bath may be substituted one of cow-dung, subse-
 quent  exposure to  the air for a day or two, and
 immersion in  very  dilute sulphuric  acid.  In this
 way the stuff gets  opened, takes and retains the
 color better.   After the galling, the goods are
 dried,  and alumed  twice ; then dried, rinsed, and
 passed through the madder bath.  This  is com-
 posed of three-fourths of a  pound of good  madder
 for every  pound weight of the goods.   The bath is
 slowly  raised to the  boiling  point in  the  course of
 fifty or sixty minutes, more or less, according  to
 the shade  of color wished for.   When the boiling
 has  continued  a  few  minutes, the  stuff is taken
 out, washed slightly, and dyed  a second time in the
 same manner, and  with  as much madder.  It is
 then washed  and dried, or  passed through a hot
 soap bath, which  carries off the fawn-colored  par-
 ticles.  Other dyes  likewise are added to the mad-
 der bath,  to obtain  other shadi-s ol  color ; for  in-
 stance, a decoction  of fustic, weld, logwood, quer-
 citron, or  knoppern, the mordants being modified
 accordingly.  When bran is added to the madder
 bath, the  color becomes much lighter,  and of a
 more agreeable tint.   *** Red dyes are  also given
 by archil,  carthamus, cochineal, Brazil wood,  &c
   RED LIQUOR.    The crude acetate of alumi-
 na, used by dyers.   (See Alumina.)
   RED PIGMENTS. The principal of these are
 brown  red,  Indian  do., light do.,  (burnt light
 ochre—makes  a flesh  color with  white-lead  and
 oil,)  orange red, (sandix—made  by  calcining
 white-lead,)  stone do., Venetian  do., red ochre,
 chrome red, vermilion, red  lake, tifC.
   REGULUS, (dimin. of rex, a  king.)   A term
 applied by the alchemists to various metallic mat-
 ters obtained by fusion ;  as Regulus of antimony,
 arsenic, fyc.  The former was  often distinguished
 by the simple term Regulus.   Martial  Regulus
 of Antimony is sulphuret of antimony reduced by
 fusion with 1£ times  its weight  of old  nails or iron
 filings, and some nitre and tartar.  Regulus Jovis
 is  made by melting  a mixture of equal  parts of
 martial regulus of antimony  and tin.  Both are cast
 into cups.  Wine kept in them for a night becomes
 emetic.
   RESINS. Syn. Resines, (Fr.) Harze, (Ger.)
 Resin*, (Lat, from fcu,  I flow.)    Proximate
vegetable principles,  the ultimate  composition of 
RHO
498
RIN
which is  carbon,  hydrogen, and  oxygen.  They
are distinguished by their solubility in  alcohol, in-
solubility in water, fusing by a moderate heat, and
not being  volatile without decomposition.   Their
sp. gr. varies from 09  to  1*2.  According to Liebig,
they are oxidized  essential  oils.   Common  resin,
and the shellac of which sealing-wax is made, are
familiar examples of these substances.
  RELISH,  KITCHINER'S.   Prep.  Ground
black pepper,  and salt, of each 1 oz.;  ground all-
spice, scraped horseradish, and minced shalotes, of
each £ oz.; walnut pickle, or mushroom ketchup,
1 pint; infuse 14 days,  and strain.   Used  as  a
sauce, &c.
  RENNET.   Syn.  Calves' Maw.   Coagulum.
The stomach  of calves, washed,  and preserved
either in brine or dry salt.  Used to curdle milk.
Two square inches from the bottom are sufficient
for a cheese of 60 lbs.   (See Cheese.)
  RESINEONE.  An oily liquid obtained along
with resinone when resin and lime are  distilled to-
gether.  (Fremy.)
  RHABARBERIN.   Syn. Rheumin.  Rhein.
Rhabarberic  Acid.  Rheumic  Acid.   The yel-
low coloring principle  of  rhubarb.   It  is  obtained
by digesting powdered rhubarb  in  ether,  distilling
off greater part  of the ether, and  submitting the
remainder to spontaneous evaporation.  The crys-
tals thus procured  are purified  by repeated solu-
tions and crystallizations  in alcohol.  Orange yel-
low.   Gripes, but does not purge. (Brandea)
  RHAMNINE.   Prep. Express the juice from
buckthorn  berries  scarcely  ripe, boil  the residue
with water, strain, and press; crude rhamnine will
be obtained as the liquid cools,  which,  by solution
in boiling alcohol and filtration, may be procured
in crystals.
  RHAPONTICIN.   A peculiar, yellow, odor-
less,  tasteless,  and crystallizable substance, obtain-
ed from the root of English rhubarb. It is extracted
by boiling absolute alcohol.
  RHEUMATISM.  Syn.  Riieumatismus, (Lat)
btvpaTionos,  (Gr.,  from   btvpan^w, to be  afflicted
with defluxions)  A painful affection of the joints,
attended by swelling and stiffness, an 3 also attack-
ing the muscular, tendinous, and fibrcus  textures.
Acute Rheumatism,  or rheumatic fever — Ar-
thritis, inflammation  of  the  synovial  membrane,
or rheumatic gout—Sciatica, or rheumatism  of the
cellular envelope of the great sciatic nerve, affect-
ing the hip—and Lumbago,  or rheumatism of the
loins, are all varieties  of the same disease.   The
treatment consists in the  administration of purga-
tives and sudorifics, accompanied by a course of
bark, quinine, or other tonics.   Calomel and opi-
um,  and iodide of potassium, have also  been large-
ly and successfully administered in this complaint.
When  the inflammatory symptoms  are  severe,
occasional venesection should be had recourse to.
The compound powder of ipecacuanha taken  at
night will generally promote  the ease and sleep of
the patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend con-
siderably to promote  a  cure.  Where  possible,  a
dry  atmosphere and  regular temperature  should
be sought.  Stimulating embrocations, blisters, fric-
tions, and  the hot or vapor bath, are frequently
very serviceable in rheumatism, especially in lum-
bago, and casual attacks arising from cold.
  RHODIZONIC  ACID.  Prep. When dry car-
bonic acid gas  is passed over fused potassium, a
black porous mass is obtained, and this  substance
exposed to moist air, deliquesces into a  solution of
rhodizonate  of potassa of a scarlet  color, from
which the excess of alkali may be  taken by alco-
hol.   By treatment with sulphuric  arid and alco-
hol, the rhodizonic acid may be separated.  When
its solution is heated, it is converted into croconic
acid.   The latter acid is  obtained by adding fluo-
silicic  acid to a solution  of croconate  of potash,
evaporating to dryness, and dissolving out the cro-
conic acid with water.  This  acid, as  well as its
salts,  is yellow, hence its  name, (from crocus,
saffron.)
  RHODIUM, (from  boSov, a rose, because of the
color of the solutions of its salts.)  A whitish metal
discovered by Wollaston in 1803, associated with
palladium, in the ore of platinum.  It is obtained
from  the nitromuriatic solution  of platinum ore,
previously saturated with soda, by precipitating the
palladium by bicyanide of mercury, filtering, add
ing muriatic acid, evaporating to  dryness, powder-
ing, and digesting in alcohol of sp. gr. 0-837 ; the
undissolved portion (double chloride of rhodium
and  sodium)  is then  washed with alcohol, and
either  exposed to  a very strong heat,  or gently
heated in a stream  of hydrogen gas,  and after
wards  well washed with water.   Another meth ,d
is to  dissolve in water the portion  left after the ac-
tion of the  alcohol, and to  precipitate  by a plate
of zinc.  In this state  it is a black powder.  This
powder exposed to heat continues black; but with
borax it acquires a white metallic lustre, though it
remains infusible.   Sulphur or arsenic, however,
renders it fusible; and may afterwards be expelled
by continuing the heat.  The button is  not malle-
able.   Oxide of Rhodium (peroxide) is  prepared
by heating pulverulent rhodium  mixed with hy-
drate of potassa, and a little nitre, in a silver cruci-
ble, and well washing  the  resulting powder, first
with water,  then with muriatic  acid,  and again
with water.  A greenish gray powder.   In this
state it is insoluble  in  acids.  An impure soluble
oxide is precipitated when carbonate of  potash, or
soda, is added in excess to the double chloride  of
rhodium  and potassium.—Chloride of Rhodiubij
(perchloride) is obtained  by adding to a solution
of the double chloride  of rhodium and  potassium,
silico-hydrofluoric acid, as long as the double fluo-
ride  of potassium  and silicon is generated, then
filtering,  evaporating,  and  redissolving in  water.
(Berzelius.)  *** Pure rhodium is insoluble in acids,
but dissolves in aqua regia when alloyed with other
metals.  Its sp. gr. is  about 11.   It  is  employed
for making the points of the " rhodium  pens."
  RINGWORM.  Syn. Scald-Head.  Porrigo.
A disease that appears in circular patches of little
pustules that afterwards form scabs, leaving a red
pimply surface, and destroying  the bulbs of the
hair  in its progress.   It  spreads rapidly, and  is
very infectious, often  running through  a whole
school.  It chiefly affects the neck, forehead, and
scalp, of weakly children.   The  proper treatment
consists in shaving the part, and  keeping it clean
with soap and water.   When the scabbing  com-
mences, dressings of tar ointment, or the ointment
of nitrate or nitric oxide of mercury of the London
Ph., or a mixture pf equal parts  of the first, and
either  the second or third, should be  applied  in 
RUM                    499                    SAC
 each case, diluting the mixture with lard to suit it
 to the state of irritability of the part.  (See Acetic
 Acid.)
   ROB.  (Arab., dense.)   A term formerly ap-
 plied to an inspissated vegetable juice.
   ROCELLINE.   Syn. Rocellic Acid.   A fat-
 ty crystallizable substance, obtained  from rocella
 tintoria, or dyer's orchil.
   ROLL, WINE.   Prep. Soak a French roll, or
 sponge-biscuit, in  raisin or sherry wine, surround
 it by a custard or cream thickened with eggs, and
 add some spice and ornaments.
   ROSACIC  ACID.   The red  crystalline sub-
 stance deposited by the urine of persons laboring
 under intermittent or nervous fevers.  It is purified
 by alcohol.
   ROUGE.   Syn-  Rouge  for  the  Toilette.
 Rouge d'Espagne ;  Fard,  (Fr.)  Prep.  Wash
 safflowers (any quantity) until the water comes off
 colorless ; dry, powder, and digest in a weak solu-
 tion of carbonate  of soda  ; then place some fine
 cotton wool at the bottom  of the vessel, and throw
 down the coloring matter by gradually adding lem-
 on juice or white vinegar till it  ceases to produce
 a precipitate.  Next wash the cotton in cold water,
 then dissolve  out the color with  a fresh solution of
 soda, add a quantity of finely-powdered talc, or
 French chalk, proportional to the  intended quality
 of the rouge ; mix well, and  precipitate as before ;
 lastly, collect  the powder,  dry with great care, and
 triturate it with a minute quantity of oil of olives,
 to render  it smooth and adhesive.   ***  This  is the
 only article which will brighten  a  lady's complex-
 ion without injuring the skin.  The relative fine-
 ness and proportion of talc  employed determines
 the  quality of the rouge.
   t<.t Rouge  Indienne is the terra persica, or In-
 dian red,  imported from Ormuz ;—Liquid Rouge,
 the red liquid left from the preparation of carmine,
 or a solution of carmine in weak carbonate of pot-
 ash  water, or of pure rouge  in alcohol  acidulated
 with acetic acid;—Rouge de Prusse,  burnt yel-
 low ochre ;—Vert Rouge d'Athenes,  or " pure
 rouge," is obtained from safflowers as above, but
 without the use of any talc or French chalk ; in-
 tense  copper-bronze  color when dry;  red when
 moistened or diluted ;—Spanish Lady's Rouge is
 cotton wool repeatedly wetted  with  ammoniacal
 solution of carmine, and dried.
   ROUSSEAU'S  DROPS.  Syn. Gobttes  de
 l'Abbe Rousseau.   Vinum  Opii  fermentatione
 paratum.   Prep. Honey ^xij ; warm water lb. iv ;
 set in a warm place till it begins to ferment, then
 add  opium ^iv; dissolved in water  f3x'j"> ferment
 for 1 month, filter, evaporate to §x; strain, and
 add  rectified  spirit 3J>vss.  Milder than common
 laudanum.  Dose.  5 to 30 drops.
  ROYAL PREVENTIVE. Syn. White Wash.
 A quack lotion formed of solution of diacetate of
 lead and  proof spirit, of each 5J > water 1  pint.
 Used against infection.
  RUM.  Syn.  Spiritus  sacchari.  An  ardent
spirit obtained by distillation  from  the  fermented
skimmings of  the  sugar-boilers, (sirup.scum) the
 Irainings of the sugar pots  and hogsheads, (molas-
ses) the washings of the boilers, and occasionally
the juice  of the sugar-cane.   Rum is imported
from the West Indies, and the  best  comes  from
Jamaica.  Leeward Island Rum is less esteemed.
Rum owes its flavor to a volatile oil and butyric
acid.  The duty  on West India rum is 9s. pel
proof gallon; that on East India 15s.;  the latter
amounts to a prohibition.  The consumption of
rum has long been declining in England ; its place
being supplied by  gin or British  brandy. In Ja-
maica it is usual to put sliced pine-apples into the •
puncheons containing the  finer qualities of  rum,
which is then termed pine-apple rum.   (See Al-
cohol.)
  RUPERT'S DROPS are made by letting drops
of melted glass fall into cold water ; the drop as-
sumes by  that means an oval form  with  a tail or
neck resembling a retort.  They possess  this sin-
gular property, that if a small portion of the tail is
broken off, the whole bursts into powder with an
explosion,  and a considerable shock is communica-
ted to the  hand that grasps it
  RUSKS.  Prep. 7 eggs  well beaten ; new milk
£ pint;  melted butter $ lb.; yeast $ pint; sugar 3
oz.; beat  well together with as much flour, added
gradually, as will  make a very light paste ;  let it
rise before the fire for  half an  hour,  then add  a
little more flour, form into  small loaves or cakes 5
or 6 inches wide,  and flatten them ; bake mode-
rately, and when  cold, cut them into slices the size
of rusks, and put  them into  the oven to brown  a
little.   A  nice tea-cake  when  hot, or with cara-
ways to eat cold.
  RUTILINE.   A name given by Braconnot to
the product of the decomposition  of salicine by
sulphuric  acid.   A  brownish  red solid, colored
blood-red by acids, and violet by alkalis.
  SABADILLIC ACID.   Syn. Cevadic Acid.
A crystalline, fusible, volatile, fatty  acid, obtained
from the oil extracted by ether from the seeds of
veratrum sabadilla.   The sabadillate of baryta is
prepared in the same way as the butyrate of baryta
is from butter.  When this  salt is heated with con-
centrated phosphoric acid, the sabadillic acid sub-
limes in white .needles.  It has an odor resembling
butyric acid.
. SABADILLINA.   An alkaloid obtained  by
Couerbe  from cebadilla  seeds.   According to Si-
mon, it is merely  a compound of the resinates of
soda and veratria.
  SACCHARIC  ACID.   Syn. Oxalhydric
Acid.  Prep. Sugar or gum 1 part; nitric arid 2
parts; diluted with water  10  parts; dissolve by
the aid of heat, and continue  the heat as long as
reaction takes place, then neutralize by carbonate
of lime, precipitate by acetate of lead, and decom-
pose the precipitate,  suspended in water, by sul-
phureted hydrogen ; neutralize  the  filtered liquid
with potash, concentrate,  and  crystallize ; redis-
solve the resulting sacckarate of potassa, decolor
by  animal  charcoal, reprecipitate  by  acetate of
lead, and decompose  the precipitated  saccharate
of lead by  sulphureted hydrogen, as before.  It
forms salts  with the bases called  Saccharates.
  SACCHAROMETER.  (From saccharum, su-
gar, and metrum, a  measure.)  An  hydrometer
for  determining the  sp. gr. of brewer's and distil-
ler's worts.   (See  Hydrometer  and Brewing.)
  SACCHULMIC ACID.  A light brown pow-
der, obtained by Malaguti and  Boullay, by boiling
sugar along with dilute sulphuric acid  It is solu- 
SAG                   500                      SAL
ble in ammonia and  the fixed  alkalis,  forming
salts.
   SACCHULMINE.   An insoluble substance,
obtained like the last, by boiling 10 parts of sugar,
30 of water, and 1 of sulphuric acid for a very long
time.   It is  deposited in brilliant, brown scales,
along with some sacchulmic acid.  The  latter  is
removed by the action  of ammonia water.
   SACHET. Syn. Sacculus.   Sachets  are little
bags,  containing dry substances, used as local ap-
plications.
   SACHET, ANTI-PHTHISIC. Syn. Saccu-
lus Anti-phthisicus.  Prep.  Dissolve §j  of aloes
in f Jxij strong decoction of fresh rue.  Fold a large
piece  of soft  muslin in 8 folds,  large  enough to
cover the chest and part of the stomach.   Steep it
in the decoction  and dry it in the shade.   Wear it
on the  chest  constantly.   %* A celebrated  do-
mestic remedy for consumption.
   SACK.   (From sec, dry.)   A wine used by our
ancestors, supposed by  some to have been  Rhenish
or canary ; but,  with  more probability, by others
to have been  dry  mountain or " vin d'Espagne;
vin sec;" (Howell, Fr.  and Eng. Diet, 1650.)  Fal-
staff  calls  it " sherris sack,"  (sherry sack,)  from
Xeres, a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of
sack  (wine) is made.  (Blount)
   SAFFRON.  The  prepared stigmata of  the
crocus sativus.  There are two  kinds of saffron
found in commerce.—1. Hay  Saffron  (crocus in
fceno) consists of  the  stigmas with parts of the
style  carefully dried.   Of this sort  the Spanish  is
the best.—2. Cake Saffron, (crocus in placenta.)
This  is properly  merely the former compressed into
cakes;  but the cake saffron of commerce is now
mostly, if not entirely, composed of safflower made
into a paste with  gum-water, and rolled out on
paper into oval cakes 10 to  12 inches long, 9 or 10
broad, and one-tenth of au inch thick, and dried.
" I can detect  neither  saffron  nor  marigold  in
them."  (Dr. Pereira.)   Pur. Saffron is largely
adulterated ; abroad it is frequently mixed with
safflower, and in England with " prepared mari-
golds," or French (mock) saffron.   These frauds
may  be detected by the inferiority of the color, and
by soaking the leaves in wa-'.er, when the stigmas
of the  crocus may be reaa.ly distinguished from
the florets of safflower and the petals of marigolds.
Winckler and Gruner propose to detect these sub-
stances by means  of a solution of silver or of per-
chloride of iron.  The  infusion of true saffron is not
altered by these reagents, but the extract of either
of the above-mentioned  adulterants  is  rendered
opaque, and  at length  precipitated.   (Jahrbuch
fur Prakt. Pharm.)   The  writer  of this article
knows one wholesale drug house alone, who  a
short time since had a stock of several hundred-
weight of prepared marigolds, which they not only
employed to mix with genuine saffron, but sold ex-
tensively to the  country dealers.  Old and dry saf-
fron  is "freshened up" by rubbing it between the
hand, slightly oiled.
   SAGAPENUM.  This  substance  is described
in the London Pharmacopoeia as a gum resin, the
production of au uncertain species of  ferula.   The
mass of the sagapenum sold to the retail trader is,
however, factitious, and formed by mixing together
asafcetida, galbanum,  and  other drugs in variable
proportions.   This is  generally done  by the con-
scientious druggists, by  softening a mixture of 3
parts of asafcetida and 15 parts of galbanum, in a
water or steam bath, and then stirring in about
one-seventeenth of their  weight of oil of turpen-
tine, to which a little oil of juniper has been added.
This mixture  is called " gummi  sagapeni  Opt.,"
an inferior sort being made by adding sundry por-
tions of yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth
to the above.  (Cooley, Chem., v. 369.)
  SAGO.   A species of fecula or starch, obtained
from the pith of the sago palm-tree.  (See Jel-
lies.)
  SALADS.  These articles being eaten raw, are
mostly of difficult digestion, especially those of the
more cooling kind.  They are, however, antiseptic,
and tend to correct " the grossness" of animal food.
They are made of various vegetables (either singly
or mixed) seasoned with oil, vinegar, mustard, and
other condiments.   Salads are useful in scurvy.
  SAL  ALEMBROTH.   Syn.  Hydrargyro-
ciiloride of Ammonia. Sal Sapienti*.  Prep. Sal
ammoniac and corrosive  sublimate,  equal  parts;
dissolve in water, evaporate,  and crystallize.       <
  SALEP.  Syn.  Salop.  The prepared  root of
the orchis mascula.  It chiefly consists of bassorin
and fecula.   Mixed  with boiling water,  it forms a
nutritious jelly.
  SALICTNE.  A white, crystalline  substance,
discovered by Le Roux and Buchner, and obtained
from several  species of salix and  populus.  It is
found in the bark  and leaves of  all bitter willows.
Prep  (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by repeated
coction with water,  concentrate the mixed liquors,
and  while boiling,  add  litharge till the liquid is
nearly decolored; remove the dissolved oxide of
lead,  first by sulphuric  acid, and afterwards by
sulphuret of barium ; filter,  and evaporate.   The
salicine that  crystallizes  must be purified by re-
peated solutions and crystallizations.  From willow
bark which  is fresh  and rich in  salicine, it may be
obtained by the cautious evaporation of the cold
aqueous infusion.
   Remarks.  Salicine  forms  white,  silky needles
and plates,  is bitter, inodorous,  neutral, fusible  at
230°  F., and  soluble in water and  ether.  Hydro-
chloric and dilute  sulphuric  acid convert it into a
tasteless powder called Saliretine, which is insolu-
ble in water, but dissolves in alkalis and  alcohol
With chlorine it forms Chlorosalicine. It has been
given  in  dyspepsia, intermittents,  and  other dis-
eases in which quinine  is commonly administered.
Dose.  10 to 30 grs.
   SALICULIC ACID.  A volatile,  crystalliza-
ble acid discovered by Piria, and obtained by heat-
ing saliculous acid with caustic potash till the mix-
ture turns white and gas is disengaged, and treat-
ing the residue with a mineral acid, to separate the
potash.
   SALICULOUS  ACID.   Syn.  Hydruret of
Salicule.   Hydruret of Spiroyle.   Saliculic
Acid ?   A nearly  colorless,  oily,  inflammable li-
quid,* discovered  by Pagenstecher in the  volatile
oil of spiraea ulmaria,  (meadow-sweet) and  by
Piria, as a product of the decomposition of salicine.
It is either obtained by distilling the oil of spiraea
along with liquor  of potassa, as long as oil comes
over, decomposing the residuum of saliculite of po-
tassa with' dilute sulphuric acid, and again distill-
ing, when saliculous acid comes over along ivith 
SAL
501
SAL
water ; or by distilling a mixture of I part each of
salicine and bichromate  of potash, 2£ parts of oil
of vitriol, and 20 parts of water.  The salicine is
dissolved  in part of the water, the acid diluted
with  the  remainder, and the whole mixed in a
retort, but not distilled till the  effervescence ceases.
Prod. 25$.  (Ettling.)  %* Saliculous  acid  is so-
luble  in  ether and alcohol,  and slightly  so  in
water  It  combines with the bases to form salts
called  saliculites.   It also  forms  several  inter-
esting compounds  with iodine, bromine, chlorine,
&c.
   SALOOP.  Sassafras (chips) tea flavored with
milk  and sugar.  A wholesome and useful drink
in cutaneous and rheumatic affections.
   SALT. Syn.  Sel, (Fr.)   Salz, (Ger.)  Sal,
(Lat., from <5Xs, sea-salt)  In Chemistry, a com-
pound of an acid with an alkali or a salifiable base,
or of bromine, chlorine, fluorine, or  iodine, with a
metal.  The names  of  the salts are derived from
the acids which they contain ; as sulphate of soda,
a compound of sulphuric acid  and soda;  sul-
phite  of lime, a compound of lime and sulphu-
rous acid.   When the name of a salt terminates in
ate, it implies that the acid that  it  contains is at
the  maximum  of  oxidizement, (or  ends with  ic)
and when the name terminates in ite, that the acid
contains less oxygen, (or ends with ous)—Neutral
salts  are such as contain 1  eq. each of acid and
base ; taste, or subsalts, such as contain 2 or more
atoms of  base to one of acid ;  acid, or supersalts,
such as contain more than I eq. of acid ; hydrous
or hydrated salts  are  such as contain  water  of
crystallization,  or  combined  water;  anhydrous
salts, those that are destitute of water.  Deliques-
cent salts are those that attract moisture from the
atmosphere ; efflorescent salts, such as part with
their combined water,  and become opaque and
pulverulent under  like circumstances.   The salts
formed by  the direct  union  of the archeal ele-
ments, chlorine,  iodine,  &c,  as  sea-salt,  are
termed hatoid salts, and their names are formed
by adding  ide or uret  to the first portion  of the
•tames of their electro-negative elements ; as chlo-
ride of sodium, or common  salt, a compound of
chlor-ine and sodium ;  iodide, or  ioduret of iron,
a compound of iW-ine  and iron.  See Oxide.
   SALT OF WORMWOOD.  Syn.  Sal Ab-
binthii.  Carbonate of potash.
   SALT, RED.   Common  salt wetted with an
infusion of  beet-root, or  cochineal, or  tincture of
red sanders  wood, then dried  and rubbed through
a sieve.   Used to impart a color to gravies, &c.
Infusion of  saffron also gives a beautiful color for
this purpose.  ***  It has been proposed to color
Epsom salts in this way to distinguish  them from
oxalic acid.
  SALT, SORE  THROAT.   Syn.  Sal  Pru-
nell*.   Lapis  do.  Crystal Mineral.   Prep.
Melt nitre, and when it flows  smooth, pour it into
moulds, either balls or cakes.   Prod. 50%.
  SALTS,  SMELLING.  Syn.  Sal volatile
oleosus.  Prep.  1.—Sesquicarbonate of ammonia
1 lb. ; oil of lavender 3 oz.;  grind  together, and
sublime with a gentle heat.—2. To  the last add,
before distillation, oil of verbena £ oz. Very fine.—
3. Subcarbonate of potash and  sal ammoniac, of
each  §viij '   Powder, add leaves  of Syrian herb
mastich (marum Syriacum) fss ; alcohol  1£ pints,
holding in solution oil of cloves 3ss, oil of nutmeg
3ij, oil of cinnamon 3j,  oils of sweet marjoram,
lemon, and orange, of each 3j ; water 1 quart; dis-
til with a very gentle heat, and stop the process as
soon as the liquid that rises begins to dissolve  the
salt.  Very fragrant.—4.  (Extemporaneous.)—a.
Sal ammoniac  1 dr.; pure  potassa  3 dr.;  grind
together, and add essence  of lemon 15 drops.—b.
Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, bruised, q. s.;  essen-
tial oil a few drops to perfume.
   SALTING  AND  PICKLING.   (In  domes-
tic Economy.)  This is best performed by well
rubbing the meat with a mixture of salt 2 lbs.;
saltpetre 2 oz.; and moist sugar 1 £ oz., till  every
crevice is  thoroughly  penetrated, after which it
should be  set  aside  till the next day,  when it
should be covered  with fresh salt  in such parts as
require it  It may then be advantageously placed
in any proper vessel, and subjected to pressure,  ad-
ding a little fresh salt as necessary, and turning it
daily  till  sufficiently cured.  When the brine as it
forms is allowed to drain from the meat, the pro-
cess is called dry salting ; but when, on  the con-
trary, it is  allowed to remain on it, the article is
said to be wet salted.  On the small scale, the  lat-
ter is most conveniently performed by rubbing the
meat with salt, &c, as above, and after it has  lain
a few hours, putting it into a pickle formed by  dis-
solving 4 lbs. of salt, £ or 1 lb. of sugar, and 2 oz. of
saltpetre in 2 gallons of water.  This pickling liquor
gets weaker by use, and should therefore be occa-
sionally boiled down a little and  skimmed, at  the
same time  adding some more of the dry ingredients.
*#* The sooner meat is salted  after  being  killed
the better,  as it then possesses considerable absorb-
ent power, which  it gradually  loses  by age.  On
this property is based the process of M. Gannal for
the preservation of animals intended for food in  a
fresh  state.  This  operation consists in injecting  a
solution of  chloride of aluminum, at 10° Baume,
into the carotid, by means of a syphon, as soon as
the blood ceases to flow from the slaughtered ani-
mal ;  both  extremities of the  jugular vein  being
previously tied.  9 to 12 quarts of the solution are
sufficient for an ox.  When the  animal has been
well bled, and the injection skilfully performed,  it
is  scarcely  perceptible that the animal has  under-
gone  any preparation.  The injected animal is cut
up in  the  usual way ; and when intended  to be
eaten within 2  or 3 weeks, merely requires to be
hung up in a dry situation free  from flies ; but  if it
is  to be kept for a longer period, it  is directed to
be washed  with a  mixed solution of  common  salt
and chloride of aluminum at  10° B., and then
simply dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels,
and kept in a cool, dry place.   If the  air cannot
be  perfectly excluded, it should be packed in  dry
salt, not  for the purpose  of  preserving it, but to
prevent the'vegetation of bissus;  as without this
precaution, the meat  becomes  musty, from  ex-
posure and the  action of moisture. Meat preserved
by this process may be kept for several years, and
merely requires soaking for 24 hours in water,  for
the purpose of swelling its pores, to give it the  ap-
pearance and  taste of fresh meat, fit either  for
roasting or  boiling.
   SALVE. A name indiscriminately applied  by
the vulgar  to  any consistent, greasy preparation
(See Cerates, Ointment, &c.) 
SAR
502
SAU
  SALVE, LIP.  Syn. Ceratum labiale. Prep.
—1. (White.)  Spermaceti  ointment or cerate 3
oz.; finely-powdered  white  sugar 1 oz.; scent q.
e.;  mix.—2.  (Red.)  Spermaceti ointment £ 1b.;
alkanet root 1 oz.; melt together till  sufficiently
colored, strain, and when considerably  cooled, add
20 drops of oil of lavender, or 3 drops of oil of rho-
dium, or otto of roses, or 1£  dr. of balsam of Peru.
  SANDAL WOOD. Syn. Red Sanders Wood.
Santal, (Fr.)  Sandelholz, (Ger.)  Lignum san-
tali rubri ; Lignum santalinum  rubrum, (Lat.)
The wood of pterocarpus santalinus.  Wool may
be dyed a  carmine red by dipping it  alternately
into an infusion of this  wood, and  an acidulous
bath. (Trommsdorff.)   Prepared with  a mordant
of alum  and  tartar, and then dyed in a bath of
sandal wood and  sumach, it takes a reddish yel-
low. (Bancroft.)   The coloring principle  of  red
sanders wood is called  santaline, and may be ob-
tained  as a reddish  resinous  mass  by evaporating
its alcoholic infusion, or  by digesting  the  rasped
wood in ammonia water, and precipitating by  an
acid.   Its spirituous solution gives a rich  purple
precipitate with protochloride  of ^in, and a violet
one with acetate of lead.
  SANDIVER.   Syn.  Sat.  de Verre.  Glass
Gall.  Fel Vitri.  The saline scum  that swims
on glass when first made.  It  is occasionally used
in tooth powders.
  SANGUINARIN.   Obtained  from  the  root
of sanguinaria Canadensis by digesting  it in anhy-
drous alcohol, precipitating by water of ammonia,
washing the red precipitate  in water, boiling with
water and animal charcoal, filtering, and digesting
the solid portion in alcohol; this  solution by dis-
tillation yields a pearl-gray or yellowish substance
which  is sanguinariii.   It excites sneezing, and is
turned red by acids.
  SANTONINE.   Prep.  Worm seed (semen
cyna)  4,parts; slaked lime 2 parts;  alcohol  of
90°f, 20 parts ; digest,  evaporate the clear liquid,
dissolve in dilute acetic  acid, filter, again  evapo-
rate, dissolve in 10 parts of alcohol at 80$, and
boil  with  some animal  charcoal.   The filtered
liquid  deposites  colorless crystals of santonine as
it cools.  Tasteless, inodorous, fusible, volatizable,
soluble in ether and alcohol,  and slightly so  in
water.  It is much  esteemed  as " a  tasteless
worm  medicine," and  is especially adapted to re-
move  lumbricales, (large round worms.)   Dose.
10 to 30 grs. repeated night and morning,«*followed
by a brisk purge.—Lozenges of Santonine.  San-
tonine  3j;  sugar  §v;  tragacanth 3ss;  all  in
powder; make a mass with  water and  divide
into 144  lozenges.   Dose  for a child 5 to  10
daily.
  SAPONINE.   A white non-crystallizable sub-
stance obtained by the action of alcohol  on the
root of saponaria  officinalis, (soap wort.)   It is
soluble in  water, and  the solution froths strongly
on agitation.   The smallest quantity of  the powder
causes violent sneezing.  By the action of acids
and alkalis it  is converted  into a white powder
termed saponic acid, which  is soluble in alcohol.
  SARSAPARILLA.  Syn.  Radix   Sarz*,
(Lat.)   The  Jamaica, red   Jamaica, or  red-
bearded sarsaparilla, is the variety  which should
alone  be used in  medicine.   This kind yields 33
to 40$ of its weight of extract, (Hennell, Battley,
Pope,) and  contains less starchy matter than the
other varieties.   It  is distinguished by  the dirty
orange-reddish color of its bark, and by its  cold
decoction being darkened, but not rendered  blue
by a solution of iodine.  Its powder has  also a
pale reddish brown color.  The other varieties of
sarsaparilla, viz.—the  Lisbon, Lima, Vera  Cruz,
and Honduras, are frequently substituted for the
Jamaica by the fraudulent druggist in the prepara-
tion of the  decoction  and extracts of this  drug;
but the  products are  vastly inferior  in  quantity,
color, taste, and  medicinal virtue.   Decoction  of
sarsaparilla, when made with the Honduras root,
is very liable to ferment even by a few hours' ex-
posure in hot weather.  I once saw a pan holding
3  hogsheads of  the  strong  decoction,  that  had
been left exposed all night, in as active  a state  of
fermentation as a gyle of beer;  it  bore a  frothy
head,  and  evolved a most  disagreeable  odor,
that was not wholly  removed  by several  hours'
boiling.
   SARSAPARILLINE.  Syn. Smilacin.
Salseparin.   Paralline.  Pariglin. • Paralinic
Acid. A white, crystallizable, odorless, and nearly
tasteless  substance, discovered  by  Palotta  and
Folchi,  in  sarsaparilla.   It  is  best  obtained by
treating the bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla with hot
alcohol,  decoloring the solution by animal  char-
coal,  and repeatedly dissolving and  crystallizing
the impure  smilacin that deposites  as  the  liquid
cools.  It may also be extracted by boiling water.
Water holding a very small quantity of  this sub-
stance in solution, froths considerably on  agitation.
This  is especially the  case  with infusion of Ja-
maica sarsaparilla, and this property has  conse-
quently been proposed as a test of the quality of
sarsaparilla  root.   Dose. 2 to 10 grs. in  the usual
cases in which the root is given.
   SAUCES.  Prep.—l.  (Anchovy.)   3 or 4 an-
chovies, chopped ; butter 3 or 4 oz.;  water  2 oz.;
vinegar 2 tablespoonfuls; flour 1 do.; stir over
the fire  till it thickens,  then  rub  it through  a
coarse hair-sieve.—2. (Chetney. Quihi do.)  Sharp
apples, pared and  cored, tomatoes, salt, brown
sugar, and raisins, of each 8 oz.; red chillies, and
powdered ginger, of each 4 oz.  ; garlic  and sha-
lotes, of  each 2 oz.; pound well, add  vinegar  3
quarts, and lemon juice  1 do.; digest  with  fre-
quent agitation for a  month, pour off nearly all
the liquor,  and  bottle.  Used  for fish  or  meat,
either hot or cold, or  to  flavor stews, &c.   The
residue is the Chetney, and  must  be  put into pots
or jars.   It  is used like mustard.—3. (Fish.)   a.
Port wine  1 gallon ; mountain  1 quart; walnut
ketchup 2 quarts; anchovies  and liquor 2 lbs.;  8
lemons;  36 shalotes ;  scraped horseradish  1£ lb.;
flour  of  mustard  8  oz.;  mace  1 oz.;  Cayenne
q. s.; boil up gently,  strain, and bottle.—b. 24
anchovies ;  10 shalotes;  scraped horseradish  3
spoonfuls ;  mace  and  cloves, of each  $ oz.;  2
sliced lemons ;  anchovy  liquor  8 oz.;  water  1
pint; Hock or Rhenish  wine  1 bottle ; walnut
ketchup £ pint; boil to 2£ lbs., strain, and bottle.—4.
(Quin's)  a.  Walnut pickle, and port wine,  of
each  1  pint; mushroom ketchup 1 quart;  an-
chovies and shalotes, chopped, of each  2 dozen;
soy £ pint; Cayenne $ oz.; simmer for 10 minutes.
strain, and  bottle.—6. Walnut  pickle, mushroom
ketchup, and soy, of each 1 pint; chopped  clove* 
SCA
503
SEA
of garlic and anchovies, of each 1 dozen ; Cayenne
and  bruised  cloves, of each  1 dr.   As last.—5.
(Sauce Superlative)   Port wine  and mushroom
ketchup, of each 1 quart; walnut pickle 1 pint;
pounded  anchovies £  lb.;  lemon peel,  minced
shalotes, and scraped horseradish,  of  each 2 oz.;
allspice and  black  pepper, bruised, of  each 1 oz.;
Cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, of each -J
oz., (or currie powder £ oz.;) digest 14 days, strain,
and bottle—6.  (Tomato.)   Bruised  tomatoes 1
gallon ; salt £ lb.;  in  3 days press out the juice,
to each quart add shalotes 2  oz.; black pepper 1
dr.; boil  for 30  minutes, strain,  add mace,  all-
spice, ginger, and nutmegs, of each $ oz.; corian-
der  seed  and cochineal, of  each 1  dr.;  simmer
gently for 15 minutes, strain, cool, and bottle.—7.
(Sauce Aristocratique)  Green  walnut juice,
anchovies, equal parts ; cloves, mace, and pimento,
bruised, of each  1  dr. to  every pound of juice ;
boil and  strain, then  to every pint add 1 pint of
vinegar, £ pint of port wine, -J pint of soy, and a
few shalotes.  Let  the whole stand for a few days,
and decant the clear liquor.—8. (Sauce au Roi)
Brown vinegar (good) 3 quarts; soy and walnut
ketchup, of each $ pint; cloves and shalotes, of
each £ doz. ; Cayenne pepper 1 oz.;  mix, and let
them stand  for 14  days.—9.  (Sauce  Piquante)
Soy 1 part; port wine and Cayenne, of each 2
parts ; brown vinegar  16 parts ; mix, and let them
stand for 3 or 4 days before bottling.
  SAUR KRAUT. Prep. Clean  white cabbages,
cut them into small pieces, and stratify them in a
cask along with salt and a few juniper berries
and caraway seeds, observing to pack them down
as hard as possible  with a wooden  rammer, and to
cover them with a  lid pressed down with  a heavy
weight.   The  cask should be placed in a  cold
situation  as  soon  as  a sour smell is perceived.
Much used by the  northern nations of Europe.
  SAUSAGES.   Fat and  lean of pork or beef
chopped small, flavored with spice, and put  into
skins, or pressed into pots.  Crumb of bread is also
frequently added.
  SA> ELOYS.  Prep. Young pork, free  from
bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it with  1 oz. of salt-
petre, and £ lb.  of  common salt for 2 days ;  chop
it fine  ; put  in 3  teaspoonfuls  of pepper ;  1 doz.
sage leaves  chopped  fine,  and 1 lb. of  grated
bread; mix it well, ffll the  skins, and bake them
half an hour in a slack oven.  They  are  good
either  hot or cold.
  SAVONETTES, (Fr., Wash-balls)   Prep. 1.
(Communes)—a.   Soap 5 lbs.;  starch  2  Ibs.j
essence of orange  or  citron  1  oz.;  eau pour la
barbe  1 gallon ; beat  together,  and form  into
balls.—J.  Soap shavings 5  lbs.; eau  de  citron  1
quart; digest, force it through a coarse cloth, add
starch  2 lbs., and  essence of orange  or citron  1
oz.; mix well.   As last.—2.  (Sand balls)  Soap
and  silicious sand,  of  each 1  lb.;  perfume (any)
q. s.—3.  Soap  shavings 1 lb.;  orange flower or
rose water  £, pint;  mix, and  when sufficiently
soft, add sent q. s., and form into balls.
  SCAMMONY.  The mass of  the scammony
of the shops is  adulterated.    The following re-
ceipts  are current  for factitious  Smyrna scam-
mony :—L Aleppo  scammony 1 lb. ;  jalap 7  lbs.;
senna and charcoal, of each 2 lbs.; manna 6  lbs.;
gamboge 4 lbs.; ginger $ lb.; sirup of buckthorn,
q. s.—2. Jalap 2 lbs.; senna, Aleppo  scammony,
and gamboge, of each 8 oz.; charcoal and ginger,
of each 4 oz.; as last.—3. Aleppo scammony 1
lb. ; extract of  jalap 5 lbs.; gum guaiacum  and
sago,  of  each 10  lbs.;  ivory-black 4 lbs.; mix.
These imitations may be detected by  the want of
the resinous  fracture of true scammony,  and by
their inferior solubility.   Sulphuric ether separates
from pure scammony fully 78$ of resinous matter
dried at 280° F. ;  and its cold decoction is neither
rendered blue by  iodine,  nor its tincture turned
green by nitric  acid.
  SCARLET  DYE.  Proc. (For 1 lb. of cloth.)
Cream of tartar  1£ oz.;  water q. s.; boil in  a
block-tin vessel, and when dissolved,  add solution
of tin (made  by dissolving 2 oz. of grain tin in  a
mixture of 1 lb.  each of nitric  acid  and water,
and  1£ oz. of sal  ammoniac) 1£ oz.; boil for  3
minutes, then introduce the cloth and boil it for
2 hours ;  drain and  cool.  Next, take  cream of
tartar $ oz.;  water q. s.;  boil, and add powdered
cochineal 1 oz.; boil for 5 minutes, then gradually
add solution of tin  1 oz., stirring well all the time ;
lastly, put in  the goods and dye as quickly as pos-
sible.  (Poerner.)
  SCENTS, POMATUM.   Prep.—l.  (Cow-
slip) Essence  of bergamotte 1  lb.; essence of
lemon £ lb.; oil of cloves $ lb.; mix.—2. (Jon-
quille)   Essences  of bergamotte and lemon, of
each, 8 oz.;  oil of cloves 2 oz.;  oils  of sassafras
and orange, of each, 1 oz.; mix.—3.  (Millefleur)
Essence  of ambergris 4 oz.; essence  of lemon 3
oz.; oil of cloves and English oil ,of  lavender, of
each, 2 oz.;  essence of bergamotte 1 oz.;  mix.
  SCHWARTZ'  DROPS.  Prep. Barbadoes tar
f 5j j tincture of asafottida f Jiss ; mix.  Dose. 40
drops 3 times a day for tapeworm.
  SCHEELE'S   GREEN.  Syn.  Arsenite of
Copper.   Prep. Powdered arsenious  acid 11 oz.;
carbonate of potash 2 lbs.;  boiling  water 1 gal-
lon ; dissolve, filter,  and  add the solution,  grad-
ually, to a filtered solution of 2 lbs. of crystallized
sulphate of copper in 3 gallons of water, as long
as  it produces  a grass-green   precipitate;  well
wash with warm water  and dry.   Prod. 1£ lb.
A very fine color.   Used as a paint.
  SCILLITIN.   Syn.  Scillitina.   Scillitite.
A whitish, resinous, transparent, bitter, deliques-
cent substance, obtained from squills.  It is soluble
in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, and is purgative
and poisonous.
  SCUDAMORE'S  GOUT LOTION.  Prep-
Camphor mixture  f^ix;  alcohol f^iij j mix.   Ap-
plied  on rags or poultices, a"dding, for the former,    a
enough hot water to warm it.
  SCURVY.  Syn. Scorbutus.  The treatment
of ordinary cases of this disease  mainly consists in
employing a diet of fresh  animal and green vege-
table  food, and mild ale, beer, or lemonade, as
beverages, scrupulously avoiding salted and  dried
meat.
  SEA  SICKNESS.   The most effectual  pre-
ventive is the horizontal position.  When there is
much pain, a few drops of laudanum may be ta-
ken, or an opium  plaster applied over the region
of the stomach.  Persons should put their stomach
and  bowels in  proper  order  by the use of mild
aperients, and an  emetic  if required, before  pro-
ceeding to sea, when it will generally  be found, 
SEN                   504                    SHR
that a glass of warm weak  brandy and water, to
which 15  or 20 drops of laudanum, or still better
1 or 2 drops of creosote have been added, will ef-
fectually prevent  any disposition  to sea sickness,
provided excess in  eating and  drinking is at  the
same time avoided.
  SEBACIC  ACID.  (From sebum, suet.) Prej>.
Distil fat. oil,  or  suet, in an earthen retort, and
treat the  product with hot  water as long as that
liquid deposites any thing on cooling; wash  the
crystals in cold  water, and  crystallize  from  hot
water, repeating the process till  the crystals  be-
come colorless.  Volatile, light, pearly scales, re-
sembling benzoic  acid.   With tho bases it forms
salts called sebates.   It is very soluble in hot wa-
ter, ether, and alcohol.
  SEDATIVE.  Syn.  Sedativus.  (Lat, from
sedo, to ease or assuage.)  Medicine  that dimin-
ishes the animal  energy without destroying life:
opium, henbane, and several of the neutral salts
and acids, are sedatives.
  SELENIUM.   (From UUvr,,  the moon.)   A
chemical element discovered by Berzelius in 1818.
  Prep. "(Magnus.) Native  sulphuret  of selenium
1 part; binoxide  of manganese 8 parts; expose
the mixture to a low red heat in a glass retort, the
beak of which dips in water.
  Props , <J-c. A brittle opaque substance, having
somewhat the  appearance of lead, when  in  mass,
but forming a deep red powder;  sp. gr. 4-30 to
4*32; softens  at  212°; fuses  at 220° ;  boils at
650°.  With the metals it forms compounds called
seleniurets.—Oxide of selenium  is a gaseous sub-
stance obtained by heating selenium in a vessel of
air, and washing  the product with water.—Sele-
nious acid may be obtained by digesting selenium
in aqua regia or nitric  acid, and evaporating to
dryness.  If may be sublimed unchanged, is solu-
ble in water and alcohol, and forms salts with the
bases, termed selenites.—Selenic acid is  best ob-
tained  by  fusing selenium  or  seleniuret  of lead
along with nitrate  of  soda  or  potassa,  acting on
the fused mass with water, filtering, boiling briskly
to  throw  'down  the seleniate  of soda, cooling to
separate the nitrate of soda,  and repeating  the
process until all the former salt is separated.  The
seleniate of soda  is then decomposed by nitrate of
lead, and  after well washing the  precipitate, it is
decomposed by sulphureted hydrogen, when a  so-
lution of selenic acid is obtained.  It is a  colorless
liquid, and forms salts called seleniates.—Seleniu-
reted hydrogen (hydroselenic acid) is obtained by
the action of dilute sulphuric  acid on the  proto-
seleniuret of iron, manganese, or potassium.  It is
a colorless gas,  freely  absorbed  by  water.   Its
most'remarkable  property is its fiower of irritating
the nose,  exciting  catarrhal symptoms,  and de-
stroying the sense of smell.   This has led to the
suggestion by Dr. Prout, that the evolution of this
substance  by volcanoes, and its  diffusion through
the atmosphere, may be the cause of certain forms
of  the epidemic disorder called influenza.—Sul-
phuret and phosphoret of selenium are made by
simply  fusing their elements together.
   SENEGINE.   Syn. Polygaline.  Polygalic
 Acid.  A white odorless  powder discovered by
 Gehlin in the bark of seneka root, (Polygala Se-
 nega)   It is a powerful errhine and poison.   It is
 volatile, and soluble in water and alcohol.
  SEPIA.  The ink of the cuttle fish.  1 part is
capable of making  1000  parts of water nearly
opaque.  The dried native sepia  is prepared  for
artists by boiling it for a short time in  a weak lye
of caustic  alkali,  precipitating  by an acid, and
well washing  the  precipitate, and drying it  by a
gentle heat.  A fine brown color.   Used, like In-
dian ink, by artists.
  SEVUM,  PREPARED.   Mould  candles,  at
least 2  years  old,  melted  by a very  gentle heat
and  strained from  the  wicks.  (Pharm. Journal.)
Used to make  mercurial  ointment.    Triturated
with 8 to 12 times its weight of  quicksilver, it ex-
tinguishes the  globules in less than a quarter of an
hour.  *** The magnetic adeps sold for the same
purpose, is made  by pouring melted  lard,  in a
small stream, into cold water, placing the thin
fragments thus obtained in a sieve covered with
paper, or other suitable  apparatus, and exposing it
to the air for 3 or 4 months.. (Guibourt.)  Speedily
" kills"  30 or 40 times its weight of silver.  " Fresh
lard reduced by oil of almonds, or a gentle warmth,
to the consistence of a thick cream, will extinguish
7 or 8 times its weight of running mercury."  (Ann.
de Chim.)
  SHERBET.  (Arab.)  A cooling drink used in
the  East, prepared  with the juices  of fruit and
water, variously sweetened and  flavored.
  SHOEMAKER'S BLACK.  A  solution  of
copperas in water.   Rubbed on leather it  turns
black.
  SHOT METAL.  Lead 1000 parts; arsenic 3
parts:  or if the lead is coarse, 6 to 8 parts.
  SHRUB. A species of concentrated  cold punch.
Prep.   I.  (Brandy Shrub.)   a. Brandy 1 gallon;
orange  and  lemon juice, of each 1 pint; peels of
2 oranges ; do. of  1 lemon ; digest for 24  hours,
strain, and add white sugar 4 lbs., dissolved in wa-
ter 5 pints,  b. Brandy  at proof 34 gallons;  essen-
tial oils of oranges and  lemons,  of each 1 oz., dis-
solved in rectified  spirit 1 quart ; good lump sugar
300 lbs.; dissolved in water 20 gallons ; mix well
by  rummaging, and gradually and cautiously add
of a solution of tartaric  acid in water, or of Seville
orange  juice q. s. to produce a pleasant but scarce-
ly perceptible  acidity; next " rummage" well for
15  minutes, add water  to  make the whole meas-
ure exactly 100  gallons, and again  " rummage"
well for half an hour;  lastly, bung down loosely;
in  10  or 12  days it will usually be sufficiently
brilliant to be  racked.   This is 66 u. p.
   II.  (Rum Shrub) As the last, but substituting
rum for brandy.
   III.  (Punch Shrub.)  Concentrated punch, made
with equal parts of spirit and water.  Used to
make punch.
   IV.  (Lemonade Shrub.)  Concentrated lemon-
ade.  Used to make lemonade or lemon sherbet.
   Remarks.  Rum  shrub  is the kind in the great-
est demand, and  that  having a slight preponder-
ance of the orange flavor is the most esteemed. If
 wholly flavored with lemon, it  is apt to acquire a
 kind of " dead" or  " musty" flavor by long keep-
 ing.  The substitution  of a few gallons of brandy
 for  a  portion of  the rum, or  the addition, after
 racking,  of about 1 oz. each of bruised bitter al-
 monds, cloves, and cassia, the peels of a dozen or 15
 oranges, and  a " thread"  of the  essences of am-
 bergris and vanilla, renders it delicious.   %* I 
SIL
505
SIL
have employed the  above formulae for the manu-
facture of some score hogsheads of shrub,  which
have  been  highly  admired  in  the wholesale
tfade.
   SIGHS OF LOVE.   Prep.  a.  Spirit at 18°
B. 1 gallon; white sugar 4 lbs., dissolved in water
£  gallon; mix,  perfume with otto  of roses, and
color to a pale pink with cochineal,  b. As last,
but dissolve the sugar in rose water, and omit the
otto.   A pleasant cordial.
   SIGNATURES, FACSIMILES OF.  Proc.
Write your name on a piece of paper, and while
the ink is  wet, sprinkle over  it some finely-pow-
dered gum arabic, then  make a rim round it, and
pour on it some fusible alloy in a liquid state.  Im-
pressions  may be taken from the plates formed in
this  way, by means of printing ink and the cop-
perplate press.
   SILICA.   Prep.  Levigated porcelain, plaster
of Paris,  and iron  filings, equal parts; mix, and
make them into  a paste with  the thickest quick-
drying  copal varnish.  Used to fill hollow teeth.
   SlLlCA.   Syn.  Silicic Acid.   Silex.   Sili-
cious Earth. (From silex, a flint, or \aXn, a peb-
ble.)  The earth of flints, and the  basis of glass
and all silicious minerals.
   Prep.  1.   Heat quartz or rock crystal to red-
ness, plunge  it into  cold water, dry,  and powder.
Insoluble.   2. Powdered quartz, as last, 1  part;
carbonate of  potash 3 parts ; fuse together.  This
substance (soluble glass) dissolves in water, form-
ing  a  true  solution, (liquor of flints,  silicum
liquor,) from which concentrated acids throw down
a gelatinous hydrate of silicic acid.
   SILICO-FLUORIDES.    Double  fluorides,
formed by precipitating or saturating silico-hydro-
fluoric  acid   with  the  bases.   (See  Fluosilicic
Acid.)
   SILICON. Syn. Silicium.  The combustible
base of silica.  It was first procured by Berzelius
in 1824, by  the  action  of potassium on fluosilicic
acid; but  it  is  more conveniently obtained from
the double fluoride of silicon and potassium or so-
dium, previously  dried at nearly a red heat.  This
substance, gently heated with potassium in a glass
tube, and  the resulting  compound washed with
water,  yields silicon under  the form of a dark
brown powder.   It dissolves in a mixture of nitric
and  fluoric acids, and  burns  or  explodes when
heated  with  the  hydrates and carbonates of the
alkalis.  It  is permanent  in L~s  air, even when
heated.
   SILKS.   No  silks  look  well  after washing,
however carefully it be done, and this method
should therefore never be resorted to, but from ab-
solute  necessity.   It is  recommended to sponge
faded silks with warm water and soap, then to rub
them with a dry cloth on a flat board, after which
to  iron them  on the inside with a smoothing iron.
Sponging with spirits will also improve  old black
silks.  The ironing may be done on the right side,
with  thin  paper  spread over  them  to prevent
glazing.
  SILLABUB.  Prep.  Grate oft' the peel of a
lemon with lump-sugar, and dissolve the sugar  in
£ of a pint of wine ;  add the juice of  £  a lemon,
and  $ of a pint of cream ; beat the whole together
until of a proper  thickness, and then put it into
glasses.  *m*  Milk 1 pint  is often  substituted for
cream, and  cider or perry for wine.  Grated nut-
meg is often added.  When " whipt" to a froth it
is called  " whipt sillabub."
  SILVER.   Syn. Silber, (Ger.) Argent, (Fr.)
Argentum,  (Lat)   Diana;  Luna,  (Ale)  This
metal, like gold, appears to have been as much
valued in the most  remote ages of antiquity of
which we have any record, as at the present day.
It is procured from its  ores chiefly by amalgama-
tion  and  cupellation.  Its  sp. gr. is 10-474, and
melting-point 1873°, (Daniell,) or bright redness
It is soluble  in nitric acid, and in sulphuric acid by
the aid of heat.   Refined Silver (Argentum Cu-
pellatum) is silver that has passed the cupel. (See
Assaying.)  Pure Silver is obtained by placing a
copper rod in a solution of the nitrate, digesting
the precipitate  in  caustic ammonia, and washing
with  water; or by  boiling recently  precipitated
and  still  moist  chloride of silver  in a  bright iron
vessel  along with water.   Silver leaf (Argen-
tum foliatum)  is used by dentists, and for silver-
ing.   It is only y0t)'on7tn °f an mcn thick.  Sil-
ver shells are used by artists, and are made like
gold shells.  Silver dust (Crocus argenti) is pure
pulverulent silver obtained as  above, and used by
japanners.
  Pur.,  Tests, fyc.  " Entirely soluble in diluted
nitric acid.  This solution, treated with an excess
of muriate of soda, gives  a white precipitate en-
tirely soluble in ammonia water, and a fluid which
is not affected  by sulphureted hydrogen." (P. E.)
The nitric solution of silver gives,—1. A white
curdy precipitate (chloride of silver)  with muri-
atic  acid, soluble in  ammonia and insoluble in ni-
tric  acid, and blackened  by  exposure  to  light
2.  It gives white precipitates with solutionis of the
alkaline carbonates, oxalates, and prussiates. 3. It
gives yellow precipitates with the alkaline arsen-
ites and  phosphates.  4. With the arseniates, red
precipitates.  5. With the  fixed  alkalis,  brown
precipitates.   6.  With sulphureted hydrogen, a
black powder, and,—7. With phosphorus and me-
tallic copper, pure silver.
  SILVER, CHLORIDE OF.   *?yn. Argenti
Chloridum.  Prep. Precipitate a soiJtion of chlo-
ride of silver by dilute muriatic  acid; wash and
dry in the shade.   Dose. 3 grs. 3 or 4 times daily;
in epilepsy,  chronic  dysentery,  diarrhoea,  &c.
(Dr. Perry.)
  SILVER, CYANIDE OF.  Syti.  Hydrocy-
anate Of Silver.  Cyanodide of do.  Argentum
Zootinicum.  (See Cyanide of Silver.)
  SILVER, FULMINATING.   Syn. Argen-
tum Fulminans.  Fulminate  of Silver.  Prep.
I. Digest oxide of silver (recently precipitated, and
dried by pressure between bibulous paper)  in con-
centrated liquor of ammonia  for 12 or 15 hours,
pour off the  liquid, and  cautiously dry the black
powder in the air.  The decanted ammonia, when
gently heated, yields, on cooling,  small  crystals,
which possess a still more formidable power of det-
onation,  and will scarcely  bear  touching, even
while under  the liquid.
  II. Dissolve chloride of silver in liquor of ammo-
nia, cautiously add fragments of pure potassa, and
when effervescence ceases, decant, and wash and
dry the powder.  Inferior.
  III. (Brunatelli's.)  Silver  1 part; nitric acid
(sp.gr. 1*36 to 1-38} 10 parts;  dissolve at a gentle 
SIL
506
SIL
heat, and add tho solution to alcohol of 85°;, 20
parts;  apply a gentle heat till the liquid begins to
boil, then remove it from the fire, and set it aside
to cool; the fulm-nate of silver is deposited in lus-
trous,  snow-white,   acicular crystals, and when
washed and dried, equals in weight the silver em-
ployed. (Liebig.)
   Remarks.   This  compound is exploded  by the
slightest friction or  percussion ;  and should there-
fore be only made in very small  quantities at  a
time, and handled with great caution.  Its explo-
sive powers are tremendous; in fact, it can hardly
be handled with safety, even in the moist state.
Many  frightful accidents have happened from the
spontaneous explosion of this substance.  1  or  2
grains  are the most that can  be exploded  with
safety.
   SILVER,  GERMAN.  Syn. Nickel Silver.
Albata.  White Copper.  Prep. 1. (Gersdorff.)
Nickel  and zinc, of each 1  part;  copper 2 parts.
Very fine.  2. (Gersdorff.) Nickel 25 parts;  zinc
20 do.; copper 60 do. Used  for rolling.  3.  (Gers-
dorff.)  Nickel and zinc, of each 20 parts;  copper
60. do.; lead  3 do.   For castings.  4. (Gersdorff.)
To either of the above add 2 to 3$ of white sheet
iron.  5. (Keferstein.)  Copper 40£  parts; nickel
31£ do.; zinc 25£ do.;  iron  2£ do.   This  resem-
bles the genuine German silver made from the ore
of Hildburghausen,  as  well as Pakfonsz;, as ana-
lyzed by Dr. Fyfe.  6.  (Keferstein.) Nickel and
zinc, of each 7 parts; copper 5 do.  This is the
composition of the  Chinese  white copper, Tute-
nag or Pakfong.   7. Nickel 15 parts; copper21
do.; zinc 28 do.   Malleable, resembles the  Chi-
nese pakfong.  %* All the above are used as sub-
stitutes for silver.
   SILVER, IODIDE OF.  Syn. Argenti Iodi-
dum.  Prep. Precipitate  a  solution  of nitrate of
silver by another of iodide of potassium.  Green-
ish yellow ; insoluble in water and ammonia. Used
in some of the French hospitals.
   SILVER,  NITRATE  OF.  Syn.  Argenti
Nitras.   Prep.  (P. L.)   Pure  silver f iss ; nitric
acid f §j ; fluted with water f fij ; dissolve by the
heat of a sand-bath, evaporate till ebullition ceases
and the water is expelled, then pour it  into (iron)
moulds.   In this state it forms the Lunar Caustic
(Causticum Lunare, Argenti Nitras Fusum, Ar-
gentum Nitratum) of the  shops ; but when the
solution is cautiously evaporated and crystallized,
it forms  colorless,., transparent,  rhombic prisms,
(Argenti Nitratis Crystalli; Crystalli Lunares.)
   Remarks.  Pure nitrate of silver is entirely soluble
in water, yielding a  colorless solution, from which
metallic silver is precipitated by a piece of bright
copper.  The fused nitrate is originally white, but
is darkened by exposure to light and contact with
organic matter.  " 29 gra. dissolved in  f ^j of wa-
ter  acidulated with  nitric acid,  precipitated by a
solution of 9 grs. of muriate of ammonia, briskly
agitated for  a few seconds,  and then allowed to
rest a  little ;  yields a  clear supernatant liquor,
which  is still precipitable by more  of the test."
(P. E.)  Dose. One-sixth of a grain gradually in-
creased, 2 or 3 a day, made into a pill with crumb
of bread, in  chorea, epilepsy, &c.  Its continued
use colors the skin. It  is  ako used  externally.
Antidote. A solution of common salt, emetics, and
demulcents.
   SILVER, OXIDE OF   Syn  Argenti Oxy-
 dim.   Prep. Precipitate  a solution of nitrate of
 silver by lime water, or a solution of potassa ; wash
 and dry in the shade at  a gentle heat.   Olive-
 brown, darkened by  light.  Dose. £ gr. in epi-
 lepsy, gastralgic  irritations, &.c.   It is much used
 in France.
   SILVER,  POWDER  OF.    Syn. Argenti
 Pulvis.  Prep. Heat the oxide  to a dull red in a
 porcelain crucible, cool, triturate  in an agate mor-
 tar, and pass it  through a  fine  sieve.  Both this
 and the last  are used at the hospital of  Mont-
 pellier.
   SILVER, SULPHATE  OF.  Syn. Argenti
 Sulphas.  Prepared by dissolving silver in sulphu-
 ric acid containing one-tenth of nitric acid ; or by
 precipitating a solution of the nitrate by another
 of  sulphate of soda.   It  dissolves  in  80  parts of
 hot water, and falls in small needles as the solu-
 tion cools.
   SILVER, SULPHURET.   Prepared by pass-
 ing sulphureted hydrogen through a solution of
 nitrate of silver.
   SILVERING  OF  METALS.   The  art of
 covering the surface  of bodies with a  thin coating
 of silver.                           -,
   Proc. I.  (Leaf Gilding.)  This is performed
 with  leaf silver in the way described at p. 334, for
 Gilding of Polished Metals.
   II.  (Cold Silvering.)   Mix 1 part of chloride
 of  silver with 3 parts of pearlash, 1£ parts of com-
 mon  salt, and 1 part of whiting,  and well rub the
 mixture on the surface of brass  or copper,  (previ-
 ously well cleaned,) by means of  a piece  of soft
 leather, or a cork moistened with water and dip-
 ped into the powder.  1 part of precipitated silver
 powder, mixed with 2 parts  each of cream of tar-
 tar and common salt, may also be  used  in the
 same  way.   When  properly  silvered the metal
 should be well washed in hot water slightly alka-
 lized, and then wiped dry.
   III.  (By the electrotype.)  M. de  Ruolz per-
 forms this  by means of a solution of oxide of sil-
 ver in cyanide of potassium, in the way described
 in  the article  Voltaic Gilding.  Citrate  of silver
 has also been used with advantage.
   *#* Leather,  paper,  wood,  &c,  are silvered
 with silver  leaf by a  similar process to that em-
 ployed in gilding them.
   SILVERING  OF GLASS.  Proc. I. Mirrors
 are silvered as follows:—A sheet of tin foil corre-
 sponding to the size of the plate of glass is  evenly
 spread on a  perfectly smooth and  solid  marble
 table, and every  wrinkle on its surface is carefully
 rubbed down with a brush; •a portion of mercury
 is then poured on, and rubbed over the foil  with a
 clean piece of  soft woollen stuff, after which two
 rules are applied to the edges, and mercury poured
 on to the depth of a  crown piece, when any oxide
 on the surface is carefully removed, and the sheet
 of glass, perfectly clean and dry, is slid along over
 the surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, dirt,
 or oxide, can possibly either remain or get between
 them.  When the glass  has arrived  at its proper
 position, gentle pressure  is  applied, and the table
 sloped a little to carry off the waste mercury, after
 which it is covered with  flannel, and  loaded with
 heavy weights;  in  24  hours it is removed to a
i wooden table ana orther slanted, and this position 
SIR                     507                      SIR
 is progressively increased during  a month,  till it
 becomes perpendicular.
   II. (Drayton's Patent.)   Proc. A mixture is
 first made of coarsely-pulverized  nitrate of  silver
 1 oz.;  spirits of hartshorn £ oz., and of water 2 oz.;
 which, after standing for 24  hours, is filtered, (the
 deposite upon the filter, which is silver, being pre-
 served,) and  an addition  is made thereto of spirit,
 (by preference, spirit of wine,) at 60°  above proof,
 or naphtha 3 oz.; from 20  to 30 drops of oil of
 cassia  are then  added ; and, after remaining for
 about 6 hours longer, the solution is ready for use.
 The glass to be silvered is well cleaned and pol-
 ished,  placed in a horizontal position,  a wall of
 putty,  or other suitable material, formed around it,
 and the  solution poured over it to the depth of
 from | to $ inch ; from 6 to 12 drops  of a mixture
 of oil of cloves and spirit of wine (in the proportion
 of 1 part, by  measure,  of oil of cloves,  to 3 of spirit
 of wine) are next dropped into it, at different places ;
 or the  diluted oil of cloves may  be mixed with the
 solution before  it is poured .upon the  glass.   The
 more oil of cloves used, the more rapid will be the
 deposition of the silver; but the  patentee prefers
 that it  should occupy  about  2 hours.   When  the
 required deposite has been obtained, the solution is
 poured off; and as soon as the  silver on the glass
 is perfectly dry, it  is varnished with a composition
 formed by melting together equal quantities of
 beeswax and tallow.   The  solution,  after  being
 poured off; is allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days in a
 close vessel;  as it  still contains silver, and may
 be again employed after filtration, and the addition
 of a sufficient quantity of fresh ingredients to sup-
 ply  the place of those which have been used. The
 patentee states, that, by experiment, he has ascer-
 tained  that about 18 grains of nitrate of silver are
 used for each square foot of glass ; but the quan-
 tity  of  spirit varies somewhat, as  its  evaporation
 depends upon the temperature of the  atmosphere,
 and the duration  of the process.  If the glass be
 placed  in  an inclined, or even a vertical position,
 and the surface covered  over,  leaving  a  narrow
 space for the  solution  between the surface of  the
 glass and the cover, which fits close, then, by using
 spirit without water in  the mixture, the object will
 be accomplished.   By the  addition  of a small
 quantity of oil  of caraway or thyme,  the color of
 the  silver may be  varied.  (Newton's Journal.)
 This method  seems likely to supersede  all others
 for silvering mirrors, and the backs  of diamonds
 and  pastes.
   SIRUP.  Syn.  Sirop ; Syrop, (Fr.)  Syrupus,
 (Lat, from serab, Arab., a potion) A thick solution
 of sugar in water, either simple, flavored, or medi-
 cated.  In the preparation of sirups care should be
 taken to employ the best refined  sugar, as they
 will thus be rendered less liable to spontaneous de-
 composition, and  if made  with  distilled water, or
 filtered  rain water,  will be perfectly transparent,
 without  the  trouble of clarification.   When  the
latter operation  is required, it should be conducted
in the  manner  described  at article  Capillaire.
When vegetable solutions  enter into the composi-
tion  of  sirups, they  should be rendered perfectly
transparent by filtration or clarification, before be-
ing added to the sugar.  In general, 2 lbs.  (av.)
will be required  to every imperial pint  of water or
thin aqueous fluid to make a sirup of a  proper con-
 sistence or density, which will  allow for the por-
 tion that is lost by evaporation during the process.
 It is proper to employ as  little heat as possible, as
 a solution of sugar, even when kept at the temper-
 ature of boiling water, undergoes  slow decomposi-
 tion.   A good plan is to pour the water  (cold) on
 the sugar, and to let the two lie together  for a few
 hours,  occasionally stirring,  and then to  apply a
 gentle heat (preferably that of  steam or a water-
 bath) to finish the solution.  Some persons (falsely)
 deem a sirup ill prepared unless  it has been allowed
 to boil; but if this method be adopted, the ebulli-
 tion should be only of the  gentlest kind,  (simmer-
 ing) and should be checked after the lapse of 1 or
 2 minutes.  If it be  desired to  thicken a sirup by
 boiling, a  few fragments of glass should be intro-
 duced, as  ebullition takes place  under <he usual
 boiling point  when these are  present.   In  most
 pharmaceutical works directions are given to com-
 pletely saturate the water with sugar, so that the
 sirup shall have the  sp. gr. 1-321 when  cold; but
 I find,  from extensive experience in the manufac-
 ture of sirups, both in England and abroad, that,
 under all  ordinary circumstances, a sirup with a
 very slight excess of water keeps better than one
 fully saturated.   In the latter  case, a  portion of
 sugar  generally  crystallizes out on standing, and
 thus, by abstracting sugar from the remainder of
 the sirup,  so weakens it that it rapidly  ferments
 and spoils.  This change proceeds at a rapidity
 proportionate to the temperature.   Saturated sirup
 kept in a vessel that is frequently uncorked or ex-
 posed to the air, loses sufficient  water by evapora-
 tion from its surface to cause the formation of mi-
 nute crystals of sugar, which, falling to the bottom
 of the vessel, continue to increase in size  at the
 expense of the sugar  in solution.  I have seen a
 single six-gallon stone bottle, in which  sirup  has
 been kept  for some time, the inside of which, when
 broken, has been  found to  be entirely cased with
 sugar-candy, amounting to 16 or 18 lbs.  On the
 other hand, sirups containing too much water also
 rapidly ferment, and become ascescent;  but of the
 two, this is the  less evil, and may be more  easily
 prevented.  The proportions  of sugar and  water
 given above will forn\an  excellent sirup, provided
 care be taken to allow but little  to be lost by evap-
 oration.  To make  transparent sirups, the  sugar
 should be in a single lump, and by preference taken
 from the bottom or broad  end  of the  loaf, as, if
 powdered or bruised, the sirup will be cloudy. Sir-
 ups are judged to be sufficiently boiled when some
 taken up in a spoon pours out like oil; and when
 a thin skim appears on blowing upon the sirup, it
 is judged to be  completely saturated.   A  fluid
 ounce of saturated sirup  weighs 577£ grs., and a
 gallon  13i lbs., (avoird.;)  its sp. gr. is 1*320, or 35°
 of Baume's areometer; its boiling point  is 221°
 F.,  and its density at  the  temperature  of 212° is
 equal to 1*260, or 30° B. The sirups prepared with
 the juices of fruits, or  that contain much extrac-
 tive matter, as those of sarsaparilla, poppies, &c,
 should be made to mark about 2° or 3°  more on
 Baume's scale than the other sirups.
  *** The decimal  part  of  the number denoting
the  specific gravity of a sirup,  multiplied by  26,
gives the number  of pounds of sugar it  contains
per  gallon very nearly. (Ure.)   In boiling sirups,
if they  appear likely to boil  over, a little oil, or 
SIR                    508                    SIR
  rubbing the edges  of the pan with soap, will pre-
  vent it.
    Pres. Sirups, as well as all saccharine solutions,
  Bhould  be  kept in  a cool  place.  " Let sirups be
  kept in  a  situation where the  temperature  never
  rises above 55°."  (P. L.) The best plan is to keep
  them in small, rather than in large bottles, as the
  longer a bottle lasts, the more frequently it will be
  opened, and consequently the more exposed it will
  be to the air.  By bottling sirups while boiling hot,
  and immediately corking down,  and tying the bot-
  tles  over with bladders perfectly  air-tight,  they
  may be kept, even at  a summer heat, for  years
  without fermenting.   A certain  wholesale  drug
  house, remarkable  for the quality of their sirups,
  adopt this method, employing  thick green  glass
  bottles  for quantities of 2 quarts and under, and
  stoneware bottles for larger quantities.   Each bot-
  tle is labelled with the name  of  the sirup, and the
  date at which it was made.  On lately examining
  the stock of the parties alluded to, I observed some
  that had been bottled upwards of two  years, and
  which still preserved its transparency  and usual
  appearance.  The addition of a  little citric or tar-
  taric  acid (3ij to 3iv to the gallon) will prevent
 sirup candying, unless it be boiled too thick ; and
 a little sulphite of potassa or lime will effectually
 prevent fermentation ; but the two  must  not be
 used together.  The one method  is applicable to
 saturated or nearly saturated sirups; the other to
 those  that  are scarcely saturated with sugar, and
 which cannot be   preserved  in  a cool  situation.
 Chlorate of potash has also been  proposed on theo-
 retical grounds to prevent the access of the vinous
 fermentation, and I am told  that its application is
 advantageous.
   SIRUP  OF BUCKTHORN.  Syn.  Syrupus
 Rhamni, (P. L. E.  and  D.)  Syr.  Spin* Cervi-
 n*.  Prep.—1. (P. L.)  Juice of buckthorn, defe-
 cated, 2 quarts ;  ginger  and  allspice, bruised, of
 each 3vj ; macerate the spice in  1 pint of the juice
 at a gentle  heat for 4 hours, and  filter; boil  the
 rest to 1£ pints, mix the liquors, and dissolve therein
 white  sugar lb. iv.—2. (Wholesale.)—a. Buckthorn
 juice 3 gallons ; bruised pimento  and ginger, sifted
 from the dust,  of each £ lb,; simmer for 15 min-
 utes, strain, and add sugar 44 lbs.—6.  Buckthorn
 juice 3 gallons ; boil to 2 gallons, add  bruised pi-
 mento and  ginger gruffs, free from dust, of each
 | lb.;  boil to 1 gallon, strain,  add molasses 72  lbs.;
 and finish the boiling.  Cathartic.  Dose. £ oz. to
 1 oz.   *** Should the color be  dull, the addition
 of a few grains of tartaric acid will brighten it.
   SIRUP OF  CAPILLAIRE.  Syn.  Sirup of
 Maidenhair.  Syrupus capillorum Veneris. Sir-
 op de Capillaire.  Prep.  Maidenhair f v ; liquor-
 ice root 5'j ; boiling water lb. vj; steep for 6 hours,
 strain, and add white sugar q.s. (See Capillaire.)
  SIRUP OF  COCHINEAL.    Syn. Syrupus
 Coccinell*.  Prep. Powdered cochineal 3j ;  wa-
 ter 1$ pints; boil to a pint, filter, and  add white
 sugar 2 lbs.  1 oz.  Used as coloring sirup, and often
 sold for sirup of clovepinks.
  SIRUP OF  COLTSFOOT.   Syn.  Syrupus
 Tussilaginis.  Prep. (P. Cod.) Flowers of colts-
foot lb.j; (or dried flowers §ij;) boiling water lb. ij;
macerate 12 hours; strain, press, filter, and  add
sugar lb. iv.   A  popular remedy  in coughs, cold,
 &c.   Dose.  1 to 2 tablespoonfuls ad libitum.      I
    SIRUP  EMPYREUMATIC.   Syn. Svrupus    ■
  Empyreumaticus.  F*x Sacchari.  Treacle.  Mo-
  lasses.
    SIRUP  OF GUM.   Syn.  Syrupus Acacia
  Syrop de Gomme.   Prep. (P. Cod.) I >issolve pale
  and picked  gum arabic in an equal weight of water
  by a gentle heat, and add the solution to twice its
  weight of simple sirup, simmer for 2 or 3 minutes,
  remove the scum, and cool. A pleasant demulcent
  The  addition of 1 or 2 oz. of orange-flower water to
  each pint, renders it very agreeable.
    SIRUP OF GINGER.  Syn. Syrupus  Zingi-
  ber's, (P.  L. E. and D.)   Prep  'P. L.) Bruised
  ginger §iiss  ; boiling water 1  pint;  macerate for 4
  hours, strain, and add white sugar lb. iiss. Used as
  a flavoring.
    SIRUP  OF HOREHOUND.   Syn. Syrupus
  Marubii. Syrop  de Prassio.  Prep.—1.  (P. Cod.)
  Dried horehound  §j ; horehound water lb. ij ; di-
  gest in a  water-bath for 2 hours, strain,  and add
  white sugar lb. iv.—White horehound (fresh) 1 lb.;
  boiling water 1 gallon;  infuse for 2 hours, press
  out the liquor, filter, and add  sugar q. s.  A popu-
  lar remedy  in coughs and  diseases of the lungs.
  Dose. A tablespoonful ad libitum.   " It is sold for
  any sirup of herbs that is demanded, and  which is
  not in the shop."  (Gray.)
   SIRUP OF IODIDE OF  IRON.  Syn.  Syr-
  upus Ferri  Iodidl  Prep.—1. (P. E.)  Dry iodine
  200 grs.; fine  iron  wire 100 grs.; water f^vj;
  mix in a flask and boil, at first gently,  and after-
  wards briskly,  till  reduced to two-thirds;  filter
  while hot into a  matrass containing white sugar
  3;ivss; dissolve, and add water  if necessary to make
 the whole measure exactly f § vj.  inxij contain 1
 gr. of iodide of iron—2.  (A. T.  Thomson.) Con-
 tains 24 grs. of dry or 32 grs. of hydrated  iodide
 of iron in each oz.—3. (Ricord.) 2 gre. to the oz.
 *** Either of the last two may be made  from
 the former by adding simple  sirup.—4. (Whole-
 sale.)  Dry iodine  6 oz.; iron  filings 3 oz.; boiling
 water 2£ lbs.; sugar 5$ lbs.;  mix as No. 1, and
 make  it up to 8$ lbs.   This is  of  the strength rec-
 ommended by  Dr.  A. T.  Thomson.   Dose. Of
 either (except the third) 3ss to 3j, as a tonic and
 resolvent, in  debility,  scrofula, &c.  *** It should
 be perfectly transparent  and colorless, or at most
 only of a very pale green tint,  and should be with-
 out sediment even when exposed to the air. (P. E.)
 It keeps best in well-closed bottles, excluded fron;
 the light.   (See Iodide of Iron.)
   SIRUP OF IPECACUANHA.   Syn. Syruf
 us Ipecacuanh*.  Prep. (P. E.)   Coarsejy-pow
 dered  ipecacuanha £iv ; rectified spirit 1 pint; di
 gest 24 hours, strain, add proof spirit f fxiv ;  again
 digest  and strain, and repeat the process with wa-
 ter f lx\v ; distil off the spirit  from the mixed li-
 quors,  evaporate to f gxij ; filter, add rectified spirit
 f %\, and simple sirup 7 pints ; mix well.  Dose.
 As an  emetic for infants £ teaspoonful; for adults
 1 to 1£ oz.;  as an expectorant, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls.
   SIRUP OF LEMONS.  Syn. Syrupus Limo-
 num,  (P.  L.  E. and  D.)  Prep.  (P. L.) Lemon
juice (strained or defecated) 1 pint: sugar lb. iiss;
dissolve by a gentle  heat, and  set  it aside; in 24
houre remove the scum, and decant the clear.   A
pleasant refrigerant sirup in fevere, &c.   Dose. 1
to 4 drs. in any diluent.  With water it forms an
extemporaneous lemonade. 
SIR                    509                    SIR
   SIRUP OF MARSHMALLOW.   Syn. Syr-
 upus Alth**, (P. L. E. and D.)  Prep.  (P. L.)
 Marshmallow root, fresh and sliced, gviij ; boiling
 water 2 quarts ; boil  to  one-half, set  aside for 24
 hours, decant the clear, add white sugar  lb.  iiss,
 and gently evaporate to a proper consistence.  De-
 mulcent and pectoral.  Dose. 1 to 4 drs., in coughs,
 &c, added to mixtures.
   SIRUP OF  MULBERRIES.  Syn. Syrupus
 Mori.  Prep.  (P. L.) Juice of mulberries, strained,
 1 pint ; sugar lb. iiss ; dissolve.  Used as a color-
 ing and flavoring where alkalis and earths  are not
 present.   Sirup of red poppies, (Rhaaados,) slightly
 acidulated with tartaric or dilute sulphuric acid, is
 very generally sold for it.
   SIRUP OF ORANGE-PEEL. Syn. Syrupus
 Aurantii, (P. L. E. D.)  Prep.—l. (P. L.) Fresh
 orange-peel f iiss ; boiling water 1 pint;  macerate
 for 12 houre in a covered vessel, strain, and  add
 sugar lb. iij.—2. (Wholesale) a. Fresh orange-peel
 18 oz., (or dried £ lb.;) sugar 18 lbs.; water q.s.—
 6. Tincture of orange-peel f Jj *, simple sirup f ^xix  ;
 mix.  As  an agreeable  flavoring and stomachic.
 Dose. 1 to 4 drs.
   SIRUP OF POPPIES.  Syn. Sirup of  White
 Poppies. Syrupus Papaveris, (P. L. E. & D.)  Do.
 do. albi.   Syr.  de  Meconio. Diacodion. Prep.
 I. (P. L.) Poppy heads, dried, bruised, and without
 the seeds, lb. iij ; water 5  gallons;  boil to 2 gal-
 lons, press out the liquor, boil to 2 quarts, set it
 aside for 12 hours, decant, strain, boil to 1 quart,
 and add sugar lb. v.—2. (Wholesale.)  Extract of
 poppies 1£ lbs.;  boiling water 2£ gallons; dissolve,
 clarify, or filter, so that it may be perfectly trans-
 parent when cold, then  add  white  sugar  44  lbs.
 and dissolve.  Anodyne and soporific.   Dose.  For
 an infant $ to £ teaspoonful; for an adult  2 to 4
 drs.
   SIRUP OF  RED POPPIES.  Syn.  Sirup of
 Corn poppy.  Syrupus  Rh*ados, (P. L. E. & D.)
 Prep. (P.  L.)  Petals of the red poppy lb. j; boil-
 ing water  1  pint; mix  in a water bath, remove
 the vessel,  macerate for 12 hours, press out  the
 liquor, and after defecation or filtering, add sugar
 lb. iiss.—2. (Wholesale.)  Dried red poppy petals 3
 lbs.;  boiling water q. s.; white sugar  44 lbs.; as
 last.   Employed as  a  coloring.   A little  acid
 brightens it.  *** The color of this sirup is injured
 by  contact with iron or copper.
   SIRUP OF RHUBARB.  Syn. Syrupus Rhasi.
 Prep.—1.  (P. Cod.)  Bruised rhubarb § iij ; water
 ^xvj ; macerate  12  hours,  filter, and  add white
 sugar Jxxxij.—2. (Wholesale.) Bruised rhubarb 1£
 lbs.; water q. s.; sugar 20 lbs.;  as last.  Stomachic
 and purgative.
  SIRUP  OF   ROSES.  Syn.  Syrupus Ros*.
 (P. L. & D.) Syr. Ros* centifoli*, (P. E.) Prep.
 —1. (P. L.) Dried petals of red roses (Rosa ceuti-
 folia) ^vij ; boiling water 3 pints ; macerate for 12
 hours, filter, evaporate in a water bath to 1 quart,
 and add white sugar lb. vj.—2. (Wholesale.) Rose
 leaves 1  lb.; sugar  19 lbs.; water q. s.; as last.
 Gently laxative.  Dose. $ to 1 oz.   It  is usual to
 add a few drops of dilute  sulphuric acid to brighten
 the color.  Alkalis turn it green.
  SIRUP OF RUE. Syn.  Syrupus Rut*. Prep.
 Oil of rue 12 drops ;  rectified spirit f ^ss ;  dissolve,
 and add simple sirup  1 pint.   Dose.  £ to  2 tea-
ipoonfuls in the  flatulent  colic of children
   SIRUP OF SAFFRON. Syn. Syrupus Croci,
(P. L. &.  E.)  Prep. 1. (P. L.)  Hay saffron 3x;
boiling  water 1 pint; macerate 12  hours, strain,
and add sugar lb. iij.—2. (Wholesale.) Hay saffron
6 oz.; boiling water 6 quarts ;  white  sugar 24 lbs.;
as last  Used for its color and flavor.
   SIRUP OF SARSAPARILLA.  Syn. Syrupus
Sarz*, (P. L. &, E.) Syr. Sarsaparill*,  (P. D.)
Prep.—1. (P. L.) Sarsaparilla, sliced, §xv ; boil-
ing water 1 gallon ;  macerate  for 24 hours, boil to
2 quarts, strain, add sugar §xv, and boil to a sirup.
—2. (Wholesale.)  Extract of sarsaparilla 3 lbs.;
boiling  water 3 quarts;  dissolve, strain,  and add
white sugar 12 lbs.  Alterative and  tonic.  Dose 2
to 4 drs.
   SIRUP   OF   SARSAPARILLA,   (COM
POUND.) Syn. Syrupus Sarz*  Compositus. Sy-
rop de Cusinier.  Prep. (P.  U.  S.)  Sarsaparilla,
bruised, lb. ij.; guaiacum wood,  rasped,  ^'ij ', red
roses, senna,  and liquorice-root bruised, of each ^ij ;
diluted alcohol 10  pints, (wine measure  ;) mace-
rate for 14 days,  express, filter thrcagh paper, and
evaporate in  a  water bath to 4£ pints;  then add
sugar lb. viij, and when  cold  oils of sassafras and
aniseed, of each 5 drops, and oil of partridge berry
(gualtheria procumbens) 3 drops, previously tritura-
ted with a little of the sirup.  An  excellent prepa-
ration.  Dose, f ^ss, 3 or 4 times a day,  as an al-
terative, tonic, and restorative.  *** The sirup of
the P. Cod. is made with water  instead  of spirit,
and is vastly inferior as a remedy.
   SIRUP OF SENNA. Syn.  Syrupus Senn*,
(P. L.  & E.)  Prep.—l. (P. L.)   Senna giiss;
bruised fennel seed 3x; boiling water  1 pint;
macerate  with a gentle heat for 1 hour, strain, add
manna §iij ;  white sugar f xv,  and evaporate to  a
proper consistence.—2. (Wholesale.) The  manna
is usually omitted.—3. (P. E.) Senna §iv ; boiling
water  f ^xxiv;   strain,  add  treacle §xlviii, and
evaporate to  a  proper  consistence.  Cathartic.
Dose.  1 to 4 drs.
  SIRUP, SIMPLE. Syn. Syrupus, (P.L.) Syrup-
us Simplex, (P. E. & D.) Prep.—l.  (P. L.) White
sugar lb. x ;  water 3 pints;  dissolve.—2. (Whole-
sale) Double refined sugar 44 lbs.;  distilled water
2£ gallons ; make a sirup.  It should be as trans-
parent as  water.   Used as a flavoring, and to give
cohesiveness  and consistence  to  pulverulent sub-
stances in the preparation of electuaries, pills, &c.
(See Capillaire, and the introductory remarks on
Sirup.)
  SIRUP OF SQUILLS. Syn. Syrupus Scill*.
Prep.—1. (P. E.) Vinegar of squills 3 pints; white
sugar lb. vij; dissolve by a gentle heat.—2. (Whole-
sale.)  Vinegar of squills  14  lbs., (perfectly trans-
parent ;)  double refined  sugar 28 lbs.; dissolve in
a stoneware  vessel in the cold, or at most by  a
very gentle heat.   It should be as clear as  water,
and nearly colorless.  Dose. 1 to 2 drs., as an ex-
pectorant  in chronic coughs and asthma.  In large
doses it proves emetic.
  SIRUP OF  TOLU.  Syn.  Balsamic Sirup.
Svrupus Tolutanus, (P. L. & E.)   Syr. Balsami
Tolutani, (P. D.)  Prep.—l-  (P. L.)  Balsam of
Tolu 3x;  boiling water 1 pint; boil  in a covered
vessel for £ an hour, frequently  stirring, cool, strain,
and add sugar lb. iiss.—2. (P. E.)   Simple sirup
(warm) lb. ij; tincture of Tolu §j;  mix  well to-
gether in  a close vessel.—3. (Wholesale.)  Warm 
SMA                    510                    SNU
water  23 lbs.; add tincture of Tolu,  gradually,
until it will bear no more without becoming opaque,
constantly shaking the bottle, cork down and oc-
casionally  agitate till cold; filter through paper,
add double refined sugar 44 lbs.; and dissolve in a
close vessel,  by  a gentle heat  in a water  bath.
This sirup should be clear and colorless as water,
but as  met with  in  the shops it is usually milky.
Pectoral.   Dose.  1  to 4 drs. in mixtures.
  SIRUP, VELNO'S VEGETABLE.  Accord-
ing to Dr. Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this  celebrated
nostrum is prepared as follows:—Young and fresh
burdock root, sliced fij;  dandelion  root ^j'  fresn
spearmint, senna,  coriander seed,   and bruised
liquorice  root, of  each 3iss ; water 1£ pints ; boil
down gently to a pint, strain, add lump sugar 1 lb.,
boil to  a sirup, and add a small quantity of corro-
sive sublimate, previously dissolved in a  little spirit.
Used as an alterative and purifier of the blood.
  SIRUP OF VINEGAR. Syn. Syrupus Aceti.
Prep.  (P. E.) Vinegar (French wine) f §xj ; white
sugar ^xiv ; make a sirup.   Dose 1 dr. to 1 oz. as
an expectorant in coughs and  colds, or diffused
through any  mild diluent, as a drink in fevers.
  SIRUP OF VIOLETS.  Syn. Syrupus Viol*.
(P. E. & D.)  Syr.  Violarum.   Prep.—l.  (P. E.)
Fresh violets 1 lb.;  boiling water 2£ pints ;  infuse
for 24 hours in a covered vessel of glass or earthen-
ware, strain off the liquor, (with gentle pressure,)
filter, add white  sugar lb. viiss,  and  dissolve.—2.
(Wholesale.) Double-refined white sugar 66 lbs.;
anthokyan* 11 lbs.; water 22 lbs. or q. s.; dissolve
in earthenware.   Gently laxative.  Dose.  A tea-
spoonful for an infant.  *** Genuine sirup of vio-
lets should  have a lively violet blue  color, and
should be  reddened by acids and turned green by
alkalis, and should smell  and taste of the flowers.
It is frequently used as a test.   A spurious  sort is
met with in the shops, which is  colored by litmus,
and  slightly  scented by  orris root.   The  purest
sugar,  perfectly free from either acid or alkaline
contamination, should alone be used  in  its manu-
facture.  The P. E. orders the infusion to be strain-
ed without pressure,  and the P. Cod.  and other
Ph. direct je flowers to  be  first washed in cold
water.
  SIZE.  Obtained  like glue from the skins of ani-
mals, but is evaporated less, and kept in the soft
state.
  SMALTS. Syn. Powder Blue. Smalta. Azu-
rum.   Prep.  I. Roast cobalt ore to  drive off the
arsenic, make the residuum into a paste with  oil
of vitriol, and heat it to redness for an hour ; pow-
der, dissolve in water, and precipitate the oxide of
iron by carbonate of potash, gradually added, until
a rose colored powder begins to  fall,  then  decant
the clear, and precipitate  by a solution of silicate
of potash prepared by fusing together for 5 hours a
mixture of ten parts of potash, 15 parts of finely-
ground flints, and 1 part of eharcoal.  The  precip-
itate, after being dried, may be fused and powder-
ed.   Very fine.
  II. Roasted cobalt ore  and  potash, of each 1
part; silicious sand 3, parts ; fus^  together, cool,
and powder.   Used in painting,  to color glass, and
b) get up linen.

