MANUAL 
OF 
General Medicinal Technology 
INCLUDING 
PRESCRIPTION- WRITING 
BTT 
EDWARD CURTIS, A.M., M.D. 
Jtedteq %ri£ °^ 
vmtr 
WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY 
1883 Copyright, 1S83, by 
WILLIAM WOOD &t COMPANY 
T row’s 
Printing and Bookbinding Company 
201-213 East Twelfth Street 
NEW YORK PREFACE. 
The topics belonging to medicinal technol- 
ogy, especially prescription-writing, find such 
scant treatment in the text-books of materia 
medica, that the author has been tempted to 
write out his lectures on these subjects, as de- 
livered in his course on Materia Medica and 
Therapeutics. The lecture style has been re- 
tained as the best for actual teaching. The 
technicalities of prescription-writing are dis- 
cussed at especial length, and are made to in- 
clude so much of the elements of Latin as are 
necessary to the art; a feature which the au- 
thor’s experience in teaching makes him be- 
lieve will be welcome to many undergraduate 
readers. Prescribing according to the metric 
system is also treated of in full, as the impor- IV 
PREFACE. 
tance of the subject deserves. The spellings 
gramme and centimeter are adopted without 
prejudice, simply because they are the spellings 
of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. 
E. C. 
27 Washington Place, New York, 
September 10, 1883, CONTENTS, 
PAGE 
INTRODUCTION 1 
PAET I. 
TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES. 
CHAPTER I. 
The Authobity fob Medicines 3 
In Imperial Governments—In the United 
States — The Pharmacopoeia of the 
United States. 
CHAPTER H. 
The Naming of Medicines 6 
Naming of Proximate Principles — Of 
Crude Organic Drugs—Of Pharmaceu- 
tical Preparations. VI 
CONTENTS. 
PAGE 
Forms of Medicines 11 
Powders—Administration of Powders in 
Capsules and Wafers—Extracts—Oleo- 
resins—Mixtures—Emulsions—Solutions 
—Waters—Mucilages—Decoctions — In- 
fusions—Tinctures—Tinctures of Fresh 
Herbs — Spirits — Wines — Vinegars — 
Glycerites — Fluid Extracts — Tritura- 
tions—Abstracts—Confections—Pills— 
Troches — Syrups — Honeys—Elixirs— 
Suppositories — Ointments — Cerates — 
Oleates — Plasters— Liniments—Papers 
—Unofficinal Forms. 
CHAPTER III. 
CHAPTER IY. 
Tiie Determining of Quantities of Med- 
icines 51 
Of Weighing, in general—Of Weighing as 
applied to Fluids—Systems of Weight: 
Apothecaries’ — British Pharmacopoeial 
Weight—Metric Weight—Comparison of 
Metric and Apothecaries’ Weights—Of 
Measuring in general—Systems of Meas- 
ure of Capacity: Apothecaries’ or Wine 
Measure — Imperial Measure — Metric 
Measure—Domestic Measures: The Drop 
—The Spoonful—The Wineglassful— 
The Cupful. CONTEXTS. 
VII 
PAGE 
The Prescribing of Medicines 76 
The Composing of a Prescription—Thera- 
peutic Singleness of Aim—Functions of 
the Members of a Prescription—Incom- 
patibilities—The Writing of a Prescrip- 
tion—Parts—Form—Language—Use of 
Symbols—Of the Latinity concerned in 
Prescription-Writing—Odd Words and 
Phrases — Declensions — Genders of 
Nouns—Adjectives and their Declension 
—Latin Order of Sequence of Words— 
Examples of Prescriptions in Form and 
Language—The Computing of Amounts 
in Prescriptions—Fixing the Total—Ap- 
portioning the Constituents—Examples, 
both in Apothecaries’ and Metric Sys- 
tems—Odd Points in Computing—The 
Revising of a Prescription. 
CHAPTER V. 
PART n. 
TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICATING. 
Modes of Medicating 178 
The Medicating of Surfaces : Skin—Mu- 
cous Membranes generally—Conjunctiva 
— Nasal Cavity—Eustachian Tube—■ 
CHAPTER L VIII 
CONTENTS. 
PAGE 
Mouth and Fauces—Larynx—Air Pas- 
sages—Urinary Passages—Vagina—Ute- 
rus—Stomach and Intestines—Rectum 
—Of Atomized Sprays—The Medicating 
of Underlying Parts: General Considera- 
tions—By the Stomach—By the Rectum 
—By the Lungs—By the Skin—By In- 
travenous Injection—By the Endermatic 
Method—By the Hypodermatic Method. 
CHAPTER IL 
Dosage 202 
For Transient Impression: Single Dose— 
Divided Dose—For Continued Impres- 
sion : Principle of Reinforcement—Vari- 
ation of Dosage according to Purpose— 
Adaptation to Size of Recipient—Rules 
for Scaling to Suit Childhood Ages—In- 
fluences Determining Variation from 
Standard Dosage : Age—Sex—Climate— 
Custom — Idiosyncrasy — Physiological 
Status—Conclusions. GENERAL 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
INTRODUCTION. 
The study of any group of technical things 
necessarily takes up the following topics in 
order : First, the general technicalities of the 
things as a class ; secondly, their individual 
features; and, thirdly, their practical applica- 
tion in the fulfilment of their purpose. The 
subject, Materia Medica and Therapeutics, then 
divides itself for study into the three branches 
of general medicinal technology, the materia 
medica, and general therapeutics. 
Concerning general- medicinal technology, 
this subject shows itself two-fold, having to 
do with the technicalities of its things as 
things, on the one hand, and of their applica- 2 
INTRODUCTION. 
tion on the other. It offers for study, that is, 
the two topics of the technology of medicines 
and the technology of medicating. Under the 
former title we have to discuss the authority 
for medicines, the technicalities of their nam- 
ing and forms, the methods of determining 
quantities of them, and the how to prescribe 
them ; while in the second division of the sub- 
ject we have to consider the different methods 
of applying medicines, and the how to regulate 
doses. These various topics we will take up 
in the order named. flart 3. 
TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICINES. 
CHAPTER I. 
THE AUTHORITY FOR MEDICINES. 
By the phrase ‘ ‘ the authority for medicines,” 
we mean the authority which names and de- 
fines drugs, establishes standards of strength 
and purity, and issues formulae for pharma- 
ceutical preparations. Such authority in na- 
tions of imperial government is commonly 
vested in the government itself, hut in the 
United States, following the genius of our in- 
stitutions, it is a matter of voluntary submis- 
sion by the two professions of medicine and 
pharmacy to a self-devised arrangement. And 
that arrangement is as follows: Every ten 
years representative delegates from certain or- 
ganized bodies within the two professions meet 
in convention, and after fixing matters of gen- 
eral policy, appoint a committee from their 4 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
numbers to prepare and publish the detailed 
authorizations in the shape of a book, entitled, 
as such books generally are, The Pluirmacopceia. 
After arranging for the calling of a successor, 
the Convention then dissolves and its residual 
committee proceeds to its task. In due season 
the Pharmacopoeia appears and its provisions 
are tacitly accepted as authoritative by the 
physicians and pharmacists of the country, 
until the lapse of another decade brings about 
a new revision. The “Pharmacopoeia of the 
United States” was thus first established by 
Convention in 1820, and the revision now in 
force is the sixth thereafter, being the outcome 
of the Convention of 1880. This revision will 
stand until the Convention of 1890 shall take 
the matter in hand, but by a special provision 
its authors are “ authorized and directed to 
publish a supplement at the end of five years, 
or oftener, if deemed expedient.” The Con- 
vention of 1890 will come into being in accord- 
ance with the following resolution of the Con- 
vention of 1880 :— 
‘ ‘ Resolved, That the President of this Con- 
vention shall, on or about the first day of May, 
1889, issue a notice requesting the several in- 
corporated Medical Societies, the incorporated 
Medical Colleges, the incorporated Colleges of THE AUTHORITY FOR MEDICINES. 
5 
Pharmacy, and incorporated Pharmaceutical 
Societies throughout the United States, and the 
American Medical Association, and the Ameri- 
can Pharmaceutical Association, to elect a num- 
ber of delegates, not exceeding three, and the 
Surgeon-General of the Army, the Surgeon- 
General of the Navy, and the Surgeon-General 
of the Marine Hospital Service, to appoint, 
each, not exceeding three medical officers, to 
attend a General Convention for the Revision 
of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, to 
be held in Washington, D. C., on the first 
Wednesday of May, 1890.” 6 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
CHAPTER II. 
THE NAMING OF MEDICINES. 
The naming of medicines is one of the func- 
tions of a pharmacopoeia. In the United States, 
therefore, we follow the nomenclature estab- 
lished by our own Pharmacopoeia. This nomen- 
clature, as usual, embraces titles in English and 
in Latin, and these, following American habit, 
are, with us, designed to be as short as is consist- 
ent with proper identification. For purposes 
of naming, medicines divide into three catego- 
ries, viz., proximate principles, crude organic 
drugs, and pharmaceutical preparations, and in 
our pharmacopoeial nomenclature of these cate- 
gories the following points are to be noted : In 
the case of proximate principles, first, there 
exists already a nomenclature, namely, that of 
the science of chemistry, and this is, in a 
general way, made the basis of the pharmaco- 
poeial titles, the most important departures 
therefrom being as follows: 1. In general, in 
English titles, names expressive of chemical com- 
position are phrased after the type, carbonate of 
potassium, chloride of iron, nitrite of amyl, in- 7 
stead of after the style of modern chemical par- 
lance, whereby the title of the basic radical is 
put foremost, and the title of the acid follows 
without the use of the preposition “of,” as 
‘potassium carbonate, amyl nitrite. In the Latin 
titles the type is potassii carbonas, which is a 
proper rendering of either of the English forms, 
“potassium carbonate ” or “carbonateof potas- 
sium.” 2. In the case of normal and acid 
salts, so-called in chemical language, the com- 
pounds are named by the Pharmacopoeia after 
the old fashion, thus exemplified: the normal 
potassium carbonate of modern chemistry is 
called without specific designation, “ carbonate 
of potassium,” and the acid potassium carbonate, 
“ of potassium. ” 3. In the case of 
those metals that make more than one grade of 
compound with the same acid radical, such as 
iron and mercury, the chemical method of dis- 
crimination by calling the one of lesser propor- 
tion of acid after the style ferrous or mercurous 
salt, and the one of greater, ferric or mercuric, 
is not adopted. If but one of two grades of a 
given composition is used in medicine, the salt 
is named in the ordinary way, the existence of 
the other being ignored. Ferric chloride is, 
therefore, entitled simply “chloride of iron,” 
this being the only chloride of that metal re- 
THE NAMING OF MEDICINES. 8 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
cognized as a medicine. Where both grades 
are used, either an old style of chemical nomen- 
clature is followed, as where ferrous and ferric 
sulphates are called respectively “sulphate of 
iron,” simply, and “ Persulphate of iron,” or, as 
in the case of mercury compounds, because of 
an old chemical confusion, chemical styles are 
wholly thrown aside and an arbitrary descrip- 
tive title adopted. Hence mercurous and mer- 
curic chlorides are named, respectively, “mild” 
and “corrosive chloride of mercury,” and the 
analogous iodides, “green ” and “ red ” iodide. 
4. With compounds having a well-known non- 
scientific name, the same is often adopted in 
preference to the chemical title. Hence, in 
place of potassio-al uminium sulphate, ethyl oxide, 
trichloromethane, or phenol, we have as the re- 
spective officinal titles the more familiar names, 
alum, ether, chloroform, and carbolic acid. 
Concerning, next, the nomenclature of crude 
organic drugs, the principles followed are these, 
thus succinctly stated in the preface to the 
Pharmacopoeia itself: “1. The officinal Latin 
title of a vegetable drug is to be the botanical 
genus-name. A few titles were excepted from 
this rule, being those of old and well-known 
drugs, as : Belladonna, Frangula, Ipecacuanha, 
Pulsatilla, Senna, Stramonium, etc. 2. The THE NAMING OP MEDICINES. 
9 
officinal Latin title, selected according to the 
preceding rule, is to denote, or stand for, the 
'part of the plant directed to be used, provided 
that only one part of the plant is officinal. Ex- 
amples : Aconitum, to stand for Aconite Root; 
Conium, for Conium Seed ; Hyoscyamus, for 
Hyoscyamus Leaves, etc. But if more than one 
part is in use, the part is to be specially men- 
tioned in the title. Examples : Bdladonnce 
Folia; Belladonnce Radix; Stramonii Folia; 
Stramonii Semen. 3. The officinal English 
titles are to be the scientific, botanical (genus or 
species) names, rather than the vernacular 
names; except in the case of those drugs, where 
the vernacular names are derived from and 
[are] still almost identical with the scientific 
names, or where long custom has sanctioned 
some other name.” 
In the Latin titles, where two nouns occur, 
or a noun and an adjective, the Latin idiom of 
order of sequence of the words is followed. 
Hence, leaves of belladonna and purified aloes 
are rendered, respectively, belladonnce folia and 
aloe purificata. 
Lastly, as to the names of pharmaceutical 
preparations, these are arbitrary, and will pre- 
sent themselves, seriatim, when we discuss the 
forms of such preparations. The only general 10 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
point to note in this place is that in latinizing, 
the Latin idiom just cited is not followed as re- 
gards the position of the genus-name of the 
preparation. Thus tincture of opium is not opii 
tinctura, as Latin usage would naturally put it, 
hut tinctura opii. Where adjectives occur, how- 
ever, they are put in their proper Latin place, 
following their noun. Thus, tinctura opii deo- 
dorata, “ deodorized tincture of opium : ” ex- 
tractum gentiance fluidum, “ fluid extract of 
gentian.” FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
11 
CHAPTER III. 
FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
The farms of medicines next require consid- 
eration, and our study here must be precise, for 
the products of pharmacy have class-titles and 
class-peculiarities which must be thoroughly 
understood by the prescriber. These products 
are most conveniently grouped for study into 
those for general and those for special applica- 
tion. Of the former, with solid drugs, the sim- 
plest form is the crude drug reduced to powder. 
Pulverization is an obvious prerequisite for the 
majority of applications of drugs, and where, 
in a prescription, the powdered condition of an 
ingredient is a plain necessity, the pharmacistj 
in compounding, uses the powder without the 
physician being obliged to specifically order the 
same. But also certain powders, simple and 
compound, are among the prescriptions of the 
Pharmacopoeia, constituting thus a kind of 
preparation, under the title PU'LVIS, Powder. 
Limitations in the use of the powder as a form 
of medicine are that deliquescent and oily 
substances do not keep well in that form, and 12 
I'KDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
that corrosive, bad-tasting, or bulky medica- 
ments cannot well or wisely be so administered. 
But where these conditions do not obtain, the 
powder is a convenient form, as the “doses” 
can be put up in separate paper packages, eas- 
ily carried about and easily administered. Ac- 
cording to the nature of the substance the 
powder can be taken dry, or in solution, or 
stirred into molasses, honey, or preserve, or 
enclosed within a mass of some pulpy sub' 
stance, such as apple-scrapings, or, more ele- 
gantly, for older patients, encased in the “ cap- 
sules,” or “ wafers,” sold by druggists for such 
purpose. A “ capsule ” is a cylindrical cham- 
ber of jujube paste or similar material, made in 
two pieces, whereof the one fits into the other 
with a telescope-joint. They are of various 
sizes, the largest capable of holding three, four, 
or more grains of a dry vegetable powder, or, if 
moistened so as to pack closer, as much even as 
ten grains. The charged and closed capsule, it 
is needless to say, is to be swallowed bodily, 
like a pill. “Wafers” are in two forms, in 
one, two watch-glass shaped bodies with the 
powder interposed are joined by moistening 
the edges and pressing, and then the whole, 
rendered soft and slippery by dipping for an 
instant in water, is swallowed as a bolus. In the 13 
FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
other form the wafer is simply a large, thin, flat 
wafer proper, which, made limp by moistening, 
is wrapped about the powder, and the bolus at 
once swallowed. By means of these capsules 
and wafers taste is wholly concealed, and bad- 
tasting medicines can thus be prescribed in 
powder without objection. With the capsule, 
further, there is an advantage over the wafer 
that the pharmacist can be ordered to deliver 
the doses already encapsuled, a convenience 
both for carrying and taking. 
Vegetable drugs containing, as of course they 
do, all sorts of inert matters, it is a plain desid- 
eratum to get the active constituents more or 
less perfectly isolated. The simplest treatment 
in this direction yielding a solid product is to 
evaporate to a more or less solid consistence 
a solution containing the desired principles. 
Such solution may be the natural juices of the 
plant, mechanically expressed, or one artificially 
obtained by treating the drug with some appro- 
priate solvent. In either case the product de- 
rived as described is entitled EXTBA'CTUM, 
Extract. According to their varying nature ex- 
tracts may be hard, in which case they are 
commonly pulverized for use, or soft, when 
they are generally of sticky quality, exactly 
adapted for pill-making, in which form they 14 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
are then most commonly prescribed. Soft and 
sticky extracts particularly result from the 
method of expression. What extracts are soft 
and what hard must be learned by rote, as the 
pharmacopceial nomenclature does not take 
cognizance of the consistence. The Pharmaco- 
poeia does, however, in its naming in certain 
cases, indicate the nature of the solvent em- 
ployed in making the extract—calling an ex- 
tract aquosum, “aqueous,” when made by the 
use of water, and alcoholicum, “ alcoholic, ” when 
by alcohol, and, where a conjoint volatile 
oil and resin have been 'extracted by ether, 
speaking of the product not as an “extract” 
at all, but as OLEORESI'NA, Olcorcsin. Such 
‘1 oleoresins ” are, however, properly extracts, 
for the original solvent is gotten rid of by evap- 
oration, as in the “extracts” proper. They are 
of viscid, semifluid consistence, to be given in 
capsules or in mixtures. Extracts form a tol- 
erably numerous and valuable class of prepara- 
tions—valuable because of their concentration, 
but yet inferior to the chemically isolated active 
principle, with which they compete, because 
of occasional uncertainty of strength. In the 
case, indeed, of extracts made by expressing 
the juice of a fresh plant, variability of strength 
is frequent, so much so that these particular FOEMS OF MEDICINES. 
15 
extracts are distinctly unadvisable where accu- 
rate dosage is needed. Recognizing this fact, 
the present Pharmacopoeia avoids this method 
in all extracts but one, the inconsequential ex- 
tract of taraxacum, and in the notable cases of 
the extracts of belladonna and of hyoscyamus, 
emphasizes its abandonment of the method by 
calling the present alcoholic extracts, although 
the only ones, still by the distinctive title 
alcoholic. 
Of fluid pharmaceutical products of general 
avail there are quite a number, the technical 
class-names of which are partly determined by 
the nature of the fluid basis, and partly by 
other considerations. The broadest division of 
these categories is into those where the active 
ingredient is in mere mechanical suspension in 
a fluid, and those, on the other hand, where it 
is in true solution. In the former of these con- 
ditions, if a solid (in powder, of course) is in 
suspension, the product is MISTU'RA, Mixture, 
but yet note that this title is not confined to such 
preparations, but applies, generically, wher- 
ever a fluid is a literal mixture of diverse forms, 
whether including a solid in suspension, or not. 
A small number of mixtures are officinal. If a 
fixed oil, or fat be in suspension in a watery 
menstruum, the product is EMU'LSIO, Emul- 16 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
sion,—a title not found in the Pharmacopoeia, 
it is true, but this simply because no emulsions 
are officinal. Milk is a natural example of an 
emulsion. Oils in emulsion are better borne 
by the stomach and better assimilated than 
when swallowed clear, and in such form also a 
disagreeable taste can be more easily disguised. 
Mixtures and emulsions are forms which ex- 
temporaneous prescriptions very commonly 
take, and in devising them the following points 
must be observed: First, as regards mixtures, 
(using the word now in the restricted sense of a 
solid, in powder, held in suspension in a more 
or less viscid vehicle), the main points are these: 
the viscidity is generally gotten by using muci- 
lage of some kind, or a syrup or glycerin, 
letting the viscid constituent form from one- 
fourth to one-half the bulk of the mixture— 
the heavier and the more the amount of pow- 
der to be suspended, the higher the percentage 
of the viscid addition. Next, the suspended 
matter should not be intrinsically too heavy— 
such things as heavy metallic compounds like 
calomel or the salts of bismuth being best given 
in some other way than in mixture. Nor 
should it, even if light, be in too large propor- 
tion. Natural vegetable powders should not 
exceed twenty per cent. Of the weight of the 17 
FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
mixture in which they are prescribed, and 
powdered extracts not more than five per cent. 
As regards emulsions, the emulsifying agents in 
commonest use are, for fixed oils, mucilages, 
generally those of acacia and tragacanth, and 
yolk of egg. If the latter substance he selected, 
not more of the emulsion should be ordered 
than is likely to be soon consumed, as it does 
not keep well. In any case, the oil is first to 
he thoroughly emulsified by rubbing with the 
undiluted viscid agent, and then, but not till 
then, any desirable dilution with water, or 
syrup and water, may be effected. The pro- 
portion of emulsifier to oil ranges from one to 
four to one to two. In diluting the emulsion 
saline solutions and alcohol, unless in small pro- 
portion, must be avoided, else a precipitate 
will occur. Volatile oils are required in emul- 
sion only in small proportion, their presence 
in a mixture being generally for flavoring pur- 
pose only. The emulsion is made by rubbing 
the oil with any solid that may be intended as 
an ingredient of the mixture, or if there be 
none such, by rubbing with sugar, or even 
strong syrup or glycerin. In the exceptional 
case where considerable of a volatile oil is re- 
quired in emulsion, as where a goodly dose of 
oil of turpentine is desired in this way, an ex- 18 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
cellent plan is to mix the same with at least an 
equal volume, or double its volume, of a bland 
fixed oil, and then emulsify the mixture of the 
two. Olive oil, sweet almond oil, or oil of 
sesamum will answer the purpose. It is per- 
fectly possible, however, to emulsify directly, 
by mucilage or yolk of egg, as with fixed oils. 
Resins in suspension are sometimes, though in- 
correctly, spoken of as emulsions, probably be- 
cause of their milky appearance. Suspension is 
effected with pure resins, by trituration in 
mucilage, and with gum-resins—natural mix- 
tures of a gum and a resin—by the simple ad- 
dition of water, the gum in the gum-resin 
dissolving to form a mucilage in which the 
particles of the resin then remain in suspen- 
sion. 
From mixtures and emulsions, where a ma- 
terial is in suspension in a fluid, undissolved, 
we pass to forms of preparations where, on the 
contrary, the thing is in actual solution in 
some particular fluid. And the available fluids 
for such purpose being several, we have a num- 
ber of technically different forms of medicines, 
all of which consist of a thing or a number of 
things in solution. They are as follows : 
The simple title LI QUOR, Solution, is officinal 
and applies to all heterogeneous solutions that do POEMS OF MEDICINES. 
19 
not belong to some technically special class. With 
two exceptions (saccharated pepsin dissolved 
in acidulous water, and gutta-percha dissolved 
in chloroform) the pharmacopceial “ solutions ” 
are solutions, in a watery basis, of chemicals— 
mostly salts. Such solutions partake, of course, 
of the medicinal qualities of the dissolved thing, 
and present, therefore, no class-features for 
comment in this place. Solution in water, or 
a watery mixture, is naturally a common form 
in which to extemporaneously prescribe aque- 
ously soluble substances, and, in resorting to 
such, two points only need to be remembered. 
They are, first, that many salts which keep in- 
definitely in the dry condition, may yet spoil 
readily in aqueous solution. In such case, 
therefore, small quantities of the solution only 
should be made at a time, or some preservative 
must be added. Notable examples of salts that 
undergo change in solution are salts of the al- 
kaloids, generally, except the cinchona alka- 
loids ; and, again generally, though generally 
only, salts of any base with the so-called “ or- 
ganic aqjds,” citric, tartaric, acetic, and lactic. 
Even metallic citrates, etc., fall into the cate- 
gory, and the familiar salts tartar emetic and 
the citrates and tartrates of iron must therefore 
not be counted upon to survive in aqueous so- 20 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
lution beyond a very short time. The second 
point to regard in prescribing extemporaneous 
solutions is the very obvious one of the degree 
of solubility of the salt intended to be so dis- 
solved. This matter of the solubility of phar- 
macopoeial chemicals in water and alcohol was 
thoroughly re-tested by the committee who pre- 
pared the present revision of our Pharmaco- 
poeia, and the results appear in a table in their 
book, which is here reproduced. 1 
Contradistinguished from ‘ ‘ Solution ” is 
A'QUA, Water. This title came into being to 
express distilled waters, i.e., a water medicated 
by distillation from a crude drug, as an herb. 
By the nature of the case such preparation must 
be a watery solution of a volatile thing ; and the 
distilled waters of former days were mainly 
waters containing volatile oils, obtained by dis- 
tillation from aromatic herbs. At present the 
class “waters” still mainly consist of watery 
solutions of volatile oils, although these, with 
two exceptions (water of orange flowers, and of 
rose), are now made by direct solution of the 
oil itself instead of by distillation. Supli aro- 
matic waters are feeble in strength because of 
the slight solubility of volatile oils in water; they 
1 See Appendix. FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
21 
are all selected from agreeably flavored oils, and 
are intended rather as pleasantly aromatized 
fluid vehicles for extemporaneous solutions or 
mixtures, than as medicines proper. Dose—if 
they can he said to have an exact dose—about 
a tablespoonful. The aromatic waters are those 
of bitter almond; anise, orange-flowers, cinnamon, 
fennel, peppermint, spearmint, and rose. Be- 
sides them the class further includes a water of 
camphor, of creasote, of ammonia (two grades of 
strength), and of chlorine. All these several 
substances being volatile, we may remember 
that all simple aqueous solutions of volatile 
things make technically waters and not solu- 
tions. 
A distinct small class of preparations is af- 
forded by watery solutions of gums—title MU- 
CILA'GO, Mucilage. Five such are oflicinal, 
available, medicinally, as bland demulcents, or, 
pharmaceutically, as viscid vehicles for “ mix- 
tures.” They are the mucilages of acacia, cy- 
donium, sassafras pith, tragacanth, and elm. 
Being physiologically inert, they have no de- 
fined dose. 
Next in order of simplicity among watery 
solutions are those that result from treating a 
crude drug with water until its virtues are dis- 
solved out, and then rejecting the undissolved 22 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
portions by straining. Sucli treatment with 
water may be in two ways: first, the drug may 
be actually boiled in the water, when the prep- 
aration is called DECO'CTUM, Decoction, or it 
may be allowed only to steep, the water at the 
time of addition being hot or cold, as the case 
may be. In the latter case the preparation is en- 
titled INFUSUM, Infusion, and in both these 
titles it must be noted that the Latin word is a 
participle (literally “a boiled thing,” “an in- 
fused thing ”), and not, as in English, a parti- 
cipial noun. In the present Pharmacopoeia gen- 
eral directions are given for the making of 
decoctions and infusions, so that the prescriber 
may order a decoction or infusion of any suit- 
able drug he pleases. The officinal strength, 
unless otherwise directed, will be ten per cent, 
of drug-substance to a given weight of product. 
But besides such general directions, the Phar- 
macopoeia establishes by name a few special de- 
coctions and infusions—special either by reason 
of variation from the above strength, or because 
of complex composition. Such are decoction of 
cetraria, compound decoction of sarsaparilla, in- 
fusion of brayera, of cinchona, of digitalis, of 
wild cherry, and compound infusion of senna. 
Decoctions and infusions, unless gifted with 
powers of self-preservation, as is the case to a FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
23 
certain extent with infusion of cinchona, spoil 
readily, and should therefore be freshly pre- 
pared. But as this is troublesome, it is re- 
ported by the initiated that pharmacists of- 
ten dispense a diluted fluid extract instead 
of the genuine article, when a decoction or an 
infusion is ordered. These forms are much 
less used now than formerly, partly because of 
the above drawback of delay or deceit in dis- 
pensing, but also, and mainly, because the re- 
finements of modern pharmacy having out- 
run the crudity of these bulky and bad-tasting 
“teas,” we have in almost every instance 
some other preferable fluid representative of 
the drug-virtues. The axerage dose of a de- 
coction or infusion ranges from two to four 
tablespoonfuls, but important reductions will 
be required in the case of potent drugs, as 
notably with the officinal infusion of digitalis, 
whereof a single dessertspoonful is the begin- 
ning dose. 
Besides water, alcohol, acetic acid, and glycer- 
in are used as medicinal solvents, because of 
special properties affording especial advantages 
in certain cases, which these fluids severally 
possess. Of the three, alcohol is the most gen- 
erally applicable, and proves, indeed, of great 
pharmacal value from its conjoining widely sol- 24 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
vent with preservative powers. As a solvent, 
furthermore, it not only has the advantage of 
dissolving many valuable principles which 
water will not touch, or but sparingly, but at 
the same time it kindly refuses to dissolve 
many undesirable constituents of vegetable 
drugs which water does extract. In a double 
way, therefore, steeping a drug in alcohol 
instead of in water is prone to yield a bet- 
ter preparation for medical purposes. Alco- 
holic solutions are separated into classes as 
follows: the title TIXCTURA, Tincture, ap- 
plies to the analogues of “solutions” and 
“infusions” among watery preparations : i.e., 
to direct solutions of salts or other solids in al- 
cohol, and to the products of soakage of crude 
drugs in the fluid, whereby the alcohol dis- 
solves out the virtues. By far the greater num- 
ber of tinctures are of the latter type, in pre- 
paring which, in a very considerable number 
of cases, alcohol more or less diluted with 
water is used, for pliarmacal reasons, instead of 
the undiluted article. Hence tinctures differ 
materially in alcoholic strength. Setting aside 
the four tinctures which are solutions of chemi- 
cals,1 all of which are unique, the remainder— 
1 Tincture of acetate, and of chloride of iron, of iodine, 
and of green soap. FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
25 
tinctures of vegetable and animal drugs—form 
a distinct class of preparations, concerning 
wliich we need to note these points: they are 
dark-colored, whence the name “tincture;” 
tenuous, making the drops small, a point to 
be remembered in prescribing doses by drops ; 
they keep well, but yet may suffer one change 
that may lead to grave consequences, namely, 
concentration, by partial evaporation of the al- 
cohol through poor corkage. Then, in medical 
properties, they are comparatively strong, the 
dose rarely exceeding a teaspoonful, and with 
tinctures of powerful drugs, falling to a few 
drops only; they are, of course, alcoholic, and 
if the dose be considerable or frequent, they 
may be objectionable because of that reason 
alone ; they are less apt to be of offensive taste 
than aqueous preparations from the same drug, 
and are, generally, easy of administration. 
They are often prescribed as ingredients of 
composite mixtures, in which case it must be 
remembered that their miscibilities will vary ac- 
cording to the nature of their dissolved matters, 
many containing substances such as resins, 
which precipitate in watery mixtures. Seventy- 
two tinctures are officinal, and, also, the Phar- 
macopoeia establishes a general formula for the 
making of Tinctures of Fresh Herbs, TING- 26 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
TUR.E HERBA'RUM RECE NTIUM, to meet 
cases where there is a pharmacal advantage in 
such a preparation. Such cases are where from 
volatility or proneness to change, the active 
principle of a plant suffers in drying the drug. 
A disadvantage in such tinctures, however, is 
the impossibility of knowing their strength ; 
for though a definite weight of herb he taken 
for the making, such herb in the fresh state 
will hold in its juices a very varying amount of 
water, causing, of course, a corresponding varia- 
tion in proportion of other constituents. It is 
hardly necessary to remark, furthermore, that 
only such drugs can be ordered in this form 
of preparation as are obtainable fresh in the 
prescriher’s locality. The pharmacopoeial for- 
mula for these tinctures is to steep one part of 
drug in two of alcohol. 
SPIRITUS, Spirit, vernacularly also essence, 
is a title applied to the alcoholic exact analogue 
of the “ water,” i.e., to a preparation formerly 
commonly made by distilling alcohol from a 
drug holding a volatile principle, but now, 
as with the “waters,” most generally by direct 
solution of the previously isolated principle. 
