HANDBOOK 
OF SYSTEMATIC 
URINARY ANALYSIS 
CHEMICAL AND MICROSCOPICAL 
FOB THE USE OF PHYSICIANS, MEDICAL STUDENTS, 
AND CLINICAL ASSISTANTS, 
BY 
FRANK M. DEEMS, M.D., Ph.D., 
formerly laboratory instructor in the medical department op the 
UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK ; MEMBER OP THE N. Y. COUNTY MEDICAL 
society; member oe the k. y. microscopica: 
SECOND EDITION! 
NEW YORK 
THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY. 
COPYRIGHT SECURED. 
1881. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
Part Second of this little manual was (and is still) published in a 
separate form. The reception accorded to it by both the medical press 
and profession was so flattering, that I have been induced to add to 
it. Owing to the liberality of the publisher, I feel justified in saying 
that there is no other work on this subject, of a similar size and price, 
so well and profusely illustrated. In the reading matter, no originality 
whatever is claimed, and I have often adopted even the very language 
of others where it seemed to combine accuracy, brevity and clearness. 
The work is still a compilation. I hope, however, that my intention, as 
set forth in the preface to the First Edition, will be more completely 
fulfilled. F. M. D, 
Augusta, Ga,, October 1, 1881. 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
The following plan or method for the systematic examination of the 
urine, step by step, both chemically and microscopically, is compiled 
with the intention of supplying students of medicine, clinical assis- 
ants, and busy practitioners with a concise guide, which, from its 
small compass and tabulated arrangement, will serve both as a bedside 
reference-book and a work-table companion. While it cannot pretend 
to take the place of larger works upon the highly important subject of 
urinary analysis, the compiler hopes, from his somewhat extended 
experience as a teacher of this branch of physical diagnosis, that it will 
serve to lessen the difficulties in the way of the beginner, and save time 
to the busy practitioner in his routine examinations. 
429 West Twenty-Second Street, 
JVewj York, October 1, 1880, 
F. M. D. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FIG. 
Frontispiece, Urinary Analysis Set (after Prof. Draper). page 
1. Urinometer and Cylinder, 20 
2. Separate Crystals of Diabetic Sugar, ..... 33 
3. Normal Deposit from Ammoniacal Urine, . . . .36 
4. Extraneous Substances found in Urine. .... 39 
5. Nitrate of Urea, ........ 40 
6. Oxalate of Urea, , . . . . . . . 41 
7. Apparatus for the Quantitative Estimation of Urea, . , 45 
8. Common Forms of Uric Acid, ...... 49 
9. Rarer Forms of Uric Acid, . . . . . . .50 
10. “Hedge-hog” Crystals of Urate of Sodium, ... 53 
11. Crystals and Amorphous Deposit of Urate of Sodium, and 
Spherules of Urate of Ammonium, .... 54 
12. Spherules of Ammonium Urate, . . . ... .55 
13. Hippuric Acid from Human Urine, ..... 56 
14. Oxalate of Lime, . . . . . . . .59 
15. Dumb-bells and Ovoids of Oxalate of Lime, ... 60 
16. Crystals of (“ Stellar ”) Phosphate of Lime, . . . .63 
17. Different Forms of Ammonio-magnesian (“ triple”) Phosphate, 64 
18. Crystals (“fern-leaf ”) of Triple Phosphate, . . . .65 
19. Leuein Spheres and Tyrosin Needles, .... 68 
20. Cystin, Hexagonal Tablets and Prisms, . . . .70 
21. Xanthin from Human Urine, ...... 71 
22. Mucus Cloud, ......... 73 
23. Renal, Yesieal, Urethral and Yaginal Epithelium. . . 75 
24. Mode of Formation of Tube-casts, . . . . .80 
25. Epithelial and Opaque Granular Casts, .... 81 
26. Fatty and Blood Casts, Free Fatty Molecules, . . .82 
27. Waxy Casts, , . . . . . . . . 83 
28. Mucus Casts, . . . . . . . .85 
29. Blood Corpuscles in the Urine, ..... 88 
30. Pus Corpuscles, ........ 92 
31. Human Spermatozoids, ....... 94 
32. Body and Upper Part of the Tail of a Spermatozoon, . . 95 
33. Bacteria and Yibriones, . , . . . , . 96 
34. Penicilium Glaucum, Aerial Fructification, . . . .98 
35. Torula Cerevisife, Aerial Fructification, . . .100 
36. Sarcina in the Urine, ........ 100 
37. Apparatus for Collecting Urinary Sediments, , . .118 
38. The New Working Microscope, . . . . . .121 HANDBOOK OF 
URINARY ANALYSIS. 
CHAPTER I. 
COMPOSITION OF THE URINE ; PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHO- 
LOGICAL ALTERATIONS ; TRANSPARENCY ; CONSISTENCE; 
odor; color; reaction; specific gravity; the 
urinometer; quantity. 
Healthy urine is a clear, watery, pale yellow, or amber- 
colored, fluorescent fluid, of an acid reaction, saline taste, 
characteristic (sui generis) odor, and, when passed in the 
average quantity of about 1500 c.c., has a mean specific 
gravity of about 1020°. It is free from any deposit or sedi- 
ment, but generally holds in suspension a little mucus and 
epithelium. 
Composition. 
What may be called the average composition of human 
urine is shown in the subjoined table. The quantities in 
which these various constituents are present vary consider- 
ably, according to the circumstances and influences to which 
the person is subjected. 8 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Amounts of the Several Urinary Constituents Passed in Twenty - 
four Hours. (After Parkes). 
By an A veragt 
Matt of 66 Kilos. 
Per x Kilo, 
of Body Weight. 
Water, 1500-000 Grammes 23-0000 
Total Solids 72-000 “ 1-1000 
Urea 33-180 “ -5000 
Uric Acid -555 “ -0084 
Hippuric Acid -400 u -0060 
Kreatinin -910 “ -0140 
Pigments and other sub- 
stances 10-000 “ -1510 
Sulphuric Acid 2-012 “ -0305 
Phosphoric Acid 3-164 “ -0480 
Chlorine 7-000—(8-21) T260 
Ammonia -770 
Potassium 2-500 
Sodium 11-090 
Calcium -260 
Magnesium -207 
prom the above we see that the greatest amounts are repre- 
sented by Urea and the Chlorides (chiefly of Sodium). The 
gases which can be extracted from the urine by the mercurial 
pump are carbon dioxide (6o—150 c.c. in 1000 c.c. of urine). 
Nitrogen is present in very small quantity, and of oxygen 
traces only can be discovered. 
The Renal Function. 
There is a difference of opinion among physiologists con- 
cerning the excretion of urine. Bowman holds that the 
epithelial cells lining the secreting tubules are secretion organs, 
and that water only is excreted by the tufts, or malpighian 
bodies, which washes the constituents of the urine out of the 
epithelial cells. This is the secretory theory. Ludwig as- 
sumes that the excretion of urine is a process of filtration 
taking place in the glomeruli, and a process of diffusion 
throughout the course of the tubules; the epithelial cells 
lining the tubules are not taken into consideration at all. 
This is the mechanical theory. But experimental evidence HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
9 
justifies the conception which the structure of the kidney 
would lead us a priori to adopt—namely, that the secretion of 
urine by the kidney is a double process; a combination of se- 
cretion and filtration. The filtration part of the process is 
directly dependent on blood pressure. However, there is no 
question as to the chief function of the kidney being that of 
an excreting organ, its office being to get rid of substances 
produced by the activity of other tissues. Its principal work 
is not to form, but to eject, and the nitrogenized excrementi- 
tious matters thus ejected are, in great part, the effete products 
of tissue-metamorphosis (metabolism), and hence represent 
the physiological wear of the organism. 
Physiological and Pathological Variations. 
The preceding table gives the average composition of 
normal urine. A morbid condition of the system may greatly 
alter its composition; there may be an absence, a diminution, 
or an excess of one or more of its physiological elements, or 
some new and unnatural substance, such as, for example, 
albumen, sugar, blood, pus, bile, or casts may be mixed with it. 
Owing to these physiological and pathological variations, of 
both the physical properties and chemical composition of the 
urine (which fluctuate in proportion as the processes of life 
fluctuate), its condition affords a clue to the nature of de- 
ranged or diseased states of the system, an index to their 
prognosis, and a guide to their successful treatment (Harley). 
“ At the bedside there is no more important subject of inquiry 
than the chemical composition of the urine, since from this we 
obtain the most certain data upon which to ground a diag- 
nosis or furnish a prognosis ” (Ziemssen’s Cyclopaedia). 
Every physician should be as thoroughly familiar with the 
causes and significance of these urinary changes, and the 
means of detecting them, as he is with cardiac or pulmonary HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS, 
derangements, and their symptoms and physical signs. The 
more important of these factors influencing the composition 
of the urine will be pointed out in the following detailed sum- 
mary of its physical and chemical characteristics. 
Normal urine deposits, after standing at rest for some time, 
a slight cloud (nubecula), derived from the bladder and 
urinary tract, consisting mainly of mucus and epithelial cells, 
but in all other respects it is perfectly transparent. A visible 
sediment, other than the above mentioned., appearing in the 
urine within eight to twelve hours is abnormal. On the other 
hand, because a given specimen of urine is transparent, it 
by no means follows that it is therefore normal. Sometimes, 
on cooling, urine that was passed perfectly clear may become 
turbid from a precipitation of the urates (of soda, potash, lime, 
and magnesia), which, though highly soluble in water at the 
temperature of the body, are promptly precipitated from a cold 
urine. This turbidity is seen usually on a winter morning. 
On warming this turbid urine, the urates will re-dissolve, and 
the liquid resumes its translucency. Another cause of tur- 
bidity of the urine, and perhaps a more common one, is the 
precipitation of the earthy phosphates (of lime and magnesia), 
which require for their solution an acid urine. We shall see, 
when treating of Reaction, that during digestion there is 
always a diminished acidity, or even an alkalescence, of the 
urine; and it is at such times, therefore, that this precipitation 
is most likely to occur. Heat increases this deposit of earthy 
phosphates, an acid causes its prompt disappearance, being 
the reverse of the case of the urates. Should the urine be 
turbid when voided, it is a mark of disease, and pus is the most 
frequent cause of this appearance. Opacity, produced by 
pus or albuminous cellular elements, is increased by heat and 
Transparency. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
acids, owing to the precipitation of the albumen, which is an 
invariable constituent of liquorpuris and liquor sanguinis. 
Normal urine is always perfectly fluid, like water, readily 
flowing through and dropping from a tube of exceedingly 
small calibre. But in disease, especially in catarrh of the 
bladder, and in retention of urine, the ammoniacal products of 
the decomposition of the urea often render the pus so thick, 
viscid, and glutinous that it is difficult or even impossible to 
pour it from one vessel into another. Such a state of viscidity 
is called “ ropiness.” Chylous urine (rare, and peculiar to 
certain tropical countries) also gives to the urine such an in- 
creased consistence as to torm, sometimes a thick, firm, jelly- 
like mass. The froth on normal urine readily disappears; 
but if the froth be permanent, the presence of sugar, albumen, 
or the constituents of the bile, may be suspected. 
Consistency. 
When freshly-passed, normal urine exhales a peculiar aro- 
matic odor, which gives place, on cooling, to an odor charac- 
teristic to itself, and known as urinous. It is said to be due 
to certain volatile organic acids. The color and odor of the 
urine are usually modified by the same physiological conditions. 
The addition of a mineral acid greatly intensifies and modifies 
the urinous odor. When urine loses its natural odor, and be- 
comes fetid and ammoniacal, the change is due to the decom- 
position of urea into ammonium carbonate (a highly alkaline 
salt), and to the formation of sulphur compounds. Should 
the organic matters be increased, and undergo decomposition 
at the same time, the odor is at once putrescent and ammo- 
niacal. In cases of destructive renal or cystic disease, and 
Odor. 12 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
in paraplegia, these alterations begin very quickly after the 
urine has been voided. A fixed alkali gives to the urine a 
faint mawkish or an aromatic odor; diabetes is said to impart 
a sweetish whey-like odor, which changes to that of sour 
milk on fermenting. Purulent and sanious discharges, a stale, 
offensive odor, like that of tainted flesh. It must not be for- 
gotten that certain articles of diet (as asparagus, cauliflower, 
garlic, onions, etc.), and certain drugs (as turpentine, valerian, 
assafoetida, castor, copaiba, cubebs, sandal-wood oil, etc.) com- 
municate certain peculiar odors to the urine. It is well, there- 
fore, to be aware of what the patient has been taking. 
Healthy urine may be said to be, in general terms, of a 
pale wine-yellow, or amber color; but even within the limits 
of health there may be considerable variation, from the palest 
straw to a yellowish-brown. These variations are due to the 
relative proportion of the coloring matters to the water. The 
larger the quantity of urine daily excreted the paler the tint; 
the less the amount the higher the color. Very pale urine is 
voided by persons in health, after copious drinking, especially 
in cold weather; very high-colored urine after prolonged and 
violent muscular exercise and severe sweating. 
Color. 
At present the whole subject of urinary pigments, both in 
health and disease, is very imperfectly understood. Whether 
the natural yellow color of urine be due to a single pigment, 
the urochrome of Thudichum, or to more than one, and what 
is the exact nature of these pigments, must be left for a while 
undecided. Urine frequently contains urobilin, and there are 
reasons for thinking that the urinary and bile-pigments are 
derivatives of hcemoglobin. If this be the case an immense 
number of blood corpuscles must be destroyed daily (and re- HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
13 
placed by new ones) in order to give rise to the amount of 
urinary and bile pigment discharged daily from the body 
(Foster). Urobilin is found in acute febrile diseases, and 
points to an increased waste of red blood corpuscles. 
The color of the urine varies greatly in disease; it may be 
pale yellow, green, red, brown, blue, and black. These tints 
may be due to an excess or diminution of the normal coloring 
matters, to an increase or decrease of the quantity of water 
holding them in solution, to the presence of blood and bile 
pigments, and to other ab7iormal coloring agents, and, lastly, 
to certain articles of diet or medicine which impart coloration 
to the urine. 
Pale umie is passed by persons suffering from ansemia 
and chlorosis, diabetes, nervous disorders, such as hysteria and 
convulsions (urina spastica), and in convalescence from acute 
diseases. As a rule, pale urine indicates the abse7ice of pyrexia. 
However, a pale or normal-colored urine is not invariably an 
indication of health, as it may contain an abnormal quantity 
of urohcematin, determined by proper investigation. 
High-colored urine is found in fevers, and most acute dis- 
eases in which considerable tissue metamorphosis takes place. 
A dark-colored urine should be examined for excess of pig- 
ment; and its presence, when an average amount of urine is 
passed (1500 c.c.), almost invariably indicates the existence 
of a more or less grave pathological condition of the system. 
Reddish-pink urine makes its appearance in various febrile 
complaints from the addition of an abnormal coloring matter, 
called, by Prout, purpuri7i, by Heller, uroeryihrin, and by 
Harley, 7irohce7nati7i. It contains iron, and is doubtless a 
modified hsematin, being also found especially in diseases 
where there is evident blood dyscrasia, with destruction of the 
blood-corpuscles, as in low fevers, septic conditions, etc. 
Such a high-colored urine will give, when diluted with water, 14 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
according to the amount of dilution, all the colors more com- 
monly observed in this fluid, thus strengthening the hypothesis 
that these various tints are only dilutions of one and the same 
coloring agent. 
Certain medicinal and poisonous substances, finding their 
way into the system, may produce various alterations of color 
in the urine. Santonin imparts a rich golden-yellow to acid 
urine, and an orange-red to alkaline urine; gamboge, senna, 
and picrotoxin, yellow color; rhubarb, a deep gamboge- 
yellow, changed to red by the addition of ammonia; turpen- 
tine, violet; gallic and tannic acids, dusky; creosote and 
arseniuretted hydrogen, a black discoloration. Among other 
substances than the above-named, aloes, blackberries, rasp- 
berries, indigo, logwood, madder, etc., color the urine. Strong 
coffee darkens the urine. It is of some importance, therefore, 
to know what a patient has been eating or drinking. When 
urine containing bile is kept for several days, it sometimes 
changes from a brown to a grass-green color, owing to the 
oxidation of the biliary pigments. Blue urine is most fre- 
quently met with in cholera and typhus fever, and is due to 
the presence of indican. Black urine has been seen in those 
suffering from melanotic cancer. All of these abnormal pig- 
ments have an intense affinity for uric acid and the urates, and 
hence color them, when they are thrown out as a deposit. 
Normal urine is sometimes markedly fluorescent; as yet 
we are unable to state the substances that produce it. Alka- 
line urine, by reflected light, appears greenish; by transmitted 
light yellowish-red (Hoffman and Ultzmann). 
Fluorescence. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
15 
Reaction. 
Healthy human urine of the twenty-four hours is acid, the 
amount of this acidity being equivalent to from 2 to 4 grammes 
(30-60 grains) of oxalic acid. It is due to the presence of 
acid sodium phosphate (Ptfi H2 NA). There is no property of 
the urine of more varied and important significance than its 
reaction, for therewith is intimately connected the occurrence 
of several kinds of urinary deposits. The reaction of the 
urine is liable to be affected by food, the cold bath, medicinal 
substances, general diseases, and the decomposition of the 
secretion. 
(a) Food.—The reaction of the urine holds a close relation 
to the digestion of food. It may be neutral, or even alkaline, 
shortly after taking food, while the process of digestion is 
going on, again becoming more and more acid up to the time 
of the next meal. The alkaline urine, voided after food, owes 
its reaction to fixed alkali, and not to ammonia. The more 
remote consequence of a meal, however, is to maintain, and 
even increase, the acidity. Animal has this effect more than 
vegetable food. As a rule, if the urine of a person, living on 
a mixed diet, becomes alkaline in less than twenty-four hours 
after being passed, there exists some disease, either of the 
general system or of the urinary organs, which demands im- 
mediate attention. 
(fi) The Cold Bath.—The urine is said to become invariably 
alkaline after prolonged immersion of the body in a bath at a 
lower temperature than that of the body. 
(c) Ejffiects ofi Medicines.—Both mineral and vegetable acids, 
when administered in large quantities, tend somewhat to raise 
the acidity of the urine; but their effect is inconsiderable. 
Urine that is habitually alkaline cannot be rendered acid by 
the internal administration of even large quantities of these HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
substances. Alkaline substances have a much more powerful 
influence, and it is an easy matter to render the urine strongly 
alkaline at pleasure. This effect may be attained by the 
caustic and carbonated alkalies, or by the alkaline salts of 
certain groups of vegetable acids—acetic, tartaric, citric, 
malic, and lactic acids. The least disturbing to the digestive 
organs are the bicarbonates of potash and soda, and the 
acetates and citrates of the same bases. It requires from 300 
to 400 grains of the bicarb, potass., and about as much of the 
acetate and citrate, given in divided doses during the twenty- 
four hours, to keep the urine steadily alkaline in the adult. 
[cl) General Disease.—ln persons of debilitated constitu- 
tions, in the anaemic state which follows subacute rheumatism 
and gout, in chlorosis, atonic dyspepsia, chronic vomiting, and 
even in chronic phthisis, the urine may present the character 
of alkalescence (from fixed alkali). The clinical significance 
of urine, rendered alkaline by the fixed alkalies, is not serious, 
as this condition is an occasional accompaniment of debility, 
from whatever cause it may be due. Persons who pass such 
an alkaline urine are generally suitable subjects for a tonic 
and stimulating treatment, and exercise in the open air. 
Changes Undergone by Urine on Standing.—After urine 
has been discharged, the natural acidity increases for some 
time, owing to the formation of fresh acid, apparently by some 
kind of fermentation. This increase of acid frequently causes 
a precipitation of urates, which the previous acidity has been 
insufficient to throw down. After a while, however, the acid 
reaction gives way to alkalinity. This is caused by the de- 
composition of urea (NH2) 2CO, into ammonium carbonate 
(NH4)2CO3), a strongly alkaline salt. This change is accom- 
plished through the agency of a specific ferment. This fer- 
ment, as a general rule, does not make its appearance except 
in urine exposed to the air; it is only in unhealthy conditions HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
17 
that the alkaline fermentation takes place within the bladder. 
The mode by which urea is decomposed into ammonium 
carbonate is thus explained. The urea takes up water, and, 
by a simple rearrangement of their particles, becomes con- 
verted into ammonium carbonate: 
( NH2 tt . i nh4 o 
Co{nh2 + 2H2°-C0 {nh4o 
Urea. Water. Ammonium Carbonate. 
This transformation is brought about with great rapidity by 
contact with any decomposing organic matter—e.g., mucus, pus, 
blood, epithelium, albumen, etc.; also when the urine is very 
dilute and feebly acid or alkaline. The peculiar odor so 
characteristic of stale urine is chiefly due to the ammonium 
carbonate thus produced. 
Significance of the Alkaline Reaction.—Urine which is alka- 
line from fixed alkali, is always secreted alkaline by the kidneys ; 
it deposits, if at all, simple amorphous phosphate of lime, of 
which the particles have no tendency to accrete into gravel 
or calculi; it has a sweet aromatic odor; is perfectly bland 
and innocuous to the mucus membranes, and is not associated 
with inflammation of the urinaiy passages. 
Ammoniacal urine, on the other hand, is only in the rarest in- 
stances, and under the gravest circumstances, secreted ammonia- 
cal by the kidneys; but it usually becomes so by an after-change 
in the lower urinary passages, or after it has been voided. It 
is always sedimentary, depositing a mixture of the amorphous 
phosphate of lime and crystals of the ammonio-magnesian, or 
triple, phosphates, sometimes with the addition of lumpy 
spheres and rude dumb-bells of urate of ammonium, which 
have a strong tendency to aggregate into masses. This urine 
has an ammoniacal, and often an offensive putrescent odor, 
and is highly irritating to the mucus membranes, exciting in- 
flammation of them if the contact be long continued. HANDBOOK. OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
A urine alkaline from fixed alkali (potash or soda) reflects 
a state of the blood; a urine alkaline from ammonia (if alka- 
line when voided) generally points to a local affection of some 
part of the mucus membrane of the lower urinary passages— 
generally that of the bladder. Any condition which interferes 
with the complete emptying of the bladder in micturition 
favors the production of ammoniacal urine. Paraplegia, 
with paralysis of the bladder, obstinate urethral stricture, en- 
larged prostate, calculous concretions, morbid growths, or 
foreign bodies in the bladder, are all sooner or later implicated 
with ammoniacal urine. This ammoniacal urine irritates the 
mucus membrane, and induces cystitis; and the purulent 
secretion thus engendered reacts on the urine and favors its 
decomposition. Thus the two conditions mutually aggravate 
each other, and perpetuate each other’s existence after the 
original cause has passed away. Cystitis may, in this way, 
persist for years after the removal of a stone, or the cure of a 
stricture, which was its original cause. 
The specific gravity of healthy urine may range from 
1000-3° (after copious drinking on an empty stomach) to 
1030° (after food), pure water at 6o° F. being iooo°. The 
usual range of density of the normal mixed urine of the 
twenty-four hours is from 1015° to 1025°—average 1020°. 
It is never lighter than water. The physiological variations 
in the specific gravity of the healthy secretion depend upon 
the relative quantity of solids it contains, and it is to judge of 
the solid matter it contains that we take the specific gravity. 
The specific gravity varies not only with the time of the day, 
the constitution of the individual, the food and drink, rest, 
and amount of exercise taken, but upon numerous other 
causes, such as, for instance, the state of the skin and lungs. 
Specific Gravity. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
The urine that is passed immediately after drinking (urina 
potus) is pale-colored, faintly acid, and of a low specific 
gravity (1002° to 1015°). That passed in the morning, after 
sleep (urina sanguinus), is darker in color, of a more acid re- 
action, and a higher specific gravity (1015° to 1020°), while 
that voided some hours after eating (urina cibi, or chyli). 
although having a still higher specific gravity than the last 
(1020° to 1030°), is neither so dark in color nor so acid in 
reaction as the morning urine. Seeing that the normal 
physiological variations of density exhibit these very consider- 
able ranges, caution must therefore be exercised in drawing 
inferences from any unusual depression or elevation of the 
density in disease. If, however, the urine exhibits habitually, 
and especially the morning urine (urina sanguinis), a density 
below 1015°, the presence of albumen may be suspected; if 
the density persists at a still lower point (1005° to 1008°) the 
existence of diabetes insipidus. After hysterical paroxysms 
the urine may be abundant in quantity, and of an exceedingly 
low density (urina spastica). On the other hand, a density 
above 1025°, especially in a pale, apparently dilute urine, is 
strongly suspicious of the presence of sugar; and the higher 
densities, from 1035° to 1050°, belong almost entirely to 
diabetes mellitus. Roberts says, the heaviest urine ever sub- 
mitted to him had a density of 1065°, and did not contain a 
particle of sugar, but a very large quantity of albumen! A 
high density urine, free from sugar, indicates concentration, 
and more particularly a large percentage, or excess, of urea. 
In the febrile state there is an absolute increase ot urea, uric 
acid, and the sulphates, with a diminished elimination of 
water; consequently the specific gravity ranges high (1030° 
to 1038°). Whenever there is rapid wasting of the tissues, 
especially with concurrent sweating, or diarrhoea, the urine 
has a high density. On the other hand, when the specific 20 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
gravity is abnormally low (less than 1015°), we may, with 
great safety, suspect the presence of some exhausting non- 
inflammatory complaint, such as, for example, Bright’s 
disease. 
A high-density urine with a pale color, and a low-density 
with a deep tint, are equally signs of disease, as are also those 
cases in which, with small volume, there is low specific 
gravity, or, with great volume, high specific gravity. 
The 
Urinometer 
The simplest way of estimating the specific gravity of the 
urine is by means of the urinometer (Fig. i). Although not 
Fig. I.—URINOMETER AND CYLINDER. 
strictly accurate, it is sufficiently so for practical purposes. 
This instrument consists of a glass float, weighted with a bulb 
of mercury below, and having above a graduated stem. As the HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
21 
specific gravity of a liquid increases as the temperature is 
lowered, and decreases as it is raised, these instruments are 
constructed for use at a certain temperature—6o° or 62° F; 
hence, the urine to be tested should either be artificially 
brought to a temperature of 60° F. (15-54° C.), when attempt- 
ing to take its specific gravity, or corrections for temperature 
may be made from the following table: 
Bouchardafs Table of Corrections of Specific Gravity for 
Temperature. 
NON-SACHARINE URINE. 
SACCHARINE URINE. 
Subtract. 
Add. 
Subtract. 
Add. 
0° 
•09 
15° 
00 
0° 
1-3 
15° 
o-o 
1° 
•09 
16° 
0-1 
1° 
1-3 
16° 
0-2 
2° 
•09 
17° 
0 2 
2° 
1-3 
17° 
0-4 
3° 
•09 
18° 
0-3 
3° 
1-3 
18° 
0-6 
4° 
•09 
19° 
0-5 
4° 
1-3 
19° 
0-8 
5° 
•09 
20° 
0-9 
5° 
1-3 
20° 
1-0 
6° 
•08 
21° 
0-9 
6° 
1-2 
21° 
1-2 
7° 
•08 
22° 
11 
7° 
11 
22° 
1*4 
8° 
•07 
23° 
1-3 
8° 
1-0 
23° 
1-6 
9° 
•06 
24° 
1-5 
9° 
0-9 
24° 
1-9 
10° 
■05 
25° 
1-7 
10° 
0-8 
25° 
2-2 
11° 
•04 
26° 
2-1 
11° 
0-7 
26° 
25 
12° 
.03 
27° 
2-3 
12° 
0-6 
27° 
2-8 
13° 
•02 
28° 
2-5 
13° 
0-4 
28° 
31 
14° 
•01 
29° 
2-7 
14° 
0-2 
29° 
3-4 
15-60°F. 
00 
30° 
3-0 
15° 
00 
30° 
3-7 
Centigrade Scale. 
For Fahrenheit Table, see page 103. 
As many of the urinometers sold by dealers are utterly 
worthless, every instrument, before being used, should be 
tested with distilled water at 6o° F. (15-54° C.), into which 
it should sink to the mark o°, or 1000°. 
usually supplied with the urinometer, should be filled about 
Method of Taking Specific Gravity.—The cylindrical vessel, 22 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
three-fourths with urine, holding the cylinder obliquely while 
filling, in order to avoid foam, which greatly interferes with 
accurate reading. If this forms, get rid of it either by blotting 
paper, or overflowing and then partially decanting. The 
urinometer must readily move up and down the cylinder. If 
the cylinder be too small, the capillary attraction between its 
walls and the urinometer will prevent the latter from sinking 
as low as it should. The stem of the instrument must also be 
kept from touching the walls of the cylinder. Allow it to 
gradually sink until it will no longer descend spontaneously. 