  * The expressed juice of violets, defecated, gently heat-
ed in earthenware to 192°, skimmed, cooled, filtered, Alittlt
spirit added, and again filtered.
  SNUFF.  Syn. Tabac, (en poudre, Fr.)  The
finer kinds of snuff pre made from  the  best  de-
scription of tobacco, separated from the damaged
leaves ; but the ordinary snuffs of the shops  are
mostly  prepared from  the coarser and damaged
portions, the stems or stalky parts  that remain
from the manufacture of shag tobacco, the dust or
Dowder sifted from the bales, and 'the fragments
that are unfit for other purposes.  To impart to the
dried leaves the characteristic odor and flavor of to-
bacco, and to render them agreeable to " smokers"
and " snuffers," it is  necessary that  they  should
undergo a certain preparation, or kind of fermenta-
tion.  If a fresh green leaf of tobacco bo crushed
between the fingers, it emits merely the herbaceous
smell  common to most plants ; but if it be tritu-
rated in a mortar along with a very6mall  quantity
of quicklime or caustic  alkali, it will  immediately
exhale the peculiar odor of manufactured tobacco.
This arises from the active and volatile ingredients
being liberated from their previous combination, by
the ammonia developed  by fermentation,  or the
action  of a stronger base.   Tobacco contains a
considerable quantity of muriate of ammonia, and
this substance, as  is well  known, when placed  in
contact with lime or  potassa, immediately evolves
free ammonia.   If we reverse the case, and satu-
rate the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the
addition of any  mild acid, its characteristic odor
will entirely disappear.  In  the preparation of to-
bacco  previously  to  its  manufacture  into snuff,
these  changes  are effected  by a  species of fer-
mentation.   The tobacco,  either  unprepared  or
cut into pieces,  is placed in  layers or heaps, and
sprinkled with a weak solution of common salt and
water, (about the sp. gr. 1*107,) or sauce as  it is
called ;  the salt being  added to prevent the  to-
bacco becoming mouldy, and  to keep  it moist,  as
well as  to moderate the fermentation.  Molasses is
also frequently added to the sauce when a violet or
dark-colored  snuff is desired, and some persons
with a like intention add a decoction or solution of
extract  of liquorice.  I am informed, however, that
pure water, without any addition, is quite sufficient
to promote and maintain  the perfect  fermentation
of tobacco, and that of late years the  larger  and
more respectable  houses  have employed nothing
else.  The leaves soon become  hot,  and  evolve
ammonia ; during this time the heaps require to be
occasionally opened up and turned over,  lest they
become too hot, take  fire, or run into the putrefac-
tive fermentation.   The extent to which  the  pro-
cess is  allowed to proceed  varies with  different
kinds  of snuff, from one to tfiree months.  When
the leaves have  arrived  at the proper state, they
are sufficiently dried to bear being pulverized. This
is either performed in a mill, or with a kind of pes-
tle  and mortar.   While  powdering,  the tobacco
should be frequently sifted, that it may not be re-
duced to too fine a powder, and it should be moist-
ened with rose  or  orange-flower water, or  eau
d'ange,  which are the only waters fit  for the supe-
rior kinds of snuff.  This  moistening is usually re-
peated several times.  Tonca beans  are put into
snuff-boxes to scent the snuff, but the concentrated
essence of tonca beans is now mostly used ; the
leaves of orchis fusca, and those of several other
species of orchides that  have  the scent of the tonca
bean, are also used to scent  snuff.   French snuff 
SNU
511
SOA
 is scented with the root of calamus  aromaticus.
 During the grinding of tobacco it is but too  fre-
 quently mixed with dark-colored rotten wood, va-
 rious  English leaves, coloring and  other matter,
 which substances are  added by the  fraudulent
 manufacturer to reduce the cost.  It is a general
 practice with many  dealers to add ammonia to
 their  snuffs  to  increase their pungency.  I have
 seen 1 cwt. of powdered sal ammoniac sent at one
 time to a certain London  tobacconist.  Powdered
 glass  and hellebore are also frequently added for a
 like purpose.   The moist kinds of snuff are gener-
 ally drugged  with  pearlash, for  the  triple purpose
 of keeping them moist and increasing their pun-
 gency and color.  The dry  snuffs, especially Welsh,
 are commonly  adulterated  with quicklime,  the
 particles of which may often  be distinguished by
 the naked eye.  This addition causes its biting and
 desiccating  effect on   the  pituitary  membrane.
 Scotch, Irish, Welsh, and Spanish snuffs, Lundy-
 foot,  tyc, are examples of the dry snuffs. Among
 moist snuffs or rappees, brown black, Cuba, ca-
 rotte, <Src, may be mentioned.  Hardham's mix-
 ture,  No. 37, is  a mixed rappee,  and Prince's
 mixture, princeza, 6fC, are scented  rappees.  The
 Scotch, Irish, and in  fact most of the ordinary
 snuffs of the  shops, are prepared from the midribs
 and waste  pieces ; but the  Strasburgh, French,
 Russian, and Macouba snuffs, from the soft parts
 of the leaves.   The  immense variety of snuffs
 kept in the shops, depend  for their  distinguishing
 characteristics on  the length of the fermentation,
 the fineness  of the powder, the height to which
 they are  dried, and the addition of odorous sub-
 stances.    Among some of  the  most esteemed
 French snuffs are the following:—Tabac de  ce-'
 drat,  bergamotte, and neroli, are made by adding
 the essences to the snuff.—Tabac parfumee aux
 fleurs, by putting orange  flowers, jasmins, tube-
 roses,  musk-roses, or common roses, to the snuff in
 a close chest or jar, sifting them out after 24 hours,
 and repeating the infusion with fresh flowers as
 necessary.  Another way  is to lay paper pricked
 all over with a large pin between the flowers  and
 the snuff.— Tabac musquee.   Any scented snuff 1
 lb.; musk (ground to  a powder with white sugar
 and moistened with ammonia water) 20 grs.; mix.
 —Tabac ambre.  Tabac aux fleurs 1 lb.; amber-
   Sis powdered as last 24 gra.— Tabac en odeur de
   althe.   Tabac de nerole 1 lb.;   ambergris  20
 grs.:  civette  10  gre.; sugar q.  s.— Tabac d la
 pointe d'Espagne.  Snuff aux fleurs 1 lb.; musk
 20  grs.; civette 6 grs.; sugar q.  s.—Tabac  en
 odeur  de  Rome.  Snuff aux fleurs 1 lb.; amber-
 gris 20 grs.;  musk 6 grs.;  civette 5 grs.; sugar q.
 s.—Tabac de Pongibou.  Yellow snuff scented
 with orange  flowers 1 lb.; civette 12 grs.; sugar
 q. s.; essence of orange flowers 2 to 4 drs.; other
 essences may  be used, the snuff having been pre-
 viously scented with the same flowers.— Tabac fin
 facon  d'Espagne.   Red  snuff perfumed  with
 flowers.—Macouba snuff'is imitated by moistening
 the tobacco with a mixture of treacle and water,
 and allowing  it to ferment well.—Spanish snuff.
 Unsifted Havannah snuff ground and reduced  by
 adding ground Spanish nut-shells, sprinkling the
 mixture with  treacle  water, and  allowing it  to
sweat for some days before  packing.  Most of the
imitations of foreign snuff require to be well packed
 to give them  a good appearance.—Yellow snuff
 Yellow ochre the size of an egg, add chalk to lowei
 the color, grind with 4 drs. of oil of almonds till
 fine, then add water by degrees, and  2  spoonfuls
 of mucilage of tragacanth, till you have about  a
 quart ; mix this with purified snuff q. s. and dry it;
 then  grind some gum tragac. with some scented
 water, and moisten your snuff with it, and when
 dry, with a very fine sieve  sift out the color that
 does  not adhere to the snuff.—Red  Snuff.  As
 last, but use red ochre.—Eye Snuff.  Subsulphate
 of mercury £ dr.;  dry Scotch  snuff or Lundyfoot
 1 oz.; triturate well together.  A pinch of this
 occasionally, in inflammation of the»eyes, dimness
 of sight, headache, &c.
   SOAP.   Syn.   Savon, (Fr.)   Seife, (Ger.)
 Sapo, (Lat.)   Spanish or Castile soap, made with
 olive  oil and soda,  (Sapo.  Sapo ex oliva oleo et
 soda  confectus, P. L.,) and soft  soap made with
 olive  oil and  potash, (sapo mollis, sapo  ex oliva
 oleo,  et potassa confectus, P. L.,)  are  the only
 kinds  directed to be employed in medicine.  The
 former is intended whenever soap  is ordered, and
 is the only one employed internally ;  the latter  is
 used in ointments,  &c.
  Castile Soap,  (Spanish soap.  Marseilles do.
 Sapo.  Sapo  durus.   Sapo Hispanicus)  Olive
 oil soda soap is kept both in the white and marbled
 state ; the former is the purest, but the latter is the
 strongest.
  Almond Soap (Sapo Amygdalinus) is made from
 almond oil and caustic soda, and is chiefly used for
 the toilet.
  Curd Soap is made with tallow and soda.
  Mottled Soap with refuse kitchen-stuff, &c.
  Yellow Soap (Rosin soap) with tallow, rosin,
 and caustic soda.
  Soft Soap  (of commerce) with whale, seal, or
 cod oil, tallow, and potash.  The olive oil soft soap
 of the Pharmacopoeia is not met with in  trade.
  SOAP A LA ROSE.   Prep.   New  olive oil
 soap 30 lbs.;  new  tallow soap 20 lbs.;  reduce
 them to shavings by sliding the bars along the face
 of an  inverted plane, melt in an  untinned copper
 pan by the heat of steam or a water-bath, add 1£
 oz. of finely-ground vermilion, mix well, remove
 the heat, and when the mass has cooled a little,
 add essence of roses (otto ?)  3 oz.; do.  of cloves
 and cinnamon, of each 1 oz.;  bergamotte 2£ oz.;
 mix well, run  the  liquid mass through a tammy
 cloth, and put it into  the frames.   If the soaps
 employed are not   new,  1  or  2 quarts  of water
 must  be added  to  make them melt easily.  Very
 fine.
  SOAP AU BOUQUET.  Prep.  Best tallow
 soap 30 lbs.;  essence of bergamotte 4 oz.; oils of
 cloves, sassafras, and thyme, of each 1 oz.; pure
 neroli £  oz.; finely-powdered brown ochre 7 oz.;
 mix as last.   Very fine.
  SOAP, BITTER  ALMOND.   Prep.  Best
 white  tallow soap  £ cwt. ;  essence of bitter  al-
 monds 10 oz.; as soap a la rose.  Very fine.
  SOAP, BLACK.  Syn. Sapo Niger.  This is
properly a crude soft soap made of fresh oil, tallow,
and potash ; but the following mixture is usually
sold for it:—soft soap 7 lbs.; train oil  1 lb.; water
1 gallon ; boil to a proper consistence, adding ivory
black  or powdered charcoal to color.   Used bv
farriers. 
SOA
512
SOD
  SOAP.  CINNAMON.   Prep.  Best  tallow
soap 30 lbs.;  do. palm oil  soap 20 lbs.; essence of
cinnamon 7 oz.; do. of sassafras and bergamotte,
of each  1$ oz.; finely powdered yellow ochre, 1
lb.; mix as soap a la rose.  Very fine.
  SOAP,  CROTON.    Syn.   Sapo  Crotonis.
Prep.  Croton oil  3j ; liquor of potassa 3ss; tritu-
rate together.   Purgative.  Dose. 2 to 3 gre.
  SOAP,  FLOATING.  Prep. Good  oil soap £
cwt.; water £ gallon ; melt by the heat of a steam
or water bath in a pan furnished with an agitator,
which  must be assiduously worked  till the soap
has at  least doubled its volume, when it must be
put into  the frames, cooled,  and cut into pieces.
Lathers  well  and  is very pleasant.   Any scent
may be added.
  SOAP,  MACQUER'S ACID.   Syn. Sapo
Vitriolicus.  Prep. Castile soap 4 oz.;  soften by
heat and a little water ; add oil of vitriol q. s., con-
tinually triturating the mass  in  a mortar.  Deter-
gent.   Used where alkalis would be prejudicial.
  SOAP,  MUSK.  Prep. Best tallow soap  30
lbs.; palm oil soap 20 lbs.; powdered cloves, pale
roses, and gilliflowers, of each 4£ oz.; essences of
bergamotte and  musk,  of each 3£ oz.;  Spanish
brown  4 oz. :  mix as soap a la rose.   Very fine.
  SOAP,  ORANGE-FLOWER.   Prep.  Best
tallow  soap 30 lbs.; palm oil  soap 20  lbs.;  es-
sences  of Portugal and  ambergris, of each 7£ oz.;
yellowish green color (ochre  and indigo) 8$ oz.;
vermilion, 1$ oz.; mix as soap a. la rose. Very fine.
  SOAP,  PEARL   SOFT.  Syn.   Almond
Gream. Creme  d'Amandes, Prep.  Best hog's lard
20 lbs.; stir it assiduously in a water bath till it is
only half melted, and has a thick creamy appear-
ance, then add  5 lbs. of  caustic  potash lye at 36°
B. and continue stirring at the  same temperature
till soapy granulations begin to fall to the bottom  ;
then add 5 lbs.  more of  lye, and continue the stir-
ring for 4 hours more, or till the mass becomes too
stiff to be further stirred, when  it must be gently
beaten and allowed to  cool very slowly.  When
quite cold it must be beaten in small portions at a
time in a marble  mortar, till it unites  to form a
homogeneous mass, or "pearls" as it is called;  es-
sence of bitter almonds q. s. to perfume being add-
ed during the pounding.
  SOAP,  PALM OIL.  Syn.  Violet  Soap.
Made  of  palm  oil and  caustic  soda lye.  Has a
pleasant odor of violets and a  lively color.
  SOAP,  STARKE VS.,  Syn.  Savon Tere-
binthini".  Prep. (P. Cod.)   Warm subcarbonate
of potash, oil of turpentine, and Venice turpentine,
equal parts ; triturate together with a little water
till they combine ;  put  it into paper moulds, and
in a few days  slice it  and preserve it in a well
stopped bottle.
  SOAP,  TRANSPARENT.   Prep.—l.  Per-
fectly dry tallow  soap  in shavings, and rectified
spirit of wine, equal parts ; put them into a still,
apply a  very gentle heat to effect  the  solution,
allow the liquid to settle for 2  hours, then pour the
clear portion into frames.—2.  Dissolve dry almond
or soft  soap in  spirit of wine, strain  while warm,
distil off the spirit, and pour into moulds.  *** This
Boap does not acquire its full transparency till after
a few  weeks' exposure to a  dry atmosphere: the
pieces must then be trimmed up and stamped as
desired.  It may be scented  and colored by add-
 ing the  ingredients to it while soft  It is colored
 rose by  tincture of archil, and yellow by tincture
 of turmeric.  Does not lather well.
    SOAP, WINDSOR.  The best Windsor soap
 is made of a mixture of olive oil 1 part, and ox tal-
 low or suet 9 parts, saponified  by caustic soda;
 but most of the Windsor soap of the shops is mere-
 ly ordinary curd soap scented.  On the large scale
 the perfume is added while the soap is in the soft
 state, just before it  is put into frames, but on the
 small scale it may be prepared  in the same way
 as soap  a la rose.
    Prep.—1.  Best beef tallow and oil soap,  as
 above, 3 cwt.; essence of caraway 2 lbs.; Eng-
 lish oil of lavender,  and oil of rosemary, of each £
 lb.; mix as soap a la rose.—2. Hard curd soap 1
 cwt; oil of caraway 1£ lbs.; tincture of musk  12
 oz.; English oil of lavender 2  oz.; oil of origa-
 num £  oz.; as last.—3.  Curd soap melted and
 scented  with the oils of caraway and bergamotte
 %* Brown Windsor soap is the same colored.
    SOAPS,  TOILET.  I. (Soft.)   The basis of
 these  is  a soap made of hog's lard and potash,
 variously scented  and colored.—2. (Hard.)  The
 basis of these is a mixture of suet 9 parts, and olive
 oil 1 part, saponified by caustic soda, and variously
 scented  and colored.  They are also made of white
 tallow, olive, almond,  and palm  oil soaps, either
 alone  or combined  in various  proportions, and
 scented.
   SODA.  Syn. Oxide of Sodium.  Soude, (Fr.)
 Natron, (Ger.) The hydrate of soda, (Soda Hy-
 dras) as well  as  its solution, (Liquor Soda) are
 prepared from carbonate of soda in the same way
 as the corresponding preparations of potassa.  The
 majority of its salts may also be obtained in a sim-
 ilar manner to those of potassa.
   Prop., Tests, <J-c. Pure soda resembles potassa,
 but possesses rather  less powerful basic and alka-
 line properties.  Soda  and its salts are recogni-
 sed.—1. By their solubility in water, and not being
 precipitated by any reagent.—2.  By  yielding  a
 salt with sulphuric acid, which  by its taste and
 form is readily recognised  as sulphate of soda.—3.
 By its salts, when exposed by means of platinum
 wire to the blowpipe flame, imparting a rich yel-
 low color.—4. A solution of caustic  soda or car-
 bonate of soda turns turmeric brown and vegetable
 blues green.—5. Its muriate imparts a yellow tinge
 to  the flame of alcohol.
   SODA,  ACETATE.    Syn.  Sod*  Acetas.
 (P. L. & D.)   Terra Foliata Mineralis.  Prep.
 (P. D.)  Saturate dilute acetic acid with carbonate
 of soda,  filter,  and evaporate to the  density  of
 1-276 ; dry  the  crystals   deposited as the liquid
 cools, and keep them from the air.   Dose. 1 to 2
 drs. as a diuretic ;  chiefly  used to make acetic acid.
   SODA,  PHOSPHATE  OF.  Syn. Taste-
 less Purging Salts.   Tribasic Phosphate  of
 Soda and basic water.  Rhombic  Phosphate o?
 Soda.  Neutral do.  Sal Mirabile  Perlatum.
 Soda  Phosphorata.  Sod* Phosphas, (P. L. E.
 & D.)  Prep. (P. E.) Powdered  bone ashes lb. x;
 sulphuric  acid  2  pints   and  f ^iv;  mix,   add
 gradually water 6 pints, and digest fer 3 days,  re-
 placing  the water which  evaporates ; add 6 pints
 of boiling water and strain through linen, and wash
 the residue in the filter  with boiling water; mix
| the liquore, and after defecation decant and evap- 
SOD                    513                    SOI
 orate  to  C pints;  let the  impurities again settle
 and neutralize  the clear fluid, heated to boiling,
 with a solution  of  carbonate of soda in slight ex-
 cess;  crystals  will be  deposited as the solution
 cools, and by successively  evaporating, adding a
 little soda to the mother liquor till it is feebly alka-
 line,  and cooling, more  crystals  may be obtained.
 Keep  it in closed vessels.
   Remarks. "  Exposed to the air it slightly efflo-
 resces.  It is totally dissolved by water but not by
 alcohol."  (P.  L.)—« 45 grs. dissolved in f §ij of
 boiling water, and precipitated by a solution of 50
 grs. of carbonate  of lead  in f §j of pyroligneous
 acid, will remain precipitable by solution of acetate
 of lead."  (P. E.)   Dose. 6  to 12  drs. as a purga-
 tive in broth or soup.  It has scarcely any taste.
   SODA, POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF. Syn.
 Tartrate of  Potash  and  Soda.  Seignette's
 Salt. Rochelle do.  Tartarized Soda.  Sel de
 Seignette.   Sal Rupellensis.  Sal Polychres-
 tum   Seignetti.   Soda  Tartarizata  Natron
 Tartarizatum.  Potass*  et Sod* Tartras, (P.
 E. &, D.) Sod* Potassio-tartras, (P. L.) Prep.
 (P. L.)  Carbonate of soda §xij ; boiling water 2
 quarts;  dissolve,  and add, gradually,  powdered
 bitartrate of potash  §xvj ; strain, evaporate  to a
 pellicle, and set it aside  to crystallize; dry the
 crystals and again evaporate the liquor that it may
 yield  more crystals.   %* Readily soluble in ^cold
 water. Sulphuric acid added to the solution throws
 down  small  crystals of bitartrate of potash.  By
 heat it yields a mixture of the pure carbonates of
 potash and soda.   It is a mild and cooling laxative.
 Dose. £  to  1  oz. largely  diluted with water.   It
 forms the basis of the  popular aperient  called
 Seidlitz Powders.
   SODA,  SULPHATE  OF.   Syn.  Glauber's
 Salt.  Sal Glauberi.  Sal Catharticus Glau-
 beri.  Sal Mirabile Glauberi.  Natron Vitrio-
 latum.  Sod*  Sulphas, (P. L. E. &, D.)  Prep.
 (P. L.) Dissolve lb. ij of the salt left in  distilling
 muriatic acid, in Oij of boiling water, saturate with
 carbonate of lime, evaporate and crystallize.
   Remarks. Glauber salts effloresce when exposed
 to the air; are totally dissolved  by water; very
 slightly so .by alcohol ; the solution  is neutral  to
 test paper ; nitrate of silver throws down scarcely
 any thing from  a dilute solution ; nitrate of baryta
 more,  which  is not dissolved  by nitric acid.   It
 loses 55*5§ of its weight by a strong heat.  (P. L.)
 Dose.  £ to 1  oz. as a purge. The dried salt (Soda
 Sulphas Exsiccata) is twice as strong.  *** Sul-
 phate  of soda is also made in  the same way from
 the residuum of the distillation of nitric acid from
 nitrate of soda, and of sal  ammoniac from a mix-
 ture of sulphate of  ammonia and common salt—
 Lymington Glauber Salts is a mixture of the  sul-
 phate of soda and potash obtained from the mother
 liquor of sea-water.
   SODIUM.  Syn. Natrium, (Ger.)  The me-
 tallic   base of soda.   It is a soft  white metal,
scarcely solid at common temperatures,  fuses at
200°  F,  and volatilizes at a  red heat,  sp. gr.
0*972 ;  its other properties resemble those of po-
tassium ;  but are of a feebler  character.  It was
first  obtained by Sir H. Davy in 1807, by means
of a  powerful galvanic battery,  but it may  be
more conveniently and  cheaply procured in quan-
tity, by  the  process  described under Potassium.
                       65
 With oxygen it forms a protoxide (soda) and a per.
 oxide ; with chlorine, a chloride, (common salt;)
 and with bromine, iodine, fluorine, sulphur, &c, oro-
 mide, iodide, fluoride, sulphuret, cj-c, of sodium,
 —all of which may be obtained by similar  pro-
 cesses to the respective compounds of potassium.
   SODIUM,  CHLORIDE  OF.  Syn. Muriate
 of Soda.   Hydrochlorate of do.  Salt.  Com-
 mon Salt.  Sea do.   Culinary do.  Sod* Mu-
 rias, (P. E. & D.)   Sodii  Chloridum,  <P.  L.)
 This important and wholesome"compound  appears
 to have been known  in the earliest ages of  the
 world, of which we have any record.   It is men-
 tioned by Moses, (Gen. xix. 26,)  and by Homer in
 the Iliad, (lib. ix. 214.)  In ancient Rome it  was
 subjected to a duty, (vectigal salinarium)  Com-
 mon salt forms no small  portion  of the mineral
 wealth of England, and has become an important
 article of commerce.  The principal portion of the
 salt consumed in  this country is procured by the
 evaporation of the water of brine springs.
   Rock Salt (Fossil Salt, Sal Gemma, Sal Fos-
 silis) is found  in mineral beds in  Cheshire ;  it  has
 commonly a reddish color, and is mostly exported
 for purification.—Salt is  also  prepared  by  the
 evaporation of sea water, (hence  the term  sea
 salt) but this  process has been  almost abandoned
 in England, being more suited to hot dry climates,
 or very cold ones.
   Bay  Salt (Sal marinus, Sal niger) is  import-
 ed from France, Portugal, and  Spain, and is  ob-
 tained from sea water evaporated in shallow ponds
 by the sun.   It is large-grained and dark-colored.
   Cheshire Stoved  Salt, (Lump Salt,  Basket
 do.) is. obtained by evaporating  the brine of salt
 springs until reduced  to a mass of small flaky
 crystals barely covered with liquor, when it is  put
 into baskets and dried.
   London's Patent Solid Salt, is Cheshire rock
 salt melted in a reverberatory furnace  and ladled
 into moulds.
   British Bay Salt (Cheshire  large-grained
 Salt) is obtained  by evaporating  the  brine at a
 heat of 130° to 140° F.   Hard cubical crystals.
 Both the last are used to salt  provisions  for  hot
 climates, as they dissolve very slowly in the brine
 as it grows weaker.
   %* Common salt  is stimulant  and antiseptic,
 and is hence  employed as a condiment, and for
 preserving animal and vegetable  substances.   It is
 also occasionally used in medicine, in clysters and
 lotions.   For medical purposes the P. E. orders it
 to be dissolved in boiling water and the solution
 filtered and evaporated over the fire, skimmiiig off
 the crystals as they  form;  they must be  then
 quickly washed in cold water and dried.  " A so-
 lution of pure salt is not precipitated by a solution
 of carbonate of ammonia, followed by solution of
phosphate of soda:  a  solution of 9 grs. in distilled
water  is not entirely precipitated by a solution of
26 grs. of nitrate of silver." (P. E.)
   SOIL.   The  earth  in which  vegetables grow.
In cases where a barren soil is  examined with a
view to its  improvement,  it ought, if possible, to
be compared with an extremely  fertile soil in the
same neighborhood, and in a similar situation: the
difference given by their analyses would indicate
the methods of cultivation, and thus the plan of
improvement  would be founded upon accurnta 
SOL                   514                   SOL
scientific  principles.   (See Absorption, Agricul-
ture, Farming, Manures, &c.)
  SOLANINE.  Syn. Solaxina.  Prep.  Filter
the juice of nightshade berries, (Solanum nigrum)
quite ripe, add ammonia, filter, wash the sediment,
boil in alcohol, filter, and  distil off the spirit;  the
solanine is left  as a white powder.  Insoluble in
water, bitter, emetic, narcotic, and poisonous.  By-
careful crystallization in alcohol it forms needle-
like crystals, resembling disulphate of quinine.  It
may also  be obtained from the leaves and stem
of solanum  dulcamara, (bitter-sweet.)  With the
acids it forms salts, many of which are  crystal-
lizable.
  SOLDER, FINE.   Prep. Tin 2 parts, lead 1
part;  melt  together.  Melts at 350°.   Used to
tin copper, solder tin plates, &c.
  SOLDER, GLAZIER'S.  Prep. Lead 3 parts;
tin 1 part; melts at 500°.
  SOLDER FOR TIN, (Smith's.)   Prep. Lead
and tin, of  each, 4 oz.;  bismuth 8 oz.; melts in
boiling water.
  SOLDERING.  Tin-foil  applied between the
joints of fine brass work, first wetted with a etro'ng
solution of  sal ammoniac,  makes an  excellent
juncture,  care  being taken to avoid too  much
heat.
  SOLOMON'S  BALM OF  GILEAD.  Prep.
Compound  tincture  of cardamoms,  made  with
brandy  instead of proof  spirit,  1 pint;  tincture
of cantharides,  P. L. f ^j; mix.
  SOLUTION OF  ALUM,  (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Bate's Alum Water.  Aqua  Aluminosa.
Bateana.  Liquor Aluminis Compositus. (P. L.)
Prep. Alum and sulphate  of zinc, of each, §j;
boiling water 3  pints; dissolve, and filter if neces-
sary.   Detergent  and astringent.  Used  as  a lo-
tion  for  old ulcer,  chilblains,  excoriation,  &c.;
and  diluted  with water, as an eye-wash and in-
jection.
  SOLUTION OF AMMONIA. Syn. Liquor
Ammoni* ; Liq. Ammoni* fortior, (P. L.)  Aqua
Ammoni*;  do. do. fortior, (P.E.)  Aq. Ammon.
Caustic*, (P. D.)   The  London College gives no
formula for  their stronger solution, though in the
notes to the Ph.  it is  stated to have the  sp. gr.
0*882
   SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF AMMO-
NIA.  Syn. Liquor Ammoni* Acetatis, (P. L.)
Ammoni* Acetatis Aqua, (P. E. & D.)
   SOLUTION OF SESQUICARBONATE
OF  AMMONIA.  Syn. Carbonate of Ammo-
nia Water.  Liquor  Ammoni*.  Sesquicarbo-
natis.  (P. L.)   Ammoni* Carbonatis Aqua.  (P.
E. & D.)   Prep.—l.  (P. L.) Sesquicarbonate of
ammonia ^iv ;  distilled water 1 pint;  dissolve and
filter.  Stimulant and antacid.  Dose, f 3ss to f 3iss,
in water.—2. (Henry's.)  Made up to sp. gr. 1-046.
Two measures are equal in saturating power to
one of his  carbonate  of  potash water.   Used in
 analysis.
   SOLUTION  OF  AMMONIO-NITRATE
 OF  SILVER.  Syn. Hume's Test.   Solutio
 Argenti Ammoniati.  Prep. (P. E.)  Nitrate of
 silver (pure  crystallized) 44 grains; distilled water
 f §j ;  dissolve, and add  ammonia water, gradually,
 till the precipitate, at  first thrown down, is  very
 nearly, but  not entirely, redissolved.   Used  as  a
 te6t for arsenious acid
  SOLUTION OF  AMMONIO-SULPHATE
OF COPPER.  Syn. Blue eye-water.  Aqua
Sapphirina.   Solution of Ammoniated Copper.
Liquor Cupri Ammonio-sulphatib,  (P. L.)  So
lutio Cupri  Ammoniati, (P. E.)  Aqua do.  do,
(P. D.)  Prep. (P. L.) Ammonio-sulphate of cop-
per 3j; water 1 pint;  dissolve and filter.  Stimu-
lant  and detergent.  Applied to indolent  ulcere,
and when diluted, to remove specks on the cor-
nea ;  also used as a test
  SOLUTION OF ARSENITE OF POTAS
SA.   Syn.  Fowler's Solution.  Mineral  do
Liquor Potass*  Arsenitis, (P. L.)   Liq. Arse-
nicalis, (P. E. & D.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Arsenious
acid, coarsely powdered, and carbonate of potash,
of each, 80 gre.; distilled water 1 pint;  boil  till
dissolved, add compound tincture of lavender f3v,
and water q. s. to  make the whole exactly meas-
ure  a  pint.   Dose. 4 to 5 drops, gradually and
cautiously increased ; in agues and  several scaly
skin diseases.  (See Arsenic)
  SOLUTION OF ARSENIOUS  ACID. Syn.
Tasteless  Ague  Drop.  Prep.  Arsenious acid 1
gr.; water  f Jj;  dissolve.   Dose.  1  teaspoonful
twice a day in ague.   (See Arsenic)
  SOLUTION OF BICHLORIDE  OF  MER-
CURY.   Syn.  Solution  ct  Corrosive  Subli-
mate.  Liquor Hydrargyri ^ichloridi.  Prep.
(P.  L.) Corrosive  sublimate and sal ammoniac, of
each, 10 grs.; water 1 pint ;  dissolve.  Dose. £
to 3 drs. in  water.  It also forms a most useful lo-
tion in various skin diseases.
  SOLUTION,  BRANDISH'S ALKALINE.
Prep.  American pearlashes lb. vj ; quicklime and
woodashes, (from  the ash,) of each, lb. ij ;  boiling
water 6 gallons ;  slake the lime with a portion of
the water,  then add the remainder  of the ingre-
dients, agitate occasionally in a covered vessel  for
1 hour, and  after 24 hours'  repose  decant  the
clear.  Resembles liquor of potassa P. L., but  the
strength is variable ;  the  latter is almost always
sold for it.  It is largely  asked for  in trade.  A
drop or two of oil  of juniper renders it more agree-
able.
  SOLUTION  OF CARBONATE OF POT-
ASH.  Syn.  Subcarbonate of  Potash-water.
Oil of Tartar.   Oleum Tartari.   Aqua Kali.
Liquor Potass*  Carbonatis, (P.  L.)  Potass*
Carbonatis Aqua, (P. D.)  Prep.  Carbonate of
potash %xx j  water 1 gallon ;  dissolve  and filter.
Sp. gr. 1*473.  Dose.  10 drops to 1 dr.; as an  an-
tacid, &c.
  SOLUTION   OF  CHLORIDE   OF BARI-
UM.  Syn.  Liquor Barii Chloridi,  (P. L.)  So-
lutio Baryt* Muriatis, (P. E.)  Aqua do.  do.,
(P. D.)  Prep. Chloride of barium 3j; water f§j;
dissolve.   Dose.  10 drops  gradually  increased  ; in
scrofula, scirrhous affections, and  worms;  also
used as a test for sulphuric acid.
  SOLUTION  OF CHLORIDE  OF CALCI-
UM.  Syn.  Solution of Muriate of Lime.  Li-
quor Calcii Chloridi, (P. L.;  Solutio Calcis
Muriatis,  (P. E.)  Aqua do. do., (P. D.)   Prep.
(P. L.)  Fused chloride of  calcium  §iv; (crystals
gviij, P. E.;) water  f ^xij;  dissolve and filter.
Dose. 10  drops to 2  drs.; for scrofulous  tumors,
bronchocele, &c.; also used as a test for sulphuric
acid.
   SOLUTION OF  CHLORIDE  OF  LIME 
SOL                    515                    SOL
 Syn. Purifying  Liquid.  Solution  of Chlori-
 nated Lime.  Sol. of Hypochlorite of do.  Li-
 quor Calcis Chlorinat*.   Prep.  Chloride of
 lime, dry and good, 9 lbs.; hot water  6 gallons ;
 mix in a stoneware bottle, agitate frequently for 2
 or 3 days, then  decant the clear, and keep it in
 well-corked bottles.   If filtered  it should be done
 as  rapidly as possible through coarsely-powdered
 glass in a covered vessel.  This is the usual strength
 sold in trade.  It is used as a disinfectant, and, di-
 luted with water, as a  lotion, injection, or colly-
 rium, in  several diseases.   (See Lime, Chloride
 OF.)
   SOLUTION  OF  CHLORIDE  OF POT-
 ASH.  Syn. Bleaching  Liquid.  Aqua Alka-
 Lina Oxymuriatica.  Eau de Javelle. Prepared
 like solution of  chlorinated soda, but  employing
 carbonate of potash.   Use. As the last.
   SOLUTION  OF CHLORIDE  OF  SODA.
 Syn. Labarraque's Disinfecting  Liquid.  Li-
 queur de Labarraque.  Chloride of Soda. Oxy-
 MURIATE  OF  DO.  ClILORURET OF OxiDE OF SoDI-
 um.  Hypochloris  Sodicus Aqua Solutus.   (P.
 Cod.)  Sod* Hypochloris.  Liquor  Sod* Chlo-
 rinat*.  (P. L.)   Prep.  Carbonate of  soda lb.j;
 water 1  quart;  dissolve, and pass through the so-
 lution the chlorine evolved from a mixture of com-
 mon salt  $iv ;  binoxide of manganese 3>'j j  sul-
 phuric acid  §'v ; diluted with  water §iij  ; placed
 in a retort; heat being applied  to promote the ac-
 tion, and  the gas being purified by passing through
 f §v of water before it enters the alkaline solution.
 Used as an  antiseptic, disinfectant, and bleaching
 liquid.  Dose. 20 to 30  drops  in  any bland fluid,
 in  scarlet fever, sore throat, <fec.; it is also made
 into a lotion,  gargle, injection, and eye-water.
 Meat in a nearly putrid state, unfit for food, is im-
 mediately restored  by washing  or immersion in
 this liquid.
   SOLUTION OF  DIACETATE  OF LEAD.
 Syn. Extract  of  Lead.  Goulard's Extract.
 Ext. of  Saturn.   Extractum  Saturni.   Aqua
 Lythargyri  Acetati,  (P.  L.  1788.)   Liquor
 Plumbi Acetatis,  (P.  L. 1809.)   Liq.  Plumbi
 Subacetatis, (P. L. 1824 & P. D.)   Liq. Plumbi
 Diacetatis,  (P.  L.  1836.)  Solutio do.   do.  (P.
 E.)   Liq. Plumbi.   Prep.—1.  (P. L.) Acetate of
 lead ^xxvij ;  litharge, in  fine powder,  3.WJ ; water
 3 quarts ; boil for  £ an hour, frequently stirring,
 and then  add enough distilled water to make it
 measure 3 quarts ; filter  if required, and keep it in
 a closed vessel.—2.  (Wholesale.)  Finely-powdered
 litharge 32 lbs. ; distilled vinegar 32  gallons ;  boil
 in a bright copper pan for 2 hours, cool,  add water
 to make up  32  gallons,  and decant—3.  (Dilute
 Solution of Diacetate of Lead.  Water of  Saturn.
 Goulard's Lotion or  Water. Goulard.  Goulard's
 Vegeto-mineral Water.  Liquor Plumbi  Diace-
 tatis Dilutus, P. L. Liquor Plumbi  Subacetatis
 Compositus,  P.  D.)  Prep.  (P.  L.)  Solution  of
 diacetate  of  lead f 3iss ;  proof spirit f 3ij;  distilled
 water 1 pint; mix.   *#* These preparations were
 formerly  made with common vinegar, and hence
were colored, but those  of the Pharm.  are white.
 If wanted colored, a  little  spirit coloring  may be
 added. The  formula No. 2 will take a  quart. Use.
 The stronger liquor is only  used diluted.  The di-
luted solution (No. 3) is  employed as a cooling,
sedative, and astringent wash, in various  affection. |
  SOLUTION, DONOVAN'S.  Syn. Solutiok
of Hydriodate of Arsenic and Mercury.   Li-
quor  Hydriodatis  Arsenici  et  Hydrargyri.
Prep.—1. (Mr. Donovan.)  Triturate 6*08 grains
of metallic arsenic, 15-38 grains  of  mercury, and
50 grains of iodine with f 3j of alcohol, till dry ; mix
with f ^viij of distilled water, put them into a flask,
add 3ss of hydriodic acid, and boil a  few moments.
When cold, make it up f^viij.—2. (Wholesale)
Metallic arsenic 61 grs.; iodine 500 grs. ; mercu-
ry 154  grs. ; rectified spirit f 3x ;  distilled water 2
quarts ; hydriodic acid f 3v ; as last. It must meas-
ure  exactly f§lxxx, or weigh 5  lbs. 1$ oz. (av.)
when cold.—3. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of  arsenic 98
grs.; biniodide of mercury  90  grs.; moisten the
two iodides with a little hot water,  then pour on
sufficient to dissolve them, filter, and add enough
distilled water to  make the whole weigh, when
cold, exactly 10,000  grs., (equal to §xx 3vj 3ij, or
22£ oz. and  47£  grs. avoird.)   The last formula
has the advantage of yielding a more certain pro-
duct than the former, as when  this  liquor is pre-
pared according  to Mr. Donavan's directions, the
whole of the arsenic  is seldom dissolved, unless by
the most careful trituration, besides which the pro-
cess is very tedious.   Soubeiran  recommends the
employment of 1 part each of the iodides, and 98
parts of water, as furnishing a simpler formula, the
decimal  parts of  a  grain  not  being very  easily
weighed; besides, these proportions are  almost ex-
actly those  employed by Mr. Donovan.   Dose.
10 drops to f 3ss in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, and sev-
eral  other scalv skin  diseases.
  SOLUTION OF IODIDE OF POTASSIUM.
Syn. Liquor Potassii Iodidi Compositus.  (P. L.)
Prep. Iodide  of potassium 10 grs.;  iodine 5 gra.;
water 1 pint;  dissolve.  Dose. 2  to  6  drs. in the
usual cases where iodine is employed.
  SOLUTION OF  IODOHYDRARGYRATE
OF  IODIDE OF   POTASSIUM.   Syn.  Li-
quor Iodohydrargyratis Potassii Iodidi.   Prep.
(Puche.) Biniodide of mercury and iodide of po-
tassium, of each  1 gr.; distilled water 1000 grs.;
dissolve.
  SOLUTION  OF IRON, (Alkaline.)   Syn.
Liquor Ferri Alkalini,  (P. L. 1824.)   Prep.
Iron filings 3iiss;  nitric acid §ij; water f §yj; dis-
solve, decant,  and gradually add  solution of  car-
bonate of potash f ^vj.  Tonic ; emmenagogue.
Dose. £ to 1 dr.
  SOLUTION OF  LIME.  Syn. Lime-Water.
Liq. Calcis Hydratis.  Solutio  Calcis. Liquor
do.,  (P. L.)  Aqua do., (P. E. &, D.) Prep. Lime
lb. ss ; cold water  added gradually so  as to slake
the lime 6 quarts ; agitate well together in a cov-
ered vessel;  after repose decant the  clear,  and
keep it in stoppered bottles from the  air.   (See
Lime.)  Dose. £ to 3 oz. or  more, 2 or 3 times a
day in milk or broth.  It is antacid and  astringent,
and is taken in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, calculous af-
lections Q*LC«
  SOLUTION OF  MAGNESIA.    Syn. Flu-
id  Magnesia.   Carbonated Magnesia-Water.
Crated do.  Aqua vel Liquor Magnesi* Bi-
carbonatis.   Condensed Solution of  Magnesia.
Prep. (Dinneford's.)  Water  and Howard's heavy
carbonate of magnesia, in the proportion  of 17£ grs.
of the latter to every fluid oz. of the former, are in-
troduced into a cylindrical tinned copper  vessel, and 
SOL                    516                    SOU
carbonic acid, generated by the action of sulphu-
ric acid on whiting, is forced into it by steam pow-
er, for 5£ hours, during the whole of which  time
the cylinder is  kept moving.  Antacid and laxa-
tive.  *#* The  Paris Codex  orders recently pre-
cipitated  carbonate of magnesia to be used while
still moist.
  SOLUTION OF  ACETATE  OF  MOR-
PHIA. Syn. Solutio Morphi* Acetatis. Prep.
(Majendie.)  Acetate  of  morphia 16 grs.; acetic
acid 4 drops ; rectified spirit f3j ; water f§j ;  dis-
solve.  %*  Each  f3ss contains nearly 1 gr. of
acetate of morphia.  Dose. 5 to  10 drops.
  SOLUTION  OF   CITRATE  OF  MOR-
PHIA.  Syn. Liquor Morphi* Citratis. Prep.
(Majendie.)   Pure morphia 16 grs.; citric acid 8
grs.;  water  f^j; tincture of cochineal f3ij ;  dis-
solve.  Dose. 3 to 10 drops.
  SOLUTION  OF  MURIATE   OF  MOR-
PHIA. Syn. Solutio Morphi* Muriatis. Prep.
—1.  (P.  E.) Muriate of morphia 3iss ; rectified
spirit f fv ; water f ^xv ;  dissolve. Contains  1 gr.
in 106 minims.   Dose. 10 to 30 drops.—2. (Apo-
thecaries' Hall) Muriate of morphia 16  grs.;
rectified  spirit f 3j ; water f §j; dissolve.  Dose.
3 to 10 drops.
  SOLUTION OF  SULPHATE OF  MOR-
PHIA. Syn. Liquor  Morphi* Sulphatis. Prep.
(Majendie.)   Sulphate of morphia 16 grs.; water
f 5J  j rectified spirit f 3j ; dilute  sulphuric  acid 4
drops  ; dissolve.  Dose. 5 to 10 drops.
  SOLUTION  OF NITRATE OF BARYTA.
Syn.  Solutio Baryt* Nitratis.  Prep.  (P. E.)
Nitrate of baryta 40 grains; water 800  grs.;  dis-
solve.  Used as a test for sulphuric acid.
  SOLUTION OF NITRATE OF  SILVER.
Syn. Liquor Argenti Nitratis, (P. L.)  Solu-
tio do. do., (P. E.)   Prep. Nitrate of silver (pure)
3j, (40 grs. P. E.;) distilled water f £j,  (1600 grs.
P.  E. ;)  dissolve.  Used   as  a test for chlorine,
chlorides, and  muriatic acid.  It should be  kept
from the  light.
  SOLUTION OF OPIUM. (Sedative.)  Syn.
Liquor Opii Sedativus.  Prep. (Battley's)-l.
Hard extract of opium 3 oz.;  water 1£ pints ;  boil
till dissolved, cool, filter, and add rectified spirit of
wine 6 oz.;  water q. s. to make the whole exactly
measure 1 quart.—2. Extract of opium (P. L.) 4$
oz; water 1 quart, boil till reduced to 34 oz.;  cool,
filter,  and add  rectified spirit 6 oz., and water q. s.
to make exuctly 1 quart.—3.  Hard extract of opi-
um 22 oz.;  boiling water 13 pints ; dissolve,  cool,
add rectified spirit 3 pints, and filter.  Less exci-
ting than opium.  Dose.  10 to 25 drops. (Cooley,
Chem., v. 170.)
  SOLUTION OF PHOSPHATE OF SODA.
Syn.  Solutio  Sod* Phosphatis.  Prep.  (P. E.)
Crystallized phosphate of soda  175 grs.; water
f ^viij; dissolve, and keep it in  a corked bottle.
Used as a test.
  SOLUTION OF POTASSA.  Syn. Caustic
Potash Water.  Liquor Potass*, (P. L.) Aqua
Potass*, (P.  E.)  Do.  do. Caustic*.. (P.  D.)
Prep. (P. L.)   Lime  (recently burnt) §viij ;  boil-
ing distilled  water 1 gallon ; sprinkle a little of the
water on the lime in an earthen vessel, and j/vhen
it is slaked and fallen  to powder, add carbonate of
potash f xv, dissolved in the remainder of the  wa-
ter * bung down, and shake  frequently, until cold,
then allow the whole to settle, and decant the clear
supernatant portion into perfectly clean and stop-
pered green glass bottles.   If well  managed, it
need not be filtered;  but if it is,  clean calico
should  be employed, and the  operation conducted
out of contact with the air.   (See Filtratiok)—
2.  (Wholesale.)   Carbonate of potash (Kali) '.. lb.,
and quicklime £ lb., to each  gallon of water; as
last.  The formula? of the E.  and D. colleges vary
only as regards the strength.  Sp. gr. of the Liq.
Potassae, P. L., 1*063; of the P. E. 1*072;  P. D.
1080.   *** It  should emit few or no bubbles of
carbonic acid gas, on the addition  of dilute  nitric
acid.  Scarcely any thing is  precipitated  by car-
bonate of soda, chloride  of barium, or nitrate of
silver.  It turns turmeric brown, and is precipita-
ted by  chloride  of platina.  (P. L.)  Dose.  10 to
30 drops, in any bland diluent, as an antacid, diu-
retic, or lithontriptic.  (See Brandish's Solution.)
—3. (Henry's pure potash water)  Made  up to
the sp. gr. 1*1.   Two measures possess the  same
saturating power as one of his carbonate of potash
water.   Used in testing.
  SOLUTION OF POTASSA, (Effervescing.)
Syn. Liquor  Potass*  Bicarbonatis.  Liq. Po-
tass* Effervescens, (P-L.)  Aqua do. do. (P.E.)
Prep.  (P. L.)   Bicarbonate of potash 3j ;  distilled
water 1 pint; dissolve and force in carbonic  acid
gas in excess ; keep it in a well-stoppered vessel.
Resembles  soda  water.  An excellent  substitute
for this preparation is to pour a bottle of soda-wa-
ter  into a tumbler containing 20 gra. of powdered
bicarbonate  of potash,  and  to drink it  immedi-
ately.
  SOLUTION OF SODA.  Syn. Henry's  Purk
Soda Water.   A solution of caustic soda made up
to the sp. gr. 1-07 ; has the same saturating power
as his carbonate of soda water.
  SOLUTION OF CARBONATE OF  SODA.
Syn. Subcarbonate of Soda  Water. Liq. Sod*
Carbonatis. Aqua do. do., (P. D.)   Prep. Crys-
tallized  carbonate of soda %'} ;  water 1 pint; dis-
solve.  Sp. gr. 1 -024.  Dose.  $ oz. to 2 oz., as an
antacid ; in heartburn, dyspepsia, &c.
  SOLUTION  OF  SODA,  (Effervescing.)
Syn. Soda  Water. Liquor Sod*  Effervescens,
(P. L.)  Aqua do. do., (P. E.)  Liq.  Sod* Bi-
carbonatis.   Aqua  Sod* Carbonatis Acidula,
(P. D.)  Prep. Sesquicarbonate of soda 3j  ; dis-
tilled water 1 pint; dissolve and force carbonic acid
gas into the solution.   Used as an antacid and
grateful stimulant, often proving gently laxative.
The soda water of tho shops cannot be substituted
for this preparation, as, in opposition to its name,
it is usually made without soda.
  SOLUTION OF SULPHURET OF POTAS
SIUM.  Syn.  Solution of  Sulphuret of Pot-
ash.  Solutio  Potassii  Sulphureti.  Aqua Po-
tass* Sulphureti, (P. D.)  Prep. Washed sulphur
1 part; water of caustic potassa 11 parts; boil 10
minutes, filter, and keep the solution in well-closed
bottles.  Dose. 10 to 60  drops, diluted with water,
and externally made into a lotion, in itch, and sev-
eral other eruptive diseases.
  SORBIC ACID.   Malic acid obtained from
the berries  of the mountain ash.  (See Malic
Acid.)
  SOUP.   In Cookery ;  a  strong  decoction of
flesh, properly seasoned with  salt,  soices,  &c, for 
SPE                     517                   SPI
 the table.  The different tastes of people require
 more or less  of the  flavor of spices, salt, garlic,
 butter,  &c, which can never be ordered by general
 rules; and if the cook  has not a good taste,  and
 attention to that of her employers, not all the  in-
 gredients which  nature  and  art can  furnish will
 give exquisite flavor to her dishes.  The proper
 articles should be at hand, and she must propor-
 tion them  until the  true zest be obtained, and a
 variety of  flavor  be  given  to the different dishes
 served at the  same time.
   SOUP,  PORTABLE.   Syn.  Glaze.  Prep.
 1. Break the  bones of a leg or shin of beef, put it
 into a digester that will  fairly hold it,  cover with
 cold water, boil it gently for 8 or 10 hours, strain,
 let it cool, take off the  fat, pour into a shallow
 stewpan, add whole black pepper $ oz., boil away
 to about a quart, pour it into  a  smaller stewpan,
 and simmer gently till it is reduced to  the thick-
 ness of a sirup ; then either pour it into small up-
 right jelly-pots, with  covers, and when  cold, paste
 the joints over with paper ;  or pour it out upon flat
 dishes,  to  lie about $ inch deep; when  set, di-
 vide it  into pieces  and dry them.   A  shin of
 beef of  9  lbs. produced 9 oz. of portable soup,
 and 2$ lbs. of meat fit for potting.---2.  From gela-
 tin  melted with  a  little  water,  and  flavored.—
 Used  on  voyages, dissolved in  boiling water, to I
 make soup.
   SOY.   Genuine soy is a species of thick black j
 sauce, imported from China, prepared  with white
 haricots, wheat flour, salt, and water; but a spu- j
 rious kind  is made in England as  follows:—Seeds j
 of dolichos soja (peas or  kidney beans may be used
 for them)  1 gall.,  boil till soft, add bruised wheat
 1 gall., keep in a  warm  place  for 24 hours, then
 add common  salt 1 gall.; water 2 gall.; put the
 whole  into a stone jar,  bung it up  for two or
 three months, shaking it  very  frequently, then
 press out the  liquor; the residuum may be treat-
 ed  afresh  with water and salt, for soy of an infe-
 rior quality.
   SPECIES. Mixtures of dried plants, or parts
 of plants,  in  a divided state ; which, for conveni-
 ence, are kept mixed for use. The dry  ingredients
 of pills, conserves, electuaries, mixtures, &c,  that
 do not keep well when made up, or which are in
 little  demand, may be  economically and conve-
 niently  preserved in this  state.
  SPECIFIC  FOR  WORMS.    (Herren-
 schwand's)   Prep.   Gamboge  10 grs.;  salt of
 tartar 20 grs.; mix.
  SPECIFIC GRAVITY is  the  density of the
 matter of which any body is composed, compared !
 to the  density of another  body,  assumed as the
 standard, or 1-000.  This standard is pure distilled !
 water for liquids and solids,  and atmospheric  air
 for gaseous bodies and vapors.   In England the
 sp. gr. is usually taken at 62° F.; but in France j
 at 32°, or the temperature of melting ice.  In most
 cases, however, it  is sufficient merely to note the
temperature,  and to apply a correction, depending
on the known  density of Water or air,  at the dif-
ferent degrees of the thermometric scale   To de-
termine the specific gravity of a solid, we weigh
it, first  in  the air, and then in water.   In the  lat-
ter case it  loses, of its weight, a quantity precisely
equal to the weight of its own bulk of water ;  and
hence,  by  comparing this  weight  with  its total
weight, we find  its  specific  gravity.   The rule
therefore is,—Divide  the  total weight  by the loss
of weight in water;  the  quotient  is the specific
gravity.  If it be a liquid or a gas, we weigh it in
a sp. gr. bottle,  glass flask, or other vessel  of
known capacity ; and dividing that weight by the
weight of the same bulk of water, the quotient is,
as before,  the specific gravity.  (See  Hydrom-
eter.)
  SPECULUM,  METAL.   Prep.  1. Copper
64 parts ;  pure  tin  29 do.—2. Copper  2 parts ;
pure tin 1 do.  Melt  the  metals separately under
a  little black flux;  incorporate  thoroughly  by
stirring with  a  wooden   spatula,  then  run  the
metal  into  the moulds, so that the face of the  in-
tended mirror may  be downwards ; cool slowly.
Used to make the mirrors of  reflecting telescopes.
The addition of  a little metallic arsenic  renders it
whiter.
  SPICE, COW.   Syn.  Horsespice.   Species
Equinus.  Prep.—1. Turmeric, aniseed, liquorice,
and  diapente, equal  parts.—2.  Turmeric  and
cumin seed, of   each 5  lbs.;  ginger 2£ lbs.—3.
Cayenne 2 oz.;  bean flour and mustard hulls, of
each 45 lbs.; cumin  and caraway,  of  each  15
lbs.;  irmeric 12 lbs.; charcoal 2 Ibis.  Mix. Used
by farriers.
  SPICE, RAGOUT.  Prep.  Flour of mustard,
black  pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each £
lb.;  allspice, ginger,  and nutmegs, of each $ oz.;
cayenne pepper 2 oz.; dry salt 1 lb.; all in powder.
Mix.
  SPICE, SAUSAGE.  (French.)  Syn.
Epices Fines.  Prep. Black pepper 5 lbs.; cloves
and  nutmegs, of each  1£ lbs.; ginger  2£ lbs.;
aniseed and coriander seeds, of each £ lb.; powder,
and  mix.
  SPICE,   SAVORY.   (Kidder's.)    Prep.
Cloves, mace, nutmegs,  pepper, and salt, equal
parts.   Used by cooks.
  SPICE, SWEET.  (Kidder's.)   Prep. Cloves,
mace, nutmegs, cinnamon, and sugar,  equal parts ;
mix.   Used in pastry.
  SPIELMAN'S  CAMPHORATED  VINE-
GAR.  Prep.  Camphor 3j ; alcohol 20 drops ;
powder ; add sugar §ij ; triturate, and further add
distilled vinegar §x.   Dose. 2 to 4 drs.
  SPIRIT.   Under  this  term are included all  the
inflammable and intoxicating liquors  obtained by
distillation,  and  used  as beverages;  as brandy,
gin,  rum, &c, each of which has been noticed in
its alphabetical order.  Spirit may also be obtain-
ed by fermentation and distillation from  all vege-
table juices or solutions that contain sugar.—Al-
cohol P. L. has the sp. gr. 0-815—P. E. 0-796—P.
D.  0*810—P. Cod.   (Alcohol  absolue)  0*797—
Rectified Spirit of  Wine (Spiritus rectificatus)
P. L. & E. has the sp. gr. 0*838—P. D. 0-840—P.
U. S.  0-835.—Proof Spirit (Spiritus  tenuior)
P. L. & E. has the sp. gr. 0-920, and is  made  by
mixing 5 pints of rectified spirit with 3 pints of
water,—P.  Cod.   (Alcohol faible) 0*923.—The
Alcohol du Commerce P. Cod. has  the sp.  gr.
0*863.  Rectified spirit is  obtained by the rectifica
tion of raw corn spirit at a gentle heat, by which
the stronger and purer portion alone passes over
Pearlash or quicklime is commonly added to retain
the oil and  water.
  Spirits  (in Pharmacy) are prepared by ma- 
SPI                      518                     SPI
cerating  the  bruised seeds, flowers, herbs, &c. in
the spirit for 2  or 3 days before  distillation, and
then drawing off the spirit by a gentle heat.   If a
naked fire be employed,  a little water should be
put into the still along with the spirit,  to prevent
empyreuma.   They  are also very frequently pre-
pared extemporaneously, by adding a proper pro-
portion of essential  oil to pure spirit of  the pre-
scribed  strength.  These  spirits are mostly em-
ployed as aromatics  and stimulants, in doses of $
oz. to 1 oz.
   Spirits  (in  Perfumery)  are   prepared  from
aromatic  and odorous  substances, by a similar
process to that  just described ; but in this case a
very pure and scentless spirit must be employed,
and the distillation should  be preferably conducted
by steam heat or a water bath, and the distilled
spirit,  should  be kept for some  time in a  cellar
or other cold situation  previously to  being  used.
When simple solution of an  essential oil in  the
spirit is adopted, care should be taken that the oil
is pale and new  ; or, at  least, has not been  much
exposed to the air; as in  that case it would con-
tain resin, which would  make the perfumed  spirit,
or essence, liable to stain  delicate  articles of
clothing  to which it  may be  applied.   The per-
fumed spirits of some flowers cannot be well ob-
tained in either of the  above ways, or,  at  least,
are not  usually so  prepared by the foreign per-
fumers.  The spirits of orange flowers, jasmin,
tuberose, jonquille, roses, and some other flowers,
and  of cassia, vanilla,  &.c,  are commonly pre-
pared by digesting pure  rectified spirit of wine for
3  or 4 days  on half its weight of the respective
pommades or oils, obtained by infusion  or contact.
The operation is performed in a close vessel placed
in a  water bath,  and frequent agitation is em-
ployed for 3 or 4 days, when the perfumed  spirit
is  decanted into a second digester, containing a
like  quantity of oil  to  the first;  and  the   whole
process is repeated  a second and a  third  time,
after which the spirit is allowed to settle and is
then decanted, when it  forms the most fragrant
and  perfect  essence or  spirit of  the  perfumer.
This  is  called spirit  of the  first  infusion.   The
three portions of oil  are  then treated  again with
fresh  spirit in the same  manner,  and thus spirits
or essences of inferior quality are obtained, which
are distinguishetl by the perfumers as No. 2, 3, 4,
&c.; or spirits  of the first, second, third, &c.,
operation or infusion.  In some, though very few
cases, the spirits are afterwards distilled.  These
spirits  are also  frequently obtained by other pro-
cesses, which have been already noticed.
   *** For further information on spirits and their
preparation, see Alcohol, Alcoholometry, Dis-
tillation, Brandy,  Rum, Gin,  Eaux,  Esprits,
Essences, Waters.
   SPIRIT  OF AMMONIA.   Syn.   Alcohol
Ammoniatum. Spiritus Ammoni*, (P. L. E. & D.)
Prep.—1. (P. L.) Muriate of  ammonia §x  ; car-
bonate of potash 3XVJ j rectified  spirit and water,
of each 3 pints;  mix,  and let 3  pints distil.—2.
(P. D.) Dissolve ^iiiss of carbonate of ammonia in
rectified spirit, 3 wine  pints.—3. (P.  E.) Quick-
lime  5x'j j slake with water f ^viss; add finely-
powdered muriate of ammonia 5V'U> aQd distil in
a  glass  retort,  furnished with a  tube  reaching
nearly to the bottom of a bottle containing 2 pints
and f 3ij of rectified spirit, and  kept well  cooled.
A sand heat is  to be employed, and the distilla-
tion continued as long as any thing passes  ovei
Dose.  £ to  1 dr.;  in hysteria,  flatulent colic
nervous debilitv, &.C.
  SPIRIT  OF  AMMONIA,   (AROMATIC-
Syn.    Alcohol   Ammoniatum   Akomaticum.
Spirit of  Sal  Volatile.   Spiritus  Ammoni*
Aromaticus, (P. L. E. & D.)   Prep.—1.  (P. L.)
Muriate  of  ammonia %v;  carbonate  of  potash
^viij ; bruised cinnamon and cloves, of each 3ij ;
fresh lemon peel ^iv ; rectified spirit and water, of
each £ gallon ; mix and  distil 6 pints.—2.  (P. D.)
Spirit of ammonia 2 pints, (wine measure ;) oil of
lemon  3ij ;  bruised  nutmegs §ss ; do. cinnamon
3iij ; digest for three days, then  distil 1£ pints.—3
(P. E.)  Spirit  of ammonia  f 5viij; oil  of lemon
f3j*; oil of rosemary f3iss ; dissolve.  Dose. £ to
2 drs., diluted with  water,  in  lowness of spirits,
debility, hysteria, dyspepsia, &c.
  SPIRIT OF  AMMONIA,  (FETID.)   Syn.
Alcohol Ammoniatum Fostidum.   Spiritus Am-
moni*  Fcstidus,  (P.  L. E. & D.)—1. (P. L.)
As  spirit of  ammonia,  but  adding asafcetida §v,
before  distillation.—2.  Spirit of ammonia  1 lb.;
tincture  of  asafcetida 5ss;  mix.  Dose.  A tea-
spoonful in hysteria, &c.
  SPIRIT   OF  ANISEED.    Syn.  Spiritus
Anisi.   Prep.—1. (P, L.)  Bruised  aniseed %x;
proof  spirit  1 gallon ;• water 1  quart, (or q. s.;)
distil 1 gallon.—2. (Sp. Anisi Compositus, P. D.)
Anise  and angelica seeds,  of each  lb. ss ; proof
spirit 1 gallon ; water q. s.;  distil 1 gallon. When
colored with  saffron, or  sap green, the last i
sembles the  Irish Usquebaugh.  (Montgomery.)
Dose.  1 to 4 drs.
  SPIRIT  OF CARAWAY.    Syn.  Spiritub
Carui, (P. L. E.  & D.)   Prep.   (P. L.)  Bruised
caraway seeds ^xxij ; proof spirit 1 gallon ; water
1 quart, or q. s. ; distil 1 gallon.  Aromatic and
carminative.    Dose. 1  to  4 drs.   " Sweetened
with sugar,  this spirit is drunk in Germany  as
a  dram,   (Kumelliqueur;   Kiimelbrandtwein.")
(Pereira.1
  SPIRIT  OF  CASSIA.   Syn   Spiritus
Cassi*.    Prep.   (P.  E.)   Coarsely-powdered
cassia lb.j;  proof spirit 7 pints; water 1£ pints,
or q.  s.; draw off 7 pints.   Dose.  1 to 4  drs.
*** Almost  universally substituted  for  spirit of
cinnamon.
  SPIRIT OF  CINNAMON.    Syn.  Spiritus
Cinnamomi,*(P.  L. E. & D.)   Prep.—l. (P. L.)
Oil of  cinnamon 3ij;  proof  spirit 1 gallon ; water
1 pint, or q. s.;  distil 1 gallon.—2.   (P. E.)   As
spirit of cassia, P. E., using cinnamon bark.  Aro-
matic and stimulant   Dose. 1 to 4 drs.
  SPIRIT OF CYTHEREA.   Prep.  Spirits of
violets, tuberose, clove-gillyflower,  jasmin, (No.
2,) roses, (No. 2,) and portugal, of each 1 quart;
orange-flower water 2 quarts ; mix.  A delightful
perfume.
  SPIRIT,  DYER'S.   Prep.   Dyer's  aquafortis
7 lbs.; grain tin  1  lb.;  dissolve, with  agitation.
Used in dyeing with lac dye;  for cochineal use
less tin.—2.  Nitric acid  3  lbs.  ; sal ammoniac 1
lb.; tin q. s. to dissolve without effervescence.  Used
with cochineal.   (See Tin Mordants.)
  SPIRIT OF THE FLOWERS OF ITALY.
Syn.   EspRr  de  Fleurs.   Prep.   Spirits  oi 
SPI                      519                    SPI
roses, (No. 1,)  jasmin, (No. 2,) oranges,  (No.  3,)
and cassia, (No. 2,) of each 4 pints ; orange-flower
water 3 pints ; mix.  Very fragrant.
   SPIRIT  OF HARTSHORN.   Syn. Liquor
Volatilis Cornu Cervi.   Originally distilled from
hartshorn, but  is now universally made by dissolv-
ing sesquicarbonate of ammonia in water, so as to
form a solution of the sp. gr. 1*060.   The pun-
gency is  commonly  increased by passing  a little
ammoniacal gas into it,  or  by  adding a snuill
quantity of liquor of  ammonia.   Dilute liquor of
ammonia is also frequently sold for spirit of harts-
horn.
   SPIRIT   OF  HORSERADISH,  (COM-
POUND.)   Syn.  Spiritus  Armoraci* compos-
itus, (P. L. & D.)   Prep.  (P. L.)  Sliced horse-
radish and dried orange-peel, of each ^xx ; bruised
nutmegs 3v; proof spirit 1 gallon;  water 1 quart,
or q. s.;  distil 1 gallon.  Stimulant tnd diuretic.
Dose. 1 to 4 drs.
   SPIRIT  OF  JUNIPER,  (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Spiritus Juniperi  compositus,  (P. L. E. &
D.)  Prep.  1. (P. L.)  Bruised juniper berries §xv ;
do. caraway and fennel, of each §ij;  proof spirit
1 gallon; water 1 quart,  or q. s.; distil  1  gallon.
2. (Wholesale) Oil of juniper 3ij; oils of caraway
and sweet fennel, of each 3ss;  proof spirit 5 quarts;
if foul, filter  through magnesia.   Stimulant and
diuretic.  Dose. 2 to 4 drs.  ***  This spirit, when
mixed  with twice or  thrice its  weight of proof
spirit, and  sweetened  with  a little sugar, makes
no bad imitation of Holland gin.
   SPIRIT  OF  LAVENDER.   Syn. Spiritus
Lavandul*.  Prep.  (P. L.)  Fresh lavender lb. iiss;
rectified spirit  of wine 1 gallon;  water 1 quart, or
q. s.; distil 1 gallon.   2.  (Wholesale) English oil
of lavender 3 oz.; rectified spirit  1  gallon;  dis-
dolve.   Cordial and fragrant.
   SPIRIT  OF  MURIATIC  ETHER.  Syn.
Dulcified  Marine Acid.  Clutton's Febrifuge
Spirit.   Spiritus Salis Dulcis.  Sp. Muriatico-
*THEREUS.    jEtHER  MuRIATICUS AlCOHOLICUS.
Prep. 1.  (P.E. 1735.) Muriatic acid 1 part; rec-
tified spirit  3  parts;  digest some days, and distil
in a  sand-bath.   2.  Hydrochloric  ether   and
spirits of wine, equal parts;  mix.   Dose, f 3j to
f3iij, in dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever,