The spirits of the Pharmacopoeia embrace alco- 
holic solutions of volatile oils and of camphor, all 
made by direct solution ; of certain ethereal bod- 27 
FOBMS OF MEDICINES. 
ies—ether, chloroform, nitrous ether, etc. ; of 
ammonia, and the two distilled liquors, brandy 
and whiskey. Of these several groups, the 
spirits of the aromatic oils form a distinct 
class, naturally comparable with the “ waters ” 
prepared from the same substances. In such 
comparison there is an agreement—both sets of 
solutions are of the peculiarly aromatic or frag- 
rant oils; and a difference, the “waters” are 
weak, but the spirits are strong, for alcohol is 
a free instead of sparing solvent of volatile oils. 
The aromatic spirits, therefore, afford medi- 
cines as well as mere flavoring agents. They 
are the spirits severally of, anise, orange, cin- 
namon, gaultheria, juniper (simple and com- 
pound), lavender, lemon, peppermint, spearmint, 
myma(“bay rum”), nutmeg, and “perfumed 
spirit ” (cologne water). Spirits, like tinctures, 
are valuable from their concentration and keep- 
ing qualities, and, medicinally, of advantage or 
disadvantage, according to circumstances, from 
the alcohol of their composition. 
YI’NUM, Wine, is the title where wine is 
used instead of diluted alcohol as a solvent. 
The wine in such cases is a natural weak 
“white wine,” fortified against decomposition 
by a further addition of alcohol. Such wine 
is then applied in the same way as alcohol in 28 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
tinctures, viz., to dissolve chemicals, or to ex- 
tract the virtues of vegetable drugs. Medi- 
cated wines are thus really a variety of tinc- 
ture, and a poor variety at that, being less 
certain in strength and more liable to spoil 
than tinctures proper. There are but eleven 
such wines in the Pharmacopoeia, and of them 
perhaps the wine of colchicum root is the only 
one to be recommended as the most advantage- 
ous preparation of its drug. 
Acetic acid, like alcohol, dissolves some 
things which water will not, and its solutions 
keep fairly well, though not so well as alco- 
holic ones. The acid, diluted, is used in four 
cases to extract the virtues of vegetable drugs, 
but in each case we have other preparations 
equal, at least, in value. The title of the pro- 
duct is ACE TUM, Vinegar, and the strength a 
uniform one—virtues of ten per cent, of crude 
drug in a given weight of preparation. 
Glycerin is a unique menstruum, like alcohol 
combining extensive solvent powers with keep- 
ing properties, but, unlike that fluid, being 
viscid and non-volatile, and, physiologically, 
of mild taste and bland quality. Valuable, 
however, as are these properties, they are util- 
ized by the Pharmacopoeia in but two instances 
(glycerites of starch and of yolk of egg), and in these for individually peculiar purposes. There 
is, therefore, nothing like a general class of gly- 
cerin solutions, requiring comment in our pres- 
ent discussion. The title of a glycerin-solution 
is GLYCERI'TUM, Glycerite. 
Lastly, among styles of fluid preparations 
for varied use comes the invaluable EXTRA- 
CTUM FLU'IDUM, Fluid Extract, which is an 
alcoholic extract concentrated by evaporation, 
and, unless self-preserving, fortified against 
change by some appropriate means, such as by 
the addition of glycerin. A unique peculi- 
arity of fluid extracts is their strength, which 
is uniform and so ordered as that the fluid ex- 
tract shall exactly represent in a given measure 
the virtues of the corresponding weight of crude 
drug from which it is made—meaning by “ cor- 
responding ” the correspondence of the metric 
system, i.e., the weight of the same measure of 
water. In other words, specifically, a cubic 
centimeter of fluid extract is the medicinal 
equivalent of a gramme of drug. In our own 
more familiar wine measure and apothecaries’ 
weight the correspondence is not exact, simply 
because a fluidrachm is not the exact measure 
of a drachm-weight of water; but it is yet so 
near that with the ever-existing latitude of 
dosage it is perfectly legitimate in prescribing 
FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
29 30 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
to reckon that a minim of fluid extract will 
equal a grain of drug ; a fluidrachm a drachm, 
and a fluidounce an ounce. Fluid extracts are, 
then, fluid preparations as free as may be from 
inert or obnoxious constituents of the crude 
drug; keeping well, concentrated, and, in 
strength, bearing a uniform and simple rela- 
tion to the strength of the original drug-sub- 
stance. Because of these obvious advantages 
each revision of the Pharmacopoeia has added 
largely to the list of fluid extracts, until now 
no fewer than seventy-nine are officinal. Fluid 
extracts are available for internal or external 
use, and, pharmaceutically, to serve as bases 
for other preparations. Given internally the 
dose is always comparatively small, because of 
the high concentration of the preparation— 
with powerful drugs a single drop often being 
full allowance. 
Passing now to styles or literal forms of med- 
icines designed for special applications, we 
shall find it easiest to study such grouped ac- 
cording to the intended applications. We have, 
then, forms especially devised for giving by 
the mouth, others for use by the rectum, and 
others for application to the skin. For giving 
by the mouth we have, first, two varieties of 
powder, devised for the double purpose of se- FORMS OF MEDICINES 
31 
curing extreme fineness of pulverization and of 
yielding a powder of convenient bulk of dose 
in cases where the simple powder of the drug 
would prove inconveniently small or large. 
For these purposes the scheme is to triturate a 
medicament thoroughly with a proper quantity 
of sugar of milk, a substance which combines 
the qualities of hardness of its particles, solu- 
bility in water, and agreeability of taste. For 
a dilute powder the Pharmacopoeia authorizes 
under the title TRITURA'TIO, Trituration, the 
rubbing of one part of a powdered drug with 
nine of sugar of milk. The direction here is 
simply a general one, so that the prescriber has 
the privilege of ordering any powder he pleases 
to be made into a “trituration.” The tritura- 
tion is a convenient form for giving powdered 
drugs whose dose is small, and, because of the 
fineness of pulverization obtained, is the form 
of solid medicine that most nearly approaches 
solutions in speed of absorption. From the 
large proportionate bulk of sugar of milk in 
triturations they are not likely to taste unduly 
bad, and they are, as a rule, administered dry, 
upon the tongue. 
In the reverse set of cases, where, instead of 
a dilute, a concentrated powder is desired, we 
have the indication met, so far as they go, by 32 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
those extracts which are capable of pulveriza- 
tion. But also, in the case of a few drugs, the 
Pharmacopoeia directs, under title ABSTRA- 
CTUM, Abstract, an extract which after making 
is to he triturated with so much sugar of milk 
as shall make the resulting powder weigh 
just one-half as much as the quantum of drug- 
substance used in preparing the extract. We 
thus have in the “abstract” a powder of the 
qualities of the “trituration,” but of twice in- 
stead of one-tentli the strength of the drug it 
represents. Twice the strength, therefore one- 
lialf the dose—not much of a gain in the way 
of concentration, and secured only by a process 
that greatly increases the cost of the medicine, 
and in some cases rather injures than otherwise 
the qualities of the drug. The pharmacopoeial 
abstracts are of aconite, belladonna, conium, digi- 
talis', hyoscyamus, ignatia, jalap, nux vomica, 
podophyllum, senega, and valerian. 
For giving to children or squeamish adults, 
it is always desirable to conceal offensive taste 
in a medicine. One way of so doing, with 
powders, is to incorporate the material in a 
sugary mass having the agreeable qualities of 
soft confectionery — a method which meets 
the indication, it is true, hut at the disadvan- 
tage of throwing upon an invalid stomach those FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
33 
obnoxious matters, sugars, in considerable 
quantity. However, we find in the Pharmaco- 
poeia two preparations of this character: tech- 
nical name CONFE'CTIO, Confection. One is 
a confection of rose, being simply an agreeably 
flavored confection-mass to serve as the basis 
for confections extemporaneously prescribed, 
and the other is a laxative confection of senna. 
Confections are given to eat, like candy, the 
charge of medicament being small. 
The well-known pill, the form next to be dis- 
cussed, finds place in the Pharmacopoeia under 
title PI LULzE, Pills, and MA'SSA, Mass—that 
is, pill-material before subdivision. The terms 
granule and parvule, often applied to very small 
pills, are vernacular only. Here is, in the lit- 
eral sense of the word, a form of medicine, 
availed of by the physician for extemporaneous 
prescription, as well as by the Pharmacopoeia 
for a set formulary of preparations. The pill- 
form presents many peculiar features for con- 
sideration, some of advantage and some the 
reverse. Of advantage, are permanence, porta- 
bility, exactitude and convenience of dosage, and 
concealment of bad taste ; while of disadvan- 
tage are comparative slowness and uncertainty 
of absorption of the contained medicament, 
difficulty or impossibility of administration to 34 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
many persons, including obviously the entire 
class of little children, who constitute so very 
large a proportion of our patients. Conven- 
ient, therefore, as pills are, they must not be 
prescribed with stupid indiscrimination. Al- 
most any solid medicine not deliquescent, in 
powder or as extract, and also many fluids, pro- 
vided, of course, the dose be small, may be 
ordered to be dispensed in pill-form. Pills 
when freshly made are dusted with some dry 
powder to prevent them from cohering, or are 
coated with some material with the view of 
concealing taste. For the latter purpose a sim- 
ple and handy process, applicable to small 
batches of pills, is to shake the pills, freshly 
made and still sticky, in a box with gold or sil- 
ver foil. By this means the pills become 
loosely coated with bits of the broken foil,—a 
covering which fairly enough conceals the taste 
and yet readily gives way, after swallowing, so 
as to interpose no obstacle to the solution of the 
pill in the stomach. Other substances, so 
largely used—sugar, gums, gelatin—require 
special manipulation and even apparatus, so as 
to be practicably applicable only to the manu- 
facture of a considerable number of pills. A 
batch of a dozen or so extemporaneously pre- 
scribed pills can therefore hardly, with profit FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
35 
to the dispenser, be coated with any of these 
materials. These coatings have furthermore 
the feature that the time required for their 
dissolution in the stomach is just so much time 
lost for the operation of the pill, and if such 
time be considerable, the pill may slip along 
the alimentary canal even into the lower 
bowel, before its own solution begins, and the 
full absorption of its medicament thus be se- 
riously compromised. Hence, without touching 
the question of the relative ease of dissolution 
of these various coatings, it is a good general 
rule that when speed and certainty of operation 
are desirable, coated pills (coated otherwise 
than by metallic foil) had better not be allowed. 
Besides coatings for the concealment of taste, 
some pills, because of the nature of their ingre- 
dients, require an air-tight casing, as for in- 
stance pills containing phosphorus or ferric 
iodide, substances that easily oxidize on expos- 
ure. Balsam of tolu is used for such coating, 
and the pills thus prepared are open to the 
same possible objection as just urged against 
other coated pills. 
In administering pills, the majority of per- 
sons old enough to take a pill at all can readily 
swallow the little sphere if put far back upon 
the tongue and helped along by a gulp of water. 36 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
But if there be reflex objection on the part of 
the surprised pharynx, encase the pill in some 
slippery mass —chewed bread-pulp, apple scrap- 
ings, or a bit of preserve ; or—a method found 
to succeed when all others fail—take a dark- 
skinned grape, in which the pulp slips easily 
from the skin, dig out the seeds, put the pill 
in their place, and then give the grape to be 
eaten in the way so commonly done, i.e., pop- 
ping the pulp into the mouth and swallowing 
at once without chewing. But in spite of every 
device, some persons, even adults, can never 
swallow a pill—the mere knowledge of the pill’s 
presence in a pulpy mass sufficing to determine 
its involuntary rejection. 
The pill being such a favorite form of medi- 
cine, we have quite a number of pharmacopoctal 
pills, some simple, some compound. In three 
instances a pill-mass only is ordered, leaving it 
to the prescriber to direct the weight of the in- 
dividual pills, but in all other cases the Phar- 
macopoeia establishes the weight of the pill as 
well as the composition of ihe mass. Officinally 
a pill-mass is entitled MA'SSA, Mass ; and pills, 
PI LULiE, Pills. The three pharmacopoeial 
“ masses” are of copaiba, carbonate of iron, and 
mercury (“ blue-mass ”). 
The pill is one of the forms very commonly FOKMS OF MEDICINES. 
37 
selected for the extemporaneous prescription of 
appropriate drugs. In so prescribing regard 
must be liad to the points already made con- 
cerning what medicines and what patients may 
properly enter into pill-relation. But also now 
presents itself the subject of excipients for pills. 
The very condition of the pill necessitates a 
certain quality of stickiness, and this, it needs 
not to say, belongs to but few of the things to 
which we wish to give the pill-form. Some 
excipient, therefore, will be required in the 
ma'ority of instances of pill-prescriptions, and 
this excipient will vary according to the physi- 
cal and chemical qualities of the basis. Con- 
siderable knowledge of pharmacy is thus in- 
volved in the proper fitting of excipient to basis, 
and because of this, and because, nowadays, 
the physician is not expected to be a pharma- 
cist also, it is the practice with many, in pre- 
scribing extemporaneous pills, to simply order 
that so much of a given medicine shall be made 
into so many pills, leaving it entirely to the 
compounder to take what and how much ex- 
cipient pharmacy knows to be best for the case. 
But since many physicians, on the other hand, 
prefer to direct the excipient, it is proper to 
point out here the general principles governing 
the selection. Sticky vegetable extracts require 38 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
no excipient, and, furthermore, those of feeble 
medicinal power make, themselves, capital ex- 
cipients for heavy powders; for example, ex- 
tract of gentian as the excipient for reduced 
iron. If a little too firm, a few drops of water 
will effect the necessary softening. Soft gum- 
resins need no excipient, or at most a few drops 
of alcohol to reduce hardness. Semifluid or 
fluid substances require some indifferent dry 
powder, such as powdered gums or starches. 
Bread-crumb, wheat starch, or gum-arabic are 
those most commonly used. Powders, if heavy, 
such as metallic compounds in powder, may be 
mixed with a soft vegetable extract, or with con- 
fection of rose—remembering only, because of 
possible incompatibility, that confection of rose 
contains a little tannin. Light powders, such 
as simple vegetable powders, make up best by 
moistening with some viscid fluid, such as 
syrup, honey, or glycerin. The latter sub- 
stance, because peculiarly non-drying, is pecu- 
liarly advantageous where the pills are wanted 
to be kept soft for some time. On the other 
hand mucilage is objectionable because the pills 
speedily become hard—too hard for certain so- 
lution in the stomach. Resinous and fatty 
bodies do well by admixture with soap. In any 
case in prescribing the excipient it is enough to FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
39 
order the selection only, leaving the amount to 
the compounder. 
A final point in the extemporaneous prescrip- 
tion of pills is to remember that the bulk must he 
within hounds; for specifically light substances, 
such as vegetable powders, Jive grains,equivalent 
to about thirty centigrammes, should be the ex- 
treme limit of weight for a single pill; for heavy 
bodies, six or seven grains—from foi'ty to forty- 
five centigrammes. Ordinarily, indeed, not more 
than two-tliirds of these weights are directed. 
TROCHI'SCUS, Troche, is the technical name 
of the well-known lozenge, applied as a form of 
medicine. Troches are designed to he held in 
the mouth and sucked until dissolved, and are 
resorted to, mainly, as a convenient way of 
continuously medicating the oral or pharyngeal 
cavity in surface affections of those parts. Un- 
der the circumstances slowness of solution— 
contrary to what obtains in the case of pills—is 
here an advantage, and hence we find traga- 
canth as the gummy basis of a majority of the 
officinal troches. Troches are pleasant to take, 
and besides their more natural purpose, as 
above, are often used as the form for medicines 
aimed to relieve cough—many of the officinal, 
and numberless of the proprietary troches, 
being compounded for this special application. 40 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Lastly, among preparations specially intended 
for use by tlie mouth, are certain fluid forms, 
devised to secure agreeability of taste, by tlie 
presence of considerable sugar. Where the pe- 
culiar feature is simply such addition of sugar 
to other ingredients the preparation is termed 
SYRU'PUS, Syrup. A considerable number of 
syrups are officinal, embracing syrupy solutions 
of salts and other inorganic substances, as well 
as of vegetable drugs—in certain of the former 
kind the sugar being of more importance as a 
preservative than as a flavoring agent. These 
same syrups of inorganic matters are too incon- 
gruous to present any general class-characteris- 
tics, but the syrups derived from vegetable 
drugs form a fairly distinct group. They are 
variously made, by the addition of sugar or 
syrup to expressed juices, solutions, “ waters,” 
infusions, decoctions, “vinegars,” tinctures, 
and fluid extracts. They are of course sweet- 
ish to taste, and so pleasanter than the average 
fluid medicines, but, medicinally, they rate 
comparatively low in strength, and are not to 
be resorted to where concentration of dosage is 
desired. Rarely is the dose less than a teaspoon- 
ful,1 and often it is a tablespoonful or more. 
i Notable exception, compound syrup of squill. 41 
FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
A number of officinal syrups, furthermore, 
have no, or practically no, medicinal power 
whatever, and are offered simply as agreeably 
flavored matters to constitute part of the fluid 
vehicle in extemporaneous prescriptions. When 
so used these should, as a rule, not form more 
than one-lialf the volume of the mixture, else 
the potion will be too sweet unless diluted at 
the taking. Among such syrups is the prepa- 
ration called by the single title syrupus, 
“syrup,” a simple aqueous solution of cane 
sugar, of specific gravity 1.310. The syrups 
available as agreeable flavoring agents are 
“ syrup,” and the syrups of citric acid, almond, 
orange, orange-flowers, lemon, wild cherry, rose, 
raspberry, tolu, and ginger. The syrups of 
acacia and altlum are mucilaginous as well as 
syrupy. 
Concerning all syrups a final point needs to 
be made that they are more or less prone to 
change. Often in the domestic medicine-chest 
a long-kept bottle of syrup, as of ipecac, will 
be found with the cork blown out, and the 
fluid contents turbid and frothy. These are 
the results of fermentation, one of the com- 
moner of the modes of decomposition to which 
syrups are liable. Hence in prescribing syrups, 
or mixtures into which they largely enter, or- 42 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
der no more tlian is likely to be used for the 
case in hand. 
Practically a syrup is the single preparation 
of the Pharmacopoeia entitled MEL, Honey, 
viz., mel rosce, “ honey of rose.” It is simply 
honey impregnated with the flavor and mild 
astringency of red rose. 
Of late a favorite mode, with manufacturing 
pharmacists, of catering to the popular passion 
for toothsome medicines has been to offer a 
fluid composition containing a little of some 
drug-principle and a good deal of alcohol, 
sugar, and aromatic flavoring. Such a prepar- 
ation they have entitled ELI XIR, Elixir. Re- 
cognizing the hard fact of the popularity of 
these elixirs, the Pharmacopoeia of 1880 has 
thought it no more than fair to offer to the 
legitimate prescriber a ready means of compet- 
ing with the wholesale manufacturer in this 
field. We find, therefore, officinal a so-called 
elixir of orange—simply dilute alcohol, sweet- 
ened and flavored with oil of orange—which 
may be used as a vehicle for the making of 
medicated elixirs, either by dissolving sub- 
stances directly therein, or by charging it with 
the proper quantity of a tincture or fluid ex- 
tract. But in prescribing this elixir-basis it 
must be borne in mind that it is twenty-five per FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
43 
cent, alcohol—stronger, that is, in alcohol, than 
the strongest sherry wine. Medicate it weakly, 
then, as is the way with elixirs; order it in 
tablespoonful doses, as is the necessity with 
weak mixtures ; let it be taken regularly for a 
month or two, as is the rule with “tonic” 
medicines, and then be not surprised if the 
whiskey-bottle succeeds the elixir-phial on the 
shelf of the patient’s private closet. 
To medicate the rectum,, vagina, or urethra, 
we have the simple device of incorporating the 
medicament with a material, which, while 
liquefying readily at the temperature of the 
body, is yet firm enough to admit of being 
passed bodily, in form of a solid plug, into one 
of these canals. All such medicated plugs are, 
generically, entitled suppositories, but, by usage, 
the word “ suppository,” unqualified, is taken 
to mean a rectal plug, while a cylinder for the 
urethra is specifically styled a “ bougie.” The 
Pharmacopoeia recognizes only SUPPOSI- 
TO'RIUM, Suppository, meaning the form for 
the rectum, and confines itself to general direc- 
tions for the making, thus leaving the pre- 
scriber at liberty to medicate at pleasure. Such 
directions, so far as the physician needs to 
know them, are that the basis of the supposi- 
tory shall be cacao-butter (“ oil of theobroma ” 44 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
of the Pharmacopoeia), a material that per- 
fectly meets the requirements, and that each 
plug shall, “unless otherwise specified,” he 
made to weigh “ about fifteen grains, or one 
gramme.” Rectal suppositories are generally 
moulded in the form of an elongated cone, and, 
concerning their application, the only points 
are that the medication will be more thorough, 
the cleaner the cavity that receives it, and that, 
in insertion, the plug must be pushed up be- 
yond the sphincter. 
To medicate the skin—or the system at large 
through the avenue of the skin, we have a 
number of special pharmaceutical forms. It is 
here often most suitable that the medicine 
should be incorporated with a fatty substance, 
for greasy dressings protect from the air, pre- 
vent drying, and, more readily than water-moist 
matters, permeate cracks, crannies, or even the 
unbroken tissue of the skin. Medicated fatty 
mixtures give us three classes of preparations 
as follows: 
TJNGUE'NTUM, Ointment, is the title when 
the substance is of soft, lard-like consistence, 
suitable, when so needed, for inunction. The 
most commonly used bases for ointments are 
lard, or lard with a small admixture of wax to 
slightly increase its firmness, and the well- FOKMS OF MEDICINES. 
45 
known singular substance vaseline, so-called. 
Pure lard readily turns rancid, but this ten- 
dency may be nullified by impregnating the fat 
with benzoin. Vaseline is peculiar—and hence 
peculiarly valuable—in its quality of unalter- 
ability ; regardless of exposure it neither spoils 
nor dries, and it is singularly indifferent to the 
action of even powerful chemical agents. All 
of these bases are officinal under the several 
titles, A'deps, “lard;” A'deps benzoina tus, 
“ benzoinated lard,” lard preserved by impreg- 
nation with benzoin; Ungue'ntum, “oint- 
ment,” a mixture of lard and wax, four parts 
of the former to one of the latter; and Petro- 
latum, “petrolatum,” the Pharmacopoeia's tech- 
nical name for vaseline. The Pharmacopoeia 
also offers a number of medicated ointments, 
the basis, in the majority of cases, being ben- 
zoinated lard, but for which the physician may 
at pleasure order vaseline to be substituted. 
CERA TUM, Cerate, from Latin cm?, wax, sig- 
nifies a preparation analogous to an ointment, 
but firmer—so firm as not to melt at the tempera- 
ture of a warm skin, and intended for use as a 
more or less permanent dressing, applied by 
being spread upon muslin or other backing. 
The basis is fatty, lard or oil, and the peculiar 
consistency obtained by admixture of wax, 46 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
spermaceti, or resin. A few cerates are offici- 
nal : among which one, entitled simply cern- 
tum, “ cerate,” is a mere mixture of lard and 
wax (seven to three), convenient as a basis for 
extemporaneously medicated cerates. If pre- 
ferred, with cerates as with ointments, vaseline 
can, by special prescription, be ordered to take 
the place of lard. 
The third kind of preparation with fatty 
basis is peculiar. Fats can be decomposed by 
chemical means into acid and basic radicals, 
one of the former of which is the body oleic 
acid, a thin, oily fluid, having the physical at- 
tributes of the fixed oils. This body, being a 
true acid, can unite with bases to form salts— 
oleates, as they are then called, in accordance 
with chemical nomenclature; and it so hap- 
pens that certain of such salts are readily solu- 
ble in an excess of the acid. Such are notably 
oleates of metallic bases and of alkaloids, and 
as these basic bodies are common and important 
medicines, pharmacists have devised as a kind 
of preparation of them a solution of the respec- 
tive oleates in oleic acid. Such a preparation 
is officinally entitled OLEA'TUM, Oleate—a title 
well enough in the Latin, but in the English 
likely to breed confusion, because thus the 
pharmaceutical name of a specific solution of a FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
47 
salt is made identical with the simple chemi- 
cal name of the salt itself. These so-called 
“oleates ” have been devised because of a pe- 
culiar property of oleic acid, with which it also 
endows its dissolved salts, of permeating tissue 
with extraordinary readiness. By inunction, 
even the general circulation can be reached, 
and the system thus rapidly affected by the 
medicinal base of the dissolved oleate. 
“ Oleates ” are thus more reliable than oint- 
ments for constitutional medication by inunc- 
tion, or for purely local use, where the tissues 
to be reached are deep-seated or unusually 
dense. The only objection to them is the 
somewhat irritant character of the free oleic 
acid, which contrasts sharply with the absolute 
blandness of the ordinary neutral fats of oint- 
ments. “Oleates” should therefore be but 
lightly applied to the part, and with sensitive 
skins about one per cent, of morphine—the 
pure alkaloid—can with advantage be ordered 
to be dissolved in the preparation. The Phar- 
macopoeia recognizes but two “oleates,” viz., 
of mercury and of veratrine, the former ten per 
cent, and the latter two in strength of dissolved 
base. 
EMPLA'STRUM, Plaster, as the title is used 
in the Pharmacopoeia, means a stuff, in mass, 48 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
proper for spreading upon some backing to 
make a “plaster,” as ordinarily understood. 
For their purpose plasters need to be sticky anil 
firm, qualities found pre-eminently in a pecu- 
liar material that results from boiling together 
litharge, olive oil, and water. This material, 
under name of “lead plaster,” is thus a favor- 
ite basis for these preparations, other bases be- 
ing various admixtures of resins, gums, waxes, 
and fats. Plasters are hard at ordinary temper- 
atures, and require softening by heat for spread- 
ing. For use the material is spread in a thin 
layer upon sheepskin or other leather, or upon 
linen or muslin cloth, and, for application, may 
or may not require to be somewhat softened by 
gentle heat. When once upon the skin, plas- 
ters stick tight, resist water, except ‘ • court- 
plaster,” and for removal must be stripped off 
by force. If hard to start, a corner may be 
loosened by moistening with oil of turpentine. 
If a part be hairy, it should be shaved before 
application of the plaster. For specific medi- 
cation plasters are feeble at best, and many of 
them inert. Their value therefore depends on 
general properties, and these are the main- 
taining steady irritation, more or less pro- 
nounced according to composition, while at the 
same time excluding the air and affording a cer- FORMS OF MEDICINES. 
49 
tain mechanical support. With some plasters, 
as “ court ” and “ adhesive ” plasters, their 
purpose, indeed, is simply protection or co- 
aptation of parts. Plasters are prescribed by 
dimensions in inches, not by weight, the phar- 
macist dispensing the material properly spread 
on backing, ready for use. 
LINIME'NTUM, Liniment, is a name applied 
generically to any more or less distinctly fluid 
preparation (except “ oleates ” ) intended for 
rubbing upon the skin. The pharmacopceial 
liniments are so very incongruous as to present 
no class-features for present discussion. 
Lastly among pharmacopoeial preparations 
comes CHAR TA, Paper, meaning, naturally, a 
medicated paper. Three such ‘ ‘ papers ” are 
officinal, whereof two, paper of cantharides and 
paper of mustard, have the medicament spread 
over one surface, as in plasters, while the third, 
nitrate of potassium paper, holds it within its 
meshes by impregnation. The two former are 
applied like plasters ; the last is meant for 
burning, the fumes to be inhaled. 
Finally, to close the subject of forms of med- 
icines, we may note here the following tech- 
nical terms, which, although not occurring in 
pharmacopoeial nomenclature, are in common 
use in the present relation: bougia, “ bougie,” 50 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
a urethral suppository; ca'pmla, “capsule,” 
already commented on; catapla'sma, “poul- 
tice;” cha'rtula, “little paper,” meaning in 
prescription-writing the separate paper package 
into which each dose of a powder is to be put 
up; catty'rium, “eve-drops”; discus, “disk,” 
generally a thin disk of gelatin, medicated, 
for application to the eye or for solution for 
hypodermatic injection; enema, “enema,” 
“clyster,” a rectal injection; gargarisnui, 
“ gargle ” ; hau’stus, “ draught,” a considerable 
potion to be swallowed at a dose ; inje'ctio, 
“ injection ” ; lo'tio, “ lotion,” a wash ; pedilu’- 
vium, a foot-bath ; su’ccus, “ juice,” formerly 
officinal, meaning the expressed fresh juice of 
a vegetable drug preserved by the addition of 
a little alcohol. QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
51 
CHAPTEE IV. 
THE DETERMINING OF QUANTITIES OF 
MEDICINES. 
Orit next subject is the determining of quan- 
tities of medicines. With this as it concerns 
the druggist, in the buying of stock and the 
making of pharmaceutical preparations, we 
have nothing to do : it is only as the matter re- 
lates to the compounding of extemporaneous 
prescriptions and the dispensing of doses that 
it concerns us. For such determining the two 
independent methods, weighing and measuring, 
are both used, the choice in a given case hing- 
ing on considerations of accuracy and conveni- 
ence. 
As regards weighing, this is as a method capa- 
ble of greater exactitude than measuring, but 
in the matter of dispensing of doses is ob- 
viously inapplicable in the household, and even 
in the pharmacy, when doses are to be appor- 
tioned, as in the subdivision of a powder-quan- 
tity or a pill-mass, measuring is evidently much 
the handier process. The use of weighing is 
thus practically restricted to the determining of 52 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
original quantities on prescription. Here, as 
applied to solids, the system is the more conveni- 
ent both to compounder and prescriber, but as 
•applied to fluids, while more convenient to the 
pharmacist, it is, under the conditions more 
commonly obtaining when fluids are prescribed, 
not so handy for the physician as measuring. 
But this same inconvenience to the prescriber, 
while considerable in theory, is, in practice, by 
the sacrifice of a little superfluous accuracy, re- 
duced to next to nothing. The trouble in the 
case arises thus: In the greater number of in- 
stances where a fluid medicine is prescribed, 
the final product is to be a bottle of fluid, for 
internal giving, by doses to be doled out at the 
bedside. Now such doses, it hardly needs to 
be said, are to be measured from such bottleful, 
and not weighed. In the prescribing, therefore* 
the physician has in mind simply an aggregate 
of volumes, and must apportion his ingredients 
by measure of volumes only. In such case, 
then, if the prescription is to be filled by means 
of the balance instead of the “graduate,” it 
comes to the prescriber’s ordering volumes by 
weight; which means that, having thought out 
his volumes, he is to find out what they will 
weigh, and write for the quantities by the fig- 
ures thus calculated. Now, since no two fluids QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
53 
weigh just the same, measure for measure, this 
translation from one system to another, if to be 
done with severe accuracy, requires a knowl- 
edge of endless diversities of specific gravity, 
and entails tedious computations for every de- 
termining of a quantity. And such seeming 
trouble and tedium it is that constitutes the 
theoretical objection of the prescriber to the 
plan in question. 
Practically, therefore, in the matter of pre- 
scriptions, while weighing is universally applied 
in dealing with solids, it is otherwise with 
fluids. Yet, as already hinted, by foregoing an 
extreme of accuracy the difficulty from diver- 
sity of specific gravities shrinks to trifling pro- 
portions, and then, if there only be at hand a 
perfectly correlated system of tceiyhts and meas- 
ures, it is just as easy to set down quantities of 
volume in terms of weight as in terms of meas- 
ure. Now, such correlation obtains in the so- 
called metric system, original in France, but 
now standard also in the majority of the en- 
lightened nations of the world. Because of 
this correlation, then, it has naturally come 
about, being of advantage to the compounder, 
that, where the metric system is used, fluids as 
well as solids, among medicines, are prescribed 
and “put up” by weight. This same metric 54 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
system, being legalized in tlxe United States, is 
at the present day considerably used by the 
physicians of the country, both native as well 
as foreign, and the practical procedure of pre- 
scribing volumes by wnight must therefore now 
be considered. 