Since the fluid accumulates around the stem of the urinometer 
from capillary attraction, the specific gravity appears to be 
lower than it really is, when read while the eye is above the 
level of the surface; hence, to obtain a correct reading, the 
eye must be lowered to the lower level of the surface of the 
fluid, and the number on the stem cut by the lower convex 
edge of the fluid read off, and noted. Then gently depress 
the urinometer, about one degree only, no more (or its stem, 
becoming covered with urine, will be rendered heavier, and 
produce an error in the reading). Having done this, allow 
it to rise again by removing the finger. When it has come to 
rest, the number may be again read; the second estimation 
is made to correct any mistake that may have taken place on 
the first reading. If the quantity of urine to be examined is 
too small to fill the cylinder enough to float the urinometer, 
it may be diluted with a quantity of distilled water, sufficient 
to fill the cylinder to the required height. From the specific 
gravity of this mixture may be calculated that of the urine, by 
multiplying the number above 1000 by the total number of 
volumes of the mixed fluid. Thus, suppose it is necessary 
to add four times as much water as urine, to enable us to use 
the urinometer, that is, to make five volumes, and the sp. gr. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
23 
of the mixed fluid is 1004°, then that of the urine would be 
iooo° + (4X5)= 1020°. 
The knowledge of the specific gravity of a few ounces of 
urine is a matter of little value. To render the observation 
in any way useful, the whole quantity passed in the twenty- 
four hours must be collected and mixed, and the specific 
gravity of a portion of this taken. This remark applies 
equally to all quantitative analyses. 
Determination of the Amount of Solids from the Specific 
Gravity.—An approximate determination of the amount of 
solids existing in the mixed urine of 24 hours may be made 
in a few minutes, and with sufficient accuracy for ordinary 
clinical purposes, by using Trapp’s Formula 2, or Haeser’s 
2-33, Thus, having determined the correct sp. gr. of the 
urine, multiply the two last figures of the number expressing 
this specific gravity by 2 (for urine below 1018°), by 2-33 
(for urine above 1018°), and the result gives the amount of 
solids, in grammes, existing in 1000 c.c. of the urine. For 
instance, a person passes 1250 c.c. of urine in 24 hours, of 
sp. gr. 1020. The last two figures (20) being multiplied by 
2-33, gives 46-6, which is the amount in grammes of solid 
matters contained in 1000 c.c. of the urine. But if 1250 c.c. 
were passed in the twenty-four hours, the calculation required 
consists in simply multiplying the whole amount of urine pa'ssed 
in the 24 hours (1250) by the amount of solids in the 1000 
c.c. of the urine (46-6), and then dividing this by 1000; thus: 
1250 X 46‘6 
= 58-25 grammes. 
1000 
and so with any amount of urine in 24 hours, whether it 
exceeds or falls short of 1000 c.c. 
The quantity of solids secreted in the urine in twenty-four 
hours varies from 55 to 75 grammes. 24 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Quantity of the Urine. 
Closely connected with the specific gravity, and holding an 
inverse relation to it, is the total quantity of urine discharged 
in the twenty-four hours. Vogel estimates the diurnal 
average to be 57 ounces; Becquerel 44 ounces; Hoffman 
and Ultzman, and other recent observers, about 50 ounces. 
Dr. Parkes found the average daily quantity of urine in 
healthy male adults, between twenty and forty years of age, 
to be fifty-two and a half fluid ounces (52y2 fl. oz.)‘ The 
extremes were thirty-five and eighty-one ounces (35 and 81). 
Assuming the usual quantity in the male to be about fifty (50) 
ounces, it may be stated in general terms (Flint), that the 
range of normal urine is between thirty and sixty (30 and 
60); and that, when the quantity varies much from these 
figures, it is probably due to some pathological condition. 
All that has been said of color and specific gravity in this 
respect is true of the quantity of urine, though in an inverse 
ratio. It is necessary that one should be acquainted with the 
physiological as well as pathological conditions on which the 
quantity and quality of the urine depends. These are (a) 
the drink, (b) the kind of food, (c) the state of the cutaneous 
and pulmonary exhalations, (e) the length of time the urine is 
retained in the bladder, (/) the condition of the stools, (g) the 
sex, {/1) the age of the individual, (f) the influence of reme- 
dies, and (k) sleep. 
1 st. The Influence of Drink upon the A mount of the Urine.— 
The flow of urine is essentially regulated by the quantity of 
fluids drank; controlled, however, in a most important degree 
by the pulmonary and cutaneous exhalation, and by the call 
of the system for water at the time. The more active the 
skin, cceteris paribus, the less water is excreted by the kidneys. 
Whenever the quantity of drink is diminished, the amount of HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
25 
urine is correspondingly decreased. When the blood and 
tissues contain their full complement of water, any further po- 
tation results in immediate diuresis, whereby the superabun- 
dance is carried off. But when the organs and tissues of the 
body are craving for more water, a large quantity may be 
drank without causing diuresis. The kidneys eliminate water 
in strict accordance with these conditions—it being an essen- 
tial and important part of their function to regulate the 
aqueousness of the blood. They are able to separate water 
at an almost unlimited rate—equally, at least, to the capacity 
of the gastric vessels to absorb it. 
2nd. The Influence of Food upon the Amount of Urine.— 
All the urinary ingredients increase after meals. This in- 
fluence of food over the daily quantity of urine, both liquid 
and solid, seems to depend chiefly on one of its elements, 
viz., the nitrogen. The more nitrogenized the diet, the greater 
the quantity of urine excreted. The influence that diet exerts 
over the relative amount of solids excreted by the kidneys is 
immense. They, like the water, are increased by an animal 
(nitrogenized), diminished by a. vegetable, and still further re- 
duced by a non-nitrogenized diet. (100 parts of animal food 
contain, on an average, 15 per cent, of nitrogen, whereas the 
same amount of vegetable food contains only 2 to 5 per cent.) 
The same rule holds good regarding the effect of drink on the 
solids; for, just as the amount of solids taken into the stomach 
influences the quantity of water eliminated by the kidneys, so 
the amount of water taken into the stomach augments the 
amount of solids excreted by the kidneys in the twenty-four 
hours. This may be caused partly by the excess of water in 
the circulation accelerating to some extent the metamorphosis 
of the tissues, and partly, no doubt, by the fact that by in- 
creasing the quantity of fluid in the intestines more food is 
dissolved, and consequently more solid matter is absorbed 26 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
into the circulation, the excess of which, beyond the require- 
ments of the system, is excreted by the kidneys. 
3rd. Influence of the Cutaneous and Pulmonary Exhala- 
tions.—The more rapid the pulmonary and cutaneous exhala- 
tions, the less the amount of urine excreted. Hence, we invari- 
ably observe that, after much exercise, the urine is scanty, dark- 
colored, and of high specific gravity. It is sometimes, indeed, 
so concentrated, after profuse perspiration, that it irritates the 
urethra. Normal sweat contains uric acid, urea, phosphates, 
and chlorides; and in disease even the insoluble oxalate of 
lime may be excreted in the perspiration in su£h quantity as 
to cover the skin with a white crystalline crust. Cutaneous 
exhalation may, therefore, for a time replace the renal func- 
tion. The influence of the pulmonary exhalation is nearly of 
equal importance. Much more urine is passed in winter than 
in summer; on a cold and damp day than on a warm and 
dry one. Expired air has been found to contain chloride of 
sodium, urate of soda, urea, and urate of ammonium. 
4th. The quantity of urine passed also depends, to a great 
extent, upon the time it is retained in the bladder. If de- 
tained in the bladder, the water, and even many of the solids, 
may be reabsorbed into the circulation. 
5 th. Influence of the Stools.—The greater the quantity of 
liquid passed from the bowels, the less is ejected from the 
bladder; so that, in cases of diarrhoea and dysentery, patients 
void much less urine than in a state of health. 
6th. Influence of Sex and Age.—As a rule, males pass more 
urine than females (men 35-64, women 26-45 fluid ounces). 
Children, for their size, pass proportionally more water than 
adults. As age advances, the absolute, as well as relative 
proportion of urine, diminishes. The amount of water passed 
by the kidneys appears, therefore, to be proportional to the 
metamorphosis of the tissues HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
27 
7th. The Influence of Disease and Remedies.—Disease 
greatly affects the quantity of the urine; in some few it is 
increased, as, for example, in polydipsia and diabetes; also in 
the middle stages of atrophic degeneration of the kidneys. 
Temporary excess occurs after hysterical paroxysms and 
certain other convulsive attacks in both males and females. 
Any increase of tension in the arterial system, as in some cases 
of hypertrophy of the left ventricle of the heart, gives rise to 
an increased secretion of the urine. Remedies have also a 
powerful effect on the amount of urine excreted by the 
kidneys. Diuretics, such as, for example, spiritus setheris 
nitrosi, increase it; while others have just the contrary effect. 
Mineral substances—such as iron and copper—lessen the 
quantity of tire urine, while cantharides and arsenic almost 
totally arrest its secretion. 
The urine is always scanty in cirrhosis of the liver; in some 
forms of Bright’s disease through their entire course, and in 
the last stages of all forms; in any condition of the heart 
which directly or indirectly causes passive congestion of the 
renal veins, whereby the circulation through the kidneys is 
impeded. It is very scanty, sometimes approaching or reach- 
ing total suppression in the early stages of acute Bright’s 
disease. In the scarlatinal form of nephritis, and in yellow 
fever, the urine is frequently suppressed for twenty or thirty- 
six hours. All types of violent fever and inflammation are 
liable to be complicated with suppression of the urine. The 
same may be said of the collapse period of cholera. Partial 
or total suppression also occurs in the later stages of all or- 
ganic diseases of the kidneys; and when any mechanical ob- 
stacle obstructs the flow of the urine. It has followed 
catheterism, even in old cases of stricture, when instruments 
had been repeatedly used before without any ill effects. 
Bth. Influence of Sleep.—The mean hourly discharge of 28 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
solid urine during the waking hours is about 33'14 grains, 
while the average of the hours of sleep is about i5'33 grains, 
or less than one-half. 
From what has been said before, and owing to the fact 
that there are three kinds of urine passed during the twenty- 
four hours—the urina sanguinis (morning), the urina potus 
(after drinking), and the urina cibi (of digestion)—and that 
these differ in specific gravity, owing to the variable amounts 
of solids they contain; and in reaction, it is easy to see the 
absolute necessity of collecting all the urine discharged by the 
patient during twenty-four hours, and analyzing a sample 
taken from the whole amount. In all cases where it is desired 
to make a quantitative analysis, we must be aware of the ab- 
solute quantity. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
29 
CHAPTER 11. 
ABNORMAL SUBSTANCES IN THE URINE ; ALBUMEN, SUGAR, 
EXTRACTIVES, BILE. 
Albuminuria. 
Albumen—C2l6 High N27 S3 O®. 
Albumen is not found in any proportion in healthy urine, 
but is the most common and the most important of the 
abnormal ingredients found in the urine in disease, especially 
in diseases of the kidneys. Its presence in the urine is due, 
however, to so many conditions, that the mere fact of its 
presence yields little direct information; but when correctly in- 
terpreted, it furnishes a key to several grave pathological states, 
which would otherwise remain in great obscurity. Albumen 
may be present only as incidental to the presence of some other 
fluid in the urine, such as Mood, pus, leucorrhcml discharge, or 
spermatic fluid. The following conditions, among others, may 
give rise to its slight and temporary presence in the urine, 
the excessive use of a diet chiefly or exclusively albuminous 
(eggs), and dyspepsia. Setting aside unimportant exceptions, 
albuminuria must always be looked upon as a grave symp- 
tom of disease; and when discovered, its signification be- 
comes an anxious question to the practitioner. The patho- 
logical states in which albumen appears constantly or occa- 
sionally in the urine, may be arranged into the following 
groups: HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
i. Acute and chronic Bright’s disease of the kidneys; 
structural changes. 
3. Febrile and inflammatory diseases (zymotic diseases, 
such as scarlet fever, measles, small-pox, typhoid, cholera, 
yellow fever, ague, diphtheria, etc.; inflammatory diseases, 
such as pneumonia, peritonitis, traumatic fever, articular 
rheumatism, etc.) 
2. Pregnancy and the puerperal state. 
4. Impediments to the circulation of the blood (emphy- 
sema, heart disease, abdominal tumours, cirrhosis, etc.) 
5. A hydraemic and dissolved state of the blood, with atony 
of the tissues, (purpura, scurvy, pyaemia, hospital gangrene); 
also in hasmaturia. 
6. Saturnine, arseniuretted hydrogen, and carbonic dioxide 
poisoning. 
When albumen is found in the urine, the important point to 
decide is, whether it indicates the existence of organic disease 
of the kidneys or not. This cannot be positively done without 
the aid of the microscope. The greater the quantity of albu- 
men, the more likely is the existence of renal diseases. Of 
all urines, a pale, dilute, abundant albuminous urine is the most 
surely indicative of Bright’s disease. Contrariwise, as a rule, 
with very few exceptions, a slightly albuminous, and at the 
same time dense and high-colored urine, is more indicative of 
pyrexia, or some impediment to the circulation of the blood, 
than of Bright’s disease. When the urine is found perma- 
nently albuminous, and there exists neither pyrexia nor 
thoracic diseases, or other recognizable condition which can 
account for the albumen, the inference is almost irresistible 
that there exists a primary organic renal disease. If, in addi- 
tion to this, there be a very abundant deposit, containing 
casts and much renal epithelium, or numerous casts and cells 
in a state of fatty degeneration, the proof is almost positive. HANDBOOK. OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
The least indicative of primary renal diseases of serious im- 
port are blood-casts, and very small transparent casts in scanty 
numbers. The search for renal casts must always follow the 
detection of albumen in the urine. A low specific gravity aids 
in distinguishing the albuminuria consequent upon structural 
changes in the kidneys from the numerous other forms of albu- 
minuria, since in what is commonly called Bright’s disease the 
specific gravity ranges between ioos°and 1014°, the usual aver- 
agebeing 1010° and ioi2°. In the other forms of albuminuria 
the specific gravity has no limit, ranging from 1005° to 1035°, 
The reason for the low specific gravity of Bright’s disease is 
that the disorganized renal tubes are incapable of eliminating 
the urea and other urinary crystalloids. The lower, therefore, 
the specific gravity in these affections, the more dangerous 
is the case. 
Sugar. 
Sugar (C6H12 O6) +H2O in the Urine. (Glycosuria; dia- 
betes mellitus). 
Whatever may be said as to the existence or non-existence 
of sugar in healthy urine, it seems to be certainly established 
that normal urines, and the vast majority of morbid urines, 
do not contain sugar in sufficient quantity to be detected by 
the most delicate direct testing; that when sugar is present 
in sufficient quantity to be of clinical importance, it can be 
detected with certainty by direct testing; and, lastly, when 
such direct testing reveals the constant presence of sugar, it is 
invariably a grave pathological sign. Small quantities of 
sugar may appear in the urine for very short periods, being a 
temporary and incidental consequence of some physiological 
or pathological antecedent, such as, for example, the eating 
of an excessive quantity of saccharine or amylaceous food; 32 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
after the administration of chloroform, ether, chloral, turpen- 
tine, nitro-benzole, nitrite of amyl, etc.; during recovery from 
cholera; after a paroxysm of whooping-cough, asthma, or 
epilepsy. These are cases of incidental glycosuria. Glyco- 
suria has been found to follow upon injury of the head, with 
or without fracture of the skull; clot in the pons varolii; 
softening of the base of the brain; abscess and tumours of 
the cerebellum; bony spicuke in the falx; disease of the 
sympathetic nerve; tumour of the pneumogastric nerve; ex- 
cessive brain work; intense grief; sudden mental shock; 
spontaneous gangrene; blow in the epigastrium; pregnancy ; 
uterine disease; anthrax; disordered digestion; exposure to 
cold; hereditary influence, etc. In fact, the presence of 
sugar in the urine, like the discoloration of the skin in 
jaundice, is not of itself the disease, but merely the most 
prominent sign of several widely-differing abnormal condi- 
tions. In the other class of cases, the glycosuria is a more 
intense, permanent, uninterrupted symptom, and is associated 
with a serious departure from health. The term diabetes is 
applicable alone to this latter class, and it is only in true dia- 
betes that sugar occurs in large quantities. Moreover, the 
excess of water in diabetes is enormous. Since, however, as 
has just been stated, the urine may become temporarily sac- 
charine under certain conditions, quite apart from genuine 
diabetes, care must be exercised not to conclude too rashly 
from the mere finding of a little sugar in the urine that this 
formidable disease exists. In addition to the presence of a 
considerable quantity of sugar in the urine, it must be ascer- 
tained, by oft-repeated examinations, that its appearance is 
persistent and uninterrupted, and that there is a less or greater 
increase in the volume of the urine. 
Microscopical Appearance.—Crystals of diabetic sugar may be 
prepared, by simply evaporating a few drops of diabetic HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
33 
urine to dryness on a glass slide, provided the urine is very 
rich in sugar, and contains but little urea and other salts. 
Fig. 2 represents crystals of grape sugar, obtained by the 
Pig. 2.—SEPARATE CRYSTALS OF DIABETIC SUGAR X 130. (Beale.) 
above-mentioned process. The most characteristic form of 
the crystals is that of the rhomboidal prism, occasionally ar- 
ranged in arborescent tufts. They form very beautiful objects 
when examined by polarized light. The sugar may also 
crystallize in warty concrements that consist of cauliflower 
leaflets. 
Extractive Matters. 
The presence in the urine of the blood-extractives, indicates 
merely the escape of blood material, and proves the exist- 
ence of congestion or inflammation of some part of the 
urinary surfaces. In Bright’s disease, according to Rees, the 
extractives can be found in the urine before albumen is met 
with, and also that they exist after the albumen has disap- 
peared : thus on the one hand warning us of the approach of 34 
HANDBOOK Of URINARY ANALYSIS. 
albuminuria, and, on the other, against too early a belief .ft 
convalescence; for, as he justly observes, so long as the blood 
is losing its extractives, so long is the patient in peril. The 
presence of the extractives also enables us to diagnosticate 
nephritic irritation from renal calculus before albumen, blood, 
or pus has appeared. It is highly probable that extractives 
will be found preceding albumen in urine in most cases 
(Da Costa). Healthy urine is scarcely affected by tincture of 
galls, but the tincture of galls immediately precipitate the 
blood extractives. This precipitate must not be confounded 
with that of the earthy and potassium salts, which are thrown 
down from all kinds of urine after the lapse of five or ten minutes, 
by the spirit contained in the tincture. Should albumen be 
present, it must be separated by boiling and filtration before 
applying the test. 
Bile in the Urine 
The bright golden-red color of normal human bile is due 
to the presence of bilirubin (C16 HlB N2 O3). It occurs some- 
times abundantly in the urine of jaundiced persons. It im- 
parts to the urine a dark-brown or greenish-yellow color. All 
the constituents of the bile may appear in the urine, or only 
the pigment, without the acids or their salts. The more per- 
manent and marked occurrence of the bile pigment in the 
urine is always attended with jaundice, but it is sometimes 
found transiently, and in small quantities, without yellowness 
of the skin. It may. be detected both before and after the 
discoloration of the skin. The biliary acids are not of ne- 
cessity present in the urine of icterus. Nor is the cause of 
their presence clearly understood. Probably so great a quan- 
tity of them is produced that they cannot undergo the normal 
changes in the blood, and are therefore met with in the urine. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
35 
CHAPTER 111. 
URINARY DEPOSITS, PRODUCED BY CHANGES IN THE URINE 
ON KEEPING; EXTRANEOUS SUBSTANCES FOUND IN THE 
URINE; DIVISION; DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF UNORGAN- 
IZED URINARY DEPOSITS; UREA (NITRATE AND OXALATE); 
URIC ACID ; HIPPURIC ACID ; AMORPHOUS URATES ; SODIUM 
URATE (CRYSTALLINE) ; AMMONIUM URATE (CRYSTALLINE) ; 
OXALATE OF LIME ; CALCIUM PHOSPHATE (AMORPHOUS AND 
CRYSTALLINE); AMMONIO-MAGNESIUM (or triple) PHOS- 
PHATE ; LEUCIN AND TYROSIN ; CYSTIN ; XANTHIN. 
Urinary Deposits. 
Preliminary Remarks.—The terms urinary sediment and 
urinary deposit are given to the various substances precipi- 
tated from the urine, in which they are held either in solution 
or suspension, when this liquid is kept at rest for a longer or 
shorter time. 
Healthy acid urine, when freshly passed, shows no sedi- 
ment, except the very light scanty flocculent deposit of mucus 
described on p. 72. Under a variety of abnormal circum- 
stances more abundant sediments make their appearance in 
the urine. A knowledge of these circumstances is highly im- 
portant, and prevents erroneous conclusions. 
Change in Reaction.—Healthy urine exposed to the air 
undergoes a regular series of spontaneous changes. The first 36 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS, 
is a progressive increase of the acid reaction (called by 
Scherer acid urinary fermentation). As a consequence of this, 
there appears usually, first, a precipitation of the amorphous 
urates, then of uric acid, often associated with oxalate of lime, 
and spores of the torula cerevisice (yeast fungus), or of peni- 
cilium glaucum (mould fungus). The acidity goes on steadily 
increasing for 4 or 5 days (sometimes longer), and afterwards 
Showing crystals of ammonio-magnesian phosphate, amorphous phos- 
phate of lime, and spheres of urate of ammonium. (Roberts.) 
Fig. 3.—THE NORMAL DEPOSIT FROM AMMONIACAL URINE 
begins to decline as the urine passes into a state of decompo- 
sition. It then becomes turbid or opaque, from the develop- 
ment of myriads of minute linear particles (bacteria, vibrios). 
The alkaline fermentation has now set in. The urea becomes 
converted into ammonium carbonate, which gives a highly 
alkaline reaction to the urine, and a change takes place in the 
character of the sediment. The amorphous xirate becomes 
changed into dark round masses of ammonium urate (which 37 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
is the only urate that can exist in alkaline urine). The uric 
acid crystals give place to bright prisms of triple phosphate 
and an abundant sediment of amorphous calcium phosphate 
sinks to the bottom of the vessel. The confervoid vegeta- 
tions cease to grow with the change of reaction, and finally 
perish as the secretion becomes putrid. The student is ad- 
vised to practice upon specimens of his own urine, which are 
allowed to go through the various stages alluded to above. 
Urines of low specific gravity, or of feeble acidity, either do 
not pass through this series of changes at all, or do so in a 
very imperfect manner. Their acidity undergoes no appre- 
ciable increase, and in a day or two, or in even a few hours, 
especially in the summer, they become ammoniacal. This 
transformation is brought about with great rapidity by contact 
with any decomposing organic matter, especially by contact 
with decomposed urine. 
The physical and chemical characters of the urine have now 
become so altered by these changes that it is unfit for clinical 
examination, and should invariably be rejected, except in cases 
where the transformation takes place withm the urinary pas- 
sages., and a more natural specimen is therefore not procur- 
able. In consequence of these changes, it is desirable to ex- 
amine the urine within as short a time after its emission as 
possible, certainly withm a few hours. Certain organic de- 
posits are liable to be greatly altered, or altogether destroyed, 
by an exposure of 12 to 24 hours, even when the more ob- 
vious characters have not undergone a perceptible change. 
Blood corpuscles, renal epithelium, and casts, soon putrefy 
and are rapidly disintegrated. Pus, pavement epithelium, 
and spermatozoids resist much longer without efifacement of 
their microscopical characters; and the last may generally be 
recognized without difficulty in urine far advanced in putre- 
faction. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
The following are some of the most important of the extra- 
neous matters likely to fall under the observer’s notice when 
the urine is examined microscopically: Human hair, cat’s 
hair, worsted, wool, cotton and flax fibres, splinters of wood, 
portions of feathers, scales of the moth, fibres of silk, milk, oily 
matter, potato, wheat, and rice starch, tea leaves, bread crumbs, 
chalk and sand. In several cases of vesico-rectal fistula the 
author has met with the debris of the food in the urine. 
These and other bodies may fall into into the urine acci- 
dentally; they may come from filthy receiving vessels, or 
they may have been put into the urine for the express purpose 
of deceiving the practitioner. The importance of recogniz- 
ing them is obvious, and decided advantage will be derived 
from subjecting many of these substances to microscopical 
examination, so that when met with in the urine their nature 
may be at once recognized. Some of them will be found 
represented in Figure 4. 
Extraneous Substances Found in the Urine. 
Having now glanced at the causation of a large proportion 
of urinary deposits, a detailed consideration of them follows 
in order. 
Urea. 
Urea (NH2)2CO). 
Urea is the chief constituent of normal urine. When pure 
it crystallizes from a concentrated solution in the form of long, 
thin, four-sided, glittering needles, or prisms, which are 
colorless and odorless. Owing to its exceeding solubility in 
water (being, in fact, deliquescent), it never occurs as a spon- 
taneous urinary deposit. It possesses a bitter cooling taste. 
When heated to above 120° C., the crystals first liquefy, then 
burn, giving off ammonia, and leave no residue. Heated handbook Of urinary analysis. 
39 
Fig. 4.—EXTRANEOUS MATTERS FOUND IN URINE. 
a- Cotton fibres. b. Flax fibres. c. Hairs. d. Air bubbles. 
e. Oil globules. f- Wheat starch. </. Pot ato starch. h. Rice 
starch granules. i, i, i. Vegetable tissue. k. Muscular fibres. 
I. Feathers. 40 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS, 
with strong acids or alkalies, decomposition ensues, the final 
products being carbonic dioxide (CO2) and ammonia. The 
same decomposition also occurs in the urine as the result of 
the action of a specific ferment. Nitrous acid at once decom- 
poses it into carbonic dioxide (C 02) and free nitrogen. It 
readily forms compounds with acids and bases. Two of the 
most important of these are the following; 
Nitrate of Urea (N H2) 2C O. H N 03).—This salt is formed 
when nitric acid is added to the concentrated urine, or urine 
containing an excess of urea. The crystals may be seen with 
the naked eye. Under the microscope nitrate of urea usually 
appears as beautiful, sparkling, six-sided crystalline lamellae, 
more or less developed, lying upon each other like shingles. 
Obtained by adding nitric acid in moderate quantity to slightly concen- 
trated urine in a test-tube, and allow it to crystallize slowly. Xl3O. 
(Beale.) 
Fig. S.—NITRATE OF UREA. 
The character of the crystals varies slightly with the amount 
of acid added, the degree of concentration of the urine, and 
the slowness or rapidity of the process of crystallization. Handbook, of urinary analysis. 
When slowly crystallized, nitrate of urea forms fine prisms. 
In albuminuria they may take the form of brush-shaped 
needles. 
Oxalate of Urea (N H2) 2C 0)2. H2 C 2 02 +H2 O.—lf, in- 
stead of nitric acid, a concentrated solution of oxalic acid be 
added to the concentrated urine, numerous crystals of the 
oxalate of urea will be formed. It, like the nitrate, crystallizes 
in rhomboidal or hexagonal plates and prisms (Fig. 6), some- 
Fig. 6.—OXALATE OP UEEA. 
Obtained by adding oxalic acid to concentrated urine. X 215. 
times separate, sometimes adhering together in groups. The 
crystals are more perfectly formed than those of the nitrate, 
and the inclination of the angles is different. 
In addition to the microscopic appearances of urea crystals 
(obtained on evaporating the urine), both the nitrate and 
oxalate should be formed and examined. 
