-;££*--■: '&*'*£ V- . L %X, v. "itV X':'»'' ' V V •'*■■* :i'-' "• ^£.;:r^';?'"x "■' •'" riR?*VXX y. -.•:■" ••.:..- ^1^'fe^vvx- ';. ^ 4y^-x^i'V ■' v ■■■'■ ''itfX*.,.^ ■■■■•' SSsSfip^r ■•;-...': />>;■■::■■, f -J^l- iri,)- i-,;-- ' ■ -r r4^ir ■■■■■;: ■••:.; -.v *&?:^*- XX AT X:$XX' . y*#3&:■/.;■■. :'; ('ouiiimua"-u-cis'lrls or relivlive mn»'mlii I a s s 111111 Aulimoirv Tin Hydrogen O l Chlorine ( I'arbon A 6 Arsenic O.xviiV.i Q 8 Union ttfl ^ SiliciiiaL &\ I! .AhLU.lLLllLllI Cj it Phosphorus Q 13? Covvc, Magnesium (*~j 13 .\itro»eii ffk 11 Sulphur (~\ 1.6 '0 »» 36 Caloi .14 ariiuu. Bismuth Load Silver Iron M, mianiu'se Iodine Mercury Zinc D.Ii.Harrison,- ,rr. Sec paji'e n> ' SYSTEM OF MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY, INCLUDING TRANSLATIONS OF THE EDINBURGH, LONDON, AND DUBLIN PHARMACOPCEIAS. By JOHN JSJJURRAY, M. D. FELLOW OF THF. ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH, THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, &C. ; LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY, AND ON MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY. SIXTH EDITION, ADAPTED TO THE PRESENT STATE OF CHEMICAL AND MEDICAL SCIENCE, By JOHN MURRAY, M. D. FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF EDINBURGH ; LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY; MEMBER AND FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL PHYSICAL SOCIETY ; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY, THE HUNTERIAN SOCIETY, &C. WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS JOHN B. BECK, M. D. ; PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND OF MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE IN.THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW-YORK, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, ONE OF THE PHYSICIANS TO THE NEW-YORK HOSPITAL, &C. &C. NEW-YORK: W. E. DEAN, PRINTER, 32 ANN-STREET. COLLINS AND HANNAY, AND J. B. COLLINS, 1834. /8M Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Thirty-four, by William E. Dean, in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of Neio-York. TO q*- JOHN AUGUSTINE SMITH, M.D. PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW-YORK, &C. &C. THE PRESENT EDITION OF THIS WORK IS DEDICATED, AS A SLIGHT EVIDENCE OF THE RESPECT ENTERTAINED FOR HIS CHARACTER AND TALENTS, BY HIS FRIEND AND COLLEAGUE, THE EDITOR. NOTICE. There is, perhaps, no work on the Materia Medica that has enjoyed a higher or more deserved reputation than that of Dr. Murray. Although originally published many years since, it still retains its rank as a medical classic. As a text-book, it is one of the best that we possess, and, as such, the Editor has been in the habit of recommending it, in connection with the valuable Pharmacologia of Dr. Paris. In the present edition it will be observed that a great number of important changes have been made in the work by the English Editor. Indeed, it has been completely modernized, and made to correspond with existing improvements. In the additions by the American Editor, the principle of selection has been observed, and such articles only have been added as appear to have a permanent claim to notice. J. B. B. CONTENTS. Introduction Page 13 Sect. I. Of the Chemical Analysis of the articles of the Materia Medica . ' . .14 II. Of the General Nature of Pharmaceutical Operations 26 Tables ...... 33 PART I.—MATERIA MEDICA. Chap. I. Of the Classification of Medicines 43 II. — Narcotics . 60 III. — Antispasmodics 98 IV. —Tonics 104 V. — Astringents . 154 VI. — Emetics 171 VII. — Cathartics 185 VIII. — Emmenagogues 208 IX. — Diuretics .... 213 X. — Diaphoretics 228 XI. — Expectorants 237 XII. — Sialagogues .... 244 XIII. — Errhines . . . 247 XIV. — Epispastics and Rubefacients 250 XV. — Escharotics 255 XVI.—Antacids 260 XVII. — Lithontriptics 263 XVIII. — Refrigerants 272 XIX. — Diluents .... 277 XX. —• Demulcents 278 XXI. — Emollients .... 286 XXII. — Anthelmintics 288 PART II.—PHARMACY. Chap. I. Drying of Vegetables II. Extraction of Pulps III. Conserves IV. Inspissated Juices V. Fixed or Expressed Oils 296 297 298 300 303 VU1. CONTENTS. VI. Emulsions and Mixtures VII. Infusions VIII. Mucilages IX. Decoctions X. Syrups XI. Medicated Honeys XII. Wines XIII. Medicated Vinegars XIV. Tinctures XV. Ammoniated Tinctures XVI. Ethereal Spirits XVII. Extracts XVIII. Distilled Spirits XIX. Distilled Waters XX. Volatile Oils XXI- Salts, Saline Substances XXII. Earths and Earthy Salts XXIII. Metallic Preparations XXIV. Preparations of Sulphur XXV. Powders XXVI. Electuaries XXVII. Pills XXVIII. Troches . XXIX. Oily Preparations XXX. Liniments, Ointments, and Cerates XXXI. Plasters . . . . Appendix. Mineral Waters, Gases, Galvanism Medical Prescriptions. Table of the proportions of active ingre- dients in certain preparations . Empirical remedies Index ..... Page 305 310 318 319 328 335 338 342 344 364 368 376 390 394 399 405 448 458 503 507 513 518 524 526 527 542 551 564 567 575 PREFACE* BY THE ENGLISH EDITOR. This Treatise, on a more limited scale, was originally designed by my Father to afford an Outline of his Course of Lectures on Materia Medica and Pharmacy. Subsequently he changed the plan of arrangement of these Lectures ; but the demand for the work continuing, he was induced to enlarge it into a systematic view of these departments of medical science. The history of the Materia Medica, which before consisted of a mass of insu- lated facts and vague speculations, he connected by philosophi- cal principles, and moulded into a scientific form; and such indeed is the excellence of the classification of medicines which he proposed, that it is still, after a lapse of twenty years, admit- ted to be the best on the subject, and forms the basis of some of the latest treatises on this branch of science* The portion of" the work relating to Pharmacy included translations of the Phar- macopoeias published by the Colleges of Edinburgh, London, and Dublin, the analogous processes being placed together, and the order being that of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. On the merits of the original work I need not dilate: it has met with general approval, both as an elementary treatise and as a syste- matic authority, and other works of celebrity have derived much from it that is acknowledged, and some not a little* of which no acknowledgment is given. The present is the third edition of my- Father's work which I have published ; and as no pains have been spared to render it accurate and complete, so the continued demand for it encou- rages me to hope that it has not declined in estimation. Though the leading principles of the work have not required modification, it has been found necessary to make alterations to a considerable extent in the details. The publication of new editions of the London Pharmacopoeia in 1824, and the Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1826, both of them much altered and much improved, rendered it necessary to make corresponding changes in this work. I have accordingly inserted, under the proper classes, the new substances introduced into the list of the Ma- teria Medica, adding some notice of their properties and medi- cinal action; the new formula? are translated, and explanations given of the nature of each process, the advantages it possesses, X PREFACE BY THE ENGLISH EDITOR. or objections to which it may be liable. In drawing up these observations, I have derived much assistance from the remarks of Mr. R. Phillips and Mr. Brande relative to the London Phar- macopoeia, from the accurate and judicious " Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia" by Dr. Barker and Dr. Montgomery, and from the mass of original and valuable information which the late distinguished Professor of Materia Medica at this Uni- versity, Dr. A. Duncan, had embodied in his Dispensatory. The progress of chemical knowledge has obliged me to intro- duce considerable alterations in the parts of the work referring to that science, by omitting what had become obsolete, or op- posed to the present opinions, and supplying what more recent investigations have established. The defects pointed out by my Father in the processes of former Pharmacopoeias having been avoided in the improved formulas, and not unfrequently modifica- tions adopted which he originally suggested, it became unneces- sary to retain discussions that were no longer applicable. The statements regarding the constitution of chemical compounds I have corrected, in conformity with the precision which the ato- mic theory has given to this part of chemistry, and have added a table, from the best authorities, of the equivalents of the prin- cipal substances used in Pharmacy. A table, representing the relative magnitudes of the atoms of simple bodies, is also pre- fixed, that may serve to illustrate the atomic doctrine, and assist the student in recollecting a series of numbers which are the elements of all the combinations involved in medical chemistry. To render more intelligible the chemical changes that take place in many of the pharmaceutic processes, I have, by permission of my friend, Dr. D. Boswell Reid, made use of diagrams of a form contrived by him for this purpose, and which are well adapted for displaying those changes in a clear and exact manner. Under the history of arsenic, corrosive sublimate, lead, and other substances which act in a deleterious manner on the human frame, I have described the symptoms they occasion, the anti- dotes that may be employed, and the methods of chemical in- vestigation by whicli these substances are identified. The very able work of Dr. Christison on Poisons is the authority I have chiefly consulted, and to which, for more ample details, I refer. The importance which has, of late years, been assigned in Medical Botany to the natural affinities of plants, as throwing light on their medicinal operation, has led me to add to the Lin- nean system, that was before followed in this work, the natural orders of Jussieu, adopting also some of the modifications intro- duced by De Candolle and Richard. A tabular view is given of the two systems; and to the description of each plant in- cluded in the Materia Medica are prefixed the class, order, and natural order to which it belongs. In the history of plants I have PREFACE BY THE ENGLISH EDITOR. XI also paid attention to the discoveries in Organic Chemistry of the active principles on which their medicinal virtues depend ; the methods of obtaining the more important of these principles are stated, and the circumstances pointed out which may modify or impair their activity in the forms under which they are ad- ministered. Notwithstanding that much new matter has been added, I have been enabled, by a closer method of printing, and by the omis- sion of repetitions in the two parts of which the work consisted, to reduce it materially in size, so that the two volumes are now formed into one. The change brings the work into a more con- venient and less expensive shape, while I have carefully guarded against the omission of any facts or principles that appeared to- be of importance. Edinburgh, 24tlh October, 1832. INTRODUCTION. Medical Science, considered as relating to the treatment of disease., may be presented under two points of view. Under one, diseases are defined and classed ; their symptoms are described, their causes investigated, the indications are delivered by which their cure is to be attempted, and the remedies are enumerated by which these indi- cations are to be fulfilled. When this method is followed, a previous knowledge is supposed of the natural history, and the properties of the substances employed as remedies; and they are no farther sub- jects of attention, than in so far as regards their applications to par- ticular cases, and the cautions which peculiarity of circumstances may render necessary in their administration. But the subject may also be presented under another aspect. The symptoms of diseases, their causes, and indications of cure, may be supposed to be known, and the remedies themselves become princi- pally the objects of study,—their natural characters, their sensible qualities, their effects on the living system, the theory of their action, and their applications to the treatment of morbid affections, forming so many subjects of description or investigation. This constitutes the department of Materia Medica—understood in the most exten- sive signification of the term. The medicinal powers of bodies are intimately connected with their chemical composition, depending often on the presence of active ingredients, which form only a small part of the entire mass, and liable to be greatly affected by chemical combination. Hence arises the necessity of attending to the chemical nature of remedies, their constituent principles, and the re-action of these on each other. Of the various substances employed in medicine, some are ad- ministered in the state in which they occur in nature; but the greater number are subjected to certain previous processes, by which their medicinal powers are concentrated or modified, 80 that they may act with more certainty and energy, and not unfrequently in an alto- gether different manner from what they would do if administered in their native state. To embrace these different subjects of inquiry, the following ar- rangement is adopted in this work. In the introductory portion an analysis may be given of the chemical nature of the articles of the Materia Medica, with some remarks on the chemical changes to which they are subjected in their preparation as remedies. Next may be delivered the history of the substances used in medicine, constituting what is regarded as Materia Medica in the more limited sense attached to the term. Lastly may be considered the various 14 chemical nature processes to which these substances are subjected with the view of preparing them for administration, forming what is denominated Pharmacy. Sect. 1.—Of the chemical analysis of the articles of the materia medica. The ultimate object of chemical investigations is to discover the composition of bodies ; and the result of these investigations is the reducing them into two classes, those which are Simple and those which are Compound. The former are such as consist of parts per- fectly alike ; the most minute particles into which a simple body can be resolved retaining all its essential properties, and being similar to each other. The latter can, on the contrary, be resolved into sub- stances different in their qualities from each other, and from the compound which they form. It is from the union of simple substances that compounds are pro- duced. When two simple bodies are placed under those circum- stances which favour the exertion of their mutual attraction, they unite and form a compound, having peculiar properties. These com- pounds are farther capable of combining with other simple bodies, or with each other, which gives rise to a series of compounds still more extensive; and these again are capable of new combinations, or of such intimate mixtures with each other, as to form many peculiar substances. There are thus produced from a few elements all the products of nature, u«d all those which are the result of the opera- tions of art. It is the province of Chemistry to trace these combinations; to determine whether bodies are simple or compound ; and, if com- pound, to ascertain the number of their constituent principles, the proportions, and the modes in which they are combined. The general process by which these objects are attained, is termed, in the language of Chemistry, Analysis. It is merely the separa- tion of a compound body into its constituent parts, and is effected either by the agency of heat, or by the exertion of a superior at- traction. The analysis from the application of heat differs according to the composition of the body analysed. If a compound, consisting of two simple substances, be exposed to heat, it in many cases happens that the mutual attraction by which its principles were united ceases, and a decomposition or separation of these principles takes place. This is an example of pure analysis ; no change being produced, but merely the separation of the component parts of the compound, so that each is obtained in its original state. An analysis more complicated is that where several substances are combined together, in such a manner that their attractions are balanced, and one compound is formed. When a compound of this kind is exposed to a high temperature, this balance is frequently sub- verted, and it suffers decomposition. But its constituent principles instead of passing off pure, enter into new combinations with each other, and form other compounds, each of which may be collected^ OF MEDICINES, 15 &nd in its turn analysed. It is in this manner that vegetable and animal substances are acted on by heat: the products afforded by their analysis are not such as pre-existed in them, but are compounds formed during the decomposition, by new combinations of their ulti- mate principles. This is what has been named False or Compli- cated Analysis. Chemical analysis is also effected by the exertion of a superior attraction. If a compound be placed successively with different sub- stances in situations favourable to the operation of chemical action, one or other of them may exert a superior attraction to either of its component parts; a decomposition will be produced, and from the products the constituent principles of the compound, as well as their proportions, may be determined. As compound substances can combine together so as to form a new compound, it is obvious that this compound may be resolved either into the immediate principles from the union of which it has been formed, or into those of which these consist. It is necessary, therefore, that these should be distinguished. The former are ac- cordingly named the Proximate Principles of a compound ; the latter the Ultimate Principles. The proximate principles are compounds; the ultimate principles are the elements of these compounds. When by analysis the constituent principles of a body have been obtained, they may often be combined, so as to reproduce the sub- stance analysed. This operation is named Chemical Synthesis, and, when it can be effected, is the surest proof of the accuracy of the analysis. It is difficult to apply it to those compounds which suffer a complicated analysis ; and hence the composition of vegetable or -animal substances can seldom be confirmed by a synthetic experi- ment. The production of fat by the combination of watery vapour with olefiant gas, of artificial urea, tannin, &c. are instances of such synthesis; but there are few examples of this kind. In analysing the various products of nature, we arrive ultimately at substances which we are unable to decompose, and which are therefore regarded as simple. The absolute simplicity of these is not indeed established ; for our inability to decompdse them may not arise from this, but from the imperfections of our modes of analysis ; and it is even probable, that all the substances which are yet known to us may be compounds, and that a more refined chemistry may discover their composition. Until this be effected, however, they are regarded as simple, and they are so with regard to our know- ledge of them. As the ultimate principles, therefore, of all analysis, they are first to be considered in proceeding to the general analysis of the articles of the Materia Medica, Of these bodies, Oxygen is the most important. There is no simple substance which exerts an attraction to so many others, or which gives rise to such important compounds. With a few excep- tions, indeed, all the productions of nature are either capable of com- bining, or are already combined, with this principle, and the deve- lopementof its agencies constitutes the most extensive and important jpart of chemical science. Oxygen, when uncombined, exists in the gaseous state. Like 16 CHEMICAL NATURE other gases, it is invisible and elastic ; its specific gravity is rather greater than that of atmospheric air; it is absorbed by water, but in a very small proportion. The distinguishing properties of oxygen gas are those of supporting respiration and combustion. It is the only air which, strictly speaking, can support respiration; other aeriform fluids doing so only from the oxygen they contain. It also sustains combustion longer and more brilliantly than any other gas. The combination of a body with oxygen is termed Oxygenation or Oxidation. . . Oxygen forms one-fifth part of atmospheric air; and it is pnnci. pally on its agency that the many chemical changes produced in bodies by that air depend. Combined with another elastic fluid, hydrogen, in the proportion of 8 parts to 1, it forms Water, the sub- stance which has the most extensive operation in promoting chemical action by the fluidity it communicates, and which more directly pro- duces important chemical changes, by affording oxygen to bodies. Oxygen exists too as a constituent principle of the greater number of the acids, and communicates to them their energy of action. It enters also into the composition of the alkalis and earths ; all these, with the exception of ammonia, being compounds of a metallic base and oxygen. With all the metals it combines, communicating to them a greater susceptibility of chemical action, and greater activity in their relation to the living system ; and it exists as a constituent part of nearly all the vegetable and animal products. Hence no principle is more extensively diffused, and none has a more marked influence in the combinations into which it enters. Its chemical equivalent or combining quantity is represented on the atomic theory, or the doctrine of definite combinations, by the number 8, in reference to that of hydrogen as 1*. * It is not attempted here to give any outline of the atomic theory, that import- ant doctrine, the influence of which extends through the whole of chemistry, and regulates all the details regarding the combinations of bodies. It may be merely stated, that the leading principle of this doctrine is, that every substance has a cer- tain combining proportion in w,hich only it will unite with other bodies. Thus, to take the instances of the three simple substances, hydrogen, carbon, and qxygen, the combining weights of these bodies are as the numbers 1,6, and 8; that is, hydrogen com- bines with carbon in the proportion of one part of hydrogen with six parts of carbon; hydrogen combines with oxygen in the proportion of one part of hydrogen to eight parts of oxygen ; and carbon combines with oxygen in the proportion of six parts of the for- mer to eight parts of the latter. Or, in the compound of hydrogen and carbon, there will always be six parts by weight of carbon to one part by weight of hydrogen; in the compound of carbon and oxygen there are always six parts by weight of the former to eight parts of the latter; and in the compound of oxygen and hydrogen, thers are eight parts of oxygen to one part of hydrogen. All simple bodies, in like manner, have certain invariable and peculiar combining weights. The reason of this singular law is supposed to be, that chemical combination hap- pens between the atoms or ultimate particles of bodies, and that the atoms of each body are of a specific size and weight; that is, recurring to the instances which have been given, an atom of carbon is six times the size and weight of an atom of hydro- gen, and an atom of oxygen eight times the size and weight of an atom of hydrogen. It is to illustrate this view, that the table of the atomic weights of bodies at the com- mencement of this work is constructed. The atoms of the different simple bodies which either in their simple state, or in a state of combination, are employed in me- dicine, are represented of their specific magnitudes in relation to each other, and as denoted by the attached numbers. By the mere inspection of this table, the compo- sition of any compound used in medicine may be determined; thus, if wc wiah to OF MEDICINES. It The elastic fluid which, with oxygen gas, composes atmospheric air, is name Azote or Nitrogen; it constitutes four-fifths of the atmosphere. It, too, is a simple substance ; its chemical agency is less powerful than that of oxygen, nor does it possess any very re- markable property by which it can be characterized. It is lighter than oxygen gas, is incapable of supporting combustion or respiration, is scarcely sensibly absorbed by water, and is not combustible in the strict sense of the term ; for although it combines with oxygen, the combination is not rapid, and is not attended with any sensible emission of heat or light. Nitrogen combined with a large propor- tion of oxygen forms a powerful acid, the nitric acid; in lower de- grees of oxygenation it forms two other acids, and also two com- pounds, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide, which have no acid powers. With hydrogen it forms ammonia, one of the alkalis; it exists also in several of the vegetable alkalis, in prussic acid, (the base of which, cyanogen, is a compound of carbon and nitrogen,) and some other vegetable substances, and is a constituent principle of nearly all the varieties of animal matter. Its chemical equivalent is 14. Atmospheric Air, of which oxygen and nitrogen are the essential constituent parts, has merely the aggregate properties of these two gases, their combination being so slight, that no new powers are acquired from it ; and, as the oxygen is the more energetic ingre- dient, the chemical agencies of this air depend chiefly on the opera- tion of this principle. It yields oxygen to a number of substances with more or less rapidity, and thus changes their chemical consti- tution. It sometimes acts too by communicating humidity : and, in a few cases, by affording an elastic fluid, carbonic acid gas, which is diffused through it in small proportion. Its nitrogen exerts no active power, but apparently serves merely to dilute, and thus to moderate the action of the oxygen gas. Hydrogen is another elastic fluid, which in the system of modern chemistry has been regarded as elementary. It has a better claim to be regarded as such than any other body, as its atomic weight is less than that of any substance with which we are acquainted ; whence it may be presumed, that none of these exist in it. Dr. Prout made the singular discovery, that the atomic weights of all bodies are simple multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen; hence, if the atom of hydrogen be represented in a scale of combining weights by unity, the atomic weights of all other bodies will be re. presented" in relation to it by whole numbers. Hydrogen is the lightest of all the aeriform fluids, and the lightest substance, there* fore, whose gravity we can ascertain. It is distinguished farther by know the composition of oxide of iron, we observe, that the equivalent of oxygrn is 8 and that of iron 28 ; hence, oxide of iron must consist of eight parts of oxygen, and 28 parts of iron ; adding these together, the sum 36 becomes the equivalt nt of oxide of iron, and in any combination of it with an acid, the proportion of the oxide of iron wili be as 3G to the equivalent number of the acid. In this simple manner is the whole system of chemical combinations derived from a few numbers. The co- loured spheres represent the atoms of the bodies, the colours being those of the bo- dies, and the relative magnitudes of the spheres corresponding to the equivalent num- bers. It is of course not implied that the atoms of bodies must be tpaeresj but whatever their forms are, these must be their relative magnitudes. 18 CHEMICAL nature its high inflammability; it burns when an ignited body is approached to it in contact with atmospheric air, and explodes if previously mixed.with it. The product of its combustion is water, which is therefore a compound of it with oxygen. Combined with nitrogen, it forms ammonia: with the primary inflammables, sulphur, carbon, and phosphorus, it forms compound gases : it combines with chlo- rine, forming muriatic acid? and with cyanogen it forms the prussic or hydrocyanic acid : lastly, it is an abundant ingredient in vegeta- ble and animal substances. Water, which is a compound of one atom of oxygen 8, and one of hydrogen 1, and is therefore represented by the number 9, is a sub- stance extremely peculiar in its chemical relations. Its power of combination is extensive, there being few substances on which it does not act, or with which it does not combine ; yet in the greater number of these combinations no energetic action is displayed ; it scarcely produces any alteration of properties ; and hence its most important operation is the communicating that state of fluidity to bodies which is necessary to their mutual chemical action. It is more peculiarly the solvent of all saline substances, and of the greater number of the earths ; and it dissolves many of the vegetable and animal products. When it communicates oxygen, it produces important changes. Several of the metals are slowly oxidated by it; and when they are dissolved by acids, it often acts by affording to them that oxygen which is necessary for their solution. Vege- table and animal substances often suffer chemical changes from the oxygen which water imparts, as well as from the fluidity it commu- nicates favouring the reaction of their constituent parts ; and in their decomposition at elevated temperatures, the elements of the water they contain enter into the composition of the products which these decompositions afford. Chlorine, or as it used formerly to be named, Oxymuriatic Acid, is an important chemical agent. It exists as a gas of a green colour, having a very pungent suffocating odour, heavier than air in the proportion as 2.5 to 1, and which is rapidly absorbed by water. It has a remarkable power of destroying animal and vegetable colour- ing matter, hence the use of it in bleaching. It unites with oxygen in at least four proportions ; with hydrogen it forms an acid of much energy, the muriatic ; and it combines with the inflammables and the metals. Its compounds are named Chlorides ; when they are dissolved in water they become, as will immediately be explained, converted into muriates. Iodine is another simple body, bearing much analogy to Chlorine. At natural temperatures it is a solid, of a dark grey colour, but when gently heated it becomes a vapour of a purple colour. With hydrogen it forms hydriodic acid ; it combines with oxygen, chlorine, and most of the metals. A character which peculiarly distinguishes it is, that it forms with the vegetable principle Starch a compound of a deep blue colour. It acts with much power on the living system. Bromine is analogous to Chlorine and Iodine ; it has not been employed in medicine. There are three simple substances distinguished by the property OF MEDICINES. 19 of inflammability, and hence named Simple Inflammables, which exist as constituent principles of a number of natural products. These are carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus. Carbon. This name is applied to the pure matter of charcoal, and indicates a principle very abundant in nature, and of much im- portance as a chemical agent. The Diamond is the purest form of it, and may indeed be considered as crystallized Carbon. In charcoal there is usually a portion of foreign matter ; but if well prepared it is nearly a pure form of Carbon. Carbon, besides existing as an element in the composition of many mineral bodies, is an ingredient in all substances of the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Not being volatile, it forms the principal part of the residual mass when these are decomposed by heat ; and it is by this decomposition of vegetable matter, especially of the wood of plants, that it is obtained in the state of charcoal. In its combinations its chemical equivalent is 6. It unites with oxygen in three proportions, forming two acids, the Oxalic and Carbonic, and a gas named Carbonic Oxide. With hydrogen in different propor- tions it forms various inflammable gases. Lastly, the ternary com- bination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in various proportions and modes of combination, appears to constitute the principal varieties of vegetable matter, and with the addition of nitrogen the different animal products. Sulphur is found in nature principally as a constituent part of mi- neral bodies. It is highly inflammable ; in burning it combines with oxygen, forming Sulphurous acid, a pungent and suffocating gas. With a larger proportion of oxygen, it forms a dense inodorous liquid acid, Sulphuric acid. With hydrogen, it forms an inflammable acid gas, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, which exists in nature impregnating water in the sulphurous mineral waters. This compound enters into combi- nation with alkalis, earths and metallic oxides, and produces several important pharmaceutic preparations. Sulphur combines also with chlorine, iodine, carbon, phosphorus, and almost all the metals ; its chemical equivalent is 16. It exists as a constituent part of animal substances ; hence sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved in the decom- position of these by heat or putrefaction : it has also been detected in the composition of a few vegetables. Phosphorus exists chiefly as an ingredient of animal matter, but has been lately discovered by Mr. Barry to exist in a great number of vegetables. Combined with oxygen in the state of an acid, it enters into the composition of several products of the mineral king- dom. It is of a soft consistence like wax, semi-transparent, and of a white or yellowish colour ; it is so highly inflammable, that it burns spontaneously when exposed to the air. The class of Metals is an extensive one, a number of substances having been discovered by the researches of chemists, which belong to it, besides those which have usually been known. The physical properties which have been regarded as characteristic of the metals, are opacity, great lustre, density, ductility, and malleability, but these are possessed in very different degrees by the different'metals^ With regard to chemical properties, the metals are fusible, in gene* 20 CHEMICAL NATURE ral not volatile, except at very intense heats ; they are all of them capable of combining with oxygen, chlorine and iodine, and most of them unite with the inflammables, and with each other. Of these combinations, that with oxygen is the most important ; it is effected in various modes. When heated in contact with the air, they attract its oxygen ; if the temperature be highly elevated, they display during this oxidation the phenomena of combustion ; even if the temperature is less elevated, several of them burn more or less rapidly ; but the greater number are oxidated more slowly, and with- out any sensible light. Several metals are slowly oxidated by wa- ter, or by the joint action of air and water at natural temperatures. And all of them can be oxidated by acids, the acid either directly imparting oxygen to the metal, or enabling it to attract this principle from th») water which is present. In combining with oxygen, different metals unite with very dif- ferent quantities of it. Each of them combines too with different proportions of oxygen, giving rise to the production, from the same metal, of oxides having different properties. The compound in which the metal is united with the smallest proportion of oxygen is termed the Protoxide ; as the proportions of oxygen are greater, the names of Deutoxide, Tritoxide, are employed ; and the com- pound in which the metal is saturated with oxygen is called the Per- oxide. Several of the metals acquire in their highest degree of oxidation acid powers. When the metals are combined with oxygen, they become capable of combining with the acids, and in doing so they acquire greater activity and power of chemical action. This previous oxidation of a metal is always necessary to its combination with an acid, and hence, when acids act on metals, they first impart to them oxygen, or enable them to attract ox37gen from the water, or sometimes from the air, and then combine with the oxide that is formed. As the same metal is capable of existing in different states of oxidation, so, by combining in these states with the same acid, it forms very dif- ferent compounds. Metals are rendered active on the living system, principally by being combined with oxygen, or farther combined with acids. In their metallic state, they seldom produce any sensible effect; and any effect they do produce appears to arise from their mechanical irritation, or from their being chemically acted on by the gastric fluids. When oxidated, they become more active ; and still more so when the oxide is combined with an acid. And even the degree of oxygenation considerably influences their powers ; so that from the same metal preparations of very different degrees of medicinal activity may be obtained, though all agreeing in the kind of action they exert. Some of the compounds of the metals with chlorine and with sulphur are possessed of medicinal powers. It would be foreign to the object of this sketch to give a descrip- tion of the individual metals: it is sufficient to have stated with regard to them these general facts. The class of Earths comprises,a few substances, possessing cer. OF MEDICINES. 21 tain common properties intermediate between those of the alkalis and metallic oxides. They consist of metallic bases combined with oxygen. They are in general insipid, insoluble in water, nearly in-' fusible by heat, uninflammable, and capable of combining with acids, so as to neutralize the acid properties. All these characters, how. ever, are not equally appropriate ; for there are several of the earths which have a pungent taste, and are soluble in water to a consider- able extent, and all of them may be fused by very intense heats. The principal earths are Silex, Argil, Magnesia, Lime, Barytes, and Strontites : Zircon, Glucine, Ittria, and Thorina exist in such minute quantities, as to be comparatively unimportant. Silex is an abundant ingredient, not only in mineral substances, but is frequently contained in vegetable products, and forms part of the earthy residuum of their decomposition. It is tasteless, nearly infusible, and insoluble in water, and is peculiarly distinguished by "its inertness, and comparatively limited range of combination ; among the acids it combines only with the fluoric. Argil, or Alumina, is insipid, soft to the touch, infusible, insoluble in water, and particularly distinguished by forming with that fluid a ductile plastic mass, which hardens and contracts considerably when heated. With the acids it forms compounds, which have ge- nerally a sweetish styptic taste, and which possess the property of astringency. Its chemical equivalent is 18. Magnesia exists in the form of a very light white powder, almost insoluble in water; it has a slightly bitter taste, changes the more delicate vegetable blue colours to a green, and combines with acids, forming compounds, in general very soluble, and having a bitter taste ; its chemical equivalent is 20. Lime, or Calcareous Earth, displays greater energy of action. It is so far soluble in water, as to communicate to the solution a harsh styptic taste, and the power of changing the vegetable colours to green. Ccmbined with the acids it neutralizes their properties. Its base, Calcium, has the metallic lustre, and is highly inflammable. Its chemical equivalent is 28, being composed of 20 parts of calcium, and 8 of oxygen. Barytes surpasses lime in chemical energy. It is more soluble in water, its solution changing also the vegetable colours to green. It combines with the acids, and either from the superior strength of its attractions, or the influence of cohesion on its combinations, it decomposes the greater number of the salts of the other earths, and the alkalis. Of all the earths it is the one which acts most powerful. ly on the living system ; and its preparations prove poisonous to ani- mals. Its metallic base, which in appearance resembles silver, is termed Barium. Strontites, the last of the earths, bears a close resemblance to barytes in many of its properties ; but is less soluble in water, and is weaker in its chemical affinities. It is not poisonous, nor does it appear to exert any marked action on the living system. Following the series of substances according to their chemical re- lations from the metallic oxides through the earths, it is terminated by the Alkalis. These possess the chemical property most cha- 22 CHEMICAL nature racteristic of the whole class, that of combining with acids, neutral- izing the acid properties; and they form compounds, analogous in general properties to those formed by the earths and metallic oxides with the acids. But they display still more energy in their chemical actions than the earths do, and are more remote in their qualities from the oxides of the common metals. Their taste is extremely acrid ; they are highly caustic ; abundantly soluble in water ; they change the vegetable blue and purple colours to a green ; the yellow. to a brown ; and they combine with oils, rendering them diffusible or soluble in water. Three of the alkalis, Potassa, Soda, and Lithia, the last of which is not used in medicine, exist naturally in a con- crete state ; but they are easily fused, and at a heat not exceeding ignition, are volatilized. The fourth, Ammonia, exists when uncom- bined as a permanent gas, but it is instantly condensed by water, and absorbed by it in large quantity. Potash or Potassa is obtained from the ashes of land vegetables, Soda from the ashes of marine plants. They are both powerfully caustic, soluble in water, and possessed in a high degree of all the alkaline properties. Their bases, Potassium and Sodium, are solid white substances, with the lustre and every other property of metals except density; these are even lighter than water, are inflammable,. and have so strong an affinity to oxygen, that it is very difficult to obtain or preserve them. Ammonia has usually been denominated the Tolatile Alkali- When uncombined it exists as a gas, having a very pungent odour ; water absorbs it in very large quantity, and forms a solution of strong alkaline powers. Ammonia has not, like the fixed alkalis, a metal- lic base, but consists of nitrogen and hydrogen, in- the proportion of one atom of nitrogen, 14, and three atoms of hydrogen, 3; hence its chemical equivalent is 17. The last important class of chemical agents is that of Acids. Their characteristic properties are a sour taste, the power of chang- ing the blue, purple, and green colours of vegetables to a red, and that of combining with the alkalis, earths, and metallic oxides, form- ing compounds, in which, when the combination is established in the due proportion, the properties of the aeid, and of the base with which it is united, are neutralized. The more powerful acids have a strong attraction to water, are intimately combined with it, and can scarce- ly be procured free from it; they act with energy on inflammable and metallic substances. The greater number of the acids are compounds of oxygen, but se- veral of them, and these of considerable power, contain hydrogen as their acidifying principle. The latter are denominated Hydracids. The former have their names derived from the base, with the addi- tion to it of the syllable ic when there is a large proportion of oxy- gen, and ous when there is less. Thus sulphur, by combination with oxygen, forms the two acids to which the names on this system are given of Sulphuric and Sulphurous acids. Phosphorus, in like man- ner acidified by oxygen, forms the Phosphoric and Phosphorous; acids. In designating those acids, of which hydrogen is the acidify* OF MEDICINES, 23 ing principle, the term hydro is prefixed, as in the hydrocyanic and hydrochloric acids. Acids have an extensive power of combination. From the nume- rous affinities they exert, and from the facility with which they af- ford oxygen to different bodies, or enable them to abstract it from other substances, they are the most active of any of the compound chemical agents, and are hence employed in many pharmaceutic operations. Those of most importance under this view are the sul' phuric, nitric and muriatic acids. Sulphuric Acid consists of one atom of sulphur, 16, and three atoms of oxygen, 24, whence its equivalent is 40. It is usually com- bined with water, forming a liquid of great density. From its state of concentration it acts powerfully, exerting strong attractions to other bodies ; and though, from the strength of affinity between its principles, it does not directly afford oxygen with facility to many substances, it enables them to attract oxygen from water, and thus subjects them to chemical change. Many of its saline compounds are applied to medicinal use. Sulphurous Acid is formed from the same base in a lower degree of oxygenation, and is much weaker in its action. Nitric Acid is the result of the full oxygenation of nitrogen. It consists of one equivalent of nitrogen, 14, and 5 equivalents of oxy- gen, 40 ; its chemical equivalent is accordingly 54. Its oxygen not being retained by a strong attraction, the acid yields it readily, and hence acts with more facility and energy on inflammable and metal- lic substances than any other acid,'—oxidating the former, and first oxidating, then combining with the latter. In pharmacy it is used as the most general solvent of the metals. The dense, red coloured fuming acid that is commonly known by the name of Nitrous Acid, is nitric acid impregnated with nitric oxide, and containing a portion of nitrous acid. Muriatic Acid exists when uncombined in the aerial form, but it is absorbed in large quantity by water, and forms a liquid acid of considerable strength. It consists of one equivalent of chlorine, 36, and one of hydrogen, 1 ; hence its equivalent is 37. It combines with alkalis, earths and metallic oxides, forming compounds, which, as long as they remain in solution, are regarded as salts, and named muriates; but when the water is separated from them, and they are obtained dry, they are metallic chlorides, the hydrogen of the acid and the oxygen of the base having passed away in the state of water, leaving the metallic base and the chlorine in combination. Con- versely, when a chloride of a metallic base is dissolved in water, the chlorine takes hydrogen from the water, and the base oxygen, and a muriate of an oxide results. Carbonic Acid, the product of the full oxygenation of carbon, consists of one atom of carbon, 6, and two of oxygen, 16,-22. It exists in. the elastic form, and being absorbed by water only in spar- ing quantity, it exerts no very active chemical power, but is of im- portance from existing in many natural combinations, particularly of saline and earthy substances belonging to the Materia Medica. The ©haracters distinguishing it are its only wekening, but not entirely 24 CHEMICAL NATURE neutralizing the properties of the alkalis when in combination with them, and its being disengaged rapidly with effervescence by other acids from its saline compounds. Phosphoric Acid has phosphorus for its base. Neither it nor its compounds are medicinally of importance. Boracic Acid is a weak acid, composed of oxygen and a base named Boron, of an olive colour, light and inflammable. There is a series of acids with compound bases, derived from the vegetable and animal system; the more important of these will be considered under the history of the substances in which they exist. The acids combine with the alkalis, the earths, and the metallic oxides ; and when the combination is established in the due propor- tion, the chemical properties of the acid, and of the base with which it is united, are mutually neutralized. These compounds are named Neutral Salts. They can be obtained in the solid state : they are generally, though not universally, soluble in water ; those of them which are soluble, are capable of assuming a crystalline form, the form being very different in different salts. The nomenclature of the salts is regulated by that of the acids. They are formed into genera, denominated from the acid, and the name of the base defines the species of the salt. Thus all the salts formed from sulphuric acid are considered as constituting one genus, and are named Sul- phates, and the name of each species is expressed by adding the name of the base, as Sulphate of Soda, Sulphate of Lime, Sulphate of Iron, &c. The acid which sulphur forms in a different degree of oxygenation, the Sulphurous, forms a different order of salts ; these are named Sulphites; and in like manner we have Nitrates and Ni- trites, Phosphates and Phosphites, &c. Where there are two or more proportions of acid combined with one of base, the Latin nu- merals bis or bi, ter, quater or quadro are prefixed. Thus we have sulphate of potash, composed of one equivalent of sulphuric acid and one of potash, and bisulphate of potash, composed of two equivalents of sulphuric acid and one of potash. On the other hand, when the base is in excess the term sub is usually employed, as in the subcar- bonale of potash. Different names are also applied to salts, accord- ing to the state of oxidation of the base. Thus, the proto-sulphate of iron is a compound of sulphuric acid and the protoxide of iron, the persulphate, a compound of sulphuric acid with the peroxide of iron. When an acid is combined in one compound with two bases, as sometimes happens, the names of both bases enter into the name of the salt, as Tartrate of Potash and Soda. Such salts are named double salts. So far the chemical analysis of unorganized substances connected with the Materia Medica has been the subject of consideration. It remains to take notice of the analysis of those belonging to the vege- table and animal kingdoms. From the peculiar constitution of the products of organization, there are two kinds of analysis to which they are subject. The ob- ject of the one is to discover their ultimate composition ; that of the OF medicines. 25 other is less refined, being confined to the investigation of the prox- imate principles of which they are composed. It is seldom that a vegetable substance is homogeneous. The seed, for example, the bark, or the leaf of a plant, is not of one uniform composition, but consists of various proximate principles in a state of mixture, or of slight combination, and capable of being easily separated from each other. Now, these are often connected with their medicinal virtues ; the virtue residing perhaps not in the entire substance of the leaf, bark, or seed, but in a principle capable of being separated, and which may frequently be employed with ad- vantage in its insulated state. Hence the importance of the analysis of the vegetable substances belonging to the Materia Medica, so far as relates to their proximate principles ; the knowledge it conveys enabling us to employ them with more discrimination, and to submit them to the proper pharmaceutic treatment. An enumeration of their proximate principles, and more particularly of those on which their medicinal powers depend, accordingly always enters into their description as articles of the Materia Medica. This analysis is executed in various modes, adapted to particular cases, according to the principles which form the vegetable sub- stance. Sometimes it is effected merely by heat. The temperature can- not indeed be elevated very high, as then the proximate principles of the vegetable would be themselves decomposed, and their elements brought into new combinations. But at a heat comparatively moderate, as that of boiling water, this does not happen ; and at this temperature several of these principles, such as essential oil, camphor, and some others not very well defined, are volatilized without decomposition, and of course can be obtained pure. The action of different solvents is of more extensive use in con- ducting the vegetable analysis. Water dissolves several of their component principles, such as gum and extractive matter, tannin, saline substances, and some others. Of these, the gum can be precipitated by alcohol ; the saline substances may be crystallized, or can be discovered by evaporating the solution to dryness, and exposing the mass to such a heat as will destroy the inflammable parts ; tannin and some others are detected by their appropriate chemical tests. Alcohol is another agent of much importance in executing the vegetable analysis. It dissolves the resin, balsam, camphor, and essential oil ; these solutions are decomposed by water, each sub- stance being separated, and discernible by its peculiar qualities. Equal parts of alcohol and water, or proof spirit, as it is named, is also often employed as a solvent in the analysis of vegetables. Ether dissolves nearly the same principles as alcohol. And the acids, alkalis, and soluble earths, are often employed as re-agents, in pointing out the existence of peculiar principles, in separating them from each other, and sometimes with the view of increasing the medicinal activity of the substance itself, or rendering it more easy of exhibition. Lastly, in the analysis of vegetables, we are often able to procure 4 26 GENERAL NATURE several of their proximate principles, by mechanical means, par- ticularly by expression. Sometimes, too, they exude spontaneously from the growing vegetable, or are obtained from incisions made in the branches or trunk. After we have discovered the proximate principles of a plant, or of any part of it, the next step is to ascertain their composition. This, however, is one of the most difficult of chemical investiga- tions. There are present in almost every vegetable substance the three elements, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and sometimes nitro- gen ; and when, according to the methods that used to be followed, the vegetable matter was exposed to heat, these elements formed a variety of compounds, which it was very difficult to collect and es- timate. The mode of analysis now followed, which was suggested by Gay-Lussac and Thenard, obviates some of the difficulties. It consists in exposing a known quantity of the vegetable substance mixed with peroxide of copper, in a glass-tube, to a red heat. The peroxide of copper communicating oxygen to the carbon and hydro- gen of the vegetable matter converts them into carbonic acid and water, and the nitrogen, if any be present, assumes the gaseous state. These products, when collected, give the proportions of car- bon, hydrogen and nitrogen ; the oxygen is known by comparing the quantity of it in the carbonic acid and water with that lost by the peroxide of copper ; if there be more oxygen in those products than has been lost by the peroxide, the excess must have been pre- sent in the vegetable. By this method, the ultimate composition of a number of vegetable principles has been ascertained with con- siderable precision. From the analysis of vegetable substances Gay-Lussac deduced certain general conclusions, connecting the character of these bo- dies with their composition. He inferred, that where the oxygen in a vegetable substance is in larger proportion than suffices to con- vert all the hydrogen into water, that body will be of an acid nature ; where, on the contrary, the hydrogen is in a greater proportion than would convert all the oxygen into water, the body will be of a re- sinous, oily or alcoholic nature ; lastly, where the oxygen and hydro- gen are in the proportion constituting water, the substance will be neither acid nor resinous, but analogous to sugar, starch, or woody fibre. These conclusions are generally correct, but there are seve- ral exceptions to them. A class of vegetable substances has of late years been establish- ed, which contain nitrogen in a considerable proportion. These are in general of an alkaline character. The tables which I have placed at the close of these introductory observations give the composition of most of the vegetable sub- stances that are of any importance. Sect. II.—Of the general nature of pharmaceutical OPERATIONS. Of the operations of Pharmacy, the greater number and the most important are of a chemical nature, consisting of arrangements of OF PHARMACEUTICAL OPERATIONS. 27 circumstances by which the affinities existing between bodies are favoured or counteracted. The results which they are intended to produce are Combination, in which two or more bodies unite into one compound, or Decomposition, in which bodies that were before united separate from each other ; and when these results are pro- duced, other processes are employed to procure the products. Some preliminary operations are frequently had recourse to of a mechanical kind, to diminish the cohesion of bodies, or to enlarge their surface. Such are Pulverization, Trituration, Levigation, Granulation, &c. Pulverization is the term employed where solid bodies are reduced to powder by beating. Trituration that where the same effect is produced by continued rubbing. Levi- gation denotes the operation where the powder is triturated to a great degree of fineness, the trituration being facilitated by the in- terposition of a fluid, in which the solid is not soluble. As by any of these operations the powder must consist of particles of unequal size, the finer are separated from the coarser by sifting or washing. Sifting is passing the powder over a sieve, the interstices of which are so minute as to allow only the finer particles to pass. Wash- ing, or Elutriation, is an operation performed on substances which are not soluble in water. The powder is diffused through a quantity of that fluid, and the mixture is allowed to remain at rest. The coarser particles quickly subside, and the finer remain sus- pended. The fluid is then decanted off, the powder is allowed to subside, and is afterwards dried. These methods of reducing bo- dies to powder can be applied to few of the metals, their force of cohesion being too strong. They are mechanically divided by rasping, or by being beat into- leaves, or they are granulated,—an operation performed by melting the metal, and when it is cooled down as far as it can be, without becoming solid, pouring it into wa- ter, it passes to the solid state, assuming a granular form. In Pharmacy, these operations are sometimes of importance, besides merely promoting chemical combination, as there are some medicines which act with more certainty, and even with more effi- cacy, when finely levigated, than when given in a coarse powder. As means of promoting chemical combination, it is evident that they can act only indirectly; the bodies being far from being re- duced to their minute particles, between which only chemical attraction is exerted. They are therefore employed merely as pre- liminary to those operations in which such a division is obtained by chemical means. Of these the first is Solution. By this is understood that opera- tion in which a solid body combines with a fluid in such a manner that the compound retains the fluid form, and is transparent. Trans- parency is the test of perfect solution. When the specific gravity of a solid body differs not greatly from that of a fluid, it may be dif- fused through it, but the mixture is more or less opaque : and on being kept for some time at rest, the heavier body subsides ; while in solution the particles of thesolid are permanently suspended by the state of combination in which they exist, and are so minute as cot to impair the transparency of the liquid. 28 general nature The liquid has in the case of solution been regarded as the body exerting the active power, and has been named the Solvent or Menstruum ; the solid is considered as the body dissolved. The at- traction, however, whence the effect arises, is reciprocal, and the form generally depends on the larger quantity of the liquid em- ployed, and the absence of cohesion being more favourable to the combination proceeding to a greater extent. In general, a solid can be dissolved in a liquid only in a certain quantity. This limitation of solution is named Saturation ; and when the point is reached, the liquid is said to be saturated with the solid. As the fluid approaches to saturation, the solution proceeds more slowly. When a fluid is saturated with one body, this does not prevent its dissolving a portion of another ; and in this way three, four, or five bodies may be retained in solution at the same time by one fluid. In these cases, the fluid does not dissolve so large a proportion of any of these substances as if it had been per- fectly pure, though sometimes the whole proportion of solid matter dissolved is increased from the mutual affinities the bodies exert. Neither is the solvent power always thus limited, there being many cases where a solid may be dissolved in a fluid to any extent. Gum or sugar, for example, will dissolve in water in every proportion. An increase of temperature, in general, favours solution, the so- lution proceeding more rapidly at a high than at a low temperature ; and in those cases in which a certain quantity only of the solid can be combined with the fluid, a larger quantity is taken up when the temperature is increased. Agitation favours solution, by bringing the different parts of the liquid into contact with the solid, and thus preventing the diminished effect which arises from the approach to saturation in the portion covering the solid. The mechanical division of a solid, too, is favourable to its solution, principally by enlarging the surface which is acted on. Solution is an operation frequently had recourse to in pharmaceu- tical chemistry, the active principles of many bodies being dissolved by their proper solvent. Salts are dissolved in water, as are also gum, extract, and other vegetable products. Products of a different kind, as resin, camphor, and essential oils, are dissolved in alcohol and wine : and metals are rendered soluble and active by the differ- ent acids. Solutions in water, alcohol, or wine, possess the sensi- ble qualities and medical virtues of the substance dissolved. Acid and alkaline liquors change the properties of the bodies which they dissolve. In Pharmacy, the operation receives different appellations, according to the nature of the solvent, of the substance dissolved, and of the manner in which it is performed. When a fluid is pour- ed on a vegetable matter, so as to dissolve only some of its princi- ples, the operation is named Extraction, and the part dissolved is said to be extracted. If it is performed without heat, it is termed Maceration ; if with a moderate heat, Digestion ; if the fluid is poured boiling hot on the substance, and they are kept in a covered vessel till cold, it is denominated Infusion : Decoction is the term given to the operation when the substances are boiled together. of pharmaceutical operations. 29 Tinctures are solutions obtained by infusion or digestion in alco- hol. It is evident, that these are all instances of solution, varied only by particular circumstances. Lixiviation is the term applied to so- lution performed on saline substances, where the soluble matter is separated, by the action of the solvent, from other substances that are insoluble; and the solution obtained in this case is termed a Ley. The other principal method by which that fluidity, necessary to chemical action, is communicated, is Fusion. It requires merely, with regard to each substance, the necessary degree of heat; and where this is high, it is performed usually in crucibles of earthen ware, or sometimes of black lead, or on a large scale in iron pots. Chemical combination is frequently promoted by an elevation of temperature, though the heat may not be so high as to produce fusion, but only to diminish cohesion to a certain extent. Calcina- tion, as it used to be named, or metallic oxidation, is an example of this ; a metal being heated to a high temperature, so as to enable it to combine with the oxygen of the air. Deflagration is a similar operation, an inflammable or metallic substance being exposed to a red heat in mixture with nitre ; the acid of the nitre yields to oxy- gen ; which being thus afforded in large quantity and nearly pure, the oxidation takes place rapidly, and generally to its maximum. When chemical action has been exerted, other operations are sometimes required to obtain the product, or sometimes this product is formed and collected in the operation itself. By Evaporation, or dissipating a liquid by the application of heat, a solid substance which has been dissolved in it is recovered, and this operation is one frequently performed in Pharmacy. When performed on a small scale, vessels of glass, or of earthen ware, are employed, and the heat is applied either by the medium of sand forming the sand bath, or, if it is required to be more moderate, the vessel is placed over water which is kept boiling, forming what is named the Water Bath. When performed on a larger scale, shal- low iron pots or leaden troughs are used, to which the fire is directly applied ; and experiments have shewn that the operation is conduct. ed more economically when the liquor is kept boiling strongly, than when it is evaporated more slowly by a more gentle heat. There is, on the other hand, however, some loss, from part of the dissolved substance being carried off when the heat is high, by its affinity to the liquid evaporating; and in many cases in Pharmacy, particular- ly in the evaporation of vegetable infusions or tinctures, the flavour, and even the more active qualities of the dissolved substance, are liable to be injured, towards the end of the operation, by a strong heat. The juices of vegetables are sometimes partially evaporated to re- move part of the water, and render the juices less liable to sponta- neous decomposition ; this is Inspissation. When evaporation is employed in order to obtain the volatile mat- ter which evaporates, the process is conducted in close vessels, adapted to condense the vapour and collect the liquid. This forms 30 general nature the operation of Distillation, which, with regard to different sub- stances, requires to be conducted in various modes. When a volatile principle is to be obtained from vegetable sub- stances by this process, the difficulty is to apply the heat sufficiently, without raising it too high. The mode employed is to heat the ve- getable matter with water, and the distillation is then usually per- formed in the common still. At the heat of boiling water, the Es- sential Oil of plants, which is the chief volatile principle they contain, is volatilized ; it rises with the watery vapour ; is condensed : if little water has been employed, the greater part of the oil is obtained apart; if much has been used, it retains it dissolved, acquiring taste and flavour, and thus forming the Distilled Waters of plants. If al- cohol, pure or diluted, has been the medium of distillation, it always retains the oil in solution, and forms what are named Distilled Spi- rits. The still in which the operation is performed with these views is of copper or iron ; it consists of a body and head, the former de- signed to contain the materials, and to which the fire is applied, the latter to receive the vapour; there issues from it a tube, which is connected with a spiral tube, placed in a vessel, named the refrige- ratory, filled with cold water. The vapour, in its progress through the tube, is condensed, and the liquid drops from the extremity of it. When metallic matter would be acted on by the materials of the product of distillation, vessels of glass or earthen ware are employ- ed ; the retort, which is generally used, being connected with a sin- gle receiver, or with a range of receivers, according as the vapour is more or less easily condensed ; or if the product is a permanently elastic fluid, which cannot be condensed but by passing it through water, a series of bottles, connected by tubes,'on the principle of Wolfe's apparatus, is used. When the product of distillation is not perfectly pure, it can often be purified by a second distillation: the process is then named Rectification: when it is freed from any su- perfluous water combined with it, the operation is named Dephleg- motion or Concentration. When the product of volatilization is condensed, not in the liquid, but in the solid form, the process is named Sublimation, and the product is a Sublimate. As the condensation, in this case, takes place with greater facility, a more simple apparatus is employed, consisting usually of a conical bottle or flask, with a round bottom, thin and equal, named a Cucurbit, on which the materials are con- tained, heat being applied by the medium of a sand bath. The va- pour condenses in the upper part of the flask, forming a cake, which adheres to it, the orifice being lightly closed to prevent any part from being lost; or a globular head, with a groove at its under edge, and a tube to convey off any liquid that may be condensed, (a Capi- tal as it is named,) is applied. When a solid substance is thrown down from a liquid by chemical action, it forms the operation of Precipitation, and the matter thrown down is named a Precipitate. When a substance, in passing to the solid state, whether from fu- sion or solution, assumes a regular geometric form, the process is named Crystallization, and these figured masses are denominated OF PHARMACEUTICAL OPERATIONS. 31 Crystals. Their forms are various, though constant with regard to each substance ; they are usually transparent, hard, and have a re- gular internal structure. The crystallization may happen in two ways from a state of solution. If a saturated solution has been pre- pared with the aid of heat, the increased quantity of the solid, which the heat has enabled the liquid to dissolve, separates as the tempe- rature falls ; and the attraction of cohesion being thus slowly exert- ed between the particles, unites them so as to form crystals. Or if a portion of the solvent be withdrawn by evaporation, and especially by slow evaporation, the particles of the solid unite slowly, and with a similar result. In both these kinds of crystallization from a watery solution, the crystallized substance always retains a quantity of water, and fre- quently even a considerable portion, in its composition. It is essen- tial to the constitution of the crystal, its transparency, structure, and form, and is hence named the Water of Crystallization. Some crys- tals lose it from exposure to the air, when they are said to effloresce; others attract water, and become humid, or deliquesce. In Pharmacy, crystallization is of importance, by enabling us to obtain substances, especially those belonging to the class of salts, in a pure form ; different salts, even when present in the same solution, being thus separated by their different tendencies to crystallization, according as they are more or less soluble in the solvent, or have their solubility more or less promoted by heat, and each salt, when it does crystallize, being in general pure. These are the principal operations of Pharmacy. Connected with this subject, there remain to be noticed the weights and measures which are usually employed. The division, according to what is named Troy weight, is that ordered in the Pharmacopoeias. Its parts, with the symbols by which they are denoted, and their rela- tive proportions, are represented in the following table : A pound (libra) ft contains 12 ounces. An ounce (uncia) 3 ------- 8 drachms. A drachm (drachma) 3 ------- 3 scruples. A scruple (scrupulus) 9 ------- 20 grains (grana) gr. Measures have been subdivided in a similar manner, being made to correspond to the specific gravity of water. As the specific gravi- ties of liquids vary considerably, a source of error is introduced in applying the standard measure to different liquids, unless the due al- lowance be made for the differences in specific gravity. This, it is to be presumed, will often be neglected, and hence the Edinburgh College have rejected the use of measures, and given the propor- tions of every liquid by weight. The use of measures, however, in apportioning liquids, those at least which are not too dense, being more easy and convenient, will probably always be retained; and it is therefore sanctioned by the Dublin and London Colleges. The following are the liquid measures, with their symbols ; 32 GENERAL NATURE A gallon* (congius) contains 8 pints. A pint (octarius) O------ 16 fluid-ounces. A fluid-ounce (fluid-uncia) f § ------• 8 fluid-drachms. A fluid-drachm (fluid-drachma) f 3-------60 minims, (minima,) m> This last measure is one newly introduced. In apportioning liquids into very small quantities, the quantity has been usually esti- mated by drops (guttae, gtt.) allowed to fall from the edge of the mouth of a bottle ; but the size of the drop is liable to vary, not only according to the mobility and specific gravity of the liquid, a circum- stance of inferior importance, since with regard to each substance it remains the same, but also according to the thickness of the edge of the vessel, and the degree of inclination. The London College have therefore substituted this division of minims, which are mea- sured in a slender graduated glass tube. It is necessary to recollect, that these minims have no strict relation to drops, as indeed is evi- dent from the circumstance, that a drop is a very variable quantity, both in size and weight, from different liquids. A drop of water is equal to about a grain, but 60 grains of alcohol are equal to 175 drops of it, 60 grains of white wine to 96 drops, and 60 grains of tinctures with diluted alcohol to from 135 to 145 drops. The mea- sures of a table and of a tea spoonful are sometimes used in extem- poraneous prescription, and though not very accurate, may be ad- mitted where a small difference in the dose is not important. The one is understood to be equal to half an ounce by measure, the other to about one drachm. I shall place here several tables, to which it may be sufficient af- terwards to refer, as embodying a number of facts which it would occupy much space to detail separately. The first table shews the chemical composition and equivalents of the different inorganic sub- stances used in medicine. The three following tables exhibit the composition and equivalents of vegetable substances so far as they are known. The last table presents a view of the articles of the Materia Medica, arranged according to their chemical constitution and natural characters, including the different medicinal plants, ar- ranged on the system of Linnaeus, and shewing also the natural orders of Jussieu to which they belong. * From the 1st day of May 1826 the British liquid measures were changed by statute, the Imperial Gallon being made the standard instead of the former wine gal- Ion ; but the measures and weights used by apothecaries were exempted from this change. The following table of comparison between the Imperial measures and the Apothecary's measures is given by the Dublin College. The numbers represent Troy grams of distilled water at the temperature of 60°. Apothecary's Measure. Imperial Measure. Grains Troy. Grains Troy. 70000 8750 546.8 68.3 TABLES. 33 Table of the Composition and Chemical Equivalents of Substances employed in Medicine. Substance. Composition. Acid, Acetic crystallized, 1 water = 9 j 1 Arsenic 38 Arsemc J3 0xyen 24 Arsenious * l Arsenic } 2 Oxygen 16 5 Benzoic Boracic {2 Oxygen 16} crystallized, 2 water = 18 r, , $1 Carbon 6) Carbomc }2 Oxygen 16 j ,-,,, . 11 Chlorine 36) Chloric J 5 Oxygen 40 5 Citric crystallized, 2 water =18 Gallic TT , . .. (I Iodine 124) Hydnodlc I 1 Hydrogen 1 { tt i ■ m ■ \ f 1 Cyanogen 26) Hydrocyanic (Prussic) ] , HJydro|en j \ ' 4 Carbon Malic 1 4 Oxygen Muriatic 3 Hydrogen I Chlorine 1 Hydrogen Nitrogen 5 Oxygen Nitric (dry) j \ liquid, sp. gr. 1.5, 2 water = 18 ,*,.. < 1 Nitrogen = 14 Nltrous J 4 Oxygen 32 „ .. (2 Carbon 12 0xa,lc |3 0iygen 24 crystallized, 3 water = 27 „, . . (1 Phosphorus 12 Phosphonc J 2 Oxygen 16 _ . (1 Cyanogen 26 Prusslc j 1 Hydrogen 1 Succinic „ , . (1 Sulphur 16 Sulphuric j 3 Oxygen 24 liquid, sp. gr. 1.85, 1 water 9 Tartaric crystallized, 1 water = 9 ' 6 Carbon 36 Uric \ 2 Nitrogen 28 ^ 1 Oxygen 8 Alcohol ... S 1 Aluminum 10) Alumina i 1 Oxygen 8 f 4 1 Nitrogen 14 ) Ammonia j 3 Hydrogen 3 $ Antimony . ,, ., ( 1 Antimony 44) chlon(]c \ 1 Chlorine 36 \ ,, ., 11 Antimony 441 perchlonde J 2 chlorine 72 \ 5 34 TABLES. TABLE I.—(continued.) Substance. Composition. Antimony, protoxide deutoxide peroxide sulphuret Arsenic white oxide sulphuret (realgar) sesquisulphuret (orpiment) Barium chloride Barytes Bismuth oxide Bromine Calcium, chloride oxide (lime) Carbon Carbonic oxide Chlorine Copper oxide peroxide Cyanogen Ether Gum Hydrogen carburetted bi-carburetted sulphuretted bi-sulphuretted Iodine Iron protoxide peroxide sulphuret i 1 Antimony \1 Oxygen i 1 Antimony | 1£ Oxygen i 1 Antimony 1 ^ Oxygen i 1 Antimony | 1 Sulphur 1 Arsenic 2 Oxygen 1 Arsenic 1 Sulphur 1 Arsenic IJj Sulphur i 1 Barium [ 1 Chlorine i I Barium ! 1 Oxygen I 1 Bismuth [ 1 Oxygen 1 Calcium 1 Chlorine 1 Calcium 1 Oxygen 1 Carbon 1 Oxygen I 1 Copper 1 Oxygen 1 Copper 2 Oxygen 2 Carbon I — Nitrogen 1 Carbon 2 Hydrogen 2 Carbon 2 Hydrogen 1 Sulphur 1 Hydrogen 2 Sulphur 1 Hydrogen 1 Iron 1 Oxygen 1 Iron M Oxygen 1 Iron 1 Sulphur 44; 72 TABLES. TABLE I.—(continued.) 35 Substance. Composition. Lead protoxide (litharge) deutoxide (red lead) peroxide Magnesia Manganese, tritoxide Mercury protoxide peroxide chloride (calomel) bi-chloride (corrosive sub- limate) sulphuret bi-sulphuret (cinnabar) bi-cyanide Nitrogen Olive Oil Oxygen Phosphorus Potassium chloride oxide (potash) sulphuret Silver chloride oxide Sodium chloride iodide oxide (soda) Sulphur Water Zinc oxide 1 Lead 1 Oxygen 1 Lead [ 1£ Oxygen 1 Lead 2 Oxygen 1 Magnesium 1 Oxygen I Manganese 2 Oxygen 1 Mercury 1 Oxygen 1 Mercury 2 Oxygen 1 Mercury 1 Chlorine 1 Mercury 2 Chlorine 1 Mercury I Sulphur 1 Mercury 2 Sulphur ' 1 Mercury 2 Cyanogen 104; 4 1 Potassium 40 i 1 Chlorine 36 41 Potassium 40 { 1 Oxygen 8 hydrate 1 water = 9 4 1 Potassium 40 \ 1 Sulphur 16 4 1 Silver ( 1 Chlorine 4 1 Silver ( 1 Oxygen 4 Sodium \ 1 Chlorine 4 1 Sodium i 1 Iodine 4 1 Sodium ( 1 Oxygen 4 1 Oxygen ( 1 Hydrogen 4 1 Zinc } 1 Oxygen 110 34 36 TABLES. SALTS. Base. Acid. Water 1 atom =9, Equivalent of the Salts H.= l. Alumina, sulphate and potash, sulphate of (alum) dry crys. 25 water (common alum) 18 544-48 54+48 17 17 17 40 160 160 51 51 22 225 58 262 487 68 Ammonia, acetate cryst. 7 water carbonate 63 131 39 61 bi-carbonate 17 44 cryst. 1 water sesquicarbonate, 1 water 17 17 44 33 9 9 70 59 54 muriate (sal ammoniac) 17 37 oxalate, cryst. 2 water 17 36 18 71 phosphate cryst. 2 water 17 17 28 28 18 45 63 succinate 17 50 67 sulphate, cryst. 1 water 17 40 9 66 Antimony protoxide 52 hydro-sulphuret (kermes mineral) 52 17 69 sulphuretted hydro-sulphuret (gol- 85 den sulphur) 52 33 tartrate of potash and 3 water (tar- tar-emetic) 1564-48 132 27 363 Barytes 76 carbonate 76 22 98 muriate, cryst. 1 water 76 37 9 122 nitrate 76 54 130 sulphate 76 40 116 Bismuth, protoxide ' 80 sub-nitrate (trisnitrate) 240 54 294 tartrate, 5 water 80 66 45 191 Copper, peroxide 80 acetate, cryst. 6 water (common ver- degris) 80 51 54 185 bin-acetate, cryst. 3 water (distilled verdegris 80 102 27 209 subacetate (1 acid and 2 base) 160 51 211 carbonate 80 22 102 bi-nitrate 80 108 188 sub-nitrate (1 acid and 4 peroxide) 320 54 374 bi-sulphate 80 80 160 crystallized (blue vitriol) 10 water 80 80 90 250 Iron (protoxide) 36 peroxide 40 acetate, 3 water 36 51 27 114 carbonate 36 22 58 muriate, 3 water 36 37 27 100 succinate 40 50 90 sulphate 36 40 76 cryst. 7 water (green vitriol) 36 40 63 139 sesquisulphate (peroxide) 40 60 100 Lead, protoxide 112 acetate 112 51 163 cryst. 3 water 112 51 27 190 subacetate (2 base) 224 51 275 carbonate 112 22 134 Lime 28 carbonate 28 22 50 sub-chloride, 6 water 56 36 54 146 muriate, crys. 6 water 28 37 54 119 TABLES. 37 TABLE I.—(continued.) Lime, oxalate phosphate sulphate tartrate, 4 water Magnesia carbonate muriate, cryst. 5 water sulphate cryst. 7 water sulphate of Soda and Mercury, protoxide peroxide acetate cryst. 4 water nitrate cryst. 2 water per-nitrate sub-nitrate sulphate cryst. 2 water per-sulphate bi-persulphate cryst. 1 water Potash acetate binacetate, cryst. 6 water arseniate carbonate cryst. 2 water bi-carbonate cryst. 1 water chlorate chromate bi-chromate citrate hydriodate nitrate (nitre) oxalate cryst. 1 water binoxalate cryst. 2 water sulphate bi-sulphate cryst. 2 water tartrate, cryst. 2 water bi-tartrate, cryst. 2 water (cream of tar- tar) Silver, protoxide nitrate Soda bi-borate (borax,) 8 water carbonate (sub-carbonate) cryst. 10 water bi-carbonate cryst. 1 water sesquicarbonate, cryst. 2 water phosphate cryst. 12 water sulphate cryst. 10 water Base. Acid. 28 28 28 28 20 20 20 20 324-20 208 208 208 208 216 432 208 208 216 216 216 48 48 48 48 36 28 40 66 22 37 40 40 80 51 51 54 54 54 54 40 40 40 80 80 51 102 62 22 Water IEquivalent I atom of the Salts = 9. H,= l. 48 22 48 44 48 44 48 76 48 52 48 104 48 58 48 125 48 54 48 36 48 36 48 72 48 72 48 40 48 80- 48 80 48 66 48 132 118 54 32 48 32 22 32 22 32 44 32 44 32 33 32 28 32 28 32 40 32 40 36 45 63 36 18 18 54 18 18 18 18 18 72 90 9 18 108 90 38 TABLES. TABLE I.—(continued.) Base. Acid. Water 1 atom = 9. Equivalent of the Salts H.=i7~ Soda, tartrate 32 66 98 2 water 32 66 18 116 tartrate of potash and, (Rochelle salt) 8 water 32+48 132 72 284 urate, 1 water 32 72 9 113 Zinc, oxide 42 acetate 42 51 93 cryst. 7 water 42 51 63 156 carbonate 42 22 64 cryst. 1 water 42 22 9 73 muriate 42 37 79 sulphate 42 40 82 cryst. 7 water 42 40 63 145 1 Table II.—Composition of Vegetable Acids. Acid. Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen. Equivalent Acetic Acid 4 atoms=24 3 atoms=24 5 atoms=3 51 Benzoic Acid 15 atoms=90 3 atoms=24 6 atoms=6 120 Citric Acid 4 atoms=24 4 atoms=32 2 atoms=2 58 Formic Acid 2 atoms=12 3 atoms=24 1 atom =1 37 Gallic Acid 6 atoms=36 3 atoms=24 3 atoms=3 63 Mallic Acid 4 atoms=24 4 atoms=32 3 atoms=3 59 Oxalic Acid 2 atoms=12 3 atoms=24 36 Saccholactic Acid 6 atoms=36 8 atoms=64 4 atoms=4 104 Succinic Acid 4 atoms=24 3 atoms=24 2 atoms=2 50 Tartaric Acid 4 atoms=24 5 atoms=40 2 atoms=2 66 Table HI.—Composition of Vegetable Alkalis. Vegetable Alkali. Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen, Nitrogen. Equivalent Brucia 75.04 11.21 6.52 7.22 412? Cinchonia 76.97 7.79 6.22 9.02 315? Emetia 64.57 22.95 7.77 4.3 Morphia 72.02 14.84 7.01 5.53 322? duinia 75 10.43 6.66 8.45 360? Strychnia 78.22 6.38 6.54 8.92 380? Veratria 66.75 19.6 8.54 5.04 Table IV.—Vegetable Principles neither acid nor alkaline. Carbon. Oxygen. Hydrogen. Equivalent Sugar Starch Gum Lignin Alcohol Ether Oil of Turpentine Camphor Resin Fixed Oil Wax Tannin 3 atoms = 18 6----=36 7----=42 2----=12 4----=21 14----=84 10----=60 8----=48 10----=60 13----=78 6----=36 3 atoms=24 6----=48 6----=48 4----=32 1----= 8 1----= 8 1----=8 4----=32 | 3 atoms = 3 6----= 6 6----= 6 4----= 4 5----= 5 10----=10 9----= 9 7----= 7 11----=11 1 11----=11 3---= 3 1 45 90 90 78 23 37 102 77 63 79 97 71 TABLES. 39 TABULA I. Inorganica. Classis I. Sales. Ordo Acida. Acidum aceticum. --------benzoicum. -------carbonicum. -------citricum. -------muriaticum. -------nitricum. -------nitrosum. -------nitromuriaticum. -------phosphoricum. -------prussicum. -------succinicum. -------sulphuricum. -------tartaricum. Ord. Alkalia. Ammonia. Potassa. Soda. Ord. Sales Neutri. Ammonia? acetas. ---------bicarbonas. ---------carbonas. ---------sesquicarbonas. ---------hydrosulphuretum. ---------murias. Potassa? acetas. -------bicarbonas. -------carbonas. -------hydriodas. -------nitras. -------sulphuretum. -------sulphas. -------bisulphas. -------tartras. -------bitartras. -------et sodaj tartras. Sodae acetas. -----boras. -----bicarbonas. -----carbonas. -----murias. -----phosphas. -----sulphas. CI. II. Terra. Alumen. Baryta? carbonas. ------murias. ------sulphas. Calx. Calcis carbonas. -----murias. -----phosphas. Magnesia. Magnesia? carbonas. ---------sulphas. CI. III. Inflammabilia. Sulphur. RUE MEDICOS, Carbo. Succinum. Bitumen Petroleum. Alcohol. ./Ether sulphuricus. ■------nitricus. CI. IV. Metalla. Antimonii oxidum. ---------submurias. ---------sulphuretum. ---------tartras et potassa?. Argentum. Argenti nitras. Arsenici oxidum album. Bismuthum. Bismuthi subnitras. Cuprum. Cupri acetas. -----subacetas. -----ammoniaretum. -----sulphas. Ferrum. Ferri acetas. -----carbonas. -----carbonas et potassa?. -----cyanuretum. -----murias. -----murias et ammonia. ----~ oxidum nigrum. -----oxidum rubrum. -----sulphas. -----sulphuretum. -----tartras et potassa?. Hydrargyrum. Hydrargyri acetas. ----------cyanuretum. ----------murias corrbsivus. ----------murias mitis. -----------------et ammonite. ----------nitras. ----------subnitras ruber. ----------oxidum cinereum. ----------oxidum rubrum. ----------persulphas. ----------subsulphas flavus. ----------sulphuretum nigrum. ----------------------rubrum. Manganesii oxidum. Plumbum. Plumbi acetas. ------subacetas. ------carbonas. ------oxidum semivitreum. Stannum. Zincum. Zinci acetas. -----carbonas. -----oxidum. -----sulphas. CI. V. Aqua?. Aqua pura. 40 TABLES. Aqua marina. Aqua? minerales. CI. VI. Gasea. Gas acidum carbonicum. ----chlorinium. ----hydrogenium carburetum. ----oxidum nitrosum. Electricitas—Galvanismus. II. Organica. Vegetabilia. Classes Linnasi. Ordines Naturales Jussieu. Classis I. Monandria. Ordo Monogynia. Amomum repens i .-, * Canna?, Zingiber CI. II. Diandria. Ord. Monogynia. Olea Europea Jasminea?. Gratiola officinalis Scrophularia?. Rosmarinus officinalis ) T ,. . Salvia officinalis } Lablat!E- Ord. Trigynia. Piper cubeba ~1 -----longum > Piperita?. -----nigrum ) CI. III. Triandria. Ord. Monogynia. Crocus sativus ) T ., Iris Florentina \lndcx- Valeriana officinalis Valeriana?. Ord. Digynia. Avena sativa ^j Hordeum distichum laramineae Saccharum officinarum f Triticum hybernum J CI. IV. Tetrandria. Ord. Monogynia. Dorstenia contrayerva Urticeae. Rubia tinctorum Rubiacea?. Krameria triandra Polygalea?. CI. V. Pentandria. Ord. Monogynia. Anchusa tinctoria Boragineae. Atropa belladonna ") Capsicum annuum Datura stramonium | Hyosciamus niger )> Solanea?. Nicotiana tabacum Solanum dulcamara Verbascum thapsus Bonplandia trifoliata i D . Diosmacrenata \ Autace*. Strychnos nux vomica Strychneae. Convolvulus jalapa ) Convolvula- •-----scammonia $ ceae. Cinchona cordifolia *| lancifolia i» Rubiace^. --------oblongifolia i Calicocca ipecacuanha J Chironia centaureum 1 Menyanthes trifoliata > Gentianeae. S|>igelia Marilandica ) Rhamnus catharticus Rhamneae. Ord. Digynia. Anethum graveolens --------fbeniculum Angelica archangelica Bubon galbanum Carum carui Conium maculatum Coriandrum sativum Cuminum cyminum Daucus carota Ferula assafoetida Heracleum gummiferum Pastinaca opoponax Pimpinella anisum Umbelli- ferae. Ulmus campestris Gentiana lutea Urticea?. Gentianeae. Ord. Trigynia. Rhus toxicodendron Terebinthacese. Sambucus nigra Caprifoliacea?. Ord. Pentagynia. Linum usitatissimum ) T . ------catharticum j Linacea?. CI. VI. Hexandria. Ord. Monogynia. Allium sativum "^ ------cepa ------porrum ! T ... Aloespicata fLihacea?. ----vulgaris j Scilla maritima j Acorus calamus Aroidea?. Ord. Trigynia. Colchicum autumnale Colchicacea?. Rumex aquaticus ) y, , ------acetosa \ Po]yg°»e*- CI. VIII. Octandria. Ord. Monogynia. Amyris elemifera ) m , ■ „ ------ Gileadensis \ Terebmthaceas. Daphne mezereum Thymelea?. Ord. Trigynia. Polygonum bistorta Polygonea?. CI. IX. Enneandria. Ord. Monogynia. Laurus cassia ^i ------camphora ------cinnamomum }>Laurinea?. ------nobilis ------sassafras J TABLES. 41 Ord. Trigynia. Rheum palmatum ) ------undulatum > Polygonea?. ------compactum ) CI. X. Decandria. Ord. Monogynia. Cassia senna ----- fistula Copaifera officinalis Myroxylon Peruiferum yLeguminosae. ----------Toluiferum Hssmatoxylon Campe- chianum J Guaicum officinale"") auassia si.naruba lRutaceaj, -------excelsa Ruta graveolens J Arbutus Uva-ursi ) Erici- Pyrola umbellata > nesB Rhododendron chrysanthum Styrax officinale ) 0 . „„m J , ■ > Symplocea?. ------benzoin S febrifuga mahogani Swietenia febrifuga ) Meliaceae. Boswellia serrata Terebinthaceae. Ord. Digynia. Dianthus caryophyllus. Caryophylleae. Ord. Pentagynia. Oxalis Acetosella Oxalideae. CI. XI. Dodecandria. Ord. Monogynia. Asarum Europaeum Anstolochiae. Canella alba Meliaceae. Lythrum salicaria Salicariae. Ord. Trigynia. Euphorbia officinarum Euphorbiaceae. CI. XII. Icosandria. Ord. Monogynia. Amygdalus communis ") —:--------amara __________Persica )■ Rosaceae. Prunus domestica ------ lauro-cerasus J Eugenia caryophyllata } Myrlus pimenta > Myrtaceae. Punica granatum ) Ord. Polygynia. Geum urbanum "\ Rosa canina | ----centifolia )- Rosacea?. ----Gallica I Tormentilla erecta J CI. XIII. Polyandria. Ord. Monogynia. Papaver somniferum ) papaveraceiE. Ord. Trigynia. Aconitum napellus ) Ranuncula- Delphinium staphisagria \ ceae. Ord. Tetragynia. Wintera aromatica Magnoliaceae. Helleborusniger j RanunculaceiE, ---------foetid us I CI. XIV. Didynamia. Ord. Gymnospermia. Hyssopus officinalis Lavandula spica Mentha piperita -------pulegium -------viridis ^Labiataa. Marrubium vulgare Melissa officinalis Origanum vulgare ---------majorana Ord. Angiospermia. Digitalis purpurea > ophularia3. Scrophulana nodosa 4 r CI. XV. Tetradynamia. Ord. Siliquosa?. Cardamine pratensis ~| Sinapis alba >Crucifera?. ------- nigra f ■ Sisymbrium nasturtium J Ord. Siliculosae. Cochlearia armoracia j CruciferaJi ---------officinalis 4 CI. XVI. Monadelphia. Ord. Triandria. Tamarind us Indica Leguminosa?. Ord. Polyandria. Althea officinalis > Malvace£E. Malva sylvestns ) CI. XVII. Diadelphia. Ord. Octandria. Polygala senega Polygalea?. Ord. Decandria. Astragalus tragacantha"' Dolichos pruriens Geoffra?a inermis Glycyrrhiza glabra } Leguminosae. Pterocarpus draco ----------erinacea ----------santalinus Spartium scoparium. CI. XVIII. Polyadelphia. Ord. Icosandria. Citrus aurantium ) Aurantiaceffi. -----medica ) Melaleuca cajuputi Myrtacea?. 43 TABLES. CI. XIX. Syngenesia. Ord. Polygamia aequalis. Arctium lappa } <*%£ ^^ Lactuca sativa ) Composita? ------virosa [cichoraceae, Leontodon taraxacum j Ord. Polygamia Superflua. Anthemis nobilis. --------pyrethrum "j Arnica montana Artemisia absinthium -----■■--- Chinensis --------santonica [ Compositae Corymbiferae. Inula helenium Tanacetum vulgare Tussilago farfara. Ord. Polygamia Frustranea. Centaureabenedicta \Co£g hCyna" CI. XX. Gynandria. Ord. Hexandria. Aristolochia serpentaria Aristolochiae. CI. XXI. Monoecia. Ord. Hexandria. Cocos butyracea Palma?. Ord. Polyandria. Cluercus robur ; robur ) ~ ... infectoria } Cupulifer*. Ord. Monadelphia. Pinus abies "| —-balsamea ^^^ sylvestris J Croton cascarilla •tiglium Ricinus communis ) Ord. Syngenesia Cucumis colocynthis Momordica elaterium Euphorbiaceae. Cucurbitaceae. CI. XXII. Dicecia. Ord. Diandria. Salix alba ---- caprea > Salicinea?. Ord. Pentandria. Humulus Iupulus Urticea?. Pistacia lentiscus > Terebinthaceaj, .------terebmthus $ Ord. Hexandria. Smilax sarsaparilla Asparagineae. Ord. Dodecandria. Cocculus palmatus i (Colomba) > MenispermeaB. ------suberosus ) Ord. Monadelphia. Juniperus communis ) Coniferje_ --------sabma J Myristica moschata Myristicea?, CI. XXIII. Polygamia. Ord. Mona?cia. Veratrum album Colchicaceae. Stalagmitis cambogiodes Guttiferffi, Acacia Arabica ) ------vera > Leguminosae. ------catechu ) Ord. Dioecia. Fraxinus omus Jasmineae. Ord. Tricecia. Ficus carica ' Urticea?. CI. XXIV. Cryptogamia, Ord. Algae. Cetraria Islandica. Ord. Filices. Aspidium Filix mas. Animalia. Classis Mammalia, Adeps ovillus. ----- suillus. Castoreum. Cetaceum. Cornu cervi. CI. Pisces. Ichthyocolla. CI. Insecta. Cantharis vesicatoria. Cera Mel. Chela et lapilli cancrorum. Spongia. CI. Zoophyta. PART I. OF MATERIA MEDICA. Materia Medica, in the extensive signification which has been attached to the term, comprises the history both of Aliments and of Medieines. It is used, however, more frequently and more correct- ly, as opposed to the Materia Alimentaria ; and in this limited sense may be defined—that department of Medicine, which describes the properties, and investigates the effects on the living system, of those substances which are employed as remedies against disease. It in- cludes the history of these substances, independent of the prepara- tions to which they are subjected to fit them for administration, these belonging to the department of Pharmacy. CHAP. I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARTICLES OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. The classification of medicines has been attempted on two differ- ent principles ; their Natural History, and what may be more strictly denominated their Medical History, have each been made the basis of a system of arrangement. Of these the latter seems to merit preference. The Natural History of remedies is of indispensable utility in enabling us to distinguish them with accuracy and to recognize them. Farther, the natural affinities which may be traced between bodies not unfrequently throw much light on their medicinal agency. In the vegetable kingdom especially, these affinities have been traced and applied with much advantage. Those vegetables which agree in their general structure, habit and appearances, are thrown into what are named Natural Orders or Families ; and experience has shewn that the individuals composing many of these natural orders have a remarkable similarity in their medicinal effects. In not a few instances naturalists have been led by these analogies to just conclusions respecting the virtues of plants ; and in studying the ve- getable part of the Materia Medica, attention is undoubtedly due to 44 GENERAL VIEW OF THE such affinities. But as a basis of classification there is too much uncertainty and obscurity in the natural history of remedies for it to admit of extensive and accurate application. The medicinal actions of plants of the same order are sometimes totally different; nay, dif- ferent parts of the same plant have frequently opposite powers. And in the other classes of remedies, as the saline and metallic, natural history furnishes no principle of arrangement. An arrangement of the articles of the Materia Medica, in confor- mity to their medical history, appears more systematic and more conformable to the objects of the study itself. These substances are subjects of inquiry, from being possessed of certain medicinal pow- ers, which ought therefore to be the basis of their arrangement. And if substances are classed on a principle of this kind, there are the advantages, that by associating together remedies possessed of similar virtues, it becomes easier to compare them with each other, to deliver the theory of their common action, and to point out the peculiarities which may attend the operation of each. It is true, that an arrangement of this nature involves some degree of repeti- tion. A substance is frequently capable of producing several diffe- rent medicinal effects; for example, it may be capable of acting as an emetic, as a cathartic, and as a diuretic; and as we are unable, in the present state of our knowledge of the animal economy, to de- termine whether these are modifications of one action, it is necessary to consider every such remedy under each of these classes, and under each of them its history is incomplete. But this disadvantage is one of very little importance, and belongs to the subject rather than to the arrangement. So far it appears sufficiently obvious that a scientific arrangement of the substances used in medicine can be formed only from a con- sideration of their medicinal powers, but to carry this method into execution is a task of not a little difficulty. The action of sub- stances on the living system is involved in such obscurity, that in endeavouring to class them according to these effects, we are obliged to admit of many deviations, and must be guided not unfrequently by imperfect analogies. The difficulty of constructing a classification of medicines from their operations will be apparent from the failure even of Cullen when he attempted its execution, for there can be little hesitation in affirming, that the one he has given rests on principles nearly alto- gether false. The following table exhibits this classification : OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 45 5< Z e < U I—4 Q H O M 'Simplicia. Asiringentia. Tonica. Emollientia. Erodentia. kViva. Stimulantia. Sedantia. Narcotica. Refrigerantia. Antispasmodica. Immutantia. Fluiditatem'. Attenuantia. Inspissantia. LMisturam. Acrimoniam corrigentia. In genere. Demulcentia. In specie. Antacida. Antalkalina. Antiseplica. .. Evacuantia. Errhina. Sialagoga. Expectorantia. Emelica. Cathartica. Diuretica. Diaphoretica. Menagoga. Now, without examining it minutely, it may be remarked, that the basis of this classification, the assumption that some medicines act exclusively on the fluids of the body, is incorrect; for, with the ex- ception of two or three classes, the action of the whole is on the living solids. Emetics, cathartics, diuretics, diaphoretics, emmena- gogues, expectorants, sialagogues, and errhines, which Cullen has placed as medicines acting on the fluids, produce their effects, un- questionably by no operation on the fluids which they evacuate, but by exciting particular organs to action. The distinction is equally nugatory, in the greater number of cases, between the action of me- dicines on the simple solids and on the living solids. It cannot be doubted but that tonics produce their effects in removing debility, not, as the classification of Cullen assumes, by any action on the in- animate fibre of the body, giving it density or tone, but by their ope- ration on the vital powers of the system. Nor can the effects of astringents be ascribed entirely to their corrugating quality. In this arrangement, too, are placed classes of medicines which 46 GENERAL VIEW OF THE have probably no existence, the action ascribed to them being mere- ly hypothetical. We may be allowed to question the existence of attenuants and inspissants,—medicines which render the fluids of the body more thin, or which produce the opposite effect. Nor is there any reason to believe in the reality of antiseptics. The process of putrefaction probably never takes place in the living body ; and, if it did, we know of no specific medicines by which it could be retard- ed or counteracted. In the system of Brown, advanced in opposition to that of Cullen, more just views were unquestionably given of the relations of exter- nal agents to the living system, and of the laws regulating their ac- tion. The operations of medicines, however, are even in this sys- tem imperfectly explained, partly from the imperfect state of the science, and partly from its author having surveyed his subject with those views of generalization which preclude minute distinctions. Medicines he supposed to operate merely as other external agents by exciting to action either the general system, or the particular organs on which they operate ; and to differ from each other in little more than in the degree in which they exert this stimulating power. They have, farther than this, no specific properties, but are adapted to the removal of morbid affections, by producing excitement, partial or general, with certain degrees of rapidity or force. This proposition is far from being just, at least in an unlimited sense. Medicines, and even external agents in general, unques- tionably differ, not only in degree, but in kind of action. Every substance applied to the organs of sense gives a different sensation, not referable to the mere force of the impression, but which must be attributed to some essential varieties in the modes of action of the agents themselves. Every organ is excited to its usual or healthy action only by its appropriate stimulant. It is the same with regard to medicines, differences in the kind of action they exert being not less conspicuous. Opium and mercury both excite the actions of the system, and so far they agree in their general operation. But the ultimate effects they produce are extremely dissimilar, nor from either of them can we, by any variation of dose, or mode of ad- ministration, obtain those effects which usually result from the action of the other. All the important articles nearly of the Materia Medica might be brought forward as similar examples, and as prov. ing that they are not to be regarded simply as stimulants varying in strength, but that their action is modified by the peculiar powers they exert. Still the principles of this system approach to the truth, and ap. pear most conformable to the laws which regulate the animal economy, and, with some modifications, they may be applied so as to afford a more satisfactory view of the operations of medicines, as well as a basis for arranging them under different classes. The general operation of medicines is that of exciting to action, either the whole system, or particular organs. This is the primary effect: and to express the agency of the substance producing it, the term of stimulant operation may be employed. And, according to OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 47 the kind and degree of this, different effects are produced, the dis- crimination of which may afford several important distinctions. Thus, of those stimulants which act on the general system, the operation is extremely different with regard to diffusibility and per- manence. Some are highly diffusible in their action, or, soon after they have been received into the stomach, they produce increased vigour, which is immediately conspicuous in the force of the cir- culation, the nervous system, or the different functions of the body ; while, with regard to others, the same general effect is produced more slowly, and is scarcely perceptible but from their repeated or continued administration. Those which are diffusible are at the same time usually transient in their operation; while those which pro- duce excitement more slowly are generally more permanent. And by both diversities of action, it is obvious their operation muvst be pro- ductive of very different effects: the high excitement produced by the one is soon followed by proportional languor ; the gradual ex- citement from the other being reduced more slowly, they occasion no such sudden changes, but are fitted to produce more lasting effects. These varieties of action serve, accordingly, to explain the differences in the power of some of our most important medicines, and they afford the distinction of two principal classes, Narcotics and Tonics ; the one, so far as their action is understood, being apparently general stimulants, diffusible and transient, the other slow and permanent. Another important difference among stimulants is derived from the action of some being general with regard to the system, while that of others is more peculiarly directed to particular organs. The effect with regard to either is not easily explained ; but the fact is certain, that some substances, as soon as they are received into the stomach, not only produce on it a stimulant effect, but ex- tend this to the general system; while there are others which, without any very evident action on the stomach, and still less, with- out any general action, excite particular organs ; some, for example, stimulating the intestinal canal, others exciting the action of the secreting vessels of the kidneys, others operating on the exhalant vessels of the skin. These afford the distinctions of cathartics, diuretics, and diaphoretics, and there are other classes founded on similar local operations. When medicines are thus determined to particular parts, they are either directly conveyed, by being received into the blood, or their action is communicated indirectly from the stomach, by the medium of the nervous system ; and in both ways important local effects are produced. Thus, there are many substances which appear to be capable of being so far assimilated with the food, as to enter into the compo- sition of the chyle, and are received into the circulating mass. Being brought, in the course of the circulation, to particular organs, they often excite in them peculiar actions. Mercury affords an example of this. It enters the circulation, and, when accumulated to a sufficient extent, generally acts on the salivary glands. It is on secreting organs that these local effects are usually produced, and 48 GENERAL VIEW OF THE frequently the substance is separated with the secreted fluid, so as to act on the secreting vessels. Such is the case with the alkaline salts, or with nitre, which are secreted by the vessels of the kidneys, stimulate them at the same time to increased action, and are capable of being detected in the urine by chemical tests. But the most general mode in which the operation of medicines taken into the stomach is extended, either to the system in general, or to any particular organ, is by the medium of nervous communi- cation. An impression is made on the fibres of the stomach by the substance received into it; and however difficult it may be to con- ceive the mode in which this can be communicated by the nerves to distant parts, the fact is established by sufficient evidence. It is evident from the effects of these substances being produced in a shorter time after they have been received into the stomach, than they could be were they to act by being absorbed by the chyle into the circulating mass. The stimulus of wine or of opium received into the stomach will instantly remove lassitude, and increase the vigour of the circulation, or of muscular exertion ; or the same substances, in a larger dose, will, with the same celerity, depress all the functions, and exhaust the powers of life. Digitalis given to sufficient extent will speedily reduce, to a great degree, the fre- quency of the pulse ; or a large dose of cinchona, given half an hour before the expected recurrence of the paroxysm of an inter- mittent, will prevent its attack. It has also been proved by experi- ment, that this communication of action from the stomach to other parts, in a number of cases, does not take place where the brain and spinal marrow have been destroyed, though the heart and vascu- lar system have been preserved uninjured. From this susceptibility of impression, and of communicating action to other parts, the stomach becomes an organ of the first im- portance, since, independent of its being the vehicle by which sub- stances are conveyed into the blood, it is that by means of which medicines are brought to act on the system by the medium of the nerves. It sometimes happens, however, that a similar extension of action may take place from other parts ; and hence effects may be obtained from medicines, by applying them to the surface of the body, similar to those which they produce when they have been received into the stomach. Sometimes the effect is conveyed by nervous communication, and sometimes the substance applied is absorbed by the lymphatics, and enters the blood. Examples of the first are to be found in many narcotics. Opium, applied to the skin, either in the solid form, or in that of tincture, often relieves pain, and removes spasmodic affections either general or local. Tobacco, applied to the region of the stomach, excites vomiting; and garlic applied to the feet acts as a powerful stimulant, and raises the strength of the pulse. Examples of the second mode of opera- tion are still more frequent. Friction on the surface is a common method of introducing mercury into the circulating mass. By the same means oxide of arsenic, tartrate of antimony, and other active substances, may be introduced ; a solution of them in water being rubbed on the palms of the hand ; and, under certain circumstances, OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 49 this is preferable to their administration by the stomach. Many substances applied to a wound produce important effects on the system, affecting the functions of the heart or brain : in such cases they appear to act by entering the circulation through the divided veins of the part to which they are applied. These are examples of the various relations which medicines bear to the living system. We are unable to assign a cause for these peculiar properties, to ascertain why the action of some should be extended to the system in general, or why that of others should be determined to particular parts, either where substances enter the blood, or where they act by the medium of the nerves. But from the possession of such properties, it is evident, that their powers as medicines must be more diversified than if they were merely gene- ral stimulants, varying in the degree of their stimulating power; and farther, that distinctions are thus afforded for establishing a variety of classes. Another cause remains to be pointed out, by which the actions of medicines are diversified. Besides acting as stimulants, they some- times occasion changes, either mechanical or chemical, in the state of the fluids, or of the simple solids, and these changes are produc- tive of medicinal effects. This operation of medicines was formerly supposed to be more extensive than it really is. Sufficient weight was not allowed to the important fact, that the actions of external agents on the living body are governed by laws different from those which regulate the actions exerted between the masses or particles of inanimate matter. Hence we find, in medical speculations, constant attempts to trace the causes of diseases to changes merely mechanical or chemical, to plethora or obstruction, to laxity or rigidity, to the abundance of acid or alkali, or to the presence of other specific acrimonies still less defined. The explanations of the operations of medicines were of course founded on these notions, and hence the distinctions of inspissants, attenuants, antacids, antalkalis, antiseptics, and several others with which the Materia Medica was loaded. These errors are now nearly exploded. We have learned to con- sider the living system as endowed with peculiar properties and modes of action, incapable of being explained on mere mechanical or chemical principles ; and to regard external powers acting upon it as producing changes conformable to these peculiar properties of life. Yet still we can sometimes refer a salutary change, either general or partial, to changes mechanical or chemical in the solids or fluids. Thus, symptoms arising from irritation may be removed by lubricating the irritated surface ; acid in the stomach may be cor- rected by the exhibition of alkalis or absorbent earths ; and urinary concretions may be dissolved, or at least their increase may be pre- vented, by the use of alkaline remedies. These properties of cer- tain medicines are not perhaps highly important; but they demand attention, and they afford sufficient distinctions for the formation of several classes. In conformity to these views, the following classification of the articles of the Materia Medica, founded on their medicinal opera- 7 50 GENERAL VIEW OF THE tions, may be established. It is only necessary to observe, princi- pally to obviate hasty criticism, that, in classifications founded on this principle, perfect precision is not to be expected. The science of medicine is still in so imperfect a state, particularly in what re- gards the relations of external agents to the living body, that both in arranging the classes, and associating the substances which we place under each, we must frequently rest satisfied with remote analogies, which will not always bear a strict examination. This is an imper- fection at present unavoidable; it must either be submitted to, or such modes of classification must be altogether rejected; and the question therefore ultimately is, not whether these arrangements are unobjectionable, but whether the advantages belonging to them are not such as to justify their adoption even with their imperfections. Under the first division of the arrangement I propose, may be placed those substances which exert a general stimulant operation on the system. Of these there are two subdivisions, the Diffusible and the Permanent; the former including the class of Narcotics, with which may be associated, as not very remote in their operation, the class of Antispasmodics ; the latter comprising two classes, To- nics and Astringents. Through these there is a gradual transition from the more highly diffusible stimulants, to those more slow and durable in their action. A second division comprehends Local Stimulants,—those, the ac- tion of which is determined to particular parts of the system. Such are the classes of Emetics, Cathartics, Emmenagogues, Diuretics, Diaphoretics, Expectorants, and Sialagogues; with which may be associated the classes of Errhines and of Epispastics, founded on direct local application. The remaining classes include substances which do not operate according to laws peculiar to the living system. To one division may be referred those, the effects of which depend on the chemical changes they produce in the fluids or solids : the classes which may be established on this principle are Refrigerants, Antacids, Lithon- triptics, and Escharotics. To another division belong those, the operation of which is purely mechanical, Diluents, Demulcents, Emollients, and Anthelmintics. Under these classes may be comprehended all those substances which are capable of producing salutary changes in the human sys- tem, and which are used as remedies. A view of this classificatioa is exhibited in the following table: OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 51 TABLE OF CLASSIFICATION. A. General Stimulants. B. Local Stimulants. a. Diffusible. b. Permanent. C Chemical Remedies. D. Mechanical Remedies. ( Narcotics. I Antispasmodics. i Tonics. ( Astringents. Emetics. Cathartics.. Emmenagogues. Diuretics. Diaphoretics. Expectorants. Sialagogues. Errhines. Epispastics. Escharotics. Antacids. Lithontriptics. Refrigerants. Diluents. Demulcents. Emollients. Anthelmintics. From this arrangement some classes are excluded that have usu- ally found a place in others ; but these have either appeared to me to be not essentially different from those that are admitted, or to have been founded on false or hypothetical distinctions. ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE OPERATION OF MEDICINES. (BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.) [There are at present two theories more especially prevalent in this country concerning the modus operandi of medicines. The first asserts that all medicinal substances act primarily and exclusively upon the solids of the body, and that all the consequent impressions made upon distant parts of the system are the result of sympathy. This theory of course rejects entirely the fluids as having any imme- diate concern in the operation of medicines, and even denies as a matter of fact that foreign substances of any kind ever enter into the living circulation. The second, while it admits the existence of such a principle or property as sympathy, by whose agency the operation of a certain portion of medicines can alone be explained, contends at the same time that other medicines act directly upon the fluids, are absorbed into the circulation, and produce effects upon the system at 52 ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE large as well as upon particular organs through the medium of the blood. Among the advocates of the former of these theories is pro- fessor Chapman of Philadelphia, who, it must be admitted, has dis- played abundance of zeal, if not of judgment, in its support. As his work on Materia Medica and Therapeutics may be considered as embodying the whole strength of the supporters of this doctrine, I shall take the liberty of examining some of the principal arguments upon which its defence is rested. In announcing his views on this subject, Doctor Chapman asserts that " all medicines act by exciting a local impression, which is extended through the medium of sympa- thy."—vol. i. p. 60. 2d Ed. As a corollary from this position, he denies that any substances ever enter the circulation. " It must be acknowledged," says he, " that no substance, in its active state, does reach the circulation, since it is shown, that a small portion even of the mildest fluid, as milk or mucilage, oil or pus, cannot be injected into the blood-vessels without occasioning the most fatal consequences."—vol i. p. 64. A prominent argument in support of this opinion, and one which seems to be dwelt upon with considera. ble complacency, is, " that chyle, however diversified the materials may be out of which it is formed, whether animal or vegetable, has essentially an identity of nature." This " fact of the perfect and uniform constitution of chyle seems, at once," it is said, " to put down the hypothesis," that any crude substances are ever taken into the circulation. Now, against this argument the following objections may be urged : It does not appear, in the first place, to be really the fact, that chyle, whether formed from animal or vegetable food, pos- sesses this " perfect uniformity and identity of constitution" for which Dr. Chapman contends. So far from this, the very reverse has been completely established by actual experiment. Dr. Mar- cet, in his analysis of chyle,* states that the chyle from vegetable food yields about three times as much charcoal as that from animal food ; that the chyle from animal food generally begins to putrefy in three or four days, whilst that from vegetable food can be kept for weeks, or even months, without undergoing putrefaction ; that the chyle from animal food is always milky, and, on standing, an unctu. ous white creamy substance collects on the surface ; its coagulum is cpaque, and has a pink hue; the chyle from vegetable food is com- monly transparent, or nearly so, like common serum ; its coagulum is nearly colourless, like an oyster, and no creamy substance rises to the surface. This statement certainly exhibits several very striking points of difference between the chyle formed from animal food and that formed from vegetables ; and it unquestionably does away the broad position concerning the " perfect uniformity" of chyle. Should Dr. Chapman endeavour to shield himself from the force of this re- presentation, by urging that the difference pointed out in the analysis of Dr. Marcet is merely a variation in the proportions of the same elementary ingredients, his own work may be referred to for a sum- mary refutation of such a suggestion, when he tells us, " that experi- ments have fully demonstrated, that articles widely discrepant in * Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, vol. vi. p. 630. OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 53 their general nature, as aliment and medicines, the most salutary food and the rankest poison, exhibit on analysis nearly the same results. This indeed holds so generally true, that the virus of the vi- per, and the mildest mucilage, the poisonous prussic acid, and the nutritive flesh of animals, constitute no exception. Decomposed into their elementary principles, they are essentially the same."—vol. i. p. 42. If, therefore, a variation in the proportions and combinations of its elementary ingredients does not constitute a real difference in the chyle, then it follows from Dr. Chapman's own showing, that there is no difference between "aliments and medicines"—between " the most salutary food and the rankest poison"—between " the virus of the viper and the mildest mucilage"—or between " the poi- sonous prussic acid and the nutritive flesh of animals." A second objection to this doctrine of the " perfect and uniform identity" of chyle, is, that it is positively contradicted by facts too well attested to be set aside. By Musgrave, Fordyce, and others, it has long since been shown, that certain articles, taken into the sto- mach with the food, will impart their peculiar colour to the chyle, and must therefore have become incorporated with it. By Dr. Chap- man this is denied, on the ground of experiments made by himself and others, in the University of Pennsylvania, although he appears not to be borne out in his conclusions, even by his own statement. " None of the preparations of iron," he tells us, " of copper, of lead, nor the colouring matter of indigo, of madder, or of rhubarb, can be traced even as far as the chyle. Being introduced into the small in- testines of dogs, these several articles were observed to be rapidly taken up by the lacteals, the coloured ones losing their tints on passing on, and, in every instance, so completely were their properties obliterat- ed, as not at all to be cognizable by any chemical tests in the con- tents of the thoracic duct.''—vol. i. p. 68. Dr. Chapman will not pretend that the lacteals contain any other fluid than the chyle, and if so, he upsets his whole argument by the admissions which he makes in the paragraph just quoted. The fact that the chyle, when it reached the thoracic duct, had lost the colour imparted to it by the various substances mentioned in these experi. ments, may be explained in a very simple and satisfactory manner, by recollecting that as the indigo or the madder passed on from the lacteals to the thoracic duct, it became successively diffused through a larger quantity of chyle, and therefore it was a very obvious and necessary consequence that the colour communicated to the chyle should become constantly fainter, until finally it was completely lost. A satisfactory illustration is at the command of every person. By dissolving a portion of indigo in a small quantity of milk or water, it will be found to give to these fluids a very deep tinge. By adding successively, however, of the milk or water, the colour will gradual- ly fade, until at last it will be scarcely perceptible. Precisely in this way is the fact mentioned by Dr. Chapman to be explained. A second argument of Dr. Chapman's against the doctrine that medicinal substances are taken into the circulation, is, that if such were the case, it would be attended with the most fatal effects upon the system, inasmuch as the mildest fluids cannot be injected into the 54 ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE blood-vessels without destroying life. That his reasoning may be perfectly understood, I shall quote his own language : " It must be acknowledged," says he, " that no substance, in its active state, does reach the circulation, since it is shown, that a small portion even of the mildest fluid, as milk or mucilage, oil or pus, cannot be injected into the blood-vessels without occasioning the most fatal consequen- ces. Twenty-two years ago, in conjunction with my friend, the late Dr. George Lee, then resident in the Pennsylvania Hospital, I insti- tuted a series of experiments to this purpose. All the articles enu- merated above were tried in succession, together with some others of an acrid and stimulating nature, on dogs and cats, the animals se- lected on the occasion. But, diversified as these substances are, we could discern no material difference in their effects, the whole seem- ing to act merely as extraneous matter in error loci, producing, at first, greatHistress to the animal, as was indicated by its movements and cries, followed by difficult panting, respiration, vomiting, and purging, nervous tremors, convulsions, and death. Experiments very analogous to the preceding have recently, I understand, been made by Professor Caldwell, and with confirmatory results. That the late inquiries of Sir Everard Home and others lead to a different conclusion, I am aware. Confiding, however, in the accuracy of our own observations, I must, in the present state of the question, still maintain, without the slightest qualification, the position I have assumed."—vol. i. p. 64, 65. Before proceeding to the examination of this argument, I cannot help expressing my regret that the experiments to which Dr. Chap- man alludes as having been performed in Philadelphia, should differ so widely from those conducted in other parts of the world, because it serves not merely to shake the confidence hitherto reposed in men who have been universally esteemed as able and accurate experi- mentalists, but also to weaken the faith which might otherwise have been put in the accuracy of the experiments of Dr. Chapman him- self. For assuredly, if Home, Majendie, and others, who have de- voted themselves to these investigations, are not to be depended upon, it cannot be considered as very presumptuous to cherish a little scepticism concerning the infallibility of Dr. Chapman and his associates. Without intending, however, to impeach in the least the correctness of the experiments of these gentlemen, it is impossible to get rid of the mass of opposite testimony, recorded on authority too respectable to be despised. Independent of those reported by Home and Majendie, there are many other facts to prove, that medicines introduced into the blood-vessels may prove not merely innocuous, but even salutary. By referring to some of the early volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Society in London, several cases will be found recorded, in which patients were cured by medicines thus in- troduced into the system. Admitting, however, for the sake of argu- ment, the objection of Dr. Chapman to its fullest extent, it by no means proves the doctrine for which he contends. Supposing that medicinal substances, when injected into the blood-vessels, do pro- duce such deleterious effects, it does not seem of necessity to follow, that similar consequences should result from them, when introduced OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 55 into the circulation through the medium of the stomach and lacteals. On the contrary, the difference in the two modes of introduction seems so great as really to destroy all analogy between them. In proof of this, it needs only to be mentioned, that the chyle, the natural fluid circulating through the lacteals, will, if injected into any of the blood-vessels, produce effects precisely similar, and equally injurious with any of the foreign substances alluded to by Dr. Chapman. Hence the conclusion is inevitable, that substances may pass inno- cently into the system through the lacteals, which would be succeeded by the most deleterious consequences if introduced directly into the blood ; and if so, Dr. Chapman's argument falls at once to the ground. It were easy to enlarge, for the purpose of showing how wide a difference there is in the manner in which substances enter the circulation in the two cases, but this must be so obvious to every person of reflection, that it is unnecessary to add any thing further on the subject. A third objection of Dr. Chapman is couched in the following lan- guage : " Conceding, however, to the humoral pathologists all that their doctrine demands, still insuperable difficulties remain in the way of its adoption, to account for the operation of medicines. Not to dwell tediously on the subject, I shall content myself at present with little more than mentioning, that we are not at all informed by it why our remedies, after mixing with the blood, should be directed to one organ in preference to another, as mercury to the salivary glands, or how indeed they operate at all."—vol. i. p. 65. It is impossible to conjecture what Dr. Chapman gains by this objection, for it ap- plies with quite as much force to his own theory. He tells us, indeed, that medicines are directed to particular parts of the system " through the medium of sympathy;". at the same time confessing that " of the manner in which impressions are extended, as well as of the cause of the more intimate consent of parts, we are not, perhaps, ac- curately informed." If, therefore, Dr. Chapman's own theory is confessedly inadequate to the explanation of this phenomenon, I have yet to learn by what rule of sound logic he is justified in raising this objection against another theory. After all I cannot see any of those " insuperable difficulties," in explaining this subject, which appear to weigh so much upon the mind of Dr. Chapman. . That every organ in the body has its pe- culiar and appropriate stimulus, by which it is excited into action, is so universally admitted as to require no process of reasoning to establish it. Dr. Chapman himself concedes it, and indeed it forms the basis of his classification. Hence it follows that certain medi- cines, when introduced into the system, act upon particular organs, leaving the rest more or less unaffected. If this be so, then there can be little difficulty in conceiving that a substance dissolved in the blood may circulate through the system, without producing any par- ticular effects, until it reaches the organs upon which, from its pecu- liar properties, it is designed to operate. The reason why a medicine acts upon one organ, in preference to all the other organs of the body, why jalap, for instance, operates upon the intestines and not upon the brain and lungs, we can no more explain than we can the reason why 56 ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE the planets are kept revolving in their orbits. If we are told that the movements of the planets are the result of attraction, so we may say that the determination of medicines to certain organs is occa- sioned by a similar kind of attraction. This, however, explains no- thing, and we must after all be content with the broad fact, that such phenomena do occur, and that they are governed by certain laws; but the cause why they occur must ever remain concealed. Upon this ground Dr. Chapman is certainly asking too much to require that the cause should be assigned " why remedies, after mixing with the blood, should be directed to one organ in preference to another." All that the most rigid disputant can reasonably demand or expect is, that it should be proved, in the first place, that medicines are actual- ly taken up into the circulation ; and in the second place, that they afterwards act upon particular parts of the system. The latter is admitted on all hands, and the former rests on proofs too solid to be shaken. A fourth objection is, that " by the medication of the blood, were it possible, as is contended for, we must in all instances do harm. The whole mass of circulating fluids is equally charged in this case with the medicinal substance, and therefore, while an action is going on in a diseased organ, which may be salutary as to it, every sound part of the system becomes subjected to a similar impression, which could not fail to disturb the order of health, and create morbid de- rangements."—vol. i. p. 65, 66. All this is purrly hypothetical. It is founded on a supposition entirely erroneous, which is, that a medicine cannot act upon one part of the system to the exclusion of the rest. In what has already been urged, I have in fact so fully replied to this argument, that it is unnecessary to enter into any recapitulation. I have thus considered all the material objections of Dr. Chap- man against what he chooses to call " a relick of the humoral pathology." Aware of the strong support which this " relick'' re- ceives from indisputable facts, he endeavours to explain them away in a manner equally singular and original. That we may have be- fore us the full scope of his reasoning on this point I shall quote him at length. " That some of the properties of certain articles are dis- played," says he, " in the secretions and excretions, I am not dis- posed to deny. But it does not hence follow that these substances entered the circulation in the primitive state. Directly the reverse, indeed, seems to be proved, as no one of them can be detected in the serum of the blood. To me it is clear, that the process of assimila- tion, as performed either by the chylopoietic viscera, or by any part of the absorbent apparatus, completely decomposes all substances; and, however discrepant in their properties, reduces them to a homo- geneous fluid fitted for the purpose of nutrition. But when thrown into the secretions or excretions, being removed beyond the control of the vital energies, chemical affinities are sometimes again brought into play, by which these substances are in part or wholly regene- rated. No slender support is given to this hypothesis by the well- known fact, that matters are found in such persons, which had not previously existed, in any cognizable state, in the blood. Thus, cer. OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 57 tain articles can only be detected in certain fluids, as the odour of garlic in milk, of asparagus in urine, of sulphur in the perspiration, and the colouring principle of madder is to be traced in no part of the solids, except the bones, and their immediate appendages, the cartilages. Did these articles pre-exist in the blood, instead of being regenerated in some such manner as I stated, ought they not to be thrown out indiscriminately by all the emunctories ?"—vol. i. p. 63, 64. The most sturdy of the humoral pathologists could not wish Dr. Chapman to concede more than he has actually done in the fore- going paragraph. He admits that certain substances are carried into the circulation, and that they display their peculiar properties in the secretions and excretions. But, says he, they do not enter the circulation " in their primitive state ;" they are reduced by the " process of assimilation," and thus enter into the circulation, and when thrown into the secretions and excretions, by the " play of chemical affinities, they are again, wholly or in part, regenerated." Let us analyse this explanation, and see what it amounts to. We are told that sulphur, taken internally, exhibits itself in the perspira- tion. According to Dr. Chapman's solution of this fact, the sulphur, before it is taken into the circulation, is reduced in some way so as to deprive it of all its characteristic properties, and when thrown out upon the skin by the " play of chemical affinities," is again rege- nerated and exhibited in the form of sulphur. To this explanation, objections of so strong and obvious a character present themselves, as to render it wholly inadmissible. We know nothing of sulphur, but as a simple substance, and Dr. Chapman ought to prove that it is capable of decomposition, before his explanation will hold good. Let us take another illustration. Nitrate of silver, taken internally, frequently produces permanent discolouration of the skin. Cases of this kind are on record,* and it is presumed will not be disputed. Dr. Chapman would argue, that the nitrate of silver is first decom- posed into its elementary ingredients, and afterwards regenerated on the surface. The nitrate of silver then would be decomposed into nitric acid and an oxide of silver ; the nitric acid again would then be decomposed into oxygen and azote ; and the oxide of silver into oxygen and the pure metal. Further than this it is impossible to decompose them. Here, then, according to Dr. Chapman's own explanation, we have silver, a large quantity of oxygen, and azote, which must all enter into the blood in their separate and uncom- pounded state, or else it is impossible for the nitrate of silver to be formed afterwards upon the surface. It is evident, that this solution multiplies the difficulties which it was intended to remove. Accord- ing to it, instead of one, we have actually three foreign substances entering into the blood. Dr. Chapman certainly could not have been aware of the consequences of his own doctrine, or he never would have urged it so boldly. Again ; the colouring principle of madder, which is found in the bones, Dr. Chapman tells us is decomposed by the chylopoietic viscera, and again regenerated in the places where • See Medico-Chirurgical Transactions of London. 8 58 ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE it is detected. Now, before this is admitted, it must be proved that this colouring principle is capable of being decomposed. This would be rather a difficult undertaking. Admitting, however, that it might be decomposed, it would be no less difficult to show that it could afterwards be regenerated. Vegetables undergo destructive decomposition, and can never be regenerated by the art of the chemist, or by any play of chemical affinities. In every point of view, therefore, the explanation of Dr. Chapman is wholly inad- missible ; being inconsistent with itself, and contradictory to known and acknowledged principles. But, says Dr. Chapman, "did these articles pre-exist in the blood, instead of being regenerated in some such manner as I have stated, ought they not to be thrown out indiscriminately by all the emunctories ?" I answer no. Such a consequence no more follows than that all the glands of the system should secrete precisely the same kind of fluid. With just as much propriety might it be asked, why the liver does not secrete milk, or why the stomach does not secrete urine. The truth is, every secreting organ is destined to separate from the blood a peculiar substance, and hence it is per- fectly plain why foreign matters, circulating in the blood, are not " thrown out indiscriminately upon all the emunctories." Having given his objections to the doctrine that medicines ever enter the circulation, Dr. Chapman proceeds to explain his own theory of the modus operandi of medicines. " It results, on the whole, from what I have said, that we are to reject the fluids altogether in our inquiries relative to the operations of medicines : because, in addition to the reasons already stated for doing so, we have in that law of the animal economy, termed sym- pathy, or consent of parts, a solution of the problem, which com- ports infinitely better with the existing state of our knowledge. " Conformably to the theory I have adopted, whenever a medicinal substance is applied to a susceptible portion of the body, externally or internally, an action is excited, which is extended more or less, ac cording to the diffusibility of the properties of the substance, or the degree of sympathetic connexion which the part may maintain with the body generally. Thus a set of actions is raised, every one of which is precisely similar, provided they are confined to the same system, by which is to be understood parts of an identity of struc- ture. If, however, the chain runs into other systems, it loses its homogeneous character, the actions being modified by the peculiar organization of the parts in which they may take place. These are principles of universal application. In every case, whether it respects the operation of remedies or the production of disease, the spot primarily acted upon is a point from which is diffused the radiated impressions."—vol. i. p. 70, 71. It may easily bo gathered from the sentiments already expressed, that we do by no means subscribe to this theory. Like most sweeping generalizations, it is altogether too exclusive, and fails to account for the operation of a very large portion of medicinal sub- stances, which seem to act upon a principle entirely different. No better proof of the inadequacy of this theory can be required, than OPERATION OF MEDICINES. 59 Dr. Chapman's own work. Take, for instance, what he says con- cerning the Oil of Turpentine. In treating of the virtues of this article in correcting the lithic diathesis, and relieving nephritic pains, he adds, " on what principle it operates is not very intelli- gible, though it would seem that its appearance in the bladder is necessary to its success. I am told by Dr. Physick, to whom I owe much of the information which I possess on the subject of this ar- ticle, that whenever it has failed with him, the violet odour was wanting in the urine."—vol. i. p. 343. It is very plain that Dr. Chapman here abandons his own theory; for if the doctrine of sym- pathy could explain the operation of the turpentine, why is he forced to confess that the " principle on which it operates is not very intel- ligible ?" Nothing can be clearer than that sympathy, at least as explained by our author, has nothing to do in this case. The fact speaks for itself. The turpentine must be taken into the circulation, and afterwards act directly upon the urinary organs, or else the violet odour could not be detected in the urine. Here, then, is at least one clear and pointed exception to Dr. Chapman's theory. Let us take another illustration. In discussing the general action of " Lithontriptics and Antilithics," it is stated that the possibility of dissolving a stone in the bladder by a course of medicine rests upon two grounds, one of which is the following, viz. "that some of these solvents do reach the urinary bladder, without any, or at least, a ma- terial change being wrought in their properties, so that when coming in contact with the stone, there might be a play of chemical affinities, and hence a decomposition of the calculous body."—vol. i. p. 322. Now, here is an unqualified admission, of not a single medicine, but a whole class of medicines acting upon principles purely chemical. In so far, therefore, as this class of remedies is concerned, it cuts short the doctrine of sympathy, and proves beyond a doubt that the unlimited manner in which that doctrine is maintained by Dr. Chap- man is wholly untenable. No " sympathetic actions," nor " associ- ated motions," nor " radiated impressions diffused from a point," can ever dissolve a stone in the bladder, or account for the varied appear- ance of the urine, resulting from the use of internal remedies. Another exception to Dr. Chapman's theory may be found in the list of Anthelmintic medicines, a large portion of which are admitted to act by their poisonous properties upon the animal. But it is unne- cessary to push this subject any further. Enough has been adduced to prove that the doctrine of sympathy can only be admitted with such large qualifications and exceptions, as to overturn completely the theory that medicines uniformly and universally act upon this principle alone. I hope not to be misunderstood. In explaining the operation of medicines I do by no means deny altogether the agency of sympathy, or some principle very similar to it. To contend that all medicines act through the medium of the circulation would not be less contradictory to reason and fact than the doctrine which has been combatted. I do not believe in this wonderful simplicity of nature, which has been so favourite an argument with every theorist who has attempted to explain the intricacies of a whole science upon one general principle. Dr. Chapman, for instance, tells us, that " to 60 NARCOTICS. multiply causes superfluously is against one of the fundamental rules of philosophising, and is not less repugnant to the general course of nature, whose means are proverbially distinguished by- great simplicity and uniformity." This is true indeed ; but then it is equally unphilosophical not to assign causes sufficient to explain known and acknowledged phenomena ; and, as it regards the present case, it rests with Dr. Chapman to show that by calling in the aid of the circulation we multiply causes unnecessarily. An excessive fondness for simplification has been the bane of medical science. It was this which led Brown to maintain the absurd doctrine that all medicines were stimulants, the only difference between them being in the force and rapidity with which they exercised their stimulating powers. It was this which prompted Dr. Rush to defend the strange notion of the unity of disease, and it is this which induces Dr. Chap- man to contend for the exclusive agency of sympathy, in explaining the operations of medicines. Wanting, as they all do, the broad and substantial basis of truth and philosophy upon which to rest, it is im- possible that their influence should be other than transient and ephe- meral. The theory of Brown has long since been abandoned. The unity of disease, notwithstanding the zeal, and talents, and eloquence with which it was defended, was falling by its own weight, even be- fore the death of its illustrious author. And it requires not the spirit of prophecy to predict that a similar fate awaits the theory of Dr. Chapman.—B.] FIRST DIVISION.—OF GENERAL STIMULANTS. This division, according to the preceding table of classification, in- cludes the four classes of Narcotics, Antispasmodics, Tonics, and Astringents,—these agreeing in the general stimulant operation they exert on the system, and differing principally in the diffusibility and permanence of action. They are therefore strictly connected, at least so far as to form a series through which the transition is easily traced. CHAP. II. NARCOTICA--NARCOTICS. Narcotics, according to the definition usually given of them, are substances which diminish the actions and powers of the system, without occasioning any sensible evacuation. This definition"is im- perfect, in as much as it does not include that stimulant operation which the most powerful of them at least equally produce, and which NARCOTICS. 61 in part must be admitted as the cause of these effects. The term Narcotic is the most unexceptionable that can be assigned to these remedies. They are also named Sedatives, from their tendency to diminish action; Anodynes, from their capability of alleviating pain ; and Hypnotics, or Soporifics, from their power of inducing sleep. The following are the general effects from their operation, select- ing, as affording an example of this, the most powerful of the class. In a moderate dose they increase the force and frequency of the pulse, promote the secretions, give vigour to the body, and rouse the faculties of the mind, inducing hilarity or intoxication. These effects are however only temporary, and, after some time, symptoms of an opposite kind make their appearance ; the pulse not only returns to its former standard, but becomes more slow, and at the same time full and soft ; the respiration is more easy ; the secretions, except- ing that by the skin, are diminished ; pain and inordinate motion, if present, are alleviated or depressed: there is a general languor, averseness to motion, and dullness to sense ; the mind is placid and inactive ; and this state soon terminates in sleep. This, after con- tinuing for some time, is followed by temporary debility, marked by some degrees of sickness, tremors, and anxiety. If the dose has been large, these symptoms of diminished sense and action are in- duced without any previous increased action ; or, if a still larger dose has been given, the consequences are delirium, paralysis, con- vulsions, coma, and death. These effects are diversified, however, as arising from different Narcotics. In some, any stimulant operation is scarcely perceptible in any dose ; others, with the narcotic power, possess an acrid qua- lity, and, in a large dose, with these general effects, induce irritation or inflammation of the stomach, by which their action is modified. Some are more apt to induce sickness than others ; and there is rea- son to believe, that there are others in which the action is not equal on the nervous and vascular systems, but is more determined to the one than to the other. The medicines belonging to this class act primarily upon the sto- mach, whence their action is propagated by nervous communication to the rest of the system. That they do not act by being received into the blood is evident from the fact, that their effects are apparent in general in a short time after they have been swallowed; and it has been found on dissection immediately after these effects have appeared, that the whole of the quantity administered has remained in the stomach undissolved. Applied externally, these medicines often exert their usual action, though with less force. Opium deadens pain, and represses spas- modic muscular action, and this not only in the part to which it is immediately applied, but in others more distant. Several others of the class have similar effects; and their operation in this mode of application, too, seems to be extended by the medium of the nerves. Narcotics applied to the muscles of animals quicken at first their action ; but in a short time they exhaust irritability and sensibility. The heart, even of cold-blooded animals, is deprived of all power of 62 NARCOTICS. motion by a strong solution of opium applied for a few minutes. When injected into the blood-vessels, the animal instantly dies with- out convulsions, and all the muscles of the body, voluntary or invo- luntary, are deprived of the power of contraction. When applied to a wound, they often affect the general system ; and in this case they appear to act, by being received through the divided veins into the circulation, the interposition of a ligature on the blood-vessels preventing the effect. In the production of the effects arising from the action of Narco- tics, the brain seems to be the organ chiefly affected, and it is frorrt this affection that death seems to follow from their operation, the di- rect action on the heart being much less considerable. This has been clearly established by the experiments of Mr. Brodie. On in- troducing alcohol into the stomach of a small animal, or injecting a small quantity of the juice of aconite, or of the essential oil of the bitter almond diffused in water, or of the leaves of tobacco, into the rec- tum, or in a concentrated state into a wound, the loss of voluntary motion, and total insensibility, were produced ; yet when this state was allowed to continue until the external signs of apparent death were produced, the heart, when exposed to view, was found contract- ing with considerable force, and, by inflating the lungs, and producing artificial respiration, its action could be kept up nearly to the natural standard for a considerable period. It appears, therefore, that while the nervous system was so much affected as to produce the cessation of the principal functions dependent on it, the powers of the circu- lating system were little impaired; and the failure of the circulation ultimately producing death, appears in such cases to arise principal. ly from the respiration ceasing, in consequence of this function being so much more dependent on the influence of the nerves. The im- mediate effects of narcotics arise, therefore, from affection of the functions of the brain ; the function of respiration is affected in con- sequence of this, and at legth ceases, and this occasions, or at least accelerates, the failure of the circulation, which produces death. From this an important conclusion follows. In the case of insensi- bility produced by the operation of a narcotic, as the heart continues to act, it is possible, that if the cessation of its action be prevented by keeping up respiration artificially, the affection of the brain may pass off, and the functions of life be restored. Mr. Brodie has stated some striking experiments in proof of this. In a rabbit, the state of total insensibility was induced by a drop of the essential oil of bitter almond inserted into a wound ; after five minutes respira- tion had ceased; the heart was felt beating through the ribs, but its motion must have soon ceased, and life been extinguished : artificial respiration was excited ; in six minutes the animal moved and made an effort to breathe ; these efforts were repeated ; after sixteen minutes the artificial respiration was discontinued, spontaneous re- spiration being established ; all the functions revived, and in two hours the animal appeared to be perfectly well. In another case, the animal recovered from a state of insensibility, after artificial respiration had been continued for nearly three hours. From these facts, the preventing the failure of respiration, and the exciting it, if necessary, NARCOTICS. 63 artificially, at the same time keeping up the proper animal tempera- ture, would appear to be important indications in the extreme state of exhaustion occasioned by the operation of a narcotic, such as alcohol or opium. There are some narcotics which operate with more force on the muscular fibre, and directly affect the heart. The infusion of tobac- co injected into the intestines occasions immediate loss of motion and sensibility, and the heart, instead of continuing to contract, was found by Mr. Brodie to have ceased contracting, and to be distended with blood. The poison of the upas antiar has a similar effect. The theory of the operation of narcotics is attended with conside- rable difficulty, and very different opinions have been maintained with regard to it. As they in general diminish the actions of the system, when given even in a small dose, their primary action was considered as of a depressing kind, and they were described by authors under the ap- pellation of Sedatives. The stimulant effects which were observed sometimes to arise from their aciion were ascribed to what was term- ed the re-action of the system. It was supposed, that there belongs to the animal frame a force or principle, the tendency of which is to resist and obviate the effects of any thing noxious. If such an agent were applied, this principle was believed to be roused into action, and the powers of the system were excited to throw off the noxious application. On this hypothesis the action of narcotics was explain- ed by Cullen. Their natural tendency was supposed to be to de- press the powers of life ; if given in a large dose, this was exerted with effect, and hence the symptoms of exhaustion ; but if given in a smaller dose, the vis medicatrix, or preserving force, was enabled to resist, and by its resistance occasioned the symptoms of increased action that first appeared. These substances, therefore, were con- sidered as directly sedative, and as indirectly stimulant. The reverse of this view was advanced by Brown, narcotics being regarded as stimulants, surpassing all others in the diffusibility and little durability of their action. On this principle, their effects were explained in the following manner. It is the necessary effect of stimulant operation to produce for a time increased action; but as this is attended with a diminution of vital power, the excitement soon ceases, and diminished action succeeds. And the depression is proportional partly to the quantity of the stimulant and partly to the rapidity of its action. Thus narcotics were regarded by Brown as powerful stimulants, the operation of which is not confined to the part to which they are applied, but is rapidly extended over the system. In a moderate dose they promote action of every kind ; but this is succeeded by debility proportioned to the excitement that had been raised : and in a large dose they produce diminution of power, and consequently of action, without any symptom of previous excitement. Hence they are directly stimulant, and indirectly sedative. If, in investigating this subject, we merely contrast these two theo- ries, little doubt can remain of the superiority of the latter. The former is founded on the fanciful hypothesis, established by no evi- dence, that a power presides over the system ready to resist every 64 NARCOTICS. noxious application; the latter is more strictly deduced from the properties of the substances whose operation is to be explained : For, as it is proved, and indeed admitted, that the stimulant effects from the exhibition of narcotics follow immediat?ly, and previous to any symptoms of languor and debility, these ought to be considered as the consequences of the former. The most extensive analogy, too, may be traced between the operation of narcotics and other substan- ces allowed to be stimulant, but which are less rapid in their action ; as, for example, between ardent spirits and opium, though in the one the stimulant, in the other the sedative operation, is usually more ap- parent. And the advantage derived from the administration of nar- cotics in some diseases of diminished action, is scarcely compatible with the supposition of their exerting a depressing power. The principal difficulty attending the theory arises from the seda- tive power of these substances not being always proportional to their stimulant operation : it is often greater than this, and in several of them, indeed, any previous stimulant effect is scarcely perceptible. Yet this difficulty is in some measure obviated by the fact, unques- tionably established, that substances, the stimulating action of which is undoubted, as ardent spirit, if given in a very large dose, produce depression without any previous perceptible increased action. In like manner, electricity in moderate intensity stimulates the muscu- lar fibre to contraction, while in a highly concentrated state it pro- duces total exhaustion of the contractile power. The more forcibly, therefore, a stimulant operates, the more rapid does the immediate action appear to be produced, and the more quickly to cease, so as to be followed by the secondary effect; and with the admission of this principle, may perhaps be explained the fact, that the sedative effects of narcotics appear often greater than their previous stimu- lating operation ; the exhaustion following so rapidly, that any pre- vious excitement is scarcely to be perceived. Narcotics, therefore, so far as we can speculate with any probability on their action, may be regarded as general diffusible stimulants. The hypothesis may also be maintained, perhaps, that along with their stimulating operation, they directly exhaust the powers of life ; and that these two modes of action are not strictly proportional, but are different in different narcotics. The effects of certain chemical agents on the vital functions, as of nitrous oxide, and carburetted hydrogen, favour an hypothesis of this kind ; the one producing high excitement without proportional depression, the other producing ex- haustion of power without previous increased action. The truth, however, is, that from our imperfect knowledge of the laws of the living system, all such speculations are deficient in precision ; nor can we do more than state the most general analogies, without at- tempting to extend them to minute applications. As narcotics are capable of being administered so as to obtain from their action either stimulant or sedative effects, they may be employed as remedies, with the view of producing either of these. The exciting operation, however, is in general so transient, that few of them can be administered with advantage as stimulants. When given with this intention, they are applied in small doses, frequently NARCOTICS. m repeated, as thus the state of excitement is best sustained. More usually they are given with the view of obtaining that state of dimi- nished action and diminished susceptibility to impression, which is the more common, and more easily regulated consequence of their operation; they are then given in larger doses at more distant inter- vals. As stimulants, they are employed in various forms of conti- nued fever, remittent and intermittent fever, and numerous diseases of debility. As sedatives, they are more extensively used to alleviate or remove spasmodic action, to allay pain and irritation, to induce sleep, and to restrain morbidly increased evacuations atfd secretions. There is a peculiarity in the operation of narcotics, that by repeti- tion their action on the system is diminished, so that, after having been used for some time, they require to be given in increased doses to produce their usual effects, and quantities of them have at last been taken, which at first would have destroyed life. No satisfac- tory explanation has been given of this, for it is not connected with any apparent permanent change in the system ; but it requires to be attended to in their administration. It appears too to be more peculiarly the case with some than with others. It is remarkably so with opium, tobacco, hemlock, or henbane, while it is scarcely to be observed with regard to foxglove. The individual narcotics may be arranged partly from their chemi- cal relations, partly from analogies in power. NARCOTICS. Alcohol. Ether. Acidum Prussicum. Camphor. Papaver Somniferum. Hyoscyamus Niger, Atropa Belladonna. ACONITUM NaPELLUS. conium maculatum. Digitalis Purpurea. NlCOTIANA TABACUM. Lactuca Virgsa. Lactuca Sativa. Datura Stramonium. Arnica Montana. Rhododendron Chrysanthum. Rhus Toxicodendron. Humulus Lupulus. Strychnos Nux Vomica. Prunus Lauro-Cerasus. Amygdalus Persica. CoCCULUS SUBEROSUS. Alcohol. Alcohol. Ardent Spirit. Spirit of Wine. By the process of vinous fermentation, liquors are formed from certain vegetable juices, or infusions, possessed of pungency, spi- ritous flavour, and intoxicating power. From these liquors a pro- duct is obtained by the process of distillation, which was named Pure Ardent Spirit, or Spirit of Wine, by the older chemists, and is now termed Alcohol. This substance operates on the living system as a highly diffusible stimulant; in the state of spiritous and vinous liquors it is employed for medicinal purposes; and in its pure form is an important pharmaceutic agent. 66 NARCOTICS. The conditions necessary to the vinous fermentation are the pre- sence of a certain quantity of sugar, water, and a substance named ferment, of which yeast is a variety. In the sweet vegetable juices, as those of the grape, currant, gooseberry, pear, apple, &c. these sub- stances are present, and vinous fermentation in them begins spon- taneously. When it commences, the fluid becomes turbid, an in- testine motion takes place, the temperature rises, and a large quan- tity of carbonic acid gas is formed and disengaged ; after these changes have gone on for some time they cease, and the liquid be- comes transparent: it has now lost its sweet and bland taste, and be- come pungent and intoxicating. The chemical change which has happened is, that the sugar has disappeared, and instead of it al- cohol exists in the fluid. The admission of the air is not necessary to the vinous fermen- tation. The changes that happen must be owing, therefore, to re- action between the constituents of the liquid, and it is not difficult to infer what this re-action must be. Sugar consists of three atoms of carbon, three of oxygen, and three of hydrogen. If we take away one atom of carbon and two of oxygen, that is, an equivalent of carbonic acid, there will remain two atoms of carbon, one of oxy- gen, and three of hydrogen, which is the composition of alcohol. Or fermentation consists in the abstraction of an equivalent of car- bonic acid from an equivalent of sugar, and the consequent produc- tion of alcohol. There is only one circumstance obscure in the theory of fermen- tation, the agency of the ferment. The presence of this substance, which appears to resemble in its nature the vegetable principle gluten, is essential to the process, yet a very minute quantity of it is sufficient, and even this seems not to suffer decomposition. Starch as well as sugar is capable of undergoing the vinous fer- mentation. Generally it passes first to the state of sugar before it ferments ; and as it differs from sugar only in containing six instead of three atoms of each ingredient, this change it readily undergoes. When fermented liquids are submitted to distillation, the alcohol being more volatile than the water passes over in a purer state, but is still combined with a considerable quantity of water, and with vege- table matter which gives it flavour. Thus are produced the dif- ferent spiritous liquors, brandy, rum, &c. By repeated distillation from these, in the manner which shall be explained in the phar- maceutical part of the work, alcohol is obtained in a concentrated form. An opinion was advanced by Fabroni, that the alcohol obtained from wines and spiritous liquors does not previously exist in them, but is formed during the distillation. Mr. Brande shewed that this opinion is incorrect, by separating the alcohol from fermented fluids without distillation ; and the same has been shewn by Guy-Lussac, by distilling them in vacuo at the temperature of 60°. The fol- lowing table exhibits the proportions of alcohol which Mr. Brande obtained from different spiritous liquors and wines. NARCOTICS. 