Now the sole difficulty of the procedure arises, 
as we have seen, from diversity of specific 
gravity among fluids, and presents itself thus: 
The correlation of metric weights and measures 
of capacity is through the medium water; the 
weight of a standard volume of this fluid (one 
cubic centimeter) being taken as the basis for 
the system of weights (one gramme). With 
water, therefore, there is absolutely no trouble, 
the same figure expressing quantity in terms of 
weight and volume both. This being so, let 
us look at our fluid medicines from the point 
of view of their specific gravities as compared with 
that of water. A very large number of such 
medicines are themselves of aqueous basis, or, 
from the proportion of their ingredients, come 
to show a gravity but little different from that 
of water—a difference so slight that the error 
introduced by disregarding it altogether is 
within the error of dosage (i. e., the amount more 
or less than a given quantity whose physiologi- 
cal effect is inappreciable). Hence the prac- QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
55 
tice—and a perfectly legitimate one—to ignore 
altogether the individuality of gravity among 
these medicines, and to treat them as if they 
weighed the same as water. And so, behold ! 
in practical working, just as with water itself, 
the bugbear of specific gravity is shorn of its 
terrors in the case of infusions, decoctions, wa- 
ters, and most solutions, fluid extracts, and tinc- 
tures—in short, of the majority of fluid medi- 
cines whose prescription requires an original 
computing by volume. There remains, though, 
a considerable number of fluid things on the 
list of the materia medica whose specific gravity 
differs so considerably from that of water, that 
in ordering weights with a view to getting vol- 
umes, it must be taken into account. These 
things, however, divide, for the present con- 
sideration, into three categories. First, things 
which, while presenting a striking individual- 
ity of specific gravity, yet from the nature of 
their medical relations rarely enter into the 
composition of fluid mixtures for interned giving, 
and hence, in prescription, do not need to be 
thought of by volume. Thus we wish for a 
small bottle of strong nitric acid for surgical 
purposes : let us order half an ounce by weight, 
and though, because of the comparatively high 
specific gravity of the acid, such weighed quan- 56 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
tity will be decidedly less than half a fluidounce 
by measure, yet what matters it for the purpose 
of the prescription ? Similarly, a half-pound 
can of ether, ordered for anaesthetic use, may 
measure what it pleases—its volume is of no 
practical moment; and chloroform, though half 
as heavy again as water, yet is rarely so pre- 
scribed in combination that we need take cog- 
nizance of the volume of a given weight. 
The second category embraces medicines 
which, though combined in prescriptions, yet 
necessarily occur therein in such small propor- 
tions as compared with the bulk of the bottle- 
ful, that a trifling error of quantity, when di- 
vided, as it comes to be, by the number of 
doses, falls again within the “error of dosage,” 
and may therefore be disregarded. Into such 
category we may put, as one group, the volatile 
oils, the spirits, tinctures made from alcohol as 
distinguished from those where diluted alcohol 
is employed, and certain of the fluid extracts. 
Measure for measure these fluids are one-tenth 
lighter in weight than water, and hence to get 
one cubic centimeter, in volume, we should, 
in accuracy, write for ninety centigrammes 
only in weight. On the other hand, a few 
fluid extracts are appreciably heavier than wa- 
ter, but all the classes of preparations named QUANTITIES of medicines. 
57 
are prescribed, in combination, in such small 
relative proportion that the several corrections 
for specific gravity may safely be, as they com- 
monly are, quietly omitted in practice. 
There is left, then, of the bone of contention 
only the small piece occupied by the third cate- 
gory, consisting of things distinctly different in 
specific gravity from water, and yet such, in 
nature, that if prescribed in combination they 
will occupy a goodly or even the greater part of 
the bottleful. With these fluids, then, there is 
no escape—we must allow for their specific 
gravity when ordering volumes by weight in 
composite prescriptions. But, behold! the list 
is but the trifling one here displayed, and the 
corrections, as the table shows, the simplest 
things possible: 
Table of Corrections for Specific 
Gravity. 
(As practically required for application in pre- 
scribing volumes by weight, in composite 
prescriptions.) 
To get 1 C.C. of— Order, in grammes. 
Oils 0.90, or -fV less. 
Glycerine. 1.25, or £ more. 
Syrups and honey 1.33, or £ more. 58 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
So, then, the whole of this theoretical moun- 
tain of difficulty of prescribing fluids by weight 
shrinks to the triple-peaked molehill that in 
ordering of oils you must write for one-tenth 
less, of glycerine one-quarter, and of syrups 
one-third more than your estimated volume ! 
As thus applied, then, by the help of the 
peculiarities of the metric system the prescrib- 
ing of fluids by weight is perfectly easy. The 
really objectionable feature is that it introduces 
into prescriptions calculated upon a basis of 
volume, an error commensurate with the spe- 
cific gravity-value disregarded. But apart from 
the question whether this error is of practical 
importance or not, it is probably compensated 
for by the greater accuracy by which weights 
can be determined—the exactness of the com- 
pounding atoning, so to speak, for the inexact- 
ness of the prescribing. 
Next we pass to the consideration of the dif- 
ferent scales of weight used in dealings with 
medicines between physician and pharmacist. 
Three such only are likely to come under our 
cognizance. They are first the apothecaries' 
weight, consisting of the grain, ounce, and 
pound of troy weight, with the intercalation of 
two special denominations between the grain 
and ounce ; secondly, a mixed weight made 59 
standard by the British Pharmacopoeia, consist- 
ing of the troy grain and the avoirdupois 
ounce and pound ; and, thirdly, the weights 
of the metric system. Of these weights the 
apothecaries’ is the one commonly used with 
us; the British Pharmacopceial weight is pecu- 
liar to itself, and the metric weight is standard 
in almost all enlightened nations except the 
United States and Great Britain, and even in 
such countries is already the system of science 
and is daily making strides into favor also in 
the prescribing of medicines. 
Following is an exhibit of apothecaries’ 
weight, the table also giving the Latin names 
of the denominations and the symbols therefor 
used in prescription: 
QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
Grain 
( Gra'num). 
Scruple 
(Scru'pu- 
lug). 
Drachm 
(Dra’chma). 
Ounce 
( U'ncia). 
Pound 
(Li'bra). 
Gr. 
3 
3 
5 
20 
= 1 
60 
3 
= 1 
480 
24 
8 
= 1 
5,760 
288 
96 
12 
= 1 
Table of Apothecaries’ Weight. 60 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY, 
In this system the grain, drachm, and ounce 
are the denominations most commonly used. 
The actual weights are convenient for prescrip- 
tion purposes, and the numbers expressing the 
relation of the denominations just named, 1, 
60, and 480, permit of easy calculatings. The 
objections to the system are the irregularity 
and non-decimal character of these same rela- 
tions, which, despite the intrinsic advantages 
of the numbers 60 and 480, make the use of 
the scale, as compared with a decimal one, slow 
and cumbrous. There is also wanting any 
exact correlation between these weights and 
any standard measures of capacity. 
The peculiar weight of the British Pharma- 
copoeia is thus shown in tabular form : 
Table of British Piiarmacopoeial Weight. 
(Troy grain, avoirdupois ounce and pound.) 
Grain 
Ounce 
Pound 
( Gra'num). 
(U'ncia). 
(TA'lr.a). 
Gr. 
oz. 
ft. 
437.5 
=1 
7,000 
16 QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
61 
This system has the disadvantage that the 
ounce is an odd number of grains, but possesses 
the two advantages, to offset, that it is the same 
system by which drugs are bought and sold 
commercially, and that it is, partially at least, 
correlated to a scale of measures of capacity, the 
ounce being the exact weight of a fluidounce, 
imperial measure, of water, and the pound 
weighing one-tenth of an imperial gallon. As 
compared with apothecaries’ weight, it must be 
noted that while the grain is the same the ounce 
and pound, though identical in name, differ in 
value from their troy namesakes, the ounce be- 
ing less and the pound more, as shown by the 
column of grain-equivalents in the table. In 
prescribing, in Britain, though the use of the 
apothecaries’ (troy) ounce and pound is discour- 
aged by the British Pharmacopoeia, the use of 
the scruple and drachm is sanctioned by the 
same authority. Hence the symbol “ 3 ” in 
British writing means the apothecaries' drachm 
of sixty grains, and not the avoirdupois drachm 
of twenty-seven and a fraction—the avoirdu- 
pois drachm not being recognized in the British 
pharmacopceial weight. 
Metric weights are as follows ; 62 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLNGY. 
Milli- 
gramme. 
Centi- 
gramme. 
Deci- 
gramme. 
Gramme 
( Oram- 
ma'rium). 
Deca- 
gramme. 
Hecto- 
gramme. 
Kilo- 
gramme. 
Myria- 
gramme. 
Gm. 
Gm. 
Gm. 
Gm. 
Gm. 
Gm. 
Gm. 
Gm. 
0.001 
0.01 
0.10 
1.00 
10.00 
100.00 
1,000.00 
10,000.00 
10 
1 
=1 
100 
10 
=1 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
= 1 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 
1,000,000 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 
[0,000,000 
1,000,000 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
= 1 
Table op “Metric,” or French Decimal Weights. 
(More or less in use, universally, in prescribing medicines.) QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
63 
Tliis system has the enormous advantage that 
the denomination-ratios are identical and deci- 
mal, thus conforming, as with our American 
currency, to decimal notation, and so reduc- 
ing calculating to the extreme of ease and 
simplicity. In using the system we commonly 
speak only of milligrammes, centigrammes, and 
grammes, expressing other denominations in 
terms of these, just as with our currency we 
ignore dimes and eagles in ordinary speaking, 
and numerate all amounts in dollars and cents 
only. In writing, again as in the case of dol- 
lars and cents, we use simply the ordinary 
arithmetical decimal notation, understanding 
the integer as grammes; the hundredths, centi- 
grammes ; and the thousandths, milligrammes. 
An independent peculiarity and advantage 
of this system of weights is that it is correlated 
to an analogous system of measures of capacity, 
the weight of a standard volume (cubic centi- 
meter) of distilled water, at its temperature of 
greatest density, being the gramme—the unit 
of weight. This correlation helps enormously 
in the translation from estimate by volume to 
order by weight, involved, as already seen, in 
the plan of prescribing fluids by weight. 
Since the metric and apothecaries’ weights 
are both in use in American prescribing, we 64 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
must know their relative values. Exactly, the 
gramme is 15.43264874 grains, hut with the 
latitude always inherent in dosage, and there- 
fore in prescribing, it is near enough for our 
purpose to take the equivalence, with small 
sums, at 15 grains, and with large, at 15.5. 
For mutual translation between the systems the 
following table will be found convenient. It 
is purposely made short, in order that it may, 
as it easily can, be committed to memory. From 
it, then, the equivalents of intermediate values 
can be easily enough calculated, mentally. The 
approximate metric equivalents are accurate 
enough for prescription purposes, the exact 
values being added for information and not for 
use. 
Table of Equivalents. 
Apothecaries' and Metric Weights* 
Apothecaries’. Metric. 
(Approximate.) (Exact.) 
Gr. A = 0.001 Gm. [ 0.00101 Gm.] 
Gr. -3V = 0.002 Gm. [ 0.00202 Gm.] 
Gr. * = 0.004 Gm. [ 0.00405 Gm.] 
Gr. -f* = 0.005 Gm. [ 0.00540 Gm.] 
Gr. 1 = 0.06 Gm. [ 0.06480 Gm.] 
Gr. 10 = 0.65 Gm. [ 0.64799 Gm.] QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
65 
Apothec abies’. > Metric. 
(Approximate.) (Exact) 
Gr. 15 = 1.00 Gm. [ 0.97198 Gm.] 
3 1 = 1.30 Gm. [ 1.296 Gm.] 
3 1 = 4.00 Gm. [ 3.888 Gm.] 
I 1 = 30.00 Gm. [ 31.103 Gm.] 
I 2 = 62.00 Gm. [ 62.207 Gm.] 
I 4 = 125.00 Gm. [124.414 Gm.] 
I 8 = 250.00 Gm. [248.823 Gm.] 
5 16 = 500.00 Gm. [497.656 Gm.] 
Next comes the subject of measuring medi- 
cines. This mode of determining quantity is 
universally used in the domestic doling of doses, 
and, in the compounding of prescriptions, is 
employed in subdividing gross amounts, as a 
powder or pill-mass, and, generally, where pre- 
scriptions are in the apothecaries’ system, in 
dealing with fluid medicines. The resort to 
measuring instead of weighing, in these cases, 
is purely because of considerations of conveni- 
ence, either to the prescriber, compounder, or 
administrator. For in the matter of accuracy, 
mensuration can never compete with weighing, 
carefully done on a good balance ; though when 
properly applied measuring is fully accurate 66 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
enough, for medical purposes. To secure proper 
accuracy, however, regard must be had to the 
proportions of the measuring vessel. For the pecu- 
liar physical fact must be remembered that the 
surface of a liquid in a vessel is concave if the 
vessel be partially filled, convex if it be brimful. 
Aligned, therefore, by a mark or brim, the 
volume of a fluid is not exactly in fact what it 
seems to be. And evidently the error will be 
proportioned to the relation between area of 
surface and volume. If the area of surface is 
small compared to the volume measured, the 
error will be small; if large, large. Accuracy 
in measuring volumes, therefore, depends vitally 
on the shape of the measuring vessel, the ex- 
treme of accuracy obtaining with the capillary- 
necked specific gravity bottle, and of inaccuracy, 
let it be noted, with the shallow and flaring 
spoon. When anything like reasonable pre- 
cision is required, therefore, tall and narrow 
instead of short and squat measuring vessels 
should alone be employed. For measuring 
medicines tall, narrow graduates should be used 
for considerable volumes, and graduated pipettes 
for small. Even in the household, for the bed- 
side measuring of doses, if the attendant be 
intelligent enough to use them, properly shaped 
graduates, or, for measures less than a flui- QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
67 
drachm (four cubic centimeters), graduated pi- 
pettes should be made to supplant the faithless 
spoon whenever precision of dosage is need- 
ful. 
The standard measures of capacity applied to 
dealings with medicines are, with us, apothe- 
caries' or wine measure ; in England, imperial 
measure, and in countries where the metric 
scale is in vogue, metric measure, if volumetric 
methods are used at all. Domestically, the 
several capacities of the drop, the spoon in its 
various sizes, the trine-glass, and the cup, are 
also employed. 
Apothecaries’ measure is as follows: 
Table of Apothecaries’ or Wine Measure. 
Minim 
(Mini- 
mum). 
Fluidrachm 
{Flui- 
dra'chma). 
Flu i flounce 
(Fluid- 
u'ncia). 
Pint 
(Oc- 
ta'rius). 
Gallon 
(Co'n- 
gius). 
HI 
f 3 
*5 
0. 
C. 
60 
=1 
480 
8 
= 1 
7,680 
128 
16 
= 1 
61,440 
1,024 
128 
8 
=1 
(Used in U. S., in prescribing medicines.) 68 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY, 
Here we are at once struck by analogies to 
apothecaries’ weight. The names fluidrachm and 
flwidounce have plainly been sired by draclim and 
ounce, and the numerical relations of the denom- 
inations of minim, fluidrachm, and flwidounce 
are identical with those of the grain, drachm, 
and ounce. We miss an analogue of the scruple, 
we note that the pint, the analogue of the 
pound, is of the value of sixteen of the lower 
denomination instead of twelve, and we find in 
the gallon a new higher denomination, having 
no analogue among the weights. Confining 
ourselves, however, to the lower three de- 
nominations, as we commonly do in practice, 
and the numerical relations that serve us in 
calculating weights answer the same purpose 
here. 
These same analogies in names and ratios in- 
stinctively suggest some exact correlation in 
fact between the similarly titled weights and 
measures, but unhappily such does not exist. 
There is, however, an approximate correlation, 
through the medium water, close enough to be 
of practical service in prescription calculating. 
A fluidounce of distilled water at temperature 
60° Fahr. weighs 455.7 grains, not so far from 
480, but what it answers our present purpose 
to hold it to weigh an ounce. Similarly, then, QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
69 
we may consider a fluidrachm to weigh a 
drachm, and a minim, a grain. 
The Imperial measure of England is thus: 
Table of Imperial Measure. 
Minim 
Fluidrachm 
Fluidounce 
Pint 
Gallon 
(Mi'ni- 
(Flui- 
(Fluid- 
(Oc- 
( Co'n- 
mum). 
dra’chma). 
u'ncia). 
ta'rius). 
gius). 
min. 
fldr. • 
floz. 
0. 
C. 
60 
=1 
480 
8 
=1 
9,600 
76,800 
160 
20 
= 1 
1,280 
160 
8 
=1 
(Used in England in prescribing medicines.) 
Here we find the names of denominations 
the same as in our apothecaries’ measure, and 
also, with the exception of the number of 
fluidounces to the pint, the denomination rela- 
tions. The actual values, however, even of 
the denominations of the same inter-ratio, dif- 
fer slightly in the two systems, the minim, 
fluidrachm, and fluidounce of the imperial 
measure being but ninety-six per cent, respec- 
tively of the capacity of the same denomina- 70 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
tions in apothecaries’ measure. The imperial 
pint, however, being composed of a greater 
number of fluidounces than the apothecaries’, 
is larger than the latter, and necessarily, there- 
fore, the imperial gallon exceeds that of the 
apothecaries’. 
Imperial measure has one advantage over 
apothecaries’, that it is exactly correlated to a 
system of weights, namely, the avoirdupois, 
which, as we have seen, is in part the system 
of weights of the British Pharmacopoeia. The 
correlation is, as usual, by the medium water, 
an imperial fluidounce of that liquid weighing 
exactly an ounce avoirdupois. Yet be careful 
to note that in spite of this coincidence an im- 
perial minim does not weigh exactly a grain ; 
this for the evident reason that an imperial 
fluidounce divides into 480 minims, while its 
equivalent, the avoirdupois ounce, contains but 
437.5 grains. 
Metric measure is shown in the following 
table, but, as has been already indicated, this 
measure is rarely used in medical prescribing, 
the custom being, where the metric system is 
availed of in prescription, to order everything, 
solids and fluids alike, by weight. QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
71 
Table of “Metric,” or French Decimal Measures of Capacity. 
(Rarely used in prescribing medicines.) 
Milliliter 
(Cubic 
centi- 
meter). 
C.C. 
Centiliter. 
Deciliter. 
Liter. 
Decaliter. 
Hectoliter. 
Kiloliter. 
Myrialiter. 
10 
=1 
100 
10 
=1 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 
1,000,000 
100,000 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 
10,000,000 
1,000,000 
1CO.OOO 
10,000 
1,000 
100 
10 
=1 72 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Concerning this measure, its decimal charac- 
ter gives it the usual properties of decimal sys- 
tems, and it is correlated to metric weights, as 
told when speaking of the latter—the weight 
of a milliliter (cubic centimeter) of distilled 
water at its greatest density being taken as the 
standard for the gramme. For water, there- 
fore, and, for medical purposes, for fluids whose 
specific gravity, is not far different from that of 
water, the gramme in weight and cubic centi- 
meter in measure are equivalents. 
For comparison with apothecaries’ measure, it 
will answer every practical purpose to apply the 
table of equivalents of weights already given, 
reading minims, fluidrachms, and jluidounces, 
respectively, for grains, drachms, and ounces, 
and cubic centimeters (milliliters) for grammes. 
When metric measure is used in prescription- 
writing, the custom is, in notation, to write in 
ordinary decimal fashion, taking cubic centi- 
meters for the integer, because of the equiva- 
lence of this measure to the gramme, the integer 
in notation of weights. Quantities in measure 
and weight can thus, metrically, be written in 
column together, the suffixes “C.C.” and “Gm.” 
respectively indicating whether measure in cu- 
bic centimeters or weight in grammes is meant. 
Of the measures in domestic use for dealing QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
73 
with medicines the smallest is the drop. This 
can hardly he called a “ measure” in any tech- 
nical sense, since the size of the drop differs 
enormously under different conditions, being 
affected by the viscosity of the fluid dropped, 
and by the shape, surface-area, and even posi- 
tion in relation to tip, of the dropper—a viscid 
fluid, a dropper with a large rather than small, 
and a concave rather than convex surface, pre- 
senting downward, all tending to determine 
large drops, and the reverse conditions to deter- 
mine small. Even with the same fluid and the 
same bottle the drops will differ in size according 
to whether the bottle be full or not more than 
half so at the dropping. For in the former 
case the fluid delivers when the bottle is but 
slightly tipped, and so running over and un- 
der the lip collects in the re-entrant angle be- 
tween lip and neck, and falls therefrom only 
when considerable has gathered — falls, that 
is, in large drops. But when half empty the 
bottle must be tipped horizontal, and so the 
fluid perforce, having but the narrow edge of 
the lip to cling to, falls readily — and that 
means in small drops Measuring by drops, 
therefore, is only allowable where there is 
great latitude of dosage. Where accuracy is 
necessary and yet small doses, such as would 74 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
naturally be dispensed in drops, are called for 
from a stock bottle of medicine, let an aggre- 
gate of doses, enough to make a fair measure, 
be measured in some reliable way, by proper 
graduate or pipette, and added to a measured 
number of spoonfuls of water, or other appro- 
priate diluent, equal to the number of doses. 
Then a spoonful of the dilution, measured in 
the same spoon just used, will give, quite accu- 
rately, the correct dose. 
As to absolute dimension, the drop, from its 
great variability, can hardly be said to have 
any such. But the mean delivery from the lip 
of the average medicine-pliial can be. conveni- 
ently reckoned for aqueous fluids as a little 
over a minim per drop; for tinctures, spirits, 
and volatile oils from half to three-fourths of a 
minim, and for ethereal bodies still less. Chlo- 
roform, from its conjoint high specific gravity 
and high fluidity, yields a particularly small 
drop, requiring from 180 to 270, according to 
circumstances, to measure a fluidraclim. 
The spoorful, like the drop, is also a very 
variable quantity, both on account of the faulty 
shape of the spoon-bowl for measuring purposes, 
and also because of the very variable size of 
spoons themselves, even of the same denomina- 
tion. The spoon, therefore, should be limited QUANTITIES OF MEDICINES. 
75 
in use, as a measure of capacity for medicines, 
to mixtures of comparatively indeterminate 
dosage. 
In dimension, the average teaspoonful of the 
day will run six to the fluidounce, or, in metric 
measure, will equal five cubic centimeters (by 
weight five grammes of water); the dessertspoon- 
ful will average three to the fluidounce, and 
the tablespoonf ul three to two fluidounces, or six 
to four—metrically, twenty cubic centimeters 
(twenty grammes of water). In older times 
spoons were smaller, as many fancy spoons still 
are, and the teaspoonful then rated equal to a 
fluidrachm, or four cubic centimeters, the des- 
sertspoonful to two fluidraclims, and the table- 
spoonful to half a fluidounce, or sixteen cubic 
centimeters. Nowadays, however, it is safer 
to compute prescriptions, if doses are to be 
measured by the spoon, on the basis of the 
larger equivalents first given. 
A wineglassful—a very vague term—is, as a 
measure, held to mean the capacity of the 
average sherry-glass, or about two fluidounces 
(sixty-two cubic centimeters). The cupful rates 
at from four to five fluidounces, and the tum- 
blerful at from eight to ten or twelve, but all 
these vessels vary so in size as to be worthless 
as measures for any exact purpose. 76 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
CHAPTER V. 
THE PRESCRIBING OP MEDICINES. 
We pass next to the topic of the prescribing 
of medicines. Here we find presented for 
technical study three distinct subjects, which, 
in logical sequence, are as follows: First, how 
to compose a prescription ; secondly, how to 
compute amounts of ingredients ; and thirdly, 
how to write the document in proper form and 
language. 
To properly compose a prescription involves 
of course a thorough knowledge of the articles 
of the materia medica in their chemical, pliar- 
macal, and physiological relations—as a sub- 
ject, therefore, is coextensive with the subject 
of materia medica and therapeutics itself. But 
there are in the matter of composing a pre- 
scription certain general principles to be fol- 
lowed, whose exposition belongs in this place. 
A ‘ ‘ prescription ” means an order for a sin- 
gle medicament, such as a box of pills, a bottle 
of fluid medicine, an ointment, plaster, sup- 
pository, etc., which medicament may, how- 
ever, wisely—or even necessarily—be com- THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
77 
pounded of several ingredients. But the 
first principle in composing presents here, 
namely, that a single medicament should fulfil 
but a single therapeutic purpose. If the patient 
need medicinal attack from two directions at 
once—as for instance if he require both a 
purge and an anodyne—let the things to ac- 
complish these distinct objects he in different 
portions, to be given at different times; let 
them, therefore, be separately the subject of 
prescription. Narrowing, then, the aim of a 
single combination to effect a single purpose, 
the next rule that applies is that the thing that 
is to do the therapeutic work should be single, un- 
less a distinct advantage is to he gained by com- 
bining two or more things of like influence. 
Now this latter is often the case ; a team, so to 
speak, may pull either more strongly, more 
smoothly, or more certainly than a single rep- 
resentative of a class of medicines. Notable 
examples are afforded by purgative, diuretic, 
and antispasmodic drugs, where a given degree 
of effect will be better or more surely gotten by 
comparatively small doses of several of a kind 
in combination than by an equivalent large 
dose of a single one by itself. 
Next, as to other ingredients of a prescrip- 
tion, they should be for the fulfilling of the 78 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
following purposes : First, to aid the opera- 
tion of the essential member, if such can be 
done in any desirable way. Aid may come 
through a chemical influence, as by determining 
solution, whereby absorption and, therefore, 
therapeutic operation are quickened ; or it may 
be by some physiological impression, which, 
though not identical in kind with that of the 
essential member, yet in some way promotes 
the same. Thus calomel enhances the diuretic 
effect df digitalis in many cases—how, is not so 
clear, but the matter is one of clinical expe- 
rience. Secondly, it may be possible to nul- 
lify or “ correct ” some disagreeable bye-effect 
of the active member, in which case, of course, 
we add to the combination anything that will 
kindly so do. Thus the objectionable and thera- 
peutically useless griping of resinous purges 
tends to be prevented by pungent spices given 
in association, and the sickening effects of mor- 
phine by the alliance of a minute dose of atro- 
pine. Thirdly, the medicine, if for internal 
giving, must be as pleasant to take, or rather as 
little obnoxious to taste, as art can make it, and 
additions to the combination to serve this pur- 
pose are therefore not only justifiable, but 
highly to be recommended. A physician’s skill 
is often measured more by the look and taste THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
79 
of his medicine than by its results. Of the lat- 
ter the patient knows he is no judge, but of the 
former he is the very best of connoisseurs. The 
young prescriber is therefore seriously advised 
to make the matter of elegance of appearance 
and palatableness of his potions a study. Ob- 
viously these remarks apply to fluid medicines: 
if the stuff be solid the method of taking by 
capsule, wafer, or pill will so conceal taste as 
to make the same a matter of no moment. 
Now the things to add to fluid medicines to 
cover taste are mainly sugar or syrup, or prep- 
arations from pleasantly-flavored aromatics— 
viz., the syrups, waters, and spirits derived 
from those drugs, or a minute dash of their 
essential oils. Lists of the pleasantly-flavored 
waters, spirits, and syrups of the Pharmacopoeia 
were purposely detailed when speaking of 
forms of medicines. A judicious use of these 
flavoring agents may not only make a potion 
less nasty, but may prevent its sickening, and 
so have a really important influence on the 
therapeutics of the active drug. Lastly, in 
prescribing it may be necessary to order a 
something to fulfil a purely pharmacal pur- 
pose, as a sticky stuff to enable a dry powder to 
be made into pill, or a thing to serve as a sol- 
vent or diluent for the essential ingredient. 80 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Such being the possible functions to be ful- 
filled by the members of a proper combination 
in prescribing, we find it a convenience to refer 
to the members, from the point of view of their 
purpose in the prescription, by technical names. 
So we speak of the essential member, or “ team ” 
of members, as the basis ; we call anything that 
directly promotes the action of the basis the ad- 
juvant; anything that “corrects” the same, 
the corrigent; and things that flavor, or give 
volume, or determine form, the excipient or 
vehicle. 
We find, then, to return to our subject-mat- 
ter, that while following the rule that our pre- 
scription should be single-minded, it may not 
always be best to have it single-membered, cer- 
tain definite and different ends often making a 
combination of ingredients of advantage. But 
now comes up a new consideration, namely, 
that in so combining we must have due regard 
to the chemical and chemico-physical proper- 
ties of the things we propose to associate. 
Otherwise we may commit the chemical sole- 
cisms of ordering solutions of insoluble sub- 
stances, or mixtures which by virtue of the im- 
proper admixture develop unsightly, inert, or 
even explosive compounds. The chemistry of 
the materia medica, then, has often an impor- THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
81 
tant practical bearing on correct prescribing, 
and in this place it is proper to discuss, in a 
general way, those chemical reactions whose ef- 
fects most need to be taken into present con- 
sideration. Such are as follows : 
1. Acids and bases tend to combine, forming 
salts. This reaction we may utilize in order to 
get some salt that may be needed ; but if free 
acidity or alkalinity be aimed at, acids and 
bases must not be prescribed together. 
2. Strong acids or bases generally displace their 
own weaker brethren when met with in saline com- 
bination. Here the word “generally” is used 
advisedly, for under the circumstance that an 
insoluble salt will result, the reverse may ob- 
tain, and through chemistry’s imperious passion 
for precipitates, a weaker acid or base may dis- 
place a stronger. Ordinarily, however, the fact 
is as stated, and its bearing on prescription com- 
binations is obvious. 
3. Salts in solution exchange radicles, or acids 
or bases displace their brethren in saline combina- 
tion if thereby an insoluble compound can be 
formed. This is a fact in chemistry that quite 
generally obtains, and whose bearing in pre- 
scribing is important. In the first place the re- 
action may be a convenience, which we actually 
avail ourselves of as a means of getting a thing 82 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
that we happen to want in condition of precipi- 
tate. The well-known black and yeUow washes 
of mercury are examples in point. In the sec- 
ond place the reaction may make no practical 
difference in either medicinal activity or other 
qualities of the combination prescribed. This 
fact is often overlooked by systematists, and 
combinations are solemnly warned against as 
“incompatibles,” solely because a precipitate 
occurs in the compounding, the admonisher 
forgetting that the chemical activities of the ali- 
mentary apparatus will often dispose of a pre- 
cipitated substance as quickly as of one in ac- 
tual solution. 
In the third place, however, the reaction may 
make a most important difference, either be- 
cause the precipitate is difficult of solution by 
the digestive fluids, and therefore is medicinally 
feeble or inert, or because the presence of the 
precipitate, as such, in the mixture is un- 
sightly, or makes the same awkward or danger- 
ous for administration. The more prominent 
of mutually precipitant solutions are shown in 
the following table: THE PRESCRIBING OP MEDICINES. 
83 
Solutions of Alka- 
lies. 
Carbonic acid and 
solutions of car- 
bonates. 
Sulphuric acid and 
solutions of sul- 
phates. 
Phosphoric acid 
and solutions of 
phosphates. 
Boric acid and so- 
lutions of bo- 
rates. 
Hydrochloric acid 
and solutions of 
chlorides. 
STS 
«« 
£ o 
111 
® 3 
S'O s 
■3 
$ 
Hydr iodic acid and 
solutions of io- 
dides. 
Solutions of sul- 
phides. 
Tannic acid. 
Arsenical solu- 
tions. 
Albumen. 
Alkaloidal solu- 
tions (gener- 
ally).. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
Metallic solutions 
(generally).... 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
Lead solutions .. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prcc. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
Silver solutions . 
prcc. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
Calcic solutions. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
Magnetic solu- 
tions 
prec. 
prec. 
prec. 
Albuminous so- 
lutions 
prec. 
Gelatinous solu- 
tions 
prec. 
Table Showing Notable Mutually Precipitant Solutions. 84 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Here tlie precipitates accredited to solutions 
of salts of the alkaloids and the metals occur 
with the generality of those bodies, though not 
with absolutely all. 