From a physiological and clinical point of view, urea 
must be regarded as the most important constituent of 
the urine, since it is the most constant and occurs in 
the greatest amount. Its source seems to be two-fold; 
firstly, from the disintegration of the tissues, and, secondly, 
from the excess of nitrogenized food absorbed into the 
circulation. The average amount excreted daily by a 
healthy adult man has been estimated to be at the rate of 42 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
ZYA grains per pound of the weight of his body, or about 385 
to 500 grains in the 24 hours (30 +4O grammes). But the 
amount varies considerably from various causes, such as age, 
sex, diet, exercise, disease, remedies, and individual peculiari- 
ties. Before the age of fifteen or eighteen years, the amount 
of urea (and other solid matters) excreted by the kidneys, in 
proportion to the weight of the body, is much greater than in 
the adult. In women the normal excretion is generally less 
than in men. It has been ascertained that a purely animal 
diet will increase the amount of the urea fully 2-sths ; a vege- 
table diet will diminish it yi; and a non-nitrogenized diet 
will reduce it more than y2. Because it is formed by the 
system in greater quantity, and accumulates in the blood 
more rapidly than any other of the urinary constituents, when 
its elimination by the kidneys is interrupted, and because it is 
a powerful irritant poison, rapidly inducing convulsions, 
coma and death, it can be readily understood hew exceed- 
ingly important it is to estimate the quantity of urea elimin- 
ated in certain diseases. Urea is not the only, but the most 
important, measure of tissue change. Moreover, as the pro- 
duction of urea is profoundly affected by the quality of food 
taken, it sometimes becomes a matter of prime importance to 
reduce its production by regulating the diet. If we wish to 
diminish the urea by means of diet, it will be necessary to 
administer arrowroot, sago, tapioca, and other such amy- 
laceous foods, well sweetened with sugar; and when a more 
nourishing diet than this is demanded, cream, cod-liver oil, or 
any other fatty matters will have an equally good effect in re- 
ducing the amount of urea. On the other hand, when it is 
deemed advisable to increase it, animal soups, eggs, milk, 
jellies, and other nitrogenized substances, together with a fair 
portion of common salt, and coffee without sugar, will answer 
the purpose. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
43 
The amount of urea formed is increased by nitrogenized 
food, by copious water drinking, and common salt, cubebs, 
cantharides, atropine; in all febrile affections (except yellow 
fever, in which it is diminished); the exanthemata; inflam- 
matory affections, such as, for example, pneumonia and menin- 
gitis ; epilepsy; and markedly in diabetes, both saccharine 
and insipid. 
It is deaeased by non-nitrogenized food—tea, coffee, sugar, 
starch, fat; citrate of iron and quinine (Harley); digitalis, 
colchicum, acetate and phosphate of soda; in paralysis, 
cholera, Bright’s disease, and before the paroxysms of gout 
and asthma. 
There are several quantitative tests for urea; Liebig’s, Davy’s 
and others. We shall give only one; namely, the simple but 
accurate process, recently introduced by Drs. Russell and 
West, and adopted by Roberts and others. In this test, as 
in all the others, it is necessary to ascertain first the presence 
of albumen, and if it be present, to separate it by the following 
method: A measured quantity of urine, 100 or 200 c.c., is 
heated in a Berlin dish, the bottom of which is protected by 
a piece of iron wire gauze, over a small naked flame, to nearly 
the boiling point. If the albumen do not separate in flakes, 
dilute acetic acid is very carefully added until the acid reac- 
tion be marked. If too much acetic acid be added, part of 
the albumen may be redissolved. The heat must be moder- 
ate, and only just rise to the boiling point, or the urea will be 
decomposed. The urine, after cooling, is then to be filtered 
into the same measure that was used at the beginning to 
ascertain the volume (100 or 200 c.c.), the dish and filter 
washed with small quantities of distilled water, which are 
added to the filtrate, until the urine stands at exactly 100 or 
200 c.c., according to the initial quantity. This fluid is then 44 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
ready to be used in the estimation of the urea (chlorides/ 
phosphates, sugar, etc.) 
If the urine be free from albumen, the following method 
may be used without the above preparation of the urine. It 
is based upon the fact that when urea is acted on by an alka- 
line hypobromite, nitrogen is given off, and this nitrogen, 
when collected and measured, gives an estimation of the urea 
decomposed. 
The hypobromite solution used in this process is made by 
dissolving 100 grammes of common solid caustic soda in 
250 c.c. of water and then gradually adding 25 c.c. of 
bromine. The solution may be had of any manufacturing 
chemist, but it must be quite freshly prepared. The ap- 
paratus necessary is figured in the adjoining woodcut (Fig. 7). 
It consists of the tube, a, which is about 9 inches long, nar- 
rowed somewhat before the closed end be reached, which end 
is blown out into a bulb, b. The free end is fitted by means 
of an india-rubber cork into the hole, G, at the bottom of the 
trough, cd, which stands on three legs. When an estimation 
is to be made, 5 c.c. of urine are measured off with a pipette, 
and allowed to run down the side of the tube, A, into the 
bulb, b. Distilled water is then added by means of a wash- 
bottle, to wash away the urine adhering to the sides of the 
tube, but in quantity enough only to fill up the bulb as high 
as the constriction, or a very little above it. A glass rod 
tipped with India rubber is then introduced into the tube, A, 
so that the india rubber fills up the constriction and acts as a 
cork. Care must be taken that no air-bubbles are present 
below the constriction. The hypobromite solution is then 
poured into the tube until it be quite full, and the trough 
filled with common water. The graduated tube, f, is then 
filled with water, the thfimb slipped over it, so that it contains 
no air-bubbles, and then inverted in the trough. The glass HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
45 
rod tipped with india rubber is withdrawn, and the graduated 
tube, f, immediately slipped over the mouth of the tube, a. 
The mouth of this should project well up into the tube, f, so 
as to prevent the escape of any of the gas. The reaction 
Pig. 7.—APPARATUS FOR THE QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF UREA.* 
begins immediately, but in order to bring it to an end as 
quickly as possible, the bulb should be heated by a spirit 
lamp or Bunsen’s burner till the bulb be hot to the hand. In 
five minutes the amount of gas may be read off. After some 
hours the gas is lessened in quantity; it is thus important to 
read it off as soon as the reaction is over. The amount of 
gas measured by the divisions on the tube gives the percentage 
of the urea in the specimen of urine examined. 
The estimation of the total amount of urea excreted in the 
*Tlie description and cut of the apparatus for the estimation of urea 
are taken from Dr. Wickham Legg’s excellent little work on the urine. 46 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
24 hours is now easy. All that is to be done is to multiply 
the total number of cubic centimetres of urine passed by the 
figures read off on the measured tube. Thus, if the amount 
of urine passed in the twenty-four hours be 1770 c.c., and the 
percentage of the urine i-8, it is only necessary to multiply 
1770 by 1-8 to get the amount of urea in milligrammes. 
This will be 31,860 milligrammes; and since 1000 milli- 
grammes equal one gramme, the total amount of urea passed 
will be 31-86 grammes. 
If the urine contain more than 2 per cent, of urea, the urine 
must be diluted with an equal bulk of distilled water, and the 
results doubled. 
This method seems likely to be of great value in clinical 
reasearch, as it may readily be used in the wards of a hospital. 
Uric Acid. 
Uric Acid.—Q, H4 N4 03. 
Uric acid seldom, if ever, exists in a free state in normal 
urine; its presence, therefore, in freshly-voided urine in an 
uncombined state, must be regarded as a pathological condi- 
tion. It occurs sparingly in normal human urine. The 
quantity excreted daily by a healthy man ranges from 5 to 15 
grains, average 6to 9 grains. It is, however, the chief con- 
stituent of the urine of carnivora, and of the excrement of 
birds, reptiles, and insects. Like urea, its source appears to 
be two-fold; first, from the disintegration of the nitrogenized 
constituents of the body; and, secondly, from the transforma- 
tion of the excess of albuminoid food. By some it is con- 
sidered as a less oxidized stage of urea. Whatever accelerates 
oxidation increases the amount of urea eliminated, and di- 
minishes that of the uric acid ; while whatever retards oxida- 
tion decreases the urea and increases the uric acid. Usually, HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
47 
however, urea and uric acid increase and diminish together. 
Uric acid is increased in all fevers (yellow fever excepted), 
exanthematous alfections, acute inflammatory diseases, par- 
ticularly in hepatic, cardiac, and splenic; also in skin diseases, 
such as eczema; in leucocythsemia, and after the paroxysm of 
gout. In acute rheumatism the little red granules visible to 
the naked eye form a deposit in the urine soon after it is 
voided. Port wine and beer increase the amount. Nearly 
double the quantity is excreted in winter than in summer. It 
is diminished in yellow and remittent fevers; in diabetes; 
frequently in albuminuria; in cholera, anaemia, chlorosis, hys- 
teria, and before and during the paroxysm of gout. Tea, 
coffee, atropine, colchicum, quinine, acetate of potash, and 
cod-liver oil are all said, to diminish it. 
Clinical Significance of Uric Acid.—This has to do not so 
much with the variations of its quantity, whether absolute or 
relative, as with its precipitation in the free state, and the time 
and place of that precipitation. A deposit of uric acid occur- 
ring 12 or 20 hours after emission has no pathological signifi- 
cance, for healthy urine usually deposits uric acid as a normal 
event, in the course of the acid urinary fermentation. If the 
deposit takes place within q, or 4 hours after emission, it cer- 
tainly is unnatural; but it does not require special therapeu- 
tical attention. If, however, uric acid be precipitated before 
the urine cools, or immediately after it, it shows that the same 
event may occur within some part of the urinary renal tract, 
and thus give rise to the formation of gravel and stone, with 
all their painful and dangerous consequences. Again, the 
presence of free uric acid is no proof that it is being excreted 
in excess; the only inference that can be made from this fact 
is that the urine is extremely acid. 
(We may remark here, in general, that any deposit occur- 
ring within twelve hours after its discharge is always a sign of 48 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
something wrong, and although, as we have seen, it may 
occur from comparatively trivial causes, whenever it does take 
place without an appreciable cause, in the otherwise appa- 
rently healthy excretion, it is a sign not to be disregarded, 
since under such circumstances it is not unfrequently either 
the forerunner or associate of gravel or stone. Uric acid 
either alone or combined with a base, is the commonest in- 
gredient of all renal and vesical calculi [hence the term lithic 
acid], and of those concretions deposited in the joints in 
gouty diseases. No period of life is exempt from calculi. 
Infants have been born with stone in the bladder.) 
The union of uric acid with the bases is very feeble. If 
from any cause, therefore, the urine become excessively acid 
after its emission, a deposit of uric , acid is liable to occur. 
The addition of a very small quantity of almost any acid is 
sufficient to decompose the urates, when the uric acid appears, 
after a few hours, in a crystalline form. 
As a urinary sediment, uric acid is always impure, and the 
crystals possess a yellowish or brownish color. This is due to 
the fact that in crystallizing the uric acid takes up a part of 
the coloring matter of the urine, just as sugar—a white sub- 
stance—when crystallized in a solution of carmine, yields red 
crystals. This is an important fact to keep in mind, for the 
majority of crystalline substances met with in the urine are 
perfectly colorless, even when crystallized in highly-colored 
urine; hence this proneness on the part of uric acid crystals 
(and of the urates) to take up the coloring matter of the urine 
is a great aid in readily distinguishing them from other sub- 
stances. The higher the color of the urine, the deeper will 
be the color of the crystals; the paler the urine, the lighter 
the crystals. In abnormal urines, containing blue, black, or 
saffron-colored pigment, the uric acid crystals will be blue, 
black, or yellow. Chemically pure uric acid is a light, white HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
crystalline powder, tasteless and odorless; nearly insoluble in 
cold water, alcohol and ether; soluble in alkalies and many 
alkaline salts. 
Microscopic Characters.—The primary or typical forms of 
uric acid are a four-sided rhomb and a six-sided plate, and 
to some modification of these figures the protean diversities 
of uric acid crystals may all be referred. The crystals com- 
Fig. B.—COMMON FORMS OF URIC ACID. 
monly seen are well marked diamond-shaped plates, rounded 
lozenges, ovoids, oblongs, squares, comb and barrel-like 
shapes, cubes, six-sided tablets, rod-stars, spikes, and fan 
shapes (Fig. 8). Rarer forms, halbert, dumb-bell (Fig. 9). 
The dumb-bell form may be compared to a bundle of hay 
constricted at its middle. The most curious and varied 
forms are generally found in albuminous urine, frequently 
crystallizing around tube-casts and masses of epithelium. 
Sometimes they appear in the form of rows, as if they had 
been deposited in one of the tubuli uriniferi, which is not at 
all improbable. The various crystalline forms of uric acid are 
not always found in a given specimen of urine. A point to 
remember is that, with some very rare exceptions, uric acid 
crystals are almost invariably colored, yellow, red or brown. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
varying from the palest fawn (sand) to the deepest amber, or 
orange-red (cayenne pepper), and this aids greatly in distin- 
guishing them from other deposits. They may exist singly, 
but are very commonly aggregated into rosettes. The more 
transparent plates polarize light beautifully, and exhibit the 
most splendid colors if a piece of selenite be placed beneath 
the slide containing them. Whenever any difficulty arises 
regarding the chemical nature of a crystal, from its having 
Fig. 9.—BARE FORMS OF URIC ACID, 
assumed an unusual form, add to it a drop of caustic potash, 
and, after the crystal has become dissolved, neutralize the 
solution with an excess of acetic acid, and most probably the 
uric acid will recrystallize in one of its more characteristic 
or typical forms, but in small colorless crystals. From urine 
acidulated with hydrochloric acid, large square crystals with 
two opposite sides smooth and two jagged (the so-called 
“ fine-toothed comb ” crystals), are generally deposited. The 
form of the crystal is much affected by the strength of the acid 
which is added; the weaker the acid the more regular the 
crystals. 
Artificial Production for the Purpose of Study.—Add 
about a drachm of acetic or hydrochloric acid to a pint of 
urine, and let it stand from 12 to 24 hours. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
51 
Amorphous Urates. 
{Syn. Brick-dust, lateritious deposit.) 
We have seen that, although always present in normal 
urine, uric acid is rarely spontaneously deposited from it 171 a 
free state, owing to the fact that all the uric acid in normal 
urine is combined with alkaline bases (soda, potash, ammonia, 
lime, and magnesia) in the form of very soluble salts. Now, 
whenever, from any cause, these are in excess, or the water 
of the urine has been diminished in quantity, they may be de- 
posited in an amorphous state. This deposit is the most 
common and least important of all the urinary sediments. 
The amorphous urates have not a fixed and constant compo- 
sition, but vary considerably in different samples. Sometimes 
one base and sometimes another predominates. The urates 
of sodium and the urates of ammonium generally exist in 
largest quantity; the urates of potassium, lime, and mag- 
nesium existing only in minute traces. A conjunction of the 
following conditions usually determines the precipitation of 
the amorphous urates, even in healthy persons: A high 
density (1027°), low temperature, and an acid reaction; and 
the more acid the urine the more liable is the occurrence of 
this deposit. A drop of acetic or nitric acid will often cause 
an immediate precipitation of the amorphous urates from a 
previously clear urine; and when the urine becomes sedimen- 
tary after twelve or twenty-four hours, this is due to the in- 
creased acidity produced by the acid urinary fermentation. 
Physiologically, a fawn or brownish-colored urate deposit 
may be expected after profuse sweating, watery evacuations at 
stool, violent exercise, prolonged abstinence from food and 
drink, and in cold weather on getting out of bed. Urine con- 
taining an excess of urates is never turbid when freshly passed ; 
it is only when the urine has cooled that the peculiar muddi- 52 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
ness is observed. Change of diet, abnormal fatigue, and any 
nervous shock will also suffice to determine a temporary de- 
posit of this kind. 
Pathologically, the commonest determining cause of the pre- 
cipitation of the amorphous urates is the febrile state; even a 
slight degree of pyrexia, as in a common “ cold,” is usually 
accompanied by a urate deposit. Functional digestive de- 
rangements are generally attended by pale urate deposits in 
the urine. In young children the milky urine, which alarms 
mothers, is due to a deposit of peculiarly white urates. The 
frequent or constant occurrence of a brownish or red deposit, 
with or without pyrexia, should awaken suspicion of some 
serious organic disease; such as disease of the lungs, heart, 
liver, spleen, or any other part, attended with emaciation and 
waste of the tissues, is usually accompanied with a deep- 
colored abundant urate deposit. 
The urates generally have a pale fawn-color, but it may vary 
from snow-white, through every tint, to brick-red, pink, or pur- 
ple. Dr. Bird remarks, that in the white, fawn, or brick-red 
deposit there is a deficient state of the cutaneous functions; 
whilst in the pink, crimson, or purple variety there is more or 
less evidence of functional or organic derangement of the liver, 
spleen, or other organs influenced by the portal circulation. 
Microscopic Appearance.—Under the microscope the amor- 
phous urates are seen as irregular particles or granular powder. 
They may be mistaken for phosphate of calcium. The dif- 
ferential test is their behavior with acids; the phosphate is 
dissolved by acetic or hydrochloric acid; the urates are 
gradually transformed into crystals of uric acid. From car- 
bonate of lime, which also occurs in a granular form, both the 
amorphous urates and the calcium phosphate may be dis- 
tinguished by the effervescence of the carbonic acid, which 
occurs when a strong acid is added to a carbonate. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Crystalline Urates. 
Urate of sodium and urate of ammonium are sometimes 
deposited separately in urine in the crystalline form, and under 
circumstances wholly different from those which determine 
the precipitation of amorphous urates. 
Urate of Sodium, though generally amorphous, occasionally 
takes a crystalline form. This substance is a constituent of 
gouty concretions, (so-called chalky deposits). It is a com- 
paratively rare spontaneous deposit in the urine. It occurs, 
occasionally, in gout, and in the febrile state, especially of 
infants and children, when the urine is excessively scanty, 
concentrated, and long detained in the bladder. It derives 
its chief clinical importance from the fact that it is precipitated 
within the urinary renal passages. The spiny crystals irritate 
the mucus membrane of the bladder and urethra, and the 
Fig. 10.—HEDGE-HOG CRYSTALS OF URATE OF SODIUM. 
Spontaneously deposited from tlie urine of a child. (Roberts.) 
latter canal may even be occluded by impacted masses of 
this deposit. It may also form a nucleus around which cal- 
culous matter may aggregate. The great comparative fre- 
quency of vesical culculi in children is not improbably owing 
to the occurrence of this deposit in the numerous fugitive 
febrile attacks to which children are subject, (see Fig. 10.) HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Under the microscope, a spontaneous deposit of sodium 
urate exhibits irregular, opaque, globular and lumpy masses, 
or spherules, from which project spiny crystals, sometimes 
straight, sometimes variously curved—the so-called hedge- 
hog crystals. At the end of the acid, and the beginning of 
the alkaline fermentation, true prismatic crystals of acid sodium 
urate may occur, arranged in star-like masses. (See Fig. n.) 
Fig. 11.—CRYSTALS AND AMORPHOUS DEPOSIT OF URATE OF SODIUM 
SPHERULES OF AMMONIUM URATE. (Ranke.) 
The urate of soda from a gouty concretion, under the mi- 
croscope, is resolved into myriads of long delicate needles, 
arranged in bundles or stars, or lying separately. These 
acicular forms are never deposited spontaneously in the urine; 
but they may be readily produced by adding a little liquor 
sodse to the common amorphous urate, in a watch-glass, and 
allowing the solution so formed to concentrate by evaporation 
in the air. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Urate of Ammonium. 
When urine becomes strongly alkaline, it is liable to pre- 
cipitate urate of ammonium, in addition to the mixed phos- 
phates, which are necessarily deposited under those circum- 
stances. It usually has a dense white color; but may possess 
a beautiful violet hue. This deposit has no special clinical 
significance, its occurrence being merely an incident in the 
ammoniacal decomposition of urine. It is the only urate 
found in alkaline urine. 
Microscopical Characters.—(See Fig. 12.) Urate of am- 
From alkaliue urine, with crystals of oxalate of lime and triple (am- 
monio-maguesiau) phosphate. (Ranke.) 
Pig. 12.—SPHERULES OF AMMONIUM URATE. 
monium is met with in the form of spherules and globular 
masses, which appear almost black by transmitted light, 
owing to their opacity. These spherules (thorn-apple 
spherules) are found in ammoniacal urine, and are the only 
urates found in alkaline urines. Both this and the urate of 
sodium respond to the murexide test. 56 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Hippurio Acid. 
Hippuric Acid (CiB H9 NOe). 
Hippuric acid exists in normal urine in larger quantity than 
does uric acid, the amount excreted in health varying 
from (0-5 to ro grammes) 7to 15 grains per 24 hours. Being, 
however, an extremely soluble substance in water, it is rarely, 
if ever, to be found as a spontaneous deposit. Some authors 
think the acidity of normal urine is due to it, it being a much 
stronger acid than uric acid. It is greatly increased by the 
eating of much fruit, such as cranberries, blackberries, plums, 
Fig. 13.—hippuric acid prom human URINE. (Harley.) 
etc., and also by the ingestion of the balsams of Peru and 
tolu, and benzoic acid. If 10 or 12 grains of benzoic acid 
be taken at bedtime, hippuric acid will be found in the 
urine next morning, if a few drops of hydrochloric acid be Handbook of urinary analysis. 
added to the urine, then concentrating it to the consistence 
of a syrup, and allowing it to cool. Yet very little is known 
regarding the clinical significance of hippuric acid. In diabetes 
it seems, sometimes, to replace uric acid, and is often absent 
from the urine in jaundice. 
Microscopical Characters.—The crystals are, in general, 
rhombic prisms, columns, or long fine needles. The fine 
needle-shaped ones, either separate or combined in stellate 
groups, are the most common. Occasionally they are massed 
in dove-tail fans, and sometimes they form perfect rosettes. 
When directly crystallized from human urine they are dark- 
colored, from absorption of the coloring matter of the urine. 
From the triple phosphate (the only sediment with which they 
are likely to be confounded) hippuric acid is distinguished by 
{a) its occurrence in acid urine only, while triple phosphates 
are only found in alkaline, or at least neutral, liquids; ifi) 
a drop of hydrochloric acid dissolves the phosphates and 
leaves the crystals of hippuric acid intact. 
Oxalate of Lime. 
(Oxaluna ; oxalic acid diathesis.) 
After the urates, oxalate of lime is the most common un- 
organized urinary sediment. Urine depositing it is usually 
high-colored and acid, and frequently a deposit of uric acid 
and the amorphous urates are conjoined with the oxalate of 
lime. Oxalic acid appears to be manufactured even in the 
human body; for, whenever the metamorphosis of some 01 
the animal products is interrupted, a deposit of oxalate of 
lime makes its appearance in the urine. It is now generally 
admitted that urea is the final product of the retrograde meta- 
morphosis of the nitrogenized tissues; and also that it is in 
the form of urea that the greater part of the albuminoid HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
group of foods is excreted from the system. Uric acid is 
supposed to be one of the intermediate products of this 
metamorphosis, and so also is oxalic acid. Diet has an 
important influence in its production, since there is no 
doubt that a large amount of oxalic acid finds its way into 
the system along with the food and drink. All vegetables 
and fruit rich in oxalic acid, such as garden-rhubarb, sorrel, 
tomatoes, etc.—citric, malic, and tartaric acids, often cause a 
temporary deposition of the oxalate of lime. Carbonated 
alkalies are sometimes transformed into oxalates in the body. 
Clinical Significance.—A slight occasional deposit of oxalate 
of lime in the urine cannot be said positively to constitute a 
diseased condition. It is not infrequently found in the urine 
of typically healthy persons during the acid urinary fermenta- 
tion. A constant and large deposit is proof of an abnormal 
state, which renders liable the formation of an oxalate of lime 
(“ mulberry ”) calculus, which is one of the most annoying 
forms of calculi. Oxaluria is a condition which accompanies 
the lighter or severer forms of illness, and has its proximate 
origin in an impeded metamorphosis—that is, an insufficient 
activity of that stage of oxidation which changes oxalic into 
carbonic acid. The chief, if not the whole, source of oxalic 
acid, is in the nitrogenized constituents of the food and blood; 
everything, therefore, which retards the metamorphosis of 
these constituents, occasions oxaluria. Such retardation may 
be determined by the following causes: (a) abuse of nitro- 
genized, saccharine, and amylaceous articles of food; (h) in- 
sufficiency of the red blood corpuscles, and, eventually, 
diminished oxidation; (d) insufficient enjoyment of pure 
fresh air; (<?) organic lesions, which in any way impede 
respiration and the circulation of the blood; (/) conditions 
of the nervous system which bear a character of depression, 
whether these arise primarily from mental derangement or HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
59 
from pathological states of the blood; {g) excess of alkaline 
bases in the blood. Oxaluria, therefore, arises from a variety 
of conditions—many of them unaccompanied by appreciable 
departures from health—in which there is mal-assimilatio7i of 
food or imperfect disintegration of the tissues. The most recent 
authorities are disposed to attribute little significance to the 
so-called oxalic acid diathesis (Roberts, Beale, Bencke). 
Microscopical Characters.—Oxalate of lime crystals are ex- 
ceedingly minute objects (less than i-iooo of an inch in 
Fig. 14.—OXALATE OF LIME, 
a, b, c, Octahedra in various positions; d, Pyramids; c, Pyramids 
■with intervening square bases. (Roberts.) 
diameter, usually), requiring for their detection a high power, 
else they may be easily passed over as granules of amorphous 
urates, or spores of fungi. They are best examined with a 
power of from 400 to 600 diameters. They may be divided HANDBOOK Of URINARY ANALYSIS. 
into four well-marked groups; (i) Octahedra crystals (which 
alone is characteristic of calcium oxalate); transparent, or of 
an extremely faint greenish tint, with sharply-defined edges 
and angles (Fig. 14). If the light be bright, these octahedral 
crystals, seen in their short diameter, resemble a square or 
cube, crossed obliquely by two bright lines (the so-called 
“ envelope ” appearance); when very small they appear as a 
square with a bright point in the centre; when viewed in the 
longer diameter they may be said to be made up of two four- 
sided pyramids, placed base to base; they polarize light very 
faintly under special conditions. (2) Dumb-bells (very much 
more rarely met with) of the typical dumb-bell appearance, 
Fig. 15.—DUMB-BELLS AND OVOIDS OP OXALATE OF LIME. (Roberts.) 
which polarize light very strongly. (3) Irregular discs, which 
have been likened to two kidneys with their concavities op- 
posed, and sometimes so closely approximating as to appear 
circular, the surfaces being finely striated, resembling the HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
61 
coalescing spherules of a much rarer sediment—carbonate of 
calcium (Fig. 15). (4) Well-defined diamond-shaped crystals. 
The presence of organic matter, as mucus, may interfere with 
crystallization in the regular manner. Again, the crystals 
may become entangled in the mucus, and thereby fail to fall to 
the bottom of the vessel, thus necessitating an examination of 
the mucus. They have been seen impacted in the uriniferous 
tubules, and sometimes occur imbedded in, or deposited upon, 
tube-casts. They are likely to be confounded only with ab- 
breviated prisms of triple phosphate, carbonate of lime, or 
granules of uric acid. Acetic acid dissolves the phosphates 
and carbonates (the latter with effervescence), and caustic 
potash the uric acid, while oxalate of lime resists the action of 
both of these reagents. 
(To detect free oxalic acid in the urine, add to a filtered 
portion a few drops of acetic acid, and then a solution of a 
salt of lime, chloride for example. Set the mixture aside for 
a few hours to crystallize, and examine the sediment. 
Artificial Production.—Add to the urine, as above treated, 
a small lump of oxalic acid, and wait several hours for crystal- 
lization to take place.) 
Two-thirds or three-fourths of the phosphoric acid excreted 
by the kidneys (about 50 grains per diem) are combined with 
the alkaline bases, potash and soda, to form soluble phos- 
phates. These do not come under the notice of the practi- 
tioner as urinary sediments. The remainder is combined 
with the earthy bases, lime and magnesia, to form salts, which, 
though soluble in acid urine, are speedily precipitated, when- 
ever the urine becomes alkaline, as earthy phosphates. These 
latter form calculi and urinary deposits. There are three 
kinds, viz.; 
Phosphates. 62 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
i. Amorphous calcium phosphate (Ca3 PO*)*, or bone-earth. 
2, Crystalline calcium phosphate (CaH,PO4), or “stellar” 
phosphate. 
3. Ammonio-magnesian phosphate (Mg N4 PO4+6aq), or 
triple phosphate. 
Amorphous Calcium Phosphate is most frequently found 
amorphous with the triple phosphate whenever the urine be- 
comes alkaline. It is the normal deposit of the alkaline urine 
after a meal, and in persons whose urine has been rendered 
alkaline by remedies (carbonates, acetates, and citrates of the 
alkalies), and after the excessive use of subacid fruits. The 
turbidity caused by it exists in its greatest intensity at the 
moment of emission, and does not increase on cooling. It 
forms an amorphous whitish floculent deposit, indistinguish- 
able by the naked eye from the cloud produced by mucus and 
epithelia. Having no affinity for the coloring matter of the 
urine, it is consequently paler than the supernatant liquid, dif- 
fering in this respect from the amorphous urates. Heat in- 
creases this deposit. A drop of any acid causes it to imme- 
diately disappear. Its clinical significance is entirely involved 
in that of alkaline urine (see p. 17). 
Crystalline Calcium Phosphate (“ stellar ” phosphate) is not 
a very common deposit, as compared with uric acid, the urates, 
oxalate of lime, or the amorphous and triple phosphates. It 
may exist in urine of a feebly acid reaction. Depressed 
acidity of the urine is an essential contingent to the formation 
of stellar phosphate crystals. 