67 Proportion of al- cohol percent, by measure. Scotch Whisky,.........54.32 Irish Whisky,..........53.90 Rum,........,.....53.68 Brandy,.............53.39 Hollands, . ...........51.60 Lissa Wine,...........24.41 Port, highest,...........25.83 ----lowest,...........19.24 ----average,..........22.97 Madeira, average,........22.27 Cape Madeira,.........20.51 Currant Wine,.........20.55 Sherry, highest,.........19.81 ------lowest,..........18.25 ------average,.........19.17 Teneriffe.............19.79 Proportion of al- cohol per cent, by measure. Claret, highest,..........17.11 ----lowest,...........12.91 ----average,.....t......15.10 Burgundy,........... . 14.57 Champagne, (still),........13.80 ----------sparkling,........12.80 Hock,...............12.08 Gooseberry Wine,........11.34 Tokay,...............9.88 Cider,.................7.54 Perry.................7.20 Ale, (Burton)............8.88 ----(Edinburgh),. X......6.20 ----(Dorchester),.........5.56 London Porter............4.20 Small Beer,.............1.28 In this table is presented a singular fact, that the intoxicating power of wine is not equal to what might be expected from the por- tion of spirit it yields by distillation. Brandy, for example, according to Brande's experiment, affords about 53 per cent, of alcohol, while port wine yields from 21 to 25 per cent. ; yet the spiritous strength of the latter, estimated by its action on the living system, is cer- tainly not equal to one-half that of the former. The reason of this probably is, that in wine, the alcohol has its activity diminished by the other principles with which it is combined. Pure alcohol is colourless and transparent; its odour is fragrant, and its taste highly pungent ;' it is lighter than water, the difference being greater as the alcohol is more pure and concentrated; hence the specific gravity is the besttest of its strength. As prepared by the usual processes, it is of the specific gravity .835, and it is of this strength that it is ordered in the Pharmacopoeias of London and Edinburgh as fit for pharmaceutical purposes. The Dublin College order it of the specific gravity of .840 at 60°, or .844 at 52°. By repeated distil- lation from substances having a strong attraction to water, alcohol can be obtained of greater purity till it be of the specific gravity .796, when it seems to be free from water. The best method for procuring this " absolute alcohol" is that of Mr. Graham, to place alcohol in a shallow basin under the receiver of the air pump, with dry quicklime in a basin beside it. The lime absorbs the vapour of the water but not that of the alcohol, and after some days the alcohol is completely deprived of water. When of the common strength, al- cohol is so volatile as to evaporate speedily at the common tempera- ture of the atmosphere ; it boils at 176° of Fahrenheit; it does not suffer congelation by exposure to the greatest natural or artificial cold. It is highly inflammable, burning when its temperature is raised not much above 300°. The products of its combustion are water and carbonic acid. Alcohol unites with water in every pro- portion. It dissolves many saline substances, a number of the ve- getable principles,—resin, camphor, essential oil, balsam, extract, saccharine matter, the vegetable alkalis, and also part of the gum- resins. ©8 NARCOTICS. From this solvent power, alcohol is a very important pharmaceutic agent, particularly as applied to the vegetable articles of the Materia Medica; the principles which it dissolves being those in which me- dicinal powers frequently reside, and being dissolved by it in such quantity as to afford very active preparations. It has another im- portant property, that of counteracting the spontaneous changes to which vegetables are liable from the re-action of their elements; and hence these solutions or Tinctures retain their properties unimpaired. When diluted with water, it still exerts its solvent power to a certain extent, added to the solvent power of the water; and this diluted alcohol, under the name of Proof Spirit, is even more generally em- ployed in pharmaey as a solvent of vegetable matter, than alcohol in its pure form. Alcohol is a powerful and highly diffusible stimulant. Taken in a moderate quantity it immediately increases the force of the circu- lation, communicates a greater degree of muscular vigour, and ex- cites exhilaration of mind. These gradually subside, and are follow- ed by proportional languor. If the quantity is more considerable, its exciting effects are more quickly produced, and are followed by intoxication, temporary delirium, and stupor ; and in a large dose it occasions death, with scarcely any symptoms of previous excitement. Its analogy in producing these effects to other narcotics is sufficient- ly obvious. Its exciting power, however, appears to be rather more permanent than that of some of the medicines of this class ; hence, while it can be successfully employed to rouse the powers of the system, it can scarcely be used with equal advantage to repress, ir- regular action, diminish irritation, or induce sleep. Alcohol, in a concentrated state, can scarcely be said to be em- ployed in medicine. Sometimes it is used as an application to burns, and to certain states of local inflammation not connected with in- creased action; it is applied by friction to relieve muscular pains ; or to bleeding wounds to restrain haemorrhage. Spiritous liquors, which consist of diluted alcohol, are employed as general stimulants to excite the actions of the system. Their stimulant operation, how- ever, is not sufficiently permanent, or capable of being regulated, to admit of their being employed, except as occasional remedies. They are, however, of much benefit in the last stage of Typhus fever, when the pulse is scarcely perceptible, and there is a general cold- ness of the whole surface,—more particularly in those individuals who have, when in health, been much addicted to their use. In delirium tremens also, a disease common among habitual drunk- ards, it is often necessary to resort to the employment of spirits, as the tremours evidently depend on the exhausted state of the nervous system, and consequently are aggravated if the wonted stimulus be entirely withdrawn. Sometimes it is necessary to give opium at the same time to a considerable extent. The action of Wine on the system, though analogous to that of alcohol, is not precisely alike ; its stimulant operation appears to be less sudden and more durable ; hence it can be employed with more advantage as a tonic. It is as a tonic indeed, rather than as a narco- tic, that wine is administered. Its chief medicinal application is ia NARCOTICS, 69 the treatment of fevers of the typhoid type, to support the strength of the system, and to obviate symptoms arising from debility. With these views, it is given with more advantage than any other tonic,— a superiority derived from its stimulating power being obtained with more certainty, and being more easily regulated by due administra- tion, from its being more grateful, and probably not requiring to be assimilated by the digestive organs to produce its effects. The quantity in which it is given is dependent on the state of disease ; the object to be obtained is that of supporting the strength of the system until the fever has run its course ; the danger to be avoided is that of giving it so largely, as to occasion any degree of exhaus- tion. Its administration is regulated, therefore, by the effects it produces ; advantage being always derived from it, when it renders the pulse more slow and firm ; when the recurrence of delirium is prevented ; when irritation is lessened, and sleep induced. If the pulse is quickened, and the countenance becomes flushed; if it ex- cite thirst, increase the heat of the body, and occasion restlessness or delirium, it is obviously injurious, and the dose must either be di- minished, or its use suspended. It is to be observed, however, that the system will bear a greater quantity of wine in the latter stages of.fever, than it would while in a state of health. Since the yiews of Clutterbuck, Mills, and Armstrong, regarding the proximate cause of fever, have been promulgated, wine has not been so frequently employed in continued fever, at least the use of it has been deferred to the latter stage of that disease. Nor has it been in them given to the extent of one, two, or even three bottles, as was formerly the case. The usual dose is from 6 to 10 ounces in the generality of cases, varying, however, according to the pre- vious habits of the patient, and the extent of the debility. It is rarely, indeed, that more than half a bottle is required in the course of twenty-four hours,—and then only in the more severe cases. It is of great economy in large hospitals to give the wine in the form of negus, as hot as the patient can bear, its effects then being more generally diffused over the whole system, and with the addi- tion of warmth, less wine being required. During the use of port wine, which is the kind most commonly employed, it is of importance to attend to the state of the bowels, as they are apt to be constipated^ Some gentle laxative ought in that case to be taken, such as the Oleum Ricini, or Aloetic Pills. In tetanic affections, wine has been given to the extent of several bottles daily; but it is not clear how far the cure was the effect of the wine, as a considerable quantity of opium was administered at the same time. In various diseases of chronic weakness, or where the strength of the system has been reduced by profuse evacuations, or by any other debilitating operation, wine is in common use as a cordial and tonic. Different wines have different effects, according as they are pos- sessed of astringency, or as they are sweet or acescent; and are hence adapted to answer different indications. The wines prepared from other fruits than the grape are* less 70 NARCOTICS. spiritous and more acescent, and are hence inferior in tonic power. Fermented liquors, especially porter, are sometimes substituted for wine, where this is necessary from idiosyncracy ; and their powers are somewhat modified by their other qualities, particularly their bit- terness, and by the pungency arising from their excess of carbonic acid. Their narcotic power too is often greater than is proportioned to their vinous strength, from the addition of narcotic substances which they often receive in their preparation. From the immoderate and long-continued use of vinous and spiritous liquors many diseases derive their origin; dyspepsia, hypochondria- sis, visceral obstructions, chronic inflammation of the liver, and gout, __morbid states probably arising either from the increased action it ex- cites, giving rise to organic derangement, or from the exhaustion of power, general or local, produced by stimulant operation unnecessarily excited or too long continued. In an excessive dose, spiritous liquors produce a state of coma or apoplexy, which has sometimes a fatal termination. Evacuation of the stomach by a powerful emetic is the remedy obviously indicated ; and from what has been stated un- der the general account of the operation of narcotics, (page 62,) the propriety of sustaining respiration by artificial inflation of the lungs, if necessary, is equally obvious. Ammonia, in the quantity of a few- drops in water, is also a remedy that has been found ofiefficacy. jEther Sulfhuricus. Sulphuric Ether. Alcohol suffers decomposition from the action of the more power- ful acids upon it; and substances are formed by the decompositions which have a resemblance in their properties, though, as produced by the action of the different acids, they have also peculiar powers. They are named Ethers. Sulphuric Ether, formed by the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol, is the one that has been chiefly applied to medicinal use ; its powers are those of a narcotic. Nitric ether, in the state in which it has been used, dilute, and with a portion of free acid, forming the spirit of Nitrous Ether, or Dulcified Spirit of Nitre, acts principally as a diuretic, and is therefore placed under that class. Sulphuric ether is obtained by exposing a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol in equal weights to a heat sufficient to produce ebullition; the ether is the product of the action of the acid on the alcohol; it distils over, and is purified by a second distillation, any free acid being abstracted by an alkali. The process is considered more fully in the pharmaceutical part of the work. Sulphuric ether is colourless and transparent, highly odorous and pungent, and of a specific gravity inferior to that of alcohol, being, when highly rectified, not more than .720, and it is said to have been procured of as low a density as .632. Mr. Brande doubts this, and states, that he has never obtained it lighter than .700. It is very volatile, so as to evaporate speedily at natural temperatures ; and from its rapid transition to vapour, it produces much cold during its evaporation. In vacuo it boils below the freezing point of water, and under the atmospheric pressure it boils at 98°. It is highly inflammable, and affords by its combustion water and carbonic acid. NARCOTICS. 71 Sulphuric ether is a powerful diffusible stimulant, somewhat analo- gous to alcohol in its action, and like it capable of producing intoxi- cation. Its stimulant operation appe.ars to be even more suddenly exerted, and to be less durable : hence its superiority as a narcotic and antispasmodic. As a stimulant, it is sometimes given in occa- sional doses in typhus fever, more particularly in those cases where symptoms are present connected with spasmodic action; it is also given in other forms of fever, to obviate nausea ; a tea-spoonful of ether, given in a glass of white wine, is said to be useful in abating the violence of sea-sickness. As an antispasmodic, it is employed in spasmodic asthma, and sometimes affords sudden and complete relief, producing for a time at least remission of the paroxysm ; it is also given with advantage in the hysteric paroxysm ; it is one of the most powerful remedies in cramp of the stomach, and singultus : and it sometimes relieves some of the symptoms of cholera, espe- cially the vomiting. Its usual dose is a tea-spoonful, equal to about a drachm ; but its beneficial effects are frequently not obtained, un- less it be given in a larger dose, or until the dose has been repeated at short intervals. In dyspnoea and catarrh, its vapour inhaled into the lungs affords relief, probably from its antispasmodic power. The mode of applying it in this form is to allow it to drop slowly on hot water in an inhaler, and inspire the vapour of it with the steam of the water, or simply to drop a little of it on a lump of white sugar, which is to be held in the mouth, and the vapour inhaled. It is also applied externally, and produces very opposite effects, according to the manner of the application. If it be dropt on the surface of the body, and its evaporation prevented, it has a stimulant and rubefa- cient effect; but if the part be exposed to the air, the ether evapo- rates rapidly, and produces a considerable degree of cold. Ma- naged in the former way it relieves muscular pains, and is an excel- lent application to burns. In the other mode, it has been employed to favour the reduction of strangulated hernia, being dropt on the tumour, and allowed to evaporate freely, when the cold from its eva- poration causes the part to contract and retire. Acidum Prussicum. Prussic Acid. Hydrocyanic Acid. This acid consists of hydrogen combined with a compound radical, cyanogen, which consists of carbon and nitrogen. Several plants contain this acid, as the cherry laurel, peach and bitter almond ; but for use in a pure form, it is prepared from a metallic salt, the cya- nuret of mercury : the process for preparing it shall be afterwards described. (See Part II. of this work.) Prussic acid is extremely volatile, boiling at a temperature of 80° ; and when it is concentrated, it evaporates so rapidly on expo- sure to the air, that part of it congeals from the cold produced by the evaporation of the rest. It has a strong pungent odour, similar to that of the bitter almond and peach blossom. It cannot be pre- served for any length of time, as it suffers spontaneous decomposi- tion. Prussic acid is a most energetic poison ; a small animal is killed instantly by a drop of it let fall on the eye or tongue; even the va- 72 narcotics. pours from it cause faintness, stupor, with pain and oppression at the chest, which last for several hours. The muscles of animals killed by it are found to have lost their irritability. This acid was introduced into practice by M. Magendie, in France, and Dr. Granville, in England. It seems, however, to have been previously employed by Professor Brera. From its sedative action, it is said to be useful in spasmodic irritation of the lungs, chronic ca- tarrh, asthma, pertussis ; and its use has likewise been extended to phthisis, more particularly in its early stages. It has been employed also in palpitation, aneurism of the heart and of the aorta. Dr. Thomson, and likewise Dr. Elliotson, have advised it to be used in dyspepsia, combined with tonics, when that affection is attended with acidity and heat and soreness of the tongue. Its dose is from one drop to ten. It is at all times a hazardous remedy, from being variable in its strength, and a number of instances have occurred, in which severe and even fatal consequences have ensued from this cause. Often, on the other hand, it is so weak from decomposition as to produce no effect.* If taken in too concentrated a form, or too large a quantity, it oc- casions death, and that so immediately, that there is scarcely oppor- tunity for having recourse to antidotes. The stomach pump, sul- phate of copper in a dose of 3 or 4 grains, brandy, strong coffee, and oil of turpentine have been recommended in cases of this kind. Artificial respiration ought to be kept up, as the shock to the nervous system may be only transient; and the prussic acid being soon carried off by its volatility, the powers of life may be restored.f Camphora. Camphor. Laurus Camphora. CI. Enneandria. Ord. Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Oleracece, Linn?cus. Laurineaz, Jussieu. Habitat Japan, India. Camphor is a peculiar vegetable principle, the composition of which has been already stated (p. 38). It is not the produce exclusively of one vegetable, but it is contained in many plants, especially those of the aromatic kind, diffused through their wood or bark, and is often deposited from their essential oils when these are long kept. The oils of peppermint, thyme, sage, and a number of others thus afford it. For the purposes of commerce, it is obtained from a species of laurel, the Laurus Camphora, a native of Japan and Sumatra. It exists in * Incompatible Substances. The mineral acids, the sulphurets, nitrate of silver, salts of iron, oxides of mercury and antimony, and chlorine.—B. t The most efficient remedy in cases of poisoning by the hydrocyanic acid, is the inhalation of the aqua ammonia; diluted with about ten or twelve parts of water. This remedy was first suggested by Mr. John Murray of London, and afterwards confirmed by Orfila. In experiments made upon cats for the purpose of testing it, I have found its efficacy fully verified. The same quantity of acid was given to a number of these animals; those left to themselves died, while the others were reco- vered by causing them to breathe the ammoniacal water. Diluted chlorine is another remedy which has been used with success ; indeed Orfila gives it the preference to ammonia. The mode of using it is to impregnate water with one fourth of its volume of chlorine, and cause this to be inhaled. The great advantage of the am- monia over the chlorine is, that it is an article always at hand, a matter of very great importance in a case where the poison operates with such overwhelming rapi- dity.—B. NARCOTICS. 73 grains in the wood of the root and branches of this tree, It is ex« tracted by sublimation ; the wood is exposed to heat with a quantity of water, and the temperature thus communicated is sufficient to vo- latilize the camphor. In Europe, it is purified by a second sublima- tion, with the addition of one-twentieth of its weight of lime. The Dryabalanops Camphora is named in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia as one of the sources of camphor, but Dr. Duncan has shewn, on the authority of Marsden, that this is a mistake. Camphor is colourless, semi-transparent, tenacious, and somewhat unctuous to the touch ; its smell is strong and fragrant; its taste pungent and bitter ; specific gravity .988. It is volatile at natural temperatures, and soon diminishes in bulk from exposure to the air; it melts at 288°, and boils at 400° ; is highly inflammable ; is very sparingly soluble in water, one fluid-ounce dissolving little more than half a grain; but is soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils essential or expressed. In a moderate dose, camphor produces effects similar to those of other narcotics. Its stimulant operation, however, is not consider- able ; and in a large dose it diminishes the force of the circulation, induces sleep, and sometimes causes delirium, vertigo, convulsions, or coma. As a stimulant, camphor has been used in typhus, cynanche ma- ligna, confluent small-pox, and other febrile affections accompanied with debility, in retrocedent gout, and to check the progress of gan- grene ; but its stimulant operation is scarcely sufficiently permanent to admit of being easily regulated. As a sedative, it is used in affec tions of an opposite nature, pneumonia, rheumatism, and gonorrhoea, combined with nitre, or antimonials, or by itself, where evacuations have been previously employed ; in these cases also it is now little employed in practice. In mania, it has sometimes succeeded as an anodyne ; as an antispasmodic, it has been used in asthma, chorea, and epilepsy. If given in excess, the best antidote is opium. The dose of camphor is from 5 to 20 grains, but it is seldom that it is given at once in so large a dose as the latter quantity, from being liable to produce nausea and irritation. In small doses, on the other hand, it produces little effect, unless they are frequently re* peated. In divided doses, it may be given to the extent of a drachm in the day. It is certainly very beneficial in soothing and allaying irritability resulting from a nervous constitution, as is particularly to be observed in many females ; but as a medicine of decided energy in severe nervous affections, little reliance can be placed on it. Its power of checking the progress of grangrene has been supposed to be augmented by combination with musk, or carbonate of ammonia, but the efficacy of this combination is doubtful: combined with opium, it forms a diaphoretic ; and its efficacy in inflammatory diseases is promoted by antimonials. Camphor ought to be given in a state of mixture in some liquid form, as in the solid state it is liable to excite nausea. It may be diffused in water by trituration with sugar, mucilage, or almonds. The camphorated mixture of the London Pharmacopoeia, in which it is triturated with water, is a preparation in which, from the sparing 10 74 NARCOTICS. solubility of camphor in water, little more than its taste and odour are obtained. In the pharmaceutic treatment of camphor, it is ne- cessary, in order to reduce it to powder, to add a few drops of alco- hol during the trituration. Magnesia, by being triturated with it, has the effect of dividing and rendering it smooth, and may be used for its suspension in water ; a number of the gum-resins also act on it in such a manner, that, from their mixture, a soft uniform mass is formed, and this affords another mode of diffusing it. From this chemical action, it cannot well be combined with gum-resins in the solid form. Externally applied, camphor is used as an anodyne in rheumatism and muscular pains, and as a discutient in bruises and in inflamma- tory affections; it is dissolved in alcohol or expressed oil, and ap- plied by friction to the part. Added to collyria, or mixed with lard, it is of advantage in ophthalmia. Suspended in oil, it is used as an injection in ardor urinse, and as an enema to relieve the uneasy sen- sations occasioned by ascarides. The combination of it with opium is useful as a local application in toothach.* Officinal Preparations.—Tinct. camph. Tinct. camph. compo- sit. Emulsio camphorata. Acid. acet. camphorat. Tinct. saponis camphorat. Liniment, saponis cum opio. Oleum camph. Mist. camph. Liniment, camphorse composit. Papaver Somniferum. White Poppy. Polyand. Monogyn. Rhozades, Linn. Papaveracece, Juss. Capsularum immaturarum succus con- cretus, capsules maturee. Europe, Asia. The White Poppy is a native of the warmer regions of Europe and Asia ; it also grows in colder climates without any diminution of its powers. The large capsule which it bears, affords, by incision in its cortical part, a milky juice, which, by exposure to the sun and air, becomes concrete, and of a brown colour. This is named Opium, and is the product of the plant that is chiefly medicinally employed. The leaves and stalks afford by expression a juice which is narcotic, but of inferior strength ; the seeds contained in the cap- sule are bland and inert. Opium has been obtained in this country of full narcotic power from the Poppy, but at an expense which does not admit of the cultivation of the plant. It is usually imported from Persia by the way of Turkey and Syria, and an inferior kind used to be imported from the East Indies. It is obtained by a sim- ple method. When the capsule has nearly attained maturity, a longitudinal incision is made in its side, care being taken that it does not penetrate into the cavity. This is done in the evening; the milky narcotic juice exudes, apparently from the vessels of the bark of the capsule ; it adheres to the sides of the incision ; is collected in the morning, and a large quantity being procured from a field of poppies, it is inspissated by exposure to the sun. The opium of commerce is in flat or rounded masses, which, when cut, present a substance soft and tenacious, of a dark reddish-brown colour, having a strong odour somewhat fetid, and a taste bitter and * Incompatible Substances. Camphor is not affected by any substance with which we can combine it. Paris.—B. HARCOTICS. 75 acrid. If kept in a dry place it becomes hard, but it retains its brown colour, and its fracture presents a resinous appearance. It also softens when pressed in the hand. These are the properties of what are named Turkey Opium, the kind met with in the shops. If hard, brittle, and of a grey colour with black spots and no lustre, it is of inferior quality. What is sold by the name of East India Opium, is soft, of a blackish colour, has a fainter smell, and is much inferior in narcotic power. Opium is highly inflammable : submitted to the action of alcohol, a considerable portion of it is dissolved, and water likewise dissolves it in part. The solution in alcohol is more highly impregnated with dissolved matter than that in water; and it possesses, in a much greater degree, the narcotic power. Diluted alcohol, composed of equal parts of alcohol and water, appears to dissolve all the active matter of opium; the tincture prepared by this menstruum, when the due proportion of solvent is employed, being equal, or very near- ly so, in power, to the quantity of opium submitted to its action. By boiling in water under exposure to the air, the narcotic power of opium is impaired ; this cannot be ascribed to the dissipation of any active volatile principle ; for when water is distilled from it, and con- densed, it is found to have scarcely any narcotic quality: it must therefore be owing to changes produced at this temperature in the principles in which the activity of the opium resides. In no instance have the researches of modern Chemistry been at- tended with more success than in the analysis of opium. By the interesting investigations of Sertuerner, Derosne, Seguin, and Robi- quet, its composition has been accurately ascertained, and a peculiar alkaline principle pointed out, on which its properties more imme- diately depend, to which the name of Morphia or Morphine has been applied. The other principles contained in opium are narcotine, meconic acid, resin, mucilage, a matter analogous to caoutchouc, a portion of saline matter, and, lastly, the remains of vegetable fibre. Morphia exists in opium in combination with meconic acid ; and several processes have been given for obtaining it in an insulated state. Robiquet prepares it in the following manner: 1000 parts of opium are to be macerated for several days, in about three or four times as much water, and the filtered solution boiled with 50 parts of pure magnesia for ten minutes. It is filtered again, and the re- siduum washed with water until it passes off clear ; afterwards treated alternately with hot and cold alcohol (specific gravity .920,) as long as this fluid takes up any colouring matter, and boiled for a few minutes in stronger alcohol, (specific gravity .850,) which dissolves the morphia, and deposits it in crystals as it cools. The magnesia decomposes the meconate of morphia, precipitating the morphia, while the meconate of magnesia remains in solution ; the weak alco- hoi removes a large portion of colouring matter, and the strong boil- ing alcohol dissolves the morphia, which is rendered still more pure by repeated crystallization. Sertuerner used ammonia to precipitate the morphia, and this me- thod is now again employed, and is said to have some advantage over that in which magnesia is used. Dr. Thomson has recommend- 76 narcotics; ed a process of this kind, in which, after adding ammonia to a strong infusion of opium, the precipitated morphia is purified by solu- tion in acetic acid, and digestion with animal charcoal; is again precipitated by ammonia, dissolved in alcohol, and by evaporation of the solution obtained in crystals. The morphia is obtained very pure, but not in so large a quantity as by the process of Robiquet. Morphia when pure is colourless, sparingly soluble in boiling wa- ter, but abundantly so in alcohol and ether, dissolved in either of which it forms a very bitter solution ; it possesses the usual properties of an alkali, restoring the colour of litmus when reddened by an acid, forming neutral salts with the acids, and decomposing the compounds of acids with the metallic oxides ; it does not, however, form soaps with oils. It fuses easily, and crystallizes as it cools ; exposed to heat in contact with the air, it is inflamed, and when decomposed by destructive distillation, a portion of carbonate of ammonia is obtain- ed, indicating the presence of nitrogen. It consists, like other ve- getable alkalis, of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, but the proportions of these are not accurately ascertained. From the ana- lysis of it by Mr. Brande, it may be supposed to consist of thirty -two atoms of carbon, six of oxygen, eighteen of hydrogen, and one of nitrogen; but so complicated a constitution is of course difficult to- be determined, and it has even been denied by some that any nitro- gen exists in it. Pure morphia has little action on the animal economy on account of its insolubility; thus Orfila gave twelve grains of it to a dog with little effect, but when it is dissolved in alcohol, or by acids, its nar- cotic action is very powerful. Its salts are in general soluble and crystallizable, especially the acetate and sulphate. The acetate is a very active preparation, much more soluble than the meconate, and this explains why vinegar increases the action of opium. Experience has proved that morphia produces a more purely nar- cotic effect than opium, and that its operation is not attended, in so great a degree, with those disagreeable consequences that accompany the exhibition of that valuable medicine. The nausea, debility, and other effects that follow the administration of opium, are supposed to be owing chiefly to the presence of another principle, named Narco- tine. To obtain this principle, opium is treated repeatedly with boiling ether, and the solution evaporated until a saline crust is ob- tained, and a brown, bitter, acid liquor. Both these contain narco- tine ; from the former it is separated by dissolving it in hot alcohol, and precipitating it by ammonia, after having removed a little resin and caoutchouc, by means of rectified oil of turpentine, and wash- ing the residuum with cold alcohol. The precipitate is then dis- solved in muriatic acid, and precipitated again by ammonia. Narco- tine is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, fixed oils and acids: it has no alkaline qualities. Robiquet has proposed to free the extract of opium of this princi- ple, by agitating it repeatedly with cold ether, after it has acquired the consistence of syrup. When prepared in this manner, it is said not to occasion the excitement which the common preparations of opium produce. Preparations of opium deprived of narcotine have NARCOTICS, 77 lately been employed by Dr. Hare, who found them to act as narco- tics, with less unpleasant effect on the stomach and brain than ac- companies the exhibition of opium in its common form. The meconic acid, with which morphia is combined in opium, does not appear to possess any of the characteristic properties of opium. The facts ascertained with regard to the action of the usual re- agents upon opium, are of importance, as pointing out its proper pharmaceutic treatment. Diluted alcohol dissolving all its active matter, is the menstruum best adapted to its preparation under the form of tincture. Water can scarcely be employed with advantage. Vinegar dissolves its active matter, and increases its narcotic power, an acetate of morphia being formed. Any purification of opium, by dissolving it and evaporating the solution, only weakens its strength, and renders it uncertain. The effects of opium on the system are those of a powerful nar- cotic. When given in a moderate dose, as that of one grain, to a person unaccustomed to its use, the pulse is soon sensibly increased in frequency, fulness, and force; if the dose is rather larger, this is accompanied with some degree of exhilaration, the different func- tions both of body and mind are performed with more vigour, and this state may rise even to intoxication and delirium. These effects, however, are transient; the pulse returns to its former standard, and it continues to fall both in frequency and force, but usually remains soft and full; a degree of lassitude and drowsiness is produced, sen- sibility to external impressions is impaired, so that pain, if present, is less severely felt, and after some time this diminished sensibility terminates in sleep : or if this does not happen, a state of languor and calmness comes on, and continues usually for some hours; the skin is warm and moist, the secretions are diminished, and there is generally some thirst. This stage of the operation is usually sue- ceeded in those unaccustomed to its use by some degree of nausea or headach, and sometimes by tremors of the voluntary muscles; the peristaltic motion of the intestines is diminished, so that costive- ness follows; the appetite and digestion are also impaired. The exciting operation of opium may continue nearly an hour, the seda- tive effect usually six or eight hours. From a larger dose all these effects are produced in a more marked degree. In those particularly who are accustomed to its use, the exhilarating operation from such a dose is equal to, or exceeds that from wine, as is proved by the striking effects it produces on those who indulge in it habitually to excess among Mahommedan nations, where the established religion prohibits the use of wine ; in those not accustomed to it, it is less evident, probably from the system not habituated to it being unable to bear the necessary dose ; in both, however, the state of diminished sensibility and action quickly suc- ceeds, the dulness and languor are greater, and sleep, sometimes approaching to stupor, is induced ; when this terminates, thirst, headach, and nausea are urgent, vomiting frequently occurs, with tremors and general debility. If the quantity is still larger, the .consequences are delirium, stupor, flushing of the countenance, 78 Narcotics. slow and stertorous breathing, an oppressed pulse, convulsions, and death. From the topical application of opium to sensible and irritable parts, pain, increased muscular action, augmented heat, and even inflammation, are the first effects, but are ultimately succeeded by a greater insensibility to impressions, and a greater difficulty of being excited to contraction by the application of other stimulants. The latter state is also immediately produced by its application in a large quantity and concentrated state to the muscular fibre. With regard to the nature of the action of opium on the living system, opinions have been maintained diametrically opposite. It was usually considered as a sedative, or substance, the operation of which is to depress the functions, and exhaust the powers of life. The theory was advanced by Brown, that its primary operation is stimulant, and that its apparent sedative effects are the consequences of the exhaustion of vital power, from the excess of stimulant ac- tion. The primary effects from, its exhibition, so far as they can be actually ascertained, undoubtedly lead, by the least hypothetical in- duction, to the latter opinion. They are those of excitement, both of the vascular and nervous systems; and the state of diminished susceptibility and action which follows ought, in strict reasoning, to be considered as the effect of this, conformable to the general law of the animal economy, that excitement suddenly raised is followed by exhaustion of power. In its effects in a large dose the analogy of opium to other diffusible stimulants is also direct ; and its action on the system in a diseased state appears to prove, not less clearly, its stimulant operation. In diseases of debility, its exhibition in a mo- derate dose produces the salutary effects resulting from the adminis- tration of wine and other powerful stimulants. It is to be admitted, however, with regard to opium, that its ap- parent sedative effects, displayed in its lessening the sensibility to external impressions, diminishing action, and inducing sleep, are greater than are proportional to the excitement it raises, or to an equal or greater excitement produced by other stimulants, as by al- cohol. This has been accounted for from the greater diffusibility, and less durability of its primary operation; in consequence of which, the excitement it produces is soon extended over the system, and is more quickly succeeded by the secondary state of diminished power. Whether this theory of its action be satisfactory or not, and whether it be regarded as a powerful stimulant, or as a direct sedative, it is to be observed, and the observation extends to analo- gous narcotics, that the practical, application of it is nearly the same ; since it is admitted that it may be exhibited so as to obtain from it stimulant and also depressing effects, and that the former are primary, and are obtained from it in a moderate dose, while the lat- ter are secondary, and are only produced by a larger dose. Although, therefore, the explanation of the mode of operation be different, there is no dispute as to the operation itself, or the effects it produces. Opium was at one time supposed to act on the system by the me- dium of the blood ; but experiments have shewn, that its general effects are produced when the circulation is interrupted, that its ac- NARCOTICS. 79 tion is on the living solids, and is propagated to distant parts by ner- vous communication. The principal indications which opium is capable of fulfilling, are, supporting the actions of the system, allaying pain and irritation, relieving spasmodic action, inducing sleep, and checking morbidly increased evacuations. It is differently administered, as it is de- signed to fulfil one or other of these indications. When given with the view of obtaining its stimulant operation, it ought to be adminis- tered in small doses, frequently repeated, and slowly increased, as by this mode the excitement it produces is best kept up. But where the design is to mitigate pain or irritation, or the symptoms arising from these, it ought to be given in a full dose, and at distant intervals, by which the state of diminished power and sensibility is most com- pletely induced. It is principally with the latter views that it is em- ployed in medicine ; and in its usual medium dose, that of one grain to an adult, any stimulating effect from it is scarcely apparent, while its power of diminishing action, lessening sensibility, and inducing sleep, is sufficiently exerted. Nor can it, in any case, be given with much advantage as a stimulant. Its stimulant operation is even frequently prejudicial; and hence the general rule establish- ed with respect to the administration of opium, that it ought not to be given in any pure inflammatory affection, at least unless evacua- tions have been used, or unless means are employed to determine it to the surface of the body, and produce diaphoresis. Its sedative action has, however, been much praised of late, in inflammatory af- fections, by Dr. Armstrong, who generally gives a large dose of it after venesection, and repeats it again, if necessary. In continued fever, not inflammatory, opium has been adminis- tered sometimes as a general stimulant; but its operation being less permanent than that of wine, and not so easily regulated, it is not so well adapted to obviate debility ; or at least with this intention it is employed only as subsidiary to wine. It is more frequently used to di- minishirritation, and lessen that state of increased susceptibility toim- pressions connected with debility, which frequently gives rise to rest. lessness, watchfulness, delirium, and spasmodic affections, particu- larly tremors and subsultus tendinum. A full dose is usually given at bed-time ; and to obviate these symptoms, when they are urgent, it is farther occasionally administered, generally in combination with wine, in the course of the day. Its exhibition is improper, or re- quires to be conducted with much caution, where there is much ten- dency to inflammatory action, or to determination to the head. It then fails in lessening irritation or procuring sleep, and rather ag- gravates the inflammatory state, or gives rise to local inflammation. If it increase delirium, it is obviously injurious. An important prac- tical rule is given by Dr.Currie,—that it is rather injurious thanother- wise, when the heat of the surface is above the natural standard, and the skin is at the same time dry : but if the skin is becoming moist, it accelerates the change, and o:oduces its other beneficial effects. Hence it is often used with advantage after this change on the sur- face has been obtained by the cold affusion, or by partial fomenta- tion : it is also for the same reason often useful to delay Its adminis- 80 NARCOTICS. tration in the evening, until the febrile exacerbation at that period begins to subside, and to give it therefore at a later hour. When it is repeatedly administered, it is necessary to guard against the con- stipation it is liable to produce. In intermittent fever, the administration of an opiate, previous to the expected approach of the paroxysm, renders it milder, or some- times prevents its attack ; given even during the hot stage, it lessens its violence ; and administered in either mode, it facilitates the cure by other remedies, the stimulant operation of which is less transient. In the phlegmasiae, the propriety of the employment of opium is, from its stimulant operation, more doubtful. Combined, however, with calomel, it has been lately administered with very great benefit in cases of active inflammation, the patient being previously bled. Where it is given so as to determine its action to the surface of the body, and produce sweat, it is often advantageously employed, par- ticularly in rheumatism ; or in some of the other diseases of this or- der, when the inflammatory stage has subsided, its exhibition is oc- casionally necessary to obviate symptoms connected with irritation. In the exanthemata, opium is employed with similar intentions, and is often more peculiarly advantageous, by lessening the irritation connected with the eruption. In small-pox, it is useful with this in- tention after the eruption is completed, where it is copious ; and if the concomitant fever be of the typhoid type, the same advantage is derived from it as in pure typhus ; it is also useful in promoting the maturation of the pustules, and relieving the irritation on the surface. In measles, the state of the system being more purely inflammatory, its use is rather contra-indicated. In haemorrhagies, not connected with a state of plethora, or of high vascular action, opium is a valuable remedy, by removing that state of increased irritability whence the discharge frequently arises ; it is thus employed more particularly in passive menorrhagia, and in the haemorrhage which sometimes succeeds abortion or delivery. In the profluvia, opium is employed with a similar intention. In dysentery, the propriety of its administration has been questioned, but evident advantage is derived from it when it is given in such doses as to relieve the pain and irritation which prevail; the consti- pation it might produce being obviated by the exhibition of mild pur- gatives usually employed in the treatment of the disease. The com- bination of it with calomel is more peculiarly useful. In catarrh it proves of the highest utility, by obviating the irrita- tion whence the cough arises ; it requires, however, to be adminis- tered with some caution, where the disease is in its acute stage, and accompanied with an inflammatory state,: it can then be given with more safety and advantage when combined with an antimonial, by which its direct stimulant action on the vascular system is obviated, and its operation is determined to the surface of the body. In phthi- sis it is given as a palliative and anodyne. In spasmodic and convulsive diseases, opium is obviously indi- cated, and in many of them is the remedy of greatest power. In chorea, it has been advantageously employed; though the depend- ence of this disease on the accumulation of feculent matter in the in- NARCOTICS. 81 testines, as established by Dr. Hamilton's observations, suggests the necessity of its being employed with caution, and of its constipating effect being carefully guarded against. In epilepsy, it sometimes abates the violence of the paroxysm, especially where this is liable to recur during sleep ; but as this disease so often depends on change of organic structure, the effects of opium can be those only of a palli- ative ; where plethora is present it may be hurtful. In tetanus, to produce any relief, it requires to be given in very large doses, and these must be frequently repeated; and even then the system is of- ten little affected by it; when pushed, however, to a great extent, the violence of the spasmodic affection has at length been overcome, and a cure obtained. A similar remark applies to hydrophobia, in which very large quantities of opium have been given without any sensible effect on the state of the functions, but in some cases with ultimate success, especially when combined with calomel. In ma- nia, the system is in general little susceptible to the action of any medicine ; but opium, when given in sufficient doses, is frequently useful in diminishing irritation, and producing composure or sleep. In other cases it altogether fails, when given in a very large dose, and sometimes it aggravates the restlessness and agitation of the pa- tient ; and when a plethoric or inflammatory state exists, its use must be hazardous. In the hysteric paroxysm, opium is often em- ployed with advantage, either introduced into the stomach, or given under the form of enema. Its frequent employment to relieve the less urgent symptoms of hysteria is improper, as leading to the inju- rious consequences from its habitual use ; and the same remark ap- plies to its employment in hypochondriasis and melancholia. In purely spasmodic asthma, the paroxysm is shortened, and even sometimes cut short by a full dose of an opiate ; and in all the va- rieties of dyspnoea, opium affords more or less relief. In colic, it relieves the violence of the pain, though its administration requires caution, where there is any tendency to an inflammatory state ; and the constipation it is liable to produce requires also to be obviated. In cholera it is the principal remedy, and is given in moderately large and repeated doses, until the symptoms are subdued. In the cholera of India, it is considered as the only means of cure by some practitioners, while others give it in combination with calomel. In the progress of that disease in Europe, however, opium was found to be of little service. In diarrhoea it speedily checks the evacuations, and the precaution is hence necessary, not to use it too freely, until all acrid matter, or substance exciting irritation, has been discharged. In pyrosis, a moderate dose generally affords temporary relief; and it also frequently succeeds in checking vomiting from morbid irrita- bility of the stomach. Opium is given to relieve the pain of gastrodynia, and that attend- ing icterus; and in that form of jaundice depending on calculus of the biliary ducts, by lessening irritation and relieving spasm, it pro- motes the discharge. It is given on the same principle to relieve the pain, and promote the discharge of urinary calculus. In syphi- lis, it is employed, principally with the intention of alleviating the ir- ritation arising from the operation of mercury ; for there is no suffi- 82 NARCOTICS. cient evidence for the opinion which has been advanced, that it is possessed of anti-syphilitic power. Considerable advantage is de- rived from its use in extensive venereal ulceration ; as well as in the treatment of painful and irritable ulcers, not connected with a vene- real taint. It is given as a stimulant to check the progress of gan- grene, and frequently with marked advantage, as well as to relieve those spasmodic symptoms, and that state of irritation which accom- pany gangrene, or the injuries from which it arises. It has been lately used with advantage in diabetes. In many other cases of morbid affection, opium is had recourse to merely to lessen irritation, relieve pain, or induce sleep. As a palliative and anodyne, it is indeed the most valuable article of the Materia Medica, and its place could scarcely be supplied by any other. Externally applied, opium alleviates pain and spasmodic action. Applied by friction, it was known to relieve the pain of cramp, and even of tetanus; and rubbed over the abdomen, to alleviate spasmo- dic pain of the stomach and intestines. From recent observations by some of the continental physicians, which have been confirmed in this country, it appears that this mode of employing it admits of more extensive application, and even in general affections of the sys- tem. It has succeeded in reducing the violence of the paroxysm of mania, and in relieving the delirium of typhoid fever, removing irri- tation and inducing sleep; and much advantage has been derived from this application of it in some forms of dysuria, in cholera and hysteria. In trismus, either hysterical or arising from other causes, relaxation of the spasm has been obtained from opiate friction. Dr. Percival employed for this purpose a liniment, in which opium is tri- turated with half its weight of camphor, to render it smooth, and this is mixed with a little lard: a quantity requires to be rubbed in, con- taining from 6 to 9 grains of opium, to obtain its action on the ge- neral system. According to Mr. Warde's observations, the tincture of opium is preferable, as producing more speedy and certain ef- fects ; from 3 to 6 drachms of it being employed, according to the severity of the symptoms, and being rubbed on the sides of the arms, until the whole is absorbed. This mode of application has the ad- vantage of avoiding the action of opium on the stomach and intesti- nal canal. By local application, opium relieves the pain of toothach, a little of it being introduced into the cavity of the affected tooth, or the gums being rubbed with laudanum; sometimes even it succeeds when applied to the temple or cheek. Under the form of enema, it is of singular efficacy in relieving tenesmus, and that painful af- fection of the prostate gland, which is sometimes the consequence of the discharge in gonorrhoea having been suddenly checked ; and also that irritable state of the neck of the bladder, which renders the discharge of urine painful. It is used under the same form in diseases where it cannot be introduced into the stomach. A very dilute watery solution of it injected into the urethra has been used to relieve ardor wince in gonorrhoea ; and a few drops of the vinous NARCOTICS. 83 infusion introduced beneath the eye-lids, is of much efficacy in some forms of ophthalmia, where the active inflammation has ceased. The dose of this narcotic is very various, according to the state of disease, and the intention with which it is administered. One grain is the medium quantity to a person unaccustomed to its use ; but to remove the symptoms from irritation, or relieve pain, it often requires to be given in a larger quantity. Its stimulating operation is princi- pally obtained by frequent repetition of small doses ; its sedative effect by a larger dose, repeated, if necessary, at greater intervals. Its power on the system soon becomes weaker, and from habitual use is so much impaired, that very large doses are required to produce its usual effects. There are instances of persons being in the habit of taking two or three drachms of it daily, without its producing more effect than as many grains on one unaccustomed to it. In some diseases, too, particularly mania, diabetes, tetanus, and hydrophobia, it produces little sensible effect, unless the dose be very large. In the last disease it has been taken to the extent of two drachms in twelve hours, without abating the violence of the symp- toms. Lastly, the operation of opium is much varied by idiosyn- cracy, the same dose producing very different effects on different in- dividuals. Too small a dose of opium is liable to produce restless- ness or disturbed sleep. The latter effect, with sickness and thirst, and sometimes delirium, are the consequences of a dose rather too large. By the immoderate or long-continued use of opium, the vigour of the digestive organs is impaired ; hence loss of appetite, wasting of the body, and muscular weakness ; the nervous system, and even the functions of the mind, are affected ; the patient is distressed with uneasy sensations, which are imperfectly relieved by other sti- mulants if opium is withheld, and at length fatuity and stupor are induced. When such a dose of opium is taken, as would prove fatal if its effects were not obviated, the symptoms which usually occur are in- sensibility, so that the patient cannot be roused by any exertion,—a pulse slow and full,—deep and difficult breathing, with the counte- nance generally flushed : this state of stupor continues, sometimes with occasional convulsions, until it terminate in death. In such a case, the stomach pump should be immediately employed to with- draw the opium from the stomach, and if this be done there will be little cause for apprehension. If that instrument cannot be procured, an emetic, and that of the most powerful kind, should be given. Sulphate of zinc, or sulphate of copper, is generally used, dissolved in water, and introduced by a flexible tube into the stomach, the former in the dose of one scruple, the latter in a dose from five to ten, or even fifteen grains. The sulphate of copper is the most powerful, and if the other has failed, ought to be immediately given. In using either of them, if vomiting is not soon induced, the dose ought to be repeated. The powers of the stomach and of the gene- ral system may be roused and sustained by small doses of warm brandy, spirit of ammonia, and other stimulants ; coffee has been said to have been taken with advantage : and the patient ought to be 84 NARCOTICS. kept awake, and, if possible, in a state of gentle motion, at least for some hours. Carbonate of potash may be given to precipitate the morphia, which, when not dissolved, is comparatively inert. It used to be the practice to administer large quantities of dilute vegetable acids, as of vinegar; but these rendering the morphia more soluble, are injurious as long as any opium remains in the stomach. Orfila found, that when opium was given to animals with vinegar, they died sooner than when it was merely diffused in water. When the opium, however, has been removed from the stomach, acids seem to act favourably, probably by their astringency restoring the tone of that organ.* To detect opium where it has been given as a poison, Dr. Christison recommends the contents of the stomach to be boiled with a portion of acetic acid to the consistence of a syrup, then boiled with strong alcohol, again evaporated, dissolved in distilled water, and the solution filtered. Subacetate of lead throws down the meconic acid, and this, mixed with sulphuric acid and permu- riate of iron, gives the deep red colour of meconate of iron. By this test of iron, Dr. Hare detected laudanum where there were only ten drops of it in a gallon of water. Opium is used either solid or under the form of tincture, twenty- five drops of the tincture being equal to one grain of crude opium. It is employed in the solid state when we wish it to act slowly on the stomach or intestinal canal, otherwise it is more convenient in the liquid form. There are, besides, various preparations, in which it is either the principal ingredient, or modifies the power of others, few of which, however, are of much importance. The officinal opiate electuary, powder, and pill, merely afford convenient forms for its exhibition. The powder of opium and ipecacuan is the composition under which it is usually employed as a sudorific. The ammoniated and camphorated Tinctures of Opium are the Paregoric Elixirs of the older pharmacopoeias, forms under which opium has been princi- pally used in catarrh. The troches of liquorice and opium are like- wise designed to allay the cough in catarrh, by being allowed to dis. solve slowly in the mouth. The Tincture of Opium and Soap, and the Plaster of Opium, are intended for external application. The Opium wine, besides its internal administration, is employed as a topical application to the eye in chronic ophthalmia.f * One of the most efficient remedies, in the management of cases of poisoning by opium, is not mentioned in the text, and that is, dashing cold water over the head. This practice was first brought into general notice about the year 1822, and since then so many cases of its successful employment have been recorded as to leave no doubt of its efficacy. If properly used, and for a sufficient length of time, it restores sensibility, frequently brings on vomiting, and eventually saves life when every other remedy has been used in vain. A case illustrative of this was published by the writer, some few years since, in the New-York Medical and Physical Journal, vol 3. p. 473. By Dr. Cross, of Alabama, an interesting essay has been published 'on poi- soning by opium, in which he gives an account of a number of experiments made by himself upon dogs, to whom he gave large quantities of this drug, and after being reduced to a state of perfect insensibility, they were all recovered and restored to health by the continued application to their heads of cold water from the spout of a pump.—B. r t Incompatible Substances. Perchloride of mercury, nitrate of silver acetate of lead, the alkalies, infusion of galls, and yellow cinchona.—B. NARCOTICS. 85 A preparation is in use under the name of the Black Drop, con- sidered by some practitioners to possess peculiar advantages. It is a more concentrated preparation than the common tincture of opium, and requires to be given in not more than half the quantity. The following is the formula given for its preparation: Take half a pound of opium sliced, three pints of good verjuice, one and a half ounce of nutmegs, and half an ounce of saffron : Boil to a proper thickness, then add a quarter of a pound of sugar, and two spoon- fuls of yeast. Set the whole in a warm place near the fire for six or eight weeks, then place it in the open air until it becomes a syrup, and, lastly, decant, filter, and bottle it up, adding a little sugar to each bottle. This preparation has been recommended chiefly from its not affecting the stomach and head so much as the other prepa- rations of opium, and consists essentially of acetate of morphia. The Dublin College have introduced into their Pharmacopoeia an Acetum Opii, as a preparation of a similar nature. The acetate of morphia is sometimes given in a pure state, and is found to produce the narcotic effect of opium without being followed in so great a degree by nausea and headach. Battley's Liquor opii sedativus, which also possesses this advantage, appears to contain either a tartrate or acetate of morphia.* Citrate of morphia has been introduced into practice by Dr. Porter of Bristol, and Muriate of morphia by Dr. W. Gregory, and these, especially the latter, appear to be valuable remedies. It has by some been affirmed, that the administration of the pure salts of morphia is not followed in any degree by the unpleasant feelings that succeed the exhibition of opium. This can scarcely be admitted. The derangement of the functions of the stomach, and effect on the nervous system, are the natural consequences of the ac- tion of any powerful narcotic, and experience fully proves that morphia is not an exception. But the narcotine which is present in opium seems to aggravate these sequelae, and the abstraction of it is undoubtedly an advantage. The preparations of morphia may be combined with other medi- cines, as ipecacuan and antimony, and with the same result of pro- ducing a modified action, as is the case with opium. Officinal Preparations.—Elect, opiat. Pil. opiat. Pulv. opiat. Pulv. ipecac, et opii. Tinct. opii. Tinct. opii ammoniata. Tinct. opii camphorata. Tinct. saponis et opii. Troch. glycirrhiz. cum opio. Pil. saponis cum opio. Pulv. cornu usti cum opio. Pulv. cret. comp. cum opio. Conf. opii. Vin. opii. Acet. opii. Extr. opii. Emplast. opii. Extr. opii. The dried capsule of the poppy is sometimes employed for medi- cinal purposes. Its active matter is extracted by decoction with water ; this evaporated, affords an extract similar to opium, but weaker, or it is made into a syrup, by boiling with sugar, which is used as an anodyne. This syrup is a weak preparation, and is in * For some account of this preparation, the reader is referred to the notice of Em- pirical remedies at the close of this work.—B. 86 NARCOTICS. general only given to children. A decoction of the capsule is used as an anodyne fomentation. Offic. Prep.— Extr. papav. somnif. Syr. papav. Decoct, papav. Hyoscyamus niger. Henbane. Pentand. Monog. Solanacea, Linn. Solanece, Juss. Folia, Semina. Indigenous. The leaves of this plant, when recent, have a slightly fetid smell, and a mucilaginous taste; when dried, they lose both taste and smell, and their narcotic strength is in part impaired. The root possesses the same qualities as the leaves, and even in a more emi- nent degree, but it is liable to be more variable in strength. The seeds also are narcotic. The leaves only are medicinally employed ; they afford a juice which possesses their narcotic power, and which inspissated forms an officinal preparation ; they also yield their ac- tive matter to diluted alcohol; their active principle (Hyoscyama) is of an alkaline nature, forming neutral salts with the acids ; it crys- tallizes in prisms, and is said not to be decomposed by exposure to a red heat. Henbane has a greater analogy to opium in its action than any other narcotic has, particularly in the power of inducing sleep. In a moderate dose, it increases at first the strength of the pulse, and occasions some sense of heat, which are followed by diminished sen- sibility and motion ; in some cases by thirst, sickness, stupor, and almost always by some affection of vision. In a larger quantity, it occasions profound sleep, hard pulse, and sometimes delirium ; and in a dose which proves fatal, its operation soon terminates in coma, with a remarkable dilatation of the pupil, distortion of the counte- nance, a weak tremulous pulse, and eruption of petechias. On dis- section, inflamed or gangrenous spots have been observed on the internal surface of the stomach, and the vessels on the membranes of the brain have appeared enlarged. Its baneful effects, like those of other vegetable narcotics, are best counteracted by a powerful emetic. Henbane is one of the narcotics which has been longest known to physicians, having been employed by the ancients for mitigating pain, and restraining haemorrhage. It had, however, fallen into dis- use, until Dr. Stoerk of Vienna introduced it, with several other vege- table narcotics, to the notice of modern practitioners. He employed it in various spasmodic and painful diseases, as in epilepsy, hysteria, palpitation, headach, paralysis, mania, and schirrus. It was given in the form of the inspissated juice of the leaves. At present it is principally employed as a substitute for opium, having the advantage, that it does not, like it, produce constipation, but rather relaxes the bowels; it is, however, not equal to opium as an anodyne in procur- ing remission of pain or irritation, and producing that soothing state of languid ease. In some forms of mania, more especially puer- peral mania, it has been supposed preferable to opium, either alone or in combination with camphor. Mr. Benjamin Bell has found the combination of extract of hyoscyamus with camphor useful in go- norrhoea to relieve chordee. He has prescribed, in the course of twenty-four hours, two scruples of the former with one drachm of the 4 , NARCOTICS. 87 latter. The solution of the extract of hyoscyamus is used to dilate the pupil of the eye, but is less effectual than belladonna.* Offic. Prep.—Succ. spiss. hyosc. Tinct. hyosc. Atropa belladonna. Deadly Nightshade. Penland. Monogyn. SolanacecB, Linn. Solanece, Juss. Folia et radix. This is an indigenous herb, often growing in wastes and shady situations. Its leaves have scarcely any smell, and only a slightly nauseous, sub-acrid taste. The berries, which are purple, are sweetish. Both are highly narcotic, as is also the root, but the leaves are preferred for medicinal use, as being more uniform in strength. In a moderate dose belladonna occasions a sen§e of warmth, follow- ed by diaphoresis, and a disposition to sleep, frequently with nausea and headach ; in a larger dose, symptoms of intoxication, vertigo, sickness, and thirst; the pulse becomes low and feeble, the pupils are dilated, the face becomes swelled, vision is impaired, and these symptoms terminate in convulsions, coma, or paralysis. On dissec- tion, where it has proved fatal, the stomach and intestines have been found inflamed or gangrenous, and the blood in a dissolved state. The remedies are a powerful emetic in a sufficiently large dose, pur- gatives, and dilution with the vegetable acids. The leaves of this plant, according to Vauquelin, contain vegeta- ble albumen, muriate, sulphate, binoxalate, nitrate, and acetate of pot- ash; and M.Brandes lately detected an alkaline element in it, to which he gave the name of atropia; it forms distinct salts with the acids, and to it all the active properties of belladonna have been referred. To obtain this alkali, a small portion of sulphuric acid is added to a decoction of the leaves, by which some albumen and other vegetable matter is precipitated. Potash is then added in excess, precipitating a considerable quantity of atropia, which maybe purified by dissolv- ing it repeatedly in acids, and precipitating it again by potash. It is soluble in alcohol, but in.soluble in water, ether, and oils. Its salts produce the same effect as the alkali itself, but they have seldom been examined, from the violent headach, nausea and vertigo which are produced even by the vapours that arise from them. Belladonna was first employed as an external application, in the form of fomentation, to schirrus and cancer. It was afterwards ad- ministered internally in the same affections ; and numerous cases in which it proved successful were given on the authority of the Ger- man practitioners. It has been recommended, too, as a remedy in extensive ulceration, in paralysis, epilepsy, mania, and hydrophobia, but with so little discrimination, that little reliance can be placed on the testimonies in its favour. It is affirmed, however, on good au- thority, to be serviceable in hooping cough ; and, according to Du- puytren, in scrofulous ophthalmia. A singular property of belladonna has been asserted by continental physicians, that it protects those individuals who take it from the infection of scarlatina; there is, * Incompatible Substances. Nitrate of silver, acetate of lead, and sulphate of iron. According to Dr. Thomson, alkalies and lime water impair its narcotic properties; and on this account he is inclined to give them the preference as antidotes over acids.—B. 68 NARCOTICS. however, some doubt as to this. It has a peculiar action on the eye, Causing the pupil to dilate. Hence it is usual, before performing the operation for cataract, to rub the eyelids with an infusion of the leaves of belladonna ; within an hour or two after the pupil is found to be dilated, and the cataract brought fully into view. So far this is an advantage ; but on the introduction of the instrument, the pupil instantly contracts. The application of belladonna after the opera- tion has also been recommended, to prevent adhesions of the iris. Advantage has been taken of the dilating action of belladonna, in cases of blindness occasioned by opacity of the centre of the lens, a little of the infusion of the leaves being dropped into the eye three or four times a-day, by which the pupil is expanded, light enters, and vision is restored ; and it appears that this practice may be continued for years, the effect of the belladonna not being diminished by use. The internal administration of belladonna must be managed with caution, and intermitted whenever it produces tension of the throat, vertigo, or dimness of sight. A belladonna plaster has been found to relieve neuralgia and chro- nic rheumatism. Offic. Prep.—Succ. spiss. bellad. Emplast. bellad. Aconitum napellus. Aconite, Monks-hood, or Wolfsbane. Poly- and. Trigyn. Atultisiliquce, Linn. Ranunculaceo3, Juss. Folia. Europe, America. The aconite, which has been medicinally employed, is regarded by De Candolle, not as the aconitum napellus, but the aconitum pani- culatum ; and this has been admitted, on his authority, by the Dublin College, while the other is retained by the London College. The smell of its leaves, when recent, is narcotic, but is lost by drying. Their taste is sub-acrid. In a moderate dose its effects are those of a narcotic, accompanied with slight diaphoresis ; in a larger dose it occasions vertigo, syncope, paralysis, and convulsions : when it is dried, its strength is liable to variation. Its medicinal virtues are supposed by M. Brande to depend on a vegetable alkali, to which he has given the name of Aconita. Aconite was employed by Stoerk in chronic rheumatism, exostosis, paralysis, ulceration and schirrus. Though highly praised, it has fallen almost entirely into disuse. Its dose is from one to two grains of the dried leaves ; of the inspissated juice half a grain, this dose being gradually increased : it is chiefly in obstinate chronic rheu- matism that a trial is sometimes made of it in modern practice. Dr. Duncan states that he has found it useful in sciatica. Offic. Prep.—Succ. spiss. aconiti. Conium maculatum. Hemlock. Pentand. Digyn. Umbellifera, Linn. Juss. Folia, Semina. Indigenous. This plant, which grows abundantly in this country in waste ground, is of the umbelliferous kind. It is distinguished from other similar vegetables by its large and spotted stalk, by the dark green colour of the lower leaves, and by its peculiar faint disagreeable smell, which becomes more perceptible in the leaves when they are bruised. The seeds have a fainter odour, and are inferior in power. NARCOTICS. 89 The root has similar powers, but varies in strength at different sea- sons. The leaves are therefore preferred for medicinal use. Orfila found the extract, prepared by boiling the dried powder in water, and evaporating, to be perfectly inert, as the active principle of the plant resides in a resinous element, insoluble in water. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, the active matter of hemlock may be pro- cured in an uncombined state, by preparing an ethereal tincture from the leaves, and evaporating it on the surface of water. Half a grain of the matter thus obtained caused vertigo and headach. He con- ceives it to be a resinous principle ; as it exhibited, however, the colour, taste, and smell of the plant, it was probably mixed or com- bined with other elements; it has since received the name of Coneine. Hemlock is a powerful narcotic. Even in a moderate dose it is £> liable to produce sickness and vertigo ; in a larger dose it occasions permanent sickness, with great anxiety, dimness of vision, delirium, convulsions, and coma. The use of it was confined to external ap- plication, until it was introduced by Stoerk, principally as a remedy in schirrus and cancer ; and in these diseases it is undoubtedly bene- ficial. It cannot, indeed, effect a cure, but as a palliative it is very serviceable; it relieves the pain, and corrects the discharge more effectually than opium, and it is not liable to occasion constipation. And, when opium is employed, hemlock is a valuable auxiliary, as it renders a smaller quantity of the former necessary. Benefit is derived frequently from hemlock in other cases of exten- sive ulceration, particularly in those connected with a scrofulous taint; it promotes the operation of mercury in healing venereal ul- cers, and it is useful in those forms of ulceration which arise under .the action of mercury, and which are aggravated instead of being removed by its protracted use ; occasionally, too, it seems to contri- bute to the removal of glandular obstruction and induration. It is recommended in hooping cough ; and Dr. Paris states, that combin- ed with hyoscyamus, it affords relief in phthisis, and alleviates the cough which sometimes continues in patients who have suffered from pleurisy. Hemlock is given either under the form of the inspissated juice, or of the dried leaves, in a dose of two or three grains of either daily. The dose requires to be increased, and that more quickly, and to a greater extent, than is the case with almost any other substance in the Materia Medica, so that at length it has been taken to the ex- tent of a number of drachms in the course of the day. The inspissat- ed juice is of very uncertain strength, and even the powder of the dried leaves varies.* Offic. Prep.—Succus. spiss. conii. Tinct. conii. Unguent, conii. Cataplas. conii. Digitalis purpurea. Foxglove. Didynam. Angiosperm. Sola- nacecB, Linn. Scrophularia, Juss. Folia. This indigenous plant grows on dry elevated situations, and, from the beauty of its flower, has often a place in our gardens. All the * Incompatible Substances. The vegetable acids counteract the effects of conium. —B. 12 90 NARCOTICS. parts of it are powerfully narcotic, but the leaves being most uni- form in strength, are preferred for medicinal use. They are large and oblong, of a green colour, rather dark, have little smell, and a bitter somewhat acrid taste. They are collected when the plant is in blossom, and are dried before a gentle fire, the thicker stalks be- ing removed; and they ought to be kept without being reduced to powder. Water, alcohol and ether extract their active matter by infusion; it is analogous in its properties to the other vegetable al- kalis, and has been named Digitalia. It is a brown-coloured sub- stance, extremely bitter, and highly poisonous. The operation of digitalis on the system is very peculiar, and there is even considerable difficulty in ascertaining its real effects. From a small dose there is little sensible effect, until after its continued ad- ministration. In a full dose, it produces exhaustion of power, mark- ed by a great and sudden reduction in the force of circulation ; the pulse being reduced both in frequency and force, falling sometimes from 70 to 40 or 35 beats in a minute, and being small, tremulous, and often intermitting. This is accompanied with sickness, a sense of faintness, vertigo, dimness of vision, and, in a large dose, with vomiting, syncope, convulsions, and coma, with sometimes a fatal termination. Yet these effects are not uniform; but from the same dose there is considerable diversity of operation in different indivi- duals : the pulse is rendered slower, without being diminished in ful- ness; at other times it is rendered irregular. Effects are even ob- served from the operation of foxglove, apparently of a very opposite kind. While it reduces the force of the circulation, it appears to in- crease the action of the absorbent system, and hence it proves a pow- erful remedy in dropsy; and Dr. Withering, by whom its powers were first particularly investigated, observed, that when given in a state of disease, it was most successful, not where there existed in- creased action in the system, but, on the contrary, in states of debili- ty, where the pulse was feeble and intermitting, and the countenance pale. Other authors have remarked its apparent stimulant opera- tion : and Dr. Sanders, from a series of observations and experi- ments, has inferred, that it always acts primarily as a stimulant, augmenting, when given in a dose not too large, the force and fre- quency of the pulse, and inducing a state of increased action ; it is only when the dose is too large, or when it is accumulated by repe- tition, that reduction of the force of the circulation, and other symp- toms of diminished power, are produced ; and hence, according to this view, it is analogous in its operation to other narcotics. It must be admitted, however, that it is more difficult to regulate its administration so as to obtain its continued stimulant operation, than it is with regard to other stimulants ; that there is a rapid tran- sition to a etate of diminished action ; and that this is greater, and more permanent, compared with the primary stimulant effect, than in other stimulants, even of the most diffusible kind. Foxglove, producing very different effects, according to the mode in which it is administered, or according to the state of the system, is employed as a remedy in different diseases. It has been supposed to prove useful in phthisis by counteracting the state of increased NARCOTICS. 91 action which prevails in the incipient stage of the disease ; and by diminishing the rapidity of the circulation through the lungs, it may facilitate the removal of the local affection. In the more advanced stages, it may operate, it has been conceived, by promoting absorp- tion, thus removing the tuberculous affection, or withdrawing the purulent matter before it has been rendered acrid by the action of the air. Sanguine expectations were at one period formed of the advantages to be derived from it in the treatment of phthisis, many of the symptoms disappearing under its use, and the progress of the disease appearing to be arrested. The change of organic structure is, however, so considerable, at least in the advanced state of the disease, as scarcely to admit of a cure from the operation of any remedy ; and in the earlier stages, where some degree of inflamma- tory action exists, it is difficult to give digitalis so as to reduce the force of the circulation, and continue this effect, without inducing other consequences, which compel us to relinquish its use. From its power of reducing the force of the circulation, foxglove is a remedy of much power in active haemorrhage ; and according to the observations of Ferrier and others, it may be employed with signal advantage in epistaxis, haemoptysis, and menorrhagia, either alone or with opium. It is, on the same principle, useful in aneurism to reduce the impetus of the blood. In spasmodic asthma, the combination of it with opium has afforded much relief. In palpitation arising from intemperance, or from pas- sions of the mind, and not connected with dyspepsia, the irregular action of the heart has been abated, and at length removed by ita operation. Generally in diseases of the heart it is useful. Foxglove is given in substance, or under the form of infusion, or tincture. The tincture is the form under which it has usually been given as a narcotic ; the infusion, that in which it has been employed as a diuretic. When it is given in substance, there is supposed to be more risk of its effects accumulating from repetition of the dose, so as to induce the unpleasant symptoms which arise from an over- dose. To obtain the full narcotic operation of foxglove, the dose given at first requires to be gradually increased, but this increase must be made with much caution, not only from the hazard attending an over-dose, but from the circumstance that the action of the remedy is for a time not apparent; but if the dose is too quickly increased, or repeated at intervals not sufficiently distant, it appears suddenly, and continues progressive. Hence the necessity of the practitioner's watching with the greatest attention the effect it produces. If the dose given at first is small, the augmentation may proceed at the rate of from one-eighth to one-fourth of the original quantity every se- cond day, and the dose should not be repeated more than twice, or at farthest thrice a-day, unless in acute diseases, where the effect must be more speedily obtained, and where, therefore, the augmenta- tion must be more rapid. The administration of the remedy is con- tinued until the effect intended to be obtained is produced, or until its operation is apparent on the system ; whenever the pulse begins to diminish in frequency or force, the increase of dose must be stopt; 92 NARCOTICS. and if the reduction be considerable, or proceed rapidly, the admi- nistration must be suspended, and only, after a sufficient interval, cautiously renewed. This is more especially necessary when the pulse becomes intermitting, or when nausea is induced, with dimness of vision, vertigo, or any tendency to fainting. When these symp- toms do occur, they are best obviated by small doses of stimulants, warm wine, brandy and water, with aromatics, ether, and spirit of ammonia ; some have recommended strong bitter infusions, small doses of opium, and a blister applied to the region of the stomach. The patient should avoid making any quick muscular effort. The infusion of foxglove has been applied externally as an anodyne lotion to painful cutaneous eruptions, or ulceration. An ointment composed of the powder mixed with lard has been found successful in obstinate tinea capitis. The application of foxglove, as a diuretic, will be considered under the class of diuretics.* Offic. Prep.—Infus. digit. Tinct. digit. Nicotiana tabacum. Tobacco. Pentand. Monogyn. Solanacea, Linn. Solanea, Juss. Folia. America. This plant, though cultivated in this country, is usually imported from America. Its leaves, which are of a large size, are of a light green colour, which they retain with little change when dried ; but in the usual preparation to which they are subjected, they are ren- dered brown by the action of a little sulphate of iron. Their smell is fetid, their taste extremely bitter and acrid. They deflagrate in burning, from a quantity of nitre they contain. Their active matter is extracted both by water and by alcohol ; by decoction its activity is much impaired. The essential oil obtained from them by distilla- tion is very highly narcotic, so that when introduced into a wound, or injected into the rectum, it occasions instant death. Vauquelin obtained from tobacco a peculiar acrid principle, which he named Nicotin ; it has the odour of tobacco, is volatile and highly narcotic. Tobacco operates as a very powerful narcotic. This is apparent even in the common practices of smoking and chewing it, though its effects, like those of other narcotics, become less powerful from continued use. In a person unaccustomed to it, or in an over-dose, it excites severe and permanent sickness, with vomiting, reduces the force of the circulation, and occasions severe muscular debility, with insensibility cold sweats, and convulsion. As a diffusible stimulant, the smoke of tobacco, thrown into the rectum, was at one time employed in the recovery of drowned per- sons,—a practice proved to be prejudicial, and now exploded. The same practice is occasionally employed in ileus and incarcerated hernia ; in the former disease, with the view of removing the con- stricted state of the intestines; in the latter, with the intention of * Incompatible Substances. Acetate of lead, sulphate of iron, and the infusion or decoction of yellow cinchona, when added to the infusion of digitalis, throw down precipitates. According to Dr. Thomson, the alkalies are also incompatible with it. With the tincture, the bichloride of mercury and nitrate of silver are also incom- patible.—B. NARCOTICS, 93 producing that state of muscular relaxation which may favour the reduction of the protruded intestine. Though not without hazard, it has sometimes proved successful. The watery infusion of the strength of one drachm of the dried leaves to a pound of tepid water is a more convenient form of employing it than the smoke, as an enema: and even the infusion of this strength has sometimes pro- duced alarming symptoms of exhaustion. Unless it be used, how- ever, in such a state of activity, as to produce some degree of mus- cular debility, no advantage can be derived from it; and the practice is therefore only to be had recourse to, where other methods have failed. It has lately been much recommended in the form of an enema, in tetanus and dysentery, by Dr. O'Brien of Dublin. The smoke of tobacco received into the mouth relieves the pain of tooth- ach, either by its narcotic power, or by exciting a profuse salivary discharge. It sometimes too, by its action on the lungs, relieves the paroxysm of spasmodic asthma. The powder is in common use as an errhine. The medicated wine, given in small doses, acts as a diuretic, and has been used with much success in dropsy and dysuria. The leaves, bruised or moistened, have been employed as a fomen- tation or cataplasm in tinea capitis, and in various cutaneous erup- tions ; incautiously applied, they have sometimes occasioned the violent effects which arise from the internal administration of tobacco in too large a dose.* Offic. Prep.—Vin. tab. Infus. lab. Lactuca virosa. Strong-scented Lettuce. Syngenes. Polygam. mqual. Composites Cichoracece, Juss. Folia. Indigenous. The leaves of this plant have a strong fetid smell, similar to that of opium, and yield a white acrid juice, in which their activity re- sides. Though narcotic, they have been used principally from their diuretic power in the treatment of dropsy, under the form of the in- spissated juice. By the German practitioners, by whom this plant has been recommended, it has also been used in palpitation of the heart, and intermittent fever. Offic. Prep.—Succ. spiss. lact. vir. Lactuca sativa. Garden Lettuce. This species of lettuce is generally cultivated, and from the leaves and stem of it, which contain a pellucid colourless juice, an extract is obtained. This juice is somewhat of a milky appearance, but, upon exposure to the atmosphere, it assumes a brown hue. Lactu- carium, as the extract has been named, resembles opium in taste and odour, as well as in narcotic properties ; and from analysis it ap- pears to contain a narcotic principle analogous to morphia. It was proposed by Dr. Cox of Philadelphia as a substitute for opium ; and Dr. Duncan, sen. to whom we are more particularly indebted for its introduction among us, from a very extensive and accurate observa- * Incompatible Substances. The best antidote to the poisonous effects of tobacco is some astrinirent vegetable infusion, such as that of gall nuts. By this, the active principle of the tobacco is precipitated in its uncombined state, in which form it is very nearly insoluble.—B. 94 narcotics. tion of its narcotic effects, recommends it as highly beneficial in allaying the cough accompanying phthisis pulmonalis. Many other medical men have confirmed its utility in similar cases. Offic. Prep.—Succ. spiss. lactuc. sat. Datura stramonium. Thorn-apple. Pentand. Monog. Solanacem, Linn. Solanea, Juss. Herba, Semina. Thorn-apple is an indigenous herb, the leaves of which have a narcotic odour and bitter taste. They possess the powers of a nar- cotic, producing, when taken in too large a quantity, vertigo, sick- ness, delirium, and convulsions. Cases are mentioned of individuals, who, from eating this plant, became maniacal, and died in that state. Vinegar is recommended as the best antidote against these poison. ous qualities. An alkaline narcotic principle has been discovered in this vegetable, hence named Daturia. It exists chiefly in the seeds, from which it can be obtained in small crystals, soluble in al- cohol ; it forms crystallizable salts with acids. With other plants of the same family stramonium was made the subject of clinical experiment by Stoerk; and it was recommended by him as a remedy in convulsive diseases, especially in epilepsy and in mania. Its exhibition in the latter disease was suggested by the inference, that as it deranged the intellect of the sane, it might possibly correct that of the insane. The form in which it has been given is that of the inspissated juice of the leaves, the dose of which is from one-half to three grains twice a-day, gradually increased. The herb, or the root smoked like tobacco, has been found to afford relief in the paroxysm of spasmodic asthma. The smoke is drawn into the lungs as fully as possible, from a common tobacco pipe, continuing the smoking until the quan- tity is consumed, and repeating this occasionally, and frequently, if necessary. It often excites some degree of vertigo, usually pro- motes expectoration, and relieves the cough, dyspnoea, and spas- modic irritation; sometimes it is hurtful, and in patients liable to apoplexy, has appeared to induce that disease.* Offic. Prep.—Extract, stram. Arnica Montana. Leopards-bane. Syngenes. Polygam. superf. Composites Corymbiferce, Juss. Flores, Folia, Radix. Germany. The flowers of this plant have a smell slightly fetid, and a pene- trating bitter taste ; both taste and smell are extracted by macera- tion in water. In their action on the system, their stimulating power is apparent, along with their narcotic action ; they increase the force of the vascular system, and appear to communicate tone to the muscular fibre. In a larger dose they produce vomiting and purg- ing, sometimes followed by muscular pains, vertigo and convulsions. _ * Incompatible Substances. The salts of iron, silver, lead and mercury, cause pre- cipitates from the infusion of stramonium. In cases of poisoning by this drug, acetic acid must be used with the same precautions as in poisoning by opium. If administered before the stomach is completely evacuated, it increases the energy of the poison by dissolving its active principle. Its use should, therefore, in all cases be delayed until this preliminary process has been accomplished.—B. NARCOTICS. 95 Dupuytren has shewn that the emetic action is owing to downy par- ticles from the plant, which diffuse themselves through the infusion. In amaurosis, paralysis, convulsive disorders, gout and rheumatism, the infusion has been used with some advantage ; its dose is half a drachm. The root of arnica is aromatic and tonic, and has been used as a substitute for Peruvian bark. Rhododendron chrysanthum. Yellow-flowered Rhododendron. Decand. Monogyn. Bicornes, Linn. Ericinece, Juss. Folia. Siberia. The leaves of this shrub are destitute of smell, but have a bitter, rough, and sub-acrid taste, which they communicate to water by in- fusion or decoction. They are stimulating and narcotic, and occa- sion in a small dose increased vascular action ; in a large dose, nausea, vomiting, intoxication and delirium. They have been em- ployed in chronic rheumatism and gout, their application in the for- mer disease having been derived from the practice of the natives of Siberia. Their power is said to be marked by a sensation of creep- ing in the skin, and by diaphoresis being induced. The form in which they have been given is decoction, 2 drachms being boiled in 10 ounces of water, and 1 or 2 ounces of the strained liquor being given twice a-day, and gradually increased.* Rhus toxicodendron. Poison Oak, or Sumach. Pentand. Tri- gyn. Dumosa, Linn. Terebinthacem, Juss. Folia. North America. This plant has so much acrimony, that the touching of the leaves, or rubbing them on the skin, occasions itching, inflammation and desquamation ; if taken internally, nausea, vertigo, and pain in the head are produced ; according to Van Mons, the acrid matter of the plant is disengaged at night in combination with carburetted hydrogen ; the gas, when collected, acting on the skin in the same manner as the plant itself. The dried leaves have been used in paralysis, in some cases related by Mr. Alderson, with marked ad- vantage. The dose given was half a grain twice or thrice a-day, gradually increased to three or four grains daily. It excited a sense of heat and irregular motions in the parts affected. Humulus lupulus. Hop. Dicecia. Pentand. Scabridce, Linn. Ur- ticea, Juss. Strobili. Indigenous. This plant is cultivated in England, its strobiles being used to give bitterness to fermented malt liquors. They are picked off when ripe, and are dried by artificial heat. They have an odour some- what fragrant and aromatic, and a taste very bitter, with some as- tringency. The characteristic properties of the hop reside in a * The experiments made, many years since, by Dr. Home of Edinburgh,t while they show this article to possess some curious and valuable properties, by no means confirm its efficacy as a remedy in rheumatism. Possibly this difference of effect may be explained by the long keeping of the plant, in being brought from its native climate, imparing its virtues.—B. t Clinical experiments, histories and dissections. By Francis Home, M. D. p. 145. 96 NARCOTICS. pulverulent substance, which may be separated from it by sifting, and which forms about a sixth part of its weight. It has been named Lupuline, is of a yellow colour, with an agreeable aromatic odour and a very bitter taste. Besides this, the hop appears to contain resin, extractive matter, mucilage, volatile oil, tannin, and an am- moniacal salt. Along with its bitterness it has a narcotic power ; of this the popular remedy, sometimes successful, of a pillow of hops to procure sleep in the delirium of fever and in mania, is a proof. It accordingly, when given internally in a full dose, reduces the fre- quency of the pulse, and procures sleep. It has been employed as an anodyne, principally in rheumatism and in the paroxysm of gout, either in substance in the dose of three grains, or under the form of tincture in the dose of from half a drachm to a drachm, once or twice a-day. An extract prepared by inspissation of its decoc tion is also given in a dose of five or seven grains. An over-dose occasions headach and vertigo. A cataplasm or ointment, prepared from it, has been used as an anodyne application to cancerous sores ; and a fomentation of the strobiles has been used in the same case, and as an application to painful tumours. Similar preparations of Lupuline have been found useful, as containing in a concentrat- ed form the virtue of hops. One part of Lupuline has the same effect as ten parts of leaves. An ointment composed of one part of Lupuline and three of lard is said to give some relief in the last stage of cancer.* Offic. Prep.—Tinct. humul. Extr. humul. Strychnos nux vomica. Vomica Nut. Pentand. Monogyn. Sala- mancce, Linn. Strychnea, Juss. East Indies. The kernel of the fruit is the part of this plant that is powerfully narcotic ; its taste is intensely bitter ; it has little or no smell, and is so hard that it cannot be reduced into powder by beating, but re- quires to be filed down. Its narcotic operation is well exemplified in the effect it produces when given as a poison to dogs and other animals. It occasions extreme anxiety, paralysis of the hinder ex- tremities, convulsions, and death ; and on dissection, no marks of lo- cal affection are to be discovered in the stomach. In small quantity it exerts a stimulant action, and even produces intoxication. In analysing this substance, MM. Pelletier and Caventou disco- vered a peculiar proximate principle, of an alkaline nature, in which the activity of the medicine resides; they have named it Strychnia. It crystallizes in small four-sided prisms, is soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly so in water. Its taste is somewhat metallic and intensely bitter, perceptible even when one part of strychnia is dissolved in 600,000 parts of water ; it forms salts with acids, which are power- ful poisons. Strychnia exists also in the Upas Tieute, Strychnos lgnatia, and Strychnos Colubrina. The narcotic action of nux vomica is of a peculiar kind. It acts powerfully on the spinal chord, causing tetanic spasms, while the brain is not affected by it. From remarking this the idea was sug- * Incompatible Substances. The salts of lead, mercury, iron, zinc and silver.—-B. NARCOTICS. 97 gested by M. Fouquier, that it might restore nervous energy in cases of partial paralysis depending on the state of the spinal marrow; and the administration of it in such cases has proved very successful. Its beneficial action in these cases is announced by a creeping feel- ing in the paralysed part and a local perspiration. Convulsive movements are produced in the paralysed muscles, while the healthy parts are not affected, and in a number of instances a complete cure has been attained. It is less decidedly successful in hemiplegia. In palsy of the bladder and of the sphincter it has been employed with much advantage, and equally so in the cure of dysentery. Nux vomica is given in the form of alcoholic extract or of tincture, the first in a dose of one or two grains, the other of five or ten drops several times a-day. Strychnia in a pure state may be given in doses of the tenth or twelfth of a grain.* Prunus lauro-cerasus. Cherry Laurel. Icosand. Monog. Poma. cece, Linn. Rosacea, Juss. Folia. Europe. The leaves of this plant have an odour slightly fragrant, their taste is extremely bitter, and they possess narcotic power, qualities due to a portion of prussic acid which they contain. Water distilled from the leaves carries over with it an impregnation of the acid, and this distilled water, now made officinal by the Dublin College, has been used with considerable benefit as a sedative. It is even preferable to the pure prussic acid, as being not so liable to decomposition. In spasmodic cough, palpitation, and tic doloureux, it has been given with advantage. The dose of laurel water is from half a drachm to a drachm. In a larger quantity it produces the noxious effects of prussic acid ; yet in Paris, Fouquier and Richard gave repeatedly upwards of twelve ounces in one day, with no perceptible effect, a circumstance probably to be explained by the medicine not being well prepared. A cataplasm prepared from the leaves has been used as an ano- dyne to painful tumours and ulcers. An essential oil is procured from the leaves, which is made use of to give the flavour to the spi- rituous cordial Noyau, a practice which has sometimes occasioned fatal accidents. Amygdalus Persica. Peach. Icosand. Monog. Pomacece, Linn. Rosacea, Juss. Folia. Europe. The blossoms, leaves, and kernels of the fruit of the peach tree contain prussic acid, as is proved by their odour, and some degree of narcotic power which they possess. The leaves are made offici- nal in the last Dublin Pharmacopoeia, an infusion of them having been found useful in irritability of the urethra and bladder. The infusion is prepared by digesting half an ounce of the leaves in a pound of boiling water; it is given in the quantity of a table-spoonful twice or thrice in a day. * M. Donne, of Paris, has recently ascertained, by experiments upon animals, that in cases of poisoning by the strychnia, the best antidote is the tincture of iodine. To be successful, however, its use should not be delayed longer than ten minutes af- ter taking the poison.—B. 98 ANTISPASMODICS. Cocculus suberosus. Cocculus Indicus. Jagged Moonseed. Diazcia. Dodecand. Menispermece, Juss. Fruclus. India. The berries commonly known by the name of Cocculus Indicus are referred by the Dublin College to the Cocculus Suberosus, a shrub which grows on the Malabar coast. They have an intensely bitter taste, and exert a narcotic power, from the presence of an alkaline principle which has been named picrotoxia. It may be ob- tained crystallized in prisms, white, bitter, and highly narcotic. Cocculus Indicus is used in India to poison fish, and in this country it is said to be employed in brewing, to communicate bitterness, and a degree of intoxicating power to ale and porter. In medicine it is used in the form of an ointment made with lard in tinea capitis, and to destroy vermin. An ointment of lard and picrotoxia has alsa beea employed with advantage in tinea capitis. CHAP. III. ANTISPASMODIC A—ANTISPASMODICS. It is not easy to assign precisely the differences in kind of actios between Narcotics and what are named Antispasmodics. The ef- fects they produce are similar; they are capable of exciting the actions of the system, and they are often equally powerful in allay- ing pain and inordinate muscular action. But antispasmodics act less powerfully, and they do not in general produce that state of in- sensibility and diminished power which follows the application of nar- cotics. This might be supposed owing to a mere difference in strength; yet there seems also to be something farther than this, since antispasmodics produce no such effect in any dose, and since, although they are so much inferior to narcotics in this respect, they are sometimes equal in repressing inordinate and irregular muscular action. The difference has been explained on the supposition, that, as stimulant*, they have less diffusibility and greater durability of action ; or else, that, with their stimulant operation, they have no direct power of diminishing the powers of the system. Considered under either view, they form an intermediate class between narcotics, which are so highly diffusible, and tonics, which are much more per- manent in their stimulant operation; and experience shews, that they partake of the properties of both. Several narcotics and tonics are frequently used as antispasmodics ; and the powers of the principal antispasmodics, in obviating spasmodic affections, are apparently connected principally with their stimulant power. From the name given to this class, their medicinal application may be understood. Spasm consists in irregular muscular contraction; sometimes the contraction is permanent; at other times it alternates with relaxation, but even then both are performed more quickly, and ANTISPASMODICS. 99 the contractions are more powerful and permanent than natural. Many diseases depend on spasmodic action, and others are accom- panied with affections of this kind. The medicines which obviate and remove such a state are termed Antispasmodics. Spasm may originate from various causes. One of the most fre- quent is a strong irritation, continually applied, such as dentition, worms, or the presence of any foreign substance in wounds, the effect of this irritation being extended more or less to the nervous system, or to the voluntary muscles. Excessive irritability must give rise to similar effects. In such cases, narcotics must prove useful, by diminishing irritability and sensibility. Sometimes spasm appears to rise from mere debility, as is exemplified in the convul- sive motions in an animal exhausted by haemorrhage or other debili- tating causes ; and the obvious means of removing it, when it arises from this cause, is by the use of tonics. Both narcotics and tonics, therefore, are employed as antispasmodics; such, for example, as opium and ether belonging to the one, and zinc, mercury, and Peru- vian bark to the other; and these are indeed the most powerful of antispasmodics. But there are farther several substances which cannot be with propriety referred to either of these divisions, as musk, castor, assafoetida, galbanum, valerian; they are in some mea- sure intermediate: though their specific operation cannot be very well explained. It is to these that the name of Antispasmodics is more exclusively appropriated. Few general observations can be made on this class of medicines. Hysteria, chorea, epilepsy, hydrophobia, cholera, singultus, palpi- tation of the heart, and asthma, are the principal diseases in which they are employed. As their effect r* not very permanent, they require to be given during the paroxysm of the spasmodic disorder, or a short time before its approach. For the same reason, the dose requires to be frequently repeated. Those, however, which belong to the class of tonics require an opposite mode of administration, their beneficial effects being obtained only from their continued use. ANTISPASMODICS. Moscnus. Castoreum. succini oleum et acidum. Bitumen petroleum. Ammonia sobcarbonas. Ferula Assafostida. bubon galbanum. Sagapenum. Valeriana officinalis. Crocus sativus. Melaleuca cajuputi. narcotics used as antispasmodics. Ether. Opium. Camphor. Pkunus lauro-cerasus. TONICS USED AS ANTISPASMODICS. Cuprum. I Hydrargyrus. Zincum. I Cinchona. 100 ANTISPASMODICS. Moschus. Musk. Moschus moschiferus. Musk Ox. CI. Mammalia. Ord. Pecora. Asia. The animal which afford musks is a native of the elevated regions of the east of Asia. The musk appears to be a peculiar secretion, which is deposited in a small sac situated near the umbilicus of the male. It is brought from China, or from India, in its natural re- ceptacle, a small membranous bag, covered externally with coarse hair. The musk within is in grains, slightly unctuous, of a black colour, having a very strong durable smell, and a bitter taste. Ammonia and a' portion of volatile oil exist in it and communi- cate these properties. Musk is an antispasmodic supposed to be of considerable power; it is administered occasionally in a number of spasmodic diseases, es- pecially hysteria, epilepsy, and singultus, and also in diseases of debility. In typhus fever it is employed to relieve subsultus ten- dinum, and other symptoms of a spasmodic nature. In cholera it is given with the view of checking vomiting. In retroeedent gout it is employed as a stimulant. Combined with ammonia, it has been celebrated for its power of arresting the progress of gangrene. Its efficacy in some of these affections has undoubtedly been exag- gerated ; and from this, as well as from its high price, it is at present not very often employed. Its dose is from 6 to 20 grains, repeated, if necessary, every five or six hours. It is best given in the form of bolus. To children, it has been given under the form of enema, as a remedy in the convulsions arising sometimes from the irritation of dentition.* Offic. Prep.—Mist, mosch. Tinct. mosch. Castoreum. Castor. Castor Fiber. Mammalia. Glires. The beaver, an amphibious quadruped, is a native of the north of Europe, Asia, and America. Castor is a peculiar product col- lected in membranous cells near the extremity of the rectum in this animal. The follicles inclosing it are cut off, and dried by exposure to the smoke of fuel. The castor, which is naturally soft and oily, becomes hard. It is imported of superior quality from Russia ; an inferior kind is brought from New England. The former is dry slightly unctuous, of a reddish brown colour, intermixed with fibres and covered with a tough membrane ; it has a strong unpleasant smell, and a bitter acrid taste. The American castor is more shri- velled, and inferior in taste and smell. The active matter of castor is dissolved by alcohol, proof spirit, and partially by water ; it was discovered by M. Brandes, and has been named Caslorine. Castor is used as an antispasmodic, in hysteria principally, some- times in amenorrhcea, in a dose from 10 to 20 grains, or from one to two drachms of the tincture ; but it is doubtful if it has any power. Offic. Prep.—Tine. cast. Tinct. cast. comp. Succinum. Oleum et Acidum Succini. The bituminous substance, amber, though it has a place in the * Incompatible Substances. Perchloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, sulphate of iron, and infusion of yellow cinchona.—B. ANTISPASMODICS. 101 list of the Materia Medica of the different Pharmacopoeias, is perfectly inert, and is introduced only as affording, by distillation, an empy- reumatic oil, which has been applied to some medicinal uses. This oil is at first thick and of a dark brown colour; but by repeated dis- tillations with water it becomes limpid, still retaining, however, a very fetid odour. It has been celebrated for its antispasmodic pow- er, and has been employed in hysteria and amenorrhcea in a dose of from 10 to 15 drops. It is now discarded from practice, or is used only as an external stimulating application in paralysis, chronic rheu- matism and hooping cough. Along with this oil, a concrete acid is produced in the distillation, which is at first impure, but is purified by sublimation, or by solution and crystallization. It has a place in the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, but is destitute of any medicinal power, and is never applied to any use. Bitumen petroleum. Petroleum Barbadense. Mineral Tar. Various kinds of liquid bitumens exist as natural productions, of different degrees of thickness, of a colour more or less deep, and more or less volatile. That which has been usually kept in the shops, under the name of Barbadoes Tar, is thick, of a dark brown colour, having a smell that is fetid, and a warm bitter taste. It has an analogy to the preceding empyreumatic oils in its properties: and like them has been, used as an antispasmodic and expectorant in asthma and chronic catarrh, and externally as a stimulating appli- cation in rheumatism and paralysis. Though it retains its place in Pharmacopoeias, it is scarcely ever used. Sub-carbonas ammonle. Sab-carbonate of Ammonia. Sal Cornu Cervi. Salt of Hartshorn. This salt used to be prepared by exposing horns of the deer to heat, which causing the elements of the animal matter to enter into new combinations, a large quantity of sub-carbonate of ammonia was evolved. It was impregnated with a fetid empyreumatic oil, which was supposed to increase its power as an antispasmodic. The pure salt is sometimes given as an antispasmodic in a dose of 5 or 10 grains : it is more frequently used as a stimulant applied to the nostrils in fainting. Ferula assafcetida. Assafcetida. Pentand. Digyn. Umbellat®, Linn. Umbellifercs, Juss. Gummi-Resina. Persia. Assafcetida is a concrete gum-resin, obtained by exudation from incisions made in the roots of the plant, the juice, after it exudes, being inspissated by exposure to the sun. It is in small masses, of a variegated texture, yellow on the external surface, white within, having an extremely fetid smell, and a taste bitter and sub-acrid. It consists principally of resin and gum, and of an essential oil, which adheres to the resin, and communicates the taste and odour. Assafcetida is used as an antispasmodic in different nervous dis- eases, especially in amenorrhcea, hysteria, dyspnoea, dyspepsia at- tended with flatulence, and tympanitis, and is superior in efficacy to 102 ANTISPASMODICS. any of the fetid gums. Its dose is from 5 to 20 grains, in the form of pill, or diffused in water : it usually proves slightly laxative, and to obtain any advantage from it requires its continual use. It is like- wise given, under the form of enema, in tympanitis, flatulent colic, in the violent hysteric paroxysm, and as a remedy against worms, 2 drachms being diffused in 8 ounces of warm milk or water; it is sometimes, too, applied as a plaster. Offic. Prep.—Mist, assafcet. Tinct. assafcet. Pil. assafoet. Emp. assaf. Enem. foetid. Bubon galbanum. Galbanum. Pentand. Digyn. Umbellatce, Linn. Umbellifera, Juss. Gummi-Resina. The plant which affords this resinous substance is a native of Syria, and also of the Cape of Good Hope. The Galbanum is ob- tained in the form of a milky juice, by exudation from incisions in the stem of the plant; when hardened it is in the form of a mass somewhat variegated in its texture, tenacious, of a yellowish brown colour, having a smell somewhat fetid, and a bitter acrid taste. Alcohol dissolves its resin, in which its powers have been supposed to reside ; proof-spirit dissolves it entirely, the impurities excepted. Triturated with water, it is diffused, and forms a milky-like fluid; it consists of resin, gum and volatile oil. Galbanum has the virtues of the fetid gums, and is used for the same purposes, and sometimes combined with them, in hysteria and amenorrhcea; being inferior in strength, however, to.assafcetida, it is less employed. It is slightly laxative, and is sometimes used as an aperient; it is employed too as an expectorant, with myrrh and ammoniac, to check effusion from the mucous glands of the lungs. Its dose is 10 grains. Externally, it is more frequently used as a discutient to indolent tumours, and as a stimulant to promote suppu- ration. Offic. Prep.—Empl. galb. Pil. galb. Tinct. galb. Sasapenum. Gummi-Resina. This gum-resin, usually imported from Alexandria, is the produce of an unknown tree, said to be a native of Persia. It is in small masses, of a yellow colour, having a smell slightly fetid, and a nau- seous taste ; it is soluble in proof-spirit; by distillation it affords a small quantity of essential oil. Its virtues and uses are the same as those of the assafcetida, to which, however, it is inferior in power. It is only employed in combination with more active jgum-resins, and might be dispensed with. Offic. Prep.—Pil. galbani. Confect. rutae. Valeriana officinalis. Wild Valerian. Triand. Monogyn. Ag- gregata, Linn. Valeriana, Juss. Radix. Indigenous. The root of this plant, which is the part of it used in medicine, consists of slender fibres twisted and attached to one head, of a light brown colour, having a smell strong and unpleasant, and a warm bitter taste, the smell and taste being stronger in wild valerian than in that which is cultivated. Its active qualities reside in a volatile ANTISPASMODICS. 103 oil, which is dissolved by water, alcohol, and solutions of the alka- lis ; it is of a greenish white colour, and is converted into resin and oxalic acid by nitric acid, and is said to contain a portion of camphor. Valerian is an antispasmodic, not unfrequently employed in mo- dern practice, especially in hysteria, chorea, and epilepsy, where these depend not on organic derangement, or on any permanent irritation, but on increased susceptibility of the nervous system. Sometimes, also, it is used with advantage in hemicrania. Its dose is from one scruple to one drachm three or four times a-day, which is increased gradually as far as the stomach can bear it. Sometimes it is taken under the form of infusion, or of tincture. Offic. Prep.—Infus. valer. Tinct. valer. Tinct. valer. ammon.* Crocus sativus. Saffron. Triand. Monogyn. Liliacea, Linn. Iridea, Juss. Floris Stigmata. This plant is cultivated in the south of England to afford the Saf- fron of the shops. The stigmata which crown the pistil of the flower are separated from the other parts, are submitted to pressure with a moderate heat, and thus form a soft mass of intermixed fibres, named Cake Saffron ; when dried separately, they form Flower Saf- fron. The former is what is usually kept. It is in tough cakes some- what moist, of a deep reddish yellow colour; its flavour is aromatic and diffusive, its taste warm and bitterish. An extract may be obtain- ed from it which has been named Polychroite ; it is of a deep yellow colour; sulphuric acid changes it to a bright blue, and nitric acid to grass green ; it is soluble in water and in alcohol; it forms half the weight of saffron. Saffron was formerly regarded as a very active medicine, possessed of high stimulant and antispasmodic power, and requiring, it was imagined, to be given with much caution. Experience has proved it to be nearly inert, and it is now used only to give colour to other remedies. Offic. Prep.—Tinct. croci. Syr. croci. Melaleuca cajuputi. Polyadelph.' Polyand. Hesperida, Linn. Myrtacea, Juss. Oleum Volatile. Cajeput Oil. India. The essential oil, known by the name of Cajeput Oil, is procured from the Melaleuca leucadendron or cajuputi, a tree which grows in Borneo and at Amboyna. The oil is obtained by distillation from the leaves and fruit: it has a green or yellowish colour, a strong fragrant odour, somewhat similar to that of camphor, and an ex- tremely pungent taste. It is highly volatile and inflammable. It is entirely soluble in alcohol when not adulterated with oil of turpen- tine. This oil has been used as a diffusible stimulant and antispasmodic, in tympanitis, flatulent cholic, hysteria, palsy, chronic rheumatism, and various other diseases of debility. Its dose is 3 or 4 drops on a lump of sugar. It is also applied externally to relieve rheumatic and * Incompatible Substances. The salts of iron.—B. 104 TONICS. gouty pains, and sometimes gives sudden temporary relief; it often succeeds in relieving the pain of toothach, when applied to the af- fected tooth* Several substances are employed as antispasmodics, and which I have therefore placed in the table, which more strictly belong, how- ever, to some of the other classes. Under these, therefore, their history is given, including the notice of those few applications of them as remedies, connected with their antispasmodic power.* CHAP. IV. OF TONICS. By Tonics are understood those substances, the primary operation of which is to give strength to the system. It has been conceived, that muscular vigour depends on a certain degree of tension, or tone, as it is named, of the muscular fibre ; and those substances which renew that vigour when impaired have been considered as restoring this due degree of tension, and have thus received the appellation of Tonics. They are not, however, to be considered as operating by any change they produce in the state of the solids, as this opinion implies. They act upon the living principle, and so far as their ac- tion is understood, are stimulants of considerable power, permanent in their operation. The distinction has been already pointed out between stimulants, which is founded not so much on a difference in their power, as in the quickness with which their full effect is produced, and in the transient nature of that effect. If a medicine suddenly raises a high state of excitement, this is usually as quickly followed by proportional languor or debility, and the changes from both modes of action, in the state of the functions of the body, are well marked. But if the stimulant operation be more slowly exerted, any change is much less conspicuous, and the succeeding collapse takes place to no consi" derable extent; when the administration of the remedy is continued, it is prevented by the renewed excitement; and when it is suspended, the effect is merely a gradual abatement of excitement, which is ren- dered less evident from being counteracted by the action of the stimulants habitually applied. On these principles the action of tonics * Although not mentioned by Dr. Murray, Emetics may be considered among the most powerful antispasmodics at present in our possession. In many cases of spasmodic disease Ihey possess an evident and decided advantage over most of the remedies ordinarily resorted to. in the facility with which they may be administered and the promptness with which they operate. In hysteria, epilepsy, and convulsions more especially, their efficacy has been confirmed by repeated trials, and there is just reason for believing that their use might be advantageously extended to a still larger number of diseases of a similar character. For some interesting views on this subject. I refer to a paper of Dr. Joseph M. Smith of this city, published in the transactions of the Physico-Medical Society of New-York.—B. TONICS. 105 is explained. It is only by their stimulant operation that they can obviate debility; as their effect is gradual, their action is not followed by that exhaustion and diminished susceptibility which invariably follows from excitement suddenly raised : and the state of increased action which they excite and sustain is favourable to the acquisition of power. If their administration, however, be carried to excess, or be continued too long, it may at length diminish the powers of the system; and if employed in a state of health or high vigour, their effects may be injurious. Tonics act primarily on the stomachy the action they excite in that organ being conveyed generally by nervous communication to the rest of the system. This is evident from their effects often taking place in a short time ; and there are experiments which prove, that when some tonics, as Peruvian bark, have been taken for a consider- able length of time, no portion of them can be discovered by any chemical test in the blood. There are some of them, however, especially the metallic tonics, which seem to be received into the circulation. The stimulating effect of tonics is principally to be observed from their continued administration ; they increase gradually the force of the circulation, promote the action of the digestive organs, augment the secretions, or moderate them when they have been morbidly in- creased, and give vigour to the muscular system. From the action of some of the more powerful remedies of this class, these effects are apparent, even in a short time. The diseases in which they are employed must be obviously those of diminished power. Tonics may be subdivided into those derived from the mineral, and those from the vegetable kingdoms: the former division com- prehends several of the metals, and one or two of the earths. Un- der the vegetable tonics are comprised a number of substances pos- sessing bitterness, and an aromatic pungency. These two qualities are generally blended in the most powerful tonics belonging to the vegetable kingdom : and there is a transition from these to the more pure bitters and aromatics. The stimulating action of the latter is rather too local and transient to give rise to much permanent tonic effect : yet they can scarcely be placed under any other class, and I have therefore associated them with the substances with which they are thus connected. The purest Bitters are powerful Tonics, as is proved by their efficacy in curing intermittent fever, as well as by the advantage derived from them in a debilitated state of the digestive function. Aromatics may also be considered as tonic in their action on the stomach, if not on the general system, and are often employed to obviate debility in that organ, and to promote the powers of digestion. 14 106 TONICS. TONICS. Argentum. Hydrargyrum. Ferrum. Zincum. Cuprum. Arsenicum. FROM THE MINERAL KINGDOM. BlSMUTHUM. FROM THE Cinchona officinalis. Aristolochia serpentaria dorstenia contrayerva. Croton eleutheria. bonplandia trifoliata. SwiETENIA FEBRIFUGA. swietenia mahagoni. Salix alba. COLOMBA. Quassia simarouba. Quassia excelsa. Barytes. Calx. Acidum nitricum. AciDUM N1TRO-MURIATICUM. [AURUM.--B.] VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Gentiana LUTEA. Anthemis NOBILIS. Citrus aurantium. Citrus medica. Acorus calamus. Laurus cinnamomum. Laurus cassia. CaNELLA ALBA. WlNTERA AROMATICA. Myristica MOSCHATA. Caryophyllus aromaticus. FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Capsicum annuum. Piper nigrum. Piper longum. Piper cubeba. Myrtus pimenta. Amomum zingiber. Amomum repens. Carum carui. CoRIANDRUM SATIVUM. PlMPINELLA ANISUM. Mentha piperita. [eupatorium perfoliatum.--b.] [CoRNUS FLORIDA.--B.] [Prunus VIRGINIANA.--B.] [LlRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA.--B.] TONICS FROM THE MINERAL KINGDOM. These are in general more local in their action than the vegetable tonics ; they either operate more directly on the stomach, without their action being so quickly extended to the whole system, or they act by being received into the blood. Hence they produce less immediate general excitement, and it is only from their continued administration that their tonic effect is obtained. Argentum. Silver. This metal is distinguished by its pure white colour, its high degree of lustre, and its great ductility and malleability. It is not very sus- ceptible of oxidation ; it does not suffer that change from exposure, even in a state of fusion, to atmospheric air. Those acids which yield oxygen readily oxidate and dissolve it, particularly nitric acid, which is hence employed as its usual solvent. The solution, when evaporated, affords the nitrate of silver in a crystalline form. TONICS. 107 It appears that nitrate of silver was sometimes employed by the older physicians, but the harshness and violence of its operation led to its disuse. More lately it has been introduced as a remedy in epilepsy,—a disease which, when not depending on organic derange- ment, is frequently connected with morbid susceptibility, and which tonics sometimes remove. The advantage derived from the adminis- tration of nitrate of silver has been established on the testimony of Dr. Sims, Dr. Cappe, Dr. Bostock, and others. The dose, when the medicine was first introduced, did not exceed one or two grains in the day ; it has, however, been considerably increased, some pa- tients taking as much as eighteen grains in the course of twenty- four hours. The dose should be increased gradually. It is remarked by Dr. Powel, that the medicine agrees better with the patient in the form of pills, than when given in a solution. Thus, in some instan- ces, he gave 15 grains in the form of a pill, when the stomach could not bear more than five grains in the form of a solution. The pills should be made with bread, and Dr. Barker recommends that they be covered with silver leaf, to prevent their injuring the throat. To produce any effect on the system, it is necessary to continue the exhibition of the remedy for several months ; its efficacy is most certain when it acts moderately on the bowels, but if it purges much it should be intermitted. It has also been given in chorea and angina pectoris. Sometimes, when beneficial effects appear to have been produced by it in these spasmodic diseases, they return as severely as before, and when this happens, it is found of no farther efficacy. A singular and disagreeable effect attends the internal use of nitrate of silver, that the skin, especially of those parts exposed to light, is darkened in colour to a considerable degree, so as to become of a livid or leaden hue. This discoloration arises probably from some action of the medicine upon the rete mucosum* It cannot be removed by any treatment when it has taken place, except, it is said, by the continued use of cream of tartar. Fused nitrate of silver is used as an escharotic, under the name of lunar caustic.f [For additional * So many cases have now been recorded, and on such high authority, that the skin does actually undergo a peculiar discoloration from the continued use of nitrate of silver, that we should have supposed no one would have questioned the fact. Dr. Chapman, of Philadelphia, however, has made the wonderful discovery that all this is a mistake, and affirms that this dark hue produced in the skin is not the effect of the remedy, but is one of the symptoms of the disease (epilepsy) for which the remedy was used \t In reply to this statement, we have only to propose the followincr queries: Has this peculiar symptom ever been noticed in epilepsy by any author, an- cient or modern, before the use of nitrate of silver was introduced as a remedy 1 How is it that this discoloration, if it be merely a symptom of epilepsy, remains per- manent for life, and that, too, after the disease has been completely cured t And finally, How is it that this same discoloration has occurred in other diseases where the nitrate of silver has been used ? Dr. Paris states that he witnessed this effect in a lady who had taken large doses of the nitrate for the purpose of curing a dys- peptic complaint.! Doubtless this leaden discoloration will soon be discovered to be a symptom of dyspepsia too.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Fixed alkalies, the hydro-chloric, sulphuric and tartaric acid, soaps, arsenic, hydro-sulphurets, vegetable astringent infusions, and undistilled waters.—B. t Mat. Med. Vol. 1. p. 53. Ed. 1831. § Pharmacologia, 4th Am. from the 7th. Lond. Ed, p. 294. 108 TONICS. information concerning silver, see Part II. of this work, under the head " Metallic Preparations."] Hydrargyrum. Hydrargyrus. Argentum vivum. Mercurius. Mercury or Quicksilver. It has not been usual, in arrangements of the articles of the Materia Medica, from their medicinal power, to place mercury under the class of tonics, but rather under that of sialagogues. Its power, however, of exciting the salivary discharge is merely a secondary effect, not constant nor uniform, and which is not essential to its efficacy in any disease. On the contrary, its tonic power is its primary operation ; it is the most general stimulant belonging to the Materica Medica, pervading every part of the system ; acting, as Dr. Cullen has remarked, as a stimulus to every sensible and mov- ing fibre of the body, and producing the most permanent effects. Hence it is the most general evacuant we possess ; and, from its sti- mulant operation, exerted directly or indirectly, is derived its utility in many diseases. This metal is peculiarly distinguished by its fluidity at common temperatures. It does not become solid till cooled to 40° of Fah- renheit. In its liquid state it, has the perfect opacity and lustre characteristic of metals, and likewise the properly of great density, its specific gravity being to that of water as 13.5 to 1 nearly ; it boils at a temperature a little above 000°, and, when boiling, suffers oxidati n from the action of the atmospheric air. It is oxidated even at natural temperatures, when subjected to agitation ; or, still more easily, when triturated with any viscid matter, which is inter- posed between its globules, so as to extend their surface. Its chemical equivalent is 200. Quicksilver occurs in nature combined with sulphur, and is ob- tained from this ore, submitted to heat mixed with iron or lime, either of which combines with the sulphur, and the mercury is se- parated by distillation. The quicksilver of commerce is sometimes impure, or adulterated by the intermixture of other metals, particu- larly lead and bismuth. This may be suspected when the metal loses its lustre speedily, and is covered by a grey film, or from its diminished mobility, in consequence of which its globules do not pre- serve exactly the spherical form, nor unite easily with each other; and it may be discovered with certainty, by exposing it to a heat sufficient to volatilize the quicksilver, when any other metal present will remain. It is best purified by distillation from iron-filings in an iron retort. Mercury is not, in its metallic state, applied to any medicinal use ; but, under various forms of preparation, in most of which it is either simply oxidated, or its oxides are combined with acids, it is extensively employed, and affords a series of active remedies. When rendered active on (he system by any of the modes of pre- paration to which it is subjected, it operates as a powerful and gene- ral stimulant. When given in moderate quantity, it communicates general vigour : it increases the force of the circulation when this has been languid ; by the increased vascular action which it excites it TONICS. 109 gives to the blood the disposition to assume the buffy coat; and by its stimulant operations on secreting organs it promotes the secre- tions, and hence acts as a very general evacuant. It peculiarly sti- mulates the salivary glands, and under all its forms of preparation speedily excites the salivary discharge, an effect scarcely produced by any other substance not locally applied, and probably owing, as will be explained under its history, as a sialagogue, to its affinity to the saline matter existing in that secretion. It increases also the cuticular dis- charge, and it appears to promote the secretion of bile, and pro- bably of the other intestinal fluids. Its stimulant operation on the absorbent system is not less evident ; hence the emaciation which is the consequence of its continued action. From these di- versified effects which Mercury produces, it is capable of being ap- plied to the treatment of numerous states of disease. In the febrile affections of warm climates, yellow fever and bilious remitting fever, it is a remedy of the highest value. It is probably useful principally as an evacuant; these forms of fever being pe- culiarly connected with a disordered state of the intestinal canal and abdominal secreting organs, and mercury always promoting the evacuation of the intestinal fluids ; it is accordingly under the form of calomel, the mercurial which acts most powerfully on the liver and intestines, that it is chiefly employed. Some benefit may also be derived from its general stimulant action, as it proves most successful when given to that extent as to affect the system. Ad- vantage is derived from it, probably from a similar mode of opera- tion, in dysentery, especially when it is given in combination with opium. In the fevers of cold climates it is less employed. There are some forms of inflammatory action in which mercury is useful. In that chronic inflammation particularly which affects glandular organs, it is the principal remedy both in counteracting it, and in removing that state of morbid structure which is often its consequence. Hence the peculiar advantage derived from mercu. rials in chronic hepatitis, and induration of the liver, in glandular obstruction and schirrosity, and in indolent tumours. Calomel is the preparation which in these cases appears to be most effectual, though the introduction of mercury by friction is also employed, perhaps with equal success. Considerable advantage is also derived from it in rheumatism. In various diseases dependent on spasmodic action, mercury af. fords the most powerful remedy. In tetanus particularly, if the mercurial action on the system can be fully established, the violent spasm is sometimes resolved, and calomel given to a large extent, aided by mercurial inunction, affords the remedy which has been most frequently attended with success. In the milder affection of trismus, it is employed with the same views; and cases of hydro- phobia have occurred, in which the disease appears to have yield. ed to a similar mode of treatment. It is also a valuable remedy in croup. In all these cases calomel is the preparation usually employed. The stimulant operation of mercury on the absorbent system ren- ders it useful in the different forms of dropsy. It is given to the ex- 110 TONICS. tent of exciting salivation in hydrocephalus ; in ascites it is more usually employed to promote the action of diuretics, and in that spe- cies of dropsy when it depends on induration of the liver ; and also in dropsy of the ovarium, it proves still more useful by its deobstru- ent power. Its stimulant operation on the uterine system leads to its employment as an emmenagogue, and its determination to the in- testines promotes the operation of purging. Cutaneous diseases, lepra, tinea capitis, scabies, and others, are occasionally removed by the internal administration of mercury as an alterative ; and these, as well as various forms of cutaneous erup- tion and ulceration, often yield to the external application of mercu- rial preparations. The most important medicinal operation of mercury remains to be stated,—that displayed in removing the disease induced by the syphilitic poison. In this its power is nearly, if not altogether spe- cific ; no article of the Materia Medica could be substituted for it; and there may be affirmed of it, what cannot with equal justice be said of any remedy employed in the treatment of any other morbid affection, that, if duly administered, it will scarcely ever fail in ef- fecting a cure. It is difficult to assign any satisfactory theory of its operation. Its efficacy has been ascribed to its general evacuant power, in consequence of which the syphilitic virus is discharged from the body. But the speedy disappearance of the local symp- toms of syphilis under its use, and even from its local application, affords a proof that it operates on some other principle ; no similar advantage is derived from other evacuants ; and its efficacy is not proportional to the evacuation it excites, but is frequently displayed where this is insensible. The opinion has been advanced, that it acts as an antidote to the venereal virus, neutralizing it somewhat in the manner in which one chemical agent subdues the properties of another,—an opinion vague and hypothetical, and rendered im- probable from the consideration of the small quantity of some of the more active preparations of mercury, from which a cure may be obtained, compared with the large quantity of others less active that requires to be administered. The explanation advanced by Mr. Hunter, that the efficacy of mercury in the treatment of syphilis de- pends on its general and permanent stimulant operation on the sys- tem, by which it induces and keeps up an action incompatible with that morbid action which constitutes the disease, until the virus is destroyed by the chemical changes going on in the system, or until it is eliminated from the body by the usual excretions, is on the whole most probable ; it rests on a principle undoubted, that there are states of morbid action incompatible, so that one suspends the action of the other : mercury does exert a very general action, in- ducing and keeping up what may be regarded as a morbid state ; and if this is incompatible with the action which constitutes syphilis, the continuance of it, for some time will suspend the latter; and the venereal virus will, in common with any other matter contained in the circulating mass, be changed or discharged. Of late, however, some opinions have been brought forward, which, without denying the efficacy of mercury in the treatment of syphilis', TONICS. Ill place the subject in a different light. The disease, in all its forms, it is affirmed, can be cured without the use of mercury, and by re- medies of the simplest kind :—common dressings applied to sores, rest in the horizontal position, the common antiphlogistic regimen, and occasionally the use of the decoction of sarsaparilla. Under such treatment, the primary symptoms of syphilis, it is affirmed, dis- appear, though, it is admitted, more slowly than with the administration of mercury; and secondary symptoms do not supervene, it is asserted, more frequently than they do even after a common mercurial course, while the injurious effects of mercury on the constitution are avoided. There seems to be much truth in these statements. Syphilis ap- pears to have become a milder disease than it was when it first ap- peared in Europe ; and may, when the circumstances are favourable, be cured without the aid of mercury. But this is no reason for abandoning the use of a powerful remedy, which cures the disease with certainty, and if properly administered, with perfect safety, to the general health. It is to be remarked, there sometimes are met with morbid affections similar in their symptoms to lues venerea, and yet not arising from the syphilitic virus. These are more easily treated ; and probably not a few of the cases which have been suc- cessfully managed without mercury were of this description. The mode of administering mercury for the cure of the venereal disease, under all its forms, is now ascertained with sufficient preci- sion. There is no advantage in giving it so as to induce profuse salivation ; this is even to be avoided as hurtful; but it is proper that salivation should be excited to a certain extent, not as essential to its efficacy, but as a proof of its action on the system being obtain- ed. This is kept up for a certain time, longer or shorter, according to the state of the symptoms, arid the previous continuance of the dis- ease. Exposure to cold is avoided, as being liable to cause the more partial operation of mercury on the salivary glands : and the state of irritation is diminished, or determination to the intestines producing purging is obviated, by the exhibition of an opiate. When profuse salivation occurs, the remedies employed to check it are cathartics in moderate doses, cinchona, small doses of opium, the application of a blister to the throat, and the administration of sulphuret of pot- ash; the last being employed from the doubtful hypothesis, that its chemical agency may neutralize the mercury. Free exposure to a cool dry air is, according to the observations of Mr. Pearson, more effectual than any other method. When the morbid irritation, from the action of mercury, rises too high, producing a state of exhaus- tion, which sometimes proceeds rapidly to an alarming extent, the administration of the remedy must be immediately suspended ; and in this case also, exposure to a cool atmosphere is advantageous. The preparations of Mercury, medicinally employed, are its oxides, chlorides, sulphurets and salts. The particular processes for obtain- ing them are inserted and explained in the pharmaceutical part of the work. Here it is sufficient to notice briefly their distinctions and applications. The Protoxide, to which the names of Grey oxide and Black oxide are also given, formed by the trituration of mercury, is the basis of 112 TONICS. a number of preparations. In these, the metal has been supposed indeed to be merely mechanically divided ; but in its metallic state, mercury does not appear to exert any action on the living system, and the activity of it in these preparations is a proof that it is oxi- dated. This is established more directly ; quicksilver, by agitation, is converted into a black powder ; and this, like other oxides, is solu- ble in muriatic acid, which metallic mercury is not. This oxidation is much promoted by the quicksilver being triturated with any viscous substance which facilitates the division of its glo- bules. By trituration with mucilage of gum-arabic, a preparation is obtained, named Plenk's Mercurial Solution, the operation of which is extremely mild. Rubbed with chalk, it forms the Hydrargyrum cum Creta of the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, and with Magnesia the Hydrargyrum cum Magnesia of the Dublin Pharma- copoeia, preparations having nothing to recommend them. The Mercurial Pill, prepared by triturating quicksilver with conserve of rose, and adding a sufficient quantity of starch to form a pill mass, is, of all the preparations adapted to affect the general system, the one most commonly employed, and is perhaps equal to any other, having the advantage of not being liable to produce much irritation, while we can depend on the certainty and permanence of its action. In a dose of eight grains, morning and evening, it soon affects the general system; in a larger dose, it is liable to occasion purging. Quicksilver, triturated with lard, soon loses its metallic form ; and the ointment, after it has been kept for some time, contains little of it in the metallic state, the unctuous matter probably promoting its oxidation. The oxide is diffused through the lard, and when the ointment is rubbed on the skin is forced through the cuticle, and is taken up by the absorbents; the system is thus affected, without the unpleasant consequences of nausea and purging, sometimes occa- sioned by the internal administration of even the mildest mercurial preparation; this method is employed therefore, where, from the state of the system, these affections are liable to be produced. Where it is necessary, too, to give the remedy in a large dose, or to bring the system speedily under its action, mercurial friction is em- ployed, along with the administration of some of the mercurial pre- parations by the mouth. In certain local affections, particularly bubo, some advantage is derived from the mercury being conveyed through the affected gland. The Mercurial Plaster is: the metal triturated with melted resin and oil, and mixed with litharge plaster : It is sometimes applied to indolent glandular tumours as a discutient. Mercury oxidated by exposure to atmospheric air, at a high tem- perature, gives an oxide in scales of a red colour, consisting of one equivalent of mercury and two of oxygen. This, the red oxide, or peroxide, (Oxidum Hydrargyri Rubrum,) is too energetic to be given internally, but forms a useful stimulating ointment. The nitrate of mercury decomposed by heat furnishes what is named Oxidum Hy- drargyri Rubrum per Acidum nitricum, by the Edinburgh College, and Hydrargyri Nitrico-Oxydum by the London. It contains a small TONICS. 118 'portion of nitric acid, which increases its caustic power; hence it is used only as an escharotic. Mercury combined with chlorine, in two different proportions, forms two active preparations, which have long been known under the names of Corrosive Sublimate and Calomel. The first of these compounds, Corrosive Sublimate, was supposed, on the old doctrine of the constitution of muriatic acid, to consist of the metal highly oxidated, and this combined with a large proportion of muriatic acid. And on this view were given to it the names of Corrosive Muriate of Mercury and Oxymuriate of Mercury. But it is now regarded by chemists as a compound of metallic mercury and chlorine, in the proportions of one equivalent of the former, 200, and two of the latter, 72, =272. Its proper name, therefore, is Bi-- chloride of mercury, but it is usually termed Corrosive Sublimate. This substance is obtained by sublimation in the form of a solid white mass, or, if more slowly sublimed, in crystalline needles. It is soluble in water, when, even on the new view, it becomes a per- muriale of mercury, the water yielding oxygen to the metal to form oxide of mercury, and hydrogen to the chlorine to form muriatic acid. It has a taste styptic and metallic, and exerts a degree of escharotic power. It is the most active of all the preparations of this metal; even in a small dose it occasions severe griping and purging; a larger quantity causes inflammation of the intestines, tenesmus, and discharge of blood, profuse salivation, and convulsions which terminate in death. As a poison, it affects both the heart and nervous system, the affection of the latter being marked by the convulsions and the state of insensibility which it induces ; of the former, by the rapid cessation of the circulation. It appears at the same time to act chemically on the stomach, the mucous membrane of that organ, in an animal killed by it, being found on dissection soft and pulpy, so as to be easily detached. The remedies to coun- teract it are easily procured and effectual, white of egg Or wheat flour ; either of these given diffused in water is a perfect antidote, the albumen of the former, and the gluten of the latter decomposing the corrosive sublimate, so as to convert it into calomel, with which they remain combined in the state of an inert mass, which may be removed by vomiting. Alkaline solutions are also antidotes. The detection of corrosive sublimate, in cases where death has oeen caused by it, may be effected without ambiguity, by the methods pointed out by Dr. Christison in his able work on Poisons. If a solid substance, suspected to be corrosive sublimate, is procured from the stomach, it should be heated in a glass tube, when, if it be that ^compound, it will form a white crystalline sublimate. Or it may be treated with solution of caustic potash, which will separate the per- oxide of mercury of a bright yellow colour ; this colour distin- guishes the corrosive sublimate from calomel, which, treated in the same manner, yields the black protoxide. If a fluid be obtained from the stomach, suspected to contain corrrosive sublimate, pro- tochloride of tin is to be added to it, which, if mercury be present, will throw down a dark grey precipitate. This is allowed to sub- side in a glass tube, the fluid poured off, and water several times add. 114 TONICS. ed and poured off. Heat is then applied to the tube, and when the moisture is dissipated fluid mercury will remain. In this process the protochloride of tin abstracts the whole of the chlorine from the corrosive sublimate, and passes off in solution, leaving metallic mercury. If the fluid obtained from the stomach contain a large in- termixture of animal and vegetable matter, it may be agitated for a few minutes with ether, which abstracts the corrosive sublimate, and holds it dissolved, and to this ethereal solution the protochloride of tin is to be added. A delicate test of corrosive sublimate is also to drop a little of the suspected solution on a polished plate of gold, and then to touch the gold through the solution with the point of an iron wire ; a galvanic action is excited, the mercury is precipitated, and renders the gold white. A solution of nitrate of silver may produce a similar white appearance ; but this is merely a precipitate on the gold, and is easily wiped off, whereas the other is a real combination or amalgamation. Corrosive sublimate was recommended by Boerhaave and Van Swieten as a valuable remedy in syphilis, having the advantage of speedily affecting the system and arresting the progress of the dis- ease, being at the same time not so liable as other mercurials to in- duce salivation. The commendation of this remedy has not been verified by experience. Its effects are liable to be violent, and, what forms the most im- portant objection to it, its operation does not appear to be sufficiently permanent; hence, when the symptoms of syphilis have disappeared under its use, they are liable, it has been alleged, to return when it is suspended, or the disease recurs in some of its secondary forms. From these circumstances it is now little employed in the treatment of syphilis. Some of the empirical medicines which are boasted of as antisyphilitic remedies, and as containing no mercury, owe their efficacy to it; its activity rendering the dose so small, that it is more easily disguised by substances with which it is mixed, and its action being less liable than that of others, when the dose is small, to excite salivation. It is employed in other diseases in regular practice, parti- cularly as an alterative in lepra and other obstinate cutaneous affec- tions, and in rheumatism. A very dilute solution of it is used as a gargle in venereal sore throat, and as a lotion in some cutaneous affections. The system has sometimes been observed to be affected from its free external application, especially in a concentrated state, under the form of ointment or plaster; and some cases are related by Plenk, of death having been the consequence of such applications. When introduced into a wound, it occasions death, producing, at the same time, total disorganization of the part.* Calomel, or as it is also named, Mild Muriate or Submuriate of Mercury, is the protochloride of the metal. It is not at all acrid like * Incompatible Substances. Alkalies, alkaline earths, taftarized antimony, nitrate of silver, acetate of lead, sulphur, sulphuret of potash, and soaps ; iron, lead, cop- per, , bismuth and zinc in their metallic state ; the volatile oils, and the following ve- getable infusions, viz. infusions and decoctions of chamomile, horse radish root columbo root, catechu, cinchona, rhubarb, senna, simarouba, oak bark, tea, and al- mond emulsion.—B. TONICS. 115 the bichloride, is tasteless, and insoluble in water. It is one of the mildest of the mercurials, and one of the most certain in its ope- ration on the general system. It is not so much employed as a remedy in syphilis, principally from its being liable to induce purg- ing : but when this is obviated by the addition of small doses of opium, it is given in the dose of one or two grains morning and evening, and soon affects the general system. It is the mercurial, however, which is chiefly employed in the treatment of the other diseases in which mercury is prescribed. To the treatment of some of them it is peculiarly adapted by its action on the intestinal canal, and the secreting organs connected with it ; hence its employment in febrile affections, in hepatitis and chronic induration of the liver, in schirrous affections of other visceral organs, in dysentery, and as a remedy in worms. It has also been very much employed of late in the yellow fever by Dr. Chisholm, Burnett and Boyd, and other highly respected practitioners, given in doses of from five to twenty or thirty grains every third or fourth hour ; and the first of these wri- ters observes : " Let it never be forgotten, that at whatever period of the disease salivation be excited, whether the supposed signs of pu- trefaction have appeared or not, the accession of it is the certain signal of cessation of disease, and of returning health." The mild- ness of its operation rendering it safe to administer it in large doses, so as speedily to bring the system under the action of mercury, ren- ders it equally proper for administration in tetanus, hydrophobia^ croup, laryngitis, and other diseases in which this is required. The same mildness adapts it to continued use ; hence the preference given to it in cutaneous affections, in glandular obstructions, in dropsy, and wherever mercury is employed as an alterative. It not only produces the general effects of a mercurial, but also, when given in sufficient doses, acts with certainty and safety as a cathartic. ■ It is hence often employed to promote the operation of other cathartics, and it has the peculiar advantage, that it does so without adding to the irritation which they are liable to occasion. Hence this combi- nation is peculiarly useful where it is difficult to cause purging, or where, from the state of the stomach, the usual cathartics are liable to be rejected, especially when they are given in large doses.* Dr. T. J. Aitkin has shewn, (Inaugur. Dissertat. that calomel is an effectual remedy in the cure of the severe constitutional symp- toms which often follow puncture received at the dissecting table. He prescribes it in doses of five grains, taken every two hours, in mixture with ten grains of kino, which prevent its passing off by the bowels ; the administration of it is suspended whenever it begins to affect the system, as indicated by the symptoms yielding, and the secretions being increased. He has found this treatment effectual in the most severe cases, and salivation was never induced to any considerable degree.! * Incompatible Substances. Alkalies, lime-water soaps, sulphurets of potash and antimony, iron, lead, and copper. B. 11 have witnessed a case treated by Dr. Aitkin in the manner which I have men- tioned in the text, and though the symptoms were such as seemed likely, if not relieved, to prove fatal, when the mercury began to act on the system, (which? 116 TONICS. Several of the salts of mercury are useful remedies. The Ace^ tate of Mercury, as the basis of Keyser's Pill, was supposed at one' time to be a certain and mild cure for syphilis. It is now known? to be uncertain in its operation, and has fallen into disuse. The nitrate of mercury is highly caustic, and mixed with lard forms an ointment which is much employed. The subsulphate of mercury, or turpeth mineral, operates as a powerful emetic, and is sometimes used as an errhine. The submuriate of ammonia and peroxide of mercury, Hydrargyrum Praecipitatum Album of the London Phar- macopoeia, is applied externally as a mild escharotic, and for the cure of some cutaneous diseases. United with sulphur, mercury forms two preparations, the black sulphuret and the red. The former, which is also named Ethiops Mineral, is a bisulphuret mixed with sulphur, and is of scarcely any activity. The other, Cinnabar, is a pure bisulphuret. It is applied principally by fumigation, with the view of stopping the progress of venereal ulcers, being converted into vapour by being laid on a hot iron, and this vapour being directed on the part. Cyanuret of Mercury is prepared by a formula of the Dublin Phar- macopoeia, but only for the purpose of forming prussic acid from it. A singular circumstance, with regard to the internal administra- tion of mercury, has been made known by Dr. Harty, that if the sulphate of quinia be conjoined with it, the constitution is broughs more rapidly under the mercurial influence, and with a less quantity of mercury; the sulphate of quinia seeming to dispose the system to receive more readily this impression. [For further information in relation to mercury, see Part II. " Preparations of the Metals."] Ferrum. Iron.—This metal is the one which has been regarded as most salutary to the animal system ; and the remark is perhaps just, that it is the only metal having any sensible activity which has no poisonous quality. Its general properties are too well known to need any description ; its chemical equivalent is 28. It forms two oxides, the protoxide, composed of one atom of iron, 28, and one of oxygen, 8,=36 ; the peroxide, of one atom of iron, 28, and one atom and a half of oxygen, 12,=40. When given medicinally, the effects obtained from Iron are those of a tonic ; it increases the vigour of the circulation, causes the blood, it has been affirmed, to assume a more florid hue, promotes digestion, excites the secretions, or restrains them when they have been morbidly increased, and by its astringency checks profuse eva- cuations, and counteracts the tendency to haemorrhage. It is in dis- eases of debility that it is employed, and as its operation is only gradual, chiefly in chronic affections,—dyspepsia, hypochondriasis, hysteria, amenorrhcea, leucorrhcea, passive menorrhagia, chronic catarrh, hectic, paralysis, scrofula, and rickets. It is less proper was after sixty grains of calomel had been taken,) they immediately yielded. It could scarcely be said that salivation was induced. The case had, before the c-af lomel was used, gone so far, that after the constitutional symptoms ceased an exten- sive sinus remained passing among the muscles of the shoulder, which was nut thoroughly healed for ten months after.—Ed. TONICS'* 117 where there is any tendency to inflammatory action, or a plethoric state of the vessels; and its administration ought to be suspended when it renders the pulse quick in such cases, or when it occasions a sense of fulness, headach or costiveness. Numerous preparations of this metal are medicinally employed: The filings of iron, (Limatura Fcrri,) which, for medicinal use, are purified by the magnet, are given in a dose from a scruple to a drachm or two. Their activity is probably dependent on the oxida- tion they suffer in the stomach from the action of the gastric fluids. They are administered mixed with a little sugar and aromatic. The subcarbonate, or Rust of Iron, (Sub-Carbonas Ferri, Rubigo Ferri,) formed by exposing the metal to air and moisture, consists chiefly of peroxide of iron, mixed with a portion of protocarbonate of iron ; as it contains only 15 per cent, of the acid, the name of Carbonate, sometimes given to it, is incorrect. This preparation pos- sesses considerable activity, at the same time that it is less irritating than the salts of iron. Besides its use as a general tonic in the cases in which chalybeates are usually employed, it has been used as a remedy in cancerous ulceration, both internally administered in its usual dose, and externally applied sprinkled on the sore. Cases have been given in which this practice has proved successful, while> from the experience of others, it has appeared to operate merely as a palliative, or, at the farthest, to be of permanent advantage only in some forms of ill-conditioned ulcers not truly of a cancerous nature. It has also been much used of late, in cases of that very severe affection, neuralgia faciei,* with very decided success, so much so indeed, that it is now the usual remedy. Mr. Hutchinson first proposed it, and he gave it in pretty large doses, from half a drachm to four scruples, three times daily.f Another form of it, supposed to be more pure, is what is named Carbonas Ferri Praecipitatus, prepared by adding a solution of carbonate of soda to a solution of sulphate of iron. This was first used under the form of an extemporaneous prepara- tion, named Griffith's Antihectic Mixture, which obtained celebrity as a remedy in chronic catarrh, connected with increased mucous se- cretion, in obstinate sympathetic cough, in phthisis and hectic. It is still used in these cases, and as a mild tonic in other affections con- nected with debility or morbid irritability. The Mistura Ferri Com- positawas introduced into the London Pharmacopoeia as an improved form of this mixture, and is often beneficial as a mild tonic. The Permuriate of Iron is employed under the form of tincture. It is a * Much interesting evidence has lately been communicated to the public concern- ing the efficacy of carbonate of iron in Tic Douloureux. To Dr. Hutchinson, a re spectable English surgeon, is due the credit of originally suggesting the practice, as also of confirming it afterwards by numerous examples of its success. In a few cases, the practice has been tested in this country, and with the happiest results. Dr. Eights, of Albany, has related two cases of this disease, which yielded very promptly under the use of the iron after every other remedy had been perseveringly tried, but without effect. See New-York Med. and Phys. Journal, vol. I. p. 323. According to Dr. Hutchinson, it is to be administered in doses of from half a drachm to a drachm, two or three times a-day.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Acids and acidulous salts, which dissolve it with ef- fervescence.