4. Things in solution precipitate on addition 
of excess of a fluid in which they are insoluble. 
This fact concerns us principally in the matter 
of aqueous and alcoholic solutions. Water and 
alcohol are the main pharmacal solvents ; many 
things dissolve in both fluids, but many others 
in but one. When prescribing any of the lat- 
ter category, therefore, we must avoid a consid- 
erable admixture of the non-solvent fluid. And 
the list to he borne in mind is that albuminous, 
gelatinous, gummy, and saccharine bodies, and 
many salts, tend, as a class, to dissolve in water, 
but not much in alcohol; while, on the other 
hand, volatile oils and resins, including balsams 
and camphor, tend to dissolve in alcohol, and 
but slightly or not at all in water. 
5. Powerful oxidizing agents may determine 
explosions on concentrated admixture with readily 
oxidizable substances. The medicinally used 
powerful oxidizers are chromic and (strong) ni- 
tric or nitrohydrochloric acids, and potassw chlo- 
rate and permanganate, and the most easily 
combustible bodies, oils, alcohols, and ethers (in- 
cluding among the alcohols glycerin and sugars, THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
85 
which chemically belong to the alcohol genus), 
dry organic, substances generally, sulphur and 
phosphorus. Not all of these combustibles will 
explode on treatment with all of the oxidizers, 
but detail is unnecessary, for it is just as well in 
practice to avoid any combination of the one 
class of bodies with the other. 
Such, then, are the reactions determining in- 
compatibility which affect considerable num- 
bers of medicinal substances; other prominent 
instances of incompatibility are individual, and 
are best studied and thought of in connection 
with the individual substances concerned. 
Many things even, like corrosive sublimate or 
syrup of the iodide of iron, are chemically so 
very vulnerable, that the practical rule obtains 
to associate with them, in prescribing, nothing 
but plain water. 
Passing now from the principles affecting the 
composing of a medicinal combination, we 
should logically next discuss the art of com- 
puting amounts. Inasmuch, however, as in 
actual practice it is the custom—and a wise 
one—to write down the titles of all the constitu- 
ents of a prescription before proceeding to cal- 
culate quantities, we shall find it more conven- 
ient, in study, to follow the order thus suggested, 
and leave, therefore, the consideration of the 86 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
computation of amounts to the last. We pro- 
ceed, then, at once to the two-fold topic of 
Form and Language. 
In form a prescription begins with the name 
of the patient for whom the medicine is ordered; 
then follow the directions to the pharmacist of 
what ingredients to take and how to compound 
them ; next, a transcription of the desired label- 
ling as to dose and frequency of giving ; fourth- 
ly, date and signature of the author ; and fifthly, 
any special order concerning the prescription 
itself, such as “not to be renewed,” “to be re- 
turned,” “ not to be shown to the patient,” etc. 
Such orders, not being an integral part of the 
prescription proper, may be put indifferently 
at the top or bottom of the paper. 
Now, concerning these several parts of a pre- 
scription, the following general points may first 
be made. The name of the patient should al- 
ways be entered upon the prescription as a 
safeguard against a possible mistake—on the 
one hand, of the dispenser, in delivering the 
wrong bottle to the wrong customer, or on 
the other, of the nurse, of administering the 
wrong medicine to the wrong patient, suppos- 
ing, as may happen, that two or more patients 
are at the same time under the same care. The THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
87 
directions for compounding, which follow next, 
should be written deliberately and thoughtfully, 
under the consciousness that a “slip of the 
pen ” may cost a human life ; and fully and 
legibly, with a realization that a slip of the eye on 
the part of the pharmacist may lead to a like 
result. In setting down the titles of the ingre- 
dients, therefore, no abbreviations should he 
practised further than possibly to lop off the 
case-endings (Latin) of nouns and adjectives, 
hut far better is it, if the prescriber’s latinity 
will stand the strain, not to do even this, but 
to write in good readable hand the title in its 
entirety. The third part of the paper, the di- 
rections for the talcing, which the dispenser 
is to transcribe upon the label of the package, 
should, for the same reason of seeking all pos- 
sible surety against mistakes, be written fully, 
intelligibly, and, of course, again, legibly. 
The empty phrase, “use as directed,” so often 
senselessly ordered to be entered in lieu of the 
directions themselves, is as solemnly absurd as 
would be a legal contract reading “ we hereby 
agree to do as we have agreed ; ” and, of course, 
amounts to letting the bottle be launched label- 
less upon its errand, to work weal or woe, ac- 
cording as human forgetfulness and misunder- 
standing may chance to determine. The fourth 88 
ICIN'All TECHXOLOGY. 
feature is date and signature of the prescriber, 
a feature that should as invariably appear in a 
prescription as in any other document having 
a business bearing. Fifthly, the special direc- 
tions concerning disposal of the prescription, 
considered as a piece of property of its author, 
are of course at the same author’s discre- 
tion. 
So much in a general way, and passing now 
to matters of detail, we need discuss only our 
second part of the prescription, namely, that 
which constitutes its body—the directions for 
the compounding of the medicine. This is, in 
form, a straightforward order telling the com- 
pounder to take such-and-such things and do 
so-and-so with them. It is commonly expressed, 
in style and phrase, according to this general 
formula: 
Take, X quantity of A, 
y quantity of B, 
z quantity of C, etc. 
Do so-and-so [wit-li them]. 
Label [the package]: “ ” 
In setting down the titles of the ingredients 
the natural order is followed of writing first for 
the basis, or series of bases, next for the adju- 
vant, thirdly for the comment, and fourthly for THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
89 
the vehicle—flavoring agent first, inert diluent 
last. 
Disposing thus of/wm, we pass to the impor- 
tant matter of language of the prescription. So 
far as concerns entering the name of the pa- 
tient, writing out the directions for adminis- 
tration for copy upon the label, dating and sign- 
ing, and enjoining special observance about 
the prescription—all these parts are, in the 
United States, quite generally, and entirely 
properly, written in the vernacular. The part, 
however, which comprises all directions to the 
pharmacist—the part included in the foregoing 
formula between the words “take’’and “la- 
bel,” inclusively, is, by an ancient custom, 
whose wisdom it is beside the mark to discuss, 
almost universally written—or supposed to be 
written (!)—in Latin. A certain knowledge of 
the Latin language thus presents itself as a ne- 
cessity to the prescriber, and to the medical 
student unfamiliar with that tongue looms a 
very mountain of untold terrors, whose path- 
ways he despairingly makes no attempt to 
thread. But be it ours to reassure the faint- 
hearted traveller—the difficulties are neither 
so many nor so grave as he fears. For apart 
from the vocabulary of titles of medicines, 
which of course must be learned by rote, the 90 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
words and phrases of prescription usage are few, 
and the forms so set that a very little of ety- 
mology and syntax suffices for proper render- 
ing. The student with no knowledge of Latin 
is therefore earnestly urged to master so much 
uf the vocabulary and grammar of that tongue 
as may save him from disgrace before latinist 
patient or pharmacist on each occasion of his 
issuing a prescription. So much of Latin, then, 
if to be learned, must be taught, and to such 
teaching we will without further apology be- 
take ourselves. 
Reverting to our formula, we brush away 
with one sweep, so far as latinizing is con- 
cerned, fully one-half the wording, by the 
custom of expressing invariable or oft-recur- 
ring words or phrases by abbreviations or 
arbitrary symbols. Thus, as follows: the 
verb “take,” which begins the formula, is 
expressed by the symbol “R.”, whose cu- 
rious form is in part the initial letter of the 
Latin word recipe, “take [thou],” and in 
part the astronomical sign of the planet Ju- 
piter, “ y,” formerly used to symbolize a 
prayer to the deity Jupiter for divine blessing 
upon the remedy to be ordered. Next, the 
words concerned in expressing quantity are also 
invariably symbolized, in using the apotheca- THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
91 
Ties’ system, by employing the established de- 
nomination-symbols, and expressing numerals, 
Roman fashion, by the small letters of the al- 
phabet written after such symbol; and, with 
the metric system, by employing ordinary 
Arabic notation, in decimal style, with the ab- 
breviation “6m.” for gramme, or “C.C.”for 
cubic centimeter, following the numeral. Lastly, 
the word “label” is expressed by the abbre- 
viation “S.”, being the initial letter of the Latin 
word signa, “ mark [thou].” 
We are thus, happily, narrowed down, for 
translation into Latin, to the enumeration of the 
titles of ingredients on the one hand, and to 
the phrases containing the directions for com- 
pounding on the other. The latter division, 
being the simpler, will be first considered. In 
the majority of cases the directions for com- 
pounding are the simplest possible, consisting 
merely of a single word, such as mix, or dis- 
solve. So frequently, indeed, does the word 
“ mix” occur as the entirety of the order, that 
it, too, is commonly symbolized, being ex- 
pressed by the abbreviation “M.”, the initial 
of the word misce, “mix [thou].” For the 
rest, the commonest occurring phrases can be 
correctly latinized by the use of the following 
vocabulary in connection with a previous 92 
medicinal technology. 
knowledge of the technical titles of forms o' 
medicinal preparations, and by the application 
of the usages of Latin etymology and syntax 
shortly to be expounded. Should, however, 
any pharmacal procedure require to be detailed 
in prescription, too complicated for its state- 
ment to be latinized by the aids thus offered, 
then let the prescriber quietly ‘1 drop into ” 
English for that sentence. Not only would 
this doing be permissible, but it would, in this 
country, be even advisable, lest unusual Latin 
“stump” the pharmacist, to the confusion of 
prompt and faithful compounding. 
Table showing Odd Words occurring in 
Prescription Phrases. 
I. Verbs, imperative, object to be in the ac- 
cusative case (analogue of English “ objec- 
tive ”). 
A'tlcle, add. 
Co'la. strain. 
Di’vid , divide. 
ExU'mle, spread. 
Far, make. 
Fi'ltra, filter. 
Ma'cera, macerate. 
Mi'xce, mix. 
Iie'cipe, take. 
Si'gnu, mark. 
Sn'lve. dissolve. 
Te’re, rub. 
II. Verbs, subjunctive, taking subject or pre- 
dicate nominative (analogue of the English 
nominative). 
Bu'lliat, let [it] boil. 
Fi'at (singular), Fi'ant (plural), let [it, them] be made 
[into]. THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
93 
III. Verbal adjective (participle), to agree 
with its noun in gender, number, and case. 
Divide'nd-us (masculine), -a (feminine), -um (neuter), 
to be divided. 
IV. Prepositions, following noun to he in 
the accusative case: 
Ad, to, up to. 
In, into. 
Supra, upon. 
V. Prepositions, following noun to he in the 
ablative case : 
Cum, with. 
2Jro, for. 
YI. Miscellaneous words and phrases: 
A'na, of each (Greek). 
Be'ne, well. 
Bis, twice. 
De'in, thereupon. 
Et, and. 
Grada'tim, gradually. 
Gutta'tim, by drops. 
Non, not. 
Se'mel, once. 
Si'mul, together. 
Sta'tim, at once. 
Ter, thrice. 
Ad satura'ndum, to saturation. 
Nu'mero, to the number of. 
Qua'ntum suffl'dat, as much as may be necessary. 
Pro re na'td, according to need. 
So we come now to the only part of the pre- 
scription whose correct translation into Latin 
gives any serious trouble, namely, the enumer- 
ation of the medicinal things which the com- 
pounder is to take. Here, so far as mere vocab- 94 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
ulary is concerned, the words are of course 
numerous, and the what means what and the 
correct spelling thereof are things that must of 
necessity he learned by rote by hard ‘ ‘ dig- 
ging.” But the technicalities with which we 
have here to deal are those of the how to prop- 
erly fit our words together to mean what we 
want to say with them. We may find in the 
dictionary that compositus means “ compound,” 
extractum means “ extract,” and colocynthis 
“ colocynth,” but yet how shall we say “com- 
pound extract of colocynth ” in good Latin, in 
ordinary statement, on the one hand, and in the 
special prescription phrase to ‘1 take x quantity 
of ‘ compound extract of colocynth ’ ” on the 
other ? Again let the novice take heart; 
though the words are many, the amount of ety- 
mology and syntax required for their proper 
setting is not more than a bright mind can 
grasp, in the principle, in an hour. Then a 
little daily practice with the tables to be exhib- 
ited will soon make of a willing apprentice a 
good terminological expert! 
Let us now take a few examples of medicine- 
titles and analyze their construction: 
Compound extract of colocynth. 
Sulphate of quinine. 
Powder of opium. THE FKESCKIBING OF MEDICINES. 
95 
Tincture of green soap. 
Wine of root of cotchicum. 
Mercury with chalk. 
Here we find that we have to deal with nouns 
and occasionally adjectives; that the leading 
nonn of a title is in the nominative case, hut 
that the dependents are in the objective, most 
of them following the preposition “of,” but 
one (“chalk ”) the preposition “ with. ” Let us 
see now how the same will appear in prescrip- 
tion phrase : 
“ Take, x quantity of compound extract of colo- 
cynth, 
y quantity of sulphate of quinine,” etc. 
Evidently here the dependent nouns, such as 
“ colocynth” and “ quinine,” remain unchanged 
in relation, hut evidently, on the other hand, 
the relation of the leading noun is in each 
case changed. It now becomes a dependent 
upon the preceding noun “ quantity,” and so 
appears, like its own dependent, in the objec- 
tive case after “ of,” instead of, as in ordinary 
arbitrary statement, in the nominative. Next 
let us consider certain prescription forms occa- 
sionally arising: 
“ Take, x quantity of oil of castor, 
The yolk of one egg.” 96 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Or again : 
“ Take, x quantity of A, 
y quantity of B, 
water, as much as needed to make 
the mixture measure z quantity.” 
In both these examples we find that the last 
entry does not read to take a given quantity of 
the thing, but to take the tiling itself, the yolk 
in the one case and water in the other. Here, 
then, the words “ yolk ” and “water” are not 
in the objective after of, but in the objective 
without a preposition, as the immediate “ob- 
jects ” of the verb take. 
Our analysis of English titles shows us, thus, 
that we need in the way of grammar to know 
how, given a nominative, to form the expres- 
sion for : 1, objective case after of; 2, ob- 
jective case after with ; 3, objective case follow- 
ing a verb. Now, in Latin, case is expressed, 
as in the English “possessive,” by modification 
of the ending of the word, and, in Latin, each 
of the conditions of case cited above constitutes 
an individual “ case,” expressed by individual 
ending. Our examples, then, illustrate Latin 
“cases,” as follows: English nominative 
equivalent to Latin nominative; English ob- 
jective after “of," equivalent to Latin genitive; THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
97 
English objective after “ with,” equivalent to 
Latin ablative; English objective following verb, 
equivalent to Latin accusative. In Latin there 
are also two other cases, dative and vocative, 
hut these do not occur in prescription-writing. 
The whole technicality, then, of properly 
framing medicine-titles in Latin, and of setting 
down such titles under the syntax-conditions 
found in prescription-phrasing, resolves itself 
into the correct changing of ending of the dic- 
tionary-word to fit expression of case. But, un- 
fortunately, this is by no means the simple affair 
it is in English. In English the whole matter is 
a simple modification of ending for a single case 
(possessive) of nouns, and no modification what- 
ever for adjectives; but in Latin each of the 
several cases has (generally) a special ending ; 
and this for adjectives and nouns both; and 
there are five independent schemes of forming 
such case-endings ; and, with adjectives, the 
scheme varies, according to the gender of the 
noun which the adjective affects ; and these gen- 
ders are wholly arbitrary, depending more on 
peculiarity of nominative ending of a noun than 
on any ‘ ‘ gender ” in the proper sense of the 
word, real or allegorical, which the thing signi- 
fied by the noun may possess! Here, thus, is 
complexity, and in this complexity resides the 98 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
whole practical difficulty of latinizing prescrip- 
tions. To thread the labyrinth thus presented 
we see that we need to know three separate 
things: First, the several schemes of form- 
ing case-endings—the declensions, in short, in 
order to get always the proper inflection for a 
given ‘ ‘ case ; ” secondly, the system by which, 
with a given noun in the nominative, we are 
to recognize the declension to which such noun 
belongs ; and thirdly, the system by which we 
are to know genders, in order to tell, with a 
given noun, by what declension and subdivi- 
sion thereof to inflect any adjective we may 
propose to attach to it. 
First, of the declensions, or schemes of 
forming case-endings. As already said, there 
are five such, but of these one—the fifth— 
offers, in ordinary prescription-vocabulary, but 
a single example, viz., the ablative case re, in 
the phrase “pro re nata,” meaning, in free 
translation, “as necessity arises,” referring to 
indications for dosing. We present then, in 
tabular form, but four declensions, and of 
these show only the inflections for the cases 
concerned in prescription-writing, namely : in 
the singular number, the nominative, genitive, 
accusative, and ablative ; and, in the plural num- 
ber, nominative, genitive, and accusative. More- THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
99 
over, the endings shown are bnt excerpts from 
the total variety of endings which the declen- 
sions afford, endings not exemplified in pre- 
scription-terms being purposely omitted. The 
latinist will therefore miss from the table nomi- 
natives of second declension in er, and of 
fourth in u ; ablative singular of third declen- 
sion in i and neuter plurals in ia, etc.; the 
object being in the table, as in the text, to re- 
strict the teaching to only so much of latinity 
as is actually applied in prescription-writing. 
In the table, the genders of nouns of different 
ending, so far as they are determinable by the 
ending, are expressed by the abbreviations m., 
f., and n., meaning masculine, feminine, and 
neuter, respectively ; and the endings enclosed 
in parenthesis are those of Greek nouns, 
adopted into Latin in somewhat of their 
original Greek dress. 
In applying this table the case-endings of 
nouns and adjectives are appended to the so- 
called root or stem of the word, which, in words 
of the first, second, and fourth declensions is 
found easily enough by subtracting the nomi- 
native case-ending, but which in the third de- 
clension is often, unfortunately, itself so modi- 
fied or curtailed in the nominative that we 
must pass to the genitive for its revelation. 100 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Fourth 
Declension. 
m. 
Nominative.. -se -i -a -es -a -us 
Genitive -arum -orum -um, -ium -uum 
Accusative.. -as -os -a -es -a -us 
(Fifth declension exemplified only in ablative singular “ re ” in phrase pro re natd.) 
Nominative., -a (e) -us(-os) -um (-on) (various) (various) -us 
Genitive -ae (es) -i -is -us 
Accusative., -am (en) -um (-on) -em (like nom.) -um 
Ablative -a -o -e 
Third 
Declension. 
rn. andf. n. 
Table of Parts of Declensions 
Concerned in Prescription Latin. 
Nouns and Adjectives. 
Second 
Declension. 
m. n. 
Singular Number. 
Plural Number. 
First 
Declension. 
/• 101 
THE PRESCRIBING OP MEDICINES. 
m. f. n. m. f. n. m. andf. n. 
Nominative... un-us -a -um du-o -ae -o tr-es -ia 
Genitive -ius -orum-arum -orum -ium 
Accusative ... -um -am -um -os -as -o -es -ia 
Amyl, Coca, Kino, 
Azedarach, Curare, Matico, 
Buchu, Elixir, Sago, 
Cajuputi, Jaborandi, Sassafras, 
Catechu, Kamala, Sumbul. 
And cardinal numerals signifying a higher number than three. 
Cardinal Numerals. 
Indeclinable. 102 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Thus the oblique cases cantharidis, can tharidem, 
eantliaride, cantharidcs, show plainly the root or 
stem “ cantliarid-” while, yet, the nominative 
is cantJiaris, a form whose dissection fails to 
show the root. The third declension thus has 
this peculiar disability, that, knowing the nomi- 
native we cannot therefrom always deduce the 
genitive, and must, therefore, in members of this 
declension, do the double memorizing of nomi- 
native and genitive. The declension of cardi- 
nal numerals is irregular in the case of units, 
“one,” and duo, “two,” but ires, “three,” 
takes the regular endings of the third declen- 
sion, plural. All other cardinal numerals are 
indeclinable, as are also, as the table shows, 
certain words of “barbarous” origin, adopted 
into Latin without a Latin dress, and hence 
necessarily exempted from Latin inflections. 
With all indeclinable words there is no change, 
in any case, from the spelling of the nomina- 
tive. 
Next, as regards genders. Gender of nouns 
is in Latin determined by two independent 
considerations, one, the nature of the thing 
signified, and the other, the ending and declen- 
sion of the noun; and of these considerations, 
if they conflict, the former takes precedence. 
That is, if a noun by its declension-ending THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
103 
ought to be masculine, but yet signifies a thing 
regarded in Latin idiom as intrinsically femi- 
nine, that noun will be feminine, in defiance of 
declension-ruling. Concerning the kinds of 
things which, by their class nature, thus deter- 
mine gender, there is but one exemplified among 
prescription-nouns, namely trees, the names of 
which, by a Latin custom, furnish feminine 
nouns, no matter what the declension-endings. 
Yet here the point must be noted that the rule 
obtains only in ancient Latin current tree-names, 
like quercus, “ oak,” ulmus, “ elm,” etc. ; with 
the technical botanical names of modern in- 
vention, latinized nouns signifying trees take 
the natural gender of their declension-ending. 
Thus while, as just cited, ulmus is feminine, 
eucalyptus is masculine. This whole matter, 
however, hardly merits the time it takes for its 
statement, since the number of tree-name nouns 
of prescription-occurrence that are thus forced 
to be feminine, when they ought to be of other 
gender, are very few, and of them but three are 
in drug-titles followed by an adjective, so as to 
require attention to be paid to the gender at all. 
The full list is : of the second declension, juni- 
perus, prunus, sambucus, and ulmus; of the 
third, rhus (in the title ‘ ‘ rhus glabra ”); and, of 
the fourth, cornus and quercus. And of this list 104 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
the three taking adjectives in drug-nomencla- 
ture are prunus with adjective Virginiana, quer- 
cm with adjective alba, and rhus with adjective 
glabra. 
Disposing thus of the bearing of signification 
upon gender, for the rest the genders of nouns 
are determined by declension-ending, and a 
study of our declension-table shows that for all 
declensions, except the troublesome third, again, 
each form of nominative case-ending carries 
with it a special gender. Thus all (pharmacal) 
nouns of the first declension are feminine, and 
those of the fourth (excepting, of course, the 
tree-name nouns just cited) masculine; while in 
the second declension all nouns in -us (certain 
tree - names excepted again) are masculine, 
and in -urn, neuter. As to tliird-declension 
nouns, the various endings of this declension 
give all genders, and, unfortunately, all nouns 
of the same ending are not always of the same 
gender. A little hard memorizing thus becomes 
necessary here, but only a little, for happily in 
very many instances all nouns of a certain end- 
ing and genitive-formation take the same gen- 
der, and with the majority of those whose gen- 
ders are arbitrary, prescription usage does not 
require the gender to be known. The most 
prominent instance of a natural group of nouns THE PRESCRIBING OP MEDICINES. 
105 
of the same gender is in the case of nouns in 
-as forming genitive in -atis, and nouns in -is, 
genitive -itis, such as sulphas and sulphis— 
nouns all signifying chemical genus among 
salts. These are all of the same gender, which 
after many vicissitudes in different Pharmaco- 
poeias, has settled down in the sixth revision 
of our own authority into masculine. Lastly, 
as to indeclinable nouns, these are all neuter. 
To guide, next, in determining declension and 
gender of any given noun, the following table 
is put forth, showing, for each nominative sin- 
gular ending, the declension and gender of 
such nouns as occur in pharmacopoeial medici- 
nal titles and common prescription use. In the 
table all nouns of the third declension—the one 
so troublesome because of diversity of genitives 
and genders—are catalogued in full under their 
several nominative-endings, and the genitives 
given in parenthesis. The genders also are 
given for all for completeness’ sake, although, 
as already said, genders need to be known only 
in the minority of instances. Genders are des- 
ignated by the abbreviations m., f., and n., sig- 
nifying masculine, feminine, and neuter, respec- 
tively. 106 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Table showing Declension and Gender of Nouns occurring in 
Titles of Piiarmacopceial Medicines and in Common Prescrip- 
tion-Terms. 
Catapla'sma (catapla’smatis), 3d, n. 
Gargari sma (gargari smatis), “ 
Nominative Singular ending in -0 : 
All First Declension, Feminine (Greek nouns). 
[N.B.—Nouns in e of Third Declension do not occur in prescription-writing.] 
Nominative singular ending in -a: 
All First Declension and Feminine, except (of Greek origin)— 
Physosti'gma (physostigmatis), 3d, n. 
[Aspidospe rma (aspidospe rmatis,) “ ] 
E nema (ene matis), 3d, n. THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
107 
Rhus (rho'is), 3d,/. (“ rlius glabra”). 
Fru'ctus, 4th, m. 
Spi'ritus, “ 
Co'rnus, 4th, f. 
Que'rcus, “ 
Flos (flo'ris) 3d, m. 
Bos (bo'vis), 3d, m. or /. 
Nominative Singular ending in -us: 
AU Second Declension, Masculine, except— 
Nominative Singular ending in -os : 
Compi'ise only the following— 
Nominative Singular ending in -um: 
All Second Declension, Neuter. 
Juni'perus, 2d,f. 
Pru'nus, “ 
Sambu'cus, “ 
U’lmus, “ 
Prinos, 2 c?, m. 108 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
(■ol) 
Alcohol (alcoho'lis), n. 
Thy mol (thymo’lis), n. 
[N.B.—Some authorities regard 
these nouns in -ol as indeclinable. 
Eri'geron (erigero'ntis), 8d, n. 
Li'mon (limo’nis), 3d, m. 
Nouns of all other endings are of Third Declension, and are as follows: 
Ending in c: 
Lac (la'ctis), n. 
Ending in 1: 
Nominative Singular ending in -on : 
Comprise only the following— 
(-at) 
Chlo ral (chlora'lis), n. 
(*d) 
Fel (fe'llis), n. 
Mel (me'llis), n. 
Erythro'xylon, 2d, n. 
Hsemato'xylon, “ 
Toxicode'ndron, “ THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
109 
(-ago) 
Mucila'go (mucila'ginis), f. 
Ustila'go (ustila’ginis),/. 
-po) 
Ca'rbo (carbo'nis), m. 
Pe'po (pepo'nis), m. 
Sa'po (sapo'nis), m. 
(-or) 
Li'quor (li'quoris), m. 
(-ur) 
Su'lphur (su'lphuris), n. 
Se'men (se'minis), n. 
Ending in -en: 
Ending in o: 
Ending in x i 
(-io) 
Confe'ctio (confectio'nis), f. 
Emu'lsio (emulsio'nis), f. 
Lo'tio (lotio'nis),/. 
Po'rtio (portio’nis), f. 
Tritura tio (trituratio'nis), f. 
Alu'men (alu'minis), n. 
(-er) 
iE'ther (se'tlieris), m. 
Pi per (pi'peris), n. 
Zi ngiber (zingi beris), n. 110 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
(-is, genitive -eris) 
Pu'lvis (pu'lveris), to. 
(-is, genitive -is) 
Ca'nnabis (ca'nnabis), f. 
Digita lis (digita'lis),/. 
Hydra stis (hydra'stis), /. 
Sina'pis (sina'pis),/. 
(-os, see ante.) 
(-us, see ante.) 
(-ns) 
Ju'glans (jugla’ndis), f. 
(-ps) 
A'deps (a'dipis), to. 
(-rs) 
Pars (pa'rtis), /. 
Ending in s : 
{-as, genitive -atis). 
Ace'tas (aceta'tis), to. 
\and all salt-names in -as] 
(-as, genitive -adis) 
Ascle'pias (asclepi'adis), f. 
(-is, genitive -itis) 
Arsenis (arseni tis), to. 
[and all salt-names in -is.] 
(-is, genitive -Mis) 
A'nthemis (antlie'midis), f. 
Ca'ntharis (cantha'ridis), f. 
Colocy'ntliis (colocy’nthidis), /. 
Hamame'lis vhamame'lidis), f. 
I ris (i'ridis), f. 
Ma'cis (ma'cidis), f. THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
111 
As to adjectives, we must know their declension, for the reason that, in 
Latin, adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. Ad- 
jectives are declined like nouns, and those that concern us in pre- 
scription-writing—apart from the numerals unus, duo, and tres, already- 
considered — are of gender and declension as shown in the following 
table: 
{-ix) 
Pix (pi'cis), / 
Ra'dix (radi cis),/. 
Sa'lix (sa'licis), f. 
(-ux) 
Nnx (nu'cis), /. 
(-*») 
Calx (ca'lcis),/. 
Ending in x: 
{-ax) 
Bo'rax (hora'cis), m. 
Sty'rax (styra'cis), m. 
{-ex) 
Co'rtex (co'rticis), m. and/. 
Ru mex (ru'micis), /. 112 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Table 
Showing Schemes of Declension and Gender of Adjectives occurring in Phar- 
macopoeial Medicinal Titles and Prescription Phrases. 
Scheme L—Second and First Declensions combined. 
Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 
-us [2d dec.] -a [1st dec.] -um (-on) [2d dec.] 
Scheme. II.—Third Declension. 
Masculine and Feminine. Neuter. 
-is (genitive -is) -e (genitive -is). 
Scheme III.—Third Declension. 
Masculine and Feminine. Neuter. 
-or (genitive -oris). -us (genitive -oris). 
Scheme IV.—Third Declension. 
All Gender8. 
-ens (genitive singular -entis) ; (genitive plural -entium). 
-or (genitive -oris). THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
113 
Concerning the schemes thus shown we may 
note the following: Scheme I. embraces the 
very great majority of adjectives, and the 
neuter ending -on instead of the usual -urn oc- 
curs in hut a single example, diachylon. 
Scheme II. comes next in order of membership, 
such adjectives as mitis, “mild,” viridis, 
“green,” belonging to this family. In the neuter 
of this scheme we have examples of words in -e 
of the third declension—words not occurring 
among pharmacopoeial nouns. Scheme III. is 
a peculiar scheme for declining the “ compara- 
tive ” of certain adjectives, and presents for us 
hut a single example, fortior (masc. and fern.), 
meaning 4 4 stronger. ” Scheme IY. has in our 
present Pharmacopoeia hut two examples in -ens, 
effertescens and recens, and but one in -or, tri- 
color. Viewing the schemes together, we see 
that the nominative-ending carries with it the 
showing of declension and gender in all cases 
except that of the ending -us, and here we need 
hut to remember that all nominative-endings 
in -us are, in pharmacopoeial examples, mascu- 
lines of the first Scheme, except fortius. 
So ends, then, the story of the Latin of pre- 
scription-writing, with the exception that Latin 
idiom imposes a different order of words in the 
sentence from what is the custom in English. 114 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Referring to our original prescription-formula, 
we see that the wording is take x quantity of A. 
Now this in Latin would read take of A quan- 
tity x, and such Latin order, as is well known, 
is observed in prescription-writing. Again 
such a title as sulphate of quinine, would in 
Latin have the words reversed in order, read- 
ing of quinine the sulphate. Such Latin order 
is followed in latinized titles of medicines, ex- 
cept that where the thing is a pharmaceutical 
preparation, the word signifying the kind of 
preparation—tincture, extract, etc., precedes 
its dependent, as in English. Hence we have 
the incongruity of the titles opii pulvis, “ pow- 
der of opium ”—a condition of opium ; but tinc- 
tura opii, “ tincture of opium ”—a preparation 
made from the drug. Thirdly, in Latin, ad- 
jectives follow the nouns they alfect, instead of 
preceding, as in English; and this idiom is 
commonly observed in pharmacal Latin. Green 
soap is, therefore, sapo viridis ; mild chloride is 
chloridum mite, etc. 
So much, then, for the twin subjects form 
and language of a prescription ; and since the 
technicalities here are arbitrary, it is best not 
to rest with their mere general exposition, but 
to fix our newly acquired knowledge by work- 
ing out a few examples. This we will do, then, THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
115 
leaving the matter of quantities for future con- 
sideration. 
We wish to order for Mrs. A. B., a stomach- 
hitter, and we select the sulphate of quinine. 