Microscopical Characters.—The crystals of crystalline or 
“ stellar ” phosphate of lime, present considerable variety of 
form. The prevailing appearance is that of crystalline rods 
or needles, either lying loose or grouped into stars, rosettes, 
or sheaf-like bundles, or into fans. Some of the crystals are 
club, wedge, or bottle-shaped, and abundantly marked with handbook OF URINARY ANALYSIS, 
63 
lines of secondary crystallization. It is also found in the 
shape of spherules or even dumb-bells. It is very frequently 
associated with oxalate of lime. These crystals are always 
Fig. 16.—URINARY DEPOSIT. 
Consisting of crystals of phosphate of lime, octahedra of oxalate of 
lime, with a little mucus. X 215. (Beale.) 
colorless, and, being soluble in acids, are thus to be distin- 
guished from one of the stellar forms of crystallization of uric 
acid. 
The Ammonio-Magnesian, or triple, phosphate, occurs very 
frequently as a urinary deposit—sometimes alone, but much 
more commonly associated with the amorphous calcium phos- 
phate. When unmixed with any other substance, this deposit 64 
MANdSOOK. OS' URINARY ANALYSIS; 
has a snow-white appearance; and bright, glistening, glass- 
like crystals are seen studding the sides of the urine-glass, and 
forming a brilliant crystalline film on the top. Like the pre- 
ceding deposit it may exist in urine that is feebly acid to test- 
paper. Heat does not affect it. It is necessarily present in 
ammoniacal urine, and in the majority of cases the deposition 
of this salt is only an incident of the ammoniacal decomposi- 
tion of the urine. After a dose of salts (sulphate of magnesia), 
if a drop of ammonia be added to the urine it will cause an 
immediate turbidity and a deposition of the triple phosphate 
in fern-leaf like crystals, which, if allowed to stand for some 
time, change into those of a prismatic form. 
Fig. 17.—DIFFERENT FORMS OF TRIPLE (AMMONIO-MAGNESIAN) PHOSPHATE 
crystals. X2o°. (Roberts.) 
Microscopic Characters.—The ammonio-magnesian (or triple) 
phosphate, Fig. 17, has for the typical form of its crystals that HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
65 
of a triangular prism with beveled ends. By a planing-ofF of 
the ridges and angles, and a hollowing out of the sides, a 
great variety of subordinate forms are produced. In highly 
ammoniacal urine, the triple phosphate forms elegant di-elytral 
crystals, which appears to arise from a hollowing of the sides 
and a deep notching of the extremities. Phosphates are, in 
general, fine microscopic objects, but the appearances they 
present greatly depend on whether they are slowly or rapidly 
crystallized. When the ammonio-magnesian phosphate crys- 
tallizes rapidly, as happens on the addition of ammonia to 
freshly-passed urine, it assumes the form of fine feathers and 
fronds (“ fern-leaf”), either singly or in stellate groups (see 
Fig. 18). These feather forms show no play of colors with 
Formed by tbe addition of ammonia to the urine. They are rapidly 
developed. If allowed to stand, they would gradually assume the pris- 
matic form, as seen in Fig. 17. X 21- (Beale.) 
Fig. 18.—-CRYSTALS OF TRIPLE PHOSPHATE. 
polarized light, whereas the prismatic, and modifications of 
the prismatic forms, are beautiful polariscopic objects, a se- 
lenite plate adding greatly to their beauty, for by its means a 
fine-red field and deep-blue crystals may be obtained. (Some- 66 
HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
times a scum forms on the surface of acid urine, composed of 
prismatic crystals much resembling those of triple phosphate 
in form, but larger in size. They are crystals of an organic 
substance, creatinin. They also form beautiful polariscopic 
objects.) 
These three compounds are occasionally precipitated to- 
gether in one deposit; much more frequently, however, the 
first and third will be found associated as a light-colored de- 
posit, forming the ordinary sediment of ammoniacal urine. 
Clinical Significance.—The presence of earthy phosphatic 
deposits in the urine signifies to the physician an alkaline or 
neutral condition of this fluid, the cause of which he should 
ascertain. If the urine contains a spontaneous deposit of 
earthy phosphates the moment if is voided, then the formation 
of vesical calculus is to be feared, especially if the deposit 
should contain crystals of triple phosphate. If the precipitate, 
under these circumstances, be entirely amorphous, the alkali 
causing it is not ammonia, and calculous formations, irritation' 
and ulceration of the lining membrane of the bladder are not 
so much to be feared. It must not be forgotten that amor- 
phous calcium phosphate is frequently present in the urine of 
those who are severe students, who lessen their hours of sleep, 
who exhaust their nervous systems, who use certain articles of 
diet, citrates, tartrates, carbonates (effervescing mineral waters). 
On the contrary, food or drink, rich in lime, as well as certain 
maladies, diseases of the spinal cord, and chronic vesical af- 
fections, are very apt to give rise to the crystalline forms of 
phosphates of lime. The urine of old people in general con- 
tains an abundance of phosphates. The appearance of a de- 
posit of phosphates is no criterion of their absolute quantity, 
nor does a spontaneous deposit in fresh urine necessarily 
imply an excessive elimination of phosphoric acid. If the 
urine be abnormally acid, there may be an excessive elimina- HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
67 
tlon, and yet no deposit take place. Such a condition of 
affairs is liable to pass undetected. An increase of phosphates 
maybe present in cases of phrenitis, injuries to the head; 
paralysis, especially when due to some disorder of the spinal 
cord; rickets, osteomalacia, extensive burns, in meningitis, 
cerebral tumors, tertiary syphilis, diabetes, and some forms of 
mania. A diminution of phosphates may be present in renal 
and intestinal affections, delirium tremens, gout, and severe 
pneumonia—their reappearance is a favorable sign. 
lieucin and Tyrosin. 
These two bodies belong to the same class; namely, tran- 
sition products in the metamorphosis of nitrogenized sub- 
stances. They are very rare deposits in the urine, being 
found only in urine which is loaded with biliary coloring 
matters, since they generally attend only grave destructive 
diseases of the liver, especially acute yellow atrophy and 
phosphorus poisoning. Harley says of leucin that all the 
cases in which it has yet been detected have terminated 
fatally; and of tyrosin, “its presence in the urine is an 
almost certain sign of a rapidly approaching fatal termination.” 
Urea is almost always diminished in urine containing these 
substances. 
Microscopical Characters (Fig. 19).—Leucin presents itself 
as more or less yellowish-tinged, highly-refracting spheres or 
globules, which may, at first sight, be mistaken for oil-drops. 
They do not, however, refract light quite so strongly, not 
having so wide a dark border; and by suitable illumination, 
many of them will be found marked by radiating and con- 
centric striae. These spherules exhibit a peculiar disposition 
to aggregate, appearing partly to merge where two edges 
come together. They might possibly be mistaken for crystals 68 
HANDBOOK OB URINARY ANALYSIS. 
of carbonate of lime, .but the latter sink, whereas the greater 
number of globules of leucin float in water. 
Tyrosin crystallizes in the shape of very fine, long, delicate, 
silky, acicular prisms, arranged in beautiful bundles, tufts, or 
sheaf-like collections, often crossing each other, forming a 
Fig, 19.—LEUCIN SPHERES AND TYROSIN NEEDLES. (Tyson). 
cross of four bush-like arms, and intersecting at their con- 
stricted central portions; or they may form spiculated balls, 
not unlike a rolled-up hedgehog with the bristles sticking out 
in all directions. The crystals found in urine are usually of a 
deep yellow color from absorbed bile pigment. 
Cystin. 
Cystin (cystic oxide) (C 3 H7 NS02) 
Cystin is never seen in normal, and but rarely in diseased, 
urine, while, as compared with other urinary sediments, it is 
one of the most rare. The production of cystin has as yet not 
been fully elucidated, but it is supposed to be in some way HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
69 
or other connected with the function of the liver. Urine de- 
positing cystin is usually feebly acid, of a yellowish-green 
color, oily appearance, and a peculiar sweetbriar odor. When 
voided it is turbid, but on standing, a copious light sediment 
subsides, having much the appearance of fawn-colored urates, 
but which is unchanged by heat. Cystic urine is very liable 
to spontaneous decomposition, in the course of which it 
evolves ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen (derived from 
the 26 per cent, of sulphur which it contains), and blackens 
white glass vessels. Cystin may exist alone, but it is more 
commonly observed in urine with ammonio-magnesian phos- 
phates, mucus, and epithelia. A greasy-looking pellicle, con- 
sisting of the former salt and cystin, soon forms on cystic 
urine. When held in solution in neutral or alkaline urine, a 
deposit may not occur until acetic acid, which precipitates' it, 
has been added. 
Microscopical Appearances (Fig. 20).—A spontaneous de- 
posit of cystin in the urine is usually composed of regular 
colorless hexagonal tablets of different sizes, united by their 
flat surfaces, and overlapping one another. They may have 
an iridescent, mother-of-pearl lustre; their surfaces are often 
chased by lines of secondary crystallization; they also form 
thick rosettes of great brilliancy, with sharply crenate margins, 
darker, in the centre than at the circumference. They color 
polarized light. Being, however, a dimorphous body, cystin 
may occur in square prisms, either singly or in stars. These 
prisms refract light strongly, and the facettes which lie 
slantingly out of the direct line of vision appear perfectly 
black, contrasting with the brilliant lustrous white of the 
planes through which the light passes vertically. Cystin is 
instantly dissolved, without decomposition, by ammonia, and 
if the solution be exposed in a watch-glass to evaporation in 
the air, beautiful six-sided crystals appear as the volatile HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
alkali dissipates. This is the characteristic reaction of cystin, 
and leads to its easy identification. From the rarely-occur- 
ring, hexagonal-looking plates of uric acid, cystin crystals 
may be distinguished by their lesser size, their absence of 
color, and their solubility in a mineral acid, from which they 
Fig. 20.—CYSTIN, HEXAGONAL TABLETS AND PRISMS. (Roberts.) 
are redeposited on the neutralization of the acid by ammo- 
nium carbonate. The ammonio-magnesian phosphate often 
accompanies the crystals of cystin. 
Clinical Significance.—The chief, if not the whole, clinical 
significance of cystinuria lies in the danger of the formation 
of cystic calculus or gravel. Cystinuria has been known to 
exist for years without any other deviation from health than 
that caused by the physical irritation of the concretions 
when these form. It is believed by some authors to be 
hereditary. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
71 
Xanthin. 
Xanthin Cio H4 N4 O*. 
Xanthin is rarely met with in diseases as a urinary sediment, 
and still more rarely as a calculus. It is supposed to be one of 
the intermediate products of the metamorphosis of protein sub- 
stances. Neubauer thinks that on an average there is about 
1 gramme (15-5 grains) in 600 pounds of human urine. Pure 
xanthin is white, but as met with in the form of calculus or 
deposit it is of a yellow or dark cinnamon-red color, due to 
its taking up a quantity of the coloring matter (urohsematin) 
of the urine, just as uric acid under similar circumstances 
does. 
Microscopical Characters.—Small oblong plates resembling 
Fig. 21.—XANTHIN FROM HUMAN URINE. 
(a) Spontaneous deposit. (b) Dissolved in hydrochloric acid and re 
crystallized, (Harley.) 
uric acid. They are soluble in ammonia, caustic potash, strong 
mineral acids (with the aid of heat), and insoluble in cold 
water, ether, and alcohol. 72 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
CHAPTER IV. 
ORGANIZED URINARY DEPOSITS; MUCUS; EPITHELIUM; RENAL 
tube casts; blood; pus; spermatozoa; fungi. 
In the majority of cases, but not invariably, when urine is 
voided turbid, or shows a sediment before cooling, it will be 
found to arise from one or more of the organized urinary de- 
posits, as mucus, epithelium, renal tube-casts, blood, pus, 
spermatozoa, or fungi. 
Mucus. 
Mucus is a constant constituent of urine, and if perfectly 
normal urine be allowed to stand for an hour or two, a very 
light, delicate, semi-translucent cloud will be seen floating 
rather in the lower fourth or fifth of the fluid than actually 
upon the bottom of the vessel (Fig. 22). If now, by means 
of a pipette, a small portion of this suspended flocculent cloud 
be placed upon a glass slide, and then examined with a power 
of from 200 to 500 diameters, a few rounded or oval cells, 
leucocytes (mucus corpuscles!, about 1-2500 of an inch across, 
together with a small number of epithelial cells, or remnants 
of the same, detached from the various surfaces of the urinary- 
renal tract over which the urine has passed, will be seen 
entangled in the invisible net of mucus. As a rule, of mucus 
having the usual glairy character, there is no visible trace in 
healthy urine, since mucin, being so transparent and similar 
to urine in its refractive index, could not be recognized by its HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
73 
own properties. Among other substances, acetic acid pre- 
cipitates the mucin in the shape of pale, delicate, fibrillated, 
or punctated bands, or threads, which are sometimes tortuous, 
Fig. 22.—THE SO-CALLED “MUCUS CLOUD.” 
Consisting of mucus corpuscles and epithelial cell. Exaggerated for 
the purpose of demonstration. (Harley.) 
and frequently anastomosed. If a little iodine or iodide of 
potassium be added to such acetic acid, the mucin is both pre- 
cipitated and colored, while the epithelial cells and leucocytes 
are rendered more distinct. These coagula (or mucus-casts, 
as they have been called) may sometimes be found in urine to 
which no acid has been added; found studded, perhaps, with 
granules of the urates, and, under these circumstances, may 
be mistaken for granular tube-casts. They are, however, gener- 
ally very much narrower than the latter, have badly-defined 
margins, and the urate granules are dissolved by warmth or 74 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
hydrochloric acid. Should any part of the urinary renal tract 
become irritated, the mucus-cloud will become more opaque 
and greatly increased in bulk, and an abundance of leuco- 
cytes will appear, accompanied by numerous epithelial cells, 
indicative of the part from which they came. Should the 
irritation pass on to inflammation (the causes producing pus 
and mucus are but differences of degree), pus will appear in 
the urine. So long, however, as urine containing mucus is 
non-albuminous, pus may be said to be absent, since pus con- 
tains albumen while mucus does not. Mucus appears to be an 
important factor in the fermentative processes of the urine. 
[See Fus.) 
Epithelium. 
Any part of the genito-urinary tract may shed its epithelium 
into the urine, so as to form a sediment. The urine of the 
two sexes differs notably in the character and quantity of the 
epithelial cells found therein. This arises from the anatomical 
differences in the lower genito-urinary passages; and advan- 
tage may sometimes be taken of this circumstance to dis- 
tinguish the sex of the individual whose urine is under exam- 
ination. It is not very often that one is enabled to locate 
the source of epithelium coming from beyond the bladder and 
vagina, partly because of the comparatively slight differences 
in the epithelial cells from certain locations, and partly 
because maceration in the urine causes the cells to distend, 
change their shape, and thus render feebly distinctive points 
even less marked. It may here be observed, in passing, that 
in acid urine epithelial cells remain for a considerable length 
of time, but in alkaline urine they are gradually destroyed, 
becoming at first more swollen and transparent. The epi- 
thelium from the urethra is of the scaly form, in the vicinity of 
the meatus, columnar higher up, and around the prostate HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
75 
the cells are caudate, spindle-shaped and irregular. The 
epithelium from the bladder varies according to the part of 
the organ from which it is derived; from the fundus it is 
columnar mixed with large oval cells, which are considerably 
larger than round cells from any other source; from the 
Fig. 23, 
a, round epithelium from bladder; b, columnar epithelium from ureter 
and urethra; cl, columnar and squamous epithelium from deeper layers 
of epithelium of bladder; c 2, squamous epithelium from superficial layers 
of epithelium of vagina. (Tyson.) 
trigone, the cells are large, slightly flattened, with a very dis- 
tinct nucleus and nucleolus, but not so large or as flat as those 
from the vagina; from the ureters the cells are of the columnar 
and spindle-shaped form, with a large distinct nucleus. The 
epithelium from the pelvis of the kidney is composed in part of 76 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
the tessellated, and in part of the columnar variety, like that 
of the ureter. (<ri) Some of these cells so closely resemble 
cancer-cells as to render the recognition of cancer-cells (as 
such) in the urine a matter of great uncertainty. All of the 
above-mentioned epithelia find their way into the urine in 
cases of renal calculus, pyelitis, and vesical calculus; and 
where pyelitis is suspected, their appearance in the urine 
greatly fortifies the diagnosis. The epithelium of the kidney 
differs somewhat in its characters in different parts of the tube. 
In the straight portion of the tube the epithelium has a 
tendency to flatness approaching the tessellated variety; 
while in the convoluted portions of the tubes, the cells consist 
of a round or slightly oval nucleus, exceedingly uniform in 
size and shape, having a delicate regular outline resembling 
closely both in size and aspect (except in not being bicon- 
cave) the red corpuscle of the blood; around this nucleus is 
aggregated a quantity of solid, yet friable, faintly-granular 
substance, very irregular in size and shape, sometimes forming 
a spheroidal mass, with a more or less distinct cell-wall, and 
sometimes only a small quantity of it remaining adherent to 
the nucleus. Where there is rapid proliferation of the renal 
epithelium, the nucleus is seen cleft into two or three nucleoli, 
and the cell takes on the appearance of a pus-corpuscle. But, 
as a rule, they are distinguished from pus-corpuscles by their 
larger size, their single nucleus, which is distinct without the 
use of reagents, while the multiple nucleus of the pus-cell re- 
quires the use of acetic acid to bring it out. 
Epithelium.—This table is only an approximate guide for 
the microscopic diagnosis of epithelia; intermediate forms 
and dimensions exist that escape any classification: HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
77 
Verylarge (o' mm. 'oi6 to '033 with 
a single large nucleus, ordinarily 
o mm. 'on). 
| Urethra. 
. Bladder (trigone). 
1. Round or oval epi- 
thelial cells, a lit- 
tle swollen. 
With 2 nuclei, or one nucleus, and 
nuclei form granulations. 
Pelvis of the kidney. 
Ureters (superficial 
layer). 
Much smaller (about o mm. 'on to 
o ram. ’015). 
Kidney (rarely in an 
isolated state). 
Bladder (near the 
neck). 
A large nucleus, and often two nu- 
clei and nucleiform granules. 
Pelvis of the kidney 
and Ureters (super- 
ficial layer. 
2. Epithelial cells la- 
mellar, very thin, 
polygonal. 
Very large lamellae (o mm, ’022 to 
o mm. ’045), but with very small 
nucleus (o ’006). 
Vagina and external 
genital parts. 
Urethra, near the 
meatus. 
3. Cylindrical, Columnar, 
spindle-shaped, epithe- 
lial cells, with tail longer 
or shorter, and more or 
less bent. 
Bladder. Ureters. Pelvis of the kidneys. 
In females, epithelial sediments are both common and 
abundant. From the short urethra the urine receives little or 
nothing; but the vaginal mucus membrane, invested as it is 
throughout with a lining of pavement epithelium, the ele- 
ments of which are detached in great quantity with facility, 
gives rise to an abundant, amorphous-looking, light, cloudy 
deposit, which, under the microscope, is seen to be composed 
of large, flat, mono-nucleated cells, often thicker at the middle, 
irregularly polygonal in outline, and often folded over them- 
selves either completely or partially ; occurring either discrete, 
or united by their borders into patches of rude mosaic (C 2, 
Fig. 23.) A deposit of this kind is found almost invariably and 
only in the urine of females, being very abundant in vaginal 
leucorrhoea, and even where there is no appreciable disorder 
of the parts, as in the case of young female children of a 
strumous diathesis. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSTS. 
Since, then, there is no positively exact way of differentia- 
ting the precise sources of these round epithelial cells, other 
things must be taken into consideration; for example, the 
fact of their being found in albuminous urine, together with 
casts, makes it probable that they came from the uriniferous 
tubules; if there be symptoms of impacted calculus, from the 
pelvis of the kidney; otherwise from the urethra, or Cowper’s, 
or the prostate gland. 
An increased amount of epithelium from the urethra indi- 
cates catarrhal or specific inflammation of the walls of this 
canal; from the bladder, more or less catarrhal inflammation 
of the lining membrane of this viscus; from the vagina leu- 
corrhoea, or specific inflammation; from the ureters or kid- 
neys, a more or less serious affection of these organs, ac- 
cording to the amount of cells present, in connection with 
albumen, blood, renal casts, pus, and local and constitutional 
symptoms. 
Renal Tube-Casts. 
Collection and Examination.—ln congestion, and in inflam- 
mation of the kidney (Bright’s disease), there are formed, in 
the uriniferous tubules, cylinders or moulds, which are dis- 
charged with the urine, and form the deposit known as 
“ casts.” When the urine contains casts in great abundance, 
they can scarcely be overlooked, if, after the urine has been 
allowed to settle for a few hours in a tall cylindrical glass, the 
whole of the supernatant liquid is poured off, and then one 
of the last drops which flows from the lips of the vessel be 
put under the microscope, on a slide furnished with a shallow 
(gum-dammar or cement) cell, and examined with a com- 
paratively low power, which, say with a in. or 4-10 in. 
objective (100 to 250 diameters), will include at once a HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
79 
considerable quantity of urine. Once found, they can sub- 
sequently be studied with a much higher power (1-5 in. to 
x-8 in. objective; 400 to 800 diameters). If there are but 
few casts present in the urine, there may be no deposit ap- 
preciable to the naked eye. In this case, collect the whole 
of the urine of the twenty-four hours, put it in a tall cylin- 
drical glass, let it stand from 12 to 24 hours to settle (the 
longer, the more albuminous the urine is); then pour all the 
urine away, except the four or five ounces which have col- 
lected at the bottom. Allow this residue to settle again for a 
few hours, when, if they be present, casts will be found at the 
bottom of the glass, whence they may be taken by means of 
a pipette, or one of the last drops poured off may be used, 
and examined as above described. The search must not be 
relinquished until several such slides have been carefully and 
patiently examined, nor must the case be pronounced upon 
until several examinations of the urine have been made at 
intervals of several days. 
Classification.—Casts may be conveniently divided, ac- 
cording to their appearance under the microscope, into three 
kinds: epithelial casts, granular casts, and hyaline, or waxy, 
casts. 
Origin, or Mode of Formation.—There are three views as 
to the mode of formation of casts : first, that they are a secre- 
tion from the epithelial lining of the tubules; secondly, that 
they result from a desquamation and degeneration of the 
epithelial cells; and thirdly, that they are formed by the 
escape, by capillary rupture or otherwise, of blood, or a 
coagulable constituent of the blood into the tubules, where 
it solidifies, entangling, as it does so, whatever it may have 
surrounded in its liquid state, such as blood corpuscles, leu- 
cocytes, epithelium, uric acid, urates, and especially oxalate 
of lime crystals; that it then becomes moulded to the shape HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
of the tube into which it has been extravasated; subsequently 
it contracts and slips out of the tubule into the pelvis of the 
kidney, whence it is carried through the ureters to the blad- 
der, and voided with the urine. The first of these views is 
generally discarded; the second and third are viewed with 
favor as accounting for epithelial and granular casts, while it 
is probable that the great majority of hyaline and waxy casts 
Fig. 24, 
a, b, hyaline and (c) granular casts, illustrating the formation of the 
former at a. (Tyson.) 
are formed in the last way described. Probably most of the 
casts found in the urine are formed in the straight uriniferous 
tubules (Fig. 24). 
Epithelial Casts (Fig. 25, a a).—These are casts consisting 
of a mass, of epithelial cells derived from the tubules of the 
kidney. They are usually wide, never very narrow. The 
cells may undergo molecular change and give rise to 
The Granular Cast (Fig. 25, b b).—This is a solid cylin- 
der, having a dark, almost black, coarsely-granular aspect; tIANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS* 
or else dotted here and there with a few dark points in its 
substance. Granular casts may occur in all forms of albu- 
minuria, but the cause of their appearance is always active 
Fig. ‘2b. 
aa, “epithelial” casts; 6 6,'' opaque granular,” from a case of acute 
Bright’s disease. (Roberts.) 
congestion (Harley). The “fatty or oil-cast” is a variety of 
the granular produced by the coalescence of the olein gran- 
ules into globules (Fig. 26, aa, c). Granular casts may ap- 
pear as transparent cylinders studded with tolerable uni- 
formity with minute oil-globules. When blood corpuscles 
exist on these casts, they are called “ blood-casts ” (Fig. 26, 
11), and appear as perfect cylinders, composed of delicate 
circles placed in opposition; more usually as a fibrinous cylin- 
der irregularly studded with blood corpuscles, some perfect 
and some shrunken and contorted, and, finally, the cast may 82 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
appear to be composed of nothing but blood corpuscles, crushed 
or compressed into a cylindrical mould. When the material 
of granular casts is derived from broken-down blood cor- 
puscles, the cast appears yellow or yellowish-red. Granular 
Fig. 26. 
aa, fatty casts; 11, blood casts; dd, i'rge fatty molecules. (Roberts.) 
casts may be large or small, full, or only partially filled with 
granular matter; the size of the cast depends on the part of 
the tube in which it was formed, the amount of granular 
matter it contains in the condition of the kidney. 
The Hyaline, Structureless, or Waxy Casts (Fig. 27).— 
These are usually very clear cylinders, whose outlines are 
often so very delicate and indistinct that, before they can be 
detected, they must be artificially tinted with iodine or ma- 
genta ; or the light from the mirror illuminating the field of Handbook of urinary analysis. 
83 
view must be modified, by shading with the hand, or by 
manipulating the mirror itself, the field of view being just 
.outside the exact focus. This method is peculiarly applicable 
to the finding of the so-called “ waxy ” casts, which, owing 
to their greater refractive power, will so concentrate the light 
as to become much more visible. Completely hyaline homo- 
geneous casts do occur; but, generally, what are called hya- 
Fig. 27.—WAXY CASTS. 
aa, urine of man with chronic Bright’s disease; bb, chronic Bright’s 
disease (large white kidney); c, chronic Bright’s disease (contracted kid- 
ney with fatty degeneration). (Roberts.) 
line casts shows indistinct markings on the surface, or a faint 
molecular composition by a few granules here and there, or one 
or two glistening oil-drops. A hyaline cast of more solid aspect, 
resembling molten wax, is termed a “ waxy cast.” Hyaline casts HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
present extreme differences in diameter, according to the man- 
ner and place of their formation. If, when the transudation oc- 
curred into the tubule, the epithelium was so firmly attached to 
the basement membrane as to remain behind when the cast 
passed out, then we will have a narrow hyaline cast, which 
may sometimes be of considerable length (Fig. 24, a). If, on 
the other hand, the tubule was entirely denuded of its epi- 
thelium, then a wider one; the diameter of the latter being 
equal to that of the former, plus twice the thickness of an 
epithelial cell. Sometimes casts of smaller diameter are 
found within those of a larger, the material of the latter 
having been poured out around that of the former, after it 
had undergone sonic contraction, and this happens usually with 
waxy or hyaline. In consequence of the mode and place of 
their formation, hyaline or waxy casts vary considerably in 
diameter, some being as narrow as the 1-1 oooth of an inch 
(.025 mm.), and even narrower, while others are as much as the 
i~soth of an inch (-5 mm.) Hyaline casts alone, though 
generally indicating an advanced stage of disease, are by no 
means invariably indicative of immediate danger; but asso- 
ciated with oily casts in the urine of the same patient they 
always constitute an unfavorable sign. 
Mucus Casts (Fig. 28).— Occasionally casts are found which 
are apparently pure mucus-moulds of the uriniferous tubules, 
and unless they are covered by accidental elements (as gran- 
ular urates or phosphate of lime), they are smooth, hyaline, 
faintly-fibrillated cylinders, especially characterized by their 
great length (which is often enormous), in the course of which 
they divide and subdivide, diminishing in diameter as the 
division proceeds, showing conclusively a renal origin. They 
are usually associated with pus, since they are particularly 
apt to occur where there is vesical irritation extending through 
the ureters to the kidney, and there is no more albumen than Handbook of urinary analysis. 
85 
can be accounted for by the presence of the pus. Dr. Beale 
says they are not unfrequently seen in urine of a very high 
specific gravity (1030 and higher) containing an excess of 
urea and urates. 
Fig, 28.—MUCUS CASTS. 
Prom tne straight portion of the uriniferous tubules, showing the 
manner in which the large renal tubes divide and subdivide as they 
pass towards the base ot the pyramids. y( 75, (Beale.) 
Casts of the Seminal Tubules are sometimes found in the 
urine, but their origin may be inferred from the presence of 
spermatozoids in them. 
Diagnosis.—ln diagnosticating veritable tube-casts from 
other objects simulating them in appearance, the following 
points will aid in their determination; [a) the discovery of 
epithelial cells from the uriniferous tubules, or of red-blood 
corpuscles and leucocytes, imbedded in or firmly adherent to 
the cast; care must be taken not to mistake cells that simply 
overlie the cast and are not imbedded in it. To accomplish 
this, cause a to-and-fro current in the liquid by gently tapping HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
with a mounted needle upon the cover, and thus separate 
the two objects, if the union between them is not intimate. 