   SPIRIT OF NITRIC ETHER. Syn. Sweet
Spirits of Nitre.  Nitre Drops.  Nitre Dulcis.
Spiritus Nitri Dulcis, (P. L. 1745.)   Sp. ./Ethe-
ris Nitrosi, (P. L. 1788.)  Sp. ^Etheris Nitrici,
(P. L. 1809, and since, & P. E.)   Sp. ^Ethereus
Nitrosus, (P. D.)  Prep.  1.  (P.  L.)  Rectified
spirit  lb. iij ; nitric acid f iv;  mix gradually, and
distil ffxxxij.  *** An earthenware still and con-
densing worm should  be employed.   2. (P.  E.)
Pure  hyponitrous ether  (P. E.) 1 part; rectified
spirit 4 parts; mix.  3. (Dr.  Geisler.)  24 oz. of al-
cohol of 0*840 are  mixed with 4 oz. sulphuric acid,
left to stand for 8 days, then poured into a retort
containing 4£  oz. of  dried  nitre; 20  oz.  of the
liquid are  distilled over  at  a  gentle heat, which is
then rectified over magnesia.   Copper retorts  and
tinned cooling  apparatus may be employed  in this
process without any disadvantage.  The prepara-
tion is pretty  constant in  its amount of  ether.
Mixing of nitric ether with alcohol cannot afford
bji offii**«nal Spir. ather. nitr., as it always contains
aldehyd.*   Preservation  over magnesia is  not
practicable, as it constantly gives rise to decompo-
sition and formation of nitrite of  magnesia. (Arch.
der Pharm., xxviii. p. 60.)
   Remarks.  Pure  sweet spirits of nitre scarcely
reddens litmus paper,  and gives off no bubbles of
carbonic acid gas, on the addition of carbonate of
soda.  Sp. gr.  0-834.  (P. L.)   "When agitated
with  twice its volume  of concentrated solution o.
muriate of lime, 12§  of  ether  slowly  separates.
Density 0*847."  (P. E.)  Dose. J to 3 drs. as a feb-
rifuge and diaphoretic.   *%* The mass of  the
sweet spirits of nitre of the shops is of very inferior
quality,  and is scarcely, if ever, made directly
from spirit that  has  paid the duty.  One  and a
very large portion is obtained from Scotland,  an-
other from the manufacturers of fulminating mer-
cury, and a third, and in fact, the principal part,
from certain persons  in  the neighborhood of  the
metropolis, who  employ contraband spirit  for  its
preparation, as this article is not under the excise.
The truth of the above is well known, as the price
at which this spirit is  sold is alone sufficient testi-
mony.  The price of rectified spirit, purchased in
quantity at the distillery, is from 16s. 4ei. to 16s.
tid.  per gallon,  or about 2s.  Od.  per  lb.,  (av.,)
whereas the sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. *850, is
commonly and publicly sold, in quantity, at Is. Id.
to  Is. 9d. per lb.,  (av.,)  and I have seen it pur-
chased so low as Is. 6d.   This calls  for the inter-
ference of the  excise.  The spirit obtained from
the  manufacturers of fulminating mercury  fre-
quently contains prussic  acid, which may be  dis-
covered by testing.   (See Prussic Acid.)
   SPIRIT OF  NUTMEG.  Syn. Spiritus Nu-
cis Moschat*.   Sp. Myristic*, (P. L. E. & D.)
Prep. (P. L.) Bruised nutmegs §iiss;  proof spirit
1  gallon; water 1  pint,  or q. s.; distil  a gallon.
Cordial  and carminative.   Dose.  1  to 4 drs.;
mostly used to flavor mixtures and draughts.
   SPIRIT OF  PENNYROYAL.   Syn.  Spir-
itus  Pulegii.    Sp.  Menth*  Pulegii,  (P.  L.)
Prepared like spirit of peppermint, P. L.  Stimu-
lant ;  antispasmodic;  carminative.  Dose.   £ to
2  drs.
   SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT.  Syn. Spiritus
Menth* Piperit*, (P. L.  & D.)  Sp. Menth*,
(P. E.)  Prep.  1. (P.  L.)  Oil of peppermint 3iij ;
rectified spirit 1 gallon  ; water 1 pint, or q. s.;  dis-
solve, and distil  1 gallon.  2. Omit the water  and
distillation.  3. (P.  E.) Green peppermint lb.  iss;
proof spirit 7 pints ; macerate 2 days ;  add  water
q.  s., and  distil 7 pints.  Dose.  £ to 2 drs.  (See
Essence of Peppermint.)
   SPIRIT OF PIMENTO.   Syn.  Spirit  of
Allspice.   Spiritus   Piment*, (P. L.  E. &.  D.)
Bruised allspice §iiss ;  proof spirit 1 gallon ; water
1 pint, or q. s.;  distil a gallon.   Carminative and
stomachic.  Dose. 1 to 4 drs., in mixtures, &c.
   SPIRIT, PYROACETIC.   Syn. Pyroacetic
Ether.  Acetone.  Esprit Pyroacetique, (Fr.)
Brennzlicher Essiggeist ;  Mesit, (Ger.)   Spir-
itus  Pyroaceticus, (Lat.)  An ethereal liquid,
obtained by passing the vapor of hydrated acetic
acid through a porcelain tube heated to dull red-
ness * or by the dry distillation of the acetates,  the
bases of which retain carbonic acid at a red heat.
 * According to Prof. Liebig, this aldehyd is an essential
constituent of the officinal nitric ether. 
SPI                     520                   STA
The acetates of lime, manganese, zinc, lead, iron,
and copper, thus yield it  in quantities decreasing
in the order in which they stand.  It  is chiefly
formed during the second half of the process ; the
liquor which comes over then should be set apart,
and decanted  from empyreumatic oil, &c.  Pyro-
acetic spirit is also obtained in  considerable quan-
tity by distilling the  tarry deposite of crude pyro-
ligneous  acid.   The product of either process  is
purified by rectification, first from  quicklime, and
next from bone-black.   *„*  Pure  acetone  is a
clear colorless  liquid; miscible  with water, alco-
hol, aud  ether, in all proportions ; has a pungent
taste, resembling that of peppermint, and a pene-
trating and slightly  empyreumatic smell; sp. gr.
0-7922 ;  boils at 132° ; very inflammable, giving a
brilliant flame without smoke ; and dissolves resins
and essential oils.  Strong sulphuric acid converts
it into a species of ether.   It is used in lamps, and
to dissolve gums by the hatters.
  SPIRIT, PYROXILIC.   Syn. Pyroligneous
Spirit.   Wood  Naphtha.   Hydrate of  Oxide
of Methule.  Bihydrate of Methylene.  Com-
mercial pyroxilic spirit  is obtained by saturating
crude pyroligneous acid after  it is  separated from
the tar, with quicklime and distilling, when about
1}} of spirit is obtained, which is purified by 2 or 3
rectifications.   In this state  it contains acetone
and other inflammable fluids, from  which it may
be separated by distilling it along with an excess
of muriate of lime, in a water-bath, as long as any
volatile matter passes over, which are the impuri-
ties.  A quantity of water equal to the spirit  em-
ployed is then added, and the distillation continued.
The product is now pyroxilic spirit combined with
a little water, from which it may be  freed by dis-
tillation along with quicklime.  ***  Pure pyroxilic
spirit  is  a transparent, colorless liquid,  having a
penetrating ethereal  6mell; it  is very inflamma-
ble, yielding  a pale  blue  flame, by which it may
be readily distinguished from pyroacetic spirit.  It
is neutral to test-paper, mixes with water, alcohol,
and ether;  boils at 150° ; sp. gr. 0-798 at 68° F.
(Lieiig.—0-824, Ure.)  It is used to dissolve resins
and oils.
  SPIRIT, RAISIN.  From  raisins fermented
along with water, and the wash distilled by a quick
fire.  Used  to  give a brandy flavor to malt spirit
1 gallon added to 150 gallons of plain spirit, along
with some coloring, and a little catechu,  makes a
very decent " British brandy."
  SPIRIT  OF ROSEMARY.  Syn.   Spiritus
Rosf.marini.   (P. L.  E. & D.)  Prep. 1. (P. L.)
Oil of rosemary 3ij ;  rectified spirit 1 gall.; water
1 pint, or q. s.; distil a gallon.  2. As  last; but
omit the water and distillation.   3.  Rosemary tops
lb. iiss; proof spirit 1  gallon ; water q. s.; distil a
gallon.  Fragrant.
  SPIRIT  OF SPEARMINT.   Syn.  Spiritus
Menth* Viridis, (P. L. & D.)  Prep. (P. L.) As
spirit  of  peppermint,  P.  L.   Dose and  use the
same.
  SPIRIT OF  SOUP HERBS.   (Kitchiner's.)
Prep. Lemon thyme, winter savory,  sweet mar-
joram, and  sweet basil, of  each,  1  oz.;  grated
lemon-peel and  shalotes, of each,  $ oz.;  bruised
celery  seed  1 dr.; proof spirit  1 quart;  macerate
10  days  and e'rain.  Used  as a  flavoring  by
cooks.
f  SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC  ETHER  Syn.
 Sweet Spirit of Vitriol.  ./Ether  Sulphuricus
I cum  Alcohole.  Spiritus Vitrioli  Dulcis.   Sp.
 .Etheris Sulphurici, (P. E.)  Do. do. Vitriolici.
 Prep. (P. E.)  Sulphuric ether  1  pint ;  rectified
 spirit 1 quart; mix.  Sp. gr. 0-809.   It should be
 neutral to test paper, mix (clear) with water, and
 when shaken with twice  its volume of concentra-
 ted solution of muriate of lime, 28°- of ether should
 separate.   Dose. f3j to f3iij; as a stimulant and
 anodyne.
   SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC ETHER,  (COM-
 POUND.)   Syn.  Hoffman's Anodyne  Liquor.
 Mineral do.  do.   Spiritus ^Etheris Sulphurici
 Compositus,  (P. L.)  Do.  do.  Vitriolici Comp.
 Prep.  (P. L.)  Sulphuric ether f ^viij;  rectified
 spirit f fxvj;  ethereal oil f3iij; mix.  Dose, f3ss
 to f 3ij; as an anodyne.
   SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC ETHER,  (ARO-
 MATIC.)   Syn.  Aromatic  Spirit of  Ether.
 Sweet Elixir of Vitriol.   Spiritus ^Etheris
 Aromaticus.   Elixir  Vitrioli Dulce.   Prep.
 (P. L. 1824.)   Bruised cinnamon 3iij  ; cardamoms
 3iss; long pepper  and  ginger, of each, 3j; recti-
 fied spirit 10 oz.; sulphuric ether 5 oz.; mix, and
 digest 14  days.  The  last two  preparations are
 also  frequently  called " Sweet Elixir of Vit-
 riol."
   SPONGE,  BURNT.   Syn.  Spongia  Usta.
 Pulvis Spongi*  Ust*.   Pref   (P.  D.)  Beat
 pieces of  sponge to remove the  *«ind and stones,
 then burn it in a closed iron vessel till it becomes
 black and friable;  allow it  to cool, excluded from
 the  air, and reduce it to powder.  Used in bron-
 chocele  and  scrofulous complaints.   Dose. 1 to 3
 drs. made  into an  electuary or lozenges.   %* If
 good it evolves violet fumes of iodine when heated
 in a  flask along with sulphuric acid.  The burnt
 sponge of the  shops is made from  the  cuttings
 and unsaleable pieces.
   SPONGE,  PREPARED.  Syn.  Spongia Ce-
 rata.  Sponge dipped  into melted wax and com-
 pressed between 2 iron plates till cold.  Used by
 surgeons to make sponge tents.
   SPONGE, WHITE.  Syn. Bleached Sponge.
 Spongia dealbata.  Prep.  Soak  the  sponge in
 very dilute muriatic acid  to remove  calcareous
 matter, then in cold water, changing  it frequently,
 and  squeezing  the sponge  out each time; next
 soak it in water, holding a little sulphuric or sul-
 phurous arid, or  chlorine  in solution, changing
 the  acid frequently till  the sponge is sufficiently
 bleached; last, repeatedly wash and soak in clean
 water, and scent with  rose or orange-flower wa-
 ter.
   STARCH.   Syn. Amidon ;  Fecule,  (Fr.)
 Staerke, (Ger.)   Amylum, (Lat.)   A/tvUr,  (Gr.,
 from a, privative,  and /ivXt], a mill.)   One of the
 commonest frauds practised  upon  the profession
 and the public is the mixing cheap kinds of starch
 with  arrow-root, and vending manufactured  for
 genuine tapioca, sago, and  other articles  of diet,
 used  for  invalids and children.  M. Gobley has
 proposed a method for the ready detection of these
 frauds, which  is very simple, consisting merely in
 placing various kinds of starch, in a mois* state
 in watch-glasses, and covering them ove  witn a
 bell-glass, under which there is also placed iodine,
 and leaving them for 24 hours.  The vapor of the 
ST1                    521                    STR
  Iodine acts upon, and colors  all kinds of starch,
  but  the  color it imparts varies with the  different
  kinds.  Thus the vapor of iodine colors—
     Wheat-starch, violet.
     Potato-starch, dove gray.
     Genuine arrow-root, bright chocolate color.
     Genuine tapioca, unbroken, uniformly yellow-
   sk.
     Ditto, powdered, chamois color.
     White  sago, entire, some granules violet  gray,
  others yellowish.
     Ditto, powdered, chamois color.
     Dextrine, no coloring.
     This method,  at all events, renders the  detec-
  tion of potato-starch  very easy, and also  whether
  common or potato starch  is substituted for tapioca
  powder, and probably some modification of it will
  render it still further  applicable. (Jour, de Pharm.,
  April, 1844.)
     STEARIC  ACID.  Syn. Stearine.   Hypo-
t) margarulic Acid.  Prep. I.  (Commercial.) Tal-
  low is boiled in large wooden vessels, by  means
  of high-pressure steam, with about 16§ of hydrate
  of lime (eq. to 11 g of pure  lime)  for 3 or 4 hours
  till the combination  is complete, when the whole
  is allowed to cool.   The stearate of lime is then
  transferred to  another wooden vessel, and decom-
  posed, by 4 parts of oil of vitriol diluted with wa-
 ter, for every 3 parts of slaked lime employed, the
  action being promoted by steam heat.  After re-
  pose  the  liberated fat is  decanted from  the sedi-
  ment of sulphate of  lime and water, and is well
  washed with water, and by blowing steam into it;
  it is next  reduced to shavings  by means of a num-
  ber of knives worked by machinery, and in  this
  divided state is placed in canvass bags and sub-
  mitted to the action of a powerful hydraulic  press,
  which expels a  large portion of  the oleine ;  the
  pressed cakes  are  then a second  time exposed to
  the action of steam and water, again cooled and
  coarsely powdered, and  again submitted to  the
  joint action of steam and pressure ; they are last-
  ly melted and cast into blocks for sale.—2. (Pure.)
  Repeatedly  crystallize commercial  stearic  acid
  from  hot alcohol, till its melting point  becomes
  constant at 167°.  Brilliant pearly scales, soluble
  in ether and hot alcohol, and  forming salts  called
  stearates with the bases.   The commercial acid
  is used to make candles.
     STEAROPTENE. The name given by Her-
  berger to the concrete portion or camphor of vola-
  tile oils.   Bizio calls it stereusin.
     STILL.   (From stillare,  to drop.)   A  vessel
  or apparatus employed for the distillation of liquids
  on the large scale.   The forms of stills, and  the
  materials  of which they are made, vary according
  to the purposes for which they are intended.   The
  following  figure represents the most common and
  useful apparatus of this kind.  After the fluid is
  put into the still, the  head must be placed on and
  connected with  the  refrigerator, and  the  joints
  must  be  all  securely luted.   For  ordinary liquids,
  a stiff paste made with linseed meal  and water, to
  which a little chalk  may be added, will answer
  well for this purpose  The worm tub should be
  supplied with cold water in sufficient quantity to
  preserve  its  contents  at  a proper  temperature;
  and the application of heat should be so regulated
  that the liquid  may  drop from  the end  of  the
                        66
tor quite cold and  unaccompanied with
a, Body of still, which may be either placed in a steam
   jacket, or in a brick furnace.
6, Still head or capital.
c, Worm tub.
d, Pewter worm, or refrigerator.
e, Cold water pipe.
/, Waste pipe.
g, Receiver.

  STRAINED GALBANUM.  This  is either
prepared by boiling the gum resin in water until
dissolved, then straining it through a  canvass or
hair sieve  and evaporating; or by melting it in
the dry state by heat  cautiously and quickly ap-
plied, and straining it  through a piece of coarse
canvass stretched  across a frame.  (See Filtra-
tion.)   The Strained Galbanum of the shops is
mostly reduced with inferior drugs, and very fre-
quently a factitious article is substituted.   The
following  forms are those which are frequently
employed in the wholesale trade :—
  1. (Reduced Strained Galbanum.)—a.  True
galbanum 9 lbs.; strain as above, and when near-
ly finished, add black resin (clean) 3 lbs.; Venice
turpentine  2 lbs.;  mix well.  Product. «12 lbs.—
6. True  strained galbanum and black rosin, of
each, 6 lbs.; strained asafcetida 1 £ oz.; mix, and
add Venice turpentine 3 lbs.   Product.  14£ lbs.
  2. (Factitious  Strained Galbanum.)  Black
rosin 4  lbs.;  Venice turpentine 3 lbs. ; strained
asafcetida 2 oz.;  oils of juniper  and fennel, of each,
J oz.;  water  \  pint;  mix s. a.  The small and
waste of the  galbanum chests are  also usually
boiled up, strained, evaporated, and added to  the
above to improve them.
  STRAPPING.  Spread adhesive-plaster.  Used      \
to dress wounds, &c.
  STRAW PLAIT is bleached by exposing it to
the fumes of burning sulphur  in  a close chest or
box, or by immersing it in a weak solution of chlo-
ride  of  lime,  and  afterwards  washing it well in
water.   Water strongly  acidulated  with  oil of
vitriol or oxalic acid, is also used for the same pur-
pose.  Straw may be dyed with any of the simple
liquid dyes.
  STRONTIA.   Syn. Strontian.  Strontitfs
Oxide of Strontium.  The oxide of a metal called
strontium.   It greatly resembles baryta.   Hynr-tte
of strontia is freely soluble  in  boiling water, a .id
the  saturated solution deposites crystals on cooling
The solution exhibits an alkaline reaction, and like
baryta is precipitated white by sulphuric acid, and
the  alkaline sulphates  and carbonates.   It is dis-
tinguished  from baryta by  its inferior solubility 
SUC                     522                    SUG
and by its soluble salts giving a red tinge to flame,
while  the salts of  baryta impart a yellow tinge.
The salts of strontia may all be prepared by dis-
solving the native carbonate in the respective acids.
The nitrate  is tho only one met with in commerce,
and  is employed to form colored fireworks.   The
metal  strontium is obtained  in a similar way to
barium.
  STRYCHNINE.  Syn. Strychmn-a. Strych-
nia,  (P. L. & E.) Vauquelina.  Tetanine. Prep.
Precipitated  from a solution of the sulphate, by
ammonia.   The sulphate  is formed by digesting a
watery solution of alcoholic extract of nux vomica
with magnesia, pouring off the liquid, and boiling
the residue,  pressed nearly dry in  cloth, in rectifi-
ed spirit.  The spirit having been  distilled eff, the
residue is dissolved in  diluted sulphuric arid, and
Bet aside to  crystallize.   The nitrate and  other
salts are obtained by dissolving strychnia in  the
diluted  acids,  and  crystallizing.   *** A white
powder, soluble  in  7000  parts of cold water, to
which  it imparts intense bitterness ; soluble in hot
alcohol of 0*850, and deposited in crystals as the
solution cools.  It is alkaline to test paper ;  " Ni-
tric acid  strongly reddens  it; a solution of 10 grs.
in f3iv of water and f3j  of pyroligneous acid,
when decomposed by f §j  of concentrated solution
of carbonate of soda, yields on  brisk agitation  a
coherent mass, weighing  when  dry  10 grs., and
entirely soluble in solution of oxalic arid."  (P. E.)
" It melts by heat,  and if more strongly urged,  is
totally  dissipated." (P.  L.) It  is a most dreadful
poison,  speedily  producing  tetanus  and death.
Dose of strychnia  and its salts, one-twentieth to
one-sixteenth  of a  gr., gradually and cautiously
increased  till  it affects the muscular system; in
paralysis, tic douloureux,  &c.   It is also used  ex-
ternally, i gr. at a time.
  STYRAX,  STRAINED, (FACTITIOUS.)
Prep.—4- Balsam of Peru 1 lb.; balsam of tolu  4
lbs.; mix.—2  Gum benzoin 8 lbs.;  liquid styrax
6 lbs. ;  balsam of tolu 3 lbs.; do. of Peru 2 lbs. ;
N. S. W. yellow gum 7 lbs.; rectified spirit 7 gal-
lons ; digest with frequent agitation for a fortnight,
strain and distil  off the spirit (about 5£ galls.) till
the residue  has a  proper consistence.   Prod. 24
lbs.—3. Gum benzoin 6  lbs.; gum styrax 3 lbs. ;
balsam of tolu 2£ lbs.; Socotrine aloes £ lb.; rec-
tified spirit 6 galls. ; digest and distil as  last, and
add to  the product balsam of Peru 6 oz.;  olive oil
4 oz.—4. Liquid storax 1 oz.; balsam of tolu 2 lbs.;
rectified spirit q. s.
  STYRACINE.  A name given by Simon to  a
crystallizable substance extracted from  storax.
  SUBERIN.  Cork deprived  of all its soluble
matter by the successive action  of water and al-
cohol.   By  long boiling  in  nitric acid, and then
evaporating the fluid to one half, it yields crystals
of suberic acid, which may be purified by re-solu-
tion and crystallization.  Margaric acid treated in
the same way also  yields  suberic acid.  With the
bases it  forms  salts  called suberates, many of
which  are soluble.
  SUCCINIC ACID.  Syn. Volatile Salt of
Amber.  Acid  of  do.  Sal Succini.   Acidum
Succinum, (P. D.)  Prep. From the impure acid
obtained during the distillation of oil of amber, by
wrapping it  in bibulous paper and submitting it to
strong  pressure, to remove the oil, and then resub-
liming it.  It may also be prepared from the mo-
ther liquor of suberic acid, by evaporation and di-
gesting the resulting crystals in ether, to remove
suberic acid.  Succinic acid forms  salts with the
bases termed succinates.—Succinate of ammonia
is used as a test for iron.—Succinamide is formed
by the action of ammonia water on succinic ether;
—bisuccinamide,  by heating anhydrous succinic
acid in dry gaseous  ammonia.—Succinone is an
oily liquid obtained by distilling succinic acid with
lime.   Dose. 5 to 20 grs.  as an  antispasmodic and
diuretic.  Seldom used.
  SUET.   Syn. Sevum ; Sebum, (Lat)  This is
prepared from the  fat of the loins of the sheep or
bullock, by melting  it by a gentle  heat.—Mutton
suet (Sevum, P. L.,  Fat, P. E., Adeps ovillus,
P. D., Sevum ovillum, Do. prteparatum) is used in
medicine as the  basis of several ointments, cerates,

  SUET,  MELILOT.   Syn.  Sevum Meliloti.
Prep.  Suet 8 lbs.; melilot leaves 2  lbs.; boil till q
crisp and strain.  Used by farriers, and to make
melilot plaster.
  SUGAR.  Syn.  Sucre, (Fr.)  Zucker,  (Ger)
Saccharum,  (Lat.)   The properties and uses of
sugar are  too well  known to require description.
It  constitutes the sweet portion of animal  and
vegetable substances.   The sugar  consumed ia
England is prepared from the  juice of  the sugar
cane.  A similar species  of sugar, but of inferior
quality, is obtained from the juice of the beet-root
and sugar  maple.  There are also  other kinds of
sugar procured  from grapes  and other ripe fruit,
(grape sugar) from milk, (sugar of  milk) from
manna, (mannite) from mushrooms, liquorice root
&c.; and from glue, fecula, sawdust,  &c, by the
action  of dilute sulphuric acid.  Cane, beet,  and
maple  sugars  possess the  greatest  sweetening
power,  which is more than  double that of the
other varieties.
  Pur. Sugar is largely adulterated.  Pure cane
and beet sugars  may be known  by their solutions
bending the luminous rays in circumpolarization
to  the  right, whereas grape and fecula sugars
bend it to the left.   Pure cane sugar boiled  in a
solution of caustic potassa remains colorless, but if
starch  sugar is  present the  liquid turns brown.
(Chevallier.)—A filtered solution of 33 grs. of cane
or beet sugar in 1 oz. of water, mixed with 3 grs.
of pure  caustic potassa, and then agitated with 1£
grs. of sulphate of copper in a close vessel, remains
clear, even after the  lapse of several days; but if
starch sugar is present, a  red precipitate is formed
after  some time,  and if present in considerable
quantity, the copper will be wholly converted into
oxide within 24  hours ; the solution first turns blue
or  green, and then  entirely loses  its color.  (E.
Krantz.)   Of  late  years moist sugar  has been
largely  adulterated  with  the sweet waste iiquor
(solution of glycyrrhine) of the  stearine manufac-
tories ; but this  fraud  may be detected by the in-
ferior sweetness, and by the moist  and dirty ap-
pearance of such sugar.
  SUGAR,  ALUM.  Syn.  Alumen Sacchari-
num.   Prep. Powdered  alum  made  into small
sugar-loaves, with white of egg and rose-water.
Used to make an astringent wash.
  SUGAR,  BARLEY.  Prep.—l.  Saffron 12
grs.; hot water q. s.; infuse till colored, strain, add 
SUG                   523                    SUL
white sugar 1 lb.; boil to a full candy height, or
that state called  " crack," or " crackled sugar,"
when 2 or 3 drops of clear lemon juice or vinegar
must be added, the pan removed from the fire, and
set  for a minute in cold water to prevent its burn-
ing ; after which  the sugar must be poured oufon
an  oiled marble slab, and either cut into pieces, or
rolled into cylinders and  twisted as usual.  1 drop
of oil of citron  will flavor a considerable quantity.
Essence of bergamotte or lemons may also be used.
*** White barley sugar is made with a decoction
of  barley instead  of water, or starch is added to
whiten it.
  SUGAR, BOILING OR CANDYING. Proc.
Take any quantity of  well clarified and  perfectly
transparent sirup, and  boil it until it has arrived at
a weak candy  height.   This is known by  dipping
the  skimmer into the  sugar,  and touching it be-
tween the forefinger and thumb;  and immediately
on  opening  them a small thread will  be observed
drawn between, which will crystallize and break,
and remain in  a drop on the thumb, which will be
a sign of its gaining some degree of smoothness.
Boil it again, and it will  draw into a larger string;
it is now called bloom sugar,  and must be boiled
longer than in the former process.  To try its for-
wardness, dip again the  skimmer, shaking off the
sugar into the pan ; then blow with the  mouth
strongly through  the holes, and if certain bladders
go  through, it has acquired the second degree : to
prove if the  liquid has arrived at the state called
feathered sugar, redip the skimmer,  and shake it
over the pan, then give it a sudden  flirt behind,
and the sugar  will fly off like feathers.  It now
arrives at  the  state called crackled sugar;  to
obtain which the mass must be boiled longer than
in  the preceding degree ; then dip a  stick in it,
and put it  directly into a pan of cold water, draw
off the sugar which hangs to the stick in the wa-
ter, and if it turns hard and snaps, it  has acquired
the proper degree of crystallization ;  if otherwise,
boil it again until it acquires that brittleness.  The
last stage of refining this article is called  carmel
sugar ; to obtain which it must be boiled longer
than in any of  the preceding methods  ; prove it by
dipping a stick  first  into the sugar, and then into
cold water, and the moment it touches the latter,
it will, if  matured, snap like glass.  It has now
arrived at a full candy  height.  Be  careful that
the fire is not too fierce, as by  flaming up  against
the sides of the pan, it will burn and discolor the
sugar.  The boiling is best conducted by steam
heat.  *** Any flavor or  color may be given to
the candy by adding the essences or coloring mat-
ter  to the sirup before boiling.   (See Cake Stains,
p. 153.)
  SUGAR CANDY.  Syn.  Saccharum Can-
dum.  Prep. Sugar crystallized, by the  saturated
sirup being left in a very warm place, from 90 to
100° Fahr., and the shooting promoted by  placing
sticks, or a net  of tjireads, at small distances from
each other  in the liquor  ; it is also deposited from
compound  sirup3, and does not  seem  to retain
any of the foreign  substances with  which they
were loaded : it may, however, be colored red by
means of cochineal.  The differences of  color and j
 uality  arise from the purity of the sugar employed
to make the sirup.  Chiefly used  as a sweetmeat,!
and being longer in dissolving than sugar, in coughs
 to keep the throat moist; it is  also blown into the
 eye, as a very mild escharotic  in films or dimness
 of that organ.
   SUGAR, GRAPE.  Syn. Glucose.  Diabetic
 Sugar.  Starch  Sugar.   Sugar of  Fruits.—
 Prep. 1. (From grape juice.)  See page 345.—2
 From dried  raisins.)  Pound them, wash  with
 cold alcohol, press, dissolve the cake in water, and
 proceed  as last.—3. From diabetic urine, by evap-
 oration, washing the mass in cold alcohol, redissolv-
 ing in water, and crystallizing.—4. (From starch.)
 Starch 100 parts; water 400 parts ; sulphuric acid 1
 to 10 parts ; boil for 35 or 40 hours, adding water to
 make up for evaporation ; then saturate the acid with
 lime  or chalk, and evaporate.   Under pressure, the
 conversion is produced much quicker.  Prod. 105
 parts.   (See  Fermentation.)—5.  (From woody
 fibre.) Shreds of linen or paper  12 parts; strong
 sulphuric arid 17 do., (Braconnot;—5 of acid and
 1 of  water, Vogel;) mix in the cold ; in 24 hours
 dilute with  water, and boil for 10 hours ;  then neu-
 tralize with chalk, filter, evaporate to a  sirup, and
 set the vessel aside to crystallize.  Prod.  114$ of
 the weight  of the rags.  Sawdust, glue,  &c., also
 yield grape sugar by like treatment.
   SUGAR, LEMON.  Syn.  Portable Lemon-
 ade.   Saccharum Limonatum.  Prep.  Sugar  4
 lbs.;  tartaric  acid 3 oz.; essence of lemons \ oz.
 Used to make lemonade, &c.
   SUGAR OF MILK.   Syn. Saccharum Lac-
 tis.   Lactine.  Prep. Evaporate clarified whey
 till it crystallizes, and purify the crystals by diges-
 tion with animal charcoal and repeated crystalliza-
 tion.
   SULPHATE.  Syn. Sulphas, (Lat.)  A saline
 compound of sulphuric  acid, with a base.  Tho
 soluble sulphates may all be recognised by yield-
 ing a heavy,  white precipitate, with chloride of
 barium or nitrate of  baryta, which is insoluble in
 acids  and alkalis.  They also  give a similar pre-
 cipitate with the corresponding salts of lime.  An
 insoluble sulphate may be tested by mixing it with
 3 times its weight of  carbonate of potash or soda,
 (both in fine  powder,) exposing the mixture in a
 platinum crucible to a red heat for half an hour,
 dissolving the mass in water, filtering, neutralizing
 the  free  alkali with acetic  or  muriatic  acid, and
 then applying the reagents as before, when an in-
 soluble  white precipitate will be  formed.   The
 sulphates of baryta, tin, antimony, bismuth, lead,
 and  mercury, are insoluble; those of  strontia,
 lime,  zirconia, yttria,  and silver,  very  sparingly
 soluble ; the other sulphates are  soluble in water.
 Mixed with  charcoal, and heated to redness,  a
 metallic sulphuret remains.
   SULPHOCYANIC ACID.  See Hydrosul-
 phocyanic Acid.
   SULPHOVINIC  ACID.   Syn. CEnothionio
 Acid.   Ethereo-Sulphuric do.   Bisulphate of
 Oxide of Ethule.  Prep.  Mix equal weights of
 sulphuric acid and alcohol, and,  in half an hour,
 add as much carbonate of lead as acid employed ;
 filter, when a solution of sulphovinic acid will be
 obtained.  This, combined with  the bases, forms
 salts called sulphovinates, which may be purified
 by re-solution and crystallization. (See Ether.)
   SULPHOCYANOGKN.    Sun.  Bisulphuret
I of^ Cyanogen.   A  light,  insoluble, deep yellow
 powder, discovered by Liebig, and obtained by sat- 
SUL                     524                   SUL
urating a  concentrated solution of a m* tallic sul-
phocyanide  with  chlorine, or by heating it with
nitric acid.  (See Hydrosulphocyanic Acid.)
  SULPHUR  Syn.  Brimstone.  Soufre, (Fr.)
Schwefel,  (Ger.)  Sulphur, (Lat.)   This sub-
stance is imported from Sicily and Italy, and is a
volcanic  production.   Its general properties are
well known.   It is an undecompounded substance
or chemical element.  With  oxygen it  unites to
form oil of vitriol and sulphurous acid, and with
the metals to form  sulphurets.—Sublimed Sul-
phur, (Flowers  of Sulphur,  Flores Sulphuris,
Sulphur sublimatum,  P. L. and  E.,) is  prepared
by subliming sulphur in iron vessels.  It is ordered
to be washed with water, and  dried, (Sulphur lo-
tum,  P. D.)—Stick,  Roll,  or  Cane Sulphur
(Sulphur  in  bacculis,  Do. in rotulis,  Do. rotun-
dum) is melted sulphur cast  in moulds.—Sulphur
Vivum is crude native sulphur.  Dose.  As an al-
terative  £  dr.; as a purgative 1 to 3 drs.
  Pur., Uses, fyc. " Pure sublimed sulphur totally
evaporates at a heat of 600°  F.   When  washed
with water, it  (the liquid) does not alter the color
of litmus." (P. L.)   Sulphur is taken  in various
chronic skin diseases, pulmonary, rheumatic, and
gouty affections, and as a mild purgative in piles,
prolapsus  ani, &c.   Externally, it is extensively
used in skin diseases, especially the itch, for which
it appears  a specific.
  SULPHUR, PRECIPITATED.   Syn. Milk
of Sulphur.   Hydrate of  do.   Lac  Sulphuris.
Sulphur Precipitatum.  Prep. Sublimed sulphur
1 part;  dry slaked  lime  2 parts; water  8  to 12
parts; boil, filter,  precipitate by muriatic acid, and
drain ; well wash, and dry the precipitate.  Resem-
bles sublimed sulphur in its general properties, but
is much paler, and in a finer state of division.
  Remarks. The precipitated sulphur of the shops
contains about two-thirds of  its weight of sulphate
of lime,  (plaster of Paris,) owing to the substitution
of sulphuric for muriatic acid in the above process.
This fraud is detected by heating a little of the sus-
pected sample in an iron spoon or shovel, when the
sulphur  is volatilized, and leaves behind the sul-
phate of lime, which, when mixed with  water, and
gently dried, gives the amount of  the adulteration.
A still simpler plan is to  dissolve  out the sulphur
with a little hot oil of turpentine  or liquor of po-

  SULPHUR, CHLORIDE OF.   Syn. Hypo-
chlorite  of  Sulphur.   Sulphuris Chloridum.
Prep. Spread washed sulphur thinly on the bottom
of a wooden box, or other chamber, and pass chlo-
rine slowly over it till fully saturated.   This com-
nound has been  recommended for internal use by
Derksengi, especially in old gouty affections com-
bined with pains in the stomach ;  and also, with a
salutary effect, in severe nervous  fever, when it is
taken dissolved in ether, in doses of 10 drops, with
old Hungary wine.  It is used externally in Pso-
riasis inveterata.
  SULPHURET.   Syn. Sulphuretum,  (Lat.)
Sulphurets are compounds of sulphur with the elec-
tro-positive or inflammable bodies.  They are either
prepared by heating a  mixture of the  metal and
sulphur, in equivalent proportions, in  a  covered
crucible;  by igniting a mixture of the metallic ox-
ide and sulphur;  by depriving a sulphate of the
base of  its oxygen,  by igniting it in  contact with
charcoal ; or by precipitating a salt of the base by
sulphureted  hydrogen or  a soluble metallic  sul-
phuret.   The sulphurets are mostly opaque, brit-
tle, fusible, semi-metallic bodies ;  those of mercury
and  arsenic are volatile, and those of tho alkalis
and the earths soluble in water.  The same prin-
ciples of nomenclature  are  adopted in  describing
the sulphurets as are employed  to designate  the
oxides and salts.
  SULPHURETS OF ANTIMONY—1. (Ses-
quisulphuret.   Sulphuret.   Antimonii  Sesqui-
sulphuretum, P. L.  Antimonii Sulphuretum, P.
D.)  This is the black antimony  of commerce.—
2. (Bisulphuret.)  Formed by transmitting sul-
phureted hydrogen through a solution of antimoni-
ous acid, in muriatic acid. (Rose.)—3. (Persulphu-
ret)  As  the last, but  employing antimonic acid.
(Rose.) The golden sulphuret, prepared by dissolv-
ing sulphuret of antimony, and sulphur, in a solu-
tion of potassa,  and precipitating by an acid, is
also a persulphuret.  (Liebig.)—4. (Oxysulphuret.
Antimonii Oxysulphuretum, P. L.  Ant. Sulphu-
retum  Aureum ? P. E.   Sulphur Antimoniatum
Fuscum,  P. D.)  Prep.  (P. L.)  Sesquisulphuret
of antimony §v'j 5 solution  of  potassa,  2 quarts;
water 2 gallons; simmer for 2 hours, frequently
stirring, and adding water to supply that lost by
evaporation  ; filter, precipitate  with dilute sulphu-
ric acid, wash, and dry.—5. (Golden Sulphuret.)
By allowing the  solution to cool  and deposite its
kermes before adding the acid.   This is the per-
sulphuret.
  Remarks. The oxysulphuret of the  pharmaco-
poeia is a deep orange red powder, " totally soluble
in nitromuriatic acid, emitting sulphureted hydro-
gen." (P. L.)   It is •' tasteless; twelve times its
weight  of muriatic acid, aided by heat, dissolves
most of it, forming a colorless solution, and  leav-
ing a  little sulphur."  (P. E.)  The oxysulphuret
of the shops has a brighter color than that of  the
pharmacopoeia, and  is  made  by boiling sulphur
along with the sesquisulphuret, at the  same time
using more alkali.  It  is, in fact, the persulphuret
above noticed.  (See 3 and 5.)  The term Golden
Sulphuret is wrongly applied by the Ed. College.
The red  antimony ore  of  mineralogists,  liver,
glass, and crocus of antimony, and Kermes min-
eral, are also oxysulphurets  of antimony, varying
chiefly in color and state of aggregation. %* Oxy-
sulphuret  of antimony P. L. is alterative in doses
of 1 to 4 grs.; emetic in doses of 5 to 20 grs.; it
is given  in  skin  and liver diseases, glandular en-
largements,  rheumatism, &c.
  SULPHURETED HYDROGEN.   Syn. Hy-
DROSULPHURIC AdD.  SuLPHOHYDRIC AiAD.   He-
patic Gas.  A gaseous compound of hydrogen  and
sulphur, first chemically examined by Scheele, in
1777.  Prep.—1.  Sesquisulphuret of antimony  1
part; strong muriatic acid, 4 or 5 parts ; mix in a
glass retort, apply the heat of a spirit-lamp,  and
collect the evolved gas,  either ever mercury, or in
bottles,  like  chlorine.—2. From protosulphuret of
iron and oil  of vitriol, diluted with 4 or 5 parts of
water.—3. As the last,  but substitute sulphuret of
lime or potassium.
  Remarks. Sulphureted hydrogen is  a colorless
gas, possessing a powerful odor of rotten  eggs; sp.
gr.  11912 :  under a pressure of 17 atmospheres, at
50° it is liquid;  it is  absorbed by water, forming 
SUL                    525                    SUL
liquid sulphureted hydrogen, or hydrosulphuric
acid.  It is  a powerful  poison.  An atmosphere
containing 1-1500th of this gas instantly killed a
small  bird;   1-lOOOth kdled  a  large dog,  and
1-250th a horse.  (Dupuytren and Thenard.)  Be-
ing considerably denser than air, it may be poured
from its generating bottle into cavities, a scheme
successfully employed by M. Thenard to destroy
rats in their holes, a method equally applicable to
other vermin.  Sulphureted hydrogen  may be re-
cognised by the odor, and by its blackening moist
carbonate  of lead, and  tarnishing silver, and also
by its precipitating  arsenious acid yellow,  tartar
emetic orange, and  the salts of lead black. It
forms saline  compounds  with the alkalis, and the
earths termed Hydrosulphates or Hydrosulphu-
rets, and it  precipitates metallic sulphurets from
solutions of most of the metals ; hence its value as
a  test.  Air  containing  l-20,000th part  of  pure
hydrogen  will sensibly blacken  a piece  of white
paper, moistened with a solution of acetate of lead.
Sulphureted  hydrogen is the active ingredient in
the sulphureous mineral, waters.
   SULPHURIC ACID.  Syn.  Oil  of  Vitriol.
Vitriolic  Acid.    Acid   Sulphurique,   (Fr.)
ScHWEFELsiiuRE, (Ger)  Acidum Sulphuricum ;
A. Vitriolicum, (Lat) This acid, which has been
known ever  since the  7th  century,  is  made by
bringing the  fumes arising from  the slow combus-
tion of sulphur  into contact with  those evolved
from a mixture of nitre  and oil of vitriol, so  that
the former becomes oxidized at the expense  of the
latter.  The  process is  conducted in  a series of
leaden chambers, having a little water on  the floor,
to absorb the acid, and  so  arranged as to prevent
the loss of gas.  Sulphuric acid  is only  made on
the large scale.  Fuming, or Nordhausen sulphu-
ric acid is made by distilling calcined  sulphate of
iron in an earthen retort.  By heating this acid in
a  glass retort,  anhydrous  sulphuric acid distils
over.
   Prop., Uses, tyc.   Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid
is  a white crystalline solid,  resembling  asbestos ;
deliquesces and fumes in the air ; melts  at  66° ;
boils at about  105° ; does not redden dry  litmus
paper; sp. gr. 1*97  at  78°.—Fuming Sulphuric
Acid is an oily, dark brown, fuming liquid ;  sp. gr.
1*9.—Oil of Vitriol (Acidum Sulphuricum, P.
L. & E., A.  Sulph.  Venale, P. D.)  is a colorless,
odorless, acrid, and corrosive  liquid,  the general
properties of  which are well known.  Its sp. gr. at
60° should never be greater  than 1*8455, or less
than  1*840.  It is immediately colored by contact
with organic matter.   " It is free from color; sp.
gr. 1*845 ;  what  remains after the acid is distilled
to  dryness, does not exceed Tj')ff part of its weight
Diluted sulphuric acid is scarcely colored by  sul-
phureted hydrogen." (P. L.)   " Diluted  with its
own volume  of water, only a scanty muddiness
arises, and no orange fumes escape." (P. E.)  The
commercial acid frequently contains nitrous acid,
arsenic, and saline matter.  The first  may  be re-
moved by adding about 1£ grs. of sugar to each fluid
ounce of the acid,  heated to nearly its boiling
point, and continuing the heat till the dark  color
St  first produced shall have disappeared, when it
should be distilled ; the second, by adding a little
sulphuret of   barium,  or copper-foil, to the  acid,
agitating the mixture well, and  after repose de-
canting and distilling; the last is removed by sim-
ple rectification.   The distillation is  most conve-
niently conducted, on the small scale, in a glass
retort, containing a few platinum chips, and heat-
ed by a sand-bath or gas flame, rejecting the  first
f^ss that comes over. (P.E.)   The  capacity of
the retort should be 4 to 8 times as  great  as the
volume  of the acid,  and connected with a large
tubular  receiver, by a loosely-fitting glass tube, 4
feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter.  The re-
ceiver should not be surrounded  with cold  water.
(Ure.)   Fragments of glass may be substituted for
platina.  The redistilled  acid is colorless ; density
1*845, (1*842, Ure ;) "dilution causes no muddi-
ness ; solution of sulphate of iron shows no redden-
ing at the line of contact when poured  over it."
(P. E.)  Sulphuric acid is largely employed in the
arts, and from  its superior  affinity  to disengage
most of the other acids from their saline combina-
tions.  In the diluted state it is used in  medicine.
When swallowed, it acts as a corrosive  poison.
The antidotes are chalk, whiting, magnesia,  car-
bonate of soda or potash,  mixed with water,  or any
bland diluent.  The  reszs for sulphuric acid have
been already noticed.   (See Sulphate.)
   Estim. The strength of sulphuric  acid is most
correctly ascertained by its  power of saturating
bases;  but in commerce  it is usually determined
from its sp. gr.  See Acidimetry.
Table of the  Quantity of  Oil of Vitriol and Dry
  Sulphuric Acid in 100 parts of the Dilute Acid
  at different Densities, by Dr. Ure.
Liquid.	Sp. Gr.	Dry.	Liq.	Sp. Gr.	Dry.
100	1-8485	81*54	67	1*5648	54-63
99	1-8475	80*72	66	1*5503	53-82
98	1-8460	79*90	65	1*5390	53*00
97	1-8439	79*09	64	1*5280	52*18
96	1-8410	78*28	63	1*5170	51*37
95	1*8376	77*46	62	1*5066	50*55
94	1*8336	76*65	61	1*4960	49*74
93	1*8290	75-83	60	1*4860	48-92
92	1*8233	75-02	59	1*4760	48-11
91	1*8179	74-20	58	1*4660	47-29
90	1*8115	73-39	57	1*4560	46-48
89	1*8043	72*57	56	1*4460	45-66
88	1*7962	71*75	55	1*4360	44-85
87	1*7870	70*94	54	1*4265	44-03
86	1*7774	70*12	53	1*4170	43-22
85	1*7673	69*31	52	1*4073	42-40
84	1*7570	68-49	51	1*3977	41-58
83.	1*7465	67*68	50	1*3884	40-77
82	1*7360	66-86	49	1*3788	39-95
81	1*7245	66-05	48	1*3697	39*14
80	1*7120	65-23	47	1*3612	38-32
79	1*6993	64-42	46	1*3530	37*51
78	1*6870	63-60	45	1-3440	36-69
77	1*6750	62-78	44	1-3345	35-88
76	1*6630	61-97	43	1*3255	35*06
75	1*6520	61-15	42	1-3165	34-25
74	1*6415	60-34	41	1*3080	33*43
73	1*6321	59-52	40	1*2999	32-61
72	1*6204	58-71	39	1-2913	31*80
71	1-6090	57-89	38	1*2826	30-98
70	1-5975	57-08	37	1*2740	3017
69	1*5868	56-26	36	1*2654	29*35
68	1*5760	55-45	35	1*2572	28*54
 