Forthwith, then, we set down the phrase ‘1 For 
Mrs. A. B.,” and follow it with the order “ take 
of sulphate of quinine ”—as yet not fixing the 
amount. Having got thus far we bethink us 
in what pharmacal form this quinine-salt shall 
he given, and we determine upon the fluid 
form, and that the salt shall he in actual solu- 
tion. Then occurs the chemical point that 
quinine sulphate needs the help of an acid to 
dissolve it in ordinary fluids, and so perforce 
we must add an acid to our prescription ; we 
elect to take aromatic sulphuric acid, and so 
write next the words [take] “ of aromatic sul- 
phuric acid ”—a quantity to he determined by 
the amount of quinine. Next we turn our 
thoughts to the ingredients to make up the 
fluid vehicle in which the quinine salt is to be 
dissolved. This is to he essentially aqueous, 
hut it occurs to us as a desideratum to have it 
sweetened by a pleasant syrup in proper pro- 
portion. We add, therefore, the words [take] 
“ of syrup of almond ”—quantity to he about 
one-quarter the whole hulk of the mixture. 
The remaining bulk is to be water, hut it lastly 116 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
suggests itself to us to take, not plain water, 
but an aromatic water, in order to still further 
improve taste. We select water of orange flow- 
ers>, and may write for this in one of three 
ways. We may, as with the other ingredients, 
say [take] “ of water of orange flowers ” the re- 
quisite quantity, or we may say [take] “water 
oc orange flowers up to the total measure of” 
the full bulk to be occupied by the mixture, 
or “of water of orange flowers as much as may 
be necessary to attain ” the same total bulk. 
Next, pharmacy being here fulfilled by simple 
mixing of the ingredients, we append the word 
“mix,” and follow with the direction “mark 
[it]:—‘Teaspoonful thrice daily before eat- 
ing.’” Then we date and sign the paper, and, 
if we please, order it “ not to be renewed; ” or, 
what is better, we use privately printed pre- 
scription-blanks of our own, having, if we so 
wish, “ not to be renewed ” printed at the top, 
and our name, residence, and office hours printed 
at the bottom. So devised, such skeleton of 
prescription will look, in English, thus, where 
it will be observed that the dire order of nam- 
ing,—first basis, and then, severally, adjuvant, 
corrigent, and vehicle has been followed; THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
117 
Example I.— 
Not to he Renewed. 
For Mrs. A. B. 
Take, Of Sulphate of Quinine [quantity *], 
Of Aromatic Sulphuric Acid [quantity y], 
Of Syrup of Almond [quantity z], 
Of Water of Orange Flowers [quantity w], 
Or, Water of Orange Flowers up to [the 
measure of] [quantity ri\, 
Or, Of Water of Orange Flowers as much as 
may be necessary to [attain the meas- 
ure of] [quantity ri\. 
Mix. Label—“ Teaspoon fill thrice daily before 
eating.” 
C. D., M.D., 
No. 1 First Street. 
Office Hours: 8 to 10 A.m., 5 to 6 p.m. 
August 25, 1883. 
To latinize, we find that the dictionary words 
for sulphate and quinine are respectively “ sul- 
phas” and “ quinina,” and our English model 
shows that both must be, as usual in prescrip- 
tion-form, in the genitive. Turning to our ta- 
ble showing guide to declensions, we find 
‘•ending in-ns, genitive-atis, acetas (acetatis) 
and all salt names in -as." Evidently sulphas 
belongs to this category, and itb genitive there- 118 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
fore is sulphatis. As to quinina, tlie table de- 
clares all nouns in -a, with the exception of a 
brief list, to be of the first declension, so, turn- 
ing to our other table, showing declensions, we 
find therefrom the genitive-ending -ce for the 
first declension, and thus make from quinina, 
quinine?. Lastly, observing proper Latin order, 
we reverse the English sequence of our two 
nouns, and so set down the first line of our ex- 
ample : 
B. Quinine? Sulphatis 
The next entry, “aromatic sulphuric acid,” 
offers a noun, “acid,” with two modifying ad- 
jectives, “aromatic” and “ sulphuric.” Here, 
then, with the word for “ acid ” we must have 
regard to gender as well as declension, in order 
to know how to dress the adjectives. The dic- 
tionary gives for “ acid,” acidum, and our table 
declares all nouns in -urn to be of the second 
declension, and neuter gender. The declension- 
table next affords genitive in -i, so that “ of 
acid ” becomes acidi. Turning now to the ad- 
jectives, we find that “aromatic” and “sul- 
phuric ” are, respectively, in dictionary-naming, 
in Latin, aromatievs and sulphuricus. To find 
the neuter thereof—since neuter the adjectives 
must be to agree with the neuter noun acidum 119 
THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
•—we look to our table of declension-schemes 
of adjectives, and find that adjectives of -us, in 
the masculine, make their neuter in -um of 
second declension. Our adjectives then are, in 
nominative, aromaticum and sulpJiuricum, hut 
since they must follow their noun not only in 
gender but also in case and number, we must, in 
our prescription, turn these nominatives into 
genitives singular to obey the condition imposed 
by genitive singular noun acidi. So, then, a/ro- 
maticum and sulpJiuricum being forms in second 
declension, exactly as acidum itself happens to 
be, make, like acidum, genitive in i, and so 
become respectively aromatici and sulpJmrici. 
Then, as to order, adjectives in Latin follow 
their nouns, and the one of closest relationship 
takes precedence. The English order, then, 
suffers exact reversal, and the line must read : 
Acidi SulpJmrici Aromatici 
Next is the entry, “ of syrup of almond,” a 
phrase presenting two nouns in the genitive. 
“ Syrup ” is syrupus, and our table shows nouns 
in -us, with a few exceptions, to be of the sec- 
ond declension. “Of syrup” then becomes 
syrupi. “Almond” is amygdala, which, end- 
ing in -a, like quinina, plainly is of the first 
declension, and makes genitive, therefore, 120 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
amygdala. As to order, here we have a phar- 
maceutical preparation to deal with, in which 
case, as already pointed out, we cling to the 
English order, and let the dependent noun fol- 
low its leader. So we do not reverse, hut set 
down: 
Syrupi Amygdala 
Of the last entry, the first form is “of water 
of orange flowers,” which in Latin idiom is ex- 
pressed of water of flowers of orange—three nouns 
in the genitive, and one of them, “flowers,” 
in the plural number. Aqua, “ water,” gives- 
as we may now divine without referring to the 
tables, aqua for its genitive. “Flower” is 
flos, and the table of endings cites flos as being 
of the third declension, genitive floris. To find 
the genitive plural, we revert to the table of 
declensions, and find the ending to be, gener- 
ally, -um, to be applied to the root of the word. 
The root of nouns of the third declension is 
found by subtracting the genitive singular case- 
ending, “-is”. Subtract, then, “is” from 
‘ ‘ floris ”—the genitive singular, and we have 
for root or “stem,” flor-, to which affix the 
genitive plural case-ending -um, and we have 
as the word we seek, florUm, “of flowers.” 
1‘ Orange ” is aurantium, which our experience 
with acidum, aromaticum, and sulphuricum THE PBESCKIBING OF MEDICINES. 
121 
teaches us at once will make genitive aurantii. 
For the order of words, we note first that we 
have again a pharmaceutical preparation, so 
that aqua, by right of might, comes first; hut 
the pair of nouns * ‘of flowers of orange” must be- 
have with true latinity and range themselves ‘ ‘ of 
orange [the] flowers,” as, indeed, is in this case 
the common English idiom. The line then reads: 
Aqua Aurantii Florum 
The second form of the same entry is “water 
of orange flowers up to [the measure of].” 
Here water becomes the immediate “object” 
of the verb take, instead of being, as before, a 
dependent upon the word for quantity. The 
case, then, must no longer be genitive, but ac- 
cusative., and so from our declension-table we 
derive the accusative form aquam which we 
must substitute for “aqua.” Next, the new 
form presents the phrase “up to [the measure 
of] ” for rendering into Latin. Turning to our 
table of odd words we find the preposition ad, 
signifying “ to,” or “up to.” The whole phrase 
then becomes: 
Aquam Aurantii Florum, ad 
wherein the words “aurantii” and “florum” 
suffer no change, for, of course, the phrase is 
still “ water of flowers of orange.” 122 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
The third form of the entry is “of water of 
orange flowers as much as may be necessary to 
[attain the measure of].” Evidently “ of wa- 
ter” is, as at first, again aqua;, and the sole 
novelty of the form is the introduction of the 
phrase “ as much as may he necessary to,” etc. 
For the translation of this our table of odd 
phrases may be appealed to again, and we find 
the set phrase quantum sufficiat, meaning “as 
much as may be necessary. ” Then the already 
found preposition ad, “up to,” completes the 
phrase, and the line in its third form becomes: 
Aqua Aurantii Florum, quantum sufficiat ad... 
But the phrase “quantum sufficiat,” being a 
set phrase of common occurrence, is, as usual 
under such circumstances, abbreviated, and is 
expressed by the initial letters of the two 
words, thus—q. s. The abbreviated reading of 
actual usage will then be : 
Aqua Aurantii Florum, q. s. ad 
Then M. for “ mix,” and S. for “ label ” com- 
plete the translation. 
Let us next illustrate other features of pre- 
scriptions by a different example. We propose 
for Mr. E. F. some castor-oil, and to make the 
vile stuff less disagreeable to the taste we will 
emulsify it, and then further dilute the emul- THE PBESCBIBING OF MEDICINES. 
123 
si on with a sweetened and pleasantly flavored 
vehicle. But for this end it will not do, as in 
the previous example, to order a simple admix- 
ture of all the ingredients, for emulsifying is a 
peculiar process which requires that the oil and 
the emulsifier shall be rubbed together alone. 
Then when emulsification is accomplished, but 
not till then, may we add the flavoring and di- 
luting ingredients. Here, then,we have distinct 
steps in the compounding, which ought to be 
properly detailed in the prescription. Such a 
prescription then would read, taking the yolk 
of an egg for the emulsifying agent, and a mix- 
ture of syrup of orange and spearmint water for 
the flavored diluent: 
Example II.— 
For Mr. E. F. 
Take, Of Castor-oil [quantity x] 
The yolk of one egg : 
Rub well together: then add 
Of Syrup of Orange, [quantity y\ 
Of Spearmint Water, [quantity z] 
Mix. Let it be made into an emulsion. 
Label—“ One-lialf at a dose.” 
G. H., M.D., 
No. 2 Second Street. 
Office Hours: 11 a.m. to 2 p.m. 
August 26, 1883. 124 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
It is well in this case to add the words ‘ ‘ let 
it be made into an emulsion,” in order that the 
compounder may be certain to understand the 
aim of the prescription and so continue the rub- 
bing of the oil and the egg-yolk until a good 
emulsion is formed. To translate now: “of 
castor-oil” is, structurally, “of oil of castor” 
—oleum is “oil,” which we know enough now 
to turn at once into genitive olei; and for “ cas- 
tor ” w'e have, in officinal nomenclature, the 
genus-name of the plant furnishing the oil, 
namely ricintis. And ricinus, being, as the im- 
mense majority of nouns in -us are, of the sec- 
ond declension, gives ns for “of castor” the 
genitive rieird. In order of words, the oil be- 
ing, practically, a preparation again, the Eng- 
lish order “oil of ricinus” obtains, and the 
entry appears: 
E. Olei Ridni 
Next comes the unusual phrase “ the yolk of 
one egg. ” Here, in the first place, the word yolk 
is plainly the direct object of the verb take, for 
the direction is not to take any particular quan- 
tity of yolk, but to take, bodily, so to speak, 
the yolk of one egg. “ Yolk ” must then be in 
the accusative : riteUus is yolk, second declen- 
sion again, and declension-table gives accusa- THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
125 
tive singular, ritellum. Next, the phrase “ of 
one egg,” involves genitive of noun egg, with 
which must agree in gender, case, and number 
the numeral adjective one. Ovum, “egg,” like 
acidum of former example, will make genitive 
ovi, and will require its adjective to assume the 
neuter gender. But unus, “ one,” is peculiar 
in declension, and, as shown in full on our de- 
clension table, makes genitive for all genders in 
the irregular form unius. In order of words, 
the practice in inditing preparations is here 
generally followed, so that yolk precedes of egg, 
though the adjective one follows the same. The 
translation is then : 
ViteUum Ovi unius. 
Next, the pliarmacal direction, “rub well 
together, then add,” can he translated at once, 
by rote, from the table of odd words, thus : 
Tere bene simul: dein adde. 
“ Of syrup of orange,” the phrase which next 
presents, we can render by former experience 
at once : 
Syrupi Aurantii 
“Of spearmint water” means “of water of 
spearmint.” “Of water ” we already know to 
be aquce, and for the officinal Latin name of 
spearmint we have a translation of the words 126 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
green mint. “Mint” is mentha, genitive ob- 
viously menthoB: “green” is viridis, an adjec- 
tive, of course, whose genitive must be of the 
gender-form required by mentha. And the 
same mentha, being of first declension, is femi- 
nine. Turn we, then, to table of schemes of ad- 
jectives, and we learn that adjectives in -is have 
masculine and feminine in -is, which form is 
of the third declension with genitive in -is. 
Viridis, nominative masculine, is then also riri- 
dis, nominative feminine, and, further, gives 
viridis for the genitive of all genders. Viridis 
it is, then, and, adjective following noun, the 
whole reads: 
Aquae Mentha Viridis 
Lastly, comes the further pharmacal direc- 
tion, “ Mix : let it be made into an emulsion.” 
“ Mix ” becomes as usual M.; “ let it be made 
into ” is found by the table of odd words to be 
expressed by the single word fiat, which, being 
a verb in the passive voice, takes the thing into 
which the making is to be, as predicate-nomina- 
tive. Hence emvlsio, “ emulsion,” stands in 
the nominative as emulsio ; the whole reading : 
M. : fiat emvlsio. 
And, lastly, as always, “ label” becomes & 
A third example: we design for Miss I. J. THE PBESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
127 
some potassic citrate. As with most salts, we 
give it in solution, and it is agreeable to so flavor 
the draught as that the same shall taste like 
lemonade. Now the easiest way to get potassic 
citrate in solution is to form, the salt by addi- 
tion of potassic carbonate to a solution of free 
citric acid. The stronger citric ejects the weaker 
carbonic acid of the carbonate, and, taking the 
potassium to itself, forms potassic citrate, which 
remains in solution. So our procedure in the 
premises will be this: we will order a solution 
of citric acid, flavor the same with a little of 
the essential oil of lemon, the better to imitate 
lemonade flavor, and then (chemically) saturate 
the solution with potassic carbonate—that is, 
add gradually the latter salt as long as the evo- 
lution of bubbles of carbonic acid gas shows that 
some citric acid still remains free, ready for 
attack upon more carbonate. Now, for the flavor- 
ing with the drop or two of oil of lemon, we 
must, as in emulsifying the castor-oil in the 
last example, observe certain precautions. If 
we add the lemon-oil to the solution, whether 
before or after the addition of the potassic salt, 
it will, because of its great insolubility in water, 
not become well diffused throughout, but if we 
rub it in a mortar with the dry crystals of citric 
acid we shall in the trituration so break up the 128 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
oil into minute globules that, when the impreg- 
nated acid comes to he dissolved, the oil will 
uniformly impregnate the solution. So, then, 
in this prescription, three distinct steps are re- 
quired in the compounding, all of which should, 
of course, be described in our order. The pre- 
scription, then, will read: 
Example III.— 
For Miss I. J. 
Take, Of Citric Acid [quantity x], 
Of Oil of Lemon [quantity y~\ ; 
Rub together ; then add 
Of Water [quantity z] ; 
Dissolve, and add, gradually, 
Of Potassic Carbonate as much as may 
be necessary up to saturation. 
Label—“ A teaspoonful as occasion arises.” 
K. L., M.D., 
No. 3 Third Street. 
Office Hours: 9 to 11 a.m. 
August 27, 1883. 
To latinize: acidum, “acid,” we have had 
before ; citricus, “ citric,” will, like sulphuri- 
cus of our former example, make neuter citri- 
cu?n, to agree with acidum, and then for the THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
129 
genitive, to signify “ of citric acid,” the form 
will he: 
JJ. Acidi Citrici 
Next, oleum, “oil,” we have also had before : 
limon, “lemon,” requires reference to the ta- 
ble of endings, where we find the word cited as 
belonging to the third declension, genitive li- 
monis. ‘ ‘ Of oil of lemon ” then becomes : 
Olel Limonis 
“ Rub together ; then add ” has also occurred 
before, as thus: 
Terc simul: dein adde. 
“Of water,” also of former occurrence, is 
aquce from nominative aqua : 
Aqua 
Next “ dissolve ” is found by the table of odd 
words to be solve : “ and ” to be et, “ add,” adde, 
and “ gradually,” gradatim. Thus this next 
line reads: 
Solve, et adde, gradatim. 
“ Of potassic carbonate ” presents next. Fol- 
lowing the pharmacopceial nomenclature our 
Latin is a rendering of the phrase ‘ ‘ potassium 
carbonate” instead of “potassic”—in other 
words “of carbonate of potassium.” “Potas- 
sium ” is potassium—all titles of metals in -um 130 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
being embodiments into English of a Latin 
word. “ Of potassium ” is, then, potassii, and 
“ carbonate ” being carbonas, a word belonging 
to the large group of salt-names in -as, makes 
genitive, analogous to the genitive of sulphas, 
already considered, carbonatis. “ Of potassium 
[the] carbonate ” then reads : 
Potassii Carbonatis 
Lastly comes the phrase ‘ ‘ as much as may be 
necessary up to saturation,” which, by our vo- 
cabulary of odd words we render, 
Quantum suffidat ad saturandum, 
or, as before, abbreviating quantum suffidat, 
the full line reads : 
Potassii Carbonatis q. s. ad saturandum. 
A fourth example will illustrate additional 
points. We wish to give Mr. M. N. a short 
course of laxative pills, to be composed of equal 
parts of “blue pill,” aloes, and rhubarb. We 
therefore write for the proper quantity of these 
articles and direct the pharmacist to mix the 
materials, adding thereto what water may be ne- 
cessary to give proper cohesiveness to the mass, 
and then to divide the same into a specified 
number of pills. Lastly the box is to be la- 
belled, “Two pills, at bedtime.” Such pre- 
scription will read: 131 
THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
Example IV.— 
For Mr. M. N. 
Take, Of Mass of Mercury [quantity *], 
Of [powder of] Purified Aloes, [quan- 
tity *], 
Of [powder of] Rhubarb [quantity x\, 
Of Water, as much as may be required. 
Mix and divide into n pills. 
Or, Mix: let it be made into a mass to be 
divided into n pills. 
Label—“ Two pills at bed-time.” 
O. P., M.D., 
No. 4 Fourth Street. 
Office Hours: 8 to 9 A.M., 4 to 5 p.m. 
August 28, 1883. 
In this example the expression 1 ‘ powder of ” 
is interpolated in brackets before the officinal 
title of the drug, the point being this : Purified 
aloes is a stuff in lumps, and rhubarb is a root 
in bulk, and in order to embody such matters 
into a pill-mass they must first undergo pul- 
verization. Such pulverized article the pharma- 
cist will certainly take, whether the prescrip- 
tion order the form of powder or not, and thus 
both practices obtain among prescribers—some 
consider it enough for the physician to simply 
designate the drug he wants by its pharma- 132 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
copoeial title, leaving it to the pharmacist’s 
knowledge of his own business to prepare such 
drug properly for the fulfilment of the pre- 
scription ; while others think it safer to state 
in the prescription that the drug is to be taken 
in powder. Another point is that in ordering 
the water required, it is wholly unnecessary to 
write out “ as much as may be required to 
bring the mass to a proper pilvlar consistence," 
for the pharmacal purpose of the water is ob- 
vious, and the compounder may therefore be 
safely left to divine the same. Indeed, many 
prescribers would leave out all mention of the 
water, holding it to be enough for the physician 
to state that he wants such and such drugs made 
into a pill-mass ; what “ excipients ” pharmacy 
may require for the purpose being held to be a 
thing of which the pharmacist is the best judge. 
A third point in this prescription is this: it 
will be recalled that the pills were to be made 
of equal parts of the three ingredients, and the 
example therefore reads that of each of the 
three the same quantity, “ is to be taken. 
Now, wherever two or more drugs are to be 
taken in identical quantity, the practice is, for 
shortness’ sake, to write in this form: 
Take, Of A 
Of B 
of each [quantity x\. THE PRESCRIBING OP MEDICINES. 
133 
Hence our present prescription would, in actual 
practice be begun thus : 
Of Mass of Mercury, 
Of [powder of] Purified Aloes, 
Of [powder of] Rhubarb, 
of each [quan- 
tity ®]. 
To translate now into Latin: ‘ ‘ mass ” is 
massa, and “mercury” is hydrargyrum, and 
our frequent experience of the endings hereby 
presented enables us to write genitives at once : 
Massce Hydrargyri 
wherein massce precedes hydrargyri because the 
phrase is the title of a preparation. In the next 
entry ‘ ‘ powder ” is pulvis; nouns in -is, by 
reference to table of endings, are of the third 
declension, and of very diverse genitives. We 
search carefully, and at last find catalogued 
‘ 1 pulvis {pulveris). ” Pulceris is, then, the geni- 
tive we seek, and, by the way, a safe guide to 
these troublesome third declension genitives is 
afforded in very many cases by English words 
derived from the Latin, wherein the root of 
the word is displayed. Thus in the present in- 
stance pulverize and pulverulent furnish the 
key, showing at a glance the root pulver-, 134 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
whence, of course, genitive pulveris. “ Of pu- 
rified aloes ” will stand, in Latin order, the 
adjective following its noun—“ of aloes puri- 
fied.” “ Aloes ” is aloe, the dieresis “ ” being 
put over the e to show that such letter forms a 
syllable by itself and is not part of a diphthong 
03. Of this word aloe now we must find geni- 
tive and gender, the latter because of there 
being an adjective to be properly conformed to 
the noun. Our table of endings shows prescrip- 
tion-nouns in -e to be certain of Greek origin as- 
signed to the first declension, and therefore of 
the feminine gender. But in inflection, in the 
singular number, these nouns are peculiar, and 
our declension-table must therefore be referred 
to; this is done, and the genitive is found aloes. 
Then “purified” ispurificatus, which in femi- 
nine form is purifieata, of first declension, 
genitive therefore purijicatce. The whole title 
then becomes 
[Pulveris] Aloes Purificatee 
Next “rhubarb” is rheum, and at once we 
arrive at the rendering : 
[Pulveris] Rhei 
Then “ of each,” we find by reference to list THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
135 
of odd words to be the Greek ana, embodied 
into prescription Latin. And this word, being 
of frequent occurrence, is commonly abbrevi- 
ated and takes form ad. Onr triple basis is 
then written: 
Massae Hydrargyri, 
[Pulveris] Aloes Purificatae, 
[Pulveris] Ehei aa [quantity x]. 
“Of water, as much as may be required,” we 
write without ado, 
Aqua, quantum sufficiat, 
or, abbreviated, 
Aqua, q. s. 
Of the two forms of writing the pharmacal 
direction, the first, ‘1 mix, and divide into n 
pills,” is phrased, in Latin idiom, “ mix and 
divide into pills to the number of n." The 
table of odd words gives M. for “ mix,” et for 
“ and,” divide for “ divide,” and in for “ into,” 
to be followed by noun in the accusative. 
Pilula is “pill,” and being of first declension 
gives accusative plural, “ pills,” f,Hulas. “To 
the number of,” is found among odd phra- 
ses as numero, which is again an oft-recur- 
ring word and so suffers abbreviation, being 136 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
commonly written no. The direction, then, 
reads: 
M., et divide in pilvlas no. [n] 
The other form, “ Mix : let it be made into 
a mass to be divided in n pills,” would be in 
Latin style, “ Mix: let [it] be made [into] a 
mass, into pills to the number of n to be di- 
vided.” Here, then, we introduce, from our 
vocabulary of odd words, fiat, “ let [it] be 
made,” and dividendus, “ to be divided ” And 
“ mass,” as the table directs, will then be in 
the nominative, predicate, and dividendus, 
being an adjective, will be required to agree 
with the word for “ mass,” in gender, number, 
and case. Hence massa, first declension, fem- 
inine, nominative singular, will require divi- 
dendus to become dividenda, and the line will 
read: 
M.: fiat massa in pilulas no. [n] dividenda. 
Thus in full, the two forms of phrasing such 
pharmacal direction; but, obviously, such 
forms will be matters of staple occurrence, 
being used whenever the substance—or ad- 
mixture of substances—prescribed, is to be 
divided by the pharmacist, whether into pills, 
packages (“ powders ”), capsulefuls, troches, 
suppositories, or other specialized forms. THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
137 
Hence—the old story—abbreviation is the 
fashion, and the above lines will more com- 
monly be written, in actual prescribing : 
M., et div. in pit. no. [«.] 
and, 
M.: ft. mass, in pil. no. [n\ dividend., or div. 
Similarly, in chartulas, “into packages of 
powder ; ” in capsulas, “ into capsulefuls ; ” 
in trochiscos, 1 ‘ into troches ; ” in suppositoria, 
“into suppositories;” become severally, in 
chart., in caps., in trochisc., or in troch., and 
in suppos. Such abbreviations, however, are 
distinctly not to be recommended, for abbre- 
viation leads to error “as the sparks by up- 
ward.” 
A fifth example will illustrate yet another 
point. We want for Miss Q. R. a mixture of 
iron and myrrh, and we find provided by the 
Pharmacopoeia certain pills of such composi- 
tion, the so-called “ compound pills of iron,” 
where furthermore the standard weight of each 
pill is handy for the present indications of 
dosage, two of the pliarmacopoeial pills being 
just the proper amount for a single administra- 
tion. Our prescription, then, is simply the 
form of an order to the pharmacist to dispense 138 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
so many of these pills, and label the box “two 
pills, thrice daily.” Thus : 
Example V.— 
For Miss Q. R. 
Take, Compound Pills of Iron to the number 
of [»]. 
Label—“ Two pills, thrice daily.” 
S. T., M.D., 
No. 5 Fifth Street. 
Office Hours: 9 to 1. 
August 29, 1883. 
In latinizing we observe that the word piUs 
is here the immediate object of the verb take. 
Here, then, is one of the exceptional instances 
where the title of the medicine, in prescrip- 
tion, stands in the accusative instead of the 
genitive. And the accusative plural of pilula, 
“pill,” we have already found to be pilulas; 
ferrum, “iron,” gives ferri, genitive, “of 
iron;” and compositus, “compound,” which 
as an adjective must agree with its noun, in 
this case pilulas, becomes in accusative plural, 
feminine, compositas. The prescription will 
therefore read: 
R. Pilulas Ferri Compositas, no. [n.] 
8.—“ Two pills, thrice daily.” THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
139 
Suppose, next, that for a half-grown girl we 
want this same combination of iron and myrrh, 
but need now for each dose a little more than 
one pill, hut less than two, of those of pharma- 
copceial weight. Nothing is simpler; we esti- 
mate our quantities for the getting of a pill of 
somewhat less weight than the standard, and 
order the pharmacist accordingly to take so 
much of “ compound pills of iron ” and divide 
the mass into so many pills. We write, that 
is— 
Example VI.— 
For Miss U. V. 
Take, Of Compound Pills of Iron [quantity x\. 
To be divided into [n] pills. 
Label—“Two pills, thrice daily.” 
W. X., M.D., 
No. 6 Sixth Street. 
Office Hours: 3 to 5 p.m. 
August 29, 1883. 
Here evidently “ pills ” with its adjective re- 
vert to the genitive, and so the title of the drug 
appears: 
E. PUularum Ferri Compositarum [quantity 
“ To be divided into [n] pills ” is a phrase 
of now familiar structure, except that in this 140 
MEDICINJLL TECHNOLOGY. 
instance the thing “to be divided ” is, gram- 
matically, quantity x. The gender, number, 
and case, therefore, of dividendvs must here 
conform to those elements of the word express- 
ing denomination of quantity. Such word will, 
of course, be in the accusative case, but its gen- 
der and number will depend on circumstances. 
“ Grains” or “ grammes ” will be respectively 
grana and grammaria, accusative plural, neu- 
ter, of second declension, and the adjective will 
then be dividenda. “ Scruple ” gives scrupu- 
lum, and “scruples” scrupulos; “drachm” 
and “drachms,” “ounce’’and “ounces,” give 
respectively drachmam, drachmas, unciam, and 
undos. And, to conform, we shall thus have 
severally of the adjective, diddendum, didden- 
dos, diddendam, diddendas. Our line will there- 
fore read: 
In pilulas no. [%] dividenda, or -urn, or -os, or 
-am, or -as. 
A few new points are exemplified in a sev- 
enth instance. We want, for personal surgical 
use, a solution of lunar caustic of a certain 
strength. The prescription then takes the sim- 
ple form of ordering the proper proportion of 
the caustic and of distilled water (which alone 
should be used for the purpose) and directing THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
141 
then that the canstic be dissolved in the water. 
Then, being for our own use, a labelling is from 
one point of view supererogatory; but yet, 
having due regard to the freaks of the imp of 
misadventure, it is best to take every precau- 
tion, and so label “ for external use.” Our pre- 
scription will then be: 
Example VII.— 
For Self. 
Take, Of Silver Nitrate [quantity $], 
Of Distilled Water [quantity y~\, 
Dissolve, and label: “ For external use.” 
Y. Z., M.D., 
No. 7 Seventh Street. 
Office Hours: 2 to 4 f.m. 
August 29, 1883. 
Latinized, argentum, “silver,” and nitras, 
“nitrate,” give obviously the reading in the 
genitive : 
1$. Argenii Nitratis 
“ Of distilled water ” is, in Latin order, “ of 
water distilled,” and is rendered 
Aqim Destillatce 
And “ dissolve and label” appears as 
Solve et S. 
in which phrase observe that the familiar 142 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
“ mix ” does not occur, for here is no mixing 
proper, but a simple dissolcing. 
So we might multiply examples, but enough 
have now been given to illustrate the commoner 
run of prescription-forms, and to show how 
easy our few rules and tables of Latin words 
and usages are of application. 
We pass from the subject of form and lan- 
guage to that of the art of computing amounts 
in prescribing. This matter has, so far, been 
purposely passed by in our discussion and ex- 
emplification of prescription-technics, because 
being an entirely independent consideration, it 
is best studied by itself. 
The subject of amounts divides into two 
parts: first, the consideration of the total 
amount of the mixture, and secondly, of the 
relative proportion of the ingredients. As re- 
gards totals, the rule obtains, at the outset, not 
to oi'der more than the present prognosis seems to 
cull for. To prescribe two dozen pills when 
half a dozen only prove to be needed, or a four- 
ounce mixture of which but a few teaspoonfuls 
are taken, argues—so the patient naturally 
reasons—either carelessness or ignorance on the 
part of the prescriber. It is better, therefore, to 
order too little than too much, letting the pre- THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
143 
scription be renewed if the first quantity prove 
insufficient. Various prudential considerations 
also argue against a procedure that allows half- 
used parcels of medicines to “ lie around loose ” 
about the household. The very first step, then, 
in determining amount is to think, and think 
carefully, about how much of the medicine 
seems to be needed. Such estimate, if the 
medicine be for external use, as in the case of 
an ointment, a liniment, or a wash, must be 
based on general considerations of how, and 
how often the thing is to be applied ; but if 
the medicine is to be taken internally, the es- 
timate is figured out from the number of doses, 
first, and dimensions of dose, secondly. We say 
to ourselves, that x doses of the basis will prob- 
ably do the work, and then that each dose 
shall, in the mixture, as actually administered, 
occupy a dimension y. The total bulk, there- 
fore, of the mixture is x times y dimension, or 
x times y weight, as the case may be. Having 
thus arrived at about the total required, for the 
exact amount we select a quantity representing 
a convenient round number in terms of the 
system of weight or measure by which we are 
prescribing : this because the arithmetic of ap- 
portioning the constituent parts of the mixture 
is thus rendered simpler than where an odd 144 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
quantity is taken. In the case of fluids, further- 
more, medicine-phials are made of fixed sizes, 
to correspond to such commonly chosen even 
measures, so that if our prescribed mixture is 
to be just a bottleful—as it ought, both for 
reasons of convenience and elegance—we must 
perforce select a total bulk to correspond to 
such measures. Now these same convenient 
round numbers that we pick upon to determine 
our totals by, will differ according to the genius 
of the system of weight or measure that we em- 
ploy. Thus, in the apothecaries’ system the re- 
lation of the denominations is—disregarding 
the comparatively less-used scruple—essentially 
on a duodecimal basis. In using this system, 
therefore, we naturally calculate by numbers 
bearing a simple ratio to the number 12, 
2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 18, 24, 60, 120, 180, 240, 480; 
and hence medicine-phials made to accord with 
apothecaries’ measure are made of the several 
capacities, one, two, and four fluidrachms, and 
one, two, four, six, eight, and twelve fluidounecs. 