Again, many casts occur without any epithelial cells upon 
them at all (as in the last stages of albuminuria, when some 
of the tubules have been completely stripped of their lining 
epithelium); but if the search be sufficiently prolonged it is 
highly probabe that one or two tube-casts, exhibiting well- 
defined epithelium, will be found. {b) The size of a suspected 
cast will often give assistance. Casts ordinarily vary from 
1-1400 to 1-500 of an inch across, and the cases where 
diagnosis is difficult are those where the casts do not exceed 
the 1-1 oooth of an inch in diameter; because where the dis- 
ease has so far advanced as to strip many of the tubules of 
their epithelial lining, and so' allow large and medium casts to 
be formed, a well-marked albuminous precipitate will be found 
on testing the urine with heat and nitric acid, and the history 
or condition of the patient (without being acquainted with 
which no physician should give a positive opinion) is usually 
such as to throw sufficient light on the subject and prevent 
erroneous conclusions. (c) Though not an invariable charac- 
ter, veritable tube-casts have round or club-shaped extremities. 
Clinical Significance.—The presence of casts in the urine is 
a sure sign of renal disease, but not, however, necessarily 
of a permanent disease. They are present in many acute 
diseases, accompanied by albumen in the urine. If found for 
several weeks together, unaccompanied by pyrexia, the exis- 
tence of some serious disorder in the kidneys is to be inferred. 
They are present in all cases of renal congestion, and all 
forms of Bright’s disease. Some assistance may be derived 
from the appearance of the casts in forming a judgment of 
the acute or chronic character, or a diagnosis and prognosis of 
a disease. A deposit may, and generally does, contain a 
mixture of two or more varieties of casts and cells; and Handbook op urinary analysis. 
87 
hence, conclusions as to their pathological meaning must be 
deduced from the prevailing types rather than from the ab- 
sence or presence of one or two of a given character. Bear- 
ing in mind these precautions, and having regard to the pre- 
vious history of the case, the following conclusions are 
generally warranted: (a) Epithelial casts, of medium size, 
especially when they have undergone little or no granular 
change, together with a large quantity of epithelial cells, and 
also blood-casts, indicate a disease of recent origin—congestion, 
acute Bright’s disease, [b] Fatty or intensely granular casts, 
with scanty epithelium, the cells withered and contracted, 
or containing globules of oil—chronic Bright’s disease, fatty 
degeneration, (c) Transparent, large waxy casts (over i-6ooth 
of an inch in diameter)—chronic disease in a very advanced 
stage. 
Occurre7ice and Origin.—Blood is not at all infrequently 
found in the urine, and it may be derived from any part of 
the urinary renal tract. Unless the quantity be very small, it 
imparts a color to the secretion when mixed therewith. If 
the blood is derived from the kidneys it is equally diffused 
through the urine, to which it imparts, if the urine be acid, a 
peculiar, quite diagnostic, “ smoky ” hue; if the urine be alka- 
line, or the blood in great quantity, a pinkish, bright red, or 
vermilion color. In the former case, after standing awhile, a 
chocolate-colored grumous deposit subsides. If the source of 
the haemorrhage be in any part of the urinary tract below the 
kidneys—ureters, bladder, and urethra—the color will be that 
of the blood itself, and frequently distinct clots will be found 
in the deposit. If the urine be acid, and of moderate density 
(1020 to 1025), the blood corpuscles, like epithelial cells, will 
remain visible and preserve their form for several days. But 
Blood in the Urine—Haematuria. 88 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS, 
in an ammoniacal urine, of low specific gravity (and bloody 
urine of low density is prone to speedily become alkaline and 
decompose), they soon disappear, having been dissolved by 
the alkali. The haemato-crystalline and hasmatin are then 
dissolved out into the urine, and may be tested for chemi- 
cally. Urine containing blood in sufficient qua7itity to be recog- 
nized by the naked eye, is always albuminous. 
Microscopical Characters.—lf the urine be examined under 
the microscope, before the blood corpuscles have perished, 
the presence of blood can easily be made out. Blood corpus- 
Fig. 29.—8L00D-COEPUSCLBS IN URINE. 
a, slightly distended by imbibition; 6, showing their bi-concave con- 
tour; c, shrivelled; d, serrated. (Roberts.) 
cles in the urine do not run into rouleaus, as they do when 
drawn directly from a blood-vessel, but they are separate. 
Moreover, long-continued maceration tends to interfere with 
their well-known optical properties (due to their bi-concave 
shape) of reversing light and shadow, when focussed alter- hanlloor of urinary analysis. 
nately from their centre and periphery. This interference 
depends very much upon the density and reaction of the 
urine. In acid urine approaching a specific gravity of 1028 
(that of blood-serum), the red and white blood corpuscles 
will often be found, if examined soon after being passed, pre- 
senting a perfectly normal appearance. If the urine be of a 
low specificic gravity (1010 or less), the red corpuscles will 
swell up, from endosmosis, becoming biconvex instead of 
biconcave (no longer now reversing light and shadow), then 
spherical, perhaps rupturing, and finally so colorless (from the 
exosmosis of their hasmato-crystalline) as to become almost 
invisible to the unpracticed eye, if not aided by a very su- 
perior or very powerful lens, or unless their transparent cell- 
wall has been colored by a little iodine or magenta, or 
shrivelled by adding a drop or two of a concentrated solution 
of sodium sulphate to them. These circumstances nearly 
double their ordinary size, varying from i-zoooth to i-i4ooth 
of an inch in diameter, and showing a distinct cell-wall, and 
single, double, or multiple nuclei, around which, under a high 
power, may be seen numerous rapidly-revolving molecules. 
These changes of shape and size as the density of the circum- 
ambient fluid is altered, will generally enable us to distinguish 
red blood corpuscles from the spores of certain fungi, which 
resemble them under low powers. Red corpuscles are non- 
nucleated, while, with a good glass, a nucleus or vacuole may 
be always detected in the sporules, which are, besides, oval 
or elongated. If these fail, set the urine aside for a day or 
two, when the spores of such will manifest themselves by 
germination, or budding. From the nuclei of renal epi- 
thelium, red blood corpuscles may be distinguished by their 
feeble refractive power, and their being less strongly colored 
by magenta. HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Clinical Significance.—Hasmaturia may arise from a great 
variety of causes, which may be classified as follows: 
1. Local Lesions—External injury, violent exercise, calcu- 
lous concretions, ulcers, abscesses, cancer (or fungus growths), 
tubercle, parasites (as Bilharzia hsematobia), active or passive 
congestion, Bright’s disease. 
2. Symptomatic—ln purpura, scurvy, eruptive and continued 
fevers, intermittent fever, cholera, etc., mental emotion. 
3. Supplementary or Vicarious.—To haemorrhoids, asthma, 
menstruation. In females the urine is generally bloody during 
the menstrual flow; it may also become so at any time if 
there be uterine and vaginal haemorrhage. In testing for 
albumen, under these circumstances, it may be necessary to 
obtain the urine directly from the bladder by means of a 
catheter. If the amount of blood in the urine be small, the 
chances are in favor of its coming from the kidneys, and 
search must, therefore, be made for the accompanying tube- 
casts. If the amount be large, it probably comes from the 
pelvis of the kidney, ureter, or bladder; if from the pelvis and 
ureter, there will also be pus, and probably gravel, in the 
urine, with lumbar pains shooting down the thigh and testi- 
cles. If none of these indications be present, the haemor- 
rhage is probably vesical in origin. The chief danger of 
haematuria is the formation of clots in the passages, and con- 
sequent ischuria. Small clots may sometimes form the 
nucleus of a calculus. 
Pus in the Urine—Pyuria. 
Occurrence and Recognition in the Urine.—Pus is often 
present in the urine, causing it to be milky and turbid when 
voided, and afterwards falling as a dense and opaque yellowish 
white sediment to the bottom of the urine-glass. The tur- 
bidity of the purulent urine is not affected by heat. The HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
91 
urine readily becomes alkaline, and rapidly decomposes after 
being passed. So long as the urine remains acid, the deposit 
is loose and the corpuscles discrete; but when the urine be- 
comes alkaline, as it often does, from ammoniacal decompo- 
sition. the pus corpuscles are destroyed, as to their morpho- 
logical identity, and the pus coheres into a grayish viscid 
tenacious mass, which can be drawn out into long tough 
strings. This ropy appearance is diagnostic of pus. In this 
condition the pus-corpuscles have been destroyed. If a fluid 
drachm of the sediment, the supernatant liquid having been 
poured off, is mixed with an equal bulk of liquor potassge in 
a test-tube, it will become transparent, and so gelatinous and 
tenacious that the vessel may be inverted without the evacu- 
ation of its contents. Urine containing mucus becomes 
more fluid and limpid by the addition of caustic alkali. Pur- 
ulent urine contains, necessarily, more or less of albumen, ac- 
cording to the amount of pus present, from a trace too slight 
to be detected by ordinary reagents, to considerable impreg- 
nation. Filter before testing for the albumen. 
Microscopical Characters (Fig. 30).—Under the microscope 
(300 or 400 powers) the deposit is found to be composed of 
spherical cellular bodies (pus corpuscles), about one-third 
larger than a red blood corpuscle; that is, 1-3000 th to 
i-2500th of an inch ('OOB to -oio mm.) in diameter, having 
granular contents and nuclei, varying from 1 to 4 in number. 
As stated, in speaking of blood in the urine, the pus corpus- 
cles (leucocytes) vary in size with the density of the fluid in 
which they occur. The denser the urine the smaller and 
more crumpled becomes the pus-corpuscle (1-3000); whereas, 
the addition of water expands and clears it (1-1400), some- 
times bringing into view the nucleus. A drop of dilute acetic 
acid (20 per cent.) placed upon the slide at the margin of the 
cover, and allowed to flow beneath it, brings out the neuclei HANDBOOK OP URINARY ANALYSIS. 
very soon and with great distinctness, while with a high 
power (or a superior objective of low power, %hh inch) the 
delicate cell-wall, of extreme tenuity, may be seen surround- 
ing the nuclei, until after a time it bursts and disappears. 
Fig. 30.—PUS CORPUSCLES. 
a, without reagents; b, after the addition of acetic acid. (Roberts.) 
Carmine solution, added to the urine, colors the nuclei of 
leucocytes. If the acid be added in excess, the cell-wall and 
contents disappear altogether, and the nuclei float free in the 
fluid. 
Clinical Significance.—This depends on its source and 
quantity. Suppuration may occur at, or abscesses burst into 
any part of the urinary renal tract, and cause pus to appear 
in the urine. Purulent urine occurs in the following diseases: 
In men, gonorrhoea or gleet is the commonest cause of puru- 
lent urine; it is always small in quantity, and does not affect 
the general properties of the urine. In women, leucorrhoea 
is the most common cause, and is manifested by the co- 
existence of an abundance of pavement epithelium from the 
vagina. Pus from the bladder, cystitis, is of more serious sig- HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
93 
nificance. Origin determined by the local symptoms. The 
alkalinity of the urine in these cases may cause the gelatini- 
zation of the pus into a viscid mass, even while yet in the 
bladder, and thus give rise to excessively painful micturition, 
or the change may occur just after the urine has been voided. 
Triple phosphates occur in such urine, tyelitis, suppuration 
in the pelvis of the kidney, is generally indicated by transi- 
tional epithelium, acid reaction of the urine, absence of signs 
pointing to the bladder or urethra, and lumbar pains. The 
bursting of an abscess into the urinary passages is manifested 
by a sudden irruption of a large quantity of pus into the urine. 
Spermatozoa in the Urine. 
These little bodies are frequently present in the urine, 
where, with the seminal fluid, they form a glairy white de- 
posit, but generally there is little or nothing in the appearance 
of the urine to indicate their presence. They can be detected 
only by means of the microscope; using a low power (250 
diameters) at first, to rapidly pass the suspected deposit under 
review, should only a few of them be present. Subsequently, 
they require a magnifying power of from 400 to 600 diame- 
ters (one-fifth objective with a No. 2 eye-piece) to show them 
well. They are recognized by a characteristic oval or pear- 
shaped anterior enlargement (the head or body) 1 -3000 th of 
an inch in length, and a long, extremely delicate, finely- 
tapering appendage (the tail) averaging 1-2 sth of an inch in 
length; all these parts appearing completely homogeneous, 
possessing a peculiar bluish tint, and a kind of fatty lustre, 
which renders it, like the spores of the yeast-plant and some 
hyaline tube-casts, .most easily detected when viewed just 
outside of or beyond the exact focus. In semen freshly- 
passed they exhibit active eel-like movements, strongly sug- 
gestive of volition. Water or acid fluids completely arrest the 94 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS, 
movements of the spermatozoids, and hence, when seen in 
urine, they are always motionless. In healthy alkaline vaginal 
mucus their peculiar undulatory vibrations are plainly visible. 
They possess the power of resisting disintegration to such a 
front. 
Fig. 31.—HUMAN SPERMATOZOIDS. 
remarkable extent that they have been found in putrefied 
urine at the termination of three months. Mineral acids and 
caustic alkalies attack them only when heated; acetic acid 
only renders them more conspicuous, while, after drying and 
subsequent softening in water, they preserve a recognizable 
and perfectly characteristic form, which may be of great im- 
portance in medico-legal examinations. Solutions of carmine, 
iodine water, etc., which color leucocytes and epithelia, have 
no action on spermatozoids. Ammonia, however, rapidly 
acts upon them, even when cold. In cases where they are 
mixed with certain deposits, so as to interfere with their de- 
tection, these deposits may be removed, and the field of the 
microscope cleared up, by the addition of a little acetic acid. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
95 
if phosphates be present, and if urates, by a solution of soda 
or potassa (ten per cent, strength). 
Clinical Importance.—This has been greatly over-estimated. 
Spermatozoids are frequently found in the urine of men who 
are in a state of perfect health. They are also met with in 
the urine first passed, post coitum, of both sexes, as well as 
Fig. 32.—80DY AND UPPER PART OF THE TAIL OF A SPERMATOZOON. 
Xupwards of 3,000 diameters. (Beginning at left.) 1. spermatozoon 
containing much living germinal matter. 2. the same seen edgeways. 
3. Spermatozoon containing comparatively little germinal matter. 
4. Spermatozoon crushed, showing separate spherical particles of 
germinal matter. (Beale.) 
after nocturnal emission in males. Unless they are met with 
more or less constantly in the urine, accompanied by other 
more important symptoms, they do not demand interference. 
Since their presence in the vaginal mucus, or upon the linen 
of a woman, is considered as being proof of sexual inter- 
course, or of an attempt at it, their detection becomes of great 
medico-legal importance in cases of suspected rape. A piece 
of the stained linen must be soaked in water, or, better, in an 
artificial serum, in a watch-glass or test-tube for an hour or 
two, and the sediment examined. Skilful and accurate ma- 
nipulation is required in such an investigation, and, up to a 
certain point, the higher the power used the better. 96 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Fungi. 
Many kinds of fungi (formerly supposed to be animal or- 
ganisms, but now acknowledged to be vegetable in their 
nature) grow in the urine after it has been voided some time. 
The most important are (a) bacteria, (b) penicilium glaucum, 
(c) torula cerevisiae, (d) sarcinse. The latter only are appar- 
ently formed in the urine before it is voided. 
i. Bacteria.—These may be defined as globular, oblong, 
rod-like or spirally-coiled masses of protoplasmic matter en- 
closed in a more or less distinct structureless substance. The 
Fig. 33.—BACTERIA AND VIBKIONEB. 
Prom urine three days old. X 403. (Beale.) 
smallest are not more than x-30,000th of an inch in diameter, 
so that under the best microscopes they appear as little more 
than mere specks, and even the largest have a thickness of 
little more than 1-10,000 th of an inch, though they may be 
very long in proportion, from i-ioooth to i-3ooothof an inch 
in length. Under a power of 200 diameters, when the field 
is strongly illuminated, may be seen myriads of very delicate 
linear bodies, exhibiting active motion. By a very high mag- 
nifying power these moving filaments are resolved into a series 
of granulated particles, arranged in a line. Many of them 
have two conditions—a still and an active state. In their 
still condition, however, they very generally exhibit that 
Brownian movement, which is common to almost all very 
finely divided solids suspended in a fluid. But this motion is HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
97 
merely oscillatory, and is readily distinguished from the rapid 
translation from place to place, which is effected by the really 
active bacteria. In the vibriones, as in all other forms of 
bacteria, the body does not rapidly change its form, but their 
joints are bent zig-zag-wise, and the rotation of the zig-zag 
upon its axis, gives rise to the optical illusion of a wriggling 
or serpentine motion. A corkscrew turned round, while its 
point rests against the finger, gives rise to just the same ap- 
pearance. All the forms of putrefaction which are undergone 
by animal and vegetable matter are fermentations set up by 
bacteria of different kinds. Their vital actions are arrested 
at the freezing point; they thrive best in a temperature of 
about 740 F., but in most fluids they are killed by a tempera- 
ture of 140° F. Ammonia and acetic acid arrest their motion 
without apparently otherwise affecting them; but one of the 
best reagents to render them conspicuous is iodine. It arrests 
their movements, colors their protoplasm yellow, without acting 
upon their sac or membrane. Salicylic acid, nitrite of amyl, as 
well as thymol, added to the urine, check the fermentation and 
putrefaction, by preventing the growth of these minute organ- 
isms. They swarm in urine beginning to putrefy, and their 
presence is certain proof that putrefactive changes have set in. 
The urine loses its transparency and deposits a cloudy sedi- 
ment ; its odor becomes offensive, and its reaction soon am- 
moniacal. 
2. Mould Fungus, or Penicilium Glaucum (Fig. 34).—Urine, 
like other organic fluids, is liable to mildew; and it may 
mould from the growth of two distinct, though closely allied, 
vegetations. The first of these is the penicilium glaucum, 
or common blue-mould, which grows in vinegar and all 
albuminous fluids. It may be found in urine in three 
phases of its development; namely, as round and oval 
cells, or sporules; as a network of interlacing fibres, or HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
thallus; and as a downy pile of threads growing into the air, 
or aerial fructification (Fig. 34). This last phase is, however, 
not seen unless the urine has been kept several days. The 
sporules often appear in the urine a few hours after emission, 
and it is important to be familiar with their micro-chemical 
characters to avoid mistaking them for blood discs. Examine 
Fig. 34.—PBNICILIUM GLAUCUM (MOULD FUNGUS). AERIAL FRUCTI- 
with a magnifying power of 500 to 600 diameters. They are 
round or oval transparent bodies, varying in diameter from 
i-2500th to i-yoooth of an inch (on the average about 
i-3oooth). (See Blood). The marks by which they are dis- 
tinguished are: The great difference of size among the indi- 
vidual cells; the presence of a nucleus in the larger sporules; 
their tendency to assume an elongated or oval form; and 
(if set aside several days) the indications of budding and com- 
mencing formation of a thallus. Magenta or iodine stains 
their protoplasmic contents, but not their sacs. The thallus is 
produced by the elongation and gemmation of the sporules, 
and is composed of tubular cells placed end to end. This 
FICATION (Roberts). HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
99 
interlacement forms a fleecy cloud in the urine, which gradu- 
ally rises to the surface, where it forms an islet or patch of 
white mould, from which springs the ascending stems of the 
aerial fructification. The latter consists of hollow filaments 
rising from the thallus, which divide at their extremities into 
two or three branches; these again sub-divide into a number 
of digitate projections, so as to form an irregular tuft or head. 
The digitate projections are filled with sporules, and even- 
tually burst, giving exit to the sporules, which then fall into 
the urine below, and collect into an amorphous-looking de- 
posit at the bottom of the vessel. Every acid urine (when it 
becomes ammoniacal, the further growth of the plant is ar- 
rested, and it soon perishes) forms a fitting nidus for the 
mould fungus, while albuminous urines are those in which the 
plant grows most luxuriantly. 
3. Yeast or Sugar Fungus (Torula cerevisias), Fig. 35.— 
This fungus has precisely the same phases of development as 
the mould fungus; and in the phases of sporule and thallus, 
it is not easy to distinguish the one from the other; but the 
aerial fructifications of the two are wholly different. The 
yeast fungus (which grows luxuriantly in diabetic urine, ex- 
posed to a moderate temperature), instead of a tuft of 
branches, has a spherical head, not unlike that on the stem of 
an onion “ going to seed.” When the plant has attained its 
full fructification, the floating bed of thallus appears dusted 
over with a brown powder, which, under the microscope, is 
found to consist of these spherical heads full of sporules. 
The heads, when ripe, burst, and discharge their sporules, 
which sink to the bottom of the glass and form a white sedi- 
ment like so much flour. The yeast fungus may grow to full 
fructification in urine in which the most delicate direct testing 
has failed to detect sugar; hence, until sugar is proved to be 
natural to normal urine, the sugar fungus cannot be received HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
as a proof of sugar in the urine. Its spores may be distin- 
guished from red blood corpuscles, which they resemble in 
Fig, 35.—YEAST OK SUGAR FUNGUS (XORULA CESEVISIiE). AERIAL 
size, by their generally oval shape, fatty lustre, and thin 
fructification. (Roberts.) 
granular contents in molecular movement, which the largest 
ones show under a high power. 
Fig. 36.—sarcinze in urine. (Roberts.) HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
101 
4. Sarcincß Ventriculi (Fig. 36).—This is among the rarer 
forms of fungi found in the urine. They are square bodies, 
divided into secondary squares, which number 4, 16, 64, etc. 
and are like, but smaller than, the sarcinse found in the 
vomited matters of persons suffering from stenosis of the 
pylorus. It exists both in acid and alkaline urine; and when 
found is generally associated with some disorder of the urinary 
organs, renal pains, dysuria, vesical catarrh, together with 
hypochondriacal and dyspeptic symptoms. Its clinical sig- 
nificance is obscure. 
Selection of a Specimen for Examination. 
If possible, obtain for examination a specimen from the 
whole quantity of urine passed in the twenty-four hours, which 
has been collected and mixed, since the specific gravity and 
reaction vary considerably at different times during the twenty- 
four hours. If, as is generally the case, we wish merely to 
ascertain the presence or absence of any particular substance, 
such, for example, as albumen, or sugar, the urine passed at 
any time of the day will in general suffice. But even in such 
cases, to render the observation of more value, it is better to 
employ the urine of digestion (Urina cibi), and that passed 
three or four hours after dinner is the best, since this invariably 
contains the greatest amount of any foreign substances, if such 
be present. Next to this it is better to take the urine first 
passed after rising in the morning (urina sanguinis). The 
urine may be received in a perfectly clean half-gallon mag- 
nesia jar, covered so as to exclude extraneous matters. Ex- 
amine, if possible, within three hours after being voided, and in 
all cases before decomposition has begun. When received, a 
portion of the urine (about 4 or 5 ounces) should be poured 
into a tall, narrow, cylindrical glass vessel. A graduated test- 102 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
tube, provided with a foot or base, is best, since it, at the 
same time, approximatively measures the bulk of any deposit 
that may fall. The cylindrical vessels have the advantage 
over conical ones of having no sloping slides upon which the 
sediment may collect, and be thus prevented from falling to 
the bottom. Cover the vessel carefully to exclude dust, and 
set it aside, whether there be a visible sediment or not. Ex- 
amine it microscopically after a few hours. Re-examine it 
after the lapse of twelve hours, by which time any sediment 
that is likely to fall will have subsided. While this portion is 
taking care of itself, divide the remaining urine into several 
parts, filtering them, if necessary, and examine them chemically 
according to the following tabulated scheme: 
Systematic Qualitative Analysis of the Urine. 
SECTION I.—GENERAL. 
I, Normal 
colors. 
Pale urine; colorless to straw-yellow. 
Ordinary urine; golden-yellow to amber. 
Highly colored; reddish-yellow to brown. 
1. Color of the Urine. 
Essential; arising in the in- 
terior of the body. 
[ Coloring matter of the blood. 
; Biliary Pigment, Urohsematln, Uroery- 
[ thrin, Indlcan. 
Abnormal 
colors. 
Accidental; derived from 
without, and only passing ■ 
through the organism. 
Various color- 
ing matters, 
as e.g. 
Santonin, Saffron, 
Gamboge, Senna, 
Rhubarb, Aloes, 
Logwood, Gallic 
Acid, Creosote, etc. 
2. Odor. 
Normal. 
Sui generis. 
Whey-like. <j 
Diabetes. 
t. Essential. 
Abnormal. 
Ammoniacal 
Decomposition. 
2. Accidental, from odoriferous 
substances introduced into 
the organism. 
Sulphuretted Hydrogen. 
Very much 
varied by 
Asparagus, Garlic, Oil of Turpen- 
tine, Cubebs, Copaiba, Sandal- 
wood Oil, etc. 
Decomposition, HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Normal urine is always clear; clear urine is not necessarily normal. 
The urine is turbid when voided. <J Pus, Mucus, Epithelia. 
The Urine is sedimentary. { See Examination 0/ Sediments. 
3. Aspect. 
Normal urine has an acid reaction, due principally to the acid phosphate of the alkalies 
4. Reaction. 
A. Drop a very small slip of 
blue, and also one of red, 
litmus paper into the urine, • 
and wait till they are com- 
pletely saturated. 
Both are red. 
Acid. 
Both are blue. 
One is blue and the other red. 
Alkaline. See B. 
Neutral. 
B. Dry the blue paper in the 
open air, or in a water-oven. 
(If yellow turmeric paper is < 
used it will be browned by 
an alkali.) 
Blue color persists after 
complete drying. 
Original red color is re- 
stored to the paper. 
Fixed alkali. 
Potash 
Soda. 
| Volatile alkali. 
A mmo- 
7iia. 
1. Hold the urinometer-cylinder obliquely, when filling it, to avoid a foam. 
5. Specific Gravity, 
2. Stand with the back to the source of light. 
3. Hold the cylinder by the top, lightly, between the thumb and forefinger, letting 
it swing freely, by its own weight, in the perpendicular position, so that the stem 
does not touch the sides. 
4. Read by the lower, sharp, convex edge of the liquid, the fluid being on a level 
with the eye. 
5. If too turbid to read the scale, filter the urine before taking the specific gravity. 
Normal. 
Urinapotus, 1002o—lol50. 
Urina sanguinis, 1015o—lo20—10200. 
Urinacibi, 1020°—10300. 
10300 to 1065°. 
Below 10150, 
persistently. 
Test for Sugar, and excess of Urea. 
Test for albumen. Section 3. 
10050 to xooB°, 
persistently. 
Diabetes insipidus. 
Table for Reducing the Indications of a Glass Unnometer to the Standard Tempera- 
ture (so° F.), when the Specific Gravity has been taken at a higher temperature. (Bird). 
The urine must be of the temperature of the surrounding air, otherwise great errors 
may creep in. 
Temperature 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
Temperature 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
Temperature 
No. to be 
added to the 
Indication. 
6o° 
0.00 
69° 
0.80 
78° 
1.70 
6i° 
0.08 
70° 
O.9O 
79° 
1.80 
62° 
o.x6 
7i° 
I -OO 
8o° 
1.90 
63° 
0-24 
720 
I-IO 
81° 
2-00 
64° 
0-32 
73° 
1-20 
82° 
2-10 
65° 
0-40 
74° 
1-30 
83° 
2-20 
66° 
0.50 
75° 
I.40 
84° 
2.30 
67° 
0.60 
76° 
i-S° 
85° 
2.40 
68° 
0-70 
77° 
1.60 
86° 
2.50 104 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
6. Quantity. 
From 40 to 60 fluid ounces (900 c.c. to 1500 c.c.) in the 24 hours. 
Divide the urine into several portions, in which 
search successively for the following sub- 
stances: 
7. Detection of Abnormal Substances in the TTrine. 
Excess of Urea. See Section IL 
Albumen. See Section 111. 
Sugar. See Section IV. 
Bile. See Section V. 
Blood. See Section VI. 
. Chyle. See Section VII. 
‘Chemically.—See page 13. Microscopically.—See page 20. 
8. Examination of the Sediments. 
SECTION lI.—UREA, (N H2) 2C O.—EXCESS AND DEFICIENCY. 
1. 
Reaction of urine variable; color normal, specific gravity over 10300 (if excess be 
present). Owing to its exceeding solubility, urea never forms a spontaneous deposit. 
A healthy man excretes from 300 to 600 grains in the 24 hours. 
Take from the fresh-mixed urine of the 24 hours, 
about an inch in a test-tube. Add to it one- 
third its volume of pure colorless nitric acid, 
and set the tube in water not warmer than 
6o° F. It is best to work at the fixed tempera- 
ture of J30 F., which is readily obtained by 
melting tee in water. 