—B. lis TONICS. very active preparation; sometimes too much so to admit of being used in an irritable state of the stomach. Its dose is 10 or 15 drops diluted with water, or taken in wine, in which it is more grateful. If it occasions nausea or pain, the dose must be diminished. It is the preparation usually employed where the full operation of iron is to be obtained. Besides its employment in the diseases in which cha- lybeates are usually prescribed, Mr. Cline has mentioned a peculiar application of it in which it had proved of singular efficacy, that of suppression of urine from spasm of the urethra, 10 drops being given every ten minutes ; after the sixth dose the suppression in different cases was relieved.* Muriate of iron and Ammonia is an active preparation, but apt to vary greatly in its composition. Sulphate of iron is formed in the large way, by the oxygenation of the native bisulphuret by calcination, which expels part of the sulphur, and then exposure to air and humidity; or it is obtained' more pure by dissolving iron in diluted sulphuric acid, and evaporat- ing the solution. It crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms of a green colour, f It is one of the most active preparations of the metal, and is not unfrequently prescribed in amenorrhcea. The Tartrate of Potash and Iron, in which protoxide of iron is combined with tartaric acid and potash, is a mild chalybeate, which may be given with advantage to patients of feeble constitution. It may be exhibited in scrofula in doses of 10 or 15 grains ; it is used also as a tonic and diuretic in dropsy in a dose of 3 or 4 grains twice a-day4 The Wine of Iron, which has a place in the London Pharmaco- poeia, is prepared with iron, supertartrate of potash, and proof-spirit. The triple tartrate of potash and iron is first formed, and then dis- solved in water and the spirit: in this way, however, a considerable portion of it is decomposed. It is used in chlorotic cases. Acetate of iron has been introduced by the Dublin College, but it has no advantage to recommend it above the muriate or tartrate. The London College have given a place to a preparation of iron, (Liquor Ferri Alkalini,) of rather a singular nature. It seems to be a combination of oxide of iron, potash and carbonic acid. Being variable in its strength, easily decomposed, and not possessed of any peculiar advantage, it has nearly fallen into disuse. The Ferro-cyanate of Iron, or Prussian Blue, has been inserted into the last Dublin Pharmacopoeia under the name of Ferri Cyanu- retum, partly for the purpose, that cyanuret of mercury may be pre- pared from it, and partly that it has been found useful as a tonic. It * Incompatible Substances. Alkalies and their carbonates, lime water, carbonate of lime, magnesia and its carbonate. By astringent vegetables it is rendered black, and by a solution of gum arabic it is decomposed.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Every salt whose base forms an insoluble compound with sulphuric acid ; the earths, the alkalies, and their carbonates; borate of soda, nitrate of potash, muriate of ammonia, tartrate of potash and soda, acetate of ammo- nia, nitrate of silver, subacetate and acetate of lead, and soaps. It is decomposed also- by astringent vegetables.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Strong acids, lime water, hydro-sulphates and astria- gent vegetables.—B. TONICS. 119 has been given in intermittent fever and epilepsy in a dose of a grain or two twice or thrice a-day.* The Mineral Chalybeate Waters afford another form under which iron may be administered. The iron is generally dissolved in them by carbonic acid ; and from the state of dilution, they are sometimes used with more advantage than the more active preparations of the metals. [For further information concerning Iron, see Part II. " Pre- parations of the Metals."] Zixcum.—This metal is of a white colour, with a shade of grey ; it is brittle except at a temperature between 200° and 300° of Fah- renheit, when it has considerable ductility and malleability ; it is fusible at a heat approaching to that of ignition, and when raised to that temperature, burns with a bright flame, forming a white oxide. Zinc exerts no sensible action on the system in its metallic state : it is employed, therefore, under various forms of preparation, which are in general possessed of a degree of tonic and astringent power. White oxide of zinc, obtained usually by the combustion of the metal, in the formula of the London College, by precipitation from the sulphate, and composed of one atom of zinc and one of oxygen, has been employed as a remedy in spasmodic affections, particularly chorea and epilepsy. There are cases on record where a cure was obtained ; but it is not very active or certain in its operation. An ointment composed of it is used as a healing cerate, and as an appli- cation in ophthalmia. An impure oxide of zinc is procured from the furnaces in which zinc ores are roasted; it is known by the name of Tutia. It is of a grey colour, and earthy texture, and when levigated, is used some- times as the basis of a cerate employed as a dressing to wounds, or applied to the eye in some forms of ophthalmia. What has been named Calamine Stone, (Lapis Calaminaris,) is regarded as a carbonate of zinc • and it generally is so, though there * The credit of introducing this preparation of iron into use, is due to Dr. Zol- lickoffer of Maryland. So high does he estimate this article in the treatment of re- mitting and intermitting fevers, that he gives to it a decided preference over arsenic, Peruvian bark, as well as over all the other forms of iron. Over cinchona he asserts it to possess the following advantages : viz. " 1. It is void of taste, and may therefore be much more readily exhibited than the cinch, offic. which, to some, is extremely unpleasant, 2. It may be given in every stage of the disease, while the administra- tion of bark is confined to the apyrexiae. 3. The dose is much smaller, being from 4 to G grains twice or thrice in twenty-four hours; or at morning, noon, and night; while bark, to be effectual, must be given in much larger doses. 4. It never disagrees with the stomach, or creates nausea, even in the most irritable state of this viscus: while bark is not unfrequently rejected. 5. In its effects as a remedy calculated to prevent the recurrence of future paroxysms, it is more certain, prompt, and effectual than the justly celebrated cort. peruvian. 6. and lastly, A patient treated with this article will recover from the influence of intermitting and remitting fevers, in the ge- nerality of cases, in much less time than is usual in those cases in which bark is em- ployed. In making use of the Prussiate of Iron as a remedy in disease, care must be taken to select that which is of a very dark blue, approaching to a black, having a shining coppery fracture, and adhering firmly to the tongue."—In this city, nume- rous trials have been made of this article, and generally in confirmation of the good opinion expressed concerning it by Dr. Zollickoffer. It has also been used with suc- cess in epilepsy, and in an obstinate case of periodical hemicrania, which had resist- ed all the ordinary remedies,—B, 120 TONICS* are varieties of it composed of oxide of zinc and siliceous earth. It is employed only externally ; the levigated powder is dusted on the skin in slight cases of excoriation and superficial inflammation, and it forms the basis of the common healing cerate. Sulphate of Zinc is prepared on the large scale under the name of White Vitriol; it may be procured more pure, and in a crystal. line form, by evaporation of the solution of zinc in diluted sulphuric acid. It has been employed in the same cases as the oxide ; and Dr. Cullen has observed that it is possessed of the same powers. It has likewise been given, in the dose of a few grains, as a tonic in intermittent fever, as a tonic and astringent in chronic dysentery, and in small doses combined with bitters, as a tonic in dyspepsia. Its administration, in all these cases, requires to be conducted so as to obviate the nausea which it is liable to occasion. In a large dose it operates as a speedy yet safe emetic. As an astringent it is to be afterwards considered.* [See Part II. "Preparations of the Me- tals."] Cuf-rum. Copper.—This metal is not, like the greater number *of the metals, insipid and inodorous : it has an unpleasant styptic taste, and when rubbed, a perceptible smell. It is extremely noxious to life, and fatal accidents sometimes happen from food becoming impregnated with it. Sugar, according to Orfila, is the best antidote to it; albumen also is useful. When properly administered, copper proves a remedy of value, and, like zinc, has some claim to be ranked as a tonic, from its successful operation in epilepsy, chorea, and other spasmodic affections dependent on or connected with debility. It is also employed, under various forms of preparation, as an astrin- gent, emetic and escharotic. Sulphate of Copper, or Blue Vitriol, is its most important saline compound. It is obtained from the water which filtrates through copper mines, in which it exists dissolved ; or it is prepared by cal- cining the native sulphuret of copper, and exposing it in a humid state to the air ; the metal is oxidated, the sulphur, also absorbing oxygen, is converted into sulphuric acid, and the sulphate of copper thus formed is procured by lixiviation and crystallization. It is in reality a bisulphate, consisting of two equivalents of acid, 80, and one of the peroxide of copper, 80, with ten equivalents of water, 90,=250. The crystals are short rhomboidal prisms, of a rich blue colour, transparent, but liable to a slight efflorescence. This salt, though it has been given in epilepsy and incipient phthisis, is rather too active to admit of internal administration as a tonic ; even in a very small dose it excites nausea and vomiting; and as a powerful emetic it is employed, where, from the state of the stomach, it is difficult to excite vomiting, as where a narcotic has been taken in too large a quantity. Externally, it is used as an astringent and esi- dent in shady woods on mountains and hills. The root is the only part used in medicine. It has a bitter taste, and on analysis yields large proportions of extractive matter and resin. As an emetic the spiraea enjoys the reputation of possessing properties nearly equal to those of the ipecacuanha. The dose is xxx grs. in powder. The proper period for gathering the root is September.—B.] CHAP. VII. OF CATHARTICS. Cathartics are those medicines which quicken or increase the evacuation from the intestines ; or which, when given in a certain dose, produce purging. They are medicines ofimportar.ee, but dif- fer from each other very considerably in their powers. Cathartics evidently act by stimulating the intestines so as to in* crease the natural peristaltic motion, and thus cause their contents to be more quickly propelled and evacuated. The greater number of them have, however, a farther effect. They stimulate the extre- mities of the exhalant vessels, terminating on the inner surface of the intestines : they thus cause a larger portion of fluid to be poured out, and hence the evacuations are more copious, and of a thinner consistence. Some cathartics have this power of increasing the ef- fusion of fluids from the exhalants much more than others ; such, for instance, are the Saline Purgatives. Dr. Cullen has even sup- posed that some may act solely in this way, and without increasing directly the peristaltic motion." There is, however, no proof of this ; and it seems scarcely probable that a substance should act as a stimulant on these vessels, without at the same time stimulating the moving fibres of the intestines. Some seem to produce the lat- ter effect with scarcely any of the former; such are aloes and rhu- barb ; hence they merely increase the natural discharge. The action of cathartics is not confined to the parts to which they are directly applied. Their stimulus is extended to the neigh- bouring organs, probably by sympathetic communication, and hence they promote the secretion, and increase the discharge of the bile and other fluids poured into the intestinal canal. These effects are produced in very different degrees by different cathartics; and there seems some reason for admitting an opinion adopted by the ancients, that certain cathartics have peculiar powers in this respect ; some, for instance, having the power more particularly of promoting the discharge of bile, others that of the mucus of the intestines, or of the serum ; it is not improbable, as Darwin ima- gined, that the pancreas and spleen may be peculiarly stimulated fnto action by others of this class of medicines : and the action 186 CATHARTICS. of some of them has also been supposed to extend to the uterine system. There is likewise a difference in cathartics with respect to the parts of the intestinal canal on which they act. Some, as the saline purgatives, seem to increase its peristaltic motion through its whole length ; others, as aloes, have their action confined to the lower intestines. Lastly, it is to be observed, that the action of many cathartics is extended even to the stomach ; its peristaltic motion is increased, either from association with the motion of the intestinal canal, or from the direct stimulant action of the cathartic applied, and its con- tents are therefore more quickly discharged by the pylorus. From this cause, a full dose of a saline purgative will sometimes operate in half an hour after it is given. There are several other differences between the medicines be- longing to this class : some act slowly; others more quickly : some are liable to occasion nausea and griping, and in a large dose tenes- mus ; others, even when they operate effectually, are free from these disagreeable effects; some produce only one evacuation, others con- tinue to act for a considerable time. Besides the differences between particular cathartics, a general difference in their mode of operation has been supposed to exist, from which they have been classed under two divisions. Some ope- rate mildly, without exciting any general affection of the system, without even stimulating perceptibly the vessels of the intestines, and hence they merely evacuate the contents of the canal. Others are more powerfully stimulant: they occasion an influx of fluids from the exhalant vessels and from the neighbouring secreting or- gans ; they even extend their stimulant effect to the system in gene- ral ; and, if taken in too large a dose, are liable to excite much irri- tation, and even inflammation on the surface of the intestines. The former are distinguished by the title of Laxatives, the latter are named Purgatives, and the stronger of them, Drastic Purgatives. The distinction is not altogether correct, since it refers merely to a difference in power ; yet neither is it one to be altogether neg- lected. From the indications which cathartics are capable of fulfilling, their utility in many cases of morbid affection must be obvious. In some general affections of the system, they procure a speedy, co- pious, and therefore useful depletion. And whenever there exists retention of the contents of the intestinal canal, where these con- tents are acrid, or where extraneous bodies are present, their eva- cuation, by the operation of a cathartic, is the obvious method of treatment. The valuable observations of Dr. Hamilton have established still more clearly the importance of this class of remedies, have shewn that they admit of more extensive application, and have pointed out with more precision the principles which regulate their admi- nistration. In many diseases there exists a state of the intestinal canal giving rise to retention of its contents, which is not to be obviated by the CATHARTICS. 187 occasional administration of a cathartic, but which requires a con- tinuation of the operation short of that of purging, but producing evacuation while the contents are peculiarly offensive, or of an un- natural appearance, and until the healthy state of the bowels be re- stored. By this practice the cure of diseases has been accomplish- ed, which, previous to Dr. Hamilton's publication, were treated by very different methods, and were not supposed to be so peculiarly connected with any state of the alvine evacuation. Thus in fever, the peristaltic motion of the intestines is diminish- ed, feculent matter is retained, and becomes a source of irritation : its evacuation, therefore, by the exhibition of purgatives, is clearly. indicated, nor has this been altogether neglected. Physicians, how- ever, were scarcely aware of the necessity of producing it to a suf- ficient extent; and in fevers of the typhoid type in particular, were frequently deterred from doing so by the fear of reducing the strength of the system by an evacuation considered as debilitating. Dr. Hamilton's observations establish the safety and propriety of the freer use of purgatives in fever, so as to produce complete and regu- lar evacuation of the bowels through the whole progress of the dis- ease ; and the cases he has published afford striking proofs of the advantages derived from the practice. There are other forms of fever in which it is employed with equal advantage, and particularly so in scarlatina. Several of the diseases comprehended under the class Neuroses appear to depend on, or to be very intimately connected with, a torpid state of the intestines, from which an accumulation of their contents takes place,, proving a source of irritation that often affects the ge- neral system. Chorea is proved, by Dr. Hamilton's observations, to arise from this cause ; and he has introduced with great success the mode of treatment, by the free use of purgatives, continued until the healthy state of the alvine evacuation has been established. The same practice, and with similar success, applies to hysteria, and, in Dr. Hamilton's opinion, to that species of tetanus, which, prevailing in warm climates and in warm seasons, appears to have its origin in disorders of the stomach and bowels. And ample evidence has es- tablished the success of the same treatment in the marasmus which attacks the young in both sexes, which is marked by loss of ap- petite, weakness, wasting of the body, and at length total prostration of strength. It'is not less successful in chlorosis, and in that haema- temesis to which females are liable between eighteen and thirty years of age. In some of these diseases, the quantity of matter accumulated in the intestines is extremely great; hence the extent to which the exhibition of purgatives must be carried, and the length of time during which they must be continued, much exceed what would be calculated on from the usual administration of remedies of this class : and the whole practice requires both decision and per- severance. Analogies from some of these diseases lead to a similar exhibi- tion of cathartics in other fevers, particularly in the bilious remitting fever of warm climates, in measles, erysipelas, and small-pox ; like- wise in scrofula, in dyspepsia, whether simple, or complicated with* 183 CATHARTICS. hysterical or hypochondriacal mania ; in cramp of the stomach, or of the extremities : in palpitation of the heart, and in those case3 of hydrophobia which are not the effect of specific contagion. With regard to several of these, experience has established the soundness of the analogy. In colic, and in ileus, the exhibition of cathartics is required, though there is considerable caution necessary in their application, to avoid such irritation as would excite or increase inflammation. In dysentery, similar advantages are derived from them, and still more caution is requisite to lessen the irritation they are liable to induce. The milder active purgatives are therefore employed. Cathartics are farther employed with other intentions than merely to evacuate the intestinal canal. From the effusion of serous fluid which they occasion, by their stimulant action on the exhalant ves- sels, they are supposed to produce a diminution of fluids with regard to the whole body. This is in some measure an abstraction of the usual exciting powers acting on the system, and hence purging con- stitutes a part of what is named the Antiphlogistic Regimen, and is employed in inflammatory affections. By a similar operation it in- creases absorption. There exists a certain relation between the ex- haling and absorbing powers, so that when the action of the one is increased, that of the other is augmented : the increased exhalation of serous fluid, therefore, into the intestines, which cathartics occa- sion, causes an increased absorption ; and thus dropsy is sometimes cured by purging. It is evident that those cathartics which stimu- late the exhalant vessels of the intestines are best calculated to fulfil this indication ; hence saline purgatives are in general most ser- viceable in dropsy. From the serous evacuation which cathartics occasion, from the derivation which they make from the head, and partly, no doubt, by removing a source of irritation, they are of utility in preventing and removing apoplexy; in all comatose affections, in mania, phrenitis, and the different species of headach. Cathartics, especially the more powerful ones, require to be ad- ministered with caution even in diseases where they are indicated, when there is any tendency to inflammation or to extreme debility ; also during pregnancy, immediately after delivery, during the flow of the menses, and in those liable to haemorrhoidal affections. The too frequent use of them induces wasting of the body, and sometimes renders the intestines morbidly irritable, so that purging is easily excited, while in other habits it renders them more torpid, and induces costiveness. The saline cathartics have more peculiarly the former effect, and more quickly reduce the strength of the body, probably by the evacuation they occasion from the circulating mass. Some cautions are requisite with respect to the mode of administer- ing cathartics. Many of them are liable to excite nausea or vomit- ing,—effects which are prevented by giving them at intervals in re- peated doses, or often by combining them with an aromatic. Such a combination also obviates the griping which they often occasion. The more acrid cathartics ought always to be given in divided doses: as in certain habits, even a small dose is liable to occasion unpleasant CATHARTICS. 189 symptoms. In general also, these acrid cathartics ought to be given rather in combination, as the effect is obtained with more certainty. Colocynth, or scammony, or any other drastic purgative, may fail if given alone in such a dose as it is proper to venture on ; but if smaller doses of two or three of them be mixed, their operation is more certain and easy. Mercury always promotes the action of cathar- tics, and this effect is obtained not only by the internal exhibition of purgative mercurials, but by the introduction of mercury by friction ; it is therefore a general effect, and is employed with peculiar ad- vantage in obstinate constipation. Another advantage derived from the combination of cathartics is, that the more peculiar effect of each, whether it be evacuating the larger intestines, or stimulating the ex- halant vessels, and causing the effusion of fluid, is prevented, and the general effect, exclusive of these peculiarities, is better obtained. They irritate less when given in a liquid form ; in that form too they act more speedily than when given in a solid state ; hence, when it is wished that a cathartic should operate slowly, it is best given in the form of pill, and at bed-time, as the state of diminished suscepti- bility in sleep retards the operation. In general, however, it is pre- ferable to give the dose of a cathartic in the morning, as the opera- tion of it is less troublesome to the patient. Dr. Hamilton has pointed out the common error in the exhibition of cathartics, that of their not being given to the requisite extent; and has given the general rule in all morbid affections, of repeating, and, if necessary, enlarg- ing the dose while the evacuations are peculiarly offensive, or of an unnatural appearance, without however carrying their administration so far as to produce purging, unless this be the indication which is designed to be fulfilled. Cathartics may be arranged in some measure according to their power, placing those first which operate mildly, and which have usually been denominated Laxatives, and proceeding to those which are more powerful, and have other effects than merely evacuating the contents of the canal. The saline Cathartics may be placed under the latter division, though their operation, as has been already explained, is sometimes peculiar. To this may be added, those sub~ stances which act as cathartics under the form of Enema. CATHARTICS. a.--laxatives. Manna. Sulphur. Cassia fistula. Magnesia. Tamabindus indica. Cakbonas magnesle. Ricinus communis. 90 CATHARTICSr B.—PURGATIVES. Cassia senna. Rheum palmatum. Convolvulus jalapa. HeLLEBORUS NIGER. Croton tiglium. Cucumis colocynthis. momordica elaterium. Rhamnus CATHARTICUS. Aloe. Convolvulus scammonia. Stalagmitis cambogioides. Terebinthina veneta. NlCOTIANA TABACUM. [JUGLANS CINEREA.— B.] Oleum terebinthina. submurias hydrargyri, Sulphas magnesia. Sulphas soda Sulphas potassa supkr-tartras potassa. Tartras potassa. Tartras potassa et soda. Phosphas soda. Murias soda. [Podophyllum peltatum.—b.| [Carbo ligni.—B.] laxatives. Manna. Manna. Fraxinus Ornus. Fraxinus Rotundifolia. Pov lygam. Dicec. Jasminea, Juss. Succus concrelus. South of Eu- rope. This substance, though afforded by several vegetables, is usually obtained from different species of the ash-tree, particularly those mentioned above, which are cultivated in Sicily and Calabria. It is procured by spontaneous exudation, but more copiously by incisions made in the bark of the trunk. The juice, which exudes, soon be- comes concrete. When it exudes slowly, the manna is more dry and white, and of a texture somewhat granulated ; it is collected in chips of wood or straw, and forms what is named Flake Manna. When the exudation is more copious, the juice is of a darker colour, and concretes into a soft mass, less pure than the other, and com- posed of fragments of a grey and white colour intermixed. Manna used to be regarded as a species of sugar, but, according to Dr. Prout, consists chiefly of a principle named Mannite, which differs from sugar in not being susceptible of fermentation. Manna has a sweet and somewhat unpleasant taste ; in most of its proper- ties it resembles sugar. In its unrefined state sugar proves laxative, but manna does so in a greater degree. Its dose is from one totwo ounces to an adult. Though mild in its operation, it is apt occasionally to produce flatulence and griping, and hence it is principally used in combina- tion with other cathartics, particularly with senna, the bitter taste of which it covers. This combination is in common use as a purgative to children. Cassia fistula. Purging Cassia. Decand. Monog. Lomentacea, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. Pulpa Fructus. Egypt, East audi West Indies. Thb fruit of this tree is in cylindrical pods, nearly an inch in dia- CATHARTICS. 191 meter, and ten or twelve inches in length. The external membra- nous part is firm and hard; it is divided within by septa, between which the seeds are inclosed, imbedded in a soft pulp. The pulp is of a black colour, and has a sweet taste, with a slight degree of acidity. It is extracted by boiling the bruised pods in water, and evaporating the decoction. It is soluble in water, and partly soluble in alcohol. According to Vauquelin's analysis of it, it consists of sugar, gum, tannin and gluten. The pulp of cassia proves laxative in a dose of four or six drachms ; in a large dose necessary to occasion purging it is apt to induce nausea or griping, and even as a laxative it has no particular advan- tage. The sole consumption of it is in the composition of the offici- nal preparation, the Senna Electuary. There is another electuary in the Pharmacopceias, to which, as being the principal ingredient, it gives its name, in which it is combined with manna and pulp of tamarinds ; but this is never used. Offic. Prep.—Elect, cass. Conf. cass. Tamarindus indica. Tamarind. Monadelph. Triand. Lomentacea, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. Fructus conditus. East and West Indies. The pod of this tree includes several large hard seeds, with a brown viscid pulp, very acid. The pulp, mixed with the seeds and small fibres, and with a quantity of unrefined sugar added to pre- serve it, forms the Tamarinds of the shops, the preparation of them being performed in the West Indies, by freeing the pod from its ex- ternal covering, and pouring on the pulp and seeds a strong syrup hot, so that on cooling it becomes nearly concrete. Vauquelin found sixteen ounces of this prepared pulp to contain, besides the sugar mixed with it, an ounce and a half of citric acid, two drachms of tartaric acid, half an ounce of bitartrate of potash, half a drachm of malic acid, jelly, mucilage, and fibrous matter. The pulp of tamarinds, besides being from its acid useful as a re- frigerant, proves laxative when taken to the extent of an ounce, but is too weak to be employed alone. It is generally added to other cathartics, which are given in the form of infusion, with the view of promoting their operation, or of covering their taste. It is an in- gredient in the Electuarium Sennae, and there is an officinal infusion of it with senna, which affords a very pleasant purgative. There are some other sweet fruits which have a laxative quality, a3 the Fig (Ficus Carica,) and the Prune, or dried plum (Prunus Domestica). These are sometimes used in domestic practice, and they are also ingredients in the Electuary of Senna. The Raisin, or dried Grape, (Vitis Vinifera,) is also laxative in a slight degree. Ricinus communis. Palma Christi. Castor Oil Plant. Moncsc. Monadelph. Tricocca, Linn. Euphorbiacea, Juss. Oleum, Semi- na. West Indies. The seeds of the capsules of this plant consist chiefly of vegeta- ble albumen, with a considerable quantity of unctuous matter inter- mixed. They afford, by expression or by decoction, an oil, which 192 CATHARTICS. is used in medicine in this country under the name of Castor Oil. When obtained by decoction of the bruised seeds in water, it is purer and less acrimonious than when obtained by expression, if the heat be not raised too high, or continued too long. The oil is of a yel- lowish colour, transparent, viscid, and has scarcely any peculiar taste or smell; it has the general properties of expressed oil; but what is singular, it is soluble in alcohol: it is also soluble in sulphuric ether. It, and the oil of Croton, are the only examples of expressed oils having any medical activity. As a laxative, castor oil acts mildly, and, at the same time, very effectually ; it also operates in a shorter time than almost any other cathartic. Possessed of such advantages, it is frequently employed ; and is more peculiarly adapted for exhibition, where any degree of irritation is to be avoided ; hence its use in colicj constipation, hae- morrhoids, and as a purge during pregnancy. Its dose is one ounce. It is taken floating on peppermint-water, mixed with any spiritous liquor, or any purgative tincture, as that of senna; or diffused in water by the medium of gum, sugar, or the yolk of an egg. From the Mineral Kingdom two laxatives are derived, Sulphur and Magnesia. Sulphur is a simple inflammable, found in nature nearly pure, and likewise in combination with several of the metals. The greater part of the sulphur of commerce is the produce of volcanic countries. It is naturally mixed with earthy matter, from which it is freed by sublimation, forming the Sulphur Sublimatum, Flores Sulphuris, or Flowers of Sulphur. When melted and run into cylindrical moulds, it forms Roll Sulphur, which is usually less pure. Sulphur, in its solid state, is brittle and hard, but it is capable of assuming a crystalline form ; it is generally used in the state of the loose powder in which it is obtained by the process of sublimation conducted on a large scale. It is of a light yellow colour ; is insipid, or slightly sour from a small portion of acid adhering to it; it has a faint smell when rubbed or heated ; is fusible mid volatile ; and when heated in atmospheric air, burns with a blue flame, and the production of suffocating fumes. It is insoluble in water or alcohol, but is dissolved by oils. Sulphur, in a dose of 2 or 3 drachms, acts as a laxative, and so mildly, that it is often used in baemorrhoidal affections, and other cases where, though the operation of a purgative is indicated, any irritation would be injurious. It likewise passes off by the skin, and is hence administered internally, as well as applied externally in psora. In this disease it may be regarded as a specific. In habitual dyspnoea and in chronic catarrh, advantage has been derived from it, partly from its action as a laxative, and partly as a diaphoretic. Sulphur is best given in the form of electuary. The purification of sulphur by washing is ordered in the Pharmacopceias, but is a process unne- cessary. Precipitated by an acid from its solution by an alkali or lime, it is obtained of a whiter colour than in its usual state, and this precipitated sulphur is used in preference to the sublimed sulphur in forming ointments. CATHARTICS. 193 Offic. Prep.—Sulph. sublim. Sulph. potass. Sulphur, lotum. ©1. sulph. Ung. sulph. Sulph. preecip. Magnesia. Magnesia. Carbonas Magnesise.—This earth is not found pure in nature, but exists abundantly combined with certain acids, and from these saline combinations, particularly from the sul- phate and muriate extracted from sea-water, it is obtained by pro- cesses to be afterwards noticed, either pure, or in the state of car- bonate. In either state it is used as an antacid and laxative, in a dose of a drachm or more. Its laxative effect is generally considered as owing to its forming with the acid in the stomach a saline combi- nation, which, like its other salts, is purgative, though, as it usually produces this effect, it probably has itself a weak cathartic quality. From being insipid and mild, it is well adapted for exhibition to u> £ants.* PURGATIVES. Cassia senna. Senna. Decand. Monog. Lomentacea, Linn. Le. gummosa, Juss. Folia. Egypt, Arabia. The dried leaves of this plant are of a yellowish-green colour, have a faint smell, and a bitter taste. The active principle of senna, according to the experiments of Lassaigne and Fenuelle, is a solid matter of a reddish.yellow colour, soluble in alcohol and water, and having a very bitter nauseous taste. It has been named Cathartine. By decoction with water its strength is impaired. Senna is a purgative very frequently employed, having a consider. able degree of activity, without being liable to be harsh in its opera- tion. It is usually given in the form of the watery infusion, 2 drachms being infused in 4 or 6 ounces of tepid water, generally with the addition of a few coriander seeds, or a "little ginger, to cover its flavour, and obviate griping, which it has rather a tendency to pro- duce. It is also frequently combined with manna, with tamarinds, or with super-tartrate of potash ; and as its taste can be covered with sugar, or manna, it is a purgative generally given to children. There is an officinal tincture of it which operates as a purgative in the dose of an ounce ; there are also officinal infusions of it; and it enters into the composition of several other preparations employed as cathartics. Decoction renders senna inert.f Offic. Prep.—Tinct. sen. Syr. sen. Conf. sen. Pulvis sen. Inf. sen. Ext. sen. Elect, sen. Inf. sen. cum tamar. Rheum palmatum. Rhubarb. Enneand. Trigyn. Oleracea, Linn. Polygonea, Juss. Radix. Tartary. It is yet uncertain what plant the rhubarb of commerce is obtained from. Three species have been named, to each of which it has been referred, the Rheum palmatum, R. undulatum, and R. com- * Incompatible Substances. Acids, and acidulous and metallic salts, muriate of ammonia, and lime water.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Strong acids, lime water, and most metallic salts.—B. 25 194 cathartics. pactum. They have been naturalized in this country, and rhubarb of good quality prepared from them, yet it is doubtful whether the Russian or Turkey rhubarb, which is of a superior quality, be de- rived from any of these. The best rhubarb is named Russian or Turkey, from its coming to us through these countries ; it is the produce of Chinese Tartary ; is in small pieces, with a large hole in the middle, this perforation having been made in the recent root to admit of its drying more •quickly ; it is of a lively yellow colour, with streaks of white and red; has a smell peculiar, and somewhat aromatic, and a bitter slightly astringent taste. Another kind is imported from China, and is known in the shops by the name of Indian rhubarb ; it is in large masses, more compact and hard, heavier, and less friable, and less fine in the grain than the other, and having less of an aromatic fla- vour. It also comes from Tartary, but less care seems to be be- stowed on its cultivation and preparation. Rhubarb affords on analysis resin, starch, lignin, gum, malate and phosphate of lime, a peculiar yellow coloured crystallizable prin- ciple, to which Pfaff gave the name of Rhabarbarine, and another principle, orange coloured and slightly bitter, named Rhein, by M. Vaudin. Rhabarbarine forms yellow salts with acids ; the sulphate has been introduced into practice, and is said to possess the medici- nal powers of rhubarb in a concentrated form, and to act with such uniformity, that the dose may be adapted to infants. Some chemists affirm, that rhubarb contains a large proportion of oxalate of lime, hut this is denied by others. Rhubarb is a useful purgative ; it combines astringency with a cathartic power. The watery infusion is said to be more purgative than the spiritous, and, by applying heat to the rhubarb in substance, its purgative quality is lessened, while its as- tringency remains. The^Chinese rhubarb is supposed to be more astringent than the Turkey. The dose of rhubarb, as a cathartic, is one scruple or half a drachm. A dose such as this appears to be necessary to produce the full purgative effect; but a much smaller quantity, lhat of a few grains, is sufficient to excite the action of the intestines, so as to produce increase of the natural evacuation ; and it is with this last intention, perhaps, that it is most properly employed. It is useful in this mode in dyspepsia, hypochrondiasis, jaundice, and some similar affections, obviating the costiveness which frequently attends them, and farther, by its operation as a bitter, contributing to restore the tone of the digestive organs. From its astringent property it is con. sidered as peculiarly adapted for exhibition in diarrhoea, any acrid matter being evacuated by its purgative effect before it acts as an astringent. It farther enters into a number of officinal preparations, in which it is either the principal medicine, or combined with aloes, which bears a considerable resemblance to it in its modes of opera- tion, with bitters or aromatics. Offic. Prep.—Inf. rhei. Tinct. rhei. T. rhei comp. T. rhei cum aloe. T. rhei et gent. Vin. rhei. Ext. rhei. Pil. rhei. CATHARTICSi 195 Convolvulus jalapa. Jalap. Pentand. Monog. Campanacea, Linn. Convohulacea, Juss. Radix. Mexico. The dried root of jalap is imported in thin transverse slices of in round masses ; it is solid, hard, and heavy; of a dark grey co- lour, and striated texture. It has little smell; its taste is bitter and subacrid. Jalap contains a resinous and a gummy matter, its purgative qua- lity appearing to reside in the former, as it is extracted by alcohol, while its watery infusion is comparatively inert, or only acts as a diuretic. Proof-spirit is its proper menstruum. Mr. Hume has ap- plied the name of Jalapine to a peculiar principle, which he obtained from jalap in the state of a white powder. It forms little more than o.e per cent, .of jalap. This root is an active purgative, producing full evacuation from the intestines ; sometimes occasioning, however, nausea or griping. Its medium dose is half a drachm. Besides being given alone, it is very frequently used to quicken the action of other cathartics, of ca- lomel, for example ; or it is combined with others, which are sup- posed to render it less stimulating, as with the super-tartrate of pot- ash : This latter combination is in common use as a hydragogue cathartic ; the former, that of jalap and calomel, affords a very safe active purgative, which is employed where it is difficult to excite the action of the intestinal canal. Jalap operates most mildly and ef- fectually in substance, and is therefore seldom given under any form of preparation. The resin of jalap is much used on the continent as a cathartic, but it is more harsh in its operation than when the gum is in combination with it. Offic. Prep.—T. Jalap. Ext. jalap. Pul. jal. Helleborus niger. Melampodium. Black Hellebore. Polyand. Polygyn. Mullisiliqua, Linn. Ranunculacea, Juss. Radix. Aus- tria, Italy. The root of this plant consists of short articulated fibres attached to one head, externally dark-coloured, internally white. Its taste is very acrid, but the acrimony is much impaired by drying and by age. Its active power seems principally to reside in an oil obtained by digesting the root in alcohol, also in its resinous part, which al- cohol dissolves, the tincture affording, by evaporation, a very active extract. By decoction with water it yields half its weight of gummy matter, with some resin. Its distilled water, it is affirmed, is acrid, and even cathartic. Black hellebore root is a very powerful cathartic in a dose of a few grains ; so violent, indeed, and at the same time uncertain in its operation, that it is scarcely ever used in substance ; the watery ex- tract of it, which is milder, has sometimes been employed. On its cathartic power probably depends any advantage that may be de- rived from its administration in mania and melancholia, in which diseases it was highly celebrated by the ancients. In dropsy it has been employed as a hydragogue cathartic, principally under the form of the spiritous extract. Offic. Prep.—Tinct. helleb. Ext. helleb. 196 CATHARTICS. Croton tiglium. Monazc. Monadelph. Tricocca, Linn. Euphorbi- acea, Juss. Semina. Molucca Islands. The Croton Tiglium is a native of the Molucca Islands, and from its seeds an expressed oil is obtained, having a very hot and acrid taste, and leaving a disagreeable sensation in the mouth and fauces, which lasts for several hours. It is a very powerful purgative, and its seeds were formerly known in Europe under the name of Molucca Grains, but were discarded from practice on account of their very drastic operation ; the oil which they contain, however, is now very frequently employed, it is soluble in ether, oil of turpentine, and alcohol; but the solution which the latter effects is only partial, about a third part remaining undissolved, which is quite inert. According to Dr. Nimmo, 100 parts of croton oil consist of 45 parts of an acrid purgative principle,* and 55 of a fixed oil similar to olive oil. The use of the oil of croton has been attended with great advan- tage in cases where it is of importance to obtain a speedy and full evacuation of the intestinal canal, as in apoplexy, mania, and long- continued constipation. From the smallness of the dose too in which it acts, namely, a drop or two, it can be given to patients in a state of insensibility, or who obstinately refuse medicine. As so very small quantity of it is required to evacuate the intestines, it ought to be given with great caution, and it seems, from the occasional viru- lence of its action, more particularly adapted to people of a robust constitution.. Cases have occurred where it has been attended with bypercatharsis, and even with haBmatemesis. Dr. Nimmo recommends it to be given in the form of the saturated alcoholic solution, rubbed up with two ounces of syrup, and two ounces of mucilage, and four ounces of distilled water.f It may also be given in the form of pills made with crumbs, or a drop or two may be added to a drachm of Ci-.stor oil. M. Caventou has pro- posed to make it into a soap with soda to moderate its action, and enable the dose to be apportioned, but all these methods lessen its chief advantage, the smallness of the quantity required for a dose. Cucumis colocynthis. Colocynth. Bitter Cucumber. Moncec. Syngenes. Cucurbitacea, Linn. Juss. Fructus Pulpa. Syria. The part of this plant used in medicine is the dried medullary substance of the fruit. It is white, soft, and porous ; the seeds mixed with it are comparatively inert. Its taste is intensely bitter. Boiled in water, it gives out a large portion of mucilage, so as to form a liquor of a gelatinous consistence. This is less active than colocynth itself. Alcohol also dissolves only part of its active matter; when its alcoholic solution is evaporated* a golden yellow substance is ob- ,* ^r-PariiLconsiders this a peculiar principle, and proposes to give to it the name of Tighn.—B. r f The formula of Dr. Nimmo is as follows:—R. Alcoholic solution, (made in the proportion of 3j of rectified spirit, to two drops of the oil), 3ss Syrupi simp :—Mu- cilag. Gum Arab, aa 3ij aq. distillat. §ss ft. haustus. After swallowing a little milk, the draught is to be taken very quickly, and washed down with repeated quanti- ses of the same diluent.—B. CATHARTICS. 197 tained, which Vauquelin named Colocyntine, and regarded as the active principle of this plant. Colocynth is one of the most drastic purgatives, so much so that its operation is not easily regulated. Its dose is from three to six grains; but it is so liable to occasion griping, tenesmus, and other symptoms, that it is scarcely ever given by itself, being rather used to promote the operation of other cathartics. Combinations of it with jalap, aloes, or mild muriate of mercury, are thus given in ob- stinate constipation, in mania, and coma; and in these combinations it operates more mildly and more effectually than if given alone. Its infusion has been recommended as an anthelmintic* Offic. Prep.—Ext. colocynth. Ext. coloc. comp. Momordica elaterium. Wild Cucumber. Monozc. Syngenes. Cu- curbitacea, Linn. Juss. Fecula Fructus. South of Europe. The expressed juice of the Wild Cucumber deposites a yellowish substance, which, when dried, is known by the name of Elaterium. It is a very powerful cathartic, and from the violence of its operation has been ventured to be exhibited only in the most obstinate cases. Its dose is half a grain, repeated every second or third hour till it operate. As a drastic purgative, it has sometimes been given in ma- nia, and as a hydragogue cathartic in dropsy; and, according to Dr. Ferriar, it has succeeded in hydrothorax, after all other remedies had failed. The principal objection to the employment of this powerful medi- cine is the uncertainty of its action. It has been given to the extent of ten grains with scarcely any effect upon the intestinal canal ; and, in other cases, the small dose of half a grain has acted as a most powerful cathartic. The reason of this diversity of its effects has been shewn by Dr. Clutterbuck to arise from the elaterium not being prepared, as it should be, from the fruit alone. He ascertain- ed that the active principle resided almost exclusively in the juice around the seeds. This juice, he states, is perfectly colourless, and limpid when it first exudes ; but after some time it assumes a turbid appearance, and deposites a sediment of a yellowish-white colour. This is the real elaterium, and when dry it is light and pulverulent. Its taste is acrid ; it is insoluble in water, and appears, from its solu- bility in alcohol, to be of a resinous nature : one eighth of a grain acts powerfully as a cathartic. Dr. Paris discovered in elaterium a principle which he named Elatin ; it exists in elaterium in the pro- portion of one part in ten ; it forms a bright green solution with al- cohol, from which it is precipitated by the addition of water; it operates as a purgative in very small doses. The continental phy- sicians reject the sediment from the juice of the wild cucumber, and use the juice inspissated after the sediment is removed ; this is much weaker as a purgative, and is given in larger doses than would be safe with elaterium. Offic. Prep.—Extract elater. * Incompatible Substances. Acetate of lead, »ulphate of iron, and fixed alka- lies.—B. 198 CATHARTICS. Rhamnus catharticus. * Buckthorn. Pentand. Monogyn. Duma- sa, Linn. Rhamnea, Juss. Baccarum Succus. Indigenous. Thk berries of this vegetable are very succulent; the juice they afford by expression has a cathartic power. Made into a syrup by boiling with sugar, (Syr. rham.,) it operates in a dose of an ounce. It is liable, however, to occasion thirst and griping, and is therefore seldom used. Aloe. Aloe Socotorina. —Spicata. Aloe hepatica. —Bar- badensis. —vulgaris. Socotorine or Spiked Aloes. Hepatic or Barbadoes Aloes. Hexand. Monogyn. Liliacea, Linn. Juss. Succus spissatus. Africa, Asia, America. Aloes is a concrete resinous juice, of which several varieties are met with in the shops, differing in purity and in their sensible quali- ties. Two kinds are particularly to be noticed. The first and purest is the Socotorine Aloes, originally brought from the African island of Socotora. According to De Candolle, it is the juice of the Aloe Socotorina, a plant growing not only in that island, but along the south-eastern coast of Africa, and particularly in the kingdom of Metinda, whence the greater part of the aloes sold under this name is brought. But the London and Dublin Colleges refer this kind of aloes to the Aloe Spicata, which grows at the Cape of Good Hope. It is probably derived from both. The expressed juice of the leaves of this plant is inspissated by exposure to the air and sun, and when dried forms the socotorine aloes. It is imported in small pieces of a reddish-brown colour, nearly black in the mass ; when reduced to powder it is yellow. The other kind of aloes, named the Hepatic or Barbadoes aloes, is obtained from the Aloe vulgaris of De Candolle. This plant is indigenous in the south of Europe, and is supposed to have afforded aloes to the ancients. It is indigenous also in Brazil and the West Indies, and is extensively cultivated in Barbadoes to afford this drug. The whole plant is taken, cut in pieces and boiled in water. The liquor is evaporated to the consistence of honey, and is run into large gourd shells, in which it becomes concrete. The Barbadoes aloes is of a lighter colour than the socotorine, and has an odour stronger and more unpleasant. Another kind of aloes, named the Caballine, is also procured from the Aloe vulgaris ; it is more impure and fetid than the others, and is weaker in its power. The taste of all the kinds of aloes is intensely bitter ; their odour is disagreeable. They consist of bitter extract and resinous matter ; the former is in larger quantity, and the medicinal properties of the aloes reside in it; the resin, obtained by the action of alcohol, has little smell or taste, and no purgative power. The bitter extractive matter has been named Aloesin by Pfaff. It is of a reddish-brown colour, when powdered of a golden yellow ; water entirely dissolves it, hence the watery extract is more active than aloes itself. Long boiling alters it, so as to impair its activity, as is the case with re- gard to other vegetable cathartics. Aloes, as a cathartic, has some peculiarities. It is slower in its operation than other purgatives; it merely evacuates the eontents of CATHARTICS. 199 the intestines; and no greater effect is obtained from a large dose than from one comparatively moderate. These have been regarded as proofs, and perhaps justly, that its operation is principally on the larger intestines. Some have supposed its primary action to be on the liver. Its medium dose is from 5 to 10 grains, and its usual form of exhibition that of pill. As a purgative, it is employed to obviate habitual costiveness ; and from operating simply as an evacuant, and without irritation, it is peculiarly adapted to this. Hence its use in hypochondriasis, in jaundice, and other cases attended with torpor of the intestinal canal. It is also often combined with other cathar- tics to produce more complete evacuation. From the supposition of its stimulant operation being particularly exerted on the rectum, it has been supposed to have a tendency to occasion haemorrhoids,— an opinion for which there does not appear much foundation. On the supposition, too, of its stimulating effect being extended to the uterus, it has been regarded as a purgative to be avoided during pregnancy. On the same hypothesis, it has been supposed to act as an emmenagogue, and is not unfrequently used in amenorrhcea. Offic. Prep.—Pil. aloet. Pil. al. et assafoet. Pil. aloes cum co- locynth. Pil. aloes cum myrrh. Tinct. al. T. al. aether. T. al. cum myrrh. T. al. comp. Vin. al. Decoct, al. Ext. al. Pulv. al. comp. Pulv. al. cum canel. Convolvulus scammonia. Scammony. Pentand. Monogyn. Cam- panacea, Linn. Convolvulacea, Juss. Gummi-resina. Syria. Scammony is obtained by cutting the root of the plant obliquely, a few inches above the ground. A milky juice exudes, which is col- lected, and inspissated by exposure to the sun and air. It is in small fragments, of a blackish-grey colour, having little smell, and a bit- ter sub-acrid taste. It is, however, variable in its qualities, and is often adulterated by the intermixture of earthy matter. It is one of what are named Gum-resins, and consists of resin and gum, but the latter is in much the smaller proportion. Water dissolves about one-fourth of it; proof-spirit almost the whole, the impurities ex- cepted. Scammony is one of the drastic purgatives, and is employed chiefly where the less powerful substances of this class would fail. Its dose is from 5 to 10 grains, but it is generally combined in a smaller dose with other cathartics. It is also used as a hydragogue purgative in dropsy, combined usually with super-tartrate of potash ; and it is employed as an anthelmintic cathartic, combined with jalap and calomel. Offic. Prep.—Pulv. scam. Elect, scam. Conf. scam. Gambogia. Gamboge. Stalagmitis Cambogioides. Polygam. Monozc. Tricocca, Linn. Gutlifera, Juss. Gummi-resina. India. Gamboge is an exudation from some plant, a native of Siam, but it is not absolutely certain what the species of plant is. It is believ- ed, however, that the Stalagmitis Cambogioides, a tree of the natu- ral order Guttiferae, affords the gamboge of commerce. This gum- 200 cathartics. resin is said to be obtained from incisions made in the branches and trunk of the tree. It is brittle, inflammable, of a lively yellow co- lour, and resinous fracture ; has a taste bitter and acrid. Water and alcohol partially dissolve it, and its solution in alcohol becomes turbid on the addition of water ; the alkalis also dissolve it. It af- fords one of the best examples of what is named a Gum-resin ; the proportion of resin exceeds considerably that of gum, alcohol dis- solving a much larger quantity of it than water does. According to Braconnot, it consists of four parts of resin and one of gum. Gamboge is a very powerful cathartic, liable in large doses to ex- cite vomiting, or to act with violence, and occasion profuse evacua- tion, with griping and tenesmus. Its medium dose is from 2 to 6 grains. It is seldom employed but in combination with some of the other powerful cathartics in obstinate constipation. It is also used io expel the tape-worm, and as a powerful hydragogue cathartic in dropsy. In the latter application of if it is usually combined with super-tartrate of potash. Offic. Prep.—Pil. cambog. comp. Oleum TEREBiNTHiNiE. Oil of Turpentine. Pinus Sylvestris. Scotch Fir. This oil is procured by distillation from what is named Common Turpentine, the juice of the Pinus sylvestris, or Scotch fir. In France it is obtained from the juice of the Pinus maritima, or sea pine. It has of late advanced much in estimation as a remedy ; its chief applications are as a cathartic, diuretic, anthelmintic, and sti- mulating external application. It has considerable powe rasa cathartic, and since Dr. Fenwick's discovery that it may be given with safety in large doses, is frequently used for this purpose. Dr. Mason Good recommends a dose of six drachms as the best aperient that can be employed in gout. Dr. Paris advises large doses of the oil to be used in obstinate constipation depending on affections of the brain. An ounce of oil of turpentine, rubbed with the yolks of two eggs, and diffused through a pint of thin starch, forms a useful enema. Oil of turpentine possesses a degree of narcotic power along with its cathartic and diuretic effects. Thus, when a large dose of two or three ounces of it is taken to destroy tape-worm, it produces a de- gree of intoxication and stupor which continues for some hours. From this peculiar, action on the brain it has been found of service in epilepsy. Dr. Latham gave a large dose at first, and kept up the narcotic effect by small doses. Dr. Perceval used smaller doses to the amount of several drachms in the day. It is, however, difficult to procure any permanent benefit from it in this disease. It has been given in large doses in sciatica, but with little benefit. In pu- erperal fever its administration, both infernally and applied to the abdomen, has been employed with very great advantage. Dr. Montgomery informs us, that iritis may be successfully treated by oil of turpentine, given in drachm doses three times a-day. In enteritis, peritonitis, colic, purpura haemorrhagica, chronic rheumatism, yel- low fever, and for checking the haemorrhage in dysentery, oil of tur- pentine is recommended by good authorities. It is best given tritu- rated with honey or mucilage, and diffused through mint or cinna- CATHARTICS. 201 mon water, with the addition of a little brandy or tincture of capsicum; it is not very liable to be rejected by the stomach. Its dose as a diu. retic is from 10 to 40 drops, as a cathartic from two drachms to an ounce, as an anthelmintic from one to three ounces. It may bd combined with castor oil in the proportion of two or three drachms to half an ounce of the latter. Its external application shall be con- sidered in the pharmaceutical part. SUB-MURIAS HYDRARGYRI. MuRIAS HYDRARGYRI MITIS. CaLO- melas. Mild Muriate of Mercury. Sub-muriate of Mercury. Calomel. Nearly all the preparations of mercury have a purgative power, and peculiarly promote the action of other cathartics. This effect, as has been already stated, is even obtained when the general mer- curial action is established, by the introduction of mercury by fric- tion, and shews, therefore, a peculiar determination to the intestines. The cathartic power is more considerable, however, in the mild mu- riate than in the other mercurials, and it is in common use as a ca- thartic. It operates as such, when given alone in a dose of from five to ten grains, but with more certainty and power when its operation is promoted by the addition of a little jalap or rhubarb. One valu- able quality which it has, is that of promoting the operation of other cathartics, without exciting any additional irritation, or rendering them liable to act with violence ; it is therefore in obstinate cases of constipation, or where it is an object to procure full evacuation, combined with colocynth, scammony, or gamboge ; and such a com- bination affords the safest of the powerful cathartics. Calomel also appears to be adapted to answer particular indications, from its action on the liver, and its powers of promoting the bile. Hence the advantage derived from it as a purgative in different forms of fever, particularly those of warm climates, and in chronic hepatitis.* A division of Cathartics remains, intermediate in their operation between Laxatives and Purgatives, more powerful than the one, less acrid and stimulating than the other : these are the Compound Salts. They appear to act principally by stimulating the exhalant vessels on the internal surface of the intestines, so as to cause a larger pro- portion of serous fluid to be poured out, which dilutes the contents of the canal, and, by its operation, aided by the stimulus of the sa- line matter, accelerates the peristaltic motion. By the watery evacuation which they thus occasion from the general system, they are particularly adapted to those cases where inflammatory action, or tendency to it exists. Sulphas magnesia. Sulphate of Magnesia.—This salt, formerly known by the name of Bitter Purging Salt, and Epsom Salt, is found in mineral waters, whence it used to be extracted, but is now prin- cipally obtained from the liquor remaining after the crystallization of muriate of soda from sea-water, which holds a quantity of it and of * Incompatible Substances. See p. 115. 26 202 cathartics. muriate of magnesia dissolved. This is boiled down, and when expos- ed to sufficient cold, affords acicular crystals of sulphate of magnesia. The crystals procured by this process are deliquescent, from the presence of a little muriate of magnesia; they are obtained more pure by a slower evaporation, or by a second crystallization, and then form large regular crystals, which are rather efflorescent. They are soluble in nearly an equal weight of water at 60°. Their taste is extremely bitter.* This salt is used as a purgative, in a dose of from one to two ounces, dissolved in water. Though its taste be bitter, it has been remarked that it remains better on the stomach than many other ca- thartics, especially when given in small repeated doses, and in a so- lution largely diluted. Exhibited in this manner, it has been par- ticularly recommended in ileus and colica pictonum ; and is besides in common use in all cases in which saline cathartics are indicated. It is often an ingredient also in purgative enemas. Cases of poison- ing sometimes happen from oxalic acid being taken by mistake for Epsom salt. The acid taste of the former should distinguish it, and its changing the colour of blue paper to red. Chalk and magnesia are antidotes, (see Oxalis acetosella). Sulphas sod.&, Sulphate of Soda, long known by the name of Glauber's Salt,.is prepared by various processes on a large scale. In the process given in the Pharmacopceias, it is obtained from the residuum of the decomposition of muriate of soda, by sulphuric acid, in the preparation of muriatic acid. The saline mass is dissolved in water; any excess of acid is neutralized by the addition of lime, and the pure sulphate of soda is obtained by evaporation. Its crys. tals are six-sided prisms ; they are efflorescent, soluble in three parts of cold, and in an equal part of boiling water. The taste of this salt is very bitter and nauseous ; but operating effectually and mild- ly, it is one of the saline purgatives in common use. Its medium dose is an ounce and a half, dissolved in six or eight ounces of water, f Sulphas fotassje. Sulphate of Potash is prepared by neutralizing the excess of acid in the saline mass which is the residuum of the distillation of nitric acid from sulphuric acid and nitre. It forms in irregular crystals, which require 17 parts of cold water for their so- lution. In a dose of 4 or 6 drachms it acts as a purgative, but its sparing solubility prevents it from being much employed ; in one of 2 or 3 drachms it is given as an aperient, in combination with rhu- barb or other vegetable cathartics.:): Super-tartras potass.e. Super-tartrate of Potash, or Bitartrate * Incompatible Substances. The fixed alkalies and their sub-carbonates, lime water, muriate of lime, ammonia, nitrate of silver, and the acetate of lead.—B. t Incompatible Substances. The same as those of sulphate of magnesia.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Tartaric acid, muriate of lime, nitrate of silver, and the acetate of lead.—B. CATHARTICS. 203 of Potash ; Crystals or Cream of Tartar, (Tartarum Crystalli vel Cremor Tartari.) This salt is deposited from wine, in the progress of the slow fer- mentation which it suffers when kept. It is derived from the juice of the grape, and is separated as the quantity of alcohol (in which it is soluble) increases. The deposite Tartar, as it is named, adheres to the sides of the casks in which wine is preserved; it is of a red colour, from part of the colouring matter adhering to it: from white wines it is deposited of a lighter shade, and hence the distinctions of red and white tartar in commerce. It is purified by boiling it in water with a portion of pure white clay, which appears to attract its colouring matter ; from the boiling liquor strained while hot, crystals are deposited on cooling, white and semi-transparent, of no very re- gular form. These used to be named Crystals of Tartar, while the crust collected from the surface of the boiling liquor was named Cream of Tartar. They are both the same salt, the Bitartrate of Potash, composed of two equivalents of Tartaric acid, 132, com- bined with one of potash, 48, and two of water, 18,=198. Its taste is sour, from its excess of acid. It is sparingly soluble in water, re- quiring about 60 parts of cold, or 30 of boiling water, for its solution. It operates as a purgative in a dose of 4 or 6 drachms, and being free from any unpleasant taste, it is not unfrequently used, more es- pecially in inflammatory states of the system. It is, from its insolu- bility, given generally under the form of electuary ; the only incon- venience attending its operation is its being liable to occasion flatu- lence : and if habitually used, it is liable, from its acidity, to injure the tone of the stomach. It appears, at the same time, to increase the action of the" absorbent system ; hence it acts as a diuretic, and as a hydragogue and diuretic is one of the remedies most frequently employed in dropsy ; it is also the cathartic most effectual in remov- ing obesity. As a diuretic and refrigerant it is to be afterwards noticed.* Tartras potassj:. Tartrate of Potash. Tartarum Solubile. So- luble Tartar. This salt, the neutral tartrate of potash, formerly named Soluble Tartar, from its great solubility, is prepared by saturating the excess of acid in the super-tartrate by the addition of a solution of carbo- nate of potash. It is a mild purgative, and at the same time ope- rates effectually, given in a dose of six drachms or an ounce.f Tartras sod.e et potass.e. Tartrate of Soda and Potash. This salt, formerly known by the name of Rochelle Salt, is a dou- ble one, being prepared by saturating the excess of acid in the super- tartrate of potash by adding a solution of carbonate of soda. It crystallizes in large and regular transparent rhomboidal prisms, which are permanent in the air, and soluble in about six parts of cold water. Its taste is less unpleasant than that of the greater number of the * Incompatible Substances. Mineral acids, alkalies and alkaline earths.-—B. t All the acids convert this salt into a super-tartrate. Lime water, muriate of lime, nitrate of silver, and the acetates of lead.—B. 204 CATHARTICS. saline purgatives, and it is therefore often prescribed. Its medium dose is an ounce, given usually dissolved in tepid water, with fre- quently the addition of manna, and of peppermint water, or tincture of cardamom. Phosphas sovje. Phosphate of Soda. The process for preparing this salt, which is rather complicated, is afterwards to be considered. It crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms ; it is efflorescent, soluble in little more than three parts of cold, and in half that quantity of boiling water. Its taste is the least nauseous of all the saline purgatives, and is indeed perfectly mild, and its operation is equally mild and effectual. Hence it has been intro- duced into practice, and is peculiarly useful as a cathartic where there is any tendency to nausea. One ounce of it is given, dis- solved generally in tepid water, with the addition of a little pepper- mint or any other grateful aromatic. The only objection to this salt is that it is more expensive than the common purgative salts.* Murias sod;e. Muriate of Soda. (Chloride of Sodium.) This salt consists, according to the old doctrine, of soda and mu- riatic acid; or, according to the new view, is a compound simply of chlorine and sodium when dry, and only a salt when in solution. It is the most abundant saline natural product. It exists in a fossil state, forming what is named Rock Salt; it is the principal sa- line ingredient in the water of the ocean; and is a common in- gredient in mineral waters. It is usually procured by evaporation from sea-water, in small irregular crystals : when more regularly crystallized, the form of its crystals is a cube ; its taste is purely saline. Like other salts, it excites thirst, an effect probably arising from its action on the absorbents; it also operates as a grateful sti- mulant on the stomach, and hence its universal use as a condiment. In large doses it proves purgative; but its strongly saline taste pre- vents it from being employed : it is sometimes, however, the princi- pal ingredient in purgative mineral waters, in which it operates more powerfully, probably from the state of dilution. It forms the active ingredient of the common domestic enema; from half an ounce to an ounce of it being dissolved in a pound of tepid water, and a small quantity of expressed oil added. Besides the preceding Cathartics, there are some which are em- ployed as such only under the form of Enema. Tebebinthina veneta. Venice Turpentine. Pinus Larix. Mo- ncec. Monadelph. Conifera. , The resinous juice of this tree, the Larch, exudes from incisions made in its trunk. It is of the consistence of honey, has the pecu- liar smell of the turpentines, and a bitter acrid taste. It consists of resin and essential oil; sometimes it is employed as a cathartic un- der the form of enema, half an ounce of it being triturated with the yolk of an egg, and suspended in a sufficient quantity of water. As * Incompatible Substances. Lime, magnesia,[the sulphuric, nitric, and hydro-chlo- ric acids.—B. cathartics. 205 it has a considerable share of acrimony, it is employed only where those of milder operation fail. Dr. Perceval recommends it highly in epilepsy connected with fatuity, and Dr. Pritchard of Bristol is an advocate for its employ- ment in cases of the same disease, depending on a deranged state of the uterine system. Nicotiana tabacum. Tobacco. The smoke of tobacco, introduced into the intestines, has suc- ceeded in producing evacuation in colic and ileus, after other pur- gatives have failed, perhaps from its narcotic operation inducing re- laxation of the muscular fibre. An infusion of one drachm of it in a pint of warm water is more convenient; but much caution is re- quisite in the use of either, as tobacco, from its narcotic power, is apt to induce extreme sickness and debility. It is only where other methods have been unsuccessful that its administration can be proper. [Juglans cinerea. Butternut. Oilnut. White Walnut. Moncec. Polyand. Nat. Ord. Juglandea. Cortex. America. The Butternut is a well known forest tree, abundant in almost every part of the United States. It flowers in April and May. The part used in medicine is the inner bark, an extract of which fur- nishes us with one of our most valuable indigenous cathartics. Dr. Bigelow informs us that the bark of the branches affords a large quantity of soluble matter, principally of the extractive kind. In a concentrated tincture he could discern no appearance of resin. Ge- latin did not detect the presence of tannin. The sulphate of iron caused a brownish-black colour. Water is an adequate solvent for the butternut, and the watery extract one of its best preparations. As a cathartic it has been known and used in this country for many years. During the revolutionary war it was extensively used in our military hospitals, and found to be a valuable substitute for jalap and other cathartics. The character which it then acquired, it has since retained; and it is at present very generally used in the practice of this country. As a mild laxative, calculated to obviate habitual cos- tiveness, it may be considered as unrivalled, as it is not succeeded by any of those unpleasant consequences which generally attend the frequent use of other articles. From the mildness of its opera- tion it has been much celebrated in the treatment of dysentery. As the virtues of this extract depend very much upon the method of pre- paring it, as well as upon the season when the bark is collected, both these circumstances should be carefully attended to. The proper time for gathering it is in the months of May and June. The bark of the root possesses the property of exciting a blister when applied to the skin. The dose of the extract is from 10 to 30 grains, according to the effect intended to be produced.—B.] [Podophyllum peltatum. May apple. Mandrake. Wild Lemon. 206 cathartics. Ipecacuanha. Polyand. Monogyn. Nat. Ord. Podophyllea. Ra- dix. United States. This plant is common to almost every part of the United States, and is found inhabiting low, moist, and shady situations. It flowers in May and June. The leaves of this plant are poisonous, and the root is the only part used in medicine. According to analysis it contains a resin, a bitter extractive mat- ter, fcecula, and a slight proportion of a gummy substance. Asa medicine this plant holds a high rank in the list of our indigenous cathartics. From a series of very ingenious.comparative trials in- stituted by Dr. Schneck, it appears to possess virtues strikingly si- milar to those of jalap. He concludes that " the only difference between them is that the May-apple root is more prompt in its effect, causes somewhat more nausea, but not occasioning any griping, which has been a constant attendant in the experiments made with the jalap."* In intermittent and remittent fevers, as well as in dropsies, the podophyllum has been esteemed more especially ser- viceable. According to Schoepf, it acts as an emetic. This effect, however, only follows its use in very large doses. In moderate doses, it operates simply as a cathartic. The dose is twenty grains to be given in substance or in powder. By our Indians it is consi- dered as an anthelmintic ; whether it possesses any powers of this sort independently of its operation as a cathartic, is extremely doubtful. The proper period for collecting the root for medicinal use is the autumn, when the leaves of the plant have turned yellow. It should be carefully dried, and then pulverized.—B.] [Carbo ligni. Charcoal. As an antiseptic, the virtues of common charcoal have long been known. Although not much used for other purposes, its properties are extensive and important. Upon the intestinal canal it acts as a mild but exceedingly efficient cathartic, while upon the stomach it produces in a very remarkable degree the effects of a local tonic. It has accordingly been used with very great success as a remedy in obstinate constipation of the bowels, and irritable states of the sto- mach. In the dysenteric forms of fever, as occurring in the West Indies, it was successfully administered by that distinguished medical philosopher, the late Dr. Robert Jackson, to whom, I believe, we are indebted for the first introduction of this valuable remedy into general practice. From a tea-spoonful to a table-spoonful of the charcoal is an average dose. It may be mixed in milk or water, and repeated according to circumstances.—B.] * New-York Medical and Physical Journal, No. 5. emmenagogues. 207 CHAP. VIII. OF EMMENAGOGUES. The medicines distinguished by the appellation of Emmenagogues, are those which are capable of promoting the menstrual discharge. The suppression of this discharge is supposed to arise from debi- lity of the uterine vessels, or deficiency of action in them. Hence it might be inferred, that the medicines capable of exciting it must be such as can stimulate these vessels. General stimulants, or tonics, may to a certain degree have this ef- fect, since, in consequence of their action, the uterine vessels must be stimulated in common with other parts. There are, accordingly, several stimulants, both diffusible and permanent, employed as em- menagogues. It is doubtful whether there is farther any particular determination to these vessels. It is sufficiently certain, that there are many sub- stances, which, when received into the stomach, have theirstimulant operation more particularly determined to one organ than to another. It seems possible, a priori, that there may be substances disposed to act more peculiarly on the uterine system ; yet experience scarcely confirms this supposition. A stimulant effect, however, produced in neighbouring parts, seems to be in some degree propagated to the uterine vessels ; hence several medicines exert an emmenagogue power, greater than can be ascribed to any general action they exert on the system. It is thus that some cathartics, such as aloes and black hellebore, have been supposed to act> their stimulus being communicated from the larger intestines to the uterus. They are probably of advantage too in amenorrhcea, simply as cathartics, removing that state of torpor in the intestinal canal connected with the disease ; and more advan- tage is derived from the emmenagogues of this class than from any of the others. There is also one stimulus, that of electricity, which can be brought to act more directly, and it has been sometimes found, under the form of weak shocks, transmitted through the pelvis, to operate as a power- ful emmenagogue. Suppression of the menstrual discharge seems to be sometimes connected with spasmodic affection, and hence some remedies be- longing to the class of antispasmodics are prescribed occasionally as emmenagogues. The remedies belonging to this class may be arranged in some measure according to these distinctions ; the most active of them being substances belonging to other classes ; and there being a few only supposed to have any specific emmenagogue power. With regard to all of them, it may be added, that there are no medicines so uncertain in their operation, and none in which the conclusions respecting their efficacy are more liable to fallacy. In general, 208 EMMENAGOGUES. their administration requires to be continued for some time to obtain their beneficial effects. EMMENAGOGUES. from the class of antispasmodics. Ferula assafcetida. | Bubon galbanum. from the class of tonics. Ferrum. | Hydrargyrum. from the class of cathartics. Aloe. I Helleborus niger. Rheum palmatum. Croton tiglium. Iodinium. SlNAPIS ALBA. RUBIA TINCTORUM. RUTA GRAVEOLENS. juniperus sabina. Opoponax. [Polygala SENEGA.--B.] [Secale CORNUTUM.--B.] Assafcetida. Assafcetida.—All the fetid gums have been sup- posed to possess, along with their antispasmodic property, the power of acting more peculiarly on the uterine system, and have been there- fore employed as emmenagogues. Assafcetida, the strongest of them, has been given in amenorrhcea, in a dose of ten to fifteen grains, or in the form of tincture in the dose of one drachm. Galbanum, another of these fetid gums already noticed, next in strength to assa- fcetida, has been given in a similar dose. Both of them are usually employed in that form of amenorrhcea which is connected with hysteria ; they are also occasionally combined with aloes. Ferrum. Iron.—The powers of iron as a tonic may be supposed capable of being exerted on the uterine system, and of removing suppression of the discharge arising from deficient action of the uterine vessels, more especially when this is connected with a state of general languor and debility. In such cases, accordingly, it is frequently employed as an emmenagogue. The carbonate of iron, combined with an aromatic, is given in a dose of five or ten grains daily, continued for some time ; the more active preparations of the sulphate and muriate are likewise prescribed, but in general there is some difficulty in continuing their administration, unless in very small doses, from the irritation they are liable to occasion. The chaly- beate mineral waters afford perhaps the best form of administering iron in amenorrhcea, an advantage derived from the state of dilution in which it is taken. Hydrargyrum. Quicksilver.—The general stimulant operation emmenagogues. 209 of this metal may, like that of iron, be supposed to be so far exerted on the uterine system, as to obviate any state of diminished action; some of its preparations are accordingly occasionally employed in amenorrhcea, and with very evident advantage. The mild muriate or calomel is the preparation generally used. It is given in the dose of a grain ; and more frequently in combination with other em- menagogues, to promote their action, than alone. Aloe. Aloes.—This cathartic, it has already been remarked, is supposed to operate more peculiarly on the larger intestines ; and its stimulant operation, it has been imagined, is thence propagated to the uterus. Hence its celebrity as an emmenagogue, though what efficacy it has probably depends principally, if not entirely, on its ca- thartic power, and its effect, in consequence of this, of removing the torpor of the intestinal canal. The peculiarity of its ope- ration as a cathartic, already pointed out, renders it however ex- tremely proper for continued administration. It is given under the form of pill or tincture ; and frequently in combination with other re- medies, particularly with myrrh, rhubarb, and the preparations of iron. The aloetic wine, and the etherial aloetic tincture, are com- mon forms of preparation under which it is prescribed in amenor- rhcea. Rheum palmatum.—Rhubarb has some analogy to aloes in its cathartic operation, and, like it, has been supposed to produce, pro- bably in consequence of this operation, an emmenagogue effect. It is usually given combined with aloes, either under the form of the Compound Pills of Aloes and Rhubarb, or the Tincture of Aloes and Rhubarb. The latter forms a popular remedy usually employed in occasional suppression of the menses, being taken in the dose of two drachms at bed-time. Helleborus Niger.—Black Hellebore is a powerful cathartic; it was recommended by Mead as an emmenagogue under the form of tincture, one drachm of this being given as a dose at bed-time, and continued for some time. Its emmenagogue power might be supposed to depend on its cathartic operation ; in this dose, however, and under this form, it has little sensible effect ; and any advantage derived from it is extremely doubtful. The extract has been em- ployed as a more active preparation in combination with aloes, or with carbonate of iron. Croton tiglium.—Croton oil is said to be employed in India as an emmenagogue, and with success. So powerful a stimulus to the intestinal canal may have such an effect, but it is scarcely advisable to use, for this purpose, a remedy which is always attended with some risk. Iodinium. Iodine.—This is a simple substance, of which some notice has already been given, (page 16.) It is asserted by conti- nental practitioners to act as a powerful emmenagogue, but the ex- 210 EMMENAGOGUES. perience of British practitioners does not confirm their remarks. Its more peculiar agency, that of stimulating the absorbents, in conse- quence of which it proves of much service in bronchocele, and other diseases of glands, shall be considered under the history of the preparations of it recently introduced by the Dublin College. Offic. Prep.—Iodin. tinct. Ung. iod. Potass, hydriod. Simapis alba. White Mustard. Semina. T:ie seeds of this plant have a considerable degree of pungency, and when taken unbruised to the extent of half an ounce or an ounce have a purgative effect. This is a popular remedy, not unfrequent- ly used in amenorrhcea and chlorosis, and may have some effect by its stimulant action on the intestinal canal. Rubia tinctorum. Madder. Tetrand. Monogyn. Stellata, Linn. Rubiacea, Juss. Radix. South of Europe. The root of this plant,- freed from its bark, is dried and prepared for its use in dyeing : it is in slender twigs, of a red colour : has a bitter taste, with, little smell. Its colouring matter is extracted by water and alcohol. From the fact that the bones of. animals are tinged of a red colour when it is taken mixed with their food, it was once supposed to be a medicine of great subtlety ; but this appears to be an effect purely chemical, depending on the affinity exerted by the colouring matter to phosphate of lime. It has been celebrated as an emmenagogue, in a dose of half a drachm thrice a-day, but its inefficacy is generally acknowledged. Ruta graveolfns. Rue. Decand. Monogyn. Multisiliqua, Linn. Rutacea, Juss. Herba. South of Europe. This herb, when recent, has a strong unpleasant smell, and a bit- ter taste. By distillation it affords a pungent essential oil. It has been prescribed as an emmenagogue under the form of the watery infusion of the dried leaves, and the oil is sometimes combined with aloes, and other medicines of the same class, probably with little ad- vantage. Offic. Prep.—Extr. rutae. 01. rutae. Conf. rutse. Juniperus sabina. Savin. Diozcia Monadelph. Conifer a, Linn. Juss. Folia. South of Europe. The leaves of this shrub have a bitter penetrating taste, a strong unpleasant odour, and a considerable degree of acrimony. They afford a very large quantity of essential oil, possessing the general virtues of the plant. Savin is a stimulant, the operation of which has beensupposed to be powerfully directed to the uterine system ; so much so, that, accord- ing to the common opinion, it is capable of producing abortion, but this is doubtful. It appears to possess greater power as an emmena- gogue than any of the substances which have been mentioned, and is sometimes given with advantage in amenorrhcea. It is an ingre- dient in some of the empirical medicines that are sold for this pur- pose, and which have sometimes proved very hurtful. Its dose is EMMENAGOGUES. 211 from half a drachm to a drachm of the fresh leaves. Externally the powder of the dried leaves is used as an escharotic, and mixed with lard forms an useful issue ointment. Offic. Prep.—01. sabin. Gerat. sab. Ung. sab. Opoponax, the gum resin of the Pastinaca Opoponaxwas former. ly regarded as an emmenagogue, but it is now discarded from use. [Polygala senega. Seneka^ or Rattlesnake Root. The general properties of the seneka being noticed under the class of expectorants, I shall in this place only allude to the virtues which it is alleged to possess as an emmenagogue. It is to Dr. Hartshorne of Philadelphia that we are originally indebted for this discovery. Dr. Chapman, however, first announced it to the public in an essay which appeared in the Eclectic Repertory for the year 1812. Both of these gentlemen appear to have had very extensive expe- rience on this subject, and they concur in considering it as entitled to the highest rank in the class of emmenagogue medicines. Dr. Chapman more especially speaks of it in terms of the most unqua- lified commendation. He says, " of the emmenagogues which I have tried, this is among the most efficacious, and will be found so in all the forms of amenorrhcea, if administered with a due regard to the state of the system, and in other respects with correct discrimina- tion."* He adds that he thinks it more particularly useful in those cases where the decidua exist. Notwithstanding this decided testi. mony in favour of this article, it should not be concealed that by other physicians very different opinions are entertained with regard to it. Dr. Eberle affirms that he has tried it repeatedly, but uniform- ly without success. And he adds, that he is " entirely convinced that Dr. Chapman has expressed an opinion much too favourable of its efficacy as an emmenagogue."f The best mode of administering the seneka is in the form of decoction, made by simmering in a close vessel fj of the bruised root in a pint of boiling water, until the quan. tity is reduced about one third. About §iv of this decoction to be taken during the day, to be increased as far as the stomach will bear at the period when the menses are expected to appear.—B.] [Secale cornutum. Spurred Rye. Horned Rye. Ergot of Rye. The precise nature and origin of the ergot is not yet understood. By some it is believed to be a morbid modification of the seed of »,he rye ; others suppose it to be the production of an insect; while by a third party it is viewed as a parasitic fungus, resembling the diffe- rent sorts of smut, &c. The latter of these opinions seems to be in every respect the most probable. Besides rye, the ergot is found attached to several other species of the gramina. Low and moist situations, wet seasons, and newly cleared grounds are said more par- ticularly to favour its production. When taken into the mouth, the * Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, vol. II. p. 8. second edition. t A Treatise of the Materia Medica, &c. vol. I. p. 423. 212 EMMENAGOGUES. taste of the ergot is imperceptible. After a short time it becomes disagreeable, nauseous, and sub-acrid. According to the analysis of vauquelin, it contains, 1. A fawn yellow colouring matter, solu- ble in alcohol, and having a taste resembling that of fish oil. 2. A white oily matter, of a sweetish taste, which appears to be very abundant. 3. A violet colouring principle, of the same shade as that of orchil, but differing from it by its solubility in alcohol, and which can be readily fixed on aluminated wool and silk. 4. A free acid, supposed to be partly phosphoric. 5. A very abundant yegeto-ani- mal substance, much disposed to putrefaction, and which furnishes a considerable quantity of thick oil and of ammonia by distillation. 6. A small quantity of free ammonia, which can be obtained at the temperature of boiling water. As an article of the Materia Medica, the ergot was first introduced to the notice of the medical public in 1807, by Dr. Stearns of New-York, as a substance capable of acting specifically upon the uterus, and of accelerating in a very extraordi- nary manner the process of parturition. As might naturally be ex- pected from the announcement of a remedy so novel and unique, it excited much interest, and as soon as subsequent experience had confirmed its virtues, rose at once into the most unlimited popularity. At present we believe it is universally used throughout this country, and has in a very great degree superseded the use of instruments in difficult and protracted labours. Notwithstanding this very general use of the ergot, there are not a few of our most respectable medical men who look upon it with suspicion, considering it in almost every case in which it is administered as jeopardizing the life of the child. The editors of the New-England Journal of Medicine and Surgery first suggested this opinion in 1812, and they stated that they had been led to it, from " observing that in a large proportion of cases where the ergot was employed, the children did not respire for an unusual length of time after the birth ; and in several cases the chil- dren were irrecoverably dead." It will not be denied by any one acquainted with the operation of the ergot, that, if given in very large doses or at improper periods, it may produce effects exceedingly in- jurious, if not fatal, to the child. Yet that these are to be considered as the common and necessary consequences attending its use, is con- tradicted by evidence the most clear and satisfactory. In a very instructive paper on the subject of the secale cornutum, Dr. Stearns has laid down a set of comprehensive rules regulating its adminis- tration. They are in all respects entitled to the serious considera- tion of every practitioner of the obstetric art. The cases in which he states that it ought never to be administered are the following : 1. It should never be administered where nature is competent to a safe delivery. 2. It should never be administered until the regular pains have ceased, or are ineffectual, and there is danger to be apprehended from delay. 3. It should never be administered until the rigidity of the ostincse has subsided, and a perfect relaxation been induced. 4. It should never be administered in the incipient stages of labour, nor until the os tineas is dilated to the size of a dollar. DIURETICS. 213 5. It should never be administered in any case of preternatural presentation that will require the foetus to be turned. 6. It should never be administered during the continuance of one labour, in larger quantities than thirty grains by decoction in half a pint of water. A table-spoonful of this given every ten minutes ge- nerally succeeds better than a larger dose. While this quantity pro- duces its most favourable effects upon the uterus, it does not affect the stomach with nausea or vomiting, which sometimes interrupts its successful operation. The ergot is indicated, and may be administered, 1. When, in lingering labours, the child has descended into the pelvis, the parts dilated and relaxed, the pains having ceased, or be- ing too ineffectual to advance the labour, there is danger to be ap- prehended from delay, by exhaustion of strength and vital energy Irom haemorrhage, or other alarming symptoms. 2. When the pains are transferred from the uterus to other parts of the body, or to the whole muscular system, producing general puerperal convulsions. After premising copious bleeding the ergot conceucrates all these misplaced labour-pains upon the uterus, which it soon restores to its appropriate action, and the convulsions imme- diately cease. 3. When in the early stages of pregnancy, abortion becomes in- evitable, accompanied with profuse haemorrhage and feeble uterine contractions. 4. When the placenta is retained from a deficiency of contrac- tions. 5. In patients liable to haemorrhage immediately after delivery. In such cases the ergot may be given as a preventive a few minutes before the termination of the labour. 6. When haem ^rrhage or the lochial discharges are too profuse immediately after delivery, and the uterus continues dilated and re- laxed without any ability to contract.* From what has already been advanced concerning the operation of the ergot, it is evident that it can have no claims to be considered as an emmenagogue. It seems in all cases rather to check than to promote uterine discharges.—B.] CHAP. IX. OF DIURETICS. Diuretics are those medicines which increase the urinary dis- charge ; an effect which is probably produced by different modes of operation. It is obvious, that any substance capable of stimulating the secret- * New-York Medical and Physical Journal, No. 3. 214 DIURETICS. ing vessels of the kidneys, by direct application to them, may in- crease their action, and thus produce a more copious discharge of urine. It is probably in this way that many of the saline diuretics act. The principal purpose of the urinary secretion seems to be to separate from the blood the saline matter it contains, and which would otherwise accumulate in the system : when substances of this kind, therefore, do not operate as cathartics, but are received into the circulating mass, they are brought to the kidneys in the course of the circulation, are secreted by their vessels, and exciting in them increased action, a larger portion of watery fluid is at the same time secreted. Several of these substances, as nitre and subcar- bonate of potash, can be detected in the urine by chemical tests after they have been administered, and therefore there can be little doubt of this being the mode in which they operate. There is evi- dence even of some vegetable diuretics passing off by the same emunctory. The flavour of asparagus, or of garlic, or turpentine, for example, may be observed in the urine discharged an hour or two after they have been received into the stomach. It is also probable, however, that a diuretic effect is in other cases produced by substances acting only on the stomach, the action they excite being communicated by sympathy to the kidneys. Squill and tobacco appear to act in this manner ; there is no proof that they are received into the circulating mass; they act very peculiarly on the stomach, and, when they occasion vomiting or purging, they gene- rally fail in their diuretic effect. It may be concluded, therefore, that they exert a peculiar action on the stomach, which, propagated to the kidneys, by means of the general connection subsisting be- tween all the parts of the system, causes an increase in the urinary discharge. The different kinds of ardent spirits, diluted with water, seem to act in a similar manner, as their diuretic effect usually takes place very speedily. There is still a third mode, in which it is probable that some sob- stances produce a diuretic effect, especially in a state of disease. It is known that persons who drink sparingly discharge less urine than others; and also that where the watery part of the blood is carried off by perspiration, the urinary discharge is diminished. It is far- ther known, that large draughts of water, or of any mild diluent, if not determined to the skin by external warmth, occasion an in- creased discharge of urine. It seems probable, therefore, that a similar effect may be produced by the action of substances which powerfully stimulate the absorbent system, and thus bring an in- creased quantity of serous fluid into the circulating mass. Digitalis is probably a remedy of this kind. Its effect as a diuretic is more certain and powerful, when given to a person labouring under drop- sy, than to one in health ; in the latter state, indeed, any such effect is scarcely apparent. It appears too to be one of those medicines which stimulate most powerfully the absorbent system ; its diuretic power in dropsy, therefore, is probably principally owing to its enabling the ab- sorbents to take up the serous fluid effused ; this is of course brought into the circulation, and, like any other watery fluid, is discharged by the kidneys. In cases where a large quantity of fluid has been DIURETICS. 215 accumulated, it often produces a discharge so sudden and profuse, as could not be produced unless the action of the absorbents were greatly excited. On the same principle may be explained the utility of a prac- tice, which is often employed to promote the action of diuretics, that of conjoining mercury with them. Thus the action of squill, as a diuretic, is rendered more certain and powerful by combination with calomel; each of them being given in separate doses, or both being united in one formula. The efficacy of this is probably derived from the mercury stimulating the absorbents, and, by introducing the effused fluid into the system, promoting the direct diuretic action of the squill. The effect of these remedies is promoted by drinking moderately of watery liquors ; hence the practice that was formerly adopted in dropsy, of diminishing the allowance of drink, is exploded ; it was of little benefit in preventing the accumulation of effused fluid, and the abstinence from liquids that was enjoined, rather prevented the action of the diuretic remedies that were employed for the cure of the disease. Many cases even have occurred, in which pure water, mineral waters, or mild diluents, have acted as diuretics, and effected a cure in dropsy. The action of diuretics is also considerably dependent on the state of the vessels of the skin. If, when a medicine of this class has been given, these vessels are stimulated by external warmth, its ac- tion is rather determined to the surface, and sweat or diaphoresis takes place. But if the surface is kept cool, the diuretic effect is more certain ; so much indeed does this state of the surface deter- mine to the kidneys, that the usual diaphoretics may be brought to act as diuretics. The general effects of diuretics are sufficiently evident. They discharge the watery part of the blood, and by that discharge they indirectly promote absorption. Dropsy is the disease in which they are principally employed, and they are adapted to every form of it. When the urinary discharge can be excited by their administration, the disease is removed with less debilitating effect, and with less in- jury to the patient, than by any other method. The only other, in- deed, that can be employed, is evacuation by purging, which the ex- hausted state of the system is often unable to sustain. The success of diuretics in dropsy is, however, very precarious ; sometimes none of them succeed ; sometimes one acts more powerfully than another, though in this there is no uniformity ; nor are the causes of this variety of operation well understood. In general it is obvious, that where a strong predisposition to the disease exists, or where it ori. ginates from organic affections of the liver, or other chylopoetic viscera, no great advantage can be expected from the mere evacu- ation of the water by the action of diuretics; it is only in those cases where an accumulation of fluid has taken place from diminish- ed absorption, or some similar cause, that they can be expected to effect a cure. It accordingly often happens in practice, that an in- creased discharge of urine is effected by the exhibition of diuretics, and still the dropsical swellings are not removed, or if they are, they 216 DIURETICS. speedily return. The combination of Tonics with Diuretics, or the administration of a tonic after the diuretic has operated, is useful in preventing a relapse. Diuretics have been used in calculous affections, with the view of preventing the increase of the calculus, by rendering the urine more watery ; and they have occasionally, though rarely, been em- ployed to lessen plethora, or check profuse perspiration. The use of diluents, so as to increase the quantity of urine, is of advantage in gonorrhoea, and other affections of the urinary passages, by les- sening the acrimony of the urine, which excites pain from its action on these parts, when ihey are in an inflamed state. The cautions with regard to the administration of diuretics are obvious from what has been said of their operation. The surface of the body must be kept cool, and therefore the doses of the medi- cine ought to be given in the course of the day, and the patient should, if possible, be kept out of bed ; their operation is thus more effectually determined to the kidneys. The use of diluents ought to be permitted ; at least this is more necessary with respect to those diuretics belonging to the class of salts, and which operate directly on the secreting vessels of the kidneys, and indeed is probably use- ful with regard to them all. The individual diuretics may be considered under the subdivisions of Salts, Vegetable Diuretics, and one or two derived from the ani. mal kingdom. DIURETICS. SALINE DIURETICS. Potassa: subcarbonas. ——— ACETAS. --------SUPER-TARTRAS. POTASS/E NITRAS. SODJE ACETAS. SPIRITUS jETHERIS NITROSI, FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. SdLLA MARITIMA. Digitalis purpurea. NlCOTlANA TABACUM. SoLANUM DULCAMARA. DlOSMA CRENATA. Lactuca virosa. Colchicum autumnale. PoLYGALA SENEGA. Gratiola officinalis. Spartium scoparicm. Ulmus campestris. juniperus communis. copaifera officinalis. Pyrola umbellata. Pinus sylvestris. Pinus abies. Pinus larix. Pinus balsamea. from the animal kingdom. Meloe vesicatorius. from the mineral kingdom. [AURUM.—B.] DIURETICS. 217 saline diuretics. Potassje subcarbonas. Subcarbonate of potash operates as a diuretic; and, as has been already remarked, it is secreted by the kidneys, so that, when con- tinued for a sufficient time, it renders the urine alkaline. It is, how- ever, liable to occasion irritation; and being much inferior in diure- tic power to the super-tartrate of potash, it has fallen into disuse. When employed, it is given in a dose of 20 or 30 grains dissolved in a large quantity of water, and repeated three or four times in the course of the day. The dilution is necessary, as the salt is caustic enough to act as a poison;. and there have been instances where, swallowed in too concentrated a state, it has caused fatal consequen- ces, particularly stricture of the oesophagus to such a degree, that the passage would scarcely admit a probe. Vinegar and oil are an- tidotes.* Potassa acetas. Acetate of Potash. Sal Diureticus. This salt, prepared according to the process of the Pharmaco- poeia, is obtained in the state of a white foliated mass, deliquescent, and very soluble in water. It has considerable power as a diuretic, and as a hydragogue cathartic is used in dropsy, half a drachm of it dissolved in water being given every hour or two until it operate, f Super-tartras potass-e. Crystali vel Cremor Tartari. Super- tartrate of Potash. Cream of Tartar. This salt, of which the chemical history has been already given, and its application as a cathartic noticed, is extensively employed as a remedy in dropsy, and is inferior in efficacy to few of the sub- stances belonging to this class. It is given either in a state of dilute solution, half an ounce or an ounce of the salt being dissolved in 8 or 10 ounces of water, and this taken during the course of the day, when it acts solely on the kidneys ; or in doses of from half an ounce to two ounces of the solid salt, made into an electuary with syrup, when it acts as a hydragogue cathartic, as well as diuretic, rapidly evacuating the effused water. It is said that the dropsical effusion is less apt to return after it has been removed by this remedy than by any other. It is principally of use in ascites; when the disease is connected with visceral obstructions, the combination of squill and calomel proves more successful. It hasi the disadvantage of hydragogue cathartics of weakening the general system, and it is rather liable to occasion flatulence and nausea, and to impair the appetite. The general remark already stated applies to this as well as to other * Incompatible Substances. Acids and acidulous salts, muriate of ammonia, ace- tate of ammonia, lime water and muriate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, alum, tar- tarized antimony, nitrate of silver, ammoniated copper, ammoniated iron audits tinc- ture, sulphate of iron, muriated tincture of iron, calomel and corrosive sublimate, the acetates of lead and sulphate of zinc.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, and other acids, sulphate of soda and of magnesia, as well as almost all metallic and earthy salts.—B. 28 218 DIURETICS. diuretics, that sometimes it succeeds where others fail, and con- versely. Nitras potassa. Nitrate of Potash. Nitrum. Nitre. This salt, consisting of nitric acid and potash, is frequently formed on the surface of the soil in warm and dry climates. In the south of Europe, its production is usually accelerated by artificial arrange- ments. Animal and vegetable substances, in a state of decomposi- tion, are mixed with a quantity of carbonate of lime ; the mass is exposed to the air, but protected from the rain, and is occasionally stirred. After a number of months, the materials are found to con- tain nitrate of lime and nitrate of potash. These salts are extract- ed by lixiviation with water: impure subcarbonate of potash is added, by which the nitrate of lime is decomposed, and the quantity of nitrate of potash increased ; and this salt is purified by repeated solutions and crystallizations. During the process by which the ni- trate of potash is formed, it appears that the oxygen of the atmo- spheric air, and probably also part of the oxygen of the vegetable matter, combine with the nitrogen of the animal matter, so as to form nitric acid ; the affinities whence these combinations arise being fa- voured by the affinities exerted by the lime. The acid is attracted in part by the lime, and in part by a quantity of potash, either con- tained in the materials, or, as some have supposed, formed during the process. The nitre used in this country is imported from India, where it occurs as a natural formation. Nitrate of potash is crystallized in hexaedral prisms. Its crystals are soluble in six parts of cold, and in an equal weight of boiling water. It is decomposed by heat, affording a large quantity of oxy- gen gas ; and, from the facility of this decomposition, is an important pharmaceutic agent in oxidating bodies by deflagration. Nitre has a cool and sharp taste, and occasions a sense of cold- ness in the stomach when swallowed. When given in moderate doses, continued for some time, its presence can be detected in the urine by chemical tests. As a diuretic, however, it is weak, and though it was at one time used to relieve ardor urinae in gonorrhoea, it is now only used as a refrigerant. If swallowed in the quantity of an ounce it acts as an irritant and narcotic poison, (Dr. Christison,) producing bloody vomiting and purging along with convulsions, which end in death. And fatal accidents have sometimes happened, from its being taken by mistake instead of sulphate of soda. Copious di- lution with mucilaginous fluids, the application of the stomach pump, opium, and venesection, have been recommended in such cases.* Offic. Prep.—Pot. nit. purif. Troch. nit. pot. Sodje acetas.—This salt is very similar to acetate of potash in its diuretic power, and has the advantage of not deliquescing. Its dose is from one to four scruples. * Incompatible Substances. Sulphuric acid, alum, the sulphates of magnesia. zinc, iron, and copper.—B. diuretics. 219 Spiritus jetheris nitrosi. Spirit of Nitrous Ether. Nitric acid, added in due proportion to alcohol, converts it into a species of ether; but as the process is difficult, from the violent che- mical action that takes place, it has long been the practice to use less acid than is required to change the whole alcohol into this pro- duct ; a portion of nitric ether is formed, and this is obtained by dis- tillation, combined with the unchanged alcohol. This process has a place in the Pharmacopceias, and forms what used to be named Spiritus Nitri Dulcis, but is now named Spiritus Athens Nitrosi. Its odour is fragrant; its taste sharp and acidulous. In medicine it is employed as a refrigerant and diuretic in a dose of 20 or 30 drops. Being grateful to the stomach, and relieving flatulence, it is often used to correct or promote the action of more powerful diuretics in dropsy.* DIURETICS FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. SciLLA MARITIMA. Squill. The medicinal applications of squill as an emetic have been al- ready stated. Under this article are to be considered its powers as a diuretic. Squill, foxglove, and super-tartrate of potash, are the diuretics principally employed in modern practice in the treatment of dropsy; and it is not easy to assign precisely their comparative powers, one frequently proving successful when either of the others has previous- ly failed. Squill operates more directly as a diuretic than the super- tartrate of potash does, and is not liable, even if its administration has been carried rather far, to produce those injurious effects which arise from the action of foxglove in an over-dose. Hence it is fre- quently preferred. It often deranges, however, the action of the stomach, and occasionally fails in its diuretic effect. As a diuretic, Squill is always given in substance, under the form of either the recent or the dried root. The dose of the former is from five to fifteen, of the latter from one to three grains ; the small- er dose being given at first, morning and evening, in the form of a pill, and this increased slowly until its diuretic effect is obtained. If the dose is too large, it is liable to excite nausea ; and the rule has even been delivered, to give it to the extent necessary to induce some degree of nausea. The production of this effect can be regarded, however, only as a test of the squill being in an active state; it is not necessary to its diuretic operation ; it proves distressirg to the patient; and it has been observed, that when it has once b«en given to such an extent as to induce this state of the stoinaci, the same state is more liable to recur even when after an inter<*il it is given in smaller doses. Its nauseating operation, therefore ought rather to be avoided by the due regulation of the dose. The diuretic power of squill is promoted by combination with mer- cury, and it is more frequently employed in th«* combination than * Incompatible Substances. With a solution of gre^n sulphate of iron it strikes a deep olive colour, owing probably to its holding a por-'ion of nitrous gas in solution 5 with the tincture of guaiacum it produces a green -rf blue coagulum.—B. 220 DIURETICS. alone. Of the mercurial preparations either the blue pill, or calo- mel, may be used ; the usual medium dose from which we obtain the general action of either on the system, being added to the dose of the squill, or being given in the evening, while the squill is given in the morning. The superiority of their combined action probably depends on the mercury stimulating the absorbent system, while the squill excites the action of the vessels of the kidneys. This com- bination is farther adapted to the treatment of dropsy, connected as it frequently is with obstruction or chronic inflammation of the liver or neighbouring organs, and is more successful in this case than any other diuretic. Where the mercurial preparation occasions purging, as this impedes the diuretic action of the squill, mercurial friction may be substituted. Digitalis purpurea. Foxglove. Foxglove has been considered as a narcotic; it is a still more im- portant article of the Materia Medica as a diuretic. It had been frequently used as an empirical remedy in dropsy ; but the violence of its narcotic operation, when not administered with due precau- tion, prevented it from being employed in practice, until Dr. Wither- ing pointed out, with more precision, the rules to be attended to in its exhibition. It is difficult to compare the powers of the principal diuretics; yet, on the whole, perhaps foxglove is more powerful than any of them in evacuating the water in dropsy : and the conclusions of Wi- thering are still nearly just, that " so far as the removal of water " will contribute to cure the patient, so far may be expected from " this medicine;" and that" although digitalis does not act universally " as a diuretic, it does so more generally than any other." In hy- drothorax its superiority to other diuretics is more clearly established than in ascites or anasarca ; and in the first of these states of dropsy, it is unquestionably superior to any other remedy. There is a peculiarity in the operation of this remed)', that it may be continued for some time without sensibly increasing the flow of urine ; the increase then suddenly commences, and often continues of itself for several days, and to a very great extent, without re- quiring the continued administration of the remedy, so that the drop- sical effusion is more speedily reduced by the action of it than by any ether diuretic. Its diuretic power, too, appears only when it is administered in dropsy, and hence there can be little doubt that it operate.s principally, if not entirely, by exciting the action of the ab- sorbents,\he absorbed fluid being dischaiged by the kidneys. The diuretic efrvct is not connected with its nauseating operation, or with the reduction in the force of the circulation ; it can, on the contrary, be obtained without either of these accompanying it; and Withering remarked even, ^at he had found the increased discharge of urine to be checked, whence doses had been imprudently urged so as to oc- casion sickness. lio observed also, that if it purges, it almost cer- tainly fails, probably o^ing to its action being determined from the absorbents to the intestines. The dose in which digitalis is given, when it is to act as a diure- DIURETICS.- 221 tic, is usually one grain of the powder of the dried leaves, or one ounce of the infusion, to be taken twice in twenty-four hours. There is no advantage in giving a large dose, or in increasing the dose by de- grees," as the action of digitalis seems to depend not on the introduc- tion of any large quantity at once, but its gradual accumulation in the system. The administration of it ought not to be long continued if it fail in producing its diuretic effect. It always injures the tone of the stomach, even where it has not been pushed to that extent to occa- sion nausea ; and there is the risk that, from its general debilitating operation, the powers of the system may suddenly sink. There are other diseases in which foxglove has been supposed to prove useful by its power of promoting absorption ; as in insania and epilepsy connected with serous effusion in the brain ; and in dyspnoea arising from serous effusion in the bronchiae,—anasarca pulmonum, as this affection is named. It may, in the treatment of dropsy, be advantageously combined with other diuretics ; and its action, like that of squill, is said to be promoted by mercury. An occasional dose of the spirit of nitrous ether is useful as counteracting nausea and flatulence, and aiding its diuretic effect. NlCOTIANA TABACUM. Tobacco, in its general action, has some resemblance to foxglove, being narcotic, emetic, and diuretic. As a diuretic, it has been em- ployed in dropsy under the form of infusion, one ounce of the dried leaves being infused in a pint of water, and ten drops being given, and gradually increased to 60 or even 100. It possesses, however, no peculiar advantage, and its diuretic effect is generally accom- panied with sickness and vertigo. It has been given with more ad- vantage in dysuria; and probably where that disease is connected with spasmodic action, the tobacco may prove useful by its antispas- modic, added to its diuretic power. Solanum dulcamara. Woody Nightshade. Bitter-Sweet. Pen- tand. Monogyn. Solanacea, Linn. Solanea, Juss. Stipiles. In- digenous. The young shoots or branches are the parts of this plant used in medicine ; when first chewed they have a bitter taste, which is soon followed by a degree of sweetishness, a peculiarity whence its name is derived ; their smell is strong and disagreeable. By drying, their activity is much impaired. Water extracts all their virtues, which depend on a newly discovered principle called Solania. It exists also in the Solanum Nigrum, from the berries of which it may be easily obtained by digesting them in alcohol and boiling the solu- tion. It possesses all the properties of a vegetable alkali, and has a nauseous bitter taste. This plant has a degree of narcotic and of diuretic power. An infusion or decoction of the dried stalks in water has been recom- mended in dropsy, but it is a remedy of uncertain operation, and is scarcely ever prescribed. 222 DIURETICS. Offic. Prep.—-Decoct, dulcamar. Lond. Diosma crenata. Buchu. Pentand. Monog. Rutacea, Juss. Fo- lia. Cape of Good Hope. This shrub is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The leaves resemble those of senna, but are broader, and are crenated at the margin ; their upper surface is bright green, smooth and shining. They have a strong aromatic odour like that of peppermint, to which they are also similar in taste. They consist chiefly of gum and ex- tractive matter, with chlorophylle, resin, and essential oil. Infusion of Buchu leaves has long been used by the Hottentots for its diuretic and diaphoretic effects ; it is now introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia. In chronic retention of the urine, in cases of morbid irritation of the bladder and urethra, it has been found serviceable as a diaphoretic ; it is said to be useful in chronic rheu- matism. A tincture of the leaves is employed as a stimulating embrocation. Offic. Prep.—Infus. buchu. Tinct. buchu. Lactuca virosa. Strong-scented Lettuce. This plant, though it possesses a narcotic quality, is also a diuretic, and has been recommended under the form of the inspissated juice as a remedy in dropsy, the dose being gradually increased from five or ten grains to two or three drachms. Though celebrated by the German practitioners, it is never used in this country. Colchicum autumnale. Meadow Saffron. Hexand. Trigyn. Li- liacea, Linn. Colchicacea, De Cand. Radix, Semina. Indi- genous. The root of this plant is bulbous ; when recent it is extremely acrid, a small quantity occasioning a sense of burning heat in the stomach, strangury, and tenesmus ; at other times it is entirely void of acrimony ; differences which are owing to climate, age, or season. Colchicum contains the vegetable alkali Veratria, which was first discovered by Pelletier and Caventou in the Veratrum album or White Hellebore. The presence of this alkaloid in both plants accounts for a curious coincidence respecting the empirical remedy celebrated on the Continent, under the name of Eau Medicinale d'Husson, for the cure of gout. One chemist regarded it as a preparation from colchicum, by another it was believed to be prepared from veratrum album ; it now appears that it is formed from the colchicum, but its medicinal effects are undoubtedly owing to the veratria which both plants contain. Veratria exists in both these plants in combination with gallic acid; when obtained pure it is in the form of a white powder, inodorous, very soluble in alcohol, but scarcely so in water ; at 122° it melts, and has the appearance of wax. The salts it forms are uncrystal- lizable by evaporation, and present the appearance of gum. Vera- tria given in very small doses produces violent vomiting and purging; it is poisonous in large doses, acting as an acrid narcotic. Colchicum, under the form of oxymel or syrup, was used by Stoerk DIURETICS. 223 in dropsy ; its operation, however, being uncertain, it is seldom em- ployed as a diuretic. From the narcotic power of the veratria, pre- parations of colchicum act as anodynes, and seem to have a specific effect in relieving the pain of gout. The Eau Medicinale d'Husson, which has been used with advantage in this disease, is prepared by boiling two ounces of the root of colchicum in four ounces of white Spanish wine, and then filtering. Wine of colchicum has a place in the London Pharmacopoeia, as an imitation of it, and a tincture and vinegar of colchicum have been introduced into the last edition of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia ; the latter are the best forms in which colchicum can be administered, its principle Veratria being soluble in alcohol and in vinegar. The tincture is prepared from the seeds, which are more uniform in their activity than the root. The pre- parations of colchicum have also been recommended in phthisis, hydrothorax, laryngitis, and combined with purgatives in bronchitis. There is, however, always a degree of uncertainty in their operation, and sometimes it is hurtful; in gout they have repeatedly proved injurious. Offic. Prep.—Syr. colch. Oxymel colch. Acet. colch. Sp. colch. TincU colch. Polygala senega. Seneka. Rattlesnake Root. Diadelph. Oc- tand. Lomentac, Linn. Polygalea, Juss. Radix. North Ame- rica. This root is in articulated shoots or joints like those of the tail of the rattlesnake ; hence its name, and hence, probably, the use of it by the Senegaro Indians as a remedy for the bite of that snake, on the same principle that the mineral named nephrite, being in the shape of a kidney, was formerly considered a remedy for nephritic complaints. The root is of a greyish-yellow colour, wi h a bitter pungent taste. It contains a substance which has been termed Se- negin, of a brown colour, soluble in alcohol but not in water, and which produces violent sneezing when applied to the nostrils. Seneka appears to stimulate the absorbent system, and hence acts as a diuretic ; it has also a cathartic power. It has been found use- ful in some cases of dropsy, but is apt to disorder the stomach. It is also used as an expectorant. Offic. Prep.—Decoct, seneg. Gratiola officinalis. Hedge-Hyssop. Diand. Monogyn. Per- sonata, Linn. Scrophularia, Juss. Herba. This plant is cultivated in our gardens. Its leaves have a strong bitter taste, with little smell. They prove emetic and cathartic, but in a smaller dose produce a diuretic effect, and have been re- commended under the form of infusion in the treatment of dropsy, two drachms being infused in half a pint of warm water, and a table- spoonful being given twice or thrice a-day. Their operation, how- ever, is always uncertain, and liable to be violent. Spartiubi scoparium. Broom. Diadelph. Decand. Papilionac. Linn. Leguminos. Juss. Summitates. Indigenous. 224 DIURETICS. The tops of the young branches of the broom have a bitter taste, which is communicated both to water and alcohol. The watery de- coction, prepared by boiling an ounce of the tops in a pint of water to half a pin , is used as a popular remedy in dropsy, and sometimes with success. It acts as a cathartic and diuretic ; being taken in divided doses through the day until its operation is obtained. Ulmus campestris. Elm. Pentand. Digyn. Scabridoz, Linn. Ur- ticea, Juss. Cortex interior. Indigenous. The interior bark of the elm has a place in the Pharmacopceias, though little employed. It has a bitterish taste, and when boiled with water affords a mucilaginous liquor. This decoction is said to operate as a diuretic, but does not appear to be of sufficient activity to form a remedy of any value in the treatment of dropsy. Advan- tage has been said to be derived from it in some cutaneous affec- tions, especially some forms of lepra. Offic. prep.—Decoct, ulmi. Juniperus communis. Juniper. Diacia, Monadelph. Conifera, Bacca, Cacumina. Indigenous. The berries of this shrub have an aromatic smell, and a warm sweetish taste, with a degree of bitterness, the former qualities resid- ing in the pulp, the last in the seeds. Distilled with water they af- ford a considerable quantity of essential oil. The flavour and warmth are also extracted by water by infusion. Juniper berries given in infusion prove diuretic. The essential oil retains this property ; and the spirit of juniper, or diluted alco- hol impregnated with it, forming the spiritous liquor known by the name of Gin, is prescribed in a diluted state as a cordial and diuretic in dropsy. Offic. Prep.—01. juniper. Spir.junip. comp. Copaifera officinalis. Balsamum Copaibce. Balsam of Copaiba or Copaiva. Decand. Monogyn. Dumosa, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. South America. Balsams are resinous juices, with an intermixture generally of an essential oil, and containing always a portion of Benzoic acid. The resinous juice of copaiba does not contain this acid, hence the name of Balsam is improperly applied to it. It is the produce by exuda- tion from incisions made in the trunk of the tree. It flows thin, but becomes thick and tenacious ; is transparent, with a yellow tinge ; has a peculiar smell, not disagreeable, and a pungent bitter taste. It is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and in expressed and es- sential oils, and with alkalis forms a kind of saponaceous compound. Distilled with water it affords nearly half its weight of an essential oil, an insipid resin being the residuum. Balsam of Copaiba increases the urinary discharge, and commu- nicates to the urine a violet odour. In too large a dose it is liable to excite inflammation of the urinary passages. From its power of stimulating these parts, it frequently proves successful in the cure of gleet, where the inflammation has entirely subsided, and the dis- charge continues from weakness of the exhalants or absorbents of DIURETICS. 225 the urethra. It has also been given in leucorrhcea, and in hsemor- rhoidal affections. More lately it has been used with success in the treatment of gonorrhoea, particularly in combination with cubebs, (page 148). Its dose is twenty or thirty drops twice or thrice a-day, given in the form of a bolus, or, what is preferable, as remaining more easily on the stomach, and less irritating, diffused in water by the medium of mucilage. In a large dose it produces a degree of intoxication, with a vibratory feeling in the brain. Pyrola umbellata. Winter Green. Decandria, Monog. Ericinece, Juss. Herba. India, North America. This is a low evergreen plant which grows in forests. The leaves have a sweet taste, with some bitterness ; the stalks and roots are astringent. The decoction of the shrub contains a portion of tannin and of bitter extractive. It is used warm as a diaphoretic, cold as a diuretic ; in dropsy, strangury and nephritis, some benefit is said to be derived from it.* Pinus sylvestris. P. abies. P. larix. P. balsamea. Monce- cia, Monadelphia, Conifera. Terebinthina. Oleum Terebin- thina. From the family of pines a number of substances used in medi- cine are obtained. The principal of these are as follows : Pinus Sylvestris, Scotch Fir. Terebinthina vulgaris, Common turpentine. Oleum Terebinthince, Oil of turpentine. Resinajlava, Yellow resin. Pix liquida, Tar. Pix nigra, Black pitch. Pinus abies, Spruce Fir. Thus, sive Abietis resina, Common frankincense. Pix Burgundica, sive Pix abietina, Burgundy pitch, or Resin of the spruce fir. Pinus larix, Larch. Terebinthina Veneta, Venice turpentine. Pinus balsamea, Balm of Gilead Fir. Terebinthina Canadensis, Canadian balsam. Of these species of pine the first is a native of this country, and it and the second are common throughout the north of Europe : the larch grows on the hilly parts of the south of Europe, and is now naturalized with us ; the last species is a native of Canada. All the substances enumerated, excepting tar and pitch, are either forms of or procured from the resinous juice which comes from these species of pine, either by natural exudation, or in consequence of incisions made in the trunk of the tree. The latter method makes the juice flow in greater quantity; and if the wounds are made successively in different parts of the bark, and not very deep into the wood, the tree will live for many years, affording every summer a constant stream of juice. On exposure to the air this juice becomes thick, * The infusion is made by pouring one pint of boiling water upon 3j of the plant. This may be taken in doses of from gij to Jiv. It has also been administered in tincture, in doses of from 3J to 3'j-—B. 29 226 DIURETICS. and frequently solid, forming the different kinds of turpentine. These are usually of a yellowish colour, with a strong odour, and a warm bitterish taste ; they consist of resin, and an essential oil. When exposed to heat they are decomposed, the oil rises in vapour and may be collected; it is Oil of Turpentine ; the resin remains. Such are the products which may be procured from any of the pines, but their properties differ somewhat as obtained from different species. Pinus Sylvestris. Scotch fir.—The juice is thick and turbid, with an offensive odour; it is the common turpentine. It contains less essential oil than some of the other turpentines, but being the cheap- est and most abundant, it is from it principally that oil of turpentine is distilled. Heat is applied to the turpentine, which has a portion of water added to it to prevent the temperature from rising too high, and the oil distils over. The residuum, after this distillation, is the common White or Yellow Resin ; it seems to contain part of the water combined with it, for if the distillation be conducted without adding water, instead of being opaque it is clear, and darker colour- ed. Yellow resin has little smell or taste, but appears, from the practice of the farriers, who give it to horses, to have some degree of diuretic power. It is only employed in the composition of oint- ments and plasters, which it renders more adhesive, and perhaps more stimulating. Various compositions of this kind have a place in the Pharmacopceias, as the Ceratum Resinae, or Unguentum Resino- sum, long known by the name of Basilicon, the Emplastrum Resino- sum, and others. It is from the wood of the Scotch fir that tar and pitch are chiefly obtained. The wood, in billets, is heaped into a pile, which is covered with turf, and kindled at the top ; it burns slowly, the resin is melted out, and sinks into a cavity below the pile; it is mixed with empyreumatic oil, the charcoal of the wood, and a portion of empyreumatic acetic acid, forming a thick black fluid known by the name of Tar. This fluid is a stimulating diuretic and diaphoretic. Two preparations, Aqua picis liquidae, and Unguentum picis liquidae, are made from it, afterwards to be noticed. By boil- ing, Tar loses its oil and acid, and becomes solid ; it is then Pitch, (Pix nigra,) which is sometimes employed as a stimulating external application ; according to Dr. Bateman it is also serviceable, taken internally, for ichthyosis. Pinus abies. Spruce fir.—The juice which spontaneously exudes from the Spruce fir hardens into brittle masses, brownish or yellow- ish on the outside, internally of a lighter colour, having little smell, but an acrid and somewhat bitter taste. This is the common Frank- incense or Thus : it is used in the preparation of several plasters. The juice, obtained by incisions through the bark, concretes into what is named Burgundy pitch, which is more impure and more acrid ; it has, when genuine, a very peculiar odour, by which it is easily distinguished. It is brittle when cold, but assumes a tenacious viscidity when heated, and is hence much used to form adhesive and gently stimulating plasters. Pinus larix. Larch.—The juice of the larch, as it exudes, is semi-pellucid, of a yellowish colour; it has a strong peculiar odour, and a bitter pungent taste ; it is named Venice turpentine. It con- DIURETICS. 227 tains a large quantity of essential oil. It has already been noticed as forming the basis of a powerful cathartic enema. Pinus balsamea. Balm of Gilead fir.—The resinous juice which exudes from this tree is named Canadian balsam, an improper term, as it contains no benzoic acid. It is of a light yellow colour, tena- cious, and, like the other turpentines, highly inflammable. By age it becomes thicker; its smell is agreeable ; its taste pungent. It possesses medicinal virtues similar to those of copaiba, and is used for the same purposes. It seems to be the purest of the turpentines. Its dose is 40 or 50 drops. Of all the substances derived from the pines, the Oil of turpentine is the most energetic in medicinal action. Its purgative power has already been taken notice of; it is here to be considered as a diure- tic. This oil is light, limpid and volatile, has a strong penetrating smell and a very pungent taste ; unlike the other essential oils, it is but sparingly soluble in alcohol. It is a powerful stimulant of the urinary organs, especially when given in small doses of from 10 to 40 drops ; in larger quantity it passes off by its purgative action. It communicates to the urine a violet odour. It has been employed in gleet in a dose of 5 drops to 10. It is, however, seldom used as a diuretic, since there is always a risk of its producing strangury or inflammation. It is, as shall afterwards be shewn, the most powerful of anthelmintics. Pistacia terebinthinus. Chio or Cyprus Turpentine. Dicec. Pentand. Amentacea, Linn. Terebinlhacea, Juss. The Chio turpentine resembles the turpentines of the pines, but is more limpid, fragrant and grateful; its powers are the same, but not being easily procured, it is never used. DIURETICS FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. Meloe vesicatorius. Cantharis Vesicatoria. Spanish Fly. Lytta Vesicatoria. Blistering Fly. Coleoptera. This insect is found adhering to the leaves of certain plants in Spain and Italy ; they are detached by shaking the branches, are killed by being exposed to the vapours of vinegar, and are then dried in the sun. J hey are of a rich lively green colour ; have a faint unpleasant smell, and a taste slightly acrid. Their acrid matter is extracted both by water and alcohol. Robiquet, by a careful analy- sis, obtained from cantharides a volatile oil and a white crystalline substance, to which the active properties are owing; the latter he named Cantharidine. It is in white scales, insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether; the smallest particle of it dissolved in oil forms a liquor which, applied to the skin, quickly raises a blister ; the oil communicates the odour. • Cantharides inflame and excoriate the skin, and are hence used as the basis of the common vesicatories. Their active matter ap- pears to have a peculiar determination to the urinary organs, as even from external application strangury is sometimes induced ; and a small dose of the cantharides internally administered is liable to act 228 diaphoretics. with much violence on the kidneys and bladder, producing inflamma- tion and a discharge of bloody urine. In dropsy it has been given as a diuretic, in a dose of one grain once or twice a-day, continued for some time, but it does not appear to be a safe or manageable diu- retic : it has been prescribed in a similar dose in obstinate gleet and leucorrhcea, and in retention of urine arising from debility of the body of the bladder, or in the opposite affection of incontinence of urine. It is principally in the latter of these affections that the in- ternal administration of cantharides is attempted,—where the inabili- ty to retain the urine arises from weakness of the sphincter vesicae, a state which the cantharides by its local stimulant operation is adapt- ed to remove. Its action requires to be moderated by the free use of diluents. It has also been employed as a stimulant in amenorrhcea. It is still more extensively used externally as an epispastic, an appli- cation of it to be afterwards noticed. Cases of poisoning sometimes happen from cantharides. If taken in a dose of ten grains it produces violent irritation of the alimentary canal and urinary organs; thirty or forty grains have occasioned death. Oil is not, as was supposed, an antidote, but rather assists its action. Emetics should be employed, and afterwards draughts con- taining opium or camphor. Oleaginous and mucilaginous injections into the bladder relieve the strangury. [Aurum. Gold. (Page 130.) The diuretic properties of this metal have already been noticed when treating of it under the head of tonics.—B.] CHAP. X. OF DIAPHORETICS. Diaphoretics are those medicines which increase the natural ex- halation by the skin. When they excite this so copiously as to pro- duce sweat, they are named Sudorifics. The operation of both is the same, differing only in degree; diaphoretics in doses sufficiently large acting as sudorifics, and sudorifics in diminished doses, or un- der peculiar circumstances, occasioning only diaphoresis. The fluid effused too is in both cases alike, being chiefly the watery part of the blood, with a slight impregnation of saline matter. In the one case it is discharged more slowly, and therefore passes off in the state of vapour ; in the other it is discharged copiously from the ex- halant vessels in the liquid form. The operation of these medicines is not obscure ; the natural ex- halation is merely increased ; the action of the exhalant vessels on the surface must therefore have been augmented, and the substances belonging to this class must be those which stimulate these vessels. Of stimuli of this kind external heat affords an example ; it is di- DIAPHORETICS. 229 rectly applied to the vessels, and must occasion in them increased action ; hence it often produces sweat, and always promotes the ac- tion of sudorifics. The same effect may be produced by a different operation,—by increasing the general force of the circulation ; this propelling the blood into the minute vessels more forcibly, acts as a stimulus on the exhalants, and increases their discharge. Hence violent muscular exercise is attended with copious sweating. In one or other of these modes the medicines belonging to this class operate,—either directly stimulating the cutaneous exhalant vessels, or indirectly communicating to them increased action, by increasing the force of the circulation. The saline diaphoretics seem to act in the former manner ; they have little or no action on the vascular system, neither increasing the velocity, nor force of the circulation ; their action therefore is exerted on the stomach, and thence communicated to the vessels of the skin. Perhaps they may likewise be absorbed into the mass of blood, as they readily pass with the chyle, or enter the absorbent vessels, and may act more directly on the cutaneous vessels. Those diaphoretics, on the contrary, which are more stimulating, probably act by increasing the force of the vascular system, as they usually augment the force and frequency of the pulse previous to occasioning sweat. Diaphoresis is not, however, the necessary consequence of the circulation being increased in force ; for it often happens that the pulse is frequent and hard, when the skin remains dry. In this case there seems to exist a constriction of the exhalants sufficient to re- sist the impetus of the blood, and whatever can remove this will favour sweating. Diaphoresis, therefore, it may in general be said, will follow from increased vascular action, when the exhalants of the skin are not morbidly constricted ; and it will take place still more copiously when the circulation is increased in the larger vessels, while the exhalants are relaxed. On this view is to be explained the operation of tepid diluents, and of external warmth in promoting sweat, the tendency of both being to increase the force of the cir- culation, and at the same time occasion relaxation of the cutaneous vessels. From producing the latter effect too, small doses of emetics are favourable to diaphoresis ; and from the same principle, the dia- phoretic operation of the combination of opium with ipecacuan, or the preparations of antimony, may be accounted for ; the primary effect of the opium being to increase the action of the vascular sys- tem ; that of the ipecacuan or antimony, by its nauseating operation, to diminish the action at the surface, as is apparent from the pale- ness of the skin, and the sense of coldness with which nausea is attended. Hence the superiority. of this combination in sudorific power. The primary effects of diaphoretics are to evacuate the watery part of the blood, and thus lessen the quantity of it in the circulating system ; to determine the blood to the surface from the internal parts ; to increase the action of the absorbents, and to remove spas- 230 DIAPHORETICS. modic stricture of the cutaneous vessels, and render the skin moist and relaxed. It is doubtful whether the first of these effects takes place to any extent ; for, during sweating, there is generally considerable thirst: as much fluid may therefore be taken in as will supply what is thrown out; and besides, the other fluid secretions, particularly that of urine, are diminished during the operation. It is probable, therefore, that little alteration takes place in the quantity of fluid contained in the body from the action of diaphoretics ; and we can scarcely, in any case, ascribe any beneficial effects they produce to this cause. The last effect is perhaps the most important; at least it is on this principle,—the removing spasmodic stricture of the cutaneous ves. sels,—that the efficacy of diaphoretics in inflammatory diseases has been explained. In such affections the skin is dry, and the external heat augmented ; but when diaphoresis has been induced, the state is removed, and the skin remains moist and cool. It is with the view of producing these effects that diaphoretics are used in synocha, acute rheumatism, and in the various phlegmasia?. Several circumstances contributed to lead physicians to the free use of diaphoretics in fever. The skin is generally dry and hot; and it was often observed, that a spontaneous salutary crisis is mark- ed by diaphoresis, or even by a copious sweat. Hence it was con- cluded, that by following the path nature pointed out, and inducing this relaxed state of the vessels of the skin, the disease might be removed. Theory too had its influence in carrying this practice to an immoderate extent, fever being supposed to arise from the pre- sence of morbific matter in the system, and sweating being an eva- cuation by which it was supposed to be discharged. The limits to the practice have long been established ; little advantage appears to be derived from it in the treatment of fevers of the typhoid type, and it is principally in the phlegmasia? that it is employed, in inflamma- tory catarrh particularly, and in acute rheumatism. As evacuating the serous part of the blood, and as promoting ab- sorption, sudorifics have been sometimes employed in the different species of dropsy, especially in anasarca, in which the circulation in the extreme vessels on the surface is more or less languid. Cases occur where it is not easy to increase the discharge by urine, and in these sweating has been had recourse to as less debilitating than purging, the only other evacuation that can be excited with advan- tage. It has been remarked, too, that the operation of diaphoretics, when it has been excited, has been accompanied by an increase in the quantity of urine, a proof of absorption having been promoted. It is difficult, however, to excite sweating in dropsy, and the prac- tice is rarely attempted. By determining to the surface, and preserving a gentle diaphoresis, the remedies of this class are found serviceable in asthma, dyspepsia, habitual diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, and chronic rheumatism. In various obstinate cutaneous affections, as herpes and lepra, ad- vantages have been derived from the use of diaphoretics, probably from altering the morbid state of the extreme vessels on the surface. DIAPHORETICS. 231 The use of the warm bath, and the antimonial and mercurial diapho- retics, are found more particularly serviceable in such affections. Several circumstances require to be attended to in the administra- tion of sudorifics. If the disease is inflammatory, the action of the vascular system strong, and the skin dry, with great heat on the sur- face, those which are of the stimulating kind are to be avoided, as, if they fail in producing sweat, they may aggravate the symptoms. The free use of warm diluents is proper, and even necessary, under the operation of full sweating. The patient should be covered with flannel, not only as preserving the temperature more uniform, but also as it absorbs the moisture, which would otherwise carry off the heat too rapidly, and cool the surface. The covering ought rather to be light, as there is no necessity for much external warmth. Too much heat, especially when unaccompanied by humidity, sometimes prevents sweating, probably by stimulating the exhalant vessels, and increasing their force of resistance. It is promoted by partial fomen- tation, as the application of flannel dipped in warm water, and press- ed out, to the feet. Lastly, care is to be taken to avoid the appli- cation of cold, either by the admission of cold air to the surface, or the drinking of cold water while the sweat continues, or for some time after it has ceased. When the sweat is to be checked, it is best done by drying the skin, removing the patient into dry flannel, diminishing the covering, and allowing the hands and arms to be exposed to the air. The particular diaphoretics may be arranged according to the affinity in their operation, as they operate by increasing the action of the vascular system, or as they act without any sensible stimulant operation, though it is somewhat difficult to trace the distinctions of these, or even with regard to every individual, to assign the kind of action it exerts. The saline diaphoretics act principally in the latter mode ; the vegetable diaphoretics in the former. DIAPHORETICS. Ammonite acetas. ■ ---sub-carbonas. -------bicarbonas. --------MURIAS. Calomelas. Antimonium. Opium. Camphor. guaiacum officinale. Daphne mezereum. Laurus sassafras. Salvia officinalis. [eupatorium perfoliatum.- [asclepias tuberosa.—b.] -B.] Ammonite acetas. Acetate of Ammonia. All the ammoniacal salts are supposed to have a diaphoretic power. The acetate is the one which has been principally used ; its solution (Aqua Acetatis Ammoniae) having been celebrated under the name of Spirit of Mindererus (Spiritus Mindereri) as a diapho- retic in febrile affections. An ounce is given every hour or two, and 232 DIAPHORETICS. its operation is promoted by tepid diluents and the sweating regimen. As it produces no increase of vascular action, it has been supposed well adapted to exhibition in inflammatory fevers, as synocha and acute rheumatism, and it is in such cases that it is usually employed. Its diaphoretic power, there is reason to suspect, is not very great ; but it may be rendered more active by its operation being promoted by the addition of small proportions of opium and antimony. Exter- nally it is used as a discutient, and sometimes as an application to inflamed parts, as in gonorrhoea, in a state of great dilution. Twenty drops of it in a glass of water have some effect in diminishing intoxi- cation.* Ammonite sub-carbonas. Sub-carbonate of Ammonia.—Of this salt some notice has been taken as an antispasmodic ; it is also used as a diaphoretic. It is emloyed either in the solid form, or in the state of the officinal solution ; its operation is promoted by the sweat- ing regimen. It has been thus given in catarrh and bronchitis, but is seldom used. As a stimulant, the solution, combined with a portion of alcohol and fragrant essential oil, (Spirit, ammon. aroma- tic.) is given in languor or faintness. The concrete salt is applied to the nostrils, forming what is named the pungent smelling salt.f Ammonia bicarbonas. Bicarbonate of Ammonia.—The Dublin College have introduced this salt into their Pharmacopoeia, as a more convenient form of ammonia for internal administration than the sub-carbonate. The alkali in it being more completely neutralized, the taste of the salt is milder ; it is also not liable to alter in compo- sition by exposure to the air. As a diaphoretic its action is weaker, but this only renders a larger dose necessary. According to Dr. Barker, it is given in a dose of from six to twenty-four grains, dis- solved in cold water. It may be used likewise as an antispasmodic and antacid. Ammonue murias. Muriate of Ammonia. Sal-Ammoniac. This salt is prepared in various modes, on a large scale, for the purposes to which it is applied in the arts. In Mr. Astley's process, animal substances are steeped in a strong solution of muriate of magnesia, and then exposed to such a heat as causes a slow com- bustion. The decomposition of the animal matter evolves am- monia, with which the muriatic acid combines, and muriate of am- monia is sublimed. In another process the ammoniacal liquor ob- tained in the manufacture of coal gas is used, and the salt is also procured by washing soot, which affords sulphate of ammonia, and heating this with muriate of soda, the two salts are decomposed by * Incompatible Substances. Acids, potash and soda and their carbonates, mag- nesia, lime water, sulphate of magnesia, perchloride of mercury, nitrate of silver, sulphate of iron, zinc and copper, and the acetates of lead.—B. t Incompatible Substances. Acids, fixed alkalies, and their carbonates, lime, magnesia, alum, supertartrate of potash, and all the acidulous salts, sulphate of mag- nesia, submuriate and oxymuriate of mercury, superacetate of lead, tartarized iron, and the sulphates of iron and zinc. If it be added to decoctions and infusions, they must be previously cooled.—B. DIAPHORETICS. 233 double affinity, the sulphuric acid uniting with the soda, the muriatic acid with the ammonia, and the muriate of ammonia is sublimed. Muriate of ammonia is obtained by sublimation in a solid dense mass of a striated texture, somewhat ductile and semi-transparent. It is soluble in about three parts of cold water, and may be crystal- lized from its hot solution. In medical practice it is little employed. It has been supposed, in the dose of one drachm, to act either as a diuretic or diaphoretic, according to the mode in which it is ad- ministered ; the first effect being obtained when the surface of the body is kept cool; the other when external warmth is applied, with the use of tepid diluents. It is also applied externally as a discu- tient to indolent tumours, dissolved in distilled vinegar, with some- times the addition of a little alcohol ; and a similar solution is used as an application in some forms of inflammation, to chilblains, and to some cutaneous eruptions. But it has a place in the Pharmaco- poeias principally as being employed in pharmacy.* Calomelas. Sub-murias Hydrargyri. Calomel. Sub-muriate of Mercury. This preparation of mercury is sometimes employed to obtain its action on the cutaneous vessels; and in certain diseases, particular- ly eruptions on the surface and chronic rheumatism, has been sup- posed to prove useful by increasing the insensible perspiration. Combined with opium, or with guaiac, it has been supposed to exert a still greater degree of diaphoretic power. Antimonium. Antimony.—A sympathy appears to exist between the stomach and the surface of the body, in consequence of which the state of the one is to a certain extent communicated to the other ; the nauseating effect, for example, of emetics being accompanied with diminished action at the surface. This sympathetic affection is apparently produced by the preparations of antimony ; and some of them, particularly the oxide of antimony with phosphate of lime, and the tartrate of antimony and potash, are hence employed as dia- phoretics in febrile affections. The former, which is considered to be -the same with the celebrated fever powder of Dr. James, has long had a high reputation as a diaphoretic, more particularly in conti- nued fevers ; but, as has been already remarked, its operation is ir- regular, and often it is altogether inert, (p. 177). Its dose is from 3 to 8 grains ; yet Dr. Duncan gave it in doses of a scruple several times in a day without any apparent effect. The tartrate of anti- mony and potash, in divided doses of one-fourth or one-half of a grain, is more certain and manageable, arid combined with opium forms a powerful diaphoretic. It is given dissolved in wine, form- ing the Vinum Tartratis Antimonii. Opium.—Opium produces diaphoresis, particularly when its ope- * Incompatible Substances. Sulphuric and nitric acids, potash and its carbonate, carbonate of soda, lime, magnesia, and superacetato of lead, nitrate of silver, and all the metallic salts whose bases form insoluble compounds with muriatic acid.—B. 30 234 DIAPHORETICS. ration is promoted by diluents and external warmth, and in large doses it excites even profuse sweating. It is difficult, however, to employ it alone as a sudorific, from its narcotic power being neces- sarily exerted at the same time. But by combination with antimo- ny or ipecacuan, a modification of power is produced, more import- ant perhaps than any other arising from the combination of reme- dies : the narcotic operation of the opium is counteracted, the nauseating effect of the ipecacuan or antimony is also diminished, and we obtain a sudorific more powerful and certain than any other. In the combination with antimony, thirty-five drops of antimonial wine are added to twenty-five of tincture of opium. The combina- tion with ipecacuan is still more powerful. It is an officinal prepa- ration, (Pulvis Ipecacuanhae etOpii,) and consists of one part of ipe- cacuan, one of opium and eight parts of sulphate of potash : these are rubbed together into a fine powder, the sulphate of potash ren- dering this more easy by dividing the opium and lessening its tenaci- ty. This has long been celebrated as a sudorific, under the name of Dover's Powder, and is the medicine which is employed where copious sweating is to be induced, as' in acute rheumatism, in ana- sarca, and in every other disease in which this indication is to be fulfilled. Its medium dose is ten grains, (containing one grain of opium and one of ipecacuan,) given generally in a bolus ; its opera- tion is promoted by tepid diluents and external warmth, the patient being confined to bed. If it fail in producing sweat, other five grains may be given at the end of an hour, and sometimes even it is necessary to give a larger dose. When it operates, the sweating is generally profuse, and by proper management can be kept up for several hours. The power of the combination probably depends on the joint action of the opium and ipecacuan, the former increasing the force of the circulation, while it also produces relaxation at the surface, and the latter aiding this effect by its action, propagated ■ from the stomach to the surface of the body, diminishing the resist- ance in the exhalant vessels. Such is the effect of this modification, that the combination can be given with safety in pure inflammatory affections, attended with increased vascular action, where the exhi- bition of opium alone would be attended with hazard. Camphora.—Camphor has been employed as a diaphoretic in acute rheumatism, in different forms of fever, and in several of the exanthemata, particularly small-pox, in a dose of from five to fifteen grains ; but its operation is not sufficiently certain when it is given alone. Sometimes it is combined with nitre, with antimonials, calo- mel, or opium. Guaiacum officinale. Guaiac. Decand. Monogyn. Gruinales, Linn. Rutacea, Juss. Lignum et Gummi-resina. South Ameri- ca and West Indies. The wood of this tree, and a concrete resinous substance obtained by exudation from incisions in its trunk, are the parts of it used in medicine. The wood is hard and heavy, of a yellowish colour, has little smell, diaphoretics. 235 and a slightly warm bitter taste. Its virtues depend on the small portion of acrid resinous matter which- it contains. Decoction of Guaiac wood was introduced into practice as a remedy in the treat- ment of lues venerea, and was at one time even considered capable of effecting a radical cure. It has however no such power ; but it is employed as an auxiliary, and sometimes with evident advantage, in promoting the action of mercury in the confirmed state of the disease, and in alleviating the various symptoms which arise from a protracted mercurial course. It is likewise occasionally prescribed in cutaneous diseases, in scrofulous affections, and in chronic rheu- matism. The gum-resin of guaiac is obtained by exudation from incisions made in the trunk of the tree, the juice being inspissated by expo- sure to the sun. It is also extracted by another process, probably not without some injury, that of placing billets of the wood, bored longitudinally, across the fire; the resinous matter is melted, runs into the internal cavity, and is collected at the extremity. It is fri- able, of a greenish or greyish colour, variegated when it has been obtained by exudation ; it has a resinous lustre, an odour somewhat fragrant, and a warm bitterish taste. It was regarded as a gum- resin, but, according to the experiments of Brande, possesses some peculiar properties, whence it has been regarded as a distinct prin- ciple. It in particular suffers changes of colour, apparently from the action of oxygen. Its powder is at first of a grey colour, but be- comes green from exposure to the air; and when its solution in al- cohol is decomposed by acids, the precipitate assumes various tints of colour. When mixed with the gluten of wheat it becomes of a deep blue colour. It is soluble in alcohol. Guaiac is a stimulating medicine, proving diaphoretic in a dose of about half a drachm, and purgative in a larger dose. It is a remedy employed in chronic rheumatism, being given so as to excite sweat, or more usually in smaller doses to keep up a gentle diaphoresis. Its sudorific power is promoted by opium, or the pre-parations of an- timony. It is given either in substance, ten or twenty grains being formed into a bolus, or diffused in water by the medium of mucilage or tincture. The tincture of it in Spirit of ammonia is more highly stimulating than that in proof-spirit, and is generally preferred. The empirical remedy known by the name of the Chelsea pensioner, which is found sometimes to cure rheumatism, is composed of Gum- Guaiac one drachm, powdered Rhubarb two drachms, Cream ct Tartar one ounce, Flowers of Sulphur two ounces, one Nutmflg finely powdered, made into an electuary with one pound of clar-tied honey. Two large spoonfuls to be taken night and morning It is said to have cured Lord Amherst. Offic. Prep..—Dec. guaiac. Tinct. guaiac. Tinct. guaiac. am. Mist, guaiac. Daphne mezereum. Mezereon. Octand. Monogyn. Veprecula, Linn. Thymelea, Juss. Cortex radicis. Indigenous. The bark of the root of this plant is the part used in medicine : the entire slender twigs of the root are, however, often found in the 236 DIAPHORETICS. shops ; its taste when it is chewed for some time is acrid, but this acrimony is somewhat impaired in drying it; it is extracted by wa- ter and by vinegar. A peculiar vegetable principle has been ob- tained from it by Vauquelin, which he has named Daphnine, but it has not been particularly examined. Mezereon is a stimulating diaphoretic, which has been found of service in chronic rheumatism, and in cutaneous diseases. Its prin- cipal medicinal application has been, however, in the treatment of some syphilitic affections ; and it has in particular been regarded as efficacious in removing venereal nodes, and thickening of the liga- ments and periosteum, and in disposing ulcerations to heal. It is given in the form of decoction, but there is much doubt as to its hav- ing any efficacy in these affections. Offic. Prep.—Dec. mezer. Laurus sassafras. Sassafras. Enneand. Monogyn. Oleracea, Linn. Laurinea, Juss. Lignum, Oleum. America. This wood has a moderately fragrant smell, and a sweetish aro- matic taste. It affords an essential oil by distillation, and, yields to water, by infusion or decoction, its flavour and part of its taste ; al- cohol extracts all its virtues. It is slightly stimulant and diaphoretic. Its infusion has been drunk freely in cutaneous diseases, and in chronic rheumatism ; it has even been celebrated for its efficacy in the removal of some of the symptoms of syphilis, and it is frequent- ly added to decoctions of sarsaparilla, guaiac, and mezereon, proba- bly without communicating any real virtue. Offic. Prep.—'01. sassaf. Salvia officinalis. Sage. Diand. Monogyn. Verticillata, Linn, Labiata, Juss. Folia. The leaves of this shrub have an aromatic smell, and a warm bitterish taste. Its aqueous infusion, drunk warm, has been used to produce sweat, or to promote the action of sudorifics ; the aromatic quality of the sage adding something perhaps to the power of the warm diluent. An infusion of Melissa Officinalis, Balm, is used for the same purpose, and acts in the same way. [EtiPATORiuM perfoliatum. Boneset. (Page 150.) The diaphoretic properties of the Boneset will be found noticed in the general account given of this plant under the head of Tonics. -B.] B [Ascl^pias tukerosa. Decumbent Swallow.wort. Pleurisy root. Butterfly weed. Pentand. Digyn. Nat. Ord. Asclcpiadea. Ra- dix. United States. I ins phtivt grnws in every part of the United States, but is most abundant in the Carulinas and Georgia. It flowers in June and July. The root, which is the p;irt used in medicine, has a bitter though not unpleasant taste. Its most abundant soluble portions are a bitter ex- tractive matter and fecula. Boiling water is its best menstruum. As a diaphoretic and expectorant the asclepias deserves a high rank expectorants. 