In using the metric system, however, the most 
essential feature of which is the decimal relation 
of its denominations, it is most natural, and is 
infinitely easier, to deal with values whose ex- 
pression is by those numbers simply related to 
the number 100, viz., 2, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 75, THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
145 
100, 200, 250, 500, 1,000. This point is often 
overlooked by novices in the use of the metric 
system, and the stupidity is committed of esti- 
mating in duodecimals, and then expressing in 
decimals—a procedure as clumsily absurd as it 
would*be to calculate in pounds, shillings, and 
pence prices which are to be stated in terms of 
dollars and cents. 
Having settled upon the total, the appor- 
tioning of the constituents proceeds thus: 
The amount of the basis will be as many times 
the quantity intended for each dose as there are 
doses in the total mixture ; the amount of the 
adjuvant or corrigent will generally be deter- 
mined by that of the basis, and the ingredients 
that go to form the vehicle will then fill the 
measure or weight of what remains of the total 
after allowing for the measure or weight already 
taken by basis and adjuvant—except in the case 
of prescribing weights of solids to be dissolved 
in volumes of fluid. Here we have to remem- 
ber the peculiar physical fact that a solid dis- 
solved in a fluid does not increase such fluid’s 
bulk by the full measure of its own volume— 
in fact, increases it so little that in the generally 
feeble solutions ordered in medical prescribing 
it is customary to disregard altogether the vol- 
ume of a dissolved solid, and to compute the 146 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
volume of the solvent by the full capacity of 
the bottle intended to be filled. 
Such are the principles for computing 
amounts in prescribing, and now, as in dealing 
with form and language, it is wise to illustrate by 
examples. We will, then, take the examples al- 
ready presented and proceed to fix the amounts 
of the ingredients both by the apothecaries’ 
and metric systems. 
The first prescription was for stomachic doses 
of sulphate of quinine, to be dissolved by the 
aid of aromatic sulphuric acid in a mixture of 
syrup of almond and water of orange-flowers. 
This being a medicine intended for internal 
use, the first step toward determining total 
measure or weight is to bethink us how many 
doses are likely to be needed. And by the out- 
look of this case we will assume the medication 
probably required to be three doses daily for 
three or four days—that is, then, we need to 
prescribe an aggregate of somewhere between 
nine and twelve doses. Then as to dimension 
of dose, which comes next to be determined ; 
inasmuch as the quantity of the quinine-salt in 
each dose is to be small, being for a stomachic 
only, a teaspoonful of fluid will be a convenient 
measure to hold the same. Furthermore, since 
the medicine is innocent, and the indications 147 
THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
for dosage not very exact, it will in this case be 
perfectly legitimate to allow the doses to be ac- 
tually dispensed by that inaccurate measure, 
a common teaspoon. We thus gain the pre- 
liminary point—independent, be it observed, 
of what particular system of weight or measure 
we propose to prescribe by—of proposing an 
aggregate of somewhere between nine and 
twelve teaspoonfuls of mixture. Now, however, 
the determination of the exact total of the mix- 
ture and the apportioning of this among the 
several constituents thereof, will be affected by 
the scale of weight or measure adopted. We 
will proceed first by the apothecaries’ system. 
An aggregate of somewhere between nine and 
twelve teaspoonfuls will suggest what round 
number of apothecaries’ measure denomina- 
tions ? Instantly we say, two fluidounces aver- 
age twelve teaspoonfuls of the rather large tea- 
spoons of the present day (six teaspoons to the 
fluidounce) ; hence let our aggregate be two 
fluidounces and let us figure on a basis of twelve 
teaspoonful doses. This point being settled we 
are ready for the apportioning, and in doing 
this it will be found handiest to first write down 
the titles of all the constituents, and then, 
thinking of nothing else, compute and set down 
the amounts for each. The computation in this 148 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
case then proceeds thus: Of the quinine-salt 
we want about one grain for each dose ; let us 
assume the dose, then, at that convenient round 
number, one grain exactly ; then twelve one- 
grain doses give at once twelve grains for the 
total of the basis in the mixture. We accord- 
ingly set down: 
3- Quininm Svlphatis gr. xij., 
in which form observe that gr. is the abbrevia- 
tion of the Latin for “grains” and not grs. ; 
also that the number twelve is written in Roman 
numerals following the symbol for denomina- 
tion. 
Next, as to the amount of the thing that is to 
help the basis—in this case the acid that is to 
determine the solution of the quinine salt. 
The effect is here a chemical one, and the 
amount of the acid is therefore determined by 
the amount of the quinine. In a rough way— 
accurate enough for prescription needs—it takes 
half as much again of aromatic sulphuric acid 
to effect solution of a given quantity of quinine 
sulphate. And this ratio, it is also accurate 
enough for us, may be estimated in terms of 
apothecaries’ measure. Hence, having twelve 
grains of sulphate of quinine we shall need 
eighteen of the analogous denomination of vol- THE PRESCRIBING OP MEDICINES. 
149 
ume of the acid—in short, eighteen minims. 
We write, then: 
Acidi Sulphurici Aromatici Tf[_ xviij. 
Coming now to the vehicle, this is to be an 
admixture of two ingredients, and to know how 
to apportion these we must first note what 
measure the aggregate is to fill. We say meas- 
ure, because in using the apothecaries’ system 
it is customary to measure fluids. The aggre- 
gate of the vehicle will be so much as is left of 
the two fluidounces measure after putting in 
the quinine and the acid. But here, on the 
principle already expounded, we entirely dis- 
regard the minute effect on volume exercised 
by the presence of the quinine salt in solution, 
and even the space occupied by the eighteen 
minims of acid is hardly worth allowing for. 
We practically estimate, then, that we have the 
total measure of two fluidounces to be filled by 
the vehicle, and a fair proportion between our 
ingredients being one part of syrup to three of 
water, we apportion the two fluidounces thus : 
Syrupi Amygdalae. f § ss. 
Aquae Aurantii Florum.... f \ iss. 
Here, in the matter of form, note the abbre- 
viation ss. standing for half, derived from the 
Latin word semis, ‘ ‘ half ”; and note in the ex- 150 
pression for denomination tliat the letter f pre- 
cedes the symbol “ | ”, signifying that it is fluid 
ounce, a measure of capacity, and not ounce, 
a weight, that is signified. This same letter/, 
which should thus properly always be placed 
before the symbol when expressing flui- 
draclims or fluidounces, is often omitted, on 
the idea of taking it for granted that in dealing 
with fluids the pharmacist will measure and 
not weigh. But accuracy, like honesty, is al- 
ways the best policy, and this omission is, 
therefore, not to he recommended. 
To return to the prescription : as the vehicle 
is thus prescribed to the full measure of two 
fluidounces, if the. pharmacist mixes all the in- 
gredients in a graduate, and then pours into a 
two-ounce phial for dispensing, there will be a 
surplus of eighteen minims of the mixture, by 
reason of this measure of acid disregarded in 
allotting the measure of the vehicle, and there 
will be a slight error in the proportion of qui- 
nine in the mixture, because the total is eigh- 
teen minims in excess of the amount originally 
assumed. Both these errors are trivial, but 
they can, if so thought better, be perfectly 
avoided by the following simple procedure: 
Let us, of our last and least important ingredi- 
ent, the water, not order the fired amount, one 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
151 
and a half fluid ounce, which makes the whole 
eighteen minims too much, but direct that 
water be “ taken” until the whole mixture shall 
be brought to the final full measure of two fluid- 
ounces. Now, then, the pharmacist, having put 
into his graduate, or into the two-ounce dispen- 
sing-phial the three first-named ingredients, 
simply fills up to the two-ounce mark on the 
graduate or to the neck of the bottle, with the 
orange-flower water. This procedure is evi- 
dently to be commended, as it is more accurate 
on the one hand, and its working is handier on 
the other, both to prescriber and compounder. 
Following such method, the last entry will then 
appear thus : 
Aquam Aurantii Florum ad f 3 ij. 
Or, Aquae Aurantii Florum. .q. s. ad f 5 ij. 
Of these two forms, both of which mean pre- 
cisely the same thing, the latter is perhaps the 
more advisable, since the introduction of the 
abbreviation q. s. calls more especial attention 
to the nature of the order. In both forms, the 
amount, be it observed, now appears as two, 
and not, as before, one and a half fluidounces, 
although it is practically even less than one 
and a half fiuidounce that is taken ; but the 
“two” is but part of the phrase, “up to the 152 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
full measure of two,” signified by the prefix of 
the preposition ad, as already sufficiently ex- 
plained. 
Next, to determine the amounts of the in- 
gredients for the same mixture by the metric. 
system: here we do not fly to our table of 
equivalents between apothecaries’ and metric 
sums and translate into grammes our twelve 
grains, eighteen minims, half ounce, etc. We 
miy, of course, and many would-be learners of 
metric methods do so, thinking that such is 
the way of the thing, but such procedure, as 
already expounded, is to defeat the very ad- 
vantage which the metric method offers, 
namely, the convenience of computing by deci- 
mal ratios. What we do, if we do wisely in the 
matter, is to go back to the beginning, and, 
with no more thought of grains and ounces 
than if such things were not, think and fig- 
ure solely in the terms and by the spirit of the 
metric system. In the present case, then, we 
return to the starting-point, that we propose 
somewhere between nine and twelve teaspoon- 
ful doses of a mixture containing in each tea- 
spoonful a small charge of quinine sulphate. 
What, then, is the nearest round-numbered vol- 
ume in metric denomination to the measure of 
between nine and twelve teaspoonfuls ? Mod- THE PKESCBIBING OF MEDICINES. 
153 
ern teaspoons average the capacity of fire cubic 
centimeters, and so fifty cubic centimeters will 
be just the measure of ten teaspoonfuls. We 
just as naturally, therefore, now pitch on a 
decimal aggregate of ten doses, as before, when 
working a duodecimal system, we selected a 
total of twelve. And this aggregate of ten doses 
is the measure fifty cubic centimeters—the 
measure of fifty grammes of water. To appor- 
tion the ingredients, we first, as before, bethink 
us what is to be the individual dose of the basis 
—the quinine. And the same is, for stomachic 
purpose, about five centigrammes (0.05 Gm.). 
and so exactly five centigrammes shall it be. 
But here some one will be sure to say : ‘ ‘ Stop ! 
you are not giving us, as you purport to do, the 
same mixture as before ! Before, you assumed 
the patient to need one grain, per dose, of qui- 
nine, and one grain is the equivalent of six and 
a half centigrammes, instead of the five that 
you are now proposing ! ” Perfectly true, but 
the point is this : When we declare a sluggish 
stomach to be in such plight that a gentle bit- 
ter-tickling will probably benefit it, have we 
any means of gauging with scientific precision 
exactly the proper size of the titillation ? The 
initiated know well enough that we have not, 
so that when we solemnly order a one-grain 154 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
tickle, they know that we do so, not because by 
any abstruse pathological observation we have 
discovered that one grain happens to be exactly 
the amount therapeutically indicated, but sim- 
ply because that same one grain is the nearest 
round-numbered quantity, in terms of apothe- 
caries' weight, to the average quantity required 
in the run of cases assumed. The same prin- 
ciple of convenience, therefore, which makes a 
prescriber by the apothecaries’ system estimate 
a dose at exactly the round weight, one grain, 
leads him who uses the metric to assume the 
decimally handy five, and not six centigrammes. 
Our total quantity of sulphate of quinine is 
therefore, for ten doses, ten times five centi- 
grammes, i.e., fifty such (0.05 Gm. x 10 = 0.50 
Gm.). Hence we write: 
H. Quinitice Svlphatis 0.50 Gm., 
in which form note the Arabic numerals, and 
the position of the expression for gramme, Gm. 
following the numeral. Observe also the zero 
figure occupying the unit place of the integer, 
a point in notation that should never be omitted. 
For thus we assure the reader of the prescrip- 
tion that the decimal point—that point of 
weighty moment—is just where it is intended to THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
155 
be. Without such zero, that error of ten-fold 
consequence, misplacement of the figures in re- 
lation to the decimal point, is easy to commit 
and only to be detected by the reader through 
a knowledge of dosage. 
Next, as to the amount of acid, this, as pre- 
viously shown, is to be half again as much as 
that of the quinine. Hence fifty centigrammes 
of quinine will require seventy-five of acid : 
Acidi Sulphurici Aromatici.. 0.75 Gm. 
Lastly as to the vehicle, we will naturally, as 
before, disregard the volume occupied by the 
quinine in solution and by the acid, and hence 
consider that we have the whole of the fifty 
cubic centimeter bulk of our mixture to be ap- 
portioned between the two ingredients of the 
vehicle, the syrup and water. Desiring, further- 
more, about the proportion one to two or three, 
we shall be apt to assign fifteen cubic centi- 
meters to the syrup and thirty-five to the water. 
But in order to get these volumes we write— 
following custom in prescription use of the 
metric system—for their weight in grammes, the 
pharmacist compounding by counterpoising his 
dispensing phial on the balance and then weigh- 
ing into it, so to speak, the several ingredients. 156 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
What, then, is the weight of fifteen cubic centi- 
meters of syrup ? Fifteen cubic centimeters of 
water weigh fifteen grammes, but syrup is one 
of the few pharmaceutical bodies whose specific 
gravity is so different from that of water that 
we must take the same into account. And by 
the table given awhile ago we find that pliarma- 
copoeial syrups being one-third again as heavy 
as water, we must order one-tliird additional in 
terms of weight to get a given volume. Want- 
ing. then, fifteen units of volume, we order in 
units of weight fifteen plus one-third of fifteen 
—that is tioenty, and so set down : 
SyriLpi Amygdalae 20.00 Gm. 
As to the thirty-five cubic centimeters of 
orange-flower water, that is instantly disposed 
of: being an aqueous fluid its weight is gramme 
for cubic centimeter, and so the thirty-five of 
measure is thirty-five of weight also. We order, 
then, 
Aquae Aurantii Florum 35.00 Gm. 
If now it be deemed advisable to take into 
account the bulk of the arid, as we did, when 
using the apothecaries’ system, by the plan of 
writing for the orange-flower wrater to be added THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
157 
tlv/p to the full measure of” etc., we can accom- 
plish the end, metrically, with perfect ease, by 
deducting from the amount of water to he or- 
dered the amount of acid already taken. Now 
this was inconvenient in using the apothecaries’ 
system, simply because of the want of relation 
between denomination values and ordinary' 
arithmetical notation, making the calculation 
and expressing of odd amounts so clumsy as to 
be impracticable. That is, to estimate and write 
for the quantity orte and a, half fluidounce less 
eighteen minims would he intolerably awkward ; 
but, in the metric system, its accord with 
standard decimal notation makes such proced- 
ure perfectly simple. We have merely, as it 
were, to deduct seventy'-five cents from thirty- 
five dollars—a sum done in the head on the 
instant—and the remainder, thirty-four dollars 
and a quarter, is as easy of expression as the 
original amount. To be exact, then, we give 
place in our estimate for the 0.75 Gm. of acid 
and instead of ordering of the water 35.00 Gm., 
we write for 34.25 Gm. only. 
Our first example, then, as it would actually 
be written in practice, will be, in full, as fol- 
lows : 158 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Example L— 
Not to be renewed. 
For Mrs. A. B. 
[Apothecaries' System: 12 teaspoonfuls ; dose of 
basis, gr. j.] 
B • Quininse Sulphatis gr. xij. 
Acidi Sulphurici Aromatici... 1T[_ xviij. 
Syrupi Amygdalae f 3 ss. 
Aquae Aurantii Florum f 3 jss. 
(Or, Aquam Aurantii Florum ... .ad f 1 ij.) 
(Or, Aquae Aurantii Florum. .q. s. ad f § ij.) 
[.Metric System: 10 teaspoonfuls ; dose of basis, 
0.05 Gm.] 
Gm. 
B. Quininae Sulphatis 0 50 
Acidi Sulphurici Aromatici. 0 75 
Syrupi Amygdalae 20 00 I 
Aquae Aurantii Florum ... 35 00, or, 34 25. 
M. S.—“ Tablespoonful thrice daily before 
eating. ” 
C. D., M.D., 
No. 1 First Street. 
Office Hours: 8 to 10 a.m., 5 to 6 p.m. 
August 25, 1883. 
Proceeding to our second example—castor oil 
emulsified by the yolk of an egg, and the 
emulsion diluted with a mixture of syrup of THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
159 
orange and spearmint water—we arrive at our 
amounts as follows: This mixture, being a 
purge, is required in but single dose, and the 
total bulk hinges directly, then, on the dimen- 
sion of the single dose. Now, Mr. E. F. is a 
big hard-working man, and will probably take 
a full measure of the oil ; so we will make our 
mixture to accord with a full dose of castor oil, 
although, for safety’s sake, ordering only one- 
half to be taken at once, reserving the other 
for a possible repetition. Now a full dose for 
a hearty man is of this oil from a tablespoonful 
to a tablespoonful and a half, the dosage hav- 
ing considerable range. To emulsify we shall 
need of egg-yolk about one-half the amount of 
the oil, and, for a pleasant further dilution, 
shall want of the diluent between one and two 
measures of the emulsion. In all the amounts, 
from the nature of the case, there is a good 
deal of latitude. Starting with the amount of 
oil, and computing first in the apothecaries’ 
sj'stem, a quantity of a fluid which shall be 
somewhere between one and one and a half 
tablespoonfuls is most naturally fixed to be one 
fluidounce. Then half that amount of yolk of 
egg will be half a fluidounce, which happens 
to be just about the measure of an average 
single yolk. Having thus a fluidounce and a 160 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
half, now if we make of the whole a four-ounce 
mixture, we shall have an exact bottleful, as 
bottles are made, and the two and a half fluid- 
ounces to be occupied by the diluent will be 
within the range of advisable proportion of the 
same. So we order of the essential ingredients, 
5 • Olei Ridni f § j. 
ViteUum Ovi unius. 
Of the two and a half fluidounces to be oc- 
cupied by the diluent, we will assign the odd 
half to the syrup and the two to the water, 
taking but a small proportion of syrup, because 
of the viscidity already present in the oil- 
emulsion. So we write for the diluent, 
Syrupi Aurantii f § ss. 
Aqua Mentha Vw'idis f § ij. 
Or, if we are pursued by a demon of exacti- 
tude, remembering that the yolk of egg may not 
turn out precisely a half fluidounce,we save our- 
selves as to total bulk by writing the last entry, 
Aqua Mentha Viridis . .q. s. ad f § iv. 
Metrically, our range of quantity for the oil, 
to be somewhere between one and one and a 
half tablespoonful, will suggest the decimally 
convenient measure of twenty-five cubic centi- 
meters (twenty cubic centimeters equalling the THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
161 
capacity of the average modern tablespoon), 
and the yolk of one egg in its entirety being 
handy to take, we will allow the same, al- 
though somewhat more than half the measure 
of oil. Estimating such yolk at fifteen cubic 
centimeters, this with the oil gives a total bulk 
for the emulsion of forty cubic centimeters. 
And at once, for the amount of diluent, the 
quantity sixty cubic centimeters suggests itself, 
a quantity which will bring the whole to the 
even measure of one hundred cubic centi- 
meters ; and this measure of sixty we will ap- 
portion by giving fifteen to the syrup and for- 
ty-five to the water, giving us a proportion in 
the neighborhood of that obtained in the pre- 
scription by apothecaries’ measure. To order 
these several volumes, now, in terms of weight, 
the first substance, oil, is one-tenth lighter 
than water, but as the dosage is so indetermi- 
nate, the error of disregarding the difference of 
specific gravity is of no practical moment what- 
ever. Still, if we prefer, the needed allowance 
is made without the slightest difficulty ; twen- 
ty-five less one-tenth is twenty-five less two and 
a half, or twenty-two and a half. We order, 
therefore, for the emulsion, 
E. Olei Ricini 22.50 Gm. 
Vitellum Ovi unius. 162 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
For the diluent the fifteen cubic centimeters 
of syrup will, as in the other example, weigh 
twenty grammes, and the forty-five of water, 
forty-five. The completed example then reads 
thus: 
Example II.— 
For Mr. E. F. 
[Apothecaries' System: four-ounce mixture.] 
If. Olei Ricini f § j. 
Vitellum Ovi unius. 
Tere bene simul; dein adde 
Syrupi Aurantii f § ss. 
Aquae Menthae Yiridis f 5 ij. 
(Or, Aquae Menthae Viridis.. .q. s. ad. f § iv.) 
[Metric System: 100 0.(7. mixture.] 
Gin. 
R. Olei Ricini 22 50 
Vitellum Ovi unius. 
Tere bene simul; dein adde 
Syrupi Aurantii 20 00 
Aquae Menthae Viridis 45 00 
-M. Fiat emulsio. 
S. —“ One-half at a dose.” 
G. H., M.D., 
No. 2 Second Street. 
Office Hours: 11 to 2. 
August 26, 1883. THE PBESCKtBINO OF MEDICINES. 
163 
The third of our examples was for lemon- 
flavored citric acid, to be dissolved in water to 
the strength of ordinary lemon-juice, and then 
neutralized with potassic carbonate. Here our 
data for computing amounts are that we want 
about Jive or six doses; these of taxilespoonful 
dimensions ; that a proper strength of the po- 
tion is afforded by operating upon a six per 
cent, strength of acid solution—which is about the 
acid strength of average lemon-juice ; and that 
about a one-tenth of one per cent, impregnation 
with oil of lemon gives the desirable degree of 
lemon-flavor to the solution. By the apothe- 
caries’ system we have four fluidounces as the 
average measure of six tablespoonfuls, and so 
we fix the first item, the totality of the prescrip- 
tion, at that figure. The next step is to find 
six per cent, of four ounces, which will be the 
amount of acid required—a clumsy problem in 
the apothecaries’ system, but which we solve 
thus: one grain is the one-four-hundred-and- 
eightieth of one ounce ; suppose it were the one- 
five-hundredth and it would be just the one-fifth 
of one per cent, of an ounce. Then five grains 
would be one per cent, of an ounce, and six 
times five, or thirty, would be six per cent. 
Then, further, if thirty grains be six per cent, 
of one ounce, four times thirty—one hundred 164 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
and twenty—is six per cent, of four ounces. 
Such number, then, being the conveniently 
rounded amount of two drachms, we adopt as 
being near enough what is demanded. The 
same arithmetic also fixes the one-tenth of one 
per cent, of oil of lemon at two minims (one 
per cent, of four fluidounces is roughly twenty 
minims, one-tenth of which is two). 
Turn now from this roundabout process of 
calculation to the decimal convenience of the 
metric system. Needing five or six tablespoon- 
fuls we instantly select a total measure of one 
hundred cubic centimeters, which averages the 
capacity of five tablespoonfuls; then for our 
percentages six per cent, of one hundred is six, 
and one-tenth of one per cent, is one-tenth, and 
behold the thing is done I The example in full 
then is: 
Example III.— 
For Miss I. J. 
[Apothecaries' System: six tablespoonfuls.] 
IJ. Acidi Citrici 3 ij. 
Olei Limonis TTL ij. 
Tere simul: dein adde 
Aquae f§ iv. 
Solve, et adde gradatim 
Potassii Carbonatis.. q. s. ad saturandum. THE PRESCRIBING OP MEDICINES. 
165 
[Metric System: jive tablespoonfuls.] 
6m. 
3. Aeidi Citrici 6 00 
Olei Limonis 0 10 
Tere simul; dein adde 
Aquae 100 00 
Solve, et adde gradatim 
Potassii Carbonatis. .q.s. ad saturanduni. 
S.—“ A teaspoonful as occasion arises.” 
K. L., M.D., 
No. 3 Third Street. 
Office Hours: 9 to 11 a.m. 
August 27, 1883. 
In the fourth example—the pills of blue mass, 
aloes, and rhubarb—the amounts are readily 
fixed. We want enough pills to last ten days or 
thereabouts ; and the nightly allowance of each 
ingredient is about—apothecaries’ system—two 
grains. A daily dose, then, of two pills, each 
containing one grain of the several constituents, 
will answer the purpose, and plainly twenty 
such half-strength pills will be needed. We 
must then order a mass composed of twenty 
grains each of the three constituents and direct 
this to be divided into twenty pills. Metrically 
we would rate the daily allowance of the sev- 
eral constituents at ten centigrammes, and the 
amount necessary for ten days would then be, 166 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
of each, ten times ten centigrammes, or one 
gramme. The prescription would then read : 
Example IV.— 
For Miss M. N. 
[Apothecaries' System: 20 piUs @ gr. j. of each 
ingredient.] 
R. Massae Hydrargyri, 
[Pulveris] Aloes Purificatae, 
[Pulveris] Rhei 55 3 j. 
Aquae q. s. 
[Metric System: 20 pills @ 0.05 Gm. of each in- 
gredient.] 
R. Massae Hydrargyri, 
[Pulveris] Aloes Purificatae, 
[Pulveris] Rhei 5a 1.00 Gm. 
Aquae q. s. 
M., et in pilulas no. xx. divide. 
[Or, M.: Fiat massa in pilulas no. xx. divi- 
denda.) 
S. —“ Two nightly.” 
O. P., M.D., 
No. 4 Fourth Street. 
Office Hours : 8 to 9 a.m., 4 to 5 p.m. 
August 28, 1883. 
In example number five the amount is sim- 
ply the number of pills, of a size and composi- 
tion already determined by the Pharmacopoeia, THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
167 
which the patient is likely to require for the 
present need. Assuming by the outlook of the 
case that the medication will probably have to 
he kept up for a week or two, and observing 
that six pills are used a day, the number jive 
dozen, an allowance for ten days, suggests it- 
self as a convenient round number to order. 
The prescription then becomes : 
Example V.— 
For Miss Q. R. 
R. Pilulas Ferri Compositas no. lx. 
S. —“ Two pills, thrice daily.” 
S. T., M.D., 
No. 5 Fifth Street. 
Office Hours: 9 to 1. 
August 29, 1883. 
In the next example we want everything the 
same as in the last, except that the dose must 
be somewhat less—somewhere between two- 
tliirds and three-fourths of the foregoing 
amount. We can accomplish the result easiest 
by giving fewer pills a day, but we can also, if 
we choose, preserve our method of giving two 
pills thrice daily by simply having each pill of 
but from two-thirds to three-fourths the pliar- 
macopceial weight. For it so happens that this 
particular mixture the pharmacist, for pharma- 168 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
cal reasons, will probably compound afresh for 
each order, so that, having the pill-mass to 
make, it is just as easy for him to divide it in- 
to small pills as into large. We turn, then, to 
our Pharmacopoeia and find that each pliarma- 
copooial pill weighs, in apothecaries’ system, 3 
grains ; in metric, 0.1945 gramme. For our 
sixty pills of standard weight the pharmacist, 
then, cuts up a pill-mass weighing 3 drachms 
(180 grains), or, roughly, in metric weight, 12.00 
grammes. Let us order, now, a pill-mass of 
but two-thirds this weight, to be divided into 
the same sixty pills, and we shall have the 
diminished pill we seek. We prescribe, then: 
Example VI.— 
For Miss U. V. 
[Apothecaries' System: 60 pills @ gr. ij.~\ 
L. Pilularum Ferri Compositarum.., £ ij. 
• In pilulas no. lx. dividenda^. 
[Metric System: 60 pills about 0.133 Gm.~\ 
L. Pilularum Ferri Compositarum.. 8.00 Gm. 
,*»lVln pilulas no. lx. dividenda. 
S.—“ Two pills, thrice daily.” 
W. X., M.D., 
No. 6 Sixth Street. 
Office Hours: 3 to 5 f.m. 
August 29, 1883. THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
169 
In the seventh example we are ordering a 
solution of silver nitrate of a certain strength 
for external use. Now, in medicines which, 
like silver nitrate, are employed in very differ- 
ent strengths of solution, we commonly rate 
the strengths, in apothecaries’ system, by the 
number of grains to the fluidounce, speaking, 
by ellipsis, of a “five-grain solution,” “ten- 
grain solution,” etc. ; while in metric method 
we naturally speak of strengths in percentages, 
as a “ one per cent, solution,” “two per cent, 
solution,” etc. In our present instance we will 
assume that we want about a fluidounce or so 
of a solution which shall he of about ‘ ‘ twenty 
grains ” strength. The amounts, then, appear 
in the stating. Thinking metrically, we should 
propose, probably, twenty-five cubic centimeters 
of a four per cent, solution, and the amount of 
the caustic to make such strength appears on 
the instant; for were the volume one hundred 
cubic centimeters, four grammes would, of 
course, give a four per cent, solution; hut the 
volume wanted being but one-fourth this meas- 
ure, one-fourth of four grammes becomes the 
weight of the silver salt to he taken. The pre- 
scription is therefore; 170 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
Example VII.— 
For Self. 
[Apothecaries' System: “ 20-grain ” solution.] 
E- Argenti Nitratis gr. xx. 
Aquae Destillatae f § j. 
[Metric System: 4per cent, solution.] 
Gm 
E* Argenti Nitratis 1 00 
Aquae Destillatae 25 00 
Solve et S.—“For external use.” 
Y. Z., M.D., 
No. 7 Seventh Street. 
Office Hours: 2 to 4 p.m. 
August 29, 1883. 
These seven examples sufficiently illustrate 
the ways in which the data for computing 
amounts in prescribing commonly present 
themselves, and the methods of procedure in 
general, in effecting the computation. There 
remains, however, a point wherein the begin- 
ner still stands in need of assistance. It is the 
problem presented where a basis is given in a 
fluid mixture under the common conditions 
that the total shall be an exact bottleful, as 
bottles are made, and that the dose shall be 
measured by the conventional spoonful. TJn- THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
171 
der these conditions, knowing about how mnch 
basis we want for a dose, and about how many 
doses we are likely to require, what ready 
method is there for finding what round aggre- 
gate of basis to what even bottleful of mixture 
will give to the right number of spoonfuls the 
right amount of dose ? To illustrate: we want 
to give, in fluid mixture, ten or a dozen four- 
or five-grain doses of some stuff—how big a 
bottleful shall we base our prescription on, how 
big a spoonful shall hold our dose, and what bot- 
tleful and what spoonful will give a convenient 
round total of basis for a four- or five-grain 
charge per spoonful ? To solve the problem, 
the first point to attack is the size of spoonful 
to take the dose of basis. If the basis is to be 
in solution, of course the factor of degree of sol- 
ubility has a prime hearing; but assuming this 
not to stand in the way, then the next consid- 
eration is that, in administration, the strength 
of solution had better be limited to (round 
numbers, apothecaries’ weight) ten grains, or 
(round numbers, metric weight) fifty centi- 
grammes to the teaspoonful, and, to the table- 
spoonful, four times these weights, viz., two 
scruples and two grammes respectively. And 
in practice we even prefer—of course now 
speaking in a very general way—to give not 172 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
more than fire grains or twenty-fire centi- 
grammes in a teaspoonful of vehicle, nor more 
than twenty grains, or one gramme, in a table- 
spoonful. All these figures, however, refer to 
the concentration of dose as actually adminis- 
tered, and constitute limits of strength in the 
prescribing only when the dose is to be taken, 
without dilution, direct from the bottle. But it 
obviously may be a convenience, if the solu- 
bility of the basis permit, to order the mixture 
much more concentrated than the foregoing 
limits, with the understanding that it is to be 
properly diluted for the taking. Disposing 
thus of the first point, the second is, having the 
data of dose of basis, number of doses, and size 
of spoonful, to get that combination of totality 
of mixture and of basis which will practically 
fulfil the requirements of the data on the one 
hand, and offer round numbers for convenience 
of prescribing on the other. In the metric 
system, thanks to its simplicity, the matter is 
easily learned, for, since any aggregate of basis 
is equally easy of expression, we have but to 
bear in mind the number of spoonfuls to 
rounded metric volumes, as follows: 173 
THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
Table showing Number op Average 
Spoonfuls to Round Metric Volumes. 