SUL                    526                    SWE
[Table continued.]
Liq.	Sp. Gr.	Dry.	Liq.	Sp. Gr.	Dry.
34	1*2490	27-72	17	1*1165	13*86
33	1*2409	26-91	16	1*1090	13*05
32	1-2334	26-09	15	1*1019	12*23
31	1-2260	25-28	14	1*0953	11*60
30	1-2184	24-46	13	1*0887	10*41
29	1*2108	23-65	12	1*0809	9*78
28	1*2032	22*83	11	1*0743	8*97
27	1*1956	22*01	10	1*0682	8*15
26	1*1876	21*20	9	1*0614	7*34
25	1*1792	20*38	8	1*0544	6*52
24	1-1706	19*57	7	1*0477	5*71
23	1*1626	18*75	6	1*0405	4*89
22	1*1549	17*94	5	1*0336	4*08
21	1*1480	17*12	4	1*0268	3*26
20	1*1410	16-31	3	1*0206	2*446
19	1*1330	15*49	2	1*0140	1*63
18	1*1246	14*68	1	1*0074	0*8154
   SULPHURIC ACID, (DILUTE.)   Syn.
 Spirit of Vitriol.  Vitriol to clean Copper.
 Spiritus Vitrioli.  Do. do. tenuis.  Acidum Sul-
 phuricum  Dilutum.  (P. L. E. & D.)  Prep.—1.
 (P.  L.)  Sulphuric acid  f fiss ;  distilled  water
 ffxivss; mix.  Sp. gr. 1*11.-2.  (P.  E.)  Sul-
 phuric acid f5j ;  water f "fxiij ; mix.  Sp. gr. 1*090.
 —3.  (P. D.) Acid 1  part; water 7 do.  Sp. gr.
 1*084—4. (Henry's.)   Strong acid diluted to the
 sp. gr. 1-135.  Has the same saturating  power as
 his muriatic and nitric acid.   Used for assays.—5.
 (Common  Elixir of Vitriol.)   Water  acidulated
 with oil of vitriol q. s. to render it grateful.
   Remarks,   f 3j  of the dilute acid, P. L., weighs
 60*7 grs., saturates 28 grs. of crystallized carbonate
 of soda, and  contains 9£ grs. of oil of vitriol, or 7*7
 grs.  of dry sulphuric acid.   Dose.  10 to  30 drops
 diluted with water, as a refrigerant, to check pro-
 fuse  perspiration,  in skin  diseases  to relieve the
 itching, in  dyspepsia, &c.; it is also used exter-
 nally.
   SULPHURIC  ACID,  (AROMATIC.)   Syn.
 Elixir of Vitriol.  Acid  do. do.   Acidum sul-
 phuricum aromaticum, (P. E. &  D.)   Prep.—1.
 (P.  E.)  Oil  of vitriol  f f iiiss ; rectified  spirit  1£
 pints; mix, add powdered  cinnamon ^iss ; pow-
 dered ginger Jj; digest  for 6 days, and filter.—2.
 (P.  L. 1746.)  Compound tincture  of cinnamon
 f ?xvj ; sulphuric  acid  %iv; mix, and  filter___3.
 (Wholesale.)   Compound tincture of cinnamon 1
 gallon ; oil of vitriol  1 lb.;  mix, and in a  week fil-
 ter.   Dose. 10 to  30 drops, in tne same cases  as
 the last preparation.
   SULPHURIC  ACID,   (ALCOHOLIZED.)
 Syn.  Acidum sulphuricum alcoholizatum.   (P.
 Cod.)  See Eac de Rabel.
   SULPHUROUS  ACID.  Syn.  Acidum  sul-
 phurosum.  This acid is freely evolved in the gase-
 ous form when sulphur is burnt in air or  dry oxy-
 gen,  and when the metals are digested in hot sul-
 phuric acid ; and, mixed with carbonic acid, when
 chips of wood, cork, and sawdust, are treated  in
the same way.  The pure acid is best obtained by
the action of sulphuric acid on copper or mercury ;
 but for the purposes of the arts, the cheaper meth-
ods may be  employed.  According to  Berthier,
very  pure sulphurous acid may be freely  obtained
 by heating a mixture of 100 parts of black oxide
 of manganese and 12 or 14 parts of sulphur in  a
 glass retort.   The gas  should be collected over
 mercury,  or  received into water  when it  forms
 liquid sulphurous acid.   Water absorbs 30 times
 its volume of this  gas.  Pure liquid sulphurous
 acid can only be obtained by passing the pure dry
 gas through a glass tube surrounded by a freezing
 mixture.  Its sp. gr. is 1*45 ; boiling point 14° F.;
 it causes  intense  cold by its  evaporation.   With
 the bases sulphurous acid forms salts called Sul-
 phites, (sulphis, Lat.)    Use.  To  bleach silks,
 woollens,  straw, &c,  and  to remove  vegetable
 stains and iron-moulds from linen.
   SUMACH. This dye-stuff is chiefly used as a
 substitute  for  galls.  With a  mordant of acetate
 of iron, it gives gray or black; with tin or acetate
 of alumina, yellow   \nd with sulphate of zinc a
 yellowish brown  ;  alone it gives a greenish fawn-
 color.
   SUPPOSITORY. Syn.  Suppositorium, (Lat,
 from sub, under, and pono, to place.)  A medicine
 placed in the rectum for the  purpose of remaining
 there, and dissolving gradually. The mode of pro-
 portioning the doses has been noticed in the article
 Enema.
   SUPPOSITORY FOR WORMS.  Syn. Sup.
 anthelminticum.  Prep. (Swediaur.)  Aloes 3iv ;
 common salt 3iij  ;  flour 3ij ;  honey q. s. to make a
 stiff mass ; divide into proper-shaped pieces weigh-
 ing  15 grs. each.   One to be used after a stool.
   SUPPOSITORY FOR PILES.   Syn.  Sup.
 HA1MORRHOIDALE.   S. SEDATIVUM.  Prep.--1. (El-
 lis.)   Powdered opium 2 grs.;  soap 10  grs.; mix.
 —2.  Powdered opium 2 grs.; finely-powdered galls
 10 grs.; spermaceti cerate 3j ; mix.—3. Extracts
 of opium and stramonium,  of each 1 gr.;  cocoa
 nut  butter  3ij; mix.  Used when  the  piles are
 very painful.
   SUPPOSITORY, PURGATIVE.  Syn. Sup.
 catharticum.—1. Soap 3j  ; elaterium 2 grs.; mix.
 As a strong purge.—2. (Nieman.) Soap 3ij ; com-
 mon salt 3j ; honey q. s.; mix.  As a mild cathartic.
   SUSPENDED  ANIMATION,  (from hang-
 ing.)   In cases where a body  is found in a sus-
 pended state,  and  life  is seemingly  extinct, the
 chief remedy consists in cupping the temples or
 opening the jugular vein, and so relieving the head
 of the blood which  accumulates in its superficial
 veins in consequence of the ligature.  Where the
 body  is cold, from  having been  long suspended,
 friction, and the other means used for restoring the
 animal heat in drowned persons, should be likewise
 resorted to.   Electricity or galvanism  may also
 be of  service.  See Animation,  suspended, and
 Drowning.
  SWEINFURTH  GREEN.  Syn.  Vert de
 Mitis.   Vienna  Green.   Prep.—1.  Acetate  of
 copper  and arsenious acid, equal parts ; dissolve
 each  separately in  the  least possible quantity  of
 boiling water, mix ; an olive green precipitate falls,
which is a  good  permanent color ;  but which, by
boiling the liquor from 5 to 8 minutes, changes to a
dense granular superb green  powder.—2. Instead
of boiling the solution containing the precipitate,
let it cool and stand for several  hours, till the pow-
der assumes a granular  and  beautiful  tint—3.
 (Kastner.)  Arsenious acid 8 lbs., dissolved in water
as before ; verdigris  9 or 10 lbs., diffused through 
TAN
527
TAN
Water at 120° and the pap passed through a sieve ;
mix the latter  with the  former solution, and set
aside till the reaction of the ingredients produces
the  proper  shade.—4.  Digest Scheele's green in
acetic acid.   *%* A very fine green pigment.  The
use of more  arsenic turns it on the yellowish green,
and boiling  it with a small quantity of potash takes
off the blue color.  The vessel in which the mixed
liquids are set aside should be covered to prevent a
premature crystallization on the surface. Scheele's
green  is also commonly sold under  the name of
Mitis green.
   SYDENHAM'S LENITIVE. Prep. Coarse-
ly-powdered rhubarb 3iij ;  tamarinds §rj ; senna
§ss ; coriander  seeds 3ij ;  boiling water 1 pint;
macerate for 3 hours, and strain.  An excellent
stomachic and laxative.  Dose.  1 to 4 tablespoon-
fuls or more.
   SYNAPTASE.   Syn. Emulsine.   The white
part of sweet and bitter almonds, which is soluble
in water.  Amygdaline converts it into oil of bitter
almonds, and prussic acid.  17 grs. of amygdaline
dissolved in  f §j of an emulsion of sweet almonds,
yield a liquid containing  1 gr. of anhydrous hydro-
cyanic acid, which does not  require  to be distilled.
This solution has been proposed as a substitute for
dilute prussic acid  and bitter almond water.  100
grs. of amygdaline yield 47 gra. of raw oil, and 5-9
grs. of annydrous hydrocyanic acid.   (Liebig.)
   SYLVIC ACID.   Syn. Silvic Acid. A crys-
talline substance extracted from rosin by weak al-
cohol, and purified by stronger alcohol.   It is dis-
tinguished from pinic acid by its insolubility in cold
alcohol sp. gr. 0*883.   With  alkalis  it forms salts
called sylvates, which are soluble in alcohol and
ether.
  TALLOW  AND  OTHER FATS are com-
monly purified by melting them along with water,
passing the mixed fluids through  a sieve, and let-
ting the whole cool slowly, when a cake of cleansed
fat  is obtained.—Another plan is  to keep  the  tal-
low melted for  some time, along with  about 2§ of
oil of vitriol largely  diluted  with water, employing
constant agitation, and allowing the whole to cool
slowly ; then to remelt the cake with a large quan-
tity of hot water, and to wash it  well.—Another
method is to blow steam for some time through the
melted fat.   By either this  or the preceding pro-
cess a white hard tallow may be obtained.  Some
persons add  a  little nitre to  the  melted  fat, and
afterwards a little dilute nitric or sulphuric acid, or
a solution of bisulphate of potash.   Others boil the
fat  along with water  and  a little  dilute  nitric or
chromic acid, and afterwards wash it well with
water.  (See Oils, Fixed.)
  TANGHININE.   A crystallizable substance
extracted by ether  from the seeds of Tanghinia
Madagascariensis after the fixed oil has been re-
moved by pressure.   It  is  soluble  in  water, alco-
hol, and ether ; bitter, acrid, and poisonous.
  TANNIN.  Syn.  Tan.   Tannic Acid.. Quer-
citannic Acid. Tannin, (Fr.)  Gerbstoff, (Ger)
Acidum Tannicum,  (Lat.)   A  peculiar vegetable
principle,  named from its power of converting the
Bkins of animals into leather.
  Prep- I-  By percolation, in a close  vessel, from
coarsely powdered galls and sulphuric ether, that
has been previously agitated  with water.   In  24
hours the percolated  liquid will be found divided
into two portions ;  the lower and  heavier being a
watery solution of tannic acid, and  the  upper an
ethereal solution of gallic acid and  coloring mat-
ter.  Fresh ether must be passed through  the pow-
der as long as the lower stratum of liquid con-
tinues to augment.  The two fluids are  now sep-
arated, and after the heavier one has been well
washed with ether, it  is gently evaporated to dry-
ness ; preferably under the receiver  of an  air-
pump, or over sulphuric acid.  Prod. About 40$.
   II. To a hot infusion of galls add a few drops
of sulphuric acid, agitate, filter,  and precipitate
the filtered liquor by  sulphuric acid, diluted with
half its weight of water ; in one hour decant the
clear, precipitate with strong sulphuric acid, wash
with  water acidulated  with  sulphuric arid, press
between the folds of bibulous paper, and dissolve
in pure water; gradually add carbonate of lead,
and digest  till the sulpho-tannate  is  all decom-
posed, filter, and evaporate ;  powder the  dry mass,
digest in ether, and  evaporate  the  ethereal solu-
tion, as before.
   III.  Precipitate an infusion of galls with  a con-
centrated solution of carbonate of potash, avoiding
excess ;  wash  with ice-cold  water, dissolve in di-
lute acetic  acid,  filter,  precipitate by acetate of
lead, wash  the precipitate with water, suspend it
in water, decompose  it by sulphureted hydrogen,
and evaporate  the  filtered liquid in vacuo or over
sulphuric acid.
   Props.,  Uses, fyc.   The uses of  tannin  in the
preparation of leather are  well known.   In  the
pure state  it is perfectly white, but acquires a yel-
low color from the action of  the air.  It is power-
fully astringent,  reddens vegetable  blues, and by
the action  of heat on its solution, is  converted into
ellagic, gallic,  and  carbonic  acids.  When  heated
in  the  dry state,  metagallic and  pyrogallic acids
are formed.  It unites with the  bases forming salts
called tannates, which  are  characterized by stri-
king a deep black with the  persalts of iron, (ink.)
Tannic  acid   and gelatin are  mutually used  as
tests of each other ; a thick  flocculent precipitate
is formed whenever these substances meet in so-
lution.   When a solution of  tannin is dropped into
another of gelatin,  thick flocks are precipitated,
but redissolve  when  heated with the  supernatant
fluid.   The following  is a useful  and simple form
for preparing  this  test:—Infuse 1 oz. of pounded
galls in 4  oz. of  water for  several hours; strain
with pressure.  Add to the turbid  fluid 2 oz. of
common salt,  and filter.  The filtrate  retains its
transparency  and power  of precipitating  gelatin
for  years.   (Chem. Gaz.)   Tannic  acid is  occa-
sionally employed as an astringent in medicine.
   TANTALUM.   Syn.  Columbium.   A  rare
metal discovered  by  Mr. Hatchet  in  1801  in a
mineral from  Massachusetts, and by M. Ekeberg
in 1803 in tantalite.   It exists  in most of its ores
in combination with oxygen, from which it is sep-
arated  by  fusing the  ore  with 3 or 4 times its
weight of  carbonate of potassa, dissolving out the
resulting columbate  or tantalate  of potassa  with
water,  and precipitating by  a mineral acid.  The
precipitate  is hydrated columbic or tantalic acid.
It is insoluble in water, but readily unites with the
alkalis  forming salts  termed columbates or tanta-
lates  which  are  crystallizable.  It is  soluble in 
TAR
528
TAR
hydrofluoric acid, and the solution, by evaporation
at 76°, deposites crystals of terfluoride of Colum-
bium.—Metallic Columbium  is best obtained  by
heating potassium with  the double fluoride of po-
tassium and columbium in the way described  for
silicon.   (Berzelius.) — Oxide  of  Columbium   is
formed by exposing columbic acid, in a  crucible
lined with  charcoal and luted, for 4£ houre to an
intense heat.  This oxide is insoluble in acids, and
by  fusion with  potash  or  nitre  is converted into
columbic acid.
  TARRAS.   Syn.  Terras.  A volcanic pro-
duct resembling puzzolene  that  imparts to mortar
the property of  hardening  under water.   Several
other argillo-ferruginous minerals possess the same
power, and are used under  this term.
  TARTAR,  AMMONIATED.   Syn.  Tar-
trate of Potash and Ammonia.  Ammonio-tar-
trate of Potassa.  Prep. Neutralize a solution
of cream of tartar with ammonia, evaporate, and
crystallize.  Very soluble)  in  water.  A  favorite
laxative  on  the  Continent.   This is frequently
called soluble cream of  tartar.
  TARTAR,  BORAXATED.   Syn.   Soluble
Cream  of  Tartar.  Borotartrate  of  Potassa.
Tartarus boraxatus.   Cremor Tartari solubi-
lis.  Tartris boraxata Potass^  et Sod.<e.  Po-
tassa;  borotartras.   Prep.—1.  Borax 2  lbs.;
cream of tartar 5 lbs.; both in powder; dissolve
in water, and evaporate.—2. (P. Cod.) Cream of
tartar  ^iv ; boracic acid §j; boiling  water  lb. ij ;
dissolve, evaporate without boiling, dry in a stove,
and powder.  A popular laxative on the Conti-
nent.
  TARTAR EMETIC.  Syn. Tartarized An-
timony.   Stibiated  Tartar.  Antimonio-tar-
trate  of Potash.  Potassio-tartrate of Anti-
mony.   Potass.* Antimonio-tartras.  Tartarus
emeticus, (P. L. 1720.)   Antimonium tartariza-
tum,  (P. L. 17e8, 1824, and  P. E.)   Antimonii
POTASSIO-TARTRAS,  (P.  L.  1836.)  A.NTIM0NII  ET
Potassa: tartras sive  Tartarum emeticum, (P.
D.)  Prep.  I. (P. L.) Sesquisulphuret of  antimo-
ny and nitre, powdered, of each, lb. ij ; add  grad-
ually muriatic acid f^iv, and ignite the powder
spread on an iron plate ; powder the residue  when
cold, and wash it with boiling water  till  the  latter
passes off tasteless, then mix the powder with bi-
tartrate of potash §xiv, and boil for  1 hour in  a
gallon of water,  strain while hot, and set the  li-
quid aside  to crystallize,  dry  the crystals, and
again evaporate  the liquor and crystallize.
  II.  (P. E.) Powdered  sulphuret  of antimony
^iv; muriatic acid (commercial) 1 pint;  dissolve,
boil for £ an hour, filter, and pour the liquid into
water  5 pints; collect the precipitate, well  wash
it with cold  water on a filter, and dry it by the
heat of a vapor bath; then take of this precipitate
(oxychloride of  antimony) ^iij ;  bitartrate of pot-
ash %\v 3ij; water ffxxvij; mix, boil for an hour,
and set it aside to crystallize as before.
  III. (P. D.)  Nitromuriatic  oxide  of antimony
(oxychloride^ 4 parts; powdered bitartrate of pot-
ash 5 parts;  distilled water 34 parts.  As last
  %*  Finely-divided tartar emetic  may be pre-
pared,  according to M.Hoffmann, in the following
manner:—6 oz.  of tartar emetic are  dissolved  in
32 oz. of boiling water, and the solution precipi-
tated with 64 oz. of alcohol.  The loss in tartar
emetic  does not  amount to more  than half  •
drachm, and the alcohol  is reobtained by distilla-
tion.  (Jahr. fiir Prakt. Pharm.)
   Remarks. Tartar emetic forms white, transpa-
rent crystals, which become  opaque by  exposure
to the air.   Its taste is at first  sweetish, then as-
tringent, and  metallic.  It  dissolves in 14£ parts
of water at 60°, and in 2£ parts at 212° ;  is insol
uble in alcohol, and decomposed by heat.  When
pure, the crystals and  their powder should be per-
fectly white, and the precipitate, formed by add-
ing to its  boiling  solution a few drops of solution
of carbonate of soda,  should not  be  redissolved.
If it is, the salt is adulterated with cream of tar-
tar. (Hennel.)   Pure tartar emetic is " totally sol-
uble in water, no  undissolved bitartrate of potash
remaining  in the vessel, and sulphureted hydrogen
being added,  a  reddish-colored precipitate is ob-
tained.   Neither chloride  of bariqjji nor nitrate of
silver precipitates its (dilute) solution.   Nitric acid
throws down a precipitate, which is redissolved by
excess of the precipitant."  (P. L.)  " Its  solution
is not affected by ferrocyanide of potassium.  Dis-
solved in 40 parts of water, the solution is not af-
fected by  its  own volume of  a solution of 8 parts
of acetate  of lead in  32 parts  of  water,  and  15
parts  of acetic acid." (P.  E.)  For other tests, see
Antimony.
   Dose. As  an expectorant and diaphoretic, one-
twelfth  to  one-sixth of a gr.; as a nauseant, -J to
£ gr.; as an emetic, 1  to  3 gra.; as  antiphlogistic,
£ to 4 grs.   In large  doses it is poisonous.  Ant.
Tannin, infusion of gall,  bark, tea,  &.c, vomiting
being promoted at the same time by drinking co-
piously of  tepid water.
   TARTAR, REDUCED.   Syn.  Cremor  Tar-
tari reductus.  An article is sold under the name
of British  cream of tartar, which contains -Jth its
weight or more of bisulphate of potash.
   TARTAR, SOLUBLE.  Syn.  Tartarum so-
lubile.   Tartrate  of Potash.  Potassa;  Tar-
tras.   Prep.  Water 1  gallon ; carbonate  of pot-
ash 1  lb.; dissolve, add cream of tartar as long as
effervescence arises, filter, evaporate, and crystal-
lize.   Purgative.   Dose. 1 dr. to 1 oz.
  TARTARIC  ACID.   Syn.   Crystallizeh
Acid  of Tartar.  Acidum  Tartaricum, (P.  L
E. &  D.)  Acide tartarique, (Fr.)  Welnstein-
sauRE, (Ger.)   Prep.  (P. L.)  Cream of tartar lb.
iv; boiling water  2  gallons;  dissolve by  boiling,
add gradually chalk gxij 3vij ; and when the  effer-
vescence ceases, add another like portion of chalk,
dissolved in muriatic acid  f ^xxviss, or q. s., diluted
with water 4  pints; collect the precipitated tar-
trate  of  lime, and well wash it with water, then
boil it for  15  minutes  in dilute  sulphuric acid 7
pints  and  ffxvij,  next filter, evaporate,  (to the
density 1*38,) and set it aside to crystallize.  The
crystals must be dissolved and crystallized a second
and a third time.
  Remarks. On tfie large scale,  the decomposi-
tion of  the tartar is  usually effected in a copper
boiler, and  that of the  tartrate of lime in  a leaden
cistern.   This part of the  process is often perform-
ed by mere digestion for  a few days, without the
application of  heat,  as ordered by the College.
Leaden or stoneware vessels are used  as  crystal-
lizers. Good cream of tartar requires 26$ of chalk,
and 2tS*5°j of dry chloride  of calcium for its perfect 
TAR                    529                    TEA
decomposition.   Dry tartrate of lime requires 75-g
of oil of vitriol to liberate the whole of the tartaric
acid.  A very slight excess of sulphuric acid may be
advantageously  employed.   Some manufacturers
bleach the colored solution of the first crystals by
treating it with animal charcoal;  but for this pur-
pose  the  latter substance should  be first purified
by digesting it in muriatic acid, and afterwards by
edulcorating it  with water, and exposing it to  a
dull red heat in  a covered vessel.  The general
management of this manufacture resembles that
of citric acid.
  Props., Uses, $-c.  Tartaric acid forms inodor-
ous, sour, scarcely transparent  prisms,  soluble  in
2 parts of  water at  60°, and its  own weight of
boiling  water.    It contains about 9$  of combi-
ned water.   It  fuses  when heated, and after los-
ing 4,th of  its  water, is converted into tartralic
acid, and by continuing the heat until another -Jth
of its water is driven  off, it is converted into tar-
trelic acid; by a higher heat it  gives off  all  its
water, and  becomes anhydrous and insoluble.  By
distillation it yields pyrotartaric and pyruvic acids
with other products; when strongly heated, it  is
wholly dissipated.   With the bases it forms salts
called tartrates. Tartaric acid is chiefly employed
in calico  printing, and in medicine, as a substitute
for citric acid and lemon juice, for the preparation
of  cooling drinks  and saline  draughts.   For the
latter purpose, sesquicarbonate of soda is the alka-
line salt commonly employed.
       20 grs. of crystallized tartaric acid
are saturated by
  27 grs. of crystallized bicarbonate of potash.
  22 grs. of commercial carbonate of do.
  22 grs. of crystallized sesquicarbonate of soda.
  38 grs. of do. carbonate of soda.
  15£  grs. of do. sesquicarbonate of ammonia.
  Pur. and Tests.  " Tartaric acid is entirely sol-
uble in water, and  the solution  throws down bi-
tartrate of potassa from any neutral salt of potassa.
The precipitate  thrown down by acetate of lead is
soluble in nitric  acid." (P. L.)  By heat it is totally
dissipated.  Tartaric acid is known to be such by
giving  white precipitates with  solutions of caustic
lime, baryta,  and  strontia, and acetate of lead,
which  dissolves  in  excess of the acid.  A solution
of potash  causes a white granular precipitate of
cream  of tartar, soluble by agitation  in excess of
the precipitant   Nitrate of silver gives  a  white
precipitate, which, when heated, fumes, and leaves
pure metallic  silver.  At about 570°,  all the tar-
trates are blackened, and yield a peculiar and char-
acteristic odor.
  TARTRATE OF IRON.   Prep.  By dissolv-
ing the hydrated oxides in  a solution of the acid,
and evaporating to dryness.  The addition of a lit-
tle ammonia converts either of these salts into the
ammonio-tartrate of the peroxide or protoxide of
iron, as the case may be.  (See Iron.)
  TARTRALIC  ACID. This acid is distinguished
from tartaric acid  by saturating -Jth less base, and
by  forming soluble salts with lime and baryta.
By heat it is converted into  tartrelic acid.  This
new acid possesses only half the neutralizing power
of tartaric acid.  In contact with water the tar-
tralic and tartrelic  acids and their salts are recon-
verted into tartaric  acid and tartrates.  Dry tar-
tralic,  tartrelic, and tartaric acids are isomeric
compounds.
  TAURINE.   Obtained along  with  choloidic
acid and ammonia when bile is boiled with an ex-
cess of muriatic acid.  It  forms white crystalline
needles, soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in
alcohol.              k
  TEA. This  useful article is said  to be frequent-
ly adulterated, after  its  arrival  in  England, with
the leaves of other plants ; but the only adultera-
tion which is extensively employed at the present
day, is mixing it with a certain portion of exhaust-
ed tea-leaves, which have been redried and curled.
The leaves which have  been found in the posses-
sion of the manufacturers of imitation tea, are those
of the sloe tree, ash tree, elder bush, and white
thorn.  They are described as having been boiled,
in some cases,  with logwood, or scalded, then roll-
ed up and dried, the green  bloom  being given to
them  by Dutch pink or  verditer.   The use  of
sheep's dung, verdigris, or  copperas, seems a mere
slander.   According to  Mr. Warrington,  a most
extensive system  of adulteration is  practised  in
China, since the very numerous specimens he has
examined have been obtained from sources which
renders  the  fact  of their having actually been
brought  from China  indisputable.  Many samples
are found not to contain a  single grain of tea, be-
ing made up entirely of  other leaves.  Green teas
are for the most part spurious, being manufactured
out of cheap black  teas.   This fraud seems to be
accomplished with great dexterity, and, with the
greater care, the higher  the price of the green tea
it is intended to imitate.  From the common green
teas the coloring matter may be washed off by agi-
tating the tea with cold water and drying it, when
it is at once  converted into black tea without the
leaf uncurling.  On examining it with the micro-
scope, it is seen that a  uniform whitish surface is
given to it, by  means of what appears to be Koalin
or  porcelain clay, which  also  very conveniently
adds to the weight;  upon  this a yellow substance,
mixed with  Prussian blue,  is dusted; hence the
green color,  which may thus be rendered  of any
tint.  Chemical examination detected the presence
of  sulphate  of lime, Prussian blue, and a  vege-
table  yellow-coloring matter, probably turmeric.
 (Chem.  Gaz.)  It is  a common practice among the
grocers  in England to  impart  what they call  a
" bloom" to  their green teas by " rouncing" them
up with a little calcined magnesia, or finely-pow-
dered aluminous  earth.   The  quantity  that ad-
heres to the tea is very trifling, but it greatly im-
proves their  appearance.   This plan is not advisa-
ble, as I find  the presence of even a very small
quantity of  magnesia in water lessens its solvent
power  considerably,  and   consequently  tends  to
make the leaves produce a weaker infusion. It is
a practice of this kind, but carried on for a more
dishonest purpose, that is  alluded to above by Mr.
Warrington.   Pure  China tea is not turned black
by being put into water impregnated with sulphu-
reted hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge spirit of harts-
horn blue.   The infusion is amber-colored, and is
not reddened by adding a few drops of oil or spirit
of  vitriol to it.   *#* Among domestic substitutes
for tea are—the leaves of speedwell, wild german-
der, black currants, syringa or mock orange, pur; 
THE                   530                   THO
pie-spiked  willow herb, sweetbrier, cherry tree,
Bloe, all of which are  used for  tea, either singly
or mixed.   In foreign countries a variety of plants
are used instead of Chinese tea.
   TEARS  OF  THE  WIDOW OF  MALA-
BAR   Prep.  Plain  spirit  at  18° B. 5 quarts;
Druised cloves £ oz.; bruised mace 48 gre.; digest
in a corked carboy for a w#ek, add burnt sugar to
impart a slight color, filter, and add white sugar 4J
lbs.; dissolved  in  distilled or filtered rain water £
gallon;  some  add 2 or 3 oz. of orange-flowcr wa-
ter.  A pleasant liquor.
   TEETH. (THE.)   An object very subservient
to health, and which merits due attention, is the pre-
servation of the teeth; the care of which, consider-
ing their importance in preparing  the food for di-
gestion, is, in general, far  from  being sufficiently
cultivated. Very few persons, comparatively, wash
their mouths  in the morning, which ought always
to be done.  Indeed, this ought  to be practised  at
the conclusion of every meal, 'where either animal
food or vegetables are eaten ; for the former is apt
to leave behind it a rancid acrimony, and the lat-
ter an acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth.
Washing the  mouth frequently with cold water is
not only serviceable in  keeping the teeth clean,
but in strengthening the  gums,  the firm  adhesion
of which to the teeth, is of the  greatest inportance
in preserving them sound and secure.  (See Cos-
metics,  Dentifrices.)
   TELESCOPE.   Some  remarks  connected
with this subject will be found under the heads—
Achromatism, Glass, Speculum, Metal, &c.
   TELLURIUM, (From tellus,  the earth.)   A
rare grayish-white metal, found only in small quan-
tities in the  metallic state, in  the gold  mines of
Transylvania.  It fuses below redness, and volatil-
izes  at a red  heat; sp. gr. 6*2578; with oxygen
it  forms 2  compounds.—Oxide of  Tellurium
(tellur ■. ■ s acid)  is obtained by  adding  water to
the nitric solution, or by evaporating it to dryness;
a white  powder.—Telluric Acid is obtained by
deflagrating tellurous  acid with nitre, and decom-
posing the resulting tellurate of potassa.—Tellu-
reted  Hydrogen (hydrotelluric acid) is a gase-
ous substance  formed by acting with muriatic acid
on an alloy of tellurium  with zinc or tin.  It bears
some resemblance to sulphureted hydrogen.
   TEMPERANCE DRINKS.  (See Lemonade,
Orangeade, Sherbet, Ginger Beer.)
   TERRACOTTA.  (Baked clay.)  This term
is  applied to statues, architectural ornaments, &c,
made of pure  white clay, fine sand, and powdered
potsherds, slowly  dried,  and baked to  a strong
hardness.
   TEST  FOR ARSENIC.  Dr. Baumann rec-
ommends for  detecting small quantities of arsenic,
the suspected body to be triturated with from three
to six times its amount of iron-filings, which have
been exposed to a red heat,  and are known to be
free  from arsenic, and heating  the mixture on
charcoal in  the reducing flame of the blowpipe.
Even with the smallest quantity of arsenic, the
odor, at least,  is disengaged.  (Chem. Gaz.)  See
Arsenious Acid.
   TESTING.  The  tests  both  of the purity and
 Cresence of the principal articles of commerce will
 e found in their alphabetical order.
   THEINE.   Syn. Theina.  A peculiar crystal-
lizable azotized substance, extracted from tea.  (See
Caffeine.)
  THEBAINE.   Syn. Paramorphia.  A crys-
talline substance obtained by Thibourmery  from
an infusion of opium that had had its morphia ex-
tracted by acting on it by an excess of lime.  The
residue dissolved in dilute acid, precipitated by am-
monia, and  the precipitate dissolved in alcohol or
ether,  yields pure  thebaine on evaporation.   It
has a sharp  metallic taste, is fusible, alkaline, and
scarcely soluble  in water ; with the weak acids it
forms salts which do not crystallize.  It is distin-
guished from morphia by not becoming blue on the
addition of sesquichloride of iron.  1  gr. injected
into the jugular vein of a dog, acts like strychnia,
and causes  tetanus  and death in a few minutes.
(Majendie.)
  THEOBROMINE.   A  peculiar  principle,
obtained  by  Woskresensky from  the  nut  of the
theobroma cacao.   It is obtained by digesting the
nuts in distilled water, straining the decoction, and
mixing it with acetate of lead ;  after filtration, the
oxide of lead being  removed with sulphureted hy-
drogen, the clear liquor is evaporated.  A reddish-
white powder.
  THERMOMETERS. Fahrenheit's thermom-
eter is  the one universally employed  in England,
while Celsius', or the centigrade scale, is  ti6ed on
the Continent   Reaumur's is another  scale occa-
sionally employed.  As reference  to  these scales
are frequently met  with in books, it is useful to
know their relative value, and  the method of re-
ducing the one  to the other.   The boiling-point
of water is indicated by 212° on Fahrenheit's scale,
100° on the centigrade scale, and  80° on that of
Reaumur; the freezing-point of water marks 32°
Fahrenheit,  and 0,  or  zero, on the centigrade or
Reaumur.  The 0  or  zero  of  Fahrenheit  is 32°
below the freezing-point of water.
  1. To  reduce Centigrade  degrees  to those of
Fahrenheit,  multiply  by 9,  and divide by  5, and
to the quotient add 32, that  is,—
       Cent  X9+32==Fahr
          5

  2. To  reduce Fahrenheit's  degrees to  Centi
grade:—
       Fahr. —32X5   n  t
      -------------= Cent.
              9                               .
  3. To reduce Reaumur's to Fahrenheit's:—
       Reau.X9+32==Fahr
           4

  4. To convert Fahrenheit's to Reaumur's:—
       Fahr. — 32  X 4   v
       --------------= Reaumur.
              9

  THIONURIC ACID.   A white crystalline
acid, obtained by the action of  sulphurous acid on
alloxan.  Its saturated solution, heated to the  boil-
ing-point, congeals into a  semifluid, crystalline
mass of uramile.
  THORINA.   Syn.  Oxide of  Thorium.   A
primitive earth discovered by  Berzelius in 1828.
It is obtained from the  mineral called thorite, by
reducing it  to powder, digesting  in muriatic  acid,
evaporating  to dryness, redissolving in dilute  acid,
filtering,  passing sulphureted  hydrogen  through
the solution, precipitating by pure ammonia, wai h- 
TIN                      531                     TIN
ing the precipitate with water, dissolving in dilute
sulphuric acid, evaporating the solution till only a
small quantity of fluid remains, collecting the de-
posited sulphate of thorina, washing it* with water,
and heating  it  to redness.   %* White ; sp.  gr.
9*402 ;  insoluble in all acids except the sulphuric ;
it is precipitated by caustic alkalis, and by expo-
sure in this state rapidly  absorbs carbonic  acid,
and becomes easily soluble in the  acids and alka-
line carbonates.  Its carbonate and  subsalts are
also soluble in the alkaline  carbonates.—Thorium,
the  metallic base of thorina,  is obtained by the
action  of potassium  on the  chloride  of thorium,
and washing the resulting mass in water.
   TIN.  Syn.  Etain, (Fr.)  Zinn, (Ger)  Stan-
num, (Lat)  Jove; Jupiter,  (Ale)  This  metal
has been known from the most remote antiquity,
being mentioned in the books of Moses, (Numb.,
xxxi. 22,) and by Homer,  (Iliad, x. 25,) and other
early writers.  The ancients obtained it principal-
ly, if not solely from  Cornwall.  The Phoenicians
traded  with England for this metal, at least 1000
years before the birth of Christ.
   Prop., Uses, <J-c.  Tin is only manufactured on
the large scale.  It melts at 442°  F.,  volatilizes at
a white heat, and has the sp. gr. 7-29.  It evolves
a peculiar odor when rubbed, and when  bent back-
wards and  forwards, emits a crackling noise.   Its
uses in the arts are  well known.   In medicine 1
to 3 drs. of the filings or  powders, made into an
electuary with treacle, are given in tapeworm, for
2 or 3 successive mornings, followed by a purge.
   Pur., Tests, <J-c.   " It  is  almost  entirely dis-
solved  by muriatic acid, yielding  a colorless solu-
tion ;  the precipitate thrown down by potash is
white, and  soluble in  excess of the  precipitant."
(P. L.)  The salts of tin are characterized by the
following general properties:—1. Ferro-prussiate of
potash  gives  a  white precipitate.—2. Hydrosul-
phuret  of potash, a brown-black with the protox-
ide ; and  a golden-yellow  with the peroxide.—3.
Galls do not affect the solutions of these salts.—4.
Corrosive sublimate occasions a black  precipitate
with the  protoxide salts ;  a white with the perox-
ide.—5. A  plate of lead frequently throws down
metallic tin, or its oxide, from the  saline solutions.
__6. Chloride of  gold gives,  with the  protoxide
solutions, .the  purple precipitate  of  Cassius.—7.
Chloride  of platinum occasions an orange precip-
itate with the protoxide salts.
   TIN, IODIDES  OF.   Syn. Stanni Iodidum.
Prep.__1. (Iodide. Protiodide)   Granulated tin,
2 parts ; iodine 5 parts ; heat together.  A fusible,
brownish-red, translucid substance, soluble in wa-
ter.__2.  (Periodide.)   By  dissolving  hydrated
peroxide of  tin in hydriodic acid.   Yellow,  silky
crystals.
   TIN  MORDANTS.    Prep.  I.  (Berthollet.)
Nitric  acid  at 30° B. 8 parts; sal ammoniac 1
do.; dissolve, then add by -degrees  tin  1 part;  and
when dissolved, dilute the  solution with -Jth of its
weight  of water.
   II. (Poerner.)  Nitric acid and water, of each 1
lb.; sal ammonia  1£ qz.;  dissolve, then add  by
very slow degrees pure tin  beat into ribands 2 oz.
   III.  (Scheffer.)  Nitric acid  and water, of each
2  lbs.;  sal  ammoniac  2 oz.; pure tin 4£ oz.; as
last.
   IV.  (Hellot.) Nitrb acid and water, of each 1
lb.; sal ammoniac 1 oz.; nitre  £ oz.; dissolve,
then add by degrees granulated tin 2 oz.
  V.  (Dambourney.)  Muriatic acid,' at 17° B.,
4 parts ; nitric acid, at .30° B., 1 do.;  dissolve, and
add by degrees, Molucca tin  1  do.
  VI.  Nitric acid, 30° B., 6  parts ; muriatic acid,
17° B., 2 do.; mix,  and add by degrees grain tin
1 part
  VII. Aquafortis  8 parts;  sal  ammoniac, or
common salt, 1 part; dissolve, and  add grain tin
1 part; as  before.   This is the common spirit of
the dyers.
  *V* All  the above are used for dyeing scarlet.
See Dyers' Spirit and  Scarlet Dye.
  TIN,  MURIATES  OF.    Prep.   I.  (Proto-
chloride or Protomuriate of Tin.)  By transmit-
ting muriatic acid gas over grain  tin heated in  a
glass  tube..  Gray ;  solid ; anhydrous.  Or  by di-
gesting granulated tin in muriatic acid as long as
any hydrogen gas  is evolved.  This solution is used
as a  powerful deoxidizing agent.   It  may  be ob-
tained in crystals by evaporation.—2.  (Bichloride
of tin.  Permuriate of do.)   The pure  bichloride
is obtained by heating the protochloride in chlorine
gas, or by  distilling a mixture of 8 parts of grain
tin with  24 parts  of corrosive  sublimate, when  a
very volatile,  colorless  liquid comes  over,  which
was formerly called Libavius' fuming liquor.  A
solution of the bichloride or permuriate of tin  is
obtained by  dissolving  tin in  nitromuriatic acid.
This  solution  is much  used by dyers, under the
name of Spirits of Tin, Dyers' Spirits, Tin Mor-
dant, &c.   For this purpose, the acid is best made
by mixing 2 parts of muriatic  acid with 1 part each
of nitric acid and water, all by  measure.  (Liebig.)
The tin should be  added  by  degrees,  one  portion
being  allowed to  dissolve before adding another;
as without  this precaution the action  is  apt to be-  »
come violent, and  peroxide of tin to be  deposited.
A process  which   lias been   highly recommended,
and seems  preferable to all others, is to prepare  a
simple solution of the protochloride, and to con-
vert it into the bichloride, either by the addition of
nitric acid  and a  gentle heat,  or by passing chlo-
rine through  it.—3.  (Submuriate, or oxychloride
of tin.)  A white  powder, obtained by pouring a
large  quantity of  water on crystallized protochlo-
ride of tin.
  TIN,  OXIDES OF.  Prep.  1.  (Protoxide.)
Precipitate a solution of chloride of tin by carbon-
ate of potassa ; well wash and dry the powder at
a heat under 196°, exposed  to the air as little«as
possible.   It is also formed on the surface of melt-
ed tin.  It is soluble in acids  and the pure fixed
alkalis.—2. (Sesquioxide.) By mixing fresh, moist
hydrated peroxide of tin with  a solution of the neu-
tral protochloride.  The sesquioxide falls as a slimy
precipitate. (Fuchs.)— 3.  (Peroxide of tin.  Stan-
nic acid.)  By the action of nitric  acid on metallic
tin.  The white powder must be well  washed with
water.  When heated to low redness, it turns yel-
low, and becomes  anhydrous.  It may also  be ob-
tained bv adding potassa, or an  alkaline carbonate,
to a solution of perchloride of tin.   Obtained in the
latter way, it  is readily soluble in acids and pure
alkalis; its compounds with  the latter  are  some-
times called stannates.
  TIN  SULPHURETS OF.  Prep.  1.  (Pro-
tosulphuret)   A brittle  bluish-gray compound, 
TIN                    532                    TIN
obtained by  agitating melted  tin  with  its own
weight of sulphur,  in a close vessel.—2. (Sesqui-
sulphuret.)   By heating the prototnlphuret along
with £ of its weight of sulphur, to  low redness.—
3. (Bisulphuret.  Mosaic gold.  Aurum  Musi-
vum.  Do. Mosaicum)—a.  (Berzelius.)  Peroxide
of tin and sulphur, of each 2 parts ; sal ammoniac
1 part;  mix, and expose  it to a  low red heat in a
glass or earthenware retort, till  sulphurous  fumes
cease to  be  evolved.—b.  (Marquis  de Bullion.)
Tin and mercury, of each 8 oz.; mix,  add to the
amalgam  sulphur 6 oz.;  sal ammoniac 4 oz.; mix
well, and  expose the mixture for 3 hours on a sand
heat so as to render the bottom of  the  matrass
obscurely red.—c.  (Chaptal.)   As the last, but
expose the matrass  to a  naked fire, and  apply a
violent heat, when the mixture will take fire, and
a sublimate form in the neck of the matrass, con-
sisting of  the  most beautiful aurum  musivum, in
hexagonal plates.—d. Tin filings, sulphur, sal am-
moniac, equal parts ; sublime.  *** In these sub-
limations, if the fire is too great, only a gray sul-
phuret of tin is obtained.   Used as a metallic gold
color in  varnish-work and sealing-wax.
  TINNING.  Proc. 1. Plates or vessels of brass
or copper, boiled with a solution of  stannate  of
potassa, mixed with  turnings of tin, become, in
the course of a few minutes, covered  with a firm-
ly-attached  layer of pure tin.—2. A similar effect
is produced by boiling the articles with tin filings
and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar.  In the above
way chemical vessels made  of copper  or brass may
be easily and perfectly tinned.
  TINCTURE.   Syn. Teinture  ;  Alcoole,
(Fr.)  Tinctura, (Lat., from tingo,  to dye.)  A
spirituous solution of animal, vegetable, or mineral
substances.   The  merit  of having invented tinc-
tures is  usually assigned to Arnoldus de Villa Nova,
who was Professor of Medicine at Montpellier, about
the end of the  thirteenth century.  He  was the
first person who employed alcohol for the purpose
of extracting the  active principles  of vegetable
matter.   Prep. "Tinctures are  usually prepared
by reducing  the  solid ingredients  to  small  frag-
ments, coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating
them for  7 days or upwards in  proof or  rectified
spirit, straining the solution through linen or calico,
(or paper,)  and finally  expressing the residuum
strongly, to obtain what fluid is still retained in the
mass.   They an  also prepared by  the method of
displacement or percolation." (P. E.)   " All tinc-
tures should be prepared in close glass (or stone-
ware) vessels, and be shaken frequently during the
process  of maceration."  (P. L.)  Cooper's patent
jars  are very convenient for the  preparation of
tinctures, as they  are made  with wide  mouths,
large enough to admit the hand, and yet may be
closed in an instant, with as much ease and cer-
tainty as  an ordinary stoppered bottle.  Tinctures
are better clarified by repose than by filtration, as
in the latter case a considerable portion is retained
by the medium, and lost by evaporation.  In ordi-
nary cases, it will be sufficient to allow the tincture
to settle for a few days,  and then  to pour off  the
clear supernatant portion through a funnel loosely
choked with  a piece of sponge or tow, to keep back
any floating fragments of straw or other light sub-
stances ;  after which the remaining foul portion of
the liquid may be filtered through  paper.   When
it is absolutely necessary to filter a tincture, and
the quantity is large, conical bags should be em-
ployed.   The  filtration  should be  conducted  as
rapidly as possible, for the  double  purpose of les-
sening the amount  lost  by  evaporation, and the
action of the air on the fluid.  Tinctures long ex-
posed to the air frequently lose their transparency
within a few days after being filtered, owing to the
oxidizement and precipitation of some portion of
the matter  previously held in solution.  Resinous
and oily tinctures, as those of  myrrh,  tolu,  and
lavender, (comp.,) may be usually restored to their
former brightness by the addition of a quantity of
spirit, equal to that they  have lost by evaporation ;
but many tinctures resist this mode of treatment,
and require refiltering. Ethereal tinctures are best
prepared by percolation,  and should be both made
and kept in stoppered bottles.
  Uses, <$-c. Tinctures, from the  quantity of al-
cohol  they contain,  are necessarily administered
in small doses, unless in cases where stimulants
are indicated.  The  most important and useful of
them are those that contain very active ingredients,
such as the tinctures of opium, foxglove, hemlock,
henbane,  &c.  In many  instances, the solvent,
even in doses of a few fluid drachms, often acts
more  powerfully on  the living system, than the
principles it holds in solution.  In  ordinary cases,
this action, when  continued for some time,  pro-
duces the same deleterious  effects  as  the habitual
use of ardent spirits,  and often  lays the foundation
of the pernicious custom of dram-drinking. When
the action of a substance is the reverse of stimu-
lant, it cannot with  propriety be exhibited in thifl
form, unless the dose be so small that the operation
of the spirit cannot be taken into  account;  as  in
the tinctures of foxglove and opium, for example.
The chief use of this class  of preparations, there-
fore, is to enable infusions and decoctions, to which
they are added, to sit lighter on the  stomach,  or
to add to them some active principle which water
is incapable of  extracting.   They are also  useful
as means  of preserving the  active ingredients of
drugs without alteration.
  Qual. The  tinctures  of the shops  are  usually
very uncertain and inferior preparations.  Not only
is their manufacture  carelessly conducted, with-
out reference to the  respective  characters of their
ingredients, but  the  ingredients  themselves are
usually deficient in strength and quantity.  It is a
general practice among  the druggists to substitute
a mixture of equal parts of  rectified spirit of wine
and water, or a spirit  of about 26 u.  p.,  for proof
spirit; and a mixture of 2  gallons of water with 5
gallons of spirit of wine, for rectified  spirit.   The
dry ingredients are also usually selected from such
as are unfit for sale.  In  some wholesale drug-
houses it is a general practice to  make all their
simple tinctures (except  those that  are of a very
active or valuable kind, as laudanum, for instance)
with 1 lb. of the  dry ingredient to  the  gallon'  of
spirit.   Appearance  is the  object  which is  alone
aimed at,  without  reference to quality.   If the
tincture be perfectly transparent,  and has a good
color, the conscience of the seller and  the stomach
of the consumer are  alike  satisfied.  Verily, im-
agination must be a powerful auxiliary to physic !
  TINCTURE OF ACONITE.   Syn. Tinctu-
ra  Aconiti Recentis.  Prep. (P. Cod.)  Fresh 
TIN                    533                   TIN
 leaves of aconite, bruised in a marble mortar, and |
 rectified spirit of wine, equal parts ; macerate for
 15 days, press, and filter.  %* In the same way
 tinctures are prepared from the fresh leaves of bel-
 ladonna, foxglove, hemlock,  henbane,  strong-
 scented  lettuce,  (lactuca virosa)  stramonium,
 trailing poison oak, (rhus toxicodendron) mug-
 wort,  (artemisia  vulgaris)  colchicum  corms,
 squirting cucumber, (momordica  elaterium) ja-
 cobea, white poppy, taraxacum, A}c, fyc.  These
 tinctures (preserved vegetable juices,  alcohola-
 tures) are stronger than those prepared from the
 dried plants, and are not to be used except when
 expressly ordered.   Another  mode  of  preparing
 them is to express the juice from the bruised leaves,
 add  to it the spirit, and filter. The former method,
 adopted  in the  Paris  Codex,  is preferred by M.
 Soubeiran as affording  more  uniform  products.
 (See Vegetable Juices.)
   TINCTURE  OF ALOES.  Syn.  Tinctura
 Aloes, (P. L. E. and  D.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Aloes,
 (hepatic,) coarsely powdered, §j ; extract of liquor-
 ice  ^iij; water  1£  pints; rectified spirit £ pint;
 macerate 4 days.  Purgative and stomachic. Dose.
 i  to I oz.
   TINCTURE  OF ALOES, (COMP.)   Syn.
 Tinct. Aloes Composita,  (P. L.  and D.)  T.
 Aloes et  Myrrha:, (P. E.)   Elixir Proprieta-
 tis.   Prep. I. (P. L.)  Aloes,  (hepatic) coarsely
 powdered, § iv ;  hay saffron ^ij  ; tincture of myrrh
 1  quart; macerate 14  days with occasional agita-
 tion, and strain.   The Dublin  College  omits the
 saffron.—2.  (Wholesale.)  Aloes  1  *b.; myrrh |
 lb. ;  hay saffron 2 oz.;  rectified spirit 5 pints ; wa-
 ter 3 pints ; as  last.  Purgative,  stomachic, and
 emmenagogue.  Dose. £ to 1 dr.
   TINCTURE OF AMMONIA, (COMP.) Syn.
 Tinct. A.MMONifi Comp., (P. L.)  Spiritus  Ammo-
 Nifi  Succinatus.   Prep. (P. L.) Mastich 3ij; rec-
 tified spirit f 3ix ;  macerate till dissolved, pour off
 the clear, add oil of lavender 14 drops ;  oil  of am-
 ber 4 drops; stronger  liquor of ammonia  1 pint,
 and  agitate well together.  Without the oil of am-
 ber this forms eau  de  luce, (aqua luciae.)   Anti-
 spasmod  and stimulant.  Dose.  10 to 40 drops,
 in hysteria, &c.
   TINCTURE OF ANTIMONY.  Syn. Tinct.
 Antimonii.   Prep. (P. L. 1745.) Crude antimony
 lb. ss ; salt of tartar lb. j; melt with  a strong heat
 for half an hour, powder while still warm, add rec-
 tified spirit 1 quart, and digest for 4 days.
   TINCTURE OF ASAFGETIDA. Syn. Tinct.
 Fcstid^e, (P. L.  1745.)   T. AsAFffiTiDfi, (P. L. E.
 and  D.)  Prep.—l.  (P. L.) Asafcetida (small) §v;
 rectified  spirit  1 quart;  macerate  14 days.—2.
 (Wholesale.)  Asafcetida 2 lbs.;  boiling water 2
 quarts ; dissolve, add rectified spirit 1£ gallons, agi-
 tate  well for 3 or 4 days, then let it settle, and de-
 cant the  clear.   Dose.  £ to 2 drs.; in hysteria and
 flatulent  colic.
   TINCTURE OF ASAFffiTIDA, (AMMO-
 NIATED.)  Syn. Tinct. AsAFosTiDfi Ammonia-
 ta.  Sp.  AMMONifi Fcetidus.   (See Spirits.)
   TINCTURE OF BALSAM OF PERU. Syn.
Tinct. Balsami  Peruviani.   Prep. (P.  L.  1788.)
 Balsam of Peru  ^iv;  rectified  spirit  f fxvj; dis-
solve.  Pectoral, stimulant, and fragrant.
   TINCTURE OF BALSAM OF TOLU. Syn.
Tinst. Tolutani.   T.  Balsami Tolutani, (P. L.
| and D.)  T.  Tolutana,  (P.  E.)   Prep. (P. L.)
 Balsam of Tolu §ij ;  rectified  spirit  1 quart ; dis-
 solve.   Pectoral  and expectorant.  Dose.  £ to 2
 drs. as an adjunct in pectoral mixtures.
   TINCTURE  OF  BELLADONNA.   Syn.
 Tinct. Belladonnas.  Prep.—l. (Bailey.) Dried
 leaves of belladonna §ij; proof spirit f gxvj ; mace
 rate 20 days.—2. (Wholesale) Dried leaves 1 lb.*,
 proof  spirit 1 gallon ; macerate 14 days.  Dose.
 15 to 40 drops.
   TINCTURE  OF  BENZOIN.  Syn. Pecto-
 ral Balsam of Honey.   Tinct. of Benjamin.  T
 Benzoini.  T. Benzoes. Prep.—1. (P. Cod.)  Gum
 benzoin §iv;  rectified spirit 1 pint; macerate  6
 days.—2. To the last add liquid storax 3vj  ; essence
 of jasmine 3ij ;  oil of rhodium 3ss; musk 12 grs.;
 rivet 9 grs.  Used to perfume clothes, to evapo-
 rate in sick rooms, mixed with rose water to make
 extemporaneous milk of roses, and in doses of 5 to
 10 drops as a pectoral and antispasmodic.
   TINCTURE OF BENZOIN, (COMPOUND.)
 Syn.  Friar's  Balsam.  Vervain's  do.   Wound
 do. The  Commander's  do.  Balsam  for Cuts.
 Wade's Drops.  Jesuit's do.  Compound Tinct.
 of Benjamin.   Baume de Commandeur.   Balsa-
 mum Traumaticum, (P.  L.  1745.)  Tinct.  Ben-
 zoes Comp.,  (P. L. 1788.)  T. Benzoini Comp.,
 (P. L. 1809, and since, P. E. and D.)  Prep.—l.
 (P. L.) Gum benzoin §iiiss ; strained storax f iiss ;
 balsam of tolu  3x ; aloes  (hepat.)  3v ;  rectified
 spirit 1 quart; macerate  with frequent  agitation
 for 14 days.   This produces a  most beautiful tinc-
 ture, truly balsamic; the following  is, however,
 very generally substituted in the wholesale trade.
 —2. Gum benzoin 4 lbs.; aloes (lively colored) l\
 lb.; liquid storax 1 lb.; balsam of tolu \ lb.;  pow-
 dered turmeric (best) 6 oz.;  rectified spirit 5£ gal-
 lons ; digest with frequent agitation  for  10  days,
 then add water 1£ gallons ; again digest for 4 days,
 and after 24 hours' repose, decant the clear.  Very
 fine colored.   Dose. 10 drops  to 2 drs., as a stim-
 ulating expectorant in chronic coughs.   It is also
 used to stop the  bleeding from  cuts, &c.
   TINCTURE  OF  BUCHU.   Syn. Tinct.
 Bucku, (P. E.)  T. Buchu, (P. D.)  Prep. (P. E.)
 Buchu leaves %v ; proof spirit 1 quart; macerate 7
 days, or percolate.  Dose.  1 to 4  drs., as a tonic,
 sudorific, and  diuretic.  It is  inferior to the fresh
 infusion.
   TINCTURE  OF CALUMBA.   Syn. Tinct.
 CALUMBfi, (P. L. and E.)  T. Columbas, (P. D.)
 Prep.  (P. L.)  Calumba root  §iij ; proof spirit  1
 quart;  digest  for 14  days.  The  P. E.  says this
 tincture is more conveniently prepared by percola
 tion.—This tincture is commonly made with 1 lb
 of Calumba root to the gallon of a mixture of equa
 parts of rectified spirit and water.  Dose. 1 to 2
 drs., as a stomachic bitter and tonic, usually joined
 with soda or chalvbeates.
   TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR.  Syn. Spirits
 of Wine and Camphor.  Camphorated Spirit
 Tinct. Camphora:, (P. L.  E.  and, D.)   Spiritus
 Camphoratus, (P. D.)  Prep.  Camphor  §v; rec-
 tified spirit 1 quart ; dissolve.  Stimulant  and ano-
 dyne.   Dose.  10 to 60 drops.  Also as a  liniment
 forsorains, bruises, chronic rheumatism, &c.
   TINCTURE  OF  CAMPHOR,   (COM-
 POUND.)  Syn. Paregoric Elixir.  Camphor-
 ated Tincture  of Opium.  Elixir Paregoricum, 
TIN                    534                   TIN
 (P. L.  1745.)  Tinct.  Opii  Camphorata, (P. L.
 178*-', P. E. and D.)   T. CAMPiioafi Composita,
 (P. L. 1809, and since.)   Prep.—l.  (P. L.)  Cam-
 phor 3iiss ; powdered  opium and benzoic acid, of
 each 72 grains;  oil of aniseed f 3j ; proof spirit 1
 quart;  macerate for 14 days.   The oil  of aniseed
 was omitted in the  P. L. 1824, but restored in 1836.
 —2. (Wholesale.)  Powdered opium 3 oz.; benzoic
 acid, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each 2 oz.;
 rectified spirit and water, of each 3 gallons ; digest
 with agitation a week.  An excellent pectoral and
 anodyne where there are no inflammatory symp-
 toms.   Dose. 1  to  3  drs. in  troublesome coughs,
 &c.  f 5j contains nearly 1 gr. of opium.
   TINCTURE  OF CANTHARIDES.   Syn.
 Tinct.  LvTTfi, (P. L. 1809.)  T. Cantharidis,
 (P. L. lb-24)  Prep.—l.  (P. L.)  Powdered can-
 tharides ^ss ; proof spirit 1 quart; macerate for  14
 days.—2. (Wholesale.)   Powdered cantharides 2
 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of  each £ gallon;
 as  last.  Dose.  10 drops  gradually raised to f3j,
 in any bland liquid.  *** This tincture should  be
 used with caution.  The Ed. College recommends
 it to be  prepared bv displacement.
  TINCTURE OF CAPSICUM.  Syn. Tinct.
 Capsici, (P. L. E. and D.)  Prep. (P. L.) Capsi-
 cum, bruised, 3x; proof spirit 1 quart; digest  14
 days, (or percolate,  P. E.)  Dose.  10 to 60 drops ;
 in scarlet fever, ulcerated sore throat, &,c. It is also
 made in/o a gargle.
  TINCTURE OF  CARDAMOMS.  Syn.
 Tinct. Cardamomi, (P. L. and E.) Prep. (P. L.)
 Bruised cardamom seeds ^iiiss ; proof spirit 1 quart;
 digest for 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.)   %* The
 shells should be sifted from the .-.Ads  before mace-
 ration, and they are preferably ground in a pepper
 mill instead of pounding.  Aromatic and carmina-
 tive.  Dose.  1 to 2  drs.  as an adjunct to purgative
 mixtures.
  TINCTURE  OF  CARDAMOMS,  (COM-
 POUND.)  Syn. Stomachic Tincture.  Tinct.
 Cardamomi composita.  (P. L.  E.  & D.)  Prep.
 1. (P. L.) Cardamom and caraway seeds, of each
 3iiss ; cinnamon 3v ; cochineal 3j;  raisins (stoned)
 §v ; proof  spirit 1  quart; macerate 14  days, (or
 percolate, P. E.)  2. (Wholesale.) Cardamom and
 caraway seeds, of each 4  oz.; cochineal (S. G.)
 6 oz.; cassia 8 oz.; raisins 5  lbs.; proof spirit 4
 gallons, (or rectified spirit and  water, of each 2
 gallons ;) macerate  as last.  %* The Dublin Col-
 lege omits  the cochineal and raisins.  The order
 of the London College to stone  the raisins, is sel-
 dom adopted in practice.   If it were necessary, a
 better plan  would be to use sultana raisins, which
 have no stones.   Dose. 1 to 4 drs. as a cordial and
 stomachic,  but chiefly as an adjunct,  for  its color
 and flavor.
  TINCTURE  OF   CASCARILLA.   Syn.
 Tinct. CascarilljE, (P. L. E. &. D.)   T. Croto-
 nis  Eleutherle.   Prep.  (P. L.)  Cascarilla §v ;
 proof spirit  1 quart; macerate 14 days, (or perco-
 late, (P. E.)  An excellent tonic and  stomachic;
 chiefly employed as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.
 Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
  TINCTURE   OF  CASSIA.  Syn.  Tinct.
CassijE.   Prep. (P. E.) Cassia ^iiiss; proof spirit
 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, or percolate. Stom-
achic.  Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
  TINCTURE   OF  CASTOR  Syn.  Tinct.
i Castorei,  (P.  L.  & E.)  T. Castorei Rossici,
 (P. D.)   Prep.  Castor 5'iss;  rectified spirit  I
 quart ; macerate 14 days, (or pereoiate.)   *** The
 Dublin College orders Russian castor, but the scar-
 city  and high  price of that variety  preclude its
 use.   The  tincture of the  shops  is usually made
 with only 8 oz. of  castor to the gallon.  Dose. 20
 drops to  f 3ij, as an antispasmodic ;  in hysteria,
 epilepsy,  &c.
   TINCTURE OF CASTOR,  (AMMONIA-
 TED.)   Syn. Tinct. Castorei Ammoniata, (P.
 E.)  T. Castorei  comp.  Prep.  (P. E.)  Castor
 ^iiss ; asafcetida 3x; spirit  of  ammonia 1 quart;
 digest 7 days. Stimulant and antispasmodic. Dose
 and use as last.  *** This is the Elixir Fatidum
 of For. Ph., and with the addition of Sjss of opium,
 forms the Elixir  Uterinum, or Elixir Castorei
 T hcociicitiYi,
   TINCTURE OF CATECHU.   Syn. Tinct.
 Catechu, (P, L. E. & D.)  T. Japonica.  Prep.
 1.  (P. L.) Catechu §iiiss ; bruised cinnamon ^iiss ;
 proof spirit 1 quart; macerate 14 days, (or perco-
 late,  P.E.)   2.  (Wholesale.)   Catechu 1£ lbs.;
 oil of cassia 3j ; rectified spirit and water, of each
 1  gallon; macerate 10 days.  Dose.  1 to 2 drs.,
 as an  astringent;   in diarrhoea,  &c,  combined
 with chalk.
   TINCTURE OF CHAMOMILES.   Syn.
 Tinct.  Anthemidis.  Prep. Chamomile flowers 1
 lb.;  proof  spirit 1 gallon; macerate  10  days.
 Stomachic and tonic.  Dose. 1 to 3 drs.
   TINCTURE OF CINCHONA.   Syn. Tinct.
 df Bark.   T. Cinchona, (P.  L. E.  &  D.)  T.
Corticis  Peruvia.m.  Prep. (P. L.) Yellow cin-
chona bark §viij ;  proof spirit  1 quart ;  macerate
for 14 days, (or percolate,  P. E.)  *** The Dublin
College orders pale bark, and the Edinburgh, either
species, according  to prescription.    Tonic and
stomachic.  Dose.  1 to 3  drs.
   TINCTURE  OF  CINCHONA,  (COM-
POUND.)  Syn. Compound Tincture  of Bark.
Huxham's do.   Tinct. CiNCHONfi composita, (P.
L. E. &. D.)  T. Corticis Peruviani comp.  Prep.
1. (P. L.)  Pale bark § iv; dried orange-peel 3"j;
serpentary root 3vj; hay saffron 3ij; cochineal 3j;
macerate  14 days, (or percolate, P. E.)  2. (Whole-
sale.)  Pale bark 3  lbs.; dried orange-peel 2 lbs.;
serpentary root 4 oz.; hay saffron 1 oz.; cochineal
£ oz.;  proof spirit 4 gallons, (or rectified spirit and
water, of  each 2  gallons;) macerate  14  days.
*** The P. E. orders yellow bark.  Dose and use
as the last.
   TINCTURE OF CINNAMON.  Syn. Tinct.
Cinnamomi, (P. L.  E. & D.)   Prep. Cinnamon
fiiiss ; proof spirit 1  quart ; macerate 14 days,  (or
percolate,  P. E.)  In the shops cassia is usually
substituted for  cinnamon, and  spirit  26 u. p.  for
proof spirit.  Dose.  1 to 4 drs'.,  as a cordial, aro-
matic, and stomachic.
   TINCTURE OF  CINNAMON,   (COM-
POUND.)  Syn. Tinct.  Cinnamomi  composita,
(P. L. & E.)  T. Aromatica, (P. L. 1745.) Prep.
1.  (P. L.)  Cinnamon ^j 5 cardamoms ^ss; long
pepper and ginger,  of each 3iiss; proof spirit 1
quart; digest 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.)  The
P. E.  omits the ginger.   The  following  form is
used by many wholesale houses:—2.  Cassia \ lb.;
cardamoms, long pepper, and ginger, of each \ lb.;
oil of cassia 3ss; proof spirit 4  gallons, (or spirits 
TIN                   535                   TIN
of  wine and water, of each 2 gallons.)  Cordial
and aromatic.  Dose.  1 to 2 drs.
   TINCTURE  OF  CLOVES.  Syn. Tinct.
Caryopiiilli.   Prep. (P. Cod.)   Cloves §iv ; rec-
tified spirit (sp. gr. 0-863) 1 pint; digest 7 days.
Aromatic  and  stomachic.   Dose. 10 to 60 drops,
as an adjunct.
   TINCTURE  OF COLCHICUM,  (SEEDS.)
Syn. Tincture  of Meadow Saffron.  Tinct.
Colchici, (P.  L. & E.)   T. Seminum  Colchici,
(P.  D.)   Prep.  (P. L.)  Meadow  saffron seeds,
bruised, (ground in a coffee-mill, P. E.,) §v; proof
Bpirit 1 quart; macerate  14 days, (or percolate,
P. E.)   Dose.  f3ss to 3j, in gout, &c.
  TINCTURE of COLCHICUM, (EXTRACT.)
Syn. Tinct. Colchici Extracti.  Prep. (Bate-
man.) Extract of colchicum 8  grs.; proof spirit
f 5J ; dissolve and filter.
   TINCTURE  OF  COLCHICUM,  (FLOW-
ERS.)   Syn.  Dr.  Wilson's  Eau  Medicinale.
Tinct. Florum Colchici.  Prep. Fresh expressed
 juice of meadow saffron flowers 2 parts; brandy
 1 part;  shake  well  together, and in  a few  days
 decant the clear.
   TINCTURE  OF  COLCHICUM,  (COMP.)
 Syn. Tinct. Colchici comp., (P. L. 1836.)  Spir-
itus Colchici  Ammoniatus,  (P. L. 1824.)  Prep.
 (P. L.)  Colchicum seeds (as above) §v ; aromatic
spirit of ammonia 1 quart; digest 14 days.  Dose.
f3ss to f3j ;  in gout, &c.
   TINCTURE  OF  CUBEBS.  Syn. Tinct.
CuBEBfi.  T.  Piperis CuBEBfi,  (P. D.)   Prep.
(P. L.)  Cubebs ^v;  rectified (proof, P. D.) spirit 1
quart;  digest 14  days.  Dose. 'I to 2  drs., three
times a day,  in diseases of the urinary organs,
&c.
   TINCTURE  OF CUSPARIA.  Syn. Tinct.
Cusparle, (P.  E.)  T. Angosturas,  (P. D.)  T.
Bonplandle TRiFOLiATfi.   Prep. (P. E.) Angos-
tura bark ^ivss ; proof spirit  1 quart; digest or per-
colate.   Tonic, stimulant, and stomachic.  Dose.
1 to 2 drs.
   TINCTURE OF DIGITALIS.  Syn. Tinct.
of  Foxglove.  T. Digitalis,  (P.  L.  E. &  D.)
Dried  foxglove leaves §iv ;  proof spirit  1 quart;
digest 14 days, (or percolate.)  Sedative, diuretic,
and narcotic.   Dose. 10  to  40  drops.   In fever,
dropsy,  phthisis, asthma, &c.
  TINCTURE OF ERGOT.  Syn. Tinct. Er-
GOTfi.   T. Secalis Cornuti.  Prep.  (Apotheca-
ries' Hall.)  Ergot (ground  in a  coffee-mill)  gij;
proof spirit 1 pint; digest 7 days.  Dose. A tea-
spoonful,  to  excite  the  action of  the  uterus  in
labor.
  TINCTURE OF GALBANUM.  Syn. Tinct.
Galbani.  Prep. (P. D.) Galbanum  §ij; proof
spirit  f 3*xxij ;  digest 7 days.  Stimulant and an-
tispasmodic.  Dose.  1 to 3 drs.
  TINCTURE  OF  GALLS.   Syn.  Tinct.
Galla*,  (P. L.)  T.  Gallarum,  (P.  E. & D.)
Prep.  (P. L.)  Bruised  galls gv; proof  spirit 1
quart; digest 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.)  Astrin-
gent.   Dose.  £ to 2 drs.   Chiefly used  as a  test
for iron.
  TINCTURE  OF GENTIAN,  (COMP.)
Syn.  Tinct. Gentian.*  comp.,  (P. L. E. & D.)
T. Amara, (P. L. 1745.)   Prep.  1. (P. L.) Gen-
tian root, sliced and  bruised,  5nss '■> dried orange-
peel ?x : cardamom seeds 3v ; proof spirit 1 quart; I
 digest 14  days, (or percolate, P. E.)  The Edin.
 burgh College substitutes canella for cardamoms,
 and adds cochineal 3ss.  2. (Wholesale.) Gentian
 2 lbs.; dried orange-peel 1 lb.; bruised cardamoms
 \ lb.; proof spirit 4 gallons, (or rectified spirit and
 water, of each 2 gallons ;) digest as last
   TINCTURE  OF  GINGER.   Syn.  Tinct,
 Zingiberis, (P.  L. E. & D.)  Prep.  1.  (P. L.)
 Coarsely-powdered ginger giiss; rectified  spirit 1
 quart; macerate for 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.)
 2. (Wholesale) Coarsely-powdered  bleached Ja-
 maica ginger li lb.; rectified spirit (or spirit dis-
 tilled from the essence) 1£ gallons;  water £ gal-
 lon ; digest as above.  Stimulant and carminative
 Dose. 1 to 2 drs.
   TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM.  Syn.  Tinct.
 Guaiaci,  (P. L. E. & D.)   Prep.   (P. L.) Gum
 guaiacum f vij ;  rectified spirit 1 quart; digest  14
 days.  Dose.  1 to 4 drs.; in chronic rheumatism,
 gout, &c.
    TINCTURE   OF  GUAIACUM,  (COM-
 POUND.)  Syn.  Volatils Tincture  of  Guaia-
 cum.  Ammoniated  do.   Tinct. Guaiacina Vol-
 atilis,  (P. L. 1745.)  T. Guaiaci  comp., (P. L.
 1836.)  T.  Guaiaci Ammoniata,  (P.  E.  & D.)
 Prep. (P. L.)  Guaiacum in coarse powder §vij ;
 aromatic  spirit of ammonia  1  quart;  digest  14
 days.  A powerful, stimulating sudorific and em-
 menagogue, in chronic rheumatism, gout, &c.
   TINCTURE,  HATFIELD'S.   Prep.  Gum
 guaiacum and soap, of each 3ij; rectified  spirit 1
 pint; digest for a week.
   TINCTURE OF (BLACK) HELLEBORE.
 Syn. Tinct.  Hellebori,  (P.  L.)   Prep.  Black
 hellebore §v ;  proof spirit 1 quart; digest 14 days.
 Emmenagogue.   Dose. £ to 1 dr.
   TINCTURE OF (WHITE)  HELLEBORE.
 Syn. Tinct.  Veratri.  T. Hellebori Albi.  T.
 Veratri  Albi.  Prep. (P. E.)   White hellebore
 §iv ; proof spirit 1 pint; digest or percolate. Dose.
 10 drops 2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased,
 in gout and rheumatism.
   TINCTURE OF HEMLOCK.  Syn.  Tinct.
 Conii, (P. L.  E. & D.) T. Cicuta:.   Prep. 1. (P.
 L.)   Dried hemlock  leaves §v; cardamom seeds
 5j;  proof  spirit 1 quart; digest 14  days.—2. (P.
 E.)   Fresh leaves %xij, express the juice, and per-
 colate the residue with tincture of cardamoms f^x ;
 rectified spirit  1£ pints; mix the liquids, and filter.
 Deobstruent and narcotic.   Dose of the P.  L.  20
 to 60 drops.
   TINCTURE OF HEMP, (INDIAN.)   Syn.
 Tinct. Cannabis.  Prep.  (O'Shaughnessy.)  Al-
 coholic extract of Indian hemp 24 grs. ;  proof spir-
 it  f §j ; dissolve.   Dose. 10 drops every £ hour in
 cholera;  3j every £ hour in tetanus till the  parox-
 ysms cease, or catalepsy is induced.
  TINCTURE  OF HENBANE.   Syn.  Tinct.
 Hyoscyami, (P. L.  E. & D.) Prep.  (P.  L.) Dried
 henbane leaves §v ; proof spirit 1 quart; digest 14
 days, (or percolate, P. E.)  Anodyne, sedative, so-
 porific, and narcotic.  Dose, f 3ss to 3ij.  %* The
 tinctures of henbane, foxglove, hemlock, hops, ja-
 lap,  lobelia inflata, rhatany, savin,  squills,  senna,
valerian, wormwood, &c,  are usually prepared by
the druggists with 1 lb. of the dried leaves to each
gallon of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit
and  water.
  TINCTURE  OF HOPS.  Syn.  Tinct.  Lu- 
TIN                     536                   TIN
puli, (P. L.)  T. Humuli, (P. D.)  Prep.  (P. L.)
Hops  §vj;  proof spirit 1 quart; digest  14 days.
Anodyne, sedative, and soporific. Dose. £ to 2 drs.
  TINCTURE, HUDSON'S.   Prep. Tinctures
of myrrh  and  cinchona,  and  cinnamon  water,
equal  parts, with a  little  arquebusade and  gum
arabic.  Used as a cosmetic for the teeth.
  TINCTURE OF  IODINE.   Syn.  Tinct.
Iodinii, (P. D.)  T. Iodinei, (P. E.)   Prep.—l.
(P. D.)  Iodine §j ;  rectified spirit §x j dissolve.
Majendie  and  the Paris Codex order the same
proportions.—2. (P. E.) Iodine  §j; rectified spirit
f §xvj ;  dissolve.  Dose. 5 to 30 drops where the
use of iodine is indicated.
  TINCTURE OF IODINE, (COMPOUND.)
Syn. Tinct.  Iodinii  comp.  Prep.  (P. L.)  Iodine
^j; iodide of potassium ^ij ;  rectified spirit 1 quart ;
dissolve.  Dose. 10 drops, gradually increased to 1
dr. where the use of iodine is indicated.
  TINCTURE OF IPECACUANHA.    Syn.
Tinct. Ipecacuanile.  Prep. (P. Cod.)  Ipecac-
uanha §j; rectified spirit f%v;  digest.
  TINCTURE OF ACETATE OF IRON.
Syn.  Tinct. Ferri  Acetatis.  Prep. (P.  D.)
Acetate of potash 2 parts ; sulphate of iron 1 do.;
triturate together, dry, digest in rectified spirit 26
parts, for 7 days, and decant the clear.  Dose. £
to 1 dr., as  a  chalybeate tonic.
  TINCTURE OF ACETATE OF  IRON,
(ALCOHOLIC.)  Syn. Tinct. Ferri Acetatis
cum alcohole.   Prep. (P. D.)   Sulphate  of iron
and acetate of potassa, of each §j; alcohol 1 quart,
(wine measure;) proceed as last, and digest for 24
hours.   Dose and use as the last.
  TINCTURE OF  IRON, (AMMONIATED.)
Syn. Mynsicht's Tincture of Iron.   Tincture
OF AMMONIO-CHLORIDI OF IRON.   T. FERRI  AMMO-
nio-chloridi, (P.  L.)   T.  Ferri  ammoniati.
Prep.  (P.  L.)   Ammonio-chloride  of iron  giv;
proof spirit 1 pint; dissolve.  Dose.  20  to 60 drops,
as a stimulant, chalybeate tonic.
  TINCTURE OF SESQUICHLORIDE  OF
IRON.   Syn. Tinct.  of  muriate of  Iron.   T.
Ferri Sesquichloridi, (P. L.)   T. Ferri  muria-
tis,  (P.  E.)   Liquor Ferri  muriatis,  (P. D.)
Prep. (P. L.)   Sesquioxide of iron §vj ; muriatic
acid I pint; digest in glass  for  3 days, frequently
shaking, then add rectified  spirit 3 pints, and de-
cant   A ferruginous tonic.  Dose.  10  to 30 drops,
gradually  increased.  %*  In  the old Tinctura
Martis, P. L., iron  filings,  and in the T. Ferri
muriatis, P.  E. 1817, black oxide of iron, were
used instead of the sesquioxide or carbonate.
  TINCTURE OF SESQUINITRATE  OF
IRON.   Syn. Tinct. Ferri sesquinitratis. Do.
do. persesquinitratis.  Prep.  (Onion.) Iron fil-
ings §ss; nitric acid  (1*5)  §ij  3ij; dissolve,  add
muriatic acid (116)  3vj ; simmer for 2 or  3 min-
utes,  cool, add rectified spirit §viij,  and  filter.
Proposed as  a substitute for the last preparation.
Dose the same.
  TINCTURE OF JALAP.  Syn.  Tinct. Ja-
laps, (P. L.  E & D.)  T. Jalapii, (P. L. 1788.)
Prep. (P. L.)  Bruised jalap-root %x ; proof spirit
I quart; digest 14 days, (or percolate,  P. E.) Ca-
'hartic.   Dose.  1 to 4 drs.
  TINCTURE OF KINO.  Syn. Tinct. Kino,
(P. L. E. &, D.)  Prep. Kino ^iiiss; rectified spir-
'♦ 1 quart;  macerate 14 days.   Astringent. Dose.
1 to 2 drs. combined with chalk mixture in diar-
rhoea, &c.
  TINCTURE  OF LACTUCARIUM.  Syn.
Tinct.  Lactucarii.  Prep.  (P.  E.)  Powdered
lactucarium §iv;  proof  spirit 1 quart ;  digest or
percolate.  Anodyne, soporific, antispasmodic, and
sedative.  Dose. 20 to 60 drops,  mx contain I gr.
of lactucarium.
  TINCTURE  OF   LAVENDER,   (COM-
POUND.)   Syn. Lavender Drops.   Red do.
Red Lavender.  Red  Hartshorn.  Tinct. La-
vandulae  composita, (P. L.)  Spiritus  Lavan-
dula compositus, (P. E. & D.)  Prep.—1. (P. L.)
Spirit of lavender 1£ pints;  spirit of rosemary £
pint;  red sanders wood (rasped)  3v; cinnamon
and nutmegs, of each 3iiss; macerate 14  days__
2. (Wholesale.)   Oil of cassia £ oz.; oil  of nut-
megs  1 oz.;  oils  of lavender  and  rosemary, of
each 4£ oz.;  red  sanders  (rasped)  3  lbs.; proof
spirit  6 gallons, (or  rectified  spirit and  water, of
each 3  gallons;)  digest 14  days.   Should  it be
cloudy, add a little  more proof spirit.  Stimulant,
cordial, and stomachic.   Dose. 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls
(£ to 2 drs.) in  lowness of spirits, faintness, flatu-
lence, hysteria, &c.
  TINCTURE  OF LOBELIA.   Syn.  Tinct.
of Indian  Tobacco. T. Lobelia;, (P. E.)  T.
Lobelias iNFLAT.fi.  Prep.  (P. E.)   Dried  and
powdered lobelia  inflata |v ;  proof spirit 1 quart ;
digest or percolate.   Dose.  As an expectorant, 10
to 60  drops ; as an emetic  and antispasmodic f 3j
to f 3ij, every third hour till it causes  vomiting.
It is principally employed  in spasmodic asthma,
and some other pulmonary affections.
  TINCTURE OF LOBELIA, (ETHEREAL.)
Syn.  Tinct. Lobelia:  fiTHEREA.   Prep.  i» (P.
E.) Powdered  lobelia inflata ^v ; spirit of sulphuric
ether 1 quart;  digest or percolate in a close vessel.
—2. (Whitlaw.)   Lobelia lb. j :  rectified spirit and
spirit of nitric  ether, of  each 2 quarts; macerate
for 14  days in the dark.  Use  and  doses as the
last.
  TINCTURE OF LUPULINE.   Syn.  Tinct.
LupuLiNfi.  T. Lupuli,  (P. E.)  Prep. The yel-
lowish brown  powder attached to the scales of
hops, separated by friction  ahd sifting, §v; recti-
fied spirit  1  quart; digest  or  percolate.   Dose.
f3ss to f 3ij.  (See Tincture of Hops.)
  TINCTURE  OF   MUSK.   Syn.  Tinct.
Moschi.  Prep. (P.  D.)  Musk 3ij  ; rectified spir-
it  f^xvj •  digest  7 days.   Antispasmodic, but
principally used as a Derfume, beincr too weak for
medical use.
  TINCTURE  OF MYRRH.    Syn.  Tinct.
MvRRiifi, (P.  L.  E. & D.)  Prep.—l.  (P. L.)
Myrrh §iij; rectified spirit 1  quart;  digest for 14
days, (or percolate, P. E.)—2. (Wholesale.)  Bruis-
ed myrrh 2\ lbs.; rectified spirit 2 gallons  ; water
1 gallon.  As last.   Tonic and*stimulant   Dose.
£ to 1 dr., as an adjunct  in mixtures, &c.   Chiefly
used, diluted with water, as a dentifrice or  wash
for ulcerated spongy gums.
  TINCTURE OF MYRRH, (COMPOUND.)
Syn.  Tinct.  Myrrha: comp.   Prep.   Bruised
myrrh and Socotrine aloes, of each  2  lbs.; recti-
fied spirit and water, of each 2£ gallons ; digest for
14 days.  This is frequently substituted for com-
pound tincture of  aloes in the wholesale trade.
  TINCTURE  OF  NUX  VOMICA.    Syn. 
TIN
537
TIN
 Tinct.  Nucis  VoMicfi.   Prep.  (P. D.)   Nux
 vomica (ground in a coffee-mill) ^ij ; rectified spir-
 it fgviij ;  macerate 7 (14) days.  Dose. 5 to  10
 drops, in paralysis, &c.  It is poisonous.
   TINCTURE, ODONTALGIC.  Prep. (Col-
 lier.)  Pellitory of Spain %?b ;  camphor 3iij ; opium
 3j ;  oil of cloves 3ij ; rectified spirit  f fxvj; digest
 for a week.   Used for the  toothache; applied  on
 lint.                                '   ™
 '  TINCTURE OF OPIUM.  Syn. Laudanum.
 Tinct. Opii, (P. L. E. & D.)   Prep.—l. (P. L.)
 Hard opium, powdered, § iij ;  proof spirit 1 quart;
 macerate  14 days, and filter.  This preparation
 has  a deep brownish red color, and mxix contain
 about 1 gr. of opium.  Its  sp. gr. is 0*952. (Phil-
 lips.)  Dose.  10 to 60 drops as an anodyne,  or
 hypnotic.  The following form is substituted  for
 that of the Pharmacopoeia by some wholesale drug
 houses.—2. Turkey opium  2£ lbs. ; boiling water
 9 quarts;  digest till  dissolved, cool, add rectified
 spirit 2 gallons, and after repose, decant  the clear.
 Prod. 4 gallons.
   TINCTURE  OF  OPIUM,  (AMMONIA-
 TED.)  Syn.  Tinct. Opii  ammoniata.   Prep.
 (P. E.)  Benzoic acid and  hay saffron, of each,
 3vj ; sliced opium 3iv ; oil of aniseed 3j; spirit of
 ammonia 1 quart;  digest for a week,  and filter.
 Stimulant  and antispasmodic   Dose.  20  to  60
 drops in hooping-cough, &c.   *** This  prepara-
 tion  is  called paregoric, or paregoric  elixir,  in
 Scotland,  but should be  carefully distinguished
 from the compound tincture  of camphor, which
 passes under the same names in England; as the
 former  contains about 4 times as  much opium as
 the latter.
   TINCTURE OF ORANGE PEEL.   Syn
 Tinct. Aurantii,  (P. L. &. E.)  T. Corticis au-
 rantii, (P. L. 1788.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Dried orange
 peel ^iiiss; proof spirit 1 quart;  digest for 14 days.
 A grateful bitter  stomachic.   Dose. 1 to 3 drs.,
 mostly as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.
  TINCTURE OF  PELLITORY. Syn. Tinct.
 Pyrethri.  Prep.  (Pereira.)   Pellitory  of  Spain
 and  water, of each, fj;  rectified spirit §v; digest
 Used to relieve toothache.
  TINCTURE OF QUASSIA.  Syn. Tinct.
 Quassias,  (P. E. & D.)  Prep. (P.  E.)  Quassia,
 in chips, 3x;  proof spirit 1  quart; digest 7 days.
 Bitter.   Dose. £ to 2 drs. in dyspepsia and stom-
 ach  diseases.
  TINCTURE OF QUASSIA,  (COMP.)  Syn.
 Tinct. Quassia: comp.  Prep. (P. E.) Cardamoms
 and  cochineal,  bruised,  of  each,  §ss'  powdered
 cinnamon and quassia chips, of each, 3yj ; raisins
 ^vij ; proof spirit  1 quart;  digest for 7 days,  or
 percolate.  Aromatic and  tonic.  Dose and use
 as the last.
  TINCTURE OF RHUBARB.  Syn. Tinct.
 Rh.ei.  Prep.  (P. E.) Powdered  rhubarb ^iiiss  ;
 cardamom  seeds, bruised, ^ss ; proof spirit 1 quart;
 digest or percolate.   Cordial, stomachic, and laxa-
tive.   Dose. 3j to ^j-
  TINCTURE OF RHUBARB, (COMP.) Syn.
Tinct.  Rhasi  comp.,  (P. L. & D.)  T.  Rhab.vr-
bari comp., (P. L. 1788.)  Prep.—l. (P. L.) Rhu-
barb, sliced, ^iiss ;  liquorice  root, bruised, 3vj;
ginger,  bruised, and  hay saffron, of each, 3iij ;
proof spirit 1  quart;  digest  14 days.  A popular
remedy in diarrhoea and colic, especially of drunk -
                      68
ards.   Dose. As  a stomachic, 1 to 3 drs.;  as a
purgative,  £ to 1£ oz.  The tincture of rhubarb
of the shops is mostly inferior, being deficient both
in rhubarb and spirit.  The following forms I have
seen extensively used in the wholesale trade :—2.
East  India rhubarb -20 lbs.; boiling water q. s. to
cover  it, infuse for 24 hours, then slice the  rhu-
barb,  and put it into a cask with moist sugar, 14
lbs.;  ginger, bruised, 3£  lbs.;  hay  saffron 1  lb.;
carbonate of potash £ lb.; bruised nutmegs i  lb.;
rectified spirit 19 gallons ;  water 21  gallons ;  ma-
cerate with frequent agitation for 14 days, decant
the clear,  press,  and filter  the  bottoms.  Those
houses that adhere to the L. Ph. for 1824 substi-
tute cardamom seeds 5 lbs. for the ginger.
   TINCTURE OF RHUBARB AND ALOES.
Syn.  Tinct. Rha:i  et Aloes.  Elixir  sacrum.
Prep. (P. E.) Rhubarb ^'ss j  Socotrine  or East
Indian aloes 3vj ;  cardamom seeds 3v ; proof spirit
1 quart; macerate 7 days, or percolate.  A warm
stomachic purgative.  Dose. £ oz. to 1 oz.
   TINCTURE OF RHUBARB  AND GEN-
TIAN.  Syn.  Tinct. Riifii et Gentiana;,  (P.
E.)   T.  Rhasi amara.  Prep.  (P.  E.)  Rhubarb
f ij ; gentian § ss; proof spirit  1 quart.   As last.
Stomachic, tonic,  and purgative.  Dose. 1 dr. to
1 oz.
   TINCTURE,  RUSPINI'S.  Prep. Orris  root
^viij ;  cloves §j ;  ambergris 9j ;  rectified spirit 1
quart; digest for 14 days.  A fashionable denti-
frice.
   TINCTURE OF SAFFRON.  Syn.  Tinct.
Croci.  Prep.  (P. E.) Hay  saffron §ij;  proof
spirit  1 quart;  digest or percolate.  Stimulant,
and emmenagogue.   Dose. 1  to 2  drs.  Chiefly
used for its color and flavor.
   TINCTURE OF SENNA,  (COMPOUND.)
Syn.  Tinct. SENNfi comp., (P. L. E.  & D.) Elix-
ir Salutis.  Prep.—1. (P. L.)  Senna §iiiss ; cara-
way seeds  3iiiss ;  cardamom seeds 3j ; raisins §v ;
proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days, (or per-
colate, P. E.)—2.  (P. E.)  Sugar ^iiss;  coriander
seeds  §j ;  jalap  3vj ; raisins and senna, of each,
§iv; caraways and cardamoms, of each, 3v; proof
spirit  1 quart.  As last.—3. (Wholesale) Senna
6  lbs.; treacle 2 lbs.; caraways  \ lb.; carda-
moms \ lb. ;  rectified spirit and water, of each, 4
gallons ;  as before.  Carminative, stomachic,  and
purgative.   Dose. \ to 1 oz.
   TINCTURE   OF  SERPENTARY.  Syn.
Tinct. of Snake Root.   T. Serpentarle, (P. L.
E. & D.)   Prep. Serpentary §iiiss ; proof spirit 1
quart; macerate for 14 days, (or percolate, P. E.)
Tonic and  diaphoretic.  Dose.  1  to 3 drs.
   TINCTURE  OF SQUILLS.  Syn.  Tinct.
Scilla:, (P. L. E. D.)  Prep. (P. L.) Dried squills
(fresh) f v ;  proof spirit 1 quart ; macerate for 14
days,  (or percolate,  P. E.)   Expectorant and diu-
retic.   Dose. 10 to 30 drops, in chronic coughs,
and other bronchial affections.
  TINCTURE  OF  STRAMONIUM.  Syn.
Tinct. of  Thorn Apple.   T. Stramonii.  Prep.
(P. U. S.)  Bruised  stramonium seeds ^ij ; proof
spirit  ^xvj ; digest for 6 days.  Anodyne.  Dose.
10  to  20  drops, in  neuralgia, rheumatism,  &c.
Said to be superior to laudanum.
  TINCTURE  OF VALERIAN.   Syn. Tinct.
Valerianae (P. L. E. & D.)  Prep. (P. L.)  Va-
lerian root §v; proof spirit 1 quart; macerate 14 
TIS
538
TOB
days, (or percolate,  P. E.)  Tonic and antispas-
modic   Dose.  1  to  3 drs in hysteria, epilepsy,