237 among our native medicinal productions. It has been found highly serviceable in rheumatism, catarrh, bronchitis, and the secondary stages of pneumonic inflammation. It has also been recommended as a palliative in phthisis pulmonalis. It may be given in substance and decoction. Of the former, the dose is from 3j to 3ss. The decoc- tion is made by boiling |ss of the root in a pint of water. Of this a tea-cup full may be taken several times during the day.—B.] CHAP. XI. OF EXPECTORANTS. Expectorants have been defined, those medicines which facilitate or promote the rejection of mucus, or other fluids, from the lungs and trachea. The theory that has been given of their mode of ope- ration is extremely obscure and hypothetical. It has been supposed, that, in certain diseases, a greater quantity of serous fluid is thrown out by the exhalant vessels in the lungs than the absorbents can take up, and that expectorants facilitate the rejection of this fluid. But as expectoration of this kind is a complicated, and partly voluntary operation, dependent on the action of a variety of muscles, it is dif- ficult to perceive how these remedies can produce any such effect. There are only two classes of medicines which seem capable of promoting expectoration in this manner ; powerful stimulants, which, when extreme debility is present, may promote it by giving vigour to the voluntary muscles exerted in the operation, and emetics, which, by exciting vomiting, compress the thoracic viscera, and, by calling all the neighbouring muscles into strong action, and rendering both expiration and inspiration more forcible, may facilitate the expulsion of matter from the cavity of the lungs. But these exert no specific action, and are therefore not entitled to the appellation of expecto- rants ; nor indeed are they usually considered as such. If, therefore, by expectorants are understood substances capable of promoting, by some specific action on the parts concerned, the expulsion of fluid from the lungs, there appears no reason to believe in the existence of such remedies. Dr. Cullen, after admitting the difficulty of giving a theory on this subject, supposes that the promoting of expectoration by these reme- dies may be owing to their " increasing the secretion of the liquid, that is, to afford a mucus ; this, as it is poured from the arteries into the follicles, being always a thin fluid, it. may dilute the mucus in the follicles, and may cause it to be poured out from these in a less vis- cid state, and thereby render it more easy to be brought up by coughing, that is, to be more freely expectorated." It is possible that some expectorants may act in this manner ; but the action of the different individuals belonging to the class, and es- 238 EXPECTORANTS. pecially their action in different diseases, cannot always be explained on this principle. There appear indeed to be several modes of ope- ration, by which certain medicines promote expectoration, and which give them a claim to the title of expectorants. In the first place, by removing constriction on the exhalant ves- sels in the lungs, expectoration will appear to be promoted. From this constricted state the usual quantity of fluid is not thrown out to lubricate these parts ; expectoration must, of course, be more scanty than usual; and if medicines are given capable of removing the constriction, expectoration will become more copious. At the sanies time the disease will be at least partially relieved, as that mor- bid state of the vessels, from which some of its symptoms originate, is removed. It is apparently by such a mode of operation that the promoting of expectoration is of service in pneumonia, inflammatory catarrh, and asthma, the principal diseases in which expectorants are employed. The remedies by which such an effect is induced, according to this mode of operation, must be principally those belonging to the class of antispasmodics, or those which have the power of inducing nausea, either of these being capable by their action of removing constriction of the exhalant vessels. The antimonial preparations, which are perhaps the most powerful expectorants, appear to operate on this principle. Opium must operate in a similar manner. It is not possible, however, to explain the effect of all the medi- cines ranked as expectorants, from this mode of operation ; on the contrary, some of them seem to act on a very different principle. In certain diseases, as in humoral asthma and catarrhus senilis, there is from debility of the exhalants, or from deficient action of the ab- sorbents, an increased quantity of fluid in the lungs. Some medi- cines have been supposed to promote its expectoration; but it is more probable that any relief they afford is by diminishing its quan- tity. There appear to be certain substances peculiarly determined to the pulmonary vessels, as their odour is discernible in the air expired. These may stimulate the exhalant vessels through which they pass, and by this stimulus may moderate the effusion of fluid, and thus render the expectoration of the remainder more easy. Any medicine promoting absorption of the effused fluid will, to a certain extent, have a similar effect. There is another mode, too, in which the quantity of fluid in the lungs may be diminished, that of deter- mining to the surface of the body, so as to increase the insensible perspiration ; and it is probable, that some of the substances which have been used as expectorants, particularly those connected with the class of diaphoretics, owe what virtues they have to this operation. Expectorants are not, then, to be regarded as medicines which as- sist the rejection of a fluid already secreted, or which, according to Dr. Cullen's opinion, alter its consistence, and render it thin where it is too viscid, by which its expulsion is rendered more easy. They are rather to be considered either as increasing the natural exhala- tion where it has been deficient, in which case the expectoration that takes place is the consequence of this, and not the cause of any re- lief that is afforded ; or as diminishing the quantity of fluid where it EXFECTORANTS. 239 is too copious, either by stimulating the exhalant vessels, increasing the action of the pulmonary absorbents, or determining to the sur- face of the body, by which diminution the expulsion of the remaining fluid is facilitated. On one or other of these principles we may, with sufficient probability, explain the effects of this class of reme- dies, and their application to the treatment of diseases. From this diversity of operation it is evident that expectorants will prove useful in opposite diseases, and that in some morbid affec- tions advantage may be derived from those belonging to one division, but not from the others. In pneumonia, where the expectoration is deficient, as this arises not from any deficiency of power to expectorate, but from a dimi- nution of the fluid usually thrown out into the bronchiae, owing to a constricted state of the exhalant vessels, it is evident that those ex- pectorants which act by removing such a state will be most useful, while such expectorants as stimulate these vessels would be rather prejudicial. Hence the utility in this case of nauseating doses of tartrate of potash and antimony, or of ipecacuan ; and similar ad- vantage may be derived from the use of these remedies in catarrh, and perhaps also in spasmodic asthma. On the contrary, where the effusion of fluids into the bronchiae is too great, as in humoral asthma, or in the chronic catarrh to which old people are subject, those expectorants which are more directly stimulant, as the dif- ferent balsams, and several of the gum resins, as myrrh or ammo- niacum, so far as they have any efficacy, or those which promote absorption, as squill or foxglove, will be found more useful. In con- sidering the particular expectorants, they may be arranged as nearly as possible according to these subdivisions. EXPECTORANTS. Antimonium. Ipecacuanha. Digitalis purpurea. Nicotiana tabacum. SdLLA MARITIMA. Allium sativum. PoLYGALA SENEGA. Ammoniacum. Myrrha. Myroxylon peruiferum. ---------toluiferum. Styrax benzoin. -----officinale. Amyris gileadensis. tussilago farfara. Antimonium.—Antimony, it has been already remarked, is in use as an expectorant, and probably operates by its power of removing constriction of the exhalants, and thereby favouring the effusion of fluid into the mucous cells of the lungs, when from an inflammatory state this secretion has been suppressed. It, of course, then appa- rently causes expectoration. The form of it which is chiefly em- ployed is that of the tartrate of antimony and potash. It is used in pertussis and pneumonia, and in some forms of asthma and catarrh, in the dose of one-eighth of a grain, repeated every second or third 240 EXPECTORANTS. hour. It is also frequently combined with squill and other expecto- rants, to promote their operation. Ipecacuanha.—Ipecacuan, operating in the same manner nearly as antimony, has, like it, been used as an expectorant in a dose of two or three grains. It is, however, less frequently employed. Ad- vantage is sometimes derived from it in this dose, continued for some time, in chronic asthma. Digitalis purpurea.—Foxglove is employed with advantage in humoral asthma, dyspnoea aquosa, and in catarrhus senilis, obviously from its power of promoting absorption, by which it removes the fluid accumulated in the lungs from diminished action of the absorbents. By diminishing the quantity of this fluid, it facilitates the expectora- tion of the remainder: it hence appears to act as an expectorant, and relieves the difficulty of breathing, and the irritation to which this accumulation gives rise. In such cases it is proper to give it rather in small doses, than to push its operation to any great extent; a grain of the dried leaves, twenty drops of the tincture, or half an ounce of the infusion daily, will be a sufficient dose. Nicotiana tabacum.—Tobacco has been celebrated as an ex- pectorant in chronic catarrh and humoral asthma, under the form of the watery extract, the dose of which is two or three grains. Its general action being similar to that of foxglove, it probably operates in these morbid affections on the same principle, though it is much inferior in efficacy. Scilla maritiMa.—Squill, the history of which has been given as a diuretic, is one of the principal expectorants. It is used more peculiarly in those cases where there is an accumulation of the pul- monary mucus; hence it probably operates by its power of promoting absorption, diminishing the quantity of fluid effused, and thus facili- tating the expectoration of the remainder. By stimulating the exha- lants of the lungs where they are in a debilitated state, it may also lessen the secretion where it is too abundant. In inflammatory states of the system, where, from constriction of the pulmonary vessels, the exhalation is diminished, it is less useful; it has even, from its acrimony, been considered injurious in pneumonia, unless when the state of active inflammation has subsided, or when its stimulating operation is diminished by combination with nitre, or with tartrate of antimony. As an expectorant it is also used in pertussis ; and when the removal of that disease is attempted by exciting vomiting at in- tervals, it is the emetic usually prescribed. In all these cases it is used under the form of the vinegar or the syrup of squill. The squill pill is used in chronic catarrh. Allium sativum. Garlic. Hexand. Monogyn. Liliacea, Linn. Juss. Radix. South of Europe. The bulbs of the root of this plant have, when recent, a fetid smell and acrid taste. By being long kept they become shrivelled expectorants. 241 and inert. Their taste and smell are extracted by water by infusion; by decoction they are nearly lost. By distillation they afford an essential oil, odorous and acrid, heavier than water, and of a thick ropy consistence ; it appears to be the principle in which the cha- racteristic properties of garlic reside. Garlic has an analogy to squill in its qualities and operation ; it acts as a diuretic, diaphoretic, and expectorant; hence its use in dropsy, rheumatalgia, and humoral asthma: it has also been em- ployed in the treatment of intermittent fever ; and as a stimulant in dyspepsia. Its dose is half a drachm or two scruples, swallowed whole, or made into pills with soap. Externally, garlic bruised is used as a stimulant and rubefacient : it is applied to the soles of the feet to relieve coma in fever ; its juice is sometimes introduced into the ear in cases of deafness. The Onion (Allium Sativum) has, like garlic, some power of increasing the secretions. Polygala senega. Seneka. Rattlesnake-root. Seneka has been employed as an expectorant in pneumonia, after the highly inflammatory stage of the disease has been subdued, and also in pertussis and chronic catarrh. Its dose in substance is from 10 to 20 grains, but it is generally used in the form of decoction. As it operates also as a diuretic, it is probable that its efficacy de- pends on its power of increasing absorption, and hence that it is more adapted to those cases where there is an accumulation of fluid in the bronchiae than to affections of an opposite nature.* Ammoniacum. Ammoniac. Heracleum Gummiferum. Pentand. Digyn. Umbellifera. Gummi-resina. This gum-resin is brought from Persia by the way of Egypt and the East Indies; the tree which produces it has not been accurately described. Wildenow, however, succeeded in raising, from the seeds often found mixed in the gum-ammoniac of the shops, a vege- table which he has described, and named Heracleum Gummiferum: and the London and Edinburgh Colleges have, on his authority, in- serted it as the plant which affords ammoniac. Dr. Duncan, how- ever, has shewn that the descriptions given by travellers of the plant, whence the ammoniac is procured in Persia, by no means agree with the plant of Wildenow. It appears that the gum-resin is yielded by exudation. It is in large masses, or, when of the best quality, in round fragments, yellow on the surface, and white within. It has a faint smell, and a nauseous taste. It is partly soluble in water, alco- hol, ether, and vinegar. Water triturated with it forms a milky-like * In this country the Seneka is a much more popular article than it appears to be in Europe from the representation of our author. As a remedy in croup particularly, it has long sustained with us a very high character, and it is also in common use in many of the forms of pneumonic inflammation. From its very stimulating charac- ter it is evident that it can only be adminis!ered with safety in the secondary stages of these diseases, after blood-letting and otherevacuations have been liberally premised. The best form in which it can be given is that of decoction, prepared from ^ss of the bruised root boiled in ?vhj of water down to giv. In croup, a tea-spoonful of this may be given every hour or half hour, according to circumstances. It is proper to state that Dr. Archer of Maryland first suggested this practice.—B. 242 EXPECTORANTS. mixture, from which a resinous matter subsides. According to Braconnot it consists of resin, gum, and gluten. Ammoniac is principally employed as an expectorant, and is some- times prescribed in asthma and chronic catarrh, probably with little benefit. Its dose is from 10 to 20 grains, given under the form of pill, or diffused in water, and frequently combined with squill or tar- trate of antimony. Sometimes it is used as an emmenagogue, com- bined with myrrh, or with preparations of iron. Externally it is ap- plied as a discutient, under the form of plaster, to white swelling of the knee, and to indolent tumours, being beat into a soft mass with vinegar, and spread on leather. Offic. Prep.—Emp. amm. Emp. am, cum hydr. Mist, amnion. Myrrha. Myrrh. Gummi-resina. Myrrh is the produce of Arabia and Abyssinia ; the plant which produces it is not accurately known, but is stated by Ehrenberg to be closely allied to the Amyris Kataf. Myrrh is the juice which flows from the bark. It consists of gum and resin, with a portion of volatile oil and saline matter ; the resin appears to constitute its active matter. Alcohol dissolves the resin, and the solution is rendered turbid by the affusion of water. Myrrh is an expectorant which has been regarded as too stimulat- ing to be employed in pneumonic inflammation, but which has been often employed in asthma and chronic catarrh, and sometimes in phthisis where there is little tendency to inflammatory action. Its dose is from 10 to 20 grains : and to lessen its stimulating operation, it is not unfrequently combined with nitre, or with super-tartrate of potash. The watery extract which has been preferred by many physicians to the myrrh itself, and which is a form under which it has been used in phthisis, seems to be an injudicious preparation, as the myrrh is merely weakened in power. Myrrh is also sometimes employed in amenorrhcea, usually combined with iron. Its tincture is in common use as a stimulating application in sponginess of the gums, and sometimes also to foul ulcers. Offic. Prep.—Tinct. myrrh. Tinct. al. et myrrh. Myroxylon peruiferum. Balsamum Peruvianum. Peruvian Bal- sam. Decand. Monogyn. Lomentacea, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. South America. This balsam is said to be extracted by boiling the bark and young branches of the tree with water ; it has also been affirmed that it is obtained by exudation. It is thick and viscid, of a reddish-brown colour, has a strong smell, somewhat fragrant, and a bitter pungent taste. It affords a small portion of essential oil by distillation, and of acid of benzoin by sublimation. Its remaining matter is resinous. It is entirely soluble in alcohol. Peruvian balsam is considerably stimulant. It has been employed as an expectorant in catarrh and dyspnoea, more particularly in those forms of these diseases where the secretion of pulmonary mucus is increased ; and from its stimulating action on the stomach, or from a similar action on the exhalants or absorbents of the lungs, may be EXPECTORANTS. 243 attended with advantage. It has also been prescribed as a remedy in paralysis, chronic rheumatism, and leucorrhoea. Its dose is from 5 to 15 grains, and it is best given diffused by mucilage, or made into pills by any vegetable powder. Myroxylon toluiferum. Toluifera Balsamum. Balsam of Tolu. —It is affirmed by some that this is merely a variety of Peruvian balsam ; according to other authorities it is procured from a species of Myroxylon, somewhat different from the M. Peruiferum. Tolu balsam is of a resinous appearance, and has a brown colour, a fra- grant odour, and a warm sweetish taste. It dissolves entirely in al- cohol, and communicates its odour and taste to water by boiling. It contains a small quantity of benzoic acid, which is expelled from it by heat. This is the mildest of all the balsams. It has been used as an expec- torant, and its tincture or syrup sometimes enters into the composi- tion of mucilaginous mixtures used in catarrh ; but its powers are very inconsiderable, and it is employed principally on account of its flavour. Offic. Prep.—Tinct. toluif. bal. Syr. tolut. Styrax benzoin. Benzoinum. Benzoin. Decand. Monog. Bicor- nes, Linn. Symplocea, Juss. Styracea, Rich. Balsamum. The tree which affords the concrete balsam named Benzoin is a native of Sumatra. It yields it by exudation from incisions which are made in the bark of the stem. Benzoin is in brittle masses, composed of brown and white fragments ; its smell is fragrant; it has little taste. It consists of resin and benzoic acid, and is there- fore nearly entirely soluble in alcohol. The proportions in 100 parts are 80 of resin and 20 of benzoic acid. Benzoin is used only to afford benzoic acid, and in the composi- tion of the camphorated and ammoniated tinctures of opium. Styrax officinale. Storax. Decand. Monogyn. Bicornes, Linn. Symplocea, Juss. The resinous juice afforded by the Storax-tree, from incisions in the bark of the stem, is, in the state in which it is imported from the Levant, very impure, from the intermixture of saw-dust, and some- times of earthy matter. It is in masses, soft and slightly unctuous, of a brown colour, with scarcely any resinous appearance; it retains, however, a strong fragrant odour, and has a bitterish pungent taste. It consists principally of resin, with a small portion of benzoic acid ; resembles benzoin in its virtues ; was formerly used as an expecto- rant, but is now little regarded. Olibanum, the Frankincense of the ancients, was at one time ce- lebrated as an expectorant, but is now only employed for plasters. It is the resinous juice of the Boswellia Serrata, an Indian plant. It consists of resin, gum, and a little essential oil. Amyris Gileadensis. Balsam of Gilead. Octand. Monogyn. Du- mosa, Linn. Terebinthacea, Juss. Arabia. . 244 SIALAGOGUES. This balsam is obtained from incisions made in the bark of the trunk of the tree ; it is in the form of a milky juice, highly fragrant, and is so much valued in the East, that it is said not to be imported into Europe. A coarser kind is obtained by strong decoction of the branches and leaves, of a yellow colour and thick consistence ; its taste is warm and bitter, and its flavour is fragrant. What is met with in the shops under the name of Balsam of Gilead is a resinous juice, having none of these qualities, and probably the produce of a different plant. It seems little superior to the finer kinds of tur- pentine. The medicinal virtues of the genuine Balsam of Gilead have been highly extolled, undoubtedly with much exaggeration. Even the in- ferior balsam that is said to be procured by decoction is not easily procured, so that it is never used in European practice ; but its qua- lities seem to be similar to those of the balsam of Peru, with more acrimony. Tussilago farfara. Colts-foot. Syngen. superf. Compos. Corym- bif. Juss. Folia, Flores. Indig. The leaves and flowers of Colts-foot infused in milk are supposed to facilitate expectoration in catarrh, but it may be doubted if they have any activity. The empirical remedy, named Pectoral Essence of Colts-foot, consists of equal parts of balsam of Tolu and the com- pound tincture of benzoin, with double the quantity of rectified spirit; it contains no colts-foot, and, from the stimulating ingredients, must be hurtful. CHAP. XII. OF SIALAGOGUES. Sialagogues are those medicines which increase the salivary dis- charge. This may be effected either by the mastication of sub- stances, which, by their acrimony and pungency, excite the action of the vessels which secrete the saliva, or by the internal exhibition of certain medicines. Of the latter, mercury is the only sialagogue : and such is the certainty of this operation of it, that all its prepara- tions, when administered in certain quantities, produce salivation to a greater or less extent. As a class of remedies sialagogues are of little importance. The sialagogue operation of mercury, it has already been remarked, does not appear essential to its efficacy in any disease, but is regarded merely as a test of the mercury acting on the system. The acrid sialagogues, which are applied locally, by increasing the secretion of saliva, and by their pungency, sometimes relieve the pain of tooth- ach; they have been supposed useful by the derivation they occa- sion in some kinds of headach ; and their pungency has been be- lieved to operate with some advantage in paralysis of the tongue, or of the muscles concerned in deglutition. sialagogues. 245 SIALAGOGUES. Hydrargyrus. Daphne mezereum. Anthemis pyrethrum. Amomum zingiber. Cochlearia armoracia. Nicotiana tabacum. Hydrargyrus. Quicksilver.—No satisfactory explanation has been given of the peculiarity which mercury, under every form of preparation, has of exciting the secretion of the saliva. Some have remarked, that in consequence of the gravity of this metal, by which, when received into the circulation, it is disposed to retain the " direct line in which it is propelled from the heart, it is more certainly de- termined to the vessels of the head," a solution of the difficulty which is altogether absurd. It has likewise been supposed to act by lessening the consistence of the blood, and disposing it to pass more easily into the salivary glands, so as to increase their secretion,—an opinion equally gratuitous and imperfect. Dr. Cullen endeavoured to solve the problem, by supposing that mercury has " a particular disposition to unite with ammoniacal salts, and that such salts are disposed to pass off by the salivary glands more copiously than by any other excretion." But mercury has no peculiar tendency of this kind ; and if it had, these salts are not more abundant in the saliva than in some other secretions. If another hypothesis might be hazarded, the following perhaps may afford some explanation of this singular property. The urine appears more peculiarly designed to convey matter which has been received into the circulating mass, but which is excrementitious, 'from the system. To pass with this fluid, it is necessary that the matter conveyed should be dissolved; and when it is so, we can discover it in the secretion by chemical tests. If there is any property connected with it which shall prevent this solution, this probably will prevent its secretion. Now, the phos- phoric acid which is abundant in urine must, in this mode, counteract the secretion of mercury in any form of preparation, by forming with it a compound insoluble, and to which the slight excess of acid cannot communicate solubility. The mercury, therefore, when brought, in the course of the circulation, to the secreting vessels of the kidneys, will not pass through their whole course, but if con- veyed so far as to be combined with the phosphoric acid which is se- creted, will, from this combination, be incapable of being conveyed onwards, but will be retained in the composition of that part of the blood which does not enter into the secretion, and return into the circulation. It must be discharged by some other emunctory ; a portion of it appears to pass off by the insensible perspiration ; but the tenuity of this secretion, if the term may be employed, must be unfavourable to this mode of discharge. The salivary secretion is one by which it may be more easily transmitted ; and this transmis- sion may even be facilitated by the affinity exerted to the oxide of mercury by the muriatic acid, the soda and ammonia, which are 246 sialagogues. the chief saline ingredients in saliva; for it deserves to be remark. ed, that triple compounds of these substances,—a soda-muriate, and ammoniaco-muriate of mercury,—are to a certain extent soluble in water. If the mercury is thus secreted, it will of course stimulate the secreting vessels through which it passes, and increase the sali- vary discharge. The increase in this discharge, effected by mercury, is attended with pain and sense of heat in the mouth, with softness and swelling of the gums, or even slight ulceration ; sometimes with considerable swellings, extending over the throat and face. These effects, when excessive, are best checked by the use of opium, of purgatives, of a blister applied to the throat, and, as Mr. Pearson has recommended, free exposure to a cool dry air. From theory, the administration of sulphur, or sulphuret of potash, has been recommended. The remaining Sialagogues act by topical application. Anthemis pyrethrum. Pellitory of Spain. Syngenes. Polygam. superfl. Composita Corymbifera, Juss. Radix. South of Europe. This plant is cultivated in this country, but the root found in the shops is generally imported from Spain. Its taste is hot and acrid, its acrimony residing in a fixed oil, which sulphuric ether and alco- hol dissolve, forming very acrid solutions. It is a remedy which, from stimulating the salivary glands, and exciting a discharge of saliva, is used in toothach, and sometimes gives relief. It has also been chewed in palsy of the muscles of the throat. Cochlearia armoracia. Horse-radish. Tetradyn. Silic. Siliquo- sa, Linn. Crucifera, Juss. Radix. Indigenous. The root of this plant, when recent, "has a penetrating taste, with a degree of sweetness. It excites, when chewed, a sense of heat, and a discharge of saliva. Its pungency resides in an essential oil, and is lost by drying. Water and alcohol may be impregnated with it, but it is lost by boiling ; and by distillation with water, a portion of oil is procured, pungent and acrid. Horse-radish is a stimulant which, as a sialagogue, has been used in paralysis of the tongue. It has also been used internally in para- lysis and rheumatism as a stimulating diaphoretic, in asthma as an expectorant, and in dropsy as a diuretic. Its dose is about a drachm of the recent root, cut in small pieces, and swallowed entire. Ex- ternally it has been applied as a rubefacient, and its syrup has been used as a remedy for hoarseness. Offic. Prep.—Inf. armor, comp. Spir. armor, com. Daphne mezereum.—The bark of the root of mezereon has a considerable degree of acrimony, so that when chewed it impresses a sense of heat and irritation in the mouth and upper part of the throat, and excites the salivary discharge. A case of paralysis of the muscles of the throat, causing difficulty of swallowing, is related by Withering, in which, from chewing frequently small pieces of mezereon, a cure was obtained. ERRHINES. 247 Amomum zingiber.—Ginger-root, from its pungency, excites, when masticated, a sense of heat and increased discharge of saliva, and is sometimes, like other sialagogues, employed to remove the pain of toothach. Nicotiana tabacum.—Tobacco, when chewed, increases the ac- tion of the salivary glands, and the same effect is produced in the usual method of smoking it. Partly from this, and partly from its narcotic operation, exerted at the same time to a certain extent, it sometimes relieves, especially in the latter mode of using it, the pain of toothach or of earach. CHAP. XIII. OF ERRHINES. Errhines, or Sternutatories are substances which occasion a dis- charge from the nostrils of a mucous or serous fluid. They operate by direct application, and generally in consequence of a slightly acrid quality. Any substance in fine powder, snuffed up the nostrils, has this effect in a certain degree ; but it is, as is to be expected, more copious as the substance is more acrid or stimulating. The discharge, as produced by different errhines, varies, in extent, and in the time during which it continues. Some also occasion a sense of heat, or even inflame the membrane to which they are ap plied, while others have no such effects. It is evident that the effects of this class of remedies must be very limited, as applied to the treatment of disease. By the evacuation they occasion, it has been supposed that they diminish the quantity of fluid circulating in the neighbouring vessels ; hence they have been inferred to be useful in rheumatic affections of the muscles of these parts, and in toothach. It has even been supposed that their effects may extend to all the branches of the external carotid, and Dr. Cul- len mentions, that he has, apparently from this operation, known head- ach, pain of the ear, and some cases of ophthalmia, cured or reliev- ed by the use of errhines. He has likewise supposed that they may have been of use in preventing apoplexy or palsy ; this at least should, he remarks, be so far attended to, that when any approach to these diseases is suspected, the drying of the mucous discharge should be attended to, and, if possible, obviated. 248 ERRHINES. ERRHINES. Iris florentina. Veratrum album. Origanum majorana. Nicotiana tabacum. Lavandula spica. Euphorbia officinarum. Rosmarinus officinalis. Subsulphas hydrargyri. ASARUM EuROPiEUM. Iris florentina. Florentine Orris. Triand. Monogyn. Ensatee, Linn. Iridea, Juss. Radix. The root of this plant, freed from its outer bark, is of a white co- lour, has a pleasant odour, and slightly bitter taste. It is a mild sternutatory, and enters into the composition of some cephalic snuffs. It is also chewed to conceal by its odour the fetor which, in a course of mercury, is given to the breath. Origanum majorana. Sweet Marjoram. Didynam. Gymnosperm. Verticillata, Linn. Labiata, Juss. Herba. South of Europe. The leaves of this herb have an aromatic odour, and, when dried and reduced to powder, a slight errhine power. Rosmarinus officinalis. Rosemary. Diand. Monogyn. Verticil- lata, Linn. Labiata, Juss. Summitatesfiorentes. The flowers and flowering tops of this plant have a fragrant odour, which resides in an essential oil. It is used as a stimulating per- fume, under the form of the distilled spirit, and the powder is some- times mixed with other errhines. Offic. Prep.—01. rosm. Spir. rosm. Lavandula spica. Lavender. Didynam. Gymnosperm. Verticil- lata, Linn. Labiata, Juss. Spica fiorentes. South of Europe. Lavender is cultivated in our gardens. Its flowers have a fra- grant smell, and a warm bitterish taste. They yield a quantity of essential oil, which is employed in medicine as a stimulant, when combined with alcohol and other aromatics, under the form of what is named Compound Spirit of Lavender. The simple spirit, or so- lution of the oil in alcohol, is used as a perfume, and the dried leaves in powder are errhine. Nicotiana.—The leaves of tobacco are in common use as an er- rhine, their powder forming the different kinds of snuff Asarum Europium. Asarabacca. This plant has been already noticed as an emetic, but is now re- tained in the Pharmacopceias only as an errhine. Its leaves pos. sess rather more errhine power than those hitherto noticed, while they are less acrid than some other substances belonging to this class. They are on the whole, therefore, best adapted to the pur- errhines. 249 poses which errhines serve, and are hence employed as the basis of the officinal sternutatory powders. It is said to be the basis of Ce- phalic snuff. Offic. Prep.—P. asar. europ. Veratrum album. Helleborus Albus. White Hellebore. Poly- gam. Moncec. Liliacea, Linn. Colchicacecs, De Cand. South of Europe. The root of this plant has a strong disagreeable smell when fresh, which is lost by drying, and an acrid taste, which is retained. Snuffed up the nostrils in very small quantity it excites violent sneezing, with a sense of heat, and a copious discharge of thin mucus. It is there- fore sometimes used as a sternutatory, mixed with some of the milder and more fragrant errhines. Taken internally, in the dose of a few grains, it acts as a violent emetic and cathartic. Externally, when mixed with lard, so as to form an ointment, or in the form of de- coction, it is used as an application in psora and some other cuta- neous diseases. Its active principle, Veratria, has been already de- scribed. ■ Offic. Prep.—T. verat. Vin. verat. Dec. verat. Ungt. verat. Euphorbia officinarum. Euphorbia Canariensis. Euphorbium. Monacia, Dodecandria, (Dodecand. Trigyn.) Euphorbiacea, Juss. Gummi-resina. This substance, which is of a resinous nature, is obtained by exu. dation from incisions in the branches of the plant producing it, a na- tive of different countries of Africa : it is usually imported from Bar- bary. It is in small fragments, having scarcely any smell, but a very acrimonious taste. Its operation as a drastic purgative is so violent that it is never given internally. Its powder is the most vio- lent of all the errhines, occasioning a copious discharge of mucus, with a sense of heat, and sometimes haemorrhage or inflammation. Hence it is scarcely ever employed. Externally it is used as a ru- befacient or vesicatory. Sub-sulphas hydrargyri. The Sub-sulphate of Mercury is an errhine, and has been employed in chronic ophthalmia and amauro- sis ; one grain of it being mixed with a few grains of any mild vege- table powder, and snuffed up the nostrils occasionally. 32 250 EPISPASTICS ANB CHAP. XIV. EPISPASTICS AND RUBEFACIENTS. Epispastigs and Rubefacients operate nearly on the same principle, and produce similar effects, differing only in degree. They may therefore be considered as subdivisions of one class. The term Epispastic has been applied to whatever application has the power of producing a serous or puriform discharge, by exciting a previous state of inflammation or suppuration. The term includes blisters, issues, and setons; but it is more commonly restricted to the first of these, and it is this which chiefly falls under the depart- ment of Materia Medica. Blisters are those external applications which, by their acrimony, excite inflammation on the skin, and which, occasioning a thin se- rous fluid to be poured from the exhalants, separate the cuticle from the true skin, and form the appearance of a vesicle or blister. The mode in which they produce this effect is sufficiently evident: it is to be referred to the stimulating power of the substances applied, which, exciting increased action in the extreme blood-vessels, in- duces inflammation, and causes the pouring out of the serous fluid with which the vesicle is filled : hence may be deduced the primary effect of these applications on the general system. By the increased action they excite, and the pain they occasion, they act as stimu- lants ; and they may also act, it has been supposed, as evacuants, by the quantity of fluid which they cause to be poured out. There can be little dispute by which of these modes of operation blisters are used with advantage in the treatment of diseases. The quantity of fluid discharged is so inconsiderable, while the relief ob- tained is often so sudden and complete, that it would be assigning a very inadequate cause for their effects, if we should ascribe these to any evacuating power. Some have imagined that the substance of cantharides, which forms the basis of the common blistering applications, is absorbed in part by the inflamed surface, and that it is to the peculiar action of this acrid matter stimulating the system that many of the effects of blisters are owing. But there is no proof, nor indeed any reason to believe, that this absorption is uniform or frequent; the same effects are obtained from blistering applications into the composition of which cantharides do not enter, while they are not obtained from the internal administration of cantharides. The effects of blisters are therefore to be ascribed to the pain and inflammation they excite in the part to which they are applied, and the stimulus which is thence propagated to the general system. It is a principle with regard to the living body, demonstrated by many facts, that where a morbid action exists, it may be often re- moved by inducing a different action, even of a morbid kind, in the same part, or in parts as contiguous to it as possible ; and where RUBEFACIENTS. 251 the morbid action extends to the whole system, it may be removed by one of a different kind being excited, either generally, or in any particular part of the body. From this principle is explained the efficacy of blisters in all cases of inflammation and of spasmodic constriction ; a new inflammation being excited by the blister which occasions derivation of action. Hence, too, the advantage obtained is greater when the blister is ap. plied as near as possible to the part affected. This principle regu- lates the application of blisters in pneumonia, hepatitis, phrenitis, angina, ophthalmia, rheumatism, and every other case of active in- flammation. In these affections blisters are used with very evident advantage ; the local inflammation which is excited more than coun- terbalancing, by this operation, the stimulant effects at the same time produced. A similar principle exists with respect to the pain excited by blis- ters, which may be applied to the explanation of the advantages de- rived from them in other diseases. It has long been remarked, that exciting one pain often relieves another, and hence blisters afford relief in toothach and other painful affections. Epilepsy and hyste- ria arising from irritation have been removed by blisters ; apparent- ly from their exciting pain, engaging the attention, and diminishing the sensibility to the morbid irritation. Lastly, blisters exert a stimulant operation on the general system, and raise the vigour of the circulation. Hence their utility in fevers of the typhoid kind, where extreme debility prevails. From their peculiar operation, too, they are the only remedy that can be used to obviate the local inflammation of the brain, or other parts, that some- times exists in fevers of this kind, as they contribute to resolve it without reducing the strength of the system. It is also from their stimulating power, and perhaps from exciting pain, that blisters are of advantage in apoplexy and paralysis. Rubefacients operate precisely in the same manner as blisters. They excite pain and inflammation, but only in an inferior degree ; the skin is merely inflamed, and no vesicle raised so that any fluid shall be discharged. By these effects they more peculiarly obviate local inflammation. They are used, therefore, for the same purposes. EPISPASTICS AND RUBEFACIENTS. Meloe vesicatorius. SlNAPIS ALBA. Allium sativum. Euphorbium. Pix burgundica. Elemi. Ammonia. Antimonium. E HER. [Acidum nitricum.—b.] Cantharis vesicatoria. Meloe Vesicatorius. The natural history of Cantharides has been given under the class of Diuretics, to which it belongs. It is a more important article of 252 . EPISPASTICS AND the Materia Medica as an epispastic, and is the substance, indeed, which is now almost exclusively employed to raise a blister, as it acts with certainty, and is not liable to induce that deep-seated ulce- ration which sometimes follows the application of other acrid sub- stances that have been used for the same purpose. The cantharides in powder is mixed with lard and wax, so as to form a plaster of a proper consistence, which is applied to the part generally for 16 or 12 hours : at the end of that time the cuticle is raised, forming a vesicle ; this is then cut, to allow the serous fluid to be discharged, and the inflamed part is dressed with any mild ointment. The prin- cipal circumstance which requires caution in the application of the cantharides plaster, is that determination of action to the neck of the bladder which gives rise to strangury. This is more peculiarly liable to occur where the system is uncommonly irritable, where the blister is large, or where it is applied to a newly abraded surface, as to the head recently shaved ; and as it is a very painful affection, not easily removed, care ought to be taken to guard against it. Cam- phor has been sometimes added to the blistering plaster, with the view of obviating this ; but it is doubtful if it has any such effect. The plentiful use of diluents, while the blister is applied, prevents it more certainly; and it is always proper when a blister is applied, especially if large, or in inflammatory diseases, to order the patient to drink freely of any mild diluent liquor. Where the strangury does occur from the application of a blister, it is best relieved by an enema of tepid water, with a little expressed oil, and 40 drops of tincture of opium, and by the use of the warm bath, or warm fomen- tations. In some diseases, as in apoplexy, it is of importance to be certain of the operation of an epispastic, and to have its effect produced in a short time. To attain these, a compound plaster is ordered by the Edinburgh College, Emplast. Cantharid. Vesicat. Comp., in which the stimulating power of the cantharides is increased by the addition of other acrid substances, burgundy pitch, turpentine, verdigris, mustard and pepper. In the application of this still more caution is necessary to guard again at the occurrence of strangury. After a blister has been raised, it is often of advantage to convert the serous discharge into one of a purulent nature, by exciting sup- puration, or to form what is termed an Issue ; this can easily be effected by the application of any acrid stimulating ointment ; one composed of wax and oil, with a small proportion of cantharides, is commonly used for the purpose, as by the irritation it excites it keeps up the inflammation, and at length produces suppuration. Any foreign body retained on the inflamed part answers the same purpose. What are named Orange Pease, the small unripe fruit of the orange, polished, are usually employed, as by their odour they cover the fetor of the discharge. One of these is retained on the blistered part by a slip of adhesive plaster, and by the irritation it occasions keeps up a constant discharge. A seton or cord, introduced by a needle, an- swers the same purpose. When a puriform discharge is thus esta- blished in a part, considerable effects arise from the morbid action thus produced, and the evacuation it occasions. It is a practice RUBEFACIENTS. 253 often employed with advantage in asthma, paralysis, and a number of chronic affections. * Sinapis nigra. Common Mustard.—The flour of mustard-seed, mixed with an equal part of wheat flour or crumbs of bread, and made into a paste with vinegar, forms what is named a Sinapism, an application which acts as a powerful rubefacient. It is applied to the soles of the feet in typhoid fevers, where there is extreme debi- lity, or determination to the head. It is used in the same manner in comatose affections; the application of it in either case being con- tinued for an hour or two. It soon excites a sense of pain, and if applied long, produces inflammation. Offic. Prep.—Catap. sinapeos. Allium. Garlic.—The bruised root of this plant applied to the soles of the feet produces effects similar to those of the sinapism, and is used for the same purpose. It is less powerful, and its odour s ungrateful. Euphorbium. Euphorbia Officinarum. This resinous substance, already considered as an errhine, is a powerful vesicatory. It enters into the epispastic compositions of the farrier, and might be employed, mixed with other epispastics, when it is of importance to obtain the effects of a blister to their full * " The United States, rich in the articles of the Materia Medica, furnish us with several species of insects, which may be employed as valuable substitutes for the can- tharides of the shops. The species commonly called " Potatoe Fly," which is now much employed (and which I have often employed) as an epispastic, is the Lytta vittata of Fabricius: the Cantharis vittata of Olivier. This, during certain seasons, is so extremely common in many parts of the Union, that it might be collected and sold at a much cheaper rate than the foreign cantharides of the shops, to which it is by no means inferior in strength. On the contrary, from frequent employment of the two articles, I cannot hesitate to prefer the American to the foreign fly. Long- keeping, provided it be carefully kept, does not materially impair the blistering pro- Eerty of the Lytta-vittata. At the end of three or four years after being collected, I ave found it equal in power to the best shop cantharides. This insect, though com- monly called the Potatoe Fly, is frequently met with upon other vegetables of very different natural families, such as garden peas and beans, species of Amaranthus, the AcetEea racemosa (formerly mentioned), and others.—^-Besides this, there are in the United States several other species, of the genus Lytta, such as Lytta atrata, Lytta marginata, &c.—1. Lytta atrata (of which I have observed two varieties, differing both in size and in the shades of colour) is an extremely common insect in many parts of North America. It is most commonly found, in the autumn, upon different species of syngenesious plants, such as Aster, Solidago, &c. Though inferior in power to the Lytta vittata. it is well worthy of the attention of physicians, and may always, I think, be collected in quantity nearly sufficient to answer the demand of the practitioner.—2. Lytta marginata of Fabricius (the Cantharis marginata of Oli- vier) is much less common : but it is more powerful than either of the preceding spe- cies.—3. Lytta cinerea is also very powerful, but not common ; at least within the field of my explorations. The blistering property of these two insects is so very great, that the discovery of them, in large quantities, would be a matter of great im- portance to the interests of medicine. Though they inhabit (one of the species, in particular) plants of a very acrid nature, it does not appear, that from this source they derive much, if any, of their peculiar power : for I find that these insects exert equally energetic effects upon the human skin, when they have been confined entirely to a diet of vegetables of a very mild nature, such as the legumina," &c. (Barton's Collections for an Essay towards a Materia Medica of the United States, p. 22.)—B, 254 EPISPASTICS AND RUBEFACIENTS. extent speedily and with certainty. As a rubefacient it has the ad. vantage over cantharides, that, from its fusibility, it can be diffused uniformly through the resinous matter which forms the composition of plasters, while cantharides can only be mixed in powder. The action of a rubefacient plaster prepared with it is therefore more equal. Twelve parts of burgundy pitch, or of litharge plaster with resin, with one of euphorbium, forms an excellent rubefacient of this kind. Pix Burgundica. Burgundy Pitch. This substance is obtained, as was before mentioned, by exuda- tion from incisions made in the trunk of the spruce-fir. It is boiled with water; is strained, and when cold forms a concrete resinous matter, retaining a little essential oil. As a rubefacient, it is spread upon leather and applied to the skin : it excites a slight degree of inflammation, and an exudation of serous fluid, without separating the cuticle, so as to produce a blister. Hence it is less painful in its operation, and the application of it can be continued for a con- siderable time. It is used with advantage in catarrh, pertussis and dyspnoea. Offic. Prep.—Emp. pic. burg. Emp. pic. comp. Elemi. Amyris Elemifera. Octand. Monogyn. Terebinlhacea, Juss. Carolina. This resinous substance is obtained by exudation from incisions which are made in the bark of the tree. It is in large masses of a greenish colour, has an odour slightly fragrant, and a warm bitterish taste. It is used to promote the purulent discharge from an issue, and as a stimulating application to foul ulcers, under the form of an ointment, which is officinal in the London and Dublin Pharmaco- poeias. Offic. Prep.—Unguent, elemi. Antimony.—The tartrate of antimony and potash was highly re- commended by Dr. Jenner, as a counter-irritant, in chronic internal inflammation, deep-seated pains, and likewise in mania. In these affections it has been tried with considerable advantage by different practitioners, and is certainly a valuable remedy in cases of long standing. Lately it has been employed by Mr. Creighton with no small degree of benefit in epilepsy. Offic. Prep.—Ung. tartari emetici. Ammonia. Ammonia. The solution of ammonia in water of the usual strength, (Aq. Ammonia?,) applied to the skin, acts as a rubefacient. The common form under which it has been employed is combined with expressed oil, with which it forms a thick saponaceous compound, (Oleum Ammoniatum,) formerly known by the name of Volatile Liniment. A piece of flannel moistened with this, and applied to the skin, soon excites superficial inflammation. It is often employed, instead of a blister to the throat, in angina tonsillaris, being less painful, yet fre- escharotics. 255 quently effectual. It is also applied by friction to relieve the pain of rheumatism. Ether is sometimes used as a rubefacient, (p. 71.) [Acidum Nitricum. Nitric acid. From the certainty and rapidity with which it operates, nitric acid may be esteemed one of our most efficient means of exciting vesi- cation. It was first introduced into practice a few years ago in the East Indies, where it was very successfully used in the treatment of the spasmodic cholera which prevailed epidemically in that quarter of the globe. Since then its use has been extended to other dis- eases in which it is found necessary to produce prompt and power- ful counter-irritation. In applying it, the acid may be used either pure or diluted with one third water. With this the surface is to be rubbed, and as soon as pain is produced, the acid is to be neutralized by washing the part with a solution of salt of tartar. The cuticle is now easily detached, and the cutis left raw. If it is found desirable to continue the irritation, a common blister may after this be laid upon the part.—B.] THIRD DIVISION—OF CHEMICAL REMEDIFS. Under this division are comprised those few classes of medicines, the operation of which either depends on the chemical changes they produce, or is materially modified by these changes. I have placed under it the classes ol Escharotics, Antacids, Lithontriptics, and Re- frigerants. CHAP. XV. OF ESCHAROTICS. Escharotics are substances which erode or dissolve the animal solids. This they do, either by combining with the animal matter, and forming a soft pulp, or a species of eschar, or by resulting affinity, causing the elements of the soft solids to enter into new combina- tions, whence their cohesion is subverted, and their composition is changed. In both cases the life of the part is destroyed. They are employed principally to remove excrescences, to establish an ul- cer, or to change the surface of an ulcerated part, converting it into a simple sore ; and the principal distinction among them is that founded on the energy of their action,—some eroding merely the cuticle or external surface to which they may be applied, as ni- trate of silver, or sulphate of copper; others, as potash, producing 256 ESCHAROTICS. the decomposition of the animal matter to a much greater depth. The action of some of them, too, that of arsenic for example, ap- pears to be so far specific, that effects are obtained from their opera- tion not easily obtained from the others. ESCHAROTICS. Acid m nitricum. acidum aceticum forte. Alumen. Potassa. Nitras ar enti. Murias antimonii. Sulphas cupri. Acetas cupri. Murias hydrargyri. sub-nitras hydrargyri. Oxidum arsenici album. juniperus sabina. Delphinium staphisagria. Artemisia chinensis. Acidum nitricum. Nitric Acid. The Mineral Acids act rapidly as escharotics, especially the sul- phuric and nitric acids. The nitric acid has been highly recom- mended by Mr. Welbank, as an application to sloughing phagedenic ulcers. In order to employ it without endangering the neighbouring parts, the surface of the ulcer is properly cleaned and dried, and then a thick coating of lard is applied around it. A pledget is then moistened with the undiluted acid, and carefully applied to every part of the phagedenic surface : a slough soon forms, and the ulcer speedily assumes a healthy character. Acidum aceticum forte. Strong Acetic Acid.—This acid can be prepared of such strength as to be an active escharotic, and for some purposes possesses peculiar advantages. The Colleges of Edin- burgh and Dublin give processes for its preparation; but the London College merely insert, among the articles of the Materia Medica, the pyroligneous acid, which is now manufactured on a large scale, and is acetic acid in a very concentrated state. The pyroligneous acid is obtained by first subjecting wood to heat in cylinders of iron, when, with other products, a quantity of empyreumatic acid is form- ed ; this purified forms Wood Vinegar, which, though, from wanting the pleasant flavour of vinegar made from wine, is little esteemed as a condiment, is of more use in chemistry and pharmacy than com- mon vinegar, as being purer. The acid of wood vinegar is com- bined with lime, and the dried acetate of lime treated with sulphuric acid, which attracts the lime and disengages the acetic acid ; the sulphate of lime formed absorbs most of the water present, and ace- tic acid, combined with only one equivalent of water, distils over.* It is solid at the temperature of 50°, crystallized, white, with a pun- -> '>!?-, * The above process, which is believed to be the 6^ turers of pyrolignic acid, was first suggested by my FatD work.—Ed, practised by th«..-majjliifac- tyin an early edition flf this escharotics. 257 gent odour, a very sour taste, and acrid, so as to inflame the skin. It is much used to remove warts, especially such as are of a vene- real nature, to destroy corns, and sometimes as a rubefacient. It is likewise, from its pungent odour, a useful stimulant to the nostrils in faintness, and has been supposed to have a power of opposing con- tagion. Super-sulphas alumin.e et potass.e. Alumen. Alum. Alum, from its excess of acid, has an escharotic power; and un- der the form of dried alum, in which its water of crystallization is expelled, is used in fine powder, to check the growth of fungous excrescences from ulcers. This powder, rubbed with a little sugar, is, from the same property, applied to remove opaque specks from the cornea. Potassa.—Pure potash, in its solid state, forms a powerful escha- rotic, which has long been in use under the name of Causticum Commune Acerrimum. When its solution, before being evaporated entirely to dryness, is mixed with a portion of lime, its operation is rendered rather weaker: this preparation is named Causticum Com- mune Mitius. Either of them is made into a paste with soap, and is applied to the part, being covered by a slip of adhesive plaster. This application is frequently employed to establish an ulcer, and sometimes, in preference to incision, to open a tumour ; its action is attended with a considerable degree of pain, and a sense of burning heat; after it is removed, a cataplasm is applied, by which this is relieved, and suppuration is established. Mr. Simmons has recom- mended potash in preference to other escharotics, to prevent the ef- fects from the bite of a rabid animal : it is applied freely to the bit- ten part; and the preventive operation of excision, he has supposed, may be rendered more certain by touching the surface with potash. Mr. Brande suggests nitric acid for the same purpose. Nitras argenti. Nitrate of Silver. Causticum Lunare. Lunar Caustic. Nitrate of silver is the caustic which is in common use for check. ing the growth of fungous excrescences, or changing the diseased surface of an ulcer, a little of it being dissolved in as small a portion of water as is sufficient, and being applied by a pencil to the part. The nitric acid destroys the animal texture ; the eschar becomes black from the blackening of liberated oxide of silver. This escha- rotic has been applied in France to prevent the pitting from small- pox ; the pustules being touched with it, and when the eschar falls off the part remains smooth. Dr. Duncan is of opinion that the method can be applied successfully only to single pustules ; but that, employed to any great extent, such as using the solution freely in confluent small-pox, must be hurtful. Murias antimonii. Muriate of Antimony has been used as an escharotic ; but being liquid, it is not easily confined to the part on which it is designed to act, and it has no particular advantage to re- commend it. 33 258 ESCHAROTICS. Sulphas cupri. Sulphate of copper. Blue Vitriol.—This salt is a mild escharotic, and from this mildness of its operation is adapted to particular cases. Its solution in water is sometimes em- ployed to change the diseased surface of sores, especially in vene- real sores ; and either in solution, or in powder mixed with any mild vegetable powder, it is applied to remove specks on the cornea. Sub-acetas cupri. Sub-acetate of Copper. Verdigris.—This preparation, which is properly Acetate of Copper, is in frequent use as an escharotic, principally to change the surface of foul ulcers, being applied under the form of ointment mixed with lard. In the same form it is applied as a stimulant in some kinds of ophthalmia. Offic. Prep.—Cupri subacet. prep. Ung. subac. cup. Oxy. cup. subac. Murias hydrabgyri corrosivus. Corrosive Sublimate.—This preparation of mercury is occasionally employed as an escharotic. Its solution in water, in the proportion of one grain to an ounce, is in particular applied to venereal ulcers; and still more dilute, it is sometimes used as a lotion to herpetic eruptions. Sub-nitras hydrargyri. Sub-nitrate of Mercury.—This, the red precipitate of mercury, as it has been named, has long been in common use as an escharotic, and as a stimulant application to foul and languid ulcers. Reduced to fine powder it is sprinkled on the part, or it is applied mixed with lard in the form of ointment. Offic. Prep.—Ung. sub-nitr. hydr. Oxidum arsenici album. White Oxide of Arsenic.—White oxide of arsenic has been frequently employed as an external application to cancer, and though it has been regarded as in some measure spe- cific, its immediate action is that of an escharotic. It was first in- troduced as an empirical remedy, (Plunket's Ointment,) and was applied, mixed with vegetable matter; a drachm of white arsenic, five scruples of sulphur, an ounce of the leaves of Meadow Crowfoot, and an ounce of Dogs-fennel, being rubbed together, and a little of the powder being made into a paste with the yolk of an egg : this, in a few hours, formed an eschar, by which the diseased surface was changed; and by exciting suppuration by the application of cata- plasms, this was thrown off. It has since been used under the form of ointment or solution. The latter has been supposed the least painful form, though perhaps it is not the most effectual. Ten grains are dissolved in one ounce of water, and this solution is applied by a pencil to the sore. It not unfrequently amends the discharge, causes the sore to contract in size,' and cases have been related of its having effected a cure. Violent lancinating pain is sometimes produced by its application ; and in some cases, from its continuance, the gene- ral system appears to be affected, and symptoms occur indicating affection of the stomach and lungs, which cannot be relieved but by suspending the application. When these appear the use of the ar- senic ought to be stopped : and the effects already stated under the escharotics. 259 general history of arsenic, as produced by its application to a wound, suggest the propriety of employing it with much caution even exter- nally, especially when it is applied to an excoriated surface. Cases are on record, in which, from the too free application of it in this manner, violent constitutional symptoms, with even a fatal termina- tion, have been induced. Dr. Duncan remarks, that these are es- pecially liable to happen when the arsenic is applied to a bleeding surface. Still, notwithstanding these disadvantages, the benefit de- rived from the application of arsenic in schirrus and cancer has often been so striking, as to lead to its occasional employment, especially with the view of reducing the size of a cancerous tumour or sore, or in those cases where either the patient will not submit to the ope- ration, or where it cannot be properly performed. The original mode of applying it by cataplasm is probably the most effectual, as changing the whole diseased surface more perfectly. Juniperus sabina. Savine.—The leaves of savine possess an acrid power, whence they are employed as escharotic. The powder sprinkled on warts or excrescences removes them, by what kind of operation is not very obvious. When made into an ointment with lard, (Ung. sab. Cer. sab.) it is used as an application to old ulcers, and to some obstinate cutaneous affections. Delphinium staphisagria. Stavesacre. Polyandria, Trigyn. Ra- nunculacea, Juss. Semina. Stavesacre is a biennial plant, cultivated chiefly in Italy. The seeds are large and black, and have an acrid bitter taste. They contain an alkaloid, which has been named Delphinia ; it is acrid and bitter, and forms salts with acids, which are not crystallizable. Stavesacre was at one time used both as an emetic and cathartic ; but its operation is so violent that it is now never given internally. It is employed as an application to cutaneous eruptions, and to des- troy vermin on the skin. Artemisia chinensis. Syngen. superfl. Composita Corymbifera, Juss. Folia. Moxa. China et India. From the leaves of this plant a soft down is obtained, to which the name of Moxa is given in the East. It has there been long used to produce eschars, by being burnt on the skin near the diseased part. The moxa, which is merely a finer kind of tinder, is made into a small cone, placed on the spot, and set fire to at the apex. It burns down, and at its base produces a dark-coloured spot, from which an eschar in time separates. The ulcer may be healed up, or kept open as circumstances direct. The pain from the burning is not so great as might be supposed. This practice is often followed in France, in cases of deep-seated inflammations, such as white swelling, in sciatica, paralysis and neuralgia ; but the benefit from it is in general temporary. In England caustics are preferred to the application of fire, as a milder method, and one less formidable to the patient. 260 antacids. CHAP. XVI. OF ANTACIDS. These are remedies which obviate acidity in the stomach, by com- bining with the acid and neutralizing it. The substances most powerful in exerting this kind of action, and which can be employed, are the alkalis, and among the earths, magnesia and lime. They are all used both in their pure state and in that of carbonate, the car- bonic acid being easily disengaged by the acid in the stomach, and the base therefore exerting its neutralizing power. They can be regarded only as palliatives, the production of the acid being to be prevented by the administration of remedies capable of restoring the tone of the stomach. They are employed in dyspepsia, and in diarrhoea arising from acidity. The principal distinction among them is, that some, such as magnesia, form, with the acid in the sto- mach, a salt having a purgative effect ; others, as lime, a suit appa- rently inert. They differ also in the degree of neutralizing power ; a given weight of ammonia, for example, neutralizes a larger por- tion of an acid than any other base does; magnesia stands next to it in this respect, then lime, while soda and potash are inferior in power. Magnesia is, upon the whole, perhaps preferable to any other antacid : it is little inferior to ammonia in power ; it is perfect- ly mild, and, from its insolubility, it remains in the stomach, and will continue, therefore, to act while any portion of it remains un- combined. ANTACIDS. Potassa. Soda. Ammonia. Calx. Magnesia. Potassa. Potash.—The chemical characters of this alkali have been already stated, (p. 20), and its use as an escharotic, (p. 256). The solution of it (Aq. Potassa?) is sometimes employed to relieve the symptoms from acidity, where the generation of acid is con- stant and abundant, being given in a dose of 15 drops diluted in water. Its acrimony renders it, however, an unpleasant remedy. The crystallized bi-carbonate, being more mild, has been introduced as a substitute ; but the best form under which potash can be pre- scribed as an antacid is that of the super-carbonated solution (Aq. Super-carbonatis Potassae). It contains an excess of carbonic acid, by which the alkaline taste is concealed, and an agreeable pungency communicated. The liquor is taken as an antacid, in the dose of ANTACIDS. 261 half a pound occasionally ; and proves useful in relieving the symp- toms connected with acidity in the stomach, not only by the che- mical agency of the alkali, but also by the grateful stimulus of the carbonic acid. Soda.—This alkali is used as an antacid and lithontriptic, in the same forms of combination as potash ; under the form of super-car- bonated soda water it is much employed as an antacid, and is pre- ferred to the analogous preparation of potash, as being supposed to be more mild. Ammonia. Ammonia.—The solution of ammonia in water (Aq. Ammonias) is sometimes used as an antacid, and it has been recom- mended by Dr. Sims as superior to the other alkalis in relieving car- dialgia, and other symptoms frbrn acidity : so much so, that he has been led to suppose that these symptoms frequently arise, not from the liquid contents of the stomach being acid, but from an elastic fluid, having acidity, on which the ammonia, from its volatility, more readily acts. From 20 to 30 drops of the solution are given in a cupful of water. The solution of the carbonate of ammonia is also used, and of the bi-carbonate, which is milder to the teste, and the aromatic ammo- niated alcohol forms a still more grateful antacid and stimulant. Calx.—Lime, under the form of lime water, (*\qua Calcis,) ia used as an antacid, in a dose of five or six ounces. It operates not only chemically, neutralizing the acid, but by its astringent and to- nic power contributes to restore the tone of the stomach. It is also employed under the form of carbonate of lime, of which the two fol- lowing varieties are in use. Carbonas calcis molltor. Creta Alba. Chalk.— This is a carbonate of lime found abundantly in nature, nearly pure, or con- taining only minute quantities of other earths. It is soft and earthy, of a white colour. From the grosser impurities with which it is mixed, it is freed by levigation and washing, and is then named Prepared Chalk, (Creta Prreparata). This ia an antacid in very common use. As it forms with the acid in the stomach, (which, according to Tiedemann and Gmelin, is a mixture of acetic and mu- riatic acids,) a compound which has no purgative quality, it is the antacid commonly employed to check diarrhoea from acidity. It is given in a dose of one or two drachms, with the addition of a small quantity of an aromatic. The chalk-mixture of the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia affords a very good form for administering it. Offic. Prep.—Pulv. carb. calc. comp. Mist. carb. calc. Pulv. cret. cum opio. Troch. carb. calc. Carbonas calcis dubior. Cancrorum Lapilli et Chelae. Crabs' Stones, Crabs' Claws. Cancer Astacus. Cancer Pagurus. In- secta. Aptera. In the stomach of the river craw-fish, (cancer astacus,) are found 262 ANTACIDS. concretions, consisting principally of carbonate of lime, with a little phosphate of lime and animal gelatin. They are prepared by levi- gation, and washing with water, and are named Lapilli Cancrorum praeparati, formerly Oculi Cancrorum praeparati. The tips of the claws of the common sea-crab (cancer pagurus), are similar in com- position, and are prepared in the same manner. They are named Chelae Cancrorum praeparatae. Both are medicinally employed as carbonates of lime, and being prepared with more care, are in ge- neral smoother, and more easily diffused in water, than the common prepared chalk, though there is reason to believe, that, as met with in the shops, they are merely chalk with a little gelatin. Their dose is the same. Magnesia.—Magnesia is usually obtained in the state of carbo- nate, by decomposing its sulphate or muriate by an alkaline carbo- nate ; and from this, again, the magnesia is obtained in a pure state, by expelling the carbonic acid by the application of heat. In either state it is used as an antacid : the carbonate has the inconvenience, where large quantities of it require to be taken, of occasioning flatu- lence, from the disengagement of its carbonic acid ; and this leads to the preference of the pure magnesia, of which also a smaller quantity is required. It is given in a dose of a scruple or half a drachm. The salts which magnesia forms with the acid in the stomach, muriate and acetate of magnesia, prove slightly purga- tive ; and this is a reason for distinction in practice between this earth and the carbonate of lime ; the one being used where diar- rhoea accompanies acidity, the other where a laxative effect is wish- ed to be obtained. To obviate the flatulence which it is liable to occasibn, or which of itself attends the dyspeptic affections in which it is used, it is advantageously combined with a small quantity of aromatic, as ginger or cinnamon. The preference due to magnesia as an antacid has been stated under the general observations on this class ; and it accordingly appears from the experiments, and the cases related by Mr. Brande, that it is much superior to the al- kalis in correcting acidity in the stomach. There is a risk, in the frequent use of magnesia, of its becoming aggregated with the mucus of the bowels into masses, which have sometimes occasioned obsti- nate constipation and enteritis. Hence its continued use should be varied by the exhibition of an aperient. mthontriptics. 263 CHAP. XVII. OF LITHONTRIPTICS. Lithontriptics are medicines supposed to have the power of dis- solving urinary calculi: their operation, it is obvious, must be purely chemical. The fixed alkalis are the principal substances of this class. It was formerly believed, that by the internal use of lithon- triptics, continued for a longer or shorter time, calculi in the bladder might be dissolved, and the painful symptoms which they.occasion relieved by the removal of the cause. But as in no unequivocal instance can it be said to have been proved that such solution of a calculus has been effected, and as the difficulties in the case are so great as to render the possibility of such solution very doubtful, the medicines of this class are not at the present day given with any other view than to palliate the symptoms, and delay the necessity of a surgical operation. The idea that lithontriptics might exert an effectual solvent power arose from these facts ; that most calculi consist of uric acid, a sub- stance which alkalis can completely dissolve ; that by a continued exhibition of alkalis the urine itself is rendered alkaline ; and this may even be pushed so far, that the urine out of the body will dis- solve a calculus. If this state of the urine could be kept up for a length of time, there might be hopes of attaining the desired end in the solution of the calculus ; but the general health is rapidly injured, and the irritation and suffering become so great, that it is necessary to abandon this line of practice. But even if it could be persevered in, there are other difficulties to interfere with its success. The urine is a fluid of very compli- cated constitution, and among the substances which it holds dissolved are several of sparing solubility ; and these, if the state of the urine be rendered sensibly alkaline, are precipitated, thus increasing the concretion which we are attempting to dissolve. Lastly, though the greater number of calculi are of uric acid, there are many of an altogether different nature, composed of phos- phate of lime, oxalate of lime, and other substances, on which alka- lis produce no effect. In these cases it is hopeless to attempt a solution, and palliation of the severer symptoms is all that the use of medicines can accomplish. The following are the principal species of urinary calculi: 1. The Uric Acid Calculus, which I have said is the most fre- quent, is generally of a brown or yellowish colour, of a compact or radiated structure, smooth on the surface, soluble in pure alkaline so- lutions, but insoluble in their carbonates; nitric acid dissolves it, pro- ducing a solution of a deep red colour, which is one of the charac- teristic tests of uric acid. Sometimes the uric acid is combined with ammonia, and then the calculus is of a clay colour. 2. The Phosphate of lime or Bone-earth Calculus has an earthy appearance, and feels rough and dry to the touch ; it is generally of 264 lithontriptics. a pale brown colour externally, but has a white appearance inter- nally. It is insoluble in the alkalis, but soluble in diluted nitric or muriatic acids, and almost always contains a small proportion of uric acid mixed with it. By the administration of dilute acids the tendency of the urine to deposite phosphate of lime may be check- ed, the acid passing into the urine, and assisting to keep this sub- stance dissolved ; but it is impossible to render that fluid so acid as to exert a solvent action on a phosphatic concretion already formed. 3. The Fusible Calculus, which consists of phosphate of lime, and phosphate of ammonia and magnesia ; it is so named because it readily melts before the blowpipe. Like the others, it consists usually of successive concentric layers ; it is soluble in dilute acids, but not in alkalis. It is smooth, white and friable, and when sawn gives a very light powder of a brilliant whiteness. It has been at- tempted also to reduce this concretion by exhibition of acids, but in no case with any certain success. Next to the calculus of uric acid, the fusible calculus is the most common species ; indeed, as Mr. Brande remarks, the urine has always a tendency out of the body to deposite the phosphate of ammonia and magnesia ; and in cases where extraneous bodies have found their way into the bladder, they have always been found coated with this substance. Dr. Prout also states, that whatever state the urine may be in when any calculus is at first formed, the phosphatic diathesis is always assumed sooner or later, and never ceases till the calculus be removed by an opera- tion. 4. The Mulberry Calculus, so named from its dark purple colour and rough tuberculated surface, consists of oxalate of lime. It of- ten forms the nucleus of other varieties of calculi ; it is harder and heavier than other calculi, and is insoluble alike in alkalis and weak acids ; alkaline carbonates, however, dissolve it. Its colour is attributed to effused blood. According to Mr. Brande, per- sons who have voided this kind of calculus are less liable to a return of the complaint than those who have discharged uric acid calculi, probably from the former being more an accidental formation than a product of a settled habit of secretion. It is a general opinion, that the mulberry calculus is, from its hardness and weight, the most painful and dangerous species ; but Dr. Prout informs us, that it causes comparatively little pain, and that the phosphatic calculi, which are the lightest and smoothest, occasion the severest suffering, a proof that the suffering does not arise so much from the mechani- cal irritation of the bladder, as from the general morbid state induc- ed. It appears also, that while the proportion of deaths after the extraction of calculi of uric acid, or the earthy phosphates, is about 1 in 6 or 7, in cases of mulberry calculi it is not 1 in 20. 5. The Cystic Oxide Calculus is soluble both in acids and alkalis, forming compounds with them, which may be easily crystallized. This kind of calculus is seldom met with; and the Xanthic Oxide, Fibrinous and Siliceous Calculi are of still less frequent occurrence. From these diversities in chemical constitution among the urinary concretions it is obvious that we cannot expect uniform advantage from the use of any active solvent as a lithontriptic, since what dis- LITHONTRIPTICS. 265 solves one calculus will have no effect upon another, a difficulty rendered still greater when, as sometimes happens, the same cal- culus consists of crusts of several of these substances. A particular source of difficulty has farther been pointed out by Mr. Brande, attending the attempt to exhibit lithontriptics as sol- vents. The phosphates of lime and magnesia, which exist in the urine, are retained in solution principally by its excess of acid : if, therefore, with the view of dissolving a uric acid calculus, or pre- venting its increase, alkalis be given so as to neutralize this acid, the deposition of the phosphates may be favoured, and a layer of them may even form on the existing calculus. And there is reason to be- lieve, that the softness and sponginess which have been observed not unfrequently on the surface of calculi, in patients who have continued for a long period the use of alkalis, and which have been regarded as proofs of partial solution, have arisen from a deposition of this kind. If, on the other hand, from the state of the urine, or from the information afforded by a small calculus being discharged, there were reason to believe that a calculus in the bladder consisted chiefly of phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, if we attempted the solution of mis by the administration of weak acids, we run the ha- zard of causing the deposition of uric acid. It is accordingly found that these effects take place. In different cases, it has been remark- ed, that when alkalis have been given to correct the deposition of uric acid, or the red sediment or gravel from the urine, they have, when continued too long after having produced this effect, caused the deposition of the white sediment or gravel,—the phosphate of am- monia and magnesia ; and, on the other hand, Mr. Brande has re- marked, that when acids were given with the view of removing the deposition of the phosphates, they have, after some time, caused a separation of uric acid. These circumstances render it necessary to employ these remedies with caution, even as palliatives. There is another mode in which it has been supposed that lithon- triptics may exert a solvent power. In all urinary calculi there ex- ists a quantity of animal matter, mucus or albumen, which has been regarded as the cementing ingredient, giving induration to the cal- culus. On this solvents may act, so as to destroy the cohesion of the aggregate. The experiments of Dr. Egan confirm this, he hav- ving found that lime-water is more effectual in destroying the cohe- sion of a urinary calculus than an alkaline solution,—a result which, on repeating his experiments, I have likewise obtained. Now, this superiority cannot be ascribed to any action of the lime on the saline ingredients of the calculus, but must arise rather from its chemical action on the albumen or animal mucus, of which it is known to be a solvent* ; and it may therefore be supposed that lime-water, from this operation, might be used with advantage as a lithontriptic. It would of course require to be given in combination with alkalis, the latter neutralizing the excess of acid in the urine, which would otherwise combine with the lime, and render it inert. But it may * The same explanation of the action of lime-water on calculi has been lately pro- posed by MM. Robiquet and Chereau. It was suggested by my Father in an early edition of this work.—Ed. 34 266 LITHONTRIPTICS, be doubted if this could be managed so as to obtain 'any important effect. From these observations we learn not to expect much from the use of lithontriptics ; and that as to their effecting a solution of a cal- culus already formed, the idea must be abandoned. It is as pallia- tives only that they can be useful. For this purpose, where the uric acid diathesis prevails, alkalis are given, and often with advantage. The superabundance of uric acid in the urine depends in a great measure on the generation of acidity in the primae via, the acid which is there formed passing off by the kidneys, and causing the precipitation of uric acid ; alkalis correct this acidit)', prevent the deposition of uric acid, lessen consequently the irritating nature of the urine, and may perhaps prevent the in- crease of the urinary concretion. It has accordingly been found, that under a course of alkaline remedies the red sediment of uric acid ceases, and the general irritation is diminished. It also appears that these effects are produced, not only by the pure alkalis, but by these when combined with carbonic acid ; hence they can be ad- ministered in the milder form of the carbonate or supercarbonates. On the other hand, acids taken in a dilute state lessen the depo- sition of the earthy phosphates, and are of some benefit, though not so great as the alkalis are, in correcting the symptoms from urie acid. In the administration of both classes of remedies, it is of advantage to attend to the state of the urine so far as regards its chemical constitution, and to suspend or vary the remedies as this may change. And in all cases the continuance of the remedies, and the length to which they are carried, ought to be regulated prin- cipally by the relief from pain which the patient receives. It was proposed by Fourcroy and Vauquelin to apply lithontriptic medicines directly to the calculus, by injecting them into the bladder; and in some trials which they made with dilute alkaline and acid solutions, it seemed that this method promised some success. The solvents, instead of having to pass through the course of the circu* lation and be secreted by the kidneys, in which progress they are weakened and changed, so as to lose all efficacy, are made to act at once, in the state of purity and concentration that is thought advi- sable, on the calculus ; and the hurtful effects of these remedies on the general health are avoided. Dr. Marcet subsequently made trial of this method with favourable results, and it is rather singular that more attention has not been paid to it. It has been lately proposed by Prevost and Dumas to attempt the solution or disintegration of calculi in the bladder by the application of galvanism, which may separate the constituent parts ; but it is not likely that this agent, applied in such circumstances, can produce any considerable effect. LITHONTRIPTICS. 267 LITHONTRIPTICS. Potassa. Calx. Soda. Magnesia. Sapo albus; Acida. Potassa. Potash.—The pure alkali has been tried as a lithon- triptic, but causes much irritation and suffering ; and as there is no likelihood of its dissolving the concretion, the milder form of the super-carbonate, which is equally efficacious as a palliative, is pre- ferred. The super-carbonated potash water affords the most effectual pal- liative in cases of urinary calculi; the relief obtained from it appears to arise from its neutralizing the free acid in the urine, and thus ren- dering it less irritating. From half a pound to a pound is given in the course of the day ; and it has the important advantage, that, from its mildness, it can be continued for any length of time without reluc- tance. There is another advantage belonging to the super-carbonat- ed alkalis compared with the pure alkalis. The latter, if pushed too far, are liable to occasion the separation of the earthy phosphates from the urine ; and where the urine is in that state in which these predominate, they must prove injurious. But when super-saturated with carbonic acid, the excess of acid will retain the phosphates dis- solved, for this effect is obtained even from water impregnated with carbonic acid alone ; and thus all the advantage that can be derived from the alkali will be obtained, without the injurious consequences that arise from the use of it in its pure form. Soda.—The same remarks apply to Soda considered as a lithon- triptic as to potash. The crystallized sub-carbonate of soda affords a very excellent form under which the alkali may be administered, so as to give the advantages of a palliative, and which being less ex- pensive than any other, forms a valuable remedy to the poor labour- ing under calculus. It forms what has been named the Soda Pill. The crystals are exposed to a very gentle heat, until they lose their water of crystallization, and the dry powder is made into pills with soap. Of these, half a drachm or a drachm is taken in the course of the day. Soda is likewise employed under the form of the super-carbonated soda-water, the powers of which are similar to those of the super- carbonated potash water. Sapo albus. Sapo durus.—Soap is a form under which the fixed alkalis have been administered in calculous affections. It is a chemical combination of expressed oil with potash or soda. Potash forms only a soft soap, soda gives one that becomes hard ; and to form the purer soap which is fit k nedicinal use, it is combined with the mildest vegetable expressed 1.1:, as that of the olive. The soap is white, but sometimes is designedly coloured by the addition to it, while soft, of a solution of sulphate of iron. 268 lithontriptics. The acrimony of the alkali is much diminished by its combination with the oil, and on this account soap has been preferred as a lithon- triptic, one or two ounces being taken in the course of the day. From the oil it contains, however, it is nauseous, and in such large doses, generally offensive to the stomach, and the super-saturation with carbonic acid affords a much better method of rendering the alkali mild. Soap is sometimes used in pharmacy to give consistence to powders when they are to be formed into pills. Calx.— Lime, in the form of Lime-water, has been used in cal- culus, in the quantity of a quart or more daily ; and it would appear with some advantage. It may correct acidity, but it seems to have some action more important than this, for its efficacy seems to be greatest when it is given along with alkalis, as in the celebrated re- medy of Mrs. Stephens, (consisting of lime and soap); here the al- kalis neutralize acidity, and the lime probably exerts, as has been stated, a solvent action on the mucus which cements together the matter of the concretion. Magnesia.—The advantage derived from lithontriptics being in a great measure confined to their neutralizing acidity in the stomach, as above explained, magnesia has been employed for this purpose as equally effectual, and as possessed of some peculiar advantage over the alkalis. From its insolubility it will remain longer in the sto- mach, and from this, it has been supposed, will more certainly neu- tralize the acid ; it has accordingly been affirmed, on the authority of Mr. Home, that it diminishes more effectually the deposition of uric acid from the urine ; and some cases have been related by Mr. Brande, in which magnesia had proved effectual, where the alkalis previously given had failed to relieve the too abundant secretion of this acid. It has also been supposed, that even if it be taken in ex- cess, it will not, from its insolubility, be secreted by the kidneys, and hence will be less liable than the alkalis to cause a deposition of the urinary phosphates ; and its mildness admits of its continued use. The pure magnesia being more active than the carbonate, and being perfectly mild, it is preferred. The dose in which it has been given is from a scruple to half a drachm twice a day. In some cases in which it was employed, where gout was connected with gravel, the symptoms of the former disease were at the same time alleviated. An elegant form of administering this remedy in calculous cases is the super-carbonated water of magnesia, prepared in a similar man- ner as the super-carbonated soda water. Acida.—Acids have sometimes been employed as lithontriptics. Where the state of the urinary secretion is such that there is a sepa- ration of phosphate of lime, or phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, they prevent this by their solvent power; but this is comparatively rare. Where there is a too copious secretion of uric acid, they must increase it, and prove prejudicial; and in such cases accordingly they occasion irritation and pain. In employing them, care must be taken to guard against the separation of uric acid by their too free REFRIGERANTS. 269 or long-continued use. The obvious rule is, to give the acid to that extent which shall afford relief from irritation, and which shall lessen or remove the deposition of the earthy phosphates, easily recognised by their white colour, from the urine, and to diminish the dose, or rather intermit the use of them, whenever any deposite of uric acid appears. Different acids have been employed. Much relief has been ob. tained from some of the vegetable acids, particularly the citric acid, under the form of lemon juice, taken to the extent of half an ounce daily. The diluted nitric or muriatic acid has been used with ad- vantage in a dose of from 30 to 50 drops twice or thrice a-day. According to Mr. Brande's observations, the vegetable acids, parti- cularly the citric and tartaric, are less liable than the mineral acids to produce the separation of uric acid. Carbonic acid was at one time employed, but had fallen into disuse, probably from the belief of its action being too weak to produce any lithontriptic effect. It has been found, however, that water impregnated with it, taken as a common beverage, diminishes the deposition of earthy phosphates, particularly the phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, rendering the urine transparent, which had before been turbid. Where it does so far succeed, it must be preferable to any of the other acids, both as being less likely to cause any separation of uric acid, and as having the advantage that it can be taken for any length of time without any reluctance, has no injurious effect on the stomach, and admits of being used in that irritable state of the bladder which sometimes precludes the use of the others. Bitters and astringents, such as Uva Ursi, have been found of ser- vice in calculous cases; they evidently are so by restoring the tone of the stomach, and thus preventing the generation of acid ; and they cannot therefore be considered strictly as Lithontriptics. CHAP. XVIII. OF REFRIGERANTS. The substances arranged by authors on the Materia Medica under the appellation of Refrigerants, have been defined, Such medicines as diminish the force of the circulation, and reduce the heat of the body, without occasioning any diminution of sensibility or nervous energy. The theory delivered of their operation is unsatisfactory and obscure ; nor are even the facts adduced to establish that ope- ration altogether precise. It is acknowledged by Cullen, that, " in many trials made on purpose, it did not appear that the supposed re- frigerants diminished that temperature of the body, which is the or- dinary temperature of it in health." He concludes, therefore, that 270 REFRIGERANTS. the definition should apply only to the reduction of the temperature when it has been morbidly increased ; and even in this case the effect of these medicines is allowed not to be considerable. It is not necessary to review the opinions that have been advanced on the mode of operation of refrigerants, they are so extravagant and improbable. The explanation given by Dr. Cullen it is scarcely possible to understand. Its basis, he remarks, is a doctrine delivered by Needham, " that there is everywhere in nature an expansive force, and a resisting power ; and that, particularly under a certain degree of heat, the expansive power appears in all the parts of orga- nized bodies, in consequence of which they shew a singular vege- tating power; while, at the same time, in other bodies there is a power resisting and preventing the action of this vegetating power, and at least of diminishing its force." This power, it is added, ia found in those saline substances supposed to be refrigerants ; and " as an increase of heat is no other than an increase of the expan- sive force in the heated parts, it may be understood, how resisting powers may diminish any preternatural expansive force and heat in our bodies." The discoveries of Modern Chemistry furnish some facts which may perhaps be applied to this subject ; and indeed it is only to those discoveries which establish the source of animal temperature, that we are to look for an explanation of the changes to which it is subject. It is established by experiment, that the consumption of oxygen in the lungs is materially influenced by the nature of the ingesta re- ceived into the stomach. When these are composed of substances which contain a small proportion of oxygen, the consumption of oxy- gen is increased, and this in a short time after the aliment has been received. Thus Mr. Spalding, the celebrated diver, observed, that when he used a diet of anim;il food, or drunk spiritous liquors, he consumed in a much shorter time the oxygen of the air in his diving- bell ; and therefore he had learned from experience to confine him- self to a vegetable diet, and water for drink, when following his pro- fession. During digestion, too, it was established by the experiments of Lavoisier and Seguin, that a larger proportion of oxygen than usual is consumed. The animal temperature is derived from the consumption of oxy- gen gas by respiration : and an increase in that consumption will occasion a greater evolution of caloric in the system, and consequent- ly an increase of temperature, while a diminution in the consump- tion of oxygen will have an opposite effect. If, then, when the temperature of the body is morbidly increased, we introduce into the stomach substances containing a large proportion of oxygen, espe- cially in a loose state of combination, we may succeed in reducing the morbid heat. This we accomplish in part by a vegetable diet, but stilt more effectually by the use of acids. The vegetable acids in particular, which by experience are found to be the best refrige- rants, are acted on by the digestive powers, and assimilated with the food. And as the oxygen they contain is in a concrete state, little sensible heat can be produced by the combination of that element REFRIGERANTS. 271 with the other principles of the food. The nutritious matter convey- ed to the blood, containing thus a larger proportion of oxygen than usual, will be disposed to abstract less of it from the air in the lungs, and consequently less caloric will be evolved. The temperature of the body will be reduced, and this operating as a reduction of sti- mulus, will lessen the number and force of the contractions of the heart. It might be supposed that any effect of this kind must be trivial: and it actually is so; for we find in practice that refrigerants pro- duce no sudden or great change. They operate insensibly, and have little other effect than moderating the morbid heat. The whole of their effects, as Cullen remarks, are so slowly produced, as not to be very evident to our senses, nor easily subjected to experiment, being found only in consequence of frequent repetition. The other refrigerants, the neutral salts, perhaps act in a similar manner ; the acid they contain may yield oxygen, but they are less effectual than acids, and their refrigerant power is even problemati- cal, except in so far as they operate on a principle different from that which has been pointed out,—the power they have of producing in the stomach a sensation of cold. If a draught of cold water be swallowed, the sensation of cold it produces in the stomach is equiva- lent to a partial abstraction of stimulus, which being extended by sympathy to the heart, occasions a transient reduction in the force of the circulation, and by this, or by a similar sympathetic affection, causes a sensation of cold over the body. Nitre is an example per- haps of a refrigerant acting in this manner. It excites a sensation of cold in the stomach even when taken dissolved, and still more in the solid state; and this is followed by a reduction in the number and force of the pulsations. Hence nitre acts more suddenly than the other refrigerants, and is more transient in its operation. It may also operate in some degree more permanently, in the same manner as the vegetable acids ; as it is probable, from the florid colour it gives to blood, that it parts with oxygen rapidly. It is evident that the indication to be fulfilled by the use of refri. gerants is the reduction of morbid heat. Hence the propriety of their administration in synocha and other pure inflammatory diseases, and in typhus fever; in both of which the temperature of the body is increased, though from different causes. In inflammatory dis- eases, the circulation being so much more rapid than usual, a greater quantity of blood is sent through the whole body and through the lungs in a given time ; and the usual alterations of the blood taking place, the evolution of caloric, which is the consequence of these alterations, must be increased, and the temperature raised. In such cases, the use of acids, by lessening the disposition of the blood to consume oxygen in the lungs, may be useful in reducing the tem- perature ; and nitre may be of advantage, as it diminishes the force of the contractions of the heart. These means, however, can have only a trivial effect, compared with those evacuations by which the force of the circulation is lessened. The increased temperature in typhus fever seems to be owing to the absorption of the animal solids, which, containing comparatively 272 REFRIGERANTS. little oxygen, cause the blood to consume more of it in the lungs. The introduction of acids into the system, by affording this element in a concrete state to that matter, will lessen the consumption of it in respiration, and of course moderate the morbidly increased tem- perature. In either of these forms of disease, therefore, refrigerants may be useful, and accordingly we find them generally used in all the species of febrile affection ; though they are still to be regarded as medicines of weak power. REFRIGERANTS. Citrus medica. Citrus aurantium. Tamarindus indica. oxalis acetosella. r umex acetosa. Acidum citricum. Acidum tartaricum. -----aceticum. super-tartras potass.e. Nitras potassaj:. Sub-boras soDiE. AH acids are supposed to be refrigerants ; but the vegetable acids possess this power in a more eminent degree, a superiority which, according to the preceding view, must be founded on their being more easy of assimilation, and of being acted on by the che- mical processes of the living system. The native vegetable acids are found chiefly in the fruits of vegetables. The sour juice of these fruits consists of the Citric or Malic Acid, or more frequently of a mixture of both, sometimes with the addition of tartaric acid. The citric acid is that which is most largely employed, as it forms the acid juice of the orange and lemon, the two acid fruits in common medicinal use. Citrus medica. Limones. Lemon. Succus fructus. Citrus aurantium. Orange. Succus fructus. The juice of the fruit of the lemon consists principally of citric acid, with portions of gum and sugar. As the fruit cannot always be procured, various methods have been employed to preserve the juice. The most effectual is to add to it, when newly expressed, a portion of alcohol, and to put it aside until the mucilaginous matter is deposited, then, by a moderate heat, to evaporate the alcohol, and preserve the juice in bottles carefully closed. Even as prepared in this method, however, it is liable to chemical change. Lemon juice is preferable to all other refrigerants, being more mild and grateful, and deriving, perhaps, some advantage from being more easily assimilated. It is used for the general purposes of refri- gerants,—to cool and quench thirst in febrile affections. A grateful beverage is formed from it, diluted largely with water, and sweetened a little with sugar: or the fruit, sliced down, is added to any mild diluent. A preparation from it, which is used as a refrigerant in fever, is what is named the Saline Mixture, formed by neutralizing REFRIGERANTS. 273 lemon juice by the addition of carbonate of potash, adding to this water, with a little sugar and a small portion of any distilled water. Of this mixture a table-spoonful is taken occasionally ; it is grateful, but cannot be considered as possessed of much power, any refrige- rant quality which may belong to the acid being probably lost by its neutralization. Another form under which lemon juice is used to relieve nausea, and check vomiting, is that of the Effervescing Draught. A solution of 20 grains of sub-carbonate of potash and an ounce of lemon juice are mingled together, and while in the ac.t of effervescence the mix- ture is swallowed. The efficacy of it is probably dependent on the pungency and stimulant operation of the carbonic acid, but it affords a grateful form under which this can be administered. The juice of the lemon, and indeed the citric acid, as it exists in any vegetable fruit, has been long known as nearly an infallible remedy in scurvy. A theory of its operation in removing this disease has been given, founded on its chemical agency, and particularly on the supposition that it imparts oxygen to the system, which is not without probability. In some forms of urinary calculus it affords relief. The juice of the Orange has a certain degree of sourness, accom- panied, in the variety named the China Orange, when ripe, with sweetness ; in that named the Seville Orange, with a slight bitter- ness ; and this sourness appears to depend on citric acid. The for- mer is used as refrigerant in febrile affections, more grateful, but less powerful than the fruit of the lemon. It is also used as a remedy in scurvy. Tamarindus indica. Tamarind.—The fruit of the tamarind con- tains an acid pulp, which is preserved by the addition of unrefined sugar, this forming the Tamarinds of the shops. The acid is prin- cipally the citric, (p. 191.) This pulp forms a grateful refrigerant beverage, a little of it being infused in tepid water, which is often taken in febrile affections. Oxalis acetosella. Wood Sorrel. Decand. Pentag. Gruinales, Linn. Oxalidea, De Cand. Indigenous. The leaves of this plant have a sensible sourness, and, by expres- sion, afford a juice strongly acid. This is owing to the presence of oxalic acid, combined with potash, the acid being in excess. This salt,—the super-oxalate of potash, extracted from it, and purified by crystallization, forms the Salt of Lemons of the shops. The leaves of sorrel have been used, from their acidity, as a refrigerant, under the form of the whey obtained by boiling them in milk. They have also been employed, with advantage, in their recent state, as a stimu- lating application to scrofulous ulcers. The acid prepared from this plant, the oxalic, when taken in large doses, is a virulent poison ; and, from the resemblance of the crys- tals to those of the sulphate of magnesia, accidents of this na- ture sometimes occur. The symptoms which succeed oxalic acid, when taken in a suffi- 35 274 REFRIGERANTS. cient dose to poison, are incessant vomiting of a dark-coloured and occasionally bloody matter, with a severe sensation of burning in the stomach; the pulse becomes almost imperceptible, attended with coldness of the extremities, lividity, convulsions, and death. These are the effects when it is taken in a concentrated state ; they arise from its corrosive action ; but Dr. Christison remarks, that if it be much diluted, it acts as if it were a narcotic, producing the same symptoms as a large dose of opium. Half anounce of the acid has occasioned death. The antidotes are powdered chalk or magnesia, either of which combine with the oxalic acid, producing inert com- pounds ; cordials, with opium in small doses, may then be given. It is not difficult to detect oxalic acid where it has been a cause of death, as it is not liable to be changed by animal matter. Muriate of lime affords a good test, the insoluble oxalate of lime being thrown down from it. But a test still better is the nitrate of silver ; it af- fords with oxalic acid a heavy white precipitate, which, dried and heated over the flame of a candle, explodes, and is dissipated in white fumes ; this, according to Dr. Christison, is a delicate and un- equivocal test of oxalic acid. The resemblance between Epsom salt and oxalic acid is so great, that the mistake of the one for the other frequently happens. By the mere aspect they can scarcely be distinguished ; hence it is re- commended always to taste Epsom salt before swallowing any large portion of it; its taste is simply bitter, while the taste of oxalic acid is intensely sour. Or a few crystals may be placed moistened on blue paper, which, if they redden, they must be oxalic acid. Rumex acetosa. Common Sorrel. Hexand. Trigyn. Polygonea, Juss. Folia. Indigenous. The leaves of common sorrel have a slightly sour taste ; they contain binoxalate of potash and tartaric acid. The expressed juice may be used to form an acidulous drink. Acidum citricum. Citric Acid.—Lemon juice being liable to ferment and spoil, especially in voyages by sea, where, as an anti- scorbutic, it is most needed, it was supposed that the purified citric acid, which does not change by keeping, might be substituted, hence a process for preparing it is inserted into the Pharmacopceias. It appears, however, that the pure acid has not the power of curing scurvy so remarkable in lemon juice, a fact not easily accounted for, unless we suppose that the acid, when combined with other vegetable matter, is more easily received into the system by assimilation. Ci- tric acid is, however, useful in forming effervescing draughts, and a grateful lemonade may be prepared by dissolving thirty or forty grains of the acid in a pint of water, with the addition of sugar, and some pieces of dried lemon peel, to communicate flavour, or a little of the essential oil of lemons. Lemonade powder consists of citric acid and sugar, with some drops of this essential oil, and, if kept in phials well closed, preserves the flavour for a long time. Acidum tartaricum. Tartaric Acid.—This acid, which is pre- refrigerants. 275 pared from the bitartrate of potash, is employed as a substitute for citric acid, being cheaper* and equally adapted for making effer- vescing draughts. It is the acid in the common Soda powders; the white paper contains tartaric acid, the blue, bicarbonate of potash ; they are dissolved separately, and mixed, when a large quantity of carbonic acid is evolved, and bitartrate of potash formed in the solu- tion ; the carbonic acid stimulates the stomach, and the salt formed acts as a gentle purgative. In the Seidlilz powders? according to Dr. Paris, the white paper contains two drachms of the tartrate of potash and soda (Rochelle salt,) with two scruples of carbonate of soda ; the blue paper contains 35 grains of tartaric acid; when the powders are dissolved and mixed, carbonic acid gas is evolved, and there remains the tartrate of potash and soda, with a portion of tartrate of soda, salts which are mild to the taste, and act as pur- gatives. Acidum aceticum dilutum. Acetum. Dilute Acetic Acid.— Vinegar is a weak acid, formed in the acetous fermentation which succeeds to the vinous, when the fermented liquor is submitted to the due degree of temperature. The temperature most favourable is between 60° and 70° ; the presence of a portion of the yeast, formed during the vinous fermentation, promotes the process, and the air must be admitted. The spiritous flavour and pungency, and intoxicating quality of the fermented liquor, are lost, and it becomes sour. The product is in general more acid,as the liquor has been more spiritous. Vinegar from wine, therefore, is strongest, and its odour is more grateful. It is obtained of inferior quality, both with regard to purity and strength, from fermented malt liquors, or from a solution of sugar, in which fermentation is excited by yeast.. In the acetous fermentation the oxygen of the air is absorbed; and according to the experiments of Saussure, an equal bulk of car- bonic acid is formed. The theory of the process is still obscure. It is certain that the alcohol is converted into acetic acid, which con- tains more oxygen, and less carbon ; but if all the oxygen absorbed be converted into carbonic acid, it is not apparent how the acid is produced. Vinegar fully fermented is limpid, of a yellowish colour, has an odour which is agreeable and somewhat pungent, and a sour taste. The acetic acid in it is largely diluted with water, and there are also present portions of gluten, mucilage, and extractive matter, and frequently malic and tartaric acids. The presence of the vegetable gluten renders it liable to that kind of decomposition whence it be- comes mouldy on the surface ; hence the rationale of the process by which this may be counteracted, and vinegar preserved,—that of boiling it gently for a few minutes,—the gluten being separated by coagulation. It is freed from its impurities by distillation, the process for which has a place in the Pharmacopoeias. Distilled vinegar is colourless, its odour is less grateful than that of common vinegar, but it is purer, and is not liable to spontaneous decomposition ; hence it is prefer- able for the preparation of medicinal vinegars, and other purposes in 276 RF.FK I GERANTS. pharmacy. Instead.of distilled vinegar, however, what is named Wood vinegar is now commonly used in pharmacy. To obtain this, wood is inclosed in iron cylinders or retorts, which are exposed to a red heat. The decomposition of the woody fibre yields, along with a considerable quantity of gaseous matter, an empyreumatic liquid, which is acetic acid combined with a quantity of tar, essential oil, and, it is said, also of ammonia. To purify it from these it is mixed with animal charcoal, prepared by calcining the most com- pact beef or mutton bones in a crucible, partially closed by a cover having a small aperture to allow the gases to escape. To a wine quart of the cold wood vinegar an ounce and a half of this charcoal, reduced to powder, is added ; in three or four days the acetic acid will become quite colourless, and, upon filtering it through paper, it will be found to be quite purified. Vinegar is sometimes employed as a refrigerant in febrile af- fections, being added to any common diluent. Externally, it is used as an application to burns, and as a discutient. Its odour is grateful when it is sprinkled on the floor of the chamber of the sick in ty- phoid fevers ; and the virtue has been ascribed to it, of neutralizing noxious or contagious effluvia. In pharmacy, distilled vinegar is employed as the solvent of the active matter of several vegetable substances. Offic. Prep.—Acid. acet. dist. Acid. acet. arom. Acid. acet. camph. Syr. acet. Super-tartras potassa. Super-tartrate of Potash. Bi-tartrate of Potash.—From the excess of acid which this salt contains it pos- sesses the virtues of a refrigerant. A solution of it in a large quantity of water, sweetened with sugar, and receiving flavour from the infusion of the rind of lemon, forms a cooling beverage, used in febrile affections, and recommended, especially in hospital practice, by its cheapness. Its only disadvantage is its being liable to prove purgative. Nitras potassje. Nitrate of Potash. Nitre.—This salt impress- es a sense of coolness in the mouth, and when taken in small doses, frequently repeated, appears to have the effect of reducing the force of the circulation. It is hence sometimes used as a refrigerant in in- flammatory diseases, particularly in acute rheumatism, and in haemop- tysis. It is given in a dose of from 5 to 15 grains repeated every four or five hours. When given in large doses it occasions nausea, and pain of the stomach. It is often used as a refrigerant, under the form of gargle, in the different species of cynanche, one drachm being dissolved in six ounces of water ; or the nitre troches (troch. nit. pot.) are allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth. Sub-boras SOD.E. Boras soD^E. Borate of Soda. Borax. This salt is a biborate of soda, containing two equivalents of bo- racic acid and one of soda. It is brought from Thibet, where it is found in a native state, being dug from a lake in which it is sponta- neously deposited. It is impure, but is purified in Europe by crys- DILUENTS. 277 tallization, and is usually in crystalline masses of no regular figure ; its taste is cool; it is soluble in eighteen parts of cold, and six of hot water. Borax is not used internally in modern practice, nor does it appear to possess any activity. Its solution is in common use as a cooling gargle, to relieve the sense of heat in the mouth which attends sali- vation ; and mixed with an equal quantity of sugar, it is used in the form of powder to remove the aphthous crust from the tongue in chil- dren. Mixed with honey, it forms an officinal preparation, (Mel borac.) applied to the same purpose. FOURTH DIVISION—OF MECHANICAL REMEDIES. The last subdivision of the classification includes those classes of re- medies, the operation of which is merely mechanical. Under this I have placed Diluents, Demulcents, Emollients and Anthelmintics. They are classes of comparatively little importance. CHAP. XIX. OF DILUENTS. Diluents have been defined, Substances which increase the flui- dity of the blood, by augmenting the proportion of fluid in it. Wa- tery liquors, it is obvious, will have this operation to a certain extent, and, strictly speaking, water is the only proper diluent. But dif- ferent mild substances are added to it to give a slight taste and flavour, so as to render it more pleasant when it is to be drunk in large quantities ; and frequently to communicate to it a demulcent quality, diluents and demulcents being generally employed to an- swer the same indications. With the former intention water is in- fused on scorched bread ; or a decoction of bran is used. Gruel, which is a decoction of the grains of the oat (Avena sativa,) freed from their husk, is the most common lubricating diluent. Whey (Serum lactis) affords a form still more grateful, which is less liable to pall the appetite or load the stomach than any other, and which, at the same time, conveys some nutrition. Diluents are prescribed principally in acute inflammatory dis- eases, with the view of quenching thirst, diminishing the stimulat- ing quality of the blood, promoting the fluid secretions, and, in par- ticular, rendering the urine more dilute, and therefore less acrid and irritating. They are employed too to favour the operation of sweat- ing, being given tepid; and sometimes to promote the action of diuretics, especially of those which are saline; and there are some 278 DEMULCENTS, chronic diseases, more particularly affections of the glandular sys- tem, in which diluents appear to be advantageous. Some mineral waters, celebrated for their efficacy, are water uncommonly pure ;. and the advantage derived from these in scrofula, and some other morbid affections, can scarcely be attributed to any other operation than mere dilution. CHAP. XX. OF DEMULCENTS. Demulcents are defined, " Medicines used to obviate and prevent the action of acrid and stimulant matters ; and that, not by correct- ing or changing their acrimony, but by involving it in a mild and viscid matter, which prevents it from acting upon the sensible parts of the body," or by covering the surface to which they may be ap- plied. Their action has been supposed to be exemplified in catarrh, where the irritation at the top of the trachea, occasioning coughing, is removed by mucilaginous substances; or in gonorrhoea, where the sense of heat and pain, from the application of the stimulus of urine to be inflamed surface of the urethra, is prevented by similar means. When these substances are directly applied to the part, it may be understood how this operation is obtained from them ; but where they are received by the medium of the stomach into the circulating system, it has been supposed that they -can have no such effect. They must be changed by the process of digestion, and lose that viscidity by which only they operate, so that they cannot afterwards be separated by any secretion in their original form. Hence their utility in gonorrhoea and similar affections has been altogether de- nied. It is not clear, however, that such a conclusion is just. It is suf- ficiently certain, that many substances, which undergo the process of digestion, are afterwards separated in their entire state from the blood, by particular secreting organs. There is no gland which has this power more particularly than the kidneys ; substances received into the stomach and digested, afterwards passing off in the urine with all their peculiar properties. Sugar, for example, there is rea- son to believe, can be separated in this manner ; yet there is no substance which can be supposed to be more completely assimilated by digestion, or to be more easily changed in its composition by the chemical operations of the system. If it therefore can be re-pro- duced by secretion, it is equally probable, that mucilaginous or oily substances, which form the principal demulcents, are capable of such a separation. There can be no doubt, however, but that a great share of the relief demulcents afford in irritation, or inflammation of the urinary passages, is owing to the large quantity of water in which DEMULCENTS. 279 they are diffused, by which the urine is diluted, and rendered less stimulating. Or, demulcents may be considered as substances less stimulating than the fluids usually applied to the parts that are in a state of irritation. The diseases in which demulcents are used are principally catarrh, diarrhoea, dysentery, calculus, and gonorrhoea. They are evidently not medicines of any great power; they are only calculated to alle- viate symptoms, and may be freely used in as large quantities as the stomach will receive them. DEMULCENTS. Acacia arabica. | Saccharum officinarum. Astragalus tragacantha. llnum usitatissimum. Alth.s:a officinalis. Malva sylvestris. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Smilax sarsaparilla. Triticum hybernum. hordeum distichon. Maranta ARUNDINACEA. Arctium lappa. Lichen islandicus. cobnu cervi. ichthyocolla. Amygdalus COMMUNIS. olea europ.ea. Cetaceum. Cera. Acacia arabica et Acacia vera. Gummi Arabicum. Gum Ara- bic. Poly gam. Monozc. Lomentacea, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. Africa. Gum is a proximate vegetable principle, which is obtained by ex- udation from a number of plants. The Gum Arabic of commerce is the produce of a genus of plants growing in Africa, which has been named at different times Mimosa and Acacia. Of this there are several species, of which the London College name the Acacia vera, the Edinburgh College the Acacia arabica and A. vera as the sources of this gum. It seems to be derived also from other species. The greater part of the gum arabic of commerce is imported from Barbary, being the produce of Morocco, and principally of the moun- tains of Atlas. It is an exudation, in the form of a viscid pellucid juice, from the bark of the trunk and branches of the tree, which hardens by exposure to the air and sun. The purest gum of the shops is in small irregular pieces, white or yellowish, semi-pellucid, without taste or smell: there are other varieties coarser, of a yellow or red colour : these are sometimes named Gum Senegal, and ap- pear to be of different origin. All of them have the properties of Gum ; are insoluble in alcohol or oils, and soluble in water, forming a viscid solution named Mucilage ; gum is also soluble in the vege- table acidsfbut is decomposed by the strong mineral acids. Its com- position is stated p. 39. Gum arabic is in common use as a demulcent. In catarrh it is allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth, as in the Jujube lozenges, 280 DEMULCENTS. which consist of it. It is also the basis of the mixtures usually em- ployed to allay coughing. Sometimes it is employed in tenesmus, strangury, and ardor urinae. In Pharmacy, gum arabic is employ- ed for a variety of purposes. It serves to suspend heavy powders in water, to diffuse oils, balsams, and resins in water, and give tena- city to substances made into pills. Offic. Prep.—Emuls. acac. arabic. Mucilago acac. arabic. Troch. gum. x\.stragalus tragacantha. Tragacanth. Diadelph. Decand. Pa- pilionacea, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. Tragacanth is a gum obtained by exudation. The plant which was supposed to afford it was described by Linnaeus as a species under the name of Astragalus Tragacantha. According to Olivier it is of a different species, which he describes under the name of Astragalus Verus; and this is admitted by the London College. Again, the Dublin College refer it to the Astragalus Creticus, and it is doubtful which of the three is the true species. Tragacanth is the produce of Persia and of Asia Minor : it is in small wrinkled pieces, semi-transparent and brittle, and has neither taste nor smell. It differs from the other pure gums in not being perfectly soluble in cold water; it is softened and diffused, but remains flocculent and turbid. It is greatly superior to all the gums in giving viscidity to water; its power in this respect being to that of gum arabic as 1 to 24. These peculiarities arise from its containing a portion of the principle named Bassorin, (see Salop). Tragacanth has virtues similar to gum arabic. It is less employ- ed, except in some pharmaceutical processes, in which, from its greater viscidity, it is preferred, as in the making of troches. Offic. Prep.—Mucil. trag. Pulv. trag. comp. Linum usitatissimum. Flax. Pentand. Pentag. Gruinales, Linn. Linacea, De Cand. Semina. The seeds of this plant yield a strong mucilage by infusion or de- coction in water : by expression they afford a quantity of oil. This being inferior in purity to the olive or almond oil is little used in me- dicine. But the mucilage (Inf. lini) having no unpleasant taste or smell is frequently used as a demulcent in catarrh and gonorrhoea, being rendered more grateful by the addition of a little sugar and lemon juice. The decoction, containing a portion of the oil diffused in the mucilage, is less grateful. Althaea officinalis. Marsh-mallow. Monadelph. Polyand. Co- lumnifera, Linn. Malvaceae, Juss. Folia et Radix. This indigenous plant grows, as the name implies, in marshy situ- ations. All the parts of it yield a mucilage by infusion or decoction in water ; the root does so most abundantly, and, freed from the outer bark, is kept in the shops. It is white, inodorous, and insipid. Its mucilage is similar to that from lintseed, and is used for the same purposes. It is even preferable, as being more pure. A peculiar DEMULCENTS. 281 principle was supposed to exist in it, which was named Altheine ; but it has been shewn to be asparagin. Offic. Prep.—Decoct, alth. Syr. alth. Malva sylvestris. Common Mallow. Monad. Polyand. Colum- nifera, Linn. Malvacea, Juss. Folia. The leaves of this plant afford a mucilage by infusion in water, which is weaker, however, than that from lintseed or althaea, and is therefore little used. The leaves have also been used for the pur- pose of fomentation, and their decoction affords an emollient enema. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Liquorice. Diadelph. Decand. Papilio- nacea, Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. Radix. South of Europe. The root of this plant, which is long, slender, and flexible, covered with a thin epidermis, has a sweet agreeable taste, with no flavour. This sweetness is extracted by water by infusion or decoction ; and by evaporation a dark-coloured extract of the same sweet taste is obtained. The sweetness of liquorice depends upon a peculiar principle, which Robiquet named Glycyrrhizine or Glycion. Berzelius obtain- ed it more pure. It is a yellow substance like amber, soluble in water and alcohol; sweet, but not susceptible of fermentation; it forms compounds with acids and with alkalis, all of which are sweet. Liquorice-root is employed as a demulcent, and, on account of its sweet taste, is frequently added to infusions of lintseed or althaea. The extract is in common use as a demulcent in catarrh, being allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth, to allay the irritation which produces coughing ; it also relieves the sensation of heartburn from acidity in the stomach.—Offic. Prep. Extr. glycyrrh. Decoct. glycyrrh. Troch. glycyrrh. Troch. glycyrrh. cum opio. Smilax sarsaparilla. Sarsaparilla. Diazcia, Hexand. Sarmen- tacea, Linn. Asparaginea, Juss. Radix. This root, which is said to be derived not from the S. sarsaparilla, but from the S. syphiilitica, is imported from the Spanish West Indies. It is in long slender twigs, which for pharmaceutic preparation are split and cut into small pieces ; it is internally white, and covered with a brownish bark ; has scarcely any smell, but has a slight bit- terness, which water extracts along with a quantity of starch. The existence of two peculiar substances in sarsaparilla has been asserted ; the one has been named Parigline, the other Smilacine; and Pfaff found a kind of extractive, which seemed to resemble cinchonia. The existence of these principles is very doubtful, and the root ap- pears to consist principally of woody fibre and starch, with a small portion of bitter resin. Sarsanarilla produces no obvious effect on the system, and it can scarcely be regarded in any other light than as a demulcent. It has, however, been considered as a specific in the treatment of some venereal affections, particularly those of the bones or periosteum, and as a restorative in that state of debility which is the consequence of the disease long protracted, or of the mercurial irritation. With- 282 DEMULCENTS. out allowing to it any specific power, it appears in such cases to be productive of benefit, probably from its mild demulcent and nutritious quality, and partly perhaps from the suspension of the use of mer- cury during its administration. It has also been recommended in extensive ulceration, in cutaneous affections, and in chronic rheu- matism. It is given in the form of a decoction, and is frequently joined with guaiac and mezereon, the pungency of which it covers. The fluid extract is a fashionable remedy, and almost an inert one. Offic. Prep.—Inf. sarsap. Dec. sars. Extr. sars. Ext. sars. fluid. Syr. sars. Triticum hybernum. Wheat. Triand. Digyn. Graminea, Linn. Juss. Seminum farina, Amylum. Starch. Starch, one of the most common of vegetable principles, is usually obtained from wheat flour by washing with cold water. The gluten of the flour remains in the state of a fibrous mass, the starch diffuses itself through the water, subsides on standing, and is obtained in the form of a brilliant white powder. Its distinguishing character is that of being insoluble in cold water, but readily soluble in that fluid when hot, and from this solution it does not separate on cooling. The solution of stqrch is gelatinous, and is used as a demulcent; it is sometimes given as an enema in tenesmus, and is the common vehicle for giving opium under that form. Starch powder is some- times used to facilitate friction on the skin, when this is employed as a method of discussing indolent tumours. Hordeum distichon, Barley, belongs to the same family as wheat* It consists chiefly of starch, with less gluten than exists in wheat. A decoction of it (barley water) is commonly used as a diluent and demulcent. Maranta arundinacea. Indian Arrow-root. Monand. Monog. Sciliminea. South America. This plant is cultivated in several of the West India islands for the preparation of the starch which is extracted from its root. The root, freed from the cuticle, is grated down in water, which is poured off repeatedly, allowing the starch to subside ; when it appears to be perfectly purified the remaining water is strained offin a linen cloth, and the starch is dried. Such is the manner in which the true ar- row-root is prepared, but what is sold under that name in this coun- try is the starch of the potatoe, which indeed differs very little from arrow-root. The starch is used as a demulcent in diarrhoea and dysentery, and as a nutritious article of diet for convalescents. A jelly is prepared by boiling with water or milk, and it is under this form that it is taken. Sago is another form of starch obtained from the pith or medul- lary part of the branches of the Cycas circinalis, an Indian plant. The pith is macerated in water, and the starch is separated in grains of a brownish-colour, without taste or smell. Boiled in milk or wa- ter it dissolves entirely ; and this with sugar, and the addition fre- quently of a little wine, forms a nutritious jelly, prescribed in diar- DEMULCENTS. 283 rhcea as a demulcent, and in convalescence as a nutritious article of diet, easy of digestion. Salop is procured from the root of an indigenous plant, the Orchis Mascula, by maceration in water, and beating. Its properties are similar to those of sago and arrow-i.ot ; but it is of a different na- ture, consisting almost entirely of the principle named Bassorin, which seems to be intermediate between gum and sugar. Saccharum officinarum. Sugar-cane. Triand. Digyn. Gra- minea, Linn. Juss. Succus concretus. Sugar. East and West Indies. Sugar, which is so useful as a condiment, and a nutritious article of food, is obtained from the juice of the sugar-cane, a plant be- longing to the important family of grasses. The juice expressed from the ripe cane is boiled down with lime, which saturates any ve- getable acid that is present, till the sugar concretes in crystalline grains; these are yellowish and somewhat deliquescent, forming muscovado or raw sugar ; the uncrystallizable portion of juice which remains is named molasses or treacle. The raw sugar is brought to this country, and refined by being again boiled with lime, and blood added to the hot solution, which coagulating, carries down with it the impurities. The sugar is thus procured in white porous masses. By slow evaporation it may be obtained in rhomboidal crystals, term- ed Sugar-candy. The composition of sugar has been already stated (p. 39). Sugar is phosphorescent by friction, inflammable, very so- luble in water, whether cold or warm, and soluble in heated alcohol. In the form of syrup, sugar is added to other remedies, to conceal their taste and add some degree of demulcent quality. The coarser kinds are slightly laxative. It is used as an errhine, is an antidote to salts of copper, and is employed to stimulate mechanically ulce- rated surfaces. In hospitals molasses is commonly used instead of sugar. Offic. Prep.—Syrupus simpl. Arctium lappa. Burdock. Syngen. aqual. Compos. Cynaroce- phala, Juss. Radix, Semina. This shrub is indigenous : the root has a mucilaginous sweetish taste, and consists chiefly of inulin, a principle very similar to starch, The decoction of the root has been given in gout, rheumatism, and venereal complaints, with much the same effect as the decoction of sarsaparilla. The seeds are bitter, and have some diuretic power, but are never used. The root of another plant of the same family, Inula helenium, Elecampane, consists principally of inulin, which differs from starch in being deposited from the hot solution as it cools. Along with inulin the root contains essential oil, which gives it a weak aromatic quality ; but it is never used except in the confection of pepper, where it might be dispensed with. Liohen islandicus. Cetraria islandica. Iceland Liverwort* Crytogamia. Alga. Iceland. 284 DEMULCENTS. The different lichens contain starch, which is extracted by boiling in water. The lichen islandicus, so named, as being abundant in Iceland, though it is a native also of other countries of the north of Europe, consists principally of this, with a portion of extractive mat- ter, having a degree of bitterness. The bitterness is removed by maceration in cold water, and then by decoction with water a gela- tinous solution is obtained. This is used as an article of diet in the countries of which this lichen is a native ; and it has been introduc- ed into medical practice as a demulcent, and a nutritious substance, easy of digestion : it has, from these qualities, been used with some advantage in haemoptysis and phthisis. Offic. Prep.—Decoct, lichenis island. Cornu cervi rasura. Hartshorn Shavings. Cervus Elaphus. Cornu. Mammalia. Pecora. The horns of the deer are similar to bone in composition, con- taining a considerable quantity of gelatin, along with phosphate of lime. They are freed from their outer rough covering, and the in- ternal white part is rasped down for use. The shavings afford, by decoction in water, a transparent, colourless, and inodorous jelly, which, rendered grateful by sugar and a little wine, is used in diar- rhoea and dysentery as a demulcent, and in convalescence as a light nutritious article of diet. Ichthyocolla. Isinglass. Accipenser Sturio. Pisces. Chondrop- terygii. Isinglass is obtained from the sound, and other parts of the stur- geon, as well as several other kinds of fish caught in the Volga, the Oby, and other rivers which flow into the Caspian or the Northern Ocean. The sound being well cleansed is freed from the thin mem- brane which covers it, is dried by exposure to the air, and is rolled up in a twisted form. It is of a fibrous texture, insipid and inodo- rous. It is nearly pure gelatin, is therefore almost entirely soluble in water by boiling, and forms a gelatinous solution, which has some- times been employed as a demulcent; and when rendered grateful by a little sugar and lemon juice, as a nutritive jelly, easy of di- gestion. Amygdalus. Almond. Icosandria, Monog. Pomacea, Linn. J?o- sacea, Juss. Fructus; Nucleus ; 01. Express. Syria, Barbary. There are two varieties of the Almond, the one sweet, the other bitter ; these are the produce of mere varieties of the same species, their production being dependent, it is said, on culture. They con- tain a large quantity of fixed oil, and, besides this, were supposed to consist chiefly of starch ; but the researches of Boullay and Vogel have shown that no starch exists in them, and that their chief consti- tuent, next to the oil, is a principle named Vegetable Albumen. According to Boullay, 100 parts of the sweet almond consist of fixed oil, 54, albumen, 24, sugar, 6, gum, 3, lingin, 4, water and acetic acid, 4. The bitter almond is of much the same nature, with the addition of a volatile oil, which gives the acrid bitterness, and a DEMULCENTS. 285 little prussic acid, on which the odour and some degree of narcotic power depend. The fixed oil of the almond is obtained by expres- sion from the seeds, or by decoction of them in water. It is very similar to the olive oil, but purer and more free from any rancidity. In common with expressed oils it has the properties of a demulcent ; and diffused in water by the medium of mucilage, or a few drops of alkaline solution, it is given in catarrh. There is another mode in which this oil is given as a demulcent, more grateful,—that of emulsion. The sweet almonds, the external rind being removed by emersion in warm water, are triturated with water ; the oil is diffused in the water by the medium of the albumen of the almond, and a milk-like liquor is formed, which is used as a pleasant demulcent and diluent, particularly to obviate strangury from the application of a blister. The oil of bitter almonds is an active poison from the prussic acid being associated with it ; yet it is used extensively to give the flavour to noyau and ratafia, and has some- times occasioned fatal accidents. Bitter almonds are sometimes taken as anthelmintic, but the use of them is unsafe. Offic. Prep.—Emuls. amygd. Confect. amygd. Olea europ^ea. Olive oil. Oleum Olivarum. Diand. Monogyn. Sepiaria, Linn. Jasminea, Juss. The oil obtained from the fruit of the olive by expression is of a light yellowish or greenish colour, without taste or smell, and pos- sessed of the general properties of expressed oil. It is the oil of this class which is most commonly used in medicine. It is employed as a demulcent in catarrh and some other affections, diffused in water by the medium of mucilage, or by a very small quantity of one of the alkalis, forming what is called the oily mixture, and is thus taken in as large quantities as the stomach can bear : it may be doubted, how- ever, whether with any advantage. It is employed to involve acrid substances which may have been introduced into the stomach. It is also given as an anthelmintic. Externally it is used as an emollient, applied by friction, or forming the basis of liniments and ointments. Ceiaceum. Spermaceti. Physeter Macrocephalus. Mammalia. Cetacea. This fatty matter is obtained from the head of the particular species of whale above stated. The cavity of the head contains a large quantity of an oily fluid, from which, on standing, a concrete substance separates. This, freed from the oil by expression, and purified by melting and boiling with a weak alkaline solution, is the common spermaceti. It is in masses of a flaky texture, unctuous and friable ; white, with some degree of lustre ; and has neither taste nor smell. It is less unctuous than fixed oil or fat, and does not so easily unite with the alkalis. Its medicinal virtues are those of a mild demulcent, and as such it is given in catarrh and gonor- rhoea, mixed with sugar, or sometimes diffused in water by the me- dium of the yolk of an egg. It enters as an unctuous substance into the composition of ointments. Offic. Prep.—Cerat. simp. Cerat, cetac. Ung. cetac. 286 emollients. Cera. Wax.—This is a concrete substance of a particular na. lure supposed to be collected by the bee from the antherae of vege- tables. The experiments of Huber appear, however, to have prov- ed, that it can be formed by the bee from changes produced on its saccharine food. Still it is also a vegetable product. It forms a covering on the leaves, fruit, and flowers of many plants, and some, as the Myrica Cerifera, afford it in large quantity. Wax, in its chemical properties, resembles most nearly the expressed oils, dif- fering from them principally in solidity, and in combining less rea- dily with the alkalis. When merely melted from the comb it retains a portion of colouring matter, and forms yellow wax ; it has also an agreeable odour. It may be deprived of both by bleaching,—the wax being melted and cast into thin cakes, which are exposed to the action of light, air and humidity. It then forms white wax, which is harder and more brittle than the yellow, and rather less fusible. Wax has been used as a demulcent in dysentery, being diffused in water by means of mucilage of gum arabic, the wax being first melted with a little oil, to facilitate its trituration ; but it has no par- ticular quality to recommend it. It is used in the composition of ointments and plasters, communicating to them consistence and tenacity. CHAP. XXI. OF EMOLLIENTS. The class of Emollients, according to the definition given by Cullen, includes those medicines which diminish the force of cohesion in the particles of the solid matter of the human body, and thereby ren- der them more lax and flexible. Their operation is evidently me- chanical ; they are insinuated into the matter of the solid fibre, and either diminish its density, or lessen the friction between its parti- cles. Hence they are useful where the fibres are rigid, or where they are preternaturally extended, and therefore afford relief when topically applied to inflamed parts, to tumours distending the skin, or where the skin is dry and rigid. There may be included under the same class, those substances which, applied to the surface, by their bland quality afford relief from irritation. Heat conjoined with moisture is the principal emollient. Warm water is of itself useful ; but when applied by the medium of some vegetable substances, as in the different fomentations and cataplasms, it is more advantageous, as the heat is longer retained ; bread in crumbs, or the flour or meal of the common grains, forms the basis of the common cataplasm ; the flowers of chamomile, mallow, mul- lein, (Verbascum thapsus,)orthe root of the carrot, (Daucus carota,) are also used as the vehicle for fomentations. The emollient power ANTHELMINTICS. 287 is little increased by such additions, though some have supposed tha^ the mucilaginous vegetables have some efficacy of this kind. The other emollients are the oils, or unctuous substances ; they are merely introduced by friction ; and in distension of the animal fibre, as in dropsical swelling, afford some relief. Adeps suillus, Hog's lard, is the principal substance of this kind not hitherto no- ticed. It is the fat of the hog, freed from the cellular fibre. This is done by melting it with the addition of a little water, to prevent the heat from rising too high. When cold it becomes concrete ; has all the properties of animal fat; and from its softness is adapted to the purposes of an external emollient application. It forms the ba- sis of ointments, which are applied as a dressing to inflamed parts. Such compositions too are formed from the expressed oils, melted with a due proportion of spermaceti or wax ; they prove useful in a great measure by excluding the air, while, from their smoothness and softness, they excite no irritation. The thick and bland liquid formed by the combination of lime-water with expressed oils, (Lini- mentum Aquas Calcis,) is another emollient composition, employed as a soothing application to burns, and proving useful by a similar operation. There are some other unctuous substances which have been introduced for similar purposes ; such as Palm Oil, an ex- pressed oil nearly concrete, obtained from the kernel of the fruit of the Cocos Butyracea, a native of Brazil. It is obtained by decoc- tion of the kernels bruised in water, the oily matter separating : it is of a lively yellow colour, and rather agreeable odour, and is ap- plied as an emollient by friction. The oil of the Laurel Berry (Lau- rus Nobilis) is of similar qualities, and is obtained in the same man- ner, the berries bruised being boiled in water. It is concrete, of a yellowish-green colour, and has an odour slightly fragrant. CHAP. XXII. OF ANTHELMINTICS. Anthelmintics are remedies which expel worms from the intestinal canal. They have been supposed to produce this effect by various modes of operation, principally mechanical. Some which are in rough particles, as iron or tin filings, or consist of sharp spiculae, as the down of the dolichos pruriens, are supposed,. by mechanical action, to dislodge from the mucus of the intestines the worms which are evacuated. Other substances ranked as anthelmintics seem to have no other property than bitterness. By this quality they have been supposed to prove noxious to these animals. It has also been imagined, that so far as they prove useful, they do so by restoring the tone of the digestive organs ; the production of worms being supposed to proceed from debility of these organs, in consequence of which, 238 ANTHELMINTICS. either the food is not properly assimilated, or the secreted fluids poured into the intestines are not properly prepared. Lastly, other remedies of this class apparently operate by their cathartic power. Those cathartics which discharge the mucus of the intestines, as gamboge, scammony, or calomel, have more pecu- liarly this effect. One remedy, which is indeed the most efficient of this class, oil of turpentine, acts as a specific poison to the worm. After a course of those anthelmintics which are not directly ca- thartic, it is usual to give a full dose of a purgative, which is even repeated two or three times, and to this a considerable share of the effect, when worms are evacuated, is probably to be ascribed. Calo- mel, with jalap, gamboge, or scammony, is the cathartic usually em- ployed. ANTHELMINTICS. Hydrargyrum. Ferrum. Stannum. Oleum ole,e europ;e.e. Oleum terebinthina. DoLICHOS PRUBTENS. Artemisia santonica. Spigelia marilandica. aspid1um filix mas. Tanacetum vulgare. Geoffrjea inermis. Gambogia gutta. punica granatum. Helleborus fcetidus. [Melia azedarach.--B.] Hydrargyrum. Quicksilver. Several mercurial preparations have been employed on account of their anthelmintic power. The black bi-sulphuret, Ethiops Mine- ral, has been given in the dose of a few grains to children, and of a scruple or half a drachm to adults. Mercury has been supposed to prove noxious to the class of vermes, and from this any efficacy be- longing to this preparation has been inferred to arise. There ia another mode in which it may operate. Sulphuretted hydrogen is deleterious to animals of this class, and the natural sulphureous wa- ters impregnated with it hence sometimes prove powerfully anthel- mintic. The sulphuretted mercury may, by its chemical action on the fluids of the intestines, cause a production of sulphuretted hydro- gen, whence may arise its anthelmintic power. Of the other mer- curials calomel has the advantage, besides any direct anthelmintic power it may exert, of exciting the action of the intestines, and eva- cuating the intestinal mucus. It is given alone in a dose of one or two grains to children, and of from five to ten grains to an adult ; or in smaller doses combined with jalap, scammony, or gamboge. Ferrum. Iron.—The filings of this metal have been given as an anthelmintic in a dose of one or two drachms ; and the sub-carbonate, or rust of iron, was highly recommended by Rush as a remedy anthelmintics. 289 against the tape-worm, when taken to the extent of three or four diachms. Stannum. Tin.—Tin is reduced to a powder, consisting of small rounded particles, by heating it nearly to its melting point, and agi- tating it briskly. Either this powder, or the metal in filings, has been employed as an anthelmintic, particularly in cases of taenia, in a dose of one or two drachms, a cathartic being administered after a few doses.of it. Its effect has been supposed to be mechanical, dislodging the worm from the mucus of the intestines by the gritti- ness of its particles. But the use of it, as well as of most of the other remedies of this class, has been given up since the discovery of the greater power of oil of turpentine. Oleum ole^e europ^.e. Olive Oil. Oleum Olivarum. Diand. Monogyn. Sepiaria. South of Europe. Olive Oil, or any expressed oil, taken in the morning to the ex- tent of half a pound, or as much as the stomach can bear, has been said to prove anthelmintic ; but in the state of diffusion in which it must act on worms in the intestines, it can scarcely be expected to have any power. Oleum terebinthina. Oil of Turpentine. This essential oil has been introduced as an anthelmintic of great power in expelling the tape-worm when given in large doses,—doses indeed so large, compared with those in which it has usually been given, that the practice would appear hazardous, though it is found to be perfectly safe. This use of it was accidentally discovered in consequence of a sailor swallowing a glass of oil of turpentine, mis- taking it for gin. It was supposed that such a dose would prove fatal, but he suffered no inconvenience, and the evacuation of a tape-worm, from which his health had long suffered, was the result. The case was related by Dr. Fenwick, and the use of the oil as a powerful an- thelmintic introduced. Two ounces are given as a dose, and if it is not evacuated by its cathartic action in an hour or two, the dose is re- peated ; it has been given to the extent of four ounces in a dose, without producing any injurious effect. The worm is always dead when it is evacuated, while, if removed by any other remedy, it re- tains signs of life. The oil, therefore, evidently operates by its de- leterious power, first killing the worm, and then by purging expelling it. Indeed, oil of turpentine has been shewn by Dr. Traill (Edin. Phil. Jour. vol. xiv.) to be more noxious to all kinds of insects than any substance with which we are acquainted. It is found that large doses of turpentine are safer than small, the latter being apt to pro- duce strangury, particularly it is said if cold water be drunk during its operation. The large doses only produce an appearance of in- ebriation and purging, (see p. 200). The oil has been since used as a remedy against other intestinal worms, and proves successful in killing and expelling lumbrici. Dolichos pruriens. Cowhage. Diadelph. Decand. Papilionacea, 290 anthelmintics. Linn. Leguminosa, Juss. Pubes leguminis rigida. East and West Indies. The down which covers the outer surface of the pods of this plant consists of spiculae, so sharp, that if incautiously handled they pene- trate the cuticle, and occasion severe itching and inflammation. It is this down which is used as an anthelmintic. It is made into an electuary with syrup or molasses, of which two tea.spoonfuls are given to an adult, and repeated two or three times, a strong cathartic being afterwards exhibited. Its action is mechanical, the spiculae producing irritation in the body of the animal, causing its motion, and perhaps also exciting the action of the intestines. In the West India Islands it is the common anthelmintic, and is described as being given with much advantage, more so than when used in this country, —a difference which has been explained from the state of the mu- cous secretion in the intestinal canal, which appears to be more abundant in warm climates, and hence more powerful remedies are required to produce an anthelmintic effect. The electuary ought to be prepared only when it is to be used. Artemisia santonica. Wormseed. Tartarian Southernwood. Syngen. superfl. Composit. Corymbif., Juss. Persia. The seeds of this plant have a faint disagreeable smell, and a very bitter taste. They are in common use as an anthelmintic, and pro- bably operate merely as a bitter ; the dose is half a drachm, or a drachm of the powder to an adult. This, after being continued for some time, is followed by a dose of a strong cathartic. Spigelia marilandica. Carolina Pink. Pentand. Monogyn. Stel- lata, Linn. Gentiana, Juss. Radix. North America. This plant is a native of Virginia and Maryland. The slender stalks of its root have a bitter taste, and are used in medicine, on the supposition of their anthelmintic power ; in a large dose they prove purgative, but in smaller quantities they are highly narcotic, its pur- gative qualities preventing its narcotic action on the system when given in large quantities. They are usually administered in the form of the watery infusion, in the quantity of half a drachm, or even to the extent of two or three drachms to an adult. Its operation as a narcotic has been said to occur from its administration ; and to prevent this, it has been recommended to be given rather in large doses, so as to obtain its cathartic operation, by which its narcotic power is obviated. In its dried state, however, in which it is employed in this country, no alarming symptom ever appears to follow from its administration. Aspidium filix mas. Male Fern. Cryptogamia, Filices. Radix. Indigenous. The root of this plant was once highly celebrated as a remedy against the tape-worm ; two or three drachms of the powder of it being taken in the morning, and a strong cathartic of jalap or gam- boge given soon after it. The efficacy of the prescription probably depended on the cathartic. M. Peschier, however, affirms that it anthelmintics. 291 has a real anthelmintic power, if the genuine plant be used, gathered at the proper season. Tanacetum vulgare. Tansy. Syngen. Polyg. superf. Composita Corymbif., Juss. Indigenous. The leaves and flowers of this plant have a strong bitter taste. They have been recommended as anthelmintic, and especially as capable of expelling the lumbrici, and both they and the seeds are sometimes used as a popular remedy. The dose, in powder, is from one scruple to one drachm. Geoffr.ea inermis. Cabbage Tree. Diadelph. Decand. Papilio- nac. Linn. Legumin., Juss. Cortex. Jamaica. The bark of this tree is flat and thin, of a brownish colour: it has an unpleasant smell, with a sweetish taste. It is used as an anthelmintic, and has been considered as one of considerable power, especially in expelling the lumbrici. It is usually given under the form of decoction, (Decoct, geof.) an ounce being boiled in two pounds of water to one pound, and from one to two ounces of this being given as a dose to an adult. It operates for the most part as a cathartic, and in an over-dose is liable to occasion sickness and vomiting. The same symptoms are said to be induced by the incau- tious drinking of cold water during its operation. When they occur from either cause, they are relieved by a dose of castor oil. Others, however, have not observed these effects from it, even when it lias operated powerfully as an anthelmintic, and have hence concluded that it acts as a specific poison to worms. Gambogia.—Gamboge has been celebrated as a remedy against the tape-worm, and, by its powerful cathartic operation, is sometimes successful in expelling it. It is given in a dose from 5 to 20 grains alone, or combined with two parts of super-tartrate of potash. It is frequently also given as a cathartic after other anthelmintics. Punica granatum. Pomegranate. Icosand. Monog. Pomacea, Linn. Myrtacea, Juss. Bacca tunica. Radix. South of Europe. This is a low tree, bearing fruit about the size of an orange. The pulp of the fruit has an agreeable acidulous taste, by which it is well adapted for allaying thirst, and is used as a refrigerant in fevers. The pericarp and the root are astringent, containing a large proportion of tannin, with resin, mucus, and extractive matter, and have been used in diarrhoea, but more particularly as a remedy against tape-worm. Two ounces of the dried root are boiled down in two pints of water to 12 ounces, and of this decoction two ounces are taken every half hour. This is to be repeated on several suc- cessive days till the worm is discharged, castor oil being given after the first quantity of decoction. This is a favourite remedy against taenia in the East, and seems to have been known to the ancients ; it is not apparent how' it can act more effectually than any other astringent; yet it is said to be sometimes successful. 292 ANTHELMINTICS. Helleborus fcetidus. Stinking Hellebore.—The leaves of this kind of hellebore are a popular remedy to destroy worms ; they exert a violent cathartic and emetic action, and are so uncertain and hazardous in their operation that they should never be employed. [Melia Azedarach. Pride of China. China tree. Poison berry- tree. Decand. Monogyn. Nat. Ord. Meliacea. Cortex Rudicis. This plant is a native of the East Indies, from whence it was introduced into Europe and North America. It is now completely naturalized in this country, and flourishes luxuriantly in the Southern States, especially Georgia and Carolina. The part used in medicine is the bark of the root. It is a powerful anthelmintic, and is much used and highly esteemed by the physicians at the South. It affects the system in a way very similar to the Spigelia Marylandica, pro- ducing not unfrequently confusion of the head, stupor, trembling of the hands, &c. This is particularly the case if it be used in the months of March and April, when the sap rises in the tree. Besides this narcotic effect, the melia also proves slightly purgative. It has been found principally successful against the round worm, though in some cases it has proved effectual also against the Taenia. It is generally given in the form of decoction : to prepare this, three or four ounces of the bark of the fresh root are put into a quart of water and boiled down to a pint; of which ^ss to Sj may be given every two or three hours till it operates. When administered in this way„ it frequently causes both purging and vomiting.—B.] PART II. OF PHARMACY. PART II. OF PHARMACY. The objects of Pharmacy are, the Preservation, Preparation, and Composition of Medicines. Substances in the state in which they are afforded by nature are seldom fit for administration as reme- dies in disease. They must be subjected to certain processes, to prevent their virtues being lost by spontaneous change, to concen- trate or to modify their powers. Pharmacy, regarded as an art, prescribes the rules by which the operations for the attainment of these objects are conducted, and, as a science, unfolds the princi- ples on which they depend. The Preservation of Medicines is, generally speaking, the least im- portant part of Pharmacy. Those which are most liable to decom- position are the vegetable products, many of which, especially when the reaction of their elements is favoured by humidity, suffer such changes as weaken their medicinal properties. Changes, produc- tive of the same result, are not unfrequently occasioned by the action of air and light. The methods by which these are counteracted, of which the most important is Exsiccation, belong to this division of Pharmacy. It includes, too, the few general rules which are ob- served in collecting plants in that state of vigour and maturity in which they are possessed of the greatest degree of activity ; and there belong to it also those operations which are necessary to pre- serve unaltered the few animal products employed in medicine. Under the second branch of Pharmacy, the Preparation of Medi- cines, are included a number of important operations, agreeing in general in affording substances different, more or less, in chemical constitution, from the substances operated on. The medicinal powers of vegetable substances frequently reside in proximate principles, which, from their relations to certain sol- vents, can be separated from each other ; and thus, in many cases, the principle on which the medicinal activity of the substance depends can be obtained in a pure, and, if necessary, in a concentrated state. Resins, for example, are dissolved by alcohol, gums by water, extractive matter by either of these liquids, or by a mixture of both ; and by this separation important advantages may be obtained ; the medicine is rendered more certain in its operation : it is more easily preserved, or more conveniently administered. On this are founded the various pharmaceutic preparations of infusions, decoctions, tinc- tures, medicated wines or vinegars, and extracts ;—forms under which medicines are often employed in preference to their natural state. 296 DRYING OF VEGETABLES, &C. The proximate principles of plants are sometimes obtained apart by other processes, as by distillation, or even by mechanical expres- sion, whence other forms of preparations are obtained. To this division belong too the Saline and Metallic Preparations. These are entirely the results of chemical processes ; they are new remedies formed by chemical combination, and are possessed of properties altogether different from those of the substances from which they are prepared. In all these preparations chemical changes are produced to a greater or less extent. Medicines are also, however, frequently given in a state of mixture, in which they either exert no mutual chemical action, or none producing any modification of their powers. This forms what is named Composition in Pharmacy. It is employ. ed with different views ; sometimes, for example, to conceal a me- dicine, to render it less unpleasant, or to give it a convenient form ; and frequently more important advantages are attained ; the action of one medicine on the system, or on a particular organ, so far co- operating with that of another, as to render its operation more cer- tain, or more powerful, or even sometimes giving rise to such a mo- dification, as to produce an effect different from that which would be obtained from the action of either. Pharmacy, as practised in this country, is regulated by the Phar- macopoeias of the respective Colleges. I have therefore, in the fol- lowing pages, given translations of the various processes which these include, adding such remarks as may elucidate the chemical changes which they involve, or their effects on the medicinal properties of the substances employed. The order is that of the Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia. CHAP. I. VEGETABILIUM EXSICCATIO—DRYING OF VEGETABLES. Vegetabilium exsiccatio. The Drying of Vegetable Substances. Edin. " Herbs and flowers are to be dried with the gentle heat of a stove, or a common fire, in such a quantity that the drying may be performed as quickly as possible. Their virtues are thus best pre- served ; the mark of which is their retaining completely their native colour. •'The leaves of hemlock, (conium maculatum,) and others contain- ing a subtile volatile matter, are, immediately after drying, to be rub- bed to powder, and kept in glass vessels well stopt. " The root of the sea-squill, after having removed its external coat, is to be first cut transverely into thin slices. The mark of it being properly dried is, that it should retain its bitterness and acri- mony, though rendered friable." extraction of pulps. 