2. Test for Excess 
If crystals of Nitrate of Urea form 
immediately, or within a few mo- 
ments, iirea is present in excess 
of the 7iormal proportion. 
Nitrate of Urea shows flat, rhombic, 
or hexagonal plates, closely united 
to one another. Colorless. 
3. Test for Deficiency, 
Take a sample of the same urine, evaporate 
over a water-bath to one-half its bulk at a low 
temperature, allow it to cool, add nitric acid 
as before, and set the tube in water at 6o° F., 
or better, in water containing ice. 
Crystals of Urea Nitrate do nottorm 
within a few moments, say five 
minutes. Urea is below the nor- 
mal proportion. 
Note.—The quantity of urine passed in twenty-four hours 
must be taken into consideration, for if the patient is passing, 
instead of the normal 1500 c.c,, say only 600 c.c., the urine 
should be diluted up to 1500 c.c. for test No. 2, and used 
without evaporation for test No, 3. If, on the other hand, the 
patient is diabetic, and is passing 3000 c.c. per twenty-four 
hours, a given sample of his urine must be reduced to one- 
half by evaporation for test No. 2, and a portion of this re- 
duced urine still further reduced one-half for test No. 3. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
SECTION 111. ALBUMEN. 
Normal Urine ought never to contain Albumen. 
1. 
a. The urint is turbid and sedimentary. 
See 2. 
b. The urine is clear and transparent. 
See 2 b. 
2. 
Filter 
or 
decant 
a. The sediment must be examined under the microscope for casts, epi- 
thelia, pus corpuscles, etc. 
b. The filtered 
urine is 
c. Acid or Neutral. 
Neutralize with nitric acid, and see 
3, Test 
See 3, Test. 
d. Alkaline. 
3. Test. 
G. Pour x c.c. of nitric 
acid into xo c.c. (i 
to io) of urine in a ‘ 
test-tube. 
a. Coagulation takes place. It is prob- 
ably due to 
A Ibumtn, 
See b. 
b. There is doubt; the liquid is only turbid, or 
there is but a slight precipitate. 
See//. 
H. Heat the urine. 
c. The whole is redissolved. 
Uric Add. 
Nitrate of Urea. 
d. The turbidity or precipitate remains. 
Albumen. 
' e. Turbidity dis- 
appears. 
Resins. 
Cubebs, copaiba, sandal-wood 
oil, turpentine, etc. 
I. Add a small quan- 
tity of alcohol. 
f. Turbidity remains. 
Albumen. 
4. 
The following is a rough but useful approximate quantity test: Boil a given quantity 
oif the urine In a graduated test-tube, with a drop or two of acetic acid; add nitric acid, 
and set aside for at least twelve hours. The precipitated albumen sinks, and forms 
a layer of varying thickness. The proportion of albumen is estimated by the depth 
of this layer, as compared with the height of the column of urine in the tube; and 
may be expressed in numbers as x/x, i-rz. If too little albumen is present to form 
a layer, the proportion may be loosely expressed as a “ cloudiness,” or “ opalescence.” 
Greater accuracy is obtained by previously filtering the urine of urates, epithelium, or 
extraneous matter, which might unduly increase the bulk of the deposit on standing. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
SECTION IV.—SUGAR, (c 6 Hl2 Oe) +H2 O.—GLYCOSURIA.—DIA- 
BETES MELLITUS. 
The essential features of the urine in diabetes are its excessive quantity and the presence 
of sugar (glucose). The daily quantity of the urine in diabetes oscillates usually 
between 128 and 230 fluid ounces (8 to 15 pints). It has been known to exceed 32 
pints. When the excretion is considerable (exceeding 4or 5 pints), the urine has a 
very pale straw tint, and a peculiarly bright aspect; a less quantity does not alter 
the natural general appearance. The proportion of sugar varies from Bto 12 per 
cent.; the quantity excreted daily ranges from 15 to 25 ounces (may fall to an ounce 
or less; may rise to two pounds or more). The specific gravity of diabetic urine 
usually fluctuates a few degrees above, or below 10400; it may rise to 10600, or sink to 
1015°. Tkesp.gr. is no criterion of the amount of sngar present, since coexistent 
excess of urea may cause a high density with little sugar, and albuminuria may 
cause comparatively low density with much sugar. If the quantity of sugar be large, 
a sweetish whey-like odor and taste are communicated to the urine. Sediments are 
rarely observedin diabetic urine. 
1. 
The cold urine, filtered or decanted, is not albuminous. <J See 9, 
2. 
3 
The cold urine contains albumen. ■( See 7. 
4. 
The urine contains bile pigment, or is otherwise high colored. 
See 8. 
The urine is acid or neutral (diabetic urine is usually acid). 
5. 
See 9. 
6. 
The urine has an alkaline reaction 
due to ammoniacal salts. This 
interferes with the copper tests. 
So— 
Boil some of the urine in a test-tube, 
with a small piece of caustic soda or 
potash; filter or decant. 
See 9. 
Add a few drops of acetic acid to the urine: boil to coagulate the albumen, 
filter, neutralize the filtered urine with a little sodium carbonate, then test 
as per— 
7. 
8. 
See 9. 
To decolorize the urine, put an ounce or tw(» in an eight-ounce bottle, 
together with a tablespoonful of animal charcoal, and a small pinch of 
sodium carbonate. Shake well for five or ten minutes, and then filter. 
A perfectly colorless liquid will thus be obtained, and greatly facilitate 
the application of the copper tests. 
See 9 HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
9. Test (Trommer’s). 
Add to a drachm of the suspected urine, in a test-tube, about five drops of a 
solution of cupric sulphate (10 grs. to the fluid ounce); then add of caustic 
potash solution (20 or 30 per cent, of strength) an excess—i. e., until the pre- 
cipitate of the blue hydrated protoxide of copper is completely dissolved. Boil 
the clear blue solution (blue or black precipitate; no sugar). A yellow or 
red (suboxide of copper) precipitate. 
Sugar. 
Note.—Repeat the test once or twice with less of the 
copper solution each time. If the proper proportions have 
been used, the copper-test possesses both delicacy and cer- 
tainty. 
10. Differential Density Fermentation Test (Roberts.) 
This test affords a simple and usually sufficiently accurate quantitative analysis for 
sugar. Proceed thus: (1) Place four fluid ounces of urine in a twelve-ounce bottle, 
with a lump of German yeast the size of a chestnut; cork loosely so that the carbonic 
acid gas may escape, or cover with a slip of glass, and set aside in a warm place, 
such as the mantel-piece, to ferment. (2) A companion bottle of the same size 
has put into it the same amount of the same sample of urine, but no yeast is added, 
and it is tightly corked and placed beside the fermenting vial. (3) In about 22 hours, 
■whenfermentation has ceased, the two vials are removed and placed in some cooler 
part of the room. (4) Two hours thereafter—that is, about 24 hours from the com- 
mencement of the experiment—the contents of both bottles are poured separately into 
cylindrical vessels, and the specific gravity of each taken with the urinometer. 
(5) The difference between the two specific gravities is thus ascertained, and every 
degree of “ density lost” indicates one grain of sugar perfluid ounce of the urine— 
e.g., the sp. gr. of the unfermented urine = 10400; of the fermented urine = 10200; 
difference 20 degrees =2O grains of sugar per fluid ounce. If the patient has passed, 
say, 80 ounces in the 24 hours, then 80 X 20 = 1600 grains of sugar excreted in the 24 
hours. 
SECTION V.—BILIARY MATTERS. 
1. 
Color of the urine greenish-yellow to dark brown. 
Agitation produces a permanent yellow froth. 
White filtering (blotting) paper, or linen, stained yellow. 
Bile Pigments present. 
Spread a thin layer of the urine upon a 
white porcelain surface, and add to it a 
tew drops of nitroso-nitric acid (nitric acid 
containing the lower oxides of nitrogen); 
that from the cell of a Grove or Bunsen 
battery answers perfectly. 
2. Gmelin’s Test. 
' The drop of acid is tinged with a rapidly 
varying play of colors (in the following 
order: green, blue, violet-red, and 
yellowish), which speedily disappear. 
The most characteristic and essential 
color is the green. Bile Pigments. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
3, Pettenkofer’s Test. 
Place a small quantity of urine, which has 
been boiled and filtered, in a porcelain 
capsule (or watch-glass), and evaporate 
it slowly and gently over a water-bath, 
or spirit flame, until but a few drops re- 
main ; add to this a drop or two of a 
A cherry-red color, rapidly deepening 
until it becomes a beautiful purple, or 
dark lake color, appears. Only the 
purple color is characteristic of the 
presence of the Biliary Acids. 
solution of pure sulphuric acid (i part to 
4 parts of distilled water), and then a 
drop of a saccharine solution (cane sugar 
i part, distilled water 4 parts). 
Note.—Bile pigments have the property of adhering to 
sediments much more powerfully than other pigments, and 
may be detected in the sediment when not in the urine itself. 
SECTION VI. BLOOD. 
A. On Coolingl, the Urine Has a Blood-red Color. 
I. It is trans- 
parent. 
a. Add a few drops 
of Hydrochloric 
Acid. 
1. The color becomes 
darker. 
2. The color becomes 
clearer. 
Coloring matters of the 
blood. See B. 
Foreign coloring mat- 
ters. Rhubarb, etc. 
2. It is slightly 
turbid. 
b. Allow it to rest until a precipitate forms, which 
examine 
According to 3. 
3. There is a red 
sediment. 
c. Observe, under the microscope, whether this 
precipitate is crystalline or amorphous; on 
heating it in a test-tube it becomes dissolved. 
Urates. 
Uric acid. 
d. The microscope shows blood corpuscles; the 
precipitate is not soluble by heat.' 
Blood. 
B. On Cooling, the Urine is Reddish-brown, “Smoky,” or 
Ink-black. 
4. There is no sediment, and the mi- 
croscope shows no blood corpus- 
cles. Boil the urine alone, or ' 
with a little acetic acid. 
e. A reddish-brown 
or dirty coagu- 
lant forms. 
Coloring matters of the 
blood. Haemoglobin 
and products of us de- 
composition. 
SECTION VII. CHYLE. 
1. 
Reaction varies; sp. gr. varies: color milky, turbid, opaque (rose-colored, if blood be 
present). Consistence sometimes jelly-like. Handbook of urinary analysis. 
109 
a. Add to about three inches of urine in a test-tube, about 
an -inch of sulphuric ether. Gently mix them. The 
urine assumes its natural color and transparency. 
2. Test. 
Fat is present, and has 
been dissolved by the 
Ether. See 3, b. 
3. 
b. Transfer a little of the Ether (floating on the urine), 
by means of a pipette, to a watch-glass (or slide), 
and allow it to evaporate. 
A characteristic stain of fat 
remains on the glass or slide. 
Chyle. 
Systematic Chemical Examination of Inorganic 
Urinary Deposits. 
Note.-—A portion of the specimen of urine that has been 
set aside in a cylindrical or conical vessel, has let fall a sedi- 
ment. The first step consists in completely separating the 
deposit, which it is desired to examine, by filtration. The 
sediment remaining upon the filter, whatever be its character, 
must then be washed with a little distilled water. The various 
tests will be found under the following sections: 
SECTION I.—URIC ACID (c5 H4 N4 O3). 
Urine depositing uric acid has usually a rich yellow or orange color, and invariably an 
acid reaction. The uric acid crystals may form a film on the surface of the liquid, 
or lie scattered as brilliant brown specks on the sides of the glass, or subside into a 
dense red deposit (like cayenne pepper). In rare instances the crystals are so small 
as to require the microscope for their detection. Generally, however, the naked eye 
can identify uric acid with certainty, because no other brown crystals occur in urine 
as a spontaneous deposit. When the crystals are very minute, the deposit resembles 
the amorphous urate, but is denser, and sinks more rapidly. Uric acid is usually 
accompanied by a considerable sediment of urates. A healthy man excretes, on an 
average, about 7 or 8 grains of uric acid in the twenty-four hours. 
1. General Appearance of Urine and Deposit. 
2. Calcination at a Red Heat (on Platinum Spoon.) 
No residue; gives off ammoniacal odor. 
A light black porous coal, containing nitrogen, is sometimes left. 
a. Insoluble in cold water (15,000 parts); slightly soluble in boiling water (1800 parts). 
I. Insoluble in all dilute acids; alcohol; ether. 
3. Solubility. 
c. Soluble in caustic alkalies, carbonates of potash and soda, borax, acid phosphate of 
soda, from which, if a slight excess of an acid be added, crystals are re-precipitated. 
d. Soluble in strong sulphuric acid, without undergoing decomposition. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Triturated with caustic alkalies, unctuous compounds are formed, and ammonia is not 
set free. 
4. Action of Alkalies. 
Dissolves with effervescence. and forms a crystalline mass. <J See 6. 
5. Action of Concentrated Nitric Acid. 
Explanation of 
the reaction. 
Uric acid is decom- 
posed into 
Nitric acid is decom- 
posed into 
A lloxan, which forms the crystalline mass, and 
Urea. 
Nitrous add, which, with Urea, give Car- 
bonic add and Nitrogen. 
Causes of errors. 
Urates. 
Carbonates. 
Dissolve equally with effervescence, as well as oal- 
cined ammonio-magnesian phosphates. (Beale.) 
6. Mnrexide Test. 
Upon heating this_ mass, and slowly evaporating it to dryness, a red residue remains, 
which, treated with a few drops of ammonia (or caustic potash), becomes purple, or 
violet-red (murexide or purpurate of ammonia or potash). If potash has been used, 
the violet color disappears under heat. Caffein gives the same reaction. 
7. Nitrate of Silver Test. (Schiff’s.) 
Dissolve traces of uric acid in Carbonate of Soda. With this solution touch, lightly, a 
paper upon which a drop of Nitrate of Silver has been allowed to spread. A dark 
spot (reduced nitrate of silver) is produced. Will detect from i-iooo to 1-500,000 
of Uric acid. 
To 30 fluid ounces of urine add 3 fluid drachms of Hydrochloric acid, and set aside in 
a cool place, as a cellar, for 24 hours. At the end of that time the uric acid crystals, 
highly colored, will be found adhering to the sides and bottom of the vessel. Collect 
them on a filter. By using always the same quantities of urine and acid, a rough 
estimate may be made. 
8. Approximate Estimation of the Quantity. 
SECTION 11. AMORPHOUS URATES. (LithdteS.) 
1. Naked-Eye Appearance. 
The “amorphous urates” occur usually in acid urine, of a high density (1027), as a 
bulky, loose pulverulent deposit, wholly devoid of crystalization. Its color (varying 
extremely in tint and intensity, but always deeper than the urine from which it falls) 
may be fawn, orange, “brick-red,” pink, or purplish. It usually sinks quickly and 
completely, except where the urine is albuminous, in which case the precipitate may 
continue a long while diffused throughout the urine, giving to it a milky appearance. 
It is the most common and least important of ail the urinary sediments. Urine con- 
taining an excess of urates is never turbid when freshly passed; it is only when, the 
urine has cooled that the peculiar muddiness is observed. Handbook of urinary analysis. 
2. Shake, and Heat Some of the Urine in a Test-Tube. 
a. The sediment dissolves, but 
reappears on cooling. 
Amorphous Urates. 
Urate of soda dissolves at about ioo° F. 
Urate of ammonia dissolves at about 2000 F. 
On cooling, the filtrate yields a deposit—Urates. 
Filter, and apply murexide test to some of the 
deposit on the filter. 
b. There is doubt; filter the 
boiling urine. 
c. Add strong A ceticacidto some of the deposit. It dissolves, 
and recrystalizes as Uric acid. 
Urates. 
SECTION 111. OXALATE OF LIME. 
1. General Appearance of the Deposit. 
Urine depositing oxalate of lime is usually highly colored (dark amber hue), and acid 
(rarely neutral). The deposit itself is very scanty, colorless, and closely resembles a 
slight cloud of mucus. It is often conjoined with a deposit of uric acid and the 
amorphous urates. If freshly-passed urine be allowed to deposit oxalate of lime in a 
glass vessel, its sides will be traversed by very numerous fine lines, running in bands, 
transversely or obliquely, looking as if the glass were finely scratched. The sediment 
consists of two parts—a soft, pale-grey, mucus-like layer on the bottom of the vessel, 
and overlying this a snow-white denser layer, with an undulating but sharply defined 
surface. The form of the crystals of oxalate of lime is so characteristic, that there is 
seldom occasion to make use of chemical tests to determine them. They are too 
minute to be distinguished by the naked eye. Next to urates, oxalate of lime is the 
most common unorganized urinary sediment. 
2. Solubility. 
Soluble (readily) in 
Mineral acids, without effervesence; also in acid phosphate 
Insoluble in 
Water, alcohol, ether, alkalies, vegetable acids. Distinguished from the 
phosphates by its insolubility in Acetic acid. 
SECTION IV.—PHOSPHATES. 
The phosphates are only separated from very feebly acid, 
or alkaline urine, and they are always deposited when the 
urine undergoes the alkaline fermentation. 
1. 
The urine is turbid or sedi- 
mentary Divide into two 
portions, a and b. 
a. add a few drops 1 
of any acid. i 
b. Filter or decant 
and 
It clears < 
Earthy Phosphates. 
See 3. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
2. 
The urine has been recently passed, and 
is clear and limpid. Boil. 
A precipitate is formed which 
is soluble in acids. 
” 
3. 
Earthy phosphates are precipitated. 
Acids dissolve them. See 4, A. 
Add an excess of ammonia to the urine 
under investigation, agitate, and then 
allow to rest. 
A Ikaline phosphates remain in solution, 
See 6, B. 
4. Al—Earthy Phosphates. 
Filter, or decant, 
throw upon the 
precipitate Acetic ■ 
acid q. s. to com- 
pletely dissolve it. 
Neutralize with a 
few drops of A m- 
mania, then add 
a little A mmo- 
nium chloride. 
Then add slowly 
and in excess, 
Oxalate of A m- 
monia. 
A precipitate falls. 
Oxalate of Lime. 
Examine it microscopi- 
cally. 
A mmonio-magnesian 
phosphate remains in 
solution; decant, or 
filter, and see 6, B. 
5. 
x. A precipitate. 
A mmonio-magnesian phosphate (recognize 
under the microscope); soluble in acids, in- 
soluble in water and alkaline solutions. 
Add an excess of 
A mmonia to the 
decanted or fil- 
tered urine. 
Leave a little of the urine in a closed test-tube 
for twenty-four hours. If there be no pre- 
cipitate, there is no Phosphate of Magnesia 
in the urine. 
„ •vr„ 
‘ P c P • 
6. B—Alkaline Phosphates. 
Phosphoric acid, in the state of 
phospho-molybdate of ammo- 
nia, insoluble in acids, soluble 
in alkalies. 
Divide the urine 
into two por- 
tions. Acidu- 
lates with Ni- 
tric acid. 
Add an equal 
volume of 
Molybdate 
ofA mmonia. 
A yellow pre- 
cipitate. 
No Immediate 
precipitate. 
There are only traces of phos- 
phoric acid. Heat mixture to 
about 1040 F. 
Add alcoholic 
solution of 
Bichloride of 
Platinum. 
Add solution 
of bi-meta- 
antimoniate 
of potassa. 
From b drive off the 
ammonia by boil- 
ing, then separate < 
the urine into two 
parts. 
A precipitate. 
Potassa, in the state of 
chloro-platinate; beautiful 
yellow octahedral crystals. 
A granular pre- 
cipitate. 
Soda. HANDBOOK of URINARY ANALYSIS. 
113 
SECTION V. CYSTINE (C 3 H7 N S O3). 
1, General Appearance. 
Very rare urinary sediment. A copious, light sediment (resembling fawn-colored 
urates), deposited from a Urine feebly acid (or alkaline), of a yellowish-green color; 
oily appearance; peculiar sweetbriar odor (when fresh); very liable to decomposition 
(evolving ammonia and sulphureted hydrogen), and liable to be accompanied by 
ammonio-magnesian phosphates, mucus, and epithelia. 
2. Solubility, 
Ammonia. 
Beautiful six-sided colorless crystals reappearing 
when the volatile alkali has evaporated. They 
polarize light. 
x. Soluble in 
Ca st' alkalie 
u 10 S- 
Boiled with Catistic Potash, cystine yields ammonia 
and an inflammable gas. 
Mineral acids. 
Forming crystalline compounds. 
Oxalic acid. 
Acetic acid. 
Precipitates it from its alkaline solutions, amor- 
phously, or in imperfectly formed crystals, 
2. Insoluble 
in 
Ammonium carbonate. 
Precipitates it from its acid solutions. 
. Water, alcohol, vegetable acids (except oxalic). 
3. Heated, on Platinum Foil, 
Burns in the air with a bluish-green flame, evolving thick white fumes, having a peculiar, 
offensive, acid, garlic-like odor, leaving a spongy charcoal, and staining the platinum 
a dark greenish-blue color, which disappears under further heating. 
SECTION VI.—LEUCIN. 
Pure Leucin is a white non-crystallizable, odorless, and 
tasteless organic, fatty-looking substance. If the urine be 
suspected to contain it, see i. 
Very rare deposit in the Urine. 
Evaporate slowly an ounce or two of the urine to the consistence of a syrup, and set 
aside to cool. Leucin, if present, appears as circular, oily-looking, dark-yellow, 
laminated discs, or spheres, which float ivbon water. 
1. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Boiling water, very ; alcohol, sparingly. 
Strong acids. 
2. Solubility. 
Soluble in 
Strong alkalies. 
Dissolved in ammonia it remains unchanged, and 
yields larger spherules when the ammonia sponta- 
neously evaporates. 
This distinguishes it from fatty matter, which it so much re- 
sembles. From crystals of Carbonate of Lime, Leucin may 
be determined by floating on water—the lime crystals sink. 
Insoluble in 
Ether. • 
3. Test. 
Put a small quantity of Leucin on a platinum spatula, add Nitric acid, evaporate 
carefully to dryness. Treat the residue with a few drops of Caustic Soda solution, 
which dissolves it. Gently heat to concentrate; an oily-looking drop is formed, 
which can readily be rolled about under the spatula, neither moistening nor adhering 
to it. (Scherer.) 
Note.—As Leucin can rarely be had from the urine in 
sufficient quantity to apply this characteristic test, we have to 
rely entirely upon its microscopic characters. 
SECTION VII.—TYROSIN (C 9 Hu N 03). 
Very rare deposit in the Urine. 
1. General Appearance. 
Greenish-yellow crystalline sediment, increasing considerably in bulk with slight evapor- 
ation of the urine. 
In doubtful cases concentrate the urine, as recommended in the case of Leucin. 
2. To Obtain It. 
3. Test. 
Boil the suspected deposit in an excess of water, and while boiling it add a few drops 
of a solution of Nitrate of the Protoxide of Mercury (nearly neutral); if Tyrosin be 
present, a red precipitate will go down, while the supernatant liquid will be colored 
rose or purple-red. (Hoffmann.) 
4. Solubility. 
Soluble in <( Acids, alkalies, and boiling water. 
Insoluble in ■{ Ether, alcohol, and cold water. 
Emits, when burned, a disagreeable burnt-horn odor, and does not sublime. 
5. Calcination. HANDBOOK. OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Examination of Urinary Calculi. 
( After Witthaus.) 
i. Heat a portion to redness on platinum foil 
a. It is entirely volatile. See .... 2 
b. A residue remains. See .... 5 
2. Moisten a portion with N 03 H, evaporate nearly to dry- 
ness, add (N H4) HO : 
a. A red dolor is produced. See 3 
b. No red color. See 4 
3. Treat a portion with K H O, without heating: 
a. An ammoniacal odor is observed. - Ammonium urate. 
A No ammoniacal odor, - Uric acid. 
4. a. The N 03 H solution becomes yellow on evapora- 
tion ; the yellow residue becomes reddish-yellow 
on the addition of K H O, and, on heating with 
KH O, violet-red, ----- Xanthin. 
b. The N 03 H solution becomes dark brown on 
evaporation, ------ Cystine. 
5. Treat as in 2 : 
a. A red color is produced. See - - • 6 
b. No red color. See ----- g 
6. Heat before the blow-pipe on platinum foil: 
a. Fuses, -7 
b. Does not fuse, 8 
7. a. Colors the flame yellow, - Sodium urate. 
b. Colors the flame violet, - - Potassium urate. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
8. The residue from 6: 
a. Dissolves in dilute HCI with effervescence; the 
solution forms a white ppt. with ammonium 
oxalate, Calcium urate. 
b. Dissolves with slight effervescence in dilute 
SO4 H2; the solution neutralized with (N H4) HO, 
gives a white precipitate with P 04H Na^ 
Magnesium urate. 
9. Treat as in 6: 
a. It fuses, - Ammonio-magnesia7i phosphate. 
b. It does not fuse, 10 
xo. The residue from 6, when moistened with water, is: 
a. Alkaline, - - - t- - - -11 
b. Not alkaline, ... Tricalcicphosphate. 
11. The original substance dissolves in H Cl: 
a. With effervescence, - - - Calcium carbonate. 
b. Without effervescence, - - Calcium oxalate. 
Systematic Microscopical Examination of 
Urinary Deposits. 
REMOVAL OF THE DEPOSIT FROM THE VESSEL CONTAINING IT. 
In order to remove the deposit from the lower part of the 
vessel in which it has subsided, the upper end of the pipette 
(a glass tube with both extremities open, one of which is much 
smaller than the other, and tapering), is firmly closed by the 
forefinger, and the tapering extremity carried down to the 
very bottom of the glass beneath, or at least in contact with, HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
the layer of sediment there formed. The forefinger should 
now be raised sufficiently to allow about an inch of the 
calibre of the tube to be filled with the sediment, when the 
upper aperture is to be again tightly closed, the tube with- 
drawn, about one-half of its contents allowed to flow out, and 
the external surface wiped off with a piece of new linen or 
muslin. A certain quantity of the deposit, usually a single 
drop, is now allowed to flow on the glass slide (which has 
been scrupulously cleaned), or in a shallow cell, by gently 
raising the forefinger from the top. It is then covered with a 
thin glass cover, and subjected to examination in the usual 
way. Always examine with a lower power first, and then with 
a higher one. Any excess of urine which may exude at the 
margin of the cover, should be removed by bringing in con- 
tact with it a piece of filtering or blotting paper, or the ragged 
edge of a piece of old muslin. 
The removal of urinary deposits by means of a pipette is an 
awkward and unsatisfactory mode of procedure, and several 
ingenious contrivances have therefore been devised to facilitate 
their collection and removal. Small glass trays with glass 
handles have been recommended; the tray is placed at the bot- 
tom of the urine-glass, and when the urine has deposited its 
sediment, the tray is raised by means of the handle, and the 
sediment examined. In this way, however, the deposit is re- 
moved en masse, and successive layers cannot conveniently be 
examined seriatim. To obviate these difficulties, an improved 
arid exceedingly simple form of urine-glass, for the collection 
and examination of deposits, has been contrived, by which 
minute quantities of sediment can be withdrawn for the pur- 
pose of microscopic examination. The arrangement consists 
of a slight modification of Mohr’s burette; this is shortened 
and widened, forming a conical cylinder of sufficient capacity 
to hold two ounces of urine, and width to allow a urinometer HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
to float freely. The sediment is drawn off by means of a 
glass jet inserted into a piece of india-rubber tubing, which is 
attached to the neck of the urine-glass. The flow is broken 
by a spring pinch-cock, which, by compressing the tubing be- 
tween the neck of the urine-glass and the jet, effectually pre- 
vents leakage. On pressing the pinch-cock the compression 
is removable, and a flow occurs. Three or four pieces of HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
india-rubber tubing fitted with glass jets are supplied with 
each instrument, and these when not in use are to be kept in 
a bottle filled with dilute hydrochloric acid, to prevent their 
becoming encrusted. The whole instrument, mounted on a 
black stand with lacquered brass supports, is a neat as well as 
useful adjunct to the consulting-room table. 
Thin shallow cells, made of glass, or gum dammar, or 
animalcule cages, present certain advantages over plain slides 
for examining urinary deposits, since in the former a stratum 
of fluid of any degree of thickness can be very readily ob- 
tained. With a plain slide it is almost impossible not to 
greatly modify the microscopic appearance of the deposit by 
pushing the cover upon the stratum of urine between it and 
the slide. Blood corpuscles and amorphous matter may, by 
this movement, be so aggregated together into cylindrical 
masses as to closely resemble tube-casts, and thus lead to 
serious error. By using a shallow cell this source of error is 
avoided. 
MAGNIFYING POWERS REQUIRED FOR THE EXAMINATION OF 
URINE. 