Teaspoonfuls. 
Table spoonfuls. 
Cubic centimeters. 
5 
25 
10 
50 
20 
5 
100 
40 
10 
200 
50 
250 
60 
15 
300 
80 
20 
400 
100 
25 
500 
In the table only those equivalents are given 
which are likely to he calculated from in ac- 
tual practice. To illustrate the application, let 
us assume that we want somewhere about a 
dozen or so doses of somewhere between eight 
and twelve centigrammes of a' thing to be given 
in fluid mixture. From the smallness of the 
dose we naturally select a teaspoonful rather 
than a tablespoonful for the measure of vehicle 
to hold each of the same. Then referring to 
the table and seeing that a fifty cubic centime- 
ter measure offers an aggregate of ten teaspoon- 
fuls, we at once select such total for our mix- 
ture and calculate the total of basis on the 
scheme of ten doses. And in such calculation 174 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
appears the enormous advantage of the metric 
over the apothecaries’ system. For now any 
total of basis is equally easy of expression and 
of actual weighing out, and we are enabled 
thus, untrammelled by any inconveniences in 
calculation or expression, to prescribe our doses 
exactly as per the apparent therapeutic indica- 
tion. Thus in the present instance we are 
ordering an aggregate of ten doses ; now let the 
estimated dose be any of these weights— eight, 
or nine, or ten, or eleven, or twelve centigrammes, 
the aggregate is equally easy of calculation and 
expression—we have but to multiply by ten, 
and set down in ordinary decimal notation, re- 
spectively thus : 0.80, 0.90,1.00, 1.10,1.20 Gm. 
If, however, we use the apothecaries’ sys- 
tem, we are practically bound by its clumsiness, 
in the way that odd amounts are so inconven- 
ient of expression as to make it almost impera- 
tive to avoid them. We learn, by rote, then, 
certain set combinations of aggregates for mix- 
ture and basis, and figure our dosage no closer 
than those combinations permit of. Such com- 
binations, for single doses of from five to twenty 
grains, are exhibited in the following table. 
For minute doses, the total being easily ex- 
pressed in grains, the difficulty now referred to 
does not obtain. 175 
Table showing Number of Average Spoon- 
fuls to Round Apothecaries’ Volumes, 
and Amount of Basis to yield Doses to 
the Spoonful, of 5, 10, 15, 20 Grains 
Severally. 
THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
Teaspoonfuls. 
Flnidounces. 
Total of basis, in order to give to 
the teaspoonful, severally— 
Five 
grains. 
Ten 
grains. 
Fifteen 
grains. 
Twenty 
grains. 
3 
i 
gr. xv. 
3 ss. 
3 ]'• 
6 
1 
3 ss. 
3 j- 
3 iss. 
3 ij. 
12 
2 
3j- 
3 ij- 
3 iij- 
1 ss. 
24 
4 
3 ij. 
I ss. 
3 vj. 
Si- 
86 
6 
3 iij- 
3 vj. 
3ix. 
1 iss. 
48 
8 
§ss. 
Si- 
1 iss. 
5ij- 
72 
12 
3 vj. 
? iss. 
l iij- 
Tablespoonfuls. 
Fluidounces. 
Total of basis, in order to give to 
the tablespoonful, severally— 
Five 
grains. 
Ten 
grains. 
Fifteen 
grains. 
Twenty- 
grains. 
3 
3 
gr. xv. 
3 S3. 
3 j* 
6 
4 
3 ss. 
3 j- 
3 iss. 
3 ij- 
9 
6 
.... 
3 iss. 
3 iij. 
13 
8 
3 j- 
3 ij- 
3 iij. 
1 ss. 
18 
13 
3iss. 
3 iij- 
3vj. 176 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
In this table, as in the foregoing, combina- 
tions that yield awkward amounts are omitted 
mention, and the calculation is on the basis 
that obtains with modern spoons, of six tea- 
spoonfuls and one and a half tablespoonful to 
the fluidounce. But if it be known that an 
old-fashioned small-sized spoon is to be used, 
or if the patient use a graduated measuring- 
glass, then the calculation should be on the 
scheme of eight teaspoonfuls and two tablespoon- 
fuls to the fluidounce—should, that is, rate the 
teaspoonful as a fluidrachm and the tablespoon- 
ful as half a fluidounce. In such case the table 
on p. 177 applies instead of the preceding. 
These tables are offered simply for reference 
until the beginner, by practice, comes to re- 
member, as he soon does, the most handy of 
the combinations. 
So, having studied the how to compose, how 
to write, and how to compute amounts for a 
prescription, it remains but to note a something 
still to be done, even after the prescription is 
ready for delivery. And that is, before such 
delivery, to critically review the paper—scan- 
ning deliberately drug-names, amounts, and 
doses. Found early, an error is a matter of a 
stroke of a pen; found late, perhaps of a coffin 
and a coroner’s jury 1 THE PRESCRIBING OF MEDICINES. 
177 
Table showing the Number of Flui- 
DRACHMS AND HALF FLUIDOUNCES TO 
Round Apothecaries’ Volumes, and the 
Amount of Basis to yield to the Flui- 
DRACIIM AND HALF FLUIDOUNCE DOSES, 
SEVERALLY, OF 5, 10, 15, 20 GRAINS. 
»5 
s 
1 
'3 
5 
Fluidounces. 
Total of basis, in order to give to 
the fluidrachm, severally— 
Five 
grains. 
Ten 
grains. 
Fifteen 
grains. 
Twenty 
grains. 
4 
i 
33- 
3ij. 
3j- 
3iv. 
8 
1 
3ij. 
3iv. 
3 ij- 
3 viij. 
16 
2 
3iv. 
3 viij. 
S ss. 
3xvj. 
32 
4 
3 viij. 
3xvj. 
Si- 
.... 
48 
6 
1 ss. 
Si- 
1 iss. 
S ij- 
64 
8 
3xvj. 
S ij- 
96 
12 
Si. 
S iJ- 
S iij- 
Siv- 
1 Half Fluid- 
ounces. 
Fluidounces. 
Total of basis, in order to give to 
the half fluidounce, severally— 
Five 
grains. 
Ten 
grains. 
Fifteen 
grains. 
Twenty 
grains. 
2 
1 
gr. x. 
3j- 
3 ss. 
3ij. 
4 
2 
3j. 
3ij. 
3 j. 
3iv. 
8 
4 
3ij. 
3iv. 
3 ij- 
3 viij. 
12 
6 
3.1- 
3 ij- 
3 iij. 
1 SS. 
16 
8 
3iv. 
3 viij. 
1 ss. 
3xvj. 
24 
12 
3 ij. 
§ss. 
3 vj. JJavt 32. 
TECHNOLOGY OF MEDICATING. 
MODES OF MEDICATING. 
CHAPTER I. 
The possible effects of medication are of two 
kinds: First, the effects upon the tissue with 
which the medicine comes in contact, produced 
directly by virtue of such contact; and, sec- 
ondly, indirect consequences of such effects, 
appearing, it may be, even in distant parts, 
either as nervous reflex phenomena, or as con- 
sequences of changed blood-supply, etc. Thera- 
peutically, either or both of these sets of effects 
may be of importance, but in our present 
technological study we evidently have to do 
only with the first consideration, namely, the 
matter of bringing medicines into contact with 
tissue, which procedure is the prerequisite for 
all medicinal effect, immediate or remote. 
The subject naturally divides itself into two MODES OF MEDICATING. 
179 
parts, viz., how to touch with a medicine the 
surfaces of the body, and how, on the other 
hand, the underlying tissues. 
Beginning with the surfaces, the skin is so 
obviously accessible to any mode of medication 
that but few technical points present for dis- 
cussion. It needs, indeed, but to be pointed 
out, first, that the skin being, as compared 
with mucous membranes, insensitive and poor 
at absorption, comparatively strong and exten- 
sive applications can be made upon it, even of 
poisonous things. Yet, as will be seen in de- 
tail further on, the skin can absorb, so as to 
charge the blood with the absorbed thing to a 
dangerous or even a fatal degree. Powerful 
medicines, and especially those that combine 
the qualities of potency, volatility, and high dif- 
fusion poicer, as for instance carbolic acid, 
must therefore not be applied to the skin too 
strong, or too extensively. Secondly, it must 
bo remembered that the skin is an organ, hav- 
ing physiological functions ; and that applica- 
tions of a kind and extent to interfere seriously 
with the performance of such functions are 
for that reason inadmissible. The persistent 
covering of nearly the whole of the skin with 
an impervious layer of ointment—even if the 
ointment be in itself innocent—is therefore an 180 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
unadvisable proceeding. Thirdly, in medicat- 
ing the skin, the medication will be the more 
intense the deaner the surface. Soap and 
water, or more strongly alkaline lotions, to re- 
move dried grease and epithelium, are thus 
important to precede a course of skin medica- 
tion. Fourthly, in medicating hairy parts, the 
procedure is evidently easier and more thorough 
if the hair be cut short, or shaved. And 
fifthly, of the vehicles into which medicines 
are put for application to the skin, fatty mat- 
ters penetrate cracks and crannies better than 
aqueous fluids, and of the fatty matters oleic 
acid and oleates dissolved in excess of the acid 
are by far the most penetrating. 
The other exposed surfaces of the body, be- 
sides the skin, are of course the mucous mem- 
branes. Concerning these in our present con- 
sideration, we note at the outset two important 
points. The first is the very different degree of 
accessibility of the different mucous surfaces. 
Some, as those of the eye and mouth, are prac- 
tically as freely exposed as the skin itself, 
while the others, in varying degree, require 
special methods, and even special appliances, 
in order to be reached in medication. And the 
second point, and an important one, is the 
equally different degree of sensibility of the dif- MODES OP MEDICATING. 
181 
ferent mucous membranes. Some, by the con- 
ditions of their functions, must normally suffer 
touch from without, while to others, foreign 
touch is obnoxious. The former must neces- 
sarily be insensitive, while the latter, finding a 
safeguard in sensitiveness, may be exquisitely 
tender. And, of course, the present interest in 
these facts is the plain indication that, in med- 
icating, applications to mucous membranes 
must be proportioned in strength to the natural 
sensibility of the part touched. The most sen- 
sitive mucous surfaces are those of the cornea, 
the upper portion of the nasal cavity, and the 
larynx; next come the general surface of the 
conjunctiva, the air-passages beyond the larynx, 
the middle-ear, the lower portion of the nasal 
cavity, and the urethra ; while least sensitive 
are the mucous coverings of the alimentary 
caned and the female generative organs. 
Of the means of reaching these various parts, 
we note that the conjunctiva is immediately 
accessible ; the only technical point to make 
being that to secure thorough application to the 
retro-tarsal fold, the upper lid must be fully 
everted, while the patient is directed to look 
strongly downward. Otherwise the very part 
that in conjunctival diseases most needs medici- 
nal touch will escape the application altogether. 182 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is 
very difficult of thorough access, and the cavi- 
ties that communicate with the nose by small 
apertures are practically wholly beyond reach. 
The nasal cavity may be medicated by snuffing 
up dry powders or fluids—an imperfect method, 
or powders may he blown up the nostrils by a 
rubber hag with a nozzle, or fluids may he in- 
jected either from before or behind. A danger 
of such injections, now happily pretty thor- 
oughly appreciated hv practitioners, is that 
they may find their way via the Eustachian 
tube into the middle-ear, a cavity whose mucous 
membrane will almost certainly resent such in- 
trusion by inflaming. The nasal dauche of a 
few years ago is now therefore very general- 
ly condemned, and even the 'posterior nasal 
syringe falls under the ban with many. This 
latter appliance is certainly the least likely to 
offend if nasal injection is to be practised at 
all. It is simply a syringe with a nozzle long 
enough to reach through the mouth to the 
fauces, and with the end of such nozzle up- 
turned and so pierced with holes as to throw 
the fluid backward in relation to itself, hut 
that is forward in relation to the nasal cavity, 
i. e., from the rear opening thereof forward to- 
ward the nostrils. The curve upward at the MODES OF MEDICATING. 
183 
end of the nozzle should be quite sharp—• 
sharper than the instrument-makers generally 
give ; the syringe being made of hard rubber, 
the nozzle may be gently warmed, and then the 
proper curve easily given to it. For self-use it 
is also a convenience to bend body and nozzle, 
where they join, to a right angle. The body 
then hangs vertical during application, an easier 
position for the self-injector. 
The Eustachian tube is reached by the Eusta- 
chian catheter, an instrument whose application 
belongs to the domain of surgery. 
The mouth is, of course, directly accessible, 
and the palate and pharyngeal cavity practically 
so. To the posterior portions the method of 
gargling applies, but the same is a very ineffec- 
tual procedure, the pharyngeal cavity proper 
being scarcely touched at all by the fluid. Ap- 
plications of spray are here peculiarly happy. 
The laipnx can be reached by proper pro- 
bang, guided by a view in the laryngoscope-mir- 
ror, but such special and delicate manipulation, 
of course, must be taught to the individual 
clinically. Gaseous medicines or fluids in fine 
spray can be applied by inhalation—of course, 
such only being allowable as are innocent and 
unirritating. 
The air-passages beyond the larynx are ob- 184 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
viously locally accessible only through, inhala- 
tion. Gaseous medicines of the kinds just in- 
dicated can be thus applied, but there are few 
of such kinds that are of much value as local 
respiratory remedies. Fluids in fine spray can 
be inhaled, of course, if not too irritant, but 
there is much reason to doubt if the spray 
penetrates very far beyond the larger bronchi. 
The bladder can be reached by injection 
through the urethra ; and the urethra itself by 
injection, by the insertion of a medicated plug 
of cacao-butter (urethral “bougie”), or the 
passing of a sound smeared with the medica- 
ment. The instruments and manipulation here 
required are again, as in the case of the lar- 
ynx, too special to attempt to treat of didactic- 
ally. The urinary passages can also, in the 
case of certain volatile oils and resins, such as 
copaiba and cubeb, be reached by impregnating 
the urine with the medicine through the round- 
about way of swallouying the drug. The drug is 
absorbed into the blood, and being excreted in 
the urine comes thus to be locally applied to 
the urinary mucous membranes. 
The vagina can easily be syringed, and the 
patient herself taught the procedure. Nothing 
more special is required than a long nozzle, per- 
forated at the extremity with holes delivering MODES OF MEDICATING. 
185 
in all directions, which nozzle can be applied to 
any form of syringe. The Davidson type is 
convenient, but handier yet is a rubber bag 
with long, flexible rubber tube ending in the 
nozzle, and armed with a stopcock of simple 
device. The bag is filled with the injection, 
then hung against the Avail on a nail three or 
four feet above the level of a seat. The nozzle 
is inserted, the patient, of course, sitting over 
an ample receiving-vessel, the stopcock is 
turned, and gravity determines a steady flow of 
the injection, the force thereof being greater 
the higher the bag is hung. During a vaginal 
injection the nozzle should be rotated from 
side to side and withdrawn and pushed up from 
time to time, so as to secure irrigation of all 
parts. More certain for this end, although 
more inconvenient, is the plan of having the 
patient on her knees and elboAvs during the in- 
jection. In that position the walls of the va- 
gina tend to fall asunder, and the injection 
thus more surely reaches every point of sur- 
face. The vagina can also be reached by vagi- 
nal suppositories or medicated pessaries, or by 
instrumental appliances under exposure by a 
speculum. 
The uterus can be injected, but at great risk 
of having the injection escape into the perito- 186 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
neal cavity through the Fallopian tubes, with 
possibly mischievous or even disastrous conse- 
quences. Otherwise, medicinal applications to 
this cavity are made by special instrumental 
means. 
The stomach and intestines are reached by 
swallowing, or, so far as concerns the stomach, 
by the stomach-pump, an apparatus with a flex- 
ible tube to reach down the oesophagus into the 
cavity of the stomach. By an arrangement of 
valves, fluids can be pumped into the organ as 
well as the organ’s previous contents pumped 
out. In medicating the alimentary tract it 
must be remembered that here is one of na- 
ture’s greedily absorbent surfaces, and that the 
majority of things put into the canal for local 
effect cannot be prevented from also finding 
their way into the blood. Some medicines, 
however, either because of insolubility or of 
low diffusion power, are so slow and imperfect 
of absorption that quite a valuable local effect 
can be produced by them in the bowels without 
the system at large being affected. Notable exam- 
ples are the salts of bismuth and saline purges. 
We must also see to it that in our eagerness to 
medicate this tract we do not interfere with its 
function, as by spoiling appetite, exciting nau- 
sea or diarrhoea, etc. MODES OF MEDICATING. 
187 
The Tectum may be medicated by supposito- 
ries or by injection. In giving a medicinal 
enema the points should be observed to first 
inject plain water in sufficient volume—a pint 
or more—to thoroughly wash out the cavity 
from fecal matter. This injection having been 
discharged, with its washings, the bowel is given 
a short rest and then the medicated enema 
slowly injected. And such enema should be of 
small bulk—not over two fluidounces, and 
blood-warm, so as not to excite the bowel to its 
expulsion. On withdrawing the nozzle the 
fingers or a napkin should be pressed against 
the anus for a few seconds, and the patient, 
if old enough to understand, cautioned to resist 
any inclination to strain. In practising any 
rectal injection the points should be observed 
to have the nozzle icarm and well greased, and 
to pass it, after it is once engaged within the 
sphincter, upward and backward, following the 
concavity of the sacrum. The passage should 
be slow, and, with a crying child, the pressure 
should be exerted only during the inspirations, 
when the abdominal walls are relaxed. 
In thus running over the special means of 
medicating the mucous membranes, a fine spray 
of fluid has several times been mentioned. 
This condition of a fluid medicine is a valuably 188 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
convenient one, since it allows fluids to pass 
without irritation into the air-passages, and, 
even to exposed parts, enables us to apply 
liquids thoroughly and evenly without drip and 
slop. Fine spray is obtained by appliances 
based on the following simple principle : let a 
rather narrow tube with one end drawn to a 
fine orifice have the other end, open, immersed 
in a vessel of fluid. Then close to, and at right 
angles to, the free fine orifice let there be a 
similar fine orifice of a second tube, through 
which from behind a strong blast of air or steam 
can be driven. By the partial vacuum caused 
by such blast the fluid from the vessel is sucked 
up the first tube and appears at the fine orifice 
thereof. But no sooner does a drop thus show 
itself than it is at once literally blown to atoms 
by this same blast through the second tube —is, 
in short, dispersed in a cloud of excessively fine 
spray. The contrivances operating on this 
principle are called spray-producers or atomizers, 
and are modelled of different shapes to suit dif- 
ferent special applications. The blast is com- 
monly obtained by hand-pressure on a valved 
rubber sphere connected with the apparatus by 
a flexible tube bearing a second rubber sphere 
midway in its course. This mid-sphere acts as a 
reservoir, determining a steady blast during MODES OF MEDICATING. 
189 
the intermittent action of the terminal sphere. 
Or, should an intermittent blast only be 
wanted, the mid-sphere may be squeezed and 
the blast will now only take place during the 
continuance of the pressure. Where a pro- 
longed application is needed, as in spray-inha- 
lations, the blast is most conveniently obtained 
by steam from a small boiler, special appara- 
tuses for such end having been devised under 
the name of steam atomizers. 
To apply medicines to parts beneath the sur- 
face, meaning all parts of the body save skin 
and mucous membranes, we can for a few spe- 
cial purposes inject into muscles or into serous 
cavities, but in the enormous majority of in- 
stances we medicate all underlying tissues by 
putting the medicine by some means into the 
blood, thus, as it were, shipping it to its distant 
destination through that universal avenue of 
communication. But in so doing arises at once 
a consideration which does not obtain in surface 
medication. It is that we cannot here, as we 
can there, restrict the contact of the medicine 
to the part required to be medicated ; for the 
stuff being dissolved in the general mass of the 
blood must perforce go wherever the blood 
goes ; we cannot confine its tour in the vascu- 
lar system to any one artery going to a particu- 190 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
lar part. To medicate brain, or spinal cord, 
or kidneys, or a single neuralgic nerve even, 
there is no help for it but we must bathe the 
whole blood-supplied organism with medicated 
blood, and thus perhaps secure our therapeutic 
result over one part at the expense of consider- 
able annoying derangement of others. This is 
unfortunate, of course, but it is unavoidable, 
and all we can do is to give preference among 
drugs of similar therapeutics to the one that 
happens to work the maximum of a therapeu- 
tic effect with a minimum of extra-therapeutic 
disturbance. 
Now to get a medicine into the blood there 
are a variety of ways. The easiest, most natu- 
ral, and therefore commonest method is to fol- 
low nature’s course in geting nourishment into 
the blood, namely, to let the medicine be swal- 
lowed, and so be absorbed through the veins 
and lacteals into the general circulation. Not 
only is this the easiest way, but it has also the 
advantage over all others that substances in all 
conditions of crudity and of obstinate insolubil- 
ities can thus be dumped, as it were, upon the 
organism, and it will be the exception if the 
complex chemistry of the priime vice will not 
extract their virtues in soluble form and duly 
deliver them over into the blood-vessels. Yet MODES OP MEDICATING. 
191 
still, for many reasons, the stomach may he ob- 
jectionable or even absolutely unavailable as 
the avenue through which to enter the vascu- 
lar system. This same deranging tendency of 
drugs just spoken of may, and frequently does, 
show itself locally upon the stomach, and loss 
of appetite, or nausea, or even vomiting, may 
he the cost of forcing a drug into the system by 
this means. Or even if the medicine be, by 
rights, innocent of such tendency, the stomach 
may be in such morbid state from disease that 
even normally wholly harmless things, like or- 
dinary foods, upset it, and are not to be borne. 
Or, because of corrosive poisoning or stricture of 
the oesophagus, the organ may be absolutely 
disqualified for use ; or it may be practically so 
because its absorbing capacity is in abeyance 
from inflammation of ita mucous membrane, 
from narcotic poisoning, or from general col- 
lapse of all vital powers when life is at low ebb 
from serious disease. Thus when an individual 
is in profound coma from opium-poisoning or 
is in the collapse of cholera, absorption by the 
stomach stops, and it is worse than useless to 
thrust drugs into the paralyzed organ with a 
view to their absorption. Or, though the stom- 
ach may bear a drug fairly well, and its func- 
tional activity be in good state, yet it must be 192 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
remembered that the rate and thoroughness of 
absorption by this organ are necessarily subject 
to variation. The potent gastric juices may 
chemically attack the medicine and thus defeat 
our purpose, or the mere mechanical obstacle 
arising from the presence of a large mass of food, 
with which the drug necessarily becomes mixed 
upon swallowing, may so delay full absorption 
as to be of serious cost. Hence, when a thera- 
peutic call is urgent and an effect of dosage 
both prompt and full is imperative, we dare not 
risk the uncertainties of the stomach, but pre- 
fer other methods. 
Now, when, for any of the above reasons, we 
seek other methods, the most natural avenue 
after the stomach is the rectum, and general 
medication by enema or suppository is not un- 
common. But apart from the obvious incon- 
venience, and it may even be indelicacy, of 
using this approach, the method has its disad- 
vantages. The absorbing power of the rectum 
is not as great as that of the stomach, and, 
more particularly, we have not here the com- 
plex digestive fluids that so readily in the 
stomach or small intestines attack crude or in- 
soluble drugs and reduce them to a form capa- 
ble of absorption. Hence to introduce a medi- 
cament into the blood by this means we com- MODES OF MEDICATING. 
193 
monly, in the first place, administer twice as 
mncli as we would give by the stomach, and we 
see to it that the substance is either dissolved 
or is in condition to undergo easily simple 
aqueous solution. 
Besides the rectum the lungs afford another 
natural avenue of approach to the vascular sys- 
tem, and, inherently, they possess the advan- 
tages of high speed and thoroughness of ab- 
sorption. But, obviously, the medicines that 
can be given by inhalation are limited to such 
as are highly volatile, and at the same time 
respirable. Nitrogen monoxide gas, ammonia, 
and certain volatile ethereal fluids, such as 
amyl nitrite, ether, and chloroform, are pretty 
much the only things given by this method. 
Next, we can avail ourselves of the skin, and 
in a variety of ways. Certain easily diffusi- 
ble substances, in solution, will be absorbed 
through the sound skin if only laid thereon, 
by wetted cloths, but such means is so crude, 
and dosage so uncertain, that the procedure is 
nowadays rarely resorted to. 
A method of determining absorption through 
the skin that is, however, much used and with 
great advantage with the particular drug mer- 
cury, is to rub a fatty preparation, carrying the 
medicament, into the skin, when, largely by 194 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
mechanical forcing, the particles find their 
way into the texture of the skin, and thence, 
after undergoing chemical conversion into a 
soluble compound, into the blood. Other 
medicines also can be introduced in this way, 
such as for instance the alkaloids, but as the 
majority of these can be given better by hypo- 
dermatic injection, this method of inunction, 
as it is called, is, with them, rarely employed. 
Then—again practically confined to prepara- 
tions of mercury—the drug can be sublimed and 
the vapor allowed to condense upon the skin, 
when absorption will ensue. 
Next, passing from natural ways, we can put 
medicines into the blood by artificial methods 
through surgical procedures. We can, in the 
first place, by appropriate apparatus, pierce a 
vein with the nozzle of a syringe and thus in- 
ject directly into the vascular canals. Such 
method is occasionally used by practitioners of 
great hardihood, even in the case of powerful 
drugs, but is to be condemned for its obvious 
dangers, and by the bulk of the profession is 
resorted to only as a means of introducing into 
the blood bland nutriments, such as milk or 
blood, or a simple saline solution—all as a 
means of keeping the heart going when a pa- 
tient is in desperate straits. Another method, MODES OF MEDICATING. 
195 
less severe, is to raise a small blister upon the 
skin somewhere, remove the separated epider- 
mis, and upon the raw surface beneath lay the 
medicine—necessarily one not severely irritant, 
capable of easy solution, and requiring but 
small dose. This method, the endermatic, has, 
however, been entirely superseded by the far 
better, though physiologically similar, method 
by subcutaneous or hypodermatic (barbarously 
miscalled hypodermic) injection. This is sim- 
ply to pierce the skin with a fine and sharp 
nozzle of a small syringe, and then inject into 
the loose subcutaneous connective-tissue the 
medicine—of course in solution. From the 
purely physiological point of view this is the 
best method of all. Absorption is rapid, 
thorough, and almost invariably certain, under 
all conditions and circumstances of the patient’s 
morbid state ; derangement of digestion is re- 
duced to a minimum, and, with some drugs 
certainly, the therapeutic effect is more intense, 
or more persistent, or even, as with morphine 
over neuralgic pains, more radical, than where 
the same drug is administered by other 
methods. Because of these great advantages 
the hypodermatic syringe is as universal a tool 
with the practitioners of to-day as was the lan- 
cet with our fathers, but yet the method has 196 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
its restrictions. Not everything can be given 
by subcutaneous injection. Obviously the 
medicament must not be severely irritant, else 
great pain, and even subsequent inflammation 
and abscess at the seat of puncture, will result. 
Again, if a solid, the drug must be soluble in 
reasonably bland fluids, such as water, weak 
alcohol and water, glycerin and water, or solu- 
tions of mild salts ; and, lastly, it must be a 
thing whose dose is small enough for the bulk 
of the injected fluid not to exceed two cubic 
centimeters (thirty minims)—indeed much less 
than this measure is to be desired. Then, 
again, the procedure itself is often seriously ob- 
jectionable. Simple though it be, and insig- 
nificant though the pain, yet to sick, nervous,, 
and excitable women and children, the idea of 
being stabbed, though ever so delicately, is 
terrifying. Then, except where well-trained 
nurses are in attendance, the physician must 
himself administer the dose, often an obvious 
great inconvenience to physician and patient 
both, and to the patient also, it may be, an ill- 
to-be-afforded expense. With the one medi- 
cine, moreover, most commonly given by the 
hypodermatic method, namely, some salt of 
morphine, there is often the serious danger 
that the “ opium habit ” may thus unwittingly MODES OF MEDICATING. 
197 
be begun, and if so, it will be the particular 
form of this enslaving vice that will work most 
damage and be the most cruelly hard to break 
away from. The dainty poniard of the “hy- 
podermatic ” is then not always the boon that 
many young practitioners of to-day—to judge 
from their freedom therewith—would seem to 
consider it. 
To give a hypodermatic injection, first have a 
good syringe. The piston should work easily 
and evenly and without leakage, which it prob- 
ably will not do if the cylinder be of glass, but 
will, if it be of silver, celluloid, or—if the 
workmanship be good—of hard rubber. There 
must, next, be a graduation somewhere to tell 
the amount injected. This with glass cylin- 
ders may be on the cylinder itself, but with 
instruments made of opaque material must 
necessarily be on the piston. In the latter case 
there is commonly a small screw-collar on the 
piston, which, by setting at the proper mark, 
stops the piston from going beyond a certain 
distance, and so limits the amount of injection 
possible to deliver. On purchasing a syringe 
the graduation should be tested for accuracy 
before trusting to its possible false showings. 
The needle should be clean, sharp, and free 
from rust, conditions best maintained by hav- 198 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
ing tlie needle of gold, with, of course, a point 
of harder metal. The point should he a plane 
bevel, and the whole needle should be fine 
rather than coarse. 
Having thus a good syringe, have next a 
good solution. No dirt, no decomposition, and 
no free acid must find place therein, and we 
must be certain of its strength, which, by the 
way, must not be too great. Water is the best 
vehicle for the injection, and things soluble in 
that fluid are therefore the favorites for admin- 
istration by the hypodermatic method. The 
solution is better made fresh, and any clean 
water fresh from a tap is better than stale and 
therefore almost certainly mouldy distilled 
water. If solutions be kept, assuming them 
to be salts of alkaloids, they must be charged 
with some preservative, such as hydrate of 
chloral, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, etc. One 
per cent, addition of any of these bodies 
proves antiseptic, but they are all more or less 
irritant, and hence fresh solutions are prefer- 
able. For convenience in making fresh solu- 
tions, manufacturers offer tablets charged with 
fixed quantities of the things commonly used 
for hypodermatic injection. These are simply 
dissolved in a few drops of water on the occa- 
sion of the injecting. Such tablets are made 199 
MODES OF MEDICATING. 
of gelatin or of sodic sulphate, the salt in the 
latter instance being given form and cohesion 
by powerful pressure. These medicated tab- 
lets, if of reliable make, are exceedingly con- 
venient, the compressed tablets of the sodic 
salt especially so, provided they are fresh 
enough to dissolve readily. 
Being ready with a good syringe and a good 
solution, we fill the one with a sufficiency of 
the other, then hold the syringe vertical, 
needle-end up, and gently push upon the pis- 
ton until fluid appears at the needle-orifice. 
Thus the bubble of air, which it is practically 
impossible to prevent from having place within 
the cylinder, is discharged, and we are now 
certain that the syringe is just as full of solu- 
tion as it purports to be. We next fix the dose 
beyond possibility of misadventure by observ- 
ing where the piston stands in relation to the 
graduation upon its shank, and by then run- 
ning down the screw-collar so far that on driv- 
ing the piston home as far as the collar will 
allow it to go we shall inject just the desired 
quantity. Then a fold of skin is pinched up 
with the fingers of the left hand, and into the 
triangular slope trending downward from be- 
tween the fingers the needle is quickly plunged, 
in direction carefully parallel to the surface of 200 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
the limb beneath. After having been pushed 
in to a depth of from half to three-fourths of 
an inch, it should be gently withdrawn a trifle, 
and worked slightly from side to side. Then 
the injection is made, rather slowly, the nozzle 
then quickly pulled out, and, as a matter of 
precaution against leakage, a finger is lightly 
pressed for a few seconds on the skin-puncture. 