297 Herbarum exsiccatio. Drying of Herbs. Dub. \ " Let the recent leaves of the herb, gathered when in flower, be put into paper bags, and exposed to a low degree of heat for an hour ; then spread them lightly on a sieve, and dry them as quickly as possible, taking care that their colour is not injured by too high a heat: if they are to be used under the form of powder let them be reduced to powder immediately, and let this be kept in opaque phi- als well closed. " Herbs and flowers, from which oils and distilled waters are to be procured, ought to be dried as soon as they are gathered." Vegetabilia. Vegetables. Lend. Vegetables are to be gathered in their native soil and situation, in dry weather, when they are neither wet with rain nor with dew ; this is to be done every year, and those which have been kept longer than a year are to be thrown away. Most roots are to be dug up before their leaves or stalks shoot. Barks should be gathered when they are most easily separated from the wood. Leaves should be taken after the flowers have faded, and before the seeds ripen. Flowers are to be gathered when newly opened. Seeds should be collected when ripe, and before they fall, and are to be kept in the seed vessels. By drying herbs and flowers, or expelling a great part of the water they contain, those spontaneous chemical changes which are favoured by humidity are prevented, and they are rendered capable of being preserved. The more quickly they are dried they retain in general their virtues more completely, care only being taken that too much heat be not applied, as, from this, part of their volatile prin- ciples would be dissipated, and their flavour and medicinal qualities impaired. Even when dried they suffer some changes in keeping, probably from the action of the air and light ; and some do so more rapidly than others. Hemlock, in particular, has its colour and odour impaired in a very short time ; it is therefore necessary to exclude it from the air, and likewise from exposure to light. CHAP. II. PULPARUM EXTRACTIO—EXTRACTION OF PULPS. Polparum extractio. Extraction of Pulps. Ed. " Those fruits which afford a pulp, if they are unripe, or if ripe and dry, boil with a little water, that they may become soft. Then express the pulp through a hair-sieve, and boil it with a gentle heat in an earthen vessel, stirring it frequently that it may not burn, until it attain the consistence of honey. " The pulp of cassia fistula is to be boiled from the bruised pod; 38 298 conserves. and then, by evaporating the water, to be reduced to the due con- sistence, The pulps of ripe and fresh fruits are to be pressed through a sieve, without previous boiling." PuLrARUM extractio. Extraction of Pulps. Dub. " Fruits, the pulps of which are to be extracted, if they are unripe, or if ripe and dry, are to be boiled with a small quantity of water un- til they become soft. The pulps being pressed through a hair-sieve, are to be evaporated to a proper consistence, by a slow evaporation." Vegetabilium pr.eparatio. Preparation of Vegetables. Lond. " Vegetables, soon after they are collected, those excepted which are to be used in the recent state, are to be spread out lightly, so as to dry as quick as possible, with a heat so gentle that their colour may not change ; they are then to be kept in proper vessels, or situations where the access of light and humidity may be ex- cluded. " Roots, which are ordered to be kept fresh, ought to be buried in dry sand. The root of squill, before drying it, is to be cut transversely into thin slices, the outer dry layers being removed. " Pulpy fruits, if they are not ripe, and if ripe and dry, are to be exposed in a damp place until they become soft, then press out the pulp through a hair-sieve, afterwards boil with a gentle heat, stirring frequently ; lastly, dissipate the water by the heat of a wa- ter-bath, until it has become of the proper consistence. " On the pods of cassia bruised pour boiling water, so as to wash out the pulp, which press first through a sieve with large holes, af- terwards through a hair-sieve, then evaporate the water by the heat of a water-bath, until the pulp attain the proper consistence. " Press the pulp or juice of ripe and fresh fruits through a sieve, without any previous boiling." These directions are given principally for the preparation of the pulps of several fruits which enter into the composition of the Elec tuary of Senna. Pulps are seldom otherwise medicinally employed, and they cannot be long preserved unchanged. The direction in the London Pharmacopoeia to place them in a damp place, when it is wished to soften them, is objectionable, as they will be liable to be- come mouldy : the softening them by boiling water is the preferable mode. CHAP. III. CONSERVjE--CONSERVES. Conserves are compositions of fresh vegetable matter with sugar. The form is designed to preserve such vegetables as lose their vir- tues by drying ; sugar in some measure counteracting the spon- taneous decomposition to which vegetable matter is liable in a humid state. For this purpose, about three times the weight of the CONSERVES. 299 vegetable of refined sugar is employed. Its operation, however, is but imperfect: the powers of any active vegetable can scarcely be preserved unimpaired for any length of time in this form ; and, therefore, there is no conserve ordered in the Pharmacopceias of any powerful medicine ; those which are inserted being merely re- commended by their agreeable flavour, and being not used but as vehicles for the exhibition of more active remedies, under the form of bolus, pill, or electuary. The London College have united the Conserves with the prepa- rations named Electuaries, and have given them the common name of Confection,—improperly, as conserves are compositions of fresh ve- getables with sugar added to prevent decomposition, whereas elec- tuaries are composed usually of dry powders, with syrup added to give merely a convenient form. Conserva citri aurantii. Conserve of Orange-peel. Ed. " Grate the outer rind of the orange, beat it into a pulp, and du- ring the beating add three times the weight of refined sugar." Confectio aurantiorum. Confection of Orange-peel. Lond. " Take of the exterior rind of the orange fresh, separated by a grater, a pound ; refined sugar, three pounds. Bruise the rind in a stone-mortar with a wooden pestle, then adding the sugar, bruise again until they unite into a mass." Conserva ros*: caninje. Conserve of Dog-hip. Ed. " Beat ripe dog-hips, carefully freed from the seeds and included down, into a pulp, and during the beating add three times the weight of refined sugar." Confectio ros*: canine. Confection of Dog-hip. Lond. " Take of the pulp of the dog-hip a pound ; refined sugar, beat down, twenty ounces. Expose the pulp in a water-bath to a gentle heat, then gradually add the sugar, and rub them together till they form an uniform mass." Conserva ros.e gallics:. Conserve of Red Rose. Ed. " Beat the petals of the red rose to a pulp, and during the beating add three times the weight of refined sugar." Confectio ros*: gallic*:. Confection of Red Rose. Lond. Con- serva ros*:. Conserve of Roses. Dub. " Take of the petals of the red rose-buds, with the heels removed, a pound ; refined sugar, three pounds. Bruise the petals in a stone mortar, then, adding the sugar, beat again until they form an uniform mass." Of the above Conserves, that of Orange Peel is so little used, that it is seldom to be found in the shops. The Conserve of Dog- hip is smooth and uniform in its consistence, and is therefore well adapted to the purpose to which it is applied, that of serving as a vehicle for active medicines under the form of bolus or pill. The Conserve of the Petals of the Red Rose is supposed to retain their slight astringency, and, at one time, was celebrated as a remedy in haemoptysis and phthisis. It is still a popular medicine in these dis- eases, being taken in the dose of an ounce in the morning, diffused in warm milk. 300 inspissated juices. CHAP. IV. SUCCI SPISSATI--INSPISSATED JUICES. The juice expressed from succulent vegetables frequently holds dis- solved, or diffused through it, the principles in which the medicinal powers of the plant reside ; gum, starch, resin, extractive matter, tannin, vegetable alkalis, and other peculiar principles. But contain- ing a large proportion of water, and being liable to decomposition, the process of inspissation is employed to obtain the active matter in a more concentrated state, and to obviate this spontaneous change. The preparations thus obtained are named Inspissated Juices, for- merly Extracts. In the greater number of cases, however, this operation cannot be performed without injury to the active matter. Any volatile prin- ciple is necessarily dissipated ; hence the juices extracted from aro- matic and odoriferous herbs have scarcely any of the flavour or vir- tues of the plants; and even where there is no injury of this kind, the vegetable matter, at the temperature necessary for the evapora- tion, suffers decomposition, either from the reaction of its elements, or from the chemical action of the oxygen of the air. Extractive matter, such as that contained in the juices of plants, becomes inso- luble from mere exposure to the air, as Vauquelin observed : this change takes place more rapidly at the temperature of boiling wa- ter, as Fourcroy has shewn; and T. Saussure, who examined these changes more minutely, found that they are accompanied with an absorption of oxygen from the air, and a formation of carbonic acid, with probably, likewise, as he inferred, a formation of water from the union of part of the oxygen and hydrogen of the vegetable mat- ter. Such changes must give rise to alterations in the medicinal powers of these substances, and hence we cannot rely on the acti- vity and uniformity of operation in these inspissated juices. Even after they are prepared, too, they continue to suffer spontaneous de- composition, and their activity diminishes, therefore, with their age. The following general directions are given for preparing inspis- sated juices. Succi spissati. Inspissated juices. Ed. " The fresh substance is to be bruised ; and being inclosed in a hempen bag, is to be pressed strongly, that it may give out the juice, which is to be reduced by evaporation in open vessels, heated by boiling water, saturated with muriate of soda, to the consistence of thick honey. The mass, after it has cooled, is to be kept in glazed earthen vessels, and moistened with alcohol." Succi spissati. Inspissated Juices. Dub. " The leaves used in the preparation of inspissated juices should be collected at the time of inflorescence, when the flowers are be- INSPISSATED JUICES. 301 ginning to appear. The inspissation is best performed by evaporat- ing the superfluous moisture with a moderate heat, by a vapour-bath, and constantly stirring them towards the end of the process." The London College include the Inspissated Juices among Ex- tracts, and give the following directions for the preparation of them : " Bruise the recent leaves in a stone-mortar, sprinkling upon them a small quantity of water; then express the juice, and, without any defecation, evaporate it, in a broad shallow basin, by the heat of a water-bath, until the consistence is that fit for forming pills, stirring constantly with a spatula towards the end of the evaporation." The direction not to defecate the juice is judicious, for it is known that the sediment from juices often contains much of the active matter. Mr. Barry obtained a patent for a method of preparing inspissated juices, by evaporating juices at a low temperature in vacuo, which affords them of a very superior quality ; the production of empy- reuma is avoided, and there is less risk of active ingredients being dissipated by the heat, or decomposed by mutual reaction at a high temperature.* The following table by M. Recluz exhibits the quantity of inspis- sated juice of pilular consistence obtained from 16 ounces troy of bruised vegetables, and the appearance of the inspissated juice after being kept for a year. Plant. Part. Product. Final consistence. Atropa belladonna, Leaves oz. 1 dr. 3 Very soft. Conium maculatum, . . . Herb 1 0£ Pilular. Datura stramonium, . . . Leaves 0 4 Very soft. Hyosciamus niger, Herb 0 3to6 Soft. Momordica elaterium, . . Fruit 0 5 Unchanged. Rhamnus catharticus, . . Fruit 2 0 Unchanged. Sambucus nigra,...... Fruit 2 0 Unchanged. * The manner in which this process is conducted is the following: The evaporat- ing pan, or still, is a hemispherical vessel of cast iron, polished within, and furnished with an air-tight fiat cover.. From the centre of the cover a wide tube rises, which is bent downwards, and terminates in a copper globe, of a capacity three or four times greater than the still. In this tube there is a stop-cock between the still and the sphere. When evaporation is to be performed, the vegetable juice or infusion is poured into the still through a large aperture, which is closed so as to be air tight, and the still immersed in water. Steam is introduced from a boiler into the copper globe or receiver, till the air is expelled from it, which is known by the steam issuing uncondensed. The steam-pipe is closed, and cold water poured on the receiver, which condenses the steam, and produces a vacuum in it. The stop-cock that intercepts communication between the still and the receiver is now turned, and part of the air rushes out of the former into the latter. The same operation is performed six or seven times successively, by which the air is altogether drawn out of the still and the receiver likewise, and the juice evaporates in vacuo. Heat is applied to the water- bath in which the still is placed, until the juice begins to boil, which is ascertained by inspection through a piece of thick glass fixed in the upper part of the apparatus. Since in a vacuum fluids boil nearly 124 degrees below their usual boiling temperature, water passes into ebullition in such circumstances at about 90° of Fahrenheit; and it is never found necessary to heat the juice above a temperature of 100°. The eva- poration is continued till the fluid is inspissated to the proper extent, which is judged of by its appearance through the glass. 302 INSPISSATED JUICES. Succus spissatus aconiti napelli. Inspissated Juice of Wolfs. bane, Ed. Extractum aconiti. Extract of Wolfsbane, Lond. Succus spissatus aconiti. Inspissated Juice of Monks-hood, Dub. " Take of the fresh leaves of Monks-hood, a pound. Having moistened the leaves with water, pound them in a mortar. Then express the juice, and without defecation reduce it to a proper con- sistence in the manner already mentioned." This inspissated juice of the leaves is the form under which wolfs- bane was introduced into practice by Stoerk. He recommended it in glandular swellings, scrofulous and venereal affections, gout and rheumatism, in a dose of a grain night and morning, gradually in- creased to 5 or 6 grains. It is very seldom prescribed. Succus spissatus atrop*: belladonne. Inspissated Juice of Dead. ly Nightshade, from the leaves. Ed. Dub. Extractum bella- donna, Lond. This has been recommended by the German practitioners in schirrus, cancer, in epilepsy and mania, in a dose of one grain, usu- ally in the form of a pill, gradually increased. It retains the pecu- liar property of the plant, that of occasioning dilatation of the pupil, whence it has been prescribed in amaurosis, and has frequently been employed previous to the operation for cataract. An infusion of the dried leaves is more powerful and more certain. Succus spissatus conii maculati. Inspissated Juice of Hemlock, from the leaves. Ed. Dub. Extractum conii. Lond. Under this form, hemlock was employed by Stoerk in schirrus and cancer, (see p. 89). It retains the strong odour of the plant, and seems to be one of the most powerful of the expressed juices. It is always liable, however, to be uncertain in its strength, according to the heat applied in its evaporation ; it is also injured by keeping, sometimes, according to Mr. Barry, fermenting and evolving nitrous gas. It is therefore inferior to the dried leaves of the plant. Mr. Brande recommends that the juice, after being heated to boiling, be strained, then evaporated to the due consistence, and the matter left on the strainer, which has thus escaped long exposure to heat, added to it. According to Dr. Fothergill, the proper time for gathering the leaves of this plant for medicinal purposes, and thus obtaining a medicine always nearly about the same strength, is when its flowers fade, the rudiments of the seed become apparent, and the habit of the plant inclines to yellow. The leaves should when gathered be dried before a gentle fire, be reduced to powder as soon as they are dried, and kept in small phials carefully secluded from the air and light. The proofs of their preparation and of their activity are the powder being of a lively green colour, and retaining the peculiar odour of the plant. Yet with all these precautions it cannot be procured always of the same strength ; and it is only from observing the effects it produces on the constitution, that we can determine whether it has been given in sufficient quantity. The effects usually observable, when a full dose has been given, are, giddiness, nausea. FIXED oils. 303 tremors of the body, a gentle catharsis, and sometimes a peculiar heavy sensation about the eyes. Succus spissatus hyoscyami nigri. Inspissated Juice of Black Henbane, from the herb. Ed. Dub. Extractum hyoscyami. Lond. This inspissated juice retains a considerable degree of narcotic power, and is a form under which Henbane is occasionally employed as a substitute for opium. The dose has been usually one grain, increased to a scruple, commonly in the form of pills; two grains are perhaps not more than equivalent to one grain of opium. The tincture has been introduced as a more certain preparation. Succus spissatus lactuc*: sativje. Inspissated Juice of Garden Lettuce, from the herb. Ed. This preparation was strongly recommended by Dr. Duncan senior for its sedative properties. The general effects produced by it were nearly similar to those of laudanum. The dose in which it is given is from three to five grains. Succus spissatus lactuc*: viros*:. Inspissated Juice of Strong- scented Lettuce, from the herb. Ed. This plant, though a narcotic, has been principally used as a diu- retic. It was recommended as a remedy in dropsy by the German practitioners, in a dose of four or five grains, gradually increased to one or two drachms in twenty-four hours ; in this country it has been little used. Succus spissatus sambuci nigr*:. Inspissated Juice of the Black Elder. Ed. " Five parts of the juice of ripe Elder Berries, and one part of purified Sugar, are to be evaporated with a gentle heat to the con- sistence of thick honey.'' Succus spissatus sambuci. Inspissated Juice of Elder. Dub. " Let the juice from the fresh Berries of the Elder be prepared in the same manner as the inspissated juice of monks-hood." This preparation has been given as an aperient or moderate lax- ative and diuretic, in a dose of half an ounce, or one ounce ; but it possesses no quality to recommend it. CHAP. V. OLEA FIXA SIVE EXPRESSA--FIXED OILS OR EXPRESSED OILS. These Oils are denominated Expressed by the London and Dublin Colleges ; but as several of the volatile oils are also obtained by ex- pression, the Edinburgh College use the more exact term, Fixed, to distinguish from the volatile oils. 304 FIXED OILS. The fixed or expressed oils are distinguished by their unctuosity and insipidity, by being insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol, incapable of volatilization without change, and by combining with the alkalis, forming soaps. The composition of all of them appear to be the same ; they consist of 10 atoms of carbon, 1 of oxygen, and 11 of hydrogen. Their proximate principles are Elain and Stearin. Fixed oils exist in the fruit and seeds of vegetables, and are obtained by expression, or decoction with water. The former method is in general to be preferred ; and to afford the oil pure, it must be performed without heat, which, though it favours the separation of the oil, commu- nicates to it acrimony and an unpleasant flavour. The process, however, is seldom performed in the shops. To preserve them from becoming rancid, they ought to be kept secluded from the air, this change being produced in them by absorption of oxygen. A process in Pharmacy somewhat difficult, is to mix these oils with any watery fluid, so that they may be conveniently exhihited. It is usually done by the medium of mucilage, or of an alkali. If triturated with mucilage, and a small quantity of sugar, the oil is dif- fused through the water, and a milky liquor is formed, in which, how- ever, the diffusion is rather imperfect. A combinaton more com- plete and permanent is effected, by adding a few drops of water of ammonia, or two or three grains of sub-carbonate of potash, without the mucilage. Oleum amygdalae communis. Oil of Almonds. Ed. " Bruise Fresh Almonds in a stone-mortar, inclose them in a hempen bag, and express the oil by a press without heat." Oleum amygdalarum. Almond Oil. Lond. " Macerate Almonds, either sweet or bitter, in cold water for twelve hours, and bruise them; then, without applying any heat, express the oil." Oleum amygdalarum. Oil of Almonds. Dub. " Bruise Fresh Almonds in a mortar, and express the oil without heat by a press." This is the purest of the expressed oils, being free from odour or taste ; it consists of Elain 76, and Stearin 24, in 100 parts. The almonds should be rubbed in linen, to take the brown crust off them. Those who prepare the oil on a large scale, blanch the almonds by steeping them for a little in boiling water; but the oil prepared from them is more apt to become rancid. Oleum lini usitatissimi, Oil of Lintseed ; Oleum lini.—This oil is directed to be expressed in the same manner, from the seeds of the plant. Being less pure, it is used only as an external applica- tion. Usually it is prepared on the large scale ; and to remove the mucilage, heat is employed in the expression. Oleum ricini. Castor Oil. Lond.—" Bruise the peeled seeds, and express the oil without any application of heat." This oil is usually prepared in the West Indies by decoction, and is EMULSIONS. 305 milder than when obtained by expression. Hence in the Pharma- copoeias of the other colleges, it is merely inserted in the catalogue of the Materia Medica. This is the case too with the Olive Oil, Oleum ole*: europ*:*:, which of all the expressed oils is most largely employed; it is im- ported from the South of Europe. The oil of the Bay-tree, (Laurus Nobilis,) is inserted in the Pharmacopoeia as a fixed oil, but impro- perly, as it contains a large intermixture of volatile oil. Croton oil is expressed from the seeds of the croton tiglium. Its violent cathartic powers have already been noticed. CHAP. VI. EMULSIONES--EMULSIONS. EDIN.—MISTURiE—MIXTURES. tOND. Emulsions are preparations in which the expressed oil of the seeds or kernels, from which they are made, is diffused through water by the medium of the sugar and the vegetable albumen which the seeds contain. They may be made from lintseed, from the seeds of the poppy, and from other oily seeds; but almonds are always prefer- red, as being free from any disagreeable flavour or taste, and they afford a much more grateful form of preparation of an expressed oil than any other. They are employed as mere demulcents, and are always extemporaneous preparations. The oil being merely diffused through the water, they are opaque and milky, and, after some time, it begins to separate and rise like a cream to the surface ; the s:\me change is effected more speedily by heat. The fluid be- neath is like whey in its appearance, and soon becomes acescent from the slow fermentation of the saccharine matter. The addition of vinous spirits, or of any weak acid, decomposes emulsions, sepa- rating the oil. In prescribing them, therefore, it is necessary to avoid combining with them any tincture, or any substance having acidity. Emulsio acaci*: arabic*:. Arabic Emulsion. Ed. " Take of the Mucilage of Gum-arabic, [two ounces ; Almonds, one ounce ; Refined Sugar, half an ounce ; Water, two pounds and a half. Macerate the almonds for a little in warm water and peel them, then carefully beat them in a stone-mortar, first with the sugar, and next with the mucilage, gradually adding the water, and strain the mixture through linen." Emulsio arabica. Arabic Emulsion. Dub. " Take of Gum-arabic, in powder, two drachms ; Sweet Almonds, blanched, Refined Sugar, of each half an ounce ; Water, a pint. Dissolve the gum in the water made hot, and, when it is cold, pour it gradually on the almonds previously pounded with the sugar, rub- bing them at the same time together, so as to form a milky liquor, which strain." 39 306 EMULSIONS. This emulsion is used in the same cases as those following, and from the addition of the mucilage is supposed to have more demul- cent power. Emulsio amygdali communis. Almond Emulsion. Ed. " Take of Sweet Almonds, one ounce ; Purified Sugar, half an ounce ; Water, two pounds and a half; blanch the almonds by steeping them for a little in hot water, and peeling thern, then beat them carefully in a stone-mortar with the sugar, addiug the water gradually, and strain the liquor." Mistura amygdalarum. Mixture of Almonds. Dub. " Take of Sweet Almonds, blanched, an ounce and a half; Bitter Almonds, two scruples ; Refined Sugar, half an ounce ; Water, two pints and a half. Triturate the almonds with the sugar, adding the water gradually, then strain." Mistura amygdalarum. Mixture of Almonds. Lond. " Take of Almond Confection, two ounces ; Distilled Water, a pint; add the water gradually to the confection, during the trituration, until they mix, and then strain." The almonds are blanched, or freed from their thin rind, by keep- ing them a minute or two in boiling water, after which the rind is easily detached. They require to be well triturated with the first portions of water as it is added. The formula of the London Col- lege affords a method of preparing the emulsion more easily, ex- temporaneously ; but this is an advantage scarcely of sufficient im- portance to require an alteration of the mode of preparation ; and the almond confection, if long kept, may be liable to spontaneous decomposition, and probably, from the sugar it contains, will become acescent, and therefore unfit for the preparation. The emulsion is used as a diluent and demulcent in catarrh and gonorrhoea, or, during the application of a blister, to prevent the occurrence of strangury, being drunk ad libitum, and it is more grateful than any other dilu- ent. The addition of bitter almonds, in the Dublin formula, is to communicate an agreeable flavour. Emulsio camphor*:. Camphor Emulsion. Ed. " Take of Camphor, one scruple ; Sweet Almonds, Refined Su- gar, of each half an ounce ; Water, a pound and a half. Beat the blanched almonds in a stone-mortar, with the camphor and sugar previously well rubbed together, gradually adding the water, then strain." Camphor is less apt to occasion nausea or uneasiness in the sto- mach when given in a liquid than when in a solid form ; and this is one of the best forms of preparation for its diffusion. Its dose is two ounces, given every four hours; but as this narcotic is not much employed internally in modern practice, the camphor emulsion is not often prescribed. This preparation should always be extempora- neous, as in the course of a few days the camphor separates, and rises to the surface. Camphor may also be suspended in a mixture, by rubbing it with magnesia, or with starch from flour. MIXTURES. 307 MISTUR*:—MIXTURES. To the preparations named Emulsions, the London College have extended the general name of Mixture, which is employed in Phar- macy to denote those preparations in which different ingredients are mingled together in the liquid form, or in which solid substances are diffused through liquids by the medium of mucilaginous or saccha- rine matter. And under the name of Mixture are inserted several compound medicines, both in the London and Dublin Pharmaco- pceias, of which it is necessary to take notice. Some of them had formerly a place in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia; but they have been discarded, probably from the consideration that they must al- ways be prepared extemporaneously, and may therefore be varied according to the intention of the prescriber. Mistura ammoniaci. Gum-Ammoniac Mixture. Lond. " Take of Ammoniac, two drachms; Water, half a pint. Tritu- rate the ammoniac with the water poured on it gradually, until they are intimately mixed." Mistura ammoniaci. Mixture of Ammoniac. Dub. " Take of Gum-Ammoniac, one drachm; Penny-royal Water, eight ounces by measure. Rub the gum with the penny-royal water added gradually, until the mixture has the appearance of milk, which strain through linen." In this mixture the resinous matter is suspended in the water by the medium of the gum, and a milky liquor is formed. From this the resin subsides slowly. Under this form the gum-resin is some- times prescribed as an expectorant, the dose of the mixture being from half an ounce to an ounce: the bitter taste, however, of am- moniac renders it not so well adapted to its exhibition as the form of pill. Mistura assafcetid*:. Assafcetida Mixture. Lond. " Take of Assafcetida, two drachms ; Water, half a pint. Rub the assafcetida with the water added gradually until they are perfectly mixed." Mistura assafcetid*:. Assafcetida Mixture. Dub. " Take of Assafcetida, a drachm; Penny-royal Water, eight ounces by measure. Rub the assafcetida with the water gradually added, until it form an emulsion." The resin of the assafcetida is in this mixture likewise suspended in the water by the medium of the gum. It is a form under which this fetid drug is prescribed in the hysteric paroxysm, from half an ounce to an ounce being given and repeated at short intervals. Its operation as an antispasmodic is thus sooner obtained than when it is given in the solid form. Mistura camphor*:. Camphor Mixture. Lond. " Take of Camphor, half a drachm ; Rectified Spirit, ten minims; 308 MIXTURES. Water, a pint. Rub the camphor first with the spirit, then with the water gradually poured upon it, and strain." Mistura camphor*:. Camphor Mixture. Dub. " Take of Camphor, a scruple ; Rectified Spirit of Wine, ten drops ; Refined Sugar, half an ounce ; Hot Water a pint. Rub the camphor first with the spirit, then with the sugar ; lastly, add the water while rubbing, and strain the mixture through bibulous paper. Water dissolves but a minute quantity of camphor, and in this mixture can be regarded only as receiving odour and some degree of taste, without any such impregnation as shall communicate to it medicinal efficacy. It serves, therefore, merely as a vehicle for other medicines. Mistura camphor*: cum magnesia. Camphor Mixture with Mag- nesia. Dub. " Take of Camphor, twelve grains ; Carbonate of Magnesia, half a drachm ; Water, six ounces. Rub the camphor with the magne- sia, adding the water gradually, and mix." This mixture contains more camphor than the last, the magnesia rendering that principle more soluble. It is used as an antispasmo- dic, and is also a convenient form in which magnesia may be given in calculous disorders, where there is an excessive formation of uric acid. Mistura cornu usti. Mixture of Burnt Horn. Lond. "Take of Burnt Horn, two ounces ; Gum-Arabic in powder, one ounce ; Water, three pints. Boil down to two pints, stirring con- stantly, then strain." This is an absurd preparation, introduced at a time when the prin- ciples of Pharmacy were nearly unknown. The burnt hartshorn (which is chiefly phosphate of lime) is insoluble in water; the gum alone therefore is dissolved ; the hartshorn, by the continued boiling, is diffused, and kept suspended by the mucilaginous liquid : but this might equally be done without this operation ; and, when done, it can communicate to the preparation no medicinal power whatever. The Dublin College have rejected it. Mistura ferri composita. Compound Mixture of Iron. Lond. Dub. " Take of Myrrh, in powder, one drachm ; Sub-carbonate of Pot- ash, twenty-five grains ; Rose Water, seven fluid-ounces and a half; Sulphate of Iron in powder, one scruple ; Spirit of Nutmeg, half a fluid-ounce ; Refined Sugar, a drachm. " Rub the myrrh with the spirit of nutmeg and sub-carbonate of potash, and, during the rubbing, add first the rose water with the su- gar, and afterwards the sulphate of iron. Put the mixture immediate- ly into a proper glass vessel, which stop closely." This, with a few trivial alterations, is the celebrated Antihectic Mixture of Griffith ; which, as first invented, was undoubtedly an unchemical mixture, the prescriber not being aware of the changes produced in the active ingredients by their mutual action, but which, in practice, was found possessed of some advantages. The sul- MIXTURES. 309 phate of iron, it is obvious, is decomposed by the sub-carbonate of potash, the sulphuric acid combining with the potash, while the car- bonic acid unites with the protoxide of iron. The myrrh combines with the alkali forming a saponaceous compound, in which proto-car- bonate of iron is suspended, and, according to Dr. Paris, partly dis- solved by the excess of alkali. This chalybeate proves less irritat- ing than the sulphate of iron, producing no unpleasant effect on the stomach, and at the same time is more active than the common car- bonate or rust of iron, in which the iron is at the maximum of oxidation, while, in the present preparation, it is at the minimum, is in a different state of aggregation, and probably combined with a larger quantity of carbonic acid. To preserve it in this state, it is ordered to be kept in a bottle closely stopt ; but as iron has a strong tendency to become more highly oxidated, and suffers this change rapidly from the action of the air, it is preferable that the prepara- tion should be extemporaneously made. Griffith's mixture is em- ployed as a remedy in hectic fever, in some forms of phthisis and chronic catarrh, in chlorosis, and other diseases in which iron is given as a tonic, and is often attended with marked benefit. The mixture of the London Pharmacopoeia is nearly of the same strength, and may be given in a dose of an ounce once or twice a-day. Mr. Brande recommends the addition of a drachm of spirit of nutmeg to each dose, as it feels cold on the stomach, and to prevent griping. Mistura ferri aromatica. Aromatic Mixture of Iron. Dub. " Take of Lance-leaved Cinchona, in coarse powder, an ounce ; Colomba Root sliced, three drachms ; Cloves bruised, two drachms ; Iron-filings, half an ounce. Digest for three days in a close vessel, shaking occasionally, with as much peppermint water as will be suffi. cient to yield twelve ounces of liquor after straining ; then add of compound tincture of cardamoms, three ounces, tincture of orange- peel, three drachms." This must be a very weak chalybeate, as there is no solvent pre- sent to take up any large portion of iron ; a little is dissolved by the cinchonic acid, giving a greenish-black colour to the mixture ; yet Dr. Montgomery states that it is a useful tonic in dyspepsia. It is an old preparation, formerly known by the name of Heberden's Ink, and has been recently adopted by the Dublin College. Mistura guaiaci. Guaiac Mixture. Lond. " Take of the Gum-Resin of Guaiac, a drachm and a half; Re- fined Sugar, two drachms ; Mucilage of Gum-Arabic, two fluid- drachms ; Cinnamon Water, eight fluid-ounces. Rub the guaiac with the sugar, then with the mucilage, and add gradually, while these are rubbed together, the cinnamon water." This is a convenient form for the exhibition of guaiac. Mistura moschi. Musk Mixture. Lond. "Take of Musk, Gum-Arabic powdered, Refined Sugar, of each one drachm ; Rose Water, six fluid-ounces. Rub the musk with the sugar, then with the gum, and add gradually the rose water." 310 INFUSIONS. This ought to be an extemporaneous mixture, as the musk soon se- parates. Its dose is an ounce, or an ounce and a half. Aqua picis liquid*:. Tar-Water. Dub. " Take of Tar, by measure, two pints ; Water, a gallon. Mix them, stirring with a wooden rod for a quarter of an hour ; then, after the tar has subsided, strain the liquor, and keep it in well-clos- ed vessels." The water dissolves the empyreumatic acetic acid with a little of the empyreumatic oil of the tar, and from this impregnation ac- quires smell and taste, and a colour like that of white wine. Tar- water was at one time highly celebrated for its efficacy in many dis- eases, being drunk to the extent of a pound or two daily ; it operates slightly as a diuretic and diaphoretic, but has long fallen into disuse. CHAP. VII. INFUSA—INFUSIONS. Infusion is a general term, which might be applied to that process by which the soluble parts of any solid are extracted by the action of any fluid kept in contact for some time with the body on which it acts. In Pharmacy it is usually limited to that case where the active matter of vegetable substances is extracted partially or com- pletely by water. Infusions, therefore, are solutions of vegetable matter in water obtained by maceration. Several of the principles of vegetables being soluble in water, they can often, by this operation, be extracted with advantage. But there are others with regard to which it is useless. Thus the astrin. gent power of oak bark, or the purgative quality of rhubarb, is ex- tracted by infusion in water ; even the cathartic power of senna, though it appears to reside in a principle more peculiarly soluble in alcohol, is obtained by the action of water, when a large quantity is employed, and its solvent power is promoted by heat. But the power of jalap is scarcely procured, the watery infusion of it being compara- tively weak. In prescribing infusions, therefore, regard must be had to the composition of the substance ordered to be infused. In ge- neral mucilaginous plants yield their mucilage readily to water : bitterness and astringency are also usually extracted by water with facility, and the aromatic quality where this resides in an essential oil. With regard to other properties, scarcely any general rule can be delivered. To any resinous substance aqueous infusion can never properly be applied. The quantity and quality of the matter extracted by infusions are varied by the temperature of the fluid. Infusions with warm water are considerably stronger than those made with cold water ; in some cases, however, especially with respect to bitters, they are less INFUSIONS. 311 grateful. In the infusion of gentian, therefore, of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, which is designed to be used as a bitter, cold water is directed to be used ; in all the others, boiling water is ordered to be poured on the materials of the infusion, and the vessel is generally placed near a fire. Earthen vessels are commonly used ; but me- tallic ones, with their outer surfaces polished and bright, will pre- serve the heat longer when warm water is used, and will therefore yield stronger infusions. They are improper vehicles for most of the metallic salts, some of which, by the decompositions and precipitations which are pro- duced by their mixture, are rendered nearly inert. It may be re- marked, however, that it does not follow, from decompositions happening in a mixture, that it is in all cases an improper one, as some active and valuable preparations are formed with incompatible ingredients, which mutually decompose each other, and yet their conjunction is found to be beneficial. Dried vegetables yield their virtues to water by infusion, more readily than when they are in the recent state, probably from the vegetable matter being more easily penetrated by the water. Infusions are always injured by keeping. Though at first trans- parent, they soon become more or less turbid; they deposite a mucous-like substance, lose their peculiar taste, and after some time acquire a putrid smell,—changes owing to the gradual decomposition of the vegetable matter they hold dissolved. Infusions are therefore never kept ready prepared in the shops ; they are to be regarded as extemporaneous preparations, which, in general, require several hours before they can be prepared, Infusum acaci*: catechu. Infusion of Catechu; Ed» " Take of Extract of Acacia Catechu in powder, two drachms and a half; Bark of Cinnamon bruised, half a drachm ; Boiling Water, seven ounces ; Simple Syrup, one ounce. Macerate the extract and bark with the water in a closed vessel, for two hours, then strain through linen, and add the syrup." Infusum catechu compositum. Compound Infusion of Catechu. Lond. Dub. " Take of Extract of Catechu, two drachms and a half; Cinnamon Bark bruised, half a drachm ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for an hour in a vessel lightly closed, and strain through linen." The extract of Catechu is entirely soluble in water. This pre- paration, therefore, possesses all its virtues unimpaired, and rendered more grateful, by the addition of the cinnamon. Hence it is one of the best forms under which catechu can be prescribed. Its principal use is as an astringent in diarrhoea, commonly after the acrid matter has been evacuated by the action of rhubarb and other purgatives : its dose, one ounce every third or fourth hour. A small quantity of tincture of opium is frequently added to it with advantage. It is better not to add syrup, as this renders the infusion more apt to spoil. Infusum anthemidis nobilis. Infusion of Chamomile. Ed. " Take of Chamomile Flowers, two drachms; Water, eight ounces. 312 infusions. Macerate for twenty-four hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Infusum anthemidis (Cham*:meli. Dub). Infusion of Chamo- mile. Lond. Dub. " Take of Flowers of Chamomile, two drachms ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for ten minutes in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." (" Digest for twenty-four hours in a covered vessel, and strain through linen." Dub.) Under the form of infusion, chamomile is used as a bitter in dys- pepsia : it is more grateful when prepared with cold water, chamo- mile tea, as it is called, which is equal perhaps in efficacy to any other bitter. It is unnecessary to macerate longer than an hour. The infusion in warm water is generally employed to promote the operation of an emetic. Infusum cassi*: senn*:. Infusion of Senna. Ed. " Take of the Leaves of Senna, six drachms ; Ginger Root bruised, one scruple ; Boiling Water, nine ounces. Macerate for an hour, in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Infusum senn*: compositum. Compound Infusion of Senna. Lond.. Dub. " Take of Senna Leaves, an ounce and a half; (an ounce, Dub.); Ginger root sliced, one drachm ; Boiling Water, a pint. Macerate for an hour in a vessel lightly closed, and strain the liquor." Under this form, senna may be given as a purgative, the dose being three or four ounces, with sometimes the addition of half an ounce of sulphate of magnesia. It is less grateful than the infusion of isenna and tamarinds of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. The quanti- ties in the second formula appear to be greater than are necessary, for there is no propriety in preparing more of the infusion than is required for a dose, as it suffers decomposion in a very short time. Infusum cinchon*: lancifoli*:. Infusion of Peruvian Bark. Ed. " Take of Lance-leaved Bark in powder, one ounce ; Water, one pound. Macerate for twenty-four hours in a slightly covered vessel, frequently shaking, and strain." Infusum cinchon*:. Infusion of Peruvian Bark. Lond. " Take of Lance-leaved Peruvian Bark, bruised, half an ounce; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Infusum cinchon*:. Infusion of Peruvian Bark. Dub. " Take of Lance-leaved Bark in coarse powder, an ounce ; Cold Water, twelve ounces, by measure. Rub the bark with a little wa- ter, and add the remainder during the rubbing; then macerate for twenty-four hours, shaking occasionally, and pour off the pure liquor." The cold infusion of bark contains little of its active matter, but is grateful and well suited to weak and delicate stomachs ; hence it is sometimes prescribed as a bitter in dyspepsia in a dose of two ounces. A solution of sulphate of quinia is preferable, whenever the peculiar operation of bark is desired. Infusum columbje. Infusion of Columba. Ed. INFUSIONS. 313 " Take of Colomba Root sliced, one drachm; Boiling Water, eight ounces. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Infusum calumb*:. Infusion of Calumba. Lond. Dub. * " Take of Colomba Root cut, two drachms ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." The active matter of colomba is imperfectly extracted by water; and this can be regarded only as a bitter infusion, which, like other bitters, may be used in dyspeptic affections. Its dose is one ounce of the London preparation, or two of the Edinburgh. To obtain the more active operation of colomba, it must be given in substance. As this infusion contains no astringent matter, it is not incompatible with preparations of iron. It is hence prescribed as a vehicle for any of these, particularly for the tincture of muriate of iron, when it is wished to conjoin them with bitters. Dr. A. T. Thomson re- commends infusion of colomba for restraining the nausea and vomit- ing which attend pregnancy. It is liable to spoil very soon, espe- cially in warm weather. Infusum digitalis purpure*:. Infusion of Foxglove. Ed. " Take of the dried leaves of Foxglove, one drachm; Boiling Water, eight ounces; Spirit of Cinnamon, one ounce. Macerate the leaves in the water for four hours in a vessel lightly covered, and, after adding the spirit, strain." Infusum digitalis. Infusion of Foxglove. Lond. Dub. " Take of the dried leaves of Foxglove, one drachm; Spirit of Cinnamon, half a fluid-ounce ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Mace- rate for four hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain; then add the Spirit of Cinnamon." This infusion, of which the formula was given by Dr. Withering, is the best form of administering digitalis as a diuretic : the addition of the aromatic is designed to counteract the nauseating and sedative effects. Its dose is an ounce taken twice a-day, and continued till the effects of the remedy appear. Infusum gentian*: compositum, vulgo Infusum Amarum. Compound Infusion of Gentian. Ed. " Take of Gentian Root cut, half an ounce ; Dried Orange-Peel bruised, Coriander Seeds bruised, of each a drachm ; Diluted Alco- hol, four ounces ; Water, one pound. First pour on the alcohol, and after three hours the water; then macerate without heat for twelve hours, in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Infusum gentian*: compositum. Compound Infusion of Gentian. Lond. Dub. " Take of Gentian Root cut, Orange-Peel dried, of each a drachm ; Fresh Lemon-Peel, two drachms; (one drachm, Dub.); Boiling Water, twelve fluid-ounces. Macerate for an hour, in a vessel slightly closed, and strain." This bitter infusion is employed in dyspepsia ; a sufficient quan- tity of alcohol is added to aid the solvent power of the water, and to 40 314 INFUSIONS. preserve the infusion from spontaneous decomposition, while there is not so much as to "give spiritous pungency. It is therefore better adapted to continued use than the bitter tinctures. Its dose is two ounces occasionally. The London and Dublin Colleges omit the alcohol; and in an infusion, which may always be extemporaneous- ly prepared, and does not therefore require to be long kept, this is perhaps preferable, as avoiding the pernicious consequences arising from the stomach being accustomed to the stimulus of ardent spirit. Infusum lini usitatissimi. Infusion of Lintseed. Ed. " Take of Lintseed, an ounce ; Liquorice Root, bruised, two drachms ; Boiling Water, two pounds. Digest for four hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Infusum lini compositum. Compound Infusion of Lintseed. Lond. Dub. " Take of Lintseed bruised, one ounce ; Liquorice Root cut, half an ounce ; Boiling Water, two pints. Macerate for four hours, nigh the fire, in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." The mucilaginous matter of lintseed is very readily dissolved by tepid water ; and this forms a demulcent hquor, often taken with ad- vantage in gonorrhoea, dysuria, and sometimes in catarrh. It is rendered rather more grateful by the addition of a small portion of lemon juice, and of the rind of the lemon with a little sugar. Infusum quassi*: excels*:. Infusion of Quassia. Ed. " Take of Quassia Wood rasped, half a drachm ; Boiling Water, eight ounces. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Infusum quassi*:. Infusion of Quassia. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Wood of Quassia cut, one scruple ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Quassta is a very pure bitter, and its bitterness is extracted by water, unmixed with either tannin, mucilage, or extractive, which usually accompany it in other tonics. Under this form it is used as a remedy in dyspepsia, and other disorders arising from debility of the alimentary canal. Its dose may be two ounces. As it is scarcely changed by any metallic preparations, it is often used as a vehicle for sulphate of zinc and the salts of iron. In the latter of the two formulas, the proportion of quassia is much too small. Infusum rhei. Infusion of Rhubarb. Ed. " Take of the Root of Russian Rhubarb bruised, half an ounce ; Boiling Water, eight ounces ; Spirit of Cinnamon, one ounce. Ma- cerate the root with the water in a closed vessel for twelve hours, then, adding the spirit, strain the liquor." Infusum rhei. Infusion of Rhubarb. Lond. Dub. " Take of Root of Rhubarb cut, a drachm ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." The infusion of rhubarb is supposed to have more of the purgative than of the astringent power. It is accordingly used as a mild ca- infusions. 315 thartic, in a dose of two or three ounces. There appears to be an unnecessary waste of rhubarb in the formula of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia ; and that in the London Pharmacopoeia, in which only a drachm of rhubarb is ordered to eight ounces of water, will probably afford as much active matter as the water can dissolve, or, at least, will give an infusion sufficiently strong. Infusum ros*: gallic*:. Infusion of Red Rose. Ed. " Take of the Dried Petals of the Red Rose, one ounce ; Boiling water, two pounds and a half; Dilute Sulphuric Acid, half an ounce ; Refined Sugar, one ounce. Macerate the petals with the boiling water in an earthen vessel, which is not glazed with lead, for four hours, then, having poured on the acid, strain the liquor, and add the sugar." Infusum ros*: compositum. Compound Infusion of Roses. Lond. Infusum ros*: acidum. Acid Infusion of Rose. Dub. " Take of the Dried Petals of the Red Rose, half an ounce ; Coiling Water, two pints and a half, (three pints, Dub.) ; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, three fluid-drachms ; Refined Sugar, an ounce and a half. Pour the water on the petals in a glass vessel ; then drop in the acid, and macerate for half an hour.—Lastly, strain the liquor, and add the sugar to it." Tins infusion is used principally as a refrigerant and as a mode- rately astringent gargle, in slight cases of cynanche, or to check salivation. It owes little else than colour, and a pleasant flavour, to the petals of the rose ; the astringency and subacid quality de- pending almost entirely on the sulphuric acid. It is frequently used as a vehicle for sulphate of quinia and for the exhibition of cathartic salts, such as sulphate of magnesia. Infusum senn*: compositum. Compound Infusion of Senna. Ed. Infusum senn*: cum tamarindis. Infusion of Senna with Ta- marinds. Dub. " Take of Senna Leaves, one drachm; Preserved Tamarinds, one ounce ; Coriander Seeds bruised, one drachm ; Raw Sugar, half an ounce; Boiling Water, eight ounces. Macerate them in a close earthen vessel, which is not glazed with lead, shaking fre- quently, and, after four hours, strain. It may be made also with double or triple the quantity of senna." This affords a purgative not ungrateful, mild in its operation, and not liable to excite nausea. The whole quantity may be taken at intervals as a dose. If a more powerful cathartic is indicated, it may be made with a larger proportion of senna. The direction of not infusing the materials in a vessel glazed with lead ought to be attended to, as by the acid of the tamarinds acting on the lead, the infusion might receive a noxious impregnation. There are some infusions peculiar to the Dublin and London Phar- macopoeias. Infusum armoraci*: compositum. Compound Infusion of Horse- Radish. Lond. Dub. 316 INFUSIONS. " Take of fresh Horse-Radish Root cut, Mustard Seed bruised, of each one ounce ; Compound Spirit of Horse-Radish, a fluid-ounce ; Boiling Water, a pint. Macerate for two (six, Dub.) hours in a ves- sel lightly closed, and strain ; then add the Compound Spirit of Horse-Radish." Under this form the horse-radish may be prescribed in the dis- eases in which it is employed, more particularly as a stimulant in chronic rheumatism, paralysis, and some forms of dropsy, especially if they should occur after intermittents. Its dose is two ounces twice a-day. It soons spoils when kept. It is incompatible with the salts of mercury and with alkaline carbonates. Infusum aurantii compositum. Compound Infusion of Orange- Peel. Lond. Dub. " Take of dried Rind of the Orange, two drachms ; of fresh Rind of Lemon, one drachm ; of Cloves bruised, half a drachm ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for a quarter of an hour in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." This iffordsa bitter, grateful, and somewhat pungent to the taste, which may he employed with advantage in some forms of dyspepsia. Its dose is two ounces. Infusum buchu. Infusion or Buchu. Dub. " Take of Buchu Leaves, half an ounce ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Digest for four hours, and strain through linen." Lately introduced as a diuretic, and is beneficial in some dis- eases of the bladder. Infusum caryophyllorum. Infusion of Cloves. Lond. Dub. " Take of bruised Cloves, a drachm ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." The aromatic odour and pungency of the clove are extracted in this infusion : it may be used with advantage as a warm and grateful stimulant in some forms of dyspeptic affection, where a sensation of cold and uneasiness is felt at the stomach,—a state which is often produced where the habit of taking spiritous cordials has been in- dulged in. Its dose is a wine glassful. Mr. Brande recommends the addition of a little sub-carbonate of ammonia to it, as six grains to an ounce of the infusion. Infusum cascarill*:. Infusion of Cascarilla. Lond. Dub. " Take of Cascarilla Bark bruised, half an ounce ; Boiling Wa- ter, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." Cascarilla is a substance little valued in modern practice ; and there does not appear to be much propriety in the introduction of this infusion as an officinal preparation. Its dose is two ounces. Dr. A. T. Thomson recommends it as a tonic for children. Infusum cuspari/e. Infusion of Angustura. Lond. Infusum angustur*:. Infusion of Angustura. Dub. " Take of the Bark of Angustura bruised, two drachms; Boil- INFUSIONS. 317 ing Water, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." The same remark nearly applies to this preparation as to the pre- ceding one. Under this form, however, angustura may be oc-' casionally used as a remedy in dyspepsia. Infusum simaroub*:. Infusion of Simarouba. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Bark of Simarouba bruised, half a drachm ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Macerate for two hours in a vessel lightly clos- ed, and strain." Simarouba yields its bitterness to water ; the infusion, however, is inferior to that of quassia, and does not appear to have any par- ticular advantage to recommend it. It has been used in the latter stages of dysentery. Infusum tabaci. Infusion of Tobacco. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Leaves of Tobacco, one drachm ; Boiling Water, a pint. Macerate for an hour in a vessel lightly closed, and strain." This infusion is prepared of that strength which is proper for giving tobacco under the form of enema, as a narcotic in incarcerated hernia, or to produce evacuation from the intestines in ileus and oh- stinate constipation. It has been also used by Dr. Fowler as a nar- cotic diuretic in dropsies, and it is said with considerable advantage ; it is generally, however, regarded as an uncertain and dangerous remedy. Infusum menth*: simplex. Simple Infusion of Mint. Dub. " Take of Mint Leaves dried, two drachms; Boiling Water, as much as is sufficient to afford six ounces of the infusion when strained." Mint infusion taken warm may be used to favour diaphoresis, or as a vehicle for other remedies. Infusum menth*: compositum. Compound Infusion of Mint. Dub. " Take of the Leaves of Spearmint dried, two drachms ; Boiling Water, as much as is sufficient to afford six ounces of infusion when strained. Digest for half an hour in a covered vessel; strain the liquor when cold, and add to it, of Double Refined Sugar, two drachms; Oil of Spearmint, three drops, dissolved in half an ounce of compound tincture of cardamom. Mix." This is a grateful stomachic, which may be used to obviate flatu- lence, or as a vehicle to cover the taste of unpleasant medicines. Infusum sarsaparill*; compositum. Compound Infusion of Sar- saparilla. Dub. "Take of Sarsaparilla Root, previously cleansed with cold water, and then sliced, an ounce ; Lime Water, a pint. Macerate for twelve hours in a close vessel, shaking occasionally, and strain." Until it be ascertained whether the supposed virtues of sarsapa- rilla depend on some active principle in it, or are merely those of a common demulcent, we cannot well judge what is the best form of exhibiting it. It is affirmed that cold water extracts all the virtues, 318 MUCILAGES. while, on the other hand, Dr. Paris says of the decoction, that it is seldom boiled long enough. The lime-water in this formula is sup. posed to assist in dissolving the active matter of the root. The dose of the infusion is five or six ounces twice or thrice a-day. Infusum Valerian*':. Infusion of Valerian. Dub. " Take of the Root of Valerian, in coarse powder, two drachms ; Boiling Water, seven ounces. Digest for an hour, and strain the liquor when it is cold." Valerian is frequently taken in hysteric affections under the form of infusion, and this affords a preparation of proper strength. Its dose is from one to two ounces. CHAP. VIII. OF MUCILAGES. The term Mucilage, in Pharmacy, is applied to solutions of gummy matter in water, sufficiently concentrated to have a degree of visci- dity ; or to similar solutions obtained by the maceration in water of vegetables, in which this kind of matter abounds. They are princi- pally employed as vehicles for other substances, either to suspend powders in liquids, to diffuse oils or resinous matter in water, or to give form and tenacity to pills. Mucilago acaci*: arabic*:. Mucilage of Gum- Arabic. Ed. " Take of Gum-Arabic, one part ; Boiling Water, two parts. Di- gest with frequent agitation until the gum be dissolved, then press the mucilage through linen.'' Mucilago acacle. Mucilage of Gum-Arabic. Lond. " Take of Gum-Arabic in powder, four ounces ; Boiling Water, half a pint. Rub the gum with the water, gradually added, until it form a mucilage" Mucilago gummi arabic*:. Mucilage of Gum-Arabic. Dub. " Take of Gum-Arabic in coarse powder, four ounces ; Hot Water, by measure, four ounces. Digest them, agitating frequently so as to dissolve the gum ; then strain through iinen." Mucilage of gum-arabic is sometimes employed as the basis of the common demulcent mixtures used in catarrh. It is more general- ly used as an agent in Pharmacy, to suspend in water .substances insoluble in that liquid, to diffuse oils in water, and for similar purposes. The mucilage of the Dublin College is twice as strong as the others, and may be used to suspend heavy powders in, and can be easily diluted if required. Dr. Duncan recommends a me- thod of preparing mucilage better than the foregoing : it is to tie up the gum in a muslin rag, which is suspended in water ; the gum is gradually abstracted by the water and a clear mucilage is formed, whereas in the common way it is turbid. DECOCTIONS. 319 Mucilago amyli. Starch Mucilage. Ed. " Take of Starch, three drachms ; Water, one pound. Rub the starch with the water gradually added to it, then boil them for a short time." Mucilago amyli. Lond. Dub. " Take of Starch, three drachms, (six drachms, Dub.); Water, a pint. Rub the starch with the water gradually dropt upon it, then boil until it form a mucilage." Starch, though insoluble in cold water, is dissolved by boiling water, and forms a gelatinous solution. The starch-mucilage is used as a vehicle for giving opium under the form of enema, in diar- rhoeas arising from acrimony in the intestines. Mucilago astragali tragacanth*:. Mucilage of Gum Traga- canth. Ed. Dub. x " Take of Gum Tragacanth, two drachms ; Boiling Water, (Cold Water, Dub.) eight ounces. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and rub carefully, that it may be dissolved ; then strain through linen." Tragacanth is not easily dissolved in water, r>nd, even with the aid of heat, the viscid mucilaginous liquor that is formed remains tur- bid and flocculent : it is better to avoid the application of heat; to assist the solution the gum may be first beaten into a paste with a little water, and then the rest of the water added to it gradually. The proportion of the gum to the water is rather large in the formu- la, but is designed to form a stiff mucilage, to be used principally in making troches. CHAP. IX. OF DECOCTIONS. The power of water as a solvent is, like that of all other chemical agents, increased by heat. Hence, in general, the active matter of vegetable substances is extracted more completely by boiling them with water than by mere infusion, either cold or warm, the residuum in the one case being found more inert than in the other. It is not to be concluded, however, from this fact, that the decoc- tion is proportionally more powerful in medicinal operation. On the contrary, though the active matter of the substance is dissolved, it is often much injured in the operation: In few cases is the decoction equal in power to the quantity of the substance from which it is prepared ; in many it is much impaired ; and in some it is totally lost, the decoction itself and the residual matter being both nearly inert. This change is often owing to the dissipation of the volatile prin- ciples of the substance operated on. All the essential oils are vo- 320 DECOCTIONS. latilized at the temperature of boiling water. It is evident, therefore, that substances, whose virtues depend wholly or in part on their es- sential oil, must be injured by this operation : for this reason, aro- matics are always useless additions to decoctions ; and the aromatic flavour of many active substances is also lost in this form of prepa- ration. It frequently also arises from the active principles of the vegeta- bles employed being decomposed by the heat applied. Thus the decoctions of opium, cinchona, and ipecacuan, though not deriving their virtues from volatile ingredients, exhibit very little of the pow- ers of these substances, a fact which can only be explained, by sup- posing their principles to have been partially or wholly decomposed by the operation. In some cases also, the active matter which is dissolved by the hot water is deposited when it becomes cold. From these observations, it is evident that decoction can seldom be a proper form for the administration of medicines. The pungen- cy and aromatic flavour, on which part of their virtues depend, and which render them at least more grateful, must always be im- paired or lost, and their more important virtues must often be in- jured. Most of the metallic salts are decomposed by the tannin, extrac tive, and other principles present in decoctions. Though they are thus chemically incompatible, it does not, however, as has been re- marked, follow, that they must be medicinally incompatible, as the different ingredients, though separated, may retain their peculiar powers, which may be increased or beneficially modified by their con- junction. Decoctions, like infusions, are extemporaneous prescriptions. They cannot be kept ready prepared, as in a few days they become turbid, and run into the acetous fermentation. They can be pre- pared, however, sooner than infusions ; the boiling not requiring to be continued in general for more than ten or fifteen minutes. While the boiling continues, the air ought to be excluded by covering the vessel; and it ought not to be continued long. The method there- fore often followed, of boiling down a considerable quantity of water on a vegetable, is generally improper. The liquor ought to be strained while hot, as, on cooling, a portion of the dissolved matter is frequently deposited, which is as active as that which remains dis- solved, and this precipitate ought to be mingled with the liquid by agitation, when the dose is to be taken. In compound decoctions, it is found convenient to throw in the ingredients in succession, beginning with the hardest and most in- soluble, so that they shall be exposed longest to the action of the hot liquid. Decoctum alth*:*: officinalis. Decoction of Marsh-mallow. Ed. Dub. " Take of Dried Althaea Root (and Herb, Dub.) bruised, four ounces ; Raisins, freed from their seeds, two ounces ; Water, seven pounds. Boil to five pounds ; put aside the strained liquor until the impurities have subsided, and pour off the clear liquor." DECOCTIONS. 321 The gummy part of vegetables is less injured by decoction than any other. In this decoction, therefore, the mucilage which abounds in the althaea root is extracted unchanged, and the liquor is concentrated by the evaporation; the raisins are added to render the taste more pleasant. It is under this form that it is used as a demulcent, the decoction being taken to the extent of two or three pounds in the day, in nephritic complaints, in ardor urinae, and sometimes in catarrh. Decoctum anthemidis nobilis. Decoction of Chamomile. Ed. "Take of the Dried Flowers of Chamomile, one ounce; Cara- way Seeds bruised, half an ounce ; Water, five pounds. Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain." Decoctum cham*:meh compositum. Compound Decoction of Chamomile. Dub. "Take of Chamomile Flowers dried, half an ounce; Fennel Seeds, two drachms ; Water, one pint. Boil a little, and strain." This decoction is used as an enema, and as a fomentation. When applied to the former purpose, the effect is to be ascribed principally to the water; in the second, the vegetables are not more useful, except as retaining longer the heat and moisture when ap- plied to a part, and rendering its application more convenient. The Cathartic and Fetid Clysters of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia have this decoction for their basis. Decoctum cinchon*: lancifoli*:. Decoction of Peruvian Bark. Ed. " Take of Lance-leaved Bark bruised, one ounce; Water, one pound and a half. Boil for ten minutes in a covered vessel, and strain the liquor while hot." Decoctum cinchon*:. Decoction of Peruvian Bark. Lond. Dub. " Take of Lance-leaved Cinchona Bark bruised, an ounce ; Wa- ter, a pint, (a sufficient quantity to afford a pint after straining, Dub.) Boil for ten minutes in a vessel lightly closed, and strain the liquor while warm." The active principles of bark appear to be decomposed by con- tinued heat; hence the reason of the direction given in the Phar- macopoeia, that the boiling be not continued longer than ten minutes. The decoction is performed in a covered vessel, to exclude as much as possible the access of the air, to the chemical agency of which the change in the extractive matter is supposed to be owing. The liquor is ordered to be strained while hot, as it holds dissolved a larger portion of the active matter than it can retain in solution when cold. Hence, after having been strained, it becomes turbid as it cools, depositing a reddish precipitate, which possessing con- siderable energy, ought to be mixed with it by agitation when the dose is to be taken. The addition of a little sulphuric acid causes it to remain dissolved ; and where this can be prescribed with pro- priety, it may be employed. The precipitate, according to Pelletier, consists chiefly of tannin and starch, which unfortunately carry down with them a part of the cinchonia. Caventou states, that if the. 322 DECOCTIONS. quantity of water be increased, almost all of the cinchonia will be held in solution, and the weak decoction thus prepared may be then filtered and concentrated by evaporation with a gentle heat. Decoction of bark is used in those cases which require the free administration of the remedy, but in which, in substance, it sits uneasy on the stomach. The dose is two or three ounces, taken as often as the stomach will receive it. Decoctum daphnes mezerei. Decoction of Mezereon. Ed. Dub. " Take of the Bark of the Root of Mezereon, two drachms; of Liquorice Root bruised, half an ounce ; Water, three pounds. Boil with a gentle heat to two pounds, and strain." A compound decoction, prepared from guaiac wood, sarsaparilla, sassafras, mezereon, and liquorice, had been highly celebrated, under the name of Lisbon Diet Drink, for its efficacy in the treatment of symptoms connected with syphilis, particularly thickening of the ligaments, affections of the bones and periosteum, and obstinate ulceration. Dr. Russell, from a series of experiments, concluded, that the mezereon is the ingredient on which its activity depends ; and this decoction, in which the liquorice serves to cover the pun- gency of the mezereon, has been substituted for the more compli- cated composition. It is used in the same cases ; sometimes also in cutaneous affections, particularly lepra, and in chronic rheumatism. According to Mr. Pearson's experience of it, it has little efficacy in removing the syphilitic symptoms for which it is usually prescribed. Its dose is from four to six ounces twice or thrice a-day. Decoctum geoffr*:*: inermis. Decoction of Cabbage-Tree Bark. Ed. " Take of Cabbage-Tree Bark in powder, one ounce ; Water, two pounds. Boil with a gentle heat to one pound, and strain." Decoctum geoffroy*:. Decoction of Cabbage-Tree. Dub. " Take of the Bark of the Cabbage-Tree bruised, an ounce ; Water, two pints. Boil down to a pint, and to the strained liquor, add Syrup of Orange-Peel, two ounces." This decoction is the form under which this medicine has been usually administered, the bark in substance being too violent in its operation. In the West India islands the decoction has been used as a very effectual remedy in worms, especially the lumbrici. The dose given is two ounces to an adult; if this occasion nausea, griping, or tenesmus, which it sometimes does, especially, it is affirmed, if cold water is drunk freely during its operation, these symptoms are relieved by a dose of castor oil. In this country it has not been much employed. Decoctum guajaci compositum. Compound Decoction of Guaiac. Ed. " Take of Guaiac Wood Shavings, three ounces ; Raisins, two ounces ; Sassafras Root cut, Liquorice Root bruised, of each one ounce ; Water, ten pounds. Boil the water with the guaiac wood DECOCTIONS. 323 and raisins, on a gentle fire, to five pounds, adding the roots towards the end of the boiling, then strain." Decoctum guaiaci compositum. Compound Decoction of Guaiac. Dub. " Take of Guaiac Wood scraped, three ounces; Sassafras Root sliced, ten drachms j Liquorice Root bruised, two ounces and a half; Water, ten pints. Boil the guaiac wood in the water down to one half, and towards the end of the boiling, add the liquorice and sassa- fras, and strain the liquor." This decoction derives its virtues principally from the guaiac. It acts as a diaphoretic, and has been used in cutaneous diseases, and in chronic rheumatism, taken in the quantity of a pound twice or thrice a-day. It has also been employed in the treatment of ob. stinate venereal symptoms, especially as an auxiliary to mercury. Decoctum hordei. Decoction of Barley. Ed. Dub. " Take of Pearl Barley, two ounces ; Boiling Water, five pounds. First wash off with cold water the flour adhering to the barley ; then boil the barley for a short time with about half a pound of water, to extract the colouring matter. This being rejected, put the barley thus purified into five pounds of boiling water. Boil this to one-half, and strain." Decoctum hordei. Decoction of Barley. Lond. " Take of the Seeds of Barley, two ounces; Water, four pints and a half. First wash off the impurities adhering to the barley in cold water, then pouring on half a pint of water, boil the seeds a little ; this water being rejected, pour on the remaining water pre- viously heated ; then boil down to two pints, and strain." This decoction is never prepared in the shops. It is, however, very extensively used as a diluent in febrile diseases ; and as it is of some importance that it should be grateful, it has been judged proper to give directions how it may be best prepared. Decoctum hordei compositum. Compound Decoction of Barley. Dub. Lond. " Take of Decoction of Barley, four pints ; (two pints, and Water, one pint, Lond.); Raisins freed from the seeds, Figs cut, of each two ounces ; Liquorice cut and bruised, half an ounce. During the boiling, add first the raisins, then the figs, and lastly the liquorice, a little before the end of the boiling, which will be complete when about two pints of the liquor remain." The additions in these compound decoctions can communicate little efficacy, and perhaps render the liquor rather cloying to the taste and stomach. Decoctum lichenis islandici. Decoction of Iceland Liverwort. Ed. Lond. " Take of Iceland Liverwort, an ounce ; Water, two pounds, (a pint and a half, Lond.) Boil down to sixteen ounces, and strain." Decoctum lichenis islandici. Decoction of Iceland Liverwort. Dub. " Take of Iceland Liverwort, half an ounce ; Boiling Water, a 324 DECOCTIONS. pint. Digest for two hours in a close vessel; boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain the liquor while warm." The fecula or mucilage of the lichen is extracted by water by boiling, and it is under this form of decoction that it has been em- ployed as a demulcent, and a mild nutritious substance easy of diges- tion. It may be rendered more grateful by removing the bitter matter of the lichen by previous maceration. Some, however, con- sider the bitter matter useful, as exerting a tonic action. Decoctum polygal*: seneg*:. Decoction of Seneka. Ed. " Take of Seneka Root, one ounce ; Water, two pounds. Boil to sixteen ounces, and strain." Decoctum seneg*:. Decoction of Senega. Lond. " Take of Senega Root, an ounce ; Water, two pints. Boil down to a pint, and strain." Decoctum seneg*:. Decoction of Seneka. Dub. " Take of Seneka root, three drachms ; Water, a pint and a half. Boil down to eight ounces, and strain." Under the form of decoction senega has been employed as an expectorant in pneumonic affections, attended with accumulation of mucus in the bronchiae, and as a diaphoretic in chronic rheumatism, and in arthritic complaints. The dose is two or three ounces three or four times a-day. Decoctum quercus roboris. Decoction of Oak Bark. Ed. " Take of Oak Bark bruised, an ounce ; Water, two pounds and a half. Boil down to sixteen ounces, and strain." Decoctum quercus. Decoction of Oak Bark. Lond. Dub. " Take of Oak Bark, an ounce ; Water, two pints. Boil down to a pint, and strain." The astringency of the oak bark is extracted by boiling in water; and the decoction is the form under which it is used locally as a styptic in haemorrhoids, prolapsus ani, leucorrhcea, and profuse mo- norrhagia. Decoctum smilacis sarsaparill*:. Decoction of Sarsaparilla. Ed. " Take of Sarsaparilla Root cut, six ounces ; Water, eight pounds. Digest for two hours in a temperature of about 195°, then take out the root and bruise it; put it again jnto the liquor, and boil it with a gentle fire to four pounds ; then express it, and strain." Decoctum sarsaparill*:. Decoction of Sarsaparilla. Lond. Dub. "Take of Sarsaparilla Root sliced, (and cleansed with cold water, Dub.) four ounces; Boiling Water, four pints. Macerate for four hours in a vessel lightly closed nigh the fire, then cut and bruise the sarsaparilla; return it bruised into the liquor, and again macerate in a similar manner for two hours ; lastly, boil to two pints, and strain." There is a difference of opinion as to the degree of boiling ne- cessary to extract the active matter of sarsaparilla. According to Dr. Paris, the decoction is seldom boiled long enough, while Dr. A. X. Thomson affirms that long boiling injures the power of the sarsa- DECOCTIONS. 325 parilla, and that mere maceration in warm water is preferable. The latter opinion is more generally held, and the above formula regard- ed as unnecessarily complicated. Mr. Brande says, that if the root be well bruised and beaten, and the decoction simmered down and squeezed out of the root after the evaporation, the extraction of solu- ble matter will be completed in less than half the time. This decoc- tion is the form under which sarsaparilla is always given, its dose being from a pint to a quart in the course of the day. It has been used in venereal cases, either to promote the action of mercury, or to remove symptoms which have remained after a long continued mercurial course. Dr. Fordyce celebrated its efficacy in very high terms in giving relief in nocturnal pains, removing eruptions, and as being the best restorative in the emaciation and debility remaining after the long continued use of mercury. According to Mr. Pearson also, though sarsaparilla is in no respect an antidote to syphilis, it is ex- tremely beneficial in what may be called syphiloid diseases. The decoction has been used with considerable advantage as a demulcent in dysuria, and in morbid irritability of the bladder, occasioning in- continence of urine. It has of late also been employed in the treat- ment of foul ulcers, and in some forms of scrofula. Decoctum ulmi campestris. Decoction of Elm. Ed. " Take of the Fresh Bark of the Elm bruised, four ounces ; of Water, five pounds. Boil down to two pounds and a half, and then strain." Decoctum ulmi. Decoction of Elm. Lond. Dub. " Take of the fresh Bark of the Elm bruised, four ounces; Wa- ter, four pints. Boil down to two pints, and strain." This decoction has been highly praised by some practitioners in certain cutaneous diseases, but is now regarded as quite inactive. The dose is six ounces, taken twice or thrice a-day. A few decoctions, peculiar, to the London and Dublin Pharmaco- poeias, remain to be noticed. Decoctum aloes compositum. Compound Decoction of Aloes.— Lond. Dub. " Take of Extract of Liquorice, half an ounce ; Sub-carbonate of Potash, two scruples ; Extract of Aloes, (Hepatic, Dub.) Myrrh in powder, Saffron, of each one drachm ; Water, a pint ; Compound Tincture of Cardamoms, four fluid-ounces. Boil down the liquo- rice, the sub-carbonate of potash, the aloes, myrrh, and saffron, with the water, to twelve fluid-ounces, and strain; then add the Compound Tincture of Cardamoms." The gum-resinous substances in this decoction are retained in solution, partly by the solvent power of the water, and partly by the action of the alkali ; and by the addition of the spiritous tincture, any spontaneous decomposition will be more effectually prevented. The composition is analogous to one formerly in use, the celebrat- ed Baume de Vie. It is one which, it might be supposed, must be very nauseous, but it is said not to be ungrateful, and to form a good 326 DECOCTIONS. stimulating aperient. It is given in the dose of two ounces. The original Baume de Vie appears to have contained no alkali. Decoctum cydoni*:. Decoction of Quince Seeds. Lond. " Take of Quince Seeds, two drachms ; Water, a pint. Boil with a gentle heat for ten minutes, then strain." Quince seeds abound with mucilage, which is extracted by boil- ing in water. It is liable to spontaneous decomposition, and having no peculiar advantage, is little used. It has the disadvantage, ajso, of being coagulated by acids. It has been recommended as an application to erysipelatous surfaces. Decoctum dulcamar*:. Decoction of Woody Nightshade. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Stalks of Woody Nightshade cut, one ounce ; Wa- ter, a pint and a half. Boil down to a pint, and strain." In this decoction a small portion of solania exists, which is sup- posed to communicate diuretic and narcotic powers ; but these are inconsiderable. It is used chiefly as a diet drink, and is said to in- crease all the secretions and excretions. Two or three ounces of it may be taken twice or thrice a-day, and its quantity may be, in time, increased to a pint daily. Decoctum glycyrrhiz*:. Decoction of Liquorice. Dub. " Take of Liquorice-root bruised, an ounce and a half; Water, a pint. Boil for ten minutes, and strain." An agreeable demulcent, and a good vehicle for remedies which have a nauseous taste. Decoctum h*:matoxyli. Decoction of Logwood. Dub. "Take of Logwood Shavings, an ounce and a half; Cinnamon Bark bruised, one drachm ; Water, two pints. Boil the wood in the water, and evaporate to a pint; towards the end of the boiling add the cinnamon, and strain." A weak astringent decoction, of use in cases of slight diarrhoea. Decoctum malv*: compositum. Compound Decoction of Mallow. Lond. " Take of Mallow dried, an ounce ; Chamomile Flowers dried, half an ounce ; Water, a pint. Boil them for a quarter of an hour, and strain." This is designed for the same purpose as the decoction of cha- momile, that of serving as a vehicle for fomentations and enemas ; and the same observation applies to it. Decoctum papaveris. Decoction of Poppy. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Capsules of the White Poppy cut, four ounces ; Water, four (two, Dub.) pints. Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain." The decoction of the capsules of the poppy is frequently used as an anodyne fomentation. DECOCTIONS. 327 Decoctum pyrol*:. Decoction of Winter-Green. Dub. " Take of Winter-Green, an ounce ; Water, two pints. Mace- rate for six hours, then take out the winter-green, and having bruis- ed it, return it to the liquor, and evaporate the mixture until there remain enough to afford a pint of decoction with expression. This decoction is used as a diuretic in dropsy, particularly in as- cites, and as a palliative in strangury, gravel and nephritis. Its dose is two or three ounces, given several times a-day. Decoctum sarsaparill*: compositum. Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Simple Decoction of Sarsaparilla boiling, four pints; Sassafras Wood cut,(and bruised, Dub.), Raspings of Guaiac Wood, Liquorice Root bruised, of each one ounce ; Mezereon Root Bark, three drachms. Boil for a quarter of an hour, and strain." This is nearly the same composition as the Lisbon Diet Drink, celebrated, as has been already remarked, in the treatment of se- condary venereal affection, or symptoms appearing during a pro- tracted mercurial course. The efficacy of the preparation has been supposed to depend principally on the mezereon ; the other substan- ces may, however, add something to its power, and it is perhaps pre- ferable, as a general rule, to adhere to the original composition of re- medies of this kind, the efficacy of which is in some measure speci- fic, where it appears otherwise unexceptionable. Its chief action is as a diaphoretic ; the dose is four or six ounces three times a-day. Decoctum taraxaci. Decoction of Dandelion. Dub. " Take of the fresh Herb and Root of Dandelion, four ounces ; Water, two pints. Boil down to a pint, and strain the expressed liquor." A mucilaginous decoction with slight bitterness, used as a diure- tic, but more particularly for hepatic diseases, (seethe Extract.) Decoctum veratri. Decoction of White Hellebore. Lond. Dub. " Take of White Hellebore Root beat, (powdered, Dub.) an ounce ; Water, two pints ; Rectified Spirit, two fluid-ounces. Boil the white hellebore root with the water down to a pint, and strain ; when cold, add the spirit." This decoction is employed as an external application in some cutaneous diseases, principally in psora. It is a much less unplea- sant application than the sulphur ointment, and is occasionally suc- cessful. It must, however, be used with caution, as it is very acrid and stimulant, from containing dissolved a portion of veratria. To lessen its irritating quality, it is found useful sometimes to dilute it with an equal weight of water. 328 SYRUPS. CHAP. X. SYRUPI.—SYRUPS. Syrups are saturated solutions of sugar in water, in watery [infu* sions, or in vegetable juices. They are seldom active medicines ; and are more commonly employed to render others agreeable, and in Pharmacy to communicate peculiar forms. The proportion of sugar in syrups is generally two parts to one of the fluids; if it is more than this, the solution is disposed to crys- tallize ; if less, it is liable to ferment, and become acescent. Refin- ed sugar ought always to be employed. It is to be melted in the liquid by a gentle heat, and any impurities which collect on its sur- face when boiling are to be removed. The syrup ought to be kept in a cool place, to prevent the fermentation, which is favoured by a high temperature. The London College order them to be kept at a temperature not higher than 50° Fahr. The Dublin College give the general formula with regard to the preparation of all the syrups which they prescribe, that " twenty-nine ounces of refined sugar in powder, and a pint of the prescribed liquor, are to be digested with a moderate heat in a close vessel, stirring frequently, until the sugar, which must be gradually added, is dissolved ; the liquor is to be put aside for twenty-four hours, the scum removed, and the syrup poured off from any impurities." The fermentation of syrups, according to Dr. Macculloch, may be prevented, by adding to them a small quantity of sulphate or chlorate of potash, and without any change in the taste. M. Chereau found that the addition of a small portion of sugar of milk (one part of it to thirty of syrup) has the same effect. Syrupus aceti. Syrup of Vinegar. Ed. " Take of Vinegar, five parts ; Refined Sugar, seven parts. Boil so as to form a syrup." This is a very simple syrup, a little acidulated, and may be given mixed with barley-water, or demulcents of that nature, in febrile or inflammatory diseases. As it is sufficiently pleasant as an acid, it may be mixed with all those medicines in which the acid does not effect any chemical change. Syrupus alth*:*: officinalis. Syrup of Althaea. Ed. " Take of fresh Althaea Root cut, one part; Water, ten parts; Refined Sugar, four parts. Boil the water with the root to one-half, and expressing it strongly, strain. Put aside the strained liquor, that the impurities may subside, and to the purified liquor add the sugar. Boil it so as to form a syrup." Syrupus alth*:*;. Syrup of Marshmallow. Lond. Dub. " Take of fresh Althaea Root bruised, half a pound ; Refined Su- gar, two pounds ; Water, four pints. Boil down the water with the root to one-half, and express the cold liquor. Put it aside for twen. SYRUPS. 329 ty-four hours, that the impurities may subside ; then pour off the li- quor, and having added the sugar, boil down to a proper consistence." The water dissolving the mucilage of the althaea, less than the usual proportion of sugar is required to give it the consistence of a syrup. This mucilage is supposed to give the syrup some demul- cent power ; but this must be very trivial, and it renders it more liable to spontaneous decomposition. It is used chiefly for sweetening emollient decoctions. Syrupus amomi zingiberis. Syrup of Ginger. Ed. " Take of the Root of Ginger powdered, six drachms; Boiling Water, one pound ; Refined Sugar, twenty-two ounces. Macerate the root with the water, in a close vessel, for twenty-four hours, then add the sugar to the strained liquor, and dissolve by a gentle heat." Syrupus zingiberis. Syrup of Ginger. Lond. " Take of Ginger Root cut, two ounces ; Boiling Water, a pint; Refined Sugar, two pounds. Macerate the ginger in the water for four hours, and strain ; then add the sugar in the manner ordered with regard to simple syrup." Syrupus zingiberis. Syrup of Ginger. Dub, " Take of Ginger Root bruised, four ounces ; Boiling Water, three pints. Macerate for twenty-four hours ; then to the strained liquor add the sugar, and form a syrup." The infusion is impregnated with the flavour and pungency of the ginger, which render it sufficiently grateful, and it affords a cheap aromatic syrup, that may be added to bitter infusions and grjr ping purgatives. Dose, one drachm to four. Syrupus oassle senn*:. Syrup of Senna. Ed. " Take of Senna Leaves, two ounces ; Boiling water, a pound and a half; Empyreumatic Syrup, (Molasses,) eight ounces. Ma- cerate the leaves in the water, in a lightly covered vessel, for four hours, and strain; add the syrup, and boil with a gentle heat to the thickness of the empyreumatic syrup." Syrupus senn*:. Syrup of Senna. Lond. " Take of Senna Leaves, two ounces ; Bruised Fennel Seeds, an ounce ; Manna, three ounces ■; Refined Sugar, one pound ; Boiling Wa- ter, one pint. Macerate the senna leaves and the fennel seeds in the water, with a gentle heat, for an hour ; strain the liquor ; mix with this the manna and sugar, and boil down to a proper consistence." This is designed as a purgative syrup for children. The propor- tion of saccharine matter is too large, and renders the syrup thicker than honey, and the manna crystallizing, is in part separated. Mo- lasses are uncrystallizable, and are not liable to this objection. The infusion of senna, sweetened with sugar or manna, which is in com- mon use, being of extemporaneous preparation, is preferable to any of these syrups. Syrupus citri aurantii. Syrup of Orange-Peel. Ed. " Take of the fresh Outer Rind of the Orange, three ounces ; Boiling Water, one pound and a half; Refined Sugar, three pounds, 42 330 SYRUPS. Macerate the rind with the water for twelve hours in a closed ves- sel, then to the strained liquor add the sugar to be dissolved by a gentle heat." Syrupus aurantiorum. Syrup of Orange-Peel. Lond. " Take of the fresh Rind of the Orange, two ounces; Boiling Water, a pint; Refined Sugar, three pounds. Macerate the rind in the water for twelve hours, in a vessel lightly closed ; then pour off the liquor, and add the sugar to it." Syrupus aurantii. Syrup of Orange-Peel. Dub. " Take of the fresh Rind of the Seville Orange, eight ounces ; Boiling Water, six pints. Macerate for twelve hours in a closed vessel ; then in the strained liquor dissolve refined sugar to form a syrup." This syrup, like that of ginger, is used on account of its grateful aromatic flavour. The heat applied ought to be as gentle as pos- sible, otherwise the flavour of the Orange-Peel will be lost. Syrupus citri medic*:. Syrup of Lemon. Ed. " Take of the Juice of Lemons strained, after the impurities have subsided, three parts ; Refined Sugar, five parts; dissolve the sugar." Syrupus limonum. Syrup of Lemons. Lond. " Take of Lemon Juice strained, a pint; Refined Sugar, two pounds. Dissolve the sugar in the lemon juice in the manner or- dered for preparing simple syrup." Syrupus limonis. Syrup of Lemon. Dub. "Take of Fresh Lemon Juice, two pints. When the impurities have subsided, put the juice into a matrass, and subject it for a quar- ter of an hour to the heat of boiling water. When cold pass it through a sieve, and make it into a syrup." This is a pleasant syrup, used to sweeten and acidulate mixtures, especially those of the mucilaginous kind : there are others, as those containing alkalis and alkaline earths, into the composition of which it cannot properly enter, from the chemical agency of the acid. It is sometimes added to gargles. Syrupus colchici autumnalis. Syrup of Colchicum. Ed. " Take of the Fresh Root of Colchicum, cut into small pieces, one ounce ; Vinegar, sixteen ounces ; Refined Sugar, twenty-six oun- ces. Macerate the root in the acid for two days, shaking the vessel occasionally ; then expressing it gently, strain it ; to the strained liquor add the sugar, and boil a little, so as to form a syrup." Colchicum has been used under this form as a diuretic in dropsy, the dose being from half an ounce to an ounce. Syrupus dianthi caryophylli. Syriap of Clove July-Flower. Ed. " Take of the Fresh Petals of the Clove July-Flower, freed from the heels, one part; Boiling Water, four parts ; Refined Sugar' seven parts. Macerate the petals in the water for twelve hours > SYRUPS. 331 then to the strained liquor add the sugar, which dissolve with a gen- tle heat." This syrup derives from the flowers a rich red colour, and an agreeable flavour, and from these qualities is frequently used in mix- tures. It is sometimes imitated by making a syrup with spice cloves and sugar, and colouring it with cochineal. The counterfeit may, as Dr. Duncan remarks, be easily detected, by adding to it a little of an alkali, which will change the colour of the real syrup at once to green, but will produce no alteration in the counterfeit. Syrupus papaveris somniferi. Syrup of White Poppy. Ed. " Take of the Dried Capsules of the White Poppy, freed from the seeds, one part; Boiling Water, fifteen parts ; Refined Sugar, two parts. Macerate the capsules cut in the water for twelve hours; then boil until a third part of the liquor only remain ; and pressing it strongly, strain ; boil the strained liquor down to a half, and again strain ; lastly, the sugar being added, boil so as to form a syrup." Syrupus papaveris. Syrup of Poppy. Lond. " Take of the Capsules of the Poppy, dried and bruised, the seeds being removed, fourteen ounces ; Refined Sugar, two pounds ; Boiling Water, two gallons and a half. Macerate the capsules in the water for twenty-four hours ; then boil down the liquor in a wa- ter-bath to a gallon, and express it strongly: boil it again to, two pints, and strain it while hot. Put it aside for twelve hours, that the impurities may subside ; then boil down the clear liquor to a pint, and add the sugar as ordered for the preparation of simple syrup." Syrupus papaveris somniferi. Syrup of White Poppy. Dub. " Take of the Capsules of the White Poppy, dried and bruised, (the seeds being removed,) seventeen ounces ; Boiling Water, two gallons. Macerate the capsules in the water for twenty-four hours, then boil down to one gallon in a water-bath, and strongly express the liquor. After straining boil down the liquor to two pounds, and filter it while it is hot ; put it aside for twelve hours, that the impuri- ties may subside ; then boil down the clear liquor to a pint, and make into a syrup." The active matter of the capsule of the poppy is extracted by water by decoction, and, by boiling down the liquor, is obtained in a more concentrated state. The syrup has a considerable degree of narcotic power ; and the taste being agreeable, and the dose easily regulated, it is more convenient than any preparation of opium for exhibition to children ; one ounce of it is supposed to be equal to one grain of opium. The medium dose is a drachm to a child a year old ; to an adult it may be half an ounce or an ounce. Being in. tended for infants, it is of considerable importance that it should be always of nearly the same strength ; this can be attained only by fol- lowing the formulas : the use of a water-bath, however, as direct- ed in "the London Pharmacopoeia, is, as Mr. Phillips remarks, unne- cessary, for the agitation of boiling keeps the capsules from the bot- tom of the boiler, and prevents their being burnt. Accidents some- times happen from its being given in too large quantity or too strong 332 sYRurs. to infants ; and perhaps it would be better, as Mr. Brande remarks, if opium were not given in any form to children unless under propef medical inspection, when the tincture might be used. SyRupus ros*: centifoli*:. Syrup of Hundred-leaved Rose. Ed. '' Take of the Fresh Petals of the Pale Rose, one part; Boiling Water, four parts ; Refined Sugar, three parts. Macerate the pe- tals in water for twelve hours ; then to the strained liquor add the sugar, and boil, so as to form a syrup." Syrupus ros*:. Syrup of Rose. Lond. Dub. "Take of the Dried Petals of the Pale Rose, seven ounces ; Re- fined Sugar, six pounds ; Boiling Water, four pints. Macerate the petals ofthe rose in water for twelve hours, and strain. Evaporate the strained liquor by a water-bath to two pints and a half; then add the sugar as ordered for the preparation of simple syrup." The agreeable flavour of the rose is lost in this syrup ; but it has a weak purgative power, and is sometimes given to infants in a dose of two or three tea-spoonfuls. The red colour becomes brighter when acids are used with it, and is rendered yellow or green by al- kalis." Syrupus ros*: gallic*:. Syrup of Red Rose. Ed. " Take of the Dried Petals of the Red Rose, one part ; Boiling Water, nine parts ; Refined Sugar, ten parts. Macerate the petals: in water for twelve hours ; then boil them a little, and strain ; to the strained liquor add the sugar and again boil, so as to form a syrup." Water, by infusion, extracts the slight astringency and the colour of the red rose ; the astringency has been supposed to be such as to Counteract the laxative quality ofthe sugar, and hence it is usually this syrup that enters into the composition of astringent mixtures. Syrupus scill*: Maritim*:. Syrup of Squill. Ed. " Take of the Vinegar of Squill, four parts ; Refined Sugar in powder, seven parts. Dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat, so as to form a syrup." This is a syrup of considerable power> the active matter of squill being dissolved by vinegar without much change, and being little in- jured in forming it into a syrup. It is a form under which squill is often prescribed as an expectorant ; it is given in a dose of one drachm, repeated every third or fourth hour, and is often added to combinations of expectorant remedies. Syrupus simplex. Simple Syrup. Ed. " Take of Refined Sugar, fifteen parts ; Water, eight parts. Dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat, and boil a little so as to form a syrup." Syrupus simplex. Simple Syrup. Lond. " Take of Refined Sugar, two pounds and a half; Water, a pint. Dissolve the sugar in the water in a water-bath: put aside for twen- SYRUPS. 333 ty-four hours ; then remove the scum; and podr off the clear liquor from any impurities." Syrupus simplex. Simple Syrup. Dub. " Take of Refined Sugar, in fine powder, twenty-nine ounces; Water, a pint. Add the sugar gradually to the water, and digest in a close vessel with a moderate heat, frequently shaking until it be dissolved ; afterwards pour it off from the dregs, if there be any." This solution of sugar is used merely to communicate sweetness of taste, or for the pharmaceutical purposes to which syrups are applied. It should be clear and nearly colourless. Syrupus toluifer.e balsami. Syrup of Tolu Balsam. Ed. Dub. " Take of Common Syrup, two pounds, (a pound and a half, Dub.); Tincture of Tolu Balsam, one ounce. With the syrup new- ly prepared, and removed from the fire, when it has nearly cooled, mix the tincture gradually, continually stirring it." Syrupus tolutanus. Tolu Syrup. Lond. " Take of Balsam of Tolu, one ounce ; Boiling Water, a pint ; Refined Sugar, two pounds. Boil the balsam in the water for half an hour in a close vessel, stirring frequently, and strain the liquor when cold, then add the sugar as directed for preparing simple syrup." The formula of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia gives an eConomi- cal mode of preparing this syrup; but the old method retained in the London Pharmacopoeia affords a more grateful composition; the syrup being impregnated with the odour and benzoic acid of the balsam, without its resinous matter being diffused through it, which, as prepared by the other mode, renders it white and turbid. The syrup is used merely on account of its flavour, and to many this is rather disagreeable. On the supposition of tolu balsam being an expectorant, it sometimes enters into the composition of mixtures used in catarrh. Syrupus viol*: odorat*:. Syrup of Violet. Ed. " Take of the fresh flowers of the Sweet Scented Violet, two' parts ; Boiling Water, eight parts; Refined Sugar, fifteen parts. Macerate the flowers in water for twenty-four hours in a covered glass or earthen vessel; then strain without expression, and to the strained liquor add the sugar so as to form a syrup." Syrupus viol*:. Syrup of Violet. Dub. " Take of the Fresh Petals of the Violet, two pounds; Boiling Water, five pints, Macerate for twenty-four hours, then strain the liquor through fine linen without expression, add, lastly, sugar so as to form a syrup." This syrup has a fine blue colour, and this is rendered still brighter if it be prepared in pewter vessels, a circumstance for which a reason has not been assigned. The syrup is a very gentle laxative, probably from a small quantity of emetia, which, according to Pelletier and Majendie, it contains, or, as M. Boullay has stated, a principle exceedingly similar, which he has named Violin ; as such 334 SYRUPS. it is given to infants, in a dose of one or two tea-spoonfuls. Acids change its colour to red, and alkalis to green ; hence it is sometimes used to give these colours to acidulated or alkaline mixtures. It loses its colour on keeping. It remains to notice those few syrups which have exclusively a place in the London or Dublin Pharmacopceias. Syrupus croci. Syrup of Saffron. Lond. " Take of Saffron, an ounce ; Boiling Water, a pint; Refined Sugar, two pounds and a half. Macerate the saffron in the water for twelve hours, in a vessel lightly closed ; then strain the liquor, and add the sugar to it." This syrup is employed in mixtures merely on account of its fine colour. It is often necessary to vary the appearance of medi- cines, whose use requires to be persevered in for some time before advantage is obtained from them, as the repetition of the same re- medy becomes at last nauseous to the patient. A number of prepa- rations to communicate colour are hence used, by which the aspect of a medicine may be changed, without alteration of its powers. Syrupus mori. Syrup of Mulberry. Lond. " Take of Mulberry Juice strained, a pint ; Refined Sugar, two pounds. Dissolve the sugar in the juice in the manner directed with regard to simple syrup." The syrups of several acidulous fruits had formerly a place in the London Pharmacopoeia. This is retained as one of the most grateful, and is often employed in cooling draughts. Syrupus rhamni. Syrup of Buckthorn. Lond. " Take of the Fresh Juice of Buckthorn Berries, four pints ; Ginger Root cut, Pimento Berries bruised, of each half an ounce ; Refined Sugar, three pounds and a half. Put aside the juice for three days, that the impurities may subside, and strain. To a pint of the purified juice add the ginger and pimento ; macerate with a gentle heat for four hours, and strain. Boil down the remaining quantity to a pint and a half, mix the liquids, then add the sugar, as ordered for preparing simple syrup." Syrupus rhamni. Syrup of Buckthorn. Dub. " Take of the Fresh Juice of Buckthorn, two pints and a half; Ginger Root sliced, Pimento Berries bruised, of each three drachms. Set aside the juice that the dregs may subside, and strain ; add to ten ounces ofthe purified juice the ginger and pimento. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and strain. Boil down the remainder of the liquor to a pint, and form a syrup." The juice of the buckthorn is best preserved by being made into a syrup, and it is under this form that it has been used as a cathar- tic, the dose to an adult being an ounce or an ounce and a half. Its operation, however, is unpleasant, causing thirst and dryness of the mouth, and sometimes severe griping, and the preparation has no- medicated honeys. 335 thing to recommend it. Draughts of warm liquids render its opera- tion milder. Syrupus rhceados. Syrup of Red Poppy. Lond. " Take ofthe Recent Petals of the Red Poppy, one pound ; Boil- ing Water, a pint and two fluid-ounces; Refined Sugar, two pounds and a half. To the water heated by a water-bath, add the petals of the red poppy gradually, stirring them occasionally; then having removed the vessel, macerate for twelve hours; press out the liquor, and put it aside, that the impurities may subside ; lastly, add the su- gar in the manner directed with regard to simple syrup." Syrupus papaveris rhcsadis. Syrup of Red Poppy. Dub. " Take of the Fresh Petals of Red Poppy, a pound ; Boiling Wa- ter, twenty ounces by measure. Add the petals gradually to the boiling water; then removing the vessel from the fire, macerate with a lower heat for twelve hours ; express the liquor, and put it aside that the impurities may subside ; lastly, add refined sugar and form a syrup." The Papaver Rhoeas is the common Red Poppy of this country. The petals are put into the water boiling, that they may shrink and be received into the vessel : as soon as this is effected the vessel must be removed from the fire. The syrup is valued only on account of its fine red colour. Syrupus sarsaparill*:. Syrup of Sarsaparilla. Lond. Dub. " Take of Sarsaparilla Root cut, a pound ; Boiling Water, a gal- lon ; Refined Sugar, a pound. Macerate the root in the water for twenty-four hours ; then boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor whilst hot; then add the sugar, and evaporate to a proper thickness." According to Mr. Brande, this decoction of Sarsaparilla, made into a syrup, has been of late much prescribed, and has hence been introduced into the last London Pharmacopoeia. It is not liable to ferment, but the sugar is apt sometimes to disagree with the stomach : it is improved by the addition of a few cloves. It is given as an alterative in a dose of two tea-spoonfuls, thrice a-day. Mr. Phillips states, that it is employed as an adjunct to the decoction of Sarsapa- rilla. CHAP. XI. MELLITA—MEDICATED HONEYS. Honey has been employed instead of saccharine matter in some pharmaceutical preparations. Combined with vinegar, either alone or with the impregnation of the active matter of vegetables, the kind of composition named Oxymel is formed. Combined merely with infusions of vegetable substances, it forms what are more exclusively 336 MEDICATED HONEYS. named Medicated Honeys. As the extraneous matter in honey causes it to disagree with some stomachs, syrups are now frequently substituted for these preparations. Mel despumatum. Clarified Honey. Ed. Lond. Dub. " Liquefy Honey in a water-bath, and remove the scum as it rises." Honey, as it is expressed from the comb, is liable to contain wax and other impurities. When the honey is liquefied, these in a great measure separate and rise to the surface, so as to be easily removed, The honey thus purified is not so agreeable to the smell and taste as crude honey ; but it does not ferment so easily, and is less liable to gripe. By means of charcoal and chalk, it may be rendered a pure syrup, and this is done in French pharmacy; but there is no advantage in this, for it is easier and cheaper to prepare syrup with sugar. Mel ros*: gallic*:. Honey of Red Roses. Ed. " Take of Red Rose Leaves dried, one ounce ; Boiling Water, one pound ; Clarified Honey, sixteen ounces. Macerate the petals in the water for six hours ; then strain, add the honey, and finally boil down to a proper thickness." Mel ros*;. Honey of Rose. Lond. Dub. " Take ofthe Dried Petals ofthe Red Rose, four ounces ; Boiling Water, three pints ; Clarified Honey, (unclarified, Dub.) five pounds. Macerate the petals in the water for six hours, then to the strained liquor add the honey, and boil it down in a water-bath to the proper consistence." This preparation is similar to the syrup of the red rose, and may be applied to the same purposes. It is frequently added to astringent gargles. The Dublin College use unclarified honey, but there is a risk ofthe impurities injuring the colour and astringency. Mel sub-boratis sod*:. Honey of Borax. Ed. Lond. " Take of Sub-borate of Soda in powder, one part; Clarified Honey, eight parts. Mix them." Mel boracis. Honey of Borax. Lond. Dub. " Take of Sub-borate of Soda in powder, a drachm; Clarified Honey, an ounce. Mix them." In this composition honey is useful, as giving the proper consis- tence. It is an useful application in aphthous affections of the tongue and fauces, the borax giving a sense of coolness, and remov- ing the foul crust. Oxymel. Oxymel. Ed. " Take of Clarified Honey, three parts ; weak Acetic Acid, two parts. Boil down, in a glass vessel, on a slow fire, to a proper thick- ness." Oxymel simplex. Simple Oxymel. Lond. " Take of Purified Honey, two pounds ; Diluted Acetic Acid, a pint. Boil them down, in a glass vessel, on a slow fire, to the pro- per consistence." MEDICATED HONEYS. 337 Oxymel. Oxymel. Dub. " Take of Honey, two pounds ; Distilled Vinegar, a pint. Boil in a glass vessel, with a gentle heat, to the thickness of syrup, re- moving the scum." This has long been in use as a remedy in catarrhal affections, and is also the basis of a cooling detergent gargle. Mr. Brande regards the formula as objectionable, from the long evaporation which is re- quired to bring the oxymel to a proper consistence. He recommends as a preferable process, to mix two pounds of clarified honey wjth two ounces of strong Acetic Acid, and two ounces of water, in a ves- sel surrounded with boiling water. Oxymel scill*:. Oxymel of Squill. Lond. Dub. " Take of Clarified Honey, three pounds ; Vinegar of Squill, two pints. Boil down in a glass vessel, over a slow fire, to the consis- tence of a syrup." Under this form squill has been employed principally as an expec- torant in chronic coughs and humoral asthmas. Its dose is one or two drachms, given in some aromatic water, as that of cinnamon. In large doses it is emetic. Oxymel colchici. Oxymel of Meadow Saffron. Dub. " Take of the Fresh Root of Colchicum cut into thin slices, one ounce ; Distilled Vinegar, one pint ; Clarified Honey, by weight, two pounds. Macerate the colchicum with the vinegar for two days in a glass vessel ; then strain the liquor pressed out strongly from the root, and add the honey. Lastly, boil the mixture, stirring it frequently with a wooden spoon, to the consistence of a syrup." This is essentially the same with the syrup of colchicum already noticed ; nor can it derive any advantage from honey being used in its preparation. It is an active preparation, but uncertain in its strength, from the veratria being in part decomposed by the boiling. Oxymel cupri sub-acetatis. Oxymel of Verdigris. Dub. Linimentum *:ruginis. Liniment of Verdigris. Lond. " Take of Prepared Verdigris, one ounce ; Vinegar, seven oun- ces by measure ; Clarified Honey, fourteen ounces by weight. Dis- solve the verdigris in the vinegar, and strain through linen, then add the honey, and boil down to a proper thickness." Under this form verdigris is applied with advantage as a stimu- lant and escharotic to foul ulcers, especially ulcerations ofthe mouth and tonsils connected with a venereal taint. Care should be taken that none of it be swallowed, and the mouth should be washed after using it. It is sometimes applied to suppurated chilblains. 43 338 wines. CHAP. XII. VINA - WINES. Wine is capable, by infusion, of extracting several proximate prin- ciples of vegetable substances. From the alcohol it contains, it dis- solves a portion of their resin, extract and essential oil ; its watery part dissolves their gum or mucilage ; and being milder and more pleasant to the taste than diluted alcohol, it has been preferred as a solvent ; hence Medicated Wines have long been in use. It cannot be said, however, to be well adapted to thi3 use. Wine, when not carefully excluded from the air, is apt to become aces- cent ; and, when it holds vegetable matter in solution, is still more liable to suffer this change. This has been established by the researches of Parmentier; and he has shown that the greater number of medicated wines, if kept for any length of time, become medicated vinegars. This change may modify the powers of the dissolved matter; and in some cases, where the wine is taken in a considerable dose, must prove hurtful to the stomach, especially in dyspeptic affections. Accordingly, few of the medicated wines are now employed. The spontaneous decomposition to which they are liable is sometimes attempted to be obviated by the addition of a lit- tle alcohol, but this is attended with imperfect success. For these reasons, the London College has rejected the use of wine altoge- ther, employing diluted spirit in its stead. They have, however, re- tained the old term of vinum, which is certainly objectionable when thus applied, as the old and the new preparations are very dissimi- lar ; much confusion has hence been produced. As Mr. Phillips lias remarked, instead of wine being employed, which is usually of the same strength, the dilute spirit used is, in'every preparation, of a different strength : the vinum antimonii tartarizati, the vinum ferri, and the vinum veratri, contain two parts of proof spirit, and three of water ; the vinum aloes contains equal parts of spirit and water ; the vinum colchici contains one of spirit and two of water ; and vi- num ipecacuanha, and vinum opii, contain one part of proof spirit, and one and two-thirds of water. " Wines," according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, " should be prepared in close vessels, and frequently agitated during their pre- paration." Vinum aloes socotorin*:. Wine of Socotorine Aloes. Ed. " Take of Socotorine Aloes, reduced to powder, one ounce ; Less- er Cardamom Seeds, Ginger Root, of each bruised, one drachm ; Spanish White Wine, two pounds. Digest for seven days, and strain." Vinum aloes. Wine of Aloes. Lond. " Take of Extract of spiked Aloes, eight ounces ; Canella Bark, two ounces ; Proof Spirit, Distilled Water, of each four pints. Triturate the aloes with white sand freed from impurities, into pow- der ; rub the canella bark to powder, and upon these mixed pour WINES. 339 the spirit and water. Macerate for fourteen days, shaking occasion- ally, and strain." Vinum aloes. Wine of Aloes. Dub. " Take of Socotorine Aloes, four ounces; Canella Alba, an ounce ; Spanish White Wine, three pints ; Proof Spirit, one pint. Mix the aloes and canella separately reduced to powder, and pour on the wine mixed with the spirit. Macerate for fourteen days, shaking the vessel frequently ; lastly, strain the liquor." The trituration with sand directed by the London College is de- signed to facilitate the solution of the aloes, but is not very ne- cessary. Aloes being soluble in wine or spirit, all its virtues are obtained in this solution, and from the presence of the resinous mat- ter of the aloes it is not liable to become acescent. It is a stimu- lating purgative, which has long been in use under the name of Sa- cred Tincture. It produces its full effect in the dose of one ounce. In a dose of one or two drachms, it is given to excite the action of the intestines and neighbouring organs, in dyspepsia, amenorrhcea, and similar affections. Repeated small doses of it have been found useful in producing a general lax habit. Dr. A. T. Thomson has given the following formula for preparing another aloetic wine : " Take of Sub-carbonate of Soda, three ounces ; of Sub-carbonate of Ammonia, four drachms and a half; of Myrrh in powder, and Extract of Aloes, bruised, each six drachms ; Sherry, twenty-four ounces. Macerate for seven days, and strain." This has been much recommended in chlorosis and dyspepsia, and affections of the mesenteric glands in children. Vinum gentian*: compositum. Compound Gentian Wine. Ed. " Take of Gentian Root, half an ounce; Lance-Leaved Bark, one ounce ; Seville Orange-Peel dried, two drachms ; White Canel- la Bark, one drachm ; Diluted Alcohol, four ounces; Spanish White Wine, two pounds and a half. On the root and barks cut and bruised, pour first the diluted alcohol; and after twenty-four hours add the wine. Then macerate for seven days, and strain." This wine is designed as a stomachic ; and has been regarded as preferable to the tincture, as being more mild and grateful, and therefore better for continued use; but from its tendency to become acescent, it is not adapted to administration in dyspepsia. Its dose is six drachms. Vinum ipecacuanh*:. Ipecacuan Wine. Ed. "Take of Ipecacuan Root bruised, one part; Spanish White Wine* fifteen parts. Macerate for seven days, and strain through paper." Vinum ipecacuanh*:. Wine of Ipecacuan. Lond. " Take of Root of Ipecacuan bruised, two ounces ; Proof Spirit, twelve fluid-ounces ; Distilled Water, twenty fluid-ounces. Mace-, rate for fourteen days, and strain." Vinum ipecacuanh*^. Wine of Ipecacuan. Dub. " Take of Root of Ipecacuan bruised, two ounces ; Spanish White Wine, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, then strain." Wine or weak spirit extracts the active matter of Ipecacuan, and, 340 WINES. covers its taste and flavour, while it has the advantage of being lesa pungent than diluted alcohol. According to Dr. A. T. Thomson, a pint of Sherry takes up 100 grains of Ipecacuan, which contain about 16 grains of Emetia, or each ounce contains a grain of emetia. This wine is often used as an emetic, especially to children, to whom, from being not ungrateful, it can be given without difficulty. Its dose is one ounce to an adult; one drachm to a child a year old. In doses of twenty to forty minims Ipecacuan Wine is diaphoretic. It is not decomposed by tartarized antimony. Vinum nicotian*: tabaoi. Tobacco Wine. Ed. " Take of the Dried Leaves of Tobacco, one part; Spanish White Wine, twelve parts. Macerate for seven days, and strain through paper." Under this form Tobacco has been used as a diuretic in dropsy. The dose is thirty drops, gradually increased to sixty or eighty twice a-day. It is liable, however, to excite sickness in this large dose, and in a smaller dose often fails in its diuretic effect. Vinum opii. Wine of Opium. Ed. Dud. " Take of Opium, (Turkey Opium, Dub.) an ounce ; Cinnamon Bark bruised, Cloves bruised, of each one drachm, (half a drachm, Dub.); White Spanish Wine, sixteen ounces. Macerate for eight days and strain." Vinum opii. Wine of Opium. Lond. " Take of Extract of Opium, an ounce. Cinnamon Bark bruis- ed, Cloves bruised, each one drachm ; Proof-spirit, six fluid-ounces ; Distilled Water, ten fluid-ounces. Macerate for eight days and strain." Wine dissolves the active matter of opium, and has often been used as a menstruum. With the addition of aromatics, it formed the liquid laudanum of Sydenham, and was at one time an officinal preparation in the Pharmacopceias, though afterwards excluded, to give place to the tincture of opium. It is now restored, as it had continued in use, and is supposed to have some advantages over the tincture, from the addition ofthe aromatics in particular ; and, from the opium being purified so as to be freed from its peculiar disagree- able smell and taste, this wine is less liable to occasion nausea. It is nearly of the same strength as the tincture. The wine of opium has been recommended by Mr. Ware as the best form under which opium can be used as a local application in chronic ophthalmia, two or three drops of it being introduced under the eye-lids. Vinum rhei. Rhubarb Wine. Ed. " Take of Russian Rhubarb cut, two ounces ; Canella Bark bruis- ed, one drachm ; Diluted Alcohol, two ounces; Spanish White Wine, fifteen ounces. Macerate for seven days, and strain through paper." Wine extracts the active matter of rhubarb, and this medicated wine operates as a purgative, in a dose from half an ounce to an ounce. It is a warm and cordial medicine, but the tincture is in ge- neral preferred, as more uniform, and not liable to decomposition. WINES. 341 Vinum ferri. Wine of Iron. Lond. "Take of Iron, a drachm ; Supertartrate of Potash in powder, six drachms ; Distilled Water, two pints, or as much as may be requir- ed ; Proof-spirit, twenty fluid-ounces. Rub together the iron and supertartrate of potash, and expose the mixture to the air for six weeks, stirring it daily with a spatula, and occasionally adding dis- tilled water, so that it may be always moist. Then dry by a gentle heat, rub it to powder, and mix it with thirty fluid-ounces of the dis- tilled water. Filter the solution, and when filtered add the spirit." This preparation is to replace the Steel Wine of former Pharma- copoeias, which was formed by digesting iron-filings in wine for a month ; part ofthe iron became oxidated, and united with the bi-tar- trate of potash existing in the wine. According to Mr. Phillips, in a pint of the steel wine there were dissolved 22 grains of peroxide of iron. In the present preparation there are only 16 grains of perox- ide of iron in a pint, but it has the advantage of being more uniform in strength. Its dose is from a drachm to half an ounce, repeated twice or thrice a-day in chlorosis. Vinum veratri. Wine of White Hellebore. Lond. " Take of the Root of White Hellebore cut, eight ounces ; Proof- spirit, a pint; Distilled Water, a pint and a half. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." It was formerly supposed that a strong vinous infusion of white hellebore was the basis of the empirical preparation, Eau Medici. nale d'Husson, celebrated for its efficacy in gout, and it was with this view chiefly that the above formula was admitted into the rharma- copceia. It has now been ascertained, however, that the eau medi- cinale is prepared from the root of the colchicum autumnale ; but at the same time it has been shown, by the researches of Pelletier and Caventou, that the same active principle veratria exists in both vege- tables. The preparations ofthe colchicum are generally preferred, as they are more certain and manageable than those of hellebore. The dose of vinum veratri is from five to ten minims. Vinum colchici. Wine of Meadow Saffron. Lond. " Take of the Fresh Root of Colchicum sliced, a pound; Proof- Spirit, four fluid-ounces ; Distilled Water, eight fluid-ounces. Ma- cerate for fourteen days, and strain." The efficacy of this remedy depends, like the last, upon the vera- tria it contains, and this wine, or the tincture of the colchicum, is now much used in the treatment of gout. This preparation is, how- ever, liable to fermentation and decomposition. Dr. Thomson re- commends, as a better formula, to take an ounce and a half of sliced bulbs of colchicum, dried at a temperature not exceeding 110°, and to pour upon them, reduced to powder, twelve fluid-ounces of good sherry wine. This mixture is to stand seven days in a glass bottle, being agitated twice a-day, and is then, after straining, ready for use. Its dose is from twenty to sixty minims in water, or some bit- ter infusion, or with magnesia in an effervescing draught. This wine is used also as a diuretic. 342 VINEGARS, CHAP. XIII. ACETICA—MEDICATED VINEGARS. Vinegar is.capable of dissolving all those proximate principles of vegetables which are soluble in water; and it has with respect to some vegetables an advantage, that by combining with their alka- line principles, it renders these more soluble and more active. The dilute pyroligneous acid, now introduced into the London Pharmaco- poeia, is preferable to distilled vinegar, as less liable to suffer spon- taneous decomposition. It is proper to remember, that alkalis and alkaline carbonates are incompatible with these preparations. Acidum aceticum aromaticum. Aromatic Vinegar. Ed. " Take of the Dried Tops of Rosemary, the Dried Leaves of Sage, of each an ounce; Lavender Flowers dried, half an ounce ; Cloves bruised, half a drachm; Weak Acetic Acid, two pounds. Macerate for seven days, and strain the expressed liquor through paper." This is an improved formula for a preparation long known by the names of Marseilles Vinegar, Vinaigre des quatre voleurs, Acetum Prophylacticum, which had attained celebrity as an antiseptic and preservative against contagion. Its name and use arose, it is said, from the confession of four thieves, who, during the plague of Mar- seilles, plundered the dead bodies, and when arrested, stated, on con- dition of their lives being spared, that it was by the use of this vine- gar they had been preserved from the infection. From the impreg- nation of the vinegar with the flavour of the aromatic vegetables it is a grateful perfume, but it is weak, and its odour is soon lost. Acidum aceticum camphoratum. Camphorated Acetic Acid. Ed. " Take of strong Acetic Acid, six ounces ; Camphor, half an ounce. Rub the camphor with a little alcohol into powder, which put into the acid, that it may be dissolved." Acidum aceticum camphoratum. Dub. " Take of Acetic Acid, by measure, six ounces; Camphor, half an ounce ; Rectified Spirit of Wine, as much as may be sufficient. Reduce the camphor to powder by the aid of the spirit, then add the acid, and dissolve." Camphor is soluble in the concentrated acetic acid, and the solu- tion has an odour highly fragrant and pungent. It has been used as a grateful stimulating perfume, and forms what is named Aromatic Spirit of Vinegar. As it is extremely volatile, it should be kept in bottles well closed with glass stoppers. An easy way of preparing a similar perfume, mentioned by Dr. Paris, is to put a drachm of acetate of potash into a phial, with a few drops of some essential oil, as that of cloves, lavender, or rosemary, and pour on it 20 minims of, sulphuric acid. Acidum aceticum scilliticum. Vinegar of Squill. Ed. vinegars. 343 " Take of Dried Squill, one ounce ; Weak Acetic Acid, fifteen ounces ; Strong Alcohol, an ounce and a half. Macerate the squill with the acid for seven days, then express the liquor and add the al- cohol, and when the impurities have subsided, pour off the clear li- quor." Acetum scill*:. Vinegar of Squill. Lond. " Take of Squill Root, recently dried, a pound ; Diluted Acetic Acid, six pints ; Proof-spirit, half a pint. Macerate the squill root with the acid in a close glass vessel, with a gentle heat for twenty- four hours ; then express, and put aside, that the impurities may sub- side ; lastly, add the spirit to the pure liquor." Acetum scill*:. Vinegar of Squill. Dub. " Take of the Bulb of Squill, sliced and recently dried, half a pound ; Distilled Vinegar, three pints ; Rectified Spirit, by measure, four ounces. Macerate the squill root with the vinegar for four days in a glass vessel, agitating frequently ; then express the vinegar, to which poured off, after the impurities subside, add the spirit." Vinegar appears to dissolve the active matter of squill without much impairing its powers : the addition of the alcohol is designed to counteract any spontaneous decomposition to which the vinegar might be liable. Under this form, squill has long been employed aa an expectorant and diuretic, and sometimes in larger quantity as an emetic. Its dose is one drachm, mixed with some aromatic distilled water. The proportion of squill ordered by the different Colleges is very various, and if all its active matter is dissolved, must afford pre- parations of unequal strength. They soon become turbid, and de- posite tannin and citrate of lime, but do not lose their medicinal quality. Acetum colchici. Vinegar of Meadow Saffron. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Fresh Root of Meadow Saffron cut, one ounce; Diluted Acetic Acid, (Distilled Vinegar, Dub.) a pint; Proof-spirit, a fluid-ounce. Macerate the root with the acid in a close glass ves- sel for three days ; then press it out, and put it aside, that the impu- rities may subside ; lastly, add the spirit to the clear liquor." The veratria which is present in colchicum is dissolved by vinegar, hence this preparation has all the active matter of the vegetable ; the spirit is added to prevent decomposition. It was used at one time as a diuretic in dropsy, but is so uncertain in its operation, that in modern practice it is little employed in that disease. It is given, like the other preparations of colchicum, as an anodyne in gout and neuralgia, and is considered by Dr. Scudamore as the best form of that remedy. Acetum opii. Vinegar of Opium. Dub. " Take of Turkey Opium, four ounces; Distilled Vinegar, a pint. Rub the opium into a pulp with a little of the vinegar, and add the remainder of the vinegar ; macerate the mixture in a closed vessel for seven days, with frequent agitation ; then pour off the liquor, and strain." This preparation has been introduced into the Dublin Pharma- 344 TINCTURES. Copoeia as a convenient form of acetate of morphia. It has been already mentioned, (p. 85), that the salts of morphia are preferable to laudanum or solid opium, because, while they have all the seda- tive and anodyne power of these, they do not act in so unpleasant a manner on the head and stomach. The laudanum of Rousseau, Black drop and Liquor opii sedativus, are forms ofthe acetate of mor- phia, which on this account have been extensively used ; and the present preparation, from the uniformity of its strength, and sim- plicity of the mode of preparation, will be a good substitute for them. It is rather stronger than laudanum in the proportion of three to two. Dr. Montgomery states, that he has found it superior to every other preparation of opium in relieving the pain of cancer uteri. It has a tendency to affect the bladder, which laudanum has not, and has in some cases produced suppression of urine. It may be given in doses of from ten to twenty drops in some aromatic water. Citrate of morphia (p. 85.) may be prepared by rubbing together in a mortar two ounces of crystallized citric acid, macerating these with half a pound of water for twenty-four hours, and straining. CHAP. XVI. TINCTUR*:—TIMCTURES. Tinctures are solutions usually of vegetable, sometimes, however, of animal, and even of mineral substances, in spiritous liquors. The solvent may be alcohol, either pure, diluted with water, or impreg- nated with ammonia or ether. Alcohol dissolves the resin, cam- phor, extract and essential oil of plants ; it is more particularly employed as the menstruum for substances purely resinous, or the powers of which reside in the resin. Where a portion of gum is mingled with the resin, or where tannin or extractive matter is the active principle, diluted alcohol is the proper solvent : it in general dissolves the active matter of all entire vegetable substances, as the bark, leaves, flowers ; and wherever it can be properly applied, it is preferable to pure alcohol, both as more economical, and as less pungent. Alcohol, impregnated with ammonia, is employed only in forming tinctures of a few substances, with the medicinal operation of which ammonia is supposed to coincide. Tinctures usually contain the active matter ofthe substances from which they are prepared in a more concentrated state than infusions or decoctions do, the power of the solvent being much greater ; hence they require to be given only in a small dose. The power of the solvent, which is otherwise considerable, may, therefore, in ge- neral be neglected. They have the still more important advantage of not being liable to spontaneous decomposition ; the affinities of the elements of vegetable matter, whence new combinations are established, which are favoured by water, being counteracted by al- TINCTURES. 345 cohol ; and hence most tinctures, if they are kept secluded from the air, so as to prevent the loss of the alcohol by evaporation, can be preserved any length of time without decomposition. Tinctures are prepared by infusing the materials reduced to a coarse powder in the spirit, with frequent agitation, but without the application of heat. By applying heat, the solvent power is so far promoted, that the impregnation is effected in a shorter time ; but the inactive and grosser matter, it has been supposed, is frequently liable to be extracted, and the high temperature is farther unneces- sary, as, by allowing the solvent to remain a sufficient time (seven days commonly, or as the London College usually direct, fourteen days,) on the ingredients, it is fully saturated. Alkalis were at one time supposed to increase the solvent power both of alcohol and di- luted alcohol, the tincture being of a much deeper colour when a small portion had been added. But this arises, in part at least, from the action of the alkali on the colouring matter, as the same effect is obtained when they are added to a tincture already prepared ; and even where they increase the solubility of some principles, as of re- sinous matter, they do not always coincide in medicinal operation with the substance operated on, while they render the tincture much more nauseous. It is found that more powerful tinctures of vegetables are formed when the plants have been previously carefully dried. Some tinctures are liable to decomposition on diluting them with water, those especially prepared with pure alcohol, in which resinous matter chiefly is dissolved, the resin being precipitated. Even some tinctures prepared with diluted alcohol hold dissolved so much resin that they are rendered turbid by dilution with water ; others, which contain extractive matter chiefly, or tannin, remain transparent. It sometimes happens even that a decomposition ensues on mixing a tincture prepared with alcohol with another prepared with diluted alcohol. Such decompositions require to be attended to in their ad- ministration, and to be so far obviated, at least when the precipita- tion is copious, as that by trituration with mucilage the resinous mat- ter shall be diffused. " Tinctures are to be digested in close glass vessels, and frequent- ly shaken during their preparation." Ed. The general directions in the London and Dublin Pharmacopceias are nearly the same. Tinctura acaci*: catechu. Tincture of Catechu. Ed. '' Take of Extract of Catechu in powder, three ounces ; Cinna- mon bruised, two ounces ; Weaker Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura catechu. Tincture of Catechu. Dub. Lond. " Take of Extract of Catechu, three ounces ; Cinnamon Bark bruised, two ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for seven days, (fourteen, Lond.) and strain." Catechu, consisting almost entirely of tannin and extractive mat- ter, is dissolved by diluted alcohol, and is rendered more grateful by the cinnamon. It is a very pleasant astringent, and is employed in 44 346 TINCTURES. all those cases where the use of astringents is indicated, as in ute- rine fluxes, diarrhoeas, &c ; dose one to three drachms, taken either in water or wine. It is said to be a useful and grateful addition to the mistura cretae in diarrhoea. Cinnamon is frequently added to it. Tinctura aloes socotorin*:. Tincture of Aloes. Ed. " Take of Socotorine Aloes in powder, half an ounce ; Extract of Liquorice, one ounce and a half; Stronger Alcohol, four ounces ; Water, one pound. Digest for seven days, and pour off the tincture when clear." Tinctura ales. Tincture of Aloes. Lond. " Take of Extract of Spiked Aloes in powder, half an ounce ; Extract of Liquorice, an ounce and a half; Water, a pint; Rectified Spirit, four fluid-ounces. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura aloes. Tincture of Aloes. Dub. " Take of Socotorine Aloes in powder, half an ounce ; Extract of Liquorice, an ounce and a half, dissolved in eight ounces of Water ; Proof-spirit, by measure, eight ounces. Digest for seven days, then strain." In this preparation the liquorice is designed to cover the taste, which it does very imperfectly. The tincture may be employed as a cathartic in the dose of an ounce, but is seldom used, from its in- tense bitterness, being better prescribed under the form of pill. Tinctura aloes jetherea. Ethereal Tincture of Aloes. Ed. " Take of Socotorine Aloes, Myrrh, of each in powder, one oun~e and a half; English Saffron . cut, one ounce; Sulphuric Ether and Alcohol, a pound. Digest the myrrh with the ether for four days; then add the saffron and aloes. Digest again for four days ; and when the impurities have subsided, pour off the tincture." If the ingredients of this tincture were digested together, the spirit would be so much saturated with the aloes as to take up little ofthe myrrh ; but by digesting it first on the myrrh, it dissolves a larger quantity of it, and is capable of dissolving afterwards a sufficient pro- portion of the aloes and saffron. The spirit of sulphuric ether af- fords a more grateful tincture than alcohol, but it is difficult to preserve the tincture long without the escape of the ether from its volatility. In the dose of six drachms it acts as a cathartic. Tinctura aloes et myrrh*:. Tincture of Aloes and Myrrh. Ed. " Take of Myrrh in powder, two ounces ; Strong Alcohol, one pound and a half; Water, half a pound. Mix the alcohol with the water; then add the myrrh ; digest for four days ; and lastly, add of Socotorine Aloes in powder, one ounce and a half; English Saffron sliced, one ounce. Digest again for three days, and pour off the pure tincture." Tinctura aloes composita. Compound Tincture of Aloes. Lond. " Take of Extract of Aloes in powder, Saffron, of each three ounces; Tincture of Myrrb, two pints. Macerate fourteen days, and strain." TINCTURES. 347 Tinctura aloes composita. Compound Tincture of Aloes. Dub. " Take of Tincture of Myrrh, two pints ; Socotorine Aloes in powder, three ounces. Digest for fourteen days, then strain." This tincture differs in little from the former but in the menstruum, and in being stronger. Being less grateful, it is seldom administered internally, but is used as an application to bleeding wounds, and a stimulant to foul ulcers. As a purgative the dose of the London tincture is from one to two fluid-drachms. The saffron is omitted by the Dublin College, as adding unnecessarily to the expense. Tinctura amomi repektis. Tincture of Cardamom. ' Ed. " Take of Lesser Cardamom Seeds bruised, four ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura cardamomi. Tincture of Cardamom. Lond. " Take of Cardamom Seeds bruised, three ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." This tincture has merely aromatic flavour and pungency, and as these are not considerable, it is little used. The dose is a drachm or two. Tlvctura amomi zingiberis. Tincture of Ginger. Ed. " Take of Ginger Root bruised, two ounces ; Diluted Alcohol,. two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura zingiberis. Tincture of Ginger. Lond. " Take of Ginger Root cut, two ounces; Rectified Spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura zingiberis. Tincture of Ginger. Dub. " Take of Ginger Root, reduced to a coarse powder, two ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Digest in a gentle heat for seven days, then strain." This tincture contains the pungency of the ginger, and may be used as an aromatic, to cover the taste or flavour, or promote the operation of more active remedies. To obviate flatulence, ginger is generally taken in substance. As this tincture is always muddy when prepared with proof-spirit, the London College now order rec- tified spirit, which does not take up the gummy matter. According to Mr. Phillips, it is sometimes found useful when gout attacks the stomach. The dose is one or two drachms. Tinctura aristolochi*: serpentari*:. Tincture of Snake-Root. Ed. " Take of Virginian Snake-Root bruised, two ounces ; Cochineal in powder, one drachm ; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain thiough paper." Tinctura serpentari*:. Tincture of Snake-Root. Lond. Dub. " Take of Snake-Root, three ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate fourteen (seven, Dub.) days, and strain." This tincture is sometimes used as a diaphoretic, as a bitter in 348 tinctures. dyspepsia, or along with infusion of bark in typhus, but is not of much service ; the dose is two drachms. Tinctura benzoini composita. Compound Tincture of Benzoin. Ed. " Take of Benzoin in powder, three ounces ; Balsam of Tolu, two ounces; Socotorine Aloes in powder, half an ounce ; Strong Alco- hol, two pounds. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura benzoini composita. Lond. Tinctura benzoes com- posita. Dub. Compound Tincture of Benzoin. " Take of Benzoin, three ounces ; Storax Balsam strained, two ounces ; Balsam of Tolu, an ounce ; Extract of Spiked Aloes, half an ounce ; Rectified Spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." This is used externally as a styptic to recent superficial wounds, and forms a useful corrugating and agglutinating application. It has long been in use under the name of Wade's Balsam and Friar's Balsam. A piece of linen moistened with it stops the haemorrhage from a slight wound, and is said to cause it to heal by the first in- tention ; this however is denied by Mr. Phillips, who is of opinion that it prevents the healing. It is also sometimes applied as a stimulant to foul ulcers. It is sometimes, but seldom, taken internally in chro- nic catarrh and asthma. Water decomposes it, throwing down re- sinous matter. Tinctura bonplandi*: trifoliat*:. Tincture of Angustura. Ed. " Take of Angustura Bark in powder, two ounces ; Diluted Al- cohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, then strain through paper." Tinctura angustur*:. Tincture of Angustura. Dub. " Take of Angustura Bark in coarse powder, two ounces ; Proof- spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, then strain." Diluted alcohol dissolves the active matter of angustura; and under this form it has been sometimes given in dyspepsia, in a dose of two drachms occasionally. Tinctura camphor*:. Tincture of Camphor. Ed. " Take of Camphor, one ounce; Strong Alcohol, one pound Mix, so as to dissolve the camphor. It may be also made with a double or triple proportion of camphor." Spiritus camphor*:. Spirit of Camphor. Lond. "Take of Camphor, four ounces ; Rectified Spirit, two pints.— Mix, so as to dissolve the camphor." Tinctura camphor*:, sive Spiritus camphoratus. Tincture of Camphor, or Camphorated Spirit. Dub. " Take of Camphor, an ounce ; Rectified Spirit, half a pint. Mix, so as to dissolve the camphor." This solution is used externally as a stimulating and anodyne ap- plication in chronic rheumatism and spasmodic pains, being rubbed on the part. It is applied in a similar manner to bruises and strains, to remove the swelling and relieve the pain. Linen moistened with it is used as an application to chilblains; and it is sometimes added TINCTURES. 349 in small quantity to collyria employed in ophthalmia. It is decom- posed by water, which, combining with the spirit, throws down the camphor. Linimentum camphor*: compositum. Compound Camphor Lini- ment. Lond. Dub. " Take of Camphor, two ounces ; Solution of Ammonia, six oun- ces ; Spirit of Lavender, a pint. Mix the solution of ammonia with the spirit, and distil a pint from a glass retort with a gentle heat. Dissolve the camphor in the distilled liquor." Dr. Duncan is of opinion, that this liniment might be prepared as well without the distillation, by mixing the strong aqua ammoniae ofthe Edinburgh College with the spirit of lavender. The liniment is applied to the same uses as the preceding, but the addition ofthe ammonia renders it more powerful as a stimulant and rubefacient. Tinctura cantharidis vesicatori*:. Tincture of Cantharides. Ed. " Take of Cantharides bruised, one drachm ; Diluted Alcohol, one pound. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura cantharadis. Tincture of Spanish Flies. Lond. " Take of Cantharides bruised, three drachms ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura cantharidis. Tincture of Cantharides. Dub. " Take of Cantharides in powder, two drachms ; Proof-spirit, one pint and a half. Digest for seven days, and filter." Diluted alcohol extracts and holds dissolved the acrid matter of cantharides, and it is under this form that the substance has been generally employed internally, being more manageable in its dose than it is in powder. It has been given as a diuretic in dropsy, and as a lemedyin incontinence of urine, gleet and leucorrhcea. Its dose is from ten to twenty drops, increased gradually until some sensible ope- ration is produced. Dr. C. Smyth has remarked, however, that in is- churia, arising from debility ofthe coats of the bladder, he had found little advantage derived from the tincture, while in substance the can- tharides had been successful. The tincture is also employed exter- nally as a rubefacient, frequently in conjunction with camphor lini- ment. Dr. A. Thomson recommends its application to frost-bitten parts. Tinctura castorei. Tincture of Castor. Ed. " Take of Russian Castor in powder, one ounce and a half; Strong Alcohol, one pound. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura castorei. Tincture of Castor. Lond. Dub. " Take of Castor (Russian, Dub.) in powder, two ounces ; Recti- fied Spirit, (Proof-spirit, Dub.), two pints. Macerate for seven days, and strain." Castor is a substance nearly inert; and this tincture, in which a small quantity only is dissolved, can scarcely be supposed,to have any medicinal efficacy. It is given sometimes as an antispasmodic 350 tinctures. in hysteria, in a dose of from half a drachm to a drachm. It is more grateful when prepared with alcohol than when prepared with proof-spirit. Tinctura cinchon*: lancifoli*:. Tincture of Peruvian Bark. Ed. Tinctura cinchon*:. Dub. " Take of Lance-leaved Peruvian Bark in powder, four ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half, (Proof-spirit, two pints, Dub.) Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." 1 inctura cinchon*:. Tincture of Bark. Lond. " Take of Lance-leaved Bark in powder, seven ounces ; Proof- spirit, two pints. Macerate for- fourteen days, and strain." The proportion of bark in the formula of the London College to that of spirit, is nearly double that of the others, whether with the effect of rendering the tincture much stronger may be considered as doubtful. The active matter of bark is extracted by diluted alcohol, but so sparingly, that it may be doubted whether in the tincture the powers ofthe menstruum are not greater than those ofthe bark. It cannot therefore be employed where large quantities of cinchona are required. It is used only as a bitter in dyspepsia, occasionally, in a dose of two drachms ; and for this purpose the compound tinc- ture of bark, to be immediately noticed, is preferable : though both are liable to the objection common to all these bitter tinctures, that of accustoming the stomach to the stimulus of ardent spirit, and lead- ing to the habit of dram drinking. Tinctura cinchon*: composita. Compound Tincture of Cinchona. Ed. " Take of Lance-leaved Cinchona Bark in powder, two ounces; Orange Rind dried, one ounce and a half; Virginian Snake-root bruised, three drachms ; Saffron sliced, one drachm ; Cochineal in powder, two scruples ; Diluted Alcohol, twenty ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura cinchon*: composita. Compound Tincture of Cinchona. Lond. Dub. " Take of Peruvian Bark powdered two ounces ; Orange-peel dried, an ounce and a half, (an ounce, Dub.); Virginian Snake- Root bruised, three drachms ; Saffron, one drachm ; Cochineal in powder, two scruples ; Proof-spirit, twenty fluid-ounces. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." This is the composition known under the name of Huxham s Tincture of Bark. It contains much less cinchona, but is more grateful than the simple tincture ; and from the substances added, is probably a better stomachic : its dose is the same. It is principally in dyspeptic affections that it is employed. The powers of the men- struum render its continued use hurtful, but it may be taken occa- sionally with advantage. Tinctura cinnamomi composita. Compound Tincture of Cinna- mon. Ed. " Take of Cinnamon Bark bruised, Lesser Cardamom Seeds bruis- TINCTURES. 351 ed, each one ounce ; Long Pepper in powder, two drachms; Dilut- ed Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura cinnamomi composita. Compound Tincture of Cinna- mon. Lond. " Take of Cinnamon Bark bruised, six drachms; Cardam >m Seeds bruised, three drachms; Long Pepper, in powder, Ginger Root cut, of each two drachms ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." This is a grateful aromatic tincture, seldom used by itself, but fre- quently added to other tinctures, or to mixtures, to communicate fla- vour and pungency. It is thus often used in combination with bit- ters and astringents. The dose is a drachm or two. Tinctura colomb*:. Tincture of Colomba. Ed. " Take of the Root of Colombo in powder, two ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura calumb*:. Tincture of Colomba. Lond. Dub. " Take of Colomba cut, two ounces and a half; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Colomba does not yield its active matter very abundantly either to watery or spiritous menstrua; at least this tincture is not strong, and cannot be employed for any of the more important purposes for which this root is prescribed. It is therefore used merely as a bitter tincture in dyspepsia, in a dose of three or four drachms, when the stomach will not bear the colomba in powder ; and it may be con- joined with solutions of iron, as it is not blackened by them. Tinctura conii maculati. Tincture of Hemlock. Ed. " Take of Hemlock Leaves dried, two ounces ; Lesser Cardamom Seeds bruised, half an ounce ; Diluted Alcohol, sixteen ounces. Diges for seven days, and strain through paper.' Tinctura conii. Tincture of Hemlock. Dub. " Take of Hemlock Leaves dried, two ounces ; Cardamom Seeds bruised, an ounce ; Proof.spirit, a pint. Macerate for seven days, and strain." This tincture possesses all the properties of the plant, and is given as an anodoyne in those cases where the use ofthe plant is in- dicated, as in cancer, especially of the uterus. Tinctura convolvuli jalap*:. Tincture of Jalap. Ed. " Take ofthe Root of Jalap in powder, three ounces ; Diluted Al- cohol, fifteen ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura jalap*:. Tincture of Jalap. Lond. Dub. " Take of Jalap Root in powder, eight ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." The activity of jalap resides in a resinous matter, which in this tincture is extracted along with a portion of mucilage. It may be given as a cathartic, in a dose of four or six drachms. Jalap, how- ever, is usually given in substance, and scarcely ever under this 352 TINCTURES. form. The Edinburgh Tincture is weaker than that of the other Colleges. Tinct ra croci sativi. Tincture of Saffron. Ed. " Take of English Saffron cut, one ounce ; Diluted Alcohol, fif- teen ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." This tincture is to be valued only for its colour. Tinctura crotonis eleutheri*:. Tincture of Croton Eleutheria. Ed. " Take of the Bark of Cascarilla bruised, four ounces; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain." Tinctura cascarill*:. Tincture of Cascarilla. Lond. Dub. " Take of Cascarilla Bark, four ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen (seven, Dub.) days, and strain." Cascarilla is so little employed in modern practice, that there is scarcely any advantage in having its tincture as an officinal pre- paration, and the present tincture may be regarded merely as a con- cealed dram. Tinctura digitalis purpure*:. Tincture of Foxglove. Ed. " Take of the dried Leaves of Foxglove, one ounce; Diluted Alcohol, eight ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura digitalis. Tincture of Foxglove. Lond. " Take of the dried Leaves of Foxglove, four ounces; Proof- spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura digitalis. Tincture of Foxglove. Dub. " Take of the Leaves of Foxglove (rejecting those of a large size) dried and reduced to coarse powder, two ounces ; Proof-spirit, one pint. Macerate for seven days, then strain." The active matter of foxglove appears to be completely extracted by diluted alcohol. The tincture is not, however, so much used to obtain the operation of the plant as a diuretic, as to produce its nar- cotic effects, as in haemoptysis, phthisis, diseases of the heart and mania, to lessen the force of the circulation. It has also the impor- tant advantages, that it can be kept without the powers of the digi- talis being impaired, and that its dose is easily regulated. The ■usual dose is ten drops, which, according to the general rules ob- served in the administration of digitalis, is to be continued, and if necessary, cautiously increased, until its effects are obtained. Mr. Brande has pointed out the danger of a practice which has some- times been followed, of allowing the tincture of digitalis to stand with the leaves in it; the last portion acquires such strength, that it may produce fatal effects. Tinctura ferulje assafcetid*:. Tincture of Assafcetida. Ed. " Take of Assafcetida, four ounces ; Strong Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura assafcstid*:. Tincture of Assafcetida. Lond. " Take of Assafcetida, four ounces ; Rectified Spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." tinctures. 353 Tinctura assafc3T1d*:. Tincture of Assafcetida- Dub. " Take of Assafcetida; four ounces; Rectified Spirit, two pints; Water, half a pint. To the assafcetida rubbed with the water add the spirit. Macerate for fourteen days, then strain." Alcohol is used as the solvent in this tincture, as it is less dis- agreeable than when made with proof-spirit. As a remedy in tym- panitis and hysteria it is sometimes given in a dose of one drachm; but in any quantity in which it can be given, so that the operation ofthe solvent shall not be predominant, its effects must be extreme- ly trivial. It is decomposed on mixing it with water, and forms a white turbid liquor. Tinctura gallarum. Tincture of Galls. Ed. " Take of Galls in powder, two ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, sixteen ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura gallarum. Tincture of Galls. Dub. " Take of Galls in powder, four ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Digest for seven days, and filter." This is perhaps the most powerful of all the astringent tinctures, and is given in a dose of one or two fluid-drachms. Tinctura gentian*: composita. Compound Tincture of Gen- tian. Ed. " Take of Gentian Root sliced and bruised, two ounces; Dried Seville Orange-peel bruised, one ounce ; Canella Bark bruised, half an ounce ; Cochineal in powder, half a drachm ; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura gentian*: composita. Compound Tincture of Gentian. Lond. Dub. " Take of Gentian Root cut and bruised, two ounces ; Orange- peel dried, an ounce ; Cardamom Seeds husked and bruised, half an ounce ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days with a gentle heat, and strain." In this tincture, the bitterness ofthe gentian, is extracted, genti- anine being soluble in alcohol, (p. 141,) and it is rendered more grateful by the aromatic quality of the orange-peel and canella. It is used as a stomachic in a dose of two or three drachms, in cases where the stomach is disordered from any occasional cause. In more permanent forms of dyspepsia it cannot be employed with equal advantage; and the continued use of tinctures of this kind ought always to be avoided, as being liable to the pernicious conse- quence of accustoming the stomach to the stimulus of ardent spirit. The first tincture is coloured red, the other not. Tinctura guajaci officinalis. Tincture of Guaiac. Ed. " Take of the Resin of Guaiac in powder, six ounces ; Strong Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura guaiaci. Tincture of Guaiac. Lond. " Take ofthe GumResinof Guaiac rubbed to powder, half a pound; Rectified Spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." 354 TINCTURES. Tinctura guajaci. Tincture of Guaiac. Dub. " Take of Guaiac, four ounces; Rectified Spirit, two pints. Ma- cerate for seven days, and strain." This tincture may be given in a dose of two or three drachms, and has sometimes been employed as a form of giving guaiac as a stimulating sudorific in rheumatism and gout; but it is inferior in ac- tivity to the Ammoniated Tincture ; and it forms a very ungrateful mixture with water, from the copious precipitation of its resinous matter. Tinctura hellebori nigri. Tincture of Black Hellebore. Ed. " Take of Black Hellebore Root bruised, two ounces; Cochineal, in powder, fifteen grains; Diluted Alcohol, fifteen ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura hellebori nigri. Tincture of Black Hellebore. Lond. Dub. " Take of Black Hellebore Root cut, four ounces; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen (digest for seven, Dub.) days, and strain." It was under the form of this tincture that black hellebore was celebrated by Mead as an emmenagogue, (p. 209,) a quality, proba- bly referable to its drastic cathartic powers. Cullen remarks, with regard to it, that he had never found it successful; and it is now little used, especially as it is capricious in its action. Rectified spi- rit would dissolve more of the active resinous matter, (p. 195.) A tea-spoonful of it may be taken twice a-day, in warm water. Tinctura humuli lupuli. Tincture of Hops. Ed. " Take of Hops, five ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, express the tincture, and strain through paper." Tinctura humuli. Tincture of Hops. Lond. Dub. " Take of Hops, five ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, (frequently shaking, Dub.) and strain." Hops having been introduced as a narcotic, designed to be em- ployed as a substitute for opium, in cases where, from idiosyncrasy or other causes, the latter cannot be employed, the tincture affords a convenient form for its administration. It has been supposed, but very erroneously, to be nearly of the same strength as tincture of opium; it requires in general to be given in a dose from half a drachm to a drachm, or more, to produce any sensible effect. The hops, in making the tincture, should be rubbed into powder, as they will be apt to absorb and retain a large quantity of the alcohol. Tinctura hyoscyami nigri. Tincture of Black Henbane. Ed. " Take ofthe Dried Leaves of Black Henbane, one ounce ; Di- luted Alcohol, eight ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura hyoscyami. Tincture of Henbane. Lond. Dub. " Take ofthe Dried Leaves of Henbane, four (five, Dub.) ounces; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen (seven, Dub.) days, and strain." TINCTURES. 355 Henbane is much employed in modern practice chiefly as a sub- stitute for opium, where it is desirable to avoid the constipating ef- fect of the latter, or where, from idiosyncrasy, opium occasions dis- agreeable symptoms. The tincture is of nearly the same strength in all the Pharmacopceias. Its dose is 25 or 30 drops. A combi- nation of it with tincture of opium proves a more certain anodyne and narcotic than when it is given alone, and is in a great measure free from the inconveniences which opium by itself is liable to pro- duce ; this combination is advisable when a laxative effect is not desired. Tinctura kino. Tincture of Kino. Ed. " Take of Kino in powder, two ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, one pound and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain." Tinctura kino. Tincture of Kino. Lond. Dub. " Take of Kino in powder, three ounces ; Rectified Spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen (seven, Dub.) days, and strain." Kino consists principally of tannin ; it is entirely soluble in alco- hol. The dose of this tincture is from half a drachm to a drachm ; it is not unfrequently prescribed as an astringent, particularly in ob- stinate diarrhoeas. It is not, however, so efficacious as the tincture of catechu. Tinctura lauri ciNNAMOMii Tincture of Cinnamon. Ed. " Take of Cinnamon Bark bruised, three ounces ; Diluted Alco- hol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura cinnamomi. Tincture of Cinnamon. Lond. Dub. " Take of Cinnamon Bark bruised, three ounces, (three ounces and a half, Dub.) ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." The diluted alcohol is impregnated with the aromatic flavour of the cinnamon, and it is merely as possessing this flavour and a slight astringency that this tincture is used in mixtures. A little diluted sulphuric acid is sometimes added to it. Tinctura myrrh*:. Tincture of Myrrh. Ed. " Take of Myrrh in powder, three ounces ; Strong Alcohol, twenty ounces; Water, ten ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura myrrh*:. Tincture of Myrrh. Lond. " Take of Myrrh bruised, four ounces; Rectified Spirit, three pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura myrrh*:. Tincture of Myrrh. Dub. " Take of Myrrh bruised, three ounces; Proof-Spirit, a pint and a half; Rectified Spirit, half a pint. Digest for seven days, then strain." Myrrh being principally resinous, is not entirely soluble in com- mon proof-spirit, and therefore rectified spirit is properly ordered for its solution in the London Pharmacopoeias. The tincture is used principally as an external stimulant and antiseptic application, more 356 TINCTURES. especially in affections ofthe teeth and gums, either directly applied, or added to detergent gargles. It is used externally for cleaning foul ulcers, and promoting the exfoliation of carious bones. Tinctura opii, sive Thebaica; vulgo Laudanum liquidum. Tincture of Opium. Ed. " Take of Opium, two ounces; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura ©ph. Tincture of Opium. Lond. " Take of Hard Opium in powder, two ounces and a half; Proof- spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura opii. Tincture of Opium. Dub. " Take of Turkey Opium in coarse powder, ten drachms ; Proof- spirit, a pint. Macerate for fourteen days, then strain." In this tincture, about two-thirds of the opium employed are dis- solved ; the residuum consists chiefly of impurities, but still contains a considerable portion of morphia. The proportion of opium to each drachm of the tincture is five grains, but by evaporation it is found to yield only three grains and a half; twenty-five drops are supposed to be equal in power to one grain of solid opium, and is the dose commonly given to a person not accustomed to it. It is ofthe same strength nearly as ordered in the different Pharmacopceias. The London College formerly employed purified opium, for which they have now properly substituted crude opium, both as it was without any advantage to use purified opium in a preparation in which the crude opium is necessarily freed from its impurities, while it added considerably to the expense, and as the purified opium itself is vari- able in strength. It appears from Mr. Phillips' experiments, however, that much more ofthe purified opium is dissolved than ofthe crude; but whether the power of the tincture is increased in proportion is uncertain. Laudanum, as this tincture is named, is given in all those cases in which opium is usually administered, and is preferred to it as being more speedy in its operation, more manageable in its dose, and more convenient for combination with other remedies. Formerly lauda- num was prepared with an addition of aromatics,—an addition pro- bably useful in obviating nausea, or even the subsequent debilitating operation on the stomach. In prescribing it, an aromatic tincture may be advantageously combined with it. It is in general proper to avoid combining laudanum directly with the alkalis or alkaline car- bonates, as the morphia may either be precipitated, or may enter into new combinations. Acids, on the contrary, are compatible with it, and by increasing the solubility of the morphia, even favour its action. Tinctura opii camphorata, vulgo Elixir Paregoricum Anglorum. Camphorated Tincture of Opium, or Paregoric Elixir. Ed. "Take of Camphor, two scruples ; Benzoic Acid, Opium, of each a drachm; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." TINCTURES. 