Urinary sediments require to be examined with different 
magnifying powers. The objectives which the author would 
recommend to the student are the two-third inch (giving a 
magnifying power, with different eye-pieces of from 75 to 150 
diameters), and the one-fifth inch (250 to 700 .diameters). 
If the above-mentioned objectives are of really excellent 
quality, additional magnifying power can be most economic- 
ally obtained by means of an amplifier, or by using higher 
eye-pieces. For urinary examinations, magnifying powers of 
from 200 to 600 diameters will, in general, answer all require- 120 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
ments. The purchase, therefore, of a higher power objective 
than a one-fifth or one-sixth inch may be safely deferred by 
the student until he shall have become somewhat of an expert 
in microscopical manipulation. Without any disparagement 
to the numberless excellent instruments in the market, within 
the reach of the student of limited means, the author can 
recommend, from personal experience in its use, the New 
Working Microscope, recently brought out by Mr. George 
Wale, an illustration of which will be found elsewhere. 
THE MICRO-CHEMISTRY OF URINARY DEPOSITS. 
In the investigation of those deposits which are prone to 
assume very various and widely different forms, such, for 
example, as uric acid, it will often be necessary to apply some 
simple chemical tests before the nature of the substance under 
examination can be positively determined. By a little in- 
genuity and practice, the student may perform under the mi- 
croscope all the chemical tests described in the foregoing 
Systematic Chemical Examination of Inorganic Urinary De- 
posits. But Nitric acid and Hydrochloric acid should never be 
employed under the microscope, where it can be avoided, as 
the vapor from these acids rapidly corrodes the metallic 
mounting of the objective. Whenever they are employed the 
objective should be promptly and carefully wiped with a piece 
of fine old linen, or a piece of soft glove leather. In applying 
reagents, the pointed extremity of some blotting or filtering 
paper, or a thread, may be inserted between the slide and thin 
glass cover (or it may be applied closely against the latter), 
while a drop of the reagent is placed upon the other ex- 
tremity of the paper at a short distance from the thin cover. 
The paper, absorbing the fluid by capillarity, establishes a 
current passing from the point upon which the reagent was NAMES OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE. 
To aid the student in acquiring a familiarity with the microscope, we have inserted a 
cut in whigh the names of all the different parts are given in connection with each, HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
123 
deposited, through the paper, to the thin glass. What occurs 
may then be observed, and the chemical reaction which ensues 
be investigated. A much more expeditious process consists 
in treating a small drop of the sediment upon a glass slide, with 
an excess of the reagent, then cover the whole with the thin 
glass, and examine the result under the microscope. A com- 
panion drop, not so treated, will show by comparison the 
changes which the reagent has induced. The following tables 
give the behavior of most urinary deposits when treated with 
acetic acid. 
General Micro-Chemical Analysis of Urinary 
Sediments. 
The simplest and, perhaps, best division of urinary deposits 
is into unorgatiized and organized. 
A. UNORGANIZED SEDIMENTS. 
(a) Crystallized. 
1. Acid Urine. 
Uric Acid, 
Oxalate of Calcium, 
Calcium Phosphate (Stellar), 
Cystine, 
Tyrosine. 
2. Alkaline Urine. 
Ammonium Urate, 
Triple Phosphate, 
Calcium Phosphate, 
Magnesium Phosphate. 
(Very rare.) 
Urate of Sodium and Potassium, Calcium Carbonate, 
Fats. Calcium Phosphate. 
00 Amorphous. 
SECTION I. NON-ORGANIZED BODIES 
1. Distinctly Crystalline Bodies 
Very large transparent crystals with sharply 
defined edges, generally isolated. Typi- 
cal form, a triangular prism with beveled 
edges. Occurs in alkaline urine only. 
Polarizes light beautifully. 
Soluble in Acetic 
acid. 
A mmonio-mag- 
nesian {or Triple) 
Phosphate. 
Large crystals, often grouped, always col- 
ored (in red, yellow, or brown); typical 
forms, a four-sided rhomb or hexagonal 
plate; surface often fissured; outlines 
very dark. Occurs in acid urine only. 
(Use a power of 100 or 200 diameters.) 
Insoluble JR Acetic 
acid, 
T1• • •j 124 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Large crysta's. colored, closely resembling 1 
ammonio magnesian phosphate in form, 
may occur in needles, cither separate or 
combined in stellate groups. Occurs 
only in acid urine. Very rare deposit. 
(Use a power of zoo diameters.) j 
Insoluble In Acetic 
acid 
Hippuric acid. 
Very small crystals (less than i-ioooth of an 
inch in diameter, usually), isolated ; octa- 
hedral form (more rarely dumb-bells); 
very transparent, or of a faint greenish 
tint; very refractive; sharp edges; re- 
quire a power of 400 to 600 diameters to 
show them well. 
Insoluble in Acetic 
acid. 
Crystals of Oxa- 
late of Lime. 
Irregular, opaque, globular masses, or ' 
spherules, with spiny projections (either 
straight or curved), “hedge-hog” crys- 
tals—or prismatic crystals arranged in 
star-like masses. Comparatively rare 
spontaneous deposit in the crystalline 
form. Found in acid and neutral urine. 
Urate of Soda. 
Crystalline rods, either separate or in stel- 
late groups (rosettes), or sheaf-like bun- 
dles. Some of the crystals club, wedge, 
orbntt'e shaped, and abundantly marked 
with lines of secondary crystallization. 
Frequently associated with oxa ate of 
lime. Not a very common deposit. 
Found in pale, faintly acid urine, with a 
tendency to alkaline fermentation. 
Soluble in Acetic 
acid. 
Crystalline 
Calcium. “Stel- 
lar’' Phosphate. 
Regular, colorless, hexagonal tablets: va- 
rious sizes; united by their flat surfaces, 
and overlapping one another; may have 
an iridescent mother-of-pearl lustre; sur- 
faces often marked wi:h lines of second- 
ary crystallization ; or (being dimorphous) 
square prisms, singly or stellate; strongly 
refracting light. A very rare deposit. 
Insoluble in Acetic 
acid. 
(Soluble in Ammo- 
nia. This differ- 
entiates it from 
Uric acid.) 
Cystine. 
More or less yellowish-tinged, highly-re- 
fraclive spheres, having the appearance 
of fit globules, with sharp contours, and, 
with good light, showing radii and deli- 
cate concentric lines. Found only in 
grave destructive diseases of the liver. 
Insoluble in Ether. 
(Distinguishes it 
from Fat.) 
Leucin. 
Very fine short silky acicular prisms, or ' 
needles, arranged in beautiful bundles, 
tufts, or “ sheaf-like ” collections or specu- 
lated balls. Usually of a deep yellow 
color from absorbed bile pigments, round 
associated with and under the same cir- 
cumstances as the preceding body. 
moderately strong 
Acetic acid. 
Insoluble in 
Ty rosin. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
125 
Granules, irregular, opaque: or spherules, 
from which project spiny crystals, straight 
or curved ; or globules, opaque, isolated, 
or united in a mass like frogs’ eggs. 
2. Amorphous Bodies. 
Slowly soluble in Acetic 
acid, after a short time 
giving rise to colorless 
tablets of Uric acid. 
Urates. 
Grannies, roundish or oval, with dark out- 
lines, isolated, or three or four united in a 
star-like form, or in beads, etc. 
Granules very pale, much smaller, very 
transparent, and difficult to perceive; 
always united by irregular punctated 
patches (the most common appearance). 
Soluble in Acetic 
acid. 
Calcium Phos- 
phate, 
i. Mucus. 2. Epithelium (from various parts of the genito- 
SECTION 11. ORGANIZED BODIES. 
urinary tract). 3. Renal Tube Casts. 4. Blood. 5. Pus. 
6. Spermatozoa. 7. Fungi. 8. Entozoa. 
[Note.—Urine voided turbid will, in the majority of cases, 
owe its turbidity to one or more of the organized deposits.] 
1. Cellular, Bound, or Oval Bodies. 
Circular discs or globules; non-nucleated; 
i-35°othof an inch in diameter; separate; 
edges smooth or dentated; transparent or 
of a faintly yellowish color; sometimes 
presenting a central depression, and, if 
seen in profile, bi-concave. (Use high 
power.) 
Swell in weak Acetic 
acid, or shrink and pre- 
sent a “ raspberry ” as- 
pect. Not colored by 
carmine. 
Red Blood 
Corpuscles. 
Globules, round or oval; nucleated; 
i-aoooth to i-i4ooth of an inch in diame- 
ter; slightly defined outlines; single, 
double, or multiple nuclei; grayish-white 
or granular contents; isolated, or united 
in masses of polygonal cells (use 300 to 
400 diameters). 
Rendered pale by A cetic 
acid, which causes two 
or three nuclei to ap- 
pear within them. Col- 
oredby carmine. 
White Blood 
Corpuscles or 
Leucocytes. 
Globules, round, elongated, or oval; very 
small, varying in diameter from i-yoooth 
to i-2500th (average 1-3000) of an inch; 
transparent, very refractive; larger ones 
nucleated, or have vacuoles, and some- 
times warty expansions. Germinate if 
set aside several days. United in chains 
of three and four, or more, or isolated. 
(Examine with magnifying power of 500 
Unchanged by Acetic 
acid. Uncolored by 
carmine. Their proto- 
plasmic cell-contents, 
but not their sacs, 
stained brownish-yel- 
low by lodine-water. 
Spores 
of Fungi. 
(Fenicillium 
Glaucum, etc) 
to boo diameters.) 126 
HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Corpuscles very small (length about i-3oooth 
of an inch); very refractive: of a pe- 
culiar bluish tint, and fatty lustre; fur- 
nished with a very delicate, long, (i-asoth 
of an inch) tail-like filament; general ap- 
pearance of a minute tadpole, with greatly 
elongated tail. (Use 400 to 600 diame- 
ters. ) 
Unchanged by the re- 
agents above men- 
tioned. 
Spermatozoa 
2. Form Variable; Size Greater than the Preceding. 
Round, oval, lamellar, cylindrical, fusiform, 
caudate, or irregular bodies; furnished 
generally with one or more nuclei, with 
granular contents. 
Rendered pale by A cetic 
acid, which brings out 
their nuclei very dis- 
tinctly. Colored (the 
nuclei especially) by 
carmine. 
Epithelium 
from various 
parts of the 
Genito-urin- 
ary tract 
3. Cylindrical. 
A. Voluminous, of greater or less length 
(rarely exceeding the i-soth of an inch); 
variable aspect; pale or hyaline, gran- 
ular or covered with epithelium ; some- 
times distinctly, sometimes indistinctly 
outlined: generally round or club- 
shaped extremities. 
Renal Tube Casts. 
' With badly defined margins, 
often twisted or varicose, 
branching and subdividing. 
Uncolored by 
carmine. 
Mucus Casts. 
'•Sgi.T 
With clear, well-defined margins, 
sometimes intersected by frac- 
tures. 
Colored by 
carmine. 
Hyaline or "waxy 
casts.” 
No line of contour; epithelial 
cells united into a cylinder. 
Never very narrow. 
Epithelial or granular 
casts. 
b. More or less dark, 
epithelial or granu- 
lar cylinders. (Use 
power of 200 to 400 
diameters.) 
A more or less distinct line of 
contour: fyndamental sub- 
stance finely granular, studded 
with blood corpuscles. 
Fibrinous Hood casts. 
Any of the above may undergo fatty degeneration. 
B. Very short; very small (i-ioooth to 
i-3oooth of an inch in length) trans- 
parent bodies; sometimes motion- 
less, but generally exhibiting ac- 
tive vibratory movements; or two 
or more joined end to end with a 
spiral motion. (Requires a power 
of 500 diameters, and upwards, to 
Unchanged by Acetic acid, ex- 
cept the arrest of motion. 
Their protoplasm colored 
yellow by lodine-water. 
Rnrterio 
show them well.) HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
127 
4. Filamentous, or Fibrillary, 
Acetic acid does not change 
them. 
Thallus 
of Fungi. 
Acetic acid renders them pale, 
causes their fibrillary aspect to 
disappear, and gives rise to a 
swollen, transparent, amor- 
phous mass. 
Very thin: more or less ramified 
or interlacing. 
Fibrin. 
Acetic acid renders them more 
distinct, and gives them a 
punctated or striated appear- 
ance. 
Mucus. 
5. Square. 
Square bodies, subdivided into secondary- 
squares, which number 2, 4, 8, etc., 
and when collected in the form of cubes, 
very much resemble bales of goods. 
Sarcina. HANDBOOK OF URINARY ANALYSIS. 
Form of Recording- Urinary Examinations. 
(To be printed on a full letter sheet.) 
Examination of Urine. 
For at the request of 
Dr. 
Physical and Chemical Characters. 
Total Quantity in twenty-four hours, 
Color and Appearance, 
Odor, 
Reaction, 
Specific Gravity, 
Albumen, 
Sugar, 
Quantity and General Appearance of the Deposit, 
Crystals, 
microscopical Appearance. 
Anatomical Elements, 
Casts, 
Other Morphological Elements. 
Bemarks. INDEX. 
Acid fermentation of the urine, 16, 36. 
Albuminuria, 29 to 31. 
tests for, 105. 
Alkaline fermentation of the urine, 16, 36. 
Alkalinity of the urine, 15. 
significance of, 17, 18. 
artificial production of, 16. 
produced by diseases, 16. 
Ammonium carbonate, 16, 17. 
Ammoniacal urine, 17, 18. 
Ammonium urate, 17, 36, 55, 115. 
Ammonio-magnesian (or triple) phosphate, 
17. 36. 37, 63, 64- 
microscopic appearances of, 64, 65,123. 
as calculi, 116. 
Apparatus for quantitative estimation of 
Chylous urine, it. 
test for, 108, 109. 
Color of the urine, 12, 102. 
modified by bile pigments, 14, 102. 
modified by indican, 14, 102. 
modified by medicines, 14, 102. 
modified by poisons, 14, 102. 
Composition of the urine, 7. 
Consistency of the urine, n. 
Cystin, 68. 
as calculi, 115. 
clinical significance of, 70. 
general appearance of deposit of, 113. 
microscopic appearances of, 67, 70, 
124. 
tests for, 115. 
Cystitis, 18, 92. 
Deposits in the urine, 35. 
apparatus for collection of, 117 to 119. 
classification of, 123. 
definition of, 35. 
examination of, 109 to 114. 
from changes in reaction, 35, 36. 
from standing, 10. 
micro-chemical analysis of, 120, 123 
to 127. 
non-organized, 123 to 125. 
organized, 125, 127. 
Diabetes mclhtus, 31, 32, 106. 
Diabetic sugar, 33. 
Epithelium, 74 to 78, 126. 
Extractive matters in the urine, 33, 34. 
test for, 34. 
Extraneous substances found in the urine, 
38. 39- 
Fluorescence of the urine, 14. 
Form for recording urinary examinations, 
128. 
urea, 45. 
collecting urinary sediments, 118. 
Bacteria, -36, 96, 126. 
Biliary acids in the urine, 108. 
Bile in the unne, 34. 
tests for, 107, 108. 
Bilirubin, 34. 
Bird’s specific gravity and temperature 
corrections, 103. 
Blood in the urine, 87, 90. 
clinical significance of, 90. 
chemical tests for, icB. 
microscopic appearances of, 88,89,125. 
origin and occurrence of, 87. 
Bouchardat’s specific gravity and tempera- 
turc corrections, 21. 
Calculi, urinary, 115. 
examination of, 115. 
Casts in the urine, 78, 87, 126. 
blood, 81, 82, 126. 
classification of, 79. 
clinical significance of, 86. 
collection and examination of, 78. 
diagnosis of, 85, 86. 
epithelial, 80, 81, 126. 
fatty or oil, 81, 82, 126. 
granular, 80, 81, 126. 
hyaline, waxy, 82, 83, 84, 126. 
mucus, 73, 84, 85, 126. 
of the seminal tubules, 85. 
origin or mode of formation of, 79, 80. 
Froth on the urine, n. 
Fungi in the unne, 96 to 101, 126. 
Gases in the urine, 8. 
Glycosuria, 31, 106. 
Gmelin’s test for bile pigments, 107. 
Hsematuna, 87 to 90. 
Haemoglobin, 12. 
Hasser’s formula, 23. 
Highly-colored urine, 12. INDEX, 
Hippuric acid, 56. 
microscopic appearances of, 57, 124. 
Indican in the urine, 14, 102. 
Leucin in the urine, 67, 68, 113, 124. 
tests for, 114. 
Magnifying powers for urinary examina- 
tions, 119. 
Micro-chemistry of urinary deposits, 120, 
Schift’s test for uric acid, no. 
Sediments in the urine (see deposits). 
Selection of a specimen for examination, 
101, 102. 
Specific gravity, 18 to 23. 
determination of amount of solids by 
the. 23. 
method of finding the. 21, 102. 
modified by diseases, 19. 
tabic for correcting for tsmperature. 
123. 
Microscope, 121. 
Mould fungus, 97 to 99. 
Mucus, 72 to 74, 127. 
Mucus casts, 73, 84, 85. 
Murexide test for uric acid, no. 
Odor of the urine, n, 102. 
how modified, 12, 102. 
Opacity ofthe urine, 10. 
Oxalate of lime, 57 to 61. 
clinical significance of, 58. 
general appearance of deposit, in. 
microscopical appearances of, 59, 124. 
solubility of, in. 
Pale urine, 12, 13. 
Penicilium glaucum, 36, 97, 98, 99, 125 
Pettenkofer’s test for biliary acids, 108. 
Phosphates, 61 to 67. 
clinical significance of, 66. 
tests for the, no, in. 
Phosphate of lime, amorphous, 17, 37, 62, 
21, 103. 
Spermatozoa in the urine, 93 to 95, 126. 
clinical significance of, 95. 
Sugar in the urine, 31, 32, 106. 
tests for, 106. 
Systematic qualitative analysis of urine, 
102 to 127. 
Table for specific gravity and temperature 
corrections. 21, 103. 
Test for abnormal substances in the urine. 
104. 
albumen, 103. 
alkaline phosphates, 112. 
amorphous urates, m. 
bile acids, 108. 
bile pigments, 107. 
blood, 108. 
chyle, 109. 
cystine, 113. 
deficiency of urea, 104. 
earthy phosphates, 112. 
excess of urea, 104. 
leucin, 114. 
oxalate of lime, in. 
Torula cerevisia:, 36, 93, 100. 
Transparency of the urine, 10. 
Trapp’s formula, 23. 
Trommer’s test for sugar, 107. 
Tyrosin, 67, 68, 124. 
test for, 114. 
Test for sugar in the urine, 106. 
tyrosin, 114. 
uric acid, no. 
Urates, amorphous, 51, no, 125. 
amorphous, test for, in. 
amorphous, colored by pigments, 14. 
crystalline, 53. 
precipitated by acid fermentation, 16, 
36; 
precipitated by cold, 10. 
precipitated by pathological condi- 
tions, 52. 
precipitated by physiological condi- 
tions, 52. 
microscopical appearances of, 52. 
Urate of ammonium, 17, 36, 55, in, 115. 
calcium, 116. 
magnesium, 116. 
potassium, 115. 
sodium, 53, 54, in, 115, 124. 
Urea, 38 to 46. 
decomposition of, 16, 17. 
”S, 125. 
crystalline, 62, 63. 
microscopic appearances, 62, 124. 
Pigments of the urine, 12. 
affinity for urates and uric acid, 14. 
Purpurin, 13. 
Pus in the urine, 90 to 93. 
occurrence and recognition of, 90. 
clinical significance of, 92. 
microscopical appearances of, 91, 92, 
. 125- 
Pyuria, 90 to 93. 
Quantity of the urine, 24, 104. 
modified by cutaneous exhalations, 26. 
modified by diseases and remedies, 27. 
modified by drink, 24. 
modified by food, 25. 
modified by pulmonary exhalations, 26. 
modified by sex and age, 26. 
modified by sleep, 27. 
modified by stools, 26. 
Reaction of the urine, 15 to 18, 103. 
modified by diseases, 15. 
modified by food, 15. 
modified by medicines, 13. 
modified by standing, 16. 
significance of, 18, 
tests for, 103. 
Renal function, 8. 
Renal tube-casts, 78 to 87, 126, 
Robert’s fermentation test, 107. 
Sarcina in the urine, 100, 101, 126. 
Scherer’s test for leucin, 114. INDEX. 
131 
Urea modified by diet, 42. 
nitrate of, 40. 
oxalate of, 41. 
quantitative test for, 43 to 46. 
test for deficiency of, 104. 
test for excess of, 104. 
Uric acid, 46 to 50, 109. 
action of alkalies on, no. 
approximate estimation of, no. 
artificial production of, 50. 
Uric acid calculi, 115. 
clinical significance of, 47. 
colored by pigments, 14, 48. 
common forms of, 49. 
general appearance of deposit of, 109. 
microscopical appearance of, 49, 123. 
murexide test for, no. 
nitrate of silver test for, no. 
rare forms of, 50. 
solubility of, 109. 
test by calcination, rog. 
Urine, acidity of, 7, 8, 15. 
acid fermentation of, 16. 
ammoniacal, 17. 
black, 14. 
blue, 14. 
color of, 12, 102. 
consistency o£ n. 
Urine, extraneous substances in the, 38. 
fluorescence, 14. 
gases in, 8. 
glass for collecting deposits, 118. 
green, 14. 
high-colored, 12, 13. 
odor of, 11, 102. 
opacity of, 10. 
pale, 12, 13. 
quantity 24, 102. 
reaction of, 15 to 18, 103. 
specific gravity of, 18 to 24, 102. 
turbidity of, 10, 72. 
when to examine, 37,101. 
Urinary analysis set and stand (see frontis- 
piece) . 
Urinary pigments, 12, 102. 
Urinometer, 20. 
Urobilin, 12, 13. 
Urochrome, 12. 
Uroerythrin, 13, 102. 
Urohaematin, 13, 102. 
Variations, physiological and patholo- 
gical, 9. 
Xanthin, 71. 
microscopical appearances, 71. 
calculi, 115. 
Yeast fungus, 99, 100. URINARY ANALYSIS SET. 
ENLARGED FORM OF PROF. DRAPER’S STAND. 
See Frontispiece. 
It consists of a Neat Black Walnut Stand, furnished with 
the following apparatus: 
i One-pint Washing-Bottle, with Rubber Stopper. 
i Urinometer. 
i Glass Urinometer Cylinder, with Base or Foot, 
i Porcelain Evaporating Dish, 2y2 oz. capacity. 
1 Glass Funnel. 
2 Watch Glasses. 
1 doz. 4y2 oz. Glass-Stoppered Reagent Bottles, for the 
following reagents: 1. Hydrochloric Acid. 2. Nitric Acid. 
3. Nitrous Acid. 4. Sulphuric Acid. 5. Acetic Acid. 6. 
Potassic Hydrate. 7.* Ammonic Hydrate. 8. Sodic Car- 
bonate. 9. Argentic Nitrate. 10. Alcohol. 11. Ether. 
12. Cupric Sulphate. 
6 doz. Test Tubes—Rack and Drying Pegs for 9. 
53P The above-named bottles (made and patented by 
Whitall, Tatum & Co.) are made of glass containing no 
lead\ zinc, or other metallic flux. They possess the true 
shape, thin dropping lip, and perfect stoppering. The 
chemical names and symbols are distinctly blown in the glass, 
thus preventing the danger of confusion, and avoiding the 
unsightly appearance of paper-labelled bottles. All letters 
are ground to make them perfectly visible, and they are 
quickly and easily cleaned. 
The stand contains spaces for six additional bottles, for 
solutions of Carmine, lodine, Aniline, etc. 
INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 
14 Dey Street, New York, CATALOGUE 
OF 
Books and Periodicals. 
THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 
74 Dey Street, JSTew York. 
PUBLISHED AND FOE SALE BY 
jgPAny of these Books may be obtained from any Bookseller or Newsdealer, or 
willbe sent Free by mail to any part of the United States or Canada ON RECEIPT 
OF PRICE. 
Remit ances should be made in Bank Drafts, Postal Orders, or Registered Letters. 
Fractional parts of a dollar may be sent in postage stamps of small denominations, but 
we will not receive postage stamps to the amount of $l.OO or over. Postage stamps 
of large denominations, and Canadian postage stamps are of no use to us. Canadian 
currency and British postage stamps will be received in any quantity but only from 
foreign correspondents. 
Rhymes of Science: Wise and Otherwise 
This consists of a series of short poems, chiefly hu- 
morous, by Oliver Wendel Holmes, Bret Hart, In- 
goldsby, Prof. Forbes, Prof. J. W. McQ. Eankine, Hon. 
E. W. Eaymond, and others. 
With Illustrations. Cloth, Gilt Title, 
50 cents, FOURTH EDITION. Greatly Enlarged, with, over 80 illustrations in the Text 
arid 6 full page Engravings, printed on Heavy Tint Paper, i Vol. \imo., 240 
pages. Neatly Bound in Cloth, Gilt Title. Price $l.OO. 
HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE. 
A SIMPLE AND PRACTICAL BOOK, INTENDED FOR BEGINNERS. 
JOHN PHIN, 
CONDENSED TABLE OP CONTENTS. 
Editor of “ The American Journal of Microscopy." 
The Microscope.—What it Is; What it Does; Different Kinds of Microscopes; 
Principles of its Construction; Names of the Different Parts. 
Simple Microscopes.—Hand Magnifiers; Doublets; Power of Two or More 
Lenses When Used Together; Stanhope Lens; Coddington Lens; Achromatic 
Doublets and Triplets; Twenty-five Cent Microscopes—and How to Make Them; 
Penny Microscopes, to Show Eels in Paste and Vinegar. 
Dissecting Microscopes.—Essentials of a Good Dissecting Microscope. 
Compound Microscopes.—Cheap Foreign Stands; The Ross Model; The Jackson 
Model; The Continental Model; P’he New American Model; Cheap American 
Stands; The Binocular Microscope; The Binocular Eye-piece; The Inverted Micro- 
scope; Lithological Microscopes; The Aquarium Microscope; Microscopes for 
Special Purpo es; “Class” Microscopes. 
Objectives.—Defects of Common Lenses; Spherical Aberration: Chromatic do. ; 
Corrected Objectives; Defining Power; Achromatism; Aberration of Form; Flatness 
of Field: Angular Aperture: Penetrating Power ; Working Distance; Immersion and 
“Homogeneous” Lenses; D plex Fronts; French Triplets, etc., etc. 
Testing Objectives.—General Rules; Accepted Standards—Diatoms, Ruled 
Lines, Artificial Star; Podura; Nobert’s Lines; Moller’s Probe Platte, etc., etc. 
Selection of a .Microscope —Must be Adapted to Requirements and Skill of 
User: Microscopes for Botany; For Physicians; For Students. 
Accessory Apparatus.—Stage Forceps; Forceps Carrier: Plain Slides: Concave 
Slides: Watch-Glass Holder; Animalcule Cage; Zoophyte Trough; The Weber Slide; 
The Cell-Trough; The Compressoriura; Gravity Compressonum; Growing Slides; 
Frog Plate: Table; Double Nose-piece. 
Illumination.—Sun-Light; Artificial Light—Candles, Gas, Lamps, etc., etc. 
Illumination of Opaque Objects.—Bulls-Eye Condenser; Side Reflector; The 
Liebcrkuhn; The Parabolic Reflector; Vertical Illuminators. 
Illumination of Transparent Objects.—Direct and Reflected Light: Axial or 
Central Ligh ; Oblique Light; The Achromatic Condenser; The Webster Condenser, 
and How to Use it; Wenham’s Reflex Illuminator, and How to Use it; The Wenham 
Prism; The “Half-Button;" The Woodward Illuminator; Tolies’ Illuminating 
Traverse Lens; The Spot Lens; The Parabolic Illuminator; Polarized Light. 
How to Use the Microscope.—General Rules: Hints to Beginners. 
How to Use Objectives of Large Aperture.—Collar-Correction, etc. 
Care of the Microscope.—Should be Kept Covered; Care of Objectives: Pre- 
cautions to be Used when Corrosive Vapors and Liquids are Employed; To Protect 
thi Objectives from Vapors which Corrode Glass; Cleaning the Objectives: Cleaning 
th Brass Work. 
Collecting Objects.—Where to Find Objects; What to Look for; How to Capture 
Them. 
The Preparation and Examination of Objects.—Cutting Thin Sections of 
Sof> Substances; Valentine’s Knife; Sections of Wood and Bone; Improved Section 
Cutter; Sections of Rock; Knives; Scissors; Needles; Dissecting Pans and Dishes; 
Dissecting Microscopes: Separation of Deposits from Liquids; Preparing Whole 
Insects; Feet, Eyes, Tongues, Wings, etc ,of Insects; Use of Chemical Tests; Liquids 
for Moistening Objects; Refractive Powers of Different Liquids; lod-Scrum ; Artificial 
lod-Serum; Covers for Keeping Out Dust; Errors in Microscopic Observations. 