The only danger in the procedure is the possi- 
ble pricking of a vein, thereby throwing the 
injection directly into the blood-current, but 
by observing the rules just given, the chances 
of this accident are very small indeed. 
As regards the site of the injection, where, 
as is most commonly the case, the aim is simply 
to get the medicament into the general blood- 
supply, the site is indifferent and may be se- 
lected according to convenience. Situations 
are preferred where the skin is lax, thin, and 
free from hair; and as these conditions are 
fulfilled on the arm—also a part handy of access 
—this is the most frequently selected site. 
Where, however, the injection is meant to be, 
in part at least, of direct local effect, then of 
course the little operation is practised as near 
the affected spot as may be. Yet, under any 
circumstances, a thick, closely adherent portion 
of skin, like the scalp, should be avoided. The MODES OP MEDICATING. 
201 
dose by the hypodermatic method should in- 
variably be less, even by one-half, than that 
which would be given by the stomach to pro- 
duce an equal effect. 202 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
CHAPTER II. 
DOSAGE. 
OUR last topic in general technology is dos- 
age, meaning matters connected with the de- 
termination of doses of medicines. Here we 
have first to consider certain principles that ap- 
ply generally, and secondly to note the cir- 
cumstances under which ordinary doses must 
he specially modified. The general principles 
of dosage are best studied by examples. Let 
us first suppose a simple case : A woman is 
faint, and we medicate to whip up the faltering 
heart. A teaspoonful of brandy circulating in 
the blood will ordinarily do the business, and a 
teaspoonful of brandy is thereupon prescribed 
and taken with, we will suppose, the expected 
effect. Here the matter has been simple; 
the need for a medicinal influence was tran- 
sient, and, there being no objection, the full 
quantity of drug required for the effect was 
given at once—here, that is, dose lias been 
made to equal quantity necessary to be present DOSAGE. 
203 
within the system at a given time. But let us 
take another case: as a teaspoonful of brandy 
in the blood will oppose emotional heart-failure, 
so will twenty grains of quinine oppose an ex- 
pected paroxysm of ague. Shall we, then, in 
such circumstance, give the quinine as we gave 
the brandy—all at once ? Better not, if we 
can avoid it, for while in the stomach in tran- 
situ to the blood, such a considerable dose will 
be likely to nauseate. And we can avoid it, 
for this medicine, once absorbed, stays in the 
blood several hours, and the time of the dis- 
ease-onset being known beforehand, we have 
hours at our disposal for the medicating. So 
we do what the military commandant does who 
must garrison with a strong force a fort whose 
approach is a weak bridge—take time, and 
march the command across in small detachments ; 
we break up, that is, our heavy charge of qui- 
nine, and give it, as the phrase is, in divided doses 
—four grains, say, every half hour until five 
doses shall have been taken. The result is 
practically the same as if the whole had been 
given at once—the full garrison is present when 
the enemy attacks, and the assault is foiled. 
Next, a third case, where the conditions differ 
—conditions that may be paralleled in our il- 
lustration of the fort in this wise : The fort is 204 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
to be garrisoned, not to resist a passing single 
assault merely, as bitlierto instanced, but a 
prolonged siege. At once a new factor enters 
into relation. Desertions are frequent and in- 
evitable, whicli, unless offset by new enlist- 
ments, will in time dissipate even the entire 
command. So in medicating, the avail of the 
remedy, perhaps oftener than not, must per- 
sist in full force through quite a siege, while 
yet the molecules of the dose on duty are stead- 
ily deserting by excretion. Reinforcement, 
then, plainly presents now as a feature of dos- 
age, and the practical question at once arises 
by which of two opposite methods shall such 
reinforcement be carried out. Shall we, as it 
were, by frequent single recruiting, fill vacan- 
cies as fast as made, or shall we deliberately 
wait until the depletion be considerable, and 
then at a stroke restore to full quota ? Evi- 
dently the latter method is the more conve- 
nient, b\it evidently yet it fails of the effect 
which the other secures of maintaining the 
strength of the command steadily at a fixed figure. 
And herein is the pith of the whole matter—a 
consideration which only rather recently has 
received the thought it deserves, namely, the 
importance of having the remedial impression, 
while it lasts, equable. The advantages of such DOSAGE. 
205 
equability are obvious, an$ often indeed the 
medication may wholly fail of its end unless this 
condition be fulfilled. Now such fulfilment is 
only possible by frequency of reinforcement, 
and thus obtains the important rule that, in 
continuous medication, after the system is once 
properly charged with the drug, renewals are 
to be on the plan of “ little and oftenrather 
than of large doses at long intervals. But in 
obeying the rule two points are to be consid- 
ered : first, that the actual frequency of re- 
newal will vary greatly with different drugs ac- 
cording to the persistence of their effects on 
the one hand and the rapidity of their elimina- 
tion on the other. Thus the heavy metals are, 
so to speak, tenacious upon the tissues; their 
effects are prolonged, and their excretion slow. 
Such an influence, therefore, as constitutional 
mercurialization can be maintained at an even 
pitch by renewals not oftener than thrice, 
twice, or even by certain methods, once daily. 
On the contrary, flitting principles that swoop 
on the wing, as it were, like ethers and many 
alkaloids, must be repeated with great fre- 
quency. If a heart is to have its pulse-rate 
evenly depressed by aconite, the renewals must 
be at least hourly, otherwise the pulse-rate will 
rise and fall in a regular wave between dosings. 206 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
The second point to be considered is that, in 
cases where great frequency of renewal is theo- 
retically indicated, we must yet hold our hands 
somewhat, lest, though we secure the desired 
evenness of remedy-action, we kill our patient 
by the very doing so! For in serious illness 
every disturbance of the sufferer tends to ex- 
haust, and even so seemingly small a matter as 
the giving of a powder or a potion taxes appre- 
ciably the strength. In such condition, there- 
fore, the wise physician recognizes that extreme 
scientific precision of medication is not worth 
the worry it entails. 
We have thus elucidated the following as 
general principles of dosage in constitutional 
medication: the basis of calculation is the per- 
centage of drug to blood necessary for the effect; 
a quantity which, under ordinary circumstances 
(exceptions anon), is for each drug a fairly fixed 
quantity. Then the dose proper follows thus : 
if the effect need be but transient, and if there 
be no objection, the whole amount necessary 
to establish the percentage is given at once, as 
in the case of the teaspoonful of brandy to re- 
vive from a faint; if, however, the need still 
being but a passing one, there be an objection 
to a large single dose, as in the quinine exam- 
ple, the quantum is given in fractional parts at DOSAGE. 
207 
proper intervals. If the influence must be at 
all prolonged, the requisite percentage is first 
established by either of the foregoing methods, 
and then maintained by reinforcements made, 
preferably, small and frequent, the dose at 
each renewal being, of course, duly propor- 
tioned to the frequency. 
The next point in dosage is a simple and 
obvious one. One grain of quinine appetizes ; 
twenty grains deranges digestion but develops 
the new potence of reducing fever-heat. Both 
effects are utilizable therapeutically, but the 
dose for the different purposes differs enor- 
mously. With drugs of manifold therapeutic 
powers, therefore, purpose is an essential factor 
in estimating dose, the same drug having liter- 
ally two or more “ doses ” according to the ef- 
fect sought. 
Such are the principles that regulate dosage 
in general, and we pass now to the independent 
consideration that even with the same drug, 
given in the same way and for the same purpose, 
the dose is not always the same. This may be 
because of a variety of reasons. In the first 
place, plainly, in constitutional medicating, 
bulk of remedy must bear relation to bulk of 
patient. The basis being, as we have seen, 
the establishment of a given percentage of drug 208 
MEDICINAL technology. 
to blood, to affect equally a two-liundred pound 
oarsman on tlie one hand and his weazen ninety- 
five pound coxswain on the other, will take 
quite different dosage. And in prescribing for 
children this consideration of size of patient is 
plainly of particular moment, doses needing to 
be systematically scaled to the dimensions of 
the recipient. A practical point, then, is to ob- 
tain some formula by which this same scaling 
can be readily done. We have such, but be- 
fore presenting them it is wise to remind, that 
with children other conditions than mere size 
may influence the effect of a dose, so that with 
certain drugs and even certain classes of drugs, 
the scaling according to body-weight will re- 
quire special further modification. Of general 
formulae, however, so far as they apply, we 
have several, of which two, because of their 
ease of application, are the favorites, wherein, 
for convenience’sake, the dose is related to the 
age, simply. Of course all children of the 
same age are not o' the same bulk, but yet for 
purposes of a general formula it is accurate 
enough to assume them so, any considerable 
departure from average size in a particular 
case being easily allowed for after the average 
dose has been obtained. The formula; are as 
follows: Young's rule is, that, taking the adult DOSAGE. 
209 
dose at unity, the fraction thereof proper for a 
child of given age may be found by the for- 
mula : 
age 
age + 12 
At age six, for instance, the fraction is = 
-,a8- = J : i.e., a child six years old takes one- 
third of the adult dose. Cowling's formula is, 
under the same premises : 
age at next birthday 
24 
At present age six, that is, the formula gives 
the fraction -/4- = — : rather less than one- 
third. In general, with the younger ages, 
Cowling’s formula yields a slightly smaller 
dosage than Young’s ; the one or the other may 
be used, therefore, according as we may wish 
scant or full dosing for the age. 
But, apart from matter of size, there are many 
conditions—conditions of patient or of his en- 
vironment—which may distinctly modify drug- 
influence, enhancing, enfeebling, or distorting, 
as the case may he. When such conditions ob- 
tain, doses must evidently be changed to suit. 
The more prominent of the conditions and their 
effects are as follows: First, age. Children are 
as a rule more susceptible to drug-influences 
than adults, though with a few drugs the re- 210 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
verse obtains ; and particularly with children, 
and with old people also, actively perturbing 
or depressing effects are badly borne. Sex 
gives similar results, women being more im- 
pressible than men. Climate has an influence, 
again, warm weather determining in general 
disproportionate exhaustion after violent or 
debilitating tlierapeusis, and, in particular, un- 
due susceptibility of the digestive apparatus to 
disturbing measures. Custom, i.e., continued 
taking, with some drugs enhances, with some 
enfeebles the effects, with some modifies the in- 
tensity of certain of the effects only, and with 
some has no influence. One of the most promi- 
nent instances of a modifying influence from 
custom is in the case of narcotics, typified by 
opium and alcohol, where the more obvious 
functional derangements of the nervous system 
become proportionately less and less in habitual 
indulgence, while at the same time the subtler 
nutritive changes induced—degenerations and 
low inflammations—march on in full measure. 
Individual idiosyncrasy, like custom, may work 
either way, curious instances of exceptional 
susceptibility on the one hand and of insuscep- 
tibility on the other, presenting themselves 
from time to time. With certain drugs indi- 
vidual idiosyncrasy as regards their influence is DOSAGE. 
211 
peculiarly common, necessitating exceptional 
caution in their prescription to stranger pa- 
tients. Tobacco offers a well-known instance 
of this peculiarity, while of drugs proper, 
opium, ipecac, and mercury afford marked ex- 
amples. 
Next, special physiological status of the sys- 
tem generally or of some part concerned, often 
affects, and most profoundly, the influence of a 
drug. Thus, locally, a dirty, thick, or inflamed 
skin will absorb less perfectly than a clean, 
a thin, or a healthy one ; a full stomach will 
be affected less by a medicine than an empty 
one, and in narcotic poisoning or in collapse 
even an empty stomach may refuse to absorb 
at all. On the other hand, if the local effect 
of a remedy be irritating, and the surface re- 
ceiving the application be already irritated or in- 
flamed, the local influence will be more intense 
than ordinary. Constitutionally, too. morbid 
states may throw out of gear, and most strangely, 
the usual relation between dose and results. A 
striking example is with narcotic drugs, which 
by the very circumstances calling for their pre- 
scription, may require relatively enormous dos- 
age to produce the needed effect—a dosage 
that ordinarily would be even fatal! Thus in 
collapse from hemorrhage a quart of brandy 212 
MEDICINAL TECHNOLOGY. 
may have to be given to revive the flickering 
heart, and the effects will he no more than in 
health would follow a tablespoonful. In such 
cases, therefore, set dosage must be set at naught 
and the remedy bpldly pushed until either the 
tlierapeusis sought be obtained or signs of he' 
ginning poisoning enforce discontinuance. This 
effect of morbid status—the idiosyncrasy of dis- 
ease, as it might be termed—is one constantly 
presenting itself, and one, therefore, that must 
be ever present in the mind of the prescriber. 
Such, then, are in outline the considera- 
tions affecting dosage, and reviewing them in 
thought, an important fact appears, from 
which follows an equally important corollary : 
the fact, that, concerning a medicine, dose is 
not a thing that can be put down at a set figure, 
like specific gravity or melting-point, but being, 
so to speak, a function of a number of inde- 
pendent considerations, it must perforce vary 
under varying conditions ; and the corollary, 
that, from the very circumstances of the case, 
dose is rarely very closely calculable, the de- 
gree of precision attainable, however, differing 
greatly with different groups of drugs. APPENDIX. 
213 
TABLE OF THE SOLUBILITY OF CHEMICALS IN WATER AND IN 
ALCOHOL. 
[From the V. S. Pharmacopoeia.'] 
Abbreviations : s. = soluble; ins. = insoluble ; sp. = sparingly; v. = very; aim. = almost 
dec. = decomposed. 
Chemicals. 
Water. 
Alcohol. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
One part is soluble in : 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Acidum Arseniosum 
30-80 
15 
sp. 
sp. 
“ Benzoicnm 
500 
15 
3 
1 
“ Boricum 
25 
3 
15 
5 
4 ‘ Carbolicum 
20 
— 
v. s. 
v. s. 
“ Chromiciim 
v. s. 
v. s. 
dec. 
dec. 
“ Citricum 
0.75 
0.5 
1 
0.5 
APPENDIX. 214 
APPENDIX. 
Chemicals. 
Watek. 
Alcohol. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
One part is soluble in : 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Acidum Gallicum 
100 
3 
4.5 
1 
“ Salicylicum 
450 
14 
2.5 
V. s. 
“ Tannicum 
0 
v. s. 
0.6 
V. s. 
“ Tartaricum 
0.7 
0.5 
2.5 
0.2 
Alumen 
10.5 
ins. 
0.3 
ins. 
“ Exsiccatum 
20 
ins. 
0.7 
ins. 
Aluminii Hydras 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
‘ ‘ Sulphas 
1.2 
v. s. 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
Ammonii Benzoas 
5 
1.2 
28 
7.6 
“ Bromidum 
1.5 
0.7 
150 
15 
“ Carbonas 
4 
dec. 
dec. 
dec. 
“ Chloridum 
3 
aim. ins. 
1.37 
aim. ins. 
“ Iodidum 
1 
0.5 
9 
3.7 
“ Nitras 
0.5 
v. s. 
20 
3 
TABLE OF THE SOLUBILITY OF CHEMICALS— Con tinned. APPENDIX. 
215 
“ Phosphas 
4 
ins. 
0.5 
ins. 
‘ ‘ Sulphas 
1.3 
1 
sp. 
sp. 
“ Valerianas 
v. s. 
v. s. 
V. s. 
v. s. 
Antimonii et Potassii Tartras 
17 
3 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Oxidvim 
aim. ins. aim. ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
‘ * Sulphidum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Sulpliidum Purificatum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Antimonium Sulpliuratum. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Apomorpliinse Hydrocliloras 
G.8 
dec. 
50 
dec. 
Argenti Cyanidum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Iodidum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Nitras 
0.8 
0.1 
2G 
5 
“ “ Fusus 
0.G 
0.5 
25 
5 
“ Oxidum 
y sp. 
v. sp. 
ins. 
ins. 
Arsenii Iodidum 
3.5 
dec. 
10 
dec. 
Atropina 
GOO 
35 
v. s. 
v. s. 
Atropinse Sulphas 
0.4 
v. s. 
G.5 
v. s. 
Bisxnuthi Citras 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ et Ammonii Citras 
v. s. 
v. s. 
sp. 
sp. 
“ Suhcarhonas 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Subuitras 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 216 
APPENDIX. 
Chemicals. 
Water. 
Alcohol. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
One part is soluble in : 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Bromnrn 
83 
— 
dec. 
dec. 
Caffeina 
75 
9.5 
35 
V. s. 
Calcii Bromidum 
0.7 
v. s. 
1 
V. s. 
“ Carbon as Prsecipitatus 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Chloridum 
1.5 
v. s. 
8 
1.5 
‘ ‘ Hypophosphis 
6.8 
6 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Phosphas Prsecipitatus 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Calx 
750 
1300 
ins. 
ins. 
Campbora Monobromata 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
Cerii Oxalas 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Chloral 
v. s. 
v. s. 
V. s. 
V. s. 
Chrysarobinum 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
sp. 
sp. 
Cinclionidinse Sulphas 
100 
4 
71 
12 
Cinclionina 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
110 
28 
TABLE OF THE SOLUBILITY OF CHEMICALS— Continued. APPENDIX. 
217 
Cinclioninre Sulphas 
70 
14 
G 
1.5 
Codeina 
80 
17 
v. s. 
v. s. 
Creta Prseparata 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Cupri Acetas 
15 
5 
135 
14 
‘ ‘ Sulphas 
2.6 
0.5 
ins. 
ins. 
Elaterinum 
ins. 
ins. 
125 
2 
Ferri Chloridum. . 
V. S. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
“ Citras.. 
s. 
V. s. 
ins. 
inS. 
“ et Ammonii Citras 
V. s. 
V. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ “ “ Sulphas 
8 
0.8 
ins. 
ins. 
“ “ “ Tartras 
V. s. 
V. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ “ Potassii Tartras 
V. s. 
V. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ “ Quininao Citras 
s. 
V. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ “ Strychnin* Citras 
V. s. 
y. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Hypophosphis 
sp. 
sp. 
ins. 
ins. 
‘ ‘ Lactas 
40 
12 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
“ Oxalas 
sp. 
sp. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Oxidum Hydratum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Phosphas 
v. s. 
v. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Pyrophosphas 
V. s. 
y. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Sulphas 
1.8 
0.3 
ins. 
ins. 218 
APPENDIX. 
Chemicals. 
Water. 
Alcohol. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
One part in soluble in : 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Ferri Sulphas Praecipitatus 
1.8 
0.3 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Valeri anas 
ins. 
dec. 
v. s. 
y. s. 
Ilydrargyri Cliloridum Corrosivum 
16 
2 
3 
1.2 
“ “ Mite 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
‘1 Cyanidum 
12.8 
3 
15 
6 
“ Iodidum llubrum 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
130 
15 
“ IodidumViride 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Oxidum Flavum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ “ llubrum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Subsulphas Flav ns 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Sulphidum Rubrum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Hydrargyrum Ammoniatum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Hyoscyaminae Sulphas 
v. s. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
Iodoformum 
ins. 
ins. 
80 
15 
TABLE OF THE SOLUBILITY OF CHEMICALS— Continued. 219 
APPENDIX. 
Iodnm 
sp. 
— 
11 
— 
Lithii Benzoas 
4 
2.5 
12 
10 
“ Bromidum 
v. s. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
V. s. 
“ Carbonas 
130 
130 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Citras 
5.5 
2.5 
sp. 
sp. 
“ Salicylas 
V. s. 
v. s. 
V. s. 
V. s. 
Magnesia 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Ponderosa 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Magnesii Carbonas 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Sulphas 
0.8 
0.15 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Sulphis 
20 
19 
ins. 
ins. 
Mangani Oxidum Nigrum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
‘ ‘ Sulphas 
0.7 
0.8 
ins. 
ins. 
Morpliina 
v. sp. 
500 
100 
36 
Morpliinse Acetas 
12 
1.5 
G8 
14 
“ Hydrocliloras 
24 
0.5 
G3 
31 
“ Sulphas 
24 
0.75 
702 
144 
Phosphorus 
ins. 
ins. 
v. sp. 
v. sp. 
Physostigminse Salicylas 
130 
30 
12 
V. s. 
Picrotoxinum 
150 
25 
10 
3 
pilocarpinte Hydrocliloras 
v. s. 
v. s. 
V. s. 
V. s. 220 
APPENDIX. 
Chemicals. 
Water. 
Alcohol. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
One part is soluble in: 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Piperina 
aim. ins 
aim. ins. 
30 
1 
Plumbi Acetas 
1.8 
0.5 
8 • 
1 
“ Carbonas 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Iodidum 
2000 
200 
v. sp. 
v. sp. 
“ Nitras 
2 
0.8 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
“ Oxidum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Potassa 
0.5 
v. s. 
2 
v. s. 
Potassii Acetas 
0.4 
v. s. 
2.5 
v. s. 
“ Bicarbonas 
3.2 
dec. 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
“ Bicbromas 
10 
1.5 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Bitartras 
210 
15 
v. sp. 
v. sp. 
“ Bromidum 
l.G 
1 
200 
16 
“ Carbonas 
1 
0.7 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Chloras 
16.5 
2 
v. sp. 
v. sp. 
TABLE OF THE SOLUBILITY OF CHEMICALS— Continued. APPENDIX. 
221 
it 
Citras 
0.6 
v. s. 
v. sp. 
v. sp. 
. a 
Cyanidum 
2 
1 
sp. 
sp. 
a 
et Sodii Tartras 
2.5 
V. s. 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
n 
Ferrocyanidum 
4 
2 
ins. 
ins. 
a 
Hypopliospliis 
0.6 
0.3 
7.3 
3.6 
w 
Iodidum 
0.8 
0.5 
18 
6 
a 
Nitras 
4 
0.4 
aim. ins 
aim. ins. 
ii 
Permanganas 
20 
3 
dec. 
dec. 
it 
Sulphas 
9 
4 
ins. 
ins. 
a 
Sulpliis 
4 
5 
sp. 
sp. 
u 
Tartras 
0.7 
0.5 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
Quinidinffi Sulphas 
100 
7 
8 
v. s. 
Quinina 
1600 
700 
6 
2 
Quininse Bisulphas 
' 10 
v. s. 
32 
v. s. 
a 
Hydrohromas 
16 
1 
3 
1 or less. 
a 
Hydrochloras 
84 
1 
3 
v. s. 
a 
Sulphas 
740 
30 
65 
3 
a 
Valerianas 
100 
40 
5 
1 
Saccharum 
0.5 
0.2 
175 
28 
a 
Lactis 
7 
1 
ins. 
ins. 
Salicinum 
28 
0.7 
30 
2 222 
APPENDIX. 
Chemicals. 
Water. 
Alcohol. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
At 15° C. 
(59° J?.). 
Boiling. 
One part is soluble in : 
Farts, 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Parts. 
Santoninum 
aim. ins. 
250 
40 
3 
Soda 
1.7 
0.8 
V. s. 
V. s. 
Sodii Acetas 
3 
1 
30 
2 
“ Arsenias 
4 
v. s. 
v. sp. 
60 
“ Benzoas 
1.8 
1.3 
45 
20 
“ Bicarbonas 
12 
dec. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ “ Venalis 
12 
dec. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Bisulpliis 
4 
2 
72 
40 
“ Boras 
16 
0.5 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Bromidum 
1.2 
0.5 
13 
11 
“ Carbouas 
1.6 
0.25 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Chloras 
1.1 
0.5 
40 
4o 
“ Cbloridum 
2.8 
2.5 
aim. ins. 
aim. ins. 
“ Hypopbospliis 
1 
0.12 
30 
1 
TABLE OF THE SOLUBILITY OF CHEMICALS— Continued. 223 
APPENDIX. 
“ Hyposulphis 
1.5 
0.5 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Iodidum 
0.6 
0.3 
1.8 
1.4 
“ Nitras 
1.8 
0.6 
sp. 
40 
“ Pliosplias 
6 
2 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Pyrophosphas 
12 
1.1 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Salicylas 
1.5 
V. s. 
6 
v. s. 
“ Santoninas 
8 
0.5 
12 
3.4 
k‘ Sulphas 
2.8 
0.4 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Sulphis 
4 
0.9 
sp. 
sp. 
“ Sulphocarholas 
5 
0.7 
132 
10 
Strychnina 
6700 
2500 
110 
12 
Strychninae Sulphas 
10 
2 
60 
2 
Sulphur Lotum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
‘ ‘ Praecipitatum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Sublimatum 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
Thymol 
1200 
900 
1 
v. s. 
Veratrina 
v. sp. 
v. sp. 
3 
v. s. 
Zinci Acetas 
3 
1.5 
30 
3 
“ Bromidum 
Y. S. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
“ Carbon as Praecipitatus 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
“ Cliloridum 
v. s. 
v. s. 
v. s. 
v. s. 224 
Chemicals. 
Water. 
Alcohol. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
At 15° C. 
(59° F.). 
Boiling. 
One part is soluble in : 
Parts. 
V. S. 
ins. 
ins. 
0.6 
100 
Parts. 
V. S. 
ins. 
ins. 
0.3 
Farts. 
V. S. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
40 
Parts. 
v. s. 
ins. 
ins. 
ins. 
u Oxidum 
“ Phospliiduin 
“ Sulphas 
“ Yalerianas 
APPENDIX. 
TABLE OF THE SOLUBILITY OF CHEMICALS— Continued. INDEX. 
PAGE 
Abstract 33 
Abstractum 33 
Acetum 38 
Acid, acetic 38 
oleic 46 
Adeps 45 
benzoinatus 45 
Adjectives Ill 
table of schemes of 113 
Adjuvant 80 
Air-passages, the medicating of 183 
Alcohol 23 
Apothecaries’ measure 67 
weight 58 
Aqua 20 
Aromatic spirits 27 
waters 21 
Atomized spray 187 
Atomizers 188 
steam 189 
Authority for medicines 3 226 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Basis 80 
Bladder, the medicating of 184 
Bougia 48 
Bougie 43, 49 
British pharmacopoeial weight 60 
Capsula 50 
Capsule 50 
Capsules 12 
Cataplasma 50 
Cerate 45, 46 
Ceratum 45, 46 
Charta 49 
Chartula 50 
Clyster 50 
Collyrium 50 
Confectio 33 
Confection 33 
Conjunctiva, the medicating of 181 
Corrigent 80 
Cupful 75 
Declension and gender, table of 106 
Declensions 98 
Declensions, table of 100 
Decoction 22 
Decoctum 22 
Dessertspoonful 75 
Discus 50 
Disk 50 INDKX* 
227 
PAGE 
Dosage 202 
for continued impression 203 
enema 193 
hypodermatic injection 201 
transient impression 202 
formulae for, for children 208 
influence of age on 209 
of climate on 210 
of custom on 210 
of idiosyncrasy on 210 
of physiological status on.... 211 
of purpose on 207 
of sex on 210 
of size on 207 
principles of 206 
Draught 50 
Drop 73 
Elixir 42 
Emplastrum 47 
Emulsifiers 17 
Emulsio 15 
Emulsion 15 
Endermatic medication 195 
Enema 50, 181 
Equivalents, table of. 64 
Eustachian tube, the medicating of 183 
Examples of prescriptions 114, 146 
Excipient 80 
Excipients for pills 37 228 
INDEX* 
PAGE 
Extract » 13 
fluid 29 
Extractuin 13 
fluiduin 29 
Form of prescription 86 
Forms of medicines 11 
Gargarisma 50 
Gargle 50 
Gargling 183 
Genders 102 
Glycerin 28 
Glycerite 28 
Haustus 50 
Honey 42 
Hypodermatic method 195 
solution 198 
syringe 197 
tablets 198 
Imperial measure 69 
Incompatibility 80 
Incompatibles 81 
Infusion 22 
Infusum 22 
Injectio 50 
Injection 50 
hypodermatic 195 IXEEX. 
229 
PAGE 
Injection, intravenous 194 
nasal 182 
rectal 187 
urethral 184 
uterine 185 
vaginal 184 
vesical 184 
Intestines, the medicating of 186 
Introduction 1 
Inunction 194 
Juice 50 
Language of prescriptions S9 
Lard 44, 45 
benzoinated 45 
Larynx, the medicating of 183 
Latin in prescriptions 89 
order of words 113 
Latinizing of prescriptions 91 
Liniment 49 
Linimentum 49 
Liquor 18 
Lotio 50 
Lotion 50 
Lungs, the medicating by 193 
Mass 33 
Masses 36 
Measure, apothecaries’ or wine 67 230 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Measure, imperial G9 
metric 71 
Measures, domestic 72 
Measuring of medicines 65 
Mel 42 
Metric measure 71 
weight 62 
Mistura 15 
Mixture 15 
Mouth, the medicating of 183 
Mucous membranes, the medicating of ISO 
Mucilage 21 
Mucilago 21 
Naming of medicines 6 
Naming of organic drugs 8 
Naming of pharmaceutical preparations 9 
Naming of proximate principles 6 
Nasal cavity, the medicating of 182 
Nouns, table of 106 
Ointment 44, 45 
Oleate 46 
Oleatum 46 
Oleic acid 46 
Oleoresin 14 
Oleoresina 14 
Palate, the medicating of 183 
Paper 49 INDEX. 
231 
PAGE 
Pediluvium 50 
Petrolatum 45 
Pharmacopoeia 4 
Pharyngeal cavity, the medicating of 183 
Pills 33 
Pills, administration of 35 
coatings for 34 
dimensions for 39 
excipients for 37 
Plaster 47 
Poultice 50 
Powder 11 
Powders, administration of 12 
Precipitants, table of 83 
Prescribing of medicines 76 
Prescriptions, composing of 76 
computing amounts in 142, 170 
examples of 114, 146 
form of 86 
general formula of 88 
language of 89 
parts of 77 
symbols in 90 
Pulvis 11 
Quantities, the determining of 51 
Rectum, medicating by the 192 
the medicating of 187 232 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Skin, medicating by the 193 
the medicating of 179 
Solution 18 
Specific gravity, corrections for 57 
Spirit 26 
Spirits, aromatic 27 
Spiritus 26 
Spray 187 
Spray-producers 188 
Steam-atomizers 1S9 
Stomach, medicating by 190 
the medicating of 1S6 
Stomach-pump 186 
Succus 50 
Suppositorium 43 
Suppository 43 
Syringe, hypodermatic 197 
posterior nasal 182 
vaginal 1 1S4 
Syrup 40 
Syrups, flavoring 41 
Syrupus 40 
Table of apothecaries’ (wine) measure 67 
of apothecaries’ weight 59 
of British pharmacopoeial weight 60 
of corrections for specific gravity 57 
of declensions 100 
of equivalent weights 64 
of imperial measure 69 INDEX. 
233 
PAGE 
Table of Latin words and phrases 92 
of metric measure 71 
of metric weight ; 62 
of nouns 106 
of number of fluidrachms, etc., to apo- 
thecaries’ volumes 177 
of number of spoonfuls to apothecaries’ 
volumes 175 
of number of spoonfuls to metric volumes 173 
of precipitant solutions 83 
of schemes of adjectives 112 
of solubilities 213 
Tablespoonful 75 
Teaspoonful 75 
Tinctura 24 
Tincture 24 
Tinctures of fresh herbs 25 
Trituratio 31 
Trituration 31 
Troche 39 
Troches 39 
Tumblerful 75 
Unguentum 44, 45 
Urethra, the medicating of 184 
Uterus, the medicating of 185 
Vagina, the medicating of 184 
Vaseline 45 
Vinegar 28 234 
INDEX. 
PAGE 
Vinum 27 
Wafers 12 
Water 20 
Waters, aromatic 21 
Wine 27 
measure 67 
Wineglassful 75 
Weighing 51 
of fluids 52 
Weight, apothecaries’ 58 
British pharmacopoeial 60 
metric 62 
Weights, table of equivalent 64