  TINCTURE  OF  VALERIAN,   (COMP.)
Syn. Ammoniated Tincture of Valerian.   Vo-
latile do. do.  Tinct. Valerianae Comp., (P. L.)
T. Valeriana;  Ammoniata, (P. E. & D.)   Prep.
(P.  L.) Valerian %v; aromatic spirit of ammonia
1 quart; macerate 14 days, (or percolate  P. E.)
Stimulant, tonic, and antispasmodic.  Dose and
use as  the last.   The tincture of the shops is gen-
erally made with only 1 lb. of the  root to the gal-
lon.
  TINCTURE  OF ACETATE  OF  ZINC.
Syn.   Tinct.  Zinci  Acetatis.   Prep.  (P. D.)
Acetate  of potash and sulphate of zinc, of each,
^j ; rub  together, then add rectified spirit f ^xvj,
and macerate  for a  week.  Astringent.  Diluted
with water, it is used as a collyrium and injection.
  TINCTURES, CONCENTRATED.   Syn.
Tinct. Concentrat* Haenli.  Prep. (Baden Ph.)
These  are much stronger than ordinary tinctures,
and are thus prepared:—Digest 8 parts of the vege-
table powder in 16  of spirit of wine 0857  for 4
days at 72° F., stirring occasionally.   Then press
and filter.  Add to the residue as much spirit as it
has absorbed, press,  and filter.   Mix the liquore,
the weight of which  should be  16 parts.  In this
way are  prepared concentrated tinctures of  aco-
nite leaves ; arnica and chamomile flowers ; bella-
donna, conium, digitalis, hyoscyamus, peppermint,
and  savine leaves;  ipecacuanha and  valerian
roots, &c.
  TINCTURES, .ETHEREAL.  Syn. Tinct.
^therea;.  Prep. (P. Cod.)  1. Ethereal Tinc-
ture of Aconite.   Powdered aconite leaves 3"j ;
sulphuric ether  §iv, (ffvj.)   It is best prepared by
percolation  in  a  cylindrical glass vessel furnished
with a  stopper,  and  terminating at the lower end
in a funnel, which is to be  obstructed with a little
cotton.   The powder being introduced over the
cotton, pour on it enough ether to moisten  it, put
in the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of  a bot-
tle, and leave it for 48 hours.  Then add gradually
the rest of the ether, and, lastly, enough water to
displace  the ether absorbed.  *** In  a  similar
manner are prepared  the ethereal tinctures  of ar-
nica flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, to-
bacco,  pellitory, solanum,  valerian, stramonium,
<J*c, of the Paris Cdex.
  2. Ethereal Tincture of  Ambergris.   Am-
bergris ^j; sulphuric ether ^iv, (f gyj;)  macerate
in a stoppered bottle for 4 days,  and filter in a
covered funnel.   *»* In a similar way are made
the ethereal tinctures of asafcetida, cantharides,
(^ij to acetic ether  5VMJ>) castor, musk,  amber,
tolu, 6cc, of the P. Codex.
  3. Ethereal Tincture of  Perchloride of
Iron.  (Bestuchef's   Tincture.)   Perchloride of
iron, (dried,) 3j ; spirit of sulphuric ether f 3ix;
dissolve.
  TINCTURES FOR KITCHEN USE.  (See
Essences.)
  TISANES.  Syn. Ptisans.   Fluid medicines,
consisting for the most part of aqueous infusions,
or decoctions of substances possessing little  activi-
ty, and intended to be drunk in considerable quan-
tity. They are much used in France.  They may
be readily formed by slightly medicating barley,
rice, or tamarind water, lemonade, &c.   (See Ju-
leps, Decoctions, Infusions, &c.)
  TITANIUM,  (after the Titans of ancient fa-
ble.)   A rare metal, discovered  by Klaproth, in
mechanite, in 1794, but first  minutely examined
by Wollaston, in 1822.  It is hard, brittle, and in-
fusible ; sp. gr. 5*3.  It is occasionally  found at
the bottom of the smelting furnaces of iron works,
under  the form of minute crystals, having a cop-
pery lustre.—Oxide of Titanium is a deep purple
powder, obtained by placing a  piece  of metallic
zinc or iron in the muriatic solution of titanic acid.
—Titanic Acid (peroxide of titanium) is  found
nearly pure in the minerals rutile and  anastase.
It may be obtained from rutile by fusing it in pow-
der, mixed with 3 times its weight of carbonate of
potash, powdering and washing the resulting com-
pound ; dissolving  in strong muriatic acid ;  dilu-
ting with  water, and boiling; when most of the
titanic acid falls down, and after being  collected
on a filter must be well  washed with dilute muria-
tic  acid.   It  may  also  be prepared by  calcining
titanium  along with nitre, and decomposing the
resulting titanate of potassa, as above.  Metallic
titanium  is insoluble in  all acids, except the nitro-
hydrochloric, and then only when reduced to very
fine powder.
  TOBACCO.  Syn.   Tabac, (Fr.)   Tabacum,
(Lat.)  The  dried and prepared leaves of the ni-
cotiana tabacum.  The name  was  given by the
Spaniards, because  it was first seen by them at
Tabasco,  or  Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, in
Mexico.  (See Snuff.)   The cheap tobacco vend-
ed in the shops is largely adulterated.  Tobacco is
now offered for sale at 3d. per ounce, i. e. 4s. per
pound, while  the duty alone amounts to about 3s.
3d., thus leaving only 9d. to be divided among the
grower, the importer, the  manufacturer, and the
retailer ; besides which there is a loss by weighing
it out in small quantities,  and by evaporation.  Is
it possible  for this tobacco  to be genuine ?  It can-
not be.  It is a well-known fact that this tobacco
is largely adulterated with foreign matter.  It is a
general practice to moisten it with treacle water,
in which a little saltpetre has  been dissolved, for
the purpose of making  it  sufficiently adhesive to
retain  the fine sand which is  afterwards  added,
and to make  it burn well.   All  this is done to in-
crease the weight.   When other vegetable matter
is mixed with tobacco, " Bengal safflower (at the
price of 28s. per cwt.) is preferred.   It  is infused
in a weak solution of potassa or ammonia, the for-
mer giving a  dark brown color resembling ' Shag,'
and  the latter a light brown, approaching in ap-
pearance  to  ' Returns.'   Considerable loss, how-
ever,  having  occurred from the vegetable  matter
dissolved out, an improvement has lately been in-
troduced ; the safflower, having been moistened, is
placed in trays in a cask,  into which the ammoni-
acal gas is allowed to pass.  By this process the
weight is increased, whereas, after  the earlier
methods of preparing it, a loss of one half was sus-
tained."   (Chem. iii. 304.)
  TOBACCO,  BRITISH HERB.  Syn.  Spe-
cies  STERNUTORifi.   Prep.  Thyme, marjoram,
and hyssop, of each 2 oz.; coltsfoot 3 oz.; betony
and eyebright, of each 4 oz.; rosemary and laven-
der, of each 8 oz.; mix, press together, and cut in
imitation of manufactured foreign tobacco. 
TRE
539
ULM
   TODDY.  From various species of palms, by
 •Hitting off the end of the flowering  bud, collect-*
 ing the sap,.and letting it stand  a few hours to
 ferment.
   TOKAY. A luscious, yet agreeable wine, made
 in Hungary.  It is preferred in the turbid state,
 and hence it is  agitated before pouring it into the
 glass.
   TOMBAC, (WHITE.)   Syn. White Copper.
 An alloy of copper and arsenic.  (See German
 Silver.)
   TONICS.  (From rovoq, I strengthen)   Medi-
 cines that increase the tone of the muscular fibre,
 and  impart vigor  to the system.  The principal
 mineral tonics  are—iron, zinc, copper, silver,  ar-
 senic, bismuth, mercury, and the mineral acids.
 The principal  vegetable  tonics  are—cinchona,
 cinchonine, quinine, the vegetable bitters, and some
 of the aromatics.   Of the above, iron, bark,  and its
 preparations, and the  aromatic bitters, are those
 generally employed, and which prove most  genial
 to the constitution.
   TONQUIN  REMEDY.  Syn. Pulvis  Trun-
 chinensis.  P.  Alexipharmicus  Sinensis.   Prep.
 Powdered valerian 20 grs.; musk 16 grs.; cam-
 phor 6 grs.;  mix. Antispasmodic, alexiterial, in
 doses of 6  to 12 grs. in hooping-cough ; to 1 dr.
 in hydrophobia  and exanthemata ;  to 3iiss in ma-
 nia!
   TOOTHACHE.  This frequently  arises from
 sympathy with a  disordered  stomach.  In such
 cases administer a saline purgative, and an emetic
 if required.   When cold is the  cause, the best
 remedy  is a hot embrocation of  poppy-heads, fol-
 lowed by the use of flannel.   When it arises from
 a hollow or decayed tooth, the best application is
 a piece of lint moistened with creosote, or a strong
 spirituous solution of creosote, and closely rammed
 into the cavity of the tooth.  Laudanum and tinc-
 ture of pellitory of Spain are also  used in the same
 way.  To prevent the recurrence of the latter.
 kind of toothache, the cavity should be filled with
 an amalgam  of gold, or with mineral marmora-
 tum.
   TRACING  PAPER.   In order to prepare a
 beautiful, transparent, colorless paper, it is best to
 employ the varnish formed with  Damara resin in
 the following way :—The sheets  intended for  this
 purpose  are laid flat on each other, and the var-
 nish spread over the uppermost sheet by means of
 a brush, until the paper appears perfectly colorless,
 without, however, the  liquid therein being visible.
 The first sheet is then  removed, hung  up for dry-
 ing,  and  the  second treated in  the  same way.
 After being dried, this paper is  capable of being
 written on, either with  chalk and pencil, or steel
 pens.  It preserves its colorless transparency with-
 out becoming yellow,  as is frequently  the case
 with that prepared in any other way ;  it is at the
 same time  cheap, and  the  operation gives very
 little  trouble.  (Verh. d. Gew. V. ru. Koln.)  See
 Paper.
   TRAGACANTHIN. Syn. Adragantin. The
 soluble gum of tragacanth.   It slightly differs from
 arabine.
   TREACLE,  GERMAN.  Syn. Extract of
 Juniper Berries.   Prep.—1. (Best)   An evapo-
 rated cold infusion  of juniper berries.—2.  (Com-
mon)  An  evaporated  decoction  of juniper ber-
ries.  Both  are  sweet-tasted,  aromatic, and diu-
retic.
  TREACLE, VENICE.   Syn.  Theriaca.
Theriaca Andromachi (P. L. 1746) consists of 61
ingredients,  and contains 1 grain of opium  in  75.
The theriaca of P. Cod.  consists of 72 ingredients,
and contains gr. j of opium in  72.  For these the
following may be substituted  : Theriaca edinensis,
(P. E. 1744.)   Serpentary root §vj ;  valerian  and
contrayerva roots, of each %\\ ; aromatic powder
§iij ; guaiacum, resin, castor, and  nutmeg, of each
§ij  ; saffron  and opium,  (dissolved  in a little  wine,)
each ^j j clarified honey §lxxv ; reduce all the dry
ingredients  to fine powder,  then mix.  100  grs.
contain 1 gr. of opium.
  TUNGSTEN.  (From tung sten, Swed., heavy
stone, from  the density of its ores.)   Syn. Wool-
fram.  Woolframium.   Scheelium.  Tungste-
num.  A heavy, gray, brittle metal, discovered by
Messrs. Delhuyart Itssp. gr. is 17*35.  It  occurs
in  the mineral woolfram,  united with  oxygen,
(tungstic acid) manganese, and iron, from  which
it may be obtained by the  action of charcoal or
hydrogen gas, assisted by heat.   It  is, however,
more conveniently obtained by treating tungstic
acid as above. Tungstic acid  is a yellow powder,
obtained by digesting  native  tungstate of lime,
finely powdered, in nitric acid.  It is insoluble in
water, but soluble in a concentrated solution of pure
potassa, forming tungstate of potassa.
  TURMERIC.  The  root  of the curcuma longa
and rotunda, a plant which grows in  the East In-
dies.   Its coloring principle  is called curcumine.
Turmeric is employed  to give a fugitive  golden
yellow with  weld,  and an orange tinge to scarlet.
It  dyes wool and silk,  mordanted with common
salt or sal ammoniac, a fugitive yellow.
  TURPENTINE,  CHIO,  (FACTITIOUS.)
Syn. Terebinthina Chia Factitia.  Prep.  Black
rosin 7 lbs.;  melt, remove the heat, and  stir in
balsam of Canada 7 lbs.  Some add a few drops
of the oils of fennel and  juniper.  This article is
now very generally sold in trade for genuine Chia
turpentine.
  TURPENTINE, VENICE.   Syn. Terebin-
thina Veneta.  Genuine Venice turpentine is the
product of the  Larix Europeea, but  this  is now
scarcely ever met with in  trade.   That  of the
shops  is wholly a factitious article, made as fol-
lows :—Black rosin 48 lbs.; melt, remove the heat,
and add oil of turpentine 2 gallons.
  TUTTY.  Syn. Tutia.  Tuthia.  Impure Ox-
ide of Zinc  The sublimate that  collects  in the
chimneys of the furnaces in  which ores of zinc are
smelted. Drying ;  astringent.   Used in eye-wa-
ters and ointments.
  TYPE METAL.  Prep. Lead 3 parts ; anti-
mony 1 part ;  melted  together. Small types are
usually made of a harder composition than large
ones.  A good stereotype metal is said to be made
of lead 9 parts ; antimony  2  do.; bismuth 1 do.
This  alloy expands as it  cools, and consequently
brings out a  fine impression.

  ULMIN.   Syn. Ulmic Acid.   This name  has
been given to a  peculiar substance examined  by
Klaproth in  1802, and which was  a  spontaneous
exudation from the trunk of a species  of elm, (Ul-
mus nigra.)  It has since been observed on  many 
ULT                    540                    URA
other trees.   When dry, it is hard, blackish, resin-
ous, readily soluble in the mouth, but insoluble in
alcohol and ether.   It may  be  formed artificially
by heating caustic potassa with wood, by  the  ac-
tion of sulphuric acid on vegetable matter, and by
combining gallic acid with ammonia and exposing
the compound to oxvgen.
  ULTRAMARINE.  Syn. Ultramarine Blue.
Cosruleum   Ultramoxtanum,  (Lat)    Outre-
mer, (Fr.)  Ultramarins, (Get.)   This beautiful
pigment is obtained frorn the blue mineral lazulite
or lapis lazuli; the finest specimens of which  are
brought  from  China,  Persia,  and  Great  Bu-
charia.  Prep. Lapis lazuli  (reduced to fragments
about the size of a pea, and the colorless pieces re-
jected) lb. j, is heated to redness, quenched in wa-
ter, and ground to an impalpable powder ; to  this
is added, yellow rosin 6 oz.; turpentine, beeswax,
linseed oil, of each  2 oz.;  previously  melted to-
gether, and  the whole made into  a mass; this is
kneaded in  successive portions  of warm  water,
which it colore blue, and from whence it is deposit-
ed by standing, collected, well washed with clean
water, dried, and sorted  according  to its qualities.
Some persons prefer leaving the pieces of wax for
14 or 15 days in the water before kneading them ;
the first water, which is usually dirty,  is  thrown
away ; the second gives a blue of the first quality ;
and the third yields one of less value. The process
is founded on the property which the coloring mat-
ter of azure-stone has of adhering less firmly to the
resinous cement than the foreign matter with which
it is associated.  When azure-stone has its.color
altered  by a moderate heat, it is  reckoned bad.
The price of ultramarine of the richest shade of
blue is 4 to 5 guineas  per oz.   Genuine ultrama-
rine, as well as lazulite, when heated to a  full  red,
does not  change color.  Ultramarine is the most
splendid and  permanent blue pigment  the painter
possesses, and works well in  oil.
  ULTRAMARINE ASHES.  Syn. Saunder's
Blue.  Obtained from the resinous mass of the last
process  after it has yielded  all its ultramarine, by
melting it with fresh oil, and kneading it in water
containing a  little potash or soda;  or by  burning
away the wax and oil of the mass, and well grind-
ing and washing the residue with water.  Inferior
to ultramarine.
   ULTRAMARINE, FACTITIOUS.   Accord-
ing to Gmelin, of  Tubingen, sulphuret  of sodium
is the coloring principle of lapis lazuli, to which the
color of ultramarine is owing; but, according to
Eisner  and Tirnmon,  a minute quantity of  sul-
phuret  of iron is an  essential ingredient.  The
above, and several other  chemists, have succeeded
in preparing  artificial ultramarine, by heating sul-
phuret of sodium with a mixture of silicic acid and
alumina.   In these cases it is said that a minute
quantity of  iron is derived from the alum, (Tirn-
mon ;) but it  appears doubtful whether the color
can depend on the presence of so  small a portion
of  that metal.  The finer specimens of  artificial
ultramarine are quite equal in durability and beauty
of color to that prepared from lazulite, while  it is
much less expensive. In Paris it fetches 60 francs,
or about 2 guineas a pound.
   Prep.  I.  (Tirnmon.) Crystallized carbonate of
Boda 1075 gre.;  apply a gentle heat,  and when
fused in  its  water  of  crystallization,  shake in
finely-pulverized orpiment 5 grs., and when partly
decomposed,  add as much  gelatinous hydrate of
alumina as contains 7 grs. of anhydrous alumina ;
finely-sifted clay 100 grs., and  flowers of sulphur
221  gre.,  are then to be added,  and the whole
placed in  a covered crucible, and at first gently
heated to drive off the  water; and as sbon as this
is  effected, raised to redness.   The  heat  must be
so regulated  that the mass only " sinters" to-
gether without fusing.  The mass must  be  then
cooled, finely pulverized, suspended in river water,
and brought  upon a filter.   The product  has now
a beautiful delicate  green or bluish color.  It must
next be heated  in a covered  dish, and stirred about
from  time  to time,  till the  temperature  reaches
that of dull redness, at which it must be kept for 1
or 2  hours.  If the heat of the first calcination
has been properly regulated, the whole of the mass
taken from the crucible will have a uniform color;
but if too  little heat has been used, and the ingre-
dients have not been properly mixed,  there will be
colorless parts, which  should be rejected; if too
much heat has been used, or the mass allowed to
fuse,  brown parts will  appear, especially  if the
crucible is of  a bad  kind, or easily  destroyed.
(Compt Rend., Mai 1842, p. 761.)
   II.  (Gmelin.) Sulphur 2 parts; dry carbonate
of soda 1 part; mix well, gradually heat them in a
covered crucible to  redness  till the mixture fuses,
then sprinkle in by  degrees  another mixture of si-
licate of soda and aluminate of soda, (containing
72 parts of silica, and 70 parts of alumina,) and
continue the heat for 1 hour longer.   The product
contains a little free sulphur, which  may  be sepa-
rated by water.
   III. (M. Robiquet.)  By heating to redness a
mixture of pure kaolin, sulphur, and carbonate if
soda.
   IV. Artificial ultramarine is occasionally formed
in preparing Antim. diaphor.  ablutum,  and fre-
quently also  in the preparation  of  milk of sulphur.
When chlorated water is added  to a solution of
sulphuret  of  potassium made with common potash
and sulphur of commerce, green or blue flakes are
thrown down.   The earthen vessels in which the
melting process has been  effected, no doubt afford
the  alumina, silica, and iron.  (Jahr. fiir Prakt.
Pharm., iv. p. 83.)
   URAMlLE,  A product of the  decomposition
of thionuric  acid, discovered by Wohler  and  Lie-
big.   It is obtained by treating a hot saturated so-
lution of thionurate of ammonia, with hydrochloric
acid in excess, and boiling  till  a slight turbidity is
observed,  when the whole is converted into a semi-
fluid  mass.  Crystalline or pulverulent.  Soluble in
boiling water and alkalis.                    *
   URAMILIC ACID.   A product of the decom-
position of uramile, discovered by Wohler  and Lie-
big.  A saturated solution of thionurate of ammo-
nia in cold water, is mixed with a small quantity of
sulphuric  acid, and the mixture  evaporated in  a
water-bath,  when crystals  of uramilic  acid  are
slowly deposited.  Soluble in water; with the al-
kalis it forms crystallizable salts, called uramilates.
   URANIUM.  Syn. Uranite.  A metal discov-
ered by Klaproth in  1789,  and named  after the
planet Uranus,  which was  discovered about the
same time. It occurs in the pectthleiitli of Saxony,
and  the uranite of Cornwall.   Uranium may be 
URI                    541                    VAL
 extracted from the former mineral by heating it to
 redness,  cooling, powdering,  digesting it in nitric
 acid diluted with 3 or 4 parts of water, in quantity
 insufficient to dissolve the whole, passing sulphuret-
 ed hydrogen through the solution, boiling to expel
 free sulphurous gas, concentrating by evaporation,
 and setting  the remaining fluid aside to crystallize,
 when beautiful lemon-colored crystals of pernitrate
 of uranium are  slowly deposited.  These crystals,
 exposed to a strong heat, yield  protoxide of ura-
 nium, (green oxide,) which, by exposure to  hydro-
 gen gas and heat, are reduced, and  metallic ura-
 nium remains.  (Arfwedson.)  It is a brittle, gray,
 or reddish-brown metal; sp. gr. about 9*0.—Perox-
 ide of uranium  (yellow oxide, uranic acid)  is pre-
 cipitated as  a yellow hydrate, when  a pure  alkali
 is added  to  a solution of the  pernitrate, and as a
 carbonate when alkaline  carbonates  are used.   It
 is soluble in  alkalis in excess, acting the part of a
 feeble  acid.   The salts of protoxide of uranium are
 characterized by their  green color;  those  of  the
 peroxide by a yellow color. With prussiate  of pot-
 ash they yield a reddish-brown precipitate, resem-
 bling prussiate of copper, and with infusion of galls
 a  brown one.    Sulphureted  hydrogen turns  the
 solutions of  the persalts green.
   UREA.   Syn. Cyanate of Ammonia, (Anom-
 alous.)  A  crystalline, colorless, transparent sub-
 stance, discovered by Fourcroy  and Vauquelin in
 urine,  and by  Wohler as the first  organic com-
 pound artificially produced.
   Prep.  I.  (Thenard.)   Fresh urine, gently evap-
 orated to the consistence of a sirup, is to be treated
 with its own volume of  nitric acid at 24 deg.;  the
 mixture is to be shaken  and immersed in an ice-
 bath to solidify the crystals of supernitrate of urea;
 these are washed with  water at 0,  drained, and
 pressed between sheets  of blotting paper.   When
 they are thus separated from foreign matters, they
 are to be dissolved  in water, to which subcarbon-
 ate of  potash is  added, whereby the  nitric  acid is
 taken up, and the  urea set at liberty.  This new
 liquor is evaporated at a gentle heat, nearly to dry-
 ness ;  the residue  is treated with  pure alcohol,
 which only dissolves the urea, the solution is con-
 centrated, and the urea crystallizes.
   II.  (Liebig.) See Cyanate of Ammonia, p. 57.
   *** Urea  has the sp. gr. 1*33, is freely soluble in
 water and alcohol, fuses  at 250°, and is decom-
 posed at higher temperatures.  It is said to be di-
 uretic,  and  has been given in the dose of a gros,
 dissolved in sugared water.
   URIC  ACID.   Syn.  Lithic Acid.  An acid
 discovered by Scheele, and peculiar to the  urine
 of certain animals, and the excrement of serpents
 and several birds  of prey.  The fasces of the boa
 constrictor consist of little else than urate of am-
 monia.   Uric acid forms  one of the commonest
 varieties of urinary calculi, and  of the red gravel
 or sand, which is voided in certain morbid states of
the urine..   Guano, which is largely  imported  for
manure, is also composed  in greater part of urate
of ammonia; hence its immense powers  as  a fer-
tilizer of the soil.
  Prep. Dissolve urinary calculi, or the chalk-
like  excrement of serpents, reduced to fine  pow-
der, in a solution of caustic potassa, by boiling, add
muriatic acid in excess, again boil for 15 minutes,
and well mix the precipitate with water
  Prop.,Tests, fyc. Brilliant small scales, white and
silky, tasteless, inodorous, slightly soluble in boiling
water, soluble  in strong sulphuric acid, and again
precipitated by water, it forms salts with the bases
called urates.  The characteristic  of uric acid is,
that, when moistened with nitric acid and heated,
it dissolves, and by evaporation  yields a red com-
pound, which, upon the  addition of a drop or two
of solution of caustic  ammonia, becomes of a fine
crimson, (purpurate of ammonia.)
  URIC  OXIDE.  Syn. Xanthic Oxide.  A
rare constituent of urinary calculi, discovered by
Marcet.
  USQUEBAUGH.   Syn. Escubac  A strong
compound liquor,  much  drunk  in  Ireland,  and
made in the greatest perfection at Drogheia.
  Prep.  I. (Yellow.)  a. Brandy or proof spirit 3
gallons ;  hay saffron and juniper berries, of each 1
oz.; dates, without their  kernels, and  raisins, of
each, bruised, \ lb.; mace, cloves,  coriander,  and
aniseed, of each £ oz.; cinnamon \ oz.; digest till
sufficiently flavored and colored ; filter,  and  add
capillaire, or simple sirup, 1 gallon.—6.  Proof spirit
1 gallon;  stoned raisins 1 lb.; cinnamon, cloves,
and nutmegs, of each £ oz.; aniseed 1 oz.;  hay
saffron £  oz.;  brown sugar 2 lbs.; rind of 1 or-
ange ;  digest 14 days, then filter or clarify.—c. Pi-
mento and caraways,  of each 3 oz.; mace, cloves,
and nutmegs,  of each 2 oz.; aniseed,  coriander,
and angelica root, of each 8 oz.; hay saffron 3  oz.;
raisins, stoned and  bruised, 14 lbs.; proof spirit 9
gallons; digest 14 days, with frequent agitation,
then press, filter, or clarify,  and add simple sirup
q. s.  Should it  turn milky, add  a  little strong
spirit, or  clarify  it with  alum, or  filter  through
magnesia.
  II.  (Green.)  As the above, but using sap green
to color, instead of saffron.
   VACCINE MATTER.  Collected either upon
 lancets, or by opening the pustule, and applying a
 small glass  ball and tube (like those called by the
 boys in London candle  pops, or fire pops) to  the
 opening,  expelling part  of the  air in  the  ball by
 bringing a lighted taper near it, then withdrawing
 the  taper the matter is drawn into  the  ball, in
 which it may be sealed up hermetically or cement-
 ed, and thus kept for a  length of time.  It is also
 commonly preserved between two small pieces of
 glass.   Used lately for an absolute  preventive of
 the smallpox, but  now with  a view  of diminishing
 the susceptibility of acquiring that disease, and to
 render it  milder if acquired.  The matter  may be
 liquefied with a little clean water.  Smallpox mat-
 ter is collected in the same way.  Used occasion-
 ally to  communicate the disease, under favorable
 circumstances, instead of hazarding it being ac-
 quired  under unfavorable ones.  Both  of  these
 matters  are  applied  in  the  way described under
 Inoculation.
   VALERIANIC ACID.   A volatile, fatty arid,
 obtained by distilling valerian root along with wa-
 ter, and acting on  the product with caustic potassa,
 when valerianate of potassa is formed,  and  a vola-
 tile oil is separated ; by evaporating to dryness, the
 latter is dissipated, and  the  dry mixture,  treated
 with dilute sulphuric  acid and distilled, yields  an
 aqueous solution of valerianic  acid.   By  careful
redistillation it may be deprived of water.   Vale- 
VAR
542
VAR
  rianic acid may also be  produced artificially, by
  heating fused potassa  along with the oil of potato,
  or corn spirit, (hydrated oxide  of amule) when
  valerianate of potassa is  obtained,  the acid of
  which is identical in all respects with that obtained
  from the root of Valeriana Officinalis.  (Liebig.)
  *»* Colorless, limpid, oleaginous ; boils at 270° ;
  soluble in alcohol  and ether,  and in  30 parts of
  water ; smells strongly of valerian ; with the bases
  it forms  salts called Valerianates, most of which
  are soluble.
    VANADIUM.  (From  Vanadis,  a Scandina-
  vian idol.)  A rare metal discovered by Sefstom,
  in 1830, in some Swedish iron, extracted from an
  iron mine near Jonkdping. It has since been found
  in a lead ore  from Scotland.  It  is white,  brittle,
  very difficult of reduction, and soluble in nitric and
  nitromuriatic acids, with which it yields dark blue
  colored solutions.  Vanadium is obtained from the
  native vanadate  of lead,  by dissolving the  ore in
  nitric acid, passing sulphureted hydrogen through
  the solution, to throw down  lead and arsenic, and
  evaporating the resulting blue  liquid to dryness ;
  the residuum is then dissolved in a solution of am-
  monia, and a piece of sal ammoniac, considerably
  larger than can be dissolved, introduced; as the
  latter dissolves, a pulverulent precipitate of vana-
  date of ammonia is formed, which must be washed,
  first in a  solution of sal ammoniac, and then in al-
  cohol of 0-860.  By exposing this salt, in an open
 platinum crucible, to a heat a little below redness,
 and keeping it constantly  stirred,  until it acquires
  a dark red color,  pure vanadic acid is obtained.
  (Johnston.)  From this acid metallic vanadium
 may be procured, by placing fused fragments of it,
 and potassium, of equal size, in alternate  layers,
 in a porcelain  crucible, the potassium being in tjje
 largest proportion,  and after well  luting on the
 cover, heating it carefully over a spirit-lamp ; the
 cooled  mass must then  be washed with  water.
 (Berzelius.)—Protoxide of vanadium is obtained
 by acting on vanadic acid  by heat and charcoal, or
 hydrogen gas.  Black.—Binoxide of vanadium,
 by heating to dull redness a  mixture of 10 parts of
 the protoxide  and 12 of vanadic acid, in an atmo-
 sphere of carbonic acid gas,  or out of contact with
 air and combustible matter.  It  is also formed by
 heating vanadate of ammonia in close vessels.  A
 black powder.  It is precipitated  as a grayish-white
 hydrate from its solutions,  by carbonate of soda in
 slight excess.—Vanadic acid (peroxide) is orange-
 colored, scarcely soluble in water, and forms, with
 the alkaline bases, soluble salts, called Vanadates,
 and with the  other  bases, sparingly soluble salts.
 All of these have  an orange  or yellow color.   Va-
 nadium is distinguished from chromium  by deox-
 idizing substances giving a blue color to solutions
 of the former, but a green one to solutions of the
 latter.—" Vanadate of ammonia, mixed with solu-
 tion of galls, forms a black fluid, which is the best
 writing ink hitherto known.  The  quantity of the
 6alt required for this purpose is very small; the
 writing is  perfectly black,  and not obliterated by
 alkalis, acids, chlorine, or other  reagents, that at
 the same time will not destroy the paper." (Ure.)
  VAN SWIETEN'S DROPS.   A solution of
corrosive sublimate.   (See Solution of Bichlo-
 ride of Mercury, P. L.)
  VARNISH.    Syn.  Vernis,   (Fr.)   Firniss
  (Ger.)  A solution of resinous matter, which, when
  spread  thin upon the  surface of a solid body, be-
  comes dry, and forms a glossy, transparent coating,
  impervious to  air and moisture.   Varnishes may
  be conveniently divided into two kinds, viz., spirit
  and oil varnishes.  Concentrated alcohol is used
  as the solvent in the former, and fixed or volatile
  oils, or mixtures of the two, for the latter.  The
  sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose  of making var-
  nishes should not be greater than 0*820. Camphor
  is often  dissolved in it to increase its solvent powers.
  The oil of turpentine, which is  the  essential oil
  chiefly  employed, should  be pure and  colorless.
  Pale  drying linseed oil is  the  fixed oil generally
  used for varnishes, but  poppy and nut oil  are also
  occasionally  employed.   Among  the  substances
  which are  dissolved  in the  above  menstrua are,—
  turpentine, copal, mastich, lac, elemi, sandarach,
  anime,  and  amber, to impart  body  and lustre;
  benzoin to  impart scent; gamboge, turmeric, saf-
  fron, annotto,  and Socotrine aloes, to give a yel-
  low color;  dragon's blood  to  give a red tinge;
  asphaltum to give a black color and body ; caout-
  chouc to impart body, toughness, and elasticity.
    In  the  preparation  of Spirit Varnishes, care
 should be taken to prevent the evaporation of the
 alcohol  as  much  as  possible, and also to preserve
 the portion that evaporates.   On the large  scale, a
 common still, mounted with its head and connected
 with a proper refrigerator, should be employed. The
 capital should be furnished with a stuffing-box, to
 permit of the passage of a vertical  rod, connected
 with a stirrer at one  end, and a working handle at
 the other.  The gum and spirit being introduced,
 and the  head of the still closely fitted on and luted,
 heat  (preferably that of steam  or a water-bath)
 should be applied, and the spirit brought to a boil,
 when the heat should be partially withdrawn, and
 agitation continued till  the gum is dissolved.  The
 spirit which has distilled over should be then add-
 ed to the varnish, and, after thorough admixture,
 the whole  should be  run off through a silk gauze
 sieve into stone jars,  which should be immediately
 corked  down, and set  aside to clarify.   On the
 small scale, spirit varnishes are best made by ma-
 ceration  in close bottles.  In  order to prevent the
 agglutination  of the  resin,  it is often  advantage-
 ously mixed with  clear silicious  sand,  or pounded
 glass, by which the surface is much increased, and
 the solvent power of  the menstruum promoted.
   In  the manufacture  of oil varnishes,  one of
 the most important points is the use of good drying
 oil.  Linseed oil for  this  purpose should be pale,
 limpid, brilliant, scarcely odorous, and mellow and
 sweet to the taste.—100 gallons of such oil are put
 into an  iron or  copper boiler, capable  of holding
 150 gallons, and gradually heated to a gentle sim-
 mer for 2 hours, to expel  moisture ; the scum is
 then carefully removed, and 14 lbs. of scale litharge,
 12  lbs. of red  lead, and 8 lbs. of  powdered  umber,
 (all carefully dried and free from  mojsture,) are
gradually sprinkled in ; the whole is then kept well
stirred, to prevent the driers sinking to the bottom,
and the  boiling is continued, at a gentle  heat, for
3  houre  longer;  the  fire is next withdrawn, and,
in 24 to 36 hours, the scum  is carefully removed,
and the  clear supernatant oil decanted from the
bottom.   This forms the best boiled or drying oil.
Another  method is to heat a hogshead of  tht *I 
* VAR                     543                    VAR
gradually for 2 hours, then to gently simmer it for
about 3 hours longer, and, after removing the scum,
to add gradually 1 lb. of  the best calcined mag-
nesia, observing to mix it up well with the oil, and
afterwards  to  continue the boiling  pretty briskly
for 1 hour, employing constant agitation. The fire
is then allowed to die away, and, after 24 hours,
the oil is decanted as before. The product is called
" clarified oil," and requires to be used with driers.
It should be allowed to lie in the cistern for 2 or 3
months to clarify.  In the preparation  of  oil var-
nishes,  the " gum" is melted as rapidly as possible,
without discoloring or burning it;  and when com-
pletely fused,  the oil,  also  heated to  nearly the
boiling  point,  is  poured  in, after which  the mix-
ture is boiled till it appears perfectly homogeneous
and clear like  oil, when the heat is raised, and the
driers (if any are  to  be used) gradually and cau-
tiously  scattered  in,  and  the  boiling  continued,
with constant  stirring, for 3 or 4 houre, or till a lit-
tle when cooled on a palette knife, feels strong and
stringy between the fingers.  The whole  is next
allowed to cool considerably ; but while still quite
fluid, the turpentine, previously made  moderately
hot, is cautiously  added, and the whole thoroughly
incorporated.  The varnish is then run through a
filter or sieve into stone jars, cans, or other  vessels,
and set aside to clarify by subsidence.   When no
driers are used, the mixture of oil and gum is boil-
ed till it runs  perfectly clear, when it  is removed
from the fire, and, after it has cooled a little, the
turpentine is added as above.  It is generally con-
ceived that the more perfectly the  " gum" is fused,
or " run," as it is called, the greater and stronger
will be the product;  and the longer the boiling of
the " gum"  and  oil is continued, within modera-
tion, the freer the varnish will work and cover
when made. An excess of heat renders the  varnish
" stringy," and injures  its flowing qualities.   For
pale varnishes as  little  heat as possible should be
employed throughout the  whole  process.   Body
varnishes shou'd contain 1£ lbs. ; carriage, wain-
scot, and mahogany varnish 1 lb. ; and gold size,
and black japan, fully £  lb. of " gum" per gallon,
besides  the  asphaltum  in the latter.   The  use of
too much driers injures the brilliancy and trans-
parency of the varnish.  Copperas does not com-
bine with varnish, but  only hardens it; sugar of
lead does.   I am  informed that boiling oil  of  tur-
pentine combines  very readily with melted copal,
and  that it  is an improvement to use it, either be-
fore  or in conjunction  with the oil, in the prepara-
tion  of copal varnish  that  is  desired very white.
All varnishes require  age  before  use.  Trans, of
the  Soc.  of Arts, vol. 49; and  Copal,  Amber,
Caoutchouc.
  *** From the  inflammable nature of the mate-
rials of w'lich varnishes are composed, their manu-
facture  should be only carried on in  a detached
building, that is of little value, and built of unin-
flammable materials.   When  a  pot of varnish,
gum, or turpentine, catches fire, it is most  readily
extinguished by closely covering  it with a piece of
stout woollen carpeting, which should  be  always
kept ready for  the purpose.
  t+t To give  lustre to varnish after it is laid on,
it is rubbed with pumice-stone very finely powder-
ed, and water  ; which being dried with a  cloth,
the work is afterward patiently rubbed with  an I
oiled rag and tripoli, till  the required polish is pro*
duced.  The surface is last of all cleaned with soft
linen cloths, cleared of  all greasiness with  powder
of starch, and rubbed bright with the palm of the
hand.
   ir^*?  In  varnishing, care must  be  taken that
the surface is free from grease, or smoke ; as un-
less this is the case, the best oil or turpentine var-
nish in the world will not dry and  harden.   Old
articles are  usually washed with soap and water,
by the painters, before being varnished.
   VARNISH, AMBER.  Prep. I.  (Pale.)  Am-
ber, pale and  transparent, 6  lbs.; fuse,  add hot
clarified  linseed oil 2 gallons; boil  till it strings
strongly, cool a little, and add oil of turpentine 4
gallons.   Pale as  copal  varnish ;  soon becomes
very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes;
but requires time  before  it is fit  for polishing.
When wanted to dry and  harden quicker, " dry-
ing" oil may be substituted for linseed, or " driers"
may be added during the boiling.
   II. Amber  1 lb.; melt, add  Scio turpentine £
lb.; transparent white resin 2 oz.; hot linseed oil
1  pint; and afterwards oil of turpentine q. s.; as
above.  Very tough.
   III. (Hard.) Melted amber 4 oz.; hot boiled oil
1  quart; as before.
   IV.  (Pale.) Very pale and transparent amber 4
oz. ; clarified linseed oil and oil of turpentine, of
each 1 pint; as before.
   %* Amber  varnish is suited for all purposes,
where a very hard and durable oil varnish  is re-
quired.   The  paler kind is superior to copal var-
nish, and is often mixed  with the latter to increase
its hardness and durability.  (See Amber.)
   VARNISH, BLACK.   Prep. I. (Black  am-
ber varnish.) Amber 1 lb.; fuse, add hot  drying
oil £ pint;  powdered black rosin, and  asphaltum,
(Naples) of each 3 oz.; when properly incorpo-
rated  and considerably cooled, add oil of turpentine
1 pint.  This is the beautiful black varnish of the
coachmakers.  It is also fit for metals.
   II.  (Ironwork  black) Asphaltum 48 lbs. ; fuse,
add boiled oil 10 gallons ; red lead and litharge, of
each 7 lbs.; dried and powdered white  copperas 3
lbs.; boil for 2 hours, then add dark gum amber
(fused) 8 lbs.; hot  linseed oil 2 gallons  ; boil for 2
hours longer, or till a little of the mass, when cool-
ed, may be rolled  into pills, then withdraw the
heat, and afterwards thin down with oil of turpen-
tine 30 gallons. Used for the ironwork of carriages,
and other nice purposes.
   III. (Black japan.) Naples asphaltum 50 lbs.;
dark gum  anime  8 lbs.; fuse, add  linseed oil 12
gallons ;  boil, add dark  gum* amber 10 lbs.; pre-
viously fused and boiled with linseed oil  2 gallons ;
add the driers, and proceed as last.  Used for wood
or metals.
   IV.  (Brunswick black)—a. Foreign  asphaltum
45 lbs.; drving oil 6 galls.; litharge 6 lbs.; boil as
last, and thin with 25 gallons of oil of  turpentine.
Used for ironwork, &c.—b. Black pitch and gas
tar asphaltum, of each 25 lbs.; boil gently  for 5
hours, then  add linseed oil 8 gallons ; litharge and
red lead, of each 10 lbs.; boil as before, and thin
with oil of  turpentine 20 gallons.   Iuferior  to the
last, but cheaper.   (See Amber Varnish.)
   VARNISH, BODY.  Prep.  I. Finest African
copal 8 lbs.; fuse  carefully, add clarified oil 2 gal- 
VAR                   514                    VAR
 Ions ;  boil gently for 4£ hours, or till quite stringy,
 cool a little and thin with oil of turpentine 3£ gal-
 lons.   Dries slowly.
   11.  Pale gum copal 8 lbs.;  clarified oil 2 gal-
 lons ; dried sugar of lead £ lb.; boil as before, then
 add oil of turpentine 3£ gallons, and mix it, while
 still hot, with the following varnish:—8 lbs. of pale
 gum anime ; linseed oil 2 gallons ; dried white cop-
 peras i lb. ;  boil as before,  and thin with oil of
 turpentine 3£ gallons ; the mixed varnishes are to
 be immediately strained into the cans or cistern.
 Dries in about 6 hours in winter, and 4 hours in
 summer.  Used for the bodies of coaches and other
 vehicles.
   VARNISH,  CABINET-MAKERS'. Prep. I.
 Very pale shellac 5 lbs.; mastich 7 oz.;  alcohol,
 of 90g, 5 or 6 pints ; dissolve in the  cold with fre-
 quent  stirring.    Used for French polishing, &c.
 It is always opaque.   A  similar varnish, made
 with weaker spirit, is  used by bookbinders to var-
 nish morocco leather book covers.
   II. As the last, but  substitute wood naphtha 6
 pints for the  alcohol.
   III. (Japanner's copal varnish.)  Pale African
 copal 7 lbs ; fuse, add  clarified linseed oil £ gallon ;
 boil for 5  minutes, remove it into the open air, add
 boiling oil of turpentine 3 gallons, mix well, strain
 it into the cistern,  and cover it up immediately.
 Used  to varnish  furniture,  and  by  japanners,
 coachmakers, &c.   Dries in 15 minutes, and may
 be polished as soon  as hard. (See French Polish.)
   VARNISH, CARRIAGE.  I. (Spirt/.)   San-
 darach 19 oz.; pale shellac 9 J oz.; very pale trans-
 parent rosin,  12£ oz.;  turpentine 18 oz.; alcohol,
 at  85°;, 5 pints ; dissolve.  Used for the internal
 parts  of carriages, &c.  Dries in  10  minutes or
 less.
   II.  (Best Pale.)  Pale African copal 8 lbs.; fuse,
 add clarified linseed oil 2£ gallons ;  boil till very
 stringy, then add dried copperas  and litharge,  of
 each \ lb.; boil as before directed, thin with oil of
 turpentine 5£ gallons, mix while hot  with the fol-
 lowing varnish, and immediately strain  the  mix-
 ture into  a covered vessel:—Gum  anime 8 lbs.;
 clarified linseed oil 2} gallons; dried  sugar of lead
 and litharge,  of each  \ lb.; boil as before, thin
 with oil of turpentine 5£ gallons, and mix it while
 hot with the last varnish as above directed.  Dries
 in 4 hours in summer and  6 in winter.  Used for
 the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of coaches,
 and other vehicles,  and by house painters, decora-
tors, &c, who  want a strong, quick-drying, and
durable varnish.
   III.  (Second  Quality)  Sorted gum anime 8
lbs.; clarified oil 3  gallons ;  litharge 5 oz.; dried
and powdered sugar of lead  and white copperas,
of each 4 oz.; boil as last and thin with oil of tur-
Dentine 5£ gallons.
   VARNISH,  COPAL. Prep.—l. (Turpentine.)
Oil of turpentine 1  pint; set  the bottle  in a water
bath, and add in small portions at a  time, 3 oz. of
 powdered copal that  has been previously melted
by a gentle heat, and dropped  into water; in a
few days decant the clear.   Dries slowly, but is
very pale  and durable.   Used for pictures, &c.
   II.  (Oil.) Pale hard copal 2 lbs.;  fuse, add hot
drying oil 1 pint; boil as before  directed, and thin
with oil of turpentine 3 pints, or q. s.  Very  pale.
Dries hard in 12 to 24 hours.
   III. Clearest  and  palest African  copal 8 lbs.;
 fuse, add hot  and pale drying oil 2 gallons ; boil
 till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with
 hot rectified oil of turpentine 3 gallons, and imme-
 diately strain into the store can.   Very fine.  Both
 the above are used for pictures.
   IV.  (Spirit.)  Coarsely-powdered  copal  and
 glass, of each 4 oz.;  alcohol, of 90$, 1 pint; cam-
 phor £ oz.; heat  it in a  water-bath  so  that the
 bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing fre-
 quently to stir the mixture ; when cold decant the
 clear.  Used for pictures.
   V. Copal  melted and dropped into water 3 oz.;
 gum sandarach 6 oz.; mastich and Chio turpentine,
 of each 2£ oz.  ; powdered  glass 4 oz.;  alcohol,  of
 b5°r, 1 quart;  dissolve by a gentle heat.  Used for
 metal chairs, &c.
   ***  All copal varnishes are hard  and  durable,
 though less so  than those made of amber, but they
 have the advantage over the latter of being paler.
 They are  applied on  coaches,  pictures,  polished
 metal,  wood,  and other  objects  requiring  good
 durable varnish.   (See Body and Carriage Var-
 nishes, and Copal.)
   VARNISH, CRYSTAL.  Prep. I.  Genuine
 pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine,
 equal parts ; mix, place the bottle in warm water,
 agitate well, set  it aside, in a moderately warm
 place, and in a week pour off the clear.   Used foi
 maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper,
 and also to prepare tracing paper, and to  transfer
 engravings.
   II. Mastich 3  oz.; alcohol 1  pint;  dissolve.
 Used to fix pencil drawings.
  VARNISH, ETCHING. Prep. I. (Lawrence.)
 White wax 2  oz.; black and  Burgundy pitch, of
 each £ oz.;  melt together,  add by  degrees  pow-
 dered asphaltum 2 oz., and  boil till a drop taken
 out on a plate will break when cold by being bent
 double 2 or 3 times between the  fingers;  it must
 then be poured into warm water  and made into
 small balls for use.
  II. (Callot's Hard Varnish.   Florentine do.)
 Linseed oil and mastich, of each 4 oz.; melt to-
 gether.
  III. (Callot's Soft Varnish.) Linseed oil 4 oz.;
 gum benzoin and white wax, of each £ oz.; boil to
 two-thirds.
  VARNISH,  FURNITURE.   Prep.  White
 wax 6 oz.; oil  of turpentine 1  pint;  dissolve by a
 gentle  heat.   Used to  polish wood  by  friction.
 (See Cabinet-makers' and Copal Varnishes.)
  VARNISH,  FLEXIBLE.   Prep.—l. Indian
rubber in shavings 1  oz.; mineral naphtha 2 lbs.;
digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel till dissolved,
 and strain.—2. Indian rubber 1 oz.; drying oil 1
quart ; dissolve by as little heat  as possible,  em-
 ploying constant stirring, then  strain.  3. Linseed
oil 1 gallon ; dried white copperas and sugar of
lead, of each 3 oz.; litharge 8 oz.; boil with con-
stant agitation till it strings well, then  cool slowly
 and decant the clear.  If too thick,  thin  it with
quick-drying linseed oil.  The  above are used for
balloons, gas bags, &c.   (See Balloon Varnish
 and Caoutchouc)
  VARNISH   FOR  GILDED ARTICLES.
 Prep.   (Watin.)  Gum lac  in grains, gamboge,
 dragon's blood, and annotto, of each 12£ oz.;  saf-
 fron 34 oz.; each resin must be dissolved separate- 
VAR                     545                    VAR
 y in 5 pints of alcohol of 90g, and two separate
 tinctures must  be made with the dragon's blood
 and  annotto  in a like quantity of  spirit, and a
 proper proportion of each mixed together to pro-
 duce the required shade.
   VARNISH,  ITALIAN.  Prep.—l. Beil Scio
 turpentine till brittle, powder, and dissolve  in oil of
 turpentine.—2.  Canada  balsam and clear white
 rosin, of each 6 oz.; oil of turpentine 1 quart; dis-
 solve.  Used for prints, &c.
   VARNISH,  LAC.  Prep.—l. Seed lac 8 oz.;
 alcohol 1 quart;  digest in a close vessel in a warm
 situation for 3 or 4 days, then decant and strain.—
 2. Substitute lac  bleached by chlorine for seed lac.
 Both are very tough, hard,  and durable ;  the last
 almost colorless.   Used for pictures, metal, wood,
 or leather.
   VARNISH,  LAC.   Syn.  Lacquer. Prep.  I.
 Seed  lac 3 oz. ; turmeric 1  oz.; dragon's  blood \
 oz. ; alcohol 1 pint; digest for a week, frequently
 shaking, decant and filter.  Deep gold colored.
   II. Ground turmeric  1 lb.; gamboge  1£ oz. ;
 gum sandarach 3£  lbs.; shellac | lb.; all in pow-
 der ; rectified spirit of wine 2  gallons ;  dissolve,
 strain, and add  turpentine varnish  1 pint.  Gold
 colored.
   III. Spanish annotto  3 lbs.; dragon's  blood  1
 lb. ; gum sandarach 3£ lbs.; rectified spirit 2 gal-
 lons ; turpentine  varnish 1  quart;  dissolve  and
 mix as the  last.   Red colored.
   IV.  Gamboge  cut small  1 oz. ; Cape aloes cut
 small 3 oz.; pale shellac 1  lb.; rectified spirit 2
 gallons ; as the last.   Pale brass colored.
   V. Seed  lac,  dragon's blood,  annotto, and gam-
 boge, of each \ lb. ; saffron 1 oz.;  rectified spirit
 of wine 5 quarts ; as last
   ***  Lacquers  are  used  upon polished metals
 and wood to impart the  appearance of gold.  As
 they are wanted of different depths and shades of
 color, it is best to keep a concentrated solution of
 each coloring ingredient ready,  so that it  may at
 any time be added to produce any desired  tint.
   VARNISH,  MAHOGANY. Prep. Sorted gum
 anime 8 lbs.; clarified  oil 3 gallons; litharge  and
 powdered dried  sugar of  lead,  of each \  lb.;  boil
 till it strings well, then cool a  little, thin with oil
 of turpentine 5£ gallons,  and strain.
   VARNISH,  MASTICH. Syn. Picture Var-
 nish.  Turpentine Varnish.  Prep.—1.  (Fine)
 Very pale  and  picked  gum mastich, 5 lbs.; glass
 pounded as small  as barley,  and well washed and
 dried, 2£ lbs.; rectified turpentine 2  gallons ; put
 them into a clean 4 gallon stone or tin bottle, bung
 down securely, and keep rolling it backwards  and
 forwards pretty  smartly on a counter or any other
 Bolid place for at least 4 hours ; when, if the gum is
 all dissolved, the varnish  may be decanted, strain-
 ed through muslin into  another bottle, and allowed
 to settle.  It should be kept for 6 or  9 months be-
 fore  use, as  it  thereby  gets both  tougher and
clearer.
  II. (Second  Quality.)  Mastich 8  lbs. ;  turpen-
tine 4 gallons ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and add
pale turpentine varnish £ gallon.
  III. Gum mastich  6 oz.; oil  of  turpentine  1
quart; dissolve.
  *#* Mastich varnish  is  used  for pictures, &c.;
when good, it is  tough,  hard, brilliant,  and color-
less.  Should it get " chilled," 1  lb. of well-washed
                   *   69
silicious sand should be made moderately hot, and
added  to  each gallon, which must then  be well
agitated for 5 minutes, and afterwards allowed to
settle.
  VARNISH, OAK. Prep.—l.  Clear pale rosin,
3£  lbs.; oil of turpentine  1 gallon;  dissolve.—2.
Clear Venice turpentine 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine 5
lbs. ; mix.   Both are good common varnishes for
wood or. metal.
  VARNISH,  OIL.  Prep.—I. Rosin  3  lbs.;
melt, add Venice  turpentine 2  lbs.; pale drying
oil  1 gallon ; cool a  little  and  thin with  oil  of
turpentine 1 quart.—2. Rosin 3 lbs.;  drying oil  £
gallon  ; melt and thin with  oil of turpentine  2
quarts.  Both the above are good  varnishes for
common work.
  VARNISH,  PICTURE.   Several  varnishes
are called by this  name.   Pale  copal or  mastich
varnish is generally  used for oil paintings, and
crystal, white hard spirit, or mastich varnish, for
water-color drawings on paper.
  VARNISH,  SPIRIT.  Prep.  L  (Brown
Hard.)—a. Sandarach 4 oz.; pale seed lac  2 oz.;
elemi  (true) 1  oz.; alcohol 1 quart; digest with
agitation till dissolved, then add Venice turpentine
2 oz.—6.  Gum  sandarach 3 lbs.; shellac 2 lbs.;
rectified spirit,  (65 over proof,) 2 gallons; dis-
solve,  add  turpentine varnish 1  quart;  agitate
well and  strain.  Very fine.—c. Seed   lac and
yellow  resin, of each  1£ lbs. ;  rectified  spirit  2
gallons.
  II. (White Hard.)   a.  Gum sandarach  5 lbs.;
camphor 1 oz.;  rectified  spirit (65 over  proof)  2
gallons ; washed and dried coarsely-pounded glass
2 lbs.; proceed as in  making mastich varnish ;
when strained add 1 quart of very pale terpentine
varnish.  Very fine.—6.   Picked  mastich and
coarsely-ground glass, of each, 4 oz.; sandarach
and pale  clear Venice turpentine, of each  3 oz. ;
alcohol 2  lbs.;  as last.—c.  Gum sandarach 1 lb.;
clear  Strasburgh turpentine 6 oz.; rectified spirit
(65 over proof) 3  pints;  dissolve.—d. Mastich in
tears 2 oz.; sandarach 8 oz. ;  gum  elemi  1 oz.;
Strasburgh  or  Scio turpentine  (genuine) 4 oz.;
rectified spirit (65 o. p.)  1 quart  Used on metals,
&.c. Polishes well.
  III.  (Soft Brilliant.)   Sandarach 6 oz.;  elemi
(genuine)  4  oz.; anime 1  oz.;  camphor £ oz.;
rectified spirit 1 quart;  as  before.
  *#*  The above spirit varnishes are chiefly ap-
plied  to objects of the  toilette,  as  work-boxes,
card-cases,  &c, but are  also  suitable  to  other
articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal,
thdt require a brilliant  and quick-drying  varnish.
They mostly dry almost as soon  as  applied, and
are usually hard  enough  to  polish  in 24  houre.
Spirit varnishes  are less durable  and more  liable
to crack than oil varnishes.
  VARNISH,  STOPPING OUT.   Syn.  Petit
Vernis.  Prep.  Lampblack  made  into  a  paste
with turpentine.  Used  by engravers.
  VARNISH,  TRANSFER   Syn.  Mordant.
Prep.   Mastich in  tears  6£ oz.; rosin 12£ oz.;
pale Venice turpentine (genuine) and sandarach, of
each 25 oz.; alcohol 5 pints; dissolve as before.
Used for fixing engravings or lithographs on  wood,
and  for gilding, silvering,  &c.   (See Crystal
Varnish.)
  VARNISH,  TURPENTINE. Prep.  Mastich 
VEG                    546                    VEG
in tears  lg oz.; pounded glass 5 oz.;  camphor £
oz.;  oil of  turpentine 1 quart; digest  with agita-
tion  till  dissolved,  then  add Venice turpentine
(pure) 1 £  oz.; previously liquefied by a gentle
heat, mix  well, and the next day decant.  Very
fine.   Used for paintings.  See Mastich.
  VARNISH,  WAINSCOT.   The  same   as
mahogany  varnish, but  using paler gum  and  oil.
(See Oak Varnish.)
  VARNISH, WAX.  Prep—1.  (Milk  of
Wax.)  White wax  (pure) 1 lb.; melt  with  as
gentle a heat as possible, add warm spirit of wine,
sp. gr. 0-830, 1 pint; mix perfectly, and pour the
liquid out upon a cold porphyry slab;  next grind
it with a muller to a perfectly smooth paste, with
the addition of more spirit as  required, put the
paste into  a marble  mortar, make an emulsion
with water 3£ pints, gradually added,  and strain
through muslin.   Used as a varnish for paintings;
when dry,  a hot  iron is  passed over it, or heat is
otherwise evenly applied,  so as  to  fuse  it,  and
render it  transparent; when quite cold it is polish-
ed with a clean linen cloth.  The most protective
of all  varnishes.   Many  ancient  paintings owe
their  freshness at the present day to this varnish.
Also  used  for  furniture.—2. Wax 3  oz.; oil  of
turpentine  1 quart;  dissolve  by a  gentle heat.
Used for furniture.
  VARNISH,  WHITE.  Prep.  I.  Tender
copal 7£ oz.; camphor 1 oz.;  alcohol of 95$,  1
quart; dissolve, then add mastich 2 oz.; Venice
turpentine  1 oz.; dissolve and strain.  Very white,
drying, and capable of being polished when hard.
Used for toys.
  II.  Sandarach 8 oz.; mastich 2 oz.; Canada
balsam 4  oz.; alcohol 1  quart.   Used on paper,
wood, or  linen.
  VEGETABLES.  Vegetabilia, (P. L.) The
following general directions are given in the Lon-
don Pharmacopoeia for the collection and preserva-
tio .-  if vegetable substances:
  " V egetables  are  to  be  gathered   in  dry
weather,  and when  no  dew nor rain  is upon
them ; they are to be  collected  every year, and
any which  shall have been longer kept, ure to be
thrown away.
  " Roots, for the most part, are to be dug up be-
fore their stems or leaves shoot forth.
  " Barks  are to  be collected  at that season  in
which they are more easily separated from the
wood."   Spring is the season here alluded to ;  as
at this time, aftej the sap begins to  ascend, the
bark is in general very easily separated.
  " Leaves are to be gathered after  the  flowers
have expanded, and before the seeds are mature.
  " Flowers are to be gathered when  just open-
ed."   The  red rose, however, must be gathered
before the buds are  expanded.
  " Seeds  are to  be collected  when they are
ripe, and before they drop from the plant.  They
ought to be preserved in their seed-vessels."
  Pres. " Vegetables, soon  after they are gath-
ered,  except those  which  are to be used in the
recent state, are to  be  lightly  spread out,  and
dried  as quickly as  possible, with a heat so gentle
that their color will not be altered ; and then pre-
served in proper  situations or vessels, where the
light and moisture are excluded.
  " Roots, which  are required  to be preserved
fresh, should be buried in dry sand.   The Squill
bulb, before it is  dried, is to be denuded of the
arid coats, and  cut transversely into thin  slices.
The  corms of  colchicum,  dug up in  July or
August, should be cut into thin  transverse  slices,
dried without  heat, or in a very gentle heat, and
preserved in well-stopped bottles.
  " Pulpy Fruits, if  they be unripe, or  ripe and
dried, are to be placed  in a  damp  situation until
they become soft: then the  pulp is to  be pressed
out through a  hair sieve ; afterwards boiled with a
gentle heat, frequently stirring; and, finally, the
water evaporated  in a water-bath,  until the pulp
acquires a proper consistence.
  " Over the bruised  pods of Cassia pour boiling
water, so as to wash out the pulp, which is to be
first pressed through a sieve with large  holes, and
afterwards through  a  hair sieve;  then  dissipate
the water in a water-bath, until  the pulp  acquires
a proper  consistence.
  " The  Pulp or Juice of fresh  and  ripe fruit
is to be pressed through a sieve without  boiling it."
  " Gum-Resins  are  to be  esteemed  the  best,
which occur so free from admixture as not to re-
quire purification ;  but, if they  appear  less pure,
boil them in water  until they soften, and express
them through  a canvass cloth ; then let the resin-
ous  portion subside,  and  evaporate the effused
supernatant liquid in a water-bath, adding towards
the end the resinous part, and mixing it well  into
one  mass  with the  gummy part.   Those  gum-
resins that melt  easily, may be purified by en-
closing them in  an ox-bladder,  and holding them
in boiling water (or steam) until they become so
soft that they can be  separated from  their  im-
purities through a  canvass cloth, by means of a
press."
  Vegetables and their  juices  may  also be
preserved by heating in well-closed vessels.  The
substances to  be preserved  are to be put  into
strong glass bottles, with necks of  a proper size,
corked with the greatest care, luted with a mix.
ture of lime and soft cheese, spread on rags,  and
the whole bound down with wires across it.   The
bottles are then  placed in an oven, the tempera-
ture of which  is cautiously raised to 212°, or they
are enclosed separately in canvass  bags,  and  put
into a copper of  water, which is gradually heated
till it boils, and thus kept for  several minutes:  the
whole is then left to  cool,  and the bottles  a»e
taken out and carefully examined before they are
laid by, lest they should have cracked, or the  lute
given way.  (See Fruit,  Milk, Pickles, Pre-
serving,  Putrefaction, Vegetable Juices,  Ve-
getables for distillation, &c.)
  *** The generality of vegetable substances that
exercise  no very  marked action on the human
frame, may be  taken  in powder,  in doses of a
drachm,  night and morning ; or an ounce, or q.
s.  to  impart a moderately strong  taste  or color
may be infused, or boiled in 1 pint of water, and a
wine-glassful or  thereabouts,  taken  2 or 3 times a
day.
   VEGETABLES   FOR  DISTILLATION.
The Dublin College states that" herbs and  flow-
ers from which oils and distilled waters are to be
obtained, should be dried as  soon as they are  col-
lected.".   This  method, however  much v recom-
mended by authority or common usage,  is  vastly 
VEG                   547                    VEN
 inferior to the plan adopted by the large perfumers
 and many of the wholesale  druggists, which con-
 sists in preserving the flowers and herbs by means
 of common salt.  The objection which is  raised
 against the use of fresh aromatic plants is thus ob-
 viated, while the odors of the products of distilla-
 tion are rendered fully equal or  superior to those
 obtained  from  the  dried  plant, fruit,  or flowers,
 without the great loss and  trouble attending the
 drying and preserving of them.  Besides,  many
 aromatic and odorous substances almost entirely
 lose their properties by drying ;  while most of them
 yield more oil, and that of a finer quality, in the
 fresh than in the dried state.  The odor of roses,
 elder flowers, and a variety of others, are  vastly
 improved by this treatment, and these flowers may
 thus be preserved with ease and safety from sea-
 son to season,  or even  longer, if required.  The
 process simply consists in  intimately mixing the
 flowers, or other vegetables, soon  after being gath-
 ered,  with  about \  their weight, or less, of good
 dry salt, and ramming down the  mixture as tight-
 ly as possible into strong casks.   The casks should
 then be immediately placed in a  cold cellar, and
 covered  with boards, on which heavy  weights
 should be put to keep the mass tight and close.
   VEGETABLE   JUICES,  (EXPRESSED.)
 The juices of plants are  obtained by bruising the
 fresh leaves in  a marble  mortar, or in a mill, and
 expressing  the  juice, which, after defecation for
 some  hours in  a cool situation, is either filtered
 through paper,  or strained after coagulating its al-
 buminous matter by heat.   Some plants require
 the addition of  § of water  before pressing.  The
 expression of the juice of lemons, oranges, quinces,
 &c, is facilitated by previously  mixing  the pulp
 with clean  chopped straw.  Buckthorn berries,
 mulberries, &c, after being crushed between the
 hands, are left 3 or 4 days to undergo a slight fer-
 mentation,   before  pressing.   A very  powerful
 screw press is required for this purpose. The pres-
 ervation of the juices of the narcotic plants, and
 some other vegetables, has lately  assumed consid-
 erable  interest,  from  these  preparations having
 been proposed as substitutes for the common tinc-
 tures.   It appears that the  juice of young  plants
 just coming into flower, yields only § the amount
 of extract which may be  obtained from the same
 quantity of juice expressed from the matured plant,
 or when  the  flowers  are fully  blown, and the
 strength of the product is  also inferior. The leaves
 alone should be  preferably employed, and should
 be exclusively of  the second year's growth, when
 the  plants  are  biennials.  (Squire.)  Vegetable
 juices preserved with alcohol, (preserved  vegeta-
 ble juices,  Succi alcoholati, Alcoholatures) are
 prepared as follows:—
   I. (Bentley.) Bruise the leaves in a marble mor-
 tar, (on the large scale, in a mill,) and submit them
 to the action of  a powerful press ; allow the juice
to remain for 24 hours in a cold place, then decant
the clear portion from the feculence, add \ part by
measure of rectified spirit,  (56 over proof,) agitate,
and in 24 hours  again decant the clear, and filter
it through paper.  Keeps  well under ordinary cir-
cumstances.
   II. (Squire.)  As the last, but adding to the de-
canted juice one-half its volume of rectified spirit.
 Keeps  as well as the corresponding tinctures.
   HI.  (Gieseke.) As the last, but using only one-  *
 fifth rectified spirit.
   IV. To the clear  depurated juice, add one-for-
 tieth part by weight of alcohol, in 24 hours filter,
 cork  down  close, and preserve the bottle sunk up
 to its neck in sand, in a cool cellar.
   Remarks. The juices preserved  by Mr.  Bentley,
 or after his method, are now those generally em-
 ployed  and  approved of by the profession, as may
 be seen from the  numerous testimonials from the
 leading medical  authorities in their favor.  These
 preparations have been extensively tried, and in
 no instance have they failed in producing the most
 decided* and characteristic effects of the plants
 from  which they are  prepared.   At  a moderate
 temperature they will  keep  any length of time.
 Occasionally there is a slight tendency to deposite,
 but the sediment has been carefully examined and
 found not to contain any of the medicinal virtues
 of the plant.  They are confidently recommended
 by  Mr. Bentley as  being  superior to most other
 preparations of the  like nature, from  containing
 less spirit.   The commencing dose of the narcotic
 juices is about 5  drops.   *m*  In  the above man-
 ner are prepared  the preserved juices of aconite,
 belladonna, colchicum, (corms,) hemlock, henbane,
 foxglove, elaterium, lactuca virosa, taraxacum,