Preservative Processes.—General Principles; Preservative Media. 
Apparatus for Mounting Objects.—Slides; Covers; Cells; Turn-Tables,etc. 
Cements and Varnishes.—General Rules for Using. 
Mounting Objects.—Mounting Transparent Objects Dry; in Balsam: in Liquids: 
Whole Insects; How to Get Rid of Air-Bubbles; Mounting Opaque OWccts. 
Finishing the Slides.—Cabinets; Maltwood Finder; Microscopical Fallacies. Celestial Objects for Common telescopes. 
By the Rev. T. W. Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S. Fourth Edi- 
tion, Revised and Greatly Enlarged. Fully Illustrated 
with Engravings and a large Map of the Moon. 
Cloth, ------- $3.00 
This edition has been made for us by the English publishers, and 
is in every respect the same as the English edition. The work itself 
is too well known to require commendation at our hands. No one 
that owns even the commonest kind of a telescope can afford to do 
without it 
“ Many things, deemed invisible to secondary instruments, are 
plain enough to one who ‘ knows how to see them.’ ’’—Smyth. 
“ When an object is once discerned by a superior power, an inferior 
one will suffice to see it afterwards.”—Sir. W. Herschel. 
Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. 
By John Phin, Editor of the “American Journal of 
Microscopy” and the “Young Scientist.” 
12 mo., Cloth, 75 cents. 
In this volume an attempt is made to trace the evolution of our 
globe from the primeval state of nebulous mist, “ without form and 
void,” and existing in “ darkness,” or with an entire absence of the 
manifestations of the physical forces, to the condition in which it was 
fitted to become the habitation of man. While the statements and 
conclusions are rigidly scientific, it gives some exceedingly novel 
views of a rather hackneyed subject. 
Ponds and Ditches. 
A Work on Pond Life and Kindred Objects. By M. C. 
Cooke, M.A., LL.I). Cloth, 12m0., - - 75 cents. 
This is a most interesting volume by a well-known author and 
microscopist. It is very freely illustrated with engravings of the 
objects usually found in pond water. 
Microscopical Examination of Drinking Water. 
A Guide to the Microscopical Examination of Drinking 
Water. By J. D, McDonald. 
Bvo., Cloth, 24 plates, .... $2.75 Section Cutting. 
A Practical Guide to the Preparation and Mounting Oi 
Sections for the Microscope; Special Prominence being 
dlven to the Subject of Animal Sections. By Sylvester 
Marsh. Reprinted from the London edition. With 
Illustrations. 12m0., Cloth, Gilt Title. _ • 75 cents. 
This is undoubtedly the most thorough treatise extanr upon section 
cutting in all its details. The American edition has been greatly 
enlarged by valuable explanatory notes, and also by extended direc- 
tions, illustrated with engravings, for selecting and sharpening 
knives and razors. 
A Book for Beginners with the Microscope. 
Being an abridgment of “ Practical Hints on the Selection 
and Use of the Microscope,” ByJohnPhin. Fully illus- 
trated, and neatly and strongly bound in boards. 30 cts. 
This book was prepared for the use of those who, having no know- 
ledge of the use of the microscope, or, indeed, of any scientific appar- 
atus, desire simple and practical instruction in the best methods ol 
managing the instrument and preparing objects. 
How io Use the Microscope. 
“ Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Micro- 
scrope.” Intended for Beginners, By John Phin, 
Editor of the “American Journal of Microscopy.” 
Fourth Edition. Greatly enlarged, with over 80 engrav- 
ings in the text, and 6 full-page engravings, printed on 
heavy tint paper. 12m0., cloth, gilt title, - $l.OO 
The Microscope. 
By Andrew Ross. Fully Illustrated. 12m0,, Cloth, 
Gilt Title. ----- 75 cents. 
This is the celebrated article contributed by Andrew Eoss to the 
“Penny Cyclopaedia,” and quoted so frequently by writers on the 
Microscope. Carpenter and Hogg, in the last editions of their works 
on the Microscope, and Brooke, in his treatise on Natural Philoso- 
phy, all refer to this article as the best source for full and clear 
information in regard to the principles upon which the modern 
achromatic Microscope is constructed. It should bo in the library 
of every person to whom the Microscope is more than a toy. It ie 
written in simple language, free from abstruse technicalities. * the Microscopist’s Annual for 1879.* 
Contains List of all the Microscopical Societies hi the 
country, with names of officers, days of meeting, etc.; 
etc.; Alphabetical and Classified Lists of all the Manu- 
facturers of Microscopes and Objectives, Dissecting Ap- 
paratus, Microscopic Objects, Materials for Microscopists, 
in Europe and America, etc., etc.; Postal Bates, Rules 
and Regulations, prepared expressly for microscopists; 
Weights and Measures, with tables and rules for the con- 
version of different measures into each other; Custom 
Duties and Regulations in regard to Instruments and 
Books; Yalue of the Moneys of all Countries in U. S. 
Dollars; Yalue of the Lines on Robert’s Test Plates; 
Table of Moller’s Probe Platte, with the number of lines 
to inch on the several diatoms, etc., etc.; Focal Yalue 
of the Objectives of those makers who Number their 
Objectives (Hartnack, Nachet, etc.); Focal Yalue of the 
Eye-pieces of different makers; Magnifying Power of 
Eye-pieces and Objectives, etc., etc. The whole form- 
ing an indispensable companion for every working micro- 
scopist. Limp Cloth, Gilt - - - 25 cents. 
will be uniform in size and price with that for 1879. 
The “ Annual ” for 1880 is in a forward state of preparation, and 
Microscope Objectives. 
The Angulai Aperture of Microscope Objectives, By 
Dr. George E. Blackham. Bvo., Cloth. Eighteen full 
page illustrations printed on extra fine paper. $1.25, 
Sold only by Subscription. 
This is the elaborate paper on Angular Aperture, read by Dr, 
Blackham before the Microscopical Congress, held at Indianapolis. 
Kutzing on Diatoms.—Nearly ready. 
The Siliceous Shelled Bacillarim or Diatomacem; the 
History of their Discovery and Classification; their Dis- 
tribution, Collection, and Life-History. By Friedrich 
Traugott Kutzing. Translated from the German by Prof. 
Hamilton L. Smith, of Geneva, N. Y. 12m0,, Cloth, 
Gilt, ------ 50 cents. The Microscope and Jts Revelations. 
By William B. Carpenter, C.8., M.D., LL.D., P.E.S., 
F.G.S., F.L.S., etc., etc. Sixth Edition. Illustrated 
by twenty-six plates and five hundred wood engravings, 
882 pages. Cloth, 12 mo,, .... $5.50 
This is indisputably the best work for the general Student of Natural 
History. It gives the most complete account of the various forms of 
the Microscope, of the accessories employed, and of the best modes of 
using them, and it describes the best methods of preparing and 
mounting objects. In the second part—the “ Revelations it leads 
the student step by step from the simplest forms of animal and 
vegetable life up to the minute anatomy of the highest. The new 
edition is so greatly improved as to render all former editions 
obsolete. 
Diatoms. 
Practical Directions for Collecting, Preserving, Trans- 
porting, Preparing and Mounting Diatoms. By Prof. A. 
Mead Edwards, M.D., Prof. Christopher Johnston, M.D., 
Prof. Hamilton L. Smith, LL.D. 
12m0., Cloth, 75 cents. 
This volume undoubtedly contains the most complete series of 
directions for Collecting, Preparing and Mounting Diatoms ever 
published. The directions given are the latest and best. 
Common Objects for the Microscope. 
By Eev. J. G. Wood. Upwards of four hundred illus- 
trations, including twelve colored plates by Tuffen West. 
Illuminated Covers, 50 cents. 
This book contains a very complete description of the objects 
ordinarily met with, and as the plates are very good, and almost every 
object is figured, it is a most valuable assistant to the young micro- 
scopist. 
One Thousand Objects for the Microscope. 
By M. C. Cooke, Yice-President of the Quekett Micro- 
scopical Club, London; Hon. Member of the American 
Microscopical Society, etc., etc. Illustrated with 12 
plates, containing 500 figures of the most interesting 
microscopic objects. 12 mo., Boards, - 50 cents Cements and Glue. 
A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of all 
Kinds of Cements, Glue, and Paste. By John Phin, 
Editor of the “Young Scientist” and the “American 
Journal of Microscopy.” 
Stiff Covers, - - - - - 25 cents. 
This is the first of a Series of ‘Work Manuals,” which are intended 
to be thoroughly trustworthy and practical. They are not mere 
reprints of old matter, but fresh presentations of valuable material, 
representing the latest developments of science. Every mechanic 
and householder will find the volume on Cements of almost everyday 
use. It contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of cements for 
almost every conceivable purpose. 
The Amateur’s Hand-Book of Practical information. 
Eor the Workshop and the Laboratory. Second Edition. 
Greatly Enlarged. Neatly Bound, - - 15 cents. 
This is a handy little book, containing just the information needed 
by Amateurs in the Workshop and Laboratory. Directions for 
making Alloys, Fusible Metals, Cements, Glues, etc.; and for Solder- 
ing, Brazing, Lacquering, Bronzing, Staining and Polishing Wood, 
Tempering Tools, Cutting and Working Glass, Varnishing, Silvering, 
Gilding, Preparing Skins, etc., etc. 
The New Edition contains extended directions for preparing Polish- 
ing Powders, Freezing Mixtures, Colored Lights for tableaux, Solu- 
tions for rendering ladies’ dresses incombustible, etc. There has also 
been added a very large number of new and valuable receipts. 
Five Hundred and Seven Mechanical Movements. 
Embracing all those which are Most Important in Dy- 
namics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Steam 
Engines, Mill and Other Gearing, Presses, Horology and 
Miscellaneous Machinery; and including Many Move- 
ments never before published, and several of which have 
only recently come into use. By Henry T. Brown, editor 
of the “American Artisan.” Eleventh Edition. $l.OO 
This work is a perfect Cyclopaedia of Mechanical Inventions, which 
are here reduced to first principles, and classified so as to be readily 
available. Every mechanic that hopes to be more than a rule-of- 
thumb worker ought to have a copy. The Steel Square and Its Uses. 
The Carpenters’ Steel Square and its Uses ; being a de- 
scription of the Square, and its Uses in obtaining the 
Lengths and Bevels of all kinds of Rafters, Hips, Groins, 
Braces, Brackets, Purlins, Collar-Beams, and Jack- 
Rafters. Also, its application in obtaining the Bevels 
and Cuts for Hoppers, Spring Mouldings, Octagons, 
Stairs, Diminished Stiles, etc., etc., etc. Illustrated by 
Over Fifty Wood-cuts. By Fred. T. Hodgson, Editor 
of the “ Builder and Woodworker.” 
Cloth, Gilt, ----- 75 cents. 
Mechanical Draughting. 
The Students’ Illustrated Guide to Practical Draughting. 
A Series of Practical Instructions for Machinists, Me- 
chanics, Apprentices, and Students at Engineering 
Establishments and Technical Institutes. By T. P, 
Pemberton, Draughtsman and Mechanical Engineer. 
Illustrated with Numerous Engravings. 
Cloth, Gilt, - - - - - $l.OO 
This is a simple but thorough book, by a draughtsman of twenty- 
five years’ experience. It is intended for beginners and self-taught 
students, as well as for those who pursue the study under tho direc- 
tion of a teacher. 
Lectures In a Workshop. 
By T. P. Pemberton, formerly Associate Editor of the 
“Technologist;” Author of “The Student’s Illustrated 
Guide to Practical Draughting.” With an appendix con- 
taining the famous papers by WThitworth “On Plane 
Metallic Surfaces or True Planes;” “On an Uniform 
System of Screw Threads; ” “Address to the Institution 
of Mechanical Engineer’s, Glasgow;” “On Standard 
Decimal Measures of Length.” 12 mo., Cloth, Gilt, $l.OO 
We have here a sprightly, fascinating book, full of valuable hints, 
interesting anecdotes and sharp sayings. It is not a compilation 
of dull sermons or dry mathematics, but a live, readable book. The 
papers by Whitworth, now first made accessible to the American 
reader, form the basis of our modern systems of accurate work. Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving. 
A Manual of Instruction in the Art of Wood Engraving; 
with a Description of the Necessary Tools and Appar- 
atus, and Concise Directions for their Use; Explanation 
of the Terms Used, and the Methods Employed for Pro- 
ducing the Various Classes of Wood Engravings. By S. 
E. Fuller. 
Fully illustrated with Engravings by the author, separ- 
ate sheets of engravings for transfer and practice 
being added. 
New Edition, Neatly Bound. - - 30 cents. 
What to Do in Case of Accident. 
What to Do and How to Do It in Case of Accident. A 
Book for Everybody. 12m0., Cloth, Gilt Title. 50 cents. 
This is one of the most useful books ever published. It tells ex- 
actly what to do iu case of accidents, such as Severe Cuts, Sprains, 
Dislocations, Broken Bones, Bums with Fire, Scalds, Burns with 
Corrosive Chemicals, Sunstroke, Suffocation by Foul Air, Hanging. 
Drowning, Frost-Bite, Fainting, Stings, Bites, Starvation, Lightning, 
Poisons, Accidents from Machinery, and from the Falling of Scaf- 
folding, Gunshot Wounds, etc., etc. It ought to be in every house, for 
young and old are liable to accident, and the directions given in this 
book might be the means of saving many a valuable life. 
BOUND VOLUMES OF 
The Technologist, or Industrial Monthly. 
The eight volumes of The Technologist, ob Inxujsteial 
Monthly, which have been issued, form a Mechanical and Archi- 
tectural Encyclopaedia of greafr-falue; and, when properly bound, 
they form a most important addition to any library. The splendid 
full-page engravings, printed on tinted paper, in the highest style of 
the art, are universally conceded to be the finest architectural and 
mechanical engravings ever published in this country. We have on 
hand a few complete sets, which we offer for $16.00, handsomely and 
uniformly bound in cloth. 
We have also a few extra sets of Vols. HI to VIII inclusive. Thes<? 
six volumes we offer for $B.OO bound in cloth. As there are but a very 
few sets remaining, those who desire to secure them should order 
immediately 
Note.—The above prices do not include postage or express charges. 
££he set weighs altogether too much to be sent by mail. Shooting on the Wing. 
Plain Directions for Acquiring the Art of Shooting on 
the Wing. With Useful Hints concerning all that relates 
to Guns and Shooting, and particularly in regard to the 
art of Loading so as to Kill. To which has been added 
several Valuable and hitherto Secret Eecipes, of Great 
Practical Importance to the Sportsman. By an Old 
Gamekeeper. 
12m0., Cloth, Gilt Title. 75 cents. 
The Pistol as a Weapon of Defence, 
In the House and on the Eoad. 
12m0., Cloth. - - - - 50 cents. 
This work aims to instruct the peaceable and law-abiding citizens 
in the best means of protecting themselves from the attacks of the 
brutal and the lawless, and is the only practical book published on 
this subject. Its contents are as follows; The Pistol as a Weapon of 
Defence.—The Carrying of Fire-Arms.—Different kinds of Pistols in 
Market; How to Choose a Pistol.—Ammunition, different kinds; 
Powder, Caps, Bullets, Copper Cartridges, etc—Best form of Bullet- 
How to Load—Best Charge for Pistols.—How to regulate the 
Charge.—Care of the Pistol; how to Clean it.—How to Handle and 
Carry the Pistol.—How to Learn to Shoot.—Practical use of the 
Pistol; how to Protect yourself and howto Disable your antagonist 
Lightning Rods. 
Plain Directions for the Construction and Erection of 
Lightning Eods. By John Phin, C. E., editor of “The 
Young Scientist,” author of “Chemical History of the 
Six Days of the Creation,” etc. Second Edition, En- 
larged and Fully Illustrated. 
This is a simple and practical little work, intended to convey just 
Such information as will enable every property owner to decide 
whether or not his buildings are thoroughly protected. It is not 
written in the interest of any patent or particular article of manu- 
facture, and by following its directions, any ordinarily skilful me- 
chanic can put up a rod that will afford perfect protection, and that 
will not infringe any patent. Every owner of a house or bam ough' 
to procure a copy. 
12m0., Cloth, Gilt Title. 50 cents.. Hand-Book of Urinary Analysis. 
For the Use of Physicians, Medical Students, and Clinical Assistants. 
CHEMICAL AND MICROSCOPICAL. 
Laboratory Instructor in the Medical Department of the University of New York; 
Member of the N. Y. County Medical Society; Member of the New York 
Microscopical Society, etc. 
FRANK M. DEEMS, M. D., 
Illustrated, limp Cloth, Gilt, 25 cts. 
This Manual presents a plan for the Systematic Examination of Liquid Urine, Urinary 
Deposits, and Calculi. It is compiled with the intention of supplying a concise guide, 
which, from its small compass and tabulated arrangement, renders it admirably adapted 
for use, both as a bed-side reference book and a work-table companion. The author 
is well known as one who has had for several years a very extended experience as a 
teacher of this important branch of physical diagnosis, and he has compiled a manual 
which will serve to lessen the difficulties in the way of the beginner, and save valuable 
time to the busy practitioner. Free by Mail on receipt of price. 
JUST PUBLISHED. 
HOW TO SEE WITH THE MICROSCOPE. 
Being Useful Hints Connected with the Selection and Use of the Instrument; also 
Some Discussion of the Claims and Capacity of Modern High-Angled Objectives, 
as Compared with those of Medium Aperture. With Instructions as to the 
Selection and Use of American Object-Glasses of Wide Apertures. 
By J. EDWARDS SMITH, M. D. 
Professor of Histology and Microscopy; Corresponding Member San Francisco, 
Dunkirk, and other Microscopical Societies, etc., etc. 
Handsomely Illustrated. 
Prof. Smith is well known as the most expert manipulator in this country, as regards 
objectives of wide aperture, and in this volume he gives, in a clear and practical man- 
ner, all the directions necessary to attain the surprising results which he has achieved. 
No microscopist that uses anything better than French triplets can afford to be withoutit. 
Price, $2.00. Free by Mail on receipt of price. Address 
To be completed in Six Monthly Parts. Price $15.00, payable in advance. 
PART I. IS NOW READY. 
A Manual of the Infusoria, 
Including a Description of all Known Flagellate, Ciliate, and Tentaculiferous 
Protozoa, British and Foreign, and an Account of the Organization and 
Affinities of the Sponges. 
This important work, the result of many years’ careful labor and investigation on the 
part of the author, will, it is hoped, meet a want which has long existed among micro- 
scopists. It will consist of a volume of text extending to about 800 pages super royal 
Bvo., and an atlas of 48 plates, containing upwards of 2,000 figures. 
Wishing to lend what little assistance we can to the publication of this valuable work, 
we have subscribed for a large number of copies, which we offer to the microscopists 
of the United States at the prices named above. As the book is large and very expen- 
sive, the publisher will issue very few copies beyond those for which subscriptions are 
received, and consequently the price will undoubtedly be advanced after the work has 
been completed. 
INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO., 14 Dey Street, New York, 
W. SAVILLE KENT, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S. 
AGENTS FOR THE UNITED STATES, A .VBII' SERIES OF PRACTICAL BOOKS. 
WORK MANUALS. 
The intention of the publishers is to give in this Series a number of small books which 
will give Thorough and Reliable Information in the plainest possible language, upon the 
Vli T S OF 333 A EBY 1) A Y LIFE. 
Each volume will be by some one who is not only practically familiar with his 
subject, but who has the ability to make it clear to others. The volumes will each con- 
tain from 50 to 75 pages; will be neatly and clearly printed on good paper, and bound 
in tough and durable binding. The price will be 25 cents each. 
The following are the titles of the volumes, and the order in which they-will be 
issued. No. I. is ready for delivery, No. 11. is in press, and the others will follow 
at short intervals. 
I. Cements and Glue. 
A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of All Kinds of Cements, Glue 
and Paste. By John Phin, Editor of the Young Scientist and the American 
Journal 0/ Microscopy. 
Every mechanic and househofder will find this volume of almost everyday use. It 
contains nearly 200 recipes for the preparation of Cements for almost every conceivable 
purpose. 
11. The Slide Rule, and How to Use It. 
This is a compilation of Explanations, Rules and Instructions suitable for mechanics 
and others interested in the industrial arts. Rules are given for the measurement o( 
all kinds of boards and planks, timber in the round or square, glaziers’ work and 
painting, brickwork, paviors’ work, tiling and slating, the measurement of vessels of 
various shapes, the wedge, inclined planes, wheels and axles, levers, the weighing and 
measurement of metals and all solid bodies, cylinders, cones, globes, octagon rules and 
formula, the measurement of circles, and a comparison of French and English measures, 
with much other information, useful. to builders, carpenters, bricklayers, glaziers, 
paviors, slaters, machinists and other mechanics. 
Possessed of this little Book and a good Slide Rule, mechanics might carry in their 
pockets some hundreds of times the power of calculation that they now have in then; 
heads, and the use of the instrument is very easily acquired. 
HI. Construction, Use and. Care of Drawing Instruments. 
Being a Treatise on Draughting Instruments, with Rules for their Use and 
Care, Explanations of Scales, Sectors and Protractors. Together with Memor- 
anda for Draughtsmen, Hints on Purchasing Paper, Ink, Instruments, Pencils, 
etc. Also a Price List of all materials required by Draughtsmen. Illustrated 
with twenty-four Explanatory Illustrations. By Fred. T. Hodgson. 
IV. Plaster: How to Make and How to Use It. 
V. Hints for Painters and Paperliangers. 
VI. Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda for Mechanics and 
Others. (Parti.) 
VII. The Construction and Use of Saws. 
With Directions for Filing, Setting, etc. 
VIII. Rules, Tables, Data and Memoranda for Mechanics and 
Others. (Part II.) 
INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO., 
P. o. Box SBSS. 14 Bey Street, JN"ew York. THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 
A Collection of Useful anti Reliable Recipes, 
Rules, Processes, methods, Wrinkles, 
and Practical Hints, 
FOR THE HOUSEHOLD JIJVD THE SHOP. 
CONTENTS. 
Abyssinian Gold:—Accidents, General Rules; —Alabaster, how to work, polish and 
clean;—Alcohol;—Alloys, rules for making, and ?6 recipes;— Amber, how to work, 
polish and mend;—Annealing and Hardening ghss, copper, steel, etc.;—Arsenical 
Soap;— Arsenical Powder:—Beeswax, how to bleach;—Blackboards, how to make;— 
Brass, how to work, polish, color, varnish, whiten, deposit by electricity, clean, etc., 
etc.; Brazing and Soldering;— Bronzing brass, wood, leather, etc.;—Burns, how to 
cure; Case-hardening:—Catgut, how prepared;— Cements, general rules for using, and 
56 recipes for preparing:—Copper, working, welding, depositing:—Coral, artificial;— 
Cork, working:—Crayons for Blackboards:—Curling brass, iron, etc.;— Liquid Cu- 
ticle: Etching copper, steel, glass;— Eye, accidents to;--Fires, to prevent;— Clothes on 
Fire:—Fireproof Dresses;—FlyPapers;—Freezing Mixtures, 6 recipes;—Fumigating 
Pastils:—Gilding metal, leather, wood, etc.;— Glass, cutting, drilling, turning in the 
lathe, fitting stoppers, removing tight stoppers, powdering, packing, imitating ground 
glass, washing glass vessels,etc.;—Grass, Dry, to stain;— Guns, to make shoot close, 
to keep from rusting, to brown the barrels of, etc., etc.;— Handles, to fasten ;—lnks, 
rules for selecting and preserving, and 34 recipes for;—lnk. Eraser;—Inlaying;—Iron, 
forging, welding, case-hardening, zincing, tinning, do. in the cold, brightening, etc., 
etc.; Ivory, to work, polish, bleach, etc.;—Javelle Water ;■ —Jewelry and Gilded Ware, 
care of, cleaning, coloring, etc.;—Lacquer, how to make and apply:—Laundry Gloss;— 
Skeleton Leaves:—Lights, signal and colored, also for tableaux, photography, etc., 25 
recipes:—Lubricators, selection of, 4 recipes for;—Marble, working, polishing, clean- 
ing;— Metals, polishing:—Mirrors, care of, to make, pure silver, etc., etc.;—Nickel, 
to plate with without a battery;— Noise, prevention of;—Paiiting Bright Metals;— 
Paper, adhesive, barometer, glass, tracing, transfer, waxed, etc. Paper, to clean, take 
c-eases out of, remove water stains, mount drawing paper, to prepare for varnishing, 
etc., etc.;—Patina:—Patterns, to trace;—Pencils, indelible;— Pencil Marks, to fix ; 
Pewter;—Pillows for Sick Room, cheap and good;—Plaster-of-Paris, how to work;— 
Poisons, antidotes for, 12 recipes:—Polishing Powders, preparation and use of (six 
pages);— Resins, their properties, etc. ;—Saws, how to sharpen;--Sieves;—Shellac, 
properties and uses of;—Silver, properties of, oxidized, old, cleaning, to remove ink 
stains from, to dissolve from plated goods, etc., etc.;—Silvering metals, leather, iron, 
etc. ;—Size, preparation of various kinds of;—Skins, tanning and curing,, do with haif 
on;—Stains, to remove from all kinds of goods;— Steel, tempering and working (six 
pages);— Tin, properties, methods of working;— Varnish, 21 recipes for; —Varnishing, 
directions for;—Voltaic Batteries;— Watch, care of;— Waterproofing, 7 recipes for;— 
Whitewash;— Wood Floors, waxing, staining, and polishing;— Wood, poksbiug, 
Wood, staining, 17 recipes;—Zinc, to pulverize, black varnish for. 
161 closely-printed pages, neatly bound. Sent bv mail for 36 cemi» 
(postage stamps received). Specimen pages free. 
INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 
14 Dey Street, New York, THE AMERICAN 
Journal of Microscopy. 
Now (1881) in its Sixth Year. 
While popular in the general tone of its articles, this journal has always been 
thoroughly reliable, practical and dignified. It addresses itself to the Naturalist, the 
Teacher, the Student, the Physician, and the general reader, and describes all new 
improvements in the construction and methods of using the Microscope, and gives an 
account of the discoveries made by it. 
Illustrations.—No expense is spared in illustrating such subjects as demand it. 
The woodcuts which appear in our columns are by the very best artists, and our full- 
page plates have not been excelled by any work produced in this country. 
l -iip'This Journal is not the organ of any Society, but it gives the Proceedings of all 
the Microscopical Societies of importance. 
Published Monthly at $l.OO per year. Specimens Free. 
Since 1878 the pages of the Journal have been electrotyped, and back numbers and 
volumes from that time can always be furnished. Some of the earlier volumes are out 
of print, but we are occasonally able to supply compete sets. Price per volume 
(bound) $1.50; Single numbers (ordinary) 10 cts.; Extra numbers 25 cts. 
THE YOUNG SCIENTIST 
A Practical Journal for Amateurs. 
NOW (1881) IN ITS FOURTH YEAR. 
Devoted to Amateur Arts, Lathes, Scroll Saws, Wood Carving, Boat Building, 
Microscopes, Telescopes, Modelling in Clay, Drawing, Engraving on Wood, Pho- 
tography, Parlor Science, Legerdemain, Aquaria, Use of Tools, Scientific Experiments, 
etc., etc. 
Monthly, ISO cents a year. Specimens Free. 
ROUND VOLUMES.—This bright little monthly is published in such a form 
that when bound the year’s numbers make a handsome volume. We can furnish a few 
sets, neatly and uniformly bound, for $l.OO per volume. 
THE LONDON LANCET. 
A Journal of British and Foreign Medicine, Physiology, Surgery, Chemistry, 
Criticism, Literature and News. 
NOW (1881) IN ITS THIRTY-SEVENTH YEAR OF REPUBLICATION. 
THE LANCET is the oldest and most practical Medical Journal published in the 
English language. It is the standard medical periodical of the world. 
THE LANCET for each year makes two thick volumes, containing over 1200 
double-column pages of closely-printed matter, exclusive of the advertising sheets. We 
havejust pur-hased an entirely new set of beautiful and clear type, which is printed on 
the very best calendered book paper. Our pages contain nearly twice as much reading 
matter as any other monthly medical journal published on this side of the Atlantic. 
$4.00 per year. Single Numbers 40 cents. 
Liberal Club Pates. 
Edited by JAMES G. WAKLEY, M.D., M.R.C.S. 
Specimen Numbers (our selection) sent for four 3-cent postage stamps. 
INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 
P. O. Box 2852. II Dey Street, New York, 
Send for our Catalogue of Boohs and Microscopes•