357 Tinctura camphor*: composita. Compound Tincture of Camphor. Lond. " Take of Camphor, two scruples ; Hard Opium in powder, Ben- zoic Acid, of each one drachm ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura opii camphorata ; sive Elixir Paregoricum. Campho- rated Tincture of Opium, or Paregoric Elixir. Dub. " Take of Turkey Opium in powder, Benzoic Acid, of each a drachm ; Camphor, two scruples; Essential Oil of Anise, a drachm ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." This is the tincture known under the name of Paregoric Elixir, which has been long in use as a mild opiate in catarrh and asthma. Half an ounce of it contains a grain of opium, and its usual dose is two tea-spoonfuls, taken at bed-time. It is inferior in strength to the tincture which has a place in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, under the same popular name of Paregoric Elixir, the Ammoniated Tine- ture of Opium, but it is less pungent, and is hence frequently pre- ferred to the other. The London College have given it its present name, rather than the former one of Tinctura Opii Camphorata, to lessen the risk of its being confounded with Tincture of Opium in prescribing it; and they have omitted the Oil of Anise, the odour of which is rather ungrateful. Dr. Montgomery states, however, that this oil (which the Dublin College retains) prevents griping pain in the bowels, which the tincture without it occasions in young children. Tinctura quassi*: excels*:. Tincture of Quassia. Ed. " Take of Shavings of Quassia, one ounce ; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura quassi*:. Tincture of Quassia. Dub. " Take of the Raspings of Quassia Wood, one ounce; Proof-spi- rit, two pints. Macerate for seven days, then strain." The intense bitterness of Quassia may be sufficiently extracted in this preparation. These bitter tinctures appear, however, to be unnecessarily multiplied in the Pharmacopceias, especially as, from the action of the menstruum on the stomach, the form of tincture is not so good as that of infusion for-the administration of this class of remedies, Tinctura rhei. Tincture of Rhubarb. Ed. " Take of Russian Rhubarb cut, three ounces; Lesser Carda- mom Seeds bruised, half an ounce; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura rhei. Tincture of Rhubarb. Lond. " Take of Rhubarb Root cut, two ounces; Cardamom Seeds bruised, half an ounce; Saffron, two drachms,- Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate fourteen days with a gentle heat, an'd strain." Proof-spirit extracts nearly all the active matter of rhubarb, and this tincture therefore has all its powers. It is sometimes prescrib- ed in dyspeptic affections and in diarrhoea, in a dose from half an ounce to an ounce. 358 TINCTURES. Tinctura rhei et aloes. Tincture of Rhubarb with Aloes. Ed. " Take of Russian Rhubarb cut, ten drachms ; Socotorine Aloes, six drachms in powder; Lesser Cardamom Seeds bruised, half an ounce; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." The cathartic power of the rhubarb is in this tincture increased by combination with the aloes. It is employed as a stimulating aperient and purgative, in a dose from half an ounce to an ounce, frequently also as an emmenagogue. Tinctura rhei et gentian*:. Tincture of Rhubarb with Gen- tian. Ed. " Take of Russian Rhubarb in slices, two ounces; Gentian Root cut, half an ounce; Diluted Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Di- gest for seven[days, and strain through paper." This combination of gentian with rhubarb is supposed to render it a more useful remedy in dyspeptic cases ; but the power of the one is so inconsiderable, compared with that ofthe other, that no impor- tant advantage is gained from it. Its dose is from two to four drachms. Tinctura saponis camphorata, vulgo Linimentum Saponaceum. Camphorated Tincture of Soap, or Saponaceous Liniment. Ed. " Take of Hard Soap in shavings, four ounces ; Camphor, two ounces ; Volatile Oil of Rosemary, half an ounce ; Strong Alcohol, two pounds. Digest the soap with the alcohol for three days, then strain and add the camphor and volatile oil, frequently shaking. Linimentum saponis compositum. Compound Soap Liniment. Lond. Linimentum saponis. Dub. " Take of Hard Soap, three ounces ; Camphor, one ounce ; Spi- rit of Rosemary, one pint. Digest the camphor in the spirit, then add the soap, and macerate in a sand-bath until it be dissolved. (Di- gest the soap in the spirit of rosemary, and add the camphor. Dub.") Tinctura saponis et opii, vulgo Linimentum Anodynum. Tine ture of Soap with Opium; commonly called Anodyne Liniment. Ed. " Take of the Shavings of Hard Soap, four ounces ; Opium, one ounce; Camphor, two ounces ; Volatile Oil of Rosemary, half an ounce ; Strong Alcohol, two pounds. Digest the soap and opium in the alcohol for three days, then strain the liquid, and add the cam- phor and oil to it, frequently shaking." Linimentum saponis cum opio, vel Linimentum Anod. Dub. " Take of Soap Liniment by measure, four parts; Tincture of Opium, three parts. Mix." These are stimulants of considerable efficacy, and are in com- mon use as an external application, by friction, in strains and rheu- matic pains. The anodyne liniment is, from the addition of opium, the most powerful in relieving rheumatism and spasms ofthe mus- cles. It is frequently successful in alleviating local pain, though the relief is often but temporary. Tinctura scill*: maritim*:. Tincture of Squill. Ed. TINCTURES. 359 " Take of the fresh Dried Root of Squill, two ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, sixteen ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura scill*:. Tincture of Squill. Lond. " Take of Squill Root recently dried, four ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints.. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura scill*:. Tincture of Squill. Dub. " Take of the Bulb of Squill recently dried, four ounces ; Proof- spirit, two pints. Macerate for seven days, then put aside, and when the impurities have subsided, pour off the pure liquor." Squill, when employed as a diuretic, operates most effectually in substance : as an emetic or expectorant it is usually given under the form ofthe vinegar or syrup. It is not apparent what particular advantage is to be derived from a tincture of it,—a preparation in which the acrimony of the squill must be very imperfectly covered. The dose of this tincture is from twenty to sixty drops. Mr. Brande says it relieves hoarseness. Tinctura senn*: composita. Tincture of Senna. Ed. " Take ofthe Leaves of Senna, two ounces ; Root of Jalap bruis- ed, one ounce ; Coriander Seeds bruised, half an ounce ; Diluted Alcohol, three pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and to the tincture strained through paper add four ounces of refined sugar." Tinctura senn*:. Tincture of Senna. Lond. " Take of the Leaves of Senna, three ounces ; Caraway Seeds bruised, three drachms; Cardamom Seeds bruised, one drachm ; Raisins freed from the stones, four ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura senn*: composita. Tincture of Senna. Dub. "Take ofthe Leaves of Senna, a pound; Caraway Seeds bruis- ed, an ounce and a half; Cardamom Seeds, freed from their cap- sules and bruised, half an ounce ; Proof-spirit, a gallon. Macerate fourteen days, and strain." This forms a very excellent purgative tincture, less unpleasant in its taste than any of the other cathartic tinctures, not liable there- fore to excite nausea, and at the same time operating with sufficient effect. Liquorice is a good substitute for the raisins. Its dose is one ounce or ten drachms. In the London and Dublin Pharmaco> pceias, being prepared without the jalap, it is less active. Tinctura toluifer*: balsami. Tincture of Tolu Balsam. Ed. "Take of Balsam of Tolu, one ounce and a half; Strong Alco- hol, one pound. Digest until the balsam is dissolved, and strain through paper." Tinctura balsami tolutani. Tincture of Balsam of Tolu. Dub. " Take of Tolu Balsam, an ounce ; Rectified Spirit, a pint. Di- gest in a close vessel until the balsam is dissolved, then strain." The tolu balsam is soluble in alcohol; but, as it is a substance of no activity, this tincture is scarcely used but on account of its fla- 360 TINCTURES. vour, and for making the syrup of tolu according to the formula of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Tinctura veratri albi. Tincture of White Hellebore. Ed. " Take of White Hellebore root bruised, four ounces ; Diluted Alcohol, sixteen ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." White hellebore is a medicine scarcely ever prescribed internal- ly, its operation is so violent, from the energetic principle which it contains, Veratria. As this tincture contains a considerable portion of veratria, its dose cannot exceed a few drops; if a larger quantity be given, it acts violently as an emetic or cathartic. The following Tinctures are peculiar to the London and Dublin Pharmacopceias. Tinctura aurantii. Tincture of Orange-peel. Lond. " Take of Fresh Orange-peel, three ounces; Proof-spirit, two pints. Digest for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura aurantii. Tincture of Orange-peel. Dub. " Take of Fresh Orange-peel, three ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Digest for three days, and strain." The alcohol is in this tincture impregnated with the flavour and bitterness of the orange-peel, and it may be used as communicat- ing flavour, or in combination with more powerful bitters. If made with dried orange-peel, the flavour is much stronger. Tinctura capsici. Tincture of Capsicum. Lond. Dub. " Take of Capsicum Berries, an ounce; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Under this form capsicum is employed as a stimulant and sto- machic ; and diluted it affords an easy mode of forming the capsicum gargle, which is employed in some forms of cynanche, half an ounce being added to eight ounces of water. Tinctura cardamomi composita. Compound Tincture of Carda- mom. Lond. " Take of Cardamom Seeds, Caraway Seeds, Cochineal, of each beat to powder, two drachms; Cinnamon Bark bruised, half an ounce; Raisins freed from the stones, four ounces; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura cardamomi composita. Compound Tincture of Carda- mom. Dub. " Take of Lesser Cardamom Seeds freed from their capsules, and bruised, Caraway Seeds bruised, of each two drachms; Cinnamon Bark bruised, half an ounce ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, then strain." This tincture may be employed as a grateful aromatic and car- minative. It is often added to bitter infusions ; it is frequently also employed to colour other remedies, as where a long-continued course of any medicine is prescribed, it is often required to make some TINCTURES. 361 slight change in its appearance. For this latter purpose the Dublin tincture is not adapted, since the College has omitted the cochineal as expensive and useless in point of efficacy. The two tinctures also differ in the one being sweet and the other not. Tinctura rhei composita. Compound Tincture of Rhubarb Lond. " Take of Root of Rhubarb cut, two ounces; Liquorice Root bruised, half an ounce; Ginger Root cut, Saffron, of each two drachms; Proof-spirit, a pint; Water, twelve fluid-ounces. Mace- rate for fourteen days, and strain." Tinctura rhei composita. Compound Tincture of Rhubarb. Dub. " Take of Rhubarb Root cut, two ounces ; Cardamom Seeds bruised and husked, Liquorice Root bruised, of each half an ounce; Saffron, two drachms; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for seven days, and strain." The principle in which the purgative quality of rhubarb resides has been supposed to be more completely dissolved by water than by other solvents ; hence a larger proportion of water is prescribed in the formula for this tincture than usual, and the quantity of alcohol is little more than is necessary to prevent spontaneous decomposition. Its medium dose as a purgative is an ounce. Tinctura valerian*:. Tincture of Valerian. Lond. Dub. " Take of Valerian Root, four ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Macerate for fourteen (seven, Dub.) days, and strain." The active matter of valerian is sufficiently extracted by diluted alcohol; but the powers ofthe menstruum probably exceed those of the dissolved matter, and hence this tincture cannot be employed with advantage. It is sometimes given with the addition of a few drops of tincture of assafcetida. Its action is an antispasmodic in hysteric disorders, but it is much inferior in utility to the root itself, exhibited in the form of powder or bolus. Tinctura buchu. Tincture of Buchu. Dub. " Take of Buchu Leaves, two ounces ; Proof-spirit, a pint. Ma- cerate for seven days, and strain." A dark coloured tincture, used as a diaphoretic, diuretic and sti- mulating embrocation, (p. 222.) The dose is from one drachm to four ; it is sometimes added to the infusion of buchu. Tinctura seminum golchici. Tincture of Meadow Saffron Seeds.. Dub. " Take of the Seeds of the Meadow Saffron, two ounces ; Proof- spirit, a pint. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." The seeds of colchicum vary less in their medicinal power than the other parts of the plant, hence this tincture is more uniform in its activity than other preparations from the plant; it is said also to, be less apt to occasion nausea and purging. The seeds, should be gathered in July, and carefully dried, but not bruised, as the veratria exists chiefly in the husk. The dose of the tincture is from ten.to, sixty drops, given chiefly in gout. (See page 222.) 362 tinctures. Tinctura galbani. Tincture of Galbanum. Dub. " Take of Galbanum cut into small pieces, two ounces ; Proof- spirit, two pints. Digest for seven days, and strain." This tincture has sometimes been used as less nauseous than that of assafcetida in hysteria, and to obviate flatulence in a dose of two or three drachms. It can scarcely be supposed to have any power. Tinctura iodinii. Tincture of Iodine. Dub. " Take of Iodine, two scruples; Rectified Spirit, one ounce. Mix and dissolve the iodine by heat; keep the mixture in a well-closed vessel." Preparations of iodine are now introduced into the Dublin Phar- macopoeia, and will probably be admitted by the other Colleges, as in its peculiar action on the absorbents it is much superior to any other remedy we possess. Iodine, it has been already stated, (p. 16.), is a simple substance, having much analogy to chlorine. It was discovered in 1812 by M. Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre in Paris. It exists in the waters of the ocean, from which it is abstracted by marine plants ; and from the ashes of those known by the names of Kelp and Ba- rilla it is obtained. It exists in kelp in the state of an acid, the hy- driodic, combined with potash. The usual process for procuring it is to take what is named soap-makers' ley, which is a solution of kelp, from which greater part of the alkali has been abstracted, heat it to 230°, and mix it with a fourth part of its bulk of sulphuric acid, di- luted with an equal quantity of water | the liquor is filtered and heated in a glass retort with black oxide of manganese, in the propor- tion of 80 grains to each ounce, by measure, of the fluid. Iodine will appear in the form of a purple vapour, and will condense in scales in the neck of the retort. In this process the hydriodate of potash which exists in the ley is decomposed by the sulphuric acid, hydrio- dic acid is evolved, which, in its nascent state, is acted on by the oxide of manganese, the oxygen taking its hydrogen to form water, and the iodine being disengaged. This reaction is shewn in the fol- lowing diagram : 125 Hydriodic Acid ${?d'ne ' (Hydrogen 48 Potash 44 Peroxide of Man- ( Protox. Mang ganese. (Oxygen 40 Sulphuric Acid 40 Sulphuric Acid To purify the iodine, it must be washed, mixed with a little water and the 500th part of its weight of potash, and again distilled. It must be kept in bottles with glass stoppers. Iodine crystallizes in tables of a dark colour and shining lustre, friable and nearly five times heavier than water. Its taste is acrid and pungent, and it stains the skin of an orange colour. It is spar- ingly soluble in water, requiring 7000 parts for solution ; it is much more soluble in alcohol, hence the form of tincture is well suited to it. It is sometimes adulterated with oxide of manganese and char- 124......................124 Iodine. 1 —"-———7 g Water. ^-y- 88 Sulph. of Potash. 36 8 40. 40_____X 76 Sulphate of Manganese. TINCTURES. 363 coal; but these substances do not pass into the tincture, which is only rendered so much weaker by the deficient quantity of iodine. Each drachm of the above tincture contains five grains of iodine. Its dose is ten drops (which contain about half a grain) given in any viscid liquid three times a-day. These doses may be gradually in- creased to twenty drops. The tincture should not be kept long, as it is liable to deposite part of the iodine, or to have it changed into hydriodic acid. The medicinal use of iodine was first introduced by Dr. Coindet of Geneva. He remarked, that burnt sponge formed the basis of all the remedies that had been used with success in the treatment of goitre, and drew the inference that it was the iodine which is known to exist in sponge which was the efficient remedy. He accordingly employed preparations of iodine in cases of goitre, and with success. It would appear that the action of iodine is peculiarly directed to the thyroid gland; and in diseases of that gland, particularly that most obstinate one of goitre, there is no other substance approach- ing to it in utility. But it is also a general stimulant of the absor- bents, and is hence serviceable in other glandular enlargements, as swelled testicle, bronchocele, enlargement of the liver, spleen, mam- mae ; likewise in scrofula, in ascites, and ovarian dropsy. It has been supposed to be beneficial in tuberculous phthisis, particularly if the vapour of it be inhaled, and in chorea. Its claim to be re- garded as an emmenagogue is doubtful. If the administration ofthe iodine be too long continued, it produces much derangement of the system, great anxiety and depression of spirits, palpitation, a nervous tremor resembling chorea, and emaciation to an alarming degree. When these injurious effects begin to appear, its use should be inter- mitted. To relieve the symptoms, bark, opium, prussic acid, ammo- nia are recommended, and the use of the warm-bath. The tincture of iodine is employed externally as a liniment, com- bined with from four to eight parts of soap liniment, or anodyne liniment, to be rubbed on the diseased glands. Other forms of iodine which are in use are the hydriodate of potash and iodine ointment. Tinctura moschi. Tincture of Musk. Dub. " Take of Musk in powder, two drachms; Rectified Spirit, one pint. Digest for seven days, and strain." The form of tincture is not one in which the antispasmodic virtue of musk can be properly exerted ; it has nothing but the odour of that substance. Tinctura nucis vomic*:. Tincture of Nux Vomica. Dub. "Take of Nux Vomica rasped, two ounces; Rectified Spirit, eight ounces. Macerate for seven days, and strain." This tincture, lately introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, is a form of administering nux vomica, which has the advantage of being uniform, and appears to be sufficiently active ; the only ob- jection to it is, that the intense bitterness of strychnia is more per- ceptible when it is in solution than where the powdered nut or extract is given. The application of nux vomica to the cure of paralysis 364 AMMONIATED TINCTURES. depending on the spinal marrow has been already stated, (p. 96). This tincture is given in a dose of from five drops to twenty, and may also be applied by friction to the paralyzed part. Tinctura piperis cubeb*:. Tincture of Cubebs. Dub. " Take of Cubebs Pepper, four ounces ; Proof-spirit, two ounces. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." The power of cubebs of curing gonorrhoea has been already adverted to, (p. 147). The powder of cubebs is usually employed, but this tincture is likewise very effectual. It gives to the urine the peculiar smell of cubebs. It is apt when freely used to produce severe deep-seated headach. It was said to have some tendency to excite hernia humoralis, and this has been confirmed by Dr. Traill. It was found by him to be a more useful remedy in old and obstinate blenorrhcea, than in the early stages of gonorrhoea. Dr. Stephenson states, that it sometimes produces distressing haemorrhoids and urti- caria. The tincture is used also as a carminative to improve the appetite and digestion. CHAP. XV. tinctur*: AMMONIATjE—ammoniated or volatile tinctures. The character of Ammonia being so very marked, and its action on the animal system so powerful, the Edinburgh College have appro- priated a separate chapter to the consideration of those tinctures, in the composition of which it forms a principal ingredient. They are all highly pungent and stimulating, and often produce diaphoresis. They are incompatible with acids, acidulous salts, and most metallic and earthy salts, which produce double decompositions, neutralize the ammonia, and precipitate whatever vegetable matter it holds dis- solved. Tinctura aromatica ammoniata. Ammoniated Aromatic Tinc- ture. Ed. " Take of Ammoniated Alcohol, eight ounces; Volatile Oil of Lemon-peel, one drachm ; Volatile Oil of Rosemary, one drachm and a half. Mix, so as to dissolve the oils." Si'ikitus ammoni*: aromaticus. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Cinnamon Bark bruised, Cloves bruised, of each two drachms; Lemon Rind, four ounces ; Sub-carbonate of Potash, half a pound ; Muriate of Ammonia, five ounces; Rectified Spirit, four pints ; Water, a gallon. Mix, and distil six pints." Spiritus ammoni*: aromaticus. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Spirit of Ammonia, two pints; Essential Oil of Lemon, AMMONIATED TINCTURES. 365 two drachms; Nutmegs bruised, half an ounce ; Cinnamon Bark bruised, three drachms. Digest in a close vessel for three days, oc- casionally agitating, and distil a pint and a half." These formulas are different from each other, but the product is nearly the same in them all. If the oils are pure, which, however, according to Mr. Phillips, they seldom are, and the alkali in the caustic state, the process of the Edinburgh College answers per- fectly well; but otherwise it is necessary to distil off the tincture to procure it clear and colourless, and properly impregnated with the oils. In the London process, the ammonia is evolved by the sub- carbonate of potash, and muriate of ammonia, decomposing one another; muriate of potash is formed, and the ammonia, combined with a portion of carbonic acid, unites with the oils. This formula is, however, incorrect, as Mr. Phillips has pointed out, in the quantity of sub-carbonate of potash, which is much too small to decompose the whole of the sal-ammoniac. It should be at least eight ounces instead of six. By this combination of ammonia with alcohol, and the addition of the aromatic oils, a preparation is obtained more grateful than spirit of ammonia. It is therefore often used in preference to the other, as a stimulant in languor and faintness, or to relieve flatulence, and sometimes as an antacid. Its dose is from fifteen to thirty drops. Tinctura assafcetid*: ammoniata. Ammoniated Tincture of As- safcetida. Ed. " Take of Assafcetida, half an ounce ; Ammoniated Alcohol, eight ounces. Digest in a close vessel for twelve hours, then distil, by the heat of boiling water, eight ounces." Spiritus ammoni*: fcetidus. Fetid Spirit of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Spirit of Ammonia, two pints ; Assafcetida, two ounces. Macerate for twelve hours, and distil, with a slow fire, into a cooled receiver, a pint and a half." Spiritus ammoni*: fcetidus. Fetid Spirit of Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Spirit of Ammonia, two pints; Assafcetida, an ounce and a quarter. Macerate in a close vessel for three days, occa- sionally shaking; pour off the clear liquor, and distil a pint and a half." The impregnation of the ammoniated alcohol, with part of the assafcetida in this process, though it may communicate a fetid smell, can add little to its activity ; accordingly, though it has a place in all the Pharmacopceias, it is seldom found in the shops. It has been given in hysteria in a dose of thirty drops. An extemporaneous combination of spirit of ammonia and tincture of assafcetida is con- sidered by Mr. Brande as a preferable preparation. Tinctura castorei composita. Compound Tincture of Castor. Ed. " Take of Castor in powder, an ounce; Assafcetida, half an ounce ; Ammoniated Alcohol, one pound. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." This is a very active preparation, and is given with advantage 366 AMMONIATED TINCTURES* in hysteria, flatulent colic, cramp of the stomach, &c. in doses from one to two drachms. The castor contributes little to its efficacy. Tinctura guajaci ammoniata. Ammoniated Tincture of Guaiac. Ed. " Take of the Resin of Guaiac, four ounces ; Ammoniated Al- cohol, one pound and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura guajaci ammoniata. Ammoniated Tincture of Guaiac. Lond. Dub. " Take ofthe Gum-Resin of Guaiac in powder, four ounces ; Aro- matic Spirit of Ammonia, a pint and a half. Macerate for fourteen (seven, Dub.) days, and strain." As the ammonia coincides with the guaiac as a stimulant and dia- phoretic, this affords a preparation of more efficacy than the simple tincture, and it is more frequently employed. It is given in chronic rheumatism, in a dose of from one to two drachms. Like the sim- ple tincture, it is decomposed by water, which precipitates the resin in a curdy form ; it must therefore be taken in mucilage, honey or milk, or mixed with the yolk of an egg. Tinctura opii ammoniata, olim Elixir Paregoricum. Ammoniated Tincture of Opium, formerly Paregoric Elixir. Ed. " Take of Opium, two drachms ; Saffron, sliced, Benzoic Acid, of each three drachms ; Volatile Oil of Anise, half a drachm ; Ammoniated Alcohol, sixteen ounces. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." This formula is designed as an improved form of Paregoric Elixir, a remedy which has been much used as a mild and pleasant opiate, particularly in catarrh, (p. 357). The formula, however, is but ill contrived. While the ammonia can add little to the efficacy of the preparation, its pungency renders it ungrateful, and the tincture ap- proaches too nearly in strength to the common tincture of opium. The Paregoric Elixir of the other Colleges, (Tinct. opii camphorata,) is better adapted to the purposes for which it is designed ; they are commonly distinguished by the names of English and Scotch Pare- goric, the latter being the present preparation. The common ap- plication of it is, as a remedy in catarrhal affections, and in some spasmodic disorders, as chincough, the ammonia apparently, in some degree, removing the spasm, while the opium tends to prevent its return. Its dose is from half a drachm to a drachm, taken generally at bed-time. Tinctura valerian*: ammoniata. Ammoniated Tincture of Va- lerian. Ed. Dub. " Take of Valerian Root bruised, four (two, Dub.) ounces ; Am- moniated Alcohol, two pounds and a half, (a pint. Macerate, Dub.) Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Tinctura valerian*: ammoniata. Ammoniated Tincture of Va- lerian. Lond. " Take of Valerian Root, four ounces ; Aromatic Spirit of Am. monia, two pints. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." AMMONIATED TINCTURES. 367 This tincture is more powerful than the simple tincture, from the impregnation of ammonia. It is given in hysteria, in a dose of from one to two drachms. Spiritus ammoni*; succinatus. Succinated Spirit of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Mastich, three drachms; Rectified Spirit, nine fluid- drachms ; Oil of Lavender, fourteen minims ; Oil of Amber, four minims ; Water of Ammonia, ten fluid-ounces. Macerate the mas- tich in the spirit, so that it may be dissolved, and pour off the clear solution ; add to this the other ingredients, and mix them all by agitation." A composition, supposed to consist of spirit of ammonia, impreg- nated with oil of amber and some other essential oils, has been in use as a stimulating perfume under the name of Eau de Luce. A preparation was introduced into the London Pharmacopoeia as a substitute for this, which had not, however, its usual milky appear- ance. This is given in the present formula by the addition of the mastich, the resinous matter of which is separated by the water, but is retained in a state of suspension, probably by the action of the alkali. According to Mr. Phillips, however, the original Eau de Luce contains no oil of amber, and this composition would be more agreeable without the odour of that oil. It is considered as a good analeptic remedy, and is given in the same doses as the spirit of am- monia. In India it has been found, from its stimulating powers, to be a useful remedy in cases of bites from poisonous snakes. Tinctura cinchon*: ammoniata. Ammoniated Tincture of Bark. Lond. " Take of Lance-leaved Peruvian Bark bruised, four"ounces; Aro- matic Spirit of Ammonia, two pints. Macerate for ten days, and strain." A tincture similar to this had formerly a place in the London Pharmacopoeia, but was expunged : it is not obvious on what grounds it is restored ; for there seems to be little propriety in employing spirit of ammonia as a menstruum of bark, as they scarcely coin- cide in any important virtue, and the activity of the ammonia must be much superior to that of the quantity of bark dissolved. In fact, it is scarcely different from ammoniated alcohol. Spiritus colchici ammoniatus. Ammoniated Spirit of Colchicum. Lond. "Take of Meadow Saffron Seeds, bruised, two ounces ; Aroma- tic Spirit of Ammonia, one pint. Macerate for fourteen days, and strain." This is a new preparation of colchicum, introduced into the Lon- don Pharmacopoeia since the employment of this plant, in one form or another, as a specific in gout, has become general. Like the simple tincture of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, it is prepared from the seeds, which have some advantages (p. 361). The ammonia is add- ed, probably to act as a diffusible stimulus, and in some measure to 368 ETHER, &c. correct the narcotic effect of the colchicum. In most cases the simple tincture is preferable, and, if it be desired, it is easy to add ammonia. The spirit is used as a diuretic and anodyne ; its dose is half a drachm or a drachm. CHAP. XVI. *:therea—ether, and ethereal spirits.' Acidum sulphuricum aromaticum. Aromatic Sulphuric Acid. Ed. Dub. " Take of Alcohol, two pounds, (two pints, Dub.); Sulphuric Acid, six ounces, (by weight). Drop the acid gradually into the al- cohol. Digest the mixture with a very gentle heat, in a close ves- sel, for three days, then add of Bark of Cinnamon bruised, one ounce and a half; of Ginger bruised, one ounce. Digest again in a close vessel for six days; then strain through paper placed in a glass funnel." The dilution ofthe acid by the alcohol, in the proportions in which they are mixed in this preparation, is such, that little chemical action appears to be exerted during the digestion; an odour somewhat peculiar is acquired, but the acidity is little impaired. The aroma- tics render it more pleasant, and the preparation may be considered, therefore, as a grateful one for the exhibition of sulphuric acid. Its dose is thirty drops given in a cupful of water. It is not unfrequent- ly used in dyspepsia, haemoptysis, and other diseases in which this acid is employed, and benefit is often derived from it, when bitters and aromatics have been found of no utility. It is sometimes given in conjunction with cinchona and other tonic barks, a combination which is found to be extremely useful, probably from the acid rendering the alkaloids, cinchonia and quinia, more soluble, and consequently more active. .^Ether sulphuricus. Sulphuric Ether. Ed. " Take of Sulphuric Acid, Strong Alcohol, of each thirty-two ounces. Pour the alcohol into a glass retort, capable of bearing a sudden heat. Then pour on the acid in an uninterrupted stream. Mix them gradually by frequent and gentle agitation ; then imme- diately distil from a sand-bath, previously heated for this purpose, into a receiver kept cool with water or snow. Let the heat be re- gulated in such a manner, that the liquor may be made to boil as soon as possible, and continue to boil until sixteen ounces have dis- tilled over; then remove the retort from the sand: To the distilled liquor add two drachms of potash, and distil again from a high- necked retort, with a very gentle heat, into a receiver kept cool, until ten ounces have passed over. If to the acid remaining in the retort, after the first distillation, sixteen ounces of strong alcohol be ether, &c. 369 added, and the distillation be repeated, ether will again be produced. And this may be often repeated." ^Ether sulphuricus. Sulphuric Ether. Lond. " Take of Rectified Spirit, Sulphuric Acid, of each, by weight, a pound and a half. Pour the spirit into a glass retort, and add to it gradually the acid, shaking frequently, and taking care that the heat do not rise higher than 120°, until they are mixed together. Then place the retort cautiously in a sand-bath, previously heated to 200°, that the liquor may boil as quickly as possible, and let the ether pass into a tubulated receiver, to which another is adapted, kept cool by ice or water. Distil the liquor until a heavier portion begin to pass over, which will be observed beneath the ether at the bottom of the receiver. To the liquor which remains in the retort, add again twelve ounces of Rectified Spirit, so that ether may distil in a simi- lar manner." Ether rectificatus. Rectified Ether. Lond. " Take of Sulphuric Ether, fourteen fluid-ounces ; Fused Potash, half an ounce ; Distilled Water, eleven fluid-ounces. Dissolve first the potash in two fluid-ounces of the water, and add to it the ether, shaking thoroughly, until they are mixed ; then distil twelve ounces of ether with a heat of about 120°, from a large retort into a vessel kept cold ; then shake this distilled fluid with nine fluid-ounces of water, and put it aside that the water may subside. Lastly, pour off the supernatant Rectified ether, and keep it in a well-stopped ves- sel." Liquor *:thereus sulphuricus. Sulphuric Ethereal Liquor. Dub. "Take of Rectified Spirit, Sulphuric Acid, of each thirty-two ounces by weight. Pour the spirit into a retort capable of bearing a sudden heat, and pour upon it the acid in a continued stream. Mix them gradually and distil, with a heat sufficiently strong and quickly raised, twentyounces of liquor by measure into a receiver kept cool. If to the acid remaining in the retort sixteen ounces of rectified spirit are added, sulphuric ethereal liquor will again be obtained by distil- lation." iETHER sulphuricus. Sulphuric Ether. Dub. " Take of Sulphuric Ethereal Liquor, twenty ounces by measure ; Carbonate of Potash, dry and in powder, two drachms. Mix them, and distil twelve ounces by measure from a high-necked retort, with a very gentle, heat, into a receiver kept cold. The specific gravity of this liquid is to that of distilled water as 765 to 1000." The directions in the Pharmacopceias for conducting this process are nearly the same. The principal peculiarity in the formula of the London Pharmacopoeia, is that of adding the acid gradually to the spirit, agitating the mixture after each addition ; but on account of the rise of temperature as the mixture proceeds, this is more difficult than the mode directed by the Edinburgh College, of mixing the whole acid and alcohol at once, and any loss of ethereal vapour, from the sudden action produced by the mixture in the latter mode, is very trivial. On mixing equal weights of sulphuric acid and alcohol, a mutual 47 370 ETHER, &c. action, marked by an elevation of temperature and change of colour, is produced, and a vapour is disengaged, of an ethereal smell. On raising the temperature by the application of heat, so as to cause the mixed liquid to boil, ether is formed, and distils over, along with a portion of alcohol. This continues for a considerable time ; towards the end of this stage of the process the liquid in the retort becomes capable of sustaining a higher temperature, and along with the ether there are produced white vapours, which condense into a dense oily- like fluid at the bottom of the receiver; this fluid is named Oil of Wine, or Ethereal Oil. While it is condensing, a quantity of defiant gas is formed, and such a quantity of carbonaceous matter is sepa- rated from the alcohol, that the liquor becomes, of a deep brown colour. If the heat be continued beyond this there is a sudden and copious production of sulphuric acid gas, which, not escaping easily from the .heavy liquor in the retort, causes it to swell up, and if not removed from the fire, it will pass over into the receiver. The prin- cipal difficulty, therefore, in conducting the process, is to continue the distillation, so as to obtain the largest produce of ether, without bringing over the liquor from the retort. The rule given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is to continue it until the liquor condensed in the receiver is equal to half the quantity of alcohol that had been employed ; as when this has been obtained, the formation of ether will have nearly ceased ; this however is not easily ascertained with accuracy. The London College directs the distillation to be con- tinued until the heavier fluid or solution of sulphurous acid appears ; and if care be taken to guard against the sudden swelling up of the liquor, in the retort, this may be done, and rather a larger product obtained. The most simple rule is, that whenever the neck of the retort becomes obscured with white vapours, the fire should be with- drawn ; and if the materials begin to swell, the retort ought to be raised in the sand. The receiver requires to be kept cool by im- mersion in water, or causing water to trickle over it, in order to pro- mote the condensation of the ether ; it should be luted to the retort with paste of flour and water, spread on slips of linen ; and care ought to be taken to avoid approaching a burning body to the appa- ratus, as accidents have sometimes happened, when the vessels were not closely luted, from the volatility and inflammability of the ethe- real yapour. There is some difference of opinion with regard to the degree of heat that should be employed in the distillation. Ac- cording to Mr. Brande, if it is attempted to distil ether at the tem- perature of 212°, or even 220°, very little else than alcohol passes over : a temperature of from 250° to 280° he considers necessary for the production of ether in large quantity. At Apothecaries' Hall,. accordingly, he informs us, the mixture of alcohol and acid is heated by the transmission of steam formed under high pressure, and, there- fore, thirty or forty degrees above the boiling temperature. In this way the mixture is rapidly heated to the boiling point, and a larger proportion of ether obtained than by any other process, while the risk of fire is avoided, the steam being brought from a boiler in ano- ther room. Mr. Phillips, however, states from his experiments, that when the distillation was performed quickly, as in three hours, the ether, &c. 371 ether obtained was weak, its specific gravity not being less than 0.791 ; but when the distillation was slow, occupying for the same quantity of product nine hours, the ether produced had a specific gravity of 0.782. He found the strongest ether to be formed gene- rally in the middle of the process ; from 16 ounces of alcohol of the specific gravity 0.830, and the same quantity of sulphuric acid of specific gravity 1.837, he procured twelve ounces of product, of which 4 were impure ether of sp. gr. 0.779, the next 4 ounces were of sp. gr. 0.753, then 2} of ether mixed with sulphurous acid, forming a yellow fluid of sp. gr. 0.784; and, lastly, H of heavy liquid of sp. gr. 0.981. After the distillation is completed, if, as the Colleges direct, half the original quantity of alcohol be added to the acid liquor in the retort, and heat again applied, an additional portion of ether is ob- tained. As the sulphuric acid is much weakened by the first pro- cess, the second product contains more water and unaltered alcohol than the first, and from these impurities is necessarily heavier. Still, as both products are to be afterwards rectified, the second process is proper in an economical point of view. The principal change which is effected in the sulphuric acid, appears to be dilution with water, which it abstracts from the composition ofthe alcohol; there is also formed from it in the process, even at its commencement, a peculiar acid, which has been named the sulphovinic : this consists of one equivalent of sulphuric acid, combined with two of defiant gas. The preparation of ether seems, from what is stated by Mr. Brande, to be more advantageously conducted on the large scale. At Apothecaries' Hall, 100 pounds of sulphuric acid, and 100 of al- cohol, placed in a cast-iron still, lined with lead, and heated by high-pressure steam conducted into the mixture, afford about 52 pounds of ether, of sp. gr. 0.761, by the first distillation ; and 50 pounds of rectified spirit added to the residue give from 46 to 52 pounds more of ether of sp. gr. 0.765. About 100 pounds of im- pure ether are thus obtained, which, by rectification, are reduced to 55 or 58 pounds of ether of sp. gr. 0.733. From the different facts which have been mentioned, the theory of the formation of ether is easily deduced. It has been already stat- ed, that ether differs from alcohol solely in containing one propor- tion less of oxygen, and one less of hydrogen. Alcohol consists of 2 atoms of carbon, with 3 of hydrogen, and 1 of oxygen ; or if we take two equivalents of alcohol, there will be 4 atoms of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, and two of oxygen ; take away one atom of hydrogen and 1 of oxygen, and we have 4 atoms of carbon, 5 of hydrogen, and one of oxygen, which is the composition of ether. The change from alcohol to ether consists, therefore, in an equivalent of water being subtracted from the alcohol, and this the sulphuric acid, which has a strong affinity to water, aided by the heat, effects. Ether, as it is obtained by the first distillation, is not pure. It is diluted with a considerable proportion of water ; it also contains alco- hol, and very generally a portion of sulphurous acid, which had been evolved towards the end of the distillation. To free it from these is the object of the directions for its rectification, which are nearly the 372 ETHER, dec same in the different Pharmacopceias, the product of the first distil- lation being again distilled from potash, which detains the sulphurous acid and water. The addition of water, ordered in the London Pharmaoopceia, is improper. It is useful in the process of rectifi- cation to add a little black oxide of manganese, which yielding oxy- gen to the sulphurous acid, converts it into sulphuric, and abstracts it more effectully than is done by the alkali alone. The rectified ether has still an intermixture of alcohol, which distilled over it with it. This is removed Try washing with water, alcohol having a strong- er affinity to water than ether has, whence they are separated. The washing ought to be performed before the distillation from potash, not after it. In the London and Dublin Pharmacopceias, both the Unrectified and Rectified Ether have a place. The Edinburgh Col- lege, with more propriety, admit of no distinction, but name the product when rectified, Sulphuric Ether, and sanction its use only in this state. Sulphuric Ether has a peculiar odour, strong and diffusive, but not pungent; its taste is warm and penetrating ; it is colourless and transparent ; its specific gravity when highly rectified is so low as .700 ; it is therefore one of the lightest liquids. In evaporating it absorbs much caloric ; hence, if dropt on the hand, it quickly disap- pears, producing on the spot a sensation of cold ; and this affords a good test of its purity, the volatility and cold produced being greater as it is more highly rectified. It is soluble in alcohol in every pro- portion ; in water it dissolves only in the limited proportion of one part to ten ; and this affords another test of its proper preparation, as if more soluble it is diluted either with water or alcohol. Its medici- nal properties have been already considered, (p. 71.) JEther sulphuricus cum alcohole. Sulphuric Ether with Alco- hol. Ed. " Take of Sulphuric Ether, one part; Strong Alcohol, two parts. Mix them." Spiritus *:theris sulphurici. Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. Lond. " Take of Sulphuric Ether, half a pint; Rectified Spirit, a pint. Mix them." A preparation which possesses no advantage, and is scarcely ever prescribed. JEther sulphuricus cum alcohole aromaticus. Aromatic Sul- phuric Ether with Alcohol. Ed. " Take of Cinnamon Bark bruised, Lesser Cardamom Seeds bruis- ed, of each an ounce ; Long Pepper, powdered, two drachms ; Sul- phuric Ether with Alcohol, two pounds and a half. Digest for seven days, and strain through paper." Spiritus *:theris aromaticus. Aromatic Spirit of Ether. Lond. " Take of Cinnamon Bark bruised, three drachms ; Cardamom Seeds in powder, a drachm and a half; Long Pepper in powder, Ginger Root cut, of each a drachm ; Spirit of Sulphuric Ether, a pint. Macerate for fourteen days in a glass vessel closed, and strain." ETHER, &C. 373 The addition of these aromatics to the sulphuric ether in this for- mula is of so little importance, that the preparation is scarcely ever used, and from the quantity of ether imbibed by the materials, is a very uneconomical one. Oleum *;thereum. Ethereal Oil. Lond. " The liquor remaining after the distillation of sulphuric ether, distil with a very gentle heat, until a black froth swells up; then im- mediately remove the retort from the fire. To the liquor which re- mains in the retort add water, so that the oily part may float upon it. Draw this off, and mix it with lime-water, as much as may be suffi- cient to neutralize the acid which is contained in it, agitating them together. Lastly, withdraw the ethereal oil after it has separated.''^ Liquor *:thereus oleosus. Oily Ethereal Liquor. Dub. " Take the liquor remaining in the retort after the distillation of sulphuric ether. Distil it with a moderate heat to one half." The product which it is the object of these processes to obtain is the Oil of Wine, or Ethereal Oil, which, according to Mr. Hennel, consists of an equivalent of sulphuric acid, and four of defiant gas. It has no acidity, and much resembles an essential oil, presenting the curious fact of a powerful acid being neutralized by defiant gas. The easiest mode of procuring it is in the distillation of ether, or in the common process for making olefiant gas. The above process ofthe London Pharmacopoeia, according to Mr. Phillips, does not succeed. He could not procure any oil by it, and what he purchased under the name of oil of wine, prepared by the process, was only yellow coloured empyreumatic ether. It is thick, unctuous in appearance, less volatile than ether, and soluble both in it and in alcohol. It is applied to no medicinal use, but in forming the following prepa- ration. Spiritus *:theris sulphurici compositus. Compound Spirit of Sulphuric Ether. Lond. t( Take of Spirit of Sulphuric Ether, a pint; Ethereal Oil, two fluid- drachms. Mix them." A composition had been in use under the name of Hoffman's Anodyne Liquor, which consisted of alcohol, with a portion of ether and ethereal oil. This, after having been discarded from the Phar- macopceias, has been restored in the present preparation, on the sup- position that it possesses superior powers as an anodyne. It probably differs, however, in nothing from ether with alcohol, at least there is no distinct proof of any peculiarity of operation being communicat- ed by the ethereal oil. ^Ether nitrosus. Nitrous Ether. Dub. " Take of Purified Nitrate of Potash, dried, and in coarse powder, one pound and a half; Sulphuric Acid, one pound ; Rectified Spirit, nineteen ounces by measure. Put the nitrate of potash into a tu- bulated retort, placed in a bath of cold water; and pour upon it gra- dually, and in small quantities, the sulphuric acid and alcohol, pre- viously mixed and allowed to become cold. Without any external 374 ETHER, &C. heat, or with only such a slight degree of it as may be communi- cated by the addition of a little tepid water to the bath, an ethereal liquor will begin to distil. In a short time the heat in the retort will increase spontaneously, and a considerable ebullition will take place, which must be moderated by adding a portion of cold water to the bath. It is necessary, also, that the receiver should be kept cold with water or snow; and it ought to be furnished with an apparatus adapted to transmit through a pound of rectified spirit, in a phial kept cold, the highly elastic vapour, disengaged suddenly, and with great force, from the mixture, if the heat is raised rather too high. The ethereal liquor thus obtained by spontaneous distillation is to be put into a phial closely stopt with a glass stopper; and to neutralize the excess of acid, as much carbonate of potash, very dry and in powder, is to be added as will suffice to neutralize the acid, using the test of litmus. This is generally attained on the addition of about a drachm of the salt, and in a short time the nitrous ether rises to the surface, and may be withdrawn by a funnel. To obtain the ether in its purest state, distil it again from a water-bath, heated to about 140°, to one half. Its specific gravity is to that of distilled water as 900 to 1000." The process for preparing nitrous ether has always been found difficult, from the great susceptibility of decomposition of the acid, and the rapidity with which it communicates oxygen to the alcohol. Their mutual action, in consequence of this, becomes extremely violent, and it is difficult to add the requisite proportion of nitric acid to form ether, or to do so at least without considerable waste in the dissipation of elastic products. Different arrangements have been contrived to facilitate this, but probably none that can be con- ducted more easily than that now received into the Dublin Pharma- copoeia, originally contrived by Woolfe, and found by Pelletier to succeed better than any other. The addition of the mixture of sul- phuric acid and alcohol should be made in small quantities at a time, not exceeding two ounces ; then a very gentle heat is to be applied, and the ether collected in a Woolfe's apparatus. An easier pro- cess, and one which may be conducted with equal safety, was em- ployed by Dr. Duncan. It consisted in putting the alcohol into a tubulated retort, and introducing gradually nitrous acid through a long small tubed funnel. Chemical action ensues, which is not violent, and, after it has ceased, heat is cautiously applied, and the nitric ether distils over. It is received in a Woolfe.'s apparatus, kept cold, the first bottle of which is empty, the second contains water, and the third alcohol, to prevent the escape of any of the ether. The theory of the formation of nitric ether remains obscure; the series of changes, however, are obviously different from those which take place in the production of sulphuric ether. The acid is in great part decomposed, there is no precipitation of carbonaceous matter from the alcohol, the liquor remaining transparent, and of a light yellow colour, and the ether contains an acid. Thenard found that the elastic fluid disengaged during the process consists of ni- trogen, nitric and nitrous oxide, and carbonic acid gases, holding dissolved ether, and a portion of acid partly nitrous, partly acetic* ETHER, &c. 375 The composition of nitric ether, too, is doubtful; Boullay and Dumas, however, have recently inferred, from a careful analysis of it, that it consists of two equivalents of olefiant gas, one of water, and one of hyponitrous acid. Nitric ether is light and highly volatile ; its colour is usually yel- low ; its odour is strong and penetrating, though not so fragrant as that of sulphuric ether ; when pure and concentrated, its volatility is such, that it instantly evaporates when poured from a phial, and boils at 70° under the common atmospheric pressure ; it is highly inflammable : with alcohol it combines in every proportion, but in water it js soluble only in limited quantity. This ether has scarcely in its pure form been applied to any medicinal use ; though it not improbably is possessed of powers analogous to those of sulphuric ether. There seems to be no utility in retaining the process. Spiritus etheris nitrosi. Spirit of Nitrous Ether. Ed. " Take of Strong Alcohol, three pounds ; Nitrous Acid, one pound. Pour the alcohol into a large phial placed in a vessel full of cold water, and add the acid gradually, agitating them frequently. Close the phial lightly, and set it aside for seven days in a cool place ; then distil the liquor with the heat of boiling water into a receiver kept cold with water or snow, until about three pounds come over." Spiritus *:theris nitrici. Spirit of Nitric Ether. Lond. " Take of Rectified Spirit, two pints ; Nitric Acid, by weight, three ounces. Add the acid gradually to the spirit, and mix them, taking care that the temperature shall not rise higher than 120° ; then with a gentle heat distil twenty-four fluid-ounces." Spiritus .ethereus nitrosus. Nitrous Ethereal Spirit. Dub. " Add to what remains after the distillation of Nitrous Ether, the Rectified Spirit which had been employed in the process to con- dense the elastic vapour, and distil with the highest heat of a water- bath to dryness. Mix this distilled liquid with the alkaline solution remaining after the separation of the nitrous ether, and add also as much very dry carbonate of potash as shall be sufficient to neutral- ize the free acid, ascertaining this by the test of litmus. Lastly, distil this with the mean heat of a water-bath while any liquid comes over. The specific gravity of the distilled spirit is to that of dis- tilled, water as 850 to 1000. Nitrous ethereal spirit may also be prepared by adding gradually two ounces of nitric acid to a pound, by measure, of rectified spirit, and distilling twelve ounces with a proper apparatus, and the application of a gentle heat." A preparation similar to that ofthe Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia has long been employed in medicine. It consists probably of nitric ether diluted with alcohol, and contains always a portion of free acid. It is not difficult to add the nitric acid to the alcohol in the propor- tion of one to three parts, at least from this quantity of acid added with precaution no violent action results. If heat were applied to this mixture, however, so as to raise it to 212°, a mutual decompo- sition, attended with the rapid extrication of elastic products, would take place. The heat must therefore be either applied very slowly, not exceeding 180°, or the method ordered by the Edinburgh Cok 376 EXTRACTS. lege must be followed, that of allowing the mixture to stand for some days in a cool place. During this time, a mutual action is exerted between the acid and alcohol; the former is partially decomposed, and the heat required for distillation can be safely applied. That this decomposition takes place, is proved by the experiments of Bayen. He digested an ounce of nitrous acid with two ounces of alcohol for five weeks ; the liquor then required for its saturation only 134 grains of an alkaline base, while an ounce of the same acid required to saturate it 282 grains of the same base ; and when, after digesting the acid and alcohol together, he submitted them to distillation, on mingling the product and the residual liquor, the whole was capable of neutralizing only 32 grains. By this recipro- cal action of the acid and alcohol, a portion of nitric ether is formed, which distils over with a portion of unchanged alcohol, and of free acid. The propriety of the change which has been made by the London College, of diminishing so much the proportion of nitric acid, maybe questioned, both as less nitric ether must be formed, and as a considerable share pf the medicinal efficacy ofthe preparation depends on the free acid. • The first process of the Dublin College gives a preparation dif- ferent from the others, in containing no free acid, the nitric acid which exists in the residual liquor employed being saturated by the alkali. On this account, and as the preparation of nitric ether is seldom attempted, the second process, which resembles that of the London College, is preferred, but the formula in the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia seems to have advantages above either of the others. Spirit of nitric ether has an odour extremely fragrant; its taste ia pungent and acidulous ; it is volatile and inflammable, soluble readily both in alcohol and water. It is employed principally as a grateful refrigerant in inflammatory affections, as a diuretic in dropsy, or rather as an auxiliary to promote the operation of more powerful diuretics, and as a stimulant relieving nausea and flatulence. Its dose is thirty or forty drops, taken in a cupful of water. CHAP. XVII. EXTRACTA--EXTRACTS. Extracts are preparations obtained by digesting or boiling vegeta- ble substances in water, alcohol, or proof-spirit. The menstruum dissolves the active matter of the vegetable ; the tincture or decoc- tion is strained, and is evaporated until a mass of stiff consistence is obtained. This is named an Extract; and is either an aqueous or spiritous extract, as water or alcohol has been employed as the men- struum. It was formerly supposed that a principle, to which the name of Extractive was given, existed in plants, was the cause of their medicinal powers, and being purified from other vegetable mat- EXTRACTS. 377 ter in the extracts, rendered them more active. But for the exis- tence of such a common principle there is no evidence, and the medicinal virtues of plants seem rather to depend on a number of peculiar principles of a resinous, gummy, acid or alkaline nature. As the active principles of vegetables are not all soluble in one menstruum, in the preparation of extracts several media are used, water, alcohol, and proof-spirit. The last is the most efficient, as it extracts both those substances which are soluble in alcohol, and those that are dissolved by water. The use of these media affords the distinction of watery and alcoholic extracts. It might be supposed, that extracts would be advantageous forms of exhibiting vegetable remedies; that much of the inert woody mat- ter would be got rid of; that in watery extracts, the acid, or alka- line, or gummy principles, in which the virtues of certain plants re- side, would be procured in a concentrated and purer form; that alcohol would extract active resinous matter, and proof-spirit gum resins. And to a certain extent this is the result, yet there are dif- ficulties involved in the preparation of extracts, which not unfre- quently cause the loss of all medicinal power. The essential oil, on which the grateful flavour and aromatic quality depend, is dissi- pated in the extraction, along with any other volatile principle ; and, in the progress of the boiling and evaporation, the vegetable matter attracts oxygen from the air, by which its chemical nature is changed, and it becomes nearly inert; lastly, re-action between the elements ofthe different principles often takes place, by which their medicinal properties are injured or destroyed. The method of Mr. Barry, of evaporating vegetable fluids in vacuo already mentioned, (p. 301,) has been applied by him with much success to the preparation of extracts ; and the experience of many practitioners has decided, that extracts formed in this mode are much superior in activity and uniformity of effect to those procured in the common way. Another method is to place the weak decoction, which is to be evaporated, under the exhausted receiver of an air pump, with a vessel containing concentrated sulphuric acid, as in the ingenious method contrived by Sir John Leslie for freezing water by its own evaporation. In this arrangement the evaporation is rapid even at natural temperatures, and very perfect extracts are produced. Thus prepared, however, they are expensive. The evaporation of extracts ought to be performed as speedily as possible, that the elements of the plant may not have time to act on each other; but it should not be conducted over an open fire, as the extract is frequently burnt, or otherwise injured. The water-bath scarcely communicates heat with sufficient rapidity, hence' the pro- cess is frequently conducted in vessels heated by steam. Extracts are more easily obtained from dried than from fresh ve- getables ; the plant should, in general, also be reduced to a coarse powder. When the extracts have been prepared, they should be put, when cold, into well glazed earthen-ware vessels, and carefully excluded from the air. The sprinkling them with spirits is unneces- sary, for it soon evaporates; if they are placed in a dry place they will keep for years. 378 EXTRACTS. The following Table by M. Recluz exhibits the relative quantities of extract afforded by different vegetables, from which extracts are prepared for medical purposes, the solvent and mode of operation employed being such as afford the largest products. The weight of the vegetable matter which was used was 16 ounces. Plant. „ . . . Solvent Mode of Opera Part employed. used< tioD/ from l6oz. At first. Afterwards. Aloe spicata,. . . Artemisia absinth. Anthemis nobilis, Cinchona oblongif. -----cordifol.. Cucumis colocynth. Convolv. jalapa, . . Coniutn maculat. . Elaterium...... Gentiana lutea, . . Glycyrrhiza glab. . Haematox. camp.. . Humulus lupulus, . Leontodon tarax. . Nux vomica, . . . . Papaver somnif. . . Rheum palmatum,. Ruta graveolens, Sambucus nigra, Smilax sarsapar. Spartium scopar. Stramonium, . . . Concrete juice Herb, dry Do. do. Flowers, dry Do. do. Bark, dry Do. do. Do. do. Fruit, dry Root, dry Herb, fresh Fruit, fresh Root, dry Root, dry Wood, rasped Strobiles, dry Leaves, dry Seeds, scraped Capsules Root, dry Do. do. Leaves, fresh Berries, fresh Root, dry Do. do. Leaves, fresh Seeds, dry Water Do. Al. .915 Water Al. .887 Water Al. .837 Water Do. Al. .897 Water Juice Water Do. Do. Do. Do. Al. .897 Water Do. Al. .897 Water Juice Water Do. Do. Do. Maceration Decoction Maceration Digest, at 86° Maceration Decoction Maceration Decoction Do. Maceration Infusion Subsidence Digest, at 86° Decoction Do. Digestion Decoction Maceration Digest, at 86° Digest, at 122° Maceration Decoction Inspissation Decoction Infusion Decoction Decoction Dry. Pilular. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Hard. Pilular. Do. Do. Do. Do. Dry. Pilular. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Dry. Soft. Do. Very hard. Hard. Pilular. Do. Do. Friable. Pilular. Very soft. Pilular. Do. Do. Hard. Pilular. Do. Very soft. Soft. Dry. Dry. Soft. Pilular. Firmer. Do. Soft. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges preserve the distinction of Watery and Spiritous Extracts : the London College do not observe it; and they have farther associated with what are more strictly named Extracts, the inspissated juices of vegetables, the consistence of these being similar; and the only circumstance in which they differ, that in the one the matter naturally dissolved in the juice of the plant, in the other the matter extracted by the operation of a sol- vent is obtained by evaporation, is not, it has been conceived, suf. ficiently important to constitute a distinction between them. I have adhered, however, to the arrangement of the Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeia, and, under the Chapter of Inspissated Juices, have already introduced those preparations of this nature which are peculiar to the London Pharmacopoeia. I. Extracta per aquam. Extracts by Water. Ed. Extracta simpliciora. More simple Extracts. Dub. The directions for preparing these are thus given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia : " Pour on the root from which an Extract is to be obtained, cut and bruised, eight times its weight of Distilled Water. Boil to one- half, and expressing it strongly, strain the liquor. Reduce the boiled EXTRACTS. 379 Hquor immediately to the consistence of thick honey by evaporation in a bath of boiling water, saturated with muriate of soda." The Dublin College give the following general directions : " The Simpler Extracts, unless it be otherwise ordered, are to be prepared according to the following formula:—Boil the vegetable matter in eight times its weight of water to the consumption of half the liquor ; then express the liquor, and, after the impurities have subsided, strain it ; evaporate with a superior heat (from 200° to 212°,) until it begin to thicken ; lastly, inspissate it with a medium heat (of from 100° to 200°), stirring frequently, until it attain a con- sistence fit for forming pills." The directions in the London Pharmacopoeia are in part given under the individual extracts, and partly under the following general formula: " In preparing all extracts, evaporate as quickly as possible, in a shallow open vessel, by a water-bath, until the consistence be such as is fit for forming pills, and towards the end stir constantly with a spatula. Sprinkle on all the softer extracts a little spirit of wine." Extractum anthemidis nobilis ex floribus siccatis. Ed. Ex- tractum ANTHEMIDIS. Lond. ExTRACTUM FLORUM CHAM.EMELI. Dub. Extract of Chamomile. The bitterness of chamomile is rendered rather ungrateful in its infusion by the flavour of its essential oil. This is entirely dissipated by decoction, and the extract is therefore a pure and grateful bitter. It is scarcely applied, however, to any use ; but it may be prescribed with advantage in dyspeptic affections, especially where there is an aversion to bitters, as it can be given in the form of a pill. Its dose is ten or fifteen grains. The formula for preparing this and the five following extracts, according to the different Colleges, is given above in the general di- rection ofthe Pharmacopceias. Extractum gentians lute^, ex radice concisa et contusa. Ex- tract of Gentian. Ed. Dub. This extract is intensely bitter, the quality of bitterness appearing in general not to be injured by evaporation ; the boiling, however, which the London College direct, weakens the extract. It is some- times used to form other medicines into pills, especially those with which it coincides in medicinal virtue. It is often given with chaly- beates, and with sulphate of quinia. Extractum h^ematoxyli campechiani, ex ligno raso. Ed. Ex- tractum HjEMAtoxvli. Lond. Dub. Extract of Logwood. The astringency ofthe logwood is obtained with no sensible in- jury in this extract. It has been proposed to be employed as an as- tringent, but has never been established in use. Its dose is from ten to twenty grains. It becomes very hard by keeping, so that pills made of it pass through the body unchanged. Extractum hellebori nigri ex radice contusa. Ed. Extract ofthe Root of Black Hellebore. 380 EXTRACTS. This extract has been employed as a cathartic, principally in ma- nia, and as an emmenagogue in a dose from five to fifteen grains, but it is uncertain in strength. The spiritous extract, which has a place in some of the foreign Pharmacopceias, is a very active prepa- ration. It has been used as a hydragogue cathartic, and is the basis of Baccher's tonic pills, once highly celebrated in the treatment of dropsy. Extractum papaveris somniferi, ex capsulis contusis, seminibus exemptis. Ed. Extractum papaveris. Lond. Extract of Poppy. This extract of the capsule ofthe poppy retains, to a certain ex- tent, its narcotic quality, but usually so far weakened as to leave it uncertain in strength. It is therefore little used. If carefully pre- pared, however, either in a water-bath, or by heat from steam, its activity is more equable, and it has been recommended as less liable than opium to occasion nausea and headach. Its dose is from five to ten grains. Extractum rut^e graveolentis, ex herba. Ed. Extractum ru- tm. Dub. Extract of Rue. As any medicinal virtue belonging to rue resides in its essential oil, this extract must be an injudicious preparation. It has been given in amenorrhcea, in a dose of from ten to fifteen grains ; but it has probably no power. The following watery extracts have a place in the London, or the Dublin Pharmacopoeia :— Extractum aloes purificatum. Purified Extract of Aloes. Lond. " Take of Extract of Spiked Aloes in powder, a pound ; Boiling Water, a gallon. Macerate for three days with a gentle heat ; then strain, and put aside, that the impurities may subside. Pour off the purified liquor, and evaporate until it attain a proper consis- tence." Extractum aloes hepatick. Extract of Hepatic Aloes. Dub. The object of this preparation is principally to obtain an extract with less resin than is usually contained in aloes : this, it has been affirmed, is equally powerful as a purgative, and is less irritating and more grateful. Extractum cinchona. Extract of Cinchona. Lond. " Take of Lance-leaved Peruvian Bark bruised, a pound ; Water, a gallon. Boil down to six pints, and strain the liquor while warm. In the same manner, boil it four times in a similar quantity of water, and strain. Having mixed the liquors, evaporate until a proper con- sistence is attained. This extract ought to be kept Soft, so as to be fit for forming pills, and Hard, so as to be reduced to powder." Extractum cinchona. Extract of Bark. Dub. «* Take of the Pale Bark coarsely powdered, a pound ; Water, EXTRACTS. 381 six pints. Boil for a quarter of an hour in a vessel almost covered ; then having filtered the liquor while hot and set it aside, boil the bark again in an equal quantity of water, and filter again in the same manner ; proceed in the same way a third time, and then mix- ing all the liquors, reduce them to a proper consistence by evapora- tion. This extract is to be kept in two states ; soft for the formation of pills, and hard that it may be reducible to powder." The direction of the Colleges that the bark be only bruised or coarsely powdered, not reduced to fine powder, is judicious, for it is found that the activity of cinchona and many other vegetable medi- cines is injured by long trituration, which, like decoction, dissipates volatile matter, or favours chemical change by the action ofthe air. The decoctions are filtered while hot, because, on cooling, they de- posite part of the active matter. The preparation contains, besides the extractive and resinous matter of Peruvian Bark, which has some activity, a salt of cinchona, to which its power is chiefly owing. As a great part of the substance ofthe bark consists of inert ligne- ous matter, it might be supposed that some advantage is derived from thus separating the more active principles. During the boiling and evaporation, however, they suffer a chemical change, by absorbing oxygen, and their medicinal power is impaired. Hence the extract obtained is not equal in efficacy to the quantity of bark from which it has been prepared, and its strength is uncertain. Its mediunrdose is ten grains, which is supposed equivalent to half a drachm of cin- chona in substance. The sulphate of quinia is commonly preferred to it, and, indeed, to all the preparations of cinchona, as possessing the tonic and febrifuge virtues without intermixture of inert matter. The Dublin College has therefore given a formula for the prepara- tion of sulphate of quinia, which may here be considered. Quinine sulphas. Sulphate of Quinine or Quinia. Dub. " Take of Yellow Bark coarsely powdered, four pounds ; Distil. led Water, eight pints ; Dilute Sulphuric Acid, two ounces. Mix and digest for four hours in a proper vessel, with a heat between 200° and 212°, frequently shaking, then strain. Mix what remains of the bark with an equal quantity of water, and strain, and repeat this a third time : having mixed the solutions, add of recently burnt and slacked lime as much as will be sufficient to neutralize the acid. Separate the precipitate by bibulous paper ; to this add three pints of rectified spirit, and digest them together for six hours, frequently shaking, and filter : digest again the residual powder with an equal quantity of rectified spirit, and strain. Repeat this a third time. Having mixed the spiritous liquors, evaporate nearly to dryness in a water-bath. To the residuum add by degrees as much dilute sulphu- ric acid as will make the acid slightly in excess in the liquor : lastly, crystallize by evaporation and cooling." The active principle of Yellow-Bark (cinchona cordifolia,) it was before stated, is quinia. This alkali exists in combination with an excess of cinchonic acid, which is not able alone to withdraw it from the vegetable matter into the form of a pure salt ; to do this, the agency of a stronger acid is employed. By the'digestion ofthe bark in dilute sulphuric acid, sulphate of quinia is formed, and by 3S2 Extracts. repeated washing with water extracted from the woody matter; Lime is then added to the solution, which combines with the sulphu- ric acid, and a precipitate falls, composed partly of sulphate of lime, and partly of quinia, removed in this way from the impurities of the solution. The precipitate is digested several times successively in alcohol, which dissolves the quinia but leaves the sulphate of lime ; by evaporation the quinia is obtained nearly in the*solid form, is again combined with sulphuric acid, and by evaporation the pure sulphate of quinia is obtained in crystals. The process is com- plicated, but not more so than is requisite. Experiments have been made to determine whether the alcohol could be dispensed with, but the product was found to be less. However, one improvement sug- gested by M. Henry may be adopted, that of conducting the eva- poration of the spiritous solution in a retort with a receiver adapted, so that the alcohol may be recovered. The papers and filters should be preserved and washed with acidulated water, which will ex- tract a considerable quantity of sulphate of quinia from them. Por- tions of bark which have been used to afford the infusion or decoc- tion still contain a large proportion of quinia, and they may be made by this process to afford it in the state of sulphate. The addition of some animal charcoal to the solutions in the process renders the sul- phate of quinia whiter. The weight of sulphate of quinia procured should be about a 30th of the weight of bark employed. Quinia can unite with sulphuric acid in two proportions, forming a sulphate and supersulphate ; in the former, 8 parts of quinia by weight are combined with one part of acid and one part of water; in the latter 8 parts of quinia are combined with 2| parts of acid and 2 of water. The neutral sulphate is in white silky acicular crystals, soluble in boiling water, but sparingly so in that fluid when cold ; abundantly soluble in alcohol and in water acidulated with sul- phuric acid. The supersulphate which is sometimes formed in the above process, when too much acid has been used, crystallizes in larger prisms, and is more soluble in cold water than the other. Sulphate of quinia being high priced and in general demand, is subjected to various adulterations, such as with sulphate of lime, boracic acid, stearin, sugar and starch. The presence of the first may be discovered by exposing it to a red heat, when the sulphate of quinia will be destroyed and the earthy matter will remain. To detect the second, dissolve a little in alcohol and inflame the spirit, when boracic acid, if present, will give a green colour to the flame. Stearin, the most common addition, is known by dissolving the sul- phate in dilute sulphuric acid, when the fatty matter will remain unchanged. To detect sugar, dissolve the sulphate in water, and add carbonate of potash, which will precipitate the quinia ; the resi- due is to be treated with alcohol, which will dissolve the sugar, and afford it on evaporation. Starch is detected by iodine, which gives a blue colour with it, but with sulphate of quinia, a precipitate of a cinnamon brown colour, (Dr. Barker.) The medicinal properties of sulphate of quinia have been already considered, (p. 137.) extracts. 383 Extractum colocynthidis. Extract of Colocynth. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Pulp of Colocynth, one pound ; Water, a gallon. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while warm ; then re- duce it by evaporation to the proper consistence." The active matter of colocynth, or Colocyntine, is only partially soluble in water. Hence this extract is less violent in its cathartic action than the pulp. According to Mr. Phillips, it soon becomes either mouldy, or so tough and hard as to resist trituration and for- mation into pills. Its dose is from six to ten grains, and it is given as a cathartic where the following preparations would be too stimu- lating. Extractum colocynthidis compositum. Compound Extract of Colocynth. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Pulp of Colocynth cut, six ounces; Extract of Spiked (Hepatic, Dub.) Aloes in powder, twelve ounces ; Scam- mony Gum-resin in powder, four ounces ; Cardamom Seeds in pow- der, an ounce ; Hard Soap, three ounces ; Proof-spirit, one gallon. Macerate the pulp of colocynth in the spirit with a gentle heat for four days. Strain the liquor, and add to it the aloes, scammony, and soap ; then evaporate the spirit until the extract, attain a proper consistence, and towards the end of the evaporation mix in the car- damom seeds." This is the officinal preparation which has long had a place in the Pharmacopceias under the name of Extractum Catharticum. It is a combination of the more powerful cathartics ; and as these operate more effectually, and with less irritation, when combined, than when one only in a large dose is employed, the composition is well adapted for administration in cases where it is difficult to excite purging. It is also useful in stimulating the uterine system. Dr. Montgomery mentions an instance in which it expelled a tape-worm. The addition of soap has been blamed, as it is supposed to render the extract incompatible with calomel. There is no just ground, however, for this apprehension, and it has the advantage of ren- dering the compound more soluble, so that pills formed of it, even when hardened by age, will still be sufficiently soluble in the se- cretions of the stomach. The extract is usually given in doses of from five to ten or fifteen grains, repeated at short intervals, until it produce purging. Its power may be promoted by adding a portion of calomel. Dr. Paris states, on the authority of Sir Henry Hal- ford, that the addition of extract of hyoscyamus renders the opera- tion of colocynth much milder, without lessening its power. Extractum elaterii. Extract of Elaterium. Lond. " Cut the Ripe Fruit of Elaterium, and strain the juice very lightly expressed through a fine hair-sieve into a class vessel; then put it aside for a few hours, until the thicker part subsides. The thinner part, which swims above, being rejected, dry the thicker part with a gentle heat." Extractum elaterii. Extract of Elaterium. Dub. " Slice Wild Cucumbers over a basin, express the juice very 384 EXTRACTS. gently, and strain it through a very fine hair-sieve into a glass ves- sel. Put it aside for some hours until the thicker part subside ; the liquid above being rejected, dry the fecula on a linen cloth, covered by another, with a gentle heat." From the mode of preparation, it is obvious that this consists of a matter which had been suspended in the juice, so that the term ex- tract is applicable to it only in an extended sense ; it consists of starch, extractive, gluten, lignin, and elatin, the last being in the pro- portion of 10 per cent. It has been used as a hydragogue in dropsy, and as a cathartic in obstinate constipation ; and, used for this pur- pose, its action is peculiar, as it produces a great degree of febrile excitement, so that the pulse may be felt to the ends of the fingers. The violence, and, in some measure, the uncertainty of its operation, prevent its frequent use ; though in dropsy, where other powerful evacuants have not succeeded, it is sometimes tried in small repeated doses, cautiously administered. Extractum glycirrhiz;e. Extract of Liquorice. Lond. " Take of Liquorice Root sliced, one pound ; Boiling Water, a gallon. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while warm ; lastly, evaporate to a proper consistence." Extractum glycirrhiz;e. Extract of Liquorice. Dub. This is prepared according to the general formula already in- serted. The soluble matter of this root appears to be chiefly sugar and mucilage, and it suffers, therefore, little or no injury in this extrac- tion of it by water, or in the subsequent evaporation. The extract is usually prepared on a large scale, and much of it is imported into this country. It is often, however, in an impure state. Purified by solution in water, straining and evaporation, or prepared with care from the root itself, and evaporated nearly to dryness, it forms the Refined Liquorice of the shops. Under this form it is in common use as a demulcent in catarrh. Sometimes it is taken to relieve acidity in the stomach. Extractum humuli. Extract of Hop. Lond. " Take of Hops, four ounces; Water, a gallon. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while it is hot; then reduce it by evaporation to the proper consistence." Extractum humuli lupuli. Extract of Hops. Dub. Hop has been introduced into practice as a narcotic, possessing also from its bitterness a degree of tonic power. The bitterness will be obtained in this extract, but it is probable that the narcotic power is impaired, and that in this property it will not be uniform in strength. Dr. A. T. Thomson recommends it to be given with sub- nitrate of bismuth, in dyspepsia. Extractum opii. Extract of Opium. Lond. " Take of Qpium cut into pieces, sixteen ounces ; Water, a gal- lon. Add to the opium a small quantity ofthe water, and macerate EXTRACTS. 385 for twelve hours that it may become soft; then add gradually the remaining water ; triturate until they are intimately mixed, and put aside that the impurities may subside; then strain the liquor, and evaporate to the proper consistence." Extractum opii AQ.UOSUM. Watery Extract of Opium. Dub. " Take of Opium, two ounces ; Boiling Water, a pint. Rub the opium with the water for ten minutes, and after a little time pour off the liquor ; rub the remaining opium with an equal quantity of boil- ing water for the same time, and in like manner pour off the li- quor. Repeat this a third time ; then mix the liquors, and expose the mixture to the air in an open vessel for two days. Lastly, strain through linen, and by gentle evaporation form an extract." Any process of this kind designed to purify opium is altogether superfluous, for the impurities of the opium of commerce are incon- siderable, and neither alter its powers nor add materially to its bulk. And if such processes are designed to correct any of the qualities of the opium, whence the unpleasant symptoms which sometimes follow from its administration are supposed to arise, they probably rest on inaccurate views of its operation. The active matter of opium is by no means entirely extracted by water, for a considerable portion of morphia is found to exist in the residual matter. The product must besides be altered, and rendered uncer- tain in strength, by the chemical change which it will suffer during the inspissation. Even when the active principles of the opium have been extracted by diluted alcohol, (the method which was for- merly followed in the process of the Pharmacopoeia,) though the solvent is more powerful, requires less heat for its evaporation, and counteracts to a certain extent the action of the air, the inspissated mass is found to be inferior in strength to opium in its unpurified state, and this must be still more the case in the present process, where water is only employed. It is a process, therefore, the pro- priety of which is extremely doubtful. Extractum sarsaparilla. Extract of Sarsaparilla. Lond. Dub. " Take of Sarsaparilla Root cut, a pound ; Boiling Water, a gal- lon. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while warm; lastly, reduce it by evaporation to the proper consistence." Sarsaparilla being usually given under the form of watery de- coction, there appears to be no particular advantage in preparing from this an extract, as the decoction may be brought to any state of concentration, by using an increased proportion of the root, or con- tinuing the boiling for a longer time. And a watery mucilaginous extract as this is, besides the injury it will suffer in its inspissation, will farther be liable to spontaneous decomposition on keeping, and is therefore unfit for an officinal preparation. Even by those who consider sarsaparilla as a valuable remedy, this is regarded as an inactive form of it. When it is given it is in doses of twenty or thirty grains dissolved in the decoction. Extractum sarsaparilla fluidum. Fluid Extract of Sarsaparilla. Dub. 49 386 EXTRACTS. " Take of Sarsaparilla Root sliced, a pound ; Water, twelve pints. Let them boil together for an hour, and pour off the liquor ; then add twelve pints of water, and repeat the boiling and pouring off. Press strongly the liquor from the remaining matter ; set aside the mixed liquor until the impurities have subsided ; then evaporate the mixture by continual boiling down to thirty ounces, and add two ounces of rectified spirit." The same remarks apply to this as to the former preparation, but this is rendered still more inert, by the long boiling and exposure to air at a high temperature ; it is also liable to spoil. If this extract produces the beneficial effects which are ascribed to sarsaparilla, it will be a sufficient proof that the virtues of the plant are purely ne- gative. Extractum teraxaci. Extract of Dandelion. Lond. Dub. " Take of the fresh Root of Dandelion bruised, a pound ; Boiling Water, a gallon. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while hot; lastly, evaporate it to the proper consistence." The recent root of dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum) has been ranked as an aperient and diuretic. The expressed juice or decoc- tion of the root has been employed as a remedy in dropsy, biliary obstructions and induration of the liver ; and, according to Bergins, and more lately Dr. W. Phillip and Dr. Pemberton, has proved suc- cessful where other remedies had failed. Half a drachm of the ex- tract may be given four or six times a-day, dissolved in cinnamon or mint water. Extractum stramonii. Extract of Thorn Apple. Lond. Dub. " Take of Thorn Apple Seeds, a pound; Boiling Water, a gallon. Macerate (digest, Dub.) for four hours in a covered vessel near the fire ; then take out the seeds and bruise them in a stone mortar; when bruised return them into the liquor. Boil down to four pints, and strain the liquor while warm. Lastly, evaporate to a proper consistence." This extract has been found useful in quieting maniacal paroxysms, and for relieving sciatica ; but its operation is uncertain, hence it is rather a hazardous remedy. When prepared in vacuo, by Mr. Bar- ry's process, it is found more uniform and powerful. The following Watery Extracts, peculiar to the Dublin Pharma- copoeia, are prepared according to the general formula already in- serted. Extractum cacuminum absinthii. Extract ofthe Tops of Worm- wood. Dub. This extract is intensely bitter, and the unpleasant odour of the plant is dissipated during the evaporation. It may be substituted for extract of gentian. It is sometimes used instead of hops, to give bit- terness to fermented liquors. EXTRACTS. 387 Extractum spartii scoparii cacuminum. Extract of Broom-tops. Dub. The infusion of the tops of the broom has a degree of diuretic power, whence it has been employed as a remedy in dropsy. The extract can scarcely be supposed to have much power, and it is now expunged from the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, where it formerly had a place. Extractum corticis quercus. Extract of Oak Bark. Dub. In this extract the astringency of the oak bark will be obtained probably with little injury, and consisting principally of tannin, it will not be very liable to spontaneous decomposition. It can have scarce- ly any advantage, however, but what may be equally obtained from the decoction. II. Extracta per aquam et alcohol.—Extracts by water and alcohol. Ed.—Extracta resinosa. Resinous extracts. The directions for preparing these, in the Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeia, are as follow: " Pour upon the substance in powder from which an extract is to be obtained, four times its weight of stronger alcohol. Digest for four days, and pour off the tincture. Boil the residuum in five pounds of distilled water for a quarter of an hour, and strain the de- coction while boiling hot through linen. Repeat this boiling and straining with an equal quantity of distilled water, and reduce the liquor by evaporation to the consistence of thin honey. Draw off the alcohol from the tincture by distillation, until it is reduced to a similar consistence. Then mix the liquors thus inspissated, and re- duce to a proper consistence by evaporation in a bath of boiling wa- ter, saturated with muriate of soda." The alcohol is employed in this process to dissolve the resinous matter, on which the virtues of the plants in part depend, and which is not soluble in water. Water is added, that it may dissolve other principles which may not be easily soluble in alcohol; and thus, by the joint action of these fluids, almost all the active matter is extract- ed from the vegetable. These solutions are then inspissated by the application of a gentle heat; the evaporation is not, however, con- ducted in open vessels, as there would be a considerable loss of alco- hol in the process, but in a common distilling apparatus, by which the greater part of the spirit is recovered, and may be again em- ployed for the same purpose : indeed, the alcohol thus procured will be fitter for the process, as it will probably be impregnated, in a cer- tain degree, with the more volatile principles of the plant. In this manner are prepared, Extractum cinchona lancifolia, ex corti©e. Extract of Pale Bark. Extractum convolvuli jalapa, ex radice. Extract of Jalap. Extractum cinchona resinosum. Resinous Extract of Bark. Lond. " Take of Lance-leaved Peruvian Bark bruised, two pounds; 388^ EXTRACTS. Rectified Spirit, a gallon. Macerate for four days, and strain. Let the tincture be distilled from a water-bath until it is of a proper con- sistence." This preparation will probably be more active than the watery extract of bark already noticed. By the joint action of the alcohol and water, the principles ofthe bark are in a great measure extracted, and scarcely any thing remains but the inert ligneous fibre. And in the subsequent evaporation, the dissolved matter suffers less injury, partly from less heat being required to bring it to the due consistence, and partly perhaps from the alcohol resisting the oxygenation or de- composition of the extract. It is, however, much more expensive ; and the extract of bark to be found in the shops is almost always that which is prepared by the other formula. The dose of the spiritous extract is ten grains. It affords a convenient vehicle for combining bark with the more active preparations of iron in the form of pills. Extractum jalapa. Extract of Jalap. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Root of Jalap bruised, one pound ; Rectified Spirit, four pints; Water, a gallon. Macerate the jalap root in the spirit for four days, and pour off the tincture. Boil down the residuum with the water to two pints. Then strain the tincture and the de- coction separately ; evaporate the latter, and distil the former until each begin to become thick. Lastly, mix the extract with the resin, and evaporate, (by the heat of boiling water, Dub.) to the proper consistence. " This extract is to be kept soft, so that it may be fit to form pills, and hard, that it may be rubbed into powder." In the preparation of this extract, both the resinous and mucila- ginous parts of the jalap root are dissolved. It exerts its cathartic operation fully in a dose of ten or twelve grains. It is often used to form pills, in combination with other purgatives, and is considered less irritating, and less apt to gripe than some of them, as the com- pound extract of colocynth. Extractum rhei. Extract of Rhubarb. Lond. Dub. " Take ofthe Root of Rhubarb bruised, one pound ; Proof-spirit, a pint; Water, seven pints. Macerate for four days with a gentle heat, then strain, and put aside the liquor that the impurities may subside ; pour off the clear liquor, and reduce it by evaporation to the proper consistence." The purgative power of rhubarb is extracted by water, and it may therefore be obtained by this process. It will equally be obtained, however, in the simple infusion, which, as being an extemporaneous preparation, is preferable to this extract, which, besides the change that may be produced during the inspissation, must be farther liable to decomposition when kept in a soft state. This extract is indeed scarcely more powerful than the powdered root, requiring to be given in nearly equal doses. It has the advantage, however, that it may be dissolved in aromatic waters. Extractum nucis vomica. Extract of Nux Vomica. Dub. extracts. 389 " Take of Nux Vomica scraped, eight ounces ; Proof-spirit, two pints. Digest in a close vessel for three days, strain the liquor, and express what remains by a press ; to this add a pint and a half of Proof-spirit, digest the mixture for three days and express the resi- duum. Reduce the mixed liquors by distillation to a fourth part, and evaporate to a proper consistence." Strychnia, it has been stated, (p. 96.) is readily soluble in alco- hol, though sparingly so in water, hence the use of spirit is proper in making this extract. Dr. Duncan slates, that a mere watery ex- tract he never found to produce any effect; but this alcoholic extract of nux vomica rarely fails to produce the remarkable tetanic state, the inducing of which has been found beneficial in certain forms of paralysis. It would be almost as easy, and scarcely more expensive, to procure from the seeds a pure salt of strychnia, which would be still more efficacious. Gummi resina. Gum-Resins. Lond. " Separate Opium carefully from extraneous substances, especial. ly on its external surface. Let it be kept in the state of Soft Opium, fit for forming pills ; and Hard Opium, rendered so by having been dried in the heat of a water-bath, so that it can be rubbed to pow- der. " Those Gum-Resins are to be accounted of the best quality which can be selected so clean as to require no purification. If they appear to be impure, boil them in water till they become soft, and press them by a press through a hempen bag; then put them aside that the resinous part may subside. The liquor above being poured off, evaporate it by the heat of a water-bath, adding towards the end of the evaporation the resinous part, and mixing it thoroughly with the gummy part into one mass. " Those Gum-Resins which melt easily may be purified by being put into an ox bladder, and kept in boiling water until they become soft, so that they may be separated from the impurities by being pressed through an hempen cloth. " The Balsam of Storax is to be dissolved in rectified spirit, and strained; the spirit is then to be distilled with a gentle heat, until the balsam become of the proper consistence." These directions for the purification of Gum-Resins are the most proper perhaps that can be given ; but they are omitted by the Edinburgh College, as it is preferable to use them medicinally, only when in that state in which they do not require purification ; for, however cautiously the operation may be performed, they are liable to suffer change from oxidation or the dissipation of volatile princi- ples. The process is admissible, therefore, only with regard to gum-resins which are to be applied externally, as ammoniac or gal- banum. Storax is a substance so rarely employed in medicine, that the ordering it to be purified is superfluous. The directions given by the London College with regard to Opium are much to be preferred to any process for purifying it by solution and evaporation, in which operations it always sustains a diminution of power. 390 DISTILLED SPIRITS. CHAP. XVIII. SPIRITUS STILLATITII—DISTILLED SPIRITS. Alcohol dissolves the essential oils of vegetables in much larger quantity than water does, and it might therefore be supposed that it will be more strongly impregnated with them by distillation, and hence possess in a greater degree the aromatic flavour and pungen- cy of the plant from which it is distilled. It is seldom, however, that this is the case ; and from many vegetables alcohol acquires by dis- tillation a weaker impregnation than water. This is owing to its greater volatility. All the essential oils are volatilized at a tempe- rature of 212°, and must therefore rise with water in distillation, and impregnate it to the extent in which it can dissolve them. But there are many of them not volatilized at the temperature at which alco- hol boils, and when it is distilled, therefore, from the plants contain- ing such oils, it comes over weakly impregnated with their odour or pungency. To obviate this, diluted alcohol, or proof-spirit, as it is named, is employed in the distillation. It is macerated on the vegetable sub- stance, and is then distilled; the alcohol rises first nearly pure, but as the distillation proceeds, the liquor requires a higher temperature to cause it to boil; the vapour therefore is more largely impregnated with the essential oil; towards the end of the distillation the whole of it is brought over with the last portion of water ; and the spirit, which has previously been distilled, being mingled with this, forms a transparent solution. This forms a distilled spirit; they have fre- quently a disagreeable flavour, even when carefully prepared, from the proof-spirit being seldom pure. There are only two officinal spirits in which pure alcohol is the solvent,—the spirit of lavender and spirit of rosemary, the essential oils of these plants being suf- ficiently volatile to be elevated at the temperature at which alcohol distils. Distilled spirits are preparations of no great importance. Like the distilled waters, they serve as vehicles for the administration of more active medicines, the taste and flavour of which they cover or render more grateful; or they are occasionally employed as grateful stimulants, to relieve nausea or flatulence. The directions for pre- paring them are given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia under a gene- ral formula ; it is as follows :— " Pour nine pounds of Diluted Alcohol over the substance to be distilled. Macerate during two days in a close vessel; then add a sufficient quantity of water to prevent erapyreuma, and draw off nine pounds by distillation." The Colleges of London and Dublin use a gallon of proof-spirit, and as much water as may prevent empyreuma, and order a gallon to be distilled over with a slow heat. In this way are prepared the following spirits: DISTILLED SPIRIT*. 391 Spiritus Cari Carui. Ed. ---------Lond. ---------Dub. Lauri Cinn. Ed. Dub. Minthse Piperita?. Ed. Myristicse Moschat. ) Ed. Lond. Dub. $ Myrti Pimentae. Ed. -------------Lond. -------------Dub. Anisi. Lond. Spirit of Caraway, from tb fs. of the bruised seeds. ------- ft; ifs. of the bruised seeds. tb i. of the bruised seeds. Cinnamon, from lb i. of the bruised bark. Peppermint, from lb ifs. of the herb. Nutmeg, from 5 ii. of the bruised kernels. Pimento, from § vi. of the bruised fruit. ---------from | ii. from I iii. of the bruised berries. Aniseed, from § vi. The following spirits are directed, in the Pharmacopceias of Lon- don and Dublin, to be prepared in a different manner. The essential oil of the plant, according to the directions of the former, is to be mixed with four pints and a half of rectified spirit, and as much wa- ter as will prevent risk of empyreuma, and one gallon distilled over. The Dublin College order a gallon of rectified spirit to be used : in other respects the directions are the same. Thus are prepared, Spiritus Cinnamomi. Lond. --------Dub. Menth. Piperit. Lond. ------------Dub. Pulegii. Lond. ■------Dub. Rosmarini. Lond. ---------Dub. Spirit of Cinnamon, from 5 scruples ofthe oil. --------from 6 scruples of the oil. Mint, from 6J scruples of the oil. ---- from 6 scruples of the oil. Pennyroyal, from 7 scruples of the oil. from 6 scruples ofthe oil. Rosemary, from an ounce of oil and a gallon of rectified spirit. --------from 6 scruples of the oil. This change of method appears to be an improvement; it is more economical, and lessens the risk of empyreuma ; the spirits obtain- ed, too, are found to be more equable in strength and flavour than formerly. All these spirits have the aromatic flavour, and to a certain extent the pungency of the vegetables from which they are prepared, and any medicinal application of them is founded entirely on these qua- lities. They require, therefore, no particular observations. Their dose is usually from one drachm to three. Of Compound Spirits, the following have a place in the Phar- macopceias : Spiritus juniperi compositus. Compound Spirit of Juniper. Ed. " Take of Juniper Berries bruised, one pound ; Sweet Fennel Seeds, Caraway Seeds, of each bruised, one ounce and a half; Di- luted Alcohol, nine pounds. Macerate for two days ; and, having added as much water as is sufficient to prevent empyreuma, draw off nine pounds by distillation." Spiritus juniperi compositus. Compound Spirit of Juniper. Dub. Lond. " Take of Juniper Berries bruised, one pound ; Caraway Seeds bruised, Fennel Seeds bruised, of each an ounce and a half; Proof- spirit, a gallon; (Water enough to prevent empyreuma, Lond.). Macerate for twenty-four hours, (then add as much water as will prevent empyreuma, Dub.) and distil one gallon." 392 DISTILLED SPIRITS. This is a cordial spirit, very similar to gin, which has been used as a carminative, and as a stimulant and diuretic in dropsy. It is often exhibited with digitalis. The London College macerate in the spirit and water, the others only in the spirit. Spiritus anisi compositus. Compound Spirit of Aniseed. Dub. " Take of Aniseed, Angelica Seeds, of each bruised, half a pound ; Proof-spirit, one gallon ; Water enough to prevent empy- reuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours, and distil one gallon." This is similar to the preceding spirit, but milder. It has been used as a carminative. Dr. Duncan remarks, that it is merely a simplification of the Irish usquebaugh, and if too often resorted to becomes a mere dram. Spiritus Lavandula spica. Spirit of Lavender. Ed. " Take of Fresh Lavender Flowers, two pounds ; Strong Al- cohol, eight pounds. Draw off seven pounds by distillation with a water-bath." Spiritus Lavandula. Spirit of Lavender. Lond. " Take of Fresh Lavender Flowers, two pounds ; Rectified Spi- rit, a gallon ; Water, a sufficient quantity to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then distil off one gallon by a gentle heat." Spiritus Lavandula. Spirit of Lavender. Dub. " Take of the Fresh Flowers of Lavender, two pounds ; Proof-spi- rit, one gallon ; Water, as much as will prevent empyreuma. Mace- rate for twenty-four hours, and distil off, by a moderate heat, five pints." The Oil of Lavender is sufficiently volatile to be elevated with alcohol in vapour, and is completely dissolved by it. The spirit is used principally as a grateful stimulating perfume, which gives re- lief in headach, being drawn up the nostrils, or applied to the fore- head. What is sold under the name of lavender water is, according to Mr. Brande, a solution of oil of lavender in alcohol, with the ad- dition of small quantities of some other oils. The receipt which he gives for preparing it, directs five gallons of Rectified Spirit of Wine to be mixed with twenty ounces of Essential Oil of Lavender, five ounces of Oil of Bergamote, and half an ounce of Essence of Ambergris, made by digesting one drachm of ambergris and eight grains of musk in half a pint of alcohol. Spiritus Lavandula compositus. Compound Spirit of Lavender. Ed. " Take of Spirit of Lavender, three pounds ; Spirit of Rose- mary, one pound; Cinnamon Bark bruised, one ounce ; Cloves bruised, two drachms ; Nutmeg bruised, half an ounce ; Red Saun- ders Wood rasped, three drachms. Macerate seven day-*, und strain." Spiritus Lavandula compositus. Compound Spirit of Lavender. Lond. Dub. " Take of Spirit of Lavender, three pints ; Spirit of Rosemary, distilled spirits. 393 one pint; Cinnamon Bark bruised, Nutmegs bruised, of each half an ounce, (Cloves, two drachms, Dub.); Red Saunders Wood rasp. ed, one ounce. Macerate for fourteen (digest for ten, Dub.) days, and strain." This tincture is a grateful cordial and stimulant, in common use for relieving languor, and faintness. It is of a fine red colour, and has an agreeable odour, with a warm and aromatic flavour. Its dose is thirty to forty drops, taken on a piece of sugar, or in a cup- ful of water. Spiritus rorismarini officinalis. Ed. Spirit of Rosemary. " Take of Rosemary Tops, two pounds ; Strong Alcohol, eight pounds. Draw off seven pounds by distillation by the heat of boil- ing water." Spiritus rorismarini. Spirit of Rosemary. Dub. " Take of Fresh Rosemary Tops, a pound and a half; Proof- spirit a gallon. Distil five pints by a moderate heat." Spirit of Rosemary is a very fragrant perfume, and is in common use for the same purposes as the simple Spirit of Lavender. Also with a twelfth of its weight of muriate of ammonia, as a lotion in mammary abscesses. Spiritus armoracia compositus. Compound Spirit of Horse-Rad- dish. Lond. Dub. " Take of Fresh Horse-raddish root cut, Dried Orange Peel, of each one pound; Nutmegs bruised, half an ounce ; Proof-spirit, a gallon; Water, as much as is sufficient to prevent empyreuma. Macerate for twenty-four hours, then distil a gallon with a slow fire." This compound spirit was supposed to be an antiscorbutic, but seems to have no such power. It is sometimes given with digitalis in dropsy. Alcohol fortius, Stronger Alcohol. Ed. Spiritus rectificatus, Rectified Spirit. Lond. Dub. There is no process given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for the preparation of alcohol. It is supposed to be procured from those who prepare it on a large scale, and is inserted in the cata- logue of the articles of the Materia Medica, as of the specific gra- vity .835, this being a strength at which it can be procured with. out difficulty, and being sufficient for nearly every purpose to which it requires to be applied in Pharmacy. When of this specific gra- vity it consists, in 100 parts, of 15 of water, and 85 of absolute alcohol. The London and Dublin Colleges, while they have also inserted alcohol, the former, of the specific gravity also of .835, the latter, of the specific gravity .840, at 60°, under the name of Rectified Spirit, in the catalogue of the articles ofthe Materia Medica, have given a process to obtain it more concentrated for particular pur- poses. The following are the directions in the London Pharma- copoeia :— " Take of rectified Spirit, a gallon ; Subcarbonate of Potash,' 50 394 DISTILLED waters. three pounds. To the spirit add a pound ofthe subcarbonate of potash previously heated to 300°, and macerate for twenty-four hours, shaking frequently; then to the spirit poured off, add the re- maining portion ofthe subcarbonate of potash heated to the same de- gree ; lastly, distil the alcohol from a water-bath, and keep it in a vessel well stopt. The specific gravity of alcohol is to that of dis- tilled water as .815 to 1000." The process in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia is nearly the same :— " Take of Rectified Spirit, a gallon ; of Pearl-ashes dried, and still warm, three pounds and a half; Muriate of Lime dried, one pound. Add the pearl-ashes, previously rubbed to powder, to the spirit, and digest the mixture in a close vessel for seven days, agitating fre- quently. To the spirit poured off, add the muriate of lime ; and dis- til with a gentle heat, until what remains begins to become thick. The specific gravity ofthe liquor is to that of distilled water as 810 to 1000." The concentration ofthe alcohol in these processes is obtained by the action of substances which have a strong affinity to water,—the subcarbonate of potash and the muriate of lime. These attract it from the spirit, and counteract its volatility, so as to prevent it from rising in the distillation. Alcohol, rectified so highly as is ordered by the London and Dublin Colleges, is required for very few Pharmaceutic processes. Recti- fied spirit is more commonly used, and still more frequently proof- spirit. The proof-spirit of the Edinburgh College, formed from equal parts of rectified spirit and water, is of the specific gravity of .935. That of the London College is stated at .930, and will be obtained of this strength by mixing four parts by measure of rectified spirit with three parts of distilled water. The proof-spirit of the Dublin College is of the specific gravity .919 at 60", and may be prepared by mixing 5} measures of their rectified spirit, (density .840,) with three measures of distilled water at 60°. It is to be wished that the same proof-spirit should be ordered by all the Col- leges. That of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia has the advantage of being of the same strength with the proof-spirit of the Excise. The properties and medicinal uses of alcohol have been already consi- dered, (p. 65.) CHAP. XIX. AQUA STILLATITIA. ED.—AQUA DIST1LLATA. LOND. DUB.—- DISTILLED WATERS. Several of the principles of vegetable matter are so far volatile as to be elevated in vapour at the temperature of 212° ; hence, when water is distilled from them, it is frequently impregnated with their taste and odour, and sometimes even with their more active powers. The odour, and frequently the pungency of plants, reside in their DISTILLED WATERS. 395 essential oil; and this being always volatile at this temperature, the aromatic plants, in which essential oil is most abundant, communicate these qualities to water distilled from them, a portion ofthe oil being retained in solution by the water. The acrid principle of some vegetables appears likewise to be so far volatile as to rise in distil- lation with water ; and the Prussic acid, in which the narcotic power of the bitter almond, cherry laurel, and similar plants resides, is also obtained by the same process : But these vegetables are compara- tively few, and there are no officinal distilled waters having a place in the Pharmacopceias possessed of any important power; they are designed, from their flavour and agreeable pungency, to serve merely as vehicles for the exhibition of more active remedies, and all of them owe these qualities to the essential oil which they hold dissolved. Vegetables are in general more proper for distillation in their re- cent state than after being dried, the waters they afford being more grateful. They are therefore ordered in this state when they can be procured in it by the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges. The London College, on the contrary, order them to be used dried, as they cannot be procured fresh at all seasons ofthe year, and as the distilled waters will be less liable to carry over with them mucilagi- nous or other'similar vegetable matter that may cause them to be- come sour. When fresh, plants in general impregnate sufficiently with their flavour and taste three times their wreight of water ; when dry, double that quantity. As much must be employed as that a sufficient quantity of water shall remain in the still to prevent any part of the vegetable matter being scorched, and communicating empyreuma to the distilled water, the distillation being continued as long as the liquid that condenses has any taste or smell of the vege- table from which it is distilled. The flavour of the more delicate plants is injured by this operation; and these distilled waters are in general less grateful to the stomach than the infusions of the vege- table matter which yields them. Most distilled waters have, when newly prepared, a peculiar and somewhat unpleasant odour, which they lose by a short exposure to the air, or by keeping them for a few days in vessels slightly covered. Distilled waters are liable to a peculiar species of decomposition. When long kept, they become mucilaginous, and at length quite vis- cid, and at the same time somewhat sour. According to Bucholz, this change occurs most readily in those distilled waters which con- tain little essential oil, and it is not dependent on the air, but takes place even more quickly when the water is kept in a closed than in an open vessel. It seems to be owing to the change in the compo- sition ofthe oil itself, which may be owing to the chemical action of the oxygen ofthe water. To counteract this change, and preserve distilled waters more effectually in a proper state, a small quantity of alcohol is ordered to be added to them, which, however, gives them an unpleasant flavour, and it seems preferable, as recommended by M. Chereau, to add the spirit before the distillation. According to Bucholz, they ought also to be kept in vessels imperfectly closed. It is supposed, that when the waters are distilled from dried plants, they will be less liable to spoil, as there will be less risk of 396 DISTILLED WATERS. their carrying over with them mucilaginous or other vegetable matter, which may be acted on by the water and turn sour. Still they alter in time ; hence, distilled waters should be prepared fre- quently, and not in large quantities at once. The same improvement has been introduced into the last London Pharmacopoeia respecting some of the distilled waters, as with re- gard to several of the " Spirits," that of preparing them, by mixing pure essential oils with water, and distilling these together without using any part ofthe original plant ; in this way no extraneous ve- getable matter can pass over with the product. The old process has at the same time been retained ; and distilled waters, as procured by it, may first be noticed. Aqua distillata. Distilled Water. Ed. " Distil water" in clean vessels until about two-thirds have distilled over." Lond. " Take of Water, ten gallons ; distil four pints, which being thrown away, distil over four gallons, which are to be kept in glass bottles." Dub. " Take of Water, twenty pounds. Put it into a glass re- tort, and having rejected the first pound which comes over, let one gallon be distilled with a moderate heat." Water does not occur in nature perfectly pure, but has generally a sensible impregation of saline and earthy matter. Spring water, which is purest, contains a little carbonate of lime, and muriates of lime and soda ; river water contains sulphate and carbonate of lime, and muriate of soda : and well water, sulphate and carbonate of lime in larger quantity. For some purposes in Pharmacy, it is ne- cessary to use water free from those substances, particularly in the solution of some earthy and metallic salts, several of which, nitrate of silver for instance, or acetate of lead, are decomposed by them, and, if they are given in small doses, may, by such decompositions, be rendered nearly inert ; external application also, as collyria, may be thus rendered almost useless. In preparations, too, where much water is evaporated, as in the formation of extracts, it has been judg- ed preferable to employ distilled water, as the residual matter of common water will remain mixed with the product of the process, and uselessly add to its bulk, or even in some cases produce in it some chemical change. It is for these purposes that distilled water is ordered in the Pharmacopceias ; but except where the use of it is rendered necessary from these circumstances, it ought not to be em- ployed, as, from losing in the distillation much ofthe air that it holds loosely dissolved, it is always vapid and unpleasant; and when di- rected in Pharmaceutical processes without discrimination, the di- rection is liable to be altogether neglected by the apothecary. The process should be conducted with rather a gentle heat, and ought not to be continued longer than until two-thirds ofthe water have distilled, as otherwise a minute portion ofthe saline matter might be brought over in the distillation. The first portion, too, that comes over, is directed by the London and Dublin Colleges to be rejected. distilled waters. 397 The directions for the preparation ofthe Distilled Water of Plants are given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia under a general formula : " Add as much water to the substance that is to be distilled, that when ten pounds have been drawn off by distillation, a sufficient quantity shall remain to prevent empyreuma. After due maceration, distil ten pounds ; to which are to be added five ounces of weak spirit." In the London and Dublin Pharmacopceias, the water, after mace- ration on the vegetable matter, is directed to be distilled, allowing so much to remain in the still as will prevent empyreuma. And in all the Pharmacopceias, half an ounce of rectified spirit is ordered to be added to each pound of water after distillation. With these direc- tions are prepared Aqua Citri Aurantii. Ed. CitriMedicse. Ed. Lauri Cassias. Ed. Lauri Cinnamomi. Ed. Dub. Mentha? Piperita?. Ed. Lond. Dub. Menihae Pulegii. Ed. Lond. > Dub. S Mvrti Pimentas. Ed. Lond. Dub. Rosas Centifoliae. Ed. Lond. Dub. Anethi. Lond. Carui. Lond. Foeniculi. Lond. Dub. Mentha? Viridis. Lond. Dub. Water of Orange-peel, from two pounds of fresh orange-peel. Lemon-peel, from two pounds of fresh lemon-peel. Cassia Ba\k,frOm one'pound of the bruised bark. Cifinamon>%/roff! one pound ofthe bruised bark. Peppermint, from three pounds of the green herb, or a pound and a half of the dried herb. Pennyroyal, the same. Pimenlo, from half a pound of pimento bruised, (and ma- cerated for 24 hours in a pint of water. Lond.) Rose, from six (eight, Lond. Dub.) pounds of the fresh pale rose flowers. Dill,yrom a pound ofthe bruised seeds. Caraway .from a pound ofthe bruised seeds. Fennel, from a pound ofthe bruised seeds. Spearmint, from a pound and a half of the dried herb. Orange-peel Water has none of the bitterness of the orange- peel, but merely its flavour, and is so little used, that it is not kept in the shops. Lemon-peel Water has merely a slightly agreeable flavour, and is scarcely ever used. Cassia WAter, when not prepared too pungent, can scarcely be dis- tinguished from that ofthe cinnamon, the essential oil of both these barks having a flavour nearly the same. The cassia water, therefore, being less expensive than the cinnamon, is substituted for it in the shops. It has the pungency and aromatic flavour ofthe cassia, and is hence in common use to cover the ungrateful taste and flavour of other medicines, and not unfrequently is used in large quantities. It is sometimes given alone as an aromatic and stimulant. Peppermint Water is strongly impregnated with the flavour of the herb, and is very frequently used in mixtures to cover the fla- vour of other medicines. It is also often taken alone as a carmina- tive. Pennyroyal Water has a flavour and taste similar to that of pep- permint, and is used for the same purposes, but it is rather less grate- ful. Pimento Water has the flavour of the Jamaica pepper, and its aromatic quality, but as this is not very grateful, it is not often used. Rose Water has all the flavour of the rose, and as it has no pun- gency or acrimony, it is often used for external applications, as in 398 distilled waters. solutions of acetate of lead, or sulphate of zinc, for collyria. Spirit of wine ought not to be added to it, as this will communicate a sti- mulating power, which would render it unfit for these applications. Rose water is liable to decomposition, and soon becomes sour; hence it has been recommended to preserve rose leaves, by packing them with salt in close vessels, and to distil the water from them in small quantities at a time. Otto or Attar of roses, which is the essential oil of the flowers, remarkable for its powerful odour, is prepared, according to some, by distillation from large quantities ofthe petals, but according to others, it is obtained by immersing rose leaves in water, and allowing the vessel to remain a few days exposed to the sun, when the otto will collect as a scum on the surface, and is re- moved by cotton. Dill Water. Its flavour is rather unpleasant, and it has little pungency. Caraway Water has a considerable share of aromatic flavour and pungency, and may be employed as a carminative. Fennel Water has merely the weak flavour ofthe seeds, with little warmth. Spearmint Water. Its flavour and taste are similar to those of peppermint or pennyroyal, but less grateful; it has however some efficacy in allaying irritability of the stomach, and is used to put a stop to vomiting ; the infusion of mint is preferable. Four of the distilled waters which have been mentioned are di- rected by the London and Dublin Colleges to be prepared, either from the plant as just described, or from the essential oil. These are, Aqua cinnamomi. Cinnamon Water. " Take of Oil of Cin- namon, by weight, five scruples. Pour so much water upon the oil, that after the distillation a sufficient quantity may remain to prevent empyreuma. Distil one gallon." In the same way are prepared the others, using three drachms of Oil of Peppermint, Oil of Spear- mint, and Oil of Pennyroyal." Aqua lauro-cerasi. Laurel Water. Dub. " Take of the fresh Leaves of the Cherry Laurel, a pound ; Water, three pints. Distil a pint, and add, instead of rectified spirit, an ounce of compound spirit of lavender." Laurel Water is a powerful narcotic, and in the quantity of an ounce or two may occasion death. It is useful as a sedative, and has the advantage over pure prussic acid of not being so liable to decomposition, (p. 97.) In the present preparation the compound spirit of lavender is added, that it may not be mistaken for common water, as has in some instances happened. volatile oils. 399 CHAP. XX. OLEA VOLATILIA—VOLATILE OILS. Essential oils differ little in their chemical characters, but the sen- sible qualities of odour and taste vary as they are procured from dif- ferent plants. Their odour is that of the plant from which they are procured; their taste also is frequently the same, particularly in those plants named aromatic, and it is always pungent and acrid; their colours are shades of yellow, green and brown ; they are usually liquid, but sometimes of a thick consistence. They are highly in- flammable, and burn with much flame and smoke. They are all so- luble in alcohol and ether; they also combine with the expressed oils. They have been called volatile, from the readiness with which they rise with the vapour of water in distillation; but this depends more upon their chemical attraction to aqueous vapour than upon their volatility, for, when heated alone, they require to be raised to a temperature considerably higher than 212° before they will pass ra- pidly into vapour. In general they are lighter than water, but some are heavier, as the oils of cassia, cinnamon, cloves and pimento. The pungency of essential oils varies greatly, and is not proportional to that ofthe plant which yields them : thus oil of cinnamon is acrid and almost caustic, while the oil of black pepper is comparatively mild and bland. In a few cases these oils, existing in distinct vesicles, can be ob- tained by expression, as those of lemon, orange and bergamotte. Usually they are diffused through the vegetable matter, so as to ren- der this impracticable ; they are then obtained by distillation : the heat could not be applied, however, with sufficient uniformity, and within the due degree, to the vegetable matter alone : it is therefore distilled with a portion of water, not larger than what is necessary to avoid empyreuma at the end of the distillation. The oil is vola- tilized with the watery vapour; and though a portion remains dis- solved, yet from the sparing quantityof water employed, the greater part is collected apart, either according to its specific gravity, floating on the surface, or having subsided to the bottom. In performing the operation in the large way, the same water is repeatedly put into the still, by which the loss from the oil being dissolved is in a great measure avoided. The product of oil is very different from different plants ; and the most odorous and pungent plants do not always af- ford the largest quantity, even where the oil is the principle in which the odour or pungency resides ;—the petals of the rose, for example, or the bark of the cinnamon, affording a quantity extremely small, though in the one of these the oil has the entire flavour ofthe flower, and the other the aromatic warmth of the bark. The quantity and quality ofthe oil are also influenced by the circumstances of climate, soil and season ; the rich aromatic oils being generally more fra- grant from the plant when growing in a warm climate and dry soil, 400 VOLATILE OILS. than under the reverse of these ; and the oil afforded by the aroma- tic vegetables of this climate is in general stronger, and in larger quantity, in a dry than in a wet season. The herbs are sometimes used fresh, sometimes dry ; it is said that more oil is obtained from the latter. In this country, the essential oils distilled are chiefly those from lavender, peppermint, spearmint, pennyroyal; the oils of caraway, chamomile, juniper, aniseed, marjoram, pimento, and rose- mary, are usually imported. An essential oil, at its first distillation, has frequently an odour less grateful than after it has been kept for some time ; by age, however, its flavour is impaired. If the air be not carefully excluded it becomes thick ; some oils, alongst with this change, deposite a little camphor, some a portion of benzoic acid, and others, when distilled anew, yield an oil similar to the original oil, a resinous substance being left. The essential oils of commerce are sometimes adulterated, either by the addition of a cheaper oil, as that of turpentine, of an expressed oil, or of alcohol. These frauds are easily detected,—the first, by the smell, which is perceptible when the adulterated oil is dropt on paper, and heated so far as to be volatilized ; the second, by the im- pure oil forming a greasy spot when it is dropped on paper, which remains so after heat has been applied ; the third, by the impure oil, when dropt on water, forming a milky, instead of a transparent film on the surface of the water. Mr. Barry's process of distilling in vacuo has been applied to the preparing of essential oils with great advan- tage ; the products are extremely pure, and free from all empyreuma and foreign flavour. A cheaper and easier method, and which has been found to afford nearly as pure oils, is to place the flowers in a basket within the still, and raised above the water, so that only the steam reaches them ; by its heat and chemical attraction the steam extracts the oil, and carries it over into the receiver. Essential oils are seldom employed to answer any important indi- cation in medicine, having scarcely any other powers than those of aromatic warmth and pungency. If used alone to relieve flatulence or nausea they may be diffused in water by the medium of mucilage and sugar, or they may be dissolved in alcohol, and the solution diluted with water; or they are sometimes given dropt on a piece of dry sugar. More generally they are employed as corrigents, to im- prove the taste and flavour of ungrateful medicines, to cause these to sit easier on the stomach, or to obviate nausea, or any unpleasant symptom they may be liable to produce. The following general rules with regard to the preparation of these oils are given in the Pharmacopoeia. Olea volatilia. Ed. " A sufficient quantity of water is to be poured on the substance to be acted on, as to prevent empyreuma during the distillation. After a proper maceration let the distillation be made, and then separate the oil from the water. " It is also to be observed with regard to the preparation of dis- tilled waters and oils, that according to the quality of the substances, their texture, the season of the year, and similar circumstances, so many differences must arise, that it is scarcely possible to give any VOLATILE OILS. 401 certain and general rules which shall apply strictly to every example. Many things therefore are omitted, to be regulated according to the judgment of the operator, the most general directions only being delivered." Olea dlstillata. Distilled Oils. Lond. " The Seeds of Anise and Caraway, the Flowers of Chamomile and Lavender, the Berries of Juniper and All-spice, the Tops of Rosemary, and the fresh herbs of the other articles, are to be em- ployed. Put the substance from which the oil is to be distilled into an alembic, adding as much water as will cover it, and distil the oil into a large refrigeratory." Olea essentialia. Essential Oils. Dub. " Let the substance be previously macerated in water, then put into an alembic, and heat applied by means ofthe vapour of boiling water, and let the liquor distil over into a receiver ; separate the oil by a proper apparatus from the surface or bottom of the fluid, as it may happen to float or sink." In the two latter Pharmacopceias, it is added, that the water which is produced in the distillation of the oils of caraway, peppermint, spearmint, pennyroyal, pimento, and fennel, may be preserved for use. It is always the practice in the shops to preserve the water distilled from the plant, as it is sufficiently impregnated with the fla- vour and taste. It is liable, however, when it has been repeatedly distilled, which is the common practice, to avoid the waste of oil, to be rendered less grateful than when only once distilled. According to these directions are prepared the following oils : Oleum Volatile Anthemidis. ' E. L. Juniperi. E. L. D. Juniperi Sabinae. E. D. Lavandulae Spicae. E. L. D. Lauri Sassafras. E. D. Menthae Piperitae. E. L. 1). Myrti Pimeniae. E. L. D. Orij;ani Majorana?. E. L. D. Pimpinellae Anisi. E. L. D Rorismarini. E. L. D. Carui. L. D. Menthae Viridis. L. D. Pulegii. L. D. Fcsniculi Dulcis. D Volatile Oil Of Chamomile, from the flowers. — Juniper,yroTO the berries. — Savine, from the leaves. Lavender,from theftowers. — Sassafras, from the root, bark and wood. — Peppermint, from the recent herb infiower. Pimento,/rwn the berry bruised. Marjoram, from the herb infiower. Aniseed, from the seed. Rosemary, from the flowering tops. — C a raw ay, from the seeds. Spearmint, from the leaves and flowers. Pennyroyal, from the haves andflowers. — Fennel, from the seeds. Rutae. D. I— Rue, from the leaves andflowers. Oil of Chamomile has an unpleasant flavour, and is scarcely ever used, although it has been said to be sometimes beneficial in cramp ofthe stomach. Dose five to ten minims. Oil of Juniper, when genuine, has the flavour of the juniper ber- ries, and is soluble in alcohol. There is generally substituted for it in the shops an oil distilled from some species of turpentine, much less grateful, which alcohol does not dissolve. The genuine oil is pow- erfully diuretic, and it communicates this property in some degree to ardent spirit, as in Hollands, which are flavoured by juniper berries. Dose three to ten minims, diffused in water by means of mucilage. Oil of Savine.—This plant yields more essential oil than any 51 402 VOLATILE oils. other does, two pounds affording not less than five ounces. The virtues of the savine seem also to depend on it, as the essential oil is said to be a powerful emmenagogue in a dose from three to ten drops. It is, however, very little used. Oil of Lavender is used principally on account of its flavour as a perfume, sometimes also as a stimulant. Dose two to six minims. It is sometimes added to ointments containing sulphur, to disguise that substance. Oil of Sassafras is the heaviest of the essential oils, its specific gravity being 1.094 ; its odour is somewhat fragrant, and its taste warm, but it has no quality that renders it of much value. Oil of Peppermint.—This is one of the most pungent ofthe es- sential oils, and at the same time it excites a peculiar sensation of coolness in the mouth. It is a common and convenient remedy to relieve flatulence and anorexia, under the form of the Peppermint Lozenge, and also of what is named Essence of Peppermint,—a so- lution of one part of the oil in seven parts of alcohol; the dose of this being fifteen or twenty drops in a cupful of water. Peppermint drops, Mr. Brande informs us, are made by heating four ounces of white sugar in powder, in a bright copper ladle, and, when warm, adding to them twenty-four minims of oil of peppermint, and half an ounce of peppermint water. The whole being stirred together, is poured in single drops on a polished piece of marble, where the drops soon harden, and are then to be dried by a gentle heat. Pep- permint lozenges are a mixture of starch, sugar, and mucilage of tragacanth, flavoured with oil of peppermint. Oil of Pimento has the flavour of Jamaica pepper; it is some- times used in colic and dyspepsia. The pungent and almost caustic Oil of Marjoram is sometimes used as a perfume, though less grateful than the oil of lavender. It is sometimes given to allay the pain of toothach, which is done by putting three or four drops, on a piece of cotton, in the tooth that is affected. It is used, in some cases, as a stimulating or heating ex- ternal application to cold tumours, and to relieve numbness. Oil of Aniseed is chiefly imported from Spain, of a light colour, and has rather an unpleasant smell. It congeals even at a very moderately cold temperature. It has less pungency than any other of the essential oils, and is therefore well adapted to the purpose to which it is usually applied, that of relieving flatulence and the symp- toms arising from it in children, a little of it being rubbed with sugar and mixed with the child's food. The common proportion is ten or fifteen drops ofthe oil to two ounces of sugar. Oil of Rosemary.—The odour of this oil is less grateful than when it is diluted with alcohol in the form of spirit of rosemary. It is sometimes used in ointments as a perfume, and it enters, as a sti- mulant, into the composition of the soap liniment. Oil of Caraway is one of the most grateful of the essential oils, and is well adapted to act as a carminative, or to communicate an agreeable pungency, and cover the flavour of unpleasant remedies. Oil of Spearmint.—The flavour of this oil is similar to that of peppermint, rather less grateful, and its taste is less pungent. VOLATILE OILS. 403 Oil of Pennyroyal resembles the oil of peppermint and spearmint, and may be regarded as superfluous. It was once regarded as an emmenagogue, but is now scarcely ever used. Oil of Fennel.—The flavour of this oil is similar to that of anise, and its qualities are so unimportant that it is never used. Oil of Rue.—The flavour of oil of rue is ungrateful, and though it has been regarded as an emmenagogue, it is altogether discarded from use. Along with the Volatile Oils are inserted some analogous prepa- rations in the Pharmacopceias. Oleum succini et acidum succimcum. Oil of Amber, and Suc- cinic Acid. Ed. " Take of Amber in powder, Pure Sand, equal parts. Put them mixed together into a glass retort, of which they shall fill one half. Having adapted a large receiver, distil from a sand-bath, with afire gradually raised. First, a watery liquor with a little yellow oil will distil over; then a yellow oil with an acid salt; afterwards, a red- dish and black oil. Pour the liquor out of the receiver, and let the oil be separated from the water. Let the Succinic acid, collected from the neck of the retort and the sides of the receiver, be pressed between folds of bibulous paper, to free it from the adhering oil. Then purify it by solution in hot water and crystallization." Oleum succini purissimum. Purified Oil of Amber. " Distil Oil of Amber mixed with six times its weight of water, from a glass retort, until two-thirds of the water have passed into the receiver. Then separate this purified volatile oil from the wa- ter, and keep it in vessels well stopt." Acidum succinicum et oleum succini. Dub. " Take of Amber, in coarse powder, Pure Sand, of each one part. Distil with a heat gradually raised, an acid liquor, oil, and salt contaminated with oil. Having removed the salt into bibulous paper, submit it to pressure to force out the oil; then sublime it. The oil may be obtained separate from the acid liquor by straining through bibulous paper." Oleum succrxi rectificatum. Rectified Oil of Amber. Dub. " Take ofthe Oil which rises in the preparation of Succinic Acid, one pound ; Water, six pints. Distil until two-thirds of the water pass into the receiver, then separate the oil." Oleum succini. Oil of Amber. Lond. " Put Amber into an alembic, and distil from a sand-bath with a heat gradually raised, an acid liquor, oil, and salt contaminated with oil. Then distil again, and also for a third time, the oil." Amber is a bituminous substance, found in layers of bituminated wood, or in fragments or masses on the sea-shore in different coun- tries, derived from beds of brown coal. It differs from vegetable resins in the products it affords when decomposed by heat. These products are an acid, which exists in it, named Succinic Acid ; and a peculiar empyreumatic oil. The process is conducted according to the directions given in the Pharmacopoeias. The heat requires to 404 VOLATILE OILS. be raised gradually, and the interposition of the sand is useful by dividing the particles of amber, and preventing it, when it melts, from swelling up, and passing over into the receiver. Dr. Duncan remarks, however, that the use of sand renders the residuum unfit for the purposes ofthe varnish maker. The succinic acid is in part dissolved by the water which conden- ses in the receiver, but the greater part is condensed in the form of a crust. When purified from the adhering oil, it is obtained in mi. nute white crystals. In medicine it has been regarded as an anti- spasmodic and diuretic ; but it appears to be wholly inactive, and is altogether discarded from practice. The oil of amber procured by the first distillation is thick, of a dark-brown colour, and a very fetid smell ; by successive distillations it can be rendered nearly limpid. It is sometimes applied by fric- tion as a stimulant in paralysis, and to relieve the pain of cramp and rheumatism : but its strong unpleasant smell renders the application disagreeable. It is said to be useful in hooping cough, rubbed on the chest; and Mr. Brande informs us that a remedy of this kind, of some celebrity, known by the name of Roche's Embrocation, con- sists of half an ounce of Oil of Amber, mixed with half an ounce of Oil of Cloves, and an ounce of Olive Oil. Dr. Duncan is of opinion that the tar oil prepared in the manufacture of coal gas might be substituted for oil of amber, and it has the advantage of being much cheaper. Oleum volatile pini purissimum. Rectified Oil of Turpentine. Ed. " Take of Oil of Turpentine, one part; Water, four parts. Distil as long as any oil passes over." Oleum terebinthina. Oil of Turpentine. Dub. " Take of Common Turpentine by weight, five pounds; Water, four pints. Distil the oil from a copper alembic. Yellow resin will remain after the distillation." Oleum terebinthina rectificatum. Rectified Oil of Turpen- tine. Dub. Lond. " Take of Oil of Turpentine, two pints, (one pint, Lond.) ; Water, four pints. Distil a pint and a half of the oil, (distil the oil, Lond.)." The oil of turpentine of commerce is obtained by distillation from what is named Common Turpentine, the juice of the. Pinus sylvestris, (Scotch Fir.) It appears to hold dissolved a small portion of resi- nous matter, as when again distilled it leaves a little of a thick resi- duum, and the rectified oil has been said to be more volatile than previous to this distillation. The process, however, is difficult to perform, from the great volatility ofthe oil, and the diffusibility and inflammability of its vapour : it is one, too, which is nearly superflu- ous, the common oil being sufficiently pure for any purpose to which it requires to be applied in medicine or pharmacy, and it is accord. ingly never attended to in the shops. The nauseous flavour of the oil is said to be removed by agitating it with an eighth part of the strongest alcohol; on this being done several times, the alcohol being each time poured off, the oil seems to be freed from resin, and is almost devoid of taste or smell; it however soon recovers both. SALTS. 405 The internal medicinal use of this oil has been already considered. Externally, it is an excellent application in rheumatism, a slip of flannel moistened with it being bound on the part. Whitehead's Essence of Mustard, which is said to be useful in rheumatism, con- sists of oil of turpentine, camphor, and spirit of rosemary, with a small quantity of flour of mustard. The oil is also applied by fric- tion to parts affected with cramp, and as a styptic to bleeding wounds. It is an excellent application to scalds and burns, in the manner pro- posed by Mr. Kentish. As soon after the accident as possible, heat- ed oil of turpentine is applied to the part, by which the pain is in a short time allayed, and the extent of vesication diminished. The part is then covered with pieces of cloth dipped in a liniment of oil of turpentine, in which a quantity of yellow resin has been melted, or a liniment still better is one composed of equal parts of oil of tur- pentine and lintseed oil. This is renewed once a-day till the inflam- mation subsides, when less stimulating applications are employed ; and when suppuration begins, the parts are to be covered with pow- dered chalk slightly warmed. This mode of treatment has been found successful in very severe cases. CHAP. XXI. SALINA-r-SALINE SUBSTANCES. By the term " Saline Substances," or Salts, are commonly under- stood all compounds of acids with alkalis, earths and metallic oxides. They can scarcely be said to possess such an assemblage of proper- ties as to distinguish them with precision from other classes of bodies ; but, in general, they exhibit the following characters. They can be obtained in the solid form, and most of them have a disposition to crystallization; they are fusible, uninflammable, have a sapid taste, and are soluble in water. These properties, however, do not belong to every salt, and there are other bodies which exhibit them, yet are not considered as saline ; hence, the only definition of a salt not liable to exception, is drawn from its chemical nature, that it is a compound of an acid, with an alkaline, earthy or metallic base. In the Pharmacopceias the term is intended to include the acids and alkalis which are used in medicine, while the earthy salts are reserved for a separate division, and the metallic salts are placed in connection with the metals. The acids and alkalis were for- merly termed Simple, or Primary Salts; the others Secondary, or Neutral Salts, the properties of the acid, and of the alkali of which they are formed, being usually neutralized. These are the substan- ces comprised under the present chapter, with a few associated with them for convenience, though not strictly connected with them. They are most of them important preparations ; but differing wide- ly in chemical constitution and medicinal powers, they admit of no general observation. 406 SALTS. Acidum aceticum tenue. Weak Acetic Acid. Ed. " Distil eight pounds of Vinegar with a gentle heat in glass vessels. The pound that comes over first is to be set aside as too watery, the five pounds that follow will be the Weak Acetic Acid. The distil- lation is to be continued as long as a colourless acid comes over; but as it is too much burnt, and not suited for internal use, it is to be mixed with the first pound, and may be employed for various chemi- cal purposes." • Acidum aceticum dilutum. Diluted Acetic Acid. Lond. "Take of Vinegar, a gallon. Distil the acetic acid in a sand- bath, from a glass retort into a glass receiver kept cold; the first pint being rejected, keep the six pints that are next distilled." Acetum distillatum. Distilled Vinegar. Dub. " Take of Wine Vinegar, ten parts by measure. Distil eight parts with a gentle heat, employing glass vessels in the distillation, and rejecting the first portion which comes over, amounting to one part. " The specific gravity of this acid is to that of distilled water as 1005 to 1000." Vinegar consists of acetic acid, largely diluted with water, and mixed with a little alcohol, tartaric acid, extractive, glutinous, and saccharine matter, and a very small portion of sulphuric acid, which the manufacturer is allowed to mix with it. From these it is purified by distillation ; at least it retains in combination only a very small por- tion of extractive matter. The distilled liquor is however weaker than the vinegar itself, as the acid is less volatile than the water, whence a large portion of it remains in the residual liquor ; in general, it receives from the distillation somewhat of an empyreumatic odour. It is usual, on the large scale, to perform the distillationin a tin still, connected with a tin spiral tube in a refrigeratory, and to add portions of boiling water during the distillation, so as to dilute the residual liquor, and bring over the whole of the acid. The process, how- ever, ought to be conducted in glass vessels, as directed in the Phar- macopceias ; as, from metallic ones, (tin, which has been employed, being often alloyed with lead, and even copper vessels being some- times used,) the acid may receive an impregnation that might prove noxious. The distillation of vinegar, for the purposes of chemistry and medicine, is now rendered in a great measure unnecessary, as pyroligneous acid is manufactured in large quantities of considerable strength and purity. One part of this acid, of the sp. gr. 1.046, diluted with six parts of water, will give a weak acetic acid, prefer- able to any distilled vinegar. Distilled vinegar is colourless ; it is not very sour to the taste ; its odour is usually slightly empyreumatic. The specific gravity has been taken by the Dublin College as an index ofthe strength ofthe acid, but it is not a certain one, as there is often an intermixture of the peculiar light fluid termed Pyro-acetic spirit, which lessens the density. The proper test of the strength of distilled vinegar is the quantity of an alkaline carbonate required to saturate it. According to Mr. Phillips, 100 grains of distilled vinegar, ofthe specific gravity 1.009, require for saturation 14.5 grains of crystallized subcarbonate SALTS. 407 of soda. It is chiefly employed as a solvent of some vegetable sub- stances, and in making some of the salts. It has the advantage, as a pharmaceutic agent, not only of greater purity, but of not being liable, like undistilled vinegar, to spontaneous decomposition. Acidum aceticum forte. Strong Acetic Acid. Ed. " Take of Dried Sulphate of Iron, one pound ; Acetate of Lead, ten ounces. Rub them together. Put them into a retort, and distil from sand with a moderate fire, as long as any acid comes over." Acidum aceticum. Acetic Acid. Dub. " Take of Acetate of Potash, one hundred parts ; Sulphuric Acid, fifty-two parts. Put the acid into a tubulated retort, and add to it gradually, and at different intervals of time, the acetate of potash, allowing the mixture to cool after every addition ; then distil the acid with a moderate heat, until the residuum is dry. The specific gravity of this acid is to that of distilled water as 1074 to 1000." In the first of the above processes, the expulsion ofthe acetic acid from the acetate of lead is favoured by the affinity exerted to the oxide of lead by the sulphuric acid of the sulphate of iron ; and as these salts are dried, or contain little water of crystallization, the acid is supposed to be obtained in a concentrated state. In the pro- cess given by the Dublin College, the sulphuric acid combines with the potash of the acetate of potash, and disengages the acetic acid. This distils over ; and as the acetate of potash contains little water, and the water of the sulphuric acid must be in part retained by the affinity exerted to it by the sulphate of potash, the acetic acid is ob- tained in a concentrated form. The following diagram exhibits the kind of re-action that takes place : 88 Sulphate of Potash. 78 Liquid Acetic Acid. There is thus obtained an equivalent of acetic acid combined with three equivalents of water. The proportion of sulphuric acid or- dered by the College is larger than its exact equivalent, partly to ef- fect the complete decomposition of the acetate, and partly because the sulphate of potash, with an excess of acid, is more soluble and more easily extracted from the retort. In the Parisian Pharmacopoeia, acetic acid is procured from ace- tate of copper, (verdigris,) exposed to heat in an earthen retort; and this was the process formerly given in the London Pharmaco- poeia. Of these processes, that given by the Dublin College seems to be the best, but none of them is now requisite, a pure and stronger acid being procured by distillation from wood, as was already stated, (p. 256.) The London College, accordingly, insert this "Stronger Acetic Acid" among the articles of the Materia Medica, and give no process for its preparation. Acetic acid, in its concentrated state, has a fragrant, and, at the 49 Liquid Sulphuric Acid 117 Acetate of Pot- ash i Sulphuric Acid 40 > Water ... 9 Water ... 18 Potash ... 48 Acetic Acid . . 51 408 SALTS. same time, very sharp penetrating odour; its taste is extremely sour and pungent, and it is so acrid as to inflame the skin. It is highly volatile, evaporating at the common temperature of the atmosphere; it is also inflammable, and kindles when a burning body is approached to its vapour. It exerts the agencies of a powerful acid, and it has a peculiar action on several ofthe proximate principles of vegetables, whence it can be applied to pharmaceutical purposes,—dissolving them without decomposing them, or materially altering their proper- ties. It thus dissolves resins, gum-resins, camphor and essential oils. It is employed medicinally, principally as a stimulating per- fume in languor or faintness, or to obviate the unpleasant smell of confined or corrupted air. The combination of it with camphor is used for this purpose, as has been noticed under the chapter of me- dicated vinegars ; the camphor being dissolved in the strong acid. Acidum benzoicum. Benzoic Acid. Ed. " Take of Benzoin, twenty-four ounces ; of Subcarbonate of So. da, eight ounces ; Water, sixteen pounds. Boil the benzoin, rubbed with the subcarbonate, in the water for half an hour, stirring them constantly, and strain. Boil what remains ofthe balsam in other six pounds of water, and strain. Mix these decoctions, and evaporate until two pounds remain. Strain again, and drop into the liquor, as long as there is any precipitation, diluted sulphuric acid. Dissolve the precipitated benzoic acid in boiling water. Strain the liquor while hot, through linen, and put it aside that crystals may form. Dry and preserve these crystals, having previously washed them with cold water." Acidum benzoicum. Benzoic Acid. Lond. " Take of Benzoin, a pound ; put it into a glass vessel placed in sand, and by applying a heat of 300° gradually increased, sublime till no more rises; press what is sublimed, wrapped in bibulous pa- per, to separate it from the oil ; then again sublime with a heat not increased above the 400th degree." Acidum benzoicum. Benzoic Acid. Dub. " Take of Benzoin, five parts ; Lime fresh burnt, Muriatic Acid, of each one part; Water, two hundred parts. Triturate the benzoin with the lime, then boil the mixture in 130 parts of water ; allow the vessel to stand, and pour off the liquor when cold. Boil the remain- der in seventy parts of water, and again pour off the liquor. Mix the liquors, and evaporate to one-half, filter through paper, and to the liquors, when cold, add gradually the muriatic acid. Lastly, having poured off the liquors, wash the precipitate with a small quantity of cold water, dry it with a gentle heat, put it into a proper vessel, and with a slow fire sublime the benzoic acid." Benzoic acid seems to exist, fully formed, in benzoin, and hence, being volatile, is easily expelled by heat. This method, adopted by the London College, is the one by which it is usually obtained. Scheele proposed, as more economical, the process, of which those ofthe other Colleges are modifications. In that given by the Edin- burgh College, the acid of the benzoin combines with the soda of the carbonate of soda, forming a soluble salt; the sulphuric acid, when SALTS. 409 added, combines with the soda, and the benzoic acid, being sparing- ly soluble in cold water, is precipitated. In the Dublin process, lime is used instead of soda, and muriatic instead of sulphuric acid. The quantity of benzoic acid obtained by sublimation in the pro- cess of the London Pharmacopoeia is greater than can be obtained by the other methods, the product, according to Mr. Brande's ex- periments, amounting to two ounces from a pound of benzoin, while, by the others, it is equal only to about one ounce and six drachms. But there is a difficulty in conducting the process by sub- limation, from a portion ofthe oily matter ofthe benzoin being liable to rise with the acid in vapour, and communicating to it a brown tinge. By managing the heat with due precaution, and changing the receiver towards the end ofthe sublimation, this may be avoided, at least so far as to obtain a pure product, nearly equal in quantity to that from the other methods ; and as the sublimed acid is more white and brilliant than the precipitated acid, even when the latter is dissolved and crystallized, this method is generally followed by the practical chemist, as besides it is less troublesome, and upon the whole more economical than the others. Benzoic acid is in slender needle-like crystals, or in soft flakes of a white colour and silky lustre ; its taste is pungent and acidulous, its odour aromatic ; this odour, however, appears to arise from a minute portion of oily matter adhering to it, as, by dissolving the acid in alcohol, and precipitating it by water, it is obtained nearly inodorous. It is volatile and inflammable, is scarcely soluble in cold water, but is dissolved by hot water, and is also soluble in alcohol. It has been regarded as a stimulating expectorant, but is totally desti- tute of medicinal efficacy, and the sole consumption of it is in the composition ofthe paregoric elixirs of the Pharmacopceias, in which it has long been an ingredient, and from custom is still retained. Acidum citricum. Citric Acid. Lond. Dub. " Take of Lemon Juice, a pint ; Prepared Chalk, an ounce, or as much as may be sufficient to saturate the juice ; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, nine fluid-ounces. Add the chalk gradually to the lemon juice heated, and mix them ; then pour off the liquor. Wash the citrate of lime which remains with warm water, frequently added ; then dry it. To the dried powder add the diluted sulphuric acid ; boil for ten minutes ; express the liquor strongly through linen, and strain through paper. Evaporate the strained liquor so far, that, on cool- ing, crystals shall form. To obtain these crystals pure, dissolve them in water a second and third time ; strain the solution each time ; evaporate, and put it aside to crystallize." The process of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia is similar, only employ- ing any quantities of lemon-juice and chalk, and of sulphuric acid eight times the weight ofthe chalk. The juice ofthe lemon consists principally of citric acid, (p. 274,) water, gum and extractive matter. When the chalk is added to it, the lime in this substance combines with the citric acid and forms citrate of lime, which being insoluble, is precipitated : the precipi- tate is washed to carry off the adhering vegetable matter, am* is 410 SALTS. submitted to the action of diluted sulphuric acid ; the sulphuric acid combines with the lime and disengages the citric acid ; this, dissolv- ed by the water, is pressed out from the sulphate of lime, and by the evaporation of the solution is brought to crystallize. The crystals are at first of a brownish tinge, from the reaction, it has been sup- posed, ofthe sulphuric on the citric acid. By a second or third solu- tion and crystallization they are obtained colourless. The following diagram shews the nature of this decomposition : 86 Citrate of lime \ ^jtric Acid 58 —^76 Cyst. Citric Acid. } Lime ^X»X^ 53 Liquid Sulph. Acid \ ™*}e? & ^ ,""^X_ 1 r ( Sulph. Acid 40-------X^68 Sulphate of Lime. Mr. Phillips found, that 100 grains of the fresh juice of sp. gr. 1.044, decompose 14.8 grains of crystallized sub-carbonate of soda, whence it follows, that one pint ofthe juice will decompose rather more than six drachms of chalk ; the citrate of lime formed required, he found, four ounces and a half of sulphuric diluted acid, or, for every drachm of chalk used, six drachms of diluted acid should be employed. It thus appears that the quantity of acid ordered in the Pharmacopoeia is too large, although, as Dize remarked, a slight excess of sulphuric acid is useful to decompose a small portion of mucilage or extractive matter, which adheres to the citric acid, and opposes its crystallization. The drying the citrate of lime in the middle of the process is unnecessary ; indeed, it will be decomposed more readily when moist. Citric acid may be procured from many other fruits. As there is much loss in the successive crystallizations, the acid can be manu- factured economically only on the large scale. Citric acid crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms ; it is easily soluble in water, has a taste extremely sour, and reddens deeply the vege- table colours. In its solid state it remains unchanged, and even in solution is not very liable to spontaneous decomposition. It is used, as has already been remarked, as a refrigerant, and in forming the common effervescing draught, being mixed with carbonate of soda, and water added. Acidum muriaticum. Muriatic Acid. Ed. " Take of Muriate of Soda, previously heated to redness, Sulphu- ric Acid, Water, of each two pounds. Mix the acid with eight oun- ces of water, and when the mixture has cooled, pour it upon the mu- riate of soda in a glass retort ; then adapt a receiver containing the rest of the water, and distil from a sand-bath with a moderate fire. In a short time the vessels may be luted together, and the distilla- tion continued to dryness. " The specific gravity of the acid is to that of distilled water as 1170 to 1000." Acidum muriaticum. Muriatic acid. Lond. " Take of Dried Muriate of Soda, two pounds : of Sulphuric Acid, jwenty ounces by weight ; of Distilled Water, a pint and a half. Mk the acid with half a pint ofthe water in a glass retort, and add SALTS. 411 to these when cold the muriate of soda. Pour what remains of the water into a receiver ; then a retort being adapted to it, transmit into this water the muriatic acid distilled from a sand-bath, with a heat gradually increased, until the retort become red. " The specific gravity of muriatic acid is to the specific gravity of distilled water as 1160 to 1000. 100 grains of this acid saturate 124 grains of crystallized subcarbonate of soda." Acidum muriaticum. Muriatic Acid. Dub. " Take of Dried Muriate of Soda, one hundred parts; Sulphuric Acid of commerce, eighty-seven parts ; Water, one hundred and twenty-four parts. Mix the acid with one-half of the water, and after it has cooled, pour it on the muriate of soda previously intro- duced into a glass retort. Pour what remains ofthe water into a re- ceiver so connected with the retort as to absorb the gas, then distil to dryness." In these processes, the sulphuric acid, according to the old theory, combines with the soda ofthe muriate of soda, and with the assistance ofthe heat applied, disengages the muriatic acid gas, which is condens- ed partly by the water volatilized with it, and partly by the water in the receiver. According to the views of Gay-Lussac and Davy, now generally received*, dried muriate of soda is not a salt, but a com- pound of chlorine with metallic sodium, or a chloride of sodium. When this is dissolved in water, the chlorine attracts hydrogen from the water present, the sodium attracts oxygen, and muriate of soda is reproduced, which is then decomposed by the sulphuric acid ; that acid combines with the soda, and the muriatic acid rises with a por- tion of watery vapour, and passes over into the receiver. The fol- lowing diagram represents the action that takes place in the Dublin form of the process, supposing with Dr. Barker that eight equiva- lents of water pass over with the muriatic acid : <•,, »,. •. re j 2'2 Bichloride of Mercury. The two equivalents of prussic acid rise in vapour with a quantity of the water present, and condense in the receiver. In the retort there remains corrosive sublimate in solution, part of which, as the liquor cools, is deposited in crystals. The use of prussic acid in medicine has been much restricted by the difficulty of procuring it of uniform strength ; sometimes it has 420 SALTS. proved too strong, and has given so violent a shock to the nervous system as to prove fatal ; more frequently it is so weak from decom- position as to produce no effect. This irregularity has arisen chiefly from preparing the acid in too concentrated a state, when it rapidly suffers chemical change. The present formula given by the Dublin College is intended to form a very weak acid, which will be more likely to be permanent and uniform ; 100 grains of it contain 1.6 of real acid, and should dissolve 6.4 grains of red oxide of mercury. This test of dissolving a certain quantity of oxide of mercury was proposed by Dr. Ure, as a better criterion ofthe strength of prussic acid than the specific gravity, which he has shewn to alter little where the degree of concentration has varied very much. The medicinal application of prussic acid has been already considered, (page 72.) Acidum sulphuricum purum. Pure Sulphuric Acid. Dub. " Take of Commercial Sulphuric Acid, one pound. Put it into a retort of white glass, to which there is adapted without lute a re- ceiver of the same kind. Let heat be applied to the retort until a twelfth part of the liquor come over, which is to be rejected, as con- taining too much water. The receiver being replaced, the residuum is to be distilled to dryness. A few slips of platinum put into the retort will moderate the ebullition, which otherwise might be too vio- lent. The specific gravity of this acid is 1845. Let the acid be kept in well-closed vessels." The preparation of Sulphuric Acid being carried on, on a large scale, for the purposes of commerce, no process is given for it in any of the Pharmacopceias, nor could it be executed in the shops. As prepared in the manner which has been already described, (p. 157.), it is not perfectly pure. It contains a quantity of sulphate of potash, (the acid combining with a portion ofthe potash ofthe nitre,) and sometimes a small portion of sulphate of lead, derived from the action of the acid on the lead of the chamber. It is often also co- loured of a brownish tinge, from small portions of vegetable matter accidentally introduced into it, which it chars or decomposes, and their carbon gives it this hue ; this change is of little consequence, as it impairs none of the properties of the acid. The sulphate of lead is the only impurity of any importance, and it, whenever the sulphuric acid is diluted, (as it always is for medical purposes,) is precipitated, being insoluble in the dilute acid. There is therefore no necessity for this process to purify it inserted into the last Dublin Pharmacopoeia, a process which is besides of so troublesome a na- ture, that the apothecary will never think of practising it. Nor is there any advantage in increasing the state of concentration of the acid, for there is no pharmaceutic use to which it is applied where the presence of a little water, more or less, is of any consequence. In the distillation of sulphuric acid, it is requisite to heat the fluid up to 620°, and the boiling which commences is irregular and violent; the slips of platinum render the ebullition more moderate, by pre- senting heated surfaces, from which small bubbles arise ; but even with these the glass vessels are broken so frequently, that manufac- SALTS. 