  VEGETATION,  METALLIC.  Prep.  1.
 (Tin Tree.) Muriate of tin 3 drs.;  nitric acid 10
 to 15 drops; distilled or rain water  1 pint;  dis-
 solve in a white  glass bottle, and hang in it by a
 thread, a small rod of zinc.
   II. (Lead Tree. Arbor Saturni) Sugar of lead
 1 oz.;  distilled water 1£ pint; acetic acid 2 drops ;
 dissolve, and suspend a piece of zinc in it, as be-
 fore.  Less  lustrous  and beautiful than the last.
  III.  (Silver Tree.  Arbor Diana)  Nitrate of
 silver 20 grs.; water 1 oz.; dissolve in a vial,  and
 add  about  £ dr. of  mercury.  Very brilliant  and
 beautiful.
  ***  In the above experiments,  the metals are
 precipitated in an arborescent form.  It is curious
 to observe the lamina;  shoot out,  as it were, from
 nothing, assuming forms resembling  real vegeta-
 tion.  This  phenomenon  seems to  result from a
 galvanic action being set up between the liquid
 and the metals.
  VELVET  PAINTING.   Any of the  ordinary
 non-corrosive pigments  or liquid colors, thickened
 with  a  little gum,  may be  employed in  this art;
 preference being, however, given to those that pos-
 sess the greatest brilliancy, and which dry without
 spreading.
  VENTILATION.  It  is' essential to health
 that the habitations  occupied  by us should be free
 of impure air  and  all  noxious vapors. The first
 step towards this  end is to effect and  maintain  a
 liberal  circulation of fresh air, either by ventila-
 tors, or by  reg jlarly opening  the  windows for
 stated  daily periods. The kindling of fires  also
 promotes  the circulation of atmospheric currents.
 Noxious effluvia may be most effectually removed
 by occasional sprinklings of a solution of  chloride
 of lime  upon the floors and walls, the windows be-
 ing kept open the while.  It is always propel, also,
that  an infected   house  should be whitewashed
 Lives are sometimes lost  by sleeping in a close
room in which charcoal is burning, the person in 
VER
548
VER
this case being stifled with  the  noxious gas.  We
advise that every sleeping apartment should be
well ventilated, and that no one should go to bed
with charcoal burning in the grate or stove.  (See
Disinfectants, Fumigation, &c.)
  VERATRINE.   Syn. Veratria, (P. L. & E.)
Veratrina.  Sabadillin.   A  vegetable   alkali,
discovered by Pelletier and Caventou in the seeds
of veratrum sabadilla, (asagraea officinalis,) in mea-
dow saffron, and white  hellebore.  Prep.  (P. L.)
Boil sabadilla seeds lb. ij  with rectified spirit 1  gal-
lon  for an hour,  in  a retort with a receiver fitted
to it, decant the solution, boil the residue with an-
other gallon of spirit and that which has distilled,
pour off the liquor, and boil with fresh spirit a third
time ; press the sabadilla, distil the spirit from the
liquors mixed and strained, evaporate the residue
to the consistence of an  extract, boil  this three or
more times in water acidulated with a little diluted
sulphuric acid, and  evaporate the strained liquor
with a  gentle heat to the consistence of sirup; to
this, when cold, add magnesia to saturation, assid-
uously stirring, then  press  and wash two or three
times ; next dry the residue, and digest  it two or
three times in spirit with a gentle heat, and strain
as often ; distil off  the  spirit, boil  what  remains
with animal charcoal in water, acidulated with
sulphuric acid, for -J hour, strain, well wash the
charcoal,  evaporate  the liquors  carefully to the
consistence of sirup, precipitate by ammonia, wash,
and dry.
  Remarks.  Pure veratria is perfectly white ; but
as usually met with, it has more or less of a brown-
ish or grayish tint  It is odorous, acrid, uncrystal-
lizable,  fusible  at  240°  F.,  scarcely  soluble in
water, sparingly so in ether, but freely soluble in
alcohol.  With the dilute acids it forms salts ; with
sulphuric acid it  strikes  an intense red color.  A
dilute acetic  solution of veratria is precipitated
white by tincture of  galls and by ammonia, and is
turned to a superb red by strong sulphuric acid.
The smallest portion of its powder causes violent
sneezing.  " As an external  application, it has been
efficaciously  employed  by  Majendie  in France,
and Dr. Turnbull in this  country ; but the extrav-
agant eulogies of the latter have not tended to con-
firm the reputation of the remedy.  From 6 to 12
grs. dissolved in f ^j of alcohol as a liniment, or 30
grs. mixed with 3j of olive oil and ^j of lard as an
ointment, have been  employed  in neuralgia, and
other painful  affections,  and  in  gouty and rheu-
matic paralysis.   If it be internally employed, the
dose should not  exceed one-sixteenth part of a
grain; and  the  action of even  this minute dose
should be watched.   In large doses, it is a power-
ful irritant poison."
  VERATRIC  ACID.   A crystalline, fusible,
volatile  acid, soluble in alcohol,  slightly so in wa-
ter, and insoluble in ether, found by Merck in the
seeds of sabadilla.   It is obtained by exhausting
the  bruised seed  with alcohol and sulphuric  acid,
and precipitating the filtered solution  by milk of
lime ; veratrate of lime remains in solution.   This
salt is decomposed by hydrochloric  acid, and the
veratric acid crystallizes.
  VERDIGRIS.   Syn. Diacetate of Copper.
Subacetate of do.  Vert-de-Gris, (Fr)  Gruns-
rAN, (Ger.)  jErugo ;  Cupri diacetas  impura,
(P.  L.)   When tliis  article is of  good quality, " it
is partly dissolved in water ; and is almost entirely
soluble in liquor of  ammonia,  and, with the assist-
ance of heat, in  diluted sulphuric acid."  (P. L.)
" Not  above  5°,  of impurity  should be left"
(P.  E.)   (See  Acetate  of  Copper.  Ant.  See
Copper.)
  VERDIGRIS,   ENGLISH.    Prep.  I.  Blue
vitriol 24 lbs.; white vitriol 16 lbs. ; sugar  of lea.5
12 lbs.;  alum 2 lbs.; all coarsely powdered ; mix,
and  heat them in a pot over the  fire till they unite
into  a mass.
  II.  (Distilled or  crystallized.)   Sulphate  of
copper 12£ lbs. ; dissolve in water, and add a so-
lution of  19  lbs. of sugar of  lead, or q. s.; filter,
evaporate, and crystallize.  Both are  used  as sub-
stitutes  for foreign  verdigris.
  VERDITER, (BLUE.)  Syn. Refiners' Ver-
diter.  Cendres   bleues.  A  blue pigment, ob-
tained by adding chalk,  whiti..g, or milk of lime,
to the solution of copper in aquafortis ; or by tritu-
rating recently precipitated and still moist carbon-
ate or oxide of copper with hydrate of lime. Prep.
A quantity of whiting, or milk of lime, is put into
a  tub,  and  upon   this   the solution  of copper is
poured.   The mixtu're  is  to be  stirred every day
for  some  hours together,  till  the  liquor loses  its
color.  The  liquor  is then to  be poured off, and
more solution of copper is to be added.  This is to
be repeated till the  whiting has acquired the proper
color.  Then it  is to be washed with water, spread
on large pieces of chalk, and dried  in the sun.
  Remarks.   The  cupreous solution  employed in
the above process,  is made by neutralizing  the ni-
tric solution obtained from  the refiners of gold and
silver, by heating  it  along with metallic  copper.
For  the finest qualities of verditer the lime should
be of the purest kind, and the cupreous precipitate
should be  carefully  triturated with it,  after it is
nearly dry, by which a  fine velvety color  is pro-
duced. The cendres bleues en pates of the French
differs from the  above mainly in  a solution  of mu-
riate of copper being employed, and in the result-
ing  green  precipitate being turned blue   by  the
action of carbonate of potash.   Verditer is either
dried into a  powder, or  used  as a water color in
the moist state.
  VERDITER,  (GREEN.)    The  process for
refiners' verditer frequently miscarries, and a green
color is  produced instead of a  blue.   It may also
be obtained  by omitting the  " blueing up" with
potash, mentioned above.
  VERMICELLI.  This is prepared from a stiff
paste made  of  a  peculiar, fine  kind  of granular
wheat flour  calle'd semoule,  which  is  mixed up
with hot water,  and, after  being well  kneaded, is
formed into small ribands, cylinders,  or tubes, by
being placed  in  a vertical cylinder press, the bot-
tom  of  which is filled with proper shaped holes,
through  which  it  is  driven by  the iron plate  or
" follower" being forced  down by means of  a pow-
erful screw.  The pieces that protrude are  broken
off, twisted into the desired shape upon paper, and
dried. (See Macaroni.)
  VERMILION.   Syn.  Factitious  Cinnabar.
Bisulphuret of Mercury.  Prep. I.  By subli-
mation.—a.  Mercury202 parts ; sulphur 33 parts;
fuse  together by a gentle heat, observing not to
allow the mass to  take fire;  when fused, cover
over  the vessel, cool, powder,  and sublime  m a 
VES                     549                    VIN
close vessel, so placed in a furnace that the flame
may freely circulate and play upon it to about half
its height.   The heat should be  at  first gradually
applied, and afterwards augmented till the lower
part  of  the subliming  vessel  becomes  red hot.
When cold, the  sublimate  is broken to pieces,
ground along with water to a fine powder, elutri-
ated, passed through a sieve, and dried.  Prod.
About 112$ of the  weight  of the mercury em-
ployed.—b.  By grinding 170 lbs.  of quicksilver and
50 lbs. of brimstone together, throwing the mixture
by ladlefuls into heated earthen sublimers, where
it takes  fire;  the superfluous sulphur being  con-,
sumed, the  mouths of the vessels are then covered
with tiles, which stops the conflagration, and the
sublimation commences, which is continued  until
the whole is risen up.
   Remarks.  It  is said  that the rich tone of Chi-
nese vermilion may be imitated  by adding to the
materials 1$ of sulphuret of antimony, and by di-
gesting the  ground sublimate, first  in a solution of
sulphuret of potassium, and next in diluted muri-
atic acid, after which it  must be well edulcorated
with water, and dried.
   Prod. 10 lbs.  for every 9 lbs. of mercury em-
ployed.
   II.  In the  humid way.—a.  (Brunner.)  Pure
quicksilver 300 parts; pure  sublimed sulphur 114
parts; triturate together for several hours  till  a
perfect ethiops is formed, and add gradually caus-
tic potassa 75 parts, dissolved in water 450 parts ;
continue the trituration for some time, then gently
heat the mixture in  an iron vessel, at  first  con-
stantly stirring, but afterwards  only from time to
time, observing to keep the heat at about 113°, or,
at all events,  under 122° F., and to add fresh wa-
ter  to compensate  for  the portion evaporated.
When the color begins to redden, great caution  is
requisite to preserve the mixture at the lower  tem-
perature, and to  keep the sulphuret of mercury
perfectly pulverulent; as soon  as the color be-
comes nearly fine, the process must be conducted
with increased caution, and at a lower heat for
sqme hours, or till a rich color is produced, when
the  vermilion  must  be elutriated  with  water,  to
separate any  particles of metallic mercury, and
carefully dried. Prod. 332 parts of vermilion, equal
in brilliancy to the finest Chinese.
  6. Mercury  300  parts;  sulphur 150  do.; po-
tassa 152  do.; water 450  do.; proceed  as last,
taking care to keep the heat under 130°.  Prod.
382  parts.   *** Vermilion is a beautiful and per-
manent  red pigment, and works and covere well
both in oil and water. (See Bisulphuret of Mer-
cury.)
  VESICANTS.  Prep.—l.  (Vesicant Taffeta.
Blistering Cloth.  Pannus  Vesicatorius.  Spar-
adrap Vesicans)  Distil off the ether from a  con-
centrated ethereal tincture  of cantharides, melt
the oily residue with twice its weight of wax, and
Bpread it on thin oiled silk, (P. Cod.,) or on cloth
prepared with wax plaster.*—2.  (Blistering  Tis-
sue.   Tela  Vesicatoria.)  Similar to the last.—
3. (Blistering  paper.  Charta Vesicatoria.)  As
  * White wax fviij ;  olive oil Jiv ; melt together,
and  add  turpentine fj.   This plaster spread on
cloth  forms the Toile preparee  a la cire  of the
Fr»nch.   (Henry and Guibourt.)
above.—4.   (Blistering paper.   Epispastic  do.
Papier Epispastique.   Henry  and  Guibourt.)
White wax 8 parts ; olive oil 4 parts ;  spermaceti
3 parts ;  turpentine, and powdered flies, of each 1
part; water  10 parts;  boil  slowly  with  constant
agitation for 2 hours, strain through flannel, with-
out pressure, and spread the mass before it cools
on paper.  %* All the  above are used as substi-
tutes for the ordinary blistering plaster.
  VESICATORIN.   Syn. Cantharidin.  Can-
tharides-camphor.  The  blistering principle of
Spanish flies discovered by M.  Robiquet   Prep.
I. Prepare a concentrated tincture of cantharides
by percolating the powder with alcohol, and aban-
don  it  to spontaneous evaporation ; the cantharidin
slowly crystallizes, and  may be  purified by wash-
ing with cold alcohol, boiling with alcohol and an-
imal charcoal,  filtering, and  again allowing the
solution to crystallize.—2.  Digest the aqueous ex-
tract of cantharides in alcohol, filter, evaporate to
dryness, digest  in  sulphuric  ether, evaporate, and
slightly wash the resulting crystals w'th cold alco-
hol.   *** Micaceous plates resembling spermaceti;
fusible, vaporizable ; insoluble in  water ; soluble in
ether,  oils, and hot alcohol;  powerfully vesicant
and  poisonous.   Its vapor, even at  ordinary tem-
peratures, frequently  produces  temporary  blind-
ness.  The l-100th part of a grain, placed on  a
piece of paper, and applied to the edge of the
lower  lip,  caused small  blisters in 15  minutes,
which, when rubbed with  a little simple* cerate,
extended over a large  surface,  and covered both
lips with blisters. (Robiquet.)
  VINEGAR.  Syn. Acetum, (Lat.)  Vinaigre,
(Fr.) Essigsaure, (Ger.)  Vinegar is dilute acetic
acid, more or less  contaminated  with gum, sugar,
and  other vegetable matter.
  The ordinary colored vinegar consumed in Eng-
land (malt vinegar ; acetum, P. L.; acetum Bri-
tannicum, British vinegar, P. E.) is prepared from
malt, or  a mixture of malt and barley, which is
mashed with hot water, and the resulting wort is
fermented as in the common process of brewing.
The liquor  is then run into barrels, placed end-
ways,  tied over with coarse canvass, and  arranged
side  by side in darkened  chambers, moderately
heated by a stove, and  properly  supplied with air.
Here it remains till the acetous fermentation is
nearly complete, which usually  occupies several
weeks, or even months.   The vinegar is  next run
off into two  large tuns, furnished with false bot-
toms, on which "rape" (the pressed  cake from
making domestic wines, or the green twigs or cut-
tings of vines) is placed.  One of these vessels  is
wholly, and  the  other  only three-fourths  filled.
The fermentation  commences  and proceeds more
rapidly in the  latter than  in  the former tun, and
the liquor it  contains consequently matures sooner.
When fit for sale,  a portion of the vinegar is with-
drawn from  the sma'ler quantity,  and its  place
supplied with a like quantity from the  full tun,
and this in its turn is refilled  from the barrels before
noticed.  This process is carried on with a number
of tuns at once, which are all  worked  in  pairs.
Malt vinegar was formerly wholly made by placing
the wort in casks,  loosely covering the bungholes
with tiles, and exposing them to the joint action of
sun and air for several months, till the acetification
was  complete.  **'" The general properties of this 
VIN                     550                     VIN
kind of vinegar are well known.   Its pleasant "and
refreshing odor is derived  from acetic acid and
acetic ether.   Its strength  is distinguished by the
makers as Nos. 18, 20, 22,  24, the last of which is
the strongest, and usually  contains about 4-6°; of
real acetic acid.   Its density varies according to
the quantity of foreign matter it contains.  Sp.  gr.
1*006 to 1*012, (P. E.;)  1*019, (Phillips;) 1*0135
to 1*0251, (Thomson.)   This vinegar usually con-
tains a small quantity of sulphuric  acid.
   Wine Vinegar (vinaigre d'Orle'ans, French vin-
egar, acetum Gallicum, P.  E., acetum vini, P. D.)
is prepared  in  wine  countries by a similar process
to that employed  for making malt  vinegar.   That
prepared from white  wine (White Wine Vinegar)
is most esteemed.  It is purer and  pleasanter than
malt vinegar.   Sp. gr.  1*014 to  1*022,  (P.  E.;)
1*016, (Phillips.)  It usually contains from 5 to 6$
of acetic acid.
   German, or quick method of making Vinegar.
We have seen that   acetification  consists in the
mere oxidation of alcohol in  contact with organic
matter.   This fact has  led to the adoption  of  an
improved method of making vinegar, which  con-
sists in  the  direct employment of dilute alcohol,
and in vastly enlarging the  surface of the  liquid
exposed to the air.  " This is effected by causing
a mixture of 1 part of alcohol at 80 per cent, 4 to
6 parts  water, -pj^  of ferment, honey, or extract
of malt, to trickle down through a mass of beech
shaving* steeped in  vinegar, and  contained in a
vessel called a vinegar generator  (essigbilder) or
graduation vessel. It is an oaken tub, narrower at
the bottom than at the top, furnished with a loose
lid or cover, below  which  is a perforated  shelf,
(colander or false bottom,) having a  number  of
small holes loosely filled with packthread about 6
inches long, and prevented  from falling through by
a knot at'the upper  end.   The shelf  is also per-
forated  with four open glass tubes, as air vents,
each having its ends projecting above and below
the shelf.  The tub  at  its lower  part is pierced
with a  horizontal row of eight equidistant round
holes, to admit atmospheric air.  One inch above
the  bottom  is  a  syphon-formed  discharge  pipe,
whose upper curvature stands one  inch below the
level of the air-holes in the side of the tub.   The
body of the tub being filled with beech chips, the
alcpholic liquor (first heated to between 75° and
83° F.) is placed on  the shelf.  It  trickles slowly
down through  the holes by means of the pack-
threads, diffuses itself over the chips, slowly col-
lects at the bottom  of the tub, and then runs  off
by the syphon  pipe.   The  air enters by the cir-
cumferential holes,  circulates freely  through the
tub, and escapes  by  the glass tubes.  As  the oxy-
gen is absorbed, the  temperature of the liquid rises
to 100° or 104° F., and remains stationary at that
point while the  action goes on favorably.   The
liquid  requires to be passed three or four  times
through the cask before  acetification  is complete,
which is in general effected in from 24 to 36 houre."
(Pereira, Mat. Med. I. 391-2.)  A mixture of about
80 gallons of water, 9 gallons of spirit of from 44
to 45§ Tralles, and 3 gallons of vinegar, containing
3*5$ of real acid, forming together 92 gallons, yields
on an average an almost equal quantity of vinegar,
from 90 to 91 gallons, of the above-stated strength.
(Knopp.)
   Wood Vinegar  is obtained by the  destructive
 distillation of wood in iron cylinders.
   Other Vinegars.—Cider Vinegar.  From cider
 worked  as malt vinegar.—Sugar Vinegar.  Brown
 sugar 4  lbs.  to each gallon of water ; worked as
 last__Gooseberry Vinegar.—From bruised goose-
 berries and brown sugar 1^ lbs. to each gallon of
 water; worked as  last.—Raisin  Vinegar.  From
 the marc left from making raisin wine.   1 cwt. to
 15 gallons of  water,  along  with  a little  yeast;
 worked as malt vinegar.—Pickling Vinegar, (Brit-
 ish white wine do.)  As  malt vinegar, but paler
^and stronger.—Ale Vinegar, (alegar, acetum cere-
 visiae.)   From  strong pale ale, worked upon fine
 cuttings or rape ; as the last.—Crystal  Vinegar
 Pickling vinegar 1 gallon, agitated with  fresh-burnt
 animal charcoal for 24 hours, and  then decanted
 or filtered.   Used for  pickles.—Argol  Vinegar,
 (acetum ex tartaro.) White argol or cream of tartar
 lb. j ; boiling water 2 gallons ; dissolve, cool,  add
 proof spirit 3 pints, and keep it lightly covered in a
 warm place  till ripe. White  and  pleasant.—Ger-
 man household Vinegar.  Soft water 7£ gallons ;
 honey or brown sugar  2  lbs.; cream of tartar 2
 oz.; corn spirit 1 gallon ; as last.
   *#* See  Acetic Acid, Acetification,  Ace-
 tometry, Fermentation, and Pyroligneous Acid.
   VINEGAR, AROMATIC.   Syn.  Aromatic
 Spirit of Vinegar.  Acetum aromaticum. Prep.
 I. (P. Cod.)  Acetic acid fxx  ; camphor §ij; oil of
 cloves 3ss ;  oils of cinnamon and lavender, of each
 9 drops; mix.
   II.  (Acidum  aceticum  aromaticum,  P.  E.)
 Rosemary and origanum, dried, of each §j ; dried
 lavender ^ss ; bruised cloves  3ss ;  acetic acid lj
 pints ; digest a week, press, and filter.  This wants
 the addition of about §iiss of camphor.
   III.  (Henry's)  Glacial  acetic  arid strongly
 scented with the oils of cloves, lavender, rosemary.
 and calamus aromaticus, to which camphor is add-
 ed.  This is  the formula  adopted at Apothecaries'
 Hall.
   IV. Glacial  acetic acid 1 lb.; oil of cloves  3j;
 oil of rosemary 3ij ; oils of bergamotte and cinna-
 mon, of  each 3ss ;  oil of pimento 24 grs.;  oil of
 lavender 3j ; neroli 10  drops ; camphor 5j j alco-
 hol §ss ; mix.  Very fine.
   V. (Extemporaneous)  Acetate of potash (dry)
 3j ;  oil  of vitriol  20 drops ;  oils of  lemons and
 cloves, of each 3 drops.   *** Aromatic vinegar is
 used as a pungent and refreshing perfume in faint-
 ness, &.c.  For this purpose it is usually dropped
 on a small piece of  sponge placed  in a stoppered
 bottle or a vinaigrette.  It is corrosive, and should
 be therefore  kept from  contact with the  skin and
 clothes.
   VINEGAR, THE CAMP.  Prep.  Sliced gar-
 lic 8 oz.; Cayenne pepper, soy, and walnut ketch-
 up, of each 4 oz. ; 36 chopped anchovies ; vinegar
 1 gallon ; powdered cochineal £ oz.; macerate for
 1 month, and strain.
   VINEGAR, CAMPHORATED.  Syn. Aci-
 dum aceticum camphoratum. Prep. (P. E.) Con-
 centrated acetic  acid  f ^viss ; camphor ^ss ;  dis-
 solve.   Used as aromatic vinegar.
   VINEGAR  OF  CANTHARIDES.  Syn.
 Acetum Cantharidis, (P. L. & E.)  Prep.  (P.
 L.)   Powdered cantharides §ij ; acetic acid, P. L.,
 1 pint ; digest for 8 days, press, and strain.  Used 
VIN                551                    WAF
as a counte§r-irritant, and  to raise blisters.  Many
wholesale houses employ twice the above quantity
Of flies.
   VINEGAR,  CUCUMBER.—Capsicum Vine-
gars-Garlic Vinegar,—Shalote Vinegar,—Onion
Vinegar,—Caper Vinegar,—Cress Seed Vine-
gar,—Celery Seed  Vinegar,—Truffle Vinegar,
—Seville Orange-peel Vinegar,—Ginger Vine-
gar,—Black Pepper  Vinegar,—White  Pepper
Vinegar,—Chillie Vinegar,—Horseradish Vine-
gar, tjf-c, are all made by steeping about an oz. of
the articles in each pint of vinegar for 14 days, and
straining.—Tarragon  Vinegar,—Basil Vinegar,
—Green Mint  Vinegar,—Elder-flower Vinegar,
—Celery Vinegar,—Cherville Vinegar,—Burnet
Vinegar, 6fC.  Leaves 2 or 3 oz.;  vinegar 1 pint;
steep for  14 days, then strain, and keep  in half-
pint bottles.  The whole are used in cookery.
   VINEGAR, CURRIE.  Prep. Currie powder
£ lb.;  vinegar 1 gallon ; infuse for 1 week.  Used
as a flavoring.
   VINEGAR,   DISTILLED.   Syn.  Acetum
destillatum, (P. L.  E.  & D.)  Prep.  (P.  L.)
Matt vinegar 1 gallon ; distil in glass, (or earthen-
ware,) reserving  the  first  7  pints only  for use.
*** If a pewter worm is used, a portion of lead is
dissolved, and the product becomes  cloudy.  100
grs. should saturate 13 grs. of  crystallized carbon-
ate of soda.  It contains about 4*6°; of  real acetic
acid.   (See Acetic Acid.)
   VINEGARS   FROM   FLOWERS.   Prep.
Dried  flowers 1  to 2 oz.;  distilled vinegar 1 pint;
digest  for a  week, strain, and  repeat the process
with fresh flowers, if necessary.  They may also
be prepared by adding 2 or 3 drops, or q. s. of the
respective essential oils to the vinegar.  *** In a
similar way  are  made the Vinegars of—orange-
flowers, (fresh,) elder-flowers, clove-gilly flowers,
musk  roses,  red roses, (vinaigre  de rose, acetum
rosatum,) rosemary flowers,  (vinaigre de rose-
marin, acetum  anthosatum,)   lavender, (vinaigre
JistilltS de lavende,) Tarragon, &c. &c.
   VINEGAR, MARSEILLES.  Syn. Vinegar
OF THE FOUR THIEVES.  PROPHYLACTIC VlNEGAR.
Acetum prophylacticum.  A. antissepticum.  A.
THERIACALE.   A. QUATUOR FuRUM.  ViNAIGRE DES
quatre  Voleurs.  Prep. Summits of rosemary,
flowers of sage, dried, of each  %iv ; dried lavender
flowers, 5'j ?  cloves 3j ; distilled vinegar 1 gallon;
digest  for 7  days, press,  and  filter.   Used  as a
corrector of bad smells, and formerly as a prophy-
lactic  against the plague,  and other  contagious
diseases.  Said to be  a  favorite preventive  with
Cardinal Wolsey, who always carried  some with
him.                                      ^
   VINEGAR OF OPIUM.  Syn. Acetum Opii,
'P. E. & D.)   Prep.  (P. E.)  Opium §iv; dis-
tilled vinegar f f xvj ; macerate for 7 days, press,
and filter.  Anodyne and soporific.  Preferable to
laudanum.  Dose. 5 to 30 drops.
   VINEGAR,  RASPBERRY.   Prep.  Bruised
ripe raspberries and white wine vinegar, of each 3
pints;  macerate 24 hours, press, strain,  and  to
each pint add white sugar 1 lb.; boil, skim, cool,
and to each pint add brandy 2  oz.   *** In  a
similar way may be  made  Strawberry Vinegar,
and Cherry do.
   VINEGAR  OF  SQUILLS.   Syn. Acetum
Scili-s, (P- L- K. & D.)   A. scilliticum, (P. L.
1745.)   Prep.—1. (P.  L.)  Squills, recently dried,
^xv ; distilled vinegar 6 pints ;  digest at a gentle
heat fer 24 hours, press, filter, and add proof spirit
£ pint—2. (Wholesale.)   Squills 7 lbs.; distilled
vinegar 7 gallons; macerate in the  cold for 10
days, press, and filter.  Expectorant and diuretic
Dose. 3ss to 3iss  in chronic pulmonary  affections
and dropsies.
  VIOLE/r DYE, like purple, is produced  by a
mixture of red and blue  coloring matter, applied
either  together, or in succession.   A good violet
may be given  to  silk or wool  by passing it  first
through a solution of verdigris, then through a de-
coction of logwood, and lastly through alum water.
A fast violet may be given by dying the goods a
crimson with cochineal,  without  alum or tartar,
and, after rinsing, passing them through the indigo
vat—Linens or cottons  are first galled  with  lSJJ
of gall-nuts, next  passed through a mixed mordant
of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, work-
ing them  well, then worked  in  a madder  bath
made with an equal weight of root, and  lastly
brightened with  soap  or soda.   Another  good
method is to pass  cloth dyed Turkey red through
the blue vat.—Wool, silk, cotton, or  linen,  mor-
danted with alum and dyed in a logwood bath, or
a mixed bath  of  Archil  and Brazil, also takes a
pretty, but false violet.
  VIOLINE.  Syn. Violina.  Emetique  indi-
gene.   A white,  pulverulent,  bitter, acrid   sub-
stance, extracted  from  the roots, leaves, flowers,
and seeds of the viola odorata.   It is sparingly sol-
uble in water, and insoluble in ether.  Its opera-
tion  resembles emetine, for which it was at  first
mistaken.
  VOMIT, (MARRIOTT'S,)  DRY.  A mixture
of equal parts of sulphate  of zinc and tartar emetic.
  WAFERS. Prep. I. (Flour wafers.) Mix fine
wheat flour with water to a smooth pap, add  col-
oring as required,  pass  the mixture through  a
sieve, to remove any clots or lumps, fill the ' wafer-
irons' (previously warmed, and greased with but-
ter or olive oil) with the batter, close them tight,
and  expose them for a short time to the  heat of
a clear  charcoal  fire.  The whole must  then be
allowed to  cool, when  the irons must be opened,
and the thin cake, which is now hard and brittle,.
must be cut into wafers, by means of sharp annular
steel punches.  *** The ' wafer-irons' consist of
two  plates  of iron, united together  in a similar
manner to a  pair of pincers or tongs, and which,
when closed, leave a space between their internal
surface proper for the thickness of wafers.
  II. (Gelatin do., Glue do., Transparent  do.)
Dissolve isinglass, or the best  pale glue,  in suffi-
cient water to form a consistent mass when cold,
pour it, while  hot,  upon the surface of a  warm
plate of mirror glass, slightly oiled, and surrounded
with a border of card paper, (laid flat;) next apply
a similar plate, also warmed and  oiled, and press
the two into as close contact  as  is permitted by
the  card paper.   When  cold, the thin  cake of
gelatin must  be  removed, and cut into wafers
with punches,  as before.
  III. (Medallion) Color Salisbury glue; fill up
the  hollow part of a seal with gum water mixed.
with any colored  powder, leaving the flat part 
WAT                    552                   WAT
clear;  then pour as  much of the melted colored
glue on the  seal as will lie upon it, and let it dry
in a gentle heat; when used, wet the paper where
the wafer is to be applied, and place the back of
the wafer upon the wet paper.
  ***  The coloring matters  employed for wafers
are the following:—Red,  a decoction  of Brazil
wood, brightened with alum;—yellow, a decoction
of French berries, or an infusion of saffron or tur-
meric ;—blue, sulphate of indigo diluted with wa-
ter, and partly saturated with potash ; green, blue
and yellow mixed.  Vermilion, gamboge, smalts,
&c., are also used for the best wafers.
  WAFERS.  (In cookery.)  Prep.  Take fine
flour, dried and sifted, make  it into a smooth thin
batter  with very good milk, or a little cream and
water;  add  about  as  much white wine  as will
make  it thick enough for pancakes, sweeten it
with a little loaf-sugar, and flavor with beaten cin-
namon.  When  thus prepared,  have the wafer-
irons made ready by being heated over a charcoal
fire ; rub the irons with a piece of linen cloth dip-
ped in butter ; then  pour a spoonful of the batter
upon them,  and  close them  almost immediately ;
turn them upon the fire, and pare the edges with
a knife, as  some of the batter will ooze out.  A
short  time will  bake them,  when the irons are
properly heated.  The  wafers must  be  curled
round while warm.   Wafer  Paper is prepared in
a similar way to the above.   Used by cooks, &c.
  WARD'S RED DROP.   A strong solution of
emetic tartar in  wine.
  WARTS on the hands may be removed by the
daily use  of a little nitrate  of silver, or nitric or
acetic  acid, in  the way  described at p. 222, (art
Corns.)   The first of the above applications pro-
duces a black stain, and the second a yellow one;
both of which, however,  wear off after the lapse
of some days.  Acetic  acid scarcely discolors the
skin.   The  papular eruption which covere the
hands of some persons, and which  is occasionally
called  " soft warts," is best  removed by the daily
use of Gowland's lotion.
  WASH  FOR FRECKLES.   Prep. Brandy
1£ oz., (or spirits of wine 1 oz.,) water 9 oz., dilu-
ted muriatic acid, a teaspoonful; mix.  To be used
after washing. The substitution of 1 oz. of orange-
flower  water, or 2 oz. of rose-water, for a like
proportion  of the water ordered above, renders it
much more agreeable.
  WASH FOR THE TEETH.  Prep.  Chloride
of  lime £ oz.; water 2 oz.;  agitate well together
m a vial for £ an hour, filter, and add spirit 2 oz.,
rose or orange-flower water 1 oz.   Used diluted
with water, by smokers and  persons having a foul
breath.
   WATCHFULNESS.    Syn.  Sleeplessness.
Agrypnia, (from a, priv. and favos, sleep.)   The
common causes of watchfulness are thoughtfulness
or  grief, a  disordered  stomach or  bowels, heavy
and late suppers, or deficiency of  proper exercise.
The best treatment in ordinary cases consists in
an attention to those points.   The method of pro-
ducing sleep recommended  by a late  celebrated
Hypnotist, consisted in merely adopting  an easy
recumbent position, inclining the head towards the
chest, shutting the eyes, and taking several deep
Inspirations with the mouth closed.  Another meth-
od recommended  by an eminent surgeon,  and
which appears infallible if persevered in with prop-
er confidence, and which is suitable either  to the
sitting  or  recumbent  posture, consists in  tying  a
decanter cork with  a metallic top, or  any other
bright object, on the  forehead, in  such a  position
that the eyes  must be distorted  or strained to be
capable of seeing it.   By resolutely gazing  in this
way for a short time, without winking, the mus-
cles of the eyes gradually  relax, and  the experi-
menter falls asleep.
  WATER. Syn. Protoxide of Hydrogen. Eau,
(Fr)  Agua, (Sp.) AcquAj (Ital.)  Wasser,  (Ger.)
Aqua, (Lat.)  biup, (Gr.)   The  ancients regarded
water as a  simple substance, and as convertible
into earth, and various organic products.   Earth,
air, fire, and water, were at one  time conceived to
be the  elementary principles, or essences of matter,
from which all form  and substance derived their
existence.  The true constitution of water was not
discovered till about the middle of the last century,
when the Honorable  Mr. Cavendish  proved that
this liquid was a compound  of hydrogen and oxy-
gen.  These gases exist in water in the proportion
of 1 to 8 by weight, or 2 to 1 by volume ; the sp.
gr. of hydrogen being to that of oxygen La I to 16.
When  water is made  a part of the voltaic circuit,
it is resolved into 2 measures of  hydrogen,  and  1
measure of oxygen gas ;  and if the gases  thus ob-
tained  be  mixed, and  exploded  by  the  electric
spark,  they  again combine, and produce their own
weight of pure water. The composition of  water
is thus clearly and easily demonstrated, by analy-
sis and synthesis.   In the production of water from
its  constituent gases, there is a  condensation of
nearly 2000 volumes into 1, thus showing the won-
derful effects of chemical combination.  One cubic
inch of perfectly pure water at  62° F.,  and 30
inches of  the barometer, weighs 252*458 grs.; by
which it will be seen that it is 815 times heavier
than atmospheric air.  Its  sp. gr.  is  10,  it being
made the standard by which the densities  of other
bodies  are estimated.  The sp. gr.  of frozen  water
(ice) is 092 ; that of aqueous vapor 0-6202, air
being  1*0.   Water changes its  volume with the
temperature ; its greatest density  is at about 39°
F., and its sp. gr. decreases from that poiut, either
way.   By the enormous  pressure of 30,000  lbs. on
the square inch, 14 volumes of water are conden-
sed into 13 volumes.   Water evaporates at all tem-
peratures, but at 212° this takes  place so rapidly,
that it boils, and is converted inl.o vapor, (steam,)
whose bulk is about 1700 times greater than that
of water.  The general properties and uses of water
are too well known to require notice.
   Pur. Pure water is perfectly transparent, odor-
less, and colorless, and evaporates  without residue,
or even leaving a stain behind.  The purest natu-
ral water is that  obtained by melting snow or tro
zen rain, that has fallen  at some distance from any
town.   Absolutely pure water can only be obtain-
ed by the  union  of  its  gaseous constituents : but
very pure water,  sufficiently so  for  all chemical
and philosophical purposes, may be procured by the
careful distillation of common water.   The follow-
ing are the tests usually employed to ascertain the
purity of water, or the nature of the  substances  it
holds  in solution:—1. Ebullition. If a precipitate
is  formed, or a crust deposited on the vessel, it in-
| dicates the presence of carbonate  of lime.   This if 
WAT                    553                    WAT
the cause  of the calcareous fur that lines tea-
kettles  and boilers  used  for  common  water.—2.
Evaporation. The matter left behind when water
is evaporated is impurity ; if  it be organic matter,
smoke and a peculiar odor will be evolved, as the
residue becomes  dry and charred.—3.  Protosul-
phate of Iron.   If a little of this test be added to
water, placed in a  stoppered vial, and  a reddish
brown precipitate form in a few days, the presence
of oxygen gas is  indicated.—4. Neither Litmus,
sirup of violets, nor turmeric, is discolored or  af-
fected  when  moistened  with pure  water ; if the
first two  are reddened, it indicates an Acid ;  if
the  last is turned brown an Alkali.—5. Lime-
water, mixed with pure water, remains transpa-
rent ;  if a milkiness ensues when the test is em-
ployed before the  water has been boiled, and  not
after, carbonic  acid is  present.—6. Chloride of
Barium occasions a white  precipitate, insoluble  in
nitric  acid,  in  water containing sulphuric acid,
(usually in the state of sulphate of lime.)—7. Ox-
alate  of  Ammonia occasions a white precipitate
in water, containing carbonate or sulphate of lime.
—8. Nitrate of Silver occasions a cloudy white
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid,  but soluble in
ammonia, in water containing chlorine or muriates.
—9. Phosphate of Soda and Ammonia added to
water  that  has been boiled,  and  precipitated by
oxalic acid, (if required,) produces, in a few hours, a
white precipitate,  if the water contains magnesia.
—10. Tincture or Infusion of Galls turns water
 containing iron black ; when this takes place both
before and after  the water  has been boiled, the
 metal is present under the form of sulphate ; but
 if it only occurs before boiling, then carbonate of
 iron may  be suspected, and will be precipitated as
 a reddish  powder by exposure and heat.—11. Fer-
 rocyanide of  Potassium gives a blue  precipitate
 in water  containing  a sesquisalt of iron,  and a
 white one, turning blue by exposure to the  air, in
 water containing a protosalt of iron.—12. Sulphu-
 reted Hydrogen and the hydrosulphurets give a
 brown or  black precipitate in water containing iron
 or lead.—13. Soap, or a solution of soap in alco-
 hol, mixes easily and  perfectly with pure  water,
 but is curdled and precipitated in water containing
 carbonates, sulphates, or muriates.
    Var.  Distilled Water, (Aqua destillata, P.
 L.  & E.    A.  Destillata,  P.  D.  A.  depurata.
 Holy water.)  The purest kind of artificial water
 is obtained in quantity,  by the distillation of com-
 mon water, observing to reject  the first and last
 portions thit come over.  The  still employed for
 this operation should be used for no other purpose ;
 and where great nicety is required, the  distillation
 should-be performed in glass or earthenware. Pure
 distilled  water  is unaffected by  solutions  of the
 caustic and carbonated alkalis, lime, baryta, oxalic
 acid,  acetate of lead, nitrate of silver,  or tincture
 of soap.   **■** Distilled water should alone be em-
 ployed in the preparation of infusions,  decoctions,
 extracts, tinctures, saline solutions, &c, and in the
 various other processes of chemistry and pharmacy
 where ddicacy is required, as its power as a men-
 struum is not only greater  than that of common
 water, hut its purity prevents any secondary de-
 compactions taking place, which frequently vitiates
 products, in the preparation of which, impure wa-
 ter has been used. When distilled water is not at
                        70
hand, or in large operations, clean filtered or clari-
fied rain water is the only kind that can be  suc-
cessfully  substituted.—Rajn Water, (Aqua Plu-
vialis. A. Pluvia.  A. Imbrium)   This is a  very
pure kind  of natural water, but contains minute
quantities  of air, carbonic and nitric acids, carbon-
ate of ammonia,  &c.—S.sow Water, (Aqua Ni-
valis. A. ex Nive)  The purest of all natural wa-
ters.—Spring Water.  (Aqua, P. E. Aqua Fon-
tana)  Rain water which has percolated through
the  earth  usually contains mineral  impurities.
" For pharmaceutical use, spring  water must be
so far free of  saline  matter, as not to possess the
quality  of hardness,  or  contain above  1-6000th
part of solid matter."  (P. E.)—River Water,
(Aqua Fluvialis. A. ex Flumine)  Less pure than
good spring water.  Thames water contains about
l-3500th part  of fixed impurities, chiefly carbon-
ate of lime.—Well Water, (Pump Water. Aqua
Puteana.  A. ex Puteo.)  Less pure than either of
the preceding.  Usually contains a large quantity
of carbonate and sulphate of lime. Hence its " hard-
ness," and property of curdling soap.—Marsh Wa-
ter, (Aqua ex Palude) and Lake Water, (Aqua
ex Lacu) resemble river water, but contain  more
organic matter in  a state  of  decomposition, and
are  hence deemed  unwholesome.  Sea  Water.
(Aqua Marina. A. Maris)  The characteristic of
this variety is its saltness.  Its density is about
 1*0274, and the average quantity of saline matter
which it  contains is about 3£ per cent, of which
 about §-]ths  are  chloride  of sodium, and  the re-
 mainder  chiefly  chloride  of magnesium and sul-
 phate of magnesia.
   Pu'rif.  Pure water is incapable of putrefaction,
 but ordinary water contains a small quantity of or-
 ganic matter in solution, which speedily undergoes
 decomposition, even in closed vessels.   This is es-
 pecially the case with water kept in wooden casks,
 or open cisterns, into  which leaves and insects may
 be driven by the wind.  Putrescent water is un-
 wholesome as a beverage.  Among the simplest
 methods for purifying foul water are the following:
 —1. Filtration or agitation with coarsely-powdered
 fresh-burnt charcoal, either animal or vegetable ;
 but preferably the former.  This will not only re-
 move mechanically suspended matter, but also the
 calcareous and gaseous impurities held in solution.
 —2. By  exposing it freely to the action of the air,
 by  which the organic matter, becoming  oxidized
 and insoluble, speedily subsides.   This operation
 may be easily performed by agitating the water in
 contact with fresh air, or by forcing air through it
 by means of  bellows.—3. The addition of a little
 sulphuric acid to water has a like effect; 15 or 20
 drops are usually sufficient for a gallon.  This ad-
 dition may be advantageously made to water in-
 tended for filtration  through charcoal, by which
 plan at least two-thirds of the  latter may be saved.
 (Lowitz.)—4.  An  ounce of powdered alum, (dis-
 solved,) well agitated with a hogshead or more of
 foul water, will precipitate the foul matter  in the
 course of a few hours, when the clear portion may
 be decanted.  When the water is very putrid, a
 scruple to a drachm  may be employed to  the gal-
 lon  and  any alum that may be left in solution may
 be precipitated by the cautious addition of an equiv-
 alent proportion  of carbonate of soda.—5. A solu-
 tion of red sulphate  of iron acts in the same way 
WAT
554
WAT
as alum:  a few drops are sufficient for a gallon.—
6. Agitation with about the £ of lg of finely-pow-
dered black oxide of manganese,  has a similar ef-
fect to the last.—7.  The addition of a little aqueous
chlorine, or chlorine gas, to foul water, cleanses it
immediately.   This method has the advantage of
the water being perfectly freed from any excess of
the  precipitant by heat.—8. Sea water  may be
rendered fit for washing by the addition of a solu-
tion of carbonate  of soda or potash as long as it
turns milky.  After repose, the  clear portion must
be decanted. t.Dr. Mitchell.)—9. Hard water may
be softened  in the way last mentioned.
  Pres. Water is usually preserved on  ship-board
in iron tanks, or in casks well charred on  the in-
side.   It cannot be  safely kept in copper or leaden
vessels, and receives a calcareous impregnation by
contact with lime, mortar,  stucco, or stone con-
taining lime.   The addition of about £ of  1§ of
finely-powdered black oxide of manganese to wa-
ter, materially promotes its preservation, especially
at sea, as  the motion of the vessel and consequent
agitation of the water increase the points of contact.
  WATER,  CHALYBEATE.   Prep.   (Ure.)
Protosulphate of iron 3 grs.;  bicarbonate of potash
61 grs. ; cold (rain) water 1 quart; mix  and  agi-
tate in a corked bottle.   This artificial chalybeate
water possesses equal tonic powers to that of the
springs;  but  it may be rendered pleasanter by
forcing in  a little carbonic acid gas.
  -WATER-COLOR  CAKES.   These  are the
ordinary colors that work well in water, made into
a stiff and perfectly smooth paste with gum water,
or isinglass size, or a mixture of the two. and then
comprei-sed in a polish id steel mould, and dried.
  WATER, FLY.  Prep.  White arsenic 1 dr. ;
boiling water  1 pint; dissolve, and sweeten with
treacle.  Used to kill flies.  A dangerous method,
and one that should never be adopted where there
are children.
  WATERPROOF CLOTH.    Prep. I. (Han-
cock's Patent.) By spreading the liquid juice of the
caoutchouc  tree upon the  inner  surface of  the
goods, and allowing them to dry in the air.
  II. (Potter's Patent)  By imbuing the cloth on
the wrong side with a vtlution of isinglass, alum, and
soap, by means of a brush.  When dry, it is brushed
on the wrong side against  the grain, and then gone
over with  a  brush dipped in water.  Impervious to
water, but not  to air.
  III. (Sierier's Patent.) By applying first a so-
lution of Indian rubber in  oil of turpentine, and af-
terwards another Indian  rubber varnish, rendered
very drying by the use of driers.   On  this, Wool or
other material of which the fabric  is made, cut in-
to proper lengths, is spread, and  the whole passed
through a press, whereby the surface acquires a nap
or pile.
  IV.  Moisten the  cloth on the wrong side, first
with a weak solution  of isinglass, and when dry,
with an infusion of nutgalls.
  V. As the last, but substitute a solution of soap
for  isinglass, and another  of alum for galls.
  WATERPROOF  LIQUID.   Prep.—l.  In-
dian  rubber \ oz.; oil of turpentine £ pint; put
them into a pot, tie it over with bladder, and set it
in hoj water;  when dissolved, add hot "boiled"
oil  1 pint—2.  Boiled oil 1 quart;  Indian rubber 1
oz.; dissolve by heat.—3. Linseed oil 1  pint;  yel-
 low wax and common turpentine, of each  2 oz.'
 Burgundy pitch  1 oz.; melt together.—I. Linseed
 oil 1 pint; suet 8 oz.; beeswax 6 oz. ;  rosin 1 oz.;
 melt together.  All  the above are  used to render
 leather boots and shoes waterproof.
   WATER, ROSE.  Prep.  Otto  3iij; rectified
 spirit (warm) 1 pint; dissolve, add  hot water 10
 gallons; mix in a 12-gallon carboy, cork, and agi-
 tate till cold.   This makes the  ordinary rose wa-
 ter of the shops.  It is better for distillation.   (See
 Distilled Waters.)
   WATER, (CORDIAL.)   Liqueurs possessing
 little viscidity. They are prepared in a similar way
 to  the  balms, creams, oils, and  other  cordials of
 the liqueuriste, but with less sugar.  The following
 is an example of this class of liqueurs :—
   Water  of Cedrat.   Double refined sugar 6
 lbs. ; boiling rain water  7 quarts;  dissolve,  add
 spirit of cedrat 2 quarts ; spirit of citron 1 quart;
 mix well, and filter while hot,  as rapidly as  possi-
 ble, through a clean bag into a carrx , or bottle ;
 cork down immediately, and in 2 or 3 months bot-
 tle.  Very fine.   (See Cordials and Liqueurs.)
   WATERS, (DISTILLED.)  Syn. Aqua Des-
 tillata, (P. L.)   A. Distillate, (P.  D.)   Dis-
 tilled Waters, (P. E.)  Aromatic  do.  Per-
 fumed do.   Pure water charged with the odorous
 and aromatic principles of plants. Distilled waters
 are  mostly employed  as vehicles   or  perfumes.
 Those intended for medical purposes are common-
 ly prepared by simply distilling the herb or flowers
 along  with water  in an ordinary  still; a larger
 quantity of water being employed than it is intend-
 ed to draw over,  for the purpose of preventing em-
 pyreuma.  The  aromatic waters for medical pur-
 poses may be prepared extemporaneously, of nearly
 equal quality to those obtained  by  distillation, by
 carefully triturating a drachm  of any of the essen-
 tial oils, with an  equal quantity of magnesia, and
 agitating it well  with 2 quarts of warm  distilled
 water in a corked bottle ; or as much of a solution
 of the essential oil in rectified spirit  may be added
 to  the  water as it will  bear, without becoming
 milky, the whole being well  agitated as before,
 and when cold filtered, if necessary, through bib-
 ulous paper.  White sugar may  be  advantage-
 ously substituted  for magnesia, as the water is apt
 to dissolve a little of the latter  substance, and is
 hence  rendered unfit to  be used as a  solvent  for
 metallic salts, especially bichloride of mercury and
 nitrate of silver.  The dose of the aromatic or car-
 minative waters, as  those  of  dill, caraway, pep-
 permint, pennyroyal, &c, is  a wine-glassful  ad
 libitum.
   In the distillation of waters  intended for per-
fumery, the  utmost  care is requisite to produce a
 highly fragrant  article.   The  still  should be fur-
 nished with a high  and narrow neck, and the heat
 of  steam, or a salt-water bath, should alone  be
 employed.   The  first few ounces of the  runnings
 should be rejected,  except when  spirit is used, and
 the remainder collected till the proper quantity be
 obtained, observing that the  whole product  be
 mixed together ; as  distilled waters progressively
 decrease in strength the longer the process is con-
 tinued.   When a very superior  article  is desired,
 the  waters  may  be  redistilled by a gentle heat,
 the  first two-thirds only being  preserved.   The
 odor of distilled  waters is improved by  keeping 
WAT                    555                   WAT
them for some months in a cold cellar loosely cov-
ered, as  they thus  lose  the herbaceous  smell
which they frequently possess when recently pre-
pared.  When these  waters have  been  carefully
prepared, so that  none of the liquor in the still has
" spirited" over into the condensing worm, they keep
well, and are not liable to change ;  but should the
reverse  be the case,  they frequently become ropy
and  viscid.  The best remedy is to redistil  them.
Waters which have  acquired a burnt smell  in the
" stilling,'' lose it by freezing.   Distilled waters
may be  prevented from turning sour by adding a
little calcined  magnesia to them ;  and those  which
have begun to spoil,  may be recovered by adding
to ,each pint, a  grain each of borax and  alum.
This doctoring is not, however, to be recommend-
ed.  A drop of muriate of gold added to these wa-
ters  shows whether they contain  any uncombiued
essential oil, by forming in that case a fine metal-
lic film ou the surface. After distilled waters have
acquired their full odor, they should be  carefully
preserved in  well-stopped bottles.   Some houses
keep a  separate still for each of the more delicate
perfumed waters, as it is extremely difficult to  re-
move any odor that  adheres to the bottom  of the
still  and  worm.   The best method of cleaning a
still  is to employ  it for the distillation of  pure wa-
ter with the worm-tub empty.  The  addition of
the small quantity of spirit ordered  by  the colleges
in the preparation of  their waters, in no way tends
to promote  their  preservation; in fact, I have ob-
served that waters so treated, acetify much  sooner
than those without spirit.   I have prepared scores
of hogsheads of rose and elder-flower waters, which
have shown no disposition to undergo spontaneous
decomposition, without the  use of a single drop of
spirit.
   The  following  are  the quantities  of the respect-
ive  ingredients ordered  by the Colleges, for the
preparation of one gallon of their distilled waters :
—(2 gallons of water are  put into the  still along
withfgvij of proof spirit, but only one gallon is
drawn over.)—Dill water, (Aqua Anethi, P. L.)
—Caraway do.,  (A.  Carui, P. L.)—Fennel do.,
(A. Fceniculi, P  L.,)  bruised seeds lb. iss.—Orange
Flower  do.,  (A. jlorum  aurantii, P. L.)—Rose
do.,  (A.  Rosa,  P.  L.)—Elderflower do., (A.
Sambuci, P.  L.;) fresh flowers  lb. x.—Cinnamon
do.,  (A Cinnamomi, P. L.)—Cassia do., (A. Cas-
sia, P. E.;) bruised  bark  lb. iss,  or essential oil
3ij.—Orange   peel  do.,  (A.  Corticis Aurantii,
P. L. 1746;) fresh peel g v.—Castor do.,  (A. Cas-
torei,  P. L.  1746;)  castor gv.—Spearmint do.,
(A. Mentha Viridis, P. L.)—Peppermint do., (A.
Mentha Piperita, P. L.)—Pennyroyal do.,  (A.
Mentha Pulegii, P. L.;) fresh herb lb.  iv,  or dry
herb lb. ij, or essential oil  3ij.—Pimento do,  (A.
Pimenta, P.  L.;) berries lb.j, or  essential oil 3ij.
__Lettuce do.,  (A.  Lactuca, P.  Cod.)—Borage
do.,   (A. Boraginis,  P.  Cod.,)  &c., &c, fresh
leaves lb. xij.—Lavender do., (A.  Lavandula, P.
Cod.)—Sage  do., (A. Salvia, P. Cod.)—Tansy
do.,   (A. Tanaceti,  P.  Cod.)—Thyme  do., (A.
Thy mi, P. Cod.,) &c.;  flowering tops  lb. vj.—
Cherry Laurel  do., (A.  Laurocerasi, P. Cod.)
—-Peach do., (A. Persica, P. Cod.,) &c.;  fresh
leaves lb. xij.—Bitter Almond  do.,  (A. Amyg-
dalarum Amarum, P. Cod.;) bitter almond cake,
from which the oil has been expressed, lb. v ; wa-
ter  q. s.; macerate  24 hours,  and distil.—Balm
do., (A. Melissa, P. Cod.)—Hyssop do., (A. Hys-
sopi, P. Cod.,) &c, fresh  tops lb. xij.—Melilot
do., (A. Meliloti, P. Cod.)—Origanum do, (A. Ori-
gani, P. Cod.,)  &c, &c.;  dried flowers lb. iij.—
Angelica  do.,  (A.  Angelica,  P.  Cod.,) &c. ;
bruised  seed lb. iij.—Valerian do., (A. Radicis
Valeriana, P. Cod.)—Cascarilla do., (A. Corti-
cis  Cascarilla,  P. Cod.)—Clove do., (A. Caryo-
philli, P. Cod.)—Sassafras do., (A. Ligni Sassa-
fras, P. Cod.)—Juniper do., (A. Bacca Juniperi,
P. Cod.,) &c., of each,  bruised, lb.  iij.—Cherry-
laurel Water, (A. Lauro-cerasi, P. E.;) fresh
leaves,  chopped, lb. j ;  water 2£ pints ;  distil  1
pint, add compound spirit of lavender f §j, agitate,
and if milky, filter it.  Dose.  3ssto 3j, as a substi-
tute for hydrocyanic acid.  It is commonly imita-
ted in trade, by dissolving 75 drops of the oil of bit-
ter almonds in f §iiss of rectified spirit, and agitating
the mixture with 1 gallon of warm distilled water.
  *** In a similar manner may be made the dis-
tilled waters of  other aromatic  and odorous sub-
stances.   In general, the druggists draw off 2 gal-
lons or more of water from  the above quantities of
the herbs,  barks, seeds,  or  flowers ; hence the in-
ferior quality of  the waters  of the shops. They do,
however, very well for  vehicles.  The perfumers,
on  the  contrary, use an  excess  of flowers, or at
least reserve only the first and stronger portion of
the  water  that distils over,  the remainder being
collected and used for a second distillation of fresh
flowers.   The most beautiful distilled waters are
those prepared in the South of France, and which
are  imported into  England under  the French
names.   Thus,  Eau  de Rose, Eau de fleurs d'-
oranges,  &,c, are immensely superior to the best
English rose or orange-flower water,  &c.  The
water that distils over in the preparation of the es-
sential  oils is usually of the strongest and finest
class.   (See Eaux, Essences, and Vegetables for
distillation.)
   WATERS, EYE.   Syn. Collyria.  Prep.  1.
Vinegar gj ; proof spirit or brandy f fss ; rose or
elder-flower water f§viij ;  mix. In simple ophthal-
mia.—2. (Krimer.)  Muriatic acid 20 drops ; mu-
cilage  3j ; rose  water f §ij.  To remove  particles
of  iron or lime from the eye.—3. Wine of opium
3ij ; sulphate of zinc 3j; rose and distilled water,
of each f §iv; astringent and anodyne ; in painful
ophthalmia.—4. (P. C.) Sulphate of zinc 10 grs.;
water  f%iv;  dissolve.   An  excellent astringent
water in ophthalmia.  It  may be made with rose
water.—5.  (Bates.) Blue vitriol 15  grs.; camphor
4 grs.;  boiling water f giv.  When cold make it up
4 pints, and  filter.  In purulent ophthalmia.—6
(Common.) White vitriol  and  camphor,  of each
3ss; boiling water 1 quart ; when cold filter. Used
in ophthalmia.—7. Opium 10 grs.; boiling water
f gvj ;  when cold, add solution of acetate of am-
monia f §ij, and filter.   In  painful ophthalmia.—8.
Camphor julep f gvj ; solution of acetate of ammo-
nia and rose water, of each f 3ij;  mix.   For weak
eyes after ophthalmia.—9. (Goulard's.)  Solution
of diacetate of lead 10 drops ; rose or elder-flower
water f ?v1 * mix.  In the  inflammatory stage of
ophthalmia.—10. Acetate of lead 10 gre.; water £
pint; as the last—11. Sulphate of copper 4 grs.;
camphor mixture 6 oz.; dissolve.   In  the purulent
ophthalmia of infants.—12. (P. Cod.)  Extract of 
WAT                     556                   WAT
opium 4 grs.;  rose water f giv ; dissolve.  In pain-
ful ophthalmia.
  WATERS, (In Perfumery.)   The simple dis-
tilled waters of the perfumer have been already
noticed.  They may  be prepared from any  sub-
stances which impart their fragrance to water by
distillation.  The compound  waters employed as
perfumes consist of very pure rectified spirit, hold-
ing in solution essential  oils, or other odorous mat-
ter, and resemble the esprits, essences, and spirits,
before noticed.  They differ from extraits in being
mostly colorless, or nearly so, and in being gener-
ally prepared by distillation, or by the addition of
the pure essential oils  or essences to carefully rec-
tified  and perfectly scentless spirit; whereas, the
extraits are mostly and preferably  prepared by
macerating the flowers,  &c. in the spirit, after the
manner of making tinctures.   Extraits  are to be
preferred to  eaux and esprits as the basis of  good
perfumery, where the color  is not objectionable.
The sp. gr. of  spirit for  these preparations should
always be under 0-88, and for  the finer qualities
should be about 0-838 or 0-840.  The following are
examples of compound perfumed  waters .*—
  Honey  Water.  Syn. Sweet-scented  Honey
Water. Aqua Mellis  odorifera.   Prep.—1. Spirit
of roses (No. 3) 2 quarts ;  spirit of jasmin and rec-
tified  spirit of wine, of  each 1  quart; essence of
Portugal  1 oz.; essences of vanilla and musk, of
each (No. 3) 4 oz.; flowers  of  benzoin 1£  drs.;
mix, agitate, and add eau de  fleurs d'oranges  1
quart.  Delightfully fragrant.—2. Honey  3  oz.;
essence of bergamot £ oz.; essence of lemon \ oz.;
oil of cloves 12 drops; musk  12 grs.;  ambergris 6
grs.; rectified  spirit 1  gallon ; orange-flower  and
rose water, of each 1 quart; macerate  14 days,
with frequent  agitation, and  filter.—3. (Colored.)
To the last add hay saffron 20 grs.  The above  ire
used as perfumes, and  the last two are made nto
ratafias with sugar.  *** Honey water for the hair
is a different article to the above.  It is obtained
by  the  dry  distillation of  honey, mixed  with  an
equal quantity of clean  sand, a gentle heat only
being employed.   The product  is yellowish and
acidulous, from the presence of  acetic acid.  It is
used to promote  the growth of the hair.
  Lavender Water.  (See Eau de Lavende.)  It
may be useful to observe here,  that the common
lavender water, double distilled do., or spirits  of
lavender of the druggists, is made with  spirit  at
proof, or under; hence its inferior quality to that
of the more celebrated perfumers.  One ounce of
true English oil of lavender is  all that will prop-
erly combine with one gallon of proof spirit, with-
out injuring the color by rendering it muddy
  Millefleur Water. Syn. Eau de Miltej^eurs.
Prep. Very pure rectified spirit 9 pints ;  balsam of
Peru (genuine) and  essence of cloves, of each 1
oz.; essences of bergamot and musk, of each 2 oz.;
essences of neroli and  thyme, of each -J oz.; eau
de fleurs d'oranges 1 quart; mix well.   Very fine
(See p. 260.)
  Eau  de  Mousseline.   Prep.  Eau de fleurs
d'oranges and spirit of clovegilly flower, of each 1
quart; spirit of roses, (No.  3,)  spirit  of  jasmin,
(No. 4,) spirit of orange-flowers, (No, 4,) of each 2
quarts ; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No.
3) 2 oz.; sanders wood £ oz.; mix. Very fine.
  WATERS,  MINERAL.  Syn. Aquaj Min-
erales.  Our space will  not permit a  description
of these individually.  The  following tables, ex-
hibiting their  composition, will, however, enable
the reader, with a little attention, to produce them
artificially:— 
		I	Tabular View of the Composition						OF SEVERAL OF THE MORE CELEBRATED MINERAL WATERS.										
							From Brande's Manual				of Chemistry.								
						One Pint, Wine Measure, contains the following Ingredients:													
			.|			Carbon-	Carbon- Carbon. |Sulphate Sulphate Sulphate Muriate						Muriate	|				Total	j
	WATERS.	Nitro. gen, C.I.	Acid,		Hydrogen	ate tit Soda,	ate of ate ot j ot Magne- Lime, Soda,			ot Mag. nesia,	ot Lime,	of Soda,	of Mag. nesia.	Muriate Oxide of of Lime. Iron.		Silica.	Temper-ature.	of Saline	AUTHORITY.
						grams.	sia, grs. grams, grains.			grains.	grains.	grains.	grains.					Contents	
	CARBONATED.																		
	Seltzer		17*			4*	5* 3*					17*					Cold	29-	Bergman.
	Pyrmont.		26*				10* 4*5			5*5	8-5	1-5			0*6		do.	30-6	Ditto.
	Spa ....		La-			1*5	4-5 1*5					0-2			0-6		do.	8-3	Ditto.
	Carlsbad .		s'			5-	1-5		8-5			4-5			a trace	0*3	165°	19-8	Klaproth.
	Pouges		30*			10*	1-2 12-					22			2-5	0*5	Cold	28-4	Hassenfratz.
	Saint Parize		22*				0-5 115				13*						do.	25*	Ditto.
	SULPHUROUS.																		
	Harrowgate.	0*8	1-		2*3		0*7	2-5		1-3		77*	11*	1*5			do.	94*	Garnet.
o>	Moffat .	0*5	0*6		1*2							4-5					do.	4*5	Ditto.
5 Aix-la-Chapelle .					5*5	12*		4-2				5*					143°	21*2	Bergman.
	Cheltenham Sulph. Spring				1-5				23-5	5*	1-2	35*			0-3		Cold	65*	Parkes &. Brande.
	SALINE.																		
	Seidlitz .						2-5 0-8			180*	5*		4*5				do.	192*8	Bergman.
	Cheltenham Pure Saline						... i ...		15*	11*	4*5	50 *					do.	80*5	Barkes &. Brande.
	Bristol....		3	5			1*5		1*5		1-5	0*5	1*				74°	6*	Carrick.
	Buxton .	0*2					... ! 1*3				0-3	0-2			003		82°	1-83	Pearson.
	Bath ....		1	2			... 1 0*8		1*5		9*	3-3			a trace	0 2	116°	14-6	Phillips.
	Scarborough .						atrace		20*		9*				ditto		Cold	2-9	Saunders.
	Barege				uncertain	2*5	ditto				atrace	0-5					120°	3*	Ditto.
	Plombieres					25		0-3	2*3			1-5				0-3	?	66*	Vauquelin.
	Kilburn		3	5	8*5?		0*5	1-	12*	37*	5*5	2*5	5*5	0*2	a trace		Cold	64*2	Schmeisser.
	Leamington New Bath	6*4	a trace		a trace				19*		14*	53*	1*5		0*8		do.	88-3	Lambe.
	Leamington Old Bath.	0.3			ditto				7*5	7*	18*	41*					do.	73-5	Ditto.
	CHALYBEATE.																		
	Tunbridge	0*59	1*		5 trace of?			003			017	0*30	003	0*05	0*28		do.	0-56	Scudamore.
	Cheltenham Chalybeate		2*5			0-5			22*7	6*	2*5	41*3			0*8		do.	73*8	Parkes & Brande.
	Brighton		2-2								4*	3*	0*75		1*4	0*14	do.	9*29	Marcet.
 
	II. Table of Analysis of the								PRINCIPAL MINERAL WATERS OF			Germany.				1
								From Brande's Manual.								
									Auschowitz.							
	Dry Ingrbdients found in in Grains	16 oz		or Water,		Carlsbad.	Ems.	Marienbad. Kreutzbr.	Ferdinands-brunnen.	EOER. Franzenbr.	Pyrmont.	Spa.	Geilnau.	Selters.	Seid-SCHUTZ.	PULLNA.
	Carbonate of Soda					9-695	10-750	8-26	6*197	500		0-7375	6-6210	6*155		
	Sulphate of Soda					10-689		39-72	22*544	25*50	2-14566	0 0375	0 0420		23*4960	123*8
	Muriate of Soda					7*975	7-634	12*45	8*996	7*96		0-44949	0-5430	17*292		
	Sulphate of Potash .						0*540	0-93		0-93	0*04194	0-07909	0-2872	0*397	4*8940	4*8
	Muriate of Potash .						0 045							0-358		
	Carbonate of Lime					2*37	1-1407	4-1300	4-016	1-847	5*98824	0-9850	2-9705	2-1870	6-8060	0-77
	Sulphate of Lime .										7-22132				1•5050	2-6
	Subphosphate of Lime					0*0017				0-014		0*01366			0*0156	0•0035
	Filiate of Lime					0*024	0-00192							0*0018		
	Carbonate of Magnesia					■ 1-369	0-7887	3-0560	2-4	0-600	0-32352	1 • 12278	2-1709	1*3180	1*0980	6*406
	Sulphate of Magnesia										2*69752				83-1380	93-086
cn' Muriate of Magnesia .											1*12664				1•6300	19-666
oc: Nitrate of Magnesia															7-9070	
	Alumina .							0-0075					0 0247			
	Suhphosphate of Alum					0 0024	0-0018				0-01478	0*00851		0*0027	0*0117	
	Carbonate of Strontia					0-007	0-0107							0 0192		
	Sulphate of Strontia										0-02063				0-0463	
	Carbonate of Barytes.						0-0029							0-0019		
	Silica ....					0-577	0-4139	0*8800	0-669	0-568	0-49689	0*4985	0-2695	0-302	0*1200	0*176
	Carbonate of Iron					0 0278	0 026	0*1760	0-4	0-350	0-42846	0-3751			0*0127	
	Carbonate of Manganese					0 006	0-0037	0-0065	0-092	0*006	0-04852	0 0519			0-0042	
	Total . Carbonic Acid Gas in 100 cubic inches					41-9239	21-35932	69-616	45-314	42-775	20-55412	4-35903	12-9288	28-0946	130-6845	251-3075
						58	51	125	149-56	154	160	136	163*3	130	6*4	6*9
						Sprud. 165°										
	Temperature (f)					) Neub. 138 ) Muhl. 128 * Ther. 122	Kess.1170 Kran. 84	53°	49°	53°	56°	50°	51°	58°	58°	58°
	Analyzed by					Berzelius.	Struve.	Struve.	Steinmann.	Struvk.	Struve.	Struve.	Struve.	Struve.	Struve.	Stkuve
 
WAX                   559                    WAX
  III. Analysis of Sea Water, English Channel,
by Schweitzer.
  Pure water.......964*74372 grs.
  Chloride of sodium.....27*05948  "
       "      potassium  ....   0*76552  "
       "      magnesium   .  .  .   3-66658  "
  Bromide of magnesium   .  .  .   0*02929  "
  Sulphate of lime......1*40662  "
  Sulphate of magnesia .        .   2*29578  "
  Carbonate of lime.....003301  "
of the pan.  The acid should also be well scat-
tered over  the whole surface.  The  melted wax
is next covered over, and left for some hours  to
settle, or till it becomes sufficiently cool to be
drawn off into the moulds.  It is then very gently
skimmed with a (hot) ladle, and bailed or  decant-
ed into basins, where it is  left  to  cool.  Great
care must  be taken  not to disturb the  sediment.
When no more  clear wax can be drawn  off, the
remainder  in the melting pan is  allowed to cool,
and  the  cake or "foot," as  it is called, is taken
out,  and  the impurities (mostly bees) scraped from
its  under  surface.   The  remaining portion  is   f
usually reserved  for a  second operation, but if
required, may  be at once melted,  and strained
through  canvass into a mould.—Much  of the
foreign wax has a pale dirty  color, which  renders
it, no matter however pure, objectionable to the
retail purchaser.  Such wax undergoes the opera-
tion  of coloring.  This is done  as  follows:—A
small  quantity  of the best roll  annotto, cut into
slices, (^ lb. more or less, to wax 1 cwt., depending
on the paleness of  u«j latter,) is put into a clean
boiler with about a gallon of  water, and boiled for
some time, or till it is perfectly dissolved, when a
few  ladlefuls of  the  melted wax  are added, and
the boiling continued till  the wax has taken up all
the  color, or till the water is mostly evaporated.
The portion of wax  thus treated has now a €eep
orange color, and is  added in quantity as required
to the remainder of  the  melted wax in the larger
boiler, till the proper shade of color is produced
when  cold, observing to well  mix the whole, and
to cool a little  now and then  to  ascertain when
enough has  been added.  The  copper  must  be
then brought to a  boil, and  treated with vitriol,
&ui., as before.—Another method is to  add palm
oil (bright) to the wax till it gets  sufficient color;
but  this  plan is objectionable from the quantity
required  for the purpose being often so large as to
injure the quality of  the  wax ; besides which  the
color produced  is inferior, and  less transparent
and permanent.   *#* The great art in  the above
process is  to produce a wax  which shall  at once
be " bright," or semitranslucent in thin  pieces,
and  good colored.   The former is best ensured by
allowing the melted mass to settle well, and by
carefully skimming  and  decanting the  clear por-
tion  without  disturbing the sediment.  It should
also  not be poured into the moulds too warm, as,
in that  case, it  is  apt  to " separate," and  the
resulting cakes  to  be " streaky," or of different
shades of color.   It  should also be allowed to cool
very slowly.  When cooled  rapidly, especially if
a  current of air  fall upon its surface, it is apt to
crack, and form  cakes full  of  fissures.   Some
persons who' are very nice  about their wax, have
the cakes  polished with  a  stiff brush when quite
cold and hard.  It is  necessary to have the " jacks"
or cans,  ladles,  and  skimmers used  in the  above
process kept pretty hot, as without this precaution
the  wax cools,  and  accumulates upon them  in
such quantity as to render them inconvenient, and
often  quite  useless,  without being  constantly
scraped out.
  Another method  of  refining crude  wax, and
which produces a very bright article, is to melt it
with about 1 per cent, of concentrated nitric acid,
in a  large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by
                                 1000-00000 grs.
  *** In addition to the above,  it may be  re-
marked that traces of iodine  have been  found in
the  water of Cheltenham, (old well,)  traces of
bromine in the water of Epsom, and traces of both
bromine  and iodine in that of Leamington, (royal
pump.)   Manganese  has been found in the waters
of Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa,  Pyrmont,  Marien-
bad, Saidschilts, &c.   Traces of phosphoric and
fluoric acids have also been found in some mineral
waters.   It is the opinion of  many high  authori-
ties, that the medicinal virtues of these waters de-
pend more on the  minute quantities of the above
substances, than on their more abundant saline in-
gredients.—C.
  WAX.   Syn.  Cire,  (Fr.)  Wachs,  (Ger.)
Cera, (Lat.)  The  substance  which forms the
cells of  bees.  Pure  beeswax  (yellow wax, cera
flava) has a pleasant ceraceous odor,  a  pale yel-
lowish brown color, and the sp.  gr. 0*960  to 0*965.
It is frequently adulterated with farina, rosin, and
mutton  suet or  stearine.   The  first may be de-
tected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves only
the wax,—the second, by its  solubility in cold
alcohol, and by  its terebiuthinate taste,—the last
two, even when forming less than 2$ of the  wax,
may be detected by its affording sebacic  acid  by
distillation.  When greasy matter  is  present in
any considerable  quantity, it  may also  be de-
tected by the suspected sample  having an unctu-
ous feel, and a disagreeable taste.
  WAX, BEES' (FACTITIOUS.)   Syn.  Cera
flava factitia.  Prep.—1.  Yellow rosin 16 lbs.;
hard  mutton suet or stearine 8 lbs.;  palm oil 2^
lbs.;  melt  together.—2.  As  last, but substitute
turmeric 1 lb. for the palm oil.—3. Best annotto
6 oz. or q. s. ; water 1 gallon ; boil till  dissolved,
add hard mutton  suet or stearine 35 lb.s.; yellow
rosin 70  lbs. ;  boil  with  constant agitation  till
perfectly mixed and of  a proper  color, and as
soon as it begins to thicken, pour it out into basins
to cool.   When cold rub  each cake over with a
little potato starch.   Used instead of wax in oint-
ments by farriers.
  WAX, REFINED.   Crude wax, especially
that imported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees,
and other foreign matter.   To free it from  these
substances,  it undergoes  the  operation  of  refi-
ning.  This is done by melting the wax along with
about 3g of water  in a bright copper  boiler, pref-
erably heated by  steam,  and  after the  whole is
perfectly liquid,  and has boiled for a few  minutes,
withdrawing the heat, and sprinkling over its sur-
  rce a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion of about
  or  4 oz.  (fluid)  to every  cwt.  of  wax.  This
operation  should be  conducted with  great care
and circumspection ;• as,  if done  carelessly, the
melted wax will froth up, and boil over  the sides 
WAX
560
WEI
■team  or  a salt-water bath, and to  continue the
boiling till nitrous fumes cease to be evolved, after
which  the whole is allowed to settle, and treated
as before.
  WAX,  SEALING.  Syn.  Cire  a Cacheter,
(Fr.)  Siegellack, (Ger)  Prep. I. (Red.)   a.
Shellac (very pale) 4 oz.;  cautiously melt in a
bright copper pan  over a  clear charcoal fire, and
when fused add Venice turpentine  1$  oz. ; mix,
and  further add vermilion 3 oz.; remove the  pan
from the  fire, cool a little, weigh it into pieces,
and  roll them into  circular  sticks  on  a warm
marble slab by means of a polished wooden block ;
or it may be poured into moulds while in a state
of fusion.   Some persons  polish  the  sticks with a
rag till quite  cold.  Fine.—h.   Shellac 3 lbs.;
Venice  turpentine  19 oz.; finest cinnabar 2 lbs.;
mix  as before.   Fine.—c. As  the last, but use £
less vermilion.—d.  Rosin 4 lbs.;  shellac 2 lbs.;
Venice turpentine and red lead, of each Ik lb.; as
before.   Common.
  II. (Black.)  a.  Shellac 60 parts; very  fine
ivory-black, reduced to an impalpable powder, 30
parts ;  Venice turpentine 20 parts. Fine.—6. As
the  last,  but  using  lampblack  for   ivory-black.
Fine.—c.   Rosin 6 lbs. ; shellac  and  Venice  tur-
pentine, of each 2  lbs.; lampblack q.  s.   Inferior.
  III.  (Bottle Wax)— a.  (Black)   Black rosin
6£  lbs.; beeswax  £ lb.;  finely-powdered  ivory-
black l£lb.; melt together.—6.   (Red)   As the
last, but substitute Venetian  red or  red lead for
ivory-black.
  IV.  (French)  Shellac  (pale) 3 lbs.;  Venice
turpentine  14, lb. ;  vermilion  2\  lbs.; divide  into
sticks 12, 24, 36, or 40 to the lb.   Fine.
  V.  (Gold.)   By stirring  gold-colored  mica
spangles or talc,  or  aurum   musivum   into  the
melted resins when they begin to cool.  Fine. *
  VI.  (Marbled.)   By  mixing  2 or 3  different
colored  kinds just as they begin to grow solid.
  VII.  (Soft)—1. (Red.)   Beeswax  8  parts;
olive oil 5  parts; melt, and add Venice turpentine
15 parts ;  red lead  to color.—2. (Green.)   As the
last, but  substitute  powdered verdigris  for  red
lead.   Both are used  for sealing certain official
documents kept in  tin boxes ; also as a cement.
  %*  All the above  forms for  "fine" wax pro-
duce " superfine,"  by employing the  best qualities
of the  ingredients;  and  " extra-superfine," or
" scented,"  by  adding 1$ of balsam of  Peru or
liquid storax to the ingredients when  considerably
cooled.  The variegated and  fancy-colored kinds
are commonly  scented with a  little essence of
musk or ambergris, or any of the more  fragrant
essential oils.  The addition of a little  camphor,
or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax  burn  easier.
Sealing-wax adulterated  with  rosin, or  which
contains too much  turpentine, runs into thin drops
at the flame of a candle.
  WAX, WHITE. .Syn. Bleached Wax. Block
white  Wax.  Cera alba in massis.  From pure
beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the action
of the  sun, wild, and  rain,  frequently changing
the surface  thus exposed, by remelting it, and re-
ducing  it  again  to thin flakes.   Used in making
candles, and in white  ointments,  for the sake of its
color.  Virgins'  Wax,  (Cake white wax, cera
alba in offis)  The  last  made into round  flat
cakes.
   WEIGHT. The measure of the force by which
any body, or any given portion of a substance,
gravitates towards the earth.   The estimation of
the weight of bodies is called weighing, and con-
sists in the comparison of the thing to be weighed
with some conventional  standard.  This standard
may be determined  by the  constant ratio which
exists between the volume and the weight, or grav-
itating power of  the  same substances when placed
in precisely the same physical condition; hence
for the primary creation of a standard weight, ref-
erence must be had to the measure of  the volume
of some substance, as a cubic foot or inch of pure
water or mercury, the weight of which is constant
at the same temperature, and  under the same at-
mospheric  pressure.   The  method of estimating
the weight of bodies, without  reference  to their
volume, or to a standard  which is already known,
is difficult and uncertain..  In fact, it is impossible
to communicate  merely by oral  description, with-
out reference to some sensible object, a proper idea
of a pound weight, or a foot-rule ; since the mind
requires some known measure of  volume or gravi-
tating power, for the purpose of comparison.  But
man is not directly supplied by nature with any
constant standard of weight or volume, by which
he can accurately determine that of other  bodies.
The original standard of small  weight was the
grains or corns of wheat, and of measure, the foot,
cubit, span, pace,  &c,  derived  from the human
body ;  but since  the size of grains of wheat, and
the linear surface of the human body, varies under
different circumstances, and in different individuals,
however carefully  the specimens may be selected
with a view to an average, it is very evident that
such bodies can  never furnish permanent and ac-
curate  standards of comparison.   It may be fairly
stated, that nature furnishes no standard of weight,
at the  same  time  invariable and accessible to all
mankind, and that without reference to some de-
termined and constant measure of volume, no such
standard can  be created.   But  the elements ol
Buch a standard of measure are furnished  by the
aid of natural philosophy, and a  refined knowledge
of the arts.  The form and magnitude of the earth
are presumed to remain  the same in all ages, and
hence a determined portion of its circumference, as
l-360th part, or a degree, will represent an unal-
terable standard, fit for the purposes of metrology.
The force of  gravitation  at  the earth's surface is
also constant under the same parallels of latitude
and at the same elevation above  the level  of the
sea, and hence the length of a second's pendulum
is  invariable  at  any given place, under precisely
similar  circumstances.   This furnishes a  second
element for the determination of a lineal standard,
which  by its  involution forms similar standards of    i
measure, both of superficies and volume. A meas-
ure of  bulk or volume being determined, it is easy
to estimate weight, or the gravitating power of any
substance, by reference to  such  a standard.  As
soon as a  unit of weight or  measure has been
agreed on, and a model weight or measure formed,
the latter  becomes the standard, and others may
of course be readily  formed  by  mere comparison;
but when these standards, or their representatives,
are lost, recourse must he again had to science-and
calculation.  The relation between the weight and
volume of a body,  compared  to a given stan- 
WEI                    561                   WEI
dard  taken  as  unity,  constitutes  its  specific
gravity.
  For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever
is required, which, when  accurately suspended  in
a state of equilibrium, will be like affected by like
weights appl ed to  either extremity.   The manu-
facture of these  instruments requires great skill
and experience.  A balance, made  by Ramsden,
turning on points instead of edges, was sensibly af-
fected by the  1-1600th of  a grain, when loaded
with  4 or 5 ounces.   This is 1-384,000th part  of
the weight;  so  that  this beam  would determine
the weight of any substance to  5 places of deci-
mals, besides a sixth  figure, which  might be esti-
mated. (Phil. Trans., vol. 75.)   A balance made
by  the same artist  for the Royal Society, was ca-
pable of  weighing 10 lbs., and yet turned with the
l-100th of a  grain, which  is only the 1-7,000,000th
part of the weight.   A balance with  unequal arms
will weigh as accurately as another, of the  same
workmanship, with equal arms,  provided the sub-
stance weighed be  removed, and standard weights
placed  in  the same scale  till  the  equilibrium  be
again restored, when the weights so  employed, be-
ing exactly in the same condition as the substance
previously occupying  the scale,  will of  course in-
dicate its proper weight.  A knowledge of this fact
is useful, as  it  enables any  one to weigh correctly
with  unequal  scales,  or with any suspended
lever.
  Small Weights may be made of thin leaf-brass.
Jeweller's foil is a good material  for  weights below
l-10th of a grain, as low  as to l-100thofa grain ;
and all  lower quantities may be either estimated
by  the position of the  index, or shown by actually
counting  rings of wire, the value  of which has
been determined.   The readiest way to subdivide
small weights, consists in weighing a certain quan-
tity of small wire, and afterward cutting it into
such parts, by measure, as are desired ; or the wire
may be wrapped close round  two pins, and then
cut asunder with a knife.   By this  means it will
be divided into a great number of equal lengths, or
small rings.  The wire ought to be so  thin, that
one of these rings may barely produce a sensible
effect on the beam.

The  following Tables represent the values and
  relative  proportions of the principal Weights
  employed  in Commerce and the Arts.

              I.  English Weights.

       1. Imperial Avoirdupois Weight.
>.					2		
							
							
fr«	^		K	£	.£		
s ■3 fr-0	• 5	• 4) 0	m*0 -° 5 " 0 P.		•51 a J3	a 0	•3 * 01
27-34	1	00625	0-0039	0	0	0	1-7705
437-50	16	1*	00625	0	0	9	28328
7000	256	16-	1-	0	0	0	453.25
0	7168	448-	28-	1	0-25	0	
0	28672	1792-	112-	4	1*	005	
0	573440	35840-	2240-	80	20*	1*	
  %*  The standard in avoirdupois weight is the
same as in troy weight.  The avoirdupois drachm
is now never used except in weighing silk ; when-
ever a drachm is mentioned in books, the troy, or
apothecaries' drachm, is intended.   The stone of
butchers' meat is 8 lbs., and of other  commodities
14 lbs., in London.

          2. Imperial Troy Weight
Grs. grains.	Dwts. pennyweights.	Oz. ounce.	Lb. pound.
24 480 5760	1 20 240	1 12	1
  *#*  The  standard  of the  above measure is 1
cubic inch of distilled  water,  at  62° F., and 30
inches  of the  barometer,  which  weighs 252*458
troy grains.
  The  carat  used in weighing  diamonds  is 3|
grains, (nearly.)  Troy weight is used in weigh-
ing gold, silver, jewellery,  &c, and in philosoph-
ical experiments.

            3. Apothecaries' Weight.
^.					c S
0					■-• s
0 i	(?) 3	S .s	no a	*_.-3 0	0-J3 W 0
5		■o	0		2 fa
1	005	001666	0-00-2083	0-0001736	006475
20	1	03333	00416	0U03472	1-295
60	3	1-	0-1250	0-0104166	3-885
480	24	8-	1*	00833333	31-08
5760	288	96*	12-	1*	372-96
      II. French Weights.

1.  Metrical or Decimal Weights.
Names.
Millegramme
Centigramme
Decigramme
Gramme
Decagramme
Hectogramme
Kilogramme, or Kilo
Myriagramme
Equiv. in
grammes.
   1
   10
  100
 1000
10000
 Equiv. in
troy grains.
    •0154
    ■1543
   1-5434
   15-434
  154-3402
 1543 4023
15434-0234
 Equiv. in
avoirdupois
  weight.
lbs. oz. grs.
  0i 45-
  34 12152
2 3i 12173
154340*2344 122 OJ 12
  ***  The standard  unit in the above table is
the gramme.   A  metrical quintal  is 10 myria-
grammes.
A millier is 1000 kilos.
/
  * As this abbreviation is used to represent  both the
avoirdupois, and troy or apothecaries' pound,, it  is neces-
sarv to observe, that the former is indicated when Uis
sign is preceded by Arabic figures; and the latter, whem iX
is followed by Roman numerals. It was also formerly
used along with Roman numerals, to re:eesent the wine-
pint.
71 
WHE
562
WHI
2.  Binary Weights. (Systeme usuel.)
c C ca	6 2 09	o 5	c O	> 5	a s s « BO s	0* >E o* a	*s = <*. "S o s . a is 5 x c-o OS o		Equiv. in avoirdupois weight
1 24 72 576 9216 18432	0 1 3 24 384 768	0 0 1 8 128 256	0 0 0 f 1 16 32	0 0 0 0 1 2	0 0 0 0 0 1	•0542 1-30 3-906 3125 500-1000-	1 4 32 500 1000	05 30	lbs.oi. grs. 0-837 201 60-284 1 4.V 1 IJ 61-2 34. 13-
  ***  The old French grain  is equal to 0*820 of
an  imperial troy (Train; hence, 1  troy  grain  is
equal to 1*21 old French grains.  The gros, once,
and other multiples of the grain, are of course pro-
portionate.  The new French grain (of 1812)  is
equal to 0*0542 gramme,  or 0*8365228 gr. troy.
It is said, in some works, to be equal to 0*878 gr.
troy;  or,  in  round  numbers,  0*9,  but this  is
much too high.

   III. Continental Medicinal Weights in
                 Trov Grains.
From Dr. Christison's Dispensatory.
				Scruples		
				consisting of		
c P	a 53	u c	E .c:		GO	_c
*J	O PL.	O	&	s	c o	O
French	5670-5	470-50	5910	19-7	_	0-820
Spanish	5326-3	443-49	5514	18-47	-	0-769
Tuscan	5240*3	436-67	54-58	1819	—	0-758
Roman	52350	436-25	54-58	1817	—	0-757
Austrian	64951	54125	67-65	—	22-5	1127
German	5524-8	46040	57-55	—	1918	0-960
Russian	5524-8	46040	57-55	—	19-18	0-960
Prussian	54151	45126	56-40	—	18-80	0-940
Dutch	5695-8	474-64	59-33	—	19-78	0-988
Belgian	56958	474-64	59-33	—	19-78	0-988
Swedish	5500-2	45834	57-29	—	1909	0-954
Piedmontese	4744-7	395-39	49-45	—	1648	0-824
Venetian	4661-4	388-45	48-55		16-18	0809
  WELSH RAREBIT.  Prep.  Cut  slices of
bread, toast and butter them; then  cover them
with  slices of rich cheese, spread  a  little  mus-
tard over the cheese, and  put  the  bread  in a
cheese-toaster before  the fire.  Serve it up very
hot.
  WELD.   Syn.   Woald.  Vouede,  (Fr.)
Reseda luteola,  (Lin.)  An herbaceous annual
employed by the dyers.  A decoction  of the stems
and leaves gives a  rich yellow to goods mordanted
with alum, tartar,  or muriate  of tin.   The yellow
coloring  principle  may be obtained  in beautiful,
transparent yellow needles by sublimation.  (See
Luteoline.)
  WHEAT  The quality of  this  grain may be
ascertained in the  way directed for wheat flour, p.
317.
  WHEY.  Syn.  Petit Lait,  (Fr.) Molken,
\fier.) Serum Lactib, (Lat.)  The liquid portion
of milk after the curd has  been separated.  It
consists chiefly  of sugar  of  milk.—A jxn-nid of
milk, mixed  with a tablespoonful of proof spirit
allowed to become sour,  and  the whey  filtered
from the sediment, yields, in the course of a  few
weeks,  a  good  vinegar  (whey vinegar)   free
from lactic acid.  (Scheele.)  Skimmed milk may
be used.
  WHISKEY.   (From  Usquebaugh, the  Irish
name originally applied to it.)  Dilute alcohol ob-
tained from the fermented wort of malt or graina
That from  the former is the most esteemed.  The
inferior qualities of  this spirit are prepared  from
barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only of which
is malted ;  or from potatoes mashed with a portion
of barley malt, the resulting wash being carelessly
fermented  and distilled, and  purposely suffered to
burn, to impart  the  peculiar  empyreumatic or
smoky flavor so much relished by the lower orders
of whiskey drinkers.  The malt whiskey (sold as
such) of  the  principal Scotch and Irish distillers,
is fully equal in quality to  London gin, from which
it merely differs in flavor.   The peculiar flavor of
Scotch whiskey may be nicely imitated by adding
a few drops of  pure creosote to 2 or 3 gallons of
good  London gin ; and the  imitation will be still
more perfect  if the liquor be kept for some months
before drinking it.
  WHITE COPPER.   (See German Silver.)
  WHITE  PIGMENTS.—Alum White
(Baume's.)   Powdered Roman alum 2 lbs.; honey
1 lb.; mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish
to whiteness,  cool,  wash, and dry.  A beautiful
and  permanent  white  both  in  oil and water.—
Derbyshire   White.   Cawk,   heavy  spar,  or
native sulphate of barytes.—Flake White.  The
finer kinds of white lead  are so  called.—White
Lead.  (Fine White.  Carbonate of Lead.  Sub-
carbonate of do.  Ceruse.  Cerussa.  Magistery
of lead.   Plumbi  Carbonas,  P. L.)  Made by
suspending rolls of thin sheet-lead over malt vine-
gar, or pyroligneous acid,  in close vessels, the
evaporation from the acid being kept up by the
vessels being placed in  a heap  of  dung,  or  a
steam-bath.   Commercial carbonate  of lead  is
never  quite  pure,  being  commonly adulterated
with sulphate of baryta,  (heavy spar) and some-
times with chalk.  The former may be  detected
by  its insolubility in dilute  nitric acid,  and the
latter by the nitric solution  yielding a white pre-
cipitate with oxalic or sulphuric acid, or oxalate  of
ammonia,  after  having  been  treated with  sul-
phureted  hydrogen, or a hydrosulphuret, to throw
down  the  lead.   " Pure carbonate of  lead  does
not lose weight  at a temperature of 212° ; 68 grs.
are entirely dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid,
diluted with  f ^j of distilled water; and the solu-
tion is not entirely precipitated  by a solution of
60 grs. of  phosphate of soda."   (P. E.)  The so-
lution in nitric acid  should not  yield a precipitate
when treated with a solution of sulphate of soda.
 Used as a superior white paint, and in  medicine,
externally, as  an  astringent,  refrigerant, and
desiccant—French  White Lead.    (Blanc  de
Plomb.)   Litharge  dissolved in dilute acetic acid,
and the carbonate of lead thrown  down by  a
current  of  carbonic acid gas.   Does not  cover
well.—Venetian White  Lead, (Cerussa Veneta)
Flake white, or puce white lead and  cawk, equal 
WHI                   563                   WIN
parts.—Hamburgh White Lead.  Flake white 1
cwt.; cawk 2 cwt.—Best Dutch White Lead.
Flake white 1 cwt.; cawk 3 cwt.—Dutch White
Lead.   Flake white 1 cwt.; cawk 7 cwt.  The
last four are  commonly substituted  in  trade for
genuine  white  lead.—English  White  Lead.
Flake white  lowered with  chalk.  Covers badly,
and  color  inferior to  the preceding.—Grace's
White  Lead.   Made  from lead, with the refuse
water  of  the  starch-makers,  soured  brewer's
grains, &c.—White Precipitate of Lead. (Sul-
phate of Lead.)   An  acetic  or  nitric solution of
litharge,  precipitated  by adding dilute  sulphuric
acid,  and the white  powder washed and  dried.
The clear  liquid decanted from the precipitate is
poured on fresh  litharge, when  a second solution
takes place ; and this may be repeated for any
lumber of times.  Used in miniature  painting,
being a beautiful and durable white.—Notting-
ham White.  White  lead made with  alegar.—
Newcastle White.   White lead made  with mo-
lasses vinegar.—Mineral White.   A  nitric or
acetic  solution of litharge,  precipitated by car-
bonate of soda.—Wilkinson's White.  Litharge
ground with sea-water till it ceases to whiten, and
then  washed and dried.—Permanent  White.
Artificial sulphate of baryta, prepared by precipi-
tating  the  muriate by diluted sulphuric  acid, or a
«olution of  glauber  salts.  A  good  fast white.
Used to mark jars and bottles for containing acids
or alkalis,  as  it  is  affected by  very few sub-
stances.—Pearl White, (Fard's Spanish White)
Trisnitrate of bismuth.—Spanish White.  (Blanc
d'Espagne.  Blanc de Troyes)  The softest and
purest  white chalk,  elutriated,  made into  balls,
and well dried.  Used as a  cheap white paint.—
Whiting.   The same as prepared chalk, but pre-
pared more carelessly.
  WHITES, SHARP. Prep. 1. Wheat flour and
powdered alum, equal parts,  ground together.—2.
(Stuff.  Baker's  stuff)  Alum  ground  to the
coarseness of common salt 1 lb.;  common  salt 3
lbs.; mix.   Both the above are used by bakers for
the purpose of introducing alum into their  bread
under a disguise.
  WINDOWS, SASH.  These may be kept up
without sash-lines and pulleys,  by  means of cork,
in the simplest  manner, and with scarcely any ex-
pense.   Bore three or four holes in the sides of the
sash, into which insert common  bottle corks, pro-
jecting about the sixteenth part of an inch. These
will press against the window-frames,  along the
usual groove, and by their  elasticity support the
sash at any height which may be required.
  WINDOWS.  (Prismatic Diamond  Crystals
for.)   Mix a hot solution  of  sulphate of magnesia,
with a clear solution of gum arabic, and lay it  on
hot.  For  a*margin, or for  figures, wipe off" the
part you wish  to remain  clear with a wet towel
The effect is very pretty.
I.  Table of the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine.   By Dr. Christison.
Names, &c.
Port
Sherry
in\
          ("Weakest......
          j  Mean of 7 samples   ....
          )  Strongest......
          LWhite......
          'Weakest    ......
            Mean of 13 wines, excluding those very }
              long kept in cask   .               .  $
         4  Strongest   ....
            Mean of 9  wines long kept in cask in
              the East Indies
          k Madre da Xeres ....
■ -        <  Long kept in cask in $ Strongest
Madeira ^    the Eagt Indjeg    -j Weakest
Teneriffe long in cask at Calcutta
Cercial.......
Lisbon (dry).......
Shiraz......
Amontillado    .     .    .    .   '  .
Claret.  A first growth of 1811 .
Chateau-Latour.  Do. 1825
Rosan.   Second growth 1825 ....
Ordinary Claret.   (Vin Ordinaire)   .
Rivesaltes   .......
Malmsey    .......
Rudesheimer.   1st quality  ....
      "         Inferior     ....
Hambacher.  Superior quality    .     .
Alcohol of
0-7939 per
 cent, by
 volume.
14*97
16-20
17*10
14*97
13*98
15*37
16*17
14*72
16*90
16*90
14*09
13*84
15*45
16*14
12*95
12-63
 7*72
 7*78
 7*61
 8*99
 9*31.
12*86
 8*40
 6*90
 7*35
Proof spirit
per cent, by
 volume.
30*56
33-91
37*27
31*31
30*84
33*59
3512
32*30
3706
36-81
30-86
30-21
33-65
34-71
28-30
27-60
16*95
17*06
16*74
18-96
22-35
28-37
18-44
1519
16*15 
WIN                     564                     WIN
II.  Quantity of Alcohol (sp. gr. 0-825* at 60°
       F.) in 100 parts of Wine by volume.
Names of Wine.	Alcoholic Content.	Authority.
Alba Flora	17*26	Brande
Barsac	13*86	do.
Bucellas	18*49	do.
Burgundy (average) .	14*57	do.
Ditto	12*16	Prout.
Calcavella (average) .	18*65	Brande.
Cape Madeira (do.) .	20*51	do.
Cape Muschat .	18*25	do.
Champagne (average)	12-61	do.
Ditto	12*20	Fontenelle.
Claret (average)	15*10	Brande.
Colares	19*75	do.
Constantia (White) .	19-75	do.
Ditto (Red) .	18*92	do.
Ditto (average)	14-50	Prout.
C6te kotie.	12*32	Brande.
Currant	20*55	do.
Elder	8*79	do.
Frontignac (Rivesalte)	12*79	do.
Gooseberry	11*84	do.
Grape (English)	18*11	do.
Hermitage (Red)	12*32	do.
Ditto (White)	17*43	do.
Hock (average).	12*08	do.
Lachryma Christi	19*70	do.
Lisbon	18*94	do.
Lissa (average) .	25*41	do. ,
Ditto (do.)	15*90	Prout.
Lunel	15*52	Brande.
Madeira (average)	22-27	do.
Ditto (do.) .	21*20	Prout.
Malaga	17*26	Brande.
Ditto	18*94	do.
Malmsey Madeira	16*40	do.
Marsala (average)	25-09	do.
Ditto (do.) .	18*40	Prout.
Nice ....	14*63	Brande.
Orange (average)	11*26	do.
Port (do.) .	20*64	Prout.
Ditto (do.) .	22*96	Brande.
Raisin (do.) .	25*41	do.
Ditto (do.) .	15*90	Prout.
Red Madeira (do.)	20-35	Brande.
Roussillou (do.) .	1813	do.
Sauterne .	14-22	do.
Sheraaz	. 15-52	do.
Sherry (average)	19-17	do.
Ditto (do.) .	23-80	Prout.
Syracuse .	20-00	do.
Ditto	15-28	Brande.
Teneriffe .	19-79	do.
Tent ....	13-30	do.
Tokay	9-88	do.
Vidonia	19-25	do.
Vin de Grave	13-94	do.
Zante	17-05	do.
    WINE.  Syn.  Vin,  (Fr)  Wein,  (Gr.) Wyn,
*  (Dut.)  Win,  {Swed)  Vino, (Ital.  and Span.)
  Vinum, (Lat.)   The fermented juice of the grape.
  * Alcohol of 0-825 contains 92-6$ of real or anhydrous
alcohol, and in round  numbers may be said to  be about
twice the strength of brandy or rum, as usually sold.
The general characters and qualities of wine are
principally influenced by climate, soil,  and aspect,
the nature and maturity of the grape,  and the
method of conducting the fermentation.  Want of
space will compel us to confine our remarks to the
properties, uses, and management of  grape-juice
after it has passed through the stage of fermenta-
tion, or, in reality, become Wine.  Some  observa-
tions connected with this subject will  be  found in
the articles Fermentation and Manures.
  Officinal Wine.   The  only wine  ordered  by
the British colleges is  sherry, (Vinum Xericum,
P. L.; V. Album;  White  Wine, P. E.;   V. Al-
bum Hyspanicum,  P.  D.;)   but  several  other
wines are employed in medicine, as tonics, stimu-
lants, antispasmodics, and  restoratives.  In phar-
macy, the less  expensive  Cape or  raisin wine  is
usutiy substituted for sherry in the preparation of
the medicated wines of the Pharmacopoeia.
   Varieties, characteristics, 6cc.  Our space will
not permit a notice of the principal wines  of  com-
merce individually ;  the reader is  therefore refer-
red to the preceding Tables,  which  will convey
much useful information on this subject in a con-
densed form.
  Composition.   The constituents of  wine are—
alcohol, which is one of its principal  ingredients,
and on which its power of producing  intoxication
chiefly depends;—Sugar which has escaped the
process of fermentation, and which is  most abun-
dant in the sweet wines, as tokay.tent, frontignac,
&c. ;—Extractive, derived  chiefly from the husk
of the grape ; its quantity diminishes by precipita-
tion, owing to the gradual action of the atmosphere;
—Coloring matter; this resides in the  husk of the
grape, and is extracted by the newly-formed alco-
hol ;  its natural  color is blue  or purple; its red
tint is owing to  the action of free acid ;—Tartar.
Bitartrate of potash constitutes the most important
portion of the saline matter of wine, and appears
to  exercise an  important influence  over  the fer-
mentation.  It  is gradually deposited  along with
coloring matter by age;—Odoriferous matter. The
characteristic vinous odor appears to depend upon
the presence  of cenanlhic acid and ether,  but the
bouquet of wine arises from the essential oil, prob-
ably existing under the form of ether.   Besides the
above, small quantities of tannin, gum, acetic and
malic acids, acetic ether,  lime, <J-c, exist in wine.
The sp. gr. of wine depends on the richness and
ripeness of the grapes used in its manufacture, the
nature of the fermentation, and its age.  It varies
from  1*0627 to  1*1283.  The  sp. gr.  of  German
wines is  usually from 1*039  to  1*091, according to
the season.
  Purity.   The most frequent species of  fraud in
the wine trade is the mixing of wines of inferior
quality with those of a superior grade. In many
cases the inferior kinds of foreign wine are flavor-
ed  and substituted  for  the  more expensive  ones.
This is commonly practised with cape wine, which,
after having a slight " nuttiness" communicated to
it by bitter almonds or peach  kernels, a luscious-
ness, or fulness,  by honey, and additional  strength
by  a little plain spirit or pale brandy, is made to
undergo  the  operation  of "fretting  in," and  is
then sold for sherry.  Formerly, it was a common
practice  of ignorant wine-dealers  to  add a  iittle
litharge, or acetate of lead, to  their inferior wines 
WIN                     565                   WIN
to correct their acidity, but it is believed that this
poisonous substance is now never employed in this
country, and that the lead which is frequently de-
tected in bottled wine  may be traced to shot being
left in the bottle, and not to fraud.  The presence
of lead in wine  may be readily  detected by the
addition of a little sulphureted hydrogen, or a solu-
tion of any hydrosulphuret, which will  in that case
produce a black precipitate.   Sherry is commonly
colored in Spain by the addition of must, boiled
down  to  one-fifth of  its original volume,  and  in
England by burnt brown sugar, or spirit coloring.
Amontillado (a very  nutty wine)  is  commonly
added to sherries deficient in flavor ; various other
ingredients, as the  essential oil of bitter almonds,
bitter  almonds in substance, cherry-laurel leaves
and water, &c, are also employed for a like pur-
pose.   In Portugal the juice of elderberries is fre-
quently added to port wine  to  increase its color,
and extract of rhatany for the double purpose of
improving its color, and imparting an astringent
taste.   The use of the former was  once carried to
such  an extent that the Wine Company of Portu-
gal put themselves  to  the expense and trouble of
rooting out all the elder trees, and prohibiting their
growth in the wine district.  In England, beet-root,
Brazil wood, the juice of elderberries and bilberries,
the pressed cake from making elder wine, extract
of logwood, &c., are  frequently added to  port  to
deepen its  color; and oak  sawdust,  kino, alum,
and extract of rhatany, to increase its astringency.
Genuine red wines yield greenish gray precipitates
with sugar of lead, and greenish ones with potassa ;
but those colored with elderberries, bilberries, and
logwood,  give deep  blue,  or  violet precipitates,
and those colored with Brazil, red sanders wood,
or red  beet, give red precipitates.  A factitious
bouquet is  also commonly given to wine by the
addition of sweetbrier, orris root, clary, elder-flow-
ers, &.c.  The latter  can only be detected by a
discriminating and sensitive palate.
   Uses. The uses of wine as a beverage  are too
well known to require description. As a medicine,
port wine is most esteemed as  an  astringent and
tonic ; and sheiry and Madeira as stimulants and
restoratives,  in diseases where  the  acidity of the
former would be objectionable ;  champagne is diu-
retic  and excitant; and the Rhenish wines are
refrigerant,  diuretic, and slightly  aperient.  Cla-
ret,  Rhenish,  and  Moselle wines  are the most
wholesome.   In pharmacy wine is used as a men-
struum.
   Management of  Wine.  Age.  The sparkling
wines are in their prime in from 18  to  30  months
after the vintage, depending on the cellaring and
climate.  Weak wines, of inferior growths, should
be drunk within 12 or  15 months, and be preserved
in a very cool cellar.   Sound, well-fermented, full-
bodied wines are improved by age, within  reason-
able limits, provided they be well  preserved from
the air, and stored in a cool place, having a pretty
uniform temperature.  To promote the ripening of
wine, some persons cover the mouths of the casks
or bottles with bladder,  and others  remove them
mto a warmer situation.  A very little dilute sul-
phuric  acid  is  commonly  added to  the  coarser
wines for  the same purpose ; but a small quantity
of pure acetic or tartaric acid would be preferable.
2 or  3  drops of the former, added to a bottle  of
some kinds of new wine, immediately give it the
appearance of being 2 or 3 years old.
  Bottling.  The  secret of bottling  wine  with
success consists in the simple exercise of care and
cleanliness.   The  bottles  should  be  all sound,
clean,  and dry, and perfectly free from the least
mustiness or other odor.  The corks should be of
the  best quality,  and immediately before being
placed in the  bottles  should be compressed by
means of a " cork-squeezer." For superior or  very
delicate wines, the corks are usually prepared by
placing them  in  a copper  or tub, covering them
with weights to keep them  down, and  then pour-
ing over  them boiling water, holding a little pearl-
ash  in solution.   In this  state they  are allowed to
remain for 24 hours, when  they are drained, and
reimmersed  for a  second 24 hours  in  hot water,
after which  they are well washed and soaked  in
several successive  portions  of clear rain  water,
drained,  dried out of contact with  dust, put into
paper  bags, and  hung up in a dry  place for use.
The wine should  be clear and brilliant,  and if it
be not so, it must undergo the process of  " fining"
before  being  tAAtled.  In  fact,  it  is  a  common
practice  with some persons  to perform this opera-
tion whether the wine requires it or not; as  if it
has  been mixed  and doctored, it " amalgamates
and ameliorates the various  flavors."  The bottles,
corks, and  wine  being ready, a fine clear day
should be preferably chosen for bottling, and the
utmost cleanliness and care should be exercised
during the process.  Great  caution  should  also be
observed to avoid shaking the cask so as to disturb
the bottoms.   The remaining portion that  cannot
be drawn off clear should be passed through the
" wine bag," and when bottled should be  set apart
as  inferior to the rest.  The coopers, to prevent
breakage and loss, place each bottle, before cork-
ing it, in a small bucket, having a bottom made of
soft  cork.    They thus seldom  break a  bottle,
though they  " flog" in the corks very hard. When
the wine is all bottled, it is  stored in a  cool cellar,
and on no account on the bottles'  bottoms, or in
damp  straw, but on  their sides,  in  sweet, dry
sawdust or sand.
  Brandying. Brandy is frequently added to weak
or vapid wines, to increase their strength, or to
promote  their preservation.   In Portugal one third
of brandy is commonly added to  port before  ship-
ping it for  England,  as without this addition it
generally passes  into  the  acetous fermentation
during the voyage.  A little good  brandy is also
usually added to  sherry before  it   leaves  Spain.
By recent regulations of the customs of England,
10°; of brandy may be added to wines in bond, and
the increased quantity is only charged the usual
duty on  wine.  The addition of brandy to wine
injures its proper  flavor, and hence is chiefly made
to port, sherry, and other wines, whose  flavor is so
strong as not to  be easily  injured.  Even when
brandy is added to wines of the latter description,
they require  to be kept for  some time to recover
their natural flavor.  To promote this  object, the
wine doctors employ the process called "fretting
in," by which they effect the same change  in 3 or
4 weeks  as would otherwise require some months,
at the very least.
  Cellaring.  A wine cellar should be  dry  at bot-
tom, and either covered with good hard gravel, ot 
WIN                    566                    WIN
 be paved with  flags.   Its gratings or  windows
 should open  toward the north, and it should be
 ■unk  sufficiently below the surface to ensure an
 equable temperature. It should also be sufficiently
 refnoved  from any public thoroughfare,  as not to
 suffer  vibration  from  the passing of carriages.
 Should it not be  in a position to maintain a regular
 temperature,  arrangements  should be  made to
 apply artificial heat in  winter, and proper ventila-
 tion in summer.  A celebrated wine establishment
 known to  the  writer,  whose cellars are  above
 ground, have a number of thermometers suspend-
 ed on the walls,  and whenever the mercury sinks
 below 48° F., several Arnot's stoves, arranged  for
 that  purpose, are immediately lighted, and their
 action properly watched and regulated.
   Coloring.  Wines are as commonly doctored in
 their color  as their flavor.  A fawn  yellow and
 golden sherry yellow  are given  by means of a
 tincture or an infusion of saffron, turmeric, or saf-
 flower, followed by a little spirit coloring to prevent
 the color being  too lively. All  shades of amber
 and fawn to  deep  brown and  brandy color, may
 be given by burnt sugar.   Cochineal (either alone
 or with a little alum) gives a pink color;—beet-
 root and  red  sanders give a red color;—the ex-
 tracts of  rhatany and  logwood,  and the juice of
 elderberries, bilberries, &c, a port wine color.  A
 hogshead  of  inferior pale  sherry or white cape is
 commonly converted into a full-flavored brown
 sherry by the " honest" wine  dealer, by the addi-
 tion of ^ pint of spirit coloring, a gallon of brandy,
 and a few drops  of the essential  oil of bitter al-
 monds  dissolved  in  spirit; the whole  being well
 mixed and fined down.
   Decanting.  This only refers to small quantities
 of wine,  ready for  consumption.    In decanting
 wine, be careful  not to  shake  or disturb the crust
 when moving  it about or drawing the cork, partic-
 ularly port  wine.  Never  decant  wine without a
 wine-strainer, with  some  fine cambric  in  it  to
 prevent the crust and bits of cork  going  into the
 decanter.   In decanting port wine do not  drain it
 too near ;  there are generally two  thirds of a wine-
 glass  of thick dregs in  each bottle, which ought
 not to be  put in ; but  in white wine there  is not
 much settling  ; pour it out, however, very slowly,
 and raise the bottle up gradually ; it should never
 be decanted in a hurry.   Be careful not to jostle
 the decanters against each other when  moving
 them  about, as they easily break, especially when
 full.
   Decoloring. The  color of wines  is precipitated
 by age  and  by exposure to the light.  It is also
 artificially removed  by  the action of milk,  lime-
water, or fresh-burnt charcoal.  Wine  merchants
 avail  themselves  of  this property, for the purpose
of whitening wines that have acquired a brown
color from the cask, or which  are esteemed pale *
and also for turning " pricked" red or dark-colored
wines, into white, in which a small degree of acid-
ity is not so much perceived.  The milk should be
well skimmed  before being mixed with the wine,
and should be  used in the same manner as ordina-
ry finings, for  which it will be found a good sub-
stitute.  In  this way brown sherry is  commonly
converted  into pale or gold-colored sherry.   For
the latter purpose  1 to 3 pints are usually sufficient,
but to decolor  red wine 2 to 3 quarts or more will
 be required, according to the nature and intensity
 of the color, or the shade of color desired.  Char-
 coal is seldom  ustd, as it  removes the  flavor as
 well as color, but  a very little milk of lime may
 sometimes be advantageously substituted for milk,
 when the wine has much acidity.
    Fining.  Wine is clarified  in a similar manner
 to beer.   White Wines are usually fined by .sin-
 glass, in the proportion  of  about  1£ oz. (dissolved
 in l1, pints of water, and thinned with some of the
 wine) to  the hogshead.  Red Wines are general-
 ly fined with the whites of eggs, in the proportion
 of 12 or 18 to  the pipe ; they must be well beaten
 to a froth with  about  a pint of water, and after-
 wards with a little of the wine, before adding them
 to the liquor.   Sometimes  hartshorn shavings, or
 pale  sweet glue, is substituted for  isinglass; and
 for some  strong  red wines,  abounding in tannin, a
 little sheep's or bullock's blood is very commonly
 employed.  The use of blood is not, however, to be
 recommended, as it communicates a very trifling,
 but still an  unpleasant flavor  and odor, which is
 easily recognised  by  the  palate of a professed
 " wine-taster ;" besides which  the practice is dirty
 and disgusting.   Gypsum  is  frequently used  to
 clear muddy white wines; as also  milk of lime.
 Some persons add about 1  oz. of sugar of lead dis-
 solved in  water to  a  hogshead of such wine, and
 after well mixing it in, further  add a like quantity
 of bisulphate of potash, (sal  enixum,) also dissolved
 in water,  and rummage well.  In this process the
 sugar of lead is decomposed and falls down as an
 insoluble sulphate, and hence it is argued that it is
 not so dangerous as has been generally represented
 by Accum, and others  afflicted with  the  poison
 mania. The use of lead,  however, in  any shape
 is objectionable, and should never be adopted by
 the  wine-dealer,  however  plausible   the  above
 statements  may appear.   In  France  a person
 known to employ lead in wine  would subject him-
 self to fine and imprisonment.   (See the latter  part
 of the article Brewing.)
   Flatness. This is best removed by the addition
 of a little  new brisk wine of the same kind ; or by
 rousing in 2 or 3 lbs. of honey, or bruised sultana
 raisins, and 3 or 4 quarts of  good brandy per hogs-
 head.  By this treatment the wine will usually be
 recovered  in  about a fortnight, unless in very  cold
 weather. Should it  be  wanted sooner, add a table-
spoonful or two of yeast, and remove it to a warmer
situation.
   Flavoring. Various  ingredients are added to in-
ferior wines to give them the flavor of others more
expensive, and  to British wines to make them re-
semble those  imported.  Substances are  also added
in a similar manner to communicate the aroma of
the highly-flavored  grape wines.  Among theirs*!
are bitter almonds, or the essential oil of almonds,
or preferably its alcoholic solution, which are used
to impart  a sherry or  nutty  flavor to weak-
flavored wines, as sherry, white cape, malt, raisin,
parsnip, and other similar British wines ;—rhatany,
kino,  oak sawdust and bark,  alum, &,c, to con-
vey astringency, and—tincture of  the  seeds of
raisins to impart a port wine  flavor.  Among
the substances employed  to communicate the bou-
quet of the finer wines, may be mentioned—orris
root, eau de fleures d'oranges,  neroli, ambergrist
vanilla, violet  petals,  cedrat,  sweetbrier,  clary, 
WIN                   567                    WIN
 elder flowers, quinces,  cherry-laurel water, &c.
 By the skilful, though fraudulent use of the above
 flavoring substances and perfumes, the experienced
 wine-brewer  manages to produce, in the dark cel-
 lars of London,  from white cape, currant, goose-
 berry, raisin, rhubarb, parsnip,  and  malt wine,
 very excellent  imitations  of  foreign  wine,  and
 which pass current among the  majority of English
 wine-drinkers as the choicest  productions of the
 grape, "genuine as imported."—A grain or two
 of ambergris, well rubbed  down with  sugar, and
 added to a hogshead of claret, gives it a flavor and
 bouquet much esteemed by some connoisseurs.
   Improving. This is the  cant  term of the wine
 trade, under which all the adulteration and " doc-
 toring" of  wine  is carried  on.  A poor  sherry is
 improved by  the addition of a little almond flavor,
 honey, and spirit;—a port deficient in body and
 astringency,  by  the addition of some  red tartar,
 (dissolved  in  boiling water,) some  kino, rhatany,
 or catechu, and a little  honey and brandy.
   Mixing. Few wines  are'sold without admixture.
 It is found that the intoxicating properties of wine
 are  increased by mixing them  with other wines of
 a different  age and  growth.   In  many cases the
 flavor is at the same time improved. Thus, a thin
 port is improved  by  the addition of a similar wine
 having a full body, or by  a little  Malaga, Tene-
 riffe, or rich old sherry ; and an inferior old sherry
 may be  improved by admixture with a little full-
 bodied wine of the last yintage.   In this  consists
 the  great art  of " cellar management," and to such
 an extent is  this  carried,  both  abroad  and  in
 England, that it  may be  confidently asserted that
 no wine ever  reaches the consumer in an unmixed
 or natural state.
   Mustiness.  This is easiest removed by violently
 agitating the  wine for  some time with a  little of
 the sweetest olive or almond oil.  The cause of the
 bad  taste is the presence of an essential oil, which
 the fixed oil seizes on and rises with it to the surface,
 when  it may be skimmed off".   A little coarsely-
 powdered fresh-burnt charcoal, or even some slices
 of bread toasted  black,  will frequently have a like
 effect.   A little bruised  mustard is used by some
 persons.
   Perfuming. This is chiefly performed on British
 wines for family use.  For its application to foreign
 wines, see flavoring.  Wines may be perfumed by
 the simple addition of any odorous substances pre-
 viously well mixed with a little of the wine, or dis-
 solved  in a few oz. of spirit.
   Racking. This should be performed in cool wea-
 ther, and preferably  early in the spring.  To avoid
 disturbing the dregs, a clean  syphon, well man-
 aged, will be found better than a  cock or faucet.
 The bottoms, or foul  porfion, may be strained
through a wine bag,  and added to  some other in-
 ferior wine.
   Ripening  To  promote the maturation of wine,
 various plan? are  adopted by the growers and deal-
ers.  One of the  safest ways, especially for strong
 wines,  is not to rack them till they have stood 15
or 18 months  upon the lees, at  the same time reg-
ulating the  temperature  upon the principles de-
scribed under  Fermentation.  In  this way,  the
slow or insensible fermentation which causes the
maturation of wine, will be  promoted, without the
access  of the  acetous fermentation, or that which
 causes acidity.—Another safe method is, to remove
 the  racked wine into a rather warmer situation
 than usual, observing properly to exclude the ac-
 tion of the air, which cannot be done with wine in
 wood, if the place be very dry.—A third method
 is to remove the corks or bungs, and to substitute
 bladder tied  or  fastened over  air-tight.  Bottled
 wine treated in  this way, ripens very quickly in a
 temperate situation.
   Roughening.   A  roughness  or astringency  is
 readily  communicated to wine by the cautious use
 of kino, catechu, or rhatany.
   Ropiness or  viscidity.   This arises  from the
 wine containing too little tannin or astringent mat-
 ter to precipitate the gluten, albumen, or other azo-
 tized substance, occasioning the malady.   Such
 wine cannot be  clarified  in  the ordin-xy way, be-
 cause it is incapable of causing the coagulation or
 precipitation of the finings.  The remedy is to sup-
 ply the principle in which it is deficient. M.  Fran-
 cois of  Nantes prescribes the bruised beiries of the
 mountain ash (1 lb. to the barrel) for this purpose.
 A little catechu, kino, or the bruised foot stalks of
 the  grape, may also  be  conveniently and advan-
 tageously used in the same  way.   Any other sub-
 stance that precipitates albumen, may likewise be
 employed.  See Malt Liquors and Brewing.
   Second Fermentation. (La-pousse of the French.)
 Inordinate fermentation, either primary or second-
 ary, in  wine  or  any other fermented  liquor, may
 be readily checked by racking it into a cask which
 has  been previously fumigated with burning sul-
 phur ; or one half of  the wine may be drawn off
 from the cask, and a lighted match, made by dip-
 ping some rags  in melted brimstone, may be held
 by a pair of tongs in the bung-hole, slightly  cover-
 ed, so as to impregnate the liquor with the fumes.
 The decanted portion of the wine is then returned
 to the cask, which is immediately bunged  down
 close, and well  agitated  for a few minutes.  1  oz.
 of brimstone thus employed  is sufficient for a hogs-
 head.   This  is  the  common plan adopted  in the
 wine districts of France, either  to  allay the fer-
 mentation of wine, or to preserve must or grape
 juice in the sweet state.—Another method,  which
 is very convenient and harmless,  is to mix about £
 lb. to 1 lb. of bruised mustard seed with each hogs-
 head.—A fourth method  is to add to  the wine
 about 1-1000th  part, or  less, of  sulphite  of lime.
 This substance  seldom fails of arresting the fer-
 mentation.—In  addition  to the above  remedies, a
 little sulphuric  acid  is sometimes employed, and
 the use of black oxide of manganese, or chlorate
 of potash, has been proposed on theoretical grounds.
   Souring. This is  either occasioned by the wine
 having  been imperfectly fermented, or from  its
 having been kept in a cellar where it has been ex-
 posed to too much heat or  air, or to continual vi-
 brations, occasioned by the  passage of loaded ve-
 hicles through the  adjoining thoroughfare.   The
 common remedy recommended  in  books for this
 purpose, m to  saturate the acid with chalk, milk
 of lime, or calcined  oyster shells ; but  such  addi-
 tions, made in sufficient quantity to effect this ob-
ject, destroy the  character of the wine,  and render
it sickly and vapid.   Formerly it was a very com-
mon practice to  add litharge to  alleviate the acid-
ity ;  but the wine was thus rendered highly injuri-
ous to health, and frequently converted  into a cer- 
WIN                    568                    WIN
tain and deadly poison.  Owing to the exertions of
the Council of Salubrity, this practice  has been
wholly put  down  in France; and  this example,
combined with the easy means of detecting lead in
wine, which are now so generally known, have also
led to its discontinuance  in England.   The  best
and safest remedy is to mix it with a considerable
portion  of full-bodied  new  wine, adding at the
same time a little  brandy, and in 2  or 3 weeks to
fine it down, and either to put it into bottles, or to
consume it as soon as possible.
   Sparkling, creaming,  and briskness.   These
properties are conveyed to wine by racking it into
close  vessels before the fermentation is complete,
and while there still remains  a considerable por-
tion of undecomposed  sugar.  Wine  of  this de-
scription  which has lost its  briskness, may be re-
stored by adding to each bottle a few grains of
white lump-sugar  or sugar-candy.   This  is the
way in which champagne is  treated in  France.
The  bottles  are afterwards  inverted, by  which
means any sediment  that  forms  falls  into  the
necks, when the corks are partially withdrawn, and
the sediment is immediately expelled by the pres-
sure of the  gas.  If the wine remains muddy, a
little solution of sugar  and finings are added, and
the bottles are again placed in a vertical  position,
and after two  or  three  months the sediment is
discharged, as before.  Sometimes this process is
repeated  a  third and a fourth time, if the wine
continues muddy.
   Sweating in.  The technical terms " sweating"
and "fretting in," are applied to the partial produc-
tion of a secondary fermentation, for the purpose
of " amalgamating" the  flavor of foreign  ingre-
dients (chiefly brandy) added  to the  wine.   For
this purpose 4 or  5 lbs. of sugar or honey are
commonly  added to a hogshead, and when the
wine  is wanted in haste, a spoonful  or two of
yeast, or  a little  crude  tartar,  or  bruised vine
leaves, are also mixed  in, or the cask is placed in
a  moderately warm situation till  the  effect is
nearly complete, when  it is  removed to the wine-
cellar, and fined down.
   Taste of Cask.—The remedies for this malady
are the same as for mustiness.
  %* For  further information  connected  with
the nature and management of Wines, and other
fermented liquors,  see  Brewing, Fermentation,
Manures, Malt Liquors, and the following ar-