421 turers find it economical in the end to employ vessels of platina, though their original cost be great. Acidum sulphuricum dilutum. Diluted Sulphuric Acid. Ed. " Take of Sulphuric Acid, one part; Water, seven parts. Mix them." Acidum sulphuricum dilutum. Diluted Sulphuric Acid. Dub. "Take of Pure Sulphuric Acid, one part; Distilled Water, seven parts. Add the acid gradually to the water. The specific gravity of this acid is 1084." Acidum sulphuricum dilutum. Diluted Sulphuric Acid. Lond. " Take of Sulphuric Acid, a fluid-ounce and a half; of Distilled Water, fourteen fluid-ounces and a half. Add the acid gradually to the water ; then mix them." The intention of this formula is to afford an acid sufficiently dilute to admit of its dose being easily regulated. The London College have, without any necessity, altered the proportions both from those of the other Pharmacopoeias, and from those which had formerly been ordered in their own Pharmacopoeia. Instead of the propor- tion of one to nine, which they ordered before, they now direct the proportion by weight, of one part of acid to nearly five and a half of water. The reason given for this change is, " that the mixture will be more conveniently made, and its dose more easily apportioned, than that of the former Pharmacopoeia," a reason in which there is no propriety. A mixture of sulphuric acid with water is made just as easily in one proportion as in another, and the dose ofthe diluted acid, whatever may be its strength, is apportioned with equal facility. Nor is it of any importance to have any relation between the dose of the diluted acid and any particular quantity ofthe concentrated acid, as the acid in the latter state has never been prescribed internally. It is to be regretted that the strength of a preparation, which has for a considerable period been employed in medical practice, has been thus unnecessarily changed. In the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharma- copceias the proportion is even a more convenient one, if this is to be regarded, being one part of strong acid in eight in the mixture, or a drachm in an ounce. According to Mr. Phillips, 100 grains of the London dilute acid saturate 50, and a fluid-drachm 31 grains ofthe crystallized subcarbonate of soda. Some care is required in mixing water and the strong acid in glass vessels, for their capacity for caloric being diminished by their combination, a considerable extrication of heat takes place ; if the mixture be made hastily, the temperature will rise even to 300° of Fahrenheit, or considerably higher than the boiling point of water; glass vessels are by this sudden heat very often broken; the mix- ture should therefore be made slowly and cautiously, the acid being added in successive portions to the water, and the mixture agitated after each addition. This acid, as has been mentioned, is an excel- lent tonic and astringent. Acidum tartaricum. Tartaric Acid. Lond. " Take of Supertartrate of Potash, two pounds and a half; Boil. 422 SALTS. ing Distilled Water, three gallons ; Prepared Chalk, a pound ; Sul- phuric Acid, a pound. Boil the supertartrate of potash in two gal- lons of distilled water, and add gradually the prepared chalk until effervescence is no longer excited ; put it aside that the tartrate of lime may subside ; pour off the liquor, and wash the tartrate of lime repeatedly with distilled water until it come away tasteless. Then pour upon it the sulphuric acid diluted with a gallon of boiling distilled water, and put aside for twenty-four hours, occasionally shaking it. Strain the liquor and evaporate in a water-bath till crys- tals are formed." Acidum tartaricum. Tartaric Acid. Dub. " Take of Bitartrate of Potash in powder, ten parts ; Prepared Chalk, four parts; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts ; Water, one hun- dred and twenty parts. Mix the bitartrate of potash with one hun- dred parts ofthe water boiling hot, and add gradually the prepared chalk. Then after the effervescence has ceased, pour off the clear liquor. Wash the tartrate of lime which remains until it become tasteless. Add to the clear liquid which was poured off as much of a solution of muriate of lime as may be sufficient to throw down all the tartrate of lime. Wash this also with water, and mix it with the former precipitate. Then add the sulphuric acid diluted with twenty parts of water, and digest the mixture in a moderate heat for three days, frequently shaking it. Pour off the clear acid liquor, and wash the acid out of the sediment. Let these liquors with the first acid liquor and the washings be evaporated by a gentle heat till crys- tallization takes place. Purify the crystals by repeated solutions and crystallizations, and keep them in a close glass vessel." These two processes are framed on the same principle to obtain the tartaric acid, but that of the Dublin College is more complete. The salt employed in both, bitartrate of potash, consists of one equi- valent of potash, and two of tartaric acid. When this is dissolved in water, and carbonate of lime or chalk added, the excess of tartaric acid expels the carbonic acid, and unites with the lime, forming tar- trate of lime, while the remainder of the tartaric acid continues in union with the potash in the state of neutral tartrate of potash. This reaction is represented in the following diagram : ..„ , ,„ „rt ■ (Carbonic Acid 22 50 Carbonate of Lime . 56 Chloride of Calcium. The product obtained should be carbonate of ammonia, but the high temperature which it is necessary to apply causes a portion of ammonia to be dissipated, and it is a sesquicarbonate of ammonia of variable composition that is procured. When the process is carried on in the large way, the sublimation is generally performed from an iron pot, to which the heat is directly applied, and which is connect- ed with a large earthen or leaden receiver. The Dublin College, in- stead of carbonate of lime, order carbonate of soda ; with this the application of so high a heat will not be required ; but not being suf- ficiently economical, the direction will not be attended to by the practical chemist. The proportion of carbonate of lime ordered by the Edinburgh and London Colleges is too large, and the excess, by adding to the mass of materials, adds to the expense ofthe vessels and fuel. It should be rather less than the weight of muriate of ammonia employed. It would appear, that in the process given by the Dublin College, the proportion of carbonate is rather less than is requisite to afford carbonic acid to the alkali, some of which rises in the caustic state. According to the experiments of Mr. Phillips, this salt consists of an equivalent of ammonia combined with an equivalent and a half of carbonic acid, and a considerable proportion of water, or it is a hy- drated sesquicarbonate of ammonia. By keeping, it loses more am- monia, and becomes a bicarbonate. Its smell is pungent and ammo- niacal, and it changes the vegetable colours to a green. It is very vo- latile, abundantly soluble in water, and is efflorescent on exposure to the air. Itsmedicinal uses are as a stimulant applied to the nostrils in fainting, and as a stimulant and diaphoretic taken internally, in a dose of from five to fifteen grains. It has been employed with some ad- vantage too in scrofula, combined with bitters. Solutio subcarbonatis ammonue. Solution of Subcarbonate of Ammonia. Ed. " Take of Subcarbonate of Ammonia, one part ; Distilled Water, four parts. Dissolve the subcarbonate in the water, and strain through paper." Liquor ammonia subcarbonatis. Liquor of Subcarbonate of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Subcarbonate of Ammonia, four ounces ; of Distilled Water, a pint. Dissolve the subcarbonate of ammonia in the water, and strain through paper." Aqua carbonatis ammonia. Water of Carbonate of Ammonia. Dub. 444 SALTS. " Take of Carbonate of Ammonia, four parts ; Distilled Water, fifteen parts. Dissolve the carbonate of ammonia in the water, and filter through paper. The sp. gr. is 1090." Water of subcarbonate of ammonia is applied to the same medi- cinal purposes as the concrete subcarbonate, and being more conve- nient, is generally prescribed for internal use. It must be prepared with cold water, as hot water decomposes the salt. Ammonia bicarbonas. Bicarbonate of Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Solution of Carbonate of Ammonia, any quantity. Ex- pose it in a proper apparatus to a stream of carbonic acid gas, evolv- ed during the solution of white marble in diluted muriatic acid, until the alkali be saturated. Then let it rest to form crystals, which are to be dried without heat, and preserved in a close vessel." It happens in the case of ammonia, as with potash and soda, that when the carbonate is combined with an additional equivalent of carbonic acid, it becomes much less soluble in water ; hence in the above process the bicarbonate produced crystallizes without evapo- ration from the fluid that had held the carbonate dissolved. The process is facilitated, and the product increased, by applying pres- sure to condense the acid gas into the solution. The bicarbonate forms crystals, which are larger, less pungent in taste and smell, and more permanent than the carbonate. Its medical use has been al- ready considered, (p. 232.) Aqua ammonite. Water of Ammonia. Ed. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia, one pound ; Lime, recently pre- pared, a pound and a half; Distilled Water, one pound ; Water, nine ounces. Pour the water upon the lime bruised in an iron or earthen vessel, closing the vessel, until the lime, having fallen into powder, has become cold ; then mix the muriate, beat to a very fine powder, with the slaked lime, rubbing them together in a mortar, then put them into a retort of glass. Let the retort be placed in a sand-bath, and connect with it a receiver furnished with a tube, which is to be inserted almost to the bottom of the phial containing the distilled water ; the phial, however, should be capable of containing double the quantity. Then apply the fire, increasing it gradually until the bottom of the iron pot is at a red heat, and as long as the ammonia is produced. The sp. gr. of this water is 0.939. It should be preserved in vessels well closed." Liquor ammonite. Liquor of Ammonia. Lond. "Take of Muriate of Ammonia, eight ounces; newly prepared Lime, six ounces ; Water, four pints. Pour a pint of the water on the lime ; cover the vessel, and put it aside for an hour, then add the muriate of ammonia, and the rest ofthe water previously heated, and again cover the vessel : strain the liquor after it has cooled ; then distil twelve fluid-ounces of liquor of ammonia into a receiver, the temperature of which is not above 50°. The sp. gr. of this liquor is 0.960." Aqua ammonite causticje. Water of Caustic Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Muriate of Ammonia reduced to powder, three parts ; SALTS. 445 recently Calcined Lime, two parts ; Water, ten parts. Sprinkle on the lime, put into an earthen vessel, one part of water, and close the vessel. Dissolve the salt in the rest of the water, heated. Pour the solution, after it has cooled, upon the slaked lime put into a re- tort after it has become cold, and distil with a moderate heat, into a receiver kept cold, five parts of liquor. The sp. gr. is .950." In these processes, the lime combines with the muriatic acid of the muriate of ammonia, and the ammonia is disengaged. Being permanently elastic, it is condensed only by combination with water, and this is effected either by distilling water at the same time from the materials, or by transmitting the ammoniacal gas through water. The Edinburgh College employ the latter mode, and a solution is ob- tained in this way, perhaps more strongly impregnated ; the other is more easily conducted, and affords a product sufficiently strong for any medicinal or pharmaceutical purpose. The process of the London Pharmacopoeia has the peculiarity that the lime is not put into the retort, but is mixed with the muriate of ammonia and the water, and the liquor from this mixture is distilled. It might be doubt- ed a priori, whether in this way a sufficient quantity of lime will be taken up to decompose the whole of the muriate of ammonia. From lime, however, forming a soluble ternary compound with ammonia and muriatic acid, this appears to be the case; the application of the heat subverts this combination, and expels the ammonia, which the water rising in vapour condenses. This process is perhaps pre- ferable to any other, both as diminishing the bulk of the materials affording the product, and as it is difficult, when the lime is put into the retort, to extract the residual mass after the distillation. Mr. Phillips objected to the Edinburgh process, that the quantity of lime is too large, requiring large vessels ; Dr. Hope replied, that the ex- cess of lime renders the process more economical, the sal-ammoniac being more completely decomposed, and with the application of less heat. This was at length admitted by Mr. Phillips, who remarked,, however, and with justice, that the quantity of lime ordered by the College is so great, that though it be diminished by a third, there will still be more than enough. He objected also, that the mixing the dry materials is an unpleasant operation., from the pungent va- pour of ammonia exhaled ; but if it be performed quickly, and the mixture immediately transferred to the retort, this causes little incon- venience. From the experiments of Dr. Barker, it appears that but a small quantity of ammonia passes over towards the end ofthe pro- cess, and that it is not advisable to distil off so much as the London and Dublin Colleges direct. When this process is conducted on a large scale, an iron still is employed, into which the materials are put, and to which the fire can be directly applied ; the head of the still being connected with a spiral tube placed in a refrigeratory, to the extremity of which, besides the recipient to collect the condensed product, two or three receivers are adapted, containing water to absorb any ammoniacal gas. A modification of this apparatus might be advantageously used on a small scale ; or it might be economical to expose the dry mix- ture of the muriate and the lime to heat in an iron bottle, and con- 446 SALTS. dense the ammoniacal gas by receiving it in water. This would obviate the chief disadvantage of the Edinburgh process, that a quan- tity of lime remains in the retort, which it is difficult to extract. Water, under a common atmospheric pressure, and at a tempe- rature below 50°, absorbs about one-third of its weight of ammonia- cal gas ; and by this combination its specific gravity is diminished, that ofthe saturated solution being not more than .875. It is seldom so completely impregnated. As prepared by the first ofthe above pro- cesses its density is .939, and it contains 15 per cent, of ammonia ; by the second it is procured of density .950, containing 12 per cent. of ammonia; and by the third, of density .960, and containing only 10 per cent, of alkali. Water of ammonia has a strong and pungent smell; its taste is extremely acrid, and it inflames the skin. Though its odour is pungent, it ought to be free from any fetor. It is em- ployed in medicine, but rarely, as a stimulant and diaphoretic, inter- nally, in a dose from twenty to thirty drops, and sometimes as an emetic in a larger dose diluted v/ith water, (p. 180). Externally it is used as a stimulant applied to the nostrils, and as a rubefacient, (p. 255) ; with the latter intention it is applied mixed with oil, or with soap liniment. Aqua ammonite diluta. Dilute Water of Ammonia. Ed. " Take of Water of Ammonia, one part; Distilled Water, two parts. Mix them." This affords a sufficiently dilute preparation of the water of am- monia, for medical purposes, for which the strong solution is much too caustic. Alcohol ammoniatum. Ammoniated Alcohol. Ed. " Take of Stronger Alcohol, thirty-two ounces ; recently Prepar- ed Lime, twelve ounces ; Muriate of Ammonia, eight ounces; Water, six ounces. From these, prepare the ammoniated alcohol in the same manner as the water of ammonia, and preserve it in a simi- lar manner." Spiritus ammonite. Spirit of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Proof-Spirit, three pints ; Muriate of Ammonia, four ounces; Subcarbonate of Potash, six ounces. Mix them, and by a gentle heat distil a pint and a half over into a receiver kept cold." Spiritus ammonite. Spirit of Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Rectified Spirit, three pints ; Carbonate of Ammonia, coarsely powdered, three ounces and a half. Mix and dissolve the salt with a moderate heat, then filter the solution." In the process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, the lime com- bining with the muriatic acid of the muriate, disengages the am- monia, which is condensed by the alcohol. In that of the London Pharmacopoeia, the decomposition is produced by subcarbonate of potash ; and in that ofthe Dublin College, carbonate of ammonia is heated with alcohol, which having a stronger affinity to the alkali than the acid, attracts part ofthe ammonia, disengaging the carbonic acid. The first of these processes is the only one that affords a com- SALTS. 447 bination of alcohol and pure ammonia, in the others variable quan- tities of carbonate and sesquicarbonate of ammonia exist also in the spiritous solution; the product ofthe London process, indeed, being merely a solution of carbonate of ammonia in weak spirit, is unfit for the purpose to which the ammoniated alcohol is chiefly applied, that of dissolving camphor and essential oils. In this process a large por- tion ofthe salt sublimes and concretes unchanged on the sides ofthe receiver. An improved form of the process was proposed by Mr. Phillips, to distil alcohol from the common sesquicarbonate of am- monia with the addition of a little water ; a portion of carbonic acid is expelled by the heat, and the ammonia retains only so much as to be still soluble in the alcohol. It may be more economical, and afford a product rather more strongly impregnated, to distil the alco- hol from the sesquicarbonate of ammonia, with the addition of a lit- tle water of pure ammonia. But the process of the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia seems still to be the best. It is only to be remembered that pure ammonia being very volatile, and retained by only a weak affinity in the ammoniated alcohol, this spirit, and the tinctures made with it, cannot be preserved long, unless in bottles carefully closed. Ammoniated Alcohol has the pungent smell, and retains all the powers of ammonia ; it is used principally as the menstruum of some vegetables with which ammonia coincides in medicinal operation. Given internally, it is a powerful diffusible stimulant, which must be exhibited with much caution. Externally, it is a rubefacient; and when conjoined with camphor, is a highly stimulating liniment. Aqua acetatis ammonia. Water of Acetate of Ammonia. Ed. " Take of Subcarbonateof Ammonia, any quantity in powder. Pour upon it as much acetic acid as may be sufficient to saturate the am- monia exactly." Liquor ammonia acetatis. Liquor of Acetate of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Carbonate of Ammonia, two ounces; Diluted Acetic Acid, four pints, or a sufficient quantity. Add the acid to the car- bonate of ammonia until effervescence is no longer excited, and mix them." Aqua acetatis ammoni.e. Water of Acetate of Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Carbonate of Ammonia, one part; add gradually, agita- ting occasionally, of Distilled Vinegar, as much as may be neces- sary to saturate the ammonia, namely, about thirty parts ; ascertain- ing this by the test of litmus." The acetic acid combines with the ammonia, and disengages the carbonic acid with effervescence ; the acetate of ammonia being a very soluble salt, remains dissolved in the water. As much acetic acid must be added as to produce neutralization; and as the liquid is sometimes used as an external application in cases were the acri- mony ofthe alkali would be hurtful, it is better that there should be even a slight excess of acid. From the variable quantity of acid in the vinegar, the preparation cannot be of uniform strength ; and this cannot be obviated by crystallizing the salt, the heat decomposing it which would be necessary to evaporate the water. Were it of any importance, a uniformity of strength might be obtained by ordering 448 earths, and earthy salts. the quantity prepared from a given weight of carbonate of ammonia, to be reduced by slow evaporation to a certain measure ; but this is not necessary, the solution having no great activity, and being given generally in divided doses, ft has long been used as a diaphoretic, and not being stimulating, is supposed to be peculiarly applicable to febrile affections, (p. 232.) Externally applied, it is said to relieve mumps. Hydrosulphuretum ammonije. Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia. Ed. " Take of Water of Ammonia, Sulphuret of Iron, of each four ounces ; Muriatic Acid, eight ounces ; Water, two pounds and a half. Pour the acid, previously mixed with the water, upon the sulphuret, and pass the gas that arises through the water of ammonia. The liquor should be kept in bottles well closed." Ammonia hydrosulphuretum. Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Sulphuret of Iron in coarse powder, five parts ; Sulphu- ric Acid, seven parts ; Water, thirty-two parts ; Water of Caustic Ammonia, four parts. Put the sulphuret into a matrass, then add gradually the acid previously diluted with the water, and transmit the gas disengaged, by an apparatus properly adapted, through the water of ammonia. Towards the end of the process, apply to the matrass a moderate heat." The sulphuretted hydrogen is produced in this process, by the muriatic acid enabling the iron to decompose part of the water by attracting its oxygen. The hydrogen disengaged combines with a portion ofthe sulphur ofthe sulphuret of iron and forms sulphuretted hydrogen, (see the diagram, p. 432); and this gas being transmitted through the water of ammonia, unites with it, and forms a liquid of a dark green colour, and a very fetid odour. The sulphuretted hy- drogen seems to act the part of an acid ; and indeed it possesses so many acid qualities, that, though it contains no oxygen, it is generally regarded as an acid, and the name of Hydrothionic Acid has been given to it. The medicinal applications of hydrosulphuret of ammonia have ibeen already taken notice of, (p. 180). CHAP. XXII. TERREA—earths, and earthy salts. As chemical agents, the Earths may be characterized as dull and insipid, uninflammable, infusible, and sparingly soluble in water. Four only of them are used in medicine—Lime, Magnesia, Barytes, and Alumina ; the three first of which are, from their resemblance to the alkalis, termed Alkaline Earths ; the last, with others not em- ployed in medicine, are called Proper Earths. Combined with acids, the earths form neutral salts, resembling earths, and earthy salts. 449 strongly those salts formed by the combination of an acid with an alkali. Their effects upon the animal economy are also nearly similar. Alumen exsiccatum. Dried Alum. Ed. Lond. Dub. " Let Alum be liquefied in an earthen or iron vessel, and exposed to heat until it cease to boil ;" then reduce it to a powder." In this process the alum loses its water of crystallization, equal nearly to half its weight; it is deprived of its hardness, and resolved into a spongy mass, easily reducible into a fine powder ; from this, and from being rendered more active, it is better adapted to the pur- poses of an escharotic, to which it is applied. Liquor aluminis compositus. Compound Solution of Alum. Lond. " Take of Alum, Sulphate of Zinc, each half an ounce ; Boiling Water, two pints. Dissolve the alum and the sulphate of zinc in water ; then strain through paper." This forms an astringent solution, which has been employed to check haemorrhage or profuse mucous discharges ; and, when largely diluted, has been used as a collyrium. Murias baryta. Muriate of Barytes. Ed. "Take of Carbonate of Barytes, Muriatic Acid, each one part; Water, three parts. To the water and acid mixed together add the carbonate, bruised into small pieces. The effervescence being finished, digest for an hour, then strain, and after due evaporation put the liquor aside that crystals may form. Repeat the evaporation as long as there is any formation of crystals. " If the carbonate of barytes cannot be procured, the muriate may be prepared from the sulphate in the following manner :— " Take of Sulphate of Barytes, two pounds; Wood Charcoal in powder, four ounces; Muriatic Acid, as much as may be neces- sary. Calcine the sulphate, that it may be the more easily re- duced to a fine powder, with which is to be mixed the powder of charcoal. Put this into a crucible, and having adapted a cover, urge it with a strong fire for six hours. The matter being well triturated, put it into six pounds of boiling water, in a closed glass or earthen vessel, and mix them by agitation, preventing, as much as possible, the access of the air. " Let the vessel stand in a vapour-bath, until the part not dissolved has subsided ; then pour off the liquor. Pour on the residuum four pounds of boiling water, which, after agitation and subsidence, add to the former liquor. While it is yet hot, or, if it has cooled, having again heated it, drop into it the muriatic acid as long as efferves- cence is excited. Then strain it, and evaporate, that it may crys- tlltlZG " Baryta murias. Muriate of Barytes. Dub. " Take of Sulphate of Barytes, ten parts ; Wood Charcoal reduc- ed to very fine powder, or Lamp Black, one part. Calcine the sulphate, and throw it, while red hot, into cold water; then reduce it to the finest powder, in the manner directed for preparing chalk. 450 earths, and earthy salts. Mix the powders intimately, put them into a crucible, and heat them in a strong fire for four hours. Dissolve the mass, when cold, in a quantity of boiling distilled water, equal to ten times the weight of the sulphate of barytes, and filter the solution. Add to this, avoid- ing the vapours, as much muriatic acid as will saturate the barytes. Then strain the solution, and by evaporation and cooling let crys- tals be formed." The first of these processes is the one most easy of execution, the muriatic acid combining readily with the barytes, and disen- gaging the carbonic acid ; the muriate of barytes remains dissolved, and by evaporation is obtained crystallized. But the native carbon- ate of barytes not being an abundant mineral, is not always to be procured : the second process, therefore, is inserted, in which the sulphate, which is a more common fossil, is substituted. In this pro- cess the carbonaceous matter with which the sulphate is heated at- tracts the oxygen of the sulphuric acid, and, there is reason to be- lieve, abstracts also the oxygen of the barytes. A sulphuret of barium is formed, which, when thrown into water, decomposes it; the barium attracts oxygen and becomes barytes ; while the disengaged hydrogen unites with the sulphur, forming sulphuretted hydrogen, which combines with the barytes. Supposing that the decomposi- tions were complete, they would be as represented in the following diagram : 24 Carbon, t Carbon, 3 at. 18 y 42 Carbonic Oxide, 3 equiv. 4 atoms \ Carbon .... 6 ™" T y 14 Carbonic Oxide. 40 Sulphuric ( Sulphur---16 Acid \ Oxygen, 3 at. 24 Oxygen .... 8 6 Barytes j BaTlam [ \ ] [ 68 X 84 Sulphuret of Barium. And when the sulphuret of barium is dissolved in water the fol- lowing reaction takes place : ow * (Hydrogen 1------—p-17 Sulphuretted Hydrogen. 9 Water J Qxygen 8^^^ 84 Sulphuret i Sulphur.. 16^^^ of Barium ( Barium ... 68._______X*76 Braytes. As the acid, yielding its oxygen with greater facility, is generally more completely decomposed than the barytes, there would appear to be usually present an excess of sulphur; hence the compound produced is a sulphuretted hydro-sulphuret. When the muriatic acid is dropt into this solution, it combines with the barytes, disen- gaging the sulphuretted hydrogen, which escapes with effervescence, forming the unpleasant vapours that are to be avoided, and a portion of sulphur is precipitated. The solution of muriate of barytes on evaporation affords the salt crystallized. This process, though a little complicated, is perhaps preferable to any other, as it must af- ford the barytic salt free from metallic impregnation ; for, if any metallic matter be mixed with the sulphate, being reduced by the charcoal, it will not be dissolved in any subsequent part of the pro- cess. The addition of a little oil to the charcoal renders the de- composition ofthe sulphate more complete. EARTHS, and earthy salts. 451 Muriate of barytes crystallizes in quadrangular tables : its crys- tals are soluble in five parts of cold and three of hot water. The taste of the salt is harsh and styptic ; it proves poisonous to animals, and has been employed as a remedy in scrofula, sometimes in cu- taneous diseases, and in eases of worms. SOLUTIO MURIATIS BARYTA. Ed. BaRYT^ MURIATIS AQUA. Dub. Solution of Muriate of Barytes. " Take of Muriate of Barytes, one part; Distilled Water, three parts. Dissolve. (Its sp. gr. is 1230, Dub.)" This saturated solution is designed to afford a preparation of uni- form strength,—a circumstance of importance, as, from the activity of the medicine, its dose requires to be regulated with care. Five drops are given twice a-day, and gradually increased to twenty or more. It has been used externally as a gentle escharotic applica- tion in cutaneous diseases, and to remove specks on the cornea. Carbonas calcis pr^paratus. Prepared Carbonate of Lime. Ed. " Carbonate of Lime, after being rubbed to powder in an iron mortar, and levigated with a little water on a porphyry stone, is to be put into a large vessel. Water is to be poured upon it, and after the vessel has been frequently agitated, it is to be poured off, loaded with the fine powder. On the water remaining at rest, a subtile powder subsides, which is to be dried. The coarse powder which the water could not suspend is to be again levigated, and treated in the same manner." Creta pr^parata. Prepared Chalk. Lond. " Take of Chalk, a pound. Add a little water to the chalk, and rub so as to form a fine powder. Put this into a large vessel filled with water ; then shake it, and after a short time pour off the water, while still turbid, into another vessel, and put it aside, that the pow- der may subside. Lastly, having poured off the water, dry the pow- der.'' " Prepared Shells (Test^ pr^eparatje) are prepared in the same manner, being previously freed from impurities by washing with boil- ing water." Creta pr^parata. Prepared Chalk. Dub. " Take of Chalk, any quantity; rub it to powder in an earthen mortar, adding a little water. Mix it with a sufficiently large quantity of water by agitation ; after a short time, when the coarser particles have subsided, pour off the liquor. This may be done frequently, repeating the trituration. Lastly, collect the very fine powder, which after some time subsides from the liquor poured off, and dry it on a bibulous stone or paper." Chalk is a native carbonate of lime, seldom perfectly pure, but containing portions of argillaceous and siliceous earths. The crab- stones are concretions found in the stomach of the river craw-fish (Cancer Astacus). They are collected when the animal is in a pu- trid state, are washed and dried. They have the advantage of being free from gritty particles, and form therefore a smoother powder. They consist of carbonate and phosphate of lime, with a portion of 452 EARTHS, AND EARTHY SALTS. gelatin; the proportion of carbonate being about seventy, of phos- phate, ten or twelve. Shells are of similar composition ; but for all these there is generally substituted in the shops chalk prepared with care, and having a little gelatin diffused through it. They are used as antacids or absorbents, also externally to absorb acrid matter from ulcerated surfaces. Calcis carbonas pr,ecipitatum. Precipitated Carbonate of Lime* Dub. " Take of Water of Muriate of Lime, five parts. Add to it, of Car- bonate of Soda, dissolved in four times its weight of warm distilled water, three parts. Render the precipitate pure, by allowing it to subside three times, and washing it each time with a sufficient quan- tity of water. Then collect it, and dry it on a chalk stone or bibu- lous paper." In this process the muriate of lime is decomposed by double af- finity, the muriatic acid being attracted by the soda, and the carbo- nic acid combining with the lime. The crystallized carbonate of soda contains ten equivalents of water, and taking these into account, the following are th? changes produced : „,,, .. , r. (Lime......28 GS Muriate of L.me |Muriatic Acid 37 144 Crystal. Carbonate \ Atonic Acid22 ot Soda ( Soda.......32 The process affords carbonate of lime very pure, but is rather ex- pensive, considering that the perfect purity of the product is not of great consequence. Potio carbonatis calcis. Potion of Carbonate of Lime. Ed. "Take of Prepared Carbonate of Lime, an ounce ; Refined Su- gar, half an ounce; Mucilage of Gum Arabic, two ounces. Rub them together, and then add gradually, Water, two pounds and a half; Spirit of Cinnamon, two ounces." Mistura cret;e. Chalk Mixture. Lond. Dub. " Take of Prepared Chalk, half an ounce ; Refined Sugar, three drachms ; Gum Arabic in powder, half an ounce, (Mucilage of Gum Arabic, an ounce, Dub.); Water, a pint. Mix them by trituration.*' The chalk is in these mixtures suspended by the mucilage ; they afford a form in which it is given as an antacid, but it may be doubt- ed whether the mucilage and sugar will not rather be injurious in that state of the stomach which generates acidity. The dose is one or two ounces. Calx. Lime. Lond. " Take of White Marble, a pound. Bruise into small pieces, and calcine these in a crucible with a very strong fire for an hour, or until the carbonic acid is entirely expelled, so that acetic acid, when added, shall not disengage any bubbles of air.—Calx e testis. Lime from Shells. In the same manner, lime may be prepared from 50 Carbonate of Lime. 159 Muriate of Soda. earths, and earthy salts. 453 shells, after these have been washed in hot water, and freed from their impurities." There is little advantage in the introduction of this process ; lime prepared on the large scale, for the numerous uses to which it is applied, being sufficiently pure for any medicinal purpose, especial- ly as, when it is internally administered, it must be given in solution ; and in the state in which it is usually met with, it impregnates water just as strongly as lime in its purest state. Solutio calcis, sive Aqua Calcis. Lime Water. Ed. " Take of Lime recently prepared, half a pound. Put it into an earthen vessel, and sprinkle upon it four ounces of water, keeping the vessel closed while the lime becomes hot, and falls into powder; then pour on it twelve pounds of water, and mix them by agitation. After the lime has subsided, repeat the agitation ; and do so about ten times, keeping the vessel always shut, that the free access ofthe air may be prevented. Let the water be strained through paper, interposing between the filter and the funnel glass rods, that the wa- ter may pass through as quickly as possible. Let it be kept in small bottles well stopt." Liquor calcis. Liquor of Lime. Lond. " Take of Lime, half a pound; Distilled Water, twelve pints. Pour the water upon the lime, and shake them together, then imme- diately cover the vessel, and put aside for three hours ; afterwards keep the liquor with the remaining lime in a glass vessel closed, and when it is to be used pour off the clear liquor." Aqua calcis. Lime Water. Dub. " Take of recently Calcined Lime, Warm Water, of each one part. Put the lime into an earthen vessel, and sprinkle the water upon it, closing the vessel while the lime becomes hot and falls into powder, then pour upon it thirty parts of cold water. The vessel being again closed, agitate the mixture frequently during twenty-four hours ; lastly, when the lime has subsided pour off the clear liquor, and keep it in vessels well stopt." When limestone, whieh is a carbonate of lime, is calcined, the carbonic acid is expelled, and caustic lime remains; water poured upon it is immediately absorbed, the lime becomes very hot, and after a little, splits and falls to powder, termed slaked lime. This is hy- drate of lime. If it be diffused in water, a small portion of it is dissolved, forming lime water. The lime is so sparingly soluble in water, that the portion dissolved is not more than a 756th part ofthe weight of water present; yet notwithstanding this small quantity, the water has a strong styptic taste, and changes the vegetable cc- lours to a green. The caution to exclude the air in this process arises from the supposition that the lime would combine rapidly with the carbonic acid ofthe atmosphere. After the solution is strained, it is at least necessary that it should be kept in vessels well stopt; and the direction of the London College is preferable, to keep it in contact with the lime, pouring it off when required for use. The London College formerly ordered boiling water to be poured upon the lime, but this was an improper direction, as lime has the pecu- 454 EARTHS, AND EARTHY SALTS. liarity of being more soluble in cold than in hot water. Lime water is the form under which lime is used internally, as a tonic, antacid and lithontriptic. Externally it is applied to sores and ulcers, and as an injection in fistulas and ulcers of the bladder. Aqua calcis composita. Compound Lime Water. Dub. " Take of Guaiac Wood in shavings, half a pound ; Liquorice Root cut and bruised, an ounce ; Bark of Sassafras bruised, half an ounce; Coriander Seeds, three drachms ; Lime Water, six pints. Macerate them without heat for two days in a closed vessel, shaking occasionally, and strain." The lime water can derive little additional power from these ingre- dients, and they, on the other hand, must have their powers very imperfectly extracted. The preparation is one, therefore, which can have little activity. Solutio muriatis calcis. Solution of Muriate of Lime. Ed. " Take of Hard Carbonate of Lime, (namely White Marble,) in small pieces, nine ounces ; Muriatic Acid, sixteen ounces; Water, eight ounces. Mix the acid with the water, and add gradually the pieces of carbonate of lime. The effervescence being finished, digest for an hour. Pour off the liquor, and reduce it by evaporation to dry- ness. Dissolve the residuum in its weight and a half of water, and strain through paper." Calcis murias. Muriate of Lime. Lond. " Take of the Salt which remains in the distillation of Subcarbo- nate of Ammonia, two pounds ; Water, a pint. Mix, and strain through paper ; evaporate the liquor until the dry salt is obtained. Let this be kept in a vessel accurately stopt." Liquor calcis muriatis. Solution of Muriate of Lime. Lond. " Take of Muriate of Lime, two ounces ; Distilled Water, three fluid-ounces. Dissolve the muriate of lime in the water, then strain through paper." Calcis murias. Muriate of Lime. Dub. " Take ofthe Liquor which remains after the distillation of Water of Caustic Ammonia, any quantity. Strain it, and expose it to heat in an open vessel until the muriate of lime become perfectly dry. Keep this in a well-closed vessel." Calcis muriatis aqua. Water of Muriate of Lime. Dub. " Take of Muriate of Lime, two parts ; Distilled Water, seven parts. Dissolve. The sp. gr. ofthe solution is 1202." In the process ofthe Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, the muriatic acid combines with the lime and disengages the carbonic acid ; to remove any superfluous acid, and obtain a solution of uniform strength, the solid salt is obtained by evaporation, and redissolved in a fixed pro- portion of water. In the process of the London College, of prepar- ing subcarbonate of ammonia by decomposing muriate of ammonia, the residual salt is muriate of lime, which by solution and filtration is obtained pure. The Dublin College in like manner procure it from the residuum in the preparation of water of ammonia. When muriate of lime is brought to a state of dryness it is decomposed, the hydrogen of the acid and oxygen of the lime form water, which EARTHS, AND EARTHY SALTS. 455 is carried off in the evaporation, and chloride of calcium remains. These changes are represented in the following diagram : Limp $ Oxygen S^^'V^ e...... ( Calcium 20—__ia.56 Chloride of Calcium. In this dry state, chloride of calcium is used by the Dublin College for the concentration of alcohol, (p. 393,) but for medicinal use it must be dissolved, when the reverse changes happen, and the chlo- ride of calcium becomes again muriate of lime. The solution of muriate of lime, as ordered by the Colleges, is of different degrees of strength, one part of the salt, by the London formula, is dissolved in 1} of water, by the Edinburgh, in 2 parts of water, and by the Dublin formula, in 3i parts of water. Muriate of lime can be ob- tained in crystals, which contain six equivalents of water ; it attracts moisture rapidly from the atmosphere, and is so soluble in water, that that fluid will dissolve it till it become viscid. The solution of muriate of lime is a valuable tonic in scrofula, (p. 128,) and glandu- lar diseases.* Calcis phosphas prjecipitatum. Precipitated Phosphate of Lime. Dub. " Take of Burnt Bones, reduced to powder, one part ; dilute Mu- riatic Acid, Water, of each two parts. Digest them together during twelve hours, and filter the liquor : add to this of water of caustic ammonia as much as may be sufficient to throw down the phosphate of lime. Wash this with a sufficiently large quantity of water, and dry it." It has been already mentioned, that the earthy matter of bones is phosphate of lime, which remains after the animal matter is burnt out. This compound is soluble in muriatic acid, and when, as direct- ed in the process, ammonia is added to the solution, this neutralizes the muriatic acid, and the phosphate of lime, which of itself is inso- luble, is precipitated ; the nature ofthe reaction is exhibited in the following diagram : Ammonia......17 —-—^-54 Muriate of Ammonia. Muriatic Acid. . 37?—~" Phosphoric Acid . 2ft ~-^^ Lime.........28 ___^s*_ 56 ? Phosphate of Lime. By washing with water the muriate of ammonia is removed, and the phosphate of lime obtained in the state of fine powder. It is white and tasteless. It is given in rickets, a disease which seems to be owing to deficiency of phosphate of lime in the bones, in doses * From Dr Murray's views of the nature of mineral waters, it would appear that muriate of lime is one ofthe chief active ingredients in saline waters, and more espe- cially in those which have been found beneficial in scrofula. He was of opinion, that the state of great dilution in which the salt exists favours its action, by enabling it to enter the circulation.—Ed. 456 EARTHS, AND EARTHY SALTS. of from three grains to half a drachm, and combined with tonics, especially carbonate of iron, is said to be beneficial. Carbonas magnesia. Carbonate of Magnesia. Ed. " Take of Sulphate of Magnesia, four parts ; Subcarbonate of Potash, three parts ; Boiling Water, as much as may be necesssary. Let the salts be dissolved separately in twice their weight of warm water, and either strained or otherwise freed from impurities. Then mix them, and immediately add eight times their weight of boiling. water. Boil the liquor for a short time, stirring it ; then allow it to remain at rest, until the heat be diminished a little, and strain it through linen, on which the carbonate of magnesia will remain. Wash it well with pure water, and dry it afterwards by a gentle heat." Magnesije subcarbonas. . Subcarbonate of Magnesia. Lond. " Take of Sulphate of Magnesia, a pound ; Subcarbonate of Pot- ash, nine ounces ; of Water, three gallons. Dissolve separately the subcarbonate of potash in three pints of water, and the sulphate of magnesia in five pints, and strain ; then add the remaining water to the liquor of the sulphate of magnesia, and boil ; add the former li- quor to it whilst it boils, constantly stirring with a spatula : after- wards strain through linen : lastly, wash the powder, by frequently pouring on it boiling water, and dry it on bibulous paper, by a heat of 200°." Carbonas magnksi.e. Carbonate of Magnesia. Dub. " Take of Sulphate of Magnesia, twenty-five parts ; Carbonate of Potash, twenty-four parts ; Boiling Water, four hundred parts. Dissolve the sulphate of magnesia and the subcarbonate of potash, each in two hundred parts of water. Mix the clear liquors, boil the mixture a little, and strain it while warm through linen stretched, so as to collect the magnesia. Wash out the sulphate of potash, by frequently pouring on boiling water ; lastly, dry the carbonate of magnesia." In this process there is a mutual decomposition of the salts, the sulphuric acid ofthe sulphate of magnesia combining with the pot- ash of the carbonate of potash, and the carbonic acid uniting with the magnesia. In the proportion of equal parts of the sulphate and subcarbonate, more of the latter is employed than is necessary ; three parts of it, according to Mr. Phillips, decompose four parts of the sulphate of magnesia, and this proportion is now adopted by the London College. The use of adding the boiling water, and boiling the liquor, is partly to dissolve the sulphate of potash, which is a salt sparingly soluble, and partly to prevent a species of crystalliza tion which the carbonate of magnesia would undergo, rendering it gritty, and thus give it a smoothness which it has not when this pre- caution is not observed. It is useful also in expelling any>excess of carbonic acid which may exist in the subcarbonate of potash. Carbo- nate of magnesia, however, is generally prepared on a large scale from the Bittern, or liquor remaining after the crystallization of mu- riate of soda from sea water, which is principally a solution of mu- EARTHS, AND EARTHY* SALTS. 457 riate of magnesia. This is decomposed by carbonate of potash, or sometimes by an ammoniacal carbonate ; and there are some nice- ties of manipulation requisite to give it the whiteness, lightness, and smoothness, which are valued as marks of its goodness. A certain temperature is required for the preparation ; the precipitate is allowed to subside gently, and the clear liquor above is drawn off; warm water is first added ; when the Saline matter is nearly washed out, cold water is poured on. From the due management of these and other circumstances, the product is superior in these qualities to what it is when prepared by the above process on a small scale. This substance, properly prepared, is nearly insipid, light,, white, and smooth to the touch ; is insoluble in water. Its composition varies both in the proportion of acid and of water ; as commonly prepared, the proportion of acid is less than an equivalent, hence it is named subcarbonate by the London College. It is given as an antacid in a dose from a scruple to a drachm, and usually produces at the same time a laxative effect. It is also given as a palliative in calculous disorders, where there is a disposition to form uric acid. Magnesia. Magnesia. Ed. Dub. " Let Carbonate of Magnesia be exposed in a crucible to a red heat for two hours. Then preserve it in glass phials well stopt." Magnesia. Magnesia. Lond.. " Take of Subcarbonate of Magnesia, four ounces. Calcine it with a very violent heat for two hours, Or until diluted acetic acid dropt upon it does not excite effervescence." By the heat applied, the carbonic acid of the carbonate, and a considerable portion of its water, are expelled, and the pure mag- nesia remains. Small particles of the earth are raised by the gas, giving the appearance of a vapour escaping. It loses rather more than half its weight. A smaller quantity, therefore, ofthe pure mag- nesia, will produce the same effect as a larger ofthe carbonate. It is preferred to the latter, both from this circumstance, and also where, from the abundant acidity on the stomach, flatulence is occa- sioned by the disengagement of carbonic acid when the carbonate is used. The subcarbonate employed in its preparation requires to have been very carefully washed ; for if even a minute quantity of sulphate of potash adheres to it, which is liable to be the case where the washing has not been thoroughly performed, this seems to be decomposed by the heat applied for the calcination, and a disagree- able sulphureous taste is communicated to the calcined magnesia. If properly prepared, magnesia will not exhibit effervescence when touched with an acid. Henry's magnesia, which is held in great- est estimation in this country, js supposed to be prepared by precipi- tation from a solution ofthe sulphate by caustic potash ; it is much denser and heavier than the magnesia prepared by the above method. It appears from the experiments of Dr. Fyfe, that magnesia, like lime, is less soluble in boiling than in cold water. Magnesia sulphas purum. Pure Sulphate of Magnesia. Dub. " Take of Commercial Sulphuric Acid, twenty-five parts ; Water, 58 458 METALLIC PREPARATIONS, one hundred parts; Carbonate of Magnesia, twenty-four parts, or as much as may be required to saturate tho acid. Mix the sulphuric acid and water, and then gradually add the carbonate of magnesia. Lastly, evaporate the filtered liquor, so that crystals may form on cooling." This process will certainly never be put in practice while sul- phate of magnesia can be procured, on the great scale, from sea water, at a much less expense. CHAP. XXIII. METALLICA--METALLIC PREPARATIONS. The metallic preparations form some of our most important remedies. They are those most liable to uncertainty in their operation, from variations in the process to which they are subjected; they are at the same time those which, from their activity, it is necessary to have least variable in strength. The principles, therefore, which regulate their combinations, so far as these are connected with their pharmaceutic preparation, are highly important, and require some illustration before proceeding to the individual preparations. The general characters of the metals have been already consider- ed, (p. 17.) The metals used in medicines are, Silver, Quicksilver, Copper, Iron, Lead, Tin, Zinc, Bismuth, Antimony, and Arsenic. Metals in their pure state, being insoluble in the animal fluids, can scarcely exert any action on the system. Tin, by a mechanical ac- tion, is supposed to have an anthelmintic power: some ofthe others, as iron, copper, and lead, have been supposed to be capable of be- ing acted on by the gastric fluids, so as to produce certain effects ; but in general they must be combined with other agents to render their action powerful and certain ; and it is their preparations only that are used in medicine. The simplest form of combination in which metals are administer- ed is in the state of Oxide. Their oxidation is generally effected by the action of atmospheric air, assisted by heat, sometimes by defla- gration with nitre, and sometimes also by acids, the acid being after- wards abstracted by the action of a substance exerting an affinity to it. The first mode always gives the oxide in its purest form ; in the second mode, a portion ofthe alkali ofthe nitre often combines with the oxide ; in the third, a portion of acid often adheres to it. The principal objection to the use of metals in the state of oxides is the uncertainty of these being always of the same composition. Almost every metal is capable of combining with oxygen in several proportions ; and its power of acting on the living system, in com- mon with all its qualities, is much influenced by the quantity with which it is combined. And farther, the different oxides which a me- tal forms are frequently intermixed, in various proportions, with each METALLIC FREPARAT10NS. 459 other ; the proportions of each varying, with slight diversities of cir- cumstances in the operation by which they are formed, so as to pro- duce apparently an indefinite number of oxides. Hence the uncer- tainty to which such preparations are liable. And the consideration of this ought to establish a rule in Pharmacy, which has been too much neglected, that when a process for the preparation of any me- tallicoxide has been established, and practitioners have become accus- tomed to its powers and strength, it ought not to be varied or changed, from the idea of some trivial improvement; as an alteration of cir- cumstances, apparently of little importance, may give rise to an im- portant change in the result. The other form of preparation under which metals are principally administered, is that in which the metallic oxide is combined with an acid. Compounds of this kind are generally more active than those in which the metal is merely oxidated. The acid perhaps imparts additional activity, and the compound being generally soluble, must act more powerfully on the stomach, and be more readily received into the circulating mass, than the oxides, which are usually insoluble. These combinations are generally formed by subjecting the metal to the action of the acid. The acid first yields to it oxygen, either directly, by parting with a portion of what it contains, or by a result- ing affinity, enabling it to attract oxygen from the water which may be present, or from the atmospheric air. With the oxide formed in either of these modes, the acid combines. As a metal can exist in different degrees of oxidation, so it may enter into combination with acids with different proportions of oxy- gen, and, from this circumstance, important differences in their me- dicinal powers are' in such cases established. In general, when a metal is acted on by a weak acid, or one much diluted, a salt, containing the protoxide of that metal, is formed. If the acid be used in a concentrated state, and heat be employed to increase the energy of action, the metal often passes to the state of peroxide. Or if the compound ofthe acid and the protoxide be ex- posed for some time to the air, the metal gradually attracts oxygen, and a salt of the peroxide results. Now, the salts ofthe protoxide of a metal, in general, differ greatly in medicinal power from those of the peroxide; and as the two may exist in various degrees of in- termixture, according to the circumstances under which they are formed and preserved, a want of uniformity in the medicinal activi- ty of such preparations is a too frequent consequence. Another source of uncertainty in the composition of the metallic salts, is, that the metallic oxide can combine with several propor- tions of acid. We can have the compound with the acid and metal- lic oxide combined in those proportions which give rise to neutrali- zation, but we can have it. also with excess of acid, or excess of base; 'and each of these will give a preparation different in power, and liable to be very differently affected by other chemical agents. This is often displayed in preparing metallic compounds by the medium of acids. From the uncertainty to which the oxidation of metals, by the application of heat, is liable, it has frequently been proposed to obtain the product in the humid way, the metal being 460 preparations of antimony. dissolved in an acid, and this acid when abstracted by a substance exerting an affinity to it, the metal will be precipitated in its oxidat- ed state. But these precipitates are not in general pure oxides, as they have been supposed to be : they retain a portion ofthe acid with which the oxide is combined, and are therefore sub-salts. They are sometimes thrown down merely by water, and they then retain a considerable proportion of acid; and even when subjected to the more powerful action of an alkali, the whole of the acid is not ab- stracted, the influence of quantity adding so much to the force of af- finity, that a portion of it is retained by the oxide. From these observations, the necessity is apparent, of defining exactly the processes for the preparation of metallic remedies, and of using every precaution to exclude causes which might produce variation in the products. The nomenclature ofthe metallic oxides has been already ex- plained, (p. 18,) and of the metallic salts, (p. 24.) Compounds of metals with chlorine and /with sulphur are also used in medicine. Of the former, the greater number exist as chlorides only when in the dry state, being converted into salts of muriatic acid when dissolved in water; and in that condition in which they are employed, the remarks which have been given respecting me- tallic salts apply to them ; such of the sulphurets too as are active are those which are soluble, and become hydrosulphurets of oxides. The insoluble chlorides and sulphurets are, with the exception of calomel, of little activity. ANTIMONIUM—ANTIMONY. Sulphuretum antimonii prjsparatum. Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony. Ed. "Put Sulphuret of Antimony, rubbed to powder in an iron mortar, and afterwards levigated upon a porphyry stone, in a large vessel; then pour upon it water, which, after shaking the vessel frequently, is to be poured off, loaded with fine powder. After the water has settled, the powder will subside, and then may be dried. The coarse powder which the water cannot suspend is to be again levigated, and treated in the same manner." Antimonii sulphuretum frjEparatum. Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony. Dub. " Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, any quantity. Reduce to pow- der, and in the manner prescribed for the preparation of chalk, se- parate the finest particles, which are to be reserved for use." This preparation is merely levigation ; in this levigated state, the sulphuret of antimony has been supposed to act with more certainty than when in coarse powder. It is, however, a very inactive reme- dy. In chronic rheumatism, it has been given in a dose of five or ten grains daily. It has been used also in cutaneous diseases, in scrofula, and glandular obstructions. It has been applied externally to cancerous sores. Oxidum antimonii cum phosphate calcis, olim Pulvis Antimonialis. preparations of antimony. 461 Oxide of Antimony with Phosphate of Lime, or Antimonial Powder. Ed. "Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, rubbed to a coarse powder, Hartshorn Shavings, equal parts. Mix and throw them into an iron pot, not very deep, red hot, and stir them constantly until they are burnt into a matter of a grey colour, which remove from the fire, rub to powder, and put into a'coated crucible. Lute to this crucible another inverted, in the bottom of which a small hole is drilled ; ap- ply the fire which is to be gradually raised to a white heat, and kept at this increased heat for two hours. Lastly, triturate the matter, when cold, into a very fine powder." Pulvis antimonialis. Antimonial Powder. Lond. " Take of Sulphuret of Antimony in powder, a pound ; Shavings of Horn, two pounds. Mix, and throw them into a broad crucible, at a white heat, stirring constantly, until the vapours cease to exhale. What remains rub to powder, and put it into a proper crucible. Then apply heat, and increase it gradually to a white heat for two hours. Rub the residuum, so that it shall form a very fine powder." Pulvis antimonialis. Antimonial Powder. Dub. " Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, one part; Shavings of Harts- horn, two parts. Mix them, and throw the mixture into an open iron pot heated to redness, stirring constantly until the vapours of sulphur cease to exhale, and the matter becomes of a grey colour. Rub the matter when cold into powder, and put it jnto a crucible. Adapt to this another inverted, in the bottom of which is a small hole. Cal- cine the matter with a heat gradually raised to a white heat, for two hours; when cold, rub it into a very fine powder." This process has been introduced into the Pharmacopceias, as af- fording a preparation similar to , the empirical medicine, James's Powder, justly celebrated as a remedy in fever. Nothing more was known of this, than that it was an antimonial, until its analysis was undertaken by Dr. Pearson. He found the genuine powder of James to consist of 43 parts of phosphate of lime, and 57 of an oxide of antimony, part of which was vitrified; and, by the above process, he was able to prepare a powder similar to it in qualities and chemi- cal composition. The theory of the process is sufficiently obvious. During the first stage, the animal matter ofthe bones is decomposed and burnt out ; the sulphur ofthe sulphuret of antimony is expelled, and the metal is imperfectly oxidated. In the second stage of the process the metal is more completely oxidated, the oxide is partially vitrified, and is perhaps brought into combination with the phosphate of lime, which is the residuum of the bones. This latter supposi- tion remains, however, uncertain. That portion at least ofthe oxide which is vitrified cannot be combined with the phosphate ; the other may be in this state of combination, as Dr. Pearson supposed. Chenevix, from his experiments on the powder, supposed them rather to be merely intimately mixed. He found too, that in the prepara- tion obtained by Pearson's process, more of the oxide of antimony is vitrified than in the genuine James's powder, the proportion in the one being 44 in 100 of the oxide, in the other only 28. 462 preparations of antimony. The Pharmacopceias differ in the proportion of horn shavings to be used ; the Colleges of London and Dublin employing twice the quantity that is ordered by the Edinburgh College. This change renders the preparation less similar to the original James's powder, but is said to prevent the vitrification of so much of the oxide, and also to afford a whiter product, that prepared with the larger propor- tion of sulphuret of antimony having always a yellow shade. Mr. Chenevix proposed a method of obtaining this preparation in the humid way, by dissolving equal weights of submuriate of antimo- ny and pure phosphate of lime in muriatic acid, and then precipi- tating them by pouring the solution into water of ammonia. This preparation appeared, from some trials, to be more active in its ope- ration than the other. Mr. Brande states, that it is liable to become gritty, and difficult to reduce to powder. James's powder has been celebrated as a remedy in febrile affec- tions, (p. 177, 233). It acts as a general evacuant, occasioning sweat, purging, and frequently vomiting ; and, by this general action, appears sometimes to arrest the progress of fever, if given at its commencement, or to produce a more favourable crisis. The pre- paration obtained by the process of the Pharmacopceias is said not to be so certain or so powerful as the powder of James. But both the one and the other are very uncertain in their operation, some- times even in large doses producing no effect, at other times acting with too much power. Such differences used to be ascribed to idio- syncracy, but they seem rather to arise from Variation in the compo- sition of the powder. The efficacy of the remedy, Mr. Brande is of opinion, depends not on the large quantity of peroxide of antimony it contains, for this is an inert substance, but on the proportion of protoxide of antimony in it. And sometimes he has found five per cent, of the protoxide, sometimes again scarcely any. Mr. Phillips has shewn that the quantity of peroxide likewise varies. This un- certainty of composition is the chief objection tp what is otherwise a valuable remedy. Sulphuretum antimonii pr^cipitatum. Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony. Ed. " Take of Water of Potash, four pounds'; Water, three pounds ; Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony, two pounds; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, as much as may be necessary. Mix the Sulphuret with the Water of Potash and Water, then boil in a covered iron pot, on a gentle fire, for three hours, stirring frequently with an iron spatula, and adding water as it may he necessary. Strain the hot liquor through a double linen cloth, and to this strained liquor, add as much diluted sulphuric acid as may be necessary to precipitate the sulphu- ret, which is to be carefully washed with warm water." Antimonii sulphuretum pr^scipitatum. Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony. Lond. • "Take of Sulphuret of Antimony in powder, two pounds ; Liquor of Potash, four pints ; Distilled Water, three pints ; Dilute Sulphuric Acid, as much as may be necessary. Mix the Sulphuret of Antimony, Liquor of Potash, and water, and boil with a gentle heat for three preparations of antimony. 463 hours, stirring constantly, and adding occasionally distilled water, so that it may keep up the same measure. Strain the liquor immediately through a double linen cloth ; gradually drop into it, while still warm, the diluted sulphuric acid, as much as is sufficient to precipitate the powder, then remove the sulphate of potash, by washing with warm water : dry the precipitated sulphuret of antimony, and rub it to fine powder." Sulphur antimoniatum fuscum. Brown Antimoniated Sulphur. Dub. " Take of Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony, one part; Water of Caustic Potash, eighteen parts ; Dilute Sulphuric Acid, eleven parts, or as much as may be necessary. Add the Sulphuret of Antimony to the Water of Caustic Potash, and boil for an hour. Strain the hot liquor through a double linen cloth, and drop into it. the diluted sul- phuric acid. Wash away the sulphate of potash with warm water. Dry the brown arttimonial sulphur, and rub it into fine powder." In the first part of this process sulphuret of antimony is boiled with a solution of potash, the sulphur takeshydrogen from the water present, and the antimony oxygen ; sulphuretted hydrogen and prot- oxide of antimony result, which form with the potash a double hy- drosulphurel of antimony and potash. When the sulphuric acid is added, it breaks the combination by uniting with the potash, and an orange precipitate falls down, named by the Colleges Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony. Much pains have been bestowed on the examination of this .compound, but its nature is not yet ascertained with certainty. It used to be regarded as a hy'drosulphuret of prot- oxide of antimony. It is now believed that the oxygen of the oxide, and the hydrogen of the sulphuretted hydrogen, quit the elements with which they were united, and exist in the precipitate in the state of combined water, or the compound is one of sulphuret of antimony and water. If, instead of adding sulphuric acid to the hot solution, the latter be allowed to stand, as it cools a red precipitate falls from it, which has been long known under the name of Kermes Mineral, and is a favourite remedy on the continent. According to Gay-Lussac it consists of two equivalents of sulphuret of antimony, combined with one equivalent of protoxide of antimony, and a portion of water. Lastly, if after the kermes has subsided, and been withdrawn by filtering, an acid be added to the solution, a precipitate of a yellow colour is thrown down, which has been named Golden Sulphuret of Antimony. It is said to be a bisulphuret of antimony, combined with water. Three preparations of different composition are thus obtained from the original solution of hydrosulphuret of antimony and potash. The first, procured by the immediate addition of an acid, is the hy- drosulphuret of protoxide of antimony, or at least has the elements in those proportions. The second, which subsides without the ad- dition of acid, contains/besides protoxide of antimony; and, after its subsidence, the addition of acid throws down the third, which, owing to the metallic oxide being in part withdrawn, contains an excess of sulphur. 464 PREPARATIONS OF ANTIMONY. With regard to the process, it may be remarked, that the quan- tity ofthe products may be materially increased, by using more pot- ash, and by adding a portion of sulphur, the proportion of sulphur in the native sulphuret not being sufficient to render the whole of the metal soluble, and a quantity of, it, therefore, without this addition remaining undissolved. These preparations are'little esteemed in this country ; they act like other antimonials, but are neither .energetic nor certain. As the kermes mineral is much used abroad, the following process by M. Cluzel may be given as the best method of preparing it: Dis- solve 90 parts of crystallized carbonate of soda in 1000 of water, and add 4 parts of the " prepared sulphuret of antimony ;", the mix- ture is to be boiled for half an hour, then filtered when hot into a warm vessel; after standing twenty-four hours, the deposite is to be collected on a filter, washed with cold water, and dried on bibulous paper ; it is the Kermes Mineral. It may be given in doses of five or six grains. Tartras antimonii, olim Tartarus Emeticus. Tartrate of Anti- mony, formerly Tartar Emetic. Ed. " Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, Nitrate of Potash, of each equal weights ; Supertartrate of Potash, as much as may be neces- sary. The Sulphuret and Nitrate being separately triturated, are to be well mixed, and then thrown into a red hot crucible. When the deflagration has finished, separate the red matter from the white crust, and rub it down to a very fine powder, which is to be washed several times with warm water, and then dried. "Equal weights of this, powder and the supertartrate of potash are to be triturated together, and the mixture boiled for an hour in a glass vessel, with four times its weight of distilled water; then strain it through paper, and set aside the strained solution so as to form crystals." Antimonium tartakizatum. Tartarized Antimony. Lond. " Take of Glass of Antimony reduced to a very fine powder, and Supertartrate of Potash, in powder, of each one pound ; Boiling Distilled Water, a gallon. Mix the glass of antimony thoroughly with the supertartrate of potash, and throw them gradually into the boiling distilled water, constantly stirring with a spatula; boil for a quarter of an hour and put aside. Strain the liquor when cold, and boil down the strained liquor that crystals may form." Antimonii et potass^ tartras, sive Tartarum Emeticum. Tar- trate of Antimony and Potash, or Emetic Tartar. Dub. " Take of Nitromuriatic Oxide of Antimony four parts ; Bitar- trate of Potash, in very fine powder, five parts ; Distilled Water, thirty-four parts. Boil the water in a glass vessel, then throw into it gradually the oxide and tartar previously mixed together, and boil for half an hour ; straimthe liquor through paper, and let it cool slowly that crystals may form." The excess of tartaric acid in the bitartrate of potash is capable of combining with a number of metallic oxides, and of forming ternary compounds. With the protoxide of antimony it unites with facility, PREPARATIONS OF ANTIMONY. 465 forming a combination of this kind, which constitutes the present preparation. In all the processes, the tartaric acid of the bitartrate dissolves a portion of the oxide of antimony, and a triple compound of oxide, acid and potash crystallizes ; it is not therefore a tartrate of antimony, but a tartrate of antimony and potash, and the name given to it in two of the Pharmacopceias is chemically incorrect, and is so without any necessity. Tartras Antimonii et Potassae is its proper appellation. This being the most important of all the antimonials, the mode of preparing it has much engaged the attention of chemists. The principal object of their researches has been to obtain an oxide, not too expensive in its preparation, which shall combine easily with the tartaric acid. In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, it is the object ofthe first part of this process to form an impure oxide, known by the name of Crocus of Antimony. It is prepared by deflagrating sulphuret of antimony with nitre. In the deflagration, the nitric acid of the nitrate of potash is decomposed, and its oxygen is attract- ed, partly by the sulphur and partly by the antimony. The sulphu- rous acid, which is the principal product ofthe oxygenation of the sulphur, is in part dissipated, and in part combined with the potash ; and with a little sulphuric acid likewise produced, forms the white crust which is directed to be removed. By the union of another portion ofthe oxygen with the antimony, a quantity of protoxide of the metal is formed, and part ofthe sulphuret of antimony escaping decomposition or oxygenation, remains combined with the oxide. The preparation, therefore, consists of protoxide of antimony with sulphuret of antimony, in the proportions, according to Proust, of three parts of the former and one of the latter. It is of a reddish-brown co- lour : what is to be found in the shops is of a grey colour, and is usu- ally prepared, very improperly, with a diminished proportion of nitre. This preparation, however, is liable to several objections. The crocus of antimony of the shops, which, in general, will be used by the apothecary, is usually prepared by the trading chemist ; and the fraud has become common of preparing it without the due pro- portion of nitre, so that it is not properly oxidated, and is hence not easily soluble in the tartaric acid. Even when it is properly pre- pared, its state of aggregation, as Mr. Phillips has remarked, pre- vents it from being dissolved so as to saturate the tartaric acid, un- less it be reduced to a very fine powder by levigation, which ren- ders the process expensive. The submuriate of antimony is free from these objections ; and the process introduced by the Dublin College is designed to afford it by a method of easy execution. It is said to succeed sufficiently, and the chief objection to it is the expense incurred in the previous process of the preparation of the oxide, from the large quantity of muriatic acid employed. One advantage of using it, mentioned by Mr. Phillips, is, that the muriatic acid combines with a portion of lime, which is often present in the cream of tartar, and prevents an intermixture of tartrate of lime with the tartar emetic. The London College employ the Glass of Antimony, which has been already (p. 177) described. The principal objection to it is, 466 PREPARATIONS OF ANTIMONY. that it contains a portion of siliceous earth, which enters with the oxide of antimony into combination with the tartaric acid, and, when the liquor is evaporated, gives to it a gelatinous consistence, and prevents the crystallization. This, however, scarcely forms a just objection ; for it is proper, in the crystallization of this salt, not to carry the evaporation of its solution too far. The glass of antimony is therefore, on the whole, as proper an oxide as could be employed. It sometimes, according to Mr. Phillips, contains carbonate of lime, to remove which, he recommends that it should be first boiled with dilute sulphuric acid. Mr. Phillips has proposed a process, different from any of these, for preparing tartar emetic. It is, to boil 100 parts of metallic an- timony to dryness, with 200 of sulphuric acid; then to mix the re- sulting subsulphate with an equal weight of bitartrate of potash, and boil them in an iron vessel, when, at the first crystallization, 9 parts in 10 ofthe emetic tartar will be procured. This process, he says, is easy and expeditious, and the product is not of uncertain composition. When, by boiling the materials together, the tartrate of antimony and potash has been formed, the evaporation should be continued till a pellicle forms on the surface ; the solution is then to be set aside, and the salt will separate by crystallization. In the Dublin process a much larger proportion of water is ordered than in the others; and as the evaporation is not carried far, a considerable quantity of tartar emetic must be lost in the residual liquor. Tartrate of antimony and potash crystals in tetrahedrons, or in small octohedrons, which are slightly efflorescent. It has a styptic metallic taste, and is soluble, according to Dr. Duncan, in three parts of boiling, or fifteen parts of cold water. Its degree of solu- bility affords a method of judging whether it is well prepared. It consists, according to Dr. Thompson and Mr. Phillips, of two equi- valents of tartaric acid, 132, three of protoxide of antimony, 156, one of potash, 48, and three of water, 27=363. Dr. Barker suspects, that, as commonly prepared, it often contains an intermixture of bi- tartrate of potash. It is very susceptible of decomposition, suffering it not only from alkalis, earths, acids, and a number of neutral salts, but even from vegetable infusions and decoctions, the vegetable matter attracting apparently part of the oxygen of the oxide,—decompositions, the occurrence of which requires to be guarded against in extempora- neous prescription. If kept dissolved in water, it is decomposed, from the spontaneous decomposition ofthe tartaric acid. This preparation is superior to the other antimonials in the cer- tainty of its operation, and from its solubility is more manageable with regard to dose. Its medicinal applications have been already considered, (p. 178, 233, 254.) Vinum tartratis antimonii. Wine of Tartrate of Antimony. Ed. " Take of Tartrate of Antimony, twenty-four grains ; White Span ish Wine, one pound. Mix, so that the tartrate of antimony may be dissolved." Antimonial Wine was formerly prepared by macerating white PREPARATIONS of antimony. 467 wine on the Vitrified Oxide of Antimony in powder, the tartaric acid of the wine dissolving a portion of the oxide, so that the wine ac- quired the powers of an antimonial preparation. It was liable to be variable in strength, from the proportion of acid in the wine not being uniform. The present preparation was therefore substituted for it. It may be doubted, however, whether it is properly officinal. The salt, dis- solved in wine, can indeed be preserved longer without decomposi- tion than when dissolved in water ; but still, on long keeping, part of the antimonial oxide is deposited. It is given as an emetic in the dose of one ounce : as a diaphoretic, in a dose of one or two drachms. When newly prepared, it contains two grains of emetic tartar in a fluid-ounce. Vinum antimonii tartarizati. Wine of Tartarized Antimony. Lond. LiauoR tartari emetici. Liquor of Emetic Tartar. Dub. " Take of Tartarized Antimony, a scruple ; Boiling Distilled Water, eight fluid-ounces ; Rectified Spirit, two fluid-ounces. Dis- solve the tartarized antimony in the boiling distilled water : than To the strained liquor add the spirit." ■■, ■■ u.v The name of Vinum, given to this preparation by the London Col- lege, though incorrect, is intended to shew that it is a substitute for the antimonial wine that was before in the Pharmacopoeia. It is of the same strength as the former, and in this respect agrees with the analogous preparation in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. It is less Iiable°to spontaneous decomposition : the counteracting this indeed is the only use of the alcohol, for tartarized antimony is insoluble in alcohol alone. Oxydum antimonii nitromuriaticum. Nitromuriatic Oxide of An- timony. Dub. " Take of Prepared Sulphuret of Antimony, twenty parts ; Muri- atic Acid, one hundred parts ; Nitrous Acid, by measure, one part. Add the sulphuret gradually to the acids, priviously mixed in a glass vessel, avoiding the vapours ; then digest with a heat gradually rais- ed until the mixture cease to effervesce; lastly, boil for an hour. Strain the liquor when cold, and receive it in a gallon of water ; wash the oxide of antimony which is precipitated with a sufficient quantity of water, until the decanted liquor appear, by the test of lit- mus, to be free from acid ; lastly, dry the oxide on bibulous paper." It has been an object of considerable importance in Pharmacy, to procure a pure oxide of antimony in a loose state of aggregation, which might be employed in the preparation of some of the other antimonials, particularly of the tartrate of antimony and potash, With this view, this process was introduced into the Dublin Pharma- copoeia. The first step is to form protomuriate of antimony, which is done by heating sulphuret of antimony in muriatic acid, to which a small portion of nitric acid is added. The antimony, aided by the resulting affinity of the muriatic acid, attracts oxygen from the water presentfand becomes protoxide of antimony, with which the muriatic acid combines; the sulphur of the sulphuret, and the hydrogen of the water, at the same time unite and escape in the form of sulphu" 468 PREPARATIONS OF SILVER. retted hydrogen. The following diagram exhibits the nature of this reaction: _ w (Hydrogen 1" ~~P' 17 Sulphuretted Hydrogen. y Water----$ Oxygen . *^^ 60 Sulphuret of \ Sulphur . lG^v Antimony (Antimony 44v^\\ 37 Muriatic Acid......37___^X». 89 Muriate of Antimony. The solution of muriate of antimony is poured into a large quan- tity of water, which exerting a stronger affinity to the acid than the oxide of antimony does, abstracts the greater part of it, and the oxide of antimony is precipitated. It is not, however, a pure oxide that is obtained, but rather a submuriate, a portion ofthe acid still adhering to it. According to Mr. Phillips, it consists of one equivalent of acid and nine of protoxide of antimony. The acid may be complete. ly abstracted by submitting the precipitate to the action of subcarbon- ate of potash dissolved in water. But this is scarcely necessary ; and there is.even reason to believe, that for the purpose to which this oxX'e is "designed to be applied, that of preparing tartar emetic, the presence of a little muriatic acid, instead of being detrimental, is useful (p. 435.) The use ofthe small quantity of nitric acid ordered in the formula, is to decompose any portion of sulphuretted hydrogen which might be retained in solution in the muriate, and might discolour the preci- pitate. The chief objection to this process is, that it is rather expensive, from the large quantity of muriatic acid employed in proportion to the quantity of antimony. It might, however, be conjoined advan- tageously with the process for the preparation of hydriodate of potash, or of hydrosulphuret of ammonia, in which a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas is required. ARGENTUM—SILVER. Nitras argenti. Nitrate of Silver. Ed. "Take ofthe Purest Silver, extended in plates and cut, one part; Diluted Nitrous Acid, two parts ; Distilled Water, one part. Dis- Bolve the silver in the acid and water previously mixed in a phial, with a gentle heat, and evaporate the solution to dryness. The mass being put into a large crucible, let this be placed on the fire, which must be at first gentle, and gradually increased until the matter flow like oil. Then pour it into iron pipes, heated and nibbed with grease. Lastly, keep it in a glass vessel well stopt." Argenti nitras. Nitrate of Silver. Lond. " Take of Silver, an ounce ; Nitric Acid, a fluid-ounce ; Distilled Water, two fluid-ounces. Mix the nitric acid with the water, and dissolve the silver in it in a sand-bath, and gradually increase the heat, that the nitrate of silver may be dried. Melt in a crucible, with a gentle heat, until the water being expelled, ebullition ceases ; then immediately pour it into proper moulds." Argenti nitratis crysialli. Crystals of Nitrate of Silver. Dub. " Take of Silver in plates, and cut, thirty-seven parts ; Dilute PREPARATIONS of arsenic. 469 Nitric Acid, sixty parts. Put the silver into a glass vessel, and pour on it the acid previously diluted with water. Dissolve the acid with a heat gradually increased ; then by evaporation and refrigeration, let crystals be formed, which are to be dried without heat, and to be preserved in a glass vessel in a dark place." Argenti nitras fusum. Fused Nitrate of Silver. Dub. " Dissolve Silver in dilute nitric acid as above described, then evaporate the liquor to dryness. Melt by a slow heat the residuum put into a crucible ; then pour it into proper moulds, and keep it in a glass vessel." The silver in these processes is oxidated, and dissolved by the nitric acid, and the product, nitrate of silver, obtained in a dry state ; nitric oxide gas is disengaged, which, as it meets with atmospheric air, is converted into the red vapours of nitrous acid. The metal is seldom free from an alloy of copper, which gives a greenish colour to the solution ; but on slow evaporation the nitrate of silver crys- tallizes apart from any copper, and hence the Dublin College order these crystals to be procured separately for internal administration. The crystals are tables or rhombs ; they have an intensely bitter taste ; by exposure to light they are blackened from decomposition. When the nitrate of silver is procured dry and fused, it forms lunar caustic. The crucible should be large, as it swells much before melting, and the drops of it which are thrown out should be avoided, being highly caustic ; the heat applied must be moderate, otherwise it will decompose the salt. Nitrate of silver given internally acts as a tonic, and has been found of considerable though irregular ef- ficacy in the cure of epilepsy, chorea and other spasmodic diseases, (p. 106). The fused salt is a powerful escharotic, and has the ad- vantage of being easily applied and confined, and of acting quickly ; hence it is the escharotic in most common use, (p. 257). In ulce- rated sore throat, of the tarsi palpebrarum, as an injection in fistu- lous sores, and as a lotion for aphthae, it is of much service. ARSENICUM--ARSENIC. Solutio arsenicalis. Solution of Arsenic. Ed. " Take of Oxide of Arsenic reduced to a very fine powder, Pure Subcarbonate of Potash, of each sixty-four grains; Distilled Water, fourteen ounces. Boil in a glass vessel on a slow fire, until the whole oxide be dissolved, and when cool, add Compound Spirit of Lavender, half an ounce ; Distilled Water, as much as will make the whole liquor amount to sixteen ounces." Liquor arsenicalis. Arsenical Solution. Lond. Dub. "Take of Sublimed White Arsenic, rubbed to a very fine powder, Subcarbonate of Potash from Tartar, of each sixty-four (sixty, Dub.) o-rains ; Compound Spirit of Lavender, four fluid-drachms ; Distilled Water,' a pint, (half a pint, Dub). Boil the White Arsenic and Sub- carbonate of Potash in the water in a glass vessel until the arsenic is entirely dissolved. To the solution, when cold, add the Compound Spirit of Lavender : then add as much Distilled Water as may be necessary to make up the measure of a pint." 470 PREPARATIONS OF ARSENIC The substance named Oxide of Arsenic is now commonly consi- dered as an acid, and named Arsenious Acid. It is not very soluble in water, hence in this preparation it is combined with potash, which renders the solution more perfect, and such as can be depended upon in regulating the dose. The formula was introduced by Dr. Fowler, as giving a substitute for the arsenical preparation known under the name of Tasteless Ague Drop. Each ounce of the solution contains four grains of the oxide. The dose is four drops three times a-day, as a remedy in intermittent fever, given with the precautions which have been pointed out under its medical history, (p. 121). The spirit of lavender is designed to communicate colour and flavour to pre- vent its being mistaken for water; but it would,have been better to have added some other tincture, the flavour of which is less common- ly known, and the taste less grateful, so as to have guarded against the possibility of the solution being incautiously swallowed. The Dublin College have reduced the quantity of arsenic from 64 to 60 grains in a pint, on the ground that it may be weighed with less chance of mistake by a drachm weight than by grains, a reason for which it was scarcely proper to alter the strength of so powerful a remedy. Arsenicum album sublimatum. . Sublimed White Arsenic. Lond. Dub. " Triturate White Arsenic into powder ; then put it into a crucible, and applying heat, sublime it into another crucible placed over the former, (avoiding the vapours. Dub)." Oxide of Arsenic, or Arsenious Acid, is usually obtained by sub- limation from the ores of cobalt, in which it is contained, and which are roasted with the view of obtaining the oxide of cobalt for the purposes to which it is applied in the arts. The arsenical oxide is collected in the chimney and flues of the furnace ; it is impure, but is usually purified by sublimation before it is brought to the shops, and is in the state either of a solid cake or a powder. Oxide of ar- senic is a substance so very active, that any foreign matter it can contain in this state can be of no importance, and the present pro- cess is altogether superfluous. It is used to form the arsenical liquor ; it has also been given dissolved in water ; but its solubility is so much affected by slight circumstances, that the strength of the solution cannot be depended on. Dr. Barker remarks, that after a time the solution lets fall the greater part of the oxide. bismuthum—bismuth. Bismuthi subnitras. Subnitrate of Bismuth. Lond. " Take of Bismuth, an ounce ; Nitric Acid, a fluid-ounce and a half; Distilled Water, three pints. Mix six fluid-drachms ofthe Dis- tilled Water with the Nitric Acid, and dissolve in these the Bismuth, then strain. Add the rest of the water to the strained solution, and put it aside that the powder may subside. Then having poured off the liquor above, wash the Subnitrate of Bismuth with distilled wa- ter, and dry it, wrapt up in bibulous paper, with a gentle heat." preparations of bismuth. 471 Bismuthi subnitras. Subnitrate of Bismuth. Dub. "Take of Bismuth reduced to powder, seven parts; Dilute Ni- tric Acid, twenty parts ; Distilled Water, one hundred parts. Gra- dually add the bismuth to the acid, and dissolve with the aid of heat. Mix the solution with the water, and set it aside that the precipitate may subside. Wash this with distilled water, and dry it on bibulous paper with a gentle heat." This preparation consists of oxide of bismuth and a small pro- portion of nitric acid. In obtaining it a nitrate of bismuth is first prepared, which subsists by so weak an affinity, that the addition of a large quantity of water abstracts the greater portion of the acid, and the oxide is precipitated combined with the remainder. This subnitrate is insoluble and tasteless. Its administration has been found useful in dyspepsia, cardialgia, and gastrodynia, (p. 127). cuprum—COPPER. Cupri subacetas pr^eparatum. Prepared Subacetate of Copper. Dub. " Let the Subacetate of Copper be rubbed to powder, and the mi- nute particles be separated in the manner directed for the prepara- tion of chalk." In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia the name of subacetate of copper is given to verdigris, which is, strictly speaking, acetate of copper. The above process seems to be intended to reduce verdigris to a state of very fine powder by trituration and washing with water, as in the manner in which chalk is prepared, (p. 452.) This intention, however, will not be fulfilled, as Mr. Phillips has shown that verdigris is decomposed by water, being resolved into a binacetate of copper, and a green precipitate, which is a true subacetate, composed of one equivalent of acetic acid and two equivalents of peroxide of copper. Three equivalents of verdigris are resolved into an equivalent of each of these salts, as represented in the following diagram: 131 Verdigris $ Ac€,ic Acit* • ■ 5l---^3^r182 Binacetate of Copper. ° ( Perox. Copper 80- ~" ... ,r ,. . ( Acetic Acid .. 51. 131 Verdisris < D /-■ on. ° ( Perox. Copper 80- 111 v a- ■ S Acetic Acid .. 51. Ml veroi-r is ^ Perox Copper 80 — =3*211 Subacetate of Copper. The verdigris should therefore be carefully triturated without the addition of water. The powder is used as a mild escharotic. Ammoniaretum cupri. Ammoniaret of Copper. Ed. Cuprum ammoniatum. Ammoniated Copper. Dub. " Take of Pure Sulphate of Copper, two parts ; Subcarbonate of Ammonia, three parts. Rub them thoroughly in a glass mortar until all effervescence is finished, and they unite uniformly into a violet- coloured mass, which being wrapt in bibulous paper, is to be dried first on a chalk stone, and afterwards with a gentle heat. It is to be kept in a glass phial well stopt." 472 preparations of copper. Cuprum ammoniatum. Ammoniated Copper. Lond. " Take of Sulphate of Copper, half an ounce ; of Subcarbonate of Ammonia, six drachms. Rub them together in a glass mortar until effervescence cease; then dry the ammoniated copper, wrapt up in bibulous paper, with a gentle heat." The sulphate of copper employed is a bisulphate, containing likewise a large portion of water of crystallization. When it is tri- turated with the carbonate of ammonia, the excess of sulphuric acid attracts the ammonia, expelling the carbonic acid which is disengaged with effervescence, at the same time the water of the two salts is liberated, and renders the mass humid. The compound formed is a sulphate of ammonia and peroxide of copper, but not of very defi- nite constitution. It is of a deep blue colour, which it retains when dried. It must be kept in a well-closed phial, otherwise the ammonia is exhaled and the colour lost. The preparation has been chiefly employed as a remedy in epilepsy ; and for internal administration, it has the advantage over other salts of copper, of being less liable to excite vomiting. Liquor cupri ammoniati. Solution of Ammoniated Copper. Lond. " Take of Ammoniated Copper, a drachm ; Distilled Water, a pint. Dissolve the ammoniated copper in the water, and filter the solution through paper." Cupri Ammoniati aqua. Water of Ammoniated Copper. Dub. " Take of Ammoniated Copper, one part; Distilled Water, one hundred parts. Dissolve and filter through paper." The large quantity of water ordered in this formula decomposes part ofthe ammoniaret of copper, precipitating the peroxide. Mr. Phillips found, that to dissolve the salt without change, one-fourth of the quantity of water should be used. The decomposition is not, however, a disadvantage, as the solution is quite strong enough for the purpose to which it is usually applied, of cleansing foul ulcers ; and if it is to be applied to the eyes, as has been recommended, to re- move specks from the cornea, it must be rendered still weaker by di- lution. Solutio sulphatis cupri composita. Compound Solution of Sul- phate of Copper. Ed. " Take of Sulphate of Copper, Alum, of each three ounces ; Wa- ter, two pounds; Sulphuric Acid, one ounce and a half. Boil the Sulphates in water, that they may be dissolved ; then to the liquor strained through paper add the acid." This is a combination of powerful astringents, forming a very styptic solution, formerly named Aqua Styptica. It has been applied topically to check hemorrhage, and, largely diluted with water, as a wash in purulent ophthalmia. PREPARATIONS OF IRON. 473 FERRUM—IRON. Limatura ferri purificata. Purified Filings of Iron. Ed. " A sieve being placed over the filings, let a magnet be applied, that the filings may be drawn through the sieve upwards." The iron, from the facility with which it is attracted by the mag- net, is, by this operation, if it is properly performed, obtained pure, the interposition ofthe sieve in a great measure preventing particles of other metals, or impurities which are mixed with iron-filings got from the work shops, from being entangled in the cluster which ad- heres to the magnet. The process, though not always attended to in the shops, is a necessary one, where iron is to be medicinally employed in this form, or is to serve for other preparations of this metal. Subcarbonas ferri pr2eparatus. Prepared Subcarbonate of Iron Ed. " Purified Filings of Iron are to be frequently moistened with water till they fall into rust, which is to be rubbed to a fine powder." Ferri rubigo. Rust of Iron. Dub. " Take of Iron Wire, any quantity; which, being exposed to the air, moisten frequently with water until it pass into rust; then rub it in an iron mortar, and, by the affusion of water, wash away the finest powder ; which dry." Iron, exposed to air and moisture, attracts oxygen, and passes to the state of peroxide, at the same time it absorbs a little carbonic acid; by this change, termed rusting, it is converted into reddish- brown scales, which the Colleges order to be reduced to fine powder, the Dublin College directing it also to be submitted to elutriation. It has been given internally, as a tonic, in doses of 10 or 20 grains, and has sometimes appeared to possess considerable activity (p. 116) ; but it is suspected that, in these cases, the precipitated car- bonate of iron was probably substituted for it. As an external ap- plication it has been employed in cancerous ulceration, the levigated powder being formed into a paste with water ; this is spread over the surface ofthe sore, and is removed every twelve hours : its efficacy in real cancer is very doubtful; but, in some forms of ulceration it appears to mitigate the pain, correct the acrimony and fetor of the discharge, and cause the ulcer to heal. Carbonas ferri prjecipitatus. Precipitated Carbonate of Iron. Ed. " Take of Sulphate of Iron, four ounces; Subcarbonate of Soda, five ounces ; Water, ten pounds. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in the water; then add the subcarbonate of soda, previously dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water, and mix them well together. Let the carbonate of iron, which is precipitated, be washed with warm water, and afterwards dried." Ferri subcarbonas. Subcarbonate of Iron. .Lond. " Take of Sulphate of Iron, eight ounces ; Subcarbonate of Soda, six ounces ; Boiling Water, a gallon. Dissolve separately the sul- 474 PREPARATIONS OF IRON. phate of iron and subcarbonate of soda in four pints of the water ; mix the liquors together, and put aside, that the powder may subside ; then, having poured off the liquor above, wash the subcarbonate of iron with warm water, and, having wrapt it up in blotting paper, dry it with a gentle heat." Ferri carbonas. Carbonate of Tron. Dub. " Take of Sulphate of Iron, twenty-five parts ; Carbonate of Soda, twenty.six parts ; Water, eight hundred parts. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in the water; then add the carbonate of soda, previously dis- solved in a sufficient quantity of water, and mix them together. Wash the carbonate of iron which is precipitated with tepid water, and afterwards dry it." On mixing the solution of subcarbonate of soda and protosulphate of iron, the soda attracts the sulphuric acid, the carbonic acid com- bines with the protoxide of iron, the sulphate of soda remains in solu- tion, and the carbonate of iron is precipitated of a green colour. These changes are represented in the following diagram: -;. rv i__,.„fC a SS°da .... 32 —?* 71 Sulphate of Soda. 54 Carbonate of Soda | Carbonic A. 22-^^ ' 76 Protosulphate of \ Sulphuric A. 4oX>=\^ Iron {Protox. Iron 36._______X.58 Protocarb. of Iron. The precipitate, when it subsides, is protocarbonate of iron, but in the operations of washing and drying it absorbs oxygen, and part of it becomes peroxide of iron, while so much carbonic acid escapes, that instead of 38, not above 15 per cent, of this acid,remain in the compound. From these changes, the precipitate in washing and dry- ing alters its colour from a dark green to a reddish-brown. The proportion of subcarbonate of soda ordered by the Colleges is differ- ent; but Dr. Barker found that which is given in the Dublin Phar- macopoeia to be the best. Instead of subcarbonate of soda, subcarbon- ate of potash, which is cheaper, may be used ; but in that case, the solutions must be employed warm, the sulphate of potash which is formed being sparingly soluble in cold water. Carbonate of iron is an excellent chalybeate, active, yet mild, and not, like the rust of iron, liable to irritate the stomach. In neuralgia, it is a remedy of great value ; it is said also to have sometimes been successful in curing tetanus. As the medicinal power depends in a great measure on its continuing in the state of protocarbonate, it has been recommended to employ it in the state of the extemporaneous preparation, Mistura Ferri Composita, (p. 117, 308,) in which there is no attempt to collect it when precipitated, and the iron cannot readily attract oxygen. Oxidum ferri nigrum purificatum. Purified Black Oxide of Iron. Ed. " Let the Scales of Black Oxide of Iron, which are found at the anvils ofthe workmen, be placed in contact with the magnet, so that the more pure and thin scales may be attracted by it." Ferri oxidum nigrum. Black Oxide of Iron. Dub. " Let the Scales of Oxide of Iron, which are found at the anvils of PREPARATIONS OF IRON. 475 the workmen, be washed with water, and when dry, let them be se- parated from impurities, by applying a magnet; then reduce them into powder, of which the finer particles are to be separated in the manner directed in the preparation of chalk." The scales of iron are the fragments struck from the metal when it is heated red hot, which become oxidated in passing through the air. The preparation consists chiefly of protoxide of iron, but not in a very pure state. According to some chemists, the black oxide of iron is a compound of the true protoxide, which is of a bluish co- lour, with the red peroxide. The black oxide is attracted by the magnet, the peroxide is not, and hence the method of separating them prescribed in the formula. It is used in making some of the other chalybeate preparations. Sulphas ferri. Sulphate of Iron. Ed. " Take of Purified Filings of Iron, six ounces ; Sulphuric Acid, eight ounces ; Water, two pounds and a half. Mix them, and the effervescence being over, digest for a short time in a sand-bath ; then strain the liquor through paper, and, after due evaporation, put it aside that crystals may form." Ferri sulphas. Sulphate of Iron. Lond. " Take of Iron, of Sulphuric Acid, each eight ounces ; Water, four pints. Mix the sulphuric acid with the water in a glass vessel, and add to them the iron ; then, when the effervescence has ceased, strain the liquor through paper, and evaporate it, so that when it cools crystals may form. Having poured off the water, dry these on bibulous paper." Ferri sulphas. Sulphate of Iron. Dub. " Take of Iron Wire, four parts ; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts ; Water, sixty parts. Dissolve the metal by the aid of heat, and strain the solution through paper ; lastly, after due evaporation, put it aside, so that by slow cooling crystals may form." When sulphuric acid, iron and water are placed together, they immediately act on each other. The iron takes an atom of oxygen from the water present, and becomes protoxide of iron, which com- bines with the sulphuric acid, while the hydrogen of the water, ia evolved in the aeriform state ; protosulphate of iron and hydrogen gas are therefore the products, and the reaction is such as is repre- sented in the following diagram : « «, . fWydrogen • 1 1 Hydrogen Gas. 9 Water <.-/ ° 0 (Oxygen. . 8 ^^ 28 Iron..........28 —X\. 40 Sulphuric Acid . .40----^=^76 Prolosulph. of Iron. The quantity of water ordered in the two first formulas is too small ; hence the action often ceases from there not being enough of water present to dissolve the sulphate of iron as it is formed, and is renewed on the addition of more water. Protosulphate of iron is also formed on the great scale by manu- facturers for the purposes of dyeing, by exposure of the native sul- phuret of iron, after being roasted, to air and moisture ; but it is sel- 476 PREPARATIONS OF IRON. dom pure, and, for medicinal purposes, ought always to be prepared by this process. It is used as a tonic in a dose of from three to five grains, (p. 119). In too large a dose it occasions griping and vo- miting. Sulphas ferri exsiccatus. Dried Sulphate of Iron. Ed. " Take of Sulphate of Iron, any quantity. Heat it in an un- glazed earthen vessel, on a gentle fire, until it become white and perfectly dry." Each equivalent of crystallized sulphate of iron contains 7 equi- valents of water. By continued heat, six of these, equal to about 38 per cent, of the weight of the salt, are expelled. The heat must not be raised too high, otherwise the salt will be decomposed. The preparation is used only for obtaining acetic acid, (p. 407,) and in the following formula. Oxidum ferri rubrum. Red Oxide of Iron. Ed. " Let Dried Sulphate of Iron be gradually exposed to a violent heat, until it is converted into a red coloured matter." Ferri oxidum rubrum. Red Oxide of Iron. Dub. " Expose Sulphate of Iron to heat until the water of crystalliza- tion be expelled ; then with a strong fire let it be roasted as long as acid vapours arise from it ; wash the red oxide, until, by the test of litmus, the water poured off appears to be free from acid ; dry it on bibulous paper." By an intense heat sulphate of iron is decomposed ; part of its acid yielding oxygen to the iron, and converting it into peroxide, is then expelled in the state of sulphurous acid. The rest ofthe sulphu- ric acid is volatilized in union with a small proportion of water, form- ing the acid vapours. These, if the process be conducted in the form of a distillation, (as it is in Germany,) condense into a dense fluid, the fuming sulphuric acid of Nordhausen. That no sulphuric acid may adhere to the peroxide, the Dublin College order it to be wash- ed with water. It is used to form the Emplast. ox. ferri rubri. Sulphuretum ferri. Sulphuret of Iron. Ed. " Take ofthe Purified Filings of Iron, three parts ; Sublimed Sul- phur, one part. Mix them, and expose in a covered crucible to a moderate heat, until they form a mass." Sulphuretum ferri. Sulphuret of Iron. Dub. " Heat with an intense fire in a blast furnace iron rods to a white heat, and immediately apply them to a roll of sulphur. Receive the sulphuret of iron in water ; separate it from the sulphur ; dry it and keep it in close vessels." Sulphur and iron unite in two proportions. When they are ex- posed to a heat below redness the bisulphuret of iron is formed, but when the heat is intense protosulphuret is produced. The object of these processes is to produce the protosulphuret, because it only is acted on by acids, so that it can be used in the formation of hydro- sulphuret of ammonia, the only purpose for which it is employed. Hence the process ofthe Dublin College, although the more difficult, PREPARATIONS OF IRON. 477 is best fitted to furnish the proper product. The other process may be conducted in a Florence flask. Tinctura muriatis ferri. Tincture of Muriate of Iron. Ed. " Take of Purified Black Oxide of Iron, in powder, three ounces ; Muriatic Acid, about ten ounces, or as much as may be sufficient to dissolve the powder. Digest with a gentle heat, and, when the pow- der is dissolved, add as much alcohol as that there shall be of the whole liquor two pounds and a half." Tinctura ferri muriatis. Tincture of Muriate of Iron. Lond. " Take of Subcarbonate of Iron, half a pound ; Muriatic Acid, a pint; Rectified Spirit, three pints. On the subcarbonate of iron, in a glass vessel, pour the acid, and agitate them occasionally, for the space of three days. Put aside, that the impurities, if there are any, may subside, and having poured the liquor off, add the spirit to it." Muriatis ferri liquor. Tincture of Muriate of Iron. Dub. " Take of Rust of Iron, one part; Muriatic Acid, Rectified Spirit, of each six parts. To the rust, put into a glass vessel, add the acid, and agitate occasionally during three days. Put aside, that the im- purities may subside, and pour off the clear liquor. Reduce this by evaporation to a pint, and when cold add the spirit." When iron is dissolved in muriatic acid, a solution of the proto- muriate is formed, of a green colour; this quickly absorbs oxygen from the air, and becomes permuriate of iron, which is of an orange colour. In the two last processes, the iron is already in the state principally of peroxide, and forms the permuriate at once. This compound is soluble in alcohol, while the protomuriate is not; hence the addition ofthe spirit assists in purifying the permuriate from any intermixture of the other salt. The solution, as prepared by the formula of the London College, contains, according to Mr. Phillips, about 34 grains of peroxide of iron in a fluid-ounce. In the Dublin formula a much larger quantity of acid is ordered than in the others, to ensure the solution of the iron, and the excess of acid is then re moved by slow evaporation previous to adding the spirit. This tincture of muriate of iron is a grateful preparation ; the al- cohol appears to suffer some chemical change from the action of the acid and the metallic oxide, the odour becoming ethereal. It is a preparation also highly active. Besides the use of it to relieve dysuria, mentioned p. 118, it is given along with muriate of lime in scrofula, as an astringent in haemorrhage, and as an external appli- cation to cancerous sores. i Tartr \s potass^ et ferri. Tartrate of Potasn and Iron. lid. " Tike of Purified Filings of Iron, one part: Supertartrate of Pot- ass in powder, two parts ; Water, one part. /Triturate them together, and then expose in a shallow earthen vessel to the air for fifteen davs stirriho- daily with a spatula, and adding water occasionally to preserve the mass moist. Then boil it for a short time in four times its weight of water, and pour off the solution from any impu- rities It is then to be evaporated to dryness by the heat of a wa- ter-bath, and after reducing it to powder, preserve it in a vessel well closed." 478 PREPARATIONS of iron. Ferrum tartarisatum. Tartarised Iron. Lond. " Take of Iron, one pound ; Supertartrate of Potash in powder, two pounds ; Distilled Water, five pints, or as much as may be neces- sary. Rub the iron and supertartrate of potash together, and ex- pose them, mixed with a pint of water, to the air, in an open glass vessel, for twenty days, shaking them daily, and occasionally adding distilled water that they may be always moist. Then boil them with four pints of distilled water for a quarter of an hour, and strain. Evaporate the liquor in a water-bath till the tartarised iron is tho- roughly dried. Rub it into powder, and preserve it in a well-closed vessel." Ferri tartarum. Tartar of Iron. Dub. " Take of Iron Wire, one part; Bitartrate of Potash in very fine powder, four parts ; Distilled Water, eight parts, or as much as may be sufficient. Mix them together, and expose them to the air in a wide vessel for fifteen days. Stir the mixture from time to time, and by adding water daily keep it always moist, taking care that the iron shall not be entirely covered with water. Lastly, boil it in a sufficient quantity of distilled water, and evaporate the strained li- quor in a water-bath to dryness. Keep the tartrate of iron in a well- closed phial." By these processes is formed a double salt, the tartrate of potash and iron, composed of one equivalent of tartrate of potash, 114, one equivalent of tartrate of iron, 102, and two equivalents of water, 18, =244. In the formula given for its preparation, iron is oxidated by exposure to air and moisture in contact with bitartrate of potash, and the double tartrate of iron and potash produced is separated from a quantity of iron which remains in the metallic state by solu- tion in water. The solution is of a deep greenish-brown colour, and may be long kept without changing. But the processes of boiling and evaporation directed in the Pharmacopoeias decompose part of the double tar- trate, and lessen its medicinal power ; hence it is better to preserve the compound in the solution in which it is originally formed. The powder which is procured by evaporation is greenish-brown, tena- cious and deliquescent; it cannot again be wholly redissolved. In the Dublin formula, the quantity of iron has been diminished to a half, and is still sufficiently large. When properly prepared, the tartrate of potash and iron is a chalybeate of considerable activity, yet not irritating. It has little of the taste which renders the other salts of iron unpleasant, and being always given in solution may be largely diluted, which renders its action still milder. Murias ammonite et ferri. Muriate of Ammonia and Iron. Ed. " Take of Red Oxide of Iron washed, and again dried, Muriate of Ammonia, of each equal weights. Mix them well together, and sublime by a strong fire ; reduce the sublimed mass to powder, and preserve it in vessels well corked." Ferrum ammoniatum. Ammoniated Iron. Lond. " Take of Subcarbonate of Iron, Muriatic Acid, and Muriate of Ammonia, of each a pound. Pour the Muriatic Acid upon the Sub- PREPARATIONS OF IRON. 479 carbonate of Iron, and put them aside until the effervescence has ceased. Strain the solution through paper, and boil down the strain- ed liquor till the water is entirely dissipated. Mix carefully what remains with the muriate of ammonia ; then applying a strong heat, sublime quickly ; lastly, rub into powder." In the first of these processes peroxide of iron and muriate of am- monia are heated together to the point at which the latter sublimes. At first the salt is decomposed by the iron, muriate of iron being formed and ammonia exhaled, but as the heat increases the muriate of iron and muriate of ammonia rise in vapour together, and a triple compound of muriatic acid, ammonia and peroxide of iron is the pro- duct. In the London process, permuriate of iron is prepared, and ia then sublimed with muriate of ammonia ; the sublimation is scarcely requisite. The Dublin College have rejected the preparation from their Pharmacopoeia, as uncertain and of little efficacy. Muriate of ammonia and iron is in crystalline grains of a yellow colour, and somewhat deliquescent. It was principally employed as a remedy in rickets, in a dose to children of two or three grains, also in cases of hypochondriasis and hysteria, in epilepsy and scro- fula ; but is now little used, the tincture of muriate of iron being preferred. Tinctura ferri ammoniati. Ammoniated Tincture of Iron. Lond. " Take of Ammoniated Iron, four ounces; Proof-spirit, one pint. Digest and strain." This solution of the preceding compound is an unnecessary pre- paration, as it differs little from tincture of muriate of iron, and ia extremely uncertain in strength. Its dose is thirty drops. Acetas ferri. Acetate of Iron. Dub. " Take of Carbonate of Iron, one part; Acetic Acid, six parts. Digest them for three days, and strain the liquor." In this process the acetic acid dissolves the iron, and affords a mild and active chalybeate, not differing much in its operation from the tartrate of iron. Tinctura acetatis ferri. Tincture of Acetate of Iron. Dub. " Take of Acetate of Potash, two parts; Sulphate of Iron, one part; Rectified Spirit, twenty-six parts. Rub together the acetate of pot- ash and the sulphate of iron in an earthen mortar, until they unite into a soft mass. Dry this with a moderate heat; rub the dried mat- ter with the spirit; put the mixture into a phial closely corked, and digest for seven days, agitating it frequently; lastly, pour off the tincture from the impurities, and keep it in a well-closed vessel." Tinctura acetatis ferri cum alcohol. Tincture of Acetate of Iron with Alcohol. Dub. " Take of Sulphate of Iron, Acetate of Potash, each one ounce ; Alcohol, two pints. Rub the acetate of potash and sulphate of iron in an earthen mortar until they unite into a soft mass ; then dry with a moderate heat, and when cold rub it with the alcohol. Put the mixture into a phial well stopt, and digest for twenty-four hours, shak- 480 PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. ing occasionally ; lastly, pour off the clear tincture from the impu- rities." These tinctures differ chiefly in the former containing both prot- acetate and peracetate of iron, the one dissolved by the water, the other by the spirit, while the latter contains only the peracetate, the other salt being insoluble in alcohol. The latter may have the ad- vantage of being less liable to spontaneous decomposition ; but it is altogether superfluous to have two tinctures differing so little, or in- deed to have more than one form of acetate of iron, if there was any necessity for its introduction as an officinal preparation, which is doubtful. The preparations of this metal in the Pharmacopceias are more numerous than what are required in practice. Liquor ferri alkalini. Alkaline Solution of Iron. Lond. "Take of Iron, two drachms and a half; Nitric Acid, two fluid- ounces ; Distilled Water, six fluid-ounces ; Solution of Subcarbon- ate of Potash, six fluid-ounces. Pour the acid and the water min- gled together on the iron ; and when the effervescence has ceased, pour off the liquor while still acid. Add this gradually, and at in- tervals, to the solution of subcarbonate of potash, agitating frequently, until the colour having become of a brownish-red, effervescence is no longer excited. Put them aside for six hours, and then pour off the liquor." This is a preparation which has long been known under the name of Martial Alkaline Tincture, and the nature of it is not very well ascertained. The iron is oxidated and dissolved by the nitric acid ; • on adding the solution to the subcarbonate of potash, the alkali satu- rates a portion of the acid, and the oxide of iron is precipitated ; but by agitation it is kept suspended, and by the excess of alkali is redissolved, this being accompanied with effervescence from the dis- engagement of part of the carbonic acid. If the reverse mode of adding the alkaline carbonate to the solution of iron is followed, much of the oxide is precipitated, and is not redissolved by the alkali. On standing, a portion of nitre, formed from the union of the potash and nitric acid, is deposited, from which the clear liquor is to be poured off; and by this formation of nitre, it is not improbable that the whole, or the greater part of the nitric acid, is withdrawn. It will then be a solution of carbonate of iron and potash. This solution is of a deep reddish-brown colour, transparent, or frequently somewhat turbid, especially from the action of the air. It has a styptic alkaline taste ; it deposits the iron in a state of per- oxide on being kept, and even from dilution with water. On ac- count of its uncertain strength and facility of decomposition, it has been discarded from use. HYDRARGYRUS—QUICKSILVER. Hydrargyrus purificatus. Purified Quicksilver. Ed. " Take of Quicksilver, six parts; Iron Filings, one part. Rub them together, and distil from an iron vessel." Hydrargyrum purificatum. Purified Quicksilver. Lond. PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. 481 " Pour Quicksilver into an iron retort, and applying heat below it, let the purified mercury be distilled." Hydrargyrum puhificatum. Purified Quicksilver. Dub. " Take of Quicksilver, six parts. Distil slowly four parts." The quicksilver of Commerce is often adulterated with other me- tals. To obtain it pure is the design of this process. The iron- filings are added chiefly to render the ebullition less violent, on the same principle that coils of platina wire are thrown into sulphuric acid when it is boiled in glass vessels, (see p. 420). The distilla- tion of mercury is rather difficult of execution, from the weight of the mercury, and the high temperature that requires to be applied. Glass retorts can scarcely be used, as the force of the ebullition may break them ; retorts of iron or of porcelain are commonly em- ployed. Mercury may be partially purified in an easier manner, by agitating it with sulphuric acid, which dissolves the impurities, and, by washing with water, these are removed in union with the acid. The London and Dublin formulas are deficient in omitting the iron, and the latter in directing only four pounds out of six to be distil- led,—an unnecessary waste, to which it is not to be supposed the apothecary will submit. Hydrargyri acetas. Acetate of Quicksilver. Ed. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, three ounces; Diluted Nitrous Acid, four ounces and a half, or a little more than may be requisite to dissolve the quicksilver; Acetate of Potash, three ounces; Boil- ing Water, eight pounds. Mix the quicksilver with the diluted ni- trous acid ; and towards the end of the effervescence, digest, if ne. cessary,. with a gentle heat, until the quicksilver be entirely dissolved. Then dissolve the acetate of potash in the boiling water, and imme- diately on the solution pour the other, and mix them both by agitation. Then put aside, that crystalsjnay be formed. These being placed in a funnel, wash them with cold distilled water; and, lastly, dry them with a very gentle heat. In preparing the acetate of quick. silver, it is necessary that all the vessels and the funnel which are employed should be of glass." Hydrargyri acetas. Acetate of Quicksilver. Dub. "Take of Purified Quicksilver, Acetate of Potash, of each nine parts ; Diluted Nitric Acid, eleven parts \ Boiling Distilled Water, one hundred parts ; Distilled Vinegar, as much as may be requisite. Add the nitric acid to the quicksilver, and the effervescence being over, digest the mixture, that the metal may be dissolved ; dissolve the acetate of potash in the water, and add distilled vinegar until acid predominate in the liquor. To this, boiling hot, add the solution of mercury in'nitricacid, and pass the mixture quickly through double linen; let"it cool that, crystals may form ; these being washed with distilled cold water, dry on paper with a very gentle heat. In the whole operation glass vessels must be used." Acetic acid, like the other acids, combines with mercury in dif- ferent states of oxidation, and forms salts which are different in their properties. When the metal is in a high state of oxidation, a salt is formed, which is acrid and soluble ; when in a lower state of oxida. 61 482 PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. tion, one is obtained more mild and sparingly soluble. The object of the present process is to obtain the latter of these salts, the, prot- acetate of mercury, by first forming a protonitrate, and decompos- ing this by acetate of potash, the nitric acid unites with the potash, and the acetic acid with the protoxide of mercury, as represented in the following diagram: 99 Acetate of Pol-< Potash.....48 —■ jy 102 Nitrate of Potash. ash $ Acetic Acid. . . 51 ^^y^^ 262 Protonitrate of $ Nitric Acid . . . 54 <*^""-v_ Mercury \ Protox. Mercury 208-------^ 259 Acetate of'Mercury. Protacetate of mercury and nitrate of potash are thus formed in the solution, and to separate these, advantage is taken of a property of the former salt, that though readily soluble in hot water, it is sparingly so in that fluid cold ; the solution of acetate of potash is added very hot, and as the mixture cools, the acetate of mercury is- deposited in crystals. In performing the process it is better to allow the solution of mer- cury in nitric acid to go on in the cold than to apply heat, as the Edin- burgh College direct, for heat renders the action more rapid, and a quantity of pernitrate of mercury is produced. Even in the cold a portion of this salt is formed ; and it is to keep it in solution, that, in the first formula, an excess of nitric acid, and, in the second, an ad- dition of acetic acid is employed;. the direction, likewise, of the Dublin College, to strain the mixed solutions while hot, is to remove a portion of supernitrate of mercury which is precipitated. The nitrate of mercury should be poured into the solution of acetate of potash, not the reverse, as in the latter mode a precipitation of sub- nitrate of mercury will happen. Instead of employing boiling water to dissolve the acetate of potash, it is preferable to use only tepid water, as, at a high temperature, the water is liable to produce a partial decomposition of the acetate, so that it becomes of ajyellow colour from a slight excess of oxide. It is necessary, too, not to continue to wash the salt after it is formed with much water, for a similar partial decomposition takes place, and the crystals become yellow. If this should happen, the brilliant whiteness is restored by washing them with a little diluted distilled vinegar, the acetic acid neutralizing the excess of oxide to which the yellow colour is owing. With these precautions, the process, which often fails when they are not attended to, is easily conducted, and the preparation is obtained uniform, and in a proper state. Mr. Phillips objected to the Edin- burgh process, that too much nitric acid is. ordered in the process, and that the solution of acetate of mercury produced is too much diluted ; but, to prevent the decompositions which have been stated, the quantities of acid and of water appear to be quite necessary, and Dr. Duncan is of opinion that the quantity of water might be in- creased with advantage. Acetate of mercury crystallizes in small brilliant scales. As an antisyphilitic remedy it is very mild in its operation; but its effects are not considered as sufficiently permanent to allow of its being re- lied on in effecting a radical cure. preparations of quicksilver. 483 Hydrargyri persulphas. Persulphate of Mercury. Dub. " Take of Purified Mercury, Sulphuric Acid, of each six parts ; Nitric Acid, one part. Expose them to heat in a glass vessel, and let the fire be increased until the mass become perfectly dry and white." Tins is now ordered in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia as a separate process, but has long formed a part of that which follows, for the preparation of corrosive sublimate. The compound which is intend- ed to be formed is bipersulphate of mercury, composed of two equi- valents of sulphuric acid and one equivalent of peroxide of mercury. It is formed by boiling sulphuric acid and mercury to dryness, the proportions being four equivalents of the former and one of the latter. The mercury takes an atom of oxygen from each of two equivalents of the acid, which are converted into sulphuric acid, and escape; and the mercury, thus raised to the state of peroxide, combines with the other two equivalents of sulphuric acid. These changes may be illustrated by the following diagram : 40 Sulphuric ' i Sulphurous A. 32 Acid {Oxygen ... 8 40 Sulphuric . ( Sulphurous A. 32 Aci4 (Oxygen . . . f> 40 Sulphuric Acid......40 40 Sulphuric Acid......40 ■200 Mercury . . . . . . . .220 The small quantity of nitric acid (in comparison to the others not half an equivalent) is added to ensure the conversion of the whole of the mercury info peroxide. It renders the product whiter and more.uniform. The salt is used only for preparing corrosive subli- mate and subsulphate of mercury. Murias hydrargyri corrosivus. Corrosive Muriate of Quicksil- ver. Ed. "Take of Purified Quicksilver, two pounds ; Sulphuric Acid, two pounds and a half; Muriate of Soda, dried, four pounds. Boil the quicksilver with the sulphuric acid, in a glass vessel placed in a sand-bath, until the matter become dry. Mix this when cold in a glass vessel with the muriate of soda ; then sublime it in a glass cucurbit with a heat gradually raised. Separate the sublimed matter from the scoriae." Hydrargyri oxymurias. Oxymuriate'of Quicksilver. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, by weight; two pounds ; Sulphuric Acid, by weight, thirty ounces; Muriate of Soda, dried, four pounds. Boil the quicksilver with the sulphuric acid, in a glass vessel until the Sulphate of mercury become dry. Rub this, when it has cooled, with the muriate of soda, in an earthen mortar, then sublime it from a glass cucurbit with a heat gradually raised." Hydrargyri murias corrosivum. Corrosive Muriate of Quicksil- ver. Dub. " Take of Persulphate of Quicksilver, five parts ; Dried Muriate of Soda, two parts. Rub them to very fine powder in an earthen 32 Sulphurous Acid. 32,Sulphurous Acid. 296 Biperaulph. of Mercury, 484 PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. mortar, then, with a fire gradually raised, sublime the corrosive sub- limate into a proper receiver." The object of these processes is to form the important mercurial compound named Corrosive Sublimate, or bichloride of mercury. The two first processes commence with preparing the bipersulphate of mercury, in nearly the same manner as directed by the Dublin College in the formula which has just been considered ; in the third process, that ofthe Dublin College, this compound is taken as above prepared. The other Colleges, instead of nitric acid, employ an excess of sulphuric acid to ensure the conversion ofthe mercury into peroxide. The next operation, which is common to these processes, is to heat the bipersulphate of mercury with dry sea salt, (chloride of so- dium,) in the proportion of one equivalent of the former and two of the latter; the sodium takes the oxygen and sulphuric acid of the bipersulphate, and becomes sulphate of soda, while the mercury combines with the chlorine, and is converted into bichloride of so- dium, which sublimes. The following diagram illustrates these changes; 296 Bipersulphate of Mercury 120 Chloride of Sudiura (2 equival.) fMercury . . [ Oxygen . . { Sulphuric A. Oxygen . . . (_ Sulphuric A. £ Chlorine . . JChlorine . . i Sodium . . . f Sodium . . . 200 372 Bichloride of Mercury. 72 Sulphate of Soda. 72 Sulphate of Soda. The proportions of chloride of sodium and persulphate of merci*> ry, ordered by the Dublin College, accord with this view of the re- action, and Dr. Barker found that they answered well in practice, While the other Colleges order a quantity of chloride of sodium to be used a great deal larger than is necessary. An excess of so cheap a material may be useful to secure the mercurial salt being fully de- composed, but it need not be so much above the true proportion ; and Dr. Barker informs us, that if the materials are well mixed by trituration, the whole ofthe mercury will be converted into corrosive sublimate, when proportions scarcely different from the atomic weights are employed. Corrosive sublimate is obtained in the form of a dense mass ; when sublimed slowly it condenses in slender prismatic crystals; and it is obtained in a similar form by crystallization from its watery solution. It is easily soluble in water, requiring 20 parts at 60° for its solution, and 2 parts at 212°. It is still more soluble in alcohol, requiring scarcely 4 parts at 60°. Its taste is acrid and metallic. It changes to green several vegetable colours; is decomposed by the alkalis and earths, and by a number of compound salts, and like- wise by vegetable infusions. It is the most powerful of the mercurial preparations. Its dose cannot safely exceed the fourth of a grain, nor can more than one grain be given in twenty-four hours. As an antisyphilitic remedy it PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. 485 has long been employed, but the use of it is now almost limited to empirics, as it is uncertain and hazardous, (p. 114). Internally it is given in the form of solution in water or alcohol, the dose being in- creased cautiously from the eighth to the fourth of a grain, night and morning, and mucilaginous diluents being taken to lessen the irrita- tion it is liable to occasion. As the solution has a very disagreeable taste, the corrosive sublimate is sometimes made into pills, a little of it being mixed with an equal weight of muriate of ammonia, which renders it more soluble in water, this being dissolved by adding the necessary proportion of water, and the solution being formed into a mass with crumb of bread, and divided into pills, so that each pill contains the eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate. Externally, under the form of solution, it is employed as an escharotic in chan- cre and venereal ulcers of the mouth ; and a very dilute solution of it has been used as an injection, to excite inflammation in obstinate gleet. Liquor hydrargyri oxymuriatis. Solution of Oxymuriate of Mer- cury. Lond. " Take of Oxymuriate of Mercury, eight grains ; Distilled Water, fifteen fluid-ounces ; Rectified Spirit, one fluid-ounce. Dissolve the oxymuriate in the water, and add the spirit." This formula is designed to afford a form of preparation under which the dose of corrosive sublimate may be easily regulated. A fluid-ounce contains half a grain ; its dose therefore may be from one to two drachms. It has been recommended to add to this solu- tion eight or ten grains of muriate of ammonia, which will prevent any chance of spontaneous decomposition. Surmurias hydrargyri mitis, sive Calomelas. Mild Submuriate of Quicksilver. Calomel. Ed. " Take of Muriate of Quicksilver, four parts ; Purified Quick- silver, three parts. Reduce the muriate to powder in a glass mortar, with a little water, so as to avoid the acrid powder ; then add the quicksilver, and rub until it disappears ; put the dried mass into an oblong phial, of which it shall only fill one-third, and sublime over a sand-bath. The sublimed matter is again to be rubbed to powder, and afterwards sublimed ; it is then to be reduced to a very fine powder, which is lastly to be washed with boiling distilled water." Hydrargyri submurias. Submuriate of Quicksilver. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, four pounds ; Sulphuric Acid by weight, thirty ounces; Muriate of Soda, a pound and a half; Muri- ate of Ammonia, eight ounces. Boil two pounds ofthe Quicksilver in a glass vessel, until the Sulphate of Mercury becomes dry. When it has cooled, rub it with the other two pounds of quicksilver in an earthen mortar, till they are thoroughly mixed. Then add the Mu- riate of Soda, and rub them together till the globules disappear ; then sublime. Reduce the sublimate to a very fine powder, pass it through a sieve, and mix it well with the Muriate of Ammonia pre- viously dissolved in a gallon of boiling distilled water. Put the mix. ture aside that the powder may subside. Pour off the liquor, and wash the powder repeatedly with boiling distilled water, until Solu. 486 PREPARATIONS of quicksilver. tion of Ammonia dropped in causes no precipitate. Lastly, reduce it to a very fine powder in the manner prescribed for preparing chalk." Calomelas sublimatum. Sublimed Calomel. Dub. " Take of Persulphate of Quicksilver, twenty-five parts ; Purified Mercury, seventeen parts ; Dried Muriate of Soda, ten parts. Rub the persulphate of mercury and the purified quicksilver together in an earthen-ware mortar, until the metallic globules disappear ; then add the dried muriate of soda. Let them be well mixed, and sub- lime from a proper vessel into a receiver, by a heat gradually rais- ed. Reduce the sublimed mass to powder, which wash with dis- tilled water, until the liquor poured off no longer afford any preci- pitate on a few drops of water of caustic potash being added to it; lastly, dry the calomel." This substance, Calomel, or chloride of mercury, is the most im- portant preparation of mercury, both from the certainty of its opera- tion, its mildness, combined with sufficient activity, and the nume- rous indications it is capable of fulfilling. The processes by which it is obtained are fortunately little liable to be varied by circumstances, but afford an uniform product. In the process of the Edinburgh College, corrosive sublimate, which, as has been mentioned, is bichloride of mercury, is first tri- turated, and then sublimed with an additional equivalent of metallic mercury, which entering into the composition converts the bichloride into chloride of mercury or calomel. The diagram explains the (theory of the reaction : 272 Bichloride of $ f^ury 200~__^*236 Calomel. »» . < Chlorine op—' Mercury VCblorine 36. 200 Mercury............200___^=«*.236 Calomel. It is doubtful whether the mercury enters into the combination in the trituration or in the sublimation, but it is more probably in the latter. The trituration must be managed with caution, to avoid the fine particles which rise from the sublimate, and may injure the eyes and nostrils ; the addition of a little water, as the College di- rect, is useful in obviating this inconvenience. The combination whence calomel is formed is scarcely complete at the first sublimation ; a portion of quicksilver rises on the first application ofthe heat, and adheres to the portion of sublimate con- densed on the sides of the vessel in minute globules ; and a small quantity of unchanged corrosive sublimate appears also to be dif- fused through the mass. To render the.combination complete, the sublimed mass is reduced to powder, and is sublimed a second time. The London College ordered formerly a third sublimation, and the old practice was to sublime it six or seven times. This is, however, alto- gether unnecessary ; and it has even been ascertained, that at each sublimation a little corrosive muriate is reproduced. To remove any portion of this deleterious substance that may adhere to the calomel, it is after the second sublimation reduced to a fine powder by tritura- tion and levigation with water, and well washed with water, until the PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. 487 water pass off tasteless, and, according to the test given by the Dub- lin College, until it give no indications of precipitation on adding a few drops of a solution of potash. A method has been introduced by Mr. Jewell, of conducting the sublimation in an apparatus so con- structed, that the vapours are not condensed in the upper part of the vessel, forming a solid mass, but are condensed on the surface of the water, and the calomel is obtained in the state of an impalpable powder. A different process from that which has been described is given by the Colleges of London and Dublin. In this the previous for- mation of corrosive sublimate is dispensed with, the calomel being formed directly from the materials. By boiling together sulphuric acid and mercury, bipersulphate.of mercury is produced in the man- ner already explained, (p. 484) : this is triturated with an additional equivalent of mercury, until the globules disappear, is then mixed with two equivalents of chloride of sodium, and the mixture submit- ted to a heat sufficient to cause sublimation. The two atoms of ox- ygen and two equivalents of sulphuric acid which existed in the bi- persulphate pass to the sodium, and form two equivalents of sul- phate of soda; and the two atoms of chlorine, which were united with the sodium, combine with the mercury of the bipersulphate and the mercury that was added, and produce two equivalents of ca- lomel. The following diagram represents this rather complicated reaction : 200 Mercury___. ................200---- y 236 Calomel. 296 Bipersulphate J fferc,,rX, ■; • • X 2?°-----7^236 Calomel. Of Mercury j Oyg*n(2 atoms) 16, ' ( Sulph. A. (2 equiv.) 80 v 120 Chloride of So- j ™or.ine........ **<. dium(2equiv.) ) £h ?rln£X ; ■ • • • ' f/ ^^cVl ,aa „ . v ^ ' ( Sodium (2 atoms)... 48_______^144 Sulph. of Soda, (2 equiv.) In this manner, calomel is formed as easily as corrosive sublimate, one sublimation only being required, the process indeed being the same for either, only that double the quantity of mercury is used in the preparation of calomel. The object of the rest of the process is to ensure the complete purification of the calomel from any cor- rosive sublimate which might be produced in the process, and be sublimed along with it. Repeated washing with water would accom- plish this ; but the addition of muriate of ammonia is an improve- ment, as it has the property of rendering corrosive sublimate more soluble in water. Common salt has the same property, and might be employed as cheaper. The solution of sal ammoniac should be used cold, not at a boiling temperature, as it is then liable to decom- pose a portion of the calomel, resolving it into corrosive sublimate and quicksilver. Calomel obtained by sublimation is in a dense, cake, which is evi- dently an aggregate of short prisms. It is semi-transparent, has a slight yellowish colour, which is liable to be darkened by light, is tasteless and heavy, its specific gravity being 7.2. It is less volatile than corrosive sublimate ; it appears to be altogether insoluble iii water. The names given to it by two of the Colleges, of Submu- 488 PREPARATIONS OP QUICKSILVER. riate and Mild Muriate of Mercury, are incorrect; but the applica- tion of the term of Chloride might cause confusion, which is more particularly to be guarded against, where a difference of properties exists so important as between this preparation and the bichloride. It is safer, indeed, in prescribing it, to use the arbitrary name of Ca- lomel, respecting which there can be no mistake, than any of the other appellations given to it by the Colleges. Calomel is one of our most valuable remedies. It is extensively used as a mercurial, its operation being mild, and at the same time certain and active ; and its use is only limited by the tendency it has to occasion purging. As a remedy in syphilis, it ia given in the dose of a grain night and morning, its determination to the intestines being prevented, if necessary, by addition of a little opium. It is the preparation which is usually given in the other diseases in which mercury is employed. It is thus administered in affections of the liver or neighbouring organs, in which advantage appears to be de- rived, both from its local determination and its purgative operation ; —in some forms of inflammatory diseases, particularly chronic rheu- matism and croup, in which its beneficial effects appear to arise both from its purgative effect and from its general action on the system: —in dysentery, in which its successful application appears to depend partly on its operation as a cathartic, and partly as a mercurial;— in various forms of febrile affection, particularly yellow fever and other fevers of warm climates, in which this combined operation of it is not less advantageous, (see p. 115);—in cutaneous diseases, in which it appears to operate simply as a mercurial alterative ;—in various diseases belonging to the class Neuroses, particularly tetanus and hydrophobia, in which it affords the most speedy mode of es- tablishing the general action of mercury on the system ;—and in hydrocephalus, where it is probably farther advantageous by in- creasing absorption. It is in common use as a cathartic, either by itself in a dose from five to ten grains, or in a smaller quantity, to promote the operation of other purgatives. Its anthelmintic power is justly celebrated ; and it is superior to the other mercurials in assisting the operation of diuretics in dropsy. From its great specific gravity, it ought always to be given in the form of bolus or pill. Submurias hydrargyri prjEctpitatus. Precipitated Submuriate of Mercury. Ed. " Take of Diluted Nitrous Acid, Purified Quicksilver, of each eight ounces ; Muriate of Soda, four ounces and a half; Boiling Water, eight pounds. Mix the quicksilver with the diluted nitrous acid, and, towards the end of the effervescence, digest with a gentle heat, sha- king the vessel frequently. It is necessary, however, that more quicksilver should be mixed with the acid than this can dissolve, that the solution may be obtained fully saturated. Dissolve at the same time the muriate of soda in the boiling Water ; pour the other solution on this while warm, and mix them quickly together. After the precipi- tate subsides, pour off the saline liquor, and wash the submuriate of mercury, by frequently adding warm water, pouring it off after each time the precipitate subsides, until it come off tasteless." PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. 489 Calomelas pr^ecipitatum. Precipitated Calomel. Dub. " Take of Purified Quicksilver by weight, seventeen parts ; Di- luted Nitrous Acid, fifteen parts. Pour the acid on the quicksilver in a glass vessel, and when the mixture first ceases to effervesce, digest with a moderate heat for six hours, agitating occasionally ; then increase the heat, so that the liquor boil a little ; pour it off from the remaining mercury, and mix it quickly with four hundred parts of boiling water, in which seven parts of muriate of soda have been previously dissolved : wash the powder which is precipitated with warm distilled water, as long as the liquor poured off affords any precipitate on the addition of a few drops,of water of subcarbonate of potash ; lastly, dry it." The design of this process is to obtain calomel in the humid way, from the decomposition of protonitrate of mercury by chloride of sodium. The advantages supposed to belong to it are, that it is more easily executed, less expensive, and affords the product in a finer powder than that obtained by sublimation can be reduced to. It was introduced on the authority of Scheele, and the directions which are given are those which he pointed out. The theory of metallic solu- tions was, however, in his time, imperfectly understood, and the pro- cess to afford the proper product ought to be conducted in a very different manner from that ordered in the Pharmacopoeias. Scheele was evidently misled by the analogy of the increase of solubility of a salt in water by increase of heat. By aiding the ac tion of the acid on the quicksilver by heat, it was supposed that a larger product would be obtained, and that the acid, being thoroughly saturated, the product would be more mild. Two circumstances, however, operate in this case, and give rise to other results, which defeat the intention of the process, and have always rendered its success very imperfect. 1st, By digesting or boiling the acid on the metal, the decompo- sition ofthe acid is facilitated, and a great part ofthe mercury passes to the state of peroxide ; hence, when the solution is added to the solution of muriate of soda, the degree of oxidation being too great to admit of the whole being converted into mild muriate, a portion of corrosive muriate is formed. It has been observed, indeed, that although in the first stage of the solution much nitric oxide gas is disengaged, indicating a decomposition ofthe acid to a considerable extent, yet, after this, an additional portion of quicksilver is dissolved without much effervescence, whence it has been concluded, that this portion must receive oxygen from the portion already dissolved, and that the whole, therefore, still exists in a low state of oxidation. A part of the peroxide may in this manner be reduced to protoxide, but much of it continues as peroxide, and in the subsequent reaction is converted into corrosive sublimate, a proof of which, and of the impropriety of the formula, is, that from a given weight of quicksil- ver dissolved in nitric acid, with the aid of heat, less calomel is ob- tained, than from a solution prepared entirely in the.oold- I have ascertained this by experiment, the quantity of calorrxrf obtained from a solution of one ounce of quicksilver in diluted nitric acid in the cold, being a little more than an ounce, while, from the same quantity 490 PREPARATIONS of quicksilver. dissolved with the application of heat, the precipitate did not muct« exceed half an ounce, while the liquor held dissolved corrosive sub- limate. 2dly, In consequence ofthe excess of mercury employed, and the long digestion, the nitric acid is so saturated with the oxides of mer- cury, that the solution is partially decomposed by mere dilution with water,—a quantity of subnitrate of mercury being precipitated. Hence, when such a solution is mingled with the solution of muriate of soda, this decomposition takes place to a certain extent, from the operation of the water of the solution, and a quantity of this subni- trate is mixed with the calomel, and must so far modify its powers. These sources of error are obviated by using a solution of mercury prepared in the cold, and with a diluted acid ; and from such a solu- tion, the product, I have found, is almost entirely calomel, with very little corrosive muriate. The method of conducting the process is the following : Add the quicksilver in small portions at a time to the nitric acid previously diluted with one part and a half of water, (ob- serving the proportions given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,) and avoid the application of heat; when the solution is completed, or no mercury appears to be capable of being dissolved, add a little water to dissolve any part of the nitrate of mercury that may have crystal- lized ; then pour off the clear solution from the undissolved quick- silver, and add it to the solution of muriate of soda. The precipitate having subsided, is to be carefully washed with water, repeatedly poured on it, to carry off'the small quantity of corrosive muriate that is formed. Calomel will thus be obtained. Berthollet has affirmed, however, that even as prepared from a solution of this kind, the pre- cipitate retains in combination a portion of nitric acid. Mr. Phillips has also found, that, even when more mercury is used than the acid can dissolve, a large proportion of peroxide of mercury is formed, as is shown by adding an alkali, after the precipitation of the calomel, when the peroxide will be thrown down in considerable quantity. The process ought probably to be expunged from the Pharmacopceias, for it is not more economical than that by sublimation, and much less uniform in the product. The precipitated calomel is said to be more liable to occasion purging than that procured by sublimation, probably from the presence of a minute portion ofthe subnitrate. Oxidum hydrargyri cinereum. Ash-coloured Oxide of Quicksil. ver. Ed. " Take of Submuriate of Mercury, half an ounce ; Solution of Lime, five pounds. Boil the submuriate in the solution in a vessel lightly closed, for a quarter of an hour; after the precipitate has sub- sided, pour off the liquor, wash the oxide with distilled water, and then dry it." Hydrargyri oxydum cinereum. Grey or Ash-coloured Oxyde of Quicksilver. Lond. "Take of Submuriate of Quicksilver, an ounce; of Liquor of Lime, a gallon. Boil the submuriate of mercury in the liquor of lime, stirring it constantly until the ash-coloured oxide of mercury fall down. Wash this with distilled water, and dry it." PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. 491 Hydrargyri oxidum nigrum. Black Oxide of Mercury. Dub. " Take of Sublimed Calomel, one part; Water of Caustic Potash made warm, four parts. Rub them together until an oxide of a black colour be obtained. Wash this repeatedly with water, and, lastly, dry it with a moderate heat upon bibulous paper." These processes are intended to afford the protoxide of mercury in a pure state. That of the Dublin College, which was first pro- posed by Mr. Phillips, is the preferable one, the potash being more energetic than lime, and more completely decomposing the calomel. The reaction may be conceived to be, that the chlorine ofthe calo- mel, combining with the hydrogen of part ofthe water present, forms muriatic acid, which unites with the potash, while the mercury, uniting with the oxygen ofthe water, becomes protoxide of mercury, which is precipitated in the form of a black powder. 236 Chloride of £ Mercury 200----^^208 Protoxide of Mercury. Mercury £ Chlorine 36., 9 WatPr S0x)gen a Water J Hydrogen 48 Potash......48—^"—^85 Muriate of Potash. When lime instead of potash is used, there always remains a por- tion of calomel intermixed with the precipitated oxide. The Dublin process is not liable to this objection, but it is found extremely dif- ficult to prevent the protoxide obtained from suffering decomposition, one portion yielding oxygen to the other, whence peroxide and me- tallic mercury are produced. To avoid this decomposition, the ox- ide should not be dried by heat, but allowed to dry of itself in a dark place. Yet with every precaution, an intermixture of peroxide so frequently happens, that the preparation cannot be trusted to as a mild mercurial. Oxidum hydrargyri rubrum per acidum nitricum. Red Oxide of Quicksilver by Nitric Acid. Ed. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, three parts ; Diluted Nitrous Acid, four parts. Dissolve the quicksilver, and evaporate the solution with a gentle fire to a white dry mass, which, being reduced to powder, is to be put into a glass cucurbit, a thick glass plate being put over its surface. Then a capital being adapted, and the vessel placed in sand, apply to it a fire gradually raised, until it pass into very red small scales." . Hydrargyri nitrico-oxidum. Nitric Oxide of Quicksilver. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver by weight, three pounds; Nitric Acid by weight, a pound and a half; Distilled Water, two pints. Mix them in a glass vessel, and boil until the quicksilver is dissolved, and the water being evaporated, a white matter remains. Rub this into powder, and put into another vessel as shallow as possible ; then apply a gentle heat, and gradually increase it, until any red vapour cease to be produced." . . Hydrargyri oxydum nitricum. Nitric Oxide of Quicksilver. Dub. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, two parts ; Diluted Nitric Acid, three parts. Mix them in a glass vessel, and with a heat gradually 492 PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. raised, dissolve the quicksilver ; then raise the fire, until the residual matter in the bottom ofthe vessel pass into red scales." The quicksilver is in this preparation first oxidated by the nitrous acid, and the peroxide formed then combines with the remaining acid. By the increase of heat, this nitrate is decomposed, and the greater part of the acid expelled, leaving a mass of a deep red co- lour. From the name of oxide given to this preparation, it appears to be supposed, that the whole acid of the nitrate is expelled or decom- posed, and that the residual matter is quicksilver combined with ox- ygen alone. It is suspected, however, that there remains always in it a small proportion of nitric acid ; hence the name of Hydrargyri subnitras ruber would be more proper, and would prevent its being mistaken for the true peroxide, (Hydrarg. oxid. rubr.) an error which has produced serious consequences in several instances. It has always been found difficult to conduct this process, so as to obtain the product of that bright red colour and scaly appearance which are regarded as tests of its proper preparation ; and some of the steps in the operation, as directed by the Colleges, are designed to attain this more perfectly. Much of the success depends appa- rently on the scale on which it is formed, the heat acting more steadi- ly, and with more uniformity, on a large than on a small quantity. Dr. Barker recommends, that the vessel in which the preparation is made be not changed during the process. When properly prepared, it is in scales of a bright red colour. It is so acrid as to be altoge- ther unfit for internal administration. Externally it is employed as an escharotic, being applied either in a finely levigated powder, or mix- ed with lard in the form of ointment. Sursulphas hydrargyri flavus. Yellow Sulphate of Quicksilver Ed. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, two parts ; Sulphuric Acid, three parts. Put them into a glass cucurbit, and boil in a sand-bath to dry- ness. The white matter remaining at the bottom of the vessel being reduced to powder, is to be thrown into boiling water. The yellow powder thus produced is to be frequently washed with warm water." Hydrargyri oxidum sulphuricum. Sulphuric Oxide of Quicksilver. Dub. " Take of Persulphate of Quicksilver, one part; Warm Water, twenty parts. Rub them together in an earthen mortar, and pour off the supernatant liquor. Wash the yellow powder repeatedly with warm distilled water, as long as the decanted fluid gives any precipitate on the addition of a few drops of water of caustic potash ; lastly, dry it." It has been already stated, (p. 484,) that when sulphuric acid is boiled on mercury, a part of the acid is resolved into sulphurous acid, which escapes, and oxygen, which uniting with the mercury, forms peroxide of mercury ; this unites with the rest ofthe sulphuric acid, and bipersulphate of mercury is the product. On this, in the present process, boiling water is poured ; and it acts as water does on many of the metallic salts. Having a slronger affinity to their acid than to their base, it decomposes the salt, abstracting the acid, preparations of quicksilver. 493 and precipitating the peroxide ; but the influence of quantity on chemical affinity still so far operates in this decomposition, that the acid in combining with the water retains a portion ofthe oxide com- bined with it, and the oxide precipitated retains a portion of the acid. The entire compound, therefore, is resolved into a supersalt, which is dissolved, and a subsalt, which is thrown down : or in the present case, the water poured on the persulphate of mercury ab- stracts the acid, retaining in combination with it a small portion of peroxide, while a subsulphate is precipitated, and forms the yellow powder. The color of this is more lively when hot water is used in its preparation, probably from the temperature favouring the che- mical action ofthe water. The success of the process, with regard to the quantity of product, depends much on the sulphate of mercury having been deprived of all free acid previous to the affusion ofthe water ; for if it contain much acid, the greater part ofthe salt is dis- solved without being decomposed. The proportion of acid ordered in the Pharmacopoeia is unnecessarily large, and rather defeats the object of the process ; an equal weight is sufficient, and the heat ought to be applied to the saline mass until it is perfectly dry. The supersulphate which is dissolved in the water may be decomposed by potash, and a subsulphate precipitated. The composition of yellow subsulphate of mercury has only of late been ascertained by Mr. Phillips. He states it to consist of three atoms of sulphuric acid, 120, and four atoms of peroxide of mercury, 864,=984 ; or it may be regarded as a compound of one equivalent of dipersulphate, 472, with two equivalents of persulphate of mercury, 512,=984. Or if we suppose the water to abstract from the bipersulphate an equivalent and a fourth of the acid, the pre- sent preparation will result. As a medicine it is sometimes used as an errhine, mixed with powder of liquorice root, in some affections of the eyes. Taken internally, it acts violently as an emetic in a dose of five grains, and its nauseating effect seems to promote absorption, whence it is sometimes useful in discussing swelled testicle. It has sometimes produced salivation. On account of the harshness of its operation, it is seldom used. Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum. Black Sulphuret of Quick. silver. Ed. Dub. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, Sublimed Sulphur, of each equal weights. Rub them together in a glass mortar with a glass pestle, (in an earthen mortar, Dub.) until the globules ofquicksilver entire. ly disappear. " It may be made likewise with a double proportion ofquicksilver." Hydrargyri sulphuretum nigrum. Black Sulphuret of Quick- silver. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver by weight, a pound ; Sublimed Sulphur, a pound. Rub them together until the globules no longer appear." By the trituration a chemical composition appears to be effected between the quicksilver and sulphur, as the former loses completely. its metallic form, and no globules can be perceived in the powder 494 PREPARATIONS of quicksilver. by the microscope. The product is a dark mass, named Ethiope mineral. It was at one time supposed to contain oxygen, but Mr. Brande has shewn that it consists of bisulphuret of mercury mixed with sulphur. It is almost inert. Hydrargyrum cum magnesia. Quicksilver with Magnesia. Dub. " Take of Quicksilver, Manna, each two parts ; Carbonate of Magnesia, one part. Triturate the quicksilver with the manna in an earthen mortar, adding a few drops of water to give to the mixture the consistence of syrup, and continuing the trituration until the mercurial globules entirely disappear. Then add to the mixture a drachm ofthe magnesia, triturating it constantly. The whole being well mixed together, add a pint of hot water, and shake the mixture ; allow the liquor to rest, and as soon as the sediment subsides, pour it off. Repeat this washing a second and third time, that the manna may be entirely removed ; and, while the sediment is still humid, add to it the remaining magnesia. Lastly, dry the powder on bibu- lous paper." Hydrargyrum cum creta. Quicksilver with Chalk. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver by weight, three ounces ; Prepar- ed Chalk, five ounces. Rub them together until the globules no longer appear." Hydrargyrum cum creta. Quicksilver with Chalk. Dub. " Prepare this in the same manner as Quicksilver with Magne- sia, substituting only Precipitated Carbonate of Lime for Magnesia." Quicksilver, when triturated with any substance which aids the division of its globules, and extends their surface, loses the metallic appearance, and becomes a dark grey powder, which is probably the protoxide, though by some it is doubted if the mercury be at all oxidated. The use ofthe manna in one ofthe processes is to facilitate the division, and supposed oxidation ofthe mercury, and itis afterwards removed by washing. The preparations are of use only to give to children as mild alteratives, the common mercurial pill being in all other cases preferable. The Hydrargyrum cum Magnesia is slight- ly laxative, the other absorbent and antacid. It is chiefly in tabes and tendency to hydrocephalus that they are given. Hydrargyri oxydum rurrum. Red Oxide of Quicksilver. Lond. Dub. " Take of Purified Quicksilver by weight, one pound, (any quan- tity, Dub.) Put the quicksilver into a long glass vessel, with a nar- row mouth, and broad at the bottom. Apply heat to this open ves- sel, raised to the six-hundredth degree, until the quicksilver pass into red scales : then rub these into a fine powder." At the temperature at which quicksilver boils, it combines with oxygen ; and when heated to this temperature, under exposure to the air, red scales form on its surface from this combination, and it is gradually converted into peroxide. There is a difficulty, how- ever, in conducting the process ; for if the quicksilver be freely ex- posed to the air, a considerable quantity of it is lost, from its vapour being dissipated, especially if the heat be raised a little too high ; PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. 495 while, on the other hand, if the air is not freely admitted, the oxida- tion cannot proceed. The method directed in the formula of the Colleges is the most effectual,—employing a glass vessel broad at the bottom, (so as to present the quicksilver under an extensive sur- face,) and with a long neck, drawn out to a small aperture, so that while the atmospheric air is admitted, the mercurial vapour shall not easily escape, the heat being applied by the medium of sand. Still the oxidation goes on very slowly, requiring the application of the heat for several weeks ; and from the necessity of keeping up a steady heat without allowing it to become too strong, the conducting ofthe process requires considerable attention, and the preparation is comparatively high priced. Red oxide of quicksilver is in scales of a brick red colour. It consists of one atom of mercury, 200, and two atoms of oxygen, 16, =216. It is seldom given internally, being so acrid as to produce considerable irritation in the stomach or intestines. It is sometimes used as a stimulant application to sores, but the subnitrate, as cheap- er, is commonly preferred. Hydrargyrum pr^icipitatum album. White Precipitate of Quick- silver. Lond. " Take of Oxymuriate of Quicksilver, half a pound ; Muriate of Ammonia, four ounces ; Liquor of Subcarbonate of Potash, half a pint; Distilled Water, four pints. First dissolve the muriate of am- monia, then the oxymuriate of mercury in the distilled water, and add to these the liquor of subcarbonate of potash ; wash the powder which is precipitated until it is free from taste, then dry it." Hydrargyri submurias ammoniatum. Ammoniated Submuriate of Quicksilver. Dub. " To the liquor which has been poured off from the precipitated submuriate of mercury, add as much water of ammonia as is suf- ficient to precipitate the metallic salt. Wash the precipitate with cold distilled water, and dry it on bibulous paper." Though these two processes are apparently very different, they afford the same product, a submuriate of ammonia and peroxide of mercury. In the first, the potash attracts the greater part of the acid both of the muriate of mercury and muriate of ammonia, and the peroxide of mercury is precipitated, retaining a portion of the acid combined with it, and having attracted the quantity of ammonia necessary to the constitution of the triple compound. The other process, that in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, is simply the decompo- sition of corrosive muriate of mercury by ammonia. In the prepa- ration of calomel by precipitation, it has already been stated, (p. 489,) that pernitrate of mercury is formed when the process is con- ducted with the application of heat; on adding muriate of soda to decompose the solution, a portion of corrosive sublimate is therefore formed • if to this ammonia is added, the triple compound of submu- riate of ammonia and mercury is thrown down. The name given to this preparation by the Dublin College is preferable to that in the London Pharmacopoeia, which is altogether vague. Submurias Hydrargyri et Ammonia? is the correct appellation. It consists, ac- 496 PREPARATIONS OF QUICKSILVER. cording to Mr. Hennel, of one equivalent of peroxide of mercury, one of muriatic acid, and one equivalent of ammonia. This precipitate, when dried, forms a light white powder. It is used only externally, under the form of ointment in some cutaneous affections, and is recommended principally by its white colour. Hydrargyri sulphuretum rubrum. Red Sulphuret of Quicksilver. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver by weight, forty ounces ; Sublimed Sulphur, eight ounces. To the sulphur melted over the fire add the quicksilver, and as soon as the mass swells, remove the vessel from the fire, and cover it closely, that inflammation may not take place ; then rub it into powder, and sublime." Sulphuretum hydrargyri rubrum. Red Sulphuret of Quicksil- ver. Dub. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, nineteen parts ; Sublimed Sul- phur, three ounces. Mix the quicksilver with the sulphur, melted, and if the mixture inflame, extinguish the flame by covering the ves- sel ; then let the matter rubbed to powder be sublimed." The inflammation which is taken notice of, as liable to happen when the melted sulphur and quicksilver are mingled together, is not a combustion from oxygenation, but the evolution of heat and light from their mutual action ; this taking place in other cases of the combination of sulphur with metals, and being wholly uncon- nected with any agency ofthe air. The covering of the vessel will therefore not check it, but prevents the sulphur suffering a real com- bustion, by which a little sulphate of mercury is sometimes produc- ed. The temperature must be raised to redness to complete the sublimation ofthe cinnabar. It is procured in the form of a heavy crystalline mass, with much lustre, and, when reduced to powder, of a vivid red colour. It is a bisulphuret of mercury, composed of one atom of mercury, 200, and two atoms of sulphur, 16, = 216. The principal medicinal application of Cinnabar is for mercurial fumigation. It is easily volatilized by heat, and its vapour, directed on the surface of venereal ulcers, checks the progress of the ulcera- tion ; and where it is of importance to do so speedily, as, from the situation of an ulcer it sometimes is, the practice is employed, a little of the powder being laid on a hot iron, and the vapour directed on the part. When applied, however, in this manner, to an ulcer in the throat, which is the most common application of mercurial fu- migation, its sulphureous vapour proves irritating, and hence the grey oxide is sometimes preferred. The salivation produced by fu- migation is often followed by great debility. Hydrargyri cyanuretum. Cyanuret of Mercury. Dub. " Take of Cyanuret of Iron, six parts ; Nitric Oxide of Mercury, five parts ; Distilled Water, forty parts. Mix the cyanuret of iron with the oxide of iron, and add them to the water warmed. Boil the mixture for half an hour, with continual stirring, and strain through bibulous paper. Wash the residuum repeatedly with warm distilled PREPARATIONS OF LEAD. 497 water. Lastly, evaporate the filtered solution, that on cooling crys- tals may form." The object of this process is to form cyanuret (rather bicyanide) of mercury, from which prussic acid may be prepared according to the formula, p. 419. The materials employed are peroxide of mer- cury, and the substance named Prussian blue. The latter, which is incorrectly termed Cyanuret of Iron by the Dublin College, ap. pears to be a compound of prussic acid with protoxide and peroxide of iron,—a ferro-prussiate of iron. When it is boiled with peroxide of mercury, the prussic acid in it is decomposed, its hydrogen and the oxygen of the peroxide unite, and form water, and its cyanogen combining with the metallic mercury forms the cyanuret of mercury. The proportions of materials must be such as to furnish two equi- yalents of prussic acid to one of peroxide of mercury ; the reaction is then such as is exhibited in the following diagram : £ Hydrogen 1-------79 Water. 54 Prussic Acid, j Hydrogen 1----- /O 9 Water. (2 equiv.) \ Cyanogen 26-. // \ Cyanogen 26/\X/ 216 Peroxide of C Oxygen .. 8X*$\ Mercury 1 Oxygen. . 8/ X 3 v. Mercury 200______^\ 252 Bicyanide of Mercury. Prussian blue being variable in its composition, Dr. Barker recom- mends, that the peroxide of mercury be added to it, diffused in the boiling water, till the blue colour disappears. A portion of argil is present in Prussian blue, and a little nitric acid adheres to the nitric oxide, but the crystallization ofthe bicyanide separates it from these impurities. The crystals of cyanuret of mercury are four-sided prisms ; they are white, permanent in the air, and very soluble in water : they are used only in the preparation of prussic acid. PLUMBUM--LEAD. Acetas plumbi, olim Saccharum Saturni. Acetate of Lead, former- ly Sugar of Lead. Ed. " Take of White Oxide of Lead, any quantity ; Distilled Acetic Acid, as much as may be necessary. Pour over the oxide in a cu- curbit ten times its weight of Acid. Let the mixture stand on warm sand until the acid become sweet; pour it off, and add a fresh quantity successively, until it cease to acquire sweetness. Then evaporate the whole liquor, freed from impurities, in a glass vessel, to the con- sistence of thin honey, and put it aside in a cool place, that crystals may form, which are to be dried in the shade. Evaporate the re- maining liquor, that there may be a new formation of crystals, and repeat this until no more are formed." Plumbi acetas. Acetate of Lead. Lond. " Take of Subcarbonate of Lead, a pound ; Strong Acetic Acid, a pint; Boiling Distilled Water, a pint and a half. Mix the acid with the water: to these add gradually the subcarbonate of lead, and 63 498 PREPARATIONS OF LEAD. boil until the acid is saturated ; then strain through paper, and hav ing evaporated the water until a pellicle appear at the surface, put it aside that crystals may be formed. Having poured off the water, dry them on bibulous paper." Plumbi acetas. Acetate of Lead. Dub. " Take of the Carbonate of Lead, Cerusse as it is named, any required quantity; Distilled Vinegar, ten times its weight. Digest in a glass vessel until the vinegar become sweet, which being poured off, add more until it cease to acquire sweetness. Strain the liquor, and by alternate slow evaporation and cooling form crystals which dry in the shade." This process is not attempted in the shops, but is conducted on a large scale, to furnish the salt for the purposes to which it is applied in the arts. Distilled vinegar is either boiled on cerusse until the acid is saturated ; or a more economical method is, to dissolve the oxide immediately after it is formed ; plates of lead are moistened with vinegar, or partially immersed in it, until they are incrusted with oxide, and this oxide is then dissolved by immersing the plates alto- gether in the liquor; a new quantity of oxide is then formed by raising them again to the surfaSe. This is continued until the acid is saturated, and then the liquor is brought by evaporation to crys- tallize. It is obvious, that the acetic acid ofthe distilled vinegar combines with the oxide of lead. The salt which crystallizes was formerly supposed to be a superacetate; but it is the neutral acetate, com- posed of one equivalent of acetic acid, 51, one of protoxide of lead, 112, and three of water, 27, = 190. Acetate of lead crystallizes in acicular prisms, and, as prepared on a large scale, is usually in the form of masses composed of these crystals aggregated ; it is white, or of a light yellowish colour, with a silky lustre ; it is rather efflorescent; it has a sweet taste, whence the name of Sugar of Lead, by which it has been known, this sweet- ness being accompanied with a degree of astringency. It is soluble in four parts of water at 60° ; with spring water the solution is milky, from a partial decomposition of the salt, by the minute quan- tity of sulphates or muriates contained in the water; and even with distilled water the solution is not perfectly transparent, if a large quantity of the water be employed ; the water, when its affinity to the acid is aided by its quantity, producing a slight partial decompo- sition. Acetate of lead is employed principally as an external ap- plication, (p. 163.) Liquor plumbi subacetatis. Liquor of Subacetate of Lead. Lond. "Take ofthe Semi-vitrified Oxide of Lead, two pounds ; Diluted Acetic Acid, one gallon. Mix them, and boil down to six pints, stirring constantly ; then put aside, that the impurities may subside, and strain." Plumbi subacetatis liquor. Liquor of Subacetate of Lead. Dub. " Take of Semi-vitrified Oxide of Lead, one part; Distilled Vine- PREPARATIONS OF ZINC. 499 gar, twelve parts. Boil to eleven parts in a glass vessel, then let the liquor rest, and after the impurities have subsided, strain it." This preparation was introduced by Goulard, a French surgeon, under the name of Extract of Lead, as possessed of peculiar powers, and from the confidence with which it was recommended was esta- blished in practice. It is a solution of an uncrystallizable subace- tate of lead, containing only half (according to Berzelius one-third) of the quantity of acetic acid, which exists in the neutral salt just described. The quantity of oxide of lead ordered in the London formula is more than double what it ought to be ; a considerable por- tion of it is left undissolved, and retains part of the solution mixed with it. The proportions given in the Dublin Pharmacopoeia were assigned by Dr. Barker, from experiment, as the most economical. The solution, or Goulard's extract, as it is named, is of a brown co- lour. When prepared with pyroligneous acid it is colourless. When kept, it becomes lighter, and deposites a quantity of oxide. It is used as a discutient, being mixed with vinegar and water, and fre- quently applied under the form of cataplasm. It forms also an ap- plication to inflamed surfaces, generally under the form of the fol- lowing preparation. V Liquor plumbi suiiacetatis dilutus." Dilute Liquor of Subacetate of Lead. Lond. Plumbi subacetatis liquor compositus. Compound Liquor of Subacetate of Lead. Dub. " Take of Liquor of Subacetate of Lead, a fluid-drachm ; Dis- tilled Water, a pint; Proof-spirit, a fluid-drachm. Mix them. This is what Goulard named absurdly Vegeto-Mineral Water, and which has been highly celebrated as an application in superficial inflammation. It is occasionally employed by surgeons, and some have thought it superior to a simple solution of acetate or subacetate of lead. The spirit is added to render the solution less liable to de- composition, and it is not in such quantity as to make it stimulating. ZINCUM--ZINC. Carbonas zinci impurus pr^paratus. Prepared Impure Carbon- ate of Zinc. Ed. " The Impure Carbonate of Zinc, roasted by those who prepare brass, is to be reduced to powder in an iron mortar, and levigated on a porphyry stone with a little water; it is then to be put into a large vessel, and water poured upon it, which, after being well shaken is to be poured off loaded with fine powder. The minute powder that subsides from the water on rest is to be dried." Calamina pr.eparata. Prepared Calamine. Lond. « Calcine Calamine ; then rub it to powder ; lastly, reducert to a verv fine powder in the manner directed for preparing chalk. Zinci carbonas impurum pr^paratum. Prepared Impure Carbon- ate of Zinc. Dub. , « Reduce Calcined Impure Carbonate of Zinc to powder, and se- parate the finer particles in the manner ordered in the preparation ot chalk." 500 PREPARATIONS OF ZINC. Calamine is an ore of zinc, the composition of which is variable. Some varieties of it appear to consist of oxide of zinc, combined with siliceous earth ; but the more common varieties are composed ofthe carbonate more or less pure. When calcined by a moderate heat it becomes friable, so as to be more easily reduced to powder; and as this calcination is performed in preparing it for converting copper into brass by cementation, it is ordered in the Edinburgh Pharmaco- poeia to be obtained in this state, and then to be reduced to a fine pow- der by levigation and washing, in the same manner as carbonate of lime. Considerable care requires to be taken in this levigation, as the powder is applied to purposes, where, if it were coarse, it would prove irritating. It is used as an application to superficial inflam- mation and excoriation, dusted on the part; and it forms the basis of the common cerate, to which it communicates consistence and tenacity. Oxidum zinci impurum pr^paratum. Prepared Impure Oxide of Zinc. Ed. " This Oxide of Zinc is prepared in the same manner as the Im- pure Carbonate of Zinc." Tutia, as this oxide is named, is impure, from an admixture of argillaceous earth ; it is the sublimate collected in the chimneys in which zinc is calcined, mixed with clay and water, and baked. It is used externally for the same purposes as calamine, and hence re- quires to be well levigated. Oxidum zinci. Oxide of Zinc. Ed. " Let a large crucible be placed in a furnace filled with burning fuel, in such a manner that it shall be somewhat inclined to its mouth ; and when the bottom ofthe crucible is at a moderate red heat, throw in a piece of zinc, about the weight of one drachm. The zinc soon inflames, and is converted into white flocculi, which are to be removed, from time to time, from the surface ofthe metal, with an iron spatula, that the combustion may proceed more perfectly ; and, when the in- flammation ceases, remove the oxide of zinc from the crucible. Another piece of zinc being thrown in, the operation is to be renewed and repeated as often as may be necessary. Lastly, let the oxide of zinc be prepared in the same manner as Impure Carbonate of Zinc." Zinci oxydum. Oxide of Zinc. Lond. " Take of Sulphate of Zinc, a pound ; Liquor of Ammonia, a pint, or as much as may be necessary ; Distilled Water, a pint. Dissolve the sulphate of zinc in the distilled water, and add as much of the liquor of ammonia as may be sufficient to precipitate the whole of the oxide of zinc. Having poured off the liquor, wash the powder repeatedly with distilled water, and dry it on a sand-bath." Oxydum zinci. Oxide of Zinc. Dub. " Take of Zinc broken into small pieces, any quantity. Throw these at intervals into a crucible at a red heat, sufficiently deep, the mouth of which inclines a little towards the mouth of the furnace, placing over it at each time another crucible inverted, but covering PREPARATIONS OF ZINC 501 it loosely so that the air may not be excluded. Let the light and very white sublimed powder be preserved for use." Zinc is the most inflammable of the proper metals. At the tern- perature of ignition, it attracts the oxygen of the atmospheric air, and burns vividly with a white and green light, producing an oxide in very light flocculi. Part of this oxide remains in the crucible, in- crusting the fragments of zinc, part is carried off by the rapid cur- rent of air arising from the burning zinc, and hence the reason of the direction to cover the crucible, with another inverted, so that this may be obviated,—a direction, however, not easily complied with without impeding the burning. The oxide accumulates so rapidly, that it must be withdrawn with a spatula to allow the combustion to proceed. Particles of metallic zinc are intermingled with it, and hence the necessity of submitting it to levigation. It is difficult, how- ever, to remove these unburnt metallic particles entirely. Henco the London College adopt another process, and procure the oxide of zinc by decomposing the sulphate of zinc by ammonia. It will thus be obtained purer, and in a state of much finer division. The only caution requisite is, not to add the ammonia in excess, as it may re- dissolve a portion ofthe precipitate. There would appear to be an error in the formula, as a pint of cold water cannot dissolve a pound of sulphate of zinc. Mr. Brande has proposed to read a gallon in- stead of a pint. Oxide of zinc is light, white, tasteless, and insolu- ble in water. In medicine it is employed principally as an anti. spasmodic in epilepsy and chorea ; also in hooping cough. Its dose is from two to five grains twice a-day, and this is gradually increased. It also forms the basis of a healing cerate. Sulphas zinci. Sulphate of Zinc. Ed. " Take of Zinc cut into small pieces, three parts ; Sulphuric Acid, five parts ; Water, twenty parts. Mix them, and the effervescence being finished, digest for some time on warm sand ; then strain the liquor, after being decanted, through paper ; and, after due exhala- tion, put it aside that crystals may be formed." Zinci sulphas. Sulphate of Zinc. Lond. " Take of Zinc in small pieces, four ounces; Sulphuric Acid by weight, six ounces; Distilled Water, four pints. Mix them in a glass vessel, and the effervescence being over, strain the liquor through paper; then boil it until a pellicle form on the surface, and put it aside that crystals may form." Zinci sulphas. Sulphate of Zinc. Dub. " Take of Zinc in small pieces, thirteen parts ; Sulphuric Acid, twenty parts ; Water, one hundred and twenty parts. To the zinc put into a glass vessel, add gradually the acid previously diluted with the water; when the effervescence ceases, digest for a short time ; then evaporate the strained liquor, and after due evaporation, put it aside, that crystals may form." The sulphuric acid, in this process, by a resulting affinity, enables the zinc to decompose the water, attracting its oxygen, the hydrogen being disengaged with effervescence: the oxide of zinc combines 502 PREPARATIONS of zinc. with the acid, forming the sulphate of zinc. These changes are re- presented in the following diagram : .„, , t Hydrogen 1 9 Water j0iygeS 8 — 1 Hydrogen. 34Zync .... 34- _ 40 Sulphuric Acid . 40 X"~^- 82 Sulphate of Zinc. By evaporation the sulphate of zinc is obtained in acicular crys- tals, which contain seven equivalents of water. The process, how- ever, is scarcely ever performed in the shops, the sulphate of zinc being prepared on a large scale, from certain varieties of the native sulphuret ofthe metal. These are roasted, and exposed to air and humidity ; oxygen is absorbed, the zinc is oxidated, and the sulphur is converted into sulphuric acid; the sulphate of zinc is extracted by lixiviation ; and its solution is evaporated so far, that on cooling, the salt concretes in a granular mass, forming the white vitriol of commerce. It usually contains a little sulphate of iron, and some- times, it has been supposed, a portion of sulphate of copper and of lead. From the insolubility ofthe latter salt, it can scarcely be pre- sent ; the sulphate of copper is seldom to be discovered, and the sulphate of iron is in small quantity, and cannot communicate any injurious quality. And as sulphate of zinc is principally employed externally, the neglect of this process, and the substitution of the common white vitriol, are of less importance. Solutio sulphatis zinci. Solution of Sulphate of Zinc. Ed. " Take of Sulphate of Zinc, sixteen grains ; Water, eight ounces ; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, sixteen drops. Dissolve the sulphate of zinc in water ; then the acid being added, strain through paper." This solution is designed to be used as a collyrium in ophthalmia, the sulphuric acid dissolving any excess of oxide that may be pre- sent in the common sulphate of zinc, and coinciding with it in as- tringency. As an injection in gonorrhoea, the solution, without the acid, is preferable, as sufficiently astringent and less irritating, and perhaps is also preferable as a collyrium. Solutio acetatis zinci. Solution of Acetate of Zinc. Ed. " Take of Sulphate of Zinc, one drachm ; Acetate of Lead, four scruples; Distilled Water, twenty ounces. Dissolve the salts sepa- rately in ten ounces of water each ; mix the solutions, and, after the liquor has settled, strain it." Sulphate of zinc and acetate of lead being the two astringent salts which usually form the basis ofthe astringent injection employed in gonorrhoea, they had frequently been conjoined in one formula, with- out the prescriber perhaps being always aware ofthe decomposition they suffer. The solution, however, was found to be astringent with- out proving irritating. The use of it led to the introduction ofthe present process, in which the proportions are properly adjusted. The two salts exchange their principles, the sulphuric acid of the sulphate of zinc combining with the oxide of lead of the acetate of lead, while the acetic acid unites with the oxide of zinc. The sulphate of lead, PREPARATIONS OF SULPHUR. 503 being insoluble, is precipitated, and is removed by filtration ; the ace- tate of zinc remains dissolved. These changes may be represented as follows : ,63A«,.„ofL8,d {£*** ,f{—^BA—"*" W Sulph... ofZf„c j^^r 2o__^lB Sulph,,. ofL»4 The solution is used both as an'injection in gonorrhoea, and a col- lyrium in ophthalmia. Zinci acetatis tinctura. Tincture of Acetate of Zinc. Dub. " Take of Sulphate of Zinc, Acetate of Potash, of each one part. Triturate them together, and add of Rectified Spirit, sixteen parts. Macerate for a week, agitating the liquor frequently, and strain it through paper." In this process a similar decomposition takes place, and the spirit dissolves the acetate of zinc which results, while the sulphate of pot- ash remains in a great measure undissolved. The solution is strongly impregnated with the metallic salt, and a collyrium or injection ofthe usual strength may be prepared extemporaneously, by adding a cer- tain proportion of it to water, though it requires much larger dilution than is proportional to the quantity of acetate of zinc it contains, to reduce the stimulant operation of the spirit. The formula appears to have no advantage over the more direct and simple method given by the Edinburgh College. STANNUM—TIN. Pulvis stanni. Powder of Tin. Dub. " Take of very pure Tin, any quantity. Having melted it in an iron mortar, agitate it as it cools, until it is reduced to powder, which, when cold, is to be passed through a sieve." Tin, when heated near to its melting point, becomes brittle, so as to be easily reduced to fragments. When melted, therefore, if stir- red or agitated as it becomes solid, this effect is obtained, and a gra- nular powder is formed more easily than by any other method. Its powers as an anthelmintic have been already considered, (p. 289). CHAP. XXIV. SULPHUREA—PREPARATIONS OF SULPHUR. Oleum sulphuratum. Sulphurated Oil. Ed. " Take of Olive Oil, eight parts ; Sublimed Sulphur, one part. Boil with a gentle fire, in a large iron pot, stirring constantly until they unite." Oleum sulphuratum. Sulphurated Oil. Lond. 504 PREPARATIONS OF SULPHUR- " Take of Washed Sulphur, two ounces ; Olive Oil, a pint. Add the sulphur gradually to the oil heated in a large iron vessel, and stir constantly with a spatula until they unite." This process, though apparently simple, is attended with some difficulty, the oil being very liable to boil over, or its vapour to catch fire : the heat therefore requires to be applied with caution ; a large vessel ought to be employed, and a cover for it should be at hand, to extino-uisn combustion if it commence. It is one too unnecessary ; for although the composition has been recommended in catarrh, asthma, and phthisis, it has fallen into disuse, being acrid and offen- sive. When employed, it was given in a dose of from 10 to 30 drops. It has been used externally to clean foul ulcers.. Sulphur sublimatum lotum. Washed Sublimed Sulphur. Ed. " Take of Sublimed Sulphur, one part; Water, four parts. Boil the Sulphur for a short time in the water ; then pour off this water, and adding cold water, wash away all the acid ; lastly, dry the sul- phur." Sulphur lotum. Washed Sulphur. Lond. " Take of Sublimed Sulphur, a pound. Pour upon it boiling wa- ter, that the acid, if there is any, may be washed out, then dry." Sulphur lotum. Washed Sublimed Sulphur. Dub. " Let Warm Water be poured on Sublimed Sulphur, and let the washing be repeated as long as the water poured off has received any acidity, which may be known by the test of litmus. Dry the sulphur on bibulous paper." The sublimation of sulphur is usually conducted on a large scale, and the vapours of the sulphur which first rise, receiving a little oxy- gen from the atmospheric air of the subliming vessel, or of the chamber in which they are condensed, a slight degree of acidity is liable to be acquired, which it is the object of this process to remove. Any acidity, however, is so slight, that it is scarcely perceptible in the sublimed sulphur of the shops; the process is therefore super- fluous, and is never attended to. By the washing, the bright yellow colour ofthe sulphur is removed, and it acquires more of a greenish- grey tinge. Sulphur pr^ecipitatum. Precipitated Sulphur. Lond. " Take of Sublimed Sulphur, one pound ; Lime recently prepared, two pounds ; Water, four gallons. Boil the sulphur and the lime together in the water; strain the liquor through paper, and drop into it muriatic acid, as much as may be sufficient to precipitate the sul- phur. Lastly, pouring water on this frequently, wash it until it remain tasteless." In the first stage of this process, in which sulphur and lime are boiled in water, the sulphur decomposes the water, one portion tak- ing its oxygen and forming sulphuric and hyposulphuric acids, while the rest of the sulphur combines with the hydrogen, and being in excess, produces bisulphuretted hydrogen ; these compounds unite with the lime, and there result hyposul phate and hydro-bisulphuret of lime. Muriatic acid is then added, which attracts the lime from the PREPARATIONS of sulphur. 505 last compound, forming muriate of lime, that remains in solution, and the bisulphuretted hydrogen suffering decomposition as it is libe- rated, its elements having only a weak affinity to each other, is re- solved into sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which is evolved, and sulphur, which is precipitated. The changes in this part of the process are of the following nature : 37 Muriatic Acid ..... .37——^=s- 65 Muriate of Lime. fLime . . 28^-—^" 61 Hydro-bisulphu- 1 Hydrogen 1 _^. ret of Lime iSulphur . . 16^""~"^-~-. 17 Sulphuret. Hydrogen. 'Sulphur. . 16__________ 16 Sulphur. The precipitated sulphur is collected and washed. Thus the process ends in merely recovering a part of the sulphur which was employed, and seems without object; but the sulphur in the precipitation com- bines with a portion of water, whence it acquires a white colour, and is on this account preferred in making sulphur ointment. The pro- cess, as Dr. Duncan states, often fails, chiefly, he is of opinion, by the acid being added too hastily and in excess. The propriety of its being retained is doubtful, as the whiteness of the sulphur occa- sions no difference in its medicinal effects. The whiteness of the precipitated sulphur of the shops is usually increased by precipitat- ing the solution of the sulphuretted hydrosulphuret of lime, not by muriatic, but by sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime being thus formed and thrown down, intimately mingled with the sulphur: it is thus rendered white, but impure. Sulphuretum potassa. Sulphuret of Potash. Ed. " Take of Subcarbonate of Potash, two parts ; Sublimed Sulphur, one part. Having rubbed them together, put them into a large coated crucible ; and a cover being adapted to it, apply the fire to it cautiously, until they melt. The crucible, after it has cooled, being broken, remove the sulphuret, and preserve it in a phial well stopt." Potass^ sulphuretum. Sulphuret of Potash. Lond. " Take of Washed Sulphur, an ounce ; of Subcarbonate of Pot- ash, two ounces. Rub them together, and put them into a close crucible upon the fire until they unite." Potass.e sulphuretum. Sulphuret of Potash. Dub. " Take of Carbonate of Potash, four parts ; Sublimed Sulphur, one part. Put them mixed together into a crucible, and, applying a cover, expose them to a fire gradually raised, until they unite. Keep the sulphuret in a well-closed vessel." During the fusion of the two substances, it was supposed that the sulphur and potash combined, but the researches of Vauquelin rather lead to the conclusion that the potash is partially decomposed by the sulphur. One part ofthe potash, it would appear, yields its oxygen to part of the sulphur, which becomes sulphuric acid, and combines with the portion of potash which is not decomposed. The liberated potassium and the rest of the sulphur unite, and thus sulphuret of potassium, or rather, as there is an excess of sulphur, bisulphuret of potassium, and sulphate of potash, are produced. When this 64 506 PREPARATIONS OF SULPHUR. compound is thrown into water, the water is decomposed by it; the potassium attracts oxygen and becomes potash, and the sulphur com- bines with hydrogen, forming bisulphuretted hydrogen, which unites with the alkali, and a solution results of Hydro-bisulphuret of Pot- ash. The dry compound is of a yellowish-green or brown colour, and inodorous ; but becomes fetid when moistened or dissolved in water, from the decomposition that happens. The Colleges employ carbonate of potash in the process as cheaper than pure potash, and the result is the same, the carbonic acid being expelled by the heat and the chemical action. Dr. Barker is of opinion, that the propor- tion of sulphur ordered by the Dublin College, which is half of the quantity prescribed by the other Colleges, is sufficient ; but as to this there may be some doubt. The preparation is so indefinite in its constitution, that it is difficult to say what proportions are most suit- able ; but as it is the sulphur which, in a medicinal point of view, is the important ingredient, there should not be any risk of its being deficient. Sulphuret of potash has been proposed to be used as an antidote to some of the metallic poisons, from the supposition that the sulphur will combine with the metallic preparation, and render it inert, and has in some cases been found useful. From a similar theory, it has been imagined that it might obviate the effects of mer- cury on the system when these are too violent; but it is seldom had recourse to with this intention, and it is doubtful if much advantage would be derived from it. The dose in which it is given internally, is from ten to twenty grains, three or four times a-day. It is said, in some cases of cancer, to have increased the efficacy of hemlock as a palliative, in doses of five grains. Externally, it has been re- commended in tinea capitis ; a wash prepared from three drachms of it with an ounce of soap, dissolved in eight ounces of lime-water, with the addition of two drachms of ardent spirit, being applied to the scalp. A solution of it is also very beneficial in the cure of scabies. Potassj! sulphureti aqua. Solution of Sulphuret of Potash. Dub. " Take of Washed Sulphur, one part; Water of Caustic Potash, eleven parts. Boil for ten minutes, and strain through paper. Keep the solution in well-closed vessels ; its sp. gr. is 1117." This is a mixed solution of sulphate of potash and hydro-bisulphu- ret of potash in water, of the same nature as is formed by dissolving the sulphuret of potash. If the air be not carefully excluded, it i3 in time converted into sulphate of potash. It is used for the same purposes as the last preparation ; the dose is from three grains to a drachm given thrice a-day, diluted with water. POWDERS. 507 CHAP. XXV. PULVERES—POWDERS. This is the simplest form of composition of medicines, the different articles being merely reduced to powder, and mixed together. It is adapted to the exhibition of such remedies as are not ungrateful, and such as are not liable to lose their virtues by keeping; and is usu- ally an improper form for those which are bitter, acrid, or fetid, which require to be given in a large dose, or which are not easily diffused in water, the vehicle in which powders are usually taken. The dose of a powder seldom exceeds a drachm ; and if it require to be given only in a few grains, it is better that it should be under the form of bolus. When it is to be taken, it is merely diffused in water, wine, or any other convenient vehicle ; for heavy powders, viscid fluids, as syrups or conserves, are preferable. The Dublin College gives the following general directions for the preparations of powders :— " Those substances which are to be reduced to powders, after be- ing first dried, are to be pulverised in an iron mortar. The powder is then to be shaken through a hair-sieve, and is to be preserved in close vessels." In reducing vegetable substances to powder, there is always a de- gree of loss, partly owing to the escape of hygrometric moisture, or of some volatile principle, partly from the dispersion of some ofthe finer particles in the air ; there is often, also, a portion of woody matter, which, as being tough and inert, is rejected. The amount of this loss varies, according to M. Henry, from 3 to 10 or 15 parts, from 100 of different vegetables. If it arise from the dissipation of moisture, or the abstraction of woody matter, the powder will still have all the power of the original quantity, and in a better form. Pulvis aromaticus. Aromatic Powder. Ed. "Take of Bark of Cinnamon, Cardamom Seeds, Ginger Root, of each equal parts. Rub them into a very fine powder, which is to be kept in a glass phial well stopt." Pulvis cinnamomi compositus. Compound Powder of Cinnamon. Lond. "Take of Bark of Cinnamon, two ounces ; Cardamom Seeds, an ounce and a half; Ginger, an ounce ; Long Pepper, half an ounce. Rub them together so as to form a fine powder." Pulvis aromaticus. Aromatic Powder. Dub. " Take of Cinnamon, two ounces ; Lesser Cardamom Seeds, freed from the capsules, Ginger, of each one ounce ; Long Pepper, one drachm. Rub them together to a powder." This combination of aromatics is designed to communicate to other compositions fragrance and pungency, and to obviate the nausea which ungrateful medicines are liable to excite. The quantity add, ed to a dose is generally about five grains. 508 TOWDERS. Pulvis asari compositus. Compound Powder of Asarabacca. Ed. " Take of the Leaves of Asarabacca, three parts ; the Leaves of Marjoram, Flowers of Lavender, of each one part. Rub them together to a powder." Pulvis asari compositus. Compound Powder of Asarabacca. Dub. "Take ofthe Leaves of Asarabacca dried, an ounce ; Flowers of Lavender dried, one drachm. Rub them together, and form a powder." This is a mild errhine, forming the composition known by the name of Herb Snuff. When snuffed in the quantity of a few grains, it occasions sneezing and a discharge of mucus, and is sometimes very useful in headach and ophthalmia. It is said to have cured paralysis of the mouth and tongue. Pulvis carbonatis calcis compositus. Compound Powder of Car- bonate of Lime. Ed. " Take of Prepared Carbonate of Lime, four ounces; Bark of Cinnamon, one drachm and a half; Nutmeg, half a drachm. Rub them together to powder." This is designed to be used as a grateful antacid. It is given in the dose of one drachm. Pulvis cret^e compositus. Compound Powder of Chalk. Lond. Dub. " Take of Prepared Chalk, half a pound; Bark of Cinnamon, four ounces; Tormentil Root, Gum-Arabic, of each three ounces ; Long Pepper, half an ounce. Reduce them separately to powder, and mix them." In this composition, though analogous to the preceding one, the proportion ofthe aromatics is larger, and the addition of the tormen- til root renders it more astringent. It is used to relieve diarrhoea arising from acidity, being given in the dose of half a drachm or a drachm. Pulvis cret^e compositus cum opio. Compound Powder of Chalk with Opium. Lond. Dub. " Take of Compound Powder of Chalk, six ounces and a half; Hard Opium, rubbed to powder, four scruples. Mix them." The addition of opium to astringents and antacids, when given in diarrhoea, is a common practice, and this formula affords a conve- nient composition of this kind. Its dose is one scruple, or half a drachm. Two scruples contain one grain of opium. Pulvis jalaps compositus. Compound Powder of Jalap. Ed. Dub. " Take ofthe Powder ofthe Root of Jalap, one part, (half a pound, Dub.) ; Supertartrate of Fotash, two parts, (one pound, Dub.) Rub them together into a very fine powder." This combination affords an excellent purgative, less stimulating, and less liable to excite griping than jalap alone. It is given in the dose of a drachm ; and in dropsy, as a hydragogue cathartic, to the extent of two drachms. The supertartrate is added partly with the POWDERS. 509 intention of modifying the effect, and partly to render the division of the jalap more complete. Pulvis ipecacuanha et opii. Powder of Ipecacuanha and Opium. Ed. " Take of the Powder of the Root of Ipecacuanha, Opium, of each one part; Sulphate of Potash, eight parts. Rub them together into a fine powder." Pulvis ipecacuanha compositus. Compound Powder of Ipeca- cuanha. Lond. Dub. " Take of Root of Ipecacuanha in powder, Hard Opium, (Turkey Opium, Dub.) in powder, of each a drachm ; Sulphate of Potash, one ounce. Mix them. Rub the sulphate of potash with the opium into powder, then mix in the ipecacuanha." This composition, Dover's powder, has long been established in practice, and is one of those useful combinations which experience, or rather accident, discovers, the powers of which could not have been inferred a priori from the known operation of its ingredients. It affords one ofthe best examples ofthe power which one medicine has of modifying the action of another, the ipecacuan rendering the operation ofthe opium, as a sudorific, more certain than it otherwise would be, and appearing also to diminish its narcotic effect, so that the composition can be given with safety in inflammatory affections, in which opium alone would be hazardous. The sulphate of potash serves to divide the particles of the opium and ipecacuan, and mix them more intimately ; and such is the advantage derived from it, that, as Dr. Blane has remarked, the opium and ipecacuan alone, mixed in the above proportions, have not the same effect. Hence, too, the operation of the powder is always more certain when it has been triturated to a great degree of fineness, and the directions in some of the Pharmacopceias are in this respect imperfect. This powder is the most powerful and certain sudorific we possess, (p. 234). Pulvis opiatus. Opiate Powder. Ed. " Take of Opium, one part; Prepared Carbonate of Lime, nine parts. Rub them together to a fine powder." This is designed as a convenient form for administering opium. Ten grains contain a grain of opium, and form a medium dose. It is, however, little used. Pulvis cornu usti cum opio. Powder of Burnt Hartshorn with Opium. Lond. " Take of Hard Opium rubbed to powder, one drachm ; Burnt and Prepared Hartshorn, an ounce ; Cochineal in powder, a drachm. Mix them." This, in a former edition of the Pharmacopoeia, had the name of Pulvis Opiatus, which has been changed to its present appellation, as being less liable to be confounded with Powder of Opium. A little cochineal is added to give it colour. The burnt hartshorn di- vides the opium, and from its hardness and grittiness is better adapted to this than the chalk of the preceding preparation. One grain of opium is contained in ten of the powder. 510 POWDERS. Pulvis salinus compositus. Compound Saline Powder. Ed. Dub. " Take of Pure Muriate of Soda, Sulphate of Magnesia, of each four parts ; Sulphate of Potash, three parts. Rub the salts, pre- Viously dried by a gentle heat, separately to a fine powder, and then together. The powder should be kept in a vessel well corked." This is a very pleasant cathartic, and very well adapted to those Who are of a costive habit. The doee is a drachm taken in water, or any other convenient vehicle. Pulvis scammoni^e compositus. Compound Powder of Scammony. Ed. " Take of Scammony, Supertartrate of Potash, of each equal parts. Rub them together into a very fine powder." Scammony alone is liable to act with violence, while its operation is at the same time somewhat uncertain. By the addition ofthe super- tartrate of potash, its cathartic operation is rendered more certain and less irritating. It is also preferred to the scammony alone, as a hydragogue cathartic. Its dose is from ten to twenty grains. Pulvis scammonle compositus. Compound Powder of Scammony. Lond. Dub. " Take of Scammony Gum-resin, Hard Extract of Jalap, of each two'ounces ; Ginger, half an ounce. Rub them separately into a very fine powder, then mix them." This composition, though under the same name as the preceding one, is of a very different nature ; the stimulating operation of the scammony not being corrected, but rather increased by the addition of the extract of jalap. The ginger will communicate an aromatic pungency, and obviate griping. The compound is a strong cathar- tic. Its medium dose is ten grains. Pulvis aluminis compositus. Compound Powder of Alum. Ed. " Take of Alum, four parts ; Kino, one part. Rub them toge- ther into a fine powder." This being a combination of two powerful astringents, has been sometimes used internally in menorrhagia, in repeated doses of ten or fifteen grains, and externally as a styptic application to bleeding wounds. There is reason, however, to fear that the alum will be decomposed by the kino; but whether the astringent efficacy of the mixture will be much diminished in consequence, remains to be as- certained. The following Powders have a place in the London or Dublin Pharmacopoeia, without any preparations corresponding to them in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. Pulvis aloes compositus. Compound Powder of Aloes. Lond. Dub. " Take of Extract of Spiked Aloes, (Hepatic Aloes, Dub.) one ounce and a half ; Guaiac, one ounce ; Compound Powder of Cin- namon, half an ounce. Rub the aloes and guaiac separately into powder ; then mix them with the compound powder of cinnamon." POWDERS, 511 This combination of aloes with guaiac is designed as a stimulat- ing aperient, and may be given in a dose of fifteen or twenty grains. The form of powder is, however, ill adapted to the exhibition of a substance so bitter and nauseous as aloes, or of resinous substances, such as guaiac ; and the composition is therefore little used. Pulvis aloes cum canella. Powder of Aloes with Canella. Dub. " Take of Hepatic Aloes, one pound ; Canella Bark, three ounces. Rub them separately to powder ; then mix them." This had a place in a former edition of the London Pharmaco- poeia, but is now thrown out. The canella covers the unpleasant flavour of the aloes ; and this combination is sometimes used as a warm stimulating cathartic, not under the form of powder, but made into a tincture, by infusing it in spirit. A composition of this kind, designed for this purpose, has long been kept in the shops, under the name of Hiera Picra. Pulvis contrayerv.e compositus. Compound Powder of Contra- yerva. Lond. " Take of Contrayerva Root rubbed to powder, five ounces ; Pre- pared Oyster Shells, one pound and a half. Mix them." This is a composition which has long kept its place in the Phar- macopceias, and has been often reformed. It is scarcely adapted to to any important purpose, or possessed of any advantage. It has been given as a tonic and stimulating diaphoretic in typhus, exanthe- mata and atonic gout, in a dose of half a drachm. Pulvis cornu cervini usti. Powder of Burnt Hartshorn. Dub. IX" Burn pieces of Hartshorn until they become white, then reduce them to a very fine powder." Cornu ustum. Burnt Horn. Lond. " Burn pieces of Horn in an open fire until they become perfectly white, then rub them to powder, and prepare them in the same man- ner that chalk is prepared." The horns ofthe deer contain a large quantity of phosphate of lime, according to Guillot, 57 parts in 100 of horn, with but a small portion of other earthy matter, while bones contain less phosphate of lime, with a large proportion of other earthy salts. As the object ofthe pre- sent process is to obtain phosphate of lime, the Dublin College, with propriety, name hartshorn as the animal substance to be used. Du- ring the burning, the gelatin ofthe horn is decomposed ; its carbo- naceous matter partly remains, giving a black colour ; but, by con- tinuing the heat, this also is burnt out. The phosphate of lime, which is the product of the process, has been given in rickets and mollities ossium, there appearing to be in these diseases a deficient supply of this earthy salt to the bones. When administered in such cases, its dose is half a scruple, and it is mixed with phosphate of soda ; benefit has been stated to be derived from it. It is used to reduce substances which are soft and tenacious, as opium, to pow- der, being rubbed along with them ; and it is better adapted to this purpose than chalk, which is sometimes employed, as it is more grit- ty. Its powder is sometimes employed as a dentrifice, 512 POWDERS. Pulvis kino compositus. Compound Powder of Kino. Lond. Dub. " Take of Kino, fifteen drachms ; Cinnamon Bark, half an ounce ; Hard Opium, a drachm. Triturate them separately into a very fine powder, then mix them." Kino is one of the most powerful vegetable astringents. The cinnamon will communicate to it a grateful aromatic flavour and pun- gency, and the addition ofthe opium will render it a more powerful remedy in diarrhoea. It may be given in a dose from ten to twenty grains. The proportion of opium in it is one part in twenty. Pulvis senna compositus. Compound Powder of Senna. Lond. " Take of Leaves of Senna, Supertartrate of Potash, of each two ounces ; Scammony Gum-Resin, half an ounce ; Ginger Root, two drachms. Rub the scammony separately, the others together, into a fine powder, and mix them." This may be employed as a purgative, in a dose of from half a drachm to a drachm. The senna is, however, so inferior in power to the scammony, that there appears to be little advantage in their com- bination, nor is the form of powder well adapted to their exhibition. Indeed, the object of adding scammony is to increase the cathartic power, as a dose of the senna in powder would require, to produce much effect, to be inconveniently bulky. Pulvis scilla. Powder of Squill. Dub. " Let the roots of Squill, freed from their membranous integu- ments, and cut into transverse slices, be dried on a sieve with a gen- tle heat : then reduce them to powder, which must be kept in glass phials well closed with glass stoppers." The layers of squill root being covered by a thin pink-coloured membrane, can be dried properly only by being cut into trans- verse slices, and exposed to a moderate heat in a stove. By the drying, the squill loses about four-fifths of its weight, and with little diminution of its powers, if too much heat has not been applied. It is in this state that it is commonly employed in medicine, and for other pharmaceutic preparations. It requires to be kept in a dry place, as otherwise it jegains its softness, and is liable to become mouldy. Though the Dublin College order it to be reduced to pow- der, it is better to preserve the dried root without pounding it, as di- rected by the other Colleges, (p. 296, 297). Pulvis spongia: usta. Powder of Burnt Sponge. Dub. Lond. " Cut Sponge in small pieces, and bruise it so as to free it from small stones, (extraneous bodies, Lond.); then burn it in a close iron vessel until it become black and friable ; lastly, reduce it to a very fine powder." Sponge contains a small portion of iodine, which gives to this powder medicinal activity. The burning is not carried so far as to destroy all the animal matter, lest the iodine should be volatilized. M. Chereau recommends that the sponge be only roasted. If it has been well prepared, the powder gives out purple fumes when ELECTUARIES. 513 sulphuric acid is poured upon it, and the mixture heated in a glass tube. It consists chiefly of carbonaceous matter, with carbonate and muriate of soda and iodine in the state of hydriodate of soda. From the presence of this latter ingredient, it has been found to act as a deobstruent in bronchocele and scrofulous affections of the glands, given in the dose of one or two scruples made into an elec- tuary with honey. But the preparations of iodine introduced by the Dublin College are preferable, as of uniform strength, and more easily administered. The ashes of the Fucus Vesiculosus, or Bladder-wrack, have been applied to the same medicinal use as burnt sponge, and appear to contain also a small portion of iodine. Pulvis tragacantha compositus. Compound Powder of Tra- gacanth. Lond. " Take of Tragacanth, rubbed to powder, Gum-Arabic in powder, Starch, of each one ounce and a half; Refined Sugar, three oun- ces. Triturate the starch and sugar together into powder, then having added the tragacanth and the gum-arabic, mix them all to- gether." This combination of mucilaginous substances may be employed for the general purposes of demulcents, in the dose of a drachm, or two drachms, frequently repeated. But it appears to be a very su- perfluous composition. It is sometimes used as a glutinous vehicle for calomel, and other heavy insoluble powders. CHAP. XXVI. ELECTUARIA—ELECTUARIES. This term is applied to that form of compound medicines where the consistence is nearly that of thick honey. An electuary is com- posed, in general, of a powder reduced to the proper consistence by the addition of syrup or mucilage. It is a proper form for adminis. tering medicines which are not very disagreeable in their taste or flavour ; and, except in a few officinal preparations, it is an extern- poraneous prescription, as, when long kept, it is liable to become too thick and adhesive from the evaporation of part of its moisture, and the crystallization ofthe sugar. To avoid the latter inconve- nience, it has sometimes been recommended to employ molasses, which are not crystallizable, or syrups from which the crystallizable parts have separated. Dry powders generally require twice their weight of syrup to bring them to the due consistence ; and syrup is preferable to mucilage, as the electuary made with the former does not so soon become dry. An electuary in a day or two after being pre- pared generally becomes much thicker, from a more intimate com- bination of the substance employed with the syrup, and it is neces- 65 514 ELECTUARIES. sary to add an additional portion of syrup. The common dose of an electuary rarely exceeds two tea-spoonfuls, and is seldom less than a tea-spoonful; any very active medicine, which requires to be given in a smaller dose, being usually administered under the form of bolus. The London College have united the Electuaries with the Con- serves, as they are both compositions of vegetable matter with su- gar, and are of similar consistence ; and have given to them the common name of Confections, (p. 299). The Edinburgh College retain the distinction of conserves, and the preparations which have this name have been already considered. Electuarium aromaticum. Aromatic Electua^. Ed. " Take of Aromatic Powder, one part; Syrup of Orange-Peel, two parts. Mix, beating them well together, so as to form'an elec- tuary." Confectio aromatica. Aromatic Confection. Lond. Dub. " Take of Cinnamon Bark, Nutmegs, each two ounces ; Cloves, one ounce ; Cardamom Seeds, half an ounce ; Saffron, dried, two ounces; Prepared Oyster Shells, (Chalk, Dub.) sixteen ounces; Refined Sugar, in powder,lwo pounds; Water, a pint. Triturate the dry substances together into a fine powder, then add the water gradually, and mix them so as to form an uniform mass." The composition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is the most simple of these ; in the others the carbonate of lime is foreign to the object of the combination, though, as it has long had a place, it is still retained. Either electuary is a grateful aromatic preparation, occasionally combined with other medicines, or made the basis of cordial carminative mixtures, requiring merely for this purpose to be diffused in water with a little syrup. The substitution by the Dub- lin College of prepared chalk instead of oyster-shells is proper, as the latter can scarcely be reduced to a powder sufficiently fine. Electuarium cassia fistula. Electuary of Purging Cassia. Ed. " Take of the Pulp of Cassia, four parts; Pulp of Tamarind, Manna, of each one part; Syrup of Pale Rose, four parts. Dis- solve the manna, beat in a mortar, with a gentle heat, in the syrup ; then add the pulps, and, by a continued heat, reduce the mixture to a proper consistence." Confectio cassia. Confection of Cassia. Lond. Electuarium cassia. Dub. " Take of Fresh Pulp of Cassia, half a pound ; Manna, two oun- ces ; Pulp of Tamarind, an ounce ; Syrup of Rose, (of Orange-Peel, Dub.) half a pint. Bruise the manna, then dissolve it in the syrup by the heat of a water-bath, mix in the pulps, and evaporate to a proper consistence." This electuary affords a mild laxative, which operates in the dose of an ounce. From the predominance of the pulps and the saccha- rine matter, it is liable, however, to become sour on keeping. It is also inferior in activity to the next electuary, which is equally ELECTUARIES. 515 pleasant, and hence it is so little used that it is never found in the shops." Electuarium catechu compositum. Compound Electuary of Ca- techu. Ed. " Take of Extract of Catechu, four ounces ; Kino, three ounces ; Bark of Cinnamon, Nutmeg, of each one ounce; Opium diffused in a sufficient quantity of Spanish White Wine, one drachm and a half; Syrup of Red Rose, boiled to the consistence of honey, two pounds and a quarter. Reduce the solid ingredients to powder, and, mixing with them the opium and syrup, form an electuary." Electuarium catechu compositum. Compound Electuary of Ca- techu. Dub. " Take of Catechu, four ounces ; Cinnamon, two ounces ; Kino, three ounces. Rub them into powder ; then add of Turkey Opium, a drachm and a half, diffused in Spanish White Wine ; Syrup of Ginger boiled to the consistence of heney, two.pounds and a quarter. Mix." In this electuary, the more powerful vegetable astringents are combined ; they are rendered more grateful by the addition of the aromatics, and the efficacy of the composition, as a remedy in diar- rhcea, is increased by the opium. It is the basis ofthe common ex- temporaneous astringent mixture; two drachms of it being diffused with a little syrup in six ounces of water, and a table-spoonful of this being taken three or four times a-day. One grain of opium is contained in rather more than three drachms. Electuarium opiatum, olim Electuarium Thebaicum. Opiate Elec- tuary. Ed. " Take of Aromatic Powder, six ounces ; Virginian Snake-root, rubbed to a fine powder, three ounces ; Opium, diffused in a sufficient quantity of Spanish White Wine, half an ounce ; Syrup of Ginger, one pound. Mix, so as to form an electuary." Confectio opii. Confection of Opium. Lond. Dub. " Take of Hard Opium, rubbed to powder, six drachms ; Long Pepper, an ounce ; Ginger-root, two ounces ; Caraway Seeds, three ounces; Tragacanth, in powder, two drachms; Syrup, a pint, (a pound, Dub.) Rub the opium with the syrup heated, then add the other ingredients ground to powder, and mix them." This is a substitute for compositions once highly celebrated, and which have long kept their place in the Pharmacopoeias of Europe, the Milhridate and Theriaca, which at one period consisted of above an hundred ingredients. Opium appeared, amid this farrago, to be the ingredient of predominating power, modified principally by aro- matics ; they have been, therefore, gradually reformed into the pre- sent preparation, and even it is scarcely used. A grain of opium is contained in forty grains of the Edinburgh preparation, in thirty.six ofthe London, and twenty-five grains ofthe Dublin confection. Electuarium senna compositum. Electuary of Senna. Ed. " Take of the Leaves of Senna, eight ounces ; Coriander Seeds, 516 ELECTUARIES. four ounces ; Liquorice Root, bruised, three ounces ; Figs, Pulps of Prunes, of each one pound ; Pulp of Tamarind, half a pound ; Re- fined Suga^ two pounds and a half; Water, four pounds. Bruise the senna with the coriander seeds, and separate by passing through a sieve ten ounces of the mixed powder. Boil the residuum with the figs and the liquorice in the water to one half; then express and strain. Reduce the strained liquor, by evaporation, to about a pound and a half. Afterwards add the sugar gradually. Add the pulps, and, lastly, mix in the powder." Confectio senna. Confection of Senna. Lond. " Take of Senna Leaves, eight ounces ; Figs, a pound ; Pulp of Tamarind, Pulp of Cassia, Pulp of Prune, of each half a pound ; Coriander Seeds, four ounces ; Liquorice Root, three ounces ; Re- fined Sugar, two pounds and a half. Beat the senna leaves with the coriander seeds, and separate ten ounces of the mixed powder by a sieve. Boil the remainder with the figs and the liquorice root in four pints of water to one-half ;• then express and strain. Evaporate the strained liquor in a water-bath until only a pint and a half remain, then adding to it the sugar, form a syrup. Lastly, rub the pulps with the syrup, and sprinkling in the powder passed through the sieve, mix the whole together." Electuarium senna. Electuary of Senna. Dub. " Take of Senna Leaves in fine powder, four ounces; Pulp of Prunes, a pound ; Pulp of Tamarinds, two ounces ; Treacle, a pint and a half; Essential Oil of Caraway, two drachms. Boil down the pulps in the treacle to the consistence of honey; then add the pow- der, and, when the mixture cools, the oil; lastly, mix them all well together." This electuary is in common use as a mild purgative. Its dose is from two to four drachms ; and it is sometimes rendered more active by the addition of a little jalap, or supertartrate of potash. From the number of the ingredients, which render it expensive, the Lon- don Confection is generally, according to Mr. Phillips, ill prepared, the cassia and senna being often omitted. The electuary of the Dub- lin Pharmacopoeia is more simple than the others, and is, on the whole, preferable, though the oil of caraway will perhaps communi- cate rather too much pungency to a medicine in this form. Confectio amygdalarum. Confection of Almonds. Lond. Dub. " Take of Sweet Almonds, an ounce ; Gum.Arabic, in powder, a drachm ; Refined Sugar, half an ounce. The almonds having been previously macerated in water, and their external pellicle removed, beat the whole together, until they form an uniform mass." This is introduced as affording an easy and convenient mode of preparing the almond emulsion extemporaneously; a little of this confection forming it by diffusion in water. Confectio ruta. Confection of Rue. Lond. Dub. " Take ofthe Dried Leaves of Rue, Caraway Seeds, Laurel Ber- ries, of each' an ounce and a half; Sagapenum, half an ounce ; Black Pepper, two drachms ; Clarified Honey, sixteen ounces. Tri- ELECTUARIES. 517 turate the dry ingredients into a fine powder ; then adding the honey, mix them together." This is intended as the basis of an enema, sometimes given in the hysteric paroxysm, and in flatulent colic. Confectio scammonia. Confection of Scammony. Lond. Elec- tuarium SCAMMONIA. Dub. " Take of Scammony powder, an ounce and a half; Cloves bruised, Ginger Root in powder, of each six drachms; Oil of Caraway, half a fluid-drachm : Syrup of Rose, as much as may be necessary. Tri- turate the dry substances into a very fine powder ; then having added the syrup, rub them again : and, adding the oil of caraway, mix them together." This is a stimulating cathartic, not very frequently employed. Its dose is from half a drachm to a drachm. Confectio piperis nigri. Confection of Black Pepper. Lond. Dub. " Take of Black Pepper, Elecampane Root, of each a pound ; Fennel Seeds, three pounds; Honey, Refined Sugar, of each two pounds. Rub the dry materials together into a very fine powder; then having added the honey, rub them till they form an uniform mass." This preparation has been introduced into the Pharmacopceias, as resembling Ward's Paste for the Piles. It has been found of much utility in cases attended with debility, and constitutional sluggish- ness ; its chief action is to stimulate the secretory surface ofthe rec- tum. In plethoric and feverish habits it is injurious. Enema catharticum. Cathartic Clyster. Dub. " Take of Manna, an ounce. Dissolve it in ten ounces by mca- sure of Compound Decoction of Chamomile, and add of Olive Oil, an ounce ; Sulphate of Magnesia, half an ounce. Mix them." Enema FffiTiouM. Fetid Clyster. " Is made by adding to the Cathartic Clyster two drachms of Tinc- ture of Assafcetida." Enema opii. Opiate Clyster. "Take of Tincture of Opium, a drachm ; Warm Water, six ounces. Mix." Enema terebinthina. Turpentine Clyster. " Take of Common Turpentine, half an ounce ; the Yolk of one Egg. Rub them together, and add gradually ten ounces of water, of a temperature not exceeding 100°." The Dublin College have introduced among their extemporaneous preparations these forms of clysters. This kind of remedy is in ge- neral too much neglected, considering the advantage with which it is often attended. It affords the best means of obviating habitual costiveness, restoring the healthy action of the intestines, which the use of purgatives often fails to effect, while they debilitate or irritate the stomach : And where, in disease, the intestinal canal has become torpid, the action of an enema frequently produces a degree of relief 513 PILLS. and abatement of the symptoms, greater than could at all have been anticipated. By varying the nature of the enema, an anodyne, astringent, laxative or emollient effect can be induced, without sub. jecting the stomach and smaller intestines to the action of medicines, that, to be equally effectual, might require to be of greater power than it would be advisable to employ. When the object is simply to produce an evacuation, a clyster of warm water, with a little starch dissolved in it, is employed in a quan- tity of ten or twelve ounces ; but where a specific action is to be produced, as of an anodyne or astringent nature, the quantity should not exceed four or five ounces. Of the above clysters, the first has for its basis the compound de- coction of chamomile, (p. 321.); it is useful in assisting the action of a purgative, or where the stomach will not bear medicine. The Fetid clyster is serviceable in the hysteric paroxysm, and in flatu- lent colic. The Opiate clyster is administered in diarrhoea, dysen- tery, and irritable state of the bladder and uterus. The clyster of Turpentine has been much recommended in peritoneal inflammation, in obstinate constipation, and to destroy ascarides; a mixture of oil of turpentine with thin gruel, or with the cathartic clyster, is per- haps preferable. CHAP. XXVII. PILULA—PILLS. Pills are formed from a mass sufficiently stiff and adhesive to pre- serve the round form which is given to them. Under this form, such medicines are generally exhibited as are nauseous, either in taste or flavour, and such as operate in a small dose. Few general rules require to be given with regard to their formation. Such of the ingredients as are capable of being reduced to powder are tritu- rated to the requisite fineness ; those which are of a softer consis- tence are then added, and if this is not sufficient to bring the whole to a proper consistence, a small quantity of syrup or mucilage is to be added ; the former is preferable, as the latter, in drying, is liable to render the mass too hard. Some substances, as several of the gum-resins, become soft on beating, so as to form into pills. Light vegetable powders, when beat up with syrup, form a mass which is not sufficiently coherent to roll out. In this case it is necessary to add a little pure soap, which gives the necessary tenacity. Metallic preparations, which are heavy, and given in a small dose, are made into pills by the addition of some extract or conserve. If the pill mass is too soft, so that the pills, after being formed, do not keep their form, it may be made harder by the addition of a small quantity of any inactive vegetable matter, as powder of liquorice. After they are rolled out, they must, to prevent them from adhering, be covered pills. 519 with the same powder, or, what is preferable, as less liable to become mouldy, starch or carbonate of magnesia : gold or silver leaf is also a good covering to pills, unless they contain mercury or sulphur. A pill ought not to exceed five grains in weight, or twelve may be formed from a drachm of the mass. They ought not to be prepared in too large a quantity at a time, as, if long kept, they become so hard as to be scarcely acted on in the stomach. Pilula aloetica. Aloetic Pills. Ed. " Take of Socotorine Aloes reduced to powder, Hard Soap, equal weights. Beat them with Simple Syrup, so as to make a mass fit for pills." Pilula aloes composita. Compound Aloes Pills. Lond. Dub. "Take of Extract of Spiked (Hepatic, Dub.) Aloes, in powder, one ounce; Extract of Gentian, half an ounce ; Oil of Caraway, forty minims ; Simple Syrup, as much as is necessary. Beat them together until they form a mass." Unuer either of these forms aloes is commonly exhibited as a cathartic, the dose being 10 or 15 grains. The second formula is not well contrived, for the extract of gentian and the aloes act on each other, and render the mass too soft to form into pills ; the addi- tion of syrup will make the compound still more fluid, and instead of it some powder should rather be added, or the gentian be dispensed with. Pilula aloes et assafcfttda. Pills of Aloes and Assafcetida. Ed. " Take of Socotorine Aloes in powder, Assafcetida, Hard Soap, equal parts. Beat them into a mass with mucilage of gum-arabic." These pills are occasionally employed in amenorrhcea, hysteria, dyspepsia attended with flatulence, and in tympanitis, two or three being taken at bed-time. They prove useful by obviating costiveness. Pilula aloes et myrrha. Pills of Aloes and Myrrh. Ed. " Take of Socotorine Aloes, four parts ; Myrrh, two parts ; Saf- fron, one part. Beat them into a mass with Simple Syrup." Pilula aloes cum myrrha. Pills of Aloes and Myrrh. Lond. Dub. " Take of Extract of Spiked (Hepatic, Dub.) Aloes, two ounces ; Saffron, Myrrh, of each an ounce ; Simple Syrup, a sufficient quan- tity. Rub the aloes and myrrh separately into powder, then beat the whole together until they form a mass." These pills, under the name of Rufus's Pills, have long been in use, as affording a moderately stimulating cathartic, useful in dys- pepsia connected with costiveness ; sometimes used also in hypo- chondriasis, hysteria, and in jaundice. Their dose is ten or fifteen grains. Pilula ammoniareti cupri. Pills of Ammoniaret of Copper. Ed. " Take of Ammoniaret of Copper, rubbed into fine powder, sixteen grains; Crumb of Bread, four scruples ; Water of Subcarbonate of Ammonia, as much as may be sufficient. Beat them into amass, which divide into thirty-two equal pills." 520 PILLS. It is under this form that ammoniaret of copper is given in epi- lepsy and the other spasmodic diseases in which it has been employ- ed. Haifa grain of it is contained in each pill. One pill is given at first, night and morning, and the dose is gradually increased, as far as the stomach and general system will bear it, until a cure is obtained, or the remedy has received a fair trial. Pilula assafostida composita. Compound Assafcetida Pills. Ed. "Take of Assafcetida, Galbanum, Myrrh, of each eight parts; Rectified Oil of Amber, one part. Beat them into a mass with sim- ple syrup." Pilula galbani composita. Compound Pills of Galbanum. Lond. Dub. " Take of Galbanum, an ounce ; Myrrh, Sagapenum, of each one ounce and a half; Assafcetida, half an ounce ; Simple Syrup, (Trea- cle, Dub.) as much as may be sufficient. Beat them together, and form a mass." These compositions, though under different names, are similar. They form a substitute for the Gum Pills of the older Pharmaco- pceias, and afford a stimulating aperient and antispasmodic, used in hysteria and amenorrhcea ; two orthree of them being taken occa- sionally at bed-time. They sometimes prove useful too, in a similar dose, in chronic catarrh, by checking the increased secretion from the mucous glands ofthe lungs. Pilula colocynthidis composita. Compound Colocynth Pills. Ed. "Take of Socotorine Aloes, Scammony, of each eight parts; Colocynth Pulp, four parts; Oil of Cloves, Sulphate of Potash, of each one part. Let the aloes and scammony be reduced, with the salt, to powder; then let the colocynth, rubbed into a fine powder, and the oil, be added. Lastly, beat them with mucilage of gum-ara- bic into a mass." Pilula colocynthidis composita. Compound Colocynth Pills. Dub. " Take of Colocynth Pulp, half an ounce ; Hepatic Aloes, Scam. mony, of each an ounce; Spanish Soap, two drachms; Sulphate ot Potash, Oil of Cloves, of each a drachm ; Treacle, a sufficient quantity. Reduce the aloes, scammony. and colocynth separately to powder, then mix together the colocynth, pulp, and the oil, and, lastly, rub the whole into a mass with the soap and treacle." The compositions are of similar powers. They afford a stronger cathartic than the simple aloetic pill; and accordingly this com- pound pill is used in constipation, to obviate habitual costiveness. Two pills are a dose. Pilula gambogia composita. Compound Gamboge Pills. Ed. " Take of Gamboge in powder, Socotorine Aloes in powder, Aro- matic Powder, of each one part; Hard Soap, two parts. Mix the powders ; then, having added the soap, beat them into a mass with simple syrup." Pilula cambogia comfositjE. Compound Gamboge Pills. Lond. Dub. PILLS. 521 " Take of Gamboge in powder, a drachm ; Extract of Spiked (Hepatic, Dub.) Aloes in powder, a drachm and a half; Ginger in powder, half a drachm ; Hard Soap, two drachms. Mix the pow- ders together ; then, adding the soap, beat the whole into one mass." By the addition of the gamboge to the aloes, its cathartic power is increased, and a composition afforded more active than the aloetic pill. Two or three pills are a dose. Pilula hydrargyri. Mercurial Pills. Ed. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, Conserve of Red Rose, of each one ounce ; Starch, two ounces ; Mucilage of Gum-Arabic, as much as may be necessary. Rub the quicksilver with the conserve, in a glass mortar, until the globules entirely disappear, adding, as there may be occasion, a little of the mucilage of gum-arabic ; then add the starch, and beat, with a little water, into a mass, which is to be immediately divided into four hundred and eighty pills." Pilula hydrargvri. Pills of Quicksilver. Lond. Dub. "Take of Purified Quicksilver, two drachms; Confection of Red Rose, three drachms ; Liquorice Root (Extract of Liquorice, Dub.) in powder, one drachm. Rub the quicksilver with the confection until the globules no longer appear, then, adding the liquorice pow- der, beat the whole together so as to form a mass." The trituration ofthe quicksilver in this preparation was formerly supposed to reduce it merely to a state of extreme mechanical divi- sion. But there is every reason to believe that an oxidation of the metal is effected, and that the medicinal efficacy ofthe preparation depends on the protoxide of mercury. Quicksilver, in its metallic state, being inert with regard to the living system, the activity ofthe preparation itself is a presumption of this ; but it is farther known, that by agitation with atmospheric air, quicksilver affords a portion of a grey powder, soluble in muriatic acid, and which must there- fore be an oxide, metallic quicksilver being insoluble in that acid. This oxidation must be effected more readily when the surface ofthe metal is extended, and its continuity is divided by the interposition of any viscous matter, and hence the advantage derived from the trituration of it with substances of this kind, in the preparation ofthe mercurial pill. Different substances have been employed, syrup, mucilage, honev, and others. The Colleges have now agreed in preferring the Conserve of Rose, it having been supposed that this is superior to the others in facilitating the operation. Much atten- tion is requisite that the trituration be continued until the extinction is completed, as on this the efficacy of the pill depends. This is known by rendering the matter a little thinner by the addition of water, and extending it by rubbing on a glass plate on paper, when the globules, if any remain, will be apparent. Starch has been se- lected by the Edinburgh College to form it into a mass, and is pre- ferable to liquorice powder, as not being liable to become mouldy. Care should be taken, as Dr. Paris remarks, that the conserve of roses do not contain sulphuric acid, which is often added to it to improve its colour, but which might form the deleterious subsulphate of mercury in the pill. A grain of mercury is contained in each 522 PILLS. pill, weighing four grains, prepared according to the formula of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia; the same quantity is contained in three grains ofthe others. This pill, usually termed Blue Pill, is the preparation of mercury that is upon the whole most generally used for obtaining the general action of this metal on the system ; and while it is milder in its ope- ration than some other mercurials, and has less determination to the intestinal canal, it is sufficiently active and certain. The common dose, given with the view of inducing the usual mercurial action, is, two pills at bed-time and one in the morning, which, in particular cases and habits, requires to be increased. Four or six pills given at once commonly excite purging. Pilula opiata, olim Pilula Thebaica. Opiate Pills. Ed. " Take of Opium, one part; Extract of Liquorice, (soap?) seven parts ; Jamaica Pepper, two parts. Beat the. opium and the soap into a pulp ; then add the Jamaica pepper rubbed to powder, and, beating them well, reduce them to a mass." Pilula saponis cum opio. Pills of Soap with Opium. Lond. Dub. "Take of Hard (Turkey, Dub.) Opium, rubbed to powder, half an ounce ; Hard Soap, two ounces. Beat them together until they form one mass." Pilula e styrace. Pills of Storax. Dub. " Take of Purified Storax, three drachms ; Turkey Opium, Saffron, of each a drachm. Beat them together, mixing them thoroughly." The articles which, in these compositions, are added to the opium, have no important effect on its operation ; they serve merely to dis- guise it; and, where it is necessary, which it occasionally is, to con- ceal the administration of opium from the patient, they afford conve- nient forms. Even the name sometimes requires to be concealed in a prescription ; and hence the reason of the names given by the London and Dublin Colleges being derived from the trivial ingre- dients. It is only to be regretted, that the proportion of opium is not the same in all of them. Two pills, or ten grains of the pill of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, contain one grain of opium ; while in the formula of the London and Dublin College the proportion is larger, five grains or one pill containing one grain. Pilula rhei composita. Compound Pills of Rhubarb. Ed. " Take ofthe Root of Rhubarb, in powder, one ounce ; Socotorine Aloes, six drachms ; Myrrh, half an ounce; Volatile Oil of Pepper- mint, half a drachm. Beat them into a mass with syrup of orange- peel." This is a moderate laxative, much employed, especially in dys- peptic affections, to obviate costiveness, and stimulate gently the stomach and intestines ; hence known by the name of Stomachic Pills. Two pills are taken at bed-time; they operate in general without occasioning any irritation, and evacuate the contents of the intes- tines without inducing purging. Pilula Scillitica. Squill Pills. Ed. PILLS. 523 Take of the Dried Root of Squill, rubbed to a fine powder, one scruple ; Gum Ammoniac, Lesser Cardamom Seeds in powder, Ex- tract of Liquorice, of each one drachm. Beat them with a simple syrup into a mass." Pilula scilla composita. Compound Squill Pills. Lond. Dub. " Take ofthe Root of Squill, recently dried, and beat to powder, a drachm ; Ginger Root, in powder, Hard Soap, of each three drachms ; Gum Ammoniac, in powder, two drachms. Mix the powders : then beat them with the soap, and add as much syrup (treacle, Dub.) as may be sufficient to give the due consistence." Under the form of these compositions, which have long been officinal, and which do not differ materially from each other, squill is given as an expectorant in dyspnoea and chronic catarrh, two pills being taken morning and evening. Any efficacy they have depends on the squill. But there appears to be no advantage in reducing so much its activity by the addition of so large a proportion of other matter ; and as squill, when long kept, is liable to have its strength impaired, it is perhaps preferable that it should be given under some form of extemporaneous preparation. Pilula subcarbonatis soda. Pills of Subcarbonate of Soda. Ed. " Take of Dried Subcarbonate of Soda, four parts; Hard Soap, three parts. Beat into a mass with simple syrup." This form of exhibiting soda was first recommended by Dr. Bed- does, and appears to be a very convenient preparation for exhibiting that substance. The mass should be very thick, and contain as little water as possible. Pilula submuriatis hydrargyri composita. Ed. Pilula ca- lomklanos composita. Dub. Compound Pills of Calomel. " Take of Calomel, Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony, of each one part, (drachm, Dub.); Guaiac in powder, two parts, (drachms, Dub.) Rub the calomel with the sulphuret, and then with the gum- resin, and finally beat into a mass with mucilage of gum-arabic, (treacle, Dub.)" Pilula hydrargyri submuriatis composita. Compound Pills of Submuriate of Quicksilver. Lond. " Take ofthe Submuriate of Quicksilver, Precipitated Sulphuret of Antimony, of each two drachms ; Gum-Resin of Guaiac beat to pow- der, half an ounce ; Rectified Spirit, half a drachm. Triturate the submuriate of quicksilver with the precipitated sulphuret of anti- mony, then with the gum-resin of guaiac, and add the spirit so as to give the proper consistence." This, under the name of Plummer's Pill, has been used as an al- terative in cutaneous diseases and in chronic rheumatism, in a dose often grains. In cutaneous affections connected with syphilis it is sometimes serviceable. Pilula sulpiiatis ferri composita. Compound Pills of the Sul- phate of Iron. Ed. " Take of Sulphate of Iron in powder, one ounce ; Extract of 524 TROCHES. Chamomile, one ounce and a half; Volatile Oil of Peppermint, a drachm. Beat them into a mass with simple syrup." This affords a very good chalybeate, and may be given in those cases where steel is indicated. Pilula ferri composita. Compound Pills of Iron. Lond. Dub. " Take of Myrrh, beat to powder, two drachms ; Subcarbonate of Soda, Sulphate of Iron, Sugar, (raw, Dub.) of each a drachm. Triturate the myrrh with the subcarbonate of soda ; then having added the sulphate of iron, (and sugar, Dub.), triturate them again : lastly, beat the whole together, (with treacle, Dub.) until they form an uniform mass." This is the same composition, with regard to the active ingre- dients, as forms the basis ofthe Compound Mixture of Iron, already noticed, (p. 308); and it may be occasionally convenient to prescribe it under the form of pill, or to form the mixture from it extempo- raneously by diffusion in water. The addition in the Dublin formula of treacle is unnecessary, as the mass is quite soft enough to form into pills. CHAP. XXV1TI. TROCniSCI--TROCHES. Troches, or Lozenges, consist of powders mixed with mucilage, in such a proportion, that when dried they are firm and hard. While in the state of a soft paste they are cut into small square or round tablets, and these are hardened by drying. The form is one adapt- ed principally to such medicines as are designed to dissolve slowly in mouth ; and hence they are rendered pleasant by the addition of a large proportion of sugar. They are seldom active remedies, but are employed principally in affections ofthe mouth or throat. As of little importance they have been rejected in the Dublin and in the late edition ofthe London Pharmacopoeia, and a few only are retain- ed by the Edinburgh College. Trochisci carronatis calcis. Troches of Carbonate of Lime. Ed. " Take of Prepared Carbonate of Lime, four ounces ; Gurri- Arabic, one ounce ; Nutmeg, one drachm ; Refined Sugar, six ounces. Rub these to powder, and make them into a mass with wa- ter, fit for forming troches." This is a pleasant form under which carbonate of lime may be given as an antacid, though the quantity of saccharine matter may perhaps favour the production of acid in the stomach ; and either from this, or from not being well prepared in the shops, they are lit. tie used. TROCHES. 525 Trochisci carbonatis magnesia. Carbonate of Magnesia Tro- ches. Ed. " Take of Carbonate of Magnesia, six ounces ; Refined Sugar, three ounces ; Nutmeg, a scruple. Reduce to powder, and form in- to troches with the mucilage of gum-tragacanth." These lozenges are used to correct acidity in the stomach. Trochisci glycyrrhiza glabra. Liquorice Troches. Ed. " Take of Extract of Liquorice, Gum-Arabic, of each one part; Refined Sugar, two parts ; Boiling Water, as much as may be ne- cessary. Dissolve in the water and strain ; then evaporate the so- lution with a gentle heat into a mass, which form into troches." These, from their demulcent quality, may be used to allay cough- ing in catarrh ; but the extract of liquorice is equally effectual, and when purified by solution in water, inspissated, so as to be of a firm consistence, and mixed with half its weight of gum-arabic, forming what is named Refined Liquorice, "is more grateful. Trochisci glycyrrhiza cum opio. Liquorice Troches with Opium. Ed. " Take of Opium, two drachms ; Tincture of Tolu Balsam, half an ounce ; Symple Syrup, eight ounces; Extract of Liquorice softened with warm water, Gum-Arabic in powder, of each five ounces. First rub the opium thoroughly with the tincture ; then add gradually the syrup and the extract; afterwards sprinkle in the pow- der of gum-arabic ; and, lastly, dry the mass, that it may be formed into troches, each weighing ten grains." These are the most active troches in the Pharmacopoeia, and are effectual in relieving the tickling cough attending catarrh. The opium is the ingredient on which their efficacy principally depends, its local operation lessening the irritation which gives rise to cough- ing : the others cover its taste and flavour, and add a demulcent quality. Six troches contain nearly a grain of opium ; and from six to twelve may be taken in twenty-four hours. The composition would be improved, if the proportion of opium were diminished, as they would be less ungrateful, their action would be more gradual, and a greater number could be taken. A substitute might be found too for the balsam of Tolu, the flavour of which is unpleasant, and which cannot communicate any virtue. Trochisci gummosi. Gum Troches. Ed. " Take of Gum-Arabic, four parts ; Starch, one part; Refined Sugar, twelve parts. These being rubbed to powder, are to be formed into a mass with rose water, fit for forming troches." This composition is designed as a demulcent, but is scarcely ever used ; it is not very pleasant, and gum-arabic, when pure, answers the same purpose. Trochisci nitratis potassa. Troches of Nitrate of Potash. Ed. " Take of Nitrate of Potash, one part; Double Refined Sugar, three parts. Beat them to powder, and, with mucilage of gum-tra- gacanth, make them into a mass proper for forming troches." 526 oily preparations. Under this form nitrate of potash is used as a refrigerant in angina tonsillaris, and to allay the sense of heat attending salivation, and abate the inflammation, being allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth. They do not retain their form, being liable to become hu- mid, and a mixture of nitre and sugar in powder answers equally well. They should not be taken in large quantity, as they some- times produce considerable uneasiness in the stomach ; when they do so, it is recommended to drink largely of some mild fluid. CHAP. XXIX. OLEOSA--OILY PREPARATIONS. • The preparations included in this chapter are combinations of ex- pressed oils with more active substances, principally designed for ex- ternal application, the oil moderating their action, or communicating a convenient form. Oleum ammoniatum. Ammoniated Oil. Ed. Linimentum am- monia. Liniment of Ammonia. Dub. " Take of Olive Oil, eight parts, (two fluid-ounces, Dub.) ; Water of Ammonia, one part, (two fluid-drachms, Dub.) Mix by shaking them together." Linimentum ammonia fortius. Strong Liniment of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Liquor of Ammonia, a fluid-ounce ; Olive Oil, two fluid-ounces. Shake them together until they unite." Linimentum ammonia subcarbonatis. Liniment of Subcarbonate of Ammonia. Lond. " Take of Liquor of Subcarbonate of Ammonia, a fluid-ounce; Olive Oil, three fluid-ounces. Shake them together until they unite." In these compositions, the alkali combines with the expressed oil, forming a thick white saponaceous compound; in the last the combina- tion with the alkaline carbonate is but very imperfect, and it is there- fore an injudicious preparation. They are all used as rubefacients, and are convenient for application ; a piece of flannel moistened with any of them being applied to the part, or sometimes friction being made with the liniment for a short time. From the former mode of application, the rubefacient operation is sufficiently obtained ; it is a remedy often employed in cynanche tonsillaris, as less severe than a blister. The composition of the Edinburgh College seems on the whole best adapted to general use, as of medium strength, and, if necessary, it is easy to render it a little more active, by the addition of more ammonia, or, on the contrary, to weaken its stimulating power by adding a larger proportion of oil. Oleum camphoratum. Camphorated Oil. Ed. Dub. " Take of Olive Oil, four parts, (an ounce, Dub.); Camphor, one LINIMENTS, OINTMENTS, AND CERATES. 527 sdved "dfaChm' Dub,) M'X them' S0 that the camPhor may be dis- This is a form under which camphor is frequently applied external- y as a stimulant and anodyne in rheumatism and other similar affec- tions, and is the most convenient one when it is to be applied by fric. tion. it is sometimes rendered more active by the addition of a lit- tle ammonia. Oleum lini cum calce, sive Linimentum Aqua Calcis. Liniment of Lime Water. Ed. . themT" kG °f LintSGed 0il> Lime Water> of each e1ual parts. Mix Linimentum calcis. Liniment of Lime. Dub. " Take of Lime Water, Olive Oil, of each by measure three ounces. Mix by agitation." This liniment, commonly called Carron Oil, is a saponaceous compound, formed by the mutual chemical action ofthe lime, water, and oil. It is a thick bland fluid, of a white colour, and is used as a soothing application to inflamed parts, more particularly to burns, being spread over the surface with a feather : the previous applica- tion of oil of turpentine facilitates the cure. It requires to be extem- poraneously prepared, as after a little time the soapy matter sepa- rates from the water. CHAP. XXX. LINIMENTA, UNGUENTA, ET CERATA--LINIMENTS, OINTMENTS, AND CERATES. These are compositions of a soft consistence, having some unctuous substance for their basis, such as oil, lard, spermaceti or wax. When the consistence is so soft as to be thick, but nearly fluid, it is termed a Liniment; when it is more firm, it is an Ointment; and when still harder, forms a Cerate. These degrees of consistence depend on the proportions of the ingredients. Where the oil is in large quan- tity a liniment is formed, and the addition to this of a large propor- tion of wax forms an ointment or cerate. Formerly ointments were numerous and complicated in their com- position, and surgeons adapted, with much formality, different oint- ments to different indications. The practice is now more simple ; the principal intention in these applications is to keep the parts soft and easy, and to exclude the atmospheric air, and therefore the sim- plest composition that is of a proper consistence and tenacity an- swers the purpose. It is only in a few cases that substances are added with the view of obtaining peculiar effects from their stimu- lant, or sometimes their specific operation, or from their chemical action. The consistence of a cerate is usually the most convenient for continued application, that of an ointment being rather too thin, especially as it is rendered thinner by the heat of the part applied. 528 liniments, ointments, The Dublin College have given the following general directions respecting ointments: " The calamine used in forming ointments is to be prepared in the same manner as chalk. " In the composition of ointments and plasters, the wax, resin and fatty matter are to be melted with a moderate heat ; then removed from the fire, and constantly stirred until they cool, adding at the same time as they stiffen the dry substances, if any such are to be used, in very fine powder." Adeps praparata. Prepared Lard. Lond. " Cut the Lard into small pieces, then press it, liquefied by a gen- tie heat, through linen." Sevum praparatum. Prepared Suet. Lond. " Cut Suet into pieces ; then press it, melted by a gentle heat, through linen." Adeps suillus praparatus. Prepared Hogs Lard. Dub. " Let fresh Lard, cut into small pieces, be melted by a gentle heat, and strained by pressing it through a cloth. Lard which is prepared by those who sell it, and which is preserved with salt, is to be melted with twice its weight of boiling water, the mixture being well stirred. It is then to be set aside to cool, and the lard is to be separated." Adeps ovillus praparatus. Prepared Mutton Suet. Dub. " Is prepared in the same manner." The design of these processes is to free the fat from the mem- branous fibres intermixed with it; but as it generally prepared be- fore it is brought to the shop, the Edinburgh College have omitted the directions they formerly gave. If the heat be raised too high, the fat acquires a brown colour, and empyreumatic smell; it is there- fore usually melted with a little water, by which this is prevented. It is of some importance that the fat be fresh with which ointments are made, for if rancid the ointments are rendered acrid, and pro- duce eruptions. Linimentum simplex. Simple Liniment. Ed. " Take of Olive Oil, four parts ; White Wax, one part. Melt the wax by a gentle heat in the oil, and then shake the mixture continu- ally till it hardens. The same is done with the ointment and cerate." Unguentum simplex. Simple Ointment. Ed. " Take of Olive Oil, five parts ; White Wax, two parts." Ceratum simplex. Simple Cerate. Ed. " Take of Olive Oil, six parts; White Wax, three parts ; Sper- maceti, one part." Ceratum simplex. Simple Cerate. Lond. " Take of Olive Oil, four fluid-ounces ; Yellow Wax, four ounces. Add the oil to the wax melted, and mix." Unguentum cetacei. Spermaceti Ointment. Lond. " Take of Spermaceti, six drachms; White Wax, two drachms ; Olive Oil, three fluid-ounces. Having melted them with a gentle fire, stir them constantly until they cool." AND CERATES. 529 Unguentum cetacei. Ointment of Spermaceti. Dub. " Take of White Wax, half a pound ; Spermaceti, one pound; Prepared Lard, three pounds. Form an ointment." Ceratum cetacei. Spermaceti Cerate. Lond. " Take of Spermaceti, half an ounce ; White Wax, two ounces ; Olive Oil, four fluid-ounces. To the spermaceti and wax melted, add the oil, and stir them until they cool." Unguentum cera flava. Ointment of Yellow Wax. Dub. " Take of Purified Yellow Wax, a pound; Prepared Lard, four pounds. Form an ointment." Unguentum cera: alba. Ointment of White Wax. Dub. " Use White Wax." These compositions differ chiefly in consistence. They are ap. plied spread on linen as usual dressings to slight wounds, excoria- tions, and blistered surfaces. The simple cerate affords the compo- sition which, from its consistence, is best adapted to this. The com- position known by the name of Cold Cream, or Ceratum Galeni, and which is officinal in the Parisian Pharmacopoeia, is made by beating together four ounces of White Wax melted, one pound of Almond Oil, and a pint of Rose Water ; it should be very light and white ; it is much used to allay slight irritation of the skin. Unguentum resinosum. Resinous Ointment. Ed. " Take of Hogs Lard, eight parts ; White Resin, five parts ; Yel- low Wax, two parts. Melt them all by a gentle heat, and shake the mixture until it becomes cold and hardens." Ceratum resina. Cerate of Resin. Lond. " Take of Yellow Resin, Yellow Wax, each a pound ; Olive Oil, a pint. Melt the wax and resin with a slow fire, then add the oil, and strain the cerate through linen while warm." Unguentum resina alba. Ointment of White Resin. Dub. " Take of Yellow Wax, a pound ; White Resin, two pounds ; Prepared Lard, four pounds. Form an ointment, which, while hot, strain through a sieve." The addition of the resin renders this more stimulating than the preceding ointments. Hence it is used as a dressing where the ob- ject is to promote suppuration. Uxouevtum pulveris cantharidis vesicatoria. Ointment of Powder of Cantharides. Ed. " Take of Resinous Ointment, seven parts ; Powder of Cantha- rides, one part. Throw the powder over the ointment when it is melted, and shake till it becomes hard." Ceratum cantharidis. Cerate of Cantharides. Lond. " Take of Spermaceti Cerate, six drachms ; Cantharides rubbed to a very fine powder, a drachm. To the cerate, softened by heat, add the cantharides, and mix." This is the ointment commonly employed to establish a purulent discharge, or form a superficial issue in the part to which a blister has heen applied ; this it does from the acrid and stimulating quali. ty of the cantharides, which changes the serous discharge from the 67 530 LINIMENTS, OINTMENTS, blister into one of a purulent nature, and by continuing the applica- tion, this may be kept up for any length of time. In preparing it, the cantharides ought to be reduced to a very fine powder. Unguentum infusi cantharidis vesicatoria. Ointment of Infu- sion of Cantharides. Ed. " Take of Cantharides, White Resin, Yellow Wax, of each one part ; Venice Turpentine, Hogs Lard, of each two parts ; Boiling Water, four parts. Macerate the cantharides in the water for a night, and strain the liquor, pressing it strongly ; having added the lard, boil it until the water is evaporated ; then add the wax and re- sin. These being melted and removed from the fire, add the tur- pentine, and mix thoroughly." Unguentum cantharidis. Ointment of Cantharides. Lond. Dub. " Take of Cantharides, rubbed to a very fine powder, two oun- ces ; Distilled Water, eight fluid-ounces ; Resinous Cerate, (Oint- ment of White Resin, Dub.), eight ounces. Boil down the water with the cantharides to one half, and strain. Mix the cerate with the strained liquor, and evaporate to the proper consistence." The ointment with the powder of cantharides sometimes occasions pain and irritation. The composition obtained by this process is de- signed as a milder application adapted in such cases to answer the same indication. The water, by infusion on the cantharides, ex- tracts the acrid matter ; but this, from being in a state of solution, is,, after the subsequent evaporation, diffused through the unctuous mat- ter in a state of finer division than the powder can be : it is also, from the proportions ordered, in smaller quantity, but its stimulating quality is aided by the turpentine, and it is sufficient to keep up the purulent discharge. In preparing this ointment, it is necessary to stir the evaporated infusion well with the cerate, as they are little disposed to unite. Unguentum conii. Hemlock Ointment. Dub. " Take of fresh Hemlock Leaves, Prepared Hogs Lard, of each two pounds. Boil the hemlock leaves in the lard until they become crisp, then express through linen." The narcotic principle of hemlock appears to be soluble in heated oil, or at least exists in it in a state of intimate diffusion. This oint- ment is used as an anodyne application to irritable sores, pills, schir- rous glandular swellings, and in cancer. Unguentum iodinii. Iodine Ointment. Dub. " Take of Iodine, a scruple ; Prepared Hogs Lard, an ounce. Rub together to form an ointment." Iodine ointment is of an orange-brown colour,'but by keeping be- comes pale at the surface. Rubbed on the skin it causes an orange- coloured stain, which, however, is not long in disappearing. It has been frequently used with success to discuss tumours, by stimulating the absorbents, and is advantageously conjoined with the internal administration ofthe tincture of iodine. Unguentum potassa hydriodatis. Ointment of Hydriodate of Potash. Dub. AND CERATES. 531 " Take of Hydriodate of Potash, a scruple ; Prepared Hogs Lard, an ounce. Rub together to form an ointment." This ointment should be white ; but on being kept, the lard ab- sorbs oxygen, which acting on the hydriodic acid attracts its hydro- gen, and a little iodine is separated, which renders the colour some- what brown. It is employed for the same purposes as the preced- ing ointment. In the cure of bronchocele or enlarged scrofulous glands, half a drachm of either ointment is rubbed, morning and even- ing, on the part ; and it has been found, that by this mode of prac- tice tumours were removed, which the internal use of iodine alone was unable to dissipate. Sometimes the use of the ointment pro- duces at first little effect ; but on the application of leeches, the ac- tion of the iodine appears,—a circumstance depending probably on the effect of blood-letting in favouring absorption. Dr. Ure has recommended an ointment of an ounce of hogs lard and a drachm of iodide of zinc ;—a drachm of the ointment to be used at each friction. Ointments have also been made with iodide and periodide of mercury. Ceratum juniperi sabina. Cerate of Savine. Ed. Lond. " Take of Fresh Savine Leaves bruised, two parts ; Yellow Wax, one part ; Prepared Hogs Lard, four parts. Melt the wax and lard together ; boil the Savine Leaves with them, and then express through a linen cloth." Unguentum sabina. Ointment of Savine. Dub. " Take of the Fresh Leaves of Savine, plucked from the stalks, and bruised, half a pound ; Prepared Lard, two pounds; Yellow Wax, half a pound. Boil the leaves with the lard until these be- come crisp, then strain with expression. Lastly, add the wax, and melt them together." This ointment is designed as a substitute for the cantharides oint- ment, as an application to excite suppuration, and keep up a purulent discharge, which it is said to do without producing pain or irritation, and without being liable to occasion strangury,—consequences that occasionally result from the common issue ointment. It is also sometimes used prepared from the leaves of savine, reduced to fine powder, and mixed with lard, but is then intolerably acrid. Unguentum gallarum. Ointment of Galls. Ed. Dub. " Take of Galls in powder, one part ; Hoga Lard, eight parts. Mix them thoroughly." This is an astringent ointment, frequently employed in haemor- rhoids, when the inflammatory stage has passed, and in prolapsus ani. Unguentum picis liquida. Ointment of Tar. Ed. " Take of Tar, five parts ; Yellow Wax, two parts. Melt the wax with a gentle heat, then add the tar, and continue shaking the mix- ture until it becomes cold and hard." Unguentum picis liquida. Ointment of Tar. Lond. Dub. " Take of Tar, Prepared Suet, each a pound, (half a pound, Dub.) Melt them together, and strain them through linen." 532 LINIMENTS, OINTMENTS, This stimulating ointment is sometimes applied to foul ulcers, and has been used with advantage in tinea capitis. It derives its power from the empyreumatic oil and pyroligneous acid ofthe tar. Unguentum picis nigra. Pitch Ointment. Lond. " Take of Pitch, Yellow Wax, Yellow Resin, of each nine ounces ; Olive Oil, a pint. Melt them together, and strain through linen." This is applied to the same purposes as the preceding ointment, from which it differs a little in consistence, and in its smell being less strong. Unguentum acidi nitrosi. Ointment of Nitrous Acid. Ed. "Take of Hogs Lard, one pound; Nitrous Acid, six drachms. Mix the acid gradually with the melted lard, and beat the mixture thoroughly while it cools." Unguentum acidi nitrici. Ointment of Nitric Acid. Dub. " Take of Olive Oil, a pound ; Prepared Lard, four ounces ; Ni- tric Acid by measure, five drachms and a half. Melt the oil and the fat together in a glass vessel, add the acid, and stir constantly with a glass rod until they become firm." In this preparation part of the acid is decomposed, and part of it is combined with the lard. It is designed as an application in cuta- neous affections, and has been said to be similar in its effects to the preceding ointment. It appears, however, considerably inferior in efficacy, and since its first introduction it has been little used. Unguentum acidi sulphurici. Ointment of Sulphuric Acid. Dub. " Take of Sulphuric Acid, a drachm ; Prepared Hogs Lard, an ounce. Mix." This ointment has been introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, being said to be useful in the cure of scabies. The acid partially chars the animal matter, whence the ointment has a dark colour, and a disagreeable odour ; if mixed with an iron spatula, it is still darker ; it has no particular advantage, and is inconvenient from its corrosive quality. Unguentum subacetatis cupri, olim Unguentum ASruginis. Oint- ment of Subacetate of Copper. Ed. "Take of Resinous Ointment, fifteen parts; Subacetate of Cop- per, reduced to a very fine powder, one part. Sprinkle the subace- tate on the melted ointment, and then shake the mixture continually until it hardens." Unguentum cupri subacetatis. Ointment of Verdigris. Dub. " Take of Prepared Verdigris, half an ounce ; Ointment of White Resin, a pound ; Olive Oil, an ounce. Rub the verdigris with the oil, then add them to the ointment of white resin melted, and mix." This ointment is used as a stimulant and escharotic, applied to foul ulcers. It is rather too active, and in general requires to be mixed with a proportion of resinous or simple ointment; nor is it used but as an occasional dressing. It is said to be a valuable re- medy in curing ring worm, being applied to the shaved and washed AND CERATES. 533 scalp, and is sometimes used as an application to the palpebral, when they are affected in scrofulous ophthalmia. Unguentum hydrargyri. Ointment of Quicksilver. Ed. "Take of Purified Quicksilver, Mutton Suet, of each one part; Hogs Lard, three parts. Rub the quicksilver thoroughly in a mor- tar with a little of the lard, until the globules disappear; then add the remaining fats. It may be made also with a double or triple pro- portion ofquicksilver." Unguentum hydrargyri fortius. Stronger Ointment of Quick- silver. Lond. "Take of Purified Quicksilver, two pounds; Prepared Hogs Lard, twenty-three ounces; Prepared Mutton Suet, one ounce. Rub first the quicksilver with the tallow and a little lard, until the globules disappear; then add the remaining lard, and mix them." Unguentum hydrargyri. Ointment of Quicksilver. Dub. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, Prepared Lard, equal weights. Rub them together in a marble or iron mortar, until the globules of quicksilver disappear." Unguentum hvdrargyrimitius. Milder Ointment of Quicksilver. Lond. "Take ofthe Stronger Ointment of Quicksilver, one pound ; Pre- pared Hogs Lard, two pounds. Mix them." Unguentum hydrargyri mitius. Milder Ointment of Quicksilver. Dub. " This is made with double the weight of lard." Of these ointments, the one always employed for mercurial fric- tion, is that from equal weights of quicksilver and lard. The only use of the lard is to facilitate the extinction, as it is called, of the quicksilver, and the introduction of it through the cuticle ; these purposes are attained from this proportion ; and any larger quantity of unctuous matter merely renders it necessary to continue the fric- tion longer. For application in some cutaneous affections, the mild- er ointment is sometimes used. The proportion of one part of quicksilver to four of unctuous matter, ordered in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, gives an ointment weaker than any that is used or kept in the shops ; and it would be preferable, therefore, to order the preparation as in the other Pharmacopceias. The extinction of the mercurial globules by trituration being a la- borious process, various expedients have been contrived to facilitate it. Several of these are inadmissible, such as the use of sulphur or turpentine. In the ointment prepared with the former, the mercury is probably not in an active state ; it is known by its black colour, and by the smell of sulphur exhaled when paper covered with it is kin- dled. Turpentine renders the ointment too acrid, so that when rub- bed on the skin it produces irritation or inflammation ; it also can be detected by the odour exhaled in burning. Rancid fat extinguishes the quicksilver better than recent fat, and may be allowed, as, by the action ofthe metal, the rancidity of the fat appears to be correct. ed. But the method which seems most effectual in assisting the pro- cess, is to add a small portion of old mercurial ointment, a sixteenth 534 liniments, ointments, part is in general sufficient, which itself containing much oxygen, may perhaps transfer it to the mercury, absorb fresh portions from the air, and transfer these, and thus the process be hastened. The trituration should be made at first with a little suet, as is now directed by two ofthe Colleges, lard not opposing sufficient resistance ; the lard also is apt to become too fluid in warm weather, and allows the mercurial oxide to subside, while the suet preserves a due con- sistence. But it is scarcely requisite to add directions respecting this process, as the ointment is always prepared on the large scale with the aid of machinery, and the apothecary is saved a laborious and unhealthy occupation. It has often been a subject of discussion, whether the mercury in these ointments is oxidated, or merely in a state of mechanical divi- sion. On the one side it may be urged, that the continued trituration must expose the mercury freely to the air, and facilitate its combin- ing with oxygen, and this will not be impeded by the unctuous mat- ter, which seems rather to promote the oxidation of metals by the ac- tion of the air, as is exemplified in the green crust which copper speedily acquires when thinly coated with grease ; the medicinal efficacy of the ointment likewise is such as is obtained from other preparations containing the protoxide of mercury, while the metal itself has no medicinal power. On the other hand, it has been affirmed, that mercury rubbed in vacuo with a substance not capable of affording oxygen is as completely extinguished as in mercurial ointment; and farther, that from the ointment melted by heat there subsides only metallic mercury. Treated with ether also, which dis- solves the lard, this ointment yields, according to M. Guibourt, only minute globules of Mercury. Experiments carefully made by Mr. Donovan seem to establish an intermediate result. He found that four ounces of mercurial ointment, melted at a temperature of 212°, de- posited, out of 960 grains of mercury which they contained, 770 in the metallic state, leaving 190 grains of mercury which had been oxidized, and the medicinal activity he found to reside entirely in this latter portion ; it is probable that the proportion of oxidated mercury in the ointment was still larger, as a part of it might be re- duced by the reaction of the animal matter at a high temperature. It was atone time supposed, that the lard becoming rancid, as it al- ways does in the process, generates sebacic acid, which unitino-with the oxide produces a portion of "protosebate of mercury in the oint- ment ; but for this supposition there is no evidence, and the medi- cinal virtues are probably due wholly to the presence ofthe mercu- rial protoxide. Mr. Donovan concluded, from his experiments, that a better form ofthe ointment might be prepared, by directly combin- ing lard with protoxide of mercury, which he effected by keeping them together for two hours, at a temperature of 350°, with conti- nual stirring. Each ounce of lard dissolved 21 grains of protoxide. This ointment he found to be equally efficient with the common kind, and much less expensive. Mercurial ointment is the form under which mercury is introduced into the system by external friction. It is a mode employed with advantage in cases where mercurials administered internally are lia- AND CERATES* 535 ble to be determined to the intestines, so as to occasion griping or purging, or when it is necessary to introduce a large quantity of mercury speedily into the system; the general mercurial action being thus soon induced. It is likewise employed in some local affections, particularly bubo. One drachm of the strong ointment (that con- taining equal parts of mercury and lard) is introduced by friction on the skin in the evening, and frequently also in the morning, until the system is affected, the part on which the ointment is rubbed being occasionally changed to avoid irritation or inflammation. The weaker ointment is used only as a dressing to ulcers, or as a local application. Unguentum oxidi hydrargyri cinerei^ Ointment of Grey Oxide of Quicksilver. Ed. " Take of Grey Oxide of Quicksilver, one part; Hogs Lard, three parts. Mix them thoroughly." This is designed as a substitute for the mercurial ointment; and, as the quicksilver is fully oxidated, it has been supposed that it will prove more active and certain. It probably would have this advan- tage ; but it has been said, that it is not easily introduced by friction, the unctuous matter passing through the cuticle without the whole of the oxide,—a difference which, if it do exist, must depend on the combination being less intimate. Unguentum oxidi hydrargyri rubri. Ointment of Red Oxide of Quicksilver. Ed. " Take of Red Oxide of Quicksilver by Nitric Acid, one part; Hogs Lard, eight parts. Mix them thoroughly." Unguentum hydrargyri mtrico-oxydi. Ointment of Nitric Oxide of Quicksilver. Lond. Dub. " Take of Nitric Oxide of Quicksilver, an ounce; White Wax, two ounces ; Prepared Lard, six ounces. To the wax and lard melt- ed together, add the nitric oxide of quicksilver, rubbed into a very fine powder, and mix." This, commonly termed Red Precipitate Ointment, is applied as a mild escharotic to remove the diseased surface of ulcers, and as a stimulant to promote suppuration ; and in cases of languid ulceration and chronic inflammation is often used with marked benefit. In some forms of ophthalmia much advantage is derived from it, particularly where the edges of the tarsi are raw or ulcerated, or where, from the continuance of inflammation, the vessels on the surface have be- come weakened, and where specks are beginning to form on the cornea; it is also useful in the scrofulous ophthalmia of children. Care ought to be taken in its preparation, that the powder is very fine : it ought also to be prepared only when it is to be used, or at least ought not to be long kept, as the mercurial subnitrate undergoes decomposition, which is indicated by the colour changing from red to grey. Dr. Duncan mentions, that if this ointment be mixed with any other containing resin, its colour changes to olive, and then to black.. Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri fortius, vulgo Unguentum Ci- trinum. Stronger Ointment of Nitrate of Quicksilver, commonly named Citrine Ointment. Ed. 536 LINIMENTS, OINTMENTS, " Take of Purified Quicksilver, one part; Nitrous Acid, two parts ; Olive Oil, nine parts ; Hogs Lard, three parts. Dissolve the quick- silver in the acid ; then beat up the solution strongly with the lard and oil previously melted together, and beginning to cool, in a glass mortar, so as to form an ointment." Unguentum hydrargyri nitratis. Ointment of Nitrate of Quick- silver. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, an ounce ; Nitric Acid, eleven fluid-drachms ; Prepared Lard, six ounces ; Olive Oil, four fluid- ounces. Dissolve the quicksilver in the acid ; then mix the liquor, while still warm, with the fat and the oil melted together." Unguentum hydrargyri nitratis, vel Unguentum Citrinum. Oint- ment of Nitrate of Quicksilver, or Citrine Ointment. Dub. "Take of Purified Quicksilver, an ounce; Nitric Acid, eleven drachms and a half; Olive Oil, a pint; Prepared Lard, four ounces. Dissolve the quicksilver in the acid, mix in the oil and lard melted together, and form an ointment in the same manner as the nitrous acid ointment." In this ointment the nitrate of quicksilver is combined with the lard; and as there is an excess of nitric acid, it acts chemically on the fat, oxygenating it, and notwithstanding the quantity of oil used, gives to the composition a firm consistence.* It forms, like the pre- ceding ointment, a very excellent application in various forms of chronic inflammation, such as psorophthalmia ; it is also used in dif. ferent kinds of cutaneous eruption, herpetic, or connected with su- perficial inflammation or ulceration. It is either rubbed gently on the part affected, or where this would produce irritation, it is applied, softened by heat, by a hair pencil. * It is stated by Dr. Duncan, that citrine ointment, as commonly prepared, soon loses the golden yellow colour, and becomes slate grey, and very hard, and that the apothecary finds a difficulty in preparing it equal in colour and permanent softness to the empirical preparation, sold under the name of Golden Eye-Ointment. This, he adds, is done by Mr. Duncan of this city, who forms citrine ointment not infericr to the secret remedy, by employing a larger proportion of nitrous acid than is ordered in the Pharmacopoeia, and by mixing it with the oil and lard at a high temperature. The ointment prepared by Mr. Duncan I have seen, and it appears to be of exceller.t quality; but my friend, Mr. J. F. Macfarlane, has shewn to me, ointment equal, if not superior, in colour and consistency, which he prepares by using exactly the pro- portions ordered in the Pharmacopoeia. It is probable, therefore, that practical dex- terity has more influence on the success of the operation than the adjustment of pro- portions. Though the Edinburgh College do not give particular directions as to the temperature requisite, Mr. Macfarlane informs me, that it has been his, and he be- lieves the general practice, to heat the oil and lard nearly to their boiling temperature, and to pour in the solution, also heated, of mercury in nitric acid ; a violent efferves- cence ensues, which is not, however, owing to the escape of nitric oxide, as Dr. Duncan supposed, but rather, I conceive, to the vaporization of the water of the acid ; for, in performing the process, 1 have observed scarcely any vapours of nitrous acid to arise. The Golden Eye-Ointment appears to have been considered by Dr. Duncan as analogous to citrine ointment., yet its colour is very different, being orange-red in- stead of yellow. To determine its nature, I melted a portion of it in a glass tube: a red powder subsided, which, when freed from the unctuous matter by the action of ether, proved to be the subnitrate of mercury, or red precipitate. Dr. Paris states that the Golden Ointment is also sometimes prepared with sulphuret of arsenic (or- piment,) beat up with lard or spermaceti ointment.—Ed. AND CERATES. 537 Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri mitius. Milder Ointment of Nitrate of Quicksilver. Ed. " This is made in the same manner as the preceding, with a triple proportion of lard and oil." This is designed to afford an application milder than the former, and of a softer consistence ; but, to obtain the latter convenience, it is better to reduce the strong ointment with the requisite proportion of lard, when it is to be used, as, from the operation ofthe acid, the milder ointment, even with the increased proportion of unctuous mat- ter, is nearly equally firm as the stronger ointment. Unguentum hydrargyri pr^ecipitati albi. Lond. Unguentum hydrargyri submuriatis ammoniati. Dub. Ointment of White Precipitate, or Ammoniated Submuriate of Mercury. "Take of Ammoniated Submuriate of Mercury, a drachm; Pre- pared Lard, an ounce and a half. To the lard melted with a gentle heat, and while cooling, add the submuriate, and mix them well." This is sometimes used as a very mild escharotic, and as a reme- dy in obstinate cutaneous eruptions. Unguentum acetatis plumbi. Ointment of Acetate of Lead. Ed. " Take of Simple Ointment, twenty parts; Acetate of Lead, in fine powder, one part. Mix thoroughly." Ceratum plumbi acetatis. Cerate of Acetate of Lead. Lond. " Take of Acetate of Lead in powder, two drachms ; White Wax, two ounces; Olive Oil, half a pint. Melt the wax in seven fluid- ounces of the oil; then add to them gradually the acetate of lead, rubbed down with the rest of the oil, and stir with a wooden spatula until they unite." Unguentum acetatis plumbi. Ointment of Acetate of Lead. Dub. " Take of Ointment of White Wax, a pound and a half; Acetate of Lead, an ounce. Form an ointment." The preparations of lead have been supposed to possess a specific power in abating inflammation by local application. They are usu- ally applied under the form of solution ; but where that of ointment is preferred, this composition has been considered as preferable to any other, as containing the most active preparation of lead. It is accordingly often used as a dressing to inflamed parts. Unguentum carbonatis plumbi. Ointment of Carbonate of Lead. Ed. " Take of Simple Ointment, five parts ; Carbonate of Lead, in fine powder, one part." Unguentum plumbi carbonatis. Ointment of Carbonate ot .Lead. Dub. " Take of Carbonate of Lead, reduced to very fine powder, two ounces ; Ointment of White Wax, a pound. Form an ointment." This has been used principally as an application to burns and su- perficial inflammation : it is said to have been of service in relieving neuralgia. 538 liniments, ointments, Ceratum plumbi compositum. Compound Cerate. Lond. " Take of Solution of Subacetate of Lead, two fluid-ounces and a half; Yellow Wax, four ounces ; Olive Oil, nine ounces ; Camphor, half a drachm. Mix the wax melted with eight fluid-ounces ofthe oil; then remove the mixture from the fire, and as soon as it begins to become thick, add gradually the solution of subacetate of lead, and stir them constantly with a wooden spatula. Lastly, mix with these the camphor dissolved in the remaining oil." A composition similar to this was introduced by Goulard, as a form of applying lead in ointment. It has been known by the name of Goulard's Cerate, and has been supposed preferable to the preced- ing ointment. It may derive some advantage as a soothing appli- cation to inflamed parts, from its soft consistence, and from the sub- acetate of lead being diffused through it in a dissolved state. Ceratum carbonatis zinci impuri. Cerate of Calamine. Ed. " Take of Simple Cerate, five parts ; Prepared Impure Carbonate of Zinc, one part. Mix them thoroughly." Ceratum calamine. Cerate of Calamine. Lond. " Take of Prepared Calamine, Yellow Wax, each half a pound ; Olive Oil, a pint. Mix the oil with the wax melted, then remove from the fire, and when they begin to thicken, add the calamine, and stir constantly until they cool." Unguentum calamine. Calamine Ointment. Dub. " Take of Ointment of Yellow Wax, five pounds ; Prepared Im- pure Carbonate of Zinc dried, a pound. Rub the carbonate of zinc, so that it may be completely powdered, then add it to the ointment of yellow wax, and mix." This is the common healing cerate, Turner's Cerate as it has been named, which has long been used as a dressing in slight wounds, ex- coriations and ulcers. It acts by excluding the air and keeping the surface to which it is applied soft; and is preferable to the compo- sition of wax and oil alone, from the levigated calamine giving a de- gree of consistence, which is not altered by the heat ofthe body. Unguentum oxidi zinci. Ointment of Oxide of Zinc. Ed. "Take of Simple Liniment, six parts; Prepared Oxide of Zinc, one part. Mix thoroughly." Uaguentum zinci. Lond. "Take of Oxide of Zinc, an ounce ; Prepared Lard, six ounces. Mix." Unguentum oxydi zinci. Ointment of Oxide of Zinc. Dub. "Take of Ointment of White Wax, a pound ; Oxide of Zinc, pre- pared in the same manner as chalk, two ounces. Melt the ointment, and mix in the oxide in very fine powder." This was introduced as a substitute for the calamine cerate, ox. ide of zinc being supposed purer than calamine stone. There is little advantage, however, in the substitution of the more expensive oxide. Sometimes it is applied in ophthalmia. Unguentum oxidi zinci impuri. Ointment of Impure Oxide of Zinc. Ed. AND cerates. 539 u Take of Simple Liniment, five parts ; Prepared Impure Oxide of Zinc, one part. Mix thoroughly." This has been used as an application in chronic ophthalmia, but it appears to have no particular virtue. Unguentum sulphuris. Ointment of Sulphur. Ed. Dub. "Take of Hogs Lard, four parts, (pounds, Dub.) ; Sublimed Sul- phur, one part, (pound, Dub.). Mix thoroughly, (having rubbed the sulphur into fine powder, Dub.) Unguentum sulphuris. Sulphur Ointment. Lond. " Take of Sublimed Sulphur, three ounces ; Prepared Lard, half a pound. Mix them." Sulphur is applied under this form as a certain remedy in psora, the surface affected with the eruption being rubbed with the ointment. Three ounces ofthe ointment may be used at each application. Unguentum Sulphuris compositum. Compound Sulphur Oint- ment. Lond. " Take of Sublimed Sulphur, half a pound ; Root of White Hel- lebore in powder, two ounces ; Nitrate of Potash, a drachm ; Soft Soap, half a pound ; Prepared Lard, a pound and a half. Mix." White hellebore root has been applied with advantage in psora, and this compound ointment is often successful in cases where the simple sulphur ointment is slow in its operation. Unguentum tartari emetici. Ointment of Tartar Emetic. Dub. " Take of Tartrate of Antimony and Potash, a drachm ; Prepared Hogs Lard, an ounce. Reduce the tartrate to very fine powder, and mix it with the lard.'' This ointment, lately introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, has come into very general use as a counter-stimulant, and is often productive of much benefit. In making it, the salt should be in very fine powder, otherwise it acts slowly ; the proportion of the salt may also be doubled with advantage. The ointment being white, has sometimes, as Dr. Montgomery informs us, been mistaken for simple ointment, to prevent which some colouring matter should be added. In the formula given by Dr. Jenner, four drachms of Spermaceti ointment, two drachms of Tartar emetic, one drachm of White Su- gar, and five grains of Cinnabar were mixed together. Ointment of tartar emetic is applied by friction on the skin, from half a drachm to a drachm being rubbed in once or twice a day: it produces an eruption of broad flat pustules, very painful, and which originating from a deep-seated diseased action ofthe skin, have a powerful counter-irritant effect; if they become too painful, relief may be obtained by applying a simple poultice. The ointment was first used in hooping cough, being rubbed on the chest: the use of it has since been extended to hydrocephalus, inflammation ofthe liver, and pulmonary diseases ; and, rubbed on the spine, it has proved bene- ficial in tetanus, chorea and epilepsy. Unguentum elemi compositum. Compound Ointment of Elemi. Lond 540 liniments, ointments, " Take of Elemi, one pound ; Common Turpentine, ten ounces ; Prepared Suet, two pounds ; Olive Oil, two fluid-ounces. Melt the elemi with the suet, and having removed them from the fire, mix them immediately with the turpentine and oil; then strain through linen." Unguentum elemi. Elemi Ointment. Dub. " Take of the Resin of Elemi, a pound ; White Wax, half a pound ; Prepared Hogs Lard, four pounds. Form an ointment, which strain, while warm, through a sieve." This ointment is moderately stimulating, somewhat similar to the resinous ointment, and is applied to the same purpose, that of excit- ing suppuration from an ulcer. Unguentum sambuci. Ointment of Elder. Lond. " Take of the Flowers of Elder, Prepared Lard, of each two pounds. Boil the flowers of elder with the lard until they become friable ; then strain through linen." Unguentum sambuci. Ointment of Elder. Dub. " Take of the fresh Leaves of Elder, three pounds ; Prepared Hogs Lard, four pounds ; Prepared Mutton Suet, two pounds. Form an ointment in the same manner as the ointment of savine." The elder flowers communicate to the unctuous matter a rich green colour. Ointments and plasters thus coloured by different herbs were formerly in use ; but they have been discarded as pos- sessed of no useful quality, and as the easier mode of giving them a colour, by the addition of some green pigment, came to be substi- tuted in the shops, instead of boiling the unctuous matter with the fresh vegetable. The discovery, however, in many plants, of active principles which are soluble in oil, renders it probable that such pre- parations may be of more value than they have commonly been considered. Unguentum scrophularije. Ointment of Scrophularia. Dub. " Take of the fresh Leaves of Scrophularia, Prepared Hogs Lard, of each two pounds; Prepared Mutton Suet, one pound. Boil the leaves in the fat until they become crisp, and strain by expres- sion." The Scrophularia nodosa (a plant of the class Didynamia, Ord. Angiospermia, Nat. Ord. Scrophularise,) has been introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, to be used in preparing this ointment, which has been found useful in Ireland, as Dr. Montgomery informs us, in tinea capitis, impetigo, and several other cutaneous affections, but more especially as a remedy for a malignant disease to which chil- dren are liable, termed " burnt holes." Dr. Whitely Stokes has described the disease, and the mode of cure, in the Dublin Medical Essays. Unguentum veratri. Ointment of White Hellebore. Lond. " Take of White Hellebore rubbed to powder, two ounces ; Pre- pared Hogs Lard, eight ounces; Oil of Lemon, twenty minims. Mix them." AND CERATES. 541 Unguentum veratri albi. Ointment of White Hellebore. Dub. " Take of White Hellebore Root in powder, three ounces ; Pre- pared Hogs Lard, a pound. Form an ointment." Hellebore is used, under this form, as an application to psora. It proves sometimes effectual, and is less disagreeable than the appli- cation ofthe sulphur ointment. It should be used, however, with caution, as its principle, veratria, is one of much activity. Ceratum saponis. Cerate of Soap. Lond. " Take of Hard Soap, eight ounces ; Yellow Wax, ten ounces ; Semivitrified Oxide of Lead in powder, one pound ; Olive Oil, one pint; Vinegar, one gallon. Boil the vinegar with the oxide of lead on a slow fire, stirring constantly until they unite together ; then add the soap, and again boil in a similar manner until the water is en- tirely dissipated ; lastly, mix with these the wax previously melted with the oil." This composition must derive any efficacy it has from the ace- tate of lead, formed by the boiling of the vinegar on the litharge, and it appears to be an operose process to obtain a composition which has no particular advantage. It is possible, also, that part of the soap and acetate of lead may decompose each other, forming acetate of potash, oxide of lead, and oil. It has been used as a plas- ter to fractured limbs, being supposed to have the advantage of act- ing also as a saturnine application. It is sometimes used for softening corns. Unguentum piperis nigri. Ointment of Black Pepper. Dub. " Take of Prepared Hogs Lard, one pound ; Black Pepper rub- bed to powder, four ounces. Form them into an ointment." This must form a very stimulating ointment. For what purpose it is designed is not very obvious. Linimentum hydrargyri. Liniment of Quicksilver. Lond. " Take of the Strong Mercurial Ointment, Prepared Lard, each four ounces ; Camphor, one ounce : Rectified Spirit, fifteen minims ; Water of Ammonia, four fluid-ounces. Rub the camphor, first with the spirit, then with the lard and mercurial ointment: lastly, adding gradually the water of ammonia, mix the whole together." ; This is designed as a stimulating application and discutient, to be applied to indolent tumours or collections of fluid ; by its stimulant action it may promote absorption, and the mercury introduced by the friction may exert a more permanent action. Linimentum terebinthina. Turpentine Liniment. Lond. Dub. " Take of the Resin Cerate, a pound ; Oil of Turpentine, half a pint. To the melted cerate add the oil of turpentine, and mix them together." . Oil of turpentine has been found to be a successful application to burns, and this liniment is a form under which it has been used. It is applied also to parts affected with rheumatism, and to strained joints, and is used hot as a stimulating application to sphacelating sores, 542 PLASTERS. CHAP. XXXI. EMPLASTRA--PLASTERS. Plasters are of similar composition to ointments, but differ from them in their much firmer consistence, which is such, that they do not adhere to the hand. They owe this consistence, in general, to a larger proportion of wax, or sometimes to the addition of certain metallic oxides, particularly those of lead, which unite chemically with the unctuous matter. They require to be heated, in order to be spread : hence they adhere more firmly, and several of them even afford a mechanical support. They are employed generally to answer the same indications as ointments. The same rules are to be observed in their preparation as in that of Ointments. Emplastrum simplex. Simple Plaster. Ed. " Take of Yellow Wax, three parts ; Mutton Suet, White Resin, of each two parts. Melt with a gentle heat, and stir until the mix- ture cools." Emplastrum cera. Wax Plaster. Lond. " Take of Yellow Wax, Prepared Tallow, each three pounds ; Yellow Resin, a pound. Melt them together, and strain." The principal use of this plaster is as a dressing to the surface to which a blister has been applied, after the vesicle has been cut. It is spread thin on linen with a hot iron. As the resin is rather irritat- ing, it has been recommended to omit it when the plaster is intended for this use. Emplastrum oxidi plumbi semivitrei. Plaster of Oxide of Lead. Ed. " Take of the Semivitreous Oxide of Lead, one part; Olive Oil, two parts ; Water, as much as may be necessary. Digest, stirring constantly, until the oil and the oxide unite into a plaster." Emplastrum plumbi. Plaster of Lead. Lond. " Take of Semivitreous Oxide of Lead, rubbed into a fine powder, five pounds ; Olive Oil, a gallon ; Water, two pints. Boil them with a slow fire, stirring constantly, until the oil and the oxide of lead pass into the consistence of a plaster. It is necessary to add a little boiling water, if the water added in the beginning be evaporated be- fore the end ofthe boiling." Emplastrum lithargyri. Litharge Plaster. Dub. " Take of Litharge in fine powder, five pounds ; Olivfe Oil, a gal- lon ; Boiling Water, two pints. Mix them together, by stirring at a heat between 200° and 212°, until the oil and the litharge unite into a plaster, supplying occasionally water in fresh quantities as it eva- porates." This, which has been long known by the name of Diachylon, is a chemical combination of the expressed oil with the protoxide of PLASTERS. 543 lead, and is of a consistence sufficiently hard to form a plaster. There is considerable attention requisite in preparing it, particularly in stir- ring it constantly to promote the combination, and allow ofthe escape of the watery vapour. If the water is dissipated before the combi- nation is complete, an additional portion must be added, taking care to add it hot. Ihe use of the water, it is commonly supposed, is to prevent the heat from rising too high. This notion, however, would seem to be an erroneous one ; for it has been ascertained by experi- ment (Quart. Journ. of Science, vol. xx. p. 400,) that oil and litharge, mixed without water, and heated by means of steam, may be kept for hours at the temperature of 220°, and constantly stirred without combining, but whenever water is added they enter into complete union. It would appear, therefore, that the water exerts a chemical action, and, it is probable, combines with the oxide, forming a hy- drate, which then unites with the oil. The plaster is used, spread on leather or linen, as an application to excoriations, or slight wounds. Emplastrum resinosum. Resinous Plaster. Ed. "Take of Plaster of Semivitreous Oxide of Lead, five parts ; Resin, one part. Melt with a gentle heat, and continue stirring un- til the mixture cools and stiffens." Emplastrum resins. Resin Plaster. Lond. " Take of Yellow Resin, half a pound ; Plaster of Lead, three pounds. To the plaster of lead melted with a slow fire add the resin bruised, and mix them." Emplastrum lithargyri cum resina. Litharge Plaster with Re- sin. Dub. "Take of Litharge Plaster, three pounds and a half; Yellow Resin, half a pound. To the litharge plaster melted with a mode- rate heat, add the resin beat to a fine powder, that it may melt speedily, and form a plaster." The plaster of litharge is rendered more adhesive, and somewhat more stimulating, by this intermixture of resin. It is found highly useful in contracting the size of ulcers, according to the method of Mr. Baynton. Emplastrum oxidi ferri rubri. Plaster of Red Oxide of Iron Ed. " Take of Plaster of Semivitreous Oxide of Lead, twenty.four parts ; White Resin, six parts ; Yellow Wax, Olive Oil, of each three parts ; Red Oxide of Iron, in powder, eight parts. Rub the red oxide of iron with the oil, and add it to the other ingredients melted, then mix all thoroughly." Emplastrum thuris. Plaster ofFrankincense. Dub. " Take of Litharge Plaster, two pounds ; Frankincense, half a pound ; Red Oxide of Iron, three ounces. Sprinkle the oxide into the plaster and the frankincense melted together, stirring them to- gether, and form a plaster." These plasters, spread on leather, are sometimes used as an ap- plication in slight cases of lumbago, and give some relief, by afford- ing a mechanical support. 544 PLASTERS. Emplastrum assjEFOstidjE. Assafcetida Plaster. Ed. " Take of Plaster of Semivitreous Oxide of Lead, Assafcetida, of each two parts ; Resin of Galbanum, Yellow Wax, of each one part. Add the resins, after being melted and strained, to the plaster and wax while melted, and mix them all thoroughly." This plaster is sometimes applied to the breast or side in hysteric affections, but probably with little advantage. Emplastrum ammoniaci. Ammoniac Plaster. Ed. Lond. " Take of Ammoniac, five parts, (ounces, Lond.) ; Weak Acetic Acid, eight parts, (half a pint, Lond.) Dissolve the ammonia in the acid, then evaporate the liquor in an iron vessel by the heat of a wa- ter-bath, stirring it until it obtain a proper consistence." Emplastrum ammoniaci. Ammoniac Plaster. Dub. " Take of Ammoniac, purified, five ounces ; Vinegar of Squills, half a pound. Dissolve the ammoniac in the vinegar ; then evapo- rate the liquor by heat, stirring it until it attain a proper consistence." Under this form, gum-ammoniac is applied as a discutient, and sometimes also as a remedy in tinea capitis ; it is sometimes too stimulating, and produces an eruption. Emplastrum ammoniaci cum hydrargyro. Plaster of Ammoniac with Quicksilver. Lond. " Take of Purified Ammoniac, one pound ; Purified Quicksilver, three ounces ; Sulphuretted Oil, one fluid-drachm. Rub the quick- silver with the sulphuretted oil until the globules disappear ; then add gradually the ammoniac melted, and mix them." Emplastrum ammoniaci cum hydrargyro. Plaster of Ammoniac with Quicksilver. Dub. " Take of Pure Gum-Ammoniac, a pound ; Purified Quicksilver, three ounces ; Common Turpentine, two drachms. Rub the quick- silver with the turpentine until the globules disappear, then add gradu- ally the ammoniac melted, and melt them together." This is similar to the simple mercurial plaster, and its discutient and stimulant powers are perhaps promoted by the ammoniac. The sulphuretted oil, which is used to extinguish the mercury, renders the plaster offensive, and turpentine is preferable. The mercury is sometimes introduced into the system by the use ofthe plaster. Emplastrum belladonna. Plaster of Belladonna. Dub. " Take of the Inspissated Juice of Belladonna, an ounce ; Soap Plaster, two ounces. Make a plaster." A plaster of belladonna has been found serviceable in relieving neuralgia and chronic rheumatism, but this does not appear to be the best form of it. Dr. Duncan recommends the powdered leaves to be used rather than the watery juice, which is weaker, and does not unite so perfectly with the resinous matter of the plaster, or to boil the leaves in the melted ointment till they become crisp, and strain with expression, as in making elder ointment. Emplastrum gummosum. Gum Plaster. Ed. PLASTERS. 545 " Take of Plaster of Semivitreous Oxide of Lead,.eight parts ; Gum-Resin of Ammoniac, Galbanum, Yellow Wax, of each one part. After dissolving the resins and straining them, add them to the plaster and wax melted, and mix thoroughly." Emplastrum galbani. Galbanum Plaster. Dub. " Take of Plaster of Litharge, two pounds ; Galbanum, half a pound ; Scrapings of Yellow Wax, four ounces. To the galbanum melted with a gentle heat, add the litharge plaster and wax, and melt them with a moderate heat." Emplastrum galbani compositum. Compound Galbanum Plaster. Lond. " Take of Galbanum, purified, eight ounces ; Plaster of Lead, three pounds ; Common Turpentine, ten drachms ; Resin of the Spruce Fir in powder, three ounces. To the galbanum and turpen. tine previously melted together, add first the resin, then the plaster of lead, melted with a slow fire, and mix them." These three plasters are essentially the same. They are em- ployed as discutient applications to indolent tumours, sometimes to promote suppuration of abscesses, and are said to be useful applied over the lumbar region of rickety children. Emplastrum opii. Opium Plaster. Lond. " Take of Hard Opium in powder, half an ounce ; Resin of the Spruce Fir bruised, three ounces ; Plaster of Lead, a pound ; Water, half a pint. To the plaster melted, add the resin, opium, and water, and evaporate by a slow fire until the whole unite into the consistency of a plaster." Emplastrum opii. Opium Plaster. Ed. Dub. " Take of Opium, reduced to powder, half an ounce ; Burgundy Pitch, three ounces ; Litharge Plaster, a pound. Add the opium and pitch to the melted plaster, and mix them thoroughly." Opium has been used as an anodyne, by external application, with advantage, as, for example, in relieving toothach. This plaster is designed to afford a form of applying it ; but the usual mode of ex- tending a piece of soft opium on leather or silk is to be preferred, as more effectual. Emplastrum hydrargyri. Quicksilver Plaster. Ed. " Take of Olive Oil, White Resin, of each one part; Purified Quick- silver, three parts ; Plaster of Semivitreous Oxide of Lead, six parts. Rub the quicksilver with the oil and resin melted together, and then cooled, until the globules disappear ; then add gradually the plaster of semivitreous oxide of lead, melted, and mix the whole carefully." Emplastrum hydrargyri. Quicksilver Plaster. Lond. " Take of Purified Quicksilver, three ounces ; Sulphuretted Oil, a drachm ; Plaster of Lead, a pound. Rub the quicksilver with the sulphuretted oil until the globules disappear, then add gradually the plaster of lead, melted, and mix them." The sulphuretted oil in the latter formula causes the mercury to lose the form of globules more quickly, and thus abridges the labour ofthe preparation ; but it may be doubted if the quicksilver thus ex- 546 PLASTERS. tinguished is in the same state of activity as when this has been done by trituration with unctuous matter alone. The mercurial plaster is applied as a discutient to indolent tumours ; and it has been sup- posed, that from its continued application, the mercury will be absorb- ed, and act locally in glandular affections. Emplastrum saponaceum. Soap Plaster. Ed. " Take of Plaster of Semivitreous Oxide of Lead, four parts ; Gum Plaster, two parts ; Hard Soap sliced, one part. Mix the soap with the plasters melted together ; then boil a little, so as to form a plaster." Emplastrum saponis. Soap Plaster. Lond. Dub. " Take of Hard Soap, cut down, half a pound ; Plaster of Lead, three pounds. Mix the soap with the plaster melted, then boil for a little." This has been supposed to possess a discutient quality ; but it is much inferior to the mercurial plaster, and is scarcely ever used. The quantity of soap is too large. Emplastrum saponis compositum vel adherens. Compound Soap Plaster, or Adhesive Plaster. Dub. " Take of Soap Plaster, two ounces ; Litharge Plaster with resin, three ounces. Make a plaster, which is to be spread melted upon linen." This plaster, lately introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, is the common adhesive plaster which is made on the large scale, and spread on linen by machinery. It combines the adhesion of the resin with the pliability of the soap plaster. Emplastrum cantharidis vesicatorije. Plaster of Cantharides. Ed. " Take of Cantharides, rubbed into a fine powder, White Resin, Yellow Wax, Mutton Suet, of each equal weights. Mix the cantha. rides with the other ingredients, melted together, and removed from the fire ; and agitate continually until the mixture hardens." Emplastrum cantharidis. Plaster of Cantharides. Lond. " Take of Cantharides, rubbed to a verv fine powder, a pound ; Wax Plaster, a pound and a half; Prepared Lard, half a pound. Sprinkle in the cantharides to the piaster and lard melted together, and removed from the fire a little before they become solid, and mix the whole together." Emplastrum cantharidis. Cantharides Plaster. Dub. " Take of Cantharides in very fine powder, Yellow Wax, each a pound ; Yellow Resin, four ounces ; Mutton Suet, Hogs Lard, each half a pound. Sprinkle the cantharides into the wax, tallow and resin melted together, a little before they become solid from cooling, and mix them so as to form a plaster." This is the common Blistering Plaster. It is of a softer consist- ence than the other plasters, that it may admit of being spread without the assistance of heat, which would impair the acrid quality of the cantharides. It is spread on leather, and requires to be applied PLASTERS. 547 twelve hours to produce a perfect blister ; it is then removed ; the vesicle is cut, and the inflamed surface is dressed with simple ce- rate or plaster. In, cases where it is of importance that a blister should be raised with certainty, and speedily, it is of advantage to sprinkle a little ofthe powder of cantharides on the surface ofthe plaster when spread. Washing the part previously with vinegar is also useful to insure the effect. Camphor is sometimes mixed with the blistering composition, on the supposition that it prevents the strangury, which is sometimes produced by a large blister ; but it appears to have no such virtue, and this painful symptom is more effectually obviated by the free use of diluents while the blister is applied,—a practice always proper where the system is irritable, or even in common cases where the blister is large. The skin should be clean on which the blister is put, otherwise it leaves a permanent stain ; to prevent this, it is also proper not to dress the blistered sur- face with highly coloured ointments. Dr. Montgomery remarks that children are often injured by blisters being applied for too long a time, and that they should not be kept on longer than three or four hours, whether vesication has been produced or not. Emplastrum cantharidis vesicatoria compositum. Compound Plaster of Cantharides. Ed. " Take of Venice Turpentine, eighteen parts ; Burgundy Pitch, Cantharides, of each twelve parts ; Yellow Wax, four parts ; Sub- acetate of Copper, two parts ; Mustard Seed, Black Pepper, of each one part. To the Burgundy pitch and wax melted, add the turpen- tine. While these are melted and still warm, add the other ingre- dients, mixed and rubbed to a fine powder, stirring constantly, until the mixture become cold and hard." It occasionally happens, that the common plaster of cantharides is insufficient to excite a blister, even when its surface has been sprinkled over with powdered cantharides. 1° sucb cases, or even in others where it is necessary that a Mister should be quickly rais- ed, and where the system is not e*=>' °n the view "hi<* 1 have Rested the™ are not the salts that really exist in sea-water, but are only the products of mutual decompositions which happen when the liquor becomes concentrated. On the prin- ciple that has been stated, of arranging the elements into the most soluble salts it is ?h?n wS* i 'i131^ 'T a"? maS"esia ex}st in combination with muriat c ackl S tTi™ P?-UnC ^m; and suPP°sing ^at the sulphuric acid is combined with soda, the proportions will be, muriate of soda, 159.3, muriate of magnesia, 35 5 mu nate of lime, 5.7, and sulphate of soda, 25.6, =22(5 1 grains* terlh fZteit^nri°f "T^* "' simi'^ '° thoSe of 'the saline mine™I wa- ters . irom the extent of its saline impregnation, t s more active as a cathartir • an^ it is more stimulating than fresh water as a bach cathartic, and cheLa^aXedHiri,7RAL-WATERS--The/e °We their characteristic properties, SrtTv of peroxide A if" !mPregnat'on °f Iwn> in tho state Partly of protoxide Jr,ti^tTH^SLgTl^\hy-d'^"U'^ Prussi»te of potash de- Sou, whVh Uslrikes The totet^ moTjcE^ T"/ "J "be T* tho^o^coflee'ipd t^V?8011 afterwards t0 conclude, that the water of the Firth of Forth the relative quantitief of the sate are^ different!-^ " n° reaS°n l° SUPP°Se that MINERAL WATERS. 555 tion, giving tone to the digestive organs, augmenting muscular vigour, and promot- ing the excretions. They are of course employed in those diseases in which iron is principally used, amenorrhea, chlorosis, some states of Menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, dyspepsia, scrofula, and various forms of chronic debility. And as iron succeeds best when given in small doses, and in a state of considerable dilution, the chalybeate waters afford the best form under which it can be prescribed, that which is at once attended with least irritation, and from which the greatest benefit is obtained. The powers of these waters, too, are often aided by the presence of other ingredients. The impregnation of carbonic acid, when it is present in excess, gives them a grate- ful stimulant quality, which is exerted on the stomach; and saline substances com- municate to them an aperient power. Besides the substances which have been enumerated as forming the preceding classes of mineral waters, there are some others of more rare occurrence, or present in smaller quantity. Atmospheric air is contained in all waters that flow at the surfarv .if the earth, and renders it more grateful and light as drink. When sub- stances exist in the mineral water which attract the oxygen of this air, the Nitrogen gas appears as a distinut ingredient, as in the waters of Harrowgate. Sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron sometimes occur, arising probably from the oxyge- nation of aluminous slate, impregnated with sulphuret of iron, through which the water has passed. Manganese, Silica, Barytes, Strontites, have been discovered in minute quantities in some waters; and as chemical analysis becomes more perfect, it is to be expected that more of these accidental and local intermixtures shall be ob- served. Thus, in a late analysis byBcrzelius ofthe waters of Carlsbad, he detected, besides the ingredients ascertained by Bergmann, small proportions of fiuate and phosphate of lime, phosphate of alumina, carbonate of iron, carbonate of strontites, and carbonate of manganese. The temperature of mineral waters has considerable influence on their medicinal effects. The warmth of tepid waters renders them more stimulating when they are taken, a glow being felt at the stomach, and sometimes the head is slightly affected. When externally applied under the form of the bath, the temperature has a greater ehare in the effect than any impregnation they may have. The following table exhibits the composition of the more celebrated mineral wa- ters. The quantities are those contained in a wine gallon of the water, or 58327 grains Troy of pure water at 60°. The epithet cold marks where the temperature of the spring is not above that of the external atmosphere; where it exceeds this the precise degrees are added. The view which occurred to my Father, of the real nature of mineral waters, of which a statement is given in the text, is now regarded by chemical authorities as one highly probable, and as often throwing much light on the medicinal powers of those agents. The idea that the salts obtained by evaporation of a mineral water may not, as used to be supposed, be the real ingredients that existed in it, but may be the products of decompositions, which happen in the concentration, is, when sug- gested, so obvious and plausible, that there is little difficulty in admitting it. And the conclusion drawn by my Father, tiiat the most soluble salts are those most likely to exist in a very dilute solution, and that hence we may infer the composition of a mineral water, by arranging its elements, as detected by analysis, into the most solu- ble compounds, explains a number of facts which before.perplexed chemists. Thus, the quantity of salts of sparing solubility obtained by evaporation of a mineral wa- ter, is sometimes greater than can be redissolved in the same bulk of pure water; indicating that the elements must have existed in the water in the state of more solu- ble compounds than the evaporation has produced. The fact, that the imitations of mineral waters, made by dissolving the salts obtained by analysis in a similar propor- tion of water, are almost always devoid of medicinal efficacy, is to be explained in the same way. Lastly, the medicinal effects of mineral waters are so similar to what are occasioned by the salts which my Father's view assigns as their constitu- ents, viz. sulphate and carbonate of soda, and muriates of lime and magnesia, while they can be so little attributed to the carbonate and sulphate of lime, and muriate of soda, formerly believed to be their ingredients, that we can scarcely hesitate to receive the former as the true components. An experiment which I performed seems to afford some additional evidence in favour of my Father's views. To a quantity of pure water I added a few drops of a dilute solution of muriate of lime, and afterwards a small portion of carbonate of soda; the solutions were so dilute that no precipitation happened; a blue vegetable infusion was then poured in, the colour of which was immediately changed to green 556 MINERAL WATERS. by the alkaline reaction of the carbonate of soda ; now carbonate of soda and muriate of lime are regarded as incompatible salts, and, if I had evaporated the solution, would undoubtedly, as it became concentrated, have decomposed each other, and produced carbonate of lime and muriate of soda ; but the test of the vegetable infusion shewed, that in the dilute solution the carbonate of soda and muriate of lime remained toge- ther unchanged, and renders it probable that they may in like manner co-exist in mineral waters. To the table of the composition of mineral waters given by my Father, (and to which I have added some recent analyses,) I have subjoined another table, shewing the constitution of those waters in conformity with his views. He did not give a table of this kind, as being doubtful of the accuracy of the analyses that were then known ; but the superior accuracy which has now been attained in that branch of chemistry has supplied data more to be depended on. In particular, analyses have recently been made with much care by Dr. Scudamore of the principal mineral springs of England ; and in the greater number of these, Dr. Scudamore proceeded on the principle of analysis pointed out by my Father, arranging the elements into the most soluble end active combinations. The slightest inspection of the two tables will shew, that the second assigns to the several mineral waters a composition much more likely to give rise to medicinal efficacy than is presented in the first table. It was mentioned that it has been found difficult to prepare imitations of mineral waters, on the priticiple that the salts procured by evaporation are the true constitu- ents, these salts being usually inert, and sometimes almost insoluble. But by im- pregnating water with the salts inferred, on my Father's view, to exist in the mineral spring, artificial waters may be prepared very similar in properties to the natural. Dr. Murray has given the following method of preparing an artificial Seltzer water : "Pour a pint of water into a strong bottle, introduce by means of a long funnel reaching to the bottom of the bottle, 35 grains of muriatic acid, of the strength usually met with in the shops, then drop in three grains of pure white marble in coarse powder, and close the bottle ; when these are dissolved, add five grains of subcarbon- ate of magnesia, and afterwards 27 grains of bicarbonate of soda; close the bot- tle accurately, shake and invert it: in a short time a perfect solution takes place, and a transparent liquor is obtained, which sparkles when poured out, and has a pleasant taste." In this process, by using muriatic acid, and dissolving in it the different bases combined with carbonic acid, the soluble muriates are formed in the due pro- portions, while the carbonic acid disengaged is retained in solution by the water, and by the slight degree of pressure from closing the bottle, and thus an artificial car- bonated water is formed, of the same composition as Seltzer water. In a similar manner'the other carbonated mineral waters maybe imitated. Chalybeate waters may be imitated by adding a small quantity of solution or tincture of muriate of iron to the saline solutions. Table I. Comj. osilion of Mineral Wateri Cubic 1 iclies of Gases. Carbonates of Sulphates of Chlorides of Ox. of Iron. Sili-ca. Waters. Carbonic Sulphuret. iNitrog. Soda. Magnesia. Lime. Soda. Magnesia. Lime. Sodium. Magnes. Calcium. Temp. Acid Gas. Hyd. Gas. Gas. grs. 32 grs. 40 grs. 24 grs. grs. grs. grs. grs. grs. grs. •a f Seltzer, (1) 138 — _ 140 Cold. c 1 Pyrmont, (1) 208 — 80 34.8 — 44.5 63.6 12.4 4.5 Cold. c ) Spa, (1) 104 11.7 35.3 11.7 — — — 1.47 4.5 Cold. <-CO o f Carlsbad, (1) 40 39 — 12 70 — — 34.6 0.125 2.5 165°. u t Moffai, (2) ? Aix-la-Chap., (1) ( Cheltenham, (6) 5 10 — — — — — 36 _ _ __ Cold. -= — 44 yo — 38 — — — 40 — •— _ _ 143°. W 2 20 — — — 188 40 9.6 280 2.4 rS'eidlitz, (1) | Cheltenham, (6) 21 6.7 1444 41.1 _ 36.5 _ Cold. V — — 120 88 36 400 — — _ _ Cold. < Bath, (4) | Buxton, (5) 9.6 — 6.4 12 — 72 26.4 — — .016 1.6 116°. CO 171 1.5 4.64 — — 10.4 — 0.6 2.4 0.58 82°. V Bristol, (3) 28 12 12 12 4 8 74°. jj f Harrowgate, (Oddie,) (5) \ Tiii.bridge, (5) 0.27 1 41 2.4 0.29 0.4 2.22 0.4 Cold. a Brighton, (7) 20 — 32.9 12.2 6. — t 1.12 Cold. o | I Cheltenham, (6) 20 4 — 181.6 48 20 330.4 — ~~ 6.4 Cold. 1. Bergman, 2. Garnet, 3. Canick, 4. Mr. Phillips. 5. Dr. Scudamore, 6. Brande and Parkes, 7. Dr. Marcet. t 14.4 Sulphate of Iron. en en Table II. Composition of Mineral Waters stated in conformity to Dr. Murray's views. Waters. Carbonic Acid. Seltzer, (1) Pyrmont, (1) Spa, (1) Carlsbad, (1) CHarrowgate Old I Well, (2) I —New Well, (2) < Aix-la-ChapXl) Cheltenham, (6) Leamington, (5) f Cheltenham, (6) Bath, (5) Leamington, (5) J Buxton. (5) \ Bristol, (3) Dumblane, (4) Pitcailhly, (4) t Sea Water, (4) (Harrowgate, (Oddie,) (5) Tunhridge, (5) Brighton, (7) ^Cheltenham, (6) Cubic Inches of oases. 138 208 104 40 4.25 5.25 12 9.G 15 28 Sulphur. Hydrogen. Carbur. Hyd. 14 6.4 44 20 not ascer- tained. 4.15 4.65 Nilro' gen. 6.5 4.6 Soda. 109.34 11.5 12.93 51.96 Carbonates of 12.8* 14.75* 37 1.62 Magnesia. grs. 80 35.3 8.26 0.29 Lime. grs. 34.8 10.6 3.3 8.9 12 4 4 Sulphates of Soda. grs. 14.9 70 254.2 92.8 •263.7 44.4 62.64 0.63 18.6 29.6 7.2 201.8 1.97 1.5 14.68 260 4 Magnesia, grs. 44.5 Lime. grs. 54.5 42.4 5.76 18.8 Sodium grs. Chlorides of Magnesium. grs. 54.03 20.2 752 735 231.5 120 280.2 430 168 101.6 1274.4 289.5 0.9 264 45.7 29.2 43 32 26.4 70.4 12 8 161.3 0.6 8 284 10.8 0.3 6. 33.4 Calcium. grs. 26.9 11.6 1.3 13.44 65.75 71.5 37.3 7.9 63.63 29.6 9.6 229.1 2.25 3.7 166.5 161.6 45.6 31 1.85 11.4 165 Ox. of Iron. grs. 4.5 4.5 0.12 2.4 trace 0.12 trace 1.36 2.4 2.22 t 6.4 Silica. grs. 1. Bergman, 2. West, 3. Carrick, 4. Dr. Murray, 5. Dr. Scudamore, 6. Brande and t arkes, 7. Dr. Marcel. * Bicarbonate of Soda. t 14.4 Sulphate of Iron. 2.5 1.6 0.4 0.4 1.12 en en CD OF THE ' haI'Pen —etimes^a R/t/ >n W • reSard t0 those of inferior importance. bthly 1 he ingredients which are to be combined must be such as will mix nronpr i%*5& s PtS" M ih- ™*> «•- - >» «■**- Ess iMlly, The form under which a medicine is prescribed must be adapted to certain MEDICAL PRESCRIPTIONS. 565 circumstances ; principally to the nature ofthe disease, the nature of the remedy it- self, and, as far as can be conveniently attained, to the taste of the patient. Those medicines which are nauseous, which operate in a small dose, or are designed to operate slowly, or which have a considerable specific gravity, are usually given un- der the form of pill, or sometimes of bolus. Those which are less ungrateful, or the operation of which is designed to be immediately obtained, are given in the form of electuary, or under some liquid form. Tinctures always require to be diluted; infusions or decoctions may in general be given in the state in which they are pre- pared. These last are always of extemporaneous preparation, as they cannot be preserved long uninjured, and the proper application of them must depend on the chemical properties, and chiefly on the solubility in the menstruum, of the active principles of the substance submitted to preparation. The Doses of Medicines are not reducible to any general rules, from their general similarity of operation, or any other circumstance, and are therefore specific with regard to each substance. But there are certain general circumstances by which their operation is influenced, which require to be attended to in apportioning the dose. The most important of these are, Age, Sex, Temperament, Idiosyncrasy, Habit, and Disease. ■Age.—From infancy to manhood, a larger dose of any medicine is requisite to pro- duce its effect, in proportion to the advance in life. From manhood to old age, it has been supposed, that there is a similar gradation with regard to diminution of dose ; but this is undoubtedly in a less proportion than that which regulates the in- crease. The following table by Gaubius has been supposed to shew these propor- tions, with regard to the early periods of life in which the necessity for the diminution '<* A—I &%■ NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NLM D327MM71 1 NLM032744711