  WLNE, BRITISH.   The various processes in
British wine-making resemble  those employed for
foreign wine,  and  depend upon the  same prin-
ciples. The Fruit should be preferably gathered
in fine weather, and not  till it has arrived at a
proper state of maturity,  as evinced by its flavor
when tasted; for if it be  employed while unripe,
the wine  will be  harsh, disagreeable,  and  un-
wholesome,  and a larger quantity  of sugar  and
spirit  will  be required  to  render  it palatable.
The common practice of employing  unrTpe goose-
berries for the manufacture of British champagne,
arises from  a total ignorance of  the  scientific
principles  of wine-making.  On  the other  hand,
if ordinary British  fruit be employed too ripe, the
wine  is apt  to be inferior, and deficient in  the
flavor of  the fruit.  The  fruit being  gathered, it
next undergoes the operation of picking, for the
purpose of  removing  the  stalks  and  unripe  or
damaged  portion.   It is next placed in a tub, and
is well bruised, to facilitate  the  solvent  action of
the water.  Raisins are commonly permitted  to
soak about  24 hours previously to bruising them.
The bruised fruit  is then put into a vat or vessel
with a  guard placed over  the tap-hole, to keep
back the  husks and seeds of the fruit when the
must  or extract is  drawn  off.   The  Water  is
now added,  and the whole is macerated for 30  or
40  hours, more or  less, during which  time the
magma is frequently roused up  with a suitable
wooden stirrer   The liquid  portion is next drawn
off, and the  residuary pulp is placed in  hair bags
and undergoes the operation of pressing, to e.xpe
the fluid it conlAins.  The  sugar, tartar, &c, are
now added to the  mixed liquors,  and the whole is
well stirred.   The temperature being suitable, the
Vinous  Fermentation soon commences,  when
the liquor  is frequently skimmed  (if  necessary)
and well roused up, and, after 3 or 4 days of this
treatment, it is  run into casks, which should be
quite  filled,  and left  purging at  the  bunghole.
In about a week the flavoring ingredients, in the
state of coarse -powder, are commonly  added, and
well stirred  in,  and in about another week, de-
pending upon  the  state of the fermentation, and
the attenuation of the must, the Brandy or spirit
is added, and  the cask is  filled  up, and bunged
down  close. In  four or five weeks  more, the
cask is  again filled up, and, after some  weeks, it
is " pegged" or " spiled,"  to ascertain  if  it be
fine or transparent;  if so, it undergoes the opera-
tion of racking ; but if,  on  the  contrary, it still
continues muddy, it must previously pass through
the process  of  fining.   Its  future  treatment  is
similar  to  that already noticed  under Foreign
Wine.   *** The  must of  many of the strong-
flavored fruits,  as black currants, for instance, is
improved by being boiled before being made into
wine.
  General  Formulae for  the Preparation of
British Wines.
  I. From ripe saccharine fruits.
  1. Ripe fruit 4 lbs.; clear soft water 1 gallon ;
sugar 3  lbs.; cream of tartar, dissolved in boiling
water, l\ oz.;  brandy 2 to 3$.   Flavoring as re-
quired.  Makes a good family wine.
  2. As the last, but using  1 lb. more each  ot
fruit and sugar.  A superior wine.
  3. As the first, but using 2 lbs. each additional
fruit and  sugar.   Very strong.  Is good without
brandy, but  better with it.   ***  1 £ lbs.  of.raisins
may be substituted for each pound of sugar above.
  In the above way may be made the  following
British wines:—gooseberry wine, (British cham-
pagne;)—currant wine, (red, white, or black;)—
mixed fruit wine, (currants and  gooseberries, or
black, red,  and white currants, ripe black-heart
cherries, and raspberries, equal parts;)  this is a
good family wine ;—cherry wine ;—colepress'b
wine, (from apples and  mulberries, equal parts;)
—ELDER WINE J--STRAWBERRY WINE *,--RASPBERRY
wine ;—mulberry  wine, (when  flavored  makes
British port;)—whortleberry  wine,  (bilberry
wine)   makes  a  good  factitious port;—black-
berry  wine ;—damson  wine, (makes good  fac-
titious port;)—morella wine ;—apricot wine ;—
APPLE WINE  ;--GRAPE WINE *.—TURNIP WINE * &C. 
WIN                    569                    WIN
    II.  From dry saccharine fruit, (as raisins.)
    1. Dry fruit 4$ lbs.; clear soft water 1 gallon ;
  cream of  tartar  (dissolved)  1  oz.:  brandy U to
  2%.   Weak.
    2. As the last, but using dried fruit 5J lbs.   A
  superior family wine.
    3. As the last, but using dried fruit  7$ lbs.;
  and brandy 2 to 3}}.  A strong wine.  Should
  the  dried  fruit employed be  at all deficient  in
  saccharine  matter,  1 to 3 lbs. may be omitted,
  and half that  quantity of sugar, or two thirds of
  raisins added.
    *** In  the  above manner  may be made the
  following wines:—raisin wine—fig wine, &c.
    III. From acidulous, astringent, or scarcely
  ripe fruits, or  those  deficient in  saccharine
  matter.
    1. Fruit 2$  lbs.;  sugar 3£ lbs. ; cream of tartar
  (dissolved) £ oz.; water  1 gallon ; brandy 2 to 3%.
  Weak refrigerant.
    2. Fruit 3 lbs. ; sugar 4k. lbs.; cream of lAitar \
  oz.; water 1 gallon ; brandy 2  to 3°-.   A superior
  family wine.
    3. As the last, but with 5£ lbs. of sugar.   A
  strong wine.
    *** In  the above way may be made  the fol-
  lowing  wines :—Gooseberry   wine,   (English
  champagne;)—bullys wine, (makes an excellent
  factitious port;)—damson wine ; &c.
    IV. From footstalks, leaves, cuttings,  A}c.
    I. By infusing them in water, in the  proportion
  of 3 to 5 lbs. to the gallon, or q. s. to give a proper
  flavor; and adding  sugar to the strained liquor, in
  the  proportion  of 3 or 4  lbs. to every  6  or  7 lbs. of
  the  cuttings used.
•   2. As the last, but substitute raisins  1£ lbs. for
  each pound  of sugar.
    *#* In  the above way are made the following
  wines:—Rape  wine, (from the  pressed  cake  of
  grapes ;)—English grape wine ;—rhubarb wine,
  (patent  or Bath champagne)  from  garden rhu-
  barb ; &c.
    V. From  the saccharine roots and stems  of
  plants.
    1. Bruised or sliced vegetable 4 or 5 lbs.; boil-
  ing  water 1  gallpn ; infuse till  cold,  press out the
  liquor, and for  each  gallon use sugar 3 lbs.; cream
  of tartar 1 oz.; brandy about 2$.  For some roots
  and stems  the water must not be  very hot,  as
  they are thus rendered troublesome to press.
    2. As the last, but using 1 lb. more sugar.
    *£* In  the  above  way may be made  the fol-
  lowing  wines:—Parsnip  wine,  (Malmsey;)—
  TURNIP DO. ;  &C. &.C:
    VI. From flowers, spices, aromatics, <$-c.
    These are prepared by simply infusing a  suf-
  ficient quantity of the  bruised ingredients for a
  few days in  any simple wine (as that  from sugar,
  honey, raisin, &c.) previously to racking.
    In the above way are made the following wines :
  Clary wine,  (muscadell)  from flowers 1 quart
  to the gallon ; —cowslip wine, (flowers 2 quarts
  to the gallon ;)—elder-flower  wine,  (fronti-
  gnac) flowers of white  berried  elder J pint,  and
  lemon juice 2 oz. to the gallon ;—ginger wine,
  (1-J oz. of  ginger  to  the gallon ;)—orange wine,
  (I  dozen  sliced, to the  gallon ;)—lemon wine,
  (juice of  12  and rinds of 6  to the gallon ;)—
  bpruce  wine,  (i oz. of essence of spruce to the
gallon ;)—juniper wine,  (berries  1  pint  to  the
gallon;)—peach  wine, (4 or 5  sliced,  and  the
stones broken,  to the gall.;;—apricot wine, (as
peach wine, or with more fruit;)—quince wine,
(12 to the  gallon;)—rose,  clove-gillyflower,
CARNATION,  LAVENDER, VIOLET,  PRIMROSE,  and
other flower wines,  (distilled water  1 quart,  or
flowers 1 pint to  the gallon ;)—balm wine, (balm
tops 4 oz. to the gallon ;) &c.
  VII. From saccharine juices,  or infusions, or
from other fermented liquors.
   1.  Juice  or  liquor  1 gallon; honey or sugar 2
lbs., (or  raisins 3 lbs.;) cream of tartar 14;  oz.;
brandy l1} to 2$.   Very good.
  2. As  the last, but using one half  more sugar,
raisins, and  brandy.   Very fine.
  *#* In this way are made the following wines:—
English grape wine ;—mixed fruit wine ;—pink
apple wine ;--cider wine ;—elder wine *—birch
wine, (from the sap at the end of February or be-
ginning of March;)—sycamore wine,  (from  the
sap;)—malt wine,   (English  Madeira)  from
strong wort;—and the wines of any of the saccha-
rine juices of ripe fruit.
  VIII.  From  simple saccharine matter.
  1. Sugar 2^  lbs.;  cream of tartar £ oz.; water
1 gallon ; honey 1 lb.; brandy 2 to 3$.  Weak.
  2. As the last, but use sugar 3 ■{ lbs.   Good.
  3. As the last,  but use sugar 5 lbs.  Strong.  A
handful of  grape leaves or cuttings, bruised,  or a
pint of good malt wort, or mild ale, may be  substi-
tuted for the honey.   *#* The  above  are chiefly
used as bases for other wines, as they have little
flavor of their own.  Raisin wine may be used in-
stead.
  t.j.t In all the preceding formulae lump sugar is
intended  when the wines are wanted very pale,
and good  Muscovado sugar when this is not  the
case.   Some of the preceding wines are vastly im-
proved by substituting good cider,  perry, or  pale
ale  or malt wort for  the -whole or a portion  of  the
water.  Good porter  may also be advantageously
used in this  way for some of the red wines.  When
expense is no  object, and very  strong wines are
wanted,  the expressed juices of the  ripe  fruits,
with the  addition of 2 or 3 lbs. of sugar per gallon,
may be substituted for the fruit in substance, and
the water.
  Examples of British  imitations of  Foreign
Wines.
  British Cape.  Prep.—1. (White.) Raisin wine,
either alone, or worked up with a little cider and
pale malt wort.—2.   (Red)  British white cape,
sound rough cider, and mulberry wine, equal  parts ;
well mixed,  and fined down with white of  egg or
bullock's blood.
  British  Champagne.   Prep.—1.  (White.)  a.
Stoned raisins 7 lbs.;  loaf sugar  21 lbs.; water 9
gallons; crystallized tartaric acid 1 oz.; Narbonne
honey J lb.; ferment with sweet yeast 1 lb or less ;
skim  frequently,  and when  the  fermentation  is
nearly over, add coarse-powdered orris  root 1
drachm, and eau de fleurs d'oranges 3 oz.;  lemon
juice 4 pint;  rack it, bung close, and in 3 months
fine it down with isinglass £ oz.; in 1 month more,
if not sparkling, again fine it  down, and in another
fortnight bottle  it, observing to put a piece of dou-
ble-refined sugar, the  size of a pea, into each bot-
tle.   The bottles should be  wired, and covered 
WIN                    570                   WIN
 with tin  foil, after the manner of champagne.—b.
 To the last, when the fermentation is nearly over,
 add perry (Jiest  pale)  3 gallons.—c.  As the pre-
 ceding, but  substituting  Muscovado sugar for rai-
 sins ; or, what is still better, employ 28 lbs. of dou-
 ble-refined sugar.—d.  Bruised amber, hairy cham-
 pagne gooseberries, and cold spring  water, equal
 parts ; East India  sugar 3£ lbs., to each gallon of
 the  strained  liquor ;  Madeira wine and pale old
 rum, of each 1 quart to every 10 gallons; fine
 down with isinglass, and bottle  in  12 months.  A
 sample of this wine obtained the prize of the  Hor-
 ticultural Society of Edinburgh. It is better, how-
 ever, when made with lump sugar.—e. From Eng-
 lish grapes and  lump sugar.—f From  the stalks
 of garden rhubarb and lump sugar ; a little sweet-
 brier, orris, or orange-flower water being added to
 give it a slight bouquet.  This forms the patent or
 Bath champagne, of the Champagne Wine Com-
 pany.—2. (Pink) To either of the  preceding, add
 a little red currant juice to color, or  1 oz. of coarse-
 ly-powdered cochineal to each 10 or 12 gallons, at
 the time of racking.
   *%*The above formulae,  managed with judg-
 ment, produce very exact imitations of genuine
 champagne.   In fact, it is notorious that two bot-
 tles of wine out of every three solo under this de-
 nomination in England, is of  British manufacture.
 I have myself seen sparkling gooseberry, rhubarb,
 and white sugar wines,  sold  for imported  cham-
 pagne, at 7s.  6d.  per bottle,  and  the  fraud has
 passed undetected even by habitual wine-drinkers.
  British Claret.  Prep. 1.  Good  cider and port
 wine  equal  parts.—2. To each  gallon of  the last
 add cream of tartar (genuine) 3 drs., and the juice
 of one  lemon.—3. To  either  of  the  preceding
 add French  brandy 2 oz.—4.  Instead of port, use
 red cape or British port.  ***  If the first three of
 the above are well mixed and fined  down,  and not
 bottled for a month or five weeks, they can scarce-
 ly be distinguished from good  " Bordeaux."  A
mixture of 4 parts of raisin wine with 1  part each
 of raspberry, and barberry or damson wine, also
 forms an excellent factitious claret.
  British  Cyprus.   Prep.   From the juice of
 white elderberries 1 quart, and Lisbon sugar 4 lbs.
 to water 1  gallon, together  with £ dr. each of
 bruised ginger and cloves. When racked add rai-
 sins and brandy, of each 2 oz.
  Honey Wine,  (American.)   Prep.  Honey 20
 lbs.; cider  12 gallons; ferment, then add  rum £
 gallon, brandy | do., red or white tartar (dissolved)
 6 oz., bitter almonds and cloves, of each £ oz. This
is also called Mead Wine.
  British Madeira.  Prep.  Pale malt,  ground, 4
bushels ; boiling water 44 gallons; infuse, strain
off this while warm, take 24 gallons, and  add su-
 gar candy 14 lbs., and cream of tartar 3 oz.; when
dissolved, add yeast 2 lbs.;  ferment,  keep skim-
 ming off the  yeast, and when the fermentation is
 nearly finished, add raisin wine 2 J gallons ; brandy
 and sherry wine, of each 2 gallons ; rum 1 quart;
 bung it down for 6 or 9 months.  A second infu-
sion of the malt may be made  for beer.
  British Malmsey.   Prep.  1.  Sliced parsnips 4
lbs.; boiling water 1 gallon ; when  cold press out
the liquor, and to each gallon  add cream of tartar
 £ oz., and good Muscovado sugar 3 lbs.; ferment,
rack, and add brandy 2 to 3$—2. Good malt wort
 1 gallon; lump sugar  1£ lbs.;  Malaga raisins 9
 lbs. ; brandy 3 to 4$ of the racked liquor
   British Port.  Prep.   1. Rod cape  2 gallons;
 damson or elder  wine 1  gallon; mix.—2. To  the
 last  add  brandy £ pint;  powdered kino 1 dr.—3.
 (Southampton Port.)   Cider 3 gallons ; elder and
 damson wine, of each 1 gallon ; brandy 3£ pints.—
 4. Cider 24 gallons ; juice of elderberries 6 gallons ;
 port wine 4 gallons; brandy Ik  gallons; logwood
 1 lb.;  isinglass 12 oz., dissolved in a  gallon of the
 cider ;  bung it down ; in 2 months it will be fit to
 bottle, but should not be drunk until the next year;
 if a  rough flavor is required, alum 4  to 6 oz. may
 be added.—5.  (London Port.)  Good rough cider,
 red cape, port, and elder  wine, of each 6 gallons;
 brandy 1 gallon ; as last
   *** To make  the above wine form a crust  on
 the  inside of the  bottle,  a spoonful  of powdered
 catechu, or £ a spoonful of finely-powdered cream
 of tartar is added to each bottle before corking.   It
 is also  a common practice to put the crust on the
 bottle before putting the  wine  into it, by employ-
 ing a hot saturated solution of red tartar, thickeued
 with gu;n, and some powdered  tartar.  By adding
 a little lemon juice, and a " streak" of orris or or-
 ange-flower water to  British port, the  ingenious
 wine-brewer converts it into " British Burgundy."
 The latter is also  made by mixing together equal
 parts of British port and claret.
   British Sherry.   Prep. 1.  Cape or raisin wine
 slightly flavored with a very little bitter almond
 cake, or, what is more convenient, a little of tho
 essential oil dissolved in alcohol, (essence of bitter
 almonds.)—2. To  the last add a minute quantity
 of sweetbrier, eau de  fleurs d'oranges, or orris, to
 give  it  a very slight bouquet.—3.  To each gallon
 of strong raisin must, add, when racking, 1 Seville
 orange  and 2  bitter almonds, both sliced.   By
 omitting the almonds, and adding 2 or 3 green cit-
 rons  to each 10 gallons, this forms British Madeira.
 —4.  Loaf sugar 32 lbs.; sugar candy  10 lbs.; wa-
 ter 16 gallons ;  boil, add pale ale wort (as for  Ma-
 deira) 6 gallons ; yeast 1 lb.; on the third day add
 raisins, stoned, 10 lbs.; and in another 2 or 3 days
 brandy  1  gallon;  bitter almonds, grated, 1  dr.;
 bung it down for 4  months, draw it off into another
 cask, add brandy 1 gallon, and  in 3 months bottle
 it.—5.   Teneriffe,  slightly flavored with cherry-
 laurel or almonds,  forms a  most  excellent British
sherry, either alone or diluted with an equal quan-
tity of Cape or raisin wine.
  *** The preceding formula?, by skilful manage-
 ment, produce very good imitations of some of the
imported wines;  but many of the  British  fruit
 wines possess au equally agreeable flavor, and are
frequently more wholesome.  All British wine re-
quires to be kept  at least  a  year to " mellow."
 Much of the superiority of foreign wine arises from
its age.
  WINES, IMPREGNATED.  These are either
 used in pharmacy  or in cookery.   The medicated
 wines (vina medicata)  are prepared in the same
 manner as tinctures ; they should be made in well-
closed vessels and  macerated without heat.   The
 L. Ph. of 1824 substituted a diluted spirit for wine,
still retaining  the  name ; but  the wine (sherry)
 was restored in that of 1836.  The druggists com
 monly use cape or raisin wine as a menstruum, as
 being cheaper than sherry and equally efficacious. 
WIN                    571                   WOA
 Tho   vinum' of the P. U. S. is Teneriffe.  The
 following are the principal impregnated wines used
 as medicine, or as flavoring.
   Wine, Aloes.  Syn. Tinctura Sacra.  T.Hiera
 Pier a.  Vinum aloes, (P. L. E.  & D.)  Prep. (P.
 L.)   Powdered aloes §ij; do. canella ^ss ; sherry
 1 quart; macerate 14 days.  The P. E. substitutes
 cardamoms and ginger, of each 3iss, for canella.
 Dose. As a purgative f §ss to f gij ; as a stomachic
 f 3j to f3ij.
   Wine, Antimonial.   Syn.   Tartar Emetic
 Wine.   Wine of  Potasno-tartrate of Antimony.
 Vinum Antimonii Tartarizati,  (P. L. 1788.)  Li-
 quor do., (P. L. 1809 and  1824.)   V. Antimonii
 Potassio-tartratis, (P. L. 1836 ) Vinum Antimo-
 niate, (P. E.)  Liq.  Tartari  Emetici, (P. D.)
 Prep. (P. L. & E.)  Tartarized antimony 3ij ;
 sherry 1 quart; dissolve.   Each fluid oz. contains
 2 grs. of emetic tartar.   Dose.  As  a diaphoretic
 and expectorant  10 to 30 drops, frequently ; as a
 nauseant f3j to f 3ij ; as an emetic f 3ij to f £ss.
   Wine, Basil.   Green  basil leaves  4  or 5 oz.;
 sherry or cape, 1 pint;  digest for 10  days.  Used
 to  give   a  turtle  flavor to  soups  and gravies.
 *#* In a similar way may  be made  the wines of
 celery leaves and seed, shalotes, and the various
 green and dried kerbs used in cookery.
   Wine, Cayenne.   Prep.  Cayenne 1 oz., sherry
 or cape  1 pint; steep for a  fortnight, and strain.
 *** In a similar way may be made Currie, (pow-
 der) ragout, (spice) and several  other similar
 wines used in the  kitchen.
   Wine, Colchicum. (Root.) Syn. Vinum (Cor-
 mi) Colchici, (P. L. & E.)   Prep. (P. L.) Sliced
 and dried corms of meadow saffron § viij ; sherry
 wine 1 quart; macerate 14 days.  Dose. f3ss to
 f 3j ;  in gout, &.c.
  Wine, Colchicum. (Seed.) Syn.  Vinum Sem-
 inum Colchici.  Prep. (Dr. Williams.)  Seeds  of
 meadow saffron  (preferably ground  in  a coffee-
 mill)  fij ; sherry ffxvj;  as last.  Dose,  f 3ss to
 f 3iss ; in gout, &c.
  Wine, Gentian.  Syn. Bitter Wine.  Vinum
 Amara.  Vinum Gentiana,  (P. E.)  Prep. Gen-
 tian  in  coarse powder fss ; yellow bark (do.) §j ;
 dried  orange-peel  3ij ; canella in coarse powder
3j ; proof spirit f §ivss • digest for  24  hours, then
 add sherry 1  pint and f %xvj, and further digest for
 7 days.   Tonic and stomachic.  Dose. £ to 1 oz.
  Wine, Hellebore.  Syn.  Tincture of White
 Hellebore. T. Veratri Albi.  Vinum Veratri, (P.
 L.)  Prep.  White-hellebore, sliced, §viij ; sherry
wine 1 quart; digest 14 days.  Dose.  10 drops, 2
or 3 times daily, gradually increased ;  as a substi-
tute for colchicum in gout and rheumatism.
  Wtine,  Hellebore,   (Opiated.)    Syn.  Mr.
Moore's Eau Medicinale. Prep. White hellebore
wine 3iij; tincture of opium 3j ;  mix.
  Wine,  Ipecacuanha.   Syn.  Vinum  Ipecacu-
anha, (P. L.  E. & D.)  Bruised ipecacuanha root
giiss; sherry  1  quart;  macerate  for 14  days.
 Dose.  As a diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 40
drops ; as an emetic f 3ij  to f j^ss.
  Wine, Iron.  Syn. Chalybeate Wine.  Vinum
 ferri.  Prep.—l.  (P. L.  1809.)   Iron filings gij;
iherry 1  quart; digest with frequent agitation for
ft month.—2. (P. L 1824.) Iron filings Jj; cream
 0f  tartar 3yj ; water f ^j ; mix, expose in an open
 vessel to  the air for 6 weeks, adding water as  re- |
quired, then dry, powder, dissolve in water f ^xxx
and add proof spirit f^xx.   Rejected from the P.
L. 1836.   A mild chalybeate tonic.   Dose.  1 to 4
drs.
   Wine  of Opium.  Syn.  Vinum Opii, (P. L. E.
&  D.)  Laudanum liquidum Sydenhami, (P. L.
1720.)  Tinctura Thebaica, (P. L.  1745.)   Sy-
denham's liquid Laudanum.  Prep.—1. (P. L.)
Extract of opium, P. L., ^iiss ;  cloves and cinna-
mon 3iiss ; sherry 1 quart: macerate for 14 days.
—2. (Wholesale.)  Extract of opium 10 oz, ;  oil of
cassia 25 drops ; oil of cloves  20 drops ; rectified
spirit 1 £ pints ; water 6Jj pints ; coloring q. s.; di-
gest with agitation till dissolved.  Milder than the
tincture.  Dose. 10 to 60 drops  as an anodyne and
hypnotic.
   Wine  of Opium,  (Fermented.)   Syn. Rous-
seau's Laudanum.   Black-drop.  Vinum  Opii
Fermentatione Paralum.  Prep. (P. Cod.) Opium
§iv ; boiling water ^lx ; dissolve, add honey fxij ;
yeast 3ij ; keep it at 86° F. for a  month, or till
the  fermentation is complete ; press, filter, distil
off §xvj, and evaporate the residue  to §x ; distil
the  §xvj of spirit  obtained above, till fxij  have
passed over ; and from this, by a third distillation,
obtain §ivss, which add to the evaporated solution,
(§x,) and filter.  Considerably stronger than  lau-
danum.  (See Black-drop.)
   Wine, Tobacco. Syn.  Vinum Tabaci.  Prep.
(P. E.)  Tobacco  leaves  Sjiiiss ; sherry 1 quart ;
digest 7 days, strain with strong pressure, and fil-
ter.   Sedative and diuretic.  Dose.  10 to 50 drops
in dropsy, &,c.
   Wine,  Rhubarb.   Syn.  Vinum Rhai, (P. E.)
V. Rhai Palmati.   V. Rhabarbari.   Tinctura
Rhai  Vinosa.   Prep. (P.  E.)  Rhubarb  in coarse
powder ^v ; canella (do.)  5ij ; proof spirit  f%v;
sherry f ^xxxv ; macerate  for  7  days, press, and
filter.  Dose.  As a stomachic  f 3j to f 3iij ; as a
purgative f^ss to f§j.
   WINE  TEST.   Prep.—l.  (Hahnemann's.)
Quicklime  §j, flowers of sulphur §iss ; heat in a
covered crucible for 5 or 6 minutes ;  of  this take
3ij, tartaric acid 3ij ; powder, mix, and shake in a
stopped bottle with a pint of water; let it settle,
pour off the clear, and add tartaric  acid ^iss.—2.
(Dr. Paris's.)  Expose equal parts of sulphur and
powdered oyster shells to a white  heat for 15 min-
utes,  and when cold, add an  equal  quantity of
cream of tartar ; these are to be put into a strong
bottle, with common water, to boil for an hour, and
the solution is afterwards to be decanted into ounce
vials, adding twenty drops of muriatic acid to each.
Both  the above tests will  throw down the  least
quantity of lead from  wines, as  a  very sensible
black precipitate.  As  iron  might be accidentally
contained in the wine, the muriatic acid is  added
to the last test to prevent the precipitation of that
metal.
   WOAD.  Syn.  Glastum.   Isatis Tinctoria.
Vouede ;  Pastel,  (Fr)-  Waid, (Ger.)  From
woad leaves, by grinding them to a paste, of which
balls are  made, placed in  heaps, and occasionally
sprinkled with  water to promote the fermentation •
when this is finished,  the woad is allowed to fall
down into  large lumps.  On diluting the powdei
with boiling water, and, after  standing  for some
hours in a close vessel, adding about one-twentieth
its weight of lime newly  slaked, digesting  in a 
WRI                     572                     XAN
gentle warmth, and  stirring  the whole together
every 3 or 4 hours, a  new fermentation  begins ; a
blue  froth rises  to the surface,  and the  liquor,
though it  appears itself of a reddish color, dyes
woollen of a  green ;  which, like  the green from
indigo, changes in the air to a blue.  This  is one
of the nicest processes in the art of dyeing, and does
not well succeed in the way of a small experiment
Used to dye blue, but mostly in combination with
indigo.  Both dye-stuffs are employed in the same
way.  50 lbs. of woad are reckoned equal  to 1 lb.
of indigo.
   WOOD is polished by carefully rubbing down
the grain  with fine glass-paper, or pumice-stone,
and then  rubbing it, first  with finely-powdered
pumice-stone and water, and afterwards with tri-
poli  and  linseed  oil,  till a  proper surface is at-
tained.
   Wood is stained by the application of any of the
ordinary liquid dyes employed  for wool or cotton.
They sink deeper into  the wood when they are
applied hot. When the surface is properly stained
and dried, it is commonly cleaned with a rag dipped
in oil of turpentine or boiled oil, after which it  is
varnished or polished.   Musical instruments, arti-
cles of the toilette, $-c, are usually treated in this
way.   (See Dyes for Bone and Ivory.)
   WOOL, SPANISH.  Syn.  Bezetta  rubra,
B. di Levante. Prep. Separate the coloring mat-
ter from  safflower, as in  making rouge ;  using
white crape to take the color from the second so-
lution  in  subcarbonate of soda-water.   Used to
color the cheeks by rubbing the wool upon  them.
   WORM CAKES.  1.  (Storey's.)  Prep. Calo-
mel 3j ; jalap 3j ,  ginger 9ij ;  white  6ugar 1 oz.;
vermilion  to color ;  all in powder ; beat to a mass
with simple sirup, and divide into 20 cakes.  Each
cake  contains  1  gr.  of  calomel.   Dose. 2 to  4
early in  the morning, fasting.—2. Scammony  2
oz.;  calomel 1 oz. ; white sugar 2 lbs.;  mucilage
of tragacanth made with rose-water, q. s. to make
a mass ; divide into 1960 lozenges.  Each lozenge
weighs about 8 grs., and contains \ gr. of calomel
and £ gr. of scammony.—3. As the last, but sub-
stitute resin of jalap  for scammony,  and  divide
into only 980 lozenges.  Each  lozenge contains  £
gr. of calomel, and  1 gr. of resin of jalap.
   WORM  DRENCHES.   Prep.  1.   Common
salt $ lb.; aloes $ oz.; boiling water 1 quart; dis-
solve.—2.  Oil  of turpentine 4 oz.; gruel 1£ pint;
mix.—3.  Oil of turpentine 4 oz.;  linseed oil 8 oz.;
thick gruel £ a pint;  mix well.   Used by farriers
for horses.
  WORMWOOD, (Swiss  Extract of.)  Syn.
Extract  d'Absinthe de Suisse.  Prep. Tops of
absinthium majus 4 lbs.; do. absinthium minus 2
lbs.; angelica root, calamus aromaticus, seeds of
anisttm  chinae, leaves of the dittany of  Crete, of
each 15 grs.; alcohol  at  20° B. 4 gallons; mace-
rate  for  10 days, then add water 1 gallon, and
distil  3 gallons by a gentle  heat.  Tonic and
stomachic.  Served round  at  some  tables  after
wine has been taken freely, to recruit the stomach,
and enable it to bear more.
  WRITING  FLUIDS.  Prep.  I. (Black)—a.
Caustic soda 3j; water 1 pint; dissolve, ar d add
Indian ink, scraped  fine, q. s. to  give  a  proper
degree of blackness. Permanent, incorrodible, and
flows well  from steel pens.—b. Shellac  4 oz.;
 borax 2 oz.; water 1 quart; boil till dissolved, add
 gum arabic, dissolved, 2 oz.;  boil, strain, and fur-
 ther add  enough  of  a mixture of equal  parts of
 calcined lamp-black  and indigo previously tritura-
 ted to an impalpable  fineness, to produce a proper
 color ;  agitate well, let it stand 2 or 3 hours to
 deposite the coarser portion of the powder, and bot-
 tle for use.   Incorrodible,  and indestructible when
 dry.  It resists the action  of water, oil, turpentine,
 alcohol, the dilute acids, chlorine, alkalis, or other
 reagents, unless when  so  concentrated as to  de-
 stroy the  paper.  It flows easier when the gum is
 omitted.
   II. (Blue.) a.  Dissolve  ceruleo-sulphate of po-
 tassa or ammonia  in hot water,  and  when cold
 decant  the clear.  It is an intense  blue, and dries
 nearly  black ; is perfectly incorrosive,  and very
 permanent and easy flowing.   It may be thicken-
 ed with gum water, or  diluted with pure rain wa-
 ter, as required.—6. Dissolve  blue carmine or "sol-
 uble indigo in distilled water, as above.   Resembles
 the last, but  is scarcely equal to it.—c. Dissolve
 basic or soluble Prussian blue  in pure water. This
 is the most  permanent  and beautiful  ink  known.
 It is not affected by the addition of alcohol, but is
 immediately precipitated by  saline matter.   The
 precipitate, however,  still possesses the property of
 dissolving in pure water.—d.  Dissolve the soluble
 ferrocyanide of potassium and iron  in pure  water,
 as before.  Resembles the  last, but is  precipitated
 from its solution by alcohol.  Either of the  prece-
 ding blue fluids  may be used as  indelible  ink to
 mark linen,  and will be found very  permanent,
 provided the part be first moistened with alum wa-
 ter and  dried.
   *#* Soluble Prussian Blue (Basic  do. Basic
 sesquiferrocyanide of iron) is obtained by adding
 a solution of protosulphate of  iron to a solution oi
 ferrocyanide of potassium, (Prussiate of potash.)
 A bluish-white precipitate, turning dark blue by
 exposure,  is formed, which is washed till it begins
 to dissolve in the water, and color it blue, when it
 is  either collected  and  dried,  or at  once dissolved
 in pure water.—Soluble  Ferrocyanide of Po-
 tassium and Iron is made  by  precipitating a solu-
 tion of a persalt of iron  (as the persulphate, perni-
 trate, peracetate, or sesquichloride) by a stronger
solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, so that the
 latter may be in considerable excess.   A blue pre-
cipitate  is formed, which must be treated  as be-
fore.
  XANTHIC  ACID.  Syn. Hydroxanthic
Acid.   Bisulphocarbonate of oxide of  ethule.
(From lavdos, yellow, and ytvvdu, I generate.)  A
peculiar acid, composed of sulphur, carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen, discovered by Zeise.  Prep. Dry
xanthate of potassa is mixed with dilute sulphuric
or muriatic  acid.  After a time a milky  liquid  is
formed, from which, by the addition of more wa-
ter,  a heavy  oily substance  is deposited, which
must be quickly washed with  water, and  dried by
standing over chloride  of calcium.   This is  hy-
drated xanthic acid.  *#* A  nearly colorless, in-
flammable, oily liquid, having  a  bitter taste and a
peculiar, penetrating, disagreeable odor.   It is de-
composed at a  temperature above  75° F.  The
compounds of xanthic acid are mostly ol a yellow 
YEA                    573                   YEA
eolor;  hence its  name.—Xanthate of Potassa,
(Bisulphocarbonate  of oxide of ethule and Po-
tassa,  Liebig,)  is obtained by adding bisulphuret
of carbon to a saturated  solution of fused caustic
potassa in absolute alcohol, as long as it is dissolv-
ed.   By  cooling  the  solution to 32°,  it forms a
semi-solid mass  of crystals, which,  after  being
washed with ether, and pressed  between bibulous
paper, must be dried  out of  contact with the air.
Soluble in water  and  alcohol.
  XANTHINE.  This  name has been  given by
Kuhlman to the yellow coloring  matter of madder.
   YEAST. Syn. Barm. Zumin. Feb^mentum, (Lat,
 from ferveo, to  ferment.)   The froth of ferment-
 ing worts.  According  to Liebig, yeast is a sub-
 stance in a state of putrefaction or fermentation,
 the atoms of which are in a continual motion, and
 this condition it communicates by contact, to fer-
 mentable substances.  (See Fermentation.)
   YEAST or BARM, (ARTIFICIAL.)   Prep.
 I. Method of preparing Yeast without a Fer-
 ment.—a. It has long been considered a desidera-
 tum to obtain a method of  making  yeast directly
 and without  the aid of any portion  of that sub-
 stance.   Mr. Fownes has published in the ' Trans-
 actions  of the Chemical Society,' a method which,
 although  he seems to regard  it as new, is to be
 found in the Chemistry of Boerhaave.  Neverthe-
 less it seems to have been  long lost  sight  of, and
 Berzelius, as quoted by Mr. Fownes, states, "that
 although  the conversion of a small into a large
 quantity of yeast is a very easy thing, yet to pro-
 duce that substance  from  the beginning is  very
 difficult."  The  plan of Mr.  Fownes,  which  is
 substantially the same as that of Boerhaave, is as
 follows:—Common  wheat  flour  is  to  be mixed
 with water  into a thick paste, and kept, slightly
 covered, in a  moderately warm place,  for some
 time.  About the third  day, it begins  to  emit  a
 little gas, and to exhale a disagreeable, sour odor,
 like stale  milk ;  after the lapse of a few days, that
 is,  about  the sixth or  seventh day,  the smell
 changes, much gas  is evolved, accompanied by a
 distinct  and agreeable vinous odor, and  it is then
 in a state to excite the vinous fermentation.  A
 quantity of wort is next to be prepared, and boiled
 with hops, in the same manner as in the brewing
 of beer, and when cooled to 90° or 100°, the de-
 composed dough, thoroughly mixed with tepid wa-
 ter, is to be added, and the  whole  is to be kept in
 a warm situation.   After the lapse of a few hours,
 active fermentation  takes place,  carbonic  acid  is
 disengaged, and when the action is complete, and
the liquor clear, a large  quantity of yeast, of ex-
cellent quality,  is  found at the  bottom  of  the
 i/essel.  In one experiment, the following mate-
 rials were used:—A small handful  of ordinary
wheat flour was made into  a paste with  cold wa-
 ter, covered with paper, and left seven days on the
 mantel-shelf of a room where a fire  was kept all
 day, being occasionally stirred ;  at the end of that
 period three quarts of  malt  were  mashed in two
 gallons of water, the infusion boiled with the prop-
 er quantity of hops, and, when  sufficiently cooled,
 the ferment added.   The result was a quantity of
 be»»r, not very strong, but of an agreeable flavor,
 and  a pint of thick yeast, perfectly good for ma-
king bread.  This must be valuable to colonists and
residents in the country.   Malt  is  easily  made,
and hops may be omitted, or superseded by some
other bitter.  (Lancet.)
  b. Honey 5 oz.; powdered tartar 1 oz.; malt 1
lb.; water  at 122° F. 3  pints, or q. s.; stir well
together, and  allow the whole to rest for 2 or 3
hours, or till the»temperature sinks to about 65°,
at which it must be kept, covered over, when
yeast will be eliminated.
  c. Boil malt, a quarter  of a peck, in 3  pints of
water;  pour off 2 pints, and keep  it in a warm
place for 30 hours ; add 4 pints of a  similar decoc-
tion, stir it  well in, again ferment, and repeat this
addition of 4 pints until  a sufficient quantity of
yeast is obtained: 10 pints will  yield yeast suffi-
cient for a  brewing of 40  gallons; it is preferable
to brewers' yeast, particularly when used for rais-
ing dough.
   II. With  a Ferment.—a. (Ure.)  Bean flour
i lb.; water 6 quarts ; boil  for  £  :n hour, pour
the decoction  into any suitable vessel, add wheat
flour  3£ lbs.; stir well together, and when the
temperature reaches 55°, add beer yeast 2 quarts ;
mix well,  and keep the  mixture in a situation
where it will not be chilled.  In 24 hours after the
commencement of the fermentation add barley or
bean  flour  7 lbs., make a uniform dough by thor-
ough  kneading, roll it out  as thin as a dollar, and
cut it with a wine-glass into small cakes, which
must  be placed on sieves or laths, and dried in the
sun, and then preserved in a dry siti ation.  For
use, one of these discs  is to be broker  into pieces,
laid  in  warm water, and set in a warm  place
during  12  hours, when the soft  nu ss will  serve
the purpose of beer yeast.
  6. Mix 2 quarts of water with v heat  flour, to
the consistence of thick gruel, boi  it gently for
half an  hour, and  when almost  c< Id, stir into it £
lb. of sugar, and four spoonfuls of / ood yeast.  Put
the whole in a large jug or earthei vessel, with a
narrow  top, and place it before tf.e  fire, so that it
may,  by a moderate heat,  fermer <. The fermenta-
tion will throw up a thin liquor, \  hich pour off and
throw away ;  keep the remaind* r for use (in a cool
place) in a bottle, or jug tied  over.  The same
quantity of this, as of common yeast, will suffice to
bake or brew with.   Four  spoonfuls of this yeast
will make a fresh quantity as before, and the stock
may be  always  kept up, by fermenting the new
with the remainder of the  former quantity.
  Remarks.  The preparation  of substitutes for
yeast, has long engaged the attention both  of the
scientific chemist  and  the practical tradesman.
The periodicals at one time literally teemed with
these  formula?, and even at the present  day some
of the minor publications  amuse their readers in
the same way. The above processes are the best
known, and if well  managed will prove all that
can be desired.  It were easy to multiply receipts
on this subject, were they to be indiscriminately
selected, but the mass of those published are either
mere  trash,  or repetitions  of others long  known.
Not more than one in a thousand answers  when
tried.   *** Ordinary beer yeast may be kept fresh
and fit for use for several months, by placing it in
a close canvass bag,  and gently squeezing out the
moisture in a screw press  till the remaining mat-
ter becomes as stiff as clay, in which state it must 
YTT                   571                     ZIN
be preserved in close vessels.  This method is gen-
erally adopted by the brewers in Flanders.   An-
other method is to well whisk the yeast till it forms
a uniform liquid mass, and then to lay it with a
soft  paint-brush evenly  and thinly  on dishes, or
any  convenient surface, on which it can be exposed
to the sun or air; and the operation must be re-
peated as soon as the first coat is'sufficiently solid,
and  so on, till  the  layers  acquire a proper thick-
ness, when it must  be detached and preserved as
before.   If rendered quite dry, its power of exci-
ting  fermentation will be destroyed.
  YELLOW DYE.  Syn. Teinture Jaune, (Fr)
The following substances impart a yellow to goods,
either at once, or after they have been mordanted
with alumina or tin :—annotto, dyer's broom, fus-
tic,  fustet, French berries, quercitron bark, tur-
meric, barberry root.   Goods mordanted with ace-
tate  of lead, and afterwards passed through a bath
of chromate of potash, acquire a brilliant chrome
yellow color; solution  of sulphate or acetate of
iron, followed by  immersion in potash  or  lime-
water, gives a yellow, buff, or orange,—orpiment
dissolved in ammonia imparts a golden yellow.
  YELLOW,  NAPLES.  Syn. Jaune Mineral,
(Fr.) Giallolino,  (Ital)  Prep. I. Metallic an-
timony 12 lbs.; red lead  8  lbs.; oxide  of zinc 4
lbs.; mix, calcine, triturate well together, and fuse
in a  crucible ;  tho fused mass must be ground and
elutriated to a fine powder.
  II. Lead 3 lbs.; common antimony 2 lbs.; alum
and  common salt 2 oz.; calcined together.
  III. Flake white ]£ lbs.; diaphoretic  antimony
\ lb.; calcined  alum  1 oz.; sal ammoniac 2 oz.;
calcine in a covered crucible with a moderate heat
for 3 hours, so that at the end of it, it may be bare-
ly red hot.   More  antimony  and sal ammoniac
turns it on the gold  color.   Used in oil and in por-
celain painting and  enamelling.
  YELLOW,  PATENT.  Syn.  Montpellier
Yellow. Oxiciiloride of  Lead.  Submuriate
of do.  Prep. I. Common salt 1 cwt. and litharge
4 cwt., are ground together  with water,  and kept
for some  time in a gentle heat, water being added
to supply the  loss by evaporation ;  the carbonate
of soda is then washed out with more water, and
the white residuum heated till  it acquires a fine
yellow color.   Used as a paint.
  II. Dry chloride of lead 14 oz.; pure carbonate
of lead 13 £ oz.; grind together, fuse and powder.
Used as  a paint.
  YELLOW,  WELD.   Prep. Fine whiting 4
lbs. ;  water 4 pints; boil together  into a smooth
paste, and add, gradually, alum £ oz. in fine  pow-
der.   Boil weld in water for a quarter of  an  hour,
strain, and add the liquor to the pap  of whiting
and  alum until the desired shade of color is obtain-
ed ;  pour into earthen pans, and  dry on chalk.
Used by the paper-hanging makers.
  yTTRIA.  Syn. Oxide of Yttrium.  A white
earth discovered by Gadolin in 1794, in a mineral
from Ytterby in Sweden,  since called Gadolinite.
Its sp. gr. is 4-842; its  salts have  in general a
sweetish  taste, and the sulphate and several others
an amethyst color.  Its solutions are  precipitated
by pure alkalis, but  alkaline carbonates, especially
carbonate of ammonia, dissolve it in the  cold.  It
is distinguished from glucina by the color  of its sul-
phate, by being insoluble in pure alkalis, and by
yielding a white precipitate  with prussiate of pot-
ash.  Yttria may be obtained by a similar process
from Gadolinite  to  that  by which glucina is ex-
tracted from the beryl.
  YTTRIUM.   The metallic  base of Yttria.  It
may be obtained in a similar way to that described
under glucinium.   It is  brittle, and has a  dark
gray color.          _______

  ZAFFRE.  Syn. Saffra.  Safflor.   Roasted
cobalt  ore  reduced to  a  very fine  powder and
ground with 2 or 3  parts  of very pure quartzose or
silicious sand.   Used as a blue color by enamellers
and painters on porcelain and glass.  Chiefly im-
ported from Saxony.  Zaffre fused in an earthen
crucible with about half its weight of potash, and
the melted mass poured into water and afterwards
ground into an impalpable powder, forms the beau-
tiful azure  pigment  called smalts.
  ZEINE. A name given by Gorham to a yellow
waxy substance, obtained by treating the portion of
maize or Indian corn, insoluble in water, with alco-
hol, and evaporating the solution.
  ZIMOME. (From  t^**, ferment.)   A name
given by Taddei to  the portion of wheat gluten in-
soluble in alcohol.   (See  Gluten.)
  ZINC. Syn. Spelter.  Zinc,  (Fr. $ Sp) Zink,
(Ger., Dut, Swed., $ Dan)  Zinco, (Ital.)  Zin-
cum, (Lat)  This metal was  first mentioned  by
Paracelsus in the  16th  century,  who  called  it
zinetum.   Its ores must,  however, have been pre-
viously known, as  the ancients were acquainted
with the manufacture of brass.  The zinc of com-
merce is obtained from the native sulphuret (zinc
blende)   or carbonate,  (calamine)  by  roasting
those ores,  and distilling them along  with carbon-
aceous matter in a covered earthen crucible,  hav-
ing its bottom connected with an iron tube which
terminates  over a vessel of water situated beneath
the furnace. The  first  portion that passes  over
contains cadmium and arsenic, and is indicated  by
what is technically  called the "  brown blaze;" bul
when the  metallic  vapor begins to  burn with a
bluish white flame, or the " blue  blaze"  com-
mences, the volatilized metal is collected.
  Pur.  Commercial zinc is never pure.  Accord
ing to the  London  Ph. its sp. gr. is 6-i*>6, and  it is
almost entirely soluble in diluted sulphuric acid,
forming a  colorless solution.   When tested  in a
Marsh's apparatus it should yield no trace of ar-
senic.  The following method, by which several
pounds of chemically pure zinc may be obtained in
about \ of  an hour, will  be found very useful:—
Melt the zinc of commerce in a common crucible,
and throw  it into a tolerably deep vessel of water,
taking care that the metal be very hot at the mo-
ment of running.  This operation is not without  its
use, for the more granulated the zinc, the easier it
is purified.   Dry the grains, and dispose  them  by
layers in  a Hessian crucible with one-fourth  of
their weight of nitrate of potash, using the precau-
tion to place a slight excess  at  the top ancLat the
bottom.   Cover  the crucible, and secure the lid,
then apply heat: a vivid deflagration takes place
with great disengagement of light, after which  re-
move the crucible from the fire, separate the dross
with a tube, and lastly, run the zinc into an ingot
mould.  This zinc, submitted to Marsh's apparatus
during entire days,  has never given any stain, and 
ZIN                575                    ZIN
in solution the  most sensible  reactives—such as
hydro-sulphocyanic  acid—have  never  indicated
the least atom of iron.   (Journ. de Pharm.)
  Props., Uses, $c.  Zinc is a bluish white metal,
having  the sp. gr. 6*8  to  7*2 ; tough when  cold,
ductile and malleable at from 212° to 300°, brittle,
and  easily pulverized  at  400° ;  fuses  at  773°,
(Daniell,) and sublimes unchanged at a white heat,
in close vessels.  It is  scarcely affected by expo-
sure to air and moisture; hence its general use in
the arts for the manufacture of vessels of capacity,
tubing,  &c, that require lightness  and durability.
Heated to whiteness, (941° Daniell,)  in contact
with the air,  it burns with great brilliancy, and  is
converted into oxide, Cflowers of zinc.)   It is very
soluble in dilute sulphuric and muriatic acid, with
the  evolution of hydrogen gas.  Zinc is used to
form galvanic plates; in fireworks, and in medi-
cine.
   Tests.  1. The solutions  of zinc are  precipitated
white  by the pure alkalis and carbonate of am-
monia,  but are completely redissolved by excess of
the  precipitant.—2. The  carbonates  of  potassa
and soda give  a permanent white precipitate of
carbonate  of zinc.—3. Hydrosulphuret of  am-
monia  also gives a white  precipitate, and so does
sulphureted hydrogen when the solution is quite
neutral.—4. Prussiate of potash gives a gelatinous
white, or bluish white precipitate.
   ZINC, ACETATE  OF.   Syn.  Zinci Acetas.
Prep.—1.  Dissolve oxide  of zinc  in  acetic acid,
evaporate  and  crystallize.—2.  Crystallized sul-
phate of zinc 143 parts ;  crystallized  acetate of
lead 190 do.; dissolve  each separately in water,
mix,  filter, evaporate, and crystallize.   Tonic,
antispasmodic, and emetic.   Dose. 1  to 2  grs. ;
as an  emetic  10 to 20 grs.; externally, 2 or  3
grs. to water 1 oz., as an astringent lotion  or in-
jection.
   ZINC, BROMIDE  OF.  Syn.  Zinci  Bro-
Midum.   Prepared  like  the  corresponding salt of
iron.
   ZINC,  CARBONATE  OF.  Syn.   Zinci
Carbonas.  Prep.  Add a solution of carbonate
of  soda to  another of pure  sulphate  of   zinc;
wash and dry the precipitate.  For the impure or
native carbonate of zinc, (calamina, carbonas zinci
impura, P. L.,) see Calamine.
   ZINC,  CHLORIDE OF.   Syn.   Muriate
of  Zinc.  Butter of do.    Zinci Chloridum.
Do.  Murias.  Prep.—1. Evaporate the  muriatic
solution  of  zinc to dryness,  and  transmit dry
muriatic acid gas  over the residuum, heated in a
tube.  When pure, colorless, melts at 212°, de-
liquescent, volatilized   at  a red  heat, soft, like
butter.—2.  (P.  Cod.)   Zinc §xx;  muriatic  acid
q. s.; dissolve, add nitric acid §j, evaporate to
dryness, dissolve  in water, and add chalk Jj j in
24 hours filter, and evaporate to dryness.  Dose.
1  to 2 grs.  in  scrofula,  epilepsy, &c.;  and ex-
ternally as a  caustic, or as  an astringent lotion,
(2 grs. to water f Jj.)
  ZINC, CYANIDE  OF.  Syn. Hydrocyan-
ate of  Zinc   Cyanuret  of do.   Zinci Cyani-
dum.   Do.  Cyanuretum.   Prep.   (M.  Henry.)
Add a  sokition of cyanide of potassium to another
of pure sulphate of zinc; wash and dry the pre-
cipitate.   Dose. \ to 1 gr. twice a day, in epilepsy,
hysteria, and other nervous  affections, heartburn,
worms,  &c,   andj  as a  substitute  for  prussic
acid.
  ZINC,  FLUORIDE  OF.   A  white  com-
pound,  scarcely  soluble in  water,  obtained  by
acting on oxide of zinc with liquid hydrofluoric
acid.
  ZINC, IODIDE OF.  Syn.   Hydriodate of
Zinc  Zinci Iodidum.  Do.   Hydriodas.  Prep.
(Duflos.)   Iodine 2 parts ; granulated zinc 1 do.;
water  4 do.;  proceed as for iodide of  iron, only
employing  a   glass  or  porcelain  vessel.   De-
liquescent.  15 grs.  to  water  f^vj ;  used as a
collyrium in scrofulous inflammation of the eye,
(Poulet;) 3j to lard §j, as a powerful resolvent to
scrofulous and other glandular swellings ; rubbed
on the part twice a day.  (Ure.)
  ZINC, OXIDE  OF.   Syn.  Zinci Oxydum,
(P. L.  E. &  D.)   Zinci Calcinatum.   Nihil
Album.  Lana Philosophica.  Pompholyx. Flow-
ers of Zinc  Calx of do.   Flores Zinci.  Calx
do.   Prep.   (P.  L.)   Sulphate of  zinc  (pure)
lb.j ; sesquicarbonate of ammonia §viss ;  dissolve
each  separately in  6 quarts of  water, filter, mix,
well wash the precipitate with water, and calcine
it for 2 hours in a strong fire.  " White, tasteless,
entirely soluble in diluted nitric  acid without ef-
fervescence; and this solution is not affected by
nitrate of baryta,  but yields a  white  precipitate
with  ammonia, entirely soluble  in excess of  the
precipitant."   (P.  L)   Dose. 5 to  10 grs., as an
antispasmodic; in  epilepsy, &c.  Used  also as a
dusting powder, and to make  an  ointment.   It
has been proposed as a  substitute for white lead
in painting, than which it covers better, but dries
slower;  requires  the  addition  of  dried  white
vitriol.  *#* The last eight synonymes are usual-
ly applied to the oxide procured by  heating  the
metal  in contact  with air,  but its composition,
properties, and uses  are  the  same as those of  the
oxide, P. L.  See Flowers of Zinc
  ZINC, SULPHATE OF.  Syn.   Zinci Sul-
phas.  Prep.   I.  (P. L.)  Granulated  zinc §v ;
diluted  sulphuric  acid  1 quart; dissolve,  filter,
evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside to crys-
tallize.
  II. The common sulphate  of  zinc of commerce
frequently contains copper, cadmium,  lead, iron,
and  manganese.   By digesting its concentrated
solution for some time with metallic zinc, it may
be freed  from copper, lead,  and  cadmium, for
these metals are all reduced and precipitated in a
metallic state ; or the acid solution may be treated
with sulphureted hydrogen as  long as  any pre-
cipitate forms.  In  order  to separate  the iron,
chlorine gas is passed into the solution,  by which
the iron  is converted into the protochloride ; if
this solution be exposed to the air for a length of
time, it absorbs oxygen, and  oxide of iron (basic
salt?) is deposited as a yellow powder, from which
the  solution must  be  filtered.   If  the  sulphate
contain manganese, which is not very often  the
case, the solution must be  boiled up a few times
with purified  charcoal,  filtered and evaporated.
(Jour, fur prakt. Chem)
  Remarks.   Puro sulphate of zinc must alone be
used  in  medicine.    The  commercial  sulphate
(white copperas, white vitriol, salt of vitriol,
vitriolum album, sal vitrioli, zincum vitriolatum,
<$-c.) is prepared by roasting  native sulphuret of 
Z1R                   576                    ZUM
      inc (blende) in a reverberatory furnace, lixiviating
      he calcined mass, and evaporating till the liquid
     "orms a  white semicrystalline mass on  cooling.
     The pure sulphate is  " totally dissolved by water,
     and the  white precipitate formed by ammonia is
     redissolved  when the  ammonia is added  in  ex-
     cess."  (P. L.)  "When a solution in 6 waters is
>    boiled with  a  little nitric acid, and  a solution of
     ammonia is then added  till the oxide of  zinc at
     first precipitated is all redissolved, no yellow pre-
     cipitate remains, or a trace only*,  and the solution
     is colorless."   (P. E.)  Dose. As an antispasmodic,
     tonic, or  expectorant, 1 to 5  grs.; as an  emetic,-
     10 to 20  grs.
       ZINKING.  Copper and brass vessels may be
     covered  with  a firmly adherent  layer of pure
     zinc, by boiling them in contact with a solution of
     chloride of  zinc ; pure zinc  turnings being at the
     same  time  present in considerable excess.  The
     same  object may be  obtained by means of zinc,
     and a solution of sal ammoniac, or caustic potassa.
     (Boettger's  Beitrage.)
       ZIRCONIA.   Syn.  Oxide  of  Zirconium.
     A  white  pulverulent earth  discovered  in the
     jargon,  or  zircon,  of Ceylon, by Klaproth, in
     1789, and it has since been found in the jacinth.
     To  obtain  it  the  stone  should be calcined and
     thrown into cold water, to render it  friable, and
     then powdered in  an agate  mortar.   Mix the
     powder with nine  parts of pure potash, and pro-
     ject the mixture by spoonfuls into a red-hot cruci-
     ble, taking  care that  each portion is fused before
     another is added.   Keep the whole in fusion, with
     an increased heat, for  an hour and a half.   When
     cold, break the crucible, separate its contents,
powder, and boil in water, to dissolve the  alkali.
Wash the  insoluble  part;  dissolve  in   muriatic
acid; heat  the  solution,  that  the silex  may fall
down;  and precipitate  the zirconia by caustic
fixed alkali.  Or the zirconia may be precipitated
by carbonate of soda, and the  carbonic  acid ex-
pelled by heat.  Zirconia has  neither  taste nor
odor, is insoluble in water, and  forms salts  with
the acids.   It is distinguished  from  all  the other
earths, except thorina, by being precipitated when
any  of its neutral salts are boiled with a saturated
solution of sulphate of potassa.   It is distinguished
from alumina and  glucina by its salts being pre-
cipitated by all the  pure  alkalis, and by being in-
soluble when they are added in excess.  The pre-
cipitated hydrate and  carbonate  are readily solu-
ble in acids.
   ZIRCONIUM.  The metallic base of zirconia.
It is obtained by heating in a glass tube with a
spirit lamp, a mixture  of  potassium,  and  the
double fluoride of zirconium  and potassium, care-
fully dried.  The product  must  be washed with
water, and digested for some time in dilute mu-
riatic  acid.   (Berzelius.)   The  resulting black
powder  is  zirconium.  It has been but very im-
perfectly examined.
   ZOONIC ACID.   A name given by Berthol-
let to the acid liquid procured by distillation from
animal  substances.   It  has  been shown  by
Thenard to  be merely acetic acid.
   ZOOTIC ACID.   (See Prussic Acid.)
   ZUMIC  ACID.   (From fr/*-?, leaven.)  The
acid  formed in bread, and in some other vegeta-
ble substances, which have undergone the acetous
fermentation.
THE  END. 
 
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J*7*'' 
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
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